So eae aa a NO pe eae oan HORST EE PE © RRE Caionice SJENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATU RAL HISTORY | - “ Ea Ss AS uy Te) ah Pye U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Department Bulletins Nos. 226-250, WITH CONTENTS AND INDEX. Prepared in the Division of Publications. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOE. 1917. vnaduea Wane Ait ele ASE ANTS Fal ete ee: Ma et Rl Yad ; ae . Ae | a TV a 4 ; j ae f = : CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 226.—THE VERBENA Bubp Motu: Pa ge mod menonrand history sts sesaryee 2 ees oe mtece, We eee eg enol s a a 1 INemiezann Gr eiyMOMy My Ns EU eiLoM ee memes bee mi stuic Ts Alsen ay Up ena elon Metra eae 2 HAY Terrie font N NN Te ersten cote EL NUM eats cS AUCs CNW ty SPO AE IN PN) TPA 2 OOM SHELTIE ieee ce EI. Fac MPR Bars RARE NS WS UR ADcat EEE Ree ata an Mee an 2 JOS Svea ea TOT AE ais UES NA ti NOUS aA eA pease EAL by tc 3 Haisiispncdeseasonal history ste {Uli Rel NR NR Ce AICI OUT Oban ha a ea 4 Mein odsroiveomtnole, sacl rs is SUCRE pau ee ies LRM PU A dant rea an 6 DEPARTMENT Butietin No. 227.—Tue Toxicity or Funet oF VARIous O1Ls AND Sats, PARTICULARLY THOSE USED IN Woop PRESERVATION: Fewer ea ee ee oe I ato Ven en) 1 TE TVSteCOU SEG 2 AC WC Al eee pea eu at AP AEN oe RNIN 2 Tests conducted at the forest-products laboratory.......-...------------- 14 Toxicity of fungi of certain of the more important preservatives. .- .- . erates 31 RSVUEROWTOVEY ERY HO CA Oe a I ene Dt aN Set PR ee 35 TENT eleajasieey aig Len AGN age a Sete ane A A DEAS AIS CU VAL UC RAN Cl 37 DEPARTMENT BuLuetIN No. 228.—Errecr or FREQUENT CUTTING ON THE Water REQUIREMENT OF ALFALFA AND ITS BEARING ON PASTURAGE: JHanyiTerOye byt OLE oy aL Ah Rea es SNe ae Goma es EN RA CNG Heung turbiateaa ar eg PN 1 ICTY GY se US Ue ea Learn eC CM Ie eae eli at 1 TR SIV 2 a Se tae ae oa ee Re SE Ge nie LPO Re aR Uae els ot zy Bearing of results on the management of alfalfa lands...-......---..--.-- 4 Summer pasturage of alfalfa extensively practiced in Australia.........-- 5 DEPARTMENT ButietIn No. 229.—Tue Nava Stores INpustTRY: Necdsionsmprovedumethods 22230-2582 322 oe ate ere tec eee eae il Hastony, of the industry-insthe United States. ..--2i2.252.2.2.- 2.92 ee ek: 2 SlanisiresrOlnproduction 2s 4.0 <)oe ee ets Pew ee Ae ee ae DESERET 3 Commercial utilization of products: -2 1.2. 022220. 22.2: ae eee 8 Formation and flow of resin in the living tree.................-.-+.------- 10 Principles underlying the distillation of “crude PUN eee magi hon tis Bl 12 Commercial methods of collecting crude gum...............---.-.-------- 14 Relative yields secured from cups and boxes....--.--.------------------ 22 Relative amounts of scrape formed by the box and cup ee ay epee me Ea 23 Relative yields from different depths and heights of pope Lie 24 Effect of turpentine operations on timber: /).0.¢.02..0002. 0225222522220 25 Quality of gum from boxed and cupped timber............-------------- 27 Commercial! distillation ofierudejoum. yoyo ae ae) ee ep ene 27, tenchymethods of collectime eumisee” . ees a aa gene 32 Hrenchadistillation methodss.s ess. Hee Ne heel Aye seri yey ie aaa ire 35 Comparison between direct and steam heated stills............-..-.---- “te 39 The supply of longleaf pine for turpentine operations.............------- 40 Possibilities of western pines as a source of naval stores.............----- 44 Special problems investigated—Arizona and California western yellow pine. 47 Suggestions for specifications UROL RS E ey e Ca MAE Ade ey Rt SA IA CG Aaa 49 ibackane naval stores j2¢ 0.0 0 SV ah ea ep 50 Cost estimates on a 20- -crop, turpentine: operaimomelh, .28 4s su -pee aaa 51 Publications relating to the naval stores industry.-..........-.--.----=--- 53 Chronological list of United States patents relating to the naval stores industry NaS UR SU i Ml NT. EU RA RIC ener sa Ue bg 56 DEraRTMENT BuLLETIN No. 230.—O1-MIxED Pon CEMENT CONCRETE: Joe Rove Hb Keston oleh ae paren aa. Aes NUNS Mn sea pu tla ay a ape aielta pi ae ia iL Oilemixedycomene tes 6s uM SPAN aN 0 GR MN Ley eng ted Gat lela dat 2 Je\YO)y0Y 001 Um, peg ton Uae 8 ea aU ag RUT Se ae der SIEM MN DB 2 16 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 226—250. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 231.—RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN CoTTON Boitut WEEVIL: Page. Introductions: - Pac es oe ss eis ce tic be ele eee Sc 1 Distribution. sec. st coe Pei ele cle ale, w She ele See lnc sic ee 2 Hoods plantsledscct ce wemee. vans hewn newer eee elena 3 oe cee eee 3 Characteristics'of the adult..2- 2.05.22... 5.6h 2b 28 ee. eee eee 4 Longevity of adult weevils. .i21..0.:270072h 2-82... eee 6 Sex ofadialta ws: 2200 se Lee olen and odtelbesle-e oa,oe00 2 ee ee ee 10 REprodUuctOn sss = os sue ae erat nee epee Pd ve are aoe eh tee 10 Development! 2225.02.05. 82 Se och ih. ok eek eet ee 27 Hibernation. 525. 2o ness. etae « Bteleiee.« Gehan dn eee le eee 31 Natural controls ceo soe ses secclc « Leis Saye Bee ation ene ne eee 31 Behavior of Louisiana. weevils at Victoria....2. 2.2.2: 22ers 32 Development of thurberia thespesioides..............-----------+-----e-- 33 Examination of thurberia bolls: 22. /222222 j222). soe oe ee eee 33 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 232.—THE PRODUCTION oF LUMBER IN 1913: Introductlon -..5-2 cata Sedo becee oe odie San ee eee oe eae eee 1 ellow pine paar sewer ecto ia lel Ut)6.6 la Bajee'e ete oti <3 ee 9 Oak wee ee i ce eee ek el A a Que Vie 11 White pine. ~~ .--..- oe OE EAS Cae BARB e MBI CBP i Cis e tee esis eee 12 HEM TO CK ee eee ee eee i eee eee ed Oe te 13 Western: pime voi ot. .jcere nin Sem nclcle soon cslet otro es 6 Sek sien 14 CYPLOSS 2132 So Nareelae aGleehse sls ote'e Ses Bes oe coleiie oc oes cles ee 14 Price Le. Vas Ss eae Pee a eine ol 15 Maples raeic apt aietaatt vole cet sloiey ate ntehara/ bite arora wre i sietare) oye) © Skee Se ele eer 15 Red gumic (Sos actin eee Sse eee eh ey 16 WV ellow poplar. oe ciaie tis ose se (ale ctsle ayo «wisi So 4.aje alnlelele\ are ecere rr 16 Red wooden acer e eso beso ue LES Aue shun ob ted Oak oe ee eee 17 Chestnte eee age te ea he Rat OL eee So. 17 Wear has 88 Ba Ne ie cee ae rs cit a, ene OO 18 Birches: BEA ee io ee Ce ee ied en NRA oN AE 18 Beeches sos ease shee eee ee Ue a Ss Ie 19 Cedar mesa ie recite i Saelhs, else Nokes 18 wig els Geicts se oie 2 se OIC Eee 19 Basswood 20 IAT ge sdns skis edie Fs Cis WO Ys SM BNA Tee ICO Re 21 Cottonwood eee AMIN. SO Ses LN Ee 22 ATS Fis ents rept cletoanrean eal A lychee le Rol Eee Sete eel 23 HT CROPY oie tee aera sg bie ee ease ietyeg Semi e cee seeett oes or 23 SuSar PINE wee. fc he Sek Bessette Boa oe wie tS cro eis rrr 24 ppelow ei he se SI Oe a ss aie ce cs oc i 24 Balsam fir.c sae wads 5 weiss 0.0 deseibelns cual Seeks he ae eee eee 25 White fir i102 oso oe ace le ede Shee haiees ec cee 3 ee 25 AWeallrn it. oes eo PS ee aR 2 ra Uwe Shik rr 26 Sycamores sss 2 aia pois a bhauen oS eeuereeses tees otelobejctelo (clot ae 26 Lodgepole pine .......-.---- +--+ 222-22 cece cece eee cece cece ne ne ener wees 27 Minor species -.- sialoct mise Melee elk siete wale Slee ah cabs ae 27 Detailed summary. seh iois Sbisgehei=e slele wis croele us teoinle ole ater oe 29 Opportunities for purchasing national forest timber. -- — - Cover, page 4 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 233.—RELATION OF THE error Wi CorTron WEEVIL TO Corron PLANTING IN THE ARID WEST: | Imtroductiony: 2a4s seeps alee eee o's . a Molen Se 1 | History-of the -weevil:|-:2 52. 0428 2-/uies oases. tod tele eee 1 Distribution! : 2222/8. Sas MS AN Pee cae 2S Si. See 3 The thurberia plant 22/202. s Pea So de ee ote 3 Life history of the weevil on cotton in the South.. 2 seabed 5 ) Life history of the weevil on thurberia: -....-.-/...2.)...--- 2s eee 5 | Description of stages of the weevil .....-..-..------00+-- 000+ s5 00 eees sees 7 | Nature of damage to cotton .........-.--..-.-.--- wae ce 28 /o0ts fr 7 Food preferences of the Arizona weevils. ..--.-.-.--------++++-+++0+++--+ 8 The transter'to-cotton' 2.2) 22-1026) teres ceeeiee Skids 2a JIMS 8 IETOR PO CUS ates etta este = oles ae el ie emcee ofa ses Vaal. 0) ae 10 | SUMAN ALY spi s sees or sie ie we sinhelolerslan~ ch ow) me ian ol et) 12 DEPARTMENT Buuetin No, 234.—UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT or LoDGE- POLE PINE IN THE Rocky Mountains: Ownership and supply .. -. .-. <2 12-0 0 -- eee ne ce oe cone ee ew een cs ce annes 1 Characteristics of the Wood : .°.\2-<- © -- + ene cece sn we eo =e = oe 3 HUGS ee heise 50. Re ic U's RANG ofet a wal hea ais Rear ag a ae Re eae ise te 4 mt CONTENTS. . a) DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 234.—UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGE- POLE PINE IN THE Rocky MountTains—Continued. Page. PFABTins os eas GAA GAT UNL Teg Oa eee tec ea Sr cece mee Se ne ea i a a 7 SimewauadConLenis or vanlous; products yoo: «sek! +). (jars a) clarere eye tray elo) win) ma ae 8 JN THT L OUTS SL, Se a Ia a er AT i ee 9 Wile inecls OH lhptonlovebeeee e es Ako Bis Seep oo rebececoeesocHseae en sees 10 Cogiis arava Gel bwoviegraveea nek ee ed ee CORRE Eo aden ca Seen eeuscueeiss 14 Clramconlll tne aie SANA NER os oa Bone eolgsoeGuas Sn OouE Asoo sud ae 20 WISTS Gs gb ob sob boas bedes seas asegese esse SRA AES Sea Ss Gose 21 IPO WES HIOLNE Gece a aE ey se oul ee Py AA SAG Coane Ree Sits rane oe 46 SWMMIMAIN 4 (5 doch besodadocusoggducdBaos costes eo ae cu dsoouebeouiaubebe.celbe 48 ASO(DOIOGIES <2 LU Seed oe BOAR ERS has Be see ae ee Beant ail see 49 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 235.—ConTrRoL oF DRIED-FRUIT INSECTS IN CALI- FORNIA: NGMOM UC ELON io) sk). leh chay ate) el meneu: Sieber sas cuerebsl jae eyoehs Soloawiciate wavelet 1 Insects concerned in the injury .. i Aparna etre on ARPT HAVE 2 Economic importance of dried- fIHINSeCEACL ee ee te eet ee 2 ec hmm anys © DSeRVaAtlONs) s2yo); sacs eke ey tolajnioia) afm cies ie araye elce =a) -Rlaia St aiee eal Pat ae 3 Mircelmratan-med amo thy i oe eed TA a et Pleas cinlst cla by debra srayeeasoy ys She 3 siberadrted tmnt eetle st. seis. A. ayo As a tear ls tee wishes oats vote sicainn 5 TO CCSAMM ROTO C AEG eye os 2 OONS Me rtlc) Noh lalntalavasn, aia gnra ace ci nal alfasy ater ape eee 5 Mheetect upon insects of processin’ fruit! -25 26) — 2s 21s ys 9 wale a efowin «in 6 A belt heater to destroy insects in dried fruit. .........--...-...--..-.-.- 7 erorectine dred iriite) trom intestatlon see 2c =\ | selec =o eke ejam)- esac 8 Sealedspaekages dor dried Muiss Wy i ee tec he Nanette tte ea Su 9 Shippin fests ol fiber-board packages. 2). <)cse sce a)-laicla) = oie ernie s alialel ae alata 10 ine) GERI. 3 eS Goes aR RO SERN er Memon ereo MEG aS sMeT Aaete 11 Advantages of the sealed carton for dried fruit. ...........-.---.-...-.-- 11 Minemscaledspackaces <1 !h co. (ik oo. Sop ac agin Ne cle isl nara enor as 11 ANcarton) wrapping, and sealing machine= 22. -- 3.2 - ois) nee cles ieee 13 Preparation|ot a sterile package of dried fruit. . 45. 2-222. o2 222 3 se oo 14 hheisereened, packing rooms. 5.) 2 ot ine Tia cleracote ol theweharn ca) ose ee rere 14 Simm civ Gd COnGClUSIONS!.4=--N2= =i-)221s.:2..-222 29) ee Method of pasteurizing milk in bulk and bottling while hot.............- Comparison of bacterial reductions in milk pasteurized in bottles and milk pasteurized in bulk and bottled while hot..........................-2- Prevention of bottle infection by bottling hot milk and by pasteurization LM bottles: 2)424 Seek adie SR Re es Vi eee Cooling milk, which has been bottled hot.. .2-2../..2...2. = ae The cream line and flavor of pasteurized milk cooled by various methods. Bottles to be used in the process of bottling hot pasteurized milk. ......-- Process of bottling hot pasteurized milk under commercial conditions. .- - - Umea Ne ee tee een Dep 3a ties aOR, Sen te Citations of literature: ot. + 52) 2 22 se Sh ogeus oe vdeo as) 24 eee DeparTMENT Buuetin No. 241.—Srupres oN FrRuir Juices: Imtroduetion 16.63 0cse2 Soak ots. Oe ie eee to ee rr General methods of preparation........... Dubie else tees Se ee Special methods of preparation:.22 0.22.25. 220 Ls ee Hxperimental work... 230702 oo. 2 ie. iat oes tee Conclusion. 2 Sk Ss eed Le ae ion we ee DEPARTMENT Butuetin No. 242.—Corn, Mino, AND KaAFIR IN THE SOUTHERN GREAT PLAtins AREA: RELATION OF CULTURAL METHODS TO PRODUCTION: Mea ROTC EO TIN Ai Dea ONCR UN ER penal Note Spree Src teh eg 22 te eee Chimatre;comditions:!20 eo e588 joa ke eee feces coe ene ee WOT ease metres Messe eg a aR Sy sh Eis {eRe ive oo) a be Expenmental works. Coie ei2 Soe be ae ee er Presentation or results; 2252 2 ae Se ek rr Generali discussione 22 eee as Pee eRe ee DEPARTMENT Buuuetin No. 243.—Conr Burerzes: Intury to SuGar PINE AND WESTERN YELLOW PINE: mitroductromey cee le IL as 18 Te eee Insects causing: damage: 2. 2. coat elo so. fee ee see eer The sugar-pine cone beetle...........--.-- Soe Stieceeinnelele ape The western yellow-pine cone beetle... -.-.-2222. 227. -- 2-222 eee Conditions-requiring' control... 202.2)... 2222. e522) oe Remedy its Cae EY irl RN ee Ee Soe DEPARTMENT BuLuetin No. 244.—Lire History or SHorRTLEAF PINE: Named iid enibitieatrons yee eerie cm ar mre emia ee PE ee a Geocraphical and'economic range... -2------5.-+.2-----2> eee Characterof stands: 2. as a0 sae ss Ses Be nS. ee) se ee Size yave;\dnd habits ee es a eo ee as eee Demands upon'soil and “climates 005.25... 5222-22 50.2268 Ihiphitrequirements (203272223. Boo a eee oe Reprodtebion 22) iM So LSS oe Se See hee GO Withee tn i es AC het Bee ode NR ilar i a Cases ObanpUry i225 2 Su SSA Ee oe ae oe eee eo ODO) (oleh ROH ok Re Sn ein Re Mime DepartMeNT Butietin No. 245.—FurtTHEeR EXPERIMENTS IN THE DESTRUC- TION OF Fry LARV® In Horse MANURE: MVETO GAT CTO MEN sees eas a eek etey Rete ol «ea ce tT Pasty De et a wish yeti eae Generallplan ofexperimental worke. 9-2-0 1.) 2) eee ee Generalaccount ofsubstances Used. es s.cc-.-cceee oe eee ee = eee Page. ITP Ree Raw wwe = = On D Ob eH bt pt SH ope te CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 245.—FuRTHER EXPERIMENTS IN THE DESTRUC- TION OF KFiny LARV&® IN Horse ManurE—Continued. meehomnellebore om plants and chickens. .=2.25.-2-- 22/3022 0 22225226. . SUITOR geen erty nt Vs Ie eater Catiat Mica suIStn A nibR ierny A zy.t a ed Niat cu evetey crabalat Neyo meets Comparative advantages of borax and Nelle One Ne es UA Maen NTT CHAN ReIaTAES TE Pui eSieEGCUTRSS REN hy A UE ea i ee oe RR DaARAMnRT Butwuetin No. GLA ieee Brick PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY Roaps: TerairrorGloxetinan ans NA Aca es OD AS LI Rt ee Gah als a ee Sanaa SAS RS iiinepraywpumaterialssea a). ss sa Vee yee By he SE a A EN SUA A UN Bs BIN TN MUNN EDTA UNE Cte NO 21a Me ity ey Sy te IRRO UN ey Slee a ap oe Umea ce aan siteneceharacteristiesac: =a eisai. caret otelaoletarciers ais = pen tee cheat aicyarerevaneye| = Per inn cme Mtotl Ck oh ity Ain arian eto Seen svete a cm) Hala oe See isye by atevatener hs Construction BR panieee aay Wh GU en MRA DRI CN MA Eo ND Ape A Ze etre a Wosmormomekypavementse sons.) ycths Selah woe vate tidiash cyernig tm maiclelaie Rises Us Marmnienancerot bricks pavements asaya eye Sse eer aleve Salyers yams manesa Conchusromean seas O22 4. Bp AE MSR NL Uh Neal I CMY aE) ee eA ea) og LRU JO] DSRGIES Vio hoot cee eeee eae ee A eea dees Sere Ge ee ede Ds bese nen ewe oem ne Anjo pretaxliee, 1B) ic ANE MONS I 0 UF ES an ee eval teem ne d DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 247. HE DISEASE OF PINES CAUSED BY CRO- NARTIUM PyYRIFORME: JELVSHHOUAY OUT THOS RUE GUY espa A eR SNE eet nana Siac na te Ns ai SLY A a i Morphology of the*fungus.:2.2 2.25. -255-)...2 26 SPE Aa e RGA He Me es a nate Synonymy and description Of the Mum aussie sae eee ai ee eee een Inoculation experiments with the fungus SN SONNE NP Baby) TAS VRBO tA ID str ONTITOIN' ONT Wovs tke MEneosuoeheEeoe san eaoposTen Tsou soe sesons seu. Dissemination of the fungus SBE TNS Rte ae ea re LU a nals ae are te Piechombne kum eus onats host) plamts=.--qeeetea: ete ee seer Eradication and control of the fungus..-...- tO eve AL SAV SANUS BUT Go ae WAITANGI CITE aka is Wie toa Ns A Ae SON EE SOAs SU Stacie Shey pupa sit nar ane en DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 248.—FLEas: Herat CCRT TARA he UE tas an AL) EGR R a i USI Ra A SE Rage CE SUR TS IGPU) OM ISLE SLL AC OPENS ae BOL eA DUDA Me PSP A A a J Be Me HR YUH {BSE aS NE OTS IS Meera as eee se nee ok VNR N.S ass rar mere NSE SUL eh me) IE is I, Teihephistonyern = sels: /2 5-15. Siar 1 ey 2a a aR PS Le Ns Wenethromlureyor the acu Goss so eee en HN spe cee eye team een Breeding mlaceshace es 85 43 berks. Sonata SURGES ea, EN al Le aN Np as Factors influencing Aleavalindancen sin 2ataenn ket 0 lel a wie ed Benemne The jumping of fleas and other means of spread...........-..------------ TRS BS) Cee TRS ORialeseve vere. aes Ney Pos EN a Oe ela SEN oie i maciaiae Mleasias\parasives| ol mantandyamimalsh. ges 22s.) see ae eee einer Natural COMtrOl Gh ONE aera POR INE ORR pede Pa 4 I AL SRP Lar ete LP DEPARTMENT BuLueTiIn No. 249.—PortTtanp CEMENT CONCRETE PAvE- MENTS FoR CountRY Roaps: Methods, organization, and EQUIP MEN t Wee eee Tee es oe eee ee ante rte Cost of concrete pavements SE a a Se ey Ce ae ey REN AUS ei) as ty PMR TEATS Soh Bie a ON eat ae eee Se ea ea Goneltgiomss 22 2.) x's al. Sue Me uel ae ENE A at eis SIVAN see eno, aa DEPARTMENT BuLiETIN No. 250.—Foop Puants or THE Gipsy MorH IN AMERICA: Neopelot thejmivestications:.. 0 Vaan _ Meinl spar Gl PRN) UA Wise Equipment of the laboratory (CL A NE RR CA a ga I Paella Methods of conducting laboratory experiments................-.-.-.----- Difficulties in conducting the experiments.......-.-... ODT ape are Rioodkplemits)testedin ss eee nae ae gee BY eee A SUNN he nee TN Shae MN SCN EE Combimationctray experiments secs.) Gaal oo 2 a ii al eee rea Classifica tionvol toodsplamtsn arent 1: meee alee nieaeee serine cbs Ayn WNaT ia piierforesty problerin. en hae ee aN NAN Uy pau sn ole RAN tytn Raper AM Nardi ecommenda rons tor orchard practice yl" eee wen ya ryysiiG ss ue et ENE Cityeporoblemae i)! SMa aro yA Aiea 00 ai tL ls nT: HSIN SEO Alana ca oat _ Index of food plants used in the experiments. Aa sta Seta ate le ca Aa (STR. | MIEN MOU Bn Ne ONO HEAVIER ag) fi i ‘ 7 i. if Foe art My th Rat CO ite east Ly ii, Mis ai a) is BULLETIN: OF THE USDEPARIMENT OFAGRICULTURE No. 226 LA / N Wie Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief. May 27, 1915. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. THE VERBENA BUD MOTH. By D. E. Finx, Entomological Assistant, Truck Crop’ and Stored Product Insect Investigations. (In cooperation with the Virginia Truck Experiment Station, Norfolk, Va.) CONTENTS. Page. Page. Introduction and history......-...-.-----.-- 15 |) Description a2. sa. cetweceee se eciaceise tie cee 3 INamelandisynouymy, --j-\--------2+---o----- 2 | Habits and seasonal history.:............-.-. 4 DISUEID Unt OMeee eRe Nowa cee oe eee 2) Methodstoficontrolosieas-cmaeee asec eeeee 6 ROOMS p lambs ee ese ee eels Se eee aL 8 || Ievlalblopsdyoleh7s sh noonnoadodacubososocdaédesons 7 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY. During the fall of 1913 a bed of ornamental snapdragon (Antirrhi- num) at the Virginia truck experiment station, Norfolk, Va., was found to be infested by the larve of a bud moth. The adults were reared and identified as Olethreutes hebesana Walk., or the verbena bud moth. Although long ago recognized as injurious to certain ornamentals, it appears that no attempt had been made to determine its life history, with the exception of a short note regarding the habits of the larva and a description of the different stages. Since 1868, at which date it was fully described, an interval of over 46 years has elapsed and but little has been published concerning it. The first intimation we have of this insect as a pest occurs in a letter by A. S. Fuller, forwarded in 1868 with specimens to C. V. Riley, then State entomologist of Missouri. Riley reared the adults from the seeds of Tigridia and later identified the moth as an undescribed species belonging to the tortricid genus Penthina. In honor of the discoverer Riley named the species fullerea. At about the same time two other workers independently discovered the same insect doing injury to flowering plants. Mrs. Mary Treat found it exceedingly 1 This term is used in its broadest sense and includes all vegetables, and in addition ornamental plants.—F. H.C. NorEe.—This bulletin gives the life history of the verbena bud moth, its food plants, and methods for its control. 88200°—Bull. 226—15 2 BULLETIN 226, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. injurious to verbena and sent specimens to Riley for identification, while Miss M. E. Murtfeldt found the insect injurmg Antirrhinum at Kirkwood, Mo. The species was later observed and collected by entomologists in various sections of the country, and notices to that effect appear scattered through our literature. NAME AND SYNONYMY. - Popularly this moth has only one name, the ‘‘verbena bud moth,” given it by Mrs. Mary Treat in 1869 from the plant upon which it was found feeding. Scientifically, however, it has in its brief history been known by several names and has been shifted from one genus to another. Both Fernald and Walsingham have listed the species under the genus Penthina. Later it has been listed by H. G. Dyar and J. B. Smith under the genus Olethreutes. As it now stands we have the following synonymy: Olethreutes hebesana Walk., Dyar, 1902. | Sericoris faedana Clem., 1865. Sciaphila hebesana Walk., 1863. Penthina fullerea Riley, 1868. Carpocapsa inexpertana Walk., 1863. Penthina hebesana Wl1sm., 1879. DISTRIBUTION. Apparently the verbena bud moth is distributed locally at least through the eastern part of the United States. It is evidently a native American species and has been collected and found injurious in Maine, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Texas, Kansas, Indiana, and California, and is also reported from Canada. FOOD PLANTS. So far as known this species has confined its injuries solely to flowering plants. It has been reared from and found injurious on the following food plants: Tiger flower (Tigridia pavonia), snap- dragon (Antirrhinum spp.), flag Uris spp.), hedge nettle (Stachys palustris), roullein (Verbascum thapsus), verbena (Verbena spp.), closed gentian (Gentiana andrewsii), false foxglove (Dasystoma flava). According to the records in the Bureau of Entomology it has several times been reared from the stems of Tigridia pavonia and was in- jurious to verbenas on the Department of Agriculture grounds in Washington, where it fed upon the flower heads, webbing a number of seed capsules together to feed upon the young and undeveloped seeds. The heads of verbena are probably not its natural habitat, since it is necessary to web them together. Among other food plants in the records of the Bureau of Entomology are the closed gentian (Gentiana andrewsii) and false foxglove (Dasystoma flava). It has been found to feed in the dry seed pods of both these species, which may be included among its wild food plants. THE VERBENA BUD MOTH. 3 THE MOTH. Mr. C. H. Popenoe found the pods of mullein literally peppered by the work of this insect in Kansas and Indiana and suggests that mullein was probably the original food plant. DESCRIPTION. The adult of Olethreutes hebesana is a small dark-brown moth (PI. I, 6) of the usual tortricid type, with a wing expanse of about one- half inch. A technical description, including the markings, from specimens before the writer, follows: Alar expanse, 0.50 inch; length, 0.23 inch. Head with buff-brown tufts; eyes and palpi at apices somewhat darker, antenne short (one-third length of forewing), filiform and simple in both sexes. Thorax with the shoulder pieces and dorsal tuft uniform buff-brown. Abdomen more gray. Forewings silvery gray, with metallic blue reflections more or less intense; the lighter parts carneous, with a silvery luster; and the whole intricately shaded with dark vandyke brown. The light is mostly reflected from the beautifully marked edges of the scales, which are transversely imbi- cated. There are three principal dark-brown marks, namely, one broad and irregu- lar, crossing the wing a little beyond the middle and containing a more or less com- plete pale ring on the posterior border just within the anterior median cell; another, subobsolete, opposite, on its inner border. Between this transverse band and the base is a smaller, irregular, brown mark, not extending to the inner margin, and between the pale ring above described and the apex of the wing a third conspicuous brown mark, not extending more than one-third the width of the wing. Each of these dark marksis relieved bya pale border, and between them the brown, blue, and flesh color are intricately mixed. Apex of wing rounded; posterior border dark, with a series of eight or nine more or less distinct rust-brown angular spots, just inside, the two largest being costal; fringes dark brown, with a deep-blue gloss. Hind wings light brown, this color becoming deeper around the posterior margin; fringes lighter. Whole undersurface of a uniform leaden brown, that of forewings somewhat darkest and showing costal marks. No sexual difference is noted except in the narrower and less pointed male abdomen. Following are the original descriptions of the larva and pupa, from the writings of Dr. C. V. Riley: THE LARVA. Penthina Fullerea.—Average length exactly half an inch; general color of a uniform dirty carneous, frequently inclining to yellow and to green; two wrinkles on each segment; head jet-black, without a spot or shade; cervical shield also black, and occupying the whole surface of segment one; piliferous spots in the normal position, but scarcely observable, even with a lens, other than by the hairs proceeding from them; feet, legs, and venter of the same color as upper surface. (Fig. 1.) THE PUPA. The chrysalis (Pi. I, e).—Average length, 0.25 inch; of the usual form, with a dis- tinct row of teeth above, on the anterior portion of each segment, and a few minute bristles at the extremity and along the sides. It is formed within a silken cocoon, constructed in one of the three tubes of the seed, and forces itself halfway out at one side when the moth is about to emerge. (PI. II, 6; Pl. III.) ee 4 BULLETIN 226, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE EGG. The egg and newly hatched larva have not heretofore been de- ‘scribed. The author’s description of the egg follows: The egg.—The egg is oval with the outline somewhat irregular; long diameter, 0.45 mm., shorter diameter, 0.30. It appears flat below, with the upper surface hemi- spherical, pitted and also granulated. In color it is usually whitish or light cream and readily distinguishable, particularly when deposited on green sepals. Later the eggs invariably turn slightly reddish, some before hatching taking on a grayish hue. Fic. 1.—The verbena bud moth: 1, Larva, ventral view; 2, larva, lateral view, greatly enlarged. (Original.) The eggs are deposited singly or sometimes in groups of from three to five on sepals of flower buds, or along the upper part of the tender flower stalk, and hatch in from 7 to 10 days. (PI. I, ¢, d.) HABITS AND SEASONAL HISTORY. In the vicinity of Norfolk, Va., and on the grounds of the Virginia Truck Experiment Station the adults of the verbena bud moth, in 1913, began to issue on or about the last week in March. These were Bul. 226, U. S. Dept. of Agricuiture. PATE: a, MOTHS OVIPOSITING ON ANTIRRHINUM; 0, FEMALE MOTH, ENLARGED; c, EGGS ON Bubs, aBouT NATURAL SIZE; d, EGGS, ENLARGED; e, PUPA, ENLARGED. (ORIGINAL.) THE VERBENA BUD MOTH (OLETHREUTES HEBESANA), Bul. 226, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE II. , FLOWER-STALK SHOWING DROOPING CAUSED BY ATTACK OF LARVA, NATURAL oie: b, SEED CAPSULES SHOWING PUPAL CASES, AND METHOD OF EMERGENCE OF MoTH, ENLARGED. (ORIGINAL.) WORK OF THE VERBENA BUD MOTH ON ANTIRRHINUM. s Bul. 226, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. SEED CAPSULES OF ANTIRRHINUM WHICH HAVE BEEN ATTACKED BY LARV/ OF VERBENA BuD MoTH. Empty PUPAL CASES EXTRUDED. (ORIGINAL.) WORK OF THE VERBENA BUD MOTH. THE VERBENA BUD MOTH. 5 the progeny of overwintering pupz. On March 30 moths were ob- served flying about a bed of snapdragon that had been severely in- fested the previous summer. At this date the flower buds of snap- dragons were nearly ready to open. The moths dart swiftly from plant to plant, but during bright days remain concealed among the plants. Being of a dark color and very small they are inconspicuous and not readily seen without close in- spection. (Pl. J,a.) In the late afternoon or when the plants are disturbed the moths become active. Oviposition occurs several days after emergence. On April 2 and 3 egg laying was observed on the flower buds. The moths invariably seek tender flower shoots upon which to oviposit, but according to observation prefer the sepals of flower buds, particularly those sit- uated high up on the plant. The larve as they emerge from the eggshells feed on the tender sepals and petals or on the flower stalk. At this time it is difficult to locate them. After feeding for a while they become more active and then direct their attacks indiscriminately. Some larve feed on the sepals and then bore through them, entering the flower and attack- ing the ovary. Others feed on the petals, stamens, and pistils of the flowers, finally reaching the ovaries. The flower stalk may be attacked by the larve, which first mine beneath the epidermis and feed on the juices. Later they may bore into the center of the stalk. (PI. II,a.) They thus give the impression of being able to adapt themselves to many modes of feeding. The seed capsules formed by flowers which have escaped the ravages of the newly hatched larvee are later vigorously attacked by those half grown. (Pl. III.) The larve that bore into the seed capsules continue to feed on the seed within, going from one seed capsule to another, until they have attained their growth. The capsules thus attacked are easily recognized by the small orifices at the base or side and by the excremental castings on the surface. In many instances two such capsules are webbed together by larve migrating from one capsule to another. The larvee are easily alarmed and when dis- turbed have the interesting habit of thrusting out their heads, and sometimes in their alarm they wriggle out completely, dropping to the ground. Under laboratory conditions the life cycle occupies 43 days, as follows: Hessdeposited March’ 2, 191322222. < =< 25-5)- Egg state, 8 days. Larve hatched March 10, 1913........ een a ae Larval state, 21 days. eupated: Marchi elQi3 ieee hs ame, sores lever oe Pupal state, 14 days. PA Gralt Agoril AA AGS eee ec ea hen Ase Scie at SO eel Life cycle, 43 days. 9) BULLETIN 226, U..S..DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Less time is required during warm weather, as the following will show: Hees deposited uly Olas ssn se cease erecta e Egg state, 7 days. Parva hatched’ July 14, elON Sse see ee eee Larval state, 15 days. Pupateddulye3ls VON 3s eraee tse eee at ee Pupal state, 12 days. Adult:-Austst 129191324. Sep 2 ek ae te Life cycle, 34 days. In the vicinity of Norfolk, Va., at least five or six generations are produced each year. This with the voracious and indiscriminate habit of feeding renders the species a very obnoxious pest when once it has obtained a foothold in a locality. This is particularly true where the production of seed is an object, since plants infested by this insect become worthless. Besides undergoing all transformation within the seed capsule, the larvee hibernate within this protection. During the winter larve in every stage of development, as well as pups, were found concealed in the seed capsules. METHODS OF CONTROL. Two methods of control were found effective against the larve of the verbena bud moth: (1) Poison spraying against the young larve, and (2) cutting back and destroying infested stalks. SPRAYING. Two poisons were employed in the spraying experiments. (a) Arsenate of lead, 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water. Fish-oil soap, 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water. (b) Arsenite of zinc, 14 pounds to 50 gallons of water. Fish-oil soap, 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water. The spraying was done as soon as the larve began to hatch and was directed toward the flower buds and young flower stalks. Sub- sequent investigation developed that from 85 to 90 per cent of the larve had been killed. A second spraying followed eight days later, owing to the fact that after the first spraying some moths were observed ovipositing. CUTTING BACK AND DESTROYING INFESTED FLOWER STALKS. The nature of the verbena plant is such that during the fall of the year the entire growth may be cut back and new growth will start the following year. In this way the whole brood, including all stages of the pest, is entirely eradicated. If this method is not followed in the fall, one may, in the spring of the year, cut out carefully the in- fested stalks, and the flower bed should be gone over several times in order to obtain those missed at the time of the first cutting. 1863. 1865. 1868. 1870. 1870. 1879. 1882. 1886. 1902. 1907. =T THE VERBENA BUD MOTH. BIBLIOGRAPHY. WatLker, Francis. List of the Specimens of Lepidopterous Insects in the Collection of the British Museum, Part XX VIII—Tortricites and Tineites, ». 342 and 394. London, 1863. Original description of the male as Sciaphila hebesana n. sp. from North America. Female description given on p. 394 as Carpocapsa inexpertana n. sp. from same locality. CLEMENS, BrackENRIDGE. North American Microlepidoptera. Tortricidae. In Proc. Ent. Soc. Phila., v. 5, p. 184-135, 1865. Synoptic table of genus Sericoris. Species described as S. foedana n. sp. from Virginia. Fuuter, A. 8. Injurious insects. [The tigridia-seed larve.] Jn Amer. Jour. Hort. and Florist’s Companion, v. 4, p. 207-209, Oct. 1868. Description by C. V. Riley of larva, pupa, and adult with figures, as Pen- thina fullerea n. sp. from Ridgewood, N. J. Treat, Mary. My raspberry and verbena moths and what came of them. In Amer. Ent. and Bot., v. 2, no. 7, p. 203-205, May, 1870. 2 figs. Description from Riley and notes on habits of larve called the ‘‘ Verbena bud-moth.” Murtretpt, Mary E. The verbena bud-moth (Penthina fullerea Riley) in the west. Jn Amer. Ent. and Bot., v. 2, no. 12, p. 371, Dec., 1870. Mention of its occurrence with notes on food plants and larval habits. WaLsIncHAM, T. DEG. North American Tortricidae. London, 1879. (Illus- trations of Typical Specimens of Lepidoptera Heterocera in the Collection of the British Museum, pt. 4.) Penthina hebesana Walk. List of synonyms; description of adult, p. 31, pl. 67, fig. 8. Frernatp, C. H. A synonymical catalogue of the described Tortricidae of North America, north of Mexico. Jn Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., v. 10, p. 1-72, 1882. Synonymy, habitat, and food plants of Penthina hebesana Walk., p. 32. Morratt, J. Autston. Additions to the list of Canadian Lepidoptera. Jn Canad. Ent., v. 18, p. 31-32, Jan., 1886. Listed for the first time in Canada. Gipson, ArtHUR. Note on the larve of Penthina hebesana Walk. In Canad. Ent., v. 34, no. 7, p. 182, July, 1902. Found hibernating on heads of mullein. : Dickerson, E. L. [Penthina hebesana Walk., breeding in seed pods of iris. ] In Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., v. 15, no. 4, p. 250, Dec., 1907. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH ; 1915 HbA ‘G) - | RAbea a Wien Wire esky i NON Ait oy ce aha ead fo ig at electtaroame eee. es), eee tps 6 ks We. A Sti Chee; et Pe ote eee pee nes eas s cee UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 227 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER August 23, 1915. THE TOXICITY TO FUNGI OF VARIOUS OILS AND SALTS, PARTICULARLY THOSE USED IN WOOD PRESERVATION.’ By C. J. Humpsrey, Assistant Pathologist, and RutH M. Fiemine, Scientific Assist- ant, Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology. CONTENTS. Page. | Page. MNCROGUICHIONE Rec seieoeiteels la-icists seisis)s In conclusion, the writers wish to emphasize that any scale of toxicities derived from Petri-dish tests on the usual nutrient agar or THE TOXICITY TO FUNGI OF VARIOUS OILS AND SALTS. 30” gelatin media, even when the tests are conducted under exactly similar conditions, do not necessarily represent the true relative toxic values of the different compounds, for the interaction between the toxic compounds, the nutrient substances contained in the media, and the plant protoplasm 1 is variable and more or less specific for ach combination. Also, the reader should keep before him the fact that toxicity alone is not the sole criterion in judging the service value of a preservative, and a direct application of these data to that end would in many cases lead to very erroneous conclusions. In many cases it is possible to overcome such canines able proper- ties in a preservative as high solubility in water by placing the treated timber under conditions less exposed, and such timbers treated with soluble preservatives, such as sodium fluorid, zinc chlorid, and copper sulphate, should behave more or less according to the toxic ratios represented. The same should apply to oils of similar volatile and soluble properties placed under approximately similar service con- ditions. Not all preservatives are adapted to the same uses, and in testing their service value these primary facts should be given full consider- ation. We have long been in the habit of taking as the standard test of the efficiency of a substance its ability to protect timber exposed to such extreme conditions as are railway ties, telephone poles, posts, exterior building timbers, etc. This standard is very often too severe, and for this reason preservatives should be grouped according to the conditions under which they are to be exposed. SUMMARY. A survey of the work of various investigators on the action of different toxic substances on the higher and lower forms of plant life discloses a marked difference in behavior. The action of toxic agents appears to be specific, being highly poisonous to certain organisms and only moderately so to others. Very dilute concentrations ordinarily produce a stimulative effect. Among the fungi, as a rule, the common molds are more resistant to poisons than the true wood-destroying fungi, and even among the latter group the different species show a great difference in suscepti- bility. The chemical and physical composition of the media supporting the growth of the fungi determines, to a large extent, their develop- ment. The presence of certain kinds of insoluble matter or of such organic compounds as sugars and proteid materials, with which the toxic agents may possibly react, often introduces a considerable element of error when testing the toxic value of a substance by mixing it with nutrient agar or gelatin media. 36 BULLETIN 227, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Temperature is also an elemental factor in the growth of fungi, and there is an optimum for each organism, often lying within a very narrow range. The growth activities of fungi probably bear a close relation to the resistance offered toward toxic agents. The toxic elements or radicals in a compound are often difficult to determine. In the case of heavy metallié salts, it is the metal ion; in the case of strong inorganic acids, the hydrogen ion is said to be the important element; in the fluorin compounds, fluorin is the determining agent; in the case of certain phenols, the introduction of halogen, alkyl, or nitro groups is said to increase toxicity. Even in the case of isomeric compounds the grouping of the radicals plays an important part. The Petri-dish method of determining the toxicity of a substance offers a ready procedure which gives indicatory results in a short time. On account of certain sources of error, some inaccuracies must be admitted, although the methods employed by the writers obviate many of these. The results of tests on 18 wood preservatives at the Forest-Products Laboratory, against two wood-destroying fungi, Yomes annosus Fr. and F. pinicola (Sw.) Fr., are given. -The preservatives act in a considerably different manner on these two organisms, the former being, as a rule, far more resistant. The tests show that for these two organisms the following quan- tities of preservative per cubic foot of culture medium used are suf- ficient to inhibit all growth: FOR FOMES ANNOSUS. FOR FOMES PINICOLA. Pounds. Pounds Coal-tar creosote, Fraction II 0. 14 } Coal-tar creosote: Sodium fluorid’s-.252- 52559: 16 Fraction Til! 2s sae 0. 08 Cresol calciumss. 22%. 222) 0.09- .18 HractionylWV. eee . 08 Coal-tar creosote: Hractiony lil: 1 cia 09 Mractlong Den jaces ee 195 |p Sodrumfluorid s4- 5-5 ee . 09 Braction vUEEs-ctens- ~20)|" Wood creosote - 52 eneee 218 ZANE LCMOTI' 3) (2s Se ei. aha . 31 | Coal-tar creosote: Coal-tar creosote, grade C... . 34 Grade'G\e23)2 2 AS eae .14 Water-gas tar distillate (sp. Fractionles 4. eee .14 ST AORGO Ee h-\erstase vlepeeie oot .41 | Avenarius carbolineum ...- 19 Wood creosote......------- 415) Zancichlond =" see osha .47 Hardwoodiitar 2. . 5.05521. 78° Hard wood'tar--.--2- 4 s2eeee 47 Coal-tar creosote, Fraction IV 2.06 | Coal-tar creosote, Fraction V 4. 87 S. P. F. carbolineum....... 2.31» |: COpPpexizedyOll.ss-.. seen Over 25 Avenarius carbolineum .... 3.27 | United Gas Improvement Coal-tar creosote, Fraction V . 20. 59 Qo: d,07oil - cones Over 25 Copperized oil...........-.. 25 None-Such Special.......-- Over 25 United Gas Improvement Cosi O7aollemereee sas). Over 25 None-Such Special......... Over 25 Sapwood antiseptic .......- Over 25 SY life BIBLIOGRAPHY. . Boxorny, THomas. Ejinwirkung von Meiallsalzen auf Hefe und andere Pilze. In Centbl. Bakt. [ete.], Abt. 2, Bd. 35, No. 6/10, p. 118-197, 1912. . Brooks, CHarLEs. Temperature and toxic action. Jn Bot. Gaz., v. 42, no. 5, p. 359-375, 1906. . CuarK, J. F. On the toxic effect of deleterious agents on the germination and development of certain filamentous fungi. Jn Bot. Gaz., v. 28, 1899-1900: no. 5, p. 289-327; no. 6, p. 378-404. . Dean, A. L., and Downs, C. R. Antiseptic tests of wood-preserving oils. Jn Orig. Commun. 8th Internat. Cong. Appl. Chem., v. 18, Sect. 6a, p. 103-110 [1912]. . Fatcx, RicHarp. Wachstumgesetze, Wachstumfaktoren und ‘Temperaturwerte der holzzerstérenden Mycelien. Jn Mdller, Alfred. Hausschwammforschungen. Heft 1, p. 538-154, 1907. Die Lenzitesfiiule des Coniferenholzes, eine auf kultureller Grundlage beazbeitete Monographie der Coniferenholz bewohnenden Lenzites-Arten. Jn Moller, Alfred. Hausschwammforschungen. Heft 3, 234 pp., 24 fig., 7 pl., 1909. Die Merulius-fiiule des Bauholzes. Neue Untersuchungen tiber Unter- scheidung, Verbreitung, Entstehung und Bekiampfung des echten Hausschwam- mes. Jn Mller, Alfred. Hausschwammforschungen. Heft 6, 405 p., 73 fig., 17 pl., 1912. : . Fircn, Rupy. The action of insoluble substances in modifying the effect of deleterious agents upon the fungi. Jn Ann. Mycol., v. 4, no. 4, p. 313-322, 1906. . Frep, E. B. Uber die Beschleunigung der Lebenstiitigkeit héherer und niederer Pflanzen durch kleine Giitmengen. » Jn Centbl. Bakt. [etc.], Abt. 2, Bd. 31, No. 5/10, p. 185-245, 1 fig., 1911. . GuEeUEN, F. Action de divers antiseptiques sur le Penicillium glaucum. Jn Bul. Soe. Mycol. France, t. 15, fasc. 1, p. 15-23, 1899. . Harvey, H.W. The action of poisons upon Chlamydomonas and other vegetable cells. In Ann. Bot., v. 23, no. 90, p. 181-187, 2 fig., 1909. . Heatp, F. D. On the toxic effect of dilute solutions of acids and salts upon plants. Jn Bot. Gaz., v. 22, no. 2, p. 125-153, pl. 7, 1896. . Horrmann, Karu. Wachstumverhiltnisse einiger holzzerstérender Pilze. In Ztschr. Naturw., Bd. 82, p. 35-128, 1910. Also reprinted as Inaugural Disserta- tion, Konigsberg in Pr. . KauwLENBERG, Lours, and Truz, R. H. On the toxic action of dissolved salts and their electrolytic dissociation. In Bot. Gaz., v. 22, no. 2, p. 81-124, 1896. . Ketiterman, K. F. The excretion of cytase by Penicillium pinophilum. Jn U.S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Plant Indus. Cire. 118, p. 29-31, 2 fig., 1913. . Le RENARD, ALFRED. Influence du milieu sur la résistance du Pénicille crustacé aux substances toxiques. Jn Ann. Sci. Nat., Bot., s. 9, t. 16, no. 4/6, p. 277-336, 1912. McCutntic, T. B. Chloride of zinc as a deodorant, antiseptic, and germicide. U.S. Public Health and Marine Hosp. Serv. Hyg. Lab. Bul. 22, 24 p., 1905. 37 38 18. 19. 20. 31. 32. fl) — BULLETIN 227, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MatenKovié, Basmius. Zur Lehre und Anwendung der Holzkonservierung in Hochbaue. Mitt. Gegenst. Artil. u. Geniew., [Vienna], Jahrg. 35, 1904, p. 311-333. Die Holzkonservierung im Hochbaue mit besonderer Riicksichtnahme auf die Bekimpfung des Hausschwammes, 301 p. Vienna, 1907. For French translation of first part see Ann. Agron. s. 3, ann. 6, sem. 1, No. 3, p. 161-211, LOA Uber den Zusammenhang zwischen der Zufuhr von Antiseptikum und der Lebensdauer bei imprignierten Holzmasten. Jn Elektrotek. Ztschr., Jahrg. 34, 1913, Heft 16, p. 436-439. . Nerzsou, J. Die Bedeutung der Fluorverbindungen fiir die Holzkonservierung. In Naturw. Ztschr. Forst u. Landw., Jahrg. 8, 1910, Heft 8, p. 377-389. 2. Ono, N. Zur Frage der chemischen Reizmittel. Jn Centbl. Bakt. [etc.], Abt. 2, Bd. 9, No. 5/10, p. 154-160, 1902. . Putst, Cart. Die Widerstandfaihigkeit einiger Schimmelpilze gegen Metallgifte. In Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. [Pringsheim], 1902, Bd. 37, Heft 2, p. 205-263. . Ravin, Junzs. Etudes chimiques sur la végétation. In Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., s. 5, t. 11, p. 93-299. Also reprinted, Paris, 1870. . Rumporp, Carouine. Uber die Einwirkung des Siure- und Alkaligehaltes des Nahrbodens auf das Wachstum der holzzersetzenden und holzverfirbenden Pilze; mit einer Erérterung iiber die systematischen Beziehungen zwischen Ceratosto- mella und Graphium. Jn Naturw. Ztschr. Forst u. Landw., Bd. 9, Heft 10, p. 429-465, 22 fig., 1911. . SEIDENSCHNUR, F. Wood preservation, 1911. Advertising pamphlet pub- lished by Hiilsberg & Co. . THIELE, R. Die Temperaturgrenzen der Schimmelpilze in Verschiedenen Nahrlésungen, 37 p., 6 pl. Leipzig, 1896. . Trux, R. H. The toxic action of a series of acids and of their sodium salts on Lupinus albus. Jn Amer. Jour. Sci., s. 4, v. 9, no. 51, p. 183-192, 1900. and Gizs, W. J. On the physiological action of some of the heavy metals in mixed solutions. Jn Bul. Torrey Bot. Club, v. 30, no. 7, p. 390-402, 1903. and Hunxst, C. G. The poisonous effects exerted on living plants by phenols. Jn Bot. Centbl., Bd. 76, 1898: No. 9, p. 289-295; No. 10, p. 321-327; No. 11, p. 361-368; No. 12, p. 391-398. and Oeievesn, C.8. The effect of the presence of insoluble substances on the toxic action of poisons. Jn Bot. Gaz., v. 39, no. 1, p. 1-21, 2 fig., 1905. Weiss, H. F. Tests to determine the commercial value of wood preservatives. A progress report. Jn Orig. Commun. 8th Internat. Cong. Appl. Chem., v. 138, Sect. 6a, p. 279-300, 5 fig. [1912]. . Weiss, J. M. The action of oils and tars in preventing mould growth. In Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus., v. 30, no. 4, p. 190-191, 1911. The antiseptic effect of creosote oil and other oils used for preserving timber. Jn Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus., v. 30, no. 23, p. 1848-1353, 1911. © BULLETIN WOOF THE USDEPARTMENT OFACRICULTURE * No. 228 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. May 22, 1915. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) EFFECT OF FREQUENT CUTTING ON THE WATER REQUIRE- MENT OF ALFALFA AND ITS BEARING ON PASTURAGE.* By Lyman J. Bricas, Biophysicist in Charge of Biophysical Investigations, and H. L. SHanrz, Physiologist, Office of Alkali and Drought Resistant Plant Investigations. INTRODUCTION. The determination of a plant’s efficiency in the use of water at different stages in its development is a problem of much interest, but one which involves serious experimental difficulties on account of the constantly changing environmental conditions and the con- sequent necessity of extensive multiplication of the series of experi- mental plants. The present experiments (Table I) were designed to determine (1) whether alfalfa in the early stages of growth following a cutting has a water requirement differing from the water require- ment of the plant during the normal period of growth, and (2) to what extent frequent cutting or grazing during the hottest part of the year modifies the seasonal water requirement. METHOD. Two standard sets of selected Grimm alfalfa,? each consisting of six pots of plants, were employed in these experiments. The plants were treated in the usual way * up to the time of the first cutting, on July 26, at which time care was taken to leave the basal shoots, so as to insure the uninterrupted growth of the plants. Following this date, the growth on the pots of series B was cut back weekly in a manner somewhat resembling pasturage (fig. 1), all of the material thus removed from each pot being preserved separately. The growth of the plants in series A was allowed to proceed without interruption 1The experiments reported in this bulletin were conducted at Akron, Colo., in 1912, The methods employed were essentially the same as those described in Bulletin 284 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, entitled ‘‘The Water Requirement of Plants. I.—Investigations in the Great Plains in 1910 and 1911.” Sealed pots were used to prevent evaporation from the soil and the entrance of rainfall. The writers are indebted to A. M. Peter, R. D. Rands, H. Martin, and G. Crawford for assistance given at Akron in 1912. 2 The strains were selected by A. C. Dillman, of the Office of Alkali and Drought Resistant Plant Inves- tigations. 3 See Bulletin 284 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, previously mentioned, for details of these experi- ments. Series B was, however,started 10 days later than the check series (A), owing to the necessity of replanting. 88195°—Bull. 228—15 2, BULLETIN 228, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. until the time of the second cutting (fig. 2). Both sets were then allowed to grow uninterruptedly until the third and final cutting was ie ALE Fic. 1.—Alfalfa (series B, pots 145 to 150), photographed just before cropping, September 7, 1912. made. The data for the individual pots will be found in Table I, where the results are also summarized. RESULTS. The water requirement of the two series during the first period (i. e., up to the time of the first cutting) was practically the same. Fia. 2.—Alfalfa (series A, pots 133 to 138), photographed just before the second cropping, September 6, 1912. The mean ratio of the six pots of series A (check) was 600+17 and of series B 615+6. The difference is less than the probable error. WATER REQUIREMENT OF ALFALFA. : 3 TasLe I.—Dry-matter production and water consumption of alfalfa as affected by frequent cutting, at Akron, Colo., in 1912. | Series A: Grimm alfalfa,A.D.I., Series B: Grimm alfalfa, A.D.I., E-23-20-52 ( Medicago sativa). E-23-20-52 ( Medicago sativa). Water Water Period of growth. require- || Period of growth. require- Pot | Dry Water ment Pot | Dry Mater ment | No. | matter.) hed based No. | matter.) rhe q.| based ‘| on dry on dry | matter. matter. Grams.| Kilos. Grams.| Kilos If 133 131.6 | 89.6 | 680 145 53. 3 33.1] 621 |} 134 | 121.4] 73.9 | 609 146] 989.3] 54.7] 612 135 | 141.0 82.4 | 584 ‘ 147 59. 8 37.5 | 627 May 2410 July 26--}) 136 | 140.6| 72.5 | 516 Jane 3 to July 26--\) 148 | 78.3] 50.5) 645 137 | 141.4 79.8 | 564 149 | 100.6 60.5 | 602 138} 118.0 76.6 | 649 150 91.0 53.0 | 582 BANV CT AD Open |e piesa lis sis cia iaia/- [yetetorees 600+ 17 PASVCTAL Oe rosea BROSENaG oecce ---| 61546 133 | 131.7) 118.8 | 902 145| 20.6 22.5 |1, 092 134} 110.0) 93.0 | 845 ply 26 to Sept. 7. 146 25.7 25.1} 974 135 | 138.6} 112.4 | 810 Sropped Aug. 3, |} 147 26. 8 25.2 | 941 July 26 to Sept. 6--/) 436 | 133.3 | 115.8 | 870 10, 17,24,31,and |) 148| 32.3| 28.4| 8g0 137 135. 2 108.1 | 800 Sept. 7. 149 23.7 25. 7 |1, 088 138 | 120.2 107. 4 | 893 150 | 30.3 26.4 | 872 Avverage:..-.|=..-.-|-..---.- popsanes | 853+ 13 || Average.....|....-- lodogesodlacessca 975+ 23 133 73-7 | 385.4] 479 145| 34.7] 15.6] 450 134 64. 7 28.1 | 434 146 37.1) 16.5} 445 135 0. 7 32.4 | 401 } = 147 | 38.8 19.8 | 510 Sept. 6 to Nov. 4..)) 135 89°9| 33,0 | 390 _|| Sept. 7 to Nov. 4-1) 148] 35.0| 16.4| 467 137 83. 8 36.1 | 431 | |] 149 39.3 20.1) (571 138 79.5 31.1 | 391 150 38.3 16.4 | 428 PAV CTA SC Macias oe ic letsicras Sei-|eine ae oes | 421+10 || AVeTASes ss: 2) 724 sees acs saeeone 479+16 133 | 337.0] 243.8 | 724 145 | 108.6 71.2.| 655 134 | 296.1] 195.0 | 658 146 | 152.1 96.3 | 633 Combined cut- |} 185} 360.3) 227.2 | 632 Combined cut- 147 | 125.4 82.5 | 658 tings, May 24 |) 1386} 355.9] 220.3 | 620 tings, June 3 to |) 148 | 145.6 95.3 | 654 to Nov. 4. |} 187 | 360.4] 224.4] 623 - Nov. 4. \| 149; 163.6) 106.3 | 650 | 138} 317.7 | 215.1 | 678 | 150 | 159.6 95.8 | 600 Average.....|...... iy eel ae ee 656-411 || sANvenage®, | ia ) UE gaat ee cee re een ANN Spe ay 2,871, 460 3,057,816 3, 291,860 | 2,664,601 2,891. 064 1 Not including free ports prior to Mar. 1, 1906. Tables 5 and 6 show the growth and present magnitude of the tur- pentine and rosin industry in the United States and the large amount of capital involved in producing and exporting naval stores. It would seem from Table 6 that the production of turpentine and rosin in this country has reached its maximum, and this conclusion is further borne out by a survey of the stumpage supply still available for naval stores operations naval stores by States. (p. 41). Table 7 shows the exports of Tasie 5.—Number of establishments and quantity and value of turpentine and rosin produced— United States. [Figures taken from reports of the Bureau of the Census.] | Number Turpentine. Rosin. | Combined Yar of estab- value of = lish- | turpentine ments, Gallons. Value. Barrels. Value. and rosin. LOLS WME. cic 8270007000) ie cok aos ae 35,8105 000) |\o2s\. 2 . =< os eee eee ole SU 2 Slash pine is of comparatively infrequent occurrence, but is tapped wherever found on areas being turpentined. THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 11 The additional ducts require from 2 to 4 weeks for their formation full of resin. If a new cut is made just above the old one, after the additional ducts have had a chance to form, the flow will show a large increase over that obtained from the original wound, due to the additional ducts. Depth of cut.—Since the additional ducts form only in the cam- bium layer, and since they yield by far the greater part of the resin, cutting deeper than this layer induces but little additional flow. In commercial operations the depth of the cuts or “streaks” runs from one-half to one inch. Such streaks are, of course, much deeper than necessary, and to just that extent tend to reduce the vitality of the tree and, in consequence, its ability to give a sustamed flow. Tests have shown that a greater average flow over a four-year period can be obtained from trees with streaks 0.4 inch deep than from trees with streaks 0.7 inch deep. In any case, shallow streaks give fully as large a flow of resin as deep ones, when the period of tapping extends over two years or more. The tools used at present, however, make it difficult to cut shallow streaks, while the custom of deep chipping is pretty firmly established through long usage. Height of chip.—When a new “streak” is made the flow of gum is at first comparatively rapid, but gradually decreases until at the end of a week it has practically ceased. The diminution of flow is pre- sumably caused by the gradual hardening of the resin in the exposed ends of the ducts, which results in plugging them. It then becomes necessary to chip again. In deciding how thick a chip should be taken off, or how much the “face” or scar should be increased in height to give a new flow, it should be remembered that the bulk of the resin is produced in the region between the wound and a point about two inches above it. For this reason, no more of the wood immediately above the old wound should be removed than is necessary to open up the ends of the resin ducts in which the gum has hardened. Since in the space of a week the resin does not harden in the ducts for a distance greater than one-fourth inch from the surface of the cut, a chip that increases the height of the face one-fourth inch is all that is necessary. In practice, the vertical height of the new streak fre- quently exceeds 1 inch, thus eliminating practically one-half of the wood where most of the resin is being produced, and decreasing the productive period of the tree four times as rapidly as necessary. With the present type of tool it is difficult to cut a one-fourth inch streak, and, moreover, the difficulty of changing an old established custom again presents itself. The chipping tool should always be sharp. A dull edge tends to crush the ends of the resin ducts instead of cutting them clean, thus preventing a free flow. 12 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Frequency of chipping.—tTable 8 shows the rate with which the gum flows. TaBLe 8.—Rate of exudation of gum from ‘‘chipped’’ longleaf pine. Grams of | Total ex- 2 ‘Grams of | Total ex- Day. gum. udation. Day. | gum. udation. Per cent. | | Per cent. BILSG eee des caisceboae sane 113.0 67326) || hifthand sixth ss32. 205 9.0 5.36 SOCONM asa ss ite eee ene 22.5 13°39))||; Seventh s2ea-se0220 ee-ee eee 1.0 0.59 dM itinfe Dipans SRO EE Ae 13:5 8.04 || | Mourth eho teste hese 9.0 5.36 Totalen: ees eee | 2168.0 100. 00 Bitty ecle ee se seas (0D Tt | Rael ee | | | 1 No weighing. 2168 grams equal 0.37 pound. It is seen that 88 per cent of the total flow occurs during the first three days. As the resin ducts become plugged with coagulated or crystallized gum the flow gradually ceases, and the gum thereafter produced is stored in the resin ducts until the ends are again opened. When the ducts immediately above the wound become full, the resin tends to diffuse or soak into the wood further removed from the bark This diffused resin does not drain out when the tree is wounded, and for this reason chipping should be done often enough to insure that the active ducts immediately beneath the bark and above the wound will not remain full of gum. On the other hand time should be al- lowed between chippings for a new supply of gum to form. In prac- tice, trees are chipped once a week. It is possible that more frequent chipping would give a greater yield of gum for a short period (one or two years), but at the same time it might further reduce the vitality of the tree and so result in a smaller total yield over a longer period. The increased yield, moreover, must be enough to justify the addi- tional expense. Experiments are needed to show how the rate of flow is affected by frequency of chipping in operations extending over different periods of years. Size and number of faces.—The scar on the tree caused by successive chippings is usually about 14 inches wide, and is known as the “face.” Wounding the tree, of course, diminishes its vitality by interfering with the transmission of water from the roots to the leaves and of nutritive matter from the leaves to the roots. When a small tree, 8 or 10 inches in diameter, is chipped, it usually either dies outright or its further growth is greatly retarded, even though the width of the face is kept at the minimum. PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE DISTILLATION OF CRUDE GUM. The crude gum was formerly distilled without the addition of water; in consequence the quality of the resulting turpentine and rosin was poor. The yield of turpentine was very low, but it was impossible to increase it without coloring the liquid yellow with the THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 13 decomposition products of the rosin. Other conditions being the same, the question of obtaining water-white turpentine and rosin depends largely on the temperature.t The introduction of the practice of using water during the distillation increased the yield and quality of the turpentine and resulted in rosin of a lighter color. “See Mel | Re | | ~ ym So 20 AS EE es 140 Pp eisai) TEMPERATURE °C Fic. 2.—Relation of vapor pressure and temperature for turpentine, water, and mixtures, Vie EV 80 =|} | | JS zee e8 ise aae ase: 60 | See eae sea ee eal ia Belem) 7, IS AE Se AUNIYIW JORR—IFUNSSIUd UOdVA Turpentine begins to boil at about 313° F.’ and the greater portion of fresh turpentine distills between 317° F. and 324° F. (See fig. 2). If an attempt is made to distill turpentine direct from a gum contain- 1Tt should be borne in mind, however, that it is impossible to make light rosin from scrape and dip from old boxes or when the gum contains large amounts of trash by following the ordinary methods of produc- tion. Seep. 27. 2208° F.= 95°C. 302° F.= 150°C. 324° F.= 162°C. 207° F.=97°C. 313° F. = 156°C. 363° F.= 184° C, 212° F. = 100°C. 317° F. = 158°C. 392° F. = 200° C. 14 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ing 75 per cent rosin and 25 per cent turpentine, the turpentine in the absence of water will not begin to boil at 313° F., but at about 363° F., owing to the presence of the rosin. Rosin does not begin to decom- pose perceptibly until a temperature of about 392° F. is reached, but after the turpentine in the gum begins to distill off at 363° F., the tem- perature of the gumrises rapidly. For this reason, only a portion of the turpentine will be obtained before the decomposition of the rosin begins. In fact, it would be impossible to obtain all the turpentine in the gum, and that secured would be yellow, while at such high tem- peratures the rosin would also be quite dark. Practice has shown that the best quality of turpentine and rosin is obtained at a tempera- ture of 302° F., which calls for the use of water in the distillation. A liquid begins to boil when the pressure of its vapors is equal to or shightly exceeds the pressure of the atmosphere. Thus, water boils at 212° F. and turpentine at 313° F. Turpentine and water are non- miscible liquids, and according to physical law will distill together when the sum of their vapor pressures equals the vapor pressure of the atmosphere. Theoretically a turpentine, with a constant boiling point of 313° F., and water will distill together at a tempera- ture of 203° I’., the proportion of water and turpentine in the distillate remaining practically constant until one of the liquids is exhausted. Owing, however, to the complex nature of ordinary turpentine with its wide range of boiling points, turpentine and water will begin to distill at about 203° F., and the temperature will rise finally to about 212° F. The distillate will at first contain about 60 per cent of tur- pentine by volume, the turpentine content of the distillate gradually decreasing to practically zero. In a mixture of gum (containing 75 per cent rosin and 25 per cent turpentine) and water, distillation will not begin at 203° F., as in the case of pure turpentine and water, but at 207° F. As the gum grows poorer in turpentine the temperature rises until 212° F. is reached. At this temperature all the turpentine will have distilled over. In actual practice all the turpentine does not distill at 212° F. when water is added, owing to the physical difficulty of bringing more than the surface of the gum in contact with the water. On this account the gum must be heated to a temperature that will make it readily fluid and produce convection currents in lieu of stirring. If live steam were introduced into the mass all the turpentine could be removed below 212° F. COMMERCIAL METHODS OF COLLECTING CRUDE GUM. BOX SYSTEM. Outting the boxes.—The first operation in turpentining by the box method consists in cutting a cavity (fig. 3) into the base of the tree for holding the crude gum. This cavity, called the “box” is cut THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 15 during the winter months. The work is performed by a squad of six or seven negroes under an experienced overseer, who tallies the boxes. The cutting is done by piecework, and each negro has a num- ber which he calls as soon as he has finished a box. The tool used is an ax with a long narrow blade. An experienced man will cut a box iy aH Yj yf Oo, Z Uy f WY Yy, 4h i YY DY, yi ay U4 4 Yhy, yy lp oF WB Ta aa, WOT Yi) 77 vias i, y yf y Wy Ey cnt OG ML iar 00 => SSSS “SSS ~S n~ ( SAAAAG Sp ae SSsssssys SSS N S SSS SSS Wend SSS = SSS Fic. 3.—Operations in cutting a “box.” 1. First step in cutting box. Gashing tree. 2. Finished box. Front view. 3. Finished box. Side view. 4. Cornered box. 5. First streak. with surprising neatness in from four to eight minutes. 5 Coes The dimen- sions of the box vary somewhat with the size of the tree. Usually a box is 12 to 14 inches wide, 7 inches deep, 34 to 4 inches from front to back, and holds about 3 pints. Shaped like a dist ended pocket, it is cut into the base of the tree 8 to 12 inches above the ground, 16 BULLETIN 229, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. although in second-growth timber this distance may be only from 5 to 6 inches. The position of the box depends on the configuration of the tree. If the latter leans, as is usually the case, the first box is placed on the side opposite to the direction in which it leans, which is generally the position occupied by the most prominent root. When additional boxes are cut on a leaning tree, the loss occasioned by the gum falling outside the box increases each year the tree is bled; in some cases little, if any, resin reaches the box from the fourth year’s chipping. Cornering.—Two or three weeks before the chip- ping season opens the “boxes are cornered”’ (fig. 3 (4)). The operation, which is done with an ordinary ax, consists in removing a triangular chip about 1 inch thick above the corners of the box, a right- handed and a left-handed man usually working to- gether. The chip is removed by making one gash which rises obliquely from the apex of the triangular opening of the box and another gash which rises perpendicularly from the corner of the box to meet the former. This operation serves to form both a surface for future chipping and channels for guiding the flowing gum into the box. Chipping.—The scarification of the tree, or chip- ping, begins in early spring, usually in March, and continues each week up to October or November, when the flow of gum practically ceases. The num- ber of chippings is usually 32 per season, although owing to weather or labor conditions it may vary between 28 and 35. ane rne The instrument used for chipping or making the ' “streak” is called a “hack” (fig. 4). It consists of a flat, steel blade 24 inches wide, bent into the shape of a U, measuring an inch between the sides.1 The blade is fastened at right angles to one end of a wooden handle 18 inches long and 2 inches in diameter, to the opposite end of which is attached a pear- shaped iron weight weighing from 5 to 7 pounds; the blade and han- dle weigh about 1 pound. The chipper (PI. I, fig. 1) stands directly in front of the face and removes with the hack two strips of wood and bark one-half to three- fourths of an inch wide and one-half to 14 inches deep, parallel with the oblique gashes made in cornering. The removal of the two strips constitutes the ‘‘streak,’’ which is in the shape of a V, having an angle of about 95°. The apex of the angle is called the “ peak’’ and 1 Three sizes of hacks are made. The blade described is for a No, 1 size hack, PLATE I. Bul. 229, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘qyystoy Surddryo apqissod jo ssoy B s}u -dal ‘SyBvaIIS FI 0} JUATBATNHa ‘saqouL LZ YOIYM Jo ‘soyour %78 YBoA4s jo yvod 0} 10yjns WOIF 9dUBISTCT 'SHSLLINO ‘soyout 9L Aq g YveIys ISI MOTEq anv dNO—"g ‘DI4 osol qSIUy oZBlL_ “ONIddIHO— L oI PLATE Il. Bul. 229, U.S, Dept. of Agriculture. ” “ PULLING ed; cups substituted later. x bo his tree originally ui THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 17 lies directly above the center of the box. The hack is given a quick, swinging motion, and the momentum furnished by the iron ball enables one side of a streak to be made with only two or three blows. Chippers are paid from 75 cents to $1 per thousand streaks, according to the condition of the crop and the scarcity of labor. After the first two seasons the increased height of the face makes the use of a hack impracticable, and a ‘‘puller”’ is used in its place. This tool resembles the hack, except that the blade is closed and pro- vided with a long handle. The streak is made by a steady pull (Pl. II) rather than with a quick hacking motion. After the fourth season the face is usually abandoned, since at that time a height of 8 feet is attained, beyond which it is not profitable to work a tree. Old faces 12 feet in height have been noted in Georgia, and others even higher in North Carolina and South Carolina. Dipping.—The boxes fill with gum in three or four weeks and are “dipped” or emptied about seven times a season. The workman uses a tool called a ‘‘dipper’’, which has a flat trowel-shaped blade about 74 inches long and 54 inches wide. This dipper is thrust into the box under the gum, which is removed by a quick upward and outward motion and flipped into a portable bucket. Considerable skill is required to prevent loss of gum during the transfer. The bucket is emptied into barrels placed at convenient points throughout the woods. These barrels, provided with removable heads, are closed after filling, rolled upon wagons by means of skids, and taken to the still. Dippers receive from 50 cents to $1 per barrel, according to the nature of the territory covered. Scraping.—A certain amount of the gum does not reach the box, partial evaporation of volatile oil leaving it too viscous to flow. Gum which is perfectly homogeneous and transparent immediately after exudation soon becomes opaque from the separation of white crystals of the resin acids, and doubtless the greater portion of the ‘‘scrape”’ results from the adherence of these separated crystals to the face. The amount of this hardened gum naturally increases with the height of theface. ‘Scrape’ is essentially a product of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), since slash pine (Pinus heterophylla) forms but small amounts, which it does not pay to collect. The scrape contains about half as much turpentine as the ‘‘dip”’ and gives a darker resin under similar conditions. The scrape is collected but once a year—at the end of the season. The tools used, called ‘‘scrapers,’”’ are of two types. One type, the ‘“pusher,”’ has a flat, rectangular blade 4 inches long by 44 to 5 inches wide. This is used during the first two years, the scrape being removed by downward thrusts of the tool. In most cases the neces- sary violence of the thrust results in removing large chips of wood along with the scrape. Another type of scraper has a blade shaped 88767°—Bull. 229—15——3 18 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. like an equilateral triangle and in use is given a pulling motion down- ward. The scrape is usually collected and distilled before the last dipping is made, since at the end of the season the danger of fire breaking out in the woods and burning the faces is very great. The dip in the boxes is not so great a source of danger, since it is usually more or less covered with water. In course of removal the scrape is considerably disintegrated, and if stored in the rosin barrels for any length of time the turpentine evaporates rapidly. A wooden box, called a ‘‘scrape box,” is used to receive the de- tached scrape. This box is about 24 feet square and open at the top and at one end. The bottom at the open end is rounded inward and provided with an apron of burlap to form a close contact with the tree and prevent loss of scrape. The legs project sufficiently above the sides to serve as handles for dragging the box from tree to tree, though sometimes the box is provided with wheels. A box will hold from 100 to 150 pounds of scrape, which is transferred to rosin barrels and hauled to the still. _ Raking.—After the crude gum has been collected the trash sur- rounding the base of the tree is ‘‘raked’’ away for a distance of 24 to 3 feet to guard against fire. This operation is performed late in the fall, the tool used being a hoe with a broad, heavy blade. The turpentine woods are intentionally burned over once each season, to afford better forage for stock the following spring, to reduce the risk from accidental fires, and to remove brush and other materials which impede the workmen. Crops.—The tracts of timber to be turpentined are divided into sections called ‘‘crops,”’ a full crop consisting of 10,500 boxes. Since each tree receives from one to four boxes, 4,000 to 5,000 trees, covering an area of 200 to 250 acres, are required to make one crop. For convenience in working, the crop is further divided into drifts, whose boundaries are defined by lines blazed on the trees. Each drift contains about 2,100 boxes, although this number varies con- siderably. The average still has a capacity of 15 to 20 barrels, so in order to make two distillations per day with a still holding 20 barrels of crude gum the operator must work 20 crops, covering an area of four to five thousand acres. It is seldom profitable to work less than five crops. CUP SYSTEMS. Historical.—Until recent years the box system was the only one used in the United States for collecting resin. While no recent figures are available, it is probable that at present the number of cups 1In practice a “‘crop”’ consists of the number of faces a man can chip in from four to five days. Conse- quently a “crop” may vary from 7,000 to 10,000, owing to the topography of the country or density of the stand. THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 19 in use exceeds the number of boxes. During the past two or three years, however, it is estimated that cups have been hung on 75 per cent of the trees tapped. The need of replacing the box with a cup hung against the tree was felt many years ago. Mr. A. Pudigon patented a substitute for the box in 1868, and the device received a commercial test at Monks Corner, S. C., but was soon abandoned for some unknown reason. From that time on numerous substitutes have been invented, but none patented prior to 1903 proved a commercial success. The first systematic attempt to improve the method of collecting sum was made at Bladenboro, N. C., by W. W. Ashe in 1894. A comparison on a limited scale was made between the French cup and gutter system and the box system, and the results showed a gain for the former of over 20 per cent in the value of the products collected. The preliminary experiments begun in 1901 by Dr. Charles H. Herty, of the Forest Service, and continued in 1902, mark the turning point in the method of collecting crude gum. Cups were first used on an extensive scale in 1904, and since that time their use has become more or less general. Classes of cup systems in use at present.—The cup systems may be divided into four classes. _ Class 1. (Plates III and IV.) The gum flowing down the face is guided into the cup by means of two galvanized-iron gutters inserted in cuts in the tree. These gutters are 2 inches wide and from 6 to 12 inches long, depending on the size of the tree, and are bent into an obtuse angle. Sufficient bark and sapwood are removed from the tree to form a central vertical ridge with two flat faces on either side of it. The gutters are inserted in inclined gashes made by a broadax in the flat surfaces. It is necessary that these surfaces be flat, in order that the straight edge of the gutter may enter the face along its entire length, so that gum can not flow between the gutter and the tree. The lower gutter is placed so as to project at least two inches beyond the other at the center of the ridge, in order to guide the gum into the cup, which is hung just below the lower gutter on a nail. The cups are of galvanized iron or of clay, and vary in shape. Those resembling an ordinary flowerpot are the most common. Their ca- pacity is 1, 14, or 2 quarts. The blazes made for inserting the gutters extend below the latter and produce a flow of resin which is not only wasted but serves to coat the base of the tree, and thus makes the face more susceptible to fire. The workman frequently makes the blaze too large, as is shown in Plate III, figure 1, and there is a tendency in placing the gutters to spread them too far apart, losing in many cases as much as 20 inches of chipping surface. It is entirely possible to place the cups and gutters on a normal tree so that the first streak 20 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. will be 12 inches from the ground (Plate III, fig. 2). In Plate IV, figure 1, the first streak is 17 inches higher than necessary. On the basis of one-half inch streaks this means that a height sufficient for 34 chippings, or for a whole season, has been lost. Class 2. (Plates V and VI.) The gum flowing from the face is guided into the cup by means of a flat oblong piece of galvanized iron, with the ends slightly upturned, called an “‘apron.’’ The edge of the apron to be inserted in the tree is concave to conform to the tree’s shape. In some cases the aprons are made in two pieces, riveted together at the ends, so as to allow them to be adjusted to the curvature of each particular tree. They are also made in two separate pieces. The aprons are inserted in a horizontal gash at the base of the tree made with a broadax haying a flat blade with a concave edge. When inserting the apron a small blaze about 6 inches wide and 2 inches high is generally made to remove objection- able bark. The broadax is held horizontally against the blaze, with the head slightly downward, by one man, while another drives it into the tree with a maul. The ax is then withdrawn and the apron inserted. A recently introduced apron is lunar in shape, the concave edge being provided with stiff teeth. This apron can be driven directly into the tree, obviating the necessity of blazes or gashes. The cups are made of galvanized iron or clay and hold about a quart. Their general shape is that of an oblong box 12 inches by 3 inches at the top, and about 3 inches deep. They are slightly larger at the top than at the bottom, and are sometimes shaped to con- form to some extent to the curvature of the tree. The cups are sometimes hung from the apron by means of small hooks which engage an extension on either end of the apron, or they may be supported on a nail driven into the tree beneath the apron. The likelihood of the fasteners becoming clogged by gum is obviated by the use of nails as supports. In hanging this class of cups large blazes are not necessary, and if properly hung practically all the gum flowing from the tree reaches the cups. As the aprons occupy but little vertical space and the cups are comparatively shallow, a distance of 12 inches from the ground to the first streak is ample on normal trees (Plate V, fig. 1). In the case of small trees 10 inches or less in diameter, the use of the 2-piece or riveted apron allows a shallower cut. to be made in hanging the cup, as the 1-piece aprons have such a large curvature that they require a deep cut in small trees (Plate VI, fig. 1) to prevent escape of gum at the sides. On large timber, of course, this difficulty does not occur. Class 3. (Plate VII, fig. 1.) The cup is so constructed as to obviate the necessity of using a gutter or apron. In order to hang it, several PLATE III. Iture. gricu Bul. 229, U.S. Dept. of A ‘yROIIS ISI O} PUNOIS WIOIF SOPIUT OATOAT, "SYSLLND GNV dNO PNNH AIuadOud—'S “SI *WSOT Udeq OAT YU sfoy Surddryo jo soyour OUIN “HVS SIG MOTOG soyoUL 6 A Q| OzZBIq Ssafesn OSivT 9}ION z9}jns Joddn Jo puso I9MOT 0} YRorjS ysIp wloIF soyour 9 ‘s10q9n3 UdsaMJoq SOYOUL G ‘YVoTs Jsuy O} PUuNOIS WOI, SoyoUT oU0-AJUOA, "SHALLND GNV dNO—"| “dI4 yRos ‘4s0[ Mood suy ‘4ystoy Surddiyo 8,avak B AyAvaU 10 Saf 0} 10}INS AOMOL TOAF SOPOUT OAT “ABT 007 SJOoford 19}yN3 LOMOT ‘SOYOUL UD9JUDADY =" YRAI}S JSIY O} PUNOIS ULOIy SOYOUL OUTU-AJUO AM, ‘SHBLLND ANV dNO—'S ‘DIS ‘SYBLLND ONNH ATagvg—'| ‘5I4 PLATE IV. . of Agriculture. 9, U. S. Dept 99 Bul. THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 21. streaks are made at the base of the tree, the last one being a ‘“‘shade”’ streak or one which is undercut. The prolonged back of the cup is notched and bent to conform to the chipped surface. The cup is loosely hung on a nail, so as to be readily detachable for dipping. The first chipping is so made as to leave a band of bark and wood 13 to 2 inches wide over which the resin flows and drips into the cup. The last chipping of the season should be a shade streak, so that at the beginning of the succeeding season the cup may be raised and fitted under it and a strip of bark and wood left as before. Great care must be used in hanging these cups or the loss of resin will be excessive. It is difficult to make a shade streak close to the ground, and if a square streak is made the resin will flow between the tree and the cup. The cup in Plate VIII, figure 1, was originally hung so poorly that rehanging was necessary in the middle of the first season. The equipment for hanging cups of this class is sim- pler than in the case of those requiring gutters and aprons, and the necessity of gashing the tree with a broadax is obviated. Class 4. (Plate VII, fig. 2.) Two gutters of galvanized iron are inserted in a streak just above the cup which is hung on a nail. The gutters are semicircular in section and the ends are so riveted together that the gutter may be adjusted to any angle. To hang the gutter, a shade streak is made and the gutter fitted into it and held in posi- tion by means of two nails driven through holes made for the purpose. This gutter can be hung by one man and no special tools are re- quired. No wounding is necessary, except a single streak; and, owing to the rivet, the gutter will serve readily for small and large timber. Unless care is used in placing these gutters, however, the cum will flow between them and the tree. Class 5. The gum flows from two holes bored diagonally upward into the tree from a common point. The top of the receiving vessel consists of two caps at right angles, connected by a triangular tube. One cap is placed over the holes bored into the tree, while a glass cup screws into the horizontal cap. . When full, the cups are un- screwed and emptied. When the flow ceases, the old holes are reamed out or new ones bored. Experiment has shown that the holes in the tree, as well as the tube in the receiving vessel, soon become plugged with gum, rendering the maintenance of a continu- ous flow an expensive operation. This method of tapping is worthy of mention, however, since by its means two highly desirable results in naval stores operations are obtained, namely, a pure gum and minimum damage to the timber. Material and shape of cups.—The great majority of cups on the market are made of clay or galvanized iron. The clay ones are the cheaper, and it is claimed for them that they yield a higher quality 22 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of gum, since clay does not become heated like metal when exposed to the sun and thus cause evaporation of the turpentine. Clay cups are three or four times as heavy as metal cups, however, and much more bulky. They are also more likely to break, both in transit and in handling. On the other hand, they do not rust like the galyan- ized-iron cups. Rusting not only results in loss of cups, but may also darken the gum. In shape the cups may be like a flowerpot (Plate I, fig. 2), an oblong box (Plate V, fig. 1), or a flattened cone (Plate VII, fig. 2). With the deep cups, it is claimed, there is less evaporation of gum, on account of the smaller surface exposed. On the other hand, deep cups take up more vertical height on the tree, and are generally con- sidered more difficult to dip. The cone-shaped cups are similar in shape to the interior of the ordinary ‘‘box,” being so made for the sake of economy, since only one seam is necessary. Within certain limitations the kind of cup used with a particular gutter or apron is immaterial. Between the cups and gutters now on the market, the greatest room for improvement exists in the case of the latter, though improved aprons and gutters are constantly put on the meted, RELATIVE YIELDS SECURED FROM CUPS AND BOXES. Experiments made by the Forest Service in Georgia during 1902 showed conclusively that more and better turpentine and rosin can be obtained by the use of cups than by the use of boxes. The timber studied consisted of a first, second, third, and fourth year crop, one-half of each crop being turpentined by the cup sys- tem and the other half by the box system. The comparative results are shown in Tables 9 and 10. TABLE 9.—Spirits of turpentine from eight half crops, season of 1902, Georgia. ‘ From From : Excess from cup- Half crops. dip. scrape. Total. ped trees. Pp First year: Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Per cent. CUS eras sc See Oe ee ce oars obinsins ca bee 1,385.3 205 1,590.3 301.9 23.43 BS ORES rer ee ee ee ee ee eine ne ciate coat a 134.7 153.7 1, 288, bi Ae aye Se! oe eke Second year: CUPS eee erase ee eee eee ence ce sels oe se 1, 087.2 188.2 | 1,275.4 66.6 5.51 BOR CS Petes cease see tne eae oe ie ca semee aed 941.8 267 1,208..8:|-.cseteeenleee cuemne Third year: Cups ere ee eee Fee shee sci be Ale 726.5 113 839.5 310.1 58. 58 BOXES Reet tee tee Lene Piseteeie eee ns aeeeae 381.9 147.5 529. €3| - Ace eee eee eae Fourth year Cipsoe Sameera coe eee SHEE oe Scene entat eee et 687.2 101 288. 2 314.2 66. 29 IR OXES Fe ere mee coe enti i oe laces seo asa 349.5 124.5 474 > 3 See eee ee THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 23 | TasLE 10.—Net rosin sales from eight half crops, season of 1902, Georgia. | From From Excess sales from Half crops. dip. scrape. | _0tal. cupped trees. First year: ! Net. Per cent. (CRON OS. (Shes ie PE a Sree ee TAS AARC EB DCCA cee $401.72 $47.72 | $449.44 $85. 51 23.50 IBOXCS epson GE rebate mt stepa oy seats ote avaleta es aaaie ete miatals 328.40 35.53 BOS) IoH| hee ne eee Nene cee Second year: CUNDS eo So 5s hs SES RBBB SCE GHeee caer Seaman marc 266. 34 49.25 315. 59 144.13 84. 64 BOXES eee tie nce ie ise cui nloieloljancats SORA See 104. 51 66.95 7A GS aera cree eeaere yt or Third year: (ClO B ae 6 Jo ee Aaa bao: CRESS Rea EEE cee roa Rodeara 171.27 27.44 198.71 132.65 200. 80 IB ORCS Br terse a tere a ait see -Pyscicve caste temas 39.49 26. 57 CF Oi PER a I ea ae eS Fourth year: Cup SS fo memancis etch atieitaite Neco cis eines 167.33 29.23 196. 56 132.56 207.13 TOROS perso ae ars ese aN ceo tebe ela iyae o icnelsialeisiere 36. 09 27.91 GES OO i Ree eke apy ee sse rs foie The first year crop mentioned in Tables 9 and 10 was worked for two years longer. The combined yields obtained for the ‘‘cupped | half” and ‘‘boxed half” during the 3-year period of operation are | given in Tables 11 and 12. TaBLE 11.—Spirits of turpentine from half crops, seasons 1902-1904, Georgia. Cups. Boxes. _ see | Net price] Value of paces per gallon] excess Year. cupped at time from “ a fi = Dip. Scrape. Total. Dip. Scrape. Total. | half crop. andes ae Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. Cents. | IMS iss onne 1,385.3 205.0} 1,590.3} 1,134.7 153.7 | 1,288.4 301.9 40 $120. 76 | Second....| 1,103.5 165.0 | 1,268.5 705. 2 226.6 931.8 336.7 45 151.52 hind esse 781.3 136.0 917.3 536.1 190.5 726.6 190.7 45 85. 82 Total...-| 3,270.1 506.0 | 3,776.1) 2,376.0 570.8 | 2,946.8 829.3 | seep acoos= | 358. 10 TaBLeE 12.—Wet sales of rosin from half crops, seasons 1902-1904, Georgia. Cups. Boxes. Value of Ma Sa eel Bs en OX COSS Year. from Dip. Scrape. Total. Dip. Scrape. | Total. hale Lee LOTS ier o see a Sea er eae ee aera $401. 72 $47.72 | $449.44 | $328.40 $35.53 | $363.93 $85. 51 econ dew sae ole oa ee 286. 88 58. 24 345. 12 132. 42 84. 08 216. 50 128. 62 pr Gee enantio 212. 60 61. 65 274. 25 124. 76 79. 70 204. 46 69. 79 Mota ais = 6 2s see eectees 901. 20 167.61 | 1,068.81 585. 58 199. 31 784. 89 283.92 RELATIVE AMOUNTS OF SGRAPE FORMED BY THE BOX AND CUP SYSTEMS. The resin obtained from trees turpentined by the box method must flow an increasingly greater distance each year the tree is tapped. As aresult the amount of scrape formed is proportionately increased. The proportion of scrape formed by the two systems is shown in Table 13. 24 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 13.—Comparison of the amount of scrape formed by the cup and box systems, season 1902, Georgia. Total Net weight | Net weight | weight of | Percentage Half crop. ofscrape. | ofdip. |gum’’dip| of cae and scrape. First year: Pounds. Pounds, Pounds. Per cent. IB ORES Meee. Ute cae Ra wisrare be Sah ane a ara Rtarale 10,315 42, 787 53, 102 19.4 Cups Shs sare eseeeteh 2 ESS hs a ea 13,155 51,081 64, 237 20.5 Second year: IBOXES Ss see Ae etre nisee a ie mee nese hares ners 17,120 | 35, 700 52, 820 32.4 @iupss: coches he ee Tae Peete ease Da Se Be 12, 210 42, 630 54, 840 22.3 Third year: BOR OS Hee ae els Sere pa eas ae ere mya Pete cata aie 8,580 15, 435 24,015 35.7 Cups tsetse ie hale eee eae See eh aaa 7, 200 28, 245 35, 445 20.3 Fourth year BOXES HONE cle wle sce tpeeia steioaiere ele sete ens erates atciaas 7,970 14, 385 22,355 35.6 CUTS ee SO aE RE URES Bee a enn esa aes, Aaneee ae 6, 635 25, 305 31,940 20.8 Scrape is troublesome to collect, yields a low grade of resin, and gives but 11 per cent of turpentine on distillation, while gum col- lected by the cup system yields about 19 per cent of turpentine. RELATIVE YIELDS FROM DIFFERENT DEPTHS AND HEIGHTS OF CHIPPING. In the years 1905 to 1908 the Forest Service carried out experi- ments to determine the effect of the depth and height of chipping on the yield of resin. Four crops! were used in the experiment, desig- nated A, B, C, and D, respectively. Crop A, taken as the standard, was chipped in the ordinary way, the average depth of chipping being seven-tenths of an inch and the average height five-tenths of an inch. Crop B was used to test the effect of shallow chipping, the average depth being four-tenths of an inch. Crop C served to show the effect of narrow chipping, the average height being four-tenths of an inch.? Crop D was turpentined with reference to the possibility of work- ing the turpentine a second time. The present method consists in exhausting the tree within four years. This crop was chipped in the same manner as crop A, but the minimum diameter of the trees turpentined was limited to 10 inches, as compared to a mini- mum diameter of 6 inches in crop A; in addition the minimum diame- ter of the tree to bear two faces was raised from 13 inches in A to 16 inches in crop D; no tree in crop D had more than two working faces. Table 14 shows the yields from the four crops A, B, C, and D. 1 Crops of 8,000 faces each were used. 2 Tt was intended to have the height of chip in ‘‘C”’ half that in ‘‘A,”’ but in spite of close supervision the chippers cut wider than was desired. PLATE V. Bul. 229, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘WRBOIIS SIT 0} 10}1NS Wloay SaYOUT g ‘YROIYS JSIy O} PUNOIS ULOIF SoTOUT W99}INO,T "NOUdY GNV dNO AVIO—'s ‘DIA ‘dno yo doy 0} punols WOIT SOYOUL OT ‘FRIIS IsIG 0} 19}INS WOLF SOTOUL ST SHBOIYS JSIY OF PUNOLS WOIJ SOTOUL OATOM, "NOUdW GNV dNO—'| ‘DIS PLATE VI. Bul, 229, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. : ‘uoysAs dno of} JO AoUSTOYyO dy} Suponpot suy} ‘dud Sursrer ynoyjar oovfy Avat puooves SUTYIOA, ‘NOUdY GNV dNO—'S “DI ‘g0U0 JN pasiBr Uae sey dnd oY} puv UOSBaS YANO OY) ODL] SuLHIOAL "NOU“dY GNV dNO—"| “SI4 THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 25 TasLE 14.—Swmmary of total yields for four years based on the dip and serape being corrected to the same number of chippings per crop (8,000 faces). Dip. Scrape. Crop. Yield. Increase. Yield Increase. | Decrease. Pounds. | Percent. Pounds. | Percent. | Percent. eM EA Reed ae ela Eee ees ne I Re Ee ZOG 230M Metta erecta ne AT Ai ee eee eal SRST aae 18 SB BBG oSBOACSE OG GUC UEE SEEe SEEGER AAS REG 211,911 2.75 44) 838) ce oe cecues 6. 08 CB ene Nast ts 5 AIS. eae ot 214, 503 4.01 SOOM Mercer ete meters 16. 69 IDS aeeeesc one cores Seen a eee OSE One neaee 279, 260 35. 41 53, 915 IPB Bi eeRBoescae Two crops, G and H, were worked for one year, combining the principles observed under crops B and C, namely, shallow and narrow chipping. Crop X was chipped in the ordinary way. Table 15 gives the yields. TaBLE 15.—Summary of yields for one year. Crops X, G, and H. Number | Number | Yield Crop. of of chip- of Increase cups. pings. dip Pounds. | Per cent. DR erate cere lela cieisicteisic siniete eeieiSiaia's Oisia She aye cielsiciciois wie gieieiecieiess 9, 880 35 SON004) |oeecineee Giese sodennt sate Gobae: Bun ae gu cob cao pea desde qoanaceesorodade oes 9, 880 35 | 124,292 38 IBlepsooaacodagon so Goo Hoo one ma oserORaNDae non eEGoodostscaoboosoE 9, 880 35 | 121, 474 35 As seen from Table 15 there is a decided increase in yield by the use of shallow and narrow chipping. EFFECT OF TURPENTINE OPERATIONS ON TIMBER. INJURY FROM FIRE. Since the box is rarely more than 12 inches from the ground, it is within easy reach of ground fires. As both box and face are saturated with resin, a fire once started in the box may burn the tree off at the base or render the face and box unfit to produce gum. In cupped timber the cups are moved up at the end of the season and are less exposed to fires. Another source of fire arises from the resin which impregnates the ground at the base of the tree. Such resin may come from losses in dipping, overflow from boxes on very productive trees, or from leaning trees. This waste resin may defeat the entire purpose of raking. Spilling is less likely to occur with cups than with boxes, since the former can be detached and held directly over the bucket in dipping. By having extra cups for very productive trees the chipper who visits them weekly can quickly change the full cups for empty ones and thus prevent overflow. 88767°—Bull. 229—15——4 26 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The immediate danger of destruction of the timber is not so great while the trees are being turpentined as when the crop has been abandoned, since during the period of active operation the trash is raked from about the trees. Few tracts of timber escape the annual burning over, and turpentined trees are often either killed directly or permanently injured. While the damage to abandoned cupped timber is heavy, it is not so serious as in boxed timber, since the cups are removed when the trees are abandoned and the faces are the only source of fire risk. INJURY TO GROWTH. The box enters the tree so deeply as to injure its vitality and retard the process of growth. Boxes are generally cut in the most prominent root swellings, especially in leaning trees, as when so placed they will more readily catch the gum and are also easier to cut. The box undoubtedly curtails the food supply of the tree to a considerable extent and accounts for the fact that more ‘‘boxed”’ than ‘‘cupped”’ trees die after tapping. The box weakens the tree so that it is lable to be blown down by the first storm. This is especially true of small timber which may have from one-half to two-thirds of its diameter severed by the box, and of timber in old orchards that has been ‘“back-boxed,” 1. e. boxes cut between the old ones wherever there is available space. The following tabulation compares the number of dead and blown- down trees in half crops worked with cups and boxes for one season: ) Trees blown down. Trees dead. Boxed. | Cupped.| Boxed. | Cupped. AT COTELG CHIP PINES eters see eteme ee celae acne le meine Celene eine niniste ATteroAiChip pines ahem mae ssteisels ciel eke ele ia la ale ele eyele oe ete eel 1 2 1 3 35 16 Cour Since the box fills with water after the trees are abandoned, the surrounding wood is kept moist, increasing the likelihood of attack by fungi and subsequent decay. In some cases the box is filled with earth after abandonment to prevent it from catching fire. While it may serve the latter purpose, the procedure is scarcely to be recom- mended, since the earth retards evaporation of the water and hastens decay. Trees that have been ‘‘boxed”’ are sometimes attacked by bark- boring and wood-boring insects, the former killing the trees and the latter seriously damaging the wood.! QUALITY OF LUMBER IN “TURPENTINED” AND “ROUND” TIMBER. The wood back of the “faces”’ in timber that has been turpentined for several years is generally impregnated with resin for a depth of from one-half to one and one-half inches. As very resinous material 1See U.S. Department of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin 476, and Yearbook 1909, pp. 410-412, THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. ALG will not make high-grade lumber, the proportion of high-grade materia] that can be cut from ‘“‘ turpentined”’ timber is somewhat less than in the case of similar “‘round”’ timber. However, in many cases the process of squaring up the log by sawing off slabs will remove the resinous parts, and the grade of the boards finally cut will not be affected. Tests have shown that the strength of the wood is not altered by turpentining. QUALITY CF GUM FROM BOXED AND CUPPED TIMBER. As the height of the face increases, the distance the resin must flow to reach the box increases correspondingly. During its journey the gum is constantly losing turpentine by evaporation. Thus, the percentage of turpentine in the dip decreases each year boxed timber is tapped, while the amount of scrape increases. Cups are designed to be raised each season, and thus the gum has to flow a comparatively fhort distance. The resin acids in the crude gum readily absorb oxygen, which darkens the rosin. The higher the face the longer the gum is sub- jected to atmospheric oxygen, so that, with boxed timber, light rosins can be obtained only during the first two years. Another sactor which produces dark-colored rosin is the gum that remains attached to the face after the period of collection has passed. This gum becomes yellow to dark brown, and as the following year’s gum flows over it to the box, a certain amount of this highly colored product is always dissolved, so that when ordinary methods are used only the lower grades of rosin are produced from gum coming from five-year boxes. In raised cups the gum flows only over the face made during a single season. In practice, however, the cups are seldom raised after the third year, since this greatly increases the cost of collecting the gum. COMMERCIAL DISTILLATION OF CRUDE GUM. The apparatus commonly used in the United States for distilling eum consists of the simplest type of still, with a ‘worm”’ for condens- ing the vapors (Pl. VIII and fig. 5). A shed, generally open on all sides, covers the still proper, and another and smaller building, placed a short distance away as a precaution against fire, is used for storing the turpentine. It also contains the kettle for heating glue to coat the inside of the turpentine barrels. In many cases the still and warehouse are under one roof. A charging platform is built flush with the collar of the still, the barrels of gum being rolled upon it by means of skids. The capacity of stills varies from 10 to 40 barrels. Fifteen and twenty barrel stills are the most common. The term ‘20-barrel still’ refers to the total capacity of the still and not to the number of barrels of gum in a charge. The size of the latter is determined by PLUG DRAINING 28 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the nature of the gum; the older the gum the smaller the charge. Even with “virgin dip”’ the still is only filled to three-fourths of its capacity, while with dip and scrape from four or five year “boxes,” which foams considerably, only about one-third the capacity of the still is used. If the material rises into the still head there is danger of it forcing an exit between collar and still head and setting fire to the platform. The still body is about two-thirds as high as wide, with a rounded top and a slightly concave bottom, the latter permitting the rosin to FoR WAT! EA) CHARGING PLATFOR! ite pido TAIL GATE or re SS Fie. 5.—Arrangement of apparatus in turpentine still. drain thoroughly. The still head is generally spherical! and is con- nected with the worm by two sections of pipe called the “arm” and “gooseneck.” The worm makes about 64 turns in a wooden tank holding the condensing water, leaving the tank by means of a short pipe called the tailpiece. The entire apparatus is made of sheet copper. For a 20-barrel still, the side, top (“‘breast’’), and collar of the still proper are made of 14-gauge copper, the rosin spout of 11- gauge, and the bottom of 4-gauge copper. The worm and connect- ing pipes are made of 18-gauge copper. 1 Severaf sorms of still head are in use, PLATE VII. Bul. 229, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘YSLINY'’ Aldv.Lsnray— 6 ‘UIs "aov4 YVAA GNOOSS “NOUdY YO SY3SLLND LNOHLIM dNO—'| “DI4 Bul. 229, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. TURPENTINE STILL SHOWING CONDENSER. Glue vat for coating imside of turpentine barrels on extreme right, PLATE VIII. THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 29 DISTILLATION PROCEDURE. The still is charged by removing the still head and gooseneck and dumping in the gum from the barrels. After most of the dip has run from the barrels they are thoroughly drained over a special trough. It is hard to remove the dip from the barrels during cold weather, and distillation is not carried on extensively in winter. When scrape is distilled alone, and the still is hot from the previous run, it is customary to pour in 5 or 6 buckets of water or a couple of barrels of dip to cool off the still and prevent the first scrape put in from “burning.”’ After the still has been charged the cap is put on and connected with the worm by means of the gooseneck. The joints are then luted with clay. The fire is started under the still, and its intensity regulated solely by the peculiar noise made by the gum during dis- tillation. Crude gum always contains a certain amount of water (from 5 to 10 per cent), and since the gum melts rapidly, a mixture of oil and water soon appears at the end of the worm. A distilla- tion requires from 2 to 24 hours; all the water originally present distills over during the first one-half to three-fourths of an hour. The “‘stiller’’ follows the course of the distillation by placing his ear near the lower end of the worm, where the characteristic sounds made by the boiling gum are most audible, and by examining portions of the distillate collected in an ordinary drinking glass and noting the proportions of water and turpentine. The point at which addi- tional quantities of water should be added is indicated by a pecul- -iar strident sound, characterized as the “call for water.” The water added is obtained from the top of the cooling tank. It flows from a cock, by which the size of the stream is regulated, by way of a trough into the still through a funnel placed in an opening in the cap. The water at the top of the tank is always warm, and often very hot. Some distillers obtain this water from the bottom of the tank, claiming that the distillation is easier to regulate with cold water. About 24 barrels of water are run in for each distilla- tion, the amount varying with the size of the charge. The critical period during distillation is passed when all the water in the gum has been driven over, since as the water is vaporized it swells the viscous gum to such an extent that it may overflow into the worm or escape through the joints, provided sufficient space has not been left in the still for this expansion. “Dip” and ‘“scrape”’ from high faces are especially likely to boil over.. The tendency to foam over is indicated by the sound of tumultuous boiling at the end of the worm. When this occurs the fire is urged as rapidly as pos- sible, the resmous chips obtained by skimming the gum usually heing added, and the increased temperature maintained until the 30 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. gum returns to a normal state of distillation. The heat is increased because at the temperature at which the water is vaporized, the gum is still in a viscous condition, and is so tenacious as to form a mass of bubbles whose shells are not ruptured by the inclosed steam; hence the gum swells enormously. In order to remove this water, it is necessary to heat the gum to so fluid a state that the bubbles will burst readily and allow the steam to escape. After this inclosed water has been driven off the distillation usually runs along smoothly, since the water that is added merely comes in contact with the sur- face of the gum. If excessive foaming takes place after the stream of water has been started, the fire is urged as usual, but the flow of water is not diminished. If the gum should boil over the distil- lation is spoiled, and must be repeated. The end of the distillation is reached when a portion of the distillate collected in the test glass shows only a very small proportion of turpentine. All the turpentine is seldom removed, if the distiller wishes to obtain a high-grade rosin. The stream of water is now cut off, and the fire extinguished with water to prevent the rosin from igniting when it is run out, and to prevent scorching the small amount of rosin that always adheres to the bottom of the still. Skimming.—The gum always contains more or less trash, such as sand, chips, needles, pieces of bark, etc. This all goes into the still along with the gum, and is removed at various stages during the dis- tillation. The chips are removed with a skimmer, 16 inches long by 14 inches wide, made of wire netting and attached to a long handle. Except in the case of dip collected at the end of the season, skim- ming is done as soon as the charge is fluid. In other cases skimming is done either at the point when the water originally present in the gum has passed over, or at the end of the distillation when the rosin is ready to be run off. When the gum contains a considerable amount of trash, especially bark and needles, a lighter resin will be obtained by skimming before distillation. However, in the case of “old stuff,” there is considerable difficulty in getting the charge fluid enough for skimming without excessive loss of turpentine and the danger of foaming. TREATMENT OF THE ROSIN. After the distillation is ended, the rosin, at a temperature of 302° to 392° F., is run out by means of a pipe extending flush from the bottom of the still and closed by a gate valve. Usually the rosin flows through a set of four screens into a vat sunk into the ground. One, two, or three screens may be used, however, instead of four. The vat is about 4 by 15 feet at the bottom, 44 by 15 feet at the top, and 24 feet deep. The screens are suffigently large to cover it, with the exception of the top one, which is only half the length of the still, and is intended to catch only the coarsest chips. The top screen is THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 31 from 6 to 8 mesh, the second 14 mesh, the third 32 mesh, and the bottom 60 mesh. The bottom screen is covered with a layer of cotton batting to remove the finer particles of dirt. The rosin remains in the vat from a few minutes to an hour, accord- ing to the temperature at which it left the still. It is next dipped into crude barrels made on the spot, holding about 450 pounds net. If dipped while too hot and fluid, considerable leakage occurs between the staves, which may in a measure be prevented by luting with clay. The rosin requires about 24 hours to become solid. The cotton batting, after being used to strain the rosin, is known as “batting dross’”’ or “rosin dross.’’ As cotton is very absorptive, a large amount of rosin is retained. Recent analyses made by the Forest Service indicated that rosin dross contains from 75 to 90 per cent by weight of rosin. It has been the practice to burn under the still a certain portion of the chips removed by skimming and in the screens, and to throw away the rest. In this way, piles of discarded chips often grew to large size before the stills were moved. Such piles, of course, contain considerable rosin, and during 1911 and 1912, owing to the high price of naval stores, operators found it profitable to sell not only the dross, but the skimmings and similar material to extraction plants. TREATMENT OF THE TURPENTINE. The distillate issuing from the worm, and consisting of a mixture of water and turpentine, runs into an ordinary 50-gallon barrel, where the separation of the water and turpentine takes place by gravity; the turpentine, being lighter, floats on the top. The bottom of this barrel contains an opening, closed with a long wooden plug, by which the excess water is allowed to escape as the volume of the distillate increases. In most cases a second container, consisting of a barrel whose upper half has been sawed off, receives the turpentine flowing from the top of the first barrel through a short pipe, to permit of more perfect separation. A thin yellow scum forms the line of demarca- tion between the water and turpentine. The latter is dipped out carefully and poured directly into the barrels in which it is sent to market. The first runnings of turpentine are colored more or less green with copper salts, due to the action of acetic and resin acids on the copper of the worm and still. The green color is especially noticeable when the still is first used after a period of idleness. When the still is in continuous use the color in the first runnings is very slight. The turpentine barrels must be thoroughly tight. They are usually made of sound white oak, thoroughly driven, and coated on the inside with glue. Each barrel holds about 50 gallons, some space being left for expansion of the contents. 32 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FRENCH METHODS OF COLLECTING GUM. MANAGEMENT OF FORESTS. A large proportion of the French forests exploited for resin are situated along the coast, where the shifting sand dunes have been planted with maritime pine (Pinus maritima). The forest rotation varies from 60 to 75 years, and since maritime pine is a prolific seeder, a new growth readily springs up on cut-over areas. At the end of 10 years the stand is thinned, and thereafter at 5-year intervals. During the first thinning the lower branches of the trees that are left are lopped off to a height sufficient to insure a clean bole for turpentining during subsequent years. The wood and resin rights are sold for a period of five years, the turpentining being done by the purchaser, who, at the end of the operation, fells those trees marked for thinning. The wood is used for mine timbers, boxes, crossties, telegraph poles, etc. Turpentined timber is preferred over unturpentined, since it is very resinous and so resists decay for a longer time. The last thin- ning is made when the trees are about 30 years old, and the remain- ing pines, numbering about 50 per acre, are then turpentined. At the end of the rotation period, owing to various casualties, there remain only about 30 trees per acre for lumbering. Up to the year 1860, practically all resin was collected in holes scooped out of the sand at the base of the trees. This method was wasteful, and the gum was badly contaminated with sand and other débris. The use of an earthen pot with a gutter was suggested in 1840 by M. Hugues, of Tarnos, but was not taken up until 1860. At present the Hugues cup and gutter system has almost entirely superseded the old method. BARKING. Before the turpentining season opens the outer bark is removed oyer an area exceeding somewhat the area to be chipped during the coming season. ‘he denuded area measures 24 inches in height and 6 to 8 inches in width, and in depth reaches to the living layer of the bark. The operation is performed carefully with a wide-bladed ax. Above the height of a man the ax is replaced by a tool with a hook-shaped blade, 3 inches wide, attached to 1 long handle, which is wielded with a pulling motion. The bark is removed to prevent dulling the deli- cate edge of the chipping tools, and the rays of the sun on the exposed area are supposed to have a beneficial effect in stimulating the flow of resin. HANGING CUPS (HUGUES SYSTEM). The face is opened the first of March by removing a chip 1.6 inches high, 3.5 inches wide, and0.4 inch deep from near the base of the tree. The tool used is a peculiarly shaped instrument called the ‘‘abschot”’ (Plate IX-3). A zinc gutter is inserted at the base of the wound in a Bul. 229, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Scale of Inches 7 8 PLATE IX. SOME FRENCH RESIN TAPPING TOOLS FRENCH TURPENTINE TOOLS, PLATE X. Bul. 229; U. S. Dept. of Agricuiture. Fs SHOWIN G THE SHAPE OF THE AXE AND RELATIVE SIZE OF CHIPPING A LOW FACE, THE FACE. Bul, 229, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI. CHIPPING A HIGH FACE, SHOWING THE PRACTICE OF INSERTING CHIPS ON SIDES OF FACE ON LEANING TREES TO QUIDE GUM INTO CupP. THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. oe gash made by a chisel (Plate [X—5) with a cutting edge in the shape of the are of a circle. Below the cutting edge is a socket into which the gutter fits. The gutters are 8 inches long and 2 inches wide, and in some cases are provided with five teeth. A gash 0.2 inch deep has been found sufficient to hold the gutters, smce the resin soon enters the wound and acts as a cement. The pots used are made of glazed earthenware, conical in shape, 43 inches wide at the top, 3 inches at the bottom, 6 inches high, with a capacity of about 1 quart (1 liter). The cup rests on the ground the first year, and is raised along with the gutter at the beginning of each succeeding year of operation. The upper part of the pot is held in place by the gutter, which projects out and downward, while the base rests on a nail driven into the tree. The top of the cup is never provided with a hole for hanging on a nail. CHIPPING. Chipping is begun about the first of March and ends the latter part of October. A total of 40 chippings is usually made in one season. The chipping tool (abschot) is of two types: One type is a com- bined adz and gouge, the blade hanging at right angles to the handle, its edge shaped like the arc of a circle. In the other type the blade is parallel to the handle, but bent outward so that the cutting edge does not fall within the plane of the handle. In using the abschot the workman stands to one side and in front of the face, with the handle between his legs (Plate X). In removing the chip the blade is inserted at the extreme upper corner of the face and is drawn diagonally toward the workman. Little effort but great skill is required. The wood removed in chipping is in the form of shavings, so that the edges of the face are perfectly smooth, allowing the wound to heal rapidly. The face increases in height about 0.6 inch at each chipping. After the face is opened, chipping is repeated every 8 days from March to May, every 5 days from June to the end of August, and every 8 days from September to the middle of October or the first of November. After the face has reached the height of a man the abschot is dis- carded for the rasclet. The rasclet (Plate [X—4) has a hook-shaped blade, with its edge at right angles to the long handle, and the chip is removed by a pulling motion. In the case of leaning pines, wooden chips are inserted along the edge of the face to guide the resin toward the pot (Plate XI). The dimensions of the faces must conform to the tapping specifica- tion, and frequent inspection is made by government officials to see that these are carried out. Since the wages of the workman consist of half the proceeds from the sale of the resin, he naturally wishes to collect as much resin as possible, and is tempted to increase the size 34. BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the face beyond the prescribed limits. An instrument devised by Demorlaine in 1898, called the ‘‘facemeter” (quarrimetre), permits of a ready and accurate measurement of the face. SYSTEMS OF TURPENTINING. Two systems of turpentining are employed, “‘gemmage a vie’’ and “oemmage a mort.’ ‘‘Gemmage a vie”’ is the system used when the tree is to be moderately turpentined for a long period of years; ‘“‘oemmage a mort” when the trees marked for thinning or final felling are to be made to yield the greatest possible amount of resin in five years without actually being killed. The following articles are taken from the turpentining specifications issued by the French Government in 1909: Gemmage a vie-—The tapping will take place on either one or two faces, according to the indications of the Service des Eaux et Forets. Only those trees can be tapped with two faces which have been designated for this purpose. The faces will be started above the swelling of the root and raised either vertically or in accordance with the grain of the wood. Ii the tapping period is for five years, the face can be raised 0.60 m. (24 inches) during the first year and 0.65 m. (26 inches) during the following years in such a manner that the total height does not exceed 3.2 m. (10 feet 6 inches). Ii the tapping period is for four years the face can be raised 0.60 m. (24 inches) during the first year; 0.65 m. (26 inches) during the second; 0.85 (33 inches) during the third, and 1 m. (3 feet 3 inches), in such a manner that the total height does not exceed 3.1 m. (10 feet 2 inches). In every case the width of the faces should not exceed 0.09 m. (3.5 inches) the first year, 0.08 m. (3.1 inches) the second, 0.07 m. (2.8 inches) the third, and 0.06 m. (2.4 inches) at the beginning of the fourth. The decrease in width should take place progressively in such a manner that the width of the face at the end of one year shall be that at the beginning of the year following. The depth should not exceed 0.01 m. (0.4 inch), the measure being taken under a cord stretched from one border of the face to the other, at the beginning of the red part of the bark. The tapping will take place according to the directions of the Service des Eaux et Forets; either by fours (au quart), the faces up to the fourth inclusive being made, as far as possible, two by two at the extremities of the same diameter; or by threes (au tiers), the faces up to the third inclusive being made by dividing the cireum- ference of the tree into three nearly equal parts; the second should be opened at the right of the first when facing the latter. In case of the absence of directions in the contract the tapping will be done by fours. Gemmage a mort.—Ii the trees to be tapped 4 mort form part of the sale or are aban- doned to the lessors, the latter can work them as they think best. In the contrary case the lessors should not tap them in a manner to diminish the value which they should have as fuel and structural timber. The dimensions of the face should be such that its whole area never exceeds the limits of an ordinary face. The tapping operation will be confined between March 1 and October 31 of each year, but the contractor can commence to bark the pines which are to be tapped and place the gutters February 1. He can also collect the scrape up to December 1 of each year of the tapping period, except the last year, when this operation should be ended the 15th of November. THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 35 Two kinds of scrape are distinguished in France. The hardest kind adhering firmly to the face is called “barras,’’ while the soft scrape is called ‘‘galipot.’’ The tool used (Plate IX-1) for remoy- ing the scrape resembles that used in removing the outer bark, except that the blade is only 14 inches wide. Usually the trees are scraped but once a season, in November, but sometimes an additional scraping is made in June. The method of collecting the crude gum is practically identical with that used in America.!. The resin is temporarily stored in wooden tanks sunk into the ground at convenient points in the forest until it is ready to be transported to the still. FRENCH DISTILLATION METHODS. In French operations the barrels of resm as they come from the forest are usually stored in large tanks, so as to form a reserve supply to be worked up during the winter months when no resin is collected. The storage tanks are sunk into the ground at a distance of 75 feet from the still, and the resin transferred to the latter by means of an overhead trolley. The tanks are built of brick or cement and coy- ered with tile. PURIFICATION OF THE RESIN. The resin is often subjected to preliminary treatment previous to distillation to remove the trash. This is not done, however, unless high grade rosin can be produced which will bring a good price, since the process results in loss of turpentine and requires extra fuel and labor. i The preliminary treatment involves fusion, clarification, decanta- tion, and straming. The fusion is performed in open or closed pans. Open pans.—tThe resin is liquified in a cylindrical copper pan 6 feet in diameter and i4 feet in depth, with a slightly concave bottom. 1 Comparison of yields of crude gum per inch of width of face, French and American methods: Data from French operations indicate an average yield of 1.8 liters of crude gum per face per year, or 4 pounds. If chipped 40 times yield per face per chipping=0.1 pound. Tf face is 3.5 inches wide yield per inch width=0.029 pound. Tf face is 4.0 inches wide yield per inch width=0.025 pound. Data from American operations: Crop A—8,000 faces. (See page 25): 206,235 pounds gum in 4 years=6.4 pounds per face per year. 43,633 pounds scrape in 4 years=1.4 pounds per face per year. URS ey LS Ss Se ea 7.8 If chipped 32 times yield per face per chipping=0.244 pound. Tf face is 12 inches wide yield per inch width=0.020 pound. If face is 14 inches wide yield per inch width=0.017 pound. Crop D—8,000 faces. (See page 25): 279,260 pounds gum in 4 years=8.7 pounds per face per year. 53,915 pounds scrape in 4 years=1.7 pounds per face per year. NON be ei metal een eae 10.4 If chipped 32 times yield per face per chipping=0.325 pound. Tf face is 12 inches wide yield per inch width=0.027 pound. Tf face is 14 inches wide ‘yield per inch width=0.025 pound. 36 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This pan, inclosed by brickwork and heated by the flames from a fire-box, has a capacity of about 325 gallons. After the pan has been filled with crude resin the heating is con- ducted very slowly to prevent ‘‘burning.”’ A workman stirs the mass constantly with a wooden paddle to render the heating uniform. When boiling begins the heating is discontinued, as the temperature should never be allowed to exceed 90° to 100° C. To clarify the mass the temperature is suddenly reduced by drawing the fire. Sometimes a small amount of water is thrown into the fire box and upon the bottom of the pan. If this delicate operation is successful, the mass will settle into several layers after standing for four or five hours. A layer of chips, bark, ete., will be found on the surface; then a layer of resin; and below this a layer of colored water with a deposit of sand, etc., on the bottom. The floating chips and bark are removed by skimming. ‘The resin may then be run out through pipes arranged at different levels, but usually is dipped out. The heaviest material is filtered through a screen to remove the sand, the filtrate separating into a layer of colored water surmounted by a small amount of inferior resin. By this procedure a resin is obtained which on distillation will yield a rosin several grades higher than the original resin would give if distilled with all its impurities. Purification in an open pan results in the loss of from 2 to 3 per cent of turpentine, and there is considerable danger of fire. Several pans provided with covers have been designed to overcome the objec- tions cited. Closed pans.—The pan designed by Dromart (fig. 6) illustrates the closed type. It is provided with a horizontal cover whose edge fits into the groove (R), the latter being fed by a stream of cold water so that the cover is hermetically sealed. The pan is charged without loss of turpentine by means of a box (B) with a trap in the bottom worked by a lever. By manipulating this lever the resin contained in the box falls into the pan. To obtain uniform heating the resin is stirred by means of an agitator (G). At the end of 4 to 5 hours the melted resin shows a temperature of from 85° to 90° C., and a jet of steam issues from a test hole in the cover. The heat is then reduced, and the liquid mass cooled by dumping in one or two boxes of resin through the trap. After stirring vigorously the mass is allowed to rest for 12 hours. The resin is then decanted through a pipe (V) situated above the bottom so as to keep the layer of water and dirt below its orifice. It is sometimes difficult to separate the water and solid impurities from the resin, owing to the fact that the density of the resin and that of the water are so nearly the same. The density of a gum containing 80 per cent rosin and 20 per cent turpentine, at 20° C., is about 1.023, while’at the same temperature distilled water has a density of 0.998. Since the water in the resin contains certain amounts THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 37 of dissolved matter, its density may be greater than the figure given, while the density of resin richer in turpentine will be less than 1.023. To separate the two it is necessary to lower the density of the resin or increase the density of the water. The former is accomplished by adding certain amounts of ‘‘heads” and ‘‘tails” from a previous dis- . > = Passos a | pow ee aot ee nee re | ’ Fig. 6.—Tye of closed evaporating pan used in France to prevent loss of turpentine when gum is purified. tillation, and the latter by adding a cheap salt, such as common salt or soda. DISTILLATION BY DIRECT HEAT. Direct heating is the method of distillation generally employed in France. The type of still and its method of operation are exactly the same as in the United States. 38 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DISTILLATION BY STEAM. Of the 200 stills producing turpentine and rosin in France, only about 30 use steam. Several types of steam apparatus are employed, but the Dorian still will serve as an example of the stills heated by steam only. 7 i H | ia =4 SSS » KL SSS LIILISILLLELEESLETE TES Ep ZL BE SSSSSSGS SSNS SS > Fig. 7.—Type of steam turpentine still used in France. This still is remarkable in its simplicity, compactness, and efficiency. Its principal advantage lies in the fuel economy obtained by return- ing directly to the boiler the condensed water obtained from the steam used in heating the still, instead of allowing it to flow away as a complete loss or running it into a tank for feeding the boilers. The apparatus (fig. 7) consists of a steam generator, still, and condenser. The generator A, which may be of any type, feeds the THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 39 still by a pipe C attached to the steam dome. The still is constructed entirely of steel made to stand a pressure of 10 atmospheres, although 6 atmospheres is never exceeded in actual practice. The still con- sists of a gate valve P for introducing the crude resin and another gate valve Q for discharging the rosin; the body of still D, shaped like a prism; a steel jacket E, circular in shape; 32 tubes H, arranged crosswise in four series of eight tubes each, running through the siill from one side to the other, through which passes steam from the jacket E; a hood F; a still-head G; and a pipe N, which leads back to the boiler the water produced by condensation of steam in the siill. Since the pressure in the boiler and in the steam jacket is the same, this condensed water readily returns to the boiler by its own gravity. The crude resin, divided into thin layers by the pipes H, distills rapidly. To carry the turpentine over, water is supplied through a funnel in the top of the hood F. The condensing apparatus consists of a tubular condenser J and an ordinary worm K. The condenser is made up of a series of tubes from 10 to 12 feet long, riveted to two steel plates, and is fed with cold water through LL’. The tubular condenser is so efficient that the worm becomes almost useless. A still having a capacity of 92 gallons (about 2 barrels) has a heat- ing surface amounting to about 120 square feet, and permits the dis- {illation of one charge in about 40 minutes. When the turpentine is completely removed the introduction of water ceases. The heating is continued by means of the steam jacket until the rosin is free from water. COMPARISON BETWEEN DIRECT AND STEAM HEATED STILLS. The disadvantages of distilling with directly heated stills may be summarized as follows: 1. During the distillation of the crude resin the ligneous impurities may undergo a partial carbonization which colors the rosin. 2. The rosin becomes exceedingly dark at high temperatures. 3. The rosin may undergo incipient decomposition and color the turpentine more or less yellow. 4. Distillation by direct heat is a delicate operation, difficult to regulate, and requir- ing an experienced man. It can be applied only to a comparatively small quantity of material, if good results are to be obtained. 5. Increased fire risk. By using stills heated by steam the above disadvantages are removed, but others are introduced. The reasons why the use of steam stills has not become general are: 1. Complicated apparatus. 2. Greatly increased cost of apparatus and expense of operation. 3. Necessity for a large stock of crude resin, if the still is to be operated economically. 4, With the majority of apparatus the crude resin must be given a preliminary treatment to remove chips, bark, sand, and other trash. a 40 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 5. Only a slight increase in the commercial value of the turpentine and sometimes of the rosin. However, when fuel and crude resin are plentiful, steam stills have the following important advantages: 1. Very pure turpentine, better than that obtained by direct heat. 2. Rosin not superheated, and but slightly colored. 3. Simple and easy control of the distillation. 4. Decrease of fire risk. As a general rule, an experienced distiller will obtain as good results with the ordiary American still as with a steam still. THE SUPPLY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR TURPENTINE OPERATIONS. Up to the middle nineties the large supply of yellow pine stump- age, the prejudice against lumber cut from turpentined trees, and the lack of adequate transportation facilities in many regions where turpentine operations were conducted, caused large bodies of turpentined timber to be abandoned and left to be destroyed by fire, wind, and decay. It is estimated that in each of the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi the loss in boxed timber has amounted to from three to ten billion board feet. At present the damage to standing timber due to turpentine opera- tions has been considerably reduced. The cup systems lessen the fire risk and the heavy demand for lumber, coupled with improved transportation facilities, has shortened the period between the end of turpentine operations and the begining of lumbering. However, as the supply of timber available for turpentining has grown smaller, the practice of turpentining undersized trees has become common, especially in second-growth stands that have come up after old lumber operations. When a tree under 6 inches in diameter is boxed it seldom makes further growth, and cupping has almost as bad an effect. Not only is further growth prevented, but the tree becomes a menace to the rest of the stand through windfall, fire, or decay. The future production of naval stores in the Southeast is rendered uncertain by the practice of turpentining small trees, and the future supply of longleaf pme is endangered. Moreover, the returns derived from turpentining small timber are, as a rule, hardly sufficient to cover the expense of operation. The scarcity of longieaf pine suitable for turpentining has reached an acute stage in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, and is the natural result of the exhaustion of the virgin pine forests. While considerable ‘‘round”’ timber—that is, timber which has never been tapped—remains in Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, it is 1 On Apr. 5, 1911, the quotation at Savannah on “B” rosin, the lowest grade, was $8.15 per barrel, while “WW,” or the highest grade, brought but $8.62 per barrel. The average price of ‘‘WW” rosin during the naval stores year 1913-14, was $6.38, and of ‘‘B”’ rosin, $3.96 per barrel. THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 41 for the most part held by large lumber syndicates, which usually are unwilling to permit turpentine operations. A few of the holding companies are beginning to permit turpentining, either carrying on the operations themselves or leasing the privileges to large naval stores companies. In Florida the small operator has more oppor- of round timber become more favorobly inclined 9 Fuertians, er have geen a factor-Large booies of round rpentine operations otions will continue less than five years unless | tucpentine operations never have been a factor anc probably never milf be owners are arpresent ontagonistic 13 tu Timber ovailable for turpentine operations practically exhausted J] Aesent tumentine ose Ee) aQnvers offhe main &: 5] Furpentine operations new Fie. 8.—Approximate distribution of longleaf pine with reference to turpentine operations. Py > € = a a c © 2 e 5 a ° + ro f a E © E = = ro i b e £ a E a « “ ° 2 3 © c 0 B & 2 v ky c gy s 2 = 2 2 . ° < . 3 x é 5 é g : i § : g = sf x § 7 ae aes ex aa tunity, since much of the timber is at present in the hands of turpen- tine men. Figure 8+ shows the distribution of longleaf pine. The various styles of crosshatching denote the estimated number of years (from 1909) for which virgin timber will be available for turpentine opera- _1 Taken from unpublished report, ‘Investigation of the Naval Stores Industry,” by A. L. Brower and J. D. La Fontissee (1909). AQ BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tions. By this it is not meant that production will cease in any given region within the time indicated on the map, but that after the lapse of such time it is probable that the turpentine operator will have to make use of second-growth timber and that left by the lumberman. Under these conditions the production will amount to but a fraction of the present production. This prediction is based on the supply of * H é § g 2 2 q ‘ i] ‘rom 80 1075 per cen + a i 8 é é eresentin commerci@! gupatities Less than Sper cent [EEE] 70m te id.pen canr Ry Unbled virgin fongleot pine mat Fie, 9.—Approximate distribution of longleaf pine with reference to percentage of original stand remaining unbled. longleaf, and does not take into account the possibility of utilizing loblolly and shortleaf pine as a source of naval stores. Figure 9+ indicates the percentage of the original longleaf pine that still remained standing ‘‘round”’ in 1909. The data are not 1 Taken from unpublished report, ‘‘Investigation of the Naval Stores Industry,’ by A. L. Brower and J. D. La Fontissee (1909). FP ee ey SN A a Sy Se : SS THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 43 intended to be accurate for any particular locality, but rather to represent as correctly as possible the conditions generally obtaining over the territory, the unit of consideration seldom being: less than a county. The high price of naval stores in 1911 produced an unpre- cedented invasion of the ‘“‘round”’ timber. It has been estimated that 75 per cent of the ‘‘round”’ timber held by turpentine operators was tapped in 1912. YIELDS PER CROP IN VARIOUS STATES. Table 16 shows the yield per crop in six States in the turpentine belt and the percentage of gum secured by boxing and cupping. It is noticeable that the States in which the yield per crop was largest also made the largest use of improved methods. The timber used in turpentine operations in Louisiana and Texas is, however, generally of larger size than in the other States mentioned, so that a somewhat larger yield per crop under the same conditions would be expected, although not such a difference as shown in Table 16. TaBLE 16.—Average yields in turpentine operations, by States,! during 1909. re Percentage ‘ Percentage Yield of Yield of State. turpentine ae sae re State. turpentine of Sal = per crop. é EL per crop. | Cured by upping. cupping. Barrels. Barrels. PACE ya REE CE CEILS Sa. 22 35. 6 Sh | eouisiana ee as eee eee 44.7 44 Wlonid aes eee- tice eta 29.8 16} MNSSISSIp Plame eee eeeeee 34.5 11 Gamiibs. aeaecsoserateaser 26.5 OI ANERES. a ccoodatisnooncocuee 43.5 49 1 Taken from statistical report on naval stores by Brower and La Fontissee. Table 17 shows the new crops started by the box and cup methods in 1909, 1908, and 1907. The figures indicate that the cup method is steadily gaining ground; they also show that North Carolina and South Carolina at present play very little part in the production of naval stores. TaBLE 17.—New crops started by box and cup methods in 1909, 1908, and 1907.1 Crops—1909. Crops—1908. Crops—1907. State. Per Per Per Boxed.|Cupped.} cent | Boxed.|Cupped.} cent | Boxed.|Cupped.| cent cupped. cupped. cupped. JNA eit oA Semets ke Sersee 337 131 28.0 420 84 16.7 423 71 14.4 NOMA eee cose ce 1,374 326 19.2 1, 593 313 16.4 | 2,065 210 9.2 Geonsia yg cn tse 1, 026 120 10.5} 1,182 101 7.9} 1,482 139 8.6 Louisiana and Texas...... 92 135 59. 5 163 113 40.9 97 67 40.9 RUSSissip pee ee aes 181 90] 33.2 252 49| 16.3 288 40 12.2 North Carolina........... Gel becca | A ae TO 15 1 6.3 3 1 25.0 South Carolina..........-. AD | Wane aN S31 ISTE (ey ache Sesto es Ue BGA GoEeae GeeEeeae 1 Taken from census report for 1909, reported as virgin, yearling, and third-year faces worked in 1909. Later statistics are, unfortunately, not available. 44 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. POSSIBILITIES OF WESTERN PINES AS A SOURCE OF NAVAL STORES. During 1911 and 1912 the Forest Service conducted experiments on western yellow pine in Arizona, on western yellow pine, Jeffrey pine, digger pine, singleleaf pifion, and lodgepole and sugar pine in California and northeastern Oregon, and western yellow pine and pifion pine in Colorado, to determine the quantity of crude gum which could be secured from these pines by the methods ordinarily employed in the turpentining of longleaf yellow pine in the South- east.t The field work was supplemented by laboratory analyses to determine the quality of the gum. Table 18 compares the yields obtained in Arizona with those ob- tained in experiments conducted on a commercial scale in Florida. The Arizona experiments show a yield from western yellow pine about four-fifths as great as that obtained from southern yellow pines on average operations in Florida in the same period of time. Weather conditions in Arizona, however, will allow only a 24, or possibly a 26-week season, as against 30 or 35 weeks in the Southeast, so that when the yields for the entire season are compared western yellow pine shows a production about two-thirds as great as that from southern yellow pine. The average proportions of rosin and turpen- tine in the gum were about the same in both regions, as was the composition of the turpentine. TaBLE 18.—Comparison of yields, in pounds, of crude gum and scrape from western yellow pine in Arizona and longleaf pine in Florida. . Total weight ob- tained during ; Crop season. Locality. desig- Average per cup per week. BAST IZ OVID Lis IN ya cia oct are ys eee area es a eer A 2, 862. 50 523. 75 0. 239 0.0436 DO See aes SSN ae ae RE PE GL ene B 2, 524. 25 314. 75 210 . 0262 DDO eare e etn cle ois ee toa Sis SE eS Se a tee Cc 2,431.75 288. 25 203 . 0240 PALVICTA RC Seis aio ciara cstseie tio Bice Cee lars eee eel Meee ee 2, 606. 16 375. 58 217 0313 CLOVIG MANN ate ences oe eee tee eb e A 63,615.5 | 9,570 - 256 . 0386 Qs SR Goss ses Cn cbOsD Resa oenaros aeeaee sooercaeeace B 61,161.5 | 7,650 . 246 . 0308 IDO) sd eto ee Ne ee Sie ERT WEA Sone a ent aS C {62,587 7, 245 252 0292 ID YD) 55 ae ee a RD Ee Sb SPE AE NN oe D_ |73,703.5 | 8,880 . 297 . 0358 JOEY DB Gn deta Ieee Sore See EEE EEE testo ososb so AT eaSe 65, 266.9 | 8,336 263 0336 1 Each crop of 500 cups chipped 24 times. 2 Hach crop of 8,000 cups chipped 31 times. The California experiments on western yellow pine were carried on from July 7 to November 1, 1911, and from May 10 to August 3, 1912. The yields obtained in 1911 and 1912 are combined in Table 19, to show the flow for an entire but not a continuous season. 1 The California and Oregon experiments were made under the direction of Mr. C. Stowell Smith and Mr. J. B. Knapp, assistant district foresters, districts 5and 6. A complete report of this work is on file at the Forest Service, Washington, D. C., and at the Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. Fora detailed description of the Arizona and Colorado experiments see Forest Service Bulletin 116, ‘‘ Possibilities of Western Pines As a Source of Naval Stores,” by H. S. Betts. THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 45 TaBLE 19.— Yields of California western yellow pine, by months (crop of 300 cups, chipped 28 times). ae ae Date of dipping. eas Date of dipping. bie 1912 Pounds. 1911 Pounds (Wave lOS IM eerseeseicraeis access mete cs oor 175A | (ec otis Gel 6 eens eS eer a ote te erin WIEN? OB Jo aa eban connec eee a Cee Be ee 1168}, |]: GO ove eros) Se eS oaoeeeoreaasoekanaeos 189 ENCLO = aP Eee fossa se Sept See LAG TSeptemibenloese ee eee ecsecineeee eases 129 diotos) Ml seco. seG ese see Ee ene ene seme 56a | MC DLOMCIn 2 (ere seer sis eclecisiee esis 172 dilly Ga dh6oc aceee lee SECU eee See Seno Ceeee IUZAL AN Yeo Cee IO) Se 5 66a ooecassocoscadeenoadSoee 179 en ygo0 Beene aaa toi isis = s)armiim aiwininnsainin nis TOSI NOwembonpl are semesters nici emeree 152 INDICE Oca be ecesee ese Se Eee Ane Poe 260R Novemben2seaseeeceeesceeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 212 Motaleeeery ese Crys Sto hes ete eke 1,258 MoOtaloes Nese ses seer cle eater ee 1, 250 Movalstors Olan Gulley eee nese eee ee | 2, 508 Average per cup per week.-...--.--------| 0.3 The average flow per cup per week in the California experiments for a season of 29 weeks was somewhat greater than in the Florida experiments recorded in Table 18 for the same period of time. The California yield is also slightly greater when the production for the entire season is compared. The composition of the volatile oil obtained by distilling the gum from the California trees differs from that of ordinary turpentine somewhat more than does the Arizona turpentine, but the oil prob- ably will be satisfactory for industrial purposes. The yield from western yellow pine in northeastern Oregon was very small compared with that in California. This can be attributed in part to the unusu- ally adverse climatic conditions during the season, but it is not likely that more favorable weather conditions would increase the yield enough to make turpentining in that region a profitable industry. Jeffrey pine in California yielded only 61.5 per cent as much as western yellow pine farther south during the same period. The prin- cipal constituent of the oleoresin from Jeffrey pine is heptane, which can not be used as turpentine, but has been employed to some extent for medical purposes. Digger, pifion, lodgepole pine, and sugar pine in California were found to yield such small amounts of oleoresin that it would be impracticable to tap them on a commercial scale unless the particular oil they produce could be made to bring a high price for some special purpose. Pifion pine (Pinus edulis) in Colorado had a rate of flow slightly over one-half that of the Florida pines for a 20-weeks’ period, from June 9 to October 31. The volatile oil from the pifion gum differs somewhat from ordinary turpentine, but is probably suited for indus- trial use. PROBLEMS OF COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT. In considering the possibilities of commercial turpentine opera- tions on western pines the problem of labor is one of the first that presents itself. In Arizona the Mexicans, who constitute a large part of the laboring class, are totally unfamiliar with turpentine work. Negro turpentine hands could be brought in from the Southeast, but 46 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. their transportation would be costly. A few negro hands might be secured to teach the Mexicans, but whether the results would be satisfactory is, of course, unknown. In California both Indian and white labor is available in many timbered portions that have tur- pentine possibilities, but here also the chippers would have to be taught how to use a hack. The shorter season in Arizona, as compared with that of the South- east, and the comparative severity of the winters in the timbered parts of the State, might make it necessary to discontinue operations entirely for a few months during the winter. This would necessitate the reorganization of the operating force each spring, with a great many attendant difficulties. The flow continued longer in California than in Arizona, the experimental areas in the former State showing a considerably higher average temperature than those in the latter, though the diurnal range of temperature in California was greater. Western yellow pine timber generally grows in open stands free from underbrush, and in most cases there would be little, if any, more difficulty in moving the crude gum than in the Southeast. On rough ground burro pack trains might be used. Two small kegs or buckets, holding about 150 pounds of dip, could be slung on each animal, The number of cups that can be hung on an acre of average west- ern yellow pine compares favorably with the number hung on many areas now being turpentined in the Southeast. The western trees are larger than most of the southeastern ones, though their bark is thicker and rougher, and the outer portion must be removed before the trees are chipped. This, of course, means the expense of an extra step not necessary in southeastern operations. Such work can be done by the use of a broadaxe or heavy spade-shaped tool with a cutting edge. The cost of securing turpentine rights in the Southeast is constantly rising, and it is likely that turpentine stumpage could be leased at lower rates in the West. At present the turpentine and rosin used in the West is shipped from the Gulf States, and the advantage of cutting out a two or three thousand mile haul to western markets is evident. The naval stores industry is not new in California. During the Civil War when the supply of naval stores from the South was cut off an attempt was made to supply the northern States from the Pacific coast. The industry remained active for four or five years, but suddenly declined when North Carolina again came into the market after the close of the war. The commercial success of turpentine operations in the Southwest will be doubtful until tried on a commercial scale. Nearly as much turpentine and rosin were obtained from western yellow pine as from THR NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 47 longleaf, and the amount of timber available for turpentine opera- tions in the Southeast is constantly diminishing. These two facts make it reasonable to suppose that turpentine operations in the large tracts of virgin pine timber of the West will in time be justified. SPECIAL PROBLEMS INVESTIGATED—ARIZONA AND CALIFORNIA WESTERN YELLOW PINE. EVAPORATION FROM CUPS. The rate of evaporation from the cups in Arizona was determined by exposing cups half full of fresh gum to the action of the air and weighing them at regular intervals. The samples of gum were secured by taking small amounts from as many of the cups as necessary on the first or second day after a fresh streak had been put on. Two samples were taken from each area after each dipping. Since dip is collected every three or four weeks in commercial operations the loss in weight during the first four weeks is the significant figure in the evaporation tests. Forty-eight evaporation samples were used. Of these 14 showed no loss at all in weight for the first four weeks; the remaining 34 samples showed losses ranging from 1.5 to 10.5 per cent. The average loss in weight for all the samples was 3 per cent. The gum as exposed contained turpentine, rosin, water, and chips. The loss by evaporation was of course made up of turpentine and water. The average loss of turpentine by evaporation from the cups in the Arizona experiments was therefore less than 3 per cent. The average loss in six similar evaporation tests in California was 2.5 per cent. No evaporation figures are available for southeastern operations. COMPARISON OF YIELDS FROM NORTH AND SOUTH FACES—ARIZONA. The total yield for 50 cups on the north side of 50 trees from the first dipping on June 3 to the last dipping on November 3 was 242.6 pounds and for 50 cups on the south side of the same trees 266.2 pounds. These weights show a 9 per cent greater flow on the south side of the trees than on the north. Figure 10 shows the average yield per week for both the north and south faces of each of the 50 trees, arranged in order of the yields from the south faces. Twenty- seven south cups yielded more than the corresponding north cups, while 17 north cups showed an excess over the corresponding south cups. The remaining six trees had about the same flow for both cups. The diagram shows the tendency of faces on the same tree to give the same yields. Trees having an exceptionally good or exceptionally poor flow generally show it in both faces. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON WEEKLY YIELD OF GUM. Figure 11 shows the average flow per cup for 50 trees for each week and the corresponding average temperature. With but few excep- 48 BULLETIN 229. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tions the flow increased or decreased with increase or decrease of tem- perature. The effect of cool weather in checking the flow is especially marked toward the end of the season. SIDE CUPS LTT TT BEERS SEeREbs, Fic. 10.—Comparison of flow from north and south faces of each of fifty trees. RATE OF FLOW DURING WEEK. Data on the variation in rate of flow were secured by weighing the north and south cups on 10 trees on the third day after each chipping throughout the season. The sum of the weights for each tree was compared with the weight of the total flow for the season from the ee 78 ied Bera cee a ole Sic Ee ce Gc EO Geld elie Peso Pope es 7 eS ee 3 10 16 23 30 7 14 21 28 4 Il 16 25 1 8 15 eeeS 6 13 eBe7 3 JUN. JUL. AUG. SEP. oct. NOV. Fia. 11.—Relation between temperature and rate of flow of gum. same trees. An average of the results shows that 73 per cent of the weekly flow occurred in the first three days. This ratio varied from 65 per cent to 78.6 per cent in the 10 test trees. THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 49 EFFECT OF VARYING FREQUENCY OF CHIPPING ON YIELD—CALIFORNIA. Table 20 shows the yields obtained from three similar sets of 50 faces, each chipped at 3, 5, and 7 day intervals for the same period. TaBLE 20.— Yields obtained by chipping at different intervals—California (50 faces in each set). 3-day intervals. 5-day intervals. 7-day intervals. Date of Weight Date of Weight Date of Weight chipping. of dip. | chipping. | of dip. | chipping. | of dip. 1912. Pounds. 1912. Pounds. 1912. Pounds. JunewW 7 46 | June 14... 35% | June 13.-- 25 June 23.... 49 | June 29... 47 | June 27... 31 Sitliygoseei = 66 | July 14...- 493 | July 11..-- 31 dhl aloeane 69 | July 29..-. 57) tednaliy, 25: 22% 40 dolby aes 81 | Aug. 8..-- 45 Aug See. 453 Aug. 10 Sil eres ease UE a) ee tae NAY STD. car aye ue Total BO! eels wieinatarciale PRY seen wo kn 1724 Over twice as much gum was obtained by chipping at 3-day inter- vals as at 7-day intervals. SUGGESTIONS FOR SPECIFICATIONS. HANGING CUPS _ 1. The distance from the ground to the apex of the first streak shall not exceed 10 inches. 2. No “blazes’’ or similar scarification of the tree shall extend below the gutter or apron, The surface prepared for the placement of the gutters or aprons shall not extend beyond the ends of the same. 3. The peak of the first streak shall not be more than 2 inches above the gutter or apron. 4. The “streak’’ or gash made for the placement of the gutters or aprons shall not penetrate the wood of the tree more than one-half inch, the measurement to be taken from the dividing line between the wood and bark. 5. The gutters or aprons must be so attached that no ‘‘gum”’ flows between the tree and the gutters or aprons, or flows over the edge of same so as to fall without the cup or other receptacle. 6. For the first three years the cups and gutters shall be raised each spring to the top of the face worked the previous season. 7. A bar or strip of live bark not less than 4 inches wide in the narrowest place shall be left between the faces. CHIPPING. 1. No tree under 10 inches in diameter shall be tapped. Minimum diameter of tree to carry one face, 10 inches; minimum diameter of tree to carry two faces, 16 inches; no tree shall carry more than two faces. 50 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2. The face on trees from 10 to 16 inches in diameter shall not exceed 12 inches in width, and the faces on trees above 16 inches in diameter shall not exceed 14 inches in width. 3. The height of the face shall not be increased by more than 16 inches each year the tree is tapped. 4. Each streak shall not exceed a width of one-half inch or a depth of one-half inch, the depth being measured from the dividing line between the wood and the bark. 5. Before the chipping season opens the rough outer bark shall be scraped off over the entire surface to be chipped for each season, care being taken not to penetrate the living bark. 6. During the winter a space of at least 24 feet shall be raked free of débris about each tapped tree. PACKING NAVAL STORES. Buyers and exporters frequently complain that turpentine and rosin barrels reach them in poor condition, unfit for further shipment. In order to improve the standards of naval stores packages, the Savannah Board of Trade in 1911 issued letters of instruction to naval stores operators as follows: Turpentine barrels.—All barrels, whether new or secondhand, should be kept abso- lutely protected from the elements, and not allowed to remain subject to rain and sunshine at way stations and river landings. Glue will not take on damp staves. Every barrel should be glued twice before being filled. Use only the best quality of glue, as it is the cheapest in the end. Before gluing, see that your pot is absolutely clean. Put into this 20 pounds of good glue and 5 gallons of water, and allow same to soak overnight. On the following morning apply sufficient heat to melt up to a temperature not exceeding 160° F. Under no condition whatever must glue be allowed to boil, as this causes decomposition to set in, which causes the bad smell usually noticed around glue sheds, and renders it utterly worthless. This amount of prepared glue will be sufficient for 20 barrels. After gluing, barrels should be taken off the trough and stood on the head for about one-half hour, after which time they should be reversed, so that the surplus glue will run down equally on both heads. The barrels should then be well and thoroughly driven, and after standing for 24 hours should be given a second coat of glue, using the exact formula as before. They are then ready to be filled in 48 hours, and if treated in this way there should be no turning except for broken staves. Rosin.—Rule No. 9 of the Savannah Board of Trade says in part: “Rosin barrels to be in merchantable order must have two good heads, not exceeding 14 inches in thickness, staves not to exceed 1 inch in thickness; the top well lined.’’? Too much stress, therefore, can not be placed on the absolute necessity of carrying out this rule to the very letter, especially regarding the thickness of staves and heading, for rule No. 10 specifically instructs the inspector to make a proper deduction in weight on al] rosin when, the staves and headings are more than the prescribed thickness in rule No. 9. In such cases, therefore, the operator will lose, as in addition to having the deductions made, for which he receives nothing, he must pay the full amount of freight to the railroad. Operators must see that every barrel is well coopered before shipment; see that all four hoops are nailed on the barrels, and the heads cut to fit close, and a good lining hoop as prescribed by rule No. 9 isin place. Staves must be properly equalized. Staves should be 40 inches long, and barrels built on a 22-inch stress hoop, which gives a well-shaped and easily handled barrel. THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY. 51 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON VOLUME OF TURPENTINE. Operators often complain that the factor’s gauge of their barrels is 1 or 2 gallons less than their own. When the barrel has not leaked, the difference is usually due to the temperature at which the turpentine was placed in the barrel. Very frequently the turpentine is at a temperature of from 50° to 60° C. (from 122° to 140° F.) when the barrels are filled, and later cools to, say, 25° C. The mean coeffi- cient of expansion of turpentine between 10° and 40° C. is 0.000817 per degree.!. By rough calculation, assuming a specific gravity of 0.8500 at 50° C., if the original 50 gallons have cooled 25 degrees, the loss of volume by contraction will be about 1.2 gallons.? When the condenser is incapable of cooling the distillate to ordinary temperatures, the barrels after being filled with the warm turpentine should be loosely plugged and allowed to stand several hours, or until their contents have cooled to the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. The barrels may then be filled up to the required volume. COST ESTIMATES ON A 20-CROP TURPENTINE OPERATION. The cost figures which follow do not apply to any single locality; they have been derived from several sources, and are believed to cover a fair range. The yields * have been calculated from the data contained in Forest Service Bulletin 90. The dip is assumed to contain 15 per cent water and trash and 18.5 per cent turpentine, and the scrape 10 per cent trash and 11 per cent turpentine; while 1 gallon of turpentine is assumed to weigh 7.25 pounds. 1 Technologic Paper No. 9, Bureau of Standards, 1912. 2 The following formula will give the expansion or contraction of turpentine due to temperature changes GV a G+(T’—T) .000817 where G and V are the specific gravity and volume at the temperature T, and V’ is the volume at the lower temperature T’. 3 YIELDS PER CROP, CALCULATED FROM FOREST SERVICE BULLETIN 90. First year—31 chippings: 83,495 lbs. dip, yielding 42.8 bbls. 12,560 lbs. scrape, yielding 3.8 bbls. Total yield 46. 6 bbls. Second year—30 chippings: 74,791 lbs. dip, yielding 38. 2 bbls. turpentine and 199. 0 bbls. rosin. turpentine and :35. 4 bbls. rosin. turpentine and 234. 4 bbls. rosin. turpentine and 178. 0 bbls. rosin. 14,818 lbs. scrape, yielding 4.5 bbls. Total yield Third year—29 chippings: 57,324 Ibs. dip, Total yield Fourth year—30 chippings: 45,100 Ibs. dip, 19,908 Ibs. scrape, yielding 6.0 bbls Total yield 42.7 bbls. yielding 29.3 bbls. 13,399 lbs. scrape, yielding 3.6 bbls. 32. 9 bbls. yielding 23. 0 bbls. 29. 0 bbls. turpentine and 41.8 bbls. turpentine and 219. 8 bbls. turpentine and 136.1 bbls. turpentine and 38.3 bbls. turpentine and 174. 4 bbls. turpentine and 107.1 bbls. . turpentine and 56. 2 bbls. turpentine and 163. 3 bbls. rosin. rosin. rosin. rosin. rosin. rosin. rosin. rosin. 52 BULLETIN 229, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COST OF EQUIPMENT FOR A 20-CROP OPERATION. 