PAR Hw PSyTLSP es S ) FOR THE DEORE: FOR EDVCATION | | ROR SCIENCE THE AMERICAN MUSEUM ' OF NATURAL HISTORY Bound at re N.#, ke 1997 wes r : ¢ 1 ; \ A Tune ay tk iY ‘ Hid © Weltyauliie MN y it U. 8S. DEPARTMENT CF AGRICULTURE. Department Bulletins . Nos. 276-800, ) WITH CONTENTS ©2:°° | : AND INDEX. Prepared in the Division of Publications. WASHINGTON: | GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. / 1917. VAR EM a Hace an! miley ie su) YRGU RDI TAMPA Von? | Pat UM Te o anotisolldyd To noi2iviG ony at heteqamee GON TE Nei DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 276.—TuHrE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE Crops: MINIM I CHONG sel soo ap ei woe ag oes nec clee s oe eee west esa eb Identity of the species occurring in America.........-----+---------+--2: Rasihastory.of the pest'and ite injuries tly Baise esos oe Hees bee eye says? (CLRGVEN CHGS CECRAION E> a ee ne Ae eo Sk OU mee ae ee See eae Effects on cattle of feeding them infested clover.......-..-...------------ ID SySiissr le UsOVAT EW a0 oy a Fg avehel po am eee PERM (= Jaf he ee [RtGGS! TOL TOUTS es aera He a a RA Re EEN Description..... Riles areca tay sich a ere ee Som uh Sia ie pie eS ta aed LAI: LTS) a oe ee (> Dt eh ae RA rene a eetlerattony experiments: 20. 0.50 oa Sots a oe een Saye en aereeee eee ea Jc SGA ATONE (OY EN OSHC el ag ge erg 8 Sales Ae Ped ORL esp et ene a nS dae das ae saad aie o cie sae. Melee ae ie ree Age at which females begin reproducing........-.-.-.--.--------------- VE DROCIICLIVC POTION «<< = Saas esis tok ori an, Pei ses © w srane emia nn Se) a oer rae 1 Ly DRYER EN TP Ne ig ge LNt -eA I eees pt E ecm OL VEVIParoUs females... 5. < 2/2 55-25 ees oe atelier ee PIEMGURU OLMISs sae sole atelier oe wise eerie oe Paine eae ete Seva ee eee eciirdiny OLOviparous females: fo.) = cease goats sno en oa I EtitmM CONGO! Mebiee Ooch e ee ae ere cite eee ec oe tia cen cy ch nae npatatrny are ream MentrodsOmartiticialycontrol 22. 22st. atlases coe. soa enna een aos DEPARTMENT Butuetin No. 277.—Cotron WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION: AIerOPICHI ON es cs Me I, tal cite ye Cae he orale ee ey fimportance oO: storage NOUSCS.).: 2. 2-5 iis aa Se oe si kegs eee soci Hates! OL, SLOLAC Cs 2: aelacdsfs=,-<'n)2 = 2s a ci Sein eres aioe ree Explanation of the term ‘‘standard” as applied to cotton warehouses ----- Migpesionstandard warehouses... <.<.-.-0.0- 5-2 sa ceete yale noe tye ste Miscellaneous fire insurance schedules. -.....:..--.-4,-<-<-----2-----n-- General consideration relating to cotton storage and fire insurance..---.-.. COG EST 01 geass ap Sp DrparTMENT BuLLETIN No. 278.—MiscELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGA- TIONS: NGROCUCHIOM ae ip ecco es 2 2d. i sage a acre mae eel Apia See EPapeLimmemian OA i505) Seen |. 22 er he eae Uae EEpenim enters! O10 tage ee Ss. 5 aot nt ae Soe ey ee ae Pixeriments. LOA oes soya... a ee ne ee ee el gc ciGuex peril €NtS:4.5<( 220,95 seis- =~ «22 - ee ee Sree en tet ss de a SUMMIM ATI Ze Treva e Wrasse le ete es. en a ey een ce elo pene eal Wome sions: 22s 5 20s es ee cre SR orig Tae era Fae oo PRON ALO tADLES 30 Seen e ees Sooo ooo. «2 SSC Ren eee oe ge DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 279.—SINGLE-STALK Corron CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO: , 1 EVAN ZO HOG eaTa) ates em ea sy ne eg ame SRE LAS cecal IMIGE Satis COE Cotton production in the San Antonio region.......5.........:.---+--:-- PaO Lest pee cee ee ee 2a eR Min apa ae) ey eee Plantine and. cermin atioOn OF SECM... eee ete ge Dou eas Chopping wide-spaced rowsso-4. +... gee eee ae ak ee emote Pehinnine simele-stalllkc TOWases. 922%. Jo ee ee Vee eae, ep FEVESTIMES ON LE eS betes tetany ee OR Ce Sorc ee asamp Development of vecetative branches... sy ssa fee eo eee TRG WEI Px RE COT Gaye eae aS os gts Sh nem a ee 8 Ze A eM er ‘slat OVS) epee OO) BS) SCC ine eee aa Wee le rRNA 0 2) a ae a ele ; . IV DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276-300. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 279—Continued. Numbers'ofilocks inthe polis LEER ey Bs oe ee Size OF DOL sate pees are ne ee eee ae ere esa aescos Quality and quantity of fiber 4.22. 2222222. -. -22...225) ee Resultsin time-of-thinning test:2..-5..-----.-..) 2. eee Results in distance- between- TOW) CESt A eee cian ie oc non eee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 280.—Foop Hapnirs oF THE THRUSHES OF THE UNITED STATES: Wood thrushvace, shies So. 2 3 oe Veery and-willow thrush... . 259222222 25Sisas5s 252682 2d2 22) ee Gray-cheeked and Bicknell’s thrushes...................-....-.---22---- Olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes.................-.-.2.2. 2.2222. Hermit-thrushes! ©2520 5222 nes See ne ee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 281.—CoRRELATING AGRICULTURE WITH THE Pusiic ScHOOL SUBJECTS IN THE NORTHERN STATES: PN trOduUCtiON es 5 oe es ae oe ee, Se ce to ae How the teacher may organize a club:::-22-2-.-. 22. 22252223: 22 ete eee BIZe8 8b ots Sool eb oc Loc eS ty See ee eee How. to:keep up the ‘club interest-225:¢ -2 225 955-4202) School-exhbit days)S25. tassios Oe a a eee September 2 sees esas ene eee eae a ee October sarees as Soe a ee Bee a Novelli ber coo lise es cose aa ene oe Sea a ee Decembers ss sawn: psc Senna Sayan he pepe pene Pee PPrIeen ses) = -< May and Junew so. A Selous. neigh. ase tee en Oe Correlation supplemeénts:2 228240). 228 oe. Ae ee _ DEPARTMENT Buiietin No. 282.—A Stupy or THE Sorr Resins my SuL- PHURED AND UNSULPHURED Hops IN COLD AND IN OPEN STORAGE: Hnttrodirctions ss as on a8! ISS eee 2c os) Preparation of the hops studied --:--- ~~ == 72-2 ee Changesin physical appearances 255325232 22s bo eee Moisture content and changes in the proportion of soft and hard resins. INardesinss. oo. - ss om os ce ae one See eet e Pees = eee ‘Changes in the composition of the soft resins-..-.-..........----------- ~ Chemical values of the soft resins. ......- Beovofic..V2.. See SUMMALy: 5 os Le. Sess sea nse ee eee ess ck ee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 283.—THE PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID AND A PROPOSED NEw MetuHop oF MANUFACTURE: Measurement of a plant’ s efficiency... I ce ORR el = New: modification of chamber proctess?---+-:225-0/2.222 22-2 ee Factory considerations: :- 22.222) / eee wo 0 4o eee ADPONGIR sh. o loo Ss ee eee va DEPARTMENT Butietin No. 284. —Consrrucrion AND MAINTENANCE OF Roaps AND BripGeEs: imtiroduction 298400 50 oto SS OE eee Work of the Division of Construction— rhidiaet nest TOUS! oo CS. erintendence of county roads-.\022. 07-2. t- ee Work ite Division of National Parks and Forest Roads— Work done inaiaiional forests.-2: toes. Work done in national parks. ....--..-......-....-...-. ee ee Work of the: Division of Maintenances: 22 fio 0 2). 2s ae eee CONTENTS, DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 285.—Tar Norraprn Harpwoop Forest: Its ComposiTIoN, GROWTH, AND MANAGEMENT: laaprod Ur ChlOMsa a yea Mech NS aie a toh. sorpaek ee ony Ae. Bagoin | sal aiss remortnermmhard wood 1orests. 2-1. soctci- ae eee is a ase eoe nee BieopmeIVe RITA POLLATICE! Sere a ciclo.) <= =~ fois ore erences oon a in rain7 omen ey sieiers WWIGiT AETHER BABE Onn 4 ao ae Hee SRE eere > abe O° SoCo San See een an ener SHeere mentioned tm this! bulletin cere le etal ania tn arin Appendix... DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 286.—StrrRENGTH TESTS OF STRUCTURAL TIMBERS TREATED BY © OMMERCIAL WOOD-PRESERVING PROCESSES: @ljecioubne tessa. 2-252 505... Speer aaa oe ok decent Meastenralanestedeee casein ai: Do 5 Swekinl ile peeaiemeepepe urs: oo to 9d SE AAS aR a oy Methodstoistreatmentina ccc cee ee Oe Rye ee ee Mo eh pea nek Miehodvoigtestimes "sat coca | ie, | eae es Se NSS 2s Satter Results of tests. .....- Ee Pe ec 5 Re ena A ATRL A a Deductions. - Publications relating to strength tests of various woods. ........---.------ DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 287.—A DrvVICE FOR SAMPLING GRAIN SEEDS, AND OTHER MaATERI Introduction AL: Meseniphonvol the sampling devices. ...-- =... 204s a- 22-2 8 sees eee Operation of the sampling device. = ..- -cescizee saasoerins ts ao 4p et DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 288.—Custom GINNING AS A Factor IN CorTTron- SEED DETERIORATION: Introduction The possibili iyotmixine peed. -.5 12 -s4.4 25-33 eiann oe as ee Minsimemseedsin ihe Toll: POR so. <5 3k a oo pee tial el Awcin | a = sR Opwtencources Ol MIX be. 5.5.2 aatacecdss Sooo a iseie «cere a oe Re Sieumticance ofthe resultsiobtained->45.4444-4245- 4555 4-se0eeee eee eee Ways of minimizing the amount of mixing.......-.....-.....---------+-:- DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 289.—RED-cLOVER SEED PRODUCTION: Introduction Previous investigations on the pollinatign of red clover .......-.-.------ Outlineot pollinating: ex periments:.....-- 324. -nssnssoe ae vase ee eee Sinuenmeot thetred-clover flower.:..- 002.425. s0 cansann nee sanes chaser Length of the corolla tube of red-clover flowers ........----------------- Development ofthe flowers of red clover:. 42-222: 422525 sans e ee et Fertilization Onred-CloVvierfOWeTScs-.25 5 ee ee Eoeney ol, pollen in.self-pollination. . 22.22) 5496) 2s. ss 5 asane a ee Cross-pollination and self-pollination of red clover.........-------------- Aniineialmanipulation of.clover heads...22 .s59222+-25 42-4550 5 4 ae Bumblebees asi cross-pollinators of red clover: 25222: 422445555944. pee Honeybees as cross-pollinators of red clover.......-.-.-..--------------- Mechanical cross-pollinators of red clover.......-..-.---------+-++++++++- RSS MERUETD CUTTS tS irae Reh aes Oo ase ie 5 wae = 2 a a eo al eS ae DEPARTMENT BuLuETIN No. 290.—Rait SHIPMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF Freso Tomatoss, 1914: Introduction Methods of, cultivation-and: shipping. |. 2-2/2 teeen ee oO ae eee aie Methedsqused am compiling datas-=--.-- <5. sae ne ee ee Detailed-reportiot shipmentsw78 406. 5S. SPR Oe eS LE. Phapments by; boats. s005 ssl s,s. 5 oe eee 2 ee toczl shipments. 5 05e. loses... - s. s+ + sh ee ae o_O oe Explanation Tomatoes for OL MAD roel sso 5 ess 2+ 3d Sree ee LLL AEE Leap be CANIN Ges 52s 4S aso ete eo 2 oo ee aE a Oe CI ae Commercial supply. of table tomatoes... --...- 2225.20.22 22222 2 Le Difieuliies encountered ....c..- 00s. 2. a ees Oe ee BAA Lomato shipments 191402255225... - 25 eee Pe. PIE 30 Ses DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 291.—BREEDING MILLET AND SoRGO FOR DROUGHT ADAPTATION: Introduction The place of millet and sorgo in the agriculture of the Great Plains... --.-. Adaptations to drought in millet and sorgo..........-.-...-------+------- Clintahic- conditionserev tees ts ss os 2 sues Ie year ee ee reeens Breeding mallet foradaptationto.drought..-9: -.-..-+-.-----.2ssueee ees Breeding sorgo for adaptation to drought................-2..0.2eees sees a Co et TROP WDE INID Dr NN OUST RS “IN OTP PB CO OO DDN @b Nee VI DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS, 276-300, DEPARTMENT BuLietin No. 291—Continued. central-and‘northern Great Plains.+. 2... ....-2 22 oe ee 12 Water requirements of millet and sorgo......../-22...20.) 723) a 15 Conclusions +... s2s2 cin 2. s ss ee the cee sees eee eee ot eee See 18 DEPARTMENT BuLietiIn No. 292.—DIstRIBUTION AND MIGRATION OF NoRTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES: Introductions a eeiee. OE ieee oe ee eee Economie importance of gulls.) & Bt e4sei= 2. 0. a eee Bird refuges... 22225 ees LO oe OGM I ease SSE! CL Protection by private -associations-~<----+_-_. _.-.__._...2 2. eee ‘Legal ‘protection: 2<<2-/..-~ 0s oe ee eee te eee Distribution. 26 05 ee... eee ee ee Migration 22.2105 2 eee ee ee eee ee eee ee eee Annotated list of speciess....2:<5...----22-+- == Sse te eee ne DEPARTMENT BuLuETIN No. 293.—THE GRASSHOPPER OUTBREAK IN NEW MEXICO DURING THE SUMMER OF 1913: Introductions: 4) $32 2 Ghee EE EES A ite ee History. im America. 2s... . 28: see eee See bon os ee eee Distrib uth One sieeve eae ee le ee Seasonal history: 7.0.- siecle esta re tee Oe eee A migratory or nonmigratory species.-::...2)..0. 2). IA eae Onigin of outbreakie 2 4 .A0 ses Aids OED bse AR Oe Breeding grounds. -....-22 =... => fest ncn Seee see ees eo ee eee Methodsiot trav.elu.< isn 75. ys ee, aie ae eRe Se ee Weather conditionses5.0 S222 656402 eee ee See Feeding habits. ~ -c.-cieoce cece ede csee cee. ot Le Boodyplants ese ena see eceees bap eeselo ie eile. tie nescig eee Se Predacious enemies. 2.022... 252.5 bee ace 6 ee Parasiti@/enemMies- 2-2 ae eae ee Be ere SH oti» bales epee Artiticlal: remedies: 2,5 ofp -> =e eee Relation, to.otheransects.. =... --.c-.csceesenn-2 04s 5 See eee ee Relation to natural enemies.. 22.2 =. Saeses cee BLe eee eee alee arene Habitat and ‘host ‘trees: .0-.. 0. -:-n wee ccc~ = oo 7a Eee ree ee Character of injury and ‘work of larvse.2..-..-...0. J20s. 23 cee). eee Effect of infestation on tree growth and forest.........---------------+--- REMEY. 2-2 ore. cc htee aden ap cise cee oe ce eer eE ee = 0% 3's os ann @onclustonie ern seca eee Se ee oe Ba os moe DePartMENT BuLLeTIN No, 296.—Our Foreign TRADE IN Farm AND FOREST Propucts: Summarys arse nse sk Se ene one ae sess s.-5- «=e ee HE ODMOMID Cw H Et _. a © pe] BE. 5 2, ip ’ sro CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT ButietiIn No. 296—Continued. Pete kato asIS en PLOGUCLtS a ab cscs yap ees er eee PE iin Gane Sinlaiata oto hhc Es TOC UCTS see cs MASSON SUNS SEES ee Ie re ao Enea CTUMM. .oscs sg se ebiebaee cod See npesaeeeeeseet@ 2522 os Se ee aR are ra aneta= SS EIDE IE s c eos cick et CS CE Ie et a Pg 5 alae Bee Coatieerandtcotteesubstitutesssc. .- 2.2.2 ee eee wae ee einen aac eine WocomMdnehocolate scence aes os ek te PRR a oy Ca SIA Seale SPL ESI Lad OSES SSSA CE CERNE 2:8 Ee ele pe eae ea te tbo Biererialese nee cem ec onek eae = ote ee 2 bes ee ee ner te Sec ners oe Frui EERIE (DSS SIEA See Se 56S eR a ER rn a amd aes ALA? hoa nog ne Mla DLOGUC(S.-.- - 62502 ssian SO eee. aa ak uae ee oe Presenters timber nn 2 eo a eee a se ee a ee ee ING A721 SOLES CS Soe da bk ee pale eS Ie eel WObERSEORES ADEOGI CIS: 2-085 oof Ss So Se ee ares oe er i ENE ORPIOGUS AP ee ein = aaa S 2 we jad aca Sate Ae EE ere e's Settle ic geai aoe ares Pipe PH ORCL OM Se Oe Soo) oo sae aye) Byun isi oieaa viat apes talaga oe eye ae sino ane oie DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 297.—CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FourcHE EXPERIMENT Farm: IE ROG OCHO St Se eg ees ae ee ane orto s Desenipironrob phe field station 7. jit jew. = sit a tite see's n- eee aeisse sees JD sgbeininnein al) Wael se Reo de sence seccodeosocceoe= sceereenoasosecenoqcceEe jartenpretation-olexperimental results. .-5.-./---2-3-2- 222: seeeee et eeces PeapenimMe mis Will MoWRCAb ose cic Seg seine Sete soe os OE teeta Pinpcevinenishwith O(Sio25 ot 22.2 se sash cere alg Seale hoe Sa ee DUE CIIIOM IS ym) JORMA EN See Soe sees oSesbe sess osesgessocsecsasbdao- Bbesperiine nin witie minor Cereals-=-- 22 os iso ea BEaSCMUBCMIS EWA MAX. a. wo a8 basco snsinix sine nc iwteiwia => aie cle Se ee ae aE oe SSRRMITIBIN. USS SSE OEE SHEE Seaar MEE EMOnorbeeeroceennae s--iseraane DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 298.—PEAcH SUPPLY AND DistRIBUTION In 1914: fReoMier Pe tION 0s be hs aoe hae as oo 5 5 = Soe rope pres oe ee oS = lie] TIUTeN yy TWN Yo oan onc. DOBRO ese ses c5c2cs Coss o5esncdorsaacneoc Second inquiry—sources of information.......-...-.....-..---------.---- ete MUip pins Seasons Aes Goh 9ie kei. 2 o.oo Ls ee ek ee ee rcnsaneommercial ProductiOM: ~..: ... .-- = 2st eee se eee ee ee gnenemibatil on (Oly dabei eS cok La (OPS wie aca occ 2 2. ~ 0.2) chara ee eer rere Nee ee Nitegkeunden ways: isetiewse So tis esd. 2s oo Sees oa SNS ate ionenpaMshippino States: 2sss.5 is... Se aS eee eee Pesplanaiiom Ol map. haces. e4- - 1-4 = 2 ee see os a eas aes Exospective shipmentsfor 1915: ..<..5:...) qe eee oe eee eae ae ezehishipments 191425: see S25! oo... ee ees oe ee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 299.—Tur AsHEs: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT: PSTEPORIAM CCL. sare soe Se aes ees 2 - «bial = ee ee aha mae, oe ere ed I DTITT) OETA OT RA Bea eS tld i RN on Oe nN Scab VeINGUStReS ois. se yess? SL. o. sa Seee emoupsyand(SpeClest fie ve.s2s6 0562/2... ~2 eee. a see eg hues Niiwemiburalsionilcance: 6 see. <\ -.'.. . 0S SaaS ey oe Relative importance Of SPCCles= sos 2... . . See. Pee Mei s Sope Weeniitencees 95 Fe aoe I) eS ee eon ote polntoisture, and heht requirements... -Setyaueeets a2) oo ee Reproduction. Sak tate bo wedi ete es ~~ a a en RSS NS ooo ot ie LSD TUSSI See, Sy Arete Mi See at Me a ce, 5 ye ee ope pee aA Bomnand developmenti.-2t.3 W925 i ne ee VETS ree ae i Ne A oe en eae RS 2 a ee ae ee ee Moresi; management: Agee ts Ae. Ss 20 ee ee ee ee esta oe [ROLES TAROT ape sa Da So ae aa Oa ae Ralucrotstandime timbers sess. |...) Sa seers a2 oe EN ae : Vill DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276-300. DEPARTMENT BuLieTIN No. 299—Continued. Species for timber erowie,) £14. 4/6 iry-2 42 3-2 ee Natural: -artificialiretorestatiomis22_- 4.224222 022 2-2 see Reforesting by natural means... -22---..-2_----22-- (neni See Reforesting by artificial means. .2225..5--2-. 5225-22 - see ee ThInninps 2/2 % 22 223-4 ie eee eee poe = os ae 5 SUMMAaryJ5 tee Pes 2 cee enna.» .- oS. e ol DEPARTMENT Buuietin No. 300.—Excavatinc MacHInery Usep 1x Lanp DRAINAGE: Introduction. 2504. ss.. 1 --eeebneeee ee e e —— Development of excavating machinery =-=*----.-.-.------- 225 eee The floating dipper dredge... 2 ses. ee ol ee The floating srab-bucket dredee:2-222.-----+---2--+---= 23+ ae eee [Thedrag-line scraper excavator = 2sases ss s- sole oe ee ee The dry-land: dipper-excavator.......-2-02----o-- +--+ 22 eee eee The dry-landcrab-bucket.excavatotess-s5-s--426-- 2 eee The templet.excavator.... --i- o-cinc teenie = © - oe eee eee The wheel type of excavator..:.. 2222 2252-2 s2- 2)... 7-2 ee eee Reet One ey ee eh Se Pe INDEX. Bulletin No. Acid phosphate, industry, consumption of sulphuric acid. - 283 See also under specific name of acid. Aeciduim fraxint, occurrence on ash trees. .............--- 299 Agricultural exports, publications (with imports) of Depart- TLom i, LIU J 3a: Sa aerate er ae 296 Agricultural products— exports and imports, 1851-1914. .._........-.2.-.--.- 296 markets, foreign, discussion and statistics............. 296 MEM OM MOTeION MEAG! = Scho de a= by npn oe ht ocr sees Sees 296 IAM OLCTO MMe Creo ale Sis nara cion ses al ow hd DS | Ae 296 Agriculture— correlating with public school subjects in the Northern States, bulletin by C. H. Lane and F. E. Heald......- 281 extension work, address list of State institutions and RRBIC ETS MEE CHALIE Se hae ho th a ac bent 2 hoe 282 school exercises and field work for public schools, by HH GUURS Meee Hee ons ee ele Sea ee ate yh generated 281 teaching in public schools, plan for Northern States... . 281 Alabama, peach shipments, season and stations shipping, 3 5 600605 64964 GROBAN OO DR ARNE SOA arr iraiatoe Coot 298 Alcohol, wood, exports and value, 1914..................- 296 Alcoholic liquors— AOVEIOU TAG, 00-1914 io. tos ee oe bobs bene ee 296 aEIpORts, TOMO -ONA, value: ots. 22 5s. snes Sook ek 296 Aphidoletes meridionalis, enemy of pea aphis.....-.......- 276 Aphis pomi, effect of insecticides, experiments............ 278 Appalachian States, Southern, hardwood timber stand, "TID Gr as Se a Ee es ereanye hee 285 Apple— aphis, green, effect of insecticides, experiments.....-. 278 trees, spraying with insecticides, poison effects, experi- AMCs Eee eases e\s.0-e)-- ata 4a) eee 278 Apples, foreign trade, 1903-1914..........-.---22222ea5--- 296 Apricots, exports and markets, 1903-1914.................. 296 Argols, imports and sources, 1909-1914. ..........--.--..-- 296 Arizona, road construction and cost, object-lesson work.... 284 Arkansas— peach shipments, season and stations shipping, 1914... 298 tomato’ shipments, U914 ss isis oth s 2.0. seh ens 290 aaa Insecticides, experiments..........-..-------«-- 278 Ash— American, groups and species...........-------------- 299 distinguishing characters of different species. .......-- 299 nent and Cevelopment-.- 9.5 6.52. |... a ee 299 groups, commercial and silvicultural importance, com- PakIsOns. - 1) ead oo ee oo ac. a eee 299 growth rate of commercial species under various condi- IDES ook. eae Se ee | er 299 BrowsAly Tates s2oses ot. hee he 2, Ae 299 habitat and distribution of various species... .-------- 299 injuries, from development, etc......-..------------- 299 lumber cut by regions and species, 1910......-..--.-- 299 occurrence in northern hardwood forests.........-.---- 285 requirements of soil, moisture, light, and reproduction. 299 _ second-growth, uses by wood-using industries. ........ 299 seed, production, dissemination, germination, etc.-..-- 299 104680°—17——2 142 31 6-25, 31-35 142 9 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276—300. Ash—Continued. Bulletin No. seedlings, development. -) {02.0440 J/ 0010 00....-. 299 aSPCELESs MOLE Hs Anema ee setS ae Saad hoo So SS See ee 299 stands, yield, and management.....................-- 299 timber— bark; volumetandiyield ‘tableste-sassesss.6 424.2 299 economic uses and importance.............------- 299 growing under forest management, financial re- TUENS NCCC i aN argos jcie oe, se eee ee eee 299 uses and consumption by wood-using industries. -- - 299 trees— characteristics and management, bulletin by W. DwSterrettii aes: SO ea ee ee 299 species for forest management in various localities. 299 wood characteristics: andisess sy 550 asl ue ewes ee 299 Ashess American, keyo. 2 2.22422 ee ee ee eee eee ee 299 Ash-leaf rust, nature and occurrence................--.---- 299 Aspen, occurrence in northern hardwood forests........-.- 285 Baits, poison, for grasshoppers, preparation and value.-..-. 293 Bananas, imports and sources, 1903-1914... ........---.-- 296 Banks, assistance in cotton-warehouse construction, note. - PHT Barks, roots, and herbs, exports, 1914.0. 2.0.2.2 22.222220. 296 Barley— foreign trade, 1864—-191298 eae he eet OU ae ao oe 296 growing at Belle Fourche experiment farm, varietal testsiand jaelds::* Ve BOOn Vee A ee 297 yields of varieties in western South Dakota.-.......-.-- 297 ‘“Base goods,’’ fertilizer, sources: 2)% 272 2 oa 283 Basswood— Fomiber cuts LON: sol setae ass ses ve vneetes Wave ee ae 8 285 occurrence in northern hardwood forests.........----- 285 volume and form tables, northern hardwood forest... - - 285 Beans— foreign trade; 1900-1914 a etn a2 see te eal 296 epreying with insecticides, effect on leaves, experiments 278 Beech— dumber cuted 92 Su Sci eh ee LONER ee iaaeeeee setae 285 Michigan, diameter growth, maximum. ..-..-.-.-.---- 285 occurrence in hardwood forests.............---------- 285 plots, character of stand, volume and yield per acre in morthernforestses hc SUA A ee PRR eks earn EE ee 285 volume and form tables, northern hardwood forest... - . - 285 wood, consumption by paper-pulp industry......--.--- 285 Beef, foreign trade (with products), 1852-1914. ........--- 296 Bees, importance in red-clover seed production........-..-- 289 Beeswax, foreign trade, 1895-1914..............-222------- 296 Belle Fourche experiment farm, location, scope of work, physical and weather conditions.............)..-..----- 297 Betts, H.S.,and J. A. Newt, bulletin on “Strength tests of structural timbers treated by commercial wood-pre- HET AIN P| PT OCESSES yee ciate a faia nico) c= at RN eres sieiejeie ee 286 Bibliography— clover pellinsae Seecuassis: o>: eee Se 289 pee Aphis ben ene e Shes 3S ete ARSE RM: 276 Birch— black, occurrence in northern hardwood forests. - - - - - - 285 humaber-cut, LOUD" y/o eh NGROS Me TRU REaR ae Cet Sie 285 occurrence in northern hardwood forests. ...-.-.-.-.-.-.---- 285 paper, occurrence in northern hardwood forests. ...- - - - 285 plots, character of stand, volume and yield per acre in northern hardwood forests............--:----------- 285 yellow— occurrencé'in New Bngland. . 22/2222. 22. 285 occurrence in northern hardwood forests.......-- - 285 voltime anduorm tables: => so ieeestemee see 285 volume and form tables, northern hardwood forests. 285 35, 36, 37, 38 2 29 9, 10 61, 5-78 40 10-11 29 38 9 25 49-51, 69-71 8, 10 27-49, 67-68 27-49, 67-68 INDEX, Bird— Bulletin No. migration, record of herring gull ‘‘ Dick,’’ Newport, R. I. 292 Reservations. resorts for gulls..2-. . nese qaeenes © 292 Birds— PHCHMESTOMCTASSNOPPCTS! 4 .cts 5. 2-2 -'-s/s' ete epee 293 North American gulls and their allies, distribution and TEAL T Oe = Pe eo a hr Reet kk a wt me A A TAN SEER 292 thrushes of United States, food habits..............--- 280 Bitter acids. See Resins, soft. BlaGkeaskeroup, Ke yidO SPCCleS./ nt. ee = 5 on 5S Mais nia 299 Bladders, imports, and sources, 1911-1914.............--.- 296 Blood, dried, imports and sources, 1904-1914.............- 296 Boerner, E. G., bulletin on ‘‘A device for sampling grain, SecdsHandrounermmatenialiwety. s.- <2... a. sce eee 287 Bones, hoofs, etc., foreign trade, 1895-1914..........-.----- 296 ibreadtaoreion trades 1866-1914 -- 2)... . ese nee cee 296 Bridges, construction and maintenance (with roads) from lye 1913, to December.31, 1914-.... 2.5... 5toeeet 284 Bristles, foreign trade, 1895-1914. ...........22...22.----- 296 iBYoomucorm-t): Vac Sa | -Dredges, types, construction, cost, and operation....-.-.--- Dredging machinery, development, early types, etc-.....--- Dry-land crops, millet and sorgo, breeding for drought Aaa PlahON cc Le eee eee oe ts ys eee gee Durum wheats, growing on Belle Fourche mieault uy farm “varietal tests) | SH SARRe 2 FOP ae Bite a4 Wryewoods: amporte: (94st oss sess Poss SSE ees te Bulletin No. 294 294 294 277 294 279 277 277 294 277 277 279 2-4, 7, 8-14 1-39 17-18 15-17 318, 33-36 2 1-19 14-15, 17, 18-19, 20, 21 48 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276-300. Bulletin No. Earth roads, construction and cost, object-lesson work. -...- 284 Education— correlating agriculture with public-school subjects in the Northern States, bulletin by C. H. Lane and Fo Ws Healde.: sooo chee ce op eee Be eerie 281 lessons on cotton for the rural common schools. ....... 294 Bees, foreign trade, 1897-1914". 5.) eee ace eee - 296 Euiorr, PERRY, bulletin on ‘Our foreign trade in farm and forest products” See SRS S55 s555 po oS ae 296 Elm— lumber cut, 1912... - 22... 2522 eels Seen se soe ster 285 occurrence in northern hardwood forest. enh ge.dsr3es3 285 Emmer, growing in western South Dakota, experiments. - 297 Empusa aphidis, enemy of pea aphis...........2.---+---- 276 Europe, pea aphis, outbreaks and damage to crops......--- 276 Excavating— cost per cubic yard by different types of machine. .... machinery, land drainage, bulletin by D. L. Yarnell. - machines, crews for operation, requirements for dif-) PEVEN bit PES Ske eek oe co eee oe ee as fo Excavator, dry-land dipper type, construction, operation, EH V6 (CLO eens 8 OO SEO See iy mi aero cso IDPH olny CKO NR Moa Oooo sas sstide se baad Exports— sence and imports, publications of Department, TS pee MOR Gites cies oh ocral caine recreate han aoe pee OU) OV 4s oan Ss See eas “eainsc om eileen des ees proportion of agricultural products and changes, 1854 sto OU soe a 8 Beier! depyeteiice Fall webworm, effect of various insecticides, experiments. - Farm products— foreign trade (with forest products), bulletin by Perry OCU PR ERS oieeciitebine Se are See nseeeies Serer reexports, 1901-1914....... fe ave shat hele, Spare Paaesie ye seer Se score cards, use in public schools, types, etc.--.-.-..-- Feathers, foreignitrade, 1890-1914... ees cies. Fertilizer— Phase) SOOdS ss aSOUTCES, NOL. =. 1-6 .- ace ames sss os industry, use and value of sulphonicacidee: ayes. se Fertilizers, cotton, selection and application, school lessons. Fibers— animal, imports, 1910-1914, value ..............------- vegetable— foreign trade, 1885-1914 -_.------ - jolt eese wb 5= imports, 1910-1914, value. . Fife wheats, growing on Belle Fourche experiment. farm, varietal Genta: sate ee Wek ion ks Sate hen Fir— balsam, occurrence in northern hardwood forests... .-.-. Douglas, tests of strength, selection and treatment of material. cis.cs2.0ce ek aashecs tea ree eee y~ ape Fire protection— classification of cities and towns.......--.-..-----.--.- cotton warehouses, requirements for standards, reat to insurance, etc wystedk eueieie.s oid Go apapayohe Se ots~ = ee eee Fire-insurance schedules for cotton...... CpG HE Kisvoringiextractawexporia, 1914... se. onan mines = Flax— growing in western South Dakota, varietal and date-of- BEC ESTs eee sinc Sees ete eats Ae eee crea oa) ore as imports and sourc SNA SOOSLONAY RCo esc nie emer New Zealand, imports, value and source, 1910-1914. 3004 se 300 300{ 300 300 11, 18, 14, 15, 24, 32, 33, 34 1-39 9, 14, 21, 23, 24, 27, 29, 33 25-27 3 50-51 20 1,2 2-7, 19-25 44-45 14, 17, 19 42 8 2-4, 7, 8-14 28-29 9-10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 20 27-28, 29 45-46 39-40 44 44 INDEX. Flaxseed— Bulletin No. farcry tradpyal 899-1914 sce yc. ERE eee 296 olpstoreton trade; 1895-1914... AEE ERBAE S052 296 Florida— peach shipments, season and stations shipping, 1914... 298 roads, construction, cost of different kinds, object-lesson WOW coe Ste ee EE CE aH Se enna ea a erie 284 Lomatosoipments, 1914. 22 oh. 2. 32528 ee eee 290 Mowers: toreienpirade, 1914 se, east sce ts See geben. sane 296 Food habits, thrushes, United States, by F. E. L. Beal..-. 280 Forage crops— millet and sorgo, breeding for drought adaptation.....- 291 relation of pea aphis, bulletin, by J. J. Dawvis........-. 276 piHoxeron! exportsge Use.Ol, teYM._ 5... ... si 03 < saebiaee ton 296 Forest— culledaamanacement ses caters 5-5 =, ~ poeta eee: 285 foreign trade (with farm products), bulletin by Perry TREO 3 Se ae a ne a nee SE 296 management, place of northern hardwoods...----.---- 285 minor, foreign trade and sources, 1914..............-- 296 northern hardwood, composition, growth and manage- ment, bulletin by E. H. Frothingham.........---.- 285 northern hardwood, tolerance and reproduction....-.-- 285 products, exports— and imports, 1851 and 1914, comparison. ........- 296 MT eM OT OST OTA ee eo Siete es hae Diet. ce tyes eet 296 reexports, 1903-1914.......-- SE eee Ce ey eee SS 296 Forestry, publications of Department, list .............---- 285 Forests— National, work of Division of National Park and Forest GENO irs 7 ee ee ee ae ne ee ren os ES ei hes S A Soe 284 northern hardwood, tolerance, reproduction, growth PALO MSOLUL CCUG co ao aireeiels hee a Sie aie Ue aes panes: 285 Fraxinus— americana, occurrence, commercial importance, etc. - - - 299 anonola, occurrence and importance.......----------- 299 berlandieriana, occurrence and importance.......----.- 299 biltmoreana, occurrence and importance......-.------ 299 coriacea, occurrence and importance...-.......-------- 299 CUSPIGMLG OCCWITCN CC 2222 = «5-2-2 - see ee 299 RIDE LULGOCCULTCN CCS. f2)s052.0, os 0-2. ~8s oe na ae ee = 299 Qreggit. OCCUITENCE = rina fers (4-2) alle ep ae memes 299 lanceolata, occurrence and importance....-....-------- 299 lanceolata, occurrence, commercial importance, etc... - 299 nigra, occurrence, commercial importance, etc....-.-.- 299 oregona, occurrence and importance..-.-..----.--2+---:- 299 PUCLULOTO. (OCGULECNCE «2h 4 rsojcre-1ah mepate Cee ME 299 pauciflora, occurrence and importance............---- 299 pennsylvanica, occurrence and importance..........-.- 299 profunda, occurrence and importance...-..-.----.---- 299 quadrangulata, occurrence and importance............- 299 spp. See Ash. texensis, occurrence and importance. .......-.-----.-- 299 velutina, occurrence and importance. ...-.-.....-.--.-- 299 FROEusLicH, Pau, WELLS A. SHERMAN, and Houston F. WaLKER, bulletin on ‘‘Rail shipments and distribution otinesh tomatoes, 1914? ais 52s 5 eae 290 Frosts, first and last, Belle Fourche experiment farm, 8. D. 297 FRrotTHINGHAM, E. H., bulletin on ‘‘The northern hardwood forest: Its composition, growth, and management”... ... 285 Fruits— exports, 191051914 alters 204.02. foe ene a 295 foreion; trader G03 191 Awe 2S. 3 eee 8c. 296 imports, IGLOSOI4S valle. 4.0......2 2) epee lee a ps. 296 supment and distribution, publications of Department, 5 SES Fea atl 2) Ras PA Atle han od NOR BME rtd LIER dP 90 Fuel, use of hardwoods in northeastern and Lake States. .-. 285 7, 9-12 8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276-300. Gambier, imports and source, 1914. ... 2.22.02. ese. Gelatin, imports and sources, 1909-1914................... Georgia— peach shipments, 1914, season, and stations shipping. - tomato shipments, 191420232140 Bes eee ty Gin— custom, methods of operation =... keene -4--tn5252 5 seed mixture in roll box, studies and determination. . - Ginning— cotton, management to prevent seed mixture. .......- custom, factor in deterioration of cottonseed, bulletin by A. Saunders and P..V.Cardon. 28.5 42.2 is - Ginseng, exports, value and market, 1914................. Glucose, exports— LOTO=1914, value: . 9922 Ve SEOUL CARER PRs Glue— exports; VS9S 19 LAs ns Wea. tans kia alee DEAR stock, imports and sources, 1910-1914.................- Goatskins, imports and sources, 1895-1914............----.-- Grain— exports, 1910-1914; values: ose ari as OTE foreion: trade!) AS51914: - sf ey ge ey en eae products, foreign trade, 1866-1914.........---...----- sampling device, and for seeds and other material, bul- letin by EG, Boerner. -i2.s2e.2 bene ee eens ee Grape sugar, exports— ALS YONG MA ecg an espe ee ge ei ae SR pa pr pa T9LOA19N4 vale sss Oho DE Beit AOU G ee Te ists ay Grapes, imports and sources, 1909-1913-......-......------- Grasshopper— control, natural and artificial remedies.............-.- TOOK PLAM ts Nes VE SA Ae SEAN Ech RN beers na long-winged— damage to crops, 1913, area infested, ete.......--- description, history, and distr ibution meine asi feeding habits and food plants...-.-........------ lifethistory andshabits =. += 5 sss tee outbreak— New Mexico, summer of 1913, bulletin by Harrison By Sma Gly eae etek Ears ae TE eR RS AS FEET in New Mexico, 1913, origin and breeding grounds. Parasitic enemies: 2. a5. - sso POE se travelingsmethods: rate; ete ssit2c. eee eee ee Gravel roads, construction and cost, object-lesson work. .. - Great Plains— agriculture, place of millet and sorgo.......-.---------- precipitation, annual and seasonal............-....-.- Green— apple aphis, effect of insecticides, experiments... ---.- dolphin. See Pea aphis. cue monument in Salt Lake City, note........--..---.-- ulls— accidental occurrence in United States .....-.-------- economic importance, discussion...-------------------- migration, habits and routes? vil so. Ue aad ries North American and their allies, distribution and mi- eration, bulletin by Wells W. Cooke......---------- protection, private and legal..............------------ species, antouated iS thee Ss oars erent s SEE Gums— foreion trades O01 OU 4e ak ae 2 5.55 op yenernce cotceey os acct taeda imports) LOLO=VSL4: values SSA eee ee eine Sere Gee Gutta-percha, imports and source, 1914.........---------- Bulletin No. 296 296 298 290 288 288 288 288 296 296 296 296 296 296 296 296 296 287 296 296 296 293 295 293 293 INDEX. 9 Bulletin No. Page. Hair, animal, foreign trade, 1895-1914............--.....-- 296 16-17 Hardwood— eoonomicimportancessesessos2.2 225 2st a 285 27-33 forest— extent, topography, and climatic conditions. . .. - - 285 2-5 growth, comparison of northern and southern.... - - 285 1 northern— composition, growth, and management, bulle- tin by E. H. Frothingham.....-..--.-..---- 285 1-80 composition, variations, etc....-.......--.--- 285 6-16 extent, topography, and climatic conditions. . 285 2-5 species, common and botanical names, list - . 285 45 temperature and precipitation.........-.---.- 285 } 5 timber species, list, ranges, etc......2255.02220.-.. 285 ' 6-27 HOGS. co oe scesccon sac boponooeeESaeocooESosoeuoe 285 3 standing timber privately owned in Lake States... -.. 285 9 timber, stand in northern hardwood forests, estimate - - 285 31 Hardwoods— consumption for various purposes in northern hardwood RECIOM. \2t. 3) ae Ss eer an bP ane 285 29-31 northern— CISinibUblOn!: MAP Slh.. 2 Ne Medias Soetee ones 285 2 growth of various species, measurement tables. .... 285 17-21 lumber cut and supply, by States...........-.-.-- 285 26-33 Rea ME SCM UEU Ole aia: clan bic \a'a'~! asta ot aerate ae heermanni, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and MORAL ONYAOLISEL S\sememiee eye fo occ 2 Beate hyperboreus, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and PARA LOY, MAILS ee te sole ee se 2 = oun win 2 hee Eee kumleieini, range and occurrence....-....------------ marinus, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and TANT KO Ay Lay ov is) Sa eae eee eee e/a, SN MUTE S ROC EIEECN CO ae i Si- S52). Sc. 3 /=/2, =. «= eer ME SOMUROCCIEREN CO a2 =) s)a)4 44 05 - 421212} ese philadelphia, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence anogmmoratony, habits... ~~ sm Sages atapeee schistisagus, occurrence and migratory habits. ...------ RegueMOrGUErence. {oh tec Sacre tee occ fat eee Laughing gull, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and MMOL ALOGY NMA OLAS. 24.5282 ol: resister Pb sles =\-.0 oasis @aee eo Werisianonweull protections ;4+a2. $..5 + <2 4:/n- eee eae - Lemon oil, imports and prices, 1910-1914.............----- Lemons, imports and value, 1903-1914... ....-......----- Levee construction, value of floating grab-bucket dredge. - Levees, construction— wserohdny-landrerab-buckets 222% s2-< se 2-926 s--2'- valucromhvdraulic dredge. 22.4 i ose. tees. hk kes. Library, agricultural, for public schools, selecting and con- Ee UI ON Seng. . wisi 2s wiatisic.o oc ono oeckerus oR ee sera Licorice root, imports and sources, 1914..........--.----- Linseed oil, foreign trade, 1895-1914. .....-....---------- Piiiileyeullmraceummences == 2.53. ccc cc aie ects ogee age Live stock— ExporussmMOMOSIO14. Value. cys... ssecieme sacs ccs dae eee ROVCIOMMIPAC ODO 22) 25 soc oat ace onc50. ere no ea ee ORE Lizards, usefulness against grasshoppers, note. .......----- Loblolly pine, tests of strength, selection and treatment of TAAYWSTE ic oe eo EEE EE Oe Od ko IEC eee ENG Ee beet cae ace Logs, grade and volume, scale tables for different hardwoods. Longleaf pine, tests of strength, selection, and treatment of MNALCTIA ee Pe. 2 Gershon Louisiana— peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - - tomato shipments; 1A se csi rita 3 hae eee Lumber— AS COsLOn PrOCUCtiON WANS 84.08/28 8 See See ease CiiipimcreaseloihardwOOds apa - ae eee eee foreiemtrad eye SOD G14 ee ns 3 3) ee infestation with moth, objections and uses.........--.. Lupulin, hops, changes in storage, studies........---.-...- Macadam roads, construction and cost, object-lesson work... Macaroni, imports and source, 1903-1914......-....---.--- Machinery— cross-pollinating machine for red clover, description and excavating, used in land drainage, bulletin by D. L. Parner eg eer on 3 35 5 5 Se ea Ee Macrosiphum pisi. See Pea aphis. Maine, hardwood— iimber cit amd supply eee 2... eet as, fmberstandthoard feet: «eas ¢ o-)2.c ei es ee cee Division, Roads Office, formation and work. . alt— vexttact, Imports and source; 1914. 2.25 kee foreign. tradepaS7s-19N4A = Beis... a acca ad os 05 liquor, foreign trade, 1864-1914. .....----..----+-.-.. 11 Bulletin No. Page 292 54-57 292 27-28 292 49-51 292 22-25 292 28-29 292 30-33 292 62 292 30 292 34-35 292 57-62 292 33-3 292 40-41 292 51-54 292 4 296 BE 296 43 300 17-18 300 28 300 34-35 281 29-30 296 45 296 34 292 62 296 Wy, 296 d-7 283 7 286 2-4,6,7, 10-14 285 63-66 286 2-4, 6-7, 8, 10-14 298 11 290 9-10 299 34-36 285 30-31 296 46-47 295 9 282 3-4 284 3-6 296 28 289 20-21 300 1-39 285 28 285 31 284 39-54 296 46 296 27 296 37 1D. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276—300. Bulletin No. Page. Manila fiber, imports, value and source, 1891-1914......... 296 44 Maple— lumber cut pL) emer Bie 2 NaS see mee een Maret ear 285 29 occurrence in northern hardwood forests. -.-...-....-.--- 285 9,10 plots, character of stands, volume and yield per acre in northerntorests..... 5: : 2-p2ceeeaeeiec +222 eee 285 24-25 red, occurrence in northern hardwood forests... ...--- - 285 8 sugar— ~ occurrence in northern hardwood forests.........-. 285 8,9, 10 volume and form tables, northern hardwood SESE 285 52-54, 72-74 Marketing— peaches, problems and practices. - te tose 298 2 tomatoes, raij shipments and distribution, Gigiatpecaaee 290 1-12 Markets, foreign for agricultural products, discussion and statistics: 2825... TeO, sagen sone bau Ss 296 3-5 Marsh elder, occurrence in dry-land region.-.........----- 297 3 MartiIn— J. N., and others, bulletin on “‘ Red-clover seed produc- tion: Pollination studies” ......... 289 1-31 L. HerRBert, WELLS A. SHERMAN, ‘and “Houston Bol WALKER, bulletin on ‘Peach supply and distribu- onundQla® | as -+ a2, 2: cue eteeeek IUD BOON 298 1-16 Maryland, peach shipments, 1914, season and stations ship- PING Sein 2 Se as oe ee aed ie pee ae 298 7, 12 Meave, Rowtanp M., bulletin on ‘‘Single-stalk cotton culture at:San@Amtonio? 26: fo cete cen es ioeoee 279 1-20 Meat, foreign trade, 1852-1914. ----.-.2.-2222225.-2+:2 296 9-10 Megalestri is “sku, breeding places and occurrence..-.--.-.-- 292 24 Megastizus unicinctus, nesting habits; note: -<:s2-2::2s24- 293 --- 10-11 Mew gull, range and ocurrence 242-24) b: spat, eosin B 292 49 Michigan — hardwood lumber cut and Sup phys tee 285 28 peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - - 298 12 tomato shipments, 1914s Sekai hse aekev regen ea a aMe 290 10 Milk, foreign trade OE PNAS SS Wat neh ORE 296 8 Mill feed, exports, BD VO A Ses si Sa SRR yg ana etree toe ee 296 28 Millet— _ breeding for drought adaptation (and sorgo), bulletin by A. "Cy Diliman. s220022tar Lenouipaan ete) elas) 291 1-19 Dakota Kursk, characteristics and value in Great Plains 291 5 hay, yields of three varieties in Great Plains.....-....- 291 6-7 root system, growing habits, water requirements, etc... 291 2-3, 16-18 seed, yield of three varieties in Great Plains. ...-....-- 291 7-8 selection of strains for drought adaptation, considera- tions‘and recommendations. --._=225-25-2-----.-=-- 291 4-8 Siberian, characteristics and value for Great Plains. - - - 291 3, 6-8 yields, comparison with other forage plants, Great Plains sec Shee rey ole hee eee peresnas stil 291 13-15 Minnesota, hardwood lumber cut and supply-.---.-.------ 285 28 Mississipp1 seaehial shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - . 298 12 roads, construction and cost, eatla -lesson work. -...-- 284 6-8 tomato shipments, 1914.. Ace tee se CLI 290 10 Missouri— peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - - 298 12 road construction and cost, object-lesson work... ...- -- 284 5-6 tomato shipments, |1914- -2_ 2S ee 290 10 Molasses, foreign trade, 1914. . FE eS SA oce tee RO 296 46 Moss, exports, mlgidey Rees Ao 7, ye eae oeeBipe at 296 49 Moth— pine, bulletin by Josef Brunner. .....-......-.-.------ 295 1-12 tussock, effect of insecticides, experiments. .....-.----- 278 16-17 Zimmerman pine. See also Pine moth, Zimmerman. Muck land, drainage, use of floating iB ETAL -bucket dredge. . 300 17-18 Mules, foreign trade, 1884-1914... eee ares OP ce ONS. 296 if Mutton, foreien trade, 1877- 1014: pie Ses cooks 296 13 Myadestes townsendi. See Solitaire, Townsend’s.........-- 280 3-5. + —_ INDEX. Naval stores, foreign trade, 1914......5..-. 25.00. sen. ees e5-- New Hampshire, hardwood— humbernent and supply 9-20 $2222 3.2 54-209: eee be Gimber stand spoardieetsasss.5--- =~ -1240) asses eee New Jersey— peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - - foOMAnmsmipMentsn Obes ose lst eae aeeee New Mexico— grasshopper outbreak, 1913, bulletin by Harrison E. SSUTLTIUND 55 cao 3 a eee 72 a peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - - formato napments) 1914 2. oe) Opn ke oa 5a) se agen teases Se New York— hardwood— humiser cutjand supply... ->-2 3 (422289 aasgese: qimberstand, (ooard feet.-2522----225--5- 455-2 peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. . - TOMATO MNpINENtS: LOTR Saeee a. the ee New Zealand flax, imports, source and value, 1910-1914... Newurn, J. A., and H. 8. Berrs, bulletin on “Strength tests of structural timbers treated by commercial wood- BLOKE INO DTOCESRES ? 8.2 265 20s ee nee wee apse Nixon, Rosert L., bulletin on ‘‘Cotton warehouse con- SRO CHAT? . AES oan eee eee eee reed Seam lee ree kee Oars North Carolina— peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - - road construction -and cost of different types, object- VESSONEWOLK pais) S2l oe. gel li ls oh! Agee Bua ‘Norther hardwoods,” use of term_..---.--....2.._....-- Nurseny stock, foreien trade, 1914......-.....-.5--...b.565, Nut oils, imports and sources, 1912-1914............-..... Nuts, imports— sources of various kinds, etc., 1884-1914.-.-........... ict lemme OM OSM AR 2 sie ko? 8k alee Nee cin eee Oak, standing timber privately owned in Lake States. -..--- Oatmeal, foreign trade, 1884-1916. ..... eb eh La ee a re Oats— experiments at Belle Fourche experiment farm. . .-.-. fpreiemirade, 15) 1914. c547 45, ja0/5h 4 bee een growing on Belle Fourche experiment farm, varietal ancerate-o1-seedine testssctes..0 =. o)a,1+- 2.0. see varieties recommended for western South Dakota_..... peipoda nebracensis. See Grasshopper, long-winged. io— peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - - tomatoshipments il ON sii 2 sa ee Oil cake— exports (with cottonseed meal), 1910-1914, value... .- ipreisnvtradesckso5—l9Uas 2122-22 4-0 ae BSE Oils, vegetable— exports LO10AGI4. vale: 2. ai... 2... 2 Se foreiem tirade): IS95-1914.-se2 32. 22 22 dd eee TMpPoTis1OLOMLOIA value. iirc. 0. os Oklahoma— peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - - road construction and cost of different types, object- EORRON-WOLK way ce ioe DOR Bo | ce eee Ne Oleo stearin, foreign trade, 1910-1914....-.-....-.---..--.- Oleomargarine, foreign trade, 1882-1914...-.......--..+.-- Olive oil, imports and sources, 1906-1914...............-.-- Onions, foreign trade; 1895-1914. 2:.....- 22-2 see gecasl--- BoOpium, imports, and sources, 1914... 2... 2. --<5ecc- -- Oranges, foreign trade, 1903-1914......... ee ee Bulletin No. 296 285 285 ie 296 e206 Page. 13 8, 12-15, 19-21 3 45 34 13 14 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276-300, Oregon— Bulletin No. Page. “peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - 298 13-14 tomato shipments, IGA. 2 i Se een so oe 290 11 Ostrich feathers, imports and source, 1912-1914............ 296 23 Oyster-shell scale, injury to ash trees in Ohio.............. 299 24-25 Packing-house— products— exports; 1910-1914. -value? =. spear ne ye 296 2 foreign =trade, 19061914 eek ee eee 296 9-18 imports; 1970-1914; value= 222 24S ee" 22 hee 296 2 refuse, use for fertilizer ‘‘base goods”. ..............- 283 2 Pagophila alba, br eeding and winter ranges, occurrence and migratory ‘habitsspsoi3hs is. Sa et ee 292 14-16 Palm— kernel oil, imports and sources, 1912-1914............. 296 25 leaf; imports, W904 0% 2 ..< cent ce oe Sos ses eee 296 49 oil, imports and sources, 1907-1914...............2.--- 296 35 PamMeE., L. H., and others, bulletin on ‘‘red-clover seed production: Pollination studies? = 222 -ee ee, sesh esse 289 1-31 Paper-pulp manufacture, consumption of beech wood. - . -- 285 29 Parasitic jaeger, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and muisratory habiteves.s..c.-.osctheee se ee eee eee ete 292 9-12 Parks, National, work of Division of National Park and Borest Roads...5< ..----++~ Fei cca RI 284 57 Pea aphis— bibliography. See 5. SOLS nih ee 276 55-67 control maturallandrartiicial: eet ste ee ee ' 276 52-55 description, life'eycle:and shistory <<. 222222 t2n2 522 2% 276 12-51 distribution‘andsorigins525:42525-t4 22 asses eee a 276 8-9 field observations 52 22s2tiiee eden kecte st eek ee 276 26-27 KOOGl AEN Sao saccusocosssses dacacues odor sasaso HSS 276 9-12 generation experiments, tabulated data......-.-.----- 276 27-49 history and injuries in Europe and America. ....-.--- 276 5-7 identity of species in America. .-.-..-....------------ 276 4-5 relation to forage crops, bulletin by J. J. Davis.-..-.--.- 276 1-67 ANNONA ob Se abaSsoosadoqnbSnosaEoudabeaosaHoRe Sede 276 2-4 Peach— industry, Department publications, list ............-.- 298 16 supply and distribution in 1914, bulletin by Wells A. Sherman, Houston F. Walker, and L. Herbert Martin. 298 1-16 trees, spraying with insecticides, effect on foliage...... 278 10-11 Peaches— . dried, exports and markets, 1906-1914........-....-.- 296 43 growing, areas of commercial production by States. ...- 298 5-6 marketing, problems and practices.......-------------- 298 2 shipments— 1914 “iby Statess: . 2220.22 6232 Wester ecs: 298 7, 9-15 by States, seasons and stations shipping Beary tcc sais 298 7-16 1OLS APrOsSpeChiVviers os viatenees See Eee ~ Sine on Sin 298 8-9 seasons, by States, sources of data, etc..-...--.--- 298 344, 9-15 Peanut oil, imports and sources, 1912-1914...........-..-- 296 34 Peanuts, foreign trade, 1906-1914...--.:....22:.2.-.------ 296 36 Pears, export trade and markets, 1906-1914........-.....-.- 296 43 Peasyioreien trade 900-1914: : : sis sorrseeeeeec itso 296 40 Pennsylvania— hardwood— lumber ctitand supplys) a2 Uwe eo ve oe 285 28 famiber\stande board feet. 20... ti Aeemsmee 2 Scena 285 31 peach shipments, 1914, season and stations phupping- “5 298 14 Bee foreign trade, 1860-1914...................-.------ 296 41 ine— forests, moth-infested, management............-- 295 10 loblolly, tests of strength, selection and treatment of material /:/6 0 Stet es: OR SES 286 2-44, 6,7, 10-14 longleaf, tests of strength, selection and treatment of material: +7 eet pepe cb as eee eeecae tee wee 286 2-4, 6-7, 8, 10-14 INDEX. Pine—Continued. moth, Zimmerman— eniolioorarniyeecion Seersairtetecses 3k, cee Shee brood trees, menace and elimination............--- etletin' bya tosel Brunmers: .2....0)2.2.5.-. jessie « description, life history and habits.......-.-.--..--- ee saad catistaal white, occurrence in northern hardwood forests......-.- Pineapples, imports and sources, 1903-1914-...-.....2.--.--- Pines— injury by Zimmerman pine moth.......-........----- species injured by Zimmerman pine moth.........--.-- Pinipestis— cambuicola, injury to pines..----..---.-.-------------- zimmermam. See Pine moth, Zimmerman. iRisspdes schwaret, injury to pines... .--..- 2... sss sen' Poison baits, orasshopper, preparation and value.......-.--- Pollen, red clover, potency in self pollination and cross- pollination comparison. ssstosheised oO. 1o5 aOR ee Pollination, studies in red-clover seed production, bulletin by J. M. Westgate, H. S. Coe, and others..........2..2--- Polyporus fraxinophilus, injury to ash trees, nature and ORCIIETENCES 4. \5-2h ccs soot EY Oe yetiataeide eon hae Poplar— occurrence in northern hardwood forests. - bey Asn Ts yellow, occurrence in northern hardwood forests......-- Post roads— improvement, appropriation and work.......-.------- maintenance and supervision......-:2/..:02:-i 225222222 Ronkproducts foreign: trade...t...--... +22. . ese mea. Potatoes— foreign trades 1851=19 l4o0n soviet ocak) ana Bie log. ze Beare cardsloriSCWool WOLK |. asc cec cies edtsereveyoraictn| EE Houliny, foreion tradé, 1895-19147... --....--2- RL oe Prairie dogs, usefulness against grasshoppers, note....---.-- Priononyx atrata, usefulness against grasshoppers, method DVO | NPN UIE AOS Te 2 ge aed © eR EOE D etna a Prizes, home-projects club in public schools, suggestions and AG wAmitAres tess oe eck Trae (se dT 7 eae por a Prunes, foreign trade, 1903-1914. .222..2 022.05. 20000222 oe Egiblications, peachtindustry, list... .......-. - seen Famlipaywjood ami ports, L914. . oa) oo. ci ws ot = oc wcici eee Raisins, foreign trade, 1903-1914..... PEST PIAE Hee emer sch RE By Rapeseed oil, imports and sources, 1912-1914.............- Rattans, imports and source, 1914.........-.-..).05.-.212 Red-clover— flower—_ fentiliza hlonnstudies?: 4. Ahjce. cee tee ee pollinationahy. bees,.studies.......-.cGssseeeemee structure and development M0LFE 3.2. Le a 2 seed production: pollination studies, bulletin by J. M. Westgate, H. S. Coe, and others...-.........-.2.-2- eeds:imports and source, 1914. -0....2... 22 ech gee. Reforestation, ash stands, natural and art ‘ined methods. - Rennets, imports and source, 1876-1914.....-22522:2...2-- Resins— hard, of hops, changes in sulphured and unsulphured samples i A StOnase lee sees a. ee ee soft, of hops— ‘acid and ester values, determination.............-. iodin value, determingtion!. 9... a sulphured and unsulphured in cold and open stor- age, study, bulletin by G. A. Russell..........- Rhodostethia zofet breeding range and occurrence. .-....-- Bulletin No. 295 295 16 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276-300, Bulletin No. Page. Ricestoreion trades HAS=V914- 2 sa. eee ens ene nee 296 26 Rissa— brevirostris, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and migratory habits 2.2.0... 2epe eee ee. oe See 292 21-22 tridactyla pollicaris, breeding and winter ranges, occur- rence'and mipratory, habits: cose eer ete ee ee eee 292 19-21 tridactyla tridactyla, breeding and winter ranges, occur- rence and migratory. habits-- 2320 eeeeee ee) --e oe 292 16-19 Road, Washington-Atlanta highway, maintenance and con- struction, funds expended, mileage, etc.-.2).2i20..2222 2 284 59-63 Roads— bituminous— : macadam, construction and cost, object-lesson WOT eit cee esc SRS oo ae ee oer peer 284 3-4 surfacmoecost 4-2 ts 2s ee eee eee ee 284 4 cement-concrete, construction and cost, object-lesson WOT kets Hee eR isin dS AS ON ieee as coh RR PREGE 284 2-3 construction and maintenance (with bridges) from July 1, 1913, to December 31; 19142 sii. ilo. 2h 284 1-64 county, superintendence, work of Construction Divi- sion, Roads'Ofiices east. -eehigs ees tee 284 23-50 experimental work of Construction Division of Roads Offices. Asse Ae Ts SSB esi Mae ae eee 284 50-53 macadam, construction and cost, object-lesson work. - 284 3-6 National Park and Forest Division, formation and work. 284 53-07 object-lesson, construction of various kinds, cost, mile- age and location! 2300228 alma boo hind ciate 284 2-23 Office, authority for construction and maintenance of roads and prrdioes eye ee ee er eo are Ia eer ee 284 . 1-2 post, improvement, appropriation and work..........- 284 52-53 post, maintenance and supervision.....-.....--..--.-- 284 59 topsoil, construction and cost, object-lesson work... --- 284 18-21 Rossrns, F. E., and others, bulletin on “ Red-clover seed production: Pollimation studies”... -- 2-202. ---2ae- eke 289 1-31 Roots} herbs, and barks;:exports, 1914. acs 5..- eee 296 46 Rosinvexports, LOMGs. ose Es. Siete cistenes bape 296 47 Rubber, imports— Vale VM OSLO MA ers ce Rese ae ceed 296 2 value and sources, 1910-1914..........-....--.2---.--: 296 47-48 Russe, G. A., bulletin on ‘A study of the soft resins in sulphured and unsulphured hops in cold and open OMI sess aocao ace seoon sum sasqonaassous5 5 oHoensaCeee 282 1-19 Rye— foreion ‘trade xa SG4=19N4 oi. Secs kes. Ape Meese on a wie 296 27 growing in western South Dakota, experiments. ......- 297 38 Sago, imports, value and source, 1914....................- 296 45 Satmon, Crcit, bulletin on “Cereal investigations on the Belle Fourche experiment farm) see eee == --- = 297 ; 1-43 Sampling device, grain— description and Operation «-).0) BEL pee: eid ta, it 287 14 seeds and other material, bulletin by E. G. Boerner. - 287 1-4 San Jose scale, effect of insecticides, experiments. ........ 278 35-38, 42 Sand-clay roads, construction and cost, object- lesson work. 284 11-18 Sarcophaga. kellyi— factor in grasshopper control, habits and value... .-.--- 293 7-11 parasitic on long-winged grasshopper, value, etc....... 293 7-9 Saunpers, D. A., and P. V. Carpon, bulletin on “Custom ginning as a factor in cotton-seed deterioration” ......... 288 1-8 Sausage— pologna, imports and source, 1878-1914.......-...-..-- 206 14 casings, foreign trade, 1875- 1914, Scere be ae 296 17 Schools— exhibits, home-projects club, sup roee mare te fovets cia ENs 281 5-6, 25-26 public, correlating agriculture with subjectsin Northern States, bulletin by C. H. Lane and F. E. Heald..... 281 1-42 rural, lessons on cotton, bulletin by ©. H. Lane........ 294. 1-16 INDEX. Score card— Bulletin No. GOLCONDA arsine We sj sehe aes os So 5 ne lee ete 294 farm products, use in public schools, types, etc... ---- 281 Scort, E. W., and E. H. SIEGLER, bulletin on “Miscel- laneous insecticide IMVestiCattOnsy 62. 2) eee ae oe 278 Seed— ash, production, dissemination, germination, etc.. 299 bed, cotton, preparation, school lessons...........---- 294 foreign trade, HS Jo NO IAs ROR aN yn > i 8 es jas 296 imports, 1910-1914, svelte RE EE 7D SAO ELE TERE ae RUN 296 millet, production, yield and demand - 291 sampling device, and for grain and other material, bul- letin by E. G. pBoemensves2ee os -o2 po see ees 287 selection, curing, care, and testing, school work.. 281 Sesia brunnert, TOME LO pIMes.ssaae ss ys ss Se 295 Sheep, foreign Graces 1 SOAS NON sakes 4.) i SE eee 206 Sheepskins, ‘Imports and sources, 1909-1914. see 296 Shellac, gum, imports and source, 1914. 296 SHERMAN, Weis A.— Houston F. WaLker and L. Hersert Martin, bulle- tin on ‘‘Peach supply and distribution in 1914”..-- 298 Pau Froern.icn, and Houston F. Waker, bulletin on “Rail shipments and distribution of fresh toma- OCS pl GUAR e nse cect ayes fk rota tno ee A ae ee 290 Shipping tomatoes, SEASON Gy oreeo focnd kas slo hee em 290 Siberian gull, breeding and winter ranges....-.----..----- 292 Srecier, E. H., and E. W. Scort, bulletin on ‘“Miscel- laneous insecticide inv estipatlonsed re tec R aA ae 278 Silk, foreign trade, GOGO IAN selene le nel Minn 296 Silviculture, methods in northern hardwood forests... ...- 285 Single-stalk cotton, culture at San Antonio, bulletin by amistad Mee Mende, «220d ly) 0.0 / 00s ANON ee 279 SUID), SAGO, IRIE eG = Book ebb eee or eooeeenneceo cee 296 Sisal grass, imports, value and source, 1895-1914. .......-- 296 Skineioreionnirade, 1895-1914... 2. ssc heice oo eee 296 Skua— breeding places and occurrence. ..-.-..--.-.-+---.--- 292 useful against mice and lemmings, note......-.-.---- 292 Slaughterhouse, by-products, foreign ttad 627 NUE eee eos: 296 SmirH, Harrison E., bulletin on ‘“‘The grasshopper out- break in New Mexico during the summer of 1913”-...-. 293 Solitaire, Townsend’s, occurrence, distribution, and eco- MOM GHMDOnbANCE|. sss She. SNL... os 2 se 280 Sorgo— breeding for drought adaptation (and millet), bulletin nyp AC. Dilltaan'..-4e sett 2 tooo SS eee 291 Dakota Amber, characteristics and value for Great [AIOE A Ai We ae ae RR DSSS Sa oa ac 291 root system, growing habits, water requirements, etc... 291 selection of strain for Great Plains... ee 291 yields, comparison with other forage plants, Great Aneta gi) 3 SRG in Sy Seay 9 2 en - . S 291 South Carolina— peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - 298 - road construction and ‘cost, object-lesson work._.....- 284 South Dakota, western, native vegetation and climatic con- CAAT OTS ee Vine ENS ARR NILE _ 200 00 NED 297 Soya-bean oi!, imports and sources, 1912-1914. .._........ 296 Spices, foreign trade in various kinds, 1884-1914. _........ 296 se Spike- -top,”’ pine, work of Zimmerman pine moth... ..... 295 Sprinkler, automatic, description, use, and vaiue in cotton warehouse, tel Ls 2) oc eeei SIM 1CO aia es Oc 277 Sprout reproduction, ash trees: <).: 2.2.22.) Se222220 299 Spruce— - occurrence in northern hardwood forests.........---- 285 red, occurrence in northern hardwood forests... .....- - 289 104680°—17—3 ial’) 8-12 2-38, 15-16 8 13-15 18 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276—300. Starch— Bulletin No. Page. eX ports, VOLOSLOIA yale). ese eee eee 296 2 foreion ‘trad esd ON iim) eile paceman hh eel Seg 296 46 Stearin, foreign trade, VOWS KV OIA oie ope pers ororers action ae 296 10 Stercorarius— longicaudus, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and migratory Habits, << ee tee ce tone 292 12-14 parasiticus, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and migra tobyaWAWMS 2-2 scl = eles eee eer i ae ee 292 9-12 pomarinus, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and migratory habits ess fe hae yep eee hey fe i deb ge 292 7-9 SterrRetTr, W. D., bulletin on ‘‘The ashes: Their charac- teristics and management eee ah. chaser gama 299 1-88 Storage— cold; effect onchops, studies:...- .-eeeeaon- = 240s 282 3-19 houses, importance and economic value. ........-..-- 277 2-3 principles and functions of warehouse...........-...-- 277 3-7 Straw, toreion trade 1904. oo. Jo. eee eee PUTS apace te, 296 46 Sudan grass, yield ‘of forage in Great Plains, comparison with other forage plants \\..5- secs peered ah fees 291 10, 13-14 Sugar— beet seed, imports and value, 1910-1914................ 296 39 exports, T9V0-1914, value. 250.0045. tiple tbe tenet 296 2 Loreion trade wlS ol ON ee eee a ee eee eee 296 29-30 AIM POLts VOU LOA sVvalue sac sos yee ein eee ere 296 2 maple, occurrence in, northern hardwood forests. ..-.--- 285 8, 9, 10 Sulphuric acid— ECONOMICHMIPORIANCE sess ccc ct owe we selee's eee eee 283 1-2 manufacture— contact process, requirements, etc......-----.:--- 283 2-3, 15-26 lead-chamber process, requirements, etc......--.- 283 3-5, 9-13, 27-39 methods, processes, requirements, and comparisons. 283 e 2-3 plant, factory Considerabions eure eee eee ee eee 283 13-14 plant, measurement of efficiency. -..-..-.-.----------- 283 5-9 production— and proposed new method of manufacture, bulle- tin by, William Hi. Waggaman......2 s25-:.-==< 283 1-39 in United States, by grades, 1911-1913............ 283 2 Superphosphate, basis of ‘fertilizer industry, note.......-...- 283 1 “Sweat bees,’’ enemies of pea aphis............-..-------- 276 53 Swine. See ‘Hogs. Syrphid larvee, enemies of Pea aphises toi jsB soil = Satis 276 53 Aga Mts, aM PortsiandiSOULCe see -e---seeee me teie <= <= 3 296 49 Mallow, beef, foreign’ tradej-.2+--|--2 = 5\4-~ ieee - been t im -)- = - 296 10-11 Tampico fiber, imports, value and source, 1885-1914. ....-. 296 44 Tanning material, forelomitrade,, LOVA oo. Soe pots j= bese 296 48 Tapioca, imports and source, (Olina geen cee 296 45 Tea, imports— andisources spl Spl WOWA an cccahice sic nemeeterte et area tie 296 31-32 value, LOLOHMO LAS Sse eayhs + setrecle. qaapepeetisiscis > selose 296 3 Meazelss mi ponts\amdisOUurceywLO1 A see yee ete ie ee oar ete 296 46 Tennessee— peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. . - 298 14 road construction and cost, object-lesson work... ..-.-- 284 22-23 Tomatoishipments Ole. cre. ser. eee eeEret es aye)ayo -r eee 290 Lil Tent caterpillar, effect of various insecticides, experiments. 278 12-13 Texas— peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - - 298 14 road construction and cost of different types, object- LessOm WOT ei eis) ye ep aarti eee sb) ohys Bini 284 17-18, 23 San Antonio region, single-stalk cotton culture.....-.-.- 279 1-20 Lomato SHIpMents WO ste 2 io. :|2-e2steecaees 11 COMPARISON WITH THE EUROPEAN PISI. After carefully comparing what is commonly known as Macrosi- phum destructor or M. pisi in America with specimens labeled pisi, or its equivalent, from Russia, Sweden, England, and Italy, kindly sent us by Cholodkoysky, Mordwilko, Tullgren, Theobald, and Del Guercio, respectively, and with the complete descriptions of Mord- wilko (10) and others, we can find no substantial difference and must conclude that the species occurring in Europe and America are iden- tical. Measurements of European specimens of the wingless and winged viviparous, and wingless oviparous females, all taken from specimens mounted on slides in balsam, are given in Table I. TABLE I.— Measurements of European specimens of Macrosiphum pisi Kalt. WINGLESS VIVIPAROUS FEMALE. Antenne. Length. | Wings. = |e A oF Labeled— ] os eens $ | 8 lses| 8 : & |e e8e}Si¢/¢ei4 Hol eee lod | a [2 Sel |e eee ee ctentelste sie | Sea poss a4 © ei Spell Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm. Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm. Macrosiphum apist Kalt. Wye, Kent, England, on |\0. 226) 0.122) 1.165) 0.895) 0.817) 0.313) 1.217 74 Coat 748 eas 26-811. F 7 ~226] .122| 1.165) .939|° .835| .304).....- PA 3A Page a PE FOC DD neo bald we. eee nase Siphonophora ulmarize =S. pisi Kalt.) Firenze, ||.....|...... 1.234] 1.009] .835] .278] 1.148 5] 1.130). 243 SLE AL yO ETS ULTTAS eth LLL | feet ope | ee | ey eS a ee 1..130| (0 3 |-= = |e 8-6-1908. G. Del Guercio. | 4 Does. Seed 193), 5104) 4/304) Seren |S. 2) 1-199 rol de 243) .122) 1.330) 1.078] .878 B48) oes 2) 1.338 mex cede ns aprec eee 226] .122 me 1 we ae 348 11.304 3| ee if 782)------ | ences Uy Ser a erect 2 2 2 330,11. 304! 4) 1.078 DO... -2002---22-e-e eee VT 1.286] 1.086] .887| .313| 1.338 3) 1 walt 696)......|..-..- Macrosiphum ulmarize | (=M. pisi Kalt.). On Pi- . 226) .113! 1.356] 1.069! .878) .330)11. 200 3) 1. 200 800 sum arvense. Sweden. |f .226] .113| 1.373] 1.095] .921)......|...... | 5|2baee \ Pope ACU Tull erent eebice ne Siphonophora pisi Kalt. Pisum sativum, Esth- |\.....]...... 1.130) .939) .869) .304) 1.156) 3] Le2bZ 765 land (Russia). INE ICHo= |ieens| eee 1.208] .948} .869} .330) 1.182 3 1 oe3 fo4 ooo) | So lodkovskypeenessee cesses Macrosiphum pisi Kalt. On Pisum sativum 1/14 VII 709. Gouvern, Pskow, ||-.....|...--- 1.165) .835) .800) .313) 1.043) 3]. 835 Russia. A. Mordwilko. }|f.....|.....- 1.148} .800) .800) .296) 1.043) 2 Bet amie en cae Received from N. Cho- lodkovskye- stesso eee | Do . 226) +. 122) 1.286) 1.078] .965) .313)] 1.321 3 974 733 ea tha See - 209} . 113) 1.252) 1.043 074) 313) 1.286 3 74 | aa 1 Tip shriveled. 2 Me asurements of segments III, IV, and V combined, 3.355 mm. THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 25 TasLe I.— Measurements of European specimens of Macrosiphum pisi Kalt—Contd. WINGED VIVIPAROUS FEMALE. Antenne. Length. Wings. a (ose Labeled— oe eerie aes >) Oesnel n a S loys] 2 G ? Pea ae Ss lS eS oe sys || Ss | [wera ESAS ane VR Sad bisa Hi = as q a > re IZ oO 6) 4 = x 7 _ Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm. Mm.| Mm.| Mm.) Mm. acrosiphum pisi alt. On sweet peas 20-912. |(0.191] 0.113) 1.069) 0.930) 0.843] 0.313] 1.182 29] 0.748 0.5 ) ‘ England. F. V. Theo- |f .191| .113] 1.060] .913| .852| 330) 1.182| 5 “ealt BS ens) ae alae ee Ek Sy Macrosiphum ulmariz (=pisi Kalt). On Pisum 3208)) 113) 1.148] . SON ST eess2t|e 2. 21) .956) P| arvense. Simodarty is VAN |(a208| 5113] 1113]... .23| eeeal een |iben 21] i904 f 908)------|------ INDIO SHGYOLS SAR Rie Ae oe Macrosiphum pisi Kalt. On Pisum sativum, 1/14 VIII 709. Gouvern, Pskow, || .208) .104] 1.061] .913] .817] .313] 1.304 22) 1.008) Russia. A. Mordwilko. |f 203] .096] 1.078| :965| .817| .330| 1.278] 26 “Dolly ao Ree’d from N. Cholod- IKONS ksyiretsiaciscteistiscicersnie Macrosiphum pisi Kalt. On| > Q | Lathyrus sp-, Oct., 1903. |) 1741 .104111.061| 1.095, .904| .330/21.061| 26 7) aaa 4.45) 1.55 Warschau, ussia. A. | Mordiwalko merece, Giiromai|ipceea|isge es) =>" "|" > * eats | efalminics| cinicia) aia) ci-iieielc N. Cholodkovsky ..._.... WINGLESS OVIPAROUS FEMALE. ] Macrosiphum pisi Kalt. On| SED RUSISDE Cl 1908. 0.191} 0.104) 0.982] 0.721] 0.765] 0.295 1.043) 2 0.713 ensue if .191| :104| 956]. 730| marrselnn 260) 9.0431 | Oli \fen--=|-- eons N. Cholodkovsky-......-. ¢ Do - 191}. .113) 1.113) .782) .748} .313) 1.061 2 meaty St LOU. ual 1.130} .765| .748) .295) 1.061 yee te | | 1 Upturned, and measurements only approximate. In no case, in specimens included in this table, were sensoria present on antennal segments IV and V, excepting the usual distal one on V; the cornicles were imbricated throughout, there being no reticulation at the tips. The hind tibiz of the oviparous females bore numerous sensoria as is the case with specimens occurring in America. Figure 10, a-d were made from specimens collected by Dr. A. Mordwilko in Russia and sent us by Dr. N. Cholodkovsky. We have not had an opportunity to examine specimens of the wingless or winged males from Europe but our specimens of the wingless male agree in every particular with the description given by Mordwilko (10). 98034°—Bull. 276—15——4 26 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LIFE HISTORY. The life history of the pea aphis is quite simple, for it does not have a true alternate host like some species of plant-lice. As has been noted, it attacks leguminous plants primarily, some of which are annuals, others perennials. Clovers, particularly red and crimson clovers, serve as hosts for this insect the entire year, and it is on these plants that it usually passes the winter, either as eggs or as viviparous females, although during the summer months the migrants also pass to other leguminous crops, such as sweet pea, garden and field peas, and vetches, and on these they multiply very rapidly, oftentimes destroying large acreages. In the latitude of La Fayette, Ind., the species winters both as living viviparous females, usually wingless, and as eggs. Farther north it may winter exclusively in the egg stage, although our observations are not complete on this point, Fic. 10.—Macrosiphum pisi from Russia: a, antenna of winged viviparous female; 6, antenna of wingless viviparous female; c, cornicle of winged viviparous female; d, cornicle of wingless viviparous female. Greatly enlarged. (Origina!.) while farther south, in the latitude of Tennessee, the sexual forms which lay the overwintering eggs are rare, the insect ordinarily pass- ing the winter as living plant-lice, both wingless and winged forms being able to withstand the lower temperatures in that latitude. Still farther south we know only the viviparous females and our obser- vations lead us to believe that the species may reproduce yviviparously indefinitely in localities where the winters are quite mild. FIELD OBSERVATIONS. In the latitude of Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, and Delaware migrants from the winter hosts, namely, red clover and crimson clovers, begin to spread to new fields of clover and to garden peas about May 1, and the injury to these crops usually becomes notice- able about June 1, extending up to July. Ordinarily by this time the parasitic and predacious enemies have become sufficiently numerous THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 27 to control, or at least hold in check, the aphides, and a little later, usually depending on the climatic conditions, the aphidid fungus (Empusa aphidis) becomes prevalent, so much so, in fact, that the plant-lice are often apparently completely exterminated. However, as the weather conditions become more favorable for the aphis and less for the fungous disease and the aphidid parasites, the few sur- vivors are soon able to cover the plants with their progeny, so that by September we ordinarily find them again abundant on clover and late garden peas. Farther north the insect does not seem to appear in injurious num- bers until later—that is, not until about July. The following records of injury for 1899 recorded by Dr. Chittenden (1900) illustrate this statement. ‘The first record was for Gloucester County and Ports- mouth, Va., on May 17; Maryland, May 23; Newark, Del., June 2; East Hampton, Conn., July 3; Long Island, N. Y., July 7: Orono, Me., July 28; Ontario and Nova Scotia, Canada, August 9. GENERATION EXPERIMENTS. We have carried on generation experiments with this species through two years (1912 and 1913) at La Fayette, Ind., and the fol- lowing notes were made at La Fayette, except as indicated. The same general methods, as well as the cages and rearing shelters, here- tofore used by the writer and described and figured in Technical Series Bulletin No. 25, Part II, of the Bureau of Entomology, have been adopted. The writer here expresses his appreciation of the services rendered by Messrs, C. W. Creel and A. F. Satterthwait, both of the Cereal and Forage Crop Insect Investigations, who attentively cared for the experiments during the absences of the writer in 1912 and 1913, respectively. In 1913 eggs began to hatch on March 31 and from that date until January, 1914, there was obtained, out of doors, a maximum of 19 generations, no sexual forms being produced in the first-born genera- tion series. On the other hand, following down “ the last-born of the last-born”’ generation series, a minimum of 7 generations was obtained, the last generation consisting of males. The last generation, in this case, was really the twelfth generation from the egg, for a break in the first series of last-born generations made it necessary to substi- tute with the last-born of a later generation. Thus we obtained an average of 13 generations for the year. (See Table II.) | j Ones | #2 98 ieee ce eee 9 Av Omir H G9) 8S" [FS Sar Gee eee eer es rales ¢ Av | Ob Peat 28 eaten es See sae mie p Avy 0 8 BS LS ee eter thts ee cane. Tain a ¢ Avy te el Nose Vat <¥ Jal Ue 32S | aes eae aac z Avy ae OREO SP |"06n| Gee eee eran n seks See ag | a! Fa | Oe Lak A Bh 2 Nat Hl bee de age a ee i eo og dy 5 | | CMR Vi ie sal Wel | lanes Sa nee 6z “dy Ey | | | | 01. HO" |SOP| 80 ce ates See Geese xz “adv 3 | | | | QA Dees | GE a (ON esac cine ome 0 oe gy 1g 1dy 5 | | | | Olea Ti apr a OG Rhea etn nc ane oer ae 92 “ady 5 | OBS "6 Pa R22n er gee e Sie sa Racicipee See ez dy LY | | | | | Gea Gre NOLO LS Wien eas oa es ici peerage #Z dy ae | | | | | | | | Ces) SI Lal 63 | Sees aa kee er €z adv ro} | | | | OF PEP NSS) | eo cae mee oe «ee ena ze dy a Arr | | [eo 1 ae | “Oba | SS! 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V.AOC TIE} VINTUTUIM PUL TUNUITXPUL OU, 1 THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. [Pee lescepesloee SO be ef @- peceeyeess 99 patessioe anal se (ence OI 1 Opes eee G9 oa il eee ace ee OS ie POs 99 peeallenedlpe cece (R= Ole | Vo | NOS ee een ees G9 otal aber | Peete Oe Pees Seas 69 Fol Hen eet aeeal/ee ieee eoee me tieee |r Des |) Gee (20a tia [aie | BIOs teen pee one tee Fr oun Ger eal eae al aos eal eal ere (ee aS AR PO Sf CARE ich Se OSE RSE eT oune CE eee al peels oc ae | one ae S| SO) sea Sy ICO le eee eae ci oune GE WIS Sale talc ale ng] Sal een iy aaa Gol 8 20 | Sea eG ye yi oes eee eee TT oun Galak i Sscdlcon eels IE eS ie OW) Pee ke eecee Or oune Ts gs | | ee fee Pe ea (Ve pepe) pat) eee yen Se ee 6 oun Calas Silica loll ee (ed Ti iS 4.0) Slat ep OSG eee ae 8 oun Godlee Sal aloe (ines ae Sa et ee PLUGS | ee ie eae ee Sone 2 ounf Gi reel ea les | eel alae Socal ease TUE (895150) eet RO 8100, ee eee a eee ameeds geuny Ohl reall |e gid cal |e | oleae ioe |e Oe fence Wee |=): eee Ss Seems soe cess goune Be ea eee a eal Sa aa aca ( ace Ce zeal aes eee Ve (as ect eee See eee p ouny (as eens SG ares eee [ese peo" Reco Tis i | (ise eee 0G) Os | es es ee ees opecee ¢ oun (| 5 al [aoe |= ea [ee Te ae eller OS LOE, eee Peo eer croc’: g oun ie ee ee met me | meee | Ors |p| SF = S| EGON S085 ee ae eee eee Toeune | ren ROK all area) cereale ; : OF IGG sleesg|8C0n OSs cc ees ete mene Te Aew [ee |a0 eal ites: Or S| Zines RS oe ese al Os LR al cans geen ae cee 08 Av | 88 | Outs Saas lene 5 : i fais fuga Pye Seo A ONS) Shs IGG a sO gal hCG el CR. ai os et rare 6¢ Av | Oey alles lies sali ; ~ al seaeiliges allah 28 ao ea PSEA OPN Bee |CO se | 26 P G8. ce es ite ascent 86 Av Oeale es Secor ol, ca Essa tls nc | celles |e eae [eppe|P a TNO eS 3G MRO; 212s 2G) ae ce ree eae 1g Avy a ete fee ale eae eae esate rere eer ferry genie enero SS SIEO: SF Peale O is Snr (AGO) fees eee eee 9% Av Oia Sie | aac asl pers aa i (eae eine ese Se reece Bee) Ove) Pe MSY Ost CORA HA cae eee ea ge SEW | (OO Tes a fags ara fear fees geet Fever gad ees vee See ets [oo Be eel OS Po Pie |) ize] OR, Pesce cos somos mecnesc es re ACN ae Cl Pega fae se ae ela fe ope eee || eee cee oee||rooe Bi AO fen eis > Gs Reo os cee Seceet eer &@ Av ra ea | Cpa] PESS PET [OS SEPP SIRS SPSS al coat eg ae laa SieeON | Tee I a\eC3| (C8 a5 see aes ree Ze Av ieee SEs at) (Ome RE ORCS) ie eee aaa oreens 1g Av etl OF sd al Ge S08 | 025 Soe es 0¢ Ae 5 | O55 GOSS |e Claire 61 AV OF |cHe|, Cies SWAIN OU ieseokeceets cea ean ST Av DE be fae |) Oe Oe FS e ose toss s eee LT AeW (I ta ee a eh (57 | ey eee RE ene Socks gt AeW Mes POL es Zo |) | JAcF | eee Saree noe eS GT ACW O3) S325, SMOG gle GR | eae res aes PI AC Ors] SLs Ree Re Se C8 eaeee ce cones Serene eT Av MPA ASABE |G (OL [ane cee ae eos eae ee zr Av OS ea cae | hee eee eS 11 Avy O23), gba 00) |e ee eee iaene cient or Ae 0.7], 9] :G. Gila eee ayer aeeceuner tea ae 6 AeW | QS: 1G 3126" | Ls ae ce ee 8 Ae Cl pe] AO Us Or Nye COO si eee seen ca aiaeaaies ood ke 6 oa g o & acs a: aa Bag oO @ ocooooceocse o Ore i coocococe[e MAMAMMOMMHOO So ~ a ae ‘ ‘ a _ I Ler) So oD Oo S © xh ore : . ~ bm = tm | Ler) 6g | : oy fabenoed Web fname (RW 0 We Yd fer fp amend ea [ spl es) || Sak Se ORR ae “**9 Ang : ar jinoes Oe) c € 0 ial Nata ae ie hear et bat oJ) SOARS s Soe WS ae es aes “"-¢ A[ne poleo lone sorefereciees "| ON S/S 1 Ole || aes lies ie a BECO es eee ema “vot Aine repress restescatesselsoe sie set gle. | oil Ge le aee lel aa lees (RE /n EOD Hiei since semana aeaciaeas ~7¢ Ayng ‘ Bay seaecel Nita atau he Se)/ 48) 9 (6 Ce ea Tie a ULAR O6 4 eas $i. ee an ee “"g Arne ieee aaa Pale eee wem eee I ca |e al OC 3) SURO Rasa caee ge ores ae oes “T Ane oe fences (era aged eee a Oi Oe kOe shelamas 71005] Ody Tapa ee eee oe eae og oun ° 1 r) xt é its) ro) : i ‘ ' A : 5 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 30 | qo |g feccfeccfece}ereefeee veee|eeeeleee See ial (esa (abel UX S0l i: is WL a int SUSIGiO is pik wee ea ee sz oun | 0 se]--2-]e---]----]---- 2 : : g SOWOE 3s e 2 Ol | SOF ohare | Pans 2a 6 | cate ae reeeenene aiare Z¢@ ount 0 [roc Se re Em ; S251 Sat, Gar ts ME Qin {Oe |) siamese ee anal O74 OSs] fee leet 9g oune 9 - o-[----]----]e--- 2a|pae : : POETS Urals Gs NE Oe IOs wali seoucs ll Sac CG 2s eal RE Sees | ace meena ne cz oun T SS ee ee ee eee - Solna Sat ial ear Ves (AC IPP Fd (ak Stee Joa Wel eee [eee | (OD) he) Peters sce sons Sone rg uns Tele lac ee ele aleeeel ee : mar sos ene ea Ae els G's Ge ol Ta INO iegiem eaeteral| SOM | MG Zee: haere cara ececemea 6G eune role: |e | aaa eee eter ame Shr oa pac pean Sraljoon "1g lg. [Gi lror hl. ese ele cea con RPS meee are eee ree zz oun P| eS os lee | ee ee netallee soe |} Soar | Kecckes | ices ee 0 id Be [Opa hagae a See ROLE WAG GE ieesehcres 0-7-0 sacs a ees 1Z oun a Gate aoe sites ff cin a} = oini|(=e 2 sas ee |ctayie] occa ee ark RC atc (ae Fac Ae faced (Yin fan foe cI LES) Te al | “Se SOS ae 22 ee 0g sung HT oT o| S161 vt} SS] Zl ey A) ol BO OS] OD log Filon tnlloe Blog wloe bgloq Kop ] log ES} Oyo OK BY Sle Slotlogieflobnl Elecleble8 1D Dw) OOO HID FIO o/D ale © Hypa Pile Ela Cilotee lees Bolg 2/8 S1SS/8 3/8 sli S aS aS sladle e/ eel a/s ke Sle ele rig als ele ale Basle sissies gelevieslaa) | & A4/SBISB/SS/SEISGP SR /4S/40 SEISRIS SIS SS BIS SSB Sales SSla dere hPlaecdisBisPis atch) oo Bl Sn I 5 Sels |S |SPISES |BaloFis |S Beis ols aes eolsolSelasi(spiSelo (5 SPISsis 15 |sPis |stipe = S'B| Bog | Boa) Pog|Bog/Pog|” @/P og) Pog /Pog!” SIS B/S BIS BIS S/S EIS S/S 8 | Po) | Pog /P og Bog |Paa Be Paha Plea) & B | § “oie a . _ iris: Pe} 8] 8] 8] 6] 8] 8] &] Bl] 6) s/PersPeirsPePsPs) GPa] 6) 6) 8] 8) F) Bl) BR] eo | ‘solos Wo eI9ueEg WO *Sop1OS WOT}VIOWES WIOC-4SIT pects T ty q-4se'T t Ty Q-4SIT OL -lodu19a, *ponuryu0)—'puy ‘ayaling wT ‘ST6L ‘1S younpy | ‘pha wouf sid wnydisosnpy fo sarvias worniauab 9sp] PUY IS4— ]] ATAVL, 31 "UI Jo o1ed q *SsuULONpOIdeL G1OFEq Ped t Bleles ears ee es 6% “sny oCoocoonnNn (<>) PD 69 6 HH 1919 ad 1d oD OD ‘ . FORAGE CROPS. 2 Oo of is) ° . ° ° Wasa } RELATION TO SOS MAOHN oot tHRHOAN 0 pater”: | am aoys | eeceb | eerie lacs g | | eamemmtat | trata os | Ieee | ces Se a (6) Tee ely iil Be ee rane tee ee eal eal cal alle oll alto Seernece Sane Gulbediee: oat ae ee peal eee br ae Sl Aho: See nt Dee eee Se ee ele OS eS sie cok, alee (esr eas eae SO Te Aine s 4 “7708 Aine ~- 76% Aqne §¢ Aju Se epee eae anc Pease “2@ Aine THE PHA APHIS WITH torte esses esse esses “770% Aine OSE OLB AINE SOCDCOCCOCOOCOCOOMMOATN G) 0 el Gee ee eee eer ee p Wee ccea lated sneer uineoaltes 3 es es sil i feces ee ieeciage ps SRE ee al Wee |iectoad | sakes eae es | eee (dO) | ae sas iesed ieee eee abel eeedieea ieee ioe ieee ee inal Oka | Os fea 0 . 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Lee] ar nee Peace] eg as Ws bees be es bee Dee . | eal 5 onset ka ea |e | al 0 |F% 2 seer eee a erie aha aa =a ells pa E22 5azlsdedle dle | ea 2 4\8 He S\eBledle lek Bleciezles| & SolPolSbisbissigsigs Ble Sle Bled 13 a3 Bg oa ee s ee Pe ee eee Peer pe re ae Bee a2 el gl aos i Bae| S| Bap| Bog) Bom) Bes |g|* B [Bog 2 rere Bee eee peer Pore deel m BPE] 8 8] 8] 8] 8 (eC REE GUE eee a): | BIR) eR] Bi) g 5 c(elBe|Pe\Se(felb=) S[e|"3|° 3)" real Ealealesr ele |e B|/P SP S|PS|PSIPEPS (58 |P|Pg[Pq|Pa|Pa a |Pa|Pa lea” & : Solos WOT} vsOUes UIOd-|se'T eee ae = ns : : | = NESE 1 *Sorlos WOT}V1OUeS UIOC-1SIL IT Bat OINYV -1odu19 J, 33 THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 8 = messssescsoseeseseeseseesesseeeesee9ee° SOMAMNANCONRANNANNOOCOCCCCOCOCOoOoCOCOoOSCoCoSsoSoecsooosoooo ooo “WIIG 40 eV ooococooc*oeooococo°c”deo IONCOCCHMAAHOCOOOCCO 4 a AAOOnNTS moOoooooooooMMINS SOSCOCSCPCOPOMMDHANTHMOINORDHOCONNTAMHACOHMOHnMNONNST MLIOA HHOOM MMA HAHNMNAHHOnriOOOCOOOCONCCOOCCCCOoOOCCOoOCOCOUcCLDCMOCOCOCO Ooo OD o9 O19 *SoTCUL POSUT AA 1 Ea pice Se aaa ar Meares el Ge ““CT “AON “cPT “AON ee EER CES eT “TT “AON aaa tre Tine Bc Saas ea a eee “"G AON SLi pac ieken pao “*"T “AON "7718400 “*708 100 "7762 100 Dy ARS ES ae "77 78% "490 COE oe P23 NO) “7793 "200 iil eee “779100 Ue ee “*"#3 100 co co . , , . . ‘ . 1 1 ‘ ' 1 1 1 ‘ 1 ‘ . “77ST 400 “7741900 g1 “200 “7721400 “7711300 OT “300 [St Ce eee eee “776100 SEBO) “1°20 “F300 “72"100 98034°—Bull. 276—15——5 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 34 0 |0\ © poate 0 |0 |0 ON cOr 0 010 |0 0 10 10 a if 0 | VA Oule Wee 0 0 pis 0 oy ae OU eNO 0 ak ‘ 0 Stledo OP ite Nh @ Oz Io {|° q 1e4/0 0 Oe 0 ;0 Osho | 0 0 10) ir ins 9 Pe Pee ese) (eee) eines etoieey [onto Ilona! 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'=\aor= aie 8 1913 PANDY NS (Bee aieceysinpaleoeg claim iajaiere PADI MU ce atiaiclae s -- = 11 ASD I 2 abate ee tac ce PASTA certiatals wiscicse's!s sc 15 Marri lois sf cae eitaaere io PND 23 belo cnw cele ocie 24 1 Winged female; all others wingless. 2 Records by Gibson at Nashville, Tenn., in 1913. 3’ Hatched from egg. THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 45 It will be observed that only one record of a winged female was noted, and this individual required a noticeably longer time to reach maturity than did the wingless forms observed at the same time. This has been our observation time and again, although no definite records were kept. AGE AT WHICH FEMALES BEGIN REPRODUCING. In 1912 the age at which females began giving birth to young varied from 6 to 35 days, with an average of 10.3 days, from 38 records covering the months from May 15 to December. (Table V.) S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 216, U. 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The pea aphis is attacked by several internal parasites. Aphides thus at- tacked are inactive and finally die, becoming brown in color, and the adult parasite makes its exit from the dead aphis by cutting a circular hole in the dried skin. The species hitherto reported attacking this aphidid are Aphidius fletcheri Ashm. MS., A. washingtonensis Ashm., Triorys (Praon) cerasaphis Fitch, and Megorismus fletcherr Cwld. In the spring of 1915 Mr. W. B. Hall of this bureau reared Aphidius rosae Hal. and Praon simulans Prov. of this species collected at Wakeman, Ohio. METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL CONTROL. Via. 17.—Larva of the syrphid fly Adlograpta odliqua, which preys upon Macrosiphum pisi: Enlarged. (Original.) In the clover field the pea aphis is ordinarily held in check by its natural enemies. If it is apparent that this aphis is becoming un- 1 Since the above was written Dr. E. P. Felt has determined Aphidoletes reared at La Fayette, Ind., in 1915 from larvee attacking Aphis gossypii as A. meridionalis Felt. ‘There is little question but that the species attacking M. visi is identical. . THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 55 duly abundant, the clover should be cut as soon thereafter as possi- ble, since the cutting and drying of the clover will kill most of the insects. Clover which becomes coated with the honeydew of the aphides will not cure properly. Spring pasturing or early cutting back of the clover will check the multiplication of this plant louse. A more brief general discussion of the pea aphis was published by Dr, F. H. Chittenden as Circular No. 43 of the Bureau of Entomology under the title ‘‘The Pea Aphis ( Macrosiphum jisi Kalt.),”’ February 25, 1909, pages 1-10. This publication is now out of print, but can be consulted in most agricultural college libraries, as well as public libraries, and in private ones. ] G : q COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 9) height of the platform and should extend through these platforms so as to cut them off into divisions corresponding to the compartments in the warehouse. | Roof.—The roof should be of light mill construction, with a mini- mum thickness of 2 inches splined er tongued and grooved, supported by timbers single thick (not less than 6 by 8 inches) and spaced 8 or 10 feet apart. One end of the timber should rest on brick ledges or division walls, corbeled out to form suitable supports. The posts should be not less than 8 by 8 inches, and all corners of timbers and posts should be chamfered. Monitors, skylights, and roof Jan- terns should not be allowed unless they are made of wired glass, properly set in metal frames. The roof should be covered with eravel or approved composition. — 220-0" dee /20-O— Fic. 4.—Cotton w... 2---2---2-552-45- 50 14. No watchman and approved watch clock...-__................-.-----.- 50 15. Storage of lime or oils or use of any portion of building for stabling pur- POSES OT LOLp CAMPING so 4o:5 2... . eye ie eS eu eae ve B60) 16. Accumulation of loose cotton on floors or in other than closed bins. ..... 1.00 Deduction for chemical fire engines will be made as outlined in Standard I. _ 98036°—Bull. 277—15 3 18 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ADAPTATION OF STANDARD IV. The open-court warehouse has very much the same use as Standard III. This warehouse is readily adaptable for use as a large public storage plant. This is especially true where the house occupies a full block. Where available land is in a narrow strip, it is frequently necessary to use Standard III, but in most cases where the warehouse has a storage capacity of not less than 10,000 or 15,000 bales it is advisable to use the open-court type. STANDARD V.—STANDARD FOR HOLLOW-SQUARE OR OPEN-COURT WAREHOUSE OF FIRE-RESISTIVE CONSTRUCTION. Construction of building.—This standard requires that the building should be constructed of reinforced concrete or standard brick through- out.. The building should be constructed of an approved mixture of concrete (where concrete is used), properly reinforced with steel. Concrete blocks (whole or hollow) will not be considered reinforced. The area of any compartment should not exceed 2,950 square feet (59 by 50 feet) and the area of any compress compartment should not exceed 5,644 square feet (83 by 68 feet). (See fig. 5 for approved diagram). The height of any storage compartment should not exceed 13 feet 8 inches at the lower side or 16 feet 8 inches at the higher side. - Walls, doors, etc-—The outside walls should be at least 9 inches thick if concrete, or 13 inches thick if brick. Division walls should be 4 inches thicker than required for outside walls. The wall around the compress tower above the main roof should be 6 inches thick and should be constructed of reinforced concrete. All walls should have parapets 3 feet above the roofs of the same thickness as the wall. The parapets should be parallel with the contour of the roof and properly coped if built of brick. The flcors should be of noncom- bustible material, with no air space undezn>-th. To meet the stand- ard, the building should have a concret> ‘ inches thick, covered with approved composition roofing, A‘i columns, girders, and cross girders supporting the roof shomc 32 ci reintcreed concrete. No windows should be allowed except 1 tho ofice and compress tower. Doors should be allowed only in outside e2d court walls, and these should be fully standard in all respects. “ach storage compartment should have one or more standard fireproof doors, not more than 50 feet apart, opening outward. On the court side of the walls the doors must be placed before cach tier of cotton. The court should be at least 200 feet wide, and no combustible material of any kind should be permitted in the court. Arrangement, ete.—Not over 600 bales should be stored in any one compartment. The cotton bale should be laid flat on the side, and piled not to exceed 5 bales high. . The sizes listed above will allow the storage of 600 standard bales, five tiers high, 120 bales to wr a COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 19 the tier. Loose cotton should not be allowed to accumulate, but should be picked up before closing the compress and placed in an 50% 59° : { | 2070 fG Yprryyyy y | mH YYy Z 4 Y Uy, Y Q | Fosts Ox 6 Concrefe Floor “SECTION - A.B. Z ELEVATION _ approved loose room with the samples. The records also should be kept a safe distance from the storage compartments. Cotton left in the court over night should not be piled or headed, and should be 20 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. covered entirely with tarpaulins, properly battened down to prevent the wind from blowing them off the cotton. A clear space of 30 feet should be maintained between any cotton in the court and also in front of the compartments. . =o $2. 00 $2. 25 $2. 50 $2.75 Add for excess capacity as follows: Oivero,000;and not exceedinei6, 000 bales. 2 eseeeeeenen 2 ete ee eee $0. 10 Over 6,000 and. not exceeding 7,000 bales............... fs Save Ned Meeupee: Brecah tice as) Over 7/000 and not exceeding,8,000. bales. . eens: - 22. be 5 a 550) Overs000/and not exceeding 10000 bales Seaauemeee oS ee 1. 00 Over 110:000)and mot exceeding 15,000 balesSeaaREe es =) S202 eee ee, 2.00 Overalls O00 bales si 2295. oe eee se oe S.-i ee Sees Tee We care re 3. 00 Add for deficiencies as follows: 1. Fire protection, none or not standard...-.--.2.......... AMR eek ve $0. 25 2. Less than 6 casks and 12 pails of water for each 1,000 bales capacity.......- 50 3. No watchman with approved watch clock@@yaygee =. 222 . 50 4. Storage of lime or oils or use of any portion of premises for stabling purposes OLMOTAMCATMD ING 2 eaenee...... . . 2....... J So See ee le. oi od 2 eae) 3. For second story (no charge for office occupancy above first story). ......- 10 4) beating by stovessumsately arranged. 2- 2 se) s2-nsc-- 6-2 -. - oe . 25 5. Lights, kerosene oil, acetylene, or gas, with swinging brackets............ 10 6. Steam hoisting engine with boiler, or wood cutting on pier.......-.-.---.-- 25 7, Ateboilerjstack is without spark arrestere§sas-----22----...:---). eee 25 Switce and ceneralvcondation : ......: . sapere. 2 ee $0. 05 to . 25 9. No standard private fire protection (two water supplies required). ......-- . 25 10:“Casks*ofwaterand.firespails, none. 4:-eeeeess------------+- 2 . 10 Ji: Watchman and approved watch clock; momnet=...-.....:....._) 223g Bos Make deductions as follows: i: “Hor amcovered wharteesee=:. 2: ... See. Sk 50 2. If covered pier of steel-frame construction throughout.................--- 125 3. For pier built all on land or filled in underneath, deduct for contents rate. . 10 4. For fire-boat protection, according to efficiency.................--- $0. 05 to . 25 5. For piers having all reinforced concrete foundations and piling (on piers only; mo} deductionsorcontents) .... saeeeeeees =2- -). .-. 2 25 Deduct for chemical fire engines the same as in Standard I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS RELATING TO COTTON STORAGE AND FIRE INSURANCE. CLASSIFICATION OF CITIES AND TOWNS. For convenience in quoting insurance rates, cities and towns are divided into four classes: First-class city.—This class requires that the city have an efficient, fully paid fire department, with standard equipment throughout, COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 29 and waterworks that will insure an ample supply of water under the proper pressure at all times. The streets must be paved and standard in width, an efficient police force must be maimtained, and the city must have proper ordinances for assuring caution in regard to fire. It is also necessary for a first-class city to have well-defined fire limits. Second-class city —The requirements for a second-class city are very much the same as for the first-class, except that the fire company may be only partly paid, but it must be in charge of a competent chief. The streets need not be paved, and the requirements in regard to equipment ars not so rigid as in class 1. Third-class towns.—In this class the fire company is voluntary, but must be under a competent chief. This voluntary fire company must be provided with adequate hose wagons or hose reels and a sufficient quantity of standard 24-inch cotton hose. The town must have standard waterworks and a fire alarm centrally located. Fourth-class towns.—This class includes towns and villages having no approved waterworks or fire department. INSURANCE RATES. Explanation.—In discussing insurance rates every effort has been made to give authentic information. The data which have been used are taken from the rates quoted by the Southeastern Underwriters’ Association. In many instances the exact language employed in “Rates, rules, and forms’ has been used. After this material was prepared it was submitted to experienced insurance men. It is con- fidently believed that every statement made is correct, but at the same time no responsibility is assumed for the correctness of the rates quoted in this bulletin. _ Segregation.—In controlling or preventing fires one of the funda- mental principles is segregation. This is accomplished in various ways. One way is to erect small buildings a sufficient distance from each other or from other buildings, so that if one house be com- pletely burned none of the others will be affected by the fire. When larger buildings are erected, division or fire walls divide the space into compartments. A fire in one compartment may destroy all of the contents and the combustible portion of the building without affecting other adjoming compartments. This plan of segregation is very important in the case of cotton, for it is of such an inflammable nature that it produces a flash fire. This is the case particularly with cotton in the form in which it is ordinarily stored. It is not properly wrapped at first, and, after it has undergone frequent samplings it reaches the warehouse in a very ragged condition. Much of the lint is not covered at all, and this loose lint is sometimes hanging from the bale. These methods leave 30 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the bale in such a condition that a spark will sometimes start a blaze which will flash over a loose lot of cotton in a very short time. When hundreds of bales are stored in one compartment this fire will flash from one bale to the other and frequently will extend over a lot of a thousand bales in a very few minutes. It can be seen readily that cotton stored in large quantities in a single compartment would be subject to a very costly fire, but a large warehouse might be divided into several smaller compartments and so avoid an extensive fire. This is the principle on which the insurance companies base their specifications. Automatic sprinklers.—The automatic sprinkler also has proved to be of very decided advantage in protecting cotton warehouses from fire damage. By means of automatic sprinklers a fire automatically releases the water which is to isolate it. A detailed investigation of 90 fires in cotton warehouses under sprinklers shows that the average number of heads opening was 13.5 per cent, while in 52 per cent of the cases less than 10 heads opened. Later in this bulletin a brief description of a modern sprinkler system is given, which will show just how this desirable end is accomplished. A study of fires in cotton warehouses which are protected by auto- matic sprinklers shows that out of a total of 159 fires, 69, or 43.4 per cent, were entirely extinguished by the sprinklers, and 74, or 46.5 per cent, were successfully held in check, making a total satisfactory sprinkler record of 143 fires, or 89.9 per cent. Of the 16 fires which were classed as unsatisfactory, in 8 cases the water was shut off from the sprinklers; in 2 cases the water supply was defective; 1 fire was due to faulty building construction; and 3 to obstruction to distri- bution. Of all of these cases, 13 were really not attributable to the standard sprinkler equipment in the standard warehouses, and in only 1 case was it found that the hazard of occupancy was too severe for the average sprinkler system. LOCATION OF A WAREHOUSE. It is very important to have a cotton warehouse conveniently located on a sidetrack. This saves drayage, which is a considerable item when the business is large. However, the warehouse should not be within 100 feet of the main line of a railroad or a sidetrack which extends beyond the building, for if it is so located the insurance rate will be increased. This is avoided by having the warehouse at or near the end of the sidetrack. : Many companies have made the mistake of deliberately locating the warehouse away from the business section. This is a serious mistake, for several reasons: First, there is the cost of drayage. In the second place, persons who are not directly interested in such a warehouse will patronize an establishment nearer the business center. COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. ol In many cases warehouses belonging to farmers’ organizations have been located in the suburbs, or even in the country. It frequently happens that the cotton buyers of the town would use this space if it had been located properly, but they find it impossible to dray their cotton to the edge of town for storage, with the prospect of hauling it back to the station when it is sold. This causes the failure of many promising farmers’ organizations. ‘PLATFORMS. It is desirable to provide ample platform space at every ware- house. There should be a convenient place for unloading cotton from wagons, and, where cotton is shipped in, provision should be made for unloading it from cars. It is also necessary to have ample room for trucking when cars are being loaded or unloaded. In many markets cotton is sold by the farmers on public platforms near the warehouses: In such cases platforms should be of adequate proportions and so located that the cotton may be conveniently trucked to the warehouse or to the railroad platforms for loading. The mistake is made frequently of buildmg platforms which are entirely too narrow next to the railroad. When different lots of cotton are being arranged for storage or for shipment, it is very desirable to have sufficient space to accommodate several hundred bales in addition to room for trucking. There are times during emergencies when such space can be used to advantage for temporary storage. In figure 12, page 32, is shown a view of a well-arranged warehouse conforming to Standard I. It will be seen that there is ample plat- form space on either side and that the warehouse isnot exposed by otber buildings. Fully equipped hose houses are placed at opposite ends of the compartments. This view also shows the proper method of storing cotton, the bales being placed on end only one bale high, and a clear passage is maintained from one end of the compartment to the other. The view also shows in a very general way an auto- matic sprinkler system. In this case the tank is placed on the extended walls of the building, which arrangement is economical in that it saves in the cost of constructing a tower for the tank, but it is not altogether as satisfactory as a separate steel tower. SALVAGE. Another important consideration is the salvage. While loose cotton burns very rapidly, it frequently requires several days for a bale to. damage seriously. In many fires the outside of the bales is burnt and damaged to a considerable extent, but where ample pro- vision is made for removing the cotton from the burning building, it is frequently possible to save at least 50 per cent of the original value. It is for this reason that’ all standards require many doors | 32 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. so that the cotton may be removed rapidly during the fire. For the same reason a risk takes a much higher rate when the warehouse is surrounded by a barbed-wire fence or when there are any other obstructions that might hinder the prompt removal of the cotton. HEIGHT OF WALLS. In all of the foregoing types the thickness of wall mentioned has been for buildings one story high. The standards for fire walls for Fic. 12.—Standard cotton warehouse fully protected, showing the proper method of storing. buildings of different heights are given below. In the table the thickness refers to the outside walls. In all cases the division walls between the storage compartments should be 4 inches thicker than outside walls. Standard fire walls. Thickness of outside walls, in inches. Height of building. ay ] First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth story. story. story. story. story. story. | [ie OnOSlObyer seen ee eee = 139) Seema. <= Noa ee S| pee Ee as oc [nee ae ee TW G/SUOLIES Hee eee ee ee nn ee he ae. ! 17 Ss [es Soe 320... 23] ae Es. Reem: THYEGStOLIeS aes eee) oe one eee a: - - | 17 17 13')}:. eee Bees > a OUr StOLIES 22. Soe ee oe eee Se mens | 22 17 17 13 2 pe ee eae Wiv.e SHODICSS Soe as. aoe oe Seem tae 3a 22 22 17 17 13! Soe SEX SUOGICS seca eee eee eae am 26 22 22 17 17 13 FLOORS. All of the standards recommended by the insurance companies require that floors be of concrete, dirt, shell, or other incombustible material. Many warehousemen object to any of these floors for the reason that when cotton is stored on such floors for any length of time ‘country damage” usually occurs. This is undoubtedly true COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 88 in the case of dirt floors unless drainage is unusually good. Many of the best warehouses, however, have dirt floors. If the drainage is good, the cotton will not be damaged when stored temporarily. When it is to be stored for any length of time, it should be placed on timbers that will keep it well off the ground. Most warehouses keep a supply of skids or stringers, 6 by 8 inches or 4 by 6 inches. These timbers keep the cotton well off the ground, and there is no danger from damage from too much moisture. The great advantage of the dirt floor is the saving in cost of building and insurance. The dirt floor does not require such high walls as are required where a plank or concrete floor is used, and the cost of a standard floor such as cement or brick is very high. The imsurance rate is 25 cents higher on plank floors. Concrete.—There is a wide difference in opmion among ware- housemen on the advisability of using concrete as a floor. In the first place, there is the very high cost. In the second place, it is contended that cotton will be damaged when stored in contact with such a floor. Others are highly in favor of using it and do not think that the cotton damages to any appreciable extent. It seems safe, however, to state that there is some danger unless there is perfect underdrainage. If a suitable space under the floor is built up with coarse, clean sand, as required by the standards, and a proper outlet is maintained for any water, it seems that damage from this source is almost negligible. If, however, the drainage is not sufficient, there will certainly be some damage. This is especially true if the cotton is too damp when stored. It is also claimed that cotton will lose weight when in contact with a concrete floor during excessively dry seasons. Paving blocks.—Some warehousemen are now advocating the use of wooden paving blocks for flooring. This material is not included in the present standards of the underwriters’ associations, but there seems to be no good reason why it should not be classed as fully standard. A floor made of this material would last indefinitely, and there would be apparently no danger of damage from excessive moisture nor loss from undue drying. The suggestion is certainly worth consideration by any who are preparing to build. The cost, however, would be rather high. If for any reason a standard floor is not built, the owner should be very careful to have a good, substantial wooden floor. In the first place, substantial pillars of brick or other strong material should be used, and they should be placed often enough to make a strong foun- dation for the floor. Sleepers should be of the best material, not less than 6 by 8 inches in diameter. The flooring should be not less than 2 inches in thickness and should be splined or tongued and 34 BULLETIN 277, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. grooved. To get the best insurance rate, the space from the floor to the ground should be filled in with some noncombustible material. Tf this is not done it is essential that there should be no openings from this space to the outside of the building. AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS. While it is not possible to give specifications for a system of auto- matic sprinklers, the installation of such systems in ali cotton ware- houses is urged. To do so means additional cost, but the saving in insurance will more than offset this cost of installation. The ex- penditure is fully justified by the protection given the cotton, which results in saving in the cost of imsurance. Numerous warehouses have been found where the insurance rate has been reduced from $1.50 per hundred dollars to 30 cents. Many companies are now sell- ing and installing these systems. Before anyone purchases he should have detailed specifications prepared, and these should be submitted to the underwriters having jurisdiction. The importance of this can hardly be overestimated. An owner of a warehouse recently had a sprinkler system installed in his warehouse, expecting to get the usual reduction in insurance rate. However, it developed that the capacity of his tank was only 3,000 gallons, while the requirements called for a minimum capacity of 25,000 gallons. History.—In connection with the discussion of the automatic sprinkler as a means of controlling fires, it 1s interesting to note the development of this system. Formerly there were many fires in cot- ton mills, especially m picker rooms, in which department much loose cotton is handled. Disastrous fires frequently start in the picker itself. This machine has spikes on a cylinder which tear or loosen the cotton. When one of these spikes becomes slightly bent, it may touch another spike on the machine, and the resulting spark usually starts a fire. Fora long time there was no protection against such fires except the casks of water and pails. Finally it became cus- tomary to provide this room with a crude sprinkler system. This consisted of numerous perforated pipes throughout the room. These pipes were connected with a supply of water. A valve on the out- side of the building was designed to turn the water into the perfo- rated pipes. Under this arrangement when a fire started some em- ployee went out to the valve and turned on the water. This appa- ratus was a great improvement over the old condition, but it was weak in several respects. In the first place, the water was not turned on until some one went from the scene of the fire and opened the valve. Another very serious objection was that the water was applied to all portions of the room. This damaged the building, machinery, and cotton in places where it was not necessary, besides exhausting the water supply unnecessarily. COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 35 Description of a modern automatic sprinkler system.—The direct out- erowth of this crude arrangement was the present automatic sprinkler system. This system consists of a tank or other means of supplying water. Ordinarily it is a large gravity tank and has direct connec- tion with at least one city main. Pipes connecting with this main are in all portions of the building. The water is distributed by sprinkler heads. These heads are so arranged that when they are heated to a certain degree they open and send out a considerable stream or spray of water Under good pressure one head will dis- charge some 40 or 50 gallons of water per minute. This system has two very important advantages over the earlier form. The water is liberated automatically—that is, when a fire starts the heat opens the heads and the water is turned on without the attention of any person. A second advantage is that only those heads near the fire are opened. This prevents damage to wares in other portions of the compartment and also conserves the water.except for the par- ticular space where the fire is burning. The automatic sprinkler system in its latest development consists of a tank or other water supply of ample capacity—depending upon the amount of space protected by the system—proper connections with the city mains or other sources of water, sprinkler heads distri- buted over the building with the necessary water supply pipes, and an alarm which is set off automatically when a fire starts. If a dry-pipe system is used, in order to prevent freezing of the water in the pipe, the system requires draining after a fire, and the dry-pipe valve is then reset. The water pressure at the heads should be at least 15 pounds, which makes it necessary for the tank to be at least 30 feet above the highest head. A dry valve is not always used, except where there is danger that water will freeze in the pipes, and thus render the system worthless at a time when it might be needed. When it is possible, the system should have at least a 6-inch con- nection with the city main. The sprinkler heads should be distrib- uted over the building in such a way that one head would cover a space of 65 to 90 square feet, depending upon the arrangement and construction of the building. These heads should be placed near the ceiling. If a fire occurs near the floor, the heat rises immediately, and the heads directly over the fire are opened automatically. It requires 155° to 165° F. to melt the solder and automatically release the water. A fully protected warehouse which conforms in every respect to the requirements of the underwriters’ association is shown in figure 13. When cotton is valued at 10 cents per pound, or $50 per bale, it is possible to insure it in this warehouse at the rate of 5 cents per bale per annum. ‘This illustrates forcibly the advantage to be gained by conforming to the underwriters’ standards and installing approved 36 BULLETIN 277, U: S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. automatic sprinkler equipment, which effects a great saving in the cost of Insurance. FENCES AROUND WAREHOUSES AND COTTON YARDS. It is very important that cotton stored in open sheds or yards should be fenced in. Such a fence should be made of good boards, securely nailed to railings, which are in turn fastened to strong posts. In other words, it should be a good, close, substantial board fence at least 6 feet in height. These fences prevent prowling, the careless throwing of cigarette stubs, and various other practices that fre- quently prove costly. It is usually possible to reduce insurance rates materially by taking this precaution. While it is not at all Fia. 13.—A standard two-story cotton warehouse. essential, it would be well for such a fence to be erected around all warehouses, together with the adjacent yards that are used for handling cotton. A wire fence should never be placed around yards or sheds, for i interferes with handling cotton during a fire, and consequently increases insurance rates. FINANCIAL CONNECTION. When the construction of a warehouse is being contemplated, it is well to take into consideration the financial assistance that probably will be extended by the banks to those who store cotton. It is fre- quently the case that owners store cotton primarily for the purpose of obtaining money for use until the conditions of the market are improved. If it were possible to obtain money on the best terms, much cotton would be stored which at present is allowed to damage and remain unprotected from fire and theft. Many companies get COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. OM comparatively little business and eventually fail because the banks are not willing to advance money on cotton stored with them. This should certainly be taken into consideration when preparing to build a warehouse. If satisfactory financial connections can not be arranged, the chances are that the undertaking will prove a disap- pointment and the promoters will necessarily lose by making such an investment. COOPERATION OF FARMERS. Other investigations ' have shown conclusively that most of the small warehouses located near the poimts of production do not pay for the operating expenses and deterioration of the property. For this reason very few companies in the small towns are inclined to operate warehouses that give adequate service. If the farmers in such a community wish to be assured of storage service at all times, they should form cooperative associations and build their own stor- age houses. In most cases such associations would not be expected to pay any dividends, but the farmers would be sure that they would have available storage space at all times, and in this way they would be independent of factors, merchants, and others who now control most of the storage space. If the farmers in such communities would go further and organize selling associations, it would be pos- sible to employ an experienced cotton man who would be able to market the cotton more profitably than is now done. The cotton mills are saving considerable sums of money by cooperation in insur- ance. The mutual companies insure cotton belonging to mills for much less than it is necessary to pay when cotton is stored in a public warehouse. There is no reason why farmers should not save by cooperating in building and insuring their own cotton ware- houses. CONCLUSION. An adequate system of storage houses is one of the most impera- tive needs of the South. Such an improvement would bring about an annual saving of millions of dollars from what is usually called “country damage.” This change would also eventually bring about many reforms in the present method of marketing cotton. In addi- tion to cotton, the South annually handles products worth hundreds of millions of dollars that would be stored if it were possible to do so under favorable conditions. There is also a great demand for storage space for merchandise and various manufactured products, such as fertilizers and farm machinery. In concluding this discussion of the construction of warehouses, it is urged again that it is of the greatest importance that warehouses 1 Nixon, Robert L. Cotton Warehouses: Storage Facilities now Available in the South. Bulletin 216, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1915. 38 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. conform to the standards of the underwriters’ association. These standards have been worked out very carefully and represent the best thought in protecting cotton from both fire and weather at a minimum cost. Many millions of dollars have been spent unwisely in the construction of warehouses that do not conform to these stand- ards. A thorough survey made by this office shows conclusively that many of these houses cost more to build than they would if they had been made to conform to the recognized standards. Most warehouses, as they are now constructed, are not only subject to unnecessarily high insurance rates, but are usually costher than those conforming to the standards, and the cost of handling cotton stored in them is unnecessarily high. The diagrams in this bulletin should not be treated as plans for building. An attempt has been made to outline some of the essen- tial features of each type. It is very important that a competent architect draw up specifications for any warehouse. While it will be necessary to pay a fee for this service, the plans will save a great deal in the cost of construction and insurance and add much to the value of the storage house by making it possible to handle cotton more economically. It is also important to have warehouses prop- erly located. This is frequently the determining factor between success and failure. Many warehouses erected by cooperative organ- izations and by others have been so located that they are not avail- able to a large majority of the people who frequently wish to store cotton. This has resulted in the failure of many such enterprises. Farmers should form cooperative organizations for building better storage houses where adequate facilities are not available on favor- able terms. OC UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 4; BULLETIN No. 278 ¥% aie WHRS A Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief. Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. October 5, 1915 MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. ' By E. W. Scorr and E. H. Steauer, Lntomological Assistants, Deciduous-Fruit Insect Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Tntroduetionver tere -ccetilene = sete cece ellie. 1 | Pield\experiments 22-2. 225-2. - fe teen ssc 27 IM POMIMO NPS yl N22 eee Leask ae decesa-.es 1 | Summarizedtneviews--o--2 ease ee eceosceeeee 38 HR PELIMOENES yl Olas ctecj\aseie eae ese eee e's - 1 | Conclusions taser sein-ciaae se Cee ec ee eee 42 Experitiornbts; Loud see fess sess 2: 19 |. Keyatortablestenteeseanacc cle eteee Cee ate 43 INTRODUCTION. Numerous experiments with miscellaneous insecticides and spray combinations, including tests of a new and promising arsenical, namely, arsenate of calcium, were conducted in connection with other work at the field station for deciduous-fruit insect investigations, at Benton Harbor, Mich., during the seasons of 1912, 1913, and 1914. Various homemade and proprietary msecticides, alone and in com- bination with other sprays, were tested in the laboratory and in the field. This work was done under the instructions of Dr. A. L. Quaintance, in charge of Deciduous-Fruit Insect Investigations, and much valuable assistance in carrying out the work was rendered by Messrs. J. H. Paine, H. G. Ingerson, and D. M. Hamilton. EXPERIMENTS, 1912. A series of poison-feeding experiments were made to determine the comparative killing effect of various arsenicals and also doubtful stomach poisons on different species of chewing insects. At the be- ginning of the tests 32 different materials were used, but since the 1 See key to the table ofinsecticides on page 43. Note.—This bulletin describes experiments with various chemicals, singly and combined, for the destruction of insect pests. It will be ofinterest to horticulturists in general and apple growers in particular. 98119°—Bull. 278—15——1 2 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. first few experiments showed that many of these were of little value as stomach poisons, their use was discontinued. A few homemade preparations were tested in the course of these experiments. Those used in 1912 were arsenate of iron, arsenate of zine, and arsenite of lime. The methods of preparation of these ma- terials were as follows: Arsenate of iron was prepared by dissolving 4 pounds of sodium- arsenate crystals and 4 pounds of iron sulphate each in 2 gallons of hot water. The iron-sulphate solution was then poured slowly into the sodium-arsenate solution, the solution being stirred vigorously at the same time. Arsenate of iron was used at arate equal to 0.8 pound of sodium arsenate to 50 gallons of water for the ordinary strength. The arsenate of zinc (homemade) was prepared in the same way as arsenate of iron, sodium arsenate and zinc sulphate being used, and the strength being based upon the sodium-arsenate content, the same as for arsenate of iron. Arsenite of lime was prepared by boiling 2 pounds of white arsenic and 2 pounds of sal soda in 14 gallons of water until thoroughly dis- solved, and this was used to slake 4 pounds of stone lime. After slaking, enough water was added to bring the total to 2 gallons. This was used at the rate of 2 pints to 50 gallons of water, which is equivalent to one-fourth pound of white arsenic to 50 gallons of water. LABORATORY TESTS. During the season of 1912 the fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea Drury) was used for all the experiments, since this insect could be readily obtained in large numbers, and proved to be an ideal species for handling in the laboratory. Very young larve, usually 3 or 4 days old, were used in all the tests. The larvee were fed with foliage of the wild black cherry (Prunus serotina), which was found to be a favorite food plant of the fall webworm in Michigan. Twigs having from 20 to 30 leaves each were sprayed by means of a large atomizer of the type in which quart jars are used as a container for the liquid, and the stems of the twigs were placed in small glass jars containing water. After the spray had thoroughly dried, allowing from 6 to 12 hours, 20 insects were placed on the leaves of each twig. A large paper bag — was then placed over the twig and held to the glass by means of a rubber band to prevent the escape of the larve. At each examina- tion the bag was removed and the dead larvee taken out and counted. When all the insects were dead or had pupated, as the case might be, the amount of foliage consumed was measured in square inches. A sheet of celluloid, cross-sectioned to 0.01 of a square inch, was util- ized for this purpose. These measurements were easily taken where effective poisons were used, as the young larve died before very MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 3 much foliage had been consumed. In other cases, where the entire leaf except the midrib and larger veins was consumed, the measure- ment was obtained by measuring an average-sized leaf and substi- tuting it for the leaf which had been destroyed. Carefui attention was given to the condition of the foliage throughout the experiments so as to supply the larve with palatable food at all times. EXPERIMENT I. COMPARISON OF THE KILLING EFFECT OF DOUBTFUL STOMACH POISONS WITH VARIOUS ARSENICALS ON LARVA OF THE FALL WEBWORM. In this experiment the arsenite of zine compounds and other pro- prietary insecticides were used at the strengths recommended by the manufacturers. The homemade arsenical compounds, where sodium arsenate was employed, were used at a rate to equal 0.8 pound sodium-arsenate content to 50 gallons of water, except in the case of arsenate of iron, which was used double strength. Arsenite of lime, homemade, was used at the rate of 2 pints to 50 gallons of water. All other compounds containing arsenic were used at a strength equivalent to 2 pounds of arsenate of lead paste to 50 gallons of water. These calculations were based upon a 15 per cent arsenic-oxid (As,O,) content in arsenate of lead paste. Compounds containing no arsenic were used at the rate of 6 pounds to 50 gallons of water. The larvee used in this test were about 4 days old. The results are given in Table I. BULLETIN 278, U. S. 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Uo Suosiod yonULojs INf{IQnop puUD s)poIUasiD SnowDne fo pala buryjry ay7 fo 88a J, —J ATAV], MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 5 As will be noted, while the triplumbie arsenate of lead was very effective against the larve, it was somewhat slower in its killing effect than the diplumbic and the mixture of diplumbie¢ and triplumbic arsenate of lead. This held true in the other experiments that follow. Of the three commercial arsenates of lead, commercial (1), which consisted of the triplumbic form, required a greater length of time to kill the larve than was required by the other two commercial brands, which consisted mainly of the diplumbic form. Arsenate of iron, both chemically pure and homemade, was used at double strength, owing to indications of slow killing effect in previous tests. At this strength it was somewhat slower than many of the other arsenicals. Like results will be noted in later experiments with this material. The arsenates of zinc were effective and seemed to be safe to use on the foliage. Arsenic sulphid, arsenic tersulphid, arsenic trioxid, arsenite of lime, and the arsenites of zine were effective, but burned the foliage more or less seriously. Mercury bichlorid and zine chlorid, while effective, were very injurious to the foliage. All the other compounds were ineffective. EXPERIMENT II. _ COMPARISON OF THE KILLING EFFECT OF VARIOUS ARSENICALS AND DOUBTFUL STOMACH POISONS COMBINED WITH LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION ON LARVZ OF THE FALL WEB- WORM. In Table II are given the results of using lime-sulphur at the rate of 14 gallons to 50 gallons of spray in combination with all the materials used. Little difference was noted from the use of these combinations of lime-sulphur with the arsenicals. However, in case of the materials which had no effect on the larvae when used alone a marked difference was evident from the addition of lime- sulphur. In all cases the larve were killed, the length of time of killing varying considerably with the material used. The difference no doubt was largely due to the difference in chemical reaction between the material and the lime-sulphur. Lime-sulphur alone killed the 20 larve in 15 days with only 0.73 square inches of foliage consumed. In Table II are shown the results. BULLETIN 278, U. S. 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Uo Lnydjpns-auy YUN paurquod suosiod yoowojs InNf{JQnOp puDd sppoVUasun Snowne Jo qoaffa Buypry ay) fo s7saz,— JT] ATAV, MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 7 EXPERIMENT III. ; COMPARISON OF THE KILLING EFFECT OF VARIOUS ARSENICALS ON LARV OF THE FALL WEBWORM. In this experiment the same arsenicals were used as in Experiment I, all the other materials being omitted. However, since half-grown larve were used the strength of the materials was doubled. The results are shown in Table III. TaBLe III.— Tests of the killing effect of various arsenicals on the fall webworm. Larve half grown. [Experiment started July 24, 1912, Benton Harbor, Mich.; 20 larve in each lot.] Dates of examination and number of larves dying in each lot. Total Num- | Square Pays ih = EG ber | inches Name and dilution. July. August. bor days re-| foliage dead. quired | con- —— to kill. |sumed. 26 | 27 | 28 | 29} 31 | 2 4 1f |) 3 Arsenate of lead, di., 2-55 .-....-.--.--- OF} 0)|. Lae Ron eee eee 20 7 1.22 Arsenate of lead? tri, RA Deen aiciuiaimeicia =e OF} 10) |: 07 aU es iia ees) | ne 20 14 60 Arsenate oflead, di. and tri. , 2-50. SH a ess ers es) i) od! 20 9 43 Arsenate of lead’, triplumbic, com. Tay, A (Se Ry a are Bec 2 LN eres Of 2 | 2) a ale eae 20 14 . 84 Arsenate oflead, com. (2), 4-50.....-.-- TEX e era) Go|) 10) |loscelsace 20 U 94 Arsenate oflead? com, (3), 4-50.....-.-- 0]. 0} SOR eae ees eae 20 7 .37 Arsenate ofcalcium, c.p. (pow der),2-50.| 0}; Oj] 1] 0/10; 4) 5 20 11 1.15 Arsenate ofiron, c. D. (powder), 4-50...| 0} O| O| 1] 1] 3] 1] 4} 2 12 19 (2) Arsenate ofiron, Jo eal eh) eee aes Ooe COMMU fmt Celt GE) ik], TL] Sha) epg, 9 19 (2) Arsenate of zinc, c. p. (pow der)),.2=465-.|| 64.1.0) | 0) on | Eee ee sett 20 u 2.03 Arsenate of zinc, h. m., 155-50.--------- CEO MN 7 [20 4) BN SS BA ee oe 20 14 87 Arsenic sulphid, De A te eeysiareia niciaernietere = 32)| 90: |" 25/7 om eee |e She 20 7 .95 Arsenic tersul hid, OO ee on eeeen cme 4 (1) 3s Bee Gee eee: bas 20 9 19 Arsenic trioxi , 1-36 Ae eee Bee 2 ee 5p) 60) - 4) ON ie ea ee 119 9 . 06 Arsenite of lime, AND USRDO Bases eee ce el eee) |) 0)" (3 oes es = Bh 20 1 56 Arsenite of zine, Chip h @)h 2-43 ee eee - By OF}! :2)5/SROM ease | ees eres Bee 118 7 M15 Arsenite of zine, com. (2), S00 ie eeraies= O10") 3) | a ear: ae 20 9 1.08 Arsenite of zinc, com. (3), T= 50) NSS Oe 1s) 2h Om oe ar aoe 20 9 94 Arsenite of zinc, com. (4), 13-50......-. Qe Bi OB aes 119 9 41 Check (unspray ed) (CD RUS, Ue One OO} OF OF OF @ 0 19 (2) Check (unsprayed) (2) ...............-- 0 || 0 | OV akOR ON KON ONO") =O 0 19 (2) 1 Remainder escaped. 2 Not measured. The results of these tests agree very well with the results obtained from Experiment I. The experiment was discontinued August 12, when all the larve were dead except in the case of arsenate of iron, chemically pure, where 8 larve still remained living, and arsenate of iron, homemade, where 11 remained living. All the larve on the unsprayed lots were alive at the time the experiment was closed. EXPERIMENT LY. FIELD TESTS OF VARIOUS ARSENICALS AGAINST THE CODLING MOTH IN MICHIGAN, 1912. Several arsenicals were tested in comparison with arsenate of lead against the codling moth in Mr. J. T. Beckwith’s apple orchard in the vicinity of Benton Harbor. The trees were of the Ben Davis variety and about 35 years of age. The plats consisted of from 4 to 12 trees, and the fruit was counted from 3 trees of each plat. The extent of foliage injury from the various sprays was also noted. Thehomemade 8 preparations were prepared and diluted as given on page 2. BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The results against the codling moth are shown in Table IV. TasLe IV.—Sound and wormy apples from sprayed and unsprayed plats. [Poison test, Benton Harbor, Mich., 1912.] Condition of fruit. Ree Treatment. pres Wormy.| Sound. | Total. | Ee" cent IT | Arsenate of lead (paste), 2 pounds to 50 gallons lime-sulphur solutions s22.5.3-..22-22 se eee 1 64 4, 430 4,494 98. 58 2 14 1, 542 1, 556 99. 10 3 9 879 888 98. 98 Plat totale oso. . ee oss sce wes b/c lo ae eee ere 87 6,851 6,938 98. 74 II | Arsenate of lead (paste) commercial No. 1 (tri- plumbic), 2 pounds to 50 gallons lime-sulphur SOLITONS ee eoreree is nicaciicse o's . 2. so Severe burning. Arsenite of zinc (2), com. powder, 3.50.. seeete Moderate burning. fg22: G02:..2) 2 Moderate burning. Arsenite of zine ey ;com.paste, 12-50... ...--.- |... Ore eee cca 00:25 Do. Arsenite of zinc (4), com. powder, 2-602t-2tr |e? EK Lo 1-9. See do.ztisrst eas Do. Paris PTeCM, FO so cee see acim ae teste cee to site ce 2 dole eb ac Moderate burning. Do. Eime-sulphur{13-50_ m2). Sees sss 8. o2 No burmingsMeG4s|. thee: 28 seen ee INJURY TO PEACH FOLIAGE. Name and dilution. Poison used alone. Aresenateiotlead:.disi(pOw der) l-50 co). ne See ince acs kes a Very slight burning. Arsenate of lead, ‘tri. (Dowden) 1-50 Ne vac as sae oe eee neces ceca secs No burning. Arsenate of lead; dijand:tris(powder) 21-50: as 55 eee et 2eas HS. e8 Slight burning. Arsenate of lead? triscomapastol (hl) V2—50l 2 See oe seer epee ela coins wine aie oi No burning. Arsenate of lead; tri. coms pastei(2) 2-50) _ 58 is ee ters ek Severe burning. Arsenate of lead, trizicomspaste(3) 52-50) 5-225. «ase oe cece Very slight burning. Arsenate of calrium, Glps(pow der) 1-50.22 so Jee enn aces eticicies Moderate burning. Arsenate of iron, c. Dp. (powder), Oey Sie. 173 if ee SAL cba Nee Ly No burning. Arsenate of iron, *h.m. 5 (EDT eg oC EL eR SES rac: eT Ncw Do. Arsenate of zinc, c. p. Ggamaeay: MOORE oS Ss ee gone. 222s. aS Severe burning. Arsenate of zinc, *h.m. Be omer scopia eic)= ce 0 SUS oe cra ee SS hia Sota ee Very slight burning. Arsenic sulphid; Tt ee RE he eae Le de a a 8 ee Severe burning. Arsenic tersulphid, Bes ee ae eee tn ers inci cjaye cis Soe EERE t = ois a areleie esi Do. ATSENIC TrIOxId 4-50: se se. taee - Soo; CELE en SITIES Do. Arsenite of lime, hem 2p ts —bOe eee epee occ ecis esse Do. Arsenite of zinc, ’ powder LN) Coe OO tk es See eke oes om Do. Arsenite of zinc (2), com. powder, , os) | REE te ROB anaes Do. Arsenite of zine (ay? com. paste, 14-50 Reo afion soto. eee). dessa ey Do. Arsenite of zinc (4), com. powder, BOO ole cae poe Ree nie mintinraiais oe Do. (Paris| preenta—o0F soso kb reeset eos Sto Ses eee Re Cisie wid ties wteial Do. Lime-sulphur, LO aais So SSAODOMGSE > SORREE BERDeS 2.0 25..2r aCe eee e eee Of the arsenates of lead, the diplumbic form had no burning effect on bean foliage and burned peach foliage very slightly. Arsenate of lead, consisting of a mixture of the diplumbic and triplumbic forms, burned peach foliage slightly, but no injury resulted on bean foliage. The commercial No. 1, consisting of the triplumbic form of arsenate of lead, did not injure peach or bean foliage. The commercial (2) burned the peach so badly that all the leaves were shed, and produced MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 11 moderate burning on the bean, about 25 per cent of the leaves being shed, but no burning where it was combined with lime or lime- sulphur. The commercial (8) produced no burning on bean foliage and very slight burning on peach foliage. Arsenate of calcium, c. p., caused about 15 per cent of the leaves to drop on peach, but had no burning effect on bean foliage. The arsenates of iron, chemically pure and homemade, did not burn either bean or peach foliage. Arsenate of zinc, c. p., did not burn bean foliage, but seriously injured peach foliage, causing complete defoliation. The home- made form of arsenate of zinc produced very slight burning on peach and no burning on bean foliage. Arsenic sulphid produced severe burning in all tests. Arsenic tersulphid produced the same results as arsenic sulphid. Arsenic trioxid burned severely in all cases except when com- bined with lime, in which case the burning was slightly less. Arsenite of lime, homemade, burned the bean foliage moderately when used alone and in combination with lime-sulphur. However, no burning resulted when extra lime was added. The peach foliage was severely burned by this material, causing all the leaves to drop. Arsenite of zinc (1), chemically pure, burned severely in all cases except where lime was used, in which case no burning resulted. Arsenite of zinc powder, commercial (2), burned moderately on beans except where lime was added, in which case no burning resulted. It caused all of the peach leaves to drop. Arsenite of zinc, commercial (3) and commercial (4), gave the same results. Paris green produced moderate burning in all the tests on bean foliage and burned all the leaves off the peach. EXPERIMENTS, 1913. LABORATORY TESTS. Several poisons, namely, arsenate of lead paste, commercial; two commercial brands of powdered arsenate of lead; arsenate of calcium, commercial; two forms of arsenate of calcium, homemade; arsenate of zinc, homemade, and arsenite of zinc, homemade, were tested against the larvee of several different species of chewing insects. The arsenates of lead and the arsenite of zinc were used at the strengths recommended by the manufacturers. Arsenate of cal- cium, commercial paste, was used at the rate of 14 pounds to 50 gal- lons of water. Arsenate of zinc, homemade, was prepared and used as given on page 2. Arsenate of calcium (1) was prepared by dis- solving 1 pound of sodium arsenate and 1 pound of calcium acetate each in 1 gallon of hot water and pouring them together slowly, at the same time stirring the solution vigorously. This was used at a strength equivalent to 0.8 pound of sodium arsenate to 50 gallons of 12 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. water. Arsenate of calcium, homemade (2), was prepared from sodium arsenate and calcium chlorid, the method of procedure being the same as for arsenate of calctum, homemade (1), and was used at the same strength. Lead chromate, commercial, was used at the rate of 8 pounds to 50 gallons. Lead chromate, homemade, was prepared by dissolving 2 ounces of lead nitrate in one lot of water and 1 ounce of potassium bichromate in another lot of water. The two solutions were then mixed, and a dense yellow precipitate of insoluble lead chromate was formed. The amount of lead chromate formed is 2 ounces, and the strengths at which the material was used in these experiments were based on the amount of lead chromate formed. H. Maxwell-Lefroy and R. 8. Finlow state the following in regard to the use of the above form of homemade lead chromate as an insecti- cide: 1 During this year we have applied this compound to a great variety of crops. We have sprayed them till every leaf was yellow. The poison has remained on for over three weeks, thickly on the leaves, which were uninjured. Sprayed on to crops at- tacked by caterpillars, the caterpillars are killed, and the results obtained have beer. excellent. We have used this at 1 pound in 32 gallons. At thisstrength it is entirely safe, poisons caterpillars, and acts as a very powerful deterrent. * * * Lead chromate has not the poisoning effect of Paris green, for instance, which can be applied at 1 pound in 200 gallons, but it has a poisoning effect comparable with that of lead arsenate, and is, in our experience, a perfect substitute. As a result of this success with the use of this preparation as an insecticide in India, thorough tests were made with it in experiments conducted during the season of 1913. EXPERIMENT VI. ARSENATE OF LEAD VERSUS ARSENATE OF CALCIUM AGAINST LARVZ OF THE TENT CATERPILLAR. In this experiment arsenate of lead paste and the different forms of arsenate of calcium were tested in comparison against newly hatched larve of the tent caterpillar. The results of this test are shown in Table VI. Arsenate of lead alone killed the 50 larve in each of the two lots in 5 days, with 0.04 square inch of foliage consumed. Combined with lime-sulphur it required 2 days longer to kill, but only 0.01 square inch of foliage was consumed. Arsenate of calcium, homemade (1), prepared from sodium arse- nate and calcium acetate, killed the larvee in 5 to 7 days, with 0.05 and 0.06 square inch of foliage consumed when used alone, and in 5 days when combined with lime-sulphur, with 0.02 square inch of foliage consumed. Arsenate of calclum, homemade (2), gave prac- tically the same results. 1 Maxwell-Lefroy, H., and Finlow, R.S. Inquiry into the insecticidal action of some mineral and other compounds on caterpillars. Jn Memoirs Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser., v. 4, no. 5, p. 269-327, 1913. MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 13 Tasie VI.—Tests of the killing effect on the tent caterpillar of arsenate of calcium, alone and combined with lime-sulphur, in comparison with arsenate of lead. [Experiment started May 17, 1913, Benton Harbor, Mich.; 50 larvze in each lot.] Larvee dying in each lot. Arsenate of cal-| Arsenate of cal-| Arsenate of cal- Arsenate oflead,| cium (home- | cium (home- cium (com- 2 to 50. made, 1),0.81b.) made, 2), 0.81b.) mercial paste), to 50. to 50. 14 to 50. Check (un- 7 iS a a sprayed). 3 3 E E Dates of examination. 6 rh : e i 2S aS aS BS ze Ee Ee Ee o = oS sa © an o ok) B. |B pemeramaleilie) (26) 8 log) Boa = = < 5 < = < = : ro) xo a o = sl N oO bi Yen) eo} ~ ie.) for) al ol rd a — » » > > » ad » » ~ » » » » » ° fo} ° fo} ° ° ° ° lo} ° ° ° lo} fo) 4H 4 4H 4 4 4 a) 4 4 4 | 4 4 4 4 | Le ae WER DADS aSane cabicae Speoeee ace 1) 1 42 45| L6lyesbiie esi ee27ie 80l25 33 20, 35] 43 28 IL) Ge domes | ae ee ee 2 1 8 5). 27 |e al | ak 2 23 18 L7| 20 15 u 18 IMiaiy 28 ee eek oo uie ee YL 1 OVS sal ake 7 Pale t= ea Zee acre LOSE eee 4 IN EW Ribas 5) oe Seale eae ae 0 0 Re eee eee eee ead adood soba bobde ceed dered aceae setes Total number dead... 4 2) 50) 50] 50) 50)) 50) = 50)" 50; 50) 50) 50) 50) 50 Days required to kill........|...-- 2 ee 5} O85 7 Ay esl TG Al eh dh 5 7 Square inches foliage con- | SUMEeset cece caececclee = 8. a 6. 75) 0.04) 0.04! 0.01) 0.05) 0.06} 0.02} 0.04) 0.06) 0.02) 0.06) 0.05) 0.03 Arsenate of calcium, commercial (paste), used at the rate of 14 pounds to 50 gallons killed all the larve in 5 days with 0.05 and 0.06 square inch of foliage consumed. The same preparation com- bined with lime-sulphur killed in 7 days with 0.03 square inch of foliage consumed. It will be noted that when lime-sulphur was used with the poison, less foliage was consumed. EXPERIMENT VII. LEAD CHROMATE VERSUS ARSENATE OF LEAD AGAINST THE LARVA OF FOUR SPECIES OF INSECTS. Experiments were conducted with lead chromate, commercial and homemade, used at various strengths in comparison with arsenate of lead used at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water, against four species of insects, Hriocampoides cerasi Peck, Hyphantria cunea, Halisidota caryae Harris, and Datana ministra Drury. The results of these experiments are given in Table VII. Neither the commercial nor homemade lead chromate was very effective against the pear slug (Hriocampoides cerasi), 6 larvex living through to pupation in each case, and almost as much foliage was consumed as on one of the checks. Arsenate of lead killed 8 of the larve in 3 days. The other 2 larve escaped. Nine of the larve pupated in each of the two unsprayed lots. 14 ‘BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe VII.— Tests of the killing effect on four species of insects of commercial and home- made lead chromate in comparison with arsenate of lead. [Benton Harbor, Mich., 1913.] a) : 3 «ee [eg 2 | Sale \ee (ee o g| $ . Date ex- | Dateex-| $5 | 25/73 : Name ofinsect. [2 5 | Name ee ae and | periment | periment | 5 Si- 3 ee a 23 As . started. | closed. = P| SU (geciaSs = | 5 s 7 5 Hele FA A | 2 |e |4 |e Eriocampoides cerasi...} 10 | Check (unsprayed).........- July 2|July 7 5 So EEE 9. 64 LOG) e GOrets i. as oe eee aoe ozs -d0sene 5 Mr Ul os 4.36 10 | Arsenate of lead, commer- |...do..-.| July 5 37) 28 3} 0.25 cial, 2-50. 10 | Lead chromate, commer- |...do....| July 7 5 VA Soe 3. 48 cial, 2-50. 10 Lead chromate, homemade, }...do...-.|...do.... 5 WA | Sates 3.39 2-50. Hyphantria cunea..-..| 20 | Check (unsprayed) --| July 14] July 31 9 Au ee 41.00 205/255 (0 eM ss oe Eee do=-=|22-dosse- 9 7 eon 37.00 20 | Arsenate of lead, commer- |...do...-| July 18 2 20 4 - 08 cial, 2-50. 20) | o025b Os Ot icc osc ons tosses} ste dOz% -=|22: 0023 2 20 4 -14 20 | Lead chromate, commer- }|...do..--.} July 21 4 20 7 - 96 cial, 8-50. 20) 2" 22 Bs Se SE a5 mies do. do 4 20 uf BL 20 | Lead chromate, homemade, |...do...-| July 23 5 20 9] 1.04 13-50 20h)s2 2/2 (t EER CRESS e eo sEe toad Fed do....| July 21 4 20 7 -88 Halisidota carye.-....-. 20 | Check (unsprayed)..-.------].-. do... ..| Aug: 11 9 1s | ees 3.50 Z0i| See: dO sei2o3 sb ees [EES doz52 =|. 2:d0i-2. 9 Ls|ssece= 2.20 20 | Arsenate of lead, commer- |...do...-.| July 18 2 20 4 30 cial, 2-50. 20322 2 Onrelge ac aee scene sees | oes GO22.-;<|-2-002-e7- 2 20 4 -50 20 | Lead chromate, commer- }...do....}| Aug. 1 9 UE so 3.25 cial, 2-50. 20j\ see (c Co Re ee se sie ee dos2 =:|: =.d0- 42- 9 Be Sess = 3.50 20 | Lead chromate, homemade, |...do.--.|...do..-- 9 bey bee 1.50 3-50. 20) ee oe dO. Nie esate eee lose dO=25-\- --d0s=5" 9 Ont Soa 1.60 Datana ministra.....-- 20 | Check (unsprayed)........-- Aug. 8 | Aug. 14 6 SS Se 20 | Arsenate of lead, commer- |...do....| Aug. 10 2 20 PH Fe eane cial, 2-50. 20 | Lead chromate, commer- |...do....|...do...- 2 20 21 | aaee8 cial, 8-50. 20 Lead chromate, homemade, |...do....| Aug. 14 6 20 Gilde sees 3-50. 20 | Lead chromate, homemade, |...do....}| Aug. 13 5 20 Oy Pass 13-50. 20 | Lead chromate, homemade, |:-.do....| Aug. 10 2 20 PI ee ee 3-50. 1 Remainder pupated. 2 Remainder escaped. Against the fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea) lead chromate, used at the rate of 8 pounds to 50 gallons of water, was effective, although 3 more days were required to kill in this case than in the case of arsenate of lead used at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water. The strength of lead chromate in this case is four times greater than was used against the pear slug. Lead chromate, home- - made, was used at the rate of 14 pounds to 50 gallons of water, twice the strength that was used against the pear slug. All the larvee were killed in 7 to 9 days, which was considerably slower than with ar- senate of lead, and considerably more foliage was consumed. Four of the larve were dead in each lot of the checks at the end of the experiment, which was closed July 31. The experiment against JZalisidota caryae ran for 18 days,at the end of which time the lead chromate, commercial and homemade, MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 15 used at the weaker strengths, apparently had no effect on the larve. - The arsenate of lead killed all the larve in 4 days. For the Datana ministra, the commercial lead chromate was used at the rate of 8 pounds to 50 gallons of water, and at this strength the lalling effect of the material compared favorably with that of arsenate of lead, 2 pounds to 50 gallons. The lead chromate, home- made, was used at three strengths—?, 14, and 3 pounds to 50 gallons of water. The weakest strength killed all the larve in 6 days, the next stronger in 5 days. Only one larva had died in the unsprayed lot at the time the experiment was closed, August 14. EXPERIMENT VIII. COMPARISON OF THE KILLING EFFECT OF ARSENATE OF LEAD, ARSENATE OF CALCIUM, ARSENATE OF ZINC, ARSENITE OF ZINC, AND LEAD CHROMATE ON LARVZ OF THE FALL WEBWORM. Different forms of arsenate of lead, arsenate of calcium, and lead chromate were tested against the larve of the fall webworm (Hy- phantria cunea). Arsenate of zine and arsenite of zinc were also included in this test, as shown in Table VIII. Taste VIII.—Tests of the killing effect of various materials on the fall webworm. [Experiment started July 23, 1913, Benton Harbor, Mich.; 20 larve in each lot.] Dates of examination and number of larvee dying 3/2 a in each lot. Slaai| sy B| eG | oq ro) a os N d dilution re wo | oF : ao 5 July. August. Belen leas s A} ES / 28 A a a | ao 3 24 |o5|26{27| 28/29 la0/ar/ilels|aislee| ae =| %: % H|A |o 1 | Arsenate of lead paste, com- mercial 2-50 285 heen ee. cee (OD hs CO [ie OR ne Ol Pee 28 1D |) 7 dee celleaesalledsalicadelladae | 20 7! 0.42 PH Ge GOnp ae she esis Soke CO) Eee rea BWA) |) |) sed lsSacllecsaleeudlessc , 20 7 24 3 | Arsenate of lead powder, commercial (1), 1-50....-.. CO) CN SO OR bee) 1 2 We cclleondleosellessdlocoe 20 7 41 Zea Oma seen ee ee CON aCe el ae Weal) ih 2! |) 2 besa bScelleéea boael Sere 20 7 APP 5 | Arsenate of lead powder, commercial (2), 1-50....... COG O)el [es i ESB 7 dlecacllboselleseclldecel aescsess 20 6 aal83 Ghlloee ee Oana Nae ciel i cues OO ermal ray 8) | 2 salseealesee|[easellacce 20 7 24 7 | Arsenate of calcium paste, commercial, 14-50..-..-..- Qu pee | On 1, LOR MRI aro ees | ee | ree | 20 8 75 Swett COs onbtaudaeaonesndeeoue CO) oid El Nore Gal earl Resta]: 83.4) Gj Bul lsesellses4 aeise| eer 20 8 . 88 9 | Arsenate of calcium, home- made (Gp Reece acneic (Os) es) hese hana UL) 2 seeollacsalloesdlacsalsocaleeee 20 6 15 MORRO sa, ose ee oe ee OPE al Resi ales ft les oo sofjescollcodalenuclecee 20 6 ally il ears of calcium, home- made (2); 38,-50/- 22.5 -222-- One FON P25) 2252" | eee Ee i ea ae |e see 20 7 19 7 aces Omen at ena es ee, (O)i| ea) aes al Natae4e R24) 83) 2 ies alleaea besallabsellesoc 20 7 12 13 | Arsenate of zinc, homemade, : Oia Sabb oeeeeee aaeaG (Aol Oe ea balls) ik oe cowed beeolseoc saee| anes 20 6 29 TAS | oscar Om see eerie emer Saar (Oy eet) a ae ed aaa a als} |] 8) lee cllsooalleeon bacclaaen locos 20 6 . 20 15 | Arsenite of zine powder, pommercial, #5 On Sous ee Op Ds |& 25°57.) sige ea | | ee 20 8 - 50 EG eee GO ness shee cuican coon One |) 08) 22) Se Si ee ele Wer sulem se ace |e eee 20 8 -79 17 aa chromate powder, comumptclal, ba aie ce A ONO! |) 08210. |: Ue RS Sa eer ees Sere |e 20 8 . 84 USE acs ko) Se seer eee ers OW Ol i.0),| 5.02 )2 Ob een arn acest re leat eal 20 11} 2.01 19 | Lead danpaesties homemade, TSO O i cise tsa cloeteis cine secretes ON OV AOR Oat CG Sl I Blew esses 20 10} 1.70 20) lppece GOW ete Ss sae eae ee ON Ou) 20 |! 0 | SOc RAR GS is Sh) 4: |e 20 12} 2.09 21 Teds ager) Bae Ol Ol Oreo! O} OG} Di OW Oy Be Or SB llecced- 20.17 2a eee AO sisi chenic ae cece cesses OMe On 20: |= OF] ON ROR ROR ON | Ol le Oniie Lia|enOn| yl emcee 20. 56 16 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Seven days were required to kill the 20 larve by arsenate of lead paste, and the two powder forms of arsenate of lead gave almost identical results. Arsenate of calcium, commercial, was one day slower in killing, and slightly more foliage was consumed where this material was used. The two forms of arsenate of calcium, home- made, killed in 6 and 7 days, comparing favorably with the arsenates of lead both in the length of time required to kill and in the amount of foliage consumed. Arsenate of zinc, homemade, killed in 6 days, with 0.20 to 0.29 square inch of foliage consumed. Arsenite of zine, commercial, required 8 days to kill all the larve and 0.79 to 0.84 square inch of foliage was consumed. Lead chromate used at increased strengths was again slow in its killing effect, and more foliage was consumed than in the case of the arsenates. Three larvee in one lot and one larva in the other lot of unsprayed were dead at the time the experiment was closed August 4. On the two checks 20.17 and 20.56 square inches of foliage were consumed, respectively. EXPERIMENT IX. COMPARISON OF THE KILLING EFFECT OF ARSENATE OF LEAD, ARSENATE OF CALCIUM, ARSENATE OF ZINC, ARSENITE OF ZINC, AND LEAD CHROMATE ON LARVA OF THE TUSSOCK MOTH. Three forms of arsenate of lead, three forms of arsenate of calcium, lead chromate (commercial), arsenate of zinc, and arsenite of zinc were tested against larvee of the tussock moth (Hemerocampa leuco- stigma S. and A.). The experiment was started June 26 and closed July 6, when all the larvee were dead except in the unsprayed lots. Table IX gives the results of this test. The three forms of arsenate of lead killed in 4 days, except in one lot of the paste form which required 6 days to kill; the amount of foliage consumed for all the forms varying from 0.01 to 0.08 square inch. Arsenate of calcium, commercial, required on an average more than twice as long to kill as required by arsenate of lead, and consid- erably more foliage was consumed. The two forms of arsenate of calcium, homemade, killed in slightly less time than was required by the commercial form. Lead chromate, commercial, used at the strength of 8 pounds to 50 gallons of water killed in 6 to 8 days, which was a longer time than required by the ordinary strength of arsenate of lead. Arsenate of zinc, homemade, and arsenite of zinc, commer- cial, were slower in their killing effect on this insect than was arsenate of lead. Three larve were dead in each of two lots of the unsprayed and four dead in the remaining lot, and 5.55 to 7.20 square inches of foliage had been consumed at the time the experiment was closed. MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 17 Taster IX.—Tests of the killing effect of various poisons on the tussock moth. [Experiment started June 26, 1913, Benton Harbor, Mich.; 25 larve in each lot.} 1 o Dates of examina-| vg | 2 Ba tion and larve | § coment dying in each lot. ue) bal} ag Bip Salar Sa 2 |Ue|sa8 Name and dilution. g be os June. July. 53 |°9 | 83 q Ok oo en GEN els ani alia thigetiis wes Eh 28 | 30 & 7 iS 113}.)) APA 25 4; 0.06 ow eeLO S| elect 25 4 O01 11 | il BulleSsall 25 6 - 08 183199129 ancl oosel 25 4 OL nL SH errs | ees | 25 4 . 05 TSH evel eeyaretacats 25 4 . 02 LOW PSR ES sees 25 4 .07 1Ge |e Gee esl Secale 25 4 . 04 RO Sale Ssaleeasals 25 4 . 02 4) 11 1 5 4 25 10 - 50 MWe ie We leaks | 25 8 . 68 5 8 | 10 2). 25 8 . 42 Oi alee eal 2iiltee 25 10 . 20 LOM ayeele 4h 4ai 25 Sul 38 6 | 15 Le ele 25 6 15 10 | 6 1 0 5 25 10 .10 Aaa nS eile 25 8 . 23 17 7 eeoalls 25 6 . 06 OnleOrl) 16) hosel 25 6| .55 OVO e1GE sue 25 8 . 20 Ono 20M Rese 25 6 . 18 22 | Arsenate of zinc, homemade, 0.8-50...............-------- TO): Tf TO] aL ee 25 8 46 28) loci COMA ce see anish oe teniceicau tees Secon 2h. ee 1) sly TR 25 8 38 AN Nester CLOSE Re Ae weet ce ee eg oa ae en ee Srll5e |. On| 255 25 8 62 25 | Arsenite of zinc powder, commercial, 3-50.........--.-.-- 3) aso eal ye al 25 10 . 60 26n|peere Oe ee cee ee ub slenete nes) 2). GuPeOnle Sh |oale 25 8 74 OTe ON eee ee ee de Sule sil euse one 25 8 72 OAR || OVavsvolle: ((UbaIS 0} eh {clel) Eee Soe es oS PN Sh OOH) 33 Hiieeaces 5. 80 2) I heeee ClO). 6 sobaage san Caee BeBe tes cope ee eee ooo oc. OOF Oy Bo Ha eee 7. 20 Omer 010). casdosdoohe S eAO SHEED n | SERIE Bae mmm. Onl 2t |e Onl aia 0. $e 5. 55 EXPERIMENT X. FIELD TFSTS OF VARIOUS ARSENICALS AGAINST THE CODLING MOTH, 1913. Field tests were made with the following preparations against the codling moth on apple: Arsenate of lead paste, commercial; arsenate of calcium paste, commercial; arsenate of calcium, homemade, pre- pared from sodium arsenate and calcium acetate; arsenate of cal- cium, homemade, prepared from sodium arsenate and calcium chlorid; arsenite of zinc powder, commercial; and arsenate of zinc, homemade. (For methods of preparation of the homemade mate- rials, see p. 2.) All the materials were used in combination with __ lime-sulphur, 14 to 50. The spraying was done in Mr. J. T. Beck- with’s orchard in the vicinity of Benton Harbor, Mich., the same orchard that was used for the experimental work of the previous season. The results of this experiment are shown in Table X. 98119°—Bull. 278—15——3 18 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe X.—Sound and wormy apples from sprayed and unsprayed plats. [Poison test, Benton Harbor, Mich., 1913.] Plat Treatment. Arsenate of lead (paste), 2 pounds to 50 gallons of lime-sulphur solution: -- 227-65. -.- 0.2. sseeen- Plat total II | Arsenate of calcium, homemade (1), at rate of 8/10 pound sodium arsenate to 50 gallons lime- sulphur'solutioni ee. ccese one seen cose eee Plat total III | Arsenate of calcium, homemade (2), at rate of 8/10 pound sodium arsenate to 50 gallons lime- sulphur: solutions.224- sees c2 5-2 co eeeeee ees Blatitotal Ve etek eh hs 26 acco cesses IV | Arsenate of calcium, commercial (paste), 14 pounds to 50 gallons lime-sulphur solution....-. Plat total V | Arsenite of zine powder, ? pound to 50 gallons lime-sulphur solution Plat total VI | Arsenate of zinc, homemade, at rate of 8/10 pound sodium arsenate to 50 gallons lime-sul- phurisolubionsesecdaceceeie. eee eece eee eee Plat total Condition of fruit. ree oO. Per cent Wormy. | Sound. Total. saan’ 1 129 2,144 2,273 94.32 2 132 2,490 2, 622 94.96 3 135 2,244 2,379 94.32 4 157 1, 850 2,007 92.17 5 125 1,927 2,052 93.90 pat 678 | 10,655 | 11,338 94.01 1 398 2, 767 3,165 87.42 2 208 1,443 1,651 87.40 3 180 740 920 80. 43 4 254 720 974 73.92 5 331 976 1,307 74. 67 on ae 1,371 6,646 8,017 82.89 1 580 2, 607 3, 187 81.80 2 388 897 1, 285 69. 80 3 497 1,195 1,692 70.62 4 387 955 1,342 71.16 5 260 600 860 69. 76 ateaye 2,112 6,254 8,366 74.75 1 251 813 1,064 76.41 2 241 918 1, 159 79.20 3 53 277 330 83.94 4 240 681 921 73.94 5 303 1,025 1,328 77.18 eet | 1,088 8,714 4,802 77.84 1 241 2,345 2,586 90. 68 2 83 978 1,061 92.17 ipiea hse 324 3,328 3,647 91.11 1 365 2,342 2, 707 86.51 2 503 1, 867 2,370 78.78 3 376 1, 731 2,107 82.15 4 213 1,386 1, 599 86. 68 5 186 1,951 2, 137 91.92 Rae 1,643 9,277 | 10,920 84.95 1 927 877 1, 804 48.61 2 670 503 1,173 42.88 3 1,082 1,086 2,168 50. 01 4 606 592 1,198 49. 41 5 933 780 1,713 45.53 Ses 4,218 3,888 8,056 | 47.64 The arsenate of lead plat produced 94.01 per cent of fruit free from codling-moth injury. Arsenate of calcium, homemade (1), fell below this in its efficiency, the percentage of sound fruit being 82.89. efficiency, producing 74.75 per cent Arsenate of calcium, homemade (2), fell still lower in of fruit free from this insect. Each of these materials burned the foliage very slightly. Arsenate MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 19 of calcium, commercial, produced 77.34 per cent of sound fruit, about an average of the efficiency of the two homemade prepara- tions. The slight burning effect on the foliage amounted to about the same as on the homemade arsenate of calcium plats. Arsenite of zinc powder, commercial, produced 91.11 per cent sound fruit. This material produced moderate burning, about 20 per cent of the leaves being more or less spotted by the spray. Arsenate of zinc, homemade, produced no burning of the foliage and held the codling moth to 84.95 per cent free from worms. The unsprayed plat averaged 47.64 per cent of fruit free from codling-moth injury. EXPERIMENTS, 1914. Experiments with various insecticides, alone and combined with fungicides, were made, both at the laboratory and in the field, during the season of 1914. The investigations were continued along the same lines as during the two previous seasons. The field experiments were conducted in the J. T. Beckwith apple orchard, the John Hamilton pear orchard, both of Benton Harbor, Mich., and the William Birkit vineyard, located at Glenlord, Mich. The field experiments were on a relatively large scale, so that the results represent what may be expected on a commercial basis. LABORATORY TESTS. The fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea Drury) was not so abundant as during the seasons of 1912 and 1913, and it was not always possible to secure a sufficient number of young larve for the poison-feeding tests. Consequently, when larger larvee were used, the strength of the poisons was increased to accelerate the killing of the larve. However, the same size of larva was used in all lots in each experi- ment, and the results are therefore comparative. The laboratory experiments included commercial and homemade insecticides, used alone or combined with a fungicide... Wild-cherry twigs were sprayed by means of a hand atomizer and the spray mate- rial allowed to dry thoroughly before placing the larve upon the host plant. Time did not permit daily observations, and accordingly the results do not always represent close comparisons, but from a prac- tical point of view they are sufficient. EXPERIMENT XI. VARIOUS ARSENICALS ALONE AND COMBINED WITH OIL EMULSIONS AGAINST LARVA OF THE FALL WEBWORM. The chief object of this experiment was to ascertain whether the combining of arsenate of lead with kerosene emulsion would affect the individual value of either material for insecticidal purposes. 20 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Other arsenicals, namely, commercial arsenite of zinc and commercial arsenate of calcium, were likewise tested. The results are given in Table XI. TaBLe XI.—Tests of the killing effect of various materials on the fall webworm. [Experiment started July 17, 1914, Benton Harbor, Mich.; 10 larve: in each lot.} Dates of exami- 3 & nationandnum-| 3 |°3 = ber of larvee Fale [Brealey | |scE te dying in each lot. 2 Ball Beane no (9) Name and dilution. \———_————_| § | 2x s SI 3 July. |August. g he £\|- g S a 3 29 8 2 | 90 | 7 | gel a 7 o 3 3 | 29] 7 | 13 £ |e Zz ie ieKerosene.emulsion:.10/per'cent:-....-.-.2 -ccereneeeee oes eee 0, })-.0' | 20530 (UH Bee 61.00 2 | Arsenate of lead powder, 14-50 + kerosene emulsion, 10 per cent.| 10 |....|.-..|-..- 10 6 | 0.36 3 | Arsenite of zinc powder, 13-50+ kerosene emusion, 10 per cent.) 10 |....|....|....] 10 6] 0.20 4| Arsenate of calcium, commercial powder, 13-50+ kerosene emulsion WO jpericentie ce eee. ee a) eee ee cas = 0} 32] 263} el 10 27 | 13.50 5 | Anthracene‘emulsion, 10 per cent::.j3-92. 2) PORE ss. ca. WO. |. 2s) Sckspaeee 10 6} 0.01 6 | Arsenate of lead powder, 14-50+ anthracene emulsion, 10 per (sn eae RPE See eee ee See ae ee es 5 2 8 ee oy CM fees (epee 1 re 10 6} 0.01 7 | Arsenate of lead powder, 13-50..........---.-.-0cce---ece-- ene 10 | osco|ooee eee 10 6] 0.14 $i(Arsenite:of:zine powder, 13-50)... 2) to. Sas tokio se. 10:|2 Fo cleRee sone 10 6} 0.04 9 | Arsenate of calcium, commercial powder, 143-50 -.....--..-...- 10 |. -celaeee es 10 6] 0.48 10!) Check\(unspray.ed) as Ae0 Besse 2 hha. ocd RS ee ER ome oo toes bs oe = 0; 0} O| O OF 53.00 1 Foliage badly burned—unfit for consumption. Kerosene emulsion alone, at a 10 per cent strength, had no poison- ous effect upon the fall webworm larve—at least none had been killed after having fed for a period of 27 days, with a consumption of 61 square inches of foliage. The arsenate of lead alone killed the 10 larve in 6 days—foliage consumed, 0.14 square inch. A com- bination of these insecticides also caused the death of all the larvee in 6 days after 0.36 square inch of foliage had been eaten. The other arsenicals, alone or combined with the emulsion (except arse- nate of calcium combined), likewise killed in 6 days after a relatively small amount of foliage had been consumed. Arsenate of calcium powder, used alone, was quite as effective as the other arsenicals, but in combination with the emulsion 27 days were required to kill the larve, which consumed 13.50 square inches of foliage. A similar re- sult was obtained in a later experiment. (See Experiment XIII.) Anthracene emulsion, 10 per cent, alone and combined with arsenate of lead, burned the foliage badly, rendering it unpalatable. As shown in Experiment XV, kerosene emulsion, 10 per cent, com- bined with arsenate of lead is also an effective aphidicide. Although there is some breaking down of the materials in combination, no injury to the foliage was noted in the laboratory tests. MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. DAIL EXPERIMENT XII. COMBINED SPRAYS AGAINST LARVZ OF THE FALL WEBWORM. The purpose of Experiment XII was to test by the laboratory method certain spray combinations, some of which were being used under field conditions. The arsenate of calcium used in this experi- ment was prepared by using 4 pounds of stone lime, to which was added 18 ounces of sodium-arsenate crystals during the slaking. This, when mixed with the proper quantity of water, was used for the making of Bordeaux mixture 4-4-50. This combination was made with a view to using it as a vineyard spray. The results of this experiment appear in Table XII. TaBLE XIJI.—Tests of the killing effect of various materials on the fall webworm. [Experiment started July 24, 1914, Benton Harbor, Mich.; 10 larve in each lot.} fe) Dates of exami- 3 Bo nationandnum-| 3g |'‘3 ea ber of larvze Sto |& dying ineach lot.) 9 a. 2 Z aoe Name and dilution. & | eu) s3 5 ¢ July. |August. g ‘ 24 g © q © oo a a 2 = 3 ; a\8 |e 3 29 yaad: (fea) ez 5 Sy 1 | Arsenate of lead powder, 14-50+lime-sulphur, 14-50....-.-...- 7b ye eed | eta 10 8| 0.18 ei plaiane-sulp hun jhs-o0 one fee shy2 4. lens. fss22- cs see ee lh aba 2 10} 14] 0.82 3 | Arsenate of lead powder, 13-50.......-......-.-.----22----00e- A ios St see Ie se 10 8 | 0.46 4 | Commercial sodium sulphid, 2-50..........-.-..---------+--+-- PAN AN ST 10 20 | 3.34 5 | Commercial sodium sulphid,2-50+arsenateof lead powder,14-50} 7| 3]....].... 10 8} 0.22 6 | Commercial barium tetrasulphid, 5-50...-...-.-....- Ee Eats A 05) PSN PEL 10 20 | 5.76 7 | Commercial barium tetrasulphid, 5-50+ arsenate of lead pow- Ger sep Oe a a Soke ja re BI Gy ae eec.) TO Ta @at 8 | Sodium arsenate (crystals, tech. pure), 18 ounces+ Bordeaux Mixture 4-4 SO ee ees he 5.2. 3 ee BI Dae sale es 10 8} 0.10 9 | Sodium arsenate (crystals, tech. pure), 18 ounces+ Bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50+ nicotine sulphate, 40 per cent, 1-1,600...-.-- Gy PROM lene Rees 10 8] 0.10 HORMeCHecks(unsprayed) oss s--e-nc5 a ccc asec c++ oc epee eee nee Ee se Os) © PalBoonbe 13.50 As will be noted in Table XII, arsenate of lead, either alone or com- bined with lime-sulphur solution or commercial sodium sulphid, killed all the larve in 8 days. The same arsenical combined with commercial barium tetrasulphid compound required 14 days to kill the 10 larvee, although 9 of these were recorded dead at the end of the eighth day. The arsenate of calcium made in the same operation of slaking the stone lime for Bordeaux mixture caused the death of all the larve in 9 days. This combination was tested in a vineyard and caused no foliage injury. At the end of 20 days, when the experi- ment was closed, but two larve of the unsprayed lot were dead. 22 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXPERIMENT XIII. ARSENATE OF CALCIUM VERSUS ARSENATE OF LEAD, ALONE AND COMBINED WITH KERO- SENE EMULSION AND WITH LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION AGAINST LARVZ OF THE FALL WEBWORM. In this experiment a comparative test was made with homemade arsenate of calcium at several strengths, commercial arsenate of cal- cium, paste and powder, and other materials. The homemade arsenate of calcium used in this and succeeding experiments was prepared by adding sodium-arsenate crystals to stone lime durmg the course of slaking. Formula 1.—Stone lime, 1 pound; sodium arsenate, 4 pound; water, 1} quarts. This formula, according to chemical analysis, gave a total arsenic oxid (As,O;) content of 4.19 per cent; no soluble arsenic oxid. Formula 2.—Stone lime, 3 pounds; sodium arsenate, 3 pounds; water, 4 quarts; analysis—total arsenic oxid (As,0;), 6.16 per cent, no soluble arsenic oxid. Formula 3—Stone lime, 4 pounds; sodium arsenate, 2 pounds; water, 4 quarts; analysis—total arsenic oxid (As,O0;), 3.93 per cent; no soluble arsenic oxid. Formula 4.—Stone lime, 4 pounds; sodium arsenate, 1 pound; water, 5 quarts; analysis—total arsenic oxid (As,O;), 1.88 per cent; no soluble arsenic oxid. Formula §.—Stone lime, 3 pounds; sodium arsenate, 1 pound; water, 3 quarts; analysis—total arsenic oxid (As,O;), 2.92 per cent; no soluble arsenic oxid. Formula 6.—Stone lime, 4 pounds; sodium arsenate, 2 pounds; water, 4 quarts; slaking not vigorous; not analyzed. In all of the homemade formulas lime has been used in considerable excess, with a corresponding decrease of the arsenical content. The commercial arsenate of calcium, paste, showed an analysis of 18.82 per cent total arsenic oxid—soluble arsenic oxid, a trace. With a view to making a combination spray for peaches and other stone fruits, arsenate of calcium was prepared in the same operation with the making of self-boiled lime-sulphur (8-8-50 formula). As soon as the lime started to slake, 2 pounds of sodium-arsenate crys- tals and then the sulphur were added and the mixture made up in the usual way. Arsenate of calcium made with self-boiled lhme- sulphur may be of value as a spray for stone fruits, owing to the fact that the large excess of lime would tend to prevent burning. Arse- nate of calcium, alone, causes injury to peach foliage, unless there is an excess of lime. The calcium on exposure to the atmosphere gradually combines with the carbon dioxid of the air and becomes calcium car- bonate, thus releasing some soluble arsenic. For the results of this experiment, see Table XIII. Arsenate of lead alone killed all larve in 8 days; combined with kerosene emulsion, 10 per cent, in 6 days (see Experiment XI); with lime-sulphur in 6 days, and with self-boiled lime-sulphur in 8 days. Commercial arsenate of calcium, powder, required 8 days to kill. Commercial arsenate of calcium, paste, required 27 days, but when combined with lime-sulphur solution, killed in 10 days. 23 MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The homemade arsenate of calcium products, as noted previously, were low in arsenic oxid content, but as a whole proved relatively effective as poisoning agents. Formula (2), arsenic oxid 6.16 per cent, at the rate of 4 to 50, required 14 days, which was the same length of time required by formula (3), arsenic oxid 3.93 per cent, 4 to 50, combined with lime-sulphur solution. The arsenate of cal- cium prepared along with self-boiled lime-sulphur killed all larvee in 10 days. The experiment was closed at the end of 36 days, only one larva of the unsprayed lot having died. EXPERIMENT XIV. ARSENATE OF CALCIUM VERSUS ARSENATE OF LEAD, ALONE. AND COMBINED WITH LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION, AGAINST LARV# OF THE FALL WEBWORM. Homemade arsenate of calcium was again tested in comparison with commercial arsenate of calcium (paste and powder) and arse- nate of lead, paste. These arsenicals were used alone and combined with lime-sulphur solution, 14 to 50. The results of this experiment will be found in Table XIV. TABLE XIV.—Tests of the killing effect of various materials on the fall webworm. [Experiment started Aug. 27, 1914, Benton Harbor, Mich.; 10 larve in each lot.] Dates of examination and number of larvee dying in each lot. Total Num- | Square Tot Pre ae ber | inches No. Name and dilution. September— her days ree foliage A dead.| Quite Ons ue : to kill. | sumed. 2| 5 | 8 |] 10)] 14] 16} 19 il Srecuale of lead paste, 3-50..........--. 0; 0} 6] 4}. 10 12 3.00 Del es SOs sea emcee ta eat Aaa qaiereiahs ten 0}. 0) 9) 1). 10 12 3.00 3 Resenate of lead paste, 3-50+lime-sul- phur, TP 50 ete seas se eoe cise 0; cl Ga lie 2). 1 10 14 2.25 4 QOS Se Se aeincte sie aatetassite oie tote ate 6 ON On Pele 28): aL 10 14 -25 5 Arsenate of lead paste, 5-50............- 0} | AON Ss). 23): 10 12 2.50 (yi RSE Ka ati senARe e A DS S2R ROM 2h Vise 2 =| cee llobie 10 12 3.50 7 Dienate of lead paste, 5-50+lime-sul- ph au 1p SO) be aie Sls ae COSI: = GSN Unc So esa Les Pee 10 12 50 8 0 a ES Can eB aC SN Ba OC AG SESE MEe Ora OW SN ae S Me ceo] hey 10 14 1.50 9 | Arsenate of calcium, commercial paste, BBO tei ray ie Ney bs Nie a eat cy CANS SH 0) OR OR” 07) 0). 35) 20). 1 4 eae 63. 00 TOW eeees (0 Ko ese Ce ea SH Se a ON ZcOMROn One as et 0 6) Soeeeees 38. 00 11 | Arsenate of calcium, commercial paste, 5-50-+lime-sulphur, ASO Natectses clove psi- OF 50M adil) 244) 33 10 14 13.50 10} ee (OSE CSRs CODE MORE CE CO am BC Ee Geile COL SE es a4 eee (eet boar 10 14 3.75 13 | Arsenate of calcium, commercial pow- Cla) AGS ea ee Oe el er Se ON ER ONIRMON ial ios |seeele Sea] Geer 10 14} 10.50 Maier Loa arenirete ase ainay Meee Dart Ose eee On) ctu led |2 ber awe 10 18 20.05 15 | Arsenate of calcium, commercial pow- der, 24-50+-lime-sulphur, 14-50....... Ly RMON Sto nh ele 4a) steel tec emis 10 14 4.00 UGH Rees Oe ce STR EER aie hehe yas aie ert |e Pea eee Caee Biaee ociae 10 12 1.75 17 | Arsenate of calcium (homemade paste, forma) \5-50)\eretaeteteleciseser el- ON LORETO SOR e221 21) 501 40 Sil tees 42.00 Sse ( ap BAER Once dbcdoaddpocaeremesee 0) | OMRON cON Sei .05)) KON 2 Br lcoseaee 27.50 19 | Arsenate of calcium (homemade paste, formula 1), 5-50+lime-sulphur, 13-50..} 0] 0} 4] 4] O} 2/]-...].... 10 18 9. 25 QO Woes Oe. asm see fee = 5 ey ie “ to} 2 cP) = oD =) C3) _ bo =| oO ea] Sf) |) 8 ) a = ad = = = ad CJ] eect Nests ya hake 3 & is 3 3 & ra 3 AyJol|/ain| A |o!}] =< nQ 9 o < nR I | Lime-sulphur, 1-7...........- 8} 3) 5] 3) 1,841) 453 242) 389,75. 667/53. 201/51. 241 68. 637 II | (1) Commercial sodium sul- | phid, 12.5 pounds-50.......- 5} 2| 2 1) 1,717) 306 94 10 59. 059/41. 505/20. 215 90. 000 III | Caustie potash, 11 pounds+ sulphur, 12.5 pounds-50....| 2) 0; 3] 2) 1,008; 0} 191) 1,522/25.101)...... 30. 892 39. 490 IV | (2) Commercial sodium sul- phid, 12.5 pounds-50......- 0) ed Seay |) 0} 485} = 238 O| Rear 38. 622/32. 774). ..... V | Caustic soda, 11 pounds+sul- | phur, 12.5 pounds-50......- Al 2) 0} 1,865} 1389) 140 0/78. 709/34. 559/41. 430)...... VI | Lime-sulphur, 1-7+nitrate of soda, 50 pounds-50.....- oat 6; O; 2) 2) 946) OF; 113 15/76. 289). ..... 50. 445 80. 000 VII | Caustic soda, 15 pounds+sul- phur, 17.1 pounds-50....... 5} 1) 2) = 1) 1,581) 143) 208) 521/89.877/51. 750/70. 194 54. 892 VIII | Caustic potash, 15 pounds+ sulphur, 17.1 pounds-50.... 4 1 3 0} 1,116} 179) 263 0|89. 247)78. 771/51. 716). ..... IX | Check—unsprayed............ 33] 2) 11] 3] 8,100} 299) 1,825) 4, 474/52. 595/25. 420 a 6. 841 MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. ot TaBLeE XIX.—San Jose scale insecticide investigations, Benton Harbor, Mich., 1914— Continued. Per cent of fruit. Light infestation, 1-10 | Mediuminfestation,11-| Heavy infestation, 21- scales. 20 scales. over scales. Plat.| Name and dilution. iD a0 3 i) £ dp 3 ir) 2 80 3 ir) = A=} od om a a=] <3 hd = A= <3 Ad a & q 8 3 S&S q 3 S S& q 8 aa Oo < io) faa} (5) < mn faa) iS < nN I | Lime-sulphur, 1-7 . .|23. 954/33. 554/38. 016/26. 737| 0.271|13. 245] 8.677| 3.598] 0.108 0} 2.066) 1.028 II | (1) Commercial so- dium sulphid, 12.5 pounds-50. - . .'36. 167/50. 000/67. 021/10. 000) 3.377) 6.535] 6.382 O| 1.397) 1.960) 6.382 0 TII | Caustic potash, 11 pounds+sulphur, 12.5 pounds-50.-../61.111)...... 49. 738)}42.312|11.011)...... 7.339) 6.570 IV | (2) Commercial so- dium sulphid, 12.5 pounds-50 - --}...... 46. 666/39. 916]......]..-.-- 28873) 14705 |e eee acces 1. 839}12. 605)... ... V | Caustic soda, 11 pounds +sulphur, 12.5 pounds-50-. - ./20. 005/36. 690/48. 571)...... 1.018|21. 561] 7.857)...... OS |leiratL Oia acre 2 | lee ae VI | Lime-sulphur, 1-7+ : nitrate of soda, 50 pounds-50.......- 22..305|.....- 40. 707|20. 000) 1.313)-...--. 5.309 ON 093 ease Ne 3.539 0 VII | Caustic soda, 15 pounds+sulphur, 17.1 pounds-50....] 9. 797)46. 153/28. 365/39. 731} .261) 1.398} .961| 4.418) .065} .699) .480) .959 VIII | Caustic potash, 15 pounds+sulphur, 17.1 pounds-50.. . .|10. 663/21. IX | Check—unsprayed. .|2 48 bo “I “I ~1 paceen 12. 041/11. 628 29/43. 722)... . . 090 OWA566L eer 0 OL TOOL eas 29/18. 356/33. 281) 6.358)14. 046) 9. 205/18. 506/15. 393)11. Beles 383/41. 372 TasBLe XX.—San Jose scale insecticide investigations (commercial table), Benton Harbor, Mich., 1914. Per cent of fruit. Number| Total Free from Plat. Name and dilution. ofcount | number |_ scale to Medinmtg : trees. | of fruits. | light infes- fee ‘ara tation y market- | U2market- able. oll | PIM e-SUlp HUT fae tase ceierecic cit sis cia= See eee 19 2,925 98. 052 1.948 IL | (1) Commercial sodium sulphid, 12.5 pounds-50.. - il 2,127 94.359 5. 641 TIL | Caustic potash, 11 pounds-+sulphur, 12.5 pounds-50 7 2,721 83.352 16. 648 IV | (2) Commercial sodium sulphid, 12.5 pounds-50 ... 5 673 80. 833 19. 167 V | Caustic soda, 11 pounds+sulphur, 12.5 pounds-50. a 2, 144 97.942 2.058 VI | Lime-sulphur, 1-7+nitrate of soda, 50 pounds-50. . 11 1,074 98.511 1. 489 VII | Caustic soda, 15 pounds+sulphur, 17.1 pounds-50. . 8 2, 403 98. 378 1.622 VIII | Causticpotash, 15 pounds-+sulphur, 17.1 pounds-50 8 1,558 99. 167 - 833 TX-XT | Checks—unsprayed...........-.----------++------ 49 14, 693 60. 793 39.207 Although the spray materials were subjected to a severe test, all, with the exception of the materials employed in Plats III and IV, gave satisfactory results. Lime-sulphur was used alone and also in combi- nation with nitrate of soda. The addition of sodium nitrate did not affect the insecticidal value of the lime-sulphur. These plats yielded 98.052 and 98.511 per cent of marketable fruit, respectively. The homemade sodium and potassium sulphur solutions, with the excep- tion of the materials used in Plat III, gave 97.972 to 99.167 per cent of 38 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. marketable fruit. Plat III (KOH, 11 pounds, and sulphur, 12.5 pounds), 83.352 per cent, No. 2 commercial sodium sulphid 80.833 per cent, and the unsprayed plats averaged but 60.793 per cent of marketable fruit. EXPERIMENT XXI. FIELD TESTS OF VARIOUS ARSENICALS COMBINED WITH BORDEAUX MIXTURE ON THE FOLIAGE OF GRAPE. Several arsenicals in combination with Bordeaux mixture (4—4—50) were tested on grape foliage at the vineyard of William Birkit, of Glen- lord, Mich. Two applications were made with a power sprayer, June 23 and July 2, 1914, 50 gallons to the plat. Plat I (applications 1 and 2), commercial arsenate of lead (powder), 14 to 50; Plat II (applications 1 and 2), arsenate of calcium, home- made (sodium arsenate crystals, 18 ounces + calcium chlorid to 50); Plat III (applications 1 and 2), arsenate of zinc, homemade (sodium arsenate crystals, 18 ounces + zincsulphate to 50); Plat IV (applica- tion 1), commercial arsenate of calcium (paste), 3 to 50, (application 2) homemade arsenate of calcium (sodium arsenate crystals, 18 ounces + stone lime, 3 pounds to 50); Plat V (application 1),commer- cial arsenite of zinc (paste), 12 to 50 (application 2), commercial arsenite of zine (powder), 18 ounces to 50. No foliage injury resulted from the applications of these arsenicals. SUMMARIZED REVIEW. ARSENATE OF LEAD. LABORATORY TESTS. Used alone.—Arsenate of lead was used throughout the experi- mental work as a basis of comparison for the other compounds tested. The rapidity of killing was greatest with diplumbic arsenate of lead, while the triplumbic form was the slowest. Arsenate of lead of a mixed diplumbic and triplumbic composition closely approached the effectiveness of the diplumbic form. Commercial arsenate of lead No.1 (triplumbic) was likewise slower in killing than the other commercial compounds, which were largely diplumbic. In tests with the several forms of arsenate of lead upon tender foliage, the triplumbic, the most insoluble form, was found to be the safest. With kerosene emulsion.—Arsenate of lead may be combined with kerosene emulsion for the purpose of combating mandibulate and haustellate insects. Although there is a slight breaking down of the materials, the value of neither material is depreciated when used jointly asaspray. In order to secure the best results, it is advisable not to mix these materials until needed. Ina general way this is appli- cable to the use of most insecticides in combination. MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 39 With lime-sulphur.—Triplumbic arsenate of lead combined with lime-sulphur solution again proved to have a slower toxic effect than either di or di and tri arsenates so combined. The triplumbic com- mercial No. 1 arsenate of lead was again less rapid as a poisoning agent than the commercial products of diplumbic compositions. It was found that the mixing of lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead results in asmaller consumption of foliage than when arsenate of lead is used alone. FIELD TESTS WITH APPLES. With lime-sulphur.—Arsenate of lead consistently proved to be the most effective poison tested during the three years of experimentation. Triplumbic arsenate with lime-sulphur did not hold the codling moth in check quite as well as the ordinary commercial (diplumbic) arsenate of lead. Powdered arsenate of lead is equally as effective as the paste form for the control of the codling moth. LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS. With commercial sodium sulphid No. 1.—The value of arsenate of lead is not decreased when combined with sodium sulphid; in fact the sodium arsenate formed is more active as a toxin than lead arsenate. However, field experiments with apples show that this combination is impracticable, owing to the frequency of foliage injury due to the formation of the soluble sodium arsenate. With commercial barium tetrasulphid.—Arsenate of lead mixed with barium tetrasulphid was used with satisfactory results for the control of the codling moth. This combination was found safe for use on apple foliage. With nicotine solutions and lime-sulphur.—Arsenate of lead may be mixed with nicotine solutions and lime-sulphur for the control of certain apple sucking and chewing insects, as well as fungous dis- eases. The mixing of these materials does not lessen their individual value and moreover may be applied to apple foliage with safety. With kerosene emulsion and lime-sulphur.—The combination of lead arsenate, kerosene emulsion, and lime-sulphur should not be used as an orchard spray, owing to the breaking down of the materials and the subsequent foliage injury. With fish-oil soap and lime-sulphur.—The combination of arsenate of lead, fish-oil soap, and lime-sulphur is not a compatible mixture for spraying purposes, since an insoluble calcium soap is formed. In our experience, any combination containing lime-sulphur and soap should not be used. ARSENATE OF CALCIUM. An effort was made to secure a satisfactory substitute for arsenate of lead, a compound which would be as efficient and at the same time less costly. With this object in view arsenate of calcium was used 40 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the experimental work during 1912, 1913, and 1914, and has given encouraging results. This arsenical can undoubtedly be manu- factured at a somewhat cheaper cost than arsenate of lead. It is of further interest to note that this compound may be readily pre- pared at home by combining fused sodium arsenate with stone lime. (For a discussion of the method of making, see p. 30.) While it would be preferable to use arsenic acid in place of sodium arsenate, this acid can not be readily secured at low cost at the present time. When arsenic acid is used the method of preparation as described should be modified somewhat. LABORATORY TESTS. Used alone.—Arsenate of calcium, commercial powder and paste and homemade paste, in accordance with several formulas, was used in poison-feeding tests with several species of chewing insects. In some instances the rapidity of killing was equal to that of arsenate of lead, but was generally somewhat less. With lime-sulphur.—With lime-sulphur, arsenate of calcium was as a rule more effective as a poisoning agent than when used alone. When these compounds are combined, the amount of foliage consumed by the larve is less than when arsenate of calcium is used alone. FIELD TESTS WITH APPLES. With lime-sulphur.—During the years 1912 and 1913 the several forms of arsenate of calclum combined with lime-sulphur gave fairly satisfactory control of the codling moth, considering the strength of the arsenical used. In 1914 a commercial arsenate of calcium (paste), arsenic oxid 18.82 per cent, combined with lime-sulphur solution, gave very excellent control of the codling moth in com- parison with arsenate of lead and unsprayed plats; arsenate of calcium, 29,269 apples, 98.79 per cent sound; arsenate of lead, 24,018 apples, 99.44 per cent sound; unsprayed, 47,866 apples, 58.71 per cent sound. It is of further interest to note that arsenate of -alctum may be combined with lime-sulphur without lessening the value of the latter as a fungicide. FIELD TESTS WITH GRAPE. With Bordeaux mixture—Commercial arsenate of calcium and homemade compounds were used combined with Bordeaux mixture in vineyard experiments. These combinations caused no foliage injury. ARSENATE OF IRON. LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS. Arsenate of iron is a slower acting poison than many of the other arsenicals tested. Laboratory tests, even at increased strengths, show that this arsenical is not quick to kill. In the field tests at the MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 4] experimental apple orchard arsenate of iron was not an effective insecticide for the codling moth. When used at greater strengths, however, this arsenical should give fairly satisfactory results, but would have no advantages over arsenate of lead. ARSENATE OF ZINC. LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS. Arsenate of zinc was used with very fair success in laboratory and field tests, but fell somewhat below the efficiency of arsenate of lead. This arsenical has no distinct advantages over arsenate of lead. ARSENITE OF LIME. LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS. Arsenite of lime is an active and relatively cheap arsenical poison. Unfortunately, however, its use is frequently attended with injury to the foliage. ARSENITE OF ZINC. LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS. Arsenite of zinc was used in both the paste and powdered forms alone and combined with fungicides. In common with other arse- nites the zinc compound is an active poison, but frequently causes foliage injury. Arsenite of zinc combined with milk of lime and arsenite of zine mixed with lime-sulphur caused considerable burn- ing in the experimental apple orchard during 1912.- In 1914 arsenite of zinc (paste) added to slaking lime and then mixed with lime- sulphur solution gave practically no foliage injury, but the value of the arsenical was apparently impaired. Arsenite of zine (paste) added to slaking lime for Bordeaux mixture gave excellent codling- moth control and caused no foliage injury. It is possible that the latter combination may be of value in sections where apple growers use Bordeaux mixture along with an arsenical for the control of the coding moth, bitter-rot, and blotch. Commercial arsenite of zine in combination with Bordeaux mixture was tested in a vineyard dur- ing the season of 1914, with satisfactory results. MISCELLANEOUS ARSENICALS. The following arsenical compounds were also tested at the labora- tory: Arsenic sulphid, arsenic tersulphid, and arsenic trioxid. These materials are destructive to leaf tissue and therefore undesirable in- secticides. NoNARSENICAL COMPOUNDS. Several compounds containing no arsenic were tested, namely, barium chlorid, barium sulphate, calcium chlorid, copper oxid, lead acetate, lead carbonate, lead chromate, lead oxid, lead peroxid, 42 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mercury bichlorid, zine chlorid, zine oxid, and zine sulphate. While some of these compounds gave more or less satisfactory results, they were not of sufficient promise to warrant further testing. SODIUM AND POTASSIUM SULPHUR SOLUTIONS. Caustic soda and caustic potash (homemade and commercial) were combined with sulphur for the control of the San Jose scale. Cer- tain of the solutions proved to be generally satisfactory as scalecides, in some instances equaling lime-sulphur solution. Such solutions can be readily prepared at home without the use of heat. CONCLUSIONS. During the course of the experimental work information on the value of many compounds and combination sprays has been se- cured. Several of the materials proved to be less valuable than those now in common use, owing to their slow killing effect, to their injury to foliage, to their cost, or to their incompatibility. While many of the compounds proved to be impracticable for insecticidal purposes, certain new spray materials and combinations were used with success. Since the prevention of fungous diseases is intimately associated with insect control, many of the insecticides were tested with a fungicide in order to ascertain the results of such a combina- tion. Arsenate of lead proved to be the most consistent and valuable stomach poison tested, giving satisfactory results throughout the experimental work. Arsenate of lead is equally effective in either the paste or pow- dered form. Triplumbic arsenate of lead is less rapid as a poisoning agent than diplumbic arsenate, but is safer for use on tender foliage. Arsenate of lead may be combined with nicotine solutions and lime-sulphur solution for the control of certain apple chewing and sucking insects, and fungous diseases. For the control of certain sucking and chewing insects arsenate of lead may be combined with kerosene emulsion. Arsenate of lead, kerosene emulsion, and lime-sulphur is an incom- patible mixture, due to the formation of an insoluble calcium soap and the subsequent release of free kerosene. In our experience any combination containing lime-sulphur and soap should not be used, owing to the formation of an insoluble calcium soap. Arsenate of lead should not be mixed with sodium sulphid com- pounds, since the soluble sodium arsenate formed is destructive to leaf tissue. Arsenate of lead combined with a commercial barium tetrasul- phid gave satisfactory control of the codling moth and caused no foliage injury in the experimental apple orchard. MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 43 The most promising new insecticide developed during the course of the experimental work is arsenate of calcium. This arsenical may be manufactured at less cost than arsenate of lead or may be _ readily prepared at home as described on page 30. During the sea- sons of 1912 and 1913 arsenate of calcium gave encouraging results. In 1914 a commercial arsenate of calcium paste in combination with lime-sulphur gave very satisfactory control of the codling moth. While arsenate of calcium may have certain limitations, it will doubt- less prove of value for the control of chewing insects on certain host plants. Arsenate of iron and arsenate of zine are not as satisfactory as arse- nate of lead. Arsenite compounds are dangerous to use on tender foliage. In some instances, however, it may be possible to prevent foliage injury somewhat by combining the soluble arsenic with lime. Sodium-sulphur and potassium-sulphur compounds gave fairly sat- isfactory control of the San Jose scale, in some instances equaling lime-sulphur solution. They may readily be prepared at home with- out the use of heat. KEY TO THE TABLES OF INSECTICIDES AND COMBINATION SPRAYS USED IN THIS BULLETIN. {(Com=commercial; c. p.—chemically pure; h. m.=homemade.] Reference. Table. MEMMACCHOLEMMUISOM a: sree 55 EL TSU i Pe SR EE aN XU OXGY: Anthracene emulsion, arsenate of lead (powder)........-.-.------------------ XI IAT REMA Te OLealcium (com paste). - == =~... s-- eee ee ee ee VI, XIII, XIV Arsenate of calcium (com. paste), kerosene emulsion..................------- XITI Arsenate of calcium (com. paste), lime-sulphur.............. VI, X, XIII, XIV, XVI Arsenate or calcium’ (com. powder)..-+.-.--4222222204 4552 046-- AMODE DOE NEE. OGD Arsenate of calcium (com. powder), kerosene emulsion.............---------- axel Arsenate of calcium (com. powder), lime-sulphur...................-------..- XIV Arsenate orcalerum\(c.+ps powder) <= ~~. --: tls oe ees ee IE JOOS WW Arsenateorealcium: (ec. py powder), lime. 2. ces2eeasceee moo an ee On ONG Arsenate of calcium (c. p. powder), lime-sulphur.......-........---/.---- JOE NY WW Arsenate of-calcium (h. m. paste)--.......i-eeeeeee ee eee VI, VIII, 1X, XIII, XIV Arsenate of calcium (h. m. paste), Bordeaux mixture................--------- Xil Arsenate of calcium (h. m. paste), Bordeaux mixture, nicotine sulphate. - ---- XII Arsenate of calcium (h. m. paste), kerosene emulsion........ SEAR Ge Ges XIII Arsenate of calcium (h. m. paste), lime-sulphur_.................. V1, X, XIII, XIV Arsenate of calcium (h. m.), self-boiled lime-sulphur.............-...--------- XIII mEsenateror iron (C."p: Powder) «4.0.2.5. 5555 ek ee I Ee I, III, V Arsenate ofaron: (csp: powder), lime... 2/2 52 =e Ay aE oe V Arsenate of iron (c. p. powder), lime-sulphur-....2222..2..22.. 222 022225.- LIES I Arsenate or iron: (hs mi: paste) = 22... 2... ee es es ea eae AV ATsenate orion. (hem: spaste)s lime-...... sseeeeeee een ee eee ee Vv Arsenate oi 1ron (hy m= paste); lime-sulphurIs gees see. see LEBEN AV) Arsenate of lead (com. paste)..-..------- T, TT Veal. Val Val DX) XCnDS SOE axXe Arsenate of lead (com. paste), barium tetrasulphid...........-.-..--------- XVIII Arsenate of lead (com. paste), kerosene emulsion............-.-----------+--- XIII 44 BULLETIN 278, U. S$. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table Arsenate of lead (com. paste), laundry soap, nicotine sulphate...............- XV Arsenate of lead (com. paste), lime........-- Beles co .csee te ee VY Arsenate of Jead’(com:. paste), lime-sulphur-©.-.... =... .:..122. 2.) eee LT, IV, V, VI, X, XIII, XIV, XVI, XVII, XVIII Arsenate of lead (com. paste), nicotine sulphate...........--.-.....---------- XV Arsenate of lead (com. paste), nicotine sulphate, lime-sulphur................- XV Arsenate of lead (com. paste), self-boiled lime-sulphur...............-.....-- xT Arsenate of lead (com. paste), sodium sulphid (com.)..................------ XVIII Arsenate of lead (com. paste), sodium sulphid (com.), lime.............-...-. XVITI Arsenate of Iead' (com. powder)=:.-.-:-.22.00 02. 22202... 22.02 2h eV aaa Arsenate of lead (com. powder), anthracene emulsion................--..---- XI Arsenate of lead (com. powder), barium tetrasulphid.....................---- ecb Arsenate of lead (com. powder), kerosene emulsion................-....----- XI Arsenate of lead (com. powder), lime-sulphur...............2:.....-.-- XII, XVII Arsenate of lead (com. powder), sodium sulphid (com.)............-.-------- XII Arsenate of lead (com. powder), sulphur (com. precipitated)...........-...-- XVIIT Arsenate of lead: (diplumbic powder).c Giieeie oo lt See TEV Arsenate of lead: (diplumbic powder), lime: ivs222-..2-<...-.< - 2c ee ae V Arsenate of lead (diplumbic powder), lime-sulphur................----------- II, V Arsenate of lead (di-and iriplumbic' powder):.-.). 2 21: -: = 24)... ee PAEEE ay: Arsenate of lead (di and triplumbic powder), lime....................--..---- V Arsenate of lead (di and triplumbic powder), lime-sulphur...-..............-- TERY, Arsenate of lead (iriplumbic powder). 2.20 paste. es te eee 1p ATE ESA Arsenate of lead (triplumbic powder), lime......... oj eea es oe ea ee V Arsenate of lead (triplumbic powder), lime-sulphur...-.........-.--------- EE TIVE, Arsenate of lead /(triplumbiccom paste) Meee yo 2a i ee LOU AY Arsenate of lead (triplumbic com. paste), lime... -=.:......-.....:...-2236—eee V Arsenate of lead (triplumbic com. paste), lime-sulphur......-.-.....------ II, IV, V Arsenate of 21nc: (Cp. DOWGer). <2... 2 schaeneee feet ae Soci so ee TLE, V Arsenate ofzine (¢c.p.. powder), lime... .25e245.- beth .in- -. 13s eee ee eee Wi Arsenate of zinc (c. p. powder), lime-sulphur............----------2.-------- II, V Arsenaterolzine (h. me paste)... : .-..)- sz eRe eee. cee J; DL, V5 Varese Arsenate of zinc (him... paste), lime... --- seem eck: os. = oo eee V Arsenate of zinc (h. m. paste), lime-sulphur......-.....------ -v JUL EVe VG SS exaVeiin Arsenic sul phidis osc sees dn oe ein <, Sa ee ais = a REE fs A ia 5 TIO: Arsenic sulphid. lim e-sulphur.:- 5... - -... cepewieciie hee eels: Sto -/-< 2 er II Arsenic tersulphider: Wiese 220 oo i ee ey Ae I, III, V Arsenicitersulphid: -lime-sulphur: ©: = cas ee eeees- 24) be 2-2. ee eee II ATSPOICHTIOXIG 39 Soe Se ee nel. | EE ae teed Skene 0 LUE, WV Arsenic trioxid, Jime-sulphur. Jos) sid Soe ee-eh- aa tee: <4- 2 2 oS II Arsenite of Jimes(hyamsspaste) = Ns .)2 2520 sees ete: 5s = eee ee Lt WV Aysenite-of lime (h:'m.*paste), lime .jsa:. saeeece.- --\--ce- ~+---e segs eee V Arsenite of lime (h. m. paste), lime-sulphur....-....-----2.-.---2+-+--:- II, IV, V Arsenite) of zine; (com: ipaste) jz). i: j- a Seat 2 ha... oe. ee ee I, III, V Arsenite, of zinc (com. paste), Bordeaux mixture.-.-.:--&---.222sue ques eee XVIII Arsenite of zine (com. paste), lime... .....ses)- . . ; : ; i 1 : +h 2 , . ny rg) i ried ~ che ee Gad Keb 5 i : ; \ ay! | = +e ak : S a Xu eee oe H t F { ¥ A é iV : ; ~ au pense ne x cee } tes 4 . 4 4 ee : “ ‘ } “ ; > Pe Se: " rer = 4k . Ve Ate ass ; 4 7 4 2 Aa 4 ? I B " ; i i 5 F ike es, i , i y K Bi) a : i ? a ; } i { aie : put bet ) 8 : i ‘ 4 CNEL NS fk ¢ . : ‘ i H 7 = bys . 7 i fF: ‘ 6 * “ Wye , a Sheer: is 1h ‘ c —e ‘ ew Wa e i \ “19 oe ‘ : = ‘ 4 = } } a Nh 4 * , + ryAMs . t : 4 * * nowt a4 , orm Ee he ees ~ ee ‘ | ‘ , - i ; > - + me _ f ‘ > . - 7 : aie: rate : 4 q an SES a a Raia: UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 279 e Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. W August 24, 1915. SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. By Rowranp M. Meape, Scientific Assistant, Office of Crop Acclimatization. CONTENTS. Page. | Page. Imitfroductionmererssccccce asec. c2 q-s ences 1.)) Numiberompollsisetieseeeeesceae oer ener 11 Cotton production in the San Antonio region. 2 | Numbers of locks in the bolls..._..........-- 12 PIG OF TESc ok SASSER IR See ens eee eee 3°’ |" Sizelotboll Sempee meer ea meres ae reser ceeaiy ner 13 Planting and germination of seed._.........- 4 | HOGMSOUGOWSer cence cece sce merece eee ae 13 Chopping wide-spaced rows...-.....---.----- 5 |) Yields fromisections Avand! Bij. 2t 2525202 14 Thinning single-stalk rows........-.-.------- 5 | Quality and quantity of fiber................ 18 Results of the test...........-- ELE oa 5 | Results in time-of-thinning test.............- 18 Development of vegetative branches........- 6 | Results in distance-between-row test .....-.- 19 Ow eriniomecondSte ee aqacees-ee- sice-s- - - 7! (SUMIN aye eee eee enon ce chcoeee eee eree 19 INTRODUCTION. Single-stalk cotton culture, as explained and discussed in previous publications of the Bureau of Plant Industry, has proved more sat- isfactory than other systems of culture in various sections of the cot- ton belt, especially in regions having short seasons. This is so for two reasons: (1) Single-stalk culture promotes earliness and (2) it increases the acre yield. The single-stalk system of cotton culture embraces late thinning and short spaces between the plants in the row. The late thinning suppresses the vegetative branches and re- stricts the size of the plants, so that they can be left from 6 to 12 inches apart in the row without injurious crowding. ‘The plants are left close together, so that the row space is more efficiently utilized and higher yields are obtained than by the common system of wide spacing. 1 The publications of the Bureau of Plant Industry concerning the single-stalk system of cotton culture are as follows: ‘““A New System of Cotton Culture,” a paper in Circular 115; Farmers’ Bulletin 601, ‘A New System of Cotton Culture and Its Application”; and Document 1130, “Single-Stalk Cotton Culture.’’ Farmers’ Bulletin 601 and the paper in Circular 115 explain the single-stalk system and give the results of experiments at Norfolk, Va., and in South Carolina. Document 1130 is an illustrated circular that shows how the vegetative branches are controlled and why larger yields are possible. Notre.—This bulletin will be of service generally in acquainting those who are interested in cotton growing with the several advantages to be gained through the application of single-stalk culture as com- pared with the more common methods. It will be particularly helpful to farmers and experimenters in locations similar to the San Antonio region. 98553°—Bull. 279—15——1 2 BULLETIN 279, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The period during which conditions are favorable for the setting of bolls in the region of San Antonio, Tex., is usually less than two months and frequently less than 80 days. In order to secure a good crop of cotton it is necessary, therefore, to practice the system of culture that will promote the production of the greatest number of bolls in the least time. For this reason the single-stalk system of culture has been looked upon as most nearly meeting the require- ments of local conditions. To compare the merits of the common practice of wide spacing and the new single-stalk system, a series of tests was conducted in 1914 on the United States experiment farm at San Antonio. The results of these tests showed striking differences in favor of single-stalk culture. In spite of the fact that the season was somewhat out of the ordi- nary, in that two months of excessively wet weather were followed by two months of drought, 1t was even more favorable for the pro- duction of cotton than ordinary seasons. Yields higher than the average were secured from rows grown according to the ordinary method of culture, even though the period during which bolls were set was shorter than normal. Whether the results in a normal season would have been more or less in favor of the single-stalk cul- ture can not be definitely stated, but results of previous experiments indicate that even if the season had been normal the differences in the two methods of culture would have been comparatively the same. COTTON PRODUCTION IN THE SAN ANTONIO REGION. In the San Antonio region the development of cotton seedlings is frequently retarded because of the low temperatures that prevail often as late as the middle of May. As a result of exposure to low temperatures the plants are variously affected with the disorder known as leaf-cut,! some only slightly, others so seriously that the terminal buds abort. From the middle of May to early July the plants usually develop normally and constantly, June being espe- cially favorable for their growth. Flowering commences from the first to the middle of June and reaches the maximum early in July. About the middle of July a drought usually ensues and continues until some time in August. This droughty condition causes the flowers to fall from the plants and only a very small percentage of the flowers that open in that period develop into bolls. By the end of July the plants cease to grow and very few flowers open. Rains usually fall during the latter part of August, and if the succeeding two months continue warm and the weevils are not numerous a ‘‘top crop”’ is sometimes produced. 1 For a detailed explanation of the nature of this disorder, see the paper entitled “‘Leaf-Cut, or Tomosis, a Disorder of Cotton Seedlings,’”’ in Circular 120 of the Bureau of Plant Industry. SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. 3 Usually the boll weevils do not appear in sufficient numbers to interfere materially with the setting of the crop before the first of July. During seasons of continued drought they are unable to reproduce rapidly enough to overcome the mortality caused by the falling of punctured squares and the action of the hot, dry atmos- phere, and consequently they inflict little damage. In other words, drought is to a degree a beneficial factor in the production of a cotton crop in this region.t’ During more humid seasons, however, weevils infest practically all buds and squares by the middle of July. From these facts it will be seen that cotton crops in the region of San Antonio must ordinarily be set within a month or a month and a half after flowering begins. Under the ordinary system of wide spacing, yields are usually rather low, averaging less than half a bale to the acre. During the season of 1914, however, nearly a bale to the acre was secured by the single-stalk system. Moreover, the bolls that produced this crop were set in less than 30 days. The season of 1914 was exceptional only in the distribution of the rainfall, which tended to shorten the period of setting the crop. While the normal rainfall for April and May, respectively, is less than 3 inches, in 1914 more than 6 inches fell during each of these months. No rain fell from the first of June until the middle of August, so that a continued drought followed an extended period of rainfall. PLAN OF TEST. A plan of the field on which the ordinary system of wide spacing and the new single-stalk system of cotton culture were tested and compared in 1914 is shown in figure 1. In order to facilitate com- parisons, the field was divided into four sections, which are desig- nated as A, B,C, and D, respectively. All of the sections were planted with the same variety of cotton, Acala, a promising new type recently acclimatized from Mexico, which has given excellent results for several seasons at San Antonio. In section A the two systems were compared in alternating rows; that is, single rows in which the plants were thinned early to 2 feet apart alternated with single rows in which the plants were thinned late and left less than 10 inches apart. In section B 4-row blocks grown by the common system of culture alternated with 4-row blocks grown by the .single-stalk system of culture. In section C there were three blocks of five rows each. The plants in the five rows of each block were spaced to 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 inches apart, respectively. The blocks were thinned on three different dates, 1See Bulletin 220 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, entitled “The Relation of Drought to Weevil Resistance in Cotton.’’ a BULLETIN 279, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the first representing early, the second late, and the third very late thinning. In section D the two systems were compared in alternate rows, the rows being planted 3, 4, 5, and 6 feet apart. A guard row between sections A and B was not thinned at any time during the season. Throughout this paper the rows representing the common practice of wide spacing are designated as wide-spaced rows and those repre- senting the new system of close spacing are referred to as single- stalk rows. PLANTING AND GERMINATION OF SEED. Tt has been found desirable to plant from 25 to 30 pounds of seed to the acre if the rows are 4 feet apart, in order to secure a stand SECTION A SECTION B See TON SECTION D pap ti OLD AND NEW 40 ROWS 4 FEET APART |40 ROWS # FEET APART |NTHINNED \SYSTEMS OF IN WHICH OLD AND NEW|/N WHICH OLD AND NEW} TO CULTURE CO Aa SYSTEMS ARE COM- |SYSTEMS ARE COM- \OIFFERENT AE age PARED IN ALTERNATE | PARED IN ALTERNATE |OISTANCES AT S/INGLE ROWS. BLOCKS. ON DIFFERENT DISTANCES DIFFERENT) © 544 oF: K y CO FEET Fig. 1.—Plan of the field at San Antonio, Tex., in which the common system of wide spacing and the new Single-stalk system of cotton culture were tested and compared in 1914. in which the young plants become crowded sufficiently to restrict the development of the vegetative branches. Accordingly, the seed for the San Antonio test was sowed at the rate of about 30 pounds to the acre. The planting was done on April 14, with a 2-row planter. Heavy rains and low temperatures rendered the conditions unfa- vorable for the germination of seed; but on account of the high rate of seeding a good stand was obtained. Nearly all rows had a short ‘‘skip” or two in which no plants appeared, but none of these skips were more than a few feet long, and it is believed that they had little effect on the yields. The skips were more numerous in section B than in any other section of the field, but were as frequent in single- stalk blocks as in wide-spaced blocks, and they therefore balanced the comparison of the two systems. Aside from these occasional skips, the stand was very satisfactory. SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. 5 CHOPPING WIDE-SPACED ROWS. In the region of San Antonio the general practice is to chop the plants when they are still very small, leaving one or two plants every 18 to 24 inches apart. This is usually done as soon as possible after germination, depending generally on weather conditions or when the choppers are best able to do the work, rather than on the stage of the plants’ development. In the San Antonio test an attempt was made to approximate this practice in the wide-spaced rows. The plants were spaced to 2 feet, but owing to rain the chopping was delayed until May 6, 22 days after planting. At this time the plants were about 3 or 4 inches high and had one or two foliage leaves in addition to the seed leaves. THINNING SINGLE-STALK ROWS. In the single-stalk rows it was planned to leave the plants from 6 to 8 inches apart, and except in the short skips it was possible to secure the spacings desired. In order to have the spacing as accurate as possible and to leave the most promising plants the thinning was done by hand. Care was exercised near the skips to leave the plants slightly closer together, in order that the effect of the open space might to a degree be overcome and that the development of vegetative branches might be prevented. Later observation showed, however, that one or two vegetative branches generally developed on plants next to skips or at the ends of rows. The plants developed slowly during the cool, cloudy days of April and early May, so that it was late in May before they were in the proper condition for thmning. Because of continued rains the thin- ning was not done, however, until June 2. At this time the plants were about 12 inches high and had about eight full-grown leaves. On some of the most precocious plants fruiting branches had begun to develop. It is believed that had it been possible to do the thin- ning a week or 10 days earlier, when the plants had but five or six full-grown leaves and were only 8 or 10 inches high, it would have been more effective. RESULTS OF THE TEST. In compering the wide-spaced and single-stalk systems of culture the following points were considered: Development of vegetative branches, rate of flowering, number of bolls set, number of locks in bolls, size of bolls, the form of rows, yields of seed cotton, and percentage and quality of lint.' 1 The writer was greatly assisted in securing the data at different times during the season by Messrs. Robert E. Kerr, James Taylor, H. Gregory McKeever, G. B. Gilbert, and G. W. R. Davidson. There was at all times close cooperation with the staff of the United States experiment farm at San Antonio. 6 BULLETIN 279, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. While comparative yields comprise the most important consid- eration in such tests as long as the quality of the fiber is not injured in the system giving the highest yield, it is important to know what factors influence productiveness. Since the success of single-stalk culture depends primarily on the suppression of vegetative-branch development, it is important to know how conditions of climate and culture affect the growth of these branches. The rate of flower- ing and the setting of bolls are directly associated and have con- siderable bearing on the yields. The number of locks in the boll is not important so long as good yields are obtained, but a great reduction in the size of bolls would, of course, be undesirable under any system of culture. The distance to which plants spread between rows, especially near the ground, is important, since it may affect cultivation, picking, etc., and the distance apart rows should be planted may be limited by this feature. Data on all of these points were secured only in sections A and B, which included the largest part of the field. Onsome of the points, however, data were obtained from all sections. DEVELOPMENT OF VEGETATIVE BRANCHES. During warm and favorable spring weather in the region of San Antonio, cotton plants in wide-spaced rows develop five or six vegetative branches, but if the weather remains cool only two or three branches may develop. Though the development of vegetative branches was restricted more than usual by low temperatures in the season of 1914, it was possible by leaving the plants crowded in the rows to induce a further reduction in the number of branches. This can be clearly seen in Table I, which presents the average number of vegetative branches on plants in wide-spaced and single-stalk rows of Acala cotton in sections A and B. These averages represent the census from 25 consecutive plants in each of the rows. TaBLeE I.—Average number of vegetative branches on plants in wide-spaced and in single- stalk rows of Acala cotton in sections A and B, San Antonio, Tex., 1914. Alternate single rows (section A). Alternate 4-row blocks (section B). Single-stalk W ide-spaced Single-stalk W ide-spaced rows. rows. rows. rows. _ | Average _ | Average _ | Average . | Average BOMPWirokeS Mien ON Le | | ofa qlee) of Ba. |VRO ta ata Sage plants. oS plants. ie plants. : plants. 0. 48 4 1. 56 62 0. 40 58 1. 56 - 56 6 1. 60 63 . 64 59 1.68 50 8 1.72 64 . 60 60 2. 00 40 10 1. 64 1. 20 SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. a Table I shows that during the cool spring of 1914 an average of 1.6 vegetative branches developed on the wide-spaced plants, while the average on the single-stalk plants was 0.53 branch per plant. The range of averages in wide-spaced rows was from 1.2 to 2 branches per plant, while in single-stalk rows it was from 0.4 to 0.64 branch per plant. FLOWERING RECORDS. Beginning with June 17, when the first flowers appeared, a daily flower census was taken in sections A and B to compare the rate of flowering of wide-spaced and single-stalk rows. This was continued for 20 days. The results of the census are given in Table I. In the first part of Table II, which represents the census in section A, it may be seen that for three days more flowers opened in the wide-spaced rows than in the single-stalk rows, while in the second part of the table, which represents the census taken in section B, this was true only on the first day that flowers opened. After the flowers in the single-stalk rows began to outnumber those in the wide- spaced rows the lead was maintained throughout the entire period. The increase in the number of flowers in single-stalk rows over that in the wide-spaced rows ranged from 30 to 204 per cent, the average for the 20-day period bemg 125.6 per cent in section A and 135 per cent in section B. At the end of the 20-day flower census, July 6, the drought had become severe, and most of the flowers produced after that date failed to develop into bolls. Consequently the census for the entire field was not carried further, but was continued for 20 days longer on eight representative rows in each of sections A and B. None of the flowers opening after July 10 produced bolls, so these flowers had no part in increasing the yields of either single-stalk or wide-spaced rows. Their numbers are given, however, in Table III for four 10-day peri- ods in order to show that the single-stalk rows continued to produce more flowers than the wide-spaced rows for the extended period. Table III shows that at the end of 40 days 12,574 flowers had opened on 20 wide-spaced rows in section A, while 84.4 per cent more, or 23,189, had opened on 20 single-stalk rows. In section B 20 wide- spaced rows opened 13,725 flowers, while 20 smgle-stalk rows opened 78 per cent more, or 23,401 flowers. 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 10 GT LET. Gol ZOT | OTT | OST | SPE} SEL | S&T | Got | gat | FOS | OL | SEL | G6 Gel | ZFL | 06 Gg 1¢ GOH Geum ae | eatin nian yuea Jed ‘sMor Y[VIS-8[suls Jo ssvaluy cot ‘er | zor‘se | 866% | F90‘c] 28¢‘F| LeF‘b| ogz‘G] epp‘F] ese ‘el cot ‘e] 0622] cot ‘zl eeo‘z| Fse‘T| 9FO‘T| eco | P22 | gor | FIe | eer | er lor |z “SMOIYIVIS-O[SUIS ‘Te}OT, ‘ i ote C i ‘ J ‘ ' ‘ ‘ ‘ a | ee ed rad GE ‘ST | SZt ‘OL | F1Z‘S |} 80g ‘z} Tex ‘z] Gz6‘T| soe ‘Z| T16‘T] cee ‘T| zor ‘T| Tz0‘T| ezz | 192 | ce | geo | eee | ere | ers | oer | ce Fe | CL | 6 Pag. 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[RIOT “FIGL ‘Ane “FI6T ‘ounr ‘ponulyjuoyj— way ‘owojup ung yo u07200 nypoy fo syunjd paopds-aprn pun y)nj8-ajburs fo snsuao sanopf hpwgq— ]{ ATAV], SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. 11 TaB LE II1.—F lower census by 10-day periods in wide-spaced and single-stalk rows of Acala cotton in sections A and B, San Antonio, Tex., 1914. Total flowers in alternate Total flowers in alternate single rows (Section A). || 4-row blocks (section B). Row No. gael eS |e Row No. calonlas|as| ob i 3/°PHa | 7 C= h 3 = 5 toon exletiet|S5| 5 Je Epa) Saas “SiON | Blab! +5 Piro a ee ete AE Bo Ee E'S © Ras Be Peels fo) He |Sala 15>] bs He |S8/e | s>] 64 & |ae|e |e | ws & |oele |& |e EES | Ee LA ear 3, single stalk........... 67/1, 791)2, 222)1, 620) 5,700|| 58, wide spaced....... 131| 836/1,533/1, 289] 3,789 4, wide spaced.......-.. 60] 856/1, 231/1,079| 3, 226|| 59, wide spaced....... 139| 938]1, 455/1, 215| 3,747 5, single Stalk. - 2... --- 120)2, 046|2, 110/1, 686] 5,962) 60, wide spaced.....-- 98] 823}1, 438)1, 231] 3,590 6, wide spaced....-....- 52} 9301, 253/1, 147) 3,382|| 61, widespaced......- 68} 605)]1,078) 848) 2,599 7, Single stalk.....-.---- 105}1, 893|2, 064)1, 553} 5,615|| 62, single stalk....-..- 314/2, 013|2, 265/1,316) 5,908 8, wide spaced.......... 59] 662) 986] 833] 2,540|| 63, singlestalk........ 272|2, 002|2, 373/1, 098] 5, 745 Ousingle\stalike ase. oh! 198/2, 070/2, 204|1, 440] 5,912) 64, singlestalk.......- 2512, 002|2, 292| 947) 5, 492 10, wide spaced......-.-. 93 975 1, 375) 983] 3,426)| 65, single stalk.......- 302)2, 345]2, 523/1, 086) 6, 256 Total,singlestalk..-.- 490/7, 800 8, 600 6, 299 23, 189|| Total,widespaced....| 436)3, 202|5, 504/4, 583/13, 725 Total,widespaced..... 264/3, 423|4, 845/4, 042/12, 574|| Total, singlestalk. .. .|1, 139|8,362/9, 453/4, 447/23, 401 Increase, single Increase, single stalk, per cent. --. 86} 128; 78) 56] 84. 4)| stalk, per cent...| 161) 161) 72) —3 87 NUMBER OF BOLLS SET. To compare tne efficiency of single-stalk and wide-spaced rows in the production of bolls, the total number of bolls set in rows 3 to 10 in section A and in rows 58 to 65 in section B were recorded. The results of the census are presented in Table IV. TasLe IV.—Bolls matured on wide-spaced and single-stalk rows of Acala cotton, 264 feet long, San Antonio, Tex., 1914. | Bolls Bolls : Bolls ; Bolls Row No. (section A). zlanis tate d pet Row No. (section B). Elanis are d we, ) on row.| Pp 5 on row. | P22 | Suisinelestalles es a ele 350 | 2,021 5.7 | 58, wide spaced......... 100 | 1,129 11.3 A WwACelIspaced sn - sass onions. 120 750 6.2 | 59, widespaced......... 98 | 1,070 10.9 onsingle|stalik. 22.25.5222 -0=- 405 | 2,086; 5.1 | 60, widespaced....-.... 110 999 9.0 6, wide spaced........-...-. 124 $41 7.6 | 61, wide spaced..-.--.-. 109- 731 6.7 sine lelstallkeaneet sac cee ee SUG 29120 5. 1 | 62; singlestallcs = 55-2222 276 | 2,001 LY Seawaiderspacedsee en sce sos. 95 806 8.5 | 63, single stalk...-....... 303 | 1,669 5.5 Orsimelestalle: fs. 22.5) L2: 387 | 2,203 5.8 | 64, single stalk.......... 290 | 1,465 5.0 10, wide spaced...-...-..... 108 893 8.3 | 65, single stalk.:........ 451 | 1,889 4.2 Average, single stalk.....- 380 | 2,108 5. 42 Average, single stalk. 332 | 1,756 5. 47 Average, wide spaced. ..-- 112 848 7.65 Average, wide spaced. 104 982 8. 6 Increase, single stalk, per 232 49! eee cretetaie Increase, single stalk, 222 WS Nsssose ae cent. per cent. Table IV shows that plants in single-stalk rows set an average of five or six bolls each and those in wide-spaced rows about eight bolls, but the single-stalk rows contained about 225 per cent more plants than the wide-spaced rows, so that the total number of bolls set in single-stalk rows was greater. The single-stalk rows in section A set 149 per cent more bolls than the adjoming wide-spaced rows. In sec- tion B the single-stalk rows set 78 per cent more bolls than the wide- 12 BULLETIN 279, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. spaced rows. The increase of inside rows, which approach most nearly the conditions of uniform field culture, was 47 per cent in favor of single-stalk rows. As will be shown later, the difference in yields from these rows favored single-stalk culture in about the proportion indicated by the number of bolls set. NUMBERS OF LOCKS IN THE BOLLS. Another census was made of bolls in single-stalk and wide-spaced rows to determine the percentages of 3, 4, and 5 locked bolls produced under the different systems of culture. Although the number of locks, or carpels, is always a variable character, the relative number of 3, 4, and 5 locked bolls is somewhat altered by different conditions of culture or climate. For instance, under irrigation a higher per- centage of 5-locked bolls is produced than under dry-land culture. In previous years it has been found that a. lower percentage of 5-locked bolls was produced under the single-stalk system of culture than under the wide-spacing system, and the census taken at San Antonio in 1914 corroborates these former results. To determine the percentages of bolls with 3, 4, and 5 locks, a count of at least 300 bolls was taken in each row and the number of locks recorded. It was, of course, possible to secure the required number. of bolls in less row space in the single-stalk rows than in the wide-spaced rows. The percentages of 3, 4, and 5 locked bolls in sections A and B are pre- sented in Table V. | TaBLE V.—Ratio of 3-locked, 4-locked, and 5-locked bolls in rows of Acala cotton in sections A and B grown under the wide-spaced and single-stalk systems of culture, San Antonio, Tex., 1914. Wide-spaced rows. Single-stalk rows. Row: No. Locks in bolls— Locks in bolls— 5-locked 5-locked bolls. bolls. 3 4 5 Total. 3 4 5 Total. Alternate single rows (section A): Per cent. Per cent. Bao odbbeEdec Laos] Foceddl ddocoaeq toauedd BeSBeHeallbocdcec ood! amaes 202 165 367 45.0 (mnasseapocceleisonoo 91 230 321 71d Reese MBO Seeee pc obsue ce ceccc| Fyoccinos ss HOBOS CO COSC ER OEOo booecee.| boceeaoc Bapmecsolloodopccocc 5 193 188 386 48.7 Be cpalcrsiniatatol=tetatetsial| cleleesis es 168 201 369 94510) || n:ni0j=;, a0] wine inycivinl= | wleie eicteeic| Cae teent eaten UsseHonctooscnoc Pecooc |bodeocca lasers pomemoos bouccécoeT 3 199 162 864 44.5 Sr ceectecinctisicen 2 156 199 357 SRY fll SERGES BEcpobod peooooed bonemeod scce se secr De ictolaretate i ealaicininal| cia cette | eral eleieieiaisi| six (a miele eo oimte eictalcaal| ieintctateatetetate 2 200 155 357 43.4 I) -ebeSssenbeeee 1 149 202 352 BVOC) | enh 4 Based) ooo sam |e neicmeistel pierem eeteteneet Alternate 4-row blocks (section B): BB RES sete Melelsois]| bela eine 154 181 335 RU) Rees Became em sert ier sells se 3 Yu eeiscosedesoconlbeboce 142 171 313 GY: Ot dl Beene MRAp mene oseeene Poosorco|Sisscece ss COs ee Se ce Os eee 161 207 368 bP Al BeBe Se ee Sse ssa Seams Sec nc cc te Ole emepaeiinenve sierers|leratcetete 192 169 361 AB NB oh os oo] Sc eB jercll Sere ceric. nll Ce eno eT Sieeeeanene an WPocgunonHecboel edcdell-¢ seidtoc) SoS 5664 BGA soe ateceicc.-| [moos 171 3 304 43.7 (S Geaigacoooordal broods Esobecoe SS oScseHr Saba soael ssoooerccel Heseor 186 1 332 44.0 Ce ROB AG As Seihcod os Shccoc GHCEe nme BEE Senor toamcces So Peesas 180 120 800 40.0 UI EGSRSEC OGRE SOE Pepe sclten ct os 4) GOOG ORee betbor oc boscwiooroc Barer. 130 2 332 60.8 otal a seeeer 3 1, 213 1,560 AO eters 10 1,461 1,271 2,192) =eice ae eee Per cent......| 0.08 43.7 56. 2 100 56.2] 0.4 53.3 46.3 100 46.3 SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. 13 Table V shows that the range in percentage of 5-locked bolls in wide-spaced rows was from 47 to 72, with an average of 56, while in single-stalk rows the range was from 43 to 61 per cent, with an average of 46 per cent. The production of a higher percentage of 4-locked bolls in single- stalk rows need not be considered an undesirable feature, since 4- locked bolls are more readily picked and the lint in them is fully as good as that in 5-locked bolls. The number of 3-locked bolls is insignificant. SIZE OF BOLLS. A comparison of the size of bolls was obtained by weighing 25 4-locked and 25 5-locked bolls from wide-spaced and single-stalk rows. The 4-locked bolls from single-stalk and wide-spaced rows weighed 5.04 and 5.32 grams, respectively, a difference of 0.28 gram. The weights of the 5-locked bolls were 5.64 and 6.2 grams for single- stalk and wide-spaced rows, respectively, the difference being 0.56 gram. Bolls from wide-spaced rows in both 4 and 5 locked samples weighed slightly more than those from single-stalk rows. In other words, 19 4-locked bolls from single-stalk rows have the same weight as 18 4-locked bolls from wide-spaced rows, and 11 5-locked bolls from single-stalk rows equal 10 5-locked bolls from wide-spaced rows. Five-locked bolls weighed from 0.6 to 0.8 of a gram more than 4-locked bolls. A slight reduction in the size of the bolls may be looked upon as a necessary consequence of producing a larger crop under the con- ditions of drought that ruled durmg the period of development of the bolls. FORMS OF ROWS. Tt has been previously shown that plants in wide-spaced rows de- veloped more vegetative branches at the base than plants in single- stalk rows. The vegetative branches spread out from the base of the plants in the wide-spaced rows, forming rows that in cross section were broader near the ground than near the top of the plants. Few plants in single-stalk rows had vegetative branches, so that the plants were made up of main stalks only. These grew erect and formed a narrow hedgelike row early in the season. Later, however, as the plants became taller, they leaned to one side or the other, making the rows broader at the top than near the ground. A cross section of a single-stalk row resembled an inverted cone or pyramid. This feature is clearly illustrated in Plate I, which shows an end view of a single-stalk row of Blackseed cotton. The contrast in form be- tween the single-stalk and the wide-spaced rows is illustrated in Plates II and IV. At the end of the season the plants in the single- stalk rows were more than 6 inches taller than those in the wide- spaced rows, being 3.96 and 3.36 feet in height, respectively. 14 BULLETIN 279, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It was found possible to cultivate close to the plants in single-stalk rows without injury to the stalks. On the other hand, it was difficult to cultivate so close to the plants in wide-spaced rows without injuring the vegetative branches and the stalks. All fruit was borne on the lower half of the plants in both kinds of rows, as may be seen in Plates I, III, IV, and in figure 1 of Plate V. As previously stated, the drought caused the shedding of all the bolls and flowers that would have developed after July 10. The bare stalks that appear above the fruited portions of the plants represent the erowth made after the middle of July. Until the August rains rcla- tively little growth was made, but after these rains the growth was very rapid. It was after this period of rapid growth that the taller plents in the single-stalk rows began to lean to one side or the other, resulting in the form of row shown in Plate I. YIELDS FROM SECTIONS A AND B. It has been shown that, compared with wide-spaced rows, the single-stalk rows in sections A and B showed far less vegetative-branch development, and that the plants grew to a greater height, thus facilitating cultivation between the rows; they produced flowers in ercater abundance, and they set more bolls of about the same size as the others, though a higher percentage contained four instead of five locks. It now remains to be shown how the two systems of culture com- pared from the standpoint of yield, which is the most important con- sideration, provided that the quality of the lint is not affected. The yields are recorded in Table VI. Table VI shows that in section A, in which wide-spaced and single- stalk rows were compared in alternate rows, the yields from wide- spaced rows ranged from 9 to 14.4 pounds, while in single-stalk rows the range was from 17.6 to 31 pounds, the lowest yield from the single-stalk rows being 22 per cent greater than the highest yield from wide-spaced rows. These results are shown graphically in figure 2. The increase in the total yield of the single-stalk rows over the adjoiming wide-spaced rows ranged from 63 to 227 per cent, with an average of 125.5 per cent. (See Pl. TL.) At the time the first picking was made, on August 11, 31 per cent of the total crop from the wide-spaced rows was picked, as compared with only 26 per cent of the crop from the single-stalk rows. In spite of this fact, the first picking from the single-stalk rows yielded 88 per cent more seed cotton than the wide-spaced rows. The second picking was made on September 8, when the yield obtained from single-stalk rows was 144 per cent more than that from wide- spaced rows. alll on SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. 15 TasLeE VI.— Yields from wide-spaced and single-stalk rows of Acala cotton in sections A and B, San Antonio, Tex., 1914. [Rows 4.1 feet apart, 264 feet long.] spaced, pounds..|..-.--|-.---- stalk, pounds....|..-.--|...-.- Pie} Alternate single = S rows (section A). | %& ae) oS Bie |e |. | oe Row No. fee. Ute bs 2 = Row No. ma 4a | 2 ay 5 x = oD as s foP) 6 2 AP oh] & | Bag I 2 Rn i=] CEE Ss q -) 6S Oheae zii| molar Woe Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Pr.ct. 1, single stalk...| 404) 3.3] 27.5 30.8 161| 42, wide spaced.... 2, wide spaced..| 109) 2.8) 9.0} 11.8)........ 43, wide spaced.... 3, Single stalk...]- 350} 6.1) 21.0 | 27:1 153] 44, wide spaced.... Anwaderspacedee|. 1201)" 82.3)) dee 10. 722-22. 45, wide spaced.... 5, single stalk...}| 405) 6.9] 21.8 | 28.7 109| 46, single stalk..... 6, widespaced..} 124; 3.8) 9.9) 13.7)......-. 47, singlestalk..... 7, Single stalk.-.| 377) 7.2] 22.2) 29.4! 227| 48, single stalk....- 8, wide spaced. . 95) 3.1) 5.9 OF Olesen 49, single stalk....- 9, singlestalk...| 387) 7.4] 21.7] 29.1) 122} 50, wide spaced...- 10, wide spaced. 108) 416 SS5) |S Me 2 51, wide spaced.... 11,singlestalk..} 361) 8.6) 22.4 | 31.0) 142} 52; wide spaced.... 12, widespaced.| 121) 4.9} 7.9 | 12.8)........ 53, wide spaced...-.- 13, single stalk..| 362} 10.2) 20.8 | 31.0) 161] 54, single stalk..... 14, widespaced.} 102) 4.1) 7.8] 11.9)........ 55, single stalk...-. 15, single stalk..] 351] 10.0) 19.9 29.9} 114] 56, single stalk..... 16, wide spaced. 131) 5.4] 8.6 1450) 528 ees 57, single stalk_.... 17, single stalk..| 350) 7.0| 19.6 | 26.6 96] 58, wide spaced...- 18, widespaced.| 105) 4.2) 9.4] 13.6!........| 59, widespaced... 19, single stalk..} 286) 8.9) 19.5 | 28.4 97| 60, wide spaced. 20, widespaced.| 138) 4.8) 9.6] 14.4|........ 61, wide spaced... 21, single stalk..| 342) 7.1) 19.3] 26.4 126] 62, single stalk..... 22, wide spaced. TOO) “ZEQ |e EM BOR eee eee 63, single stalk....- 23, Single stalk..} 283] 4.9) 18.3 | 23.2 117| 64, single stalk..... 24, widespaced.| 100) 3.6] 7.1] 10.7|-...-.-. 65, single stalk....- 25, Single stalk..| 380) 8.4) 14.1] 22.5 63} 66, wide spaced... 26, wide spaced. 132 Ata OR Aa e338) Ne 67, wide spaced .. 27, Single stalk..) 396) 8.9] 21.6 |- 30.5 135] 68, wide spaced. 28, wide spaced. TAY) S SSG) Ove" le GRR ee See 69, wide spaced.. 29, single stalk..| 416) 7.6) 21.3] 28.9 121} 70, single stalk. .... 30, widespaced.| 127) 4.3) 8.8] 18.1|....-.-. 71, single stalk..... 31, single stalk... 319 6.9} 19.5 | 26.4 161| 72, single stalk..... 32, widespaced.| 103) 2.8] 7.3] 10.1|...-.... 73, single stalk....- 33, Single stalk..| 354) 5.3] 20.6 | 25.9 101| 74, wide spaced... 34, widespaced.} 131] 3.7) 9.2] 12.9]..-.-... 75, wide spaced... aia, singe Stalk..| 292)...... a20.9 | 20.9 95| 76, wide spaced.. 36, wide spaced. MO} s65s5 GAKOSY/ Ip Os 7\eee eee 77, wide spaced.... 37, single stalk..| 295|...... a17.6| 17.6 83] 78, single stalk.._.. 38, wide spaced.| 100|-...-. a9. 6 PhG) Beaasene 79, single stalk._... 39, single stalk..] 268)-..... a21.6| 21.6 90) 80, single stalk...-. 40, wide spaced. 122 | eee Pali ay yt TA eee Se 81, single stalk..... Total, sin- Total, wide gle stalk. _| 6,978! 124. 7/351. 1 | 535. 9)..-.-.-- spaced ...... Total, wide Total, single spaced...) 2,299) 66.3)144.0 | 242.0)......-. Stalk 2529-2. Average, sin- Average, wide glestalk....| 349; 7.3] 20.65| 26.8|........ spaced........ Average,wide Average, single Spacedeese rs ellolmerse Oy G- 4lebon Losec cee Stalikeyeee eee SEIS, oer eon ces S » per > per centeea hss y ea eee oe 2652/3780) LOONO == — 2 -- Centasaaenes e eee! Open crop, wide Open crop, single spaced, per stalk, per cent...|..-..- x cent eG et 31.5) 68.5 | 100. 0)......-- Acre yield, wide yield, sin- gle stalk, qe. eye SPA a PE | aL NOGA Wee soe Acre yield, single cre yield, wide spaced,pounds]......|......]..-.-- Aa ere asiaye Increase, single Tnerease, smgie stalk, per cent...|. sta per contel sthelte.4, 88 [144 | 121.5] 121.5 ike) Alternate 4-row a gs blocks (section B).) % 8, . on g En © a or oD | ss i ¢ q fo¥e) as i= eedteort| | ed ae qd oH seas led rat eon aaa OSES H Sey) Be a) co) 5 AP Lelitry a PA an A le<| 4) 3 | SEE =) A= | % i) Sasa Z & A a pe Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Pr.ct 100) 2.8 Ber 9 | ills fen | eerie rss 104; 3.2 TS el’ 5s, On| evra 103) 2.1 O35 | L2G ees 83) 2.6 eS LONAU| ee eise oe 233) 6.1 15. 4) 21.5 84 320) 7.5 14. 4) 21.9 53 258] 7.4 14. 8} 22.2 51 410) 7.0 13. 8] 20.8 100 100) 4.0 Soll 2am |serelser ce 113} 4.4 IPS OAC See eae dad 100) 3.4 Ey Oy le oaeo aes EB) les 4) ONO Wal 74M |eerers re 362} 8.0 14.3] 22.3 81 271) 8.7 12. 5) 21.2 29 388} 8.4 12. 1) 20.5 60 284) 6.1 11. 8} 17.9 34 100) 6.0 SO ela ON | eae 98) 6.0 Q1G|elon Giles cemac 110) 5.5 Hey IGS) llbgsecoos 109) 3.5 GES lO NSe |eeeesee 276) 10.0 14. 6) 24.6 76 303) 10.3 8. 4] 18.7 20 290) 10.6 6. 6} 17. 2 20 451) 11.0 11. 6] 22.6 119 EN 5G) (h8)] Heb iy ae asaca 107) 6.8 428 |PLAH Gy ee ee: 128) 5.2 Sad les 4) liscassoae 133] 6.4 G7 IE Seca Seon 370} 11.1 12. 3] 23. 4 69 399} 13.3 9.0} 22.3 53 413) 11.4 9. 3} 20. 7 53 431) 13.4 11. 8} 25. 2 92 126) 6.4 G64 UPR ese ebeae 128) 7.3 OO 03 B sceeooac 136) 8.6 SHA AO Eee es = 106) 6.9 Gyo Ge Oe =sessee 409} 12. 2 10. 5} 22. 7 79 348} 11.5 7. 3} 18.8 15 389) 10.9 9. 5) 20. 4 20 271| 12.6 8. 3] 20.9 60 ZAQU TL OQ | O47 27228) |e eee = 6, 840/197. 5 | 228. 3/425.8 |.......- 110) 5.1 S20 plosO4 | eaeeeee- BAA ONO Mle Uke ay Zien ss | ers i aaeents 37.4 62. 6/100. 0 |-------- 46.4 D340 LOOs Op |Eeeeee seats DA Gtuuee eee 4 Besos 852 Sa tone Bones 93.5 | 33.7) 56.1 56. 1 ¢ Not included in total. 16 BULLETIN 279, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The yields from the alternate blocks of section B shown in Table VI represent more nearly what may be expected under field conditions. The results are similar to those obtained from the alternate rows in section A, though the differences are less extreme. The total yields from the wide-spaced rows ranged from 10.3 to 17 pounds and those from the single-stalk rows fam 17.2 to 25.2 pounds, the minimum yield from the single-stalk rows being practically the same as the maximum yield from the wide-spaced rows. These results are pre- sented graphically in figure 3. At the time the first picking was made, August 11, 37 per cent of the crop in the wide-spaced rows was AVERAGE YIELD OF IN POUNDS i YIELD WIDE SPACED ROWS SINGLE STALK ROWS (AVERAGE Y/IELO OF \ ll / 3 S + 7 9 43 ‘5 be) ROW Paes, Fig. 2.—Diagram showing the yields from single-stalk and wide-spaced rows of Acala cotton in section A, San Antonio, Tex., in 1914. Wide-spaced rows represented by double lines, single-stalk rows by heavy lines. harvested, as compared with 47 per cent of the crop in the single- stalk rows, the latter yielding 93 per cent more seed cotton. The second picking from the single-stalk rows was 33.7 per cent greater than that from the wide-spaced rows. The increase in the total yield of individual rows in any single-stalk block over the correspond- ing rows in the preceding w ide-spaced block ranged from 15 to 119 per cent, the average heme 56.1 per cent. Reference to figure 3 will show that in most cases the inside rows of wide-spaced blocks and the outside rows of single-stalk blocks yielded more than the other two rows of the same blocks. This Bui. 279, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Reel END VIEW OF THE SINGLE-STALK ROW OF BLACKSEED COTTON SHOWN IN PLATE III, FIGURE 1, IN WHICH THE CORRESPONDING PLANTS ARE DESIGNATED BY THE SAME LETTERS USED HERE. This illustrates the form of row common to the single-stalk system of culture. Note how the plants lean to one side or the other. Bul. 279, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘110}}00 Jo sattd aoSavy oyy Aq poyuosordor o1B TOT ‘SMOI Y[VIS-OLSUIS OY} JO [ALOIS JO QB JOoII OLOUL a) PUB IY Soy 10}v915 9Y) 9ION "SMOY BSHL JO SONA SHL Ly WAH WOud NANVL NOLLOO daag JO LNNOWY TWWLOL 3HL HLIM ‘NOLLOO VIVO JO SMOY G20vdS-30IM INV AIWLG-STONIS ONILVNES LY Bul. 279, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fig. 1.—SIDE VIEW OF THE SINGLE-STALK ROW OF BLACKSEED COTTON SHOWN IN PLATE 1, THE CORRESPONDING PLANTS BEING DESIGNATED BY THE SAME LETTERS. These 11 plants, with only 2 vegetative branches, produced a total of 88 bolls. Most of the leaves have been removed to show the branching habit and slender form of the plants. Note the lack of crowding. Compare with Plate III, figure 2. (The plants were 8 feet from the camera when photographed.) Fia. 2.—SIDE VIEW OF THREE PLANTS IN A WIDE-SPACED ROW OF BLACKSEED COTTON. These 3 plants bore 11 vegetative branches and produced a total of 67 bolls. the same extent of row space as those in Plate III, figure 1. Most of the leaves have been They cover removed to show the branching habit and bushy form of the plants. (The plants were 8 feet from the camera when photographed.) Bul. 279, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. | Fig. 1.—ELEVEN PLANTS IN A SINGLE-STALK ROW OF ACALA COTTON WITH A TOTAL r | OF 3 VEGETATIVE BRANCHES AND 59 BOLLS. This shows a single-stalk row as it should look when properly spaced. Note the absence of vegetative branches and the uniform position of the fruit. Compare with Plate LV, figure 2. (The plants were 8 feet from the camera when photographed. ) Fla. 2.—THREE PLANTS IN A WIDE-SPACED ROW OF ACALA COTTON WITH A TOTAL OF 8 VEGETATIVE BRANCHES AND 38 BOLLS. Note the development of vegetative branches and the irregular placement of the fruit. Com- pare with Plate lV, figurel, (The plants were 8 feet from the camera when photographed. ) Bul. 279, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. REATE Vi Fic. 1.—SIXTEEN PLANTS IN AN UNTHINNED ROW OF ACALA COTTON WITH 10 VEGETATIVE BRANCHES AND 70 BOLLS. Seven of the 10 vegetative branches were produced on the two end plants of the section, adjacent to open spaces in the row. This illustrates the effectiveness of crowding to sup- press the development of vegetative branches. But note thesmaller plants, which produced no bolls. This probably is due to the suppression or abortion of fruiting branches, brought on by the overcrowded condition of the row during itsfruiting period. Single-stalk culture aims to avoid such a condition. Compare with Plate III, figure 1, and Plate IV, figure 1. (The plants were 8 feet from the camera when photographed.) | eS Fia. 2.—THE FIRST PICKING OF SEED COTTON FROM Rows IN SECTION C. The plants in ‘the rows from left to right were spaced early to 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 inches, | respectively. The yields in pounds per row were 13.2, 11.8, 8.9, 8.6, and 7, respectively. (The piles of cotton were 8 feet from the camera when photographed. ) Bul. 279, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE VI. Fia. 1.—TOTAL YIELDS FROM FOUR CONSECUTIVE WIDE-SPACED ROWS OF ACALA CoTTON IN SECTION B, NUMBERED FROM LEFT TO RIGHT 58, 59, 60, AND 61, RESPECTIVELY. The yields in pounds per row were 14, 15.6, 14.3, and 10.3, respectively. Note the greater yields from the inside rows. Compare with Plate VI, figure 2. (The piles of cotton were 8 feet from the camera when photographed.) Fie. 2.—TOTAL YIELDS FROM FOUR CONSECUTIVE SINGLE-STALK ROWS OF ACALA CoTTON IN SECTION B, NUMBERED FROM RIGHT TO LEFT 62, 63, 64, AND 65, RESPECTIVELY. The yields in pounds per row were 24.6, 18.7, 17.2, and 22.6, respectively. Note the greater yields from the outside rows. Compare with Plate VI, figure 1. (The piles of cotton were8 feet from the camera when photographed. ) SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. Le point is illustrated further in Plate VI, figures 1 and 2, which pre- sent yields from rows in wide-spaced and single-stalk blocks, respectively. General observations made throughout the season, comparing the development of single-stalk and wide-spaced rows, showed how the above conditions might be accounted for. Plants in the single-stalk rows seemed sooner to take advantage of any inter-row or inter-plant soil space and to more readily utilize the available soil moisture. On this account plants in single-stalk rows may have gained an advantage over adjoming wide-spaced rows early in the season and to a degree have invaded the soil that would otherwise have been utilized by the wide-spaced rows. This advantage would be cumulative, and as the season progressed the plants in the single-stalk rows appeared to show distinct superiority in this respect. This may also account ROWS ROWS YIELD 1N POUNDS aS ry, cee % » - © © e ROW NUMBERS Fig. 3.—Diagram showing the yields from rows in wide-spaced and single-stalk blocks of Acala cotton in section B, San Antonio, Tex.,1914. Wide-spaced rows are represented by double lines, single-stalk rows by heavy lines. for the greater differences in the yields obtained from the alternate rows of section A. Because of the effect of single-stalk rows on wide-spaced rows throughout the test, it is necessary to compare the inside rows of the 4-row blocks of section B in order to learn the differences that might be expected if the planting had been made upon a field basis. It is found by doimg this that the mside rows of single-stalk blocks yielded from 15 to 60 per cent more seed cotton than the inside rows of the wide-spaced blocks. The average difference is 47.7 per cent. EEE EEEEOEOOEEOEOEOOOOOOeee 18 BULLETIN 279, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The yields from the guard row that separated sections A and B proved more interesting than was anticipated. This row, which was not thinned at any time during the season, contained 594 plants and yielded more than either the nearest wide-spaced or single-stalk row. A section of this row is illustrated in Plate V, figure 1. The non- thinned row yielded 23.7 pounds of seed cotton, while the wide-spaced rows on either side yielded 11.4 and 11.7 pounds, respectively. The nearest single-stalk row, the second row distant, yielded 21.6 pounds. The nonthinned row yielded 104 per cent more than the wide-spaced rows and 9 per cent more than the single-stalk rows. The yields from this and other nonthinned rows in the test indicate that the full possi- bilities of securing advantage from leaving the plants closer together have not yet been obtained in the experiments with the single-stalk system. The fact that the nonthinned row was favorably situated between two wide-spaced rows should not, however, be overlooked. QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF FIBER. A careful examination of the fiber in the field resulted in the con- clusion that there were no perceptible differences in the quality of the fiber produced on single-stalk and on wide-spaced plants. The length, strength, luster, drag, and evenness were compared and found to be the same. That even closer spacing than that used in the single-stalk rows does not affect the quality of lint is shown by the fact that the fiber pro- duced in the guard row between sections A and B, which was not thinned at any time during the season, was up to the standard in quality. The abundance of the lint on the seed was determined as far as possible in the field and found to be the same in the single-stalk and in the wide-spaced rows. An actual ginning test corroborated the field test, proving the lint percentage to be about 32 in each case. RESULTS IN TIME-OF-THINNING TEST. The blocks of the ‘‘time-of-thinning”’ test in section C were all planted on April 14 and were thinned 25, 41, and 51 days after plant- ing, respectively. Each block contained five rows, in which the plants were thinned to 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 inches apart, respectively. It was not possible to arrange the rows in the same order in all of the blocks because of the poor stands in some of the rows, making it ) oS necessary to select the best rows for the closer spacings. On account of this irregular method of arrangement and also because the rows are 5 =) so few in number, only a general statement of the results will be given. ) oy, fo) 5 With respect to vegetative-branch development it was found that the longer thinning was delayed the greater was the restriction in the branch development. There was a gradual increase in the number oD SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. 19 of branches as the distance between the plants increased, regardless of the time of thinning. The yields were closely associated with the distance between the plants in the row. This is illustrated in Plate V, figure 2, which shows the first picking from rows of Acala cotton thinned at the ordi- nary time, the plants being left 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 inches apart in the different rows. As the distance between the plants increased, the yields decreased. The rows that were thinned late gave higher yields than those thinned either early or very late. RESULTS IN DISTANCE-BETWEEN-ROW TEST. As in other sections the rows in the ‘‘distance-between-row’’ test of section D were planted on April 14. This section contained four blocks, in which the rows were spaced to 3, 4, 5, and 6 feet apart, respectively. The blocks contained 8, 6, 5, and 4 rows, respectively. In all the blocks single-stalk rows alternated with wide-spaced rows. The wide-spaced rows were chopped 25 days after planting and the single-stalk rows 47 days after planting. This test was also limited, and as the results are indicative rather than conclusive only a general summary is given. The boll census showed that as the distance between the rows increased, the percentage of 4-locked bolls decreased, this decrease being offset by a corresponding increase in the percentage of 5-locked bolls. The wide-spaced rows had a smaller percentage of 4-locked bolls and a greater percentage of 5-locked bolls than the single-stalk rows, regardless of the distance between the rows. Single-stalk rows 6 feet apart gave higher acre yields than wide-spaced rows either 3, 4, 5, or 6 feet apart. The results of this experiment suggest the desirability of further testing the single-stalk system of culture in rows 5 or more feet apart in dry regions. SUMMARY. Drought and boll-weevil ravages shorten the period durig which bolls are set in the region of San Antonio, and a cotton crop must be set ordinarily in about one month. In 1914 the crop was set in about 25 days. Because of the very short season of setting the crop, the single-stalk system of cotton culture promises to be especially useful. The single-stalk and wide-spaced systems of culture were com- pared in alternate single rows and alternate 4-row blocks in rows 4 feet apart and again in alternating rows 3, 4, 5, and 6 feet apart. In one instance plants were thinned early, late, and very late to 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 inches apart. The stand was satisfactory in all cases. The spring of 1914 in the region of San Antonio was cooler than usual, and more than twice the normal amount of rain fell during 20 BULLETIN 279, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. April and May. No rain fell between the first of June and early in August. These abnormal conditions caused a restriction in the development of vegetative branches. That the single-stalk system was effective in still further reducing vegetative growth is shown by the fact that even though the average number of vegetative branches produced on plants in wide-spaced rows was only 1.6, on single-stalk plants it was reduced to 0.53 branch per plant. More flowers were produced daily on the single-stalk rows than on the adjoining wide-spaced rows. At the end of 40 days single-stalk rows alternating with wide-spaced rows had produced 84 per cent more flowers than the latter. In alternating blocks single-stalk rows had produced 78 per cent more flowers than wide-spaced rows in the adjoining block. Single-stalk rows produced an average of 5.5 bolls per plant and wide-spaced rows 8.6 bolls per plant. The difference in the number of bolls per plant was much more than offset by the greater number of plants in the single-stalk rows, so that the single-stalk rows set from 50 to 150 per cent more bolls im the same row space. A larger percentage of 4-locked bolls was produced in single-stalk rows and in rows close together than in wide-spaced rows where the plants were set either close together or far apart. The bolls in the single-stalk rows were slightly smaller than those in the wide-spaced rows. Nineteen 4-locked bolls from single-stalk rows were required to equal the weight of eighteen 4-locked bolls from wide-spaced plants. The ratio of weight for 5-locked bolls is 11 to 10 for single-stalk and wide-spaced rows, respectively. The plants in single-stalk rows were taller than those in wide- spaced rows. The single-stalk rows were spreading at the top, while the wide-spaced rows were broader near the ground. Tn all cases single-stalk rows yielded more than the adjoming wide- spaced rows, regardless of the distance between the rows. An examination of the fiber in the field showed that there was no perceptible difference in the quality or quantity of lint produced in — single-stalk and in wide-spaced rows. Plants thinned to a few inches apart in the row had fewer vegeta- tive branches than plants spaced farther apart, the thimning having been done at the same time in each case. Late-thimned plants had fewer vegetative branches than plants thinned earlier to the same distance. Early thinning and late thinning gave higher yields than very late thinning. WASHINGTON :; GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1915 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 27, 1915 FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES OF THE UNITED STATES. By F. E. L. Bear, Assistant Biologist. CONTENTS. Page. Page. INGrodictionyse= = Ne 1 | Gray-cheeked and Bicknell’s thrushes_ 11 Townsend’s solitaire ______________ 3 | Olive-backed and _ russet - backed NWiood) thrushea2e ee 5 bhrushes 2S Sees _ Se 13 Veery and willow thrust___________ 93>) Hlermitaath rushes =e = - see seen 18 INTRODUCTION. North American thrushes (Turdide) constitute a small but inter- esting group of birds, most of which are of retiring habits but noted as songsters. They consist of the birds commonly known as thrushes, robins, bluebirds, Townsend’s solitaire, and the wheatears. The red-winged thrush of Europe (Z'urdus musicus) is accidental in Greenland, and the wheatears (Saaxicola enanthe subspp.) are rarely found in the Western Hemisphere except in Arctic America. Within the limits of the United States are 11 species of thrushes, of which the following 6 are discussed in this bulletin: Townsend’s solitaire (A/yadestes townsend), the wood thrush (Hylocichla muste- lina), the veery and willow thrush (Hylocichla fuscescens subspp.). the gray-cheeked and Bicknell’s thrushes (Hylocichla alicie subspp.), the olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes (Hylocichla ustulata subspp.), and the hermit thrushes (Hylocichla guttata subspp.). account of the food habits of the 5 species of robins and bluebirds appeared in Department Bulletin No. 171. As a group thrushes are plainly colored and seem to be especially adapted to thickly settled rural districts, as the shyest of them, with Norr.—This bulletin treats of the economic relations and value to agriculture of the thrushes of the United States other than robins and bluebirds. These two forms were discussed in Department Bulletin No. 171, issued February 5, 1915. 98551°—Bull. 280—15 1 2 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, the exception of the solitaire, do not require any greater seclusion than that afforded by an acre or two of woodland or swamp. The thrushes are largely insectivorous, and also are fond of spiders, myriapods, sowbugs, snails, and angleworms. The vegetable portion of their diet consists mostly of berries and other small fruits. As a family thrushes can not be called clean feeders, for the food eaten often contains a considerable proportion of such matter as dead leaves, stems, and other parts of more or less decayed vegetation. It might be supposed that this was gathered from the ground with insects and other food, but investigation shows that much of it has a different origin. It was noticed that the sete or spines of earth- worms were a very common accompaniment of this decayed vegeta- tion. Earthworms themselves are rather rarely found in stomachs, although some birds, as the robin, eat them freely. It is well known that the food of earthworms consists largely of partially decayed vegetable matter found in the soil. Hence it is probable that decayed vegetation found in the stomachs of thrushes is the food contained in the earthworms when they were swallowed. The tissues of worms are quickly digested, leaving the contents of their alimentary canals mixed with the hard indigestible setee or spines. Thrushes of the genus Hylocichla show a very pronounced taste for ants, and the average consumption of these insects by the five species is 12.65 per cent. Few birds other than woodpeckers show so strong a liking for this highly flavored food. Hymenoptera in general, including ants, bees, and wasps, are the second largest item of insect food. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) stand next as an article of thrush diet, while Orthoptera (grasshoppers), which are a favorite food with most birds, do not seem to appeal much to the thrushes. The thrushes are pronounced ground feeders, and may often be ‘seen picking small fruit that has fallen to the ground. The vege- table portion of their food (40.72 per cent) is largely composed of fruit, which constitutes over 34 per cent of the total food. Of this 30.88 per cent is made up of wild berries, which outweigh the do- mestic varieties with every species. In all, 94 species of wild fruits or berries were identified in the stomachs of these birds, although it is not always practicable to identify such material unless seeds or some other characteristic parts are present. As this is not often the case, a considerable portion of the stomach contents must be pro- nounced “ fruit pulp” without further identification; thus probably many more species are eaten than are recorded. Moreover, in the case of some fruits, it is not possible to distinguish species by the seeds, so that many species go unrecognized except as to genus. Domestic fruits are eaten so sparingly by the thrushes here consid- ered as to be of no economic importance. FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 3 TOWNSEND’S SOLITAIRE (Myadestes townsendi. ) Townsend’s solitaire, a bird of the far West, is a resident of high mountains and lonely gorges. It is partial to running streams and often builds its nest just above a rushing mountain torrent. It ranges from Alaska through the Sierras south to San Bernardino, Cal., and through the Rockies to Arizona and New Mexico, and occasionally farther east. The species is not evenly distributed over this region, but is restricted to such high mountainous portions as afford its favorite surroundings. As long as it retains these habits the bird will have little or no effect upon the products of husbandry, and its food can have only a scientific interest. The song of this species is said to be at times the finest of any of the thrush family. As this bird is comparatively rare in settled regions only 41 stomachs are available for determining the character of its food. The most southerly and easterly one was taken in Texas, the most westerly in California, and the most northerly in Wyoming. They are distributed through all the months of the year, although April and May are represented by but one each and December by but two. Every other month has three or more. An investigation based upon such limited material can be considered only as preliminary, but will serve to show some of the more important elements of the food. This was made up of 35.90 per cent of animal matter to 64.10 of vegetable. Animal food—The animal food consists of insects and spiders, with a few hair worms (Gordius) found in one stomach. These last may have been contained in the insects eaten. Among insects, beetles constitute the second largest item (10.74 per cent), but 5.89 per cent of these were the useful predatory ground beetles (Cara- bide). This is not a good showing, but too few stomachs have been examined to allow sweeping conclusions. As evidence that this can not be taken as a fair sample of the bird’s food habits it may be stated that all of these beetles were taken in January and October. The one stomach collected in January contained 95 per cent of Carab- idz—the only animal food in it—and 93 per cent of the contents of one October stomach was made up of the same material. Evidently in these cases the bird had found a colony of the beetles and filled up with them. Had they constituted the usual diet of the species they would have appeared in other months and in more stomachs, but in smaller quantities. Other families of beetles are eaten so sparingly as to be of little importance. Scarabeide stand the next highest, but they amount to less than 2 per cent of the food. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) make the largest item in the food of Myadestes. Eaten much more regularly than beetles, they probably 4 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are a standard article of diet. They were found in the stomachs collected in every month of the year but four, and a greater number of stomachs would probably show them in every month. The one stomach taken in May contained the maximum (72 per cent). The total for the year is 12.95 per cent. Ants are eaten to the extent of 4.71 per cent, while other Hymenoptera, as bees and wasps, make up less than half of 1 per cent. Diptera (flies) are represented by a mere trace in the stomachs. Observers who have seen this bird in its native haunts testify that it takes a considerable portion of its food on the wing. In view of this fact it seems curious that the two orders of insects most active on the wing (Hymenoptera and Dip- tera) should be so scantily represented in the food. Hymenoptera are a standard diet with flycatchers and would seem to be the natu- ral food of any bird that feeds upon the wing. Hemiptera (bugs) were found to the extent of 3.51 per cent of the total food. All were contained in three stomachs taken in March, June, and July. In the July stomach four cicadas, or dog-day flies, constituted the whole contents. Grasshoppers amount to less than 1 per cent and all other insects to but a trifle. Spiders were eaten to the extent of 2.94 per cent of the food and were found in the stomachs taken in seven of the twelve months, and judging from their dis- tribution they are eaten whenever available. A hair snake (Gordius) was found in one stomach. Following is a list of insects identified and the number of stomachs in which found: COLEOPTERA. HEMIPTERA. AGIAN CTrOtiCcd est Pres 1 Piatypedia: putnamis) 22 eee ii ATO CSUs DES == >. — a Ee 1 IB OLOIUNUSESp =. eee ee 1 Vegetable food—tThe vegetable portion of the food of Myadestes is 64.10 per cent of the whole, and 58.70 per cent of this, or more than half the whole food, is classified as wild fruit or berries. These were found in stomachs collected in every month. From the even dis- tribution of this food through the year and from the quantity eaten it is evidently a favorite article of diet. Nothing was found in any of the stomachs that could be identified as cultivated fruit, with the possible exception of a mass of fruit pulp found in one. A few seeds of poison ivy and sumac, with fragments of flowers and a few weed seeds, complete the vegetable food. Following is a list of fruits, seeds, etc., identified, and the number of stomachs in which found: Rocky Mountain cedar (Juniperus sco- | Wild cherries (Prunts sp.) ~----_-=—_ OULOTUTNY) ete, _ 3 | Sumac berries (Rhus sp.)___-___-_. : Western cedar (Juniperus monosper- Poison ivy (Rhus toricodendron) ~~ _— MNALATL)) Poe emcee A i | Waxwork (Oelastrus sp.) 2-2. 32>) oe Madrona berries (Arbutus menziesii) — Ifoneysuckle berries (Lonicera sp.)--- Ilderberries (Sambucus sp.) --------- Fruit not further identified-___._____ Other cedars (Juniperus sp.) ~------- Hackberries (Celtis occidentalis) ~~ __ Douglas hackberries (Celtis douglasii) — Service berries (Amelanchier sp.) —~-—--~ Rose haws' (hose sp:)) 2 eee Oe eS Ole ee Re ee ee FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 5 Summary.—With so small an amount of material it is not safe to draw general conclusions, but in the case of Myadestes one point seems clear—the bird’s favorite food is small wild fruit, and as long as this is abundant the bird will probably not attack cultivated varieties; but should any portion of the region occupied by the soli- taire be cleared of its wild fruit and cultivated species be introduced these would likely be preyed upon. Under such conditions this bird, now perfectly harmless, might inflict considerable damage. WOOD THRUSH. (Hylocichla mustelina.) The wood thrush is distributed over the eastern part of the United States wherever suitable conditions are found. It is a lover of open groves and bushy pastures, and may be found along little- traveled roads and near low bushy swamps. The bird is noted for its sweet song, and many country people who are well acquainted with its notes know little or nothing of the bird itself. Its favorite time for singing is in the early evening at the close of a sultry afternoon when a shower has cooled the air. As a rule, it does not nest in gardens or orchards and is seldom seen about farm buildings. It is strictly migratory, and the greater number pass out of the United States in winter, though a few remain in the Southern States. It usually migrates north in April or early May. For the investigation of the food habits of the wood thrush 171 stomachs were available. One of these was collected in Florida in January and another in Alabama in February, and these two will be treated separately. The remaining 169 were collected from April to October, and are fairly well distributed over that time. The food consisted of 59.59 per cent of animal matter to 40.41 per cent of vegetable. The greatest quantity of animal food was eaten in April, the month of arrival from the south, and the least in October, the month of the return migration. Animal food.—Beetles, collectively (20.40 per cent), constitute the largest item of animal food. Of these, 2.23 per cent are the preda- cious ground beetles (Carabide), generally considered useful. The remainder belong to several more or less harmful families, of which the May-beetle family (Scarabzeidee) amount to 10.17 per cent. Snout - beetles, or weevils (Rhynchophora), are eaten to the extent of 2.16 per cent only, and the wood-boring chick-beetles (Elaterida) to 2.18 per cent. Among the various species of these insects were noted the remains of the well-known Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemline- ata), in two stomachs, and Coptocycla signifera, also injurious to the potato, in one stomach. Remains of Otiorhynchus ovatus, a weevil ~ 6 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. destructive to strawberry plants, were found in two stomachs, and in one other a weevil, Sphenophorus parvulus, that injures the roots of grass. The well-known white grubs that attack grass roots and a host of other plants are the immature forms of many species of Lachnosterna, of several species of Euphoria and of Allorhina nitida. Of these, re- mains of Lach- nosterna were found time 2G stomachs and of Allorhina and Euphoria in one each. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) stand next to Coleoptera (bee- tles) in the ani- mal diet of the wood thrush. Although eaten with a fair de- gree of regular- ity during every month of the bird’s stay in the north, the most were taken in July (1632 per cent). The aver- age for the sea- son is 9.42 per cent. Ants as an B2084-73 item of food are Fic. 1.—Wood thrush (Tylocichla mustelina). third in impor- tance, though if other Hymenoptera were included the order would rank next to beetles. They seem to be a rather favorite food with all birds of the genus /ylocichla. With the wood thrush they begin with 18.12 per cent in April and gradually decrease through the summer and disappear in October. The total for the season is 8.89 per cent. Hymenoptera other than ants were eaten with great Pre. YY De. - ae, Y a FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 7 regularity (8.86 per cent) throughout the season, but not in large quantities. Diptera (flies) are eaten in small quantities and rather irregularly. Most of them were the long-legged crane flies (Tipuli- dz), both in the adult and larval form. The total for the season is 2.70 per cent. Hemiptera (bugs) do not appear to be a favorite food, though a few were taken in all of the seven months except October. The average for the season is only 1.33 per cent. Orthop- tera (grasshoppers) are eaten in small quantities until July, after which they form a fair percentage till September. The total con- sumption amounts to 2.28 per cent of the food. A few other in- sects make up a fraction of 1 per cent. Spiders and myriapods (thousand-legs) appear to be a “favorite food with the wood thrush, constituting in April 20.94 per cent of the, food, but gradually de- creasing in quantity until September. The aggregate for the year is 8.49 per cent. A few sowbugs (isopods), snails, and earthworms (1.83 per cent) close the account of animal food. Following is a list of the insects identified in the stomachs of the wood thrush and the number of stomachs in which each was found: HY MBPNOPTHRA, Chrysomela*pulenna@.. 3) Pe eee 1 Leptinotarsa decemlineata________ 2 iphiar wnornata l= 22S sess) eee li} Odontotaspasenan=. . See Pe eee 1 Coptocycla signifera _.~_-- 2. ee 1 COLBOPTRRA. Coptocycla=Spsae==2~ _ ei aa 1 ANAMETUSHOTISCUSSe - - BREPEE Ia Ia ii Harpalus herbivagus_—-__~---~-=----=- Li PRY GEUSERIGIC TSR. IR eee Reet al Necrophorus tomentosus____--______- 1 Otiorhynchus ovatus. / Tees aes Gy Philtonthus lomatus.—--—~--=-—---_--_- I | Tanymecuseconferntis. . es aE 1 HAStETS UUOKEUICtUS = 1 | Bandeletejus-alanise> See eee Sa 1 Huster) AEpULaton————— 1 | Barypithes pellucidus_2 222 1 Haster, awericanwsy 2+ 2 2 | Listronotus) latiusculuszs 2 1 Ing quadriguttatus.— — ~~. 92_ —_ = _~ b>] MGCKOD Se sSi) are a: + Sane ae ete yg 1 Melanotus americanus_____--__--___- 1 | Conotrachelus posticatus=2252 222 2 Corymbites cylindriformis______-§_-_-___ Is |, Alcattes caninavus! — _ 2 ee ee 1 aignilus) bilineatus— = mM ie OO WHEN) 50) a cues enue = he RE 2 Telephorus carolinus____-______-____ Lb | PEUDSQUS ANU = 5 ae eee 1 Onthophagus striatulus____— ~~ 1 | Sphenophorus: parvulus2 1 Onthophagus tuberculifrons__________ 1 Onthophagusra spas ee ee 3 HEMIPTERA. PANNETULS Sper eee A ee E zy 2 : Aphodius granarius.. ~_.____-_-_______- T o\\¢ MCZ OT CU Se SRE ee ea 2 NSB OD ISTH 0 SI I Th Daa 1 Dichelonycha testacea________-______ 1 ORTHOPTERA. MACH ELONY CROs IS eee eo at LWEOMIOSUGHIE F022 See See ee 27 | Diapheromera femorata _____________ 1 LET YRS ESS SS SEES A SO Pietra Sees 1 Aillorhina nitida.—— 2°. ts 1 ISOPTERA. BUD ICO. Cam UL GG Cae ean ee a SL 1 ELD WOTUOARS Reese RRS ONE ok 2 Nerness faotpese —— 2 ee ae ee ees i Vegetable food—More than nine-tenths of the vegetable food of the wood thrush can be included in a single item—fruit. Culti- vated fruit, or what was thought to be such, was found in stomachs taken from June to September, inclusive. It was eaten regularly 8 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and moderately, and the total for the season was 3.74 per cent of the whole food. Wild fruits or berries of 22 species were found in 72 stomachs, distributed through every month of the bird’s stay at the north. Beginning with 1.18 per cent in April, the quantity gradually increases to 87.17 per cent in October, when it makes more than five-sixths of the whole food. The average for the season is 33.51 per cent. In this investigation Rubus seeds (blackberries or raspberries) are always reckoned as cultivated fruit, though prob- ably most often wild. Besides fruit, a few seeds and rose haws were found, which with a little rubbish complete the vegetable food (40.41 per cent). 3 Following is a list of fruits, seeds, etc., identified and the number of stomachs in which found: Woodbine berries (Psedera quinque- i Yew berries (Tarus minor) --------_ False Solomon’s seal (Smilacina race- — folia) 2. 22022 2b_ ee eee 1 MOSQ) eros Fs Sa ne 1 | Frost grapes (Vitis cordifolia) _______ 4 Bayberries (Myrica carolinensis) —~_ ~~~ 1 | Wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis) — 1 Mulberries’ (Morus sp.) 2-2 =~ 10 | Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) __ 3 Spiceberries (Benzoin estivale) __-___~ 5 | Rough-leaved cornel (Cornus asperi- Currantss(Ribes spa 2- SS ee 1 fold) --......_ 2 aS Eee 4 Mountain ash (Pyrus americanus) —~_~ 2 | Dogwood (Cornus sp.) =222225- 22225 1 Service berries (Amelanchier canaden- Black gum (Nyssa sylwatica) __-----_- 1 S18) Ae eae aes ae a eee 2 | Huckleberries (Gaylussacia sp.) -----~ 1 Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus sp.)- 17 |; Blueberries (Vaccinium sp.) ~--------~ 6 Rose haws (Rosa sp.) --------------- 1 | French mulberry (Callicarpa americana) 1 Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina) — 1 | Black elderberries (Sambucus canaden- Chokecherries (Prunus virginiana) ___~ uf 818)... _ ee eee 1 Domestic cherries (Prunus cerasus) —_~ 4 | Other elderberries (Sambucus sp.)—--~ 3 Croton, ((Croton_sp.) see ee a= 1 | Fruit pulp not further identified______ 2 5 American holly (Ilex opaca)__---___- Of the two stomachs not included in the foregoing discussion, the one taken in Florida in January contained 93 per cent of wild fruit and 7 per cent of weevils, wasps, and spiders; the one collected in Alabama in February was entirely filled with animal food, of which 88 per cent was caterpillars, 5 per cent May beetles, 6 per cent bugs. and 1 per cent spiders. Summary —The animal food of the wood thrush includes remark- ably few useful insects and contains some very harmful ones, as the Colorado potato beetle and many of the Scarabeide, the larval forms of which are the well-known white grubs which are a pest to agriculture in preying upon roots of plants. The vegetable portion of the food contains a small quantity of cultivated fruit, but observation shows that the thrush is in the habit of picking up fallen fruit instead of taking it fresh from the tree. The eating of wild fruit has no economic interest except that it serves to distribute the seeds of many shrubs and trees. There is no occasion to dis- criminate against this bird in any way. It should be rigidly protected. FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 9 VEERY AND WILLOW THRUSH. (Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens and Hylocichla fuscescens salicicola.) The veery is distributed over the eastern portion of the United States during migration and breeds in the Northern States as far south as Pennsylvania, and in New England and Canada. In win- ter it disappears almost entirely from the country, only a few re- maining in Florida and perhaps in other Southern States. Its western representative is the willow thrush. Like other thrushes, birds of this species are shy and retiring in disposition, keeping for the most part in the shade of woods or bushy swamps, or building nests in a damp ravine with a brook gurgling past. They have been Inown, however, to visit orchards and sometimes gardens which are not kept too trim. It is thus evident that the food has little direct economic interest, as this bird does not come in contact with the farmer’s crops. For investigating the food of the species 176 stomachs were avail- able. They were collected during the seven months from April to October, and represent 18 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada. The food separates into 57.27 per cent of animal matter -and 42.73 per cent of vegetable. The former consists mostly of remains of insects, and the latter of fruit. Animal food—Predacious ground beetles (Carabide) amount to 0.82 per cent. They are evidently not a preferred food. Beetles in general comprise 14.67 per cent of the food, but no family or other group appears to be distinguished except the Carabidee, which are conspicuous by their absence. Weevils, or snout beetles, amount to 2.49 per cent, and one stomach contained a specimen of the notori- ous plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar). A number of other harmful beetles were noted, but none are so well known as the plum destroyer. Ants make up 10.35 per cent and are eaten with great regularity. Hymenoptera other than ants amount to only 3.26 per cent, but are eaten regularly throughout the season. Hemiptera (bugs) were eaten to a small extent (1.30 per cent) in the first four months, but they are not seen after July. Exactly the same may be said of Diptera, which total only 0.85 per cent. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) are, next to Hymenoptera, the favorite insect food. They were eaten in goodly quantities in every month except October. The average for the season is 11.91 per cent. Grass- hoppers appear to some extent in every month except April, the greatest consumption taking place in October (24 per cent), but as only small numbers are eaten in the earlier months the aggregate for the year is only 4.91 per cent. A few other insects of various orders -:98551°—Bull. 28015 _—2 10 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. amount to 0.98 per cent. Spiders (6.34 per cent) are eaten regularly and constantly through the season, except that none were taken in October. A few sowbugs, snails, etc. (2.70 per cent), complete the quota of animal food. Following is a list of insects identified and the number of stomachs in which found: HYMENOPTERA. Lachnosterna hirticula__._ =. 2 22k Lachnosterng -sp_--- 2 ee 1 THphaG Anornat a... eset tT ak 1 | Chrysomela pulchra.2_-_2__1))_ _ ee Chilamys: plicata_—2 See ee COLEOPTERA. Lypophorus canellus__________ Graphops simpléte {ita Bie eee Graphops (sp2—o_ 4 ee eee Calligrapha philadelphica___________— Gidionychis quercata_____ 4 = | At a Microrhopala vittata__.__._____=7____ Hormorus. undulatus ae eee Phyveis rigidus=__._- = 12 _ Oth See Otiorhynchus .ovatus222 at eee Neoptochus -adspersus___ —~__=__- 3 Cercopeus chrysorrheus__________-__ Barypithes’ pellucidus —_.