1 25-barrel still, with shed and fixtures complete .......--.-- $1, 200. 00 to $1, 250. 00 20ishanties,at $50: to $id eachsas- = S42 es sts ae se ee 1, 000. 00 to 1, 500. 00 2housesi:at, $225 tO. 300.eachee.. 55. 2.c26 sees eee 450.00 to 600. 00 MC OMMTNISSAT Ye cdege te yo) = wo Cees Bunn ate eats Ne eee eee 200.00 to 225. 00 Shedisiandistablese. -g A[ne-z eune *paepraoid souvueysng “WOsBas “spraaam 9709 fo af) fo woYyDING—' JT ATAV, g RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. *SUOTIVAIOSGO OT] JO aSINOd oY} SULINP S[eNpIAIpUr snopiea ay} Aq peouarsa “qno wer Ajddns pooj 04} Wd A ET 190100 TO GATIV 010M STIAGOAA OSOTLY, z dxe sporied out} oy} JO WINS 9Y4 07 porjdde wr19} Ot} ST ,, SABP [FAVOM 5, 1 | *H0}409 8 ce Pd, iz ere | 2420's | 6¢ el Zee ZE0‘T ae eee ee wo sypupib Tye [eI “parg | 007 PL pL, rie [geet | ce ae g "98 Sie 6 ee a aN o. ppOD eee va lipeee anon Or *490-¢ oung *poyeureqry | 9 “Cp 2, TL 8 GP | 9g¢ 81 , 1 6F LOF Ofe Set ee ies Sorenbs “U04},09 J-- 7-772 7277 I ‘sny-s Aen ‘od GLI GE 0g 9 GI | 92 9 GE O'S 96 Ue Sa aes | ements = ee sT[Oq (0109309 ee OG ATN(-8T oun “pelg | 6°11 cy € 8°8 OL 8 cP 6ST IGI toegestaan SOABIT W0}}0D | FG A[nf-6 vung ‘dOOd IVNYON HALIM ‘SIGNVUD ALGIUVA “SNOSIGIH WO F'9G+ PE+ pet g-c¢t+ ect + 9 bS-- 9°L¢+ SEI+ g isp eens rae ee ee BLMIQINY? [TB [BOT “qIndj pue ‘suIOOTq 20d €-lL6+ pe+ bet 0°2¢+ 8OT+ F bPe+ 9°L6+ Sst+ c ‘spnq ‘snaniihs SNISIQUT | €1 “190-6 “1deg “pag | 6% 0g og GSS CF (ieee Ul Figo ee or Re P OBS SCI ag ROOD Torr}eoseessss-!--smr00lq ‘snaniwhis snasiquy |----"-- 7777 81 “290-¢ ydeg ‘shng “shng “shod “sing “shng “shog i “AqrAos u0T|"AqtAesu0]}, 5 “AQIASUOT). 4 AqtAosuo]| eS Ayaesuo]| ‘shkep |. B Ayraosuoy]] ‘skep |. OsvIOAV eee pees esBIOAV | t[TAV0M JOCIUETLN been ODBIOAW | 1[[AVOM te CUAEUNS “S[TAQ0M TO SaJON xe TxeW xen “peprAoid eourueysng “mosveg “soxos YOq *SoT@Ule iT “Sole ‘do0d TVNYON LOOHLIM ‘WIMEEHNAHL ALGINVA 2 89032°—Bull. 231—15 10 BULLETIN 231, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is important to note that the maximum longevity on water was 6 days, on Spheralcea lindheimert 15 days, on Callirrhoé involucrata 20 days, on C. pedata 26 days, on Hibiscus syriacus 43+ days, and on cotton 74 days. SEX OF ADULTS. The material studied during the year was all sexed and the records have been tabulated to show the seasonal abundance and for com- parison of the varieties (Table IT). TaBLE II.—Relative proportions of the sexes of boll weevils. Male. Female. Variety and description of material. Number. | Per cent. | Number.| Per cent. Grandis: Mibernated jweevils sr: = 2p eee eee sea. = eee gee eee 674 67. 88 319 32.12 Hirst generation.collecteds 2222s: -22sme cs 2s ones cee = 73 53.3 64 46.7 Collected imvAlgust2.22e a2 coec teste eee st eeeeee ee a 158 62.0 97 38. 0 BTCC eas cick esos cnclnes omen cnt emesemees cise meses feeno see eees 557 52.6 500 47.4 Totaliandsaveragesst cue ow et sett Che Te ee ee 1,462 59.8 980 40. 2 | | Thurberix: Collected in August::::.s202..0c22i..- Dbais b aie ne eae 21 51S 20 48.7 Bred from Thurberia bolls in September...........-.------ 11 50. 0 il 50. 0 Bredtrom cotton inthe fall a. 2 fess seas J esses = sane 20 62.5 12 37.5 Extracted from Thurberia bolls, March, 1914.........------ 71 Veal! 52 42.3 Potalandayverdgests.c-osivese ose se sete see eee eee 123 | 56.9 95 43.1 Hybrids: ‘ SL NUNDETIEE GD OTONOIS Ja sea mine ee See bay = Seen aeons 22 59.4 15 40. 6 Secondigenerations ono 32. eee eek Sos ae Sa eoe eee 21 42.0 29 58.0 NOt POSILLVECLOSSeS #222 ch. See a asso. Ueeeeate ae 135 51.0 130 49.0 AGTANGISS OUNUr Deri ee isl eae mele Saleen ely ie Aaa Shear me at 11 45.8 13 54.2 Second’ generation. 22222. sss. Py. Sse aes ek 15 Diana 11 42.3 NOt POSItIVEIGLOSSeS sass: vec yen ccm - emesis aece- | 20 51.3 i9 48.7 Totaliandtaveragens cates ese seieils ca Seeeenne es a= | 224 | 50. 7 217 49.3 Total and average all weevils..........----.---------- 1s 8095S 5ghs 1, 292 41.7 Separating this material into hibernated and spring or summer bred weevils, there are in the hibernated material 777 males and 402 females, or 65.9 per cent males and 34.1 per cent females, while the spring and summer bred weevils numbered 1,032 males and 890 females, or 53.6 per cent males and 46.4 per cent females. The total of all records to date gives 8,826 males and 6,710 females, or 56.7 per cent males and 43.3 per cent females. It is noticeable that there is a larger percentage of females in the variety thurberiz and in the hybrids than in the variety grandis. REPRODUCTION. RELATION OF FOOD TO COPULATION. To test the period from emergence to copulation, a number of lots of males and females of the variety A. grandis were separated by sexes immediately after emergence and placed on cither cotton | RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 11 squares, leaves, or bolls. In each lot the weevils were paired off together for a few hours daily while under close observation. As soon as a pair copulated they were removed from the lot and the remainder tested until they either copulated or died. In this copu- lation series 23 pairs of weevils fed on squares, 2 pairs fed on bolls, and 1 pair fed on leaves copulated. These figures are of more value when taken in relation to the number of pairs of weevils that refused to copulate before death on the different foods. This relation is shown in Table III. TaBLE III.—Relative proportion of boll weevils copulating on different foods. Number pairs of weevils Number . Food. carried to pairs Feneaniaee either copula- | copulated. B ; tion or death. Per cent. CoUlonisiiarcstip asa esses bee ee sesh eee son. 2 eect asc sce] 38 23 60 Cotton bolls.....-.-- EOC S BBO DOB OO OO ORE JERE EOE Geo cco stase aa. | 8 2 25 Cottonwledviess Nemertina v8 eRe ote ser a See eee et A 8 1 12 From this table it is seen that copulation is unusual when the weevils are fed strictly on either cotton bolls or leaves. AGE AT WHICH FERTILIZATION TAKES PLACE. The length of the period before copulation depends in a large measure upon the temperature as well as upon the food. For square- fed weevils this period varied from 3 to 10 days, with a weighted average of 5.8 days. In the series of boll-fed weevils only two records were made on this period. Both of these were in the latter part of June and were 6 and 8 days, respectively, giving an average of 7 days. In the leaf-fed series only 1 pair copulated, and they gave a period of 5 days. The records on boll-fed and leaf-fed weevils are too few in number to offer any comparison with the length of the period for square-fed weevils and serve only to emphasize the difficulty with which the life functions are performed on these unnatural foods. The period from emergence to copulation was not determined exactly for the weevils fed only on buds and blooms of Hibiscus syriacus, but some idea of the period can be secured from the first date the weevils were observed in copula while making the daily examination. Two pairs of A. g. thurberix were first observed in copula in 6 and 14 days after emergence, while at the same time (September) two pairs of A. grandis were first observed in copula in 9 and 13 days after emergence. These records and the frequency with which the weevils were observed in copula later show that the proper element to stimulate copulation is present in the food. 12 BULLETIN 231, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PERIOD FROM FERTILIZATION TO OVIPOSITION. The period from fertilization to oviposition was secured as a continuation of the experiments described under the period from emergence to copulation. After the females in this series copu- lated once they were placed on food and watched for the first egg deposited. In this manner the period was determined. In most cases the male was removed after the first fertilization, but in a few cases the male was placed with the female for a short period each day and the copulation noted. In this way as many as five copulations were noted for a female before a single egg was deposited. The periods determined are noted according to the food. Weevils fed on cotton squares.—During June, July, and August this period was observed for 21 females fed only on squares. The period ranged from 1 to 7 days, with an average of 3.9 days. Weevils fed on cotton bolls——Three pairs of boll-fed weevils were observed from first copulation to oviposition. The period for these weevils ranged from 3 to 7 days, with an average of 5 days. Weevils fed on cotton leaves.—Only one pair of weevils started copu- lating when fed only on cotton leaves from emergence. This female emerged July 7 and copulated the first time on July 11. She lived until July 24 and copulated 8 times in the interval. No eggs were laid. PERIOD FROM EMERGENCE TO OVIPOSITION. In the series of typical grandis the period from emergence to ovipo- sition when on squares constantly varied from 3 days to 13 days, with an average of 6.1 days for the positive records. With typical thurberiz the three cases recorded ranged from 3 to 6 days, with an average of 4 days. These records are too few in num- ber to allow a positive comparison with those for grandis, but the average is just about the same as for the latter during the same period (early September). Two pairs of progeny of female grandis by male thurberix began to oviposit in 4 and 7 days each or an average of 5.5 days. Two pairs of progeny of female thurberix by male grandis began to oviposit in 5 days each. The period from emergence to oviposition was observed with six pairs of grandis fed only on buds and blooms of Hibiscus syriacus from maturity. Three of these pairs observed during early June varied from 5 to 6 days, and averaged 5.6 days. The other three pairs, observed during September, ranged from 11 to 18 days, with an average of 13.6 days. This period was also observed with two pairs of thurberixe on the same food. These began to oviposit in 12 and 16 days, or in an average of 14 days. RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 13 PERIOD FROM FIRST FEEDING ON SQUARES TO OVIPOSITION. The period from first feeding on squares to oviposition is shown for hibernated A. grandis females in Table IV. Taste IV.—Time from first feeding on squares to oviposition for hibernated females of A. grandis.' | a Total pe- F aA en eriod fed | riod from Collected, ae ust fed. insienes on squares | first fed ay— Mo aaa Ma __’ | to deposi- | on leaves y y tion. to deposi- tion. Days. Days Seven s-tis 14 22 8 14 Saas Es. s2 14 19 5 11 Soeur 15 20 5 12 Sees 17 19 2 11 LO ete sisters 24 25 1 15 HAS Vi Osan eG RMT Je ote 4,2 12.6 Mae ere fetes s terete | sais oie = ete 8 15 Mins 5 Shaal st. sees a u | 1 These weevils were collected in the held before squares began to form and fed upon leaves until the dates noted above. The weevils were collected in the field before any squares were formed and were fed only on cotton leaves until the dates given for placing on squares. It is seen that the period ranged from 1 to 8 days with an average of 4.2 days. An interesting point, however, is the fact that the time from the change from leaves to squares as food to the beginning of oviposition seems to vary inversely with the time fed on leaves. The totals of these two periods or, in other words, approximately the time from first feeding on the cotton plant to ovi- position, are surprisingly similar. They vary from 11 to 15 days with an average of 12.6 days. This period for female thurberiz paired with male grandis was 12 and 15 days in the two cases tested in May and June. This gives an average of 13.5 days. In early September this period ranged from 2 to 5 days with an average of 3 days. During the early part of September this period for typical thurberiz varied from 1 to 3 days with an average of 2.2 days. In all these series where female thurberiz were used the individuals were extracted from their hibernation cells in Thurberia bolls and placed on cotton squares immediately. The period from first feeding to oviposition of early hibernated females was observed in only one pair of weevils fed on the buds and blooms of Callirrhoé pedata. This female began depositing eggs 6 days after being placed on this food. As these weevils were collected during the early part of May they had probably fed very little, if at all, on cotton. 14 BULLETIN 231, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DURATION OF FERTILITY AND FECUNDITY. Many experiments were conducted to test the duration of fertility and the fecundity of the various types of weevils. With A. grandis special experiments on this question were conducted in addition to the regular breeding series. Rather thorough data were obtained on the variety thurberiz and the various crosses in the different breeding series of these. Fecundity of females of A. grandis in copula only once.—The previous results on the exact duration of the fertility of females after copula- tion were very indefinite and there were no records of the fecundity resulting from only one copulation. In the course of the past sum- mer’s investigations the writer was able to secure considerable infor- mation on this point. Eleven females were separated from the males immediately after emergence and only returned to them about 6 hours each day when under close observation. In this manner the first copulation of each female was determined and she was then placed alone on squares to test her fecundity with no more chances for fertilization. Of the 11 females so treated, five were fertile, four were infertile but deposited eggs, and two failed to deposit any eggs. Of the two that did not deposit eggs, one was in copula 25 minutes and the other 10 minutes. Each of these lived a short time and then died. The fecundity tests of the remainder gave the results found tabulated in Tables V and VI. TasLe V.—Fecundity of females of A. grandis in copula only one time and rendered Jertile in that time. | Oviposition. | Eggs deposited.) Eggs per day. Duration of fertility. Ene aoe E ig l A! z A : xter-| Nor- | Aver- | Maxi- Started. | Ended. | Period. nally. | mally.| age. | ae Minutes. Days. To end of oviposition. . 24) June 28 | Aug. 7 41 348 0 348 8:5 17 NovAti perl Oa eee 145 |...do....] Aug. 27 61 456 9 447 7.4 21 To end of oviposition. . 26 | June 30 | July 18 19 87 0 87 4.6 7 DOs tha zciepis Saeco 231 | July 12] Aug. 12 32 237 0 237 7.4 17 Ty tesa teee 5 aet a 29 | Aug. 9| Sept. 4 27 32 0 32 1.2 3 Motaliee aoe: acd Mates CO] auep eis a 180 | 1,160 9 |* itoik| a Rae UASV CLALG 4 ater wale isin clnmie Sut Beaaee Seca Sosa eteorc 36 230 | aja =i ap | econ eee eee Weighted average.....|----...... [EEE Oe NS erat 22 SL Se eC oe ni aee aee ie eee sep MAXIMUM eee les se 1S Sa docianbpe boacocsoe & 61 456 9 447 8.5 21 Minimum eee. sees CANA Re EOS | Rae 19 32 0 32 1.2 3 i 1 Copulated twice (22 and 23 minutes respectively) with interval of 12.5 minutes between copulations. 2 Copulated four times (7, 4, 2, and 18 minutes respectively) between 10:04a.m.and11:18a.m. Remain- der of the weevils were in copula only one time. ‘hese copulations were with so very little time between them that they were considered as one fertilization. RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 15 TaBLe VI.—fecundity of females of A. grandis in copula only one time and not fertilized. Oviposition. Eggs deposited.| Eggs per day. | Time Bota VarzEe, a aa Total |: from ete. ; eggs. a = = = ula, ; . Exter-}| Nor- | Aver- | Maxi- | egg to Started. | Ended. | Period. nally. | mally. | age. | mum. | death. Min. Days. Days. ospboseosuseane 3 June 29 | June 29 1 1 0 1 1 1 4 Seca tisletelc ecto 7.5 | June 30; Aug. 26 58 67 51 16 Le 6 1 Bae eee isice Sore 19 July 1} July 1 1 3 0 3 3 3 8 Ac HN AEH Sion ee Omee ely 93 3 3 0 3 1 1 35 Total COM aa iaeeree ae Aaace cae 63 74 51 PB} ae eee etl geese a 48 A-verage.....-. IGS 7/R| SE ceoaeeen] SenoRnBreee 15.7 TO adie ol ess beral ae a aeteel aeciodoe 12 Weighted av- Oi socs5hsllbenesssane losasonsosallocosscqedelongesaaelboee soe Saeeuan s|kocesces Nel ee Sees sesdooos Maximum BAO ar ee ce ea ee ene 58 67 51 16 3 6 35 Minimum..... Sie cece sae | Meee Coe 1 0 1 1 1 1 } From Table V it is seen that the greatest fertility was with the longest period of copulation (45 minutes). Beyond this there seems to be very little relation between the time in copula and the resulting degree of fertility. In the infertile females it is seen that periods of 25 and 37.5 minutes in copula still failed to result in fertility. The total eggs deposited by the fertile females ranged from 32 to 456 with an average of 235 each for the five females. This average is quite high, even in comparison with females having males present throughout life. The infertile females deposited from 1 to 67 eggs, with only one depositing more than 3 eggs. The period of fertility of the fertile females ranged from 19 to 44 days with an average of 32.6 days. The average eggs per day ranged from 1.2 to 8.5 with a weighted average of 6.4. This is a rather high average when compared with the results secured in other deposition series . A comparison of these results seems to indicate that the time in copula has very little influence on the resulting fertility of the female. - One female was not rendered fertile during 37.5 minutes of copulation while four others were fertilized in less than this time. The shortest time in copula which resulted in fertility of the female was 24 minutes, but the writer thinks that this is not significant. The high average of the eggs deposited by the females fertilized only once would seem to indicate that one fertilization is sufficient ~ to produce the maximum fecundity of the female. While this may be true in certain rare instances, the writer believes that such cases will be very rare. In a different breeding series a few females were allowed to deposit eggs from one fertilization until they stopped deposition, then males were added and in every case the females began depositing again and continued for some time. The female with the highest deposition record in the one fertilization series discussed above quite evidently reached the limit of her fertility 17 days before death and she deposited 9 infertile eggs in this period. 16 BULLETIN 231, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. From this evidence it seems clear that one copulation will often result in fertilization, but will not usually suffice for complete fecundity of the female. Fecundity of females of A. grandis uith complete record on copula- tion.—Since very little was known concerning the exact number of times a single female will copulate in the course of her life an attempt was made to secure some information on this point. Nine females were separated from the males immediately after emergence and each was fed separately throughout life. A male was allotted to each female and each day the different pairs were placed together in dry glass tubes for a short time while under close observa- tion and given a chance to copulate. The period spent in copula was noted each time and in this manner a complete record of the copula- tions of each female was secured. During the remainder of the day the females were kept on fresh squares and the daily egg deposition noted. The results secured in this series are shown in Table VIL. TaBLe VII.—Fecundity of females of A. grandis with complete record of time in copula. ripositi Aver- Max- eet Oviposition. Eggs Ara ican Times,| Totals }.iage =a ce a Ot eg Total, average, etc. |incop-| time a time number ae ber | ber ula. |copula.} per , P ges. | eggs | eggs copula. Started. | Ended. | Period. a per | per Y-| day. | day. Min Min. Days. CARE Ge stieaeash ae atl 22 490.5 | 22.3] July 2] July 29] 28 204 0| 7.3 13 TET Pee CU Te ees a 30 667. 5 22.2| July 4] Aug. 9 37 217 0; 5.8 18 SoU SERGE SSBepoodaUbN das 33 786. 5 23.8 |...do.....| Aug. 24 52 302 4} 5.8 15 Seep edetsseteseobanbbene 27 6389. 0 25.5 | July 5] Aug. 4 31 112 0! 3.6 10 BeBe SOUdeoDASHeOBEAAGeOS 29 650. 5 22.4| July 6] Aug. 12 38 126 2] 3.3 10 ees era Cen Ste CELINE Be 24 563. 0 23.4] July 7; Aug. 6 31 126 1] 4.0 10 Sabosdaos US BES AcioatoaeS 18 369. 0 20.5 |...do.....| Aug. 7 32 208 0} 6.5 14 See eth ail a a AIL 13 291.5| 22.4|July 9] Aug. 5] 28 65 0| 2.3 10 Sowa pobahenabeHAcannoaae 9 196. 0 21.7) July 11} Aug. 27 17 32 0] 1.9 5 Totalee wena DOD Rai A703 -5il| ees eens | le aaa el ene | 294 {1,392 al peecee) eee ENVCTAS Cys sonic seceeeiet 22.7 | 522.6 QOH een eters 3 | (aio aim stele cele 32.7 GY OY Neco seiamcel [ashe Wreightedpaverage pis. ewe a eee ee ea Ee ae SSH Een Aer PARR Bc tccnseallsmec oc ANA e cd « Massimino ee ne 33 786. 5 QO NO ts eee IBEBEBSOaAAl 52 302 4] 7.3} 18 Mani mums eine eaten 9 196. 0 20S bls sean patie ators sake 17 32 0 1.9 5 The number of times a single female will copulate was found to be much higher than was anticipated. With these 9 females the num- ber varied from 9 to 33, with 6 females copulating more than 20 times. The average per female was nearly 23 times. In spite of the great number of copulations the number of eggs deposited by these females was not high in comparison with other series. It may be that the fact that the females were of necessity removed from their food for from 1 to 2 hours daily while with the males had some effect on the egg deposition. The total number of eggs per female varied from 32 to 302, with an average of 154.7 eggs per female. This average is considerably lower than that for the females fertilized only once The average number of eggs per female per day was 4.7, which is also lower than the average for the once fertilized females. RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 17 When the male and female weevils were placed together in the dry tubes daily they very rarely failed to copulate. They would usually unite within a few minutes after being being placed in the tube and it was very rarely that they copulated at all if they did not start almost immediately after having the opportunity. It was extremely rare for the two sexes to remain together without copulation for a half hour and then unite. The various breeding series in which one pair of weevils were together on squares were examined only once daily and many pairs were found in copula day after day when making these daily exam- inations. In the field it was very noticeable that a pair usually united as soon as they were placed together on a plant. When wee- vils are collected in the field and placed in a tube it is the com- mon occurrence for many pairs to unite as soon as dropped in the tube. Hence it seems probable that it is normal for a single female to be in copula many times and for the weevils to copulate almost whenever they meet in the course of their travels over the plants. Three females deposited a total of 7 eggs externally. These eggs were deposited during the days when the same females deposited other eggs normally. As the females were certainly fertile, owing to the almost daily copulations, this shows that external deposition of eggs may be due to some cause other than infertility. The eggs deposited externally by these females were tested for viability and all hatched. Fecundity of A. grandis females after hibernating.—Twelve females were collected in the field at Victoria, Tex., May 8 to 10, shortly after emergence from hibernation, and fed on cotton leaves until squares became available. Then each was placed with a male and given fresh squares daily for oviposition. These females were all observed until their normal death. The results secured are shown in Table VIII: TasLe VIII.—Fecundity of females of A. grandis after hibernating. Approxi- Eggs per day. Average | mate ovi- eB°P of Number of females. Total Cees eggs per position HORS. pene ee Average. | Maximum, Days Dat os paucde EBs pee eee Cone aCE EE enpoooteucsoS 144 72 12 6.0 14 noo Ca scenddadbadsconesnuouseousen scoscuses 673 336. 5 32 10.5 120 Paes ical Cb jel cievaicielsieceisl eis a aimee oa 302 302 53 5a 12 DM ele en oat curd nls joaians nya ninctotieeieeae 336 168 25 6.7 11 ED Ree RHE VRS AMI ST eS ee 715 357. 5 55 6.5 12 OR ete CO nye 28 cite a iclaials ane Sees Saha: 701 300. 5 46 7.6 19 16 3S SHOR SE COA RE SEE SORES Beret a aera 100 100 13 7.6 1L Abo En oe Ser AOA e AS Saar eSemane an hen PEIN | caeedyscass 0G, [Sze esocisee ee eceos eae PNGVICTAL CR eae ea Pisce oe fa ee eens eee eee alae bic tis ete 247. 6 Be bist ae notes woes la See sepaees. \WY Gren! ERVOREIRD 32 Coca eS ccecaccsgoes Seode|sssoducosce slscocosessoud|lbosccomesace Met ots | ieee oeeral pera Iie pra bee bhoa See ewe ee ee ae Lee i ae le ae ee ot 358 55 10.5 20 iM brute bha ae ome neeenacaase oo sees sob bases lSsenBeebods 4 72 12 7 11 1 The 2 females in this lot deposited 39 eggs in 1 day. Therefore one of them laid at least 20 eggs. 89032°—Bull. 231—15 3 18 BULLETIN 231, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Unfortunately 10 of these females were placed 2 to a breeding cage, and consequently the records for each of these cages give the activities of 2 females instead of 1. Therefore complete individual records of these females can not be given. The total number of eggs deposited by these weevils is very high. The average per female in the different lots ranged from 72 to 358 eges. The average for the 12 females is 247.6 eggs. These averages are considerably higher than those of the reared weevils of the later generations. It was previously supposed that, owing to the vitality used in passing the winter, hibernated females would deposit less eggs than weevils emerged during the summer, but this is shown not to be the case. The previously recorded maximum number of eggs deposited by a single female was 304. It is of considerable interest to note that 6 out of these 12 hibernated females evidently exceeded that number. The average number of eggs per day ranged from 5.7 to 10.5, with an average of 7.3. This also is greater than the average of any of the later generations. Fecundity of summer-reared weevils.—Although the greater part of the females used in the various generation series of A. grandis during the season were not allowed to complete oviposition, 7 of them were continued to completion. The activities of these females are shown in Table IX. TasLe [X.—Fecundity of females of A. grandis in various breeding series throughout the season. Oviposition— | Eggs per day. Source of weevils. aes | Started. | Ended. | Period. | Average. | Maximum. Days | First generation adults...............- June 18 | July 12 5 205 8.2 14 Third generation adults..............- July 26 | Sept. 30 67 141 2.1 10 DOP RES E Aaa eee Sr eae. eae eare] Ne 0 Aug. 10 16 83 | 5.2 12 Oe Ree SE ee dees hii do Sept. 23 60 205 3.4 12 Last adults of first generation........- Aug Sept. 30 59 233 3.9 il Fourth generation adults.............. Aug. 18 hoses 44 153 | 3.5 12 reds anoo AEE REN aT Aas bh Geer arc Ovscer doers 44 45 | 1.0 5 NEU ee ce. hoe Mees Namie el Nae: ae) Wee tte eh 1" =a. 065]| suneeaee eee | Rochen ASV ETAL OS a cena erie sick sas thine coe |soeepepee |P Seeeemeers| 45 15251) || Sooaeeeenee | nec mae Weighted average..............-..-.-- Isssdecc00e eaoss2c0d basass4aco bsdacdssac Sb PoesSeecsece Mainitims a se see es Rene te eee | a eee 67 | 233 | 8.2 14 LINN Re Sono sendosdaess neoenened Mee 135505 [rtseseeeee 16 | 45 | 1.0 5 ! | Considering the fact that these females were with males constantly, were given fresh squares daily and were less disturbed than any oth- ers, it is surprising that their oviposition was so low. The maxi- mum did not equal the average of the once copulated weevils and the average is nearly 100 less than the average for the hibernated females. RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 19 The average number of eggs per day ranged from 1 to 8.2, with an average of 3.3 eggs. This is also much less than the average for either the hibernated or once copulated weevils. The maximum number of eggs per day ranged from 5 to 14. In fact these weevils showed a surprisingly low degree of fertility in all points. Fecundity of females of A. grandis in expervments not continued to completion.mMany of the females m the various grandis generation series were allowed to oviposit only a short time and then stopped because of lack of squares. Some interesting data were secured from some of these weevils, as is shown in Table X. TaBLeE X.—Fecundity of females of A. grandis in experiments not continued to completion. Poa Eggs per day. Oviposition started. ment Cun Hota . SSS. | closed. Average. | Maximum. | Days. AWTS 1055 oagdeaocsane anee odode AS CeBOnBOOROSEOEEe June 20 5 20 5.0 7 JUEND UY cgncacet sed doesoeopardeduaocuEdassopesSpE July 2 16 147 9.2 15 DOSE ae cecae eo iinae nceinee a remincelsiestasienie July 11 25 318 14, 7 26 et) 11 16.5 21 (OU 11 By 8 5.6 10 16.5 Bail a This information is of principal value in giving maximum and minimum records. One female in this lot gave the season’s maxi- mum record for eggs deposited in one day. This was 26 eggs. Inci- dentally this is the highest number of eggs deposited by a single female in one day on record. This female was allowed to continue deposi- tion only 25 days, but in this time she deposited a total of 318 eggs, or an average of 12.7 per day. Fecundity of typical A. g. thurberie fed on cotton squares.—Three pairs of pure thurberix were mated on cotton squares in June, but for some reason only one female deposited any eggs. This one deposited 7 eggs with a maximum of 4 in 1 day and an average of 0.3 per day. These eggs were probably all fertile, as most of them, at least, hatched. It is very hard to account for the fact that two of these females laid no eggs and the other deposited so few. The females of thurberie placed with grandis males at this same time deposited a normal number of eggs. The fall series of pure thurberie mated on cotton squares gaye much better results, as is shown in Table XI. 20 BULLETIN 231, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe XI.—Fecwndity of typical A. g. thurberiz. Oviposition. Eggs per day. vip ie ggs p Yi) Meare Se ota tempera- Number of females. eggs. | araxi. | ture for Started. | Ended. | Period. Average. | wn period. | Days. 2 Ja I eels ey Ch eins re ais Ey Sept. 7] Sept. 7 1 1 1.0 fh We MR Aes 42 oe ccis Stel eicra eee eeSe Sept. 3 | Oct. 6 34 173 5.1 17 77.6 Dieoe Dy eae osteo ts Sept. 2] Oct. 1 30 73 2.4 11 77.3 eae Ria So panes ars Dye ele cisate REG Ko Eason Oct. 2 31 90 3.0 | 8 77.4 Peeonyas eaten eee sence oan | Sept. 4] Oct. 6 33 76 2.3 | 8 | 77.4 Motalie chev cd ties dele vone meena Mies 128 | 412)|. ae IAN OLAS C= apo ciontatrana Kes Soest ee ek Weer thi cict= vo 32 103 | 2 ji 152. 25) eee Be ac eee tee Wieighted averages: os 5 eee ae ea lean ae lice sere ess |Wamesie ter cae Ses Bu2s ie ace eee 77.4 WG GB cian be beer ry nee eek arte Raeiere ap eee peseeecose | 34 173 | 5.1 A MAINS Sans si IMM oe se oe be ee cre jedieret sere eng Baaae 30 73 2.3 8: | Rea | | 1 Owing to the fact that this female deposited only one egg, the record is not included in the averages and summary given. Five pairs were mated, and while four females deposited fairly well, the other deposited only one egg and is not considered in the following discussion. The total number of eggs deposited by these females ranged from 73 to 173, with an average of 103. The average per day ranged from 2.3 to 5.1, with an average of 3.2, and the max- imum in one day was 17. All of these records are very low in com- parison with the results of practically all other series. On the other hand, the thurberiw females mated with grandis males at this time gave better deposition records. Results of the mating of male of A. g. thurberie and female of A. grandis.—In June two hibernated grandis females collected in the field were placed with male thurberiz on cotton squares. As these females were undoubtedly fertilized by grandis males before being isolated, this series did not result in positive proof of cross breeding, but, as the weevils copulated freely, the later progeny were quite probably hybrids. These two females deposited 192 and 387 eggs, respectively, with an average of 7.1 and 7.9 each per day. The average total number of eggs per female was 289.5 and the daily average was 7.6. The maximum number of eggs per day was 16 for each female. On the whole this fecundity is quite high and the females were surely refer- tilized by the new type of males. In September three known infertile females of grandis were mated with male thurberiz on cotton squares immediately after emergence. This resulted in the positive crossing of the two. The results of these matings are shown in Table XII. RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 21 TasLe XII.—Fecundity of positive crosses of male of thurberix and female of grandis. Oviposition. Eggs per day. INGenIbe Te I ESAS Y Average Total, average, etc. of otal pempet oe females. : 888. Maxi. | ture for Started. | Ended. | Period. Average. a period. um. Days. IN 1| Sept. 7] Oct. 24 4 115 2.4 7 74.4 1| Sept. 4] Sept. 11 38 43 ial 4 77.8 1| Sept. 5 | Sept. 17 13 69 5.3 8 78.9 Motalertesee cs BIS CCanS aoe peo coasoee 99 7 EIN (see ee) RR = ete bs ent Cat ais INNICHEEO 50 on ba ees Sewal BEB kO ae oo BER OeEEe ad |S aeameener 33 TDs Olt | Sete cartel Sectoral ote lpemete mens Weleinibedkavenageisee limon dame ion comme [lates oan -p2.a | Merernaeyeal ta a cesses PB aaa eeeeeee 76.3 Windiiabhe = 5 5265 Goose BSen ae sTes SSeeeeecee| Hae aeeeeee 48 115 5.3 Beene ps ATMS OI OTIN Sc 2.c'6 SOs Shes Doe BOL SEE Hon eS OS ce nee Seeeeee 13 43 ail rE) ae eee aes The total oviposition of these females was surprisingly low, ranging from 43 to 115 and averaging 75.6 eggs per female. The average number of eggs per day was only 2.3 and the maximum number of eges in one day was only 8. Results of the mating of male of A. grandis and female of A. g. thurberix.—In June two of the female thurberix received were mated on cotton squares with male grandis collected in the field. As these females had been shipped with thurberiz males, there was a possibility of their being fertile at the time of placing with grandis males, but refertilization probably occurred. These females deposited 115 and 130 eggs respectively, with an average of 122.5 each. The average per day was 3.4 and 3.9 eggs, making an average of 3.6 each for the two females. The maximum in one day was 7 eggs. In the fall three females of thurberiz reared from Thurberia bolls received from Arizona were mated with the males of grandis on cotton squares immediately after emergence. Thus positive crosses were secured. The activities of these females are shown in Table XIII. Taste XIII.—Fecundity of positive crosses of female of thurberix by male of grandis. Oviposition. Eggs per day. NIETO Total woes Total, average, etc. of t x ae females. 3 888. Maxi- | ‘ute tor Started. | Ended. | Period. Average. aaite period. Days: OFA! 1| Sept. 6} Oct. 27 2 95 1.8 8 73.9 1| Sept. 3] Oct. 2 30 146 4.8 13 a lee) 1 |-2:do_--.| Oct. 8 36 102 3.0 8 80. 2 Motaleesecees- Billoaneoses66|loopeansecs 118 YEN eae ariscl SSR DE OSNEl Seaeree rics IASC ASE MEER. fein | SI ela na joowsa Aereeie || Saat Bot lege 39.3 pie ee see Se | ee Oe ee rvs Wieightediaverage i= 5.0. shes M gy Pana a. ros -~ ill ata lata ioee ee oes PB) le ae ae 76.7 (Maxam sae settee eee set al asia [ee = feo ho ele 52 146 4.8 Sa eee eee eer IMbiaTsA Lie hasEconced eeereboue alodcnocs 655 |Goaesaeece 30 95 1.8 Soe Diss ase cm 22 BULLETIN 231, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Here again the total eggs deposited was quite low and the average eggs per day was likewise low. However the fecundity was quite high enough to equal many of the grandis females depositing at the same time; consequently there seems little reason to believe that the fecundity of thurberiz is less than that of grandis. Results of the mating of progeny of male of thurberie and female of grandis.—In the latter part of June three pairs of weevils reared from eggs deposited by doubtful crosses of male thurberix and female grandis were mated on cotton squares. Two pairs were placed together in one jar and allowed to continue deposition until the normal cessation. These two females deposited a total of 100 eggs and averaged 4.3 per day. The maximum number in one day was 14 eggs. The other female was allowed to continue oviposition for 18 days, and in this time she deposited a total of 143 eggs at the rate of 8 eggs per day. The maximum number for one day was 15 eggs. Results of the mating of progeny of male of grandis and female of thurberie.—In July two pairs of weevils reared from eggs deposited by doubtful crosses of male grandis and female thurberiz were mated on cotton squares. Owing to the shortage of squares these weevils were stopped after having deposited for 17 and 5 days, respectively. The first female deposited a total of 131 eggs at the rate of 7.3 per day, with a daily maximum of 15, and the second deposited 48 eggs at the rate of 9.6 per day, with a daily maximum of 14. MAXIMUM NUMBER OF EGGS PER DAY. The maximum number of eggs deposited in 1 day by any female was 26. A first generation grandis female emerging June 8 deposited this number of eggs in cotton squares July 2. The mean temperature was 81.1° F. and the mean humidity was 68 per cent for the oviposi- tion day involved. The previous record for 1 day’s deposition (20 eggs) was exceeded many times by quite a number of females. The maximum number of eggs deposited by typical thurberiz on cotton squares was 17. This number was deposited September 8 at a mean temperature of 86.4° and a mean humidity of 78 per cent for the oviposition day. The maximum for the mating of infertile female thurberiz and male grandis was 13 eggs. This number was deposited September 10 at a mean temperature of 81.4° and a mean humidity of 83.5 per cent for the oviposition day. The maximum for the mating of infertile female grandis and male thurberize was 8 eggs. This number was deposited September 16 at a mean temperature of 76° and a mean humidity of 77.5 per cent for the oviposition day. RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 23 The maximum number for females fed only on buds and blooms of Callurrhoé involucrata was 3 eggs. The maximum for females fed only on the buds and blooms of Hibiscus syriacus was 8 eggs. RATE OF OVIPOSITION. The daily rate of oviposition has already been shown in the discus- sion of the general fecundity of the weevils, but the rate by fractions of the oviposition period of the different females is also of interest. In the following studies the oviposition period of each female has been divided into thirds and the results tabulated accordingly. This is shown in Table XIV. Taste XIV.—Rate of oviposition of the boll weevil obtained in all experiments. Rate of oviposition. Number | First third of | Middle third of | Last third of Nature of weevils. of Season. period. period. period. females. Total | Daily | Total | Daily | Total | Daily eggs. javerage.| eggs. laverage.| eggs. laverage. | Hibernated grandis ii May tol see sae. 136 6.5 161 Tos 105 4.6 females. Once fertilized 5 | June to September... - 521 9.0 484 8.2 155 2.5 grandis females. Grandis females 9 | July to August......-.-. 492 Dad 590 6.0 310 3.0 with a complete record on copula- tion. Various breeding 6 | June to September... 415 4.7 386 4.3 219 253 series of grandis. Pure thurberiz....-- 4 | September to October. 234 5.5 130 3.1 46 1.0 Positive crosses of Sillesose GW) etooscoenunesace 77 2.4 83 225 67 2.0 male thurberiz aud female gran- is. Doubtful crosses of Die MayatoMulyeescr ci-ccae 142 5.6 283 9.5 189 167) male thurberixz and female gran- dis. Positive crosses of 3 | September to October. 155 4.0 127 3.2 61 1.5 male grandis and female thurberiz. Doubtful crosses of 2} June toJuly...-.----- 81 3.9 101 4.4 63 2.7 male grandis and female thurberiz. TE ape eg | aes he ee 2 FB |e cance Woh an yearns Th OU | ee Se JORG css g6 see bellbeob s55054| |besoaned secoe5sonesgndaollecoosecs Bp a scenac Bat See sae 2.9 } Here it is seen that the maximum rate of oviposition in the average of all series is reached in the middle period and the mmimum is in the last period. However, there are several exceptions to this in the averages of the different types of females. It is mteresting to com- pare the results of the spring and fall series. “In the former the aver- age of the middle third is much higher than the first and the last is only slightly lower, while in the fall series there is generally a great decrease in the latter part of the period. This differene is of course due to the temperature increasing from spring to summer and decreasing in the fall. 24 BULLETIN 231, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, IS THE FECUNDITY OF THE WEEVIL DECREASING? In previous bulletins on the boll weevil this question was put, but not answered because of insufficient data. A comparison of the total number of eggs laid by weevils at Victoria and the rate per day for 1902 to 1904 with 1913 gives the following results: In‘1902 to 1904 at Victoria 132 weevils laid 11,863 eggs at the rate of 89 eggs each, or 2.8 eggs each per day with a maximum of 135 eggs per female. In 1913 at Victoria 19 weevils in various seasons laid 4,036 eggs at the rate of 212 eggs each, or 5.9 eggs each per day with a maximum of 358 eggs. In one of the fecundity series in 1913 a female grandis exceeded even this maximum and laid a total of 456 eggs. This evidence seems to indicate that if there has been any change in the fecundity of the species it is in the nature of an increase rather than a decrease. OVIPOSITION PERIOD. During the summer a total of 47 females were observed through the complete oviposition period. The results of these observations are summarized in Table XV. TaBLE XV.—Oviposition period of the boll weevil obtained in all experiments. Number F Bas i Maximum | Minimum | Average Source of weevils. Season. He Ot, period. period. | period. j Days. Days. Days. Once fertilized grandis females. --- - June to September... 5 19 36 Grandis females with complete rec- | July to August...-..-..- 9 52 17 32.7 ord on copulation. Hibernated grandis females..-....-. Manvatothyass -ececa 12 55 12 33.8 First generation grandis......------ TUNE WOM UL eo seers 1 Reeeee eee Sess oecccon: 25 Third generation grandis......---.- July to September.... 3 67 16 47.7 Last of first generation grandis... -- August to September... UR Beer oaomsed Hacccooosacc 59 Fourth generation grandis......---.|-.--- Glen cencnaseneouene 2 44 44 44 (PUTO MUTDETIL = eee seen eae September to October. 4 34 30 32 Positive crosses of male thurberiz |..... Oza scence eee 3 48 13 33 and female grandis. Doubtful crosses of male thurberiz | May to June....-...--- 2 49 27 38 and female grandis. Positive crosses of male grandis and | September to October. 3 52 30 39.3 female thurberiz. Doubtful crosses of male grandis | June to July....-.-.-- 2 38 29 33.5 and female thurberiz. Ba) fs Leet Ba Seas Seis Boi EN | [aS Sites) ons ak Spa Bi 8 AT) accion one onl Uae Ree eee eee Wieightedraverages crate ee sala erale cies ceiteeie aime See ister © eines) sicicicia| wie ores initicie eS | Gee eee 35.8 Maximum seeing Se var. cette wlortiz| steps sale serateteteys \sietaisieeesieteiay| Mieele cl ele 67 See eeeenseee Lif NbN Ss 8c ood Sco So GOnE aod BOR GHo pS ICCC a ERE ooc6—4] haceneeeee Heccncesc sos 1 aoe Here it is seen that the period ranged from 12 to 67 days with an- average of 35.8 days for all females. The number of females of the different classes is too small to permit anything like an accurate comparison of results. While the pure thurberiz and the crosses containing females of this variety averaged a slightly shorter time for the period than the native grandis, this difference is not great enough to indicate that there is any special significance in it. RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 25 Although the 1913 records on the oviposition period did not in any case approach the maximum recorded period, the average length was almost 5 days longer than the average of all previously recorded experiments. EXTERNAL DEPOSITION OF EGGS. In all types of breeding series and at all times during the season females were observed to deposit eggs externally. Usually, when the eges were deposited externally, the female was either infertile or about through ovipositing but not infrequently fertile eggs were deposited externally by females on the same day they deposited a number normally. A few observations were made of fertile females depositing eggs in empty glass tubes. Every time this happened the female would turn and immediately eat the egg. This habit of eating eggs deposited externally was observed many times and undoubtedly greatly reduced the number found. The eggs deposited externally were found in all manner of positions on the calyx and bracts of squares, some even being found on the outside of the bracts. When covered with a moist cloth and placed on damp sand several of the eggs hatched. In one case an egg hatched within 24 hours after deposition and two others hatched within 48 hours. As eggs in squares at this time were taking 3 and 4 days to hatch it seems evident that the period for those deposited externally was shortened by the greater exposure to the heat at the time. The tissue of the squares surrounding those deposited nor- mally probably reduces the temperature affecting the eggs. A number of larvee were observed after hatching from eggs deposited externally. Although several of these larvee were very near punc- tures in the square not one was observed to make its way into the square. They all moved around considerably but died within about one day after hatching. In one case a larva hatched from an egg placed about half inside a puncture and died without entering the square. Some of these larvee were taken immediately after hatching and placed in an incision in a square. These larve lived and matured. One larva hatched from an egg deposited on the petal of a Hibiscus bloom was placed in an opening ina Hibiscus bud and reached pupation safely. Many of the eggs deposited externally were not observed for hatch- ing, so no record can be given on the percentage of these eges that were infertile, but in one series of females that were depositing fertile eggs all eggs deposited externally were kept and records made on the number hatching. a as |ec| > ra Solas | a8 | SE = neo Belge |es lke) 8s /ee/8 |S |e Zoi qalZ | = “Fe B < Days Days. Days First generation. ..| Cotton] Sept. 2-24.....-.- 20 353 | 17.6 | 12 207 | 17.2 32 560 |} 17.5 squares. | ] Dow mae ee Oieis| Mayi2 erent co. PUNE)” 2151] SIS Bea Boece anaes Dil 38: lve 9.0 Doss See lh: GO se15|) SOD ts 20/6 -/=' 1 USB LSS ON | eters | series | eet 1 18 | 18.0 1D Yosh sepa -.-do....| Sept. 3-10....--.. 3 55 | 18.3 | 2 37 | 18.5 5 92 18. 4 ID) SAS er BeeRoae Cotton | Sept. 12-15.....-. 2 | 49 | 24.5 3 76 | 25.3 5 125 | 25.0 bolls. | True thurbe- | Cotton | May, Sept....---| 28 513 | 18.3 | 17 320 | 18.8 45 833 | 18.5 re. forms. | Male grandis by fe- | | male thurberizx: First genera- | Cotton | Sept. 7-Oct. 2...} 11 218 | 19.8 | 13 228 | 17.5 24 446} 18.5 tion. squares. DOPE eee .--do....| June 6-July 3...| 20 270} 13.5 }19 | 257 | 13.5 39 527 13.5 Second genera- |.-.do...-.) July 2-15.....-..-. 15 212 | 14.1 | 11 157 | 14.2 26 369 | 14.1 tion. MOON ET Na Pe fh I coger Sees ar Sn a 46 700 | 15.2 | 43 | 642 | 14.9 89 | 1,342 15.0 Male thurberie by female grandis: | First genera- | Cotton | Sept. 5-Oct. 4...) 22 387 | 17.5 | 15 265 | 17.6 37 652 | 17.6 tion. squares, | DOS ett .-.do....| May 30-June15..) 83 | 1,415 | 17.0 | 73 | 1,049 | 14.3 | 156 | 2,464 | 15.7 DO Ae. Pidose. =| Junesd'6=30) ses 35 453 | 12.9 | 39 510 | 13.0 74 936 | 13.0 lDwaaaeueen ee Oe er | UUlygl— (eee meen ee 17 208 112.2] 18! 226 | 12.5 35 434 | 12.4 Second genera- |...do....| June 24-July 6. .| 21 293 | 13.9 | 29 | 389 | 13.4 50 682 | 13.6 tion. | | Movaleeerce |= sone cine Spa dean es 178 | 2, 756 | 15.4 |174 | 2,439 | 14.0] 352] 5,195 | 14.7 Motalmots alleles WL OVS Rerrarcisep artes 791 |11, 897 | 15.0 |722 |10, 487 | 14.5 |1,513 |22,384 | 14.7 varieties. | : The total developmental period was also tested in the buds of Mibiscus syriacus during September and October. Three thurberie varied from 15 to 17 days, with an average of 16 days, and 2 grandis gave a period of 17 and 18 days, or an average of 17.5 days. GENERATIONS. In order to determine definitely the possible number of genera- tions of weevils in one season two series were carried through the breeding season. These were to determine the maximum and mini- mum number of generations in cotton squares from the first hiber- nated females to emerge in the spring. . In the maximum series the first eges from the first hibernated females found were saved for the emergence of the adults. The first of these adults to emerge were mated, their first eggs saved, and so on through each generation. Table XIX shows the results of this series. 30 BULLETIN 231, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste XIX.—Number of generations of the boll weevil—maximum series on squares. [First generation from first eggs of females that emerged from hibernation May 8 to 10.] Period from Mean tem- 2 Generation. Date. perature for| geen to period.: | Maturity (about). First generation: a Days. MS eS aid Pas setae ere erage soa am a eee icin ee eet aie May::, 19-24.) 22232 322 Sees Generation mature. ...-- BASE OSA HASH AERA H Ate CRESS June 4-8 78.2 28 Second generation: a Dyes ats Ele BAO Rs elec eel ee ena RTC a ASD Aa June 17-22! St Soc seealoaeeeatemecie Generation mature...) a2. eee PE sce sess socieals July 1-4 80.1 26 Third generation: a Offers hts Ee Ree Sa ROE nnn Ss oP een On aaa July 7-104)2 eae ccosen aoe eeeecee Generationsmature ss: 2e ees oh epee aot oe | July 20-22 84.3 19 Fourth generation: APES is Ula eA ea Sa een O nhs ABE ae SBR ARES oso 4 SACEAROe July (27-305 oe. eed scemiemseanene Generationsmature sate scent fos ee ret sie oe nee seen cee Aug. 9-11 87.5 20 Fifth generation: Mg esl aidis 2 sed eeats anak ea a see een ase se eae Emma e ass Aug. «19-228 eh eaicecis| seeeeeeeaaate Generation mature fos. 2s 6 ae esse eee = == = Sept. 3-5 85.2 25 Sixth generation: Weesilaid. ssc .22e Ses cece h aa 2:2 afarera ai dineee eine sis eine sae peste seas Sept.- 8-10 |-.5.-- ee eee Generationimature 1s 5 er oa ae sce es note teens maces Sept. 27-29 76.5 24 Seventh generation: Dp ef53) EN (6 RUE oy ORS Rea Aaron eee Ae Sn Reo Se ae At Octheh TALL Sessa eee e GONETALIONGMALUTO soyi2 seta siwiniete tae aie tat alae ym min ln oly) baat aero Nov. 2-4 69.8 36 1 The period referred to here is that from the average time of emergence of a generation to the same time in the next generation. The weevils were very unusually late in emerging from hiberna- tion at Victoria in the spring of 1913, the first being found on May 8. This is at least two or three weeks later than the usual time. As a result, nearly one complete generation was cut off the first of the season. The last generation secured in the breeding series was the seventh. The adults of this generation emerged November 2 to 4. At this time the cool weather had practically stopped all breeding in both cages and field, and this was considered to be the last gener- ation. However, the weather became warmer in the latter part of November and December, and on the 26th of December Mr. J. D. Mitchell found breeding in progress in the field. This was evidently a case of an extra generation caused by the unusually warm weather after the starting of hibernation. The maximum number of genera- tions in squares at Victoria in a normal season is evidently seven or eight. The minimum generation series was conducted quite differently. The last eggs were secured from the hibernated females used in start- ing the maximum series. The last adults reared from these eggs were mated and their last eggs secured. The results of this series are shown in Table XX. The last adults of the second generation did not mature until October 13 to 15, and as these certainly would enter hibernation this was considered as the minimum number of genera- tions from the first hibernated females. As the last females to emerge from hibernation in the spring would continue ovipositing much longer and the last weevils of the first reared generation would mature much later in the season, it seems quite possible for weevils of the first generation to enter hibernation in the fall. RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 81 TaBLe XX.— Number of generations of the boll weevil—minimum series on squares. [First generation from last eggs of females that emerged from hibernation May 8 to 10.] Period from maturity Mean tem- Generation. Date. : perature to maturity A (about). for period. Virst generation: Days. Oy Ob Wastte pe sHaide se we) Sek SUS See Pee ee he yt Ee Re Dualys T4168. S| see Bb oe sas se (Generatlonematuneee see ase seen ee cee eos «ae See necee oe July 29-30. .- 81 80.7 Last generation: Waste posplaidipeerercmaateee wits seine cess mite oie cle wie ae eee ce Septs:26-30 52 basa saceies a beseecsaace Generationmatune jase ggi8 2. jak ie 8 Ra SOR Oct. 13-15... 78 80.7 HIBERNATION. The hibernation of variety thurberiz in bolls of Thurberia is longer than any other phase of this phenomenon for the species. The adults mature in their cells before December, but remain therein until August or later around Tucson, Ariz. When removed from the cells they begin activity immediately. NATURAL CONTROL. Parasitism.—The parasitism of native weevil stages at Victoria during the season was very slight. In spite of the large numbers of infested squares and bolls collected in the field and held for the emer- gence of weevils, not a single parasite was reared. Several hundred infested squares and bolls were opened during the season and only one parasite larva was found. Late in the season two lots of squares were sent to the writer from Tallulah, La., by Mr. G. D. Smith. These were placed in cages for the emergence of adults and five species of parasites emerged. These were: Bracon mellitor Say; Catolaccus incertus Ashm.; Catolaccus hunteri Cwifd.; Cerambycobius cyaniceps Ashm.; Hurytoma tyloder- matis Ashm. Of these Bracon was much the more abundant. From the thurberxe imported from Arizona only one parasite was reared at Victoria. This was a specimen of Hurytoma sp. which had parasitized a weevil larva. During September what threatened to be a serious outbreak of a mite (probably Pediculoides sp.) appeared in the various breeding series. This infestation spread rapidly over many of the shelves where immature stages of weevils were being reared and soon killed a considerable number of these. This infestation was evidently con- trolled by the cool weather and no further trouble was experienced. Messrs. Schwarz and Barber found in Thurberia bolls two individ- uals parasitized by Ichneumonoidea. Disease.-—During the latter part of the season a curious epidemic of deaths of newly emerged weevils occurred in one breeding series. 32 BULLETIN 231, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Little attention was paid to the deaths at first, but in about three days nearly all weevils in this series had died. It was then noted that instead of presenting the usual appearance of death the weevils became very dark in color, almost black, in fact. On touching these weevils it was found that they were very soft and the body contents were liquified. This liquid had the usual dark color and character- istic odor of flacherie of lepidopterous larve. The source of the seemingly diseased weevils was investigated, and it was found that all came from squares kept in a California breeding box which had contained lepidopterous larvee infected with flacherie only a short time previously. Two of the dead weevils were submitted to Dr. G. F. White, of this bureau, for bacteriological examination, and he reported as foliows: In the examinations made the findings in the two specimens are the same. The direct examination shows the presence of a very large number of microorganisms, which seem to be bacteria. The appearances suggest that most of these organisms belong to one species. Comparatively few colonies appeared in plate cultures made from the material. There is some indication, therefore, that the trouble is bacterial in origin. These results can be interpreted, of course, only as suggesting the pos- sibility. While the results secured by Dr. White are by no means conclu- sive, they do, as he says, suggest the possibility of a bacterial dis- ease of the boll weevil. Although it is but a mere possibility, there is evidently an opportunity for considerable profitable investigation of the subject. _ BEHAVIOR OF LOUISIANA WEEVILS AT VICTORIA. Late in the season a number of infested squares were imported from Tallulah, La., in order to test the weevils emerging from them in their various life functions in comparison with Texas weevils. As the work was interrupted by the cool weather very little was learned from the series, but some results of interest were secured. Four pairs of weevils were mated on cotton squares immediately after emergence and tested for fecundity. These weevils emerged on September 18 and on September 20 one fémale deposited 1 egg and another deposited 2. The latter female deposited another egg on September 22, and then neither of these two deposited any more eggs before the series was closed on October 29. The third female lived through the same period and did not deposit an egg. The fourth female emerged September 20, deposited 1 egg on September 22, and then waited 14 days before depositing another. Then deposi- tion started normally and 37 eggs were laid in the next 23 days. These results are very peculiar, especially the fact that three out of the four females began deposition on the second day after emergence and then stopped; two of them permanently and one for a period of 14 days. RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL 30 The eggs deposited were tested for the maturing of adults, but none emerged, possibly owing to the cold weather. Native weevils were maturing in small numbers under the same conditions at this time, but as the number tested was so small there may not be any significance in this fact. These weevils were also tested for their ability to subsist on a diet of Hibiscus syriacus. 'The detailed results of this test have been published in the paper on the feeding habits of the weevils. As only blooms were available no tests were made of the ability of these weevils to breed in the buds of this plant, but they seemed as well adapted to the plant as the native and Thurberia weevils. DEVELOPMENT OF THURBERIA THESPESIOIDES. On May 21 a supply of seeds of Thurberia from the Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz., were planted at Victoria. A bed of rather sandy soil was selected in a well-drained situation. On May 26 the first seedling appeared above the ground and 11 plants were visible by Junel. Although over 100 seeds were planted only these 11 sprouted. These plants grew rather rapidly for a couple of months but formed no lateral branches of any consequence. The growth was entirely upward and the stems were very thin, causing the plants to require staking to prevent drooping. About August 20 a number of fruiting branches appeared near the top of the plants and these developed very rapidly. At this time the larger plants were 34 feet in height. On August 26 the first bud was observed and many more appeared daily for a period of about three weeks. Then fruiting was discontinued for a couple of weeks followed by the production of more fruiting branches. These plants continued to erow with intermittent formation of buds until the observations were discontinued on November 6. At this time several of the plants were more than 4 feet in height. At Batesburg, S. C., Mr. E. A. McGregor planted about 100 of these seeds in a sandy bed. Not a single one of these appeared above the soul. At Tallulah, La., Mr. G. D. Smith planted a number of seeds and only one sprouted. This plant lived through the season. EXAMINATION OF THURBERIA BOLLS. On March 10, 1914, the writer examined part of a lot of infested Thurberia bolls which had been collected by Messrs. Schwarz and Barber at from 4,500 to 5,000 feet altitude in Stone Cabin Canyon, Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz., on December 6, 1913. These bolls were shipped to Washington shortly after collection and placed in a cool cellar there until the day of examination. Seventy-seven of 34 ‘' BULLETIN 231, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the bolls yielded a total of 84 live weevils; one containing 3, 5 others containing 2 each, and the remainder containing 1 each. One boll had been completely eaten out by a bollworm, and another showed signs of weevil injury and a braconid parasite cocoon. Two dead pupe and 2 dead larve were found in 4 other bolls. Their deaths were in all probability due to climatic causes. The remaining boll contained signs of weevil larval work, but no insects, either dead or alive, were found. One boll which contained a weevil adult also contained a tiny, light-green lepidopterous larva. Of the 84 weevils found in the bolls, 52 were males and 32 were females. One additional male was found crawling among the bolls when the bag was opened. Those in the bolls were all tightly sealed in the pupal cells and were usually quiet when first opened. As soon as the weevils were exposed to the air they became quite active and remained that way. The peculiar feeding habit of the larve of these weevils is certainly well adapted to destroying the maximum number of seeds in a boll. They do practically all their feeding in the center of the boll and form the pupal cells in this same place. Owing to the arrangement of the seeds this location of the larva enables it to injure practically every seed in the boll instead of injuring those of one lock as is usual with the cotton weevils. On March 12, 1914, another lot of infested Thurberia bolls were examined. These were collected by Mr. Schwarz in a small canyon between Stone Cabin and Sawmill Canyons, Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz., on December 7, 1913, at about 3,900 feet altitude. The bolls were sent to Washington soon after collection and had been in a cool cellar from that time until examined. Examination of 39 of the bolls showed 2 clean and the remainder infested. Thirty-three bolls yielded 36 live weevils, 3 bolls contain- ing 2 each. Three dead adults (2 females and 1 male) were found in as many bolls. These deaths were probably due to climatic causes. One boll was found which showed signs of larval injury but the larva was not to be found. No signs of parasitism were found. One lepidopterous larva like the one noted in the preceding lot was found in a boll with a weevil. The live weevils consisted of 18 males and 18 females. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V BULLETIN OF THE USDEPARTENT OFAGRICULTURE %, Oo. 232 wy Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester, in coopera- tion with the Bureau of Crop Estimates, Leon M. Estabrook, Chief. : June 26, 1915, (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) THE PRODUCTION OF LUMBER IN 1913. By THE OrricE oF INDUSTRIAL INVESTIGATIONS. CONTENTS. Page Page TantmOGuCTIONIRS Ras! tae notes eet cto ae IPB ech s).. stke tok Sf. a doctonennis «stivegaeee 19 NAR ONG) Gos ewe Sane BOOS SERCO CCA Bose eE cree Oe iiCed an = 52a see EE aN eee 19 SD YGYDAS) NS) Tate: PE an Pt ne LO eB ASS WiOOG = josh Mien sttrecct ee crerycie aie ianr stars shiye 20 Oakes navsrat ee keke Sos ERE DEE Del 1] eS La ae SS ED RE Pa fol ea RIN es a ewe 21 \A CTU TOTES pe Sees eee SORES Hee ee or mee es oe Ui We COLLOM WOO GE se yee ea Be oeineeieeeeee 22 EVO TIM OC Keeney tate oat io =< che aie micas sins ieles|erajaiagejaic S| PASH a see si bs ae of here i Pe aoe ye Se See 23 WWGSTORMEDINGs Ay AGS eet ts PS ESE AeA 14 F)) iekorye- 232 EARS Sees be eas ie eee aie A 23 Cy TOSSES ees 2 eis doe ae este Sessa cite 14:4 Supgarpine jo2. 4 seekers aes ssesseceeee See 24 SDIUICOn eee ina aoc ionnic nosiecieemiezicccissie a HGS EA Bb os) Ka emer ee en OR aera Ne la SS oy 24 Map lene ened tia 28 UR face eet Oe 15 |} Balsambifinws SORA Passos) ya ht ye ope reper sere 25 1yaeh phe s eee oese 2 BES e ee oaaes omer Cc ACeEme Aa Ua PNK Lan gna pee Bee eines Re Re econ see aeamed 5a 25 SYCLO Wap OD lates atest = 2s Silos mciare ieee 1G) | Wialniite yey csc tee Gece rinse Se eee eeeee 26 RedwiOod meen sta se LPP OSS Eee Ba D7 MSY camoreles cst sete nose oe eas 26 Chrestnir tease aaync cerca egeciehncsek meses 17, Sbodgepole pines. sais eae eee ssa 27 MAT CPN See ARON en cio ich Gane dekeyetneuiettye brs 18
  • 408 MILLS 203 mILey SCALE ONE BILLION. FEET BOARD MEASURE {S REPRESENTED BY THIS SQUARE Fie. 1a.—Production of the different kinds of lumber, by States, for the calendar year 1913. [The squares printed on the map represent the total production of lumber in the several States; the two parts of the squares separated by the vertical dividing lines represent the production of softwood (S) and hardwood (H), respectively.] 6 BULLETIN 232, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 2.— Total production of lumber in 1913 by production classes of sawmills. Per cent Per cent Number | of total Production group classes. of mills | number epee ted | of tom reporting.| of mills eu Seen reporting. cote Thousand bourd feet. WW nited:6 tates. coke aise onice oe mine e oes neces =e eae 21, 668 100.0 | 38,387, 009 100.0 Class 5—10,000 M board feet and over ......-....-...---22-2-- 974 4.5 | 23,211, 667 60.5 Class 4—5 000 M'+0'10;000 Mi board! feet.-.2 22" 2-2-5. 5... cece 740 3.4 | 4,303, 122 TED Class 3—1 000 M toi ,000 Mrboardtleet:.: 53. - ce sat s- -= see. 3, 265 15.1 | 6,319, 753 16.5 _ Class 2—500 Mtol 000 IM board f@0he= Sane schosece Ns + ac eee 3,148 14.5 2,049, 642 5.3 Class 1—50 M to 500 M board feet..... ..........-.++-2ss-s-- 13, 541 62.5 | 2,502, 825 6.5 Table 3 shows the production by capacity classes, as does Table 2, but here the amounts are listed by kinds of woods. This table shows that the quantity of each kind of lumber sawed by the different capacity classes of sawmills indicates that about 60 per cent of the total lumber production in 1913 was sawed by mills cutting 10,000,000 feet and over annually. Some of these mills cut but one kind of wood, such as yellow pine or Douglas fir, but others cut several kinds, as in the case of hemlock and hardwood mills in the Lake States. The table, therefore, should not be interpreted to indicate the existence of mills of any class sawing any wood exclusively. Mills sawing 10,000,000 feet and over annually sawed in 1909, the only other year for which such figures are available, 19,125,123,000 feet, or 43 per cent of the total quantity of lumber cut in that year, while mills of the other classes produced somewhat larger proportions of the total lumber cut than in 1913. TABLE 3.—Lumber sawed. - (M feet b. m.) 1913 Mills Mills Mills Mills Mills 7 A sawing | sawing sawing | sawing | sawing otal otal Kind of wood. —_| 19.000 M 15,000 M to |1,000 M to | 500 M to | 50 M to 1912. 1911, and over | 10,000 M | 5,000 M | 1,000 M 500 M Total. an- an- an- an- an- nually— | nually— | nually— | nually— | nually— Group 5. | Group 4. | Group 3.} Group 2.| Group 1. 1. Yellow pine...... 9, 256, 536] 1,732, 716| 2,657,104] | 676,368| 516, 639|14, 839, 363|14, 737, 052/12, 896, 706 2. Douglas fir... ..| 4,771,302] 7408, 387| 7286,631] 42,959] _46, 817| 5, 556, 096/ 5, 175, 123] 5, 054, 243 Oakes Lee 557,414] 486,152) 906,194] 4947951! 767, 007| 3, 211, 718| 3,318, 952] 3,098, 444 4. White pine....... 1,659,990] 147, 732| 442°551] 140,317] 178, 046] 2} 568) 636] 3, 138, 227] 3,230,584 5. Hemlock........- 1,573, 094] 245,454| 265,776] -80,595| 155, 063] 2,319, 982] 2, 426, 554] 2,555, 308 6. Western pine ....| 855,385| 127,964 166,701] 43,741] 64, 737| 1,258, 528] 1,219, 444] 1, 330, 700 7 Cypress 864,700} 108,420] 101,494] 14, 325 8, 308| 1,097,247] * 9977297] "981; 527 8 643,752] 132,716} 166,243] 54,042] 50, 063] 1,046, 816] 1, 238, 600] 1, 261, 728 9 429,317 99/198] 184,068] 77,033] 111,871! 7901; 487] 1,020,864) 7951; 667 10 277, 591| 195,056] 205,059] 43,480] 51/328| 772,514| 694,260] 582, 967 185,252} 119,647] 169,211] 66,862| 79,204) +620,176| 623,289] 659, 475 476,527| 26, 485 4) 250 1,550 1,459] 510,271) 496; 796| 489; 768 118,791} 76,491| 142,563] 79,603] 88,354} +505; 802| 554,230} 529,022 301, 796| 46,369] 27,594 6,795| 12,719 395,273) 407,064] 368,216 170,376] 49,954| 91,736] 29,757| 36,916] 378, 739| 388,272] 432, 571 94,641) 29,411) 93,866} 56,990| 90,593| 365,501| 435,250] 403, 881 277, 087| 36,341| 30, 056 7, 546 7,414] 358,444) 329,000} 374, 925 107,515 35,833| 42,777| 23,385] 47,592] 257,102] 296, 717| 304, 621 70, 369] 22,193) 44,299 21,974] 55,774] 214,532] 262,141) 236, 108 88,289] 56,459} 38, 632 7,522} 18,036 208,938) 227,477| 198, 629 52,146] 39,695 63,586, 22,010] 30,379] 207,816, 234,548! 214, 398 14,726] 12,325] 72,047| +—«-27, 438| «36, 444] 162,980} 278, 757| 240, 217 THE PRODUCTION OF LUMBER IN 1913, TABLE 3.—Lumber sawed—Continued. 1913 Mills Mills Mills Mills Mills i . sawin sawing | sawin sawing | sawing Tota Total Kind of wood. | 15,900 Mf (5,000 M to|1,000 M-tol 500 M to | 50 M to 1912. 1911. and over! 10,000 M| 5,000 M | 1,000M | 500 M Total. an- an- an- an- an- nually— | nually— | nually— | nually— | nually— Group 5.| Group 4.| Group 3.} Group 2.| Group 1. 23. Sugar pine....... 134, 396 4,175 10, 233 632 490} 149,926} 132,416] 117,987 24. Tupelo..-...-.--- 67, 891 27,959 19,977 3,108 1,485] 120,420) 122,545 98, 142 25 Balsam firs se... 34, 241 7, 438 24, 889 13, 233 13, 951 93, 752 84, 261 83, 375 26. White fir........- 75, 346 4, 683 5,020 1,255 1, 805 88,109) 122,613) 124, 307 OTeaWalauteen neces 4, 668 5,860} 19,924 4, 463 5,650/ 40,565] 43,083] _— 38,293 28. Mahogany........ 22, 750 8,004 4, 410 615 482} 36,261) 29,209] 21, 328 29. Sycamore. ....-.-- 11, 659 2,727 5, 207 2, 767 8, 444 30, 804 49, 468 42, 836 305 odgepolevpine. ..|1-- 0.0.0 -|-..-. eeu 12, 925 1,020 6,161} 20,106) 22,039} 33,014 S18 Cherry een... 5, 205 802 3, 839 1,421 2,859 14,126] 22,245! 21, 422 32. Buckeye....--... 2,323 948 1, 804 347 1,000 6, 422 13, 742 11, 737 Boe WOCUSUE t Menisce. «= 122 206 3, 775 13 391 5, 507 5, 058 5, 450 SP IWillo ws. a -- 3, 462 790 200 42 259 4, 753 2,961 1, 130 35. Cucumber........ 860 1, 168 424 347 625 3, 424 T0315 2es2ce ee 36. Magnolia.......-. 40 1, 605 1,297 220 106 3, 268) 122 2,418 37. Hackberry ....... 510 399 277 260 669 2,115 157) see sane 38. Butternut....-:..-. 640 239 504 244 337 1, 964 Gaal eiosseseee 39. Persimmon 1,904 DOA areal 40. Dogwood 1,373 258A) easy Al Pecan cae AO Beek semeuelleesogaoaNe ADE DODY; feoeeeel = «0 1.000) ec onc acts ae OE 43. Spanish cedar (EU GAR Sa eee Sapo B ac cic 44, Alder......-: 625 oc.nc ote Oe ee eeEe 45. Apple... .. 269 W78) ssc atiet 46. Silverbell 194 SOD Rats eee APMUODISCLOM hee = oes ee eieecee = 133 150 peeeeeaene 48. Sassafras......--. 126 LG satan teeters AGE CAlyPEUSeR eee tals acento | ete calomel ac matsc lee cee le criats eters 50 50 (soodaae 5OMHormbeam!. 22065255. a ahs Benes a a eal ae ae 35 Bb) aeeaceton aneeaccoas DEES OISKOMAT CHa amas nomi (cc ott siaretarsieine'e « 2D mercer cies 10 35 311 1,210 GPh IMEI. s Soo b6seelboansa gece sabacoondo pooboscasd asoneqooos 25 25) ease mancweteceeoees LBL COCCI ED) Seo adeee| Beceooseed deceodoons \lapsrarererere terete HN BobeSeasee fy ROBE Sel SaeceneneS pa Mullberryssas2 2. (le Fe ( Ll fertoptasaae AIL Gethhic ee 5 1 See are Gre Gay, Chm onsale wages! ede saaese leebosbonadl aoddsacsus|loosraosoce 4 AMS kine Gio ore all eee eee Sos tronWOOdssbe sesso sees ae ecco ct alba succtee 1 1 Pe Sete Blancas os S75 Claim ionne as 38 aaaeageoosel eeadoooods lsbsenoocecd |seocoabede 1 Dore erere i eles een rete Minor species, 1912. ara ei) Be ceheaNsaa| Saadacsese ser <4AENH| badecSoSGallSsencccode Spacdsocsod Monadacacs 1, 700 4, 853 Motale see 23, 211, 667| 4,303,122) 6,319,753) 2,049, 642) 2, 502, 825|38, 387, 009 39, 158, 414/37, 003, 207 Table 4 shows the lumber production by States for the years 1913, 1912, and 1911, and also shows the number of active mills reporting in each year. ‘ TasBLe 4.—Numober of active lumber mills reporting and quantity of lumber sawed, by States, 1913, 1912, and 1911. Number ofactive mills Lumber sawed (M feet b. m.). reporting. Number State of mills i reporting 1913 1912 1911 1913 1912 1911 idle, 1913. United States.........| 21,668 29,648 28,107 | 38,387,009 | 39,158,414 | 37,003, 207 4, 674 Nyashin stones suse: hue 469 788 777 | 4,592,053 | 4,099,775 | 4,064,754 51 NEO MUSIATIa este) ee AS 408 460 502 | 4,161,560 | 3,876,211 | 3,566,456 75 Mississippi....-....-..--.. 679 952 908 | 2,610,581 | 2,381,898 | 2,041,615 162 Op OTN eet ee eo tie 406 480 522 | 2,098,467 | 1,916,160 | 1,803,698 125 BO KAS ey ops se ee i Cok a Ls 341 450 430 | 2,081,471 | 1,902,201 | 1,681,080. 79 North Carolina 1,531 2,418 2,071 | 1,957,258 | 2,193,308 | 1,798, 724 395 Arkansas 808 1,145 1,127 | 1,911,647] 1,821,811 | 1,777,303 168 Alabama 816 1, 249 1,112] 1,523,936 | 1,378,151 | 1,226,212 214 Wisconsin... 612 792 771 | 1,493,353 | 1,498,876 | 1,761,986 137 Virginia 1,574 2,126 2,005 | 1,273,953 | 1,569,997 | 1,359, 790 348 West Virginia 678 961 994 | 1,249,559 | 1,318,732 | 1,387, 786 153 Michigan 532 792 796 | 1,222,983 | 1,488,827 | 1,466, 754 96 California 141 229 222 1, 183, 380 1, 203, 059 1, 207, 561 84 Minnesota 354 484 467 1,149, 704 1, 436, 726 1,485, 015 87 DLO TG a ease ae eA 203 397 295 | 1,055,047 | 1,067,525 983, 824 64 | | | | 8 BULLETIN 232, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe 4.—Number of active lumber mills reporting and quantity of lumber sawed, by States, 1913, 1912, and 1911—Continued. Number of active mills Number of mills reporting idle, 1913. reporting. Lumber sawed (M feet b. m.). . State. 1913 1912 1911 1913 1912 1911 pRennesseee. = ects 20. sete 1,155 1,567 1,536 872,311 932,572 914,579 Georsiaset. bese 688 1,117 952 844, 284 941, 291 801, 611 Maine ete see oe ee 686 826 817 834, 673 882, 128 828, 417 Pennsylvania.../.....-... 1,159 1,724 1, 636 781,547 | - 992,180 | 1,048, 606 south Carolinals. .. oo. 3 497 750 541 752, 184 816, 930 584, 872 Tdahor cs. t eesti 161 202 209 652, 616 713,575 765, 670 Kentuck ye tt ist. 2 ors 1,061 1,386 1,452 541, 531 641, 296 632, 415 INewWAY orki2) fb. 22. desde 1,$17 1,487 1,520 457,720 502, 351 526, 283 Missouris i222... Ute 844 1,210 1,112 416, 608 | 422,470 418, 586 Ohios:: J3db ees 12 ees 826 1,156 1,009 414, 943 499, 834 427,161 Montana: fie) 20 0.5 Siu st 109 118 126 357, 974 272,174 228,416 andiana: =e S52. ceeek 695 978 915 332, 993 401, 017 360, 613 New Hampshire........-: 305 441 397 309, 424 479,499 388, 619 Massachusetts. .........-- 312 420 430 224, 580 259, 329 273,317 Wermontiivi 82. 2s 363 507 498 194, 647 235, 983 239, 254 Marylan dit) fac, ene 258 404 389 140, 469 174, 320 144,078 Oklahomatt!..-< 3. eA 22 113 200 174 140, 284 168, 806 143, 869 PULin gases EP erase eee eS 275 463 394 102, 902 122, 528 96, 651 Connecticut... 177 215 218 93, 730 109, 251 124,661 Arizona reso fo. Ye 14 12 12 77, 363 | 76, 287 73, 139 Colorado. 248 5... 5K E 89 135 156 74, 602 88, 451 95, 908 New Mexico... 2.....25h 4 28 41 47 65, 818 82, 650 83, 728 New Jersey..-.-----22 024 94 146 136 27, 248 34, 810 28, 639 OWA ele Pees a Sos ete 111 157 160 21,676 46,593 59, 974 South Dakota......l20..- 15 28 28 19, 103 20, 986 13, 046 Delaware: ft... Ges. 44 86 82 18, 039 28, 285 23, 853 Rhode Island......2..- 15 22 20 14, 984 14,421 9,016 Weyomin ge’ jo. 2 sheee. 57 56 75 12,940 13,560 33, 309 Lats yo ste ee 39 59 62 5,403 9,055 10,573 All other States1......... 9 12 is 19,461 | 22, 525 11, 786 1 Includes Kansas, Nebraska, and Nevada. Table 5 shows the lumber production by kinds of wood for the years 1913, 1912, and 1911, and also the per cent of increase and the per cent of distribution for each year. TABLE 5.—Quantity of lumber sawed, with per cent of increase and per cent of distribution, by kinds of wood, 1913, 1912, and 1911. Quantity (M feet b. m.). 1912 1911 39,158,414 | 37,003, 207 Kind of wood. 1913 Total. .cs0nce----| 38,381,009 Yellow pine.........- 14, 839, 363 DouglasiGr 3-325... 5, 556, 096 Oaksater st cccececes 3, 211, 718 White pine..........- 2, 568, 636 Hemlock Western pine... CyPress~ 2 <== - =< pees RNR hoe noi Miata ADlOsscaceaeesmaen ac Red gum Yellow poplar........ 620, 176 Redwood.........-.- 510, 271 Chestnuts... +--+... 505, 802 USAT CO Diese pict evens 2 «1 - 395, 273 Bir cheeses oe - = 378, 739 Beeche-2! sew swen ce. - 365, 501 Godaris= tour ears. 358, 444 Basswood........---- 257, 102 lms.) oe Creme ss oF 214, 532 Cottonwood.......--- 208, 938 SH eh. perc eanaetee es 207, 816 VICK OT Yih we en cee 162, 980 14, 737, 052 | 12, 896, 706 5, 175, 123 3,318, 952 3, 138, 227 2) 426,554 1, 219, 444 997, 227 1, 238, 600 1, 020, 864 694, 260 623, 289 496, 796 554, 230 407, 064 _ 388, 272 435, 250 329, 000 296, 717 262) 141 227, 477 231, 548 278, 757 5, 054, 243 3,098, 444 3, 230, 584 2) 555, 308 1, 330, 700 981, 527 1, 261, 728 951, 667 582, 967 659, 475 489, 768 529, 022 368, 216 432, 571 403, 881 374, 925 304, 621 236, 108 198, 629 214, 398 240, 217 Per cent of in- Per cent of distribu- crease.! tion. 1912 to | 1911 to 1913 1912 1913 | 1912 | 1911 = BG 5. 100.0] 100.0] 1 a 1 37. 6 7.4 13. 2 Bos —18 — 4, _ 3. = 10. —15 = Sul i) CORR De OCOOCOAINOWAOON ENN _ a OP LOWE Ft RS BO NTS OP at G6 SUSE OUR NO CSCHUOCMPNMDNADEANHWOAMHOOM FW ao _ 1 A minus sign (—) denotes decrease. a) aibpbratre a bral I Ad td KAMA NWSSOSCOWOWDORNOWOAI- Crm oie FA re be bat Pe RO Gi 01S? 00 00 NABUDDHOCHWODONUHNOM ie et tt tr eno Co no Oo oo cope || S AaAoWnNADORK NOCH WHDOAGKENOONKNSC!! © THE PRODUCTION OF LUMBER IN 1913. 9 TABLE 5.—Quantity of lumber sawed, with per cent of increase and per cent of distribution, by kinds of wood, 1913, 1912, and 1911—Continued. Quantity (M feet b. m.). Per cen, a in- Per cent: on Cstribu- Kind of wood. re : ; 2 to 911 to 1913 1912 1911 1913 1912 1913 1912 1911 Sugar pine..........- 149, 926 132, 416 117, 987 13.2 12.2 0. 4 0.3 0.3 TUS lon eee kau ay! 120, 420 122, 545 OSM4a i SFr 7 24.9 43 #3 £83 Balsam ess se a 93, 752 84, 261 83, 375 11.3 ilpat ~2 a2 a4 Aa) eons eS 88, 109 122, 613 124, 307 —28.1 — 1.4 72 43) 23 \i/ IT pee Aenee Seeeee 40, 565 43, 083 38, 293 — 5.8 12.5 Sy! iL fal SyCamorevssss-ce 204 30, 804 49, 468 42, 836 —37.7 15.5 oll gal tl Lodgepole pine.....-. 20,106 22, 039 33, 014 — 8.8 —33. 2 Ral aul pal Minor species!......- | 85, 366 82,145 69,548 3.9 18.1 2 e2) 32 1 See Table 34 for kinds of wood included and quantities of the more important kinds. YELLOW PINE. Yellow-pine lumber is cut from a number of species growing east of the Rocky Mountains. Three of them furnish most of the material, although the minor species are cut to a limited extent. There is a growing tendency to purchase southern yellow pine under specifica- tions which designate the quality of the wood desired for the pur- pose, irrespective of species, to avoid the present confusion at lumber inspection points. The several species with their ranges follow: Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) occurs on the coastal plains from extreme southeast Virginia to Texas, and in the whole Florida peninsula except the extreme southern part. Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) has its range north of that of longleaf, as far as New York, but likewise extending from the Atlantic coast to Texas and Oklahoma, and running northward to southern Mis- sourl, West Virginia, and New Jersey. Loblolly pine (Pinus teda) grows in approximately the same region as longleaf, as far north as New Jersey, but not in as large solid bodies and it is found farther north and west than longleaf pine. This and the two preceding species furnish the bulk of yellow-pine lumber. Slash pine (Pinus heterophylla), sometimes called Cuban pine, ranges throughout Florida, northward to South Carolina, and west- ward to Mississippi. Spruce pine (Pinus glabra) ranges through southern South Carolina, the southern portions of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, south- eastern Louisiana and northwestern Florida. Pond pine (Pinus serotina) is found along the coast and a hundred miles or so inland from southern Virginia to western Florida, but not in the southern half of the Florida peninsula. Sand pine (Pinus clausa) is confined almost wholly to Florida and southern Alabama. Scrub pine (Pinus virginiana) occurs from northern New Jersey to southern Indiana and southward to central Georgia. Pitch pine (Pinus rigida) occurs from Georgia to New Brunswick and westward to Tennessee and Ohio. 88953°—Bull. 232—15——2 10 BULLETIN 232, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table Mountain pine (Pinus pungens) grows among the Appalachian ranges from northeastern Pennsylvania to northern Georgia. Longleaf pine is milled mostly in the Gulf States, including Georgia and Florida. The yellow pine produced by mills in Arkansas and the lumber known commercially as North Carolina pine and coming from Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina include both lob- lolly pine and shortleaf pine. Slash pine (Pinus heteroph ylla), a wood of many excellent qualities, is cut to some extent in Florida and other southeastern States and is usually sold along with longleaf pine. There are a number of yellow pines in the West which are not in the same commercial group as those of the East and South. One of them, called western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) is specially reported i in Table 11; the others are at present of little importance in the lumber output. Table 6 shows the production of yellow pine by States in the year 1913 and also the number of active milis in each State. TABLE 6.— Yellow-pine lumber sawed. Number Quantity | Per cent State. ailleree (M feet of distri- porting. b. m.). bution. (WmitediS Cates srcite ane soe Mee pe ee ENRL ae es LS yay eee eine eo 7,639 | 14,839,363 100.0 TB OUISIaN a eee arse sas LOT oat eee oe ee Sle Late er eae 299 | 3,092,375 20.8 MASSISSTO DICE Pals SOE CARA ARE RUNS CY SC ee Fe ee eT LE BIC 540 | 2,224,711 15.0 LTO KAS ape ace Here aet a ic wi erereie See atee chbs od oper eile a4 tiai eee Ue ene nye araten Ue Jkt 317 2 024, 231 DSH ef North Carolin aera -Becetsc cect sesinuson cee os teee se ewes Tid REMY Geese Be hE 1,522 | 1 *515, 102 10. 2 Alabama. ...... Spatafeserctalehatatata, Seem iatclataralevosete ala} sta neee ts, Rie ah re cate yee e ee me 744 if 395, 059 9.4 Alpican SAS FAAS a SSS ELS 8S Bs CUES SEE AGNES tots EERE Eee (ae CAN USELESS B - ae 467 1, 174, 498 7.9 AEG] OVI Ae errs c pyoieinnnislaeiaye sale siege sisi etanee o afoare ate, can SAS ooe Pr ereeebene 193 923) 873 6.2 VAP UMLa =P RES ears ale alevar toh nce me macys Anan aioe dn tenements 2 etd 1,023 810, 362 5.5 (CICCHIAE Bes dS Coos Oaae BOOSeG IOC Sd nose aap ORE AC SSE Sena a ME SAEs a Nicer sem 671 662, 043 4.5 SoutimCarolinas J2EN55 4752 < BE BNE TEAS IITE oRSUS PLE 2 OS eee 492 635, 426 4.3 Oda Om ae eee cee ere ore cis che oe leare eee nn ace eimai 55 120, 860 -8 Wikia Bho ls So nocaseis dee pbcaa4 ceC eS oR RO UUEr COSA SHAS oN aN gs 5 ius Sa eee 165 65, 143 -4 FRONT OSS CO seamaster ote eee alee te alee tee eteia eae nicinin = AOI pieraeieeptestels 343 60, 137 BC MMEISSOUBIA CRASS Non RU AE SASL NN ET Re RR ete OE fe eee ey yes 130 57, 023 .4 IN UCI SES ober Geese CBCS EERO CHARGE OBE cei iets betel Ae tat pedetapear eas 678 78, 520 a) 1 Includes establishments distributed as follows: Connecticut, 24; Delaware, 35; Illinois, 3; Indiana, 2; Towa, 2; Kentucky, 195; Maine, 25; Massachusetts, 30; New Hampshire, 3; ‘New Jersey, 46; Ohio, 25; Pennsylvania, 193; Rhode Island, 6; Vermont, 3; and West V irginia, 86. DOUGLAS FIR. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) yields more acai annually than any other single species of the United States. The best stands of timber are found in the northwestern coast States but Douglas fir is also cut to some extent in the Rocky Mountain region. TaBLe 7.—Douglas fir lumber sawed. Number | Quantity | Per cent State. vnillere, | (M feet | of distri- THUMSTO= 1} Shem). | bution: porting. WmitediS tates! 2c: cee See Se ey ee pee ae ae Spee eae Xe 980 | 5,556,096 100. 0 SVVIAS AT BLOT aera ce jatescieceSie: cen ate es a eke ee Re iota MISE otis Seine A wc 393 | 3,615, 480 65.1 CONA:Y Aa) « Pear g et SS ee ae ei CGE e eR i 5”) SOE CO te 319 | 1,675, 391 30. 2 (OE nite) abt: Woe yeh eae AVR Se hy a en a, | AMOR Se ey Oe a aa 69 132, 176 2.4 MOL Gaba ARO mmr ee ae a Lea Oe a ie PA Pet kl Cee 108 67, 112 1.2 IMOnTaN Se = oe area e ee ee Ree ote ele cage ele chc wore eras BRU EReere ered. 68 | 63, 494 Gal AdlothoeriStatest. cs h2i5- Leena one wee Reese. Se AIR Pe HERES 23 | 2,493 0.0 1Tncludes establishments distributed as follows: Arizona, 2; Colorado, 7; New Mexico, 2; Utah, 4; and Wyoming, 8. THE PRODUCTION OF LUMBER IN 1913. 11 OAK. While the sawmill statistics group all oak timber as if it were cut from a single species, there are, in fact, 50 or more kinds of oak in the United States, divided nearly equally between white and red oaks, the two classes generally recognized commercially. The bulk of oak lumber is cut from less than a dozen species. The wood of the red oaks is usually tinged with red, hence the name. The largest part of the country’s oak lumber is furnished by the following trees: White oak (Quercus alba) is the common tree of the name in the eastern half of the United States. It is as widely dispersed as any other. Post oak (Quercus minor) has practically the same range as common white oak but is less abundant. Bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) occurs from the northern Atlantic coast to the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains in Montana, and southward to Tennessee and Texas. Overcup or forked-leaf white oak (Quercus lyrata) is the most important of the southern white oaks. Its best development is in the lower Mississippi Valley. Cow or basket oak (Quercus michauz) is confined principally to the States south of the Ohio and Potomac Rivers. Chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) ranges through the northeastern States, extending a hundred miles or more westward of the Appa- lachian Mountains and southward to Alabama. The foregoing are white oaks, and are so classed in the forest and at the mill yard. The six species which follow are red oaks: The common red oak (Quercus rubra) is a northern tree ranging from Nova Scotia to Nebraska and along the mountains to northern Georgia. Texas red oak or spotted oak (Quercus texana) furnishes the main supply of red oak lumber in the lower Mississippi Valley. Pin oak (Quercus palustris) ranges from Massachusetts south- westerly to Oklahoma. Scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea) is a northern and northeastern tree, its habitat being bounded westward and southward by Illinois, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Yellow or black oak (Quercus velutina) is found in most States east of the Rocky Mountains, but is more abundant in the North than in the South. Willow or peach oak (Quercus phellos) is of commercial importance . in the Southern States only, but it grows naturally as far north as New York. 12 BULLETIN 232, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 8.—Oak lumber sawed. es Quantity | Per cent State. mills re. | (Meet | of distri- porting. b. m.). bution. WTITeCKS tatas= reat: 2. § SERRE SNA eS. oo Sete eeeeeeeneeaseee 12,927 | 3,211,718 SVVLOS TR VALY Ln Teta seen te AP Rae a AUN Pg A Ne OS cr ere ete 651 408, 047 : MOnNeSseG. 22h cename sce eee cicce cae aoe a cena die ste eects tere 1,073 386, 132 I PATS ATI SAS Hs Nevermore a ete Se atatar sm Sars tele Oat ra cions atc lanotn as wis 2 aerate arciate otra rete 462 299, 809 9.3 IKCOnICKsye tetas tease saat Sooke see espe Se ae aise + ciclcmeeactes cata 1,031 289, 406 9.0 AVAL TTL ely em erate ae reel Store SEN ee Rec oe ME ect eee ey oa oe ae emer re is 1,158 255, 109 7.9 OIG SERRE soe NA Ne St AL RES ak oo, A Eee tee oe care 772 207, 503 6.5 MESSO TITIES Sree netate a RSME Se a) Le Dake ated ena a Es |S foe Aneta 784 197, 787 6.2 INOcthiCarolina® Se sas cas Ak Le Mee Se oe) ate he Se ae See eee oe 1, 007 172, 972 5.4 IB ONTS VAV Tee ASS tr oN se See nist eee eee ones a 919 166, 936 HZ in Gian dives eet one eee oo Se oe eee Sees oe aa Coe em ee ene mee eee 665 151, 047 4.7 IMMISSISSID Dla eee ction ale rss fejais Jaen tae Soe coe eee ma Salsa ie cemresee ee 258 120, 365 3.8 MVOUMISIAN Bits te cisco ain sejuatces seen atne thes aajcteis qeisjenjete de eectroeome 94 118, 199 Bb Tl MI EGY Oh a asp cae Dial pe mae eee ye ean rt ee IR RM es oda Seo 383 67, 655 2.1 MEM OISS Meee tt maroc nyse tee cose cr ce meca sete occa see ae eee ere ae 269 54, 845 1.7 Georgia..... ee 328 45, 294 1.4 Maryland. Bias 196 36, 364 bil PROXASH nes 90 29,335 .9 Wisconsin.. 334 25, 133 8 ENG WRI OT KAS ere nee ieee en ee renee tet nee SR SR Snr 871 24,788 -8 South Carolina 158 20, 816 a7 Connecticut 160 20, 320 .6 SiGe eke eae ad eS eee SS eRe BS. eS rie ene 153 16, 161 5 All other States! 1,111 | 97,695 3.0 1 Includes establishments distributed as follows: California, 5; Delaware, 30; Florida, 7; Iowa, 92; Kansas, 5; Massachusetts, 176; Michigan, 201; Minnesota, 192; Nebraska, 1; New Hampshire, 156; New fersey, 78 Oklahoma, 79; Oregon, 10; Rhode Island, 14; Vermont, 64; and Washington, 1. WHITE PINE. Lumbermen group several pines as white pine in the yards, and one or more of them are reported from 28 States. Two are not the white pines of the botanists, but the lumber frequently passes as such. White pine (Pinus strobus) is the most used and the best known of the white pines. It is the familar pine of this name of the Lake States, New York, New England, the eastern Canadian Provinces, and of the Appalachian region from Pennsylvania to Georgia. Users often call it soft pine. Norway pine (Pinus resinosa), sometimes called red pine, is lum- bered principally in the Lake States, but also farther east. Its range is nearly coextensive with white pine, but it does not follow the moun- tains much south of New York. Botanically it is closely related to the yellow pines. Certain grades are frequently marked as white pine but the wood has a large market under its own name. Jack pine (Pinus divaricata) is small and of no great importance as lumber, yet it helps to swell the statistics of white pine. It is found from New Brunswick to northern Indiana and Minnesota, and northward almost to the Arctic Circle. It has many local names, among them scrub pine, black pine, and in some parts of Canada has been known as cypress for 200 years. Western white pine (Pinus monticola) is the principal western wood included in the output of white-pine lumber. It occurs from Montana and Idaho to British Columbia and California, but the largest output is at present credited to Idaho. It is occasionally called silver pine. THE PRODUCTION OF LUMBER IN 1913. 13 There are other western pines belonging in the white class, the best known of which is sugar pine, which is separately listed in Table 27, and is discussed on a later page of this report. TABLE 9.— White pine lumber sawed. Sumber Quantity | Per cent State. muilleme® (M feet | of distri- . b. m.). bution. porting. United States... _- SBA SARC CUES aR ADBES SECA doc co TOdC CRP eH oaaSpAone 4,071 2, 568, 636 100.0 MUI ES OLA Ree ee css eeu 2h 8 SL en Sp Se 4 So 139 | 1,027, 265 40.0 VVAISCOMSING Semen POLARS CPA ARN A ee oop eee “eee gs See sed 2 382 308, 841 12.0 WIG 5 isis J SOARES FA aT a IANS Sa rare crm eeliy PD ch ni A On 442 239, 303 9.3 IO EITO. 555454 Oe ASAE oe Ss ee Ree eee es ol tle Ty alee Maa eee Re 38 227, 845 8.9 WGOur LET OS wie SIS ae ae ae a ee a ea 8 es es mn 264 181, 885 ton IMassachisettsye a5 402k yet ie ek. ey eb gay ee oe dee 280 121,739 4.7 Mire ha ern ere eee eins mice ot a ee amo oto no R Cee ei iaciate nee cine tec 230 101, 281 3.9 My ashin etOneere = Ree ters. gor eeeey Ke tet Fo a ei ak peered 19 83, 974 3.3 INORG WGA, nb! SERS SHS ASS SEED ee ae re ein 0 ict te PNN SiRa 1,028 66, 201 2.6 Renusylvaniast sister ts oye eee ES es 5. aes ae tee Pe 478 57, 102 282 NOREEN Carolina sei oe Hae ccs see hasan a sf suet = 2 ana oeea ache seeaeine tricne 162 40,710 1.6 MON tana tree ort at EO fossa e ey Te pobrs eee rus. 9343 16 24, 606 1.0 Tennessee......--- 113 17,391 0.7 Wermlontiacs. 5222.5 108 16, 707 0.6 PASE LTO GIN OLR Ley LOS HLS eae ae Se ee eT ete ote a ein aU CS Sen rape mn 372 53, 786 2.1 1 Includes establishments distributed as follows: Colorado, 2; Connecticut, 70; Georgia, 21; Indiana, 2; Towa, 3; Kentucky, 20; Maryland, 10; Ohio, 2; Oregon, 7; Rhode Island, 13; South Carolina, 1; Virginia, 165; West Virginia, 49; and Wyoming, 7. HEMLOCK. Practically all of the hemlock that reaches market in the United States comes from one eastern and one western species. The former is known simply. as hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). It is a northern tree, plentiful from Maine to Minnesota, and following the mountain ranges southward to the Carolinas and Tennessee. The other species is known as western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and is found from Montana to the Pacific coast and southward to California. A scarcer western species is the Mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), some- times called black hemlock. It occurs among the northern Rocky Mountains and westward to the Pacific. The Carolina hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana) is likewise a mountain tree and grows in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee. The eastern and the western mountain hemlocks are not extensively lumbered. A reference to the States in Table 10 will reveal the output from the other two. TasLeE 10.—Hemlock lumber sawed. Number Quantity | Percent State. mills re. | (Mfeet | of distri- Seabee | pution: porting. WW MIbedyStatasstc the eae cele Tie SC ea area ye MIST eR 4,035 | 2,319, 982 | 100.0 RVV AIS OTIS ITN ee Se te oat ese te er ete a) 0) at OR ene an IE ES A) ce 351 664, 636 28.7 INRICGS OH a ee, ean al Me i ea el ale RRS Cac ok olla hal ga oh Cees as 323 440, 430 19.0 IBOMMSVvalnlanein ye se ee ee et a mite ens Arar BPE ease 440 328, 530 14,2 Vue sloiayerroral scape Uae Marcie UL” ole Gnieteaianammage oc0) Lc acter ae 105 209, 184 9.0 AVVIOS GVA TTA a hac he cole te agi Oey mere tae K 22 eee cy CSE NCS 114 205, 604 8.9 BON Owe VOM sat meray gr se UMAR re RIL "/A SCM aM Msi O he eth DHE S816 1, 481 121, 867 5.3 Main Ose ees eo nL mntck tt Meneame etme ne SMa soe 355 72, 868 3.1 Oregons Te POA SOE EET 0 ok Gin hey Pass oc eF 32 68, 218 2.9 FR GMIMESSE aie cis ciale oe Sa ate eee ls Se isle a 5 Ee IN SD 23 73 42, 260 1.8 14 BULLETIN 232, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TaBLeE 10.—Hemlock lumber sawed—Continued. en Quantity | Per cent State. TTR (M feet | of distri- porting. pb. m.). bution. INonthiWarolinas tee cone cem ect cree me ae eee Oe ee ccc ete 43 37, 681 1.6 IMOLMONG Ss fo foo oa iabinc nace Set temo chen eine page oes sec cee eenetele 248 30, 827 1.3 ING WeEELaIMDSHITOl sm ase esetelaeccetics nna Mee ots nema were 183 30, 727 1.3 Alioth oriS tates tes so ob Aree Ma ects clots icis cose oes orctaae see emesis oie 287 67,150 2.9 1 Includes establishments distributed as follows: California, 1; Connecticut, 50; Georgia, 2; Idaho, 3; Kentucky, 49; Maryland, 10; Massachusetts, 108; Minnesota, 5; Montana, 3; New Jersey, 3; Ohio, 12; and Virginia, 41. WESTERN PINE. Western pine is the western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) which covers a range of a million square miles from the Rocky Mountains westward to the coast, and northward into Canada and southward into Mexico. It is frequently called California white pine, New Mexico white pine, and western soft pine. It is sufficiently soft and light to make it a strong competitor of white pine for many purposes. TABLE 11.— Western pine lumber sawed. heels Quantity | Per cent State. Trilieives (M feet | of distri- porting. bim). bution. United States bee ae tee has ee NR 728 | 1,258,528 100.0 Califormigt) Q00.0 . £22. BAe OR Ses PRE Ee SEE. cele Ae EP es 5 Soe 98 317, 053 25. 2 CONROE Srey Ferd Beare eat a Ne, Ar reset pk Pe eee ee Re UR ee EN 142 216, 665 ily PO) MWWASHING TONES i 25 ste e anes cs See eet. tans. Sas cab hana rere 141 192, 663 15.3 Wan eo eset cae oye oi tatos his atone oe te lentes os qee ace ae ee cee 113 177, 703 14.1 68 | 120,414 9.6 14 76, 346 6.1 28 64) 404 5.1 54 48) 745 3.9 70 44) 535 3.5 i Includes establishments distributed as follows: Nevada, 1; South Dakota, 15; Utah, 27; and Wyoming, 27. CYPRESS. Bald cypress (Taxzodium distichum) is the source of the cypress lumber sawed in the United States. It is a southern tree, ranging from Delaware to Texas near the coast, and along the valleys of rivers many miles inland. It follows the Mississippi and the Ohio into Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. TABLE 12.—Cypress lumber sawed. a sta Quantity | Per cent State. mills (M feet | of distri- i mills re- b. m.) Baton porting. Frais : Mnived(Statesee = vagsee ace ten co acct cee ects datas cameos secs 607 | 1,097, 247 100.0 MoOuIsianay ees. § SURAT, EN LS 2 NOEs becca. cate cieeie’s 6a 94 744, 581 67.9 MIOTIGS Ses os os ese Laas Se eee rete Pee ne RN es oa a 41 100, 723 9.2 BOLE IA eh Seaeharne: oe. opel es Cee fs Oe Ce RU. ao. Soames ne cos 57 74, 818 6.8 jSteyb Gc Crhy/a) bays sn Rm IRENE RAC bas en beara eee a RISES Soh 43 39, 895 3.6 ANTIBES 'S,.\F gbc CEASE 38 abaNas Gb ade Go ScesagonbEooeRensOcdole SeeeoeE 98 35, 964 3.3 WEG (ibn le ee Rap one ee agente ae BaUe Denar BODE BGUaS SSE Babe D so 3 Josseeraan 49 28, 814 2.6 PMASSISSI DUH Mes” Meat se teri sce ee foe cce Soins de ee te 2 = SAEs Saisie’. oe 54 25, 782 2.3 IN OF DC ANOUNA ase tera e epeiaievet imho peicte oie icine tee ccie mine on ia co eeiealeede een oicfeis 62 19, 213 1.8 SRGTINIOSSGGL Peete SEE eee Tate tate cee ne we enn Se Ean ial ccna 44 14,502 1.3 All other Statest_....-...-....... Le AOE SBE Suet So dete cos nee SpaaSE 65 12,955 1,2 1 Includes establishments distributed as follows: Alabama, 6; Illinois, 15; Indiana, 2; Kentucky, 17; Maryland, 2; Oklahoma, 2; Texas, 8; and Virginia, 13. THE PRODUCTION OF LUMBER IN 1913. 15 SPRUCE. While there are a number of spruces largely cut for lumber, two furnish the greater portion. Red spruce (Picea rubens) is the princi- pal source of spruce lumber in New England, New York, and West Virginia, while Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) is lumbered on the northern Pacific coast. In the Northeast black spruce (Picea mari- ana) undoubtedly is cut to a small extent for lumber, while white spruce (Picea canadensis) furnishes practically all of the lumber cut in the Lake States. In the Rocky Mountain region Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni) is the source of spruce lumber. Table 13 shows the production of spruce by States. TaBLE 13.—Spruce lumber sawed. amber Quantity | Per cent State. satis roe (M feet | of distri- ° D.,m5). bution. porting. OnaitedsStatesss see ecck Cease SSS Mes Lee Actes Be eM de re 1,547 | 1,046, 816 100.0 «ET S05 55 SNe eee oom 2 oe ee RRs CE RR re er Oe on Oe a CO 398 371, 448 35.5 WINGS TOMep peo tac ate cau aie iclei ent natee moter eee eal Re Ns 63 214, 843 20.5 VVC LAWL Ts Era ea po a Ns ee ee a Be oe ey a Nae 26 134, 993 12.9 (CONGO 5 Some ek BREAN aR ee Ae ee tse ee mee See sie fee i pide ee 26 74, 198 (ei! WGI OI «55 e CadoSBe Ae Haas BROCE Sontee Ae Ob Mace Rae mean eh Saaces uaaecsee 250 52, 030 5.0 INOW PERE MAPSMITO eee sale acts Gein scat see cee lee Re eee ae eee 127 43, 890 4.2 IMassachuse tise suet: sth see oo alain See oe ah ea See te 33 39, 198 Bye 325 35, 490 3.4 89 31, 883 3.1 41 13, 976 1.3 169 34, 864 3.3 1JTncludes establishments distributed as follows: Arizona, 1; California, 11; Connecticut, 2; Idaho, 7; Kentucky, 1; Michigan, 57; Montana, 17; New Mexico, 7; North Carolina, 2; Pennsylvania, as Tennessee, 1; Utah, 7; Virginia, 4; Wisconsin, 33; and Wyoming, 12. MAPLE. Several species of maple are cut for lumber in this country, but mills usually report them as one, or, at most, distinguish the wood as hard and soft. Maple lumber in the United States is sawed chiefly from the following species: Sugar or hard maple (Acer saccharum) is more abundant than any other. It grows in all States east of the Mississippi River, and in the first tier of States west of that stream from Minnesota to Texas. Silver or soft maple (Acer saccharinum) has approximately the same range as sugar maple. Red maple (Acer rubrum) is found in all States east of Montana, Wyoming, and Texas. Hastern species of minor importance are mountain maple (Acer sprcatum), striped maple (Acer pennsylvanicum), and box elder (Acer negundo), while the Oregon maple (Acer macrophyllum) is cut in the Pacific Coast States. 16 BULLETIN 232, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe 14.— Maple lumber sawed. Number : - Quantity | Per cent State. oF active | “(feet | of distri- porting. b. m.). bution, Wmited! States eee. veces ht pe scie Mees so oe eee erase 5, 060 901, 487 100.0 DION ae Roe Cao eaeenoe Setar Saree aHneweaeUlean Ress uRpeacesdepecunae 402 402, 585 44.7 Wisconsin) si20 2 UGE IN GIES. OREN. USES Fe Peo is Gre ee EE a ; 359 127, 965 14.2 INK; SAO dS CRCEG SSG Sebo SEB da ete lade Beas poo ab pocaneRe ere cic a3a5 SaaS 1,172 71, 554 8.0 AACR AY aus CRS ots <3 ENED 2 Bee Be cen ASE Pe ap i aera ae ioib bbe baat ee 188 69, 369 7.7 Iesauakhyd bye hell he sone Sop aP a epecoe se seaane ear Heaece Saeaee Bees Be tee eo 577 58, 857 6.5 OHIOZ EARS cokE IE. SAAT EIE, | LE EET Sepa oe teks 2 se ER eS 499 36, 272 4.0 UNG an a See cet ome eee eee e enn one aasemee mec cs aes eee aseeee 391 29, 126 3.2 NAGY cel) nto see rere eee ne 1S aoeas DARE LR aS ee nS Saree a ist ly Se 234 27,913 3.1 IMISSOUTI shots esis Seis so = sep ciaiccntis sieaiete ea oitee aie leray ates acta Aha er eect 142 11, 999 1.3 ATMO ther States tee ioc .ciajeith ose c acne d Sece RO Sea balenle Sawada Lee epee 1,096 65, 847 7.3 1 Includes establishments distributed as follows: Alabama, 4; Arkansas, 36; Connecticut, 54; Delaware, 5; Georgia, 4; Illinois, 90; Iowa, 42; Kansas, 1; Kentucky, 147; Louisiana, 2; Maine, 159; Maryland, 24; Massa- chusetts, 86; Minnesota, 33; Mississippi, 14; New Hampshire, 117; New Jersey, 15; North Carolina, 77; Oklahoma, 2; Oregon, 5; Rhode Island, 6; South Carolina, 9; Tennessee, 86; Texas, 2; Virginia, 75; and Washington, 1. RED GUM. There is but one red gum (lnquidambar styraciflua) in the United States. What is commercially known as ‘‘sap gum”’ is the sapwood of this tree. Its range is in the south, principally in the States of the lower Mississippi Valley; but on the Atlantic coast it grows northward to Connecticut, and in the Mississippi Valley to Missouri and Illinois. Its southwestern limit is in Texas and its southeastern in Florida, TABLE 15.—Red gum lumber sawed. Mae Quantity | Per cent State. mlleines (M feet | of distri- y pems)s bution. porting. Tj mited Si tategee wera cee ere at Mees ane MN toe 2, 266 772, 514 100.0 PATICAMISAS® fone paste yae aes he mete TTS ee ato minis neio ats re era sicte Minteteteraatnatsicie ee 261 250, 055 32.4 MISSISSIPDIE fa. See ee ESET LEG he TERE ae. NS eR SMS es 165 135, 135 17.5 I OUISIATA ae ee a era ts ERI Ed ae eee ayes cara 67 61, 404 7.9 MissouUnE yA eS AL BOUTS: EVER SE ES FEE eee eee ee oe 124 59, 378 7.7 TP OTITIOSSCO eee ee ee ciate nal ae See Rae REE sh Ae a slalctyalee 275 55, 620 7.2 INOLDUHICAaroling sy GN: 2 Awe SoM ie ei oes aes tee ao ces mas cote 167 38, 879 5.0 South Caroling soe. eye we a Le aN Re ok Ae CO site Me Sejeeinafeln aiate ona 62 31, 440 4.1 Orit Cay Ss se ett eens clam SE SEES Bilt DER Pe RAVENS YG SEES). fo 263 28, 943 3.1 WATT TE 66 mae roceels dco eAGEe GHOUOACLS dectit Coc SSS reen oa bCcOne ene ee 158 21,315 2.8 Georoiat tei 0Es TeV aes DOSES Roc eee el VISES ECR Peek aR Se | 69 19, 367 2.5 JN Ee rhar ehood ss Gabe Gace CRn Sent aber ol SaEasore BOMDboaaocate coc cc ema ene 83 19, 013 2.5 Texas's Wate ae SE Me CSET as eek EY SESS eye Soo EES. Ae 45 18, 377 1.7 ECT EL Ea eee oe ee he ace eet alee sia yaretepere oiatelotere ibe ole wlobaie wioteiate elena inaeraeiciere wis 13 12, 477 1.6 ndians FPA AS TIS SS AS SSRs SRR Se: « SR ES 8 SLES 182 11, 491 1.5 PAIKOUNCTES CALOS Pn apemecie see errata ie epee eytarnicte elite ote eeieeetereretsilarets)=ic-e 332 19, 620 2.5 1 Includes establishments distributed as follows: Delaware, 16; Hlinois, 91; Maryland, 60; New Jersey, 9; New York, 2; Ohio, 75; Oklahoma, 7; Pennsylvania, 24; and West Virginia, 48. YELLOW POPLAR. Yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) is sometimes known as white wood, poplar, or tulip poplar. Its range extends from southern New England to southern Michigan, and southward to Arkansas and Florida. The best growth is found among the mountains of Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, and West Virginia. : : : THE PRODUCTION OF LUMBER IN 1913, 17 TaBLE 16.— Yellow poplar lumber sawed. , Mabe Quantity | Per cent State. millsre. | (Mfeet | of distri- porting. b. m.). bution. (Crain eral SHS se aL 1 ec pg ey 8 0a 4,099 620, 176 100.0 AWVGS TVET PUTT aterm yer aca a a Ala. ura atte ancle aaa ciel 393 156, 188 25.2 PRGTINGSS GO Merete seers aise aisle ialers araials nicjajsininlnie!o abocfo/qaeieetttaa tose ba 678 112, 666 18.2 IKGMUIENSY 13 3d edad agdaeseadeeedodees sacedbocenoasssoseD see soordeeeEES 607 81, 207 13.1 WRENN. 3 3 be Lis cests bey a Pi pc 503 55, 537 9.0 Nonthi@arolinaee: so. 5. .<.- --- 2 SSHOBHeHn Sb ansBboHBabeacseSocHBereodods 462 51, 724 8.3 Ohio ss 520 pp ater ae rant a tonnes geee tes eats: rereeeewer Saseeta ene 311 47, 904 7.7 (CNCtOy ys Ae BOE Sa Sess Soe eee Eye fa aperatalntas sje tiny esate heal evee tote te ataintarel sie 162 30, 005 4.8 Ma bama wae ee ne BAI ee foo 148 25,015 4.0 Iayolrisiave) a? Wie tyateeee! SR BeOS eae eee 263 13, 441 2.2 South Carolina ee 76 12,494 2.0 Pennsylvania Are 206 11, 537 1.9 IMUSSISSIp Toles iee clas a= aa, Sosa 78 11, 281 1.8 All other States 1 ; : 212 11,177 1.8 oe 1JIncludes establishments distributed as follows: Arkansas, 10; Florida, 7; Illinois, 24; Louisiana, 5; Massachusetts, 11; Michigan, 18; Missouri, 12; New Jersey, 25; Connecticut, 33; Delaware, 8; and Mary- land, 59. REDWOOD. Two closely related trees supply the redwood lumber on the market in this country. Both are confined to California, one in the Sierra Nevada Mountains and the other near the coast. The bigtree (Sequoia washingtoniana) is the largest tree species in this country, and that which is commonly known as redwood (Sequoia semper- virens) is but little smaller. Most of the lumber is cut from the latter. The whole cut is produced in California, and no tabulated statement is necessary to show it. The total cut in 1913 was 510,271,000 feet. CHESTNUT. There is only one species of chestnut (Castanea deniata) native in the United States. Its northern range extends from southern Maine to southern Michigan, thence to southern Indiana, central Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama. It grows southward in the Atlantic States to Georgia. TaBLe 17.—Chestnut lumber sawed. Number F A Quantity | Per cent State. opace (M feet | of distri- porting. b. m.). bution. (Wanted tates ee iy Se ae A a oe eee ae 3,276 505, 802 100.0 Vivaah WARE. o Se Sedeacanda cee nocdoe ss 3340 Soe eeu eee Hes 473500 So5eo50u6 347 136, 283 27.0 AOTUMS VilvadM ery errata sie cies lalayore areca ete asia erin) a eet ere Mere ts 623 70, 696 14.0 PROTIMIOSSCO MASE tee ois ce hee a Ns | SE 5 2 IE 0) ea ee ee rey 342 58, 201 115 THOMTNEC TIC Us Secs eenm eels oie cise = Te SSID rene So 2 air aaa pe na eet 169 47, 236 9.3 AWTS © A ea es es ie eo I CP. SPI INTE Si iy nS A al 307 46, 573 9.2 INO RpONCATOlM as ee eee 7 gone Se ser eee arise. 2 cles ee OEE ee noes 164 44,129 8.7 torittl key meas st Ma Sse sb SEs ER ac se 2S EE ee ee 3 234 21,444 4.2 IMAISSAGHUSOULS sen sac nein o_o sree coroion oe eis acid oc en eee eae eee 140 21, 226 4.2 TIERS See ee Eee eens aan iry 2 A es RS Che a ur Ae 577 16, 684 3.3 ONSTAR et ua AR RS ET tly ae U8 eat Madi 145 12, 069 2.4 Wi ero\7 90,0 NE OAR a se EO as aes, 0 a4 en Se aR IE Apa tA a 90 11, 254 2.2 New Jersey... - - FRC eH SE eS = aka REIS Wi ap i> ed 55 10, 129 2.0 miWother Sta tes? {2 as Ao SE Bess 16 Sa See RSE oe te ae 83 9, 878 2.0 1Includes establishments distributed as follows: Alabama, 7; Delaware, 2; Georgia, 8; Indiana, 21; Maine, 1; Michigan, 1; New Hampshire, 27; Rhode Island, 15; and Vermont, 1. 18 BULLETIN 232, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LARCH. Two species of larch are cut into lumber, but the eastern species is generally called tamarack (Lariz laricina). The latter is found in the northern tier of States from Minnesota to Maine and in eastern Canada. The western larch (Larix occidentalis) is native to Montana, Idaho, Washington, and British Columbia. Both are needle-leaf trees, which annually shed their foliage. TABLE 18.—Larch lumber sawed. Number 0 : Quantity | Per cent State. of active | “(M feet | of distri- porting. b. m.). bution. United’ States: a2 yee ees sete |. a. eco chee ee eee ene 557 | 395,278 100.0 IMMER bs dined ene aaO ero ole Sopp e Ee Ee Ho auDE do oeo ar SoD eEEUnadESbeeccsane , AY 137, 703 34.8 Talore estos thee NAR Me A eI Me tM oi. sag deesebt a en Maes 50 119, 714 30.3 Washington? ae ssoteeas anata SAS Sao daa eC ROR AAO ae BamSeBaaeu tab ASAE 54 | 39, 277 9.9 IMIGTITIOS OLE pre eperete ee eteiniatelaratete elo iajatsteateraia clare tate ola ove inte sleperm tales srateiorsiors laterere rales 112 35, 455 9.0 WAR Conisin Ey 568 APSsgadés se aesocdeadhebascecnictincaques dosed sucesnueronc 132 26, 008 6.6 (Onion Se bens SaonooES SEs oe SaaS EBobreecoOaBErbe opocb eco oerSoaclURsE= 31 21, 228 5.4 iM Chi erie ee eats yaa iene ape emis ia bye cs mlamcete fale erelavnlniainte apeataniete mieinieinie si sieie aieiets 112 15, 721 4.0 JUDO WoT SWS S 40/86 Osseo mee CS eh Leste Scsrec oid bse uResOSbaounn = 17 167 0 1 Includes establishments distributed as follows: Indiana, 1; New Hampshire, 2; New York, 8; Iowa, 2; Maine, 2; Ohio, 1; and Vermont, 1. BIRCH. While there are several species of birch in the United States, two furnish the bulk of the lumber produced and the species are seldom separated in the trade. Yellow birch (Betula lutea) is the principal source of lumber in New England, New York, and the Lake States, while sweet birch (Betula lenta) is the principal species cut in Penn- sylvania and West Virginia. The ranges of these species overlap and therefore each is cut to a small extent in the region where the other is most important. In northern New England paper birch (Betula papyrifera) is an important source of material for spools, toothpicks, and novelties, but a great deal is not cut into lumber. Sweet or cherry birch (Betula lenta) ranges from Newfoundland to western Ontario and southward into Indiana and Illinois, and among the mountains to Kentucky and Tennessee. It is sometimes known as wintergreen birch. Yellow birch (Betula lutea) has the same eastern range as the fore- going, but extends farther west and northwest. River birch (Betula nigra) ranges over the Southern States, and is found in New England and New York. It is poorer in color and figure than the other birches, but is sometimes cut for lumber. Paper birch (Betula papyrifera) is confined to the northern tier of States east of Minnesota principally, and is very abundant in Michi- ean, Wisconsin, New York, New England, and Canada. Mountain birch (Betula occidentalis) is sawed in lumber to a moder- ate extent on the Pacific coast. White birch (Betula populifolia) is a minor timber tree in New England and farther northeast in Canada. THE PRODUCTION OF LUMBER IN 1913, 19 TaBLe 19.—Birch lumber sawed. Sumber Quantity | Per cent State. millsre- | (Mfeet | of distri- porting. b. m.). bution. ON LOCUS LALOS ean er eee EP eR E oe os oho 3 SO BESOE IE Sebe 262 40, 842 10.8 WORT... -adresqccoksanbanssueSdobpobeoaaHebouneuonorpococcEreepSscooue 234 31, 608 8.3 INIGKY WGP 32 568s SESS S DGC SES OCR RDS Don E ae Bea eee Re ERSr st CCHRCAe mee ses 549 28, 569 1B) ANY GS, WUE). ooo Saree oat seen omdoadacnbogesaecere noon Soko GCBaa Ear 67 16, 899 4.4 ING ISIBVON OSU ooh ae ae eooe SE eee sop cee asScch beso Sse sDOBUeSbE Sane 128 14, 732 3.9 GRAS THEIR) conics so Gnb dUese se opeauede ps sedsoduSuebep so socuococesEscoc 232 13,152 3.5 IMTRINCEONE) < o5/3528 Ses d508 soomaesyaeadeHs sac ace ss seE ana be pos oseonEassCe- 71 4,532 1.2 WEKRAO SSID s of occas Soctdodaauiase sede peoaseoreessecdsasascecedsaogaeoe 60 3, 733 1.0 iRImMVEIOG! “34a seisce ou eueonedsanes ese eeee esses Saansaascogusdosss sec 6 2,553 ae EM QWOer SOLIS 4. Sees ccesecso esas seeoe see SSeeeaneasees es oeseesasdercdac 156 5, 693 1.5 1 Includes establishments distri buted as follows: Arkansas, 3; California, 1; Connecticut, 31; Illinois, 10; Indiana, 11; Iowa, 10; Kentucky, 8; Missouri, 24; New Jersey 3; North Carolina, 20; Ohio, 8; Rhode Island, 1; Tennessee, 9; and Virginia, 17. BEECH. There is only one kind of beech native to the United States (Fagus atropunicea). It is found in all States east of the Mississippi, and from Missouri southward it is found west of that river. Beech lumber is cut in nearly all the hardwood-producing States. TaBLE 20.—Beech lumber sawed. Number - 5 Quantity | Per cent State. on active) “(Mf feet | of distri- porting. b. m.). bution. Winter! SiIBNIESicdeoo det aenoonbos Sees4 Lhe Lsecsesousoccseme baScassecnes 3, 696: 365, 501 100.0 INbGMEANG. CracaonsGbdadsuee esac ae Bae Se pone oe EoneBoE coeaoS de ouebrmasscees 269 86, 637 D3 [ETCH RIOD co 5265 Sonédeebes SSeS 5 qb ee eonos “saosacauoceuaEboouoscsecsoscon. 470 54, 827 15.0 ING WOR Soc ced Ssennddces ps aae Bue sees oes sade UdebuE Heads cosoroseessoue 821 40, 313 11.0 RermnsyAv an iateee mee! iscsi nat ncaiciaiee sine ssi ceiciee isco eee cesses sine 402 38, 700 10.6 \AVGsn Waray so poceeseosbeedoreeeacnees no sgasoneosagscocessesasccdocee 182 37, 937 10. 4 OIRO. 20: suégsedodeotsbbboudaser ceeSecososcosescoosdassosceccecd6ocouds 492 33, 763 9.2 LR SIMUGUAY = 52> soedososndegeduc Sab ooe seseaudonE spaces osbosseoceocscor 348 26, 026 dei SNOT TAA G get aie arsrainajnre) terme aialoe o\~ lalla l= ~in/-la/sieeeiasin een iee sale 160 14, 825 4.1 INGENES SEL. 4 - sepa adscoodecoroccaeee Guo ronOngswedbEsosd sHcodoccacagspe 161 10, 268 2.8 INGay IRE STROS NINE be oo boc Sep boots Sep pecs apodasecoeEsoTacacecsassocgeasus 74 6, 908 1.9 ANE @uldgyr SINS Ee Gok oc So bestogcus wuboooscEs ra pemcesadcdcosuckagoceudes 317 15, 297 4.2 1 Includes establishments distributed as follows: Alabama, 10; Arkansas, 2; Connecticut, 16; Georgia, 2; Mllinois, 25; Iowa, 3; Louisiana, 3; Maine, 71; Maryland, 16; Massachusetts, 35; Minnesota, 2; Mississippi, 7; Missouri, 4; New Jersey, 3; North Carolina, 34; Rhode Island, 1; Texas, 3; Virginia, 53; and Wis- consin, 27. CEDAR. A number of species contributing to the country’s lumber supply _are grouped under the common name cedar, though the relationship between some of them is not very close. Incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) grows among the mountains of Oregon and California. Port Orford cedar (Chamecyparis lawsoniana) is confined to a restricted area of northwestern California and southwestern Oregon. Yellow cedar (Chamecyparis nootkatensis) is a Pacific coast species extending from Alaska southward through British Columbia into Washington. 20 BULLETIN 232, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) ranges through nearly the whole region east of the Rocky Mountains in the United. States. ‘There are no fewer than 10 closely related cedars, usually called junipers, most of them being native to the Rocky Mountain region and farther west. Northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis), often called arborvite, is most abundant in the Lake States, but 1t extends to New England and southward along the Appalachian Mountains to eastern Tennessee. Western red cedar (Thuja plicata) is much more used for shingles than for lumber in the States of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and Montana, where the chief supply grows. It is called giant cedar and western cedar in commerce. Southern white cedar (Chamezcyparis thyoides) ranges in deep swamps from New Jersey to Florida, and is called swamp cedar in some parts of its range and juniper in others. All cedars are valuable for poles and posts, and some of them are more used for these pur- poses than for lumber. The most important contributions to the lumber supply are the following: Western red cedar (Thuja plicata), northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis), and southern white cedar (Chamecyparis thy- oides). Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) is of considerable impor- tance as a material for pencils. In the Pacific Coast States incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), Port Orford cedar (Chamecyparis law- soniana), and yellow cedar (Chamecyparis nootkatensis) are lambered to a small extent. : TABLE 21.—Cedar lumber sawed. Number : Z Quantity | Per cent State. or active] “(M feet | of distri- porting. b. m.). bution. WNT teGts TaAteSsne ise ele = saa eee cn iotet tret telat eran seametatatasetatelara slalela ala) =ia 508 358, 444 100.0 WiashIn ot ON ierereate mieten la siaitereteteatateteat etal crea a ateletee eit ot atays/ahatate(ale/= aya 122] 233,443 65.1 IOV) Sons Sek oS Se oeAbuSeaseanones Sho ao eesbeneebooobyoLooounobeoubreosbeS 12 23, 307 6.5 Californias eatin toes ie * Pre er ae tare inet Notable ava al a\afae cle ier cals 28 22, 056 6.2 ONG Saag nOcSuo sede eo oUt dba aS ODS Se OE acu OSU nE DS SSS 05S ssbb EUS Eeeee 51 21, 902 6.1 Witt slate ono ase pe aman se aa neo ped qec doe Coteingcuio>s oncOUon ae EaeeEOdeS 7 16,558 4.6 UNGMGSIATE pe edebissoosas tase dabadeondsdeot beers does ay doSedhasteeoeaddse 44 7, 982 2.2 WIG) sees Sood 65 bHecdDeooe Ss Hoc Seberct WEBS OTed Se ae sc aCenee Heese pace 46 7,005 2.0 INCA E ORG) bine aera Sea ano b rod aqhseao DOF SEean SoS occo SOC oRe ae ass bce 59 5, 167 1.5 Wisconsin=t/- -\-)-/-/=-)- no f layered eats = (at sfeichlofal=Pelc ots Yale = etek Etetet ne \jal=is =tefa) aro 20 4, 403 1,2 PISCE GUI Cay preparer atetetareterer= mito an= = elena e toy ya ae a fe le oa = == a te at Pe) alnlo miele ct ll 2, 202 .6 ANWR COMES paearasanabsoco anon gar soos Joedls 740 pIOIe bob seas soe 108 14, 419 4.0 1 Includes establishments distributed as follows: Alabama, 4: Arkansas, 3 ; Gonnechiont 5; Delaware, 2; Indiana, 1; Maryland, 5; Massachusetts, 12; Michigan, 18; Minnesota, ait: Sisouen vp Montana, a; New Hampshire, 1; New Jersey, 21; New York, 4; Pennsylvania, 1; Rhode Isl: and, 1; South Carolina, 7; Texas, ie Vermont, 5; and West Vi irginia, 2. BASSWOOD. Three kinds of basswood contribute to the lumber cut of the country, but no distinction between them is made at the mill or in the market. Common basswood (Tilia americana) is best developed in the Lake States, white basswood (Tilia hetrophylla) among the mountain ranges in West Virginia and southward, and downy bass- wood (Tilia pubescens) is found, though scarce, from North Carolina vol THE PRODUCTION OF LUMBER IN 1913. 21 to Arkansas. All three of these overlap the boundaries here named, and in some regions all are found occupying the same area. At least one-half of the States furnish basswood logs for sawmills. TABLE 22.—Basswood lumber sawed. z Numer Quantity | Per cent State. millsre. | (Mfeet | of distri- porting. b. m.). bution. WhantieGl: SHRI s «58655686 donb cases ebosea suaourEeS a cos cnauedoceaaee 3, 336 257, 102 100.0 \VISCOMSID «co cs ocdesecodaHSo OU Be aE ee bood JabaconeaBEoer cUouasoudecaEede 375 91,670 35. 7 ANTI Ta eae reed otete tote terete terete micictmiele a teri ayeirayafaiet= ota -e tat ated ayaletated=tnravst=/o [= n\n =) 277 39, 265 15.3 VAY GSE AY TATA ho og GBB SS SORES Abate doce daeoee ser sopecc one nee scp ue 165 31, 623 12.3 IN MOH So cocso0e tbe Adee SECEDE S SSO RE TEEE BE ECE uEt ooo ace Uu SEEDS 1,183 24, 818 9.6 OiOna4 = 24 scosncesoseaer + SUAOSe SES Sa BUS oe ee seEE beac BEECEEececoreeoSsee 205 8, 784 3.4 PROHTESSES Hs a east is ete ates eee late Med bybe obo peeebaroacdcsoaSbaneeace 99 8, 703 3.4 Gin ES woce oc coo sedssoussedoesabep esos SoCo seeSeHeeea dads chdcccsasoscaee 130 8, 404 3.3 IWIMINCSONE) Ce Odio 5 0c Ud Histo 5 BoB BO DEE E Dae HOUSE SORE EE BSEe Ao sdpcockSeaor 124 8, 084 Chal Win giinih. sede ocean oboe subheoreEeaue 4 Adee ra: pep oedee gees poor ccceecmpaer 74 6, 231 2.4 INO MULAy am OUT a eewar tetera atelavetaya tee) mtete lar atorn ctrl tain | alate at en eral ofatel cy ainlnietele)o'\nnlni= 65 6, 180 2.4 ibavolieiar- 435 7A 6b ee debe eort Janae serene rau e> oc oMOEes bY SoncigepeeGue 36 121 5, 615 2.2 IVAEWTNTO TUG sees ope elate tee ain -i2latn ai siate miele) atatapeinletcintatiafs|loistnie'm #{~ nja/=tetelare\niatel= sle/atatn sims 128 5,317 2.1 IS siaikiylhraNalh),- 447 o sao Uo or a SqGU Sd CE OSC ORE ONAGOC EADS Er EOC SeCr SdaOOooGe 174 5, 237 2.0 2M @UIGIS SUBTEST Uo pode notacdeossocobode deo Soc psooUsSsopaCoooSdeceOEaosas 216 7,171 2.8 1Tncludes establishments distributed as follows: Alabama, 7; Arkansas, 1; Connecticut, 14; Georgia, 3; Tilinois, 12; Iowa, 46; Kansas, 1; Louisiana, 2; Maine, 56; Maryland, 10; Massachusetts, 17; Mississippi, 2; Missouri, 23; New Hampshire, 17; New Jersey, 2; and Texas, 3. ELM. Lumbermen recognize soft and rock elm, the latter name being frequently applied to tough wood cut from any elm species. Soft gray or white elm (Ulmus americana) is most widely dispersed and is more abundant than all the others combined. It is found in all States east of the Rocky Mountains and furnishes the large part of the elm lumber reported. Cork or the true rock elm (Ulmus racemosa) is found growing across the northern States from New England to Nebraska and as far south as Missouri and Tennessee. Slippery elm (Ulmus pubescens) covers the eastern half of the United States, but is nowhere plentiful. It is often called red elm. Wing elm (Ulmus alata) and cedar elm (Ulmus crassifolia) are confined to the States of the lower Mississippi. TABLE 23.—EHlm lumber sawed. umber Quantity | Per cent State. millsre. | (Mifeet | of distri- porting. b. m.). bution. ‘CPL T WX LASHER I ee gg STA Pa GUM ea Re ed 3, 034 214, 532 100.0 SUVAISCONS Tilt me ree ics Sacro csi Asi ie er ne teieiis) oicieio 2 oe neeeer ye pete eter a8 315 52, 307 24.4 SIVA eT Seen ape a pacts oes 2 SI St Se yas as c= 2 ste RRO me aia 305 45, 415 21.2 NAG HEIOE << 6 GSea IRB BeE ae OBE SHEE EES Hen SuSE EEE Ge cue Acc eGnee 307 20, 624 9.6 OULD) = Ce OLS aie ce ead MO Ee eh 3 Lan Aa he SER faerie 322 19, 345 9.0 PVIISS OU Tteae tee ete eo ye 2k gyal osa2 cies cae ecm ane rans ioisin, ciajel steer ere Sepa eer ee 243 13, 648 6.4 PATH cam SASB Apes ce can cteee eyes 54 ee sn Se a OE Ee 69 11, 815 5.5 INIGE NECLAESS SSS SE oH PSS gene ales nhs REL a a eek Ee 758 11, 016 yal INBIIOESSES . 5 C53 dg asognane pounES Saas nobonsoaeAobRpanaEeccoaSeocsedeeaDose 124 9, 219 4.3 AVIIBSIBGHDOH. |,

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"77"77""1G96 (LUI [ESI (Se GOL “LLP 188‘ |698‘69 |Zb0 ‘SOF PES ‘188 ee acIDE RE le 916 ‘I STe‘Te |408°2 |60r‘see —|S6 ‘60F A eas as €16 ‘22 |F96‘S Z1E ‘88 Ec tae nen CU NeE opscelpG LLE‘sT |PT (988 “6a 18h ‘gg 0c9‘GS |909°6 |ZeTf98e —|6EL 1202 OPP ‘TE |SI8 918 ‘0% £9 ‘OL ae ‘ode | =" AO [BIOL corer sss = s940}g PAHT Trrttttttt tt, $948qg 10790 ITV . SLIDES ISS Ses UISUOOST AA S172 27 7 REOTSTEA 480A trsttsso 5" OVSUTYSB AA i "= BLUTBIT A, verses > gnomes, mayo ES ote SEE SRR = ORSRO LUG |, “***BUTjOIBy YyNOs 0404S ‘ponunuog—srer ‘sanrg fq ‘(mw °q yaa py) panos waqun) fo fiayunnb pun buryjsodas spr saquny aayon fo aqunyy—eg aay J, Sei Ree YN OFT iE se USDEPARIMENT OF AGRICULTURE * No. 2383 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief. May 27, 1915. RELATION OF THE ARIZONA WILD COTTON WEEVIL TO COTTON PLANTING IN THE ARID WEST.' By B. R. Coan, Entomological Assistant, Southern Field Crop Insect Investigations. INTRODUCTION. With the introduction of cotton culture into Arizona under con- ditions of irrigation, it was hoped that the establishment of important insect pests could be prevented by quarantines, and this was ren- dered possible by the complete isolation of the new territory. Recent investigations in Arizona, however, have revealed the presence of a weevil, Anihonomus grandis thurberiz, very nearly identical with the famous Mexican cotton-boll weevil which has proved so disastrous to cotton culture in many parts of the South. This is due to the occur- rence, in many of the mountain ranges of the southeastern section of the State, of a wild cotton plant known technically as Thurberia thespesioides. This plant, which is so closely related to cotton that some investigators have classed it in the genus Gossypium (the genus of cotton), was found to be the host of a weevil closely related to the cotton-boll weevil, as well as the host of a number of other insects, and it was at once perceived that there was a possibility that these insects might attack cultivated cotton grown near these mountains. Of the various insects found on the wild cotton plant, the weevil is probably the ee Pause and the present bulletin deals with this species. HISTORY OF THE WEEVIL. While the history of the cotton-boll weevil is a familiar subject to almost every one in the infested territory, it is not nearly so well known in the western cotton country, and a brief review of its activi- ties in the United States will help to an understanding of the sig- ‘nificance of its presence in Arizona. The Mexican cotton-boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis Boh., came into the United States from Mexico, crossing the Rio Grande at r. se ® 1 The investigations on which this paper is based were conducted under the direction of Mr. W. D. Hunter. 89031°—15 2 BULLETIN 233, U. S.._ DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Brownsville, Tex., about 1892. Since that time it has advanced steadily northward and eastward until at the present. time it is in Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, and the total area infested in 1914 was 312,300 square miles. Estimates made by the Bureau of the Census place the total loss in pro- duction of cotton lint in the United States due to the ravages of this species at 10,000,000 bales, or a money loss of $500,000,000. Thus we see the importance of this little beetle of insignificant appearance in the area now infested. Extended studies have been made by the Department of Agri- culture and also by the various State offices in the attempt to reduce the damage done by the species. It has proven one of the most difficult insects to combat, owing largely to its habit of feeding at all times on inner plant tissue and so making the use of poisons prac- tically worthless. The most effective methods of reducmg damage which have been developed are principally cultural. During the summer and fall of 1913 the writer experimented with the Arizona wild cotton weevil and the Texas cotton weevil at Vic- toria, Tex., crossbreeding them and testing the adaptation of the Arizona form to conditions of cultivated cotton in the South. In April, 1914, the work was transferred to a ranch near Tucson, Ariz., and was continued until the middle of November. This bulletin is a partial result of these studies. Although the Thurberia plant has been studied botanically for some years, owing to its close relation to cotton, economic interest from an entomological standpoint was first aroused early in 1913, when Mr. O. F. Cook, of the Department of Agriculture, announced the discovery of the weevil breeding in the bolls of this plant in Arizona. This announcement was at once followed by a study of the exact taxonomic status of the weevil, its distribution, habits, and probable economic importance. It was soon found to be not identi- cal with the cotton-boll weevil of the South, but so closely related that the two forms would interbreed readily. It was then described as a variety of Anthonomus grandis by Mr. W. Dwight Pierce, of this bureau, and given the varietal name thurberiz. Further in- vestigations lead to the belief that the two types are geographical and environmental varieties arising from a common ancestral form which was probably native to some point in southern or central Mexico. The two forms have probably spread northward along sep- arate lines of distribution in the course of time and have acquired slight differences in structure and habit. These differences in structure of the adult beetles are so slight that they are not apparent to the untrained eye and the descriptions used in this paper are applicable to either type. ARIZONA WILD COTTON WEEVIL. . 3 DISTRIBUTION. The discovery that the weevil breeds on Thurberia furnished the first intimation that it lives on any plant other than those of the genus Gossypium, though the writer has since demonstrated that it is able to develop on some other closely related malvaceous plants, However, it is not likely that this occurs in nature under normal con- ditions, and there is no reason for believing that the weevil feeds upon any plant other than Thurberia in the mountains. Conse- quently a study of the distribution and habitat of Thurberia is second in importance only to that of the weevil itself. While our knowledge of this point is by no means complete, considerable information has been gathered in the course of a number of explorational expeditions, and we possess a fair general idea of the conditions. In Arizona Thurberia is known to occur in the Santa Catalina, Santa Rita, Tanque Verde, Rincon, Mule Pass, Huachuca, Chiricahua, Superstition, Bradshaw, Dos Cabezos, and Dragoon Mountains; at Globe, and in Fish Creek Canyon of the Salt River Valley. In Mexico it has been recorded from Guadalajara, southwestern Chihuahua, and a number of localities in eastern Sonora. The weevils have been found only in the Santa Catalina, Rincon, Santa Rita, Tanque Verde, and Dos Cabezos Mountains. Of these ranges the first four adjoin the Santa Cruz Valley, in which Tucson is located, and the last is near Bowie. From these data it is seen that the plant is rather generally distributed throughout the southeastern part of Arizona and that the weevil infestation, so far as is known at present, is more or less con- centrated around Tucson. Of course, additional explorational work will undoubtedly disclose new localities where both plant and weevil are present. Because of the apparent concentration of the weevils around Tucson it was believed that this was the point of greatest danger of infestation of the cultivated cotton, and the economic investigations were conducted there. While the largest area of cotton cultivation in the State is in the Salt River Valley in the vicinity of Phoenix, the weevil has not been found near there, and the Santa Cruz Valley seemed in more immediate danger. THE THURBERIA PLANT. Many of the habits of the weevil are directly dependent upon the - characteristics of the Thurberia plant, and the habitat and activities of this plant have been carefully observed. It is found at altitudes ranging from a little over 2,000 feet to 7,000 feet. While colonies are frequently found high on the sides of the canyons and on the ridges, the most common habitat in the mountains around Tucson is in the beds of the canyons and small washes. Here it grows among the 4 BULLETIN 233, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. rocks and on the small islands in the bed of the wash wherever there is sufficient moisture and enough protection from the force of the current in flood seasons. (PIL. I, fig. 1.) Many of the small washes down near the base of the mountains, not large enough to deserve the title of canyon, support great numbers of the plants. Following down from such situations the plant is found in the arroyos extend- ing out through the mesa and often at quite a distance from the mountain range proper. (PI. I, fig. 2.) The economic significance of this lower distribution will be discussed later in the present paper. In the ranges where the weevils have been found their distribution 1 is very nearly as wide as that of the plant. The Thurberia plant is a large, woody perennial and frequently reaches a height of over 10 feet, though the plants ordinarily met are from 4 to 6 feet tall. (Pl. Il.) The stem is very tough after the first year’s growth and supports an abundance of wide-spreading branches. The close relationship of the plant to cotton is quite apparent, and particularly so during the flowering period. A great number of buds (corresponding to the “‘square”’ of cotton) are pro- duced. After blooming the square forms a small boll not unlike that of cultivated cotton, varying from one-half to three-fourths of an inch in length when fully developed. When these ripen and dry they open and expose the three to five cells, each containing a double row of angular, blackish seeds covered with a fine pubescence. More or less fiber resembling that of cotton is present in nearly every boll. It is in this boll that the weevil breeds. The flowering season of Thurberia depends upon the location, moisture, altitude, and various other conditions. In practically all localities in the mountains around Tucson the leaves appear in April or May. In the lower, moist spots the plants bear fruit buds almost immediately and many fruit prolifically at this time. After two or three weeks of this flowering the buds cease to appear and there is a quiescent period durimg which the fruit ripens. Then another crop of buds appears and the same course is repeated. In this manner as many as four crops have been noted on a few plants during the season of 1914 and many bore three. This condition was found only at altitudes below 3,000 feet. Many plants midway up the mountains bore a partial crop in July and then had a heavy one in August and September, while others at much the same altitude had only the latter crop. Throughout the entire upper distribution (above 4,500 feet) the plants grew luxuriantly all summer, but not a single fruiting bud was produced until August. Then an enor- mous crop appeared, and flowering continued until the latter part of September. This flowering evidently varies in the same situations in the different seasons according to the amount of rainfall. = Bul. 233, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. Fic. 1.—HABITAT OF THE WILD COTTON WEEVIL AND ITS HOST PLANT. Basin of the Milagroso Canyon in the Santa Catalina Mountains, Ariz. This is an ideal lo- i cation for Thurberia thespesioides, the wild host plant of Anthonomus grandis var. thurberix. i| Two large plants may be seen near the right-hand margin of the photograph. (Original.) Fic. 2.—THE WILD COTTON WEEVIL AND ITS Host PLANT IN THE LOWER RANGES. Habitat of Thurberia thespesioides and the wild cotton weevil in the lower ranges. This view was taken in the Agua Caliente Arroyo, Ariz., about 100 yards below the plant shown in Plate II, figure 1. (Original.) Bul. 233, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. Fic. 1.—DISPERSION OF THE WILD COTTON WEEVIL. Typical location of Thurberia plant, below rock, in Agua Caliente Arroyo, Ariz., about 1 miles from the mouth of the canyon. (Original.) FIG. 2.—THURBERIA THESPESIOIDES, HOST PLANT OF THE WILD COTTON WEEVIL. Growth of Thurberia at Agua Caliente Ranch, Ariz., under cultivated conditions, This is one season’s growth from seed. (Original.) Bul. 233, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. INJURY BY BOLL WEEVIL TO SQUARES. a, Bloom checked by attacks of larva; 6, square opened, showing grown larva; c, square opened, | showing pupa; d, dwarfed boll opened, showing one larva and two pups; e, weevil escaping from square; f, emergence hole of adult in square. (From Hunter and Pierce.) Bul. 233, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. INJURY BY BOLL WEEVIL TO BOLLS. a, Three laryee in boll; b, emergence hole in dry unopened boll; ¢c, two laryee in boll; d, weevils puncturing boll; e, opened boll, with two locks injured by weevil; j, large bolls severely punctured. (From Hunter and Pierce.) ARIZONA WILD COTTON WEEVIL. 5 LIFE HISTORY OF THE WEEVIL ON COTTON IN THE SOUTH. In order to understand the life cycle of the weevil it is well to review briefly its action on cultivated cotton in the Southern States. The female bores a small cavity in the square or boll and deposits the egg In this, sealing the opening with a small gelatinous scale. The egg hatches in a few days and the larva or ‘‘worm”’ feeds upon the inner plant tissue. (Pls. IL andIV.) After a period varying from a few days to about two weeks the larva transforms to the pupa, a quies- cent stage in which the first resemblance to the adult weevil is shown. After afew days in this stage the pupa sheds its skin and becomes the adult weevil, which quickly leaves the square or boll in which the immature stages were passed and is soon ready to start the cycle again. These immature stages usually require from two to three weeks, although they vary with the temperature, food, and other environmental factors. Starting in May or June and continuing until September or October, as is the case in the cotton States, it is quite possible for six or eight generations to be produced in a single season, and as most females deposit from 100 to 300 eggs or more the progeny of a single pair may reach enormous numbers in the course of aseason. In fact, it has been conservatively estimated that the annual progeny of a single pair of hibernated weevils would reach 3,089,520. LIFE HISTORY OF THE WEEVIL ON THURBERIA. While the details of the life cycle of the Thurberia weevil in the mountains in Arizona are much the same as those of the cotton weevil in the South, there are a number of important differences. Among them is the mode of hibernation, or manner in which the winter is passed. Adults of the last fall generation of the cotton weevil usually emerge from the squares or bolls in which they breed and seek shelter in all kinds of situations offering protection near the cotton fields. A great variety of crevices, trash, moss, and other shelters are used for this purpose. The Thurberia weevil, on the other hand, fails to emerge in the fall, but remains sealed up in a cell formed in the nidst of the seeds in the boll and passes the winter in this condition. ihen in the spring, instead of becoming active with the first warm weather, as the cotton weevil does, the greater number of them remain sealed in the cell until the rains late in the summer, many not emerging until August. This is simply a case of prolonging the period of hibernation into one of aestivation, a habit often observed among species living in arid regions. In order to know when to expect the weevils, a number of experiments have been conducted in the laboratory and close observations have been made in the 6 BULLETIN 233, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. field to determine just what conditions are necessary to cause the emergence of the adult. By combining the records secured under both natural and artificial conditions it seems quite possible to determine more or less definitely under what conditions the weevils emerge, and by studying the seasonal climatology of the region inhabited by the weevils we may know when to expect the appearance of the adults. During the winter the boll contaming the weevil cell passes through a continual process of partial disintegration caused by alternate moistening and drying. Following this, more or less moistening of the weevil cell is necessary to allow emergence in most cases, although an occasional individual emerges from time to time from the poorly constructed cells. With this as a basis we need but study the dis- tribution of the rainfall through the spring and summer months in order to determine when emergence of the weevils is to be expected. The temperature is undoubtedly usually high enough by the 1st of April, and the emergence depends almost entirely upon the rainfall from this time onward. April, May, and June are the dry months in this locality, but a study of the seasonal precipitation for a num- ber of years shows that even in the driest of years there are some few light rains in this period and usually some precipitation each month. So we may expect a scattering emergence of the weevil throughout the spring and summer months, the extent of this emer- gence depending upon the amount of the precipitation, and finally culminating in the almost complete emergence following the heavy rains of July and August. This very late emergence of the Thurberia weevils shortens the breeding period in the greater part of the mountains to not over two generations annually instead of the six to eight of the cotton weevils. It should be remembered that while this habit of hibernation anc aestivation prevails in nature now, it is by no means certain that it will be adhered to by the weevils in case they attack cultivated cotton in the valley, but it appears likely to continue for some time at least. Weevils reared on cotton in Arizona showed a very definite adherence to this cell hibernation habit when bred in the bolls, but it seems that they will emerge from the squares. Since the females greatly prefer bolls for oviposition it seems probable that nearly al of the late-season breeding will be in these, and consequently little emergence in the fall should be expected. In case the weevil adheres to this cell hibernation habit the control should be quite simple, entailing only the winter destruction of the plants and hibernating weevils. Most of the breeding on the Thurberia plant seems to be in the bolls, and under normal conditions the bolls from one-third to three- fourths grown are selected for egg deposition. The eggs are placed ARIZONA WILD COTTON WEEVIL. i in the punctures just as in the case of cotton weevils and the open- ings are sealed in the usual way. The larva feeds upon the imma- ture seeds and develops in much the same manner and time as the cotton weevil. DESCRIPTION OF STAGES OF THE WEEVIL. The egg.—The egg of the weevil is usually elliptical in shape and is of a pearly white color. It is slightly less than 1 millimeter (one twenty-fifth of an inch) in length and is deposited by the female at the bottom of a small opening, usually near the base of the bud or boll, and deep among the plant tissues. The larva.—Immediately after hatching the young larva is a white legless grub only shghtly longer than the egg itself. It feeds entirely upon the inner tissue of the bud or boll and enlarges the cavity as it grows. It soon assumes a ventrally curved, crescentic form and when fully developed averages about 1 centimeter (two-fifths of an inch) in length across the curve. The pupa.—The pupa is either pearly or creamy white and is very delicate. The form of the legs, beak, and wings may be observed in this stage. The adult.—When the weevil first transforms from the pupa to the adult it is quite soft, weak, and very light in color. It hardens and darkens in the course of a day or two and is then fully mature. It is a stout, subovate beetle, with a long snout or proboscis. The color varies from hght golden brown to very nearly black, according to the age and condition of the individual. When newly emerged it is clothed with lhght-colored scales, but these frequently rub off in the course of the activities of the weevil, and the darker color of the body predominates. The size of the adult is also exceedingly variable and is deter- mined largely by the food supply of the larva. In length adults vary from 2.5 to 7 millimeters (one-tenth to one-fourth of an inch). NATURE OF DAMAGE TO COTTON. The actual damage of the weevil to cultivated cotton consists in the direct attack upon both the buds and bolls. The adults feed by making punctures with their long beaks deep into the tissues of these, and several such punctures will prevent a bud from blooming or will destroy the lock of the boll in which they are located. By far the greater part of the injury, however, is due to the work of the larval or ‘‘worm” stage. The female weevil deposits the egg in the bud or boll and the one larva completely destroys the con- tents of the bud or lock in which it is located. Within a few days after the deposition of the egg the square ‘‘flares.”’ That is, the involucral bracts or greenish leaves, with which the bud is normally 8 BULLETIN 233, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. covered, open back flat in a very abnormal position and become pale, sickly yellow. Such an injured square is very conspicuous on a plant in the field and is usually the first indication noted of the presence of weevils. After a few days the square falls to the ground in nearly all varieties of cotton, and in heavily infested fields in the South it is a very common sight to see great numbers of these squares scattered beneath the plants. With the bolls the injury is not so easily noted, since they do not fall unless very heavily infested, but the punctures are readily found by a careful examination, and fre- quently the form of the boll is distorted. (Pls. III and IV.) FOOD PREFERENCES OF THE ARIZONA WEEVILS. A number of tests have been made to determine whether or not the Thurberia weevil displays any preference for either Thurberia or cultivated cotton. These experiments were conducted both in the laboratory and in large cages in the field, and great care was taken to eliminate all factors from the choice other than the actual attrac- tion of the plants. It was found that individuals removed from hibernation cells and offered both plants displayed what seemed to be only the slightest choice in favor of Thurberia, and this disappeared after a few days’ feeding. Weevils removed from the cells and fed only upon Thurberia for a few days and then offered a choice at first displayed a marked preference for Thurberia. After a few days’ feeding in the presence of both plants this preference gradually dis- appeared and cotton was as much eaten as Thurberia. Weevils fed ‘only upon cotton for a few days after removal from the cells would at first display a choice in favor of cotton, but this disappeared in the same manner. From these experiments, and also from observations made in the field in 1914, it seems safe to conclude that the weevils have very little inherent preference for either plant and that neither plant has the power to attract them away from the other. THE TRANSFER TO COTTON. The transfer of the weevil to cultivated cotton may be accom- plished in two ways, i. e., by flight or by water. While it is of course impossible to determine the exact extent of the flight of these weevils, either in distance or frequency, all available evidence seems to indi- cate that this means is likely to be of little importance in the pri- mary spread of the weevils. It seems that as long as there is an abundance of food at hand the weevils will fly very little, but in case of food shortage they fly readily. On the other hand, the habits and present distribution of the weevil make the species particularly adapted to dispersion by floods. Most of the Thurberia plants grow either directly in the wash of a canyon or arroyo or where the surface drainage is directly into such a wash. Many of the bolls containing ARIZONA WILD COTTON WEEVIL. 9 the hibernating weevils in their cells fall to the ground during the months of the winter, spring, and early summer, and because of their size and shape they are well adapted for being carried great dis- tances out through the foothills on to the plains by the floods that occur every season. Here they are deposited by the water, and, the cells having been sufficiently moistened, the weevils emerge. ‘Thence they will fly in search of food, and if they have been carried out into the zone of cotton the danger of infestation is quite apparent. It is in this manner that the infestation is most likely to take place; hence the importance of a study of the surface drainage carrying the water from the infested mountains into the various rivers. In this connection the distribution of the plants through the lower arroyos is especially important. In many localities these now support weevils and so are a constant menace to cotton, while even where the weevils are not now present they are always likely to serve as stepping stones in the downward movement of the weevil main- tained by the floods. In the course of the investigations several small plats of cotton were planted, comprising in all a little over one-fourth of an acre. On the 30th of July the writer noted several flared squares in this cotton. Examination showed them to contain weevil punctures, and a careful survey of the entire plat revealed the fact that a hght infestation of weevils was present. During the remainder of the sea- son all infested squares and bolls noted were collected and a few adult weevils were captured on the cotton. The infestation never became heavy, but it was ‘quite evident that some 10 or 15 weevils arrived at the plat at different times during the next two months. This is of course conclusive proof of the transfer from wild to culti- vated cotton. Karly in the season, when a survey of the countryside was made, it was decided that the ranch where this cotton was planted was a logical point for infestation by the boll weevil. It is located at the junction of the arroyos from two large canyons, and consequently receives a concentration of the water flow from these two canyons and all intermediate territory. The Thurberia piant is quite common throughout this drainage system and extends down to within a fourth of a mile of the ranch, although the nearest plants found infested with weevils are slightly farther away. The writer feels that in the course of the weevil collections during the early summer every weevil within at least a mile of the ranch was gathered; the infestation must therefore have been due to weevils brought down by the floods from some distance above. In fact the week before the infestation was first noted there had been a number of rains in this territory, and on one occasion the canyons had poured water down into the washes and out as far as theranch. These arroyos are nearly J 10 BULLETIN 233, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. all very rapid in descent near the mountains, and very rocky, so that comparatively little of the water seeps into the ground in this part of the journey and the force of the current scours the channel clean. Just above the ranch the character of the stream bed changes and it becomes wide and sandy. Here the water seeps rapidly and prac- tically every flood of the present season was able to reach but little below the ranch in this sand. Hence the Thurberia bolls containing weevils may be expected to pass through the rapid part of the stream and be deposited on the sand where the flow stops near the ranch. It was probably some such procedure as this which caused the infes- tation of the experimental cotton during the season of 1914, and the possibility of future infestation will always be present. PROSPECTS. From the various observations reported herein it seems quite evi- dent that it is only a matter of time until the weevil will appear on the cotton cultivated near Tucson. The territory best adapted for the cultivation of cotton and that upon which it seems most likely to be raised is nearly all within easy reach of the floods from weevyil- infested territory. While it is obviously impossible to state that the infestation will appear at a certain point, there are many places more hable to infestation than others. Such a location has been described at the ranch where the cotton was infested and a number of similar ones occur along the mountain slopes. The fact that the experimen- tal cotton was infested during 1914 demonstrated the importance of such a situation, but, on the other hand, it is by no means certain that the infestation would be repeated each season. However, the movement of the weevils out into the plains which takes place every year must sooner or later result in the infestation of cultivated cotton in the valley. These weevils which are washed into the field can do comparatively little damage themselves, but the result to be feared is that their progeny will become established in the valley, will winter there, and will become more and more adapted to injuring cultivated cotton. Another point which is likely to be of prime importance in the trans- fer of the weevil is the practice among many ranchers of using these floods for irrigating their land. A ditch is opened from the arroyo and in time of flood the water is diverted into this ditch and conveyed to the cultivated land. Agua Caliente arroyo is tapped in this manner near one corner of the Agua Caliente ranch and the water is led off to ~ a ranch on the west side of the stream bed. Soldier’s Canyon arroyo is tapped in the same way about one-half mile from the mouth of the canyon and the water is carried off to the southwest through several homesteads. The water from Sabino and Bear Canyons is used in the same way near the junction of the two arroyos. Since these ARIZONA WILD COTTON WEEVIL. alae ditches all leave the washes at points very close to Thurberia plants and in some cases among weevil-infested plants, it is quite easy to see the probable importance of this method of irrigation in introducing weevils and weevil-infested bolls directly into the fields. It is also the custom of a number of ranchers down in the river valleys to allow their land to be flooded whenever possible in order to secure the soil deposit as well as moisture. While these places are farther from weevil sources it is quite possible for weevils to be intro- duced in this manner. At present the cotton cultivated near Tucson is practically all north- west of the city near the Santa Cruz and Riljlito Rivers. The near- est mountains in which we have found the weevils are the Santa Catalinas, and at the western end these drain more or less directly into the valley now cultivated. Pima Canyon and the small washes adjoming it drain slightly west of south into the Rilito and thence directly into cotton land. The northwestern slope at this end of the range, including Montrose and Romero Canyons, drains into the Canada del Oro, and this water flows southwest into very nearly the same territory. The drainage of the entire southern slope of the Catalina Range is thickly infested with the weevils, which frequently extend along the ‘‘washes”’ very nearly to the Rilhto. There is no doubt that every season a number of weevils are washed down into this country, and any cotton cultivated in this part of the Rillito Valley will be in constant danger of infestation. On the east the Tanque Verde Mountains supply a stock of weevils carried down toward the village of Tanque Verde, while southeast of Tucson, near Vail and Irene, the headwaters of the Pantano are furnished with weevils from the ends of the Rincon and Santa Rita Ranges. South of Tucson in the valley of the Santa Cruz the drainage from the north- western slopes of the Santa Ritas contains weevils and Thurberia plants well down toward the river itself. West of Tucson there seems to be very little danger other than that from the end of the Catalinas, as the Tucson and other ranges here seem unable to support the plant. Under the existing circumstances there seems to be no measure which can be taken to prevent the introduction of the weevil into cotton fields, but a close watch should be continued at all times in order that an attempt may be made to control them as soon as they appear. Planters should maintain a careful watch for either flared or fallen squares and bolls in the field and examine them for either the feeding punctures or larve of the weevils. This observation should be especially close in fields or parts of fields adjacent to water courses carrying drainage from situations such as those described as normal for Thurberia. At the present stage of the investigations it is impossible to pre- dict just what the extent of the damage by the weevils will be when 12 BULLETIN 233, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE: they attack cotton. Many of the habits of the Thurberia weevil are adapted to the activities of these plants and to the higher altitudes at which they live, and-it is questionable just how readily and to what extent it will adapt itself to cotton. But since the species has shown such great adaptiveness in the Southern States, it is to be feared that the Arizona form will do the same. At any rate, it is an ever-present menace to cotton cultivation in the Santa Cruz Valley and should be watched most carefully. It is quite probable that with a more inti- mate knowledge of the extent of the weevil distribution in the State it will be possible to establish local quarantines of seed-cotton ship- ments which will at least keep the weevils out of the localities which do not have the species present in nature. In the Southern States cotton cultivation is of course very general and there the weevil ad- vances each season by flying, but in Arizona, where the different areas suitable for cultivation are separated by considerable stretches of mountainous country, such a means of dispersion would only be possible within very limited areas. Consequently it should be possi- ble to keep the weevil entirely out of areas not within range of direct infestation from nature. In addition to the watch for infestation by native weevils, the dan- ger of importation of the weevil from the Southern States should be remembered, and all efforts should be made to validate the quaran- tine against this variety. SUMMARY. 1. A weevil very closely related to the Mexican cotton-boll weevil] exists on a wild cotton plant in some of the mountains of southeastern Arizona. 2. The species seems to be particularly concentrated in the ranges surrounding Tucson. 3. This weevil may transfer its attack from the wild cotton plant to the cultivated cotton in the Santa Cruz and Rillito Valleys at an early date. 3 4. Its present habits are such that it would not injure cotton greatly, but these habits will probably be changed to a certain ex- tent and more injurious ones acquired. 5. The present habits render it quite probable that the control of the Arizona form will be a very different problem from that of the cotton weevil and more easily solved. 6. A careful watch should be maintained for the first appearance of the weevil on cultivated cotton in order that it may be combated successfully. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1915 Se Me a oe ef BULLE PIN OF, THE USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE No. 234 Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester. July 12, 1915. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. By D. T. Mason, Assistant District Forester, District 1. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Ownership andsupply.......-...----------- 1 | Management of lodgepole stands...........-- 21 Characteristics of the wood.........-.------- 3 WotatloNe: ceaccuaace ecco tera ee 22 SCS See eee cee acta aie liclamtlomwlese seine cies 4 Mothods'oficuttinies seo -s es sce seein. 23 Mireskilieditimibers-scisc mick ci-/ein\s-bicin= =~ e l= = 7 BUSH is posale swears ene aoe 32 Size and contents of various products...-...-. 8 Reculatinethercwtesseceeeeees cesses 35 PATI TIA Cuetec sce ences cisinee see icleetelers 9 Reforestatione 222s sd baa eee 39 Methodsoflumbering.....--2..--------2--2- JOM Protectioneactes< secret eec ee eee reece ee 46 Costsiandisellin pyprices. 2< << cbse eee cece T4igo Summarys cae seston eee ees Acer ee etee gare 48 Charcoalpmalein gs 25 ciateecivst cineca sini 20 | Appendix—Volume tables...........---.---- 49 OWNERSHIP AND SUPPLY. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) is the most important timber tree of that portion of the Rocky Mountains lying between northern Colorado and central Montana. Once considered practically worth- less, it now brings the Federal Government a revenue of from $10 to $100 an acre in National Forest timber sales. By far the greater part of the present supply of lodgepole pine is included within the National Forests. As will be seen from Table 1, it is the most important tree species on a number of Forests in Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Idaho, and Utah, forming in such cases from 30 to 92 per cent of the total stand of timber, and is of commercial though not primary importance on still other Forests in these States and in Washington, Oregon, and California. The principal privately owned bodies of lodgepole pine of any size are in Montana, where the State and the Northern Pacific Railroad hold considerable tracts. The total stand of lodgepole pine on those Forests where it is commercially important has been estimated at about 40 billion board feet (Table 1). Figure 1 shows by National Forests the regions where lodgepole pine occurs, either commercially or botanically. 89546°—Bull. 234—15——1 2 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe 1.—Estimated stand of lodgepole pine on the National Forests in which it is of commercial importance. Stand of Per Stand of Per " lodgepole | cent of lodgepole , cent of State. ine, 1,000 | total SUES. ine, 1,000 | “total oard feet. | stand. oard feet. | stand. MONTANA. IDAHO—continued. Forests in which lodgepole Forests in which lodgepole s pine is most important pine is of commercial but species: not of primary importance: Missoulans access ceisiemee 2, 464, 000 80 Challis 370, 000 Beaverhead f2- oes osc se 1, 132, 600 75 Caribou Gallatiness:c4¢ Sie sees S 750, 000 75 Nez Perce JeHersom sheet Pee eees 88, 000 75 Selway Deerlodgeya- ee ten sees 666, 000 68 Minidoka Madison M25. 2onk wide > ose 527,000 60 Sawtooth Wosarokals se ects. 6 occ 819, 000 60 Boise Beartooth. scwuseee ae ee 203, 000 4y Weiser Helena foe ee eres tea 440, 000 40 Salmon Lewis and Clark.........- 750, 000 30 Payette Forests in which lodgepole Clearwater pine is of commercial but Coeur d’ Alene not of primary importance: IBIGLERLOO Lem oe jon nee cle 1, 713, 000 46 Total Blackfeet: - 5.255. s2cec22 225, 000 10 | tlainedd tisisiieeinameeemsics)s 819, 000 B UTAH. Ol OSes etefeisiesier sje elerere 118, 000 : . : ’ Forests in which lodgepole Kootenaiss iss csces 600, 000 5 pine is most important ; species: Total. ..-.-----+-+++++-- 11,314,000 |....---- Nehleyecc shes 1,446,000] 65 & ERG ara TEAR GT Win tas ce ee ee ee 732,000 60 A Oe Forest in jwhich Jodgepole : Pons ; pine is of commercial but Morass iA inion lodgepole hot of primary importance: | | species: Qa caccccccccscccccccs ) | o Medicine Bow 92 Woashakies 20) 922.1102); 85 Total Mistclsssoceeene 2,184,000 |..------ Heeoat folate as cares eH WASHINGTON, Bridger es eat heat , 70 || Forests in which lodgepole | Bonneville y 60 pine is of commercial but Wyoming 42. os25.. sae 40 not of primary importance: SHOSHONC= aes eee e cies 24 Wienaha season as eee 2,080, 000 40 : Okanogan]. s5 jee seer 900, 000 15 Motalee eee eee seer cell | SH SOS4 5000 Ieee ace Chelantincejes <) 55 Sees 277, 000 12 - Kani ksiin. siemesencaceeee 67, 000 5 COLORADO, Wenatchee ss h-cesececece 41,000 1 Forests in which lodgepole Motalce dis. cusecesseoeeee 33.300, 0008 seeeeeee hel most important OREGON. ———S ATADALOMEI Ss ajeiseelasente 1,517, 000 65 || Forests in which lodgepole Colorado tee ene eae 753, 000 | 61 pine is of commercial but Forests in which lodgepole not of primary importance: | pine is of commercial but PAULINE scan ale eee 2,456,000 | ~— 50 not of primary importance: Minams .. 2-5. 22--22222---2392.22-3- 518) WoaneKCMONONIOLPING CAMP 5 5-2-1 -- 5 5 alsclesBeee ei a 2) se SO SE 583 Bizeksmalthinprand- repairing... AS S85 yk Gaia hela i See ARE IO ae 5 lat Supervision and accounting (includes wages of woods foreman)...........--.-- . 30 DieGianne eh e 110i | RARER AUER eee ae aap eA oes SSC ke eae Pau Le Reo C3 oie .18 Depreciation of equipment (covers logging equipment only).............-.-.-- . 02 Sawing (includes depreciation, taxes, and other charges on sawmill).-.......-- 2. 25 varcdimeqiumberat: mlb 2.55.) 2e1 de ek oe 6 te cratara rs oe ee eee ee = 3) Hauling lumber to railroad (sled haul 4 miles to railroad). ...---......----.-- 1. 00 APs CANES ONY CATS 5 orarce cc os crtye oie tase te icy eee ieaee Re Se ace eee 50 INSEE Loe COTTA 2) Aes eee ee ae ee emis Eo OUSiT, SE deren ire VOI Ae de DS SHIT OTEO 4 RISO BE Oe FEO E EGS atrescmi ete manne Se