--2__§_- 2 StloneseSple. = = Sk" Aner Phytonomus nigrirostris_______-______— Conotrachelus nenuphar____~_________ Conotrachelus posticatus ________2—__ Tyloderma ‘spi 2-22 eee eee Monarthrum mato —2= eee eee Xyloteres politus =____ = Sse eee ALUDRTUS - HUSCATIUS\ =. = Anisodactylus harrist.2.2 AM/SOOGCLYLUS: Sp tains cs Ses eee Pterostichus lucublandus________--_-~- Hydrobius: \fuscipes2see. 8 = TSO FASCURL( LL 1s Rees Re EEL BYP TRUS VUTINUS 2 eee ee ee Dolopius lateralis i) 5 ae nes ae EAMONMUS CO Cra — = ees eh ee Corymbites cylindriformis _______-___ Corymbites .spinosus 22 --~—~-__--_ Cormybites! tarsalisztaie ee ee Corymbites hieroglyphicus—_________~ Podavrus “flavicollis Taw eo a a ns Telephorus’ bilineatus se a Telepnrorusy Spa se 2 OR Se we Onthophagqus” sp222e ime a a Atenius:cognatus. se 28 a sk j Apnodiusnspes 20) aie Ee Dichelonychaw sp Saw eee SEGICH SCT ICCUS VMI iE ARIE SOE HEN ik lll eel oll eel oe SO a a a ee DIPTERA, HENOWHNDHNH HHH EEN Hee eee BEOLO ASD Oe Bre 2 Se 1 Vegetable food.—The vegetable portion of the food of the species is made up of fruit, with a few seeds and a little miscellaneous mat- ter more or less accidental. Fruit collectively amounts to 35.30 per cent, of which 12.14 per cent was thought to be of cultivated varie- ties and so recorded, while the remainder, 23.16 per cent, was quite certainly of wild species. This percentage of cultivated fruit is more than three times the record of the wood thrush, while the wild fruit eaten is correspondingly less, as the sum total of the fruit con- sumed is very nearly the same with both birds. From this per- centage of domestic fruit one might infer that the veery was, or might be, a serious menace to fruit growing, but no such complaints have been heard, and it is probable that the species is not numerous enough to damage cultivated crops. A close inspection, however, of the fruit eating of the veery removes all doubts. The cultivated fruit, so called, was in every case either strawberries or Rubus fruits, i. e., blackberries or raspberries, and as both of these grow wild and in abundance wherever the veery spends its summer, it is probable that all of the fruit eaten was taken from wild plants, though 12.14 per cent has been conventionally recorded as cultivated. FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. ial Besides fruit, the veery eats a few seeds of grasses and weeds and a few of sumac, but none of the poisonous species were found in the stomachs. ‘These seeds (7.25 per cent of the food) were eaten so irregularly as to suggest that they are merely a makeshift taken for want of something better. Rubbish (0.18 per cent), consisting of decayed wood, bits of leaves, plant stems, etc., completes the vege- table food. Following is a list of the items of vegetable food and the num- ber of stomachs in which found: Yew berries (Taxus minor) _-—---~-~-- 1 ; Other sumac (Rhus sp.) -4-2---+--=__ 1 Pigeon grass seed (Chetochloa sp.) ~~~ 1 | American holly (Jlez opaca)—-_____--_- 1 Rush grass seed (Sporobolus minor) —— 1 | Woodbine berries (Psedera quinque- False Solomon’s seal (Smilacina sp.) -—~— 1 OULG) ee ee eee ts Ire 1 Greenbrier berries (Smilax sp.) —~--~~ 2 | White cornel (Cornus candidissima) __ 2 Hackberries (Celtis occidentalis) —~__~~ 1 | Alternate-leaved cornel (Cornus alter- Poke berries (Phytolacca decandra) —__ 3 HLH OULD) ey a Se By SL 3 Spice berries (Benzoin estivale) —____~ 2 | Rough-leaved cornel (Cornus asperi- Service berries (Amelanchier canaden- 7 ROX AG A) )) ie OE i Ml a ti Ta it ERIS) Se a epee pO ok 3 | Dogwood berries (Cornus sp.)——~—~---~— 2 June berries (Amelanchier sp.) —~~~~~- 9 | Sour gum berries (Nyssa sylwatica) —_— 1 Mountain ash (Pyrus americana) ———__ 1 | Huckleberries (Gaylussacia sp.) -—-~—~ 1 Crab apples (Pyrus sp.) ------------- 1 | Blueberries (Vaccinium sp.) --------~ 4 Strawberries (Fragaria sp.) _~-------- 3 | Snowberries (Symphoricarpos racemo- Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus sp.) — 8 IS 2L,S)) eee ee eT Le Ea 2 Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina) — 1 | Black elderberries (Sambucus canaden- Bird cherries (Prunus pennsylwanica) — 1 Si. S)) ye EN AE See a 2; Chokecherries (Prunus virginiana) —___~ 1 | Red elderberries (Sambucus pubens) —_ 4 Staghorn sumac (Rhus hirta)—--~~~-~ 2 | Other elderberries (Sambucus sp.) ~~~ 3 Dwarf sumac (Rhus copallina) __--__- 1 | Fruit pulp not further identified______ 4 Three-leaved sumac (Rhus trilobata)_ 1 Summary.—tit is hardly necessary to make a summary of the food of this bird in order to bring out its good points, for it seems to have no others. The animal food includes less than 1 per cent of useful beetles, and the remainder is either harmful or neutral. In the matter of vegetable food there seems to be no chance for criticism, as nature evidently supplies all it needs. The bird has never been harmed, but has been held in high esteem for sentimental reasons; let it also be valued and protected for its economic worth. GRAY-CHEEKED AND BICKNELL’S THRUSHES. (Hylocichla alicie alitie and Hylocichla alicie bicknelli. ) The gray-cheeked thrush (/. a. aliciw) is found in migration over all the Eastern States, but breeds farther north, beyond our limits. Bicknell’s thrush (/. a. bicknelli), a closely related form, while having somewhat the same general range, breeds farther south and nests in the mountains of northern New York and New Eng- land. Both subspecies have the same general habits as other forms of the genus so far as haunts and choice of residence are concerned, but their far-northern range excludes them from coming into con- tact with cultivated crops. The species does not seem to be very 12 BULLETIN 280, U. 3. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. abundant anywhere, and consequently only a few stomachs have been received for examination. In all they number but 111 and are very irregularly distributed in time. None were taken in August and only one in July and two in June. From so scanty and unevenly ~ distributed material it is impossible to draw final conclusions, but we can get some idea as to the nature of the bird’s food and its economic importance. The first analysis of the food gives 74.86 per cent of animal matter to 25.14 per cent of vegetable. This is the most animal food found in the stomachs of any bird of the genus Yylocichla and the largest but two of any of the thrushes. Animal food—Beetles collectively amount to about one-third of all the food (33.32 per cent). Of these, 2.83 per cent are the useful Carabide. The rest belong to harmful families, such as the Scara- beeidee, Elateridee, and the weevils, or snout beetles. Ants amount to 16.34 per cent and are eaten very regularly—the most in the early part of the season. Hymenoptera other than ants, as wasps and bees, were eaten to the extent of 5.60 per cent, and with the ants make 21.94 per cent, placing this food next in rank to beetles. As in the case of ants, most of the bees and wasps were eaten in the first three months of the season. No honey bees were found. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) were third in order of abundance (8.81 per cent). No special pest was discovered, but all caterpillars may be considered as harmful. A few grasshoppers were found in the stomachs taken in April and May, and more in those collected in September and October. They do not appéar to be a favorite food and amount to only 1.72 per cent. Other insects, as flies, bugs, and a few others, collectively amount to 2.89 per cent. Among these, it is of inter- est to note in one stomach the remains of the famous seventeen- year locust (Vibicen septemdecem), rather large game for so small a bird. Spiders are freely eaten by the gray-cheeked thrush in spring, and sparingly in fall. For the season they constitute 5.77 per cent of the food. A few other animals, as crawfish, sowbugs, and angleworms (0.41 per cent), complete the animal food. Following is a list of the insects identified and the number of stomachs in which found: HYMENOPTERA. Steudota’§-maculata.—— 2 eee Ryrrhus murinus ~~ sora. o S923 oe Hucinetus. morio.____.__ Se eee Monocrepidius vespertinus___._______ Agrtotes :Uimosupsos= 222222 See Corymbites signaticollis —— : Ms Cychrus andrewsi___ as = pe tela 2” POGUOTACS’ TLAVICOLUS 2 eee Cychrius sp) 2-222. yes Bo 2 | Velephorus bilineatus _.2 2 2beU as Dyschirius- hispidus_~ =a 1 Onthophague Sp =---~ --=2 = 4 eee Hister sedecimstriatus______-__-_~- ejb 1 Atenas strigatus———— ~=- 2S 0 Phelister vernus__——~ ees 1 Atenus-ovattilus eeu 222s eee Epurea rufa—____ = ee 5 LL EV ALS SD ot er ee TODAS CS Dee. ee 1 Aphenogaster tennesseense____-___ 1 COLEOPTERA, a a FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 105 Aphodians ruricotaa — 25-5 2 Ii) Sitonestspyyss =e es Ee ee 1 Aphadius inquinatus _-_-_—__-____-__ 3. |\PRVlO0TUSED OES = es ee ee 1 AMOUR EY Sa ee eee Lt | Desmomssconstmctus=—— ae 1 SGEEC CES) Saat tees Ee 1)| Bagoustsellatus. Sst oe ss ES eS 1 LAMAN OSIT TD Oe a 10 ) Anthonomus sycophanta_________-____ 1 AUK TTC 0 es ee eee 1 | Conotrachelus posticatus____________— 2 heptura sphmricollis ——--—-- + -_______- le) Atcatlestelavatus = ae 1 Gepiure mutabilis.-——— 22h ee et |, Alcailesgsp reste a et 1 CREUSOMELORDULCHT A= == oe 4 | Cryptorhynchus ferratus____________— 1 Blapstinus metatlicus ____-___-_--___ 1 | Sphenophorus melanocephalus __~-__—___— if ERELO TIS MN CIS ens BE A 1 Hormorus undulatus____~-~~~ pea ei 1 HEMIPTPRA. Otiorhynchus ovatus —--—_-—. ein __ 1 Cercopeus chrysorrheus __~-____-_____ 2 | Tibicen septendecem _____ eh if Pandelerejus mMiaris. = = Tl (NiC2ZOntenilOTnis===———— _- - . SS 1 Vegetable food—A tew Rubus seeds were recorded as cultivated fruit, but they were found in only two stomachs and probably were wild, as the gray-cheeked thrush does not live where it is likely to come in contact with cultivated blackberries or raspberries. In any case they amount to only 0.15 per cent. Wild fruits of 18 dif- ferent species (23.98 per cent) make up nearly one-fourth of the whole food—in fact, the vegetable food, other than wild fruit, is insignificant. Wild berries supplement the regular food, which con- sists of insects and spiders. The following hst shows the fruits and seeds identified and the number of stomachs in which found: a Or False spikenard (Smilacina racemosa) — sreenbrier berries (Smilax sp.) -----~- Bayberries (Myrica carolinensis) _~-~~ Poke berries (Phytolacca decandra) ~~~ Grabsapplesn(Byrws sp;))|-—-———————__ Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina) — Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus sp.) — Sumac berries (Rhus sp.) ------------ Black-alder berries (Jlex verticillata) — WildsoranesnGVatis Sp.) ———=__-_2_ 7. Wild sarsaparilla (Aralia sp.) _-_-_-__ Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) —— Rough-leaved dogwood (Cornus asperi- [GUL t8S FOa READS eo SY. White cornel (Cornus candidissima) __— Doswoodm(Go7n111s) Sp.) 2 ee Sour gum (Nyssa sylvatica) _—~________ Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) — Dockmackie (Viburnum acerifolium) ——— Arrowwood (Viburnum sp.) ——~-—--~-~~ Elderberries (Sambucus canadensis) —_— Fruit not further identified__________ POR eH to OTR WR hb Awrre- loeb Summary.—tn the food of the gray-cheeked thrush the only useful element is a small percentage (2.83) of useful beetles. The remainder of the animal food is composed of either harmful or neutral elements. The vegetable food, drawn entirely from nature’s great storehouse, contains no product of human industry, either of grain or fruit. Whatever the sentimental reasons for protecting this bird, the economic ones are equally valid. OLIVE-BACKED AND RUSSET-BACKED THRUSHES. (Hylocichla ustulata swainsoni and Hylocichla ustulata ustulata.) The olive-backed thrush and its relative, the russet-backed, occupy the whole of the United States at some time during the year. The olive-back breeds north of our northern border, except in the higher mountains, and the russet-back on the Pacific coast nests as far 14 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. south as southern California. The habits of birds of this species resemble those of others of the genus in living in swamps and woed- lands rather than in gardens and orchards. The russet-back en the Pacific coast, however, seems to have become quite domestic, and wherever a stream runs through or past an orchard or garden, or the orchard is near thick chaparral, this bird is sure to be found taking its toll of the fruit and rearing its young in the thicket be- side the stream. During the cherry season it takes a liberal share of the fruit, but its young, then in the nest; are fed almost entirely on insects. “The eastern subspecies, on the contrary, does not come in contact with domestic fruit or any other product of husbandry. A great number of the subspecies nest far north of the region of fruit raising. For this investigation 403 stomachs of the olive-backed thrush were available, collected in 25° States, the District of Columbia, and Canada. Florida, Louisiana, and Texas represent the most southern collections and New Brunswick, Ontario, and Northwest Territory the most northern. In California 157 stomachs were ob- tained; which, with those taken in Oregon and Washington, fairly represent the Pacific coast region. The whole collection was fairly well distributed over the nine months from March to November. The food consisted of 63.52 per cent of animal matter to 36.48 per cent of vegetable. Animal food.—Beetles of all kinds amount to 16.29 per cent. Of these 3.14 per cent are the useful Carabide. The others belong to harmful or neutral families. Weevils or snout beetles (Rhyn- chophora) amount to 5.29 per cent, a high percentage for such in- sects. One Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) was found in a stomach taken on Long Island. Hymenoptera col- lectively aggregate 21.50 per cent. Of these, 15.20 per cent are ants— a favorite food of Hylocichla. The remainder (6.30 per cent) were wild bees and wasps. No honeybees were found. Caterpillars, which rank next in importance in the food of the olive-back, form a good percentage of the food of every month represented and aggregate 10.30 per cent for the season. Grasshoppers are not an important element in the food of thrushes, as they chiefly inhabit open areas, while Wylocichla prefers thick damp cover, where grasshoppers are not found. An inspection of the record shows that most of the orthopterous food taken by the olive-back consists of crickets, whose habits are widely different from those of grasshoppers, and which are found under stones, old logs, or dead herbage. The greatest quantity is taken in August and September. The average for the season is 2.42 per cent. ‘Diptera (flies) reach the rather surprisingly large figure of 6.25 per cent. These insects are usually not eaten to any great extent — * FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 15 except by flycatchers and swallows, which take their food upon the wing. The flies eaten by the olive-back are mostly crane flies (Tipulide) or March flies (Bibio), both in the adult and larval state. Crane flies are slow of wing and frequent shady places. The larvee of both groups are developed in moist ground, and often in colonies of several hundred. With these habits it is not surprising that they fall an easy prey to the thrushes. Hemiptera (bugs), a small but rather constant element of the food, were found in the stomachs collected every month, and in July reach 11.11 per cent. They were of the families of stinkbugs (Penta- tomide), shield bugs (Scutellerids), tree hoppers (Membracide), leaf hoppers (Jasside), and cicadas. Some scales were found in one stomach. The total for the season is 3.76 per cent. A few insects not included in any of the foregoing categories make up 0.48 per cent of the food. Spiders, with a few millipeds, amount to 2.22 per cent, the lowest figure for this item of any bird of the genus Hylo- cichla. Snails, sowbugs, angleworms, etc. (0.32 per cent), complete the animal food. | Following is a list of insects identified and the number of stomachs in which found: HYMENOPTERA. Aphodius inquinatus _____-__________ Aphodins 'sp=eares-. Seas eee Geotrunes sp24=2—). . eee Dichelonycha elongata_____________-—_ Lachnosterna hirticula _.____________ HLachnosterna)sp=—_-. See 1 Anomalaamndulata.—_ eee Anonatassps 22 ee aS Huphorniawjuloida ee eee Donaciaenargnata: 2 Hemoniainigricornis a SUNneCLIpOlidd, =) see es ee Leptinotarsa decemlineata__________~_ Gastroidea ‘spa. - eae papas Galenucella "decora. --aeee ea DOOR XO SE | ee DiGgenolica Spee =o ee Se ee Gonioctenaspaliida See aa LEY NOROCES WORALCHUES 2——— Opagtininus, notus.. 2 eee ee Blapstinus metallicus 2-~- BLD SELILILS AIUOES TS ae a ea BIGUSEINUSE SD! — = eames Lee Otiorhynchus ovatussee ss ees DRiNOLENUSIS) = -. aa ee Cercopeus enrysorrhagis ae Borypunhes pellucdi = Sitones flavescens-____-_______ SLUGIVESTES pe eee LL ce ee Phytonomus punctatus ______________ Pachylobius picivorus______-________ Conotrachelus posticatus ____________ Micromastus elegans________________ PACOLLCSIRCLOUCt1LS = — ae Ee Cryptorhynchus bisignatus________--_— Rhinoncus pyrrhopus______--_______~ — Camponotus pennsylvanicus____-----~ MipniGinornatas— sss eee - COLEOPTERA, Cychrus mtidicotlis _-_-____-.-______ Cychrus stenostomus________-_______ INOLLODRAUUS (EN CUS = aa ae A eS Se PUCTOSULCUSES AYU == ee ee Pterotichus Wustrans2s = ses Agno intersiiians ss 2 ee LEPXTANGE UDEAG THAT se es Agonoderus pallipess— 22 SOU TUG as CATO SG 2a ee se a Staphylinus cinnamopterus___--—_-—_~—~ Tachyporus californicus —_____-__~___ OUT OC OFAUSIO TOU Sie eee ge oy SAT OGRD! OS eee HE SUCKLNVCTICANUS = ee De WOSMCUCOTIOMGLOUUS = en eee TET ULES) SCI CO US a wr a ee eee St Agriotes stabilis______ 18 Bi rk SE a Se EOUORES [ULMWCOLIS EE SS SS See eae POUTUPUS 1LOUPGSGUIB Le ee ee (STAI GORE G ID, San oyna al ace RELCDLOGUSEGOGOUIUS a ee ee Helepnorws oiineatus—— RElEphOTUsS CivisSUse— ae ee Onihophagus heeate= = eee Onthophagus striatulus_____________~ Onthophagus tuberculifrons__—~_______ ONTO SILAGUSES hae ee ee ee NCA REDS GOCE IS a ie el ee ADROMUS NANO USe eee Aphodius fimetarius_____-_-§__- BEEP HEY EHP EeE eee eeEEEENHEDHOAN ORE RW HE HN OTH HNN HH BHP HB Eee ee eee eR SS 16 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BQlLQNinis ‘Sp. eee 3 TRICHOPTERA. Sphenophorus parvulus________-----~ 1 Sphenophorus spusa2ien ooo 1 | Phryganea californica __--—___ 3-5 1 NCOWLUS ANU CUS an ee ee 1 HEMIPTERA. LEPIDOPTERA. Myodocha-serripes___-_ =... > eee HAeEmus aoifronsseee re 1 |) Sineadiadena — 2a ee eee 1 This list of insects contains a considerable number of injurious species and some that at various times and places have become de- cided pests. Such are the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa de- cemlincata) , the spotted squash beetle (Diabrotica soror), the clover- leaf weevil (Phytonomus punctatus), and the various species of Lachnosterna, the parent of the destructive white grubs. Many others are plant feeders and may increase to such an extent as to inflict great damage upon agriculture. Vegetable food—The vegetable food of the olive-backed diene consists of small fruit. The bird has a weak bill and can not break through the tough skin of the larger kinds. In the cherry orchards of California the writer many times observed the western subspecies of this bird, the russet-back, on the ground pecking at cherries that had been bitten open and dropped by linnets and grosbeaks. Black- berries and raspberries have a very delicate skin and are successfully managed by weak-billed birds, so that all the records of domestic fruit eaten by the eastern form relate to these berries, and it is probable that in most cases the fruit was not cultivated. The total of cultivated fruit for the season is 12.63 per cent of the whole food, but if we consider the eastern subspecies alone this item would practically disappear. Wild fruit (19.73 per cent) is eaten regularly and in a goodly quantity in every month after April. Weed seeds and a few miscellaneous items of vegetable food (4.04 per cent) close the account. Following is a list of vegetable foods so far as identified and the number of stomachs in which found: White cedar seeds (Thuja occidentalis) _ 1 } Bird cherries (Prunus pennsylvanice@) — 2 Red cedar berries (Juniperus commu- Domestic cherries (Prunus cerasus)--~ 29 WS) eee Cee eS Domestic plum (Prunus domestica) ——- 2 False Solomon’s seal (Smilacina tri- Apricot (Prunus armeniaca) ——---_---- 3 TOULO) eS ae SS 31| Milaree (Hrodium sp:)-__—_ 1 Greenbrier (Smilax tamnifolia) ~~--__- 1 | Poison oak (Rhus diversiloba) _-----__ 4 Cateprier (Smilaa) sp.)e=——————— 1 | Staghorn sumac (hus hirta)-------_ 2 Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) ______ 3 | Dwarf sumac (Rhus copallina) ______~ 4 Marlberry (Morus Sp: ) -sesee oe 2} (Other sumac) (Rius spe) nee 4 Mio (HiCUSsSD.) = as — eee a 3 | Pepper tree (Schinus molle)------_-- 1 Pale persicaria (Polygonwm lapathi- American holly (Ilex opaca)__--__--_ 1 LOM) == See. 5 ee 1 | Black alder (Jlex verticillata) _---_-__-_ 1 Poke berries (Phytolacca decandra) —_~ 9 | Coffee berries (Rhamnus californicus) — 3 Mountain ash (Pyrus americana) ~-___ 1 | Woodbine (Psedera quinquefolia) ---_- 10 Service berries (Amelanchier sp.)—----~ 1 | Frost grape (Vitis cordifolia) _-_----~ 6 Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus sp.)_ 67 | Spikenard (Aralia racemosa) -----~-~- 2 ROSe Load ws. (IOSGEND.) eee 1 | Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) —— fe Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina) . 15 | Kinnikinnik (Cornus amomum)-—-—---~- y a FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 17 Red osier (Cornus stolonifera) _______ 1 | Snowberries (Symphoricarpos racemo- Panicled cornel (Cornus paniculata) __ 3 S08) eh eee ee 2 Dogwood unidentified (Cornus sp.) —~--~ 6 | Dockmackie (Viburnum acerifolium) —— 1 Huckleberries (Gaylussacia sp.) ~-____ 1 | Arrowwood (Viburnum sp.)—-----_--__ 1 Three-flowered nightshade (Solanum Black elderberries (Sambucus canaden- EN LILOGALI) eet ee ee a 1 SS) ee en Ot ae eS 6 Nightshade unidentified (Solanum sp.) — 8 | Red elderberries (Sambucus pubens) ~~ 5 Black twinberries (Lonicera involu- Blue elderberries (Sambucus glauca) — 15 CHOU) en ree eer TY LS 2" | Larweed (Madia> sp*)—- eee 1 Honeysuckle berries (Lonicera sp.)__~ 2) Fruit pulp not further identified_.____ aT Food of young of russet-bached thrush—Before concluding the discussion of this species it will be of interest to note the results obtained from an investigation of stomachs of 25 nestlings of the russet-back taken in June and July when the birds were from two to eleven days old. These were from eight broods, ranging from three to five nestlings to the brood. The percentage of animal food of the young (92.60 per cent) is considerably higher than that of the parent birds. The distribution of the animal food is as follows: Caterpillars were found in every stomach but seven and aggregated nearly 27 per cent; beetles, including the useful Carabide (7.7 per cent), are irregularly distributed to the extent of 22 per cent; other more or less harmful species included five families of (Hemiptera) bugs, 13.8 per cent, viz, stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, tree hoppers, shield bugs, and cicadas; ants and a few other Hymenoptera amount to 12 per cent, and spiders the same. These latter were mostly harvestmen or daddy longlegs (Phalangidz). The remainder (6 per cent) included a few miscellaneous insects. Only three stomachs contained remains of grasshoppers. Carabid beetles were eaten by the young birds to the extent of 7.7 per cent, which is more than three times the amount eaten by the adults, a remarkable fact when is considered that these insects are very hard shelled, thus seemingly unsuited for young birds. The vegetable food consisted of fruit (6.8 per cent), mainly black- berries or raspberries, found in 11 stomachs, and twinberries in 1, and two or three other items, including a seed of filaree and some rubbish. From the irregular variety of food in the different stomachs, it would seem that the parents make little selection, but fill the gaping mouths of their young with the nearest obtainable supply. In addition to the examination of stomach contents of nestlings two nests were carefully and regularly watched, and from these it was determined that the parent birds fed each nestling 48 times in 14 hours of daylight. This means 144 feedings as a day’s work for the parents for a brood of three nestlings, and that each stomach was filled to its full capacity several times daily, an illustration that the digestion and assimilation of birds, especially the young, are con- stant and yery rapid. Experiments in raising young birds have 18 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. proved that they thrive best when fed small quantities at short in- tervals rather than greater quantities at longer periods. Aside from the insects consumed by the parents, a brood of three young birds will thus each require the destruction of at least 144 insects in a day and probably a very much greater number. Summary.—tin a résumé of the food of the olive-backed and russet- backed thrushes one is impressed with the fact that they come in contact with the products of industry but rarely. The olive-back’s food habits infringe upon the dominion of man but little. The bird lives among men, but not with them. The western form, the russet- back, comes more into relations with the cultivated products because it visits orchards and partakes freely of the fruit. Even then the damage is slight, as much of the fruit eaten is that fallen to the ground. Moreover, while the adult bird is feeding upon fruit a nestful of young are being reared upon insects which must be largely taken from the orchard, thus not only squaring the account but probably overbalancing it in favor of the farmer. HERMIT THRUSHES. (Hylocichla guttata subspp. ) The hermit thrush of the subspecies 7. g. pallasi inhabits the Eastern States in winter as far north as Massachusetts and breeds from the mountains of Maryland and Pennsylvania and from north- ern Michigan and central Minnesota northward to Alaska. Several other subspecies occupy the. Pacific coast region in suitable locali- ties—that is, in the higher and more wooded sections, as this bird, like all of the genus /ylocichla, does not live in treeless or arid regions. In the East the bird is a late fall migrant and may often be seen. sitting silent and alone on a branch in the forest in late October or even in November, when the great army of migrants have passed on to the South. While a beautiful songster, the species is so quiet and unobtrusive that by sight it is entirely unknown to many. Inquiry into the food habits of this bird covered 551 stomachs, collected in 29 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and representing every month of the year, though all the stomachs taken in winter were collected in the Southern States the District of Columbia, and California. In the primary analysis the food was found to consist of 64.51 per cent of animal matter to 35.49 per cent of vegetable. The former is mostly composed of insects with some spiders, while the latter is largely fruit, chiefly wild species. Animal food—Beetles constitute 15.13 per cent of the food. Of these 2.98 per cent are of the useful family, Carabidae. The remain- der are mostly harmful. Scarabeide, the larve of which are the FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 19 white grubs that destroy the roots of so many plants, were eaten to the extent of 3.44 per cent. Snout beetles, among the most harmful of insects, were taken to the extent of 3.13 per cent. Among these was the notorious plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) found in two stomachs taken in the District of Columbia in April of different. years. Two other species of the same genus also were found, as well as the clover weevil (EB picerus imbri- eatus). The Colo- rado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa de- cemlineata) and the striped squash beetle (Diabrotica vittata), with a number of other species of less no- toriety, were found in several stomachs. Thus, in spite of the bird’s retiring habits, it comes in contact with some of the pests of cultivation. The ants de- ‘ a FS - — stroyed—12.46 per > AN = iy } y Y as<\ SSS cent of the food— 2 A SVS \ ES Ss See 5 ; = \) eS) SSeS Sa ce eo oe RS; seN LS aN ee B \ 2 Awe eee ation of thrushes [= SES JS as ant eaters. — ae aathy Ay IN Cp - | They were taken |{s| au iiaae IS wale: C = == ® constantly every {3 = oe SV month, with the B2085-73 Fig. 2.—Hermit thrush (Hylocichla guttata). greatest number from May to September; a falling off in July is partly accounted for by the fact that more fruit is taken in that month. Other Hymenop- tera (bees and wasps) were eaten to the extent of 5.41 per cent, a suprising amount for a bird that feeds so largely upon the ground, as these insects are usually of fleet wing and live in sunshine and open air. reo 20 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Caterpillars, eaten in every month and mostly in goodly quantities, appear to be a favorite food of the hermit thrush. December is the month of least consumption (2.75 per cent), while the most were eaten in June (17.08 per cent). The average for the year is 9.54 per cent. Hemiptera (bugs) seem to be eaten whenever found, as they appear in the food of every month, but rather irregularly and not in large quantities. The greatest consumption was in June (9.17 per cent), but July, September, and December show the least (less than 1 per cent). The total for the year is 3.63 per cent. Of the six families represented, the Pentatomide, or stink bugs, predominate. These highly flavored insects are eaten by most insectivorous birds often, but usually in small quantities. Diptera (flies) comprise 3.02 per cent of the food of the hermit thrush. The record shows, however, that nearly all of them are either crane flies (Tipulide) and their eggs and larve, or March flies (Bibio) and their larvee. Over 150 of the latter were found in one stomach. Both of these families of flies lay their eggs in the ground, which accounts for their consumption by ground-feeding birds. Or- thoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are eaten by the hermit thrush to the extent of 6.32 per cent of its food. While this figure is not remarkable, it is the highest for any of the genus. These birds are fond of dark moist nooks among trees and bushes and do not feed extensively in those dry sunshiny places so much frequented by grasshoppers. A close inspection of the food record shows that the Orthoptera eaten by the thrushes are mostly crickets, which live in shadier and moister places than those where grasshoppers abound. A few miscellaneous insects (0.27 per cent) close the insect account. Spiders and myriapods (7.47 per cent) seem to constitute a very ac- ceptable article of diet, as they amount to a considerable percentage in nearly every month, and in May rise to 20.79 per cent. A few miscellaneous animals, as sowbugs, snails, and angleworms, make up the balance of the animal food (1.26 per cent). Following is a list of insects so far as identified and the number of stomachs in which found: HYMENOPTERA. Tropisternus limbalis_______ Hydrocharis obtusatus ~~ _ Spheridium lecontei Ptomaphagus consobrinus — ___ COLEOPTERA, Anisotoma valida : Megilla maculata______ _2 a to Minhig Moma a ee La 1 1 1 1 Elaphris sp-== = —. aa = ae oe 1 2¢ 1 Notiophilus senvistriatus___._-___-~_-~- 1 | Anatis 15-maculata____- 1 Scarites subterraneus____~_-- .- 1 | Psyllobora tedata ____ 1 Dyschirius pumilis=__ = SS 1 | Brachycantha ursina__. 1 Pterostichus patruclis________~ 1 | Endomychus biguttatus— 1 Pterostichus spo == — Sa eee 1 Cryptophagus sp —--- 1 Amara sp ==5 =a 2 ae es 1 THister marginicellis__— 1 Chlenius pennsylvanicus ~~~ : 2 | Hister americanus —_-- 1 Stenolophus sp-——--- 2a = 1 | Saprinus fimbriatus__. : £95 ie | 1 Anisodactylus agilis__ a | Carpophilus hemipterus—— = ae FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. b — Perthatyena murray? -s—~—__- l \e¢helymorpiancribvrnaria,. Sees 1 Ins quadriguitatus_———- = = 3 | Opatrinus notus_______ a SS 1 Cuitusiseniceus) == eee ees 2 | Opatrinus aciculatus__———--__-2-_____ I OMS) Saas ee 1 | Blapstinus metallicus,_._______-__-___ 1 PU RRIULS MICU OY Ure ae ne 1S | ERlAvSlinUsm Rui peSp===—==—=— — eee 1 Byrrhus cyclophorus_——-——----_ Lo |SSalpingwsmurrescens —== =) eee 1 Cryptohypnus, bicolor =~ 2 2 | Anti Cus pwO0esGeis—— = =. sae 1 WRASTERUUSNAOTSAUS—=— 2 1 | Notoxus monodon_______~ a. ea 1 Dotopvwsilateralist= ==) ls eee ee 1 | Notozws denudatum__—_—_+-—-=__ I MUCLONOCUWSMS Die eS ee 2s NOLO LILSES De Se aS > a 1 Podabrus tomentosus_____________ =: 1. Avteltabusenihois==.—— = __ __ ee 2 eas 1 COMENONES Dee es ae ees PEL Ta 1 | Rhigopsis effracta ~_____- met) ECE SES 1 Onthophagus tuberculifrons__~—_______ 1. | Cexcopeusschnysorrnhoius —_ sees 4 OncgnopRaGuUsyspy=—— === — = 3) | Bandeletejus hilaris= =. ___ =e 1 ALGIGUA LUGUSTTIS == —— ea ee it || Barypithesspelluciaus __. ae 1 VEU SSCUUUGRS CCU Ce es eee Se LA Sitoneseiispidalis)==— = eee 4 AN ENIUS NODOULUS= =e Lt | Sitonessiavescens=—— ____ __ _aeaee 1 ALLENIWS: COONATUS==— =~ 2 oak 1 | Trichatophus atternatus _2_2=——_ 5 _ t ACA QUIS Vase ee Lit) AmtOTES pene Ls. eI se iy Aphodius fimetarius_________-____- = 11 | Listronotus latiusculus-___=__—- _--~= 1 AMNOGIWS ONONGHIUS\= k=. 1 | Listronotus inequalipennis_—__________ t INO LOUIS OG SY OL a Le PaAstronotusesp == _ we. Ha 1 Aphodius maquinatus——_.. =~ —__-_ 9 SMGChODSES Dre ee ae a 2 LUO ROME ORC B= ee eee 1 | Smicronyz corniculatus______ oo Se Tas) 1 ADROdiws prodnomus.——— = 4 || Trachodes plinoides—____ = 1 Aphodius crassiusculus ______-____-___ 1 | Conotrachelus nenuphar_--———_—_2- =~ 2 PAN ROCLUSI SDE oa oes 11 | Conotrachelus posticatus ____--_____~-_ 5 Geotrupes semipunctata________~ Souk = &, 1 | Oonotrachelus erinaceus__—=—__ 1 DUCK CLOMY CILCANS De ee ee ee = Li) RRNONCUS DYULTNODUSS == = ae eee 1 WOCKNOSLCINOGN SD aa ae 17 |W Onychobansinsidiosus —— eee it Olhrysomela pulehna.—_ == = 3 | Balaninus nasicus ~____ 1 TCM NigGrourttata == Lil Bateninus spas] eS See ee a 1 Chlamysypliicata = =) 2 ee 1 | Sphenophorus parvulus___——___ aes RR iL Myochrous) denticollis,.-—---__--_-___-__ 2) | WSDRENODNOTZALSHIS Die ee na 1 xkanthonia. 10-notata_=——--_=-=____-__ 1 | Dendroctonus terebrans _-___________ 1 Galiigraphayscataris--- 2 Soe 1 Leptinotarsa decemlineata ____+-_____ 1 HEMIPTERA, PLLA OO I 1 Podops cinctipes 1 Miabrotica: vittata —-_=_2$==__ 1 = i ne eo nae ea INICZORC AULT IS a a ee een eee 6 Odonttotasenng see 1 xe ; Arhaphe cicindeloides ===") Tr 1 OdGtitOlLOmSD sn ae ee iL : E : Corimelend ‘denudata = it [ERLE Ue : Myodocha serripes 2 Crepidodera helwines________________ DERG Grok io, a ae eS yee Fr Syneta ferruginea -__-_-~---------_- 1 ORTHOPTERA, Systena elongata _-~—-_---~_________ 1 Chetocnema pulicaria______------_~~- 1 | Amblycorypha rotundifolia___________ 1 Psylliodes punctulata _-_--_____-___- LWiGQicanthus niveus=—— =) aa 1 Vegetable food.—The vegetable diet of the hermit thrush consists largely of fruit, as with most birds of this group. As might be ex- pected of a bird of such retiring habits, but little of the fruit eaten can be classed as cultivated. In September 5.45 per cent was so considered, but in most months the quantity was small, and in March, April, and May was completely wanting. The total for the year as found in 17 stomachs is 1.20 per cent. One stomach contained strawberries, one grapes, one figs, one currants, two apples, and the rest Rubus fruit, i. e., blackberries or raspberries. These last as well as the strawberries were probably wild. Of the wild fruit (26.19 per cent) 46 species were identified with a reasonable degree of cer- tainty in 248 stomachs. A few seeds, ground-up vegetable matter ’ 22 BULLETIN 280, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. not further identified, and rubbish make up the rest of the vegetable food (8.10 per cent). Among the seeds were some of the various species of poisonous hus. These were found in 18 stomachs, mostly from California. The dissemination of these seeds is unfortunate from the standpoint of husbandry, but many birds engage in it, as the waxy coating of the seeds is nutritious, especially in winter, when fruit and insects are not easily obtainable. Following is a list of the components of the vegetable food so far as identified, and the number of stomachs in which found: Cedar berries (Juniperus virginiana) —— 2 ] Poison ivy (Rhus radicans)___-______ 3 False Solomon's seal (Smilacina race- Poison oak (Rhus diversiloba) _______ ats MOSO) === = =e eee ee Ee 4 | Laurel-leaved sumach (Rhus lawrina) — 2 Faise spikenard (Smilacina sp.) -~---~- 1 Other sumachs -(Rhus sp.) l= 12 Greenbrier (Smilax walteri) _-------- 2 | Pepper berries (Schinus molle)_______ 15 Cat brier (Smilax bona-nor) _~_-_-__-_ 2 | American holly (Ilex opaca) ~~ 9 Laurel-leaved greenbrier (Smilax lawri- Black alder (Ilex verticillata) ________ 12 FOU) Benen =) Seen Smee a See 1 | Ink berries. (lex: glabra) = ae 9 Other greenbriers (Smilaw sp.) -----~- 1. | Other hollies: (Tlea-sp.) 2 eae eee Y Wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera) ____---~- 1 | Strawberry bush (Huonymus america- Bayberries (Myrica carolinensis) ~~~ ~ 7 NUS)s <2 oo ee es 1 Chinquapin (Castanea pumila) ~~~ 1 Roxbury waxwork (Celastrus scan- Western hackberries (Celtis occiden- dns). 2-2 kw ieee 1 ELAS) sys aa hn MRI eS Ee EEN Se Seah 5 | Supple-jack (Berchemia volubilis) ____ 2 Other hackberries (Celtis sp.) ------_~- 8 | Coffee berries (Rhamnus californicus) — 1 Higgin(Ulccusisp:) ase eee te ies ee ee 1 | Woodbine (Psedera quinquefolia) _____ 10 Mulberries~ (Worws isp) 2 2 se 1 | Frost grapes (Vitis cordifolia) _______ 2 Mistletoe berries (Phoradendron villo- Wild-grapes (Vitis -sp:) =2222422 ee 1 SUNY) a ION Soe SEO VTE al Begg 8 Nia 2 | Wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis) — 1 Poke berries (Phytolacca decandra) ~~ 6 | Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida)__ 32 Miner’s lettuce (Montia perfoliata) ___ 1 | Rough-leaved dogwood (Cornus asperi- Sassafras berries (Sassafras varifo- (OUG) 28 A 2 TAAL TN) ales eee Sats Se 2 | Black gum (Nyssa sylvatica) —___---__ 2 Spice berries (Benzoin estivale) ------ 1 | Checkerberry (Gaultheria procumbens) — 1 Currants (Ribes Fe Of 22 ie A 3 | Huckleberries (Gaylussacia sp.) ~----- 1 Sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) — 2 | Blueberries (Vaccinium sp.) ~~~ === — 12 Chokeberries (Pyrus arbutifolia) ______ 1 | Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) —_ -f Service berries (Amelanchier canaden- Bittersweet (Solanum sp,)---~-----__ 4 SES) IG 5) ad SAVIN NIIP | LIN fg 9 | Goose grass (Galiuwm aparine) —~—~-—--~ 1 Hawthorn (Crategussspyis=—= =. —_-— 1 | Honeysuckle (Lonicera sp.) 2-22 --—_ == 2 Strawberries (fragaria sp.) ___-_--_--- 1 | Indian currant (Symphoricarpos orbi- Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus sp.) — 5 culatus) 2. was soe ee eee 1 Rosexhaws (Rosa sp )easee aes se De 1 | Downy arrowwood (Viburnum pubes- Wild black cherries (Prunus scrotina) — 3 Coens) i245 2 si ke oe ee ee 1 Three-seeded mercury (Acalypha vir- Nanny berries (Viburnum lentago) ~~~ 2 GUNA CO,) pera aoe Sete sh 1 | Black elderberries (Sambucus cana- Staghorn sumach (Rhus typhina) ~~~ 5 densis) 22 ee eee eee 4 Smooth sumach (Rhus glabra) _-~_-___ 5 | Red elderberries (Sambucus pubens) ——- 3 Dwarf sumach (Rhus copallina)______ 7 | Fruit not further identified___._______ 60 In looking over this list one is impressed with the fact that the taste of human beings for fruit differs markedly from that of birds. For example, hus seeds are hard and have little pulp to render them palatable or nutritious. They are usually passed through the alimen- tary canal of birds or regurgitated unharmed, and the slight outer coating alone is digested. In the case of the poisonous species, this outer coating is a white wax or tallow which appears to be very nutritious, for these species are eaten much more extensively than FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 23 the nonpoisonous ones. The seed itself is rarely broken in the stomach to get any nutriment it may contain. But in spite of these facts Rhus seeds were found in 49 stomachs, while fruits of huckle- berries and blueberries, which are delicious to the human taste, were found in only 13 stomachs; and blackberries and raspberries, highly esteemed by man, were found in only 5 stomachs. Next to Rhus the fruit most eaten was the dogwood berry, found in 34 stomachs, yet from a human estimate these berries are distasteful and contain such large seeds that they afford but very little actual food. Summary.—The hermit thrush, as it name indicates, is of solitary habits and neither seeks human companionship nor molests cultivated products. It destroys nothing indirectly helpful to man, as beneficial insects, but aids in the destruction of the myriad hosts of insect life which at all times threaten vegetation. While it is not easy to point out any especially useful function of the hermit thrush, it fills its place in the economy of nature, from which it should not be removed. ADDITIONAL COPIES OY THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Vv i) aed Fe oa i £% AS ue a f" \ ie a £5c5 1 OS or i a 2 ‘ I s i C | “ . f = ror | Ate ‘Z b pS LS it . = ‘ > * yt ? tt {i ; i iis eG F F Ce | BY ¢ ~ : ” | “3 5 ‘ PS et 0a "Sah : : S a ae: 7 t BRE SA 1 , $e ‘ t- } = 4 eet a § tw ‘ 4 e ‘ xg é ss - ree AG ? | " r ope arres | ; ‘ vc = f vr rt i bs oe = Be eet a - ° ref : a C F = _ | F ‘ if y r) f ay Ih) ‘ 3 | : : = ' Ve g a | f | | wr 2 : "fi eee uv s is8 ieDiae ‘ + aed, 4 eee antec x Sars “ ; c “4 ; ae Pe y UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - BULLETIN No. 281 Contribution from the States Relations Service A. C. TRUE, Director Washington, D. C. v August 12, 1915 CORRELATING AGRICULTURE WITH THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SUBJECTS IN THE NORTHERN STATES. By C. H. Lane, Chief Specialist in Agricultural Education, and F. E. HEaup, Assistant in Agricultural Education. CONTENTS. Page. | Page. iniroductioneeemecsseec ent oak ee ine m ci - = 1 |'@Noviemberssees- hao. sane tosere 12 MO splan cers isn sae Sean os - 2 | MecemPberseaes- aan ssc ses sceeeeae eee 14 How the teacher may organize a club.-....-. 2 | Jianulainy Mares oe ocacs cocisemeee emer sere 16 IPIBVATS Se ucouS cord CORES SEe See sae 4 | Hebruanyerecssca: chee 2oe soeee eee enae 18 How to keep up the club interest......-.-.-- 5 | IMO Diese tsetiars. Lo arate emer erase ter 20 Schoolsexhibitdaysses-0----2-ccc0-------2-- 5 - | gabe eeeepegroee foes eS Vien ce nee area 22 SQUAT Nee +. + acandecose Sen esee SSeS e Cee See eee ileay GhoGl Abn seceaoobeosesasesscosauecasaece 24 Octobera:2--- 32, sé San Seed e ees anee ee eee 9 | Correlation supplements. -.-.......-..-------.- 25 INTRODUCTION. Home projects! as a part of the regular instruction in elementary agriculture promise to afford the teacher a most potent means of making the subject sufficiently concrete and practical. Too often the teaching begins and ends with the assignment and recitation of lessons from the pages of a textbook. By projecting the work of the school into the home in the vital way in which home projects do, it enlists the interest of parents and becomes the means of their edu- cation in this subject, thus affecting quickly the work on the farms of the community. The purpose of this bulletin is to suggest some ways and means by which the public-school teacher may utilize home projects in correiating agriculture and farm problems with the regular school - work. 1 The term ‘‘home project,’’ applied to instruction in elementary and secondary agriculture, includes each of the following requisites: (1) There must be a plan for work at home covering a season more or less extended, (2) it must be a part of the instruction in agriculture of the school, (3) there must be a problem more or less new to the pupil, (4) the parents and pupil should agree with the teacher upon the plan, (5) some competent person must supervise the home work, (6) detailed records of time, method, cost, and in- come must be honestly kept, and (7) a written report based on the record must be submitted to the teacher. This report may be in the form of a booklet. Notr.—This bulletin is prepared especially for the use of rural school teachers in the Northern States. 98555°—Bull. 281—15——1 2 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE PLAN. The term ‘“‘correlation”’ is here used to mean nothing more nor less than leading pupils to see the relation between home life and school life, to point out the utility value of arithmetic, geography, and physiology, and to supplement reading, history, language, and spelling. Thus through home projects and correlations there will be lent to rural school agriculture a realness and concreteness that can be obtained in no other way. It will be observed that the material is arranged according to a monthly sequence plan. Ten months’ work is provided for, but in case the school term is not so long, as is generally true in rural schools, the work out of season may be dropped. As suggested by the title of this publication, the correlationscheme is intended to be adapted to the northern, central, and western sec- tions of the United States. Covering as it does a large territory, the work must of necessity be largely suggestive. The details, such as the statement of problems, working of subjects in language exercises, etc., should be left to the teacher. Gathering local data as a basis for the work should be entrusted in a large measure to the club members of the school. HOW THE TEACHER MAY ORGANIZE A CLUB. Home projects may be carried on without an organization, but if the teacher desires to form a club he should, as soon as possible after the school opens in the fall, write to the county superintendent and State leader in charge of boys’ and girls’ clubs at the State agricul- tural college for all printed matter available pertaining to club projects. When the teacher has studied the literature and has become familiar with the plans, projects, rules, etc., of clubs, a meeting for organization should be called and should include as many boys and girls of the school district as can be brought together. It would be well to invite the patrons of the school to this meeting and have the extension representative (county agent) for the county give a talk on the agricultural club requirements and work. If possible, have the county superintendent of education and the State leader in charge of club work at this meeting and ask their aid in this organ- ization work. Near the close of the meeting, which should not be too long, a simple form of constitution and set of by-laws may be adopted, and the regular officers of the club elected at this time may include a supervisor, president, vice president, secretary, treasurer, and program committee. As a suggestion to teachers who have not thus far taken up club work, the following general form of organization has been found satisfactory: CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 3 SUGGESTED CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS.! CONSTITUTION. Articte I. Name of club.—This organization shall be known as’............----- School Boys’ and Girls’ Agricultural Club. Arr. II. Objects of club.—The objects of the club shall be to make farm life more attractive and farming more profitable. Arr. III. Membership.—Boys and girls from 10 to 18 years of age, inclusive, shall be eligible. Arr. IV. Officers —The officers of this club shall be a supervisor, president, vice president, secretary, and treasurer. Arr. V. Duties cf members.—Prescribed in the rules for club work, such as follow instructions, attend club meetings, make exhibits at the school and county fair, and keep a report of expenses, income, observations, and work. Arr. VI. Duties of officers —The president shall preside at all meetings; the secre- tary shall keep the minutes and records of all such meetings; the treasurer must care for all funds collected and shall pay out the same only upon the written order of the president, and the vice president may act as president in the absence or disability of that officer. The teacher shall be the local leader, having the general supervision of all local club work and power of exercising authority in proper management of the club. Src. 1. An advisory committee shall arrange for all public contests and exhibits, the procuring and awarding of prizes, and the reporting of statistics and other infor- mation to the State organizer. BY-LAWS. 1. The members of the club shall agree to read all reference literature bearing upon the home project. This may include literature dealing with the growing of corn, potatoes, tomatoes, chickens, pigs, etc. 2. A written plan of the work of each boy and girl must be prepared for the teacher. They must do all the work connected with the particular contest or project entered upon. 3. The amount of yield by weight and measurement of land and other results of the spring and summer work must be certified to by the contestant and attested by at least two disinterested competent witnesses preferably members of the local school board who are not relatives. 4. Every member of the club must make an exhibit at the annual school fair. 5. In estimating profits the recommendations of the State agent in charge of boys’ and girls’ club work will be observed. Rent of land $.---, work of club members --- - cents per hour, work of horses .... cents per hour each, manure $.... per two-horse wagon load. 6. No club member should be allowed to receive more than ---- prizes. 1 The teacher should write the State agent in charge of club work at the State agricultural-college for suggestions concerning the organization and conducting of a boys’ and girls’ agricultural club, or, in the absence of such State agent, he may write directly to the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., for such assistance. The office for extension work of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in the Northern and Western States maintains a section with a leader and assistants who give their entire time to the organization and supervision of boys’ and girls’ club work in cooperation with the extension divi- sions of the agricultural colleges in practically all of the States. The State leader in club work at the agri- cultural college is usually, therefore, the joint employee of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the State agricultural college and represents both institutions alike in club work. In organizing a club, therefore, through the assistance of this State leader the boys and girls are brought into and become a part of the State organization as well as of the national organization for club work and receive systematic recog- nition and assistanee from both the State and the Nation. 4 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 7. The committee of judges for the annual school fair shall be selected by the local leader. 8. Exhibits winning prizes at the school fair should be sent to the annual county contest and even to the State contest. 9. The percentage score for a, b, c, and d is subject to change irom time to time in the different States. The recommendations oi the State club leaders for the Northern and Western States for 1914-15 were as follows: Per cent (a) Greatest yield per acre.-__£_._-._..-. “See: 2 eis eee 30 (b) Best exhibit. ..-2. 22.22.2226: 5-22 Se ee eee 20 (c) Eesay and report - 22-2222. 23052522 oo eee ee 20 (d) Best showing of profit on imvestment. 25> _---.-=_...-:---._=5- 5 = ee 30 Totals 02-2. ee eee 100 The matter of prizes is of considerable importance. While the various contests of the club members have for their primary object the assistance of the teacher and the public schools to find an easy approach, educationally, to all the interests of rural and village life and to form a connecting link between parent and teacher, farm and school, it is found that prizes can be used to advantage. An attempt should be made to offer a large number of prizes. Many small prizes are better than a few large ones. Among the prizes suggested as suitable awards in club contests for first place the following may be mentioned: (1) Free trips and expenses paid to district and State fairs, educational institu- tions, summer Chautauquas, etc. (2) Top buggy, saddle, gold watch, automobile, etc. (3) Clear title to one or more acres of land (to encourage land ownership). (4) Farm implements, tools, equipment, etc. (5) Thoroughbred pigs, cattle, horses, mules, pen of chickens. (6) Club emblems, banners, and pennants. (7) Manual-training workbench, set of tools, camera, trunk, leather handbag, writing desk, etc. (8) Poultry equipment, such as incubators, watering and feeding troughs, brooders, fencing, and gates. (9) Free tuition to short courses in agricultural and mechanical colleges and regu- lar courses in colleges. (10) Canvas tent, camp outfit, canoe, hunting equipment, baseball suit, and suit of clothes. (11) Dictionary, encyclopedia, set of agricultural books, special club library, series of books of standard literature. . (12) Subscriptions to farm journals, magazines, and special periodicals for boys. School credit should be given to every member of the club who carries to completion some one club project. Every boy and girl should be taught the real meaning and value of a prize and that a realization of work well done is the true reward of effort. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 5 HOW TO KEEP UP THE CLUB INTEREST. The success of the rural school club depends largely upon the cooperation of the rural school teacher, county superintendent of edu- cation, extension representative (county agent), and the club leader of the State college of agriculture. Shortly after the club is organ- ized in any rural school the teacher should submit the names of the members to the county superintendent of education, who will assist in furnishing the club with literature directing them in the work. The teacher will find it advantageous to have the extension repre- sentative (county agent) make talks before the school, as well as visit the contestants’ home projects as he makes his rounds from time to time. The teacher should visit the homes of all club mem- bers and, together with the boys and girls and any other members of their families, go to the prize acres, etc., and have the owners tell the methods of preparing the soil, fertilizmg, and cultivating the crop. The results of such a trip will present much material for dis- cussion at club meetings and regular class instruction in agriculture. For every school club there should be a local committee of three men and three women who will encourage the children, interest influential members of the community in the club, and inspect from time to time the work of the club. SCHOOL-EXHIBIT DAY. In order to bring to a close the contest work of the boys and girls, one day of the school year should be set apart for the display of the club projects and of their other efforts. The small exhibit in the local school is of most value, and often it is possible for two or more schools to combine in having their school exhibit. To make the school exhibit a success, not only the children but the parents must be enlisted. The social element in it is very impor- tant. Every parent must be so interested that he will feel he must be present. Plan for an entire day given to the special occasion. If there is one in the vicmity who can give anything valuable to agri- culture, secure him as aspeaker. If this is done, have two programs, one in the forenoon for the speaker and one in the afternoon when the children shall take the prominent place. Have the children’s program plan to show the results of the club- project work and other home efforts. Let it include the best com- positions written on the more interesting phases of the work. The history of corn, the importance of corn in America, the development of breakfast foods, my experience in growing corn, my success with poultry, games that I like on the farm, why farmers should spray, value of birds to the farmer, and number of days of work needed for one man and a team to raise and harvest an acre of corn are sug- gested as additional subjects. 6 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The history and work of the farmers’ institute should be reported by one of the older pupils; another should give an account of what the agricultural college is doing for the State. If sufficient interest has been aroused, contests in judging corn, breadmaking, rope tying, and seed-corn stringing might be held. For judging the exhibits prepared by the pupils secure some one who has studied corn judging, poultry judging, etc. Be sure to make this a feature of the day, making the announcement of the results a part of the program. Music should not be omitted from the program. Some patriotic music should be included, as should the State song. Plan to have dinner at the school and use every device possible to utilize products grown by the children. If the number of people is not too large, a splendid lesson in art would be the making of place cards and decorating them with some corn design. If these are not made, souvenirs of the day should be made by the pupils, carrying out some particular club-project idea. This is one real way to teach decorative art. For a language lesson prepare written invitations to the patrons of the school. Perhaps the form side of notes of invitation will be more vividly taught then. Be sure to include the local editor in the list of invitations. Have a report of School Exhibit Day written by some of the pupils for the local papers: The decoration of the schoolroom should not be neglected. Black- board drawings, booklets, corn products, and other work of the pupils should be utilized. Use some fine specimens of corn in com- pleting the decorations. The room should be decorated so as to give joy and impress the thought that the man who tills the soil is engaged in an exalted work. SEPTEMBER. Practical and field exercises.—Select seed corn in the field and have a schoolroom demonstration of methods of curing. (See Correlation Supplements II and III on pp. 26, 27.) Cooperate in the canning of surplus tomatoes. Arrange that each pupil shall report on the local or county fair visited, and it is well for the teacher to attend with the pupils. Take a field trip to collect seeds, weeds, insects, and other illustrative material. (See Farmers’ Buls. 586 and 606.) Observe the condition of fields; recognize and destroy weeds. Visit the project fields of pupils when possible on these excursions. (See score card on corn in Supplement XIV.) Prepare to hold a school exhibit or fair. (Refer to Supplement I.) Have pupils exhibit some of their produce at the county fair. (Fig. 1.) Language lessons.—Have all pupils use notebooks when doing field work. Utilize the club-work material for both oral and written - CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 7 descriptions. Have the summer experiences written up fully for each club project, not as a language lesson first, but for its content, and then revise. Have the pupils write and mail requests for bulle- tins needed, also for periodicals and catalogues. Have written such parts of the report on project work as are due at this time. Do a part of the work on the booklet to correspond with the field progress. (See Supplement on Booklets, No. VIII.) Reading and spelling.—Use those selections in the supplementary reading books which are rural in their bearing and which are seasonal. Utilize also the best selections available in other books. The teacher may well read some of these for the entire school. Among those possible for September will be found Maize—Fosdick; The Legend of 8a," € uy 'y 1! OT? b. BOGBADIO Wa emi ws re DEORDEGD | a8 Yonge yrsnonnniieo Oo, Si) De a banat ate 2G Us i Gr Fig. 1.—Desirable ear of corn. Selected by the Division of Corn Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. Maize (in Hiawatha)—Lonegfellow; Eyes and No Kyes—Kingsley; Happy the Man—Pope; To a Waterfowl—Bryant; Evening at the Farm—Trowbridge; Bobwhite—Cooper. Memorize the Country Boy’s Creed, by E. O. Grover. Of a more strictly agricultural nature select those periodicals and bulletins which deal with the local conditions and the club activities of the pupils. Farmers’ Bulletins which may be needed include Nos. 229, The Production of Good Seed Corn; 415, Seed Corn; 537, How to Grow an Acre of Corn; 578, The Making and Feeding of eS 617, School Lessons on Com Add to the regular spelling lists all the new words which appear in the agricultural reading and especially those which are misspelled in 3 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the written exercises. Make sure that the terms are all pronounced correctly. Mispronunciation makes misspelling almost imevitable, and the pupils should use the proper term in each case. Arithmetic.—The summer records of the projects ought to furnish the figures for problems of all sorts. Areas of fields, stand of corn, averages of yields, rate per acre, cost per acre, increase of yield over seed, gain over cost in amount and rate, interest rate on investment, rate of yield in relation to average for State, cost per egg of producing egos, tomato Incomes and net profit, probable per cent profit from the canned tomatoes, are some of the possible problems. The capacity of silos is a problem suited to some districts. Have the problem relate to the class work of the month or to review work in arithmetic as well as to agriculture. The correlation should work both ways or it is unfair. Remember other phases of community and home life de- serve correlation. (See problems in Supplement XIII.) Geography.—Have pupils make several copies of maps of the dis- trict and the township. Get original maps from county or township surveys or make from observations of district. On one locate the win- ners of prizes on different exhibits at the fairs. This will help in find- ing suitable material on field trips. Have pupils obtain data as to earliest severe frosts for the section and compare with other sec- tions. On the State map locate the chief crops of various sections, also make note of particularly successful boys’ and girls’ clubs. Note what crops are yielding well in the different States and discuss climatic factors. (See the latest issue of The Monthly Crop Report.) Apply the same method to international crops, commerce, ete., mak- ing use not only of census and other statistics but also the current information gained from magazines and farm papers. Make com- ment on the crop per acre at home and abroad and seek explanations. History.—Consider the agricultural, mdustrial, and social facts connected with the period in history which a class is studying. Look up in various history texts the story of corn in the United States, also have pupils inquire into the farm history of your section. (See Bowman and Crosley’s ‘‘Corn,’’ Ch. I, and Montgomery’s ‘‘The Corn Crops,” Chs. I and II.) Trace the history of the potato in reference books and readers. Do not destroy the plan for history lessons but adapt topics to this plan. Where local histories are not printed, both tradition and scrap files of old newspapers will be helpful. The suggestions under both history and geography are intended for the reading and inquiry by the pupils, to be followed by classroom discussion. ‘These topics may be divided among the members of the class. Many school-history texts have separate chapters on agricul- 1 The Monthly Crop Report is issued at monthly intervals by the United States Department of Agriculture and gives surveys of agricultural conditions in the country and other timely information which should help any rural-school teacher. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 9 tural, industrial, and social development, and others take up these matters as a part of each epoch. Nearly every modern geography devotes much space to soils, crops, animals, the food supply, and farming as an industry. The public library usually has many help- ful reference books on travel, invention, industries, as well as histo- ries and geographies. The supplementary geographical readers and texts in history, physical geography, ete., loaned by the nearby high school will give ample reference texts. Sample copies of textbooks are usually found at the school. Personal inquiry will discover other sources of information. Drawing.—Sketching, design, and color work may include corn subjects, weeds, fruit, and insects. Working drawings of any appa- ratus used in school or at home in connection with the month’s lesson may be needed. Physiology.—F ood values of crops raised locally is a timely topic. See Farmers’ Bul. 121, legumes; 142, general; 295, potatoes; 298, corn; 359 and 521, on canning; 375, care in home; 565, corn meal. Plant food and animal food as related to current physiology lessons should be considered. (See Brewer’s Rural Hygiene, especially on local problems of fall sanitation.) Manual training—Make corn-drying racks, exhibit shelves and window boxes. Can tomatoes and other vegetables and fruit. Braid husk mats and baskets. Take up tender plants into pots and boxes. OCTOBER. Practical exercises and field trips.—Visit a contest area, measure the plat, weigh and judge the crop. Keep data for future problems. Visit flocks of high-grade poultry, especially flocks with good records for laying. Gather soils and store away in boxes or pails for future lessons on soils and for germination plats or shallow boxes in early spring. Help club members close up their projects ready for a report. Examine modern harvesting machinery while on trips. Have mem- bers store garden produce, take up tender bulbs and roots, destroy weeds and rubbish which may harbor insects or disease. Select lay- ing flock of poultry and begin fattening for market the fow's which are not desired for laying. Club members who now plan to raise crops next year will do well to plow land this month. (Fig. 2.) Hold the school fair this month if it was not held i September. (See Supplement I.) Much of the practical work of this month will be done by the pupils at home. Teachers should consult Farmers’ Bul. 562, The Organization of Boys’ and Girls’ Poultry Clubs. Language lessons.—Write out with care the reports on the club contests or project work just completed. Complete the booklet for corn, potatoes, tomatoes, and other projects. Make out new appli- cations for club projects soon to begin. Write a description of the 98555°—Bull. 281—15——2 10 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. school fair for the local newspapers. Conversations in which pupils tell without interruption about some process, trip, or other experience should alternate with written exercises. Have members of the class write formal invitations to adults requesting them to attend the school fair. Send requests for bulle- tins, score cards, and other material needed soon. Reading and spelling—Read inspirational and seasonal supple- mentary selections, as: The Farmers Gold—Edward Everett; Black Beauty—Sewall; The Corn Song—Whittier; The Apple—Burroughs; The Horse Fair—Baldwin; Hiawatha’s Brothers—Longfellow. Readings in practical agriculture may be found in Farmers’ Buls. 51, Standard Varieties of Chickens; 287, Poultry Management; 313, Harvesting and Stormg Corn; 574, Poultry House Construction. Fic. 2.—Evidences of strong and weak constitutions. Selected by Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. Also use State bulletins and periodicals on suitable topics. Drill on words misspelled in written exercises and on new words in reading. Arithmetic—Make out with accuracy and neatness statements of cost and income to accompany the report on the club work. Rule columns with care and make figures plain. Compute and order bill of lumber needed for new poultry house or for remodeling, for nests or other equipment. From the figures obtained from various crops assign problems adapted to the advancement of the pupils. Geography.—Complete a local survey of the crops and the poultry flocks of the district. Record this both on maps and on tabular charts. Have pupils look up the extent of the trade in farm produce for the State, at what points sold eventually, Find also the origin of grain and other farm produce imported from without the State. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 11 Refer to such texts as Hunt’s ‘‘Cereals in America.” Have pupils make an outline map of the county and locate thereon the chief crops either by sketches or by grains, ete., glued on the map. This map will be useful in teaching younger pupils. Have a large map of the district made to be duplicated for future surveys. (See Supplement VII.) History.—Have pupils inquire into the history of grain and fruit development in this country, especially the crops now grown in club work. Note the effect of the crops and the methods of raising them on the history of this country and the great national issues. As examples, notice cotton and tobacco in the South, grain and meat in Central States, dairying and diversified farming in New England. Trace the effect of the growth of cities on the type of agriculture in different sections, especially in supplying milk, garden truck, ete. Show how the free grant of rich lands led to careless farming because it was supposed their fertility was mexhaustible. Trace the growth of the work of the National Government and the State Government in encouraging good farming and in controlling pests and diseases. It is not to be expected that one class will develop all these topics. Select those adapted to the section and to the available reference books. Review the history of the develop- ment of harvesting machinery in the United States. Drawing.—Make cover design for booklets. (See Supplement VIID). Make other drawings or sketches needed to complete the booklets. Use fruit, grain, and vegetables for studies in sketching, color work, and designing. Have working drawings made for new poultry house and equipment, for improved shippimg and storage apparatus. Make specifications and bill of lumber for each from these drawings in arithmetic class work. Physiology.—Take up poultry and eggs as human food. See Farmers’ Buls. 128, Eggs and Their Uses as Food, and 182, Poultry as Food. Consider the feeding value and digestibility for farm animals of the crops harvested and stored from the club acre. Apply the lessons used in human physiology concerning foods and digestion. See Farmers’ Buls. 22, The Feeding of Farm Animals, and 142, The Nutritive Value of Food. Manual training. scale. Have as many ail as possible plan to construct poultry houses for their club flocks. Make full-sized nests and feed boxes. (See Farmers’ Bul. 638.) Have the girls learn to cook and serve vegetables and fruits, also to can them and to preserve them in other ways. (See Farmers’ Buls. 359 and 607.) Have them prepare and serve.a variety of dishes from some of the produce of the projects and show these dishes at the exhibit. Have the mechanical work on the booklet done with care. ; 12 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. NOVEMBER. Practical and field exercises.—Visit storage plants for farm produce if there are any in the section. Visit farms where the class may inspect pure-bred poultry, cows and other animals. Observe also the best methods of housing. Visit a club member’s poultry house.. If any orchard work is done in the district this month have reports made on this work. Pruning and scraping must be done before spraying with lime-sulphur for San José scale. (See Farmers’ Buls. 181 and 492.) This may be done at any time after the trees become dormant except during freezing weather. Have apple-club members inspect for the scale, and if present it should be treated at once. Apple packing for market may be in order in some sections. Have poultry houses cleaned, repaired, and sprayed this month. Rubbish must be destroyed and vines and shrubs protected from the cold. Certain trees and shrubs may be set out now. Cuttings made during pruning of grape vines and many shrubs may be preserved in sand until spring. (See Farmers’ Buls. 157 and 471.) The teachers should advise club members to do these things. Complete the collection of soils, seeds, etc., for winter use. Language lessons.—Have reports ov field trips written with care and when they are on the topic of the projects, incorporate them in the booklets. Likewise, include descriptions of structures or oper- ations observed or used. Have oral discussions along the lines suggested in the practical exercises, trying to obtain from the pupils clear descriptions in, good English. Send letters to obtain bulletins, catalogues, tools, etc. Have the class edit a school newspaper (not printed) dealing with the affairs of the school and the club work of the district. Have this read in school and send articles of merit to the local press. Thanksgiving suggests many seasonal topics and is emphatically a rural festival. Reading and_ spelling.—tInclude in the supplementary reading selections like Walden Pond—Thoreau; November Woods—H. H. Jackson; Farming—Kmerson’s Essays; The Twenty-third Psalm; Descriptions from Audubon’s Writings; November—Alice Carey. Look up the story of Johnny Apple-seed in Hillis’ “The Quest of John Chapman.”’ Continue reading in bulletins suggested for October and add Farmers’ Buls. 154, The Home Fruit Garden; 491, The Small Apple Orchard; 492, Enemies of the Apple; 528, Hints to Poultry Raisers; 562, Boys’ and Girls’ Poultry Clubs. Also use State publications from all sources and farm papers on related topics. Keep a list of words posted which shall include agricultural terms used in the reading texts, also words which have been misspelled or mispronounced. Have spelling exercises, both written and oral, on CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 13 these lists and prepare for a public contest in connection with some neighborhood event. Arithmetic.—Problems in corn shrinkage, marketing corn, and the relative merits of feeding and marketing corn may be made from figures given in bulletins and textbooks. Select also figures concern- ing cost of harvesting and marketing apples, potatoes, and other crops. Compute net profits on club acres. Compute rations and cost of each for poultry and any other animals which are in home projects. Consult text and bulletins including Farmers’ Bul. 22. Continue computations of material and cost of constructing poultry houses and equipment. Compute cost of feeding club flocks, egg production per hen and cost per egg or per dozen eggs. Use current market prices where eggs are used at home. Compute rate of interest on investment. (See also textbooks on Farm Arithmetic.) Geography.—Look up climatic factors of different crops; limits in ~ Jatitude, altitude, etc., for different plants. Find where the tender plants grow native, also the northern limits of the hardy plants. Find in bulletins and books on, insects the origin of the orchard pests of the section. On maps and tabular charts indicate the results of the survey of the poultry of the district. Keep club members’ records separately. Make a graphic representation to show the relation in numbers of pure-bred fowls to scrubs by lines with lengths in correct proportions. Put on map the roads used for market, social, and civic purposes and indicate parts needing repair. History—Have pupils find out where the different varieties of poultry originated and trace their introduction. Numerous poultry books give this information. Look up stories of fowls in history, as The Geese that Saved Rome. Inquire into the introduction, of fruits mto the section and how they have been improved. In like manner trace the history of methods of marketing the local produce. What effect have the transportation facilities had on the development of the county and State? Many texts in geography and history give this. Find how different European countries have affected American acriculture by furnishing live stock, plants, methods, and labor. Trace the history of Thanksgiving celebrations. Drawing.—Make Thanksgiving sketches and designs. Sketch typical poultry. Make a series of colored drawings of varieties of apples. Make working drawings of any equipment needed this month. Haye members of Good Roads Club make sectional drawings of good and poor roads in the district. See Farmers’ Buls. 338, 505, and 597. Have pupils make a series of sketches of. historical modes of transportation for the section, such as ox cart, prairie schooner, flatboat, not omitting the modern. Physiology.—The topic of breathing leads to ventilation and exercise. Correlate the idea of human needs with the plan for making 14 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. poultry pens light, well-ventilated and with ample room for exercise. The same idea must be applied to stables for dairy cows. How guard against vermin in the flock? Show how the food demand changes as winter comes. Suggest ‘succulent winter foods for poultry and dairy. Develop the topic of apples and other fruit for human food. Con- sult Farmers’ Bul. 293, Use of Fruit as Food. Compare eggs and milk with other animal foods for cost and food value. Demonstrate the variety in supply of fresh foods on the farm. (See Farmers’ Bul. 635.) DECEMBER. Practical and field exercises.—Plan to have pupils visit successful dairy farms to inspect typical animals and learn of points. Investi- gate also the management, the feed practice, and marketing. Begin practice in milk testing at school if possible. Begin practice in corn judging. Examine soils in school collection and distinguish by appearance and feeling sand, clay, gravel, and humus. Make a record of winter birds, when and where seen, what food and other habits. (See Farmers’ Buls. 54, 456, 497, 506, 609, 621, and 630.) Strive to observe accurately. Use Birds in Their Relation to Man, by Weed and Dearborn, or similar books. Language lessons.—Have report of dairy inspection carefully writ- ten. Require descriptions of an ideal ear of corn or of the best cow on the home farm. Write with care the plan for selecting a suitable ration for either the hens or the dairy cow. Write the directions for testing milk with Babcock tester. Make out with care reports or records on work done or observations made. Keep these for refer- ence. Careful figures, plain writing, correct spelling, and clear state- ments are necessary on all club reports and often win the contest. Reading and spelling.—Select supplementary readings giving an appreciation of the freedom, security, and happiness in the country in winter, such as Snow Bound—Whittier; Our Rural Divinity— Burroughs; The Winter herd scene in ‘‘Shovelhorns’’—Hawkes; Wood-craft—Boy Scout’s Manual; and Stories of Luther Burbank’s work. Memorize The Boys That Rule the World and other poems. Along the lines of suggested practical exercises read from available bulletins. Consult poultry bulletins previously mentioned, also Farmers’ Buls. 413, Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home; 490, Bac- teria in Milk; 530, Important Poultry Diseases; 602, Production of Clean Milk. If there is not published in the State a bulletin on the Babcock test one may be procured from another State or from manufacturers of testing machines. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. LS Pupils should be encouraged to use the scientific terms in many cases, In which event they should learn to spell them. Use common terms when accurate, however. Arithmetic.—Milk records, computing rations, butter-fat computa- tions, poultry cost and income problems will furnish much of the prac- tice needed. While judging corn, determine what increase per acre would result if one more average kernel per row would develop on each ear. From some of the records of insects and weed seeds eaten by the winter birds make up problems as to the possible saving to the farmer. Use also crop statistics in census report or the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture, usually to be found in township or private libraries. Have pupils count the number of average ears in a bushel of corn raised in the district. Shell and weigh again. Have problems computed on this basis. Weigh 100 or 1,000 kernels and estimate number per bushel. Borrow scales or weigh at home. Geography.—Locate on the township map the industries in the township and county which may be related to farming, as the grist- mill, the sawmill, grain elevator, tobacco-sorting shops, broom shops, tannery, creameries, and cheese factories. Trace also the local and more distant markets for eggs, butter, milk, cream, fruit, and vege- tables. How many dealers between the farmer and the consumer. Look up the range of the birds which are winter residents. Make a list of important climatic records, such as dates of early snows, high- est summer temperature, lowest winter record, depth of freezing of - the ground, etc. Compare with other parts of the State and the Nation, drawing conclusions as to how the local agriculture is affected. Make a district survey of dairy cattle, including number on each farm, breeds, pure bred or scrubs, silos, sanitation, records kept, testing for butter fat, and feeding methods for each farm. (See Sur- vey Form in Supplement VII.) Use both map and chart methods. Keep figures for arithmetic. History.—Write to a dairy association for information about the history of dairying for the State, the story of modern scientific dairy- ing, the Babcock test, the separator and clean milk. Trace the prodi- gal farming methods of the past and show how these must be modified in the near future. Find what great Americans have been reared on the farms. Show how the farmer must have great influence in the affairs of the Nation, also the necessity of his being well informed and broadly educated. Find the effect of seed selection and milk testing in sections which have tried them. Drawing.—Have careful drawings made of ideal ears and kernels of corn. Working drawings or sections should be prepared while the milk tester is being explained and used. Have pupils make a sec- 16 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tional drawing of the separator in common use in the district show- ing working parts in place. Sketch the typical dairy cow and enlarge this to make a chart for class use in studying the points of the dairy cow. Sketch winter birds and winter scenes on the farm. Make plans for any constructive work at home. (Fig. 3.) Physiology.—Apply to the care of hens and cows and other animals the principles learned in physiology concerning winter exercises, ventilation, exposure, etc. Show that undue protection renders any animal less resistant and when ventilation is limited at the same time colds and germ diseases are more easily contracted. Reasonably low temperature is to be feared less than poor ventilation. Show the value of vigorous exercise in the winter sports and work. Compare the habits formed by boys in doing chores with the training of farm QD ONE nr 7 oe BAGG ign = zs > HIP BE 3 So OTEF or | FOREHEAD \ ’ SAE Or i Te H 2 jedi NeyhOEE Sea Se pees \ NR/VECF ING ees jeeeemee 7 \ | Sy YU ZZLE \ . " \ \ SHOULDER / & \ \ te THIGH =. ees i Me ' % He t i x eLBO"" FLANA ty | /2eucae ye ae pe ES xh ( ¢ ai 4] SAISHET Sy: v A TAI /MAPRY iy § in VEIN x 5 Q g SS x yw g Veg /, oH a Trays Goi ANALE VNU ili = UAW ie ate Fig. 3.—Chart of the ideal dairy cow. Approved by the Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. animals. Take up now the part of the text on emergencies so far as they relate to winter conditions. Manual training.—The practical exercises for this month suggest all the needed manual training related to agriculture. (See Farmers’ Bul. 638.) JANUARY. Practical and field exercises. -work in milk testing and corn judging until some skill is attained. Those who are to hatch chickens should now separate with care the breeding fowls and give them ample room and suitable food. The testing of eggs and care of the market eggs are important from now on. (See Farmers’ Bul. 562.) Each pupil should decide on what club work or home projects he is to take up during the coming season. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 17 If it is advantageous in your district to haul the fertilizer in winter, take up that matter with each club member. Visit local factories and warehouses which deal with agricultural material of any sort. Language lessons.—Stories of winter operations, trips, and pleas- ures offer much opportunity for oral and written language work. The snow and ice quicken local industries and provide new sports. Letters to obtain seed catalogues should be written this month. The pupils of this group should write about feedmg cows or poultry, winter birds in the orchard, also reports on trips and observations. Write for State and Federal publications on the topics related to the club work of the coming spring. Reading and_ spelling.—Use supplementary readings which are seasonal. Selections suggested as samples are Winter Time—Steven- son; Essay on Roast Pig—Lamb; The Forest Song—Venable; Win- ter—Lowell; Woodman, Spare That Tree—Morris; The Home Song— Longfellow. Also select readings from Farmers’ Buls. 173 and 358, A Primer of Forestry, in two parts; 363, The Use of Milk as Food; 594, Shipping Eggs by Parcel Post. Misspelling, mispronunciation, and misuse of agricultural terms often arise from the same cause. Teach the spelling, pronunciation, and proper use of each word used and drill until the pupils acquire confidence in using them. Arithmetic.—Use the records from milk testing combined with records of milk production and compute total yield of butter fat, money value, and estimated profit. Where feed records are avail- able, obtain exact profit over cost of feed. Make similar computa- tions from egg records and poultry feed accounts. Consult census or Yearbook records for comparison with local productions and also for further problems. Compute fertilizer needed on club fields and gardens. Find the volume and capacity in tons of ice houses. Meas- ure logs, lumber, and woodpiles, and base problems on these figures. Use Iccal prices and compute value of each. Have each club mem- ber keep accurate accounts. (See Farmers’ Bul. 572.) Geography.—Look up the origin and present source of various fer- tilizer ingredients, and consider which ones might be replaced by better farm practice. Compare dairy records of the State and various other States and nations as printed in farm papers. Have maps made of the home farms, and on them locate the pupils’ own fields and each of the crops for the coming season as fast as they are de- cided. Locate by color or shading the different soils. The United States Department of Agriculture has issued soil surveys of many counties and some States have issued others. Obtain one for the county, if possible. Study the lumber industry of the section and 98555°-—Bull. 281—15——3 18 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the State, national forestry work, kinds of native woods, and im- ported lumber. What part does ice take in modern dairy farming ? In storing and transporting produce? How does the South get its ice? History.—Trace the development of the lumber industry in the State; the growth of the movement against deforestation and re- lated conservation movements. The State forester has probably issued helpful information. Explain why early wasteful methods were used. Refer to great historical forests. Inquire into the his- tory of the section regarding fertilizers and concentrated feedstuffs. What crops are now sold to buy these, and does it pay? Look up in State and local histories and stories the winter experiences of pioneer days and find how self-supporting the farm was. What modern methods are improvements? Are any of them the reverse? Drawing.—Sketch farm animals which are involved in pupils’ projects? Winter tree forms make good studies and lead to a better acquaintance with the trees of the district. Arrange these for future reference. Have some pupils sketch the tools used in some of the work inspected this month, as lumbering or ice-cutting tools. Physiology.—Delvelop the following topics: Diseases and emergen- cies which are more common at this season; tuberculosis as a pre- ventable disease; milk from tuberculous cows; milk and cream as absorbents and carriers of disease; prevention of epidemics; the laws of the State and the local health board rules. See Farmers’ Buls. 363, The Use of Milk as Food; 473, Tuberculosis; 490, Bacteria in Milk; 602, The Production of Clean Milk. Manual training.—Make egg testers and corn-testing apparatus ready for next month. Make models of stables, poultry houses, and sleeping rooms arranged for proper ventilation. Have girls cook and serve various apple dishes. Make bird houses. (See Farmers’ Buls. 609 and 621.) ; FEBRUARY. Practical and field exercises—Make definite plans for garden and other projects, taking up details. Order seeds needed in a quantity sufficient to allow testing. Make tests of corn and other seed at school, illustrating different methods of testing. (See Farmers’ Buls. 428 and 617.) Have pupils continue this testing at home and ask them to report on this home testing. Make a study of the seedlings, referring to textbooks in botany. To obtain very early plants, sow seeds this month in hotbeds or window boxes. Continue testing eggs for marketing and ask pupils to practice this at home. It pays. Visit a creamery or other local establishment where eggs are tested and shipped. Hold a special public demonstration of the ability of the class to test milk, judge corn, test seeds for germination, ete. | CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 19 This is a good time to hold a public spelling contest. Observe the bird movements which begin soon and keep a bird calendar. (Fig. 4.) Language lessons.—Supervise the writing and sending of seed orders. Have the pupils write out their records and reports with care, making clearness of statement the first aim. Have copies made of some of the best reports and keep them with the files of agricultural literature. Have members of the class write invitations to adults requesting them to attend the contests. Have careful reports made of each new proc- ess taken up. Write letters to request new bulletins for spring work. Reading and spelling.—Suggested supplementary readings include Happy the Man—Pope; The Home Song—Longfellow; The Arab to His Steed—Caroline Norton; To a Mouse—Burns; Stories of Morrill, Seaman Knapp, and of other men who have assisted agricultural edu- cation in the Nation or the State. Read some of the most recent laws on this subject. Also use in class Farmers’ Buls. 218, The School Garden; 255, The Home Vegetable Garden; 445, Marketing Eggs Through the Creamery; 528, Hints to Poultry Raisers. Pay special Fig. 4.—Germinating devices for garden seeds. attention to the spelling of words used in the correspondence and reports sent out. Hold spelling contest and use all the farm words possible. _ Arithmetic.—Practice making invoices, checks, receipts, and other commercial forms involved in farm business. Compute garden areas and lay out to scale the space for each variety of vegetable. Use problems based on egg sales, cost of marketing, and net income. Use the figures obtained in milk testing, compute value of butter fat per hundredweight of milk and total value of milk if 30 cents per hun- dredweight is allowed for skimmed milk. Get the milk records of some of these cows and compute total income. If possible, get feed records and combine these with the other problems. Geography.—Add a district survey map covering the practice in seed testing, also in raising good seed. Have pupils look up the origin of the various seeds used in the district for garden and field crops. Should more seed be raised at home? Which of these crops grow wild in milder climates? Which garden crops would it pay to raise for near-by markets? Investigate the demand and the supply of these things which the club members of the class plan to raise. Carry this investigation to cities as far distant as shipment could be made. 20 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. What unfavorable conditions of soil or climate may prevent the suc- cess of some club projects ? History—Have pupils look up (in reference books at home or in the library) the original home and the historical place of each of the crops to be raised in club or project work, recording the native land and the date when each became available for human food. Trace also the modern improvement. How are new vegetables brought into use? How many have been domesticated during the last century ? What vegetables popular elsewhere are never raised here? Why ? Drawing.—A series of drawings to show the development of the germinating bean (or other seed) may be carried up to the opening of the true leaves. Make working drawings and bill for material for seed testers and seeding flats or shallow boxes. Make plan and pat- tern for an egg tester, also plans for suitable shipping cases for eggs. Draw school and home gardens to scale. Physiology.—Study the State and local laws covering all matters of sanitation and discover what needs are not covered by legislation. Water supply, sewage, infectious diseases, clean milk, and other laws are included. Is the rural section-as well protected by legislation as the city? What laws are there for the protection of the people from injury? Compare the different methods of heating homes in the sec- tion as regards effectiveness of heating and opportunity for ventila- tion. Criticise the school heating and ventilation. Use manuals issued by the State department of public instruction, also bulletins of the board of health. Manual traaning.—Make seed testers and egg testers. Make win- dow boxes and seed ‘‘ flats,’ which is the common name for shallow boxes for starting seeds. Make model of hotbed or cold frames. MARCH. Practical and field exercises.—Prepare for incubation. Pupils should consider local climate, also their own facilities for indoor brooding before deciding on date for setting. Visit successful poultry plant to observe incubator practice. (See Farmers’ Buls. 585 and 624.) Have a demonstration of how to preserve eggs. (See Farmers’ Bul. 128.) Cold frames, if not already in use, must be prepared for seeds. Consult gardener’s planting table. (See Farmers’ Bul. 255, p. 46.) Start early plants of lettuce, tomatoes, asters, pansies, etc., under glass or in shallow boxes to be placed in windows. Haye field demonstrations of grafting, pruning, and spraying as soon as the work can be done comfortably. Request the county extension represent- ative of the State college to assist you in this. Set out fruit trees as early as the ground can be fitted. (For apple-club members.) Language lessons.—lave prepared and mailed any necessary letters concerning club membership, seeds, fertilizers, or tools. Have pupils CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 21 write a full report when they set a hen or start the incubator. Write and preserve reports of each field trip or demonstration, with full description of processes. Have either written or oral descriptions of work planned for the immediate future. Reading and spelling.—Read some rural life selections like the fol- lowing: The Homes of the People—Grady; The Plowman—Holmes ; The Meadow Lark—Hamlin; Bluebird—Aldrich; Tubal Caimn— Mackay; Out at Old Aunt Mary’s—Riley; The Parable of the Sower—Bible. Use also bulletins and periodicals on the topics of current interest. Some Farmers’ Bulletins of seasonal use (besides those previously referred to) are Nos. 516, The Production of Maple Sirup and Sugar; 585, Incubation of Hen’s Eggs. Also consult the list of bulletins for those which concern special garden vegetables. Arithmetic.—Material for problems will be found in poultry records, bills for seed, fertilizer and tools, cold-frame construction, orchard work, and dairy projects. The maple-sugar section has problems peculiar to that work. Develop the topic of taxation in the section, the method of assessing and its bearing on farm management. Find what correction of figures submitted with club projects might be needed to apply them to farm accounts in view of taxes, interest, and other fixed charges in the district and to show exact profit. Geography.—Study the advantages and disadvantages of local climate in relation to early spring work on the farm. Ona map draw lines to show the market radius for different local products. Use ink of another color and indicate sources of local purchases for farm sup- plies, especially those which might be produced locally. On the State map locate cooperative associations of farmers as creameries, breeders’ associations, etc. Obtain information as to late spring frosts, safe dates for planting, transplanting, ete. HMistory.—Discuss the following topics in class after pupils have used reference books, local histories, and other texts: (1) Food supply and progress. The influence of transportation facilities. Such books as Brigham’s From Trail to Railway Through the Appalachians, are helpful. (2) Local food supply and markets during early history. (3) The crops and industries as influencing the attitude of different States on great national issues. (4) Americans have invented and developed much machinery for raising and utilizing farm crops. Why? What machines? There are numerous books on inventions including such as Forman’s Stories of Useful Inventions. Observe how man power is giving way to machine power in America faster than in Europe. Drawing.—Use such sketching material as seedlings, bursting buds, a sugar camp, or some utensils. Draw tools used in grafting and pruning. Make diagrams for cold frame, trap nest, brood nest, or 22 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. incubator. Have pupils draw those things they are about to use in club work or prepare careful drawings for booklet. Physiology.—in connection with the plans for gardens and other projects take up the subject of foods and#the desirability of variety of vegetable and fruit foods. Show how the action of digestive fer- ments renders available the starch in a germinating seed just as diges- tive fluids act in animals. Chapters on ‘‘germination” in botany explain this. Start spring sanitary campaign to clean out cellars, dispose of rub- bish, clean up and drain breeding places for flies and mosquitoes. See Farmers’ Buls. 444, Remedies and Preventives Against Mos- quitoes, p. 9; 459, House Flies; 535, Sugar and its Use as Food. Manual training.—Make brood nests, ‘‘broody”’ coops, transplant- ing boxes, wooden garden labels. Repair cold frames and other equipment. Make suitable sample crates for shipping eggs sold by club members of the class. APRIL. Practical and field exercises.—Have suitable trips or demonstrations to illustrate methods of hatching and early brooding of chickens, also how to ‘“‘break up” broody hens. Demonstrate transplanting of tomatoes and other plants started in the coldframes. Have the plow- ing and harrowing done for the club fields, except for late crops. Have a garden and crops survey of the district. Keep record of the returning birds, their habits and food. Plan and begin work on the improvement of the school grounds. Have pupils prepare bird houses. Plant out fruit trees, also shade trees around the home or the school- house. Plan for next fall’s exhibit before crops are planted. Language lessons.—Continue written reports. Make records of all processes on the club work and any other projects. Such topics as the early care of chickens, starting my tomato plants, the birds about my home, are good topics. A tree-planting exercise gives rise to suit- able language work. Have pupils write about the needs of the dis- trict and the possible remedies in view of the studies made. Strive for good conversational as well as written English. Reading and spelling.—Select suitable readings, as That Calf—Alice Carey; The Barefoot Boy—Whittier; South Wind and Sun—Riley; The Song of the Sower—Bryant; Aprii—H. H. Jackson; In the Heart of a Seed—Brown; The Bluebird—Emily Miller; Solomon and the Bees—Saxe. Farmers’ Buls. 154, The Home Fruit Garden; 195, Annual Flower- ing Plants; 287, Poultry Management; 537, Growing an Acre of Corn; 585, Incubation; 594, Shipping Eggs by Parcel Post; 597, The Road Drag and How It is Used; 609, Bird Houses and How to Make Them; 617, School Lessons on Corn; 624, Natural and Artificial Brooding of CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 23 Chickens; State bulletins and current articles should be used. Expect the most advanced pupils to be able to spell all the words appearmg in the agricultural reading. Arithmetic.—Have computations made in reference to the survey of the district, total areas for each crop, fertilizer used, expected crop at average yield, etc. Problems may be made based on observation of the birds and estimate of insect damage prevented by them. Use statistics for the State for crops in which the class is interested and arrange problems suited to the advancement of the pupils. Continue to use poultry, feed, and milk records, and especially the actual expe- riences on the home farms of the pupils. Geography.—Have pupils search in newspapers and by personal inquiry locate the supply of eggs and poultry for the nearest large market. Determine the market radius of the local surplus. Locate on the map the chief producing areas and the large markets for tomato plants, ripe tomatoes, canned tomatoes, and other produce in which the class is interested. (See the latest Monthly Crop Report.) What sections market superior produce in these ines? What would be nec- essary to make the local produce as good? Would it pay to attempt to compete with the best on the market? Locate on district map each club member, using colored seals for different clubs. History.—Develop the history of legislation intended to assist and encourage agricultural education, beginning with the Morrill Act in national legislation. (See the Circular on Federal Legislation relat- ing to these topics, from the Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture.) Bring this study down to the present and show how State and Nation attempt to instruct in agri- culture in schools and colleges and also on the farms. Show all the forces which are cooperating to help educate the young farmer and to assist him in other ways. Compare the history of the diminishing number of birds with that of increased loss from insect pests. Look up statistics on this topic. Drawing.—Illustrate methods of transplanting small plants and fruit trees. Make working drawings of bird houses, garden markers, and other equipment to be constructed now or soon. Use actual club-work material. Physiology.—Start a sanitary survey of the district. Include water supply, sewage disposal, fly and mosquito control, and other points in home sanitation. Include also the care of milk and food supply, the condition of the dairy, tuberculin testing, ete. Have one lesson on the interrelation of plants and animals as regards oxygen and carbon dioxid, also in the utilizing of foods. Continue fly and mosquito topics. Manual training.—Make bird houses, garden markers, and trans- planting trays. Repair tools, trellises, and other things at the school. 24 BULLETIN 281, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Set out a tree on Arbor Day and construct a trellis to protect it. Make broody coop. Members of the Good Roads Club may make a road drag and begin to use it this month. (See Farmers’ Buls. 597 and 638.) MAY AND JUNE. Practical and field exercises.—In apple-blossom time visit orchards to observe spraying for the codling moth. Complete planting and transplanting of all club crops and school gardens. Have practical demonstrations of methods of cultivating crops and of insect control. Arrange these with practical farmers. Continue the observation of birds in their relation to farm crops. Have demonstration of early feeding and summer care of chicks. Language lessons.—Have pupils write reports on the planting and other early work on their projects. Write out also the reports on field trips and observations. Write a statement of things to be done during the summer, especially those processes which are new to the pupil. Have oral discussion of similar topics. Reading and spelling.—Selections from good literature concerning rural life in summer are numerous. Only a few are here mentioned: The Farmer’s Creed—Mann; The Pea Blossom— 7 2 teaser ee Steel LA | (ARC B ccovacdlécaen oc Sel SECrOSEe BOSE EEae NEeE eee MMeMPINMEe | cS cicero SO ee Shel agua Sees bese aia) ae lee WikOsececlsquss odode Nes See sa| AeCOOCee CAA ReEe BeeReMnE ss So occoatc 4 Sse Coseees GoCRMSSese | SSesorre Same ree mer A DISTRICT ORCHARD SURVEY. Da tema tis | oa re IDI 4.6 Gadde Se COSee sae e eee eee ANSRVG NE SERIE aR ee © Oe Serna fae TOMEI .......... 2235253 Warren T. Clarke, Prof. Agr. Ext. State Agr. College onColo: sHontiCollins, Colo. 3... .. 2288S eee C. A. Lory, Act. Dir. Ext. Serv. Connecticut Agr. College, Storrs, Conn...................-------- H.J. Baker, Dir. Ext. Serv. DelawareiCollege Newark, Del j.2:-2:2--is2-.------.- -epeeeeeeee H. Hayward, Dir. Ext. Serv. Col. of Agr. Univ..of Idaho, Boise, Idaho........-....242.---.--- O. D. Center, Dir. Ext. Work. Colores Umiv onl Urbana yllys: os) 2c_. -... eee W. F. Handschin, V. Dir. Agr. Ext. Purdue Umiversity,ba Hayette, Ind..........--.-.--paeeseee ace G.I. Christie, Supt. Agr. Ext. fowarstsueCollesesAmes, Towas-.) 222-22. .\.5.---/ 12 eee eee ee R. K. Bliss, Dir. Ext. Kansas State Agr. Col., Manhattan, IKians ...502 .s 2 eee J. H. Miller, Dean Div. Col. Ext. Col. of Agr., Univ. of Maine, Orono, Me............-..----- aS cae L.S. Merrill, Dir. Agr. Ext. Massachusetts Agr. College, Amherst, Mass.........-..--..-...-- W.D. Hurd, Dir. of Ext. Serv. Michigan Agr. College, Hast Lansing, Mich..............---.---- R. J. Baldwin, Supt. of Ext. Col. of Agr., Univ. of Minn., Univ. Farm, St. Paul, Minn.....-.- A.D. Wilson, Dir. Ext. and F. 1. Col. of Agr., Univ. of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.............-..-..- A.J. Meyer, Sec’y of Agr. Ext. Montana State College, Bozeman, Mont.........:.--.-.--.-.----- F.S. Cooley, Dir. Ext. Serv. ColkoteAers UimivofNebr-, Lincoln, Nebr... -...-.--csseeeeee=s C. W. Pugsley, Dir. Agr. Ext. Serv. Col..of Agr., Univ. of Nevada, Reno, Nev......-.-.-------s----:- C.S. Knight, Dir. Agr. Ext. Neve ColmoteAsand = MetArts “Durham. NH o..2...-- seen eee J.C. Kendall, Dir. Ext. Work. Rutgers Scientific School, New Brunswick, N. J........---.----- Alva Agee, Dir. Div. of Ext. N. Mex. Col. of A.and M. Arts, State College, N. Mex........... A.C. Cooley, Dir. Ext. Work. INERYestateCollereortAor, Tthaca SNijvY.25... 5. |) peers B. T. Galloway, Dir. Div. Ext. N. Dak. Agr. College, Agricultural College, N. Dak......-.-...-- T. P. Cooper, Dir. Ext. Work. Col. of Agr., Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Ohio -....-........-.- H.C. Price, Dir. Agr. Ext. Work. Oregon State Agr. College, Corvallis, Oreg....--..---------.------ R. D. Hetzel, Dir. Ext. Work. Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa............-..--.-- M.S. McDowell, Dir. Agr. Ext. Work. Rhode Island State College, Kingston, R.J.......--------------- A. E. Stene, Dir. Ext. Serv. S. Dak. State College, Brookings, S. Dak........--.------.---..- E.C. Perisho, Act. Dir. Ext. Nor CollescormUitahs| Wogan. Witahe. 22-2... ..- 2. 7a E.G. Peterson, Dir. Agr. Ext. Div. Col..of Agr., Univ. of Vermont, Burlington, Vt..-.--.-.--..-.-.- ‘Thos. Bradlee, Dir. Ext. Serv. State College of Washington, Pullman, Wash.-.-..---.---.-....--- J. A. Tormey, Dir. Ext. Div. ColfoimAer sy Umiv.ofawas:, Madison} Was: =... :-.-2seeee-eese a K. L. Hatch, Asst. Dir. Agr. Ext. ColsofeNon Univ. of Wiy0.,sluaramie; Wiy0.......~--/- -seeeeeees = A. E. Bowman, Dir. Ext. Work. XI. SUGGESTIVE PROBLEMS IN ARITHMETIC. The teacher should adapt the problems to the advancement and current topics in arithmetic for the ciass in question. On the other hand, the numbers to be used as well as the subject matter may be found in the projects of the pupils or in the reference readings on these projects. New textbooks are constantly appearing which contain agricultural problems, and among those now in print are Burkett and Swartzel’s Farm Arithmetic, Calfee’s Rural Arithmetic, and Nolan’s One Hundred Lessons in Agriculture. SEPTEMBER. 1. Have the pupils prepare a few poles or other measures a rod long and mark off yards and feet on each. Measure the school garden and the school yard and compute the area of each. 2. Use these poles or lines to measure the fields of club members, computing the area of each. 3. On a field of corn used for seed selection, measure off two average yield areas exactly a rod square. Count the stalks on these areas and compute the stand per acre. Also count ears of corn. Se ae BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 4, On a plat of tomatoes (one-tenth of an acre) the rental was $2, labor $4.50, staking and pruning $2, fertilizer $2.50, harvesting $2. One hundred dozen cans at 36 cents a dozen were used. The canner cost $5 and the cost of labor for canning was $10. The output of 1,200 cans sold at 8 cents a can. Find cost of production, total cost in cans, profit, percentage of profit based on investment, and profit per can. 5. A round silo has an inside diameter of 14 feet and is filled to the height of 32 feet. Find volume in cubic feet and weight of silage in tons if each cubic foot weighs 38 pounds. How many days’ feed will it hold at 35 pounds a day for each cow, and how many cows will it feed for 180 days? OCTOBER. 1. The floor plan of a club member’s poultry house measures 20 feet long by 14 feet wide. Deduct 112 square feet for equipment and find the floor space per hen for a flock of 32. 2. This same house has a shed roof and stands 8 feet high in front and 5 feet at the rear. Compute the area of each side and end, also of the roof, allowing an extension of 1 foot on front and back over the walls. Compute boards for sides, roof, and floor, add one-half to cover the frame timber, and then make out a bill at the local prices. 3. Similar problems may be arranged concerning a hog house whenever pig-club members are in the class. 5 4. Ona club acre 6,125 pounds of ear corn is harvested which has 18 per cent to be deducted. Compute bushels of ear corn, 70 pounds a bushel. When shelled each bushel weighs 56 pounds, what percentage of the ear corn is cob? Find value of this yield at 68 cents a bushel. 5. Farmers’ Bul. 409, page 11, states that when $10 worth of corn is sold off the farm $3.78 worth of fertilizer is sold, but in selling $10 worth of beef cattle only $1.18 worth of fertilizer is sold. Compute the saving by turning the corn crop of problem 4 into beef, allowing for no other change of values. 6. In one feeding experiment it took 6 pounds of corn to produce 1 pound gain of pork. At the present market prices would this pay? What percentage of gain or loss if the corn were bought? NOVEMBER. 1. A pen of 25 hens costing 55 cents each lay an average of 117 eggs a year, valued at 19 cents a dozen. Care and feed costs 21 cents per month each hen. Find net profit for the flock, allowing 50 cents for meat value of each hen at the end of the year. 2. By substituting pure-bred hens at $1 each and increasing the feed cost 6 cents each per month, 186 eggs per hen were obtained, averaging 28 cents a dozen. Find the total gain and the percentage profit on added investment over problem 1. 3. A pupil sets an orchard of apple trees on a square acre, trees to be set 2 rods apart each way and none to be nearer than 1 rod to either boundary. Find cost if trees sell at $22 a hundred and labor is 9 cents a tree. 4. An older orchard of the same area is sprayed with lime-sulphur in November for San José scale at a cost of 28 cents a tree. The apparent gain next fall is an increase of 45 bushels of marketable fruit at $4.50 a barrel. Find net gain due to spraying. 5. A mixture of 200 pounds of cracked corn, 360 pounds of wheat, 130 pounds of oats, is fed to a flock of 35 hens at the rate of 4 poundsa day. At local prices compute cost per hen per day for this scratch feed. DECEMBER. 1. While judging corn count the kernels on each row of the best ear found. If by improvement one kernel could be added to each row, what percentage of increase would this give? CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 83 2. If but 80 per cent of the seed of this best ear would germinate, what loss would result, supposing each kernel should yield an ear and 85 ears to make a bushel, corn selling at 72 cents a bushel? 3. What loss at this rate on an acre which would have produced 95 bushels from good seed? 4. A cow produced in one year 8,465 pounds of milk containing 421 pounds of butter fat. Find the percentage of butter fat. 5. In the stomach of one woodpecker 28 white grubs were found. If the bird had continued to eat this number each day for the month of October, compute the value of the bird in a potato field, assuming that each grub would have ruined one 4-ounce potato. Call potatoes 50 cents a bushel. 6. A quail in December was known to consume for one day over 2,000 May weed seeds. Estimate that each 10 weed seeds might have cost one ear of corn the next year and that 85 ears make a bushel. Compute the loss prevented by 10 quails at this rate during the entire month of December. JANUARY. 1. A club member reports the average daily milk production of his father’s cows as 11, 13, 17, 20, 26, and 30 pounds. What is the total for each cow for 300 days? At $2.10 per hundredweight compare the best cow with the poorest. 2. The milk for the same cows as tested for butter fat by the boy shows 4.9, 4.1, 5.1, 3.8, 3.4, and 3.6 per cent, respectively. Find total butter fat for each cow and value at an average of 27 cents a pound for the year. 3. Because of these tests, cows Nos. 1, 2, and 4 are sold and new cows bought pro- ducing 24, 29, and 344 pounds of milk, testing 5.2, 4.7, and 3.5 per cent butter fat, respectively. Find apparent yearly gain due to this exchange, butter fat being worth 27 cents a pound. 4. By using more care in feeding the same herd a ration costing but two cents a day more per cow results in an average increase of 4 pounds of milk a day. What profit results during a year? 5. During a State test for one year the Holsteins averaged 14,688.8 pounds testing 3.42 per cent, the Guernseys 8,465.4 pounds testing 4.98, and the Jerseys 7,046.7 pounds testing 5.16. Find annual value for each breed of market milk at $1.40 per hundred- weight, also of butter fat at_25 cents a pound. 6. At what price per hundredweight must milk testing 4.9 per cent be sold to equal 27 cents for butter fat, allowing 30 cents per hundredweight for skim milk? FEBRUARY. 1. Find the percentage of loss occasioned by putting one poor egg in a 5-dozen case and having them rated as seconds at 29 cents instead of firsts at 35 cents a dozen. 2. By testing a 30-dozen case of eggs and discarding six eggs a boy received 5 cents a dozen more on what remained. This was a 20 per cent gain on those sold. Find total receipts. 3. About 15,000,000 bushels of seed corn are used in this country, of which 86.3 per cent is good. How many bushels should be rejected for better? 4, It has been estimated that the rejection of the poor seed would have increased the average yield 298,140,695 bushels, or 13.7 per cent. Find the average yield. 5. A girl is to raise one-eighth of an acre of tomatoes and will use a part of a field which is 15 feet wide. How long a strip will she use? How many plants can she set 3 feet apart each way? 6. Refer to Farmers’ Bul. 22 and compute from the local feeds available a good ration for a 1,000-pound cow producing 22 pounds of milk. At the current prices _ compute the cost of this ration. 34 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MARCH, 1. A farm of 125 acres is valued at $16,000 in a township where taxes are $1.50 on $100 and interest on good security is 5 per cent. What minimum rent on a club acre would be necessary to cover interest and taxes? 2. Compute the number of hills in an acre of corn planted according to club direc- tions. If there are 1,400 kernels of corn in a pound, how many pounds will be needed to plant the club acre, if it is tested well? 3. An average of twoand one-half hoursa tree, at 25 cents an hour, is spent in pruning 37 trees. How many more apples at $3.50 a barrel will be needed to pay for this work? 4, If it costs 9 cents extra per dozen to trap-nest eggs for setting, what percentage of extra profit is there in selling setting eggs at $2 per 15 eggs instead of at 30 cents a dozen for market? 5. Make out a bill of lumber for a cold frame to be covered by two 3-foot by 6-foot sash, the walls to be boarded 24 feet on the north side and 2 feet on the south. Add 20 per cent for waste; bill lumber at $30 per M, and allow 12 cents for nails and $1.90 each for sash. Receipt the bill properly. 6. How many tomato plants may be started in the cold frame in problem 5, allowing 24 inches each way for each plant? APRIL, 1. A club member pays $7.20 for seed potatoes for his half-acre, $18 for fertilizer, 54 cents for plowing, $2.16 for planting, $1.44 for cultivating, $5.76 for spraying, $3.60 for harvesting and sacking. The yield is 91 bushels. It cost 7 cents a bushel to get them to market and the commission man returned to him 59 cents a bushel. Find the net profit. : 2. How much would this boy have gained by selling direct to the retailer and dividing the middleman’s profit? The retailer paid $1.25 a bushel. 3. Compare results on a half acre for early potatoes yielding 120 bushels an acre to sell at 31.30 as compared with late potatoes producing 185 bushels and selling at 55 cents. Are there other advantages in either plan? 4, A fertilizer formula, as 2: 8 : 2 indicates the percentages of the entire weight avail- able for plant use as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash, respectively. Find how many pounds of each in | ton (2,000 pounds) of fertilizer with the above formula. 5. When nitrogen is worth 15 cents a pound, phosphorus 4 cents, and potash 7 cents, find the fertilizing value of 1 ton of 2:8: 4. 6. Much of the nitrogen can be provided by crops like clover and alfalfa. What is the money saving per ton on each per cent of nitrogen thus saved? What gain when 2 per cent extra nitrogen on | ton fertilizer increases the yield of timothy hay one-half ton? Use local prices. (Use Farmers’ Bul. 44.) : MAY AND JUNE. 1. Arsenate of lead costing 17 cents a pound is suspended in water, about 5 pounds in 50 gallons of water. If a 50-gallon tank full will spray 9 trees at a cost of 40 cents for labor, how much will it cost to spray three times an orchard of 25 trees? 2. Bordeaux mixture consisting of 6 pounds of copper sulphate at 8 cents a pound and 4 pounds of lime at 1 cent a pound in each 50 gallons of water is used to spray potatoes three times. If it takes 30 gallons for once over the field and the labor is 75 cents each time, find the cost of spraying. 3. The crop in the field in problem 2 was increased 63 bushels apparently because of spraying. What was net gain if potatoes sell at 55 cents a bushel? 4, One ton of clover contains 40.16 pounds of nitrogen, 11.2 pounds of phosphorus, and 36.6 pounds of potash, Find the fertilizing value of one-half ton plowed down onanacre. Use process given before. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 35 5. A field drained at a cost of $150 gives an increased yield of 4 tons of hay, valued at $16.50 a ton, the first year. XIV. SCORE CARDS TO ASSIST TEACHERS. How many years at this rate will be needed to pay back the investment, paying 6 per cent interest at the same time? Many of the State colleges of agriculture through their extension service furnish to teachers a limited supply of score cards. the blanks adapted to their States. In such cases the teachers should procure The following scores were selected from those used in the Northern and Western States, and so far as possible the most common type was chosen. In case of diversity the card chosen was the most teachable form found. The teachers should use these more for standards of excellence in club work, but a limited number of judging exercises may be held on the crops or animals of local importance. SCORE CARD FOR POTATOES. WEI? MAING 3 3 Sau Ge ls eee nS = oe ls See 13p.d oul gi HUNCH oe Points. Perfect. | Scorer’s. |Correeted. lWinnfonmityxotexiibitecr se. ac2-'--.2 2-502 -<- 2+. <)< < -- REE Oreo eon: 205 ets be See ua oe cee eT TIESSRUORUY DOR me setae nie essen ae cca alone = =n «2.2 ROE eee neon LOW aSae ene (ee eiertats MO ADOIO MUU Clears iets fag Ge cts ee nice ayn iSse.e a: [a n= «i-. <1 SOE 133 Bac obosad | oeweacecae SIZETOMUUMDED ANCOLS OUNCES Sessa e ewes ec ce. 5-5 eee eee eee ene Eh eagigecance| EaSeesamee EHYeSMasTateChIMPADATIN Gee) art = 2 ee eee eee eee ee ON eh erase mete ens tas Varies withlocality and variety. Experiments show that a continued selection of short, thick ears reduces the yield. BUT RS cen gH Gs Sea e Eee ARE ae ES ae ee MEE SS ot dee soeyce 306 OY | Biscrerere cine cane stoves The base of the ear should be covered with even-sized kernels in straight rows which are a continuation of those at the center of the cal The shank should be large enough to support the ear and no arger. UM TOS) ascents ocHSees ated Gee RC Oe tee Tee Sao ee tees S02 Occ susaaceaseose ON eee see Ese sree Should be covered with kernels of the same depth as and in rows which are a continuation of those at the center of the ear. SpacelbeuWweeniTOWS err seca seca c ce See ovo cle CeCe EE EEE ere Eee Sy ae ha sesael |S See meee a Should be very slight and in straight lines. Color....- BS ICES oO AEE Re Ok Se ESS 5 poe Saco ee Eee £3) | Seether Rrmeer eet The color of both grainand cobs should be uniform,showing trueness to type or strain. ANOIE) eed pare CORE ES SoC SEER Oe ee cio 5 dno ssedsoosanseee NOOO) || Sovean sea Sevan poss IR STU ETA ES) eis Oe ae Se ee Os 5 Gy TC NE eee eh ie oa ha eeeiemreee Ree Nam Cro hSCOrens ese seer ee coos. - +. eee I DENIES 2 ds ae ls Sie ee Peres 36 . BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SCORE CARD FOR VEGETABLES. Vegetables wi 222 ssc cr. = fe ee ee ee ee Variety = eee: Glass 2 24 loinc See ee ee oo ee eee te Exhibit Nossa Points Perfect. | Scorer’s. |Corrected. Uniformity. o. 42 ieee seen acs 5s > See aoa as ee oars ee a ke 20. |o 20 as ona Seems SYIMMESUY sa. be Se Sheets leer eee = cts ale oape oho ote Seco oe oe te 15. |e ee ea | ceemeeeestet Quality seteic ass eat ste se oth owing cis cic te Se See ee ee oo oes iaewte Se 15 228i ea Sees MOx GUL she oo atic soe ase ee Cele Saas nis Baie a rs Hee ORs ae ornare 10) | 35 ee Mreedom*rom: blemishes= se ees eacc cess os ase see sae Peele oe. oe aoe | 18 |o2o bee Commerciaior table values s-2- eee nc =e ese Sooo ne. eee 25), 355 sydney |e ee POGATE saci «<2 sia ce trot eecineee Soca Sok ae cis Oe oie: sine cece 100: | 4 eee eee Remarks... . 2500-955 ac5 vai. 2 a\deee 5:0 0! dpe ewe vie sda Sin eee IName’or SCOLeR= =: 222252 Succes nee ee Date 2.223532 eee SCORE CARD FOR HOME GARDEN. Garden! NOmes2 see See Loeation:2 0202.0... 0.0... 2. SIS Points Perfect. | Scorer’s. |Corrected. ocation‘and soil? = oc 28. eee ee eee aC eRe eee = cement Bl Pees kn Aes 5 Number of varieties: 0852-25 22.<5 e.g tole oe a eee os occ anes 10 Reasonable range: 5.25.22. s occ sec esee se Senec les Seo sacel ses -cscc|f, aoe ene | eer Gardensplanestssee. feos 2 eo ae eee see ele See ie I he eee cans Sete 10 +) 2-22eetee| eee VAG en GeolCultivatlomee shana ete eka ose ee eon soe as «cece = 20 i) 5: oes 38 ene Tillage O.bOOIS Lins Seo ee ea ota eA tereie Sas yo orate. Sw Sa 2 Wl Peemeria cade se Breed omsiiT OM WeedStea. See sea ose ek ere acs oe RE oeimc nese 10) |. 22. 2th eee lealth Ofveretablesis ccc ccetais 2 case ec widens Seen e icine soon cae 15: |: cots eee Yield, computed from fixed scale of values. ....../.-.--------------------- 25):| 2.578 Eee eee TROGAD = ay. o se aes poisiaeioiae © ofosic Sela oe he oor ee Se ee eee ace sean 100"). Sac Sees | eee 1 With adults or older pupils having a choice in location and tools, these items are of more relative importance. Remarks sus: su oe uo che ee ete oe ee oe ci ee nS oe Ee ee INATINGH OLSCOLET fy5 See eo echt ois ee D: . SCORE CARD FOR TOMATO PLANT. Perfect. 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 20 -ainyerodure} Sul] -oryUOd JO POYJOUL JULI —_—_———— “ssonoid io snyeiedde jo yoolqo ‘royeoyord oy} YSNoIyy MOY 07 Uoryiod B ATUO SBUTAOTTV Aq pofoaquod oq Wd BIN} xXTUI SNOeses eu} Jo oinyerodwmo} ey, “loqureyo qgowyuoo oy} UL poutioy *OS oy} Aq pesivt st Yorym Jo oinyesodure, oy ‘aayvoyord B Ysnoryy possed SI OIN}XTUL snoeses SuTUOOUT oY “qUOTIIY COLL, “Ive puBweOS JO oMMyXIU Sues pue Apoq o1yAyeqyeo BUT[OOD 10} *SUOTJOV SUI[OOD PUB : (uoryerysny[E 1) snyeaeddy | Supyvoy ‘rozdyeyeo “We “OS | L‘BIOMA | FI6T | 089‘660°T ‘pofoidue snyereddy *pasn s]mes vet “90]T9IVT ‘IeoX | ‘ON Juejeg oe ee a et ee a eee eee ee ‘ponuryu0g—ssa00ud jonjzuoo ayy fig prov ounydyns fo aunjonfnunw ay) Ur pasn saspb ayy fo ainqnsadmaz ayy 104;U09 O} poubisap sassavoud pun snqvioddy— TITA ATaV I, 21 PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID, “soses IeuING SurAytind Jo poyyou USOT | “loyland Svs JUSTOUS A “sases sutAjrind Jo poyjeul JUSIOUy | “Apo 40k} -m00 0} Josuep WNUTUTU WA &OS Jo preré Juepw od ‘seses Iommd moy ormesie jo |BAouleyy “IOqUIvYD 10B}U09 OT} THOT OANJS[OUL JO WOISNTOXT “IOLA ses JUSLOW ‘[eL10yeul pepued SS 04} SUI[}JeS 10} eulet[og *ssoooid 10 snyetedde jo yoolgo *[CL10}CUL IOYSAT} YILA\ 708] U09 ul emood ATJUBISUOD Seses OT} IVT} PISUBLIG OS SI TOIT [VIE] VUL SUTIOZ -[¥ 0} Jo dvoy B OJUL pe eit Sasvs OL, *SIaSUNpU0dD pus si0}[g AjeyeuIe}[e Suteq Siequieyo ou} ‘sJUeTIZIVdUIOD [BIOAOS YsnoIyy UMOP UMPBIP SI OINJXIUE SNOeses OTL, “Apoq 40vyM0d OY} 0} pojTUIpB Us} GIB SESVS OUT, °(8U014S) FOS*A TIM poy 10M0} B Ysnoiy dn usyy pue ‘ayy d[Nsiq, SUTUTeIMOD SeATEYS JoAD polonpuod ey} SI 4T ‘SOjsoqse jo Joke] AAVOY B YSNOIY} pelepy usr ‘pe]o0d 4SI SI OANYXTUL snoeses OUT, “IOC UIVYD 40VJ M09 OY} OF peyIUIpe pure ‘Ire WTA poxrul ‘seses Jeu oy Jo yoy oy} Aq 1.0 MAATIp IY} PUB 1OJVA Ul Poq10SqeST2O9 oy} pues Fogty Aq poaouwioes Tay} ST Yue -said §Qg 04} ‘pefood 4S oe SOSBS OUT, op." 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 22 ‘opyand ses quopoyye Te Jo uoPJoNpoI Od ‘soses louIng WOdJ [TO JO [VACUO %OG Surureyuood sosvs HurAyLMd Jo poyJoul JUOLOY OL ‘saporyavd popuoed -sus Suryeyrdrooi1d JO poy ow “OUTIOTYO pue setmduwy Jo [VAOUIeyy ‘Od “OTUBSIV JO [VAOTHOY ‘sorjramdulr zoyjo pUB OTUOSIG JSP JO [BAOTHOYT “sosus Joumq oy} JO WOPBOUTIN, ‘sosed OY} WO OLMOSIB JO [VAOTIOYT *ssoooid 10 snyeredde Jo yoolqo *s.10q ] | -q(uios PUB S1e[ooOd PoUTq “109 JO Soles B PUB JOq -meyo JSNP B JO Juy}sTsuod ‘woAIp B YSno1yy ATpeuy pure. ‘srejooo pue Sieqqnaos peUurd -U109 JO Solos OI} YSNoryy uotyy ‘10q “mOT}BONTSop pus ‘UOT, -1URYO ISN B OVD] SIP Po] o1B Sosva oT, | (UOTJBIYSNYTE T) Bhagady BIT Y ‘uopyeIospIyor ‘AR “WOS |" "a “¢ “MOWSaley | = BOAT | 969 ‘OBG : *Sose. IOUING WOT} [[O BUTAOMIAL IOJ AJ OYOo JO Buyystrsuood ITER Ie PERE TPsie ate Risitlels mises sg putte (uOy}BAISNITT T) snyereddy wee eee eee eee So Uahe? 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 24 ‘sny -viedde uondiosqe yeu oT Od VOS*H Jo uorjeyrdro -aid pue &Og Jo uormdaosqy “UOIL THOIY aalf FOS*H Jo Uolonpoig “UOIT W110 901 FOS*H suTUTeqo Jo poy “seses TOJ} £Og§ ey squosqe FOStH oy} YA yoRyUOD eyVUTTUT ‘od “tant peur oAT}d.10s -q@ Jo uOMepnset or eUIOInN\y “£99 Burlqios -q@ JO pOYJOUL YUETOTYO O10] “2O9 OJ sNyeI -edde oandiosqe usw *ssoo0.1d io snjeiedde jo qoolqo ‘pepooo oe sreqtmiero ou? JO STV OU, “pribyy surqaos *poulloy SUrIEq FO StH Jo soporyaed pmbyy ‘toyvar YyTA podvads sr loeqmieya yoeyuoo WO £09 “UOIL OVI} 4OU S8Op PLOVSIYL FOS*E 7u00 z09d 66 01 L6 WI SUTUTRIUOD FOS*H O7FUL pessed st laquieyo yoR}u0d WOT 8OS “UOT 3/0044 jou seop prov SIL “OR oaly 7UeD Jod 1Z 4SBO] YB SUTUTIMOD FOS*FT O4UL poessed st Jaquieyo jovjuod TOI £O9 *SMOT FOS? 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 28 2 ‘a.myeiodu04 [0.4u09 pue soses JO o1NyxXTUL Ysno -10yy oonpoid 04 snyeieddy ‘od *STOTIOVOI SUTYT -19]o008 PUB SESes SBULXTUL AyYysno10y, soy snyeaeddy “suofyovel OY} SUTYVIVTOONe OJ OdTAOCT *[erioyeur Supyoed jo 184 -oBleyo 03 ONP ppETA JUOTOLU AT *poulsoy FOS* Suryey -1djooid pue seses Surjooo pue surxim >" (SUOT}VIYSNI[I OW) SSaD0Ig | ~ CTZI‘S1Z ‘ON 3u9 -yed Ul peqtiosep snyered -de IM woroeTU0D UI pes) ‘sedrd snoriea oy) 04 4E Seynqrysip 11m4 ur YOIYM SUII B YSUIvSB PIO SOINGISIpP TOMA soy AAIVUOTOVOI BIO SUTISISUOD (SuOTYeI}SNTTT g) snyereddy }-----7 7777 o te PO SOROD SEIQUO NG | Baur sess Sn OD meas “s[Bes oynevipsAY wo; sioprds uo sdno esey} ut paord SI9[4UIN} ssv[s Pe JIEA -uy ‘sedid surnqrysrp Aq do} pet 07 peyoryye pues SI9MO7 JO YAOMOTUABIT TOIT : poyioddns (pvet)* sdno jO Series @ JO sUTISISUOD (smoTyeysny g) snyereddy |-----777-7 777757 77 eTIONT | > “"M “a ‘Treddeyo mel ‘ouse’y -----"Jo7em ‘118 “OS FON | pues ‘° qT “LoOyWuo |, “UsaSOIIU JO SOpIxXO poary Apyseiy OJ QOS -qe@ uv sB jov pu S}axo0d Aue ul 4oojjoo jou uvo plo’ SUIpUeDsep ey) 44 : pesuvlIG OS 19MO} IOAOT?) poeaoidut us jo SUT}SiSMOD (suoTyVysnyfE ¢) snyeieddy “pol oq Utd f€ONBN JO WOTyNjOS B pus FOS*H Gory 04UT sjod J0jIm JO sSurTySIsUOD (uoT}eAYsHYTE T) snyereddy |--FOs*H “ON®BN Jo uOHNOS AE EES VW ‘USTREA eae O99 Sf ‘Aqarey {USUI LOLI, ' *pesojdme snyeieddy *poesn s}mesee yy ‘99]Uee *S8a00Ld LAQuiDYyo ay} 888T L881 T88T F881 PSs "10K 683 ‘BLE TOT ‘GLE OTF ‘OSE 820 ‘G6 ¥S0 ‘6% “ON queyeg 3 fq pron nunydjns fo aanjonfruvu ay ur pasn say fo woydunsuos ay2 ur fuwouova yoaf]a 07 hpununid paubrsep sassaooud pun snyounddy— AX AIAVI, BULLETIN 283, U. 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JO WIOy MOU JO SUTYSTSUOD (suOIyBIysnyE -) snyereddy oily ge (SUOTIVAISNIE €) SS900.A¢T ‘snyered -dev oy} 0% porddns eq AVUL YOY A pTOV JO ssvoxo AUB OF SAOJNQLAYStp AoUES -19UW9 UIE popraoid Joo Ar AIVUOTPOBAA BJO SUTSTSUOD (uoTPeYsNnyT 1) suyeisddy “IB SOS FOstH ‘uornfos &ON®N “ae BOX “UueLIMd O1oo[ TT “***"@TlO NT “MV ‘BOS {19PVAL Wo} OF SuoTodoid utr any ussorpAY-uasAXO er “TH U8S10}9 pea eek “79 ‘lepueg weet een we oes H ‘Sune aces WR fd ‘S110q eee ss D ‘d ‘wores es ee ee H ‘O ‘PHA Sioletaie “-s-9 “yw Suosuyor pisces rele me ~g ‘10IZBIWT 8061 SO6T 8061 L061 PO6T £06T O06T LT ‘06 $89 ‘006 068 ‘868 028 ‘O¢s 982 “6¢9 90F ‘Sse 33 PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID. “prov olmmydyns pure ues -O.J JO SOprXO JO sedV.1} ysep Jo AIOAODGI IOJ SSvd0Ig *m9d01}1U JO SOprxXO SulIgAODNI puv %2O9 sur “ZIpIxo JO poy,oUl JUSTO *sseooid 10 snyviedde yo yoolqo “‘SIOqTMIVYD 9} OFUL pokvids wey} St suty[nsel *ON®N eu ‘“pedvads st &€QOO%N JO WOTNpOsS @ YOM OJUL SOMO} OA} Yonormyy AJPAIsseooONS +pe ey} e818 sesed OL, ‘“SeyMory 10}VM OIA UWAOp [CI10]VUA BUTISISEI-p1ow UIA poyoed 19M0} B YSnoIg} dn pe e1v 1OMO0} OVSSIVT-ABX) OY} BULAVOT 19}JV SOSVS OUT, “‘SUJSUII}S JUSIOYIP JO Pl0V JOAOTH Jo sorpddns 0.4 YAIA ORY -u00 ut AT[euy pus ‘AVA [VNsN oy} UE SloquVyd OY} YSNoI} wey} ‘[OLTA snoijtu jo soyddns omy YIM 40e} -W00 OFT possed SI 91N}XTUL SNOVSBS OUT, reyeM ‘re WO ‘d ‘oyouLyL ee ge (monexsnyt T) sseo0r1g | “OO*N JO WOTNjOS 1yVA | pus “Vy “puUBIBy> *JOVOM ‘ITB “og ‘syysues yuoIEyIp jo proe aoAojy Jo soryd -dns OM puUB sy}suer}s {UU} VEL, ¢ jueregip JO TOTIZIA oasis (suorjerysnqft ¢) sseoorg | snoaytm jo seyddns omy, | ~~" ‘tles190}0 qd *pefojdmo snyeieddy *“pesn s}uesvey ‘90 UEIV ST6L 606T "189K 120 ‘890‘T 969 ‘806 ‘ON quoqed pict AP le eli Sele“ | FP a cerns eRe cite Jee as a Ea ee SE ‘ponurjm0p—ssav0ud waquupyo ay} fig pran ounydjns fo aunponfnunw ayy ur pasn sayu fo woydwnsuod ayy un fiauowora yoaf/a 07 Kipunuasd poubisap sassao0ud puv sryounddy—' AX BIAV I, BULLETIN 283, U. 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 34 “MOTJON.SUOD JO 4SOd PUB gourds Joquivyo ur AWOUOdTT “SoC TUBILO peo, SurAojdwe ynoyyrn YOS*F JO UOLonpold yUSTOL OL “SMOGULBILD PRET MOF OFLYTYSGNS *SMOCUUBYD OSIB] JO OSH QNOUIIM 'OS*FT sutonp -old aoy sngetedde quoryy ot ‘aovds Joquivyp ssoy UM FOS*H dann ene eJ0t pure Jatnd Jo WOLjoNpoag ‘goeds oq, -ueyo JO JUNOTHIB [[VUIS UT FOS*H JO Moron pod query OL “sny et -eddev 1o ssoooid jo yoolqo “m0 sAs loy poanbert aoe JO 4aed ysruamy 0) pure ‘poulloy FOg*}T OsUNpUOD puB [009 0} SoA.dos sloquiByo jo Aqrpeanyd & JO SULO}JOG OY} UE FOS*EL ONY [Oog | --*** (MoYWeAysNITT 1) Ss900A1q *SLOMO} Pres JO OJCIPOULIOJUT SeTOZ SUI[OOD pues survey suryvudeyye Ysno.1yy puvw slomo}y IOAOTH Jo Aqrtyemyjd vB YSNoIy} UMBIP Ol SOSeS OOVULIMY OTT, | ~** ~(SUOT}BAYSN]IE ¢) Ssooo.t “SOLIOS OMY OY} SUTJVOT -109 ony @ JO suBoU AC S10}.0AUOD JO S9T.loS PUODOS B YSNOIYY UALeAp St paved pus Jomo} ovssuy-Avy oy} 0} Se03 Udy} Svs OY} JO WV ‘sloyloAuod 10 S10M0} Poxovd JO Soros ASI Oty YSNO.LYY UABIP ST OLNY-XTUL SNOOSBS OL, ‘oly eyeiedes @ Aq payor usd ple Ue sI alo, Yor sopun oyeid poyeaoj aed B JO S|SISUOD JOMO} TORO JO OSB OUT, “ONH UTM poy pus sjod poyesoy -Jod TAI PoT[Y S9MO} VOT YSN0.Iy ooVUIN] OY} WO. po] lB sosvsd OL, “10JVM TIM Poy 1A} WOT} -diosqe ue ysno1yy Surssed Aq soses [VNpIses oy} WO poqiosqe uos0.4Ia JO SOprxoO oY} puw YO UMRIP ST prov posuepuos oy, ““ONH UIA poj st [PIF JMO} UOToRet OY} UT syutod OM} 4B po} TUIps ole soses JOUMA oly, * 19} 8] OYA Saztprxo “OQ prnbiT ou} YIM Surjsurut pue ‘poyonbry st Yorym “FON 0} pozIprxo St2OQN OWL *padlOF OS|V 1B WUBOYS PUR UB YOY OJUL oquieyo B OFUL OINssoid Jopun 7ON UII 1944050} poonpoajur Ueqy SIAL SN WOd poody snYyy puv peyonbiy SI sdouinq soyidd oy} WOT FOS EU, ‘ony ey} UL poureyuod SI UWST -UBTYPVU 4SBIG YW ‘Sorlos 4st OY} JO YSBl OY} YA SOToS PUODES EY} JO 4S. ey} syoouuod ONY VY ‘sor -poq SUT|SISOA-prow ener euloS YIM poeyovd (sled -WIvyd JO Nel] UL) SloMo} JO SOLOS OMY JO SUTISTSUOD (uONeBYysn[t T) snyeiwddy “I9M0} OBSSIT-ABY) euo pus ‘sjod poye.iossod: Jo sopid SULUrezWOd s.loM07 UOLOVOLOOIT} JO SUTISISUOD (SMHOTYBYSNIIT Gg) snyeieddy “UeZ0.4IU JO SOprxo OU} BUIGIOSGB OJ 1oY4O OY pue suorovoed oY} JO; OO *S19M0} OM} JO SUTYSTSUOD (suoTyVysny[E ¢) snyeieddy “-** = (SUOI}VIYSNIIL f) SSVO.LT “duyjooo “(sTyear loqureyo uo poonpedd yey4y MOTE “ of OF of) }OS*H ‘ued0.1y7U JO seprxo ‘Are GO, “SUT[OOD pu ZUT}vOY .19yVM ‘Woes0.1yTU JO Seprxo ‘ire GOS “SUTXTUL PUB SUT[OOD ‘ues0.rU JO soprxo ‘Be Og sees “yooy “ave SOS “ONH ~Surpood ‘prow ory Sure Og “MBO4S ‘U9SO01jIU WOI va} “ON pus %Og pmbry eae “Ty “oraurys Se “"xeyy ‘uuBUIMe Ny pipers "ON “938I1g ee aS rope cg ‘eIq.leg *qUOTY VOL J, ‘poAojdmo snyeivddy *ssa00ud Laquinya ay} “posn $}UesvO YY “AA {90.8 pues “qy ‘mosmMOy, me abet i “AV URL “90}O4V FOBT | 0zg‘SDL, } £061 | 6962 O06L | ss9‘zcg C6sl | ass ‘ces ELST | 20% ‘SFT 698T | T88 ‘98 “wok | “ON Jueyeg fig pwn anrinydyns fo aunpofnunu, ay) wu. painbas sonds waquoya fo yunown ay? aonpat 07 hprsnunud paubrsap sassavold puv sryninddy— TAX IAI, 35 PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID. “ONH *s19M0} Sutztprxo jo Aqrpemyd JO SSOT JHOYIIA pues (Areurp ® wMop surssed “£q poyedoueser -10) slequieya pee, Jo esn m0} SEEQNH poonpeleyy, “ONH NOTA 'OS*H JO UOTyoNpotg | YIM pezvet ole seses JouInd ey |---"-~ (MOr}B.14SN][I T) sse0ag |-~"- ~~ aaywMm “ON ‘ae Og [7-7 o-oo M. ‘BpIQT | Zier | €s6‘8ro‘T *pda[ SI sese3 Joumnq oy JO H[Nq oY} YoryM YSn01q} s.tesv07 UWOrTjOVel JO Jequinu vB jo sdoz oy} ‘gonds Jeqmmeyo mo. pokvids Wey) SI prow pres ‘sede Ul SUIZIUIOTIODD SNyy ‘seq plo’ oy Woy prow ormmydinsonra -wmeyo pee Aleurp.10 jo esn. OU} YI, 01 epeu st ‘ie pesseidu10d “1B posserdui0d ‘1978 M NOI FOS*H JO UOToNpoIg | YIM 1039304 ‘seses JoeuIN 04} JO jeg |- ~~~ “(SUOTJeIYSNIII Zz) sssooig | “OS “prow ormyYydpnsoyin |---- 7-777 9 ‘Ido | Wet | 1zF‘zt0‘T “Serles UL pejoevu ‘TAMBIPYIIM ole pus -109 40U 918 PUB SUOISUOUL 110310 OY} 07 9[}I0S AT[VNpe.is seses -Ip [ejuozIoy Tou} ureyy yueds ey ‘sieqmeyo oy jo doy JOYSIY Sour} J[Vey-euo pue ‘sosv3 queds OY} JB petdofZ SNY} SI seses Suryovel ou 918 SlequIeyo oy} Vey 04} WOT soses SUT}OReL OY eq} JO ouoz you Wy “doy oy} Jvou ydeoxe + ‘quejd Jequieyo jO UOTVse1ses ey} 0} ONp SIOQ(TUIVYD PLO] OY} OFUT 19A\0 JBAOTS) jensn 0} jo Surjsrsuo0o *IOJEM FOS*H JO UOTJonpold yuoloyZy | OY WJ Pe] ST Sesvs Jo ox oY, | (SUOTBIYSNTT 9) snyvreddy | ‘uoeSorru yo seprxo ‘are ZOg |----- >> 7 fw ‘SUIpled | 6061 LL*CE6 “sseoord “queTI} Bel *poAojdure snyeiedd “pesn sjuesve “907108 BP Geta) “ON 3U0}8 10 snyeiedde Jo yoolqo } peal], podaoy y V Pest S} tae PUOLC I A N Jue , ‘ponulu0j—ssav0ud waquinya ay? fig pwn nuinydjns fo aingonfnunw ayy ur pasnbas aands waqunya fo yunowD ay) aonpas 07 fijiunwaisd paubisap sassavoud pun snyounddy— TAX @IAV, BULLETIN 283, U. 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 36 —__--———————————— eee SO ee Eee es 70S JO uoryRayUIDN0D — pul uoroupoid oy + snyeiwddy VOS*zz toind pur pozey “UMNUOD OLOUL JO WOLONpOIT FOS po}v4yueduOD JO UWOLONpolg FOS poyeny -U9DUOD BIOTA JO UOTONpPOL ‘soses TOIT Og JO UOT} -d1osqv 07} onp FO StF poyw.y -Ud0UOdD OLOW JO WOTJONpoIg "A 099 JO FOS*TT Jo uOFoNpor VOSFL poyery -U09U0D OAOTH JO UOTJONpOLL “GIT 296 “ON TuOIed UL Pedros -op ssoo0ad yno SurAdivo azoy suywueddy *poyisodep OI SOTPLINA MT OT} OLOT_M GULOC o1]} OF Polllvo SE PLOW OY} JO UOT}RA}UVDUOD oUt Fossey Aavurpszo yA poryd -dus JMO} SUTYVIQUODUOD B YSNo.iyy poyonpuod eB sesvd JOUINg el *SlOqUIvYD oy} 0} pojytupe AT[wUy o1B soses OL “UISO1LU JO Soprxo Sururezuos FOS*T oFNYIp Ua 40BY MOD UT 1e]O0d B sno) possed pus 19y4o507 WYSno1q UO} OLIV SUIVOIYS OM} OY, “10}B1} -uoot0d & pure snyivdde suryeruep B® Ysnoiy surveys qaospuedepur OAM] UL POJONPUOD OV SOsvs JOTING OU, “ul0} -SAS OY} OF IojVA SOYSTUIN] Os[v puv SOSVB OT} UO UOLJOV SUT[OOD B $}.LoXO 10}}8T OU, FOS*ET 0}BIQWODUOD 04 POZI[I1N ST SOSVS JOLIN OY} JO FVOT] OAL, “1OMO} LOAOTL) OY} SULIOZUS Sosvs OT UTM poxrul pus’ wojsds ovy Jo qyavd AUB WOI] UMBIPYJIA OIV Sosts OL *plov oly} $0} V1] WOOO) YOrt_M JO }VaY ot} ‘Sosvs JoUIng oy} JO UOT OY} 07 posodxe SUTOG ‘THROT}S UIT} V UT ONT ay} WAOp SMOL]} 19MO} IOAOTY) OY} WLOA PLO’ OIL yy, ‘TeLleyeu Supypoed O[CVIINS OULOS TIM po] 1oA\0} WOT} -IOsqv UB UMOP OPO} OF POAOTTL SI IOMO} IOAOTH OY} Woy prow oyy, ‘sny. -vivdde Burpooo ose “e104 -WLYD Pres 0} prow SsurA| -dis 10} SUBOLTE PUB FO SeTT SUTVVAJWBDUOD OF SIOMO1 jo Aqrpeantd & JO Surysisuoo (suOI}BSNITL Z) snyervddy ERP Ss (WOI]VAYSNT[LE 1) SSod0.1 cf a 6 (SUOT}VASNTTE &) Sseoor “IOMO} TOAO[}) OU} PUB Slo “WIN OY} USMY (FO S*T JO S[OSSOA SUTUTVIMOD) OLY pesiepues UB JO Surj}stsuod (StOr}VISNTE ¢) snyvreddy SEEOE (SUOFRSNITE Z) SSo0O.1T *sdoys Jo SOTIOS V UL POSURLI’ ONY SUT -}B.1JUBOUOD B JO SULYSISUOD (suoreysnyr 9) snyeuveddy “IOMO} SULYVIYUOOUOD JO SUTYSISUOD (SUOTBAYSNTE 9) snjyeredde pure ssoo01g BORSA Sb aOtic most eegns--:- aa “70 ‘sspoord sosvs JouImd JO JVoTT “sasea Jou JO yvoT “Og ‘ues01jIU JO SepIxO were ye ratelcva\sielalalatetate Seis O aac “so >> "s9sed IoUIMd JO VVOTT ‘snqyeieddz 10 ssao0id Jo yoold a “{UOULY COLT, *poLojdmoe snyereddy “poesn 4W9svoEry si aacaaoke asa ylopy ‘rue, ‘H *I9T -osoyT pure “N ‘zZuLeyT J Tseies WAY Sweume are f° “SUIpreL *90]TO4V TI6T OT6L OT6T POST POGT G06 COST "1v0 A £6 “686 TL0 ‘669 TFO ‘TFS “ON JUOIBE ‘ssav0ud waguunya fg painpnfnunu prov ounydjns yp fo wuoyniquaouos ayy sof fprumured poubrsop sassavoud pun snyounddy— TT AX AAV, 37 SULPHURIC ACID. 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GI6T TI61 606T 606T 666 ‘901 ‘T Pe ‘810 T OF ‘810 ‘T GOT ‘186 829 “606 PPS ‘826 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director Washington, D.C. ; Vv September 17, 1915 CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF ROADS AND BRIDGES FROM JULY 1, 1913, to DECEMBER 31, 1914. CONTENTS. Page. Page IMtrodtGhlonpes =e ae 1 Work of the Division of National Work of the Division of Construc- Parks and Forest Roads_____--_~ 53 TAKON) 2 ee 2 Work done in National Forests_ 54 Object-lesson roads__--~~_ = aes 2 Survey: WiOl ke eee eee 54 Superintendence of county roads. 23 ConstructionmwoOlke eee 5D Hxperimental road work —~---_-_ 50 Work done in National Parks__ 57 IROSt-LoOadeawiOnkw=——=— = 52 Work of the Division of Mainte- Bride emwObke = — eee 53 NAN Ch ee ee 58 INTRODUCTION. Owing to the fact that the active field work of the office accords better with the calendar year than with the fiscal year, it has been thought best to report herein the work of the Divisions of Construc- tion, Maintenance, and National Park and Forest Roads for the past 18 months, and in the future to have the reports cover the calendar years. This bulletin takes up the field work of the above three divisions where Department Bulletin No. 53 (Object Lesson and Ex- perimental Roads, and Bridge Construction, 1912-18) left off. These three divisions have been formed from the one division of engineer- ing since Bulletin 53 was issued, and the records of work divided accordingly. As mentioned in Bulletin No. 53, the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering is empowered by a provision of the agricultural act to expend a portion of its appropriation “ for investigations of the best methods of road making and the best kinds of road-making mate- rials, and for furnishing expert advice on road building and mainte- nance.”! In the interpretation of this clause the desire of the office has been to demonstrate in a practical way the need for good roads, as well as the benefits derived from them, and at the same time to 1 Agricultural act, 1914, Public No. 430, 62d Cong., 3d sess., approyed Mar. 4, 1913, 38°—Bull, 284—15. 1 2 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. show to the various communities the best and most economical meth- ods of road and bridge construction and maintenance. The work consists in furnishing upon the request of the local officials the services of one or more engineers to make surveys, esti- mates, and specifications for road improvements, and to supervise the construction, in addition to giving practical advice to the local authorities, who must furnish all machinery, materials, and labor. WORK OF THE DIVISION OF CONSTRUCTION. The work of the Division of Construction, of which Vernon M. Peirce is chief, comprises the following projects: Construction of object-lesson roads, construction of experimental roads, construction of post roads, superintendence of county roads, design and inspec- tion of bridges and culverts. OBJECT-LESSON ROADS. Short stretches of various kinds of roads in different communities have been constructed, upon application from local road authorities, as object lessons, for the purpose of demonstrating the proper ma- terials and methods of construction in the respective communities. Forty object-lesson roads have been built during the period from July 1, 1913, to December 31, 1914. A detailed account of each one follows, given in order of the type of construction, the more ex- pensive forms first. Under these types the roads are given alphabeti- cally by States, counties, and towns. CEMENT-CONCRETE ROAD. PRINCE EDWARD CouUNTY, FARMVILLE, VA.—Work was begun on a cement-con- crete road extending from Farmville toward Hampden Sidney on September 25, 1913, and completed October 18, 1918, with a loss of one day on account of rain. The surrounding land is rolling and the soil a red clay. The road was graded 24 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,450 feet. The earth was loosened with plows and hauled with slip scrapers, wheel scrapers, and wagons. A steam roller was used on the subgrade. The road was surfaced with con- crete 16 feet wide for a distance of 515 feet, making an area of 916 square yards. The thickness is 7 inches at the middle and 5 inches at the sides. The mixture used was 1 part cement, 2 sand, and 4 gravel. Expansion joints of two strips of two-ply tar paper were placed every 25 feet. One 18-inch 28-foot corrugated-iron pipe culvert was placed at a cost of $32. The total cost of the work, excluding the pipe culvert, was $1,413.18, or $1.137 per square yard. Labor was $1.50 per day and teams $4 per day of 10 hours. ‘he principal items of cost were: Excavation and embankment, $5387.40; rent of roller, five days, at $5 per day, $25; 8 tons of coal, at $4.85 per ton, $18.05; cement, 170 barrels, at $1.88 per barrel, $811.10; sand, 50 cubie yards, at $0.10 per cubie yard, $5; loading and hauling sand to road, $0.66 per cubie yard, $33; gravel, f. o. b. cars at siding, 125 tons, at $1.60 per ton, $200; loading and haul- ing gravel, 14 miles, $0.3879 per ton, $47.88; rent of concrete mixer, six days, at $4 per day, $24; coal for mixer, 2 tons, at $4.85 per ton, $8.70; mixing and plac- ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 3 ing concrete, at $0.199 per square yard, $182.87; setting forms, $15.63; and mis- cellaneous labor, $10.50. BITUMINOUS-MACADAM ROADS. DADE County, LEMoN City, Fta.—Work was conducted on an experimental object-lesson road beginning about one-fourth mile north of Lemon City, on the Biscayne Drive, during January and February, 1914. The work consisted of the construction of five sections of bituminous-macadam road; the stone was a local coralline rock, with various bituminous materials for the top coat. The surfaced width was 18 feet and the length 334.4 feet, making a total area of 668.8 square yards. The total cost of the work was $420.77, or $0.629 per square yard. Detailed description will be found in Progress Report of Dust Prevention and Road Preservation for 1914." PautmM BeacuH County, Wrest PALM BEACH, FLA.—Work was conducted on an experimental object-lesson road beginning at a point about 2 miles south of West Palm Beach, on the Miami-Quebec Highway, during April, 1914. The work consisted of the construction of seven sections of bituminous-macadam road. The stone was a local coralline rock, with various bituminous materials for the top coat. The surfaced width was 15 feet and the length 860 feet, making a total area of 1,483 square yards. The total cost of the work was $808.17, or $0.564 per square yard. A detailed description will be found in Progress Report of Dust Prevention and Road Preservation, 1914.* Avuagusta CouNTY, STAUNTON, VA.—Work was begun on a road leading from Staunton toward Middlebrook on September 16, 1913. This office furnished a representative for the purpose of instructing the local authorities in applying the bituminous surface. He superintended the laying of one kind of bitumin- - ous material and turned this one section over to the local authorities on Sep- tember 29, 1913, with 24 days lost due to bad weather. When the office representative arrived this road had been graded 21 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a length of 1,700 feet. The subgrade, 15 feet wide, had been prepared, the shaping was practically done, and most of the first course of rock had been placed. The adjacent land is rolling and the natural svil is clay and rock. The crushed rock was a limestone with good binding qualities and a fair wearing quality. It was loaded into wagons by gravity from the bins, hauled about three-quarters of a mile, and dumped on the road in piles and spread with rakes and shovels. On the prepared subgrade the No. 1 stone, ranging from 2 to 34 inches in size, had been spread to a depth of 5 inches and rolled until compacted to 34 inches. On this course was spread 3 inches of loose No. 2 stone, ranging from three-fourths inch to 2 inches in size, and rolled until compacted to 2 inches. The bituminous binder was spread on this course at the rate of 14 gallons tuo the square yard. This was covered with screenings varying from one-fourth to three-fourths inch in size. The road was then rolled, and a seal coat of about one-half gallon of bituminous binder applied. The binder was delivered in a tank car and heated by steam from a pump station of the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad. At the time of the departure of the office representative 2,106 1 Bulletin No. 257, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 4 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. square yards of bituminous surfacing was entirely completed, 270 tons of No. 2 stone and 63.83 tons of screenings had been spread, and 5,338 gallons of bitumen used. The equipment consisted of a 10-ton roller, a 700-gallon distributor wagon, rattan brooms, ete. State convicts were employed as laborers. Their laboz was valued at $1 per day of 10 hours. The teams were hired at $3 per day; roller at $5 per day; roller man at $2 per day; night watchman and subfore- man at $2 per day. The cost of the bituminous surface, including No. 2 stone and screenings, was $1,069.44, or at the rate of $0.507 per square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Trimming shoulders, $0.80; stone in the bins at $1 per cubie yard, $333.83; hauling stone to road at $0.178 per cubic yard, $59.40; spreading No. 2 stone at $0.075 per cubic yard, $20.40; spreading screenings at $0.218 per cubic yard, $18.90; rolling, including labor, rent, and fuel, at $0.007 per square yard, $22.05; general expenses, $7.50; demurrage on tank ear, $11; bituminous material at $0.09 per gallon, $480.42; unloading and hauling sams at $0.0025, $13.40; heating bitumen, including depreciation of equipment, $62.04; spreading bitumen, $27.50; sweeping surface, $3.60; patching, $0.60; cost of steam, $13. BITUMINOUS RESURFACING. LEE County, Fort Myers, FtA.—Work was begun resurfacing the McGregor Boulevard leading from Fort Myers toward Punta Rassa on April 29, 1914, and completed May 7, 1914. The road was built with shell and given a bituminous surface treatment in the fall of 1912 under the supervision of this office. From the time of the construction in 1912 to the resurfacing in May, 1914, the road was practically without maintenance or repair. The surface was prepared by sweeping it clean with a street sweeper and hand brooms, and the grass was scraped from the roadsides with a grader. The oil was hauled an average of 24 miles and applied from a 500-gallon gravity distributor to the hard, dry, clean surface. It was allowed to stand until absorbed, and then covered with a thin coat of sand. One-half of the road was treated at a time in order to allow traffic the uninterrupted use of the road. The average rate of application was 0.246 gallon per square yard. The sand, obtained from the roadside, was screened, and spread to a depth of about three-sixteenths of an inch. The road was treated for a width of 16 feet and a length of 8,950 feet, or an area of 15,911 square yards. Labor was $1.80 per day, and teams $5 per day of nine hours. Oil cost $0.0575 per gallon f. o. b. tank cars at Fort Myers. The total cost of the work was $478.51, which is at the rate of $282 per mile, or $0.0301 per square yard. The principal items of cost were preparing sur- face, $0.0029 per square yard; cost of oil, $0.0142 per square yard; hauling and applying, $0.0018 per square yard; brooming, $0.0018 per square yard; excayat- ing and screening sand, $0.0088 per square yard; and spreading sand, $0.0011 per square yard. MACADAM ROADS. FAuQuieR Country, REcTORTOWN, VA.—Work was begun July 7, 1913, on a macadam road extending from the depot at Rectortown north to Marshall Road, and completed November 1, 1913, with a loss of 41 days on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is rolling and the natural soil is clay from station 1 Described in Bul. No. 53, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, ‘‘ Object-lesson and Experi- mental Roads and Bridge Construction, 1912-13,” Oe ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 5 0+00 to 27+00 and solid rock from station 27+00 to 28+00. The road was graded 26 feet wide in cuts and 20 feet wide in fills for 2,800 feet. The maxi- mum cut was 1.7 feet, the maximum fill 2.6 feet. The total amount of excava- tion was 1,356 cubic yards, of which 131 cubic yards was rock excavation. The maximum grade of 8 per cent was reduced to 5.8 per cent. Harth was loosened with plows and picks, loaded with shovels, hauled with wagons and wheelbarrows, and spread with shovels. A surface of macadam was laid for 2,800 feet, 14 feet wide, making 4,355 square yards. The macadam was applied in two courses, the first-course stones ranging in size from 14 to 3 inches and applied 53 inches deep; the second course ranging in size from three- fourths inch to 14 inches and applied 24 inches deep. On this course the screen- ings were applied, ranging in size from dust to one-half inch. When compacted the surfacing was 6 inches in depth. The material used for surfacing was a diabase, locally known as ‘ironstone.’ It has fair binding qualities and good wearing qualities. The crusher was set up at station 10+50 and the hanl from the quarry was about 50 feet; the haul of water for the crusher engine was 2,600 feet and the average haul of water for the sprinkler was 3,000 feet. Stone was brought to the crusher in wagons and wheelbarrows, crushed, stored in bins, and loaded from the bins directly into the wagons by means of a chute. Drainage structures were constructed as follows: At 0+12 a 15-inch corru- gated-iron pipe; at 9+S80 a 12-inch corrugated-iron pipe; at 12+20 a 12-inch corrugated-iron pipe; at 19+00 a 3 by 6 foot concrete culvert; at 23-++50 a 12-inch corrugated-iron pipe; and at 25+80 a 12-inch corrugated-iron pipe. Concrete head walls were built at all pipe ends. The equipment consisted of a 10-ton roller, a 12- Noreecower engine, and a No. 4 rock crusher. Labor cost from $1.25 to $2.25 per day of 10 hours, and teams cost from $3 to $5. The total cost of the road was $4,215.69, which is at the rate ef $0.968 per square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Clearing and grub- bing, $23.73; excavation at $0.623 per cubic yard, $833.88; shaping at $0.02 per square yard, $90.48; culvert pipe, $103.45; labor on same, $47.30; concrete culvert, $31.55; labor on same, $76; end walls, $5.50; side walls, $208.55; exea- vation for culvert, $22.77; forms, $39.28; quarrying at $0.934 per cubic yard, $600.47 ; hauling to crusher at $0.837 per cubic yard, $347.60; crushing at $0.495 per cubic yard, $524.86; hauling, crusher to road, at $0.203 per cubic yard, $212.60; spreading at $0.106 per cubic yard, $111.51; sprinkling at $0.0066 per square yard, $32.50; rolling at $0.055 per square yard, $242.80; general expense, $162.30; trimming shoulders, $5.87; explosives, $106.67; blacksmithing, $68.11; reinforcing steel, $34.21; lumber, $25; cement, $65.50; extras, $16.61; fuel. $176.64. CHERT MACADAM ROAD. NEWTON County, NrosHo, Mo.—Work on a road extending from Neosho south- ward toward Pineville was begun November 28, 1913, and completed December 19, 1918, with a loss of 44 days on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is chert and clay. For a distance of 2,000 feet the ' road was graded to a width of 26 feet in cuts and to a width of 22 feet in fills, for which 2,270 cubic yards cf material was moved. The maximum grade was reduced from 9 per cent to 6 per cent. The material was loosened with plows and a heavy harrow, hauled in wheel scrapers, and spread with shovels. The average haul was 300 feet, with a maximum haul of 500 feet. The surface material was a chert varying in size from dust to 23 inches. The run of the crusher was used without screening and the material was ~ 6 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. spread in one course to a depth of 6 inches for a width of 8 feet and a length of 933 feet, making 829 square yards. About 1388 cubie yards of material were used with an average haul from the crusher to the road of 630 feet. Planks 2 by 6 inches were used at the sides to secure a uniform depth of 6 inches, and against these planks shoulders were built. The surfacing material was loaded into wagons direct from the elevator, hauled in farm wagons and spread with shovels, and the surface given a crown of three-fourths inch to the foot. The equipment consisted of fourteen wheel scrapers, four drag scrapers, two heavy grading plows, one heavy harrow, one rooter, one road grader, one 6-ton horse roller, one crusher, one 25-horsepower traction engine. Labor cost, $1.80, and teams, $3.60 per 9-hour day. The contract for the engine at $10 per day included fuel. The total cost of the road was $1,190.43, which is at the rate of $0.222 per square yard of graded area. The principal items of cost were as follows: Plowing, at $0.14 per cubic yard, $315.02; scraping, at $0.2685 per cubic yard, $609.60; trimming banks, at $0.0322 per square yard, $38.70; blasting, at $0.6867 per cubic yard, $20.60, including $8 for dynamite; hand-breaking stone, at $1.282 per cubic yard, $42.30; trimming shoulders, at $0.028 per linear foot, $26.48; spreading stone. at $0.0587 per cubic yard, $8.10; crushing, at $0.5155 per cubic yard, $54.13; rolling, at $0.0052 per square yard, $20.80; hauling stone to crusher, varying from $0.25 to $0.30 per cubic yard, $33.85; hauling crushed stone to road, at $0.2038 per cubic yard, $21.40. GRAVEL ROADS. CoAHOMA COUNTY, CLARKSDALE, Miss. (SECTION 1).—A gravel road leading from Clarksdale northwesterly toward Friar Point was begun on January 5, 1914, and completed January 19, 1914, with a loss of four days waiting for materials. The adjacent land is level and the natural soil a buckshot clay. A section 1,060 feet long was graded with 580 feet surfaced 20 feet wide, and 480 feet surfaced 16 feet wide, making the surfaced area 2,142 square yards. The grade of the road was not. materially changed, and the average cut was but 0.5 foot with a maximum of 1 foot. The material was loosened with plows, loaded by hand into slat-bottom wagons, and hauled away. The sur- facing material, which was Tishomingo gravel and novaculite, was shipped in on the cars. The gravel weighed 3,000 pounds to the cubic yard, and the novaculite weighed 2,400 to the cubic yard. The novaculite seemed to have better wearing and binding qualities than the gravel. The material was spread to a loose depth of 12 inches by means of rakes, shovels, and the drag. It was afterwards rolled with a 5-ton horse roller until the material was compacted to 8 inches. The average haul from the cars to the road was one-fourth mile. The material contained particles of stone from the size of peastone to that of cobblestone. The road was given a crown of 6 inches on the surfaced portion. The equipment consisted of a road grader, a 5-ton horse roller, wagons, and small tools. Labor cost $1.50 and teams $4.50 per 10-hour day. The cost of the novaculite on the cars was $1.63 per 2,000 pounds, or $1.96 per cubic yard, and the gravel $1.474 per 2,500 pounds, or $1.77 per cubie yard. The total cost of the road to the community was $1,722.72, which is at the rate of $0.804 per square yard for the surfacing. ‘The principal items of cost were as follows: Excavation, $71; shaping, at $0.0217 per square yard, $46.50; surfacing material, $1,191.22; loading wagons from car at $0.126 per cubic yard, $94.50; hauling from cars to road, at $0.815 per cubic yard, $236.25; spreading material, at $0.058 per ecubie yard, $438.50; trimming shoulders, $16.50; rolling, at $0.011 per square yard, $23.25. ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. ( CoAHoMA COUNTY, CLARKSDALE, Miss. (Section 2).—A second section of gravel road leading from Clarksdale northwesterly toward Friar Point was begun November 17, 1913, and completed January 29, 1914, with a loss of one day, due to bad weather. The adjacent land is slightly rolling and the soil a sandy loam throughout the entire length. A section 2,640 feet long was graded for a width of 26 feet in both cuts and fills. The gravel surface is 2,640 feet long for a width of 10 feet, making a surfaced area of 2,983 square yards. The maximum cut was 2 feet and the maximum fill 3 feet, and the material was moved with slip scrapers after being loosened with plows. The average haul was 100 feet, with a maximum haul of 600 feet. The surfacing material was Tishomingo gravel, shipped on the cars. The baul from the ears to the road was approximately 34 miles. The material was spread by hand, using rakes and shovels. The material wears well under moderate traffic, but tends to lose its binding quality in dry weather. The gravel-was spread in one course to a depth of 9 inches and compacted to 6 inches by aid of a roller. The gravel ranged in size from that of cobble- stone to peastone. It is estimated that 867 cubic yards of gravel were used. As completed, the road has a 4-foot shoulder of earth on one side and a 12- foot earth roadway on the other, with the finished surface having a crown of 1 inch to 1 foot. One cross drain, 25 feet long, of 12-inch clay pipe was laid at station 52-+00. The equipment consisted of a road grader, a 5-ton horse roller, slat-bottom wagons, and small tools. Labor cost $1.50, and teams $4, including driver per 10-hour day. The total cost of the road to the community was $2,862.38, which is at the rate of $0.976 per square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Excavation, $197.98; shaping, at $0.02 per square yard, $59.60; 12-inch clay pipe, at $0.45 per linear foot, $11.25; labor on same, $3.25; foreman, $48.50; gravel, at $1.475 per cubie yard, $1,278.88; hauling from ears to road per contract, at $1.25 per cubie yard, $1,083.75; spreading gravel, at $0.12 per cubie yard, $88.35; rolling per square yard, at $0.015, $44.12; trimming shoulders and ditches, $51.75. SUNFLOWER CouNTy, INDIANOLA, Miss.—A gravel road leading from Indianola northerly toward Faisonia was begun on October 14, 1913, and completed November 19, 1913, with a loss of nine days on account of bad weather and one day due to other causes. The adjacent land is level, with a buckshot soil the entire length of the road. A section 1,790 feet long was graded for a width of 24 feet. The gravel surface is 16 feet in width for the entire length, giving an area of 3,182 square yards. The grade of the road was not materially changed, the average fill was but 0.8 foot, and the maximum 1.83 feet. It is estimated that 1,837 cubic yards of material were used in the embankment. The maximum haul was 40 feet. The material was loosened by plows and moved with drag scrapers. c The surfacing material was shipped in by rail a distance of 243 miles, and was the pit-run of gravel with good wearing qualities, but with varying bind- ing qualities, and the gravel required careful spreading. It was applied in one course for a depth of 104 inches at the center and 8 inches at the sides before compacting. The crown of the road was five-eighths inch to the foot. The equipment consisted of a 10-ton tractor roller and drag scrapers. The surfacing’ material, of which 997 cubic yards were used, was delivered on the ears at the contract price of $1.46 per cubic yard, making it cost $1,452.60 at the siding. Labor cost $1.50 per day, and teams, including driver, $3.50 per day, based on a 10-hour day. The total cost of the road to the community was $2,218, which is at the rate of $0.697 per square yard. The principal 8 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. items of cost were as follows: Embankment, at $0.181 per cubic. yard, $175.20; shaping the subgrade, at $0.005 per square yard, $19.50; gravel on siding, at $1.46 per cubic yard, $1,452.60; hauling and loading gravel, at $0.832 per cubic yard, $381; spreading gravel, at $0.085 per cubic yard, $34.95; rolling gravel, at $0.0026 per square yard, $8.25; rolling subgrade, $3.60; building shoulders, $14.25; equipping wagons, $1.05; general expenses, $111; rehandling gravel to save demurrage, $66.60. RANDOLPH CouNTy, ASHEBORO, N. C.—A gravel road leading from Asheboro north toward Randleman was begun November 14, 1913, and entirely com- pleted December 19, 1918, with two days lost on account of bad weather and one day from other causes. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil yellow clay from station 0+00 to 14+00; rock and yellow clay from station 14+00 to 17+00; yellow clay and some rock from station 174-00 to 24+00. A section 2,400 feet long was graded 25 feet wide in cuts and 22 feet in fills. The gravel surface is 2,400 feet long and 10 feet in width, making an area of 2,667 square yards. Three wooden box culverts were constructed, each 1 by 1.5 feet by 24 feet long. One 4-inch tile was used for road drainage be- tween stations 1+75 and 2+50. The maximum grade was reduced from 8 per cent to 5 per cent. The maximum cut was 4.8 feet, and the maximum fill was 2 feet. Nine hundred and seventy-six cubic yards of earth were excavated, with an average haul of 150 feet and a maximum haul of 400 feet. In addition, about 47 cubic yards of rock were removed. This material was loosened with picks, plows, and dynamite, hauled in wagons and slip scrapers, and spread with shovels and road grader. : The surfacing material was gravel containing about 6O per cent quartzite with top soil and clay. It was hauled about 1,000 feet and spread with stone forks. The gravel appears to have good binding and wearing qualities. The gravel was applied in one course to a depth of 6 inches before compacting, and the size of the particles ranged from dust to 3 inches. Four hundred and forty-four cubic yards of grave! were used, of which 290 cubic yards were purchased. The crown of the road, as finished, was three-fourths inch to the foot. The equipment consisted of a road grader and drag scrapers. Labor cost $1.25 to $1.50, and teams $2.50, based on a 10-hour day. The total cost of the road to the community was $520.15, which is at the rate of $0.195 per square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Excavation, at $0.258 per cubic yard, $264.24; shaping, at $0.0056 per square yard, $15; culvert materials, $5.50; labor on Same, $3.12; clearing and grubbing, $11.44; gravel, at $0.1034 per cubic yard, $30; loosening and loading, at $0.188 per cubie yard, $61.25; hauling from pit to road, at $0.1267 per cubie yard, $56.25; spreading gravel, at $0.0801 per cubic yard,. $13.88; shaping same, at $0.0075 per cubic yard, $20; trimming shoulders, $0.0062 per linear foot, $15; general expenses, $16.25; explosives, $8.72. KINNEY CoUNTY, BRACKETTVILLE, Trex.—Work was begun surfacing with gravel the Spofford road, extending south from Brackettville toward Spofford, on April 23, 1914, and completed May 6, 1914, with no time lost from any cause. The adjacent land is rolling and the soil is black lime, with a small amount of chalk throughout. The road was graded 36 feet wide in both cuts and fills and was 1,500 feet in length. There was practically no excavation or fill, the earth was loosened by plows drawn by tractor and hauled and spread by two graders ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 9 drawn by tractor. The maximum fill was 0.5 foot and the total excavation did not exceed 500 cubic yards. The maximum grade was 2 per cent. A surface of gravel was laid for 1,500 feet, 16 feet wide, making 2,667 square yards. The gravel was applied in one course with a loose thickness of 8 inches at the center and 4 inches at the sides, with a crown of 6 inches. The material was dumped between 2 by 4 inch planks on edge at sides and the shoulders were built up against the edge of gravel. All the gravel used for surfacing passed a 3-inch ring, had fair binding and wearing qualities, and was obtained from a pit at an average haul to the road of three-fourths of a mile. No water was used on the road during the rolling, which was done with a 6-ton horse roller. The gravel was hauled by farm wagons of 1 cubic yard capacity and Troy dump wagons of 34 cubic yards capacity hauled by a tractor. The equipment consisted of one 20-horsepower gasoline tractor, two extra heavy graders, slx 33-yard wagons, a 6-ton horse roller, two rooters, two road plows, four drag scrapers, and one steel road drag. Labor cost $1.20 per day of eight hours and teams $3 per day. The total cost of the road was $460.60, which is at the rate of $0.1727 per square yard, or $1,621.31 per mile. The principal items of cost were as follows: Plowing and grading, $0.328 per square yard of finished surface; rolling subgrade, $0.0017 per square yard; _ loosening and loading gravel, $0.3447 per cubic yard; hauling gravel, $0.8981 per cubic yard; spreading gravel, $0.0584 per cubic yard; rolling gravel, $0.0014 per square yard; trimming shoulders and ditches, $0.0056 per linear foot. CALDWELL CouNTY, LOCKHART, TEx. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending south from Lockhart toward Seawillow on the Gonzales road May 28, 1914, and completed on August 7, 1914, with a loss of four days on ac- count of bad weather. The adjacent land is rolling and the natural soil was as follows: Section 1—Station 0+00 to 7+00, black waxy; station 7+00 to 28-++00, gray adobe; station 28+00 to 40+00, clay gravel; station 40+00 to 49-++00, limestone, gravel, and black dirt. Section 2—Station 0+00 to 32+00, white adobe. The road was graded 36 feet wide in cuts and 20 feet wide in fills. The maximum cut was 1.5 feet and the maximum fill 2.5 feet. No change was made in maximum grades. Earth was loosened with plows, hauled by Fresno serapers, and shaped with a blade grader. A surface of gravel 14 feet wide was laid for 8,975 feet, making 13,961 square yards. The gravel was applied in two courses, the first course from 13 to 38 inches in size and applied 6 inches loose depth; the second course from sand to 14 inches, applied 34 inches loose depth. When completed the surfacing was 7% inches deep. The material used for surfacing was a pit sand-clay gravel with good binding and wearing qualities. The average haul for both gravel and water for sprinkling was 2,000 feet. The gravel was loaded with slip serapers through a loading trap into slat-bottom wagons and was spread with a grader. Drainage structures were built as follows: One 18-inch by 22-foot corrugated pipe culvert; six 24-inch by 22-foot corrugated pipe culverts; three 30-inch by 22-foot corrugated pipe culverts; and one 36-inch by 8-foot culvert. Twenty- nine barrels of cement and 31 cubic yards of gravel were used in head walls. The road equipment consisted of Fresno scrapers, road grader, slip scrapers, and slat-bottom wagons. Labor cost $2 per day and teams $4 per day of 8 hours. The total cost of the road was $2,676.69, or $0.1770 per square yard, and at the rate of $1,453.70 per mile. The principal items of cost were as follows: Culverts complete, $667.37; clearing and grubbing, $4.80 per acre; excavation, $0.1959 per square yard; shaping subgrade, $0.0027 per square yard; conerete end walls, $5.10 38°—Bull, 284d—15—2 10 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. per cubic yard; surfacing material in pit, $0.07 per cubic yard; loading gravel with slip scrapers through trap, $0.1571 per cubic yard; hauling gravel 2,000 feet and dumping, $0.2021 per cubic yard; spreading gravel with grader, $0.0181 per cubic yard; finishing, $0.0005 per square yard; general expenses, including superintendent, $108. CALDWELL County, LOCKHART, Tex. (No. 2).—A second gravel object-lesson road was built at Lockhart, Tex., on the League Line Road, extending southwest from Burdett Wells*’Road toward Luling. Work was begun on March 5, 1914, and completed July 7, 1914, with a loss of 46 days on account of bad weather and 9 days for other causes. The adjacent land is rolling, and the soil from station 0 to 56-+50 is “ black waxy ”’; station 56-+-50 to 65+00, chocolate loam; and from station 65+00 to 82++00, “ black waxy.’ The road was graded to a width of 36 feet in cuts and 20 feet in fills for a length of 9,680 feet. The maximum cut was 1.5 feet and the maximum fill was 7 feet. The maximum grade of 4 per cent was reduced to 3 per cent. Earth was loosened with plows, handled with Fresno scrapers, and shaped with a road machine. The sand-gravel surfacing was loaded into slat-bottom wagons through a loading trap and hauled an average distance of 3,000 feet to the road, where it was spread to a width of 14 feet, making a surfaced area of 15,058 square yards. Two courses were laid, as on the Gonzales Road previously described. Drainage structures were built as follows: Five 30-inch corrugated-iron pipe culverts 22 feet long, and two 86-inch corrugated-iron pipe culverts 22 feet long, all with concrete head walls containing a total of 26 barrels of cement and 26 cubic yards of pit-run gravel. The road equipment used consisted of a road grader, three Fresno scrapers, six slip scrapers, and slat-bottom wagons. Labor cost $2 per day and teams $4 per day. The total cost of the road was $3,426.52, or $0.2275 per square yard, which is at the rate of $1,868.46 per mile. The principal items of cost were: Clearing and grubbing, $16.72 per acre; ex- cavation, $0.2625 per square yard; shaping subgrade, $0.0035 per square yard; culverts, including material and labor, $452.87; surfacing material in pits, $0.05 per cubic yard; loading, $0.1573 per cubic yard; hauling, $0.2582 per cubie yard; spreading gravel, $9.0098 per cubic yard; shaping gravel, $0.0007; right of way, $117, which is at the rate of $125 per acre; general expenses, $91.50. CoMAL CouNtTy, NEw BRAUNFELS, TrEx.—Work was begun on a gravel road extending southeast from New Braunfels toward Seguin on March 138, 1914, and completed May 28, 1914, with a loss of 25 days on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is rolling, and the nature of the soil is “black waxy.” The road was graded 30 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 4,600 feet. A road machine was used to do all the grading, as it was light work. The maximum grade of 2.3 per cent was reduced to 1.275 per cent. The gravel surfacing was obtained from pits, hauled an average of three- fourths of a mile, and spread to a width of 16 feet, making a surfaced area of 8,177 square yards. One 12-inch and one 24-inch corrugated-metal pipe culvert 22 feet long were laid. The total cost of the work was $1,786.36, or $0.218 per square yard. The principal items of cost were clearing and grubbing, $3; grading, $226.75; gravel ready for use, including stripping pits and drilling, 2,272 cubie yards, at $0.179 per cubie yard, $752.15; explosives, caps, ete., $101.40; loading and hauling 2,272 cubic yards of gravel, at $0.247 per cubic yard, $562.50; spreading gravel, at $0.033 per cubic yard, $75.06; rolling, $5; shaping, $45; and culverts, $15.50. ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 11 UvALDE County, Uvarpr, Trx.—A gravel road leading from Uvalde eastward toward Sabinal was begun January 24, 1914, and abandoned February 6, 1914, for lack of funds. The adjacent land is rolling, with brown clay from station 0+00 to station 22+00; soft rock from station 22+00 to station 35+00; black clay loam from station 35+00 to station 57+00. A section 4,300 feet long was graded for a width of 32 feet in both cuts and fills. The gravel surface is 2,200 feet long and 16 feet wide, making «a surfaced area of 3,911 square yards. One timber bridge haying a 15-foot span was constructed at station 42-00. The maximum grade was reduced from 6.4 per cent to 4.2 per cent, the maxi- mum cut was 2.8 feet, and the maximum fill 2.9 feet. Approximately 652 cubic yards of gravel were used, spread 10 inches deep at the center, and feathered to 0 at the edges. The gravel was spread 16 feet wide and finished with a crown of 1 inch to the foot. Labor cost $1.50 and county teams $1 per 8-hour day. The total cost of the road to the community was $622.18, which is at the rate of $0.159 per square yard for the surfacing. The principal items of cost were as follows: Excava- tion, $94.25; loosening and loading gravel, $8.50; hauling gravel, $305.60; spreading gravel, $36; finishing, $16.25; bridge excavation, $33.75; lumber, $86.78; labor on bridges, $41. SAND-CLAY ROADS. DuxKeEs County, Tispury, MArtHAS VINEYARD, Mass.—During the month of August, 19138, a section of the Makonikey Road in the town of Tisbury, origi- nally very sandy, was surfaced 16 feet wide with natural sand clay or top soil to a uniform loose depth of 9 inches. This was compacted partly by the traffic and partly by means of a light stone roller and the drag. The length of the section was 320 feet, making 569 square yards, and the total cost was $75.38, which is at the rate of $0.132 per square yard. Two-wheeled dump wagons were used for hauling the top soil, and the average load was 24 cubic feet. The average haul was 2,850 feet. Another section of object-lesson road was constructed on the crossroad from Chilmark Post Office to Menemsha Creek by surfacing with a sand-clay mix- ture. After shaping the subgrade clay was hauled and spread to a width of 16 feet and a uniform loose depth of 8 inches, then covered with sand to a depth of 4 or 5 inches. The material was thoroughly cut up by plowing and disk harrowing, then by a spiked-tooth harrow followed by disking and shaping with a plank drag. The road was at this time in a loose and powdery con- dition, but mechanically well mixed. It rained shortly after the completion of this part of the work, and the section was then rolled and dragged, with excellent results. The total length of this section was 180 feet, making 320 square yards, and the total cost $89.75, which is at the rate of $0.280 per square yard. The price could be reduced one-third if a greater length were built, with a better organ- ized working force. ; DuxKES CouNtTy, GAy HEAD, Mass.—The improvement of the State Road, ex- tending west from Chilmark toward Gay Head Light, was begun on December 3, 1913, and completed on June 8, 1914, after a loss of 124 days on account of bad weather and 101 days, from January 11 to April 21, 1914, when work was discontinued during the winter. The adjacent land is rolling and composed of successive stretches of sandy loam, fine sand, clay, and a natural sand-clay mixture. 12 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A section 11,600 feet in length was graded 22 feet wide in both cuts and fills. The maximum cut was 8 feet and the maximum fill 4 feet. The road was sur- faced 16 feet wide with a sand-clay mixture, making 20,622 square yards. Where the subgrade was sand, clay was added, and vice versa. The surfacing was laid about 6 inches in depth. For several short stretches the natural soil was a sand-clay mixture and required no other surfacing material. The drainage structures were: Twelve vitrified-clay pipes, ranging in size from 8 to 15 inches in diameter and totaling 342 feet in length, and 1 blind stone drain 2 feet wide, 2 feet deep, and 100 feet in length. The total cost of the work was $3,506. Labor cost $2 per day and teams $5 per day of 9 hours. The principal items of cost were: Excavation (earth), 2,651 cubic yards at $0.45 per cubic yard, $1,193.28; excavation (rock), 22 cubic yards at $1.25 per cubic yard, $27.55; trimming shoulders and ditches, $69.23; and superintendence, $90—making a total cost of grading of $1,380.06. Stripping for sand, $9.22; stripping for clay, $31.64; loading and hauling sand, 1,700 cubic yards at $0.223 per cubic yard, $378.89; loading and hauling clay, 2,300 cubic yards at $0.844 per cubic yard, $791.76; spreading sand and clay, 24,3850 square yards at $0.003 per square yard, $73.70; mixing 20,622 square yards of sand and clay at $0.010 per square yard, $199.52; shaping and crown- ing 20,622 square yards at $0.004 per square yard, $90.57; superintendence, $118.46; and 1,050 cubic yards of clay at $0.08 per cubic yard, $84—making a total cost of surfacing $1,777.26, or $0.090 per square yard. Miscellaneous labor cost $83.46; excavation for pipe culverts, $34.72; hauling materials, $5.08; placing pipe and backfilling, $24.02; 32 linear feet of 15-inch vitrified-clay pipe at $1 per foot, $32; 234 linear feet of 12-inch vitrified-clay pipe at $0.60 per foot, $140.40; 28 linear feet of 10-inch vitrified-clay pipe at $0.40 per foot, $11.20; and 48 linear feet of S-inch vitrified-clay pipe at $0.80 per foot, $14.40; cement, $340—making a total of $265.22 for 342 linear feet of vitrified-clay pipe in place, or $0.775 per linear foot. NoRTHAMPTON COUNTY, JACKSON, N. C.—Work was started on the Church Street Extension Road, which leads north from Jackson toward Seaboard, on September 4, 1913, and was completed on November 3, 1918. Seven days were lost on account of bad weather and one day from other causes. The weather and labor conditions added materially to the cost of the work. The land ad- jacent to the road is comparatively level and the soil is yellow clay mixed with fine sand. The improvement consisted in grading and shaping the existing road and surfacing it with a sand-clay mixture that contained about 25 per cent of gravel. The soil was loosened with plows and picks, hauled in drag scrapers, and spread by the scrapers and grader. The maximum cut was 1.1 feet and the maximum fill 1.8 feet. The maximum grade was reduced from 3.3 to 1.7 per cent. One corrugated-iron pipe, 24 inches in diameter and 26 feet long, was laid, and two corrugated-iron pipes were laid at driveways, both 20 feet long and 12 and 15 inches,- respectively, in diameter. Head walls of concrete were placed at the ends of the largest pipe. Surfacing material was hauled about 1 mile and consisted of about 50 per cent sand, 25 per cent clay, and 25 per cent gravel. It was hauled in dump wagons and spread by hand labor and by the road drag. When compacted the material was 7 inches at the center and 4 inches at the sides, with a width of 14 feet surfaced. The crown of the road was four-sevenths inch to the foot. The road was graded to a length of 2,500 feet, with a width of 30 feet in both euts and fills, and surfaced for 2,400 feet to an average width of 14 feet, mak- i <0 ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 13 ing the surfaced area 3,733 square yards. Harth to the amount of 680 cubic yards was moved in excavation and 890 cubic yards of surfacing material was used. The equipment consisted of one reversible road grader, three Twentieth Century road drags, one dump wagon, seven drag scrapers, one turning plow, one hardpan plow, one 34-ton horse roller. Labor cost $1.25 per 10-hour day. The total cost of the road to the community was $1,193.22, which is at the rate of $0.82 per square yard. The principal items of cost were: Excavation, 680 cubic yards, at $0.80 per cubic yard, $205.18; shaping subgrade, at $0.002 per square yard, $10; culvert pipe delivered, at $1.69 per linear foot, $44; labor on the same, $0.44 per linear foot, $9.10; drain pipe at driveways, $0.94 per linear foot, $37.75; labor on the same, $0.20 per linear foot, $8.10; labor on end walls, $1.71; excavation on end walls, $10.80; surfacing material, 890 cubic yards, at $0.005 per cubic yard, $4.45; loading the same, $0.26 per cubic yard, $235.25; hauling the same, $0.58 per cubic yard, $517.64; spreading the same, $0.077 per cubie yard, $68.25; rolling the same, $1.97; dragging road, $0.002 per square yard, $6.33; stripping pit, $25.90; cement, $3.09 per barrel, $4.63; sand for concrete, $1.67 per cubic: yard, $0.72; gravel for concrete, $1.67 per cubie yard, $1.44. BuRKE CouNty, Moreanton, N. C.—Work was begun on a sand-clay road leading from Morganton to Lenoir on May 19, 1918, and completed on July 26, 1918, with a loss of one day on account of bad weather and one day from other causes. The adjacent land is hilly and the soil is red clay from station 0+00 to 5+50; a red micaceous clay from station 5+50 to 15+50; a red clay from station 15-+50 to 22+00; a micaceous clay from station 22+00 to 26+00; a gray top soil over red clay from station 26+00 to 42+00; and micaceous clay from station 42+00 to 57+00. A total length of 5,700 feet was graded 25 feet wide in cuts and 22.5 feet wide in fills. Earth was excavated to the amount of 8,960 cubic yards, with an average haul of 100 feet and a maximum haul of 700 feet. In addition, about 15 cubic yards of rock were removed. The road was surfaced 20 feet wide for 1,400 feet, making 3,111 square yards. On the graded road was placed 9 inches of sand at the center and 6 inches at the sides, and over this a course of clay 3 inches thick at the center and 2 inches thick at the sides was spread. The two materials were then mixed by means of a disk harrow. Sixteen pipe culverts, varying in size from 12 to 24 inches, were constructed, and the ends protected with masonry head walls. The equipment consisted of a road grader, four wheel scrapers, seven slip . scrapers, one rooter plow, one road plow, and one disk harrow. The total cost of the road was $1,555.95, including culverts, or at the rate of $0.0991 per square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Excavation, at $0.0879 per cubie yard, $787.90; shaping, at $0.0069 per square yard, $87; culvert pipes, $2238.25; labor on the same, $73.80; loading sand, $0.021 per eubic yard, $13.80; hauling sand, $0.084 per cubic yard, $54.37; loading clay, $0.021 per cubic yard, $4.50; hauling clay, $0.121 per cubic yard, $26.12; spreading, mixing, and finishing, $28.01; clearing and grubbing, $96.80; moving fence, $15.90; sidehill ditches, $9.50; general expenses, $135. Labor cost is based on $1, and teams at $2.50 per day of 10 hours. A bond issue of $50,000 is available to continue this work. EDGECOMBE CouNTY, TaRBoro, N. C.—Work was begun on a sand-clay road extending from Tarboro southward toward Conetoe on October 21, 1913, and completed December 20, 1913. The adjacent land is level, and the natural 14 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. soil from station 24+54 to 50+00, sandy with a clay subsoil; 50+00 to 66+00, black sand; 66-++00 to 156+54, sand. Contract No. 2, for bridges and culverts on sections 1 and 8, was let at the following unit prices: Gonerete; alee. per TCU VAL = oe ee pee eee CEA Concreter lis OF Per =. ae 1.16 Concrete pipe, 12-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only__-___---_~_ 5a) Concrete pipe, 18-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only_____-_______ eeeeAOD) Woods pilevdriven below cut-off, per foot=2—2_-___ ==. see 70 VNOOdeMMilerdrventabove cut-ot aper Toot=2=2 =) ae eee oe) Concretewliy2 42 per cubic yarde! 2s. ee ee eee 13. 00 Rciniorcingmsteel, per Pound Soest. eee Eee . 05 iimibersperthnousand feet board medsureles=. >) Eee 40. 00 LrOMMMMStRUChIGES, Per DOUnds= sta 205 Highways Nos. 4 and 10 consist of 24 miles of 15-foot gravel road 6 inches thick; 74 miles of 18-foot, surfaced with 9 feet of gravel 6 inches thick, with a maximum haul of 9 miles; and 6 miles of 18-foot road with 9-foot shell, 6 inches thick in the center. The bridges and culverts on this road are all concrete. The following unit prices obtained: @learincvand erubbinge, completes. ee $50. 00 MEKCAvaAblOn per CUbIC yard. es ee ee eee , 22, LH mibini__ 1. 00 1. 00 Concrete pipe, 12-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only__ 155) Oba Concrete pipe, 18-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only__ a (05) 115 C@oncretesh 22:4; per cubie yard22- {2 tees eee es 11. 00 41. 50 Reinforcing Steels: per Mo wmdass shee ces) TN ee ee ee . 04 . 04 Gravel road pers square yard ees ts Sees ht ea DD BENNINGTON COUNTY, VT. BITUMINOUS CONCRETE. BENNINGTON, Vt.—Work was begun on a bituminous concrete road extending east from Opera Hall toward Woodford on the main street on August 18, 1913, and completed on September 1, 1913. One day was lost on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is level. The surfacing was placed on an old macadam road, which was torn up, reshaped, and rolled. The average haul from the siding to the road was 1 mile. The bituminous concrete was spread cold by stone hooks and rakes over an area of 4,851 square yards. This was laid in two courses, respectively 34 inches and one-half inch in depth. The total cost of the work was $3,786.90, which is at the rate of $0.78 per square yard. MACADAM WITH BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENT. BENNINGTON, Vr.—Work was begun en bituminous surface treatment of macadam road extending south from Bennington Center toward Pownal, on the Everett Road, on May 5, 1913, and completed on September 20, 1913, with a loss of 45 days from various causes. ‘The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soi! is clay with one section of ledge. ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 27 The road was graded 19 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,980 feet through the entire length for a width of 14 feet, or an area of 3,080 square yards. This was surfaced as follows: Hight inches of crusher-run field stone was laid in one course and rolled. Owing to a deficiency of binder in the erusher-run stone, sand was added; this was coated by hand sprinkler with about one-third gallon to the square yard of bituminous material and again covered with sand. One 4 by 3 foot stone culvert 22 feet long was laid. The funds were raised one-half by private subscription and one-half by the State. The total cost of the work was $2,551.45, or $0.829 per square yard. MACADAM ROAD. ARLINGTON, Vt.—Work was begun on a macadam road extending west from Hast Arlington toward the Arlington Depot on the Hast Road on August 4, 1918, and completed on October 29, 1918. Fifteen days were lost from various causes. The adjacent land is Swampy on the south and hilly on the north, with a natural soil of clay and loam. The road was graded 22 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 2,004 feet. The maximum cut was 0.75 foot, the maximum fill 2 feet, and the Maximum grade on the old road of 4 per cent was reduced to 3 per cent on the new road. A macadam surface 18 feet wide, making an area of 4,008 square yards, was laid with a first course of 9 inches of crushed local stone and a depth of 3 inches loose gravel surface. No roller was used. One thousand six hundred feet of side drain, an equal amount on either side, was constructed, using screened gravel and tailings from the crusher. The total cost of the work was $2,608.01, or $0.650 per square yard. STamMForD, VT.—Work was begun on a macadam section of the Village Road extending east from Stamford toward Readsboro on June 9, 1913, and com- pleted on October 25, 19138, with 72 days’ loss of time from yarious causes. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil sandy. The road was graded 21 feet wide in both cuts and fills for 1,500 feet. The maximum cut was 1 foot and the maximum fill 2 feet. The maximum grade of 8 per cent was reduced to 2 per cent. A surface of unrolled macadam was laid for 1,500 feet, 14 feet wide, making 2,838 square yards. Crushed field stone was used as a surfacing material, and this was laid loose 6 inches thick and then covered with a coating of pit gravel. Three 12-inch and one 14-inch metal pipe culverts were placed at a eost of $113.94. : The total cost of the road, exclusive of drainage structures, was $801.98, which is at the rate of $0.344 per square yard, or $2,822.97 per mile. GRAVEL ROADS. ARLINGTON, VT. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending south from Arlington toward Shaftsbury on the south road on July 7, 1913, and com- pleted on September 20, 1913, with 24 days lost from various causes. The adjacent land is swampy on the east, mountainous on the west, and the natural soil is sandy and saturated by underground springs feeding into the lowlands. This ground is unstable and subject to frost action. The road was graded 21 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 4,150 feet. This was then surfaced 16 feet wide, making an area of 7,378 - Square yards, with 8 inches of gravel of good quality hauled 1,000 feet. 28 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The total cost of the work was $728.71, or $0.099 per square yard. The principal items of cost were: Hxcavation, 1,000 cubic yards of earth and 10 yards of rock, $307.90; surfacing, $385.98; miscellaneous, $34.83. ARLINGTON, Vt. (No. 2).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending north from West Arlington toward Sandgate on September 24, 1913, and completed on November 1, 1918, with 10 days lost from various causes. The adjacent land is swampy on the east, mountainous on the west, and the natural soil is saturated clay with some disintegrated rock. : The road was graded 18 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,039 feet. This was surfaced 14 feet wide for a distance of 742 feet, making an area of 1,154 square yards. The gravel, which was laid 8 inches in depth, was hauled 1,000 feet. : One 18-inch concrete pipe culvert was laid and one 8 by 4 foot stone culvert extended. The total cost of the work was $410.77. ARLINGTON, VT. (No. 38).—Work was begun on a gravel section extending west from West Village toward New York on the west road on November 1, 1913, and completed on November 26, 1918. Nine days were lost from various causes. The adjacent land is swampy on the south, mountainous on the north, and the natural soil is clay. The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 495 feet. A width of 20 feet, or a total area of 1,100 square yards, was surfaced with 8 inches of gravel, hauled 1,000 feet. One 14 by 13 foot culvert 24 feet long was rebuilt. The total cost of the work was $289.31, or $0.263 per square yard. ARLINGTON, VT. (No. 4).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending north from Arlington toward Sunderland on October 30, 1918, and completed on November 12, 1918, with a loss of five days for various causes. The adjacent land is low and the natural soil is loam. The road was graded 26 feet wide in fills for a distance of 495 feet, with a maximum fill of 3 feet. This was surfaced 22 feet wide the whole length, making an area of 1,210 square yards. The gravel was hauled an average dis- tance of 400 feet and laid to a depth of 8 inches. The bowlders and cobble- stones from the pit were used for foundation. The total cost of the work was $201.95, or $0.167 per square yard. BENNINGTON, Vr. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel section extending north from Bennington Village toward North Bennington on the Robinson Road on April 28, 1918, and completed November 29, 19138, with 118 days lost from various causes. The adjacent land is low and level andthe natural soil is clay and loam. The road was graded 22 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,318 feet. The entire length for a width of 14 feet, or an area of 2,050 square yards, was surfaced with pit gravel 8 inches thick, hauled 14 miles. This work was entirely in fill with a maximum of 2.5 feet, and most of the material was taken from a choked channel. Bowlders and cobbles were used for a foundation. The material was all hauled in slat-bottom wagons. One 16-inch metal culvert was built, at a cost of $24. The total cost of the work was $2,648.17, or $1.29 per square yard. ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 29 BENNINGTON, VT. (No. 2).—Work was begun on a gravel section extending north from Bennington toward Shaftsbury on the Harwood Hill Road on Sep- tember 16, 1912, and completed on October 1, 1918, with a loss of 40 days because of bad weather. In addition work was shut down for the winter, from December 14, 1912, to April 10, 19138. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is clay and rock. The road was graded 22 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 3,680 feet. The maximum cut was 6 feet, the maximum fill 6 feet, and the maximum grade of 15 per cent was reduced to a maximum of 8 per cent. This work was done by contract under specifications prepared by the Office of Public Roads and approved by the State highway department. The road was surfaced 8 inches deep and 14 feet wide throughout its entire length, making an area of 5,724 square yards. The gravel was hauled 2 miles. .—Work was begun August 3, 1918, on a gravel road hecinning one-half mile north of Wallingford in Marsh Woods and extending north toward Rutland. {ft was completed on August 20, 1918. The adjacent land is rolling and the soil is clay loam. The road was graded £26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 549 fect. The maximum fill was 2 feet and the maximum ¢e-7de of 2 per cent on the old road was reduced to 1 per cent oa the new road. A telford base was laid of stone, which was hauled 2 miles, and this was surfaced with bank gravel which was hauled 24 miles. The width of surfacing was 21 feet, making an area of 1,281 square yards. ; One 3 by 38 foot masonry culvert was built and one 2 by 8 foot culvert was iengthened. : The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $741.80, or §$0.5S80 per square yard. WALLINGFORD, VT. (No. 3).—Work was begun August 28, 1918, on a gravel sec- tion 1 mile north of South Wallingford on the Creek Road. It was completed on September 20, 1913, with a delay of two dsys because of rain. The adjacent Jand is hill) and the natural soil is partly sand and partly clay leam. The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,500 feet. The maximum cut was 2.8 feet, the maximum fill 2.5 feet, and the maxi- mum grade of 8 per cent ov the old road was reduced to 6 per cent on the new road. This work was all rather heavy. The road was surfaced 21 feet wide, mining an area of 3,500 square yards. ] One 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was laid. The total cost of the work, iucluding culvert, was $855.05, or $0.244 per square yard. WALLINGFORD, Vr. (No. 4).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending west from Wallingford toward Tinmouth on September 22, 1913. It was com- pleted on October 25, 19138, with a loss of two days on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is sand and loam. The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for 1,0S9 feet. The maximum cut was 3 feet, the maximum fill 3 feet, and the maximum grade of ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1918—DEC. 31, 1914. 49 9 per cent was reduced to 6 per cent A short section of hemlock crib was built to hold the embankment. Bank gravel was used for surfacing and was placed 21 feet wide, or a total of 2,541 square yards. One 24-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was laid. The total cost of the work, including culvert, was $591.85, or $0.233 per square yard. WALLINGFORD, VT. (No. 5).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending west from Wallingford toward Tinmouth on October 26, 1918, and completed on November 5, 1913. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is clay. The road was graded 25 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 660 feet. The maximum cut was 1 foot, the maximum fill 1.8 feet, and the maxi- mum grade was reduced from 3 to 2 per cent. n im - @ |£&s| «8, | & | gaa [883] 8 S Do bore cates) = set iS6.0)| te | ae |S O a a = P| | War einiasessseeee 28.1 | 28.1 |$1,156.89 |$2,010.00 |$1, 376.52 2508285 ON eee ase SSE do.-....-.-.-.| 30.0 | 30.0 | 1,428.00 | 1,050.00 3625058 |-eeL ee | sates 30.0 i Ree Gos 2 eeses4 e031 2950 300.00 575.00 340.50 230% eee 27.0 North Carolina. -| 35.0 | 35.0 | 8,368.58 | 2,100.00 975. 88 AMOR SOS OP Naeasteeee Soe do..........| 23.0 | 23.0 | 7,398.19 | 2,000.00 900.57 TOM 2350))|Baseeeee pas). = do...:......| 41.0 | 41.0 | 5,457.57 | 3,000.00 844.37 GSOR 413 Ol | eee eee doo do...-.-...-| 33.0 | 17.0 | 1,068.59 | 1,500.00 313.90 2.0 | 15.0 115.0 Beet. < GOs. 2. 255451080) 1050) |* 2; 400.00 500. 00 66. 65 AN Oa 10.0 North Carolina, | 21.0 | 18.0 | 1,375.00 | 1,600.00 983.34 ALAC Beh eae 18.0 north half. North Carolina, | 12.1 | 12.1 |--........ (2) 136000) e227 HON TE ieschercaet south half. North Carolina. .| 26.2] 26.2 | 2,046.95 | 1,600.00 2005008 16108 eteee. 26. 2 Bee. COE eS see e254 2087; 267.00 | 1,655.00 746. 75 SNOB e2ON, |Peeeecine 52358 do: 3322 leg LE Gi eee eee se echo c) oe | epee s ome le Gulesceecets 2a SOM med eotl| Ba sei|[ BY ae soca Goctesd LU et O00) AGBTE50 NI NZONO so 2hou|eomercie le South Carolin ges yg nie ese Sey ek ey Ra |e RR | tee eran ee aap ea | Peon res < COR dees oou| ChE) leer) lmsyoo porate babs ZANIBUL) ||saocscosooll O25 tl Ilecacod sacaooca SGuae dosa.e ee BYSIY 0) 1S cee | ei bret eee Leper | Oe aye a oe eal ae enon toca dO SoS S 5a O15e3 se eee 65000} SE OLO%50) | Saeee |eeeers 15.3 ates pe eee: 31.6 | 29.0 724.46 | 1,040.00 626.16 | 3.0] 29.0 110.5 “sae 0 Ko Papen RPE Uitte ten (RL ar Ol ee. Sa Aamo deel baa cote SOSHe GO ees AOR 2 neo Soon serene lol 850800 691.50 |i... -}| 25.2 13.0 Georgia. 3)2 880) nee CECEC()N SEE | eee | URS ee inert ads Gan ag ee = Cheeses Be SE seus Pst bslp ale CepysSts) | ERT ONWN Seeceaseoel CbO lhacaad|laoscodec Score COeeeescossc er) wee 2h OeG G0) |) OLS OO) eee eo IPL Neo seellosodboce aoe COE oe sae | P2858i | 288i 65230500) ) le S00 S00) per emma nee On| Meee merece eee. GOs ene ee he SL 2AG Hele 6n een 34e4() OOK pe sscorocadh IPA Kees dlccocedac ae GOS Seo. see LOR 4a ON 4 peers SOOKOOR Be saeeee | Pec eee eens | eer Bp Kee Bimoasonaal| 0) oe Sala ees Li) O02 sescosase|| PhO) Ibe soeclecascco- pone CO Recspa coor!) Wishes || TERESI alee Gi) | TEM O0) | eaessonssellooasaailessooellseconesd ee 2 (6 opens Iii io || seein! [eee aren nico mm ein ||) Pee UE len Pee lao ooclissedosos Pee Co eeeseoal| 2060) || EC) ERO) Hal OOOO) l-=sssssscdll* Pi Noesaccieocecass chem Ge aeaceaod|| Ze 1 |) Ans AN9N60)| LS O00%00)| Beers eu Oso meena eee scoke (6 Co eta Pla) seule Ca) (Yn anemia eee Se A Ie be sae |S ae Se = dOvEees ES A ree |e ae a) I en ere Uy ye ee (Pee dA eee OSS esis. GO erase aoe OSOn | eee OSLO! ects Se isthn rate nis eee ee en 20h | Bee ele see erste Sceee GOs eee 5 2 E 28585 | 28h Sale 98 227560) ele 250 800% meee ee eeseon eee eee ee DOC na2 ~ =~. Pel] RB RBH EE ree pe reyes | ieien eee | BNR gegen | estate eON | apres sashes GO sess s-eis| PL GN45 | GHA RR 20875 95000} Ree eee ON Syl lien aeete emer ere 5 COB BRE AO BOGE ODE OE 840.5 |681.8 |75, 785.95 |36,075.00 10,042.17 |153.7 |262.9 139.5 1 Both patrol and squads. 2 As needed. The work of maintenance is being done by patrolmen and gangs. Patrolmen have sections that vary in length from 6 to 29 miles. The average in the northern section is 12.9 miles, and in the central sec- tion 10.8 miles. funds were not available to provide any more men. The usual maintenance work on earth and sand-clay roads includes: (a) Dragging persistently at every available opportunity ; (6) Using the grading machine when necessary 5 (c) Filling depressions; (d) Adding sand or clay as required ; (¢) Removing all trash, tin cans, nails, old iron, bottles, etc., that accumulate in somewhat astonishing quantities; (7) Replacing broken floor boards in culverts and bridges; (7g) Keeping culverts open; (A) Clearing ditches and shoulders; Some of these patrol sections are too long, but ee 62 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (2) Cutting grass and weeds; (7) Trimming brush and trees at curves; (4) Harrowing and dragging rough or irregular sections; (4) Painting guard rails and culvert heads; and (m) Posting roads. Records are being kept of locality of expenditures, so far as pos- sible, by using the county financial records supplemented by private notes and the report cards of the patrolmen. A statement of the cost per mile of work on each patrol section will be possible in a later report, but at the present time only one or two counties have spent more than 55 per cent of the allotted funds. The condition of the road under maintenance has been good dur- ing the entire period up to December 23. At about that time the range of temperature in North Carolina and Virginia became such as to cause alternate freezing and thawing, and heavy rains caused swollen streams throughout the entire territory. These conditions at once showed the weak places in the roads. Drainage is prevalently insufficient. This is, of course, largely a structural defect that ordinary maintenance can not cure. Especially has the need of subdrainage been demonstrated. This is almost invariably neglected in the region traversed by this road. In many sections it has become apparent that the common earth road is not adequate to accommodate the prevailing traffic. During the best weather and during ordinary summer rains no trouble de- velops, but average protracted rains cause the roads to break up faster and deeper than maintenance can repair them under the con- tinuous stream of traffic. Since many of the roads along the route were subjects, not for maintenance, but for actual construction, it was necessary, in the preliminary estimates, to include the cost of minimum improve- ments in all cases where such work was necessary in order to get the roads ready for maintenance. This has led to a great deal of new construction and much reconstruction and repair in each State along the line. The nature of this work has ranged all the way from minor bridge and culvert repairs to the expenditure of bond issues on systematic new construction. The table shows the amounts expended in the various counties in construction under the general supervision of the Government engineers detailed to the project. One assistant has been almost constantly in the northern section giv- ing undivided attention to this work. It is not necessary to itemize the various improvements made, further than that they include all lines of highway work except hard surfacing. Bridges have been relocated and rebuilt or renewed; new roads laid out and graded; earth roads have been surfaced with sand-clay or topsoil; grade crossings have been eliminated by overpasses, underpasses, or re- ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 63° Jocations; roads have been straightened and widened; culverts have been located, built, and enlarged. The total amount expended in such work up to December, 1914, was $75,785.95, and about $125,000 was available in the fall for continued work. The local financial conditions resulting from the state of the cotton market during the autumn may considerably reduce this figure before it is spent. V. SUPERVISION OF MAINTENANCE IN ALEXANDRIA COUNTY, VA., UNDER EXIST- ING AGREEMENT, AND ON THE UNITED STATES EXPERIMENTAL ROADS IN MONTGOMERY COUNTY, MD. The maintenance of the experimental roads in Montgomery County, Md., is reported in detail in Department Bulletin No. 257. A system of columnar accounts was devised and used to control costs on each of the several experimental sections. The purpose of this work is to demonstrate comparative costs of maintenance on a large variety of surface treatments. The maintenance of earth roads in Alexandria County, Va., for the purpose of obtaining cost data was started under the Division of Construction on December 30, 1911, and was transferred to this division in February, 1914. Under the present memorandum of agreement it will be continued until June 30, 1915. There have been some changes in the route, and for purposes of better distributing the costs and disclosing any differences that might exist in the gen- eral demands of traffic on the different parts of the road it was divided into the following sections: Miles. 1. Mount Vernon Road from Hume Station, on the Washington-Virginia Railway, to Nauck over the Old Factory Road___----______________ 1,7 2. Seminary road from county line to Columbia Pike over the Glebe Road_ 3.15 §. Hatfield or Fort Myers Road from Hatfield Station, on the Falls Church electric line, to Arlington post office, on the Columbia Turnpike______ yal 4. Balston Road from Columbia Turnpike northward___________________ ~ iL PT) eeAN ae eee ha SA eS NN 2 a gE 6. 47 Table II shows the entire cost of the work up to January 1, 1915. TABLE II.—Cost of maintenance work on 6.5 miles of earth and gravel road in Alexandria County, Va. Wolk Gal awerten wore onl necreallltracct : ork on| Work on| Work on| neous rave Sections. surface. | slopes. | ditches. and used. Total general. Cu. yd. Loe Se SoC Ce RES SAS ERIE Cente ete 2 uaa $76. 91 $34. 25 $39. 25 $90.07 19.5 $240. 48 re ee noe eed eee Soke iawiee we 192. 04 74. 25 219. 75 256. 26 45.75 742.30 Bie = - en DO SIGs SEES Se a a een ee ae 55.00 21.75 16. 25 53.51 12.00 146.51 Oh dis dlsie SS eee a EES ot ep See an 66.05 14. 25 26.75 67.16 oto) 174. 21 Total for July 1, 1913, to Dec. 31, 1914. 390.00| 144.50 302.00] 467.00|.......... 1,303.50 Fiscal Wieiie I) PS eae ates oeSanesasccsercerts 153. 44 61.78 169. 88 49. SOR S8- 55. 434.99 mAScaleyear 1O13 sae Ne eR NEES eee ee ec 283. 68 89. 28 198.00 W850 4a eee eee 756. 00 Motalitoidatese: peesececee cee ease: 827.12 295. 56 669. 88 UUIGE |sotacesese 2, 494. 49 64 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A total of 922.66 miles has been dragged once at a total cost, in- cluded in the surfacing charges, of $180.01, which is at the rate of 19.5 cents per mile dragged. In dragging, the average operation has been three and one-half trips over the section. The cost of maintenance per mile has been $141.46 on section 1; $235.33 on section 2; $131.99 on section 3; $341.59 on section 4, or a weighted average of $201.47 per mile for the whole road. During the entire year 1914 these roads continued to improve in cross section and condition. Section 2 was ditched over nearly its entire length and much ditching was done along parts of other sec- tions. The county grading machine was borrowed and operated at Government expense for four days in the early fall. Up to Decem- ber 23, 1914, the time of last inspection, the roads remained in ex- cellent condition and at that time were much better than in May and June. This experimental work serves to secure cost of dragging, to deter- mine the cost of maintenance that fully meets the wear of traffic on earth and cheap gravel roads, and to demonstrate that earth roads can actually be improved by a regular system of maintenance. VI. SUPERVISION OF MAINTENANCE ON SOME TYPICAL ROAD IN COUNTIES THAT ; HAVE RECENTLY CONSTRUCTED A SYSTEM OF HIGHWAYS. This project is to encourage and promote systematic, intelligent, effective maintenance methods and to assist in devising a scheme for maintenance administration in the county. Owing to the wide dis- tribution of the available roads, this project can not be advanced until a larger organization is developed. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY Vv Contribution from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. October 22, 1915 THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST: ITS COM- POSITION, GROWTH, AND MANAGEMENT. By E. H. Froruinenam, Forest Examiner. CONTENTS. Page. Page. NemnGrO eT CHIOT ebsites clarence se core » Series aele ata 1 | Economic importance—Continued. The northern hardwood forest..............--- 2 Abra ral CUG Eee cava eee ee ee eae EN 28 Topography and climate................-- 3 IPTeSeNLSUpD Ly ape ee eee eee Cae eee 3l COmpOSIPlONbee ss \ = croc aos a eens es 6 Value of standing-timber......-.....----.- 31 IOS Soe eS OSHS Oe OAS eee eee aU 162), SMiamaie em emit. Cae See a eee OEE ase eh ene 33 Grobler ek ata nic Sc Se tiome Se siete emmeidls 17 Place of northern hardwoods in forest man- Deconmeoronit ieee. weil) at ok 20 AG OMeN bse ees Rae lara Aa ae 33 HICOHOMICHMPOrtATlCOs Aes ee). sce acs eee coe 27 | Species mentioned in this bulletin.........._.. 45 Gomer alr itilitiygyes ois). cals cic: ses deeteyas e P(e e's OOS 0 KO b-catnay, s cer nsoaa a Merl eee ec ee ee OOD 47 INTRODUCTION. The great hardwood forests of eastern North America separate naturally into two divisions—northern and southern—the one rela- tively simple, the other varied and rich i composition. What dis- tinguishes the northern from the southern hardwood forest is the presence of yellow birch, white pine, and hemlock and the absence of yellow poplar, red gum, sycamore, and many other southern species. The geographical extent of the northern hardwood forest, in fact, practically coincides with the range of yellow birch (fig. 1, p. 2). It centers about the region in which the white pine lumbering industry was developed. Early logging in the northern hardwood forests took chiefly the white pine, little hardwood timber being felled except in clearing for settlement. As time went on and demands increased, the cullings extended to spruce, hemlock, and even the more valuable hardwoods. The poorest of the species are now so valuable that stands are often cut clean, and even the tops, branches, and larger undergrowth utilized. There are many reasons why the consumption of hardwoods may be expected to decrease, yet the qualities of these slow-growing trees are so obvious and their woods are so admirably adapted to such a variety of uses that the problem of perpetuating at least a reasonable supply is one of public concern. 637°—Bull. 285—15—1 2 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is the aim of this bulletin to outline the extent, general charac- teristics, and economic importance of the northern hardwood forest; to describe briefly the silvicultural features of the prmcipalspecies; and to point out the methods of managing hardwood stands which appear — best calculated to furnish a continuous supply of these useful woods. There are also given, in the Appendix, a series of volume tables for northern hardwoods for use in estimating the quantity of standing timber. la 4 SOUTH DAka Ink a LEGEND LWHITE PINE 2YELLOW BIRCH 3BEECH 4.BASSWOOD SSUGAR MAPLE 6WHITE ELM 7ZYELLOW POPLAR 8.CUCUMBER Fic. 1.—Distribution of the northern hardwoods. (The heavy shading represents the region in which the northern hardwoods characterize large areas of forest. The light shading indicates the region of transition from the typical northern to the southern hardwood forest. _The numbered lines are the ranges of the species named in the legend. The broken lines are the range limits of two southern hardwoods whose presence largely determines the southward extension of the northern forest. Pre- pared by Wm. H. Lamb.) THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. The hardwood forest which is considered in this bulletin occupies the fresh, well-drained, fertile soils of the northern pine region. Its more characteristic hardwoods are sugar maple! and yellow birch. 1 The closely related black maple is not distinguished from sugar maple in this bulletin. Both are commonly referred to as “hard” or “rock” maple. ae THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 3) The term ‘‘northern hardwoods” will be used for all stands in this region in which one (or more) of the characteristic species listed on page 7 predominates; for though the type possesses a general uni- formity of composition sufficient to distinguish it from other impor- tant northern forest types, it varies greatly in different regions. There are two hardwood forest types that are not considered in the bulletin, although the species which belong to them are often found scattered through the northern hardwood forests. These are the type of the dry sandy plains, in which the chief hardwoods are oaks of various kinds, mixed with hickories and in the east with chestnut, and the type of the swampy places, mm which the charac- teristic hardwoods are black ash, red and silver maples, willows, and alders. The swamp type is not of great extent or importance, and the other type is so much more characteristic of the South that it might be considered only a northern extension of a southern type. GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT. The northern hardwood forest (fig. 1) is found in greater or less abundance within the drainage systems of the St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes, and the upper Mississippi, as far south as southern Minnesota; throughout northern New England, and southward along the northern and southern Appalachian Mountain ranges to extreme northern Georgia. In the North it merges into the spruce and fir and the aspen and birch forests of Canada. Along its southern and lower altitudinal borders it shades into the great “central hardwoods”’ forest of the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys. In the West it gradually gives place to the prairie of the Great Plains region. On the uplands the ‘“‘oak openings” supplant it in large measure, until these, too, give way to the prairie. Just how large an area is occupied by northern hardwoods is difficult to estimate. It probably amounts to over 50,000,000 acres, nearly half of which is in the Lake States. The decrease in the total forest area of the Lake States and the north- east—once practically equal to the entire land area—to 60 per cent in New England, 43 per cent in Michigan and Wisconsin, and 35 per cent in New York and Pennsylvania,’ has undoubtedly been greatest in the softwood forest. TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. Topographically the northern hardwood region separates into two very distinct parts—the eastern mountain ranges and the rolling, glaciated land about the Great Lakes. The eastern mountain ranges extend from southern Canada south- west to northern Alabama and Georgia. The climatic conditions suitable for the best growth of the northern hardwoods prevail at minimum elevations of from 500 feet in northern New England to 1,000 feet in southern New England and the Adirondacks and 3,500 1 Forest Service Circular 166, “ Timber Supply of the United States,” by R.S. Kellogg. 4 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. feet in the southern ranges. Above these altitudes the hardwoods give place in large measure to spruce and fir. On northerly slopes the climate suitable for northern hardwoods is often at several hundred feet lower altitude than on southerly exposures. The soils in the northern hardwood zone are, as a rule, loamy sands, the result of the decay of granite, quartzites, and siliceous gneisses. In the eastern mountains they are partly glacial and partly residual in origin, thin, and of low agricultural value. In the Lake States and through much of the northeast they were depos- ited by the glaciers in moraines and glacial hills or laid down in beds of varying thickness by glacial streams. Here the hardwoods occupy, for the most part, the water-assorted loams and clays or the unas- sorted morainal tills, rich in clay, but also thrive on light, sandy soils in localities subject to prevailmg moist winds, as in western lower Michigan. In the Appalachians, south of the limit to which the glaciers extended, the souls result entirely from the decomposi- tion of the native rocks. Where schists prevail, fertile loams are the products of decomposition, and these may reach some depth in the coves and broader valleys. The climatic factors which determine the distribution of forests are moisture and temperature. These differ in relative importance according to the nature of the region. In temperate semiarid regions the determining factor is moisture; m temperate humid regions it is temperature. The northern forest region is distinctly humid, and the composition of the forests is therefore influenced chiefly by tem- perature. Its western limits, however, are fixed chiefly by molsture factors. The growing season is senate aks five months, from Moy to September, inclusive.t The duration of the season varies within the region, and is shortest in the north and at high altitudes. This factor has undoubtedly a large influence upon the composition of the northern hardwood forests, which is not so much a matter of the sensitiveness of the species to extremes of temperature as it is of optimum temperature. How moisture and temperature affect the different species in the complexity of the forest environment is still so little known that no positive information can be given. The best that can be done is to compare the available climatic data from observation stations within the northern forest region with corresponding data from stations just outside. Table 1 accordingly gives the average monthly tem- perature and precipitation during the growing season for adjacent parts of the northern and southern hardwood regions. Similar data for April and October are also given, together with the annual precipitation and depth of snow. Forestry,’ Dept. of Agriculture Monthly Weather Review, vol. 42, No. 4, April, 1914; map shows division of the United States on basis of periods of vegetative growth and rest. Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘pIOAOMOI WI9q VAVT YSIYISBOIG I9AO PUB SOTOUT OT Sd0I1 9ONIdg SMOWONOHIGY S3HL NI MOOIWSH GNV ‘d3ONYdS ‘SGOOMGHVH NYSHLYON JO LSayO4 aa71nN9O Se ies Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il. Lumbermen called this a ‘‘ clean cutting.” op LAND IN NORTHERN WISCONSIN LOGGED DurRING AN “OFF YEAR” FOR MAPLE LUMBER. The best maple was taken but much good material was left standing. CuT-OveR HARDWO THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 5 TaBLE 1.—Temperature and precipitation 1 within the northern hardwoods and the north- ern edge of the southern hardwood regions. Based on data from United States Weather Bureau Bulletin Q (1906); observations extending over period of from 5 to 50 years: | Average monthly temperature. Average : Mara tempera- Signal aes and forest Growing season. ee Pe Apr. Oct. | growing May. |} June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. season. New England and the Adirondacks:| ° F. oie OO%5 Ie 2 PIs al oR Owe Northern hardwood............ | 41 54 62 66 | 64 57 46 61 Southern hardwood............ | 44 56 65 70 67 60 48 64 Alleghenies and Southern Appala- ehians: Northern hardwood............ 46 59 66 69 67 62 50 65 Southern hardwood............ 50 62] 68 72 71 64 54 67 Lake States: Northern hardwood............ 41 53 63 68 | 64 57 45 61 Southern hardwood............ 47 58 67 72 70 62 50 66 General average: Northern hardwood............ 42 54 63 67 65 58 46 61 Southern hardwood............ AT 59 67 71 69 62 | Oley 66 nage Average total Average precipitation. pr Seaitati Me Aver- Geographical division and forest eee region. Growing season. Grow- es 1 An-. | snow Apr. 5; Oct. ing VEE fall May. |June. | July.| Aug. | Sept. season 2 New England and the Adiron- dacks: In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Northern hardwood.........-- BAN (Sed) |) -9) |) 4.40 Aa Saal ise 19.4 42.8 96.1 Southern hardwood..........- 2h V2) | 3-8. | 4) |e son|eaaaon ital 18.7 44.8 78.1 Alleghenies and Southern Appa- lachians: Northern hardwood........... 3.4 4.1 5.6 AAG | AN elo sOn oS 22.9 49.2 58.5 Southern hardwood..........- SB BOR ee BO eo7e ll eG. |) Beil |] Zee) 19.8 41.8 32.4 Lake States: Northern hardwood..........- Pie} Bia) 3.8 Gete) || Biter ||) Beek Bisa 18.1 aaleal 64.0 Southern hardwood..........- Ph REI iba! |pesse) |) BH) B60 | eect 16.6 29.9 40.1 General average: p Northern hardwood..........- 250 e350) |) 422) || akacul es Onlomom toes 19.0 38.4 15.5 Southern hardwood..........- DME Ron tne SI lee Rael RBI) PAE 18.5 39.2 48.4 1 Monthly averages for the growing season—May to September, inclusive—and for April and October, with average annual precipitation and snowfall. The stations and altitudes at which the observations were taken are as follows: Northern hardwoods: Northern hardwoods—Continued. New England— Feet. Lake States—Continued. Feet Mayfield, Me.........--- 1, 000 Koepenick, Wis..-.--...- 1, 675 Bethlehem, N. H.......-. 1,470 Medford, Wis.-......---- 1, 420 Simerni@ncls Ng Shes ee 950 Grantsburg, Wis.........- 1, 095 re WemVites ee Yo oe 1, 000 Mount Iron, Minn........ 1, 510 dacksonvalle; Vt..-- 2.022. 1, 000 Sandy Lake Dam, Minn.. 1, 229° Saranac Lake, N. Y.-...-- 1, 620 Park Rapids, Minn....... 1, 300 Number Four, N. Y...--- 1,571 | Southern hardwoods: Alleghenies and Southern Ap- Wewastony Mele A rssicee tse 210 palachians— Woncord 3 IN; Ee 3 0 eas oe 280 henovrba iss ar. eee: 1, 400 EVO MLC ss NYS Yamin es. | fae ek Ss 450 State College, Pa........- noe avtsbunghis Parties cus ae Se 757 MRemaeAdtar: Wis Vides 06s 3, 207 SERrilcanira SAN feria tas Ree ee 1, 920 imevaill es GNC gis ce Sea 3, 800 Moti Springs,) Nia ye as se 2,195 Lake States— Asheville N7 Cee ee. oa 2, 255 Cabinet, Mich 222.5 24.422 1, 246 IDE wavsiayecsya Weel ava, See pak Son oie Meat 881 Escanaba, Mich.........- 594 Madison, Wisi cae oi aie: 974 Grayling, Mich. 222.0522: 1, 147 Ste aul Minne se eee ee 758 Ivan, Mich. 6 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COMPOSITION. ° THE FOREST AS A WHOLE. The species commonly found in the northern hardwood forest are separated in Table 2 according to their abundance and distribution; only approximately, however, because there are many subordinate variations which can not be shown. The list does not include several dwarf maples, thorn apples, mountain ash, etc., which are of little or no economic importance. TaBLe 2.—Hardwoods and conifers grouped according to their prevalence in the northern hardwood forests.! Region. Characteristic. Locally characteristic. | Occasional. INorbheasteml States woe. a! ose he cere seeeere Yellow birch. Paper birch. Black ash. Sugar maple. Aspen. Slippery elm. Beech. Large tooth aspen. Gray birch. Red maple. Fire cherry. Black cherry. Ironwood. Black birch. Balm of Gilead. - Hemlock. Basswood. Norway pine. White pine. White elm. Black spruce. Red spruce. White ash. Tamarack. Balsam fir. Silver maple. Arborvite. Red oak. White spruce. Make Statesse cats oaicveceise ced passetae ewes Sugar maple. Paper birch. Black ash. Yellow birch. Aspen. Slippery elm. Basswood. Large tooth aspen. Balm of Gilead. White elm. Fire cherry. Black cherry. Beech.2 Cork elm. Black birch. Ironwood. White ash. Silver maple. Hemlock. Red maple. White spruce. White pine. Red oak. Black spruce. Balsam fir. Tamarack. Arborvite. Norway pine. Jack pine. 1 In the transition zone between the northern and southern hardwood forest—especially in Pennsylvania and the southern Appalachians—yellow poplar, magnolia, sycamore, black and red gums, and other Ou Rera Hardy ods not shown in the above list often appear in some abundance among the northern 2 Beech is not found in Minnesota and only in extreme eastern Wisconsin. Under the heading ‘‘Occasional”’ are included a number of species which are characteristic either of swamp or of dry-soil types, but are often found among the northern hardwoods as strays. Besides these there are a number of oaks, hickories, walnuts, pines, and birches which occasionally intrude, but being characteristic of other site conditions, can not be considered regular members of the northern hardwood forest. The great bulk of the forest consists of the species listed as ‘“‘characteristic.’’ The proportions of the species, as will be brought out more fully, vary greatly in different parts of the region. The “locally characteristic”? species are found here and there, some rare or of small value, others abundant locally and of considerable importance. Some of these species, especially paper birch and the aspens, form distinct but transitory types on burned-over lands (Pl. VIIT), but occur only as widely scattered individuals in old “THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 7 growth stands. They are light-foliaged trees, intolerant of shade, which shelter beneath their crowns the reproduction of maple, beech, hemlock, and other shade-tolerant and heavy-foliaged species. One generation of the intolerant trees is all that is possible under these conditions, for their seedlings can not live in the dense shade of the other undergrowth already started. Survivors of the original temporary stands, however, are often found in the hardwood forest, as well as isolated individuals which have sprung up among old timber where there are accidental openings in the crown cover. Most of the conifers, notably white pine and red spruce, also grow in well-marked types of their own, often in pure stands. Basswood and elm, on the other hand, rarely grow otherwise than as scattered individuals, except in Michigan and Wisconsin, where they some- times form fully a third of the total stand. About 15 species of hardwoods are common to the northern and southern forests, and 8 (birches, aspens, fire cherry, and black ash) are found only in the northern. Grouped according to geographical range, north and south, the trees of the northern hardwood forest, © excluding a few of the less important, are as follows: Range northern. Range northern and southern. Hardwoods: Hardwoods: Yellow birch. Sugar (and black) maple. Paper birch. Red maple. Gray birch. Silver maple. Aspen. Black birch. Large tooth aspen. Beech. Balm of Gilead. Basswood. Black ash. White elm. Fire cherry. ; Slippery elm. Conifers: Cork elm. Red spruce. Tronwood. White spruce. White ash, Black spruce. Black cherry. Balsam fir. Red oak. Hemlock. White pine. Norway pine. Jack pine. Tamarack. Arborvitee. The northern forest with about 21 hardwoods is much simpler in composition than the southern, which contains fully 95 of local or general commercial value. It has been still further simplified by selective lumbering. Not only the white pine, spruce, and hemlock, but in many places the better hardwoods also, have been heavily cut, thus increasing the proportion of the less valuable kinds in the culled forests. 8 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. REGIONAL VARIATIONS. The eastern part of the northern hardwood forest is characterized by the abundance and importance of red spruce and balsam fir. These extend south from Canada along the mountains of New England, the Adirondacks, and the southern Appalachians, at increasing elevations. The relatively pure spruce and fir forests occupy higher altitudes than the hardwood forest, but the two are freely intermixed through a broad but not definitely marked altitudinal zone. Though red spruce is the most common spruce associate of the hardwoods, white spruce is sometimes the more abundant locally. The spruce is largely replaced in the Alleghenies by hemlock; and here cucumber (Magnolia acuminata Linn.) and yellow poplar, prominent members of the southern hardwood forest, appear in small quantities among the northern hardwoods. Like the spruce type, the transitory burned-land type of aspen and paper birch is more abundant and of greater perfection m northern _ New England than in the Lake States. Farther south it becomes less important; paper birch drops out in northern Pennsylvania, and the type loses its identity more and more through the inclusion of other species. Of the characteristic northern hardwoods, sugar maple is probably the most abundant in the northeastern States at large. Yellow birch, however, is the most abundant in northern New England. It grows in forests of widely different composition, and shares to some extent the habits of paper birch, appearimg on burns in small, pure, even- aged stands (PI. X, fig. 1, and Pl. VII, fig. 2) or in mixed stands with paper birch and aspen, to which it adds an element of permanence. Spruce, maple, and beech, which thrive in the light shade cast by such stands, outlive the paper birch and aspen, and will eventually gain the ascendancy. In the old-growth forests, therefore, yellow birch is found in a great variety of mixtures with spruce, fir, beech, sugar and red maples, white pine, and hemlock, with scattered indi- viduals or groups of other species, notably paper birch and aspen. The old-growth hardwoods in this region are usually very defective, the beech especially. The red maple is usually abundant only as a subordinate growth of little value. Ash occurs sparsely in New England at low to moderate elevations. Black birch and black cherry become locally abundant in the moun- - tains of southern Vermont and New Hampshire, the Adirondacks, Catskills, and farther south. The northern hardwood forest con- tinues south at gradually increasing altitudes along the southern Appalachian Mountains, becoming more and more restricted to northerly slopes and cool valleys. This region properly belongs to the transition zone between the northern and southern hardwood Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fic. 3.—SuGAR MAPLE. Fic. 2.—WHiITE ELM. TREE FORMS OF NORTHERN HARDWOODS IN THE FOREST. Fia. 1.—BEECH. Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fic. 4.—BASSWOOD. Fic. 3.—LONG-BODIED YELLOW BIRCH. Fic. 2.—SHORT-BODIED YELLOW BIRCH. Fic. 1.—WHITE ELM. IN THE FOREST. TREE FORMS OF NORTHERN HARDWOODS , THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 9 regions. In the higher mountains spruce covers the peaks and ridges, especially on northerly slopes, and associates freely with the northern hardwoods along the lower edges of the spruce belt. White pine and: hemlock also continue south along the Appalachians, and by mixing with the hardwoods help to maintain the characteristic structure of the northern forest. Extensive pure stands of beech are found on ridges in southern North Carolina and farther north along the Blue Ridge. The com- mercial importance of the northern hardwoods is minimized, how- ever, by the abundance of valuable southern timber trees like white oak and yellow poplar. Elm and basswood as forest trees are more abundant in southern New England than in Maine and northern New Hampshire. These species appear at low altitudes and increase in quantity toward the west and south, their scarcity throughout the east being in marked contrast to the abundance in which they are found in the west. The great abundance of basswood and elm is perhaps the most striking characteristic of the northern hardwood forest in the Lake States. According to estimates compiled by the Bureau of Corporations,' basswood forms 12 per cent and elm 9 per cent of all the hardwoods in these States. Maple leads in amount with 35 per cent, birch com- prises 24 per cent, beech 4 per cent, and ash 2 per cent of the total hardwood stand. Together these six species make up more than a third of the total stand, hardwoods and softwoods, in the Lake States. Table 3, arranged from a similar table in the Bureau of Corporations report, illustrates the relative importance of the northern hardwoods, individually and collectively, in the Lake States forests during 1910 (the year in which the data were gathered). The estimates do not in- clude publicly owned timber, which, however, does not amount to a large proportion of the merchantable stand. TABLE 3.—Privaiely owned standing timber in the Lake States, by species.” Species. Total. Michigan. Wisconsin. Minnesota. Board feet. Board feet. Board feet. Board feet. Potala emerson: once aoe c ke aoe 100, 000, 000, 000 | 47,600,000, 000 | 29,200, 000,000 | 23, 200, 000, 000 (Cavaliiciase SERN Ee Re a 58, 100, 000, 000 | 22, 200,000,000 | 17, 100,000,000 | 18,800, 000, 000 iPad wOOdSEe echt le 41,900, 000, 000 | 25,400,000, 000 | 12, 100, 000, 000 4, 400, 000, 000 Manos sie sesame ae sae 14,500, 000,000 | 12, 200,000,000 | 2,300,000,000 |-..--.--.------- SSE age a I apy ee Bee ae 10,100, 000,000 | 5,100,000,000 | 4,300,000, 000 700, 000, 000 IBASSWOOGs susan ene ser 5, 100,000,000 | 2,200,000,000 | 2,500, 000, 000 400, 000, 000 YO Uae es Ee poe RO er ree Ue oe me 3,700, 000,060 | 2,100,000,000 | 1,500,000, 000 100, 000, 000 TE fea ad ROS NE aR ae PEDO 0002 000) | er 6009 OOM O00: | mas eemnnae Gee Feats eben sates ANS Sakae See ay Sry hs ties 1, 000, 000, 000 600, 000, 000 300, 000, 000 100, 000, 000 Poplar (and balm of gilead).- PAIGOFOOO OOM mere eey aces es a once meee 2,000, 000, 000 One a Ne Ore Bee go 700, 000, 000 200, 000, 000 300, 000, 000 200, 000, 000 Miscellaneous..........-..--- 3, 200,000,000 | 1, 400; 000; 000 900, 000, 000” 900, 000, 000 1 Report on the lumber industry, Pt. I, Standing timber. 2 From Bureau of Corporations, Report on the lumber industry—Standing timber, 1913, p. 78. a . 10 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table 3 shows that in the Lake States, as in the Hast, yellow birch and sugar maple are the most abundant generally, the chief characteristics that distinguish this part of the northern hardwood forest from the northeastern part being the abundance and importance of basswood, elm, hemlock, and white pine, and the absence of red spruce. Here also, however, some spruce extends down from Canada, in this case white spruce being the more important, espe- cially in Minnesota, and black spruce occurring seldom except in the swamps or ‘‘muskegs.”’ In Michigan the stand of sugar maple alone exceeds that of all the other northern hardwoods combined, and amounts to more than a quarter of the total hardwood and softwood stand. The maple in Michigan is of better quality than in many parts of New England, but in Wisconsin much of the maple is very defective (Pl. Il). Maple is not abundant in Minnesota, and is as yet of small commercial value; in fact, the hardwoods as a whole are of relatively small importance in this State. Beech is found in Wis- consin only for a short distance inland from Lake Michigan. Yellow birch is especially abundant and important in Wisconsin, and in Minnesota it is the most abundant of the characteristic northern hardwoods. Black birch is found, but much less abundantly than in southern New England. There is more basswood than elm in Michigan; in Wisconsin they are nearly equal in quantity. ‘‘ Poplar” (aspens) occupies considerable area in all three States, but by far the largest amount is found in Minnesota. In Michigan and Wis- consin the stands are for the most part too young to be of any com- mercial value. FOREST RELATIONSHIPS AND THEIR EFFECT ON COMPOSITION. There are two sets of factors which influence the success of trees in the natural forest, and which must be regarded in silviculture: Physical, including soil and climate, and physiological, including aggressiveness in reproduction, tolerance of shade, rate of growth, form, size, longevity, and resistance to injury and disease. To some extent these factors are interactive, and a deficiency in one or several may be offset by a marked superiority in some other. For instance, rapid growth may compensate for intolerance of shade, air moisture for soil poverty, abundance of seed for low fertility, and longevity and resistance to injury for intolerance and ineffective reproduction. It is therefore profitable to consider the factors more or less in combination. Those of tolerance and reproduction are generally the most important in determining the local distribution and abundance of the species. Tolerance and reproduction.—Table 4 lists the important species in the northern hardwood forest in the approximate order of their THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 11 shade tolerance, beginning with the least tolerant, and gives the characteristics of each which influence its reproduction inside and outside of the forest. These characteristics are subject. to variation. Tolerance, for example, is greater in seedlings than in old trees, in the south than in the north, and in fertile than in dry situations. The frequency of seed years and the fertility of the seed produced depend to a large extent on climatic factors, and the amount is influenced by these and by the light supply; even the annual seed bearers do not produce the same amount each year. The extent of seed distribu- tion depends on the height and exposure of the crown, the buoyancy of the seed, and the strength and steadiness of the winds at seed time. Growth of both seedlings and sprouts is influenced by the length of the growing season, the fertility of the soil, and the humidity of the air. All of these variations, by affecting the aggressiveness of particular species in competition with others, modify the compo- sition of the stand. The variations caused by physical factors (soil, precipitation, temperature, etc.), though they do have an influence during the youth of the stand, are active especially in determining the character of the old-growth forest, and are chiefly responsible for differences in its composition at different latitudes, longitudes, altitudes, and exposures. Those caused by physiological factors are especially active in the establishment and subsequent history of temporary stands. The temporary stands formed by species aggressive outside the forest give way, after they have developed, to species which are ageressive inside the forest. A convenient classification might be based upon this difference in aggressiveness, the trees being called, respectively, extensive or intensive reproducers, according to whether ; they are more aggressive outside or inside the forest. The separation F of the species into these classes would then be made on the basis ) of the last two columns of Table 4. Extensive reproducers are intolerant of shade, and are generally small, rapid-growing, short- lived, and light-foliaged, and have a tendency to form even-aged h stands (Pl. VI). Intensive reproducers are tolerant in tendency, . of slow growth and long life, and form uneven-aged stands with dense crown cover (Pl. V). To be sure, these characteristics exist among the different species in all degrees between the extremes, so that a hard and fast line can not be drawn between the extensive and intensive reproducers. Some species even are extensive under certain conditions and imtenstve under others. Nevertheless the divergent tendencies are perfectly evident and a scale can be drawn the extremes of which are almost exclusively extensive and intensive. BS ical DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Winks 85, BULLETIN 2 ‘12 “YStTT OG “OPe.LOPO PL OG “US ‘Od. 0d dita “OP BIOPOTL ‘od “MOT “9 RIOPOW!W ‘od “MOT ‘od ‘0d “sduireas Ul 4uB10104 ssey ATpaproep st o[deur pory » *s1voXk [BIOAOS JO s7eAaoqur ye ATaO sdoio [Ny ynq ‘ATpenuUe pees euMIOS SIvAaq YSe OTT AA ¢ ‘apeys AAvoy ApIrey Jopun sivod oJ 4stsi0d [IM pues ‘TYoI1G MOT[OA UBT} JURIO{O} SLOT ST YSB O}ITA Suppees B Sy ¢ “*moy AIOA [7777 * a eeO Dae} “ oyeropopy |---7 777" yuosqy ““MOT AoA |** 7 * OATLOOTOUT ‘sdumnys [[eurs - oVRIOPOP, | WOL] OATIOOYLAT te 2 LOOT (2) ‘sduinys [[Burs cesses Op***] WOT, OATIOVIY A “ aye1opoyw, |-oATpooyo AIO A. ae = YstH, | 77777 “quesqy “yynod ul 4deoxo “77 e7"op7 > "| quezrodurr t , ‘sduin}s [[Vurs - QYBIIPOPL | WO] VATIDIILOT “ysry Aro A |-oATOOTe AIO A. Pee Ys |77 “ATP OD A “7-°°"0p7*|-eaTyooTTO AIO A, “i =r OD, esl awe ee VATPOI OL “TlOs snur sseeesop 77 "| -ny “are ysrour fopeyg *[LOS [B19 “mors AIOA | -UTtE “Ire ysrou ‘[ooD ‘opeys sssop | fsntuny “YyUIe AA merisne MOT |*7>77-arB pus TIOS ISTOTY ‘opeys > oyeropoyy | {ros pue me 4sIow "oo" prdeyy “-"ILB PUB [LOS JSTOP ‘OPVYS OPIS [LOS “ oyBIOpOW | puw AB ysrotw ‘fooD pitas pidey |-are ystotw ‘epeys WYSVT “TOS [Blo -ultd {OM} IO IVOA ae “MOTD | ISI JOY opeys yYsryT *[LOS..10 Seerses Op-**| are ysrour {4ySt, Pony *[LOS O[T}.10J “tt op 77] stot «244 8IT TONW “IIB PUB [IOS hero op~~~| 4sroud ‘food ‘qysT] Tony ie ERINO De elt ite = Vaio 35 qYST] YOUN, “IT@ PUB [LOS JSIOUL ~ OY B.LOPOW ies UStH |-" "PULA |"~*"9ye10poTy aeRO Died on She" ODms se “7 """"Op"" "| SPMOPOY, |" "POPOITSO yy. Fag ODE aa mo) 0) el (ae S ODF ies Seine OP yr eese5Op aise Op sminas " eYBIOPOP, 7-77 "Op7**|7 "7 ayVIVpOPE Sina MOTH | E2250 Pana Reese O D emaae ep ODES “**"OPIM - oyBIOPOPT | 7777 OD sealer ae OD areas wae an YS | 7" Ops- "|" 7" -oyBIOpOTT Be ee OD: ails +2 ae O Disk | eee OD sores - oyelepoyy |7-"7" Opsies| esr Se ODS ee: MOT AOU |" PUTA | 1°OPIM. erate YstH |" ~ “Spite, |--*797@10poyy *(A[qeqoid) 9YVIOPOW |° ~~ PULA j"ysry AoA |* > “Spare “sosned Osol} TOI, poos Yonut osoy ‘odurexo Joy ‘YOood pue poomsseg 001} OY} UO TITS Op T3uNy pu syoosur Aq poAO sop yuNome pus peonpoid pass dArj10q8 sepnypuy 1 cetcceeee Ope Se" S8° "ODER a) Sacns nO Disa: ay er mden sere eT OO ILO Ft trreeceee OdIB |i sO P ses | ete ooer OD ares ap eee CONICS POs: “"[[etus oyyery |-~--*""op*--|-"yenuMByON |-- == Wpee el Gntonoe e= Ggaucr less -aexOpees|n 72 ojdem resng “Tea ““poomuoly --Sunidg , o]dvUL pay ER SUICIIAA GY gJ24OP S| CCE 9) ganic "oo" yolg Yovlg elermieiere) 52 SOSIVy laws sss] [B Hel, eae ae ODEs 27a ee eae OAUC) AO] Ae ees ORIOPOW | 1PF Apregy |" *-“Tenuay |-"""--"-"“ poomsseg s=isiri= s2-top 77 7-|-7 7-7 yPeuy | cpenuae jon |°°---7 >> ommd oy AA pokisiossesQnaaae-| oi SOR {ALS POCO ry qhigente eo a TIO OFT A stetee s-opr tt} -7 "Te | eTenuuegoN | - ~~~" >> 7g YSe OUI yairq 1ode gq ALIOYO YOVl_. Ter yorrq Awry esle'yT |} “rouumns ALLOY VIL BES OH esuomiuy |-~ ~~ supidg uae 2 tee UC OS Vr “Ivok poas yove yuUNOuLy moses - OrSrd1 DAD > | Sugar maple. SoU Cees Hen CNS ae CAN NINT DOO NOWONN ONrAw OMwhy 27 28. 4| F| Oo A= P ae H = g\2]¢ © ic) o) mo} pe] In. | In. | In. Rall Peal PAY) 2.3) 3.3]! 1 359 Bohl Cal GE7 4.4) 5.8] 7.6 5.41 7.1) 9.4 6.5} 8.4) 11.1 7.5| 9.8] 12.8 8.6] 11.2) 14.5 9. 6} 12.5} 16.1 10. 6) 13.9] 17.7 11. 6] 15. 2| 19.4 12. 6} 16.5} 21.0 13. 6] 17.8] 22.6 14, 6) 19.1) 24,2 15.5) 20.3) 25.7 16. 4) 21.6) 27.2 783 |) 2209 | sien 1374 FPA eS Oe 25s2 |e eee 2050) 2653|4-22 2059s 2785 | eee 21.8) 28. 62-52! D290 hl eee 2356)" 3088) sees 3 | White elm. PS 6 ERE) aed Ree ee Sas GoiKo rac DAOC bo KOA RWWNN HOOOM OURwWN O-~1W0" 1) OOF on Minimum growth. 3 | Basswood. SURI NI s OST S 77 NOUR W HORMWO BOWMAN WOrW 17. ~“I~s1-~1 Sugar maple. 13.0 Rw OW BAIR OO LOCO Oh | 5 ce ost fee (eile Peal ate wet ices |RaS 5 de See ese) 3 o ® qc a Ge | sien |e lp Seo) Ins \ Ine Nis eine | In. Ocha 0.3] 0.1) 1.3 ali .6 ~A|. 2.2 ikl 4 9 Steele 1.6 sili datS Ole Ae Peal LAM GS TR Pte Gy) PAO Pa) 3 3.4) 2.1) 2.4) 1.9) 7.4 LB PHA PATA P28) ete) ANT rds4| ool) e2eee O85 5.4) 4.2] 3.4! 3.2] 10.7 6:0) --550(2 23: 8) aha lle 7 6.9} 5.8) 4.3) 4.2) 12.8 7.6) 6.7) 4.8] »458) 13.8 8.3) 7.6) 5.3] 5.4) 14.7 9.1) 8.5) 5.9) '6.0) 15.7 9.9} 9.5) 6.6] 6.7] 16.6 LOSG/ OLS ealeo| Leb 11.3] 11.4) 8.0} 8.2) 18.4 12,1] 12.2) 8.7] 9.0) 19.3 UPA ile yi bees 9.8} 20.1 113} ye) dB} IO) eee 10. 7) 21.1 14. 6] 14. 8}..... 11. 6} 22.0 T5eA lel 5s5 | pene 12.5) 22.9 1GS2\S1G93|2enee 13. 5| 23.8 ig 1 Based on the following data: Sugar maple, 80 trees, Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich., Price and Iron Counties, Wis.; beech, 74 trees, Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich.; yellow birch Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich., Price and Iron Counties, Wis.; hemlock, 186 trees L 27 trees, eelanaw County, Mich.; white elm, 14 trees, Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich., Price and Iron Counties, Wis.; basswood, 75 trees, Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich., Price and Iron Counties, Wis. TaBLE 8.—Growth in height of northern hardwoods and hemlock in the Lake States. Average growth (total height). Age. Sugar maple. - ir > i , height). Ala pe |e) es 2 | 4 La o o fo) 9 o ety (OE o| Sie] foo el taeda |e peal elke ic cioll Gani Seal Slee > Cy i) S) ailnx lH /Elalalalsle Tea Oa ee areas Ue || Satie) Late TOS N Tajr3 Wate 13 | 20 8) 20s 230 RRLSh tO) es0 Nt a8 21) |). 26) 12281) 34) ZO R 28h 39 || SL 28))|| 31.) 16 | 34 | 943) ) 939) 935)!" 48) 42 33 | 37) 20] 40] 52| 48 |) 42) 54] 53 39 | 43] 25} 45] 59] 55] 48) 60] 62 44, 48] 30; 49] 66] 61] 54; 64] 70 48} 53] 35] 53] 71] 67] 59] 68] 76 By arts ZOO yr 76s | 2 GE AL ee) 57 | 62] 44) 61) 78} 75 | 68) 73) 85 62) 66! 49] 64! 81] 78! 72] 75! 88 Go| 69] 53°) 67a) 835) SL) 75 1) 77) |) 90 69 | 71) 57) 71) 85 | 83} 78) 79] 94 72 | 73| 60} 73} 87] 85] 81} 80] 96 75 | 75 | 63] 76} 88] 87] 83] 81] 98 78'| 76] 66] 78} 89] 89} 84] 82} 100 80 | 78) 68} 81] 90] 90) 85] 838] 102 S21 09n 70) SSaleeOle | O2nleeSGale Soule eee= 83 | 80) 72] 85} 92] 93] 87] 84 ]_-.-. OA S114 SZ eO3e Oa er Szall eso) eee SO) |e Ole | Senet s O0 5a Pe OOm MESON em Son enters 86 | 82]... 927) .95. 1 OM 89) 86: ae 22 87 | 83 |e 22. * 93 | 96] 98} 90} 87 |....- Se |) eB). eced 95m | S965 Oe GON Sia teers SSNS ae ee Pe CO Ts ON Ne nek eee and minimum curves. 1 Based on same data as Table 7. Maximum growth (total Minimum growth (total height). s q [or = , o) a aq = SS = 3S S) 2 | D BO) eS e\. a onl ma)|)oOlp |e )a THES TA DAL RN 0 We Tah. oe ges yaaa 6 16 are 13 8 7 23 CA alg ah 8 30 TON 222 ona tO 37 142% | $2005 11 45 UAE 2 |e ea melee 51 21 |} 36} 30) 14 57 20) 40) Bo) 15 62 29; 44] 40] 17 66 34} 48! 45] 18 70 RS Aa BOS) S10 73 43 | 56} 54] 21 76 461 59 | 58] 23 78 50) 63] 61) 25 80 54 | 66] 64] 27 82 57 | 69] 67) 29 84 ik 72 |) 70) |) Ba 85 64} 74] 71) 33 87 66} 77)] 73) 35 88 FED AST 7c ou eee 89 AN Ee Bl eae 90 TERM EN TP os See 91 Moms O48 | pedicel eee 92 Tete) dp Whey Weta e 93 The measurements for white elm were too few to warrant maximum 20 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLE 9.—Growth in volume (cubic) of northern hardwoods and hemlock in the Lake States.1 Average growth. Maximum growth. Minimum growth. 3 q S el dS Ka! i [S} Land oO = oO Bs P : ; a Z : : a r= ; ; ee: a 3 ad = g i ag = g 2 a = a 2 b 8 o q s 4 o | - > 2 is) 5 é z 2 = S s z iS = B Fn z 4 ES Sol 8 | So) 2e [oy me ase ei 9B a a, a) ee ee D [->) 1 oO Oo ~ o Oo Ba.) 8 | | | melee] So ee cee ae | eo dies | ser pee Years. | Cu-fl. Cu.ft.| Cu.ft.| Cu-ft.| Cu.ft.| Cu-ft.| Cuft.| Cu.ft.| Cu.ft.|Cu.ft.| Cuft.|Cu.ft.| Cuft.| Cuft.| Cuft. LS NS Tag Cs Tee i | a ee LB fl Spee 2:4 ||: 12. Dil SiG ay | tae] ae a ee ih eee eee eae ache me wee AS.) 2 Ful iS SiON 6s Gul SIO: | oes eee 5) ape a Peete 0.8 GORE eee esa eye} a b(t] ese Ly 9.2| 5.6) 3.6) 8.1) 12.4 | 22.0).....- | 3S een eee 2.2 mere 155s | SLI DN eae cee W554 6 9.53] 5529 12:1 ||) 20. 001-830 |: 22.5] eae ee eee 45 SO ee: 3.0 128.7 |. 403) 2058) 1.23) 05) 14571 807-1) 1723129) 0.) 4610: | ae |S ee ee 75 One 5.0 | 5.5] 6.8]. 3.6| 32.0 | 21.0 | 12.1 | 24.0 | 39.0 |.59.0 |------ is er Pes ae 11.4 Te oee 7.3 | 7.8 | 10.0 | 5.9 | 41.0 | 29.0 | 16.5 | 31.0 | 50.0 | 73.0 |-....- | tobat (Cuea Meanie 16.3 ORE ces 10:3 | 10/5 |. 13.8 | 9.2 | 51.0 | 37.0 | 21.0 | 40.0 | 64.0 | 87.0]...--- 3785 | iN [eeee 22.0 (owes 14.0 | 13.8 | 18.3 |12.5 | 61.0 | 47.0 | 27.0 | 49.0 | 78.0 |101.0']-..--- 5535) 320) | eeeee 28.0 13011324 18.3 | 17.6 | 24.0 | 17.1 | 72.0'| 58.0 | 34.0 | 60.0 | 94.0 115.0} 1.1] 7.0] 4.8 Jo... 35.0 140..... 23.0 | 22.0 | 30.0 | 22.0 | 82.0 | 69.0.| 40.0 | 71.0 {112.0 1130.0} 2.3! 9.0] 6.81... 42.0 150 .....| 29.0 | 27.0 | 37.0 | 28.0 | 93.0 | 81.0 | 47.0 | 82.0 |131.0 [145.0 | 3.6|11.5| 9.3| 1.0] 49.0 GORE 35.0 | 32.0 | 44.0 | 34.0 [104.0 | 93.0 | 55.0 | 93.0 [152.0 [161.0 | 5.1 | 14.3] 12.3] 1.8] 57.0 WOR eee 42.0 | 38.0 |.53.0 | 40.0 [115.0 {107.0 | 62.0 {106.0 [174.0 |177.0 | 7.0 |18.6]16.0] 2.6] 65.0 ASpEses 49.0 | 44.0 | 61.0 |'47.0 {126.0 |121.0 | 71.0 {119.0 |....-. 193.0'| 9:0°| 21.0 | 20.0 | 3.4} 73.0 190 see 57.0 | 50.0 | 70.0 | 54.0 {138.0 |136.0 | 79.0 [133.0 |....-- 210.0 | 11.3 | 25.0 | 25.0 | 4.6] 81.0 00a 66.0 | 56.0 | 79.0 | 61.0 [151.0 [151.0 | 89.0 {147.0 |...... 228.0 | 14.1 | 30.0 |°30.0 | 5.9 | 90.0 210s 75L OU LOS e 0s ne SaO alae 165.0 |168.0 | 98.0 [161.0 |....-. 247.0°| 17:3°| 36.0 | 35.0 |_.---- 99.0 990 means 84: 0..)-71..0.}:98.02|2e2-%- 178.0 |184.0 [109.0 |176.0 |....-- 267.0 | 21.0. | 42.0.|-40.0 |__---- | 109.0 230. ..-.| 94.0] 79.0. |108.0 |-.-.-- 192.0 |201.0 |120.0 |191.0 |...... 288-0 | 25.0 | 48.0 | 46.0 |_..... | 119.0 DAO ssn 104.0.) 87:0 |118.0.|2..... 207.0 |218.0 132.0 |205.0 |.-.--- 311.0 | 30.0 | 54.0 | 52.0 |...._. 130.0 O50 meae 115.0 | 95.0 |128.0 |...... 221.0 |235.0 (143.0 |220.0 |....-- 335:0 | 35.0 | 61.0 | 58.0 |..-.-- 141.0 1 Based on same data as Table 7. SECOND GROWTH. Before lumbering began young growth of the intensive species was practically confined to individuals and groups of various ages within the virgin forest. Fires, windfall, and other accidents to the stand undoubtedly resulted in some even-aged reproduction over small areas, but only a small amount as compared with the reproduction of the extensive species. In 1825, for example, fires denuded an area in New Brunswick and northern Maine estimated at more than 5,000,000 acres, over the greater part of which aspen and paper- birch thickets sprang up. In the shade of these the more intensive species came in irregularly, producing relatively uneven-aged stands. As a result of widespread logging operations and the fires which have followed them, even-aged second-growth stands of the intensive species have become fairly numerous, especially in the rough eastern part of the northern hardwood region, where more of the land has been allowed to revert to forest. It is common for these stands to be of mixed species, one or two of which predominate over the others in number and size. Over small areas a single species may grow in almost pure stands. Yellow birch is the most frequent example —THREE MONTHS AFTER A FIRE, PRACTICALLY THE ONLY LIVING VEGETATION 2 1 : wl Wl 6 x 3 ae wl Z S53 (5 ul D Oe >) < [> 2 ai < 25 © a QQ (we = £2 o f OSs S| ke o ox NH E we =) Sr fan} 2 BE qa 5 jo = ro) - 2 5 (3) fia ee op) =n Ss a no” 5 oO Ww n LZ — kK m4 2) 5 ss) ORs eee wy fe Fi eS ai Views o af ce * i = Bs ac ei a x- per acre, Average. tremes. Per cent. Inches. | Inches. | Cubicfeet.| Cubic feet. ACO WADING Dee iat) c eh peccicce citrate aeae 50.8 288 5.8 3 to 10 1,323 31.50 Redimmaple ses 355s 0st Rec cc teveew cae ne 30.1 88 7.5 2to12 785 18. 69 BCECh ee neaitece hac nnieebicece ne recente 15.1 136 4.8 1to10 394 9.38 BSUparIAD Oe etre ie bier ere areal terete) taletotar ete 4.0 16 6.5} 2to 9 103 2.45 MOCO eM ae ee nan a in esse ner eisieiaions 100.0 ISAS a Dae pe eee eS SRE 2,605 62. 02 Colchester Township, Delaware County, N. Y.; altitude 1,300 feet; slope 20 per cent, east by south; soil very scant, fresh, brown, loamy sand with thin humus layer, over large, flat, loose sandstone fragments; plot one-eighth acre, surrounded by mixed second-growth containing scattered older trees; density 0.9; reproduction, a few larger seedlings of yellow birch and red and sugar maples. am. | THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. De Plot No. 17.—Age, 45 years; yield, 24.9 cords per acre; height of dominant trees, 55 to 60 feet. Diameter breast- Propor- high. Average = tien ee Volume | annual Species. based on nee Bis per acre. | growth volume. ; s Ex- per acre. Average.| tromes. | Per cent. Inches. | Inches. | Cubic feet.) Cubic feet. AVEGarba mM lemereer sone cccicess's cise cis oateieele - 40.5 228 5.5 1 to 10 856 19. 02 Wiellowabin chats ass eyo ticioe ens wins aia’ 26.9 348 4.0 lto 9 570 | 12.67 BI aCKaDILC Weerace = cela seetesec se 26.4 124 5.9 2to 9 558 12.40 Cini EBVO on5 cas SOG Ne ROMO Re Eee eee eee 4.1 96 BO) | Wie 7 86 1.91 IBCEC HEPES See ee scciscisscicacec ccs ces ee eit 116 2.1 1lto 4 24 «03 Mineacheunymert Acs ons 2e- se ste st esee et ahi) 8 3.8 lto 5 11 e24 MEMVICeNDELLYete ace Jocs ss ace nets cnctecese 3 20 2.6 lto 4) 7 16 TOM WOO Ue ace cinci-c sis ai(njsieis is cecie oe 2 8 2.3 1lto 3 4 09 DIN Ga pre oat yates yaac teers ees 100.0 QaS Nee snale aes 2,116 47.02 Colchester Township, Delaware County, N. Y.; altitude 1,400 feet; slope 20 per cent, northwest; soil very scant, fresh, brown, loamy sand in interstices of loose sandstone fragments; humus thin; plot one- fourth acre, in similar stand covering 1 or 2 acres; density 0.9; reproduction very scanty; a few small sugar maple and birch seedlings, and an occasional hemlock sapling; most of the red maples and beeches are sprouts; the birches are mostly seedlings. THINNED PLOT. [Originally similar to plot No. 15 in composition and yield.] Plot No. 18.—Age, 32 years; yield, 9.7 cords per acre; average height of dominant tree, 50 feet. Diameter breast- Propor- high. Average Speci tion Number Volume | annual peck: based on | 47 acre per acre. | growth volume. |? is eee Ex- per acre. Average. ecemies Per cent. Inches. | Inches. | Cubic feet.) Cubic feet. AWA CTAB ree he mic ocinciycemcecein sees 44.7 200 4.2 2 to 6 370 11.56 Red maple. . sae 43.8 104 5.8 4to8 262 11.31 TIECIE COO AyE ane secon ane eee EEC ee eEeeEees SIE 16 6.5 6 to 7 74 2.31 BASS WOOUR oe nee Seetne == APPENDIX. VOLUME TABLES. BOARD-FOOT VOLUMES. The following tables give the average volumes in board feet of forest-grown beech, basswood, yellow birch, and sugar maple trees of different sizes, in terms of the number of possible 16-foot logs and half logs in the tree. Since among trees of the same size some will be straight and usable to a small diameter at the top, while others break up into branches at considerably larger diameters, the Lake States measurements were separated on this basis, and appear in three tables, headed maximum, average, and minimum utilization. The tables from the other regions represent only the average utilization. The tables were prepared by the Scribner Decimal C rule, and show in each case the stump height, top diameter limit, and number of trees on which they are based. ‘‘Diameter breast-high” is the diameter at a height of 44 feet. The tables are based on measurements of sound trees of normal shape only. TaBLE 14.— Yellow birch in New Hampshire,' volumes in board feet. Number of 16-foot logs. Diam- Diameter eter : breast+ $ | 1 13 | 2 2k | 3 | 34 | inside ue Basis. high. bark Ba. of top. Volume—board feet in tens. Inches. Inches. Feet. Trees. 7 1 1 2 3) lesecwalsamasslesees 6 Dell 2, 8 1 2 2 3 Are ee saan 6 2.1 8 9 1 2 3 4 HYMN, Seaaas boceds 7 2.2 24 10 2 3 4 5 Ca3tuth ats a ereee 7 252 43 i 2 4 5 6 ial bapanc Soodee 8 OD) 44 12 3 5 6 8 Om | Psaee eee 8 252 45 13 3 6 8 9 DA eee I Sie ee 9 252 36 14 4 7 9 11 13 TA eee 9 253) 35 15 4 8 11 13 15 Mee paories 10 2.3 47 16 5 10 13 15 17 TS rey | Bese ee 11 2.3 40 17 6 11 15 18 20 Dit | eee 11 2.4 32 18 7 13 17 20 23 PRS Vrcselee 12 2.4 38 19 8 14 20 23 26 DEO s ener 13 2.4 36 20 9 16 22 26 30 33 36 13 205 39 21 30 34 37 41 14 2.5 28 22 33 38 42 47 15 2.6 21 23 36 42 48 53 15 2.6 24 24 40 47 53 59 16 P27 21 25 44 51 58 64 16 PAT 23 26 48 56 63 70 17 2.8 17 27 52 61 69 76 18 2.9 14 28 ig) 66 74 82 18 2.9 17 29 62 71 80 88 19 3.0 7 30 67 77 86 95 20 0) Sl Weaeneae 31 72 82 92 | 101 20 By Il 5 32 78 88 98 | 108 21 Bi i ay 651 1 Grafton County. pee scaled as cut, 10 to 16 feet long, by Scribner Decimal C rule. Utilization as close as form of tree allowed. 1 Credit is due to W. B. Barrows, of the Forest Service, for the working up from field data of all the tables in the Appendix not credited to other sources. 47 48 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 15.— Yellow birch in the Lake States,! volumes in board feet. AVERAGE TOP DIAMETERS. Number of 16-foot logs. Diameter Dee preast- | 13 | 2 | 2h | 3 | Bh ial Poses oe | ease high. top Volume—board feet Inches. Inches. Trees. 8 23 Gia (erect ened beer Sa nee 6 11 9 30 CORT | epee ner arieee eene eaee 6 17 10 36 54 72 68 ise nee age hee 6 26 11 43 63 84 100. A)sascEhR! 6 17 12 50 73 97 120) |e Te 27 13 57 |= 2.83 110 140 170 7 20 14 65 94 130 160 190 7 16 15 73 110 140 180 210 8 8 16 82 120 160 200 240 8 16 7, Uses oe ese 140 180 230 270 9 15 1 Fe Fecal [anes ace 160 210 260 300 9 15 AO ee Syorereee- avers 180 230 290 340 10 13 PO ese 200 270 330 380 10 9 VARS e Sepeeeee 230 300 370 430 11 6 D2 leit stem 260 340 410 490, 12 3 Ys eel eer sesoee 290 380 460 550 12 5 DA. | aye ccrsiets 330 430 510 610 13 4 Poa een ee 360 470 570 680 14 4 26) Tare ees 400 520 630 750 15 2 Qi. sees sini 440 570 690 830 16. ssie yee 28.0 | cee ences 480 620 760 900 16 1 ZO Se ea 520 670 830 980 17 2 S0e) [Sze sees 560 720 900 1,050 LT oe 1 Gogebic and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis. Scaled from taper curves by Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16:3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Stump height, 1 foot. TABLE 16.— Yellow birch in the Lake States,’ volumes in board feet. Diameter, breast- high. Average utilization. MINIMUM TOP DIAMETERS. Number of 16-foot logs. 32 43 40 52 49 62 58 73 69 85 81 98 94 110 Boole sald) eae Wale) DOKG| 25 seis el sacar ee Goh tt Bes asocd acoanerc 78 Wey eaSSeacc 90 LO cst ee eteeaia 710 | 820 | 920 780 | 890 | 1,010 Diameter inside bark of top. Inches. id BN HOS ODDANAGAHAARWAWAARWAAOOD Basis. 1 Gogebic and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis. Scaled from taper curves by Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Stump height 1 foot. Close utilization. THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. TABLE 17.— Yellow birch in the Lake States,! volumes in board feet. MAXIMUM TOP DIAMETERS. Diameter, breast- high. Inches. Number of 16-foot logs. Dame 1 inside F 1 | 14 | 2 Barker Basis. top. Volume—board feet. Inches. Trees 23) Ware bce yeas Te 11 QR) i alee Pe ee nee uf 17 33 fa) a Rp SS 8 26 39 62) || Asses 8 17 45 75 110 9 27 52 87 120 10 20 60 100 140 10 16 68 120 150 11 8 78 130 170 12 16 88 150 190 12 15 98 170 210 13 15 110 190 240 14 13 120 210 260 14 9 140 240 290 15 6 150 270 320 16 3 170 300 360 17 5 190 330 400 7, 4 210 360 450 18 4 23 400. 500 19 2 260 440 550 al? etl eee ss 280 480 600 20 1 310 520 650. 21 2 340 570 ; 710 DD heel mrseeyere Stay | | 237 1 Gogebic and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis. Scaled from taper curves by Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Stump height 1 foot. Poor utilization. Taste 18.—Beech in New Hampshire,: volumes in board feet. 49 Number of 16-foot logs. : Diameter Diameter, seks Beeston yates ols“) 2 vol ines | ieee SES PSTD cist high. top oe Volume—board feet in tens. Inches. Inches. Feet. Trees 7 1 1 Pai Vs teres tl eM A |e Ih oe Ba 6 1.8 1 8 1 2 Bic | ape] Sata | ea ars 6 ef} 3 9 2 3 4 Ratt | eee stl | eri rial tape ee 7 1.9 4 10 2 4 5 Gir 51 2) Fie epee aaa a 8 1.9 11 Tal 3 4 6 8 ee ae evel aes mee 8 2.0 24 12 3 6 8 9 TELA Pie pan TS a 9 2.0 35 3} 4 7 9 11 13 Daal ea 10 2.0 45 14 5 8 11 13 16 UST Pes li Za! 41 15 6 10 13 16 19 21 24 11 Pil 45 We Nees = 11 15 19 22 26 29 12 lt 43 yen eee 13 17 22 26 30 34 13 252 37 TUSta ay ent eee |e Bale eae 20 20 30 35 39 13 262; 28 TI) eee IP es 23 30 35 40 44 14 252, 10 PAD esas | es etree pees 34 39 44 49 15 2.2 18 7A is ests soe | Soe Weis SAC 38 44 49 54 15 ee 11 PD) | AR ae Se ce ee 42 48 4B} 59 16 223 11 EE Mets ese lle cP sell epee 46 52 58 64 17 8) 8 Gon RAR Se BS cre a ea Poe 49 56 62 69 17 2.3 1 376 : 1 Grafton County. Frees Sealed as cut, 10 to 16 feet long, by the Scribner Decimal C rule. Utilization as close as form of tree allowed. 637°—Bull. 285—15——4 50 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe 19.—Beech in Pennsylvania,’ volumes in board feet. Number of 16-foot logs. Diam- Dent: ee) 2 3% | 3 33 4 inside | Basi breast- 4 2 as high bark of F top. Volume—board feet. Inches Inches Trees. 1 47 67 87 LTO ee Sek ve Sete 14 11 52 77 100 SOM eects 7 6 12 61 91 120 150 170 7 6 13 74 110 140 17 200 7 8 14 92 130 170 200 230 8 11 15 120 160 200 230 270 8 5 16 150 190 230 270 310 9 13 i7 180 220 270 310 360 9 10 18 220 260 310 350 410 10 10 aS eee pears 290 350 400 460 11 il QOnS Se eas 330 390 450 510 il 5 PAL ee acres 370 430 500 570 12 6 DOA es eceiseis= 400 470 560 640 13 2 QSiralesaicts cee 440 520 610 710 14 5 Oy eos BAe 490 570 670 780 15 2 DONG | eset ae 530 620 740 870 16 1 D6 ial so nastosee Geese 670 810 960 17 1 Dr Bird Bes eae eects 720 890 1, 050 LS se see QErG Vacs dace sico ssc 780 960 1,150 190 twee Ped Bea eee eS 830 | 1,040 | 1,260 20 1 SON | ecesseigslesecece 880 1,120 1,370 21 1 McKean County. Height of stump, 1.5 to 3.3 feet. Scaled by the Scribner Decimal C rule. TABLE 20.—Beech in Michigan,: volumes in board feet. AVERAGE TOP DIAMETERS. Number of 16-foot logs. Diam- Diet ee 1 1} 2 24 3 33 4 43 inside | Basis. reast- bark of high. top Volume—board feet. Inches. Inches. | Trees. 6 16 25 34 43 Bo eikiewel seaeadleemereces 6 2 A Werf A OY En al Pear oH BO EA Gy yl fs me Ba Se (RSL ET 6 13 | 8 18 29 41 55 71 89+ ,).ba xen nite See. S28 6 20 9 20 32 46 63 81 LOO seek eee 6 ll 10 22 37 52 72 93 110 130) eee see 6 23 11 24 42 60 83 110 130 160M eee eee 6 22 12 26 47 69 96 120 150 180 210 7 30 13 28 53 80 110 140 180 210 240 7 19 14 30 60 93 120 160 200 240 280 7 25 15 33 68 110 140 180 230 270 310 8 26 16 36 77 120 160 210 250 300 350 8 28 LZ pi RoR 85 140 190 240 290 340 400 9 14 Si hl Saeeine 95 160 210 270 320 390 450 9 14 LO) GR Ss 110 180 240 310 370 430 500 10 9 AVG | BRASS OREN IG 200 280 350 420 490 560 10 6 DA Gat es Pee iene 220 320 390 470 550 630 il 7 221 E eee ysa\| (cle armearale 250 360 440 530 620 710 12 8 OVAL Meme sia|| ote rey sy ettl| ereratetetace 400 500 600 690 800 12 4 PT Gl oc ea mismo OF 440 560 670 780 890 13 3 DD Lieto ere i Ns: etciaial| Seis etetarsll eters emer 620 740 860 1,000 14 1 DOM tetas wis | eeraters iets lmictaistetcns)l teat 680 8280 960 1,110 NO || ere 285 1 Wexford County. Scaled from taper curves, by the Scribner Decimal C rule, mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs. Stump height, 1 foot. Average utilization. THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 51 TABLE 21.—Beech in Michigan, volumes in board feet. MINIMUM TOP DIAMETERS. Number of 16-foot logs. Diam- Dian eee 1 pepe te 2h 3 33 4 4h 5 inside | Basis. | Teast- bark of li high. top. H Volume—hboard feet \ Inches. Inches. | Trees. 6 16 25 Oh Wee oo 8,5 a eased 2| RRS [ae tareal cote eearellaeiereere ee 6 2 7 17 27 es | Re ere eet em ers ee Oh One is caste ee ae 6 13 8 18 29 41 Ch Sa Rete Stor h oo Goo ceclte eco aalceeeenerse 6 20 9 19 31 44 60 Yi ae eae Bocllame pacalteoc asl io Eee as 6 11 10 20 33 48 66 86 TOO) gh ee ee 6 23 11 21 35 54 73 96 120 Teepe sca Peabo see ts 6 22 12 22 38 60 81 110 130 160 DON) ee oes ae 6 30 TGS) fl ea es 40 66 89 120 150 190 230N seuee ob 6 19 Ay || eee 43 73 98 130 170 210 260K Seca ee ce 6 | 25 LN Sete is soaks 81 110 150 190 230 280 330 6 26 1G Ee Ss ee ee 90 120 17 210 260 310 360 6 28 ICG) la) see a a a 130 180 230 290 340 390 6 14 . Se Tea) Sees EE ese eee 140 200 260 320 370 430 6 14 Le ee See Hee tel IIE) lors eset 230 300 360 420 470 6 9 QO Mees -|3 2-6 -|-ccccslaeeeees 250 340 410 470 530 6 6 LI ERS |e Shes |emysh all eter eis | eV Sm ere aie 390 460 530 600 7 7 PPA) HB | eS: el See aS cece ed ee 450 520 600 670 7 8 333}, HIE Soe] CIC aey eine era eel te Lie 520 590 670 750 8 4 PHY UN O33 a ere et SEP TEN |b See an et a 590 670 760 $50 8 3 OAs) OI Sere fears tae Aen! lege Stee gel |b eee a 660 750 850 950 9 1 OTM eet lore | Br cate es, sraresarcis| sinttie cies [let Soe. = 750 850 940 1,040 LOM skeet 285 1 Wexford County. Scaled from taper curves, by the Scribner Decimal C rule, mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs. Stump height, 1 foot. Close utilization. TABLE 22.—Beech in Michigan,! volumes in board feet. MAXIMUM TOP DIAMETERS. Number of 16-foot logs. 3 SS || _ Diameter Diameter, mache, , breast- 1 | 14 | 2 | 24 | 3 eee Basis. high. of top. Volume—board feet. Inches. Inches. Trees. 6 20 PH feel Eee aoe aaes Hoon besone ce 6 2 7 22 32 DE ene rte el Wee 6 13 8 24 37 52 68s lee Cerys i 20 9 27 44 63 83 110 7 11 10 32 53 75 97 120 8 23 11 36 63 88 110 140 8 22 | 12 42 74 100 130 160 9 30 13 48 87 120 150 190 10 19 14 56 100 140 180 210 10 25 15 65 120 160 200 250 itt 26 16 75 130 180 230 280 12 8 17 87 150 210 270 330 12 14 18 98 170 240 300 370 13 14 19 130 190 270 340 420 14 9 20 140 220 300 380 470 14 6 PATS hes a= 240 340 430 520 15 i DO || etna Bee! 270 380 480 580 16 8 GBS. fy] heres etal 300 420 530 650 17 4 BY. |e fe a 460 590 730 17 3 DB iar eisai eee 500 660 820 18 1 cM area Napa ia 540 730 920 Tie | ear oc 1 W exford County. Scaled from taper curves, by the Scribner Decimal C rule, mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs. Stump height, 1 foot. Poor utilization. 52 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 23.—Sugar maple in New Hampshire, volumes in board feet. Diameter, breast- high. Number of 16-foot logs. 3h 4 Volume—board feet in tens. Inches. on ooon Logs sealed as cut, 8 to 16 feet long, by the Scribner Decimal C rule. allowed. OouR ROH OmIS84 RWW 1 Grafton County. Diameter, inside bark of top. Inches. Bee RFPOOCOMOMAINIM GD Heigh ‘of |B stump. oN NNN NN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN A STOOD MAMMDUMNIEERWWNNNRR HEE HODOCO asis. S > . 3 d is ~ 360 Utilization as close as form of tree TABLE 24.—Sugar maple in Pennsylvania,! volumes in board feet. Height of stump, 1.8 to 3.2 feet. 1 McKean County. Logs sealed by the Scribner Decimal C rule. Number of 16-foot logs. : Diameter Diameter snore ? breast- : 24 | 3 | 33 4 ee Basis. high. of top. Volume—board feet. Inches. Inches. Trees. 10 63 ASO) Ts) Nea ies Se as ee 6 4 11 74 LOO fall = serra ets Se 7 3 12 86 T20 aga. oseasce SE as ae 7 2 IR} 99 IS rt Pega dese Seal et setae oe 8 ? 14 110 150 210) | Sis sae see 8 2 15 130 170 230 Fr Rape aie 8 2 16 150 190 260 320 9 4 /Ee | SE oe 220 290 360 10 7 TS gle hee' als 250 330 410 10 5 aS eS ee oe 280 370 460 | yt 1 20 320 410 510 ll 3 21 360 460 570 12 2 22 400 510 640 ae Yam (eter 23 440 560 710 13; /6:. =e 24 480 620 780 14 1 25 530 680 850 15). jbsoteeee 26 580 740 920 nL ye ee 2H We Sais ratte = 630 810 1, 000 16 2 8) Blestectecocke 680 880. 1,070 16 1 41 THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 58 TABLE 25.—Sugar maple in the Lake States,! volumes in board feet. AVERAGE TOP DIAMETERS. Number of 16-foot logs. Diameter, Diameter , preast- || 13 | 2 | 2 [ps Bao lh 8g | 4 piside | Basis. high. top. Volume—board feet. Inches. Inches. Trees. 8 25 31 BSN oe o | Re cer ee|| ees 6 21 9 30 40 D0) Soc e a Ese bees | eres € 35 10 37 47 62 76 Q4 ease 6 23 11 43 59 76 93 1110) Rees 6 26 12 50 79 91 110 140 170 U 25 13 57 82 110 130 160 190 7 20 14 65 95 130 160 190 220 ii 22 15 73 1G 150 180 220 250 8 16 16 83 120 170 210 250 290 8 22 17 93 149 190 240 280 330 9 7 18 100 160 220 270 320 380 9 13 EON Se 180 240 300 370 430 10 6 AO ls a ee 200 270 340 410 490 10 9 PANIES Bee ee 220 300 380 460 550 11 7 29) ets. 250 340 420 520 620 12 U 7B lee Sees 280 370 470 580. 690 12 6 OA Sa: gee 310 410 520 640 770 13 2 Dope Sea 340 460. 570 710 840 14 6 265 fos. ori 370 500 630 780 930 15 1 DTS RSS ells aieee wee 550 690 860 | 1,020 15 2 28i5| yee = aci'= see ASE 600 760 940 | 1,110 T6u| Re asesios AON SORE. cia] ok SASS 650 820 1,020 1, 210 DTH ree. 5 hs SO) |Reeee sal scceace 690 890 | 1,110] 1,300 Wi, 2 278 1 Gogebic and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis. Scaled from taper curves by Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Stump height, 1 foot. Average utilization. TABLE 26.—Sugar maple in the Lake States, volumes in board feet. MINIMUM TOP DIAMETERS. Number of 16-foot logs. IDI | EES Py emote, breast- 2 | 2h | 3 | a | 4 | 43 | 5 ace. |lasese! high. top. Volume—board feet. = Inches. Inches. Trees. ‘ 8 28 38 4B) le severe Iie Sasi es eee ere eet seereis 6 21 ; 9 36 49 (O08 Demecanallscacoees acaersen sececeee 6 35 { 10 44 60 (C8 Beeetos |-saocacd Hesecdas so ceeere 6 23 li 53 73 89s) Se aed lease lescict incall mee eceise 6 26 12 63 86 100 120 SOM | Cae et sceveeiatoe 6 25 13 74 100 120 140 ALO Berean (ose 6 20 14 86 110 140 160 190 220 260 6 22 15 98 130 160 190 210 250 290 6 16 16 110 140 180 210 240 280 330 6 22 17 120 160 206 240 270 320 370 6 “a 18 140 180 220 260 300 360 420 6 13 IG) Serato sl area 240 290 340 400 470 6 6 7AD) HE aye eames 270 320 380 450 520 6 9 AEs Reena RAE ee 290 360 430 500 590 uh 7 OP) ae eos SOAS 320 390 480 560 660 7 7 23 emia ere eters e 360 440 530 630 730 8 6 DAN eter nt were icra aie civ 390 480 590 700 820 8 2 EN Sb ered aa eeotee 430 530 650 770 910 9 6 716) al ein Ae Aes acl 480 590 720 860 | 1,000 10 1 ON falls eae ese al Heese 530 650 800 950 | 1,120 10 2 ABM rceroys eeteel nce ee a 590 720 890 | 1,050 | 1,230 AO eee DOM eau eee So 650 810 980 | 1,160 | 1,360 Tip) is Os BI 20 een ee ae 720 900 | 1,080 | 1,280} 1,500 13 2 278 1 Gogebic and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis. Scaled from taper curves by the Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Stump height, 1 foot. Close utilization. —— 54 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 27.—Sugar maple in the Lake States,: volumes in board feet. MAXIMUM TOP DIAMETERS. Number of 16-foot logs. Diameter, Diane, ; breast- 1 14 2 24 DATKOe Basis. high. top Volume—board feet. Inches. | Inches. Trees. 8 18 50) |S aee ea ie ee 7 21 9 24 576 Heo soe I ee Re 7 35 10 30 (say Fe bY Oe 2 LE es as CY 8 23 11 37 (Pid Bate sere a bee Sects Secs 8 26 12 44 84 110 130 9 25 13 51 95 120 150 10 20 14 59 110 140 170 10 22 15 68 120 160 190 11 16 16 77 130 180 220 12 22 17 88 150 210 250 12 7 18 99 170 230 290 13 13 19 110 190 260 320 14 6 20 130 210 290 370 14 9 21 140 230 330 410 15 7 22 160 260 360 460 16 7 23 180 290 410 510 17 § 24 200 320 450 560 17 2 25 220 360 500 620 18 6 26 240 400 540 680 19 1 27 270 440 590 740 19 2 28 300 480 640 800 20.|oc-eee eee 29 330 520 690 850 yA Be aeeeee.s 30 360 570 740 910 22 2 278 1 Gogebic and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis. Scaled from taper curves by the Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Stump height,1foot. Poor utilization. THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. TABLE 28.—Basswood in the Lake States,’ volumes in board feet. AVERAGE TOP DIAMETERS. Number of 16-foot logs. Diameter, Diameter : breast- 2 24 3 34 4 44 eee Basis. high. top. Volume—hboard feet. Inches Inches. Trees. 8 30 47 60) fs ccaase SES a eee ess 6 6 9 36 53 i Rese era 6 seree celia fesaee 6 9 10 44 60 79 100 110) lsseb 5566 6 a 11 53 70 90 110 LAO) We ie ee 6 8 12 63 80 100 130 ONE oe Bees 7 iG 13 75 94 120 150 180 220 7 9 14 89 110 140 170 200 240 7 7 15 100 130 160 190 230 270 8 17 16 120 150 180 220 260 300 8 17 7: ee eae 170 210 25) 290 340 9 20 TD a soe 190 240 280 330 380 9 18 OS Se aes 210 270 320 370 430 10 14 20) 2 Ae i 240 300 360 420 480 10 31 OE le ess ees 270 340 400 470 540 11 21 27 RNG asa ote 300 380 450 520 600 12 14 23) | Bed.) 340 420 500 580 670 12 17 24 epee 380 470 560 650 750 13 19 Phy aS ee 410 520 620 720 830 14 14 26 eae =. 450 57 680 790 920 15 17 Di Bao wees 500 620 750 870 | 1,010 15 8 PA ares 540 680. 820 960 1,100 16 9 29) aS 590 740 890 | 1,040] 1,190 ily 6 30) | Seceesee 640 800 970 1,130 1,290 17 4 SL | See 5. 690 870 1,050 1,220 1,400 18 8 SO) | ee eae 750 940 | 1,130] 1,310] 1,500 18 3 83) (AES s< 810 | 1,010} 1,210) 1,410] 1,610 19 3 REO eee 87 1,080} 1,290} 1,500] 1,720 20 4 SD ase eed; 930} 1,150} 1,380} 1,600} 1,830 20 1 aia Res oases 1,010 1,240 1,470 1,700 1,990 PA aeons Sie | See 1,080 | 1,320} 1,560] 1,800] 2,060 22 1 Siyilkee cee 1,150} 1,410| 1,650] 1900] 2,180 PN te eee SOE OER A. 1,220 | 1,490] 1,750] 2,000] 2,300 D8 We eisrsete 40) | 2625.0. 1,3C0 1,570 1,850 2,100 | 2,420 DA Nee aaa 319 1 Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich.; Tron and Price Counties, Wis. 5d Height of stump, 1 foot, scaled from taper curves, by the Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Average utilization. valerie 56 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 29.