    oi So aR ee et ere en See Ler tegen 2.7 62.0 227 71 227 83 Wecdcosdbddeaospesualles sasoss] Coscorpallessousnolleoseenon 2.8 71.0 2.8 84 2.8 95 FUR SS a SU se aim ee el aes eS ene cn | ae Zr x 2.9 83.0 2.9 98 2.9 109 Length, 20 feet. | Length, 25 feet. | Length, 30 feet. | Length, 35 feet. | Length, 40 feet. Top diameter. Rate | Price | Rate | Price | Rate | Price | Rate | Price | Rate | Price perecu-| per |percu-| per |percu-| per j|percu-| per |percu-| per bic foot.} piece. |bic foot.| piece. |bic foot.) piece. |bic foot.} piece. |bic foot.| piece. Inches. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. 0.8 2.5 0.8 4 9.9 (Oy ene eae [dia ange 1.0 5 1.0 6 12 EL Os Fee eal oe a 13 8 1.4 11 5 16 Me 7 23 1.6 13 ilay/ 18 1.9 26 | 1.9 32 1.9 19 2.0 26 2.0 35 2.0 dat 2.0 24 2.1 34 Pet 45 25M 55 ial! 31 22, Al eee ee ee oe |e al cins Peel a ste ooo cee [pcre ay eel eres aces 222, 39 2.3 Spa Pare rem | ate Nar par hee a 2.3 49 2.4 Lo ON es gt ti ett | mre Lp pe Sala | a te 2.4 59 2.5 FOIE ee eet hee abo eV ed een re ora LA rate alec ozcra 2.5, 70 2.6 Ey Spe tet sey a eal Ni orc eat ed cen leg hel ep a 8 2.6 81 PAT ITA Yea ec Sea es Awe [eR i ae 8 a oe PU 94 2.8 SDB 5a ee eee oP ae Neate eo Heng Uses 8 am archer [ease Ne Sr) crate 2.8 111 2.9 TD EOS | es epee ees | eeepc aie rea rt [Pe (ein ll ue ee ico ete 2.9 DF tae Aes 7p ok OL eB ne arp al ie pene | demecre NCEE ied Lapa Wea ebay aeons [Eat Fea Lower stumpage prices than those shown are often received for lodgepole-pine timber in many places where only small quantities are required for local use. In Montana the minimum price is approxi- mately $2.50 per thousand board feet. The price of lodgepole-pine stumpage in Forest Service timber sales ranges between this figure and $4.50 per thousand. On State and private lands the average prices are about the same, though in some cases the minimum may be lower than on the National Forests. 20 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The market prices for lodgepole-pime products vary a great deal in different localities. The price of ties is usually fixed by agreements between tie contractors and the railroads. During the last 10 years, however, there has been a steady rise in the prices paid for lodgepole- pine ties. About 5 years ago one large company held a contract to deliver a minimum of 500,000 ties per year at 39 cents on the track, and for all over the minimum number was to receive 45 cents each. Recently the prices paid have ranged from 50 to 65 cents each for first-class ties. Mine props are usually sold by the linear foot, the pieces varying in diameter from 3 to 6 inches at the smaller end, and in length from 34 to 16 feet. In general, prices range from 1 to 5 cents per linear foot, according, in some measure, to the size of the prop. At one place in Colorado, for example, the price paid f. 0. b. cars is 1 cent per linear foot for 16-foot props, and 1.5 cents per linear foot for 7, 8, and 10 foot props with the small end not less than 4 inches. Representa- tive prices for stulls, lagging, and converter poles in the vicinity of Butte, Mont., are shown in Table 9. Wood usually sells from $5 or $6 per cord delivered to the consumer in town. In many places there are strong local markets for lodgepole-pine lumber. While the yearly demand is not large, the prices paid are good. In one locality the mill run sells for $17.50 per thousand board feet, and in another for $20.50. While in most places mill run is sel- dom sold for less than from $15 to $16 per thousand board feet, yet where lumber is considered a by-product, such material is often sold at only a small profit or even at cost. CHARCOAL MAKING. In making charcoal the first work is to grade and level up the ground where the pit is to be located. The same place is used two or three times to save work in grading. The wood is cut in 10-foot lengths and hauled to the place where it is to be burned. Each pit accommodates about 50 cords of wood properly stacked and covered with brush, leaves, and dirt. Very complete utilization is secured, since even small branches and twigs are used to fill in chinks and for covering. The actual burning takes about 20 days. Forty bushels of charcoal are produced per cord of wood, weighing 134 pounds per bushel. Charcoal makers usually work in pairs, for when the pit is burning it must be watched night and day to guard against blow-outs and to change the drafts with varying weather conditions. Two pits are usually burned at one time, a pair of men guarding both. In charcoal operations near Bernice, Mont., the finished product has to be hauled 8 miles to the railroad at Bernice. One round trip is made a day, with an average haul of 400 bushels. The charcoal is then shipped by freight to Helena in carload lots of 1,600 bushels, at arate of 15 cents per hundred pounds. Itemized costs of charcoal making in the vicinity of Bernice are as follows: UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE. 21 Per cord of | Per bushel of wood. charcoal. SMG. 52 cc Hoanc ceases paceeoneees soas Ise ener eeour ens aspepacsosanecnsoe $0. 50 $0. 0125 Cutting and burning: (GiiRGhing. ooo peter ced bconeasoecdase auecaquecospecscecuc atiosesdoaneader as | $0.17 $0. 0043 (CLT a ool o baer 2 e Uy aa a | .90 0225 ela. - +2 sciscsoseeacansous st peeeoeE soe coe abe se seer s5 aoa Seems s acc | 45 0112 (COMM? - oie. sbcecbcsousceu sagas de epanegoseder sopcecedosuscusacnece 56 0140 ISG - = osoceocee es de sdcemg uae so an asap Boe s5ence suse Hao oremes decade 1.12 0280 3. 20 - 0800 Is isyiillina. & 11 PRNMORNOL, oS oe se oeoee sede seobee Se OB pues Jones essed sac senedaee 1. 20 . 0300 Loading on cars......---------- eb uo tceuedsecooacdasnus yedacdadsaseqdeaeos . 05 . 0012 reir hie renmicobOrele Lemans see eames pate me ele ee ia ene aieaia eo rai sical min == | 81 . 0202 UNDUBI Gc Kebdod nebbebsbeoboone ea sSUpeeaseUe2e05ebocedeousodsuaeoecase 5. 76 1439 Pee meeerheGl AyH Isl nels | ohne Ses oeooeEor saad sseaccenouesaccodaeds 6. 00 . 1500 MANAGEMENT. OBJECTS. The two main objects to keep in mind in the management of lodge- pole-pine forests are (1) watershed protection and (2) a maximum sustained yield of merchantable timber of the most desirable sizes. Its wide range and the fact that most of the stands are located at the higher elevations, where rainfall is greatest and the slopes steep, give lodgepole pine a peculiar importance in regulating the flow of streams which have their headwaters in the region. Even the Mis- sissippi receives a considerable part of its summer supply of water from some of these streams. Thus the value of lodgepole-pine forests for the conservation of water is probably as great as their value for timber production, especially when one considers their slow growth and relatively small yield. Nevertheless, lodgepole pine is an im- portant timber tree, and every effort should be made to produce the greatest possible amount of merchantable timber consistent with the maintenance of an adequate forest cover on the watersheds. Many classes of material produced by lodgepole-pine stands, from small poles to the largest timber, can now be marketed, though the demand for each class is not proportionate to the supply. Small stulls, mine props, lagging, converter poles, fence poles, and cordwood, for ex- ample, are produced in far greater quantities than the market can absorb, while the demand for large stulls, ties, telephone poles, and saw timber is much greater in proportion to the available supply of this class of material. For this reason every effort should be made to produce large trees, 9 inches or more in diameter. There will inevi- tably be produced at the same time sufficient small timber to meet every demand. Throughout most of the lodgepole-pine belt the species should be perpetuated on areas now occupied by it. Exceptions to this rule, however, should be made at the lower and upper edges of the belt, where other species are better suited to the conditions. Thus at the lower elevations the stand should be allowed to revert to Douglas fir and at the upper to Engelmann spruce. Between these two ex- tremes, however, lodgepole pine should be favored against these and such other species as may occur in mixture with it. 22 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ROTATION. The length of the rotation, which is the period represented by the age of the stand at the time it is to be cut, is determined by the rate of growth of the species under consideration and the purpose for which itis to be used. In the case of lodgepole pine, the tree’s slow growth and the need for producing as large size material as possible neces- sitate a comparatively long rotation. Table 11 shows that the mean annual growth in cubic feet of normal stands in Montana, measured to about 24 inches in the top, culminates at from 70 to 90 years. A rotation of this length, however, gives few trees 9 inches or more in diameter, and is therefore too short. For material scaled to a 6- inch top diameter limit the mean annual growth in board feet culmi- nates at 130 years, and for material scaled to 8 inches in the top, at from 200 to 210 years. At 130 years only about two-fifths of the scale material is 8 inches or more in diameter at the top end, which is too small a proportion, while at 200 years nearly nine-tenths of the material is of large size, which is more than is needed. The mean annual growth in board feet to a 6-inch top is nearly at its maximum at 140 years, when 53 per cent of the scale material is 8 inches or more in top diameter. This is about as small a proportion of large ma- terial as a mature stand ought to produce; at the same time a rotation of 140 years is not unreasonably long. It would appear, therefore, that such a rotation is the best for normally stocked lodgepole stands on average sites in Montana. While yield figures for normal stands in Wyoming and Colorado are not available, it is probable that a rotation of approximately the same length would be satisfactory in these States for the production of mine timbers and ties. TABLE 12.1— Mean annual growth per acre of normal stands of lodgepole pine on average sites (quality IT), at various ages, Deerlodge National Forest, Mont. Mean annual growth. Amonnt of scale " Scale material. material Age. oes etTeG je oanches : Top Top and over in ciawieter diameter | diameter | _. top “2 Inches. | 6 inches. | Sinches. | diameter. Years. Cubic fect. | Board feet. | Board feet. | Per cent. Ba qciBoOb CORmaa aS EL Ons psa roCdeEaGTeorese soaarioudne abese 40 81 0 0 (HUGS GS et Bp ea aaeas GbR Ob oe ese Be Ra AAGanAeMreORmE coo ste 42 92 0 0 US pas aS pS obor ae Dna aee Ke ASS E EES Odc ne eeOenEEHORopOS 42 100 0 0 CDS BARB OB RASS SoS 505 Go CREOO SCE COREOME ESO Sb oe ae rec a= 42 105 0 0 LOO Se ee eee yee mele ene nie rate tte aaterclejc-aicynie © mie mits halos tere 41 109 15 14 LU Ba deddosaaen soot OBB Cro COS EL OAdeSSrEEEE Sobeo se sobb eda 39 112 27 24 TIPLA ie Re pti ae ital ete ystraeh rac op een Sp eh SER oy ay 37 113 38 34 ASO ee nD eh etyctcia [Seema Cercle a c's ak ote Sareea ee 35 114 49 43 LAO Eero cineca Bo oat eee ee beesit one sins oracles Seiseine 33 113 60 53 SOTO 200 eae ta eee salons ae eee ec cece pies bre aie Sets SR ee 2 os Sete | See ee | I eo aaa od ote Ee eee re cle eee meee Ue siaya:cia tae enor 24 103 90 87 LO Meese aioe oc Ao Ean ab rae Seay Seaton a mee Sen eae 23 102 90 88 DN) ee han bactw Solo et cetavels ih ute eee eae dade om aides te ceeee 22 100 89 89 1 Based on Table 9, Department of Agriculture Bulletin 154, ““The Life History of Lodgepole Pine in the Rocky Mountains.”” While the board feet figures are not strictly accurate, they are sufliciently so to serve as a guide in determining the length of rotation. 2 Between 140 and 200 years there is a constant decrease in the mean annual growth in cubie feet and in board feet to a top diameter of 6 inches, and a constant increase in the mean annual growth in board feet toa top diameter of 8 inches. UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE. 23 It is impossible to fix a single rotation for the ordinary stands now found in the lodgepole-pine region, because of their variable density. Some of the more open stands are ready for cutting before they have reached the age of 140 years, while many of the denser ones will never produce large-sized material without a thinning. For aver- age, well-stocked, unthinned stands on average sites, however, a cutting at 140 years should yield 8,000 or 10,000 board feet per acre, with a fair proportion of large-sized timber, and at the same time leave from 200 to 500 of the smaller trees for future growth. On the better sites the rotation would be shorter and on the poorer sites longer. METHODS OF CUTTING. DETERMINING FACTORS. A number of things have to be considered in determining the best method of cutting lodgepole pine. The forest must be leftinsuch a condition that it will continue to furnish protection to the water- shed, the increment of the whole stand must be increased as much as possible, the trees which are left must not be unduly exposed to injury from windfall or sun scald, and the material removed must be of sizes for which there is a ready market. The object of the cutting must also be considered. HISTORY OF FRENCH GULCH TIMBER SALE, In order to give a clear idea of the present plan of management for lodgepole pine on the National Forests, the methods employed in the French Gulch timber sale on the Deerlodge National Forest will be briefly described. Owing to the Forest’s proximity to Butte, where material of all sizes can be disposed of, it has been practicable, ‘on limited areas at least, to use a number of different systems of cutting. The first cutting followed the selection system. Although _the stand was opened up rather heavily in places, there has been but little windfall and the trees are growing faster than before the cutting.2 This system was not used for a sufficient length of time early in the operation, however, to give it a thorough trial. At about the same time the single-tree system was also practiced in some places, but with unsatisfactory results. The first definite marking rules were promulgated in October, 1906. They provided for cuttmg clean strips 150 feet wide, run- ning with the slope, with 75-foot strips between. These latter were divided into blocks 75 feet square, alternate blocks being cut 1 Properly speaking, the selection system is one used in many-aged stands of tolerant species, from which the large trees are removed in order to admit light to the smaller ones and to start reproduction. The system used on the French Gulch sale area was really a culling or form of partial cutting, but the term “selection system’’ is the one applied to this method in the lodgepole-pine region. 2 French Gulch is in the Anaconda smelter-smoke zone, which tends very largely to offset the usual benefits which follow the opening up of a stand. 24 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. clean and the remainder left for seed. Even in the seed blocks thinnings were made to remove lagging, converter poles, and large stull trees, so that the seed groups finally consisted of from 30 to 60 trees ranging from7to 11 inches in diameter. In exposed situations over 90 per cent of the trees left have been blown down, and many others have died from sun scald or from the drying out of the soil. In the more sheltered situations, particularly where the original stand had been somewhat open, windfall has been much less. This heavy loss from windfall quickly demonstrated the impractibility of such a system for general use in lodgepole-pine stands. These cut- tings were not a fair test of the wind firmness of the species, however, for to reduce the number of trees per acre of any species from 500 or 1,000 to about 50, particularly when the individual trees were tall and slender, could hardly result otherwise than in excessive windfall. The next change in the marking system naturally aimed to elimi- nate windfall. In the spring of 1909 the strip system was applied. The timber was clean cut in strips, with seed strips from 100 to 150 feet wide left absolutely intact between them. The width of the clean-cut areas was from one to three times that of the seed strips. This system proved successful in reducing windfall to a negligible amount, but in other respects had no advantage over the seed-tree group system. In both systems the operator gradually accumulated a surplus of cordwood and small stulls in excess of the market de- mand, while the Government lost from the clean-cut areas many small, thrifty trees capable of rapidly developing into large material under better management. At the same time there remained in the seed strips many large, slowly growing trees wanted by the operator and not of use in the stand except to prevent windfall. Neither of the systems is satisfactory in regard to watershed pro- tection, nor does either tend to increase the volume or better the quality of the succeeding stand. Another important drawback to the systems mentioned was their lack of adaptability to the great variety of conditions found on the sale area. Overdense stands of lagging and converter poles, badly in need of thinning, remained untouched, because a sufficient amount of such material was being obtained from the clear-cut areas. Over- dense and moderately dense even-aged stands, uneven-aged stands, and old and young stands were all cut in exactly the same way. For this reason the system of cutting was still further modified in the fall of 1910 and again slightly modified in the summer of 1913. The present marking rules are as follows: Bul. 234, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fia. 1.—SINGLE SEED-TREE METHOD OF CUTTING EMPLOYED EARLY IN THE FRENCH GULCH SALE. Much windfall resulted, and many trees died of sun scald when exposed to full light. Most of the windthrown trees had been utilized before the picture was taken. Fig. 2.—SELECTION CUTTING ON THE FRENCH GULCH SALE. The stand was heavily thinned in 1906. Remaining trees are well spaced and already show increased growth. This thinning was somewhat heavier than those now being made in selection cuttings, but shows very little windfall. : PLATE IV. Bul. 234, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. — eR WITH BRUSH BURNED Fig. 1.—SELECTION CUTTING ON THE FRENCH GULCH SALE, AND PRODUCTS REMOVED. low stumps. ote N IN WHICH NEARLY ALL INCH STULLS WERE REMOVED Fic. 2.—SELECTION CUTTING ON THE FRENCH GULCH SALE TREES WHICH WOULD MAKE 8 Note side branches and short clear lengths. UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE, 25 Marking RuLES FOR LODGEPOLE-PINE STANDS ON THE DEERLODGE NATIONAL Forest. CLASSIFICATION OF STANDS. 1. Over-mature stands: Such stands are over 160 years in age, contain mainly trees 10 inches or over in diameter, which have evidently passed maturity and are practically at a standstill, if not on the decline. A very large proportion of the cubic-foot volume of the stand consists of mate- rial 8 inches and over in diameter. In openings which have occurred in the stand from various causes there are frequently groups of young or middle-aged trees which are thrifty and growing fairly rapidly. Owing to the thinning out of the crown cover with old age, there is also usually more or less reproduction on the ground. An example of this class of stands is that found in Julius Gulch, on the French Gulch sale area. 2. Mature stands: Stands of this class usually range in age from 120 to 160 years, but may fre- quently be older than 160 and in a few cases younger than 120, depending mainly upon the stage of development of the stand, as a whole, as to the production of trees 10 inches or over in diameter. This classification aims to include stands which contain a large number of ‘ trees 10 inches and over in diameter which are now ready for cutting, with a considerable proportion of the whole number of trees, usually over 60 per cent, below 10 inches in diameter and still with crowns sufficiently thrifty to respond with a material increase in the rate of growth to openings which may be made in the stand. Such stands may range up to 180 or 190 years in age where they have been somewhat crowded in youth. Groups of young growth are of more or less frequent occurrence in natural openings. Examples of stands of this class are found in the Jabez Doney sale area, on Dry Gulch, in the Bernice district, and in the selection cuttings along American Gulch, below the main flume, on the French Gulch sale area. 3. Immature stands: Usually under 120 years of age, but classified as young mainly because they do not yet contain any considerable proportion of trees which will yield 8-inch material. This class is further divided into— (a) Converter pole stands: Ordinarily from 80 to 120 years in age, but may range up to an age of 160 years where the stand had its origin in overdense repro- duction. There are usually present a few trees from 7 to 10 inches in diameter, but most of the trees have a diameter of less than 8 inches. Usually there is no reproduction coming in under such stands. (b) Lagging stands: ; Such stands usually range in age from 50 to 80 years, but, due to overdensity of reproduction, may be as old as 140 years. Occasionally there are a few trees from 6 to 8 inches in diameter, but most of the trees are below 6 inches. 26 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OBJECTS OF MARKING. The main object of cutting done on the Deerlodge Forest will be to secure the greatest possible increase of increment for the Forest, as a whole, but not necessarily for each particular acre cut over considered by itself. The overmature stands will be cut with the intention of removing the old timber now at a standstill and securing a stand of rapidly growing reproduction in its place. Mature stands will be cut with the object of removing the larger trees now ripe in size for cutting and retaiming the smaller trees so situated that many of them will grow to a diameter of over 9 inches within the next 20 to 50 years. Reproduction isnot aimed at, although the manner of cutting will secure it in many openings and will hasten its growth in the many places where it already occurs. Young stands will be handled by improvement thinnings, strictly with the idea of saving the most promising trees and giving them sufficient room to grow rapidly in the future to good size. CLASSIFICATION OF EXPOSURES. The following classification is made as a guide to the men doing the marking, with the object of adjusting the severity of the cutting, in the mature stands particularly, to the purpose of securing safety from windfall. The prevailing wind direction is southwest for the Forest as a whole, although it may be modified locally by topography. Especially moist and especially shallow soils increase the danger of windfall and should therefore be given consideration in classifying various areas as to exposure. The presence of former windfalls should also be considered. Safe exposures: In this classification are included the bottoms of gulches, as a rule, except where they lie parallel to the course of the prevailing wind for a considerable distance. Slopes to the north and east, or in any direction where short or unim- portant and well protected by considerably higher ground not far to windward. Examples of such areas are the bottoms of the gulches and the slopes on the Divide Creek sale area. Medium exposures: : This includes the larger flat areas, gentle, lower slopes to the south and west, and the minor ridge tops where protected by high hills or mountains not far to windward. Examples are the flats and gentle slopes to the west below the main flume at French Gulch, the minor ridge tops on Divide Creek, and the higher portion of the Dry Gulch sale area. Great exposures: The crests of exposed ridges and exposed slopes to south and west not protected by marked topography. Such areas would include the south and west face of Slide Rock Mountain and the ridge between Julius and Vanetti Gulches on the French Gulch sale area. METHODS OF MARKING. 1. Overmature—Clean cutting: Cut all timber merchantable under the terms of the contract excepting that under 7 inches diameter breast high. Leave groups of smaller size trees and young growth as carefully preserved as possible. Leave none of the larger trees as a protection against windfall. The trees left, together with the seed already in the soil and in the cones of trees cut, will provide for reproduction. iy UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE. ith 2. Mature—Selection cutting: Cutting will be done only to such a degree as, in the judgment of the marker, will leave the stand safe from windfall, particular attention being paid to exposure. Cut the larger trees—all 14 inches and over—unless needed to prevent windfall. Cut trees 10 to 13 inches, unless they are needed to preveat windfall, or unless they are especially sound, thrifty individuals standing where they will profit greatly by the amount of light which they are now receiving or will receive after cutting. Cut 8 and 9 inch trees only when their removal is desirable for the good of the remaining stand, and when they are entirely acceptable to the operator. Cut no converter poles or lagging trees, or trees of similar size (7 inches or under), whether green or dead, from stands of this classification. Such material may, how- ever, be utilized at the option of the operator, from the tops of the trees designated for cutting, or from material cut from roadways, banking grounds, etc. Excepting with the general consent of the operator, expressed as to definite areas, no tree which will not make at least one 8-inch—16-foot piece will be marked for cutting. On the other hand, all defective and limby trees, whose retention in the stand is not desired to prevent windfall, will be marked for cutting if they will yield one 8-inch—16-foot piece. Small pockets of larger trees may be cut clean. Such patches should not ordi- narily exceed a quarter acre in area and will usually be much smaller. These clean-cut patches should not exceed 20 per cent of the cutting area in mature stands, and the cutting in the timber around their edges should be lighter than usual to maintain the windfirmness of the whole stand. The marker should have constantly in mind the object of leaving the stand in the best possible condition for increased growth after the cutting, for which purpose thrifty crowned trees should be left with as reasonable an amount of growing space as the limitations of the system as above set forth will permit. Selection marking should be very light around the edges, especially the leeward edges, of parks or clean-cut areas an acre or more in extent. On ‘‘safe” exposures, as defined above, no attention need be paid to windfall, since the other rules will leave sufficient timber on the ground to insure windfirm- ness of the stand. On ‘‘medium” exposures the marking should be done about as it has been in the selection areas below the main flume at French Gulch, where there are left 70 per cent of the trees 3 inches and over, 62 per cent of the trees 6 inches and over, and 20 per cent of the trees 10 inches and over. On ‘‘great” exposures the cutting should remove approximately 25 per cent less than from the ‘‘medium” exposures, or should leave approximately 80 per cent of the trees 3 inches and over, 70 per cent of the trees 6 inches and over, and 40 per cent of the trees 10 inches and over. The foregoing are general rules as to the amount to be left, and must be adapted carefully to the exposure, soil moisture and depth, topography, and condition of the timber in each case, but the leaving of a sufficient stand to be safe from wind throw will be the primary consideration in all selection marking. 3. Immature—Improvement thinning with the object of retaining the best trees and leaving them in the best possible position to grow rapidly to large size. (a) Converter-pole stands: The marker will mentally select for leaving the best trees, straight, sound trees with considerable clear length and a good crown development for the most part, and will aim to leave such trees as evenly disposed as possible over the area, and at the rate of about 2 per square rod (320 per acre) as an ideal number. All other green trees which will make converter poles (4 to 6 inches diameter breast 28 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, high) will then be marked for cutting. No lagging trees will be marked for cut- ting, for such trees will not interfere with the growth of the larger trees especially selected for leaving. No dead trees will be cut unless they will produce at least one 8-inch—16-foot piece. On account of the difficulty of handling long poles in dense stands, the cutting of frequent skid roads is permissible. Under this system of cutting no attention need be paid to windfall, for a suffi- cient number of larger trees together with a large number below converter-pole size will be left to withstand the wind. (b) Lagging stands: The marker will mentally select for leaving the best individual trees—so far as possible straight, sound trees, with either some clear length or at least without large limbs developed at the base of the tree—and will aim to leave such trees as evenly disposed as possible over the area, and at the rate of 3 per square rod (480 per acre) as an ideal number. All other green trees which will make lagging (3 to 5 inches diameter breast high) will then be marked for cutting. No dead lagging will be cut. The cutting of frequent skid roads is permissible. No attention need be paid to windfall. The result of cutting under this selection system at French Gulch has been to leave a considerably larger number of trees on the ground than under the clear-cutting system, and so placed that the rate of growth of most of them will be increased. The proportion of cord- wood and small stulls taken by the operator has been reduced and the total number of large stulls increased as indicated by the fol- lowing figures: Per cent large (8 Per cent small inches and over). (under 8 inches). | Selection} Clear Selection | Clear | cutting. | cutting. | cutting. | cutting. INUIT DeIROS CUTS Cube eee ee ete ese eer cients ate n ae o ereree i near 57 37 43 63 Cubiciootivolumeofstullsicute ye see ae aes eters ole | {Al 51 29 49 Board foot, volume ofistullsicut: sesso e- scene eee eae ee ce 76 57 24 43 By the present method of cutting, 2.67 cords, or their equivalent, are taken with each 100 large stulls; by the clear-cutting method, 4.95 cords were taken. In the selection cuttings, too, the average size of the large stulls is greater than was the case in the clear cut- tings. The amount of material of various classes cut under the two systems is given in Table 13. The amount of material and the num- ber of trees of various sizes cut and left by the selection system are shown in Tables 14 and 15. UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE. 29 TaBLE 13.— Material of various classes secured under selection cutting and clear cutting on a representative portion of the French Gulch sale, Deerlodge National Forest, Mont. [Average acre based on sample areas actually cut and scaled.] Selection cutting. Clear cutting. Cut. Uncut. Total. Cut. Number. | Volume. | Number. | Volume. | Number.| Volume. | Number.| Volume. Stulls 8 inches and Cubicfeet. Cubic feet. Cubic feet. Cubic feet. OvGicouceeee eocoaee 176 1,670 67 546 243 2,216 238 2,185 Stulls under 8inches.| 135 602 180 800 315 1,402 340 1,675 5-inch mine props... - 41 110 115 308 156 418 56 149 Converter poles.....- 7 20 79 238 86 258 203 610 Mag ein cee sees = 89 89 106 106 195 195 303 303 Cordwood............ 3.3 266 1.9 150 5.2 416 7.8 624 TO GaISU eee tion nas PE \\sceedeuee D4 S8al eee ction AS O05: estar sec 5,496 TaBLe 14.—Per cent of material cut and left in selection cuttings on the French Gulch sale, Deerlodge National Forest, Mont. Per cent cut. Cubic=tootgolumefonistandetn See eas ase ee ee ee ee Pe ee as Seas ee see Board tOOtaOluUmexons tanec sce ee saccacetec ecrine cece ccna eeeee eer sae PATO OIS Git Sime e te eters cee aie = acs ts Saelela cclsetals cieiSa emisc cine d mace sales Cubic-foot volume of large stulls in stand.............---...-----.--------- Board-foot volume of large stulls in stand..........-...--..--------------- Green trees 3 inches and over in diameter......---.-.----- hep ac iy Wee potas SO Green trees 6 inches and over in diameter......------.-------------------- Green trees 10 inches and over in diameter............-...----.----------- Per cent left. TaBLE 15.—Number of trees cut and left on an average acre under the selection system, Deerlodge National Forest, Mont. Number of trees. Diameter breast- Diameter breast- high. high. Total. Cut. Left. Inches. Inches. nN Maren Soke, Nate 34 2 SSA | al sr ap Sa A oh Ake aera aaa e a Sista cies 55 5 HO | LOR She ete ee eee Demiees chee Hasse e 54 9 CUT Ia Ne Sere ee Se A ear ORE Peer aS tactic baci 53 4 COA i) eee ad Oe eee Fic ie. aextayes Ree eae 61 5 5G) [GRO Sa eae See es SR esas oe ese es 54 8 AG (202 Rae ESN eye ee 0) de Saat eee 44 10 ETN Lane rea PT Rok 10). aceon See eee 31 16 STOO Sen SRN eee Aire ee IDs Vee eS ee N ere 28 23 Eyl | ean ne Ree A ge a ee 1D). os SES GOS See 20- 17 3 1S Ak ee Ca Sae BoE 22 19 3 Do tall segment Tee be aeeeee 13 OSH era es lt Average diameter of trees cut,.11.2 inches. Average diameter of trees left, 6.8 inches. 30 per cent of trees 3 inches and over cut. 38 per cent of trees 6 inches and over cut. 80 per cent of trees 10 inches and over cut. Number of trees. Total. Cut. Left. 30 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In order to determine precisely what form marking should assume at each particular place, a detailed map was made by the men who did the work. Besides showing the different kinds of stands, this map formed a valuable record of the area cut over. The cost of marking, including that of the map, averages about 8 cents per thou- sand feet. It costs more to mark the trees in winter than in summer, and more for the selection system than for clean-cutting. Compared with the cost in stands of such species as yellow pine, that for lodge- pole pine is rather high, owing to the small size of the individual trees. It has been found advisable, with the present system of cut- ting, to mark rather lightly at first, marking again after the first trees have been cut. This causes no hardship to the operator, for the second marking is done before the choppers finish a strip. It costs slightly more than a single marking, but gives more satisfactory results. The marking rules for the Deerlodge are based upon the requirements of the Butte market. They aim not only to furnish the proper amount of each kind of material needed by the timber purchaser, but also to secure the maximum benefits in the way of increased growth, etc., for the Forest as awhole. This does not mean, of course, that each individual acre cut over is left in the best possible silvicultural condition. To do that, the operator would have to cut a greater proportion of small material than the market could absorb. The cutting in mature stands would yield all the lagging and con- verter poles needed, so that it would not be possible to secure the thinning of overdense immature stands. Lagging poles, for example, can be secured either by taking very badly suppressed or dead trees of the proper sizes from mature or overmature stands, or by thinning dense young stands. If they are taken from old stands no improve- ment in the rate of growth of the remaining trees will result; there will simply be a utilization of material which is either at a standstill or already dead. If, however, lagging poles are taken from over- dense young stands, the remaining trees will be greatly benefited, the stand being changed from one in which the production of large material is going on very slowly to one in which it is comparatively rapid. For this reason, timber of small diameter should, so far as practicable, be taken in the form of thinnings from the younger stands. Overmature stands of lodgepole pine on the Deerlodge Forest will not be cut absolutely clean. A number of trees less than 7 inches in diameter will be left on each area. Groups of young growth which have come up in openings will also be left, together with scattered, suppressed seedlings. The live trees which remain after the cutting and the sealed cones on the ground will furnish enough seed to start satisfactory reproduction in the open places. There may be occa- UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE. 31 sional small openings, however, which will not seed up for from 10 to 20 years. The result will be a new stand with a considerable range in age. A number of the 4, 5, and 6 inch trees left standing will undoubt- edly be blown down. Such loss, however, will be far less than would be the case if a sufficient number of the larger trees were left uncut to insure the wind firmness of the smaller ones. In the latter event, there would probably be a severe windfall among the larger trees; the cost of logging would be increased, and a considerable part of the producing power of the soil would be lost for a time. In mature stands, cut under the selection system, windfall will be negligible if the marking is carefully done. In many of the openings seedlings will start and grow vigorously; in other places, where a fair number of trees still remain on the ground, they will grow slowly until released by a later cutting; while in still others the stand will be too dense for reproduction to start. From 15 to 20 years later it will be possible to cut the stand again, at which time the process just outlined will be repeated. Later cuttings will completely remove the original stand, leaving one of many age classes, the latter largely in groups. When immature stands of lodgepole pine are thinned one or more times, the final stand will contain trees more nearly uniform in size than is the case in virgin stands. When the large trees are removed in one cutting, as outlined for overmature stands, the previous thin- nings will have resulted in more or less reproduction, which, together with the seed from cones on the ground and from small trees left standing, will furnish the basis for the next stand. If the large trees are removed in two or three cuttings, reproduction will be secured by the shelterwood system. Thinnings pay well for themselves in accessible areas near Butte. From 1 acre on which there was a 60-year stand consisting of 2,044 poles, from 25 to 45 feet tall, 1,022 lagging poles were cut. Four hundred and eighty-four (about 3 per square rod) of the largest and most thrifty trees, varying from 4 to 6 inches in diameter and from 35 to 45 feet tall, were left. In addition, there were also left 538 suppressed trees too small to interfere with the growth of the larger ones. This thinning yielded $30.66 per acre in stumpage, and the trees which were left are now splendidly placed to grow rapidly to large size. Wherever a mature or overmature stand is accessible, and the cost of removing the timber is not great, it is advisable to cut more lightly than indicated by the marking rules, in order that defective and deteriorating trees may be removed and growth stimulated over the largest possible area. Where the timber is more or less inaccessible, however, as is usually the case with lodgepole pine, it is necessary to cut heavily in order to justify the expense of the necessary improve- ments. 32 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CUTTINGS ON OTHER NATIONAL FORESTS. In a selection cutting of lodgepole pine on the Medicine Bow Na- tional Forest 36 per cent of the original board-foot volume of the stand was removed. In a similar cutting on the Arapahoe National Forest 40 per cent of the original volume was taken. The marking in these cases was considerably lighter than at French Gulch, due to the greater exposure of the timber on the Medicine Bow and to the greater accessibility of that on the Arapahoe. The marking on 22 representative acres on the Bighorn National Forest in Wyoming, in the summer of 1913 provided for the removal of approximately 58.5 per cent of the board-foot volume. Table 15 shows by diameter classes the number of trees and the volume in board feet removed and left on an average acre in the operations on the Medicine Bow National Forest. TaBLE 16.—Number of trees and volume in board feet removed and left on an average acre in selection cuttings on the Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyo. [Based on 97 measured acres.] Trees cut per acre. Trees left per acre. Diame- nee Living. Dead. Living. high. : Number.| Volume. | Number.| Volume. Number. | Volume. Inches. Board ft. Board ft. Board ft. ui 0.71 9 2.18 26 38. 464 8 94 23 2.19 55 37. 50 932 9 1.50 63 1.54 65 31.05 1,304 10 3. 03 194 1.61 103 23.95 1,531 11 2.71 230 1. 27 108 15. 44 1,312 12 6.76 710 . 89 93 9. 60 1,007 13 5. 36 705 RU 98 6.47 821 14 5. 04 776 38 59 4.71 726 15 2. 53 462 . 29 53 2. 27 412 16 2.10 439 oud 24 1.49 312 17 1.14 275 . 20 47 75 181 18 74 205 -05 14 37 102 19 41 127 - 05 16 14 44 20 21 70 -05 11 06 21 21 06 24 -OL 4 06 24 22 07 Pah a ied eendoeeeiter | Seen aes 04 18 23 03 15 OL Hie) Boe sees bese a 24 -O1 Lyi ose eee a Eecncato a5 03 16 25 . 04 D3 [ease SA Se ene ee | Bee ene | Sees oN ee 26 - OL Geile ete eee See 01 6 Pda nied Ne ret OES OTE (CICERO ee Gis oMB ee ol 7 30 -OL Shale esas Peel Save ee eee cece © lee 31 .O1 Ores aroe2 ee oe Oo so ee ee 34 - OL | A) eee eS ee See Pee ee ta Total..| 33.62 4,421 | 11.58 731 | 172.45 | 9, 240 | | | | BRUSH DISPOSAL. The object of brush disposal is to leave the cutover area in the best condition to insure reproduction and to protect it from fire and fungi. Brush left scattered haphazard over an area will permit of abundant reproduction, except where the débris is especially deep. Brush piled in windrows prevents reproduction upon the spaces they cover, though reproduction will be secured in the spaces between Bul. 234, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Fia. 2.—A BRUSH PILE LIKE THIS WILL LIGHT EASILY AND BURN CLEAN UNDER 25 OR 30 INCHES OF SNOW WITHOUT DAMAGE TO THE REMAINING TREES. Bul. 234, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. ———__- Fia@. 1.—CLEAN CUTTING OF LODGEPOLE PINE (FOREGROUND) WITH COMPLETE UTILIZATION TO ABOUT 2 INCHES IN THE TOPS FOR STULLS, MINE PRops, CON- VERTER POLES, AND CORDWOOD. Note seed strips in background. Fic. 2.—COMPLETE UTILIZATION OF LODGEPOLE PINE ON A CLEAN-CUT AREA. Brush pile in center of picture is 12 feet high. Such a pile can be burned in any weather. Bul. 234, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. Fia. 1.—DENSE STAND OF LODGEPOLE PINE, ABOUT 120 Years OLD. Originally with 1,052 green trees per acre, nearly all under 7 inches in diameter, thinned by the removal of 260 converter poles and 300 lagging poles per acre. The thinning is probably too light to greatly benefit the remaining stand. Heavy thinning brings danger from windfalls. , Pee, 8 " eo ek eh eT Me) Py 29 Fic. 2.—STAND OF LODGEPOLE PINE, ABOUT 120 YEARS OLD. Six thousand five hundred green trees per acre, badly in need of thinning. a a : e. a 7 a : 1 aig | 7 : 7 : oA } UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE, 33 the rows from the seeds from cones remaining on the ground. The same thing is true of brush left in conical piles. 'To secure repro- duction, however, it is not necessary to leave brush piles on the ground; also, such a course is seldom, if ever, necessary in order to prevent erosion. From the standpoint of fire protection it is desirable to burn the brush in practically every case. Burning brush scattered broadcast exposes the mineral soil. With full sunlight and the opening of sealed cones on the ground, a fairly dense stand of reproduction will be obtained in such cases, although not nearly so dense as that which comes up after a ground fire has killed standing timber, since in the latter case a greater amount of seed is preserved from destruction in the crowns of the trees. Burning an entire area on which the brush has been piled in windrows will result in a moderately dense reproduction between the rows, but no reproduction in the spaces occupied by them. When conical piles are burned the spaces occupied do not immediately come up to young growth. The foregoing is true of clean-cut areas. Where a part of the stand is left the chances of reproduction are still better. Piling the brush in conical piles and burning it does the least damage to the remaining green trees and reproduction. Moreover, the least amount of mineral soil is exposed, thus avoiding possible over-dense repro- duction following seeding from above. Any considerable amount of brush remaining on a cut-over area greatly increases the fire danger in the remaining stand and for any reproduction which may start. Owing to the very slow decay of brush in the lodgepole-pine region the fire menace continues for a long time if the brush is left unburned. Timber operators familiar with conditions in the lodgepole-pine region say that it costs no more to pile brush for burning under Forest Service regulations than to follow the old method of piling it in windrows, provided the work is well done at the outset. When the brush is not piled properly in the first place it becomes necessary to repile it, which naturally increases the cost. Recently timber operators on the Deerlodge National Forest have been required to burn the brush as the cutting proceeds, whenever weather conditions make it safe to do so. This period of safety covers from seven to nine months in the year. Brush from stull trees is disposed of as fast as the cutting proceeds in any depth of snow encountered in the region, which at times may amount to 6 or 7 feet. In the spring when the snow melts the ground is found to be practically clean. When lagging poles are being cut in snow, however, it is not practicable to burn the tops after the snow accumulates to a depth of about 3 feet, since it is then impossible to carry the tops to the central fire. ven when the snow is less than 3 feet deep it is not advisable to burn where less than 100 poles are being obtained in one place, since there is not enough brush to start a good 89546°—Bull. 234—15—_3 34 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fire. Data obtained in actual woods work show that piling brush in winter without burning it costs 69 cents per thousand board feet. With this method, however, the brush must always be repiled when the snow goes off in the spring. Burning as the cutting proceeds costs 74 cents per thousand, but is really cheaper than the other method because it saves the cost of repiling and of burning the following fall, and reduces the cost of skidding. In summer cutting, brush is gathered in large piles on the clean-cut areas, and in smaller piles in the selection cuttings. Even in the latter case the piles are usually made at least 5 or 6 feet high, with a comparatively narrow base to permit them to shed rain and snow. A small brush pile can only be lighted in the fall if weather conditions are right. In the fall of 1911 the first snowfall on the Deerlodge National Forest occurred in early October, covering the ground to a depth of from 25 to 30 inches, and making it quite impossible to burn small piles. Piles of standard size, however, were lighted without difficulty. On the French Gulch sale the lighting of such piles under approximately 30 inches of snow cost about 6 cents per thousand feet. Another difficulty with small piles is the large number which have to be lighted—a circumstance which naturally tends to increase the cost. At one time it was the practice to fork into the fire the ends of sticks and other projecting pieces left in the ring at the outer edge of the pile after the fire had burned down. With proper piling, however, only a small amount of such material should remain—not enough to constitute a fire menace. For this reason it is unneces- sary to incur the comparatively large expense of having a second crew follow the lighters to fork in the unburned ends. In selection cuttings, large piles of brush can be burned within from 5 to 6 feet of green trees, provided such piles are covered with a good depth of snow. If there is room, however, piles are always built at a greater distance than this from the remaining timber, On the whole, it has been found that fall is the best time to burn brush, though weather conditions in the spring may occasionally be favorable. In the spring of 1912, for example, about 600 acres of old brush on clean-cut areas, at French Gulch, were burned at a cost of 2 cents per thousand feet. On the Bighorn National Forest, in Wyoming, where selection cuttings have been the rule, the ideal brush pile is considered to be one about 8 feet in diameter at the base and about 5 feet high. The piles are built tepee fashion, with the larger sticks of unmerchant- able material stacked up around the outside. With a cut averaging 6,700 board feet per acre, the number of brush piles per acre ayer- aged about 40. In 1910 an area of 1,500 acres was burned on the Bighorn Forest at a cost of 6.9 cents per thousand feet; the next year 3,700 acres were burned at a cost of 3.8 cents per thousand; and in 1911, 4,200 acres were handled at a cost of 3.6-cents per UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE. 35 thousand. The cost varied with the number of brush piles per acre and the depth of the snow. It was found that on an average one man could in one day burn 536 piles under 8 inches of snow, 418 under 10 inches of snow, and 299 piles under 12 inches of snow. REGULATING THE CUT. In the existing unmanaged stands of lodgepole pine the arrange- ment of age classes is never ideal, and a long series of carefully planned cuttings is necessary to convert the irregular forest into a regular or normal one. Certain age classes usually occupy much more than their share of the ground, while one or more classes may be entirely lacking. For this reason the first cuttings in such a stand are, as a rule, based primarily on volume rather than on area. An estimate is made of the actual amount of growing stock on the ground and also of the probable yield during certain periods—usu- ally 10 years—throughout the length of the rotation by the various age classes represented. With these figures as a basis, it is possible to fix the volume which can be cut during each period without exceeding the amount of wood produced. If, through the presence of large bodies of mature and overmature timber, the growing stock is greater than normal, the surplus should be removed by cutting for a few years more than is being produced; while, if through the presence of large bodies of younger age classes, the growing stock is less than normal, the deficiency should be made up by cutting for a time less than is being produced. The management planned for the timber on the Bernice division of the Deerlodge National Forest furnishes a concrete example of the method of regulating the annual cut during the course of the next rotation. Table 16, which is based on figures secured by an estimating crew which gridironed the area in lines at intervals of one-fourth mile, shows the different classes of timbered and untim- bered land on the Bernice division. Table 17 shows the degree of normality, volume, and annual increment of the different age classes found in the timbered area of the division, and Table 18 shows the proposed method of cutting for the next 140 years. TaBLeE 17.—Classification of the land and timberland on the Bernice division, Deerlodge National Forest, Mont. LAND. Area. | Percent. Acres. TIRE Coe oeeheAoneudod beep ne sacagsdescoodoqsaneAdoaaquassobabeLanosonedose 63, 051 80.0 Grass land ....-..--- Js ceesnoundosdortadnan ss5seso0nssebaatcoreassesscoarscsesnososues 12, 563 15.9 ESTUTS Mana ses ste ese Mk oo OSES NSC RE ee een ap yh Pe ape ARP ears se ek 912 1,2 Grrr frase LM ara bee aa i iS A ars Re Palen ee Dr TURE BE EE een oe dios 674 9 PALROMELAN die seis a Se ee ere aiieniste os See Ee Eee sls e. =. al a eats ot Aor ee 1,569 2.0 otal fo Viera spartan eyacie sisi sos eye Sey Mee eas eh Ee EIN Re Mee ST SS ares 78, 769 100. 0 162,491 acres, or 99.1 per cent, productive; 560 acres, or 0.9 per cent, alpine, 36 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 17.—Classification of the land and timberland on the Bernice division, Deerlodge National Forest, Mont.—Continued. PRODUCTIVE TIMBERLAND. Merchantable Per cent. | Age classes— Oweri200 VV Garsseen-cesmas sete she eee emer eens eee 1G0=200yCAaTS= seer rae neem a eect eater ae eee ae A 2OZ IGOR CATS = erie ee cite meats ere = aia satel eat ate eerste ypes— Lodgepole pine DOUG ASHIP Rta ane ee see erie Sasa eee as cee Hin gemma S PU CC pee ae Oc eae eee eee ese UA NYG LE Us PS creer ae NTL fr i eae i lef a Stand by species— MOd ZEPOle DINO ee ee siee aie seleietayajete wines seis ee, vee Douglas fir HN ve lMann SPU CO sae es jeeee ot ae nse ee ane esa Miscellaneous tes taten ne sae sence eee ep ane tae cea eee IDYCV6LA Ra See See oH So SORE pe COne Somer ae taarones aueeE Ura OW aR ¥z rb bas ee es tee a tan gern Rs Aree CS pe es Cana ae ETSI is es TOMVOATS «= -a:mo = =f0 212 oa = 212 = ieloieineinls Selene eee = awe nes PRO LAN oep eters sent Meee cee esteem eme bila inieliet gia re = 4,145 62, 491 Per cent. 28.5 64.9 6.6 100.0 TaBLE 18.—Real and normal growing stock and periodic annual increment on the Bernice division, Deerlodge National Forest, Mont. Periodic annual ‘¢ Growing stock. Cromer Yield at ormal- the age Age. ATOR. ity. of 140 Real. | Normal.| Real. | Normal.| Ye2S-" 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Acres. cu. ft. cu. ft. cu. ft. cu. ft. bd. ft. 10 years..... nocobEgcoobanscesce, 1,570 0. 67 95 402 9 40 16, 662 WU WV CEMSAGAE aoobbsooouopaosOONSE 9, 742 . 69 1,815 1, 205 121 80 106, 476 BORY.CALS heise atan\mistelelareiats)seiyaeieis 5, 511 atk: 2, 293 2,544 121 134 63, 448 MY KET o GGoc ToD gacooLboDadene 7,559 . 66 5, 687 5, 089 284 254 78, 920 OOM CRISP aecince estes 1,412 .67 1, 731 8,168 65 308 15, 058 60'years.......- 4, 887 .49 5, 747 10, 713 136 254 38, 090 UO VGaIS eee seeeese-'s 1,928 . 40 2, 267 13, 123 42 241 12, 215 SONY CATS eames Sena Et 2,448 .30 2,468 | ~ 14,998 31 187 11, 633 OD EST Sheer ere niceties 2, 092 . 20 1, 582 16, 872 18 187 6, 628 OOM EATS hoa eee ees 3,040 - 20 2, 481 18, 211 i8 134 9, 631 WOkyears 55 i. SHER essen eee 396 . 20 342 19, 283 2 107 1, 254 Over 120 (average age 130 : years): Merchantable ......---..... 17, 761 35 28, 671 61, 062 57 147, |uceu eee Suppressedeaeas fa. amie ne 4,145 - 10 1,890) =---c--22-|sece--t. JC. aaa | eee Ota eames alo G2 F490 U le eet 57,069 | 171,670 904 2, 078)| eee 1 Normal yield, 15,840 board feet at 140 years on sites of average quality; 78.7 per cent of area overstocked; 20.5 per cent of area understocked; 0.8 per cent of area normally stocked, UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE. 30 TaBLE 19.—Volume regulation for the next 140 years on the Bernice division, Deerlodge National Forest, Mont. Stand Cutting Balance Period. matur- each at end of ing. decade. decade. 1,000 b. ft. | 1,000 b. ft. | 1,000 d. ft. Ets , 000 72, 8 Peace ete 20, 000 52, 831 1 28,770 20, 000 61, 601 1,254 20, 000 42, 855 9, 631 20, 000 32, 486 6, 628 20, 000 19,114 11, 633 20, 000 10, 747 12,215 20, 000 2, 962 38, 090 20, 000 21, 052 15, 058 20, 000 16,110 78, 920 70, 000 25, 030 63, 448 70, 000 18, 478 106, 730 70, 000 55, 208 16, 678 70, 000 1, 886 481, 886 480, 000 1, 886 Average annual yield for rotation, 3,442 thousand board feet for the division, or 55 board feet per acre of productive timberland. 1Tncrement taking place on stands now merchantable, but which will not all be cut for about 50 years (65 board feet per acre added annually on 17,761 acres for 25 years). Sixty-five board feet per acre per annum is approximately the average increment in a stand 0.6 normal on an average site between the age of 120 and 160 years. It will be observed (Table 17) that a large proportion of the area is taken up with the younger age classes, due partly to heavy cuttings in the last 30 years. On the whole, however, the age classes are fairly well distributed for an unmanaged forest. It will also be seen (Table 18) that none of the older age classes have a high normality. This is because when such stands include over 2,000 board feet per acre they are classed with the merchantable timber, although they may be actually less than 120 years old. The method of volume regulation (Table 19) calls for a moderate cut on the division for 100 years and a much heavier one for the last 40 years of the rotation, without reducing the annual cut at any time. Such a regulation is made necessary by the irregularity in the distribution of age classes. Other divisions of the Forest have a surplus of their area in the older age classes, so that the annual cut for the entire Forest and for the whole rotation can be given the proper degree of uniformity only by applying the regulation to groups of such divisions rather than to each division separately. The figures showing the stand maturing for each 10-year period are taken directly from Table 18, except the figures for 1930, which represent the approximate growth on the mature timber originally on the area. The figures for the real growing stock (present total stand) in Table 18 were obtained by multiplying the normal stand per acre for each age class, as given in Table 9, United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 154, “The Life History of Lodgepole Pine in the Rocky Mountains,” by the average normality (which gave the present stand per acre) and multiplying this result by the actual area occupied by each age class. For example, the normal yield on average sites at 10 years of age is 38 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 90 cubic feet, the average normality of the 10-year age class is 0.67,. and the actual area occupied is 1,570 acres; consequently, the real growing stock is 90X0.67X1,570=94,671 cubic feet. The real periodic annual increment is determined by multiplying the normal periodic increment per acre, as given in Table 9, United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 154, by the normality and by the area actually occupied. Thus, for the 10-year .age class the real periodic increment is 9 x 0.67 X 1,570 =9,467 cubic feet. The normal growing stock is based on the assumption that the forest will be managed on a 140-year rotation, and that in a normal forest each age class should have the same area. This normal area is found by dividing the total area by the number of age classes. Thus: = = 4,463.6 acres. The normal growing stock on this area is then found by multiplying the normal yield at any given age (as given in Table 9, United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 154) by the normal area. For example, the normal yield at 10 years of age is 90 cubic feet and the normal area of a 10-year age class is 4,463.6 acres; consequently, the normal growing stock is 90 x 4,463.6 = 401,724 cubic feet. Similarly, the normal periodic annual increment is the normal increment per acre (as given in Table 9, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture Bulletin 154) multiplied by the normal area. The fact that all ages of merchantable timber were lumped together in the estimates and that, as already stated, any stand running 2,000 or more board feet per acre was considered merchantable, necessarily results in a comparatively large area and growing stock being assigned to the 120 to 160 age classes and a correspondingly small area and low normality to the age classes just under 120 years. For this reason the figures for volume increase tend to be conservative. Other reasons why these figures are conservative are that no considera- tion is given to the effect of future thinnings in young stands, to reproduction in old stands, or to increased growth resulting from selection cutting. Moreover, certain areas less than 0.3 normal are classed as grassland, although they bear an open stand of timber which will actually figure in the final yield. Also, rather open stands of low normality will become better stocked through the filling in of blanks. On the other hand, there will undoubtedly be some losses from fire and other causes. It will be noticed that the scheme of remulanien is presented as though the area would be managed under a clear-cutting system, though actually the cutting will be done largely under a selection system. The reason for this is that it is possible to figure much more readily for a clear-cutting than for a selection system, while, in any event, the main object is to obtain a fairly conservative estimate of the aroha volume production, which is likely to be as great under the selection system as another. UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE. 39 Within the 25 National Forests in which lodgepole pine is the most important species the lodgepole-pine type has an estimated area of about 9,000,000 acres. The figures for the Deerlodge National Forest show an average annual increment of about 55 board feet. Assuming that the lodgepole-pine forests throughout the region are producing 50 board feet per acre per annum, 450,000,000 board feet could and should be cut annually, together with a very large amount of material from tops, small trees, and thinnings too small to scale. To this amount can be added about 300,000,000 board feet produced on the -6,000,000 acres of lodgepole-pine type in the 45 National Forests where the species is of commercial but not of primary importance. The grand total of 750,000,000 board feet is approximately 9 times the amount of lodgepole pie now being cut each year. REFORESTATION. Repeated fires have left considerable areas within the lodgepole- pine zone practically barren of forest growth. Natural reproduction can not be expected on such areas for many years, and it will be necessary to reforest them artificially if they are to return to useful- ness within a reasonable length of time. Where the main object is watershed protection, reforestation work should be confined chiefly to the higher altitudes toward the upper limit of the lodgepole-pine zone, where the forest cover has the greatest protective value. Where the chief object is timber production, the best results will be obtained on the better soils near the central part of the lodgepole-pine zone where the annual precipitation is 21 inches or more. A certain amount of artificial reforestation will also probably be used in the future to supplement natural reproduction after cuttings. SEED COLLECTION AND EXTRACTION. The fact that lodgepole pine bears some cones practically every year and a heavy crop every two or three years insures a continuous and plentiful seed supply. The cones may be picked either from felled or from standing trees, or gathered from squirrel hoards. Experience, however, has shown the last method to be the only one by which collecting can be done on a large scale at low cost. Cone collection. from squirrel hoards is carried on in the fall, usually during September and October, when the caches are full and easily located in the woods. As much as 15 bushels of cones have been found in a single cache. Cones can usually be bought at contract prices per bushel from local residents who do the collecting. As a rule, one man collects from 3 to 6 bushels per day, the number of cones per bushel ranging from about 1,600 to 2,200. In good years it should be possible to purchase cones for from 30 to 40 cents per bushel, or in exceptionally favorable years for even less. The total cost of cones : at the extraction plant should not exceed 50 cents per bushel. 40 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Lodgepole-pine seed is hard to extract from the cones, and a drying temperature of from 140° to 150° F. is necessary before the latter will open satisfactorily. During the process of drying there must, of course, be enough air circulation to remove the moisture given off by the cones. Where only a few hundred bushels of cones are to be han- dled, any small room, provided it can be made tight, will serve as a dry kiln. Trays with wire-mesh bottoms, on which the cones are spread in asingle layer, should be arranged in tiers, so as fully to utilize the available space. Eight hours of drying at a temperature of from 140° to 150° should open the cones to the extent necessary. Hourly thermometer readings should be taken, in order to insure that the proper temperature is maintained. One higher than 150° may injure the seed, while one lower than 140° will not open the cones. Provision must also be made for removing the moist air from the kin. The latter should be run continuously day and night, since if it is operated intermittently the cost of extraction will be increased. Wherever the cones can be stored in bins with a free circulation of air, it is usually best to defer seed extraction until late in the winter. After two or three months in such bins the cones will have lost a large percentage of moisture merely through natural air drying. After the cones have been opened in the drying kiln they must be shaken or thrashed out in order to extract the seed. This is done by means of a cone shaker, which consists merely of a revolving box or drum with a wire covering, through which the extracted seeds fall to the ground. The wings can then be removed by sacking the seed loosely and giving it a vigorous kneading. Where a large quantity of seed is handled a cheaper method is to moisten it shghtly and rub it through a wire screen with an ordinary scrubbing brush. After being freed of their wings the seeds are dried again. The cleaning of the seed is finally completed either by winnowing it or by running it through a fanning mill fitted with screens of proper mesh in order to remove all foreign matter, such as pine needles, cone scales, broken wings, and dirt. It is usually cheaper to extract and clean seed in the immediate vicinity of the area where the cones are gathered than to transport quantities of the bulky cones to a central seed-extraction plant. When seed is to be cleaned regularly in large quantities, however, specially constructed drying kilns are best and cheapest in the long run. A number of such permanent seed-extraction plants have been constructed on the National Forests. These include several small plants, with a capacity of about 90 bushels of cones per 24-hour running, and one large plant capable of handling about 200 bushels in 24 hours. In the latter, located on the Medicine Bow National Forest, a hot-air blast is forced through a large, slowly revolving cylinder, so that the cones are dried and the seed extracted at the UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE. Al same time. The wings are removed and the seed cleaned by machin- ery. All the plants are located in extensive longepole-pine forests, where a large supply of cheap cones is constantly available. _ The cost of extraction varies with the quantity of seed handled, the abundance of the cone crop, and the efficiency of the methods used. In 1911 the total cost of cleaned seed on the Arapaho and Medicine Bow National Forests, the two Forests which handle the largest amounts, was $1.98 and $2.28 per pound, respectively, against $3.82 and $4.27 per pound, respectively, in 1910. In 1912 the cost of cleaned seed on these Forests amounted, respectively, to $1.80 and $2 per pound. In the three States of Colorado, Wyoming, and Mon- tana 2,560 pounds of lodgepole-pine seed were cleaned in 1910, at an average cost of $4.94 per pound, and 3,350 pounds in 1911, at an average cost of $2.76 per pound. ‘This decrease in average cost was due largely to the concentration of the collecting work in a few places. With improved methods of collecting, extracting, and cleaning lodge- pole-pine seed can probably be obtained in the future for less than $2 per pound. TaBLE 20.—Results of germination tests on lodgepole-pine seed collected from National Forests in the Rocky Mountains. Germination. Real Germination. Real ( wale ( value 7 number ee 4 number National Forest. eae otitertils National Forest. ae of fertile aidavs Per cent.| seed per of days, | Per cent.| seed per ys. pound).t iS pound). Collected 1910: ‘ Collected 1911—Con. Holy Cross... .. 94 80.5 98, 700 Shoshone...... 27 55.2 50, 849 Gunnison Be 90 71.5 65, 000 27 48.6 41, 030 Leadville. 90 76.5 81, 700 || Collected 1912: Shoshone. AN 89 78. 0 68, 000 Wyoming.....- 43 23.5 16, 920 Arapaho...-...- 86 67.0 65, 700 Arapaho....... 31 61.4 63, 920 Bonneville..... 44 33.5 33, 100 Onseeee sas 31 52.0 46, 040 Collected 1911: 31 55.2 55, 970 Wyoming.....-. 25 65.0 51,522 31 55. 4 57, 759 Arapaho...-..- 27 74.6 66, 793 Leadville...... 31 52.8 59, 084 ; Se PH/ 36.8 17, 644 31 65. 6 68, 100 Hayden.......- 27 82. 2 49, 887 31 58.4 61, 600 27 24.6 21,981 31 61.0 66, 200 Leadville...... 27 43.8 43, 536 Medicine Bow. 31 67.4 67, 150 27 76.6 71, 661 31 71.6 67, 200 Medicine Bow. 27 66.6 63, 404 31 59. 2 54, 560 27 24.2 23, 355 31 58.0 47, 250 IRON issosoocece 27 68.8 56, 485 1 Obtained by multiplying the total number of seed per pound by the germination per cent. Lodgepole-pine seed collected in different localities, under different conditions, shows wide variation in its capacity to germinate, as shown in Table 19. For this reason every lot of seed before being used in the field or in the nursery should be tested to determine the number of fertile seed per pound. The seed collected in 1911 was tested only for a period of 27 days, since experiments had shown that by far the greater amount of germination occurred within this time.’ 1 The germination per cent obtained from a limited test of this sort is often called ‘‘germination energy,’’ as distinguished from ‘‘germinative capacity,’’ the latter being the germination per cent secured when the test is allowed torun for a much longer period. 42 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A test limited to a certain number of days is not only much cheaper than a longer one, but gives figures of more practical value in actual sowing operations either in the nursery or in the field. “This is because the figures for short tests are based on the behavior of the more vig- orous, active seeds, which may be counted on to germinate early under soil conditions perhaps not favorable enough to induce germination of the more sluggish seeds in any reasonable period of time. DIRECT SEEDING. Direct seeding is the simplest method of reforestation, and can be used wherever conditions are such as to make it practicable. It is far less certain of success than planting, however, and should be used only on the most favorable sites. Good germination is often diffi- cult to secure, and there is always the likelihood that the seed will be eaten by rodents. Moreover, the young seedlings which come up are exposed to damage from drought during the first growing season and to winterkilling during the first winter. Areas best adapted to direct seeding with lodgepole pine are those where a large proportion of the mineral soil is exposed. This condition is seldom found, how- ever, outside of burns not more than 2 or 3 years old. As a general thing, areas in need of reforestation bear a more or less heavy covering of grass, herbs, and shrubs. Such a cover, particularly when it takes the form of a dense sod, is a serious obstacle to direct seeding, since it prevents seeds from reaching the mineral soil, and after germination competes with the seedlings for the available moisture. The shade cast by a light covering of shrubs or trees, on the other hand, may be beneficial to young lodgepole-pine seedlings by preventing the sur- face soil from drying out. An open stand of aspen affords an excel- lent shelter, provided it is not so dense as to interfere with the thrifty development of the seedlings after their establishment. The less favorable the moisture conditions, the greater, of course, is the need for some sort of ground cover. The season for sowing, while of less importance than either the: site or the method, nevertheless has considerable influence on the result. The seed should be sown at a time to insure that the maxi- mum amount of moisture will be available for the young seedlings immediately upon their appearance. At the lower and drier alti- tudes the best time for sowing is either in the fall (September or October) or in the winter on the snow. At the higher altitudes the best time is either in the winter or in late spring or early summer (May or early June). Experiments by the Forest Service covering a wide range of methods indicate the best to be seeding in prepared spots and broadcasting on snow. The spots are usually spaced from 4 to 6 feet apart each way, requiring from one-half to 1 pound of seed per acre. Broadcasting on snow is practicable only on very UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE. 43 recent burns or on other areas where the seed can easily reach the mineral soil. In such cases, sowing should be done in late winter or early spring, when the surface of the snow is thawing and the seed will sink in, and preferably at a time when there is a likelihood of another fall of snow. When the snow finally leaves the area, the seed is washed into the soil, and conditions are favorable for early germination. The seed is usually broadcasted at the rate of two fertile seeds per square foot, equivalent to from 2 to 3 pounds of seed per acre. i Every area broadcasted with seed must be protected from rodents, such as squirrels and field mice, until after the seed has germinated. Many of the early failures in reforestation were due to the depreda- tions of small rodents that devoured the seed as quickly as it was sown. For this reason every seeded area should be poisoned as a measure of protection.t This should be done several weeks before the seed is sown, and preferably again after it is in the ground. The seeded areas should also be protected against the grazing of live- stock, and, after the small seedlings appear, against fire. In 1910, 630 acres in the three States of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana were reforested to lodgepole pine by direct seeding, at an average cost of $10.77 per acre. In 1911, 640 acres in these States were seeded at an average cost of $8.68 per acre. These costs are abnormally high, since much of the work was experimental, and in many cases unnecessarily large amounts of seed were used. Under ordinary conditions it should be possible to carry on direct seeding by the two methods described within the following limits of cost: Cost per acre. Seed spots. Broadcasting. Seedd(atsS omer pOUnd) ye seee seit cane Ree ay ttecc cisco ore eee een $1.00 to $2.00 | $4.00 to $6. 00 SGGGl connie 3 oS so. Sapubuceeossabeds anCaseReBeGosEBeccndeac ssoaad ee: 2. 50 4. 50 25 57h) IP OISOMIMGROGENTS arses sess erence Saas ae iseiee Sele ae sss eee eee =e -10 -15 -10 15 GNA TR Ls Bees ald Sues Leenks ia le el Re ee ee RE aa AM ee ee 3. 60 6. 65 4.35 6. 90 Where the area to be seeded is very rough and steep, or is covered with fallen timber or bowlders, the maximum costs just given may sometimes be exceeded. In many cases, also, it will be necessary to reseed certain portions of the area in order to secure a satisfactory stand. Fail spots should not be reseeded, however, until two or three years after the first sowing, since a portion of the original seed often lies over for a year before germination. 1Information regarding the best methods of poisoning rodents is contained in Forest Service Bulletin 98, ‘Reforestation on the National Forests”; Bureau of the Biological Survey Circular 78, ‘‘Seed Eating Mammals in Relation to Reforestation”; and Farmers’ Bulletin 484, ‘Some Common Mammals of Western Montana in Relation to Agriculture and Spotted Fever.” BULLETIN 234, U. S. 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It will be seen that in the former State the direct seeding of lodgepole pine has been attended with a fair degree of success, while in the latter it has been practically a total failure. It is not easy to account for this difference, though it seems that the greater rainfall of Colorado has had its effect. Though enough reforestation work has not yet been done to demonstrate conclusively the possibilities of direct seeding, it seems certain that in Montana a more satisfactory stand can be secured at less cost by setting out plants raised in a nursery than by sowing seed directly on the site, while in Colorado, on the other hand, direct seeding should give the best results, provided conditions are favorable. Under adverse conditions, of course, reforestation by direct seeding can not be expected to prove successful even in Colorado. PLANTING. While comparatively little lodgepole pine has been planted, the experiments conducted by the Forest Service prove pretty conclu- sively that this method of reforestation will be successful. If grown on a large scale, 3-year-old transplants can be raised at a cost of from $3 to $5 per thousand. Field planting at the rate of 1,000 to the acre costs from $6 to $8 per thousand, making the total cost per acre from $9 to $13. This is considerably more than the cost of direct seeding where the latter is successful the first time, yet so few sites are fitted for seeding that planting will in most places cost less in the long run. If the ground has to be seeded several times to obtain a satisfactory stand, planting will have a great advantage in cost. One obstacle to artificial reforestation with lodgepole pine is the tree’s slow rate of growth. This means that interest charges on the original investment must be carried for a long time, and also that yield is comparatively small. Lodgepole pme will yield about 10,900 board feet of timber per acre in 100 years, worth $4 per thou- sand. With a cost for planting of $9 per acre and a charge of 5 cents per acre per year for fire protection, a planted stand of lodge- pole pine will yield only 14 per cent on the money invested. Western white pine, on the other hand, with a cost for planting of $7 per acre and a charge of 10 cents per acre per year, yields 75,000 board feet per acre in 100 years, worth $5 per thousand, or a return of 64 per cent on the money invested. With the rotation of 140 years which would ordinarily be required for lodgepole pine, the comparison would be still more unfavorable to it. Lodgepole pine will hardly be planted on a large scale until large areas of more productive sites have been reported. Where it is desired to reestablish the forests over a large area at the lowest cost, small groups of 5 or 6 trees may be planted, the groups 40 or 50 feet apart. Such groups could be counted on to begin the reseeding of the remainder of the area as soon as the trees —_— 46 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, become old enough to bear fertile seed, usually in 15 or 20 years. Planting by this method would require from 125 to 150 seedlings per acre, and should cost about $2. PROTECTION. FIRE. Although fire is the principal agent in aiding lodgepole pine to maintain its existence in many places, it is also the most destructive agent in mature lodgepole-pine stands. Besides the active measures taken to prevent and extinguish fires, such as lookout stations, telephone lines, roads and trails, patrol, and the like, certain coor- dinate lines of forest work may be handled in a manner to insure that the fire danger will be kept at the minimum. The most impor- tant of these in the case of lodgepole pine is the grazing of live stock, particularly sheep. In the lodgepole-pine region fire almost inva- riably spreads by means of grass and weeds. A grass fire travels very rapidly and soon spreads over large areas. The grass of the lodgepole-pine region becomes sun-cured early in July and dries very rapidly after summer showers which dampen other inflammable - material for several days. Thorough grazing on the dangerous areas by sheep would dispose of most of the inflammable material. Old grass left over from the previous year is particularly inflammable and makes a very hot fire. Particularly heavy grazing along trails, secondary ridge tops, and certain section lines would be a means of securing fire lines at frequent intervals. When grazing in the timber sheep trample and wear out the down litter and other débris, greatly hastening its decay. In addition to the grass which grows in and near the timber, pine needles and other débris form an inflammable ground cover. A fire in needles alone travels slowly and is easily controlled. Where, however, there is also a considerable amount of débris, such as old tops and down timber under dense young stands, the heat from below sometimes starts crown fires, though this is rare in lodgepole pine. Fires on cut-over areas where the brush has been piled and burned are easy to control. Where the brush has been well piled and not burned there is danger of a hot fire which will kill many green trees near the piles. Such a fire is harder to handle, of course, than one on a cleaned-up area, but it is by no means as hard to handle as one on an area where the slash is left in windrows or scattered over the ground. Roads and skidding trails constructed in connection with cut- tings and thinnings will act as fire breaks. Much less débris is likely to accumulate in the well-spaced, moderately open stands which come up after cutting than in the over-dense stands resulting from fire. By the time the lodgepole-pine region has been cut over once under Forest Service regulations, with the proper amount of grazing, the fire danger will have been very much reduced, even though no further advance is made in other means of prevention and control. UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE. 47 INSECTS. Much can be done to prevent serious insect damage in lodgepole- pine stands merely by keeping the forests in the best silvicultural con- dition. The removal of over-mature and unhealthy trees and the thinning of overstocked stands will leave the more thrifty timber, the kind best able to resist insect attacks. When an outbreak does occur, measures of control should be taken promptly, since an insect infec- tion can be dealt with most effectively and with least cost in its incipi- ency. Whenever possible the bark should be removed from attacked trees. This may be done either after the trees are felled or while they are still standing, provided the infested parts can be reached from the ground. Infested trees can frequently be sold or given away under free use, or used for administrative purposes, although in some cases it may be necessary to treat them without any prospect of their immediate utilization. Where an insect attack is widespread, a specially organized cam- paign may be necessary. When the mountain pine beetle (Den- droctonus monticole) attacked the lodgepole pine in the Bighole Basin in the Deerlodge and Beaverhead National Forests in Mon- tana, in 1912, 2,426 trees were treated in late June and in early July, of which 25 per cent, averaging 13 inches in diameter, were felled and peeled for a distance of about 24 feet from the stump. The cost of this work, including brush disposal, amounted to about $1.75 per tree. The remainder of the trees, averaging 11 inches in diameter, were peeled as they stood to a height of about 8 feet from the ground, at a cost of 39 cents per tree. Trees as small as 6 inches in diameter were infested, but no trees less than 8 inches in diameter were treated. The costs in this case were excessively high, owing to the very short time in which the work could be done, the lack of suitable tools, and to several changes in plan. In 1913, during the 45 days following May 21, a total of 23,393 trees, averaging 12 inches in diameter and standing on an area of 60,000 acres, were pecled as they stood to an average height of 12 feet, at an average cost of 334 cents per tree. The aim of this work was not to destroy the insects entirely, but to reduce their numbers to a point where their natural enemies, such as birds and parasites, would be able to keep them under control. It is believed that this has been accomplished. The total cost of the work during the two seasons was $9,540.67. This expenditure has rendered safe for the present an overmature stand which will almost surely bring a stumpage price of over $1,000,000 within the next 20 years, provided the timber is kept green. During 1913, in the course of a similar control project in lodgepole and yellow pine on the Ochoco National Forest in Oregon, 12,873 trees were treated at an average cost of 50 cents each, on an area of about 12,000 acres. In this case the trees were felled and peeled, and the bark burned. 48 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DISEASES. Little can be done to protect the lodgepole-pine forests from fungi and mistletoe, except to remove whenever practicable all diseased trees and to keep cut-over areas free from débris. Partly mer- chantable trees attacked with rot should be felled and the sound por- tions utilized. All infected trees, however, whether merchantable or not, should be felled, if possible, as a measure of protection to the remaining stand. GRAZING. The grazing of live stock is usually helpful in a lodgepole-pine stand as a means of reducing the fire danger. On recently cut-over areas, however, sheep grazing should be carefully regulated, if allowed at all, until reproduction is well established. Where an unusually heavy sod is an obstacle to reproduction, heavy grazing by sheep may be a means of exposing the mineral soil. SUMMARY. Lodgepole pine is the most important commercial species over a large part of the Rocky Mountains. It is already used for railroad ties, mine timbers, and fence posts, and in the future will no doubt be extensively employed for telephone poles and rough lumber. In addition to their commercial value, the lodgepole-pine forests are of great importance as a protective cover on the watersheds. Overmature stands of lodgepole pine should be cut practically clean. Mature stands should be cut under the group selection system in order to prevent an overproduction of small material and to ' secure increased growth of the smaller trees left. In marking under this system, the aim should always be to imsure against excessive windfall. Overdense young stands should be thimned whenever practicable. As a general thing, no special measures need be taken to secure reproduction. All brush on timber-sale areas should be piled and burned. Where artificial reforestation is necessary, plant- ing will usually be the most satisfactory method, though direct seed- ing may give satisfactory results on exceptionally favorable sites. Protection from fire is the first step im systematic forest management. APPENDIX. VOLUME TABLES. Table 22 shows the contents in board feet of trees of different diameters and contain- ing different numbers of 16-foot logs. For trees from 7 to 9 inches in diameter, inclu- sive, and for all one-log trees, the table is based on 555 trees measured in Deerlodge County, Mont., with an average stump height of from 0.5 to 1 foot, and an average top diameter inside the bark of 6 inches; for all trees 10 inches and over in diameter and containing more than one 16-foot log, it is based on 1,808 trees measured in Galla- tin County, Mont., with an average stump height of from 1.4 to 2.2 feet and an average top diameter inside the bark of from 6.2 to 6.6 inches. TABLE 22.—Average contents in board feet (Scribner Decimal C rule) of lodgepole-pine trees of various diameters and 16-foot log contents, Gallatin and Deerlodge Counties, Mont. Number of 16-foot logs. Number of 16-foot logs. Diameter | | Diameter breast 1 2 BS) ee) breast 1 2 3 4 5 high. | | high. Contents in board feet. I Contents in board feet. Inches. Inches u 10 6 90 135 190 270 365 8 20 40 ile 105 150 210 805 405 9 25 50 18 120 165 240 340 445 10 35 60 90 125 19 135 195 270 375 485 il 45 70 100 140 20 150 220 300 410 525 12 50 80 115 160 21 170 245 330 450 565 13 60 90 130 180 Eee 22 190 Be 365 485 605 14 70 105 150 210 280 23 One ane 400 525 650 15 80 120 165 240 325 24 Hee Bee 440 565 690 Table 23 shows the contents in cubic feet and in board feet of trees of various diame- ters and total heights in the Deerlodge and Gallatin National Forests, Mont. The volume in cubic feet includes the entire contents of the tree (exclusive of bark) from the top of the stump to a top diameter of from 2 to 3 inches inside the bark. The volume in board feet shows the amount of scale material included in the tree to a top diameter of 6 inches inside the bark. Besides the board-foot contents there is always a small amount of additional material in the tops which can be used for lagging poles, converter poles, cordwood, etc., when such material is marketable. i 89546°—Bull. 234—15——_4 49 50 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 23.—Average contents in cubic feet, to a top diameter of from 2 to 3 inches in- side bark and in board feet (Scribner Decimal C rule) to a top diameter of 6 inches inside the bark, of lodgepole pine trees of various diameters and total heights, Deerlodge and Gallatin National Forests, Mont. Di. | Total height of trees in feet. ame- |_ ter | | | aie | 30 40 50 60 70 so | 90 100 l | | | { | j Ins. |C.ft |B. ft. | Cu. ft.|B. ft. | Cu. ft.| Bd. ft.) Cu. ft.'|B. ft. | Cu. ft.'Bd. ft. Cu.jt. Bd.ft. Cu.jt. Bd.ft.| Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Ry aTsra) .3 _ ae Gare ones eeaaeenee 2 | 4}1.5 FH batecsel ao id Ne phe bei tae la diene | Le ee SOE Se a SSO oS ec Won tlssee teeeeee Bass 6.| 2. aS .0 | 7 | 4. a6 12 8 | 4. ati) 4.0 |} 9 -0 aes -0 3.0 | 5. 8 | 5. 0 -6 2.0 es .0 8.4 5.0 5 | 205 | 52.0] 250 | 61.0 .5 | 230 | 57 280 | 67.5 | =D) 250 | 62 315 | 74.0 19 hoeded| eetis Esp osa|pheialhocond haceouleagase eee 56.0 275 | 68 350 | 80.0 20 [esses]eseee|eeeeeedecees es Bere Bea | Beer 62.0 | 300 | 73 385 | 87.0 | | 1 Table 24 shows the contents in board feet and props of trees of various diameters on three different quality sites in the Arapaho National Forest, Colo. In applying this table to any given stand, the heights of a few trees of different diameters should be measured and compared with the heights given in the table, in order to determine the site quality of the stand being measured. Ii, as estimating progresses, the average height of the stand changes materiaily, new height measurements should be taken and the figures applicable to the new site used. This table is based on 1,275 trees cut from overmature stands (about 200 years old) of moderate density. The height of a tree of a given diameter varies with its age, while the relation between its diameter and height, and consequently between its diameter and volume, varies with the density of the stand. Height alone, moreover, does not determine site quality. For these reasons the table is applicable only to the region in which it was made and to stands similar to those in which the figures were secured. Tables based on diameter, and total height, or diameter and number of logs, have a much wider application. The present table allows 8 per cent of defect for old timber, but if unusually defective timber is encountered additional allowance must be made.. The volume in board feet includes all of the tree from a stump height of 1 foot to a diameter of 6 inches in the top; the remainder of the tree down to a diameter of 5 inches in the top is given as prop material, expressed in linear feet. ats. ee UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE. dL TaBLE 24.— Volume of lodgepole-pine trees of various diameters in board feet (Scribner Decimal C rule) and linear feet of props on three site qualities, Arapaho National Forest, Colo. Site quality I. Site quality II. Site quality III. Diam- |e Moe 12 Height 12) Height | 12 H reas rops, | Heig rops, | Height | rops, | Height high. Boat d | linear of Boat d | Tinear of vont d | linear of Cel." Steet, |) tree: > | feet. | tree. > | feet. | tree. Inches Feet. Feet Feet 0 20 50 0 18 41 0 15 32 ri 25 15 56 20 13 48 15 11 37 8 45 12 62 35 10 53 30 10 42 9 65 10 68 55 10 58 45 10 47 10 70 10 73 75 10 62 60 10 51 ist 120 11 77 95 10 66 75 10 55 12 150 12 80 120 10 69 90 10 59 13 180 12 84 145 10 72 115 10 62 14 210 10 87 170 10 75 140 10 64 15 240 13 89 200 10 77 165 8 66 16 275 14 91 235 10 79 190 8 68 17 315 13 93 270 10 81 215 6 69 18 360 12 94 305 10 82 245 6 70 19 405 12 95 340 8 83 270 6 71 20 445 13 96 375 6 84 300 6 2, 21 490 12 96 405 6 Ci Bo patasa Saosoanal Scecaacs 22 530 13 96 440 6 Chia Beceoees| bapaaaod Sassen 23 575 14 Ciel Gace ool Oboe be 4 nO cee SreBrertic Hee ones Sommteiso 24 615 15 hil Seon eee Booas nea) oteshbnl Srcsaces| Sacescac MeGe Sone Table 25 is similar to Table 23, except that it represents an average stand without division into site qualities, and includes prop material to a top diameter of 4 inches. TaBiE 25.— Volume of lodgepole-pine trees of various diameters in board feet (Scribner Decimal C rule), and in ) Lene Jeet of props on average sites, Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyo. Diameter Props, Diameter, Props, breast Pears d linear breast oat d linear high. feet. high. feet. Inches. Inches. eonoedoods 8 13 127 8 6 5 17 14 154 8 7 12 18 15 182 8 8 25 36 16 209 6 9 42 10 17 240 6 10 64 8 18 276 5 11 85 8 19 308 7 12 105 8 20 342 4 Table 26 shows the average number of ties and the amount of prop material, expressed in board feet, for trees of different diameters irrespective of height. The table is based on about 90,000 old trees cut in extensive logging operations on the Medicine Bow National Forest, and includes allowance for all defect. TABLE 26.—Average number of ties (7X7 X8’) and board feet of prop material in lodgepole pine trees of various diameters, Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyo. Diameter, | Number | Pro Diameter, | Number! Pro : p eee of ties. | material. ee of ties. | material. Inches. Board feet. Inches. Board feet. 10 ie 7/ 13 14 3.6 13 11 2.0 14 15 4.3 12 12 2.4 14 16 4.8 11 13 3.0 14 17 5.0 10 52 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table 27, which is based on 894 trees, shows the number of ties (including about 25 per cent second-class ties), and of prop material expressed in linear feet, for trees from 10 to 15 inches in diameter and from 50 to 90 feet in height. TABLE 27.'—Average number of first and second class railroad ties and amount of mine prop material in lodgepole pine, Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyo. Total height of trees. Diameter breast 50 feet. 60 feet. 70 feet. 80 feet. 90 feet. high. 4A Ties. | Props.| Ties. | Props.| Ties. | Props.| Ties. | Props. | Ties. | Props. Inches. No. | Feet. No. Feet. No Feet. No. Feet. No Feet 10 2.0 17 2.3 21 2.5 25 3.0 Sal eer eee t=, 11 2.4 13 2.7 18 3.0 21 3.6 25 4.0 28 12 2.8 12 BE 15 3.5 19 4.1 21 4.5 24 13 3.3 11 3.6 14 4.0 17 4.7 19 4.9 21 14 Bb ts 11 4.0 13 4.5 15 1 17 5.4 19 15 4.0 11 4.4 13) Sle 2050, 14 5.5 15 5.8 | 17 \ | } 1 From Forest Service Circular 126. FORM TABLES. Table 28, based on 735 trees, shows the butt taper in trees of different sizes, and is useful for estimating the diameter breast high when only the stumps remain. While the table is based on measurements taken in Wyoming, it has been found to be reliable for Montana, and is probably so for Colorado. TaBLE 28.'—Butt taper of lodgepole pine as shown by diameter outside bark, Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyo. Height from ground. Height from ground. Diame- i Diame- ee 1 foot. | 2 feet. | 3 feet. | 4feet. | 5feet. | ee 1 foot. | 2 feet. | 3feet. | 4feet. | 5 feet. high. | high. Diameter. i Diameter. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches.| Inches. Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Inches. | Inches. econn se Ds; 5.4 5.2 Gal 459 ID ese 13.3 12.5 12. saat 11.9 We SSaese 6.6 6.4 6.2 6.1 DAO aloteysterssvats 14.4 13.6 13):2 13.1 12.9 Uh roars 7.8 7.4 ee eel: Bee ae Saeeaoe 15.6 14.7 14.2 14.1 13.9 Sept 8.9 8.4 8.2 8.1 (Ae bes eesss 16.8 15.8 15.3 ipa! 14.9 Hs506594 10.0 9.4 9.2 9.1 SHOU LG Se ceee 18.0 16.9 16. 4 16.1 15.9 LOR eeu 11.1 10. 4 10. 2 10.1 CRC Gesaeae 19/3) 18.1 17.5 ny al 16.9 1b aes L252 ise) 11.2 11.1 10.9 | 1 From Forest Service Circular 126. Table 29 shows the stem taper of lodgepole-pine trees of different diameters breast high. Such a table can be used as a basis for constructing volume tables in terms of any desired unit, and is also useful as showing at what distance from the ground any given diameter occurs, in trees of different diameters and heights. UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LODGEPOLE PINE. 53 TABLE 29.—Stem taper of lodgepole pine as shown by diameter inside bark, Gallatin and Deerlodge Counties, Mont. TREES 50 FEET IN HEIGHT. Height from ground. Diameter breast high, 5 feet. | 10 feet. | 15 feet. | 20 feet. | 25 feet. | 30 feet. | 35 feet. | 40 feet. | 45 feet. | 50 feet. | Basis. Inches. Inches. | Inches. Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Trees. hfe ie tlc 1 GS 6. 4 Eats} seater east yas aL Sea DG RR Ts US od 8 f2) RRS ae De 2 7-8 1683 6.2 Sey eta ea creel | ec ate] Sea ene ce ta [ape n) am el SIN 8 OR ahs bees 8.8 8.2 6.9 6.2 Esti aes eseeseia eae aaa at ae A el ara a 7 3 ame 9.7 9.1 lied, 7.0 6.2 SAG Se NG OG | RESIN Hie a tae ca LUC Se eee 10.7 10. 0 8.4 Us 7.0 6.2 faery Ae Seer RE ie 10 ANQIE! os] o2onddcdl Gemeeeoel BBS SGEee Perec cei (Esc creel sete] [tte aanmree nt Dir iiea etal IONS TEoa Le 33 TREES 60 FEET IN HEIGHT. Height from ground. Diameter ¥ breast high. l 7 5 feet. | 10 feet. 20 feet. | 25 feet. | 30 feet. | 35 feet. | 40 feet. | 45 feet. | 50 feet. | Basis. Inches. Inches. | Inches. Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Trees. Ve Coe 6.8 6.6 6. 4 6.0 5.7 Dae ZU GN A lee ae roar (ew eo 13 Que eee 7.8 7.5 1X 6.8 6.4 6.0 5:5 eal laoceaee| Gsese Soe 22 6) 1 Ae ee 8.8 8.4 8.0 7.6 7.2 6.6 6.0 DiS hy Sees | Se eee eet LOE te 22 9.8 9.2 8.8 8.5 8.0 1683 6.6 BAOh | Sees late esse 50 TiN SS eae ee 10.8 10.0 9.5 9.0 8.4 7.6 6.8 6.0 5D 4.5 50 HD eraser i ys 11.6 10.8 10. 2 9.6 8.8 8.0 (el 6.2 5.4 4.6 51 leeteseecae 12.6 11.6 11.0 10.3 9.4 8.5 Tad 6.5 5.6 4.7 17 Neha a Cae a 1183, 6) 1255 11.8 11.1 10.3 9.3 8.1 7.0 5.9 4.9 9 Wosicec eee tes 14.5 13. 4 12.7 12.0 11.1 10.0 8.8 7.5 6.3 Doi 9 TOG. Sel secan Ceapl Rasen en) Bee eaeS -leescese asereser Geuteces acoeuern Sees erce lesa elisa mmcet 221 TREES 70 FEET IN HEIGHT. Diame- Height from ground. ter breast : | high. | 5 feet. |10 feet. |15 feet. |20 feet. |25 feet. 30 feet. 35 feet.|40 feet./45 feet.|50 feet.|55 feet.|60 feet.) Basis. | Inches. | In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. | Trees. i Ores, 10.1 9.3 8.8 8.5 shal Toul (oil 6.5 5.8 Gal 4.5 3.8 50 iy Neg ae THT |) Us al 9.6 9,2 8.7 8.2 evs 7.0 6.3 ONO) 4.8 4.0 50 Denes Wes Oa) ta), 8} 9.8 9.3 8.7 8.2 WB 6.8 5.9 pil 4.1 49 Boysen PEO A) ISG) eal ste} 9.9 9.3 8.7 8.0 1.2 6.3 5. 4 4.3 50 HAG cs he TER RS 7p |) TUE) al) fs TNs 9.9 9.2 8.5 7.6 6.6 5.6 4,5 50 i. 2 TEES oleh Gh) TRG Te) eT AAO 9.7 8.9 7.9 6.9 5.8 4,7 42 (Bens ees MGS ly TE Gy UB | ae 7) as) ieealal ey | aay 3} 9.4 8.4 Tad (Geil 4,9 16 IV pares TSO) aS |), AN eS Gp ae ay | aa ee veako): f2) 9.8 8.7 ao) 6.3 Beal 12 ges cet ites WSO) AG AE Gs 33 ME Bye BE Sy Ae aie ay I aio) 9.0 dei 6.5 one uf NO eset LSESt Ue sult LONOn Plo On Ay Onii 35 Onli plile Orel Osi) 9.4 8.0 6.7 5. 4 3 Ue ete 19.8 18.1 16.8 GS 7 14.6 135 12.4 Tale al 9.7 8.2 6.8 ens) 2, "APYOSe11 l e ee a rd e aeL2) 2p Lacie ea oneal FG any Fas A [ais esleay LN eee lea 331 1 The figures for trees 10 inches and over in diameter in the 60-foot height class, and for all trees in the 70, 80, and 90 foot height classes were originally published in Forest Service Circular 126, and are based on data secured in Gallatin County, Mont. The figures for all trees in the 50-foot height class and for the 7 and 8 inch trees in the 60-foot height class are based on data secured in Deerlodge County, Mont. The figures for 9-inch trees in the 60-foot height class are interpolated. 54 BULLETIN 234, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE 29.—Stem taper of lodgepole pine as shown by diameter inside bark, Gallatin and Deerlodge Counties, Mont.—Continued. TREES 80 FEET IN HEIGHT. Height from ground. peter 7 breast high. K OF E > P rae 5 5 <4 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 . 5 feet.| root. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | Basis: In. \in.| Ine | in.) In. | In. | In.) Ine | In|, dn |. In. eins elinse|elrces: ON asa SES (SHG) ceeoh | eet Oellan hear mise 6:.6,,) 650) |: 554: 0 Ange arass 50 10.7 |) 1050} (957 | 92451) 39.0) -8i65l-ic8. 1 16.) tO") Gi 4a ec ose ero 4.4 50 11287 1029) 20s 5) | LOe 9.7 9.2 8.7 8.1 (ets) 6.8 6.0 D0 4.6 50 1257 WAALS |) DS) 21058 -| 10544) 959) 9.4 8.7 8.0 sv) 6.3 570) 4.8 47 IBLF) A267 | AZ er eb) 1. 0).|105:)=959-1 9525) 8h4 i. Gils (6h 7olo bese mean 41 1487 43.6") 1209) | 12585) We 7) | Sd) 10553) 9878), - 8.9)! S20 Tsk |e Gan arose 38 LoNS e142 6s palan ee (CLS SON M254 | IS Sa ORS 9.4 8.4 (a3 6.2 One 28 16.8 | 15.4 | 14.5 | 13.8 | 18.1 | 12.4 | 11.6 | 10.7 9.8 8.7 7.6 6.4 5.3 20 17..8:| 16.3 | 15.3: 14.55) 13..8: |; 13:07}. 12.2: |- 11. 2 |-10.2 9.1 7.9 6.7 5.5 10 VET LTE 16505) 155d 14032) 13) oe 12563) 00.7 | OL6: | O54) Soon eiGsOnioso 10 TONGS) 79) | A6o7 | Loot 14 285 142 Onset 12th) oid. 9.7 8.4 fea! Beil 3 oe iiste| Da alete cscs coed aus, aay eae eA RRR SE eel cieie los ereiore | rere mine eee See 346 J TREES 90 FEET IN HEIGHT. Height from ground. Diameter : ene 10 15 20 25) 30 | 35 0 0) 0 5 0 75 igh. e 4 45 5 55 6 6 70 | 75 . 5 feet feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet.) feet.| feet. feet. Basis. Inches In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | Trees. 1 aa ae 1158) 1610295 )410..6 7) 1004.) 10.19 958.1924) S59 824 | 78 1026.5 | 5st pasenl eee 16 db ea sei atens 12.8 | 11.9 | 11.5) 11.2 | 10.9 |10.5 |10.1 | 9.6} 9.1 | 8.4] 7.8] 7.1] 6.3] 5:3] 4.3 10 if, See ee ee 138581259) | 254) | 21200.) 11.7 |b 8: | LOS) |102351 92:79:50) 8.335) 7255) 6a7| oes e4ae 3 SENS 14.8} 13.8 | 13.2] 12.8] 12. 4 |12.0 |11.5 |10.9 }10.3:) 9.5] 8.8 | 8.0) 7.1] 6.1) 49 21 Gee Poe 4 14s) V6 hss 2312s 712s 2- 11S 5 1058 3110/05) 952 |-8.3) |) Tan eGsonlnone 13 DUS Sas 16.8} 15.6 | 14.9 | 14.4] 14.0 |13. 5 |12.9 |12.2 |11.3 |10.4] 9.6 | 8.6 | 7.6] 6.4] 5.3 8 1 Pee oeeetae 17.7 | 16.5 | 15.7 | 15.2 | 14.6 |14.1 /13. 5 |12.7 |11.8 |10.8 | 9.9] 8.9 | 7.8] 6.6] 5.4 6 LOS ees see 18.7) 17.2:| 16.4.) 15.8°)-25. 2: |14.:6 13.9 ]13. 1 $1252 111.2 10.2 | 9) 1850) 657 |) S25 4 PANS aE eae LOST) TSA L216. 4 Vo Lola 18512611. 5 100! 4930 Sale t Oneal roo! 7 Paha eaten 20.6 | 18.9 | 17.8 | 17.0 | 16.3 {15.6 |14.8 |13.9 |12. 8 |11.7 {10.6 | 9.4-| 8.2] 6.9 | 5.6 2 D2) Pe 21.6 | 19.7 | 18.5 | 17.6} 16.9. |16.1 |15.3 |14.3 |13.2 {12.0 10.8 | 9.6 | 8.3 | 7.0 | 5.7 3 Oba es eee oe eel tant [acetal eae melee sae CUA NS [eseee]eseee|eeees ssoeefeecee snes | 93 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY Vv BULLETIN OF THE } USDEDARIMENT OF AGRICOLTRE No. 235 Wis wit ie ne BL Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief, June 24, 1915. CONTROL OF DRIED-FRUIT INSECTS IN CALI- FORNIA.' By Wituiam B. ParKker,? Entomological Assistant, Truck-Crop and Stored-Product Insect Investigations. INTRODUCTION. The State of California is especially adapted to the raising of fruits. It is manifest that only a part of the great crop which is annually produced may be marketed in a fresh condition, since it is impossible to preserve semitropical and other soft fruits for more than a very limited time in the fresh state. The fruit canneries and the dried- fruit industry have accordingly been formed with a view to the utiliza- tion of the surplus fruit and have assumed large proportions, the production of dried fruits for the State of California being estimated at 140,000 carloads annually. The importance of this industry and the fact that numerous in- quiries are made concerning the control of the insects which attack dried fruits warrant investigation of the insect enemies of dried fruits in California. This was undertaken in a preliminary way in 1908, but owing to lack of funds was discontinued until 1911, at which time the writer, working under the direction of Dr. F. H. Chittenden, was assigned to this project. The investigation has been continued to the time of publication, and the preliminary notes are herewith sub- niutted. 1 The observations in this bulletin and the data on life history and habits were obtained in central Cali- fornia, the author having his headquarters at Sacramento, but it is probable that these particulars do not differ materially in other fruit-growing sections of the United States, especially in the eastern and southern fruit regions. 2 Resigned Aug. 31, 1914. Nort.—The writer has been assisted in this investigation by the Roeding Fig Packing Co., the Rosenberg Co., Mr. D. L. Smith, of the Schuck! Co., the California Dried Fruit Exchange, the Robt. Gair Co., and the Petterson Carton Wrapping & Sealing Machine Co., who by their cooperation have greatly facilitated the prosecution of this project. He also wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. R. E. Campbell, of the Bureau of Entomology, who brought to completion some of the experiments detailed in this paper. 90548°—Bull. 235—15 2 BULLETIN 235, U.\\S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INSECTS CONCERNED IN THE INJURY. During the progress of this investigation a study of the insect forms most injurious to dried fruits in California has been pursued, with the result that the follow- ing species have been collected, the more important being con- sidered later in sepa- rate paragraphs. The Indian-meal moth (Plodia inter- punctella Hiibn.) (fig. 1) is probably the most common and Fic. 1.—The Indian-meal moth (Plodia interpunctella): a, Moth; y b, chrysalis; c, caterpillar; d, head of same; e, first abdominal destructive of these segment of same; f, caterpillar, dorsal view. a, b,c, f, Somewhat oe me 5 enlarged; d, ce, more enlarged. (From Chittenden.) pests, Its large aie making it particularly conspicuous, while the nature of its attack renders infested fruit most disgusting in appearance. (See Pl. I, figs. 1, 2.) The fig moth (Hphes- tia cautella Walk.) (fig. 2) is next in importance among the moths, while a variety of beetles, including the dried-fruit beetle (Carpophilus hemip- terus L.), the saw- . SS toothed grain beetle : hee : 5 | WS (Silvanus surinamen- BAW sis L.), the foreign grain beetle (Cathar- tus advena Waltl), and a fungus beetle (Henoticus serratus ¥14. 2—The fig moth (Ephestia cautella): a, Moth; b, denuded wing, Gyll.), are generally showing venation; c, ENED dorsal view; d, two egg SS CRAG PcNiGut MO Enlarged about four times; d, more enlarged. (From Chittenden.) injurious. T'wosugar mites (T'yroglyphus siro Gerv. and T. longior Gery.) are also fre- quently found. The pomace flies (Drosophila ampelophila Loew) attack only the sweet, watery fruits, or those that are fermenting, and can hardly be considered as dried-fruit insects. Ants are occasion- ally found in dried fruits, but do not breed therein, and can usually be best attacked by destroying their nests outside the packing house. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF DRIED-FRUIT INSECTS. The annual financial loss to all who handle dried fruits from the Pacific coast would be very difficult to estimate, since these prod- ucts are rapidly distributed by the packers over a large territory, os CONTROL OF DRIED-FRUIT INSECTS IN CALIFORNIA. 3 and the injury is first noticed by the retailer or the consumer. Moreover, the retailer is inclined to be somewhat reticent regarding the presence of wormy fruit in his establishment, although an exami- nation frequently shows such to be the case. A few retail grocers stated that the ‘‘worms”’ were especially troublesome during the summer months, and while the majority of those interrogated ad- mitted with reluctance that they ever received wormy fruit, it was, no doubt, present in their stores at the time. Many companies claimed that it would be difficult to secure the exact figures, but admitted that they usually sold a considerable quantity as hog feed during the season. A wholesale grocer stated that his annual loss on dried fruits returned because of insect infestation was about $50, but that the loss in 1912 approximated $150. These are only a few individual instances, and the greatest aggregate loss is through small quantities of infested fruit which are thrown away or sold as hog feed, the retailer preferring the loss of a small quantity of fruit to the trouble of returning it to the wholesaler. It is readily apparent, however, that the annual loss must in the aggregate be considerable. For the reason that no estimates can be made of the injuries by the Indian-meal moth to fruits in California, it is worth stating that according to figures furnished by Dr. Chittenden in 1910, there was a loss to the peanut industry, through the ravages of this species, amounting to 20 per cent, or, at a conservative estimate, $3,000,000.1 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. Observations begun in 1911 in central California, with headquar- ters at Sacramento, with special reference to insects attacking dried figs, were soon extended to all dried-fruit insects. It was found that in most cases insects were present in the field where the fruit is dried, that they were quite numerous around the packing houses, and that they were present in warehouses and stores in sufficient numbers to threaten severe infestation to boxes of dried fruit that might be stored there. There are usually one or more cracks or openings in the boxes (PI. I, fig. 2) through which an insect or mite can readily crawl. The paper used in lining the boxes does not to any extent prevent their entrance. These preliminary observations led to the conclusion that the problem could not be successfully combated by attacking it at any one point, but that the methods of drying, stormg, processing, packing, and shipping should be investigated. THE INDIAN-MEAL MOTH. The life history of the Indian-meal moth (Plodia interpunctella Hibn.) will vary with the prevailing temperature, but was deter- 1Popenoe, C. H. The Indian-meal Mothand ‘“‘Weevil-cut’’ Peanuts. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Cir. 142,6 p., 1 fig., Sept. 16, 1912. See p. 1. 4 BULLETIN 235, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mined at the Sacramento laboratory during June, July, and August, 1913, as follows: Egg stage, 6 days; larval stage, 35 days; pupal stage, 12 days; adult, about 14 days. Total, from egg to adult, 53 days, or 1 month and 23 days. While the subject of this article is practical and based on condi- tions at Sacramento, Cal., it should be added that in the case of the life history of this species Dr. Chittenden has pointed out ' that ‘“‘ex- periment shows that the insect is capable of passing through all its several stages from egg to adult in five weeks, which furnishes a pos- sibility of six or more generations in a well-heated atmosphere, although in a moderately cool granary or other storehouse four or five broods is probably the normal number per annum.” The sudden appearance of large numbers of larve in dried fruit is readily explained by Table I, which shows the number of eggs deposited by six moths which were confined in the laboratory to determine the rate of oviposition. TaBLeE |.—Egg-laying records of the Indian-meal moth. Days. No. Total. Ist. 2d. 3d. 4th. 5th. 6th. 7th. 8th. Peay, 46 79 36 23 24 16 Lis gt ees 235 Date 56 65 27 36 36 21 tS eters 250 Bere 39 43 34 18 16 (sen Peeeere eascssae 156 ier ere 16 33 47 64 45 56 12 13 286 asane 59 51 55 38 26 OF Al seetaisieters | aceenes 234 (ee Sal aoatesol aaacisctucl bode case Gasesecs aac see se Besser Spare sole asosesc 168 1 The number of eggs in this vial was determined as total and not by days. Average number of eggs deposited by the six moths, 221.3. These eggs were deposited mostly during the night. The life cycle during the summer, as given in a preceding para- graph, is only 53 days. Starting with one fertile female in a packing house on June 15 (provided all of the insects matured), there would be 221 moths by the followmg August 15, and by August 30 (pro- vided that half of these moths were females) there would be a total of 23,310 larvee in the dried fruit. Under natural conditions some of the eggs do not hatch and many of the larvee fail to mature, but from the foregoing data it is readily understood that a few moths of this species are capable of producing a very severe infestation within a relatively short time, provided that temperature and other conditions are favorable.’ 1 Chittenden, F. H. Some Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 45, 24 p., 18 fig., 1897. See p. 10. 2 The hymenopterous parasite Habrobracon hebetor Say is frequently found attacking the larvae of the Indian-meal moth, but it has not been observed appreciably to affect the infestation in California. Bul. 235, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Fic. 1.—THE INDIAN-MEAL MOTH (PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA): MOTH ON A DRIED APRICOT. (ORIGINAL.) Fi@. 2.—THE INDIAN-MEAL MoTH: LARVA ON A DRIED APRICOT. (ORIGINAL.) DRIED FRUIT INSECTS IN CALIFORNIA. } i Bul. 235, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. } i Fic. 1.—FiGS HANGING ON TREES DURING THE WINTER CONTAINING HIBERNATING ADULTS OF THE DRIED-FRUIT BEETLE (CARPOPHILUS HEMIPTERUS). (ORIGINAL.) Fila. 2.—THE AVERAGE PACKING Box, Fia. 3.—AN INFESTED BOX OF FIGS SHOWING CRACKS THROUGH WHICH IN THE ORDINARY PACKING CASE. Dri€D FRuIT MAY BECOME INFESTED. (ORIGINAL. ) (ORIGINAL. ) CONTROL OF DRIED-FRUIT INSECTS IN CALIFORNIA. 5 HIBERNATION. Partly grown larve brought into the laboratory October 10, 1913, spent the winter in that stage, pupated in the early spring, val emerged as adults April 16, 1914. Larvee were observed at various times during the winter in dried fruit and partly spun up in corners and cracks of warehouses. Adults were not observed in warehouses until April 15, when many were found to be emerging. In California this insect appears to hibernate in the larval stage, pupate in the early spring, and emerge as an adult about the middle of April. THE DRIED-FRUIT BEETLE. The dried-fruit beetle (Carpophilus hemipterus 1.) is probably the next in importance as a destructive dried-fruit insect. It is found in large numbers in the figs before they drop from the trees and in bins of figs and other dried fr uits. The adults often frequent the packing Taree | in large numbers, where they swarm over and deposit eggs on the fruit which has been dipped and put out to cool. They breed readily in the moisture of the dried fruits, but apparently can not live in fruit that is moderately dry. The adult insect hibernates in stored fruit in the packing houses, in figs, and probably in other fruits which are not gathered from the field at the time of harvest. Plate II, figure 1, shows figs which were allowed to remain on the trees during the winter, and which were later found to be highly infested with Carpophilus hemipterus. On September 3, 1911, 5 pounds of dried figs, taken at random from each of seven different dryers in the vicinity of Fresno, Cal., were placed in boxes made insect-proof by plugging all cracks with cotton and wrapping carefully in stout paper. When examined January 13, 1912, the fruit in three of the seven boxes was badly infested. The results of this experiment prove that many figs are infested before they are shipped to the packing house and that the drying sheds are one of the sources of infestation. These conclusions will apply equally well to other fruits. The processing may kill the insects in the fruit at the time of processing but will not protect them from infestation while they are being dried or held in the drying sheds prior to shipping to the packing houses. It has been found that infestation takes place in the field, in the packing house, in the warehouse, and in the grocery store. PROCESSING DRIED FRUIT. Dried fruit from the bins of the packing house is usually quite dry and not particularly attractive or appetizing in appearance. In order to improve its texture so that it will pack well and be attractive to the consumer, it is processed. In Table II will be found the formulas for processing fruit that are in common use in California. BULLETIN 235, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe IIl.—Formulas for processing fruit in common use in California. Fruit. Treatment in field. In packing houses. Peach....| Cut in half, sul- phured 13 hours, dried in sun on Graded and placed in bins not over 4 or 5 feet deep; Processing. Dipped in cold or lukewarm water, drained, and sul- trays. sweating takes phured. place. Apricot.-.| Same as peach...... Same as peach...... Same as peach...-.. Pearse ales: Oe seiecse Bue Same as peach, but |--.--. dos 2222 oe handled more carefully. 3 Prune....| Picked from ground,} Graded and placed | Dipped 1 to 3 min- dipped in lye so- in bins. utes in clear water lution, rinsed in at 2129) TaiBas clear water, dried drained. on trays in sun. Pig 2): 3252 Picked from ground |...-.- (oe em ae cai Black figs, dipped | and dried on trays; in boiling brine, or dipped in hot drained and brine, drained, packed. White dipped in cold figs, dipped in brine-soda — solu- cold water, tion, drained, and drained, and spread on trays, packed; or dipped placed in sun un- in boiling brine, til excess moist- drained, and ture is removed, packed. Some then stacked to are dipped and complete drying. sulphured. FORMULAS. Brine formula for prunes: Lye, 1 pound to 20 gallons. Formula for dip for figs before being packed: Salt, 50 pounds; soda, 3 to 4 pounds; water, 150 gallons. Packed. Moist. Do. Formula for raisins before drying: One quart olive oil and three-fourths pound powdered caustic soda; water, 1 gallon; cook 30 minutes, add 100 gallons of boiling water with 44 pounds caustic soda; add more caustic soda if desired. Amount of sulphur to use and time of exposure based on 1,000 pounds of fruit. THE EFFECT UPON INSECTS OF PROCESSING FRUIT. It will be observed in Table IT that the processing includes either dipping in boiling brine or sulphuring. In the case of figs, when removed from the dipping vat they were too hot to be handled. When opened the interior was steaming hot, and it was assumed that no insects could pass through the dip alive. To prove this point, the following experiments were conducted: On September 3, 1911, 100 pounds of dried figs, thoroughly infested by the dried-fruit beetle and Indian-meal moth, were dipped in the Fifty pounds of these figs were immersed in the dip 45 seconds, and 50 pounds were im- regular dipping solution heated to boiling. mersed 90 seconds. cooling, and were later put into boxes and sealed. The figs were protected from insects when That this dipping was sufficient to kill all animal life was proved by the total absence CONTROL OF DRIED-FRUIT INSECTS IN CALIFORNIA. “7 of living insects or of any trace of them when the fruit was examined four months later, January 14, 1912. That sulphur fumes are more or less effective in killing insects has long been known, but in order to prove their efficiency the following experiments were conducted: On September 4, 1911, 100 pounds of black figs, which were badly infested by the dried-fruit beetle, were separated and sulphured in the regular manner. Upon being removed from the sulphur box they were immediately placed in cartons and sealed to prevent rein- festation. They were examined January 14, 1912, and no insects or evidence of recent work were observed. The sulphuring killed all insects present in the figs at the time. An experiment to determine the effect of sulphur fumes upon the eges of insects was conducted at Sacramento during the summer of 1913. About 25 eggs of the Indian-meal moth, deposited on a dry fig in a vial, were placed in the top of a sulphur box and given the usual treatment. None of these eggs hatched, while the eggs kept as checks hatched in due time. From the foregoing experiments it is evident that sulphuring the fruit has a tendency to kill any insects infesting it. In case eggs or larvyee aré well inside of the fruit, however, it is probable that they would not be injured; and since the use of sulphur is not sanctioned by the authorities, and the use of heat, either wet or dry, is so very effective, the use of a belt heater is recommended. A BELT HEATER TO DESTROY INSECTS IN DRIED FRUIT. The belt heater is composed of a chamber in which is run a tier of belts, each running in the opposite direction to the one above it. These are so arranged that the fruit can be fed in at the top and will travel on the top belt until it reaches the roller, when it will fall to the belt below and be carried in the other direction, and so on down, the last belt carrying the fruit out of the chamber. A heater, either electric or steam, is arranged to maintain a temperature of 180° F., and by adjusting the speed of the belts the time that the fruit remains in the heater can be regulated. An experimental machine consists of six belts, 10 feet long and 5 feet wide, running on 3-inch wooden rollers. The rollers are set on cold-rolled axles, turned by cast-iron sprockets connected by No. 25 chain, which is so arranged that it reverses the direction of alternate rollers. ‘To insure even heating an electric fan is so adjusted that tae hot air is blown along the belts, and guides are arranged to direct the air current onto the belts above. Thus, as the fruit is carried alore by the belts, the hot air is blown over it. Such a machine arraiged to deliver the fruit into a screened packing room (fig. 3) woulc insure the fruit against contamination before packing. 8 BULLETIN 235, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The fruit should remain in the heater sufficiently long to raise it to 180° F. This temperature will kill all insect life. PROTECTING DRIED FRUITS FROM INFESTATION. Although some damage results from the infestation of dried fruit stored in bins in the packing house, the greatest loss occurs after the fruit has been packed. The fruit which is separated and dipped into hot solutions (212° F.) before being packed is by this process sterilized so far as insects are concerned. It has been found that such fruits as peaches, pears, GRAQLA/ SILARATOR Fig. 3.—Diagram of screened packing room showing belt heater at center. (Original.) and apricots, which are not dipped in such solutions, can be sterilized by dry heat before they are moistened, preparatory to packing. The major problem is one of preventing infestation after the fruit is sterilized and packed. Successful experiments with the use of a sealed carton (fig. 4) to protect cereals from insect attack! led the writer to work out a similar process for dried fruits. Figs put up in small packages were found convenient for the fol- lowing preliminary experiments begun at Fresno, Cal., October 1, 1913. Hot figs were taken from the dipping vat, pressed into bricks, wrapped in the regular paper, and placed in cartons. Careful watch was kept for infesting insects, and none was seen near the figs during the packing process. 1 Parker, William B. A Sealed Paper Carton to Protect Cereals from Insect Attack. U. s. Dept. Agr., Bul. 15, 8 p., 8 fig., Oct. 16, 1913. Bul. 235, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. PRED SEE OE, a, Fic. 1.—PATTERN OF THE INNER SEAL. (ORIGINAL.) ROX SEALED, | : — Filia. 2.—METHOD OF USING THE INNER SEAL. (ORIGINAL.) Fia. 3.—How THE PACKAGES STOOD THE SHIPPING TEST. (ORIGINAL. ) THE INNER SEAL: A SANITARY INSECT-PROOF PACKAGE. Bul, 235, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. FIG. 1.—ROUND PACKAGES FOR DRIED FRUIT WHICH CAN BE SEALED. (ORIGINAL.) Fic. 2.—BRICKS OF FIGS, SHOWING THE RESULT OF SEALED CARTON EXPERIMENTS. At left, unsealed brick. Note dried sugaring and infested condition. At right, sealed brick. Note moist condition. (Original. ) PROTECTING DRIED FRUITS AGAINST INSECTS. CONTROL OF DRIED-FRUIT INSECTS IN CALIFORNIA. 9 Of these cartons 16 were sealed as shown in Plate III, figure 1, and 16 left unsealed. Of the unsealed ones, 8 were so prepared that the wrapping paper was slightly torn. This condition is one fre- quently found in packages of figs put up by the girls in the packing house. The 32 cartons prepared as described above were brought to Sacramento and placed in an insect-tight box in which were then placed large numbers of larvee and adults of Plodia interpunctella, Carpophilus hemipterus, and Gnathocerus (Echocerus) maxillosus Fab. The box was then sealed so that the insects could not escape, and they were given every chance to infest the cartons. At the conclusion of these experiments, April 16, 1914, all but two of the unsealed cartons were found to be infested, while the sealed ones showed no evidence of insects having entered. It was observed that the larvee of Plodia interpune- tella had in some iE Fic. 4.—Diagram of carton, showing method of applying label to protect pl aces broken inclosed cereal from insect attack. (Author’s illustration.) through the thin paper used to wrap the bricks of figs before they are placed in the cartons. It had previously been supposed by the packers that this paper if preserved intact would prevent insects from reaching the fruit. The foregoing experiments will serve to prove the efficiency of a sealed carton in protecting packed dried fruit from insect attack. ' SEALED PACKAGES FOR DRIED FRUIT. Packages of dried fruit weighing less than 5 pounds are so nearly the size of the cartons used for cereals that, except for the high labor cost of sealing, the method used with the cereal carton could be readily applied to dried fruits. With the 10, 25, and 50 pound pack- ages, however, the cost of such sealing is excessive, and the wooden boxes used can not be thus sealed to advantage, as the seal is easily broken by rough handling. To obviate this difficulty a light paper carton fitting inside the wooden box, and sealed before the top was nailed on, was constructed, but the cost of these cartons and the additional labor required to pack them prohibited the employment 1 A heavy paraffined paper appears effective in preventing insects from eating through. 10 BULLETIN 235, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of this method. A fiber-board carton was then selected which could be sealed, or in which had been placed an inner seal, to prevent the entrance of insects. Such a package to be successful should stand the same shipping conditions as a wooden box and should not, when sealed, greatly exceed the latter in cost. A carton of the following specifications was tested to determine its shipping qualities: Certificate of box maker.—This box is made of three-ply or more, fiber board or pulp board, outer ply waterproofed. Mach: plycssio: seas. ti aas se Ancine gies ert Ae Seat hoe te obi en eee inch.. 0.016 ‘Thickness’not less:than combined board 2255-22. Ste, ek ee do- 222 #080 Resistance (Mullen test), combined board. ......--- pounds per square inch.. 200 Dimension limit, length, width, and depth added...................- inches. . 65 Grosssweloht limit 2s etynciee ac ces erent Re Pat eee eee ee pounds. . 65 SHIPPING TESTS OF FIBER-BOARD PACKAGES. Three 25-pound boxes (PI. IIT) made according to the foregoing specifications were filled with 25 pounds of dried peaches, sealed, and given the following shipping tests: Box No. 1 was shipped by express from Sacramento, Cal., to Port- land, Me., and back, or about 6,000 miles, durmg which trip it was handled by at least 18 men. This box arrived | in Sacr amento in peod condition and is shown in Plate III, figure 3. Box No. 2 was shipped from Secmien er Cal., to Fargo, N. Dak., as one of the bottom boxes in a car of 25-pound boxes of dried fruit. Except for one place where the sharp edge of a wooden box had worked up the edge, this box arrived at its destination in fine condition, as illustrated in Plate III, figure 3. This rubbing would not occur in a carload of fiber-board boxes. Box No. 3 was sent to San Francisco by Parcels Post, where it was trucked around the wharves, given a thorough test, and examined by several packers and by the agent of one steamship company. It arrived in Sacramento in good condition, after having stood the test and having been pronounced a good shipping package for dried frit 7 (eles leiross 3.) The foregoing tests proved that the 25-pound package of dried fruit could be shipped long distances, and its shipping qualities compared very well with the wooden box. These fiber-board boxes (Pl. III) weigh much less than the wooden box, and the saying on the freight would be considerable. In the case of the 25-pound box the saving per car on the basis of $1.10 per 100 (freight rate) is about $23. It was estimated that the adop- tion of this style of package would save one company approximately $40,000 annually. CONTROL OF DRIED-FRUIT INSECTS IN CALIFORNIA. 11 THE SEAL. The fiber-board package was found to be tight, except at the cor- ners and where the flaps meet in the middle of the sides. An attempt was made to seal these places with gummed tape, but the labor required to do this increased the cost of packing to such an extent as to make the method unfeasible. An inner seal was then so constructed that when the carton was regularly sealed there would be no cracks or openings at the corners. (See Pl. III, fig. 1.) The inner seal appears practical from the packer’s point of view, but the carton manufacturer claims that it would be difficult to make it cheaply enough without special machinery, although this would probably be made were there a demand for such cartons. ADVANTAGES OF THE SEALED CARTON FOR DRIED FRUIT. As long as dried fruit can be processed so that mold is no more prevalent in sealed packages than in unsealed ones the disadvantages of this type of package, with the possible exception of the extra cost, are negligible. The advantages, on the other hand, are several. The main object of the sealed carton is the exclusion of infesting insects. This is accomplished very successfully and so solves a large portion of the present problem. It also prevents the evaporation of moisture from the fruit, and thus for a long time preserves the fruit in the same moist condition in which it was packed. . Plate IV, figure 2, shows two bricks of figs packed October 1, 1913, and opened April 16, 1914. The brick on the left was put up in an ordinary carton, and, as will be observed, it was dried, sugared, and became infested, while the one on the right, which was put into an ordinary carton, but sealed, is in practically the same condition as when packed. These two bricks were kept under the same conditions; in fact, were in the same box. From the foregoing data it is evident that fruit properly packed in sealed cartons will be protected from infestation and will remain in a moist condition much longer than when packed in an ordinary carton or box. OTHER SEALED PACKAGES. In an attempt to find a small and attractive package for their fruit one packing company in California evolved a round carton with a cover that fitted over the end like the cover of a baking powder can. as shown in Plate IV, figure 1. A printed label pasted around the edge of the carton formed in experiment a very effective seal. This carton appears to be satisfactory for small packages, but the shape is such that more room is required for shipment than is the case with the square package, and it is not as practical for the larger sizes. 1B} BULLETIN 235, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. When objections to the inner seal were presented the writer imme- diately investigated other possible methods. Among several which were suggested, the use of a waxed sealing paper wrapped around bricks of fruit and sealed with a hot iron seemed very promising.! It was found that bricks of apricots, prunes, and pears up to 10 pounds in weight could be successfully made and wrapped in the waxed paper, and that by placing a piece of sheet iron on top of the brick of fruit before folding the paper over, a smooth surface could be obtained for the application of the sealing iron. After the top is sealed the sheet iron should be quickly removed. The hot iron may then be applied to the ends of the paper, making them tight, and afterwards the ends may be folded up and the brick placed in a large carton. Plate V, figures 1 and 2, shows the effect obtained by using such a paper seal, which, when properly sealed, renders the package insect proof. The cost of packing dried fruit in such a package has not been determined, but the writer believes that it will be found economical in many packing houses. This method combines the advantages of an insect-proof package, a 5 or 10 pound unit, and a 25 or 50 pound fiber-board carton, which is lighter and probably cheaper than the wooden box. While in the field the writer observed a. package formed of an ordinary raisin carton which was sealed in a waxed sealing paper. The sealing was done by machinery which, except for the initial expense of the machine, would make the process very rapid and economical. Such a package might prove very efficient for dried fruits put up in from 1 to 5 or even 10 pound packages. Several packers have reported the presence of mold in the ordinary wooden boxes of dried figs. Plate VI, figure 1, shows such a condi- tion. This was observed to occur more frequently in the sealed round boxes previously mentioned, and it appears that if the sealed carton is to be used for dried fruit the problem is a very important one. From examinations of moldy fruit and from investigations of the condition of the fruit when packed, the writer concludes that condi- tions favorable to the growth of mold occur only when the fruit is too wet when packed, either through excessive processing or improper drainage. One packer stated that when the fruit was taken directly from the hot dip and packed in sealed boxes a large percentage of the cartons became moldy. On the other hand, if the fruit was allowed to drain thoroughly and stand in lug boxes or in a heap for several hours before being packed, the moisture became equalized and mold rarely developed. (Pl. VI, fig. 2.) To establish these statements and observations finally the following experiments were conducted: On July 28, 1914, four lots of figs were processed by dipping in Bul. 235, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Fic. 1.—A CARTON WRAPPED AND SEALED BY THE MACHINE. (ORIGINAL.) Fig. 2.—CLEAN AND WHOLESOME; MOISTURE AND INSECT PROOF. PARAFFIN-WAXED PAPER SEAL APPLIED TO A CARTON OF RAISINS. (ORIGINAL:) INSECT-PROOF PRODUCTS OF THE WRAPPING AND SEALING MACHINE. Bul. 235, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI, Fig. 1.-—MOLDY CONDITION OF FIGS IN ROUND SEALED CARTON. FIGS PACKED TOO WET. (ORIGINAL.) Filia, 2.—PERFECT CONDITION OF FIGS PACKED IN ROUND SEALED CARTONS. EXCESS MOISTURE REMOVED BEFORE PACKING. (ORIGINAL.) Bul. 235, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. A VALUABLE ADJUNCT TO INSECT-PROOF PACKING. A carton wrapping and sealing machine, with a capacity of 10,000 per day of 8 hours, at a total cost of less than $1 per thousand. (Original.) fd “. ul CONTROL OF DRIED-FRUIT INSECTS IN CALIFORNIA. 13 all the surface moisture was gone. Lot No. 2 was dried in the sun a few minutes. Lot No. 3 was allowed to drain and cool thoroughly in the shade. Lot No. 4 was allowed to drain a few minutes and was packed while still hot and damp. All were packed in Mason jars, infected with spores from growing fungus, and sealed up. On examination one month later no fungous growth was found to have developed on Nos. 1, 2, and 3, but No. 4, the lot which was packed wet and hot, had a very good growth of the fungus. The experiment was repeated on September 1, dipping the figs in the hot water three minutes instead of one. On examination two weeks later it was found that in lot No. 1 no growth of fungus had developed. In lots 2 and 3 slight growths were present, and in lot 4 a heavy growth. The same figs were used in both experiments, and by the time they had been put through the boiling water the second time their surfaces were softer and stickier than they should be, and hence were good media for fungous growth. These experiments confirm the earlier observations, namely, that figs thoroughly drained or dried and cooled before packing are less likely to develop fungous growth than those packed while still damp and warm. A CARTON WRAPPING AND SEALING MACHINE. Several machines are now being manufactured which do away with the slow and expensive method of wrapping and sealing cartons by hand. Such a machine is shown in Plate VII. The cartons are fed ito the hopper at the top and the waxed paper is fed automatically or by hand. The machine wraps the waxed paper neatly and tightly around the carton and seals it air-tight by means of electrically heated plates. One operator is required when equipped with the automatic paper feed, and two without. This particular machine was made to wrap cartons 8 by 3 by 3 inches. It will wrap and seal a mini- mum of 25 to 30 per minute, or about 10,000 per day of eight hours, The cost based on this output, including the waxed paper, wrapping, sealing, power to operate, and wages of the operator, will be less than $1 per 1,000. The maximum output will be from 15,000 to 20,000 cartons per day, with a cost at this rate of from $0.80 to $0.90 per 1,000. At present, by the hand-wrapping method, one girl will average 1,000 cartons per day. Thus the machine will easily do the work of a dozen or more girls. The cost of hand-wrapping the package referred to is given as $1.75 -per 1,000. Using the minimum output of the machine for compari- son, the saving in one day’s run would be over $7, at which rate the machine would pay for itself in less than four months, since it may be purchased capable of handling any size of carton desired by the purchaser at a retail price of about $600. | 14 BULLETIN 235, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A machine of this nature would be available and practical not only for wrapping and sealing cracker and cereal cartons, but also for raisins, currants, figs, prunes, and all small packages of other dried fruits. PREPARATION OF A STERILE PACKAGE OF DRIED FRUIT. A description has been furnished of a method of preparing packages of cereals so that they will not become infested. This process is being successfully carried out by several large mills, the only real difficulty arisig from the cost of sealing the carton. This objection is being gradually overcome. The process consists in running the cereal through a sterilizer and then through a clean chute directly ito an insect-free packing room, where it is packed in sterilized cartons and sealed. The writer be- lieves that such a process can be applied to dried fruit, and the follow- ing suggestions are made to that effect: In order to sterilize the fruit so far as insects are concerned it is necessary to heat it to 180° F. With the fruits which are regularly dipped in hot solutions this heating is readily accomplished, but in the case of those which are dipped in cold solutions before being packed the use of the belt heater described on pages 7-8 is suggested. After sterilization by one of the foregoing processes the fruit must be protected from reinfestation, and the-use of the screened packing room, a plan for which is shown on page 8, figute 3, and described below, will serve this purpose nicely. The fruit should be run directly from the sterilizer or dipping vat into the packing room, where it is packed and sealed. It may then be removed to a warehouse, and if properly sealed it will not become infested by insects. THE SCREENED PACKING ROOM. A simple packing room (fig. 3) can be cheaply constructed by covering a light framework with lath, cloth, and paper. The windows, the floor, and all corners and joints should be made tight, and venti- _ lation accomplished by blowing air through an opening covered with cheesecloth or No. 20 screen wire. Such a packing room can be constructed to admit plenty of light and air and still be free from insects. Whenever necessary the openings may be closed and the room thoroughly fumigated. Notre.—The writer has observed as many as 10 eggs of insects on the inside of a carton in a cereal mill. It is advisable, therefore, to sterilize all cartons before filling them, This may be readily done by placing a truck load in a heating chamber over night or during the day. CONTROL OF DRIED-FRUIT INSECTS IN CALIFORNIA. 15 = SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. The foregoing observations and experiments have brought out the following points: A considerable financial loss due to the infestation of dried fruit by insects is experienced by packers, wholesale men, and retail dealers. There are several species of insects which attack dried fruits on the Pacific coast, but of these the most common and destructive are the Indian-meal moth and the dried-fruit beetle. Infestation takes place in the packing house, in the warehouse, and in the grocery store. The insects find their way to the fruit through small cracks in the boxes and between the folds of the paper. All insect life is destroyed in fruits that are put through the boiling dip, and the processing of other fruits can be accomplished by the addition of the belt heater to sterilize all fruit so treated. The use of an insect-free packing room and sterilized cartons or con- tainers which are sealed before being placed in the warehouses or cars will protect the fruit from infestation unless the package is broken. There are several cartons and methods of sealing that can be ap- plied to dried fruit, but their cost will determine their practicability. The secret of preparing an insect-free package of dried fruit is to sterilize it at a temperature of 180° F. and protect it from future infestation by the use of the insect-free packing room and sealing in sterile cartons or packages. The sealed carton not only protects the fruit from infestation, but it prevents it from drying out and preserves it for long periods in the moist and attractive condition in which it was packed. Moist fruit can be successfully packed in sealed cartons, provided attention is paid to the moisture content. The fruit must be care- fully drained and must not be packed too hot. Machines have been invented which will successfully wrap and seal small packages of dried fruit at a moderate cost per thousand. It is probable that the time is coming when it will be as necessary to put up dried fruit in sealed packages as it is to pack cereals in that form to-day. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH ; 1915 etna eee Re eater ee ney ar ees “ibaa thibers.- ayes mt AS alten seit ty | hase EMS ent! Pa fia ‘a i aa wh ibe ce Ak how hee vara BULLETIN’ OF THE c.) USDEPARIMENT OPAGRCULURE % g No. 286 Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural Organization, Charles J. Brand, Chief. May 1, 1915. A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ELEVATORS. By Jonn R. Humpnrey, Assistant in Cooperative Grain Elevator Accounting, and W. H. Kerr, Investigator in Market Business Practice. CONTENTS. Page. Page. MMO GUCTION att sie se se ear toes aise sees 1 | Description of the Office of Markets and Types of elevator accounting systems........ 2 Rural Organization grain elevator account- Ofheplequipment..-----+--teee see ceetoen ee 2 IMpSYSbeMnc faeces cece ee sete te eee 4 MakinelanvinivenvOLy--a--sssss-s22<-sescese = 2 | Instructions for operating the system........ 8 MTN eg bHeWOOKS ass 20 se cinec ne on oie = 3) || ;Conclusions 22 sta. coe. - ease epee see rite 20 ECG CIN eer er ene see omee ccc caine nainen seine 4 | Blank forms Nos. 1 to 15, beginning at...... 20 Imsurance of elevators... -....22--.----------- 4 INTRODUCTION. The rapid growth of the business of cooperative grain elevators ~ has emphasized the importance of adequate accounting systems. It has been realized that the adoption of a uniform system suffi- ciently comprehensive to accommodate itself to the conditions pre- vailing in the grain-producing States would be a step in advance. This bulletin describes a grain elevator accounting system which has been devised by the Office of Markets and Rural Organization and which is now being used by representative elevators in seven of the leading grain-producing States. In drawing up the various forms comprising this system reference has been made to many other systems now in operation. A first- hand study of conditions existing in the elevator business has like- wise had a bearing on the final form of this system. NotEe.—This bulletin is intended for all farmers’ cooperative and other elevators throughout the United States. It contains copies of forms and a description of their uses for a system of accounts which is being Tecommended by the Office of Markets and Rural Organization, United States Department of Agriculture, as a uniform system for farmers’ cooperative elevators. 89896°—Bull. 236—15——1 2 BULLETIN 236, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TYPES OF ELEVATOR ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS. Investigations in respect to accounting in cooperative grain eleva- tors have established the fact that no system has been generally accepted as standard. The idea of double-entry bookkeeping, while existing in a thorough sense in only a limited number of elevators, is followed more or less vaguely in all, and for that reason there is found every variation in type from patented systems to mere hand- book entries kept in memorandum form for the benefit of the manager. All the systems of bookkeeping now existing in elevators may be classified under three general headings: Complete double-entry systems kept in the elevator; incomplete systems, consisting of reports and memoranda kept in the elevator; and complete systems of reports made up at the elevator and sent to some outside agency where the records of the company are kept. Of the three, the first should prove the most satisfactory for the reason that, although the third system may furnish definite infor- mation, the details of that information are not, as a rule, within easy reach of the men who are most interested in them. The benefits to be derived from a complete double-entry system of bookkeeping, so constructed that it can be adopted by all ele- vators, are: First, the possibility of distributing and interchanging valuable statistics among elevators; second, the training of managers and bookkeepers, so that they will obtain a cumulative knowledge of elevator accounting, thus making it easier to procure competent help in these lines; third, the individual benefit derived by each elevator from knowing its financial and business condition with accuracy at short notice; and, fourth, the benefit to future buying in being able to ascertain the average net cost per bushel of operating an elevator. OFFICE EQUIPMENT. No system of accounts can be efficient unless it is properly handled. Office equipment is one of the important factors relating to the success of office work. An elevator office should be equipped with fireproof safes or a vault in which all valuable records of the com- pany should be kept. It should have proper filing devices and suffi- cient furniture, includmg a standard bookkeeper’s desk, to make thorough work possible. When the business of an elevator is large enough to justify the employment of a bookkeeper, such trained help should be secured, as, in most instances, the elevator manager is either without the knowledge or the time to perform the duties of a bookkeeper. TAKING AN INVENTORY. At the end of the business year or at the ‘‘cut off,” an inventory should be taken. This should be an actual physical inventory, taken SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ELEVATORS. 3 either by measurement of the grain in the bins or by running it out of the bins and through a hopper or automatic scale, thus getting actual weights. The practice of taking estimated inventories by reference to the reports accumulated during the year’s business is dangerous and, in most cases, absolutely inaccurate. The average platform scale has a weighing error of from 3 to 15 pounds per 60- bushel load. This weighing error accumulating during a whole year sometimes amounts to a shortage or ‘‘overage’’ of hundreds of bushels. By taking inventories from grain reports, the elevator may, after five or six years, find itself with a book grain stock out of all proportion to the actual grain on hand at the time of inventory. By taking an actual inventory, the shrinkage or ‘‘overage”’ of each kind of grain is accounted for within the year to which it applies, and, if abnormal, can be checked up easily if an actual inventory has been taken the season before. AUDITING THE BOOKS. One of the features in elevator bookkeeping upon which great stress should be laid and to which an important position should be assigned is the auditing of the books as soon as the inventory has been taken. The custom prevailing among farmers’ elevators of having internal audit committees furnished from the board of direc- tors or the stockholders is commendable only to the extent of its usefulness in keeping the directorate in close touch with the business of the elevator. The positive value of such an audit, in so far as it is able to detect errors of principle or even clerical errors, is neg- ligible, since, as a rule, the men making the audit are not especially trained for such work and use very little time to complete their re- ports. It should be apparent, then, that it is good business practice to secure the services of a certified public accountant who has had sufficient practice in elevator accounting to be able to give vital in- formation and advice to the manager and directors of the elevator. Internal audit committees may work in conjunction with such an auditor, thus shortening the period of his labors as well as benefiting themselves by contact with him. The item of cost in connection with the hiring of public accountants has been the deterrent factor which, to a great extent, has kept the farmers’ elevators in the past from availing themselves of such services. By banding together, sey- eral cooperative elevator companies might give an accountant steady employment throughout the year and secure his services at a greatly reduced rate.! 1 For further discussion of auditing, see U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 178—Cooperative Organization Business Methods. 4 BULLETIN 236, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. HEDGING. As a protection or insurance against loss from price fluctuations between the time of purchase and the time the grain is sold, an elevator may hedge its holdings. When grain is taken into the elevator it can be immediately protected by its sale for future delivery. When the grain is sold the hedge is taken up; that is, a purchase for future delivery is made. If the price of cash wheat has fallen in the meantime, the loss is counterbalanced by the profit on the hedge, as the future price will have decreased with the cash price. In this manner an elevator protects itself against loss by the drop in the price and waives the profit which might be made in case the price increased. Doing business in this way eliminates all chance of large losses or gains in the fluctuations in prices which take place from the time the farmer is paid for his deliveries until sales are made. Dealing in futures should be allowed only where actual grain is hedged. Only lots of 5,000 bushels of wheat can be bought or sold for future delivery. Since an elevator often desires to protect smaller amounts, commission firms generally will accept orders for purchases or sales of futures in smaller quantities, say lots of 1,000 or 2,000 bushels. The commission firm then assembles its various orders and secures trades in lots of 5,000 bushels. INSURANCE OF ELEVATORS. The practice of insuring against fire is a well-established principle in respect to all property, but carelessness in keeping insurance which is sufficient to cover total loss has proven disastrous in many instances. Owing to the marked fluctuation in the amount of grain on hand during the shipping season, grain elevators particularly are likely to be underinsured. For convenience, it is advisable to insure build- ings and contents under separate policies. The policy covering buildings seldom varies in amount during the year, but that covering erain may be subject to change. Some managers in small towns, where no insurance agent is stationed, have protected their grain stock by insuring for maximum capacity. Others make arrange- ments with the agent allowing for changes on notice, and thus effect a saving in premiums paid. DESCRIPTION OF THE OFFICE OF MARKETS AND RURAL ORGANIZATION GRAIN ELEVATOR ACCOUNTING SYSTEM. As this bulletin is intended to be sufficiently complete to enable an elevator company to install the system as devised by the Office of Markets and Rural Organization, a detailed description of the forms comprising it is essential. SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ELEVATORS. 5 The complete system includes 15 forms, as follows: Form No. 1—Cash, journal, purchase and sales record. Form No. 2—Record of grain receipts. Form No. 3—Record of grain purchases Form No. 4—Record of grain shipments and sales. Form No. 5—Record of hedges. Form No. 6—Record of sales to arrive. Form No. 7—Patronage ledger. Form No. 8—Grain and merchandise report. Form No. 9—Manager’s report. Form No. 10—Grain check. Form No. 11—Scale ticket. Form No. 12—Storage ticket. Form No. 13—Sales ticket. Form No. 14—Cash receipt. Form No. 15—Cost analysis. For convenience of discussion, the description of the foregoing forms will be taken up in respect to the order of their use. SCALE TICKET. Form No. 11 (see p. 26) represents the scale ticket adopted under this system, but it is not essential that this exact form should be used, as any scale ticket which records gross, tare, and net, and gross dockage, and net of the load, together with designations as to the owner and kind of grain, will be satisfactory. STORAGE TICKET. In order that all grain may be accounted for properly upon receipt by the elevator, the adoption of the storage ticket as a means of recording bushels and pounds received is strongly recommended. Form No. 12 (see p. 27) represents such a ticket. Upon this ticket are recorded the gross dockage and net of all the loads which have been hauled in any one day by a single owner, as previously recorded on scale tickets. “Storage tickets should be made up at the close of business each day. Both scale and storage tickets should be num- bered consecutively and printed in duplicate. For convenience in referring to the data entered on storage tickets it is advisable to file the tickets alphabetically under two headings, denoting ‘‘stored grain”’ and ‘‘purchased grain.’’ By this system of filmg, each patron’s sales are kept together and settlement may be effected easily in the case of unsold grain through reference to this file. A small card file containing a card for each patron may be found of assistance in listing numbers of storage tickets and for furnishing other information for checking up the storage-ticket files. RECORD OF GRAIN RECEIPTS. After having registered all the receipts of grain on storage tickets under the names of their respective owners, entry should be made 6 BULLETIN 236, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . on the record of grain receipts (Form No. 2, facing p. 20), where the date, storage-ticket number, the kind, grade, and bushels of grain are noted. GRAIN CHECK. In buying the grain a special grain check should be used (Form No. 10; see p. 25), upon which are recorded, in addition to the informa- tion usually contained in a check, the number of bushels and kind of grain, together with the purchase price, minus any deductions for storage or accounts receivable, and the resultant amount of the check. Regular checks should be used for all expense and general items. RECORD OF GRAIN PURCHASES. These checks, being numbered consecutively, are entered according to number upon the record of grain purchases (Form No. 3, facing p- 20), where the net bushels, storage, and cost of grain are recorded in detail. RECORD OF GRAIN SHIPMENTS AND SALES. Shipments from the elevator are recorded upon the record of grain shipments and sales. (Form No. 4, facing p. 20.) Here the date of shipment, the party to whom the grain is consigned, the car number, and shipper’s weight are recorded. As soon as the shipment has been sold and the returns have been received the date of sale, price received, destination, grade, and proceeds received for the grain are entered. RECORD OF HEDGES. A record of hedges (Form No. 5; see p. 21) is a form designed to record the transactions in futures bought and sold. The columns designated ‘‘ Purchase and sales accounts” are used to record profits or losses on hedges, the ‘‘Remarks” column being used to designate the broker through whom the profit or loss is incurred. RECORD OF SALES TO ARRIVE. A considerable number of elevators selling grain “‘to arrive” have no form upon which the transactions can be recorded. Form No. 6 (see p. 21) represents a record of sales to arrive. A brief study of this form will be sufficient to demonstrate its usefulness. It has no part in the accounting system except as a memorandum of shipments made against contracts, but this is important in itself. MANAGER’S REPORT. Some elevators which are not doing sufficient business to warrant the hiring of a bookkeeper and in which the elevator manager is un- able to keep the books have found it convenient to secure the services of a bookkeeper employed either in a bank or some store of the town in which they are located. For such elevators a manager’s report SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ELEVATORS. 7 (Form No. 9; see p. 24) has been provided. Upon this report the manager records all the transactions in receipts and purchases of erain and incloses duplicates of sales tickets covering sales of mer- chandise and of receipts for cash. From this form the bookkeeper, although not employed in the elevator, is able to keep the system of records in a satisfactory manner. The records of disbursements covering incidental items in most cases are controlled by the secre- tary or treasurer, and the bookkeeper should ook to him for records of this type. PATRONAGE LEDGER. In a few States cooperative laws have been enacted enabling coop- erative organizations to distribute dividends upon a patronage basis, and for elevators operating under this law a patronage ledger has been devised (Form No. 7; see p. 22), upon which are recorded the individual purchases and sales of merchandise under the name of each customer. GRAIN AND MERCHANDISE REPORT. At the end of the year, just before balancing the books, an inven- tory of all merchandise on hand should be taken. Form No. 8, grain and merchandise report (see p. 23), has been provided with suitable headings so that the amounts of grain and merchandise on hand can be recorded. This form serves a valuable purpose in giving the value of net and stored grain on hand at date, from which comparisons can be made showing the amount of stored grain sold. CASH, JOURNAL, PURCHASE, AND SALES RECORD. Previously it has been usual to provide a cashbook, journal, and daybook under separate forms in elevator systems. In the system herem described these books, together with a record of purchases, have been incorporated into one form (Form No. 1, facing p. 20), called the cash, journal, purchase, and sales record. As all the forms com- prising this system, with the exception of reports and the patronage ledger, are in loose-leaf form, they may be contained in one binder (and the consolidation of four books under one form is a further con- densation of the work). In the cash, journal, purchase, and sales record are recorded all regular cashbook entries, such as receipts of money and disbursements through checks, together with all journal entries and records of local sales of merchandise. Purchases of ma- terial such as flour, coal, etc:, are recorded under “‘ Purchases,” giving pounds and amount. SALES TICKET. Ail the local sales of merchandise are originally entered upon the sales ticket (Form No. 13; see p. 28), and these sales tickets are made up in pads of 50 originals and duplicates, numbered consecutively. 8: BULLETIN 236, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CASH RECEIPT. All receipts of money other than checks are recorded upon a cash receipt (Form No. 14; see p. 29). It is quite essential that such a receipt be used, as the practice of receiving scrip or coin without making a record of the transaction at the time of receipt often leads to discrepancies which are difficult to account for later. COST ANALYSIS. A feature of this system and one upon which considerable emphasis should be laid is a cost analysis (Form No. 15; see p. 30), by which the relative amounts of grain handled and the actual and relative cost per bushel are determined. Upon this form a determina- tion of the percentage of cost in handling merchandise is also worked out. The value of knowing the ratio of costs in the operation of a business is a well-established essential in many commercial enter- prises, and it is no less important to the successful operation of grain elevators. In conjunction with this system any double-entry, loose-leaf ledger accommodating general accounts and accounts receivable may be used. To be assured of the correctness of entries, it is advisable that a trial balance be taken from the ledger at the end of each month.! INSTRUCTIONS FOR OPERATING THE SYSTEM. RECORD OF GRAIN RECEIPTS. The record of grain receipts (Form No.2, facing p. 20) is a consecu- tive record of the receipts of grain as shown on the storage tickets. Having entered the storage tickets consecutively for the period of a month, distributing the grain under the proper columns and record- ing it under gross dockage and net, in bushels and pounds, we may at the end of the month total this form to arrive at the total grain receipts for the period. The totals of the record of grain receipts are then carried to the grain report opposite the words ‘‘receipts this period.” As the business progresses from month -to month, each month’s total should be kept separate; and, at the same time, a total should be drawn down, including the current month and the previous months of the current year. This total is also carried to the grain report opposite the words ‘‘gross receipts.’? Under this system all grain is considered as theoretically stored regardless of whether it is purchased at the time of delivery or actually held in storage. This method is followed because it insures the proper accounting for every bushel of grain which comes into the elevator. 1See U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 178, “Cooperative Organization Business Methods,” for further explanation of the value of trial balances, SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ELEVATORS. 9 RECORD OF GRAIN PURCHASES. The record of grain purchases (Form No. 3, facing p. 20) is a record. of the net bushels and value of the grain purchased, together with storage which has accrued on the grain up to the time of purchase. Both the bushels and value of all grain recorded on this form should be totaled on dates to agree with the totals of the record of grain receipts. Like the record of grain receipts, the record of grain purchases should be totaled monthly. The totals showing the amount purchased for the year are carried to the grain report opposite ‘“‘oross purchased.” The total amount of all checks issued for grain in any month should be carried to the cash, journal, purchase, and sales record and there entered in the “‘ bank withdrawal” column in one amount. The total cost of the various grains is then carried to the debit of the “grain accounts” in the ‘‘general ledger”? column of the same form, this constitutmg a consolidated cash entry for all the transactions in grain purchases for the month. Where storage charges are represented, they should be credited to the “storage account”? in the “‘general ledger’ column, and in such cases the cost of grain should equal the amount of the check plus the storage charges, because the storage charges are deducted from the grain cost in order to arrive at the amount of the check. RECORD OF GRAIN SHIPMENTS AND SALES. The record of grain shipments and sales (Form No. 4, facing p. 20) carries a record of all cars shipped and the net returns from each shipment. The proceeds from each variety of graim should be totaled and posted at the end of the month to the credit of “‘grain accounts” in the general ledger. The items in the ‘‘net proceeds” column should be posted to the debit of the grain commission accounts represented in the “‘shipped to” column. The monthly totals of bushels from this form should be carried to the grain report opposite “shipments and sales this period.’”’ In the operation of this form it will be found that some of the shipments for any month will be still standing out as grain in transit at the end of the month. In beginning a new month, the 1st of April, for instance, it would be necessary to make an entry for the month of March as follows: “Total March returns on February shipments”; opposite this would be set down in total the net returns of all February ship- ments: which had been received during March. In order to avoid confusion, however, reference should be made to February entries for posting to the individual ‘“‘commission accounts.” By this method the total returns on all grain will have been posted to the proper “‘commission accounts” by individual postings. Although we post only totals to the credit of the ‘grain accounts,” the total receipts on each kind of grain shipped during the previous month 89896°—Bull. 236—15——2 10 BULLETIN 236, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and returned during the current month can be added in with the March shipments and returns in order to arrive at the total amount of returns for the month of March. This same method will apply if a car shipped in February should not bring returns until April, as the February entry would show that the car was still standing out through the month of March. RECORD OF HEDGES. A record of hedges (Form No. 5; see p. 21) is essential to the proper hedging of grain, and this account should be kept up to date. On this form columns have been provided giving all the necessary information for keeping the accounting record of grain hedges. Profit or loss on hedges should be posted to the general ledger to the debit or credit of the ‘‘commission account’ represented and to the debit or credit of ‘‘profit and loss on hedges,” as the case may be. It may be considered that any profit or loss on hedging could as properly be charged or credited to the grain against which it applies, but, as it is important to know just how much the hedging of grain costs, 1t is much better to carry a “‘ profit and loss on hedges” account until the end of the year, when this account may be written off to the several grain accounts if desired. RECORD OF SALES TO ARRIVE. Under the description of the system (p. 6) will be found sufficient information regarding this form (Form No. 6; see p. 21), for, as it is only an auxiliary record for memorandum use, it has very little to do with the operation of the system. PATRONAGE LEDGER. At convenient periods during the year reference should be made to the grain checks and to the sales tickets, and the amount of merchandise recorded thereon, both in purchases and sales, should be posted to the patronage ledger (Form No. 7; see p. 22), under the account of the customer with whom the transaction was held. It is essential only that this material be compiled by the end of the year, so that proper reference may be made to it as the basis for paying patronage dividends. Each customer’s account is totaled and the rate of dividend per bushel or per pound is entered in the upper right-hand corner. Using this ledger as a basis, checks for the amount to which each customer is entitled can be made out, and dividends distributed accordingly. GRAIN REPORT. The grain report (Form No. 8; see p. 23) is designed to keep the manager and directorate in close touch with the condition of their grain stock at the end of any month, or, in fact, at any time at which additions of the various entries on the grain forms may be made. SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ELEVATORS. 11 Assuming that an elevator starts its current year with a certain balance of grain on hand, as shown by the inventory, at the end of the first month, by adding “‘receipts this period” to ‘balance last report,” the result will be ‘‘gross on hand.’ By deducting from this the ‘‘shipments and sales this period,” the difference will be the “net grain stock on hand.’’ It is always important for a manager to know whether the grain which he has on hand belongs to the elevator in whole or in part, or is partly or entirely stored grain. By subtracting the gross amount of bushels of grain purchased from the gross receipts the total amount stored at date will be shown. Should this be greater than the net on hand, it will indicate that some grain which has been stored has been sold without being pur- chased from the owner of the grain—in other words, that there has been an amount of stored grain sold. Should the total stored at date be less than the net on hand, then the difference between the two would be the amount of purchased grain on hand. MERCHANDISE REPORT. The merchandise report (Form No. 8; see p. 23) serves merely as an inventory, giving the total on hand at the last inventory, purchases, sales, and net on hand, which should agree, allowing for proper deductions or additions, with the actual inventory. CASH, JOURNAL, PURCHASE, AND SALES RECORD. The cash, journal, purchase, and sales record (Form No. 1, facing p. 20) differs from ordinary books of first entry in that both the debit and credit entries, which are to be posted later to the ledger, are of necessity entered on this form before it can be balanced. The debit columns of this form are designated as follows: Date. Folio. Cash. Bank deposits. General ledger. Accounts receivable ledger. Hard coal (lbs. ...., amount ....). Soft coal (Ibs. ...., amount ....). There are also provided four columns in blank which may be used to suit the convenience and requirements of the individual elevator. The credit columns comprise the following: Check number. Folio. Bank withdrawals. General ledger. Accounts receivable ledger. Sales ticket number. Hard coal (Ibs. ...., amount ___.). Soft coal (Ibs. ...., amount ___.). Miscellaneous grain (Ibs. _..., amount __-.). 12 BULLETIN 236, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. There are also blank columns to be used as desired. A column is proyided between the debit and credit sides, marked ‘“Ttems,’”’ in which are written all items and an explanation of them. Desir COLUMNS. CASH. In order that an accurate check may be had ‘upon the amount of money received so that an identical amount may be deposited each day, all cash receipts of whatever nature should be entered in the “cash”? column. These entries are footed daily and represent the amount of the deposit and are not carried forward during the month, all deposits being set down in the “bank deposits” column as the deposit is made. BANK DEPOSITS. In some instances where drafts are drawn directly against com- mission companies by the bank the money is not received at the elevator, and in such cases the deposit of drafts may be made directly into the “‘bank deposits” column. In this way the “bank deposits” column would include the total receipts at the elevator plus all receipts of drafts at the bank, and the total of this column carried forward during the month should equal the sum of the deposits in the bank pass book. GENERAL LEDGER. The ‘‘general ledger”? column is provided for entry of all items to accounts in the general ledger for which no special columns are pro- vided, and postings should be made in detail from this column to accounts in the general ledger. ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE LEDGER. The accounts receivable ledger carries items for all local accounts receivable, and items in this column are posted in detail to accounts in the accounts receivable ledger. PURCHASES. Under the heading ‘‘Purchases”’ will be found columns designated ‘hard coal,” “‘soft coal,” ete., in pounds and amounts. All purchases of merchandise of this character are entered in their proper columns under this heading, and the totals only are posted at the end of the month to their respective accounts in the general ledger. CREDIT COLUMNS. The ‘‘check number” column accommodates the numbers of all checks drawn for expense and general accounts other than grain checks. The ‘bank withdrawals’? column records the amounts of these checks. In this column is also entered the total of the grain SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ELEVATORS. 13 checks drawn during the month. The ‘‘general ledger” and “ac- counts receivable”? columns serve the same purposes on the credit as were explained on the debit side. LOCAL SALES. As all the sales tickets are numbered consecutively, their numbers are listed in the ‘“‘sales number” column, and the merchandise in pounds and amount is entered in the proper column to the credit of the account to which it belongs, such as “‘hard coal,” ‘‘soft coal,’ “flour,” etc. These columns are totaled at the end of the month and the totals only are posted to the accounts in the general ledger. Only the items which are posted from the general ledger, accounts receivable ledger, and the miscellaneous columns are listed in detail, all other columns, both debit and credit, bemg posted as totals. At the be- ginning of the month the first entry to be made on this form is “cash balance,” and this should be set down in the ‘‘bank deposit”? column as an amount carried forward. Because of the fact that every debit has a corresponding credit, the two sides of this form should always be in balance, but the fact that we have carried forward the cash bal- ance, which appears on one side only, must be taken into considera- tion. In order that the form should foot and prove correctly, it should always be out of balance by the exact. amount of the cash entry at the beginning of the month. THE LEDGER. The ledger should be divided into two general divisions—one car- rying general accounts and the other accounts receivable—and may be designated under the headings ‘‘ General ledger’”’ and “Accounts receiy- able ledger.’”’ In the general ledger will be found such accounts as: (1) Cash, which is the monthly balance as shown by the cashbook; (2) “accounts receivable control” account, to which are posted debit and credit totals in the ‘‘accounts receivable” columns in the cash, journal, purchase, and sales record, the individual items having been posted previously to the accounts receivable ledger. This account serves as a proof of the correctness of such individual postings. (3) Bills receivable, including all promissory notes, time notes, bills of exchange, or acceptances receivable. It has been the practice in some elevator accounting systems to show a subdivision of expense in the journal, but the small number of items of this character is much better taken care of through a subdivision of the ledger accounts. An ordinary ledger page may be ruled by the bookkeeper into seyen or eight columns, and, as entries to expense in most cases are debit items, no credit columns need be provided. When credits occur they should be posted in red 14 BULLETIN 236, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ink and deducted in the addition of the items in the column. The several columns of the expense account may be headed “‘Salaries;” “Telephone, telegraph, and electric light;’”’ ‘Taxes;’”’ “Gasoline;’’ “‘Repairs;’’ and “ Miscellaneous,”’ or similar headings suitable to the nature of the expenses incurred. An account should be provided showing the capital stock outstand- ing or the portion of the net capital which is used or is available for the working of the business. Separate accounts should be opened for each kind of grain handled, showing the amount and value of grain purchased on the debit, and the amount and value of grain sold on the credit. At the end of the year, by crediting these accounts with the inventory of the kind of erain specified, the net profit on each kind of grain may be deter- mined. In the case of local sales of grain, it is advisable to open separate accounts so that a clear record may be kept of the amount of grain sold locally, as well as in car lots. These local sales accounts should be closed into the general grain accounts at the end of the year. During the course of a shipping season a considerable number of claims will arise against railroads for losses of grain in transit. Two accounts should be opened to accommodate this condition: A debit account—claims against railroads for leakage in transit, and a credit account—loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit. These accounts operate after the following manner: When a car is reported short a certain number of bushels under that recorded by the elevator’s automatic scale, a charge is put through against the railroad respon- sible in the first-named account, and a corresponding credit is carried to the latter account. When recovery is received by remittance from the railroad company, the company is credited with the amount of the check. If the check does not cover the full amount of the claim, and no further action is to be taken looking toward its collec- tion, then a journal entry for the remainder should be passed, credit- ing the account of the railroad in the claims account and debiting loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit. This latter account constitutes an Income account and may be written off direct to profit and loss; or if the composition of the account is known, the specific items applying to certain kinds of grain may be credited to the grain accounts. The following entries in the cash, journal, purchase, and sales record will serve to illustrate the method of accounting for loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit. When-+the grain is reported lost, the first entry to be made is as follows: Debit Claimsl(B calle Railroad)... csek iss tame ecice e eiyte nee oe OO Credit Loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit ........-.-.....----- 25. 00 After negotiations with the railroad, assume that settlement by an allowance of $15.00 is received by check. Entry would then be SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ELEVATORS. 15 made of the check showing ‘‘Cash debit $15.00,” and ‘“‘B. & M. Railroad credit $15.00.” This leaves a credit of $25 to the account for loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit, and a debit to the railroad of $10. Considering that the transaction has been definitely settled, and that no further recovery can be made, the following journal entry should be passed: Debit Loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit. .........-....- 10.00 Cream eiaumsyS 4% IM. Railroad |: \!:.:. 2aht eee esas tes des Jee 45 10. 00 This simply closes the railroad account, and leaves a balance in the loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit representing the true amount of recovery. THE COST ANALYSIS. The cost analysis (Form No. 15; see p. 30) has been provided to furnish information affecting the unit and relative cost of hand- ling grain and merchandise. The method of operation is as follows: Opposite ‘‘Bushels of grain handled” should be set down, first, the total of all grain taken into the elevator, this amount being ex- tended under the different kinds of grain as shown by the footings of the record of grain receipts, the total grain taken in being 100 per cent. The relative percentage of each kind of grain is then set down opposite the per cent mark under the column designated. On the same line should be added the value of coal and merchandise sales. After taking out an amount which would seem to be sufficient for the selling of merchandise, the different kinds of expense applying generally to all kinds of grain and merchandise, such as salary, in- surance, interest, power, and repairs, are then prorated according to the grain percentages. This amount will be, necessarily, more or less of an estimate, but a manager, by keeping account of the time spent on coal and merchandise sales in the space of a month, can arrive at a fair basis for the division of salaries. Insurance, interest, repairs, and miscellaneous, relating to merchandise, are contained in a few items and can be easily ascertained. Such items as ‘‘Power operating” apply only to grain. ‘‘Corn shelling—direct labor’”’ includes only that labor which has been pro- cured especially for corn shelling, and would not include the mana- ger’s or assistant manager’s time, as their wages are prorated under “Salaries.’”” Car cooperage should be distributed according to the amounts of grain received, except in cases where an account has been kept in the ledger showing the exact amount of cooperage against each kind of grain. After having prorated the different expense items, the addition of these gives the gross expense. Returns from storage and returns from dockage sold are then set down under the kinds of grain which have furnished these returns, and subtracted. Any returns from 16 BULLETIN 236, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cobs sold are subtracted from cob corn. The net expense is then ascertained from these subtractions. The total net expense being 100 per cent, the percentage of net expense of each kind of grain and merchandise will be determined as being the relative percentage of each to the total. The net unit cost of operation is determined by dividing the amount of expense by the number of bushels handled. The net unit cost in this operation would be in terms of cents or decimals of a cent. In the case of sales of coal and other merchandise the net unit cost of operation is repre- sented by a certain percentage, as, for instance, 5 per cent of the gross sales, this percentage being determined by dividing the net expense by the value of goods sold. BALANCING CASH WITH THE BANK. To determine the correctness of the cash transactions for the month the following method will be found simple and adequate: (1) Determine whether the ‘bank deposit”? column agrees with the bank pass book as to individual deposits. Be sure that it is cor- rectly footed. (2) Sort the returned vouchers, arranging them consecutively. Compare them with the entries in the ‘“‘bank withdrawals” column and ascertain which, if any, are missing. List the numbers and amounts of all outstanding checks for the next month’s reference. Outstanding checks may be listed either on an adding-machine tape or by writing them into the cashbook. The difference between the “bank deposits” and ‘‘bank withdrawals” columns, plus the total of outstanding checks, should equal the balance as shown in the bank pass book. No error, however small, should be ignored in balancing cash with the bank. RESERVE ACCOUNTS. RESERVE FOR DEPRECIATION ACCOUNT. In order to show the true condition of the plant a reserve for depreciation account is essential. To this account should be credited annually a certain percentage of the money invested in the plant, and an equal amount should be written off profit and loss.' RESERVE POR BAD DEBTS ACCOUNT. During the operation of a business where credit is given to a large number of customers there is likely to be a loss on account of uncol- lectible debts. This amount may be small one year and large another. For that reason it is well to set aside a sufficient amount of capital from the yearly profits to offset such losses. To effect this, “‘reserve for bad debts” should be credited and ‘‘ profit and loss’’ debited with 1 For further explanation of reserve for depreciation see U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 178, ‘Cooperative Organization Business Methods.”’ SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ELEVATORS. 17 an amount which experience would dictate is sufficient, to take care of the uncollectible debts of the company. While many elevator companies make a practice of furnishing supplies to members and others on credit, all supplies, if possible, should be handled on a strictly cash basis. Any system of extending unprotected credit requires a large capital and often results in con- siderable loss. RESERVE FOR SINKING FUND. In some States, notably South Dakota, where the cooperative law is in operation, a statutory regulation requires that a certain per- centage of the capital invested be set aside each year in a reserve for sinking fund, so that the company will be in a position to retire its capital stock at the end of a given period. Companies operating under such conditions should set up a reserve for sinking fund in accordance with the requirements of their State laws. Where the custom of hedging grain prevails, an account should be opened designated ‘profit and loss on hedging.”’ To this should be debited or credited the losses or gains incident to the hedging of grain, the opposite entry being made to the commission account handling the business. To determine the profit and loss for the year, all income accounts should be credited and all expense accounts debited to this account. When the amount of profit has been ascertained, dividends may be declared and paid, and the remainder transferred to the surplus account. After the books have been closed for the year, any errors discovered affecting the previous year’s business should be entered in the account affected and carried to the opposite side of the surplus account, the profit and loss account being reserved for the current year’s business. The individual needs and the peculiar conditions surrounding elevators in different parts of the United States may require other accounts besides those discussed above, and if such is the case, accounts covering these special requirements may be opened along the same general lines as those previously discussed. The following balance sheet is submitted as a guide in the arrange- ment of assets and liabilities. Other asset and liability accounts may appear on the books of an elevator and in such case should be included. 18 BULLETIN 236, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. STATEMENT. Farmers’ ELEVATOR BALANCE SHEET, YEAR ENDING ....... ASSETS, Cashit eae. ep cotsete ties fi acigse tess +2 aera cra s)-2): oe Bose eee $287. 50 ENCCOMUNTSITECELV ADIOS ce step apenier ee tee. 1 eee hal aac ye ne ae $3, 208. 00 Ibessireserve fortbad) debtssseent 9: ss ebeetatae Se cece ee 400. 00 —_—— 2,808:.00 INotesrecervable. Ha-4 75 Sear eee. Se SS a Se ee ae 325. 00 Plant and real estate. <5. 2:52 eer sani. << seeepioars aes eiceiie ele 9, 500. 00 Wess reserve for depreciation s ==... 4 septs s+ Soh ces ee 1, 300. 00 8, 200. 00 Grain, COMMISSLON aAcCOUMtE Reese wt: 2: | eee Soa Pha Poe eee 860. 00 Inventory: WHI Gait ies work cay ek rk Geen ya nie, pe meats cs taJ! Apne h re ae fe ep Sage 1, 458. 00 Olin SR Senate en ee oe a eee er eee oe ee ee 395. 00 CCEA ores) UA ieee tls Foss et ee ap ch ROVER og Bae ee eh. 536. 00 IRivesiie te 22 LE 1 OE SOE i. 2d SRL STIS a TY 28. 00 Barl eyiseo shits ns oie ee a ee Sie oe Panag peice be eed 106. 50 Vi leido e Cavotzy | aera Spee RA Sieh AS eerie ie Set gee 1) An NE wae A > oe 281. 00 Softee oa les een ecshee cata valerevs yoleve ereid tis epee yar aicie joie santas ow 304. 00 Othermmerchandise- (supplies) = 222 sisi. <.aeleee = ee URCHASE, AND SALES RECOE ural Organization, Grain System Form No. | SS Se Local sales. Items. Flour. | Miscel. grain. ee Amount. | Lbs. Amount. Lbs. Amount. au SS ee | Balance in bank Dec. 1...--------- | we| en ceneee [=a | soceHsadloceasous Biveral| ste ssiete rel Meoreieteretele Sane | James Goodhue.......------------ ellocosseee J5cd||\Gonuscod|sscbenos s/aterel| | Ececetejata rel lhepeye mieten eMave Geeerlel Goodhue)... tu. ba iscocasce Soool|lbSognoodlansosoed feeu| |bonsosse secarens cise Sen (fen Grail VOTO) es a/=)cinjntevejare tial k= =ic=t=l= = sdoq|{]sodcaocd Sabescas siciaiel|layevarciare ayellyate rere LOS Lipsey & Co.—by draft...-.-.----|--|-------- seol|Sosteoddlscscoued SHA boereccc Seascore sacs «6 “¢ _hbalance by check...|--|-------- seee|ieeeeeeeeleeeeeeee seee||-e------)--2----- sos: Illinois Coal Co., car 69851..-.-----| pellaooneupe fad | Balaeepaasasce Eel rece erate fagdvanes ate T.P.& W. Rwy., freight car 96103--|-------- a gogs5uos|sedccnes wie lcfall erajetetetstetal| eopersreraets ise Cash sale—Oats.......------------|--|-------- a 96 NEO oaaasoellacrocenc ghee GG. 06 Conneere eae ea. balleasanogo a 280 SHI OO} eae See eeos She Cee MCC “HOUT 8 cic are nerd Sicias sass 0 0) Beene ee Soseceen Seca heaceson re asecaes 5 G06) COD ssasccacousonodnedpalesoLeese spall esl) SEINOOM Sa eees mee eee «12 || Bruno & Co., letterheads.....---- Boeeecocas Bees | seceetes Penceree FecE eeeeee esate aay Lanes ke 13 || James Goodhue on %—Check...-.- Ki eqooesee Sond ||Gosesecd soeacnos Scie lore eee eer Baie (© 15 || G. J. Ivan, advance....----------- jp -|-------- Se | Seeeeeee Some slate Giere strove lemme wscte bas « 21 || Lehigh Coal Co., car 8693......---- jni=|o nc ennee seee||--- 2-22 eee eee eee scien | lissmiae bere leerelsiets gine i 25 || R. A. Smith, repairs and cooperage- -|-------- seee||-ee ee eee le sree eee Se | er oo --2° « 29 || J. C. Nicholson, Dec. salary......--- teeter See Se ee | See eo so? M BON 5 1D delanonoal US GG Ree ballaseosose scdalllseposesallseacdccd pSeulleeee ace te eee ss “31 || Totalgrain checks, Dec....-....-----|-------- sel Soccsscaloqoeooca|loocallsotaspoceqnoacce “ areas WW bans GA soscadecesocoossuces sao 2ec5eslasoelllsoscpace|lescosecs|oscalllsacaaata|[Cocossoq|soac Pe Se IDURD YA cho odcsadacoodsosed2+||Sececcnolloscell SeScecadlactsabicd||coso|llboneascalloodoadsc|aqac a ereieia te IBOnley Veen nae acini o- een ce’ pcjrtceeeee aciilosodesceissecseca See cemocod os specce ag [canes OOS, coe ast seme a ee a {. anogsooe rete sieisjatel lie microsite Be Sse see | Saemeece aos eeeercas TRY Cl Oe eas eke re rate areca ste: 6 $=|-2----- - Scalllosooconisevosose Seal laaciectoclospeaace nia poseeeee WHO TI Oct cvelsatertesiasseiseeilete= we | sininsisi=)= Eocd|laSbscoosalsoooasas Sei lees see jets averse ae a siehiatae Cop Wes sabeouscoosanoadcons $-|-------- salljasooosenligosceass eee seebre ce learns estate dec. 31 || H. EL. Hankinson & Co. 3:..----4-|-------- | Ree eee | ame eres cee NG a eee To profit on hedges.....-.---- [ Seereeae Shoalflscashasa|tocooass eS || Meese toneoricn Bae ee “ 31 || Lipsey & Co., drafts......-.----- Hae Bele ee See ered laececee mececoee coe me |... Peiecotingsil: a) sl eae 5 8|00|| 656 7laeo |e ee eae ae : eous columns posted to their various accour CASH, JOURNAL, PURCHASE, AND SALES RECORD. Office of Markets and Rural Organization, Grain System Form No. 1. —_——— Purchases. Local sales. Flour. Soft coal. Hard coal. eAcvountss ae ete: Cash. Folio. || Date. Ttems. Onna Folio. win (aoe l saguounts) pale Hard coal. Soft coal. Flour. Miscel. grain. = | Lbs. | Amount. |} Lbs. | Amomt. Lbs. | Amount. Lbs. | Amount. || Lbs. | Amount. |} Lbs. | Amount. || Lbs. | Amount. || Lbs. | Amount, | 1914. SON, HO JRO UIA IDR, Sores ecoon 22 30¢e4)| pees ce4||ecoosecd| |looceoced| pond Foe zasec|lamac|[besesacel pe en||loesel| heececod feeece cod Reed bbecemcne|lsecosced| leer e||[---.-- -Ee Meee Heeler er clerical ale 2 a FSU CD Classe oscscbesccecesann6od | ososeor|||ccasceed|loscosacedlencd bessance| acd |Rasccecelec~-I|| HOI) BYU — VAG oesese| beecorel eece|||4-o.5-- BH Peed Kee emcee ell acserces Pe sc lh Oe SE =e Kf HO) CES TAO (EWU) oe. conc ceocnoscoeed|ronccecd|||-coccocel| fsseccoad|:sod|bosecsee|sceclhocoesedbead|| M7) EON GIG Mecceno eee soeod beecl leo <- El Peeeeeee J = oo| Ree | ee eee: aes rotten eel fs Cb DMO) oe nccannoeconses : vdeazoed ee eel lease Senile ae fe OQ) SGA COCO CRY Piscccoceeacseoccd |bocbeacd|boasesos|| Basosses| bend | FHCHDIND) || ace ocad Bese |-cccel lbssenmed batatacd Bese |[beacccéd encased SCE OSC a BPE esse] come ced sac cocoe| bincallesececedllocensesdeses ef fe OS ST! WANT conned \eseescod |[poseercd | hoseeoed ooo 236 | 10 ||.-...-.- socf{lsccee||seoccoed boscseed Sq | peceseod Seecoocd 6¢]|5o<.>--< Bl Reet al|s-occece sonccces cod] beosossel|sescocce Bcc Bonccea Us 3 || Illinois Coal Co., car 69851.-....------- HD Wc-acene CLO) Ree nemer hoc booocesd Beoc|| bones |oeocacce| beacacsc|aecr | baceacod soncecas| Sod ||-<.c-- Al BEEBE loooe| loeoaecodbasmecodbeccd heeeccee|Ecceoeeel eter. Spee Foes | Pa s-e ees] paces asl fs osccoced basacone| Be | pseecase| Meaeased seed |bas-o cae (t\\ OI eecacoad cosnec=c} peeoocod(osod||-coSaeee|seoe|socacod|ocd||Seasccodlescd|esccoccd| $2 4b 1) SADIE Go 1G TOS TNE Coe TDD ccc LOL Semen (87 || 2D | om o54 send] |soossesa|[o25||[oo=scq|bsoceecd|foanesese BA Seo eee eccooad paca |o-o<- Ae Aare moc | cocdesod boocomee eee Thcocassslscaccncel eco tteeeeeees|sreenenelenee |: pronase Bro) hee sosesee| boaesosd Seda | Kaesecce| posdonse||:c64|||-s002caqpeocses| bood|||sco5ocad|boooncod bose hoteacodfoed|lbcosocsd| hood] banosecd|soor HN ED ooncacod|| Bl) Gath SALOU Been oscoccesccsacceceesed|bocoscea|] boocesed|| bascacodbood|loccesood eeecosaeecc||| JER) lec soconocd pecscece| pemcacée|eaod|-cacc: Bd BEEBEEed bos 96 1) 80)||eeseen eal hecmesee| see seeeeee ie Seeeseacee|pracaced sora |banscese| saeco] soos] |bsoce dee poccoee hood] |besocodel Hencedod [seand|| bocoseed| soe loacocodl ceq||pcoseced bend! |) CDN onascead we 9 Ce U3 OWiDerccoacssoncsecieacsesed |]bo05eesc | lbcosésaq||koacssos Scooscedsso4||[sossoces {|| 28D Nacoasec4poosesed [eed esesesedpcosscodfosce|lsccc. by Bepeemcd ber 280 BO Woe sored occoced|eec Soy besosesead||ss5So00¢ Bee| | bescaace naaoesos onl | Reemtes -.|Sos.canng B34) | ecncoa| baseless Beallboseecee =el|Pecoces we || setsarecete Sl] WO ecenacse (ss 9 Wh Ut DNDN Pecsconcacsasoceecascad|pooceted| bosacead|bsnconsd Pe || ees off lscocoone 5 HEE Io so cad beonacos cad|loocanscs|l-oosacnc] <= 200 CH] 10) lecoscemaflece esas Hoe||proosaesdieconcees e See PEOAS) h-sceeic| bood| Ppceaiasd sescecs 4 baec|| boococae Beapane | Bascioco HonacGad Sood | baoscosd pece| Paacased 15 | 20 8 uy Hooesccice) | imnns 9 OGG (QifPossocceaccomosescassacad |josogcace |hossscoq|bosceaad|ssoq||asecaccq|bcod|lesacnoad | HE? Nococcosd bosecsed||coo||ssosascdlocorcacd 4 lace>>004 peaeened 280 BY GO hoeseseclfo- ceccee| ses eaeoeeocee| beenctodbcod|ececace|beasesed 5 25>|| Eoosacke| baaocac| sac | haseatod bacescad band |noososec|asec ON (AO W\eecmemcelfocod eo Be re --------|) ‘ 12 || Bruno & Co., letterheads..........-.-- 103 |)...---:- HO) AD W\ocacecer||esecl||jzocsocud C08 =4 | Posseese Seesered Seer |peeeeese Sr rosele| Poe |hococ- a4 BESEmene seme |eeeeeeed leccsedd eed |Moeccene eeeeesse bas sttteeneea|enennene 1.1] ae eagles Zeneca oleae eee Be one) bent see] B52 | eo. il BSAC Bete | cerca Sere) Meee | emer) [Deane | es ane ay 40 || C8) \eccesosdbocd|lecesose|| YS 7611) aemnes CMadiie OP GZ GIT i moceosnd||ps0nSs04|||eccosned|besecsedbcos|lononesed|onad BO N00 | oacced|boesesoq boge5S2q [otSq]||se0osa2alloocoescel|sc0q]!loc50° cBe Bepeeooe SAEs Seeenens Shhh | Petnnnnn bnrnnnrn] bees Nc oeet all eel a eae Al baasosad bosaoced| 504||beac=ceH peacean 254 | basoaase Baeesonn oo8 109) \\ CO \econocee Baca |peeecead Been | Beaceaae Bone Baccaae (G5 \|| C4 dh HOE, CORT mo woecsescansoncd 10 Wsosncee 100 | 00\|......-.].-..||...---.- 2e||lsoace]|[ecocacedbecossos ecellleoooseed|sseccce| B | boe > Be BRBeeeee Boed | eseceeoe Becesele leac | Sasenced lSSeoeree learn Se Sees | eee 5o4| Raccocer| scacoced seecl booosase Hacsaot 4 besa | ee ee) HADEN Bseoecelissoa | Bocesese Beod | Rocosese| ood | boeseane base |eeoeneas «1 || Lehigh Coal Co., car 8693......--------- HOD \\sascssce! HAD (DW eoaesnce] hse |escoased Be Aeis5 | 0252 || RES | Seca me|mananee ee eee so ee || ee |e ....|| 80,460| 163) 60 || 68,600 165 \\60|| 11400 |) 6216 | 6 || 6,961 | 20)|\cccce.[eec\lecescecl|-u--2oss HOOlin Gs) steer ees ee areca 96 || 4,254 | 60 00 656 10) 9 I peceod=cfecccnisee rs 89806°— 9896°—Bull, 236—15. (To face page 20.) No.1. Individual items in general ledger. Accounts receivable and miscellaneous columns posted to their various accounts inledger. Post totals only in all other cases. EIPTS. system ‘Form No. 2. Rye. Dockage. P Roe WalWeeaaaae oot Net. DSR eerers| lPeiease 2 Sao8dbed||oace 50 |..- ——~hg provided if necessary. Flayhelled corn. ainiaia leh) = [mjaie Grade 4. Grade 5. 823¢) 40 2,078 | 00 Se Grade 6. weceecee eee sew eeeee -- eect eee -|-- = -||-- cc eeee cece weccceeslecce RECORD OF GRAIN RECEIPTS. Office of Markets and Rural Organization, Grain System Form No. 2. ] Wheat. Durum. Barley. Oats. Rye. Plax. Corn on cob. Shelled corn. | Storage || Paid by Date. || ticket || check Se No. No. Gross. Dockage. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. Reject. Gross. Dockage. Net. Net. Net. Gross. Dockage. Net. Gross. Dockage. Net. Grade. Grade. Grade 1. Grade 2. Grade 3. Grade 4. Grade 5. Grade 6 | ye 100 }.- 9 eso 98 llocedocce! ncd|eosacsaq boo lllbecoased|sdeq|locoscnce E264] bsocoaedfene 60 |..- 6 |...- {19 | bem boaGeced 564 || |bocogeed =<'4]||oscacqa¢ bond |lasesceed bso |eoceoasd|| ed | paseecod booed |beSnosod feed ashoone boon 2,689 | 00 745 | 00 883 | 00 24 | 60 182 | 20 166} 00 || 200 | 10 309 |)40 |lbvessse ....|] 405 | 60 9 | 00 396 | 50 554 | 4h 498 | 10 160 | 00 Totals carried to the Grain Report. If desired, additional grades under “ Wheat” can be included, extra columns being provided if necessary. All items carried in bushels. fractional bushels in pounds. 89896°—Bull. 236—15. (To face page 20.) No.2. Grade. Grade 2. Gradé epee Evasd ao (aept |) GF Weesoaae BS Heaceey salty. 5° eas WAP Wee cee noes ca Cal Nee | SSeeeaae 4 145, rai = cyalal|leiseve S605 | 2 e || Seeeree we ee 2,689 | 00 146 ed in bushels, fractional bushels in pc Proceeds. ing provided if necessary. 21 RECORD OF GRAIN PURCHASES. Office of Markets and Rural Organization, Grain System Form No. 3. §9890°—Buill, 236—15, (To face page 20.) No. 3. gicreen Wheat. Durum. Darley. Oats. Rye. Flax. Corn on cob. Shelled corn. Date, |) Cheek || “ticxet |] Price, |) Amount. No. No. No. 1 No. 2. No. 3. No.4 Reject. Storage. Cost. Net. Storage. Cost Net. Storage. Cost. Net. Storage. Cost. Net. Storage. Cost. Net. Storage. Cost. Grade, Grade. Cost. Grade. Grado 2. Grade 3. Grade 4. Grado. Grade. Cost. | 5 O14. aad 03 os7 || or || 83.46 ||....-.-- bso Beer Bod psecccecd cell bossencr| bea beseeeer - E46 | eee | hemes ave calle eee Sos | epee] (ee | suse! 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Be] | Ga853 4c] has | Bascones 654] |BecessoS SA8|Hecosece) =-||--------]----|]--- == 2 |---|] = 2 ffm wn afm nn aden nnn fen n nine nn nnn [anaatfnnnenanetoene|inneanawajmawallanansanelensaljanccencalennaljaacnenaalona-|[aenaennalnnwallecuncawalesnul|naaccnaelacna|[nneecennleeee|[enaneene Liss boeacc | bse |e “4 608 095 1.00) 101.00 ||........]....]]........ 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C/A) Cia) Beeeeeee| peed | Peeeesee bead | peeeceee Reed | heme ee Oo | esses SC | SSS) ey | eee Eee | ee | ed OG) | eee! oie bebe! bed | bie bebo | PSE! bee! | aed Bike | Cee Deke Beek Cd CSCO Oke | Coe ee Coed CoS oeood Gene | ieee eens Benn Depennen Donel | hocmnnen Bees | Peenenen Nleed | ener nr S 5) 616 1014 69 6:2 BEBE See Bee | Rese eee] eee | PEBBERSe Bee | beeeeeee bees |Bececcese heed | Peescoed Beta] Reecone leek | pooecood becd | cococod eed | GeoGn nen bob | Bone eene Pent |Geeennond bone 663))/38)||........|0..2||).. 22.2. rel eeconod peer] |becemecd tos $88 | 85 “40 BIT 1016 69 B79F80 || vaconeac| vee ||Seeeatene |e ft ---<-<4|-cellemereuen 34| boosecsd koa |bacacoo4 coel| pe sconce 62) |boosceec| acd | Besescod Bene | BeSSeeee Bond | Remcenne! bend | Renannee Boer PT WE SRS pieced bose | bsceeeer| bend | Hone enor fe0 873 | 20 ui 26 618 1016 08 UCU) Beepeeed pose | Boeeecae| hoc | Peseeeee Bet | Seen Peed | been eenes wo|[------- Soo ooo peed GOSeoood Good | Dooce Reed | poSeoood Boba | Gooner sefjercere ee BO | se eee | Se ae | SS | OY ord a | | ed | Oe | ee Be | Oke Geld God | eee od Cote | Geccrnon been Gott nenn been! 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X=Carried to grain report. If desired, additional grades under ‘‘wheat”’ can be included, extra columns being provided if necessary. All items carriod in bushels, fractional bushels in pounds. RECORD OF GRAIN SHIPMENTS AND SALES. Office of Markets and Rural Organization, Grain System Form No. 4. Wheat. Durum. Barley. Oats. Rye. Plax. Shelled corn, ., Date Net t Dato, Shipped to— CarNo. |] Weight. |] 2y2 |] Price. |! procecds, || Folio. — Gross. Dkg. No. 1 No. 2. No. 3. Proceeds. Gross. Dkg. Net. Proceeds. Tet. Proceeds. Proceeds. Proceeds. Gross. Dkg. Net Proceeds. Grade. Grade 2. Grade, Grade. Grade Grade. Proceeds 191}. N.P. | Dee. f' | WipaeyidsCo.ccveve.t-scecacccereneees 0912 1,800 ||| Dec Lor || LeCQ NI Ly RAS | 251) Gy 1 eT BL0) ee eS a nec A naa aman emai aaa||| aot |leell panna aii oou||eanmamns | pais pomcnce eel | posed Bees | pene peers “ t TP. W. 6 ( Whe eee ua ee ee 9050 ; 150) || immer a || eee || Ae | (601) (Ra Zone || CA SES | LO =o a eg a | aan ce || aac || ee || cea | ipa | ll i ted | tet bee | poorer beets BGI ett It cease. ae een 1,080 eA ----|] 1,304 = on cod | poscoseed hace t Penn. i “$l ) Dalrymple Grain Co.........-.e-2e-0-+ 1526 F610) open | becca bones Bead | poco ced | Feecened hore cecescnd Pred | eeecond poo9 eons Roc |Paseseo ass peSecias oi bias so eo ca) (nS (aoc a ae |Peseeses| econ p ceccoe' hoo ||) cocecod pac peceScia Pocel| Race ariel PaaS oS 268 Set aS 25) BESS BSR 6 CE Pa eS Bag | See Sie TESS CS CCS eC | ccm RA Bea aco CC LORY Lee ooo Be Ro ee Soe ec faa Croco -ccoecon Bocce 8 <|| -cccicbod peed prencecd boc ug 7, (Bre eG RT a OT a 0 a Pee) (eer | eee Be eee | Pema ene | | 80 | Beach Wickem Grain Co.....-..------- 9994 50) || orci tint Ol || rer? 2a | meee | S01) yam | ccm eee ence || [ca | | ana | a am | || | ota || casi Rae || Vana (Pam maces sal ass mmm I eal eens ems a mts wil ees sss aca ea eacee Fae cce | ea | me" | | Soe | eens Boe 826) 90 Not proceeds to be debited to dealers, Amount of bushels to be carried to grain report. ‘and proceeds of each variety of grain to De credited to grain accounts in general ledger, posting to be made direct. If desired, additional grades under “Wheat” can be included, extra columns being provided if necessary. All items carried in bushels, fractional bushels in pounds. 21 SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ELEVATORS. =H OZIF = O1Ssta a\\er 96 ” &@ ” — | o¢s‘T ||">-9698 ‘M ‘dL OTe te Nit Or | “wor || £ ‘une || — | o0e‘T |l"-@979 “M ds “GI6T “GIG6T “Dub -09T “09 UIDLyY “oy wniuald || —009‘T || 8 08 | “9q,\| 18 | “9d || — | 009'T ||"-9896 Md 'L || MaxmM Yyovag || 7 “ALsgag || g¢ vA ~-uloa7aX || — | 000‘¢ || ¢r°2q == 9012 OES NS &@ ” 1é ” NOS orem | marcmenmens 2968 °¥ ‘obpny9 SOFT ote 8 ar |. 22d || 8 EXOR | \EGiG ATE Pee ee erg96 “V || 00 sp fhasdrq || of “uve || 79 g ~usoa" A || — | 000'S || 1 2G TI6T TIGT “OI6T TIGL “qYSIOM || “opeis , : : 5 Rae poateoed peddrys JUSIOM cari 34 9yep ‘ o 9 : : sewed c= sae Te oyeT oxeq sieddtyg pordde sieg 01 plog AAPOR eo || “epely put louse a18q ® ‘9 ‘ON WHO U1d}SAg URI ‘MOL}VZIURSIO [VINY puR SjeyxIey_ JO soo “AAIMUVY OL SHTVS AO CHOOT seesenl (enay- alos spew <|CSarecwpe alee ose] accesses [Ras 5 | [eae Negi eee la i aa sor «a & «|| wosunywD FT « ||| 000°6 || 66 09d “0G°81 ‘wos caduihs : -unyjuneT ld || TEE |" pus || > hop “Md ||" -sidw \\"| oo0‘r || 9r-90@ || Fe || 09 | Ei} GOL ||" 7um gy \\-- hop | 09 WO‘ ||" sid ||--| 000‘T 2 at ‘OO || “PUL ||" WIWOP || 07 plog||JoIey_)| “sjeysng |) -o7eq || Oro IO ‘Iq || ‘eortg || “‘puUrs || UITOW |} “Woy yYsnog |\yoxrTePL || “Sjoysng || “eyed “SYIVUIEY *pjos sem jn *$70M099B *g 2 *g “‘qysnoq seimyniy ‘CON WO Moyshy UIeLy ‘MONezZIULSIO [eMY pus sjoyIeP JO WO ‘SHDGdH HO GxOORA +4, BULLETIN 236, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 99 “ured 69 98 OV 19 el Bn Ease ae | pe gig. [reece eee |feee [rece Sects bees tee | rik wR OFS 66:9 18 gale COT, yan es || nae | anaes ih, ||) eee ese fehl ane OBB EAT? =P | |e aimee SOPs At || rae ean eee | area pare a 3 SESH eeaeoteal ol | ¥@ leur |caseae DG Stat tae wi 2a cera | ener | aia ra Phe 1 | eapbasey sess | fac ceenl || nae irc a or | YT OO Te ora a |Seureeteurs co Nana | eee =r |e a > lie eas | eae Oa 08 | éf 8 EAR IER S| (ek ah aac Nee | ite EAE age ne ary le eeseetcn | (Mea bor ae 09 | 76 I8T Pe SEIS PNT TN |e | ash | ra “MOLL eat ae ‘ON Soleg Ee “UIO(Z) “XBW “SOSBIpOIN ‘qy wad $7 ‘oyeay “nq sod $9 ‘oyey "LON WOT We}SAF ULVIH WOTRZTULTIO [BINYT PUB SOY, JO OOO ‘MadOGAT LOIVNOULVd *S}2O “soles OL | 98 OL | 986 AoWvel WANG "ROU AL ou ‘anypooyy sane :aWWENy es oO . (ON Ne | a ea | rau | al Kaa | ane [fe ened [eRe POP (OC) ae SSR I ioccossedl|(polococod|aqucmgens hea | oan eal So Pte | Re Sebt aaereo ua puey 0 40N 5 eat PARSER SSS RIESE LISELI im) Sia ice eS SP ens oD SINS at ESI Seca | | met ene | [ta | al | | cere | | ta | ie || ead a fermen || peaks eet cae tle) sere pe ee Cs as ee ee S9[BQ fe Be BESeSe BeeeSeeoe | |e Beare | BSeee eee |e Genmes | eeeeeoe |b] eoemee || sostesoeey feel eeecce |e seooee jfaqeece [spas Sco |laal[ac ol fasecceccel)fod|scosco]fssos seas] watocicoad soocmGo REG io) e101, EF ai SES RESETS ae SE ee SS ES La Seah gy tigee a [le il, koe al| | een ao ay onary | ea ec | i rem | al aa || eile Fe Tae age me ekae | So | aaa | aac acai laa cea od cacao SoseyoimM q a Cpe eaareaaebabe | ell betel | denen | eal mae | eeereel | feels ear Scsiec|recsel|irsse esr se pl tgeaiata |Gmaeee alee coal ss eco “AIOJUOAUTL ASV] puvy UO | | ey ‘ante |gunoury|| ‘onyeA ||"yunouy|| ‘onyeA ||/"yUNoUry)| ‘onyeA ||"yuUnouTY | ‘on{eVA ||"JUNOUTY|| ‘on[eA ||JUNOUTy]| “enTeA |/"JunouTy|| ‘enje,A || yUnOoULy > ke | 3 *S|SOq “pao “Moy *[e00 JOS [R00 prey a al es “LYOdda ASIGNVHOUAN S *plOS UIvIS PolOJS SUIYLOIPUL ‘pULY, WO Jou peddK9 TININp pure LET pe10JS— ALON oN | | ES semilocal | tll mci I Feed | (oa bea ce GT Ga | (Pal ea S86 da\iealh 7 AGet || |e IT's ||" “9FBP 4B por0ys yeqO, : el ieeees CEA eal taal aces eel cg oF aes 86 ai lialierae Tp aes callin aaa ir mata lay lPaeke 2 3 tae bial ey et COLORS ea eatin peseqoand ssozp) Si fe ae CCAD: TOA Wade Ss | Viaiiece| al eh gt aes ae SUS eas SHECE MA Willa 2 Se UE erp Uspolye— |Popreree S80) (5) eetaare a puvy WO ssory eee pe CITED. CANES Fao | fees ae acl basics 7 eee | lak SS Meals 6 S67 Gr et el rae AG aeolian BES) 70 | Gali apa Vi We puvy WO JON, EA $7 FO IRE IO Sa ete gee ae ae aa |e ba || (Dae te ee OF aCe Fae ell pars eee eee tos HOSE eaeences le7‘e ||" "seyes pues syueurdryg al ‘ eal ae: HEELS Ill Fare hee ea |e Pe of ‘ig hae Sa STG. || aaa 67g ot alam as VE) ONE ese UG rTices| (alleen 8955 ||emiatiens puey WO sory) S 25 ecieae CHIE ae ee eens a | fe ba oF aes pes Bor | esess Blin Molina a geteall\s [pata Se LOS Ehlers 898 “"7“porred srqy sydreoexy =4 } 3 Shee elle elles | cee | Ge Pilate | aba ee [ieee CS Tee] nage Ooh pale 2 Ge ea || Sian NO08T alls lee 5 | a qrodor 4svl ooueye ) e| ‘OnVA | SPysng || “enyeA |) "sjoysng)| ‘onye, ||'speysng || “ened ||sjeysng |) “ene |/sfeysng |) “enyeA |/speysng |; “enyeA ||speysng |) “ented |/speusng | al jo) “M100 peTjeys *q0o WO 1109 “XULL OA “S]vO “hoped meoqannavas “yeoT AA. = * BI “LL: Sarees oie tga aed @ "8 ‘ON ULI0OT WeySAg UTeIH ‘MOTeZIURSIO [eINY pues SJoxIV JO voyFZO n “LdOdda NIVAD BULLETIN 236, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 24 sopnpour yaodod sry, || . 4800 ; “sjeysnq ‘opeis “yooyo Jo |) “zaquinu “19 qUUNU : . : : apeid ‘requinu || . ope || ayer ort. y@N || pue pury |) qunoury || yoxon, yoo eee JON || “e8BHIOT || “SSID || pue pury || 4exoNL Ae ‘sosvyoind ure1y *szdreoed URI preery ws pance tee eo Olesr asa ae aan 2 Ul OL eGh Dias er eta sro ee ICs SIS OG Say Ae neces “LUOddu SAAOVNVAL “6 ‘ON UWIIO,T WAISAY UIBLD “WOT}EZTUBSIO [BINA PUL SJOyIBP JO CoMFO "ANVdNOO YOLVAGIA AALLVYAAOOD SUANAVA OL ON WO Woyskg ureIy ‘UOTVZTUVTIO [VINY PUB SJOxILPY JO 9WO “MOGHO NIVHD Non) N wa a Oo HH < > oa 4 ca A - - Bee eB Seg Ss 0 NE ee Sp Rena s 10 A : git ns a “wabpunyy Ay Ge ee ee ee ee ee ee te ee ee ee eee eee 2. fe) Se er no Sk DS et ee ay ep Re a eg SO ge Rr gS AS en mr | | ee | cee yoyo Jo yUNoULy wp “Wooo pe}eyS SB SUOTJONpep oy} 0} Joolqns ‘UTeAS Jo onTVA [[NJAofueatS sr yooyostyy, | | | | JO OU ere tl e = “yunouLry —jo "ng P 00r BiemesrefOd es sis en a ele a re eet ere fbi Jae ee eee fe : © Se ont Ss (9, O DiGi a aide iat a eDiets ait SCOOT Acorn ack OA Sabor Ora 7.od oh om QcoeS JO Jopr0 oy} 07 Avg pbecege no ONE E a a et --aeace ee eR arerene Sete ee Gree oo oo A 2) fe) ie) oO = aca io} iz & isu oI 1 2) 26 BULLETIN 236, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WAREHOUSE SCALE TICKET. Office of Markets and Rural Organization, Grain System Form No. 11. This ticket is not a storage ticket and is not negotiable. Is must be exchanged on day of issue for a lawful storage ticket or cash check. OWT eee erie octane me oe etinele seein adhe cen seen oe VDE GS) Best oe HS ee ee mee apy Qinis Fee te ee Oli. Sea eee HOA GLO RAR sae esate cote Mlle Pec ee e o o aoe aL See Graldiomeips eer es Sage eee ae Dockage:Lbs..>.).;-8.. 3.2 eee SHENG SS ep bab SRB Habre BES EES DameEE Meanepemecrmera ss oSscs5sc0>- Agent Exchanged for Check No. ......--.---- , Storage Ticket Nos ..-2-2-.2- POUNDS. BUSHELS. Gross. Tare. Net. Gross. Dockage. Net. oll SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ELEVATORS. “poyENIIS SI 107VAITe OY} POTYA UT o}eIg oY} UT SMe, Aq popraosd sv UTLIT Jo OSvIO}S SuTIOIYe SMOL}TPUOO oY} PUL OBLIOJS JO SojVI OY} PoyUTId oq P[NOYS UTIO}F STI} JO YoVq oy} UO SEO OD IOS ICIS RSD ESET Case or eo Fie og cL Fey igs (0 | Pees KOO O87 ‘ANVdWOD YOLVAGIY SSUAWUV,] “QseIOP “Sqp- > 75 0X0 ea ONS ‘ssors “sqyT77 777 - Eta eee ‘ydroo0r STY) JO Youd oY} WO poyeys sasrVyO PUB SMOT}TpUOD oY} 0} Joolqns ‘Jooroy} Iepuerins uodn ‘repro sty 10 “ydraoad STY} JO Jop[OY oY} 0} patoarjap oq [ILM UTeId Jo opis pu ‘puTy “yunowWe YoTyM 2 9 OS a Sa ae 100 (209 jane ii CR cai (O10) (Gs lias Meee ae a=) 1189 ie cp SOS OS SOS ASPEN SING JO poatoooyy “ANVdAWO\)) YOLVARTY SUANAV “ON qoHOr} 9381019 “9IVT, “JON *SSOLD) ‘ZL ON WIO Wayskg UIVIdy ‘WOT ezZULSIO [VINY PUB S}oIV|Y JO oOWO “LAMOIL ADVAOLS 28 BULLETIN 236, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Office of Markets and Rural Organization, Grain System Form No. 13. No? =e SALES TICKET OER Re seer ay ees Seley Sek, Lees eee hes a PASE MS yal Se ati eae ave I Jae ah ay STO) WG DS Ho parades sss as MR ea ace erm ei Ae Date 2 ae Harp Coat. GTOSS hoe SL: see te As Re el eee ee | Tea Os aes Nee esr Oat Daag ie eee aye ING bere eet cdtne cb eee ee ok oe ee 2 eee | Totalihard- coals. cess. ste eer | ee | eee Sorr Coat. GOS Be ea a Fac Reed ain a es ee eT Stee LY | ver eee a a BO Se Re eo ore eer eects ose ee ING bis eos ornare Soe MES soir nila | oct ees sae Totalisorticodlec costs. cers oe el oe tee eee | Se eee MISCELLANEOUS. SE oy 5 Se wa er RAN RI eS ROR ped a ea-8 ae ees Sg ee Jvc teste Totalamiscellaneousse ce -sso look ae eee Soe Totalisales = .i--sseseet eee ee ee [eee Se ae SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ELEVATORS. 29 Office of Markets and Rural Organization, Grain System Form No. 14. CASH RECEIPT TRECETROG! MIRO: = eee Oe as Pan ee ere eae Datey rack ts honey sO ee Stafmt iad =| = [= )= iim |=|et=)=]alo)a (wie mele alm «ono min no win oS min ale ale =\e)=m = 2 ve == ole\alninle © = wee ew wie wiejs a (s\=l= =~ /=\o = =\o||\= oo ale je = olalmiote |= == lm ola ime BULLETIN 236, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 30 %or %gr &@ | 861 88 | B6L 00 | &$ 00 | ST or | oh IT | 99 0s } 9887 “ONICA “OsIp -uvyoIoUt Joyo sepeg 8786 ‘one A *[B09 soyeg T10° %9 LB 1d | diT YL | LIT 78 | 961 98 | 8S 06 | SIT 88 | 09 88 | LF 09 | 691 16 | 999 BS9T01 %9'96 *“m.109 pees “1OJVAGO UV WOIJ UOYV] SoMSY yenjow UO posed jou ole PUB UOTYeAYSNIT We se AjOJOUL PopU9}UL 918 UIIOJ SITY} UI pourejuoo semsy oy, 710° 310° 610° 10° 10° 600° %9° %s" yy ia %9'8 %6°8 %o6 LT 94 | 88 6 | ST £8 | 08 8 | 898 98 | 648 Lt | 694 (05a Fe femmes | (ora Dette (feo Wea aieie tal |[-re elbstene ee talc mcooce el ccm 3ng°oe < eats S55 [amen | gree ae | paren cee fo [ee ee ececnias | | ae | aaa 86 | SéI sacle aecee|leeee a Sesce|(ceelace == eelligga an 91 | 08 of | 0g 98 | Is 6@ | SI £8 | 08 66 | 998 20 | or 98 | 966 TAA 8 | @ 81 | 9 er | 19 68 | 89 OF | 991 Gh oS 88 £8 | OF 89 | II 98 | 96 89 | 6 76 | 1 SI |& OF | £8 49 | If 48 | 86 08 | 7 73S | eee Gia | peoeeea [eee aaa ||: Tee actiaat oe | | neces | | eae 98 | T 89 69 | 1 68 | 81 60 | Té 89 | LF 80\T 19 9 \ 1 16 | 71 YL | OF 08 | 48 09 | & 0s | I 08 | 7 08 | 6 08 | 99 00 | 961 19 | BT le} 9 89 | TI ay | Sar L8 | 761 06 | 8st 0008 OFer sore 88918 0079s 6108 %9° %s" %l" %E'8 %8 6 %0°Ts *u109 qo” “XBL OA *S}VO “AOTIVE “tuanIn¢® 600° LE 8 1 | Goer es | IIe 08 | 08 GL | SOrT 89 | ote 09 | IF If | 871 08 | oh 94 | 69 08 | 661 88 | 869 00T98T %Be SS “yeouM %001 00 | 998 09 | 8 08 | or8 96 | 801 90 | Belt OF | 98L 00 | 961 00 | 9Lf 08 | 7 08 | 968 00 | O8T 00 | 9éL 00 | 0086 $9608 %O001 ‘TROL pen a = esuedxe worje19do jo 4s09 4ruM JoNy 4ou Jo ued Jaq ---gsuedxe JON SCSI CIOG POS Sqod UOT SHINO aESS5 plos eseyoop Woy suns POSED OOS 9381048 WOIJ SUINIOY -asuedxe ssoln *“SNOsUe] AIST, seo ‘osei1edo09 BAS eis siredoyy are Joey JoeTIp—SuTTeys W109 pretergnmer cs surjeiedo ‘190M0q Ta eRe 4seloy Uy “***-99UBINSUT “-"* >" parpuvy UTeAd Jo spysng ‘TIGL ‘TE laquaoag Suipue 1v8 x CL ON WO We4skg UTVIH ‘MOTVZIULSIO [VINY PUL S}OHICVP JO 9oIYO “SISATVNV LSOO woreeesssesss’ FO ‘OO AOLVACTA SUANUVA BULLETIN OF THE USDEPARTNENT OFAGRICULTURE No. 2357 Y oP iy Se Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural Organization, Charles J. Brand, Chief. April 20, 1915. STRAWBERRY SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914." By Wetts A. SHERMAN, Specialist in Market Surveys; Houston F. WALKER, Scientific Assistant; and O. W. ScHuEussNER, Market Assistant. SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATION. Karly in the spring of 1914 inquiries were addressed by the Office of Markets and Rural Organization to station agents at all points listed in the trade papers as shipping strawberries in full carloads, and to every cooperative association handling the crop, of which the department had any knowledge, asking for a record of the car-lot shipments for 1913 and an estimate of the shipments to be made in 1914. At the same time an effort was undertaken to build up a correspondents’ list of persons directly interested in the commercial strawberry crop from whom reliable information on every phase of strawberry marketing could be obtained. As soon as the shipping season of 1914 was ended the inquiry was renewed and has been fol- lowed up, until this office now has definite reports on the shipments during 1914 from 466 shipping stations at which strawberries originate in car lots and a statement from the transportation or shipping agencies as to the number of carloads shipped from each. It is the primary purpose of this bulletin to present these data for the information of the shipper, the distributor, and the consuming public, and to invite the closest scrutiny and criticism of the figures presented. The completion of a survey of this character is found to present many difficulties, and it is fully realized that it can be perfected only as it is subjected to the criticism of the trade. Freely admitting that this compilation and the map showing graphically its most salient features can be neither absolutely complete as to shipping points nor entirely accurate as to quantity of berries moved, it is presented with confidence that it is the most comprehensive survey of the com- mercial strawberry crop that has ever been made, and it is believed 1 About 95 per cent of the reports of shipments listed in this publication were furnished by railroad officials, to whom grateful acknowledgment is made for their courtesy and assistance. Nott.—This bulletin is of general interest to strawberry growers, shippers, dealers, transportation com- panies, and consumers, and to all engaged in the trade in berries and fruits. 90369°—Bull. 237—15 2 BULLETIN 287, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. therefore that it will be found immediately useful to the trade. It also should serve as a basis for valuable work in the future. Coincident with the publication of this survey and map, the Office of Markets and Rural Organization is attempting to maugurate a limited telegraphic market news service for the strawberry crop. The office expects to secure reports by telegraph from all important car-lot producing sections, giving the number of cars shipped daily during the period of important movement, together with their desti- nation. The attempt will be made to keep this information up to date by securing the diversions as they are ordered, so that at any time the actual number of cars moving toward any one market can be readily ascertained. Acting as a clearing house for this information, this office will be able to keep competing producing areas and all con- suming centers advised concerning the total car-lot shipments. Supplementing this service on shipments, there will be daily tele- grams from all the principal markets giving arrivals and prices. Arrangements have been made to secure these reports from the persons in each market most deeply interested in the strawberry deal. A summary of this market information will be telegraphed daily, collect, to every shipping association desiring the information. The complete succéss of this service, especially as it is extended to other crops, will depend very largely upon the continued cooperation and assistance of the transportation companies. STRAWBERRY SHIPMENTS DURING 1914. The tabulated statement which follows shows. the strawberry- shipping stations and the actual number of cars shipped from each during the 1914 season. It must be kept in mind that these data cover only the 1914 shipments and that seasonal variation is so great that in some cases these figures may be far in excess or much below the usual shipments. In some cases certain stations are credited in the tabulation with less than car-lot shipments. This is explained by the fact that these stations normally ship in full carloads, but owing to a short crop or other abnormal conditions in 1914 they did not ship their customary quantities. These figures are grouped by States and by shipping districts. Counties are ignored in the tabulation, since county lines are without significance in a survey of this kind, which is not based on census data. In the region bordering on Chesapeake Bay, Lake Michigan, the Hudson River, San Francisco Bay, and Puget Sound shipments by boat are of considerable importance. Some difficulty has been experienced in obtaining accurate reports for these shipments. It is believed, however, that the figures for this class of shipments are fairly complete. In all such cases the quantity reported as shipped by boat has been reduced to equivalent carloads; for mstance, es CD er C2 ek CD sees CD ens ties Ci eae) i Py iq?) UE DB'O YP N tdN OO HO eH DOD OB NHN ® Pr an Deo > ect O OD Sy S Moy 20- dJuly!s—— NS aE Fon 2 Sy i D> ues puunelSJulyI5- ; fe —Sunel-Julyt- | f ~— May 25-June2s- 1i7 128 | x ay IS-dune 20- 172 oy I- June S- 146 b29g 2 ~~ April 15-June I- rll 361 Nch|-Dect_y 374 Feb. [0-May 15 378 Vlprill- May 20 220 \ 7 5 Mor |S May 20 ec.I-Rpvil I: Marl-May 1S-. $0369°—Bull. 237—15. (To face page 2.) FS SEO EE IEP Eee ge SS STRAWBERRY SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914, 3 Benton Harbor to St. Joseph, Mich., reported 225,000 cases by boat, and this was tabulated as an equivalent of 225 carloads. The figures for the Norfolk region were obtained mainly from the various selling asso- ciations, and it is believed that they include the shipments by boat. Our designation of the various shipping districts is arbitrary, but is believed to follow in. general the custom of the trade. The point at which the largest shipments originate, or the point at which the industry first attained commercial importance, usually gives its name to the entire shipping district which later grows up around it. This is exemplified by the Independence district in Louisiana and the Judsonia district in Arkansas. These are the names best known to the trade in the markets where the bulk of these berries are handled. Experience with the proposed news service may enable a better system of designation for points of origin to be developed, but for the present the usages of the trade will be followed. The accompanying map indicates the actual shipments in the season of 1914. Each dot represents five cars, except in counties showing only one dot, in which cases the dot may represent from one to five cars. These dots are grouped in the county in which the station is located, although it is well known that production does not actually follow the county lines. In cases where the shipments were too heavy to be represented by dots, the counties have been blacked in and the actual number of cars shipped given in figures. The size of the blackened area is not directly in proportion to the quantity shipped, as the tabulation plainly shows. This is noticeably apparent in the case of California. Thus, from the Santa Clara-Santa Cruz section approximately 1,500 cars were shipped in 1914, while from the Castleberry section but 177 cars were shipped; yet on the map the blackened areas appear equal. This apparent discrepancy arises from the necessity of treating the county as the unit when presenting data on an outline map. The dates within which the various areas ship are shown by curved lines, all of the areas shipping at a given period being grouped into a zone under the line representing that period. Regular commercial shipments, other than from Florida, commence in March in Texas and Louisiana, gradually moving north until the season ends in July with the berries from northern Wisconsin. This statement excludes Colorado and California, where the shipping season is greatly pro- longed. The map thus shows at a glance from what sections each producing area may expect the keenest competition. This same information is illustrated in a different manner by the chart on page 5. In this chart the length of each figure from left to right shows the season in which car-lot shipments move from the district named. ‘The areas represent graphically the number of cars shipped and are based on the figures opposite in the right-hand column. 4 BULLETIN 237, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The districts are arranged from the top to the bottom of the page according to the opening dates of the shipping seasons. By glancing down the column for each month one can see not only which districts have overlappimg shipping seasons, but also the relative amounts being shipped from each district. In drawing up this chart it was assumed arbitrarily that the num- ber of cars shipped from one district was the same each week from the beginning to the end of the shipping season. Inasmuch as the ship- ments gradually increase from the beginning of the season until they reach a maximum at the time the bulk of the crop is moving, then gradually fall off until the end of the season, the diagram might be misleading. However, the chart shows in a general way the over- lapping or competing of the different districts and forms the basis for future work of a more accurate nature. Asuperficial study of the map and the tabulation might lead to an erroneous conclusion as to the relative magnitude of the strawberry industry in Northern and Southern States. It must be remembered that great quantities of berries are grown in the North in small patches and areshipped to market by trolley, by express, and by less than car- load freight, while a great many go directly to the consuming centers in the producers’ wagons. Comparatively few of these shipments, however, are concentrated into carloads and shipped over long dis- tances except from the northern districts on the Pacific coast. The chart indicates that the eight most important commercial strawberry districts in 1914 were as follows, ranked according to car- load shipments: Central California, 1,905 cars; Tennessee, 1,571.5 cars; Maryland, 1,569.3 cars; Delaware, 1,374 cars; southern Louisiana, 1,243 cars; North and South Carolina, 967.3 cars; Vir- ginia, 779 cars; Ozark region, 748 cars. With respect to the northern cities east of the Mississippi River, it may be said in general that when they are depending on northern berries, each is to a large extent supplied by its own territory. The car-lot movement is light, and the marketing problem wholly different from that which confronts the shipper in the Carolinas or south of the Ohio River. This is one reason why the industry m the South has developed to such large proportions within very limited areas. While no attempt has been made to list stations where no full cars originate, yet at those stations where full cars do originate the less than car-lot shipments have also been ascertained, and have been reduced to equivalent carloads, and are included in the tables here shown. Thus Jefferson County, Ky., usually ships in solid cars, but last sea- son being an off year, no full cars went out, although less than car- lot shipments equivalent to seven cars were forwarded. As this is usually car-lot producing territory, it has been given its proper show- ing on the map. pene” = apo lEE ABERY SHIPPING SEASONS — ee ee *SOU.| CALIFORNIA LOUISIANA [ SOUTHERN MISS/SS/PP/ NORTHERN TEXAS CENTRAL CALIFORNIA CENTRAL & SOU. ALABAMA CENTRAL MISSISSIPPI NORTH & SOUTH CAROLINA NORTHERN caiclate Fanta CENTRAL &\SOUV. ARKANSAS TENNESSEE VIRGINIA -QZ2ARK REGION | KENTUCKY “BDELAWAR. SOUTHERN ILLINOIS MARYLAND KANSAS CENTRAL COLORADO OREGON & NORTHERN CALIFORNIA WASHINGTON SOUTHERN INDIANA NEW JERSEY JOWA OH/0 HUDSON VALLEY,|NEW YORA WESTERN NEW YORK MICHIGAN CONNECTICUT MINNESOTA & WISCONSIN : OSWEGO DIS TRICT, NEW YORK WORTHERN COLORADO . CENTRAL FLORIDA NOR THERN FL ORIDA SOUTHERN TEXAS | | | BULLETIN 237, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Strawberry shipments, 1914. [All numbers which are marked with an asterisk (*) are estimates, based upon the shipments for 1913 and figures furnished for the 1914 crop, previous to its being marketed. Figures for the actual shipments i in 1914 from these stations have not been obtained] Alabama: Carloads. Castleberry section (Apr. 15 to June 1)— Gastlebemny steerer ee 165.0 PAYG IM OF OUR ee eae ey. pe Sees en ne 28.0 Canoe. mre te eae SS eee ie 19.0 OPartars cece se ee a Near eee ce oe 5.0 iBollingstsee cess ete ae ce epee 4.5 HM VOCLSTOGh 2 a2 SN. ois ee se ee ee eats 1.0 T Ota 32 oe eek ate ee 222.5 York section (Apr. 15 to June 1)— Cribas eae se soe eee a ec aes 46.0 AVA OSLO: yes oes ne oe eee : 4.5 PYOLK Soe je ee coe See eon eee atee 1.0 ThOLA a= eae hoe ye ae ee ee roe: 51.5 Cullman section (Apr. 15 to June 5)— Ci rT eee es Spee pens Nv 83.0 TaN CO VAL tae. a cae Ae te 16.0 VAG ONE Sane Be DOE eRe SSeS ABBE SSA 1.0 (Mia isomers aes jo. Soe see eee 3 ST OLAIRE See ee Ses ee See OES ee oe 100.3 Thorsby section (Apr. 20 to June 1)— ANSTO ES ON eee ac: hts Bree 20.0 LALO LOGAN US ese tees eet sags cee top 394.3 Arkansas: Southwest section (Apr. 25 to June 1)— EVOL AIO Pee On ree ee eee ee 15.0 Camdentire te aire ss ects fase Be 6.0 IB OLCON Seton eos ee nts Soe oe eae ae 4.0 McG@askiuee ee ro ec coe dene coat tts mete *3.0 HaglopMaills ee a sate: See ae ee F 2.5 WHCKCS se eee sts ae Sec ee ae 11583 Beardentese cra. sarees og eee acess 1.0 IPTOSCOLU sot Soe a = nse eis oe tote *1.0 ET OL eee yh ee. yy ta ee 33.8 Judsonia section (Apr. 25 to June 5)— TUCSON. eee tas oa eee cesee sete 252.0 IBAldEKMOD sass = sess see Sesion ser 74.0 IMorriltones = seer sen en ne teeeeeecier % 37.0 DOALCY eee eee ees e le aiepy-tfors 36.0 IMCRAC2t Ape Ea ai sin. 5 Bese eene os 21.3 Conwayeecceescca=--)- 2 ee cee 9.3 Bradiondee a os Seow eee p 8.0 IRAN? Dilton a-sialon seer ~ 8.0 Russell villese yee sen2 se core wee ee 2 8.0 151272) 0): BERS A Be ee re See Ay : 6.0 PATISUIN 85 See Stes cniosere ace e ee ates 5.0 Plimervilles 2 sce ee eee es 4.0 TGCS sa. see N.S Soe bo te eR 2.0 A TASSOLURe ee Beets aah jc ce oe ee ee 13} 1) 22) Ls aS Se ih ice 471.9 Ozark section (May 1 to June 5)— VG MIR Gis Se Sass slsbotdencs sence eouOeOe 35.0 ID GCATON seen een eels ew co's mie 34.0 UA Ee A eens © oe Seer 32.0 | Arkansas—Continued. Carloads. Ozark section (May 1 to Jane 5)—Con. Springdale: .—.- 5s se ee 32.0 Van Buren. {2.022.555 : 32.0 DER 26 85.52 aaa ee 18.0 Marmington .<..22- <2 =. 5. 15.0 Rudy sa 22) 2 12.5 Mulberry, 23: = .-.s:322 eee 12.0 Sulphur: Springs. ..-.- =e eee 10.0 ADDO 225-222 aos oes eee 8.0 Mount, Comfort... 5222 eee 2 8.0 Fayetteville. -- 22-5. - 1542-6 e nee ee 7.0 Lalburns..: 22.0222 5.5). eee 7.0 Tonitown:-2....---<.-scee2 oe ee 7.0 Garfield eee = 6.5 Highfill 50. Jo2sG..2 Sa. eee 6.0 Gentny. <2 525 5-25 eee 5.0 Gravette. -..2.525- 3 eee 4.0 Lowell..: 2.2.42: 2: 020 3.0 Steele:. 22... 25-22-5223 ee eee *3.0 Healing, Springs: - .... 2 25s seeeeeee 2.0 Mountainburg. 6 2.022242 eee 2.0 Greenland ©. 2.23.22 2222aSe 22 eee 125 Temcoln. ie. 2. oi. ssc eee eee . is} Cave Springs. 5 -_ J: 22-esessoseeseee 1.0 Blm Springs... 2... 2-4acees eee 1.0 "West: Pork. .3.22¢ 2. joo eee eee 1.0 Hliwasse@y!... 2... -2.%- 22522 eee 5 Coal Hill... :.: 4: - =.225S552saseeeeeee 3 Winslow . 42202 = st eee ee eee 3 TSUITY (= 25 oo <= 2 oe ne oe eee 0 Rogers... 5-2. oS See ees 0 Stewarts... =) No ® BS o 0 iS) i 105.0 428. 325. 104. or eoouncooocoonse 7 Delaware (May 15 to June 20)—Contd. Carloads. Alo) Ey Aas ates Mae UN a a oe tse ea 8.0 (Guys (0) (eA a Ra ee Oe eine nae 4.5 Harring toners coset ice ceases 4.0 INET DY0) 0 [Ae en Saad es a hes re NE 2.5 TRY soo (anke ee See ee res Sms ors a eres 2.0 Clayton ease casera erat siaie 1.5 EDI CRIA ae Serer cree saat mt fe 1.0 Warming tomee ee ee eee eee cies a) Statekto taller seen ereiser etn eee 1,374.0 Florida: Plant City section (Dec. 1 to Apr. 1)— PlaninCityise sce ence ease saees 88.0 Walkelond 2220 be eee ate eee ee eats 51.5 PIOVET era oe ribe seaman ees noe e ie amen 6.5 Kathleen sexisacens see ceacenccccinaie 5.5 Bowling: Gnreene-ce ss soeeeeee ee seescrcs 5 Wiauchtilaz<: 2-4 t seeeescseee ee ccace .5 Totelic.22n av eeeess ee Sheet 15255 Stark section (Feb. 10 to May 15)— IDE AWG bo dadecdcdusdadadsooanecdosdos 178.0 Starkieeccssscesee sees ceseh ee tosecer 177.0 Ls Gino Gecassadcadedctosdcosdceodo 10.0 Manville sa. sosisecec eee cae tae aictetes 6.0 Make Butlersesce- ooe seen sect 3.0 INGWo Rives: sone sscecesctoneeeccescr 2.0 TNOLESSA Sos eecacie Te eee cet ao setaose *2.0 ANNO El eee Re na Sos SaqEseSOnOSOlS 378. 0 Stateitotallcszcnceccecemecioactece cet 530. 5 Tilinois (May 15 to June 20): INTE Sag oandocasooaSCeNaNSqa0nt 6 25000 100.0 WVillagRid cenaeasecececemeccencecmeccets 75.0 Pulaskte csc. oncia-sea- saci seme shee 36.0 Dongola. este cement 24.0 Makand anzciscs se seececiite tee ects 17.0 Cobdens ee 324-22 seceee ne stecerere 6.5 Wietaue.. 2 sesisot asc stcieiseraeleeees eects 4.0 Un sss asain eee 3.0 Richwiew?. 2/585 sa ..csseeeaeceecsceece 2.0 Baleomeaeis se ec seen see eins stairs oil State totalis: 255 ese soeeneseee 268. 2 Indiana (May 25 to June 25): INC AM boa mo aaetenaanadaccoconooas 60.0 IBOTG emis Sesey estore aereetalclele ae tein 30.0 A 83) 10) a ene a ee A Ee a 11.0 WES tyler ee oi ae ae es ee ates 2.5 State totals is osi a4. he Manan See eos 103.5 Towa (June 1 to June 20): IGONDIR A ec gacdodaekeoeebonosdcocosd 10.0 Moninosevies sscc2 sos tence nce eee 8.0 CedarmRiapidssascasenis saeco ee aee 3.0 Sikarbegto tallies 220 corte eae cere es steps 21.0 Kansas (May 20 to June 20): ‘Wathen sas S222 5 2s Aes eee ee aera ee 85.0 RON 2k eRe ene ee wel pee can 10.0 eavelwOniheesme cies secreeecineccses 8.3 EL OLt ONY: Bee meer nine se ce eo soeeacee 1.0 Troy Junction ...... sigeliscacsitemee cues .5 Staietotalencecseseecceesesccctlal 104.8 8 BULLETIN 237, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Kentucky (May 10 to June 10): Carloads. Bowling Greenieene- sence e cee ee ee 75.0 Mid dletowne seas ee oe eee eee 6.0 Kemps Mountain) ae sep eee ae 2.0 Louisville 22 st-s a. ce See ce eee 1.0 State total cjssssasaee eal se cs aN eee 84.0 Louisiana (Mar. 15 to May 20): Independencemecatstese oe eee eeace 412.0 FL AMMON Gs ase toe eee cea een 294.0 PONCHAtOUL ae eee Reet ae eee ee ce 240.0 DIG ks A Wasseteece one Nee Tae eee 105.0 PALML Oia ah crore he Stee a eet ae epi fe eae 84.0 PAID ATI Ye ok cies, Pe cee 2 ee os ce semonae 66. 0 Natalbanyioesaccccstenosens2 ceecoreer 32.0 Roseland ieewsosce cc cecene secu neces 5.0 Corbin Saeszee ee seco sce acces Sener 2.0 GoeneseGics o 3 Sos aaase Saseeenetaneyesc 2.0 IBPOOKVIOW cece ccc ca seerncs.c cece nee *1.0 StAletOLaly ewes oceans eee ste 1, 243.0 Maryland (May 15 to June 30): Marion: Stations 22 2cses. onc cement 286.0 IBaltMOLets assess s jasseinseys seseseee 201.0 PIGS Ville a see Nene Se Oe aeons seine: 200.0 NTU GAN Gis wae eel ee re ee ee a ee 143.0 Goldsbor0ts-20 222595 -es ae eee ae eee 74.0 Ber lines Sen a See ener tee ween eon et 58.0 EWieStOVEDisec.- oe sce naees So semeisee 57.0 Showelleyee ee sae see ace cee toe ease 55.5 PTINICOSSPATINO Mace eee se ee icseeee nas 50.0 HOpeO Wellies soe eteo- cet ecee eee ace 45.0 @ristieldtssenccecen- cele oe. cce sees eae 44.0 Mederalsburgcssncc cnc sesicces vec sceee ce 44.0 Wihaloysvailleysss sce aaseec eset cee 41.0 I en eee oo ance Sem seco 40.0 Ridgelypeseassscre steers Sider aE ae 40.0 Wiillardsiiertsad so: 1 steam tae. sree hee 40.0 Mardelarsprings sa 222s nes see oeoe eee 33.0 Greensboroyececsessccee ee easacecSeue 27.0 AVES LOMS Serie seek inien efor cece oaaaele 24.5 IPALSONSDULR ee ei sto teen eeem eee 18.0 eines Lometee tae maps sear sate aoe sey 10.0 FIG DEON eee eae a see ee ose one eae 9.0 Salisbulyy--cejsciesse csescnsiase seen ee 8.0 MU OLOCLO Mm msoe ee ac ae ek eee nee 5.0 STOWE ee re tS ee EO eg ee 5.0 East New Market ......-22.....-..2-. 4.0 Millington eter asanan ese eats *2.0 aWalliaims Dur gies Cyrene etn ee 2.0 DOWNES Sra Sao Sis ae Soe ee *1.0 Mary delimenamcri- sca tacen cece eee cee. 1.0 Secretary eectacn cocosea scarce cs *1.0 IPT ES LOW rs}isfeentie de vee celes At aeme eek 483 Statetotalawc sects ecas merce seers 1,569.3 Michigan (June 1 to July 18): Benton Harbor-St. Joseph ........--- 225.0 ESTE IMVEATA eres corel ee ee eB 52.0 BATE OD Nee seis ene Reem ute at oa ie © 14.0 Daiviy Clee per: nie aan Ae Sie a ae 14.0 NI GIN TOME ee cine slg one seca ee meas 8.0 OSnte Mm OMe as a fo sok ncigs ees #3.0 TROch es tenner cas scot sation *2.5 COVOLtirasmaniemiean oon ese occceme sty *1.3 TACOLA sateen eee oe ee ease aias/= *1.3 Paxtonles ones maeaean inane een hae ae *,3 IW AltervilotiSasseec eee cee teee oon 73 Michigan (June 1 to July18)—Contd. Carloads. Pennville 2: sec 2c seeds sees ee .0 Sodusise.-0 StL eee .0 State total\. 2-00 2 eee 321.7 Minnesota (June 20 to July 10): Long Lake <2 7)124> 2250s eee eee 8.6 Maple Plain <2. -:.-.--2-222--S-eeoee 5.0 Howard: bake: :2-.2- 22-2 22 n2 =e eee 1.3 Deer W 00d -s5. 2224-22252 4550 oe “63 Cedar ake \.:22- 22-22-2222) 2 eee *,3 State total: ..25.. 255 cee 15.7 Mississippi: Gulf Section (Mar. 20 to May 15)— Bay St. Louis. 2 << 5225 -seasanseeee 5.0 Southern Osyka Section (Apr. 1 to May 15)— 20)— Tougaloo: 22.2220 fe see eee McAdams)! 220522 vic ce ree Missouri (May 15 to June 20): Monet... .2605-5250t bse Bee ee Aroma s).2 oo 2 et eee eee Mech 1haney,oosieq-ce cee eee eee Carthage j<.cnissj< sccces eee eee Marussell._.ujc casos case een eee WiOTODS 2:oisse,oa cscicccwicie cee eRe eee Beliast=56.52.0202.44.ee eee ee 1 Op.<:)1(:) poe AIS Mess cose = sen. Mount) Vernon: sc. cecal ee Chadwick. « peosno Oa sedoseanonpsadrior sae Oregon (May 25 to July 15): i SO RS tiaras i i a a ea ee x IOOGU RVers aeseee oe eee eee f | HigeWanbor City... +-.-2.-2--..2---9- 8.0 Tees aes STWR eca h api wAileas re A | a eer See aoe ae Milton eee pal cae at een 23.0 it Medfor d bedeatinetanmnntasae nes Tay a esis ene 5 Spring brookse eesb eee cee eee ane 18.8 Siders sc. A en : Ea one pe aya cae hee pe aret ep are ae a a mega | rhkL aie as aaa tHe ia Rae eR a O Ken otaleletatetaveteteiaevoiaraietsisieteeieieietcietetekaeine ° \WESIOW/ sac qopaaseeornonapHosrencens 5 Pa eR ee MAT hahah one ditean arts 6.0 UAL OMUO Lalllaats cinpeicisicrcjsjnisercucin erie ersinve 248.7 MOrestiGrovese sant pene pee enee 4.0 | New York (June 1 to July 1): Reet NCE recente haya =u oid e oases coeaiaca. GOO py) AE sce ema oem ieee tenance oc Sa ieee i} Dcpareiisi. staan iach ae es 50.0 Me ba Won terete etc aen eee see e ra etae 3.0 Merida LRTI 38.0 Ashland Snoubosaoeuecoscnosoneescessa= 2.0 1) TEpeci Or = a a eas 91.0 ETIS b OL 0 enc eiereeaeee eee eee ees 2.0 | OSWOLOSnesacs nese smc ce eden ccddasarctaes 13.0 ee aN ie oe Aiea Cn ta Ae oa 2 | HOLesuvilleseesan cea eens ccciee crises 4.5 eeace Se ie CU ELN tee igi ea ae Wallvientoneescentasier tens 'sesccacneree ts SLO | ARS eka LCE SA ROR Th Se tie ee a Statenbotaless ses stace season ee 189.5 SEEM WOM ec apr da eeansbacbedaccrho0 Bas North Carolina (Apr. 15 to June 1): oe EONS esha Se se) Eeyy a) Se Mount) Mabon 2a25-cen2---2es eset eee 152.0 Bee CoEy ARS) Owe RMU ORCS. cate ie : MaumyOlvesst ek eT 145.0 oe ace Be re Oe a aaa ato Chadiboumnerereecscecscac sce cesta sce 133.0 TM wee ae he Ree Buti. ee ee aH 95.0 Saniord serene seeeee eres eee eee eere 6.0 | \ Taper ee oe aC ea 66 0 (lome wood enereren= eee sere ee eeeree 4.0 Clarendoneercenes sc cesses che ceiene ces 36.0 LNs PE CREAR Veen ee tT OS 3.0 Rvairvelan disse coe le eo. cid crelcnete oe 31.0 MSS IEE oe see sccaacdaosaasosancoo3 1.0 Taslieary. | lee ene ine Gan 28.0 Myrtle Beach Gaga gas bsgsodnesedsacase 1.0 HVOCkyeBOInt seem nsee eee ncaa 20.0 make WEBiapassanucbossecaeesccme: Pass a4 IMpbottsourge: seo: = 1 ices res Se) Oe 18.0 RAM Saeco ac baad. ake dee ecteaciecnc “2 IBlademboroteetence see sane seen ee ae 17.0 Statejtotale-cy: a. 20 aes ek ee ae 128.4 EX UIT Ons SE he Sea ce SS creche oe 17.0 SETe Tae aISOMeeeenmen se Siesta vee ae We eee oO 16.0 Tennessee: e i SUVA ae cA ial Bik i a I 10.0 Chattanooga section (May 1 to June 5)— Carntn GE a ee OO ae 9.0 Siomtay Cities ccsbdosqeacecescacscacsc 110.0 Wardalutes. ose: 0100: bse erete's DANO rey a cee ere eens 109. 0 AGH. eee Bee arenes 6.0 Bivensyvalle= 2 oe encase eee mee eneee 109. 0 Bieri i SIO Om ane aeeea Fei 6.0 Bakewell Sapeeasezeds7S9595a20be0r855 36.0 ee Meta oy iets ores «Adee WA 5.0 ILaiopevall ree cne se aneeengusnnos scone 30.0 Ree aeRO MURA ctl cnr te re at 5.0 Chaitanoogalseene sees (eee ee eeeee eee 24.0 | TRG sa ol gn neem ate 3.0 Bey Bate aa ene nace eee eee 15.5 5 (WOK Neo cdo Shesonnossonnaacaouosaenen 12.0 ee ke eacigll) | Beate 5-0 Sipriclonac: 2 et Bae 2.0 Harriman... --------------- 22-22-2202 8.0 “TV oaRc eS Lae GRD cae Ga aioe oS Es 2.0 (OAS TIOO th concn 5 = a5 sennconeseasaun0oC 6.0 | ACTA a) ees eRe ae ei tae 1.5 Roddy ..---------+-+++20sseeeteeeeeee 5.0 PDT yp eertaiiys sete ays se co sey 1.5 TOPE sa oosacaccasscsosasyosspsoc00C 2.5 FESO Wi CIS pte set etree voce yLluOi Ry ia 1.0 AXWICDS so Gooesoosooosseccs00agnso5NSOS 2.0 Waly MSO mate uN state eee eg ge cae 1.0 IBEDS M352 co qacsas902o0ec0ss0050R00€ 2.0 OTTO eee asinine se cicwiate Scenes deine ae «5 Cleveland yaaa si eo tseciencsieaiai Seem seisiae 1.0 | (Ker Girele ee aes ie Ae ames 4 Coulterville: ooo ee eae co oeeicseeee 1.0 | Miata totaletiec es eae eee 838.9 STS bk ued ee tana laa Sst Pee asT 0 10 Tennessee—Continued. Dyer-Sharon-Humboldt section (May 1 to June 5)— Humboldt ese. 2 asose eee eee Sao nts tees sears See aa ia Ane eon Texas: Alvin section (Mar. 1 to May 15)— DICKINSON Se Se sakes eee seca ate sae he Decpwateneacccnsssek eae ecco: MEAL IIO\ Olly rec omiace sees eee cis wieeleete MarR Orlo nemo me scemen soe siscinsticeeene Artesian Belt section (Mar. 1 to May 15)— Carrizo; Springse esas sssiccssiscciseciee cee Tyler section (Apr. 1 to May 10)— Carloads. BULLETIN 237, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Texas—Continued. Carloads. Tyler section (Apr. 1 to May 10)—Contd. Wihitehouse:.. 5. 5.6203 cbc oee ane eee *2.0 267.0 TrOUP 5: foa-c sce hese a cioeee o eeeEe 1.5 83.0 Jefferson 4.255520 sees see eae eee 1.0 72.0 Edgewood... ..2022 222-0 seca cet ee eee -5 ZANRG) Cookvillel..3 20.2... .-22 SS 2 0.0 oat wa 64.0 State total..: 22. 22.2 2b Sao 226.1 64.0 56.0 | Utah (June 5 to July 1): 52.0 Centerville... o.oo) ooocc. 50 eee *1.0 39.0 Farmington. on. --< ete ean ama dV | | :s}erd Jo uvoyy | ~ ——s ——— se = | | | “WBO] ‘TIT O19@L ‘81 ON 899 [>> 7 > ~~ OD aires GHIA RESP G| te ol peas | aaeeg | ore eee 908 “LT|SE6 "TL |088 ‘21/98¢ ‘Z |G00“S | Z9"GF)-7 7" | ABI Avo “DH WWI | | “WeO| IIT O148L ‘OT ON 09g [7 - > -- Op rik GOL, gS8s1G| 79a C1180 Gee |atea lace. glen ie GZE BI OE T |0L8 ‘ST ZE0'S |S69°S | GI SF\L6 “09 Vd AAVIA “A Id | fart! | “UIBOT “III PUBL “STON 998 |-0€.0} 0 “190 | TST | OL ‘2hlgee's j9g 6 | LOF “GT BIS "LT [00S ‘0Z\946 ‘TE 886‘ | 0S ZS F9 09 Youd AAvoH “A Id “OLGRITVAV JOU ; “UIBO| CULUUL I ado Gis O 1S Cell ieigacieisaiccns ges ie eae |e ee alicia OC BET Reese ole saa oe oa aoe eee al eater OE oo cama Bones 08 “28 | Apues 4ysIrT ‘0 4d TIT P19@L (8 ON 008 [7777 - Opes €9T | FE 0S] 22 °6 |10 TF "|€LL 9% SFL |OLF ‘61/968 — |E9F‘S | 99 “6P|E6 “BE “wmeo] Apuvs *q Id ‘TIT 148 (6 “ON 90g |-" 77 ODeiaes VL | 6G SE 1 ‘Z|SE “ST T6E "El, 90'T OS ‘SZII8S_ |9T9__|- Th “F9|89 "98 ‘" weo[ Apues “y 1VId ‘TIT O148.L ‘TON 999 |°08.0202 990 | FOL | 21°82] wep [es8T [ye ES “0E|9O '% |OZT “OS|98E ‘T |608‘°% | E8°9L/ST “TS ueol Apurs “_ IV[d | -TI6L JO UosBeg Cea oe sy Ge EOP LOG] as 58 eee aS | ee ol Sere (GONG ip ateets | ue iar el | emer | acids OD SF 2 silo le cass leas sol ae [eee OLH LOGO RE ————— ee ——_ a | | 4 | | “m180] UCU | eect OD Ream GUOGH| GP 00 | Bima ese ecru cake 982 I1|C6P T |0ZS “GT\619 ‘T |ZTF‘S | 89°68) - 77 [EPO | €4% OL | MOBI AAvoH “¢ qid -10U SUOT}IPUOd JBYO : i } “ULBOT| ‘doqey yowsjyuoo :deep ||-- ~~~ Opes GLa SGP 10S |i a2 alma | eS ae rraigal coag 69F “ST\S0S "T !0S8‘LZTISL8‘T |FE8'% | TS ehE tf @SOT” jis6e |4 | NOVI AAVOH % 41d SaYOUL 8 yNoGV poMo[d | “MBO canara 0% "900 | G'AT | 62S ff ff feeo et lege T loz ‘21/988 ‘T jepe‘s | T2°op|---7 "| fegon ol¥eee j4 | MORIA Aavor “1 4eId UL 199° d | 79° \'29'd Vd | °29'°d | 79d | SUZ | “89T “SOT \*10°d | 29°d |" 'd |'Sa4dV\ Jaa | | [0161 Jo WosBeg e ee | 1% 0% [eGR ST | 20g OLS SE SPL Seba |e Gl ee Olea 8 L eae aebels 2 8 | & i : = —— | | o Zr>i| 4 Se ts ers ieicat ioe pee |e a laetsel lfc teo|ta| 4 a ° ° ° fo) ° S = 4 2 ms o = ey beret | s |Be| ee lzee| 8) 2/8 | 8 | = |os)eBl ek] | 3) & |e) 2] & 16] b Rehan aoe Bes, ee oulieces cae eae ©) Bo o ® Fleet ete ° rh later || “S010 N g a 82.|8 Bes Be aS ‘ B ® ~o oe Es i a |- B Bier lled Fe 5 *[LOS JO IoJIVIVYO PUR ALI J < m2] Bw |tB @| oa oa 8 o id 2 8°o]e4°0 ue} z a Qe = Ee | 2 g sq |ao |B so @ ® Pye fars sii betes eed [ Leste te S a Pale mu | a a a st ct © ° SHON eae =) 2 S| S Ge |e S| 3 S Ce to onl ele oe Sta lara Geil Gaels eulee a | -8 5 4 | 3 i ag PA ASE SF 2 : a a a yt ane 5 & | # | | | | ‘BIGL pun ‘TIGL ‘OL6L Ut spjark wiay, pun synjd yoaq wo apywu suoynasasgo fo sishjpup— J] ATAV I, PREVENTABLE LOSSES. IN CULTURE. SUGAR BEETS “poos AT Me g *iood J9yyVy 1 “arey ATUO 9 ‘TIT P1G@L ‘2 “ON 909 | -- ZT °}O ‘[RULIOU JNOGe SuOT} -Ipuood {10qet yoRryuUOg |---->* 0Z 290 “[BULIOU JNoqe suOor} -Ipuoo ‘{10qv] S,JoUMO |""-* > -Op7- > ‘TIT 9108 ‘1 ‘ON 999 |--- ~~ 8% “AON “uOIsTAJedns erat uta ‘soq Aq euop FIOM Oy} JO Pony |*---"0% “ydeg ‘III P19®L ‘OT “ON 09g |°----9z 4dag ‘TIT P10BL ‘TL “ON 90g |-->>-~ 9 “AON “uoIstAJodns pus 1OQe] S,louMo ‘Apues ||---- >> CE 00 e10ul Inq ‘fp pue ‘¢e ‘z ‘T syerd ut se pomord |}->---- 16 “490 Ajdvap os you log ‘TIT 14@L “G “ON 099 |---- - -op----- “IIT S19®L ‘Z “ON 009 |---* > -op-->-- III °19®.L “9 “ON 09g |°---- -op----- “III O4@L “FON 998 |°----" FZ 900 “Ayj0ds JoyYBI yNG ‘poor ¢ POT | SG LF) G8°9 |TF IS |TE 6L |F6 68 |TO ST |629 “LT 98ST | O€ GS] T0°6 [ZL 1% |249 “TS IPL “68 |TO ‘ST [PTL “TT PLS | SF 'OL) SF ZLIOG “9% [OE TE |€8 06 |S6 6T |FTE ‘OT TTS | 20°29] TE “IT!F8 9% |48 °€Z |09 88 |00 ST ESL IT € "ET | 88 6E) 80°L |F8 "1S [96 OT |06 68 |06 81 |ES% “ST 9°CT | L8°9E) G2°S |OL TT |S6 61 109 68 0% “ST [Soc 6 8’CL | PROS) FBP |98 OL JEL PL | LV SL EPS ‘ST GGT | OS "LF 926 “ET €'€T | PL °6E 9G “LT Get | 8 ‘OF 890 °2T LIL | 08 TE £8 "0G POT | 66°%% TE9 “8% GL8T | 89°9S) TTL |42 9% |64°G% |S 06 |SS “LT |P1S “2% 04 °0Z | €F T9] 99°9 |TS "0% |9Z FE OE 06 |O8 “AT | TEP “6T 08 "ST | 9F 6h) TL" 06 CE |G8°8 j0€ 06 |08 “LT 1969 “Ez OS ‘IG | 18°29} 69°9 |ZT 0% 00 °9E \00 06 |OE “LT |90F “6T COLT | 10°8S) LE°L |LG EE |40 ZT |00 06 JOE “LT |F2S “Lz “ren soat ‘IIB § *Aq,0ds ‘repNSodIT ¢ TIE Ip Ay[nvy 07 onp sdes ‘pooy z e108 Led sso] 10 Sjoeq GZ 0} 4O9L10{) { OSL ‘T 08ST |068 ‘FT OLE ‘8% 09L ‘FZ PSE T |0LS ‘0Z 6S T Gor T 09S “T Poca OLE °% |OZ1 “ST GbE £99 °% O18 “6T OLE “FI. 066 °% |0ZF ‘ST 960 ‘T COL ‘% 166 SZ ‘T 000‘ 92 |096 ‘T 0g6 9F “SS 86 “6S 89 ‘08 69 “LF TL 9S €P 8k gS “66 86 °LE GT 09 €T “89 00 “GF 62 “69 06°29 Ge "89 0S °89 ST 92 60 “68 G0 “08 GP 89 96 “8 GZ “09 08 “G9 GL €9 GT &L G9 6 88 “82 €9°28 P9 “OL 9T “€6 L9“F6 GE “EP €F 0S 06°22 1G °88 PS 0S 61 LE 66 “OF &@ “GP GS 8S 88 “SP 9€ “FS pL G9 ST 16 00 “F9 £6 28 sei KS) oOo & oo oO sco OU S isp) lo) Si) Gol as io “""“@I6L ‘Tre Jo uve yy “s-7-°¢@ dnois ‘uve “TAROT “EL II “TROT “OL VId “THOT TL Id yovlq AAvoH yovlq AAvoy yovlq AAvaL “ULVOT yourq Aavor “OL Id :¢ dnois ‘ZT6T Jo wosveg “--7-*¢ dnois ‘uve “ureo, Aputs yas AA °6 Ie ‘uvo, Apues ys] AWA - 8 III meas weoy “4 4d ~uvoy Apuvg “9 41d ‘uvoy, Apues just, AoA "¢ ARI :% dnoi3 ‘ZI6T Jo wosvag “-----7 dnois ‘ues “TBO Apues yysIT “pid “MUIeOT Apues yystT “ld “TL8OT Apues 4stT °S IWId “ULBOT pues way TE 9d :[ dnou.s ‘ ZI6L Jo Uosveg al 6 BULLETIN 238, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OBSERVATIONS IN 1911. During the season of 1911 general notes were made of the germina- tion stands without actual measurements or counts. Seven fields were kept under observation, including soil types 2 and 3, namely, light sandy loam and heavy black loam. These data also are pre- sented in Table II. OBSERVATIONS IN 1912. . During 1912 the studies were extended to include all three types of soil. Careful notes were made of the germination stand prior to thinning. The selected rows extended entirely across the field in each instance. The data obtained are shown in Table IT. ANALYSIS OF OBSERVATIONS. The analysis of observations for the season of 1910, as presented in Table II, shows a complete correlation between yield and percentage of stand. The small percentage of the ultimate stand is surprising, the mean being only 43.6 per cent, and, although the average weight of the beets is 1.453, 1.508, and 1.492 pounds, respectively, the excess over 1 pound did not nearly compensate for the large area occupied by each plant. This deficiency of stand was caused largely by careless spacing and thinning. All the work was done by contract labor with practically no supervision. The plats were in adjacent fields, where the general conditions and cultural operations were almost identical. The harvest stands for 1911, though appreciably better than those shown by the plats of 1910, exhibit a mean of only 56.155 per cent (Table II). The correlation between stand and yield is rather obscured by the special factors which developed during the season on several plats. However, these factors throw additional sidelights on the studies, since their influence on yield is very apparent. For example, on plat A the cultural operations were left almost entirely to young boys, without oversight. The thinning was very care- lessly done, 6.89 per cent of the plants being left in pairs, which, for practical purposes, means their entire loss. Weeds were allowed to choke the beets for a great part of the season. On the other hand, the owner of plat B is well known to be a fine truck grower, who does all the work with the assistance of his own family. The soil. through years of intensive farming, is very deep and mellow. Plat D is located on much lighter soil than plat B, but with a stand of considerably lower percentage it yielded almost as much for each acre. This, in connection with the record of plats 1, 2, 3, and 4, of 1912, brings out the fact, which is contrary to the prevailing notion, that beets will yield more heavily in deep light sandy soils if they are well manured than in the somewhat heavy loams that have been regarded as more typical beet soils. ee SUGAR BEETS: PREVENTABLE LOSSES IN CULTURE. iC Plat E shows a fairly normal correlation between stand and yield, while plat F decreases on account of late and careless thinning, no less than 9.82 per cent of pairs of plants being found. Plat G shows a greater yield than plat E, because its soil was very well prepared and manured and the cultural work done by Japanese who were working for themselves. Referring to the analysis of observations for the season of 1912, as presented in Table II, the plats in group 1 were operated under almost experimental conditions. The seed was sown under the direction of the writer. Two pairs of plats were studied, one pair in . each of two contiguous fields possessing very uniform soil. One farmer worked plats 1 and 2 while another farmer worked plats 3 and 4. The rows extended entirely across each field. The two farmers carried on or supervised all the cultural operations. The only appreciable difference in the handling of the plats was that the seed was sown slightly deeper in one plat of each pair than in the other. This resulted in more damping-off in the deeper sown plats, thus producing therein rather poorer stands. In this group the correlation between yield and stand is complete. From this group and plat D of 1911 it would appear that the optimum area per plant is considerably greater in deep, light, well-manured sandy soils than in loams and heavy loams. In group 2 a perfect correlation is shown between yield and stand. Atthesame time, the effect of inexperience and lack of supervision is evident in plat 9. In group 3 the corre- lation between stand and yield actually is accentuated by the exception shown in plat 10. This discrepancy is entirely accounted for by the adverse conditions to which this plat was subjected. CORRELATION OF STAND AND YIELD. In Table III all the plats for the three years are arranged according to the percentage of the harvest stand, beginning with the highest. They are divided into three groups, representing three soil types. In this table the percentage of the harvest stand is placed side by side with the yield of each plat. This reveals a striking correlation between the percentage of stand and the yield. The apparent exceptions are accounted for by the special conditions described under the heading “Notes” in Tables II and III. Upon allowing for the adverse or especially favorable conditions mentioned, it may be said that the correlation is complete. In Table III the means of the yields of groups 2 and 3 exhibit a ratio almost exactly equal to the relation of their respective stands. Based on the figures given, the mean yield of group 3 would be 17.72 if the stand were the same as in group 2. 8 BULLETIN 238, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE IIT.—Comparison of the harvest stands and the yields of sugar beets Jor the seasons of 1910, 1911, and 1912. Refer- ence No. Harvest | Yield per loam: loam: Plat and season. Notes. eeande Group 1.—Deep sandy loam: Per cent. Plat BiClol tl) ieee se Deep, well-manured soil; crops rotated; 76. 83 owned and worked by experienced truck farmer. PlatSlOl2) were eee se Rather deeply worked, well-manured soil, 50. 54 in good tilth; crops rotated; Nos. 2 and 5 in same field—very uniform, contigu- ous to the field in which Nos. 4 and 6 are located. Plat: Di 911) oases. ae Deeply worked soil, in fine tilth; ‘crops TO- 49. 66 tated; owner’s labor and supervision. Plat 912) eo eesee eee Very deeply worked, well-manured soil; 46.99 crops rotated; blocking and thinning done by contract, all other labor done by owner; Nos. 4 and 6 in same field— very uniform. Platas(191 ee sects Same as No. 2, except that seed was sown | 38. 57 rather deeper, resulting in more damp- | ing-off in the spring. H iPlati2i(19l2) 2 ea ee Same as No. 4, except that seed was sown 37.19 rather deeper, resulting in more damp- ing-off in the spring. Group 2.—Very light sandy Platib(LOE2) 2. see as Soil not plowed so deeply as in Nos. 2, 4, | Cigfila 5, and 6, but more sandy; owner’s labor | and supervision. } Plati6; (1912): ses ces oleae GOR Bee ee ae eee eae eee 68. 20 PSG 2AT GEOL) eee Very badly thinned, spacing irregular, 64.41 6.89 per cent of the plants in pairs; choked with weeds; labor mostly done by young boys without supervision. Platis'(A912) i524 2-2 aes Plants tardy in the spring, owing to late 60. 26 sowing; soil in good tilth; owner’s labor; good farmer. IB ERA GLI) paa e ee Second sowing; plants rather tardy in 59. 82 the spring; soil in good tilth; owner’s labor; good farmer. PlatiOHAGlD) So ase Much of the work done by boys, with lit- 52. 48 tle supervision. Group 3.—Heavy black Plat lOMdo12)\ eee es ee Ground not plowed, only disked and har- | 63.13 rowed; severe hailstorm in mid- -August defoliated the beets. Plapi (912) ee Owner’s labor; conditions about normal... 60.12 Plat Ha (Oli) ke-2222 so. Land in good tilth; too much contract 52.30 labor; 2.56 per cent of the plants in pairs. lab, B91) - ss. seo: Sowed and thinned rather late, thinning 48.12 badly done; 9.82 per cent of plants in pairs; contract labor. Plat (O10) heeeeee eee Contract labor; soil plowed about 8 inches 45.71 deep; other conditions normal. Plat Gi@9il)ie ce. s ese. Soil in good. tilth, heavily manured, 45. 62 deeply plowed; Je apanese working for themselves. Plat: 2iGl910) = ses a-6 Like! No Win 25-2 2- -+ -28 See ose 45.51 (Plagi3 (1910) eee once see sce oe ee NS ee ee eS 39. 58 Plat 211912) eset Se Contract labor; conditions about normal. 37. 98 Plat 13) (1912) 22a". oa co- Contract labor; 2.03 per cent loss by cutting 29.55 an irrigation ditch through the plat; other conditions normal. : Mean’ of prouD ils: aa] eR eee oe ey ie ee tre Sas } 49. 96 Mean of group 2...... |e Fe APL. 7 See Be eh Se a | 5.63271 Mean of group3.....- NS AE hey pee bu A SN oe a 46.7 52. 26 Mean of all plats. .._.. aus Se asbe ac uleaaae tet Ree acre. 26.773 27.524 19. 431 19. 406 SOURCES OF LOSS IN STAND. Sources of losses of great magnitude in the stand are brought to light by an examination of the data presented in Table II. The factors directly causing a decrease in the number of plants to the acre were found to be susceptible of arrangement into three groups, SUGAR BEETS: PREVENTABLE LOSSES IN CULTURE. 9 namely: (1) Those occurring in the germination stand prior to thin- ning; (2) careless and improper thinning and blocking; and (3) those incidental to cultural operations between thinning and harvest. SOURCES OF LOSS IN THE GERMINATION STAND. The sources of loss found between the time of sowing and the dual operation of spacing and thinning are (1) poor preparation of the seed bed; (2) imperfect operation of seed drills; (3) late frosts; (4) the damping-off disease; (5) the blowing of light, sandy soils; (6) flea beetles; and (7) cutworms or wireworms. LOSSES IN STAND FROM THINNING. Improper thinning was found to be the greatest single source of loss in stand, the more serious because nearly imperceptible and unsus- pected. This loss is caused by the double operation of blocking and thinning. It is one of the most costly operations in the cultivation of sugar beets and, strange to say, the one most frequently intrusted to hired labor or contract work. Worse still, it is seldom efficiently supervised. Invariably the space left between the plants is greater than the farmer imagines or intends. When the plants have attained a moderate size, it is almost impossible to distinguish, without count- ing, between stands of 50, 60, or 80 per cent. LOSSES JIN THE HARVEST STAND. The difference in the percentage of stand between that shown imme- diately after thinning and that existing at harvest time is to be attributed to inefficiency in the cultural operations during the inter- vening period. Some of these losses are caused by the eradication of plants with the hand hoe and their destruction by the hoofs of horses or by implements, especially when turning at the ends of rows, and by poor guidance of the cultivator, whereby it swerves and cuts out the plants along the rows. (In this way from one to four rows may be damaged at each round, according to the type of cultivator employed.) The flooding of low areas and the drying out of high ones, as well as cutting through rows to distribute water in poorly graded fields, are additional sources of loss. (See Table II.) It soon became apparent that the observations could most profit- ably be confined to a determination of the nature and extent of losses in stand and their causes. From these data it appeared possible to discover whether correlations exist between such losses and the yield of the respective plats. To ascertain the percentage of the stands throughout the season, measurements were made of the actual distance between all the plants in every row under observation, instead of obtaining merely the aver- 1 Germination stand is the stand of beets resulting from the germination of the seed up to the time of thinning. Thinning stand is the stand or number of plants left after blocking and thinning. Harvest stand is the number of beets to the acre at harvest time. 91241°—Bull. 238—15 2 10 BULLETIN 238, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. age distance by counting the plants in each row and dividing the length of the rows by the number of plants. This was accomplished with the simple contrivance shown in figure 1. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF POOR STANDS. Having shown that progressive reductions in the percentage of stand occur throughout the entire season, and haying indicated the factors chiefly concerned in this destruction of plants, an inquiry may be made as to the significance of these reduced percentages. Does the eradication of these beets from time to time during the season affect the ultimate yield, or does it hap- pen that the remain- ing beets, bemg more widely spaced, so in- crease in size on ac- count of the aug- mented area allowed to each plant as to compensate for the diminished number to the acre ? It is frankly con- ceded that evidence on this question might be inconclu- sive if based alone on observations of plats or fields on or- dinary farms—that is, farms among which greater or less diversity of condi- tions exist, however Fig. 1.—Graduated wooden rod used in measuring thegapsinastand uch care may have of sugar beets. : * 3 beenexercised in their selection; where the application of even identical methods will vary to some degree; and where there are other factors of variation known to everyone who has carried on such experiments. Fortunately many ex- periments have already been conducted under test conditions, both in Europe and in the United States, which conclusively demonstrate that with such crops as cotton, corn, mangel-wurzels, potatoes, turnips, car- rots, lettuce, sugar beets, and other spaced crops an optimum area for each plant may be discovered. Only a few of these are cited.t To 1 Holden, P.G.,and Hopkins,C.G. The sugar beet in Illinois. Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 49,52 p.illus., 1898. Knauer, Ferdinand. Der Riibenbau... Aufl.9,neubearb von Max Hollrung, p. 64-65. Berlin, 1906. Nicholson, H. H., and Lyon, T. L. Experiments in the culture of the sugar beet in Nebraska. Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 60, 34 p., 6 fig., 1899. Shaw, G. W. Culture of the sugar beet. Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cire. 13, 21 p., 3 fig., 1905. SUGAR BEETS: PREVENTABLE LOSSES IN CULTURE. 11 reduce or to increase that area beyond certain limits results in a lessened yield per acre. Each crop requires its own special area per plant to yield the best results, but that area must be modified to some extent in different soils, with the available water supply and with climatic variations. The cited experiments and practical experience alike show that the sugar beet requires, not only for the highest tonnage but also for the greatest yield of sugar per acre, an area of 144 to 160 square inches per plant, the optimum area varying somewhat with the character of the soil, fertilizers, and climate. In practice, the rows should be spaced not less than 18 or 20 inches apart, to facilitate cultural operations with horse implements. Commonly a distance of 20 inches has been adopted in the United States. This, then, is really a closed question. The spacing may be arranged by adjustment of the seed drill. The matter of importance is the spacing between the plants in the rows. In most localities and in good beet soils a distance of 8 inches between plants is advised. Hach beet would thus have 160 square inches, which, in round numbers, would give 39,200 plants per acre. This might be taken to represent a perfect stand and is the one employed in these tables as the standard for comparison. With beets averaging the moderate weight of 1 pound, such a stand would yield no less than 19.6 tons to the acre. In most of the beet districts of the United States the average weight of beets considerably exceeds this; it does so in all but one of the plats under observation. (See Table II, column 11.) We have seen that the average acre yield in this country during the season of 1910-11 was only 10.17 tons and that of Utah 11.42 tons, as compared with an average yield of 14.84 tons to the acre in Germany. Since these facts have been experimentally established under test conditions, the data presented in Tables II and III acquire a real significance. Granting the impossibility of obtaining absolutely uniform conditions among the plats, even of each group, it would be unreasonable and illogical to repudiate the strong correlations found each season and to call them mere coincidences. One must acknowl- edge them to be examples of cause and effect. In short, it is held that the losses in stand indicated in these tables correspond more or less closely to the diminished yields. As before stated, the apparent exceptions are accounted for by the specific adverse or especially favorable conditions mentioned in relation to them. The evidence of a relationship between the per- centage of stand and the percentage of yield is strengthened to a degree almost equaling that obtained under strict experimental con- ditions by the fact that the data from two pairs of plats are pre- sented, one pair being in each of two very uniform contiguous fields iD, BULLETIN 238, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. where all the cultural operations were identical and carried on in each field by the same person. ‘These are plats 1 and 2 and plats 3 and 4 of group 1, 1912. (See Table II.) In these two pairs of plats the correlation is perfect. From these data, then, grave losses have been revealed in the percentage of stand of sugar beets. It has been demonstrated that a close relation exists between stand and yield; therefore it is apparent that such considerable losses in stand as have been indicated repre- sent losses in tonnage. If data were collected from the fields of less experienced beet growers, still greater discrepancies would be re- vealed, which would correspond somewhat closely to their discourag- ing ylelds. Most of these losses are avoidable. LOSSES ON A CASH BASIS. The discrepancies among the yields of the fields under considera- tion will appear still more striking if translated into terms of dollars and cents. It is known that year after year some beet growers in the older districts (for example, those represented in groups 1 and 2, Table IL) obtain no less than 30 tons of beets per acre, while in the district represented by group 3 (Table II) a yield of 25 tons an acre is not uncommon. Large yields are obtained annually by the most skillful beet growers in other States. It is acknowledged that yields such as those just mentioned are exceptional and are won only after the soil has been worked into splendid tilth by very deep plowing, ample manuring, and intensive culture. Perhaps such a standard might be open to the criticism that like results would be imprac- ticable in general. For the purposes of comparison, then, the best plat in each group will be used. (See Table IV.) Emphasis is placed on the fact that the yields mentioned in con- nection with the fields under consideration are not unusual, but are obtained by the same growers year after year with but shght fluctu- ation. Should it be contended that the soil in these fields is richer, deeper, or more fertile than that of other fields in the vicinity, where much smaller yields are obtained, it can be said of them that they are so chiefly because the owners or cultivators of those fields have brought them up to their present condition through better farming practices and not because the soil itself was markedly superior at the outset. In regard to the sugar content of the beets, it can be said that the percentages quoted are those obtained from composite factory samples taken at random at the time of the delivery of the beets and determined by the chemist of the sugar factory. The season of 1912, when these tests were made, was not an exceptional one. It is undoubtedly true that weather conditions, especially in the latter part of the season, influence perceptibly the percentage of SUGAR BEETS: PREVENTABLE LOSSES IN CULTURE. 1b sugar in the beet. However, it is also true in general that the beets of those growers who are skillful enough to obtain the best yields also show a relatively high percentage of sucrose. In some States the average percentage of sugar is annually lower than in others, probably on account of climatic differences. For that reason the standard set in this paper might have to be lowered somewhat to meet local conditions. In such places the standard obtained from the best beet growers in any specified locality could be substituted as a basis for calculating the deficiencies among the less successful beet growers. There are two systems of payment in vogue, namely, the flat rate and the sliding scale. The flat rate adopted in this paper is below the average for the whole country, namely, $5 a ton for all beets containing more than the factory minimum of sucrose. The average price during 1913-14 was nearer $6 a ton. TaBLe LV.—Comparison of the yields and cash receipts from various plats of sugar beets, Jor 1910, 1911, and 1912. Deficiency, on Actual returns. basis of yield of Actual | Sugar best plat.t Group and plat. | Year. yield. in | Ee Flat | Slidi Pla iding BH Ae As | rate. scale. ila: Sliding. —— le | 1 2 3 | 4 5 6 7 8 Tons. | Per cent. BS BBP) ||Etoasoocce $1525 G6) |S ci ee aes AG eae os ee 23. 696 17. 80 118.48 | $131.27 Do4. 18) Eee eee QO Oil ke srs TEBMGIA |lessecosesc USED Secs conse 27. 524 17.30 137. 62 148. 35 LGR A ocebeseen 19. 431 17.80 97.15 107. 64 55. 51 19. 406 17.30 97.03 104. 62 GPL GBS||scosas occa 24. 560 17. 55 122. 80 122. 97 OONSO7 esa seeane 23. 631 19. 60 118. 15 1432.6. 7iil leet cie macnn ouee cme 20. 853 18. 50 104. 26 119. 90 13.89 23.77 Vere lecscakoac G63959| Ree saeccee IL PAD ona tcone 17. 236 17. 80 86.18 95. 48 31.97 48. 19 WAGWES eadaeseode Ci ey al uesoacuad SPI ole mers ee 13.926 18. 00 69. 63 77.98 48.52 65. 69 17. 684 18.475 88. 42 109. 26 35. 68 45. 88 Orson Ee anone oe ATO seca sa B85 (Aileen aps 15) 253 18. 90 76. 26 89. 53 OEP esaaaaue os MECCA ee cee secon Ue AGN ree oe eae QuOSyl renames IBS EYH) |oaseas cece GOS62)| Bee eeer es OOS eye een 1503272 ose eee GosGiiBee ene PANS EY inl ea eeeeeese V7 SOGh|sseeem eee SGN oop Pete eet Oyen aa Bor NLA) oceo Sonex Wes sea mene wee 1A A eta ae IN SD) ood cacote DO es a a SOO m |e mere 11.733 18. 00 58. 66 65. 70 Mi AeSaedsue se 10. 314 19. 95 51.57 63. 74 Bey Oils Soeceneee WIR oi Sean ee sc No ean ieee 13. 007 18. 95 65. 53 72.99 PHO DA) a See esas Mean ofaliliplatstse sass een eseee ees 17. 433 18. 27 87.39 104. 35 D8 384 Mw ae In groups 1 and 3 the percentage of sucrose in the beets from the best plats is not known; Yate) the perburations of receipts under the sliding scale can not be given for those groups. 14 BULLETIN 288, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. For the sliding scale $5 a ton for beets containing 16 per cent of sucrose, with 30 cents a ton additional for every increment of 1 per cent in sugar content and a deduction of 25 cents a ton for every 1 per cent less than 16 per cent (fractional percentages in proportion), is taken to represent about the average rate. A consideration of columns 5, 6, and 7 of Table IV will reveal the surprising magnitude of the discrepancies as compared with the yields of the best growers. In some cases this discrepancy is greater per acre than the actual cost of producing the crop, which averages about $42.50 an acre exclusive of manure, rent, or interest on the capital invested. The additional cost of manure would be about $15 to $20 an acre, but as this should preferably be applied to a preceding crop instead of directly to the beets this charge would be shared between two crops. HOW TO OBTAIN BETTER STANDS. Grave sources of loss have been revealed. They occur not among poor farmers alone, as might have been expected, but among those considered to be good. How great these losses are among the less successful farmers may be surmised after a moment’s consideration. The average yield per acre of sugar beets in the United States for the season of 1910-11 was only 10.17 tons; the average for the State of Utah where these observations were made during the same period was 11.42 tons to the acre, while that among the better farmers as taken from these plats was 17.68 tons. Year after year the best beet growers obtain from 20 to 25 tons an acre. (PI. 1.) Therefore a large army of beet growers must obtain an average yield of much less than 10 tons an acre. Either their land is unsuited to profitable beet culture or their methods are bad or are very inefficiently carried out. In any case the real nature of the trouble should be ascer- tained. If the land is not adapted. to beet culture, it would seem better to abandon that crop for a more profitable one; if their methods are at fault, the growers should be instructed by the fac- tory field men. To analyze data of this character and to indicate the causes of deficiency in stands of sugar beets, with the accompanying losses, are almost tantamount to pointing the way to an avoidance of such losses GERMINATION LOSSES. The average loss of stand caused by imperfect germination was 19.31 per cent (Table II, column 5), which was due largely to the poor preparation of the seed bed. In the first place, it was noted that fall plowing is seldom practiced and that it is rarely deep enough. One serious result of shallow plowing, early apparent in beet culture, is that weed seeds remain so near the surface that they are enabled SUGAR BEETS: PREVENTABLE LOSSES IN CULTURE. 15 to germinate and sprout before the beet seedlings appear above ground, greatly retarding and stunting the latter. (Pl. II.)! Too frequently manuring is delayed until spring, when, in con- junction with faulty preparation of the ground, pockets of half- rotted manure are left in the soil. These cause the taproots of seed- ling beets coming in contact with them to become sprangling and ill-shaped. It is believed to be the best practice to apply manure to a preceding crop instead of directly to beets. In irrigated districts much loss is occasioned by the imperfect grading and leveling of the surface of the field; thus, low spots re- main in some places and high ones in others. The low areas are Fic. 2.—A homemade float used in leveling a beet field preparatory to sowing the seed. flooded with every irrigation (PI. IIL), while the elevated places, if extensive, suffer drought or render much extra work necessary to get the water over them. In either case, many plants are killed Giex3). It is also apparent that losses in the stand occur on account of lack of responsiveness of the seed drills to irregularities in the sur- face of the field, resulting in the scattermg of seed on the surface of the ground when individual drills pass over depressed areas. Little or none of the uncovered seed germinates; if the seed were slightly covered it might lie there in the dry surface soil until a shower caused 1 The subsequent operations of disking, harrowing, and floating the fields (fig. 2) are not sufficiently thorough, leaving the seed bed too rough and cloddy and resulting in a reduced percentage of germination of the beet seed. a 16 BULLETIN 238, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. it to germinate later. Such belated plants add little to the tonnage. (BEL) The damping-off disease exacts its toll every season; it may be so severe as to more than decimate the stand (Pl. V). It is occasioned partly by fungi borne on the seed balls, and partly by fungi present in the soil. This disease seems to be severe when the spring weather is unfavorable for the rapid and vigorous germination and growth of the beets. An incrustation of the soil after rains sometimes prevents the young seedlings from breaking through, especially in heavy loams. These Fic. 3.—Three sugar beets, showing the effect of standing water or a wet subsoil upon the roots. crusts may with advantage be broken with a corrugated roller. (ale WAL) Wireworms and flea beetles are very troublesome and destructive in some localities (fig. 4). In this connection it would be of benefit to keep down weeds along fences, ditches, and roadsides. (PI. VIL.) It is entirely practicable to increase the percentage of the germina- tion stand to an extent that would amply repay the cost of the addi- tional labor required. Deeper plowing should be more generally practiced. The extra disking and harrowing would require only a few hours more labor per acre. In irrigated regions the extra labor PLaTE I. Bul. 238, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. LOASYad ATIVOILOVYd VY WOYS "GNVLS NOILVNINYaD 'SUOW SHL OL SNOL OG LNOSV AIZIA TIM HOIHM ‘SL3agag YVONS 4O GNVLS aooy vy Bul. 238, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. Fic. 1.—A SHALLOW-PLOWED BEET FIELD. Fic. 2.—A DEEP-PLOWED BEET FIELD. CONTIGUOUS SHALLOW-PLOWED AND DEEP-PLOWED FIELDS, SHOW- ING THE EFFECT OF EACH METHOD ON WEEDS. Shallow plowing leaves the weed seeds near the surface, where they spring up before the beet seeds, checking and choking the young beet seedlings. Deep plowing buries the weed seeds and gives the beets an opportunity to get started before they come up. PLATE Ill. Bul. 238, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. aqaT1i™y "$L0dG MO7] G3d0014 SHL NO OL SL33q SHL SMOTIY HOIHM GNV ‘NOLLVSINY] ONINNG YOSY7] AYVSSSOSNNA] HONIA| SSATOAN| LVHL G13I4 L335 G37SA37 A1uOOd Y Bul. 238, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. A FIELD OF SUGAR BEETS, SHOWING THE GAPS LEFT IN THE ROWS BY A DRILL WHICH FAILED TO ADJUST ITSELF TO THE IRREGULARITIES IN THE SURFACE OF THE GROUND. Bul. 238, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. A STAND OF SUGAR BEETS MUCH REDUCED BY DAMPING-OFF. PLATE VI. Bul, 238, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. neg Petr eo bee ams I Me erie me "SNIVY ONIUdS ATYVA YSLAV SWHOY SAWILAWOS LVHL 1ASN¥O SHL dN Mva"q OL GNV SONIIGSAS 4O SLOOY AHL LNODV TOG AHL LOVdWOO OL GASf Y3T1IOY 30VW3aWOH Vv PLATE VII. Bul. 238, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘OZIS [BINJVU GOI SL IU. 94} IB UMOYS WIOM OO SWHOMAYIM Ad .GaYNrNI Sslaag uvONS ONNOA ‘SpooM WIEM poyoyo ATpeq puv pouuryy wos jou {) ‘quid sry oy} JoyJU syooM [VAOAOS ‘pouuLyy ysnl ‘gq four radoad oy} ye pouutyy ‘7 “ONINNIH | JLV7 JO SLOSSS SHL ONIMOHS ‘sigag YvONs JO ajal4 y PLATE VIII. ae Soe “4 rm 4 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bul. 238 SUGAR BEETS: PREVENTABLE LOSSES IN CULTURE. Ths necessary to grade and level a field properly could be put in at odd times during the autumn and winter and in many cases would not cost more than the additional labor and loss entailed each season by leaving this work undone. Implement manufacturers should be urged to study the improve- ment of seed drills in order to make them more responsive to the sur- face of the ground and to perfect a seed-dropping device for them. However, much of the trouble with seed drills could be avoided by better preparation of the seed bed. The first cultivation, taking place soon after the senikinps appear, is sometimes sonlieeity fone, or is performed with inlemnans not well adapted to the operation. Thus, many seedlings are smothered by having the soil thrown over them. A special type of cultivator, with disks adjusted to protect the plants, will prevent losses of this sort (fig. 5). Fic. 4.—Sugar-beet seedlings, showing the effect of late frosts and the bites of flea beetles. The dead seedlings were killed by frost; the others were bitten by flea beetles. LOSSES ON THE THINNING STAND. Many beet growers defer thinning and spacing too long. The European beet growers hasten to their fields as soon as most of the seedlings have acquired two pairs of true leaves. To delay beyond this stage may mean a marked reduction in tonnage and sugar, as is shown by an experiment in Germany in which the results given in Table V were obtained.1 TaBLE V.—Losses due to delayed thinning of sugar-beet seedlings in Germany. Loss per Thinned— Yield. acre at $5 a ton. Tons. PALAULLC ORO DEL [LING ssa ete Te eee ee ke SRR CR Sie eee OS ee RELL 1a en Saeseaes eos One week later... . j 13.5 $7. 50 Two weeks later 10 25. 00 Three weeks later 7 40.00 1 Robertson-Scott, J. W. Sugar Beet: Some Facts and Some Illusions, p. 120. London, 1911. 18 BULLETIN 238, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In general, the larger the plants when thinned the greater the shock they receive, and the weeds meantime have an opportunity to outstrip the beets, crowding and checking them. (Pl. VIII.) However, the greatest single cause of deficiency in stand is care- less or improper spacing and thinning. As shown in column 16, Table II, the average loss entailed in the plats under observation was 21.41 per cent. It is significant that this dual operation, one of the most expensive in beet culture, is very frequently done by con- tract labor either without supervision or with the most perfunctory and intermittent kind of supervision. In European beet fields this operation is under constant supervision. The deficiency of stand caused by this operation is brought about by spacing the plants too far apart, by leaving two or more plants togeth- er, or by carelessly chopping out plants where they should be left. In no in- stance has the writer been able to find the spacing as close as Fie. 5.—A beet cultivator with disks to prevent the seedlings from the beet grower in- being covered by the earth thrown up by the cultivator blades. RS = we ] (Courtesy of J. W. Robertson-Scott, London, 1911.) tended SHE LES ASA An increase of 2 or 3 inches in the distance between all the plants would greatly reduce the yield per acre, other things being equal. This excessive spacing is gen- erally unsuspected and imperceptible except by actual measurement. Yet one can scarcely blame hired or contract laborers for hurrying over this work, because in most cases they are paid the same price per acre whether the work be well or badly done and whether the stand be good or poor. It would seem but equitable to offer a bonus for better work, based on the number of plants per acre re- maining after thinning. On the celebrated farm of Sainte Suzanne, belongnmg to the Prince of Monaco—a farm worked on scientific principles—it is required that the beets be left 11 inches apart in the row. About 40 cents additional per acre is paid if 28,000 beets an acre remain after the second cultivation. SUGAR BEETS: PREVENTABLE LOSSES IN CULTURE. 19 The highest percentage the writer has attained by the careful use of a 6-inch hoe was 92.58 per cent for one row. His best average for 8 rows was 83.7 per cent, when working with moderate rapidity. ELIMINATION OF HAND SPACING. Although it is believed that the singling of beets will never be accomplished with machines or implements, it is thought to be entirely practicable to effect the spacing in such a manner. In this country of high-priced labor, means should be devised to eliminate hand labor from farming operations as far as possible. Much has been accomplished already toward the successful pulling and topping of beets by machinery. A number of machines for blocking beets have been patented, and some of them are in success- ful operation. In some parts of Europe a 4-row or 6-row cultivator is run across the field at right angles to the rows, thus cutting out spaces at regular intervals. Generally, this spaces the beets too widely. Numerous attempts have been made in the United States to accomplish proper spacing by transplanting sugar-beet seedlings in the manner that tobacco, cabbage, celery, etc., are successfully set out. However, it has been thought that this causes the beets to become sprangling, by injuring or turning up the taproots of the young plants. LOSSES AFTER THINNING AND BEFORE HARVESTING. Individually, the losses occurring between the times of thinning and harvesting are of minor importance, although they aggregated 6.82 per cent among the plats under observation during the season of 1912. (See Table II, column 17.) A source of loss present every season, especially among less experienced beet growers; is that aris- ing from the careless or unskilled use of the cultivator, not only when turning at the ends of rows, but in the rows themselves, by allowing the cultivator to swerve far enough to cut out plants. With a 2-row or 4-row cultivator this may occasion a serious loss, because two or four rows are injured simultaneously. It need only be said that a little more care would appreciably reduce this loss. The later in the season that the various depletions in stand are made, the more serious is their effect on the yield, because the plants then have less chance to respond to space effect by an additional increase in size. LOSSES FROM THE DRYING OF BEETS. Another scarcely suspected loss, not due to deficiency of stand, often takes place at harvest. This is caused by leaving the beets in open rows or piles in the field after they have been dug. As soon as the roots have been torn from the soil, rapid loss of water takes place from every portion of the plant. Therefore, whether the beets 20 BULLETIN 238, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are left untopped or are topped and thrown in small piles or windrows, according to custom, the wind and sunshine cause the beets to lose weight. It has been shown that the loss in weight so occasioned may exceed 5 per cent a day for several days in succession, the percentage of loss gradually decreasing as the water is progressively withdrawn from the beets. This circumstance could be taken advantage of when beets are dug which are found not to have attained the required percentage of sucrose. The water is withdrawn by evaporation, but the sugar is not. Therefore, a concentration of sugar would take place in consequence of the evaporation of a portion of the water by permitting the beets to dry out through exposure in the field after digging. This, doubtless, would soon be sufficient to augment the sugar percentage to the required degree. SUMMARY. A striking variation in the yield of sugar beets on the different farms in any particular beet district of the United States, even though of very restricted area, may be noted every season. Since the climatic factors are practically uniform in such a restricted area or district, with cultural methods almost identical and soil types within that area not very diverse, additional causes for these great variations in yield are to be sought. Employing as a basis for comparison the stand which experiment and experience have shown to be the optimum-—suhject to some modification for different soil conditions—namely, a stand containing 39,200 plants per acre, which would result by leaving beets 8 inches apart in rows 20 inches apart, these studies show that even among experienced “beet growers, many of them truck growers, deficiencies in stand exist to an extent quite unsuspected. These deficiencies of stand may be divided mto three groups: (1) Those occurring in the germination stand, averaging 19.32 per cent among the plats of 1912; (2) those due to improper spacing and thinning, averaging 27.3 per cent among the plats of 1911 and 23.27 per cent in 1912; and (3) those occurring between thinning and harvest, ranging from 2.54 to 12.85 per cent, with an average of 7.26 per cent among the 18 plats from which these data were obtained. Together these represent a total mean deficiency of stand of more than 50 per cent. Most of these losses in stand can be greatly reduced by the applica- tion of better methods or a more careful adherence to already existing ones, by the more thorough supervision of hired labor, and by the elimination of contract work as far as possible. The losses may be considered as largely the result of inexperience and inefficiency. This is emphasized by the fact that as a rule where losses from one source are great, those from other sources are correspondingly large. SUGAR BEETS: PREVENTABLE LOSSES IN CULTURE. Hal The data here presented show a strong correlation between per- centage of stand and yield. The existence of a relation between yield and percentage of stand has been demonstrated frequently under experimental conditions in Europe and rather less frequently in the United States. Therefore, it is believed that the losses in stand shown to take place progressively throughout the season correspond to a loss in yield. However, it is also shown, through apparent exceptions to this correlation, that despite a stand of fair percentage at the outset the yield may remain comparatively small through neglect and carelessness during the season. There is found to be a moderate uniformity in methods, but great irregularity and discrepancy are conspicuous in the thoroughness of their application; in other words, efficiency varies greatly. It is not to be expected that every beet grower, although he may possess fields well adapted to beet culture, can at once obtain such yields as the best of those mentioned in this paper. However, such yields should be possible on many farms when, after a few years of thorough cultivation, the fields have been worked up into equally good condition. The benefits accruing from increased yields of beets through improved tilth of the soil are especially pronounced. These studies were made among fair and good beet growers in an old beet district whose mean yield reached the respectable total of rather more than 17 tons to the acre, while the average for the United States for 1910-11 was only 10.17 tons and that for the State of Utah, where these studies were made, was 11.42 tons per acre. The magnitude of preventable loss incurred by a very large proportion of beet growers must be amazing; in fact, it must exceed the entire cost of raising the crop. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1915 ey re east a Ces Sarath ates ne ee > aivAda willie Spin on Es SES os oe ; . - ; : $ ; pcs, ’ Hae ini [herent ering ‘te (oe Siar % Bent peat abet, WU Foe ‘he. bi ps ede a ¥ oper a. Ziyi ‘woke. 10 Sic sdertaite: es “at ; 9 ty be : K No. 239 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief. June 24, 1915. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) THE EGGPLANT LACE-BUG.' By Davin E. FINK, Entomological Assistant, Truck Crop and Stored Product Insect Investigations. (In cooperation with the Virginia truck experiment station, Norfolk, Va.) INTRODUCTION. Injury to eggplant by lace-bugs (PI. I) first attracted the attention of the writer during the spring and summer of 1913. In the vicinity of Norfolk, Va., eggplant was found to be infested by a species at that time undescribed. It proved to be Gargaphia solani n. sp., the des- ignation being given by Mr. Otto Heidemann, of the Bureau of Ento- mology. Owing to pressure of other work during the season of 1913 no further attempts were made at the time to study the insect to any great extent, but it was noted to feed extensively on eggplant, the leaves of which turn yellow and finally shrivel up. During the spring and summer of 1914 it again came under observation, investigation proving it to be widely distributed in Tidewater Virginia. In fact, wherever eggplant was grown on a commercial scale the lace-bugs were feeding. It was then considered advisable to make a careful study of the habits of this insect in view of its wide economic impor- tance, and at the same time to devise and test methods for its control. NATURE OF ATTACK. In the early nymphal stages lace-bugs resemble the young of aphides; and since they procure their food by suction, the injury re- sulting to the plants (Pls. I, III) is indicated by a characteristic yellowing of the leaves. All stages may be found on the underside of the leaves, and in the nymphal stages, particularly, they always feed in original colonies as hatched. ‘The first stage of injury appears in the form of circular discolored areas of about the size of a silver quarter. Such a leaf when examined will show a mass of eggs, and 1 Gargaphia solani Heidemann. Nott.—This bulletin deals with a new enemy of eggplant and related plants. It will be of interest ___ wherever these plants are grown commercially. 91733°—Bull. 239—15 yy) BULLETIN 239, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, usually the female also will be observed either in close proximity feeding or in the act of ovipositing. Upon the emergence of the nymphs from the eggs the discoloration of the leaves increases in area until finally the entire leaf is involved, turning yellow and dry. The nymphs migrate from one leaf to another, injuring every leaf attacked, until they transform, after which, as adults, they disperse to other plants. Not every plant in a field will be injured, but once a plant becomes infested every leaf may be so injured as to result in the loss of the plant. The truckers in the vicinity of Norfolk, Va., usually raise eggplant in fields of from 6 to 10 acres. During the summer of 1914 many such fields were carefully examined, and the injury was estimated at from 10 to 15 per cent of the entire acreage. The uninformed trucker does not as yet recognize this insect as a specialized eggplant pest, since the injury closely resembles that due to aphides. As the plant- lice are feeding on the eggplant at about the same time, the lace-bug injury is usually attributed to them. The injury to eggplant by this tingitid is entirely well defined and individual in character, and no one who has carefully observed the damage would ever confuse it with that due to the work of aphides. DESCRIPTION OF STAGES. THE ADULT. This interesting lace-bug belongs to the heteropterous family Tin- gitide, which contains a number of injurious forms affecting certain of our native trees and shrubs. Although many species are found in some tropical countries, those occurring in the United States are comparatively few in number. The eggplant lace-bug is one of the larger species of the United States and differs considerably in appearance from the others by rea- son of its prominent lacelike hood extending back of the head and the lacelike venation of the wings. The adult (PI. I, fig. 2) is depressed or flat bodied, grayish to ight brown, about 4 millimeters (43; of an inch) in size, and derives its popular name from the delicate lacelike structure of the wing covers. Following is a technical description of the adult by Mr. Otto Heidemann:! Body rather flat; dark brown; angulated; yellow rim of the rostral groove very dis- tinct.at base of metasternum. Head dark, deeply punctured; at frontal part three small slender spines, the upper one more prominent; two others near to the eyes a little longer. Antennze quite long, hairy; basal joint comparatively thick, black, and somewhat longer than the terminal joint, which is fusciform and black at the apex; second joint the shortest, testaceous; third more than four times as long as the fourth joint, yellowish white; buccule moderately expanded, yellowish, with one row of minute areoles. 1 Heidemann, Otto. A new species of North American Tingitidse. Jn Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash, vy. 16, no, 3, p. 136-137, 1 fig., Sept. 26, 1914. THE EGGPLANT LACE-BUG. 3 Pronotum feebly convex, black, with three low yellowish carine, the median one a little higher before the middle, tapering toward the pale apex of the triangular posterior portion of the pronotum; the lateral membranous part of the pronotum angu- larly expanded, with two to five series of irregular areoles, the edge somewhat broadly reflexed, some of the nervures exteriorly blackish. Head, pronotum, and the edge of the membranous dilation densely covered with fine, soft hairs; pronotal hood rather large, much longer than wide, covering the hind part of the head, leaving the eyes free; surface yellowish white, opaque, with fine minute areoles. Hemelytra extending about one-third beyond abdomen; oblong-oval, broadly rounded at the end, feebly sinuate toward the base; the discoidal areas pyriform, reaching to about the middle of the elytra, reticulated, blackish at base and at apex, a pale stripe across the middle, the subcostal biseriate, yellow; costal margin yellowish-white, translucent with four or five series of medium-sized areoles at the widest part, those toward the base smaller; five transverse oblique nervures black at the costal area and all nervures at the apex more or less blackish. Legs pale, yellow. Length, 4mm.; width, 2mm. The following descriptions of the immature stages are by the writer: THE EGG. Length 0.37 mm., width 0.18 mm. Color light to dark greenish at base, gradually assuming brownish toward the apex. Top of egg crater-like, with whitish lacelike border, and screwlike rim. The entire egg resembles a miniature bottle. The eggs are attached to the underside of the leaves by their bases and usually lean in all directions and at almost every angle. THE NYMPHAL STAGES. First stage.—Length 0.3 to 0.4 mm, width 0.12 mm. The newly hatched nymph resembles a newly born aphis, is white to light yellow, with pink eyes, long legs, and antenne as long as body. Second stage.—Length 0.8 mm., width 0.19 mm. Color yellow. Antenne as long as body; the last segment clublike, covered with set; last segment of the legs possessing a pair of claws. There are spines on each side of the thorax and from each segment of the abdomen. Third stage.—Length of body same as in the previous instar; width decidedly more, 0.30 mm. Spines on lateral margin and on dorsal surface of body. First indications of wing pads occur in this stage by the swelling of lateral margins of the thorax. Fourth stage —Length 1.5 mm., width 0.8 mm. Body oblong-ovate, yellowish. Head dark yellow, hood prominent; wing pads extending to second abdominal seg- ment. Entire body covered with spines, the position of which is discussed in the following nymphal stage. Antenne as long as body, light brown. Fifth stage—Length 2.2 mm., width 1.2 mm. (Pl. I, fig. 2.) Body oblong- ovate, yellowish except at margin of abdomen, where it is light yellow with dark patch at the apex. On the lateral margins of each side of first three abdominal seg- ments a tubercle rises directly from the surface, and from the last six abdominal segments rise prominent spiny processes. From the middle of each of first and second abdominal segments there rise two hornlike spiny processes, and one from the fourth, fifth, and seventh segments dorsally. One spiny process and some tubercles on the lateral margin of the wing pads; two large spiny processes placed near together on the metanotum, and tubercles at each side of thorax. On each lateral margin of the hood there is a spiny process and some tubercles; two prominent spines are located centrally, and a small pair nearer the head. The head carries three strong spines in front, one long and two shorter ones; two large, strongly curved, hornlike spines at the base near the eyes. All spiny processes except on the lateral margins of the sixth, seventh, and eighth abdominal segments dark brown; those on latter light yellowish. Head yellowish brown; eyes prominent; thorax dark yellow; wing pads light yellowish with dark margin at base, extending to fifth abdominal segment. Antenne light brown, as long as body. 4 BULLETIN 239, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, DISTRIBUTION. The collection of Tingitide at the U.S. National Museum contains few specimens of this species. These have been recorded by Mr. Heidemann in his paper as follows: Kirkwood, Mo., August 10 (Riley, Pergande), found on Solanum carolinense and Solanum elae- agnifolium; Lavaca County, Tex., June 21; Columbus, Tex., July 29, 1879 (Riley collection), on coffee weed (Cassia sp.) and Solanum sp.; El Reno, Okla., July 12, 1909; Norfolk, Va., June 12, 1913 and 1914 (Fink), and the author stated at the time ‘‘It is recorded as found on eggplants in great abundance.” The species was also found by Dr. F. H. Chittenden, August 12, 1913, and later, and by others, including the writer, in the District of Columbia, and by the writer in Maryland and at Occoquan, Va. Judging from the localities already known it is a native American species and seems to have a range of distribution extending from the South Atlantic coast to the Southwestern States. SEASONAL HISTORY. THE ADULTS. Early in spring, almost as soon as eggplants are set in the field, the hibernating adults begin to infest them and establish colonies. Thus adults and eggs were found as early as May 20. The adults reproduce and feed the entire summer on the eggplant, but migrate to the horse nettle (Solanum carolinense) during the latter part of August and the first week in September, when the season for eggplant is about over. Here they continue breeding until cold weather sets in. The adults hibernate in the shriveled leaves or in the ground under débris, reinfesting the next crop when set out. The egg-laying period in the field lasts from four to five days. In the laboratory the duration is slightly longer, the temperature aver- aging 75° F. Table I indicates the date and number of eggs depos- ited by three females confined in the laboratory. Tasie 1.—Number of eggs deposited by females of the eggplant lace-bug, Norfolk, Va., 1914. Female A. Female B. | Female C. Number Number | | Number Date. of eggs. Date. of eggs. | Date. | of eggs pres) 1 eae net cbenee BY/N | Aiba ae Lee seas 30) |) Daly 1222 sees 28 WLM Stee eset eeee tc 30M WUMelz> seamaster 43°} July: 132 eee eeweeee 31 TONS YZ) LAE eee eee eet 34) | ume 27.4 ec. acne a 23 || July: 15:.25-e ceases 42 VUNG Won aioe cree Pils ti SAN UNC 20s eo eiettal Saison 23)]) July 19io2 cose eee 15 JUNG Zeer eer 23 No tall ease ae ec 188 rs SRY Syieia Michel sieie ma Rimieeee 11) by a aR eee Niobe ose 116 Females that were observed in copulation on July 12, 1914, gave the first complement of eggs July 14, 1914. Bul. 239, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE lI. Fia. 1.—LAST NYMPHAL STAGE OF THE EGGPLANT LACE-BUuG. GREATLY EN- LARGED. (ORIGINAL.) Fia. 2.—ADULT OF THE EG@GPLANT LACE-BUG. GREATLY ENLARGED. (ORIGINAL.) THE EGGPLANT LACE-BUG (GARGAPHIA SOLANI). Bul. 239, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il. - & as ak SURFACE OF EGGPLANT LEAF, YELLOW AND Dry AS A RESULT OF LACE-BUG ATTACK. (ORIGINAL.) WORK OF THE EGGPLANT LACE-BUG. PLATE Ill. Bul. 239, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. . (ORIGINAL.) Buas UNDERSIDE OF EGGPLANT LEAF INJURED BY LACE BUG WORK OF THE EGGPLANT LACE- Bul. 239, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. UNDERSIDE OF LEAF OF EQ@GPLANT WITH ALL STAGES OF THE LACE-BuGs. (KILLED BY FISH-OIL Soap, 7 POUNDS, TO 50 GALLONS OF WATER. NORFOLK, VA., 1914.) (ORIGINAL.) WORK OF THE EGGPLANT LACE-BUG. —— Bul, 239, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Last NYMPHAL STAGE OF THE EGGPLANT LACE-BUG ON UNDERSIDE OF EGGPLANT LEAF. NORFOLK, VA., 1914. (ORIGINAL.) THE EGGPLANT LACE-BUG. ‘“ONG-A0V1 LNV1d993 SHL (TIVNIDINO) “VA ‘HIOSYON ‘ONG-JOV] LNVIdODA SHL YOd SLNVIdOD9 ONIAVYd S PLATE VI. t. of Agriculture. Bul. 239, U. S. Dep THE EGGPLANT LACE-BUG. 5 THE EGGS. The minute greenish eggs are deposited on the underside of the leaves in circular masses of about 116 to 188. Their bases are attached in irregular rows, not erect, but, as before stated, leaning in different directions and at different angles. A sticky secretion is spread over the eggs after oviposition. To the unaided eye the eggs appear like a mass of mere dots on the underside of the leaf, occupying an area of leaf surface about one-half inch in diameter. The female attends the eggs during the entire period of incubation, leaving them only at intervals to feed, and later, when the nymphs emerge, is constantly in attendance. Table II indicates the normal period of incubation for the summer months. Since not all the eggs are deposited at one time by the female, the emergence of the nymphs extends over several days. The table, however, refers to dates when nymphs first began emerging. TaBLe Il.—Incubation period of the eggplant lace-bug, Norfolk, Va., 1914. Date of | Date of | Date of | Date of No deposi- emer- reas | No deposi- | emer- gerne? ‘ tion of | gence of Saal. all : tion of | gence of od eggs. |nymphs.| Perec. || eggs. |nymphs.| Perloc. i ie | Days. || Days. Ree ee dire asia (aat May 24 | May 30 (Ol |i aaeeeaaacaHentceraars June 23 | June 28 5 113 6 Meee SP ERR a May 25 | May 31 Gillevoettes bet Sees fe June 23 | June 29 6 Bae acgueseaueeneeas June 15 | June 23 i Weeees socesmot accesses June 26} July 3 7 aan ee SESE June 17 | June 24 Cele bsticcesedocisesaaaae July 41} July 19 5 Brees es ee sina June 21 | June 26 5 || ] THE NYMPES. The nymphs are always found feeding in groups (Pls. IV and V). After the first molt they become yellow and at the same time shift their feeding position on the leaves. When migrating from one leaf to another the female adult usually directs the way, and with her long antenne keeps the nymphs together or rebukes any straggler or deserter. It is an interesting sight to observe the migration of a colony of more than a hundred nymphs, with the female adult hurry- ing from one end of the flock to the other, keeping them together, and at the same time urging them in the right direction during the migration. When a new area has been selected the nymphs settle down, insert the proboscis, and begin to feed. In its undeveloped forms, particularly in its last two nymphal stages, the eggplant lace-bug is an interesting and grotesque-looking object. The head and body are covered with spiny processes the function of which is not yet well understood. Some of the spines on the head are hornlike and, situated as they are near the eyes, they resemble very much the horns of some domesticated animals. That the adult female keeps a watchful eye for intruders and ene- mies while in attendance on the nymphs is attested by the following 6 BULLETIN 239, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, observation: On one occasion while observing the feeding of the nymphs a ladybeetle (Hippodamia convergens Guer.) was seen to approach the brood, when the adult lace-bug in attendance on the nymphs, with outstretched, slightly raised wings, suddenly darted toward the intruder, driving it from the leaf. From the time the nymphs are born until they reach the adult form they pass through five distinct molting periods, and when tem- perature and other conditions are normal the time between molts is quite constant. From Table III it will be observed that two days is the usual period between molts. TaBLeE III.— Molting stages of nymphs of the eggplant lace-bug, Norfolk, Va., 1914. Date First Second Third Fourth Fifth | No. hatched.| molt. molt. molt. molt. molt, | Adult. | ORR bang a8 zien ee itso teers s) attoif stoiecenis Siac July 9] July 11 | July 13] July 15} July 17 Date een ae nee Nl RR os haa. 1 ee eres |e Obs soe see OOeccce | see do. .-do dos Se ee Sinan Fe tie RE ek ation | AaaC see odo d Ansty .do. Coumee ARE ME ses Rees Hrs cise Seow | Me met ae eee July 10] July 12 | July 15} July 17 | July 18 Deseo neoce seereee sates ones July 7| July 9] July 11) July 13] July 15 ].--do..... Adult. Gitte o eerte teers a has eina sees ain la Sarees 22200500] 22k G0ee 220022 --G02tea" July 17 Us oO ICE EEE eee aes Goweee ess G0%2=2|==2 do.. ..do-. Gol=222 SR ee See teen ome ewe cn fee eee do dois2. 2-50 dose Dead GO2:.-2 LIFE CYCLE AND NUMBER OF GENERATIONS. Since two days represents the duration of time between molts, the life of the nymph from the egg to the last nymph, under normal conditions, is 10 days. Allowing six days for the egg stage and sev- eral days for time before and after copulation by adults, the life cycle is approximately 20 days. In the vicinity of Norfolk, Va., this lace-bug was found breeding as late as November, giving a breeding season of nearly six months. There is a possibility of from seven to eight generations a season. Apparently six generations are spent on eggplant and the remainder on horse nettle. Most of the generations in the field overlap, and the following observations made during the summer of 1914 indicate that six generations are spent on eggplant. First generation, May 24. Fourth generation, July 26. Second generation, June 11. Fifth generation, August 15. Third generation, July 7. Sixth generation, September 4. In the region of Norfolk, Va., as stated before, the growing season for eggplant ends about the last of August or the first week in Sep- tember, after which the lace-bug is found on the horse nettle (Sola- num carolinense), where it continues to feed. It, undoubtedly pro- duces several generations on this plant, for as late as November all stages of the insect, including eggs, were found on it. THE EGGPLANT LACE-BUG. a NATURAL ENEMIES. Several predaceous insects were observed feeding on the nymphs and adults of the eggplant lace-bug. The species of ladybeetles common in this section, Hippodamia convergens Guer. and Megilla maculata De Geer, in both the larval and adult forms feed on the nymphs and adults of this lace-bug, usually turning them over on their backs before feeding. A common soldier-bug, Podisus macu- liventris Say, feeds on the nymphs. Another common hemipteron found feeding on the nymphs is Triphleps insidiosus Say. Three species of spiders, Hpewra domiciliorum Hentz, Plectana stellata Hentz, and Chiracanthium inclusum Hentz, identified by Mr. Nathan Banks, of the Bureau of Entomology, were observed feeding on all stages of the lace-bugs. It was not uncommon to find many lace-bugs with the head severed and the body mutilated. A very few specimens of a hymenopterous parasite were reared with the adult lace-bugs; this was identified as Microdus sp.’ but it was not positively proved to attack the lace-bug. METHODS OF CONTROL. June 17 and 18, 1914, a series of spraying experiments against this lace-bug was undertaken in which the comparative values of fish-oil soap and various strengths of a standard blackleaf tobacco extract containing 40 per cent active nicotine sulphate were tested. (See Plate IV.) The results were quite satisfactory. Taste 1V.—Spraying experiments against the eggplant lace-bug, Norfolk, Va., 1914. aoe Nymphs Adults No. Fish-oil soap. Nic oe sul- | Killed oer killed (per I ; cent). cent). 1-2 4| 1 pound to) 50\gallons of water. ...-.-.-....----.-.----=-----=- | 1to1,066|) 80to 85 None. a aye CO RS arc EN mts ciate cle oes races ake Amare \S ats SOE Peo | 1to 800 | 90 None, Bsedlisaaee Clo see eae napa benoomboonsesoeccuconeepopebdecocepecccope ito 640 85 to 90 None. 4__.| 24 pounds to 50 gallons of water........--..-.--.--.--------- leocvaenacsecs 80 to 85 None. 5_-.| 3/peunds to 50 gallons of water. .-..:..-....---.--..-----.--- TE eesetenene eat a 90 None, Gees |rompounds toro0}gallons of water 522-2 ---<----9- se ee ante lpaceagsqpasara 95 None. (eee \WOpouTdstoy50)eallons of water sess. -22 62-2. eeeecoemeees 100 40 to 50 8...| 7 pounds to 50 gallons of water.......-.--.-.---------------- Jodencsccoswone 100 90 to 95 9.--| 8 pounds to 50 gallons of water.....-.-...-..-.---------:.--- [ocecc creer cree | 100 95 From the above table it will be readily seen that the percentage of nymphs killed was but slightly affected by the increase in the amount of the nicotine sulphate, and that the latter had no effect whatever on the adults; whereas with each increase in the amount of fish-oil soap there was a corresponding increase in the percentage of nymphs killed, until finally we arrive at a strength which will affect the adults. Above that strength we may then get perfect control of both the nymphs and adults. Too much emphasis can not be laid on the thoroughness with which the spraying should be performed. It is particularly essential that the underside of the leaves be thoroughly covered by the spray. 1 Chttn. No. 137301, WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1915 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY V Ja i; BULLETIN No. 240 Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry A. D. MELVIN, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER July 13, 1915. PASTEURIZING MILK IN BOTTLES AND BOTTLING HOT MILK PASTEURIZED IN BULK. By S. Henry Ayers, Bacteriologist, and W. T. JOHNSON, Jr., Scientific Assistant, Dairy Division. CONTENTS. Page. Page. ImMbLodi chon ea Ses eee 1 Prevention of bottle infection by Method of bacteriological analysis —_ 3 bottling hot milk and by pasteur- Method of pasteurizing in bottles___ 3 ization ny DO LtLES ew ede ee ale 14 Bacterial reductions by pasteuriza- Cooling milk which has been bottled tHOneInubOtblese= see es 3 Ho ea a ee Se 16 Advantages and disadvantages of The cream line and flavor of pas- pasteurization in bottles_________ 7 teurized milk cooled by various Machinery for pasteurizing milk in TLC L EVO CS tae Wy eee rp 23 DO GELeSh Sai Si eee ea ee 7 | Bottles to be used in the process of Method of pasteurizing in bulk and bottling hot pasteurized milk_____ 24 Houblincawhilehote— 2 see le a 11 Process of bottling hot pasteurized Comparison of bacterial reductions in milk under commercial conditions_ 24 milk pasteurized in bottles and SuMIMVa yes eee Sel es ee Dron milk pasteurized in bulk and bot- Citation tovliterature se wee ae Bit tledewhilephot2s=225 Sake aes 12 INTRODUCTION. The process of heating milk in bottles is by no means a new one, for it probably dates back to the work of Soxhlet (1),‘ from 1886 to 1891. In general, however, the object has been partially or completely to sterilize the milk by the use of high temperatures rather than simply to pasteurize it at low temperatures. While the practice of steriliz- ing or partially sterilizing milk in bottles has been extensively prac- ticed in several countries in Europe, the pasteurization of milk in bottles has not been so common. 1 The figures in parenthesis refer to the list cf citations to literature at the end of the paper. Notre.—This paper is of interest to milk dealers, health officials, and all who have to do with the milk supply of cities; it is suitable for distribution in all parts of the country. 94289°—15—_1 2 BULLETIN 240, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is evident from the report of Gerber and Wieske (2) that pas- teurization in bottles has been practiced in certain localities for a considerable period of time. According to these authors, pasteuri- zation in bottles by the process of Gerber, which consists of heating milk in bottles for one hour at 65° C. (149° F.), during which they are agitated, had been practiced in certain dairies for 15 years pre- vious to 1903. In this country milk has been pasteurized directly in bottles at various Strauss infant milk stations for several years, but this proc- ess has not been used on an extensive commercial scale until within the last two years. During the summer of 1910 an investigation was started of the bacteria which survived pasteurization in flasks and of the efficiency of the process. A report of this work has been pub- lished in Bulletin 161 of the Bureau of Animal Industry (8). While this work was in progress North (4) suggested the pasteuri- zation of milk in bottles on a commercial scale by the use of machines similar to those which have been in use in breweries for several years. The process of pasteurizing in bottles consists in bottling the mill in specially constructed bottles of sufficient size to allow a space in the top of the bottle to take care of the expansion of the milk during heating. The bottles are capped with special water-tight caps and submerged in hct water. After the milk in the bottles has reached the pasteurizing temperature, the temperature is maintained for 30 minutes; the hot water is then replaced by cold and the milk cooled. In general it takes about 30 minutes to heat the bottles, 30 minutes for the holding period, and 30 minutes to cool. Milk is also pas- teurized in the bottle by heating and cooling with water which is . sprayed over the bottles. By this method of spraying, ordinary caps with a protective covering can be used; this will be described in another place in this bulletin. This process of pasteurizing in bottles is now used on a commer- cial scale in a number of milk plants throughout this country. Numerous advantages of this method of pasteurization over the ordinary methods have been claimed particularly in relation to the far superior bacterial reductions obtained. The most obvious point of advantage of this process is the prevention of reinfection after pasteurizing, but it seems as though a modification of the present system of “holder” pasteurization by bottling the pasteurized milk while hot, as suggested previously by the senior writer (5), would help to solve the problem of reinfection. Accordingly, the general object of the work hereinafter described has been to compare on a laboratory scale pasteurization in bottles with the process of bottling hot pasteurized milk. The special ob- jects have been to determine the bacterial reductions in each process, to study any special points which must be considered in the opera- PASTEURIZING MILK. . 3) tion of each process, and to present preliminary data on the cooling of milk in bottles by an air blast. METHOD OF BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS. Since bacterial counts are widely influenced by differences in media and incubation it is always essential in discussing the results of bac- teriological work to explain exactly how the counts were obtained. In this work plain infusion agar, made according to the recom- mendations of the committee cr. milk analysis (6), was used. The plates were incubated for five days at 30° C. (86° F.) and counted. METHOD OF PASTEURIZING IN BOTTLES. Milk was placed in special bottles, similar to those supplied to the trade, and capped by machine with patented metal caps. The bottles were heated by being submerged in hot water at a temperature of from 145° to 147° F. After the temperature in the bottom of the bottles had reached 145° F. they were held at that temperature for 30 minutes and removed, plates being made while the milk was hot. The bottles were so constructed that after a full quart of milk was poured in there remained an air space of sufficient size to allow for the expansion during the heating. While heating it was noticed that the milk expanded and pressure enough was generated to lift the caps slightly so as to allow. air to escape. Special care was taken to see that the temperature in the bottom of the bottle of milk was maintained for the full 30 minutes. The method of pasteurization was the same as is used on a com- mercial scale; hence, the results obtained are directly applicable to commercial conditions. The fact that the bacterial counts were taken directly after heating has no effect on the results, since it has been shown that cooling plays no part in the destruction of bacteria in the pasteurizing process (3). BACTERIAL REDUCTIONS BY PASTEURIZATION IN BOTTLES. It has been claimed that remarkable bacterial reductions have been obtained by pasteurization in bottles which were far superior to those obtained by other methods even when the same temperature and holding period were used. In order to determine what reductions could be obtained, 34 samples of milk were pasteurized in bottles. The results are seen in Table 1. The bottles for samples Nos. 2 to 23, inclusive, were washed clean in hot water, but not steamed, before they were filled with raw milk. The bottles for the other samples were steamed two minutes and then cooled before they were filled with raw milk. ee EEO EEO EE eee 4 BULLETIN 240, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 1.