—Basswood in the Lake States,! volumes in board feet. MINIMUM TOP DIAMETERS. Number of 16-foot logs. Diameter,| . | | Diameter breast- || 13 | Pa Wa Ge ease 4 43 | 5 5 6 | parker | Basis. high. top. Volume—board feet Inches. Inches. | Trees. 8 16 7T Eee ns Maeno Scencond peepoced poodcocd ddoopnce| Hebsoocd boaacces 6 6 i) 18 28 fe epee erode ee acococd bosdcocd Goptocsd baasanen bacanscc 6 9 10 23 34 52 67 (3 (68) pens ate Pieces bares oe al fo ok eel ees ee 6 7 il 29 42 61 7 97 O40) Bia Ae Aa Oe oe BAe pcel baackoce 6 8 12 38 52 73 91 110 140 170 1h eeeseeee oecnadc 6 7 3 49 66 87 | 110 130 160 190 210 {eet oosse| Se sees 6 9 14 63 82} 100} 120 150 180 210 240 260 )\i ree 6 7 15 80 | 100} 120}; 140 170 200 230 260 290 Noe Skene 6 17 16} 100} 120; 140] 160 190 220 250 290 320 350 6 17 LG) sacl eats 160 | 180 210 250 280 320 350 390 6 20 LSz ak See eee 180 | 200 240 280 310 360 390 440 6 18 BR J Veen esa Fee 230 270 310 350 400 440 490 6 14 20) 2k Sal Resta eae 250 310 350 390 440 490 540 6 31 QA) Le S| Aes ied 2 tse ee 340 390 430 490 550 610 7 21 D2} ete e| Sees | eiseee or | seers 380 430 480 540 610 680 7 14 23 |------|---2--|-<<=--|P5---- 430 480 530 610 680. 760 8 17 DA SS al Ree tors | ereteare | ees 470 530 590 680 760 850 8 19 PAs) eee ees pees |S rome | eee 520 580 660 750 850 950 9 14 640 720 820 940 | 1,050 10 17 700 790 900 | 1,030} 1,160 10 8 760 870 990°) = 1,130 "|. 12270 11 9 830 950 | 1,080} 1,240] 1,390 12 6 900 | 1,030} 1,180] 1,340] 1,510 12 4 970 | 1,120} 1,280} 1,460] 1,640 13 8 1,040 | 1,210] 1,390] 1,580] 1,770 13 3 1,120} 1,300] 1,500} 1,700] 1,900 14 3 1,200} 1,400] 1,610] 1,830] 2,040 14 4 1,290 | 1,500] 1,730] 1,960] 2,190 15 1 1,370 | 1,610| 1,850] 2,090] 2,340 16)| eee 1,460 | 1,710 | 1,980] 2,230] 2,490 16 1 1,560 | 1,830] 2,110] 2,380] 2,640 yi beseone 1,660 | 1,940} 2,230] 2,530] 2,800 17 aeene 1,760 | 2,060] 2,360| 2,680] 2,950 183s 319 1 Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich.; Tron and Price Counties, Wis. Height of stump, 1 foot, sealed from taper curves, by the Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Close utilization. THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 57 TABLE 30.—Basswood im the Lake States,! volumes in board feet. MAXIMUM TOP DIAMETERS. Number of 16-foot logs. Diameter, Dinmeter breast- Tages 1 14 2 Warkor Basis. high. top. Volume—board feet. Inches. Inches. Tees. 8 7 1 GR tS aa Eee ca 7 6 9 10 DB} sl sats Ss ere Calg pater pees 7 9 10 14 PA aa eperemns bera DS WEIR hd 8 7 11 17 BD's. Ss | Meee 8 8 12 21 43 74 100 9 7 13 26 51 85 120 10 9 14 3l 61 97 140 10 7 1 S08 | etree sil 73 110 150 il 17 WGN eeceaseats 86 130 170 12 17 eee ete see 100 150 190 12 20 Peabo s. Sas 120 170 220 13 18 Oe |S sre Aer 130 190 240 14 14 XD) oi Fare Lye 3 150 210 270 14 31 OS See ee EER 170 240 300 15 21 ava |e aie aaron 190 260 340 16 14 Qe ow saede 210 290 380 17 17 OA be ees one et 230 330 420 17 19 Pen eee 250 360 470 18 14 Otel esi icetiss 270 390 520 19 17 PY fie eee aeese 290 430 570 19 8 Dee | a ae ee 320 470 620 20 9 PAU) al tes oe eater 340 500 670 21 6 BOM alesis ces 370 540 720 22 4 Obie eesyernteterastele 390 580 770 22 8 SOM ale Seesaw 420 620 830 23 3 BBs eS aage meas 450 660 880 24 3 By aa 480 710 940 24 4 SOR Meee eres 510 750 1,000 25 1 Bia lhe Sane Ses 540 800 1,060 OTD | eeeeerocd Bile all Seaton 570 840 1,120 26 i SIS bill ashe aie 600 890 1,180 PY fit sae tae BOBS GEE Sesion 630 940 1,240 2801 Saea teens AQia Peach cecine 670 990 1,310 O} Sarl see eee 319 1 Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich.; Iron and Price Counties, Wis. Height of stump, 1 foot, scaled from taper curves by_the Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Poor utilization. +58 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CUBIC-FOOT VOLUMES. These tables give the average volumes in cubic feet of forest-grown yellow birch, beech, sugar maple, and basswood trees of different sizes. They are based on stem and branch taper measurements of the trees from which the preceding board-foot tables were made. The volumes are shown separately for ‘‘logs’” and ‘‘topwood.”’ The cubic-foot volume of ‘“‘logs” includes the stem of the tree between the same stump heights and top diameters as for the board-foot tables, except that for the Lake States tables only the ‘‘average” top diameters were used. The volume of “‘top”’ is for the portion of the main stem above the upper diameter given, plus the solid volume of all branches suitable for cordwood to a minimum diameter of about 2 inches outside bark at the middle of a 5-foot stick, except for basswood, the branches of which were measured to a minimum middle diameter of 4 inches. The tables for the Lake States also give the per cent of bark based on the cubic volume of the stem with bark. For basswood and beech the per cent of bark varied consistently with breasthigh diameter; for birch and maple there was no consistent variation. Table 37 gives the cubic volume of red maple on the Harvard Forest, Petersham, Mass. TABLE 31.— Yellow birch in the Lake States, volumes in cubic feet. : Total height of tree—feet. is 4 a | 2 % 40 50 | 60 | 70 80 | 90 = | Basis, trees. 5 Els 2 Volume 2 including bark—cubic feet. Foo i) 2) : : E =| n n n n 8 n n n & Sl) BS eS ie alee oy SG gtaie lb cotsineer eer as eo 26 > a 4 a 4 a H mal 4 a 4 iS 4 a a A & In. In Cy eeeeee OUSs| cronies By Be Ssoeo| Sooo Sscoosd Bodeed Seaced |ssoced paccon Besa |seSee|[sssascieace - OM eerie TO Bseceso SH stetereiare 1 Ee bndoade soeece rocdad sceded sceeso Soaccd secea-|ls5+05- 6 Oi baaoce GEE eA ea Al ca eat alts} 1674) eS) Bases Hocoed facies] bpaoond Sackee a 4 U llndosne Lot 4c 0) LO ie Ao8. e250 EO 0 RN) RECS ie Kee Bedoee Bases eos - 12| 12 Sil eeraees LON Zeon |e oan aden |) haste 8.5 | 2.6) 9.2] 2.6) 10.1] 2.6 6 IY) 1k Of ee cyeel ese 9.:9),\, 22545110: 51) 2°6)). 11.6 | 259.) 12089) 2.911453 | 2.9 6 IVA eal OM erepersters| Sarees 1256) 257 | 18-47)" (3.01) LoD WS. 2 5165 Sera. 28 18S rise 6 26 | 26 IDL aero ABaoss 15.6 | 3.1 | 16.6 } 93.4) 18.9") °3.7 ]-21.0']°3.:7'| 24.0") 3.7 6 Ya a i, 10) | becaoe|asoass 18.6 | 3.6] 20.0] 4.0] 23.0] 4.2] 26.0) 4.2} 29.0] 4.2 7 27) 27 18) |lcseune sooted 22.0] 4.3] 24.0] 4.7] 28.0] 4.9] 31.0] 4.9] 34.0] 4.9 7 20 | 20 Wie Neb Seed Bankes 25.0 { 5.1] 28.07 5.5) 32.0/{ 5.9] 36.0] 5.9] 40.0); 59 7 16) 17 1G) S6Scoen\sosnod| hepeoallascoes 33.0] 6.6] 38.0] 7.1] 42.0] 7.1] 46.0] 7.1 8 8 8 UG) les Scoce||Saqq0s| beoo7s||baco0d 38.0} 8.0} 43.0] 8.4] 48.0] 84] 52.0] 8.4 8 16 }- 14 BTS | einwe| eee ee een a [beeen 44.0] 9.6] 49.0] 9.9] 54.0] 9.9 | 58.0] 9.9 9} 15] 15 (hy Secepd bested) saenbelaoaces 50.0] 11.3; 56.0} 11.5 ; 61.0} 11.5 | 65.0 | 11.5 9 15; 15 10) eebede bacood Mpcasal esooee 56.0 | 13.2 | 62.0] 13.3 | 67.0 | 13.3 | 72.0 | 13.3. 10 13] 12 770i ees5| apoac|boanedoceoc 63.0 | 15.2} 69.0} 15.2 | 74.0 | 15.2 | 79.0 | 15.2 10 9 7 Os ataraqsiain| nicie c\ac-|| ose eral ameristar eee ciel 75.0 | 17.2 | 81.0 | 17.2 | 87.0 | 17.2 11 6 5 DAM eee erersia|| sizfe <= =| \a'u ats sree ssl| Meteierecell cto 82.0 | 19.6 | 88.0 | 19.6 | 95.0 | 19.6 12 3| 2 75) exe aed sseada|saaode| Leseseloosccal mesode 88.0 | 22.0 | 96.0 | 22.0 {103.0 | 22.0 12 5 5 Fe es on) be Baad) |eaeeod| eecacla|esascs\lagontc 95.0 | 25.0 |103..0 | 25.0 [111.0 | 25.0 13 4 4 7A es cenol|Sanod) lagaoe seccculltsocbollSanoe 102.0 | 29.0 |111.0 | 29.0 |120.0 | 29.0 14 on 4 ise sel Beoeae) Posedalocecccl|iouads|b5cacc 109.0 | 32.0 |119.0 | 32.0 |129.0 | 32.0 15 2 2 94 Sc Bbonl anaes pisasoal Gacecd kiscacd tcseae 116.0 | 36.0 /127.0 | 36.0 |138.0 | 36.0 15) peer Ree ' 743) pe cace| bacoas|Keoros| bsescs| aces] ssn¢50 124.0 | 40.0 |135.0 | 40.0 |147.0 | 40.0 16 1 74) Oe Sl eloeco MoEeco toe aoclacoudlbaoeae 131.0 | 44.0 |144.0 | 44.0 156.0 | 44.0 17 Sar 10) ReSSoulE Banocl essen Boocealbcamce||Scocte 138.0 | 48.0 |152.0 | 48.0 |165,0 | 48.0 17 |.-----|------ 253 | 253 1 Gogebie and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis. 2 The ‘log’? volume is the solid contents of wood and bark between a stump height of 1 foot and the “diameter inside bark of top” shown in the 14th column. The volume of ‘‘top”’ is that contained in the ‘ stem above this point, and in addition all branches suitable for cordwood having a diameter, outside bark, , of 2inches or more at the middle of a 5-foot stick. The entire volume of trees too small to yield a 6-inch log is considered topwood. Bark comprises about 13 per cent of the total volume; there was no consistent variation with the size of the tree. THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 59 TABLE 32.—Beech in Michigan, volumes in cubic feet. Height of tree—feet. ro : 2) Ea | 50 | 60 70 | 80 90 | 100 Hal's | Basis, ae | | ~#| 2 | trees. Pest Volume 2 including bark—cubic feet. pale oe 3'5| 8 e . . iv} : beep llpn ed fe eth ep berlin tft Henrie seek eel rood ey ial () i=) >) ° ° i=) co) i=) ° ° fo) ic} (>) Oo prt o j-) ° A AIA IJH SIA eJAlel]A Je] Asa I]A/aAA Se In. In. Blesdall Osean al) WsQesoslisaca Bees Gocalldooe son\lsasoc Sec aletel Becelhes kaye 3 Necosl|, o8fSocal) dldliconn lie esas seal Segoe Seoleicercs Seoa|ladsossoal oll eas 3 6) 1.0) 1.0) 1.3} 1.3) 1.7) 1.6) 2.4) 1.9)/-..-- sosclosaos Bee eee | see O|pde Ol 2l 7| 2.9} 1.3] 3.5) 1.6) 4.7) 1.9) 6.2) 2.2)..... agas|soacc Sho anode Gabelli, MAN Cots ail 8] 4.9] 1.5] 5.9] 1.8) 7.4) 2.2) 9.6] 2.5} 10.4) 2.8) 12.4) 3.1/....).... 6) 7.7] 20] 15 9) 7.1] 1.7] 8.2) 2. 1/10. 0) 2. 4/12. 3) 2. 8] 13.9] 3.2) 16.5] 3.5)....)..-- 6) 7.6) 11) 15 10] 9.4) 1.9/10. 7} 2. 3)12. 7) 2. 7/15. 4) 3.1) 17.8) 3.5) 21.0) 3.9) 24] 4.3) 6) 7.6) 23) 23 11}11. 8} 2. 2/13. 4| 2. 6)15. 3) 3.0/18. 8} 3.5) 22.0) 3.9) 26.0) 4.3) 29) 4.7] 6) 7.5) 22) 29 12/14. 4| 2. 4/16. 3) 2.918. 1) 3. 4/23. 0) 3.8) 27.0] 4.3) 31.0) 4.8) 35) 5.2) 7) 7.4) 30) 25 13}....|--.-|19. 3] 3. 2/21. 0) 3.7/27.0} 4.2] 32.0) 4.8) 36.0) 5.3) 41) 5.8) 7! 7.3) 19) 18 14}. -|22. 0) 3. 5/24. 0) 4. 1/31. 0} 4.7) 37.0) 5.3) 42.0) 5.9) 48) 6.5) 7) 7.2) 25) 25 US ees .-|25. 0) 3. 9)/27.0) 4. 5/35. 0} 5. 2) 48.0} 5.9} 49.0) 6.6) 54) 7.3] 8! 7.1) 26) 23 16)... -.-{27.0} 4. 3/30. 0} 4. 9/40. 0) 5.6} 49. 0} 6.5} 56.0} 7.5) 62) 8.5) 8] 7.0} 28) 21 il7|ae --|----|----|384.0) 5. 4/45. 0) 6.3] 55.0} 7.3) 63.0) 8.5) 70) 9.7] 9] 6.9] 14) 14 1fe]|aee 37.0} 5.9/51. 0) 7.0} 62.0) 8.3) 71.0] 9.6) 7811.0" 9) 6.8) 14) 10 19] - - : -.-|----|56. 0} 8.1} 69.0) 9.6) 79.0]11.1) 87/12.6} 10) 6.7) 9] 6 20)... -|62. 0) 9. 5) 76. O}11. 2} 87.0)13.0) 96/14. 8) 10) 6.6) 6) 5 21|.. - -/69. 0/11. 6] 84. 0/13. 5] 96. 0/15. 4) 105]17.3) 11) 6.5) 7) 8 22). - .-|75. O}14. 8} 92. 0/16. 6/104. 0/18. 3) 115)20.0) 12) 6.4) 8) 4 23). - <-|-- 81. 0/18. 1)100. 0/20. 0/113. 0/21. 7) 125/23.0; 12) 6.3) 4) 1 24)... | seulldacdibsaualboce 123. 0/25. 0} 135/27.0) 13) 6.2) 3).... Bn o44| aco 4|iccalosolpuoullasatlesoliages| boeeel cose 132. 0/29. 0} 145/31.0) 14) 6.1) Jj... 26 dsallboon|bese 6 »2-[142, 0/33. 0) 156/35. 0) 15) 6.0) “ 286/259 1 Wexford County. 2 The ‘‘log’”’ volume is the solid contents of wood and bark between a stump height of 1 foot and the * diameter inside bark of top”’ shown in the sixteenth column. The volume of ‘‘top”’ is that contained in the stem above this point, and in addition all branches suitable for cordwood, having a diameter, outside bark, of 2 inches or more at the middle of a 5-foot stick. The entire volume of trees too small to yield a 6-inch log is considered topwood. TABLE 33.—Beech in Pennsylvania, volumes in cubic feet. Total height of tree—feet. A Diameter Diameter, Volume] = .- ’ breast- 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | 110 | of top ase Basis. Q wood. high Volume 2 of logs including bark—cubic gow top. feet. Inches. Cu. ft. | Inches. Trees. 8 8.8 10.1 VDSS AS SRE eee rae cia 2.8 6 2 9 11.4 13.0 LA GPa a ce Re nee ea act 3.3 6 6 10 14.3 16.4 18.4 20 nites (os 4.1 6 8 11 Ue 20.0 23.0 B45) at Se gage 5.0 7 6 HDX 1) PBAIA) 24.0 28.0 31 34 5.9 7 6 13 26.0 29.0 33.0 37 40 7.1 7 8 14 30.0 34.0 39.0 43 47 8.8 8 11 15 35.0 40.0 45.0 50 55 10.9 8 5 16 : ; 57 63 13.4 9 13 17 65 71 16.4 9 10 18 72 80 19.8 10 10 19 80 88 23.5 1) 11 20 88 96 27.3 ii 5 21 95 105 31.1 12 6 22 103 113 35.0 13 2 23 110 122 39.0 14 5 a 24 118 130 43.0 15 2 , 25 125 138 47.0 16 1 26 133 146 51.0 17 1 27 141 155 55.0 Ie ia een ea 28 149 164 59.0 gS ee ae ee 29 157 173 63.0 20 iL 30 164 181 68.0 21 1 120 1 McKean County. 2 The “lez” volume is the solid contents of wood and bark between an average stump height of 2.4 feet and the ‘‘diameter inside bark of top” shown in the eighth column. The volume of “top” is that con- tained in thestem above this point, and in addition all branches suitable for cord wood having a diameter, outside bark, of 2 inches or more at the middle of a 50-inch stick. 60 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe 34.—Sugar maple in Pennsylvania,! volumes in cubic feet. } Total height of tree—feet. : ; Diameter | | Diameter = | Volume F , t | 2 5 | breast- in | ey | YY | aes eS ee eae sie Basis. i wood. hugh: Volume 2 of logs HEUEMS bark—cubic top. | ee Inches. Cu.ft.| Inches. Trees. 10 13.6 15.6 L7E5 i io) Tah ba Ses ee 5.3 6 4 il 16.7 19.1 21.0 PAEOG| 22 Tle S 5.4 i 3 12 20.0 23.0 26.0 29.0 32 5.5 1 2 132 24:0. 27:05] S83 Ts0nleansato 37 6.1 8 2 14 28.0 32.0 36.0 40.0 44 7.2 8 2 15 32.0 37.0 42.0 46.0 51 9.0 8 2 VG |heseece 43.0 48.0 53.0 59 11.8 9 4 shy Pad este teat 49.0 55.0 61.0 67 15.5 10 7 LG: tes sset 55.0 62.0 69.0 76 20.0 10 5 LOF | Aetaee 62.0 70.0 78.0 85 24.7 11 1 7100 Beene 69.0 78.0 87.0 95 29.0 11 3 PA Ni ele tee RE ea 89.0 96.0 106 32.4 12 2 22,.\ 2S uaret S| eee ae 96.0 106.0 LT, 35.3 13°) 2 See 20 | Eee seta cet eeree 104.0 116.0 128 37.6 132|2s Sere | 24> | des SoU ee eee 113.0 126.0 139 39.6 14 1 | BONS fo asia 2s | Sa serene 122.0 136.0 149 41.1 15-|ssasahe= | } 26 og te Sie afal| Guia anno s|=nicteee ae 145.0 160 42.5 15) |2Seseee | . D7 eke See Re EN eet 155.0 171 | 43.9 16 2 un Pista Mipeeeceeme RS EN EAC oi 164.0 181 | 45.1 16 1 | ! 41 1 McKean County. / 2 The “‘log’’ volume is the solid contents of wood and bark between an average stump height of 2.4 feet Hii and the ‘‘diameter inside bark of top’’ shown in the eighth column. The volume of “top” is that con- tained in the stem above this point, and in addition all branches suitable for cordwood, having a diameter, outside bark, of 2 inches or more at the middle of a 50-inch stick. TaBLe 35.—Sugar maple in the Lake States,! volumes in cubic feet. Hi Total height of tree—feet. : Diam- i | Diam-| 59 | 60 70 80 90 100 for | Basis, } ele trees. i eter, | inside HH} breast- Volume 2 including bark—cubic feet. bark 11) high. of top. | —______ i Logs.|Top. | Logs.|Top. | Logs.) Top. | Logs. | Top. | Logs. | Top. Logs.| Top. Logs.|Top. tH Inches : Inches 6 PORGH 18) One u2 2h ee OS8a e256 LO; 3:02) sees 's | da< ms eoonss|-~ eee eee 9 10 | 7 3.4 | 1.9 4.2 | 2.3 5.0 2. 5.7 Soil waster = aoe tay=l| estore coo otal SSeS | Rees 18 17 | i SOLS AO eA 2458 8.4 2.9 9.4 iO: | PIS Saal oer. Sameera oe ae 6 21 22 ' 9 | 9.8 | 2.2 | 10.4 | 2.7 | 11.67) 3.0 shal BA eos Gere =a aaacod dacce 6 35 | 34 il} 10 Sod |e 2s4r 3858") 2595) bs 2 3.3 17.2 Sw A 19.4 Ce al lets ors) eevee 6 23 24 Ail LA GMT] 4286 ol aw Sg LOS a Sub 22e Onllen4s 0) 52040) |i, 40m eceean | hesee 6 26 | 26 i 12 | 21.0 | 2.8 | 21.0] 3.4 | 24.0] 3.8 27.0) 4.4 30.0 | 4.9 34 5.4 7) 25) 25 i | as S52 issn 26.0) | 357-1) 28: Ol), - 4..2") 9 32:00) 4.82) 2186.01) 25.4 41 6.0 7 20 | 20 i 14 |e cee ees 30.0 | 4.1 | 33.0) 4.8] 37.0} 5.4 42.0} 6.0 48 6.7 a 22 |..22 ; 1 ssl ee Sal Peta 35.0 | 4.7 1'38.0)| 5.4 43.0} 6.1 49.0] 6.8 55 (6) 8 16 16 152 eee tel irae 40.0 | 5.4 | 48.0} 6.3 50.0 | 7.0 | 56.0 7.8 64 8.5 8 22) 22 49.0} 7.2] 56.0; 80] 64.0] 8.9 72) 9.6 9 7 7 54.0 | 8.4 63.0; 9.4 72.0 | 10.2 81 | 11.0 9 13 13 60.0 | 9.8 70.0 | 11.0 | 80.0) 11.8 89 | 12.6 10 6 5 66.0 | 11:5 | 77.0) 12.7} 88.0) 13.5 99 | 14.4 10 9 8 72.0 | 13.4 85.0 | 14.6 | 97.0 | 15.5 108 | 16.5 11 7 6 79.0 | 15.6 | 92.0} 16.9 | 105.0 | 17.8 118 | 19.0 12 hi 7 . 85.0 | 18.3 | 100.0 | 20.0 | 114.0} 21.0} 128 | 22.0 12 6 6 ‘ 92.0 | 21.0 | 108.0 | 23.0 | 124.0 | 25.0] 138 | 26.0 13 2 2 . SP ING Goat see eos | 116.0 | 27.0 | 133.0 | 30.0 149 | 32.0 14 6 6 RIS |e ee: ee | 125.0 | 33.0 | 142.0 | 36.0 160 | 40.0 15 1 1 eS tee ale eere 134.0 | 38.0 | 152.0 | 42.0) 171 | 47.0 15 re eee Sees si See ek oo 142.0 | 44.0 | 168.0 | 48.0 182 | 54.0 16 Semone lacane \ | pve nile ee Se] coat 152.0 | 50.0 | 173.0 | 55.0 194 | 61.0 Beil Pee eS | Ss Se ; AE el SSSA pate (6 aaa lee: aes | 161.0 | 55.0 | 184.0 | 61.0 | 206 | 68.0 17 2 Io -ewe jes 305 | 299 1 Gogebie and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis. 2 The “log”? volume is the solid contents of wood and bark between a stump height of 1 foot and the ‘diameter inside bark of top”? shown in the fourteenth column. The volume of “top” is that contained in the stem above this point, and in addition all branches suitable for cordwood having a diameter, outside bark, of 2 inches or more at the middle of a 5-foot stick. The entire volume of trees too small to yield a 6-inch log is considered topwood. pouate comprises about 17 per cent of the total volume; there was no consistent variation with the size of © tree. bark, of 4 inches or more at the middle of a 5-foot stick. THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 61 TABLE 36.—Basswood in the Lake States,} volumes in cubic feet. Total height of tree—feet. iam- Diam- ere ey Vol- Diet Per Basis, eter, ume) |) ae. cent trees breast- 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 | 110 | 120 of top- inside AY high. : 5 5 wood. bark: cesreanenan Volume 2 of logs including bark—cubic feet. of top. Logs.|Top. Inches Cu.ft. |Inches 3s Co ita CEA NGOs te8a) el eeeencel eee snaralseeoe 2. 2 6 | 22.1 6 6 8) 1 Bo dhactes dl alba Ee else ies aaa Socoaliscons|icoscc 2.4 6 | 21.7 9 7 10 | 7.8 | 10.7 | 13.5 | 16.1 18. 2 LON Sis |S | ee ee 2.6 6 | 21.2 7 6 ibe maeaS ASR O Melee 20308232105 |fe1 25: Oli eee sine | eee 2.8 6 | 20.8 8 7 B34 ence HERON PZT OF ZONONE 280M SONOS sai | eters | eee 3. 2 7 | 20.5 7 5 Tee ea 4 So 2550) 180.0).) 4 °33::0) |. 36:.0)|| 389) Jee. |eeeee By Cf 7 | 20.1 9 | 10 11 fel es es ene 30.0 | 35.0 | 39.0] 43.0] 46] 49 |.---. 4.3 Calais 7 6 GS iS ooes|ites aes 34.0 | 41.0] 46.0] 49.0] 53] 56 |.---- 5. 2 8 | 19.4 17 | 16 13) (ASE eee 40.0 | 47.0) 52.0) 56.0] 60] 64] 68 6. 2 8 | 19.1 Ve Viel) NU | Peers cremate aya! he atel| hater 3 58.0 | 63.0] 68 | 72] 76 (68) 9 | 18.8 20} 18 8 \scoscllsted=clecseeelsaone 65.0 | 70.0} 75] 80] 85 9.0 9 | 18.6 18 13 19) Nasa Sel oSeHs| haeoee Seeobs 72.0 | 78.0] 83] 89} 94 10.9 10 | 18.3 14 15 20) ee ellnopede|looue sal eaaced 79.0 | 85.0] 91 97 | 103 13.1 10 | 18.0 31 28 Poe eel panos) Mes ae eae 86.0 | 92.0; 99) 106 | 112) 15.6 11 | 17.8 21 20 2h Peter le peiavers [eee sspai| apain lala) 93.0 | 100.0 | 107 | 114 | 121 | 18.6 12 | 17.5 14} 12 28) ts aonie|lseSe soll seeeel Serre 101.0 | 108.0 | 115 | 122 | 131 22.0 12 | 17.3 17 17 PH le gatadllebe be] SASASa| Sesoee 109.0 | 116.0 | 123 | 131 | 140 | 26.0 13 | 17.1 19 17 DOIN erate areerye |e see bil) oot it 116.0 | 124.0 | 132 | 140 | 150 | 30.0 14 | 16.9 14 12 Om Brera tare [ae ania! Mcrae =m 124.0 | 132.0 | 140 | 149 | 159 | 34.0 15 | 16.7 17 15 PFE S| fe apes ie ae (ene ea eR 132.0 | 140.0 | 149 | 159 | 169} 39.0 15 | 16.5 8 10 shi| tse SETSaSaES| DASE Sel Besese 140.0 | 149.0 | 158 | 168 | 180 | 45.0 16 | 16.3 9 9 28) saa el Bocas] Beeesel BOSSE 148.0 | 158.0 | 170 | 179 | 191 52.0 17 | 16.1 6 6 0) ae eae sl ee eee ee 156.0 | 167.0 | 177 | 189 | 202} 59.0 tie Lond) 4 4 Lar | ea | siete | tere seal |eepetevaal| eats =/5/— 176.0 | 187 | 199 | 214 | 67.0 18 | 15.7 8 8 CPA TIE ol ee aaa cae! anaes ae ee 185.0 | 197 | 211 | 226 | 77.0 18 | 15.5 3 1 82) |isdecclledbedal Waseca] Gasace GaBeces 195.0 | 208 | 222 | 238} 88.0 19 } 15.4 3 3 SH alle coed eesbeel boesaa] Sepeser 205.0 | 219 | 234 | 251 | 98.0 20 | 15.2 4 4 Bil Cose Ssesal Ramses socmeel aces 215.0 | 230 | 247 | 265 | 109.0 20 | 15.1 1 il ae |akooaliecdéassl Neca) Seca sel CE eesel Canaries 242 | 260 | 279 | 121.0 PA ey NE Oa clleacos Bil aootllesasedlaaeees| WeMaaal Receeee bees sae 255 | 274 | 293 | 131.0 22 | 14.7 1 eer Sis). pede cledeecal haceosl Esse eee Cee ere 268 | 288 | 308 | 142.0 PPA AE) lenaoeallacene 3h) | cee alc das acl eon or alaeoads besneas eaereer 280 | 302 | 323 | 153.0 230 Ua eee ete ZNO) Hees lene Ue pear Way ea 294 | 317 | 338 | 163.0 PRM AE eck ealaaces 319 | 291 1 Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich., Iron and Price Counties, Wis. 2 The “log”? volume is the solid contents of wood and bark between a stump “‘diameter inside bark of top’? shown in the twelfth column. The volume of “t the stem above this point, and in addition all branches suitable for cordwood having a diameter, outside height of 1 foot and the op”’ is that contained in TaBuE 37.— Volume of red maple in cubic feet,| Harvard Forest, Petersham, Mass., 1910-11. [Revised and enlarged in 1915.] ee a a a Diameter, breast- high. Inches. Total height of tree—feet. 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 60 | 70 | 80 Merchantable volume, including bark—cubic feet. 0. 25 0. 35 OSG). ‘lsoo- - 60 7p 1.00 1.00 1.30 1.65 eee 2.15 2. 40 Sion Tepreigere 3. 45 pie ge acta | Sere or el 4.70 Eten ot | SfSle = acts 6. 05 SSaaes Re acerae 7.65 WWONNRR Re OT ORIND OO) OUND SES Ore NOE 2 0 0 3.6 3 5. 2 6. 2 9 Toll 8. 4 8 9.4 10.8 1 12.0 13.5 7 15.0 16.7 6 18.5 20.5 9 22.5 24.8 6 26.8 29.7 8 31.6 35. 0 5 37.0 40. 7 6 43. 2 47.0 Basis. Trees BS ee of 5 eee 38 Fi cella 42 UPR iets Se 25 11.8 39 14.8 28 18.2 20 22.0 23 26. 4 10 31.4 9 36. 7 8 42.7 3 49.7 4 58. 4 2 | 397 1 See ‘A Volume Table for Red Maple on the Harvard Forest,”’ by E. E.Carter; Bulletin of the Harvard Forestry Club, Vol. II, 1913, pp. 1-8. The volumes are for stem and branch wood to a minimum diameter, outside bark, of about 2 inches at the middle of a 4-foot length. The measurements were taken in a wide variety of types, including bottom or swale, pine slope, swamp, and birch and maplecoppice. Most of the trees more than 6 inches in diameter _ breast-high were of seedling origin. | 62 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CORDWOOD VOLUMES. So many factors affect the compactness of piled wood that it is impracticable to include volume tables showing the contents in stacked cords! of northern hardwood trees of different sizes. Experiments performed in the course of this study showed that the solid contents per cord varied a great deal more with the amount of branch- wood and the straightness of the split and round bodywood sections than with the size of the trees alone. The solid contents per cord averaged about 71 cubic feet, but ranged from less than 60 cubic feet for large, spiral-grained, branchy trees, to over 90 cubic feet for small, well-formed trees with few branches. For use in average old-growth stands of northern hardwoods the following converting factors will give fairly reliable results when applied to the cubic volumes in the pre- ceding tables: 90 cubic feet per cord for tall, slender, straight trees with few large branches; 60 cubic feet per cord for large, spiral-grained, branchy trees; and 75 cubic feet per cord for trees which fall between these extremes. This is for the closeness of utilization described in the footnotes to Tables 31-37. Cordwood cut from small trees is apt to lie straighter and pile more compactly than that from large timber. Consequently, cordwood tables are more practicable for small than for large trees. Table 38 gives cordwood volumes for red maple on the Harvard Forest, Petersham Mass.? They are based on the cubic-foot volumes for red maple given in Table 37 and on the same number of trees, except for those of the 2-inch class, omitted in these tables. Red maples of good height for their diameters should run about as follows: Diameter, | Number of | Diameter, | Number of breast- trees iper breast- trees per high. cord. high. cord. Inches. Inches. 50 10 6 6 20 12 4 8 9 14 3 TaBLE 38.— Volume of red maple in standard cords of 128 cubie feet, Harvard Forest Petersham, Mass., 1910-11. [Revised and enlarged in 1915.] Total height of tree—feet. Diameter, breast- 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 high. 1 A standard cord is a pile 8 feet long by 4 feet high and 4 feet broad. Contractors usually require about 3 inches additional height to allow for settling. Where wood is intended for distillation a length of 50 inches is commonly specified. This influences the converting factor but little, compared with the other variables. * See “ A volume Table for Red Maple on the Harvard Forest,” by E. E. Carter; Bulletin of the Harvard Forestry Club, Vol. II, 1913, pp. 1-8. re THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 63 TABLE 39.—Per cent of wood in piles of red maple cordwood, based on 9 piles of from 2 to 4 cord feet each, Harvard Forest, Petersham, Mass., 1910-11. Diameter, Diameter, Diameter, Diameter, breast- Per cent breast- Per cent breast- Per cent breast- Per cent high of of wood high of of wood high of of wood high of of wood trees cut | in piles. trees cut | in piles. trees cut | in piles. trees cut | in piles. and piled. and piled. and piled. and piled. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. 3 52.5 7 58.0 11 68.0 15 74.0 4 53.6 8 60. 2 12 70.0 16 74.6 5 54.9 9 62.8 13 T1.5 17 75.0 6 56.2 10 65.5 14 73.0 GRADED-LOG SCALE TABLES. Tables 40, 41, 42, are taken, with slight modification in arrangement, from ‘‘Graded volume tables for Vermont hardwoods,’’ by Irving W. Bailey and Philip C. Heald, Forestry Quarterly, Volume XII, No. 1, pages 5-23. These give the contents in graded lumber of a large number of logs of yellow birch, hard maple, and beech, from hardwood stands on lower slopes and foothills of the Green Mountains in southern Vermont. The logs were run through a single-action band saw cutting a one-eighth inch kerf, and the lumber from each was graded according to the grading rules of the Northern Hardwood Lumber Association, the results being averaged by a curve. The lumber was mostly 1 inch stock, sawed 14 inches thick to allow for shrinkage. The mill crew were men of average skill, experienced in hardwood mills in other regions. The merchantable length of the trees was seldom over 32 feet; practically no logs were taken above the first branches. The percentage of 1, 2, and 3 log trees was as follows: Birch. Maple. Beech. llogntrecssse-. 222 4. Sse 23 22 37 2-logatrees: aie 5 = sc/ aah sepa 62 60 58 S-lopstreess nese ac ates ei sen eee 15 18 5 Nearly one-half of the logs cut were defective or abnormal in some particular.1_ The following defects were noted in regard to their influence in decreasing the volumes of the logs: Butt defects, top defects, crook, sweep, knots, seams, shake, miscellaneous. For yellow birch a comparison was made of the contents of nondefective butt logs, non- defective top logs, and the average of all logs. This showed that the difference in volume due both to defect and position in the tree was negligible for logs under 12 inches in diameter at the small end, while for logs 12 inches and over in diameter it amounted to about 9 per cent of the volume of the sound butt logs. It was less than 6 per cent for logs from 12 to 16 inches in diameter, and a little less than 11 per cent for 21 to 24inch logs. The difference due to position in the tree between sound normal top and butt logs varied from about 3 per cent of the volume of the 12 to 16 inch butt logs to about 10 per cent of the 21 to 24 inch butt logs. in the table for yellow birch it will be noted that the 10-foot logs show a greater pro- portion of the poorer grades than do the longer logs. This is particularly noticeable in the No. 1 common red and the No. 2 common grades, and is due especially to the fact that the majority of the 10-foot logs were top logs and hence knotty and of inferior quality. While they can be applied with substantial accuracy only to conditions similar to those under which they were made, these tables may perhaps be used in other regions 1 The percentages of defective logs were: Birch 43 per cent, maple 45 per cent, beech 51 per cent. 64 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. by carefully studying and comparing defects, methods of utilization, etc., and apply- ing suitable converting factors. With these precautions graded volume tables can be constructed by combining the graded log tables here given with Tables 43, 44, and 55, which show the average taper of trees measured in the Lake States. For graded volume tables actually constructed from these tables and for additional information relative to the latter the reader is referred to the article by Messrs. Bailey and Heald. TaBLE 40.— Yellow birch log scale,| Windham County, Vt. 10-foot logs. 14-foot logs. Grade of lumber. Grade of lumber. | | i | | Vesper e psi ié |Ists | Diameter dats Ae iets at small jan : | at sm: an : end. |2ds ped. jane): 2C.|3C.|Total. ence gdeeicedi ae 1C.|2C.)3C.} Total. red | : red. ? Volume—board feet. Volume—board feet. Inches. Inches. T | cele ss leat ee 10 | 10 20 1{a\ Ree ee ee Lae 5 lal [Aon sees Fo Jey Pies Papeete 1 pel ea 10} 10 20 dil PERE eee) Bae aoe 10 | 15 | 15 40 Qs Posse lesec| eet 15 | 15 30 C1 | eee ee) Pes 10. 215215 40 10, | 224 eases 10 | 15 | 15 40 LO eh = 5 | 15} 15 | 15 50 11 5512106) 201) 45 50 3B Til eee \- (22 10 | 20 | 20 | 20 70 12 5 | 15 } 20 |. 20 60 p PA ae ae 5 10 | 25 | 20 | 20 80 13 10 | 20 | 20 | 20 70 13 5 5 20 | 25 | 20 | 25 100 14 5 | 10 | 20 | 20 | 25 80 14 10.}° 5 25 N20 ap 20 sl eee 110 15] 5 5 | 15 | 207 20 | 25 90 15 15 | 5 35 | 30 | 20 | 25 130 16 | 10 | 10 | 20 | 25 | 20 | 25 110 16 15 | 10 40 | 35 | 20 | 30 150 17 | 10 | 15. | 20 | 30_] 20 | 25 120 17 20 | 15 50 | 35 | 20 | 30 170 ¥8°}-157| 15°" 25: 19307120") 25 130 18 35 | 15 55 | 35 | 20 | 30 190 19 | 25 | 20 | 30 | 30 | 20 | 25 150 19 45 | 20 70 | 35 | 20 | 30 220 20 ; 30 | 20 } 30 | 30 | 20 | 30 160 | 20 60 | 20 75 | 35 | 20 | 30 | 240 Dig SoU De kon OOF EoomEOO 180 21 re ees) 80 | 35 | 25 | 30 270 22 | 45 | 30 | 40 | 30 | 25 | 30 | 200 22 90 | 25 90 | 30 | 25 | 30} 290 23 | 60 | 30 | 45 | 30 | 25 | 30 220 23 105 | 25 95 | 40 | 25 | 30} 320 24 | 70 | 30 | 55 | 35 | 25 | 35 250 | 24 120 | 25 95 | 40 | 25 | 35 | 340 12-foot logs. 16-foot logs. 7s) 82 sa || 10| 10) 20! Yi Pe teen eee 5 | 15 | 10 ft) sis eee 5 | 10] 15 30 Oil S. ee | aoe sews 10 | 15 | 15 UM baer) Ee 10 | 15 | 15 40 be as ape Leena Meet ae 15 | 20 | 15 LON AE eee tay | fea Lah | lied ys a ba 50 1OS| Se ees eee 5 | 15 | 20 | 20 IGE Beas ees 52/202) 15 1) 205) + 60 28 Be eee eos 10 | 20 | 20 } 20 12 |. SE LOME 2D) elo 20) 7 12 5 5 15 | 25 | 20 |} 20 13 5 5.| 15-| 20.) 15 | 20 80 13 5 5 20 | 30 | 25 | 25 14 5 5 | 20 | 25 | 15 | 30} 100 14 10} 5 35 | 30 | 25 | 25 15 | 10 5 | 25] 25°) 15 130] -110 15 15 | 10 45 | 30 | 25 | 25 16 | 15 | 10 30 | 30 | 15 | 30} 130 16 25 | 10 55 | 35 | 25 | 30 17 | 25 | 10 | 40 | 30 | 15 | 30 150 17 30 | 15 60 | 40 | 25 | 30 18 | 30 | 15 | 45 | 30 | 20 | 30 170 18 40 | 15 70 | 40 | 25 | 30 19 | 40 | 15 | 50} 30 | 15 | 30 180 19 55 | 20 80 | 40 | 25 | 30 20 | 50 | 15 | 55 | 30] 20 | 30 | 200 20 70 | 25 90 | 40 | 25 | 30 21 | 60 | 20 | 60 | 30} 20 | 30 220 21 90 | 25 100 | 40 | 25 | 30 22 | 70 | 25 | 65 | 35 |} 20 | 35 250 22 110 | 25 110 | 40 | 25 | 30 23 | 85 | 30 | 70 | 30 | 20 | 35 270 23 130 | 25 115 | 40 | 25 | 35 24 | 90 | 30 | 70 | 35 | 25 | 40 | 290 24 145 | 25 120 | 40 | 25 | 35 Based on mill tally of lumber from 1,530 logs. THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. TABLE 41.—Beech log scale,1 Windham County. Vt. 14-foot logs. Grade of lumber. 1C. 2 Cro Connotal. Volume—board feet. Se 5 25 10 25 10 30 15 35 15 40 20 40 20 40 20 50 25 50 25 55 CURVED. 10-foot logs. Grade of lumber. Diameter Diameter at Ists at 1sts small and | 1€. |) 2'C; | 3...) Total: small and end. 2ds. end 2ds. Volume—board feet. Inches Inches. Sais 4 Ae 5 25 30 STF esos (9). aise el Saeed 10 20 30 Si ees 10) Bosaee 10 10 20 40 Ons |e Tih See 10 15 25 50 HUG el [ee ree i ieee | Pee ae 15 15 30 60 12 5 13 5 20 15 30 70 13 15 - 14 10 25 15 30 80 14 20 15 15 25 15 35 90 15 25 16 20 30 20 40 110 16 35 17 30 35 20 45 130 17 45 12-foot logs Seal ese i. Ne 505 5 25 30 Sin | aee ae Grol sree 5 10 25 40 Orel eer ee (Qe os See 10 10 30 50 Onn | Se ecee Tue eae 15 15 30 60 11 Ut fe sees 12 5 15 15 35 70 12 5 13 10 20 15 35 80 13 15 14 15 25 15 35 90 14 20 15 20 30 20 40 i10 150) 30 16 30 35 20 45 130 16 40 17 40 40 20 50 150 17 55 sal Ake) 30 10 30 15 35 20 40 20 40 20 45 25 50 25 55 25 60 25 65 1 Based on mill tally of lumber from 631 logs. 637°—Bull. 285—15——5 65 66 BULLETIN 285 , U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE 42.—Sugar maple log scale,| Windham County, Vt. CURVED. 10-foot logs. 14-foot logs. Grade of lumber. ; Grade of lumber. ° Diameter Diameter at 1sts at | 1sts small and | 1C. | 2G. |-3 C.-) Total. small and | 1C. | 2C<] 3'Co,Total: end. 2ds. end. 2ds. | Volume—board feet. ; Volume—hboard feet. ; Inches | Inches. } (eek ee 2) ee 5 15 208 np eieelo pees penis 10 20 30 Saat est | See 10 20 30 8 4 4) 10 25 40 O}->|2. 52 eb] ee 10 20 30 9 10 10 20 40 1TH eas 10 10 20 40 LOW 22s eh} 15 10 25 50 7 il 5 15 10 20 50 11 5 20 10 25 60 12 5 20 15 20 60 12 10 25 15 30 80 15. »)|. 10s) 25nelt 410 el 425 70 13s} +15:)) \30'e! Tare] 430 30 14 15 25 15 25 80 14 25) 415935 20:, | 730 110 15, 25 30 15 30 100 15 35..| 40 20 35 130 16 35 30 15 30 110 16 50 40 20 | 40 150 17 50 30 15 35 130 17 60 40 20 40 160 18 60 30 15 35 140 18 80 40 20 40 180 19 75 35 15 35 160 19 100 45 20 45 210 20 90 40 15 35 180 20 120 45 20 45 230 12-foot logs. 16-foot logs. fe eee pera 5 15 20 eB eocke ste ee 10 20 30 Slite eee ote 5 5 20 30 0317 eer 2 5 10 25 40 Ors [oleae 10 10 20 40 ES eae Sipe 10) 15 25 50 LOA sree 10 10 20 40 It) Wisesa a 15 15 30 60 i Frail bia | 10he |) 820 50 11 Sel 1204, | 6 15nelaeso 70 12 10 20 15 25 70 12 10 30 20 30 90 13 15 25 15 25 80 13 20 35 20 35 110 14 20 30 15 25 90 14. 30 40 20 40 130 15 30 35 15 30 110 15 45 45 20 40 150 16 45 35 15 35 130 16 60 45 20 45 170 17 60 35 15 40 150 17 75 50 20 45 190 18 70 20) 15 40 160 18 90 50 25 45 210 19 85 40 15 40 180 19 100 50 25 45 230 20 100 40 20 40 200 20 140 55 25 50 270 1 Based on mill tally of lumber from 943 logs. ie THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. FORM TABLES. The following tables give diameters inside bark at different heights in Bulletin 152, ‘‘The Eastern Hemlock.’’) TaBLE 43.—Form of yellow birch in the Lake States. for average birch, beech, maple, and basswood trees in Michigan and Wisconsin. Above breast- height, the distance from the ground are in units of 8.15 feet above a 1- These units represent the half of a 16.3-foot log. The practical use of these tables is to permit scaling trees of given size in terms of any desired log rule, but they also serve as a basis for comparing the species with regard to form. (See similar tables foot stump. 50-FOOT TREES. Height above ground—feet. Diameter, breast- 1 2 | 3] 4.5 | 9.15 | 17.3 |25.45 | 33.6 Ma. 75 | 49.9 | 58.05 | Basis. high. Diameter inside bark—inches. Inches. 4 4.5 4.1 3.9 3.8 3.4 3.0 2.4 5 5.8 52/2 4.9 4.7 4.3 3.7 on 6 el 6.3 6.0 Hy vs 542 4.7 3.9 7 8.6 5) 7.0 6.7 6.1 5.5 4.7 Bale OMe Me Saiik | Sale| Onl Oso Osan lon. 9} 11.7 9.9 9.1 8.6 7.9 7.2 6.2 10 | 13.4 | 11.1 | 10.0 9.6 8.7 8.0 7.0 11 60-FOOT TREES. Gu EUR CES BEC I eh Ge Shall) We och ales ekg} 5 6:1 Obo) 4.9 4.6 4.2 3.7 3.3 2.6 1.9 6 7.4 6.5 5.9 526 yal 4.6 4.0 3.3 2.3) |e TEN ASS SMG ON ROBE al peo 2G ofa Bvy) Zsa) CEO) Ne BA) Ile Bal LOM Serko || Onl. aOble Os Onl Onen Ono eau Oullnurcate fh Mule 7 9.8 9.0 8.6 7.9 eye 6.3 5.3 3.9 10 | 13.0 | 10.9 9.9 9.5 8.7 7.9 7.0 5.9 4.3 11 | 14.4 | 12.07) 11.0 | 10.5 9.5 8.7 end 6.5 4.9 IZA SSSa SAO}, | LO) hese LON Se maOhse leesean | mea On emoctes TSS fe ae 2590 L253 let ORO: 9.0 7.6 yO ipa eater nce Sres=)| eet wees & = TAN SUSY (hella 5S Shales eR ya aly aoe fy TOL 5) |) 2374 I OEB3 ent oeclest bee 1 40 70-FOOT TREES. BN oss IP OB EEO GeO Gee ZL EYP eb 8y Was |} BAZ) Tle) Pea 1 UW CEI CS) ZEON GON GLO G5) sO) Zoe | Spas Bee ag 4 So LORS 856" SAO N = eb) | eraOn | One eosrdal te On| Can OMe onO nesters 3 ) if DEO a EEO Mba Zev Wy. Gol Get Ge ZE@y Bheb = Beal 8 1) | IP2O 4) WOR OBO ea Ra 769 |) Gal | Gil Bee Zh || BS 15 IDV EE De) Oey Chi ee EO EON GEO) | e5i | 2,7 9 TA | Tbs BAC heey | wey Woe! |) GLa | See wey) Ge) KO} BLO 15 13) 1658) |-140 0 |) 1320 |) 1253) | aes eons 9.5 | 8.5 1.2 i) 3.4 11 TAS ASSP | TaSON PS h Ss | eles Se Oe 2 9. 2 7.9 6.1 3.9 5 by jp lees Palas} Se) T4 AS SOF esa L089 9.9 8.5 6.7 4.2 2 iG) |) ZOSO alec) ai eal aa a) eS | ills 7 || OG | bP 768i 1) 4G 5 WS E225 SNL Ss5 | eli euke | LOO | iar 7n eal ese ial so Wed reba Os rere ats 2 USE 2Senle L920. |p L8s On|) LE Oe VonOnimt4 sou mlse On| bel 2s OMe Oxon isa dale ions 3 19 | 25.2 | 20.7 | 18.9 | 17.8 | 16.3 | 14.9 |} 13.8 | 12.6 | 11.2] 8.9] 5.6 2 PVD || 2Os EN) PAS PAO SS 7/4) ee) |) Ts eI as alee By fees) La Gea 1 21 | 28.1 | 23.0 | 20.9 | 19.6 | 18.0 | 16.3 | 15.1 | 13.9 | 12.5] 10.1] 6.5 1 22 | 29.8 | 24.2 | 21.8 | 20.6 | 18.8 | 17.1 | 15.7 | 14.7 | 18.1] 10.7] 6.9 1 PBS | Gillon) || Ppa) 2 srself zane) PI 7 | alo |b GS Waleio8) palate DBE 766s ieee ae 5. 24-3259) | 26:5) 2327) 22%4) 20555] 18550) 1722) | 1620) 1455 | Woe) 728 il 2534.9 |) 27.69) 24.7 1023.1 2A SONS he 8 11625) V5.1 1285. 8i3 1 26 | 36.2 | 29.1 | 25.9 | 24.0 | 22.3 | 20.2 | 18.5 | 17.5 | 15.9 | 13.1 Cet ullae sae as 90 68 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe 43.—Form of yellow birch in the Lake States—Continued. 80-FOOT TREES. Height above ground—feet. Diame- aed en | 1 2 | 3 | 4.5 | 9.15 | Wee bs 45 | 33.6 i. 75 | 49.9 |58.05 | 66.2 |74.35 | Basis. high. Diameter inside bark—inches. | | | Inches. $)|10:3°| -8.7 |-28:0. |. 7762) 7540) 26250) gO 0 2554 ae clea seek cael 93 11.7 | -9.:7. | 9542] <826: |S 8503| et 3r i652 92) 6235s 5545 Aso ul esate os 10; | 12:9) | 10. 8-} 10.0 | “9.5 8x9 Sr 2 | e756 ie Gl OeesGS05 |. 458i eoaoufmee: 11: | 14:3 | 11.9} 1150, | LOs4 e972" 28594) SF SosthiesidheOrs bees One: 12)} 1526 |. 18.2 -}-12.0 |b 32) 21005. 9.6 9.1 8.4 7.4 6.0 4.5 2. 13°) 1720: |-148.) 1350) 1253 We s4aOss 9.7 9.1 8.1 6.6 4.9 3. 14 18242). 15.3 +114. OS S13E2 i) AQ S2e aay AG ase O07 sl Saale 73 a4 alesse 15°} 19:7 |. 16.3 >) 15.2.) 14 DSS jet 28) eg) 105 5 9.4 7.9 5.9 3. 16h 211), 175 | AG eb aS SOF Eo Sel etl Opel sie Ost 8.4 6.3 4, 17 (22.5 | 18:6.) 170 | 1620.) 14-8.) ASs4 e256 | 11-8.) 10.7 8.9 6.8 4, 183) 24! 0, [19581850 16292) 15.6 ila 2 sa su 122 be] 11S |S OlGn ease eas 19 | 25.4 | 20.9 | 19.1 | 17.8 | 16.4 | 14.9 | 13.9 | 13.1 | 11.9 | 10.1 7.8 5: 20) | 27.0 | 22.2 }-20:2: } 1858 | 1753" |=1556 | 1457 | 1357) 1205 4087 [2858 ese 21} 2825 | 23.4 | 2h2°) 1927-1 18:4 e1624.)21523, | 1403.) 380 A113 Sia, 5: 22 | 30:2 |-24:'6.1/22.2-| 20:6: | 19205 (21752: | 1650). 14.9:)01357,)'41..8:) 9:2-)36: 23} S158 -|-2650) 122352 4° 2125 119! 7 Jol 7s 82| 1665) 5855) 1 4e2- | 125301) 87 ee 24-| 33.5 | 27.4 247 4° 22045)" 200 55) 18552) 17.3), ) 1650 | 14-77 | 12-9-|°10.2:) 6: 25 | 35.3 | 28.9 }°25.3 |°23.3 |°21.3 |.19:3-| 18.0.) 16.8] 15.3-] 13.4°| 10.6 | 7. 26 | 37.0 | 30.3 | 26.3 | 24.2 | 22.1 | 20.0 | 18.7 | 17.4 | 15.9 | 13.8] 11.0] 7. 21 \-38:7 | BU987 270.3 125.1] 235062088) 92371 1759) 1644 4 Sia A ze 28 | 40.5 | 33.4 | 28.3 | 26.0 | 23.7 | 21.5 | 20.0 | 18.5 | 17.0 | 14.8] 11.8] 7. a3 el ees 34.9 | 29.3 | 26.9 | 24.6 | 22.3 | 20.7 | 19.1 | 17.5 | 15.4] 12.3] 8. 30 \essoe 36.6 | 30.3 | 27.8 | 25.3 | 23.0 | 21.3 | 19.7 | 18.0 | 15.9 | 12.7]. 8. 90-FOOT TREES. | 16 | 20.6 | 17.:7.| 16.4 }.15.1 | 13.9.| 12:9 | 12.1. | 11:3.|.10.3-|. 9.3:|-7.9.| 6.3} 4:3 AT |) 2253) A859 | 74a 6 | 487 40135 510297) 1109) | ADO sts 9383) 8401) G5 Gules 18 | 24.0 | 20.0 | 18.4 |.16.9 | 15.6 | 14.3 | 13.4 | 12.5] 11.6) 10.4] 89] 7.1] 48 195) 25561021263 2)1924411759, 11653211550, al 4. 0 ISS 2a 25 2, | 0150) | 94s e aoe: 20 | 27.3 | 22.6 | 20.5 | 18.8 | 17.2 | 15.7 | 14.7 | 18.8 | 12.8) 11.5] 9.9] 7.8} 5.3 21 | 29.0 | 24.0 | 21.5 | 19.8 | 18.1 | 16.5 | 15.5] 14.6 | 13.5 | 12.1] 10.4] 8.1] 5.5 22 | 30.6 | 25.3 | 22.6 | 20.7 | 18.9 | 17.24 16.1 | 15.2 [14.1 | 12.7] 10.9] 85] 5.7 23 | 32.5 | 26.7 | 23.6 | 21.7 | 19.7 | 17.9 | 16.8 | 15.9 | 14.8 | 13.3] 11.3] 89] 6.0 24 | 3452") 2850 7|5 242 7 1° 22.°7..] 2056) 1857 | 17857) 1685. | 1524 | 1389) | BSS O58 Gas 25 | 36.0 | 29.6 | 25.6 | 23.6 | 21.4-|. 19.5 | 18.2 | 17.2 | 16.1} 14.5] 12.3] 9.6] 6.5 26 | 37.6 | 31.0 | 26.6 | 24.5 | 22.2 | 20.3 | 18.9 | 17.9 | 16.8 | 15.1 | 12.9] 10.1] 6.8 27| 892615 32).60| Dial 25s 4 Loe 212 lek SONG 1866s L724 de da pelowos tel Ono a tameenh 28 | 41.7 | 34.2 | 28.8 | 26.5 | 24.0 | 21.9 | 20.4 | 19.3 | 18.1 16.2} 13.8} 10.9] 7.3 29), | See 35.9 | 29.9 | 27.5 | 24.9 | 22.7 | 21.1 | 19.9 | 18.8 16.9 | 14.3 | 11.2] 7.6 0h aeaeee 37.5 | 30.9 | 28.6 | 25.8 | 23.5 | 21.8 | 20.7 | 19.5 | 17.5_| 14.9 | 11.7] 7.9 69 Trees. 06°) 6 ff) Wj G20 hoget oo eo do reve tet De a DO THAN 9 09 SH SH 19 1D 14 pice nde Fite eivurmte ainsi e otevevn alse) ealarep ale! ANN MOH HINIDOOOOm™ - LD ra P= OF) O21 4 00 SH NOD OD SHH 1D CO COE S019 00 © st 03 © OD Of SHLD CO COL 00 MOONOHHAHBDMM- ANOS ANID SH SHAD COL Le ODO RMODOO rN aee 4.5 | 9.15 | 17.3 2.45 | 33.6 | 41.75 | Basis. 40-FOOT TREES. 50-FOOT TREES. Height above ground—feet. Diameter inside bark—inches. 2 | Tas Le 44.— Form of beech in Michigan. 1 A oD SHLD CO Ey THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. NOD SHAD 6 De 00 high. breast- Inches. Diameter, LID HOO AHO Oro COILS ICIS) Orth O99 MO TID ODDO a oF haem orKorie 2) TOM DODO re To OD SH 1 CO P= CO > MIN OI OHAHOMN ae WOMDANO OW HD ODO 60-FOOT TREES. MAOWO MOL HOM O1D St So oo hs Dh KOM MHOrtANOnmManon OS te COCO Sion Eom MO So TG 2G Se OO OH 019 19.10 HH HOD AIS SrMOHBSANGS ISOM Se Oe Do Be ANKARAHROOCHONRNAANN Se Oe OB eB IDO OOO OADONC) HID Se Oe Oe Bs Oe 1 Wexford County, Basis. LAAUIDAGDOOOMOAA | IMOONDKMAARMAMH | ' =) ae ‘i ; ; ; ‘ ‘ O < TRAC TMSCORT i sOnet\ 1” Ga reo rote tH AIIM OMON TAN AA 09 09 09 SH SH HID LS OO SMA NN OD OO SH tH tH 1 49.9 )»505) 66.2 SMNOCOA-MAHWMOOMIr-N OD SH HID ID OOM OBDOOOr Son oon Bo | D1) D2 SH OID OD cH OO Hl 0 OH Mackie sis Hic B iro W nt ae Keer IS) mS HOWM MOM HOM HY HO Hd SSM ASDASHHAG Soe Oh oe Oh oe os | 33.6 js. 25.45 17.3 DAM MRBAHOOHAr-MNOONY eset St st Ch HHOIDHAONDAr OOM IN GSrKASBSASHHAAGHH Se A oe Oe he Oh oe ee | NOMODHHROMOM AHH Se rn Oe Oe ADMORNADUIAMDMOAD IN OD Sen oe Oe Oe oe Be | MA~HODMNOCHr1INMODO 70-FOOT TREES. Height above ground—feet. WSK HHBASHADADTISSr Seas 80-FOOT TREES. Diameter, inside bark—inches. COOKE OOOMAH HH tt SOM HASBSHAGASSrAS Soe ore on Oe De LD HM ANAANAAAN AD oo tH SHABSHAGASSrASS Se es Boe ih Oe Boe he Oh oe DOHAHDMRBOOCHAMAHOWSO Me ABSHAMOABSR ASSN BAA HNN LDA Dl HH OO MHI INDO OM DBDOOCTHN OD OD HIN 19 O Sn Oo en OO On DOMARMNINCOWOHAGE 82 MAOCMM-OAMAOMOOCMHN Se es Oe ee Oe PH ODOOIDMAHMOMMANN NASDSHAGHISSRASSH AAA AAA TNN COMANANANA A 09 69 HID OO Tasie 44.—Form of beech in Michigan—Continued. BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MASHAM SN SHSHAM ISR SHAotidr ASH A WSR AG AAA AHR HNNNANNN SAA AA ANANNNANAANN OMDRDONRNANMANIDOM ODO DRHOAAMHAWOM-DWDRBONnN os MANA HN SAAR RAR TNAN i) = Ss i I 70 71 THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. TaBLe 44.—Form of beech in Michigan—Continued. 90-FOOT TREES. eS z 7 . Tin ia 1 ‘ 1 A g tTHHONMOHDOKNMMAN tH + , OTH. Ho Rod disciGaGa ete las Be = . — ‘ 0p 8.0 000 GeTHE Olan ce dh = ' : faa) & ‘ ; rate Oyo > Deol 0 ' 0 6.0=.0 Odo f 7 ote 0 Gan Lee | eh te | ee eset n se ea net ons, G20 < Oth Geont Oo - f.0- 0 of MHOMODANMADHAMONMON GME Cet |e Weta | eee eoeeoscte sO ancien jaw on ‘ Betty al ica ll] he oueatarrs bee Peart ara a ead Ue cca methane aL NS ba C0 Che Oa etecd tr ets teste cer ae oO ‘ 5 ANKMwiowmttinmsSoorKrnrnr Oct Od SUD ECO Vis aCe br Gain oer eO 20 nS MOM AOADOADOMm™ AO OMOOD NOMI AIMAMON~-NOO1NS 1 oe SCrAKDSBSHHAAH HS GOK KAaS re) DASSSHAGHA DORK ASSS © ne a SAA ARAN = AeA AAR IN 3 = = 3 oO B CHOAHASCHONANOWOMAAM IN Fa SCMiNUNHOM-MMARAMMONSDHO a NC > LNKASBSHAAGD HOS SK AOKBSSH = BSSHAAHAHINSOSCHOGBSSH OO | | SAA AAA AAR AN = RANA RAH AAN Oo = 8 jan) 19 A HMHOANONDWOMOAMNNOMHrOIOMON HAOMDr~ CIM HOD OH 6 19 Hh XH OD inf NASBSSHAHHAIOSKE ASD SHAG SSHHAGA SOK KASD SHAG oa SRA AAAS ANAANA SHARAN AN 10 COCO OOIMIDHHMMMOAANE AS CORP OriMiH HAM OANANNANANANNA : NABSHADANHOSOKADSHAN GHD SSnAGHISDSOKADSHAS IS s BASRA ANNANANN SAAR NNAANAN OD OD OD CN OD CVD YD OD CD CD “SH CD OD SH CD cH CD SH OD OD cH CD SH OD SH OD 09 OD SH SH 19 CO P00 OO oc) DHBSHAGDHAGDSKADSHAANG tics SAAGBADSRADSHAD TOR RAH ANNANNNANN ARRAN NANNANN OD DOONMMINS OMDOMN O HID PH ORDOHMAMMOEM-WOONMOORMH N SH SHH ADSKRADSH MMOS SAAAHSK ABSA SHOD OO SSR AR AAaAAN SARA AANANANAAN MOLD DA HODANIOM AAW O19 OGNAMMWDON AHEM Orato Dri to || a | REDS eseorom arn mati ie ecmon On fhe Se ee) MTS ee memeber Jepepae eteie nee stint rey Way eprom bars AO 119 00 DONO HINO ODONO + IN OM WOOAN DM HIDDORDON Gs ess NNNNNN NN OD 09 0 OD RAR NANNANANNN OD 00 09 OD 1 1 . SANMHDOrDAHOnAN GD t1I9NS SANMAHNOPDDOWN GM Hid 4 ad Bo A AANA SAHA ANAANANAAN Le} 32 @ 00 ‘3 AP eg Q N ' ‘ ’ ‘ Distal oe Ose, ‘ ’ ’ TA NN OD) tH 19 19 6 AOOIMMNOOM AN OD SH 1d 6 ff 00 OO P19 09 HOD COD H NOD SHI OO LOCO 15 Pt NN OD SH tH 1 19 OO I~ OO DODOMMDHOMNHO- tH HA GHA ISSSNMKABASHN ree HADONOMANOHDOAHNOHID Aosta isSr dadacdiada rea ArOMMHOrOTHOM ING AstiGgcorrdagssniiads be Oe Oo oe Oe 50-FOOT TREES. HOODOO 1N MS GO. AF 109 6S = COC ~ONMNODWOO COSC e900 COC 60-FOOT TREES. Height above ground—feet. Diameter inside bark—inches. DOM™OMMOMHO OD HID Oh ODO ae CONAOOO rh 19 Tigo rr ODOr ae WATDOMrOMMAAr~OMN SG SMAI A Srl os widis 9 SMe) ms brs Pe oe es Fe WOM OM AMMO MDWOOIDH Suen. sake een eMniei ote Ba CRO ORO GS ANAOMDO Wr O19 HOOD TABLE 45.—Form of sugar maple in the Lake States. 1 >| BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. breast- high. Inches. Diameter, | ARBWOM~M~ OID Tig Srdaagaoina aeeire HMIDOM™-DWHMOnN rit 72 1 Gogebic and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis. 73 THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST.. Tase 45.—Form of sugar maple in the Lake States—Continued. 70-FOOT TREES. 94 az 8 DOONAN TINIAN IAA: ira) MFINOMRAHOMIMAMAH Tol 0 n o aan ' ' 00 aoAnN os oo. ' a = . oo ' a 5 ee ' ‘ ‘ a Det r Pel aps OmOt Ss bO=0mD2Oe Di peo 3u oO MOAHOHHNOHNOMNOMODOMKAME 3S ASHE UE MiPDan org apenebe Tepes yon: Hen HHididicicdcdoivit aid SSS NG 3 ANIANOCOSMWDMOOMORANO OA MAOOW AOR ORO REAR NEN OMIM oO SHHAHANKH MMH HidiWinidcOorE Aso ti dtig SSSrrndadsaaosnninane Ye) AAAs a WOMAN MRDNOONPRH ANH OoOrs ODOM DMDIONAN DOA O19 OO NI OD C00 a FANG OHH GSO HHDSBBSSH MAGGS SSrMAHDSBSSHHAANH ATH AD iSSS “ i Se ae eh he aed he DWAONHDOA-APDAHOM TAO MAMA DINDBIONDOAY MOM Aro = AGTH SHS eK AADHBSSHHAAG WIHSSKHABSSHAAG HAO HSKK DS m ae aed Se ee ae he hee | 3 ——— | eel) a oO q OLN N WD1ID A DW AO OIDAI~- NODS LID AHOOMO-MAAM- OAS HOW-MNDO nto oP oo S| OHS GSM DAABSSHAANG OS Id WSSKHBSBSBSHAANHH A OSSHAHHAS | or) 7 Sessa a BRA AeA ue) + = ie) a MAAOMARDONDONDMO Ar Har a SHIM ODIO NN Dl HOMmMDAON O19 SI oD > ~ 18 gece ais Seats an Ge ED [cone Meer tts ee Sa Gn rao OD feo 20 2 1S 2 PID IDO DAHRAHOSHANMHHINSO SSr~HDABHBSOHRHAAGDHTHMOMONERWDDSBSOS bb a Sanaa eRe a Se RAR NNN ANN ——_ oO Oo va ag OiwMmq dat ODO MAO MAM INNHDON a 1D OD OD P= 19 09 © 019 0) OP HS 19 HOO HN 1D 3 X 4 TiSSrOASSHAA GH SOON A ro) ECrOHDSBSHAAG HIS SSRN ASBSSHHAA 3 inl 4 Sees AAAS 5 FAA ASA SRA RANANN fe os) ) a Yen) > COO OCMIHNAOrO HAO O1INM OO Fe SOP 19 HA HOM 19 1 HOO 1D MN OOOH 10 OD One eS ee eS PIE ORT BORO yO Ot <1 het el keh Pee el et Ie pal Ped ope) (OR a RRO aay ag ALS OY OOO OO . Q 19 © © P= OO SORA NA OD tH 19 19 CO P= COD ~~ 0 mAN = OOMmMODOnARNM MIO 3 for) 8 RS Pi OS POETS aE REISS ir SS SHH ~ PN SS SS SAAS RARNANaaAR SSS. ere ae WSN ABAHSHAAGHAOSKRADBASH MOBSHHAAGH SSK ASBSHAG HIS SN ow AeA ARR NN SSSR NNANNNNANNN MmIHANAN RAAB AHDOAARWODO CO UD 1D SH OD HOD 0D 09 09 0 OD SH SH HIND CO P= ODOTN Go) IWSrDHSBSHAGH id ioe Kr dHodds MOBSHAGDHMDSORASDSHAGDHSSHSDS MAAR HNNN RNS HNNNNNNNAN SS AOD D DH OMI OrADDROnS SADDOOS O 9 HOD 09 19 OE SD) 4 09 19. CO OD OD 1 N SCrKADHSHAGHIOSRAASAGH BHGBSAGHSSKASDSHADHSKHSBAIN AAs AAA AANAN AAA NNANNNNANNANN NOD OD ~~ OODAMOMOMONWDAHRDOMOO DAH AIAN OGAMOWMHAMDOMWOWMAONDS ra SrOGBHANHONADSHAHSWSH DHSHAMSSHAS HASH SHAH SESS AAA NNNNNN OOD SSR NNNN ANN OD 09 69 09 0 OD OD 1 OM™DHOHAANAMHINOMORDOnAND DHOANMDAHiQO LD OHOMANANDMHNIDOh WORDS S| a Sees ARR RNNNNN RASS SSSA NNNANNANNNANANNN SD we 2 vo s — Asa iS 74 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TapBie 45.—Form of sugar maple in the Lake States—Continued. 90-FOOT TREES. —_ Height above ground—feet. Diam- 5 cher 1 2 3 | 4.5 | 9.15 | 17.3 | 25.45 | 33.6 | 41.75 | 49.9 | 58. 05 66.2 | 74.35 | 82.5 | Basis. high. Diameter inside bark—inches. Inches. Trees. 10 | 11.6 | 10.0 9.5 9.3 8.8 8.3 160 eek 6/55] 25.8 4.7 3.0 gt sas if VA | 13405) 11305) 10158) 51082, 9.6 9.0 8.5 7.9 (ee 6.5 5.3 3.7 Di2el 2 soon Soe 122) W435. | 12405 (0h 4s) Di ae ONS: 9.8.) > 9.2 8.7 8.1 (B73 5.8 | 4.1 2.5 13 |) 15.9 | 13.'2-) 12.4 |.11.9:) 41.25) 10::6-) -10.'0 9.4 8.8 7.9 6.4 4.6 2.8 14;) 1754. | 14)3°) 138.40) T2785) Love ai 4 10.18) 4 1072 9.6 8.6 7.0 Sal 3.1 157) 1858°) 15585 | 14032) 138 7a 1239 1252 wT ea) 10395 | LOvS 9.2 7.6 DID 3.4 165)°20.3°| 16i55| ASI4 5) 1457s) Ba 29M 2S) L725) SL ek 9.9 8.2 6.0 3.7 17) 2197) | L785s | 16540-15050) 4 364) 13 7521 12 Out 2 iba) ell Sel L016 8.8 6.4 4.0 18%). 2351-) 18272) 17/55 | 6356154215 1453.) ebos6y los La) boon lebih 9.4 6.9 4.3 19 | 24.5 | 19.7 | 18.5 | 17.4 | 16.3 | 15.2 | 14.5 | 13.8 /.138.2 | 11.9 9.9 1533 4.6 20 | 25.9 | 20.9 | .19.5:|.18.3 | 17.1} 16.0 | 15.2.) 14.6 | 13.9.| 12.5.} 10.5 7.8 4.9 21 | 27.3 | 22.0)) 20.5-)19.2, | 17.9.) 16.7 | 1559.) 15.2) | 14.5 1°13/1,) 111 8.3 552 22.) 28.7 | 2351.) -21 252) 22082:,| P8582) ves oa! 6. Se |ulos9e| Lo I2,| 1318.) 2b1 16. Sli Dao) 23°) 30.17 | 24525) 922255) 52152-11945.) L825) ck7sda (LG 5b 58) | l474-) 221 9.1 5.8 24 | 31.5 | 25.4 | 23.6 | 22.1 | 20.4 | 19.0 | 18.0 | 17.2 | 16.4 | 15.0 | 12.7 9.5 6.1 25 | 82:8: | 26255) 224252 | e235 1521 Suet fel 8 A7e | oki. (a)| ) L558) el 255) t/a Tse | LOSS 9.9 9.5 9.1 8.5 lanl 6.7 by 5) 420 2nlalaeeeees T3y| L720) 138855) 2s 7 | 11S Oe | el S35) 10562) 1ON2F| & Gy 8n le 983, 8.4 7.4 6.0 4x5 Soa0l| seeeee= 14 | 18.3 | 14.5 | 13.8 | 12.9 | 12.2 | 11.5 | 11.0 | 10.6 | 10.0 9.1} 8.0 6.5 AAO? isaa: loemeat 15 | 19.6 | 15.7 | 14.8 | 18.8 | 13.0 | 12.3 | 11.9 | 11.4 | 10.8 9.9 8.7 teal 5.3 | 3.6 1 16 | 21.0.):1628 [215.7% | 4.7.) 1329-) 1321 |-4226-| 12/2) | 1155") 10.6 9.3 Cela Os Ontos U eee 17 | 22.1 | 17.9 | 16.8 | 15.6 | 14.7 | 13.9.| 13.5 | 13.0 | 12.3 | 11.4 | 10.0 8.2 (S34 CSET Ise Se 18 | 23.5 | 19.0 | 17.8 | 16.5 | 15.6 | 14.8 | 14.3 | 18.7 | 18.0 | 12.1 | 10.6] 8&8] 67] 4.4 2 19 | 24:7 | 20.1 |.18.8 | 17.5 | 16.4] 15.5 | 15.0 | 14.5 | 13.8 | 12.8 | 11.3 9.3 ToL ae Sulece cece 20 | 26; 1°] 2151.) 19.7. | 1824 | 1773: |, 16:3.) 15:7 | 15.1.) 14.5, |-13.5.) 11.9) |) 959 VEG el aya! 3 ZA 272 4a 221 P20 N 7a LOS Ss al Se le lok 7o Ls | 1625) L5sOul plows | 14s le Oty on One (AG Os 4a = arene 22. | 2828: (2352) [p20 Tal 20832] 1920s [072.94] 1752-16255) 1527 12142 7 138 OF LOL St ar Sacnlnoet 3 23) | 302 0) 224531 p2256i e203: (LON Sr | 18) 7) o0789) Vet 6S) los hosed | mule 8.7 | 6.0 3 24 | 312525545 192306: [222027 | 205 TLE Sy el Sh%, [ek ZS9) [LT 1S | TGS ae See Or Os 2alGs an eeeeeee 25 | 32.8 | 26.4 | 24.5 | 23:1 | 21.5 | 20:3 | 19:4 |-18.5 | 17.7 | 16.7} 14.8] 12.5) 9.7 | 65 2 26 .| 34..2,)-27) 5) 1-25) 5) [2421 1-22! 4) 1, 2100) 1-200) [195 L 1823 17.3) 05) oO) TOSOn Gar i eenee ae 27 | 35.5 | 28.6 | 26.5 | 25.1 | 23.2 | 21.8 | 20.8 | 19.8 | 19.0 | 17.9 | 16.1 | 13.3 | 10.3 | 7.1 1 28 | 36.9 | 29:7 | 27.4] 26.0 | 24.0 | 22.5 | 21.5 | 20.5 | 19:6 | 18.5 | 16.6 | 13.9 | 10.8] 7.3 te=----- 29) | 38.2 13027 | 2823) S27 0N)e2458 [C2303 2252) 212 ft 2002) 19) Te L753 Se be ee eon | eee 30 | 39.6:|-31.8 | 29.3 | 27.9 | 25.7 | 24.1 | 22.9 | 21.7 | 20.7 | 19.6.| 17.9 | 15.1 |. 11.5] 7.7 2 17 75 THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. TABLE 46.—Form of basswood in the Lake States. 30-FOOT TREES. Trees. Height above ground—feet. i, Linn) nen f20 0 Wet yg Ot Oe iti 20 i050 Goo ou uN OG 0 Sn SO <0 Seo bab a0 a0 0 0 Chri De Osh eo i 0" a0) Cet wo G0. ow Or 0. SAG OF 10 Poop a on Qe heel Oe Oot CAE te oe Dy athe O CA 0 th th a0 TANI NI 0 HAD > row snore MN OD HID Ol ? Diameter breast- high Diameter inside bark—inches. SOADAAD OH NOD OD SHLD COL MAN 19 N69 SHLD CO r= 00 NOD tH 1 tO P= 00 Inches. 40-FOOT. TREES. tt NOD OD SH HD CO 1D OD ADE 19 Nr opel ie pomueSietueniatia rN OD OF) SHAD CO PP ~rOMUAHMOARHOO THN OD SHAD COI CO OD DH DO CO O14 6 eat ao ah AS) Ss a he he ae es ee MADIDNROMOK MHL HORMOM eve) fie) “efile velive! sauiro tue) | le, ete mie eaehcemke mle MHOOWHAODONMNOON SY bo Os oe eB ee | LTO OOP OO loo alltel Cy erie eset casera Wie, We, cue ie ehteg es =e be emilieollerale ser vel ere ey anne ula artip rye mien unas rere nee ene ney, aed AAMDONNANODOIMO e) ho ke see Rie vie lle eva iawn le ieee GL (PNP an |u .pehtnemels wie dep wemibieienpe lena repre nnueamen ne, rebel Sn On On es Oe ee ee 60-FOOT TREES. Diameter inside bark—inches. Height above ground—feet. 70-FOOT TREES. Galette biarlghail paren ee. lNWMAMARHOCORHONE SA isSradasssinds xi Sn oon on Boe A tn on en BO ee he De | ag COD z5 3 24 Se BEF O—9 V47URAL O----O 7#EATED 2 = Butts 7 = Tops Fig. 3.—Effect of preservative treatment on the strength and stiffness of loblolly-pine stringers treated partially air dry. DOUGLAS FIR. Figures 5 and 6 show the strength and stiffness of treated and untreated stringers of green and seasoned Douglas fir, respectively, treated by the so-called “boiling” process as used in this case. There appears to be a marked weakening of the breaking strength with the particular treatment used. The average breaking strength of the stringers tested green and after seasoning is 33 per cent and 39 per cent, respectively, less than the average strength of the natural stringers. The fiber stress at elastic limit also appears to be reduced, although to a somewhat less extent. In the green material no weakening is apparent in the stiffness. The seasoned stringers, however, show a falling off in stiffness in the treated material. Figure 7 shows the strength and stiffness of green + Douglas fir treated by the so-called ‘‘steaming”’ process. The breaking strength 1 The air-seasoned material is not yet tested, July, 1915. 8 BULLETIN 286, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Rested Directly after Treatment x Aur Lried and Jésted . IN. ae Su. Sas are AER Ss 8 ZA N 8 es Q 8 SY 1000 OUNDS PER SG. a BS Ss 7900 4000 : N-/F 2 478 10 T<—- 15 7 ar 2 20-N. TMEV DT ATU RO NES SEAN WUIBER 776 el “lng hi baa @—® WVATURAL O---O TREATED B= LO775 7 = fos Fic. 4.—Effect of preservative treatment on the strength and stiffness of longleaf-pine stringers treated partially dry. mint ELT 2000 : Killen haa ah lpdlaulsrgliacs tinea is Ss lta algae 20 glam 5 | ~@ @ 4600 R Eade ee 3 1400 SN A CE — DOM S ie a A ae S D 5 x 8 1200 a a ee ne Se Beam NUMBER O—® NATURAL O---O 7#EATED (eouie PROCESS ) G- Burrs 7 ~ Tops \l 7 iD EE / é J a Sees) 7 5 Fig. 5.—Eflect of “boiling process” of preservative treatment on the strength and stiffness of Douglas-fir stringers treated green and tested without seasoning. : STRENGTH TESTS OF STRUCTURAL TIMBERS. 9 | se SE Se eee pee eee aera anaes St mapas | WARY LTO Say ee De Bese aes Pane Gey ese se et ORR era JU ea aie Se IS SS sees ee am ee |p ea / 2 f2 “> 44 15 46 “Pp 78 79 BEAT Nuasep @—98 VMATUPAL Q---O 7PEATEO (20116 PROCESS ) _8 = Butts T = Tops Fig. 6.—Effect of ‘‘boiling process”’ of preservative treatment on the strength and stiffness of Douglas-fir stringers treated green, air seasoned and tested. sss oe aes Ss /T0DULUS ) sooo faa OF WE =-)9 SOG8ERess22 vue Wb a tee yaa Ee ee, : a Q N 35000 oe g iP FIBER STRESS AT 2000 4571 LIPUT 1000 2000 ee BSE EE ER HEH US RAS SeSne A. & 4600 | Seay s SA “ g /400 ? ee é ener ec AN Ee, S 4200 gD : BD eal al 4000 40 “ t2 “43 eae ae @—S NATURAL .O----O ZREATED (sare PROCESS ) G& =: Burts 7 = Tops Fie. 7.—Effect of ‘steaming process”’ of preservative treatment on the strength and stiffness of Douglas-fir i stringers treated green and tested without seasoning. BULLETIN 286, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 10 T9E S9E 60S FZ9 LEP L0G GLE TOE 60F ces 6€€ OF 80F 0E G6¢ 899 66F 66F LGg GCE OSPF SEF 668 80 vf “N *(qourerenbs aod spunod) peo] TINUITXeUL 4B ssoljs SurTIeeyg Occ‘e | O16‘ | sec‘t | OsF'T | O9E'r | OTS" O8s‘> | Osr’s | Loe'T | 96G°T | O42'9 | o89%L 80s‘e | 908% | 26z‘T | FeS‘T | ose‘e | ze6g‘9 oes ‘Tt | OT’ | Oso‘T | 680‘T | O6E‘e | Oso‘s Ore'S | OS'S | FEST | SIS'T | 096% | OFF ‘9 080‘ | se2°% | Sct‘T | 962‘T | OST‘F | 8c8% OrL‘E | OSes | Lez‘T | 98%‘T | O9Z'¢ | 082% oes ‘¢ OF0 ‘9 ape‘t | 292‘T | 029‘L | 009‘8 coL‘h | O96‘F | TZF‘T | T9g‘T | 92e‘9 | 99F‘9 0s0'% | 068% | SIT‘T | sez‘T | 009'F | OST F 0L6'€ | OST 'F coF‘T | ZT9‘T | oes‘e | gzg‘¢ g6s‘s | oFe‘s | Gtz‘T | 6Or‘T | sel‘G | IST ‘G “DL ‘N MUP ‘N DL "N *(qout orenbs *(qour orenbs *(qour aod spunod) zed spunod erenbs aod PUTT OT}Svpo ye | OOO'T) Aqor}seTo | spunod) o1n4 SSOI4S LOI iT josninpoy, = |-dnayosnfmpoyy 1°81 G°LT G L €°08 0°8€ 9°66 8°8T OL 82 0°SF 0°OF 88S G'S OF OF GLE ¢ rE 0°9€ TPS 0 0 8°SE 8°9E 604 LPs ce GS 0'9OF Gs F 6P 1°SE FL 8 6th 6 EF T IZ FSi 6 8 1°88 Sass F&s 9°61 LT 1% ORF €/SF 8°16 0°61 OT II 9'TF Z 8S T 8S 6 °SS 0 0 € 6% 0 °8Z €°0€ T 64 IT 1G € FS 0°0¢ G96 9°16 6 ¢ 8 °8E 8 °8E L “N “WL “N WL “N Gist) *(qu90 red) “(quo ed) deg rod) orn4sloyy poo a.lemmmn I~ Nod re Roe oor Idi Salen nit mH Or~m~ 19190 g “your rod s3uryy —sjsoq — ‘Arp Ty "72" =" TOMS cee OSBIOAV —S4S0} 0€ ‘W80IH) —sseoo01d surures1g ~~ UINUIT XB pps iee siir rie inice a eres OsBIOAY —S4s0q 9g ‘AID ITV “TANUITUT YY os eae if =a” wee RL Le TTBS SASS Scie cic eloe “OSBIOAY —s1S0} OF ‘9015 —ssooo0id SuT[IOg ry sepsnoq Gt eleil deli Stee i ies 3 @SBIOAV —S4se} OT ‘Aap ITV 79> TOM UT, “77> -TOMUMTXByy So ia IO aS Terre OSB IOAY, —sjsoq OT ‘Arp re A[Ter47ed sourd AT[OTGO'T Be eae Sai oe eee 2 pe --93vIOAV —sjsoq OT ‘Arp ITy fee eRe ee mms s0 9000000000 1'5 a tA Ga aise ed a vse e es == CMOIxeyy ee ead a OC Oey Sa --OSBIOAV —sjsoq OT ‘Arp are ATTerysed :ourd jeo[suo'T “MONIpPmoD pus seeds "suaburs pana pup younyou Jo ssauffys pun yjbuagg— | aTAv I, STRENGTH TESTS OF STRUCTURAL TIMBERS. bt and fiber stress at the elastic limit was considerably less in the treated material (35 and 36 per cent, respectively), and the stiffness was slightly less. Table 1 gives the average values of the strength functions shown in the diagrams, together with the highest and lowest values and some additional data. SMALL PIECES CUT FROM STRINGERS. Table 2 gives the average strength and stiffness of the small pieces cut from the main beams for both treated and natural material of the three species under test. The average values of the small pieces cut from the outside portions of the main beams and the average values of the small pieces cut from the interior portions are also given. No moisture determinations were made on the small pieces cut from the treated longleaf and loblolly pine timbers. The determinations for moisture in various parts of the cross sections of the treated timbers of these two species indicate that in general they contained slightly more moisture than the natural pieces. The treated sticks are in general weaker than the natural sticks, but the difference is slight except for partially air-dry loblolly pine. Part of the apparent loss in strength of the treated material may be ascribed to its higher moisture content. In the Douglas fir treated by the boiling process and tested green, the average for the outside sticks shows a decrease in strength over the natural, with but little difference in stiffness. As compared with the natural sticks the treated sticks cut from the interior of the main beams showed a more marked drop in strength and stiffness. The air-dry material in all cases showed a decided decrease in the strength of the treated sticks. The decrease in stiffness was less marked. Part of this decrease may be accounted for by the higher moisture content of the treated pieces. 12 BULLETIN 286, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Tasie 2.—Sirength and stiffness of small pieces—natural and treated—cut trom the inside and outside portions of longleaf pine, loblolly pine, and Douglas fir stringers. Number) Moisture Rings per . ve oftests.| (per cent). inch. Species, condition, and locality. NovL. | aN Us N abe Longleaf pine: Partially air dry— oH Lee el Mees mae 285 29 eDu om eae as 19.2 | 18.3 Outside s-eis-.-- 24 24/2103) 2. ane 19.6 | 19.3 INSId6-- = cis eee ee rnesee Worked same as C. 18 loc llecisna a y)bi 2 cee sSreMee a tease eee ge mn a ee ee Stl Sx ioe ae Worked sameas D. . TasLeE Il.—E fect of different types of artificial manipulation upon the seed production of red-clover plants treated in 1911 and 1912. 25 SELECTED REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS. Number of seeds produced per head. Location, Sa designation of Heads not covered with tarlatan. | Heads covered with tarlatan. A B C D i F G Il Ames, 1911: INI, Ieee sboouseee eae es 33 26 30 47 0 0 0 0 IN@, Bi cae sles a eee eS n ee 40 46 39 26 0 0 0 0) INOS OL Gane SOC COs e Soe eee 46 0 31 35 0 0 (0) i) IN@e Zinc ne sos eae ene eae ee eae 40 69 20 36 0 0 0 1 INO) De ceeisnh COcS Se eS eoee eae 52 47 13 68 0 0 0 0 | INOS Cu. Sos ac doeneo tne eee 54 18 52 56 2 0 0 1 ! ING: Teen ses boc Soe ae 90 33 43 69 1 0 0 0 IN@s Qeecscs toe see esos see Eee 44 57 62 40 0 1 0 i) | INO) Qesse dc eter ees eeee eae 47 26 16 28 0 0 0 0 INGO Np O Meese ace Sioa te 3 82 55 59 65 0 0 3 0 ANSKORDINO .cciac GRR RRR EEE eee 52.8 BYP! 36.5 47.0 0.3 1 3 2 Altoona, 1911: No. 26 13 24 5 0 1 0 0 10 16 12 38 0 0 0 1 | 29 12 4 i 0 0 1 0 9 6 11 14 0 0 0 0 22 16 28 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 UNA VELK 2 ls Sele ee eee 19. 2 12.6 15.8 12.8 0 2 2 2 Ames, 1912: | INTO SHIGE eS iar ee scence Sooo 20 3 25 15 0 0 0 0 ING ABe ck doesede see Ree eae 33 31 24 36 0 0 0 0 ING Oe eet oe ese te ae 39 45 24 43 0 2 0 0 INO SPIO ee eS Soe on aes tsa 20 40 28 21 0 0 (0) 0 INO 2 0 SR Pee Se Ee Sh: 44 40 24 28 0 0 0 () IN@s DiIliee 42S 8 SRee Ree Ee BeBe eee 52 61 51 52 0 0 1 0 INO mo 2 ee et. etek ee SA Teh EN 37 28 33 35 0 0 0 0 TSO PE os aie Ie SRN ee rae 40 35 40 21 0 0 0 0) INO) Oe A Be SH OOA See ae eee aes Mee 42 28 26 43 0 (0) 0) 0 INO M2 DEO mee eect cise os ek. 15 5 6 12 0 0 0 ae teal BAN CTAC CHE. sie S By Be eee Eye 34. 2 31.6 28.1 30. 6 0 2 mal. 1 SUMMARY OF AVERAGE RESULTS FOR THE ENTIRE 145 PLANTS. Asmn@s, Whig WO TORN Ss seeeeetogases 44.3 38.8 35. 1 42.3 0. 08 0.16 0. 16 0. 22 Al foones ON 25 plants. 22252 -2 se 16.0 974 20. 3 18.0 28 - 48 24 - 36 EAMES LOUD =v OMMLAMLS eee eee 48. 9 42.5 41.3 41.5 oil ail 14 5 il6) Average, 145 plants. .....-.--- 41.6 | 35.5 35. 5 37. 7 ol -18 16 cepa The average seed yields given in the first part of Table II should be compared with the average seed production shown in the sum- 14 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mary of the same table. The 25 plants listed separately were selected to represent all the plants upon which this experiment had been conducted in 1911 and 1912. While the average results shown by the selected plants vary somewhat from the results of all the plants, still they are representative of the plants as a whole. It will be noted that the seed production of the uncovered heads varies considerably on the same plant, so that final results must be taken from the average of treated heads on a number of plants rather than on a few plants. For this reason the results given in the summary more nearly represent true conditions than those given in the first part of Table II. From the results obtained on the heads not covered with tarlatan it will be seen that artificial manipulation was detrimental to seed production, since the average yield of the check is higher than that Fic, 4,—Heads of red clover covered with tarlatan to prevent pollination by insects. of any treated series. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that the flowers were somewhat mutilated during the operation. Very little seed was obtained from the heads which were kept under cover and artificially manipulated. The few seeds obtained were probably the result of cross-pollination by bumblebees when the tarlatan cloth had been pushed against the heads by rain or had been cut by grass- hoppers. Rains would wash the starch from the tarlatan, thus per- mitting it to fall against the clover heads and allowing the flowers to protrude. This was avoided by either straightening out the cloth after it had dried or re-covering the heads. A few flowers on some heads, however, were exposed to the action of insects for a very short time. In the work which was conducted at Altoona, lowa the grasshoppers were so bad that some heads had to be re-covered RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 15 as often as three times a day. Many uncovered heads were partly destroyed by the grasshoppers, and this undoubtedly accounts for the small seed yield of the uncovered heads, since bumblebees were plentiful. HEADS COVERED AND NOT POLLINATED. Another experiment was conducted in order to determine whether clover heads kept covered during their entire blooming period and not pollinated could set seed. Plants having at least six heads which would come into bloom at approximately the same time were selected for this work. Fifty Fic. 5.—General view of the field in which the clover work was conducted in 1912 at Ames, Iowa. The stakes represent plants selected for individual pollination work. The cages in the background were used to test the efficiency of different insects as pollinators of red clover. plants at Ames and 25 at Altoona were selected in 1911 and 27 plants at Ames in 1912. The average seed yields per head are shown in Table III. Tasie II1T.—Average seed yields of clover heads which were covered with tarlatan and not pollinated. Heads covered with tarlatan. Location, year, and number of plants. A B Cc 120) E ¥ AMATES, AAS Ya) GO ENalis) oe Ono a aoeessesabeeseesenccs.46 0.1 0. 11 0.15] 0 0.16 0 Alioone,, ieihie AS olen. oe oe eee eee ee see - 16 4 35 - 04 26 2 ANTINSS. NOUR’ AOI Gono ocee SeeeeREeOEseebMoeSacc cos 0 oll 0 0 02 0 PAtvera ema 0217) eats eeieee eee ae ee ee - 08 oN -15 - 009 «14 | 04 To the results presented in Table III may be added the results given in column E of the summary of Table II, where 145 heads were 16 BULLETIN 289, U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. covered, not treated, and used as checks in those experiments. From the 757 heads covered and not treated in 1911 and 1912 an average of 0.1 seed per head was obtained. The relatively high average obtained at Altoona in 1911 may undoubtedly be accounted for by grasshoppers mutilating the tarlatan which was used to cover the heads. On this account heads were occasionally exposed to the action of insects for a short time. Since no more seed was produced by these heads than may be accounted for by insects working on the flowers when they were occasionally exposed for a short time on account of rains or grass- hoppers, we may say that clover flowers must be pollinated by some agency before any seed is produced. EFFECT OF SELF-POLLINATION. Another experiment was conducted in which the clover heads were covered with tarlatan before any flowers opened and were kept covered, except while being worked, until mature. As soon as the flowers came into bloom they were self-pollinated by springing the keels of the flowers with toothpicks, care being taken to rub pollen upon each stigma. A separate toothpick was used for each head. In 1911, 125 heads were self-pollimated and 170 heads in 1912. An average of 0.16 seed per head was obtained in 1911 and an average of 0.09 seed per head in 1912. The results of this experiment show, as have previous experiments, that red-clover flowers must be cross-pollinated in order to set seed on a commercial basis. The amount of seed obtained is so small that it was probably the result of bees working through the tarlatan, although the cytological work reported upon in this bulletin shows that it is possible to have an occasional seed produced from self- pollination. SEED PRODUCTION OF HEADS UNDER ORDINARY FIELD CONDITIONS. As a field check on the preceding experiments a number of heads were tagged in 1911 and 1912 and neither covered nor artificially pollinated. These heads were labeled in different parts of the field and Table IV shows the number of heads in each group and the average seed yield per head. TasLe LV.—Average seed yield of clover heads not covered or artificially pollinated. - Average Number of Location and year. heads pee ets collected. Feat ANOS AOL UC Re cee ae cee ate 5 ee eo Aen ce RRC SOE ow Se ce 300 50.1 D0: be oe ee eee et ee Pe ee ee dae 8 532 55.4 lB [separa te 59 ely Care ae IS mS eae 5 OMEN ies = se 5 IIe 47 50.9 Altoona: 1911.: 2255. S85. ee See er = 0 eee. ei oe 150 43.6 Am Bs? 1912. 3505 SEE ee EE 8 CE Be a Joe one Pee Ree ee 65 53.4 RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 17 The results given in Table IV are somewhat higher than the average seed yield of the uncovered check of the experiments summarized in Table II. It may be that the close proximity of the checks given in Table II to heads covered with tarlatan kept bees from making as many visits to those heads as they would otherwise have made. FLOWERS POLLINATED WITH POLLEN FROM ANOTHER HEAD ON THE SAME PRIMARY BRANCH. Since the amount of seed obtaimed in 1911 from self-pollinated heads under cover was so small that it could be accounted for by bees working through the tarlatan, it was not deemed necessary to emasculate the flowers for cross-pollination work in 1912. With this in view a series of heads was covered before any of the flowers came into bloom and later pollinated with pollen from another head on the same primary branch, 20 flowers on each of 11 heads being pollinated in this manner. Not, a single seed was produced. FLOWERS POLLINATED WITH POLLEN FROM A HEAD ON A DIFFERENT PRIMARY ; BRANCH OF THE SAME PLANT. Another experiment similar to the preceding one was conducted, except that the pollen was taken from heads on different primary branches of the same plant, 20 flowers on each of 10 heads being pollinated in this manner. One seed was produced. CROSS-POLLINATION EXPERIMENTS. Alternately with the above two experiments 20 flowers on each of 13 heads were pollinated with pollen from a separate plant. An average of 14.3 seeds per head was obtained. The results obtained in the last three experiments, as well as with all preceding ones, show that clover is practically self-sterile and that pollen must come from a separate plant in order to effect fertilization. BUMBLEBEES AS CROSS-POLLINATORS OF RED CLOVER. Tn view of the consensus of opinion that the bumblebee is responsi- ble for the cross-pollination of red-clover flowers, and since no investigator, so far recalled, has denied its ability to do this, it was deemed desirable to study the relative efficiency of the bumblebee as a cross-pollinator of this plant. For this work a cage 12 feet square and 6 feet high, made of wire screen having 14 meshes to the linear inch, was erected shortly after the first crop of clover had been cut. As soon as the second crop started to bloom bumblebees were caught with an insect net and placed in the cage. It was soon found that bees would live about three days when confined in the cage and that six bees in confinement would visit approximately as many flowers as one bee would have visited had it worked nearly all the time. With this in mind, two bumblebees were placed in the cage each forenoon until all the clover 18 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. heads were mature. An area 4 feet square was marked off in this cage as-soon as the clover was mature. From this area all heads were collected, kept separate, and thrashed by hand. Of the 311 heads collected from this area an average of 30.4 seeds per head was obtained. Repeated field observations in Iowa in 1911 and 1912 showed that bumblebees were actively engaged in collecting nectar from eight to nine hours a day. Little work was done by them before the dew had entirely disappeared from the foliage and flowers or after 6 o’clock in the evening. Observations showed that bumblebees are able to pollinate 30 to 35 flowers a minute. However, they seldom visit more than eight to ten on a single head at one time. These results agree closely with those of Pammel and King (382), who state that bumblebees pollinate on an average 30 flowers a minute, and Smith, according to Beal (3), who estimates from counts that ola bees will visit 35 flowers a minute and young bees selelou more than eight. HONEYBEES AS CROSS-POLLINATORS OF RED CLOVER. The ability of the honeybee to cross-pollinate red clover has been discussed by scientific investigators and beekeepers for some time. Those who do not believe that the honeybee is able to pollinate red clover base their statements for the most part on the fact that the proboscis of the honeybee is not long enough to reach the nectar located at the base of the staminal tube. Some investigators and bee men state that some strains of the Italian race of honeybees are able to obtain some nectar from red-clover flowers, while other investigators say that honeybees collect pollen from red-clover flowers and thereby cross-pollinate them. According to Knuth (22, v. 2, p. 289) the proboscis of the honeybee is 6 mm. in qensth, which is 3.6 mm. shorter than the average length of the corolla tubes of first-crop red-clover flowers. Honeybees may be able at times to obtain some nectar from the sides of the staminal tubes of red-clover flowers when a large amount is secreted or when the flowers are not in an upright position. Knuth (22, y. 2, p. 289) observes that Bombus terrestris, a species of bumblebee oni in Kurope, pierces the tubes of clover flowers and that honeybees later obtain nectar through these slits. Bombus terrestris has a proboscis from 7 to 9 mm. in length. While working on the experiments reported upon in this bulletin several corolla tubes were observed which had been slit at the base, but it can not be stated that these slits were made by bees. Schneck (34) states that the Virginia car- penter bee (Xylocopa virginica) slits the lower end of the corolla tubes of red-clover flowers and that he has observed honeybees obtaining nectar through the slits. RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 19 In order to determine the efficiency of the honeybee as a cross- pollinator of red clover, a cage 12 feet square and 6 feet high, made of galvanized-wire screen having 4 meshes to the linear inch, was erected in the same field as the bumblebee cage. It was previously determined that a mesh of this size would permit a honeybee, or any insect smaller than a honeybee, to pass through, but would not per- mit bumblebees to do so. Two weeks before the clover came into bloom a small colony of honeybees was placed in one corner of this cage (fig. 6). The bees soon learned to pass through the screen. By the time the clover began to bloom the bees had become accustomed to the cage, and while most of them worked on flowers outside, some could always be seen at work on the clover within the cage. Bees Fig. 6.—A screen cage in which a hive of honeybees was placed, in order to determine the efficiency of these insects as pollinators of red clover, working on the clover within the cage were observed to collect pollen from the flowers and carry it to the hive. As soon as all the flowers in the cage were mature, an area 4 feet square was measured off and all heads within this area were collected, kept separate, and thrashed by hand. Of the 623 heads collected from this area an average of 37.2 seeds per head was obtained. The higher yield of seed obtained in the honeybee cage than in the bumblebee cage may be attributed, at least in part, to the larger num- ber of bees which had access to this clover. However, the ratio of honeybees to bumblebees was no greater in the cages than in the clover fields in the vicinity of Ames in 1911. In 1911 the precipitation at Ames was 2.48, 3.83, and 0.39 inches below normal for June, July, and August, respectively. When the 20 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. clover was in bloom very few nectar-producing plants were to be found. Whether the honeybee would work on red clover to this extent in a year of normal rainfall when the number of other nectar- producing plants is larger is problematical, but our observations and results show that the honeybee is able to spring the keels of red- clover flowers and thereby cross-pollinate them. MECHANICAL CROSS-POLLINATORS OF RED CLOVER. A machine so constructed that a platform of brushes could be made to strike clover heads with a vertical stroke was placed on the market under the name of a clover cross-pollinizing machine (fig. 7). This machine received some favorable comment. In view of this fact, a number of experiments were outlined to test its efficiency and also Fic. 7.—Clover cross-pollinizi ig machine. to test the efficiency of different types of hand-operated brushes as mechanical cross-pollinators of red clover. Some plats of red clover were treated with various types of brushes at different times of day, while other plats were treated when the clover heads were in different stages of bloom. The direction of the strokes with the brushes was also varied in order to see whether this would have any effect on the yield of seed. MACHINE POLLINATION EXPERIMENTS. In order to determine the efficiency of a clover cross-pollenizing machine several experiments were performed at Ames in 1911. Machines similar to the one used were offered for sale on the market at the time these experiments were being conducted. RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. Pap b This machine was so constructed as to give vertical strokes with a brush 4 feet wide and 6 feet long. The brushes could be removed with little trouble and replaced with others of a different type. Two types of brushes were used in these experiments. Brush No. 1 was composed of palmetto fiber, the bristles of which were rather stiff and of a dark reddish-brown color. Brush No. 2 was composed of rice-root fiber of light color, somewhat more flexible than the pal- metto fiber. The plats treated were 12 feet wide and 100 feet long. The number of heads collected from each plat represents the num- ber contained within two hooped areas. These hooped areas were obtained by sailing a hoop into the air so that it would light on a particular plat. Since each plat contained a uniform stand it was thought that by this method heads would be selected which would be representative of the entire plat. Table V shows the results obtained in these experiments. TasLe V.—Average seed yield of red clover on plats which were given various treatments with a cross-pollinizing machine. Treatments. | = 7 _| Heads Seeds No. Brush Times Time Time eee collected.) per head. used. |goneover.| between.| of day. given. Days. TABI to 6ocbessaoetETe ae eee Nos ieee 1 s eAcee Mise 7 460 BES WAG Bs = -sonecee oe Sees oe ae ee le Niowaleeee 2 1 | AY MES 7 424 59.4 TIBI Bs co csseue [See BOSE SOB Eee NEN Oey lepers al 35 PAS Meee 4 499 64.2 Pik, 4 Gach siscdae eae seer eel Reameeeces | eae) |. ts) Reel ee ee |Oor ea 490 65.1 IP Bh, Bob beutesadseeeeee eS eaete IN@sdlsccs 2 Snipe Wiles 4 414 59.2 DIS. Ga édscsene enna eee | No.1 3 3) | Ay Mee 4 458 70.3 IPbIe 75 ONGC) Sasanesseureseene Resenoedes| bdass56eA Be Seecondalbooouscaca|botdenke ss 582 66. 7 lame Gmemypecececma ane ano cc ee ctete INO 222Ee 3 3 | A. M. 4 527 70.9 late O eee. os ecm aes aes -s Noses 3 3h eee Mees 4 487 64.7 PB EO CiGel sso psenesseesseaese Hee ee acs Cote Beeeeerccel Goocencsoc|bonssce onal 655 64.0 lata ccaanc cect fei INOS Zise= 3 Bi || eo die 4 492 67.4 | It will be seen from the above experiments that the treatments with brush No. 1 decreased the yield 1.9 seeds per head, while the plats treated with brush No. 2 gave an increased yield of 3.9 seeds per head over the average of the check plats. EFFICIENCY OF DIFFERENT HAND-OPERATED BRUSHES AS MECHANICAL CROSS- POLLINATORS OF RED CLOVER. In order to test the efficiency of hand-operated brushes as a means of mechanical pollination of red clover, eight pairs having different types of bristles were used. The different pairs were labeled A, B, C, ete., for convenience in reference. Following is a brief descrip- tion of the different pairs of brushes used: (A) Rice-root fiber, somewhat stiff; bristles about 2 inches long and nearly erect. (B) Rice-root fiber, similar to A, but with bristles 3 inches long, somewhat coarser and more spreading. (C) Tampico fiber, finer but stiffer than the rice-root fiber in brushes A and B, (D) Wire-bristle hairbrushes, 22 BULLETIN 289, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (E) Indian palmetto fiber, coarser than any of the others, but somewhat brittle. A portion of this brush was modified by cutting out sections of the bristles to make a more uneven surface. (F) Ordinary bristle hairbrushes. (G) Same as brush E, but with about half of the bristles clipped out. (H) Same as brush C, but with about half of the bristles clipped out. The idea of utilizing pairs of brushes with different types of fibers was to determine, if possible, if any of them would give sufficient promise to warrant an application of the particular type of brush to a mechanically operated machine that would imitate the action of the small brush when operated by hand. For this reason no brushes were used which could not be duplicated on a machine for operation on a field scale. The work with the hand-operated brushes was done principally at La Fayette, Ind., and Ames, Iowa. In some experiments the heads were manipulated with the brushes at different times of day, while in other experiments different numbers of treatments were given the heads at varying intervals. The direction from which the heads were struck also varied in certain experiments, some being given vertical strokes and others lateral strokes. It was thought that cross-pollina- tion might be brought about by the vertical stroke, which apparently would enable some of the brush bristles to spring the keels and convey pollen from one flower to another. It was also thought that if the flowers were self-fertile the lateral strokes would accomplish this. The representative tables that follow indicate the principal features brought out by this series of experiments. RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF BRUSHES WHEN THE CLOVER HEADS WERE STRUCK HORIZONTALLY. In a clover field 24 miles east of La Fayette, Ind., 26 square-rod plats were laid off for this experiment in 1911 (Table VI). All of the heads in bloom at the time the plats were marked off were re- moved. Plat 1 was left as a check, no brushes being used on it. Plat 2 was worked with brushes A, one brush being taken in each hand and the blossoms struck between the brushes by a quick movement of the wrists. When in full bloom the heads received one treatment, the operator going only in one direction across the plat. Brushes B, C, D, E, and F were used on plats 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, respectively, in the same manner as for brushes A on plat 2. Plat 8 was treated by going one way across it at right angles to the first way, thus giving each blossom two treatments, the strokes of the two treatments thus being at right angles to each other. Brushes A were used. Plats 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 each received treatment similar to plat 8, but with brushes B, C, D, E, and F, respectively. Plats 14 and 15 were left as checks. Plats 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, and 21 each received two treatments with RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. WB: brushes B, C, EK, B, C, and E, respectively, in the same manner as plat 8. Two days later plats 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, and 21 each received two more treatments with brushes B, C, E, B, C, and E, respectively, and three days later plats 19, 20, and 21 each received an additional two treatments with brushes B, C, and E. Plats 22 to 26, inclusive, were square-rod plats selected at intervals in the field immediately surrounding the portion laid off with the regular plats. These were designed to give a large number of check plats to show the variation in the field under ordinary conditions. At harvest time 500 heads were picked at random from each of the 26 plats. These heads were hulled and the average seed production for the 500 heads is given in Table VI. TaBLe VI.—Average seed yield per head obtained when clover heads were struck horizonially with different types of brushes and at different intervals at La Fayette, Ind., im 1911. | Strokes per| Brush Date of Heads Seeds No. | treatment. | used. | treatment. | collected.| per head. | 3 c KASS dEUS OEE COTES CHEE tee e Ene cs Saar 500 58.2 1 500 46.0 1 500 67.1 1 500 50.1 1 500 27.0 1 500 39.4 1 500 34.7 2 500 44.0 2 500 35. 4 2 500 59.4 2 500 27.2 2 500 34.7 2 500 59.9 IP ayn 1, @n@Ole 5 Sabet abeedece Debra Aeeeeaeanes| ce 5c amemeee 500 49.3 IP 1G}, Oakes hasan accoubiae 36 Cr Gone eeSeeee ene ooo sae eee 500 57.0 TUE RTS). Sk cse Mae Raye set eae 2 500 59.9 IPIBIE IY ob See cb GeO en SEE ea Ser eee aes | 2 500 26.9 IPI INS 3 oo Soe oeeen SBce 6 Onee Gee eee eee eae | 2 500 64.4 IPP IG). 5 2 4d ae SAR oe eee ea ae te eee ee eee 2 500 35.4 TRIE 20) 3 8 i Se ek ay rea ene 2 500 32.0 IPG Oe ae e so Beare soe sT ae ee eee ene Seer 2 500 22.5 ralalby 2 2c re kaee ese areys se Sates S/S ait ad) ba Seales. ee 500 28.6 IV OBE ANC 7s uy ile a ee ee hee aMEPee ekeae soo aan ease aacs 500 59.0 IMA ALS GCC RA: eee scent ece sae aCe see eeesees || 5.5 Sonne eno oels| ore onccemeee 500 49.5 IEG 2s CIC ead ao eae Se Sante ee Bee EER BRR ap Eee lox Sasaeeeed|isoascosa|>=cesas5senece 500 43,2 ate 2Om CH CCK meee a Re ee ee toe i bia wlne seine pes ctesepeeol|sssssecallscssccecesuses 500 31.6 Awveraceowallichecks= =. ..+- cs... 2+ --e ltesc dA epeeoe esos scnlunsocodsoodete 4,000 47.0 Table VI shows that only 6 plats averaged higher than the average of the checks, whereas 12 plats averaged lower than the average of the checks. A variation almost as wide is shown in the 8 check plats as in the 18 treated plats, yet the results show that, as a whole, the brushes injured the seed production. The low results on the plats treated with brush D, the wire hair brush, were undoubtedly due to the fact that the wire bristles penetrated and injured the flowers. This brush work was duplicated on a small scale with brushes A, B, and E on a few heads left uncovered and on heads that were covered with tarlatan, near La Fayette, in the summer of 1913. The heads were worked once. The results are given in Table VII. 24 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe VIL.— Average seed yield of clover heads which were struck horizontally with different types of brushes and either protected or unprotected from insects at La Fayette, Ind., in Diese | Heads left uncov- | Heads covered with Strokes ered. tarlatan. 3rush used. es ment. Heads |Seedsper| Heads | Seeds per worked. head. worked, head. 1 3 37.4 1 0 1 5 38.8 1 0 1 5 50.1 2 0 al 3 60.8 1 0 1 5 Leas 1 0 1 5 60.1 2 0 Table VIL shows that in each case of the heads left uncovered the check produced the most seed. As in Table VI, the brushes appar- ently reduced the seed production. It will be noted also that both the brush-treated and untreated heads produced no seed when protected from insect visitation. Experiments to test the relative efficiency of horizontal strokes with the different brushes were also conducted at Ames, in the sum- mer of 1911.. Ten plats 4 feet square were used. These plats were marked off by placing stakes at the corners and connecting these stakes with heavy cord. Plats 1 to 8 were each given one treatment oneach of three consecutive days, with brushes B, A, E, C, F, D, G, and H, respectively, and plats 9 and 10 were left as checks. Dupli- cate tests, using the same brushes, respectively, on plats 37 to 44 were also made. The results are shown in Table VIII. Taste VIII.—Average seed yield per head obtained when clover heads were struck horizon- tally with different types of brushes at Ames, Lowa, in 1911. Original tests. Duplicate tests. Strokes mMreat Brush used, per treat- Sais ment. ments. | Plat | Heads Seeds | Plat] Heads Seeds No. | worked. | perhead.| No. | worked. | per head. 1B 8 ROE crae AR pec See ee aes 1 3 1 464 44.8 37 438 44.9 | Be OCR AOR TaD Ot Spee 1 3 2 476 41.1 38 515 43.2 Ree retin aosismiceciniceneltoss 1 3 3 457 42.6 39 490 30.1 eee pa Se Ee ena sa ar 1 3 4 322 46.2 40 485 42.5 LE A eee Hee Fre aan Oh ete 1 3 5 440 43.9 41 470 47.5 Dees acise aeecincoccacsher see if 3 6 435 36. 2 42 445 33.0 GSS I ieee Seas ee 1 3 7 320 45.1 43 460 39.9 EDT ok [sis ovate eta Nala tete ais aaroacie ciate 1 3 8 430 41.0 44 432 42.9 CHECKS ee a Ns See Bass atice a cioin |e caterte a 9 532 55. 4 9 532 55.4 TD OB ertotietae ccs tee evetetelcloedl ewininata ee [te sicieterecler 10 470 50.9 10 470 50.9 Table VIII shows that in every case where brushes were used the seed production fell below the yield of the check plats. From the results obtained in Tables VI, VII, and VIII it is con- cluded that at least horizontal strokes with the brushes in question reduced the seed production on account of the flowers being muti- lated by the brushes, RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 25 RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF BRUSHES WHEN THE CLOVER HEADS WERE STRUCK VERTICALLY. In order to test the efficiency of brushes in promoting cross-pollina- tion by carrying pollen from one plant to another on the bristles of the brushes, experiments were conducted at Ames, Iowa, in the summer of 1911 on plats 13 to 20 with different pairs of brushes. A vertical stroke on each of three mornings, three days apart, was given. The plats were 4 feet square. At maturity all heads from each plat were collected, kept separate, and later thrashed. The experiments on plats 21 to 28 were the same in all respects, except that one treatment when the flowers were in early bloom, instead of three treatments, was given each plat. Plats 9 and 10 were used as checks. The results are presented in Table TX. Taste IX.—Average seed yield per head obtained when clover heads were struck vertically with different types of brushes at Ames, Iowa, in 1911. | Plats given three treat- Plats given a single treat- Strokes ments. ment, Brush used, nee =a ment. Plat Heads |Seedsper| Plat Heads |Seeds per No. | worked. head. No. | worked. head. CHeCeARe eae ee waa cet EP. Aik seb: 9 532 55.4 9 532 55.4 IDOc6 cosd cadena Se BOF REO eae Coes 10 470 50.9 10 470, 50.9 1B sou ao hee agate aoe OCS ae ee eee i 13 366 37.0 21 442 46.8 Jno dea cenucduse ns GOSS eee eee eee 1 14 490 42.0 22 440 33.8 1D ee eeéaadee see a Sees ae eee 1 15 440 42.1 23 420 45.0 ©. sn. b 5284S COS CR Nen Hee Ee ee 1 16 521 45.3 24 415 38.9 1 deh bot ese ocean eee ea 1 17 416 39.3 25 380 54.5 ID Sad cece does CoE OnE SES eee eee 1 18 476 37.7 26 400 45.9 Gibb So bwesic Se clades ten a 2 eee 1 19 510 41.8 27 430 48.1 le aso con asa eG eH Nee Se eee eee 1 20 462 44.7 28 436 49.0 Table IX shows that with the exception of plat 25 the treatment considerably reduced the yield below that of the lowest yielding check plat. The results of the treated plats 13 to 20, inclusive, taken asa whole show a decrease of four seeds per head less than the yield of plats 21 to 28, inclusive. This may be accounted for by the fact that plats 13 to 20, inclusive, received two more treatments with the brushes than plats 21 to 28, inclusive, and were therefore subject. to more injury from the bristles of the brushes. It will be seen from these experiments that the vertical strokes with the brushes proved no more efficient than the horizontal strokes in the production of seed. RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF BRUSHES WHEN PRESSED TOGETHER BELOW THE CLOVER HEADS AND PULLED UPWARD. ; Experiments were conducted in the summer of 1911, at Ames, Iowa, to determine the efficiency of pressing a pair of brushes together below the clover heads and pulling them upward with considerable force, but still not enough to break off the heads. The plats were 4 by 4 feet in size. Pair A of the brushes was used. Three treatments 26 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. three days apart in.the forenoon were given. The results are pre- sented in Table X. TasLe X.—Average seed yield per head when brushes were pressed together below the clover heads and pulled upward, summer of 1911. No | Heads | © Brush Treat- | Seeds pan | worked. | used. ments. per head. | lati «check < 2 2 ool ce = eee oe ba ee oes oe DB 2 el eee eee | ITY See 55.4 PlatilO}: Cheek: 22522 se0-cSaceaeee coe eee nee ee oeaeeeaee 4708) S352 SS Ree 50.9 Pat lili 2 SUS aoe cee 7 ee ee nove 2 eee epee Sy Pe 432 A 3 39.2 Plat LO. eho Us ees Bors ORE eee ee eee nee | 460 A 3 40.9 Table X shows that this manner of treatment as well as the hori- zontal and vertical stroke treatments caused a decrease in the pro- duction of seed. SUMMARY. A study of the cytology of red-clover flowers shows that many of them contain infertile ovules. The percentage of infertile ovules is greater in the first crop than in the second crop. In the first crop many plants produce 100 per cent of infertile ovules, while in the second crop the percentage of infertility ranges from none to a high figure. The percentage of infertile ovules in red clover is probably correlated with moisture conditions. ; The pollen grains of red clover are very sensitive to moisture. On account of this, there can be little effective pollination when the flowers are wet. Germination of the pollen grains takes place only within a limited range of variation in the water supply. It is prob- ably true that the only function of the stigma is that of supplying the requisite amount of water to the pollen for germination. The time between pollination and fertilization varies with the temperature of the atmosphere. The time between pollination and fertilization in July is approximately 18 hours, while in October it varies from 35 to 50 hours. An examination of 30 flowers which had been self-pollinated for 55 hours showed good germination on the stigmas but no fertilization. The pollen tubes made a slow growth and none exceeded 4 mm. in length. In flowers which had been self-pollinated for 90 hours one pollen tube attained a length of 7.5 mm., while the rest were 5 mm. or less in length. The pistils of red clover average about 12 mm. in length. Eges were found to be disintegrating four days after the flowers opened. The self-pollination and cross-pollination experiments which were conducted in the field checked up very closely with the results obtained from the cytological studies. The average yield of seed obtained on heads which were not pollinated and on heads which were self-pollinated in different ways was less than one-half of 1 per RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 27 cent. This small yield of seed may be accounted for by the occa- sional access of bees to these heads for a very short time, on account of rains or grasshoppers mutilating the tarlatan which was used to cover the heads. The bumblebee is an efficient cross-pollinator of red clover. Bumblebees are able to pollinate from 30 to 35 flowers a minute. The honeybee proved to be as efficient a cross-pollinator of red clover as the bumblebee in 1911. When the precipitation was con- siderably below normal in June, July, and August, 1911, and but few nectar-producing plants were to be found, honeybees collected large quantities of pollen from red clover. In order to collect pollen they must spring the keels of the flowers. In doing this they cross- pollinate the flowers. A clover cross-pollinizing machine which was offered for sale on the market did not prove to be an efficient cross-pollinator of red clover. The various types of hand-operated brushes which were used did not prove efficient as cross-pollinators of red clover. In nearly all cases where these brushes were used the seed yield was decreased instead of increased. This was undoubtedly due to the bristles of the brushes injuring the flowers, since the average seed yield of the plats which received three treatments with the brushes was lower than that of the plats which received but one treatment. 2 Sane 0, Elcpaie sis ee . a : | | mm p ¥ : . a ih Se yr, OR : f ( ; ; Bice Tit : ha wale ae on e ‘ ; : ; % . : ; : < to. = oo a =) ies ; : | oa = a ae cs 7 2 =! ot abt ie = © ot i; . : :% nih a ey . ot \ - hb rae ed 9, 7 a Lae . be : é is 1 bela ; ee at a - ; Shes iter) 1h) NG r wee fe ae ee, Lane ae. B My) LSE ; ony tat a = Teeekii ira rir tiie ae Ai WR IG) TOO RR Rahs a Ti vnid-aath orate piregh ike” tet Phi et Woah ~ ee ihe thos een ee oe i aid ab eT) oak} fear ‘Bie wy bobvshiel ae | Lo I dibe a - ~ |p eed CN wha: sh ins 4 Oe “ al bie | oe i ong he LITERATURE CITED. (1) Armstrrone, J. B. 1883. The fertilization of the red clover. Jn Gard. Chron., n. s., v. 20, no. 516, p- 623-624. (2) Bran, W. J. 1887. Grasses of North America, v. 1. New York. 1907. Planning an experiment to show to what extent bumblebees aid in pollin- izing red clover. In Proc. 28th Ann. Meeting Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci., 1907, p. 136-138. (4) Boutey, H. L. 1907. Fertilization of clover and alfalfa. In N. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. 17th Ann. Rpt. [1906]/07, p. 34-35. (5) Cook, A. J. 1892. Report of apicultural experiments in 1891. In U.S. Dept. Agr. Div. Bul. 26, p. 83-92. (6) Darwin, C. R. 1885. The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom. New York, 482 p. (7) —— | 1898. The Origin of Species... v.1. New York. (8) Dunnine, J. W. 1886. [Report on importation of humblebees into New Zealand.] In Proc, Ent, Soc. London, 1886, p. Xxxli-xxxiv. (9) Ferrimizine clover and cow-grass. 1891. Jn Agr. Gaz: N.S. Wales, v. 2, pt. 10, p. 636. (10) Fotsom, J. W. 1909. The insect pests of clover and alfalfa. Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 134, p. 113-197, 35 figs., 2 pl. (1 col.). (11) Fruwirts, Kar. 1906. Enclosing single plants and its effect on a large number of important agri- cultural species. Jn Amer. Breeders’ Assoc. Proc., v, 2, p. 197-198. 1906. Die Ziichtung der landwirtschaftlichen Kulturpflanzen. Bd. 3. Berlin. (13) GENEVIER, GASTON. 1876. Inflorescence et fécondation dans le genre trifolium. Jn Assoc. Frang¢. Avan. Sci. Compt. rend., 4th sess., 1875, p. 726-730. (14) Hopxrins, A. D. 1896. On the flowering habits of timothy and red clover and the pollenization of the flowers by insects. Jn Proc. 17th Ann. Meeting Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci., 1896, p. 35-40. Go) ea 1896, Some notes on observations in West Virginia on farm, garden, and fruit insects. In U.S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bul. 6, n.s., p. 71-73. Also in West Va. Agr. Exp. Sta., 9th Ann. Rpt. [1895]/96, p. 152-155. 29 30 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (16) HUMBLEBEES. 1892. In Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales, v. 3,-pt. 1, p. 78. (17) HumBLeBEESs. 1897. In Agr. Gaz. N.S. Wales, v. 8, pt. 5, p. 353. (18) Hunt, T. F. 1907. The Forage and Fiber Crops in America. New York, 413 p., illus. (19) 1909. Pollination of clover. Jn Wallace’s Farmer, v. 34, no. 43, p. 1347. (20) Kerner, A. J. 1895. The Natural History of Plants ... [tr.]from the German ... v.2. London. (21) KircHNnErR, Oskar. 1905. Uber die Wirkung der Selbstbestiubung bei den Papilionaceen. In Naturw. Ztschr. Land- u. Forstw., Jahrg. 3, Heft 1, p. 1-16. (22) Knots, P. E. O. W. 1906-08. Handbook of Flower Pollination ... v. 1-2. Oxford. (23) LinpHaRD, E. 1911. Om Rédkléverens Bestévning og de Humlebiarter, som herved er virk- somme. Jn Tidsskr. Landbr. Planteavl, Bd. 18, Haefte 5, p. 719-737, illus. (24) McAtpine, A. N. 1898. Production of new types of forage plants—clovers and grasses. Jn Trans. Highland and Agr. Soc. Scot., s. 5, v. 10, p. 185-158, fig. 33-39. (25) Martin, J. N. 1913. The physiology of the pollen of Trifolium pratense. In Bot. Gaz., v. 56, no. 2, p. 112-126, 1 fig. (26) 1914. Comparative morphology of some Leguminose. Jn Bot. Gaz., v. 58, no. 2, p. 154-167, pl. 8-11. (27) Martinet, G. 1903. Etudes et essais de plantes fourragéres. Jn Ann. Agr. Suisse, ann. 4, p. 160-169, illus. (28) MrrHan, THOMAS. 1876. Fertilization of flowers by insect agency. Abstract with discussion by Asa Gray and others. Jn Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1876, p. 108-112. (29) Mitter, Hermann. 1883. The Fertilization of Flowers. London, 669 p., illus. (30) Pammet, Epna ©., and CLARK, CLARISSA. 1911. Studiesin variation of red clover. In Proc. Iowa Acad Sci., 1911, p. 47-53, 4 pl. (81), Pamuer, Lb. H. - 1903. Ecology. Carroll, Iowa, 360 p., illus., pl. and Kine, CHARLOTTE M, 1911. Pollination of clover. Jn Proc. Yowa Acad. Sci., 1911, p. 35-45, illus. (32) (33) RoBERTSON, CHARLES. 1892. Flowers and insects. Jn Bot. Gaz., v. 17, no. 6, p. 173-179. (34) ScHNECK, JACOB. 1891. Further notes on the mutilation of flowers by insects. Jn Bot, Gaz., v 16, no. 11, p. 312-313. (35) Sreprve of red clover. 1895. In Agr. Gaz. N.S. Wales, v. 6, pt. 6, p. 439. RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. onl (36) SHame., A. D. 1906. The effect of inbreeding in plants. Jn U. 8. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1905, p- 377-392, fig. 90-91, pl. 42-44. (37) Stree, F. A. 1891. Notes on methods of cross-pollination. Jn Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 13, p. 87-92. (38) Smrru, C. B. 1907. Red clover seed-growing. In Bailey, L. H. Cyclopedia of American Agri- culture... v. 2, p. 235-237. New York. (39) STeBuerR, F. G., and ScHrotER, CARL. 1889. The Best Forage Plants ...3-v.in1., illus. London. (40) 1913. Die Besten Futterpflanzen ... Bd.1. Bern. (41) Waxupron, L. R. 1908. Fertilization of clover. Jn N. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Dickinson Sub-Exp. Sta. Ist Ann. Rpt., 1908, p. 7-8. (42) 1910. Pollination of clover. In N. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Dickinson Sub-Exp. Sta. 3d Ann. Rpt., 1910, p. 20-21. (43) Watiace, Henry. 1892. Clover Culture. Des Moines, Iowa, 156 p., illus. (44) 1909. The fertilization of clover. Jn Wallace’s Farmer, v. 34, no. 36, p. 1104. (45) WasHBury, F. L. 1911. A method of securing the fertilization of clover by means of bumblebees, in experiments with Bruchophagus funebris. Jn Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 4, MOD se AN: (46) Wirrr, HERNFRID. 1908. Om sjalisteriliteten hos rédkléfvern (Trifolium pratense L.). Jn Svensk Bot. Tidskr., bd. 2, hafte 4, p. 333-339. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMETN PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V . AS i By r og » 7 ca 1 4 ‘ = ute | ied iz * uy + 5 4 Fe . hi k t Ps . , 5 . ‘soy . . iy ‘ 4 1 ‘ ' - rr a3 one : oe iv Soe, Ie aa prom: Harllee iy ys chives Be PR had reg Ak xt CaO t, " a FA Le | vpn Rigi Noid Polos ps He Rh on. oy AD ur o: bee EDS Ghee’ ‘om the seal ae Hise Sy 7 pine : E E « ‘ in a rs. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF pe CML TURE Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural Organization, CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief Washington, D. C. WV August 30, 1915. RAIL SHIPMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF FRESH TOMATOES, 1914.’ By Wetts A. SHerman, Specialist in Market Surveys, and Paut FrRoEru.icu and Houston F. WatkeEr, Scientific Assistants. INTRODUCTION. There is probably no perishable vegetable commonly grown out of doors in the United States which appears upon the market through a longer season than does the tomato. Winter supplies are received from Cuba, and until railroad communication was interrupted by the recent troubles there was a constantly increasing production on the west coast of Mexico. The industry in Florida has been an important and rapidly increasing one until now shipments range around 5,000 to 6,000 carloads per year. The charts on page 6 show the average length of the shipping seasons for each of the principal producing areas and the relative quantities of tomatoes shipped from each of these districts. Florida opens the commercial shipping season in January, and throughout the first few months encounters comparatively little competition in the eastern markets. South Texas is a competitor during May and June, and it is possible that the production of this territory will be largely increased. The two areas of important production which first come upon the market in direct competition are the southern Mississippi and east Texas areas. In each of these the heavy shipping season is short, extending through June and the first week of July. Every effort is made to rush the crop on the market as rapidly as possible. Prac- tically all of the numerous growers in the State of Texas report that the shipping season begins about May 1 and ends about July 15. There are a few points, however, at which two crops of tomatoes are raised. From such points the second crop is shipped usually from 1 About 95 per cent of the reports of shipments listed in this publication were furnished by railroad officials, to whom acknowledgment is made for their courtesy and assistance. Note.—This bulletin is of generalinterest to tomato growers, shippers, dealers, transportation companies, and consumers, and to allengaged in the trade in tomatoes and vegetables. 3108°—Bull. 290—15——1 & > 2 BULLETIN 290, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. October 15 to January 1. In southern California the tomato shipping season can be extended the year round, as the tomato grows there as a perennial. The Texas and Mississippi territories are followed by west Tennessee and New Jersey, the former overlappmg the Texas and Mississippi areas, while New Jersey usually comes on the market when the shipping seasons close in these two States. Shipments from other States may be said in a general way to move over shorter distances and to be of importance in a smaller number of the large markets. Cuban, Mexican, Florida, and south Texas tomatoes, as a rule, have been luxuries or semiluxuries. The first shipments from Mis- sissippi and northeastern Texas generally bring high prices, but when the shipments from these areas reach their height, tomatoes may be said first to come within the reach of the general purchasing public. METHODS OF CULTIVATION AND SHIPPING.! The system of cultivation in practically all of the southern tomato districts is not calculated to result in the greatest possible production per acre, but is designed to hasten maturity and to give a crop of uniform smooth tomatoes which can be marketed within the shortest possible time. Plants are staked, trimmed, and topped, and the fruit even may be thinned to limit the quantity, hasten maturity, and perfect the appearance of the individual specimens. Large quantities are wrapped individually and packed very carefully in what the consumer would call a perfectly green state. The producers, however, consider a tomato ‘‘mature’’ when it has reached full size and appears smooth and well filled out. They are called “ripe”? when they show the first tinge of pink or reddish color. Green wrapped stock is shipped long distances under ventilation without refrigeration; but nearly all ripe stock, whether wrapped or not, is shipped under refrigeration. The last of the southern crop frequently is wasted because it does not sell to advantage in competi- tion with locally grown northern tomatoes. The latter are larger, as a rule, than those grown in the South, where varieties are selected for early production and smoothness rather than for the size of the fruit. METHODS USED IN COMPILING DATA. In this publication an effort has been made to list largely by rail- road stations the actual shipments of tomatoes for table use in 1914. Practically all of this information has been obtained from, or checked by, transportation companies, and while this tabulation may not be complete, it is believed to approximate very closely the actual car- load movement. 1 Farmers’ Bulletin 642, ‘Tomato Growing in the South,’’ by H. C. Thompson, 1915. SHIPMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF TOMATOES. 3 In the summer of 1914 inquiries were addressed by the Office of Markets and Rural Organization to station agents at all points from which there was any reason to believe that tomatoes were shipped in full carloads, and to every cooperative association handling the crop of which the department had any knowledge, asking for a record of the car-lot shipments in 1913 and an estimate of the shipments to be made in 1914. A growers’ list was compiled with the object of obtaining reliable information on every phase of tomato marketing. After the shipping season of 1914 was ended the inquiry was renewed and has been followed up both by addressing local station agents and general railroad officials, until this office has definite reports on the shipments during 1914 from 330 shipping points at which tomatoes originate in car lots, and a statement from the transportation or shipping agencies as to the number of carloads shipped from each in that year. DETAILED REPORT OF SHIPMENTS. The tabulated statement placed at the conclusion of this bulletin shows the tomato shipping stations and the reported number of cars shipped from each during the 1914 season. No attempt has been made to list stations where no full cars originated. Yet at those stations where full cars did originate, the less than car-lot ship- ments have been ascertained, and have been reduced to equivalent carloads, and these are included in the tables here shown. The number of carloads shipped from many points varies greatly from year to year, due to seasonal variation and to the fact that the tomato crop, if unprofitable in any one section in any one year, is likely to be much reduced the next. For this reason the figures given for 1914 may be either much above or much below the average shipments, and there are no authentic figures for preceding years for comparison. In some cases certain stations are credited with less than car-lot shipments. The fact is that these stations normally ship in full carloads, but, owing to a short crop or other abnormal conditions in 1914, they did not ship their usual quantities. These figures are classified by States, and to some extent by shipping districts. SHIPMENTS BY BOAT. There are a number of localities in which the situation as to tomato shipments is somewhat complicated. This is particularly true of the territory surrounding the lakes and bays where many of the ship- ments are made by boats to markets located comparatively near to the points of origin. There are many small boat lines that handle con- siderable quantities of this commodity, and it has been found almost impossible to secure complete and accurate records of all these shipments. For instance, the region in the neighborhood of Benton Mi 4 BULLETIN 290, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Harbor and St. Joseph, Mich., ships large quantities of tomatoes by boat to Chicago, and the region along Chesapeake Bay ships in the same manner considerable amounts to near-by cities. LOCAL SHIPMENTS. Near many cities large quantities of tomatoes are carried to market by trucks, electric lines, and other local transportation facilities. This renders it impossible to secure complete records of the entire commercial crop. Our main effort has been to secure material which will show the location and relative importance of the several districts which supply the major part of the tomatoes shipped to market over comparatively long distances. The data for Florida shipments in 1914 are unavoidably incomplete, inasmuch as one rail- road system handling large quantities of Florida tomatoes has not yet submitted any report. EXPLANATION OF MAP. The accompanying map indicates the actual shipments of fresh tomatoes to market in the season of 1914. Each dot represents five cars, or fraction thereof. These dots are grouped in the county in which the stations are located, although it is well known that pro- duction does not actually follow the county lines. In cases where shipments are too heavy to be represented by dots the counties have been blacked in and the actual number of cars shipped given in figures. The size of the blackened area is not directly in proportion to the quantity shipped, but exact comparisons may be made by consulting the tabulation. The use of the county as the unit inmap graphics necessitates this system. The dates within which the various areas ship are shown by curved lines, all of the areas shipping at a given period bemg grouped in a zone under the line representing that period. The map in this way shows at a glance the various competing areas as well as the dates of heaviest crop movement. These dates are, of course, subject to seasonal variation of considerable extent. TOMATOES FOR CANNING. An important element in the tomato situation is the cannery supply. It is undoubtedly true that more tomatoes go to the canneries than to market as table stock. The modern methods of preparing this canned product have rendered it so wholesome and palatable, as well as economical, that this industry has developed very rapidly. Certain localities—Delaware and the eastern shore of Maryland and Virginia, and large areas in New York State, for instance—produce considerable quantities of tomatoes for this pur- pose. It is a fact, however, that general conditions as to quantity, AIA NS JULY 1 -00T.15 {| A eee HT ee Ne : Walaa cseaniees layelhe es fe ye One ey iallams 20 aces Jest 8; EAT RITE LR eee res ) | Naar ncnned ; meray OZ Niro Se ea UE Gs eee Te md @LG IU VULLUL WUaUUD LOVVULUGU ad lay iiie DULL PAULUS 2UWsLesrd ER 2UYU vALS. JULY 15 -OCTL qe JULY 1-00T. 15 1346 e JUNE 20-SEPT. A —— JUNE 1-AUG.AIS —— APR.JS- JULY I -—— MAY 15- JULY 15 JAN. I-ULNEIS Se Be Mayi-wuLy I 187 1160 U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin 290. Fic. 1,—Map showing tomato shipmentsduring the year 1914. Each dot represents 5 carloads (or fraction thereof). Black areas represent number of carloads indicated by figures. 3108°—15 (To face page 4) SHIPMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF TOMATOES. 5 quality, and price of table stock, when the supplies are locally obtained, are much modified by the presence of canneries. When prices warrant it on account of small crop or poor transportation facilities from other regions a considerable amount of tke crop ordi- narily gomg to canneries may be placed upon the market fresh, while on the other hand a plentiful supply will cause very much larger quantities to be offered to the canneries. There are certain localities where the climatic conditions are such that cannery stock can be raised profitably, but where under ordinary conditions it is not profitable to produce tomatoes to ship fresh for table use. This is sometimes due to the long distance to market and the small local cénsuming population. A careful investigation of the cannery situa- tion in reference to this crop undoubtedly will aid very much in a clear understanding of the whole tomato marketing situation. The effort has been made to separate all figures for tomatoes used for canning stock and include in these tabulations only those shipped for table use. It is very difficult to distinguish accurately between shipments to market and shipments to canneries from the records of carriers in many sections. The tabulation on page 7 shows a total of 11,995 carloads of tomatoes shipped for table use last year and it has been estimated that a somewhat greater number is grown for canneries, catsup factories, etc. The figures of the National Can- ners’ Association show that 15,222,000 cases of tomatoes (No. 3 size, 24 cans to the case) were packed during the 1914 season. It is possible that a few hundred cars included in the following tabula- tion were so used. On this account there may be slight errors in the figures for some sections. The line of demarcation between the regions where the production is principally for table stock and those regions where the crop is grown both for local consumption and for canning probably would pass east and west across the United States through the lower Ohio Valley, and through southern Virginia to Norfolk, the region to the south of this imaginary line specializing in table stock in car lots. COMMERCIAL SUPPLY OF TABLE TOMATOES. The total reported shipments of table stock for 1914 were 11,995 cars, nearly one-half of the entire crop being shipped from the State of Florida, which is practically without competition so far as the production of tomatoes for table use is concerned, as the season there is so early that there are few other districts shipping when the Florida product is put on the market. The States next in impor- tance are Mississippi, New Jersey, and Texas, each shipping from 1,100 to 1,500 cars. Ohio and California ship approximately 400 cars each; Tennessee, 300; Illinois, 200; and Indiana, 125. There are no other States reported as having shipments reaching 100 cars. 6 BULLETIN 290, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TOMATO SHIPPING SEASONS ——— souTmERN FLORIDA CENTRAL F EW TRAL FLORIDA L FLORIDA SOU. $0u, TEXAS | 5 | aoa aan | LOUISIANA ee SISS. 715S15510P | é. e.TEFA [eeonea GIA _CALI CALIFORNIA] TENNES: SSEe) | ANESSEE| | KENTUCKY | TUCKY _| Bee bees) aes) Sa [KANSAS] Ses ESE Bae Be eee Bena Pee) WA atoll IN MELE TON | “MISSOURI NEW WEW MEXICO oan] a YORK MCHICA 'CHIGAN UTAA_] ea RELATIVE BULK OF SHIPMENTS OF FRESH TOMATOES TO MARKET-19/4. #500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6900 CARS FLORIDA o 500 1000 ees M/S S/SS/PPI —E NEW JERSEY Ses B TEXAS —— O10 BSS CALIFORNIA BB TENNESSEE 8 /LL/NO/S /ND/ANA NEW YORK UTAH LOUISIANA MICHIGAN ARKANSAS MISSOURI KANSAS Fic. 2.—Chart showing shipping seasons and amount of fresh tomatoes shipped to market, by States, 1914. 7 SHIPMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF TOMATOES. 7 DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED. Some of the railroads do not keep separate records for tomatoes shipped, but classify them together with a number of other com- modities as ‘‘vegetables.’”’ This has increased to a very con- siderable degree the difficulty of securing the information here presented. Many of the transportation companies have indicated a willingness to separate this product in their records. Owing to the importance of the crop, it is hoped that all of the transportation companies will adopt such a system. One of the important factors in marketing any crop is, of course, a knowledge of the amount marketed the preceding year, and the probable amount to be handled during the current season. It is realized that a survey of this character presents many diffi- culties and can be perfected only as it is subjected to the criticism and correction of the trade, railway officials, and shippers. This compilation. and the map showing graphically the location of the important tomato shippimg areas and the approximate dates for shipments is believed to be the most comprehensive statement of the commercial tomato crop that has been attempted, and it is pub- lished with the belief that it will be found immediately useful to all concerned in marketing the tomato crop in 1915. It is hoped to perfect this work and to make it much more complete in the future. TOMATO SHIPMENTS, 1914. Allnumbers which are marked with an asterisk (*) are estimates, based upon the shipments for 1913 and figuresfurnished for the 1914 crop previous to its being marketed. Stations believed to be important shipping points but for which no figures have been obtained are marked with a dash (——). : ALABAMA: | CALIFORNIA—Continued. (May 25 to July 1.) Carloads. (June 15 to Oct. 1)—Contd. —_Carloads. iiversreen.. 02502200222. 0. 0 Manysville225seens-- aoe 41.0 Tae Bullertontess-eese eee ee 39.0 Siateotallaeemern se ee) 0.0 MoutOcc tne rece 23.0 DULY Vales see a ee 22.0 ARKANSAS: inahcimes saree ema 11.0 (July 1 to Sept. 1.) ; SAMERCEN ATG OMe eee 10.0 White River district. ...--- 30. 0 Bigeye tas 5.0 Decatur Barer Hepes ace 9.0 hn eee ee 5 0 domi gems wes oes 8 Ee 2.0 UGTA ede eo a abe 3 0 Gravette..............-..-. Lo UU REYEY OX) ol ee i gy Se i 3.0 Sfafemtotaieeenn ee 42. 0 Puente: -2-------------2--! 3.0 SanwDiccgarey ree n 3.0 CALIFORNIA: ! Sanped noes vee pe apn neue 3.0 (June 15 to Oct. 1.) Mary freld eine 2 sas tee ee 2.0 lelem@lensom. Looe ee wee ne- *60. 0 MoumtainiVile was seeee 22 2.0 SAGMIMEMION- -Asesseseece sue 60. 0 Placentia nn anne t 280 Wierce digas wae arcs ata shone. 47.0 Spin, eNeNeOL . Hsenbo seeds 2.0 oswAncelest ei a2 2. 5282 45. 0 PMs OMemee ys ie a a LO 1The following shipments of tomatoes in 1914 were reported too late to appear on the map and chart: From Decoto, Cal., 95 cars. 8 BULLETIN 290, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CALIFORNIA—Continued. (June 15 to Oct. 1)—Contd. —_Carloads. Dam aye sto sae eee 1.0 Fars Vee ae ee es eee a 1.0 Gardenass. sce. e ner EO Ta wrenCe so .i3in see ee 0 iINewaMnark. 930-4 peewee eee AO iPasa dena. 32.20 eee 0 Dany) OSC=2 5.0.5. eee eee 0 San Juan Capistrano. .-....-. 10 TOUTAING Cesare ee eee oe EO Wihittiers 2: acces eneeeen ens 120 Wilmington. ..-. oe ee ee 1.0 SL ::TH GO Lirik: eas = eee ies eee ees 0.0 State totalke pes eee 403. 0 CoLoRaApo: ! (Aug. 1 to Sept. 15.) Rocky Mord! ;s8s 5225 22st 10) State totals ethics qa Fiorina: ! (Southern section, Jan. 1 to June 15.) Wa nace pectic eee ee 354. 0 IPOLCIS Pah sst mare se te ber 303. 0 iPompanose sances eo ose. 223. 0 omestea dase ssce eee ys 199. 0 Colohatcehee. 3222222222222 198. 0 (Coy uTI KG [2a eas etna An ne 193. 0 Hallandales S26 32s aktse ae 183. 0 Hortlianuderdales:. 2 22232. 181.0 Weerheld semen.) ja eae 174. 0 Delrayeereore sc seer 167.0 Boymtonaese. eee saan 151.0 dam elt S See oe see ier sey eeepc 150. 0 Naranjaes {oee< - tec Sas 144.0 Rien all eee rea a 95.0 INT CHUC TCE MRE neko ote eae 87.0 Ojist ae SS. sete ee 73.0 ELON CeneeTs. etes Ae) eae 63. 0 IBISCKHROlte s+ Seen 60. 0 JUPLCh ae eat sco a tee ee 59. 0 I GY ooh a aaa ree eS Sa 56. 0 Bocaratonesee- eee eee 55. 0 INellsmerens ee oo oes 48.0 Permine haces ve anh eee 41.0 ittlenivierse sees. eee 37.0 QUayere ee eee Sere 19.0 CocoamutiGnrov.esers assess 18. 0 FortiMiy ers 2 occm ese asciiee 15.0 a Ehistroeee ee ON tee 15.0 Fioripa—Continued. (Southern section, Jan. 1 to June 15)—Continued. Rockdales 2.) : Detroit. 3) eee Hort Piercete: 2 eee Biscayne 35235 ee eae Hobe Sound: ..3522. 23 eeee (Central section, Apr. 15 to July 1.) Palmetto: 222) See Colemani 2532252232 eee Bushnell :2. 25223 Sean eee HMllenten= sess eee Plant City -... ose eee Webster-~ OCCURRENCE IN WINTER Fig. 22,—Ring-billed gull (Larus delawarensis). eens Mackenzie (Kennicott). The distribution on the Pacific slope is not so far northward. The species is known to breed on Malheur Lake and Lower Klamath Lake, in southern Oregon (Finley), and at Buffalo Lake, near Red Deer, Alberta (Dippie). It was common at Shu- swap Lake, British Columbia, in June, 1889 (Macoun). It breeds south to Cape Whittle, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Frazar); the islands in Georgian Bay (Fleming); formerly on the islands in Green Bay, Wis., and in 1860 at Lake Koshkonong (Kumlien and Hollister) ; in 1892 on Gull Island, near Vans Harbor, Mich. (Van Winkle); Heron +4 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Lake, Minn. (Roberts); Devils Lake, N. Dak. (Job); San Luis Lakes, Colo. (Cooke); Great Salt Lake, Utah (Saunders); and Minidoka, Idaho (Dille). Winter range.—The principal winter home of this gull along the Atlantic coast is from North Carolina to Florida, but a few remain in the Chesapeake Bay and rarely on the New Jersey coast—Cape May, January, 1892 (Stone)—while it is a straggler in winter still farther north. It can usually be found at Detroit, Mich., and on Lake Michigan during winter, and at Chicago, IIl., it was common the whole winter of 1894-95 (Parker). It is common on the Gulf coast in winter, south to Fort Myer, Fla. (Scott), and to Browns- ville, Tex. (Merrill), while in the interior it has been known to occur at Washington, D. C., January 23, 1887 (Fisher); Hickman, Ky., January 1, 1887 (Pindar); Barr Lake, Colo., occasional in winter (Rockwell); near Colorado Springs, Colo., about January 1, 1890 (Aiken and Warren); Fort Sherman, Idaho, once in January (Mer- rill); Lewistown, Mont., one, December 31, 1898, killed by eating of the carcass of a sheep that had been poisoned as bait for coyotes (Silloway); and Pyramid Lake, Nev.; December 21, 1867 (Ridgway). On the Pacific coast it winters from San Francisco Bay, Cal., to San Diego, and, in the interior, on Owens Lake, Salton Sea, and Lake Tahoe (Grinnell); also south to San Quintin, Lower California, December 27, 1905, to January 21,1906 (Thayer); La Paz, Lower California, Feb- ruary 15, 1882 (Brewster); Mazatlan (Lawrence); Guaymas, Decem- ber; Presidio, January and February; Santa Ana, near Guadalajara, November (Saunders); and Tehuantepec, February 21, 1869, and in March (Sumichrast). It occurs casually in winter north to Portland, Oreg. (Anthony), Bellingham Bay, Wash. (Edson), and to the Lower Fraser Valley and Lake Okanogan (Brooks). A straggler was taken in Bermuda, January 1, 1849 (Reid). Migration range.—A specimen of the ring-billed gull was taken Sep- tember 6, 1900, at Port Manvers, on the Labrador coast (Bigelow). It is reported as occurring in Newfoundland (Reeks); at Ingonish, Cape Breton Island (Townsend); and was seen during the fall of 1911 in Alaska as follows: Kings Cove, the middle of August; Iey Strait, August 30; Wrangell Narrows, August 31; and Ketchikan, September 1(Wetmore). Onewas taken May-24, 1911, near Campbell Island, Brit- ish Columbia (Beck), and August 6-18, 1897, the species was common in flocks along the British Columbia coast near Port Simpson (Preble). The first record for Hawaii is that of an individual taken February 1, 1901 (Bryan). Spring migration.—The first spring migrants of this species usually appear at Washington, D. C., in February—February 5, 1900, and February 16, 1913; Canandaigua, N. Y., February 1, 1906 (Antes) ; Rockaway Beach, N. Y., February 13, 1910 (Griscom and Dow); NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 45 Saybrook, Conn., March 8, 1887 (Clark); and had reached the coast of Newfoundland by April 19, 1883 (Merriam). In the interior the first were reported at Grand Rapids, Mich., March 28, 1891 (White); St. Louis, Mo., March 7, 1909 (Betts); Keokuk, Iowa, March 8, 1903 (Currier) ; Storm Lake, Iowa, March 15, 1888 (Bond) ; Canton, Ill., March 9, 1897 (Cobleigh) ; Madison, Wis., average March 19, earliest March 12, 1911; Lanesboro, Minn., March 23, 1893 (Hvoslef); Heron Lake, Minn., average April 1, earliest March 22, 1894 (Miller); White Earth, Minn., April 3, 1882 (Cooke); Lincoln, Nebr., average April 3, earliest March 28, 1899 (Wolcott) ; near Valentine, Nebr., average April 1, earliest March 12, 1893 (Bates); Sioux Falls, S. Dak., March 19, 1911 (Larson); Vermilion, S. Dak., March 31, 1884 (Agersborg); near Devils Lake, N. Dak., average April 16, earliest April 11, 1895; southern Manitoba, average April 25, earliest April 21, 1905; Indian Head, Saskatchewan, April 11, 1908 (Lang); mouth of Pelican River, Mackenzie, May 9, 1901 (Preble); Pecks Lake, Ariz., April 13, 1886 (Mearns); Fort Verde, Ariz., April 17, 1888 (Mearns); Loveland, Colo., average March 14, earliest March 9, 1890 (Smith); San Luis Lakes, Colo., April 4, 1887 (Woodbury); Coventry, Colo., April 13, 1906 (Smith); Great Falls, Mont., average April 6, earliest April 5, 1890 (Williams); and Stony Plain, Alberta, April 24, 1911 (Stansell). ) The last in spring were noted at Big Gasparilla Pass, Fla., May 22, 1886 (Scott); Pea Island, N. C., May 10, 1906 (Bishop); Washing- ton, D. C., April 28, 1887 (Fisher) ; Erie, Pa., April 26, 1902 (Todd) ; Loyalhanna Creek, Pa., May 7, 1881 (Townsend); Atlantic City, N. J., June 20, 1900 (Stone) ; Geneva, N. Y., May 24, 1888 (Miller) ; New Orleans, La., April 28, 1894 (Beyer); Bay St. Louis, Miss., March 29, 1902 (Allison); Kansas City, Mo., May 3, 1902 (Bryant) ; Chicago, Ill., June 21, 1907 (Armstrong); Sioux City, lowa, May 8, 1904 (Rich); Spirit Lake, Iowa, June 14, 1890 (Berry); Madison, Wis., May 17, 1905 (Blackwelder); Corpus Christi, Tex., April 12, 1889 (Sennett); Emporia, Kans., May 6, 1884 (Kellogg); Hyperion, Cal., May 24, 1910 (Grinnell) ; and Quinn River, Nev., June 1, 1909 (Taylor). Nonbreeding individuals remain all summer along the coast of Long Island (Braislin), on Lake Ontario near Kingston (Clarke), on Lake Michigan, and on the small interior lakes of Wisconsin (Kumlien and Hollister), and Barr Lake, Colo. (Rockwell). Eggs have been taken from June 20, 1884, in southeastern Labrador to August 3, 1860, at Rupert House, Quebec (specimens in U. S. National Museum). Eggs were obtained May 23, 1898, at Devils Lake, N. Dak. (Job), and June 13, 1893, at Stump Lake, N. Dak. (Knight). Audubon found many eggs, but none of them hatched, June 18, 1833, at Little Mecattina, on the north coast of the Gulf of 46 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. St. Lawrence, latitude 50°. In the same latitude at Crane Lake, Saskatchewan, young were already out of the shell, June 9, 1894 (Spreadborough). Young not yet able to fly were noted near Strater, Mont., July 18, 1910 (Anthony). Fall migration.—The first fall migrant of the species was noted at Woods Hole, Mass., September 17, 1891 (Edwards); Wildwood, N. J., September 7, 1895 (Stone); Pea Island, N. C., July 23 and August 20, 1904 (Bishop); Charleston, S. C., September 26, 1909 (McDer- mid); Savannah, Ga., September 30, 1909, and common by October 6 (Perry); and Fernandina, Fla., July 13, 1906, next seen August 3, and common September 16 (Worthington). It is evident that these July records refer either to nonbreeding birds that have spent the summer south of the regular summer home or to birds that having lost their eggs or young have started early on their southward journey. The first appeared at Delavan, Wis., August 18, 1892, and the next, September 1 (Hollister); Toronto, Ontario, August 20, 1890 (Fleming); Point Pelee, Ontario, August 24, 1907 (Taverner); Lake Forest, Iil., August 8, 1906 (Ferry); Bay St. Louis, Miss., October 10, 1901, com- mon by October 14 (Allison); Lincoln, Nebr., August 14, 1900 (Wol- cott); Denver, Colo., August 21, 1910 (Williams); Okanogan Lake, British Columbia, July 28, 1907, and August 8, 1911 (Brooks); Chilli- wack, British Columbia, August 13, 1888, and August 15, 1889 (Brooks); Alamitos Bay, Los Angeles County, Cal., September 17, 1907 (Grinnell). The last one seen in 1901 on Anticosti Island was on September 18 (Schmitt); Woods Hole, Mass., November 17, 1889 (Kdwards); near Newport, R. I., December 1, 1900 (Mearns); Erie, Pa., October 17, 1900 (Worthington); Harrisburg, N. Dak., October 17, 1901 (Hast- gate); Denver, Colo., November 12, 1908 (Rockwell); Provo, Utah, November 30, 1872 (Henshaw); and Valentine, Nebr., November 15, 1894 (Bates). SHORT-BILLED GULL. Larus brachyrhynchus RICHARDSON. Range.—Western North America from northwestern Mackenzie to southern California. Breeding range.—The short-billed gull was originally described from a specimen taken at Fort Franklin, Great Bear Lake, Mackenzie, May 23, 1826 (Richardson), from nearly the northern limit of its range, the species breeding only a little farther north, to Fort Anderson (MacFarlane). Thence it ranges in the breeding season west to Fort Yukon (Dall) and the mouth of the Kowak River (Grinnell). The principal summer home of the species is in Alaska, where it breeds west to Cape Lisburne (eggs in U.S. National Museum); Nelson Island (Thayer) ; and Nushagak (eggs in U.S. National Museum) ; and south to Morshoyoi Bay (Littlejohn); Kodiak Island (U.S. National Museum) ; NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 47 Homer (Chapman); Montague Island (Grinnell); Yakutat (Black- welder); and Glacier Bay (Fisher). Inland it breeds south to Lake Marsh (Bishop); Hot Springs and Pike River, Atlin, British Columbia (Kermode); and is acommon breeder in the Mackenzie Valley south to the lower Slave River (Preble) and to the Charlot River on Lake Athabaska (Harper). Winter range—This gull winters on the Pacific coast from Van- couver Island (Kermode) to extreme southern California at San Diego asses a i @ BREEDING f © OCCURRENCE /N SUMMER | # + W/NTER/ING r H OCCURRENCE IN WINTER P ~ B2074-5 Fic. 23.—Short-billed gull (Larus brachyrhynchus). (Henshaw), and occasionally as far north as Sitka, Alaska, where it was taken in December 1865, and January, 1866 (specimens in U.S. National Museum). There are three records of extensive wanderings: One was taken near Quebee City, Canada (Dionne); one on the Kuril Islands in February (Saunders), and a specimen now in the collection of the Biological Survey was taken August 28, 1893, on Lake Fork, in the Wind River Mountains, Wyo., at 10,000 feet altitude (Bailey). 48 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Spring migration.—One of these gulls was noted in Queen Charlotte Sound, British Columbia, April 6, 1909 (Swarth); Windfall Harbor, Admiralty Island, Alaska, April 24, 1907 (Grinnell); St. Michael, Alaska, May 11, 1866 (specimen in U. S. National Museum); Mount McKinley, Alaska, near base, May 10, 1908 (Sheldon) ; Fort Simpson, Mackenzie, May 8, 1904 (Preble); and the lower Kowak River, Alaska, May 15, 1899 (Grinnell). Hees were mlcen on the Lockhart River, Machen! as early as May 28, 1862 (MacFarlane); Fort Resolution, Niaokenm June 7, 1860 Gonimconn: Fort Rae, Mackenzie, June 6, 1862 (specimen 7 U.S. National Museum); mouth of Porcupine River, Yukon, June 9, 1865 (U. S. National Museum); St. Michael, Alaska, June 6, 1878 (U. S. National Museum); Cape Lisburne, Alaska, June 10, 1885 (U. S. National Museum); Montague Island, Alaska, July 5, 1908 (Grinnell) ; and downy young on Hawkins Island, Alaska, June 23, 1908 (Grinnell), and at Lake Marsh, Yukon, July 1, 1899 (Bishop). The species was common all the summer of 1907 at various localities in the Sitka district, but apparently none were breeding (Grinnell). Fail magration.—A specimen taken July 30, 1856, in Puget Sound (U. S. National Museum) probably represents an early fall migration of a nonbreeding bird, as also those seen July 18, 1909, at Bradfield Canal, British Columbia (Swarth). The first was noted at Chilli- wack, British Columbia, August 26, 1889 (Brooks); Scio, Oreg., September 21, 1900 (Prill) ; Berkeler Cal, October 9, 1886 (Kealenk Monterey, Cal, October 29, 1896 oats) ; Ventura, Cal., Novem- ber 26, 1884 (Henshaw); and San Diego, Cal., December 11, 1884 (Henshaw). ; The species departed from the lower Kowak River, Alaska, the last week in August, 1898 (Grinnell); the last were at Cape Nome, Alaska, August 28, 1910 (Thayer); Icy Cape, Alaska, July 30 (Seale) ; Collinson Point, near Camden Bay, Alaska, September 8, 1914 (An- derson); St. Michael, Alaska, September 23, 1899 (Bishop); near Lake Hardisty, Mackenzie, August 25, 1903 (Preble); and Peters- burg, near Sitka, Alaska, October 7, 1913 (Willett). An interesting question arises in connection with the migration route of those individuals that breed in the Mackenzie Valley. Migration dates show that the birds do not enter Mackenzie by way of the Yukon Valley, for the arrival dates are as early at Fort Simpson, Mackenzie, as at the mouth of the Yukon. Future investigations will undoubtedly show that these Mackenzie Valley birds make a direct flight from the coast of southern Alaska to Great Slave Lake, though this requires that they cross the divide of the Rocky Moun- tains—here about 2,500 feet high—in early May, when even the lowest passes are still deep in snow. NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 49 - (MEW GULL. Larus canus LINNZUS. The mew gull is a species of the Eastern Hemisphere, having there a wide range from northern Europe and Asia to the Mediterranean, the Nile, and the Persian Gulf. On’ the Pacific coast it occurs from the northern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, Kamchatka, and Bering Island, to Japan and China. The only sure record for North America is that of a specimen taken by Dr. Coues at Henley Harbor, Labrador, August 21, 1860. This specimen found its way to the British Museum. The mew ¢ull has been erroneously recorded several times on the coast of California. One recorded November 30, 1905, at Pacific Beach, was a young ring-billed gull, and one reported April 14, 1907, from Alamitos Bay proved to be the Pacific kittiwake. Early records of Loomis and late records of Beck, from Monterey Bay, are referable to the short-billed gull.] HEERMANN’S GULL. Larus heermanni CASssINn. Range.