—Bacterial reductions during the process of pasteurization in bottles. l l Nl After pas- 1 | After pas- teurization é | | teurization < ins ill ahs in the ercentage |, x F in the ercentage Sample No. | Raw milk. bottle for | reduction. } Sample No. | Raw milk. | bottle for | reduction. 30 minutes HT 30 minutes at 145° F. | at 145° F. Bacteria Bacteria 1] Bacteria Bacteria per Cc. Cc. DETACH 2a (| DET CHC per c. C: 7 fe at 58, 000 1,630 | OTST 20 See c een 80, 000 | 2,010 97.48 Bietelwie ieee 63, 000 1,070 BET). | Wale Bee coeabae 160, 090 29,500 81.56 Ae ne Nein aie 5, 100, 000 11, 800 OOF Onl |baousoer =eae sae 151, 000 12,500 91.72 Deng ene MEAT 580, 000 8, 000 98562) [1:93 2. sues a Eee 81, 000 9, $00 87. 90 Giese 5, 900, 000 15, 600 99574. 24s eae oes ee 24,900 570 97.71 980 ONO Th (Oh aan eee | 94, 000 2, 200 97. 66 7,100 |. 99390 A e26)a282 220-22 305, 600 55, 800 81.70 7,600 OG202R hor aacaeeaenes 235, 000 7,600 96. 76 14, 200 beets al | beets ee aes ese 176, 000 11, 400 93. 52 5,780 75250" ||t20 sees 97, 000 8,350 | 91.39 28, 000 625.6631| 30a eee 230, 000 5,500 97. 61 1,720 NEWS) || PG een oe ee 124, 000 1,500 98. 79 2,410 99594|1:39 2105 Se ssce » 450, 000 11, 400 97. 46 3,550 PEP Re eee eeaee 3, 950, 000 3,520 99. 91 T.G60i|}) & . 99-98'||'34s0 152-8 985, 000 18, 400 98. 13 710 96:24 || 85 oo cs. e eee 190, 000 9,300 95. 10 10, 900 50. 41 | $$] | —___—_ 23,300 | 17. 67 | Average., 1,570,493 9, 863 90. 86 As may be seen from the table, the bacterial reductions were high as a rule, but there were exceptions. The average total count of the samples of raw milk was 1,570,493 and after pasteurization 9,863 bac- teria per cubic centimeter. It is interesting to note that the percent- age reductions averaged 90.86 per cent and ranged from 17.67 per cent to 99.98 per cent. When the latter reduction was obtained the raw milk contained 8,100,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter; when the minimum reduction was obtained the raw milk contained 28,300 bac- teria per cubic centimeter. These results further substantiate the con- clusion expressed in Bulletin 161, page 58 (3) ,that percentage bacterial reduction has no special meaning, since it is influenced by the number and kinds of bacteria in the milk when pasteurized. Considering the results as a whole, it is evident that low counts may be obtained by pasteurization in bottles. While carrying on these experiments the following points were noted which are worthy of attention: TEMPERATURE OF THE MILK DURING HEATING. In the process of pasteurization it was found that the temperature of the milk in different parts of the bottle was quite different during the time the milk was being heated. Several experiments were made, heating water in sealed bottles to determine the differences in the top, middle, and bottom of the bottles. Three thermometers were inserted through a rubber stopper into a bottle so that the stems were at the top, middle, and bottom of the bottle, respectively. The bottles were then submerged in hot water at a temperature of from 145° to 146° F. and the temperatures of the water in the bottles were recorded. ee ete ees ee eee Ne 1 PASTEURIZING MILK. 5 Four pint bottles and four quart bottles were used. The averaged temperatures in the pint bottles are shown in figure 1. It will be seen from the curves that in a pint bottle with water at 50° F. submerged in hot water at about 145° F. it took 104 minutes longer for the tem- perature in the bottom of the bottle to reach 140° F. after the top had reached that temperature and 42 minutes longer for the temperature in the middle of the bottle. When the temperature in the top of the bottle was 140° F., in the bottom it was only 118° F. The averaged temperatures of four quart bottles are shown in figure 2. When the temperature in the top of the bottle was 140° F., that in the bottom was only 127° F., and it took 94 minutes longer for the temperature in the bottom to reach 140° F. eee ee [esa (EE ee a Ser as ° 2 Ar nOG es Oa LO 12| -I4 16 [28 20 22 | 24 2019628 630) 327634 303840 12.4 17.6 23.2 Heating period in minutes. Fic. 1.—Variations in temperature in different parts of pint bottles of water during the process of pasteurization in the bottle. It is evident that when pasteurizing in the bottle care must be taken to record the temperature in the bottom of a bottle and to date the holding period of 30 minutes from the time the bottom temperature has reached 145° F. In recording the temperature an accurate ther- mometer should be used, and it should reach to within one-half inch of the bottom of the bottle. COOLING THE MILK AFTER PASTEURIZING. After the milk is heated in bottles on a commercial scale it is cooled by replacing the hot water with cold and gradually changing the temperatures so as not to break the bottles. Upon cooling, the hot milk contracts and a partial vacuum is formed in the bottle when the caps are tight. It is recommended by the manufacturers of some of the patent caps that after heating the bottles be allowed to 6 BULLETIN 240, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cool for a few minutes in air until the cap becomes concave, as this is said to hold the cap on tight and helps to make it water-tight. Obviously, it is of utmost importance that the caps be water-tight, since they are submerged in water during cooling, and if not tight the milk may become infected by polluted cooling water. When bottles are submerged the ordinary cardboard cap is of no value for pasteurization in the bottle, since water will easily pene- trate during cooling. This makes it necessary to use some form of patented cap, of which both specially treated cardboard and metal caps are on the market. It is almost needless to state that if the edge of the bottle is chipped or otherwise imperfect almost any seal cap will not be water-tight during the cooling. Imperfect bottles must not be used. It is claimed by the manufacturers of patented seal 140° F. 130° F. 120° F. ag val aac EeHset tte eee to Eee LP Ae | a eI ee ae AAV Pe SL ee PATE Eee Ze@GR eR eee Ot Oie LO ke 14 | 16 13 20 | 22 24| 26. “28 “30 “32 534) 9365" 38haq0 I5.2 20.5) (244 110° F. 100° F, 90° F. 80° F. 70° F. 60° F. 50°F. Heating period in minutes. Fic. 2.— Variations in temperature in diiferent parts of quart bottles of water during the process of pasteurization in the bottle. caps that they are tight on perfect bottles. It would be advisabie, however, for the dairyman to test the tightness of his caps by the following method: Fill the milk bottle with a 0.05 per cent solution of barium chlorid (BaCl,). The barium-chlorid solution should be made up with distilled water, since the sulfates present in ordinary water will cloud the solution. Cap the bottles in the usual way with a seal cap and heat to 145° F., submerge, and cool in a 10 per cent solution of magnesium sulfate (MgSo,). If any of the magnesium sulfate leaks into the bottle during cool- ing the barium-chlorid solution will become cloudy, owing to the formation of barium sulfate, which is insoluble. This test is very delicate and will show even a slight leak. Both these chemicals may be obtained at any drug store. Since barium chlorid is poisonous, after testing bottles in which it has been used care must be taken to es PASTEURIZING MILK. Vi wash the bottles thoroughly in order to remove the barium solution. Care must also be exercised to keep the chlorid solution from alt edible products about the plant. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PASTEURIZATION IN BOTTLES. From a bacteriological standpoint the advantage of pasteuriza- tion in bottles lies in the fact that reinfection after pasteurization is usually prevented. In the ordinary methods of pasteurization there is a great opportunity for infection from coolers and in bottling. Of course the proper handling in the ordinary method of pasteurization reduces and may prevent subsequent reinfection, but the possibility still remains. It is the general opinion that the process of pasteurization in bot- tles also effects a great saving in milk by doing away with the loss in evaporation over the coolers and with the loss in milk which adheres to the apparatus in the process of pasteurization. Undoubt- edly this saving is quite a considerable factor. There may also be a saving in the expense of machinery and in the interest on the capital invested, but it is not the province of this paper to discuss the finan- cial aspect of this process. On the other hand, in a plant where pasteurization is now per- formed in the ordinary way, it would be necessary to install an entirely new equipment for this system of pasteurization in the bottle. When bottles are heated and ccoled by submerging in water perhaps the greatest disadvantage is the cost of water-tight caps. This item of expense is important, since it may increase the cost of pasteurization as much as one-fifth of a cent per bottle. Whether the saving in milk losses is sufficient to overcome this added expense can be determined only by the actual operation of a milk plant. In some processes of pasteurization in the bottle ordinary caps can be used, as the bottles of milk are heated and cooled by a spray of water, and the tops of the bottles are protected by metal coverings. MACHINERY FOR PASTEURIZING MILK IN BOTTLES. Pasteurization in the bottle has been practiced on a commercial scale in many different ways since water-tight caps made it possible to heat milk in bottles by submerging in water. When this process of pasteurization was first practiced the bottles, with water-tight caps, were placed in tanks and heated, held, and cooled by changing the water. This method, while satisfactory on a small scale, was hardly practical in large plants. Several types of machines have been invented, which make the process continuous. One of these 8 BULLETIN 240, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ) machines is shown in figure 8. The machine consists of a large tank divided into two compartments and two smaller tanks. These con- tain water at different temperatures. Bottle-holding frames are car- ried through these compartments on an endless chain in the manner shown in the drawing. The raw milk is bottled and capped with water-tight caps, then placed on the bottle-holding frames of the machine on the loading end. The bottles of milk are then carried through the preheating compartment into the pasteurizing compart- ment where they remain for about 30 minutes. From the pasteuriz- ing tank the bottles are carried to the cooling tank, then to the refrigerating tank, after which they are removed from the machine. The process is continuous, the bottles of milk being loaded at one x SS : H.P. MOTOR ~~ Fic. 3.—Machine for continuous pasteurization of milk in bottles. The bottles have water-tight caps and are conveyed on an endless chain.through water compartments of various temperatures, end, heated, held, and cooled, then unloaded at the other end of the machine. The temperature of the water in this machine is auto- matically controlled. There are other machines on the market which differ in the man- ner in which the bottles are carried through the tanks of water, but the principle is about the same. : In other types of pasteurizers the bottles are not submerged in water and consequently water-tight caps are not necessary. The bottles of milk are heated and cooled by sprays of water and ordinary caps are used and protected from water by a metal covering. One of this type of in-the-bottle pasteurizers is shown in figure 4. The , PASTEURIZING MILK. 9 crates of raw milk are placed on an endless traveling conveyor which passes through the machine and returns under it. The bottom of the machine is divided into several compartments and each compart- ment is filled with water for supplying the machine when in oper- ation. The top of the machine is a flooding pan divided into com- partments corresponding to those in the bottom of the machine. Pumps draw the water from the lower compartments and force it into the corresponding top sections, from which it returns in the form of a shower through perforated bottoms. The process is repeated with the same water. As the crates of milk pass through the machine they pass through showers of water at different temperatures and are heated to the pasteurizing temperature, then held and finally Wie. 4.—Another type of continuous machine in which the bottles of milk have ordinary caps and are passed through showers of water at various temperatures. cooled. The tops of the bottles are protected from water by metal caps arranged as.shown in figure 5. This frame of metal caps covers the top of each bottle in the crate. The pasteurizing section of the machine is located in the center with the preheating and cooling section at each end. The preheating and cooling sections are connected by channels, because the cool milk entering the machine has a tendency to cool the water and the hot milk emerging from the pasteurizing section has a tendency to heat 94289°—15——2 10 BULLETIN 240, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. it. The temperature of the water in the pasteurizing section is auto- matically maintained. In figure 6 is shown another type of in-the-bottle pasteurizer which is so arranged that bottles of milk may be heated with ordinary PSS Gace, sal vel Fic. 5.—Metal caps in frame for protection of bottles as operated in machines shown in figures 4 and 6. caps. The pasteurizer is made of sheet inetal and contains racks which hold crates of bottles. The tops of the bottles are covered with metal caps of the type shown in figure 5. The crates of raw milk covered with metal caps are placed on the racks in the pasteur- Cvyyupveuyuvreyeuee eeu. cepucue fic. 6.—A pasteurizing machine in which paper-capped bottles are protected by metal caps, and heating and cooling are done, respectively, by circulation of hot and cold water. izer and heated by means of hot water which is forced against the bottles. The water is circulated by means of a pump and is used continuously. After the milk has reached 145° F. it is held for 30 minutes and then cooled. Cooling is accomplished by replacing the PASTEURIZING MILK. 11 hot water by cold, while for low temperatures a special set of cooling pipes is supplied. The temperature of the heating water can be automatically controlled. METHOD OF PASTEURIZING MILK IN BULK AND BOTTLING WHILE HOT. For the pasteurization of milk in bulk a double-walled cylindrical tin tank with a capacity of about 34 gallons was used. The con- uiley seers 4 ¢----- Thermometers Cavern ae es Vf Steam Inlet - - > «-- Ar Pipe Jacket-.- - 5} | | | ie leiene| t ee leee iat A i q yal Water Space-- - - -| Le 1 Ff 5 | ui | y 4 1 Dees tes cae | (SFL 4 | a |] 5 i 1 | } ‘ I" i i Milk Tank. . — J pa ae | an) lh Mit } , (pert) Revolving Paddle — - - I ; === < : f | | u | | | U ene -—--—-- J i Vy ; y sasz! Rubber Tube a iF —— Milk Outlet } Glass Tube ----- j eee Stand--- 5) - Yj 7 7 Fic. 7.—Apparatus for pasteurizing milk and bottling while hot. z. = ac) i=} (@) = ) fo) fe) nw ! 1 ' ! ' 1 | 1 : 1 1 1 og ane es (4) SSS SSS SS struction of this tank is shown in figure 7. Raw milk was placed in the milk tank, where it was heated by hot water in the outer jacket. The surrounding water was heated by a steam jet and con- stantly agitated by blowing in a small amount of air. During the heating the milk was agitated by a paddle supported by the cover of the milk tank. The water in the jacket was kept at a temperature of about 146° F. The milk was held at a temperature of 145° F. 12 BULLETIN 240, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for 80 minutes and then drawn off while hot through the outlet pipe into hot milk bottles which had been steamed 2 minutes. As stated before, this method of bottling milk while hot was suggested in Cir- cular 184 of the Bureau of Animal Industry (5), but the suggestion then was to bottle hot milk in cold bottles. In this work it seemed advisable to bottle directly into hot bottles, as it makes it possible to steam the bottles and fill them before infection can take place. Also, this method eliminates the possibility of breaking bottles. While working on this process of bottling milk hot it has been found that a similar process was apparently patented several years ago, but, so far as known, it has never been used to any extent. This process as described by de Schweinitz (7) consisted in pasteurizing the milk at temperatures from 160° to 180° F. and placing it while hot in a sterilized milk jar or fruit jar with a flap top. Special paper caps were used. The jars of milk were cooled by being placed in troughs of iced water. ' COMPARISON OF BACTERIAL REDUCTIONS IN MILK PASTEURIZED IN BOTTLES AND MILK PASTEURIZED IN BULK AND BOTTLED WHILE HOT. Since it has been shown earlier in this bulletin that excellent bac- terial reductions may be obtained by pasteurization in bottles, a question of great importance arises as to whether or not as good results can be obtained by pasteurizing milk in bulk and bottling while hot. A series of 22 samples of raw milk was pasteurized by both proc- esses at 145° F. for 30 minutes. Part of the milk was pasteurized in bulk in the pasteurizer shown in fig. 7 and bottled hot in hot bottles which had been previously steamed for two minutes. In all these experiments the bottles were capped with ordinary paper caps, no precautions being used in capping by hand. Another portion of the same raw milk was pasteurized in bottles. Both samples of pasteur- ized milk were examined bacteriologically while hot in the bottles. In the first series the bottles in which the milk was pasteurized directly were washed with hot water and washing powder imme- diately before they were filled with raw milk. PASTEURIZING MILK. 1,3) Taste 2.—Comparison of bacterial reductions in milk pasteurized in unsteamed bottles and in pasteurized milk bottled while hot in steamed bottles. Milk pasteurized at 145° F. for 30 minutes. ., | Hot pasteurized milk | Milk pasteurized in Sara oun Ee taaies in hot steamed bot- washed but un- EH) NOD : tles. steamed bottles.1 per c. ¢.). Bacteria | Percentage| Bacteria | Percentage pere.c. | reduction. | perc.c. | reduction. 58, 000 1,160 98. 00 1, 630 97.18 63, 000 220 99. 65 1,070 98. 30 5, 100, 000 8, 400 99. 83 11, 800 99.76 580, 000 8, 300 98. 57 8, 000 98. 62 5, 900, 000 6, 000 99. 90 15, 600 99. 74 99, 000 610 99. 38 980 99. O1 Glas Su ced eoL bos SEO ARCH E ee See COREE mor res 7,400, 000 6,300 99. 91 7,100 99. 90 Oe a hee ae Pe Peers or 191, 000 2,000 98. 95 7,600 96. 02 O65 oe 5 Soke 33 OB oR ee Rea eee eee 14, 109, 000 7,000 99. 95 14, 200 99. 89 TIL Ss Slee Sets Bis a Pike ne eine a 24,700 4,550 81.58 5,780 75.59 1S A SBe SEO Le SC AS DB SR OROE SCRE see at Erase 75, 000 3, 000 96. 00 28, 000 62. 66 TB es ibs hea clei a tS IES epee en 126, 000 1,440 98. 86 1,720 98. 63 Te eS ea cabs hss SOUR RCE EMEC Oe pone Hee Ee re 4, 100, 000 2,470 99. 94 2,410 99. 94 DE ee eee te ih cet ae sponse okie 76, 000 1,400 98.16 3,550 95. 32 IQs och cbuce SCS SD BSH Bete Oe Greene Ee eae 8, 100, 000 1,620 99. 98 1,660 99. 98 Ife, cago aeAGe Be 5 DECOR DO SCE eee See eA aoe 18, 900 760 95. 97 710 96. 24 UR tae Peete ecieateis eles wes isomers 24, 000 800. 96. 66 10,900 50. 41 1) oo SHEA Bees tbe BeOS Dan SES eae eran 28, 300 7,050 75. 09 23,300 17. 67 WD) 3 3 SoS SeSk6 dos GUCH OE CATO eee ae See eae ee 80, 000 1,360 98.3 2,010 97. 48 PPP PEER SPREE ote Stage ia leini el reves late ieie here eseisie ae 160, 000 1, 830 98. 86 29,500 81. 56 274s els ic DSS OS OBOE SUCROSE OE ees 151, 000 3,200 97. 88 12,500 91.72 BN dS PEE DOHA BODES e Oe ey SE See rereres ae sate 81, 000 6, 800 91. 60 9, 800 87. 90 PAS VOTAL Be eae rae Sa nae myelin eicie oleae 2,115, 268 3, 467 96. 50 9,083 | 88. 34 1 Bottles were washed clean in hot water, but not steamed, before they were filled with raw milk. The results of the bacteriological examinations are shown in Table 2. It will be seen that the average count of the raw milk was 2,115,- 268 bacteria per cubic centimeter. After being pasteurized in bulk and bottled hot in hot steamed bottles the average count was 3,467 bacteria per cubic centimeter, while the average count when pas- teurized in bottles was 9,083 bacteria per cubic centimeter. Compar- ing the percentage of bacterial reductions, it will be noted that the average reduction of the milk bottled hot was 96.50 per cent and only 88.34 per cent in the milk pasteurized in bottles. In 19 of the 22 samples the bacterial count was lower in milk pasteurized in bulk and bottled hot. In many cases the count was much lower, as may be seen by comparing samples 4, 6, 7, 12, and 18. This difference is par- ticularly striking in sample 21, in which milk pasteurized in bulk and bottled hot showed a count of 1,830, and some of the same mill pasteurized in a bottle for the same time and at the same temperature contained 29,500 bacteria per cubic centimeter. In the boket that this marked difference might be due to the fact that the bottles were steamed in the first case and unsteamed when the milk was pasteurized directly in bottles, another series of samples was pasteurized in which both bottles were steamed for two minutes 14 BULLETIN 240, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in order to eliminate this factor of possible infection. The result of these experiments are shown in Table 3. TABLE 3.—Comparison of bacterial reductions in milk pasteurized in steamed bottles and in pasteurized milk bottled while hot. Milk pasteurized at 145° F. for 30 minutes. Raw milk. Hot pasteurized milkin| Milk pasteurized in Sample No. hot steamed bottles. steamed bottles.1 Bacteria Bacteria | Percentage} Bacteria | Percentage per ¢.c. pere.c. | reduction.| perc.c. | reduction. 24,900 380 98. 47 570 97.71 94,000 860 99. 08 2, 200 97.66 305, 000 21, 800 92. 85 55, 800 81.70 235, 000 5, 400 97.70 7, 600 96. 76 176, 000 2,200 98. 75 11, 400 93.52 97,000 5, 900 93.91 8,350 91.39 230, 000 6, 300 97. 26 5,500 97.61 124, 000 920 99. 26 1,500 98. 7: ; 450, 000 4, 200 97.47 11, 400 97. 46 OOS re sacs teehee smicicnie ses aasiaeetieeetes “3,950, 000 4,320 99.89 3,520 99.91 SUE See ee coe se soe wse son teseteae sees 985, 000 11,800 98. 80 18, 400 98. 13 BOM eee ses eqe teeta PPh cane sia cceteeeme 190, 000 7,500 96. 06 9,300 95.10 EAC CLAD OU tne nt nin an en eee te 571, 766 5, 965 97. 46 | 11, 295 95. 48 1 Bottles were steamed two minutes, and cooled before they were filled with raw milk. It will be seen that the results again were in favor of the milk pasteurized in bulk and bottled while hot. Of the 12 samples in the experiment 10 showed lower counts than when the milk was pasteur- ized in the bottles. The average count of the raw milk was 571,766 bacteria per cubic centimeter. After pasteurization in bulk, followed by bottling hot, the count was 5,965, and a portion of the same milk pasteurized in bottles averaged 11,295 bacteria per cubic centimeter. In several of the samples the count in the milk pasteurized in bottles was very much higher than in the same milk pasteurized in bulk and bottled hot. The explanation of these marked differences is not known. While minor differences are always within the limits of the errors of bacteriological methods, the great differences found in many cases can not be explained in this manner. PREVENTION OF BOTTLE INFECTION BY BOTTLING HOT MILK AND BY PASTEURIZATION IN BOTTLES. Since the process of pasteurizing milk in bulk and bottling while hot enables the use of hot, steamed bottles which can be directly filled with hot milk, it should be expected that there would be no contamination added to the milk during bottling. To determine this point eight samples of milk were pasteurized in bulk and bottled hot in hot, steamed bottles. The bacteriological results are shown in Table 4, column A. Two steamed and cooled PASTEURIZING MILK. 15 milk bottles for each sample were inoculated with equal amounts of sour milk.. One of these infected bottles was then steamed for two minutes and filled with hot pasteurized milk and the other contami- nated bottle not heated was filled with some of the same pasteurized milk, which had been previously cooled in a sterile bottle. An exami- nation of Table 4 shows, when the figures in columns A and C are compared, that the infectious material added to the bottle was en- tirely destroyed by the method of bottling, at least so far as bac- teriological methods can detect, since any marked increase in column C would show infection. Column B shows the bacterial counts obtained by putting cold pasteurized milk into infected bottles. From these results it is evident that the process of bottling hot pasteurized milk in hot, steamed (two minutes) bottles entirely eliminates the factor of bottle infection, which may often be serious in the ordinary processes of pasteurization on a commercial scale. Taste 4.—Destruction of bottle infection during the process of bottling hot pasteurized milk. — : Hot pasteur- Hot pasteur- | Cold pasteur-| ; a ized milk in | ized milk in | Zed milk in hot steamed | cold infected As a5 ae Sample No. Raw milk. bottles. bottles.1 tles.1 A B Cc Bacteria Bacteria Bacteria Bacteria per Cc. Cc. per c.c. per c.c. per c.c. 24, 90) 380 6, 400, 000 460 94, 000 860 5, 600, 000 600 235, 000 5, 400 1,330, 000 4,800 176, 000 2,200 1,510, 000 2; 400 97, 000 5,900 235, 000 4, 100 230, 000 6, 300 355, 000 5, 800 124, C00 920 305, 000 950 190, 000 TABOO) See cea eee 8, 800 1 Bottles had been previously infected with several cubic centimeters of sour milk. 2 Bottle infected with old, sour, pasteurized milk. The question naturally arose as to whether or not pasteurization in bottles would destroy infection in bottles specially infected before being filled with raw milk. To determine this point nine samples of milk were pasteurized which had been previously steamed and cooled. The results are shown in Table 5. One bottle for each sample was steamed, cooled, infected with several cubic centimeters of sour milk, and filled with some of the original raw milk. Samples were then plated from this bottle to show the extent of the infection, the results of which may be found in column B of the table. The bottle of infected raw milk was capped with a seal cap and the milk pasteurized directly in the bottle. Plates were made directly after the heating and the bacteriological results are shown in column C. Any increase in the counts in column C over those in column A shows 16 BULLETIN 240, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the amount of infection introduced by placing milk in an infected bottle. the infection entirely destroyed. It is evident that in only two samples, Nos. 28 and 35, was Tasle 5.—Destruction of bottle infection during the process of pasteurization in bottles. | Milk pasteur-| Bottlesin- | 4,-7, ized in clean | fected with ae Dur previously |sourmilk and antected as : steamed filled with botth Sample No. Raw milk. |. hotties. | raw milk. ALS A B Cc | Bacteria Bacteria Bacteria | Bacteria DET-C..C, MeTIC= C. per C. Cc. per c.c. 24, 900 570 3, 700, 000 2, 090 94, 000 2, 200 3, 300, 000: 6, 200 35, 000 7, 600 760, 000 9, 500 176, 000 11, 400 650, 000 11,000 97, 000 8, 350 530, 000 20, 000 230, 000 5, 500 645, 000 20, 990 124, 000 1, 500 400, 000 28, 600 190, 000 | 9, 300 230,000 | 9, 600 38, 000 | 5, 600 92, 000 17, 700 1 Bottle infected with old, sour, pasteurized milk. Tt is quite possible that infection from unclean bottles might be- come a serious factor in bottle pasteurization. When one considers that in pasteurization in the bottle the bacteria which are left are either heat-resistant vegetative cells or spores, it is easy to see that if a large number are left in a bottle and it is again filled with milk and pasteurization again performed in the bottle these same bacteria will again survive and increase the number left. It is advisable to steam the bottles at least two minutes before filling with milk for pasteurization in the bottles. COOLING MILK WHICH HAS BEEN BOTTLED HOT. When a water-tight cap is used it is, of course, possible to bottle the milk while hot and ccol by submerging in cold water, but experi- ments have been made with a process by which the milk may be cooled in bottles capped with ordinary cardboard caps. Briefly stated, the process consists in exposing the hot bottled milk to an air blast. The air-blast system is used at present in the hardening rooms im ice-cream plants, but, so far as known, this system has never been applied to the cooling of milk. Several experiments were tried on a laboratory scale which gave promising results. When a bottle of hot milk is allowed to cool in still air a film of warm air forms about it which can move away only by convection, and, naturally, the cooling process is slow. If some means were provided for moving the film of warm air and forcing PASTEURIZING MILK. Ge cool air against the bottle, heat would constantly be given up with more rapidity by the milk and the cooling process hastened. In figure 8 are shown the temperatures in three bottles of milk cooled for 30 minutes in air. One bottle was cooled in still air at 77° F., one was cooled in an air blast from an electric fan at a temperature of 77° F., and one was cooled in still air at 35° F. At the beginning of the cooling the temperature of the milk was about 145° F. As will be seen from the curves, after 830 minutes’ cooling the temperature of the milk in the bottle cooled in still air at 77° F. was about 127.5° F., while that of the milk cooled in an air blast at 77° F. was about 102° F. It is noted that by cooling in an air blast for 30 minutes 150° F. ao _ a= 2e [aaa ae 110° F. : x [aa 6 8 Io I2 ° 2 4 I4 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Cooling period in minutes. Wie. 8.—Effect of cooling a quart bottle of milk in still air and in an air blast. there was a reduction in temperature of about 25.5° F. in excess of that obtained under the same conditions in still air. The temperature curve of the milk in the bottle cooled in still air at 35° F. follows closely that of the milk cooled in still air at 77° F. It is also inter- esting to note that after cooling for 30 minutes in still air at 35° F. the temperature was 122° ¥., while that of the milk cooled in an air blast at 77° F. was about 102° F., a difference of 20° F. Since these experiments indicated that het bottled milk might be cooled more rapidly by using a blast of cold air, another experiment was conducted in which one quart and one pint bottle were cooled in still air which averaged 39.4° F. and another set in an air blast the temperature of which averaged 44.3° F. The blast of cold air was cbtained by placing an electric fan in a refrigerator. The fan de- 18. BULLETIN 240, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. livered air at a velocity of about 1,250 feet per minute. The tem- perature curves in figure 9 show the results of this experiment. The temperatures of the hot milk at the beginning of the cooling ranged from 140° to about 143.5° F. in the different bottles. It will be seen from the curves that five and one-half hours were required for the temperature of the quart bottle of milk in still air to reach 50° F., while the milk in a quart bottle in an air blast was cooled to 50° F. in a little over two hours. The milk in the pint bottle cooled in still air reached a temperature of 50° F. after about three and one-half hours, while only one and one-half hours were required to cool the milk in the pint bottle which was in a blast of cold air. From these results there can be no doubt as to the value of an air blast for cooling bottles of hot milk, at least as compared with still alr as a cooling medium. As these experiments were made on single 2 CEE ie oa Se a ee ee ae BN ett trates ie FI JOANN ee Joos Boe ORE RESELL LLELELEEL Bi sestsureeeaese (ee i} 2 Hi 3 i 4 44 5 Cooling period in hours. Fic. 9.—The cooling of pint and quart bottles of hot milk in still air and in an air blast at refrigerator temperature. bottles it was thought advisable to try cooling several crates of bottled hot milk by an air blast. Specially constructed skeleton- frame steel crates were used, so as to allow a free circulation of air. Milk was pasteurized at 145° F. for 30 minutes and bottled hot in ordinary milk bottles by the aid of a hand bottle filler. The bottles were then capped with the ordinary cardboard caps and placed in crates. Four crates were used in these experiments, two filled with quart and two with pint bottles. The two crates which contained quart bottles were placed in a refrigerator room one above the other, and directly back of them were placed the two crates of pint bottles one above the other. The air blast was generated by a 16-inch desk tMr. John T. Bowen, of this division, assisted in this work. PASTEURIZING MILK. 19 fan, which gave an air velocity of about 1,250 feet per minute. The fan was placed about 24 feet in front of the pile of four crates directly facing the crates with quart bottles. Temperatures were taken in two quart bottles, one in the front and the other in the back row. In this experiment the crates were cooled in a refrigerator room, the temperature of which varied from 40° to 44° F. The results of this experiment are shown in figure 10, together with the results of a similar experiment in which the crates were cooled in an air blast at a temperature of about 76° F. for a period of 24 hours. The crates were then placed in a refrigerator and the cooling con- tinued, a blast of air with a temperature of about 41° F. being used, The curves in figure 10 show the averaged temperatures of two quart el | as - GN Be 140° F. 130°F. 120° F, 110° F. |28 e(Stees= Be) Gee eS eho) ZIG Tis. I5 45 ne. TS 30) A5e sav HISseraS Cooling period. Fic. 10.—Effect of cooling crates of bottled hot milk in an air blast at different temperatures, bottles. It will be seen from curve A that about 3 hours and 7 min- utes were required to cool the milk in quart bottles from 140° to 50° F. when cooled in a blast of cold air during the entire period: A comparison of curves A and B shows that it took only about 45 minutes longer to cool to 50° F. the milk in bottles exposed to an air blast at room temperature for the first 24 hours. It is interesting to note that curves A and B follow each other fairly closely during the first 830 minutes of cooling. These results suggest that the cooling of hot pasteurized bottled milk may be accomplished by cooling with an air blast at ordinary room temperature and completed by cooling in a blast of cold air in a refrigerator room. The greater the number of ss 20 BULLETIN 240, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. heat units which can be removed from the milk by an air blast at room temperature the cheaper the cost of cooling, since refrigeration would be saved and about the only cost would be the operation of a blower. These experiments, although by no means conclusive as to the value of this method of cooling by an air blast on a practical scale, since many complications may arise in the practical application, indicate great possibilities for such a system. THE EFFECT OF QUICK AND SLOW COOLING ON THE BACTERIAL FLORA OF THE _ MILK. Tt is believed that any system of pasteurization in which the milk is not cooled immediately after heating will be looked upon with suspicion and will excite comment. It has always been supposed that immediate cooling was an indispensable part of the process of pasteurization, first, because sudden changes in temperature were believed to have a destructive effect on the bacterial cells, and second, because it has been supposed that bacteria left after pasteurization would immediately begin to grow unless the milk was cooled at once. As stated earher in this bulletin, it was shown in Bulletin 161 (3) that sudden cooling played no part in the destruction of bacteria. ‘There remains, therefore, one question to be answered, How quickly must pasteurized milk be cooled in order to check bacterial growth? From the writers’ former studies of pasteurization it seemed apparent that the bacteria which survived heating were somewhat weakened or at least did not begin to grow as might theoretically he expected. These observations naturally gave rise to the idea that pasteurized milk might be cooled directly in bottles by a cold air blast, provided the cooling period did not extend over a few hours. In order to obtain data on this question 10 samples of milk were pasteurized and bottled hot in steamed bottles. Two bottles for each sample were cooled as follows: One bottle was cooled within half an hour in ice water and placed in a refrigerator at 45° F. for 174 hours; the other bottle was cooled slowly at room temperature for 4 hours and placed in a refrigerator at 45° F. for 14 hours. At the end of that time each bottle of milk was 18 hours old; one was cooled quickly and had been at 45° for 174 hours; the other had been cooled slowly and had been at 45° for probably a very short time, because, although it had been in the refrigerator for 14 hours, the milk was warm when placed there, and cooling in still air is a slow process. Both bottles after the 18-hour cooling period were allowed to stand at temperatures of from 75° to 86° F. for a period of 6 hours. The bacterial results are shown in Table 6. PASTEURIZING MILK. 21 TABLE 6.—Number of bacteria per cubic centimeter in pasteurized milk bottled hot, cooled quickly and slowly, and subsequently held at room temperature. | | Sample No. Aver- age of Method of cooling. 10 sam- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | ples. Bacteria in the raw milk... .}95, 000/176, 000/176, 000/97, 500/97, 500}...-.. 450, 000|...... 985, 000} 38, 000)264, 375 Bottle No.1, cooled quickly: Directly after pasteur- WAN o5 de emcee 600} 1,870} 1,570) 5,900) 5, 900}22, 900 890} 4,800) 8,300} 5,500] 5, 823 After one-half hour in ice water and 174 : hours at 45° F.......- 1, 000} 1 2,050] 1 2,370).....-].----- 16,600; 1,700} 2,500} 8,900} 5,200) 5,040 After 6hoursat 86° F....|...... 5, 750| 8,400) 6, 600] 5,900|......].......|-...-- 29, 600| 25,200} 6,908 Bottle No. 2,cooledslowly: Directly after pasteur- ZA UIONME ae a Seat 860] 1,320} 1, 220) 5,900} 5, 900/21, 800 890} 5,400] 7,500} 6,500} 5,729 After 4 hours at room temperature and 14 hounsjat Ab euhy 2. SOO | eel SO ero O20 (svete leet 12,300) 2, 200 715| 9,800} 5,200) 4,678 After 6hoursat 86° F....|...... 55800] e 6100137003700 |Saeess| see eces| sceeee 28,900} 25,300] 5, 583 1 Held at 45° F. for 21 hours in place of 18 hours. 2 Held at 75° F. instead of 86° F. As may be seen from Table 6, bacterial counts were made of the raw milk on each bottle directly after pasteurization, at the end of the 18-hour cooling period, and again after the milk had been at room temperature for six hours. The bacterial results obtained showed that there was‘no more increase in the pasteurized milk cooled slowly than in similar milk cooled within half an hour and held at low temperatures for 18 hours. Neither was there any difference in the bacterial numbers even after mill cooled by both processes had been removed, after 18 hours’ cooling, and allowed to stand for six hours. The various counts from 10 samples have been averaged and are given in the last column in order to show more plainly the effect of the two systems of cooling on the bacterial numbers in milk. It will be seen that the average bacterial counts of the milk cooled slowly are even lower than those of milk cooled quickly. While this difference is probably an experimental error, it 1s evident that bac- terial growth in the pasteurized milk was not increased by the slow- cooling process. The writers do not wish to convey the idea that pasteurized milk need not be cooled at all. The cooling of any milk is absolutely essen- tial in order to restrain bacterial growth, and the fact should be emphasized that the process of cooling pasteurized milk slowly does not dismiss the cooling process but simply makes use of a slower cooling process than is in use at present. In order to show, respectively, the effect on the bacterial content of cooling quickly, cooling slowly, and not cooling to low tempera- tures at all, three experiments were made. Milk was pasteurized in bulk and three steamed and hot quart bottles were filled with the hot mill. One bottle was cooled in iced water in half an hour to 50° F. and refrigerated at 45° F. Another bottle was cooled in a blast of air at room temperature for half an hour during which time the 1) a 22 BULLETIN 240, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. temperature dropped from 145° to about 100° F. The milk wasthen allowed to stand at a temperature of from 100° to 80° F. for five hours, after which it was placed in a refrigerator at 45° F., where it cooled slowly in still air. The remaining bottle was cooled for half an hour in an air blast at room temperature and allowed to remain at a temperature of about 75° F. through the entire experiment. The results of these experiments are given in Table 7. TABLE 7.—Hffect of different methods of cooling on the bacterial content of pasteurized milk. Sample No. Method of cooling. | Bacteria per c.c. PRUNES 2... per c.c. | Bacteria per c.c. MEW STA eyes cfs Merce er me wa ate sa ae a SA aS ate 970502 000)| Sag2- eee eesee 11,900,000 Bottle No. 1, cooled quickly:; Directly’ QiLerpasleurizatlOMen - Mi tor 24 ROurs seems so clseels Sclee ee ee 2,760,000 ~850, 000))|2seteseceeneeee Bottle No. 3, cooled at room temperature: Directly: after pasteurization: tis jecan--5cce52 S5e-0 4,950 - 2,180 8,500 Meldiati (aes tOr SHOUTS 2.22 0 700; O 383) 0 430) 0 225, O | 1,750 1G Rane 3.6) 4,140, 5.1) 3,641 1.1) 1,500) 2.6) 2,733) 5.1) 4,850) 7.0] 2,870, 8.0} 5,320 Crop value, cost, ete.: Average.| 5.8) 2,491) 5.4] 2,801] 5.1] 1,921) 4.3/ 2,023/ 6.0] 2,481] 7.0] 1,925, 8.6] 3,037 Value... .- $2. 321 $4.98) $2.16! $4.60} $2.04) $3. 84) $1.72] $4.05] $2.40) $4. 96] $2. 80 $3. 85| $3. 44] $6.07 Totalvalue a 30 $6. 74 $5. 88 $5. 77 $7.36 $6. 65 | $9. 51 Cost.-....- 7.49 7.49 Tpalil Wot 8.18 5. 98 12.36 Profit or loss...| — .19 — .15 —1. 23 —1.34 — .82 67 —2.85 RESULTS WITH MILO AND KAFIR AT INDIVIDUAL STATIONS. Milo is undoubtedly the leading grain crop grown in this section and has given surer and better grain yields, on the average, than any other crop grown at the stations included in this study. Two types of this crop are commonly grown, namely, Standard and Dwarf. The Standard type grows a stalk averaging about 44 feet in height, depending upon seasonal conditions, while the Dwarf prob- ably will not average over 3 feet. Differences in yield due to seasonal conditions so far overshadow any differences in type that it is almost impossible to draw any definite conclusions as to just 12 BULLETIN 242, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which of the two types gives the better yield. It is probable, how- ever, that the average yield for a series of years would be in favor of the Dwarf type. If the grain is to be headed and the stalks left in the field, it would probably be advisable to plant the Dwarf, since it is not so high and can be more easily headed with a header or by hand. The Standard is more easily handled with a row binder, und where the stalks are to be saved and fed in the bundle or the crop used for silage this type should be planted. Two varieties of kafir are also universally grown. These are the Standard and the Dwarf, and what has been said of the different types of milo may also be said of these Kafir varieties. JKafir differs from milo in that it requires a longer season to mature and is fre- quently injured by frost, as will be seen by referring to the tables presented in connection with these studies. Milo has usually given the highest grain yield, while kafir has given uniformly higher yields of fodder. Not only does kafir give a larger yield of fodder than milo, but the quality is far superior. This is especially true if an attempt is made to harvest the milo crop for both seed and fodder. The reason for this is that the milo stalk ripens before the head and there are very few leaves left on a hard, woody stalk at the time of harvest for grain. With kafir the ripen- ing is just the reverse of milo; that is, the head ripens before the stalk, which makes it possible to harvest a grain crop when grain is produced and at the same time a fodder crop of good quality. MILO AT GARDEN CITY. Six crops of milo have been grown at Garden City, Kans. Since three of these failed to produce grain, the average grain yield is very low. Yields of milo grown after summer tillage are not in- cluded in the experiments here reported. The work has been rear- ranged and extended to include it and a wide range of methods of seed-bed preparation. Of the methods here reported there is not sufli- cient difference in the average yields to indicate the great superiority of any one over the others. The lowest yield of both grain and stover has been on spring-plowed land continuously cropped to milo. The highest yield has been from fall plowing after small grain. The former method has resulted in an average loss of 83 cents per acre, while the latter has given a profit of $2.07 per acre. Considering the value of both grain and stover, only two of the six crops on fall- plowed and on listed land have been produced at a loss, while only one crop on spring-plowed land has returned a profit. Tt will be seen that at this station milo stover at a valuation of $4 per ton has returned a greater value than the grain when priced at 40 cents a bushel. At the other stations the opposite has been true in CORN, MILO, AND KAFIR IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 13 nearly every case. This is an important consideration in studying milo yields, as the crop is usually grown for the grain. TasBLe VII.—Summary of yields and digest of the cost of production of milo by different tillage methods and crop sequences at Garden City, Kans., 1909 to 1914, inclusive. Fall plowed. Spring plowed, |; ;.. : after milo ua oe milo Yields, values, ete. (average per acre). eGRIBE eae olnts ee (1 plat). Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover. Yields for the year: Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. QO OF eee ec hiemiok coe csensnace 0 3, 950 0 5, 345 0 3, 370 0 3, 830 ONO Bes cae CBE SEB eE EOE enene 14 2,150 2-88 |e (35 275 7.6 | 1,940 12.4 2, 380 UG Ie eres hase ne le ajstee kee = 0 760 0 360 0 380 0 0 Me se oaccnieeere sienna ye 30.5 | 3,120 27.1 3,010 25 2,750 29.1 3, 775 GI Ee oe QUB REO GEE EEE ee ee ee 0 260 0 770 0 620 0 300 dN ee eb Ee TES ek ee 8.5 | 2,670 1379} 3,175 4.8 | 2,180 11.2 1, 930 ISSIR cs ea eal one ga le 8.8 | 2,152} 10.5| 2,656 6.2 | 1,873 8.8] 2,036 Crop value, cost, ete.: AI Ome ae Sate eee sites tei $3.52 | $4.30 | $4.20 | $5.31 $2.48 | $3.75 | $3.52 $4.07 MOtAlivialtie nr ae). ee cb sree See $7. 82 $9. 51 $6. 23 $7. 52 COSC es seen isine Seles Glin 7.44 7.44 7.06 5.93 RONGOTSOSSyan oe eae ace seine .38 2.07 — .83 1.59 MILO AT DALHART. Milo has given higher average yields at Dalhart, Tex., than at any of the other stations, and there is a greater range in the average profits per acre from different methods. The grain yields vary from a complete failure to 69 bushels per acre. Records for six years are available from this station. In all but two years milo has been grown at a profit by all methods under trial. Milo following summer tillage has been profitable in all years except one. This fact, combined with the high average yield of both grain and stover and the net profit of $14.21 per acre that it returns, makes it a method of great importance for the Dalhart region. The crop was harvested in bulk and con- verted into ensilage in 1913, but the summer-tilled plat produced an estimated yield of at least 600 pounds of grain per acre. The yields obtained show that summer tillage has insured a grain yield in dry years, and, except in one year, has increased the yield over that from other methods. The listing method returns the next highest profits per acre. The plat devoted to this method occupies a low place on the farm and may eatch run-off water in sufficient quantity to increase the yields. The low cost of preparation by this method is a point in its favor. The low yields obtained from milo following small grain by fall plowing have been due more to imperfect stands than to any other 14 BULLETIN 242, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. known factor, and it is hardly fair to compare these yields with those secured by other methods. A study of the yields by fall and spring plowing where milo fol- lows milo shows no appreciable difference in the value of these two methods. Both methods have given good profits. TasLe VIII.—Summary of yields and digest of the cost of production of milo by different tillage methods and crop sequences at Dalhart, Tex., 1909 to 1914, inclusive. Fall plowed. ; Spring plowed | Listed after | Summer tilled ; | after milo (1 milo (1 plat 1 plat) Yields, values, etc. | After milo | After small plat). plat). (1 plat). (average per acre). (1 plat). | grain (2 plats). Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover. ———————— i] | Yield for the year: | Bush.| Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. — . 1909 Meade See 2.8} 1,660 | 3.8 | 3,000 3.3 | 3,990 3.8 | 1,590 14.7} 4,980 LOTO sess 2 eee 26.6 6, 660 PRED 6,945 26. 4 6, 950 50. 4 8,380 69.0 | 11,520 NOU oe isirs sect 19.1 4,270 0 755 5.9 | 2,000} 23.6] 3,330 27.8 3, 530 WOU De cleiac.s, Stier 28.6} 4,650 33.1 2,965 39.7 | 4,610 | 22.4] 2,770 52.4 6,500 OLS Ee Anko no seehs 0 1,750 0 2,275 0 1,800 | 0 1,250 | 110.3 3,600 TES eyes ate 55.5 | 4,980] (2) (2) 51.7 | 5,040| 48.4 / 4,130] 45.3] 5,500 Average....... 22.1 3,995 116, 3,188 21.2; 4,065 | 24.8] 3,575 36.6 | 5,938 Crop value, cost, etc.: i Wale 282i heee $8.84 | $7.99 | $4.64] $6.38 | $8.48 | $8.13 | $9.92 | $7.15 | $14.64 | $11.88 Total value..... $16. 83 $11.02 $16. 61 | $17.07 $26. 52 Costee sega: 7.44 7.44 7300 4" || 5.93 12.31 Profitess eee 9.39 3.58 9.55 | 11.14 14.21 1 Estimated yield; harvested in bulk for ensilage. 2 Discontinued in 1914. MILO AT AMARILLO. Seven crops of milo have been grown at Amarillo, Tex., and grain yields were secured from six of them. Milo after small grain on fall plowing has given better average results than any other tillage method used at this station. General observation as to yields indi- cates that crop sequence has less influence than other factors. The yields of milo grown on fall-plowed land following small grain do not greatly exceed those obtained from different methods on land continuously cropped to milo. In fact, with the exception of sum- mer tillage, there is little variation among the average yields by all the different methods under trial. Listing has produced the smallest quantity of stover, but this is of no great importance, as high grain yields are preferred to high stover yields. Four years out of the six milo after milo by spring plowing has given heavier yields than milo after milo by fall plowing, and one year out of three it has exceeded the yield on summer-tilled land. It is hardly fair to com- pare the practice of summer tillage at this station with other tillage methods, as it has been under trial only three years. In 1913, when because of the extreme drought all other methods failed even to set CORN, MILO, AND KAFIR IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 15 heads, milo on summer-tilled land made a yield of grain, which was destroyed by birds, estimated at 10 to 15 bushels to the acre. Table IX.—Summary of yields and digest of the cost of production of milo by different tillage methods and crop sequences at Amarillo, Tex., 1907 to 1914, inclusive. Fall plowed. Spring plowed | Listed atter_| Summer tilled ; Z alter mio | milo (2 plats).1 (1 plat) Yields, values, etc. After milo After small (1 plat). ; ; (average per acre). (1 plat). grain (2 plats). Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover. | Grain. | Stover, Yields for the year: Bush Lbs Bush. | Lbs Bush Lbs. | Bush Lbs. USO feeds ie eee 21.6 | 4,170 27.9 4,175 18.1 2,560 31.7 | 3,810 LOOK ESAS ete 32.8 | 3,280 46.5 4,590 40.3 3,500 37.9 | 3,250 I) eens aemee 9 1,740 10.1 2,962 2.6 2,045 10.9 2,318 IGN)? | cAsSocacSHCeent tel Geese cal GocsriSsolssccbcec) Same cocc terranes WeHodecen|beeeodee Ch ie oe ae ve 31.4 4,350 26.5 3, 698 35. 4 3,500 17. 4 2,010 OTD Bee see he 22 27.4 2, 760 26.7 3, 050 33.5 3, 290 25.4 2,515 SSS Bas ae aes 0 130 0 715 0 440 0 410 ONES sat ee 29.0| 4,010! 24.5] 3,810] 17.6] 3,050] 23.3] 1,880 Average....... 20.4 | 2,920 23.2 | 3,286 2D) |) -2°626 20.9} 2,313 Crop value, cost,etc.: | Walltieiacmeas ss) 8.16 5. 84 9. 28 6.57 8. 44 5. 25 8. 36 4. 63 6. 84 6. 93 Total value..... $14. 00 $15. 85 $13. 69 | $12. 99 $13. 77 Wostea assess! 7.44 7.44 7. 06 5.93 12.31 Protiteee se ace: 6. 56 8.41 6. 63 7.06 1.46 1 Only one listed plat used until 1912. ‘Station site changed in 1910; yields not used. A comparison of the yields secured at Amarillo and Dalhart is of interest, because the two stations are only 90 miles apart, but they are located on altogether different types of soil. The Dalhart sta- tion has an average annual rainfall of 15.92 inches and is located on a sandy-loam soil, while the Amarillo station has a yearly precipi- tation of 20.95 inches and is located on a heavy, silty clay loam. Judging from the average rainfall, the yields at Amarillo should be greater than at Dalhart. The records show, however, that better average yields have been produced at Dalhart. This probably is due to the ability of the sandy soil at Dalhart to absorb a larger per- centage of the annual rainfall. KAFIR AT GARDEN CITY. Kafir has been grown for six consecutive years at Garden City, Kans. The first crop was produced in 1909. With the exception of the year 1914, four different methods of seed-bed preparation and cultivation have been under study. In 1914 the growth of kafir after small grain was discontinued because of the repeated failures of the small-grain crop. During the six years that kafir has been grown at this station it has not produced a grain yield of any value except in 1912, when all methods gave good yields. The best yield was 16 BULLETIN 242, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 27.8 bushels per acre on fall-plowed land following small grain. Kafir following small grain has, on the average, given slightly better yields of both grain and fodder than it has following kafir. These higher yields have doubtless been due to the repeated failure of the small-grain crop, which has left the ground partly summer tilled. There has been very little difference in the average grain yield by the different methods under study. From no method has this average yield been sufficient to cover the cost of its production. All methods have produced four good crops of forage. The average yield of fod- der after fall plowing is above the average of any other method. The next highest yield has been after fall plowing following kafir. Without exception the value of the forage has exceeded the value of the grain produced under all methods studied. Kafir after kafir on spring-plowed land has shown the lowest margin of profit, viz, 64 cents per acre. The greatest net profit per acre has been secured by growing kafir after small grain on fall-plowed land. The profit by this method is $3.78 per acre. The margin of profit from all methods has been small and, on the average, much lower than at Dalhart or Amarillo. TABLE X.—Summary of yields and digest of the cost of production of kafir by different tillage methods and crop sequences at Garden City, Kans., 1909 to 1914, inclusive, Fall plowed. |_——___—____, ting plowed | 1 isted after Yields, values, etc. (average After kafir After small (1 plat). kafir (1 plat). per acre). (1 plat). grain (2 plats). Grain. | Stover.| Grain. } Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover. Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. 5, 780 0 4,310 0 |~ 4,400 6, 800 2.2] 3,550 PEE \Wi > Sh pal) 1,390 0 580 0 580 5, 745 22.5 | 5,400 20.6 5, 805 1, 430 0 680 0 300 (1) 3.7 | 2,940 3.8 2,750 4,229 4.7 | 2,910 4.5 2,943 | $8.46 | $1.88 ' $5.82] $1.80! $5.89 Motalivalucesce sack secs ase ee $9.16 $11. 22 $7.70 $7.69 COS Teens oc esac tee tee eeemed 7.44 7.44 7.06 5.93 ero fitieeric cope as) mem seccenenes Nap? 3.78 . 64 1.76 1 Discontinued in 1914. A rotation of small grain and kafir is impracticable on account of the failure of small grain. Summer tillage should, therefore, be given a thorough trial, as it may prove to be the most profitable method. Experiments have been started to determine the most prac- tical application of summer tillage for the growing of kafir. CORN, MILO, AND KAFIR IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. Lyf KAFIR AT DALHART. Kafir has been grown at Dalhart, Tex., for six years. During this time five different methods of seed-bed preparation and cultivation have been under study. Kafir after small grain on fall-plowed land was discontinued in 1914, on account of the impracticability of grow- ing small grain. The results obtained during this study have on the whole been very satisfactory. The yields, and consequently the profits, obtained here are higher than at the other stations under study. There is also a wider range in the results obtained with the different cultural methods used, which would indicate that cultiva- tion here is of more importance than at Garden City, Kans., or at Amarillo, Tex. The largest average net profit obtained was from the crop grown on land summer tilled the preceding year, amounting to $20.11 per acre. The method showing the least profit is that of fall plowing following small grain. The profit by this method was only $2.90, which is considerably below the average of the other methods used. It is possible that the low profits shown by this method are due to the difficulty of securing a stand and to the fact that the small grains leave the soil very dry. Listing after kafir has given a net yield of $12.04 per acre, which is considerably higher than by any other method except summer tillage. Kafir after kafir on fall- plowed land has given an increased profit of $1.43 per acre over kafir following kafir on spring-plowed land. After both listing and summer tillage the value of the grain crop alone has been sufficient to pay the cost of production. Under all methods the value of the forage has exceeded that of the grain. TABLE XI.—Summary of yields and digest of the cost of production of kafir by different tillage methods and crop sequences at Dathart, Tex., 1909 to 1914, inclusive. | Fall plowed. Spring, plowed Listed after kafir] Summer tilled Yields, values, etc.| After kafir |Aftersmallgrain] (1 plat). (1 plat). (1 plat). (average per acre). (1 plat). (2 plats). Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover. Yields for the year: . | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. 1909 0 4,020 0 2, 550 0 6, 250 0 5, 500 0 9, 310 1910. 10, 140 17.9 | 9,075 18.7 8, 420 55 12, 270 (ED) 18, 310 1911. 2,890 0) 1,530 0 1, 550 19.2 5, 900 PRL 5) 10, 600 1912. 5, 500 5.5 | 4,625 0 6, 000 9.7 3, 950 29.8 9, 500 1913. 1,800 0 3, 370 0 2) 400 0 750} 20.8] 6,000 [RE ce ehesae 7,760! (3) (@) 39.2| 7,100] 17.3] 5,260| 37.8] 6,230 Average...-.-- BEG) |) tp etiy 4.7 4, 230 9.7 | 5,287 16.9 | 5,605 Sieel! 9,992 Crop value, cost, etc.: alue yao -seo 8 $5.56 | $10.70 | $1.88] $8.46] $3.88 | $10.57 | $6.76 | $11.21 | $12.44 | $19.98 Total value... .- $16. 26 $10. 34 $14. 45 $17. 97 $32. 42 Costiee Nase 7. 44 7. 44 7. 06 5. 93 12. 31 le IhS oSeceod &. 82 2.90 1. 89 12.04 20.11 1 Discontinued in 1914. 18 BULLETIN 242, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. KAFIR AT AMARILLO. The results of seven years with kafir at Amarillo, Tex., are avail- able. During this time only two complete grain failures have been recorded. While the net profits shown at Amarillo are not as large on the average as those obtained at Dalhart, Tex., they are consider- ably above those at Garden City, Kans. Kafir after summer tillage is the only method that shows a loss, but, as this method has been carried on for only three years, it is possible that this loss does not represent what might reasonably be expected by this method if it were tested for a longer time. The value of kafir following kafir on fall-plowed land exceeds that of kafir after kafir on spring-plowed land by $1.26 per acre. The largest profit by any method used has been obtained with kafir after small grain. For the seven years under study this method shows an average profit of $8.21 per acre. TapLte XII.—Summary of yields and digest of the cost of production of kafir by different tillage methods and crop sequences at Amarillo, Tex., 1907 to 1914, inclusive. Fall plowed. | Spring plowed Listed after F Yields, values, etc aiver Sante ty kafir TGA Sia ( Seri sernecnin After kafir After small (1 plat). | (2plats).! get) ete 0rd (1 plat). grain (2 plats). | acre). Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.) Grain. | Stover. Yields for the year: | Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Zbs. | Bush. | Lbs | Bush. | Lbs Bush Lbs Ito WE OR aaa ae 13.3 | 7,040 16.7 | 7,355 10.7 | 4,630 11.8} 45-730) | saa oeeelaeeees== 1908S eRe or 30.8] 5,360] 38.4] 7,020] 29.2] 4,820} 27.2] 4,940)... |. Mean ogaaapenae 1.4] 1,513 4.6} 3,908 1.6; 2,026 5.3 | 2,684 |......-. leeieete = TEE (Oya a eel Un Oe bs 2) ee (emma NM ae baer | Sara aa ee je ent ene 21.8) [6 752800118, 9).|:82370)! 21.0741 4.3501] 21.820) 8 1500) | eee | a 11) See ease ee 0 5, 660 6,020 0 6,870 | 0 5,215 0 6, 160 GIS eee mers cone 170 0 755 0 280 0 620 0 2,240 UE escape saor 12.0 | 3,940 6.9 | 4,340 8.3} 3,790; 12.5] 2,760 7.0 4, 880 | | Average......- A189) 45-4088| 29192 | abea87) 0 10020] 63,804 9.3} 3,207 2.3) 4,427 Crop value, cost, etc.: = | Waligeee.iascece $4.52 | $8.85 | $4.88} $10.77 | $4.08 | $7.65 | $3.72! $6.41} $0.92 $8. 85 Total value..... $13.37 $15. 65 $11. 73 $10. 13 $9.77 Costessey sci 2.- 7.44 7.44 7.06 | 5.93 12.31 Profit or loss. . 5.93 8.21 A 4.20 —2. 54 1 Only one plat used until 1912. 2 Station site changed in 1910; yields not used. GENERAL DISCUSSION. With the exception of the rainfall, which is less at Dalhart, Tex., than at Garden City, Kans., and Amarillo, Tex., the climatic condi- tions at the three stations under study are very similar. The soils of the three stations are of different types, but they are fairly repre- sentative of the more important agricultural types of soil to be found in the southern Great Plains area. CORN, MILO, AND KAFIR IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 19 Experimental work was started one year earlier at Amarillo than at the other stations. Aside from this it has been carried on during the same years at each of the stations. Summer tillage for milo and kafir has only recently been put under trial at Garden City. With this exception the same cultural methods have been used at each place. Small grains in this area have given generally unsatisfactory returns, although they have been much bet- ter at Amarillo than at either of the other two stations, Saccharine sorghums have proved well adapted to conditions in the southern Great Plains area and usually have given good yields. The same cultural work has not been done with them as with the other crops. In general they may be expected to show about the same response to cultural conditions as is shown by the grain sorghums, for which results are here reported. The results of this work show that corn can be depended upon to produce good crops of feed in this section. It does not, however, produce as big a tonnage of feed as kafir and is not as reliable as either kafir or milo in the production of grain. In trials covering SIX years at Garden City it has failed to produce a grain crop by any method. At Dalhart it has produced good crops of grain in three of the six years that it has been under trial. At Amarillo it has made but one creditable grain crop in seven years. Because of its comparatively poorer adaptation to conditions, it does not show relatively as great a response to cultural practices as does either kafir or milo. Both milo and kafir have given higher average yields than corn at all of the stations. They have also been safer crops, having made crops of grain in some years when corn did not. They have also been more responsive to cultural operations, thus proving their bet- ter adaptation to conditions. On the sandy lands of this area corn makes a better showing in comparison with these crops than it does on the heavy, “tight lands,” on which corn has little place in this section. When a comparison is made between milo and kafir it is seen that milo has given the better yields of grain and that kafir has given the better yields of roughage. Kafir, however, has shown a somewhat greater response to methods that, like summer tillage, in- crease the yields. When equal values are assigned to the grain and to the roughage from each of the crops, the total return is generally about the same from each. At Garden City the grain crop alone has not been sufficient to pay for the cost of production. At Dalhart both crops have produced sufficient grain by all methods to pay a profit. At Amarillo milo has returned a profit from the grain alone by some methods. The crop of kafir grain at Amarillo was not suffi- cient by any method to pay the cost of producing the crop. 20 BULLETIN 242, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. When a value, believed to be a conservative one, is assigned to the todder, both crops show a profit from nearly all methods under trial at all the stations. The only two exceptions are milo following milo by spring plowing at Garden City and kafir following summer tillage at Amarillo, where the summer tillage method has been on trial for only three years, all of which have been relatively unfavorable. The most important results of the investigations, of which this is a partial report, are the demonstrations that this region is not adapted to the successful growth of small-grain crops, but that it is well adapted to forage crops and to certain types of grain sorghums when proper methods of tillage and crop sequence are practiced. This means that this region is undoubtedly destined again to be- come an important stock-producing section. It yet remains to be determined what classes of live-stock enterprises offer the greatest opportunities to the small farmers who have taken the place of the stockmen who formerly conducted an extensive and profitable busi- ness on the open ranges. It is certain that live stock of some kind must be grown to consume the forage and grain crops which can and will be grown in this region in enormously increasing quanti- ties as its agricultural possibilities become better understood. ° Although these investigations have so far demonstrated that but few crops have proved successful when grown by certain methods, it must not be understood that the limit has been reached either in crops or methods. On the contrary, these experiments tend to show that other crops and other methods may be developed which will produce even better results. These investigations are being developed and modified to meet the requirements and the agricultural resources of the southern Great Plains area. The problem of utilizing the forage and grain crops for the production of live-stock products is now of vital importance, and with its solution the agricultural resources of this region will be materially increased. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OPFICH ; 1915 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 243 ¢ “\ Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER July 24, 1915. CONE BEETLES: INJURY TO SUGAR PINE AND WESTERN YELLOW PINE. By JoHN M. MILLER, Entomological Assistant, Forest Insect Investigations. INTRODUCTION. A class of damage which has been termed “ blighted cones” occurs frequently in the seed crops of sugar pine throughout its range in California and Oregon and of western yellow pine in the Pacific coast and southern Rocky Mountain regions. This damage is dis- tinguished by the dying of the immature cones soon after the start- ing of the second year’s growth. The dead blighted cones, which are less than one-half the size of normal cones, are withered and faded to a reddish brown. The blighted sugar-pine cones fall to the ground during the first summer, whereas the blighted yellow-pine cones may adhere to the branches for several years. INSECTS CAUSING DAMAGE. The greater part of this damage’ is caused by small scolytid beetles, which have been identified by Dr. A. D. Hopkins, of the Bureau of Entomology, as Conophthorus spp. The common name of “cone beetles” seems most appropriate for these insects, as their life history and the damage caused by them relate entirely to the cones of the host trees. The adults are small, black, cylindrical beetles, from 3 to 4 mm. in length. The adult beetle bores a small tunnel through the axis of the cone, wherein the eggs are deposited. The larve, tiny white grubs from 3.5 to 4.5 mm. in length when full grown, feed upon the scales, seeds, and tissues of the withering cone. The pupz, which differ but little in size and color from the larvee but possess the form of the adult, are formed within the same cone 1The caterpillars of certain cone moths also kill immature second-year yellow-pine cones, in such a way that the damage resembles the work of the cone beetle, but this damage may be readily recognized by the character of the attack. In the areas observed - by the writer the cone worms cause less than 10 per cent of the blighted cones. Noty.—This bulletin is the result of field observations made in Oregon and California. It is suitable for distribution on the Pacific coast. $2232°—Bull. 248—15 2 BULLETIN 2453, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in which the larvee develop. The brood of new adults is also formed in the same cone, and here the adults overwinter. THE SUGAR-PINE CONE BEETLE. (Conophthorus lambertianae Hopk.) SEASONAL HISTORY. Frequent observations in the field were made during the season of 1914 in the vicinity of Ashland and Colestin, Oreg., and near Hilt, Cal., at elevations ranging from 3,800 to 4,200 feet. The area near Hilt was located where the timber-felling operations of the Cali- fornia Fruit Growers’ Supply Association were conducted, where seed-bearing sugar-pine trees were felled daily. The brood of adults which overwinters in the cones infested dur- ing the previous spring and summer emerges the following spring. Records kept during the seasons of 1913 and 1914 from various lots of rearing material show that the maximum spring emergence oc- curs during May (see Table I, p. 3). Emergence from material collected in the fall and kept over winter in the laboratory has varied anywhere from April 19 to June 18. Emergence from material col- lected in the spring which had overwintered in the field and then was kept outside in muslin rearing sacks occurred from May 8 to 31. Frequent examination of cones in the field also showed that the emergence is occurring during this period and that it reaches its maximum between May 15 and June 1. The first attacks noted upon the 1913-14 cones occurred between May 25 and June 1. Continued fresh attacks were observed until about June 20. The following description covers all observations regarding the method of attack and subsequent habits of the beetle: Sugar-pine cones at the beginning of the second-year growth are about 2 to 24 inches long Suid are attached to the limb by a stalk from 2 £5 3 inches lene The parent adult beetle attacks the cone by boring into the stalk of the cone. The position of this ini- tial entrance varies greatly; usually it is just above the base of the cone, but it may occur anywhere from the base of the cone to an inch or more above. The wound made by the beetle soon produces a flow of resin which gradually accumulates on the surface in the form of a small pitch tube (Pl. II, fig. 1). After boring into the center of the stall the beetle turns toward the cone and continues to extend its tunnel straight outward through the axis of the cone (PI. II, fig: 2). After it advances well into the heart of the cone the tun- nel becomes the egg gallery, and single eggs are deposited at inter- vals in notches excavated along the sides of the burrow. The entire length of the egg gallery is packed with sawdust. Sawdust is also packed around the eggs in the egg notches (PI. II, fig. 2). The rate at which the egg gallery is advanced by the adult has not been definitely determined, as it is impossible to determine the CONE BEETLES. 3 progress made by the adults without cutting the cone open, and when thus disturbed the adult at once ceases its work. However, it has been observed that the egg gallery has been extended entirely through the small cones within five to eight days after attack. For the same reason the period of incubation of the eggs within the cone has not been definitely determined. In cones cut open, eggs that had apparently just been deposited incubated in from two to four days. : One pair of parent beetles are found in each of these egg galleries. A series of specimens collected from individual cones was submitted to Dr. A. D. Hopkins, and from his determination of sex it was found that one male and one female beetle occupy each egg gallery. Asa rule but one pair of beetles attack a single cone, but in some instances three pairs of beetles have been found advancing as many egg galleries in the same cone. The sex of the parent which makes the initial attack on the cone and begins the excavation of the egg gallery has not been determined. The immediate effect of this attack on the cone is to check all further growth. Eventually the infested cone withers, then becomes dry and hard, but for a period of time it hangs on the tree in a semi- moist and souring condition. It is during this period that the eggs of the beetle incubate and the young larve develop. The condition of the cone may be compared to that of the cambium of a pine which has been infested by Dendroctonus, and is in a fading or dying condition while the larve of the new broods of beetles are developing. TABLE I.—Hmergence record of the sugar-pine cone beetle (Conophthorus lam- bertianae) in California and Oregon, 1913-1}. Pak Period of spring | TEE Locality. ae Material. emergence of over- | Remarks. Sas es 5 wintered adults. | 11471a | Kyburz, Cal..) Apr. 11,1913 | Overwintered | May 19-May 31, | Breeding cage kept adults in 1911-12 1913; 43 adulis. outdoors. cones. 11498 | Pino Grande, | May 11,1913 |..... GOsee asa May 14, 1913; 12 Do. Cal. adults. ‘ T0802) Beso. do.. ..| May 26,1913 }.-... Goss eeeenee Emerging May 26, | A considerable per- é 1913. centage of un- emerged adults still in cones. 10833a-2 | Hilt, Cal.....- July 11,1913 | Newadultsin1912- | June 4, 1914; 6 | Breeding cage kept 13 cones. adults. in laboratory. Heavy emergence during Aug., 1913. 10833a-3 | Ashland, Oreg.| Sept. 5,1913 |..... GOs 552 55 sene ee Apr.19-June4,1914; | Breeding cage kept 16 adults. in laboratory. 10238a-2 | Little Butte | Aug. 23,1913 |..... (6 oi NN Apr. 25-May 21,1914. Do. | _ Creek, Oreg. TOS han | PEAS Cale se Nov. 13,1913 |..... Corea See es June 2-June 13,1914. Do. 1087 1a-2 }..... do.... .| May 2,1914| Overwintered | May 8-May 31,1914.) Breeding cage kept adults in 1912-13 outdoors. cones. 10884a | Ashland, Oreg.| Feb. 14,1914 |..-.. GO ees eee May 19,1914; ladult.| Breeding cage kept in laboratory. 10890a | Hilt, Cal.....- Mar. 13,1914 |..... GOs ei Ge eee ee Apr. 20-May 20, Do. . 13,1914 1914; 10 adults. 4 BULLETIN 243, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The egg gallery is usually kept straight and close to the axis of the cone. During the early part of the season it has frequently been observed that in the small cones, from 2 to 4 inches long, the adults extend the egg gallery nearly to the outer end of the cone, depositing four or five eggs along its length, and then bore out through the scales and emerge. It has not been determined whether such emerg- ing adults attack another cone or not, but it is reasonable to assume that this is the case. In the larger cones, from 6 to 8 inches long, which are attacked later in the season, from 15 to 30 eggs may be deposited; and as this probably represents the minimum number of egos deposited by a pair of beetles, it is evident that very short cones do not afford sufficient length of egg gallery for the deposition of this number. Consequently a pair of parent adults may extend the egg gallery through several of the smaller cones before the egg-gallery capacity of the cone is exhausted. As the attack continues through the latter part of June, the size of the attacked cones keeps increasing until the larger ones are from 6 to 8 inches long. The parent adults seldom emerge from these larger cones and later in the season will be found dead in the end of the egg gallery. By the 1st of July the new attack is complete. At this stage the infested cones are from 2 to 8 inches long, while the normal unattacked ones are from 10 to 18 inches long. The blighted cones are brown and stand out conspicuously on the trees. The seeds seldom form when the smaller cones are attacked, whereas the seeds of the larger cones that are attacked may reach two-thirds normal size and the outer shell may harden, but they never fill or mature. Immediately after hatching the young larve begin to feed upon the scales and tissues of the now withering cone. They feed in such a manner as to leave no distinct lateral larval galleries. If the cones are opened during the larval period the small white grubs may be found in any part of the cone, the axis, scales, and often in the tender milky seeds (Pl. II, fig. 3). The development of the arvee 1s very rapid. Pups may be found in the cones within four weeks after the first attack. By the last of June the cones which contain pup are dry, withered, and reddish brown in color. At about this stage the dry, withered stalks begin to break from the limbs and the blighted cones fall to the ground. All sugar-pine cones which are attacked fall from the trees before the close of the season and the broods complete their development in these fallen vones. The pupx transform to new adults, which begin to appear by July 10, and this transformation continues throughout the sum- mer, until by the middle of August the majority of the broods have reached the stage of new adults. Practically. all of the infested cones have fallen by this time and the brood remains in these cones through Bul. 243, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. Fias. 1 AND 2.—SUGAR-PINE SEED TREES ON BURNED AREA NEAR COLESTIN, OREG. Photographs were made in July, 1914. The area was burned in 1910, destroying all young growth and much of the mature timber. Although the trees haye put on several good crops since that date, there are scarcely any sugar-pine seedlings on the area. The seed crops have been repeatedly attacked by the sugar-pine cone beetle. (Original.) Fic. 3.—CONES ON GROUND UNDER SEED TREES. The large opened cones are normal. ‘The small cones have been killed by the cone beetle. (Original. ) WORK OF CONE BEETLES IN THE CONES OF SUGAR PINE. Bul. 243, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. 4 A A 3 4 i P] Fic. 1.—Showing stalks of beetle-killed sugar-pine cones after the cones have fallen from the tree: a, Entrance holes, showing small pitch tube made by beetle. Fic. 2.—A beetle- attacked sugar-pine cone opened to show tunnel and egg gallery of cone beetle: a, Entrace; b, egg gallery; c, extension of egg gallery to surface where adult emerges. Fia. 3.—Blighted sugar-pine cone opened to show developing broods of cone beetle. Larvee and pup as found July 9, 1914. Fria. 4.—Blighted sugar-pine cone opened to show position of overwintering adults of cone beetle: a, Cone beetle adults. (Original.) STAGES OF CONE BEETLES IN SUGAR-PINE CONES. CONE BEETLES. 5 the remainder of the summer and the long overwintering period (PI. I, fig. 4). The new adults are not entirely dormant during this period, but feed to some extent on the dead tissue of the cone, as is apparent from the sawdust borings. The number of overwintering beetles which have been counted in a single cone varies from 1 to 36. The average, however, is from 6 to 10. A considerable percentage of these blighted cones will always be found in which the beetles have made the attack and completed the egg gallery, but the larve have failed to develop. This failure of the broods is found more often in the very small and in the largest cones which have been attacked. The most successful attacks are found in the intermediate sized cones from 4 to 6 inches in length. Some of the larger cones appear to resist the beetles by drowning them out, as some trees are capable of resisting barkbeetles. In every attack, however, the cone is killed. On certain areas great mortality to the new broods of the cone beetle, presumably through the work of an entomophagous fungus as yet not specifically determined, has been observed. In many of the cones the brood reaches the stage of full-grown larve, pup, or even new adults, and then dies. On an area near Sisson, Cal., in 1913, over 50 per cent of the cones contained these dead broods. On one area near Colestin, Oreg., in 1914, the brood developed in only 57 per cent of the attacked cones. The mortality of the de- veloped broods amounted to 62 per cent, so the broods were finally successful in but 21.6 per cent of the cones attacked. The cause of this has not been determined and will require further study before conclusions can be drawn, although material illustrating the mortal- ity of broods was sent in during the summer of 1914 and referred to the Bureau of Plant Industry. While it appeared to be an en-. tomophagous fungus it has not yet been reported definitely. Few parasites of this cone beetle have been found. All evidence points to the existence of but one generation of this species annually. The broods develop successfully only in the imma- ture cones between 24 and 8 inches in length. The period during which the cones may be found in this stage is so short that it allows for the development of one generation only. In August, 1913, an emergence of a considerable portion of the new generation of beetles was noted in northern California and southern Oregon. No subse- quent attacks were observed on the nearly mature cones of the 1913-14 crop or upon the newly formed 1913-14 cones. No similar emergence was observed in 1912 or 1914, and the only explanation that can be given for the 1913 emergence was that it was abnormal, probably due to the unusual wet-weather conditions of that season. 6 BULLETIN 243, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The actual amount of loss to sugar-pine seed crops from this source is not easily estimated. Even though a great portion of the crop may be killed, the seriousness of the loss depends upon local factors, such as the desirability of reproduction by the natural re- seeding of the infested areas or the demand for seed by local seed collectors. A number of observations have been made from 1912 to 1914 in the vicinity of Ashland, Grants Pass, and Colestin, Oreg., and in California on the Klamath, Shasta, Trinity, California, Plumas, Sierra, and Sequoia National Forests and in the Yosemite and General Grant National Parks. These observations indicate that the sugar-pine cone beetle is distributed throughout the range of the sugar pine, killing a varying percentage of the cone crops. In some places no appreciable damage is found, while in others over 90 per cent of the cones are killed by this insect. Apparently, through a period of years, local outbreaks may occur in well-defined centers of infestation anywhere throughout the range. RELATION OF CONE-BEETLE DAMAGE TO THAT OF SQUIRRELS. The beetle-killed cones fall during a part of the period in which the sugar-pine cones are cut by squirrels. As these rodents are the cause of the cutting and falling of a great part of the cone crop, it is only natural that some of the damage caused by the cone beetle should have been attributed to the squirrel. For this reason con- siderable attention was given to a study of the comparative damage during the season of 1914 from these two causes. The first cutting of the cones by squirrels in 1914 was noted on June 25 near Butte Falls, Oreg., and later in July at Colestin, Oreg. Extensive cutting by the rodents did not begin until the middle of July, and they were active from then until the end of summer. Two species, the gray and the Douglas squirrel, were noted in connection with this damage. Important differences, however, readily distin- guish this damage from that of the cone beetle. 1. Squirrels cut the stalk just above the cone and a part of the stalk is left on the limb. (PI. V, fig. 1.) The wound where the stalk is cut may also show teeth marks of the rodent. Cones which fall from cone-beetle attack have the entire stalk attached to the cone. There are no teeth marks; a small resinous pitch tube is usually found on theistalike: sel. EL, fo. 1c) 2. Cones cut by squirrels are usually eaten or cached by them. Beetle-killed cones are allowed to lie on the ground where they fall and are unmolested by the squirrels. 3. The majority of the sugar-pine cones cut by the squirrels are 10 inches or more in length and the seeds usually full size, although they may still be soft and milky. The majority of the beetle-killed cones are less than 8 inches; some of them not over 24 inches. By the time the cones fall the seeds are blighted or hollow. CONE BEETLES. a In order to obtain definite figures on the comparative damage from these two sources, two localities were selected in southern Oregon where the 1913-14 crop of cones was fairly good. A number of trees were selected which were so situated that the cones falling from them would not become confused with those falling from other trees. A record was made at intervals of the good cones and of those infested by the beetle or cut by squirrels. The results are shown in Table II. TABLE II1.—Comparative loss to sugar-pine cone crop of 1914 caused by the cone beetle and squirrels. AREA NO.1, NEAR COLESTIN, OREG. RECORD OF COUNT ON FIVE TREES. Cones on trees. | Cones on ground. ! | | Tree | Datew al Beetle at-| Beetle | Squirrel Good. | tacked. [peated | cut. 1| July 18 | 0 | ule haat 2 | July 29 } 0 0 54 2 Aug. 8 0 | 0 54 2 Aug. 21 | 0 | 0 | 54 2 2| July 18 1 5 17 1 July 29 1 0 22 1 Aug. 8 | 1 0 22 1 | Aug. 21 1 | 0 22 1 3 | July 18 8 13 27 14 July 29 0 2 38 22 Aug. 8 0 2 | 38 22 Aug. 21 0 0 | 40 22 4| July 18 15 10 | 31 0 July 29 8 0 41 8 Aug. 8 5 0 | 41 11 Aug. 21 0 0 | 41 18 5 | July 18 8 68 83 0 July 29 6 | 30} ens 2 Aug. 8 4 4 147 4 Aug. 21 1 0 151 7 ' AREA NO. 2, NEAR ASHLAND, OREG. RECORD OF COUNT ON THREE TREES. i 1| Apr. 30] 33 0 0 20 Aug. 11 1 0 0 32 Aug. 27 0 0 0 33 2| Apr. 30 14 0 0 109 Aug. 11 10 0 2 1 ‘Aug. 27 3 0 2 8 | 3 | Apr. 30 68 0 0 20 | Aug. 11|~ 65 1 0 cl | Aug. 27 20 1 0 47 1 The beetle-killed and squirrel-cut cones found under the trees on the first date were collected and put together ina pile. Those found on the following dates were collected and added to these; so that, in the above table, the number of cones on the ground at each date represents the total number found up to and including that date. 2 Cones about one-fourth grown. This table shows fairly well the period and rate of falling of the beetle-infested cones. It also shows the great variation in the damage. On area 1 about 85 per cent of the cones were destroyed by the beetles, while on area 2 the attack of the cone beetle was so slight as to be almost negligible. The damage by the cone beetle was therefore practically accom- plished before that by squirrels was started. On area 1 this re- 8 BULLETIN 243, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. duced the food supply of the squirrels, so that by the middle of July, when the serious cutting by the squirrels began, there was very little of the crop left for them. Many large sugar pines standing on prominent ridges where they could easily seed several acres of the slopes below have failed to accomplish this result. One area which the author has studied closely is situated just above Colestin, Oreg., where a heavy fire in 1910 killed most of the timber on several sections, although a number of large seed-producing sugar-pine trees distributed over the area were but little injured. (PI. I, figs. 1,2.) However, in 1914 scarcely any sugar-pine seedlings could be found near these trees. Evidence that this area has been heavily infested by the cone beetle since the fire is plentiful, and in 1914 it destroyed 75 per cent of the crop, the squirrels completing the damage as shown in Table IT under area 1. Either the cone beetle or squirrels, but more probably a combina- tion of the two, is responsible for the absence of satisfactory repro- duction in situations where it is much needed. THE WESTERN YELLOW-PINE CONE BEETLE. (Conophthorus ponderosae Hopk. ) The general life cycle of the cone-beetle broods in yellow pine does not differ in any important respect from that in sugar pine. The first attack on second-year cones has been noted to occur from two to three weeks earlier. The period of maximum emergence occurred from May 1 to 15 on two small lots observed. Close observations on the period of attack and development in this host were made near Ashland at elevations from 1,800 to 2,200 feet. This is from 1,500 to 2,000 feet lower than the elevations at which similar observations were made on the beetles in the sugar pine. The comparative difter- ence in seasonal history as shown by these observations will be found in Table I. The first attack of adults in 1914 was noted on May 5, but the adults were only just starting to bore into the cone and no egg gallery had been commenced. From May 10 to June 1 continued fresh attack was noted, and the latest fresh attack occurred on June 10. By June 3 the earliest attacked cones contained a few pup and were beginning to turn brown and wither, so that they could easily be distinguished from the normal green, unattacked cones. By June 15 pupe and a few new adults were found in the cones first attacked and very little fresh attack was noted. The gradual trans- formation of the brood progressed through the latter part of June and the first part of July, and by July 15 new adults were infesting practically all cones. Bul. 243, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fig. 1.—Yellow pine, showing condition of normal and blighted cone about 10 days after attack by the cone beetle: a, Normal cone; b, blighted cone; 6’, entrance hole made by cone beetle. Frc, 2.— Blighted yellow-pine cone with part of base removed to show form of girdle made by the initial entrance of the cone beetle: a, Entrance; b, point at which the adult turned to extend the egg gallery into the axis of the cone. Fig.3.—A portion of yellow-pine cone (near axis) opened to show egg gallery of the cone beetle, enlarged: a, Egg gallery, showing packed sawdust of beetle; b, egg; c, parent adult at terminus of egg gallery; d, immature seeds. FIG. 4.—Blighted yellow-pine cone with portion of base and scales removed to show the girdle made by the tunnel of the cone beetle and general form of the egg gallery: a, Entrance; b, egg gallery; c, parentadult, (Original.) WorK OF CONE BEETLES IN CONES OF YELLOW PINE. Bul. 243, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV Fig. 1.—Blighted yellow-pine cones adhering to limb. This shows the position in which the majority of the yellow-pine cones are found. Near the terminal are shown three 1913-14 cones, two of them killed by the cone beetle. Farther back on the limb are the cones killed in 1912. Fria. 2.—A whorl of four yellow-pine cones, three of them killed by the cone beetle. The upper cone isnormal. This shows the comparative sizeof the blighted and normal cones. Fic. 3.—A yellow-pine cone opened to show condition of developing brood of the cone beetle. This brood, on June 20, 1914, consisted of both laryze and pups. (Slightly enlarged.) Fic. 4.—a, Blighted cone as it appears in overwintering condition; b, blighted cone opened to show damaged seedsand position of overwintering adults; b’, overwintering adults, (Original.) WoRK OF CONE BEETLES IN CONES OF YELLOW PINE. Bul. 243, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Fic. 1.—SUGAR-PINE CONES CUT BY SQUIRRELS. The lower cone has been shucked and the seeds eaten. The cone in the center has been partly eaten. Note that the cones are cut at the base and do not have the stalk. Compare this ae with the blighted cones shown in Plate II, figure 1. (Original.) i Fia@. 2.—YELLOW-PINE CONES CUT AND EATEN BY SQUIRRELS. (ORIGINAL.) SQUIRREL DAMAGE TO PINE CONES FOR COMPARISON WITH THAT BY BEETLES. - z : ' : “S et = F . 7 ton 6 e = . - ‘ - : ‘ S 7 jl : F i ‘< i os ie 9 A > 2) CONE BEETLES. 9 Yellow-pine cones are sessile; that is, instead of being attached, each to its individual stalk, they are set closely to the limbs. At: the beginning of the second-year growth they are from 1 to 14 inches long. Necessarily the initial point of attack must differ from that on sugar-pine cones. The adult enters the cone by penetrating the scales very close to the base of the cone. Sawdust borings may be seen on the surface of the scales and quite often a tiny pitch tube collects around the entrance of the burrow (PI. ITT, fig. 16’). The adult does not turn directly outward through the central axis of the cone, but bores completely around the axis, forming a short spiral tunnel (PI. ITI, fig. 2). This spiral twist of the tunnel before the beginning of the egg gallery is not noticeable in sugar pine, but it is characteristic of attack in yellow pine. Its result is completely to PLAS UPON SECOND ia CONES - £66S DEPOSITED LARVAE DEVELOP /V WITHERED CONES PUPAE FOR/T PUPAE TRANSFOR?T TO WE: ! ADULTS. CONES FALL FROPA TREES a OVER WINTERING PERIOD OF | ADOLTS IN FALLEN CONES 2 VER Cone, OO YELLOW CES TEBOSITED + = \E 4 PUNE CO, CONE PUPAE FORT POPAE TRANSFORIT BEETLE QVER WINTERING PERIOD OF NEW ADULTS “if CONES UPON TREES. ONLY A FEW CONES FALL ees Ee es ee Ircg. 1.—Comparative life history of the sugar-pine and yellow-pine cone beetles. Com- piled from field records. (Original.) cut off the nourishment and insure the deadening of the cone, which produces the condition necessary for the development of the larve. After completing this girdle at the base of the cone the adult extends the egg gallery out through the central axis (Pl. ITI, fig. 3). Ovi- position (PI. ITI, fig. 4), development of larve (PI. IV, fig. 3), and transformation from pupe to adults are in all important respects the same as with the sugar-pine cone beetle. In a few instances attacks have been observed on the small, first- year cones just after they “put on.” This seems to be a rare habit, and has only been observed where there is a great scarcity of second- year cones. Eggs are not deposited and broods can not develop in these small cones. Beetle-killed yellow-pine cones vary from 1 to 4 inches, the length, as in sugar-pine cones, depending largely on the stage of second-year 10 BULLETIN 243, U. 5S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. growth when attack is made (Pl. LV, fig. 2). Yellow-pine cones, however, do not fall from the trees, and after they turn reddish brown in color they can be readily distinguished against the green foliage (Pl. IV, fig. 1). After the yellow-pine cones become dried they can not be broken readily from the limbs and quite often will be found still adhering many years after the beetles have abandoned them. The seeds may be formed, but they are invariably hollow in blighted cones (Pl. IV, fig. 4). Occasionally a yellow-pine cone will be found that has been at- tacked by the beetle in which the new brood has failed to develop. The number of overwintering adults counted in the cones varied from 1 to 20, the average being from 5 to 8. The cone, however, is always killed and the damage is just as great. The broods overwinter in the cones on the trees and emerge the following spring. (PI. IV, fig. 4.) Adults do not appear to remain entirely dormant during this period, but feed to some extent on the dry scales and seeds. Mortality of the new broods, to any extent like that in the sugar pine, has not been observed. An examination of many infested cones of the 1918-14 crop show s that over 90 per cent of the new broods are alive. AMCUNT OF DAMAGE, The damage by the western yellow-pine cone beetle to yellow pine has never been noted to be as extensive as that of the species working in sugar pine. In heavy stands the loss to yellow pines is not so noticeable as it is on open isolated trees. Even in these isolated trees the amount of damage varies to a great extent on individual trees. Isolated trees at lower elevations, especially those bearing heavy cone crops, suffer most. Two trees standing close together were selected and the cones counted as follows: | Tho, ae Se | | Tree | Beetle-killed 1 Gree . | Tots | | No, | Green cones. Cones Potal. | 1 515 148 9€3 700 65 | 765 The count was made August 5, 1914, at Ashland, Oreg. It shows how damage may vary with individual trees. Estimates of the damage by this beetle necessarily depend upon the same factors as those pertaining to sugar pine. The damage, how- ever, can not be confused with that of squirrels, as the beetle-killed yellow-pine cones adhere to the trees, while the squirrels invariably cut and either eat or cache the cones. (PI. V, fig. 2.) CONE BEETLES. — 11 CONDITIONS REQUIRING CONTROL. Since these insects are not a menace to growing timber, their con- trol by direct expense is desirable only where it is found to be se- riously interfering with the natural or artificial reproduction of the host tree. Under the conditions of the mature, well-stocked stands prevalent in the virgin forests of the West it 1s very doubtiul whether the beetles ever interfere with the required natural repro- duction to an extent sufficient to require artificial methods of control. Seldom is the entire crop killed and eventually through a period of years sufficient good seed is produced to replace the normal loss of trees from lightning, light fires, normal insect infestation, and over- maturity. However, conditions are entirely changed when the virgin forest has been destroyed by timber cutting, fire, or epidemic insect infestations. Yellow pine and sugar pine are rated as two of the most desirable timber species, and if the restocking of areas denuded of these species is to be accomplished by natural reproduc- tion, full seed crops must be produced by the seed trees left on or near the areas. If the cone crops of such yellow and sugar-pine seed trees are repeatedly destroyed by the cone beetles, or if these infest them to such an extent that the destruction is completed by rodents, then the required seeding may be delayed until the ground is usurped by less valuable tree species. Under such conditions measures which will reduce the infestation of the beetle by direct expense may in the end effect a saving in the conservation of the forest. If burns or cut-over areas are restocked by artificial seeding the collection of sound, mature seed is necessary. Again, we may find that the cone beetles have so reduced the supply of cones on selected seed-collecting sites that seed can not be profitably collected. In the last case damage may be avoided by intelligent selection of noninfested seed-collecting areas. Or if the site is selected a year in advance, the infestation may be reduced and most of the seed crop saved by application of the remedy. REMEDY. From the discussion relating to the seasonal history of the insect it is obvious that from the last of August until the following May all the infestation within an area will consist of the broods of new adults which are overwintering within the blighted cones. It is evi- dent that if fallen infested cones from the trees which seed in a burned or cut-over area can be raked up and burned between Sep- tember 1 and May 1 a very appreciable reduction of the infestation and damage may result. In the case of sugar pine all infested cones 12 BULLETIN 243, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. will be found on the ground under the trees during this period and, when the conditions seem to warrant it, burning may be done without great expense. September, October, and November would be the more favorable months for the work, as winter snow and unfavorable conditions for burning wil probably be found during the winter and spring. Seed collectors in locating areas for collecting may estimate the amount of cone-beetle damage on the trees by July 15—in some situa- tions a month sooner—as the blighted cones by that time begin to stand out conspicuously on the trees. From these estimates the col- lector may determine whether or not the seed crop of the current year is too badly damaged to be profitably collected. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ¢ 1915 BULLETIN (OR THE W USDEPARTIENT OFAGRICULTORE No. 244 Cue aw ae Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester, July 21, 1915. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. By Wixsur R. Marroon, Forest Examiner. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Name and identification...........-.-.------ 1 cich tne quinementSeanqasetesiieeecisereee cileetcte 14 Geographical and economic range...-..-.-...- 2) -Rieproduction= see -meeise eee ence ener 18 Character of stands... ...-. osbeoooossesnadaade APN GTO WU escort seriacete estate ena eetaleieeeiacte 28 IZA SONATA DUGace: senescence se eee i, |) Causesiolinjurye ss so cece ceca eee eceeeeee 34 Damen upon soil and clim ate. Ein wal eee nN Ue 1 Te We al) Kc eet erates seer yeni st coe a a 39 NAME AND IDENTIFICATION. It is important to distinguish clearly the true shortleaf pine* (Pinus echinata Mill.)—variously known throughout portions of its range as “vellow,” “old field,” “‘rosemary,” ‘‘two-leaf,’”’ ‘heart,’ and ‘“‘spruce”’ pine—from other so-called shortleaf pines of the Southern States. Confusion occurs because of the custom, more or less generally pre- vailing throughout the South, of distinguishing only two kinds of pine, shortleaf and longleaf. Under this custom, the pine most com- monly included with shortleaf is loblolly pine,’ slash pine being classed in similar manner as longleaf pine. Shortleaf is most readily dis- tinguished from loblolly pine by means of differences in leaf and cone, described on page 7. Other pines associated with short- leaf are the smaller, crooked-stemmed scrub pine and the northern pitch pine which saison forms old-field stands and grows both in wetter and colder situations. 1Shortleaf pine was first described botanically by Miller in 1768. In 1803, the elder Michaux defined more fully the specific characteristics of the species under the name of Pinus mitis, widely circulated in his work on American forest trees and largely used in botanicalliterature. The name Pinus echinata, first given to the tree by Miller, was not taken up by any author of note until the publication of Sargent’s Silva, Vol. XI, in 1897, and by the accepted rule of priority, this is the correct name of the species. 2 Pinus taeda, know locally by various names, as ‘‘old field,’’ ‘‘shortleaf,’’ ““swamp,’’ “bull pine,” etc. Nore.—This bulletin gives in detail the life history of shortleaf pine, known under various names through- out the South, where only it is found in commercial quantities. 92233°—Bull. 244—15——1 2 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GEOGRAPHICAL AND ECONOMIC RANGE. Shortleaf pine occurs in 24 of the States. Its geographical range includes all the States east of the Mississippi River, except Wisconsin, Michigan, and New England, and six States west of the Mississippi. It extends from the Hudson River Valley in New York! south through all the Atlantic and Gulf States to eastern Texas and from West Virginia and Ohio southwestward through the Ohio and Missis- sipp1 Valleys to Missouri, Kansas,? and Oklahoma. The tree is dis- tributed over more than 440,000 square miles. This is much larger than the range in the United States of white pine, its nearest com- petitor among the pines. TaBLE 1.—Comparative distribution of eight species of pines having the largest ranges within the United States. F Area of dis- States re Pinos tribution, SSOnI | Sq. miles. Shortleatpine se. sess aso eaciotink = meee necteseaes Aoacee siete n ene see saeioe 440, 000 24 iWehite pine lessee seca ees caret ata ace Neei ate ach a muatmarey Ts aeNals bina aieelerecete 381, 000 23 Pitch PINOe ass ssecee ose as OT SSPE eet ne ae tn epee ee nae eae e aera 360, 000 19 Wiesterney.ellowy pinata soa na senses tee eee cami he cee ee mnie eee eers 350, 000 14 SCH sp UT Ces are US ehau es oes ET Sai Meiners dedi eteinienetaleayars SU eyeyerss Steyn ste a eye ee Lae 317, 000 14 18 A{s(aS oy Foe ah A en one eae a eS ae os eee BAAS cepa cee ao dane eps una ceou- 300, 000 14 NWGODLOL Vapi @ eye A SN eS Se catand meiciote fale eiaeratacs alolunntars lee Asters myajeioate 295, 000 13 Iigajakd (2h (opto) een Nib eeoam eee aeenbisp be Uadne SaeupSE spe cEsaeeccadedon beau uaEHeeoce 171, 000 | 10 1 Areas derived from Forest Service data on the geographic distribution of pines in the United States, including approximately the exterior boundary of the botanical range. From sea level shortieaf pine ranges up to an altitude of about 3,000 feet in the southern Appalachians. At or near sea level it covers more than 11 degrees of latitude, or about 800 miles. In the North the species is confined nearly to sea level. It attains its best development at altitudes of 600 to 1,500 feet over the Piedmont and at 400 to 1,000 feet in Arkansas. In both these localities loblolly pine reaches only to altitudes of about 500 to 600 feet, above which -shortleaf is the only important southern pine up to 3,000 feet and the only conifer except scattering juniper above about 700 feet in Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma. The commercial range of shortleaf pine comprises most of the botanical range except that portion lying in the States north of Vir- ginia and in the Ohio River basin. It includes preemimently the broad Piedmont region lying between the Appalachians and the Atlantic coastal plain from Virginia to South Carolina; the northern half of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana; all of Arkansas; eastern Oklahoma; and eastern Texas. Shortleaf pine is the only commercial conifer on more than 100,000 square miles of upland 1 Sargent. Herbarium notes, May, 1913. 2 Britton and Brown. Flora of Northern United States and Canada, Illustrated, LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 3 region between Virginia and northern Alabama and Mississippi. The total area of its commercial range covers not less than 280,000 square miles. The production reaches its maximum over the gently rolling and hilly country of the Mississippi basin in northern Louisi- ana, most of eastern Arkansas, eastern Oklahoma, and eastern Texas. In common with practically all other commercial pines, the economic range of shortleaf has become greatly reduced, and over the extreme northern part it has been almost driven out by close utilization and ne WIS AX SS fel A. \ —INN MG Fic. 1.—Botanical and commercial range of shortleaf pine. the consequent encroachment of hardwoods. In the upper portions of the Atlantic coastal plain it is to a considerable extent being replaced by loblolly pine on abandoned fields. The early clearing for agriculture of the lighter and better-drained soils greatly decreased the shortleaf seed trees and correspondingly increased the relative proportion of loblolly seed trees, which were left growing along the watercourses and on low heavy soils, where they find a congenial home. 4 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CHARACTER OF STANDS. PURE STANDS. Shortleaf is very well adapted for growth in pure stands, and it occurs extensively in this form of forest. The stands are not usually continuous over large areas, but are separated by mixed stands of pines and hardwoods. Stands of pure shortleaf pine once covered a much larger area than at present. It is doubtful whether shortleaf is now found in pure type on more than from 20 to 40 per cent of its former range. Mature shortleaf occurs over a large region centering in western Arkansas and northern Louisiana. This is the last extensive region of virgin shortleaf forest left in the gradual progress of the lumber industry southward and westward following the coast line. At ele- vations of 400 to 1,200 feet the hilly country supports heavy stands of timber, which, however, are being lumbered at a rapid rate. In the higher mountainous regions, including the southern Appalachians from 1,000 to 2,000 feet in elevation and the Arkansas and Ozark National Forests, the warm south-facing slopes are generally covered with pine in pure stands, and the northerly slopes with little else than hardwoods, chiefly oaks and hickories. A considerable proportion of the pure stands of shortleaf is found in old fields formerly under cultivation. Here the factor of early competition with hardwoods was eliminated and the pine took com- plete possession. This form of second-growth forest occurs exten- sively from Virginia southward and westward throughout its entire commercial range and aggregates probably more than 68,000 square miles.t. It represents practically all the land within the shortleaf- pine belt that has at any time been cleared and subsequently aban- doned. During a period of 10 to 20 years, commencing in i861, a vast acreage of such lands was ‘‘turned out”’ all through the South; but the process of ‘‘clearing up,” ‘‘working out,” and “‘ turning back” land has been in common practice for a century or more in the older parts of the Southern States. MIXED STANDS. CONIFERS. In its geographical relation to the other eastern pines of commercial importance, shortleaf occupies a position characteristically interme- diate between white and Norway pines on the north and loblolly and longleaf on the south. Between these two widely separated groups of important commercial pines, shortleaf occupies and domi- nates a broad strip of country. 1 Based upon general forest studies in practically all of the States, and detailed examination of 21 counties in North Carolina. LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 5 Altogether 10 different species share in varying degree the range of shortleaf. Pond and slash pines and spruce pine merely overlap along the southern margin, but pitch and scrub pines share as much as one-third to one-half the botanical range. In parts of Virginia and North Carolina, scrub pine occurs in varying proportion in the mixed shortleaf conifer stands,! particularly in old fields, and it succeeds in getting a strong foothold in the poorer soils, dry pastures, and waste places. On the lower or warmer side, shortleaf throughout practically its entire range associates extensively with loblolly pine. In this association the two maintain, to a large degree, the relation of complementary species, loblolly holding the heavier, moist soils and shortleaf the drier and lighter soils. Valuable and extensive commercial forests of this character occur in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Texas, and especially heavy stands in Arkansas and Louisiana. Both of these pines to some extent, and particularly loblolly, are replacing the slower-growing longleaf on all situations, except the driest and most sandy soils, throughout their region of contact.2 In the longleaf region shortleaf occurs generally in groups or small stands on favorable situations, but in large areas west of the Mississippi the two occupy practically the same soil type, and in mixture they make up heavy stands of maximum development. HARDWOODS. A large number of broadleaf species are associated with shortleaf through its extended range. Oaks and hickories, however, are so constant in their association as to be characteristic in many of the mixed stands. Over the Northern Atlantic States chestnut oak, yellow oak, and red oak are the most typical associates. From Virginia southward throughout the Piedmont country, lying between the coastal plain and the lower slopes of the mountains up to 2,500 feet, shortleaf still maintains its position generally as the dominant tree in mixture with the upland oaks and hickories. The primary associated species are yellow and Spanish oaks, big-bud and bitternut hickories, and, on the thin ridges, post oak and black-jack oak. The amount of shortleaf in the mixture varies widely, but throughout the eastern range represents usually from 35 to 60 per cent of the stand. In the hilly and mountainous parts of Arkansas, the mixed shortleaf and loblolly type gives way at elevations above about 400 feet to heavy stands of nearly pure shortleaf up to about 1,000 feet, whence 1 Following are betanical and common names of pines mentioned: Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda Linn.). . Norway pine (Pinus resinosa Ait.). Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.). Scrub pine (Pinus virginiana Mill.). Pitch pine (Pinus rigida Mill.). Slash pine (Pinus caribaea Morel.). Pond pine (Pinus serotina Michx.). White pine (Pinus strobus Linn.). Table Mountain pine (Pinus pungens Michx.). 2 Ashe, W. W. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. Vol. V, No.1, p. 84. 6 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the shortleaf-hardwood mixed forest ascends the mountain slopes to about 2,000 feet. The prevailing associates west of the Mississippi River are oaks and hickories, particularly yellow oak, bitternut and pignut hickories; on the dry ridges post and black-jack oaks; and in the fresher soils white and red oaks, big-bud or mocker-nut hickory, and red gum.!. The commercial importance of all the hardwoods typically associated with shortleaf is comparatively small, except white oak in the region of its better development. Several inferior species, including persimmon, sassafras, and dogwood, are nearly everywhere represented in the mixture. TABLE 2.—Forest composition of the Arkansas and Ozark National Forests. Arkansas National Forest.2 Ozark National Forest. Species. Per Diameter. Per centage centage Total stand. of : Total stand. of tota ‘ Maxi- total stand. |“Verage- | mum. stand. : Board feet. Inches. | Inches. Board feet. Shortleat-pinoss: ccs ace 1, 500, 000, 000 75. 00 18 34 108, 890, 000 10.15 AW te Onsen ase ets soe 300, 000, 000 15, 00 17 36 605, 925, 000 56. 51 Red and black oak.............- 100, 000, 000 5. 00 16 18 252, 809, 000 23. 57 LIC KOT Ye sere sles so te eae He ees 350, 000 . 02 16 18 40, 271, 000 3.76 Wedipum eset eee seen ae Paneer 38, 348, 000 1. 67 16 22 63, 248, 000 5.90 Miscellaneous...........2.--..-- 96, 302, 000 eS Liaise oie epee esiarnicke 1,174, 000 ali Mota eas a. lsh ene 2, 000, 000, 000 LDOKOOs | See t ee 22 545) eee ee 1, 032, 317, 000 100. 00 1 Figures for the Arkansas Forest secured during reconnaissance in 1913. Figures for Ozark Forest from AOE ROLE TR OOUaCIEe eee Industries and National Forests of Arkansas.’’ 3 Area of Forest, 481,575 acres. The percentage of shortleaf is relatively small in the Ozark, which is farther north, and increases outside of both Forests because of the lower elevations and warmer situations. Under virgin conditions the progressive changes within this mixed type resemble in some respects those that occur with white pine. By the thinning or removal of the valuable shortleaf pine, oppor- tunity has been afforded for the more rapid reproduction of tolerant hardwoods already on the ground. Thus, some territory formerly dominated by shortleaf in mixture is now held almost exclusively by hardwoods. 1 Names of hardwoods mentioned: Big-bud hickory (icoria alba Britt.). Red gum (Liquidambar styracifiua Linn.). Black gum ( Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. ). Red maple (Acer rubrum Linn.). Black-jack oak (Quercus marilardica Muenchh. ). Red oak (Quercus rubra Linn.). Dogwood ( Cornus florida Linn.). Sassafras (Sassafras sassafras (Linn.) Karst.). Chestnut oak (Quercus prinus Linn.). Scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea Muenchh. ). Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana Linn.). Spanish oak (Quercus digitata (Marsh.) Sudw.). Pignut hickory ( Hicoria glabra Britt.). White oak (Quercus alba Linn.). Post oak (Quercus minor (Marsh.) Sarg.). Yellow oak (Quercus velutina Lam.). | LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. af SIZE, AGE, AND HABIT. Over much of its range the average height attained by shortleaf is between 80 and 100 feet, and in regions of better development between 100 and 120 feet, with a maximum of about 130 feet. Mature diameters of from 2 to 3 feet are most common; those of 4 feet are rare except in trees grown in the open. The tree commonly reaches an age of between 200 and 300 years, a maximum of about 400 years being occasionally attained. In size, shortleaf holds about middle ground between longleaf and loblolly pines. Loblolly grows to an equal height and a greater diameter, but is not so straight a tree. Longleaf averages a little higher, but has a somewhat smaller trunk at maturity. FORM. A long clear straight bole with small taper and short crown makes shortleaf pine almost an ideal tree for the saw. These characteristics are so much more pronounced in shortleaf than in several of its pine associates, for example, pitch, scrub, and loblolly pine, that they serve commonly as distinguishing marks. In early life the tree has a narrow pyramidal stem, which later becomes more cylindrical (Pls. I and II). Tables showing the form or taper of the stem, both out- side and inside the bark, will be found in a forthcoming bulletin on the importance and management of shortleaf pine. These include tables for North Carolina and Arkansas, showing inside bark meas- urements at intervals of 8.15 feet above a 1.5 foot stump for trees from 40 to 120 feet in height and of corresponding diameter classes. The tables are adapted for use in calculations of cubic volume of saw timber from 8 and 16 foot logs, allowing 0.3 foot additional length for each 16-foot log. The butt taper at 1-foot intervals of trees of vari- ous diameters is also shown, and there is a table of tapers outside the bark at 10-foot intervals above the ground for trees from 40 to 90 feet in height. CROWN AND BARK. A short crown composed of numerous small branches, forming a narrow pyramidal head, permits of the close density which charac- terizes shortleaf-pine stands. This inherent narrow crown habit is well shown in trees grown in the open, where it is conspicuous even to an advanced age. Although changes take place in the relative demand of the crown for light after the period of maximum height growth (about 50 to 70 years), the change in the general shape of the crown is slight. While the crown of longleaf in early life has about the same outline as shortleaf, though less dense, in later life it broadens out far more. Loblolly maintains a much wider and heavier crown at all periods of life than either of the other important southern pines. This habit is more pronounced on the drier soils; hence in 8 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the upper portions of its range, where associated with shortleaf, this difference in outline and internal branching of the crowns becomes striking and serves as a distinguishing characteristic. In keeping with the small, close crown are the short, slender leaves of shortleaf pme. The leaf characteristics, together with the cone, afford the best means of identifying the species. (Fig. 2.) Special notice of this is essential, because confusion prevails generally in dis- tinguishing the various pines. Shortleaf belongs distinctly to the two-leaf group of pines. On the more vigorous portions of the crown, however, three leaves in the bundle are not uncommon. The leaves are mostly 3 to 5 inches long, in some localities appearing en masse of a slightly bronzed or pale-green color, in contrast to the glaucous or blue-green color in other localities or regions. Short shoots and colonies of sessile leaf bundles are often scattered along the trunk and over the upper sides of the larger branches. These are found on the pitch pine of the North and the pond pine of the South; but since they occur in none of the important southern timber pines except shortleaf, they serve practically as a characteristic distinguishing shortleaf from both loblolly and longleaf pines. The size of the cones (‘‘burrs’’) aids in recognizing shortleaf when otherwise it might be confounded with loblolly pine, its most common associate in the lower soils. The small cones of shortleaf (from 14 to 24 inches in length) when open on the tree appear to be about the size of pigeon eggs; those of loblolly (from 3 to 5 inches in length) about the size of duck eggs. The individual scales composing the cone in shortleaf are armed with slender, needle-pointed prickles, broken off more easily than the stouter persistent prickles of loblolly cones. The seed of shortleaf (described on p. 19) is likewise much smaller than that of loblolly pine. A difference in the bark of shortleaf and loblolly is readily per- ceptible up to the beginning of old age. The bark of loblolly is on the average thicker, more deeply furrowed and ridged, and somewhat darker in color than that of shortleaf. After maturity these differ- ences in bark become less marked, or disappear. RELATION OF CLEAR LENGTH TO CROWN. Measurements taken in shortleaf stands of average density show much regularity in the relation of the length of the living crown to the total height of the tree. In stands about 10 feet in height the depth of the canopy averages 5 feet, or one-half the height of the stand. Above this height the canopy gradually becomes propor- tionately shorter, until at 80 feet clear lengths of 45 to 55 feet are reached. This is from about 60 to 70 per cent of the total height, varying with different qualities of site. The crown is relatively longer, in proportion to the total height of the tree, on the poorer situations, and, conversely, the clear length of the stem is shorter. LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 9 ZS Fic. 2.Shortleaf pine leaves, seed, cone (burr), and seedling: a, Young seedling; b, same one month later; c, seedling at end of first season showing early bundles of true leaves; d, two-leaf and three-leaf clusters; e, branch with mature closed cones (burrs); f, cone scale and seed with wing detached; g, mature cone opened. (Drawn to scale from actual specimens. ) 92233°—Bull. 244—15——2 10 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Figure 3, based on measurements of 34 well-stocked shortleaf pine stands in Arkansas, represents graphically the proportion of clear length to crown length for trees of various heights on the better and poorer quality of situations. The lengths of the crown and clear stem and their proportion of the total height of the tree are given in Table 3. In New Jersey 70-year-old stands 65 feet high had practically the same actual depth of canopy as vigorous stands 50 years old and 80 feet in height in Arkansas. The proportion of clear length to total height in New Berrer Quality Sites us Oe SOMOS Le OE TO: 40 or G rE 49 25), (FG, SSG IG: Clear lerigtl of Tree vee By ae | | Fiq.3.—Relative proportions of clear length and crown depth for shortleaf pine of various heights on better and poorer qualities of site in Arkansas. Jerscy was about 48 per cent, as compared with 70 per cent for the better stands in Arkansas. TaBLE 3.—Clear length and crown length of dominant trees in well-stocked stands of shortleaf pine in Arkansas. Better ouality site. | Poorer quality site. Total height of tree (feet). | Clear length. | Crown length. | Clear length. | Crown length. Feet. | Per ct. | Feet. | Perct.| Feet. | Perct.| Feet. | Perct. ep aemencuucs aAsaouesee race sotnoodes 5 50 5 50 4 40 6 60 20: aeda een once cinale ccleenlaenre oc 10 50 10 50 8 40 12 60 GSS SBC CORTEEE USO nan uakccie Goan 18 60 12 40 13 43 17 57 AQUEIE = Soph eseicrdinei ee eiete e sicisleciow sce 25 63 15 37 19 47 21 53 BOs LESS Seach oe) we ia aca (cicie ian aoe 32 64 18 36 25 50 25 50 (10) eB nega ons 3a ARS MES 5 Sete Seen 39 65 21 35 31 52 29 48 MO Sa araies co ctetete tani mrercin Aeieice scswewels 46 67 24 33 38 54 32 46 SO Grose a ate eine tics Ciatislelec sateen afole Bie 55 69 25 OL 46 57 34 43 Cl oRbecedaron SCC SAOCoCt bs TENCE ea OrS 63 70 27 30 53 60 37 40 CROWN SPREAD AND TREE DIAMETER. In well-stocked stands of shortleaf pine a very close relationship has been found to exist between the diameter of the tree at breast height and the diameter of the crown. This relationship is striking in its LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 11 constancy and, so far as is known,! has never before been found to exist in any North American tree species. It was found to hold true for all crown classes within a range of ages from 20 to 80 years, rep- resenting average diameters up to about 16 inches. Indications point to this relation holding true beyond 80 years, although no meas- urements in pure shortleaf pine have been made. Later measure- ments by Prof. H. H. Chapman, of Yale Forest School, indicate a CROWN DIAMETEFR —FEET He “ : ae pues BREAST TCT HiGHES Fic. 4.—Relation of crown width to diameter of tree. (Shortleaf pine, 11 to 60 years old, in Arkansas.) constant relation between the diameter and crown in mixed short- leaf and loblolly pine stands from 80 up to 200 years; also recent deductions from yield and growth data of red spruce show a definite relation existing between basal area and growing space in even-aged stands between 20 and 100 years. The evidence from which the conclusion is drawn is shown in figure 4, based on 545 trees on 25 sample plots, representing 16 different ages, 1 Determined in January, 1913, from measurements taken in November and December, 1912. 2 By L.S. Murphy, Forest Service. 12 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and the average tree on each of 14 other sample areas, or a total of 559 trees. All the trees of the three crown classes in the stand and on the different qualities of site are represented. Under the influence of all these different factors, which are considered variables in mat- ters of tree growth and volume increment, the size of both diameter and crown spread have been found to vary uniformly and in the same direction. This intimate relationship between tree diameter and crown spread is apparently an expression primarily of tolerance or relative demand of the species for light. Table 4 gives the average crown spread in feet of each breast-high diameter class from 5 to 16 inches. It shows a perfect regularity between the size of the tree and the space occupied by its crown, irrespective of age and vigor. The table shows that ice each increase of 1 inch in tree diameter the crown spread increases 1.4 feet in Arkansas and 1.75 feet in New Jersey. This difference in rate is probably due to the effect of differ- ent climatic conditions upon the tolerance of the species. During earlier life up to about 15 years the relation appears to be in the ratio of 1 foot of crown spread to each inch in tree diameter. This law of growth finds practical application in determining for any specified diameter class the total number of trees that can most profitably be grown per acre in a well-stocked stand. Since diameter is a direct function of age in any given quality of situation, the tree density on the ground at any desired age can likewise be ascertained. Knowledge of this sort is fundamental in working out problems of thinning, cutting, and final yields of timber. TaBLe 4.—Relation of tree diameter and crown diameter for shortleaf pine trees in fully stocked stands for all ages from 20 to 80 years—Contrast of regional difference for Arkansas and New Jersey. Crown diameter. eee : eas 2 | Unfavorable region (New Favorable region (Arkansas). Jersey). Tree diameter breast high (inches). Differ- Differ- | ence in F ence in | oe ame unt ane Bae an crown diameter.) -. iameter | diameter.| - diameter increase. and tree | increase. | ond tree diameter. diameter. | Feet. Feet Feet. Feet. Feet Feet. Be ete Rae einai wicie oie le japon mee Utes She reetic oes 4.8 3. 2bi | oe oo seer 2. 85 OEE Fees cites se reece «ahem Wk coe 6.6 1.4 6.1 5 1.75 4.5 Use ene GE ae aes aoe: CaO ane ae SaCsOR | 8 1.4 7.4 6.75 1.75 6.15 SSIS SIs etek ceo wetness oe et aoe te kek 9.4 1.4 8.7 8. 50 1.75 7.8 ee Ere tc) PROP eae te eat rare ee eal cea 10.8 1.4 10. 05 10. 25 LS 9.5 DN A tS 3 ek 8 eB ed vee SOS Se eS Ge ele 12.2 14 11.4 12 1.75 11. 21 Dee tictire cto ae eae oe eters sit veldiowceieeesce 13.6 1.4 UPI 13. 75 1,75 12. 85 LD eae Sa iotie fo erate bic Sete ie IT sie oe cycle ae dre Bie 15 1.4 14 15. 1.75 14.5 Loree cote ee ee oe aaa Secs ewiele Saek 16. 4 1.4 158) ee ae oS. Se ee VS Bt I Pe BE eee, ee an te tees 17.8 1.4 16) Ge Ac. Ce ae VOCS e eet e ec cat OS enolep eee tte oee- were e sce 19. 2 1.4 17095 |. 2 oe 3 | cee ee eens GSS eS CRS CLE soak Sack aonea tte te ee 20.6 1.4 19.305]. co. tk. oo ee LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 13 ROOT SYSTEM. Having strongly developed taproot and laterals, the tree is seldom thrown by wind except in the case of tornadoes. This root system also enables the tree to thrive in relatively dry situations. Taproots 14 feet deep have been found on 8-year-old saplings, which shows the ability of the tree to search for moisture. (Pl. I.) This root habit may account, in part at least, for the wide geographical dis- tribution of shortleaf pine, and, within much of its range, its suprem- acy over all other conifers, except red juniper, in successfully occupy- ing the driest upland soils and exposed ridges. It is significant that shortleaf pine, which maintains throughout life a higher tree density in pure stands than any other eastern or southern commercial pine, possesses inherently both a narrow crown and deep root system. The distribution of loblolly pine over the tideland districts and along watercourses and the absence there of shortleaf pine is undoubtedly due to an ecological effect of root development and inherent adaptation. DEMANDS UPON SOIL AND CLIMATE. SOIL. Shortleaf occurs on a wide variation of soil types, ranging from the gravels and sands to stiff clays. In respect to soil moisture, however, its requirements in one particular are more exacting; namely, under all conditions, shortleaf avoids very poorly draimed or wet situations. Its home is essentially on the better-drained soils. In New Jersey it grows on the low ridges of gravelly loam, associated with chestnut oak. Over the extreme lower portion of the Atlantic coastal plain, from North Carolina through southern Georgia, Ala- bama, and Mississippi, its occurrence is always on the well-drained ridges and hummocks. The physiography and soil types of the Pied- mont region, from the upper coastal plain well into the lower slopes of the mountains, are favorable to its vigorous growth. The deep, well-drained, gravelly or clayey loam soils of this region favor short- leaf but discourage loblolly, which is much inferior in ability to withstand drought. In the lower shortleaf range toward the south- ern coasts the lighter grades of sandy soils are occupied by longleaf, which possesses remarkable tolerance for deep and very dry soil conditions. CLIMATE The broadness of the climatic conditions favorable to shortleaf pine is clearly indicated by the tree’s wide geographical range The range of temperature is from the mean annual temperature of 48° F. in northern New Jersey, through 60° in central Arkansas, to 70° in southeast Texas. Of greater significance is the difference be- 14 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tween the midwinter (January) mean of 26° in northern New Jersey and the midsummer (July) mean of 84° in southeast Texas. Within its geographical range occurs a total temperature range of 134° F., from a minimum of —22° in New Jersey to a maximum of 112° in northern Louisiana. ‘The length of the growing season is indicated approximately by the period during which killing frosts do not occur. In New Jersey this period averages only five months, from May 1 to October 1; in northern Louisiana it is a little less than eight months, from March 16 to November 8. There is a variation in snowfall from an average of 40 inches at the north to none whatever over the south- ern range of the species. In the northeast, the 45-inch line of annual precipitation closely parallels the northern limit of shortleaf’s range, and the line marking an average of 40 inches of precipitation about coincides with its southwestern boundary in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Shortleaf advances farther into this region of low relative humidity than any other pine, and in its advance into Texas falls behind only cypress and eastern red cedar. The belt of maximum development of shortleaf—northern Louisiana and Arkansas and the southern Piedmont—coincides strikingly with the rainfall zone of 45 to 55 inches, or an average of 50 inches. In general, shortleaf pine reaches its best development under (1) a mean annual temperature of about 55° F., from a 35° average for the coldest months of the year to a 75° average for the warmest; (2) an annual precipitation of 45 to 55 inches, distributed through at least nine months of the year; and (3) in deep, porous or well-drained, clayey, or gravelly loam. In less favorable conditions, the species shows considerable vigor of growth over regions of wide variation in temperature, atmospheric moisture, soil composition, and, excepting in the heavier, poorly drained soils, soil moisture. In demands upon both moisture and heat, shortleaf is clearly the least exacting of the important southern pines, which may be put in the following order: Slash, longleaf, loblolly, shortleaf. LIGHT REQUIREMENTS. Shortleaf pine requires an abundance of direct overhead light fof development, yet at the same time it possesses to a remarkable degree both the power to withstand suppression for many years and the capacity of rapid recovery following suppression. The intimate relation between light supply and growth in early life is graphically shown in figure 5, drawn to scale from an 11-year-old crowded short- leaf-pine stand. The adjacent stands cut off all side light and slightly reduce the overhead supply. The height growth increases at an accelerated rate as the distance from the adjacent stand increases, reaching its normal level of 22 feet at a distance approxi- % LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 15 mately the same as the height of the marginal trees. Incidentally this close response in growth to varying degrees of light makes short- leaf a good recorder of unusual climatic or other events which strik- ingly alter existing light relations. Typical examples of this are given on page 32, under the discussion of recovery after suppression. Because of its inherently narrow crown and medium light require- ments, the density of shortleaf stands remains high to a relatively advanced age. So many factors enter into the problem that it is impossible to determine the absolute position of shortleaf in the scale of light requirements without a much greater number of exact meas- urements. To compare it, however, with other southern pines, under similar conditions of soil, heat, moisture, and age, shortleaf through- out life requires less light for development than longleaf, does not in early life tolerate shade so well as loblolly, but retains longer the Ser MEE < aN aeeDEY ee ett te “pL em od Pie ee Pee TLL Leh 10 120'\30 40 50 60 ~=————590 60 50 40 30 20 /0 O UO) ——> E Orstatce (11 Feer Fia. 5.—Effect of light supply upon height growth, shown by a vertical section through a 2-year-old short- leafstand. Fully stocked, even-aged shortleaf stand, 11 years old and 22feethigh. (Drawn from actual stand.) power of growth under limited light supply, showing this retention of power by a relatively later and slower decrease in tree density. NATURAL THINNING AND STAND DENSITY. The dependence of shortleaf on a full supply of light in early life is seen in the rapid reduction of very high tree density in natural unthinned stands. A square rod of 8-year-old saplings, encroaching upon a cotton field in Nevada County, Ark., contained a stand of about 58,000 per acre. At 10 years, as many as 25,000 to 40,000 trees per acre over limited areas are not uncommon. At 20 years the normal stand contains from 900 to 1,200 trees. In fully stocked stands natural thinning progresses very rapidly during the first decade and at an increasingly slower rate during the following 20 to 30 years. After this period the loss of trees is very noticeably gradual for the remainder of life. Natural thinning is most rapid and culminates earliest in the best quality of situations both from a regional and local standpoint. In the central Mississippi 16 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Valley region the first general period ends somewhere between the ages of 40 and 50 years, depending upon the local situation; in the central Atlantic coast belt apparently between 55 and 70 years. Figure 6, showing progressive stages of natural thinning and crown, classed according to age, represents actual numbers of trees and a) outlines of crowns as YY Yy they existed in four Lp thy fully stocked stands in Arkansas measured yy , g WY IIL) for growth and yield. Yi “YY f li “(74 The 20-year-old stand ; Gy Y yy, contained 800 trees per Wry “i j Yi thy acre; the 33-year-old . GSUYY stand, 580 trees; the 42-year-old stand, 400 trees; and the 52-year- Age 20 Years Age33Years old stand, 320 trees 2 (800 Trees Per Acre) (580 Trees Per Acre). per acre. Shortleaf pine shows progressive changes in the character of the forest canopy other than the mere reduc- tion in number of trees. These changes are well illustrated in figure 6 for stands from 20 to 50 years old. Inearly life the tree crowns are approximately circular in outline and closely approach each other, 2 leaving very little un- Agse42 Years AgeS2Years aks | ts At (400 Trees Per Acre) (320TreesPerAcre) Occupled space. _. the age of 50 years, Fic. 6.—Progressive change in tree density by natural thinning ‘ in pure even-aged stands of shortleaf in Arkansas: D, Dominant however, the tree has classes; I, intermediate; 8, suppressed classes. Areas, 33 by 66 become less tolerant, feet. (Drawn from actual stands.) 3 the crowns are quite irregular in outline, and crown isolation leaves relatively large light spaces in the canopy. The slow rate of natural thinning after about 50 years undoubtedly is accompanied by relatively small changes in the tolerance of the tree. The climax of lateral growth or spread of the branches characteristic of the species seems to be closely ap- PLATE | riculture. g S Bul. 244, U. S. Dept. of A “IOSANS NI Laa4 Z ‘ONIMdVS 4O WALSAS LOOY— 6 Uls "SUVaA OZ| LNOaV ADV ee a ae ; ———— ‘ ANIq AVSTILYOHS SYNLVI |) sells] "ANId 4VATLYOHS 4O NMOYO MOYYVN GNV MNAYL NV310 ‘LHDIVYLS “AYOV *NadO Yad OOS LNOSV 4O GNVLS G1IO-YVSA-ALXIS—'S "DI4 SHL NI NMOUS) NSHM NMOYXD MOYYVN—"'}] “SI PLATE II U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 244, Bul. PLATE III. Bul. 244, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "auYl4 GNNOYy Ag LOOY GssodxXq OL AYNPN| SNIMOTIOY SNId SAVATLYOHS 4O SYayMONS LOOY AO 3SVO SYVY ‘@ ‘WALS LN3SYVd 4O NLS GNV ‘LOOYdV | NI HOOD 319N0q OILSIYNS LOVYVHO ONIMOHS ANId AVATLYOHS 4O LNOUdS “YM —'g "DI4 *“SLNOUdS AYI4 JAO NOILVYSANS5) GNOOSS JO ANId AVATILYOHS GIO-YVAA-E SNOYXODIA—*| “DI Bul. 244, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fla. 1.—SHORTLEAF PINE FIRE Coppice 4 YEARS OLD IN FOREGROUND FROM 6-YEAR- OLD SPROUT PARENT STOCK. A FEW TREES OF THE FORMER STAND, NOW 10 YEARS OLD, ARE SEEN IN CENTER. Fic. 2.—THRIFTY STAND OF SHORTLEAF PINE REPRODUCTION, 3-YEAR-OLD FIRE COPPICE, FROM 83-YEAR-OLD SEEDLINGS PARENT STOCK. ARKANSAS NATIONAL FOREST. | LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 17 proached at about the age of 50 or 60 years on the best sites and 70 to 90 years on the poorer sites. In respect to the number of trees per acre at these ages, shortleaf somewhat exceeds longleaf and notably surpasses loblolly on similar qualities of site. At ages, ranging mostly from 175 to 225 years, natural thinning of stands, due to old age and overmaturity, goes on at a more rapid rate. This is closely associated with the incoming of the new generation and the sudden and rapid increase in numbers per acre. The number of trees per acre in well-stocked stands decreases as the quality of the site improves. At 20 years, well-stocked stands in the Arkansas region have usually from 1,000 to 1,300 trees per acre; in North Carolina, 1,400 to 1,800; and in central New Jersey, 1,800 to 2,400. In general, this regional difference holds good for several decades; so that at 50 years well-stocked unthinned stands have approximately 300, 355, and 500 trees per acre, respectively, in the above three regions. The relation of the density to the quality of situation, both in one locality and in widely separated regions, appears to be constant and regular. The difference in densities in normal or well stocked stands in North Carolina and Arkansas is well shown by the contrast between Table 5 and Table 6. TaBLE 5.—Number of shortleaf trees per acre in stands of different densities in Arkansas.} Under- Well Over- Under- Well Over- Age (years). stocked. | stocked. | stocked. Age (years). stocked. | stocked. | stocked. 20 eee eee 840 1,130 ey Ue eo eacasceascaces 75 115 155 80.2 eee 475 600 10003) SISOS eee see steerer 70 110 150 4022: Seer 290 400 aN) Pe) cecdeececcadane 65 105 145 50.2. Stee eee 210 300 A00E| ISOEMiaeeeeepsceeee 65 102 140 602 {3 3S ae 170 250 S25! | LG ORS eee seen cra 60 100 140 1022 SoS S BELG 140 215 280 1 BOER e ee ae ee 60 100 140 80: eee eas 100 185 2507! |RISO Rens ere eee 60 100 140 QOL CARR nA eS 80 145 UBS MOO Ee. eee eee 7 55 98 140 KOO eee eae Oa as 80 128 LTD 200 eee een oe 55 95 135 WO Sees 75 118 160 1 Based on measurements in 38 even-aged stands. The number of trees per acre vary quite widely in each case in accordance with the quality of the situation, and the numbers should be considered approxi- mate rather than exact. TaBLE 6.—Number of trees per acre for well-stocked shortieaf stands in North Carolina.} li li li i i i Age years). | Qnglity | Quatty | Quatty || Agocyearsy. | Quplty | Quality | Quatity 1, 635 2; 450)\||ooser eee etek cece 200 310 475 1,095 Et Oule Ge sacosetcsescodess 165 270 420 765 1405) || NGSe ee eos hee ee ae 140 230 370 600 LO Ol a gece eee 120 205 330 509. (ebay itiiseduscodoesaedoaae 100 180 295, 420 655] iSO See aoa serene 90 155 270. 355 550 1 Based on measurements of 80 sample plots; area, 21.6 acres. 92233°—Bull. 244—15 3 18 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. As a result of repeated burnings the density of natural stands is usually very variable. Occasionally second-growth stands have been protected by surrounding cultivated fields and the watchfulness and care of their owners. Such stands show striking regularity of tree density and much quicker wood production than unprotected stands, which is due to the influence of a protective mulch consisting of leaves (‘pine straw’’), twigs, and bark. REPRODUCTION. Few of the valuable pines in the United States reproduce as vig- orously as shortleaf. The regeneration is accomplished by seed and by complete sprouting during the period of early life when the tree is most susceptible to severe injury. Reproduction by means of nat- ural seeding is successful and heavy, because of the frequent and full seed crops, the lightness and short germinating period of the seed, and the high resistance of the seedling to unfavorable conditions of temporary shade and drought. Abandoned fields and openings made by lumbering, windfall (in the tornado belt west of the Mississippi), and fires are quickly occupied by shortleaf pine. Ten representative counties in western North Carolina contain 393,670 acres of old-field stands of mostly pure short- leaf pine. This is 14 per cent of the total area, or 27 per cent of the forested area, of the counties. Such old-field stands characterize the forest lands of the upland regions from Virginia southward and west- ward throughout the range of the species. The extensive pineries near Lakewood, N. J., are mostly pure stands of shortleaf (‘‘two- leaf’”’) pine of similar origin. (Pl. II.) In mixture with the inferior pitch pine in New Jersey and loblolly pine in the lower or outer por- tions of the shortleaf range, it has not successfully held its former place of importance. The cause lies chiefly in the much closer utili- zation of the shortleaf and the resulting relatively greater abundance of seed trees of the associated species. In the southern mixed hard- wood forest there has been a notable extension of the importance and commercial range of shortleaf. This has been due to the successive clearing, working, and ‘“‘turning out” of fields and to the extensive ranging of hogs. The hogs consume practically all of the oak and hickory seed and at the same time prepare excellent seed beds for shortleaf pine by uprooting soil and humus in the fall of the year. Some seedlings, of course, are later destroyed by the same process. The results of these two agencies, operative for periods of 75 to 200 years, have been cumulative and have produced marked changes in the composition and density of the forest in various parts of the South. On the National Forests of Arkansas natural reproduction is heavy except on the cool northern exposures, and the encroachment of shortleaf pine into the oak and hickory type is particularly notice- able. Fresh openings become fully stocked usually during the first four years; and, normally, in the mixed pine-and-hardwood type, groups of pure young pine of a few prevailing age classes are numerous. LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 19 SEED. The seed of shortleaf is very small, varying usually from 50,000 to 70,000 to the pound. The cones which produce them are among the smallest for all pines—from 14 to 24 inches in length. They persist on the trees for periods of about four years on vigorous shoots to seven or eight years on suppressed portions of the crown. Ripen- ing in early autumn, the seeds fall by the middle of November and lie dormant during the winter. Germination usually takes place during March or April. In ordinary seed years the seed averages 50 to 60 per cent germination, varying quite widely below this stand- ard in unfavorable seasons and with unhealthy or old-aged trees. One tree 280 years old had a full crop of cones bearing apparently good seed. The germinative power of shortleaf pine is retained to a large degree for several years. Seed of the 1911 seed crop, kept at ordinary living temperatures, gave 56.8 per cent germination in the spring of 1914. The seedlings, however, were apparently somewhat lower in vigor than those grown from fresh seed. The seed of the shortleaf has some advantages over seeds of other species. A marked ability to germinate successfully in grass and leaf litter, as compared with other southern pines, has been ob- served.!. This is in line with the inherent capacity of the species to thrive on the lighter upland soils deficient in soil moisture. The very small size of the seed gives it an advantage over larger seed in quickly reaching mineral soil. By means of a relatively large wing the seed is readily borne by the wind. A breeze will carry seed a distance of from 2 to 5 times the height of the tree; and strong winds wil carry it from one-eighth to one-fourth of a mile. Seed is produced both abundantly and regularly. Full crops occur at an average interval of about three years, with intermediate or partial crops almost every season. In a typical region of the Arkansas National Forest, during a period of 13 years commencing in 1901, shortleaf pine bore four full seed crops, seven partial crops, and failed entirely during two seasons. The vears of abundant seed were 1902, 1907, 1910, and 1913; 1903 and 1909 were blank years, and the others intermediate. Thrifty trees with good light supply begin to produce seed at about 20 years. Exceptional trees have been noted with cones at 16 years. In open or mixed forest 1 Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters, Vol. V, No. 1, ‘Loblolly and Shortleaf Pines,”’ by ‘W. W. Ashe. 2 Record of seed crops determined by study of crowns in a large logging area, Womble, Ark. ——— 20 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stands seed is produced at intervals throughout life after about the thirtieth year. In crowded stands seed production is confined to the larger dominant trees and is deferred until about 40 years. SPROUT OR COPPICE REPRODUCTION. Shortleaf pine sprouts vigorously, and thus reproduces itself if killed back during the peried of early life. This period fortunately is the time of greatest susceptibility to injury both by fire and various mechanical agencies. Its range over the drier uplands is coincident with a region of frequent forest fires, yet it is saved by notably abundant reproduction practically everywhere. Of the important commercial pines in the United States shortleaf alone possesses this capacity of complete reproduction.t A field investigation in 1912-13 showed clearly that comparatively very few seedlings reach ages of 3 to 6 years without being burned back, and that most forest stands have passed through this experience on repeated occasions. It has been found possible, although somewhat difficult, to trace the history of most stands and determine definitely their origin, whether of direct seedling or coppice growth. Thus, the majority of all standing shortleaf timber examined in various portions of Arkansas was found to be of coppice origin. In abandoned fields fire less frequently sweeps over young stands because of the fire pro- tection afforded by the naked soil. In spite of this, many old-field stands have suffered from at least one fire. Observation in Georgia, South Carolina, Virginia, and New Jersey showed that similar con- ditions exist throughout the geographical range of the species. The property of sprouting accounts for the remarkable aggressiveness of shortleaf pine over the region in the South most endangered by fire. Second-growth forests of the Piedmont and Appalachian regions have been subject to frequent fires during more than a century. As a general law, it may be stated that, im any specified locality, the pro- portion of shortleaf pine of seedling origin varies inversely as the frequence and general prevalence of fires. Stands of direct seedling origin are on the whole of insignificant area, because there are few localities protected against fire by natural barriers or by man. In one locality of optimum shortleaf development in Pike County, Ark., the only stands of direct seedling origin found were located in low, moist situations where burnings have been infrequent. Obviously the perfection of vigorous reproduction by coppice, though limited to early years, is of high importance in the profitable management of a forest species. Since the occurrence of a commercial coniferous forest largely of coppice origin is very unusual in any other species, a discussion of the function of coppicing, the sprouting capacity of the tree, and the way in which the sprouts are produced is of interest. 1 Other pines which to a greater or less degree sprout when young are pitch pine (P. rigida), pond pine (P. serotina), and Pinus chihwahuana along the Mexican border. ae In open-grown, vigorous stands, shortleaf successfully coppices up to about the eighth year, and in slow-growing, crowded, or shaded stands, to the tenth or twelfth years. The upper limit of size at which coppicing may take place ranges from diameters near the ground of 3 to 4 inches for vigorous individuals down to 2 to 3 inches for trees of slow growth. Thus the chief limitation seems to be age, modified by the general vigor and size of the individual stem. Within these limits shortleaf is known to coppice repeatedly. Regions of frequent fires afford opportunities to observe the effects of repeated burning to the ground upon younger-aged stands. Figure 7 shows diagrammatically a fully stocked stand in Arkansas, composed LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 21 EXTENT AND NATURAL LIMITATIONS. (8. prn-- = =o + 22 22-2 = = 52-2 2 22 = 2-5 5 ------ /6 |--------------------------------------------- /4 |------------------------------------------4 (2 |---------------- ----------------------------- (Q \po2=as See ae ES @ |--sessae ssedacsseeas Fire kil/ed sittbs 6 oe ___ 6 Years old) Aw 2 | SSS RARER NOD Frre /902 Fire /204— fire Tea Fig. 7.—Vertical section through three successive generations of shortleaf pine fire coppice. PikeCounty, Ark. (Drawn from actual stand.) of three successive generations of coppice resulting from fires in 1902, 1904, and 1910. Each age class was regular and normally stocked. The heights averaged 17 feet for the 10-year-old, 11.5 for the 8-year-old, and 2.5 feet for the 2-year-old stand. Similar suc- cessive generations of coppice are commonly met throughout all the shortleaf region. Around the margin of a young stand, surface fires burn freely, fed by the better growth of grass and light dry materials deposited by the wind; while farther within the stand there is less ground litter, and the shaded surface is often too moist to burn in the cool season when fires prevail. The number of successive generations of sprouts that can be pro- duced from an original parent seedling is not known. Young coppice of the second generation of sprouts is readily identified under close observation. It occurs abundantly except in old-field stands. Three 22 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. successive generations of coppice have been definitely identified; but beyond this, evidences of the past history of the tree become greatly obscured. In the third generation of sprouts the rate of height growth appears to be undiminished. Practically all of the root system is utilized by the new generation. As an effect of the root energy and stored-up food, the rate of early height growth is remark- ably rapid and, within limits, increases with the age of the parent tree when cut or burned back. As a rule, during the first two to four years, depending upon the age of the parent, the sprouts make up completely for the previous loss of time in growth. The most rapid height growth observed was in a 4-year-old fire sprout stand, many trees being from 5 to 8 feet in height and the tallest 9.6 feet. The growth in height of thrifty stands of fire coppice, based on measure- ments of both trees and whole stands up to 18 years old, is shown in Table 6. The age at which trees of sprout origin grow at approxi- mately the same rate as seedling trees is not precisely known. Under average conditions this point is perhaps between the fifth and ninth years. In general, the great acceleration in growth in fire sprouts takes place at approximately the same rate in diameter and volume as in height. CAUSE AND METHOD. Fire and cutting are the chief external causes for the sprouting of shortleaf pine. The physiological cause les in the capacity of short- leaf pine to develop on the upper portion of the root and lower portion of the stem special reproductive buds, at least one of which has the same function as the central terminal bud on the stem. The double crook, at the upper end of the taproot of shortleaf pine, characteristic of and always present in young trees, seems to be inti- mately associated with its power of reproduction by sprouts. By means of this double crook a horizontal section from 1 to 3 inches in length, varying with the age, is formed at the upper end of the tap- root. This form persists during the first 8 to 12 years, after which its identity becomes lost through the increasing thickness of the annual accretions. It is significant that the capacity for sprouting is coinci- dent with the period during which the root maintains this character- istic form. During this period adventitious stem buds are present and may readily be seen along the horizontal section of the root. The corky bark here is unusually thick, affording a high degree of protection against ordinary fires. The killing of the stem is followed by the development of a colony of sprouts at the base of the stem and top of the taproot, usually from 6 to 12, as shown in figure 8, and not infrequently 16 to 20. Normally one stem (occasionally two) assumes the function of leader, the others being more or less procumbent in habit and serving as laterals or epee ae LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 98 y a= =a CCONIAIY SPrOurTs YI SNS = Ce) 7 oe al 1, ‘oe SU/TACE WANS SH WZ Ws or ass \\ WWi« SS : INE WSs Wf! == ii //=\\ N= joe N=, NWA = = lS WAN NEIRENS 7 Ss WN) ey it WA. = Sine ak jhestes nee SN QS ce ae — Ill RL WA ~ < ne = aU = Fig. 8 —Sprout shortleaf Pine following fire, showing new upright stem, secondary sprouts, or ‘‘laterals, ” and characteristic crook ofthe taproot. Three-year-old coppice from 7-year-old seedling parent. (Drawn from actual specimen.) 24 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. feeders. In the organization of the sprout colony, the correlation of the two classes of vegetative buds of the tree is thus carried out. In producing normally a single new upright stem, shortleaf resembles the hickories, in contrast to the oaks and chestnut, which commonly mature several main stems. In open situations and understocked stands a tendency to develop twin stems is sometimes seen in vigorous stands of shortleaf. A tendency to increase the number of stems above two appears to be caused directly by unfavorable factors of age, weakness of the parent, poor light supply, or climatic conditions. For example, as many as 42 coordinate upright stems have been counted on a stump 4 inches in diameter, cut in midsummer. In coppice stands up to 50 years old, a few twin trees will usually be found. The oldest tree of undoubted sprout origin observed was 226 years.! TABLE 7.—Height growth of dominant shortleaf pine in pure, well-stocked stands of fire coppice origin.* Height o | Height . Age (years). (feet). | Age (years). | (feet). Lee ee eis eceaios Mae cIc cles eae eee WS |p LOes sscaek tastes osc. c ote eee eee eee 18.3 DE Sense d aie eis oa a share 2 aes hee eae Ef | Vil es ee per et ea I oh 20.6 Seis Saree ein MA Us © Since Se a ne cA | hl) ee a es as a ME NRE eho ZEER} Dea ate Meee See cIeR ese Eom See bre sels E Fick | eb See ao Aer aeEene SAmOa Sousa sciac < 26.0 BR hela mets emnine sac mince ease ase Cie | fia: gee ee eR aE REP ARR G5 mo Fc. 28.8 eee ae ree aan cNt erties apace OF) || Mb tates: eee aes es See 31.7 Wide eae eeee once eee ie tenes son seen scene UGS |glGe caste Sooke oot ete ce oc aoe eee 34.7 Siete ea cee eee cases eneee ese cee aes] a ey a AE eA has See 37.9 Qs Ue oes eee Nera Ae ie ees | TGS Bes eA Shes oe cas Sole Se Se ee eee 41.0 1 Based on 100 individual trees and the average trees for 8 sample plots 9 to 18 years. An 18-year-old coppice stand, near Glenville, Nevada County, Ark., averaged 248 trees per acre. Of these, 71 trees had two stems each, 7 had three stems, and 1 had four stems, or a total of 336 stems per acre. Thus 33 per cent of the trees had more than one stem. The sprout origin of the stand was completely identified, but there is no record whether the cause was fire or thopping to clear a pasture. The stand was vigorous and averaged 44 feet high. The average diameters of all stems was 6.3 inches, while that of the trees proper, or each tree colony taken as a unit, was 7.4 inches. Three colonies of twin trees and some single stems are shown in Plate V. 1 A large twin-stemmed tree with single root system exposed by erosion on a stream bank. There were others of nearly the same size and form in the same stand. | a LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 25 TABLE 8.