—Pacific coast from British Columbia to Mexico. Heermann’s gull is the only member of the group that regularly migrates in summer to the north of its breeding grounds and is com- mon in the United States at that season, though not as yet known to breed north of Mexico. Up to date only a few nesting places are known. In April, 1875, Dr. Streets found an immense colony pre- paring to breed on Isla Raza, on the west side of the Gulf of California near latitude 29°. Though eggs had not yet been laid, the birds were mating, and the presence of many thousands of tons of guano bore witness to the fact that the island had been used as a breeding place for untold generations. The eggs of Heermann’s gull have been among the desiderata of collectors for many years, and it is noteworthy that they should at last have been found in the same month at widely separated locali- ties by two expeditions sent out principally for this purpose. W. W. Brown, jr., collecting for J. EK. Thayer, found a colony, March 28, 1909, on Idlefonso Island, near the west coast of the Gulf of California, latitude 26° 30’. The first eggs from a colony whose nests were estimated as at least 2,500 were not obtained until April 2. Nine days later eggs were found by Osburn and Lamb on Las Marictas Islands, off the coast of Jalisco, latitude 20° 30’. The eggs at the more southern colony, which contained less than a hundred pairs, had been laid so much earlier that some hatched April 14. The original discoverer of this species, Dr. A. L. Heermann, said that it bred on Los Coronados Islands, Lower California, near San Diego, but this statement was probably not based on the finding of the eggs, but on the presence of the bird on the near-by coast during the breeding season. Later observers have failed to find the species nesting on these islands, or, indeed, anywhere along the whole west- ern coast of Lower California, though it has been reported breeding 50 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. at Magdalena Bay (Bryant), on the Tres Marias (Bailey), and at Mazatlan (Lawrence). The species is present the whole year on the coast of Lower Cali- fornia and western Mexico from the United States boundary to Tepic, a distance of over a thousand miles, and it is not probable that all these untold thousands of birds gather for nesting purposes on the few acres of the two islands where their eggs have been obtained. As soon as the young birds are strong of wing both old and young begin to work their way northward. On the southern coast of Cali- f © BREEDING © OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER h + WINTERING Fic. 24.—Heermann’s gull (Larus heermanni). fornia, where only a few birds are present after the middle of March, the numbers begin to increase the last week in May and early in June (Willett). The first northward migrant reached Eureka, Cal., June 1, 1889 (Palmer), and William Head, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, June 28, 1904 (Kermode). The species is an abundant summer migrant along the whole coast and has been taken north to the northern end of Vancouver Island (Saunders). Its stay in this northern part of the range is not prolonged. In 1894, by the end of July flocks were beginning to pass southward at Monterey Bay, Cal. (Loomis). Though common during July and August at the southern end of Vancouver Island (Kermode), by NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 51 September so many had started south that during this month at Yaquina Bay, Oreg. (Bretherton), it outnumbered all other gulls. It is an abundant southward migrant at Monterey, Cal., from August through October, but its numbers begin to decrease in early Novem- ber (Loomis). The last leave Fort Rupert, at the north end of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, in October (Saunders), and only a few were still present in November, 1889, as far north as Ilwaco, Wash. (Chapman). A specimen was taken at Bodega Bay, Cal., as late as December, 1854 (Lawrence), and a few remain all win- ter as far north as San Francisco Bay (Henshaw), and casually— January, 1896—even at Esquimault, British Columbia (Macoun). It is less rare at Monterey Bay during the winter (Loomis) and common at that season along the coast of southern California (Willett). It ranges south in winter to Chiapam and San Jose, Guatemala, where specimens were taken in January, 1863 (Salvin). A few were noted in Acapulco Bay, Guerrero, April, 1903 (Nelson and Goldman). LAUGHING GULL. Larus atricilla LINNZUS. Range.—Atlantic coast from Maine to British Guiana, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Pacific coast of western Mexico and Guatemala. Breeding range.—Vhe laughing gull is preeminently a breeding bird of eastern Caribbean Sea. It is a common breeder on the islands of Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao (Hartert), and Margarita (Clark), off the coast of Venezuela, and on the southern islands of the Lesser An- tilles—Grenada, Carriacou, Barbuda, Grenadines, and Soufriére. It is recorded from the others of the Lesser Antilles and from Porto Rico and Haiti, but though it undoubtedly breeds at many places throughout this region there is apparently no specific record of the finding of eggs. The bird reappears as a breeder in Jamaica (Field) ; Cuba (Gundlach); on the coast of Campeche, at Arcas Keys (Nel- son); probably at Saddle Cay, British Honduras (Salvin); and the northern Bahamas—Andros, New Providence, Cat, Watling, and probably many other islands, as the species ranges throughout the Bahamas. Along the United States coast from Florida to Maine the laughing eull was formerly an abundant breeder and 50 to 60 years ago nested in great numbers at many places. A large part of these colonies have been extirpated by the plume hunter, but some birds escaped the slaughter, and during the last few-years, under the careful protection of the National Government and of the National Association of Audubon Societies, these remaining colonies have increased in size and the birds are returning to others of their former homes. On the western and southern coasts of Florida these gulls breed near Passage Key (Pillsbury) and on a key near Cape Sable (Bent and Job). Many of the birds wereseen during June, 1904, near Key West, ~— LO, 52 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. indicating a breeding colony not far distant. The next colony to the north is on Royal Shoal, Pamlico Sound, N. C., where about 250 birds were nesting in 1909 (Philipp). The coast of northeastern Virginia is the home of the largest colonies in the United States. Here the birds breed commonly on most of the islands from Cobbs Island (Harper) to Chincoteague (Knight). In 1902 about 2,000 birds were nesting on the former. The birds still breed at Brigantine and on Gull Island, N. J., a few in each place (Stone), and some 500 birds near Stone Harbor (Carter). It is probable that a few pairs also still © BREEDING © OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER | + WINTERING f < OCCURRENCE IN WINTER h + RESIDENT Fig. 25.—Laughing gull (Larus atricilla). the breed around Great South Bay, Long Island (Eaton). Sixty years ago on the islands off the Massachusetts coast the laughing gull was acommon breeder; now it is restricted to Muskeget Island, but the colony there during the past few years has increased until in 1908 it was estimated to contain a thousand birds (Forbush). Only one colony of the laughing gull remains in the States north of Massachusetts, and that, near Penobscot Bay, on the coast of Maine, is reduced to scarcely a dozen individuals. Previous to 1870, the species nested at several places along the coast east to the vicinity of Grand Manan,. and in the summer of 1856 Dr. Brvant NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 53 collected two pairs nesting on Green Island, near Yarmouth, Nova Scotia. The species is a common breeder on the islands off the coast of Louisiana—Kast Timbalier, Tern, Breton, and Battledore (Job)—and it still breeds on Bird and Padre Islands and Matagorda Peninsula, on the coast of Texas (Strecker), where 30 years ago it nested at many places from Galveston to Brownsville. Winter range.—On the Atlantic coast, birds of this species retire in winter to South Carolina and are abundant at Charleston all through the cold season (Wayne). Thence they range throughout the West Indies, and a very few wander south of the breeding range to George- town, British Guiana (Loat); Surinam (Saunders); and to Cajutuba, Brazil, February 20, 1835 (Pelzeln). The laughing gull is a common winter bird on the United States coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and less common on the Mexican coast. It even crosses Mexico to the Pacific, where it has been noted on the coast from Mazatlan (Law- rence) to Manzanillo (Baird), Tehauntepec (Sumichrast), Tonala (Nelson and Goldman), and Chiapam, Guatemala, January, 1863 (Salvin). A straggler was taken at Santa Lucia, Peru, December 20, 1876 (Taczanowski); there is one record without exact locality for Chile (Hartert); and one bird was taken the winter of 1881-82 in Bermuda (Reid). Other wandering birds have been collected at Buffalo, N. Y. (Bergtold); Cayuga Lake, N. Y. (Rathbun); Sodus Bay, N. Y., August 28, 1910 (Guelf); Montreal, Canada, October 24, 1888 (Win- tle); Toronto, Ontario, May 23, 1890 (Cross), and June 1, 1898 (Fleming); Blencoe, Iowa, October 10, 1894 (Anderson); Lake Koshkonong, Wis., once, July, 1860 (Kumlien and Hollister); Alda, Nebr., July, 1880 (Powell); Kansas, six times (Bunker); Sloans Lake, near Denver, Colo., December, 1889 (Smith); and Fort Wingate, N. Mex. (Coues). Spring migration.—The first laughing gulls arrive on the coast of Virginia the first of April (Bailey); Cape May, N. J., April 11, 1907 (Hand); and Muskeget Island, Mass., May 7, 1891, May 10, 1892, May 17, 1893, May 9, 1896, May 7, 1898, average May 10 (Mackay). Two wandered inland to Gainesville, Tex., April 10,.1886 (Ragsdale). April and May are the nesting months on the coast of Venezuela; May and June find the birds nesting in Florida, Jamaica, and Cuba; the earliest eggs taken on the coast of Virginia were on June 3, and the nesting season continues to the middle of July. Here the eggs of the laughing gull are among those gathered regularly for human food. All the eggs are taken systematically until about July 4, after which the birds are left undisturbed to lay another set and raise their young (Bailey). On Muskeget Island, Mass., the earliest eggs i 54 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. were found June 24, 1890, June 7, 1893, June 15, 1894, and June 24, 1898 (Mackay). Fall migration.—Birds are found returning from the north at Orient Point, Long Island, August 11, 1905, and August 1, 1908 (Latham), and at Charleston, S. C., by August 13 (Wayne). Most of the indi- viduals have left the New Jersey coast by the first of October (Stone), and the last was seen at Nantucket, Mass., October 8, 1907 (Gurley); Springfield, Mass., October 1, 1887 (Morris); Vineyard Sound, Mass., October 4, 1886 (specimen in U. S. National Museum); and Sayville, Long Island, N. ¥., October 28, 1880 (specimen in U. S. National Museum). : FRANKLIN’S GULL. Larus franklini RICHARDSON. Range.—Iinterior of North America from Saskatchewan and Mani- toba to the Gulf of Mexico, Middle America, and the western coast of South America to Chile. Breeding range.—¥ranklin’s gull is more strictly a bird of the inte- rior than any other member of the genus. Its center of abundance while breeding is in the marshy lakes of North Dakota, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan. Here it breeds north to Lake Winnepegosis (Macoun); Quill Lake, Saskatchewan (Barnes); and Many Island Lake, Alberta (Bent). Birds have also been seen north to Hayes River, Keewatin (Saunders); Cumberland House (MacFarlane); Osler, Saskatchewan, May 2, 1893 (Colt); Flagstaff, Alberta, April 24, 1908, and May 4, 1909 (Buswell); and near Edmonton, Alberta, May 11, 1907 (Preble). ‘The species is so erratic in its choice of nesting sites that there is no certainty that any of these latter records represent breeding. This gull does not breed anywhere east of the Mississippi River, but to the westward it is found south to Heron Lake, Minn. (Roberts); Brookings, 8. Dak. (Matheson); Pitrodie, S. Dak. (Cheney); Fort Sisseton, S. Dak. (McChesney); and at Devils Lake, N. Dak. (Kast- gate). During the years 1890 to 1893 it nested at Spirit Lake, Iowa (Berry), but it probably does not breed anywhere in that State at the present time. Winter range.—The species has been taken at Mazatlan, Sinaloa, December (Lawrence); Chiapam, Guatemala, January, 1863 (Salvin); and Panama, December 28, 1855 (specimen in U.S. National Museum); but the real winter home is on the coast of Peru and Chile, from Payta, Peru (Saunders), to Concepcion, Chile (Philippi). Migration range.—During spring or fall migration Franklin’s gull has been taken at Laguna de S. Baltazar, Puebla, September (Ferrari- Perez); near the City of Mexico (Saunders); Zacatecas, August (Saunders); Progreso, Yucatan, fall (Saunders); Port Limon, Costa Rica (Cherrie); and the Galapagos (Snodgrass and Heller). It has occurred accidentally at St. Bartholomew Island, Lesser Antilles —————————— NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 55 (Sundevall); Blacksburg, Va., October 24, 1898 (Smyth); Licking Reservoir, Ohio, October 15, 1906 (Jones); Hamilton, Ontario, once in April and once in October (MclIlwraith); near Philadelphia, Pa., October 22, 1911 (Stone); and near Holland, Mich., April 28, 1897 (Barrows). The species has been widely chronicled—through a printer’s error—as an abundant bird in Utah, whereas it is only accidental there, having been noted June 2, 1902, and once in 1906, both at Great Salt Lake (Goodwin). Spring migration.—That the earliest spring dates for Franklin’s gull in the United States should come from Minnesota and South Dakota is remarkable. .This is an extreme example of what has been noted in lesser degree with many species—that they appear in their southern breeding grounds, earlier than in the region directly to the south which they must have crossed to reach the summer home. The average date of spring arrival at Heron Lake, Minn., is April 4, earliest March 27, 1889; southeastern South Dakota, average April 7, earliest March 27, 1890; Badger, Nebr., average April 2, earliest March 30, 1900; Wall Lake, lowa, average April 24, earliest April 19, 1911; eastern Kansas, average April 21, earliest April 10, 1891; eastern North Dakota, average May 1, earliest April 21, 1895; Aweme, Manitoba, average April 25, earliest April 8, 1901; Indian Head, Saskatchewan, average May 3, earliest April 25, 1906. Some other spring dates are: Monteer, Mo., April 20, 1909 (Savage) ; Liter, Ill., April 21, 1882 (Griffin); Warsaw, Ill., once, May, 1875 (Ridgway); Keokuk, Iowa, April 6, 1902 (Currier); Elk River, Minn., April 13, 1888 (Bailey); Fort Stockton, Tex., April 24 (specimen in U. S. National Museum); Kerrville, Tex., April 26, 1909 (Lacey); Lincoln, Nehr., April 10, 1899 (Wolcott); Alda, Nebr., April 3, 1884 (Powell); and Brookings, S. Dak., March 22, 1908 (Matheson). The species was common in Callao Bay, Peru, as late as April 11, 1883 (Macfarlane), while a late date is that of one taken at Cham- perico, Guatemala, May 30, 1873 (Salvin). Other late spring dates are: Kerrville, Tex., May 17, 1910 (Lacey); Nishna Lake, Mo., May 15, 1909 (Burnett); Wall Lake, lowa, average date of the last seen, May 24, latest June 27, 1910 (Spurrell); Onaga, Kans., May 11, 1910 (Crevecoeur); Clay Center, Kans., June 6, 1909 (Graves); Hudson, Kans., June 9, 1907 (specimen identified at Biological Sur- vey); and Aransas Bay, Tex., June, but not breeding (Armstrong). The earliest eggs were found at Heron Lake, Minn., May 25, 1885, May 8, 1886, May 18, 1890, and May 26, 1893 (Miller); near Marsh Lake, Minn., May 16, 1885 (Preston); and eggs heavily incubated, near Crane Lake, Saskatchewan, June 13, 1894 (Macoun). An enor- mous colony, estimated at 15,000 to 20,000 nests with eggs, was found at Lake of the Narrows, Saskatchewan, June 9, 1905 (Bent). The 2 -@: , q_> ° cli 2 jain RAL 2. sie @ DING 7 O OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER S eee + WI/NTERING | & OCCURRENCE IN WINTER F —F lin’s 60’ 1G. 26.—F rank (Larus franklini), NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 57 next year not a nest could be found at this lake, owing to a drought that had lowered the water level. Fall migration.—A very early migrant was taken at Valparaiso, Chile, in September, 1859 (Philippi), though usually the species does not reach southern Texas until the last of that month (Armstrong). The extreme northern part of the range is deserted, however, at an early date, since for 14 years the average date of the last one seen at Aweme, Manitoba, is August 10, latest August 21, 1905 (Criddle); Harrisburg, N. Dak., latest October 1, 1901 (Kastgate) ; southeastern South Dakota, average of the last seen October 13, latest November 12, 1891; Badger, Nebr., November 12, 1899 (Colt); Lincoln, Nebr., November 17, 1900 (Wolcott); Lawrence, Kans., November 1, 1905 (Wetmore); Madison, Minn., October 8, 1894 (Lano); West Depere, B2078-5 Fic. 27,—Franklin’s gull (Larus franklini), adult in sammer plumage. Wis., October 22, 1884 (Willard); Lake Koshkonong, Wis., a few each year in September and October, latest October 29, 1871 (Kum- lien); and Corpus Christi, Tex., November 3-7, 1909 (Thayer). BONAPARTEH’S GULL. Larus philadelphia (ORD.) Range.—North America from Alaska and Mackenzie to Yucatan and Jalisco, Mexico. Breeding range.—A distinction needs to be made in the case of Bonaparte’s gull between its summer home and its nesting range, since many of this species remain through the summer as nonbreeders far south of the district in which they nest. Eggs or nests or un- fledged young have been found at only a few places. This gull breeds abundantly in northern Mackenzie in the region around Fort Anderson (MacFarlane), and thence west to Fort Yukon and the lower Yukon, at Nulato (Dall), the only places in Alaska whence the 58 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. eggs have been reported. It breeds south to the lakes on the upper Pelly River in Yukon (Pike) and to Atlin in northern British Colum- bia (Anderson); these five places seem to be the only sure records of actual nesting. Although the species has been reported as nesting at various places south to southern British Columbia, Alberta, Mani- toba, southern Keewatin, and even to North Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, it is very suggestive that it is not known f @ BREEDING H © OCCURRENCE JN SUMMER + WINTERING H <> OCCURRENCE IN WINTER B2079-5 Fic. 28.—Bonaparte’s gull (Larus philadelphia). to nest on any of the large lakes in southern Mackenzie, where it would certainly breed if it did at these much more southern locali- ties. The probabilities are that Bonaparte’s gull is an aretie- and sub- arctic-breeding bird which finds its most congenial home on the Arctic lakes and rivers at the farthest north it can find the evergreens on which it places its nest. During summer, nonbreeding individuals of the species occur com- monly on the coast of southeastern Alaska (Swarth) and not rarely NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 59 on the coast of British Columbia (Kermode). To this same class should probably be referred the birds seen at the north end of Lake Winnipeg, June 15-17, 1900 (Preble), July 7-9, 1900, in southern Keewatin (Preble), and the late June birds of the Bay of Fundy (Brewer). Audubon notes that individuals found to be abundant about the Bay of Fundy in May were birds one year old that on dis- section showed they were not to breed that year. Winter range.—Bonaparte’s gull winters regularly and commonly on the coast from Florida to South Carelina, less commonly to Long Island, and stragglers have occurred at this season north to Maine. It winters on the Gulf coast of the United States and on the Pacific coast north at least to southern Washington. On the coast of Los Angeles County, Cal., it winters commonly, and less commonly to San Quintin, Lower California, January 12, 1907 (Thayer); Mag- dalena Island, Lower California, December 5, 1905 (Nelson and Gold- man); Mazatlan, Smaloa, December, 1896 (Loomis); and to La Barca, Jalisco (specimen identified at the Biological Survey). It ranges in Florida south to Lemon City (Brown), was noted at Progreso, Yucatan, in late January (Cole), and winters at the mouth of the Colorado River (Rhoads). Migration range.—Breeding in the interior on fresh water, Bona- parte’s gull seeks salt water as soon as its family cares are concluded. Although the principal breeding range is in the northwestern part of the American Continent, many more than half of the gulls go east- ward in their migration to spend the winter on the Atlantic coast. The line of flight corresponds in general with the northern limit of tree growth, reaching the coast of Hudson Bay in the vicinity of Cape Churchill, and thence passing around its southern end to the Gulf of St. Lawrence; a few individuals occur along the Labrador coast at the Strait of Belle Isle and as far north as Hamilton Inlet (Bigelow). Another numerous group choose a route a little to the southward by way of Lake Winnipeg and the Great Lakes to the Atlantic coast. Small numbers go south in fall through the Mississippi Valley to winter on the Gulf coast, but only a few choose this route, for Bona- parte’s gull is a bird of lakes rather than rivers, and there are few congenial stopping places in the southern half of the Mississippi Valley. The small contingent electing the Pacific coast for their winter home go directly south, crossing the main divide of the Rocky Moun- tains to the coast of southern Alaska, whence they follow down the coast to the winter home. } was «t aie 3 1 & s } ~ I - | if || = Diy H by HL . / A F iT iz Dh) 4 ine} 5 ith ‘ ea Pstinte fk ae on Th ues a eae ’ Tot? ¥. ER A), eb bei ett PES ; T, F ok bist di jaded pease. Ske Let ead wilt He ae ; leoepohu} ve |B bee (ts eet ‘BY at a Saag ryt yr lh xy ~ eo Eat Mawortrau. f SRipyen 4 seh é ready See UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE N; BULLETIN No. 293 43 e Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology & L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 7, 1915 THE GRASSHOPPER OUTBREAK IN NEW MEXICO DURING THE SUMMER OF 1913.1 By Harrison E. SMITH, Entomological Assistant, Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations. INTRODUCTION. Of the several important grasshopper outbreaks in the United States during the summer of 1913 that of the so-called long-winged Fic, 1.—Long-winged grasshopper (Dissosteira longipennis): Adult female. About one-third enlarged. (Original.) grasshopper (fig. 1) in the Pecos Valley of New Mexico proved one of the most interesting. Though more or less important outbreaks of this grasshopper have been reported heretofore, very little actual data pertaining to this species appears to have been assembled. The writer, under the direction of F. M. Webster, in charge of cereal and forage insect investigations of the Bureau of Entomology, spent the month of June, 1913, in the field investigating this rather unusual invasion. The data are of necessity in certain phases somewhat incomplete since the investigations were carried on entirely under field condi- tions, although a very considerable amount of information relative to this species was obtained and is herein presented. 1 The grasshopper discussed in this paper is scientifically known as Dissosteira longi- pennis Thomas; synonym, Oedipoda nebracensis Bruner. 4070°—15 2 BULLETIN 293, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. HISTORY IN AMERICA. This long-winged grasshopper was originally described by Cyrus Thomas in 1872 under the name of Oedipoda longipennis, from a male specimen, marked “ Kansas,” submitted to him in a collection from the Agricultural Department. C. V. Riley claims to have col- lected this species in Colorado on his first trip to that State in 1867. In 1876 S. H. Scudder proposed a new genus (Dissosteira) for the reception of Oedipoda longipennis Thom. and Gryllus carolina Linn., designating the latter species as the genotype. In 1875 Philip R. Uhler found this species in small numbers in the region west of Colorado Springs, Colo. In 1891 Lawrence Bruner, while upon a general tour of observation to investigate rumored grasshopper ravages in different parts ofthe Western States, stated that the species causing the alarm in Colorado was “* a rather rare species, known as DP. longipennis, it occurring at that time over 400 sq. miles of territory in sufficient numbers to materially injure the grasses growing on the range of the entire region. Grains and other cultivated plants did not appear to be especially attractive to it. In fact, very little or no injury was done by it to the cultivated crops growing within the region infested.” Between July 10 and 19, 1891, the late E. H. Popenoe visited Lin- coln County, Colo., where grasshoppers of this species were so numerous as to stop the trains. In 1892 Kellogg stated that this species was locally hurtful in Kansas, but that no serious crop destruction was threatened. He stated further, “* * *™ This locust is a nonmigratory form, occasionally abundant on the plains of eastern Colorado. It some- times occurs in sufficient numbers in restricted areas to destroy all vegetation.” In 1895 Bruner noted this species Out on the plains away from the foothills and irrigating ditches,” as quite abundant over a large portion of Colorado and Nebraska. He believed ea stony hillsides furnished a suitable place for the increase of D. longipennis and several other barren-ground species.” In 1896 Bruner again noted this species abundant in Colorado and Nebraska, recording it attacking and actually destroying entire fields of small grains, some corn, potatoes, and a number of garden plants. In 1898 this species was occasionally noted in western Kansas by S. J. Hunter, who stated that in Edwards County this locust was abundant in a portion of an alfalfa field of 320 acres. This was first observed July 6. On September 1 females of this species were seen ovipositing in this field. It was his opinion that this colony ce Ok OF 1a GRASSHOPPER OUTBREAK IN NEW MEXICO, 3 was bred and reared upon this ground. In the same year he also recorded: “ On the evening of July 21 the locusts came from the west down into Colorado Springs in countless numbers.” In 1900 this insect invaded the town of Las Vegas, N. Mex., in great numbers and crushed specimens were everywhere seen on the sidewalks. In 1904 Bruner wrote, regarding this species, “A native of the high prairies of western Kansas, Nebraska, eastern Colorado, and Wyoming; not nearly so abundant as it was five years ago.” The 1913 outbreak of this species extended over 400 to 500 square miles, the prairie grasses, grain, and garden crops within this area being in great part devastated. Herds of cattle usually grazing within this infested area were forced to travel from 11 to 13 miles for grazing facilities, and would return to their usual watering places only at intervals, varying from 24 to 56 hours. Freight and passenger trains were repeatedly stopped by grasshoppers massing upon the railroad tracks, this being frequent from the middle of May until the first of July. The prairie grasses within the infested area were so completely ravaged that hardly a surface depression of the soil could be located which was not from one-fourth to completely filled with grass- hoppers’ droppings. DISTRIBUTION. This species is native to the western United States. Since Thomas described the species from western Kansas it has been found in Colorado, Wyoming, Nebraska, Idaho, New Mexico, Texas, and Oklahoma. SEASONAL HISTORY. The eggs of this species in New Mexico evidently commence to hatch en masse during the first week of May, though a few nymphs may probably appear during the latter part of April. Adults were first noted on June 4, and by June 24 the majority of the grasshoppers were in the adult stage. However, third and fourth stage nymphs were present in numbers up to the second week in July. So far as known, this species has but a single generation per year, the eggs being deposited during late August and early September. A MIGRATORY OR NONMIGRATORY SPECIES? In 1892 Kellogg stated that in Kansas this grasshopper is a non- migratory species. 4 BULLETIN 293, U.:S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In 1913, from May 4 to June 24, nymphal droves of this species traveled in a northeasterly direction some 15 to 18 miles, ravaging the entire growth of prairie grasses in their path. The species is gregarious, the early maturing adults remaining with the nymphal droves until the majority have attained the fully- winged state. The adults are readily attracted to hghts, having been taken at Clovis, N. Mex., during June, 1913, about 25 miles north of Elida, where the main nymphal droves were located at the time. In the winged state these insects are very wary and are excep- tionally strong fliers. ORIGIN OF OUTBREAK. This outbreak originated from a tremendous swarm of adults flying from some unknown point to the north. These settled in the outly- ing districts of Elida, N. Mex., during the latter part of August and early September. During one evening, when swarms of this species were passing over Elida, large numbers of them flew against the plate-glass window of a brilliantly hghted barber shop. The follow- ing morning several bushels of dead grasshoppers were heaped on the sidewalk. BREEDING GROUNDS. The breeding grounds on which these swarms settled to deposit their eggs were in most part in a chain of sandhills running from about 8 to 10 miles northwest to southwest of Elida. Another con- siderable swarm settled and deposited eggs in the sandhills 64 miles southeast of Elida. On May 4, 1913, at a point 8 miles northwest of Elida, Mr. B. W. Kinsolving noted the tiny grasshoppers coming out of the sand “by the million.” Watching this area for a little over a week Mr. Kin- solving says: “Tiny hoppers appeared to be coming out of the sand continually. One evening during a heavy shower certain areas of this breeding ground were covered at least 6 inches deep with tiny hop- pers.” On May 6, 1913, 64 miles southeast of Elida, Mr. Bruce Marsh noted the tiny grasshoppers issuing from the sand in an area nearly 1 mile square, “the ground over this area appearing like a living mass of crawling maggots.” At about the same time the cowboys on the Littlefield ranch, 84 miles southwest of Elida, noted the sand moving up and down over a great area. When examined they found “countless millions of tiny hoppers crawling to the surface.” GRASSHOPPER OUTBREAK ™N NEW MEXICO. 5 Though the major portion of the egg pods were deposited in the sandhills during the fall of 1912, the writer was informed by several parties that some of the eggs, at least, were deposited in hard land. This is very probably true, but at best they constituted a very small percentage. METHODS OF TRAVEL. Grasshoppers of this species appear to have a decided preference for massing together and traveling over barren areas, such as road- ways, footpaths, and along railroad, tracks and right of ways. Over such areas, under favorable weather conditions, immense droves 1 or 2 miles in length, massed closely together, travel along at a rapid gait, all generally traveling in the same direction. Though large droves mass and travel over the prairie proper, the rate of travel is somewhat less than that of the droves passing over barren areas. Grasshoppers in the third nymphal stage travel at the rate of from 8 to 12 feet per minute; those in the fourth instar from 15 to 20 feet per minute. The rate of travel of nymphs in the first two instars is proportionally less. Nymphal droves of these grasshop- pers, under proper weather conditions, travel from 1 to 2 miles a day. Adults taking flight during a heavy wind fly with the wind, though generally facing it during the rise from the ground to the desired altitude, which usually is from 30 to 40 feet. Adults have been noted to alight on De surface of water and then easily take wing therefrom. WEATHER CONDITIONS. Weather conditions are a very important factor in the dispersion of the grasshoppers, at least during that period when the majority are in the nymphal stages. Throughout the month of June, 1913, the amount of precipitation in New Mexico was greatly in excess of normal. On dark, cloudy days or during rainy weather the grasshoppers travel very little. Under such conditions they generally collect be- neath available shelter, or mass upon the prairie to feed, or slowly wander around with no apparent object in view. If, however, during one of these periods the sun breaks through the clouds to shine bril- liantly for a few moments, every individual becomes active and almost immediately the entire drove is rapidly moving along its usual course of travel. The moment the sun disappears travel ceases as promptly as it began, and the former state of inactivity is soon restored. During fair, bright sunny weather travel usually commences early in the forenoon and continues until the latter part of the afternoon. 6 BULLETIN 293, U..S.;. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Under high prevailing wind conditions the grasshoppers will seek the windward side of any available shelter, there to remain until the wind has ceased or considerably abated. FEEDING HABITS. The major portion of the feeding takes place during the early morning hours and the last part of the afternoon, although intermit- tent feeding is indulged in throughout the day. Under favorable weather conditions the approximate hours of feeding are from day- Jight until 8 or 9 o’clock in the forenoon, and from 8 to 4 o’clock until sundown during the afternoon. Apparently little or no feeding takes place during the night. The foliage may be entirely devoured or irregular patches cut out from the margin of the leaves. The stems or stalks may be partly or entirely girdled and cut off. FOOD PLANTS. Grama grass (Bouteloua oligostachya), buffalo grass (Bulbilis dac- tyloides), and mesquite grass (Bouteloua hirsuta) are by preference the most relished food plants of this species. Fields of maize, kafir corn, and millet were completely devastated. Millet is in all instances a most desirable food plant. Mr. Hobson, of Elida, informed the writer that he noted the grasshoppers massing in 5 acres of millet on his farm, and in less than 30 minutes every plant had been eaten to the ground. Sorghum is fed upon to a slight extent, but is seldom disturbed if other more desirable food plants are readily available. Truck crops in the infested area were entirely defoliated, including the following plants: Cultivated mustard, radish, lettuce, squash, sweet potato, young white potato (old plants seldom disturbed), tomato, sweet corn, and immature onion plants. Under certain conditions Russian thistle (Salsola tragus) is read- ily fed upon, and slight feeding upon soapweed (Chlorogalum pom- eridianum) has been noted. Though S. J. Hunter has recorded this species as being abundant in part of a 320-acre tract of alfalfa in western Kansas during 1898, nymphs of this species forwarded to the Wellington, Kans., labora- tory, and confined in a Comstock cage placed over alfalfa plants, failed to display any desire for feeding upon this plant, the nymphs ultimately dying from apparent starvation. PREDACIOUS ENEMIES. Among the more important bird enemies noted to be feeding upon grasshoppers during this invasion were the desert horned lark (Ofo- coris alpestris leucolaema), western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta) , GRASSHOPPER OUTBREAK IN NEW MEXICO. 7 desert sparrow hawk (falco sparverius phalaena) , nighthawk (Chor- deiles virginianus), killdeer (Oxyechus vociferus), and quail (Col- nus virginianus). The results of further investigations in coopera- tion with the Biological Survey on the destruction of grasshoppers by birds in New Mexico will be published in another connection. Several species of lizards, which were very numerous in this local- ity, fed voraciously upon the nymphs. Oftentimes lizards were noted -so bloated from grasshopper feeding that travel was accomplished only with great difficulty. Horned toads: were also heavy feeders upon the immature grasshoppers. While the large droves were passing through the prairie-dog towns these animals appeared to feed upon the grasshoppers in numbers. PARASITIC ENEMIES. A dipteron, Sarcophaga kellyi Ald., was found to be by far the most important factor in the control of this species, and it was equally efficient as a parasite upon both the nymphs and adults. Larviposition by the female of S. kellyi was continually noted throughout the month of June. The female, as far as observed by the writer, always chose individuals freshly molted or inactive, but in an apparently healthy condition. During the latter part of June the grasshoppers were enormously reduced in numbers from parasitism by S. kellyi. It was a simple matter to count 15 or more dead grasshoppers to the square foot over large areas. The grasshoppers died in such numbers in some lo- calities that ranchers informed the writer that certain droves were almost completely destroyed. On June 16 a female of S. /ellyi was noted to deposit tiny mag- gots on the dorsum of the thorax (pronotum) of a freshly molted nymph. This nymph was captured as the fly finished the act. The fly in question was then noted to rest upon the thorax of a second nymph, where it commenced to larviposit. At this time, while in the act of depositing a maggot, she was captured, and, although badly crushed, the specimen was not so greatly disfigured but that com- parison with previously reared specimens proved beyond a question that all were identical. Careful comparison of this female taken in the act of larviposition, with another female noted to be larvipositing in the same manner, but not captured while in the act, proved again that both were the same species. From the captured nymph above noted six specimens of S. hellyi were reared. This was the only female which the writer was able to capture in the act of depositing the tiny maggots, but it abundantly determined the method of larviposition utilized by S. kellyi in parasitizing D. ee 8 BULLETIN 293, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. longipennis. Sarcophagids were continually noted to larviposit on nymphs left comatose upon the open prairie, after having been stung by a wasp (Priononyx atrata Lep.). In not a single instance was it possible to note a sarcophagid endeavoring to strike a moving nymph or flying adult. When large numbers of the grasshoppers were molting at approxi- mately the same time the familiar noise of hundreds of female sar- cophagids in search of their victim was easily heard. Hot, sunny weather greatly stimulated the activities of the flies, as well as those of the grasshoppers, whereas cold, cloudy, or rainy weather mvari- ably checked them. The female, upon locating a suitable victim, was observed to alight upon the dorsum of the thorax and quickly deposit several living maggots, which, encountering only the soft, tender membrane, speed- ily made their way into the body cavity of their host. The maggots are capable, however, of entering a host which is fully dried out and hardened, the writer having noted a female sarcophagid to larviposit on a grasshopper nymph (fig. 2) which had been stung by Priononye atrata and left upon the open prai- rie beside the partially excavated Fic, 2.—Long-winged _ grasshopper: hole of the wasp: the maggots de- Nymph which had been stung by the : : Si cnonuel aikator aiid. On Mamie posited soon entering the host and the parasitic fly Sarcophaga kellyi the puparia later emerging, to give afterwards deposited a larva. About : . Been eaical teed! (Origiial) issuance to adults of S. kelly?. The number of living maggots deposited by the female upon an individual host during one period of larviposition would vary from 1 to 7 or more, although from 3 to 6 appeared to be the more general. The writer has reared individuals from five puparia of S: kellyi taken from an adult of Dissosteira carolina captured at Wellington, Kans., on the wing July 9, 1913, the maggots emerging from the host July 10, As many as 16 mag- gots have been found in the body cavity of a large nympth of Wip- piscus sp. in New Mexico. The maggots of S. hellyi usually issue from their host just pos- terior to the anterior coxa. RS te ete Es Se Cost of fertilizer, pounds, at $ Pek homey ects he teehee oles Cost of cultivation: — hours of horse labor, at 5 cents an hour, each horse.......... ....-.- hoursiohiboys: labor,at 10*cents anvhoutees.- 55-22 =¢-- + ok ee nee Cost of gathering: hours of boys’ labor, at 10 cents an hourdor each: -2-..:--.2.. --:--. Costomcmnimespalines and marketing. .- 9. uae. ses eee ee oe ee Moiell CONieodecaateodoose As 5 i io er ae ae ais ieee RECEIPTS. Total value of lint, pounds:at ——. ..) same Ue ees a) Dit va Total value of cotton seed, POUNDS, at. eemmeeeye cory ces Coes pete Motalsrecelp tes ie2 ste basa)... ., ene eer ae 2 ee tae ee ee INGLE | Ou 01dl ee nee eM ce 2 oa yc anon nh Ci Mee bo oe We, the committee, hereby certify that we have measured the cotton of of on this day of 19 , and that the following statements are cor- rect: Length of plat, yards, feet; width of plat, yards, feet; area of plat, acres. The amount of cotton obtained, pounds, in the measured plat. SUGGESTIVE CORRELATIONS. Reading and spelling—The Farmers’ Bulletins, the bulletins and circulars of the State college of agriculture, and the books that are consulted in connection with the study of the various questions raised while studying the subject of cotton will all give reading material of the best kind. Magazine articles and articles in the farm papers should be used freely for reading and discussion. 16 BULLETIN 294, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. List and assign new words related to the cotton industry for spell- ing exercises. Language lessons.—Written reports of field observations. Compo- sitions on selection of seed in the field. A careful study of these compositions should be made to the end that the pupils may grow in power to express their ideas truthfully, systematically, adequately, and interestingly. Write letters ordering seed catalogues and asking for the quotation of prices on cotton. In these letters study for cor- rect form, good composition, and for courtesy in expression. Drawing.—Make drawings of ideal and faulty specimens of common varieties of cotton grown in the district. Collect, name, and make drawings of common weed and insect pests of cotton. Pupils should be encouraged to illustrate their descriptions by offhand sketches on the blackboard. Make drawings of the important parts of ma- chinery used in cotton culture. In this connection emphasize the learning of the names and uses of implements and their parts. History.—Study the history of the varieties of cotton common to the community as to their origin, time, and circumstances of their introduction and the success with which they have been grown. Special attention should be given to the development of the cotton gin and its relation to the cotton industry. The history of cotton in India, Egypt, Persia, the West Indies, and Brazil should be studied carefully. Study the history of weeds, insects, and fungous diseases of cotton as to origin, introduction, spread, damage done, and methods of combating. Geography.—Study the commerce of cotton from (1) India to the Mediterranean countries; (2) Mediterranean countries to western Europe; (3) America to western Europe. Prepare maps showing lines of commerce and locate the principal receiving and distributing points for each agricultural product bought and sold. Study the trade that results from the exchange of agricultural products between your State and other States and countries; compare the exports and imports as to quantity, value, and character. Arithmetic.—The business of the farm offers the best possible mate- rial for arithmetic study. Develop exercises on the cost of producing one bale of cotton per acre under different methods of farm practice. Problems involying the annual reports of club members should be developed. All business forms used locally, such as receipts, bills, freight bills for fertilizers, ete., should be studied in school. “Correlating Agriculture with the Public School Subjects in the Southern States” is the title of Department Bulletin 132, published by the United States Department of Agriculture. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE + 1915 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 28, 1915 ' THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH.' By JosEF BRuNNER, Assistant in Forest Entomology, Forest Insect Investigations. CONTENTS. E Page. | Page. Descniphioniof thepinsects2).- 2349-5 -.5-2 2 | Character of injury and work of larve...... 8 Seasonal history and habits....-..........-- 3 | Effect of infestation on tree growth and forest. 9 Relation to other insects.........-.......---- 5 Remedy net kan cee A ER re ee Ae 10 Relation to natural enemies. ...-.......--..- 6 | Conclusions: jes. Se ay eee ee aie il Habivanand host treest = 2...-.--------<---- Wa eAlSenaLUNeVCLUGG) sacce eae ecieeene ee eicaene 12 INTRODUCTION. One of the msects of the order Lepidoptera very destructive to coniferous trees, and especially to yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) in various sections of the West and, according to Zimmerman, Grote, and Kellicott, to white pine (Pinus strobus), Canadian or red pine (P. resinosa), Austrian pine (P. austriaca), Scotch pine (P. sylvestris), Swiss pine (P. cembra), and other pines in the Hast, is the Zimmerman pine moth (Pinipestis zimmermani Grote’). Aside from being largely the cause of ‘‘spike-top”’ (Pl. [) in mature timber, it spike-tops, stunts, and kills outright innumerable trees of the so-called “second erowth.” The inher of at least one area, thus far discovered, has been brought into such ill repute that carpenters and builders refuse to use it ia anything in which ‘‘never-ending shrinkage” is objec- tionable. Having noted during several seasons the severe injuries inflicted by the larvee of this insect, the writer, at the suggestion of Dr. A. D. Hop- kins, undertook, during the autumn of 1912, a systematic study of its seasonal history and habits, the recorded information on this insect being inadequate. This study was conducted during 1913-14 m conjunction with other work on insects which affect reproduction and 1 Pinipestis zimmermani Grote. 2 Tdentification by August Busck. Note.—This bulletin is of special interest to manufacturers and users of pine lumber from the Western States. 4249°—Bull. 295—15 eae 2 BULLETIN 295, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the development of forest trees, with a view of discovering possible methods of elimination or at least amelioration of its ravages. Definite details were gathered only in certain areas within the States of Montana and Idaho, but correspondence with the other forest insect field stations in the West, together with larve collected and forwarded from those stations, proves that this moth occurs almost everywhere in the West. Considering that Packard records its occurrences in New York and Pennsylvania, it is evident that this insect is probably distributed over most of the United States. Its habits and the result of its larval work also apparently do not vary materially anywhere in its range. These facts lead to the conclusion that the remedy outlined below should be as effective in other regions - as in the West. : DESCRIPTION OF THE INSECT. THE ADULT. The length of the moth (PI. IT, fig. 1) is about-one-half inch. ‘There is no appreciable difference in size and coloration between the two sexes although the general color of individual specimens varies from a light gray to a reddish gray and the body of specimens having the latter hue on head and thorax is usually dark gray, The under- side of the entire insect is of a uniform gray color. The wing expanse is from 1} to 14inches. ‘The fore wings are shaded reddish on the basal and terminal fields, the median space, divided from the latter by W-shaped lines, being blackish and gray, these two colors being again divided by a small white bar on a brownish field. The hind wings are pale yellowish white, the color becoming deeper toward the terminal fringe, which is paler than that of the fore wings, on which it frequently shades to a dark gray. These characters agree fairly well with Grote’s description. THE LARVA. When full grown the caterpillar (Pl. I, fig. 2) is about three-fourths of aninchinlength. The head is chestnut brown, the mandibles black. The body is naked, with a series of dots, darker than the skin, from each of which issues a single bristle. It has three pairs of thoracic legs, four pairs of abdominal prolegs, and a pair of anal claspers. The body varies greatly in color, which ranges from a dirty white, through reddish yellow, to a vivid green. The larva found in yellow pine is almost mvariably gray-brown, resembling the color of the bark of the host tree, while those in Douglas fir are of such a vivid green color that it seems almost incredible that they should be repre- sentatives of the same species which infests pine. Rearing them to the adult stage, however, always dispels any doubt in this regard. Variations in color, about which Grote and Kellicott differ, are evidently merely a matter of host differences. THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. 3 THE PUPA. Freshly formed chrysalids are of a light brown color, which changes to blackish brown as the moth within develops toward maturity. The chrysalis is cylindrical, about three-fourths of an inch long, rather slender, and without spines on the segments. This last char- acter makes it readily distinguishable from a sesiid pupa, which is frequently found under somewhat similar conditions. SEASONAL HISTORY AND HABITS. While adults emerge and mate from about May 1 to September 15, the maximum flight of the moths occurs during the month of July. They appear to be rather long lived, many 2-weeks-old specimens reared in the laboratory being as ready to take wing when disturbed as when they had just burst the bonds of the chrysalis. No other species of moths reared in captivity the larve of which feed on internal tree tissues were observed to live more than 10 days after emergence under similar conditions. The longevity of the Zimmer- man moths evidently extends the period of mating beyond the general flight, and consequently fertilized eggs are deposited during any of the milder months. Larve of all sizes, except the most minute in winter, may be found at any time of the year. Though frequently but a single larva is found m a wound, the writer is of the firm opinion that eggs are almost invariably depos- ited in clusters. In the many observations while the larva was less than three-eighths of an:inch in length six or more of them were always found in one infested spot. From a specimen of yellow pine 6 inches in length and but 1 inch in diameter showing old work, which was placed in a breeding cage during the middle of December, a month and a half after heavy frost had ended all outdoor insect activity, seven larvee emerged early in January from eggs which had evidently been deposited on this small specimen during the previous late autumn. (PI. IJ, fig. 3.) , Again, it is often the case that a space a foot or more wide and several feet long on a tree trunk has the cambium literally honey- combed with the tunnels of numerous larve. In one such case the writer found 27 nearly mature Pinipestis larvee at work. In mature stands, in ‘“‘spike-tops”’ in the making, and at the bases of new spikes, plural infestation is evidently the rule. This conclusion is verified to some extent by the observations of Mr. W. D. Edmonston at the Forest Insect Field Stations at Ashland, Oreg., and later at Colorado Springs, Colo., and by quite a number of larve and valuable notes that he sent to the writer. These notes generally end with the statement: “‘Under bark in hardened pitch 4 BULLETIN 295, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. were found empty pupa cases,”’ or ‘‘ Empty chrysalids were found in the pitch masses.”’ Since no other pitch moth so seriously destructive to the trunks of mature or nearly mature trees leaves the entire pupa shell within the bark or the pitch which sheltered the immature insect, its identity is quite easily determined. The eggs deposited in July appear to hatch within about two weeks. During the latter part of August the young larva manifests its presence in infested trees rather plainly by the mixture of coarse castings and brown bark dust which is thrown out through the entrance and other holes in the bark made by the larva. Unlike the larve of the sesud pitch moths, the pine moth caterpillar does not work into the cam- bium and stay there. Quite often, if not always, after attaming nearly half its full growth, it leaves the place where it hatched and drills into the tree tissues again at a spot which presumably suits it better, not infrequently several feet away from the original spot. To this migratory habit probably must be attributed the frequent occurrence of but one larva in a wound, except in instances where the work of woodpeckers accounts for their isolation. This assumption seems to be supported by the fact that all such hermits when located are developed well toward maturity. As the larva grows and the inactive season approaches, this pro- miscuous gnawing of holes in the bark ceases. In no case even where most of them remain where they first saw the light is migra- tion resumed the following spring. In the spring each larva prepares for pupation in its own individual tunnel, though under the same space of infestation, by hning it with silky thread. Packard states! that ‘‘the worm in July spins a whitish, thin, papery cocoon in the mass of exuding pitch, which seems to act as a protection to both the larva and the chrysalis.”” This applies to the insect in the East. In the West the caterpillar of the pine pest restricts its weaving operations before pupating to the above-mentioned lining of the tunnel. Cocoons which answer Packard’s description are frequently found in these tunnels, but they are of a parasite which will be referred to later. On approaching maturity, about the middle of June, the larva grows sluggish and is found to be transformed into the chrysalis within a few hours. -When the moth has attained full development, 29 days from the time the pupa was formed and a year after the ege was laid, it merely bursts the chrysalid skin, leaving the empty sHell within the tunnel, and pushes its way out through the very thin pitch covering at the mouth of the tunnel. The period of pupation in Leap uals: under very varying temper atures and during all seasons 1 Pe BR A. S., Insects Tarrio to eee canal Shade Trees. 5th Rpt. U.S. Ent. Com., 955 p. (p. 731), 38 pl., 306 fig. 1886-1890. THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. 5 within a period of two years has in all cases proved to be exactly 29 days. Eggs laid the previous autumn hatch in early spring and develop into adults during August and September of the same year, while eggs deposited during “May ev ident develop into adults early the following spring. RELATION TO OTHER INSECTS. Tn the northern Rocky Mountain region Pissodes schwarzi Hopk.' is a common associate of the pine moth in yellow pine, if the trees are attacked near the base. It appears that there the moth takes as frequent advantage of the work of the beetle as the beetle does of the moth’s. The result of infestation by either of them is exactly alike, although the latter’s attack is by no means restricted to the base of trees, while the work of the beetle is rarely found more than 2 or 3 feet-above ground. Sesia brunnerr Busck,? wherever it exists (at present known in Montana and southern Idaho), is frequently associated with Pinipestis in yellow and lodgepole pine. While the attack by the Sesia in lodgepole pine appears to invite and to be the cause of subsequent infestation by the Pinipestis, the former frequently takes advantage of the work of the latter in yellow pine greatly to augment its own numbers. When this sesiid moth attacks a tree primarily it inva- riably deposits but one egg at a spot; but when it infests the pine moth’s work in yellow pine it seems always to deposit quite a number of eggs. The writer has taken as many as six nearly mature Sesia larve from a single space surrounding a spot previously infested by the pine moth. The space infested by the latter is always killed and subsequent infestation can only occur at the border of such a spot. . As the Sesia larva works parallel with the grain of the wood, its infestation of Pinipestis work becomes evident on the surface of the surrounding fresh bark by regular pitch masses of the size of a silver dollar instead of the general pitchiness which characterizes pine pest infestation, owing to the numerous holes it makes in the bark. If the pine moth reinfests such a Sesia-infested space, its larve, feeding on the strictly fresh cambium surrounding it, usually stop the necessary flow of sap to the space occupied by the Sesia and the latter is starved to death on this account. To comprehend how this is possible, 1t must be understood that the sesiid larva is not able to move around at will on the surface of the bark, that it is apparently unwilling, if not unable, to cross spaces already sapped by other insects, and that it requires two years to complete its life cycle. Two small moths of the genus Laspeyresia,? one in yellow pine and one in Douglas fir, frequently breed in the work of the pine moth in 1 Tdentified by A. D. Hopkins. 2 Busck, August. Descriptions of new microlepidoptera of forest trees. In Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, v. 16, no. 4, p. 143-150, pl. 7-8, 1914. 3 Identified by August Busck. 6 6 BULLETIN 295, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. considerable numbers. However, the relation seems to be of no economic importance. In Montana and Idaho another species of Pinipestis, P. cambiicola Dyar,! is one of the most important factors in regard to the existence oi Pinipestis zimmermani Grote. It infests during the latter part of June the cambium of the terminal branches of mature yellow pine, and many of these wounds are subsequently reinfested by the latter year after year. The work of this insect is almost invari- ably the primary cause of the knobby growth on branches in which the Zimmerman pine moth breeds undisturbed by woodpeckers or parasites, and this moth must therefore be regarded as a provider of brood trees for the more destructive Pinipestis zimmermani. (Pl. III.) RELATION TO NATURAL ENEMIES. In most sections of the Rocky Mountains the Rocky Mountain hairy woodpecker (Dryobates villosus monticola) is unquestionably the most efficient natural force in restraining the Zimmerman pine moth. Thousands of trees are each year regularly infested by the moth in comparatively small areas, and this bird as regularly destroys almost all of the larvae in all of them during early winter, so that, although hundreds of trees may be examined at a time, it is only on rare occasions that larvee are found after December in wounds in the trunks of trees which had been infested during the previous summer. This woodpecker seems to have a decided preference for the cater- pillar of the pine moth wherever the writer and the entomological rangers assigned to the Northern Rocky Mountain Field Station have had opportunities for observation. In the extreme southeastern part of Montana, and particularly that portion covered by the Northern Cheyenne Inaian Reservation and by the Custer National Forest, the moth has apparently neither bird nor insect enemies. In all other localities this woodpecker is fully able to eliminate this imsect as a serious factor in timber destruction. Especially will the work of the bird become effective when the habits of the moth are more generally understood and its ‘‘ brood trees’’ are eliminated through use by man. From reports from other field stations the-writer concludes that from Idaho west toward the Pacific coast and in the southern Rocky Mountain region woodpeckers are of no consequence as a check upon this insect. But, considering that much confusion still exists con- cerning the identity of Pinipestis among the “pitch moths,” this conclusion may prove erroneous when more thorough information is available. : The woodpecker never molests the caterpillars of the pine moth which live under “spike tops’? and in knobby branches on certain 1 Identified by H. G. Dyar. Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. REPEATED INJURY BY THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH TO LARGE TREE, RESULTING IN © SPIKE-T OP.” (ORIGINAL.) Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE ll. Fig. 1.—ADULT MOTH. SLIGHTLY ENLARGED. Fila. 2.—LARVA. (ORIGINAL. ) TWICE ENLARGED. (ORIGINAL.) Fic. 3.—MOTH ON SECTION OF TREE TRUNK, SHOWING CHARACTER OF INJURY. SEVEN LARV/E WERE FOUND IN THE BARK OF THIS SECTION IN DECEMBER. (ORIGINAL.) THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH (PINIPESTIS ZIMMERMANI) AND ITS WORK. Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Ill. PINE SHOOT SHOWING PRIMARY INJURY BY PINIPESTIS CAMBIICOLA, AND INFESTATION, TWO YEARS LATER, BY THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. NATURAL SIZE. (ORIGINAL.) PLATE IV. Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. = oy — EER: Fie wm ee | ines PINE TREE SHOWING RESULT OF REPEATED ATTACK BY THE ZIM- MERMAN PINE MOTH, AND THE INJURY AGGRAVATED BY THE ROCKY IN ITS SEARCH FOR THE LARVA. MOUNTAIN HAIRY WOODPECKER (ORIGINAL. ) Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. YELLOW PINE SHOWING CHARACTER OF INJURY BY THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. A, Tree broken at injury; B, tree attacked by insect and insect removed by woodpeckers; U, tree girdled and killed by the insect. (Original.) PLATE VI. 5, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 29 Bul. CROSS SECTION OF PINE SAPLING SHOWING EFFECT OF INJURY BY THE ) (ORIGINAL. ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. — Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. Cross SECTION OF OLD, SLOWLY-GROWING YELLOW PINE SHOWING INFESTATION BY THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH AND ITS INJURY IN BARK. (ORIQINAL.) Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. PINE TREE SHOWING EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS INJURY BY THE ZIM- MERMAN PINE MOTH. (ORIGINAL.) PLATE IX. Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF YELLOW PINE SAPLING SHOWING RESULTING DAMAGE TO WooD FROM ATTACK BY THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH (ORIGINAL.) SS ee Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. Fias. 1, 2, 3.—TyPICAL YELLOW-PINE ‘BROOD TREES” OF THE ZIMMERMAN PINE Moth. The removal of such trees and the burning of the affected parts is the most effective measure for the control of this pest. (Original.) Bul, 295, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI. OLD YELLOW-PINE TREE SHOWING RESULT OF INJURY TO TOP BY THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. (ORIGINAL.) THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. Tk mature trees (see Pinipestis cambiicola, p. 6) and this is evidently ‘the reason why its activities bear no permanent fruit. Considering also that the birds in hunting for the larve strip the trees of as much bark and cambium as the moth larve destroy in one generation, and that this operation is repeated each season, it is doubtful whether the woodpecker cure is not as bad as or even worse than the moth evil, when one considers that the brood trees are allowed to replenish the ranks of the insect year after year. (PI. IV.) The cocoon of a pimplinid of a new genus and new species * is fre- quently found in the tunnels of the pine moth in Montana and Idaho. In some localities this parasite kills as many as 80 per cent of the larvee of the moth in second-growth trees. As the parasite cocoons are not molested by woodpeckers, a full quota of this fly emerges during the first warm days of each spring. While this parasite greatly aids in checking the increase of the moth from larve which infest second growth, it fails, as does the woodpecker, to pursue the caterpillars in the above-menticned brood trees. Hence it is as much of a signal failure as is the bird. Another, somewhat larger parasite (/ehnewmon n. sp.') is fre- quently found during winter in the chrysalis of the moth. The moth does not pass the winter in the pupal stage, and chrysalids found at that time always contam the parasitic fly, which, like the pimplinid, emerges during early sprmg. It is apparently less numerous than the latter and consequently of still less economic importance. There seems to be justification for the conclusion that, without man taking a hand by eliminating the main propagating opportuni- ties, no natural enemy of the moth will ever render it harmless. With human aid these agents will accomplish all that can be reasonably expected of them, 1. e., the elimination of the ravages in rationally managed woodlands. ; HABITAT AND HOST TREES. Open, sunny stands of timber are those most affected by the Zim- merman pine moth. Slashings, on which reproduction has reached a height of 10 feet or more, fens a scattered stand of mature trees, which were left standing to reseed the area or on account of being unfit for logs, invariably contain the greatest amount of pine-moth injury. It appears to be an absolute necessity to the insects’ exist- ence in a locality stocked with second growth, that the stand contam some of these specimens, which constitute brood trees for this insect. Where the mature timber has been cut clean over quite large areas, so that the chance for influx from without is remote, the insect does no damage, even though the ground may be stocked with an ideal 1 Determined by S. A. Rohwer. ~ 8 BULLETIN 295, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stand of second growth. Yellow pine, lodgepole pine, and Douglas fir are the tree species thus far noted to be subject to infestation by this insect in the West. Out of a hundred trees so infested about 80 per cent are yellow pine, 15 per cent lodgepole pine, and 5 per cent Douglas fir. Trees with a thick layer of fresh bark and cambium, as well as the more vigorous growers, are preferred for attack. All sizes, from but a few inches to several feet in diameter, are subject to infestation; but it is the mature trees which furnish the most favora- ble means of existence for this moth, while in the smaller ones, up to about a foot in diameter, it does the greater damage. (PI. V.) CHARACTER OF INJURY AND WORK OF LARVA, | The moth, as a rule, attacks mature trees from between 10 to 30 feet from the top down, and second growth from about breast high up to from 35 to 40 feet. Infestation nearer the top or base occurs only to a very limited extent. As stated under “Seasonal history” (p. 4), fresh infestation is only indicated by the castings on the surface area of the attacked trees. If this area is very heavily infested, as in the case cited above, where the writer found 27 nearly mature larve in a space less than 5 feet in length by about 1 foot in width, there is at no time any other indication observable. The bark dries up without exuding pitch, as if scorched by extreme heat, and several years after the insect has vacated the bark drops off and the injury becomes manifest to the average passer-by. Usually, however, in such cases some larve leave the point originally infested and bury themselves higher up near a branch of the same tree. The pitch tube at the entrance of this tunnel invites close examination of the entire tree, whereupon the less conspicuous, yet heavy infestation is almost sure to be detected. (Pls. VI and VII.) During the spring following infestation drops of pitch usually begin to ooze out of the tunnels in the bark and cover the surface of the average wound with a uniform, thin layer, somewhat similar in appearance to a liberal application of paint with a brush. The inner bark assumes a spongy appearance and gains in thickness, which tightens and even breaks the outer bark, together with the dried pitch covering it. The entire infested space finally presents a strikingly rough aspect which resembles the injury of no insect except Pissodes schwarz, which produces a similar effect at the base of trees. By repeated infestation at the border of the wound, in the course of years the tree is gradually girdled and the part above the collar dies and finally rots off at its base, provided the moth abandons the tree at this stage. But frequently infestation continues downward, on young trees usually until the lower branches, which by that time THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. Gg show a tendency to develop into tops, are reached and the trees killed, and on mature ones to a point where the thickness of the bark fails to suit the insect. (PI. VIII.) On wounds infested by a single larva a pitch tube, resembling that produced by sesiid pitch moths, is usually formed, presumably because one larva alone is not capable of cutting as near the surface as when several work together in one space. In the latter case the tunnels cross and recross continuously, and when a larva strikes the tunnel of another, which must happen frequently, it usually cuts to the surface in order to avoid the solidified pitch. ‘To the presence of the larva so very near and even at the surface of the bark must be attributed its rather heavy parasitization in localities where its parasite exists, because larve living singly are very seldom parasitized. EFFECT OF INFESTATION ON TREE GROWTH AND FOREST. It is obvious that the killing of many trees in stands preferred by the moth results in too great a thinning out of the stand. This wastage of ground is further augmented by the permanent stunt- ing of a still greater number of trees by the insect’s work, because the space taken up by such scrubs would just as readily accommodate thrifty, well-formed trees. Moreover, the wood from trees that have been infested by the moth is invariably so permeated with pitch that the lumber cut from such logs is either materially reduced in value or is rendered wholly unfit for commercial use. (Pl. 1X.) From one part of southeastern Montana, where this moth is especially abundant and a large per- centage of the trees are pitch soaked, the lumber is, for this reason, only used for sheds, etc., where shrinkage can be discounted; the users find it cheaper to have the better material shipped in than to pick it out of the local stuff and throw half of it away unless it is needed for the less particular purposes indicated. To the writer this practice at first seemed rather to indicate prejudice against the home product, because there is a large amount of first-grade lumber pro- duced along with the bad. However, the pine moth is responsible for this condition, as was abundantly proved by examination of its injury in the district. The manner in which the moth’s work “‘pitch- ifies” the wood is best seen in the well-known tops which have been infested by it. From these tops the bark has dropped off, but the ‘surface of the wood has a roughened appearance and the tissues are literally saturated with pitch, while at the lower end, where the infestation ended:and the wood was not pitchified in the process, the spike is rotted off from the tree. This insect’s work alone accounts for the fact that the extreme top of a tree may be excessively pitchy, while the rest of the same tree is not. > 10 BULLETIN 295, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. REMEDY. There is probably no other seriously injurious insect which can be eliminated with less expense and trouble than the Zimmerman pine moth, because practically everywhere, wherever its existence is caus- ing real damage, the country is readily accessible, being either already logged over or adjacent to settled farming land. : In slashings the remedy consists in logging, thus removing the mature trees as soon as the area is reseeded, and in any other wood lot, where it shows its presence in the second growth, in merely using all ‘‘spike-topped,” lightning-struck, and heavily branched mature trees for firewood or domestic purposes. These are the ‘“‘brood trees” in the great majority of cases, and their disposal ends the trouble in the growing trees. The larva in these three types is found at the base of the spike, along the scar caused by the bolt, and in the knobby growths on the branches which are the result of primary injury by Pinipestis cambvicola (in the West) and probably other msects. The affected parts should be destroyed, the simplest way being to burn them before the arrival of spring. The judicious choosing of the right trees for firewood for home consumption alone would prevent on many farms further damage by this insect to the growing trees. In one wood lot east of Missoula, Mont., covering about 40 acres of a quarter-section farm, 25 per cent of the second growth had been infested annually for several seasons, and the cutting of only three overmature trees | during 1913-14 for firewood ended the damage absolutely. One of i them was a still infested spike-top and two were full of knobby branches, also infested. There are still about 80 overmature trees standing on that farm, but the three cut were evidently, as supposed before the cutting, the only ‘‘ brood trees,” and, as the woodpeckers had taken care of the infestation in second-growth trees, the elimination of the moth at that place was a natural result of the disposal of these trees. (Pls. X and XI.) In a locality about 5 miles north of Missoula, Mont., where at least 3,000 second-growth trees are infested and reinfested annually, the writer is positive that the cutting of not more than 24 over- mature ‘‘brood trees”? in a stand of about 1,000 of the same age as these would effectively end the continuous depreciation. In other localities not so thoroughly examined, the proportion of work necessary to end the trouble appears to average about the same. Even in southeastern Montana, though the moth is not subject there either to woodpeckers or parasites, the insect damage could be greatly reduced, if not eliminated, by disposing of the ‘‘ brood trees”’ by merely selecting them for fuel. a a Sy THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. iNT CONCLUSION. It is evident that natural agencies have not succeeded in preventing, and will not be able in the future to prevent, serious damage by this -moth unless man aids their efforts by disposing of such trees as have fulfilled their usefulness in the forest and wood lot, and which, instead of being an asset there, have become a menace. To end “spike topping” in mature stands, and to eliminate damage in growing timber, or at least reduce it to a negligible amount, it is necessary to remove (1) those trees which, below the spike, show branches with yellow needles (a certain indication of present infesta- tion), (2) those which are struck by lightning and remain green, as the moth usually breeds in great numbers along the lightning scars, and (3) those which display knobby growths on branches, they being in many localities the most prolific source of replenishment of the moth. ee LITERATURE CITED. Grots, A. R. A new lepidopterous insect injurious to vegetation. In Canad. Ent., vol. 9, No. 9, p. 161-163. September, 1877. Grote, A. R. Note on the structure of Nephopteryx zimmermani. In Canad. Ent., vol. 10, No. 1, p. 19, January, 1878. ZIMMERMAN, OHAs. D. Jn Canad. Ent., vol. 10, No. 1,»p. 20, January, 1878. Kewuicott, D. 8. Observations on Nephopteryx zimmermani. In Canad. Ent., vol. 11, No. 6, p. 114-116, June, 1879. Grote, A. R. On the neuration in certain genera of Pyralidae. Jn North American Entomologist, vol. 1, No. 2, p. 9-12, August, 1879. Page ll. Pinipestis zimmermani. Packxarp, A. S. Insects injurious to forest and shade trees. U.S. Dept. Interior, Ent. Com., Bul. 7, 275 p., 100 fig., 1881. Pages 182-184. Nephopteryx (Pinipestis) zimmermanni Grote. Pacxarp, A. 8. Insects injurious to forest and shade trees.. U. 8. Dept. Agr., 5th Rpt. Ent. Com., 952 p., 38 pl., 306 fig.; 1890. Pages 731-733. Nephopteryx (Pinipestis) zimmermanni Grote. 12 ADDITIONAL COPIES ie OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1915 r Wee AG Contribution from the Bureau of Crop Estimates LEON M. ESTABROOK, Chief Washington, D. C. V October 25, 1915 OUR FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. Prepared under the direction of Perry Exiiiorr, Division of Crop Records. CONTENTS. Page Page MUU Ay ee ereeicisieiecte aisle 5) | 310) BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cther countries. In 1911-1913 an average of 26 million pounds a year were sent to the United Kingdom, 30 million pounds to coun- tries in North America, chiefly Central American and West Indian countries, and about 4 million pounds elsewhere. The sugar consti- tuted during 1911-1913 about one-seventh in value of the total imports of agricultural products into the United States. COFFEE AND COFFEE SUBSTITUTES. Coffee.——The exports of coffee began in 1901, when the Spanish possessions of Hawaii and Porto Rico became United States terri- tory. The exports of coffee during the fiscal year 1901 were 497,559 pounds, and during the next year the exports increased to more than 274 million pounds. Exports of this article continued to increase until the latter amount was almost doubled in 1914, the exports beng 54 million pounds. The bulk of this coffee is grown and exported from the customs district of Porto Rico, and approximately one-half was taken by Cuba during the period 1901-1914. The bulk of the remainder was sent.to four countries, Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, and Spain. As early as 1790 our coffee imports amounted to more than 4 million pounds. Three years later the imports were over 34 million pounds. More than 103 million pounds were imported in 1835, 236 million pounds in 1856, 516 million pounds in 1883, and more than 1,091 million pounds in 1902, the largest quantity imported for any one year. During the 10 years 1905-1914 the imports aver- aged 932 million pounds annually. As a coffee importing country compared with other countries, the United States ranks first, the imports for recent years being approximately one-third of the total imports into all countries. As a source of supply, Brazil leads all other countries combined, supplying approximately three-fourths of our coffee during the last 20 years. During the five-year period 1895-1899 the average annual imports of coffee were 735 million pounds, of which 72.5 per cent came from Brazil; 1900-1904 the imports were 929 million pounds annually, of which 78.1 per cent came from Brazil; 1905-1909 the imports were annually 965 million pounds, of which 77.5 per cent came from Brazil; 1910-1914 the imports annually were 899 million pounds, of which 74.8 per cent came from Brazil. Other countries supplying large quantities of coffee during the last five years were Colombia, Mexico, Venezuela, and Guatemala. The imports from each of these countries, except Venezuela, have nearly doubled during the last five years. In 1914 the per capita imports were 10.2 pounds. The consumption of coffee in the United States during the 10 years 1904-1913 averaged annually slightly more than 10 pounds per person. Of the large quantities FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 831 of coffee imported into the United States through various domestic _ ports considerably more than one-half entered through the port of New York. Entries through that port for the 10 years 1904-1913 averaged 645 million pounds annually. The port of New Orleans ranked second, with an average of 241 million pounds, and San Francisco third, the entries being 34 million pounds. Chicory root.—The imports of chicory root during the five years 1910-1914 averaged 2,895,791 pounds annually, of which 81 per cent, or an average of 2,345,263 pounds, came from Belgium and 16.4 per cent, or 474,485 pounds, came from Germany. Coffee substitutes other than chicory root.—The imports of coffee substitutes other than chicory root in 1910 were 200,008 pounds; in 1911, 169,201 pounds; in 1912, 70,810 pounds; in 1913, 146,897 pounds; and in 1914, 188,446 pounds. More than half of this product came from Germany. COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. The yearly imports of crude cocoa and leaves and shells of cocoa was about 2 million pounds from 1851 to 1866; from 1867 to 1879 the average was about 34 million pounds; increased to 7 million pounds in 1880 and to 176 million pounds in 1914. During the last 20 years about one-half of the cocoa came from countries in North America, chiefly the British West Indies, Cuba, and Santo Domingo. Twenty years ago countries of South America—Brazil, Ecuador, Dutch Guiana, and Venezuela—supplied nearly one-half but decreased to about one-third during the last five years. Also large quantities came through Portugal and the United Kingdom. ‘The cocoa and chocolate exported in 1902 was valued at $166,000. Five years later this was doubled, amounting to $349,000, which in- creased to $499,000 in 1911 and decreased to $337,000 in 1914. Dur- ing the last five years, 1910-1914, Canada received the greater por- tion of this product. Other important markets during the same period were Panama and Cuba. Imports of chocolate, including cocoa, prepared or manufactured during the five years ending with 1914 averaged nearly 3 million pounds annually. The Netherlands supphed a little more than one- half, or 51.3 per cent; the United Kingdom, 18.6 per cent; Switzer- land, 15.7 per cent; and the greater portion of the remainder came from Germany. . TEA. Tea has been an important article of our foreign commerce, the imports ranging from 17 million pounds in 1851 to 91 million pounds in 1914. The import value of this product has ranged from 5 million to 17 million dollars for the years 1851 and 1914, respectively. 32 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Compared with other countries in imports of tea, the United States is exceeded by only two countries, the United Kingdom and Russia. | The imports mto each of the three countries during the calendar year 1913 were 89 million pounds, 306 million pounds, and 152 million pounds, respectively. As a source of supply, approximately 90 per cent of our tea came from China and Japan. During the 10 years, 1895-1904, the imports from China exceeded those from Japan and amounted to about one-half of the imports. During the 10 years, 1905-1914, Japan rose to first place and supplied about one- half of our tea. Other countries consigning large quantities of tea to us were British East Indies, Canada, and the United Kingdom. The imports of tea waste, siftings, or sweepings, for manufac- turing purposes, were a little less than 2 million pounds in 1909, which increased to 6 million pounds in 1914. This product came from the British East Indies and Japan. TOBACCO. As early as 1619 the exports of tobacco from the British colonies of North America were 20,000 pounds, valued at $10,950. The ex- ports did not assume large proportions until 1665, when 23,750,000 pounds, valued at $733,875, were exported. With various fluctua- tions, the exports of this product gradually increased to more than 100 million pounds in 1771, 200 million pounds in 1859, 300 mil- lion pounds in 1874, 400 million pounds in 1913, and increased the next year to nearly 450 million pounds, valued at approximately $54,000,000. During the 10 calendar years, 1903-1912, the United States sup- plied 41.7 per cent of the world’s exports of tobacco, and during the same period 33 per cent of the world’s crop of tobacco was produced in this country. For this period the per capita production of to- bacco in the United States was 9.3 pounds and the per capita ex- ports were 3.8 pounds. The annual production of tobacco in the United States for the 10 years, 1903-1912, was 824 million pounds, and for the same period 338 million pounds, or 41 per cent, was exported. During the 10 fiscal years 1903-1912, 68 per cent of the tobacco ex- ports was consigned to four countries—10.5 per cent each to France and Italy, 13 per cent to Germany, and 34 per cent to the United Kingdom. The average annual exports to France for this period were 35,500,000 pounds; to Germany, 48,500,000 pounds; to Italy, 35,900,000 pounds; and to the United Kingdom, 114,100,000 pounds. Other countries to which large consignments were sent in 1914 were the Netherlands, 28 million pounds; Canada, 18 million pounds; Spain, 17 million pounds; Australia, 13 million pounds; Belgium, 12 million pounds; and China, 11 million pounds. CN te ae FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 33 The imports of tobacco were 729,900 pounds in 1847. These im- ports increased the next year to more than 3 million pounds. Im- ports continued to show a general increase and reached 21 million pounds in 1890, 40 million pounds in 1907, 68 million pounds in 1913, and fell to 61 million pounds in 1914. Cuba is the source of about one-half of the tobacco imports. Other countries supplying large quantities are Germany, the Netherlands, Asiatic and European Turkey, and the United Kingdom. OIL CAKE AND OIL-CAKE MEAL AND VEGETABLE OILS. Oil cake and oil-cake meal.—The exports of oil-cake meals were valued at $739,589 in 1855, which was increased to $21,667,672 in 1914. The quantity increased from 342 million pounds in 1878 to 1,530 million pounds in 1914. This article is a by-product of three grains—corn, cotton seed, and flaxseed. Imports of oil cake for the last five years ranged from a little more than 5 million pounds in 1910 to 12 million pounds in 1914. This product came chiefly from five countries, Japan supplying nearly one-half. Mexico, the United Kingdom, Canada, and China supplied the remainder. The exports of corn oil cake were 2,203,000 pounds in 1898. in- creasing to 59 million pounds in 1914. The cottonseed oil cake ex- ported in 1895 amounted to 490 million pounds, increasing to 800 million pounds in 1914. The flaxseed oil cake increased from 244 million pounds in 1895 to 663 million pounds in 1914. Other oil cake was separately shown in 1912, the exports being 9 million pounds for that year, 7 million pounds for 1913, and 8 million pounds in 1914. France has received about one-half cf the corn oil cake, and large quantities have been consigned to Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden. More than half of the cottonseed oil cake has gone to Denmark and Germany, and large quantities have been consigned to Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Norway, the United Kingdom, and Canada. Corn oil.—During the five years 1900-1904 about 60 per cent of the corn oil went to Belgium, but shipments to that country decreased to less than one-fourth during the five years 1910-1914. Italy re- ceived less than one-tenth of the corn oil in 1900, but received two- thirds in 1914. The shipments of corn oil to all countries were 4,383,926 gallons in 1900, 25,316,799 gallons in 1911, and 18,281,576 gallons in 1914. Cottonseed oil.—The cottonseed oil exported in 1895 was valued at $6,813,000 and in 1914 at $13,848,000. The Netherlands has been the best market, receiving about one-fourth; also large quantities were consigned to France, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom, 34 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Canada, and Mexico. The exports of this oil amounted to nearly 159 million pounds in 1895, which increased to nearly 400 million pounds in 1912, and decreased to 193 million pounds in 1914. The imports of cottonseed oil amounted to more than 14 million gallons in 1912, more than 3 million gallons in 1913, and increased to 17 million gallons in 1914. More than half of this product came from China; other sources of importance were the United Kingdom, Canada, eal the Netherlands. Flaxseed or linseed oil— Flaxseed oil expor ted amounted to 62,718 gallons in 1895, increased to 282,188 gallons in 1905, and has fluctu- ated very little since that date, except in 1913, the quantity being 1,733,925 gallons, of which three-fourths were sent to the United Kingdom. Flaxseed or linseed oil imported in 1912 was 737,256 gallons; in 1913, 173,690 gallons; in 1914, 192,282 gallons. The chic sources of supply for this item were Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. More than one-half came from the Netherlands in 1912, but more than one-half came from the United Kingdom in 1914. Cocoa butter or butterine.—The cocoa butter or butterine imported in 1910 amounted to more than 3 million pounds, increasing to 6 million pounds in 1912, and decreasing to a little less than 3 million pounds in 1914. The Netherlands, as a forwarding country, was the chief source of supply for this product, and a large quantity also came through Germany. Coconut oil—The imports of coconut oil were more than 354 million pounds in 1907, which doubled seven years later, amounting to 74 million pounds in 1914. About one-half of the coconut oil was supplied by the British East Indies. As a secondary source Belgium, France, and the United Kingdom supplied the greater portion of the remainder, except in 1914, when a large quantity, more than 19 million pounds, came from the Philippine Islands. Nut oil or oil of nuts.—The imports of nut oil or oil of nuts in 1907 amounted to 2,453,597 gallons, which increased to more than 6 million gallons in 1914. This product was supplied chiefly by France and China. In 1912 this product was stated as Chinese nut and peanut oil. Chinese nut imported in 1912 amounted to 4,767,596 gallons, in 1913, 5,996,666 gallons, and in 1914, 4,932,444 gallons, of which more than 90 per cent came from China. The peanut oil amounted to nearly 900,000 gallons in 1912 and increased to more than 1,300,000 gallons in 1914. The peanut oil came chiefly from France, Germany, and the Netherlands. Olive oil——The olive oil imported is of two kinds, one used for manufacturing or mechanical purposes and the other asa salad oil, the salad or table oil being the more important. The salad oil imported FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 35 in 1906 amounted to nearly 24 million gallons, which increased to more than 6 million gallons in 1914. About two-thirds of this grade of olive oil came from lialy, that country supplying 1,626,692 gal- lons in 1906, which increased to 4,319,567 gallons in 1914. Three other countries, France, Greece, and Spain, have each supplied large quantities of this oil. The olive oil used for manufacturing pur- poses amounted to 24 million gallons in 1906 and decreased to 763,924 gallons in 1914. During the last five years this product has been supplied chiefly by Italy, Spain, and Turkey in Europe. Palm oil.—The palm oil imported in 1907 amounted to nearly 30 millon pounds, increasing to 93 million pounds in 1910, and decreas- ing to 58 million pounds in 1914. Practically all of this oil has been forwarded to this country by way of Germany and the United King- dom, the imports in 1907 being more than 14 million pounds from Germany and 15$ million pounds from the United Kingdom. In 1914 Germany supplied 13 million pe TENS and the United Kingdom 44 million pounds. Palm-kernel oil_—The palm-kernel a imported in 1912 amounted to more than 26 million pounds and in 1913 decreased to 24 million pounds, and increased to 34 million pounds in 1914. About 77 per cent of this product was consigned from Germany, and the greater portion of the remainder came by way of the United Kingdom. Rapeseed oil.—The rapeseed oil imported during the last three years averaged a little over 1 million gallons annually, valued at $588,188 in 1912 and $704,655 in 1914. More than half of this prod- uct came from the United Kingdom. France was next in importance, supplying over 100,000 gallons during each of the three years 1912— 1914. Soya-bean oil.—The imports of soya-bean oil in 1912 amounted to more than 28 million pounds, 12 million pounds for 1918, and 16 mil- hon pounds for 1914. About one-half of this product came from Japan. The remainder was supplied by Belgium, the United King- dom, and China. The import value was $1,577,131 in 1912, $635,888 in 1913, and $830,790 in 1914. Lemon oil.—The imports of oil of lemon in 1910 amounted to 415,501 pounds, valued at $309,383, which decreased to 385,959 pounds, valued at $858,220, in 1914, of which about 90 per cent was supplied by Italy. The average import price of this oil increased from 74 cents per pound in 1910 to $2.22 per pound in 1914. NUTS. The imports of almonds since 1884 have ranged from nearly 4 million pounds in 1884 to 19 million pounds in 1914. This product has been supplied during the last 20 years chiefly by three countries, France, Italy, and Spain. : wien 36 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The coconuts imported since 1905 have been valued at more than 1 million dollars annually. These have been suppled mostly by the British West Indies, those islands supplying approximately 50 per cent. The coconut meat, broken, or copra, not shredded, desiccated, or prepared, was first separately shown in the customs returns in 1907, when more than 7 million pounds were imported, which more than doubled during the following year and continued to increase to more than 45 millon pounds in 1914. This product has been supplied almost entirely by the Philippine Islands and French Oceania. The imports of coconut meat, broken or copra, shredded, desiccated, or prepared, amounted to more than 5 million pounds in 1912, increas- ing the following year to nearly 7 million pounds, and to more than 10 million pounds in 1914. This product was supphed almost en- tirely by the British East Indies. Cream and Brazil nuts imported in 1907 were 252,538 bushels, which increased to 21,540,000 bushels:in 1912, and decreased to 20,423,497 bushels in 1914. This product has been supplied almost entirely by Brazil, that country supplying 233,919 bushels in 1907, 21,454,000 bushels in 1912, and 20,178,535 bushels in 1914. Filberts imported during 1910-1914 averaged about 12 million pounds annually. About 10 million pounds, or nearly 90 per cent, came from Italy. Two other countries supplying the principal por- tion of the remainder were Spain and Turkey in Asia. The exports of peanuts, which were a little over 7 million pounds in 1906, increased to slightly more than 8 million pounds in 1914. Can- ada received about three-fourths of this article, and other countries receiving large quantities were the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, the Central American States, and Guiana. The imports of peanuts during the last five years ranged from 29 million pounds in 1910 to more than 44 million pounds in 1914. Four countries were the chief sources of supply for this product, France, Spain, China, and Japan. Nearly one-half of this product has been supphed by Japan. The imports of walnuts in 1903 amounted to more than 12 million pounds, increasing to 37 million pounds in 1914. About two-thirds of these were supplied by France. Two other countries, Italy and China, each supplied large quantities. The imports were valued at $1,106,000 in 1903, which increased to $4,339,000 in 1914. ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS. Distilled spirits——The exports of alcohol, including cologne spirits, during the 10 years 1905-1914 ranged from 1,081,871 proof gallons in 1905 to 187,845 proof gallons in 1914. Canada has been the best market for this product, receiving about one-half of the total exports. FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. aM The annual imports of brandy during the last 30 years was approx- imately 500,000 proof gallons, the range being from 138,000 gallons in 1898 to 716,000 gallons in 1910. France has supplied considerably more than all the other countries combined. In 1903 and subse- quently the import value of this article aggregated $1,000,000 an- nually. The imports of cordials, liqueurs, ete., were 532,151 proof gallons, valued at $1,059,929, in 1912; and 515,575 gallons, valued at $1,063,- 267, in 1914. Since 1910 the annual average quantity of gin imported has been about 1 million gallons, of which about 95 per cent has been supplied by the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, the import value being slightly less than $1 per gallon. The exports of rum ranged from 865,275 proof gallons in 1886 to 1,388,738 gallons in 1914. During the 10 years 1905-1914 the exports of this product have averaged more than 1,000,000 proof gallons, valued at an average price of a little more than $1 per gallon. The annual imports of whisky since 1910 have been a little over 1 million gallons, of which nearly three-fourths was supplied by the United Kingdom. Canada was the next country in importance and supplied nearly 375,000 gallons annually. The bourbon whisky exported 30 years ago, or in 1885, amounted to 4,794,646 proof gallons. With one exception, 1894, when the exports amounted to 4,105,639 gallons, this product has shown a gen- eral decline to 47,775 gallons in 1914. During the 15 years 1895-1909 Germany was our best customer, taking a little more than 73 per cent of this product. The exports of rye whisky decreased from 834,087 proof gallons in 1884 to 134,152 proof gallons in 1914. Germany, the Philippine Islands, and the Central American States have been the best markets for this product. Malt liquors.—The exports of malt liquors were valued at $558,770 in 1895, increased to slightly more than $2,000,000 in 1900, and de- creased to $1,485,000 in 1914. The malt liquors in bottles have been consigned chiefly to the West Indies, Central American States, Hawaii, and the Philippine Islands. The malt liquors imported during the last 25 years have ranged from a little over 3 million gallons in 1891 to more than 7 million gallons in 1914. Three countries, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Austria-Hungary, have supplied ‘practically all of the malt liquors imported during this period. Wines.—Our export wine trade did not develop until near the close of the Civil War. The exports in 1864 were valued at $84,000, which increased to $118,110 in 1886; $729,000 in 1898; and decreased 38 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. gradually to $373,412 in 1914. This article has been consigned chiefly to Germany, the United Kingdom, Canada, Mexico, and Japan. Champagne and other sparkling wines imported since 1884 have averaged a little less than 300,000 gallons annually, the imports in 1884 being 201,000 gallons, increasing to 270,000 gallons in 1914. Practically all of this product came from France. The still wines imported since 1851 have varied from nearly 6 million gallons in 1851 to a little over 7 million gallons in 1914. The smallest quantity imported for any one year during that period was shghtly less than 2% million gallons in 1898, and the largest quantity imported was 11 million gallons during 1866. For the last five years about one-half of this product has been supplied by Italy. SEEDS. Castor beans.—Castor beans imported during the last five years ranged from 726,002 bushels in 1910 to 1,030,543 in 1914. Practically all of this commodity was supplied by the British East Indies and the United Kingdom, the import value being a little over $1 per bushel. Clover seed.—European countries have received practically all of our clover seed, amounting to 22,901,000 pounds in 1895 and 4,641,000 pounds in 1914. During the 10 years 1895-1904 a little less than half was sent to the United Kingdom, with Germany as the next best customer. During the five years 1910-1914, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Canada received the greater portion. About two- thirds went to Canada during 1913-14. Canada, France, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom have supplied about 90 per cent of the clover seed imported during the last eight years. France and Germany have supplied nearly one-half, the quantity from each being nearly equal. During each of the years 1913 and 1914 a little over 6 million pounds of red-clover seed were imported, while other clover seed amounted to 15 and 23 million pounds, respectively. Cotton seed.—As a destination for cotton seed, the United King- dom exceeded all other countries during the 10 years 1895-1904, taking about 90 per cent, the range being from 9 to 46 million pounds. During the five years 1905-1909, the consignments were about evenly divided between Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, each receiving about 6 million pounds annually. During the five years 1910-1914 about three-fourths was sent to Ger- many. Mexico has also been a good market, receiving a yearly average of about 2 million pounds during the last 17 years. Flaxseed.—The countries of northern Europe have been the chief markets for our flaxseed, taking about 90 per cent during the last 20 FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 89 years. The countries of this group were Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. The yearly average of flax- seed sent abroad during 1895-1904 was about 2 million bushels. Dur- ing the five years 1910-1914 the yearly average decreased to 78,586 bushels. The flaxseed imported in 1910 amounted to 5 million bushels, 10 million bushels in 1911, 7 million bushels in 1912, 5 million bushels in 1913, and nearly 9 million bushels in 1914. During 1910-11 one- half of this product came from Argentina; but Canada supplied two- thirds during 1912-13 and practically all in 1914. During the five years 1910-1914 the average import price of flaxseed was $1.70 per bushel. Sugar-beet seed.—Sugar-beet seed shown in our imports in 1910 amounted to 10 million pounds, 11 million pounds each for 1911 and 1912, 15 million pounds in 1918, and 10 million pounds in 1914. Ap- proximately 90 per cent of this product came from Germany. The import value of this seed was $668,000 in 1910, $1,103,000 in 1912, and $800,000 in 1914. Timothy.—The timothy seed sold to foreign countries during the last 25 years had a yearly average of about 13 million pounds, with very slight fluctuations from year to year. European and North American countries took more than 95 per cent, each taking about the same amount. The principal customers in Europe were Ger- many and the United Kingdom, while Canada was the best market on the western continent. SPICES. The exports of spices from the United States in 1884 were valued at $41,191, which increased to $84,427 in 1914. About one-third of this ean during the five years 1910- 1914 went to Canada, Mexico, and the Philippine Islands. The imports of all kinds of spices were valued at $780,650 in 1851 and $5,595,509 in 1914. These came chiefly from British and Dutch East Indies, but other sources of importance were the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the British West Indies. The imports of cassia and cassia vera in 1912 were 6,795,943 pounds; in 1913, 6,853,915 pounds; in 1914, 6,771,901 pounds. The value of this product was $514,758 in 1912, $535,974 in 1913, and $404,853 in 1914. About one-half came from China and the re- mainder came chiefly from three countries—Hongkong, the Dutch East Indies, and the Netherlands. The ginger root, not preserved, imported in 1912, amounted to 5,979,314 pounds, 7,756,090 pounds in 1913, and 3,771,086 pounds in 1914. The value was $368,175 in 1912, $399,270 in 1913, and $171,250 40 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in 1914. The United Kingdom supplied one-half of this item, and nearly all of the remainder came from Jamaica, China, British India, Hongkong, and Japan. The black and white pepper imported in 1884 aggregated 13 mil- lion pounds, which was nearly doubled in 1914, amounting to more than 24 million pounds. The imports of ginger, preserved or pickled, in 1899 amounted to 142,698 pounds, valued at $6,309. This quantity increased to 478,058 pounds, valued at $36,434, in 1914. Practically all of this product has been supplied by China and Hongkong. VEGETABLES. Beans and peas exported in 1900 amounted to 617,355 bushels, which decreased to about one-half in 1914, the exports being 314,655 bushels. In 1900 the export value of this product was about $1.60 per bushel, which increased to about $2.75 per bushel in 1914. Asa destination for our beans and peas Cuba has led all other countries during the last 20 years, receiving approximately one-half of the total exports. During the last five years the imports of beans have averaged more than 1 million bushels annually, valued on an average of a little over $1.75 per bushel. These have been supphed by Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, Mexico, and Japan. The exports of onions have ranged from 53,335 bushels in 1895 to 386,322 bushels in 1914. The average annual exports for the 10 years 1895-1904 were about 100,000 bushels. During the five years 1910- 1914 this quantity was increased to about 350,000 bushels annually. Canada has been the chief market during the last five years, receiving trom 100,000 to 300,000 bushels annually. Other countries to which large quantities were consigned were Panama, Mexico, and Cuba. The onions imported in 1897 amounted to more than 560,000 bush- els, which increased to a little over 1 million bushels in 1914. This product came chiefly from Spain, the United Kingdom, and Ber- muda. Large quantities also came from the Canary Islands and Kgypt. : During the last three years the imports of dried peas were sup- plied chiefly by Germany, Canada, and Mexico. The imports amounted to 806,762 bushels in 1912, 1,134,346 bushels in 1913, and 866,488 bushels in 1914. The average import price has been a little less than $2 per bushel. The exports of potatoes in 1851 were slightly more than 106,000 bushels, which increased to more than 500,000 bushels in 1863, and remained at practically that figure until 1898, when the quantity exceeded 845,000 bushels. This quantity increased to 999,476 bushels in 1910, and during the four years 1911-1914 the average exports FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 4] were nearly 2 million bushels annually. During the last five years the average export value per bushel was slightly less than $1. During the 20 years 1895-1914 Cuba has been our best market for potatoes, receiving approximately one-half of the total supply exported. The imports of potatoes have been supplied chiefly by Bermuda and Canada with a small quantity from Mexico. The imports were 299,000 bushels in 1851 and 3,646,000 in 1914. In 1914 Belgium sup- plied 1,168,220 bushels, Denmark 384,662 bushels, the Netherlands 803,144 bushels, and Canada 1,025,536 bushels. The average import price of potatoes during the five years 1910-1914 was 53 cents per bushel. The United Kingdom, Canada, Panama, Mexico, and the Philip- pine Islands have been our best customers for canned vegetables. The value of this product consigned to the United Kingdom ranged from a little more than $160,000 in 1910 to $376,000 in 1914. The total value of this product exported in 1910 was $783,000, which increased to $1,521,000 in 1914. The imports of mushrooms and truffles were more than 7 million pounds in 1910, which increased to 9 million pounds in 1914. Prac- tically all of this product came from France, that country supplying more than 6 million pounds in 1910 and 8 million pounds in ‘1914. Imports from Japan amounted to more than half a million pounds during the five years 1910-1914. The pickles and sauces exported during 1918 were valued at $837,- 571; in 1914 the value was $928,611. About one-half of this product was consigned to the United Kingdom. Canada, Cuba, the Philip- pine Islands, and Panama were also good customers. The pickles and sauces imported in 1860 were valued at $137,000. Twenty years later the imports of this product were valued at $295,- 000, which increased to $1,246,000 in 1914. During the last five years this article has been supplied by three countries, Italy, the United Kingdom, and Japan, each supplying approximately one-third of the total imports. FRUITS. In viewing the situation of this country as to exports and imports of fruit, the years 1903 and 1913 are used for comparison. In the year 1903 the imports of oranges were valued at $818,780, as against $233,760 in 1913. But meanwhile the orange groves in this country had been growing, both in age and extent, for in 1913 the exports were valued at $2,976,520, while the exports for 1903 were enly $465,397. In 1903 the oranges received from the British West Indies amounted to $495,256, which decreased to $62,618 in 1913. In 1903 imports from Italy were valued at $197,620, but decreased in 1913 to $70,651. 49 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Imports of figs from Turkey in Asia were 11,642,204 pounds in 1908, compared with 13,981,643 pounds in 1913. From Greece we received 1,940,793 pounds of figs in 1903 and 1,517,901 pounds in 1913, and from Spain we received 275,531 pounds of figs im 1903, which decreased in 1913 to only 74,852 pounds. But, despite these decreases in importations of fruit from some individual countries, the total imports for each of the two years remain about 164 million pounds. Of prunes we exported in 1903, 66,385,215 pounds; in 1913, 117,- 950,875 pounds. Of this amount in 1903 about 44 million went to Bel- gium, 184 million to Germany, 16 million to France, and 15 million to the United Kingdom. In 1913 about 6 million pounds went to Bel- gium, 49 million to Germany, 12 million to France, and 84 million to the United Kingdom. Imports of prunes amounted to 673,516 pounds in 1903 and decreased to 266,661 pounds in 1913. These came chiefly from Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, and Japan. Our imports of fresh apples are comparatively small compared with exports, for in 1913 imports amounted to 7,559 barrels, while our exports for the same year were 2,150,132 barrels. In 1903 the ex- ports were over 14 million barrels, making a gain of nearly 1 million barrels in our exports in 10 years. The United Kingdom received the greater part of our apples, while large shipments were consigned to Germany, Canada, and Mexico. Fresh apples from this country find their way to almost every country on the globe. Even Siam received 2 barrels in 1913. The dried apples exported in 1903 were 39,646,297 pounds; in 1913, 41,574,562 pounds, while our imports for 1903 were 3,098 pounds and in 1913, 7,072 pounds, which shows conclusively that we are able to raise all the apples required for consumption in this country besides having many for export. No dried apricots are imported, but an increase of nearly 400 per cent is shown in our exports of this fruit since 1903, the exports for that year being about 9 million pounds and 35 million pounds for 1913. Belgium, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, the Nether- lands, and Canada were all large purchasers of apricots. The exports to Germany increased from about 24 million pounds in 1903 to over 74 million pounds in 1913. In 1903 the imports of raisins exceeded the exports, the imports being 6,700,000 pounds and the exports 4 millon pounds. But that relation was changed in 1913, when the imports were 2,580,000 pounds and the exports 28 million pounds. Our exports to Canada increased from 3,141,258 pounds in 1903 to over 18 million pounds in 1913. The imports of raisins from Greece fell in the 10 years from 261,802 FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 43 pounds in 1903 to 27,543 pounds in 1913; from Italy, from 7,872 pounds in 1903 to 161 pounds in 1913, and from Spain and Turkey in Asia the decrease was about 2 million pounds each. Imports of currants in 1903 were 33,878,209 pounds, and 30,843,735 pounds in 1913, of which more than 98 per cent came from Greece, with small amounts from Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom. Currants are really the Corinth raisin, so called because of their origin in the Levant, some of which are grown in this country. Imports of dates in 1903 were nearly 22 million pounds, in 1913 over 34 million pounds, of which the largest amount came from Turkey in Asia, nearly 15 million pounds in 1903, and over 27 millon pounds in 1913. Imports of bananas were valued at 84 million dollars in 1903, and 144 millon dollars in 1913. We get the most of our bananas from Central America, Cuba, and the British West Indies, having received from the British West Indies alone in each of the years 1903 and 1913 about 34 million dollars worth. The value of cur banana trade with Cuba increased from $670,690 in 1903 to $834,206 in 19138, and for Colombia, from $612,114 in 1903 to $1,107,429 in 1913. In 1903 the imports of lemons were 152 million pounds, valued at over 3 million dollars; in 1913 the imports were 151 million pounds, valued at 4 million dollars, of which more than 95 per cent came from Italy. The imports of pineapples in 1903 were valued at $634,945, and $1,319,006 in 1913. Most of them came from Cuba, but a small quan- tity came from the Straits Settlements, the Azores and Madeira Islands, and Mexico. More than 97 per cent of the grapes came from Spain during the five years 1909-1913, amounting to 14 million cubic feet capacity of from 25 to 30 pounds annually at an average value of about $1 per cubic foot. Belgium, Canada, and the Netherlands each sup- plied small quantities. The exports of dried peaches were first separately stated in 1906 and amounted to 1,182,000 pounds, which increased to 7 million pounds in 1911 and decreased to 6$ million pounds in 1913. Germany re- ceived 211,355 pounds in 1906 and 2,482,000 pounds in 1913. Canada took 479,431 pounds in 1906 and 2,365,000 pounds in 1913. Our export trade in fresh pears was valued at $631,972 in 1906 and increased slightly to $796,913 in 1913, Canada, the United King- dom, Cuba, and Brazil being the largest purchasers; a little less than one-third went to Canada and more than one-half went to the United Kingdom. Hongkong and the Philippines were the smallest pur- chasers, Hongkong taking $25 worth and the Philippines $24 worth. | 44 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. VEGETABLE FIBERS. Flax.—The imports of flax fiber in 1895 were 7,233 tons, and in 1914, 9,885 tons. During the last five years about 90 per cent of this product was supphed by European countries, chiefly Belgium, Russia, and the United Kingdom. Hemp.—Like flax, our supply of hemp has come chiefly from Euro- pean countries, mostly from Italy, during the last 20 years. The im- ports were 6,954 tons in 1895 and 8,822 tons in 1914. From 1870 to 1890 the imports were larger, ranging from 22,557 tons in 1870 to 36,591 tons in 1890. The average annual value for 1907 and sub- sequently has been more than $1,000,000. Istle or Tampico fiber.—Imports of istle or Tampico fiber (used for bagging, carpets, hammocks, etc.) increased from 2,956 tons in 1885 to 15,607 tons in 1905, and decreased to 10,660 tons in 1914. Practically all of this fiber has been supplied by Mexico. The import value in 1900 was $475,090, or $83 per ton; in 1914 the value was $1,036,431, or $97 per ton. Jute and jute butts—The quantity of imports of jute and jute butts (used for making carpets, bags, etc.) has remained practically the same for the last 30 years. The imports in 1885 were 98,343 tons and 106,033 tons in 1914, with slight fluctuations for intervening years, the range being from 50,037 tons in 1894 to 141,704 tons in 1891. The value, however, has shown a large increase, from 3 million dollars in 1885 to 11 million dollars in 1914, this being due to an in- crease in the import price per ton of from $31 to $105. Practically all of this article has been supphed by British India. Kapoc.—The imports of kapoc fiber (a substitute for cotton) in 1911 amounted to 2,070 tons; in 1914, 1,827 tons. The Dutch East Indies supplied 84 per cent of this commodity, but a small quantity came from British India, Ecuador, and the Netherlands. Manila.—The manila fiber imported has been supplied almost ex- clusively by the Philippine Islands. The imports of this product amounted to 35,331 tons, valued at $6,218,254, or $176 per ton, in 1891; increased to 93,253 tons, valued at $10,517,100, or $113 per ton, in 1910, the largest quantity imported for any one year; and decreased to 49,688 tons, valued at $9,779,539, or $197 per ton, in 1914. New Zealand flax.—The imports of New Zealand flax were first shown in our import trade in 1910, and since that time two-thirds of it came directly from New Zealand, the country from which it takes its name. The quantity imported in 1910 wis 3,353 tons, valued at $362,888; in 1914, 6,171 tons, valued at $716,953. Sisal grass—Imports of sisal grass (largely used for binder twine) have quadrupled in the last 20 years, the imports in 1895 being 47,596 tons and 215,547 tons in 1914. The average value per ton has FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 45 doubled, being $58 in 1895 and $120 in 1914. This product has been supplied almost exclusively by Mexico, chiefly the State of Yuca- tan. The imports from that country in 1895 were 47,483 tons, valued at $2,734,909, and 195,086 tons, valued at $25,980,480, in 1914. MINOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. The argols or wine lees (crude cream of tartar) imported were 32,115,646 pounds in 1909 and 29,793,011 pounds in 1914, of which nearly 90 per cent came from France and Italy. The exports of glucose or grape sugar were 229 million pounds in 1899 and 200 million pounds in 1914, of which about 80 per cent went to the United Kingdom since 1908. The exports of ginseng were 106,510 pounds in 1851, which in- creased to 224,605 pounds in 1914. During the last 20 years Hong- kong has taken about 95 per cent, and the export value during the last five years has averaged $7.54 per pound. The exports of hay were 153,431 tons in 1902 and 50,151 tons in 1914. The imports were 48,415 tons in 1902 and 170,786 tons in 1914. The United Kingdom was the destination of about one-third of the exports and Canada supplied practically all of the imports. As an exporting country for hops this country is exceeded by Austria-Hungary and Germany, and is exceeded in imports by Belgium and the United Kingdom. The exports increased from 650 pounds in 1791 to 24,262,896 pounds in 1914, and the imports in- creased from nearly 500,000 pounds in 1881 to 5 million pounds in 1914. The United Kingdom took most of the exports and Austria- Hungary and Germany supphed nearly all of the imports. Nearly all of the indigo came from Germany and increased from 1 million pounds in 1851 to 8 million pounds in 1914. The imports of licorice root were 115,636,131 pounds in 1914, of which about 70 per cent came from Russia and Turkey. The exports of nursery stock were valued at $315,065 in 1914 and the imports were valued at $3,606,808. The exports went to Canada and the imports came from the Netherlands. The annual imports of opium since 1870 have been about 500,000 pounds, 75 per cent came from Turkey and 15 per cent came through the United Kingdom. The sago, tapioca, etc., was valued at $1,641,540 in 1914, and came chiefly from British and Dutch Kast Indies. The vanilla beans came from French Oceania and Mexico, and amounted to 898,100 pounds in 1914. Nearly all of the exports of broom corn were consigned to Canada, while Austria-Hungary and Italy supplied nearly all of the imports. Imports of curry and curry powder came from the United Kingdom, and were valued at $11,861 in 1914. The exports of flavoring ex- tracts and fruit juices amounted to $85,000 in 1910 and $107,000 in 1 46 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1914, The exports of natural flowers were valued at $121,000in 1914 and the imports at $24,540. The malt extract, fluid or solid, came chiefly from the United Kingdom and was valued at $16,566 in 1914. The exports of roots, herbs, and barks were valued at $531,071 in 1914. The exports of starch were 76,714,000 pounds in 1914 and the imports were 15,518,000 pounds. The exports of straw were valued at $4,714 in 1914 and the imports were valued at $33,499. The exports of molasses were 1,002,441 gallons in 1914 and the im- ports were 51,410,271 gallons. The sirup exported in 1914 was 11,631,000 gallons. Teazels came from France and were valued at $24,310 in 1914. There were 125,666 gallons of vinegar exported in 1914 and 311,643 gallons imported. One-half of the unmedicated wafers came from Germany and were valued at $32,797 in 1914. The imports of vegetable wax in 1914 were 4,255,686 pounds, and the ex- ports of yeast in 1914 were valued at $332,895. LOGS, LUMBER, AND TIMBER. During the last half century the exports of timber may be divided conveniently into four periods that show the development of the trade, each period doubling over the preceding one. During the first period, 1865-1869, the value of the yearly exports were $1,451,607; during the second period, 1870-1881, the value was $3,794,097 ; during the third period, 1882-1899, the value was $6,131,414; and during the fourth period, 1900-1914, the value was $12,412,688. The exports of logs and round timber were 138,067,000 feet in 1914 and the imports were 148,938,000 feet. The exports went to Germany, the United Kingdom, Canada, and the Netherlands, and the imports came chiefly from Canada. Our export trade in lumber consists of boards, deals, planks, laths, shingles, shooks, etc., and was consigned chiefly to the United King- dom, the Netherlands, Germany, Canada, Mexico, the West Indies, Argentina, and Brazil, while Canada was the chief source of supply for imports. In 1895 the exports were valued at $14,959,287 and the imports at $7,259,428. In 1914 the value of the exports was $72,484,756 and the imports $22,486,585. The boards, deals, planks, and the imports at $17,817,550. The joists and scantling exported in 1914 were 12,143,000 feet, valued at $206,919, of which about two- thirds went to Canada and Panama. The imports of laths were 564,778,000, valued at $1,613,586, in 1914, of which more than 99 per cent came from Canada. The num- ber of railroad ties exported were 5,416,713, valued at $2,616,563, in 1913, and 5,128,004, valued at $2,564,543, in 1914, of which about three-fourths went to Canada. The exports of shingles were FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 47 46,964,000, valued at $112,463, in 1914, and the imports were 895,038,000, valued at $2,190,170. Canada received more than 72 per cent of the exports and was the source of about 98 per cent of the imports. The exports of shooks in 1914 were 12,017,337, valued at $2,812,749. These were sent chiefly to Cuba, Mexico, the Straits Settlements, Argentina, and China. The exports of staves and heading increased from $3,138,424 in 1895 to $6,184,892 in 1914. These were consigned chiefly to countries of northwestern Europe, Canada, and the West Indies. Other lum- ber exported in 1914 was valued at $3,028,642 and the imports of a similar class were valued at $815,279. The briar root imported dur- ing the last five years had an average value of a little more than $300,000, which came chiefly from France, Italy, and French Africa. The cedar imported amounted to 17,285,000 feet, valued at $982,152, in 1914, of which more than half came from Cuba. The mahogany imported amounted to 70,470,000 feet, valued at $4,925,126, in 1914. During the last 10 years about one-half of the mahogany imported came from the United Kingdom and Mexico. Imports of other cabinet woods were valued at $721,000 in 1910 and increased to $1,217,000 in 1914. The imports of chair cane or reed were valued at $451,099 in 1914, of which about 90 per cent came from Germany. The imports of pulp wood in 1914 were 1,073,023 cords, valued at $7,245,466, all of which came from Canada. The rattans and reeds were supplied by the Straits Settlements and large quantities came through Germany, the total imports being valued at $885,000 in 1910 and $1,210,000 in 1914. NAVAL STORES. The rosin exported from the United States constitutes about two- thirds of the world’s trade in that product and amounted to 2,417,950 barrels, valued at $11,217,316, in 1914. For a number of years Ger- many and the United Kingdom have taken about one-half of this article. The exports of tar, turpentine, and pitch in 1914 were 351,353 barrels, valued at $568,891, of which about 90 per cent went to France and Italy. Compared with other countries, the United States ranks first in the world’s trade in spirits of turpentine, ex- porting about three-fourths of the world’s supply. The exports in 1914 were 18,900,704 gallons, valued at $8,095,958. The imports of naval stores are small quantities of tar and pitch of wood and spirits of turpentine, the total value in 1914 being $36,764. GUMS. The imports of india rubber in 1910 were 101,044,681 pounds, valued at $101,078,825; in 1914, 131,995,742 pounds, valued at $71,- 219,851, of which Brazil and the United Kingdom each supplied 48 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. about one-third in 1914. The import value per pound decreased from slightly more than $1 in 1910 to 54 cents in 1914. Compared with other countries, this country exceeds all others in imports of this article. The balata rubber gum imported in 1910 amounted to 399,000 pounds and increased to 1,533,024 pounds in 1914, nearly all of which came from Guiana and Venezuela. The guayule gum came from Mexico, and amounted to 19,749,522 pounds in 1911 and ) 1,475,804 pounds in 1914. The gutta-joolatong or East India gum came from the Straits Settlements, and amounted to 24,926,571 pounds, valued at $1,155,402, in 1914. The gutta-percha also came from the Straits Settlements, and amounted to 1,846,109 pounds, valued at $323,567, in 1914. The camphor gum was supplied by Japan, and is of two kinds— crude and refined. In 1914 the imports of crude were 3,476,908 pounds, valued at $929,715, and the refined amounted to 566,106 pounds, valued at $182,790. The chicle gum (used largely for the manufacture of chewing gum) came from British Honduras, Mexico, and by way of Canada, and amounted to 8,040,891 pounds, valued at $3,012,458, in 1914. The chicle gum brought from Canada is a Hon- duran and Mexican product sent there to dry, as it dries best in a cold country. The drying process reduces the weight about one-half, which makes a saving in the duty. It is on the free list in Canada, but is dutiable in this country at 15 cents per pound in the crude state and 20 cents per pound dried or manufactured. The imports of copal, kauri, and damar gum amounted to 32,695,412 pounds, valued at $3,354,679, in 1914. The gambier or terra japonica gum came from the Straits Settlements and amounted to 14,936,129 pounds, valued at $571,067, in 1914. The gum shellac came from British India and amounted to 16,719,756 pounds, valued at $2,689,269, in 1914. MINOR FOREST PRODUCTS. | In 1914 the exports of wood pulp were 26,961,254 pounds, valued at $529,741, and the imports were 1,138,727,195 pounds, valued at . $17,023,338. The imports came from Canada and the exports went to Europe, yet those countries were the source of much more than they received. In 1914 the exports of tanning materials were valued | at $666,880, while the imports were valued at $4,568,041. The dye- | woods and extracts imported were valued at $793,926 in 1914. In 1914 the value of the charcoal exported was $81,997, and the import value was $60,634. About 99 per cent of the cinchona bark (from | which quinine is extracted) came through the Netherlands and | amounted to 3,648,868 pounds, valued at $464,412, in 1914. The cork wood or cork bark imported in 1851 was valued at a little less than FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 49 $20,000, which increased to nearly $4,000,000 in 1914. Portugal and Spain have supplied about 85 per cent since 1910. The vegetable ivory or tagua nuts came from Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama and amounted to 27,135,406 pounds, valued at $881,354, in 1914. The imports of natural palm leaf were valued at $14,044 in 1914, and the exports of moss were valued at $51,006. The exports of wood alcohol in 1914 were 1,598,776 gallons, valued at $652,486, of which 90 per cent went to the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Germany. REEXPORTS. “Foreign exports,” or reexports, comprise those articles of foreign origin imported into this country which are subsequently exported without change in their form. Farm products.—During the 14-year period from June 30, 1901, to June 30, 1914, reexports of farm products averaged 124 million dollars yearly, ranging from 94 millions in 1909 to 17% millions in 1914. In percentage they represent 43 per cent of total foreign ex- ports, 2.1 per cent of total agricultural imports, and 1.3 per cent of domestic agricultural exports. Coffee, tobacco, hides and skins, and bananas, named in the order of their importance, were the chief articles of reexport for the period named, each averaging over 1 million dollars a year. Coffee averaged 20,675,000 pounds annually, valued at $1,854,000; tobacco, 2,790,000 pounds, valued at 41,413,000; hides and skins, 6,334,000 pounds, val- ued at $1,333,000; and bananas, $1,280,000. The quantity of ba- nanas is not given prior to 1908. In 1914 bananas held first place, followed by tobacco, hides and skins, and coffee. Reexports of bananas amounted to 2,255,000 bunches, valued at $2,437,000; tobacco, 2,621,000 pounds, valued at $1,538,000; hides and skins, 6,426,000 pounds, valued at $1,408,000. Forest products.—Exports of foreign forest products for the 14 years averaged 54 million dollars annually. They were lowest in 1903, at $2,865,000, and highest in 1910, when they reached $9,802,000. In percentage they amounted to 17.8 per cent of the total foreign exports, 4.5 per cent of the total forest products imported, and 4.7 per cent of domestic forest products exported. India rubber was the chief article of reexport for the 14-year period, averaging 4,262,000 pounds annually, valued at $3,559,000, and ranging from 2,912,000 pounds in 1903 to 6,493,000 pounds in 1910. Chicle, the basis of chewing gum, was next in importance, reexports averaging 1,875,000 pounds, valued at $481,000. There were violent fluctuations in the reexports of this product. Thus the year in which ooo ee ——e 50 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. exports were lowest, 586,000 pounds, immediately preceded the high record year of 1913, when 4,897,000 pounds were exported. Lumber, including boards, planks, deals, and other sawed lumber, ranked third in importance, averaging 16,811,000 feet, valued at $345,000. ‘There has been a marked decrease in the last three years. TRANSPORTATION. Exports of domestic merchandise for the 14 years 1901-1914 aver- aged 1,774 million dollars yearly, 88.5 per cent of which was carried in vessels and 11.5 per cent in cars and other land vehicles. Of the domestic exports shipped in vessels, averaging 1,570 million dollars annually, steamships carried 97.2 per cent and sailing vessels 2.8 per cent. American steamships carried 7.3 per cent and foreign 89.9 per cent. American sailing vessels carried 0.6 per cent and foreign 2.2 per cent. American steamships carried 4.8 per cent of this trade in 1901, 9.2 per cent in 1906, and 7.8 per cent in 1914. There has been a general downward trend in the proportion of sea-borne domestic exports carried by sailing ships, ranging in the case of American ships from 1.2 per cent in 1901 to 0.34 per cent in 1912, and in the case of foreign ships from 4.9 per cent in 1902 to slightly less than 1 per cent in 1914. Total imports for the 14 fiscal years 1901-1914 average 1,319 mil- lion dollars yearly, 93.5 per cent of which came in vessels and 6.5 per cent in cars and other land vehicles. Of the imports arriving by sea, averaging 1,234 million dollars annually, steamships brought 98.1 per cent and sailing ships 1.9 per cent. American steamships carried 11.5 per cent and foreign 86.6 per cent; American sailing vessels carried 0.7 per cent and foreign 1.2 per cent. The proportion brought by American steamships was highest in 1905, amounting to 14.6 per cent, and lowest in 1910, amounting to 9.6 per cent. The sailing ship has steadily diminished in importance as a carrier in the import trade. Thus the percentage of sea-borne imports ar- riving in American sailing ships fell from 1.9 per cent in 1901 to 0.32 per cent in 1914, while the proportion carried in foreign sailing ships in 1914 amounted to just one-tenth of the 2.8 per cent carried in 1903. PUBLICATIONS OF U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. Bureau of Statistics bulletins: No. 29. Methods and routes for exporting farm products. No. 38. Crop-export movement and port facilities on the Atlantie and Gulf coasts. No. 51. Foreign trade of the United States in forest products, 1851-1908. FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS, 51 No. 55. Meat supply and surplus, with consideration of consumption and | exports. No. 67. Ocean freight rates and the conditions affecting them. No. 74. Imports of farm products into the United States, 1851-1908. : No. 75. Exports of farm products from the United States, 1851-1908, No. 89. Marketing grain and live stock in the Pacific coast region. No. 95. Imports of farm and forest products, 1909-1911. No. 96. Exports of farm and forest products, 1909-1911. No. 103. International trade in farm and forest products, 1901-1910. Bureau of Statistics circulars: No. 32. Cotton Crop of the United States, 1790-1911. No. 33. Tobacco Crop of the United States, 1612-1911. No. 34. Rice Crop of the United States, 1712-1911. No. 35. Hop Crop of the United States, 1790-1911. Yearbook, Department of Agriculture, statistical appendix. Yearbook 1903, article, The Nation’s Farm Surplus, reprint No. 304. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY V “ ~ if Rit a ! tee ey Ta Ae 4 =3 : F F i ii seer ge tis bidet { 7 st ; S 7 ; H ) te ¥ J 4 k (2 | way vite | Sehr L hae ; i Aza eat ¥; 1a a ie i ea +4 lee . ) . ry shiv {0 b Sie of tt ca ove 50): ei - a ; SP : ; Loge F Hey Ski ai 2 to wt a. ; RES we ae < Aa Z tot prs ee ogee , bey 4 i. y Finn i Z c qq < ay “4 u ge NN = = ‘ re L4 ret 4 \ eh Aes ‘ } 4 i ey iy 2 ye Foret ¢ ns Pith ty ‘ Net 4 } 4 x ~ yy { fz \ oh a U5 (o> 26 . i 3 i \ " ¥ . | ; . ; 7 [ind ~ * | AES ee» | | | ae ri Bays Chae | ‘ - iy . Seed 5 | : ' . + (ale eae a . ' re ts q m a4 ie Gia) p | & ir) Oh ‘ ; = a 3 : 4 ‘ . sal) OS: + OrLABDS tio: a4) POOR i te ER. Le AS, ef ‘a PRP ie as Tae | UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - BULLETIN No. 297 3 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry ~ WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv October 28, 1915 CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE ~ FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM.' By Crcit SALMON, Formerly Plant Physiologist, Office of Cereal Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. [mat RoGi ctl OM meee seer nee eae cine neti Ny: 1 | Bxpenimentsiwithloatseec-c- css e-eeee ee: 29 Description of the field station...........-... 2 | Experiments with barley........-.....-.---- 34 Hxperimentalymetbods: +. -2es- 222 --\- = -- 10 | Experiments with minor cereals......-..-... 38 Interpretation of experimental results.....-. 13) ||; Experimentishwithunlaxsoncsse seemeeeeee eae 39 Experiments with wheat........-.--- SS sueee NYS) IES OU MNCTIAY = aes doonoonotedoodgud stocdsdesans 40 INTRODUCTION. The experiments with cereals at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, near Newell, S. Dak., have been conducted for the following purposes: (1) To determine the best crops, varieties, and races for that section; (2) to improve the better varieties by selective breeding; (3) to determine the best methods of cereal production; and (4) to correlate differences in production with chmatic and soil conditions in order to determine the principles upon which the best practices are based. The results of these investigations have been reported in part in two previous publications.2, The present bulletin is intended to bring the work up to date and to include results that for various reasons have not heretofore been given. 1The experiments here reported were conducted on the dry-farmed portion of the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, near Newell, S. Dak. This farm, which is located on the Belle Fourche Reclamation Project, is operated by the Office of Western Irrigation Agriculture of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The experiments were conducted by the Office of Cereal Investigations in cooperation with the Office of Western Irrigation Agriculture. On April 1, 1912, the cooperative agreement between the Office of Cereal Investi- gations and the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station was expanded to include the work at Newell. The writer was in charge of the cereal work on the farm from its beginning (1907) until Septem- ber 30, 1913, when he resigned to accept another position. He therefore has personal knowledge of all the experiments here reported. 2 Salmon, Cecil. Dry-land grains for western North and South Dakota. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cire. 59, 24 p., 1 fig., 1910. Winter wheat in western South Dakota. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cire. 79, 10 p., 1911. 4506°—Bull. 297—15——1 | | 2 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The results of the experiments for six years (1908-1913) are here reported. So short a period is entirely inadequate to settle many of the problems of dry-land grain production. However, a presenta- tion of the results obtained should be of assistance to those engaged in similar work. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIELD STATION. It is believed that the results here reported are applicable in general to western South Dakota, northeastern Wyoming, and southeastern Montana. The variations in soil and climate within this section, however, are considerable. To determine just how far the results obtained at Newell are applicable to any other locality, a comparison of soil and climatic conditions is necessary. In order to permit such a comparison, a description of the field station is here given, together with detailed information regarding the temperature and the amount and distribution of the rainfall during the period covered by the experiments. LOCATION. The Belle Fourche Experiment Farm is located near the center of the Belle Fourche Reclamation Project, in western South Dakota. The farm is about 24 miles northeast of Bellefourche and 2 miles northwest of Newell. The latitude is about 44° 43’ 45’’ N. and the longitude 103° 26’ 15’’ W. The elevation is approximately 2,950 feet. About one-half of the farm js irrigated. The portion which is above the irrigation ditch is used for dry-land experiments, includ- ing those here reported. The topography of the farm and of the surrounding country is rolling, affording good drainage at all times. GENERAL PHYSICAL FACTORS. A study of the crop yields for the series of years here presented may be made more intelligently if combined with a knowledge of the factors which have influenced crop growth. The most important physical factors are (1) the soil, (2) the rainfall and its distribution, and (3) the temperature, especially the length of the growing season as limited by spring and fall frosts. These and other physical data for the Belle Fourche farm are summarized in the paragraphs which follow. SOIL. The soil of the Belle Fourche farm and surrounding area is mapped as Pierre clay by the Bureau of Souls.’ To stockmen and farmers it is familiarly known as gumbo. Table I shows the results of a mechan- ical analysis of Pierre clay. Its characteristic stickiness is perhaps ' Strahorn, A. T., and Mann, C. W. Soil survey of the Belle Fourche area, South Dakota. Jn U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils Field Oper., 9th Rept:, 1907, p. 888. 1909. CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 3 explained by the large percentage of clay and silt it contains, these amounting to 35 and 43.2 per cent, respectively. TasLE I.—Composition of Pierre clay, as determined by mechanical analysis. Per cent. TRTWONS, (CARN LAGS sa ee a ENS ce, 2 PRS Se ee ec 0.2 Clomins@) ROG LE 5s ls ce eRe er 2 ee ES ner 1s dt Misa bitenaay Sei axe le eS eee eee epmnrieetnte ene SS ee ae Pepe eS 1.4 LITMAN Clee epee Sens Sa jae, Sve RM le Be Lex pap sguaree uy 5.5 Niemglme: Sands scc.02 205 2 3. 2d ee err reese 13.0 Srl epee rece eee eS ST bit. el gM ep ay rete 43.2 (CIENTS, cs Eta leeks ce eae a 2) LR See Re at a 3080 The soil is a very heavy, stiff, impervious residual clay. It is somewhat deficient in humus, but is probably well supplied with the mineral elements of plant food. The imperviousness of the soil and the topography of the country cause considerable loss of water by run-off during heavy rains. Plowing is difficult and expensive. Other necessary field opera- tions, such as disking, harrowing, ete., are accomplished without difficulty. Hf these operations are performed at favorable times, the soil is easily put in excellent condition. There is considerable variation in the soil on the experiment farm, -even within the limits of a single field. As a general rule, the higher land is lighter in texture, better supplied with humus, and more productive. The lower land is heavier, more impervious to water, contains less humus, and is more difficult to work and to get into condition for cropping. NATIVE VEGETATION. The native vegetation of the locality consists largely of western wheat-erass (Agropyron smith, A. occidentale) and buffalo grass (Bulbilis dactyloides). Grama grass (Bouteloua oligostachya) and needle grass (Stipa comata) are frequently found. Buffalo grass usually occupies the higher and lighter soils, especially where Pierre clay is the soul type. Western wheat-grass is confined mostly to the lower slopes and bottoms. On bottom lands subject to overflow this erass produces considerable hay of excellent quality. Weeds, such as sunflower (Helianthus petiolaris), gum weed (Grin- delia squarrosa), goosefoot (Atriplex volutans), and wild parsley (Peucedanum foeniculaceum), are plentiful. They are particularly abundant followmg extremely dry seasons, when the grass may be so injured that weeds are practically the only vegetation. Marsh elder (Iva axillaris) is of considerable economic importance because of the difficulty of eradicating it m cultivated fields. This plant commonly is called gumbo weed in this locality because it is found usually on the more impervious soils of the Pierre-clay type. 4 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PRECIPITATION. The climate of western South Dakota is fairly typical of that of the semiarid Great Plains, which extend from western Texas into the prairie provinces of western Canada. The precipitation decreases steadily from the eastern border of the State to the western, being least in the north- o 5 > ry west corner. oe : The Black Hills modify the climate of the immediately surrounding country to a great extent, mainly by increasing the precipitation. This effect extends FOAAIVFALL IN INCHES Fig. 1.—Diagram showing the annual and seasonal precipitation at S the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, for six years, 1908 to 1913, in- several miles beyond elusive. Solid bars show the seasonal precipitation, while the total the outlying foothills. length of the bars shows the annual IQS PRE ABIOt The Belle Rouse h s farm is situated about 30 miles from the foothills and, so faras known, is not influenced to any extent by proximity to the Black Hills. The annual and average precipitation by months at the Belle Fourche Ex- periment Farm for the six years from 1908 to 1913 is given in Table II. Except as noted, these data were recorded at the station. The annual and seasonal rainfall is shown graphically in figure 1. TasLe I1.— Monthly, seasonal, and annual precipitation at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm for the six years from 1908 to 1913, inclusive. [Data (in inches) from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry, except as noted.] Year. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June.|July.| Aug. |Sept.} Oct. | Nov. | Dee. Seals ae | us = | cee E | : AOD Ree seh ae a0. 20 120.19 |a1.65 | 1.16 | 3.95 | 1.47 | 1.26 | 0.62 | 0.52 |a2.10 Ja0. 20 |a0.91 | 9.49 | 14. 23 L909 RES ae a,17 | a.23 | a.19 . 84 | 3.87 | 5.59) | 2.45 SOON LOL eid .73 | 1.28 |12.94 | 17. 7% LOLOL eee = slic} . 70 693.1 1..57. |1.,26.). 1/519) 1.42.) 1.03 | 2.92 ad. SLD I SORES B9N Rt ZRoo LOU cree e115} .05 . 09 Bele 4oul 00) -80 | 1.86 92 39 .98 | .30] 2.01 6. 64 NOMDS 2 ese ee . 24 .10 SAN PE BeFA Paes) .29 | 3.20 | 2.80 | 3.49 SOL . 04 .13 | 8.78 | 16.09 VOWS ela erate i} abies . 24 .99 .25 | 1.98 | 3.10 33D .26 | 2.38 | 1.86 .10 |e 45 6.67 | 12.53 Average...| .37 . 26 -76 | 1.05 | 2.29 | 2.08 | 1. 58 | 1.19 | 1.88 | 97 -36} .53) 7.76 | 13.41 Maximum | .73 ~70 | 1.65 | 2.32 |-3.95 | 5.59 | 3.20 | 2.80 | 3.49 | 2.10 .98 | 1.28 |12. 94 | 17.73 Minimum.| .13 .05 .09 Bley 45 29 Wet) . 26 oe «ot O49), LOM 2701 6.64 a From records of the United States Weather Bureau at Vale and at Orman, 8. Dak. The average precipitation at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm during the 6-year period under discussion (1908-1913), as shown in Table IL, was 13.41 inches. Of this total, 7.76 mches fell durmg the months from March to July, inclusive, or during the period when small grains make most of their growth. The annual precipitation varied from 6.64 inches in 1911 to 17.73 inches in 1909. The seasonal CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 5 precipitation (March to July, inclusive) for the same years varied from 2.01 to 12.94 inches. The average precipitation at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm is very near the normal for the western part of the State. The period during which experiments have been conducted includes three years in which the precipitation was less than the normal, one of them being the driest known in the history of the State, and three years in which the precipitation was above normal. In order to make practical use of field experiments, it is necessary to know to what extent the conditions under which they were con- ducted are likely to continue through a considerable period of time. For this reason Table III, which gives the annual precipitation at Fort Meade, S. Dak., for a period of 35 years (1879-1913) is included. The record of precipitation at Fort Meade is practically continuous since 1879. Where there have been omissions, it has been completed from the records at near-by points. TasLE III.—Monthly, seasonal, and annual precipitation at Fort Meade, S. Dak., for 35 years, 1879 to 1918, inclusive. [Data (in inches) from the records of the Weather Bureau.] : 2 mee x ee Sea- | To- Year. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May.| June.| July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. sonal.| tal. J Sanadleenene | Oven ete OnlOs 4 | 9160) 10:04 ||KOS897 |S. 52 ne eee ; (7G), |badoae 4.68 | 1.62 | 3.91 | Ta .o4 44 SO} ree Merete é ils 3.33 | 2.66 | 1.50 | 1.57 | 1.00] .63 -46 | Ta@ | 9.54 | 15.06 : 4. 3.87 | 5.47 | 3.05 | .44 ~-26 | .49) .05 .12 |17.76 | 19.32 bi 4.% 9.61 | 1.56 | 2.80 | .18 | 1.60 - 67 .05 . 72 120.63 | 27.05 } 5. 8.58 | .48 | 1.20 | 2.30 | .23 79 -53 . 90 |17.56 | 22.97 : 1 .64 | 3.38 | 1.52 | 3.22] .28)] .74 - 93 Lh, |\daoOn|wloneo 5 2. 07 | .90 | 3.388] 1.50] .40) .40] 1.60 .72 | 7.90 | 13.51 : 2. 2.72 | 1.76 | 4.46 | 4.25 | 1.10 40 | .24 -36 }11. 82 | 18.93 6 i 3.94 | 5.50 | 2.64 | 3.54 .02 14 -16 | .17 |13.03 | 20.00 c d 2. 2.02 | 1.60 | 6.38 | 0 -67 | 1.71 .88 | .86 |12.76 | 18.00 BOOS ate eee = 539) 46 | 1.24 | 1.65 | 2.31 | 6.30) .16]| 1.64 - 76 38 | .40 | .38 11.66 | 16.23 LOIN een 78 83 | 1.63 | 2.29 | 6.60 | 4.29 | 1.75 | 1.50) .87] .41 -02 | .32 (16.56 | 21.79 SES sGecdaur 1.36 27 | .67 | 5.70 | 3.30 | 3.99 | 1.04 | 2.93 | .32 | 2.46 | 1.51 | 1.54 |14.70 | 24.09 ISPB)s- Acodeoods . 40 74 | 2.41 | 3.45 | 2.01 | 1.63 | 1.14] .70)0 3.48 | 1.48 | 1.68 |10.64 | 19.12 O94 eae metaisic'= 55 12 | 3.08 | 3.48 | 1.15 | 3.80] .57}] .42 62 | 1.24 | 1.03 . 72 |12.08 | 16.78 IRs ca saoobece 61.05 |62. 26 | 2.91 | 3.35 | 5.05 55 | .95 80 23 | 2.36 | .40 |14.12 | 20.76 SOG ee cseicis cis -66 | 1.14 | 3.43 | 2.51 | 2.69 | 2.62 72} .05 | 2.46} Ta | 1.27) .06 /11.97 | 17.61 ASO 7s sie cizjes 1.33 05 | 1.36 | 1.80 | 1.07 | 5.32 | 2.05 | 3.11 01} .02| .50] T@ |11.60 | 16.62 PROS Eee eeacecins 1. 20 15 . 83 | 1.20 | 9.60 | 2.70 | 1.20 | 1.50 | 1.80 | 1.54 OoUee LOM Ss oom |e 2omLo) Oe caaesaasor 91 46 | 1.42 | 4.15 | 6.75 | 2.35] .29 30 | 1.10 | 1.94 14 | .56 |14 96 | 20.37 IU sbacesoede - 50 34 | 1.14 . 95 .35 | 3.00 | 2.05 | 1.90 | 2.03 | .46|] .50] .70) 7.49 | 13.92 AQOV ES see cetsicte 47 99 | 1.71 | 1.68 | 2.83 | 6.78 | 2.83 | 2.75 | 1.35 | .83 -17} .89 |15. 83) | 23. 28 OOP sebaceous IBGE PESO) |) GHGRI | SEG || Gheky le eey ey pale ili! 07 75 10%) 01 .07 {17.36 | 22.19 JIB) og sp5cocoe .50 90 | 1.70 | 2.55 | 3.36 | 2.16 | 4.25 | 3.56 ! 2.90 40} .80] .81 |14.02 | 23.89 IG eae seeadce -26| 1.22] .31| .96 | 4.52 | 5.76| .40 | 2.35 4511.86] .16] -.72 /11.95 | 18.97 IWODssedaanese -97 21 | 1.14 -49 | 5.94 |-4. 84 |10.383 | .62 12 | 4.95 . 64 - 12 |22.74 | 30.37 MW Oseackoaceas 30 | 1.42 | 2.25) .25 | 5.37 | 1.85 | 1.45 | 5.55 12] 1.20) .92-) 1.30 |11.17 | 21.98 Ge eeaacsoaes - 60 40 30} .85 |10.95 | 8.10 | 6.23 04 | 1.40) 0 0 .33 |26.43 | 29. 20 1O0Stere cece -10 | 1.00 | 1.15 | 2.80 | 3.98 | 1.87 | .50 | 6.80 58 | 2.20 | .32] 1.70 |10.30 | 17.00 1000 Boeke 12} .12 42 | 2.23 10.20 | 8.53 | 3.19 30 | 1.50 50 | 1.70 | 1.31 |24.57 | 30.12 TOO Week cise ere -57 | .10] 1.55 | 2.00 | 2.70 | 1.70 | 1.62 | 1.44 | 3.49 52 | 1.06} .13 | 9.57 | 16.88 QUE er tepmisteraisre le -17| .45} ¢.09 | ¢.47 | ¢.04 | c.62 | ¢.58 |c2.29 | c,97 |cl1.06 |c1.08 | ¢.58 | 1.80] 8.40 NOT 2 eeseeciciccs c. 09 31 | 1.19 | 2.90 | 1.91 70 | 2.78 | 9.15 | 2.50 80} T | 1.02} 9.48 | 23.35 1 cocodeaon -95 | .60 | 3.30 40 | 3.10 | 2.08) .25] .93 68 |¢2.37 | c.14 30 | 9.13 | 15.10 Mean..... -68} .64 | 1.47 | 2.24 | 4.02 | 3.57 | 2.18 | 1.92 94 | 1.06 61 . 63 |13.45 | 19.86 a T=trace. b Record missing; estimated from the records at near-by stations. ¢ Record missing; rainfall at Vale;S. Dak., about 15 miles north of Fert Meade, substituted. | i ’ | 6 BULLETIN 297, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fort Meade is only about 25 miles south of Newell, but the eleva- tion is 675 feet greater. Its proximity to the Black Hills apparently influences the rainfall to a considerable extent, as the annual precipita- tion is greater at Fort Meade than at Newell in those years for which the rainfall records of both are available. A comparison of Tables IT and III, however, will indicate to some extent the frequency with which conditions of precipitation similar to those prevailing from 1908 to 1913 are to be expected. The mean annual rainfall at Fort Meade, as shown by Table ITI, is 19.86 inches for the 33 years from 1881 to 1913. The maximum rain- fall for the period, 30.37 inches, was recorded in 1905. The minimum rainfall, 8.40 inches, was recorded in 1911. For practically all of this year, however, there are no records at Fort Meade, so that the rainfall at Vale, S. Dak., has been substituted. The rainfall at Vale is usually considerably lower than at Fort Meade, though the two poimts are only about 16 miles apart. The lowest annual rainfall actually re- corded at Fort Meade is 13.25 inches, the record for 1885. ° The rainfall during the growing period for cereals (March to July) also shows a wide variation. The average seasonal rainfall for the 33-year period is 13.45 inches. The maximum rainfall for the five months, 26.43 inches, was recorded in i907; the minimum (except that of 1911 at Vale), 7.36 inches, was recorded in 1885. In the six years covered by the experiments at Newell the rainfall at Fort Meade during the growing season has exceeded the normal only in 1909. EVAPORATION. The seasonal evaporation probably ranks next in importance to seasonal precipitation among the factors which influence the growth of crops at Newell. The daily evaporation has been recorded at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, and the total amount in inches by months from April to July is shown in Table IV. The record of evaporation was not kept for the month of March, but at Newell crops ordinarily make little growth during that month and hence this omis- sion is not of importance. The evaporation is determined from a free water surface, the method being that employed at all of the stations where the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry has been cooperating.! The average evaporation for the four months from April to July, inclusive, for the six years from 1908 to 1913 was 27.620 inches. The lowest total evaporation, 23.627 mches, was recorded in 1909, the year of the greatest rainfall during the same months. The highest total evaporation, 33.906 inches, was recorded in 1911, the year of the lowest seasonal rainfall. Thus, the evaporation usually varies inversely with the precipitation, though this is not always the case. | Briggs, L. J., and Belz, J. O. Dry farming in relation to rainfall and evaporation. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 188, p. 16-20. 1910. CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. Th Taste 1V.— Monthly precipitation and evaporation from a free water surface at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, by months, from April to July of each year, 1908 to 1918, inclusive. [Data (in inches) from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry.] April. May. June. July. Total. Year. fae Ratio. Precipi-| Evapo-| Precipi-| Evapo-|Precipi-| Evapo-|Precipi-| Evapo-| Precipi-| Evapo- tation. | ration. | tation. | ration. | tation. | ration. | tation. | ration. | tation. | ration. GOSS aece TGS ooso 3.95 | 5.917 1.47 | 6/820 1.26 | 8.081 7.84 | 26.354 |1: 3.36 190922 s)fees- .84 3.657 3. 87 6. 413 5.59 5. 859 2.45 7.698 VON 2o0 O20 | les l85 NOLO REE rs. 1.57 5. 408 1. 26 5.306 To 8.975 1.42 | 10.429 Sa(Gn|PoO MLSS M5523) IG) Wifes Sees se .17 | 4.649 -45 | 8.302 .50 | 10.241 .80 | 10.714 1.92 | 33.906 |1-°17.66 IQ DS eee ae 2.32 | 4.849 2.26 | 6.423 .29 | 8.175 3.20 | 7.980 8.07 | 27.427 |1: 3.40 LOLS Re mata SoA NY CEOs) 1.98 | 4.302 3.10 | 7.046 .30 | 8.235 5.68 | 24.288 |1: 4.26 Average. 1.05 | 4.801 2.29] 6.110 2.08 | 7.853 1.58 | 8.856 7.00 | 27.620 | 1:3.95 The ratio of precipitation to evaporation, also given in Table IV, shows the evaporation for the six years to be 3.95 times the precipita- tion. In 1909 the ratio was the narrowest, the evaporation for that year being only 1.85 times the precipitation. In 1911 the ratio was the widest, the evaporation being 17.66 times the precipitation. The ratios of precipitation to evaporation for the different years compared with the average ratio for the entire period afford an excellent basis for judging the seasonal conditions under which the experiments re- ported in this bulletin were conducted. WIND. The record of wind measurements has been taken at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm during the growing season since May, 1909. The anemometer stands near the evaporation tank, at a height of about 2 feet from the surface of the ground. The average wind velocities in miles per hour during the months from April to July for the years 1908 to 1913, inclusive, are presented in Table V. TasLe V.—Average wind velocity at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, by months, Jrom April to July of each year, 1908 to 1913, inclusive. [Data (in miles per hour) from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry.] Month. 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 Average. PAN ilar ener rs rts Sets es aa aoe Meee. 9.1 9.2 9.2 9.5 6.2 8.6 WIEHY S35 See asseaeuaadaccueseose 8.3 10.1 8.2 11.6 ie a 5.9 9. 2 UipiNe: 55 So SoeaCacanBEEceaUaceceee 7.2 6. 2 9.3 9.1 7.6 6.8 ot MUEliye ees eae ci)s beioere ncsinecion 5.0 6.0 et 7.9 6.0 5.8 6.5 PAW OT AS OMe ietareieiemierate sissy 6.8 7.8 8.6 9.5 8.6 6. 2 8.0 Table V shows the average wind velocity at Newell to be 8 miles per hour from April 1 to July 31. The greatest average wind velocity, 9.2 miles per hour, is for the month of May. In June and July there is a considerable decrease in the velocity of the wind, the average for 4506°—Bull. 297—15——2 SSS mT | 8 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the latter month being 6.5 miles. The greatest seasonal velocity was recorded in 1911, which was the year of least rainfall and greatest evaporation. The highest average velocity for the entire period was recorded in May of that year, 11.6 miles per hour. The average velocity for both June and July was also unusually high. The low yields in 1911 were due to the combination of very low rainfall, high evaporation, and injury to crops from high winds. The wind for any one day (24 hours) seldom exceeds a total of 500 miles, while for any one day during June and July it is usually much less than 250 miles. TEMPERATURE. The temperatures at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm are recorded throughout the year by means of maximum, minimum, and dry-bulb thermometers. A summary of the mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures from April to July, inclusive, for the six years from 1908 to 1913 is presented in Table VI. TaBLe VI.— Mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures at the Belle Fourche Experi- ment Farm, by months, from April to July of each year, 1908 to 1913, inclusive. [Data (in °F.) from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry.] April. May. June. July. q 3 . a . : : = ° ° g Year. gq | ¢ Bee) od Shsib tel Ee] gg] & e | z | -8 ae: # |e | 8 qd f-o | 8 jg | SeS8 | a |-o-| 8) aa) See 3 K g Sill! irs = S oa q 3 4 fs w o cst . | Ss = a S = o 3 “A 3 = = = = | = = = = = = = = D Is Soceooacoaccode 48 89 5 52 | 79 29 63 90 39 7 100 43 59 O00 Be ractenicisiesieisten 38 73 6 52 84 22 66 95 45 70 100 41 56 OT Oar eisletosisteieeiereis 51 89 24 52 81 27 68 | 108 36 76 | 109 44 62 1 eS pecosnasoaadas 43 88 13 58 94 23 73 101 43 71 105 41 61 IEA AS Saccospeoacne 47 78 22 55 84 32 66 101 39 70 94 40 60 I SeS 2 Goo guadcaseds 48 89 24 53 95 26 66 98 45 70 101 42 59 ASV. CLALC siete Setanta 46 84 16 54 86 26 67 99 41 72| 1Ol| 42 | 59.5 Table VI shows that the highest average mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures have been recorded in July, though the maxi- mum and minimum temperatures are only very slightly higher than those recorded in June. During the six years, frost has not occurred in June, the lowest minimum temperature recorded being 36° F. This table shows that the average mean temperature for the growing season for cereals for the six years is 59.5° F. The greatest variation from this average in any one year was in 1909, when the seasonal mean was 56° F. The temperature of western South Dakota is somewhat higher than that of corresponding latitudes in the eastern part of the State. This is shown in Table VII, in which the mean monthly and annual tem- peratures at Newell, Camp Crook, Aberdeen, Pierre, and Brookings are given. Camp Crook is near the northwestern corner of the State, CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 9 about 60 miles north and 30 miles west of Newell. Aberdeen is directly east of Camp Crook, but is about 90 miles from the eastern boundary. Pierre is on the Missouri River in the central portion of the State. Brookings is in the same latitude as Pierre, but within 20 miles of the eastern boundary. Taste VII.— Mean monthly and annual temperatures at Newell, Camp Crook, Aberdeen, Pierre, and Brookings, S. Dak., for the periods indicated. [Data (in °F.) for Newell from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry and for other stations from the records of the United States Weather Bureau. ] Tai Camp é anes Sera a Newell. rani Aberdeen. Pierre. Brookings. Months. 6 years 20 years 23 years 21 years 24 years (1908-1913).) (1894-1913).} (1891-1913).) (1893-1913).| (1890-1913). JGINERIAY sSsods cose genes aneeeuesoucuseEseses a15.0 17.7 9.6 14.1 12.2 February..-..--.--------------- sonecagbane a 19.0 18.9 11.2 16.9 13.8 WG al. Boe pb or Sees RON FOOSE Aor iSsorene a 31.8 28. 2 26. 2 29. 4 28. 5 JN oil 51-2 55eda5n055ecoo secs UREnOs SUSE eneee 45.8 43.9 44.8 46.7 45.0 WIEN) sc cccsae>namas Oe ao Nga OHU BADE EE SOOO ERE Dont 54.1 55.9 59.1 04 IN CM PRE eee antic cia > oe Sass sees ee eecue 67.0 63. 2 66. 1 69.1 65.1 Viti ice cée ate se nse BBE bee BEL Op AUR OeUnaeeoBEs 71.7 69. 5 70.9 (BSH? 69.6 INWGUB cocoa. eGo ses sauepeseeee cops aageaaee 69. 7 68. 7 68.7 73.3 67.9 S@piembermeeeerrens- 9-2 ste ccasee «anemia 59. 0 58. 6 59. 0 62. 9 59. 7 OGIO OEP ~ 5 soe -4qdoece de DOSE SEE Sepp eneae 45.3 45. 6 45.7 48.9 46.3 INOW OGL oS cos scoshesoSEEeose seem Sree 33. 2 31.3 28. 8 32. 0 29.5 ID GOGH) NEE 5 Sncidosorb) SOS E SBR ee enaenEe 21.3 23.7 16.9 20. 5 19.6 ANTITN UM Bese a sen seeiecepieeecsiie ss 44,4 43.6 42.0 45.7 42.7 a For five years only. The record of mean temperatures at Newell is for a much shorter period than the records for the other localities noted in Table VII, so that the figures are not entirely comparable. The annual mean and monthly mean temperatures at Newell differ only shghtly from those at Camp Crook. The annual mean temperatures in western South Dakota are shown to be slightly higher than those in the eastern part of the State. The difference between the mean temperature at Camp Crook and at Aberdeen is 1.6 degrees, while that of Pierre is 3 degrees higher than that of Brookings. The variation between the Brookings and Pierre temperatures is quite constant throughout the year, but most of the variation between the Camp Crook and Aberdeen temperatures oc- eurs in December, January, and February. The average of the mean temperatures for these three months is 7.9 degrees lower at Aberdeen. This variation in winter temperatures perhaps accounts for the fact that winter wheat is more likely to winterkill in eastern than in western South Dakota. Table VIII gives the dates of the last spring and first fall frosts and the number of days in the frost-free period during each year from 1908 to 1913, inclusive. The latest date on which frost has occurred in the spring during the six years was May 23, and the average date 10 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEFARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was May 13. The earliest frost in the autumn during this period was on August 27, while the average date of the first frost was September 14. The average frost-free period for the six years is 123 days. TasBLeE VIII.—Dates of killing frosts, the last in spring and the first in autumn, with temperatures recorded and length of the frost-free period for each year from 1908 to 1913, inclusive, at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm. [Data from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry.] | Last frost in First frost in | Last frost in First frost in spring. fall. | spring. fall. Frost- Frost- Year. free | Year. free Tem- Tem-| period. | Tem- Tem-|period. Date. |pera-| Date. | pera- | Date. |pera-| Date. | pera- ture. ture. | ture. ture oo SE Days: | SHS | °F. | Days. 1908-222 May 20 29 | Sept 26 22 T29 LOND. oe May 4 32 | Sept. 23 32 141 19092222 May 17 26 | Sept. 23 31 L283 \g1O13=.....-2 May 6 32 | Sept. 24 29 140 191 Oe a May 23 31 | Aug. 25 32 93 | LOT Aes os May 11 30 | Aug. 27 32 107 || Average -| May 13 |.---.-- | Sept. (45) Seesce 123 iT EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. The tests with dry-land cereals on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm have been conducted in field plats and m the nursery. In the field plats varietal tests and tests of rates and dates of seeding have been included. The plats have ranged from one-fiftieth to one-tenth of an acre in size. In the cereal nursery the varieties have been grown in short rows. The use of the nursery has made it possible to test economically a much larger number of varieties than could have been grown in the field plats. Careful records have been kept of the behavior of the varieties included in both the plat and nursery experiments. PLAT EXPERIMENTS. The field tests have included varietal tests of winter wheat, rye, and emmer and of spring wheat, oats, barley, and flax. There have also been rate-of-seeding tests with sprig wheat and oats and date- of-seeding tests with flax and winter wheat. SIZE OF PLATS. All of the plat experiments in 1908 and 1909 and nearly all in 1910 were conducted on tenth-acre plats. These plats were 2 rods wide by 8 rods long. They were arranged side by side in series, the plats in the series being separated by 5-foot alleys. The series were separated by 16.5-foot or 20-foot roads. Each plat thus had a 5-foot alley along each side and a 16.5-foot or 20-foot road along ach end. Most of the tests in 1911 and all of those in 1912 and 1913 were in plats made by sowing a single drill width across an 8-rod series. As the drill was 6 feet wide, this gave a plat of one-fifty-fifth of an CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 11 acre in area.. The alleys between these plats have been 19.2 inches in width. By the use of plats and alleys of these dimensions it was possible to sow five plats within the area formerly occupied by one tenth-acre plat. As the plants draw considerable moisture and plant food from the alleys, it has been thought fair to consider these one-fifty-fifth-acre plats as one-fiftieth-acre plats in computing acre yields. REPLICATION OF PLATS. In 1908, 1909, and 1910, when the tests were conducted on tenth- acre plats, there was only a single plat of each variety. Check plats of standard varieties of each cereal were sown at regular intervals in 1909 and 1910, and in most of the tests in 1908. As this method did not appear to be entirely satisfactory, a change was made in 1911 in some of the tests and in all those conducted in 1912 and 1913. The size of the plats was reduced, as stated in the preceding paragraph, and the tests were replicated. In the varietal tests, five plats of each variety were grown. In rate-of-seeding and date-of- seeding experiments it has been considered sufficient to grow three plats of each rate or date, as there is a correlation between the differ- ent parts of the experiment which is not found in the varietal tests. PREPARATION OF THE LAND. In preparing the land for experimental work the aim has been to keep within practical farm limits as far as possible. The plowing has been done at a moderate depth, 6 to 8 inches, and subsequent treat- ment has been in accord with the best farm practice. The necessity for keeping the land uniform has sometimes required hand work, such as the removal of weeds, and probably more cultivation at times than would be done by a practical farmer. The work also has been more timely than is usually the case on large farms. Most of the experimental work has been on land fallowed during the preceding year. Fallowing also has been necessary to imsure uniformity in soil conditions. When the experimental work was begun, this appeared to be the most practicable method of producing crops under dry-land conditions. The usual practice has been to plow in the fall after the crop was removed, or the following spring if conditions were not favorable for fall plowing. Ground plowed in the fall has been left rough or has been worked down with the disk and spike-tooth harrows, ac- cording to the moisture condition. If it contaimed considerable moisture it was worked; otherwise it was not. All fallow has been worked when necessary to remove weeds or to prevent evaporation. The spring-tooth harrow has proved to be the most satisfactory tool for working fallow land. Other implements, such as the smoothing : | } 12 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. harrow and disk harrow, pulverize the soil to a greater extent and increase the danger from soil blowing. The only varietal tests here reported which were not conducted on fallowed land are those with oats, barley, and flax in 1913. The varietal test of oats was on corn ground, which was disked and har- rowed into geod condition before seeding. The barley varieties were erown on land cropped to wheat the previous season, which was plowed about 10 inches deep soon after the wheat was taken off and was worked down with disk and harrow immediately after plowing. The flax varieties were sown on land on which small grain was grown in 1912, the preparation being the same as that for barley. The rate-of-seeding test with spring wheat in 1910 and with oats in 1913 and the date-of-seeding test with flax in 1913 were on land on which corn was grown the previous year. The land was disked and harrowed but was not plowed before seeding. The rate-of-seeding test with spring wheat in 1913 was on land cropped to small grain the preceding season and prepared the same as that for the barley varieties. RATES AND DATES OF SEEDING. The usual rate of seeding for spring wheat has been from 4 to 5 pecks to the acre; for winter wheat, 3 pecks; for oats, 6 pecks; for barley, 5 pecks; and for flax, 2 pecks. Spring grains have been sown as early as seemed practicable, seldom before April 1 or later than April 15. Winter grains have been sown at what was thought to be the most favorable date each year. This has usually been between September 15 and October 1. NURSERY EXPERIMENTS. The nursery tests at Newell have included varieties newly intro- duced and those of which there was not sufficient seed for sowing in the field plats, and also pure-line selections from the better commer- cial varieties. The latter has been the most important feature of the nursery work. The varieties and selections have been grown in short rows, thus making possible the economical testing of a very much larger number, of varieties and races than could have been included in the plat tests. NATURE OF THE WORK. Although the improvement of the cereal crops by selection has required a considerable outlay of time and money, the results are less than were expected at the outset. This is due to several causes, the most important of which are the partial or complete crop failures resulting from the extremely dry seasons. This has prevented sufficient increase of the more desirable strains for a thorough test in CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 13 field plats. In many cases the drought has been so severe that all the races and varieties failed to mature grain, regardless of their ability to evade or resist moderate droughts. When work was begun at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, the best crops and varieties for that section were fairly well known. It seemed, therefore, that the best plan in crop improvement was to select from these few varieties rather than from many which might prove to be unadapted. As the better varieties were for the most part unselected, this line of work seemed to be specially promising. It appeared that isolation of these types and a study of their char- acteristics and values ought to precede attempts to improve them by hybridization. Accordingly, in 1908, several hundred selections were made from winter wheat, spring durum wheat, spring common wheat, and oats. These were mainly from Turkey, Kharkof, and Crimean winter wheat, Kubanka durum wheat, and Sixty-Day and Kherson oats. Additional selections from these and other varieties were made in subsequent years. NURSERY METHODS. Single heads were selected from the field plats, the aim being to obtain as many types as possible. Each head was described carefully before it was thrashed. The seeds from each head were then sown in a 5-foot row. The number of kernels sown in each row was usually 25. The dates of planting, emergence, heading, and ripening were recorded, as were such other notes on hardiness, yield, ete., as appeared to be desirable. At harvest the rows which seemed to be especially undesirable were discarded, but in all cases at least one selection of each type was retained for further study. Most, of these races which were retained were sown with an ordinary grain drill in 60-foot rows in 1910 and succeeding seasons. As far as possible, replicate plantings have been made, but loss of seed in unfavorable seasons and lack of land and labor have made impossible as frequent replication as has seemed desirable. INTERPRETATION OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS. The best variety or method of culture is the one which, on the average, will produce the highest yield of grain of the greatest value at the least cost. It is seldom that a single variety or method will fulfill all these requirements for all seasons. Usually one will give the best results one season, another the second, and perhaps still another the third. The best method or variety, presumably, is that one which gives the best average during a series of years, provided the seasons are representative. In actual practice, however, the problem is more complicated than would appear from this statement. The variation 14 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in soil and in seasons, the importance of weather and soil conditions at critical stages of growth, and the variable reaction of varieties to seasonal conditions make it difficult to arrive at definite conclusions by a study of averages alone. EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEAT. The experiments with wheat at Newell have included plat and_ nursery tests of both spring and winter varieties. In addition to the varietal tests there have been rate-of-seeding experiments with spring wheat and date-of-seeding experiments with winter wheat. Because there is always a ready market for the grain and its value js high in comparison with its bulk, wheat is always an important crop in a newly settled district. For that reason the experiments with wheat at Newell have been more extensive and of greater popu- lar interest than those with any other grain. Considerable effort has been devoted to the improvement of varieties by selection. SPRING WHEAT. Spring wheat is much more commonly grown in western South Dakota than winter wheat. There is considerable diversity in varieties, for both common and durum wheats are grown. The common wheats include representatives of the Fife, bluestem, and Preston (bearded Fife) groups. A varietal test of spring wheat has been conducted on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm each year since 1908. A rate-of-seeding test with Kubanka durum wheat was begun in 1909 and was continued throughout the period here discussed. ; VARIETAL TEST OF SPRING WHEAT. The spring-wheat varieties included in the tests at Newell are those which have given the best results in other dry-land districts, with the addition of a few which have been introduced recently from foreign countries. Because so many of the poorer ones were eliminated by previous tests elsewhere, the varieties grown at Newell do not show wide variations in yield. Twelve varieties and strains of durum wheat and thirteen of com- mon wheat have been grown in plats. In some cases several lots of the same variety from different sources have been included in the test. Therefore, only 6 varietal names of durum and 10 of common wheat are represented by the 25 lots. The annual and average yields for all varieties and strains are shown in Table IX. As shown in Table EX, good yields of spring wheat were produced in 1908, 1909, and 1913, fair yields of some varieties in 1910, and fail- ures of practically all varieties in 1911 and 1912. Only five of the durum varieties and strains and five of the common varieties have been grown during all of the six years (1908-1913). CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 159 TaBLeE I1X.—Annual and average yields of varieties of spring wheat on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1913, inclusive. Yield per acre (bushels). Group and variety Ge Me | y Brey: No.a 6-year 1908 1909 1910 1911 | 1912 1913 aver- age. Durum: | ANGWVttiL Co) LEN Ee ae ea QO4T [5218530 | Ree Pee a TN eereye. lh gran iS Panel nes ahah PAIN AIG ase nace ie nieces cle acl cise = 1493 22.3 22.6 8.3 0 0 u/Gal 7, 1) OME Eee ee en oeee 1537 ee sleepers 11.5 0 (OE | eeebarst Seach Sse 1) Oe eR olor eee sie e 1547 PAT B} 22.0 9.2 0 OM Ee ace ee Lee equi opal his Sek Se Le eee 354 24.8 19.5 4.0 0 (0) 9 G2 oe Lee selene 3 ORF ie eaten rie inion Sisisisiesiead 1440 24.9 | 021.4 c7.4 0 0 15.6 11.6 1D) Oe ee te Ae 1516 | ¢23.8 22.6 5.3 0 0 19.1 11.8 MD) Oe ie focn sores see es 2246 PATA E55 conlladoccono Seba desd Sse scamtoce Gacssses DL OFSR Eee Lee eect coca e 2882 PRM iocaccsc||scoscesa Goaccood Seacooes adecoado sodacaas IRGlISSIGI Memento coc cone eate 1584 POY elt oo colloes Qe HtoS WRI eee ate eee see (pea ee IRCrerodkae era reek een 1350 22.5 BY) Sera 0 0 16.7 1S i Yellow Gharnovka............... 1444 22.7 20.9 5.0 ; 0 0 16.5 10.9 ife Ghirka..... LOS GREE BEECH aE Berle 1517 16.2 ile es 12.8 0 1.9 16.3 9.8 Glyndon (Minn. No. 163).......-- 2873))|5 <2 2 |e Pees oes ca le 0 IES lees Seons WIC TOUS: 35 564 sue sper oe seeeseneoss 32765) eo: 2: ss eee eeeeee | sucee ros 3.8 GES | eye IROWCrE Ores abe ee ec eh Sk. 3025 18.5 17.3 10.6 0 0 16.6 10.5 TEy/S Ulm Pape ney este aera o Soe ce 3022 19.3 15.0 10.3 0 0 15.0 9.9 Bluestem: LAVA OS Bere sae es anaes sce Seki PAN (a BRPSEE esl noc aolboeedooc pooesede 0 OE Bapaaobe 1DXO)S 2G een 3020 18.3 13.8 9.0 0 0 14.1 9.2 DD) ORES ra ecitiencioe eu 3021 IW AU es 55 Salle aoooeosibE CaeeHa Sab oeeoal pacerocsl macasacs Preston: IRTOSUOMPEE Bea ae ao asic nese jeisieis 30815 |; 2. |. 6 | ees | eeeelereral [eerie 0 L9R5 i Seaseee DD) OMe ee Seon Seite BN: V/el See 22. - 35|boaeoecsl pootnoee 0 19500 |Paeee ae PLM CMMUGKG Vases oe ee eee ae ee 4154.2 =. 2.:. S| Eanes | Memeeerns |erommete 0 LG a 2h eects Miscellaneous: (Cloyne. 0 oe Se Sires eae a a mean OAS) ie) ar Ee ol |e so aeeion| Hepasese 7 VAS GM Eo eee Mian chiitiabererns ssh cee ias Llanes 2492 16.2 16.0 12.8 0 4.5 fap ileal a Cereal Investigations number. 6 Average of two check plats. c Average of three check plats. The rainfall in 1908 and 1909 was fairly heavy and its distribution was particularly favorable to spring grains, as the greater portion came during the growing season. In 1910 the ground was in excel- lent condition for seeding and the prospects for a crop were excellent until about June 1. The rainfall was so light during the growing season, however, that many of the varieties did not produce grain. There were only two rains of more than 0.5 inch between April 15 and the time the wheat matured, and these two only slightly exceeded that quantity. As a shower of less than 0.5 inch is soon evaporated and is of little benefit to growing crops, particularly in a dry season, the conditions were especially trying during 1910. The moisture stored in the soil the previous season was the principal factor in crop production. A surprising feature of the varietal test in 1910 was the larger yields produced by the common spring wheats in a season when it appeared that the durum varieties should have yielded best. The production of straw of the latter was sufficient for a heavy yield of grain, much greater than from the common varieties. From the appearance of the plats they seemed to have withstood the drought better than the common wheats, but when they matured it was found that many heads contained little or no grain. The only explanation of the differ- 4506°—Bull. 297—15——3 16 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ence in yield between the durum and common varieties that appears plausible is that the durum wheats bloomed during a hot, dry period, about June 20, while most of the common varieties bloomed about a week later, when weather conditions were more favorable. Low yields of durum wheat were obtained at several stations in the Great Plains in 1910 and 1911, and in every case it was noted that the durum varieties bloomed during a hot, dry period. This matter has been discussed more at length by the writer in another publication.' The crop season of 1911 was so dry that spring grain sown at the usual time did not germinate till August. Table II shows that the total precipitation from March to July, inclusive, was only 2.01 inches and that, with one exception, this precipitation came in such small showers that it was of no value in promoting crop growth. No yields of any of the cereals were produced that year. The soil was so dry in the spring of 1912 that only small yields were produced that year, even though the precipitation was nearly normal. The rainfall during May and June was light, and this factor con- tributed further toward the partial failure of the crops. In that year all the replicated plats of only two varieties of spring wheat, the Ghirka and Manchuria, were harvested. Only single plats of the Changli and Marquis were grown; these produced the yields shown in Table IX. None of the other varieties produced enough grain to har- vest. All four of the varieties which matured grain in 1912 are early and so in a measure escaped the effect of the drought. In 1913 five fiftieth-acre plats of each variety were sown, but on a portion of the area the germination and growth were not at all uni- form, probably due to the replowing of the land the previous summer to eradicate gumbo weed. Two plats of each variety were sown on land which received uniform treatment, so the results from these plats only are included in Table IX. Two plats of the Galgalos wheat, C. I. No. 2398, a beardless variety with short, stiff straw and a rather large, soft, white kernel, were grown on land not entirely comparable with that on which the varie- ties shown in Table [X were sown. Plats of the Kubanka and Power were grown, however, on the same area. The Galgalos produced an average mle of 17.5 bushels, the Kubanka 18.1 bushels, and the Power 14.3 bushels. SUMMARY OF YIELDS OF SPRING WHEAT. Of the numerous varieties of spring wheat grown at Newell, only 10 have been included in the test for the entire period of six years. Of these 10 varieties, 5 are durum and 5 are common wheats. Of the common wheats, 3 belong to the Fife group, 1 to the bluestem, and 1, 1 Salmon, Cecil. Sterile florets in ER and other cereals. Jn Jour. |Aaowe Soc. Neen , VY. 6, no. 1, p. 24-30, 2 pl., 1914, CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 17 the Manchuria, is a bearded wheat which does not belong to any group how commonly grown in this country. Table X shows the average date of heading and of maturity, height, and weight per bushel of these 10 varieties in 1908, 1909, 1910, and 1913. In 1911 none of the varieties matured grain, so that none of these data are available for that year, while in 1912 data were obtained for only two or three YIELD PER ACRE. . ° (2) Ss 10 varieties. DURUM Table X also shows z : PER ERODKA..—--=-' a YELLOW GHARNOVEA. the average yields Petumiies 17s acre of grain and of POWER FIFE ~~~ ~~~ = : BY STAIN GIFUEL = mmm straw for these varl- I aoa eties. The yield of IMA psc = grain 1S the Cree Fic. 2.—Diagram showing the average yields per acre, in bushels, of for the entire period the leading varieties of spring wheat at the Belle Fourche Experi- : ment Farm, for six years, 1908 to 1913, inclusive. of six years, 1908 to 1913. These yields are shown graphically in figure 2. The yield of straw 1s for five years, 1912 being excluded for the reason that only two of the varieties were harvested, though all of them made some growth. The groups and varieties are arranged in the table according to their average yield of grain per acre. TaBLeE X.—Average dates of heading and of maturity, height, weight per bushel, and yields of the 10 leading varieties of spring wheat on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1913, inclusive. [The groups and varieties are arranged according to their average yield per acre. | Date of— Yield per acre. Ci) : Weight Group and variety. NGL sai ae Height. ns bee ea atur- ushel.a ¢ ing.a ity.a Grain.b | Straw.¢ Durum: Inches. | Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds. RSD AINA sprayers = c-.cca = seo 1516 | July 1] July 27 30 62.2 11.8 1,540 eA AU caleerctate sete ieiciel ce ate 1493 | June 30 |..-do_.._. 33 62.4 11.7 1,570 Tian eases seis = sao 1440 | July 2 | July 28 32 61.8 11.6 1,590 Herero dka tes sac soak cscs 1350) ead 022222 July 30 33 62.5 11.3 1,700 Yellow Gharnovka.....-.-.-- 1444 |._.do....- July 28 34 62.4 10.9 1,730 Miscellaneous: INigmelibink). sec cqesesesecusele 2492 | June 29 | July 25 30 58.9 11.1 1,390 Fife: IRONY GIs ce con ean eo cae eee ee 3025 | July 6 | July 28 28 59.7 10.5 1,370 PRAViSGIM Omen ccs eee. 3022 | July 7 | July 29 28 55.9 9.9 1,370 (CUI aes foe tse sees eels 1517 | June 274| July 204 a27 57.6 9.8 1,200 Bluestem JelenyGsh 288 5 Sesame ear ee 3020 | July 9 | July 30 28 55. 4 9.2 1,320 a Average for four years (1908-1910 and 1913), except as noted. b Average for six years, 19u8 to 1913, inclusive. e Average for five years (1908-1911 and 1913). d Average for two years, 1912 and 1913. LEADING VARIETIES OF SPRING WHEAT. As shown in Table ae the best yields of spring wheat at Newell have been obtained from the durum varieties, Kubanka and Arnautka. Some of the varieties of common wheat, however, have produced 18 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. yields nearly as high as those of the best durum varieties. Brief de- scriptions of the more important varieties of durum and common wheat grown at Newell are given herewith, and heads of typical varie- ties are shown in figure 3. A more complete discussion of hard spring- wheat varieties will be found in another publication." Durum wheat.—The heads of durum wheat? are broader and more compact and the beards are longer than those of the sprmg common varieties. The kernels are large and very hard and are usually clear amber in color. There is considerable variation among the durum wheats in the color of chaff and of beards. The leading varieties at Newell all have yellowish, hairless chaff and yellow beards. They all belong to the Kubanka group of durum wheats. The highest average yields for the six years from 1908 to 1913, in- clusive, were produced by the Kubanka, C. I. Nos. 1440 and 1516, and Fic. 3.—Representative heads of the different groups of wheat discussed in this bulletin; 7, Turkey winter; 2, Fife; 3, Preston; 4, bluestem; 5, durum. the Arnautka, C. I No. 1493. There is practically no difference in the average yields of these three lots, nor is there much difference in the appearance of the varieties. Somewhat lower yields were pro- duced by the Pererodka and Yellow Gharnovka varieties, though the difference even here is slight. All these varieties except the Arnautka were introduced into the United States from Russia by the United States Department of Agri- culture in 1899 and have since been grown in the northern Great Plains. The Arnautka variety was brought in and grown by farmers at an earlier date. It is still probably more widely grown than any other durum wheat in the United States, though the quality of the 1 Ball, ©. R., and Clark, J. A. Varieties of hard spring wheat. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 680, 20p., 7 fig., 1915. 2 For a more complete discussion of durum wheat, see Salmon, Cecil, and Clark, J. A. Durum wheat. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul, 534, 16 p., 4 fig., 1913. CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 19 Kubanka is higher. The best durum wheat to grow in western South Dakota is the Kubanka. A field of this variety on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm is shown in figure 4. Common wheat.—All the spring common wheats which have been erown at Newell for more than one year have hard or semihard red kernels. They vary chiefly in the hairiness of the chaff, in the pres- ence or absence of beards, and in the quality of the grain. The highest yield of the spring common wheats has been produced by a variety called Manchuria, C. I. No. 2492. The average yield of this variety for six years is 11.1 bushels, slightly less than that of the best durum wheats. The Manchuria is an early, bearded variety, with hairless, brown chaff, and medium-sized, semihard, red kernels. It has produced fairly good yields at Newell because of its earliness. Its milling qualities are poor and it is not to be recommended. Fig. 4.—Plats of Kubanka durum wheat on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1910. Three varieties of Fife wheat have given slightly lower yields than the best durum wheats. These three Fife wheats are the Power, Rysting, and Ghirka. The Power and Rysting are somewhat later in heading than the durum varieties, but mature at about the same time. The Ghirka is slightly earlier than any of the durums. The Fife is one of the standard groups of hard red spring wheat in Minnesota and the Dakotas. The Fife wheats all have slender, rather open, beardless heads, with white, hairless chaff. If common spring wheat is to be grown in western South Dakota, some variety of the Fife group should be chosen. In addition to the three here mentioned, the Marquis, a variety which originated in Canada and which has given excellent results in the Canadian Prairie Provinces, is worthy of trial. It is very early in maturing and is of 20 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. excellent milling quality. The Marquis was one of the few varieties which matured grain in 1912, while in 1913 it produced a slightly higher yield than any other variety of Fife wheat grown at Newell. The bluestem wheats, another of the important groups of hard red spring wheats, have given rather poor yields at Newell. The only variety which has been grown for the entire six years is the Haynes, C. I. No. 3020. This variety is also known as Minnesota No. 169. The bluestem wheats have beardless heads, with hairy, white chaff. They mature slightly later than the Fife varieties, and for that reason probably have not given as good yields as the latter. The only other group of common spring wheat of importance in western South Dakota is the Preston (bearded Fife). The varieties of this group have been grown only two years—1912 and 1913. In 1912, in common with practically all other wheat varieties, they produced no grain. In 1913 they produced higher yields than any of the other common wheats. The Preston, C. I. No. 3081, produced the highest yield of any variety under trial that year, including the durums. One or two varieties of the Preston group appear to be worthy of further trial. RATE-OF-SEEDING TEST OF SPRING WHEAT. A rate-of-seeding test with Kubanka durum wheat was conducted in 1909, 1910, 1912, and 1913. The seed, the preparation of the ground, and the date of seeding have been identical for all plats. In 1909 and 1912 this test was conducted on land which was fallow the previous year. In 1910 it followed corn and in 1913 was on land which produced a very small crop of wheat the preceding season. In 1909 and 1910 single tenth-acre plats and in 1912 and 1913 three fiftieth-acre plats were sown at each rate. The rates varied from 2 to 8 pecks per acre, but only the 4; 5, 6, and 8 peck rates were sown in each of the four years. Table XI shows the annual and the average yields of grain and of straw from the different rates of seeding. TaBLE XI.—Annual and average yields of Kubanka durum wheat in a,rate-of-seeding test on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1909, 1910, 1912, and 19138. Yield per acre. Rate of seeding. 1909 1910 1912 1913 Average. —¢6 - — || Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. Bush. Dbs. Bush. Lbs. Bush. Lbs. Bush. Lbs. | Bush. Ebs. 2 pecks..-/.. Saas 12.5 870 Dept) UO Elta stasc mtn!| = wtwtwiel Smell o\esereleieiie | |loscacsaclsonosede 2621 leonaoascopllbooneended AGRUS 1B... azecusdac cbenaokeosdubseuesesooeseSsua eaebesss 37.5 19.3 74cBa lel ee erence 28. 6 September 1 ........- sehgadenosodsskaceodaseadeube 23.0 39.0 8.3 28.1 24. 6 25.1 Seyouieialoer 1G .2+ cance ssqsdscansosasbe seosedecEesose 20.3 40.5 22.0 CO esp eeineclnd sabes a OGiolnge ll . wes dsossaac sepgudsooneoepesoseaeedesened 24.3 43.0 (?) 28.1 23.8 20.7 OGIO? 16 so cocsoocsasssonteoecuoesSeoneesousceHse 24.7 42.0 13.3 21.4 25.3 25.6 INOWOUMMDGP I. sos oecogapdossansensecao [cop qCeseReSes 25.5 37.3 13. 2 16.3 23.1 22.3 INOWOM OE ND -.ssocéascsnqsabondne sconceoceuSasonEa||seeecdoc|oassesorllsccsacce V6. L; |e cteaejaalsee seme: 1 Not sown because of severe drought. 2 Did not germinate. As shown in Table XIV, the highest yield in 1908, 25.5 bushels per acre, was produced from the latest seeding. The difference in yield from the various dates of seeding was slight, except that the plat sown on September 16 yielded only 20.3 bushels per acre. .The fall of 1907 was dry and the comparatively low winter survival and low yield of the earlier sown plats may have been due to the fact that growth was checked by the drought, and hence the plants did not go into the winter in good condition. In the varietal test, which was sown in duplicate on September 15 and October 5, six of the seven varieties produced higher yields from the later seeding. The highest yield in 1909 was from the plat sown October 1, with gradual decreases toward the earlier and later seedings. Germination was prompt on the plat sown August 16, but the plants on the plats sown September 1, September 16, and October 1 did not emerge until October 23. Damage from the blowing of the soil prevented taking accurate notes on winterkilling. In the fall of 1909 the plats were sown in duplicate with the excep- tion of the first date. For some reason there was no germination on the plats sown October 1. The plants on one series of the plats sown on October 16 and November 1 were killed by the blowing of the soil , ae 26 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the following spring. The highest yield was obtained from the plats sown on September 16.- The poor yield from the plat sown Septem- ber 1 was due to low germination. In the fall of 1910 the two sowings germinated at about the same time and the plants made a vigorous growth. The plat sown Sep- tember 16 showed good germination but less growth than the two earlier seedings. The plants on the plats sown October 1 emerged but made little growth before winter, while in the plats sown Octo- ber 16 and November 1 the seed germinated but the plants did not emerge. As there was little precipitation during the fall, winter, and spring, practically all of the plants were dead by May 1. There was a higher moisture content and better survival in the late-sown Fic. 7.—Plats of winter wheat in the date-of-seeding test on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm. (Photo- graphed October 24, 1912.) 4 than in the early-sown plats. The fall of 1911 was so dry that the date-of-seeding as well as other tests with winter wheat were a com-_ plete failure. In the fall of 1912 the test was replicated three times on fiftieth- acre plats instead of being sown on a single tenth-acre plat. An earlier and a later date of seeding, August 6 and November 16, respectively, were added to the test. The seeding of September 16 was not made, because the soil was so dry that germination could not be obtained. Good stands were secured from the plats sown on each date. A view of the plats on October 24 is shown in figure 7. The earliest date of seeding produced the highest yield, 29.2 bushels. Because of the variations from year to year, the difference in average yields obtained from the various dates of seeding was not great. If the plats sown October 1, 1909, had not failed to germinate, that date probably would have given the highest average yield for the four years when crops were produced. The next highest yield CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. ay was from the plats sown October 16. For the three years, 1909, 1910, and 1913, the highest yield was from the August 16 seeding, with that of October 16 second. The great variations in seasonal conditions make it difficult to decide the best date for seeding wheat in western South Dakota. If rains occur early and are fairly abundant, early seeding is probably best. It is not always possible to conserve sufficient moisture to insure germination; hence, it is not usually safe to sow in dry soil with the expectation of receiving sufficient rain for germination. The safest rule seems to be to have the ground ready for early seeding, so that the seed may be sown early or late as the conditions seem to indicate. The results obtained on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm appear to show that sowing as late as November 1 will often give better yields than are obtained from spring wheat. Because the Fic. 8.—The winter-wheat nursery on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1910. current season’s crop is often not thrashed and ready for sowing in August, it is desirable to carry over a supply of seed, so that the crop may be sown early if it appears to be desirable. NURSERY EXPERIMENTS WITH WINTER WHEAT. About 600 selected heads of Turkey, Kharkof, and Crimean wheats were sown in head rows in the fall of 1908. Practically all of these were sown in 60-foot rows the following year. As it seemed desir- able to test the best of these selections in field plats as soon as pos- sible, about 35 of them were sown in fiftieth-acre plats in the fall of 1910. Because of the extreme drought the next spring and summer no grain was produced. Enough seed was left from the 1909 crop, however, to sow in duplicate 60-foot rows in the fall of 1911. The seed did not germinate until the following spring, and the stand was then so thin that very low yields were obtained. The selections were 28 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, again sown in duplicate rows in the fall of 1912, while a few of which there was sufficient seed were sown in fiftieth-acre plats. A view of the winter-wheat nursery in 1910 is shown in figure 8. The average yields of the selections in duplicate 60-foot rows in 1910, 1912, and 1913 varied from 32 to 65.8 ounces. Most of the selections yielded between 48 and 60 ounces. A few beardless races which were selected proved to be particularly high in yield. The average yield of all nine beardless races was 56.2 ounces, while the nine best bearded races produced an average yield of 56 ounces. The best beardless race, selection No. 343, produced an average yield of 65.8 ounces, while the best bearded race yielded 61.4 ounces. The beardless races sown in fiftieth-acre plats in 1910 appeared to be fully as resistant to drought as any of the bearded races. There appeared to be little difference in hardiness between the bearded and beardless strains, not only at Newell but also at three other field stations in the VELD PER ACRE. northern Great 40 15 20 25) WINTER: Plains where they AHARAOF..-.~~---E AS 2/2 OY QUARUM SPRING V : 7 SPRING | were tested. The COMMON SPAING. PROWL IFE= a z HAYNES BLUES 7TE/) MANCHUA/A.— ~ -- erain is very similar to that of the Turkey and Kharkof wheats Fia. 9.—Diagram showing the average yields per acre, in bushels, in quality and ap- of the best varieties of winter wheat and each group of spring wheat at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, for six years, 1908 Pearance. Whether to 1913, inclusive. th ese b ear d ] ess strains originated from mechanical mixtures of some beardless fall variety, such as Ghirka Winter, or from accidental hybrids between a bearded hard winter wheat and a beardless winter wheat was not determined. COMPARISON OF SPRING AND WINTER WHEATS. A comparison of the yields of winter and spring wheat which have been obtained at Newell should be of interest and value. The annual and average yields of the best varieties of winter, of durum, and of common spring wheat are shown in Table XV. The average yields are also shown graphically in figure 9. The yields of winter wheat in 1908 were slightly larger than those of the best durum wheats and exceeded by several bushels those of the spring common wheats. In 1909 the yields of winter wheat were nearly double those of the durum and more than double those of the spring common varieties. Again in 1910 the yields of winter wheat were double or more than double those of the spring varieties. In 1911 no yields of either spring or winter wheat were obtained, while | in 1912 no grain was produced except by a few varieties of spring | common wheat. In 1913 the yields of winter wheat were again about double those of durum and more than double those of the spring common wheats, CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 29 TaBLE XV.—Annual and average yields of the best varieties of winter and of durum and common spring wheats on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1913, inclusive. Yield per acre (bushels). Group and variety. C.I. No. Aver- 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 ere ge. Winter: Reh anko pyaar cee cat setae a oelseie st 1442 25.4 40.3 2207, 0 0 38.6 21.2 Spring durum: eu bankaeeery eee eee oe os 1516 23.8 22.6 5.3 0 0 19.1 11.8 Spring common: Man Chiniaeeeseen sees eeeness set 2492 16.2 16.0 12.8 0 4.5 17.1 1a ead EO Wiel eee ees ao encroach slewie 3025 18.5 I/5e3 10 6 0 0 16.6 10.5 HUA VMESSaeeaieiscio aceeeeectecee 3020 18.3 13.8 9.0 0 0 14.1 9.2 ~ To summarize: In three of the six years covered by the experi- ments the winter varieties have produced about double the yield obtained from the spring varieties. In one year the yield was only slightly larger and in two years practically all varieties of both spring and winter wheats were total failures. The average yield of the best winter variety for the six years was 21.2 bushels, while the average yield of the best durum variety was 11.8 bushels. Winter wheat is to be preferred to spring wheat, because the growing of a fall-sown grain allows a better distribution of labor throughout the year. Winter wheat also matures earlier and so is more likely to escape hailstorms, hot winds, and other unfavorable climatic conditions. On the other hand, sufficient moisture for germination is less likely to be available in the fall than in the spring, and there is also danger of damage to the crop from the blowing of the soil during the winter. Winterkilling has not been a factor of much importance in the experi- ments at Newell, nor is it likely to be if varieties of the Turkey group are grown. If a crop of winter wheat is lost because of the blowing of the soil, winterkilling, or other factors, there is still opportunity to sow the land to some spring crop. For these reasons the growing of winter rather than spring wheat is strongly recommended. EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS. The yields of oats which have been obtained at Newell have for the most part been unsatisfactory. In 1908, 1909, and 1913 fairly good yields were obtained, but in 1910 and 1912 the returns were less than the cost of production, while in 1911 a total failure was recorded. = The average yield of the best variety for the six years from 1908 to’ 1913 was only 19.4 bushels, which is less than the average yield of winter wheat for the same period. The yield of the best spring wheat for the six years was slightly less than 12 bushels to the acre, but the production in pounds is greater than that of oats and the value of the crop is also higher. For this reason the oat crop can not 30 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. be recommended to the farmer on the dry lands in western South Da- kota. If oats are grown, only the very earliest varieties, such as Sixty-Day and Kherson, should be used. The experiments with oats at Newell have included varietal tests and a test of rate of seeding with Kherson oats. VARIETAL TEST OF OATS. The varietal experiments with oats during the six years from 1908 to 1913 have included 16 varieties and races. Of these, eight may be classed as early, five as midseason, and three as late varieties. All the late varieties are side oats, while all the early and midseason varieties have open or spreading panicles. Only five of the 16 varieties have been grown in all of the six years. The annual and average yields of the 16 varieties and races are given in Table XVI. TaBLeE XVI.—Annual and average yields of 16 varieties and races of oats on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1913, inclusive. Yield per acre (bushels). Group and variety. C. I. No. | | Average. 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 6 years, | 4 years, 1908-1913. |1910-1913,. Early varieties: | Barbas ears vere ire oh Asada a 293: |So aes oP meee | ee She 620.) 2254.) ae bee Eee KN ELSONSS ae eee See Ree | 459 |a47.5 |a25.7 \a15.0 0 |> 6.2 | 21.9 19.3 10.8 Seventy-Five-Day ............ | Sol | Secor Seer lessees too) (725° 21.02) 2 ee | ee Sixty Daly (ie teed Seas ae 165 |246.6 | 25.0 | 15.6 0| 6.6 | 22.7 19.4 Te Sixty-Day selection............ (165-562) |] Oe aeier ae AA solos 6.2) heats Seeeaeees Sees dD OMe eeneye Sey Pee eae @L65—566 )\ |eeaeee eres ERS SES So Tel | 23.3425. eet Eee 1 D Xo ear ail Peen eee NER cn ar yaa 626° | SaaS eee 14.4 0 729 | 21569 |e 11.0 DL) OR ae eae are gee Aono a 626: | Rese ees 16.6 0 Q9 | 2426. | sae tees 12.8 Midseason varieties: BI SHH OUI ee ee eee ee 1658 \|pauoee 32208 386 0 | L421 -)1955 | Sake 9.3 Canadian® see sea ee 444 | 38.8] 21.3] 4.4 0 | 10.4 | 18.5 15.6 8.3 IBY Wabi] ote Bee ae ee eet bia 441 ||" 36s Dae e esos Se Sees Sees eases Goons poSsul casos coo GreatiD anes aes ceeseee So aed ore che | Ae doe 2656) eis Son]. 55 252.5] U en eee | See eeee Swedish’Select: ...2:-....2.--. 134 | 38.1 | 28.4 2.18 0 ge2e | 1552 15.5 6.7 Late varieties: Whitey Ussian Sea = sere eee 551 | 30.9 | 20.0 0 ONN22575 | 143 14.6 9.2 Winite Mantanianee eee ease: 300 | 30.9 | 22.8 0 (Rese Steere soceecea e's Saae- 558 bellow Giantess ae sone ee se 342 | 19.4 1 17.5 0 Veer nee beer |e eo } a Average of two plats. Table XVI shows that fairly good yields of oats were obtained from all varieties in 1908, when the seasonal rainfall was slightly above normal and the distribution of the rainfall was favorable. The low yield in 1909 was due in large measure to poor preparation of the seed bed and resulting poor germination and slow growth. Abundant rainfall favored the larger and later varieties, such as Big Four and Swedish Select, which may always be expected to yield more than the early varieties in particularly favorable years. In 1910 the conditions early in the season were exceptionally good, but the rainfall after the seed germinated was much below normal and consequently only the earliest varieties produced yields which were CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 81 worthy of consideration. In 1911 no yields were obtained from any of the varieties, because of the severe drought. In 1912 there was little water stored in the soil, but the precipita- tion during the growing season was fairly favorable. On account of the dryness of the soil at seeding time the drill was run rather deeper than usual. Just after seeding a heavy rain caused the soil to pack and crust, so that the germination was low. This, in addition to the lack of stored water, caused the low yields which were obtained. The midseason and late varieties yielded better than the early varieties, for the reason that they were benefited by a heavy rain which fell early in July, too late to be of material help to the early varieties. In 1913 the varietal test of oats was grown on land which produced a crop of corn in 1912. In all previous years the oats were grown on soil which had been fallowed. The corn land was not plowed but was disked and harrowed to make a good seed bed. The rainfall conditions were about normal and fair yields were obtained. ‘As in previous years the earlier varieties pro- duced the highest [ear YIELD PER ACRE. o s Ze) SINGS = DAY. aan af ields. Ney a > In 1907 two plats CANADIAN... SWEO/SH SELECT. of Boswell Winter | ca oats, C. I. No. 480, were sown. Only Qa Fic. 10.—Diagram showing the average yields per acre, in bushels, f the leading varieti é the Experi small percentage of (0) e leading varieties of oats at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, for six years, 1908 to 1913, inclusive. the plants survived the winter, but these tillered so freely that a yield of 28.5 bushels per acre was obtained. This variety was again sown in 1908 and 1909, but winterkilled entirely each year. WHITE RUSSIAN. ~- LEADING VARIETIES OF OATS. In Table XVII the average date of heading, date of ripening, weight per bushel, and yield per acre of grain and of straw are given for the five varieties which were grown during the entire period of six years. With the exception of the yield data, the averages are for five years (1908-1910, 1912, and 1913). The average yields of grain are shown graphically in figure 10. The five varieties which have been grown for the entire six years at Newell, in the order of their average yield, are the Sixty-Day, Kherson, Canadian, Swedish Select, and White Russian. The pure- line selection of Sixty-Day, C. I. No. 626, which was added to the test in 1910, has given an average yield 1.6 bushels higher than the unselected Sixty-Day for the four years from 1910 to 1913. The Sixty-Day and Kherson are very similar varieties, imported about 15 years ago from southern Russia. ‘They are earlyin maturing, 32 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ripening at Newell about July 20. The straw is short and the grains small and yellow. They are the best varieties for growing on the dry farms in the Belle Fourche section. Taste XVII.—Average dates of heading and maturity, weight per bushel, and yields of five leading varieties of oats on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1913, inclusive. Date of— Yield per acre. aoe Weight Oa rald Group and variety. No; || ieee os re |S ; A -,_ | bushel. - = Heading. |Maturity . Grain. | Straw. Early: Pounds.| Bushels.| Pounds. KH ORS OTM ese crtay eee rel a ace eee ore a are pe 459.| June 27 | July 20 30.8 19.3 800 SixtyaD ayesec orescence cece seems sis 0m asi sakes 165 | June 26 | July 17 30.9 19.4 720 Midseason: Cama dank Se seen neste satya canst c's 25a eee 444 | July 8 | July 29 34.5 15.6 1,080 : Swedishiselects: 22.2% oan ee an. Se cece 134 | July 9] Aug. 2 28.2) |) S155 930 sate: Wihite sR Ssign Mes eee ee eee. 2 tos eee 551 | July 18 | Aug. 8 30. 4 14.6 1,040 The Canadian is a medium-early oat which has averaged 4 bushels less than the Sixty-Day and Kherson at Newell for the six years. The yield of straw, however, is greater. The heads are large and spreading, and the kernels are white, broad, and very short. This variety matures about 10 days later than the Kherson. . The Swedish Select is extensively grown in the more humid regions to the eastward, but it is rather too late for sowing in western South Dakota. This is a white oat with kernels of medium length, rather broad, and usually bearing a strong, black awn. It matures about five days later than the Canadian and about two weeks later than the Kherson and Sixty-Day. The Big Four is quite similar to the Swedish Select except that the awns are few and weak. It has produced rather better yields than the Swedish Select at Newell each year since 1909, when it was added to the test. For the four years from 1910 to 1913 this variety was exceeded in average yield only by the Kherson and Sixty-Day and by two pure-line selections of the latter variety. It is apparently the best of the midseason and late varieties which have been included in the test. White Russian is a late side oat, with long and rather slender white kernels. The average yield of this variety for the six years is shghtly lower than that of the Swedish Select and Canadian. It matures about one week later than the Swedish Select and about three weeks later than the Kherson and Sixty-Day. It can not be recommended for growing in the Great Plains. RATE-OF-SEEDING TEST OF OATS. A rate-of-seeding test with oats was conducted on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1909, 1910, 1912, and 1913. In 1909 and 1910 the Kherson and in 1912 and 1913 the Sixty-Day varieties were CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. Be used. Plats were sown at the rates of 4, 6, 8, and 10 pecks each year. In addition, the 2-peck rate was used in 1909 and the 12-peck in 1910, 1912, and 1913. The test was conducted on fallow land in 1909, 1910, and 1912, while in 1913 it was on land which produced corn the previous year. In 1909 and 1910 single tenth-acre plats were sown at each rate. In 1912 and 1913 the test was replicated, three fiftieth-acre plats being sown at each rate. Table XVIII shows the annual and average yields obtained in the rate-of-seeding test with oats in 1909, 1910, 1912, and 1913. Taste XVITI.—Annual and average yields of oats in a rate-of-seeding test on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1909, 1910, 1912, and 1913. [In 1909 and 1910 the variety used was the Kherson, C. I. No. 459. In 1912 and 1913 the Sixty-Day variety, C. I. No. 165, was used.] Yield per acre (bushels). Rate per acre. 1909 | 1910 | 1912 | 1913 | Aver age. PAC CKSPEN Se reeiesict(aieiareyeceicie cole lefateiom = Detect ffs ie ls «sae eee 74) O | botaddos| san oocasneanacsollonoousac 4) OEOES . caso dons oc hoaseeT Ene nodose a SpeneCeeeEEeEEEEonaso4oS5 30.2 i.) 8.9 28. 2 19.8 @ (DEO jonscoecbhodpapslecbeods sons SRE CeORCOSeCEeeB aonb oascaGs 32.8 12.5 10.3 27.3 20.7 BID CC Sper etsterctcthe tat eictaeeistercys Saya ainjalajase olctciaisic/eieva cassis oe 2.0 ats eee 35.3 10.3 9.2 27.3 20.5 1 DROS ccosetenssese beg neon dod Ub abs Bo BRDOOGEEEBEEeEEE S Bocacks 35.9 4.1 Ghz 28.1 19.5 IP) JOSOKS = poonaonbanapeoupeb une onesSounboeoadedseseereeanesescood|buccedss 3.4 Ghal Zeb? |looasaobe In 1909, which was a favorable year, the higher rates of seeding gave the better yields, though the differences between the 6, 8, and 10 peck rates were small. In 1910, a very dry year, the best yields were obtained from the 4-peck and 6-peck rates. The yields obtained from the 10-peck and 12-peck rates of seeding little more than equaled the quantity of seed which was sown. In 1912, another dry year, there was little variation in the yields which were obtained, though the 6-peck rate produced slightly more than any of the others. In 1913, a favorable year, the yields obtained from all the rates of seed- ing were practically the same. The average yield for the four years from the 4, 6, 8, and 10 peck rates shows little variation, though the figures favor slightly the 6- peck rate. The thickly sown plats ripened earlier than those sown at the lower rates, while the yield of straw was usually less. In very dry years thin seeding is to be preferred. On the other hand, in favorable seasons fully as good yields and slightly earlier maturity will be obtained from thick seeding. It seems probable that 6 pecks is about the best rate for early varieties, such as the Sixty-Day and Kherson. | NURSERY EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS. About 100 heads each of the Sixty-Day and Kherson oats were selected in 1908 and grown in head rows in 1909. In addition a number of selections of the Sixty-Day made at the Highmore sub- 34 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. station, Highmore, S. Dak., were grown in head rows in 1908 and in duplicate 60-foot rows in 1909. The most promising of the High- more selections were grown in duplicate fiftieth-acre plats in 1910, while the remainder of these and the progeny of the 1909 head rows were grown in 60-foot rows. In 1912 and 1913 the best of these selections were grown either in plats or in replicated 60-foot rows. Two of these selections, Nos. 562 and 566, were grown in the regu- lar varietal test in 1912, where they produced about the same yields as the unselected Sixty-Day. Selection No. 566 was again grown in 1913, when it slightly exceeded in yield the parent variety. None of the selections which have been made at Newell from the Sixty- Day and Kherson varieties appears to be particularly better than the original unselected stocks. EXPERIMENTS WITH BARLEY. Barley is quite an important crop in the northern Great Plains, because of its early maturity, its comparatively low water require- ment, and the feeding and market value of the grain. The varietal test at Newell has included the principal varieties that have given good results elsewhere in the northern Great Plains. On the whole, the results which have been obtained are decidedly disappointing. From the results here reported, barley can not be recommended for the Belle Fourche section. VARIETAL TEST OF BARLEY. The varietal test has included five strains of 6-rowed hulled, two of 6-rowed naked, and five of 2-rowed hulled barley during the six years. Only two of the varieties were grown in all of the six years, while six were grown in the five years from 1909 to 1913. The annual and average yields of all the varieties from 1908 to 1913 are shown in Table XIX. In 1908 two lots of Hanna barley, one of Manchuria, and two of Nepal were grown. The highest yields were cbtained from the Hanna, a 2-rowed hulled variety. The yields from both the 2-rowed and 6-rowed hulled varieties were fairly. satisfactory. Two varieties of winter barley which were sown in the fall of 1907 entirely winter- killed. . In 1909 four 2-rowed hulled, three 6-rowed hulled, and two 6-rowed naked varieties were grown. The hulled varieties yielded from 17.3 to 23.8 bushels per acre, while the naked varieties yielded about 9 bushels each. The highest yield was again obtained from the Hanna, C. I. No. 24. The same varieties were grown in 1910. Because of the extreme drought only the very earliest varieties matured grain, and the crop obtaimed even from these was very small. The Odessa, an early CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 85 6-rowed variety, produced the highest yield, 8.1 bushels. The yields obtained from the 6-rowed naked and the 2-rowed hulled varieties were not sufficient to pay for the cost of harvesting. All the varieties were a total failure in 1911. Taste XIX.—Annual and average yields of 12 varieties of barley on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1913, inclusive. Yield per acre (bushels). Group and variety. Sone Average. 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 6 years, | 5 years, | 2 years, 1908-1913.) 1909-1913.| 1912-1913. Six-rowed hulled: Gatamieess 22s asec: SiUGy eeaeel Sees amc Beste 18.3 Sei ericsreyy ssa | eee cis ce 13.2 Manchuria (Minn. No. oo Rae eee S04 eee Srl Reeeisie| oot <4 eee Manchuria (Minn. No.6)| 638 |....-- LONE 522 0 IWMeyateinnborkl= Sees eee 643 | 26.0 | 17.3 | 4.3 0 Odessamaeimae cence cae = ESP 4) least eral 8.1 0 Six-rowed naked: Nepal (White Hull-less).| 262] 16.3} 9.6] 2.5 OB Sees | Sasccc ls osmseicen sl cick sereccis ete Sereisrset IDO) Sas bes Sees acsel Sete 12.0 9.0 BY 0] 10.7} 8.9 7.0 6.1 9.8 Two-rowed hulled: - Chevalionsliie eat ss 5308 |Reeeee 22.1 0 0 @))|l std Begeeeooee 5.8 3.4 lniGinae Se. Sse aaeeeeneeee 24 | 29.0 |@23.8 |a1.0 0 0 | 10.7 10.7 Ceol 5.3 Ores ce Seis eee 203 | 27.9 | 21.4 1.4 0 Wilensous ecbeceaomne aececeens so raroron iamncheneeas— eee Bt eoooe PALO 2a- Bol 0 (Oi) UP eeaceccoue 7.0 6.3 Wihite smyrna (Ouchac)) |: 658))|--22--|----..|----.-|ba-see IQs 7/7) 1 6} Bee onese sosseasnec LORS } a Average of 2 plats. In 1912 ten of the twelve varieties which were included in the test were grown in fiftieth-acre plats replicated five times. The other two varieties were grown in single plats, as there was not sufficient seed for the replications. The soil in which the test was conducted had in previous seasons appeared to be very uniform, but the growth and yield of the barley varieties in 1912 showed great variation. This was perhaps due to the drifting of the snow on the plats during the previous winter, as the rainfall was extremely low in 1912 and slight differences in moisture content were likely to cause considerable variations in yield. Many of the plats produced no grain and others matured seed only along the borders. The only vatiety of which all plats were harvested was the Gatami, an early black 6-rowed variety, which was grown for the first time at Newell in 1912. The yield of this variety was 18.3 bushels to the acre. In 1913 the barley varieties were grown on land upon which a small crop of spring wheat was produced the previous year. The soil was in excellent condition at the time of seeding, and germination and growth were prompt and vigorous. The rainfall during June and July was slight, so that all the varieties were injured by drought. — A hailstorm which occurred just as the earlier varieties were heading severely injured the Gatami and did some damage to the Manchuria and Odessa varieties. The highest yields in 1913 were produced by nl 36 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the 2-rowed barleys, though it is probable that the Gatami and the other 6-rowed varieties would have yielded more than any of the 2-rowed barleys if they had not been injured by hail. Only the Hanna, C. I. No. 24, and the Nepal have been grown for the entire six years. The average yield of the Hanna for that period was 10.7 bushels, and of the Nepal, 7 bushels. Six varieties have been grown for the five years from Bn Ree Crom 7 BU: 1909. to 19S eG these, the highest yield. 9.7 bushels, HANNCHEN = === =~ mB 70 4u was produced by the Odessa, a medium- Mee) Gna, ACRE. Fic. 11.—Diagram showing the average yields per acre, in bushels, oi the leading varieties of barley at the Belle Fourche Experiment early 6-rowed va- Farm, for five years, 1909 to 1913. inclusive. Tl et Ve: The Man- churia (Minnesota No. 6) averaged 8.2 bushels for this period and the Hanna and Hannchen about 7 bushels each. The average yields of these varieties are shown graphically in figure 11. LEADING VARIETIES OF BARLEY. The average date of heading and of maturity, weight per bushel, and the yield of grain and of straw for the leading varieties of barley crown at Newell. are given in Table XX. TABLE XX.—Average dates of heading and of maturity, weight per bushel, and yields of the seven leading varieties of barley on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1909 to 1913, inclusive. Date of— mkt Yield per acre. = CI Weight P Group and variety. : NGU Haars Selene =r ae |e Heading. |Maturity. bushel.| Grain. | Straw. Six-rowed hulled: i | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. Gata ines cee nae ee eee note a oe 575 | June 25a) July 144) a45.1) a13.2 as70 i} (OXGLSSES AE See en ace eee ewan 182 | June 26 6|...dob_..| 645.5 9.7 760 it Manchuria (Minn SINOs G6) Nose eee ae ace ne ene 638 | June 30 6| July 184) 644.3 8.2 600 ; Two-rowed hulled: WihiteiSmymna (Ouchac)i:22:aess: =2. 55s. fee G58ulEseeeeeees July 154) @42.4 |] @12.5 a940 JaleveWab i SOS WS eee es en ee eee 24 | July 3¢) July 22d) 446.9 Wok. 750 ET ann CHET eee eee be ree eerie ey a. cee 531 doc July 184) @46.9 7.0 640 ) Six-rowed naked ING DalESes Poet ee eat eecean cork soaees - 52a ee June 28 >| July 206) 058.6 6.1 590 a Two-year average, 1912 and 1913. b Four-year average, 1909, 1910, 1912, and 1913. eae only; heads not fully exserted in 1910, 1912, and 1913. d Three-year average, 1909, 1910, and 1913; failure i in 1911 and 1912 The Odessa, C. I. No. 182, a 6-rowed bearded hulled barley, has given the highest average yield at Newell for the five years from 1909 to 1913. This variety is early in maturing, ripening at Newell about a week before the Hanna and four or five days earlier than the Manchuria. It was introduced from southern Russia, where it is grown in the same region as the Sixty-Day and Kherson oats. It is recommended as one of the best varieties of barley for western South Dakota. CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 37 The Gatami, C. I. No. 575, has been grown at Newell only in 1912 and 1913. In 1912 it yielded 18.3 bushels to the acre, nearly double the yield gbtained from any other variety. In 1913 it was exceeded in yield by several varieties. Its average yield for the two years is 4 bushels greater than that of the Odessa for the same period. The Gatami matures a little earlier than the Odessa, and for that reason is to be preferred to it. The grain, however, is black and hence is lower in market value than the Odessa and other light-colored barleys. The Manchuria (Minnesota No. 6), C. I. No. 638, is the 6-rowed bearded barley commonly grown in Minnesota and Wisconsin. It is several days later in maturing than the Gatami and Odessa, and its average yield for the five years from 1909 to 1913 is 14 bushels less than that of the Odessa. It can not be recommended for western South Dakota. Fic. 12.—Plat of Hanna barley on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1910. The Hanna and Hannchen are 2-rowed bearded hulled barleys which yielded well in 1909 and 1913. The Hanna was also grown in 1908, when it produced the highest yield of any variety included in the test. The Hanna and Hannchen matured no grain in 1911 and 1912 and only a very small crop in 1910, so that their average yields for the five years from 1909 to 1913 were only 7.1 and 7 bushels per acre, respectively. This is more than 23 bushels less than the average yield of the Odessa for the same period. These 2-rowed barleys are a week to ten days later in maturing than the Odessa and the Gatami, and ordinarily they mature later than the Manchuria. At Newell they have usually ripened prematurely, so that the length of their growing season there is below the normal. A field of Hanna barley on the experiment farm in 1910 is shown in figure 12. 38 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The White Smyrna, C. I. No. 658, an early 2-rowed barley, was grown at Newell only in 1912 and 1913. In 1912 it was exceeded in yield only by the Gatami, while in 1913 it produced the highest yield of any variety in the test. The average yield for the two years is 12.5 bushels, only 0.7 bushel less than that of Gatami and higher than that of any other variety. If a 2-rowed variety of barley is to be grown in western South Dakota, it is probable that the White Smyrna or some similar one should be selected. The yields obtained from the Nepal (White Hull-less), a 6-rowed naked variety, have been less than those from any of the hulled varieties, except in 1912 and 1913. In these years the. Nepal pro- duced less than the best hulled varieties. EXPERIMENTS WITH MINOR CEREALS. RYE. Winter rye has been grown in field plats at Newell for only one year, 1913. Three plats produced an average yield of 5.3 bushels, as compared with a yield of 38.8 bushels of Kharkof winter wheat on a near-by plat The low yield of the rye was in part due to damage from a hailstorm, which occurred after the ryé headed but before the wheat was far enough advanced to be injured. Another reason for the low yield was that a large percentage of the florets failed to set seed, probably because the pollen was injured by high tempera- tures, low humidity, or some other unfavorable climatic condition. EMMER. Spring emmer, C. I. No. 1524, has been grown each year with the series of barley varieties, as it was considered that emmer is com- parable to barley as a feed grain. The yields obtained were as fol- lows: 1908, 31.8 bushels; 1909, 21.7 bushels; 1910, 0.3 bushel; and 1913, 11.1 bushels. No yields were produced in 1911 and 1912. The average yield for the six years was 10.8 bushels, while the yield of Hanna barley for the same period was 10.7 bushels. For the five years from 1909 to 1913 the average yield was only 6.6 bushels, as compared with 9.7 bushels for the Odessa barley. For the same period, Sixty-Day oats yielded 14.0 bushels and Kubanka durum wheat 9.4 bushels. These yields are equivalent to 211 pounds of emmer, 466 of barley, 448 of oats, and 564 of wheat. Black Winter emmer, C. I. No. 2337, was sown in the fall of 1908. It is estimated that only 1 per cent of the plants survived the winter. This crop was not grown again until the fall of 1912, when a plat of Buffum Improved winter emmer, C. I. No. 3331, was sown. This variety yielded 1,035 pounds of grain, as compared with 2,130 pounds of winter wheat on a near-by plat. The few tests of emmer which have been made at Newell indicate that the crop is not one which can be recommended for that section. CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 39 EXPERIMENTS WITH FLAX. VARIETAL TEST. A varietal test of flax was begun at Newell in 1912, when nine varieties were grown. Only five of these were grown in 1913. In 1912 flax was grown on land which was fallow the previous year and in 1913 on land which produced a crop of small grain in 1912. The annual and average yields of grain and of straw for the five varieties are shown in Table XXI. TaBLE XXI.—Annual and average yields of five varieties of flax on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1912 and 1913. 1912 1913 Average. Seas Variety. Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. Bushels.| Pounds.| Bushels.| Pounds.| Bushels.| Pounds. On| Penimosti@Manne No: 25)i 2-2: cee. 5. 9.1 880 4.8 910 7.0 895 19 | Russian (N. Dak. No. 155).....-....--- 8.9 730 5.2 830 Cal 780 MANGO TINY TEM Dats erates ete eiel=aaieeia's ese leieie = — 11.4 880 2.8 710 Uoal 795 1 | Select Russian (N. Dak. No. 608).-.-.--. 10.6 1,130 3.3 630 7.0 880. 3 | Select Russian (N. Dak. No. 1215)..... 2, 940 5.6 910 8.4 925 The highest average yield of flax obtained on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 8.4 bushels per acre, as shown in Table XXI, was produced by the Select Russian, C. I. No. 3. This variety produced the highest yield in 1913 and was only slightly exceeded by one other variety in 1912. C. I. No. 3 is a pedigreed strain from the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, being North Dakota No. 1215. The yields of the four other varieties which were tested both years were practically the same, being 1.3 or 1.4 bushels less than that of C. I. No. 3. DATE-OF-SEEDING TEST OF FLAX. A date-of-seeding test with Primost (Minnesota No. 25) flax was conducted at Newell in 1912 and 1913. Fiftieth-acre plats replicated three times were sown on each of two dates, May 15 and June 1, in 1912, and on three dates, May 2, May 23, and June 9, in 1913. The yields of grain and of straw and the weight per bushel of the grain from the various dates of seeding are shown in Table XXII. The highest yield in 1912 was obtained from the later date of seeding, June 1. The increase in. yield over the sowing made May 15 was about 25 per cent. ‘The earlier sown plats were injured by drought to a greater extent than the plats sown on June 1. In 1913 this condition was reversed. The highest yield was produced from the earliest sown plats and the injury from drought increased with the later dates of seeding. It is probable that the best results will be obtained in western South Dakota if flax is sown at the earliest date when good germination and growth may be expected. 40) BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE XXII.— Yields of flax and weight of seed per bushel in a date-of-seeding test on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1912 and 1913. | Yield. | Weight Date of seeding. | of seed Grain. Straw. | bushel. 1912. | Bushels. | Pounds. | Pounds. 1 oy 9 is Seer es ets ine eee Cee et See jo oe ie Bee 8.3 1,020 55.0 ABD i ays 3A lester eae cs Die haan Sa oD A ee ee OT een ayes! Beek 10.6 1,860 54.3 1913 MaDe Set Siac. Beare = eae ane See 5.2. oe a ee ee ee eee 7.7 1,110 54.8 May, 23 Ree! ai Meee ae 3 Yt | SRR ae vena me ome 4.8 830 55.0 JUNE OV ee Sia as ee eee Sa EE fa ep Ses a eee Eee 3.0 530 | SS SUMMARY. The experiments here reported were conducted on unirrigated land on the Belle Fourche Reclamation Project at Newell, S. Dak., from 1908 to 1913. The results obtained at Newell are believed to be applicable in general to western South Dakota, northeastern Wyoming, and south- eastern Montana. The experiments were conducted on a heavy, impervious clay soil known as Pierre clay. This soil is quite typical of the locality. The average precipitation during the six years was 13.41 inches. The average precipitation during the growing season for small grains, March to July, inclusive, was 7.76 inches. The minimum precipita- tion for the growing season and for the year was recorded in 1911. On the average, satisfactory yields were obtamed from winter wheat and fairly good yields from spring wheat. The returns from spring oats, barley, and emmer and from winter rye and emmer have not been sufficient to make these crops profitable. Total or almost total failures of all crops were recorded in 1911 and 1912. The best average yields of spring wheat have been obtained from the durum varieties, Kubanka and Arnautka. Of the spring common wheats, the best variety to grow appears to be the Power Fife. The best rate of seeding for durum wheat is from 4 to 5 pecks to the acre and for spring common wheat from 3 to 4 pecks. The best varieties of winter wheat for western South Dakota are the Kharkof, Turkey, and Crimean. These are very similar varieties, which -differ only slightly in value. Experiments to determine the best date of seeding for winter wheat have failed to show any definite results. In general, the date of seeding must be determined by the seasonal conditions. Medium early seeding is to be preferred if there is sufficient moisture to insure germination. It is much better to grow winter wheat than spring wheat in the Belle Fourche section. The average yield of Kharkof winter wheat CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM, 41 for the six years was 21.2 bushels, of the best durum 11.8 bushels, and of the best spring common 11.1 bushels. The best average yields of oats for the six years were obtained from the Sixty-Day and Kherson varieties. The returns from this crop were much lower than from winter wheat and slightly lower than from spring wheat. The best rate of seeding for small-kerneled early varieties of oats, such as the Sixty-Day and Kherson, is about 6 pecks to the acre. The returns from barley were even less satisfactory than those from oats. The best average yield for the six years was only 10.7 bushels, and for the five years from 1909 to 1913, only 9.7 bushels. The most satisfactory varieties are those which mature early, such as the 6- rowed varieties, Gatami and Odessa, and the 2-rowed variety, White Smyrna. The yields obtaimed from winter rye and from winter and spring emmer have been much lower than those from the other cereals. These crops can not now be recommended for western South Dakota. The best yield from flax in a 2-year test was obtained from the Select Russian variety. It is probable that the best results will be obtained if this crop is sown as early as good germination and growth may be expected. The following varieties are recommended for the Belle Fourche section: Winter wheat.—Kharkof, Turkey, Crimean. Spring wheat.—Kubanka durum, Arnautka durum, Power Fife, Marquis. Oats.—Sixty-Day, Kherson. Barley.—Odessa, Gatami, White Smyrna. * ' | | -} - tra * ‘ t oe rite Wind Wiis, @ re eee Oe P = ’ LJ ° aor J a a Zz PE Tr wh i 2 Ul a ie ae . > . * ‘ao ia . 4 * my Pe ly a? 4 ue W yl ee if cleaned on ; Pe oli PUBLICATIONS OF U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE TREATING OF CEREAL PRODUCTION IN NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Cereal Experiments at Dickinson, N. Dak. Department Bulletin 33. Experiments with Wheat, Oats, and Barley in South Dakota. Department Bul- letin 39. Spring Wheat in the Great Plains Area. Department Bulletin 214. Oats in the Great Plains Area. Department Bulletin 218. Barley in the Great Plains Area. Department Bulletin 222. Crop Production in the Great Plains Area. Department Bulletin 268. Cereal Experiments at the Williston Substation. Department Bulletin 270. Sixty-Day and Kherson Oats. Farmers’ Bulletin 395. Oats: Distribution and Uses. Farmers’ Bulletin 420. Oats: Growing the Crop. Farmers’ Bulletin 424. Barley: Growing the Crop. Farmers’ Bulletin 448. The Smuts of Wheat, Oats, Barley, and Corn. Farmers’ Bulletin 507. Durum Wheat. Farmers’ Bulletin 534. Winter-Wheat Varieties for the Eastern United States. Farmers’ Bulletin 616. Growing Hard Spring Wheat. Farmers’ Bulletin 678. Varieties of Hard Spring Wheat. Farmers’ Bulletin 680. Winter Wheat in Western South Dakota. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 79, Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. Separate 649, Yearbook, 1914. The Work of the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1912. Miscellaneous Papers. Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 119. FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. Wireworms Attacking Cereal and Forage Crops. Department Bulletin 156. Price, 5 cents. 5 The Prevention of Stinking Smut of Wheat and Loose Smut of Oats. Farmers’ Bulletin 250. Price, 5 cents. Commercial Status of Durum Wheat. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 70. Price, 10 cents. Improving the Quality of Wheat. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 78. Price, 10 cents. The Loose Smuts of Barley and Wheat. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 152. Price, 15 cents. Cereal Experiments in the Texas Panhandle. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 283. _ Price, 10 cents. Dry-Land Grains for Western North and South Dakota. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 59. Price, 5 cents. Suggestions to Settlers on the Belle Fourche Irrigation Project. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 83. Price, 5 cents, 43 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT : 10 CENTS PER COPY V N, BULLETIN No. 298 4 ‘ ba OX Contribution from Office of Markets and Rural Organization CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv August 31, 1915. PEACH SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914." By Weis A. SHermAN, Specialist in Market Surveys; Houston F. Watker, Scientific Assistant; L. HpErBErRt Martin, Assistant in Market Surveys. CONTENTS. ENfrOdUe hloWene=: esas see sada oh sacce~ cece er 1 | Wiorkqunderiway,.scc--s0ss-c-is0 sdacce sce 7 PrelimMinany IAQ UINy eee = ferric sls ncl\sino cis a= 3 | Brincipalishipping, States. .2.---4------c=e. 7 Second inquiry—sources of information....-- 3° | ixplanationionmapecsscesce scene ssiee ceases 8 Meship ping S6aASOM ss... see ece ee -se ce sss 3 | Prospective shipments for 1915....-.........-. 8 Areas of commercial production..........--.- 5 | Peachashipments, 1914 yee aise atelete sielaieie 9 Presentation! Of dataisc spi ccisismicins ieee 6 | INTRODUCTION. Peaches, bemg among the most highly perishable crops, present many difficult marketing problems. A large part of the crop must be transported over long distances to find profitable markets, bemg handled under refrigeration in insulated cars especially constructed for the transportation of perishable commodities. In many sections large orchards have been planted and careful study has been given to the best methods of propagation, pruning, cultivation, and general care of the trees, so that there are perhaps few crops to which more scientific methods are applied so far as production is concerned.? _ Much attention recently has been given in certain sections to erading and packing, but in most localities these two essentials in the successful marketing of peaches are not receiving the attention they deserve. All growers should realize the importance of taking the greatest care in the preparation of this crop for market. When the 1 About 95 per cent of the reports of shipments listed in this publication were furnished by railroad officials, to whom grateful acknowledgment is made for their courtesy and assistance. 2Gould, H. P. Growing Peaches: Sites, propagation, planting, tillage, and maintenance of soil fertility. (Farmers’ Bulletin 631.) Growing Peaches: Pruning, renewal of tops, We ciRIalLS interplanted crops, and special practices. (Farmers’ Bulletin 632.) NotEe.—This bulletin is of general interest to peach growers, shippers, dealers, transportation companies, _ and consumers. 4519°—Bul!, 298—15——1 \\ » 2 BULLETIN 298, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. grading is carefully performed and the packing is standardized and rigidly inspected, peaches will be much more profitably marketed in almost all cases. Most of the crop is marketed in containers holding from one-third to 1 bushel, the size and kind of contamer varymg with the section of the country from which the peaches are shipped. In the West the peach box holding approximately 20 pounds is used; in the South- west the four-basket crate, six-basket crate, and bushel basket; in the Central States Climax baskets, half-bushel and bushel baskets; and in the East and South six-basket carriers, half-bushel and bushel baskets. ‘The large number of varieties of peaches that may be grown suc- cessfully in some sections tends to prolong the period within which they can be marketed profitably. By planting a proper assortment of varieties the peach season in any particular locality can be extended somewhat, but as the picking season for any one variety is very short and as the principal commercial orchards are planted largely to Elbertas the commercial shipping season in these districts is very short in proportion to the large percentage of the total crop which they produce.! The peach, on account of its very perishable nature, must be marketed as soon as possible after reaching maturity; therefore, the proper dispatch and distribution present many difficulties. Peaches will not stand delay, even when graded, packed, and handled in the best possible manner. If the grower of apples is not satisfied with the price offered at the time of harvest, he can store certain varieties until the followmg spring, when prices may be better. Peaches, on the other hand, must be disposed of immediately. If not already sold when loaded on the cars they must be started at once toward the market, and if they are not sold while en route it is important that they go to a market not already overstocked. An oversupply may occur in one market meaning heavy losses to certain growers, while at the same time consumers may be paying high prices in other localities. It is probable that many smaller towns could serve as carload distributing points if local dealers in these towns would cooperate in buying peaches by the carload and in pushing their sale. The problem of peach marketing is one of irregular production and of unsatisfactory preparation and distribution rather than of over- production. The increased consumption of California oranges made possible by effective distribution is an example of results accruing from care in the marketing of a crop of which there is a comparatively uniform supply. 1 Gould, Hi. P. Growing Peaches: Varieties and classification. (Farmers’ Bulletin 633.) PEACH SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914. 3 PRELIMINARY INQUIRY. Previous to the marketing of the 1914 crop inquiries were sent out by the Office of Markets and Rural Organization to station agents at all points from which peaches were believed to be shipped in full carloads, and also to every cooperative organization listed by the department. These letters asked for a record of the actual number of carloads shipped in 1913, an estimate of the probable shipments in 1914, lists of important growers and shippers of peaches, the extent of the peach-shipping season in each district, and other information bearing on this subject. Numerous data were gathered regarding the movement of the 1913 crop, the information being summarized from these inquiries and from many letters which were written to develop certain special features that arose during their tabulation. Only very general results of this investigation were made public, as it was felt that 1t was not sufficiently complete to warrant a separate publication. SECOND INQUIRY—SOURCES OF INFORMATION. After the shipping season of 1914 the inquiry was renewed. In addition to the sources already mentioned, the general railroad officials and others known to be interested largely in peach distribution were consulted. As a result this office has received definite reports on the shipments during 1914 from 993 shippiig points at which peaches originate in car lots and a statement from the transportation and shipping agencies as to the number of carloads shipped from nearly all of these stations in that year. It is somewhat difficult to obtain a statement of shipments in many localities. This is particularly true in territory surrounding the lakes and bays, where many of the shipments are made by boat to markets located comparatively near to point of origin. It has been found extremely difficult to get a statement from the many small boat lines which handle considerable quantities. In fact, with the facilities at hand it seems impossible to secure complete and accurate records for this class of business. Catawba Island, Ohio, is an important com- mercial peach section, and all the shipments are made by boat. Many shipments to Portland, Oreg., also are carried by boat. So far as possible, these figures have been obtained and reduced to equiva- lent carloads. THE SHIPPING SEASON. The peach season, when considered for the whole United States, extends from the middle of May, when shipments begin in Florida, to the latter part of October, when they end in the northern States. California, with its diversified climate and great number of varieties 4 BULLETIN 298, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of peaches, probably has the longest season, i. e., from the middle of May to the end of September. The following diagram (fig. 1) shows [came deer | [Sec Sn a0 SOUTH CAROLINA. CALIFORNIA ALABAMA {eel LOUISIANA DEERE Ta ___ ARKANSAS OKLAHOMA NEW MEXICO H ae) WEST VIRGINIA TENNESSEE oa : OREGON COLORADO V/RGINIA WASHINGTON eae al ‘NDIANA NEW JERSEY [SReRRTE a MISSOURI [eerrmets fine | See) J4LLINOIS semen ee MARYLAND [ann MARYLAND Fig. 1.—Peach-shipping season. in detail the comparative shipping seasons of the different States. On the opposite page will be found a diagram (fig. 2) showing the comparative volume of shipments from the leading areas. PEACH SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914. 5 AREAS OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION. A glance at the map (fig. 3) shows that the use of State names to designate commercial peach areas is often misleading. In certain cases it leads to useless subdivision of a single continuous producing area. Such is the case when we speak of the West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania peach areas separately, for the bulk of the ship- ments from these three States comes from a few contiguous counties forming a rather compact producing area extending from northeastern West Virginia through western Maryland and southern Pennsylvania. 7) 500 1000. /500 2000 25098 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 CARS RB GEORGIA SEESES CAL/FORNIA WASHINGTON Za M/CH/IGAN 3 COLORADO WEST V/RGINIA NEW JERSEY mE UTAH Das MARYLAND ESE ARKANSAS BEES PEWNSYLVANMA Mig DELAWARE mee /DAHO BEER CONNECTICUT Bs TL XAS Gs /LL/NO/S fam OREGON Gasp VEW YORK ESB M/SSOUR/ EB NORTH CAROLINA HZ ALABAMA MH NEW MEX/CO @ KENTUCKY B® TENNESSEE BS OALAHOMA B® SOUTH CAROLINA @ V/RGINIA Fic. 2.—Relative bulk of peach shipments in 1914. This area could be accurately referred to either as the Central Appa- lachian or Kastern Mountain district. There is no geographical nor economic reason for distinguishing the shipments of central Alabama, central Georgia, and South Carolina by their respective State names. ‘The greater part of the commercial crop of these three States is produced in what is essentially a single commercial area. North Georgia and southeastern Tennessee consti- tute a rather distinct district with somewhat later shippimg dates, which, geographically, should be known as the Southern Appa- lachian or Southern Mountain district. 6 BULLETIN 298, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Delaware and New Jersey peaches are properly so called, since the shipping district in each case covers a large part of the State. Com- mercially, however, they constitute essentially one crop, all produced under similar climatic conditions and naturally supplying the same markets. The Michigan, Ohio, and New York peach-shipping regions could be more accurately described as the Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario districts. In each case heavy shipments originate chiefly in a narrow belt close to the lake and are confined to a very small part of the agricultural area of the State. Missouri peaches are not essentially different from the bulk of the Arkansas and a part of the Oklahoma crop. Most of the shipments of the three States could fairly be called Ozark peaches. Texas has a distinct shipping area in a region of lower altitudes and earlier season. Colorado as a whole is not a peach State. It has an important shipping area, but it is almost wholly confined to two counties. If the commercial movement of the peach crop of the country is to be reported daily with a degree of accuracy which will assist materially in its distribution and marketing, the chief shipping areas should be grouped somewhat as follows: (1) Southeastern—Including the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and eastern Tennessee. (2) Southwestern—Including Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Okla- homa, and Missouri. (3) Eastern—Including Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, and Connecticut. (4) New York. (5) Lake distriets—Michigan and Ohio. (6) Mountain districts—Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico. (7) California. (8) Northwestern—Including Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. It would be logical to include New York shipments in the Lake district, but the trade is accustomed to think of the New York crop as a separate unit in the national supply. The suggested grouping provides for practically all car-lot move- ment except from a few localities of minor importance in Kentucky, western Tennessee, southern Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and West Vir- ginia. These points might constitute a ninth group—the Ohio Valley. PRESENTATION OF THE DATA. The tabulated statement which is placed at the end of the bulletin shows the peach-shipping stations, and the number of cars reported as shipped from each point during the 1914 season, classified by States and to some extent by shipping districts. No attempt has PEACH SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914. 7 been made to list stations where no full car lots originate. At those stations where full cars do originate the less than car-lot shipments have been ascertained so far as possible and reduced to equivalent carloads, and are included in the figures shown. Some of these sta- tions this year did not ship in full carloads. However, if they usually are carload shipping points, they are still listed, and the amount shipped is less than car lots has been inserted. Certain stations which are ordinarily car-lot shipping points are listed, although because of a failure of the crop no peaches were shipped therefrom in 1914. As the peach crop often suffers from extreme cold in the winter, or from frosts and other weather con- ditions in the spring and summer, the shipments from large districts may vary greatly from year to year. There are also certain pro- ducing areas where many trees are beginning to come into bearing, and this has a tendency to increase the shipments year by year. For these reasons, the figures given for any particular point in 1914 may be either much above or much below the average shipments, and this office has no authentic figures for the several preceding _ years which can be used by way of comparison. No attempt has been made to secure figures for peaches supplied to neighboring markets by trucks or other similar conveyances, and while it is recognized that large quantities are thus conveyed to market, it is believed that these may be considered as purely for local use. WORK UNDER WAY. A survey of this character presents many difficulties and the department will gladly receive any suggestions in order that future publications may be more complete. This compilation, the map showing graphically the location of the important peach-shipping areas, and the approximate date for shipments have been verified as far as possible with the facilities at hand. It is believed to be the most comprehensive statement of the commercial peach crop that has been attempted, and is published with a belief that it will be found immediately useful in marketing the peach crop in 1915. PRINCIPAL SHIPPING STATES. The 10 leading States in the shipment of peaches in 1914, each showing shipments of more than 1,000 carloads, were as follows: Shipment of peaches in 1914 by 10 leading States. State. Carloads. State. Carloads. (Gieea ary eies ea eee S 4,'803:'|) Colorad omemecse Cac eeie eee ape 2,075 Califonnia 2055 i252 ea SSS ge: 25,983 4|| Wes ae eee Yt ees EE ee 1,978 \Nieslnibaveg ones J ae ares sR a ane 22501). || Nie wadierseyermme esses oor a ee 1, 556 Ovitle, SB a Wee Memes CON Meehan: 2.340 || Cita eameenere EN CT OLE itn ari 1, 556 A TCENT eur ey ua eT a a DONA ||| ilaraylaiaal Sa gek oes Sle ge ee 1, 231 8 BULLETIN 298, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXPLANATION OF MAP. The accompanying map (fig. 3) indicates the reported actual car- load shipments of peaches in the season of 1914. Each dot represents from 1 to 5 cars. For example, a county having two dots shipped from 6 to 10 cars, and one having 20 dots from 96 to 100 cars. Me- chanical difficulties have necessitated the grouping of the dots in the county in which the shipping stations are located, although county lines are of no significance as boundaries for shipping areas. In cases where shipments are too heavy to be represented by dots, the counties have been blacked in and the actual number of cars shipped are given in figures. The size of the blackened area is not directly in proportion to the quantity shipped, and in order to make exact com- parisons the tabulation by stations should be consulted. The reported dates within which the various areas ship are shown by curved lines, all areas shipping at a given period being grouped in a zone under a line representing that period. The map im this way shows the various competing areas as well as the dates of heaviest crop movement, although these dates are subject to considerable | seasonal variation. PROSPECTIVE SHIPMENTS FOR 1915. Early in the season of 1915, or after the bloom had dropped and the crop had set, estimates were secured of the prospective car-lot shipments for 1915 from 571 shipping points in 28 States. In every case the estimate was furnished by an official of a shipping organiza- tion, by a prominent grower, or by some one specifically interested in the crop. The total shipments from these 571 stations in 1914 were 22,877 cars. The estimatcs made indicated. a total of 43,623 cars in prospect for 1915, or an increase of 90 per cent. These figures are not presented in detail because “June drops” reduced the pro- spective crop of certain districts while later condition reports to the department indicate that the shipments will not be as heavy as expected in other localities. The fact remains, however, that as this bulletin goes to press it is apparent that no important shipping area, except Colorado, will have a notably decreased output com- pared with last year, while many important districts will have very greatly increased shipments. This is notably true of the Southwest as a whole, of New York, and of the eastern mountain section. The Bureau of Crop Estimates reported the condition of the peach crop of the entire United States on July 1 at 73.1 per cent of a normal, as compared with a 10-year average July 1 condition of 56.1 per cent of normal; from which figures a production forecast is made of 58,328,000 bushels this year, compared with a final estimate last year of 54,109,000 bushels. y 7 oa a S cl) Sena po ttssnes Reh Yee es TI] Ho Savas > ( 14 +1 % OY Ke cee. i # a oh Yea 1S mot cif ByaeT l « veenyen Bt iNeed eye eA vy ry SY a ae ‘SG vex Ry ia Nad ot Ke) > > ara muy, > Ad | i lanes, eS adits a) eS . 2. 918 aa JULY 10-0CT.15} 539 256 170 = MAY 25-AUG.15 Fra. 3—Map showing peach shipments in 1914. Each dot represents five carloads, or fraction thereof, The black areas represent the number of carloads indicated by figures. PEACH SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914. 9 These figures refer to the entire crop including those areas which are close to market and which do not contribute largely to the car-lot movement. They also include all fruit produced for canning and evaporating and the enormous aggregate which is produced in home orchards and for strictly local consumption. It appears reasonable to assume that a large part of the indicated excess over the production of 1914 will appear as added commercial shipments this season. This indicates that there will be a much larger proportionate increase of shipments than of total production. The best-informed marketing organizations and distributing agen- cies are anticipating for the country as a whole one of the heaviest commercial peach movements in the history of the industry. PEACH SHIPMENTS, 1914. All numbers which are marked with an asterisk (*) are estimates, based upon the shipments for 1913, figures furnished for the 1914 crop previous to its being marketed, and estimates for the 1915 crop. Figures jor the actual shipments in 1914 from these stations have not been obtained. ; ALABAMA, ARK ANSAS—Continued. ARKANSAS—Continued. (June 20 to Aus. 1.) | Carloads. Carloads. GANDA Gailhamyes s2 2 5... eee 1RO 4. CabiniCreeka=s- 2-4-2 ee 13.0 Wy pe Wialdosieus:< .. eee THON Marazine <= eee 11.3 OOS iia ee Sin Sac geeeeeEoe soucec BO NMEAN TUS = 2.00 fo eeten vets 11.0 I eAGIOUN Es a) sen ENG) Page : 5 : 0 16.5 Grannis’ <0... 2 eee BOM eb mM enivall eee ees 10.0 ee OOF Sas ac aaa ae sy | eta eee =e: Bo uGentenville: see 9.0 a = SO RY gn} eee ne 0 Menaey4.. 22.2 5.2) dO ZATK ss oats Sans eee 9.0 a eas ie 50 IBIOVINS? ce: eee Sian) Wada bh Ss bo celSace 9.0 Th a SERS Seca 4 MAES TNACKOVCh=<..-. eee eeree eouebellevillessceeeeeeeee one 8.0 QUEEN ta Sar ears me eristersc:. >... eee ROU ACK etta tener ease. 8.0 Monte ayme: ja. 2. ~~ .)--!- 250) he i Comdeni\\:: 2.2504 eee OM een Coline a near aero 8.0 PPevenpale ie =. --.-- - 2.0 i C Me MOLE os. cee eee SOM Go pring dalessen see essee= 8.0 Pome Sc ioc Hesttatfield.....:..0 setae POW eACticins = seme mae me 7.5 IDB ONT). Se poco 1.0 3 Ope 22-2 55-se nee OM CAD DSS aecmeciwer cies cee 7.0 Witenes es 5e255--% 1.0 : fs Camp Hill meiMaonolia,....... coer eee AUMPISEN hee Sete Mee ent 7.0 a a es eon ; Mineralt:.22¢. A262 ones OM pears tm anes eee ere 7.0 eGenini7 26° te ePatmosea- 5c AO GONURV Att cae eerie 6.0 State total_.-.-..-.. 14i05)} Rosboro...-..---2-2225 BOM stu bertyeeeeoee see eee 5.0 - WGSSON)..\....-<- cee cee ADI WNOWALK ec coz Casi sciese 5.0 ARKANSAS. Wan Duzer... 02.6 eeee SO) || Imbodens.-.2=-22224=-4 4.5 a NWHCKGS: . 2 .)¢-../ See ¥(0)]) Ravenden..- 2.22.22... 4.5 (SOUTHWESTERN SECTION.) —— Total: 23.3 194. 2 eee BT can meme einer ce p (July 1 to Aug. 25.) Sa | Eee aetna 4.0 Wiav.elan des spee sae 4.0 apis diseees 2-252. -.- 75.5 (NORTHERN SECTION.) Cliisa ic. eee ee 3.3 IN ASHIVHI GM ses S555. 32.0 , rl bergs ae ee 3.0 BORAT OE 5-5. == -)5/5 - 18.0 Guly 10\vo Sea Decatur css nea 3.0 Kmroxyilles =. 4.2 =. T5COR ROA ae. 5 le oes 99.0 Bilsck ROCKO ee eee 1.0 Sip Nits ae ee 10200 |e Pardanelle\2.- 22 aaeene AON Conway eee eee 1.0 JAR TI Vane ee aaa ee NOs | wAtlria a 8 2 5. pele iG; (| Pabyssanathatie eed oe wee see 1.0 De Queen.....-........- 7.5} Russellville. ......-.-.--- 3123") "Tonesboroii.. 22s sue 1.0 Sunetion: City... 2552... GlONNClanks ville: 22: 22252eeeee 30.0] Mile Post No. 130....... 1.0 Welneut sae o eet NY ASO Coal El: = eee eae 28.0 Mountainburg Ne a ce 1.0 VOraTION ses. 6222282 ac0ll ilexarkana.. - eee 25 SOM yes ss ean mee 1.0 Mineral Springs...._...- 2aSmECushinan!.- 2. --seeeeee D3 FD WAT OCA eee oe ful Gee alee LF Buena Vista. -...22.---- 2.0) || WigyrebhiOrN eae oeecacactc- 21.0 | Booneville.............. & Mockeshburg sas 22432-s25: DRS a WALTON. oo. eee TGVOM Dyer e..2 223085. 1c 5 ; Whidesterms <2. 4. 4422525 TOROS IC 520s 4. yh ee 1550) Greenland: -ss5 sane 2-2: a DICT) Joanie aerated ISOM MRVOSerS!s.':2 <26 2) eee Sto meebancaster-eseere nee =e 5 eet 10 BULLETIN 298, AREKANSAS—Continued. Carloads. PMontitownl 2 eys25. se Bellfontes=s.s2-8 222 =. Boarryavalles Saas css see Green Forest...........- Mammoth Spring....... Prairie Groves. -- ssc Barberest ee cenekcccnee Ba tavaar: sect s Seek le es Bentonville ces 25 eee SCL SMa eet a nee Blue Mountain. ........ Wentertonec.ss-eeceeos ss Chapman: 22 --ssssc.ce @harlestone saeco ecine ais Doniphan 2. se wie 12226 Harmineton «. -ossc0- 2. Hayettevillen...2.cecces Welker. is sheet ee Garfield 322 ser eee Greenwoodeenoa-s2. ene ELA TRISONees sas eeen 12 Gea call GRE eee eae se ELE WASSCO) oases Huntington sess. see JOHNSON easy oa Marsnallseasse css asaee Mile Post No. 115.....- IPI BINN VAG Wiertaiae aie eee SChaberges Sessa n wees: Siloam Springs......-..- SMLELtZenssss ae eee SPrINstOWMss2 s2ssalaes Steelevees anisms scene SulphursRock asst: ss Sulphur Springs. ....... RWiCSL PHOT Kei terse Senns Le AWWAINSLOWitee anys ass Mota eee xemc cease 622. 2 State totals 22525252. 816. 4 CALIFORNIA. (May 25 to Oct. 1.) INS WiCaStlOspeiscenceticeee 571.0 OOMIS selec nce eee 365. 0 Sihatey) deat aap S Mae eae 310.0 Kan ESD Ure neers 250, 0 Selimaetess = ee ee A ae 200. 0 POnr Vso ets seg eee 162.0 Cucamonga) es once e 148. 0 Rarliont <2 cneeeeeeeeer 3.0 McMeokin =... sa.s-2sieeee 3.0 State: totaluec-=-eeee 15.0 GEORGIA. (June 15 to Aug. 1.) Fort, Valley22-scss20-see 1,526.0 Marshallville........:... 565.0 BYTON eee s eae eee 265.0 Lee Pope 5. s-se ac eeeeee 122.0 Warm Springs. <-<.-- 102.0 Reynolds's -eeeeeeee 96.0 A:dairsvallotecensceeeeee 94.0 Wioodburysce. eases 92.5 Trebor. sccasdte- eae ceees 84.0 Bradley =e seen 83.8) Stevens Siding......_.. shies () ier oA. ves eerie ZO PASGHENS Ss wiser ase 2.5 MneRockae eee 5,0 | Boise. ------------ 22-85 On eelarnDealingsse asses eas 2.0 Herel ees 4,0 | Gooding. ---.-.---.--5-. EO MG tos Van dase eee -8 DATLOnM ene ge: 2) || WORDS espe eeaecoscdace Te) |) IDO eee ce caceeconne 0 MatOntone eG AL) || VGC Ree eee riccec On MEIN dens oye oie) eee 0 Hunters Siding......... 4.0 | New Meadows.........- (0) | ROO ee se auamae 4 0 Putnam.......-........ 4.0 State totalq--—aeeem 407.8 Siatetotalessseeee 17.6 Stone Mountain.......- 4.0 ———————————— — Wy BULLETIN 298, MARYLAND. (WESTERN SECTION.) (Aug. 1 to Oct. 10.) Carloads. Smithsburg. 2-5. 22<-%.: 699.0 IPOLOMACH sree hernia cece 156.8 UAW Sete mises Aaeinee = 111.0 Hd cemonts ees es- =o 86.0 SDOCKCYSo2- + ecceeeeees 43.0 Chewsvillets..,...s2eeec5 21.5 Rohrersville- 0225 252s2 26 18.0 ET aN COCKiaenece cece 14.0 SpringiGapaenasssoceere 13.0 Cavetowls:.ccccseescee 12.0 Cohill eee ee ees tee 9.0 @umberlandseces-esccan 3.5 EASES LOSbecsrecicte fare siei=t= ab AO) ELA cerstowil: - Sos-creee 3 2.0 WiOOUMON ba) ee eee 2.0 mMeerheld sei. os Sec 1.0 Mapleville..2- 2.232206 42% .0 Totals oes oie eke 1,194.8 (Bay SECTION.) (Aug. 1 to Sept. 15.) Pocomoke City...-.....- 30. 0 PrestOMe evs ts Sao rse 3.0 AWOLTON Ss Seeacnsac core 300 iNew? Windsorsecsse-e-2- 3 IB erin sage te eh eee ees Al) Goldsboro: aieen secs .0 Mendersoni.s. 3222 22ee02- 0 Motale ers toseecee ccs 36.3 State total.......-.- 123 Ten MICHIGAN. (Aug. 1 to Oct. 15.) Benton Harbor......-..- 1, 132.0 Colomass ia: ds... =. sess 334.0 Mennvillossccmeacepoueee 191.0 Eariiordeerasacceece as 116.0 SouthiHavens: sss. s-- 77.0 1iG 10) oC Se eee 70. 0 Shel byereee- cass -ec- ace 40.0 BATE ODE rseeinen ciscicecncs 37.0 WA COLA wes yocee eee sees 37.0 HWrankfortesssosec secs 35. 0 Watervliet. s-pacse neces 82.0 ALGIN StOM sa). else eee 27.0 Beulah’. Se jsacceeeee 16.0 INO WHET ot io)o2)- tees 10. 0 Sodus esas eee 10. 0 PIG P AT seca c scieisin .2eeeeee 4.0 Mountain Grove.......- 3.9 (Pomona: =. sscsseeeeeeee 3.0 Cedar Gap... - -- 22s. eee 2.0 Oregon - oases eee 2.0 BExeter:.- -ssccecees eee 1.8 Selignvan:. 2.35322 o-seeee 1.8 Willow Springs........- 1.5 Blue Springs. /-)--.asss6 1-3 Cabool:......sasgeeeeeeee 1.0 TF orbes. 22255: ences 1.0 run ter. scene ee 1.0 Jefferson City: - 225-2055 1.0 Logan... 3.03 sceee 1.0 Monett ...s desc snc haseeee 1.0 SeyMour~ -5225522ee5s5 1.0 Wiashburn=:2ssssessese" 1.0 Diggins: - 55 45452540s5se ati Mordland:..5 52 Sassen a0) Hutton Valley.......... 5 Norwood. - $22ssss-ee86 i ‘Richmond s552ssses5-eee His Rockport s.2 = 32234-2268 56) Bois D? Are. -: 2225528 A) Burnham 23252 25scesseee so Doniphan : -.524224ssse0 583 Lanagan -. rinrosa) fener [54 y rasa] orcner |sance 5 AN i sow UM? | Ate Pazason| MARSH. | 108 fy, be 0 arom ‘lever , sreanns 4 S rain | couemos | mses Ce. 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Ash wih perity (tte es Get enniaa mes aay Mais ean | 8S. iS i cov a EE ES zon )NOUST. et - Lace | $724) 97241 ESCAMBIA GN | NE recuel cy sash came FALLS es A Tminin \aMiTe | PIKE Hy [oust {sac I: a A) Aen VERNON S Cre GADS < i halk on cee ain ear 7 ey Zo Qa | aire Z Leow", : N\ / Sf Eo a mn MAson He m aN warn! sn \ = isu 3 )— Jecawo boven pas WAM bara cN roux \rrier er ee \ 8) ii Sandel {anor B(ORAPEN CLAY eal eee unis t = so Ne S Te Ug CALCASIEL Ki 5 aN. antes lacanfrasvis Ned aay Fach S R i Gasn ees we A s mene 3 S q mera E wus ae a ND, raverT, sr CA AON TERMI. avon clown Kea nAnnis we Gary ts | praend =r! yvaroe | are pena | OM 1) Lie NG WHARTON : emir ve|2ararca] raro | arascOGARNS, a - ovina) ES COUNTIES CUTTING 1 Couns Er a a 4 THOUSAND BOARD FEET 1 ___| ean es as COUNTIES CUTTING 501 TO 5000 we loves Wri SM ie TG 30. THOUSAND BOARD FEET (iron rs Pale OF M BX Ars! anooxs rt ‘stare Into, leawe > COMMERCIAL DISTRIBUTION OF ASH AS INDICATED BY CENSUS RETURNS of LUMBER CUT BY COUNTIES IN 1910. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. y cent into vehicles, including automobiles; 7 per cent into planing-mill products; 6 per cent each into furniture, refrigerators and kitchen cabinets, and car construction; 3 per cent each into boxes and crates, agricultural implements, and ships and boats (chiefly oars), and 1 per cent each into fixtures, sporting and athletic goods, musical instruments, machine construction, and hames. It is also used in small quantities for pump sucker rods, tanks, pulleys and conveyers, trunks, printing materials, rollers, elevators, picker sticks, professional and scientific instruments, brushes, patterns and flasks (for foundry work), litters, and airship frames and propellers. Long handles for shovels, forks, hoes, and rakes of all kinds, short ‘““D” handles for shovels and spades, and boat-hook handles. . are made almost entirely from ash, as it alone seems to have the proper combination of qualities—straightness of grain, a high degree of stiffness and strength perpendicular to the grain, suitable weight and hardness, and capacity to wear smooth in use. The same qualities make it desirable for agricultural implements, sporting and athletic goods, and boat oars. For making handles, rapid- growing second-growth white and green ash, which yield the strong- est and stiffest wood, are the best and the most often used. Old- growth ash is usually considered too fine grained and brittle for handles. All standard baseball bats are made from ash of the strongest second growth. Practically all long oars and sculls (14 feet and over in length) and a large percentage of short oars and paddles are made from ash. For large-sized oars select old growth is much used in order to get the proper size. Black ash as a rule is not suitable for oars, as it will water-soak and become soft and spongy. About 90 per cent of creamery butter tubs are made from ash, for which it is the most desirable wood because it imparts no dis- agreeable flavor. For the same reason it is extensively used in refrigerators, kitchen cabinets, and churns. Its wood is very easily worked up into staves and heading for tubs and churns, the supply coming mostly from bottomland green ash of the lower Mississippi Valley. Ash hoops are made mostly from black ash in the Lake States. In the vehicle and automobile industries strong second-growth white and green ash is used extensively as bentwood for bows, as a substitute for hickory and white oak for tongues, and for single and double trees. Ash is also used for vehicle bodies and panels, for which old growth of all species is preferred, as it can be obtained in greater widths, is not so-liable to warp as second growth, and holds glue better. 6 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, For planing-mill products, furniture, and car construction old- growth ash is usually preferred because a high degree of strength and stiffness is not required or because large sizes or widths are necessary. Black ash (called brown ash commercially) makes especially hand- some interior finish. Second-growth ash of good quality will usually bring the best price as handle, boat-oar, vehicle, or agricultural-implement stock rather than as lumber. This excludes ash grown in swamps, which is too fine-grained and soft. Old-growth ash of fair size and quality brings the best price if cut into lumber and graded, the upper grades being sold for car construc- tion, vehicle and automobile bodies and panels, and planing-mill products, the lower grades for furniture, refrigerators, and possibly the cull stuff for butter-tub heading. In exceptional cases high- grade old-growth ash timber can best be sold for boat oars. Ash timber of poor quality for lumber can probably best be sold for stave and heading bolts for butter tubs or used for firewood or char- coal. It is also used in some parts of the country for fence posts and bars where more suitable kinds of trees are lacking. Ash timber of old or second growth, suitably located, can often be sold most advantageously for export logs. Five to seven million feet of green ash logs are exported annually in addition to the several million feet of ash exported in the form of deals and planks. GROUPS AND SPECIES OF AMERICAN ASH. The ashes in the United States may be divided into five groups, containing in all 18 or more species, distinguished from each other as shown in the key (Table 3). TABLE 3.—Key to American ashes. Genus FRAXINUS.—Trees and shrubs with opposite, pinnately compound leaves, and fruit a dry samara. Divisible into five groups: white, green, water, black, and shrub groups, distinguished on the basis of flowers and fruit. J. Flowers without petals, dicecious, polygamous, or perfect. A. Body of fruit terete or nearly so. Wings not extending to base of seed. Bark fissured. Flowers dicecious. 1. Wate Aso Group.. Wings of samara terminal or nearly so. a. Twigs glabrous. (1) F. americana—seed with wing, 1 to 2 inches long. (2) F. texensis—seed with wing, less than inch long. Hardly more than a form of /’. americana. b. Twigs and lower surface of leaflets pubescent. (3) F. biltmoreana. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. tf 2. GREEN AsH Group. Wings of samara decurrent on body of seed to its middle. a. Twigs, petioles, and pedicels glabrous. (4) F. lanceolata '\—leaflets 7 to 9 in number,.3 to 6 inches in length, lanceolate to acuminate, and rachis grooved. (5) F. berlandieriana—leaflets 5 to 7 in number, 2 to 6 inches in length, oval or obovate. b. Twigs, petioles, and pedicels velvety pubescent. 1. Leaflets stalked, subsessile, or sessile—eastern species. (6) F. profunda—samara 24 to 3 inches long, samara “body somewhat compressed, leaflets stalked. (7) F. pennsyluanica'—samara 1 to 2 inches long, samara body round and long-linear, leaflets sometimes sessile. 2. Leaflets subsessile or sessile—western species. (8) F. oregona—seed body slightly compressed (Pacific coast tree). (9) FF. velutina*—seed body round (southwestern tree). (10) F. coriacea—seed body compressed. Thicker, more leathery, longer-stemmed, and broader leaflets than F’. velutina. i B. Fruit body compressed. Seed kernel long-linear and terete as in green ash. Wings of samara extending to its base and broad. Bark light gray with small, thin, closely appressed scales. Flowers dicecious. 3. WaTER ASH GROUP. (11) F. caroliniana—leaflets 5 to 7, ovate-oblong; fruit elliptical to spatulate, often 3-winged, acute at apex. (12) F. pauciflora—leaflets 3 to 5, oblong; fruit lanceolate to oblanceolate, rounded and emarginate at apex. Hardly more than a form of F. caroliniana. C. Fruit body and seed kernel flat. Wings of samara extending to its base, and broad. Bark gray and scaly. Flowers perfect or polygamous. 4. Brack AsH Grovp. a. Twigs 4-sided; flowers perfect. (13) F. quadrangulata—5 to 9 leaflets, ovate-oblong to lance- olate, coarsely serrate, rounded or wedge-shaped at base. (14) F. anomala—1 to 3 leaflets (mostly 1); flowers some- times polygamous. b. Twigs round; flowers polygamous; northern species. (15) F. nigra—leaflets 5 to 11, oblong-lanceolate, gradually acuminate, laterals being sessile. 