—Number of trees per acre and number of tree stems per acre in 18-year-old coppice shortleaf stand, Nevada County, Ark. Trees per acre.! Total Diameter breast high (inches). Stems per tree colony. Les Total acre, iH 2 33 4 ee RE ate ae anna aial-o leases er einin Sicici= nine aie einietiele (Jal eS aa cee lester 6 Bo acim be dbo Sab OREO SEG SEI eS eae a ae angL cS 28 0G eee |emey ere 29 30 AE ee ro ere, Skee A Se acim eee wares 24 8 3 1 36 53 Dee ernie a. OTE re aS ty eS Le 9 27 Gy ere etenes 39 72 Re ees een Lyne AO! ARES Pa iam eee nein eae SS 28 18 1 a Se 47 67 Taso oes Peo Sc BAC e Sere a ee rea oeteal pape ees ae 27 gO ea ee ln es cee 37 47 loo codcnm ci GOS DONC ER ACEC Ue EEE se nae me tinonss 34 ST SOR GALE EEee 39 44 ee OR Be ge eae siete 6 PES SS esen Note eee 8 10 BT Re ree ee nc ne Me oe SOE Ssiadingh cee Guinsetescleeee sl ooseeee 6 6 UL peo ee nob HAR SU ees 8 Se eee es ee ee eee 1 bal eens 2 eel |e eel pe eee 1 1 TEST. ch Rat PEs ed Oe Oe em 169 71 | 7 | iy ee4s 336 ] 1 Individual trees with one or more stems, as the case may be. As a result of the tree’s vigorous coppicing during early life, short- leaf occurs characteristically in even-aged stands. A fire after 6 to 8 years reduces to a single age class all the several ages of young srowth that may have come in during the period. This has been found to be the case in all of the regions studied. It is significant in this connection that in one region of abundance and good develop- ment of shortleaf,! two age classes strongly predominated throughout the whole stand. One group consisted of pure stands from 160 to 180 years old and the other of similarly pure stands from 60 to 70 years. The average between the two groups is 105 years. This may be looked upon as indicating the occurrence of periods of either tor- nadoes or unusually destructive crown fires. The 60-year-old age class is especially abundant over the region. Old local records may possibly confirm this supposition of some unusual occurrence of the sort indicated between the years 1848 and 1852. SEASON OF YEAR. In common with the broadleaf species, the sprouting takes place least actively following midsummer cutting. Pastures and rights of way are thus commonly treated. In one instance a pasture con- tained a good stand of vigorous shortleaf-pine sprout saplings, 4 years old and from 6 to 10 feet high, representing the third generation of coppice from winter or early spring cutting. Along railroad rights of way in the Arkansas region, it is common to see dense sprout thickets of shortleaf pine due to repeated mowing. The forest-fire season occurs during the fall and late winter. This is during the period of vegetative inactivity, and such burnings generally result im vigorous sprout growth the following’ spring. 1 Montgomery and Pike Counties in western central Arkansas. 26 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. METHOD OF DETERMINING SPROUT ORIGIN. Determination of the sprout origin of shortleaf pines during early life is possible by means of external characteristics. The presence of a colony of two or more living stems, also the presence of dead stems or stubs of the parent tree (charred in the case of fire), and the large size of the sapling or pole in relation to its age are clear evidence of coppice origin. A clean, smooth base without scars or adjacent stubs indicates seedling origin. This evidence is sufficient and dependable up to about the eighth year. Dead stems from 2 to 5 feet high, when killed by fire, will ordinarily be found standing at the end of the third year. In very early life sprout stands may be found to contain a considerable number of twin and triple colonies, but the number decreases rapidly with advance in age. In the latter stands, Fic. 9.—Determination of origin of shortleaf pine by basal sections at the ground: A, Tree of seedling origin; B, coppice tree 64 years old. Diameter of core, or first year’s growth, is 3 times and cross-section area 8.9 times that of tree (A) of seedling origin. (From photographs.) trees are frequently seen with dead or dying stems, forked at an acute angle or emerging from their sides, at distances a few feet above the ground. Following the first 6 to 10 years no external characteristics are usually apparent except occasionally multiple living stems. The first year’s stem growth of trees of seedling origin is about as thick as a darning needle and 2 to 4 inches high, while the corresponding growth of young coppice sprouts is commonly as large as an ordinary lead pencil in diameter and about double its length. (Fig. 9.) The following few years’ growth in each case is on a proportional scale. Thus the character of early growth, particularly that of the first year, recorded in the base of the tree and visible when the tree is cut level with the ground, affords a dependable record of the origin of the tree. Coppice trees, furthermore, usually have some of the dead stubs of ee LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 27 the former generation embedded at their bases. (Fig. 10.) In most cases fire has been the cause of the sprouting, and since both the inclu- sion of charred stubs and the size of the core can readily be ascer- hy : . iy \\ * gg a (INR i Ground I!ne W/E | WS “YG, SUN iy Fig. 10.—Vertical section through base of 18-year-old, thrifty shortleaf pine of coppice origin, inclosing stub of parent stem. (From photograph.) tained, if present, by an examination of the extreme base of the tree, these marks embedded similarly in a number of trees selected at random will serve to confirm the coppice origin of the whole stand. An indication of origin may be seen in low-cut stumps? in logging 1 Jn Arkansas 6 to 9 inches high for small trees and 1 foot for the larger ones are customary heights. 28 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. areas, the core of coppice being composed of large conspicuous rings in contrast to the small rings of seedling trees. ECONOMIC VALUE. Fire as a menace to young pine in great measure prevents capital from going into what otherwise appears to be a paying investment. White pine in New England is a well-known example. The case is somewhat different with shortleaf, in which practically the only fire loss is from exceptionally hot fires which destroy large saplings or pole stands too large to sprout. Repeated burning in the dormant seasons of the year, when almost all! fires occur, seems to offer no appreciable setback for at least three sprout generations. Therefore the element of fire risk in the production of all important eastern coniferous species is reduced to the minimum in shortleaf pine by its vigorous sprouting habit. This feature highly recommends the species for profitable managment throughout its range. GROWTH. HEIGHT. The long growing season throughout most of its range and its inherent vigor make shortleaf pine a tree of rapid height growth. In situations of equal favorableness it is more rapid than longleaf pine and only slightly less so than loblolly pine. On average upland sous typical of most of its range it excels its most common associates among the oaks and hickories. In-Arkansas and adjacent States, on the better sites bigbud and bitternut hickories are distinctly below it, yellow and Spanish oaks nearly equal it, and sweet gum slightly exceeds it in height growth. In the Piedmont and Arkansas regions height growth is not widely different on similar qualities of site. Table 9 shows the rate of growth and relation of heights to age for the two regions.1 TaBLeE 9.—Height growth of shortleaf pine, based on age, in Arkansas and North Carolina.” WESTERN ARKANSAS. Height. | Height. Age (years). Age.(years).. \—-——_—___, — =n Maximum.} Average. | Minimum. Maximum.| Average. | Minimum. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 51 45 BVOC) Sse eSinoane 79 73 67 56 50 ERM PO bis euacoocjadar 80 74 68 59 54 ASt lM G0tes ae eosaan 81 74 68 62 57 52h] | sl ORS eee 83 76 69 64 60 Vay peseremace 85 77 70 66 62 Ola ld Uaaee cet 87 78 71 68 64 09) |GLA0Eee occesce 88 79 71 69 65 GO) | PUSO Nee 89 80 71 71 66 6271 BORE e ae seeee 90 81 7 72 67 Ed [Lal ocean ace 91 81 72 74 69 G45) | PURO See ee as 92 82 72 75 7 6531 | SG0Me Saree 93 82 72 76 71 AN Pb ee cets 307 93 83 73 1Table 7 shows the height growth of shortleaf known to be of coppice origin. __ f 2 The Arkansas table is based on age-height measurements of 285 trees and diameter-height of 3,214 trees; the North Carolina table is based on age-height measurements of 332 trees and diameter-height of 384 trees. LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 29 TaBLE 9.—Height growth of shortleaf pine, based on age, in Arkansas and North Carolina—Continued. PIEDMONT REGION, NORTH CAROLINA. Height. Height. Age (years). | Age (years). Maximum.| Average. | Minimum. Maximum.| Average. | Minimum. | + Feet. Feet. | Feet. | Feet. Feet. Feet. Bee tig cate see 22 ASM tien ise se [PAD Meee Ree Ie 75 67 40 Qe af eraer teal 48 29 MON GO adesseeeasds 76 68 43 WOR Nese neteiate 63 42 Gye Gy) a SAcaanaeS 76 69 45 OEE ee A 69 50 ANAM MOsegscesecace 77 69 48 PARE a oat a eee 71 57 2 Go eereereyetraiert 77 70 49 SOMES 22 73 61 29 NWO! mys = eter state 77 70 51 Bee enascescas 74 63 SEI oeceecnsceeae 78 70 53 CLUS iA een ec 75 65 B1Oill pees sooseogeaee 8 71 55 During early life the terminal leader of shortleaf pine commonly forms from two to four secondary or false terminal nodes during the growing season. These are accompanied by false rings of growth in the wood, usually plainly marked and apt to be mistaken for true rings. The influence of side light upon height growth is well illustrated in figure 5, showing a 10-year-old stand of shortleaf with the east and west side light cut off by an adjacent stand. The heights increase from 2 feet near the margin to 22 feet under full ight. This illus- trates very well the need of light for development, and, at the same time, the power of endurance of shortleaf under limited hight supply. A 9-year-old stand with 3,800 trees per acre averaged 19 feet high as compared with only 16 feet for a near-by stand of the same age and on similar soil with 12,200 trees per acre. Two adjacent young stands, similar in all points except tree density, averaged 9 feet high for 4,100 trees per acre and 5 feet high for 32,000 trees per acre. DIAMETER. The rate of diameter growth of shortleaf pine is intermediate be- tween that of loblolly and that of longleaf pine, the slowest of the important southern pines. Besides the well-defined annual rings of wood which clearly record diameter growth, from two to four ter- minal nodes in the stem of the tree, accompanied by slight resting periods in the tree’s activity, usually occur during the period of vigorous growth in earlier life. These growth periods are recorded by fine lines of denser wood within the true annual rings. Periods of injury, caused by insect attack, fire, or severe drought during which erowth is temporarily checked, usually have the same effect. Such lines, forming false rings, are frequent in shortleaf pine, and must be distinguished in examining a cross section for age. Prominent bands of wood stained brown in color are particularly apt to be found in 30 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. young shortleaf and erroneously mistaken for true annual rings of oerowth. Diameters throughout this bulletin, unless otherwise stated, are measured at breast height (43 feet above the ground). Table 10 shows the diameter growth based on age for the Piedmont region of North Carolina and for western Arkansas. The tables may be con- sidered as broadly applicable to large areas within the two specified regions, since differences in growth over large areas are not important except as caused by local variation in quality of situation. TaBLE 10.—Diameter growth of shortleaf pine, on the basis of age, in Arkansas and North Carolina. WESTERN ARKANSAS. Diameter breast high. Diameter breast high. AZO CY¥C8S) =| ca omemuncn eat aaa RII cremena|| EO years). Maximum. | Average. | Minimum. Maximum.|} Average. | Minimum. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. 201 ete Peek Ne ate 5.7 4.3 Q0ee ose nce 18.5 15.9 13.3 DOR gee e creteits 8.6 7.0 5.4 UL saeec een 19.0 16.3 13.6 SOME Green re ees 9.9 8.1 624i || LOOT a ete meas 19.4 16.6 13.8 Bane eters 11.0 9.1 lea Baa oe Sneed 20.3 17.3 14.2 AQ IREE Ets 12.0 10.1 Se2P O20 eee ee 21.1 17.8 14.6 CG De ee pare 12.8 10.9 980i | BO eerie aoe PASTE 18.3 14.9 5 Recta 13.6 57 QT Hata See w ee es 2203 18.7 1Gyal Lie eee 14.4 1253. LOSS A PLSOcgs2 vase 22.8 19. 0 15.3 GOr eee tay 15.1 12.9 LOS) LOOMS te Sas 23.2 19.3 15.4 G5tpere ase ene 15.7 13.5 Se Li Ober ceenners 23. 6 19.6 15.5 OCD Nee eee 16.3 14.0 LASSE eS ORR ase ee 23.9 19.7 15.6 omer ae ae 16.9 14.5 1D Dale kOOS tec cece 24.1 19.9 15.7 SOM TRE Aas V7E5 15.0 ARGS! E200 ee even eels 24.3 20.1 15.8 aE Eee Se eeee 18.0 15.5 12.9 PIEDMONT REGION, NORTH CAROLINA. | HE tcemaeets 2.0 (Et al Id ae oP WPA a ae a 17.1 10.5 4.5 il ORS Sescnasee 5.9 3.0 O56 250 Nee eee 17.6 11.0 5.0 ee Be satosooes 9.2 4.9 PA2F || SORE seceee 18.0 11.4 5.4 20 Rae roe 11.6 6.3 1584) H6Oeeeeesote 18. 4 We Y/ 5.8 CR Secbcemacete 1323 7.5 D4 Al 65 ae cutee cveteletel 18.7 12.1 6.1 SOM pear a 14.5 8.4 SU) ab eeooeebodes 19.0 12.4 6.4 OO a aelesele cise 15.6 9, 2 Styl) Saeciasen eek 19.2 12.7 6.8 40s eee eee 16.5 9.9 420) || 80-2 ee scitesee 19. 4 13.0 (aul 1 The table for Arkansas is based on breast-high diameter measurements of 285 trees and 34 trees repre- senting the average of even-aged plots; the North Carolina table is based on decade measurements on 332 stumps, 26 to 89 years old. The close relation between tree density and growth in diameter is illustrated in Table 11, compiled from measurements on unit areas of different density of trees of a 30-year-old fully stocked shortleaf stand. In seven consecutive sample areas of one-tenth acre each, the size of the diameter class prevailing on each plot increased regu- larly with a corresponding regular decrease in the number of trees per acre. So far as is known this close relation holds true for all pure stands of shortleaf pine. LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 31 Taste 11,.—Relation of tree density and diameter growth in 30-year-old pure stands of shortleaf of varying densities, Arkansas National Forest. as F Tree den- | Decrease sili : Tree den- | Decrease oN ana GES sity (trees | (trees per Brey panecheays class sity (trees | (trees per ; per acre). acre). R per acre). acre). ARE Meo cre cla ais= 25/05 SOOM ete tare saleiee si eee ce adedser GHor enone 475 85 BoosscenosusonscueeCoseEee 720 SION Qondessedoseedseunadadear 390 85 Qnotacseeoedencecsequseesge 640 803] Pl On eeeetare eters aciete cesar 300 90 Vodusddeccooconpo6eusenpoE 560 SO) | eee eaerteracloiie/cisisinereiers 210 90 1 Based on seven plots in the same stand of varying density, but having uniform soil conditions. 2 The diameter class having the largest number of trees in the individual stand. ° VOLUME GROWTH. The merchantable contents of a tree obviously depends upon total height and diameter taken at successive points along the stem. The rise in percentage of the rate of increase in the volume of shortleaf pine in common with most trees culminates at a comparatively early age, considerably prior to the year of maximum production of wood for the individual tree. Furthermore, the highest annual production of wood is reached somewhat earlier than the production of saw timber. In stands of relatively equal density those on the poorer sites and near the margin of natural distribution reach the maximum rate of volume production at a later age than similar stands on more favorable sites and more centrally situated within the region of distribution. For example, the individual trees in stands in Missouri, West Virginia, and New Jersey apparently show the greatest annual wood increment at about 70 years, but in North Carolina the culmi- nation is reached at about 50 years, and in Arkansas at about 35 to 40 years.1 . The contents in board feet and cubic feet of trees of different ages, up to 80 years, for two qualities of site, are shown in Table 12. TABLE 12.— Volume of shortleaf pine in North Carolina, based on age for two site classes. {Based on diameter growth of 332 trees, and volume table. Stump height, 1 foot for trees 6 to 16 inches; 1.5 feet for trees 17 inches and over. Saw timber. Solid contents. 2 Age (years). Scribner rule. Doyle rule. Quality | Quality | Quality | Quality | Quality | Quality I. Il. I. IL. I, Nees 1G. | Saad GEOR SCOPE OHO OS ESS EGE Cert SSCS | OPMMMIE MRT il Bese icici eel f ny ieee U7 2H acter ON WPS tia (0, eee erates eta ta ein = Sxrarats alas ele tee oe cladsicloists 100 6 50 3 24 2.6 2S Go GEO OLB RRB rtenee hie dottioe Sears 147 23 87 7 34 6.7 SO Epa yt cke G0 oe wea stm ULE RE ae eee 186 38 125 11 43 10.3 ORE ees eray scien SERN mre eta ne Pa ee 221 51 160 17 50 ! 13.8 A (Meera eats esate ec ec cee ee ee 251 63 191 24 56 16.7 CS nied Ae Gee CIE) Se ore re ae 275 75 216 32 61 19.3 §510) ac sere ips Re a Rell ON Sane agra a 296 86 237 39 65 22.0 OD ess eile s,2 scopssecesosue soussseccssceslaose 315 96 255 46 69 - 24.0 GOB tre en asc rn Soe as teaser Ae ete alae ene 331 105 271 53 12 26.0 GO SEE core eis Ame netane cs a meee 8 ah 5 345 113 284 60 75 28.0 OS ete ee ahs sane Serve er aera seme eee eer ee 357 121 295 66 78 29.0 Te eee EN LoS PS ae Seat cge a gael a eeay 369 129 306 73 80 31.0 CU SGe BOG oA SE GBA Nbr at ee meia Ane anaiie 5 Sac 381 135 316 79 82 32.0 - 1 For volume tables of shortleaf pine based upon height and logs per tree, see a forthcoming bulletin on the Importance and management of shortleaf pine. 2 Total volume of stem, including bark, between stump and top diameter, outside bark, of 5.5 inches. 32 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RECOVERY AFTER SUPPRESSION. Shortleaf pine possesses to a high degree the ability to recover after suppression. This feature is well exhibited in a rapid increase in diameter growth following an increase in the supply of light. Events of any sort which produce changes in stand densities are recorded in quite a remarkable manner by shortleaf pine. 8 : — LOUIVALENT DIAMETER OUT SIDE| BARK OF VREE 2 ; OIAMETER —/NCHES (8REASTH/GH —/NS/IDE BARK AGE — FEARS LEGEND @ VIGOROUS GROWTH © MODERATE GROWTH O SLOW GROWTH Fia. 11.—Effect of an ice storm upon subsequent diameter growth in a 22-year-old crowded shortleaf stand. Tree 1, formerly dominant, permanently bent over by ice and suppressed for a period of 14 years; tree 2, formerly partially suppressed, given more light by the storm, vigorous and dominant for the past 14 years. The effect of a heavy ice storm upon a thrifty 22-year-old fully stocked stand in Nevada County, Ark., as recorded by the diameter growth, is seen in figure 11 and Plate VIII. The storm occurred in December, 1898, and the stand in 1912 was 36 years old. The heavy ice bent over many of the larger-crowned, dominant trees, thereby opening up many smaller-crowned, middle and lower class trees. in \ iil Tih I | Hi iil | i} Hi Hi Il Hie | Hi Hh dH i} | il I} i | Bul. 244, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. | HH Il ell HAH wi i v Ht = i 9 1! E inl cS) ! a HI Rd i a I 3 Ht |i 2 1 UH ia) HI 2 ® HB fl | CS) \| o q 1H} = i I O >. i = es i ad Sas. oe i HI ere aS fiers i bur . > 2 I 00) /5e 1 ase i Shia } = 2 | Pree iH lf < As Ii WwW ~_ a AE i Eso | a 20 12) ne Ll od oO gs LAO oO AZ, a: ie = [e) oO # © ud wf ee o Sk Thirty-three per cent of the t Bul. 244, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE VI. SECTION THROUGH BASE OF 65-YEAR-OLD TWIN SHORTLEAF PINE OF SPROUT ORIGIN. Bul. 244. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTe VII. Diameter l4inches,30 years atter thinning. Wh 48/ percent increase | \ WMi—Dia meter 64.inches IN CFOSS-SECTION. ANN F at time of thinning Ageé,68 years. by cyclone, atage of 56 years. RAPID RECOVERY OF SHORTLEAF PINE AFTER SUPPRESSION. EFFECT OF NATURAL THINNING BY TORNADO, 31 YEARS AGO, UPON TREE 58 YEARS OLD. ARKANSAS NATIONAL FOREST. PLATE VIII. Bul. 244, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. *ur10}s oot Aq possorddns Ayyuoutursed pur JOAO YUOC 901} ‘q {queUTULOp pure SNOIOSIA AOU possoiddns Ays0UrIOJ 991, D "SSaYN] LNSZOVPaY JO SNOILOSS "AYOLS 3O| Ad ONINNIHL IVYNLVN SO 1034445 me a ‘sueak o¢ aby saya! 2:9 4+afau/olg — v0 ‘F/6/ AON 4179 B04 | | O6G/ AON 4! UI407G 29/ = Y AMO. ib SHO ‘uU01ssodd we /ODIA /ALEe dns s122ak 9 wy volssaiddns 12) J2 9822] 2 JO pUIOS BLO JUIQY oe x Bul. 244, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |X. Fic. 1.—EFFECT OF NANTUCKET TIP MOTH (LEFT) ON 8-YEAR-OLD CopPpiCcE SHORT- LEAF. TREES SAME AGE AND HEIGHT AT OPENING OF SEASON. Fic. 2.—EFFECT OF ICE STORM AFTER A LAPSE OF 14 YEARS. INJURY BY INSECTS AND HEAVY STORMS. Bul. 244, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. Fig. 2.—EFFECT OF FIRE IN CAUSING FORKED STEMS. New JERSEY. Fic. 1.—BADLY DISEASED SHORTLEAF IN NEW JERSEY. AND FIRE, INJURY FROM FUNGI LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 33 The storm lasted for nearly a week and many of the bent. trees which were given a permanent ‘‘set’’ were alive after 14 years of suppres- sion. The record of interchange of crown classification and resultant growth is well illustrated in the breast-high sections of two repre- sentative trees shown in the illustration. In the 10-year period fol- lowing the storm, the tree suppressed by the ice changed from 97 per cent to 13 per cent rate of diameter growth, while an adjacent and formerly partly suppressed tree showed, as a result of the opening up, an increase of growth from 65 to 122 per cent. An immediate response in diameter growth at the age of 58 years is exhibited in Plate VII, showing a representative tree opened up 31 years prior by a tornado in Montgomery County, Ark. As a result of this natural thinning the growth averaged 8 rings to the inch for the 30 years following as compared with 16 rings per inch for the 30 years preceding the natural thinning. The increase in basal area S INCREASE 1 BASAL AREA (WUNOREOTHS OF SQUARE FEET) 8 AGE OF TREE TREE / TREE 2 TREE 3 TREE $ TREE S TREE 6 TREE 7 AVERAGE TREE AT TIME 45FRS. S7FRS. 65 VRS. OS FRS. 69 FRS. OOFRS. 1O/ FRS 67 FRS. OF LOGGING 2 LAST COLUMN /N EACH GROUP SHOWS GROWTH FOR & FEAR PERIOD SINCE LOGGING Fig. 12.—Increased rate of growth of 7 representative shortleaf pine trees on a typical cut-over tract, cut 5 yearsago. Growth in basal area at breast height, for successive 5-year periods, during the past 30 years. was 487 per cent during the latter period. The immediate recovery is shown by the increase during the first season. The tornado made a clean sweep along the center, about one-half mile in width, and a thinning of decreasing degree toward the margin of its path, which was about 14 miles in length. The ability of a species to recover from suppression can be ascer- tained by a study of cut-over areas following logging operations. The stimulation in growth of shortleaf pine on a typical cut-over tract, logged to an approximate minimum stump diameter of 14 inches! 5 years prior to the examination, is shown graphically in figure 12, based on Table 13. The increase in basal area during the five years following logging is contrasted with the increases for the five preceding five-year periods. Practically all trees observed showed stimulated growth due to thinning and increased light supply. Trees formerly suppressed, however, grew relatively much faster after the logging. The least gain 1 Hellbig, Ark., near the Arkansas National Forest, logged in 1907 and examined in 1912. 34 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in basal area at breast height was 75.4 per cent, the largest 311 per cent, and the average for 7 representative trees was 171.4 per cent over their former rates of growth. The trees ranged from 45 to 101 years old at the time of the logging, but most of them were between 60 and 70 years. Since height growth was mainly complete at this age, it is perfectly safe to say that the volume increment of the trees took place at approximately the same or possibly at a somewhat greater rate, because of the greater increase in the size of the upper part of the stem at this age. TaBLeE 13.—Comparative growth of shortleaf in five-year periods before and after logging.* Increase in basal area (breast height). Five-year periods prior to logging. Rate of Age at Five- increase Tree No. time of year since logging. period | logging after | over pre- 1883-1887 | 1888-1892 | 1893-1897 | 1898-1902 | 1903-1907 | logging, vious 1908-1912.) five-year periods. Sq. in. Sq. in. Sq. in. Sq. in. Sq. in. Sq. in. | Per cent. Learnt rs 2 mete Aesteee eS 45 4.2 4.9 5.6 685 8.2 14.4 75.4 DR aia Nepeenteeyn Ac 87 2.0 6.2 13.0 8.1 6.8 12.4 83.0 BP ata sade eM Nee Lasse get 65 4.6 fe2 7.8 5.6 8.8 15.8 80.3 ASR SSSR eae sett 65 U7 3.6 3.9 6.3 6.9 24.0 247.9 Oh een oeans ee waas 69 4.5 9.5 10.5 8.6 6.0 16.1 166.6 Obs Berks eesti 69 3e2 10.1 8.2 11.8 12.8 GYAT 311.2 (aah Sep eseceaoS Go aume 101 5.8 6.0 6.3 6.5 6.8 18.0 165.9 Average......-- 67 opie 6.8 7.9 7.6 8.0 21.9 171.4 1 Typical shortleaf stand cut 5 years ago to an approximate diameter limit of 14 inches in average quality site in western Arkansas. CAUSES OF INJURY. FIRE. The damage to forest growth caused by fire far exceeds the com- bined effect of all other injurious agencies. At the same time, this cause of injury is the most susceptible to control of man. The annual burning of the forest floor, extensively practiced in the past through- out the shortleaf region, has been done with little realization of the damage to the forest. Shortleaf which has passed the earlier stages suffers much permanent injury from fire. Abundant seeding, low resin content of the wood, and early rapid height growth, in addition to sprouting, afford shortleaf perhaps the best chance of any of the im- portant southern pines to survive under adverse conditions caused by fire, but in spite of these favorable characteristics much loss and injury occur. Completely stocked stands of shortleaf over 20 years in age are rarely found in tracts of considerable size, except in old fields and in other situations where fire has been practically excluded. As a rule, the stand is irregular in density, with many small openings, for which IXFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 85 fire is chiefly responsible. The heaviest direct injury to the stand occurs just after the ages of 8 to 12 years, because prior to this time the young forest is quickly restored by its power of coppicing. Repeated burnings, however, cause a setback which the tree is able to make up only in part. In older trees the effect of frequent fires is cumulative in weakening the tree at its base, resulting in its over- throw during high wind. Although not so complete in the case of shortleaf as in that of the more resinous longleaf, the sort of decima- tion of stands is continuous and rapid where fire occurs frequently. External injury and loss in vitality, due to excessive heat, open up avenues of ready attack by insects and fungi. Ordinary surface fires usually develop sufficient heat to kill back trees up to 6 or 8 feet in height, and to injure trees from about 7 to 12 feet in height. Basal fire scars heal rapidly, and during intervals between fires thrifty pole and standard trees usually succeed in com- pletely covering them. Such cases are quite frequently noted in ex- amining the tops of stumps. The damage and loss due to fire is mainly in the form of defective lumber and reduced yield per acre from the stand, which may be ascertained by measuring the yields from well- stocked groups selected within a stand and comparing them with its total yield. The wide difference between the two is perhaps the most impressive measure of the beneficial effect of protection, since fire can safely be considered one of the most active causes of the poorly stocked condition of our forest stands. INSECTS! AND MAMMALS. Of all insects, the southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis Zimm.) is undoubtedly the most mjurious to shortleaf pine. It is active throughout the warmer portions of the year, passing through the bark to the cambium, or living layer, and there eating out long, winding furrows or egg galleries, which partially girdle and weaken the tree. The eggs hatch into grubs, which feed on this tissue, completing the girdling and destroying the tree. Serious invasions of this insect occurred in 1890, 1893, and 1910. The last outbreak led to a special study by the Bureau of Entomology, whose report,” describing fully its life history and giving recommendations for controlling the insect pest, may be obtained upon application to the Division of Publica- tions, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. It has been demonstrated that using trees that die in the fall and early winter for fuel or other purposes during the winter serves both to control the beetle and to prevent its outbreak. This is an important point to bear in mind in handling shortleaf stands. 1 For further information in regard to causes of injury by insects, apply to the Office of Insect Investiga- . tions, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 2 Farmers’ Bulletin 476, ‘The Dying of Pine in the Southern States: Cause, Extent, and Remedy,” U.S. Department of Agriculture. Also, Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 83, Part I, ‘Bark Beetles of the Genus Dendroctonus,”’ by Dr. A. D. Hopkins, p. 56. 36 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The Nantucket pine-tip moth (Retinia frustrana Scud.) attacks and deforms the rapid-growing tips of branches. The attack of this insect is locally the most perceptible injury, but the insect is not a serious menace. The presence of dead tips and pitch exudations are the characteristic external signs of the attack, usually equally present on other pines, for the insect is widely distributed and attacks without apparent discrimination practically all pines. As a rule, the insect is not abundant for more than one or possibly two years. By virtue of its high vigor and its capacity for forming new shoots, shortleaf pine recovers rapidly after an attack, suffermg mainly the loss of time during the period of arrested growth. Trees cut or thrown during the summer months soon become in- fested with larve of the southern pine sawyer, or borer, known com- monly as a ‘‘flathead.’’+ The larvee of this genus, Monohammus, hatched from eggs laid under the bark, feed on the rich sapwood, but seldom penetrate to the heartwood. They never attack living trees in the South. Rapid drying of the logs is the surest prevention; so that trees cut in the summer months should be removed from stands to dry situations exposed to sun and wind, or barked and opened up fully. Immersion in water where possible is the simplest remedy. Mice, chipmunks, squirrels, and birds are very destructive of seed, and, to some degree, of seedlings. The abundant production of seed, however, accounts for the plentiful regeneration of shortleaf in spite of these enemies. On account of the small size of the seed, hogs destroy little or none directly, and they cover many in the process of rooting, so that the hog is to be looked upon rather as a benefit than a menace to the shortleaf forest. In mixed pine and nut-bearing forests, the presence of the hog is decidedly favorable to the regen- eration of pine through the destruction of the hardwood seeds. In artificial forestation, mammals and birds are always one of the chief sources of injury, because they destroy large quantities of seed. FUNGI. The southern timber pines as a group are not badly infested with timber-destroying fungi until advanced in age or well past maturity. Up to 100 years of age, shortleaf pine is remarkably low in suscepti- bility to fungus attack; above this age, and especially after the age of about 150 years, in regions subject to frequent fires, fungi are more prolific and more easily gain a foothold in the tree. Three species of fungi are more or less common in shortleaf pine and cause nearly all of the wood rot commonly known as ‘‘redheart.”’ * Two species of fungi, Polyporus schweinitzii and Polyporus sul- phureus, enter the tree through wounds on the butt or on the stool of 1 The insect is really a roundheaded borer, and not a member of the flat-headed group. 2 Chiefly, Monohammus tililator Fab. See Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 58, “‘Some Insects Injurious to Forests,’’ p. 41. 3 Long, W. H., Office of Forest Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 37 the tree just below the surface of the ground, causing butt rot; and one enters through branch stubs, knot holes, or other openings through the living sapwood in the upper portion of the tree, pro- ducing the true redheart. This disease is probably the most usual and is caused by Trametes pini. It travels downward and sometimes reaches to the base of the tree, leaving the wood firm rather than pow- dery, of a rich or dark reddish color, and permeated by oval or lens- shaped pockets of a light-gray color. The well-known dark-colored “punks,” or fruiting bodies, are almost invariably from this species, since the other two common fungi have annual fruiting bodies. The Polyporus schweiitzii leaves the wood in characteristic brown- colored cubical blocks. The fruiting bodies are hairy on top, brown inside, and weather brown. They are short-lived and are seldom seen. The sporophore or ‘‘punk” of Polyporus sulphureus is yellow on the outside changing to white, and its contents is white. Its work may be known by characteristic white bands of mycelium, which radiate outward from the center of the tree, filling the cracks in the rotted wood with felt-like masses of fungous tissue. In cutting stands up to 70 years old heart rot is found infrequently. The liability to infection increases with the declining vitality of the tree. In one representative even-aged forest stand, 60 to 65, years in central Arkansas, only 2.2 per cent of the logs showed injury by fungi. In four large even-aged groups of shortleaf pine, 170 years old, the diseased logs ranged from 20 to 27 per cent of the total number of logs utilized, or 17.4 per cent of all logs, including sound logs left in the tops, which are merchantable or will be soon. A record of the in- fected logs in virgin timber at a large sawmill in Pike County, Ark., for March, April, and May, 1912, showed 25,689 sound logs and 4,430, or 14.7 per cent of the total logs, unsound. ‘The log scale was slightly more than 3} million board feet. The average run of infected timber for central Arkansas is further indicated in Table 14. TaBLE 14.—Amount of ‘‘redheart” infection in average forest run shortleaf pine, mostly 60 to 180 years old." Percentage mate Total cut | Redheart | Percentage| infected : for month. defect. sound. with redheart. 1912. Board feet. | Board feet. TMD eacseecddoconachsosanssédostosnsdeesacaoaansboeds 1,907, 461 232, 685 88 12 die nadebdovaaocensoucsandScsodeuceebesnocoeesaceeosce 1, 741, 235 203, 769 88 12 AIG = sosoognosododcoposmosdecuponsoaosancoseseadaec 1,597, 014 259, 639 84 16 Spi On Sak bes Rocsoso ns scascHcoesee sHeScaeAmsascoo- 1, 862, 025 155, 513 92 08 (OVO ode aceéoses sess ssooseocndbseoss Lbassnebesuans 1, 185, 132 143, 307 88 12 INGVeMIb eres 5 ae sere oe see Seloroier acess fs eee eee 1,087,018 119, 339 89 11 [Deane OCS Cok obobecasdeessssncassuscaccoecsuscscucaues 1, 008, 959 87,027 91 09 1913. UBIOWRIAZS Soe ou daocctoconoboessoceee asoosbehosesudesos= 1, 147, 115 128, 436 89 11 ICD TUARY Sekiya ean a hes Eee Tea LEME E Maui a 754, 610 85, 723 89 il Mere hice scree ele 2 Ves Neale tie Minky) mem 1, 048, 638 118, 692 89 il PMGoril asks NS LU Cie OM Te open Ga Salad eae 994, 102 100, 662 90 10 WER AGB SEGA RAB CR UME Sete Sea, SAE n GbE amen oe ae aes Bale 3 1, 178, 236 110, 996 91 09 Mo taileiin oii cesisn kerala ies ayaunae ial A uk eee ay 15,511,545 | 1,745,789 89 11 1 Includes both butt rot and true redheart. Tally for a large representative mill in Clark County, Ark. 38 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In a year’s forest cut of shortleaf timber the average loss by red- heart was 11 per cent of the total cut. The trees were mostly between 60 and 180 years old, some being 200 years old. The wounds through which the spores enter the tree are caused partly by wind and sleet storms breaking the branches, but more largely by fires, which kill a portion of the sapwood, thus exposing the heartwood to infection. Thrifty young trees are to a consid- erable extent protected from infection by the resimous exudations which quickly form over wounds. The “punk,” or fruiting bodies, of the fungus frequently occur near the place of attack, and, for butt- rotting fungi, are usually located on the lower half of the trunk. The damage can be very largely controlled by eliminating the chief cause—fire. In the more intensive management of small tracts of timber, so far as possible the diseased trees should be felled. The removal from the tree of the sporophores, or ‘‘punks,” is of slight temporary benefit only, since it stimulates the formation of new fruiting bodies at other places on the tree. Sap stain, or “‘bluing” of the sapwood, generally agreed among investigators to be the direct result of a fungus, is the most per- ceptible and the most controllable form of fungous injury. The reduction in value of stained lumber results in enormous annual loss. Since moisture and heat are favorable to the development and spread of the organism, the South suffers badly, but the pres- ence of resin in the pines aids in checking the attack. In addition to the usual method of rapid drying of the wood, experiments have been conducted in chemically treating the wood of shortleaf pine with a view of preventing attack from sap-stained fungi. WIND AND LIGHTNING. Over the greater part of its range, shortleaf is only slightly sus- ceptible to wind damage. ‘This is due to its deep root system and its situation chiefly on the lighter, better-drained soils. Other aids to protection against wind are its short leaves, slender branches, and narrow crown. On the other hand, shortleaf is the only pine that extends well into the tornado! region of the Middle Western States. Here considerable damage is done every year, particularly in the Ozark uplands of Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. Strips of wind-thrown forest are present in all stages of recovery. After the decay of the thrown timber these are easily recognized by the even- aged stand, usually of pure pine, in the central area, with the two- storied and hbigh-forest condition im increasing degree toward the margin of the cyclone strip. On account of its quick response to light and the small size and abundance of its seed, the occurrence of tornadoes has extensively aided the formation of pure, even-aged 1 Known commonly as ‘cyclone.’ | LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 39 stands of pine. Near Womble, on the Arkansas National Forest, is such a fully stocked, even-aged stand on a strip averaging approxi- mately one-half mile in width by 14 miles in length. The tornado occurred on May 8, 1882, and a large amount of the young stand dates from the same spring, showing the coincidence of a heavy seed crop the previous fall and favorable conditions for germination. Damage from ice storms is increased by the effect of wind upon the heavily laden trees. Ice or sleet storms cause serious injury at varying intervals of 6 to 12 years. An ice storm in December, 1898, in southwestern Arkansas uprooted and broke down so many trees that it completely blocked road traffic over all of the timbered roads for nearly one week. The damage from snow press is relatively small. : Lightning kills trees occasionally and injures very many. The secondary injury from winds and lightning is possibly even greater than the direct effect, since injurious insects and fungi find their chief avenue of attack in freshly opened wounds in the bark and cambium, or living layer, of the tree. YIELD. FACTORS INFLUENCING YIELD. The growth of a stand as a whole determines its productiveness or yield. First, regions favorable to the greatest volume production in the individual tree likewise produce the largest crops or highest yields per acre of timber. The yield of well-stocked stands of 65-year-old shortleaf in central North Carolina is much greater than that of stands of similar age and density in New Jersey, and in the Arkansas-Louisiana region not less than 20 per cent greater than in North Carolina.t Second, the number of trees per acre affects directly the size and volume production of the individual tree and of the stand, and therefore the quality of the yield. Overstocked as well as understocked stands decline rapidly in saw-timber production as the number of trees departs in either direction from the normal or best condition of stocking. The decline in total cubic volume is not so ereat, especially in fully stocked stands. What the conditions are in any region can be accurately determined by measuring stands similar in all points except the degree of stocking. One nearly always. finds wide differences occurring in respect to the number of trees per acre and the corresponding yields, both within adjacent stands and in portions of the same stand. Third, the yield varies with the age of thestand. The yield of a stand rises with age to a point of maximum production, after which there is a decline due to the progress of natural thinning by the loss of trees through declining vigor and 1 This differenceis undoubtedly due to regional differences in the supply of atmospheric and soil moisture, temperature, and the physical texture and composition of the soil. 40) BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. attacks of natural enemies of various sorts. In good situations in Arkansas, for instance, well-stocked 160-year-old stands of shortleaf have average yields of about 45,000 board feet, or approximately the same as 58-year-old stands on similar situations. The point of highest average annual production of natural unthinned stands is probably between 90 and 100 years in Arkansas and some 10 years earlier in the central Piedmont region bordering the Atlantic coastal plain. TABLE 15.—Relation between tree density and yield per acre for 30-year-old shortleaf pine. [Yield from trees 8 inches and over in diameter. Based on 7 sample areas in Arkansas in stands of similar soil, protected against fires, and ranging from 210 to 780 trees per acre in quality I site.] | Trees per acre. Yield (saw timber). ers Gee inches . a 2 iameter. Total. | and overin Seupher Doy le diameter. De ee | st Feet b.m. | Feet 6. m. Inches. 150 130 11,250 | 6, 600 11.5 200 175 13, 500 8, 450 10.9 250 215 16, 000 9, 700 10. 4 300 260 18, 100 10, 600 9.8 350 290 19, 400 10, 800 9.4 400 290 19, 100 10, 200 8.9 450 260 17, 500 9, 000 8.5 500 205) 15, 350 7, 900 8.1 550 235 13, 200 6. 800 {Pil 600 215 11, 250 5, 800 a3 650 195 9, 250 4, 450 7.0 700 180 7,500 3, 200 6.6 750 160 5,900 | 2,000 6.3 800 | 140 4,250 | 800 6.0 seied pues = YIELD IN PURE STANDS. Old growth or virgin stands in regions of good development show yields averaging 10 to 30 thousand board feet per acre over con- siderable areas. Most of such tracts are at the present time found only in the more inaccessible regions in the upper portions of the middle Atlantic coastal States and in the Louisiana-Arkansas district. Much larger amounts occur in mixed stands with hardwoods. Fully stocked tracts of shortleaf pme in natural stands are scat- tered and rarely occur in areas of considerable size. Irregular stocking at the outset, fire, and other causes produce many open spaces where trees are needed to complete the stand. In other places the stand has from the start maintained too many trees per acre to give the best results in quality or quantity of product. The average yields of natural stands, therefore, vary widely and have little sig- nificance in considering the habits and possibilities of the tree when growing in full stands. The best basis for considering the yield of forest trees like shortleaf which occur in pure stands is the yield of fully stocked stands or portions of stands growing under known con- ditions of situation. Such information, when classified by age and site quality for normally stocked stands, is known as a normal yield LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 41 table. Tables 16, 17, and 18 have been thus prepared by measuring portions of well-stocked second-growth or old-field stands of known age and quality of natural environment, particularly character of soil and moisture supply. For example, the average yield of 50-year-old stands on the best class of sites in North Carolina (Table 16) 1s about 23,700 board feet, on medium or average sites 17,000, and on the poorest sites about 10,300 board feet. Table 18 shows yields in the Arkansas region at 50 years of 37,200, 23,750, and 12,200 board feet, respectively, on the three qualities of site. The original figures for North Carolina were secured from 80 selected sample tracts with an area of 21.6 acres, which may be considered fairly representative. The data for Table 18 are insufficient in amount, hence the table is tentative and has been included for the purpose of comparison and correction when more measurements become available. TaBLE 16.— Yield of well-stocked second-growth shortleaf pine in North Carolina.} [Based on 80 sample plots in well-stocked stands; total area, 21.6 acres. Saw timber scaled to 6 inches in top diameter; stump height, 1 to 1.5 feet. Volume of stem is from 1-foot stump to 6-inch top diameter, including bark. All trees 6 inches and over diameter breast high were scaled. ] QUALITY I. Yield per acre. T dieters ee Saw timb rees iameter | Average i aw timber. Age (years). peracre.| breast | height. lease d high. OO ee ee MOLI Scribner | Doyle contents: rule. rule. Inches. Feet. Sq. ft. Bd. ft. Bad. ft. Cu. ft. 10). scee den coede Con becere apo nOnee 2,940 2.8 22 104 AU) ooeactcesce 1,050 To See IU a a ec 1, 760 4.4 32 135 3, 000 300 1,560 RD scocagen deen eset ae iae 1, 000 5.8 40 158 5, 700 2, 000 2,120 U8 &dtio te AB Hae DBOReH SHEE Mee 675 6.9 46 175 8, 400 3, 600 2, 730 G1) nace (ESE OSS AS ESE Coes Eee aeeae 510 7.9 51 188 11, 200 5, 300 3, 350 815 SOE doc AR RAR a yee erage 410 8.8 55 198 14, 000 7, 100 3, 950 ‘Os Sh556 GS ess besa eeSe coe Saeee 340 9.6 59 205 17, 100 8, 900 4,570 (SD). oe doabyocosasedsoeSeesRBooeae 280 10. 4 63 211 20, 300 10, 900 5, 200 Wo S oeasosossacessocsseaucodace 235 11.2 66 215 23, 700 12, 800 5, 840 Hh Oe decd GAGA Se eet Ee eS 200 11.9 69 218 27, 000 14, 500 6, 450 (Do. Gkesdoobdesceeoesebaan scone 165 12.7 72 220 30, 100 16, 200 7, 020 (Fh 2 aes ee ae ee ee 140 13.4 74 222 | 33,200] 17,700 7,570 (Voce cdsesodeeeorcscngcoscesoeos 120 14.1 77 224 36, 100 19, 300 8, 100 UB. -dedzoacopeoocanncéansesocose 100 14.7 79 226 38, 800 20, 800 8, 600 Wl) sod seecosbee Ranepeooos somes 90 15.3 81 227 41,500 22, 400 9,110 QUALITY II. Joe aceco: se Osea ae ene mere 3, 725 2.2 18 Coe Bootes Mensa d does 660 LO a Sa bd8o6 SBOE SDA e SEE e eee 2, 450 3.4 26 108 | UOMO Iecescescad 1,000 HY. sindcoescodobo gu keaneeeueuceEs 1, 635 4.6 33 129 3, 200 300 1,380 Shoo coace ce Ce SUN eee ee aes 1, 095 5.6 38 145 5, 200 1, 700 1,840 Mi). co ocoepdeocosessoguoussogscns 765 6.5 43 156 7, 300 3, 200 2,330 Pose qsscessogSsoaausaseseosoese 600 7.3 47 165 9, 400 4,700 2, 820 HD ce sceoaseressesuseoeasecs sous 500 8.0 50 172 11, 700 6, 300 3, 320 ibe Sc cccpdeebeessur seae seeesese 420 8.7 54 176 14,300 7,900 3,830 SU). oo psnen soceoustinneeeooeseaaac 355 9. 4 57 179 17, 000 9,500 4,360 15. 6 SO Gob BBE SSO BEEBE BEC CSS Ane 310 10.0 59 182 19, 700 11, 000 4, 880 ODM cine ove ce ses Meee ces 270 10.6 62 183 22, 400 12,500 5, 360 (35 ou oso ceoRotde BSUS BBSeEE se Auer 230 11.3 64 185 25, 200 13, 900 5, 830 (Disk SEER OES OCIIE Cee Cee aae 205 11.8 66 186 27, 800 15, 300 6, 280 (a cas SSR ReORe nbn ae Saree See 180 12. 4 69 187 30, 400 16, 700 6, 730 US 6G Se SUS BES aoe eae see Ate 155 13.0 71 188 32, 900 18, 100 7,160 1 Counties in North Carolina are: Alexander, Burke, Cabarrus, Catawba, Cleveland, Davie, Gaston, Lincoln, McDowell, Rowan, Rutherford, Surry, Wilkes, and Yadkin. 42 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 16.— Yield of well-stocked second-growth shortleaf pine in North Carolina.—Con. QUALITY III. Yield per acre. Age (years) Trees aoe Average toe Saw timber. SOA SKS) per acre. breast height. | area Solid gh. ; ‘contents. Scribner Dove | e. e. inches ue Soe Bd.ft. Ba. ft. Cu. ft ated | net eared ee Cane ir 3,210 2.5 2 2 ede. ee 450 2,4 3.4 2 (003) ---ece eee 650 1) 880 4.2 31 114 |: - 27100) |S eeaee $30 1) 405 5.0 35 125 3, 400 1, 100 1, 290 1) 045 5.7 39 133 4, 800 2) 300 1,670 795 6.4 42 138 6,500 3, 600 2°.070 655 7.0 45 142 8, 300 4,900 2; 470 550 7.6 47 144] 10,300 6, 200 2; 880 475 82 50 145 | 12,400 7,500 3, 300 420 8.7 52 146 | 14,7 8, 800 3,700 70 9.2 54 147} 17,100| 10,100 4) 100 330 9.7 56 148 19, 600 11, 400 4,490 295 10.2 58 149 | 22,000] 12,600 4” 860 270 10.6 60 14S 24, 200 13, 900 5, 230 TaBLE 17.— Yearly increment of second-growth shortleaf pine in North Carolina.’ [Based on 80 sample plots in well-stocked stands; total area, 21.6 acres. Saw timber scaled to 6 inches in top diameter. Stump height, 1 to 1.5 feet. Volume of stem is from 1-foot stump to 6-inch top diameter, including bark. Al] trees 6 inches and over diameter breast high were scaled.]} PERIODIC ANNUAL INCREMENT. Scribner rule. Doyle rule. Solid contents. Age (years). | | j | | Quality) Quality Quality Quality Quality) Quality, Quality Quality Quali 1g Tia iit mens ria iL I. a in| iL EEE ———— a Ba. ft. | Bd. ft. | Bd. ft. | Bd. jt. | Bd. ft. | Bd. jt. | Cu. ft. | Cu. ft. | Cu. ft. 500 3701| Sone 300) este. Pee ae 112 82 | 50 530 400 240 320 280')|eieacetee 117 88 59 560 430 275 340 995 lini oeee 121 93 66 590 460. 310 360 | 310 240 124 98 72 620 485 340 380 315 250 126 101 76 650 505 370| 400! 320 255 127 104 80 680 525 400 380 315 255 | 12 106 82 655 540 425 | 365 310 260 123 104 84 625 550 455 350 300} 260 117 101 83 605 | 560 475 330 | 290 260 112 97 81 580 545 | 500 315 280 260 106 92 78 560 520 475} 300 275 255 100 87 75 540 490 445 285 265 250 94 82 71 | | | 7A Seles s0c KO eee 285 175 50 100 | iki) | ASa sss 107 69 32 PASSE ee nas ciae SootkIen tonne ae 335 205 | 80 | 140 | 65)|So-aecee 109 74 38 BO eee ieee ee eerie omar =n | 370 240 110 | 175 105 | 35 111 78 43 Oe per eee co ncs ods aioe | 405 270 135 | 205 135 | 65 113 81 48 AQ Sle eo icte nee ee te erate aa = | 430 295 160 225 160 | 90 115 83 52 LN. Be Sossccue scent boestae 450 320 185 245 175 | 110 116 85 55 Uae EAB usec sb ace Be asoaceies 470 340 205 255 190 | 125 117 87 58 jee weep posacbaeco nese ston 490 360 225 265 200 135 117 88 60 (ig BS issaa roost Seceosoee 500 375 245 270 210 145 117 89 62 (Wao SaaC UE SSH SSeEEstE Conte 510 385 260 275 215 155 116 90 63 (Wise Sess 52s SSS sees 2b ct 515 395 275 275 220 165 116 90 64 (Sy 2 Cee Ratedee ese seceiseet 520 405 295 280 225 170 115 90 65 ape ORS GbE so dices Steno se 520 410 310 280 225 175 1l4 90 65 1 Counties in North Carolina are: Alexander, Burke, Cabarrus, Catawba, Cleveland, Davie, Gaston, Lincoln, McDowell, Rowan, Rutherford, Surry, Wilkes, and Yadkin. LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 43 TaBLE 18.— Yield of second-growth shortleaf pine in Arkansas. [Based on 38 fully stocked sample plots; area, 5.8 acres. All trees 6 inches and over in diameter breast high werescaled. Top diameter, 5.5inches; stump height, 1 foot; number of trees per acre, see page 17.] QUALITY T. Yield per acre. Total Average Average dinnicien basal area Saw timber. Age (years). height Gunches (breast of tree. Sal HOD, nigh) per SSS SSS Ghote x Scribner Doyle volume. rule. Tule. Fect. Inches. Sq. ft. Bd. ft. Bad. ft. Cu. ft. SUD, lal A A ae 43 7.5 166 Bi COOH Pesan nen D 2,500 Os lena ao eee 50 8.6 182 12, 700 4, 200 3,630 Bree ape Soto. lk 55 9.6 195 17, 500 6, 600 4, 900 ORs Je Aeon HO Sees eae aaee 60 10. 6 205 22, 400 9, 700 6,060 40. ...------+++--222 2222-2222: 65 11. 4 213 27, 500 13, 400 7,010 45... 22-22-2222 22 eer eee rece 69 12. 2 219 32, 500 17, 600 7,730 Psa tings BEE ECOG e Se aaa Eas 73 13. 0 225 37, 400 21, 800 8, 320 Mi oadoss ob ce Sd COs pOCB REED 76 13. 6 230 42, 200 25, 600 8, 850 GO ee eee Oe) a 79 14, 2 234 46, 850 29, 000 9, 320 GG ree CD So ae 81 14.8 237 51, 350 32, 100 9, 760 Oem ererate See rae oT ise 84 15.3 240 55, 750 35, 000 10, 160 Yee Ny ar eA cpa wd win tela 86 15.8 DAD) ert es ees 37, 800 10, 520 BL) yee repeat etre sac tala aia s 88 16. 2 DAS aes ele eters 40, 500 10, 850 ; QUALITY II. Ds ed een tee ease eae 35 6.6 125 4° 300)| Be ctemaese ees 1,740 25 5d NCB ORE BOOS DCO a Sees aa ARe 41 7.5 139 7, 450 2, 700 2, 520 30) Sake BeOS ene ClO Soe aaeeeenae 46 8.3 150 10, 600 4, 500 3, 390 OTRO ees ck eect oheies 51 9.1 159 13, 800 6, 800 4, 220 A () ERP italia ehareieimcais miaicje ied 55 9.9 167 17, 000 9, 500 4, 930 A fy ape renee RM ere a eal 58 10. 7 173 20, 200 12, 400 5, 520 DOB ase eeepc cides keer 61 11.3 178 23, 450 15, 400 6, 050 GR oes Sis ah re Tp Pe A 64 12.0 183 26, 850 18, 200 6, 520 GU) Ses choc Rose Cee eee eee 67 12.5 186 30, 600 20, 600 6, 980 (He cdéoca desea eee eee 69 13.1 189 34, 050 23, 000 7, 410 TSA SRE GOCE OSC Ie eee 72 13.6 191 37, 500 25, 200 7, 800 eerste eta eiatiale mist ee Sailers 2 atk 74 14,1 193 40, 850 27, 400 8, 160 SO eee eS Ve oe 76 14.5 194 44, 000 29, 500 8, 500 | QUALITY III. 33 6.3 95 2, 600 1, 200 1,390 37 7.0 105 4,300 2,500 1, 870 41 leat 113 6, 000 3, 900 2, 360 44 8.4 120 7, 900 5, 500 2, 850 47 9.1 126 10, 000 7, 200 3, 310 50 9.7 131 12, 200 9, 000 3, 760 | 53 10. 3 135 14, 600 10, 600 4, 210 55 10. 8 138 17, 100 12, 300 4, 650 57 11.4 140 19, 600 13, 900 5, 070 59 11.9 142 22, 000 15, 400 5, 450 61 12,4 143 24, 600 16, 900 5, 810 63 12.9 143 27, 100 18, 400 6, 150 44 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SCOTCH AND SHORTLEAF PINES. In a number of silyical features Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) and shortleaf pine appear to be quite similar. Both trees belong to the two-leaved group of pines! and form close stands made up of tall stems, free from branches for two-thirds of their length and terminating in short compact crowns. Both are vigorous and hardy growers and not subject to any markedly serious parasitic fungous disease. While both species are adapted to the drier type of soil occurring on the uplands, they differ in belonging characteristically to different zones of climate. Scotch pine does not require nearly so much heat during the summer and will endure much lower temperatures than shortleaf in winter. The seeds of both appear practically the same in size and general vigor, and both species are readily grown in the nursery. Shortleaf, however, regen- erates itself by sprouting from the stump, inherently possesses a much straighter stem, has smaller-sized branches, and cleans itself more quickly in stands. Fully stocked stands of Scotch pine at any specified age contain a greater number of trees, although of smaller size than shortleaf pine indicating a somewhat greater degree of tolerance. . All measurements of yield show considerably larger returns from shortleaf than from Scotch pme. The maximum average annual growth per acre of shortleaf pine on the best quality sites in North Carolina is 117 cubic feet at the age of 55 years; that of Scotch pine in Germany, about 90 cubic feet at 55 years. These maximum yields range downward on the poorest quality sites to 65 cubic feet at 80 years for shortleaf pine and about 40 cubic feet for Scotch pme at 65 years. Weise’s table for Scotch pime is based upon 351 sample tracts located in 5 German States, while the shortleaf-pine table shows the results of only 80 sample tracts located in 14 counties in North Carolina. Table 19 shows several points of likeness and unlikeness in these two pines. The shortleaf data are not so representative of the species as that for Scotch pine. The German plots were all normal stands, last thinned just prior to the measurement, while the North Carolina shortleaf plots were average well-stocked natural untreated stands in old fields, thinned somewhat by the action of fires. Under these unlike conditions the results can not be fairly comparable, but may be taken as an indication of the character and possibilities of the two pines. In respect to height, shortleaf pie leads under all conditions of age and situation, but the difference is most marked during about the first 30 to 40 years, and on the poorer sites at all ages up to 80 years. 1 Shortleaf varies to three leaves in the bundle on the vigorous growing parts of the crown. LIFE HISTORY OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 45 TasiE 19.— Yield of shortleaf pine in North Ca rolina, compared with yield of Scotch pine in Germany. Scotch pine. Shortleaf pine. |Quality| Quality] Quality) Quality| Quality| Quality Ne ie III. I. Il. III. Characters compared. Trees per acre: | MreessOnyearsiold so: A220 2202-2. bis Gaocuboecesasous yay PGRN Beeoeeae 510 765 1,405 ness GO wean Olble soos paedesedbesneoesesodessaoe 590 758 | 1,200 235 355 550 ANTEESIS OV CATSIOlG ei sate eciccisie's we seeiewanioees slace 206 317 585 90 155 270 Diameter, breast high (inches): Trees 30 Worn Gite. Se oss Seatac a ae Senee a eocarte 4.0 DES Sasa 7.9 6.5 | 5. 0 ree OnyearsOldeee sarin ek ey Rea ee 733 58 4.2 Wey 9.4 | 7.6 PNT ECESISORVCALSOIG. ws oes Nel sts cosa scsi ieelastee 11.5 9.4 6.7 15.3 13.0 10.6 Basal area, breast high, toia! per acre (square feet): Trees 30 years old 130 104 67 188 156 125 Trees 50 years old... - 167 135 108 215 179 144 Trees 80 years old 3 184 151 132 227 188 149 Height, average (feet): Tees 30 years old... 34 26 21 51 43 35 Trees 50 years old. - 68 43 34 66 57 47 Trees 80 years old. . 79 63 48 81 71 60 Yield, total per acre (cubic feet): 2 Trees 30 VCATSIOLGN Se ie et ya oie a tA at aoe ee atele | 1,690 830 400} 3,350} 2,350 1,300 PRTeES DON CATS Old et) scciso sence ieee cree ences 4,500 | 2,700] 1,730] 5,850} 4,350 2,900 Hinees SOnyents Olds f2 cs aca aoctas ees ce sea | 6,570 | 4,260} 2,930] 9,100] 7,150] 5,250 Periodic annual increment ( cubic feet): NTEeSTS Ohya SOM eee ise sae eyee eis a tance Soe ase 92 98 49 121 93 66 Trees 50 years old... -- Bs Sh an oe a eMart A ee 103 68 61 128 106 82 TUIGES EO WGEnS Olle Sc occeconeeceseessedeoaes sapnaee 53 44 24 94 82 71 Mean annual increment (cubic feet): MNTeeSta OV CALSLOld ea. ae silo tet oe. eects bose 57 28 14 111 78 43 TEES ORV.CaES OGM sa0 Soo: osc betas Aenean cele 90 54 35 117 87 58 Tees IS Oby Cars Olde eerie ciate steels aiges eee 82 53 37 114 90 65 1 Figures from Weise’s yield tables for Scotch pine, Quality Tand Il averaged to Tekore i taken as IT; and IV and V averaged to make Quality III. 2 Yield of Scotch pine taken for all wood down to 3 inches in diameter; of shortleaf pine taken only for trees up to 6 inches diameter breast high, and to 6 inches in tops. The superiority of shortleaf over Scotch pine in size of trees and total yield is striking. Scotch-pine stands contain from two to three times as many trees per acre as the shortleaf stands, and the trees have correspondingly smaller average diameters. A comparison of the total yield of the two species is interesting. At the age of 30 years shortleaf shows about two or three times the yield of the Scotch pine for the better and poorer sites, respectively. At 50 years on first quality situations, the two species approach the closest in yield, yet the yield of shortleaf is just 30 per cent greater than that of Scotch pine. The shortleaf yield is again about 56 per cent greater at the age of 80 years. Similar yield tables for Scotch pine by Dr. Schwappach show usually from 15 to 20 per cent less yield than Weise’s tables. YIELD IN MIXED STANDS. In mixed pine and hardwood stands the yield of shortleaf varies widely. In the lower mountains of northern Georgia recent timber estimates made by the Appalachian surveys show an average yield of 1,000 to 3,000 board feet per acre; but on the warmer slopes in the same region, pure virgin pine stands of mixed ages covering 46 BULLETIN 244, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. several hundred acres yield from 12,000 to 20,000 board feet per acre. Hundreds of square miles of the better shortleaf forests mixed with oak and hickory over central and western Arkansas and adjacent parts of Oklahoma and Louisiana will cut an average of about 5,000 board feet of shortleaf. The character of the forests in the more mountainous parts of Arkansas, where shortleaf is confined chiefly to the flats and warm south slopes, is seen in Table 2, showing the composition of the forest cover in the Arkansas and Ozark National Forests. In the higher hilly region of the Arkansas National Forest, cutting to an approximate diameter limit of 14 inches breast high, or about 15 inches on a 1-foot stump, the pine in the mixed type commonly yields about 2,000 board feet + of merchantable timber per acre, leaving about 1,000 feet for seed trees and second cut. The average run in private cutting, down to a 12-inch stump diameter limit, is 10 logs per thousand board feet. In arepresentative sale on the Arkansas National Forest, cutting to a 14-inch diameter limit at breast height, the logs averaged 135 feet each, or 8 logs per thousand. The bulk of the timber cut ranged from 60 to 180 years old. The oldest good-sized groups or small stands observed over a wide district in central Arkansas were 170 to 180 years, and a large number of them were found throughout the whole region. The yields of these groups or small-sized stands ranged mostly between 25,000 and 35,000 board feet per acre, and the maximum acre meas- ured was 62,000 board-feet. In Montgomery County, Ark., a com- pany recently cut 2,500 feet per acre (Doyle log scale), or an actual mill cut of nearly 4,000 feet of lumber per acre, from a private tract of 4,000 acres in the high hilly country within the Arkansas National Forest. The best cut of this company was 910,560 (Doyle scale) on. 160 acres, or an actual mill cut of somewhat better than 1,500,000 feet, an average of approximately 9,500 feet per acre. 1 Based upon growth and reproduction plots on the Arkansas National Forest in average cut-over tracts, 1912. Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER July 20, 1915. FURTHER EXPERIMENTS IN THE DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARVA IN HORSE MANURE. By F. €. Coox, Physiological Chemist, Bureau of Chemistry, R. H, Hurcuison, Scientific Assistant, Bureau of Entomology, and F. M. Scaues, Assistant Mycolo- gist, Bureau of Plant Industry. INTRODUCTION. The results reported in this bulletin are a continuation of the inves- tigation dealt with in Bulletin No. 118, United States Department of Agriculture, inaugurated for the purpose of finding a substance that would destroy the larve of the house fly in their principal breeding place, namely, horse manure, without injuring the bacteria or reducing in any way the fertilizing value of the manure (Cook, Hutchison, and Scales, 1914). The work was conducted in cooperation by the Bureaus of Entomology, Chemistry, and Plant Industry at Arlington, Va., and New Orleans, La. The bacteriological work at New Orleans was done by Dr. William Seemann, dean of the Tulane School of Tropical Medicine, and thanks are due him for his cooperation. The entomological work at New Orleans was done by Mr. E. R. Barber, scientific assistant, Bureau of Entomology. In Bulletin No. 118 it was suggested that manure be treated with borax immediately on removal from the barn in order to destroy the eges and maggots of the house fly, and that borax be applied at the rate of 0.62 pound per 8 bushels, or 10 cubic feet, of manure. As large quantities of manure are used by truck growers, it was thought advis- able to include in that bulletin a warning as to the possible injurious action of large applications of borax-treated manure on plants. For the same reason it seemed desirable to find some volatile or other organic substance which would be effective as a larvicide, but without possible toxic action on vegetation. Largely with this object in view, | the investigation was continued during 1914. The larvicidal value of some inorganic substances was also tested. Borax may be used with advantage for the treatment of outhouses, public dumps, and refuse piles of all kinds, cracks and crevices, floors of stables, and any accumulation of organic material which offers a 92378°—Bull. 245—15—1 2 BULLETIN 245, U. S.-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. favorable place for the deposition of eggs. A treatment two or three times a week ought to suffice for all these cases except where large quantities of organic material are added, when the borax application should be made immediately, using the same quantity as in the treat- ment of horse manure. The best results are always obtained when the borax is applied in solution daily, as it is effective against the eggs and the maggots during their feeding period. (Table V, series 52, Gand H.) Borax probably has no effect on the pupe or adult flies. GENERAL PLAN OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK. CAGE EXPERIMENTS. The plan of the work was the same as that outlined in Bulletin No. 118, and in addition a few experiments were carried out in concrete pits. New cages were constructed for the experiments at Arlington. In order to prevent the escape of larve by migration, the galvanized- iron pans in the cages in which the manure was placed were made 2 feet deep, and the small openings in the bottom of the pans through which the water drained off were covered with fine wire gauze. The legs were made 8 inches high to facilitate the removal of any larvee which might get into the drip pans. The manure was sprinkled in three layers by putting 2 bushels of. manure in the cage and applying 24 gallons of the solution. This was repeated in the second layer of 2 bushels. Finally the remaining 4 bushels were added and the last 5 gallons of the solution applied. When a chemical was applied in dry condition it was scattered over the surface of the manure, which was also treated in three layers, and 10 gallons of water were afterwards added. The manure in the con- trol cages was sprinkled with water equal to the volume of the solu- tions used. The flies which were caught in the traps attached to the top of the cages were chloroformed and counted, and at the end of each experiment a comparison of the total number was made, and from these counts an index of the effectiveness of the chemical was obtained. Only fresh manure was used in the experiments, and every effort was made to provide for an even distribution of fly eggs and larve. That it was impossible to secure an equal infestation in all cages is evident from a comparison of the fly counts from the con- trol cages. OPEN-PILE EXPERIMENTS. A few open-pile experiments were carried out at Arlington on the same plan as during the previous year. The most important open- pile experiments were conducted at New Orleans during November and December, 1914. In most of the New Orleans open-pile experi- ments 4 bushels of manure were sprinkled with 5 gallons of solution daily, and this was repeated four times, making a total pile of 16 bushels treated with 20 gallons of solution. The total number of DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARVH IN HORSE MANURE. 3 pupe in each pile was counted about eight days after the last treat- ment. A sample of 200 pupe from each pile was kept in the labora- tory, and the percentage of emergence determined. From these data the apparent larvicidal effect was calculated. For some of the New Orleans experiments, cages (PI. I, fig. 1, p. 16) were constructed to cover the piles, and instead of counting the number of pupe the flies were allowed to emerge and were caught in traps attached to the tops of the cages. Temperatures and samples for analysis were taken through the armholes in the sides of the cages. Soil was banked against the base of the cages to prevent the escape of maggots and flies. Chemical and bacteriological analyses were made of samples of manure from most of the cage and open-pile experiments. SAMPLING FOR QHEMICAL AND BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSES. It is very evident that a manure pile with the unequal distribution and great variation of its physical and chemical constituents will necessarily be exceedingly difficult to sample, especially to secure from it a few hundred grams which will be thoroughly representative. An attempt was made to secure representative samples by taking equal portions of manure from three different parts of the pile, spreading them on a clean sheet of paper, and finely dividing and thoroughly mixing them. When the material appeared quite uni- form the sample was quartered. One quarter was then cut into half-centimeter lengths with clean shears. The straw or shavings were cut with the other material. When this operation was com- pleted the sample was again thoroughly mixed. For chemical analysis the material was twice passed through a grinder. Both bacteriological and chemical examinations were made on the same sample. As the bacterial content of manure is very high, no attempt was made to work under absolutely sterile conditions, because the contamination arising from ordinary handling of the material was of no importance when compared with the great number of organisms present. However, precautions were taken to prevent excessive contamination by using clean paper, shears, etc., for each sample. BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION. Two 10-gram samples of the manure, prepared as just described, were taken for each bacteriological determination. One of the 10-gram samples was dried at 100° C. for one hour to determine the percentage of solids. The other sample was brushed into a 2-liter flask containing 1 liter of sterile water. The flask was then vigorously shaken for five minutes and again, after a five minute interval, for three minutes. A 1-c. c. sample was then withdrawn and run into 100 c. c. of sterile water. Five dilutions were prepared, ranging from 1 part in 10,000 to 1 part in 100,000,000. A duplicate series of Petri dishes was then prepared from these dilutions and standard beef agar. 4 BULLETIN 245, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. After five days’ incubation at 28 to 30° C. the plates were counted. The average counts of the duplicate plates were taken and converted into equivalents for i gram of dry manure by the use of the figures obtained from the duplicate 10-gram samples that had been dried at 100° C. The results obtained by plating on the standard beef agar are comparative and serve to show the germicidal action of the chemicals on the majority of the bacteria present in the manure. Dr. Seemann, in the work at New Orleans, used a medium prepared from manure water, but the counts were practically the same as those on beef agar. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION. The manure samples were analyzed for solids, ash, ammonia, and nitrogen, using the methods of the Association of Agricultural Chemists (Wiley, 1908). The total nitrogen determinations were made by the Nitrogen Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry. The results obtained by the magnesium-oxid distillation method for ammonia, which are not reported in the table, although much higher, showed the same general tendencies as the figures obtained on the water extracts. Water extracts were prepared from each sample by taking 25 grams of the finely divided manure and adding 500 ec. c. of distilled water, allowing them to stand for one hour, with occasional shaking. The solutions were filtered, and the following determinations were made: Water-soluble nitrogen, ammonia, nitrites, nitrates, and reaction. Ammonia was extracted by the Folin and Macallum (1912) aera- tion method and nesslerized. Nitrites were determined with the sulphanilic acid reagent, and nitrates by the reduction method with aluminum foil (American Public Health Association, Labora- tory Section, 1912). Nitrites and nitrates were not usually found in the samples examined, because the manure had not stood suffi- ciently long. The reaction was determined by taking 20 ec. ¢c. of the water extract, diluting with 200 c. c. of carbon-dioxid free water, and titrating with twentieth normal acid, using alizarin red as indicator. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF SUBSTANCES USED. Representatives of two groups of substances were tested during the season’s work, namely, (1) inorganic and (2) organic, including volatile and nonvolatile substances and some plant material. These substances are arranged in alphabetical order in the respective groups. INORGANIC SUBSTANCES. Of the inorganic substances, arsenical dip, chlorid of ime, Epsom salts, lime-sulphur, and sulphuric acid in three concentrations were used. DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARVH IN HORSE MANURE. 5 ARSENICAL DIP. Arsenical dip, which is extensively used in the West and South- west to kill ticks on cattle and sheep, was prepared according to the directions given in U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers’ Bul- letin No. 603 (Chapin, 1914). This solution was used in three cage experiments, namely, full strength, and diluted 1 to 1 and 1 to 3 (Table I, Series 67, A, B, and C). TaBLEe I.—Destruction of fly larve in horse manure. Results with arsenical dip, para- dichlorobenzene, and pyridine; cage experiments at Arlington, Va., 1914. Water extract. ~ Number of bac- teria per Ea Treatment of 8bushels | py jog aonar: 1gram | Manure, fea Nh Series. | of manure, using 10 | .yorceq.| vicidal | Manure,| total | yyy per | water- | Nas gallons of liquid. oo effect calcu- | nitrogen. 100 ae aclable NHs, ° lated to pyaar : Folin dry (5 grams nitrogen. methods weight. manure). Per cent Per cent | Per cent of control of total | of total Number. | average. | Millions.| Per cent. Gxc: nitrogen. | nitrogen. A | Arsenical dip (strong). 67 87 1, 648 0. 421 10.50 33. 63 5 67, B | Arsenical dip (1-1)... 57 89 1,944 Bes y/ 5.75 29. 97 4.4 C | Arsenical dip (1-3). . 131 74 2, 459 . 547 6.50 33. 82 Bul! A | Control (water only). . CPA0illSsouaaoone 1, 636 . 625 6. 40 PASC Be padoaans i183 |eesee GOs asa ae oeaccsces BoA sskemesee 1,043 463 8.75 41.25 7.1 (On\s5ee- Geo seeeaaee D7 5a eae eae sete 843 337 8. 40 26. 70 4.7 Control average. s AO a Ce ellen tena aalls hes aemocnil bars ae oscil SEB OO UaE Boocecese 78{5 Pyridine, 1-100........ 37 63 634 540 8.90 31.11 3.0 B | Pyridine, 1-500.......-. 135 0 798 -540 8.65 31.11 Bh 7 A | Control (water only)... GRillaeocoonaue 1, 035 -611 9. 90 26. 68 1.9 U8) Neeeae CORRE eee isms 292) eae eet 1, 282 639 11.15 36. 93 2.4 ON eseee OMe stm sence GG ae ao otsrejefcell ei sinieies cis ein a Pesjmeincie wile | wieiaiscieeiniee | neice eine | eer eee Control average....... TBA Reese E ec tcclats cisie ol Shere nistern asc | Sycieieteterate relay] bie santero Store ores 104 {5 pees, L100 Sener 3 99-++ 209 - 470 4.75 28. 72 7.02 Esc Oe ee occ ose. aces 2 99+ 128 449 4.50 33. 85 2.45 106/ Gohl (water only). . AN A30))|) Gers Seater 19.6 572 4,25 25.00 2.10 eeiste Osco re ace see Bhs pocesnodae 27.1 561 4.65 26.02 1. 41 Control average. ....-. BAYA 01a eae ae eRe eee Bence eee A Macs ase Soa asaseH a saeaaas ot A | Para-dichlorobenzene, 79 4 pound to 10 gal- lons water........-. 10 93 905 . 793 13.15 36.07 4.8 1B aaee COs sess eee a8e 70 50 502 505 11.65 35. 44 4.6 (For control see81, A, B, and C, above. ) A Para-dichlorobenzene, 98 1 pound to 10 gal- lons water...-....-.- 11 Ra PESeaedred baamseeane Merete asa oacacaHenel Setinmemc es Hm Om ees sete ne 68 TBE Cl here ete Stine See Se eee | Meaeiecc eee enon | cterses eaeee A | Control (water only)... LIB (Al eemaaeaor 283 898 11. 40 25. 61 2.34 Oe 1B | oon On eres ees G8TEaGbieee = 5 165 . 653 10. 75 24.19 4.13 (CP Sees GOR ee sak eee ee dil | ae Son see 157 533 8.15 27.39 2.44 Control average....... BOM (Sas 2a) Ea Aes pe oe e te ale ee. SACS Tue ee ee iG en ei The two stronger concentrations killed about 88 per cent of the maggots and the 1-3 solution about 75 per cent. The weaker strengths apparently exerted a slight stimulating action on the bacteria, and the full-strength dip showed no bactericidal action in this one test. The chemical data showed no marked differences except for the increased alkalinity where the dip was applied in full strength, and this, no doubt, was due to the sodium carbonate in the dip. 6 BULLETIN 245, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CHLORID OF LIME. Chlorid of lime has been used extensively as a disinfectant and has been tested by Dr. Howard, who found that 1 pound applied to 8 quarts of manure killed practically all the larve, but one-fourth of a pound to 8 quarts was not sufficient (Howard, 1911). In our experi- ments with smaller amounts, namely three-fourths of a pound, 14 pounds, and 3 pounds to 8 bushels and the addition of 10 gallons of water, negative results were obtained. The well-known action of chlorid of lime in driving off the ammonia from manure, the probable toxic effect on bacteria, and the irritating action of the liberated chlorin, as well as the high cost of the substance in quantities sufli- cient to kill fly larvee, precludes its use for this purpose. EPSOM SALTS. Epsom salts was applied in three cage experiments, using respect- ively 1, 2, and 4 pounds to 10 gallons of water. In no case was any larvicidal effect noticed. No chemical or bacteriological examina- tions were made. LIME-SULPHUR. Lime-sulphur was used again this year in dilutions of 1 to 10, 1 to 20, and 1 to 30. No larvicidal effect was seen, and since it failed to kill the maggots, no chemical or bacteriological analyses were made. SULPHURIC ACID. Sulphuric acid was used in 1, 2, and 3 per cent solutions. Two cage experiments with each concentration were carried out. Prac- tically no larvicidal effects were shown in any of the experiments. Sufficient alkaline substances and organic material were present in the manure to combine with the acid in the 1 per cent and 2 per cent solutions, consequently no injurious action on the bacteria resulted. No counts were made where the 3 per cent solutions were applied. When the 3 per cent applications were made the alkaline reaction of the manure was markedly reduced and the percentage of ammonia, in terms of the total nitrogen, was increased from three to four times that of the control. The 1 per cent and 2 per cent solutions had no apparent action on the manure as determined by the chemical results. ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. As the application to the soil of manure containing inorganic substances is likely to produce harmful effects on plants, due to a slight excess of the toxic element in the soil, it seemed desirable to investigate the larvicidal action of various organic substances, both volatile and nonvolatile. The volatile substances would produce DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARVA IN HORSE MANURE. 7 a true partial sterilization, as has been shown by several investigators (cf. Russel and Buddin, 1913, and the recent article by the latter, Buddin, 1914), while the nonvolatile substances would be finally decomposed in the soil, and, therefore, have no permanent injurious effect. Organic substances, when added to the soil, may be attacked by various members of the soil flora, as bacteria and filamentous fungi, which either destroy the substances entirely or form compounds that may be utilized by other organisms which are of value in main- taining the fertility of the soil or may be utilized directly by the plants themselves. ANILINE. Aniline (C,H;NH,), which is extensively used in the preparation of dyes, contains 15 per cent of nitrogen and costs about 60 cents per quart. This substance was tested in cage experiments at Arlington, Va., using dilutions of 1 to 50, 1 to 100, and 1 to 200. TasLe IT.—Destruction of fly larve in horse manure. Results with aniline and nitro- benzene; cage experiments, Arlington, Va., 1914. Water ex ; Nutaber ater extract of bac- ) _ | teria per Pry ee Treatment of 8 bushels Flies apRer: l gram | Manure, Re aro Series. of manure, using 10 | anerced.| vicidal | Manure, | _total el eculeewiatens Nas gallons of liquid. BES lke Sasee caleu- |nitrogen.| i509 ¢¢. | olagle a NELe: * | lated to 6 ora | Sea NSE Folin dry ae 8a. | method. weight. manure) Per cent Per cent | Per cent of control of total | of total Number. | average. | Millions.| Per cent. Cxc: nitrogen. | nitrogen. A | Aniline, 1-50........-. 4 98 264 0. 526 8. 25 41. 63 7.9 94:B | Aniline, 1-100......... 11 97 392 . 632 8.65 33. 70 4.60 C | Aniline, 1-200.......-- 20 10 eal Eee nes MOASRSS aan Socbsoc anal bacikescecsl ecco dosed A | Control (water only).. EYEE aac 283 . 898 11. 40 25. 61 2.34 GEHTS esoce LOM a ee GEO Echocadaoe 165 653 10. 75 24.19 4.13 CHleses GOs See See eoes Un aaee eee 157 533 8.15 27.39 2. 44 Control average......- Bie Pee eee cael ReSeRerad MAnnctcecd GeCcaeaslon scadaducnr dbokcsceas 100 A | Aniline, 1-200......... 7 CS Sede maces 618 4.15 25. 08 1. 40 {B ee COS seen ECE Bee 28 Ce) acl emerseacaa 674 6. 40 29. 08 1. 63 106 A | Control (water only).. ANARO Mleeren ee 19.6 572 4, 25 25. 00 2.10 13} ewer Qe eae ae 1B ERO lisGaede doee Palfe, il 561 4,65 26. 02 1.41 Controlaverage...-..-- O74 oon Bagadcd bon oo popdellecodcannoslbdecenasas|lacoeeccacd|lsoecocsocs A | Nitrobenzene emul- sion(3} pounds nitro- benzene and 4 pound 95 fish-oil soap to 10 gal- lons water).....-.... 0 100 551 - 547 9.75 34. 92 9.14 IBA GS tae GOR ASSN eer 1 99-+- 667 526 8.10 40. 50 7.41 C | Same as foregoing, di- Muted) 1=32-8--- 9522. = 115 hays Jaeeea | Qenesrenereer sists Sameera Se a eal (ane enee dria oe Fer at Oeste aca eee A eee A | Control(water only)... TOs Rees eames 283 . 898 11. 40 25. 61 2. 34 99,B |..--- LO Ra Pa Sao Olea aera aciee 165 653 10, 75 24. 19 4.13 Chae COLO) a ie iar ear Clie she creas 157 533 8.15 27.39 2. 44 Control average....--. OLB speseepe)iiepe ae ee hasclnnsires| ete bis eles wie bel Sits ciauata es eal rata Seraph A | Nitrobenzene (1.67 pounds nitrobenzene and 4 pound fish-oil 101 soap to 10 gallons water) undiluted... 4 COE OR BSBA EEOR 565 6. 40 34. 69 8. 32 13) oseoe CLO eee ee eae 0 100 323 . 449 5. 40 34. 96 9. 13 C | Same as foregoing, di- teal ts ae ee 5 Ot esate tes el treater co ote | Pate eect el iepetcree area as es cea) 106 {5 Control (water only). . 4,489 |.........- 19.6 572 4, 25 25. 00 2. 10 15} aes GLOSS igo se Sa aGeoe 1.9305 Bepeeere 27.1 561 4.65 26. 02 1. 41 Controlaverage....... 87 esoecod yess ee Nea Oval sms ne aa pee Teen crueses chat I at al sey sere 8 BULLETIN 245, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The results given in Table II show a 97 and 98 per cent larvicidal action with the two stronger solutions, and in the case of the 1 to 200 dilution two cages showed a 99 per cent and one an 80 per cent larvicidal action. The 1 to 50 and 1 to 100 strengths showed an increased number of bacteria. The amount of water-soluble nitrogen and ammonia is noticeably increased in the manure treated with the strongest solution of aniline, with no apparent action on the bacteria. The increases of the water-soluble nitrogen and ammonia are proba- bly due to nitrogen in the aniline added. Aniline, among other sub- stances, was tried in some cage experiments at New Orleans, the results of which are given in Table III. TasLe III.—Destruction of fly larve in horse manure. Results with aniline, hellebore, and nitrobenzene; cage experiments at New Orleans, La., 1914. Series. | Treatment of 8 bushels of manure, using 10 gallons of liquid. | oneal depecee Number. Number. AAWAMI Me =200 costes cscs osolteecncecscee sone mee sees ocere sees esse 3,738 i 10748 Aniline 1400 es ck she Mee SE AN ES Bs SESS NOES Setied log mee oer 6, 030 12, 853 Cae: Om See Sah ee ose AACE woes hain ee dae ea 5,070 9, 856 A Hellehore: ground, 4 pound to 10 gallons water.: 22.22.22 5.22222-2 1,122 4,034 {itr Ets LR SR i nee PIS aera ee er eine aca gaa: 820 4,567 x iieilebore, ground, 4 pound to 10 gallons water....--..-...-----+------ 1,130 1, 285 BSNL ae nah ee teeeg ted cre aC leet ue eh no nen ULL Nera ee eee 874 1,930 A Siitobensen, 1 pound, and 3 pound fish-oilsoap to 10 gallons water. 3,390 2,985 TOOUBS | eae OO satan eae an igs ae den te Sec inatats sate rom alien cians Moe leer 1,692 3,647 Cc Mima 4 pound, and + pound fish-oilsoap to 10 gallons water... 1,319 2,042 110 {B Control ( water only) TaN shes rape iyeee dels eine aa eth A Stone Ween st salale wate 1,085 ~ 560 Baltes CLOEBE AE Cee eee mesteriance eee en eee pein shee eeciocmenese eas teaeeee 5, 888 4, 835 AS Ari tl Ine isl 200 eat on eraca ioe ok Sanasarnnlamistaneclemicicic oe seis oats stat Perera 5,076 4, 462 111,B ‘Aniline, AOD Ratti sera ao tcioinie hit las ejotic a wie nie aistecieee 2 neces emcees 12, 667 8, 296 Cypeee GOB tety Des netela Sena noe ee tee See its, saya sala cee keeway sae 12,309 19,675 A Hellebore, ground, $ pound to 10 gallons water...--.--..--.------------ 11, 803 10, 794 112 FS | sees Cl Oeste siete oe ean merece cps tee Sees sees sisiceiheciee Suwec cece cere ae 17,197 8,179 Cc fiellebore, ground, + pound to 10 gallons water... .............-...--- 20, 067 9,315 1D) SGA OLS GS S5e se oS boo Dota see SEDER 5 be SORE Bena aha satin dS ane Cer Sem eRaa sere 17, 838 268 ; [P Nitrobenzene, 1 pound, and 4 pound fish-oilsoap to 10 gallons water. 2,395 10, 132 ES Bg Sees GO Nee errr criscnitineet a cisissiseiststtlel= cosets wise a cals Sercesereare 12 211 C Nitropenzene! 4 pound, and } pound fish-oilsoap to 10 gallons water...- 9,678 11, 165 14{h Control (water OnLy.) Rese see ene eons ina teers ise etariae sae tates 19,366 11,419 13} Bagoe Olt), SecadscddnSsnenoc .acheS Pepa eDECS Ebola Bonsueh ose sqboponorsEseEs 18, 838 10, 726 The cages were the ones used the previous year and, as the figures show, large numbers of larvye escaped. Apparently these results show a low larvicidal effect of aniline, but since the condition of the cages was unsatisfactory they should not be compared with the others, especially as they are the only ones, either in cages or open piles, where poor results with aniline were obtained. Open-pile experiments at New Orleans, using a 1 to 200 dilution of aniline, killed 85 and 99 per cent of the fly maggots (Table IV, series 46, A and B); 1 to 400 dilutions in two piles gave 79 and 83 per cent larvicidal effect (Table V, series 41, C and D); and two piles treated with aniline, 1 to 500, showed an 84 per cent destruction of larvee (Table V, series 49, A and B). LARVZ IN HORSE MANURE. 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Ee itl ee a Be bras ~**°00¢-T ‘oulTIuy ee On Ec ga a SOP C weesessretessessses== (ATUO 1048) [O1]UOD 6 teeters eed eeteedesgpes te: Ds ieee Taye SUOTIVS OT 01 punod + ‘puno.s ‘e10qeT[oH RSBARE pteeeceetterercreeceeessceeeseQnes? = sign Slate ie sige is Sf ere aah I9y@M suo[es 0104 punod $‘punois ‘o10qeT[o H Tessie 777(Aquo, 19}eM ) [O1]WOD lated opt miei Gis ainice 19}@M SUOTIVS OT 03 punod + ‘punoi3 ‘a10qeT[oH nie Sayeteiclile = aistalovatete Sear Scere ee eae sees op: —$——————S— SS eg) ~~ No} au Chr PPI ANCA <-90AR en ce a ne 17, 526 HW @OUMtlOl Saracen ctactosee ctces sees coe cee see ows comme ees ise ale 273, 520 ING leATline al Oe cee ee ten neem nose ee 1, 707 al eae Ot see ee Mag i tean eels cine ere eee Cee 1, 603 49 & Hellebore, powdered, 3 pound to 10 gallons water....-....-| 502 mete OSS Se eh eina Se tle odie santo ne aces eiesc tee eae ss| 162 Hy! Controlicwaterionly) saseses see nene seems mens. syeaealeae | 7, 202 x Bee pote) powdered, 4 pound to 10 gallons water........-- 398 Bares 0 0 lite ayed aan npr ei ea ay yee am pte RN Ga ate ay eae ET 293 30) Cae a8 CEG SER eS Here aa Tea a ee ea tatle ota aol 449 De eee DO eS eae See ceo inte cite Seto mcteee nie teenie seraie cee 334 He Control (water! Only). 252s ascse wee ince onericle ce leiaraicte ce ate 8, 866 s Helepure, , powdered, 4 pound to ‘10 gallons water.......... i Ms CLO Spots Hela ein ticseieicietclorersinarcieierslorreraya reins crema oteerelene acstalsie 14 514C PreTehore; powdered, + pound to 10 gallons water.....-..-. 12, 294 TDi see GAN CY ih: Sept cole pee he) tg Sei ele oA Sec Sr ie ee | 24, 233 E Caio Gwater only) Stee See eee em | 43, 733 A | Nitrobenzene, } pound and 1 pound fish-oil soap to 10 gal- | LONSHWA TELS ee mies Antena) se Saye sue ancy Se eee | 3, 036 Bi |e oe LOR e RM te eae eta ei tre ate aie eiseiee ce clacite ae Boece 3,415 C | Pyretheum, powdered, 4 pound to 10 gallons water.....--. 24,346 Fol Ds |e LO te tera a yok aan niacllsi iatanine sack cain aaiemise 31,379 y Fee R ote: powdered, $ pound to 10 gallons water........-- | 7 ee sta lwiwja (LO ain ole claialw iain inlo alalolnjal= alu (mie la[aja(e)=\mjaln aln'ele(nia ~ininlo ale ef~i=(s\~\= sim )= =) 0, (£0 i iorax, powdered, 1 pound to 10 gallons water.........-..-- | 37300 280340 NRE AAS ea COG CROU ROCCO O FCAT De Cor Heo ae CH Ato mens 952 L Control (waterionly) pte eeic te te ce saceee cases waeiee oe | 29, 831 Emergence from sam- ple of 200 pupe. Per cent We) ror Cror Gror1cr Apparent larvicidal effect. Per cent of control. 98. 6 coo SSRUSONS Oooo) ++ on As only one duplicate set of open piles treated with aniline 1 to 200 was examined, the data are not sufficient on which to base any conclusion as to its effect on the bacteriological and chemical compo- Aniline in all open-pile experiments showed a high larvicidal efficiency even in the dilution of 1 to 500, but it should be handled with care because of its possible toxic effects. sition of the manure. BETA NAPHTHOL. Beta naphthol was tried in three cage experiments, using solutions containing 0.1 pound, 0.33 pound, and 1 pound, respectively. the 1-pound application was made only 11 per cent of the maggots were killed, and in the other two cases the results were negative. No bacteriological or chemical examinations were made of the treated manure. Where DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARVZ IN HORSE MANURE. iat CRESYLIC ACID. Cresylic acid, which is prepared from coal tar, was tried in dilu- tions of 1 to 20, 1 to 40, and 1 to 80 in cage experiments, but it was without action on the maggots. Bacteriological and chemical anal- yses were made of the manure treated with the 1 to 20 strength, and the bacteria were reduced 90 per cent. The alkalinity of the manure was reduced, and a slight increase in ammonia over that of the con- trols was found. PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE. Para-dichlorobenzene was employed in two sets of cage experi- ments, using one-half pound and 1 pound to 8 bushels of manure. The substance was ground and scattered over the manure, and water added. As shown (Table I, series 79, A and B, and 98, A and B), the apparent larvicidal effect varied greatly, the one-half pound strength indicating a 50 and 93 per cent action and the 1 pound indicating 78 and 97 per cent effectiveness. The bacterial counts and chemical analyses where the one-half pound applications were made showed only slight effects from this treatment. No analyses of the manure in the cages treated with the 1-pound applications were made. Para- dichlorobenzene was tried in one pit experiment. The pits were of concrete with inside measurements of 9 by 6 by 2 feet. Thirty-two bushels of manure were placed in the pits, and the manure in one pit was treated at the rate of 0.5 pound to 8 bushels. The other pit was untreated. From the former 403 flies emerged, and from the latter, 484. The larvicidal action was, therefore, apparently about 16 per cent. Duckett (1915) has found this substance to be an effective fumigant against various household insects and those affecting stored products. FORMALDEHYDE. Further experiments with formaldehyde were performed, using 1 to 6, 1 to 8, and 1 to 10 dilutions of the commercial 40 per cent for- malin in water. The 1 to 8 and 1 to 10 strengths showed no larvi- cidal effects, and the action of the 1 to 6 solution on the maggots was shght (17 per cent). The bacteriological and chemical results showed the same general tendencies as those found last year, an increased number of bacteria and a reduction of the alkalinity being observed. As the cost of formaldehyde is high, and as strong solutions are re- quired to kill the maggots, the use of this substance is not practical for this purpose. NITROBENZENE. Nitrobenzene (C,H,NO,), commercially known as oil of mirbane, costs 20 cents per pound and contains 11.4 per cent of nitrogen. The vapors of this liquid are poisonous. Two sets of cage experiments at 12 BULLETIN 245, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Arlington were carried out with emulsions of this substance and fish- oil soap. The strength of these emulsions and the results obtained are given in Table IT, series 95 and 101. The larvicidal results, with the exception of series 95, C, were good. The emulsions apparently produced a considerable increase in numbers of the bacteria. An increase of water-soluble nitrogen and ammonia was obtained in all the treated samples. Some further experiments at New Orleans, using the cages which were employed in 1913, gave poor results, as many larve escaped (Table III, series 109 and 113). The results of six open-pile experiments are recorded in Table V(series 42, A, B, C, and D, and 52, A and B), and the data for two additional open-pile experiments are given in Table IV (series 47, A and B). Bacterio- logical and chemical results are given in connection with the last two experiments. The duplicate samples indicate that there was a slight reduction in the number of bacteria and that there was no apparent effect on the manure as shown by the chemical data. All the exper- iments indicate satisfactory larvicidal results, but the best were those obtained with the largest quantity of fish-oil soap, namely, 1 pound (Table V, series 52, A and B), which killed 93 per cent of the larve. This fact suggests that the fish-oil soap is an important constituent of this larvicidal mixture. OXALIC ACID. Four cage experiments were carried out with oxalic acid, using 1 and 2 pounds to 10 gallons of water. One experiment with 1 pound gave negative larvicidal results, while the results from three experi- ments using 2 pounds were as follows: 3 per cent, 60 per cent, and 80 per cent. In the one sample of manure analyzed the bacterial count was reduced, and the ammonia was increased over the control. PYRIDINE. Pyridine (C;H,N), which is prepared commercially from coal tar, and is also obtained from the distillation of bone oil, is alkaline, con- tains 17.75 per cent nitrogen, and costs about $1 per pound. This liquid was used in three cage experiments in dilutions of 1 to 100 and in one cage experiment in a dilution of 1 to 500. The results of the cage experiments are shown in Table I (Series 78 and 104). The larvicidal efficiency of the 1 to 100 dilutions was 63 per cent for one cage and 99 per cent for the other two. The 1 to 500 dilutions showed no apparent effect. No consistent action on the bacteria is evident, and the water-soluble’ nitrogen and the ammonia from the treated samples are higher than from the controls. In open-pile experiments at New Orleans (Table V, Series 41, A and B) pyridine 1 to 500 was used twice, giving an apparent larvicidal DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARVE IN HORSE MANURU. 1h) effect of 99 per cent. Pyridine was used in two open-pile experiments in a dilution of 1 to 1,500 (Table IV, Series 48, A and B), and 8 and 47 per cent of the larve were killed. It is impossible satisfactorily to explain the differences in the larvi- cidal efficiency of the pyridine in the cage and open-pile experiments where the 1 to 500 dilutions were employed. Different samples of pyridine were used in these two tests, and as the conditions are very different at Arlington and New Orleans the exact larvicidal value of the 1 to 500 dilutions is uncertain. As the 1 to 1,500 is the only dilu- tion that is practical from a cost pomt of view and the larvicidal effect of this strength was low, this substance is hardly thought to be worthy of further consideration as a larvicide. The extremely disa- ereeable odor as well as the toxicity of pyridime makes its use in this work objectionable. PLANT MATERIAL TESTED. In looking for substances of an organic nature it seemed advisable to test material from several common plants and weeds, especial attention being given to those that are very abundant and therefore cheap. Dr. Alsberg suggested the use of plants contaiming saponin, corn cockle being named as a waste product containing considerable amounts of this compound. Agave, a saponin-containing plant growing abundantly in Texas and Florida, was obtained by Mr. W. D. Hunter and was tried in two experiments. Other plant material, some of which contains alkaloids, were also included in the investi- gation, namely, “blackleaf 40’? (an extract of tobacco), larkspur, hellebore, ox-eye daisy, pyrethrum, and stramonium. Corn cockle —Corn cockle (Agrostemma githago) is present in wheat screenings. The screenings used in this work contained about 43 per cent of corn cockle, and hemolytic tests‘! showed the presence of considerable saponin. Thescreenings were ground and then extracted with water for 12 hours. Nine cage experiments at Arlington, using extracts of the screenings containing from 0.3 of a pound to 5 pounds per 10 gallons, were tried, and the highest apparent larvicidal action was 49 per cent. These results varied markedly, and in certain cases no larvicidal effect was obtained. Many bacteriological and chemical analyses showed no change in the number of organisms or the compo- sition of the manure. Agave.—The roots of several agave or soapweed plants (Agave lechequilla) were macerated and water extracts prepared. Two and one-half pounds of the finely divided roots were extracted for 12 1 The hemolytic tests were made by Dr. C. S. Smith, of the Bureau of Chemistry. 14 BULLETIN 245, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. _ hours in 10 gallons of water. This extract was used in two cage experiments and showed a larvicidal action of 82 and 84 per cent. The manure was unaffected chemically, and the bacterial count on one of these samples was considerably higher than the control counts. ° “ Blackleaf 40.’’—“ Blackleaf 40,” an extract of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), contaiing 40 per cent of nicotine sulphate, is used to a considerable extent as an insecticide, and it seemed worth while to test its effect on fly larvee. It was tried in three cage experiments at Arlington, Va., diluted 1 to 50, 1 to 250, and 1 to 500. In none of these cases did it show any larvicidal action. Larkspur.—Ground seeds of larkspur (Delphinium) were tested, using solutions prepared by treating 1 pound of the ground seeds with 10 gallons of 1 per cent sulphuric acid and allowing them to extract for 12 hours. The extract was applied undiluted, diluted 1 to 5, and diluted 1 to 15. The apparent larvicidai effect varied from 57 to 90 per cent. The bacteria were not affected by the application of the undiluted extract, and the only change in the manure noted was a decrease of alkalinity due to the acid present in the extract added. Stramonium.—A sulphuric-acid extract of the ground leaves of stramonium (Datura stramonium) was prepared by mixing 1 pound of the ground dried leaves with 10 gallons of 1 per cent sulphuric acid and allowing this to stand for 12 hours. This extract was employed undiluted, diluted 1 to 5 and 1 to 15. The larvicidal results were not as satisfactory as those obtained above where lark- spur extracts were employed. The bacterial count on manure treated with the undiluted extract was lowered somewhat, and the reaction showed a slight reduction in alkalinity due to the sulphuric acid present in the extract applied. Hellebore.—Roots of hellebore (Veratrum album and Veratrum viride) were used both in a ground and in a powdered condition. As the following results will show, the powdered hellebore proved to be the more effective. Both 1 per cent sulphuric acid and water extracts of ground hellebore were used in cage experiments at Arlington (Table VI, Series 82, 92, 102, and 103), and the results indicate a high larvicidal action. DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARVA IN HORSE MANURE. 1D Tasie VI.—Destruction of fly larve in horse manure. Results with ground hellebore; cage experiments, Arlington, Va., 1914. Number Water extract. of bac- Nona teria per Alkalin- Treatment of 8 bushels Flies aa 1 gram | Manure, | ity, N/20 Nias Series. of manure, using 10 emerged.| vicidal | Manure, total HCl per | Water- NH gallons of liquid. oe effect calcu- | nitrogen. | 100c.c. | soluble P ae * | lated to (5 grams nitrogen. method dry (6) ; weight. manure). A | Hellebore (ground), 1 Per cent Per cent | Per cent pound to 10 gallons 1 of control of total | of total 8 per cent H2SO4, un- | Number. | average. | Millions. | Per cent. Gxc* nitrogen. | nitrogen. dilated ses). 22S... 10 94 423 0. 526 7.15 27.76 2.85 B | Same as foregoing, di- luted one-fifth......- 33 78 576 . 688 10. 25 24. 42 2.76 A | Control (water only). - 19D eee eas 506 . 695 P25, 28. 20 SE 87, 87, B ID@oeconéese5e00ece A | eee ees 498 618 15. 40 27.18 2.59 f IDO AOS SRCOS COREE a Gy leer eae Coos Se eemticicl SAS Grbeeae Gesos acess ranoaedes Control average....--- G0) 4 ene reas 6 eee A eeedorcore Mtaerbeics cesraenaa ltoocsactce A | Hellebore (ground), 1 pound to 10 gallons 1 92 er cent H2SO4, un- mbes eran a ateiel- 35 SOs ieee or oy . 456 7.50 27.19 2. 63 B | Same as foregoing, di- luted one-third...-.-. 18 94.3 236 - 470 6.15 23. 83 3. 40 A | Control (water only). - Dole aeaae aaa 29.8 . 863 9.15 29. 32 1.85 935 B IDO: aaa dansbocsanse SE by i eaaseGeace 12 1.45 13. 25 43. 72 3.25 C IDOsdesokontondeoKe G7 |Aeeeeace 159 - 905 14. 15 31.05 2.87 Control average... -.-..-- i fal Cee esas I aS | aoe ee RES Ser ool e ooh AA Gem eCa Her A | Hellebore (ground), 4 102 pound to 10 gallons 1 per cent H2S0O4.....- 315 OOM eRe eae. . 526 |(acid). 50 25. 67 2.85 B IDX) 6 sesecosecsbobe 267 Oe ee ll tare erected . 498 |(acid). 50 21. 49 3. 40 A | Hellebore (ground), 4 103 pound to 10 gallons water coUsebodEBeHes 58 Ueno asoodondod . 568 3. 50 QQ ON eee. 13} | IDES ateeehaaneson 39 OO | Beye peice 554 6.15 28. 34 1. 32 106 ie Control (water only). . AVARG I a or ate 19. 6 Bore 4,25 25. 00 2.10 B DOM = eicssesceias 1936 ))|| sete neces 27.1 . 561 4, 65 26. 02 1. 41 Control average See REE DaD UD Bree Mercia sees [evcececees|ecceceecec|ece ese ecee[eee eee ee es The water extract proved to be just as satisfactory as the acid extract. Table III, series 108 and 112, shows additional results from some cage experiments at New Orleans, in which the effectiveness appeared to be very low, but the results are of doubtful value for the same reasons pointed out on page 8. It is very difficult to explain why so little larvicidal effect was found in series 112 in view of the uniformly good results in other cages and open piles. Results from the application of water extracts of ground hellebore applied to open piles are shown in Table IV, series 44 to 48, inclusive. When used at the rate of one-fourth of a pound to 10 gallons, it had a variable larvicidal action, never above 50 per cent. At the rate of three-eighths of a pound to 10 gallons the results were, on the aver- age, somewhat higher, but none was above 70 per cent; at the rate of one-half pound to 10 gallons series 44, A and B, Table IV, showed 59 and 62 per cent action; 48, C and D, showed 44 and 62 per cent; and Table V, series 43, A and B, showed 99 per cent effectiveness. Powdered hellebore was used in several open-pile experiments at New Orleans, and the results, as shown in Tables IV and V, indicate that the application of one-half pound per 10 gallons was uniformly favorable, the percentages varying from 88 to 99, the average of 12 open-pile experiments being 95.5 per cent. With three-eighths or one-fourth pound of powdered hellebore to 10 gallons the larvicidal effects were lower but still showed considerable action. It is evident 16 BULLETIN 245, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that the larvicidal value varies with the amount of powdered helle- bore used, but when applied at the rate of one-half pound or more to 8 bushels of manure it will be efficient. It is not known how helle- bore acts as a larvicide. At present no information is available as to whether it has any effect on the eggs or pupzx of the house fly. The effects of the presence of fly maggots in a pile of manure is very strikingly shown by comparing figures 2 and 3 of Plate I. The pile treated with hellebore has remained normal in shape and appearance (PL. I, fig. 3), while the maggots have worked the untreated pile shown (Pl. I, fig. 2), the manure being finely divided and the pile scattered by the feeding and migration of the larve. The bacterial counts of manure in the cages (Table VI) treated with 1 per cent sulphuric-acid extracts of hellebore showed no bac- tericidal effects. The bacterial counts of the open piles (Table TV) did not show any consistent action, either stimulating or bactericidal. During the season’s work nitrites and nitrates were detected only in open-pile experiments 53, A, B, C, and D, which were treated with hellebore, and it is therefore apparent that the hellebore extract is not toxic to the nitrifying organisms in this environment. Three series of temperatures taken daily of control piles and those treated with pyrethrum, pyridine, and hellebore further indicated that there was no permanent injury to the bacteria present in the piles treated with the last substance. In the first series the tem- perature was 13° below the control on the second day, but on the third day was again the same as the control. Neither of the other series showed any depression of temperature at the start, and the piles seemed to undergo a normal fermentation, indicating, as do all the data, that the treatment with hellebore does not reduce the fertiliz- ing value of the manure. The chemical data on both the cage and open-pile experiments show that the manure was unaffected by the hellebore treatment. When 1 per cent sulphuric-acid extracts were used in the cage experi- ments at Arlington, a reduction in alkalinity due to the added acid was found. It is, therefore, evident that powdered hellebore can be applied, using one-half pound to 10 gallons of water, without injuring the fertilizing value of manure as determined by chemical and bacteriological examination. [urthermore, a laboratory test has shown that hellebore readily decomposes in manure. A sample of manure treated with hellebore at the rate of one-half pound per 8 bushels when tested microscopically and colorimetrically gave positive results, but after 30 days’ fermentation both were negative. The alkaloidal content of the commercial green and white hellebore is known to vary from about 0.2 per cent to 0.9 per cent of total alkaloids... In Table LV, series 53, the hellebore used was of known 1 Data obtained from Insecticide Laboratory, Bureau of Chemistry, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Bul. 245, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARVA IN HoRSE MANURE. Fic. 1.—Type of cage used for catching flies from treated manure piles. Fic. 2.—Settled and finely divided condition ofan untreated pile, heavily infested with maggots. F1a.3.—A hellebore-treated pile of same source and volume as figure 2. Hellebore, by preventing growth of fly maggots, prevented the disintegration of the heap. (Original.) DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARVE IN HORSE MANURE. 14 alkaloidal content; the two samples contained 0.25 and 0.41 per cent, respectively, and no differences in larvicidal action were evident. The powdered hellebore used in the other experiments at New Orleans contained 11.49 per cent of ash, 1.04 per cent of total nitro- gen, and about 0.2 per cent of total alkaloids. The ground hellebore used contained 29.39 per cent of ash, 1.08 per cent total nitrogen, and 0.2 per cent total alkaloids. It is therefore likely that commercial powdered hellebore of reasonable purity will be effective as a larvicide if applied as directed (p. 19). General discussion of hellebore.—There are three plants which are popularly called hellebore, namely, Veratrum album, Veratrum viride, and Helleborus niger. The term ‘‘hellebore” is correctly applied only to Helleborus niger, which grows in Europe and is not at the present time a commercial product in this country. The white and the green are the two commercial varieties, the white being largely imported, and the green the American plant. For insecticidal work these two varieties are considered equally valuable. The American hellebore (Veratrum viride), called ‘‘swamp hellebore,’” ‘‘Indian poke,” and ‘““itch-weed,’”’ is a common plant in wet ground and grows over a con- siderable area of the United States. The properties of this plant are _said to be similar to those of white hellebore. A number of alkaloids are claimed to have been separated from these two plants, but there is some uncertainty as to their identity and activity. Powdered hellebore, both the white and the green, is extensively used as an insec- ticide against the currant. worm and to kill various insects around the roots of plants. Both varieties of hellebore are used in medicine to some extent. OTHER PLANT MATERIAL. Oxeye daisy.—Tests were made with the ground flowers of the oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum), using 1 pound to 10 gal- lons of 1 per cent sulphuric acid. The material was extracted for 12 hours, and the extract was used undiluted and diluted 1 to 5. The larvicidal results were practically negative in both cases, but as the manure used in this experiment was lightly infested with larve and the results hardly warrant any definite conclusions. Bacteriological and chemical examinations were made of the manure treated with the undiluted extract. The bacterial count of the manure was some- what lower than the controls, while the only noticeable change in chemical composition was a decrease in the alkalinity due to the acid in the extract added. The oxeye daisy contains a volatile oil but no alkaloid has been found. ; Pyrethrum.—Pyrethrum (Crysanthemum cinerariaefolium) powder was tried and two results from open-pile tests at New Orleans show that solutions containing 0.5 pound per 10 gallons of water had no larvicidal action (Table V, series 52,C and D). Pyrethrum contains a volatile oil, and an alkaloid has been detected by one or two investigators. 245, BULLETIN 18 U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DISCUSSION OF DIAGRAM (FIG. 1). From the results of some open-pile experiments at New Orleans the ome of the more favor- volts al efficienc arative cost and larvicid comp (‘[VUISIIO) ‘s[BorUtoyo snorwA Aq OINUBU JO spOYSNd g JO JUOUT} VAI] OY JO 4SOd OATYVARACULOD PUB Joao [VPIOlAIv] SUTAOYS WBISEIGQ— | “DIT SLNIO N/LSOD fi bs Ses SLNIWSIASAXT ZSO FIVHIAY OO’ -/ .INITINY SLNIVIAIIXT 270 FIVAINY NOT7V9 O/ OL ONNOd 2 SWOS HO-HSIS ONY ONNOS #/.INTZNIGOULIN SLNIW/AIIXT 2 ASO FIVSIAV SNOTTK9 O/ OL SONDOS co. “XV HOF SZ WIW FIXI 270 FJOVATAY ” 'OO¢-/. INITINY SLNIWIATAXT 2 SO FOVASTNV ISVO77K© O/ OL ONNOS I YSYOS TIO-HSIA ONY ONNOA H4-INIZNIFGOULIN “SLNIW/IATAXT 21 SO FOVYIAY SNVO7T7T¥9 O/ OL GNNOdG BW. FHYOPGITIIH SLNINIGTAXT 2 SO FIVSFAV OOS-/.INIC/LAS ” SLNIW/IAFIAXT 2 SO FIVYSINY _SNO77¥9_O/ OL _GNNOd /:x¥¥OR ANID SIS — LIFSIST WOIDIAYYT oO able substances have been computed and are shown graphically in Most of these calculations are based on an average of but figure 1. DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARVH IN HORSE MANURE. 19 two experiments and are therefore to be regarded as only tentative. However, the results of the cage experiments are in general agreement with the findings as given in the diagram. It will be noted that the highest larvicidal effect was obtained with borax, using 1 pound to 8 bushels. The least expensive treatment was that with 0.62 pound of borax, although the larvicidal action was only 90 per cent. The next cheapest was hellebore, which costs 54 cents for one-half pound of the powdered roots, and the average of 12 experiments showed a larvicidal action of 95.5 per cent. The hellebore treatment at the foregoing rate costs more than that with 0.62 of a pound of borax but deen a ereater efficiency. In comparing the cost we have assumed that borax can be obtained at 5 to 6 cents per pound in 100-pound lots and that hellebore can be purchased at 11 cents per pound in like amounts. The price of both is subject to considerable variation. The results in general indicate that the larvicidal action varies with the amounts used, except in the case of nitrobenzene, where the value seems to depend on the pro- portions of nitrobenzene and soap in the emulsion. It will be noted that pyridine and aniline, when used in amounts sufficient to kill a high percentage of the larve, are quite expensive, and for this reason their use can not be considered practical. APPLICATION OF HELLEBORE TO MANURE. Powdered hellebore should be mixed with water at the rate of one-half pound to 10 gallons and the solution thoroughly stirred and allowed to stand for several hours in a barrel or other container. In order to obtain the most satisfactory results, the manure should be sprinkled with the foregoing solution immediately on removal from the barn. The sprinkling may be done with a watering can or similar device, using 10 gallons to 8 bushels of manure, taking care that all of the hellebore comes in contact with the manure and paying particular attention to the outer edges of the pile. In estimating the amount of solution to be employed it may be assumed that 2 bushels of manure per horse is the daily output of the stable. This is a liberal estimate, and in many stables the daily output is much less. EFFECT OF HELLEBORE ON PLANTS AND CHICKENS. During November, 1914, a series of tests was started at both Baton Rouge and New Orleans, La., to determine whether hellebore, when applied in considerable amounts, exerts injurious effects on plant growth. The plants grown included cabbage, lettuce, oats, turnips, radishes, potatoes, wheat, and mustard, half of each plat being fertilized with hellebore-treated manure, and the other half receiving untreated manure. At the present time no injurious 20 BULLETIN 245, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. effect is noticeable from the experiments at either New Orleans or Baton Rouge. The cooperation of Mr. George L. Tiebout, of the Louisiana Experi- ment Station, Baton Rouge, and of Mr. W. G. Taggart, of the Audubon Park Sugar Station, New Orleans, in connection with these tests was of great assistance. As chickens and other farm animals are known to peck at, or consume, certain parts of manure, tests were made by Mr. E. R. Barber, placing hellebore-treated manure in coops with chickens and using as controls chickens in a coop with untreated manure. Thirty-eight one-hundredths of a pound of powdered hellebore was mixed with 4 bushels of manure and placed in one coop with four chickens, and every three days another lot of the manure similarly treated was placed in this coop. The manure which was used contained fly maggots, consequently the chickens were eager to peck through it. In addition, the chickens, in both cases, were fed on cracked corn and were given fresh water. The appearance of the chickens was noted daily, and the test has been conducted for several weeks with no apparent ill effect due to hellebore. SUMMARY. The larvicidal efficiency of both inorganic and organic substances was tested and bacteriological and chemical examinations of horse manure to which many of these substances were applied are reported. The following inorganic ‘substances were tried: Arsenical dip. | Lime-sulphur. Chlorid of lime. Sulphuric acid. Epsom salts. | Of these substances arsenical dip was the only one which when used in amounts considered practical destroyed the larve of the house fly. Because of its poisonous nature the use of arsenical dip as a larvicide is not recommended. The following organic substances were tested: Aniline. Formaldehyde. Beta-naphthol. Nitrobenzene. Cresylic acid. Oxalic acid. Para-dichlorobenzene. Pyridine. Aniline, pyridine, and nitrobenzene, when used in certain dilu- tions, gave satisfactory larvicidal results, but the cost precludes their use. The larvicidal action of the following plant materials was tested: Plant material containing saponin— Corn cockle (Agrostemma githago). Agave (Agave lechegquilla). DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARVZ IN HORSE MANURE, 21 Plant material containing alkaloids— ‘Black leaf 40’’—tobacco extract (Nicotiana tubacum). Larkspur (Delphinium). Stramonium (Datura stramonium). Hellebore ( Veratrum album and Veratrum viride). Other plant material— Oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum). Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium). Powdered hellebore proved the most efficient and practical of all the substances tested. COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES OF BORAX AND HELLEBORE. Borax, which was shown in Bulletin No. 118 to be an effective larvicide, is obtainable in all parts of the country, and the cost of treating manure at the rate of 0.62 pound of borax per 8 bushels is 0.42 cent per bushel. Powdered hellebore, using one-half pound to 10 gallons of water and applying this to 8 bushels of manure, is also an effective larvicide and exerts no injurious action on the fertilizing value of the manure as determined by bacteriological and chemical analyses, and no injurious action on plants has been detected in any of the field tests. Hellebore is used as an insecticide and is obtainable in most cities and agricultural districts. The cost of this treatment is 0.69 cent per bushel of manure. ; While borax may be applied to manure at the foregoing rate and the treated manure may be added to the soil at the rate of 15 tons to the acre without injuring vegetation, nevertheless excessive quantities of borax may be applied to manure through carelessness, and injury to vegetation may in consequence result. In the light of this year’s experiments it seems advisable to recommend borax as a larvicide for the treatment of outhouses, refuse piles, and all other places where flies may deposit eggs. However, on account of the possible carelessness previously mentioned, and because large quantities of manure are sometimes used by truck growers, it seems best to guard against pos- sible injury to vegetation by recommending powdered hellebore for the treatment of manure, since no injury can arise from the use of excessive quantities, as it is entirely decomposed in the course of the fermentation of the manure. 22 BULLETIN 245, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - LITERATURE CITED. AmeErRIcAN Pusiic HEALTH ASSOCIATION, LABORATORY SECTION. 1912. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Sewage. 2ded. New York, Amer. Pub. Health Assoc., 144 p. (Cover title: Standard Methods of Water Analysis. A. P. H. A. 1912.) Buppin, WALTER. 1914. Partial sterilization of soil by volatile and nonvolatile antiseptics. Jn Jour. Agr. Sci., v. 6, pt. 4, p. 417-451, Dec. CHarPin, R. M. 1914. Arsenical cattle dips. Methods of preparation and directions for use. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 603, 16 p., 1 fig., Aug. 14. (Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry.) Cook, F. C., Hutcuison, R. H., and Scauzs, F. M. 1914. Experiments on the destruction of fly larvee in horse manure. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bul. 118, 26 p., 4 pl., July 14. (Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology.) Duckett, A. B. 1915. Para-dichlorobenzene as an insect fumigant. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bul. 167, 7p.,2 pl., Feb. 10. 4 Foun, Otto, and Macatuum, A. B. 1912. On the determination of ammonia in urine. Jn Jour. Biol. Chem., v. 11, no. 5, p. 523-525, June. See p. 523. Howarp, L. O. 1911. The House Fly—Disease Carrier. New York, Frederick A. Stokes Co., 312 p., illus. See p. 196 and 197. Russe tL, E. J., and Bupprn, WALTER. 1913. The action of antiseptics in increasing the growth of crops in soil. Jn Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus., v. 32, no. 24, p. 11386-1142, Dec. 31. Wirey, Harvey W., Editor. 1908. Official and provisional methods of analysis, Association of Official Agri- cultural Chemists. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem., Bul. 107 rev., 272 p. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1915 BULLETIN OF THE 2) USDEPARIMENT OPACRICULTURE ©, No. 246 Contribution from the Office of Public Roads, Logan Waller Page, Director. July 24, 1915. VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. By VERNON M. Peirce, Chief of Construction, and CHARLES H. MOooREFIELD, Senior Highway Engineer. CONTENTS. Page. Page. introduction ss2=— te 1 | Cost of brick pavements_______---_ 19 PRneRrAaW aM aerials. ss tT eee 2 | Maintenance for brick pavements_-—_ 20 MHepmanuracture;- 2252. et es Sr peConclusions 2.20.22 ae 21 Physical characteristics ___________ ay WeNayoveratotbe pee 22 Constnuctionj= 226s = er ee feel £3 Hil fae Ny 0) oY 23 4X0 bb, gah) 33a ee Se i eee 31 INTRODUCTION. A clay product closely resembling our present-day brick was among the earliest materials used for paving streets and roads. The first brick pavement constructed in this country, however, dates back no further than 1872, and to Charleston, W. Va., belongs the dis- tinction of having been the first American city to employ brick for paving. For a number of years after being introduced into this country the use of paving brick was principally confined to city streets, and, owing to frequent inferiority in the quality of the brick and lack of care in construction, very few of the early pavements proved satis- factory. Even now, after the experience of 40 years has demon- strated that it is entirely practicable to construct satisfactory brick pavements when proper care is exercised, and that much waste results from the use of poor materials or faulty construction, in- stances can frequently be found where comparatively new brick pavements have wholly or partially failed from causes which might easily have been prevented. Country roads paved with vitrified brick are becoming quite com- mon in many of our States, and, owing to the general satisfaction om Si 2 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, which these roads are giving when properly constructed, it is prob- able that their mileage will continue to increase rapidly. The prin- cipal advantages which brick roads possess may be stated briefly, as follows: (1) They are durable under practically all traffic condi- tions; (2) they afford easy traction and moderately good foothold for horses; and (3) they are easily maintained and kept clean. The principal disadvantage is the high first cost. The defects which frequently result from lack of uniformity in the quality of the brick or from poor construction are usually to be traced indi- rectly to an effort to reduce the first cost or to a popular feeling that local materials should be used, even when of inferior quality. This bulletin purposes to furnish information relating to the con- struction of brick roads and to supply suggestions for aiding engi- neers in preparing specifications under which such work may be satis- factorily performed. One of the most essential features of the con- struction of brick pavements is the selection of the brick, since the success or failure of such pavements depends to a large extent on the character of the material used. In order that the significance of the varying physical characteristics observed in brick manufactured under different conditions may be more readily understood, a brief discussion of the raw materials and processes used in the manufacture of brick will be given. THE RAW MATERIALS. Paving brick are made from shales and fire clays. The “lean” or less refractory varieties of these materials, which are found in the carboniferous deposits broadly distributed throughout the United States, are best adapted for this purpose. Shales frequently occur in such quantity and are so located that they may be readily excavated by means of a steam shovel or other mechanical device. Occasionally the deposits are comparatively thin and underlie other material, making it necessary that they be mined. Fire clays are usually found interstratified with coal deposits which may or may not be workable, and must, therefore, generally be mined. The principal difference between fire clays and shales, in so far as the manufacture of brick is concerned, is essen- tially a difference of color in the finished product. The shales always contain iron in some form, and brick made of shale are usually red. Fire clays are free from iron and should produce a light-colored brick. Some low-grade fire clays, however, may be darkened by cer-. tain firing conditions too complicated to be discussed in detail here. Shales and fire clays as they occur in nature are not always well suited for use in the manufacture of paving brick, but must fre- quently be subjected to some modifying treatment before being used. In general, deposits of these materials occur in layers or strata, and VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 3 the different strata are almost always slightly dissimilar in both physical and chemical composition. By carefully mixing the mate- rials from different strata or from different parts of the bank, there- fore, a resulting material of the desired character may usually be obtained. But it not infrequently happens that in order to secure the best results sand or surface clay must be added in an amount depending on the relative “leanness” or “ fatness”? of the material used. In this connection it may be noted, also, that a chemical analysis of a given fire clay or shale does not necessarily indicate its fitness or unfitness for paving brick. The reason for this is that the quality of the brick after “ firing ” is no less dependent on the physical arrangement of the minerals than on the chemical composition of the material. THE MANUFACTURE. The general processes of manufacture are the same for both fire clays and shale. The raw material in either case is crushed to com- paratively small fragments and conveyed by some convenient means to a grinding machine, known in the industry as a dry pan. Briefly, this machine consists of a solid iron plate, approximately 5 feet in diameter, surrounded by a perforated iron surface about 2 feet wide. Outside the perforated surface is a rim some 15 inches in height which serves to prevent the material from escaping otherwise than through the perforations. Upon the solid plate rest two massive crushers or mullers, each weighing from 24 to 3 tons. The pan is revolved rapidly, causing the mullers to rotate by friction. The material is ground between the mullers and the plate and thrown out by cen- trifugal force toward the rim, where it escapes through the per- forated surface into an elevator, by means of which it is conveyed to the screens. The particles too large to pass the screens, which should not exceed three-sixteenths inch in mesh, are returned to the dry pan, while the screened material is passed to the mixing machine or pug mill by means of conveyors. In the pug mill, water is admixed with the clay to form a stiff mud, which is fed continuously into the brick machine proper. The brick machine is an extremely heavy mechanism. It con- sists essentially of an auger or propeller conveyer, a tapering barrel, and the die or former. The material is forced by means of the auger conveyer into the tapering barrel, which terminates in the die, and issues from the die in a solid column under heavy pressure. For “side-cut” brick this column is approximately 44 inches by 10 1“Teanness”’ and “‘fatness” refer respectively to the lesser or greater amount of Silicate present in the material, 4. ° BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. inches in cross section, and the brick are formed by cutting through the column, by means of an automatic device, at intervals of about 34 inches. For “end-cut” brick the column has a cross section approximately 4 inches by 43 inches and is cut into sections about 10 inches long. Paving brick, whether end or side cut, have usually in the past been re-pressed. This process smooths the surfaces, rounds the cor- ners, and forms on one side of each brick small lugs which serve to produce uniform spacing between the successive courses of the pavement. Suitable lugs may also be formed at the time the brick are cut, and the process of re-pressing is then omitted. Much dis- cussion has taken place as to which of these methods produces the better brick, and each method has many advocates. Entirely satis- factory pavements have been made from both re-pressed and unre- pressed brick under widely different conditions, and it is very doubt- — ful if the failures which have been observed in connection with either type could rightfully be attributed to this particular feature in the process of manufacture. Special shapes, such as nose brick for use next to car tracks, and hillside block, which have one side thicker than the other and which are used on steep grades in order to give the pavement a rough sur- face, may be made either by special die or special re-press molds. The next step in the process of manufacture consists in drying the brick. In a properly systematized plant the brick are stacked upon drier cars as they leave the presses in such manner as to permit a free circulation of air between them. The loaded cars are imme- diately run into a tunnel dryer, the temperature of which is main- tained at about 100° F. at the entering end. As cars containing “oreen” brick enter one end of the tunnel, which is usually more than 100 feet long, other cars containing dry brick are being removed at the opposite end. Air circulation in the dryer is effected by means of fans or high stacks. During drying the brick lose an amount of moisture equivalent to from 15 to 20 per cent of their own weight. The brick leave the dryer ready for burning, which is the last and undoubtedly the most important step in the process of manufacture. Upon the burning depends largely the quality of the finished product, and it requires the greatest skill so to regulate the temperatures and firing periods as to obtain the best results from a given material. Experience alone can demonstrate the manner in which the burning must be modified in order to suit varying sets of conditions. The kilns in which the burning is done are made of brick and are provided with numerous furnaces. The brick are placed in the kilns so as to permit a free circulation of the gases of combustion and the heated air. VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 5 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS. Paving brick should be uniform in size, reasonably perfect in shape, free from ragging, due to friction in the die, and from deep kiln marks, caused by impressions from overlying brick in burning. They should be tough in order to resist crushing, hard in order to resist abrasion, and uniformly graded in order that the pavement may wear evenly. Each brick should be homogeneous in texture and free from objectionable laminations or seams. Fire cracks, caused by too rapid firing, should be limited in numiber and extent, and the entire brick should be vitrified and should contain neither unfused nor glassy spots. COLOR. / The color is a valuable guide in inspecting brick from the same plant, but it is of little importance when the brick to be compared are from different factories. For brick manufactured from a particu- lar raw material the color indicates, in a measure, the temperature to which they have been subjected, provided they have been burned under identical conditions. Ordinarily, the darker the color, the higher the temperature and, presumably, the better the brick. The surface color of brick may be very misleading, however, and the color of the interior should be used in making comparisons. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. The specific gravity of paving brick was formerly considered of importance in judging their fitness for use in pavements. But it has since been generally conceded that a knowledge of the specific gravity is of comparatively little value. The specific gravity of shale brick is ordinarily between 2.20 and 2.40, and of fire-clay brick between 2.10 and 2.25. ABSORPTION. The absorptive power of brick, like their color, is a matter of very slight importance, except for comparing specimens manufactured under identical conditions. It is true that the porosity of the brick increases with the power of absorption, but it is very doubtful if any paving brick possessing an objectionably high absorptive power could pass even a very casual inspection. In other words, a high degree of porosity always manifests itself in other ways more clearly than i in the ability of the brick to absorb water. CRUSHING STRENGTH. The crushing strength of good paving brick varies from 10,000 pounds to 20,000 pounds per square inch when the load is applied 6 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. uniformly over the entire top surface of the test specimen, and may be much greater if the area over which the load is applied is less than that of the top surface. Since paving brick in use are seldom required to withstand a pressure of more than about 2,000 pounds per square inch, and since inferior brick may possess relatively very high resist- ance to crushing, a knowledge of the crushing strength is clearly of little value in comparing the relative excellence of different makes of brick. It is, therefore, usually considered unnecessary to specify a definite requirement as to the crushing strength of paving brick. TESTING THE BRICK. Definite methods of testing paving brick have been in general use for only a comparatively few years and have only recently under- gone a pronounced change. The object of all tests is to determine whether or not a given quality of brick is suitable for use in con- structing pavements and to furnish a basis for comparing different classes of brick. The methods have, therefore, been repeatedly changed, not only in order to make the results obtained indicate more definitely the quality of the brick, but also with a view to establish- ing uniformity, so that results obtained in different laboratories may be intelligently compared. A discussion of the most important tests follows in more or less detail. FIELD TEST. The general appearance of a paving brick is, to an experienced eye, a valuable indication of its quality and will frequently suggest the advisability of applying routine tests to some particular part of a shipment. Unfortunately the knowledge gained from experience with one kind of brick can not be safely relied upon in inspect- ing other brick made by a different process or from a diilerent class of raw material. A further limitation to this method of testing lies in the fact that the results obtained do not admit of numerical evaluation, and can not, therefore, be very accurately described. This test is nevertheless valuable, and since no apparatus other than a hand hammer is needed, it can always be employed. The test consists simply in making a careful inspection of the brick individually and collectively. The size is tested by making measurements, the shape by arranging a number of brick in the order in which they are intended to be placed, and the quality by an exami- nation of both the exterior and interior of a number of samples. TRANSVERSE TEST. The transverse strength of a brick is determined by supporting it upon two knife edges and applying a load on the opposite side and VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 7 midway between the supports by means of a third knife edge. The load is gradually increased until rupture occurs, and the result of ‘ Sigoueds the test is expressed in terms of the ratio Dhqz? Called the modulus of rupture. In the above ratio P represents the breaking load in pounds, while /, 0, and d represent, respectively, the distance between supports, the breadth of the specimen, and the depth of the specimen, all measured in inches. The modulus of rupture for good paving brick usually hes between 2,000 and 3,000 pounds per square inch, and frequently varies con- siderably even with carefully selected specimens which have been manufactured under identical conditions. RATTLER OR ABRASION TEST. The rattler or abrasion test is undoubtedly the most important of the tests made on paving brick at present. In making this test the specimen brick are subjected to destructive influences very similar to those encountered in actual service, and the results obtained, there- fore, indicate very closely the effect which traffic may be expected to produce on a pavement constructed of similar brick. The methods of making the test, of which there were formerly a great many, have undergone repeated changes in order that service conditions may be more nearly approached, and also in an effort to bring about uni- formity, so that the results obtained may be of the greatest possible scientific value. The method which is now proposed by the sub- committee on paving brick of the American Society for Testing Materials may be briefly described as follows: The apparatus necessary for making the test, ordinarily called the rattler, consists of a 14-sided barrel of regular polygonal cross section supported on a suitable frame and fitted with the necessary driving mechanism. The staves, each of which forms a side of the barrel, are made of 6-inch 15.5-pound structural steel channels 274 inches long. ‘These staves are double bolted to the cast-iron heads of the barrel, which are provided with slotted flanges for holding the bolts. Cast-iron wear plates are bolted to the inside of the barrel heads. The inside diameter of the barrel is 282 inches. In this barrel is placed what is known as the abrasive charge. This charge consists of two sizes of cast-iron spheres having respec- tive diameters of 32 inches and 1% inches and weighing, respectively, 7.5 pounds and 0.95 pound when new. Ten of the larger spheres are used, and the number of the smaller spheres is made such that the weight of the entire charge will approximate 300 pounds. The individual larger spheres are discarded whenever their weight falls to 7 pounds or less and the smaller spheres when they become sufli- 8 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ciently worn by usage to pass through a circular opening having a diameter of 12 inches. The test is made by placing a charge of 10 dry brick in the barrel, together with the abrasive charge, and then revolving the barrel 1,800 times. The number of revolutions per minute is not permitted to fall below 293 nor to exceed 303, and the operation is made con- tinuous from start to finish. The results of the test are reckoned in terms of the loss in weight sustained by the brick, and this loss is expressed as a percentage of the original weight of the brick tested. In determining the loss in weight, no piece of brick which weighs less than 1 pound is consid- ered as havi ing withstood the test. Good paving brick will ordinarily lose from 18 per cent to 24 per cent of their original weight in the rattler test, and specifications con- cerning this loss should be prepared with a view to the character of the traffic for which the pavement is designed. It is also advisable to require a minimum as well as a maximum percentage of loss which any specified sample of the brick may sus- tain. ‘This is done in order to insure against too much variation between the softest acceptable brick and the hardest brick which may be supplied. CONSTRUCTION. PREPARING THE ROADBED. In forming a roadbed upon which a brick pavement is to be con- structed, the essential features to be considered are (1) thorough drainage, (2) firmness, (8) uniformity in grade and cross section, and (4) adequate shoulders. Thorough drainage can be secured for any particular road only by means of a careful study of the local conditions which affect the accumulation and “run-off” of both the surface and ground water. These conditions vary considerably even in the same locality, and no set of rules can be given which would cover all cases. For example, the material composing the roadbed may be springy, and in this case tile underdrains will probably be necessary. On the other hand, extremely flat topography may make it necessary to elevate the grade considerably above the surrounding land. The nature of the soil, the topography, and the rainfall must all be considered if a system of drainage is to be planned properly. The second requirement, firmness, can be secured only after the road has been properly drained. Soils which readily absorb moisture can not be properly drained in wet weather and should not be per- mitted to form a part of the subgrade. In order that the subgrade may be unyielding, it is also necessary that the roadbed be thoroughly compacted. In forming embankments the material should be put VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 9 down in layers not over 8 inches thick, and each layer should be thoroughly rolled. In excavation care should be exercised, if the material is earth, not to permit plows or scrapers to penetrate below the subgrade. The subgrade in both excavation and embankment should be brought to its final shape by means of fine grading with picks and shovels and rolling. When completed the subgrade should be uniform in grade and cross section, otherwise the foundation must be made unnecessarily thick where depressions occur, in order that its grade and cross section may be uniform and its thickness not less at any point than that required. The subgrade should be repeatedly rolled and re- shaped until the desired shape is secured. If curbs are constructed independent of the base they should be set before the final finishing, in order that they may be made to serve as a guide for this work. The shoulders should never be less than 4 feet wide and should consist of some material which compacts readily under the roller and does not readily absorb water. Not infrequently one of the shoulders is made sufficiently wide to form an earth roadway parallel to the brick pavement. Such an arrangement serves to relieve the pave- ment of considerable traffic during favorable seasons and also affords some advantage to horse-drawn traffic. The general method of con- structing shoulders for brick roads is not essentially different from that employed for other types of pavements. CURBING. All brick pavements should be suppled with strong, durable curbing, both on the sides and at the ends. Otherwise the marginal brick will soon become displaced by the action of traffic, and their displacement will, of course, expose the brick next adjoining, so that deterioration might eventually spread cver the entire pavement. Properly constructed curbing, on the other hand, will hold the pave- ment as in a frame and enable the brick to present their combined resistance to the destructive influences of traffic. Satisfactory curbs may be constructed of stone, Portland cement concrete, or vitrified clay shapes made especially for this purpose. Wood has also been used for curbs to a limited extent, but when it is considered that the hfe of a brick pavement under ordinary condi- tions should far exceed the life of any wood curb which might be devised, the economy of employing a more durable material is readily apparent. | Stone curbing may be made from any hard, tough stone which is sufficiently homogeneous and free from seams to admit being quar- ried into blocks not less than 4 feet long, 5 inches thick, and 18 inches deep. On account of their ordinarily homogeneous structure, 92742°—15 ») ad 10 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. granite and sandstone are probably more used for curbs than any other kind of stone. All stone curbing should be hauled, distributed, and set before the subgrade is completed. The individual blocks should be not less than about 4 feet long, except at closures, and should ordinarily have a depth of from 16 to 24 inches, depending on soil conditions and on whether the curb is to project above the surface, forming one side of the gutter. The neat thickness need never be greater than 8 inches and, where the traffic conditions are not severe and the quality of the stone is good, a thickness of 6 inches will ordinarily prove satisfactory. Stone curb should always be set on a firm bed of gravel, slag, or broken stone, not less than 3 inches thick, or on unusually firm earth, and should be provided with a backing of the WITRIFILD BRICK FIG. lp roper method of ighetae stone curb. same material on the shoulder or sidewalk side. Figure 1 shows a typical stone curb in place. Where suitable stone is not readily available or when from any cause the cost of stone curbing would prove excessive, a curb con- structed of Portland cement concrete may frequently be advan- tageously used. Concrete curbs may be constructed alone or in com- bination with either a concrete gutter or a concrete foundation. When constructed alone they should have approximately the same cross-sectional dimensions as stone curbs and should be constructed in sections about 8 to 10 feet in length. Figures 2 and 3 and Plate I show the three common types of concrete curbs. Vitrified clay curbing should be set in much the same manner as that described for stone curbing. The principal additional require- ment is that, since vitrified clay is a lighter material than stone and VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 11 the curb sections are ordinarily shorter, the bedding must be made correspondingly more secure in order to prevent displacement. THE FOUNDATION OR BASE. A firm, unyielding foundation is one of the most essential features of a brick pavement. This fact can be more readily appreciated when it is considered that the surface of a brick pavement is made up of small individual blocks, any one of. which might be easily forced down, causing unevenness in the surface, if the foundation were poor; and since the ability of the pavement to resist wear depends very largely on the smoothness of the surface, every reasonable precaution should be taken to prevent any unevenness from developing. The proper type of foundation or base depends largely on the mate- rial composing the subgrade and the character of traffic for which the Fic, 2.—Conecrete curb and gutter combined. road is designed. Where the traflic is comparatively light and the subgrade is composed of some firm material which does not readily absorb water, a very satisfactory base may be constructed of broken stone. Where the traffic is comparatively heavy or where the material composing the subgrade is at all unstable, a monolithic concrete base should be used. Bases consisting of a course of brick laid fiat upon a previously compacted layer of gravel or broken stone have sometimes been used, and pavements constructed upon bases of this kind, ordinarily called “ double-layer’ pavements, have in gen- eral proved satisfactory. At the present time, however, such bases can rarely be constructed at less cost than the more durable concrete bases, and they will therefore be given no further consideration here. Broken-stone bases should be from 6 to 8 inches thick after com- pacting and should be constructed in two or more courses just as in 12 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the case of first-class macadam roads. The materials used should con- form in all respects to the ordinary requirements for similar mate- rials used in constructing such roads; that is, the stone should be clean, hard, tough, and durable, and should be graded in size between certain reasonable, fixed limits. It should be uniformly spread on the road, either from dumping boards by means of shovels or from wagons especially designed to spread the material as it is being dumped. Where whole loads are dumped in one place and then spread out to the required depth, it is very difficult to obtain uni- form density. Usually those spots where the loads are dumped are more densely compacted than the rest of the base, and this lack of uniformity very soon manifests itself by producing unevenness in the y SST S/S S/S WRIT Yy. HSI WAVE Y SUS YS USS) S/S. S/S) Fig. 3.—Making provision for expansion joint. surface of the pavement. Broken stone should be compacted in the usual manner by rolling the base with a power roller weighing not less than about 10 tons, and sufficient clean stone chips to fill the voids should be spread and flushed into the base while the rolling is in progress. When complete the base should present a surface uni- form in grade and cross section and parallel to the proposed surface of the finished pavement. Concrete bases are unquestionably better adapted for brick pave- ments than any other type. They are practically monolithic in form, nearly impervious to water, and possess a relatively high crushing strength. All of these qualities may be obtained with a relatively “lean” conerete if the subgrade has been properly prepared. Under VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 13 ordinary circumstances a satisfactory base may be constructed of concrete composed of 1 part of Portland cement, 3 parts of sand, and from 5 to 7 parts of broken stone or screened gravel. The sand should be clean and well graded in size, and the stone or gravel should conform to the usual requirements for coarse aggregate to be used in concrete construction. Foundations for brick pavements have also been constructed of planks laid on sand, and in some instances of sand alone. These foundations have seldom proved satisfactory for any great length of time, and can, therefore, be economically used only when the pavement is to be constructed of an inferior grade of brick. SAND CUSHION. Since it is practically impossible to construct an absolutely smooth base, and since there is always a slight variation in the size of pav- ing brick, owing to slight differences in the amount of shrinkage at the time of burning, it is necessary to provide an adjustable cushion of some kind between the base and the brick for correcting these slight irregularities, in order to secure an even surface and a uniform bearing for the brick. Sand has been found a most satisfactory material of which to construct this cushion, and is almost exclusively used for this purpose. The proper thickness for the sand cushion will of course depend on the extent of the inequalities above mentioned. Two inches is the most usual thickness, and has generally proved very satisfactory. One and one-half inches, however, is in many cases entirely sufficient. The sand used in the cushion should be moderately clean and free from pebbles. If dirt or vegetable matter is present, it will soon be leached out and cause unevenness to develop in the pavement, while pebbles prevent the brick from securing a uniform bearing and ulti- mately produce the same result. It is also important that the sand should be dry when spread, especially if it is fine, because a compara- tively small amount of moisture increases the volume of fine sand con- siderably, and moisture when present is not, as a rule, uniformly distributed. Even if it were uniformly distributed at the start, some spots would dry out more rapidly than others while the spreading was under way, and a lack of uniformity would thus be produced in the cushion. In forming the cushion the sand is uniformly spread over the base to a depth slightly in excess of that desired, and is then smoothed off by drawing over it a template shaped to conform with the cross sec- tion of the finished pavement. The length of the template is ordi- narily made equal to the width of the pavement where this is less than about 25 feet, and equal to half the width for wider pavements. Timber guides may be laid in the same direction as the pavement for 14 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the template to slide on, or the curbs may be made to serve as guides where this is convenient. After the cushion is spread and uniformly “struck off” with the template to a depth slightly in excess of that required, it should be thoroughly compacted by rolling with a hand roller weighing from 300 to 400 pounds, and any depressions which form should be cor- rected. This is necessary in order to secure uniform density and to prevent unequal settlement of the surface. HANDLING AND LAYING THE BRICK. The brick may all be hauled and piled at convenient intervals along the sides of the roadway before grading is begun, or, if more convenient, they may be delivered as needed on the work. Hauling over the finished pavement with wagons until it is complete and opened to traffic should be avoided. If the brick are delivered on the work as needed, they should be unloaded from the wagons outside of the curb and carried to the pavers, either by hand or in wheelbar- rows. Plank trackways should also be provided over the newly laid pavement for the wheelbarrows when they are used. The brick should in all cases be uniformly piled by hand on the new pavement conveniently close for the pavers, and each brick should be so placed that the regular operation of picking it up and placing it in the pavement will bring the best edge up. This method of handling the brick requires somewhat more labor than the common method of dumping them from wheelbarrows, but it eliminates to a great extent the practice of picking out and turning over chipped or kiln-marked brick after the pavement is laid. This is very objectionable on ac- count of the disarrangement of the sand cushion, which is frequently occasioned. The brick should be laid on edge and in uniform courses, running at right angles to the line of the pavement, except at intersections; and in order to “ break the joints” each alternate course should begin with a half brick. In laying the brick the pavers stand on the pave- ment already laid and, beginning at the curb each time, carry across as many courses together as they can conveniently reach. The courses should be kept straight and close together, and, if necessary, each block of eight or ten courses may be driven back by means of a light sledge and a piece of straight timber approximately 2 by 4 inches by 5 or 6 feet long, though no heavy driving should be permitted. The brick should also be laid close together in the courses. After the brick are laid the pavement should be carefully inspected, for the purpose of detecting soft or otherwise defective brick. Mis- shapen or broken brick may be detected by the eye alone, and the soft brick by sprinkling the pavement with water. The soft brick appear comparatively dry while the water is being applied and compara- VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 15 tively wet after the sprinkling is stopped. All defective brick should of course be replaced by others which meet the requirements of the specifications. TRUING THE SURFACE. After the pavement has been laid and all defective brick have been replaced to the satisfaction of the engineer, the next step is to sweep the surface clean, and smooth out all inequalities by means of ramming and rolling. The rolling should be done with a power roller weighing from 3 to 5 tons, and the pavement should ordi- narily be rolled in both longitudinal and diagonal directions. The longitudinal rolling should be done first, and should begin at the curbs and progress toward the crown. The roller should pass at least twice over every part of the pavement in each direction. In order to neutralize any tendency which the brick may have to careen under the roller, the number of forward trips over any part of the pavement should equal the number of trips backward over the same part. In places where it is impracticable to use the roller for truing the surface—such, for example, as along the curbs or concrete gutters cr around manholes—the brick should be brought to a true surface by means of ramming. For this purpose a wooden rammer loaded with lead and weighing from 80 to 100 pounds may be used. The blows of the rammer should not fall directly upon the brick, but should be transmitted through a 2-inch board laid parallel to the curb, After the pavement has been trued up, as described above,’ it should be inspected again for broken or otherwise damaged brick, and also for those which have settled excessively, owing to some lack of uniformity in the sand cushion. All defects should be cor- rected, and the areas disturbed in making the corrections should be brought to a true surface by tamping or rolling. FILLING THE JOINTS. In order to keep the brick in proper position and protect the edges from chipping it is necessary to fill the joints with some suit- able material before the road is opened to traffic. The materials which have in the past been most commonly used for this purpose are sand, various bituminous preparations, and a grout made of equal parts of Portland cement and fine sand mixed with water. Sand is the least expensive of these materials, but there are sev- eral very serious objections to its use as a joint filler: (1) It does not protect the edges of the brick; (2) it is easily disturbed in clean- ing the pavement and is likely to be washed out by rain on steep 16 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. grades; (3) it does not entirely prevent water from penetrating through to the foundation; and (4) it does not bond the individual brick together and so enable them to present a concerted resistance to traffic. The bituminous fillers vary considerably in quality and efficiency, but all are more or less unsatisfactory. One of the principal objec- tions to their use is based on their tendency to run out of the joints into the gutters during warm weather and to crack and spall out during cold weather. This tendency can, of course, be partially overcome by exercising proper care in selecting the materials. It should also be noted in their favor that brick pavements, the joints of which have been filled with bituminous preparations, are ordi- narily less noisy at first than those in which a Portland cement grout filler has been used. The grout filler is unquestionably very much superior from a standpoint of durability, however, and the excessive noise under traflic which has been frequently observed in connection with its use can be largely eliminated by the use of proper bituminous expansion cushions along the curbs. It is, therefore, recommended as better adapted for filling the joints in brick pavements than any other material which has been commonly used for that purpose. When the joints of a brick pavement are properly filled with Portland cement grout the individual brick are firmly bonded to- gether and the pavement is thereby practically converted into a monolith. Moreover, since the material composing the joints scarcely wears more rapidly than the brick, the edges of the brick are well protected, and the importance of this feature has already been pointed out. The most satisfactory method yet devised for mixing and applying the grout filler may be described as follows: Grout boxes, constructed in such manner that when resting on a level platform one corner will be lower than the others, should first be provided. A suitable design for such boxes is shown in Plate IJ. The number of boxes required depends on the width of the pavement; ordinarily one box to each 10 feet of width will be found sufficient. The grout, which should be put on in two applications, is prepared in batches each of which consists of a quantity of cement not exceeding one sack, a like amount of fine, clean sand, and water. The sand and cement should first be thoroughly mixed dry and sufficient water then added to produce a liquid mixture. The consistency of the mixture for the first application should be approximately the same as that of ordi- nary cream, and for the second application it should be somewhat thicker. The pavement should be cleaned and thoroughly sprinkled as a preliminary to making the first application of grout, and it should Bul. 246, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. id Cement grour WL | / 0) i cau 8 S AN FZ a WIA Fo, JSomhs tle, Crown varies trom gé tor leve/ PEATE de 4 tole 6 fo | nw bg "1 Sfogrode. . ope of shoulders - at least 1 fo 1° LM) dhe TYPICAL PLAN AND SECTION FOR BRICK ROAD. Bul. 246, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. wo — a) — 9b tty aaa (tpt PLAN FOR GROUT Box HAVING LOW CORNER. PLATE III. Bul. 246, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fic. 1.—FINE GRADING. Fic. 2.—ROLLING. PREPARING THE SUBGRADE FOR A BRICK ROAD. i PLATE IV. Bul. 246, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘dW ‘ASVHO AASHO LV dVvOUu "39VG 3LSYONOD GSHSINI4—'g “DI TIWLNAWIYSd XA “aSv@q@ SHL Y¥OsS ALSYONOD ONIXIW—"] “DIA Bul. 246, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Fic. 1.—SPREADING SAND CUSHION. ies tility Be ehi§y 3 of tamed ai Fila. 2.—ROLLING SAND CUSHION. EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD. Bul. 246, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fia.1.—LAYING THE BRiCK. Fig. 2.—ROLLING THE PAVEMENT. EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD. PLATE VI. Bul. 246, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. { hs Rate Mee 3h Fic. 1.—FILLING THE JOINTS, FIRST COAT. Fia@. 2.—FILLING THE JOINTS, SECOND COAT. EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD. PLATE VIII. Bul. 246, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fia. 1.—FINISHED BRICK PAVEMENT PROTECTED BY SAND COVERING. FIG. 2.—SHOWING PROPERLY FILLED GROUT JOINTS. EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD. Bul. 246, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PEATE DX * Fic. 1.—EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD. Finished pavement in service. Fig. 2.—GROUT-FILLED BRICK PAVEMENT, HAVING LONGITUDINAL JOINTS IN CENTER AND OCCASIONAL TRANSVERSE JOINTS FILLED WITH SOFT FILLER. Unsightly appearance at right caused by widening roadway. PLATE X. 46, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ~ Bul. “YATLLVY YOsd NVId . INO IHVW ee re = GAIT HILITI _. Z Sasa 7 \ Sth = [ Ate spy 0g x eS TI avd = 4 | 2704 $9 20,81 i ES | Wot ttl ps kK “OE =e NIMOY THY — ALLS =| sew 5-665 > | [sees Us neers apie | al Fj} (3 «Q: Se ia cat PETZ, I E fen s = corard poo 40.28 = |e ie Sj + / 2 nh 9704, cs Gee qe: uw? ad VAYOL S Dt! LEO ay BE 87 lf 5 MTA GNF MITA FOIS = di wT ‘T'2 INO IWIN i OYN1D HV79. TT TM TD OML TVW 32 MOINNELL SAINI m1 a ; As Fwy ANG ER 8! 2T2 OML THVW —YINI iy yd 2 OML VW —YINIT OVFIH - z ) las I? OML DVN % aI e / ALLL S| FWW4d NF yy! URS | Aex 9 A 1$2/Oq5 v7 —LUd : LIN 3S = ——— \ i PAATEE ALY AAWAAT ANAYH war Try = Rap ew ee LL 3, 4 — 1 tet = Oy (3 ) | n* 3 = : He “GS bp2 wot Vz = —t, 47°91 214, D6 | ot Rie x, VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 17 be kept moist by gentle sprinkling while this application is being made. The grout should be swept into the joints immediately after it is removed from the boxes and spread upon the pavement. For this purpose a coarse rattan or fiber push broom should be used in the first application and a squeegee in the second application. The squeegee is usually made by clamping a piece of four-ply rubber belting or some other similar material, about 6 by 20 inches in size, between two pieces of board and attaching a suitable handle. The grout in the boxes should be continually stirred until the last of it is removed, otherwise a separation of the sand and cement will almost certainly occur. The first application should proceed about 50 feet in advance of the second. Usually both applications are made by the same crew of laborers. They simply turn back after having covered the allowable distance with the first application and, mixing the grout in the same boxes, bring up the second application. The second application of grout should completely fill the joints flush with the top of the brick. After the joints are filled as described above and the grout has taken its initial set, the entire surface should be covered to a depth of approximately 1 inch with sand or fine earth. This is done to protect the pavement from the weather and to keep it in a moist condition while the grout is hardening. If necessary, in order to keep the covering moist, it should be occasionally sprinkled for several days after it is spread. The covering should be permitted to remain on the surface for at least 10 days, and during this period the pavement should be kept entirely closed to traffic. If the weather is unfavorable, the length of time during which traffic is kept off the road should be increased. EXPANSION CUSHIONS. Tt has been customary in the past to provide both longitudinal and transverse bituminous expansion cushions in grout-filled brick pave- ments, but recent practice has demonstrated that the transverse cushions may be advantageously omitted if proper longitudinal cushions are provided. The principal objection to the use of trans- verse expansion cushions is based on the fact that the material com- posing the cushions frequently softens during warm weather and runs out toward the curb, thus leaving the edges of the adjoining brick exposed to destructive impact from the wheels of passing vehicles. Even if the cushion consists of a material which does not run in warm weather, it is necessarily softer than the brick, and the natural result is still the development of unevenness in its immediate vicinity. No such objection can exist concerning longitudinal ex- pansion cushions, however, if they are placed adjacent to the curbs 92742°—_15——_3 18 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, and constructed of proper material. They not only furnish a means for the pavement to expand and contract with changes in tempera- ture, but they also eliminate to a large extent the disagreeable rumbling which has been so frequently associated with grout-filled brick pavements. The bituminous material of which the expansion cushions are made should be such as to remain firm in summer and not to become brittle in winter. It should also possess the quality of durability. In order to insure that any given material is suited for such a purpose, it is usually considered necessary to prescribe certain laboratory require- ments to which it must conform, and examples of these, which have been found to give good results, are contained in the section entitled “Typical specifications.” (Cf. p. 22 et seq.) Expansion cushions should be provided for at the time the brick are laid, by placing a board of the required thickness on edge adjacent to each curb, as shown in figure 38. Small iron wedges, such as are shown in this figure, may be inserted between the curb and the board at the time the board is set. These wedges may be readily loosened and removed after the bricks have been laid and grouted, and may consequently be made to facilitate the removai of the board. The proper thickness for expansion cushions is a matter concerning which much difference of opinion exists among highway engineers. Some engineers advocate a minimum thickness of 1 inch, while others claim to have secured their best results by using expansion cushions having a minimum thickness as low as three-eighths inch for very narrow pavements. It is generally agreed that the thickness of the cushion should vary with the width of the pavement. The following suggestions for proportioning the cushion are offered as being fairly representative of the best practice: TABLE 1.—Ratio of thickness of cushions to width of roadway. eae eae | Thick- Width of roadway | ness of (feet). cushion | | (inches). || ey a | 20/or esses. sae - | 20 TOS) Nemes | | B0itO 40 eeeeenece 1 Over 40........-- 1 | Plates III to VII, and Plate VIII, figure 1, show the various steps in the construction of a brick pavement. Plate VIII, figure 2, and Plate IX, figure 1, show the finished pavement as it should appear, and Plate IX, figure 2, shows the advantage possessed by grout-filled joints over joints filled with a soft material. VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 19 COST OF BRICK PAVEMENTS. The cost of brick pavements varies widely and 1s affected by so many influences that it is difficult to attempt to derive a general expression showing the relation between probable cost and local con- ditions. The prices of brick, as also the prices of the various materials entering into the foundation, vary greatly according to the locality and the freight rate. The cost and efficiency of labor is also far from being constant. Furthermore, the material composing the subgrade and the method of preparing it may exert a marked influence on the cost of the pavement. The following statements regarding cost, then, must be considered as representing average conditions, and care must be exercised in applying them to special cases. They are intended as a guide in preparing estimates of probable cost. The grading is usually paid for by the cubic yard, and the cost, of course, varies with the character of the soil and the necessary amount of excavation. In light, easily loosened soils, grading may usually be done at from 25 to 40 cents per cubic yard. In hard earth con- taining more or less loose rock the cost per cubic yard generally runs from 40 to 75 cents, while grading in solid rock may sometimes cost as much as $1.50 per cubic yard. The cost of the rough grading should be considered entirely apart from the cost of the pavement. The cost of shaping and rolling the subgrade after the rough grad- ing is completed will ordinarily vary from 3 to 5 cents per square yard. This cost should be included with the other items which make up the cost of the pavement. The cost of the curbs varies with the character of the material used. Stone curbs ordinarily cost from 25 to 75 cents per linear foot, while curbs made of Portland cement concrete cost, as a rule, from 20 to 50 cents per linear foot. The higher prices for the concrete curbs apply principally to special cases requiring extra form work or con- siderable extra material. The cost of the foundation depends largely on the cost of the materials with which it is constructed. Gravel or broken stone can usually be spread and rolled at from 5 to 7 cents per square yard, while the cost of these materials, delivered, varies from $0.60 to $2 per cubic yard. Mixing and placing concrete usually costs from 35 to 75 cents per cubic yard, according to the amount of work to be done and the methods employed, and the cost of the materials, delivered, ordinarily varies from $2.50 to $4.50 per cubic yard of concrete. The cost of paving brick at the kiln varies from about $13 to $16 per thousand. Estimating 40 brick to the square yard, each 1,000 brick cover approximately 25 square yards, which makes the cost at the kiln per square yard of pavement vary from 55 cents to about 65 20 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cents. These figures mean very little, unless the kiln is located con- veniently near where the brick are to be used, for freight charges not infrequently amount to more than the cost of the brick. A force consisting of one paver and five laborers should place on an average about 220 square yards of brick per 10-hour day; while supervision, rolling, and incidental expenses are ordinarily equivalent to the cost of hiring about three and one-half additional laborers. If C = cost of cement per barrel, S = cost of sand per cubic yard, A = cost of coarse aggregate per cubic yard, B = cost of paving bricks per 1,000, and L = cost of labor per hour, with all materials considered delivered on the work and all costs expressed in cents, then the probable cost of constructing a brick pavement, including the subgrade, a 6-inch concrete foundation, and suitable curbs, may be estimated by substituting in the formula: Cost per square yard = 1.90 L + .2138 C + .188 S + .157 A + .040 B. yeaa The cost as estimated from this formula should usually be in- creased by about 10 per cent to allow for wear on tools and machin- ery and to guard against unforeseen contingencies. If it is desired to use a different thickness of foundation, it is safe to assume that each inch subtracted or added to the thickness of the foundation will make a corresponding difference of from 8 to 12 cents in the cost per square yard. MAINTENANCE OF BRICK PAVEMENTS. If brick pavements are properly constructed at the start, the work of maintaining them is very slight. Under the closest inspection, however, some inferior material is likely to become incorporated either in the foundation or in the surface, and it is therefore very important that a brick pavement be very carefully watched for the first few years of its life to see that no unevenness develops either because of defective brick having been used in the surface or because of insufficient support from the foundation at any point. Whenever any unevenness develops, it should be immediately rectified. Other- wise the pavement will become irregularly worn in the vicinity of the defects, and expensive repairs will eventually be necessary. Not infrequently weak spots develop in broken stone or gravel foundations, owing to surface water finding its way through joints in the pavement which have not been properly filled with grout. Careful observation of the joints should therefore constitute a part of the early maintenance work, and any defective joints discovered should be immediately remedied. Where the foundation is con- structed of concrete, however, slight defects in the joints seldom result in any very serious damage. VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 21 If care is exercised to correct all defects which appear within the first few years of the life of a well-constructed brick pavement, the work of maintaining the pavement proper should thereafter, except for cleaning, be almost negligible for a considerable period. The shoulders and drainage structures, of course, need occasional atten- tion, just as in the case of any other pavement, but if they are properly constructed at the start repairs will usually be very slight. The life of a well-constructed brick pavement can not be estimated with any great degree of exactness, first, because the traffic condi- tions are constantly changing, and, second, because no brick pave- ment which has been constructed in accordance with the best modern practice has yet worn out. Such measurements as have been made of ‘the amounts of wear sustained by given pavements during compara- tively long periods of years have not been sufficient to warrant any very definite conclusions as to the probable terms of service, though they indicate that good paving brick wear very slowly under ordi- nary traffic. It is evident that in order to secure the full benefit of this excellent resistance to wear the surface of the pavement must not be permitted to become uneven because of the failure of a brick here and there. CONCLUSION. Before concluding this discussion of brick pavements, it would seem desirable to emphasize the importance of proper engineering supervision. In the past many communities have expended large sums in efforts to improve their public highways without first having secured the services of some one competent to plan and direct the work. The results have usually been very unsatisfactory under such circumstances and have frequently served to discourage further effort. One of the mistakes most commonly observed consists in constructing some expensive type of pavement on a road where the location is faulty or the grades are impracticable. Not infrequently sharp angles in the alignment or abrupt changes in the grade, which might be easily and inexpensively remedied by an experienced engineer, are left to impede traffic throughout the life of a costly and perhaps durable pavement. Even in constructing common earth roads it is doubtful economy to dispense with the services of a competent engineer, and if any considerable quantity of work is to be done, such services should certainly be secured. Since brick pavements are probably more ex- pensive to construct than any other type of pavement at present used for country roads, it is all the more important that their construction should be carefully planned and well executed. 22, BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. APPENDIX A. Typical Specifications for Constructing Brick Roads. SPECIFICATIONS ! FOR GRADING AND SURFACING WITH BRICK THE _____________ = ROAD. Location.—The work referred to in these specifications is to be done on the fap ig ee) Re pe road, beginning at ________________ and extending in a panies Tet direction «through =:.==_-=.2 = ~2-<==+.. 10. 25.222 eee distance of ______ miles. Work to be done.—The contractor shall do all clearing and grubbing, make all excavations and embankments, do all shaping and surfacing, (construct all drainage structures and other appertaining structures),? move all obstructions in the line of the work, and, unless otherwise provided in these specifications, shall furnish all equipment, materials, and labor for the same. In short, the contractor shall construct said road in strict accordance with the plans and specifications and shall leave the work in a neat and finished condition. PLANS AND DRAWINGS. The plans, profiles, cross sections, and drawings on file in the office of LS er nef te ES ce at =L2-_-_=__1 =-___=_~ show: the location;=pronleyde- tails, and dimensions of the work which is to be done. The work shall be constructed according to the above-mentioned plans, profiles, cross sections, and drawings, which shall be recognized as a part of these specifications. Any variation therefrom which may be required by the exigencies of construction will in all cases be determined by the engineer. On all drawings, figured dimensions are to govern in cases of discrepancies between scale and figures. GRADING. Grading shall include the moving of all earth, stone, and any other material that may be encountered, all filling, borrowing, trimming, picking down, shap- ing, sloping, and all other work that may be necessary to bring the road and subgrade to the required grade, alignment, and cross section, the clearing out of waterways and old culverts, the excavation of all necessary drainage and outlet ditches, the grading of a proper connection with all intersecting high- ways, the grubbing up and ciearing away of all trees, stumps, and boulders within the lines of the improvement, and the removal of any muck, soft clay, or spongy material which will not compact under the roller, so as to make a firm, unyielding subgrade. All trees, stumps, and roots within the limit of the improvement shall be grubbed up so that no part of them shall be within six (6) inches of the sur- face of the ground or within eighteen (18) inches of the surface of the subgrade. 1These specifications are substantially those prepared in the fall of 1913 by the Office of Public Roads for a project of considerable magnitude. “The clause in parentheses should be omitted if plans and specifications for drainage structures are not included. VITRIFIED BRICK ‘PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 23 Embankments shall be formed of good, sound earth and carried up full width. The earth shall be deposited in layers not more than one (1) foot in thickness, and each layer shall be rolled until thoroughly compacted with a roller weigh- ing not less than ten (10) tons. All existing slopes and surfaces of embank- ments shall be plowed or scarified where additional fill is to be made, in order that the old and new material may bond together. When sufficient material is not available within the fence lines to complete the embankments, suitable borrow pits, from which the contractor must obtain the necessary material, will be designated by the engineer. If there is more material taken from the cuts than is required to construct the embankments as shown on the plans, the excess material shall be used in uniformly widening the embankments or shall be deposited where the engineer may-direct. Where embankments are formed of stone the material shall be carefully placed, so that all large stones shall be well distributed and the interstices shall be completely filled with smaller stone, earth, sand, or gravel, so as to form a solid embankment. During the work of grading, the sides of the road shall be kept lower than the center and the surface maintained in condition for adequate drainage. The grading of any portion of the road shall be complete before any surfacing material is placed on that portion; and where the plans do not call for any sub- stantial change in the grade of any existing section of the road the surface shall be completely scarified to a depth of three (3) inches or more before the sub- grade is prepared. SUBGRADE. The subgrade, or that portion of the road upon which the base for the brick roadway is to be laid, shall consist of good, sound earth brought to the proper elevation, alignment, and cross section, and shall be rolled until firm and hard. The rolling shall be done with a roller of the macadam type, weighing not less than ten (10) tons and not more than fifteen (15) tons. Should earth be en- countered which will not compact by rolling, so as to be firm and hard, it shall be removed and suitable material put in its place, and that portion of the sub- grade shall be again rolled. When the rolling is completed the surface of the subgrade shall conform to the cross section shown on the plans, and shall have the proper elevation and alignment, and shall be so maintained until the con- crete base is in place. MATERIALS. Cement.—The cement for use in this work shall meet the requirements of the United States Government specifications for Portland cement as published in Circular No. 33, United States Bureau of Standards, issued May 1, 1912. All cement shall be held at least ten (10) days after sampling before it is used in any part of the work. If the cement satisfactorily passes all tests that may be made within that time, it may be used and the twenty-eight (28) day test will not be insisted upon; but if it should fail to pass satisfactorily any test made within that time, then the cement shall not be used until it has satis- factorily passed all tests, including the twenty-eight (28) day test. All cement shall be delivered on the work in cloth or paper bags, containing ninety-four (94) pounds, net weight, and this amount of cement shall be considered as having a volume of one (1) cubic foot. In order to allow ample time for in- specting and testing, the cement shall be stored in a suitable weather-tight building, having the floor blocked or raised from the ground, and shall be so stored as to permit of easy access for inspection, and so that each carload ship- ment may be readily identified. 24 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Sand.—The sand for use as fine aggregate in all concrete shall be composed of particles of hard, durable stone and not more than three (5) per cent, by weight, of clay or silt. No clay, however, will be permitted if it occurs as a coating on the sand grains. The grains shall be of such sizes that all will pass a one-fourth (4+) inch mesh screen, that not more than twenty (20) per cent will pass a No. 50 sieve, and that not more *an sixty (60) per cent nor less than twenty (20) per cent will be retained on a No. 20 sieve. The sand shall be of such quality that a mortar made in the proportion of one (1) part of cement to three (3) parts of the sand, according to standard methods, when tested at any age not exceeding twenty-eight (28) days, will have a tensile strength of at least one hundred (100) per cent of that developed in mortar of the same proportions made of the same cement and standard Ottawa sand. The cement used in these tests shall be from an accepted shipment of that proposed for use with the sand. The sand for the sand cushion shall be composed of particles of hard, durable stone and not more than five (5) per cent, by weight, of clay, loam, or silt. The sizes of the grains shall be such that all will pass a one-fourth (4) inch mesh screen and not more than fifty (50) per cent will pass a No. 380 sieve. Stone screenings will not be accepted for use in the sand cushion. The sand for the grout filler shall be composed of quartz grains and not more than one (1) per cent, by weight, of clay or silt. The grains shall be of such size that all will pass a No. 20 sieve and that not more than forty (40) per cent will pass a No. 50 sieve. The sand shall be of such quality that a mor- tar made in the proportion of one (1) part of cement to three (3) parts of the sand, according to standard methods, when tested at any age not exceeding twenty-eight (28) days, will have a tensile strength of not less than seventy- five (75) per cent of that developed in mortar of the same proportions made of the same cement and standard Ottawa sand. The cement used in these tests shall be from an accepted shipment of that proposed for use with the sand. Gravel.—The gravel for use in the concrete base shall be composed of hard, sound, durable particles of stone and not more than three (38) per cent. by weight, of clay or silt. No clay, however, will be permitted if it occurs as a coating on the particles of stone or as lumps more than one (1) inch in diame- ter. The particles of stone shall be graded in size between those retained on a screen having circular openings one-fourth (4) inch in diameter, or a one fourth (4) inch mesh screen, and those passing a screen having circular open- ings two (2) inches in diameter. Not more than seventy-five (75) per cent of the particles shall pass and not more than seventy-five (75) per cent shall be retained on a screen having circular openings three-fourths (}) inch in diameter. The gravel for use in the concrete curbs shall be composed of hard, sound, durable particles of stone, thoroughly clean and graded in size between those retained on a screen having circular openings one-fourth (}) inch in diameter, or a one-fourth (4) inch mesh screen, and those passing a screen having circular openings one (1) inch in diameter. Not less than forty (40) per cent shall be retained on and not Jess than twenty (20) per cent shall pass a one-half (4) inch mesh screen. Crushed stone-——The crushed stone for use in the concrete base shall be clean, sound, and durable, and shall be composed of all that part of the product of the crusher which is retained on a screen haying circular openings one-fourth (4) inch in diameter, or a one-fourth (4) inch mesh screen, and which passes a screen having circular openings two (2) inches in diameter. A sample of the stone, when subjected to the physical tests as described in the United States VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 25 Office of Public Roads Bulletin No. 44, shall satisfactorily meet the following requirements : Hardness not less than ten (10), toughness not less than five (5), and per cent of wear not more than twelve (12).* The crushed stone for use in the concrete curb shall be clean, sound, and durable, and shall be composed of all that part of the product of the crusher which is retained on a screen having circular openings one-fourth (4) inch in diameter, or a one-fourth (4) inch mesh screen, and which passes a screen hay- ing circular openings one and one-fourth (14) inches in diameter. A sample of the stone, when subjected to the physical tests as described in the United States Office of Public Roads Bulletin No. 44, shall satisfactorily meet the ae ee requirements: Hardness not less than twelve (12), toughness not less than six (6), and: per cent of wear not more than ten (10).’ Slag.—The slag for use in the concrete base shall be steel-furnace slag, broken to such sizes that all of the particles will pass a screen having circular openings two (2) inches in diameter and will be retained on a screen having circular openings one-fourth (4+) inch in diameter, or a one-fourth (4) inch mesh screen. Not more than seventy-five (75) per cent of the particles shall pass and not more than seventy-five (75) per cent shall be retained on a screen having cir- cular openings three-fourths (#) inch in diameter. The material shall be reasonably uniform in character, and a sample, when subjected to the physical tests, as described in United States Office of Public Roads Bulletin No. 44, shall satisfactorily meet the following requirements: Specific gravity not less than two and one-tenth (2.1), hardness not less than fifteen (15), toughness not less than five (5), and per cent of wear not more than fifteen (15). A sample of the slag proposed to be used, weighing not ies than one hun- dred (100) pounds, shall be furnished to the engineer by the contractor at least thirty (30) days before it is proposed to use the slag in the work. Test speci- mens of concrete, composed of one (1) part of cement, two and one-half (2%) parts of sand, and five (5) parts of the slag, may be made, and they shall have a compressive strength, when tested at any age not exceeding twenty-eight (28) days, equal to that of a concrete composed of one (1) part of cement, two and one-half (24) parts of sand, and five (5) parts of crushed stone of the quality herein specified for the concrete base. Water.—The water used in the mixing of concrete or grout shall be free from oil, acid, alkali, or vegetable matter, and fairly free from clay or silt. Brick.—The brick shall be standard wire-cut lug or re-pressed paving block. The standard size of brick shall be three and one-half (34) inches in width, four (4) inches in depth, and eight and one-half (83) inches in length. The brick shall not vary from these dimensions more than one-eighth (%$) inch in width and depth and not more than one-half (4) inch in length, and in brick or the same shipment the maximum width or depth shall not vary from the minimum width or depth more than one-eighth (4) inch. All brick must be thoroughly annealed, regular in size and shape, and evenly burned. When broken they shall show a dense, stonelike body, free from lime, air pockets, cracks, and pronounced laminations. No surface of any brick shall have kiln marks more than three-sixteenths (i) inch in depth or cracks more than three- eighths (2) inch in depth, and the wearing surface of the brick shall not have 1 The values given for hardness, toughness, and per cent of wear are intended to exclude unsatisfactory stone, but in communities where better stone is readily available the re- quirements should be made more rigid. 26 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. kiln marks more than one-sixteenth (7s) inch in depth and shall be free from eracks. The brick shall have not less than four (4) and not more than six (6) lugs, all on one side of the brick, such that when the brick are properly laid in place in the pavement the joints between them will be not less than one-eighth (4) nor more than one-fourth (4+) inch in width. The name or trade-mark of the manufacturer, if shown on the brick, must be recessed and not raised. If the edges of the brick are rounded, the radius shall not exceed one-eighth (%$) inch. The brick must not be chipped in such a manner that the wearing surface is not intact or that the lower or bearing surface is reduced in area more than ten (10) per cent; but chipped brick, if otherwise satisfactory, may be used in obtaining the half brick for breaking courses and the necessary pieces of brick for closures. The brick shall not be salt glazed or otherwise artificially glazed. Not less than five (5) samples of ten (10) brick each will be selected from each kiln or shipment and subjected to the. rattler test recommended to the American Society for Testing Materials by its subcommittee on paving brick; one sample from what appears to be the softest brick, which shall not lose of its weight more than twenty-four (24) per cent; one sample from what appears to be the hardest brick, which shall not lose of its weight less than sixteen (16) per cent or more than twenty-four (24) per cent; and three samples representing an average of the kiln or shipment, which shall not lose of their weight more than twenty-two (22) per cent: Provided, however, That if the softest brick lose less than twenty-four (24) per cent, the permissible mini- mum loss of the hardest brick will be reduced a like amount. If the kiln or ship- ment of brick should fail to meet the above requirements—and it is fair to assume that it would meet themif not more than ten (10) per cent were culled— then the contractor may, at his option, regrade the brick. When the regrading is complete the kiln or shipment will be resampled and retested as under the original conditions, and if it fails to meet any of the above requirements it will be finally and definitely rejected. Sampling will be done at the factory prior to shipment or from cars when placed on siding at destination, and brick satisfactorily passing the rattler test will not be rejected as a whole, but will be subject to such culling as may be necessary to meet all of the above requirements. The brick shall be carefully unloaded from cars and wagons by hand and neatly piled along the work in such manner that they will be clean and in proper condition to be laid in the pavement when desired. Bituminous filler for expansion cushion.—The bituminous filler for the expan- sion cushion between the brick pavement and the curb shall be a blown-oil asphalt. It shall be soluble in chemically pure carbon disulphide to at least ninety-nine (99) per cent, and when tested by the cube method, as described in United States Office of Public Roads Bulletin No. 38, its melting point shall not be less than ninety (90) degrees centigrade and not more than one hundred and ten (110) degrees centigrade. The penetration at zero (0) degrees centigrade of a No. 2 needle acting one (1) minute under a weight of two hundred (200) grams shall be not less than two (2) millimeters. The penetration at forty-six (46) degrees centigrade of a No. 2 needle acting five (5) seconds under a weight of fifty (50) grams shall not exceed ten (10) millimeters. CONSTRUCTION, Concrete base.—Upon the subgrade prepared as herein specified shall be laid « concrete base of the width and thickness shown on the plans. The subgrade shall be wet but not muddy when the concrete is placed upon it. The conerete shall be composed of the following materials, by volume: One (1) part of cement, three (8) parts of sand, and five (5) parts of gravel, crushed stone, or crushed VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. WG slag, and sufficient water to form a quaky mass, and shall be thoroughly mixed in a machine mixer of the batch type so constructed and operated that the thorough mixing of the materials will be assured. The concrete shall be so delivered to its place on the subgrade as not to cause or permit any separation of the materials. Wheelbarrows or other devices used for measuring the materials shall be of uniform capacity. The concrete shall be deposited in place immediately after it is mixed and shall be well compacted as fast as it is placed. The top surface shall be smoothed by troweling with shovels or by some other means approved by the engineer, and when completed shall not vary more than one-half (4) inch from the proper shape and grade, as shown on the plans and profiles. The concrete base shall be kept wet by sprinkling with water during the first four (4) days after it is laid. No hauling over it or roll- ing or tamping of brick upon it will be permitted for seven (7) days after it is placed, and during this time it shall be properly protected from injury. Con- crete shall not be mixed when the temperature of any of the materials is less than thirty-five (35) degrees Fahrenheit. Concrete shall not be used after it has begun to show evidence of setting, and no concrete which has once set shall be used as material for mixing a new batch. Curbs.—Concrete curbs shall be built on the base as shown on the plans. The concrete shall be composed of the following materials, by volume: One (1) part of cement, one and one-half (14) parts of sand, three (8) parts of gravel or crushed stone, and water. The materials shall be thoroughly mixed in a machine mixer of the batch type or by hand. If the mixing is done by hand, it shall be done upon a water-tight platform with raised edges, in the following manner: The sand and cement shall be thoroughly mixed dry and spread out upon the mixing platform, and upon this dry mixture shall be spread the coarse aggregate. Water shall then be poured over the aggregate in such an amount that the resultant conerete will be of a quaky consistency. The whole mass shall then be turned with shovels until all of the materials are thoroughly mixed. The conerete for the curb shall be placed upon the base before the concrete of either the curb or the base has taken its initial set, and care shall be taken, such as roughening the concrete of the base and tamping the concrete of the curb, to insure that the curb will be firmly bonded to the base. The concrete shall be well tamped and spaded along the forms, so that when they are removed there will be no open and porous places on the sides of the curb. The top surface of the curb shall be floated or troweled to a smooth finish. The forms for the curb shall be smooth, clean, free from warp, and of sufficient strength to resist springing out of shape. They shall be well staked and braced, and the top edges shall be at the same height and set true to line. To protect the curb from drying out too rapidly it shall, within twelve (12) hours after it is placed, be covered with gunny cloth, which shall be kept wet for five (5) days. | Sand cushion—uwUpon the base shall be spread a cushion of sand such that it will have a uniform depth of two (2)* inches when compacted. The base shall be thoroughly clean at the time the sand is spread. The cushion shall be care- fully shaped to a true cross section of the roadway by means of a template having a steel-faced edge, and so fitted as to be readily drawn on the curb. After the cushion is so shaped it shall be rolled with a hand roller until the sand is well compacted. The depressions formed by rolling shall be filled and the surface of the cushion trued up with the template and rolled again. This operation of filling depressions, truing up with template, and rolling shall be repeated as often as is necessary to secure a well-compacted cushion true to -1A sand cushion having a uniform depth of 13 inches is frequently used and may be as satisfactory as the 2-inch cushion. 28 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT: OF AGRICULTURE. grade and to the required cross section. The rolling shall be done with a hand roller not less than twenty-four (24) inches in diameter, not less than twenty- four (24) inches in width, and weighing not less than ten (10) pounds per inch in width. Laying brick.—Upon the sand cushion, prepared as above described, the brick shall be laid on edge from curb to curb in straight courses at right angles to the curb, with the lug sides all in the same direction. The brick shall be laid so that the lugs of the brick in one course will touch the brick in the adjoin- ing course, and the joints between the ends of the brick shall not exceed one-eighth (4) inch in width. Joints shall be broken by starting each alternate course with a half brick. Nothing but whole brick shall be used, excepting the half brick for starting alternate courses and pieces of brick for closures, and no piece of brick less than two (2) inches in length shall be used for making a closure. The cutting and trimming of brick shall be done by experienced men, and proper care shall be taken not to check or fracture the part to be used, and the ends of the part used shall be square with its top and sides. The brick shall be carried to the bricklayers on pallets or in clamps and not wheeled in barrows. The bricklayers laying the brick shall stand on the brick already laid and shall not in any manner disturb the sand cushion. No heavy driving will be permitted to straighten courses, and in making closures the pieces of brick Shall be so cut that they may be laid in place without driving. Brick shall be laid with the best edge up. Batting for closures shall progress with the laying. After the brick are laid they will be carefully inspected, and all those which are soft, cracked, glazed, spalled, overburned, or otherwise imperfect will be marked by the inspector. The contractor shall at once remove such brick from the pavement with flat-nosed tongs, without disturbing the sand cushion, and shall replace them with approved brick. Kiln-marked and slightly chipped brick, if not otherwise defective, may be turned over and, if the reverse edge is smooth, may remain in the pavement. If more than one kind of brick or the brick from more than one plant is fur- nished for the work, each particular kind or make shall be laid in a separate section. Rolling brick.—After the brick have been laid and after all objectionable brick have been removed from the pavement they shall be brought to a true sur- face and thoroughly bedded on the sand cushion by means of rolling. The roiling shall be done with a motor or steam tandem roller weighing not less than three (3) and not more than five (5) tons. The pavement shall be rolled in longitudinal and diagonal directions. The longitudinal rolling shall begin at the curbs and progress toward the center of the pavement, and shall be continued until the brick are well bedded on the sand cushion. The pavement shall then be thor- oughly rolled diagonally at an angle of forty-five (45) degrees with the curb. When this rolling has been completed the brick will again be inspected, and all that are broken or damaged shall be removed from the pavement and replaced with approved brick. The brick shall then be again rolled, the roller moving diagonally across the pavement at right angles to the first diagonal rolling. To prevent the brick from being left careened the roller shall in all cases cover exactly the same area in making its backward trip as was covered in its for- ward trip, and shall proceed at a very slow rate of speed until the entire pave- ment has received the first rolling. In no event shall the rolling be done when the sand cushion is in a condition such that the sand will flow up into the joints more than three-eights (2) inch. Filling the joints —After the brick haye been rolled as above specified the joints between them shall be filled with a grout containing equal parts of cement VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 29 and sand. The grout shall be mixed in batches containing not more than one sack of cement in a box about five (5) feet long, thirty (80) inches wide, and fourteen (14) inches deep, resting on legs of different lengths, so that the mix- ture will readily flow to the lowest corner of the box. The sand and cement shall be thoroughly mixed dry. Sufficient clean water shall then be admixed to produce a grout of a consistency about equal to that of ordinary cream for _ the first application and of a slightly thicker consistency for subsequent ap- plications. From the time the water is added to the mixture until all of the grout is removed from the box, the mixture must be constantly well stirred with mortar hoes. The grout shall be removed from the box with scoop shovels and applied to the brick in front of men supplied with push brooms, who shall rapidly sweep it lengthwise of the brick into the joints until the joints are practically filled. After the first application has been made and the grout has settled into the joints, and before initial set has taken place, the unfilled portion of the joints shall be filled with the thicker grout, and, if necessary, refilled until the joints remain full to the top. After this has been done the pavement shall be finished to a smooth surface, free from any surplus grout, with a squeegee, which shall be worked over the brick at an angle of about ' forty-five (45) degrees with the curb. 'The pavement shall have been thor- oughly sprinkled before the first application of grout is made, and shall be kept moist by means of gentle sprinkling until the grout is spread. The top surface, sides, and ends of the brick shall be thoroughly clean at the time the work of filling the joints is done. Immediately after the grout has taken its initial set the pavement shall be covered with a one (1) inch layer of sand or earth. This layer, immediately after it is placed on the pavement, shall be thoroughly wet by sprinkling and shall be kept wet by sprinkling for at least the five (5) following days. It shall remain on the pavement for at least ten (10) days and shall be removed before traffic is permitted upon the pavement. During this period of ten (10) days or longer, as the engineer may require on account of weather conditions, no traffic shall be allowed upon and no materials shall be placed upon the pavement. Expansion cushion. —An expansion cushion four (4) inches in depth and of the thickness indicated on the plans shall be constructed along each curb as follows: Suitable provision for the cushion shall be made at the time the brick are laid by setting boards of the proper width and thickness on edge in proper position along the curb. After the brick have been laid, rolled, and grouted, and the grout has well set, the boards shall be carefully removed, so as not to damage the curb or the brick pavement, and the spaces which they occupied shall be filled with blown-oil asphalt heated to a temperature of not less than three hundred (300) degrees Fahrenheit and not more than four hundred (400) degrees Fahrenheit. ALTERNATE SPECIFICATIONS. SEPARATE CONCRETE CURBS. Where the plans call for concrete curbs separate from the foundation they shall be constructed before the subgrade is ‘finally completed and shall have the eross section shown on the plans. Such curbs shall be constructed in sec- tions not less than six (6) feet and not more than twelve (12) feet in length and shall be true to grade and alignment. 1JInstead of making a poured joint, as above described, the cushion may be constructed of. some of the specially prepared expansion-joint materials, subject to the approval of the engineer as to the material and method of construction. 30 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The specification already given for concrete curbs constructed in combination with the foundation shall also apply to curbs constructed separate from the foundation as regards proportioning, mixing, and placing the concrete, con- structing the forms, and all other features of construction which are not covered on the plans or in this specification. STONE CURBS. Where stone curbs are required, they shall be hauled and set before the subgrade is finally completed. The curbs shall be set true to line and grade and shall be securely bedded in broken stone, gravel, or firm earth. In pre- paring the trenches for the curbs great care shall be exercised to see that the material upon which the curb is to be set is well compacted, firm, and hard. Stone curbing shall be quarried from hard, tough, homogeneous stone. The individual blocks shall have the cross section shown on the plans and shall be not less than four (4) feet in length. Each block shall be free from seams and all other imperfections and shall be neatly dressed and finished on all exposed faces. CRUSHED-STONE BASE. Where a crushed-stone base is called for on the plans it shall be constructed after the curbs are set and in two (2) courses of such thickness that the finished base will have the required depth shown on the plans. The first course of stone shall consist of a single layer of No. 1 stone spread uniformly to a depth of not more than eight (8) inches before compacting. The stone shall be spread by hand from dumping boards or from dump wagons of.a type that will distribute each load of stone evenly over that part of the sub- grade to be covered by the load. After the crushed stone of the first course has been spread to the required depth, it shall be rolled until it is thoroughly compacted and firm with a power roller of the macadam type, weighing not less than ten (10) tons and not more than fifteen (15) tons. The rolling shall begin at the curbs and progress gradu- ally toward the crown. All irregularities and depressions that may develop shall be immediately corrected with No. 1 stone, and the rolling shall continue until the stone is well compacted and the surface is uniform in grade and cross section. The second course of stone shall consist of a single layer of No. 2 stone spread uniformly to a depth not exceeding four (4) inches. The stone shall be spread and rolled in the manner prescribed for the first course. When completed the surface of the second course of crushed stone shall be smooth, firm, well compacted, and continuous, and shall have the cross section and grade indicated by the drawings. After the second course of stone has been spread, rolled, and completed as above specified, screenings shall be spread uniformly over the surface to a depth of approximately one-half (4) inch. The spreading shall be done with shovels from piles along the road, from dumping boards, or from carts. In no case shall an entire load of screenings be dumped directly upon the second course. After the screenings are spread they shall be dry rolled until the voids of the second course are filled. The foundation shall then be sprinkled with water from properly constructed sprinkling wagons and rolled with a power roller of the type and weight specified for the first course. The amount of water used shall be sufficient to wet the stone thoroughly, but shall be put on in such quan- tity and manner as not to wet and soften the subgrade. Screenings shall be added and the sprinkling and rolling continued until the surface ceases to show VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. ili the marks of the roller and a grout of water and rock dust flushes ahead of the roller. After the base is completed, as above specified, no materials or traffic shall be placed or allowed upon it for at least twenty-four (24) hours. Crushed stone for the base shall be newly broken, of uniform quality through- out, and free from tailings, slaty and flat fragments, soft or disintegrated stone, dirt, or other objectionable matter. The following designations and sizes shall obtain: Screenings.—All that portion of the product of the crusher which will pass through a screen having one (1) inch circular openings, including the dust of fracture. No. 2 stone.—All that portion of the product of the crusher which will be re- tained on a screen having one (1) inch circular openings and will pass through a screen having circular openings not less than two (2) inches nor greater than two and one-fourth (2+) inches in diameter. No. 1 stone.—All that portion of the product of the crusher which will be re- tained on a screen having circular openings not less than two (2) inches nor greater than two and one-fourth (24) inches in diameter, and will pass through a screen having circular openings not less than three (3) inches nor greater than three and one-half (34) inches in diameter. A sample of the stone when subjected to the hardness, toughness, and abra- sion tests, as described in United States Office of Public Roads Bulletin No. 44, shall satisfactorily meet the following requirements: Hardness not less than ——,,’ toughness not less than ——.,’ and per cent of wear not more than as APPENDIX B. Method for Inspecting and Testing Paving Brick.’ The quality and acceptability of paving brick, in the absence of other special tests mutually agreed upon in advance by the seller on the one side and the buyer on the other side, shall be determined by the following procedure, viz: (1) The rattler test, for the purpose of determining whether the material as a whole possesses to a sufficient degree, strength, toughness, and hardness; (2) Visual inspection, for the purpose of determining whether the physical properties of the material as to dimensions, accuracy and uniformity of shape and color are in general satisfactory, and for the purpose of culling out from the shipment individually imperfect or unsatisfactory brick. The acceptance of paving brick as satisfactorily meeting one of these tests shall not be construed as in any way waiving the other. SECTION I.—THE RATTLER TEST. THE SELECTION OF SAMPLES FOR TEST. Item 1. Place of sampling.—In general where a shipment of brick involving a quantity of less than 100,000 is under consideration, the sampling may be done either at the brick factory prior to shipment, or on cars at their destination, or 1 Values for hardness, toughness, and per cent of wear should be fixed with a view to securing the very best stone locally available, and not merely to exclude stone of a known unsatisfactory nature. 2Recommended by subcommittee on paving brick of the American Society for Testing Materials. 32 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. on the street when delivered ready for use. When the quantity under consider- ation exceeds 100,000, the sampling shall be done at the factory prior to ship- ment. Brick accepted as the result of tests prior to shipment shall not be liable to subsequent rejection as a whole, but are subject to such culling as is provided for under Section II (Visual inspection). Item 2. Method of selecting samples.—In general the buyer shall select his own samples from the material which the seller proposes to furnish. The seller shall have the right to be present during the selection of a sample. The sampler shall endeavor, to the best of his judgment, to select brick representing the aver- age of the lot. No samples shall include brick which would be rejected by visual inspection as provided in Section II, except that where controversy arises, whole tests may be selected to determine the admissibility of certain types or portions of the lot having a characteristic appearance in common. In cases where prolonged controversy occurs between buyer and seller, and samples selected by each party fail to show reasonable concurrence, then both parties shall unite in the selection of a disinterested person to select the samples, and both parties shall be bound by the results of samples thus selected. ITEM 3. Number of samples per lot—In general one sample of 10 brick shall be tested for every 10,000 brick contained in the lot under consideration, -but where the total quantity exceeds 100,000, the number of samples tested may be fewer than 1 per 10,000, provided that they shall be distributed as uniformly as practicable over the entire lot. Item 4. Shipment of samples—Samples which must be transported long dis- tances by freight or express must be carefully put up in packages holding not more than 12 brick each. When more than six brick are shipped in one package, it must be so arranged as to carry two parallel rows of brick side by side, and these rows must be separated by a partition. In event of some of the brick being cracked or broken in transit, the sample shall be disqualified if there are not remaining 10 sound undamaged brick. Item 5. Storage and care of samples.—Samples must be carefully handled to avoid breakage or injury. They must be kept dry so far as practicable. If wet when received, or known to have been immersed or subjected to recent pro- longed wetting, they shall be dried for at least six hours in a-temperature of 100° F. before testing. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE RATTLER, Item 6. The machine shall be of good mechanical construction, self-contained, and shall conform to the following details of materials and dimensions, and shall consist of barrel, frame, and driving mechanism as herein described. Accompanying these specifications is a complete drawing (Pl. X) of a rattler which will meet the requirements ,and to which reference should be made. Item 7. The barrel.—The barrel of the machine shall be made up of the heads and head liners and staves and stave liners. The heads may be cast in one piece with the trunnions, which shall be 24 inches in diameter and Shall have a bearing 6 inches in length, or they may be cast with heavy hubs, which shall be bored out for 27%-inch shafts, and shall be keyseated for two keys, each 4 inch by ~ inch and spaced 90° apart. The shaft shall be a snug fit, and when keyed shall be entirely free from lost motion. The distance from the end of the shaft or trunnion to the inside face of the head shall be 15% inches in the head for the driving end of the rattler and 112 inches long for the other head, and the distance from the face of the hubs to the inside face of the heads shall be 54 inches, ; VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 33 The heads shall be not less than # inch nor more than { inch thick. In out- line each head shall be a regular 14-sided polygon inscribed in a circle 28% inches in diameter. Each head shall be provided with flanges not less than 2 inch thick and extending outward 23 inches from the inside face of the head to afford a means of fastening the staves. The surface of the flanges of the head must be smooth and must give a true and uniform bearing for the staves. To secure the desired true and uniform bearing the surfaces of the flanges of the head must be either ground or machined. The flanges shall be slotted on the outer edge so as to provide for two #-inch bolts at each end of each stave, said slots to be +% inch wide and 2% inches center to center. Each slot shall be provided with a recess for the bolt head, which shall act to prevent the turn- ing of the same. Between each two slots there shall be a brace 3% inch thick extending down the outward side of the head not less than 2 inches. There shall be for each head a cast-iron head liner 1 inch in thickness and conforming to the outline of the head, but inscribed in a circle 283 inches in diameter. This head liner shall be fastened to the head by seven 3-inch cap screws through the head from the outside. Whenever these head liners become worn down # inch below their initial surface level at any point of their surface they must be replaced with new ones. The metal of these head liners shall be hard machinery iron and should contain not less than 1 per cent of combined carbon. The staves shall be made of 6-inch medium steel structural channels 274 inches long and weighing 15.5 pounds per linear foot. The staves shall have two holes +2 inch in diameter, drilled in each end, the center line of the holes being 1 inch from the end and 13 inches either way from the longitudinal center line. The spaces between the staves shall be as uniform as practicable, but must not exceed 7 inch. The interior or flat side of each stave shall be protected by a liner % inch thick by 54 inches wide by 19# inches long. The liner shall consist of medium steel plate and shall be riveted to the channel by three 4-inch rivets, one of which shall be on the center line both ways and the other two on the longitu- dinal center line and spaced 7 inches from the center each way. The rivet holes shall be countersunk on the face of the liner and the rivets shall be driven hot and chipped off flush with the surface of the liners. These liners shall be inspected from time to time, and if found loose shall be at once re- riveted. Any test at the expiration of which a stave liner is found detached from the stave or seriously out of position shall be rejected. When a new rattler in which a complete set of new staves is furnished is first put into operation, it shall be charged with 400 pounds of shot of the same sizes, and in the same proportions as provided in Item 9, and shall then be run for 18,000 revolutions at the usual prescribed rate of speed. The shot shall then be removed and a standard shot charge inserted, after which the rattler may be charged with brick for a test. No stave shall be used for more than 70 consecutive tests without renewing its ling. Two of the 14 staves shall be removed and relined at a time, in such a way that of each pair one falls upon one side of the barrel and the other upon the opposite side, and also so that the staves changed shall be consecutive, but not contiguous; for example, 1 and 8, 3 and 10, 5 and 12, 7 and 14, 2 and 9, 4 and 11, 6 and 13, etc., to the end that the interior of the barrel at all times shall present the same relative condition of repair. The changes in the staves should be made at the time when the shot charges are being corrected, and the record must show the number of charges run since the last pair of newly lined staves was placed in position. 34 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The staves when bolted to the heads shall form a barrel 20 inches long, inside measurement, between head liners. The liners of the staves must be so placed as to drop between the head liners. The staves shall be bolted tightly to the heads by four #-inch bolts, and each bolt shall be provided with a lock nut, and shall be inspected at not less frequent intervals than every fifth test, and all nuts shall be kept tight. A record shall be made after each inspection showing in what condition the bolts were found. Irem 8. The frame and driving mechanism.—The barrel shall be mounted on a cast-iron frame of sufficient strength and rigidity to support it without undue vibration. It shall rest on a rigid foundation with or without the interposition of wooden plates and shall be fastened thereto by bolts at not less than four points. It shall be driven by gearing whose ratio of driver to driven is not less than one to four. The countershaft upon which the driving pinion igs mounted shall not be less than 14% inches in diameter, with bearings not less than 6 inches in length. If a-belt drive is used, the pulley shall not be less than 18 inches in diameter and 64 inches in face. A belt at least 6 inches in width, properly adjusted to avoid unnecessary slipping, should be used. | Item 9. The abrasive charge.—The abrasive charge shall consist of cast-iron spheres of two sizes. When new, the larger spheres shall be 3.75 inches in diam- eter and shall weigh approximately 7.5 pounds (3.40 kilos) each. Ten spheres of this size shall be used. These shall be weighed separately after each 10 tests, and if the weight of any large sphere falls to 7 pounds (38.175 kilos), it shall be discarded and a new one substituted, provided, however, that all of the large spheres shall not be discarded and substituted by new ones at any single time, and that so far as pos- sible the large spheres shall compose a graduated series in various stages of wear. When new, the smaller sized spheres shall be 1.875 inches in diameter and shall weigh approximately 0.95 pound (0.48 kilo) each. In general the number of small spheres in a charge shall not fall below 245 nor exceed 260. The col- lective weight of the large and small spheres shall be as nearly as possible 300 pounds. No small sphere shall be retained in use after it has been worn down so that it will pass a circular hole 1.75 inches in diameter, drilled in an iron plate + inch in thickness, or weigh less than 0.75 pound (0.84 kilo). Further, the small spheres shall be tested by passing them over the above plate, or shall be weighed after every 10 tests, and any which pass through the plate or fall below the specified weight shall be replaced by new spheres; and provided further, that all of the small spheres shall not be rejected and replaced by new ones at any one time, and that so far as possible the small spheres shall compose a graduated series in various stages of wear. At any time that any sphere is found to be broken or defective it shall at once be replaced. The iron composing these spheres shall have a chemical composition within the following limits: Combined carbon, not less than 2.50 per cent. Graphitic carbon, not more than 0.25 per cent. Silicon, not more than 1 per cent. Manganese, not more than 0.50 per cent. Phosphorus, not more than 0.25 per cent. Sulphur, not more than 0.08 per cent. For each new batch of spheres used the chemical analysis must be furnished by the maker or be obtained by the user before introducing into the charge, and unless the analysis meets the above specifications the batch of spheres shall be rejected. VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 35 THE OFERATION OF TH! TEST. Trem 10. The brick charge.—The number of brick per test shall be 10 for all bricks of so-called “block size,’ whose dimensions fall between from 8 to 9 inches in length, 3 to 3} inches in breadth, and 3% inches to 44 inches in thick- ness.t No brick should be selected as part of a regular test that would be rejected by any other requirements of the specifications under which the pur- chase is made. Item 11. Speed and duration of revolution.—The rattler shall be rotated at a uniform rate of not less than 294 nor more than 303 revolutions per minute, and 1,800 revolutions shall constitute the test. A counting machine shall be attached to the rattler for counting the revolutions. A margin of not to exceed 10 revolutions will be allowed for stopping. Only one start and stop per test is generally acceptable. If from accidental causes the rattler is stopped and started more than once during a test and the- loss exceeds the maximum per- missible under the specifications, the test shall be disqualified and another made. Item 12. The scales.—The scales must have a capacity of not less than 300 pounds and must be sensitive to one-half of an ounce and must be tested by a standard test weight at intervals of not less than every 10 tests. Item 18. The results——The loss shall be calculated in percentage of the initial weight of the brick composing the charge. In weighing the rattled brick any piece weighing less than 1 pound shall be rejected. Item 14. The records——A complete and continuous record shall be kept of the operation of all rattlers working under these specifications. This record shall contain the following data concerning each test made: 1. The name of the person, firm, or corporation furnishing each sample tested. The name of the maker of the brick represented in each sample tested. The name of the street or contract which the sample represented. The brands or marks upon the bricks by which they were identified. . The number of bricks furnished. The date on which they were received for test. The date on which they were tested. The drying treatment given before testing, if any. . The length, breadth, and thickness of the bricks. 10. The collective weight of the 10 large spherical shot used in making the test at the time of their last standardization. 11. The number and collective weight of the small spherical shot used in making the test at the time of their last standardization. 12. The total weight of the shot charge after its last standardization. 18. Certificate of the operator that he examined the condition of the machine as to staves, liners, and any other parts affecting the barrel and found them right at the beginning of the test. 14. Certificate of the operator of the number of charges tested since the last standardization of shot charge. 15. The time of the beginning and ending of each test and the number of revolutions made by the barrel during the test as shown by the indicator. 16. Certificate of the operator as to number of stops and starts made in each test. CHASM WN 1 Where brick of larger or smaller sizes than the dimensions given above for blocks are to be tested, the same number of bricks per charge should be used, but allowance for the difference in size should be made in setting the limits for average and maximum rattler loss. 36 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 17. The initial collective weight of the 10 brick composing the charge and their collective weight after rattling. 18. The loss calculated in per cents of the initial weight; and the calculation itself. 19. The number of broken brick and remarks upon the portions which were included in the final weighing. 20. General remarks upon the test and any irregularities occurring in its execution. 21. The date upon which the test was made. 22. The location of the rattler and name of the owner. 23. The certificate of the operator that the test was made under the specifica- tions of the American Society for Testing Materials and that the record is a true record. 24. The signature of the operator or person responsible for the test. 25. The serial number of the test. In event of more than one copy of the record of any test being required, they may be furnished on separate sheets and marked duplicates, but the original record shall always be preserved intact and complete. ACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION OF MATERIAL. ITEM 15. Basis of acceptance or rejection.—Paving brick shall not be judged for acceptance or rejection by the results of individual tests, but by the average of not less than five tests. Where a lot of brick fails to meet the required average it shall be optional with the buyer whether the brick shall be definitely rejected or whether they may be regraded and a portion selected for further test as provided in Item 16. ; ItEM 16. Range of fluctuation—Some fluctuation in the results of the rattler test, both on account of variation in the brick and in the machine used in testing, are unavoidable, and a reasonable allowance for such fluctuations should be made wherever the standard may be fixed. In any lot of paving brick, if the loss on a test computed upon its initial weight exceeds the standard loss by more than 2 per cent, then the portion of the lot represented by that test shall at once be resampled and three more tests executed upon it, and if any of these three tests shall again exceed by more than 2 per cent the required standard, then that portion of the lot shall be rejected. If in any lot of brick two or more tests exceed the permissible maximum, then the buyer may, at his option, reject the entire lot, even though the average of all the tests executed may be within the required limits. Item 17. Fixing of standards.—The percentage of loss which may be taken as the standard will not be fixed in these regulations, and shall remain within the province of the contracting parties. For the information of the public the following scale of average losses is given, representing what may be expected of tests executed under the foregoing specifications: General | Maximum average | permissible loss. loss. Per cent. Per cent. Korbrickisuitable\for heavy tramice ss. vi. lire I 2. Ge ae eine wie SLs 22 24 Howbrick'suitabletormesdivmitrame Fees since ose aate hes cae ham soe pte. 24 26 Horbricksiivaple tor light) tram Gmice esc scammers eae cei eel tee een 26 28 VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 37 Which of these grades should be specified in any given district and for any given purpose is a matter wholly within the province of the buyer, and should be governed by the kind and amount of traffic to be carried, and the quality of paving brick available. ItEM 18. Culling and retesting.—Where, under items 15 and 16 a lot or portion of a lot of brick is rejected, either by reason of failure to show a low enough average test or because of tests above the permissible maximum, the buyer may at his option permit the seller to regrade the rejected brick, separating out that portion which he considers at fault and retaining that which he considers good. When the regrading is complete the good portion shall be then resampled and retested, under the original conditions, and if it fails again either in average or in permissible maximum, then the buyer may definitely and finally ree the entire lot or portion under test. ItrEM 19. Payment of cost of testing—Unless otherwise specified, the cost of testing the material as delivered or prepared for delivery, up to the prescribed number of tests for valid acceptance or rejection of the lot, shall be paid by the buyer. (See also item 23.) The cost of testing extra samples made necessary by the failure of the whole lot or any portion of it shall be paid by the Seller, whether the material is finally accepted or rejected. SECTION II.—VISUAL INSPECTION. It shall be the right of the buyer to inspect the brick, subsequent to their de- livery at the place of use, and prior to or during laying, to cull out and reject upon the following grounds: ITem 20. All brick which are broken in two or chipped in such a manner that neither wearing surface remains substantially intact, or that the lower or bear- ing surface is reduced in area by more than one-fifth. Where brick are rejected upon this ground, it shall be the duty of the purchaser to use them so far as ‘practicable in obtaining the necessary half brick for breaking courses and mak- ing closures, instead of breaking otherwise whole and sound brick for this — purpose. Item 21. All brick which are cracked in such a degree as to produce defects such as defined in item 20, either from shocks received in shipment and handling or from defective conditions of manufacture, especially in drying, burning, or cooling, unless such cracks are plainly superficial and not such as to per- ceptibly weaken the resistance of the brick to its conditions of use. ITEM 22. All brick which are so offsize, or so misshapen, bent, twisted, or kiln marked that they will not form a proper surface as defined by the paving specifications, or align with other brick without making joints other than those permitted in the paving specifications. Item 23. All brick which are obviously too soft and too poorly vitrified to endure street wear. When any disagreement arises between buyer and seller under this item, it shall be the right of the buyer to make two or more rattler tests of the brick which he wishes to exclude, as provided in item 2, and if in either or both tests the brick fall beyond the maximum rattler losses per- mitted under the specifications, then all brick having the same objectionable appearance may be excluded, and the seller must pay for the cost of the test. But if under such procedure, the brick which have been tested as objectionable shall pass the rattler test, both tests falling within the permitted maximum, then the buyer can not exclude the class of material represented by this test and he shall pay for the cost of the test. 38 BULLETIN 246, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Item 24. All bricks which differ so markedly in color from the type or average of the shipment as to make the resultant pavement checkered or disagreeably mottled in appearance. This item shall not be held to apply to the normal yvaria- tions in color which may occur in the product of one plant among brick which will meet the rattler test as referred to in items 15, 16, and 17, but shall apply only to differences of color which imply differences in the material of which the brick are made, or extreme differences in manufacture. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C., AT 10 CENTS PER COPY V BULLETIN: OF THE USDEPARINENT OFAGICULTURE 3 No. 247 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. July 20, 1915. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) A DISEASE OF PINES CAUSED BY CRONARTIUM PYRIFORME. By Grorce G. Hepacock, Pathologist, and Witt1AmM H. Lone, Forest Pathologist, Investigationsin Forest Pathology. CONTENTS. Page. | Page. ENIStOL VAG MUN MUN PIS seer Hesse ce sice cee a 1 | Dissemination of the fungus..........---.--- 12 Morphology of the fungus.................--- 2 | Effect of the fungus on its host plants......-- 13 Synonymy and description of the fungus. ... 3 Effect of the eecial form on pines..... sates 13 Tnoculation experiments with the fungus... 5 Effect of the uredinial and telial forms on Distribution of the fungus......-..----.-.--- 8 Comandraiplantseea es aceekecoccioasece 16 Distribution of the ecial form........... 8 | Eradication and control of the fungus........ 16; Distribution of the uredinial and telial Witeravune cited eas ec aeieece ace cececcssctone 20 LOMINS Sean cps e = Seiceicle se siteteysse~ tem eee 9 HISTORY OF THE FUNGUS. In 1875 Peck (10)! described as a new species under the name Pert- dermium pyriforme a caulicolous or stem-inhabiting Peridermium with obovate to pyriform spores from a specimen collected by J. B. Ellis (No. 2040). In 1882 Ellis issued in his North American Fungi under No. 1021 a caulicolous Peridermium which he called ‘‘Peridermium pyriforme on small branches of Pinus virginiana,” and in the Ellis Herbarium, now at the New York Botanical Garden is a specimen labeled ‘‘Peridermium pyriforme on small branches of Pinus rigida, Newfield, New Jersey, May, 1890.” Both of these latter specimens _appear to be Peridermvum comptoniae; at any rate, neither of them is thetrue P. pyriforme originally described by Peck. Arthur and Kern (1) in 1906 described as P. pyriforme Peck what is now known as P. comptoniae. In 1913 the writers received from Prof. E. Bethel a caulicolous species of Peridermium on Pinus contorta, which they described as a 1 Reference is made by number to “ Literature cited,’’ p. 20. p Notre.—This bulletin discusses an important disease of pines which is now for the first time fully de- seribed. It is intended for circulation among botanists, foresters, nurserymen, State inspectors, and horti- culturists. . 93041°—Bull. 247—15——1 2 BULLETIN 247, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. new species, Peridermium betheli (6). The type material P. pyri- forme was not accessible at the time the article was prepared, as all of Peck’s specimens were packed up and in transit from the old to the new quarters of the New York State Museum. The writers there- fore had to depend upon Arthur and Kern’s published statement con- cerning this species (1, p. 420). The spore measurements also of the typical P. pyriforme did not correspond, since the length of spores of the eastern species as given by Peck in his original description was too great. While this article by the writers (6) was in press, Arthur and Kern published an article (2) in which they discarded their earlier interpretation of P. pyriforme and admitted that there is 4 species of Peridermium with typical ‘‘pyriform, obovate, or oblong-pyriform spores,’ just as Peck had originally described it in 1875 (10), and that their original assignment of P. pyriforme Peck to what is now known as P. comptoniae was an error. They also suggested that the alternate stages of this Peridermium would probably be found on species of Comandra. Orton and Adams (9), in 1914, published an article on Peridermium from Pennsylvania, in which they discussed Pertdermium comptoniae and P. pyriforme. They described the finding of a caulicolous species of Peridermium at Charteroak, Huntingdon County, Pa., on the trunks of Pinus pungens, which proved to be the true Peridermaum pyriforme of Peck. Subsequently Cronartium comandrae was found within 40 feet of the infected pines and the conclusion reached that this Cronartium is the alternate stage of Peridermium pyriforme. They also state that P. bethelt is probably a synonym of P. pyriforme. In May, 1914, Arthur and Kern in a general discussion of the North American species of Peridermium inhabiting pines (3) gave the syn- onymy of P. pyriforme, a technical description, and an explanation of their change of opinion regarding the species. In June, 1914, the writers published culture data (8) showing that successful sowings of the eciospores of Peridermium pyriforme had been made on Oomandra umbellata, thus completing the life cycle of this interesting rust and proving that its alternate stage was the Cronartium found on Comandra. MORPHOLOGY OF THE FUNGUS. The macroscopic characters of Peridermium pyriforme are practi- eally identical on all the hosts examined by the writers, but there are some differences in the microscopic characters, especially in the shape and size of the wciospores. This difference in size and shape of the spores may be due to the influence of the ecial host; that is, they may vary according to the species of Pinus which the Perider- rium inhabits. In specimens of the rust on Pinus contorta (Pl. T; A DISEASE OF PINES CAUSED BY CRONARTIUM PYRIFORME, 3 fig. 4) from Colorado, some of the eciospores are very short and slightly acuminate, while many are ellipsoid or even globoid (PI. I, fig. 3). In specimens on Pinus pungens from Pennsylvania many of the spores are nearly twice as long as those from Pinus contorta, the acumination is very marked, and the spores are rarely ellipsoid Gee tie 2). Peck’s type material of Peridermium pyriforme is in the New York State Museum, at Albany, N. Y. It consists of a split branch 4 cm. long, 1 cm. thick at one end and 0.5 cm. thick at the other; the weak, fragile peridia barely protrude beyond the bark. The split surface of the twig is glued to the yellow paper bearing one of the legends. The specimen is in fairly good condition and most of the essential characters, both macroscopic and microscopic, can be determined from it. What appears to be the other half of this speci- men is at the New York Botanical Garden, Bronx Park, N. Y., but it is much insect eaten and but little can be determined from it. The type material at Albany bears the following legends on the box: “ Peridermium pyriforme, Newfield, N. J. Ells #2040.” On the original wrapper is “Peridermium pyriforme on pine limbs in the spring, Newfield, N. J. .0015-.0025. No. 2040 Ellis.’’ This legend is in two parts. The name is in Peck’s handwriting, with a drawing of a spore and size of spores in pencil, while the host, loca- tion, and number of the specimen are in ink and are in Ellis’s hand- writing. The word ‘‘type”’ is not in the original legend. The fol- lowing is Peck’s original description of Peridermium pyriforme (10) and his remarks on the same: Peridia erumpent, large, white when evacuated, the cells subrotund, with a paler margin, marked with radiating striations, spores obovate, pyriform, or oblong- pyriform, acuminate below, .0015-.0025 inch long. Bark of pine branches. The specimen is labeled ‘‘Newfield, N. J.,’’ but Mr. Ellis informs me that it may have been collected in Georgia and placed by accident among his New Jersey specimens. In the dried specimens the peridia are mostly compressed, about one-fourth of an inch long, and scarcely exserted above the surface of the bark. The spores are pale yellow, but probably they are more highly colored when fresh. The acumination is generally acutely pointed, and it is sometimes so elongated as to make the spore appear clavate. It is one of the most distinctive features of the species. SYNONYMY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE FUNGUS. Cronartium pyriforme (Peck) Hedge. and Long, 1914, Alternate Stage of Peridermium Pyriforme. Cronartium asclepiadeum thesit Berk., 1845, in Lond. Jour. Bot., v. 4, p. 311. Peridermium pyriforme Peck, 1875, in Bul. Torrey Bot. Club, v. 6, No. 2, p. 18. Caeoma comandrae Peck, 1884, in Bul. Torrey Bot. Club, v. 11, No. 5, p. 50. Cronartium thesit (Berk.) Lagerh., 1895, in Troms¢ Mus. Aarsh., v. 17, p. 94. Peridermium betheli Hedge. and Long, 1913, in Phytopathology, v. 3, No. 4, p. 251. ‘Pyenia unknown. 4 BULLETIN 247, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AKcia caulicolous, appearing on branches or trunks, forming le- sions or fusiform swellings 2 to 30 cm. long (Pl. II, fig. 3); sori scat- tered or somewhat confluent in small groups, rounded or irregular, 2 to 6 mm. long by 2 to 4 mm. wide by 1 to 2 mm. high; peridium usually only slightly protruding from the bark, bladdery, subhemi- spherical, rupturing irregularly along the top and sides, without con- colorous processes, about 2 cells thick, outer surface minutely and rather closely verrucose, inner surface also rather closely verrucose but with longer tubercles; peridial cells with a radially striate mar- gin, not easily torn apart, those of the inner layer often irregularly compressed, walls thin, 2 to 4 » in thickness, lumen large; cells in the upper portion of the peridium ovate, 15 to 20 by 22 to 42 uw, in the lower portion ellipsoid to ovate, 16 to 20 by 40 to 60 4; ecio- spores very variable in size and shape, subglobose, obovate, ellipsoid, pyriform or even subclavate on some hosts, more or less acuminate at the basal end, occasionally at both ends (Pl. I, figs. 1, 2, and 3), 15 to 27 by 25 to 74 yp, average for 160 eciospores 21.6 by 57.5 p, walls colorless, thicker at both ends than in the middle, 2 to 4 » thick, rather densely verrucose with small irregular tubercles which in narrow ellipsoid spores are often arranged in irregular almost paral- lel lines or with a ridgelike marking, which gives the surface a reticu- late appearance, no smooth spot present; cell contents of the xcio- spores orange yellow when fresh. Found on Pinus contorta Loud., P. divaricata (Ait.) Du Mont du Cours., P. ponderosa Laws., P. ponderosa scopulorum Sudw., P. pungens Michx., and Pinus sp. Uredinia amphigenous or hypophyllous,' scattered or densely gre- garious, on pallid areas, pustular, 125 to 200 » in diameter, dehiscent by a central opening or pore; peridium delicate; urediniospores broadly elliptical to globoid, 16 to 21 by 19 to 25 w, average for 10 spores 17.8 by 20 », walls nearly colorless and sparsely but minutely echinulate, 1.5 to 2 » thick. Telial columns amphigenous or hypophyllous,! caulicolous, cylin- drical, 80 to 115 » thick, about 1 mm. in length; teliospores oblong to cylindrical, obtuse to truncate at one or both ends, 12 to 16 by 28 to 40 », average for 10 spores 14 by 32.7 », walls smooth, nearly colorless. Found on Comandra pallida A. DC., C. umbellata (L.) Nutt., and C’. richardsiana Fernald (2). In the preceding description by the junior writer, the secial char- acters (Peridermium) are taken from the specimens named in Table II on Pinus contorta, P. ponderosa, P. ponderosa scopulorum, and P. pungens. The uredinial and telial characters (Cronartium) are 1 Amphigenous on Comandra pallida, hypophyllous on Comandra umbellata. Bul. 247, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. RATED: AECIOSPORES OF CRONARTIUM PYRIFORME AND A [WIG OF PINUS CONTORTA. Fic. 1.—Kciospores of Cronartium pyriforme, from the type specimen on Pinus sp. at Albany, N. Y. (Microphotograph.) Fie. 2.—4£ciospores of Cronartium pyriforme from Pinus pun- gens, collected near Greenwood Furnace, Pa. (Microphotograph.) These closely resemble the type. Fia. 3.—ciospores of Cronartiwm pyriforme from Pinus contorta, near Eldorado Springs, Colo., from the same tree as the type of Peridermiwm betheli (microphotograph), showing the variation in the shape of the spores on this pine from those of the type specimen in figure 1. Fic. 4.—A twig of Pinus contorta, showing the ecia and peridia of the quae Peridermium pyriforme (BP. betheli) on a slightly swollen portion. (About natural size. Bul. 247, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. INJURIES TO PINES PRODUCED BY CRONARTIUM PYRIFORME. Fic. 1.—A slight hypertrophy of the trunk of a small tree of Pinus pungens produced by the eciaof Cronartium pyriforme. (About one-third natural size.) Fic. 2.--Openings produced by the rupturing of the bark of Pinus pungens by the maturing of the «cia of Cronartium (Peridermium) pyriforme. (About one-third ni itural size.) Fic. 3.—A twig of Pinus contorta, showing a fusiform swelling produced by Cronartium (Peridermium) pyriforme on this species of tree. Similar fusiform swellings are produced by the fungus on Pinus ponderosa. (About one-half natural size.) A DISEASE OF PINES CAUSED BY CRONARTIUM PYRIFORME. 9) taken from specimens of the fungus on leaves of Comandra wmbel- lata obtained by inoculations with eciospores from Pinus pungens from Greenwood Furnace, Pa. INOCULATION EXPERIMENTS WITH THE FUNGUS. Table I gives complete inoculation data for this fungus on Comandra umbellata. Successful inoculations were made with eciospores from two hosts, Pinus ponderosa and Pinus pungens, collected from three widely separated localities in the States of Washington, California, and Pennsylvania. In each instance control plants of the same species were used, and all remained free from infection. Unsuccessful inoculations were made with eciospores from Pinus contorta (Peri- dermium betheli) both during 1913 and 1914. In 1914 the failure to infect might have been due to the extreme high temperature of the ereenhouse at the time the inoculation experiments were performed. However, the failure for two successive seasons to infect Comandra with the eciospores from Pinus contorta may indicate that the rust on this host is a different species from Peridermium pyriforme, since the shape and size of the xciospores (P. betheli; Pl. I, fig. 3) from Pinus contorta are different from those of the type specimen of this rust (Pl. J, fig. 1). The writers, in the absence of proof from inocula- tions, assume for the present that these morphological differences may be due to the host and therefore are not of sufficient importance to warrant classifying Perzdermium betheli as distinct from P. pyriforme. TaBLE I.—Results of inoculations with the xciospores of Cronartium pyriforme. Date of Results. AXcial host, serial num- eo oiestnaeblaied : 1 Gee ber, and locality. a el eae OC ene A Degree of ollector. é tion. | dinia. | Tella. | infection. Pinus contorta: 1913 8500, Eldorado} Comandra umbellata..| June 18 |--.....-)...-..--.- No infection...| Bethel. Springs, Colo. 8500,1 Eldorado Comptonia asplenifolia |...do....).-----.-|----. Lasse ee donee Do. Springs, Colo. Te Allenspark, | Comandra umbellata..) June 27 |.....-..|...-.---.-]----- dows Do. olo. IDS ae as Castilleja linearis... -.-- BEA6 lS Sel SSG BH ae BRE Eeeeeee eee doce sees Do. Pinus ponderosa: 1914 1914 1914 12467, Beuatches; Comandra umbellata..| May 27 | June5| June 28 | Sparse2....... Fisher. Wash. IDO cases aneReee Saeees GO ne eee May 30]! June9 | July 4/1..... Gon see Do. 12468,- R-oc ky |..... GON eee ec scer ene May 28} June6| July 5/|..... GOs. eee Oy.ce: Gulch, Cal. Pinus pungens: 15444, Greenwood |....- GO} ectesbaeecece May 29/June 7| June 30] Very abun- | Hedgecock. Furnace, Pa. dant. 15455, Greenwood '...-.. GOR e eae May 30; Junel0| July 15 |..... Goss nee Do. Furnace, Pa. DOs: Meee ee MOnerseee scee bet Ed ON aa| omnes do keyers eee dosse se Do. 15462, Greenwood |..-.. Gon eeepeesciesese June). | eedoss| July. y 1) Sparse. 2222o-- Do. Furnace, Pa. Do. 2|Junei2| July 4 | Abundant 3. Do. Junel3| July 8 |.-.-. (0) Do 3 do.-| July 5 | Sparse......-- Do Pinus contorta: ey EVdoraye lessee COM acerca ee Stay Shea epee | ees ae oe No infection 4.- Do. olo. 2 Do2 ks nee Ribes longiflorum..... RG Kaeser ek oe ee a dope sees Do 1 Type of Peridermium betheli. 3 Telia immature. 2 Sparse here means less than six sori. 4 Inoculation made in very hot weather. 6 BULLETIN 247, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A study of Table II and of figures 1 and 2 of Plate I shows some very interesting facts. For instance, the shape and size of the spores from the type material (Pl. I, fig. 1) and those from Pinus pungens (Pl. I, fig. 2) are practically identical, since the range in size for 20 spores of the type is: 19 to 25.6 » by 41.6 to 73.6 » with an average for 20 spores of 23.4 by 58.6y, and for 20 spores from Pinus pungens the range is 19 to 25.6 « by 42 to 73.6 » with an average for 20 spores of 23.1 by 59.1 ». This close similarity in size and shape would indicate that the type may have been on Pinus pungens, but this does not seem probable if the type really came from Newfield, N. J., as Pinus pungens has not been reported from this locality, although Britton (4) reports it as abundant 1 mile east of. Sergeantsville, in Hunterdon County. It is possible that sporadic or introduced specimens of Pinus pungens may have been growing near Newfield at the time the collection of the type specimen of Peridermium pyriforme was made. The alternate stage of the rust, Cronartium pyriforme, on Comandra umbellata was collected at Newfield, N. J., by Ellis in August, 1879, and issued by him in North American Fungi under the number 1082. This indicates that the type material of Peridermium pyriforme came from New Jersey. TaBLe II.— Measurements, shape, etc., of the xciospores of Cronartium pyriforme. Measurement (microns). Z&cial host, serial number, and locality. * Shape. Acumination. Average for Range in size. 20 spores. Pinus pungens: 15462, Greenwood Fur- | 19 to 25.6 by 42 to | 23.1 by 59.1..| Obovate or pyri- | Often very long nace, Pa. 73.6. form to subcla- (P1. I, fig. 2). vate or spatulate. Pinus sp.: Type, Newfield, N. J.(?).| 19 to 25.6 by 41.6 | 23.4 by 58.6..| Obovate to pyri- | Often very long to 73.6. form or subcla- (Pl. I, fig. 1). vate. Pinus ponderosa: 15556, near Darby, Mont..| 19 to 25.6 by 38 to | 22.4 by 48.6..| Obovate to pyri- | Often not very pro- 64, form or rarely nounced. ellipsoid. 12467, Wenatchee, Wash..] 18 ae 25.6 by 38 to | 21.1 by 51.5.. ppv ate to pyri- Do. orm. 12468, Rocky Gulch, Cal.-.| 20. . “to 25.6 Lo. Oi), | OSH onyaiy: See IS oooe GOs ce coseeee Do. to 70.4. Pinus ponderosa scopulorum: : 12470, Crook National | 19 to 27 by 32 to 64.| 21.8 by 44.3..| Ellipsoid or obo- | Usually very short. Forest, Ariz. vate to pyriform. Pinus contorta: 15550, Eldora, Colo......- 15 to 25.6 by 25 to | 18.1 by 40.2..)....- 6S Abo Scbciciac Usually very short 45. (CRiniaeasy 8500, Eldorado Springs, | 15 to 26 by 25 to 48.| 20 by 43.....|.-... OMS eee Usually very short. Colo. The senior writer, during August, 1914, visited Newfield and several other localities in the same region. He found the same species of pine here that are known to occur in southern New Jersey and that probably were present at the time of the Ellis collection, viz, Pinus echinata, P. rigida, and P. virginiana. None of these were found by him to be diseased with the Peridermium of Cronartium pyriforme. A DISEASE OF PINES CAUSED BY CRONARTIUM PYRIFORME. 7 Oomandra umbellata observed in a number of these localities was also free from the rust. ; In 1914 the senior writer found Pinus pungens, P. rigida, and P. virginiana closely associated in a mixed forest near Greenwood Fur- nace, Pa. In this instance Pinus pungens was attacked by Peri- dermium pyriforme so badly that in some places more than 50 per cent of the trees were killed, and although Comandra umbellata plants bearing the telial form of the rust were present in abundance, no pines of either of the other species were diseased. This indicates that these two species of trees are immune and that neither can be the host.for the type specimen that Ellis found at Newfield. Of the five species of pines known to be the ecial host of this fungus, not one is a strictly three-needle pine. All have either two or two to three needles in the leaf clusters. This makes it seem improbable that Pinus rigida was the host of the type material. Pinus echinata is a two to three needle pine found in southern New Jersey, and this species may have been the host of Ellis’s type. The cultural work done by the writers with Peridermium pyriforme Peck proving it to be the ecial stage of Cronartium pyriforme (Peck) Hedge. and Long on species of Comandra completes the life history of all the caulicolous species of Peridermium as now recognized in the United States. There are four native and one introduced species and each constitutes the ecial stage of a species of Cronartium: (1) Peridermium pyriforme, which is the ecial stage of Cronartiwm pyriforme. (2) Peridermium cerebrum Peck is the ecial stage of Cronartiwm cerebrum (Peck) Hedge. and Long on species of Quercus and Castanopsis. This is a well-recognized eastern species and, including its western form, Peridermium harknessii Moore, is the only native gall-forming Peridermium in the United States. P. harknessii on Pinus radiata Don is synonymous with Peridermiwm cerebrum, since it is associated with Cronartium cerebrum on Quercus agrifolia Née on the Monterey Peninsula in California. The other forms of Peridermiwm harknessit may not belong here, and until cultural proof of their identity with P. cerebrum is obtained, the forms on Pinus ponderosa, Pinus contorta, and other western pines remote from species of Quercus and Cas- tanopsis can only be doubtfully referred here. (3) Peridermium comptoniae (Arth.) Orton and Adams, a well-known eastern species, usually occurring on the pitch pine (Pinus rigida Mill.) in the eastern and north- eastern United States, but also attacking two to three needle species, is the zcial stage of Cronartiwm comptoniae Arth. which attacks Comptonia peregrina (L.) Coult. and Myrica gale L. (4) Peridermium filamentosum Peck on Pinus ponderosa and Pinus contorta is the eecial stage of Cronartium filamentosum (Peck) Hedgc., which attacks a number of species of Castilleja in the western United States over a wide region, ranging from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast. Peridermiwm stalactiforme Arth. and Kern and Cronartium coleosporioides (Dietel and Holway) Arth. and Kern are synonymous with this species. (5) Peridermium strobi Kleb., an introduced species, is the ecial stage of Cronar- tium ribicola Fisch. de Waldh., which attacks many species of Ribes. In Europe this Peridermium attacks several species of white (5-needle) pine. In the United States it has been found on only one species, Pinus strobus L. 8 BULLETIN 247, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. For a number of years Prof. E. Bethel has collected from the leaves of Ribes longiflorum at Denver, Boulder, and elsewhere in Colorado a species of Cronartium which is apparently not identical with the European Cronartuum ribicola. The senior writer collected abundant specimens of the uredinial and telial forms of this rust both at Boulder and Denver, Colo., in October, 1914. The telia of this Cronartium are larger, more abundant, and much more conspicuous than those of the EKuropean species. Although the fungus has been epidemic for several years on the Chautauqua grounds near Boulder, two young white pines (Pinus strobus) on the grounds not far from the diseased Ribes were free from the disease. This species apparently is able to winter over on Ribes plants in the uredinial form. It may yet be found that the ecial form is a Peridermium on one of our native pines. DISTRIBUTION OF THE FUNGUS. DISTRIBUTION OF THE ECIAL FORM. The ecial form of the fungus, Peridermium pyriforme, is widely distributed in the United States, having been found in 10 States: T-——~. aeons Ake ieee Giceeeeenen Ges oa a ! \ A I H H A Wee ior 2 aaa ‘ a | ALY Mis Utena a: a Teiliconteaee lig talan alas = jae cages EAI AIR EAS | | WA) i | | ax | 1s if Tr ES i eee ite i aye Ny i i ! ‘ es | easel kage ira i i [. Fig. 1.—Outline sketch map of the United States, showing the known distribution of Cronartium pyri- Jorme. localities where collections of the different forms of the fungus have been made are indicated as follows: yv, Acial form on species of pines; 4, uredinial and telial forms on species of Comandra; , all forms. Arizona, California, Colorado, Montana, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming (fig. 1); and when a more careful search is made for the fungus, in the light of our present knowledge, it will no doubt be found to have a much more general distribution in this country. It has also been found in Alberta and British Columbia. 1 Allspecimens cited except those marked with a star (*) have been examined by one of the writers. A DISEASE OF PINES CAUSED BY CRONARTIUM PYRIFORME. g DISTRIBUTION IN THE DOMINION OF CANADA, Alberta.—On - Pinus contorta (P. murrayana): * Devil’s Lake, Banff, by Holway (3, p. 127), in 1907. British Columbia.—On Pinus ponderosa: * Vernon, by Brittain, in 1913. DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES. New Jersey.—On Pinus sp.: (Type) Newfield, by Ellis (2040), in 1882 (Herbarium New York State Museum). Pennsylvamnia.—On Pinus pungens: Charteroak, by Orton and Adams, in 1913 (F. P.1 15129); Greenwood Furnace, by Hedgcock, in 1914 (F. P. 15444, 15455, and 15462); Petersburg, Huntingdon County, by Hedgecock, in 1914 (F. P. 15483). Wisconsin.—On Pinus dwaricata: * Douglas County, by Davis. South Dakota.—On Pinus ponderosa scopulorum: * Rockerville, by White; Black Hills near Custer, by Hedgecock and Phillips (F. P. 15826) and by Hedgecock (F. P. 15801), in 1914. Wyoming.—On Pinus contorta: Dubois, by C. E. Taylor, in 1914 (F. P. 15797). Colorado.—On Pinus contorta (P. murrayana): * Gatos (collector not given), in 1906 (3, p. 126-127); Eldorado Springs (F. P. 8500), type of Peridermium betheli, Lake Eldora (F. P. 8511), Allenspark (F. P. 8502 and 8514), Arrow (F. P. 8515 and 8494), by Bethel, in 1913; Eldora (F. P. 15550), by Bethel, in 1914. On Pinus ponderosa scopulorum: Monument, by Hedgecock, in 1912; Allenspark, by Bethel, in 1913 (F. P. 8504, 8505, 8510, and 8451). Montana.—On Pinus ponderosa: Darby, by Weir, in 1914 (F. P. 15556). Washington.—On Pinus ponderosa: Wenatchee, by D. F. Fisher, in 1914 (F. P. 12467). On Pinus sp.: * Seattle, by Bonser (3, p. 127), in 1906. California.—On Pinus ponderosa: Trinity National Forest, by Box, in 1912; Rocky Gulch, Siskiyou County, by Meinecke, in 1913; by Boyce, in 1914 (F. P. 12468); Mills Ranch, Goosenest Mountain, Siskiyou County, by Boyce, in 1914 (F. P. 15678 and 15680); Cas- tella, Shasta County; Weaverville and Brown Creek, Trinity County, by Boyce, in 1914. Arizona.—On Pinus ponderosa scopulorum: Crook National Forest, by Swift, in 1914 (F. P. 12470). DISTRIBUTION OF THE UREDINIAL AND TELIAL FORMS. Cronartium pyriforme, representing both the uredinial and telial forms of the fungus, has been collected more frequently and over a greater range of terrritory than the ecialform. It has been found in 1 Forest-Pathology Investigations number. 93041°—Bull. 247—15—2 10 BULLETIN 247, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Quebec and Ontario in the Dominion of Canada and in the United States in the folowing States: California, Colorado, Illinois, Massa- chusetts, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming (fig. 1). DISTRIBUTION IN THE DOMINION OF CANADA.! Quebec.—On Comandra umbellata.2—Seven Islands, by C. B. Robin- son (858, Plants of Quebec). Ontario.—On Comandra umbellata.2—London, by J. Dearness (2443, Sydow Uredineen and 3419, Fungi Columbiani); and Point Abino, by J. J. Davis (Herbarium New York Botanical Garden). DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES. Vermont.—On Comandra wmbellata: Between Essex Junction and Burlington, by Hedgecock (F. P. 8539 and 8655); locality not given, by A. J. Grout (Herbarium New York Botanical Garden). Massachusetts —On Comandra umbellata: Magnolia, by Seymour and Earle (210-a and 210-b, Economic Fungi). New York.—On Comandra umbellata: Syracuse (Ex. Herbarium L. M. Underwood); Ithaca, by H. S. Jackson (1458, Flora North America); Mount Defiance, by Peck (Herbarium New York State Museum). New Jersey.—On Comandra umbellata: Newfield, by Ellis (1082, Ellis and Everhart, North American Fungi). Pennsylvania.—On Comandra umbellata: Charteroak, Hunting- don County, by Orton, Adams, and Kirk (9, p. 25); Petersburg, Huntingdon County, by Hedgecock (F. P. 15637). Greenwood Furnace, Huntingdon County, by Hedgecock (F. P. 15653, 15654, and 15657). Ohio.—On Comandra umbellata: Cleveland, by B. T. Galloway. Iilinois.—On Comandra umbellata: Oregon, by M. B. Waite (85, 134, 176, and 366). Missouri.cOn Comandra pallida: Emma, by C. H. Demetrio (4310, Rabenhorst-Paczschke, Fungi Europei et Extra-Europei). Michigan.—On Comandra umbellata: Ann Arbor, by Holway (504, North American Uredinales); Ann Arbor, by F. L. Scribner; Ros- — common, P. Spaulding (F. P. 15681). Wisconsin.—On Comandra umbellata: Racine, by J. J. Davis; The Dells, by Underwood (Herbarium New York Botanical Garden). Nebraska.—On Comandra pallida: Dismal River, by Webber (784, Fungi Nebraskenses); Hat Creek basin, by Webber (776, Fungi Nebraskenses); Lincoln, by R. J. Pool (F. P. 17045). 1 Allspecimens here listed are in the mycological collections of the United States Department of Agricul- ture unless otherwise noted. © 2 These species probably should be Comandra richardsiana Fernald, since the collections were made in the range of C. richardsiana and out of the range of C. wmbellata as now recognized. A DISEASE OF PINES CAUSED BY CRONARTIUM ‘PYRIFORME, 11 Wyoming.—On Comandra pallida: Big Horn Mountains, by Wil- liams and Griffiths (298-a, West American Fungi); Bear Lodge Mountains, by Griffiths and Carter (298, West American Fungi); Centennial, by E. T. and E. Bartholomew (3705, Fungi Columbian) ; near Medicine Bow River, by A. Nelson (1257, Herbarium University of Wyoming). South Dakota.—On Comandra pallida: Iroquois, by F. A. Wiliams (1914, Fungi Columbiani); Black Hills, near Custer, by Hedgecock and Phillips (F. P. 15827 and 15828). North Dakota.—On Comandra pallida: Beaver Lake, by J. F. Brenckle (78, Fungi Dakotenses). Colorado.—On Comandra pallida: Boulder, by F. E. and E. S. Clements (542, Cryptogame Formationum Coloradensium); south of Yuma, by H. L. Shantz, U. S. Dept. Agr. Plant-Disease Survey; Short Creek, Custer County, by T. D. A. Cockerell (99 and 104, Ellis Collection in Herbarium New York Botanical Garden); Soldier Canyon, by J. H. Cowen (168, Ellis Collection); La Veta, by C. A. Crandall (283, Ellis Collection); Pagosa Peak, by C. F. Baker (22, Plants of Southern Colorado); also by F. S. Earle (120, Herbarium New York Botanical Garden); Sangre de Cristo Mountains near Westcliffe, by Hedgcock (IF. P. 8082); Steamboat Springs, by Hedg- cock (F. P. 3873 and 3889); Monument, by Hedgcock (F. P. 3792, 3839, 15948, and 15950); Palmer Lake, by Hedgcock and Bethel (F. P. 3794 and 3819); Boulder, by Hedgcock (F. P. 15885); Golden, by Hedgecock (F. P. 15888); Palmer Lake, by Hedgecock (F. P. 15907 and 15948); Monument Nursery, by Hedgecock and Pierce (F. P. 15950). 2 Utah.—On Comandra pallida: Locality not given, by M. E. Jones (Herbarium New York Botanical Garden). Montana.—On Comandra pallida: Helena, by F. D. Kelsey; Sandcoulee, by F. D. Kelsey (2419, Elis and Everhart, North American Fungi); Sandcoulee (80, Montana Flora) and Helena (61, Parasitic Fungi Montana), by F. W. Anderson; Missoula, by Hedg- cock and Kirkwood (F. P. 8021). Washington.—On Comandra pallida: West Klickitat County, by W. W. Suksdorf (176, Flora of Washington). Californa.—On Comandra umbellata: Shasta Springs, by W. C. Blasdale (6 North American Uredinales), by M. A. Howe (101, Fungi California), Herbarium New York Botanical Gardens; Mills Ranch, Siskiyou County, by Boyce (F. P. 15796); Integral Mine, Shasta County, by Boyce; Rocky Gulch, Siskiyou County, by Meinecke; Weaverville and Brown Creek, Trinity County, by Boyce; Goosenest Mountain, Siskiyou County, by Boyce and Rider. 12 BULLETIN 247, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DISSEMINATION OF THE FUNGUS. Cronartium pyriforme is disseminated by means of its three spore forms—viz., eciospores, urediniospores, and teliospores—each form playing an important role in maintaining the succession of generations between pine trees and Comandra plants. The process of infection with this species of rust does not differ materially from that of the white-pine blister rust (12). The ecia on the table mountain pine (Pinus pungens) in Pennsyl- vania mature from the middle of May to the latter part of June. Farther north on the jack pine (Pinus divaricata) they bear their spores somewhat later in the season. On the lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and the western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) from Colorado to Wyoming, the period of maturity is from the middle of June to the middle of July. In each region they develop earlier on slopes of southern exposure and at lower altitudes. The zciospores are discharged in great abundance for a day or two and with lessened abundance for about a week longer. They infect any Comandra plants with which they come in contact. The leaves are most commonly infected, but occasionally the stems and floral parts are attacked. The infection near diseased pine is usually very abundant, decreasing rapidly as the distance increases. An abundant infection from sciospores has not been noted for more than 200 feet from the ecial center, when it is located on small pines. When large pines are diseased in the upper limbs, the distance that the eciospores are blown is greatly increased, and the zone of infection is therefore extended very much, and on mountain slopes may reach the distance of nearly 1,000 feet. This moculation of Comandra plants by zeclospores may well be designated as a primary infection, and that by urediniospores, described in the following paragraph, as a secondary infection. In 8 to 10 days from the time of inoculation by exciospores the uredinia appear on the leaves of the infected Comandra plants_and urediniospores begin to be produced. These are blown about by winds and inoculate other Comandra plants. This secondary infec- tion greatly extends the area of diseased plants. A second crop of uredinia develops in from 8 to 10 days from these secondary infections. This process continues throughout the growing season. It is possible that as many as six or more generations of uredinia may be thus pro- duced in one season, and the fungus may spread several miles in this manner. It is by this method of infection that the fungus spreads the greatest distance in nature, which explains why the form of fungus on the Comandra plants is more common than on the form of pines. In about 15 days the telial columns develop from the uredinial sori on the Comandra plants. As each column grows older it gradually elongates, and the development of teliospores progresses outward A DISEASE OF PINES CAUSED BY CRONARTIUM PYRIFORME. 13 along the column with its growth. The period of teliospore formation for each telium is from one to two weeks. The teliospores germinate in situ as fast as they mature, without bemg detached from the telial columns. As each teliospore germinates it develops a basidium, which when typical bears four sporidia. The sporidia borne on each basidium, however, are usually less than four. The sporidia become detached as soon as mature and are carried away by even theslightest breeze. They readily infect the younger part of pine trees, thus completing the life cycle of the fungus. From observation it appears probable that germinating sporidia usually gain entrance into the tissues of the pines through wounds or in wound callus where young cells are exposed. Inoculations with another species, Cronartium cerebrum, on pine trees (Pinus virginiana) without wounds have failed, while at the same time, other conditions being similar, they were successful in wounds. Since each generation of uredinia on Comandra plants is followed within a few days by one of the telia, there is a continual produc- tion of sporidia from the time the telia first appear till the end of the growing season. This greatly extends the period of pos- sible infection for pines, a period which must be from two to four months, depending upon the length of the growing season in pines, which varies not only at different altitudes and in different latitudes, but also from season to season. It is highly probable that the various spore forms of this fungus, especially the zciospores from the pines, may be carried about on the bodies of birds and of the smaller animals. In this manner they could be carried even to greater distances than is possible by wind dissemination. If young pines in nurseries should become infected, the danger of a much wider dissemination of the fungus than has already taken place in nature is at once possible, with man as the agent. Under conditions such as occur in many localities both in the eastern and the western United States it would be easily possible for the pines in nurseries to become badly infected, owing to the abundance of Coman- dra plants in the vicinity. EFFECT OF THE FUNGUS ON ITS HOST PLANTS. EFFECT OF THE 4ECIAL FORM ON PINES. The immediate effect of the xcial form, Peridermium pyriforme, varies in different species of pines and on the same species under different conditions. When young lodgepole pines or western yellow pines are attacked, either on the trunk or limbs, there commonly develops a slightly swollen area in the region of the infection. If the infected area encircles the trunk, as it usually does, a spindle- shaped or fusiform swelling may result (Pl. II, fig. 3), which varies 14 BULLETIN 247, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from an inch to more than a footin length. In case of Pinus pungens (Pl. II, figs. 1 and 2), fusiform swellings are not so common as in case of Pinus contorta and Pinus ponderosa. Swelling is commonly not very evident in very young trees of any of these three species. The bark layers are usually thickened in the portions where the rust mycelium is present. So far as can be ascertained from field observa- tions the ecia may not appear until three or more years after infection takes place. The development of the peridia at the maturity of the ecia rup- tures the bark of the diseased areas, forming numerous openings (Pl. I, fig. 2) which reach to the inner layers of the cambium. Asa result the death of the cambium layer may take place, due apparently to excessive evaporation of water through the lesions. The part of the tree attacked usually is either girdled and killed outright or it is partially girdled and a canker is formed. Young pines are very commonly girdled and killed during the same season the ecia are produced. In its effect on pines, Peridermium pyriforme must be classed with P. strobi and P. jilamentosum and be ranked as one of the most destructive species of Peridermium in North America. In a region adjacent to Greenwood Furnace, Huntingdon County, Pa., the senior writer, during June, 1914, took notes on the number and condition of pines (Pinus pungens) diseased with Peridermium pyriforme. Again, in autumn, the condition of the same trees was noted, and it was found that of 50 diseased pines upon which the ecia had been found in June, 29 (58 per cent) were dead from the girdling effect of the fungus. These had apparently died shortly after the ecia fruited, as dead leaves were still clinging to the branches of the trees. The pines ex- amined were small, varying in height from 4 to 10 feet, and in diam- eter at the ground from 1 to 4 inches. A similar effect was noted during the autumn of 1914 on a smaller number of young pines (Pinus ponderosa) in the Black Hills near Custer, S. Dak. J.S. Boyce, of the Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology, has reported this fungus on the yellow pme (Pinus ponderosa) in Klamath, Shasta, ‘and Trinity National Forests im California.t This report states that in the Klamath National Forest— The parasite produced spindle-shaped swellings at the point of infection on the yellow pine, usually on the main stem but occasionally on the branches. These swellings varied from 2 inches to a foot in length. The fungus on yellow pine undoubtedly kills that portion of the main stem or branch of the tree above the point of infection. A number of small trees were found to have been killed. Each of these bore one or more spindle-shaped swellings on the stem. A volunteer (shoot) had then appeared while a new infection had occurred just below the point where the volunteer joined the main stem, A repeated killing of this kind causes a strikingly deformed tree. 1 Boyce, J.S. Notes on Cronartium pyriforme. Unpublished report submitted December 7, 1914, A DISEASE OF PINES CAUSED BY CRONARTIUM PYRIFORME. 15 The largest infected tree found was 12 feet high and 3 inches in diameter at breast height, approximately 22 years old, with the infection occurring 5 feet from the ground. Tm another area here 10 saplings killed by the fungus, with only one living uninfected tree, were found. One diseased area of Pinus ponderosa at Mills Ranch on the north slope of Goosenest Mountain in the Klamath National Forest was described by Boyce, which contained at least a hundred acres. The largest tree diseased by the fungus in this area was 8 inches in diame- ter at breast height. Spindle-shaped swellings were common, but more especially on the younger, smaller trees. The girdling effect and death of the host tree in the parts above the point of infection were very much in evidence in this area. Small trees apparently were girdled and killed much sooner than older trees. Wounds caused by some gnawing animal, presumably the porcupine, were common on trees in areas where the fungous disease occurred. In one of the diseased portions of the forest a sample plat was established by Boyce and a count of the healthy, infected, dead, and dying trees of Pinus ponderosa was made. The result was as follows: Out of 314 trees in the plat, 153 (48.7 per cent) were apparently healthy, 52 (16.5 per cent) were plainly diseased by the fungus, 3 (0.9 per cent) were dying, and 106 (33.7 per cent) were dead from the effects of the fungus. In the words of the report: Over 50 per cent of the total number of trees of the sample plat had been infected, and nearly two-thirds of the total number infected had already been killed. There is, of course, a possibility that the death of some of these might have resulted from other causes, but only those trees were included which [I was certain in my mind had been killed by the fungus. Boyce’s data corroborate those taken by the senior writer both in Pennsylvania and South Dakota. Reporting concerning an area of diseased Pinus ponderosa along Browns Creek in Trinity National Forest, Boyce says: There were many dead trees, undoubtedly killed by the fungus, with spindle-shaped swellings on the main stems. On living infected trees the zcia were sporulating (June 27, 1914), but not very abundantly, not to be compared with the sporulation found at Rocky Gulch on May 20. One infected sapling was found in which the major portion of the bark had been destroyed either by wood rats or porcupines. Where the trunk is not girdled, cankers or catfaces are occasionally formed by the death of a portion of the cambium. In such cases the continued presence of the fungus in the live tissues beyond the dead area stimulates their growth, and the fungus may fruit a number of times before the tree is killed. Catfaces on the lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and on the western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa), however, are more commonly produced by another species of rust, Peridermium harknessiv. Peridermium pyriforme, when it infects the trunk of a pine tree, may spread from the trunk to such limbs as spring from a point near 16 BULLETIN 247, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the center of infection or, vice versa, may spread from the point of infection on a limb to that part of the trunk adjacent to the diseased area on the limb. In this it resembles P. filamentosum (5) and the fusiform type of P. cerebrum (P. fusiforme) (7, p. 248). Such in- stances in the case of both P. pyriforme and P. filamentosum on Pinus ponderosa have been observed by the senior writer in Colorado and Wyoming and noted by Spaulding (11, p. 28, 34) in the case of Peri- dermium strobi on white pines in the northeastern United States. EFFECT OF THE UREDINIAL AND TELIAL FORMS ON COMANDRA PLANTS. The effect of the uredinial and telial forms of the fungus, Cronartium pyriforme, on Comandra plants can not be separated into two distinct sets of symptoms, since the two forms are produced on the same area of tissue, the one following the other in a few days. Both the uredinia or the telia may occur on either surface of the leaves, as well as on the younger portions of the stems, and occasionally on the floral parts. In badly infected plants there is a decided shortening of both the stems and the leaves in their growth, so much so as to change the entire aspect of the plants. This is usually accompanied by a slight chlorosis of the leaves. Where the infection is slight, the diseased spots on the leaves are usually a lighter green color than the uninfected portions. Late in the growing season the reverse colora- tion sometimes takes place, and the chlorophyll is retained longest in light-green areas in the leaves where the mycelium of the fungus is found, even after the remainder of the leaf has become yellow from fall coloration. In badly infected Comandra plants defoliation takes place prema- turely; that is, before drought, frost, or cold weather bring it about. No data have been obtamed as to the final effect of the rust on Comandra plants. The effect, however, is decidedly stunting, and plants infected badly for several seasons would undoubtedly be killed. ERADICATION AND CONTROL OF THE FUNGUS. One of the most serious facts in connection with the prevalence of Peridermium pyriforme 11 some portions of the western United States is the danger of introducing it into localities now free from it through the shipment of trees in the work of artificial reforestation. For this purpose nursery stock is often shipped long distances. The forest nursery if situated in mountain regions is apt to be in a locality where Comandra plants are common. Since these serve as host plants for both the uredinial and telial forms of the fungus, their presence may lead directly to the infection of the young pines in the nursery and indirectly to the infection of localities hitherto free from the disease. 1In Comandra pallida this is the case. In Comandra umbellata the uredinia and telia are found uniformly on the under surface of the leaves. A DISEASE OF PINES CAUSED BY CRONARTIUM PYRIFORME. 17 If it were possible to distinguish all of the diseased trees at the time of planting, it would be an easy matter to discard them and thus prevent the further spread of the disease. Such, however, is not the case, since the disease may not become evident until three or four years after the young trees are infected and until after they are planted in the forest. This being the case, other means for the control of the disease must be adopted. The most feasible plan to prevent further infection in the nursery and the subsequent dissemination of the disease through infected nursery stock appears to be the elimination of all Comandra plants in the vicmity of the nursery. In order to protect the nursery from infection whenever the dis- ease is present in adjacent forests, all diseased pines that can be found within a radius of at least half a mile from the nursery should be cut down. These can be selected most easily by a person familiar with the fungus, at the time the ecia mature in the pines. As pre- viously stated, this period varies from the middle of May till in August, depending upon both the latitude and the altitude of the locality. This cutting-out process should be repeated each year until no more diseased trees can be found in the proposed neutral zone. The elimination of all diseased pies will not suffice, however, absolutely to control the disease in the nursery when Comandra plants are in the vicinity, since it is quite certain that the fungus can spread by the urediniospores from one Comandra plant to another for long distances in one season. By this means the disease could be carried from diseased pines outside of the neutral zone or belt of removal to the young pines in the nursery. To protect the nursery against infec- tion from this fungus all Comandra plants within 1,000 feet of the outer boundaries of the nursery should be removed by digging them out. Comandra plants are herbaceous perennials and spread primarily by means of seeds and secondarily by means of underground runners. The secondary method is the more common. The seeds, being edible, are much liked by birds and rodents, and it is possible that they may be carried by these animals to a considerable distance from the original place of growth, thus starting new plant colonies. The eradication of Comandra plant colonies will be difficult, owimg to the numerous underground runners, any of which are lable to be broken off and left in the ground to start new plants. It will no doubt be necessary to dig up the plants repeatedly before they can be com- pletely eradicated. All species of Comandra are parasitic and derive part of their food supply from other plants by a direct attachment of the smaller side roots of Comandra to the roots of the host plants. It is not yet known how many species of plants are thus parasitized, but several widely different species are attacked. Species of Vac- 18 BULLETIN 247, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cinium are commonly parasitized. This subject is now bemg in- vestigated by the writers. The recommendations here given are based on observations made in forests by the senior writer and not on actual experiments. An attempt to control this disease as recommended here has been planned and will probably be carried out in 1915. Until it is certain that the neighborhood of a nursery is free from this fungus, ship- ment of stock to uninfected forests should be avoided. The spraying of pines with Bordeaux mixture or other fungicides for the prevention of infection by Cronartwum pyriforme can not be recommended until it is known that this method is effectual in con- trolling the disease. The spraying of Comandra plants with a poisonous substance to lall the foliage and tender shoots at the time they might be infected from the excial form of the fungus on pines should prevent the imme- diate spread of the disease to the pines in adjacent nurseries. This spraying should be done as soon as the leaves of the Comandra plants are fully developed and before the plants bloom. This would prob- ably be from the latter part of May to the middle of July, depending on the altitude and the latitude of the locality. Should the Coman- dra plants send forth new growth later in the season it might be necessary to spray a second time. Spraying should be repeated each year as long as any Comandra plants remain alive. Where young pines are present, this method could not be used without killing them, and the uprooting of the Comandra plants is recommended for such areas. Mr. H. R. Cox, Agriculturist of the Office of Farm Management, Bureau of Plant Industry, has prepared a circular letter giving direc- tions for the use of plant poisons in killing vegetation. This circular follows, more complete directions being obtainable from the office mentioned upon request: For several years this office has been making tests of various chemical plant poisons for killing all vegetation in such situations as driveways, pathways, tennis courts, railroad rights of way, and similar places. It appears that of the substances there are three that are better than any of the rest, namely, arsenite of soda, common salt, and some form of petroleum. The best one of these for each case will depend upon condi- tions. It seems to be more economical usually to make a number of comparatively light applications for the purpose primarily of killing the foliage rather than one heavy one to affect the roots as well as the tops. In the case of most kinds of vegetation excepting the grasses, and especially for vegetation of a broad-leafed character, arsenite of soda is highly effective. The com- mercial grade may be obtained at about 25 cents per pound from some of the wholesale chemists. If large areas are to be treated, it can be made at home more cheaply by boiling 1 pound of white arsenic and 2 pounds of sal soda in a gallon of water until a stock solution is formed. From 10 to 20 pounds of the commercial arsenite of soda or from 7 to 14 pounds of the white arsenic in the home-mixed formula, either one diluted to make from 50 to 100 gallons of solution, is sufficient to kill most of the foliage on | acre. A DISEASE OF PINES CAUSED BY CRONARTIUM PYRIFORME. 19 Common salt may be applied dry, provided it is fine grained and is scattered very uniformly. Salt may be applied more uniformly, however, if it is made into a satu- rated solution (1 pound to 14 quarts of water). The latter is usually the most satis- factory form. It should be used at the rate of from 3 to 5 tons per acre, depending upon the character and rankness of the vegetation. Of the petroleum products, fuel oil is about the most satisfactory, although this is sometimes difficult to obtain, and then only in barrel or tank-car lots. Near the oil fields, crude oil as it comes from the well can be obtained cheaply and is quite satis- factory. The petroleum products should be applied at the rate of from 300 to 400 gallons per acre. If small areas are to be treated, so that the matter of expense is of little consideration, kerosene may be used. The petroleum products seem to be the most effective of all when applied to narrow-leafed vegetation, such as grass; salt seems to be the next in effectiveness on such plats, and arsenic third. A spraying outfit is best for applying liquid material, excepting the salt brine, with which a sprinkling can or sprinkler will do faster work. The petroleum products are very hard on the rubber parts of spraying outfits, but it is necessary to use a sprayer in that connection on account of economy of application; with very small areas where economy is not to be considered the oils can be applied through a sprinkling can. In the forest under our present conditions and market values it is not best to advise methods of elimination so expensive as have been given for the protection of nurseries. In badly infected areas of young forest trees, all diseased trees should be cut out whenever possible. This often can be done by the forest officer without very great expense, owing to the small size of the trees. In lumbering, trees diseased with catfaces or cankers should not be left for seed trees, as their vitality has been lowered and they will not produce as good a crop of seed as more healthy trees, and it is also highly saolbelble that the viability of the seed onaltnosd by such trees is lower than that produced by more healthy trees. Again, trees with such cankers are often capable of producing eciospores around the border of the cankers and if allowed to remain for seed trees would become centers of infection for the younger generations of trees in the new forest. 20 BULLETIN 247, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LITERATURE CITED. (1) Arraur, J. C., and Kern, F. D. 1906. North American species of Peridermium. Jn Bul. Torrey Bot. Club, v. 33, no. 8, p. 403-488. 1913. The rediscovery of Peridermium pyriforme Peck. Jn Science, n. s. v. 38, no. 974, p. 311-312. 1914. North American species of Peridermium on pine. Jn Mycologia, v. 6, no. 3, p. 109-138. (4) Brrrron, N. L. 1889. Catalogue of plants found in New Jersey. In Geol. Surv. N. J. Final Rpt., v. 2, pt. 1, p. 27-642. (5) Hepecock, G. G. 1913. Notes on some western Uredineze which attack forest trees. II. In Phytopathology, v. 3, no. 1, p. 15-17. (6) and Lone, W. H. 1913. An undescribed species of Peridermium from Colorado. Jn Phyto- pathology, v. 3, no. 4, p. 251-252. = (7) 1914. Identity of Peridermium fusiforme with Peridermium cerebrum. In Jour. Agr. Research, v. 2, no. 3, p. 247-249, pl. 11. (8) 1914. The Alternate Stage of Peridermium Pyriforme. 3p. Washington, D.C. Privately printed. (9) Orton, C. R., and Apams, J. F. 1914. Notes on Peridermium from Pennsylvania. Jn Phytopathology, v. 4, no. 1, p. 23-26, pl. 3. (10) Pzox, C. H. 1875. New fungi from New Jersey. Jn Bul. Torrey Bot. Club, v. 6, no. 2, p. 13-14. ; (11) Spavuipine, PERLEY. 1911. The blister rust of white pine. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bul. 206, 88 p., 5 fig., 2 pl. (1 col.). (12) TuBeur, CARL VON. 1914. Bekimpfung der Ribes-bewohnenden Generation des Weymouths- kiefernblasenrostes. In Naturw. Ztschr. Forst- u. Landw., Jahrg. 12, Heft 3, p. 137-139. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. OC. HOWARD, Chief. Washington, D. C. Vv August 14, 1915 FLEAS. By F. C. BISHOPP, Entomological Assistant, Southern Field Crop Insect Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Iinbroduchone= === =a 1 | The jumping of fleas and other IBIOSUS (Ot CCE ae ee eee 2 means oh SpLreddpe as aes ee eee 10 Bipinemnanitse es 2 eyes ee 9 | Fleas as CEERI of disease______ - ial Tiki Tito eee 4 ESky parasites of man and ani- Length of life of the adult_————__- T| watucel control 2D ISIRECOHINE, MACS Sill Artificial "controlen 2s eee oe 23 Factors influencing flea abundance__ oF | Remedies; torsbites== === ee 31 INTRODUCTION. Fleas have forced themselves on man’s attention for many cen- turies. All are familiar with these elusive little pests, knowing well their brownish color, peculiar flattened shape, apparent ability to sense the approach of danger, and the proverbial ease with which they escape. Their propensities for annoying man by inflicting bites in rapidly changing situations and for persistently worrying dogs and cats are well known. However, it is not only in the role of annoyers of man or beast that fleas assume importance, for within the last decade the world has come to know fleas in their most important relationship to the welfare of mankind—that of transmitters of disease, and particularly of the dread disease known as plague. Aside from plague, which levies a death toll well into the hundreds of thousands yearly, attention is directed to fleas as important insects on account of their probable Noty.—The activities of fleas as carriers of bubonic plague and other diseases, as parasites upon poultry, and as pests to man and other animals are presented in this bulletin. Descriptions, life history, breeding places, hosts, and methods of eradication and control are given. 92999°—Bull. 248—15——1 2 BULLETIN 248, U..S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. connection with the disease of warm climates known as infantile kala-azar. There is also reason to believe that fleas play some part in transmitting leprosy. It has been found that the tapeworm of the dog, which has been known to attack man, is dependent upon some insect in which to develop one of its stages, and the dog flea often serves in this capacity. Another interesting role which a certain species of flea has been found to fill, though of no known direct importance to man, is the transmission of a blood parasite of the rat known scientifically as Trypanosoma lewist. One kind of flea which is becoming widely distributed in the Tropics has the peculiar habit of burrowing into the flesh of man, especially around the toes. This species causes severe sores and often permanent crippling. In the United States, aside from their connection with plague transmission, we are concerned most with insects of this group as annoyers of man and animals. In the latter case the pests often become so numerous as to cause more or less loss.. This is particularly true of the chicken flea, or “ sticktight,” which will be discussed in the following pages. Fleas, as is generally known, are true insects. They have been thought by many entomologists to be closely related to the Diptera, or two-winged flies, but now they are usually considered to constitute a separate order of insects. Their peculiar shape,‘ flattened from side to side, and armature of spines and bristles are closely correlated with their parasitic habits, enabling them to move rapidly between the hairs or feathers of their hosts. HOSTS OF FLEAS. Fleas in the adult stage may be said to be parasitic exclusively on warm-blooded animals. A single exception has been recorded—that of one flea which was found attached to a land snake in Australia. A great many species of birds and most mammals have been found to be infested by these parasites. The group of animals of which the horse, ox, and sheep are representative are probably least subject to attack. It is not the purpose to convey the idea that there are as many kinds of fleas as there are birds and animals. In fact, the num- ber of distinct species of fleas now known is probably not greatly in excess of 400. In general, there are certain birds or animals, spoken of as hosts, upon which these insects prefer to feed. Some species of fleas appear to have much more restricted host re- lationships than others; that is, they are found on comparatively fewer animals. In other instances fleas may not be found uncom- 1 Some knowledge of the structure of a few of our common kinds of fleas may be derived from an examination of the illustrations in the following pages, which, with the exception of figure 1, were drawn by Mr. Harry B. Bradford, FLEAS. 3 monly on certain hosts, but they are not at home on these and would probably not live long or reproduce if made to feed on them ex- clusively. This class of hosts usually becomes infested by being closely associated with the true host of the fleas, as, for instance, in case of a rat entering a squirrel burrow or a carnivorous animal de- vouring a flea-infested rodent and thus getting the insects upon its body. Such hosts are usually spoken of as accidental or temporary. While infestations of this kind are seldom of importance to the host animal from the standpoint of direct injury, they may have a vital influence by transmitting disease and may also have an important bearing on control. As a result of this habit of fleas of clinging to, or temporarily feeding on, hosts which are not necessarily congenial, long lists of species of fleas accredited to a single kind of animal or bird are often found. For instance, more than 20 species of fleas have been taken on common wharf rats. BITING HABITS. The sensation produced by the biting of a flea is well known to most persons. The annoyance, however, is partly produced by the. movements of the insect and by the mental unrest caused by the knowledge that fleas are present beneath the clothing. The effect of flea bites on man is discussed further on page 16. With very rare exceptions, adult fleas partake of no food other than the blood of warm-blooded animals, and it appears that reproduction never takes place until the fleas have partaken of such blood. The mouth parts are well adapted to piercing the skins of their hosts and sucking up the blood. The essential piercing organ con- sists of three slender parts. A groove along the inner sides of two of these, the mandibles, with the closely applied third, forms a chan- nel through which the salivary fluid is forced into the wound and through which the blood is pumped into the body. An idea of the structure of the mouth parts may be gained by referring to figure 1, eand g. Most species are easily disturbed when feeding, and this accounts, in part at least, for the frequency with which a single flea may bite. With the exception of the “ sticktight ” flea and certain of its rela- tives, fleas do not remain attached to their hosts for long periods. The amount of time spent off the hosts seems to vary much with the spe- cies. Normally the adults feed every day and possibly oftener, but in the case of interrupted meals, as has been mentioned, they may bite a ereat many times during a day, and some species, such as the cat and dog fleas, probably remain on the host almost continuously, feeding - at very frequent intervals. A great many fleas are nocturnal. These 4 BULLETIN 248, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. depend largely on finding a host at night, and they tend to keep secluded during the day. In the case of inoculation of an animal with plague bacilli by a flea it has been observed that there is a relationship between the point of flea attack and the formation of the sweelings, or buboes. In this connection it is interesting to note that certain species show a marked tendency to infest certain portions of the host animal. LIFE HISTORY. The fleas pass through four distinct stages of development, viz, the egg, the larva, the pupa or resting stage, and the adult. All of Fic. 1.—The dog flea (Ctenocephalus canis): a, Egg; b, larva in cocoon; ec, pupa; d, adult; e, mouth parts of same from side; f, antenna; g, labium from below. ), ¢, d, Much enlarged; a, e, f, g, more enlarged. (From Howard.) the different kinds of fleas resemble one another rather closely in these different stages. THE EGG. The eggs are ovoid in shape and white or creamy in color, some strongly reminding one of miniature china eggs. Although rather small, they are readily seen with the naked eye, especially if placed on a dark piece of cloth or paper. (Fig. 1, a.) They are formed after the female has been feeding on a host for a few days and are usually deposited while the flea is on the host, but are not glued to the hairs or feathers, as is the case with lice and some other insects. The human flea probably deposits most of its eggs while free from the host. The eggs usually fall from the animals in their nests; hence eo FLEAS. 5 there is a tendency for the young and, of course, the resulting adults to concentrate in the vicinity of the sleeping places and most fre- quented haunts of the host. This serves the fleas in three ways: (1) By giving them the protection of the bed of the animal in which to develop; (2) by furnishing food to the young in the form of partly digested blood excreted by the adults while on the host; (3) by keep- ing these parasites concentrated where they can easily secure access to the host when they become mature. This habit is also important when we attempt to control the fleas and is referred to again under that topic (pp. 25-28). The number of eggs deposited by a single female and the rate of deposition undoubtedly vary largely with the species, the abund- ance of food, and climatic conditions. Prof. Bacot, of the Lister Institute, London, in his extensive studies of fleas has conducted a number of experiments bearing on this point. The number of eggs deposited daily is small, but deposition may continue for many weeks. Bacot records 448 eggs as the greatest number observed by him to have been deposited by a single female of the human flea. In some of these experiments he found that the female would continue to deposit eggs for a period of over three months. THE LARVA. Within from 2 to 12 days, depending on temperature and moisture conditions, the eggs hatch into minute, whitish, legless, and eyeless maggots. These are not parasitic, but move about actively in the dust and débris in or near the nest of the host. Under favorable condi- tions the growth of the larve is rather rapid. Flea larve usually molt twice. The larve of the dog flea may molt three times, accord- ing to observations made by Mr. Theodore Pergande, of the Bureau of Entomology. The first molt takes place in from 2 to 7 days after hatching, the second from 2 to 6 days later, and the third about 5 days after the second. The shortest larval period observed in these experi- ments was 7 days. In England Mr. Bacot found that thé larval period in the dog flea ranged from 11 to 142 days; in the human flea, from 9 to 102 days; in the European rat flea, from 15 to 114 days; and in the Indian rat flea, from 12 to 84 days. Food, humidity, and tem- perature are all important factors in influencing the rapidity of de- velopment. The larve, or maggots, are slender, and each joint is pro- vided with a number of hairs or bristles which assist it in crawling. The head differs slightly in appearance from the other segments and bears some of the usual head appendages with which most insects are supplied. These include short, stout antenne, or feelers, and a pair of mandibles fitted for biting. The top of the abdomen is pro- vided with two fleshy fingers which aid the larva in its movements, 6 BULLETIN 248, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and a comb of fine hairs. When full grown the maggots are usually less than one-fifth of an inch in length. The larva of a common species is illustrated in figure 8 (p. 14). The food of the larvee appears to vary somewhat with the species, since some seem to thrive on a considerable variety of foods, while others are more restricted in their diet. In nearly all species it seems certain that the partially digested blood voided by the adult flea in feeding constitutes an important part of the diet of larve, especially when newly hatched. The remainder of the food consists of particles of organic matter, either of animal or vegetable origin, which are found in the cracks of floors, in the nests of the host, or even mingled with the sand near the habitations of the host. THE COCOON AND PUPA. When the larve have attained full size they spin cocoons of more or less oval shape (fig. 1, 0; fig. 4). These vary from almost white to brownish, but owing to the particles of sand and dust usually at- tached the color is often dark. The insect in this stage thus is rendered inconspicuous. In structure the cocoons range from rather light, flimsy silken coverings to very thick tough or even thick brittle encasements. Within the cocoon the larva molts its skin and enters the pupal, or resting, stage (fig. 1, ¢), which somewhat resembles the adult insect. At first the pupa is very pale in color, but it grad- ually darkens as the time for the appearance of the adult approaches. The length of time spent in the cocoon varies with climatic condi- tions. At Washington, D. C., Mr. Pergande found that the dog flea would emerge as an adult within from 7 to 9 days after spinning the cocoon. In his experiments in England Mr. Bacot found the period from spinning of coccons to the emergence of adults to range as fol- lows: European rat flea, from 8 days to over a year; human flea, from 7 to 239 days; dog flea, from 7 to 354 days; and Indian rat flea, from 7 to 182 days. In these experiments Mr. Bacot found that the period within the cocoon varied markedly with the temperature. This was particularly true with the Indian rat flea, which had its cocoon stage greatly lengthened when the daily mean temperature fell below 65° F. These long resting periods were generally not produced in the case of the human flea until the mean temperature fell to 50° F., and to 40° or 45° F. with the European rat flea. The work of this investigator sug- gests that the winter is passed in this stage, and that fleas may thus tide over dry hot periods. It is certain that the cocoon offers much protection from adverse weather conditions. The larva may remain quiescent for long periods within the cocoon before actually pupating, and another resting period may occur within the cocoon after the FLEAS. a insect has become adult. Observations made in India and in our own country in the vicinity of San Francisco show that there is no complete cessation of activities in the winter. This is also true as observed in several species by Mr. A. H. Jennings, of the Bureau of Entomology, while in Panama, and the author has observed con- siderable numbers of fleas on hosts in the Southern States in mid- winter. These included the dog flea and the chicken flea, or “ stick- tight,” as it is colloquially known. LIFE CYCLE. The total period from the deposition of the egg to the emergence of the adult, in tests with the dog flea conducted during the summer time at Washington, ranged from 17 to 35 days. The length of the different stages and total life cycle of some of the common species of fleas may be shown best by presenting a table compiled by Mitzmain from the works of various authors, and amplified to include recently published results. TABLE I.—Life cycle of fleas in different countries, y : é : Length of | Length of | Length of Country and species of flea. peneth a larval cocoon | complete ISIE stage. stage. eycle. United States: | Atlantic coast— Days. Days. | Days. || Weeks. Dog flea (Cé. canis) .....----.. ica ere Ve aI hea 2to 4 8to 24 ONCOln( 2to 4 Pacific coast— Emam ea) GR Inntans) terest ace sens cecleee seo 7to 9 28 to 32 30 to 34 9to 11 European rat flea (C. fasciatus) .....--.--.----- 5 to 6 4to 7 24 to 26 7to 8 imdiantratitleay (Gan eheopis) sa ase eee es 9 to 13 32 to 34 25 to 30 9to 11 Ground squirrel flea (C. acutus)......-...-.---- 7to 8 26 to 28 24 to 27 8to 9 Europe: i Days. EDU TWH O se cesar oe yur tanley ra ys RMR 2 | 4 to 12 8 to 100 6 to 220 19 to 264 IDO ERIRES SS a Sie eee Us ieee ae ei es Reet fet 6 Ae 8 to 14 12 to 142 10 to 354 35 to 366 uO peaTaera Gelle dam tyes Aaya ne ee yes tees 5 to 14 12 to 114 3 to 450 20 to 467 racial Gehl eayete es eis TP One ET RE eM 10 or less 14to 84 9 to 191 31 to 256 r es LSE: (COS GHETTO) sige soe Seidde Coeeaebne cea seter 7orless| 13to 50 6 to 70+ 26 to 127 ndia: Aira liicarabrees tpt OAs eS) eaters PCN Re SI or 2 7 7to 14 21 to 22 Australia: Weeks. MEDEA HCAS ere etek ary ysl payee epee yer hai 2 6 12 14 4to 6 LENGTH OF LIFE OF THE ADULT. Food is the most important single factor in longevity of the flea. Comparatively cool, humid weather greatly lengthens life. Mod- erately warm, moist weather is more favorable than cool weather for egg laying, but shortens the total life period. Hot, dry weather soon proves fatal to the adult. In connéction with this subject reference is made to the work of Mr. Bacot in England, as he has conducted the most complete set of experiments yet published to determine adult longevity. When the temperature registered from 45 to 50° F. and the air was nearly saturated with moisture, this investigator found that specimens of the human flea lived for 125 days, the European rat 8 BULLETIN 248, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. flea 95 days and the dog flea 58 days, the Indian rat flea 38 days, and a species of bird or chicken flea (Ceratophyllus gallinae) 127 days. These records were made with individuals which received no food whatever. When kept ina box and fed at frequent intervals, he found the human flea to live for more than 513 days. The European rat flea lived 106 days, the dog flea 234 days, the Indian rat flea fed on man 100 days, and the above-mentioned chicken flea 345 days. In Texas the author has observed the “sticktight,’ or chicken flea, to live for several weeks attached to a host, but the greatest possible longevity has not been determined. In experiments conducted in California Mitzmain had specimens of the European rat flea alive for 160 days when fed frequently, the Indian rat flea for 49 days, and the common ground-squirrel flea (Ceratophyllus acutus) more than 64 days. In India and California the longevity with unfed fleas was found to be much shorter than is indicated by the records made in England. Usually the maximum longevity of unfed rat fleas in these warmer climates is but a few days. Experiments made by Mr. C. Strickland in England, and some con- ducted by the author in Texas, indicate that the presence of rubbish, dust, or sand, in which the adults may secrete themselves, is an im- portant factor in increasing longevity of unfed fleas. This is espe- cially true during hot, dry weather. BREEDING PLACES. In addition to having suitable hosts upon which the adult fleas may feed and thus produce eggs, it is essential that the eggs, the maggots which hatch from them, and the pupz which finally again produce adults have favorable conditions for development. In houses these conditions are usually found in the cracks of the floors or under mat- ting or carpets. Rat fleas often breed in numbers in granaries, barns, warehouses, and basements, particularly when these are not in con- stant use or when gunnysacks and rubbish are allowed to accumulate in such places. The immature stages of “sticktight” fleas breed mainly in buildings, such as Bician houses, barns, and sheds which are inhabited by the principal hosts. Dirt floors in chicken houses or sheds seem to be more favorable than wooden floors for flea development. The young fleas may be found amongst the partially dried excrement, straw, feathers, and other waste in such situations. Fleas have been found also to repro- duce in great numbers under corncribs and buildings where dogs sleep or chickens go during the heat of the day. Here the maggots are in- termingled with and feed upon the animal and vegetable matter which has accumulated on the soil. _ FLEAS. 9 Occasionally fleas, particularly the human flea and dog flea, may breed out of doors. Mr. D. L. Van Dine has recorded an instance in Hawaii where a lawn was infested with the dog flea, and instances are known in the United States of this flea and the human flea breeding in protected situations, as under shrubbery or in the shade of build- ings in sand which contains a considerable amount of animal or vege- table matter. In nearly all cases the breeding places are very closely associated with the haunts or resting places of the host. Instances where adult fleas get upon man well away from such haunts must usually be con- sidered as being the result of the adult fleas having become detached from a host rather than by the fleas having been reared in such situations. FACTORS INFLUENCING FLEA ABUNDANCE. Everyone familiar with the flea knows that there is marked sea- sonal variation in abundance and often distinct variation from year to year. As has been stated, fleas continue to breed throughout the year in California and in parts of our Southern States. This is even more marked in India, Panama, and other tropical countries. The human flea and dog flea are seldom found to worry man during the winter months. This is explained by a falling off in the rapidity of breeding, the comparative inactivity of the adult fleas, and, as Mr. Mitzmain has shown, the tendency for the human flea to remain largely on the lower animals during winter. Throughout the United States the fleas which attack man are most prevalent during the summer months. In India there is a marked decrease in numbers with the oncoming of the hot, dry season. This was particularly noticeable in the case of the European rat flea, which, according to observations of the Indian Plague Commission, began to disappear early in April, and from May 15 to the beginning of November not a single specimen was seen. The variation from year to year is no doubt principally due to weather conditions. Dr. Howard states that he believes the years of greatest flea abundance are those in which the summer rainfall is above normal. No doubt humid summers, even though the rainfall were not abundant, would produce the same results. These statements are borne out by the effects of dry conditions on the various stages of fleas as observed by several investigators. Although fleas of one kind or another are to be found all over the United States, there are certain regions where one or more species are especially abundant. In general, in those portions of the coun- try where mild winters and comparatively humid summer atmos- pheric conditions are the rule fleas are found most prevalent. The amount of rainfall is also a factor in this regional abundance. While 92999°— Bull. 248—15—_2 10 BULLETIN 248, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. extreme drought is detrimental to reproduction of fleas, excessive rainfall also has a restraining influence. These conditions influenc- ing flea abundance are dependent to some extent on the character of the soil and the presence of hosts and breeding places. Sandy soil is best fitted for flea breeding, as drainage is facilitated and the surface is not so apt to become dried out as on many other soils. In other words, it provides more uniform moisture conditions. It is also probable that sandy soil is of some benefit to the flea by offering ~ more protection to the adult insect. The local abundance of fleas is, of course, dependent upon factors mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, but in addition the abun- dance of hosts, their relationship to one another, and the presence of breeding places are of much importance. The abundance of rats in seaports is often responsible for a large flea population, and the continued destruction of the rodents often correspondingly reduces the number of fleas. As has been explained, fleas often feed on several different animals, and when these animals associate they each contribute to the breeding of fleas. An example of this occurs in the instance of the chicken flea, or “ sticktight.” This flea feeds in great numbers on dogs and cats, and when these animals sleep in and around chicken yards they and their beds are often the source of great numbers of fleas which attack the poultry. Another in- stance of the effect of the association of hosts and presence of breeding places for fleas may be given. Often untold numbers of fleas may continually infest houses and annoy the inhabitants as a result of hogs, dogs, or other animals being allowed to go beneath the house to make their beds. THE JUMPING OF FLEAS AND OTHER MEANS OF SPREAD. The question of the distance a flea can jump, especially in a vertical direction, is important in considering isolation of man or animals from them. The jumping powers of fleas are exaggerated in the minds of most people. The human flea is probably the strongest jumper. Mitzmain, working in California, found the maximum horizontal distance this species could jump was 13 inches. He found a few specimens could jump to a height of 7% inches. Five inches has been recorded as the maximum horizontal jump of the Indian rat flea by the Indian Plague Commission, and in experiments conducted by Mitzmain 34 inches was the greatest height to which this species could jump. In other tests investigators found that the European rat flea and common ground-squirrel flea (Ceratophyllus acutus) could jump slightly less than 34 inches in a vertical direction. Ob- servations of the writer on the sticktight flea indicate that its jump- ing power is almost nil. The legs of this species are comparatively FLEAS. 11 small, not being developed for jumping like those of the human flea , and other species. Nearly all fieas have more or less difficulty in crawling on smooth surfaces or on clothing, yet in time they are capable of making con- siderable progress on clothing, either in a vertical or a horizontal direction. The movements of the fleas themselves are of little direct impor- tance in spreading the species. Their jumping powers, however, aid them in finding hosts and securing attachment thereto, and upon the hosts, whether normal or temporary, they may be carried considerable distances. The species are further disseminated by the scattering of eggs as an infested host goes from one place to another and by the dislodgment of the females from the host. Since the fleas leave a dead animal, in this way adults are scattered, and in some instances they may be infected with the disease from which the host died. The greatest spread of fleas is no doubt brought about through the transportation of infested animals from one place to another through the agency of man. In this way rat fleas may be carried between ports in all quarters of the globe on rat-infested ships. Chicken fleas and dog and cat fleas may also be shipped long distances on infested hosts. It is also possible to spread fleas in merchandise, either in the adult or immature stages. Consideration of these points is of much importance in preventing the spread of plague from one locality to others. FLEAS AS CARRIERS OF DISEASE. BUBONIC PLAGUE. Although the dread disease of man known as bubonic plague has occurred in the United States, the most important outbreak being in San Francisco during the last few years, fortunately it was restricted closely to the portions of the country where it was introduced. _ The earliest records of the disease connect the outbreaks in the human family with death among rats. At the present time the dis- ease is considered to be essentially a disease of rats. Man and other animals become infected through the agency of fleas as a result of these epizootics among rats. The malady has a history dating far back in Biblical times. Prob- ably the worst outbreak known began in the eleventh century and culminated in the fourteenth. During this period practically the entire Eastern Hemisphere was swept, and the number of deaths due _to the “black death,” as it was known in parts of Europe, was appall- ing. Within the last 18 years this malady has caused the death of over 7,000,000 in various parts of the world. During the last decade the disease has broken out in various parts of Africa, Europe, Aus- \ tralia, Japan, South America, West Indies, and in the United States. 12 BULLETIN 248, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. As a result of international regulations, including quarantines, and owing to the work of the Public Health Service, the disease has not assumed serious proportions in this country. Although the mal- ady has persisted for some time among rats and ground squirrels in and near San Francisco, very few human cases have developed, and the malady has been entirely stamped out in that vicinity. The -occurrence of plague in New Orleans during 1914 caused some excite- ment, but by prompt action by the State and Federal authorities the outbreak has been limited to that city and the number of human cases has been small. In India, China, and a number of other countries the disease is still present in epidemic form, despite the work of the Indian Plague Commission and other organizations for the further- ance of control work. Marked progress is being made, however, and the ultimate stamping out of the pestilence may be expected. — As has been stated, the flea is the medium by which the disease is spread from rats and ground squirrels to man. These insects also act as carriers from rat to rat. That the fiea is responsible for the transmission of plague has been determined within the last two decades as a result of studies conducted by a number of investiga- tors in various parts of the world. The importance of an accurate knowledge of these insects in this connection is apparent to all. It has been determined by the Plague Commission of India and other investigators that several species of fleas may serve as vectors of plague. Those which are commonly found on rats and ground squir- rels and which may carry plague under certain conditions include the following species: ee The Indian rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis Roth.). The European rat flea (Ceratophyllus fasciatus Bosc.). The human flea (Pulex irritans L.). The European mouse flea (Leptopsylla musculi Duges). | The dog flea (Ctenocephalus canis Curtis). The squirrel fleas (oplopsyllus anomalus Baker and Ceratophyl- lus acutus Baker). The cat flea (Ctenocephalus felis Bouché). The rat fleas Ceratophyllus anisus Roth. and Pygiopsylla ahalae Roth. The former of the last two mentioned occurs in the East Indies, where it has been shown to be capable of carrying plague, and the latter takes the place of the European rat flea in China and Japan. All of these species, with the exception of the last two named, are found in the United States. | The very severe outbreak of plague in Manchuria a few years iH ago is thought by many to have started among trappers of the | | “tarbagan,” or groundhog, as a result of having been bitten by the | | flea, Ceratophyllus silantiewi Wagner, which is abundant on this animal. FLEAS. on The Indian rat flea has been found to be by far the most im- portant in plague transmission in India, and this species is now widely distributed throughout the Tropics and in seaports which have direct trade with the Orient. At the present time this species is abundant in parts of the seaport cities on the Pacific and Gulf coasts of the United States. Away from the water front its place as a rat parasite is largely taken by the European rat flea (C. fasci- atus Bosc.) and the mouse flea (Leptopsylla musculi Dugés). The as Sea. Fig, 2.—The European rat flea (Ceratophyllus fasciatus) : Adult female. Greatly enlarged. (Original. ) human flea is common in many parts of the country, and the squirrel fleas mentioned are abundant on ground squirrels (C%tellus beechey?) in the western part of the United States. All of these fleas have been found to bite man and will feed on rats. The adult European rat flea is illustrated in figure 2, the larva of this species in figure 3, and the cocoon in figure 4. — As has been stated, plague always occurs among the rodent popula- tion before any number of cases develop in man. The rats in a plague-free community usually receive their initial infection from a diseased rat which has been imported from some plague center. This, 14 BULLETIN 248, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. together with the favorable conditions as regards rats and fleas in seaports, accounts for the fact that the disease usually first breaks out in such places. “The pestilence, when once introduced, is carried rapidly from rat to rat by the fleas. This spread is increased by the fact that most of the fleas leave the rats as they die and pass to others. It is these fleas, set free by the death of their plague-stricken hosts, which form the chief menace to man. The method by which fleas convey plague germs has received con- siderable attention, and various theo- ries have been ad- vanced from time to time in an effort to explain the mech- anism of transmis- sion. It appears that the two most important methods are by contamination of the skin of man or other host by excrement voided by the infected fleas while feeding and the subsequent rubbing or scratch- ing in of the germ-laden material and by the injection of the disease organism into the wound made by the flea at the time of feeding. Researches made by Mr. A. W. Bacot, of the Lister Insti- tute, have proven this last method to be an important one. He | showed that the entrance to the stomach of some of the fleas becomes plugged by a growth of the plague germs. This ultimately prevents the passage of food backward into the stomach, but does not prevent the flea from sucking up small quantities of blood,some of which is forced back into the wound after becoming laden with the __—-disease organism. Close trade communication be- Fic. 3.—The European rat fiea: Larva. Greatly enlarged. (Original. ) ; Fie, 4.—The Buropean rat flea: Cocoon. tween the nations of the world Greatly enlarged. Note the particles of sawdust and dirt adhering to the gives increased channels for the surface. (Original.) dissemination of various pests and diseases as well as opportunities for the furtherance of knowledge and the exchange of trade commodities. The colonization of new lands in the Tropics, the opening of a great artery of trade intimately connecting many of our ports with the commerce of the world, the immigration brought about by the present European strife—these, when considered together with the fact that plague is now present in many quarters of the globe, should impress all with the importance of exercising great care to exclude the disease from our shores. Knowing that this pestilence spreads among people only as a result FLEAS. 15 of the dissemination of the disease among rodents by fleas, the im- portance of rodent destruction and of flea control, which go hand in hand, needs no further emphasis. It is not sufficient for the farmer, merchant, and others concerned to depend upon the quaran- tine authorities to keep plague from being introduced. They must aid the quarantine officers by waging war on the rats and ground squirrels and by preventing’ flea breeding. Turning from the rat as a sanitary menace, ample argument is found for its destruction on account of its importance as a destroyer of various agricultural and food products. It has been conserva- tively estimated that there are in the United States at least as many rats as people. It has also been computed that the annual upkeep of each animal amounts to between $1 and $2. From these figures it is seen that the annual loss due to these rodents must be upward of $100,000,000. ; The control of rats is difficult but not impossible, the principal methods being trapping, poisoning, destruction by natural enemies, and, probably most important of all, rat proofing. The question of the relation of rats to man has been treated in publications of the Public Health Service and of the Bureau of Biological Survey.* This work of rodent destruction, clearing up of breeding places, and rat proofing of buildings has an important beneficial influence on flea conditions. Some of the hosts of the fleas are removed and the breeding places of the insect destroyed to some extent. How- ever, these practices can not be depended upon to control all of the species of fleas important as pests. KALA-AZAR. One form of another important group of diseases of the Tropics, known as kala-azar, an infectious fever, is considered by some au- thorities to be carried by the dog flea and human flea. The par- ticular form of the malady in question occurs in the Mediterranean region. On these shores dogs and children are attacked by a similar disease. Investigators have produced strong evidence that the dis- ease is identical in the two hosts and that fleas are responsible for its transference from the one to the other.” 1 Lantz, D. E. How to destroy rats. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 369, 20 p., 5 fig., 1909. 2¥Wleas and dogs.—In Hurope with regard to infantile kala-azar, the dog has been found to harbor Leishmania, and a fairly presumptive case has been made out as to the part this animal plays as an intermediary host, the dog flea being the actual transmitter. Donovan believes, however, that the evidence adduced so far is not in all respects convincing. The occurrence of a natural flagellate of the flea has evidently not been taken into sufficient account. (Donovan, Lieut. Col. C. Kala-azar, its distribution and probable modes of infection. Jn Jour. Trop. Med. London, v. 16, no. 16, p. 253-255, 1913.) 16 BULLETIN 248, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LEPROSY AND OTHER DISEASES. Leprosy is another serious malady with which, according to some investigators, fleas may be connected. This relationship has not been established, but it is well for us to consider all such possibilities. The part fleas play in the life economy of certain tapeworms has been mentioned, as has also their connection with certain rat-infesting organisms. Various other low forms of animal life, many of which are no doubt parasites of the flea itself, have been found in the organs of that insect in different stages of its life. FLEAS AS PARASITES OF MAN AND ANIMALS. As has been shown, a considerable number of the common fleas of this country may be concerned in the transmission of certain dis- eases if these are once introduced. Several species are, however, of much importance to man aside from their possible connection with disease. It is with the fleas which annoy man or attack poultry or dogs that the people in general are most concerned. The effect of the bites of fleas varies much with the individual attacked and also with the identity of the flea concerned. The direct effect of these bites, aside from disease transmission, has received little attention. Usually in man pronounced red, itching papules, in some cases with whitish centers, occur at the site of the puncture. Some more susceptible individuals show marked irritation, swelling, and even ulceration following attack. The papules may persist for several days, but usually disappear within a few hours. The irrita- tion is probably induced largely by the injection of the salivary secre- tion into the wound. This injection causes a rush of blood to the spot, which facilitates the feeding of the insect and in turn causes irritation in the host. The question of acquiring immunity to an- noyance by fleas is an interesting one. Many cases have been re- ported wherein individuals have enjoyed marked immunity to the effect of fleabites and comparative freedom from annoyance after being exposed to the fleas of California. The species concerned in these instances was without doubt the human flea. Others report a similar diminution in the annoyance caused by the dog flea. A brief discussion follows of the more important species from the stand- point of annoyance to man and domestic animals. THE HUMAN FLEA. The species of flea known scientifically as Pulex irritans L. has long been considered the human flea. It is to be found in practically every portion of the earth frequented by man. It is quite distinct from other fleas in structure (figs. 5 and 6), and is largely dependent FLEAS. - 17 upon man as a host, although in Europe it seems to thrive on the badger, while in the United States it is commonly taken on the skunk. It has also been taken on hogs, rats, and various other ani- mals, but these are usually but temporary hosts and insufficient to maintain the species. On the Pacific coast the species is responsible for practically all annoyance to man due to this group of parasites. It has been found to be the one concerned in nearly all cases of house infestation in that section. In the Southern and Eastern States, as will be pointed Fic. 5.—The human flea (Puler irritans): Adult female. Greatly enlarged. (Original. ) out later, the dog flea is more important as a pest to man than the human flea. Our main interest in the human flea is on account of its annoyance to man, as it is not as yet known to play any part in dis- ease dissemination in this country. Nevertheless, the possibility of its being an occasional carrier of plague and also that it may trans- mit the infectious fever kala-azar of the Mediterranean region should not be lost to sight. Curiously enough, the human flea appears to have adapted itself to the varied conditions under which man lives. It breeds freely in all situations occupied by man, and in the immature stages is one of the most hardy species known to science. The biology of this species, 18 BULLETIN 248, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. as compared with others, has been briefly outlined in the preceding pages, and control measures, applicable to this and most other species, are discussed in the following pages. THE DOG FLEA. The dog is undoubtedly the normal host for the flea which is known scientifically as Ctenocephalus canis Curtis (fig. 1) ; neverthe- less the insect is not averse to partaking of a meal of blood from man or a cat, especially when its normal host is not at hand. Like the Fic. 6.—The human flea: Adult male. Greatly enlarged. Note the difference in the shape of the abdomen of the male as compared with the female (fig. 5). (Origi- nal.) human flea, this species has a wide distribution throughout the world; in fact, it is generally considered the most widely distributed species of flea. As an annoyer of man the dog flea ranks next to the human flea. In the eastern United States, as has been pointed out by Dr. Howard, instead of the human flea this is the species usually reported as infest- ing houses. In some instances reported to the Bureau of Entomology houses have been rendered almost uninhabitable by this aggressive insect. The most severe infestations, as reported by Dr. Howard, have occurred in cases where dwellings have been closed up during summer, and when opened upon returning the occupants were greeted —_ by hundreds of fleas. Rainy summers are most favorable for such development, supplying enough dampness to the dust, which is left undisturbed in the cracks, successfully to mature the eggs and fleas which are present. The original stock of fleas must, of course, be derived from pet dogs or cats which occupied the house before it was vacated, or, as often happens, dogs may take up their abode under or around the house in the absence of the occupants. Thus great num- bers of eggs are dropped, and breeding proceeds undisturbed. It should be noted that the stray dogs and cats which are likely to find homes in unoccupied buildings are often heavily infested with fleas, usually much more so than animals with a home and having more or less attention paid to them. In this country the dog flea is not known to be responsible for the transmission of any disease, but it holds a position of distinct im- portance as a household pest. Its importance as an enemy of the dog and cat is not small. Breeders of fine cats and dogs often have considerable trouble in ridding their stock of fleas, and hunting and other dogs, particularly in the South, are kept in poor condition as a result of gross infestation. The fact that one stage of a tapeworm which commonly infests dogs and occasionally children in this coun- try lives within the dog flea still further increases the importance of this parasite. FLEAS. 19 THE STICKTIGHT FLEA. One need but visit a few poultry farms or inquire of almost any farmer with his little flock of chickens for home use in the southern and southwestern portions of the United States to get some idea of the importance of the so-called “sticktight flea” (Hchidnophaga gallinacea Westw.). Other colloquial names which are applied to the insect are “third-party flea,’ “chicken flea,” or “black flea.” The name chicken flea is applied because of the frequency with which chickens are infested. Black flea isa name applied less frequently and is given on account of the very dark color of the adult fleas. The name “ sticktight ” is used most generally in the South, and it is aptly ap- plied. The species differs markedly in feeding habits from most of our common species. It seldom hops about, biting here and there, as in the case of the dog and human fleas, but when a suitable host is found it settles down, deeply inserting the mouth parts, and remains iin a publication just issued (Herrick, Glenn W. Some external parasites of poultry with special reference to Mallophaga, with directions for their control. Cornell Univ. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 359, p. 230-268, fig. 95-116, Apr., 1915.), the point is brought out that the European hen flea, Ceratophyllus gallinae, was received from Abington, Mass., and Barker, N. Y. In each of these cases the flea was collected in hen houses, and the collectors state that the insect was very annoying, especially to human beings. Prof. Herrick calls attention to the fact that Mr. C. KF. Baker reports the collection of a single specimen of this flea at Ames, Iowa, and refers to a note by Dr. M. Francis to the effect that the species occurred at Bryan, Tex. It is possible that in time this insect may become a pest of some importance to poultry in the United States. 20 BULLETIN 248, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for days or weeks. Its hold on the host is difficult to loosen. Another marked tendency is for the adults to attach to hosts in dense masses. A chicken is frequently seen with a large portion of her head closely set with these fleas, making it appear almost black. These dense masses are often seen on the ears of dogs or cats, particularly at the very edge of the ear. The characteristic appearance of an infested chicken’s head is shown in figure 7. The hosts of this flea are, unfortunately, rather numerous. As has been stated, chickens are commonly attacked, and it is on this host that the species assumes its greatest importance as a pest. In the investigations by the author it has been found in abundance on dogs, cats, tame rabbits, ducks, and turkeys. It is not infrequently found on people who go about infested poultry yards, and children, crawling beneath houses where infested animals go, are often bitten. The species does not at- tack man very freely. It is sel- dom found in houses except on rare occasions, when a few speci- mens may be brought in on the clothing. In one instance in western Texas a burrowing owl was killed and found to be heav- ily infested about the head with this flea. In another instance in the same region a wood rat, or pear rat, as it is commonly known there, was found to har- Fic, 7.—Head of rooster infested with the bor a number of sticktight fleas. sticktight flea Eaton hag ag alana- Several years ago Prof. J. -G. cea). Somewhat reduced. (Original.) Hartsell, aii Orangeburg, S. Gs reported to the Bureau of Entomology instances where horses were heavily infested with these fleas on the lower portions of the legs. Others have recorded it from cattle, and a number of specimens have been taken on rats and other hosts in different parts of the world. The species was originally described from India, but it now ap- pears to be widely distributed throughout the Tropics and the warm temperate regions. In the United States it is seldom seen north of the Southern and Southwestern States. Reports indicate that the species is spreading; at any rate, it would seem that the South is becoming more generally and completely infested. No disease has been found to be carried by the sticktight flea, but its importance as a parasite places it among the principal insect enemies of poultry in the South. The principal direct loss is due to the attack of the fleas on young poultry, as high as 85 per cent of young FLEAS. ale chickens hatched having been reported lost on account of the fleas. In many cases young chickens, turkeys, and ducks have a combined infestation of sticktight fleas and biting lice, and each contributes to the worriment and weakening of the fowls. A few cases of death observed among grown chickens apparently have been due to fleas. In these instances not only the heads and necks of the chickens were largely covered but numerous patches thickly set with fleas existed under the wings and on the breast. The fowls heavily attacked be- come droopy, lose appetite, and fall offin weight. Mild infestations on grown fowls cause no marked injury, but no doubt egg laying is influ- enced to some extent, and certainly infested fowls are unsightly. The fleas are present on hosts throughout the year, but they are usually more nu- merous in the sum- mer and fall. The species appears to thrive best in ill- kept chicken houses, where chickens roost under buildings, and where dogs and cats have their beds closely associated with the poultry. This point will be discussed further under the general topic of control. The eggs are dropped by the females while at- tached to the host. Fie. 8.—The sticktight flea: Adult female. Much enlarged. These fall beneath gi the roost, hatch, and the young larve feed on the excrement of the parent fleas and on other animal and vegetable refuse. The species is one of the smallest fleas in this country and very dark brown in color. The body is comparatively short and deep, and the legs are slender, but the mouth parts are large and strong. The male is usually slightly smaller than the female (fig. 8), almost black, and is more frequently seen moving about on the host than the female. THE CHIGOE FLEA. The flea commonly known as the chigoe or “ jigger” (Dermatophilus penetrans L.)* 1s related to the sticktight flea, but has different 17This should not be confused with the ‘‘ chigger”’ or harvest mite, which is the larval form of Trombidium. oe, BULLETIN 248, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. habits. Instead of remaining attached to the surface of the host, the female, after being fertilized, burrows into the flesh until it may become completely embedded. When it first reaches a host it feeds much as does the sticktight flea, the burrowing tendency be- coming evident only when the eggs are developing. A number of hosts are attacked, particularly the hog. Cats, dogs, cattle, sheep, horses, and even birds are attacked, but attention has been directed to the species largely through its infestation of man. Its attack is usually confined to the feet of the host, and in man particularly to the toes. The females may enter between the toes or under the toe- nails, and severe inflammation often follows, with the formation of ulcers, frequently resulting in permanent crippling. While in the host the eggs develop within the female and the abdomen becomes greatly distended, often attaining the size of a small pea. The legs of this species are not large, and when this distention takes place they, as well as the head, become very inconspicuous. The eggs are deposited while the flea is attached and may drop from the wound or pass out with the detached flea. So far as known the rest of the life history is similar to that of other species. The chigoe is not known to be established in the United States, although it has been reported on a few occasions from Florida. Itisa troublesome pest in the West Indies, in parts of Mexico, and in much of South America. It is native to the American Tropics, but about 1872 it was introduced into western Africa. The African conditions were favorable for the pest, and it soon became established in east Africa and Madagascar and spread to the interior of the continent. It was introduced more recently into India, but it appears to have spread very slowly there. Conditions in Florida and southern Texas would seem to be favor- able for this insect, and if care is not exercised it may be introduced and become established in this country. NATURAL CONTROL. As has been stated, hot, dry weather is detrimental to flea develop- ment. Likewise excessive moisture in a breeding place destroys the immature stages. The direct rays of the sun in summer are important in reducing the length of life of the adult flea and destroying the immature stages. It is possible to take advantage of these natural factors to a considerable extent in fighting the pest, as is brought out later. Little is known of the natural enemies of fleas. Certain short- winged beetles termed staphylinids are known to prey upon the adult fleas, and certain species of mites have commonly been found upon them. In Texas ants have been observed to prey upon the eggs and FLEAS. 23. larve. No doubt a number of insect enemies of the immature stages exist, but they are probably less important in control than climatic factors. Chickens seem to be capable under some conditions of inter- fering with the development of the immature stages of fleas by scratching their breeding place about, and no doubt they eat some of the fleas in their various stages. ARTIFICIAL CONTROL. In order to prevent an outbreak of fleas, and more especially to control an infestation which has become established in or about a house, it is usually necessary and always advisable to combine two or more of the measures discussed below in order promptly to control the situation. DESTRUCTION OF FLEAS ON HOSTS. Tn nearly all cases of flea infestation by either the human flea or the dog flea in houses or by the sticktight flea in poultry yards the destruction of the fleas on the hosts is important. Dogs and cats are the animals of particular importance in this connection, since they act as normal hosts for the flea of the dog and cat, which often anrioys man; they sometimes harbor the human flea and are fre- quently heavily infested with the sticktight flea. In cases of house infestation, while it is imperative that the breeding places be treated, attention should be given.to dogs and cats. In fact, the destruction of the breeding places and the clearing of the fleas from the hosts should be undertaken simultaneously, as each is essential to the best success of the other. A number of different methods of destroying the insects on animals have been tried, and each has its advocates. The writer has used certain creosote derivations, among them creolin, with excellent results. There are several preparations similar to. creolin which would probably be equally effective. It is best to make up a 3 per cent solution of creolin, or one of the similar preparations, in warm water in a tub and place the animal into it; then with a stiff brush to work the solution into the hair. The animal should be kept in the solution 5 or 10 minutes, particular care being taken thor- oughly to wet the fleas which crowd to the head of the animal. After the host has been thus treated the creolin water may be drained off and the animal washed with warm water and soap. This washing is not always necessary or advisable in treating dogs, but it is desir- able with cats. By this method the burning of the most delicate- skinned animal is avoided. Where a graduated glass measure is not at hand, a 3 per cent solution of the wash may be made by putting in 4 tablespoonfuls of creolin to each gallon of water. ii 4 24 BULLETIN 248, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Another treatment, which is reported by Mr. A. A. Girault, of the Bureau of Entomology, to be effective in ridding cats of fleas, is naphthalene. Moth balls were finely pulverized and the powder worked into the fur. The fleas soon began coming out of the hair and on account of their stupefied condition were easily caught and lilled. The treatment slightly sickened the cats for two days, but had no serious effect. Insect powder, sometimes called pyrethrum, buhach, or Dalmatian insect powder, may be applied to the fur of animals in the same way. It is not harmful to the host and causes the fleas to come out of the fur in a stupefied condition, when they may be col- lected on a newspaper and destroyed by burning. It is important that fresh unadulterated pyrethrum be used to secure satisfactory results. The destruction of the chicken flea or sticktight on poultry seems to be rather difficult. Where heavy infestations are present the careful application of kerosene and lard—1 part kerosene to 3 parts of lard—to the masses of fleas gives fairly good results. Care must be taken not to apply too much of the mixture and not to get it on the parts of the fowl where it is not necessary, as it will prove injurious if used too freely. CONTROL OF HOSTS. One of the common practices to avoid flea infestation of houses is to keep all dogs and cats out of doors. This is often not desirable, and it also gives an opportunity for the infested animals to start breeding places under the house or in the yard or barn, hence this practice without treating the animals for fleas is objectionable. Not keeping dogs or cats will, of course, largely solve the dog-flea prob- lem, but this is not always feasible. Moreover, the stray animals must also be considered as possibilities in house infestation. From the standpoint of flea control, as well as for the prevention of im- portant diseases, the strict enforcement of dog-control measures and the destruction of all stray cats and dogs is imperative. Dwellings and other buildings should be arranged to prevent cats, dogs, hogs, chickens, and other animals from going beneath them, as the condi- tions under buildings are often favorable for flea breeding and these locations are exceedingly difficult to keep clean or treat after infesta- tion is started. Numerous instances have come under observation where such conditions were responsible for infested dwellings and heavily infested animals. Along this same line is the question of separation of hosts. It is bad policy to keep all kinds of animals in close proximity in localities where fleas are numerous. Dogs and cats sleeping around poultry pens are often responsible for keeping chickens constantly stocked with sticktight fleas. Horses kept in buildings where chickens roost FLEAS. 25 or in barns adjoining chicken coops have been known to become in- fested with sticktight fleas, and dogs and cats readily infest one an- other with these and with other fleas. Chickens have been known to become infested with chicken fleas and thus establish an infestation in uninfested yards when allowed to run at large and come in contact with infested premises. The question of rat control logically should be discussed under this topic, but it has been briefly taken up under “ Bubonic plague.” Ground-squirrel destruction, aside from its direct economic impor- tance, should also be considered in connection with the relationship between the squirrel fleas, their hosts, and the transmission of plague. The ground squirrels of California are discussed by Dr. C. Hart Merriam in Circular No. 76 of the Bureau of Biological Sur- vey. Much useful information on the control of the California ground squirrel is given, and this is for the most part applicable to ground squirrels in other parts of the country. DESTRUCTION IN BREEDING PLACES. Attention has been called (pp. 8-9) to the usual breeding places of different species of fleas. It is evident that destruction of the adult fleas on hosts is almost a hopeless method of controlling the pest if no attention is paid to the breeding places of the immature stages. » As has been stated, flea eggs may produce adult fleas from two weeks to many months later. Thus the hosts will continue to become rein- fested as fast as the insects upon them are destroyed. The first step in making war on the breeding places is to determine where the fleas are coming from. Enough has been said in the dis- cussion of life history and breeding habits of fleas to point out the places to be considered. In other than house infestations all un- necessary rubbish and dry animal or vegetable matter should be piled up and burned. In the case of infested chicken houses or sheds the manure should be hauled into an open field and scattered thinly over the ground. When thus exposed all stages are soon destroyed. Following this preliminary work, which is essential to the success of the subsequent treatment, the ground, outhouse floors, and other places where the breeding is supposed to occur should be sprayed with kerosene, or, better still, crude petroleum should be sprinkled freely about. To prevent reinfestation or breeding it is essential that all waste, both vegetable and animal matter, be kept scrupu- lously cleaned up. The most inexpensive and satisfactory preven- tive measure following the destruction of the main infestation is a liberal use of salt scattered about the breeding places and then thoroughly wet down. In many instances observed in Texas the sticktight flea has been kept out of poultry runs by cleanliness i if i i 4 44 26 BULLETIN 248, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and semiweekly wettings with water. Along the coast salt water from the Gulf is used extensively for this purpose. The soil must be thoroughly wet, as light sprinklings of the surface will not sufiice. The watering is most effective when done in the evening, as drying does not proceed so rapidly then as during the day. Mr. D. L. Van Dine, in treating premises infested with the dog flea in Hawaii, used a dressing for the ground under the houses consisting of 20 pounds of air-slaked lime, 3 pounds of sulphur, and 1 pound of buhach. This mixture was apphed after the ground had been thoroughly cleared of all refuse. The outbreak was completely con- trolled in these cases, but it is difficult to say just what part the above dressing played, as the destruction of the adult fleas was undertaken, as well as other measures. The breeding of the sticktight flea may be prevented to some extent by the use of metal chicken houses, as is advocated for the fowl tick.t| These galvanized-iron houses provide less protection for fleas than do frame structures, and the intense heat within them dur- ing the daytime practically prohibits flea breeding. The dog house should be cleaned out thoroughly at weekly intervals, and if any flea breeding starts the method of destroying the insects, as outlined in the preceding paragraphs, should be followed. By providing a few gunny sacks or a mat for infested animals to sleep upon, it is possible to concentrate the eggs on these. The eggs may be de- stroyed then by shaking the cloths over a fire or even out on the bare ground in a place exposed to the sun. This should be done about every second day in order to prevent hatching. Attention is directed to house infestations, which, by the way, are often supplemented by infestations under the houses or in other out-of-door situations. The occurrence of fleas in dwellings is often connected with the keeping of a cat or dog indoors. If this is the apparent source of infestation, the animal should be treated as previously described and kept out until the indoor work is completed. If the hosts have been confined largely to one room, this is the one to receive most careful attention. The floor covering should be removed, aired, and beaten, the floor thoroughly swept, and all of the dust obtained should be burned, as it contains many immature fleas. It is best, then, to scrub the floor with strong soapsuds or sprinkle it with gasoline, being careful to avoid having fires about. After sprinkling naphthalene crystals or insect powder over the floor, return the floor covering. Dr. Henry Skinner, of Philadelphia, found that he could control fleas completely in a house by taking one room at a time, scattering 1 Bishopp, F. C. The fowl tick. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Cir. 170, 14 p., 5 figs., 1913, FLEAS. Ol 5 pounds of flake naphthalene over the floor, and closing the room tightly for 24 hours. This remedy was found inexpensive, as the naphthalene could be swept up and transferred to another room. Dr. Howard has called attention to the method of control used by Miss Adele M. Fielde, who has ‘had extended experience with fleas in China. She states that it is possible to control the fleas there by the use of alum. This substance is added to the whitewash or cal- cimine used on the walls, paper is dipped in a solution of alum and put under rugs and matting, and powdered alum is sprinkled on carpets or other floor covering and swept in. It does not injure the rugs or matting, but banishes the insects, according to Miss Fielde’s statements. In houses where vacuum cleaners are used at frequent intervals the number of fleas coming from the floors may be reduced. In cases of infested houses a thorough cleaning of the carpets and floors with a vacuum cleaner, provided it is efficient, would largely mitigate the pests. Fleas in different stages in dwellings or other buildings may be destroyed by fumigation with sulphur fumes or hydrocyanic-acid gas. Either of these fumigants, when properly handled, will destroy the fleas, and has the advantage of killing the rats and mice as well. The use of sulphur? is efficient and simple, but has the objection of corroding metal and injuring plants. In fumigating, the infested building should be closed up tightly and the sulphur weighed out at the rate of 4 pounds to each 1,000 cubic feet of space. The sulphur is piled up cone shaped in a pan or kettle, which is placed in a larger pan or tub of water to avoid fire from the heat generated. A depression should be made in the top of the cone of sulphur, a hittle alcohol poured into it, and a match applied. Each room to be fumigated should have a vessel, and large rooms should have two, one located near each end. It is preferable to do all of the fumiga- tion simultaneously. The rooms or building should be kept closed for from 10 to 12 hours. Although this gas is not nearly so dan- gerous to man as is hydrocyanic-acid gas, the rooms should be thoroughly aired before entering them. The corrosive action of the gas on metals and its effect on plants should not be overlooked. This may be minimized by fumigating when the atmosphere is dry. Owing to the poisonous character of the ingredients used and the deadliness of the gas generated, fumigation with hydrocyanic-acid gas should not be undertaken without carefully reading the direc- tions? for the operation, and then only by an experienced person. iMarlatt, C. L. Sulphur dioxide as an insecticide. In U. 8S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Bul. 60, p. 139-146, 1906. 2 Howard, L. O., and Popenoe, C. H. Hydrocyanic-acid gas against household insects. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Cir. 163, 8 p., 1912. 28 BULLETIN 248, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Sodium fluorid is a comparatively new insecticide which will probably be useful against fleas. This substance is not expensive and not dangerous to handle. The crystalline powder is applied by dusting it over the carpets or floors and working it into the cracks. For the adult fleas it may be blown about the floor and cor- ners with a dust gun or insufilator. Although this substance has not been tried in this way, it is possible that it can be advantageously utilized in chicken houses, dog kennels, etc., by blowing it about the floors with a powder gun. The fact that sodium fluorid is an excel- lent remedy against cockroaches further commends its use about houses infested with fleas. A number of things should be mentioned which may be utilized to some extent in flea-infested regions to prevent the breeding of fleas in dwellings. As far as possible, rugs, or art squares, or other coverings which can be taken up and permit keeping the floors more cleanly, and in case of infestation make treatment easier, should be used. Closely matched floors are beneficial, as there are fewer cracks in which the young fleas may develop. Where cracks are present they may be filled with plaster of Paris or putty. The use of floor oil or of efficient sweeping compounds on floors seems to aid in preventing flea breeding. TRAPPING FLEAS. Little dependence for control of fleas can be placed on methods designed actually to capture, repel, or exclude from the host the adult fleas if not supplemented by the other repressive measures just discussed. Nevertheless, under certain conditions, such as in in- stances where a few adults ere produced in a great number of situ- ations, thus making complete stopping of breeding very difficult, or while the other methods of control are being put into effect, trapping, repelling, and isolating are of some value. In localities where plague is prevalent, or even suspected, the importance of keeping even a single flea from biting man is apparent. Where only a few fleas are present in a dwelling and breeding in the floors is not suspected, the adults may be caught by placing a number of sheets of sticky paper on the floor. In extreme cases, where the persons attempting to rid premises of fleas are liable to injury or serious disease, the practice of wrapping fly paper, sticky side out, around one’s legs and walking about is sometimes resorted to. The movement causes the fleas to jump, and if they strike the paper they are held fast. The use of sticky fly paper in this way was prob- ably first tried by Prof. S. H. Gage at Cornell University. One of the university buildings was cleared of fleas by having the janitor, with legs wrapped in fly paper, walk back and forth in the infested rooms. Mr. D. L. Van Dine also made use of this scheme in Hawaii. FLEAS. 29 In this instance, however, it was used mainly to protect the workmen who were clearing up flea-infested premises. Lights have been used as traps for the adults in some instances. The results will no doubt vary with the species of flea concerned. A light trap which was used by Mr. E. M. Ehrhorn, formerly of San Francisco, is described by Dr. Howard, as follows: Fill a glass three-fourths with water, on top of which pour about an inch of olive oil, then place a night float (a little wick inserted in a cardboard disk or in a cork disk) in the center of the oil. Place the tumbler in the center of a soup plate filled with strong soapsuds. The wick should be lighted at night on retiring, or may be used in any dark room. As the soup-plate soapsuds trap is placed on the floor of the room, it does not inter- fere with the sleeper, and the fleas which are on the floor are attracted to the light. A small flea trap which is extensively used in parts of China, and is said to be very beneficial, has recently been described by Dr. E. Hindle. In China two pieces of bamboo are used in con- structing the trap. A modified form of this trap, which can easily be constructed by anyone, is Ulustrated in figure 9. To construct the trap, bore two holes, about an inch and a quarter in diameter, in a board any- where from one-fourth to 1 inch in thickness. With a keyhole saw or a pocket knife cut out a disk of the board around each of the holes about 24 inches in diameter. Take a piece of wire net- ting, with one-fourth or one-half inch square soldered mesh, about 2 feet wide, and tack it around the disks, having one at either end. Cut off the wire, leaving the ends long enough to ee nae one overlap along the side of the cylinder, and bend movable and is coy- the ends in to complete the cylinder. Around a ee eee broom handle or other stick about an inch in diameter and equal to the length of the cylinder wrap a piece of sticky fly paper, sticky side out; tack it at each end to the stick and insert the stick into the cylinder. The stick should be fastened in with a nail inserted into it through a hole in the edge of one of the wooden ends. The outer wire cylinder forms a protection for the sticky surface and enables one to move the flea stick around between the bed sheets or to roll it over the flea-infested floor, thus disturbing the fleas, which are caught on the sticky paper. The stick may be easily removed and a new piece of fly paper put on when necessary. Animals have been used as traps for fleas in experiments conducted by the Indian Plague Commission and others. The Commission = fee > “| a 30 BULLETIN 248, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. found that guinea pigs left free in rooms picked up considerable numbers of fleas of different species. Men also acted as traps by going about in an infested room, and the fleas thus picked up were caught. No doubt rabbits, cats, or dogs could be utilized in the same way and the fleas destroyed by the methods mentioned under “ De- struction of fleas on hosts.” This method of picking up fleas is some- times applicable to certain places in districts where plague exists and it is desirable to capture and destroy the few fleas which might other- wise get upon man. The use of fresh meat to attract fleas onto fly paper and into traps has been considered to have some merit, but tests made by Drs. How- ard and Mitzmain and by others show that it is without value. REPELLING FLEAS. The usefulness of repellents is even more limited than that of traps. Many things have been advocated from time to time, or in different sections of the country, for the driving away of fleas. Oil of pennyroyal is probably most widely used for this purpose, and it seems to have considerable virtue as a repellent. This sub- stance may be applied to the shoe tops, hose, and trousers, or placed elsewhere on the body or clothing, and its use on bedding and floors has been advocated by those in flea-infested regions. The penny- royal plant is used for the same purpose where it grows. Buhach, oil of cedar, eucalyptus oil, or camphor sprinkled between the sheets give a degree of protection to those compelled to sleep in flea-infested places. ISOLATION FROM FLEAS. Frequently in many parts of the country outbreaks of fleas are experienced. In such cases extreme measures are necessary for any degree of comfort. Knowing that fleas have very limited powers of jumping in a vertical direction and of crawling on smooth surfaces, it is practicable to exclude them from beds. The higher the bed is from the floor the better, but one may isolate the bed from fleas in most standard-height beds if care be taken to keep the clothing from hang- ing down. Of course it is essential that no fleas be taken into the bed on the body or the night clothing and that the bedding does not touch the walls or baseboard. It is possible also to isolate a bed or cot or a person sleeping on the floor, if the floor itself is not infested, by plac- ing a band of sticky fly paper or paper covered with a sticky sub- stance 14 inches wide around the bed. In case the legs of a bed are rough, which permit fleas to crawl up them, a band of sticky sub- stance may be painted around the bottoms from 4 to 5 inches above the floor, or, if more convenient, the legs of the bed may be placed in large pans of water, FLEAS. 31 When the fleas are carriers of disease they are, of course, much more dreaded than when their greatest injury is their bite. Where extreme measures are needed the possibility of a man’s protecting himself from fleas while working in infested locations or even while sitting in an infested room by wrapping his legs with fly paper should be borne in mind. A man may get considerable protection from the sticktight fiea by wearing khaki or denim trousers and having them tucked into hightop shoes. Leather boots with the tops on the outside of the trousers also keep many fleas from gaining access to the body. REMEDIES FOR BITES. As has been stated, fleas in the act of biting inject saliva into the wound, thus producing more or less irritation and itching. Ordi- narily no treatment of the bites is necessary; but where they are numerous, especially in the case .of susceptible persons, cooling lotions will give relief. Menthol and camphor are beneficial, and carbolated vaseline, carbolic acid in water (a 3 per cent solution), and hydrogen peroxid are each said to relieve the itching and inflammation. WASHINGTON ; GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH ; 1915 2 7 : a a ’ P 7 ) 4 ’ . ; aay ee Se enh 4 | as Oy ae hit at <0 Oma a ee z Be heen i | ar e | . a5 ; a sd dela " hf a ee a = ee : sal 4 on ~ / Py a - i - , f us i ie i . an ; ri 4 i ae j 49 = ip } o eae \ ne eee oy al Mani | eet: ey NP ee: ie Pk PE Sy, atten teow the & ¥ a. aaa aya: a aa ae ng sR), hai Led | > ssi Aas at am : x < or oh hea eee STATES DEPARTMENT OF BSUS BULLETIN No. 249 Contribution from the Office of Public Roads LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director Washington, D. C. A | July 26, 1915. PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. By CuHarites H. MooreFrietp and JAMES T. VOSHELL, Senior Highway Engineers. CONTENTS. Page. Page. MELO CUChHON see ea Ne ee 1 | Cost of concrete pavements________ 25 Materials and construction_________ on | Maintenan Cen se seams aes a eee wri Methods, organization, and equip- Conclusion 2-2-3 ki a an ee 29 FREIND mc et eee LO) SAN pen ix eee ee ee a 50 INTRODUCTION. The purpcse of this paper is to supply reliable information on the subject of Portland cement concrete pavements for the use of high- way engineers and others interested in the improvement of publie roads. It is realized, however, that the present state of knowledge concerning the best methods of constructing such pavements is by ne means complete, and those who have charge of concrete-road con- struction should be careful to keep themselves informed regarding results obtained by others engaged in similar work and by laboratory experiments. The earliest concrete pavement in the United States of which there is reliable record was constructed at Bellefontaine, Ohio, during 1893 and 1894. This pavement contains 4,400 square yards and was con- structed in squares similar to those employed in concrete sidewalk construction. The concrete was laid in two courses. This early ex- periment indicated many possibilities and no doubt has been respon- sible for some of the construction methods in use at present. Prior Nory.—This bulletin contains reliable information on the construction of Portland cement concrete pavements for country roads. Practical instructions for highway engi- neers and all others interested in road making are given. 92759°—Bull. 249—15 1 2 BULLETIN 249, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, to 1909 the total area of concrete pavements which had been con- structed in this country was comparatively small, and in the majority of cases these pavements were frankly regarded as experiments. During 1909 the road officials of several communities concluded that the results already obtained were sufficiently encouraging to warrant them in undertaking the construction of concrete roads on a larger scale, and since that time many such roads have been completed. Wayne County, Mich., was one of the first communities to adopt this form of construction and at present probably has a greater mileage of roads paved with concrete than any other county in the United States. The fact that the majority of the concrete pavements which have been constructed have proved entirely satisfactory where traffic con- ditions were not unduly severe is serving to increase their popularity very rapidly. This is evidenced by the following tabulation, showing the approximate number of square yards of such pavements that have been constructed in the United States each year beginning with 1909: Square yards. OOO eres Serna ret eS oe do teen aon Oe ee 364, 000 pil sets ec alee ead A ees paw et Se SNS A, es A ee 850, 000 AQT te pO es a,c «Oe ee ae 1, 800, 000 gd ape te a rs eee ea BEN SMA Ghee 2 pete ce 3 6, 470, 000 LOI Werte Pee Oep a «Salah Sd ae ee a 10, 100, 000 AOTAUCEStim ated) eek AES UN eee cee ee 19, 200, 000 Enthusiastic advocates of concrete roads should bear in mind that such roads can never be economically adapted to all traffic conditions, and those who are in responsible charge of road-improyvement work should realize the importance of making a careful economic compari- son of the various kinds of road surfaces under the conditions to be met before deciding upon the type of improvement to adopt. The principal advantages which concrete pavements possess may be briefly stated and commented upon as follows: 1. As far as can be judged, they are durable under ordinary subur- ban and rural traffic conditions. While it is true that there are no very old concrete pavements in existence, the present condition of many of those which have undergone several years’ service would seem to warrant the above statement. 2. They present a smooth, even surface, which offers very little re- sistance to traffic. In the past the surfaces of concrete pavements have sometimes been roughened in order to insure a good foothold for horses. This practice has now been abandoned, except on very steep grades, because it tends greatly to accelerate deterioration of the pavement, and because the smooth surface has been found to afford a fairly satisfactory foothold under all ordinary conditions. 3. They produce practically no dust and may be easily cleaned, . 4, They can be maintained at comparatively small cost until re- newals become necessary. 5. They may be made to serve as an excellent base for some other type of surface when resurfacing becomes desirable. 6. They present a pleasing appearance. The principal disadvantages are: 1. They are somewhat noisy under horse traffic. 2. There is no method of constructing necessary joints in the pave- ments which will entirely prevent excessive wear in their vicinity. Furthermore, joints do not altogether eliminate cracking, and wher- ever a crack develops it must be given frequent attention in order to prevent rapid deterioration of the pavement. 3. They can not be as readily and effectively repaired as many other types of pavements. PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS. 3 MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION. Tt is especially desirable that concrete for road pavements should possess, in as great degree as practicable, (1) hardness, in order to resist the abrasive action of traffic; (2) toughness, in order to resist the disintegrating action of horses’ hoofs and other shocks; and (38) homogeneity, in order that the surface may wear uniformly. The character of the constituent materials and the proportions in which they are mixed both have a marked influence on the degree in which these qualities are possessed by the concrete. In selecting the materials and determining the proportion in which they are to be mixed, the prospect of securing the desired qualities in the resulting concrete should be given primary consideration. The methods of mixing, depositing, and curing the concrete are also important fac- tors in securing satisfactory results and will be discussed in their proper places. MATERIALS. No hard and fast rules can be laid down which would fit all cases in the selection of concrete materials, as availability is necessarily a very important factor. Satisfactory cement can usually be obtained, and none should be used in constructing pavements which does not meet all the requirements for a high-grade Portland cement. The cost of importing the sand and coarse aggregate from any consider- able distance is usually prohibitive, and if there are any local mate- rials which are or can be made suitable for aggregates they should be given first consideration. But if the local materials are not such as to meet substantially the requirements outlined in the following paragraphs, it would be very doubtful economy to use them. 4 BULLETIN 249, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, CEMENT. Portland cement of a character satisfactory for use in pavement construction is at present manufactured in nearly every section of the country. The product of all cement plants is not always entirely uniform and of equal excellence, and even if it were uniform imme- diately after manufacture this condition might easily be changed by age or exposure. These facts make it imperative that cement for use in conerete pavements be subjected to very rigid inspection. It should be known to conform to the requirements of some standard specification for Portiand cement, such as that contained in Circular 33 of the United States Bureau of Standards or that issued by the American Society for Testing Materials. SAND, Sand for use in concrete pavements should be selected with espe- cial care. -The strength of mortar depends almost, if not quite, as much on the quality of the sand used as on the quality of the cement, and.a strong mortar is imperative if the best results are. to be ob- tained. Preference should be given to sand composed of a mixture of coarse and fine grains, with the coarse grains predominating, though sand consisting entirely of coarse grains is preferable to that. in which the fine grains predominate. It is also very important that the sand be as clean as practicable. Sand which contains more than about 3 per cent of foreign materials, such as loam or clay, should be rejected, and no sand should be used the grains of which are coated with clay or other objectionable material. Sand which contains even a very small percentage of vegetable acids is unsuitable for use in concrete, because such acids seriously affect the strength of cement. It is not always easy to detect the presence of acids in sand, and in order to insure that they are not present in any great extent it is well to specify that cement mortar in which the proposed sand is used will develop a tensile strength equal to that developed by mortar made of the same cement and standard Ottav7a sand. COARSE AGGREGATE, The coarse aggregate may consist of either crushed stone or gravel. Jt has been claimed that the angular shape of the particles of crushed stone gives that material an advantage over gravel in the matter of securing a satisfactory bond with the mortar of the concrete, and this claim seems to be at least partially justified by experience. Wherever gravel and crushed stone have been used as coarse aggre- gates in different sections of the same pavement, and the different PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS. 5 sections have been given identical treatment, a proportionally greater number of cracks have usually formed in the gravel concrete. It has been observed, however, that when some varieties of stone are used as coarse aggregate the resulting concrete shows very little, if any, superiority over gravel concrete as regards the formation of cracks. Tt therefore seems possible that the quality of stone, rather than the angular shape of the particles, may be responsible for the apparent advantage of crushed stone over gravel. There are not sufficient data available to warrant making a definite comparison of the advantages possessed by the different varieties of stone when used as coarse aggregate. But so far as cracks are con- cerned, limestone appears to have made a better record than any other variety of stone which has been used to any considerable extent. The coarse aggregate, whether of crushed stone or gravel, should possess at least as great resistance to wear as the mortar which fills the voids between the particles of stone. Any sound stone or gravel, moderately hard and tough, will meet this requirement, but in general the harder and tougher the coarse aggregate, the greater the re- sistance to wear of the concrete. The best available stone should therefore always be used. The difficulties experienced in securing a satisfactory quality of coarse aggregate are frequently caused by a lack of proper facilities for preparing the natural materials locally available. There are very few gravel pits which furnish a gravel suitable for use in con- crete pavement construction without washing, and properly equipped washing plants are both difficult and expensive to construct. On the other hand, a great many stone quarries contain pockets of clay or inferior stone which should not be contained in the aggregate, and it is sometimes very difficult to remove these objectionable materials while the stone is being crushed and screened. It is also frequently difficult to screen out the dust of fracture formed in crushing some varieties of stone. It is very desirable that the particles composing the coarse aggre- gate be well graded in size between proper limits in order that the percentage of voids may be as small as practicable. It is convenient to fix the limit of variation by specifying a certain screen upon which coarse aggregate shall all be retained, and another screen which it shall all pass. A 4-inch mesh screen for the lower limit and a screen having 14-inch circular openings for the upper limit have been most frequently specified for coarse aggregate used in concrete pavements. The upper limit of 11 inches seems to be entirely satisfactory in nearly all cases, but the lower limit of 4 inch frequently results in a failure to remove as much fine material from the aggregate as is desirable. For example, when the coarse aggregate is se- 6 BULLETIN 249, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, cured from gravel containing a considerable percentage of sand, or from crushed limestone, a 2-inch mesh minimum screen is to be preferred. WATER. Water used. in mixing concrete should be reasonably clear and free from alkahes, acids, vegetable matter, or other injurious materials. The subject of water supply will be later discussed under the heading, “ Methods, organization, and equipment.” . PROPORTIONING, Concrete in pavements is subjected to much more severe service conditions than that in walls, foundations, etc. Most of the old rules for proportioning concrete were developed with a view to pro- viding only for simple compressive stresses, such as are met with in the latter class of structures. Hence it is not surprising that the early results obtained for pavements by following the old rules were not generally satisfactory. Concrete pavements must resist not only crushing and impact stresses but the wearing action of traflic as well, and this is probably the most destructive process to which they are subjected. The essential qualities which enable any material to withstand the wearing action of traffic are hardness and toughness. Laboratory tests have been devised for determining the relative degree in which these qualities are possessed by different kinds of stone and brick, but none of these tests is suitable for making similar determinations re- garding concrete mixed in different proportions and composed of different materials. The reason for this is that the structure of con- crete, unlike that of ordinary stone and brick, is not homogeneous. It is possible, however, to employ the routine road-material tests described in Office of Public Roads Bulletin No. 44 on the mortar and coarse aggregate separately, and it would seem that the results which might be obtained in this way ought to furnish a fairly reliable index to the quality of concrete which could be produced from the materials tested. The proper proportions in which to mix the ma- terials can probably be best determined from actual service tests. Plates VII, VIII, and TX are diagrams showing the relative hard- ness, toughness, and crushing strength of mortars mixed in different proportions and in which two different qualities of sand were used. Sand for one set of the test specimens, as noted on the diagrams, was standard Ottawa, while that for the other set was natural quartz sand which showed the following analysis: PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS. i Taste 1.—Granulometric analysis of quartz sand. Size of grains. Grams. | Per cent. Retained on— Paull TaN Sorreeels Ae ES a eS ee eee sembasaebesc SAGE 0.0 0.0 aL CHWITCS MES CLEC I eine aya ae ge os erecta espa emt iate peices etetclelsjele e ciecreis eine 74.0 5.9 INTO GRID ISCreeTaReM ea seen trek es SRE CE Oe Ga SRE SESE AEE ee 124.5 10.0 INO. AD SOR Sass Gans eaber ee U RES Garcons coebbEties Hes c caer csee ee eee cial 266.0 2152 ROMO ISCLECT Peete ne ete sae LNA RI A BAe ee ee ERLE SS oe 460. 0 36.7 INGOs CO SSR Se Gao A ee eS SE Ge SEIS GEE ares ee el eg eS ee a 624.0 49.8 ESTO MOUIS GREG I Sayeed Bee ayaa ene he ae REI lee teetaioe narciaia aiciciciteictn Selb aeide joie 930. 5 74.3 INI ELD) OTST a aS ee eS TO TE rh 1,139.5 91.1 BANG oy UOT SHORE ONG S Sas AE GS AN ek ee I aS de ae 5 iS ee Ae er a ta 1,159.5 92.7 INO; BOO GORA NS SEs SORES See ee eR rete eee Hey et a a a 1,198.5 96.5 PUSSITO PORN Ope OOISCLECIE Gs see Nee Riad ey ete cl ja Ree een eR a eT OR) Usd he 51.5 3.5 100. 0 1 Total weight of sample, 1,250 grams; weight of sample after washing, 1,208 grams. Experience has shown that when first-class sand is used very good results are obtained by using a proportion of 1 part of cement to 14 or 1? parts of sand and making the proportion of coarse aggregate such that the resulting concrete will contain slightly more mortar than is sufficient to fill all voids. If a well-graded gravel is used as coarse ageregate, the proportion should be about 1:14:3, while in most cases where broken stone is used as coarse aggregate it will be found desir- able to make the proportion about 1:1}:3, and in some cases, where the particles of stone are of uniform size, even a still greater propor- tion of mortar will be required, but this should be effected by de- creasing the amount of coarse aggregate and not by further increas- ing the amount of sand. Since the bottom course of a two-course pavement is not subjected to the wearing action of traflic, it would appear that the rules for proportioning the materials for this course might be considerably modified. On the other hand, using different proportions in the top and bottom courses undoubtedly results in the concrete of the two courses having different coefficients of expansion and different moduli of elasticity, and these differences might tend to cause a separation of the two courses. The fact that such separations sometimes occur strengthens this theoretical objecticn. CONSTRUCTION. TYPES. There are two general types of concrete pavement, known as the one course and the two course. These designations are due to the fact that the former consists of one course of concrete, all of which is mixed in the same proportion and composed of the same kind of materials, while the latter consists of two courses of concrete, usually mixed in different proportions and containing different kinds of aggregate. Plate X, figure 1, shows a typical cross section for a 8 BULLETIN 249, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. concrete pavement, and this general form is suitable for either one- course or two-course work. The one-course pavement is somewhat simpler to construct than the two-course type. it possesses the ad- vantages that there is no possibility for the wearing surface to sep- arate from the rest of the pavement, and that the resistance to wear should be uniform throughout the life of the pavement. Notwith- standing these advantages, local conditions may sometimes justify the two-course type of construction. For example, if the only ma- terials locally available for use as aggregate were of very inferior quality, it might be more economical to use them for aggregate in the lower course of a two-course pavement and import aggregate for the wearing course than to employ a one-course pavement and import all the aggregate. The two-course pavement also requires slightly less cement per square yard than the one-course type if different proportions are used in the top and bottom courses; but this factor alone would seldom, if ever, justify a preference for the former type, especially in view of the objections to this method of construction, already noted. Besides the two general types of concrete pavement described above, there are several special patented types, but so far as is known these do not possess any particular advantages and will not be discussed in detail. The one-course pavement is believed to be -better adapted to most ordinary conditions than any other type of concrete pavement and will be given principal consideration in the following discussion. | Plates I to IV are arranged in logical sequence, to show the vari- ous steps in the construction of a one-course concrete pavement and are intended to supplement the descriptions of construction methods given below. GRADING AND PREPARING THE SUBGRADE. In forming a roadbed upon which a concrete pavement is to be con- structed, the features which should receivé primary consideration are (1) adequate drainage, (2) firmness, and (3) uniformity in grade and cross section. It is impracticable to prescribe definite methods for securing thorough drainage which would be applicable to every location. The local conditions which affect the accumulation and “ run-off ” of both surface and ground water vary considerably even in the same locality, and it is only by means of a careful study of these conditions that a satisfactory system of drainage can be devised. For example, if the material composing the roadbed consists of springy earth, either tile or French drains would probably be necessary. In another case ex- tremely flat topography may make it necessary to elevate the grade, by means of an embankment, considerably above the level of the ad- Bul. 249, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Fia, 1.—PREPARING SUBGRADE. Fic. 2.—SAND AND GRAVEL PILED ON SUBGRADE READY FOR USE. EXPERIMENTAL CONCRETE ROAD, CHEVY CHASE, MD. PLATE II. Fic. 1.—CHARGING CONCRETE MIXER. Fic. 2.—PLACING CONCRETE AND USING TEMPLATE. EXPERIMENTAL CONCRETE ROAD, CHEVY CHASE, MD. Bul. 249, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. SS =e Se SSS SS Oe TS SE ER aL eT a ap gon ee eg ne Bul. 249, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fic. 1.—FINISHING THE SURFACE WITH A WOODEN FLOAT. FIG. 2.—CANVAS COVERING IN PLACE. EXPERIMENTAL CONCRETE ROAD, CHEVY CHASE, MD. PLATE IV. MD. Fig. 2.—AFTER NEARLY TWO YEARS’ SERVICE. Fig. 1.—COVERING THE SURFACE WITH A LAYER OF EARTH AFTER CANVAS IS REMOVED. EXPERIMENTAL CONCRETE ROAD, CHEVY CHASE, Bul. 249, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. See all Sb Bul. 249, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. ~ € 4 # Fic. 1.—BITUMINOUS WEARING SURFACE IN FAIR CONDITION AFTER ABOUT ONE YEAR’S SERVICE. Fic. 2.—SHOWING UNSATISFACTORY CONDITION OF BITUMINOUS WEARING SURFACE AFTER LESS THAN ONE YEAR’S SERVICE. EXPERIMENTAL CONCRETE ROAD, CHEVY CHASE, MD. "“INAWYNVEWA SO LNAWSATILLAS Ad GASNVD LNAWSAVd JLSYONOD JO 3yHNTIVA PLATE VI. Bul. 249, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS. ) jacent land. The nature of the soil, the character of the topography, and the amount and rate of rainfall must all be taken into considera- ation, if a system of drainage is to be properly planned. The second requirement, firmness, can be secured only after the road has been properly drained. Soils which readily absorb moisture will not remain firm in wet weather and therefore should not be per- mitted to form a part of the roadbed, especially if they occur in the subgrade. This requirement also makes it necessary that the road- bed be thoroughly compacted. In forming embankments the ma- terial should be put down in layers not more than about 12 inches thick, and each layer should be thoroughly rolled. (See Pl. VI.) The subgrade in both excavation and embankment should be brought to its final shape by means of picks and shovels and roiling. The cross section of the subgrade may be either flat or shaped to conform with the finished surface of the pavement. The flat cross section involves the use of a slight additional quantity of concrete, but gives an increased thickness at the center, where maximum strength is required. It has been observed that longitudinal cracks occur less frequently in concrete pavements laid on a flat subgrade than where the subgrade is curved to conform to the surface of a crowned pavement. In either case the subgrade when completed should be uniform in grade, cross section, and firmness, not only to prevent a waste of con- crete in filling up depressions but in order to facilitate the necessary movement of the pavement due to contraction and expansion and thus reduce its tendency to crack. The subgrade should be rolled and reshaped until the specified shape is secured. The forms, which should be set before the final shaping, may be made to serve as a guide for this work. USE OF SUB-BASE. Where old pavements which have been constructed on a sub-base - are replaced by concrete pavements, it is frequently convenient to place the new pavements on the old sub-base. Furthermore, soil conditions are sometimes such as to make the use of a sub-base very desirable. This is especially true of soils which do not compact readily under the roller or which can not be effectively drained at a reasonable cost. : A satisfactory sub-base may be constructed of gravel, broken stone, telford, cinders, or any other similar material. The essential features in every case are firmness, smoothness, and uniformity in grade and cross section. Telford is seldom employed as a sub-base for concrete pavements, except when old macadam roads having such sub-bases are being repaved with conerete. When this is the case it would seem advisable to spread a layer of sand or other fine material over the sub- 92759°—Bull. 249—15 2 10 BULLETIN 249, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, base before the concrete is placed. Otherwise the irregularities in the telford surface would prevent the pavement from contracting and expanding readily and would thus cause cracks to occur at fre- quent intervals. When oid macadam or gravel roads are to be surfaced with con- crete it is advisable to scarify the entire surface to a depth of several inches before the subgrade is shaped to receive the concrete. If this is not done, it is almost impossible to prevent a lack of uniformity in the subgrade wherever it is necessary to grade or shape up any part of the old road. It has been suggested, with an apparent show of reason, that a thin cushion of sand might be advantageously used under concrete pavements. The purpose of this construction is to facilitate the sliding of the pavement, due to expansion and contraction, and thus to increase the allowable distance between contraction joints. So far as is known there are no experimental data which bear on this subject. FORMS. The form work required for concrete pavements is very simple and inexpensive. Ordinarily the forms may consist of 24-inch boards having a width equal to the edge thickness of the pavement, though metal forms are in general more economical and are always to be preferred. ‘The ferms should be set before the subgrade is finished, in order to serve as a guide for the finish grading, and should be securely held in place by means of stakes driven on the shoulder side to such depth that they do not extend above the top of the forms. Care should be taken to see that the forms bear uniformly on the subgrade, as otherwise they are likely to sag while the concrete is being struck off and tamped, and thus produce an irregular surface. It is also well to have the ends of the different sections fastened together in such a manner that no relative displacement is possible. The forms should always be set true to line and grade, and where curbs or gutters are to be provided they must be modified to suit the requirements for these features. MIXING AND PLACING THE CONCRETE. When a considerable area of concrete pavement is to be laid it is usually economical to employ a mechanical mixer for mixing the concrete (Pl. Il, fig. 1). Hand mixing is much more expensive than machine mixing, and hand-mixed concrete is rarely as uniform as machine-mixed concrete either in consistency or in the distribu- tion of the component materials. Since lack of uniformity is be- lieved to be one of the most potent causes for the formation of cracks, machine mixing is greatly to be preferred. There are several makes PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS. 11 of machine mixers which have proved to be satisfactory for such work. The self-propelled batch type with a distributing device is probably the most economical to use where the amount of work to be done is sufficient to warrant the purchase of such a machine. The distributing device may consist of a bucket and boom attach- ment or of a chute or a revolving tube which conveys the concrete from the drum of the mixer to its place in the read. The chute is objectionable, because if the concrete is mixed to such a consistency that it will readily flow down the chute it is too wet for best results; and, furthermore, there is a tendency for the mortar to separate from the coarse aggregate. This is especially true when the mixer is working down a steep grade. No matter what kind of distributing device is used, however, steep grades are lable to interfere with the proper working of the mixer, and if such grades occur on any par- ticular piece of work that is to be undertaken this point should be investigated before the concrete mixer is purchased. Hiven when the very best type of concrete mixer is employed it is necessary to exercise considerable care to see that the concrete is mixed thoroughly and to a uniform consistency. Tests have shown that increasing the time during which a batch of concrete remains in the revolving drum of a mixer, within reasonable limits, has very much the same effect as increasing the proportion of cement. It is also almost certain that varying amounts of water in successive batches will tend to cause cracks to develop in the pavement. It is impracticable to state definite rules for determining the number of turns of the mixer drum or the exact quantity of water which each batch should be given, because these features are considerably af- fected by the condition of the mixer and the materials. In general it may be said that each batch should be mixed until there are no uncoated particles of sand or coarse aggregate remaining, and the amount of water should be such that the resulting concrete will be quaky or jellylike, but not sufficiently wet to flow readily while it is being handled. On steep grades somewhat less water should be used in mixing the concrete than when the grade is level. A com- paratively wet concrete is easier to handle on level grades, but is liable to flow on steep grades after the pavement has been struck off and tamped, causing irregularities to develop in the surface. Immediately after the concrete is mixed it should be deposited in the pavement. Otherwise the materials of which it is composed will begin to separate, and if it is permitted to stand an appreciable length of time before being placed the heavy materials will settle to the bot- tom of the containing vessel, so that when it is emptied a core will be formed in the center of the space occupied by the batch. Concrete mixed in a stationary mixer and hauled to its place in the road is especially subject to this objection. 12 BULLETIN 249, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Before any concrete is placed the subgrade should be thoroughly’ sprinkled with water or a part of the water contained in the concrete will be absorbed by the subgrade, which may interfere with the process of setting. For one-course work the concrete should be deposited between the forms in such quantity that when it is struck off and compacted it will present a uniform surface and have the depth required for the finished pavement. Each batch of cencrete should be dumped as nearly in piace as is practicable and should preferably be spread by means of mortar hoes. The men who do the spreading should avoid walking in the concrete, because each time the foot sinks into it the coarse aggregate is shoved down, and when the foot is withdrawn the space thus left tends to fill with mortar, which causes a lack of uni- formity in the concrete. After the concrete has been spread approximately to the required cross section it should be struck off with a strike board having slightly more crown. than the cross section of the road. This allows for a slight amount of settlement when the concrete is compacted. The compacting should be done with a tamper shaped to conform with the cross section of the road and operated by two men, one standing on each side of the pavement. Suitable designs for strike boards are shown in Plate X, figures 2 and 3. The heavier design (PI. X, fig. 3), on account of its durability, is especially adapted for use where a gonsiderable amount of work is to be done. It is also in general somewhat more satisfactory than the light design on account of its greater rigidity. Plate X, figure 4 shows a design for a tamper made of steel which has been used very satisfactorily for compacting concrete after it has been struck off, and which is very rigid and durable. Sometimes the tamping and striking off are done with the same template, but this is not altogether satisfactory, because when this is done it 1s impracticable for the template to have a greater crown than is required for the finished pavement, and it is difficult to strike off the concrete with such a template and at the same time make pro- vision for compacting. In the case of two-course pavements it is important that the top course be placed before the concrete in the bottom course has taken its initial set. The bottom course should be well compacted and struck off, but the striking off need not be as carefully done as in the case of the top course. The top course should be constructed in a: manner similar to that described for one-course pavements. FINISUING THE SURFACE. The surface of a concrete pavement may be given either a rough or a smooth finish. A slightly roughened surface has the advantage of PORTLAND CEMENT CONGRETE PAVEMENTS. ig being less slippery when the pavement is first constructed and is pre- ferred by some engineers on that account. Smooth surfaces are more generally preferred, except on very steep grades, where it is some- times desirable to provide grooves or other comparatively deep mark- ings at right angles to the direction of traffic in order to afford a bet- ter foothold for horses. Such grooves, however, will cause rapid deterioration of the pavement under heavy traflic. A satisfactory method of finishing the surface is to use a wooden float for smoothing out all template markings (Pl. III, fig. 1) and evening up other slight irregularities. This method of finishing produces a surface sufficiently rough for all ordinary grades and pos- sesses the advantage of being extremely simple. In using the float special care must be exercised to keep the pressure of the hand uni- form, in order not to produce irregularities in the surface. Wherever a depression occurs it should be filled by adding concrete, and not by raking mortar into it with the float. The workmen who do the float- ing should be provided with one or more light bridges, which span the pavement and which can be easily moved as the work progresses. Various sizes of floats are used, and provided they are handled by skilled workmen the size is not important. The long float shown in Plate X, figure 5, requires less skill on the part of the operators than short. floats. A suitable design for a finishing bridge is shown in Plate XI, figure 1. JOINTS. Tt is customary to provide transverse joints at regular intervals in concrete pavements, to prevent irregular cracks from being pro- duced; and if the width of the pavement exceeds 20 feet, longitudinal joints are also usually provided. Concrete contracts and expands with changes in temperature and also with changes in its moisture content. It also shrinks or contracts upon setting; and since the strength of the concrete is then comparatively low, the tensile stresses developed are much more likely to produce cracks than equivalent stresses developed in older concrete. It is evident that the greatest longitudinal stress which can be developed at any section of the pavement, due to contraction, is equal to the weight of the pavement, included between the section under consideration and the nearest free end, multiplied by the coefficient of friction between the pave- ment and the subgrade. Therefore, if contraction joints are spaced sufficiently close together to prevent this stress from exceeding the tensile strength of the concrete, no cracks should occur. 3 If no transverse joints are constructed in the pavement, the length of the sections between cracks, judging from such limited data as are at present available, will vary from 20 to 150 feet, and depends upon the kind of aggregate used, the relative richness of the concrete, the 14 BULLETIN 249, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. condition of the subgrade at the time the concrete is placed upon it, and the method employed in curing the concrete. It 1s common prac- tice to space the transverse joints from 25 to 50 feet. If there were no curves in the alignment, or summits in the grade of a road, it is doubtful if any provision for expansion would be necessary in constructing the joints, because the elasticity of the concrete should be sufficient to take care of the expansion caused by changes in temperature and moisture content. In nearly all cases, however, there are curves in alignment and changes in grade which might permit a displacement of the pavement before a very high compressive stress was developed. For this reason it is advisable that joints be constructed to provide for a slight amount of expan- sion as well as for contraction. There are a number of different methods of constructing joints, but none of them appear to be entirely satisfactory from every standpoint. Probably the simplest type of joint is that made by introducing into the pavement a board about five-eighths inch thick and shaped to conform with the cross section. This board is held in place by means of stakes until the concrete is placed against it on both sides. The stakes are then removed and the board is leit in place with its upper edge even with the surface of the pavement and its lower edge resting upon the subgrade. The principal objec- tions to this joint are that the board wears rather rapidly and does not protect the adjacent edges of the concrete. A second method is to form a plane of weakness by placing a board so that its top edge is about 3 inches below the surface of the pave- ment. Then, when the contraction of the concrete has caused a crack to form immediately over the board, the crack is filled with bitumi- nous material. This joint is said to have proved very satisfactory for dense concrete where the distance between joints is comparatively small, but it is subject to the objection that compressive stresses de- veloped by expansion of the concrete are likely to be concentrated in the upper part of the pavement and to cause spalling at the joints. Another method is to use a board, such as that first described, which is removed before the concrete has taken its final set. The opening thus left is later filled with bituminous material. The principal diffi- culty with this method is that when the board is withdrawn the adja- cent edges of the concrete are usually disturbed and a rough joint is produced. Probably the method most often used in constructing joints is to separate the successive sections of the pavement by means of spe- cially prepared bituminous felt boards. These are usually held in place by means of properly shaped steel templates until the concrete is deposited against them, after which the templates are removed and the concrete flows around the boards. The thickness of this PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS, 15 joint has varied in common practice from one thickness of two-ply tar paper up to about one-half inch. A thickness of one-quarter inch seems to give very satisfactory results when the joints are spaced about 30 feet apart. Joints of this kind are sometimes provided with metal armor, which is intended to keep the adjacent edges of the concrete from being spalled off. It is claimed that armored joints require less maintenance than other types, but they are more ex- pensive to construct. The joints are undoubtedly the weakest feature of the concrete pavement; and no matter what type of joint is used, they must be given frequent and careful attention to prevent rapid deterioration of the pavement adjacent to them. In the past, contraction joints of all types have usually been placed at right angles to the line of the pavement. This method of con- struction has the disadvantage that two wheels of a vehicle strike the joint at the same time and thus produce the maximum amount of impact. By skewing the joint at an angle of about 15 degrees the wheels strike one at a time, and the total resultant impact is reduced by at least one-half. This is advantageous to both the traffic and the pavement, and since the difficulties involved in constructing skewed joints are not at all serious. there is no apparent objection to their use. PROTECTING AND CURING THE CONCRETE. The quality of the concrete depends to a great extent upon the con- ditions under which it sets or hardens. When early exposed to dry air, for example, water is evaporated out, thereby greatly accelerat- ing the shrinkage of the concrete and delaying the process of setting. It is evident that these results form a very effective combination for producing cracks. The effect of freezing on concrete is still more harmful; not only are cracks produced, but the internal structure of the concrete is also damaged. The precautions that must be taken in order to protect a newly constructed concrete pavement during the process of curing depend largely on the weather conditions. In drying weather small hair- like cracks will frequently begin to form almost as soon as the surface of the concrete is finished, and unless the concrete is quickly covered and protected from the air these cracks increase in size very rapidly. At other times, when the atmosphere is moist, the concrete may sometimes be permitted to stand for several hours before being covered, without any danger of cracks forming. Heavy canvas made into sections of convenient length and proper width should be used for covering the concrete surface (PI. ITI, fig. 2). The canvas should be spread over the pavement as soon as this can be done without marring the surface. Under unfavorable 16 BULLETIN 249, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. atmospheric conditions it 1s sometimes better to spread the canvas immediately after the surface is finished, even at the risk of marring the surface shghtly, than to run the risk of having cracks develop in the pavement. The canvas should be sprinkled until thor- oughly wet immediately after it is spread and should be kept wet until removed and replaced with an earth covering. Under ordinary weather conditions about 24 hours will be required for the concrete to set sufficiently hard not to be damaged by men walk- ing upon it while covering it with earth. The canvas should there- fore usually remain on the pavement about one full day. Imme- diately after the canvas is removed the pavement should be covered with a layer of earth about 2 inches thick, which should remain on the pavement and be kept constantly wet for a period of about two weeks. During this period the roadway should be kept entirely closed to traffic. If the weather conditions are favorable the concrete ought to be sufficiently strong to withstand trafiic at the end of two weeks. In cold or otherwise unfavorable weather the earth cover- ing should preferably be thicker than 2 inches and left in place for a longer period of time. No concrete should be laid during freezing weather, but if danger of freezing develops -after the concrete is laid and before it sets, the first cover of canvas should be supple- mented in some way in order to prevent damage to the pavement. This may be done by spreading over it a layer of straw, or by using two thicknesses of the canvas, if this is practicable. The protection of the concrete is an extremely important feature of concrete-pavement construction. It is impossible to secure satis- factory results unless some such precautions as those described above are taken to prevent the concrete from drying out too rapidly after it is placed, and to insure that it sets un under uniformly favorable conditions. THE USE OF REINFORCING STEEL. Probably the most satisfactory method, in point of efficiency, yet devised for reducing the number of objectionable cracks in concrete pavements is that of employing steel reinforcement. The reinforce- ment usually consists of woven wire or some similar material, though there is no apparent reason why plain round or square rods might not be satisfactorily used. One-quarter-inch round rods embedded about 2 inches above the lower surface of the pavement and spaced about 12 inches center to center in both directions would seem sufli- cient to eliminate practically all objectionable cracking, provided proper joints were introduced at changes in the grade and at curves in the alignment. But any satisfactory system of reinforcement will probably add from 15 to 20 cents per square yard to the cost of the pavement, and this additional cost is no doubt responsible for the HARDNESS Bul. 249, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. 18.0 77.0 eas ees STANDARD HARONESS TEST VARIOUS PROPORTIONS OF CEMENT TO SAND (SPECIMENS CURED, 28 B45) COEFFICIENT 9) Q OTTAWA STANDARD SANO an caaaee ee cnben 8 WATER CURED = ~—————— MOSTUAR CURED —-—_ - — OUTSIDE AIR CURE: HARDNESS COLFFICG/ENT SOO(NVEAT) Nae Sees Ss Sw Se S28 8 8 38 8 8 & 8 8 8 8 AIR CLNT CEMENT TO TOTAL PILX. DIAGRAM SHOWING RESULTS OF HARDNESS TESTS OF CEMENT MORTARS. Bul. 249, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. HEIGHT OF BLOWS /N CAL — HEIGHT OF BLOWS /N CM. 22 20 18 /6 ‘2 /2 70 Sola as IS _-— ~ = TOUGHNESS TEST- SPECIMENS CURED 28 DAKS VARIOUS PROPORTIONS OF CEMIENT TO SAND PLATE VIII. —all als ($ AVLOGRAYT WEIGHT USED INSTEAD OF STD.2 KM. WYT) a | se ; V \ OTTAWA STINLARD SAND ‘ MOST Al? CORED mn — meme OU7S/DE AIR CURED — ———— 100 (WEAT) § §& 8 8 ~ ee Rr tye Oa Cees PER CENT CEMENT TO TOTAL MiX y ~ v %» DIAGRAM SHOWING RESULTS OF TOUGHNESS TESTS OF CEMENT MORTARS. POUNDS PER SQUARE /NCH POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH /Q0000 3000 — Bul. 249, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. gee | CRUSHING STRENGTH OF MORTARS ee = a VARIOUS PROPORTIONS OF CLEMENT TO SAMA SPE CIMEMS ~ P| cwntoz8 ars) G00 7002 6000 S000 Fooo 3000 2000 4000 2000 4000 > — — a | “* IN AS ~~ ie et enn 1 | ~ | ase ) fe T —— aes aI TTAWA STANDARD SAND — a L | ee T 1 ile eal WATER CURED = —————— | AUR CURED MIOKT Af? CURED Teas ae P| OUTSIDEAUR CURED ——— —— | IE fee N : Boe 8) RS Re Saas PEP CEYT CEMENT 70 TOTAL MILK DIAGRAM SHOWING RESULTS OF CRUSHING STRENGTH TESTS OF CEMENT MORTARS. Bul. 249, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X, oe ae Fia. 1.—TYPICAL SECTION OF CONCRETE ROADWAY. Side ditches should be of sufficient size to dispose of all drainage; C may vary from 3, ‘to 73; when w exceeds 20 feet make joint incenterand crown subgrade; k varies from 6 to 12 inches. a aw : 2 iets _bfond rod (Oe ae EE ————— [— SS PLAN . / uv - L = wath of road + 2-0 4 R au —D = ——————— ees —) | a eS ——————— es + | Ve nk -L a a ; “ 96 2xg Steel Face, ELEVATION Fila. 2.—TYPICAL DESIGN FOR STRIKE BOARD. Fic. 3.—WoOODEN STRIKE BOARD. Fia. 4.—STEEL TAMPER. atton 3 Hick Fla. 5.—LONG@ WOODEN FLOAT. Bul. 249, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI. u” ” / LA *2 wooden blocks 2-3 round rods. 0*3 ELEVAT/ON Fia. 1.—TYPICAL DESIGN FOR FINISHER’S BRIDGE. “ oe " i] “ " e Eo sik “ | | wo ee Fic. 2.—TYPICAL Cross SECTION OF CONCRETE GUTTER AND DESIGN FOR A TEMPLATE TO BE USED IN ITS CONSTRUCTION. 2" WATER SUPPLY PIPE STEEL FORM : Sea 2) ® Veowere re 4 | concre re 3. EARTH (VEOVEREDZA] [COVERED COVERING REMOVED a= STEELE ORM aa Oo & Fic. 3.—DIAGRAM SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF FORCE, USING 2-BaG MIXER. A, foreman; B, subforeman; ©, finisher; D, 2 laborers striking and tamping; E, 3 laborers placing concrete and assisting in striking; F, mixer tender; G, laborer cleaning subgrade and setting joints; H, mixer engineer; * fireman, also sprinkles subgrade; J, laborer assisting wheelers and cement handlers; K, 2 labo.ers handling cement; L, 2 laborers wheeling sand; M, 3 laborers wheeling coarse aggregate; N, 2 laborers loading sand; P, 4 laborers loading coarse aggregate; Q, laborer sprinkling pavement; R, water boy. Total, 2 foremenand 25laborers. ( indicates wheelbarrow. : _(Te" WATER SUPPLY PIPE + al oT CHEY qe nie STEEL FORM. : ae © } omg <) \_] y COVERING S398 / : REMOVED CEMENT I) [CEMENT | Eabed ke® / y Fic. 4.—DIAGRAM SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF FORCE, USING 3-BAG MIXER. A, foreman; B, subforeman on placing concrete; C, subforeman on charging mixer; D, 2 laborers striking; E, 2 laborers tamping; F, 2 finishers; G, 3 laborers placing concrete; H, mixer tender; I, laborer cleaning subgrade and setting joints; J, mixer engineer; K, fireman, also sprinkles subgrade; L, laborer assisting wheelers; M,3 laborers wheeling sand; N, 4 laborers wheeling coarse aggregate; O, 2 laborers wheeling cement; P, 2 laborers handling cement; Q, laborer opening bags; R, 3 laborers loading sand; S, 4 laborers loading coarse aggregate; T, 2 laborers SpEE lng pavement; U, water boy. Total, 3 foremen and 36 laborers. (J indicates wheel- arrow. PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS. 17 fact that concrete pavements are seldom reinforced. Furthermore, reinforced pavements are more difficult to repair than those made of plain concrete, which may be a very serious objection under some circumstances. GUTTERS. Tt is frequently Jesirable to provide concrete pavements with paved gutters in order to prevent the side ditches from eroding. Plate XI, figure 2, shows a typical design for a concrete gutter. This design has been frequently used and has usually proved to be satisfactory. A suitable strike board for forming this gutter is also shown in the figure. It is impracticable to construct the pavement and the gutter at the same time, and on account of the convenience of using the pave- ment as a platform for material and for mixing concrete for the gutter the pavement is usually constructed first. When there is no space between the gutter and pavement the joints should always be continued through both. If this is not done, the joints in each are apt to be continued as cracks in the other. CURBS. Concrete pavements on country roads are not generally provided with curbs, because it is usually desirable to use the shoulders as part of the roadway. Under some circumstances, however, curbs may be employed to advantage. For example, in deep cuts it might be jus- tifiable economy to omit the shoulders and side ditches and provide curbs along the edges of the pavement so that the sides of the pave- ment would serve as gutters. Likewise, on very deep fills curbs are sometimes used to protect slopes from erosion. When this is done it is necessary to provide catch basins at low points in the grade. BITUMINOUS WEARING SURFACE. Since 1906 a number of experiments have been made in an effort to develop some satisfactory method of constructing a bituminous wear- ing surface on concrete pavements. Various kinds of bituminous materials have been used and several methods of applying them have been tried. Some of the surfaces are reported to have given moderately good service under light traffic, but in general they have not been durable where the traffic is at all heavy. The uneven man- ner in which they fail tends to produce excessive wear on portions of the concrete, and renewals should be made promptly as needed. © The principal advantages claimed for bituminous wearing surfaces on concrete pavements are: (1) They make it possible to substitute continuous maintenance for periodic renewals of the pavement. 92759°—Bull. 249—15—_3 18 BULLETIN 249, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (2) They reduce the noise made by the impact of horses’ hoofs and steel-tired wheels. (3) They remove the principal objection to bituminous expansion and contraction joints. (4) They overcome the somewhat objectionable glare of concrete pavements in strong light, though this objection may also be overcome with much less cost by sprinkling the pavement with crude water- gas tar. The principal disadvantages may be inferred from what has already been said. It is also well to note that, where traffic condi- tions are such as to make a bituminous surface practicable on a con- crete road, a bituminous-surfaced macadam road might also be prac- ticable and would certainly be cheaper to construct, unless the difh- culties involved in securing suitable stone for the macadam were very unusual. In constructing bituminous surfaces on concrete it is essential to have the surface of the concrete entirely clean and free from laitance when the bitumen is spread. Generally about one-half gallon of bitumen to the square yard is put on in either one or two applications, by hand or by means of pressure distributors. - It is sometimes swept with hand brooms in order to make it adhere better to the pavement. Hot applications have hitherto been almost exclusively used, though there is no apparent reason why materials which could be spread cold might net be employed with equally satisfactory results. After the bitumen has been spread as described, it is covered with coarse sand, pea gravel, or stone chips, applied at the rate of 1 cubic yard to from 75 to 100 square yards of surface. The road may be opened to traffic almost immediately after the sand or stone chips are spread. Plate V shows the conditions of different concrete roads with bituminous wearing surfaces after certain periods of service. It is realized that the above discussion of bituminous wearing sur- faces falls very far short of furnishing a guide for undertaking work of that kind. The available data upon this subject, however, are not considered sufficient to form a basis for a more comprehensive discus- sion. Not only have contradictory results been reported by different engineers concerning the same methods of construction, but the re- sults now being obtained from carefully conducted experiments by the Office of Public Roads with different materials and different construction methods do not yet seem to warrant any definite state- ments as to what materials are best adapted for such work nor which construction method will give the best results, though they do indi- cate in a general way that tars are preferable to asphalts for this purpose. PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS. ~ 19 METHODS, GRGANIZATION, AND EQUIPMENT. When it is considered that ordinarily from one-third to one-half of the total cost of constructing a concrete pavement is for the labor employed in doing the work after the materials are delivered, the importance of efficient organization, proper equipment, and eco- nomical methods becomes readily apparent. Failure to give these features proper consideration may easily result in adding from 10 to 20 per cent to the cost of a concrete pavement, and has no doubt frequently caused road contractors to sustain a net loss on series of this kind, where profits might have been made. It is not the province of this bulletin to furnish detailed rules for the guidance of contractors in planning and executing their work, but it seems desirable to discuss briefly a few important points which contractors and engineers in charge of force-account work should consider in connection with concrete-pavement construction. The points which are of most importance, and to which the discussion will be confined, are concerned with, first, the proper order and progress of the work; second, the economic handling of materials; and third, the amount of capital necessary to carry on such work economically. ORDER AND PROGRESS OCF THE WCRK. In constructing a concrete pavement it is especially desirable that the work of mixing and placing the concrete be as nearly continuous as practicable after it is once begun. Where the mixer is permitted to stand idle for even a few days the force of laborers employed in operating it will usually become more or less disorganized, and an appreciable amount of loss and unsatisfactory work will generally result when the mixing is resumed. On this account the order and progress of the work should ordinarily be planned with the primary, view to keeping the mixer going full time every working day that the weather will permit. This means that ample provision should be made for completing the drainage structures, the grading, and the preparation of the subgrade well ahead of the mixer, as well as or supplying the mixer with all necessary materials. | The drainage structures should preferably be completed in ad- vance of the grading in order to obviate the necessity for moving embankment material the second time. Where the concrete mate- rials are to be hauled out by means of an industrial railway, how- ever, it is usually impracticable to extend the railway ahead of the grading, and the saving effected in hauling the materials for the drainage structures on the industrial railway may justify permitting the grading to proceed ahead of the drainage structures. 20 BULLETIN 249, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Rather than construct a concrete culvert sufficiently far in ad- vance for the subgrade to be prepared before the mixer arrives, it may sometimes be economical to leave out a section of the pavement over the culvert. But the extra expense involved in going back and putting in a section of this kind after the work of laying the pave- ment has progressed a considerable distance ahead is usually con- siderable and is often underestimated by contractors. This method of doing the work also involves a delay in opening the road, and as a rule is very objectionable on that account. The work of preparing the subgrade and setting the forms should preferably proceed sufficiently far in advance of the mixer to allow for two or three days’ run. The prepared subgrade, if properly drained, dries out much more rapidly after rains than the rough grade, and thus it is possible to resume the placing of concrete much earlier than when the roadbed has not been shaped and rolled. A soaking rain will usually cause the prepared subgrade to heave sightly and make rerolling necessary, but ordinarily this is a very small item. OPERATING THE CONCRETE MIXER. In general it is economical to employ a mixer of the street-paving type for mixing and placing the concrete, though in some cases it has proved satisfactory to do the mixing in stationary mixers and haul the concrete out to its place in the road. This latter method is applicable to relatively only a very few sets of conditions, however, and will therefore not be discussed in detail. There are two sizes of street-paving mixers commonly used in concrete road construction. The smaller is capable of mixing a batch, of the proportions usually required, containing two bags of cement, and the larger will mix a batch containing three bags of cement. The larger size 1s economical where materials can be rapidly obtained and where the amount of work to be done is sufficient to warrant providing equipment for handling the materials necessary to keep the larger mixer running up to its capacity. Where the materials can be economically obtained only at a slow rate, or where the expense of providing facilities for handling large quan- tities of materials would be excessive, the smaller size of mixer is more economical to use. When efficiently operated, either size of mixer should ordjnarily mix from 400 to 450 batches of conerete in a working day. ) ; Organizing a force of laborers to operate a paving mixer effi- ciently requires considerable skill in handling men. The best results are generally obtained when a mixer is fully manned and each laborer is assigned definite work to perform. The accompanying diagrams, Plate XI, figures 3 and 4, illustrate mixer organizations for the two sizes of mixers in general use, which PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS. Dal were worked out by a contractor of considerable experience. Labor- ers for preparing the subgrade, setting the forms, and for covering the concrete with earth should be provided in addition to those called for in the diagrams. HANDLING MATERIALS. One of the most difficult problems which has to be solved in con- nection with concrete road construction is that of determining the proper methods to employ in handling and delivering the materials for the concrete. The different kinds of material required must be delivered to the mixer in definite proportions at the same time, and it is evident that the location of the several sources from which the materials are obtained, with respect to each other and to the road, will have a very great influence in determining the most economical transportation methods. Consider, for example, a project on which is used a concrete mixer of the street-paving type which mixes a batch containing three sacks of cement. If the work is to progress normally, the quantities of the different materials required each day will be approximately as follows: CETTE MM pea ee Lye ce Ea a oa oe barrels. 320 SS CUTE Clipe ered ke 2S ea See cubic yards__ 70 (CADRES ae ea Sera ns os eS ee es ee do==== 140 ANS fey roger wearers ca han PON Senter eens Tne ShcA Rune ons Werte pcs) cea SO gallons__ 8, 800 In addition to the above, if the mixer runs continuously, about 10,000 gallons of water will be required each day for keeping wet that part of the pavement which will have been laid during the two preceding weeks, and for sprinkling the subgrade before the con- erete is placed. This makes the total weight of water which may be required each day about 75 tons, and the total weight of all the materials combined about 420 tons per day. The importance of the water supply is not always appreciated by contractors and engineers, and the provision made for delivering water on the work has sometimes been entirely inadequate. Another frequent error is that of overestimating the amount of water which a chosen stream is capable of supplying. In general, the most practi- cable method of delivering the water is to pump it through a pipe line laid along the road. The pipe should be at least 2 inches in diameter, and for the mixer under consideration the pump should be capable of furnishing about 25,000 gallons of water in 10 hours to any point on the pipe line. Ordinarily at least 10,000 feet of pipe will be required if the concrete is to be sprinkled for two weeks after it is laid. 22 BULLETIN 249, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The proper method of handling the cement is sometimes con- siderably affected by the requirements which the specifications pro- vide regarding tests. Some specifications require that the cement shall be held until the results of the 28-day test are reported, while others permit its use as soon as it has satisfactorily passed such tests as may be made within seven days. If any tests of consequence are required and the sampling is not done until the cement arrives at the nearest railroad station, it will be necessary either to unload and store it or pay demurrage charges. This difficulty may be overcome to some extent by placing an inspector at the cement plant to collect and forward samples to the testing laboratory as soon as the cars are loaded. The testing may then be begun while the cars are en route. Another plan sometimes employed to lessen the demurrage and avoid rehandling is to purchase bin-tested cement and have the cars loaded under the supervision of an inspector. When this is done, the cement may be used as soon as it arrives on the work, but the custom of cement manufacturers to make a slight additional charge for bin- tested cement may entirely offset the economical advantages gained by its use. No matter what the arrangements for testing the cement may be, provision should usually be made for storing near the work suflicient cement to keep the mixer going for four or five days, in case that shipments are delayed, as frequently happens. In general, the most satisfactory method of hauling the materials for the concrete is by means of an industrial railway constructed along one shoulder of the road, though this method is not always the most economical. Teams, traction engines with trailers, and motor trucks with or without trailers have each been frequently used for this purpose, and are no doubt each economically best adapted to certain sets of conditions. But all of these are objectionable from a construction standpoint on account of the damage which they usually do to the subgrade. Among the advantages possessed by an industrial railway for haul- ing the concrete materials are: (1) Materials may be delivered without disturbing the subgrade. (2) The railway may be readily operated along the shoulder of a newly laid pavement, which makes it practicable to prosecute the work at any desired point. (3) Hauling is affected comparatively little by weather conditions. (4) Where there is sufficient work to keep an industrial railway outfit busy, it is usually economical, especially where the size of the projects is such that the railway can be operated continuously throughout a season on the same project. The purchase of an indus- trial railway outfit, however, usually involves a greater outlay of capital than is desirable for a single project. PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS. 23 From a purely economical standpoint the choice of means for haul- ing the materials would probably be made about as follows: First. Where the maximum haul does not exceed 3 miles and the amount of concrete to be laid does not exceed about 5,000 cubic yards, team haul would probably be economical. — Second. If the amount of concrete to be laid exceeds about 5,000 cubic yards, or if the maximum haul exceeds about 3 miles, and the materials are hauled in from the same direction, an industrial rail- : way, tractors, or motor trucks may be economically used. Third. Where the materials are hauled in from each end of the’ road, or where it is desired to operate more than one mixer at the same time, the industrial railway is usually more practical and economical. , Where the sand and coarse aggregate are shipped in by rail, the work of unloading the railroad cars and loading the wagons or cars in which the materials are to be hauled out to the work can usually be most economically done by means of machinery especially adapted to this kind of work. In order to avoid paying demurrage, and to have the materials on hand when they are needed, it is nearly always necessary to handle a considerable part of the materials the second time. Hence it may be desirable to have two sets of unloading and loading machinery in cases where the stock piles and bins are located out on the work instead of at the siding where the materials are delivered. The kind of unloading and loading device to employ depends to a very great extent on the quantities of materials to be handled and the other conditions to be met. If the stock piles and bins are ad- jacent to the siding where the materials are delivered, and a consid- erable quantity of work is to be done, a locomotive crane may fre- quently be used to advantage, while, if the stock piles and bins are out on the work, it may be economical to handle the material at the siding with scrapers or similar devices and install an elevating device at the bins where the materials are stored. In other cases the extent of the work may not be sufficient to warrant any machinery whatever for handling the materials, in which event the handling may be rather expensive. CAPITAL REQUIRED. The amount of capital required to carry on concrete road construc- tion successfully depends almost wholly on the size of the project and the circumstances under which the work is to be done. Where a con- siderable quantity of work is to be done in the same community it may be possible to keep a very elaborate equipment busy, even though the individual projects are comparatively small. On the other hand, it may be poor economy to provide more than the smallest practicable 24 BULLETIN 249, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. equipment for a rather large project in a community where few other concrete roads are likely to be constructed. The equipment necessary for handling and hauling the materials frequently represents a much greater outlay of capital than all other expenditures combined, but, as has already been pointed out in dis- cussing the handling of materials, the conditions affecting this fea- ture of the work are subject to great variation. A general discussion as to the cost of this part of the equipment, therefore, would usually be of small value in connection with any particular project and will not be undertaken. The equipment necessary for doing the rough grading in connec- tion with concrete road work is not essentially different from that required for grading other types of roads. Since the amount of cap- ital necessary to provide grading equipment to suit various sets of conditions is familar knowledge to practically all road engineers and contractors, this feature will not be discussed here. The capital required to provide equipment for preparing the sub- grade and mixing and placing the concrete depends on the rate at which it is purposed to carry on the work. The lists given below show the approximate cost of outfits using either a 2-bag or a 3-bag mixer. Outfit No. 1 (2-bag mixcr). MP TOOTEE DlOWe so ee Rae he ee eee eee $50 ler Onde COC CTS tee a) er See eee 300 THe AV Ver tsOTSe ap) O Wises sot ce a ee ee ee 30 Shovels pieks: and other, small tools) ase eee 75 l10-tonumacadam-type read ‘roller- === =~ eee 2, 500 1,800 feet of steel forms, complete with stakes, ete____--_--- 200 1 pump and engine capable of delivering at least 1,500 gal- lonstofawater per Hours 228 ee ee a eee 175 10,000 feet of 2-inch wrought-iron water pipe, with valves eneny, 200m feeGis. 22) it Sete ee ee 950 400 feet of rubber hose, with couplings_____—_____________ 80 12? AWHeeGlbALrOW Sis) eS a eo ee 60 1 concrete mixer, with skip and distributing device________ 1, 600 Strike board, tamper, mortar hoes, sledges, ete____________ 100 PRO Pay eo A a 6, 120 Outfit No. 2 (3-bag micer). Mi ArOOterMplOWe sees 2 See eae oe Be $50 Ler OG MNOT AMOS so = Ct vik Sees eat Sie a eee a 300 dhealvvar4-Norse plo Wace ee 30 Shovelssupicks; and other small t00ls===22=— Ss. SSS 100 i 1.0=ton\macadam-ty pe! road roller sss ees eee 2, 500 3,000 feet of steel forms, complete with stakes, ete--_.__----_ 325 1 pump and engine capable of delivering at least 2,500 gal- lonSNOLWwaterspennOUn2— (hsuga: canadensis [a Carr ee ee a a eS 15 Hickory, Bitternut (Hicoria cordiformis [Wang.] Britton) ----__-------- 15 Hickory, Mockernut (Hicoria alba [l.] Britton) -____________________ 15 88 BULLETIN 250, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Page " Hickory, Pignut (Hicoria glabra [Mill.] Britton)____-_-____________ 15 Hickory, Shagbark (Hicoria ovata [Mill.] Britton) ___________________ 15 Holly,. American..White. (llex: opaca. Ait;) 22222 _2 2 Sa eee 16 Honeysuckle, Bush (Diervilla diervilla [L.] MaeM.)_--____-__________ 13 Hornbeam, American (Carpinus caroliniana Walt.)_~----____-_____--___ 16 Hop Hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana [Mill.] Willd.) _~_~-__-_-- 2 16 Huckleberry, Highbush (Gaylussacia baccata (Wang.) Koch ~~ ______ 16 Inkperry. (ilies glabra wil sAy;) Gray) 25 2 ee ee ee ee 16 Ivy, Poison (Toxicodendron radicans [L.] Kuntze)_______-___________ at 7¢ Juniper, Common (Juniperus communis Li.) --—~---~---_ 17 Kentucky Coffee-tree (Gymnocladus dioica [l.] Koch) _~~~-_-__-__ 17 Lareh, American (Larie laricina [Du Roi] Koch) 22-- 2) See 17 harch, Huropean: Charia: decidua. Mill.) =2 = 2 i ee il76 haurel, Mountain (Kalmia, latifolia yas -- 3) A eee 17 juaurel) Sheep (Kaunia angustyfoue My) 222 2k ee ee A eee ag, linden, American (lila americana: ) 2200 eh eee 18 imindens Huropean! (2iliassp: cL) 222 Se ee eee 18 ocust,, Black (Robinia Pseudoocaciq ts.) 222 ee ee eee 18 Hocust, Honey -(Gleditsia triaconthos dis) 2s ae eee ee 18 Maple; Mountain (Acer spicatwn Muam))\ tes se aes ee 18 Maple, Norway. (Alcer platanoides: L:)H22225) 222 teco i SS 18 Maple; Red:ACAcers Cw Oruine Viz) se NE RES See es es rp ee 19 Maple, Silver (Acer saccharinum L.)_~-~-~-----_- Jol 3 19 Maple Striped: (Alcer pennsylvanicum: ti) 2s eee ee 19 Maple; Sugar .¢Aicen:sacchanuin: Marsh:) 222s) 25) 223s Ya eee 19 Mulbernsys; Red “CMomeis 7wbnd, 1.) 22 82> Yee Se 19 Mulberry. wWihite. (torus avbg Ti.) 220 Oe a eee ee eee 19 Oak, Bear (Quercusihcifoliia: Wang.) === eee eee 20 Oak Blacki(Qwercus: veluting Mam) See ee eee 19 Oak, Rock Chestnut. (Quercus prinus W.)-2_- 2 4 e=_ 3 e 20 Oak, Dwarf Chestnut. (Quercus prinoides Willd.) ~~~ -_______==_._-__ == 20 Oak Bur (Quercus macrocanpa. Michx)) 22322226 22.22 20 Oakey Pink (Ouercus palustris DUR)! 222 a eee 20 Oak-a Post (Quercus stellata, Wan’) 2222) 2 fee eee “ 20 Oak-sRedi Quercus“ rwore, lh je a a ee eee 20 Oak Scarlet (Quercus: coccinea Wwang))2 aa eee ee eee 20 Oak, ‘Shingle (Quercus imobricaria Michx.) /_--_+-—-—- === 3 ee 21 O2k,, Swamp White: (Quercus bicolor eWwailld.) 2-22. = 21 Odkawihite(@wercus alba Wh). ee ee eee 21 OsageOrange (Hoxylon pomiferum [Rat.)))22-__2- ==. eee 21 Osier Reda(Connus stolonifera, Michx: 2222) eee 12 Pear \(Pyrus Conumiunis Tu!) = so soe ee Le et oe ee 21 Pepperbush) (Xolsma ligustrna [ii.)) Britton) 222-222 =5-- eee 18 Persimmon (Diospyros virgiiand Wh) 2222 = ee 21 Pine, "Gray (Pinus banksiong, amb.) 222 Se 22 ee eee 22 Pine; Piteh (Pinussnigidg: Mill) 222s ss ee ee eee 21 Pine, “RediiG@Pinus ‘resinosa: Art) 22 e252 ee eee 21 Pine» Scotch (Pinus ssylvestris dus) oa ee eee 22 Pine, White, Western (Pinus monticola Dougl.)—~--------~---~ .---____- 22 Pine; White: (Pinus strobus Wu:) =o) oie ee a 2s See 22 Plum) Beach (Pmmus monn Wangs) sa22- 2-22 eee 22 Poplar, Lombardy (Populus nigra var. italica Moench) —-----__-_-- seme 23 Poplar, Silver (Populus alba L.)---+-=------ Bevel ent e 22 ee 23 FOOD PLANTS OF THE GIPSY MOTH IN AMERICA. 39 Page IBENW@E CLOG DISUTDTO SOOT 155) ee ee eee 23 EVANS [OTIC Tatny ae CL CUO GESE SPOS) ees ese aa IE 23 OSG EaSsmnen (MOS@. Vingtiiuiand. Mill.) {See s2 See See eee eee 23 Sarsapanllagawald (Arata nuidicaulis’ Tu.) Sees ees eee eee 23 Sassafras, (Sassafras sassafras [i] Karst.) ---- 2 =e 24. | Service-berry (Amelanchier canadensis [l.] Medic.) ---------~---~-~--~~ 24. | Skunk (Cabbage (Spathyema fetida [lu.] Raf.)=o-——- —--- = = 24 Spice-bush (Bezoin estivale [L.] Nees)__-___-______ RS eee Ue Be htt 14 SPRUCE w lack (Picea mariona. [Mills BiSie)) 222-2222 eee eee 24 +i SDEUICEMINOLWiy, (iced Wotess lua Warst)))= === == 8s eee 24 SDRUCemIVelin CLIC CUA nOCnseNareenty) sane ass a ee 24. SpLruces winnie (Picea canadensis [Malla] B:N2P)) 22282 ee 24. SUMAGmVMOUMtAIME (hunts CONALiNnt li.) === ee 24. SUMIA Ca SCALE te CUS) OLUOT Own.) = oe ee ee eee 25 Sumacwstchorny (hws hinta, [lua Sudw.)) a2 == ee 25 SVWCewblerCLOSd TUOIGINOSG Js, joi 22a se ee ed Be eee 10 Sweeubepperpush) (Clethra alnifolia VW.) 22-22 ee 25 Sycamore @Pelatanus occidentalis Wu.) —=-—=- —- ee 25 Tea, Appalachian (Viburnum cassinoides L.)________________ ‘ee 26 MphipeireeChinmodendron tulipifera Wl.) 22-2 eee ee 25 Miburmumeasweet «(Viburnum lentago\ Tu.)-2--- 2-82 = EE 26 Wallin lackim (iwolans grad. is) =a 22 ee eee 26 BV aTll LCOS rv zapee VA EIITG hr (OS LE a= COU Cha Mise) Yaa Te a 26 WAlOWAnGlaucousm(Salia) dtscolom Nuh s) ae ee 26 Wrallowaebayaleaved (SA Nentanadna lis) pee eee a ee eee ee 27 \Walllony., Seimologines ((SdMEe UO more Levon Aleys) se ee 27 Winterberry, Smooth (Jlex levigata [Pursh] A. Gray) _________________ 16 Wantergreen (Gauwliheria procumbens Tu.)\_-—----- 10 WitehshazehCHamanens vinginiang Ti.) eee Dik O ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY v INDEX. Abies spp. See Fir. Accounting systems, elevator, types...-.--.---------------- Accounts— a system for farmers’ cooperative elevators, bulletin by John R. Humphrey and W. H. Kerr.....- Serine Dabs See also Bookkeeping. Acer Ne See Maple. Agave lecheguilla, use against fly larvee in horse manure, Ee E MUNIN CTS PA ey ial oats cle wrale ale e.a'siasala's Hainer aeldehinaiagle Agave, use against fly larve in horse manure, experiments. . Agrostemma githago, use against fly larve in horse manure, EE TUMETOSR pois Ve cise lek ie ea al alueuau he id Alabama— lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc... HG ME MEINE SIMOUISEEY Sos yooh ence Line elle GardaL Ae ea Alabama argillacea, food habits and occurrence.......------- Alialia— cutting, effect on water requirement and its pasturage, bulletin by Lyman J. Briggs and H. L. Shantz.-..... dry matter production and water consumption, effect of ME CEM ULEEIM Bos oo fe ee heey re abn eal 4 appeseey tne Bk pees r yt pasturage practices in Australia... ... Ji ABM EAU acta Seis MlnimMeMIserAPAINSt Meas. hye. helt ll tree Aniline, use against fly larvee in horse manure, experiments. Anthonomus grandis and Anthonomus yrandis thurberiae. See Cotton and Weevil. Apreoumdimed. processing formula: -y--0--..24 245-2466 se Arizona— lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc. . turpentine industry, outlook, problems, etc.........---- wild cotton weevil, relation to cotton planting in the aridgWiestsanulletim by, Be Re Coad! 4.2 Sees aes sane ae See also Weevil. Arkansas, lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, GUC YS SLO ASRS oR ne meg Se ee PAR Bee Mem, ALES ON neato te) TREN SAG CSSA S ts SE Oe eee eT san aS mfapeey Mech ereusen sy aye a Pashspecies, ranges and OULPU 202. se 5-22: Ses ee sea asin s ee JNSTOOIY TEAS RED Ye NC elueicn yar Me 2A an ae Austria-Hungary, sugar beets, acreage and production. ... .- Ayers, S. Henry, and W. T. Jounson, Jr., bulletin on _ “Pasteurizing milk in bottles and bottling hot milk pas- BOUMUACCE MON Te ee is rae ce ea Ne, Ne ei ey PemmacoiaGlead,.nange. 202022. ser alos. See isa eect AN Balsam fir, range, and lumber output by States............. Barns, use of oil-mixed cement concrete, value............- Basswood, species, range, and output......-- Pe SAE ee ee rea Beeens range and lumber output by States...........-..-.-- eet— calinabor, description. {as ye 24). Mee ees plats, studies in relation to preventable losses........-- Beetles, cone. See Cone beetles. 92034—17——2 Bulletin No. 236 236 232 { 233 239 { 245 232 232 238 240 232 232 230 232 232 238 238 13 7, 10, 12, 16-17 25, 29-31 7,8, 40, 43 4 8, 14, 30 44, 47-49 1=12 7, 10, 12, 14, 16 21-24, 29-31 4-5 23 22 2 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 226-250. Beets— seed bed, float for leveling LN eid abe tera Lae eee ener sugar— acreace and prod Uctlomy seers eer a ele eee distance between plants, requirements, studies... .. growing, management for better stands...........-- losses from’ drying... 28 5.25).)2 tapas sey jie seine] siecle losses in culture, bulletin by Harry B. Shaw....... lossesiin erowing, sources .02.. 52222222. 25 peed ese stand and yield, correlation, table................-. variations in local veld 32 Sie oc Ee che ea Ace ee Belgium, sugar beets, acreage and production EA NAS ae Beta naphthol, use against fly larvee in horse manure, ex- DETIMEM tS 2). se seis ete Cher eya als octave ool Seulas aaa feniey CU ie Berts, H.8.,and A. W. ScHorGEr, pulletin on “The naval stores industry” ERA ie A spurs sy atin Vatatst ic, 4 Fayre es dm sk iS Ripa ee Betula spp. See Birch. Bigtreesrange:imote js. oN. ee ee BL aeiats:opara eae otha Birch=rance and, outputs s: ose Sy vee oe Sawer Bird flea, life cycle and longevity.......... sae Ne rien Rh BisHopr,.E.C. bulletin on’SPleasia. 2 Vee er Bitternut hickory; motes. sy So we Me NaN ss eal aes ae Black flea. See Sticktight flea. . Black cum range nies aus wale cle Lacie bo Bigs Blackswalnutiranges s.52) 0 fee ae ie 0 i ee eps Blackberry juice, preparation, sterilization, and concentra- TOME XPETUMET GS ie yo MCN a a Ma A Nee Boll weevil, cotton. See Cotton and Weevil. Boll weevil, Mexican cotton, recent studies, bulletin by BR Coad ase NS OMe tM aalO laste Aas sain Curate leah Borax, use against fly larvee in foolee manure, comparison maith Hellebore oo. iso Mtn eE MgC RAB re wrt TA th Bottles, milk, testing for eeareine milk, directions.....-. Bottling milk— ' and pasteurizing milk in bottles, bulletin by S. Henry Avvyers and Wit); J OMNSODA MTA. | | Saori ee NEE commercial conditions, process...-...-..- ETA EVE LS IBTEWersaplcc he anaimurevand mses ewes sl ss pu at es peek Rie se Brick— color, variation, and comparisons.........-.-- Rel Ube chushingistrenetheymotesm ks mau els eR ae ery tie wee making, methods......-.-. trast TASTE SUNG FTE ae pavements— COMPO. BOO Ss das soko 5 beads boeradsdnots. 55° inspection and testing methods.......---...--...- raw materials and manufacture.......--...-.---.-- MEQ WNCTMENTE sr eee replete saeose jbobsioboudas Shapes Oris pe claliwionkcse ayer ch ace retail fed) ates letctaeinis testing, purpose and methods............---..---.----- vitrified, pavements for country roads, bulletin by Ver- non M. Peirce and Charles H. Moorefield............- Briaeas, Lyman J., and H. L. Sanz, bulletin on ‘‘Effect of frequent cutting on the water requirement of alfalfa and Tisibearingyon pasturace)): oy) ewes Deen ee ee la Bookkeeping, a system of accounts for farmers’ cooperative elevators, bulletin by John R. Humphrey and W. H. Kerr.. Brush, dis osal in lodge-pole pine forests. .-.....----..-..-..- Bubonic plague— outbreaks, MOCLALIGY, OM); SOUTCE CLC wdc sauce ee transmission ID yatleas sy ese Ra ea a Ue ee eae Buckeye, range, and lumber output................-.------ BURMEISTER, CG. A., E. F. Cumcort, and W. D. Griags, bulletin on ‘Gorn, milo, and kafir in the Southern Great Plains area: Relation of cultural methods to production” Butternut, range and lumber output..................-.--.- Bulletin Nos 238 238 238 238 238 238 238 238 238 238 245 229 232 232 INDEX. California— dried-fruit insects, control, bulletin by William B. PATI ayy ee aura a ere sey aries lark auch Apna ous bays) Rel I HAIR Ue lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc.... dizawoeksy, Slatpments, OWA s ee ae el ae turpentine industry, outlook, problems, etc...........-- carbolineum concentrates, formulas, toxicity to fungi, tests. - - Carpophilus hemipterus, dried-fruit infestation, habits.......- Castanea dentata, range and lumber output by States........-- Cats, flea infested, treatment................-....-.22.---- Cedarispecies, range, and outputees: 2.2... 28a ool Se Cellars, lining with oil-mixed concrete, value....-..-.--.--- Cement— concrete, oil-mixed Portland, bulletin by Logan Waller TEEN EE) a ARS a Oe OL pe Pe, Me Om eee A industry, American Portland, magnitude. ............- oil-mixed Portland cement, bulletin by Logan Waller JERE. i UE is RI Re Bots EM ee ain EIN a selection for o1l-mixed) concrete.) 2:2) .22 22) 552080 he Ceratophallus— acutus. See Flea, ground-squirrel. gallinex. See Bird flea. spp., transmission of bubonic plague, note........-.-...-- Chamexcyparis— UGE SO NCTM NATIONS Nae ey anise ge ay Lad a aimale Sve Sune Mah aM LO OURCLETISISH TAN OO. oii. yeh ae ek a ei oy NM a SS LIE OMOCSPATATI Or eye ec est Sie ia yy Mele Oa NN ie ge cael Charcoal, making, cost of various operations and selling [DUIS eco 5 RA Ree eR a UE UL Chemicals— toxicity to plant life— deverminimo factors: so ueen ie a .er ity Wuauin mucin ki VaMation historical notess 4 4-442 eee eee ees cee Cherry— juice, preparation and sterilization, experiments. .-...-.- Hance Panc iM Der OULPU“sscee cos ema le Ce teen ue Chestnut, range and lumber output by States.............-- Chicken flea, life cycle and longevity..................-.--. See also Bird flea; Sticktight flea. Chickens, flea infested, treatment...............-...-..-.- Chigoe flea— TT CU GOIN AT is ct oh ne ee RSG ENN occurrence, nature and hosts......................-.-- Cuitcorr, E. F., W. D. Grices, and C. A. BurMEISTER, bul- letin on ‘‘Corn, milo, and kafir in the Southern Great Plains area: Relation of cultural methods to production” ......... “Chipping,” turpentining, vield from different methods, etc. Chlorid, lime, use against fly larvee in horse manure, experi- OOKEY AT Fea feb Spent Po es etianalrey Wee Seal aces aneey isn BRE: es Na i eel ah Cisterns, use of oil-mixed cement concrete, value.........-.-- Coan, B. R.— bulletin on— ‘*Recent studies of the Mexican cotton-boll weevil” . “‘Relation of the Arizona wild cotton weevil to cotton plantinesin) theianidy West) 122: 2a. susea be Coal-tar creosote, formulas, toxicity to fungi, tests.......... Cockle, corn, use against fly larvee in horse manure, experi- TOYS HOT Ts) PR eS SUN ad MU a a ae ee Se nO Comandra plants, nature, propagation, and eradication ...... Comophorus ponderosx. See Yellow-pine cone beetle. Concrete— ddvantagesiand, objectione,.. 522.0) ua ey ad blocks, use of oil-mixed cement, value.................- Bulletin No. Page. 235 1-15 999 { 7, 10, 14, a 24-25, 29-31 237 5, 6-7 229 7,8, 44-49 227 24 235 — 5 232 17 248 23-24 232 19-20 230 10-12 230 1-26 230 1 230 1-26 230 6-7 248 12 232 19 232 19 232 19 234 20-21 227 8-11 227 3-14 241 14 232 27, 29 232, 15 248 ie 248 24 248 22 248 21-22 242 1-20 245 6 230 13 231 1-34 233 1-12 Papal 21-23 245 is 8, 14-15, 27, on { UG 30830 247 17 230 1-2 230 13-14 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 226-250. “Concrete—Continued. oil-mixed— patent eNotes este. Tet eae Rees Se eee ley Woes eee Portland-cement, physical tests...............---.-- requirements for!cubie jyardsce) 3: Gees eee Portland cement, pavements for country roads, bulletin by Charles H. Moorefield and James T’. Voshell....-.--- roads. See Roads, concrete. waterproof, tests of oil-mixed, for various purposes. - . - - - Cone beetles— control measures, discussion and remedies...........--- description, and life habits of species affecting sugar pine andiwesterniyellowpine re senccs. deme eee ece re Injury to sugar pine and western yellow pine, bulletin by John Mo Miller seuyeeuvyc!- - Qaptutleest ceylert as nature and feedime-habitse 2.5 ee cee eee eee cle Connecticut, lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of AWA UOLOXO Leer 1 FO 5 Pa Ot WU A kL Pan ea eg Eonar spp. See Cone beetle and Sugar pine cone beetle... Cook, F. C., R. H. Hutcutson, and F. M. Scares, bulletin on ‘‘ Further experiments in the destruction of fly larvee in NYOTSOPMAATE UNO a oe yea eek (Sade eee ames ti eae Copperized oil, toxicity to fungi, tests...........-..-------- Corn— cockle, use against fly larvee in horse manure, experi- ments are aia 2 sears aus io a yn earerebeyai el CER eC trae aR ay growing by different methods, cost per acre in Southern Greate laine ine (ace Mie ele 8) hae a eed 2 Sie Ue aoleare milo, and kafir in Southern Great Plains, bulletin by E. F. Chilcott, W. D. Griggs, and C. A. Burmeister . - - - Cotton— boll weevil— description, characteristics, life habits, etc. ....---- distribution, diagram and history ...........-.------ LOOMS LAINE eee ees o Ut Ve cejake co Harare he eters ete life history on cotton - Beale eee ace longevity records of different species .. yz : Louisiana, comparison with Texas weevil, studies. - Mexican, recent studies, bulletin by B. R. Coad .. Mruralkeontrol mee alan Mee. (errr or aig Dee parasites and disease, studies .. : MS ae relative proportion of sexes of various s species . ES leaf worm, food habits and occurrence . Pree SAs losses from boll weevil, 1914.. 3 plant, wild. See also Thurberia. plant. planting in arid West, relation of the Arizona wild cot- ton weevil, bulletin by B. R. Coad -. : weevil, Arizona wild, relation to cotton n planting i in the arid West, bulletin by B. R. Coad .. is RTE Bie Cottonwood, species, range, and output. - Bt sea fed ln oie Creolin, use against fleas on’animals....-............-.------ Creosote, wood, toxicity to fungi, tests..........-.--..------ @resol’ calcium: toxicity to fungi, tests... 2. . | ssl eae = Cresylic acid, use against fly larve in horse manure, experi- LIDS ODM Senor SS CSIR END rie cr R AS okt S23 me, Ren UR A ot erey et eu t Cronartium pyriforme— cause of disease of pines, bulletin by George C. Hedg- CoCksanG, WULAMiE SOON eae On Ee eee oh aameine distribution and dissemination .........-.-.-. effect on host plants -. dale history, morphology, synonomy, ‘and description . inoculation éxperments.- 2.4/0. 5-0- oe. 8. Crossties, lodgepole pine, use and value... Ctenocephalus canis. See Dog flea. Bulletin No. 230 230 230 230 230 230 249 4-31 1-2 3-4 5) 6-10 6-10, 32-33 1-34 31-32 31=32 10 1-20 8-13 13-16 1-5 5-8 4-5 INDEX. Cucumber tree, range and lumber output..-.-.-.......--..-- Curbing, brick roads, requirements and construction ......-- Currant juice, preparation, sterilization, and concent anon experiments -. a AS 2s REE RS Cypress, range, and lumber output, ‘by Staves vee diuineign Delaware— lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc. - SLA DeMRVAS HUD Ments iON Arey see. hi. EMT anes |! te Dendroctonus frontalis, injury to shortleaf pine, control.. .- -. Dermatophilus penetrans. See Chigoe flea. Diatomaceous earth. See Infusorial earth. Distillation— crude resin— equipment and operations, and management.... .... French methods, equipment, etc......--..-.--.--- Dog flea— description, occurrence, pau andl comtrolee. 53 4e yee host of tapeworm, note - Ee eee life cycle and longevity .. Dogs, infestation with fleas, treatment. Pierson tie aie rene Dogwood, range and lumber OUPEP ULE BSE Hs EE CINE a a Dried fruit— beetle, life habits -. : belt heater, description and. management - containers— fiber-board, shipping tests, elias oe HEE ASee eels recommendations .. 3 pare Sete insect infestation, in California .. 2 insects, control in California, bulletin by William B. earl eee Sm seta 0) Mucchy fag 4), EUAN otal pelea packing, preparation of sterile packages.....-......-.-. PROCESSING MOrMULAS 6 oS scree eee ee ere Rie iene alae protection from insect infestation, methods and man- R@CINGIN conc decoy so Sebo godoae se os dsioscedone seeoies sulphuring, effect on insects infesting, experiments. .. - . Drier, resin, nature and uses. = Seah tS SL ALS POM YAEL OL OULU baa) = -/c.syoie late spovtieus't Qhisi om alae Wevern tele eperee Echidnophaga gallinacea. See Sticktight flea. Eggplant— injury by lace-bugs, investigations and control. .....-.. lace-bug— Jowulicrina lon De ymavel 1), Wtinalke 2 Coons sake coos sseuso ss description, life history, and distribution. ......... insect enemies and parasites 2: see ee aoe les ee Elevators, farmers’ cooperative, a system of accounts for ..... BimMspeciessranse, and output. o.<.\o.. Ae eee Exports, naval stores, 1860-1913 202 2-H. ae... Fagus atropunicea, range and lumber output by States... -. -- Farmers’ cooperative elevators, system of accounts for, bulle- ie tin by John R. Humphrey and W. H. Kerr.. Reis cit igs— dried, processing, directions and formula... Ae RU as packing to prevent insect infestation, experiments . EhaN Yal Fring, D. E.— bulletin on— abhenerbenaibud maothede ss): JaRe Ne Seen es Lia! | Fir— Douglas, lumber ener? by States -. species and range... MOO ESY SUAS GAE HL Yh Fire clay, nature and use for paving brick . ELS aR aa eo eae i Lhejesaplant lace-bugpyietcs <-. Suma. eae ya enone Bulletin No. 232 246 241 232 232 237 244 5 Page. 27, 29 9-11, 30-31 10-11 15 27-31 35-39 18-19, 22-31 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. Fires, forest— damage to shortleaf pine stands............-..-.-.-.---- protection of lodgepole pine stands. ...-..-...-..--.---- Fish-oil soap, use against eggplant lace-bug, eee peaneas, , injury to cut pine timber, control.. Was ated ea— ground squirrel, life cycle and longevity...........-..-. human, description, occurrence, habits, and control..... repellantsis33: =. Lea Aen 2 Ais ApS Ely eden lis Nee, ao eee Fleas— abundance and spread, factors influencing..........-.-- breedino places.) /e0 2) sg ee EOE ERE MOM lil Bag tee bulletin by F. C. Bishopp. BS Se PR eNeS WOm amen se r= eae economic Importance in, discussion. ...-..-.---- Sees nostaandebuane We bites cee ae! 2 ee one eee life cycles of various kinds in different countries........ _ life history, longevity, and breeding places.....--.-.-.-. parasitic on man and animals, descriptions, habits, and YP CONTFONMCASUTES: is 5/21 2 tsa ee ete 12 ees oe a tenn os protectiondrom ;methods=s+. +2 >= eee 2 ana aee transmission of diseases, history and danger ee aes eres Sra DINO MINE HHOU SE ae ese easter, Meee ery ery rh ones meee Fiemine, Ruts M. , and erg Humparey, bulletin on “The toxicity to fungi of various oils and salts, particularly those used in wood preservation” Lei reper). UNMae 2 oat, eam eee Florida— lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc.. CUTPENUNEHNGUstiy sors alae} see bee ee a ae Fly— larve— destruction in horse manure, further experiments, bulletin by F. C. Cook, R. H. Hutchison, and FB Mg S Call eg oh is es 17 SRN Scie ye SYN URS Ble 2 a destruction in manure, equipment, management, andvexaminatlomioiunesulits-es - aya ee eee paper, use as protection from fleas..........-..-.-...-- Forest fires, effect on shortleaf-pine reproduction. ......-..-- Forests— STAZINE AN Ole mare ee eee WEIS; 2 AUR Nee nek, Aes lodgepole pine— management, cutting, seeding, etc......-.--.------ management, rotations, cutting, seeding, etc......- protection from fire and WCun e sce asesGaqaasn ae Formaldehyde, use against fly larvee in horse manure, ex- CLIMB tee tae cme ch oan et enue: MER ey es cea ae France, sugar beets, acreage and production. ........---.-- Fraxinus, spp. See Ash Ha ZOLeLIEN NO LET AEE sey poe hye Sipe as show (ae oe ae chee Tce Se Fruit— Y dried, insects injurious in California, economic im- WOMAN CCN ClC ee ai- nisin sie Sars 4 Ss ae Ne eho ees AoE See also Dried fruit. juices— concentration by freezing, management...........- containers, kinds and treatment..............-.-..- freezing storage, treatment of various kinds. ...-... preparation, sterilization and concentration, experi- mMenis with various) kinds!c.22 2-46. 22s eet ae nile sediment, removal, methods....-2-.-..--/-2---24-- sterilization, methods...-.-...-.---.----- Scr Bone studies, bulletin Pyke. Gores eau eee eee sulphuring, effect.on Inkects. . een «eee ee eee Fumigants, use in ridding buildings from fleas.............. 226-250. Bulletin No. Page. 244 34-35 234 46 239 7 244 36 248 7,8 248 16-18, 22-31 248 30 248 10-11 248 8-9 248 131 248 1-2 248 2-4 248 6-7 248 47 248 16-31 248 30-31 248 12 248 28-30 226 1-38 7, 10, 14, 16, 232 { 22,25 30-31 229 7,8, 43, 44 245 1-22 245 1-2 248 30-31 244 21-24 234 48 234 21-46 234 21-46 23.4 46-48 245 u 238 2 232 25 235 2-3 241 8 241 5-7 241 7-8 24) 9-19 241 3 241 2-9 241 1-19 235 6-7 248 27 INDEX. Fungi— Panirol, toxicity of various oils and salts used in wood preservation, bulletin by C. J. Humphrey and Ruth IN VES oa 60g I A at ee SY ea el OL effect of light on erowth.. Li cesbhrais Ge aete nde apne andi Bishiaag 2). effects of poisonous agents, discdesion. Me guanida Ws Fungus, disease of pines, cause by cronartium pyriforme. ... Gargaphia solani. See Eggplant lace bug. Georgia— lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc... ir PEMMMeMNAUStEY asia sere ep ee wis «dee isles yeaa A Germany, sugar beets, acreage and production er ag ad Eh aati ye Gipsy moth— food plants. bulletin by) ER: Hi) Mosher. 222.25 22)5.-'. ... food plants, list of tested and results.......-.--..------- plant food, studies and experiments. ...-..-------.-- wl Gore, H. C., bulletin on ‘Studies on fruit j JUiees ste eise Grain elevator— business, office equipment, inventory, auditing books, farmers’ cooperative, a system of accounts, bulletin by John R. Humphrey and W. H. Kerr......... De cee nA Great Plains, Southern— corn, milo, and kafir, relation of cultural methods to [ONC O WCU oe CB Ae eed eb a apeioe dee dob ceeoe nse =e hive crock industry. Outlook... 28. 55h ce\cche s deilaeyae se oe Griecs, W. D., E. F. Curtcort, and C, A. BURMEISTER, bulletin on “Corn, milo, and kafir in the Southern Great Plains area: Relation of cultural methods to production”’. Groundhog, transmission of bubonic plague, instance.....-- Ground-squirrel flea, life cycle and longevity. AEB PGR a ck Gum, range and lumber output, by States. ....---.-.---.-- Hackberry, range and lumber output....-.....-.-.---.--+: Heart pine. See Shortleat pine. Hevecock, Grorcs C,, and WittrAm H. Lone, bulletin on _ 4 disease of pines caused by cronartiwm pyriforme”....-- Hellebore— use against fly larve in horse manure, experiments . . . - varieties and common names, discussion, etc...-.-.---- ESET EMOMUSIILUO ETN MOLE 21!) ie 2) late aim n ici 2c in) -etelte ele ela Hemlock, species, range and lumber output, by States... .-.. Hickory, species, range and lumber output, by States....... Hicoria spp. See Hickory. Holland, sugar beets, acreage and production............... Horse manure, fly larvee i in, destruction, experiments, bul- letin by F. C. Cook, R. H. Hutchison, and F. M. Scales. . Huckleberry juice, preparation, experiments chk Ea wee HumPpHREY— C.J., and Ruts M. Fuemine, bulletin on ‘‘The toxicity to ‘fungi of various oils and salts, particularly those usediin/ wood: preservation 7.20.0) 200 ginenlay ioe) eal : Joun R., and W. H. Kerr, bulletin on ‘“‘A system of accounts for farmers’ cooperative elevators? 3605/4522 28 Hutcutison, R. H., F.C. Cook, and F.M. Scatzs, bulletin on “‘Further experiments i in the destruction of fly larve in NOUS RMAATMUTC Welt oie ee tk ame o II U0 MU ete ACs 0 Hydrocyanic-acid gas, treatment of flea-infested buildings. - feersiorms, effection pine stands: sj. 22). bgbet ee elle! Idaho, lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc. Bulletin No. DH, 22K 226 247 244 200 | 14-17 17, 19-20, 21 17 13-14 23-24 2 1-22 15 1-38 1-30 1-22 27 32-34 8, 10, 13-14, 18, 20, 25, 27, 30-31 § DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 226-250. Bulletin No. Page. Illinois, lumber industry, sawmills, output,kinds of wood, etc. 232 { 8, fae Indian meal, moth, life history and egg-laying records. -.--- 235 Rh 355 Indian rat flea. See Rat flea, Indian. Indiana, lumber industry, sawmills, cutput, kinds of wood, \ 939 one. Pee Mee GOT LE aE AP OE ESE 24, 26, 29-31 Tnfusorial earth— MAGUresvalUetas MlCere lessee ns oo Seema aoe ee eee 241 3 use in filtering fruit juices, suggestions..........-.-.-.-- 241 3 Insects, dried-fruit, control in California, bulletin by William IBS iParker Hsiao pepe eo kaa < ORNs Got e eee 235 1-15 Towa, lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc. 232 8, 21-22, 29-31 Irrigation ditches, linings of oil-mixed cement....-.-...-.--- 230 14-15 JoHNSON, W.T.,jr.,and S. Henry Ayers, bulletin on ‘‘ Pas- teurizing milk in bottles and bottling hot milk pasteurized shot] oOU Ele Ae A ARMs Sr ed ey REAL fi eer) Reo N, 5 240 1-27 Juglans spp. See Walnut. Jumipersram cer se snl eA ies 1 Se SE 232 19 LULU PCnUS UU OULU. TANCE A. 222 sae ee ae aoe ses eee 232 19 Kafir— corn, and milo, in Southern Great Plains, bulletin by E. F. Chilcott, W. D. Griggs, and C. A. Burmeister... 242 1-20 growing by different methods, cost per acre in Southern Grea tabel sans Me eee os ee aie ure eee Ae ne rat cere 242 15-18 Kala-azar, transmission by fleas, notes.........--..--------- 248 15 Kansas, Garden City, weather records, soils, etc.-...- hare See) 242 2-6 Kentucky, lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, \ 939 8, fase ce POS ae ae aed eae aenay Sree eter tt arr 29-31 Kerr, W. H., and Jonn R. Humpnrey, bulletin on ‘‘A sys- tem of accounts for farmers’ cooperative elevators”... .--- 236 1-30 Kieselguhr. See Infusorial earth. Lace bug— eggplant, bulletin by David E. Fink...............-..- 239 1-7 iMjuLyetolereplant Matures fs. 5. ce orc women vos se ce 239 1-2 See also Eggplant lace bug. iampblack, nature:and uses,notesue os. ese. SSE 229 10 Larch, range and lumber output by States. ............--.- 232 18 Larix— NOT ICTIVCs PATIO ye eS MR ARR 8 AMS OT ie ET WEB Pa 232 18 OCCLAENITG IS TAN Deeper ns NEE CLS RMR ALL 2 ee eae 232 18 Larkspur seed, use against fly larvee in horse manure, experi- ALE IGE eps See ayes stank eA Oe NMRA UCD Dy ee States EN 245 14 Larvicides— cost and efficiency of various kinds used against fly larvee MBN OY Se WATT Cee ph ee ec ie ity ET 245 18-19 use against fly larvee in horse manure, experiments... --. 245 1-22 Lemon juice, preparation, sterilization, and concentration, CR PECMIMeNIS: 700 Sos ewe ke Woe nee dei. Dis ae. eee 241 15-16 Leprosy, transmission by fleas, note....-.......--...------- 248 16 WUOCEUTUBIAECUTTENS ATAD SCs epee eet ee See eee Seer 232 19 Lime chlorid, use against fly larvee in horse manure, experi- MENG. epee eek ess te ORE Tec eee pee De EL AEN 245 6 MsimMeiree pWwild Wane Cer ae sc. cecal, « - Hein > Os eB eee kine oer 232 24 Liquidambar styraciflua, range and lumber output by States. - 232 16 Liriodendron tulipifera, range and lumber output by States. - 232 16-17 Live stock, industry in Southern Great Plains, outlook....-. 242 20 Locust wane and lumberjoutput. oe. soe - ae oe 232 27, 29 sos INDEX. Lodgepole pine— lumber cut— AY SHOUUE NL « LONWERSN RAH WETS i eA we ve Mian Cat eed Mae a TDRSS ees ae a Ea a Ube tA pal ae humibenines methods: MMe io yk en eee occurrence in National Forests, by States......-.----.-- (NTS TSH gfe 906 LFSY OG 0 0) I gey aloes wey See AMM 11a nee products— cost and selling prices, itemized products and opera- 1021S) 5050 eo an Sn Nes eR sizesrand contents tables. 425.2. - lame wien he range, and lumber output, by States..........-......--- Bpancdemne National Horéstsee 2 224142. SAL See substitute for cedar poles, discussion........-...-------- timber, strength, comparison with other pine timber, table. uses for mine timbers and railway ties. .......-...--.-- utilization and management in the Rocky Mountains, pulletinmbys D2 Masons. 3252 leer 5 gee. ePlieo ed Eel WU OCMCHALACTCEISUICH =. 6 22 esl sect. eee tae SL ys Var Lone, Witit1am H.and Grorce H. Hepaecocr, bulletin on ‘A disease of pines caused by cronartiwm pyriforme”’.....- Louisiana— lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, ete -- Strawberry shipments, 1914) . 2) 0200) os -see ede sends UIST STULTIV MITES EL Vie) 0 SVS ee an to oO SRLS eet Lumber— cut from minor species of trees, by species......-------- lodgepole pine, annual output, 1909-1911 ............... mills. See Sawmills. output, by kinds of wood and by classes of sawmills... . GUEUP TEE Va GRU 2 Vera ay eg OE Na es ls ap hw production— PTE OM SE ea 2 Nh al pe |) Ae et ne Pa eae aL statistics, collection, methods of Census Bureau and Nenculture Department .22-¢ .... 2c ee -beese Lumbering, lodgepole pine, methods...........--------.---- Machinery, beet cultivator, description.......---.....-..--- Machines, pasteurizing milk in bottles, description and opera- (ENOID «5 cy Stee VE ane ean Ings CGemaTe Ce ENERO, © TNE eWay, Ww dT Tne Magnolia, range and lumber output...............--.------- Mahogany, sources and lumber output..............-..---- Maine— lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc .. BURMEMLINE NMG Ustry tee: See eae eek cane eter a ee eae Manure— horse, destruction of fly larvee in, experiments, bulle- tin by F. C. Cook, R. H. Hutchison, and F. M. Scales - - treatment with hellebore for fly larve, effect on plants amiduchickensse se 4 eer CBRNE ky SRR iia ie Maple— range and lumber output, by States..........-.2.-.-.-- species, range, and output........-.---- Meat re Meee tae Maryland— lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc... strawberry shipments, 1914..............-... UPI Seedy Te td INDE MLE IMG US Tye: (ee ee Sy «. Maas 2 ee Mason, D. T., bulletin on ‘“‘ Utilization and management of lodgepole pine in the Rocky Mountains”’..........-...-- Massachusetts— gipsy moth problem, studies of food plants, experiments -. 92034—17——3 Bulletin - No. 234 234 234 234 234 234 234 232 234 234 234 234 237 229 232 234 232 232 | | A 5, 8 7, 8, 40-41, 43 29 5-6 6-7 7-8 1-32 1-2 10-14 17,18 7-11 27, 29 271-29 19-20 15-16 15-16 8, 10, 12, 17, 19, 29-81 5, 8 7,8 1-54 1-35 10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. Massachusetts—Continued. lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc. .. turpentine industry . - MartToon, Wiaer R., , bulletin on “Life history ‘of shortleat [OLAV 2}4e 24 Eire at A Gal Sat UR Pe Gn RS Ss Py Ue AE Michigan— lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc. .- turpentine andustiy.- ee cies ss sje) - ee es See Milk— bacterial content, comparison in pasteurizing.......-...- bottles— infection, destruction in bottling hot, tests. ....-..- recommendations for bottling hot milk .. testing for pasteurizing milk, directions. 2. %-,.S2s2 cooling cehbde. effect on milk bottled hot, etc. cream line and flavor of pasteurized. ..-.-.--.--------- expansioniundemheat <02° - S ciedista - Mepie a os/eoiaalae fe eial= pasteurization— and bottling while hot, management.............- in bottles, method and advantages. .-.............- pasteurizing in bottles and bottling hot milk pasteurized in bulk, bulletin by S. Henry Ayers and W. T. John- ORME] ER Varney Heed Oy Piola i Seat TM ON a Auisle oe rectors tank for pasteurizing and bottling hot milk, description -. Mier, Joun M., bulletin on ‘ Cone beetles: Injury to sugar ‘pine and western yellow pine’’ REE ai AH SPOON i Milo— corn, and kafir, in Southern Great Plains, bulletin by E. F. Chilcott, W. D. Griggs, and C. A. Burmeister. -. growing by different methods, cost per acre in Southern Great armsinse envsey sens 1 Gyn ele eames 1 aredcoxetl tats, susvone oficle Mine timbers— consumption, kinds of wood, etc... ...-..--...-.-.-.-- lodgepole pine; use and values... 22.2.5 22s e 2 Minnesota, lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of ee: CEVA CPs wR Ll A ae IWS Sse tobe Soe Geioud Cob beac be SBA cOsoor Ub ad oesalsc Mississippi, lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of WOOGIE L Ce ere ery ete eres ail Ar unr tihy Vo aeeioik Akt aL a a Missouri, lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, BOS SES AAT Sone iter cay ens Ege as a rary AT eS, Mies Parse ieee Mockernitiaickory,Move- ca iss “jn ciae sees omental = alse Montana, lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, | Rie 8S FRCS GA SNE ERI PERLE, Fy erent - EMEC ni J MooREFIELD, CHARLES H.— and James T. VosHELL, bulletin on ‘Portland cement concrete pavements for country roads” ..-..-.--.-.-- and VERNON M. Perrce, bulletin on ‘‘ Vitrified brick pavements for country TOAGS 2 eae soc Me eae Mosuer, F. H., bulletin on “‘ Food a eats ° of the > eiDSy moth in America” Rats E Moth— gipsy. See Gipsy moth. Indian-meal, life history, and egg-producing records... - - See also Indian-meal moth. verbena bud, bulletin by D. E. Fink................... See also Verbena bud moth. 226—250. Bulletin No. 8,13, 15, 232 { 17, 19, 29-31 229 7,8 Page. 244 1-46 Up disk, Wa} 232 18-19, 21-23, 24, 29-31 229 ute 240 13-14 240 15-16 240 24 240 6-7 240 16-22 240 23-94 240 24 240 11-12 240 ye 240 1-27 240 11-12 243 1-12 249 1-20 242 12-15 934 4 234 rials) 42 232 } 18-19, 21-99" 25, 29-31 245 11-12 7, 10, 232 | 12,14, 16-17, 21-24, 29-31 8, 10, 12, 232 1 14,16, 21-24. 26, 29- 31 232 8, 10 232 13-14, 18, 25, 27, 30-31 249 1-34 246 12980 250 1-39 235 3-5 226 1-7 INDEX. Naphthalene, use against fleas.....-.-.-...--.-.------.---- Naval stores— exports and imports of various countries, 1901-1910.... industry— bulletin by A. W. Schorger and H. S. Betts........ extent, production, exports, imports, etc... ....-.-- TTS Sele BAU GT OV NC eS 4 eee Aree patents relating to, chronological list...........---. AC Kam OMe IMEC tONS! = 2S ashy hlelve/ ss /s\o!. Suen Anearala Aleta production, methods, need of improvement... --.--..-- faulblications relating, toMMist./2 14 esic-\- selene ysis a2 = New Hampshire, lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds Olt WROOC |. GU Cs ae O OIE ORB EEE Bon caer hey min rn anny New Jersey, lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of WCOGL., GARG 36 crc) SE poe HH ea Oo SIPS ILO ROSES PSI SS BA eo New Mexico, lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of TROGGL,, GHG suid. e A aE ye aire se A ee a New York— lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc. -- (AULT OSU TGS) ALND ay gO een oats ee EUs Coa Me ie Nicotine sulphate, use against eggplant lace-bug, experi- MNGWUG -o boss odes dNon guesses odooeode ceno sc ca soeb ed bo adec Nitrobenzene, use against fly larvee in horse manure, ex- FUCLUMMEINLS Ep Slee \a cist See A aks LL ka WN RI ae North Carolina— lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc-- strawberry shipments, 1914..........--. SPOS RECO Ay Aa PUMP EMG TMAUStTY = 2). 2s cic, oo = weto Seeder tetoe aera _ Nyssa spp. See Tupelo. Oak, range and lumber output, by States... .......-...-.-. Ohio, lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of wood, etc. - Oil— mirbane, nature, use against fly larvee in horse manure, (2D, fcc2s..cme ese ceoeee ee SHaw, Harry B., bulletin on ‘Sugar beets: Preventable LOSSES INYCUTHUTE Meet ye chro Sie co cicieesa eo aloes Ce ec era eb Shellbark hickory mNOLesea sess cee ee ee seen scene SHERMAN, WetLs A., Houston F. WALKER, and O. W. ScHLEUSSNER, bulletin on Sue eny supply and distri- Bition ted LGA 27 ey oh: SR aS CATR TIN) Sean ie RY TEN 226—250. Bulletin No. Page. 246 29-31 246 8-19 246 22-29 246 1-2 249 26-29 249 3-18 249 3-7 249 1-34 246 1-38 249 3-7 230 15 234 1-54 230 14 229 9 229 10 229 7-8 229 7 229 5-6 229 10 229 8 238 2 249 7 232 16 227 20 232 6-8 232 6-7 245 1-22 237 1-10 229 1-58 229 17-18, 23-24, 35 232 17 232 y¥/ 250 36 232 23 246 2-3 228 1-6 238 1-21 232 23 237 1-10 INDEX. Shortleaf pine— SLBULCS. 142] VAR U ee be Bb oso daaoresOnedaaee: . eanmeuer fungi injurious, description and nature of damage....-.- growth habits, soil, and climatic requirements........-.- injury from wind and IWreeaniinanbayes Sy) 9 is eae ke UN ea life history, bulletin by Wilbur H. Mattoon.. aan range fecpraphic and economic. .........--2.--------- fReprodmenon habits, studies. .s. 24002050. see seed, description, production, and characteristics... .... sprout reproduction, causes and characteristics. ......-- SiO CS MOMATACLET Say scl eae ee UCN On IY UMMA Ds a aed stands injury from storms, recovery, etc............---- ‘trees, volume of saw timber based on age, table.. yield, PACLONS MT MEMCIN Os. sllseete tea =) Wena sh sats a cio TRAE TONE TDN TaNCCrs a Eee aN hey A Sie Mis ee) a Be SIZec TOMMeaMatUneranGilIBeSias as -cieia ee l)- - eo eleeie a sereiersle aie Nosp yw rosim nature and Uses. -)-- 2.5. 2.55 .- - «ae Ons oa eee Sodium fluorid— COR CIC COREUIMN ET TOSS) a\-.0'-) «|= fafa rcie cle maa 21m wishes om cltcn cicie MSeMm A oa-IMIes LEC: POOIIS - 1212)... n!s 0 < cjascc'sleie ala elton eae Sorghums, saccharine, value for Southern Great Plains... .. .. SOUT WOO. TEAS ee See een Am Seep ERe anes aie South Carolina— lumber industry, sawmills, output, kind of wood, etc... PGE MpM EMT GUAGNY cy. sd o—)eis-\nisyasee mafelola eye eieiala ae South Dakota, lumber industry, sawmills, output, kinds of CO CMe TOME Tey ste cle wien, cmercheta cand oat SE det Wee ae Southern pine beetle, injury to short-leaf pine, control .. .- .. Sprays— use against eggplant lace-bug, tests.....-..-.-...--.-.- weroenabidimoth! (controle. ac) | ee ease Spruce— pine. See Short-leaf pine. Bpeckesano mange OUtpUt.- - pion). % © oanineiee eel mtn Squirrels, damage to pine seed crop, relation to damage by cone beetles, GESTS oi Md A UU Sticktight flea— colloquial TOA 00S Slip, Cleat set aaeAl by aed a liu Memon Se deschipionsaabits: and controls: 42.) sean ed seen a < TOONS TS) 2. |: Gas CePA ae a re lta 2 le Me GOR a) ev eae aR Stills, turpentine, comparison of direct and steam-heated.. Storms, ice, effect on UME SPAMS) S/o