1Dr. Britton in his Illustrated Flora (1913 ed.) gives F’. lanceolata as a pseudonym for F. pennsylvanica and gives two other species in this group distinguished from F'. pennsylvanica as follows: Wane ofjsamaralongelinear-2eek oe a2 2s eae aan tose eee here ie eae ena nie eeee F. darlingtonii. Wing of samara long-linear spatulate or oblong-spatulate: Samaras broadly spatulate; leaves firm, entire.............2....220.--ee- ee eeceee ee FF. michauzii. Samaras narrowly spatulate; leaves thin, serrate, or entire................-..- F., pennsylvanica. In addition he has F. campestris, with lateral leaflets sessile, as a western plains form of F. pennsylvanica. 2 Under this is included F. towmeyi (Britton), with leaflets distinctly stalked, a rare form. 8 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. II. Flowers with petals, polygamous or perfect—shrubs or small trees of the south- west. 5. SHruB AsH GROUP. (16) #. cuspidata—panicles terminal on lateral leafy branches of the year; 3 to 7 leaflets, lanceolate and ovate-lanceolate. (17) F. greggii—panicles axillary on branches of the year or pre- vious year; 3 to 7 leaflets, narrowly spatulate to oblong- ovate; petioles wing-margined. (18) F. dipetala—twigs of season’s growth 4-angled and smooth; 5 to 9 leaflets, smooth and thick. The three important commercial species of ash—white, green,! and black—occur in different groups, named accordingly. The other two groups, water and shrub ash, contain species of little or no importance for forest purposes. The botanical range of the different species of American ash is shown in Plate IT? The separation into groups is based on differences in flowers and fruits, and further separation into species is chiefly on differences in twigs, leaves,“and fruits. Of less importance in identification are bark characteristics and general appearance. Plate IIT shows the differences in the seed of different groups, also some of the variations of different species in the same group. The white ash group has the wing of the seed terminal and seed body round and plump. The green ash group has the wing extending along the body of the seed to about its middle, and the seed body round, but slim and long. The water and black ash groups both have the wings extending all around the seed body, the first having a round, slim, long seed kernel, and the second a flattened, broad seed kernel. Plates IV to VII show differences in leaves and twigs, as well as seed, of the important species of ash. It is important to observe that the last year’s growth on red, Biltmore, pumpkin, and water ashes is pubescent, while that on green, white, and Texan ashes is glabrous. White and green ash group species have a decidedly fissured bark (Pl. VIII, fig. 1, and Pl. XI, fig. 2) when a foot or more in diameter, while black, blue, and water ash have a scaly bark (Pl. IX). Green ash has.finer twigs than white ash, and in the open grows more bushy. Biltmore ash has stouter looking twigs than white ash, and red ash stouter ones than green ash. “ In practical identification of ash trees, wherever there is any doubt as to the species, it is well to decide first to which group a tree belongs. The geographic range (see map, PI. IT), habitat, and associated species should be considered. For instance, a swamp ash tree in the Atlantic 1 Green ash ( F. lanceolata) is regarded by many as a variety of red ash ( F. pennsylvanica) on account of the fact that the two forms run together, especially west of the Mississippi. Botanical nomenclature would indicate that the pubescent F. pennsylvanica is the important species because named first, but from an economic standpoint it is of very secondary importance to the glabrous form, F. lanceolata. In the white ash group the glabrous form, F. americana, is economically the important one, but in this ease it is also botanically established as the important species. 2 Prepared by W. H. Lamb of the Forest Service and the author. * Uv Ee SO[GBT UL posn SB IUIBS VJ 9IB SIOGUINU XIPUL VU { Ld . | 4 . ua “SSAHSY NVOIYAWY SO SONVY IVOINVLOG PLATE II. Q A Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. (HSY INIYIMOTS) WT PLIAID-Y OF (HS ALIATIA) VNILNTFZA AG (HS 599349) .N9DFHD A Lt (HS NOIFHO) YNOITHO IE (CHSY JONIY A) HLPOIISNIAI (HSU CF H) YOINFATASND ASL (HS HOV7G) YYOINY SI (HSU NIHAWNA). YONNIOHS SB CHS? SEEM) UPYNONE Stl (HSE WVANTADUNVISFIONK IYI S'S Li (HS & INTE) ELYTAINFYOMNO IE! (HSK NIFZLHO) K-LYTOIINGT SF SFY ZLEM NYZHLNO) POTS INGA A 21) (HB PYOWLTIG) EN FY OWLTIDI © ASK YILEM) KNKINITOY YO + (ASP NRX FIL) SISNIX ILI a 2 (HSU IWTTYTHLY TD) PIIVIHOD JO (HS FLIHM) PNEDIIWY ST } © é/ GQN39371 Dek ay ‘ ¥ < iz %K > 4 NG SN Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE III. cenizerc ASH SEED, NATURAL SIZE. Nos. 1-8, seed of the white ash group: No. 1, F. texensis; Nos. 2,4, and 8, F. biltmoreana; Nos. 3, 5, 6, and 7, I. americana, Nos. 9-16, seed of the green ash group: No. 12, Britton’s Wichauxii; No. 13, Britton’s 7. darlingtonii; the remainder show variations in size and shape of seed of F. lanceolata and F. pennsylvanica. Nos. 17-18, seed of the water ash group: INO#L7, 2: pauciflora; No. 18, I. caroliniana. Nos. 19-22, seed of the black ash group: Nos. 19-20, profile and face view of a F. quadranguata seed, showing characteristic twist; Nos. 21-22, profile and face view of a J’ nigra seed, which is characteristically flatter than /. quadrangulata, Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. i e zal iM ( a SZ . GV » ~S PY, WS =—— > a ——s i y SS HSS = is — Ss ~ \ASS PRT y if! : SSS 7 S \ \\ LEAVES AND SEED OF (@) F. BILTMOREANA, (0) F. AMERICANA. Bul. 299, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. a Fase a, aS ‘ SS \ 2 y, Me ine \ ‘ BA | eX, eS =< = AX a) LEAVES AND SEED OF (a) F. LANCEOLATA, (0) F. PENNSYLVANICA. Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. ARQ WBeenizer 19157 LEAVES AND SEED OF () F. CAROLINIANA, (0) F. NIGRA, (¢) F. QUADRANQGULATA, (d) F, PROFUNDA. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 9 Coastal Plain would likely be F. caroliniana, a tree in Oregon or Wash- ington would be F’. oregona, etc. Where all the necessary botanical characteristics are present identification is easy, but the most im- portant one, seed, is usually absent. This is especially the case with the two most important ashes, white (7. americana) and green (F, lanceolata), and the groups they represent, both of which, however, are readily distinguished from the black ash group. Where seed is absent it 1s especially important to consider geographic distribution, site occurrence, and associated species in distinguishing white and green ash. But where both species are found on the same site, as occasionally happens, identification by means of differences in leaves and twigs, bark, and general appearance is the best that can be done. White ash has more robust twigs and buds than green ash, bark usually darker colored, and leaves a darker green color, green ash leaves being more yellowish. SILVICULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE GROUPS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION. ; The division into botanical groups also has silvicultural signifi- cance. The white ash group is primarily of upland ashes; the green ash group is primarily of bottom-land ashes growing on sites with fair natural drainage during part of the year; the water ash group is of swamp trees; trees of the black ash group occur usually on unfavorable sites, the black ash in cold northern swamps, and the blue ash on dry limestone hills; the shrub group is of chaparral spe- cies of the southwest, where climatic conditions are especially severe. The extent of range and character of distribution of the several groups is influenced to a great degree by reproductive factors, as these determine largely a tree’s relative aggressiveness. They in- clude lightness of seed (ease of dissemination), quickness of germina- tion and seedling development, durability of the seed, and frequency of seed years. Climatic, soil, moisture, and light requirements and susceptibility to injury also have considerable influence. All these things vary a great deal in the five groups as a result of the process of adaptation to a wide range of conditions. The green ash group is the most aggressive and widely distributed; the white ash next; and water and black ash groups the least aggressive and the least able to hold their own. The green ash group has the widest geographical distribution because it seeds most frequently, and has the lightest seed, with the quickest germination—quick to take hold of a favorable opening. (Pumpkin ash is an exception, as it has the heaviest seed of any ash, is not prolific, and has a limited distribution.) The natural local habitat of the green ash group is chiefly moist to wet bottom lands — 10 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, or the banks of watercourses. The seed is not durable and must find immediately favorable conditions for germination, especially moist- ure. This group has naturally a better chance of holding its own or even of increasing, like paper birch, through the interference of man, than any of the groups. Since this group has become the most widely distributed, it is natural that it should have produced more species than other groups in adapting itself to varied climatic conditions. The species vary, from those with smooth twigs and leaves, com- mon where climatic or soil conditions are favorable, to very pubes- cent forms where severe conditions prevail. (See botanical range map, Plate IT.) The white ash group also has a wide geographic range, but less than green ash, because it seeds much less freely; the seeds are as a rule heavier al larger and less easily disseminated, and take much longer to germinate. On the other hand, their seed is more dura- ble, larger kerneled, and stouter, and adapted to somewhat more rugged conditions, so that it has a better chance of germinating and growing than green ash where soil conditions happen to be adverse to immediate growth. Trees of this group occur chiefly on uplands, especially in coves, on moist slopes and depressions, and along up- land watercourses. None of the species in the water or black ash groups have as wide a geographic range as does green or white (see Pl. II), because their seed is heavier and less readily disseminated, and in the case of the black ash group seeding is less frequent. Black ash (F. negra) is the wider distributed of the two and extends farther north than white ash, but not nearly so far south. Certain characteristics of trees of these groups, such as durability of seed of the black ash group and the wide flat wing of the water ash seed which by floating it increases its chance of finding a favorable spot for germination, enable them to perpetuate themselves on unfavorable sites to which they have been relegated by their nonaggressive character. The species of these groups, except blue ash CF. quadrangulaia), occur chiefly in swamps where conditions are poor for tree reproduction and growth. Blue ash is primarily a tree of rough and dry limestone hills, where conditions for reproduction are also somewhat severe and where acorn and other nut trees are the prevailing growth. These non- aggressive groups are likely to decrease continually in amount and importance. The shrub group is confined to a very limited area in the South- west, and may be classified as A ee chaparral species, though not considered desirable even for this kind of forest.’ 1See Forest Service Bulletin No. 85, ‘‘Chaparral,’’ by F. G. Plummer. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 11 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES. The relative importance for commercial or silvicultural purposes of the different species of American ash is shown in Table 4. Tape 4.—Relative importance of the different species of ash. WHITE ASH GROUP. 1. White ash (Ff. americana)...-- Commercially and silviculturally the most impor- f tant American ash. Commercially important east of the Mississippi, except in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain region. A tree primarily of fertile, moist, upland soils and of coves, and of stream banks where drainage is good. 2. Texan ash (f’. texensis)...... A variety of white ash of no commercial importance, but of some silvicultural possibilities. Occurs on dry limestone bluffs and ridges in northern, central, and western Texas, from Dallas to the Devils River. 3. Biltmore ash (F. CSN A variety of white ash of some slight commercial importance and with good silvicultural possibili- ties. Adapted to somewhat drier sites and makes more rapid growth in youth. Chief occurrence in Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana, especially on limestone formations, at lower elevations than white ash. GREEN ASH GROUP. 4, Green ash (F’. lanceolata)..... Commercially and silviculturally nearly equal to white ash in importance. Commercial occur- rence limited chiefly to the river bottoms subject to overflow of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains. Has extended up the Mississippi and its tributaries into Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan. The most widely distributed of the ashes. 5. Mexican ash (F. berlandiert- No commercial importance. Chief occurrence in ana). Mexico. Used for street and plaza planting with good success in cities of the Mexican tableland, but of no importance for the United States. 6. Pumpkin ash (F. profunda)..Of some slight commercial importance in river bot- toms in southeastern Missouri and eastern and central North Carolina. Found in sloughs with cypress, where it is soft and of very slow growth. On well-drained land more rapid-growing than green ash, especially in youth, and has good silvicultural possibilities. Seed scarce. 7. Red ash (Ff. pennsylvanica)...Of slight commercial importance because too infre- quent, but adapted to somewhat drier sites than green ash. West of the Mississippi often not dis- tinguished from green ash. 19 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 8. Oregon ash (F'. oregona)..-.-.. Of some slight commercial importance in the coast region of the Northwest, on river flats. Occurs from sea level to 3,000 feet elevation, but of mer- chantable size, usually below 2,000 feet. Occurs in river bottoms and along streams with alder, laurel, maple, walnut, cottonwood, willow, oak, and in the lower limits of Douglas fir forest. It has excellent silvicultural possibilities. 9. Velvety ash (fF. velutina)....Very slight commercial importance. Good possi- bilities as a shade and windbreak tree in the arid Southwest, especially if irrigated. Range vicin- ity limited to the Southwest, along streams. 10. Leatherleaf ash (F’. coriacea)..No commercial importance. Closely related to F. velutina, occurring in the same region, and is adapted to even more severe climatic conditions and suitable for similar uses. WATER ASH GROUP. 11. Water ash (F. caroliniana)...Of very slight commercial or silvicultural impor- tance. Deep river swamps of Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains from Virginia to Texas. Trees small and scattering, chiefly under shade of larger trees. 12. Water ash (#. pauciflora)..... Of very slight commercial or silvicultural impor- tance. Less frequent than /. caroliniana. Deep swamps in St. Marys River, Ga., to lower Appa- lachicola River, Fla. (Sargent). BLACK ASH GROUP. 13. Blue ash (F. guadrangulata)..Commercially of some slight importance, chiefly in the limestone regions of Kentucky, Tennessee, Indiana, and Ohio. Better wood than black ash, and good for planting on dry limestone soils. Not a good reproducer. 14, Single leaf ash (#. anonola)..No commercial or silvicultural importance—not much more than a shrub. Grows along streams in arid country—McElImo River, southwestern Colorado, through Utah, to southern Nevada. | 15. Black ash (Ff. nigra)......0+- Commercially the third most important ash, but wood inferior to white and green ash. In plan- tations it grows equally fast. It is primarily a tree of northern swamps, not a good reproducer, and not holding its own in second-growth forests. SHRUB ASH GROUP. No commercial or silvicultural importance. 16. F. cuspidata....... apa Keays Rocky slopes and dry ridges, valley of Rio Grande, in Texas and New Mexico, southward into Mexico. 1 (pe Dis jas Aol oe ce ober sopeiace Dry limestone cliffs and ledges, valley of Rio Grande, from mouth of San Pedro to that of Pecos River, south into Mexico. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 13 Seer dipetalass 2222 2 Sak Near foothill streams and in gulches; in dryish or slightly moist rocky and gravelly soils; in clumps mingled with other chaparral species; inner coast ranges and foothills of the Sierra Nevada in Cali- fornia. OCCURRENCE OF IMPORTANT SPECIES AND THEIR ASSOCIATES. Ash, with its wide geographic distribution and many different forms and species, naturally occurs on a great variety of sites and in many forest types, but usually forms only a small percentage of the trees of any stand. Exceptions to this are the occurrence of green ash as a principal tree on limited areas of overflow river bottoms of the Mississippi and its tributaries, but usually in comparatively young stands less than 100 years old; of white ash as a principal tree (very rarely) on small areas of second-growth upland hardwood stands on fairly moist soil; and of black ash as occasionally ‘a principal tree in virgin swamp forests of the Lake States. In old-growth virgin stands white and green ash never form more than a small percentage of the merchantable stand, which is mainly of longer-lived, more persistent trees, such as the oaks, birch, beech, sugar maple, yellow poplar, hemlock, white pine, and spruce, red gum, and cypress. Any agency removing the old growth, such as lumbering, often gives white and green ash a chance to become, by their good natural re- production, relatively more important in the second growth. WHITE ASH. White ash occurs on comparatively well-drained sites along small streams, in swales and coves, and on moist north and east slopes, usually where the soil is both moist and permeable. It will grow even in comparatively wet places, provided there is good underdrainage. _It occurs in three distinct forest types or associations of trees, in all of which hardwoods predominate: (1) birch-beech-maple-basswood type; (2) mixed oaks and chestnut type; (8) yellow poplar type. In places these types often merge into each other. White ash occurs most frequently in the birch-beech-maple-basswood and the yellow poplar types, where it attains good development and is usually a dominant forest tree. In the mixed oaks and chestnut type it is usually subordinate. The birch-beech-maple-basswood type is the commen northern hardwood forest, which extends south into the Appalachian Moun- tains at constantly higher elevations to northern Georgia and Ala- bama. ‘The hardwoods of this type include yellow and black birch, beech, hard and soft maples, basswood, white ash, white elm, bitter- nut hickory, and black cherry; and in the southern Appalachians, eucumber, yellow buckeye, chestnut, and oaks. Coniferous species 14 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, in the type are spruce, hemlock, and white pine, the first two espe- cially on moist situations suitable to white ash. In original forests of this type white ash rarely forms more than from 1 to 5 per cent of the merchantable stand, but m second-growth stands it may form 20 per cent or more. Sites on which the mixed oak and chestnut type of forest is usually found (exposed upper slopes and ridges and southern slopes) have a comparatively dry, hard soil often thin and very rocky. Such sites are not favorable to white ash, which is fastidious in regard to soil, does not readily develop a rugged, deep-going root system, as do oaks and chestnut, and requires in consequence more surface moisture. On this type white ash usually occurs as a subordinate, overtopped tree of small diameter in comparison with the oaks and chestnut, except for occasional well-developed individuals in depressions where soil and moisture conditions are more favorable. It never forms over 5 per cent of the stand. Ash reproduction takes place readily wherever the cover is slightly broken and at the same time dense enough to preserve good moisture conditions in the humus and soil; but subsequent seedling development is usually poor because con- ditions are adverse. The mixed oaks and chestnut type is common below 1,000 feet elevation in the glaciated hills of southern New England, southern New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey; farther south it occurs at increasing elevations, in the southern Appalachians up to 4,000 feet, mostly on comparatively dry southern slopes and ridges. It is common in southern Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, southern Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and in the highlands of southern Missouri and northwestern Arkansas. The most frequent associates of white ash on this type are chestnut, red, white, scarlet, black, and chestnut oaks, bitternut and pignut hickories, yellow poplar, red maple, and dogwood; other species sometimes occurring with it are swamp, white, pin, Spanish, black jack, and post oaks, black gum, a black walnut, shagbark hickory, ironwood, hornbeam, elm, black Wi cherry, shad bush, sugar maple, sassafras, hemlock, white, pitch, : and shortleaf pines, scrub pine, black and yellow birch, paper birch, Wa butternut, black locust, mulberry, beech, and red gum. | The yellow poplar type occurs only on comparatively moist, fertile || sites with good drainage, such as in the hollows of small streams, north slopes, and small hollows, coves and swales interspersing drier oak or pine types. In old growth ash forms up to 10 per cent of the stand, and in second growth up to 50 per cent. The yellow poplar type is common from southern New England and southern New York (below 1,000 feet elevation) to northern Florida and west to northern Louisiana and eastern Arkansas and Missouri. Southward it is found at increasing elevations until in the southern Appalachians it reaches 3,500 feet; but it occurs also on moist, well-drained fertile THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 15 sites in the Coastal and Gulf Plain region down to elevations of less than 100 feet above sea level. The chief associates of white ash on this type include yellow poplar, red, white, black, pin, and chestnut oaks, black and red gum, pignut and shagbark hickory, black walnut, and chestnut. White ash is very much outgrown by yellow poplar, and often occurs as an overtopped tree in old stands, though in this type it reaches its largest size. BILTMORE ASH. The pubescent form of white ash, known as Biltmore ash, is occa- sionally found in the mixed oaks and chestnut type and in the yellow poplar type of the southern Appalachians and Central States east of the Mississippi River. It is adapted to somewhat drier soil condi- tions than white ash, and has a more vigorous growth at the outset. In central Tennessee this species sometimes forms from 1 to 5 per cent of the merchantable stand of the original forest. TEXAN WHITE ASH. Texan white ash is adapted to dry hills of central Texas, where it occurs with post oak in noncommercial stands. GREEN ASH. Green ash is primarily a species of southern overflow river bottoms, most abundant in those of the Mississippi River and its tributaries south of Illinois, also common in other rivers of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains from Virginia to Texas. It has spread itself extensively along watercourses all over the upper Mississippi Valley north into Manitoba and Saskatchewan and west into Colorado and Montana. In the western and northern limits of its occurrence its place is sometimes taken by red ash, which is better able to survive on upland sites. The bottom land on which it grows is compara- tively free from water during most of the growing season at least (Pl. X); it does not flourish like tupelo and cypress on land which is saturated during most of that period, although poor, suppressed specimens of great age are sometimes found on such areas. The char- acteristic associates of green ash on drier portions of bottom lands, often not subject to overflow, are sweet gum, cottonwood, cow and white oaks, sycamore, white elm, and persimmon; and in the inferior species are hackberry, red and silver maples, boxelder, slippery elm, Kentucky coffeetree, sassafras, dogwood, honey locust, and pawpaw. On intermediate bottom lands, often overflowed but dry during most of the growing season, green ash is characteristically associated with sweet and black gum, cow oak, willow oak, swamp white oak, pecan, hickory, red oak, hackberry, red maple, white elm, cork elm, slip- pery elm, river birch, willow, mulberry, persimmon, cottonwood, cypress, and tupelo gum; also (of lesser importance) honey locust, 16 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. soap berry, dogwood, with a dense undergrowth (in wetter situa- tions) of elbow brush (Cratzgus), poison ivy, wild grapevine, and wire grasses. Green, pumpkin, ‘and water ashes are often found around the edges of sloughs or back swamps (upon which water stands for from 9 to 12 months in a year) in mixture with cypress and tupelo gum. Green ash is one of the most common species in the very sparsely forested plains and prairie country of the Middle West; growing almost entirely along streams in company with white elm, cottonwood, willow, hackberry, sycamore, black cherry, and bur oak. RED ASH. Red ash is a pubescent species of the green ash group occasionally found along streams in the New England, Middle, Lake, and Central States east of the Mississippi River. West of the Mississippi it is often difficult to distinguish from green ash, with which it is appar- ently connected by intermediate forms. PUMPKIN ASH. Pumpkin ash is a much more distinct pubescent species of the green-ash group than is red ash, the seeds are much larger, and the tree is more rapid growing in youth under the same conditions. It has a very limited occurrence, however, and is usually found on the wetter parts of overflow river bottoms, unfavorable to rapid deyel- opment, where it is associated with the same trees as is green ash. It has been observed in commercial quantities only in southeastern Missouri, northeastern Arkansas, and in the eastern half of North Carolina. It may be, geologically, an older species than green ash, but nonaggressive from a reproductive standpoint and relegated to undesirable sites. : OREGON ASH. Oregon ash occurs along streams, in some cases reaching an eleva- tion of 5,000 feet, though it usually stops at 3,000. It thrives on gravelly flats with the water table near the surface. At low eleva- tions it is associated with maple, oak, and willow. At higher eleva- tions in the oak-digger-pine type and in the Douglas-fir-yellow-pine type, its associates are willow, alder, maple, cottonwood, black oak, yellow and digger pine, and Douglas fir. The largest trees and the commercially important stands are in southwestern Oregon, in asso- ciation with alder, broadleaf maple, and California laurel, on good agricultural soils which are being rapidly cleared for farm land. LEATHERLEAF ASH. F. coriacea is the species commonly named leatherleaf ash, although F. velutina is also sometimes so called. The F. velutina is the more abundant and occurs chiefly in New Mexico and Arizona, along — PLATE VIII. Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. *‘soroods IvnoTAed Sty} JO Ost9OVIVILO SSIM} ynojs puv ‘yse Jo Sur -youriqg oysoddo o1st1ojyoRreyo SMOYS ‘“SUT[POOS YSB o1OUII_ [eInjeu pypo-rvdA-udAOS—"F ‘DIY veseels ‘ose sxevak oT dn pousdo SBM PUBIS 94} VOUIS podofeAop OABY YOIUM ,,‘sjnorids 107BA,, o1B UMOP MOT SQUITT 10IL0YS OUT, *S001] 19410 JO Surjynd Aq payBost ATyuenbasqns nq ‘purrs popMoOId UL UMOIS A[[BUTSIIO ‘Y.SIY 199T O8 puUB pfO sIBdd OO TSB OVI ve7sold M—'S “SLA ‘yIOK MON [BIMOO UL ‘TST yooy 89 ‘oJOULBIP UL SOUL 78 ‘plo sivod Cf ‘puRys popMOIO B UT YSB OUIYM JUBULULIOPOD ‘poumMord -j10ys ‘patpoq-ull[s ‘suo T—'zZ ‘DI VL7eszl4 “yaeq pospla AT[BostTAsQOVIBYD “suUBIyORTedd y UlIOyNOS oy} UL YSB OIA o1N}VBUT UMOIS-JSOIOT B JO 9[Oq [vd -TaputyAo ‘suoy [wordA—'T “Dl 190184 “ad £4 ‘9011 UO poos JO dod AAvaY AIOA OY} DION oT vut-to1Tq-Ures|Vq-oonrds-YOO] to Oy} UL SUIMOLS OOLT, ‘TSIY Joos Gy ‘IOJOULBIP UI SOyOUr Fz ‘AYoOnjUOy urspuvidn *yaruq A[VOS ‘AVIS ONSHOPOVIVYO YIM Ofod YSB Yourq@q—"s ‘OMT duoJSOULIT poanjsvd uo YsB on{q Jo wos [voIdAT—'T ‘917 eelels Vbzeela PLATE IX. Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bul. 299, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. | F68a3 ash and cypress (in the back- in Soe ae ara co OY and) in mixture with pumpk ca ground), Eig 2.—Green ash near edge of slough-bottom type (continuously wet IN NORTHEASTERN ARKANSAS. F57816 Fig. 1.—Large pole green ash on bottom land overflowed only at GREEN ASH Associated with red gum, red maple, hackberry, and high water. sycamore. Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI]. F95257 Fia. 1.—Disk from 85-year-old white ash from clay forest soil in central New York. Shows ability to endure long period of suppression and good recovery after removal of large trees 12 yearsago. Note ridged bark and irregular line of heartwood. The slow-growth wood in section is weak and not suitable for handles. F57835 Fic. 2.—Green ash logs cut on overflow bottom land in northeastern Arkansas, very much checked after lying in the sun several months. Characteristically ridged bark. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 17 streams and canyons from 4,000 to 8,000 feet above sea level, with walnut, cottonwood, boxelder, maple, and sycamore. fF. coriacea occurs chiefly in desert regions of Nevada and southern California on low mesas (ash meadows) and in canyons; also in southern Utah and northern Arizona. BLACK ASH. Black ash is primarily a wet-soil swamp tree of northern lowlands and foothills. Its chief commercial occurrence is in the hemlock type (75 per cent of the merchantable stand bemg hemlock) of the northern half of the Lake States, where it often forms 5 to 10 per cent of the original merchantable stand, averaging 500 to 1,000 board feet per acre. Single forties may average 2,000 feet of black ash per acre, or about 20 per cent of the merchantable stand, and in very wet places single acres of nearly pure black ash (black-ash swamps) sometimes will cut over 5,000 feet. Associated with the hemlock and black ash on this type are hard maple, yellow birch, basswood, elm, white ash, balsam, spruce, tamarack, and arborvite and in the southern part of the Lake States beech, white pine, and soft maple as well. All of these species associate more or less with black ash in the Middle and New England States, where the ash is found chiefly in swamps at an elevation of 500 to 1,500 feet above sea level, but rarely forms more than from 1 to 2 per cent of the merchant- able stand. In central Indiana and Ohio its coniferous associates disappear, and it has only an occasional botanical occurrence on wet land with such species as willow, sycamore, soft maple, and pin oak. South of Pennsylvania and Ohio black ash is of no importance what- ever, having only an occasional botanical occurrence, chiefly in cold mountain swamps, with balsam, spruce, and hemlock. BLUE ASH. This upland form of black ash has adapted itself to dry limestone soils under the shade of oaks and hickories, where moisture, humus, and soil conditions are favorable. It occurs primarily on uplands in the oak type in Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Indiana. WATER ASH. F. caroliniana and F. pauciflora.—These are deep-swamp species of the south Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain region from Virginia to Texas. SOIL, MOISTURE, AND LIGHT REQUIREMENTS. SOIL AND MOISTURE. Ash as a genus is fastidious and exacting in regard to soil fertility and soil moisture. It is not exacting in regard to atmospheric mois- ture or the amount of annual rainfall, its chief requirement being a 6023°—Bull. 299—15——2 — | j y 18 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. soil comparatively moist during a considerable part of the growing season. It is exacting in regard to mineral food in the soil and is somewhat exhausting to it. It does well on rich, loose, limy, or marly soils, and some species even on dry limestone soils. It does not do well on binding or argillaceous soils or on dry sand. On porous soils which offer no hindrance to the developing root system it is as a rule less exacting in regard to surface moisture and fertility than it is on stiff impermeable soils. Ash is adapted, some species more than others, for growing in swamps provided the soil is not acid and there is no turf, but it prefers a rich, moist soil which has a rapid renewal of the water through either surface or subterranean drainage. Although all species of ash thrive best on moist, well-drained, fertile, porous soils, yet the different species vary in their ability to erow on very wet or on dry soils. The important wet-soil species, in the order of their relative capacity for growing on wet sites, are water, black, pumpkin, and green ash, while the species which will endure dryness of soil (east of the Mississippi) are, in the order of relative capacity, blue, Biltmore, and white ash. West of the Mis- sissippi the green ash forms in the fertile prairie and plain States (where red and green ashes run together) are very enduring under dry conditions, as are also the southwestern species of the green ash Brenes LIGHT. Ash is a light-demanding tree, except for the first few years, during . which it does best where the soil is shaded. In youth it is more tolerant than oak and reproduces itself well under a comparatively dense forest cover, because this provides, usually, suitable soil- moisture conditions. The seedlings here show great persistence and tenacity and are able to survive for some time. As an underwood in broken forests seedlings thrive well. After the pole stage, how- ever, ash becomes very light-demanding and space-demanding, espe- cially in pure stands, which is a natural result of its wide-spreading, soil-exhausting root system. The relative intolerance of ash is less apparent becauseit is most often found on moist fertile soils where trees of all kinds have their greatest tolerance. The effects of even slight shading or crowding on the side is at once apparent in long, clear, thin, spindly boles and small crowns. Ash often shows, however, excellent persistence under unfavorable light conditions, although making no substantial growth, and is quick to recuperate and respond to increase in light. The extreme sensitiveness of ash in this respect is one of the things which commend it for forest management. Blue, black, and white ash are the most tolerant and persistent under adverse light conditions, and green and pumpkin ash the least so. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 19 REPRODUCTION. Ash reproduces itself well by seed and by sprouting from stumps of trees cut (Pl. XIV), the first, however, being by far the most important in perpetuating the species. SEED PRODUCTION AND DISSEMINATION. Ash of any species, in any region where it is common, usually seeds freely about every other year, and bears some seed almost every year. Exceptionally heavy crops occur at intervals of from three to five years. Not all ash trees are capable of bearing seed, since species of the white and green ash groups are dicecious; that is, male and female flowers are borne on separate trees and seeds occur only on the female trees. ‘Trees in the open are apt to seed when from two to three inches in diameter and from 10 to 20 feet high, bemg only 10 years old, or even less. In dense stands ash commonly seeds but little until the stand is from 30 to 50 years old and is beginning to thin out. Small-crowned, suppressed, intermediate, and co- dominant trees produce little or no seed; dominant, large-crowned trees and open-grown trees are prolific seeders. Those of the green ash group are the most prolific, seeding when younger and smaller, and more frequently and heavily. White ash is next in this respect and black ash last. The lightness of ash seed and its long membranous wing allow it to be carried long distances by the wind. Of the important species green ash is disseminated most widely by the wind, white ash is next, and black ash last. The distance depends largely on the weight of the seeds, which is given in Table 5. TaBLE 5.— Weight of ash seed of different species. Number of seed per pound. Species. Remarks, Low. High. | Average. Frazinus americana and F. biltmoreana!.... 8, 500 11,500 10,000 Reed and kernels. float in water. F. lanceolata and F. pennsylvanica ?...-..-. 12,000 20,000 16,000 F. nigra, F. excelsior, and F. quadrangulata. 6, 000 8, 000 7,000 | Seed (with wing) floats in water, but kernels sink. LP, QHD jadec boss JodsetadocssSes seseb oe ealsnasdensesloscecoscec 14, 000 JP, ORAOMEacaasscsoco sc elect nee ceege eooeceee be ossdesoc|scoccscee= 10, 000 1, (O/C. dosNdassuesadet ondnase spedoaee 3, 000 4,000 3, 500 1 Biltmore averages the heavier of the two. 2 Pennsylvanica averages the heavier of the two. GERMINATION AND SEED-BED REQUIREMENTS. There is great variation in the germinative characteristics of the different species of ash. Experiments! with good, sound, untreated 1 Seed planted in flats in the Arlington Experiment Station greenhouse in Jan., 1913. 26 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ash seed planted under favorable conditions gave the following re- sults: (1) Green, red, Oregon, and pumpkin ash seed germinate freely in from four to five weeks; (2) Biltmore ash germinates freely in from six to seven weeks; (3) white ash feebly in five months; (4) black, blue, and European ash ! not at all the first year. The relative perishability of the seed of these species seems to be inversely pro- portional to the time required for them to germinate, the green ash group being the most perishable and the black the least. Seed of the black ash type has a germinating period of from one to three years. The white and black ash seed can be made to germinate more rapidly by the method described further on in this bulletin. Ash seed is especially exacting in its moisture requirements for germination and seedling establishments, and reproduction is restricted to spots where the soil or the humus or leaf litter are liberally supplhed with moisture at the proper season of the year. Only a limited amount of light (which need not be direct) is required for reproduction. A moderately open seed bed is sufficient; i. e., a layer of undecomposed leaf litter less than 2 inches thick with humus fairly decomposed beneath. Leaf litter and humus serve to keep the ground moist, but they must not be so thick as to prevent the roots of the recently germinated seedling from coming in contact with the soil. Ash reproduction is most common where the sou is protected from the drying influences of sun and wind, and where at the same time there is some light to decompose the leaf litter more rapidly than is possible in dense stands; for instance, in small openings in the forest where the light is direct or in pure second-growth white pime stands where considerable indirect light reaches the ground. On large, open areas, bare of protecting leaf litter or shrubby plants and weeds, ash reproduces only along streams and river bottoms and in damp depressions. On uplands reproduction is confined mostly to sites where the soil is-well protected. White ash reproduction is often found in upland forests under shade; even in the mixed oak and chestnut type the species will be found reproducing itself in places where the overhead cover is slightly broken. White ash seedlings are remarkably persistent. They maintain themselves in a stunted condition under the shade of large trees for from 5 to 20 years, dying off almost yearly in the hot part of summer or being eaten off by game or cattle and sprouting again the following season. These are called seedling sprouts. Under favorable soil and moisture conditions in the birch-beech- maple-basswood type and the yellow poplar type ash reproduction 1 Belongs botanically to the black ash group. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 21 occurs under dense shade; ash seedling sprout root systems 10 to 15 years old are often to be found here. If the large trees are cut, the ash seedlings (or seedling sprouts, as the case may be) will usually grow, but can keep pace with the more rapid growing oak and chestnut sprouts only where soil conditions are exceptionally favorable. Pure second-growth white pine stands form an ideal seed bed for white ash and often abound with ash seedlings and seed- ling sprouts which furnish an excellent basis for a valuable future admixture of ashes when the crop of mature pine is removed. In general, natural reproduction of white ash is good—that is, the proportion of white ash increases in second-growth stands followig lumbering, especially where clean cutting is practiced. It also seeds in well following fire when seed trees are in the vicinity and are seeding at that time. Natural reproduction of green ash on river bottom land is also good, and it tends to hold its own or to increase in amount in second- growth stands. Green ash is by far the best species for reproducing on old fields because of its quick germination; it does especially well on moist, old-field bottom land, and on hog-rooted pastures. Natural reproduction of black ash is not so good; the late germi- nation of the seed makes it more lable to be destroyed and the small amount of seed produced decreases its chances of finding favorable sites for germination. SEEDLING DEVELOPMENT. Table 6 indicates the rate of growth of ash seedlings under favor- able conditions. TABLE 6.—Rate of growth of ash seedlings under different conditions. Height. White ash Green ash | Green ash ; ‘Kx on old inthe | White ash Cane ee field forest under| in the Mace , South half shade, _ forest, MaSSa- Carolina | Arkansas |Ohiounder| husetts bottom bottom |halfshade.| 22d New York land. land. upland Years. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 1 2.8 iL 7 0.5 0.5 2 7.0 on 1.2 1.6 3 12.2 4,5 2.0 3.0 ANS eee sues 557 3.0 4.6 i} Higapasoceeeon 6.7 4.0 7.0 A seedling that has existed in suppression for a number of years will usually start to grow, when the forest is opened up, at about the rate given in the table. Seedling sprouts do especially well when 992 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. given increased light, and often grow much faster than do ordinary seedlings, because of the large root system they have developed.! Seedlings and seedling sprouts under shade develop slowly. Some- times the root system is 15 years old and the tree less than 1 foot high. After the first year the seedling demands direct overhead sunlight for best development, but a certain amount of protection on the sides is beneficial. SPROUT REPRODUCTION. Ash is a free sprouter from early youth and usually retains its sprouting capacity until old age (see black ash sprouts, Pl. XIV, fig. 2), especially in vigorous trees. The sprouting is both from near the root collar and higher up on thestump. Thestump soon decays. Sprouts from near the root collar usually form new roots, and for this reason cutting of low stumps is very desirable in order to limit the reproduc- tion to sprouts of the best kind. It is also a good plan to remove the less vigorous sprouts from a stump in late summer of the first year so as to concentrate the growth into one, two, or three of the more desir- able ones. The vigor of the sprouting increases with the age and size of the tree up to a certain point, after which it falls off. The following mea*urements ? on white ash emphasize this point: DMiamaier Per cent of stumps Basis. of stump. sprouting. Inches. Stumps. 1to 4 100 5to 8 100 52 9 to 12 83 13 to 16 80 White ash sprouts from stumps of healthy trees over 3 inches in diameter grow from 3 to 7 feet the first year, and from 2 to 4 feet a year for several succeeding years. Seedling sprouts, on the other hand (from small seedling root systems), sometimes grow no faster 1 Measurements by Prof. E. E. Carter in 1912 on two sample plots on the Harvard Forest at Petersham, Mass., gave the following comparative figures on the growth of white ash seedlings and seedling sprouts after clear cuttings in dense mature stands of white pine, under which there was considerable seedling reproduction of ash, 4 foot to 4 feet high, and 5 to 40 years old. Plot 1.—Seedling sprouts from seedlings cut off at the ground 3 years previously, when the mature stand was cut clean, showed an average total height growth of 4.8 feet in the three years, while seedlings which were not cut back grew only 3.6 feet. F lot 2.—Seedling sprouts from seedlings cut off at the ground 4 years previously, when the mature stand was cut clean, showed an average total growth of 5.9 feet in the 4 years, while seedlings which were not cut back grew only 4.8 feet. These plots indicate that cutting off of ash seedlings to facilitate logging operations is beneficial rather than harmful to ash reproduction. The seedling sprouts grew one-third faster than the old seedlings, which means that in addition to straighter stems being produced their chances of getting up out of the reach of browsing stock and deer are much better, which is an important factor in parts of New England and New York. 2 Measurements taken by J. G. Peters, Hyde Park, N.Y. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 23 when the forest is opened up than do ordinary seedlings; this depends entirely on the relative vigor of their root systems. Trees of the green ash group are especially vigorous sprouters. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO INJURY. STORMS. Ash is comparatively windfirm under normal conditions, as it develops a wide-spreading, very fibrous, and tenacious root system. Trees of small diameter, with long, slim bodies, left exposed to the sweep of storms after removal of the larger trees, are sometimes uprooted by wind before they have a chance to become windfirm. Also trees located in flood areas of streams are lable to be wind thrown when the soil is badly washed away from around their roots. The stems of ash trees are strong and elastic and are not subject to windbreak unless infected with heart rot. As the twigs are somewhat brittle, the crowns are sometimes damaged by storms, especially when covered with sleet, but such damage is usually not serious and recovery 1s rapid. FROST. The leaders of ash seedlings growing in the open are sometimes cut back by late spring frosts which follow a growimg period of several weeks, but after the trees attain a height of 5 or 6 feet this danger disappears. Ash seedlings readily recuperate from frost damage, but often form double leaders as a result of the mjury. Seedlings of American ashes seem to be less subject to frost damage in Europe than native European ash, because they leaf out later. There is considerable variation in earliness of leafing among the different species and among seedlings of the same species grown from seed. from different localities. This is important in the culture of ash stands on sites subjected to late frosts. Seeds should be collected, if pos- sible, in the same latitude or to the north of where the planting is to be done. DROUGHT. The ashes, except black, pumpkin, and water ashes, offer good resistance to drought when once well established on fertile soils. This is due to their development of numerous long and fibrous lateral roots. Though their rate of growth is very quickly checked by droughty conditions and their leaves soon wither and fall, they live persistently through successive seasons of drought. On the arid plains of western Kansas and Nebraska green ash survived on aban- doned timber claims where nearly all other species withered and died. Young ash seedlings are quite susceptible to drought, up to 3 feet high, but by the time they are 5 feet high they have usually developed sufficient root systems to be fairly drought resistant. 24 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Black ash growing in swamps seems to be quickly affected by drainage, and there are large quantities in gradually draining swamps in New York and the Lake States either dead or dymg. Excessive transpiration kills these trees down from the top. In the culture of ash on sites subject to drought, plants from seeds of drought-resisting trees should be used, and the area cultivated for several seasons till good extensive root systems are developed. ANIMALS. The tender young shoots and leaves of small ash seedlings and sprouts form unusually attractive browsing for wild animals, espe- cially deer and cattle, which greatly reduces natural reproduction of the genus and causes double leaders on many trees. Trees whose crowns are above browsing distance are practically free from damage by animals. DISEASES. Ash is not subject to extensive damage by diseases, which is an important point m its favor. Only one (white rot) has done much serious harm, though a number have been found on the different species. Diseases on ash are confined for the most part to trees whose vitality has been weakened by old age, fire, or generally adverse conditions. Ash stands grown under proper methods of forest management should be practically immune from serious attacks. White rot occurs in the heartwood of the trunk and main branches, and is caused by the fungus Polyporus fraainophilus, which turns the wood into a mass of yellow pulp. This disease is common in over- mature green ash m the lower Ohio and Mississippi River bottoms, near their confluence; also on white ash near the western limit of its range in Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma, on dry limestone hills, where 90 per cent of the trees are infected.!. The ash-leaf rust, Aeiduim fraxini, is probably the most common fungous parasite, occurring on almost all species of ash, but doing little or no serious damage. Other fungi appear on ash leaves and twigs, but rarely in sufficient numbers to do serious injury to the trees affected. Among them are several species of Glwosporiwm and Spheropsis, as well as Septoria fraxint, Phyllosticta fraxvm, and Spheronema spina. INSECTS. During the last several years the oyster-shell scale (Lipidosaphes ulmi) has increased so much on ash trees in northern Ohio as to kill off entire stands, and is still on the increase in that locality. There are a number of other insects which attack standimg ash, but none 1 Full discussion of this disease in Bulletin No. 32 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, “A Disease of the White Ash caused by Polyporus fraxinophilus.”’ THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 25 are very harmful, except the ash-tree borer, which is serious and lessens the value of the wood for lumber. A large number of insects attack recently felled ash timber. These include a bark beetle, Hylesinus aculeatus, which also occurs in dying standing trees; ambrosia beetles or pin borers (Platypus and X ylebo- rus); a roundheaded borer, Neoclytus capria, destructive to sap- wood of recently felled trees; and the powder-post borers, which attack seasoned sapwood. By quick conversion of the felled tree into lumber and by proper methods of handling, seasoning, and stor- ing, losses of logs and lumber through insects can be nearly eliminated? There should be little or no danger of serious insect attacks on young ash stands under management; nevertheless, the timber owner should be on his guard, and if insects show signs of becoming destruc- tive, he should communicate with the Bureau of Entomology, De- partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., for advice on the subject. FIRE. Small ash trees are easily fire-killed because of their thin bark. With increasing size and age ash becomes thicker barked and more fire resistant. Table 24, showing the thickness of bark of trees of different sizes and species, indicates their relative fire resistance (see Appendix, p. 53). Small ground fires, which do not kill standing timber outright, are especially weakening to ash and lessen its rate of growth because of damage to its surface-feeding root systems. It is especially important to keep fire out of young stands. FORM AND DEVELOPMENT. Ash is a graceful and beautiful tree, whether growing in the forest or alone as a shade or ornamental tree. Its compound pinnate foliage and symmetrical and regular branching (PI. VIII) show to advantage in contrast with the foliage and branching of the hard- woods with which it commonly associates. Ash varies considerably in form and rate of growth in accordance with the character of the site, the amount of growing space, and the species. In general, on favorable sites and under normal forest conditions, dominant ash trees with crowns receiving some direct sunlight on the sides and full light on the tops grow rapidly in both diameter and height, reaching a height of 60 to 80 feet and a diameter of 10 to 20 inches in 40 years. Crowding on the sides, such as codominant and intermediate trees are subjected to, cuts down the rate of diameter growth and increases the clear length, but seems to have little or no effect on the height growth, which persists and is only appreciably lessened by the tree becoming overtopped. In 1 See Circular 128, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: ‘‘Insect Injuries to Forest Products.’ i 26 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the open, diameter growth is more rapid, but the tree develops only a very short trunk and large, wide-spreading lateral branches, and is very much inclined to fork, all at the expense of growth in height, and of length, clearness, and cylindricity of bole. Unfavorable sites make themselves at once apparent in a lower rate of height growth in dominant trees. The boles are shorter, more apt to be crooked, and more branchy. In mixed natural stands on such sites ash is usually a spindling, overtopped tree. In original forests, ashes from 200 to 300 years old, 3 to 5 feet in diameter, and from 125 to 175 feet in height were formerly common, but now 3 feet in diameter is exceedingly large. White ash attains greater height than black or green ash, but is surpassed in diameter and age by black ash. Green ash grows larger in diameter than white ash, but does not become so tall nor live so long. Crowns of dominant ash trees growing in the forest occupy usually one-third to half the total height of the tree, more on young trees and less on old trees. During the period of rapid height growth, which continues till the tree is from 40 to 60 years old, the crown is rather narrow in proportion to its length and more or less cone shaped; as its age increases it broadens out and becomes dome shaped, and in old age comparatively flat. In youth the crown is considerably longer than it is wide, but this changes with age until the width is greater than the length. Trees crowded on. the sides have short, oppressed crowns, often occupying less than a quarter of the total height. (Pl. VIII, fig. 2.) Ash, because of its intolerance, prunes itself readily when growing in the forest, and develops long, clear, straight boles commonly free of branches for half its total height. The boles have usually a com- paratively rapid taper (Tables 25 to 29). Ash trees which have grown under very crowded conditions often have clear lengths of two-thirds or more of their total height. The species vary somewhat in their characteristic forms as a result of their relative tolerance. Blue (Pl. IX, fig. 1), black, and water ashes have the most persistent limbs and the shortest clear lengths, develop ‘‘water sprouts”’ under lesser light conditions, and for this reason are less desirable to grow (on good sites at least) than white, Biltmore, green, and red ashes. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. ib TasBLE 7.—Rate of growth of white ash on uplands in central New York. A. On moist clay soil.1 B. On fresh to moist sandy loam.? Fast growth. Average growth. Fast growth. Average growth. Age. Diameter Diameter Diameter Diameter preast- | Height. | breast- | Height. | breast- | Height. | breast- | Height. high. high. high. high, Years.| Inches, Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches. hee Inches. Feet. 1 2 0 2.1 25 1.3 17 A) 1.3 17 15 3.7 38 2.4 27 5.5 42 3.0 27 20 5.3 50 3.5 36 8.2 52 4.5 34 25 6.7 59 4.5 43 10. 4 60 5.9 41 30 8.0 67 5.4 49 12.2 67 7.1 47 35 9.2 73 6.2 50 13.9 71 8.3 53 40 10. 2 77 6.9 59 15.3 75 9.4 57 45 11.2 81 7.6 63 16.6 78 10.3 61 50 12.0 83 8.3 66 17.7 79 11.2 65 55 12.9 85 8.9 69 18.7 81 12.2 68 60 13.7 87 9.5 71 19.6 81 13.1 71 65 14.5 88 10.1 73 20. 4 82 13.9 74 70 15. 2 89 10.6 75 21.2 83 14.8 76 75 16.0 90 11.2 77 22.0 82 15.6 78 80 16.7 92 11.7 79 22. 8 83 16.5 81 85 17.3 93 12. 2 HN Sacarscandlloocoossedollagacoabeed laccddcoece 90 17.9 94 12.6 SP. Nan scccdc|sooqseeaao lbeaaeeesno||Gadodsoube 95 18.5 95 13.1 EWE Gooodoasce||Goos cedace jboeacecses| aces cooae 100 19.1 97 13.6 BG). | lnosdososca jodussesdos| seobadhoobllososabsons 1 Based on complete analyses of 47 trees, mostly 80 to 100 years old. 2 Based on complete analyses of 138 trees, mostly 30 to 70 years old. The root systems of ash are wide-spreading, surface-feeding, very fibrous, and fairly deep-going, those of the more tolerant blue and. black ashes being especially deep-going and often developing taproots. Green and pumpkin ashes growing in wet sloughs are usually bell- butted. 3 The form and volume of ash trees of different species, diameters, and heights are given in Tables 25 to 46 in the Appendix. RATE OF GROWTH OF COMMERCIAL SPECIES. WHITE ASH. Table 7 shows the rate of growth, under favorable natural forest conditions, of second-growth white ash on moist clay upland and on fresh to moist, sandy loam upland in central New York. Measurements in central New York on second-growth white ash on well-drained, alluvial bottom land, with a moist sandy loam soil, indicate an average rate of growth approximating that of fast growth on upland, sandy loam in the same locality. The growth of white ash on sandy loam soil averages faster at the outset than on the clay, but it is not so sustained. On the clay site white ash is more tolerant, the stand more crowded, and the growth in diameter of the average tree is necessarily somewhat slower; the better quality of the site, however, is indicated by the greater height attained and by the greater per acre yields. In managed stands of white ash on suitable uplands it would be possible to secure an aver- 28 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. age rate of growth in diameter and height nearly equal to that of fast growth under natural forest conditions. Table 8 shows the rate of growth of white ash under less favorable conditions in southern Indiana. TABLE 8 —Rate of growth of white ash on fair upland clay soil in southern Indiana, based on 81 trees 62 to 152 years old. Fast growth. Average growth. Age. | piameter Diameter breast- Height. breast- Height. high. high. Years. Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet. 10 Lot 19 0.6 8 20 2.5 34 1.6 ilY/ 30 4.1 45 225 26 40 5.9 54 aso 34 50 &. 2 62 4.6 41 60 10.9 68 6.6 47 70 14.4 73 7.9 52 80 18.4 78 10.3 57 | 90 2258 82 1B AP 61 1 1 The acceleration in growth at about 50 years is due to a thinning of the forest. Measurements taken by W. Stone in 1909. Table 9 shows the rate of growth of white ash in natural selection forests contaiming trees of all ages. TABLE 9.—Rate of growth of white ash in natural selection forests, based on 179 trees 77 to 803 years in age, east of the Mississippi River, from Tennessee north. Diameter breast-high. Height. Age. Maxi- | Average | Fast Average Fast mum. growth. | growth. | growth. | growth. Years.| Inches. Inches. Inches. Feet. Feet. 10 2.7 0.6 1.6 § - il 20 6.7 1.8 “3.9 14 21 30 11.4 aol 6.8 21 32 40 16.5 4.4 10.1 27 44 50 20.7 6.0 13.6 35 55 60 24.3 (et 16.9 43 65 70 27.4 9.5 19.8 52 73 80 30.1 11.4 22.5 60 80 90 32.0 13.2 24.9 67 86 100 34.3 14.9 27.1 74 91 110 36.1 16.7 29.1 80 95 TOO Daceeecisce 18. 2 30.9 85 100 ETE | Pepcosoece 19.8 32.6 90 103 140 | Seems sccs 21.2 34. 2 94 108 GOT Recedter-eae 22.7 35.7 98 lll ING es eae D2: ew aeao sR eahe 101" ce eee LO} (eas sees DeAn|soseeseR ee 104-$loze 445284 ASOU ij Serccece 2OSS el eoarcceeee 106\s |) =-seeseene 190 so) se"eceese 2821 revese as 109 electing. sees 200) A) 2-5cec ace ZO ETN Satie ates 1 Bb Kay) eases se DBM osouhictec BUG Aly eiceeenec LIS il setae ee 220 Meee ae SLOT aa esvare ee 1 hal epapes BN 230) ieecee eae 33516 yee 2 See th ese nce DAOM eesn cr cc BE ae 0 eters 1188} sc cosee eee 250A We ssea tesa Be Diy |=ae ees ees 119 4 )|ot eh seed It will be seen by comparison with Table 7 that the growth is con- siderably slower than that of comparatively even-aged second-growth with better light conditions. The fast growth in Table 9 about repre- sents the possibilities under proper management. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 29 GREEN ASH. Tables 10, 11, and 12 show the rate of growth of green ash on bottom lands of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Arkansas to be very rapid and well sustained. The North Carolina table shows slower diameter growth than the South Carolina and Arkansas tables, because the stand where the measurements were taken was a very dense, even-aged, unthinned young stand; the growth in height, however, was rapid enough. TABLE 10.—Rate of growth of green ash ' on overflow river bottoms in Orangeburg County, South Carolina, based on 410 trees 32 to 180 years old. Fast growth. Average growth. Z Maximum Age. | Diameter Diameter old sold breast- Height. breast- Height. a are high. high. growth. Years Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet 5 2.5 23 1.0 Be) YN 1d a2 eek See 10 5.3 39 2.4 26 46 15 7.5 49 3.8 34 59 20 9.4 57 4.9 41 71 25 10.2 64 6.0 47 80 30 12.8 69 Uoul 52 88 35 14.3 75 8.1 57 95 40 15.7 79 9.1 2 101 45 17.1 83 10.0 66 106 50 18.5 87 11.0 70 110 55 19.8 9h 11.9 74 114 60 PALA 95 12.9 78 117 , 65 22.3 98 13.8 81 120 70 23.5 101 14.7 84 122 75 24.7 104 15.6 88 124 80 25.9. 107 16.4 90 125 85 27.1 110 WG8} OSI etea oss 90 28.2 112 18.1 Oa Beaseaerercn 95 29.4 115 18.9 (Oho Fee ee aS 100 30.5 117 19.7 ied Boseeasececs 105 31.6 119 20.5 OZ ES | See S853 2 110 32.6 121 2153 A ae ae re ae 115 33.7 122 22a LOGUE |e eee 120 34.8 124 22.9 MOGs |Serebe tec 125 35.8 126 23.6 LOS? |Hsee2ee 222 130 36.9 127 24.4 IO Res eee oae USS EE a sk Se Se: 129 25.2 DU | Se aasse oes IO) Beet eeocoor 130 26.0 1 ae ee eece UG book | ete eta ae rs 132 26.7 USF | aS SS V5 OGAN ae ne eee 133 27.5 1 vl is aes iets 1 Measurements taken by K. W. Woodward, 1905. TaBLE 11.—Rate of growth of green ash} on old field river bottom land, Iredell County, North Carolina, in a very dense, even-aged, unthinned stand, based on 20 trees 60 years old. Fast growth. Average growth. Age. | Diameter Diameter - breast- Height. breast- Height. high. high. Years. Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet. 10 3 I 32 eZ 25 15 4.7 44 Doth 35 20 6.2 53 Soil 45 25 5 61 Ani, 53 30 8.7 68 5.6 59 35 9.7 73 6.4 65 40 10.7 78 ee, 69 45 11.6 82 8.1 73 50 1 85 8.9 77 55 1B.83 87 9.7 80 60 14.1 90 10.5 82 1 Measurements taken by J.S. Holmes, 1912. 30 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 12.—Rate of growth of green ash' on river bottom land, Mississippi County, Arkansas, based on 394 trees 20 to 160 years old. Fast growth. Average growth. Age. | Diameter Diameter breast- Height. breast- Height. high. high. Years Inches Inches. Feet. 1 4. 21 14 20 7.8 2.9 31 30 11.4 7.4 45 40 14.6 9.7 EYe 50 17.4 Ded 67 60 19.9 13.5 76 70 223% Ld<3 85 80 24.2 17.0 92 90 26.2 18.6 99 100 28.1 20.1 105 110 29.9 PATE 111 120 oLe7, 231 U7, 13055 Seo tnsto cme osoocet aes toceeaneeess 122 LA Oks, | 52. ceencise o cea meehee een seeee es eemee 126 150s 8 [55452-5222 | a wee | eee ees se 130 VG6O maf oes occe ssc) teas ete eee | cimec eae eiee 134 1 Measurements taken by G. M. Homans, 1905. In growing green ash under management it should be possible to secure an average rate of growth on bottom lands well above the aver- age for growth under natural conditions, but hardly as rapid as the figures for fast growth given in Tables 10 and 12. On uplands, and farther north and west, the rate of growth of green ash is considerably slower. A green ash plantation on good prairie soil in central Illinois shows an average rate of growth under management no greater than that under natural conditions on south- ern bottom lands, and in Iowa the growth is still slower. The per acre yield will always be greatest on the well-drained, moist bottom lands of the South, where the greatest density of stand is possible. Farther west the possibilities of growth are constantly less. The rate of growth in upland plantations in eastern Nebraska is consid- erably slower than the average for natural bottom land growth in the Kast. TaBLe 13.—Diameter and height growth of green ash in eastern Nebraska in upland plantations, diameter growth based on 57 trees and height on 216 trees. Age. Average. | Dominant.| Height. Years. Inches. Inches. Feet. 5 ii 10 OSH sa)| Be oon 19 w or Agger eT e ok QorWwWoRDwo 1 Measurements taken by F. G. Miller, 1905. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 31 In this region the growth falls off rapidly after 25 years, and ts not sufficiently sustained to make management profitable. On the better classes of sites, however, with moist soils, especially on bottom land, green ash has a fair chance of profitable growth in the Plains States (Tables 47 to 49). On bottom lands in western Kansas and Nebraska, in young natural stands, green ash has been found to average an inch in diameter growth in three to four years, and in planted stands it grows an inch in diameter every two to three years. In planted stands on uplands in the same region green ash takes five to six years to grow an inch in diameter. BLACK ASH. Table 14 shows the rate of growth of black ash in original all-aged selection forests on typical wet land sites in Michigan and Maine. TaBLE 14.—Rate of growth of black ash in original all-aged selection forests on wet sites. A. In northern Michigan.1 B. In Maine.2 Diameter breasthigh. Height. Diameter breasthigh. Height. Age. Maxi- Aver- Aver- Maxi- Aver- Aver- Fast Fast Fast Fast mum age age mum age : ag growth. growth. growth. growth. |=" owth. growth. |growth. growth. growth. growth. Years.| Inches. | Inches. | Inches.| Feet. Feet. Inches. | Inches. | Inches.| Feet. Feet. 9 8 10 1.0 0. 4 0.7 12 1.8 0.4 1.1 15 20 2.4 1.0 1.7 17 24 4.4 1.1 2.7 15 28 30 3.9 1.7 2.7 26 34 7.2 1.9 4.4 22 38 40 5.5 2.5 3.9 34 44 9.9 2.7 6.3 28 45 50 7.3 3.2 5.2 40 52 12.2 3.5 8.1 34 50 60 9. 2 4.1 6.5 47 58 14.1 4.4 oh) 38 54 70 11.1 4.9 7.9 52 63 15.7 5. 2 11.5 41 58 80 12.9 5.8 9.3 57 67 17.1 6.1 13.1 44 60 90 14.6 6.7 10.7 61 70 18.5 7.0 14.5 47 63 100 16.1 7.6 12.1 64 73 19.8 LY 15.7 50 65 110 17.6 8.6 13.5 68 76 21.0 8.9 16.9 52 66 120 18.9 9.5 14.7 70 (key Necdns3e557 9.8 18.1 54 68 130 20.3 10. 4 15.9 72 CNS BRecooccas 10.7 19.3 56 70 140 21.6 11.4 17.1 74 EP sconacosce 11.6 20. 5 57 71 150 22.9 12.4 18.2 76 Ga) lbocoonsscs IPL@. ||ssadeee~ (0) ines 160 24. 2 13.3 19.3 78 8b) |zeSseceoee 1G} |lbedcooce GI ecé Sec UZ) “|sheosecese 14.2 20. 4 79 shi" |Icoccoosee 15D |leasccooe (Ch jeall eeeeoee IED) | |lacsncdcase 15.1 21.5 81 S| Reepeeeee Isa Weoogcecd ee eno oe se UG) Isdoadssece 16.0 22.5 82 88) |eaeteeece = WES |lessockse GO Se saacos ZU nee saSane5 16.8 23.5 83 SW lisononneces WEG |scsassc CO Sores PAN) OBS eosoee 17.6 24.5 84 EW banoseease TR (Pal Beeopere GS) sec eeees 220) ba ascodaas Neb Wessocese Sl Weecaoccsllescoccdees IRL \l\eSdossas (Wy lsaeateos 22108 | bec oeeener UES) -eSe5con6 CY Nocosoca||e~soasscce A) Ol Beeeob ee ONS eae 2 Wobeedeeae ANIL Wesesssse S13) laccortes||scsasesnos eb il je eacnes eae eee ace 251") Been Rae ADO lesosodse oR eaposeaelsacsaescne PALS Geocasacs Oma | aeeeee as 2 Nsnoosonees PALS ee coedne EU ar eeesebee| Saas saeas 225) 94 beeaeaee (aH eee ZO Wn eeeerece = = PPA Gy | aee ease WER SseSoo~c\sonasacose||s- sS0sca|sensasoullasdooosaltasusooe ASM eeseseapee 23530 Sane 92° a Fins Pease see eeeisal se cosecn te seas e| sae 2010). |Sacoasease Pe eae aeaeee 92) | -bsloccele eee es Semnceree | eaecees ese ecine|(bemacees ai0d) Sogennobde ZO eacanses PES BAEE DEE A||sqcancecc||baacacsulebeceon ysssoues| oeeesses 1 Based on 90 trees 79 to 292 years old. 2 Based on 45 trees 85 to 242 years old. This growth is much slower than can be expected of second growth on land with fair drainage. Black ash planted on uplands in Illinois has been found to grow as fast or faster than white ash. 32 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, OTHER SPECIES. Limited measurements on the less important species of ash indicate the following points: Biltmore ash grows as fast or a little faster in youth than white ash on similar sites but is not so long lived. Pumpkin ash on the same site with green ash grows somewhat faster, during youth at least, but is not so persistent. Red and Oregon ashes grow about the same as green, or a little faster, on similar sites. Blue ash on upland grows much faster than black ash in its natural swamp habitat and nearly as fast as white ash on the same site with it. PERIODICITY OF GROWTH. It has been found in southern Indiana‘ that ash does practically all of its growing during the first part of the season—that is, before the 1st of July—which is probably true generally of the genus through- out its range; the latter half of the season it hardens the wood put on, forms tissues, and stores up energy to be used the next season. These facts indicate the importance of cultivating planted stands during the first part of the season. COMPARATIVE RATE OF GROWTH OF ASH AND ITS ASSOCIATES, White and green ashes are comparatively rapid growmg on favore able sites but very slow on poor sites. On good land white ash may be ranked after black cherry, yellow poplar, chestnut, and basswood in comparative rate of growth, mm the same class with red oak or ahead of it (in youth especially), and ahead of white oak, the hick- ories, birch, beech, and maple. Green ash on bottom lands in the South with sufficient drainage is less rapid growing than cottonwood, willow, sycamore, and elm but about the same as red gum and the faster-growing red oaks and more rapid than the white oaks, red maple, hickories, black gum, and cypress. As the prevailing occurrence of black ash is on unfavorable wet soils, its growth is slow but no slower than other northern hardwoods on similar sites. Pumpkin and water ashes also prevailingly occur on very wet soils, where their growth is slow but not below the average for associated species on that type of land. Blue ash grows more slowly than walnut and yellow poplar, as fast as the oaks on limestone uplands, and faster than the hickories. YIELD OF PURE STANDS OF ASH. Although pure stands of ash are very rare, the only way to get an adequate idea of possible yields per acre under management is by the study of yields per acre of pure stands. 1 Measurements by Forester Deam, of Indiana, on planted stands of white and green ash. PLATE XII. Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 531A Fl2 undles. € e ash cut for h econd-growth whit S$ 1.—Thirty-five-year-old natural Tia. F4199A 000 board ’ ., Which will cut 8 paign, Ill t Cham SMALL SECOND-GROWTH ASH VALUABLE FOR HANDLES. ion a feet per acre I'i@, 2.—Forty-year-old green ash plantat Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII. F23732 Fia. 1.—Stand in Indiana 15 years old, trees 3 to 6 inches in diameter and 25 to 35 feet high. Not yet ready for thinning, as natural pruning has not progressed far enough. ot, FI3922A Fig. 2.—Stand 35 to 40 years old in central Ohio. Trees 6 to 12 inches in diameter and 50 to 60 feet high. Stand will cut 7,000 board feet per acre. Natural pruning has progressed sufli- ciently to admit of heavy thinning if desired. A slight admixture of other species in the stand, including black cherry, yellow poplar, red oak, and sugar maple. Large tree on left is black cherry, which has considerably outgrown the ash, and tree on right is red oak, which, on the other hand, has been outgrown by the ash, EVEN-AGED, WELL-STOCKED NATURAL STANDS OF WHITE ASH DESIRABLE TO SECURE IN MANAGEMENT. THE ASHES : THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 33 Table 15 is the result of tabulating the yields per acre of 63 sample plots in comparatively pure, even-aged stands of ash, half in natural and half in planted stands, from 5 to 75 years old, and drawing three curves to represent high but not the highest (Quality I), average (Quality II), and low (Quality III) yields. The stands represented were mostly on average-quality ash sites. Practically all were unthinned stands, and the yields may be considered as representing conservatively the possibilities of well-stocked ash stands under management on fair to good sites. TABLE 15.— Yield of pure, .even-aged, well-stocked stands of ash on different quality sites. QUALITY I. Yield per acre. Number Average of trees diameter Age. peracre | sreasthigh Scribner Decimal C 3” and 3” and Cords. over. over. 7’ and over.|3’’ and over. S. Board feet. | Cubic feet. Dd Years. Beet Inch 20 42 5.4 2, 000 2, 200 24.4 25 391 6.5 4 200 3,100 34.4 30 375 7.5 6, 500 3, 900 43.3 35 361 8.3 9, 000 4,600 51.1 40 341 9.1 11, 700 5, 250 58.3 45 322 9.9 14, 700 5,830 64.8 50 288 10.5 18,000 6,350 70.6 55 251 a2 21; 700 6, 800 75.6 60 224 11.8 25, 700 7, 220 80.2 65 203 12.4 29, 500 7, 600 84.4 70 188 13.0 32, 800 7,950 88.3 75 176 13.5 35, 600 8, 280 92.0 80 166 14.0 38,000 8, 600 95.6 QUALITY II. 20 482 4/0; hee 850 9.4 25 435 5.0 1,000 1, 680 18.7 30 415 5.8 2; 200 2, 400 26.7 35 393 6.6 3, 600 3, 050 33.9 40 378 7.4 5,300 3, 630 40.3 45 367 8.0 7,500 4, 130 45.9 50 361 8.7 9, 900 4,590 51.0 55 350 9.3 12, 700 5, 000 55.6 60 340 9.8 15, 700 5,380 59.8 65 326 10.4 19, 100 5, 720 66.8 70 309 10.9 22) 600 6,010 66.8 75 288 11.5 25,, 500 6,270 69.7 80 268 12.0 28) 000 6,520 72.4 QUALITY III. 25 469 3.5 ile eee 470 5.2 30 456 49>) an 970 10.8 35 452 4.9 300 1,470 16.3 40 426 5.5 1,300 1, 950 Pile 45 410 6.2 2 400 2; 400 26.7 50 402 6.8 3,900 2,790 31.0 BB i 392 7.3 5, 600 3, 150 35.0 60 382 7.9 7, 700 3,470 38.6 65 377 8.4 10, 200 3, 760 41.8 70 371 8.9 12, 900 4,020 44.7 7 | 365 9.3 15, 700 4260 47.3 80 359 9.8 18, 000 4, 490 49.9 1 Based on 18 plots, Quality I, 30 plots, Quality II; 14 plots, Quality III, with a total area of 16.9 acres. 6023°—Bull. 299—15——_3 34 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The yield table may be considered as especially applicable to pure, even-aged, well-stocked natural stands of white ash, as 42 of the 63 plots were white.ash, 28 of which were in natural stands in New York and Ohio. Fourteen plots in planted white ash stands were taken in Illinois, but did not average quite as high yields as those in natural stands farther east. Fifteen of the plots were in green ash, 14 of which were in planted stands in Iowa and Illinois and 1 in a natural stand in North Carolina. The average yield possibilities for well-stocked stands of green ash on southern bottom lands free from water during most of the grow- ing season would be considerably above that of Quality u in the fanle but probably below Quality I. Ste of the plots were in planted black ash stands in JIinois, which indicated higher yields than planted white ash stands in the same State. These yields, however, are very much too high to be repre- sentative of the best vell:siouked natural black ash stands in typical black ash swamps of the Lake States. VALUE OF STANDING ASH TIMBER. A good way to figure the stumpage in any particular locality is to subtract from the f. 0. b. mill value of the manufactured lumber the cost of production plus a reasonable profit to the producer for his _ time, labor, and capital. The total cost of producing ash lumber usually varies from $10 to $18 per thousand board feet, and on the average is not over $14. Ten per cent of the f. o. b. value of the prod- ucts is enough to allow for profit in figuring what future ash stump- age grown under forest management will be worth. On this basis Table 16 is constructed, giving for different costs of production the value of standing ash timber, which when cut into lumber will sell (mill run) at the prices indicated. The amount of the producer’s profit is also given. TABLE 16.—Stumpage values per 1,000 board feet for different f. 0. b. mill values and different costs of lumbering (allowing 10 per cent for profit). | 10 per Cost of lumbering. TOES 1 Oe | cent value. | profit of l | producer.| $10. $12. | $14. $16. | $18. he pees Stumpage value per 1,000 board feet. $20 | $2.00 $8.18 $6.18 $4.18 $2.18 $0. 18 PP It PEE 10. 00 8. 00 6.00 4.00 2. 00 24 2. 40 11. 82 9. 82 7.82 5. 82 3. 82 26 2. 60 13. 64 11. 64 9. 64 7. 64 5. 64 28 2. 80 15. 45 13.45 11. 45 45 7.45 30 3.00 17. 27 15. 27 13. 27 11. 27 9. 27 32 3. 20 19. 09 17.09 15. 09 13. 09 11.09 34 3.40 20.91 18. 91 16. 91 14.91 12. 91 36 3. 60 22. 73 20. 73 18. 73 16. 73 14. 7. 38 3. 80 24.55 22.55 20. 55 18.55 16.55 40 4.00 26. 36 24. 36 22. 36 20. 36 18. 36 | THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 35 Ash stumpage, especially small second-growth trees conveniently located, will very often be worth more if made into handles (PI. XII), baseball bats, oars, etc., than if cut into lumber. From the standpoint of management the value of second-growth stands is the important thing, and this m turn depends largely on the proportion of grades which any particular stand will cut. Table 17 indicates the percentage of the different grades cut from second- erowth white ash under 75 years of age of different diameters from comparatively straight and sound trees, such as would be grown in properly managed second-growth stands.t. The second half of this table shows the f. o. b. mill-run value per thousand board feet of trees of different diameters, taking the following f. o. b. prices for the different grades: Hursis|| @Nose ie Now2 |e iNo.8 seconds. |C2™mon. | common. |common. IBLTH MgoocanecacenSs $60 $35 $25 $15 Average...-----..- 50 30 20 10 WOW ees ce 40 25 15 5 TaBLE 17.—Per cent of grades cut from white ash trees of different diameters, for compara- tively straight and sound trees under 75 years old, and f. o. b. mill values of the same. Grade. F. 0. b. meee per 1,000 Diameter| Firsts breast- | and sec- high. onds. 1 com- 2 com- 3 com- ificn, | Anoemes ae Inches. | Inches. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 8 34 sodoopDpot 53 13 $29. 00 $24. 00 $19. 00 10 1 51 41 7 29.75 24. 70 19. 65 12 47 40 6 31.55 26. 20 20. 85 14 22 42 30 6 36. 30 29. 20 24, 10 16 29 42 22 7 38. 65 32. 20 25.75 18 35 39 19 7 40.75 33. 70 26. 95 20 43 36 15 6 42.75 35. 90 28.75 Stated in general terms, the mil-run value of second-growth ash from comparatively vane and sound trees of all three commercial species is about as follows: Size of | Mill-run value ber 1,000 board eet. trees in diameter, breast- high. Low. |Average.| High. Inches. 7 to 11 $20 $24 12 to 16 24 29 17 to 21 28 34 1 Based on a mill scale study made in western New York of the cut by grades of 43 white ash logs from trees 8 to 20 inches in diameter, breasthigh, and 40 to 70 years old. 36 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - Applymg the foregoing mill-run or f. 0. b. values to Table 16; taking $14 as an average cost of lumbering, would give stumpage values as follows: Size of Stumpage value per 1,000 trees in board feet. diameter, breast- high. Low. Average.| High. Inches. 7 toll $4. 18 $7. 82 $12. 36 12 to 16 7.82 12.36 18.73 17 to 21 11.45 16. 91 22. 36 These values may appear too high, because in practice the operator is often at present able to purchase his stumpage for less than its real value and accordingly makes more than 10 per cent profit. This state of affairs, however, is rapidly disappearing as the supply of raw material diminishes; and the operator will finally be forced to do business on less rather than on more than a 10 per cent profit basis, especially when it comes to the purchase of second-growth ‘timber grown at some expense under forest management. Further, it must be remembered that the timber grower is not at the mercy of the market so much as the manufacturer and the farmer, because he can more easily hold his goods until better prices obtain. Probably a record price for ash stumpage was paid in 1913 in east-central Illinois (ear the Indiana line) when $32 per thousand board feet was paid for a quarter million feet of old-growth white ash, while on the same tract, $125 per thousand board feet was paid for black walnut, $24.75 for white oak, and $18.05 for hickory. ADVISABILITY OF FOREST MANAGEMENT OF ASH. ' The growing of ash timber, under proper management, will some- times pay 6 per cent or better on the money invested, where good yields per acre and good stumpage prices are obtaimed. This is shown by Table 18, which gives the compound-interest rates (where 3 per cent or over) to be realized on different initial investments in growing ash where the yields indicated in Table 15 are obtained and where the stumpage is worth $5, $10, $15, or $20 per thousand board feet. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT, 37 TasBLE 18.—Jnterest rates’ (compound) to be expected on money invested in growing ash, where yield quality I, II, or III stands are secured, calculated for different stumpage values and for different initial investments. (Blank spaces indicate less than 3 per cent interest.) Total initial investment per acre. Value of 52 10.3 5.4 5 5 6 ‘Nae | Shane $ | $10. $15. $20. $25. $30.7 of | per 1,000 ee stand.| board \ c . & : : feet. Compound interest rates (per cent) for yield quality I, II, and III stands. 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SAREE HeSaoe AS |b oa.3| eerie 60 fl Zsa) SEO ease Shit] |bbos SeGad sane Baadlsooodionee| bev elocdoa| Metal dese Haas bose daledooe 10| 6.4! 5.3]..... Reo | eae 4:31) 22a Si She geal Bs be Behe ce ite ccpall ered wa Be eis 15} 7.3) 6.2) 4.4) 6.0] 5.0) 3.2) 5.2) 4.1)..... Ale Has Oleteieio!= Cd neal SeGoe SB Uleecdlidiacce 20} 7.8) 6.8) 5.2) 6.6) 5.6) 4.0) 5.8) 4.8)...-- 5. 3] 4.3]....- Ent: Bb Ullaeoac 4.6) 3.4)..... 70 Oleeong eee Sanee Sh tcodllaanoolooed scaclaoocd|aob|[-ceclloooadlecodibedrlecusd|acac Scllonaoc 10} 6.4) 4.8)..... 4.6) 3.8!....- Bt Saar lecace Sho Scee aaees Baa Roce SESsd Saqn wasalecces 15] 6.5] 5:7) 4.4) 5.4) 4.7) 3.4) 4.6) 3.8)..... 4.2) 2.4) .2..- BSylS8eg |seode So 4 len ee| peat 20) 7.0) 6.3) 5.1) 5.9)°5.3) 4.1) 5.2) 4. 5)....- 4.8) 4.0)....- 4.3] 3. 5].-.-- 4.0) 3.2|-..-. 80 | Soeeo Soe Babes Gene acd todas sooasdaclioscs ail °202||>30ellsaciod| Sona|laced|sacaallones S8ocleacoc HOW 458) 3 19) See BH] eb W Seana lodod sane Sood (556i foadsauS4|eccallsnscllannoa|locee posellscicos 15) 5.6) 5.0) 3.8) 4.7) 4.1)... SH] Bh lle cons $b Gl bAcal Gace Bees nad secacloacaloaad eocse 20) 6.1) 5.7) 4.7] 5.2) 4.7)..... 4.5) 3. 8)... ~- CU eSieosae OnOl ea ialeere Bbtilbocisisense = n/S+L—A p 1Calculated by the formula p=100 Tae , where p=compound interest rate, n=num- ber of years or rotation, S=stumpage value at n years; L=cost of land; F=cost of formation; and A= cost of administration and taxes in n years at 6 per cent compound interest. Five cents per acre annually is allowed for administration (including fire protection) and one cent on the dollar (full valuation) annually or taxes. 2 $5 cost of land, and no cost of formation of stand. 3 $5 cost of land; and $5 cost of formation of stand. 4 $10 cost ot land, and $5 cost of formation of stand. 5 $10 cost of land, and $10 cost of formation of stand. 6 $15 cost of land, and $10 cost of formation of stand. 7 $15 cost ot land, and $15 cost of formation of stand. Where Quality I yields and $20 stumpage are to be obtained, the operator may spend as much as $20 per acre in buying land and establishing a stand of ash and still get 6 per cent interest on the investment. Where Quality Ii or average yields and $20 stumpage are to be obtained, it is possible to get 6 per cent interest on an investment of $10 per acre. Quality III yields with $20 stumpage will only pay a little over 5 per cent interest on an original mvestment of $5. 88 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. On the average, ash stumpage will be worth only from $10 to $15 per thousand board feet, and well-stocked seedling stands of ash will usually cost $10 or more per acre. On this basis it will require at the least a Quality II yield to pay 6 per cent interest. These figures disregard the possibility of intermediate returns from thin- nings, which under especially favorable conditions might amount to from 20 to 30 per cent of the value of the final returns. It may be said in general, however, that growing ash timber as a profitable investment is practically limited to lands which will produce good yields of ash and which do not cost over $10 or $15 per acre. Ash is one of the most desirable trees for growing in farmers’ woodlots, wherever the soil is suitable, because of its usefulness for -many purposes on the farm, and because it brings a high price when sold. It is also especially to be recommended for timber growing on agricultural land which the owner does not wish to use or develop at once for agriculture, but which he, nevertheless, desires to hold indefinitely. The cost of growing temporary forest crops which will pay fair returns will be very small in comparison with the cost of developing land agriculturally. Such crops will also require very little supervision. It will often be a wise policy for the farmer to cultivate only so much land as he can handle according to the best farming methods, allowing the rest to grow to timber. In the management of all forest types in which ash occurs naturally, it is always to be ranked as one of the most, if not the most, desirable species to encourage, often to the extent of securing pure or nearly pure stands of it over limited areas where the soil is suitable. OBJECT OF MANAGEMENT. The object of management of ash should be to secure on sites well adapted to its growth either well-stocked, pure, or nearly pure stands; or well-stocked mixed stands of desirable species, ash forming as large a proportion as it is practicable to secure, and being made, by thinnings if necessary, the favored dominant tree with plenty of growing space (Pl. XIII). Pure stands of ash will usually have to be established by planting or sowing, as only comparatively small patches can be secured by natural reproduction. They should be limited, as a rule, to the best sites and to short rotations, which will insure high yields. On all but the best sites ash is silviculturally better adapted for growing in mixed stands, either singly or in small groups, because the trees are light demanding and develop wide-spreading, surface-feeding root systems, and can be advantageously separated by more tolerant species with deep-growing roots. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 39 ROTATION. Ash should be grown, as a rule, on comparatively short rotations of 30 to 60 years. Table 18 shows that the best financial rotation, or one which will yield the highest rate of interest on the money invested, falls between these years. The financial rotation is length- ened by low yields, low stumpage values, and high initial investment, while the opposites of these shorten it. The actual rotation in any particular case may be altered from what seems to be the best finan- cial rotation by a number of factors, including the purpose for which the timber is grown, the condition of the market, and the occurrence of seed years. From a silvicultural standpoint a short rotation is highly advisable for pure even-aged stands of ash, because of the tree’s root and crown requirements. Long rotations in pure stands should be prac- ticed only on the best sites, and in some cases where a long rotation is desired the stand should be heavily thinned out and under-planted after it is 40 to 50 years old, to protect the soil. In mixed stands where it is the favored Slanstnenne tree ash can often be grown singly or in small groups on a long rotation. SPECIES FOR COMMERCIAL TIMBER GROWING. Species of the white and green ash groups are more desirable for commercial timber growing than those of the black ash group, because their wood is superior in mechanical properties and because they are usually faster growing and attain greater length and clearness of bole. There are two classes of sites, however, where for silvicultural reasons it may be advisable to grow ash of the black ash group—namely, blue ash on dry limestone formations of the Central States and black ash in northern swamps. There is no great variation in the mechanical properties of the different species of the green and white ash groups, and little or none in the sale value of lumber of the same grade from different species, so that the selection of species for commercial growing from these groups depends entirely on their silvicultural qualities. In general, the species which is most common to the region and character of site im question should be used. The growing of species outside their natural habitat (of region and site) should never be tried on more than an experimental scale. White ash will be the species to use, as a rule, in the New England, Middle, Central, and Lake States and in the hills and mountains of the South; and green ash on river bottom land of the Southern, Central, and Plains States. Of very minor importance will be the growing of Oregon ash on the Pacific coast and of leather-leaf ash (/. velutina) in the Southwest (the latter for shade. ornament, and protection). Biltmore ash is an important AO BULLETIN 299, U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. supplementary species to white ash and can be advantageously sub- stituted for it on drier soils in the Central States and in the southern Appalachians at an elevation of from 1,000 to 2,500 feet. Texas ash is the natural substitute for white ash on uplands in central Texas, but is not important for commercial timber growing. Red and pumpkin ash are two excellent substitutes for green ash, the former adapted to somewhat drier soils and more rigorous climate than green (extending farther north), and the latter to somewhat wetter soil conditions in the central and eastern parts of its range. Possibilities of reforestation by natural reproduction are quite good with white and green ash, but naturally very limited with the other less abundant species. In planting or sowing ash it is advisable to use seed from trees of species common in the region (and on similar sites, if possible) where the reforesting is to be done, or from a region with a slightly more rigorous climate. Also seed should always be secured, if possible, from vigorous, rapid-growing individuals. NATURAL VERSUS ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION. Wherever it is possible to secure natural reproduction by using such methods as are described later every effort should be made to do so. Artificial reproduction is more expensive and less certain of ultimate success. Planting should be confined to spots where natural reproduction is incomplete or to areas where there is no possibility of natural growth. It will sometimes be more advisable, however, especially on cheap land, to spend money for disengagement cuttings, to liberate the ash and other desirable species from suppression, — rather than for supplementary planting work. In other cases it may be well to divide the money to be spent between planting and disengagement work. In general, the more expensive the land and the higher the stumpage values the more profitable will it be to spend money on artificial reproduction in order to secure fully stocked stands with the largest possible per acre per annum growth instead of being satisfied with incomplete natural reproduction at no expense and giving smaller yields per acre. For instance, Table 18 shows that a 5,000 yield on $20 land with no cost of esablishment will not pay as well as a 10,000 yield on the same with $5 to $15 cost of estab- lishment, while on $5 land a 5,000 yield without cost of establishment would pay best. Similarly the less the natural yield capacity of the soil and the lower the stumpage values the less likely is it to be profit- able to spend money in establishing a stand. Adequate reproduction of ash, resultmg in highest yields, demands that on every separate square rod of space there should be at the start a mimimum of one thrifty ash seedling, together with at least THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 4] three other good seedlings of ash or other species, an absolute mini- mum of 160 ash trees per acre spaced about a rod apart each way, and a total mmimum of 681 trees per acre of all species. This cor- responds roughly to a spacing of 8 by 8 feet. For the sake of safety it is best to have two or more ash seedlings on every square rod at the outset. The important pomt in production of high per acre yields is, not the total number of ash seedlings per acre but the num- ber of individual square rods on the acre which have ash seedlings on them. It is best therefore to plant the square rod areas having no promising natural reproduction of ash on them. The total area where natural reproduction of ash is possible is very small in comparison with the possible area where it can be artificially established with success, as it very seldom forms a sufficient propor- tion of the mature stand to reproduce itself adequately. The princi- pal species for natural reproduction are the most abundant ones, which are white, green, and black ash; the other species, where desired will usually have to be artificially established. REFORESTING BY NATURAL MEANS. The methods described here apply to all stands, pure or mixed, where the object is to remove the mature stand m such a way as to secure as much natural reproduction of ash as is possible. Methods of cutting (see pp. 42-44) should be used which will bring about the production and dissemination of as much seed as possible over the area, and which will assist m providing suitable seedbed and light conditions for germination and seedling establishment. In many cases additional work may be necessary, such as cutting out worthless material and underbrush to improve conditions for seeding and seed- ling growth, and later on when the ash seedlings are several years old disengagement cuttings to free them from crowding or suppression. All possible use should be made of seedlings and seedling sprouts already on the ground, as these will usually recover and grow well when the mature stand is opened up. If such growth is scragegly it can be cut back near the ground and allowed to sprout up again, which is especially advisable where it is over 5 feet in height and even in the case of small poles up to 20 feet in height. The mature trees should be cut with low stumps, so as to encourage sprouting from near the ground (below the root collar), which sprouts will form independent root systems and make the best trees. Any attempt to secure natural reproduction of ash assumes the occurrence, mn the stand to be cut, of ash trees which can be used for seeding purposes. It will often be possible to remove the mature stand in such a way as to secure so abundant a reproduction that ash will be one of the leading species m the new stand, though im the 42 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. old stand it may form but a very small proportion (Pl. XIV, fig. 1), perhaps only three or four seed trees per acre. The fact that white and green ash have male and female flowers borne on separate trees will not usually mterfere with ash reproduc- tion cuttings, as such cuttings will be made after it is apparent that there is going to be a good seed year, and the tree which will have the most seed can be picked out and reserved. In preliminary reproduc- tion cuttings (to induce seed production) it should be remembered, however, that one large-crowned male tree per acre will pollinate more than enough flowers of female trees on that acre, and the remain- ing males can be removed if desired. Determination of sex can be made by marking trees which bear seed (female trees) in advance of such cuttings. In mixed stands with a small percentage of ash and where the sexes have not been determined, it will be best to leave all large-crowned ash trees. METHODS OF CUTTING. The methods of cutting to secure natural reproduction of ash may be grouped under two general systems; the shelterwood system and the clean-cutting system, the former being adapted to all sites on which ash grows, the latter to a limited range of sites. The best method to use in any particular case depends on a number of factors: The species to be reproduced; the site, especially soil moisture and soil covering; age and density of the stand, includmg the amount and character of the undergrowth; and proportion of ash in the mature stand. SHELTERWOOD SYSTEM. The shelterwood system consists in the more or less gradual removal of the mature stand, allowing reproduction to get well started under the shelter of the mature stand before removing it entirely. This system is especially suitable to upland white ash, as it preserves soil moisture, a liberal amount of which is necessary for germination and seedling establishment. The method of cuttmg to be used varies with the density of the stand. In comparatively dense stands the mature trees should be removed in two or three cuttings: First, a seed cutting, often unnecessary, consisting in opening up around ash trees (and trees of other species it is wished to favor) to induce them to seed freely; second, a heavy thinning or. partial clearance in the year of good seed production removing one-quarter to one-half of the volume of.the stand; third, removal of the remaining stand a year later or as soon as practicable after reproduction has taken place. Where these cuttings are made with reference to a number of small areas—thinning out around THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 43 individual trees or small groups of trees of less than a quarter acre in area—which are gradually enlarged until they meet, it is called the shelterwood group method, and where the general cuttings are made uniformly over a considerable area it is known as shelterwood com- partment method. The latter method is suitable for comparatively regular forests, while the former is more applicable to irregular forests, including overmature natural forests, and hence is the one to be most often used under present forest conditions. The compart- ment system is preferable where possible, because it involves less expensive and complex silvicultural and lumbering operations. In broken or open stands, where ash seed trees occur with com- paratively free crowns, the first and second cuttings may be very much restricted or even omitted altogether. There will usually be, however, in such stands obstructing undergrowth which should be removed when there is a good seed year, preferably cut with a brush hook or bolo in the late summer so as to encourage the feeble growth of tender sprouts which otherwise will likely be winterkilled. The mature stand should be removed as soon as possible after reproduction takes place. Much of the black and blue ash seed will lie over and not germinate till the second year, which may delay removal of the mature stand. Previous to the fall of seed much work can be done in' the way of preparation of the seedbed, especially where it is thick and dry: (1) Wounding of the soil in logging operations; (2) burning of the forest floor; (3) turning in stock, especially hogs. This kind of work is not necessary when the cover is prevailingly of pine needles, as ash seed can work its way through (PI. XIV, fig. 1). If reproduc- tion is inadequate at the first seeding it will not pay (except perhaps with green ash) to wait for another seed year, the area should be cut clean at once and fail spots planted up. CLEAN-CUTTING SYSTEM. This consists in clean cutting the stand when there is a good seed year at hand. Seed is secured: (1) By making the cutting after the seed has fallen; (2) by making strip or border cuttings 100 to 200 feet wide on the most protected side of the stand, or by clean cutting in patches 100 to 300 feet wide, so that seed may be secured from trees in the adjacent stand; (3) by clean cutting except for scattered seed trees or groups of trees, several good seed trees or groups to the acre if possible, well distributed. Clean-cutting methods are adapted only to moist or wet loamy soils with an open seedbed. Preparation of the seedbed as described for the shelterwood system will often be advisable. Green ash on southern river bottom lands is especially adaptable to this system, but the other species of ash are much less so. 44 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - PLANTING OF FAIL SPOTS AND DISENGAGEMENT CUTTINGS. A year or two after the seeding of a new crop (simultaneously with the removal of the remaining shelter stand under the shelterwood system, or during the first good season for planting which follows) it is very desirable to go over the stand and plant one or more vigorous young ash seedlings in every square rod which has no reproduction of ash or other desirable species. Some places may be covered with a thick growth of inferior species, in the middle of which a square yard or so is cut clean and an ash seedling planted. Other square rods may be fail spots for reproduction of any kind, and here four (approximately 8 by 8 feet) or more seedlings should be planted, but not necessarily all ash. 5 Another important thing to be done at the time or within five years (the sooner the better) of the final cutting of the remaining mature stand is disengagement work. This consists in freeing the crowns of a certain number of well-distributed and vigorous ash seed- lings (and desirable seedlings of other species) from injurious crowding on the sides and from overhead suppression by lopping off the less desirable seedlings with a corn knife or brush axe. At least one well- freed, vigorous seedling should be left on every square rod, and preferably three or four seedlings of desirable species. One man should be able to cover one or two acres a day in this kind of work. REFORESTING BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS. Artificial reforestation of ash is expensive, and should be limited to cleared fields and pastures and to the choicer forest sites in the natural habitat of the particular species to be grown. There are three general classes of artificial reforesting advisable for ash: (1) Planting on cut-over forest areas (including fail-spot planting in naturally reproduced stands); (2) dibbling in or sowing of ash seed under cover of mature stands (with good soil moisture conditions) to be removed the following year, or sowing immediately after clean cutting of stands on moist, fertile, loamy sites free from undergrowth; (3) planting or sowing of cleared areas, including chiefly old fields and pastures. Underplanting of areas to be cut over later will seldom if ever be advisable. . In regard to the question of planting versus sowing, the former is of much more general application and more certain of success; while the latter is much the cheaper, and under some conditions has good possibilities of success. PLANTING. Seedlings for planting should be nursery grown, as a rule, since they are cheaper and much more likely to survive than wild stock. Wild stock seedlings might be used locally to a very limited extent THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 45 for filling in spots, when it is not convenient to get nursery stock, and when it is possible to dig them up from near-by spots where they are unnecessarily thick, and to transplant with great care. Wild stock seedlings to be planted in comparatively open spots must be taken from situations with similar shade conditions. Young (1 to 3 years old), vigorous, straight seedlings, under 2 feet in height, should be secured if possible. For nursery-grown stock 1 to 2 year seedlings, 6 inches to 2 feet high, are preferable because cheaper, more easily planted, and usually more likely to succeed than older and larger stock. The general spacing for plants on cut-over areas has already been referred to (see p. 41). In general, 8 by 8 feet each way will be all right, with every other tree an ash, although on drier and poorer sites 6 by 6 feet should be used. Where there is danger of suppression by undergrowth or natural growth of any kind, vigorous plants 2 to 4 feet high (2 to 3 years old) should be used, but otherwise piants one-half to 2 feet in height (1 to 2 years old) will be sufficient. In planting fields and pastures the spacing should be 8 by 8 feet where it is possible to cultivate and to grow field crops several seasons between the rows; where not cultivated, 6 by 6 fect spacing (or 5 by 5 if soil is dry) should be used, except on unusually moist fertile soil, where 7 by 7 or 8 by Sis all right. Itis possible to plant as few as one-quarter of the trees ash, and by subsequent favoring to make them form practically a pure stand. In this case every other row | could be of another species, and the remaining rows of ash alternating with another species, which would result in the following number of ash trees for the different spacings: Ash plants Total per acre Spacing. | plants per (one- acre. quarter of the total. Feet. 5 by 5 1,743 436 6 by 6 1, 210 303 7 by 7 889 222 8by 8 681 170 Table 19 gives the species suitable for planting with ash. 46 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 19.—Species for planting in mixture with ash. Species of ash to be planted. Sit White ash. Green ash. 18. Biltmore ash. Red ash. Black ash. Best species to plant in mixture. resht Ord Lyic-. sie \-leis 325 Hard maple.! | White pine. . White pine.? Silver maple. Black locust.1 Russian mulberry.1 Red oak.? Red oak.? Beech.! European larch. European larch.2 Moist to wet....--.----- White pine. Cottonwood. White pine. Silver maple.4 Willow. Spruce. Cottonwood.? Red maple. Larch. Yellow poplar.’ Loblolly pine.2 Elm. Cypress.? Yellow poplar.? Pin oak.? Sigil pene Se sece moose prccode doce coaSeceurtcnAOanard lorscdspcducsendccesncretuoacd ss Spruce.? American larch.? | | ire 1 Secondary tree; not liable to overcrowd ash. 2 Principal tree; not liable to overcrowd ash. 3 Principal tree; liable to overcrowd ash, and should be sparingly planted and given plenty of room in mixture with ash. 4 Secondary tree; liable to overcrowd ash and should be thinned out subsequently where necessary, or cut back and allowed to sprout up again. The general rule should be to cultivate the planted ash stands twice a season for two or three seasons wherever practicable (PI. XY), except, perhaps, on the best moist, fairly well drained, permeable loamy sites, such as fertile alluvial river bottoms, where the trees will take hold and grow well without cultivation. COST OF PLANTING. The cost of planting on unprepared sites, where plowing or culti- vation of any kind is impracticable, will range about as follows: Cost of seedlings (delivered at the site).......-.-....-- $2 to $6, average $4 per 1,000 Cost ofsetting sa year yy ec cita ets ont weer rs 3 to 9, average 6 per 1,000 Motal sos. 22 Lede: ae haemo) Mabasic. 5 to 15, average 10 per 1,000 This is figuring that one man at $1.25 to $2 per day will plant 200 to 400 seedlings per day. Home-grown seedlings could often be produced for less than $2 per 1,000, so $4 for average cost per 1,000 of seedlings is conservative. Using $10 per 1,000 (a very liberal amount to allow even for cut- over forest land) for cost of plantations, their cost per acre for different spacings would be as given in Table 20. TaBLe 20.—Cost per acre of establishing ash plantations on unprepared ground with cost of plants $4 per 1,000 and cost of setting at $6 per 1,000. SpAcin ess Sane pk. Tee aces. ee ee Se See feet..| 8 by 8. 7 by 7. 6 by 7. 6 by 6. | 5 by 5. Numb erof;plantst ses o2 ee eee science enon Rees 681 889 1,038 1,210 | 1, 743 Y ae Sar 5 = Se eee ay | - (Ces MO OEE SARA BR Ee poten an seasena abo seceeeean.: $2. 72 $3. 56 $4.15 $4. 84 $6. 97 Costrolisetting S22 esse. eae cetera 4.09 5. 33 6. 23 7. 26 11. 46 otal SRE AN ECC Ny Sie Win 7.81 8.s0| 10.38/ 1210] 17.48 THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 47 Wherever possible it is advisable to prepare the land by plowing. The cost of setting the seedlings on prepared ground will be much less—not over $2 to $3 per 1,000—while the growth of the seedlings will be much increased and the number of failures much reduced. The total per acre cost of plantations of different spacings on prepared ground, allowing $2.50 per 1,000 for cost of setting, $4 per 1,000 for the plants, and $1 to $6 for cost of preparation and subsequent culti- vations, is shown in Table 21. TasiE 21.—Cost per acre of establishing ash plantations on prepared ground with subse- quent cultivations, seedlings to cost $4 per 1,000 and $2.50 per 1,000 for setting. Cost per acre of preparation and cultivation. Spacing. Pee $1 $2 $3 | $4 | $5 | 36 Total cost of plantation per acre in dollars. Feet 8 by 8 681 $5. 42 $6. 42 $7. 42 $8. 42 $9. 42 $10. 42 iby 7 889 6. 78 7. 78 8. 78 9. 78 10. 78 11. 78 6 by 7 1,038 7.75 8.75 9.75 10. 75 11.75 12. 75 6 by 6 1,210 8. 87 9. 87 10. 87 11. 87 12. 87 13. 87 5 by 5 1, 743 12. 31 13. 31 14. 31 14.31 15. 31 16. 31 The cost of preparation varies from $1 to $3, depending on the care with which it is done and the cost of labor and animals; plowing of wide-spaced furrows without subsequent cultivation can be done for $1 an acre or less, Two cultivations a season for two seasons will cost 50 cents to $1 per cultivation, or $2 to $4 for the two seasons. All cultivations should be given before the Ist of June, as ash does practically all its growing before the middle of June or the 1st of July. Where the stand is to be cultivated, wider spacing can be used (6 by 6 to 8 by 8) on sites where the dryness of the soil might require closer spacing if not cultivated, a saving in plants and cost of setting which would much more than pay for the costs of cultivation. On the heavy soils of the treeless and hardwood regions cultivation is almost a necessity to keep down grass and conserve moisture. PLANTING WITH FIELD CROPS. This is the best of all methods of establishing ash plantations on fields, as it will often be possible, by growing field crops the first two seasons, to pay for the cost of establishing the stand and having it cultivated four or five times in a season. Corn will be the usual crop to grow. The field, after being plowed (preferably the fall before), should be disked and marked off 4 by 4 in early spring, and ash seedlings planted in alternate rows spaced 8 feet apart in the row, and corn planted 4 feet apart in rows with no ash and 8 feet apart in the 48 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, rows which contain ash. About four cultivations a year will usually be necessary for growing corn. Instead of planting ash seedlings, seed spotting may sometimes be used on better sites im connection with field crops. On the Indiana State Forest, a 3-year plantation of green ash on upland, in which corn was grown the first two seasons, averaged a foot higher and was in much thriftier condition for more rapid growth than a 6-year old plantation on slightly better soil but not cultivated. DIRECT SOWING. The comparative cheapness of direct sowing makes it sometimes advisable, instead of planting, where there are good chances of suc- cess. The seed-spot method is the one to use: (1) For dibbling m seed under the broken cover of a mature stand to be cut in a year or two, with fair soil moisture conditions; (2) for sowing on cut-over areas free from undergrowth immediately following clean cutting of the mature stand, on good moist loamy soil; and (3) for sowing on - cleared land, such as pastures, which it is not possible to prepare by ploughing. A pound to two pounds of seed will easily sow an acre, allowing 5 to 10 seed per spot and a close 4 by 4-foot spacing of spots, which is advisable in direct sowing. The holes should be dug 8 to 12 inches square and 3 to 4 inches deep (with a mattock or heavy turfing hoe), the soil broken up fine and lightly tamped down, the seed put in and half an inch of fine earth sprinkled over it. If there is any sod this can be placed, grass side down, around the edge of the hole so as form a sort of trench to hold moisture. The cost of seed- spotting, including seed, should not average over $4 per 1,000 spots, which is equivalent to $10.89 per acre for 4 by 4 spacing, $6.97 for 5 by 5 spacing, $4.84 for 6 by 6 spacing, $3. 56 for 7 by 7 spacing, and $2.72 for 8 by 8 spacing. Methods to use on prepared ground are: (1) Ploughing area, broadcasting 3 to 4 pounds of seed per acre, and harrowing it in; (2) seed-spotting at 4 to 6 foot intervals in ploughed furrows 4 to 6 feet apart. The total per acre cost would be about the same in both cases, $5 to $10 per acre. THINNINGS. Thinnings in crowded stands should be made an important feature in the management of ash (Pl. XIII). It is an intolerant but per- sistent tree, developing very rapidly in height, when crowded, at expense of diameter growth, resulting in spindling trees with short narrow crowns and long slim boles (Pl. VIII, fig. 2). It is, however, very responsive to thinnings made to increase its diameter growth (Pl. XI, fig. 1). Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIV. FII240A Fic. 1.—Dense natural reproduction of white ash in a 60-year-old white pine stand heavily thinned 3 years ago, in which there was a slight admixture of white ash seed trees. There was also abundant white pine reproduction, but this has been outgrown by theash. In removal of the mature stand the ash reproduction should be preserved and the pines, which survive the suppression, allowed to continue as an understory till the ash becomes merchantable and is removed, when the pine will form a second crop. FI3351A Fig. 2.—Black ash sprouts, northern Michigan, 16 feet tall, 8 years old, from stump 230 yearsold. Some sprouts from above and below the root-collar; the former should be cut. REPRODUCTION OF ASH. Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV, FI3352A Fic. 1.—Green and red ash, 8 to 20 feet, average 13 feet high; planted 5 seasons ago, spaced 5 by 5 feet; one-year seedlings used and cultivated 2 seasons. The tallest trees With stoutest twigs are red ash, which bore seed the fourth season after planting. FIS354A Fic. 2.—Green ash 2 to 6 feet, average 314 feet high, near those in figure 1. VTC eee planted with iron spud 6 seasons ago but not cultivated, ASH PLANTATIONS IN THE INDIANA STATE FOREST. Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, PLATE XVI FI2817A FI2813A Fic. 2.-After thinning, crowns were free. Crowns should be at least this distance apart after thinning to secure good development of the trees left. LOOKING UP INTO THE CROWNS OF A TWENTY-YEAR-OLD WHITE ASH STAND. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 49 The comparative growth of trees with varying amounts of growing space is shown in Table 22, giving the growth in 10 years of different crown classes;! predominant, dominant, codominant, intermediate, and suppressed. By thinning it is possible to make dominant trees out of desirable codominant and intermediate ones which are being crowded by less desirable trees, especially of other species. : By thinnings it should be possible in some cases to secure the board-feet yields indicated in Table 18 from 5 to 10 years earlier, and increase accordingly the possible interest rate on the money invested, provided the thinnings can be made to pay for themselves. Very slight crowding of ash when comparatively young will develop long, straight, clear boles. As soon as these are established it is best, in order to get the most valuable development of the stand, to thin out so that each tree which is to form a part of the final crop will have its crown practically free on all sides (Pl. XVI). It will usually be sufficient for purposes of heavy thinning if the boles are clear for 25 feet or more from the ground, or if the branches are all dead up to that height. TaBLE 22.—Relation of crown class, age and size of trees, and size of crown, to rate of growth in diameter and volume of white ash in New York, growing in comparatively even-aged dense stands. TREES ON SANDY LOAM SOIL, OSWEGO COUNTY, NEW YORK. f Growth in last Average. Average crown. 10 years. Branch- In vol- Crown class. Diam- wood ae Take eter . - inches 1- stem- : Age. breast- Height. | Length. | Width. or more | ameter. wood Basis. high. in di- inside ameter. bark. Years.| Inches. Feet. Feet. Feet. Cu. ft. Inches. Cu. ft. Trees. Suppressed ...- -- 32 4.1 45.1 17.2 ORGS Eee fee 1.1 1.02 Dominant.....-- 41 eS 67.1 28.1 19.8 2.16 3.2 10.00 31 Codominant...-.- Al 9.2 65.9 23.8 16.3 shies 2.3 6.31 41 Intermediate. -.. 40 7.0 57.9 22.8 13.4 -05 1.3 2.65 16 Predominant... - 60 17.4 68.7 40.1 20.2 10.88 Dall 15.41 7 Dominant....... 60 15.7 77.9 33. 7 23.2 4.72 2.7 14.76 17 Codominant..... 60 12.4 74.9 27.9 Ws GY/ 1.8 7.94 15 Intermediate. ... 60 9.1 69.3 24.6 16.0 77 1.3 3.98 6 Predominant. .-. 85 19.1 90.9 33.7 30.3 8.78 4.5 30.30 3 1 Under predominant, dominant, and codominant are included all trees which go to form the upper or main crown cover: (1) predominant, trees with crowns well above those of other trees; (2) dominant, trees with well-formed crowns, receiving light on allsides; (3) codominant, trees vith uneven crowns and crowded on the sides. The intermediate and suppressed classes include overtopped trees below the upper crown cover; (4) intermediate, receiving some direct sunlight on tips of crowns; (5) suppressed, with tips of crowns shaded. 6023°—Bull. 299—15——4 50 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLE 22.—Relation of crown class, age and_ size of trees, and size of crown, to rate of growth in diameter and volume of white ash in New York, growing in comparatively even-aged dense stands—Continued. TREES ON CLAY SOIL, OTSEGO COUNTY, NEW YORE. Average. Average crown. aires a Branch- -| In vol- Crown class. Dinar wood ae THAD Gi eter . - 2 inches i- stem- = INE) Gane Height. | Length. | Width. Seimionel|tarierans wood Basis. high. in di- inside ameter. bark. Years.| Inches. Feet. Feet. Feet. Cu. ft. | Inches. Cu. ft. | Trees. Suppressed... ...- 66 7.0 68.1 12.0 T3202 | pee aes 152 2.62 1 Dominant.....-- 75 13.6 83.6 29.3 20.1 2.57 2.0 9.68 7 Codominant...-- 76 12.5 85.5 24.4 15.7 1.83 1.3 6.96 8 Intermediate. ... 76 9.7 77.9 22,1 12.4 -54 1.0 4.09 4 Predominant. . 105 19.7 94.6 40.0 24.0 9.50 2.1 16.33 1 Dominant......- 105 15.8 89.9 28.7 18.7 4.32 1.4 9.44 10 Codominant...-. 105 12.5 83. 4 20.1 14.2 1.44 Sil 3.95 8 Intermediate. ... 104 11.6 80.3 26.5 14.5 1.50 1.0 4.38 2 Suppressed....-- 106 9.6 78.3 30.5 13.0 38 1.2 4.24 2 Liberal growing space for crowns is especially important for ash over 35 years old, to enable it to lay on diameter growth. In general, however, trees in stands under 35 years of age should be kept slightly crowded, being given a medium to heavy underthinning every five to ten years, preferably commencing when the stand is 15 to 20 years old. When 35 to 40 years old the stand should be heavily thinned, amounting to a partial clearance on good sites, and the crowns of the remaining trees left free on all sides. Ash on poorer sites is more intolerant and natural thinning more rapid than on good sites; so that the better the site the more impor- tant it is to thin and the greater the yield from thinnings. Figures on the rate of growth of individual trees on sandy and clay soils in New York (see Table 7) show faster growth in diameter and volume during youth on the poorer sandy site, while the reverse would have been the case if the stand on the better clay site had been thinned. In unthinned stands of ash under 50 years of age, the board foot yield and stumpage value per acre may be actually greater on a poorer site because of more rapid natural thinning and higher average diameters, although the total yield in cubic feet, number of trees per acre and height of stand is always greater on the better sites; this emphasizes the importance of thinnings in ash stands on good sites to concentrate the diameter growth into a smaller number of trees. : Money returns from thinning ash stands are already a possibility in some parts of the country, and as the supply of ash decreases thin- nings will become more and more profitable. The yield from thin- nings in some cases can be expected to equal 20 per cent or more of the returns from final cuttings of mature stands. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 5l SUMMARY OF SPECIES OF ASH FOR MANAGEMENT. The species of ash suited for forest management on different sites and in different regions of the United States and methods of reforesta- tion to be used are summarized in Table 23. TABLE 23.—Summary of species for management in different regions. Species to use in | Possibility and Region and character of site. order of pref- erence. method of natu- ral reproduction. Artificial reforestation. (1) New England, Middle, and Lake States: _ Dry upland (especial- ly south and west slopes). Fresh to moist upland (especially north ral east slopes). Bottomland with fair Blue ash, on rich soils only; ex- perimental. White ash, and ex- perimentally Biltmore ash. White ash, red ash, black ash. iBlackiashees: 5... Poor; shelterwood system; dibbling in seed. Fair; shelterwood system; dib- bling in seed. Good; clear cutting; seed dibbling. Fair; clear cutting; seed dibbling. Planting of 2foot seedlings, spaced 4 by 4 to6 by 6 feet; cul- tivation for 2 years essential; preferably mixed plantations. Planting 6 by 6, or 8 by 8 if culti- vated two seasons; cultivation advisable. Planting 8 by 8, or seed spots. Subsequent thinnings. Planting of seedlings 6 by 6 feet. (2) Central States, Southern Appalachians and Pied- mont regions: Dry upland (especial- | Blue and Biltmore! Poor; shelterwood | Planting 2-foot seedlings, 4 by 4 ly south and west ashes; on rich | System; dib- to 6 by 6 feet; 2 years cultiva- slopes). soils only. bling in seed. tion; mixed plantations best. Fresh tomoist upland | White and Bilt- | Fair.........: eAsaed Planting 6 by 6 or 8 by 8 if culti- (especially north more ashes. vated two seasons; cultivation and east slopes). advisable. Bottomland with fair | White and green | Good; clear cut- | Planting, 8 by 8, or seed spots. ashes. ting. Subsequent thinnings. (3) Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain region: Fair surface or sub- surface drainage. (4) Erainie and Plains States: pland. Bottom land: --22..-- - (5) Pacific Coast region: IVT natsese: sssse cee (6) Southwest: Sseee do Black, pumpkin, and green ashes. Green and pump- kin ashes. Pumpkin and green ashes. ashes. red Leatherleaf ashes (F. velutina and coriacea. ) Fair to poor; clear cutting; seed dibbling. Good; shelterwood and clear-cut- ting methods; seed dibbling. Fair to poor; clean cutting; seed dibbling. Fair; clear cutting and shelterwood. systems. Poor; shelterwood system. Planting of seedlings 6 by 6 feet. Planting 6 by 6 to 8 by 8 or seed ~ spots. Subsequent thinnings. Planting 6 by 6. Planting 6 by 6 and cultivated two to four seasons. Planting 6 by 6 to 8 by 8 and cul- tivated. Planting 6 by 6. Planting 6 by 6. Hardly to be advised. Planting, irrigation, and cultiva- tion four seasons. For shade trees and windbreaks only. APPENDIX. | TABLES. BARK TABLE. Table 24—Double width of bark of white, green, and black ash. FORM TABLES. Tables 25 and 26—White ash form tables: Table 25—For trees under 75 years in age. Table 26—For trees over 75 years in age. Tables 27 to 29—Green ash form tables: _ Table 27—For trees under 75 years in age. Table 28—For trees over 75 years in age. Table 29—Clear and used lengths of trees of different diameters and heights. Table 30—Black ash form table for trees over 75 years in age. VOLUME TABLES. [Based on Form Tables 25-30.] Tables 31 to 37—White ash volume tables: Table 31—Volume in cubic feet, peeled, for trees under 75 years in age. Table 32—Volume in cubic feet, peeled, for trees over 75 years in age. z Table 33—Volume in cords, and per cent of bark, for trees under 75 years in age. Table 34—Volume in cords, and per cent of bark, for trees over 75 years in age. Table 35—Volume and per cent of branch wood. Table 36—Volume table in board feet for trees of varying diameters and numbers of logs under 75 years in age. p Table 37—Volume table in board feet for trees of varying diameters and numbers of logs over 75 years in age. Tables 38 to 483—Green ash volume tables: Table 88—Volume in cubic feet, peeled, for trees under 75 years in age. Table 39—Volume in cubic feet, peeled, for trees over 75 years in age. Table 40—Volume in cords, and per cent of bark, for trees under 75 years in age. Table 41—Volume in cords, and per cent of bark, for trees over 75 years in age. Table 42—Volume table in board feet for trees of varying diameters and numbers of logs under 75 years in age. Table 43—Volume table in board feet for trees of varying diameters and numbers 5 of logs over 75 years in age. Tables 44 to 46—Black ash volume tables: Table 44—Volume in cubic feet, peeled, for trees over 75 years in age. Table 45—Volume in cords, and per cent of bark, for trees over 75 yearsin age. Table 46—Volume table in board feet for trees of varying diameters and numbers of logs over 75 years in age. YIELD TABLES. Tables 47 to 49—Yield of planted groves of green ash in the Plains States: Table 47—Yield of green ash in South Dakota. Table 48—Yield of green ash in Nebraska. Table 49—Yield of green ash in the Plains region. 52 THE ACHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 58 TasBiE 24.—Double width of bark at breastheight for trees of different diameters and species. Green ash. White ash. Black ash. Diameter j breast- Trees Trees Trees Trees Trees high. under 75 to aa under 75 to a See 75 to ase 75 years | 149 years | Bis. | 75 years | 149 years| BSiS- | 300 years | Basis: old. old. old. old. old. Inches. Inches. Inches. Trecs. | Inches. Inches. Trees. | Inches. Trees. 0 Nn | Re Rerers trons esaystetcretelaye!|tetcis e/ciciers Oni |etstertatar Tse sce anim cl Sie cte sical e [erciaie Maas 3 gf. |Isqoqacadod Ssaudaoe Ge) \sedcceosae Bes ee eee el aes 4 SOM seer lsecis cise Osh neoaeoeeae We Pliemacam seca se ceuere 5 6Q"|\Gencaseace 5 a) | Baduosease GIS | Renee seme ae aeeese 5 6 oll -8 10 -6 -8 19 Ole posciece U “idl of) 18 08) .8 19 a) 2 8 -8 at!) 18 ati .9 15 -6 4 9 .8 ag) 11 8 1.0 23 ail 6 10 ao, 1.0 19 of) ipa 20 -8 8 11 oY) 1.0 24 of) 1.2 32 8 5 12 1.0 1.0 30 1.0 1.3 29 8 10 13 1.0 1.0 51 1.1 1.3 34 at) 16 14 1.0 ileal 67 1.2 1.4 21 1.0 4 15 1.0 Neal 45 1.2 1.5 28 Gal 9 16 1.0 1.1 52 1.3 1.6 20 1.2 12 17 alba sal 48 1.4 ev 21 1.2 4 18 1.1 1.1 47 1.5 1.8 9 1.3 7 19 1.1 1.1 40 1.6 1.9 14 1.3 5 20 1.1 1.1 42 1.6 9) ) 1.3 3 21 ileal 1.2 41 Ie 2.0 4 1.3 8 22 ial 1.2 42 1.8 2.1 6 1.3 2 23 Bal 1.2 32 1.9 2.2 4 1.4 2 24 1.1 1.2 30 2.0 2.3 1 1.5 1 25 1.1 1.2 Doin |srrateie eae 2.4 2 1.5 2 26 ial 1.5 21 PB): Vadeacyene 1.5 | 1 27 1.3 18 2a) |loceensee 1.6 2 28 1.3 18 2.6 1 1.6 1 29 1.3 10 th Ul sonesase Ue 1 30 1.4 11 2.8 1 1.8 1 31 1.4 By SRE aBOOS S| oes ac5ei5e 4 KOCSUR es OSes Em AOR nee ansee 32 1.4 Lem ERE RBe roe c= 5 cael Sooeedee| EDEMncoebal Soaoseue 33 1.5 DN oto atase cte ete Ree | lave fore siete |aielete eteteeral eee res 34 1.5 GJ VSP SESS cl 2 eV a A a oh) |Eoeieceadas 1.5 PA hishaapbcec| secs. oclbopeseas|Honedeabed|inos6oed- Sol eda GAGBSBe 1.5 ta Rerodeaeoc|lacoochccoq bavasbis|aosbeecurelseoseerc BUS llbecceussoe 1.6 We SSpaspeocd|ccoccccenc|beposeuellsesedbgnedlscodneas Bie" llocecdoadas 1.6 Til PRB aRGe ba jo60505 5Sue be ebaecal lapse dees aececerc gi lactaeboccs Aa sore ren Spo cabo cool cc 7osS550el bosesene |dacsandona ae aapee: dt). ||paeeseaces IGG NWN See maRincos|jaco-c coeos| Sonacese|lnoobat socellb>co anon. 795 375 116 TABLE 25.—Form or taper for WHITE ASH trees of different diameters and heights under 75 years of age, giving diameters inside bark at different heights above the ground. 20-FOOT TREES. Height above ground—feet.. Diameter breast- i 2 3 4.5 | 9.15 | 17.3 | 25.45 | 33.6 | 41.75] 49.9 | 58.05 | 66.2 | 74.35 |Basis. high. Diameter inside bark—inches. Inches. Trees 2 DEAD sD le (Dp Ne Des eel Bly |: 2 eee ps | a pee es | ae a (Re 53 3 B50 (es ie ed [ek ea 0) 77 F'n Ee a ene eee ee ee ee SS oceroal memes 5 4 4.6| 4.3] 4.0 3.6 DD oie. k Se Rese ee | eee RE Ps eae Aged eS RUE OE Al ey sa esa 5 E37 fad | eaka tes hee: 2) bv: aay Fae Peepers LER PONT 2 oe ac al eee aellagoeae 6 CHO ee GaSeline De OBE at |i aol | cto. o:k: cls eeaeyerarey meena pe Ia sn IIR Veo a (OI sa aes | Pa a es of different diameters and heights bark at different heights above the rey , Tae aide ' (i 90 Ontnes INMONAAMRA He N oo oO HERES SS O00 S Ono 0 ' see te Ged 0 ’ peta Cem UNSe Onin a Oa OnOmnncees0 00 60D, 0-0 th 0. 0 0 eevee t. 0 Ooo oO Od Of. o--n neo t Ody ire0 Of oo 0) c=)" ,O OPO 00 OD neon Oro0 Veo 0 “Oni 0% OY Cert 0) 0 Oo 0600 C2080 020 30 5 CO Oni Ce Dene ete Kp (a On aCe ea) iE isi Onan Uma Civ Cis = GeeOmOe eg rl sop Seow SOD 0 <0. fr 10 Oe Q ear Carre Ci arte Oe Get 0 Oy senile tent it Jao) Apel Ontol be af be ienst Ore Ores OD aOo eo a0. ech tho anal Sty) Que ndte th SNe) (Wicca emcee teste ae Umleneaee le yenare Cation aan a eel Pet cnet a ' Cente eet) ty OO Wee) Seneca te . Gite atiuD apttey ej sig) Mie} sei 0) a) a seco ' Tact epi bod Oo epn 0 OO ale 0re0-40 = OL th Che thet D) @) se) <0) ta! Sel Mer eie) We) cele, 6 CX Se Gee som eteiabe] fet“ |RSS rey iat. eh Oere tie POU a tie fo tee tr he OR era Sree Tio cth) ele Ore ed ot) ¢ teat, ae Oy. Op cu a a) afl OTe eR CHAO) Spelt ee kT De ae peyerie inet alte Tate tar net eeaae oo Oo i vo ' Of aii ieat erento 60 De eee) Teepe eeaen rts ty eee Peree careers € ' oo tiepmewe O20 Peal nian ano . Oo On 6 fp Cero 0 Ue Deroy oD a aye 5 0) oe Chae KY cated YoU Si hat salts ret thy tha ‘ Phy ithe Poti @reatiotr tt er dad ' om Oty eaten reer eh te Teer) Outer une tres rc elaine eieats <0] 8 moe Kame CO eee (rate heaaCan nan vena Sirti ere 0. tes) aeons, fa Oi cate ousn ‘ iieen ie AG) 40, 0) ney ee ne ' econ Dette 0800 0 Cet healt nt Phat Liesl) Yh Oa ea eeClan 0 age Ca Tat Peek ical ok st euemnine|| | oka Pl PP Srp reore 9? -O (yew ti ises0 Coat) (ra) open nos DOMADCOHWRMON Patent Che De 20 INN OD 00 OD SH SHAD 30-FOOT TREES. Height above ground—feet. tiameters inside , ging a Diameter inside bark—inches. 1 2 | 3° | 4.5 | 9.15 | 17.3 25 33.6 1.35 49.9 58.05 66.2 74. Basis. BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MN OD Hig oh SOSTAMAN olive, Sete lesen gs) ofine leis theses olive under 75 years of age high. ground—Continued. Diameter breast- 54 TABLE 25.—Form or taper for WHITE ASH tre 40-FOOT TREES. . ’ GOES IGN REL COICNIEN CN relies ‘ Anne ‘ ' . Ga thats oO i Ses Ge a0 O20. DP G0 Fb ec ' O10 080° .0 eo) Te Oe uet; sere on sc O00 core CO. % Ot 090 0 ' tae GO tee i en ’ Dak 0 wihal i mein), fi Ot od OOO Oe oe oO” oO 0 Dea Deo Ce oOod O10 OD De eno erC Cin er Que OC Oo CeO Ue O OG theis0 G-.00-% OMCAtae ate 0 0 0 0 peo. 6.0 ann Dann Umeo nO CeO 0 Ne CO Oe 0-6 10). (eG) sr tise 0 te 0) Oo 2p Op One On Oe) Oh O08 Nesye000, 0 Dae OD. 0 OF 0 Os ap 0" Ooi Peete ats 0) 0 S00 en GEA (ae st nea eLInnD SL DORMO OT DRO er e020 08.0 ' Ce woe 0 O20 Oso C0 sc) Ap eae Dwr 0 Ooo UD Oe Oi, 1D Oo Oa . Cent) B00 30 imine are iD aaa Pet orto ee theo . . ‘ este: 0. 0) 0 BO) OO . OOo Oe OO Ono ay 05-0) “\8yda) awry oxemefane Ge 0 . ide ee nL ene seca) Ame Ore TAN AN 09 09 SHH HH 1919 OO ADWDARBIQVDOONA~MHDAHH AN 09 oD SHAD 19 CO OE POCO NO19 OM MDI oD MN OD oO SH Hig OOD 1D OD A PS 1D OD A DE SH AND OD Hig Or OD re ononttaarnnnAo MANO HID Or~oNRor are SOOA3AAAAAWAH Nod SHIN OLD OMOr retinal SMA AANA 09 09 09 09 St St et 1 LD DOS MONOMUMDASOSHDMONAING TAN AN 69 09 09 SH SH 19 CO OI I OO ARAN MOMOHRNHORERANDOH ANAM tds isSSMHAHDASSSHA ans DO AIDHOHOOMAOGMONMOMt Ades His is Serr dada Snide De Oh oe Bh oe Oh oe Oe Oh oe ets DWIIAMDMIMOOMOD NOD HHI OOM ORDMOO Vr She | AH DOINAROMDHOINMONMINMHAOH SOOM IG ISSN HORSHAAAG Hdd S Se Oe Be Oe Be Oe Oo oe | 50-FOOT TREES. AAOMIOANNOOMM MH otitis Sr adaascrne Sea C1 SH HOD AN HH OO 00 COL OHidSrwosscrtiaadd AAAs AN 69 09 09 SH 1D 19 CO EP 00 apuieyeetuane ona R OR AG Nod Hig iS featioy SHIDONOONHTNROAH Addis sdaciad Saeaeir NAMWi9 OM DRDOTMN wane DAARARMAAROSOOH HxdtiSSrHASSHSHISS means 6 69 69 HID IN OM COONAN WG SNRASBSHAANTISSH be Oo oe Be Oe OMRONMH AHN O00 Wid CARB SHATIDSH bee re Os Do he he | HiQDO Mm WOMWONNAM WINS MANA 60-FOOT TREES. HAHONMMACDONMACONnt HUD GSM ABSSHAG TINH Sr Sessa Ses Set OIDHMHAMAAHORODrOMNMHMA GOA SKAHBSOHHAANHMINSKRAAS SAAS RASA DAMARARAARBOOCOCHAANAN MCD MW PISSrAABSHAHAISSMDASASAN Se Oe OB ee DB oe Ee | NN 69 69 69 HIDIN OM OOHAMHNOSOrOD Hid Or OS SHAT SOKRBSSHANG Meee ee et Na etetiecl GUCTONCS OMAONMMH-MAMNOWDONMINOD H 1 06 OD SHAN IS Sr HSHAGTD a a ST ea ae OU CUEN CRON CR 59 THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. THE ASHES ghts f different diameters and hei , guing diameters inside bark at different heights above the o S S38 ae Sq 9 (®) © | os Ss se: sb TaBLe 25.—Form or taper for WHITE ASH trees o 70-FOOT TREES. Height above ground—feet. Trees. (=n WiLL Un Una UnGOaLDn US UneLin Oy Ul tn OO eo O08 0-0 0 060 0 Do 0 5G o-oo 0.0 189 O20 SO.0: TD Ulteo Ole OU Gxt “oc oe oS 60 Det 0a (WO) sie Ou Uovtbeth-t.O- OOO 0 0 fe OS 0s snid 20. 90 wo 0 Sor OOo oO Fen Mo re i 0-0 Uo Ou ete GU U0 Td 060 s0=0 (aalinsD bani On SOD LnnOs (mal wO ss maki LO O00 iO ito 70 D0 C0. 0 ato Fao 08d C080 Sos eo Toes Look On a 20 20. 0: Os) Ot (Diente O2eQve sulle Ceelee( ent. Os O° OCs Om 0 0r OseCeid-60 SOFC Oeil 00? oD O60 50 200 20800" 0 OO Oo EOS 0206 0-0 TaN AN 09 09 09 SH HD 19 19) CO COE Pe EP CO CMAN HOnMHONR EAE HONORM AA MotitisisSSorrndaacon rine DAK MOMAr MAMAN MANAN OD AGA HT HSSRKABASSHAA CS SB eB os Oe Eh | DOARPOMDOOMOnMOnMOn HH Ao tidi sor nr dasa scdidadoed tis Se ee ee Be 1 | 2 | 3 | 4.5 | 01 17.3 25.45 33.6 /4.75| 49.9 5805] 66.2 [74.39 Basis. Diameter breast- high Diameter inside bark—inches. ADM ANO~MANMYANDOMAMr19 MOAMIGSSrMOHBHBSAAAM HIN ISS ha INMABOMMIANAOCMBNOTNCOrMON HIG ISOM AOABSSHAGMHiSINSN Se eB oe Oe Be Oo | ri 3 2 COrigwdtonAdead OOO Oh 019 HH 3 | 20 0 9 9 9 9 9) 9 9 9 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 7 | 20 8 | 21 9 | 22 5 6 69 09 69 HID INO OOH ACD tH WIGSHRABSHAH DSR ADSHASG Se ce Oe Oe On oe Oe Be Oh | a 6 7 9. 0 2 4 7 9 1 3 5 8 0 HMIGDSOHBSHAH OSH ASHAD Hid Se OO oe OO oe Boe oe a 20 21 22 23 80-FOOT TREES. NAIA 09 09 09 SH XH 1D 19 109 6 6 P= P= = 00 OD P= NI B= 09 00 019 00 69 00 6) 80 OF) CO 61 00 HOMANRMAMNDOnNMATHRHD OH Hig PSSM HSDASBSOHAANAN Sn hs he SOMMINNDINN D191 O1IN NID Hiss Sr rsdaacndinadedd De Ms oe he ho | HARMOMDOM HHOHNRMOMAIN Tad GSK HOKDABSSHAN SG Hdd Se ee Oe Oe Boe Eo De | DOHHROWNRDOTHOOOON HGS SME DBSSHANDHHIDSS bs Oe Oe oe ec ASCWOHMASOWDONMHOAMI9 WOSMABSOHAADHSHSSON GA Be OO Oe Fe he | HHMADHHORMWDOMOMHHON WON KBASHHANDHIDSKRAOaS Se OB Os ee Oe Oe De Be De | ADXAAARARDOOOMANNN HOD WSKABSHABHHDSRASBSHA RRA ANANN OO HIN IDO DORN HIN OOD SGrOBSHAH HSK HSSHAGD MAAR AHH HNNANN DON ME DAH 19 0 HOON 1900 00 BCOHBSANHH SON BSAA SG HId SAA AHHH ANANANN 107 90-FOOT TREES. TAIN NANO) 09 9 SH SH SH 19 19 OOP AID DOD OI ANM-NONS NAWMAWOSOMRMIINONH OLIN D THQ O OME ORMROMRAAN BO oe Oo | DIINDONSCOMONMOMID WIG SSONMDIABSHHAG Sw SF Oo | 1D ND 19 09 O00 HH. 0019 A O19 OD WSSMABASA AAG iI Ss eB hn Dh Oe Dn | SCHIIAHDHNARBOMONMA SOM HBASHHAAGH IDS De re De Oo Oe De Be | HASH OMADI~YHWNOM- MS OCrODRBSOHHAA GH HIS Se DOMMASCOChONMHONRS CrABSHAAN DHS SHO Be Os Bn Oe Be | MAR MOMDOOMmOIMO WHOA MOB SHAAN HIDORASS Ee 1 AAAARDOSOOSMANNNODOD MODSHMADSONADSHA ANA HNNN IDINOMOSCHAMHRONOD BHSHAHHSKHOBSHAS A SHE OD 4 0919 CO ON 09 19 © 00 SCAN Hi9NOr OOTNGD CCHS hea] Ge} SMCS EIEN tN AeA AVA TINN BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 6 ¥ 0'F L£°9 8°8 rat) & Vane 9 °C g°eT SPL IST Z°9T 9 Le 29 o°8 o°6 LOL LT 9°@T £81 mas Eat eames 7! (4 ve 9°¢ 9°L 6°8 6°6 6 OL L 11 £ Or T&I OFT moe ROE OT 0'€ og 69 T'8 T'6 0°0T L°0T £°IT Tr 6 ZI er aptay 6 L% L’? €°9 G°L €'8 T'6 86 POT ll 61 pea 215! 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Sl ANMHH HANAHAN ine) N AAWAAIANHAAHEOM AANAN SM Oo tdi did iidcss CHATHAM HOARHRADO 09 O09 H Hid id SOOM NWO ee ee ee NOM DHOIND tH DHOOM A HH WOGSSREADHDSSSSH eee MOONWMOMNOMONOr WOOMMAISSSSHAAAS Loe haes Mee Pen oes oe ADOMNOM AS HtHOMOr-RAE OSMHHDSASSHHANG OHHH So Bs ce Oe Bo he Do D219 OD DE OD OO OD DID ME OD CHMOD S SAAN Ao oH wis 5 Sn eB oe oe oe eo | Or DWIDNAHONDOMDOMS NOOB SSAAANG i vidcr Soe eels Oe Ee ee DOIN OM MDHOMNOM-MINANSD NWOBSSAANGS wisidcmm Sessa AA TAH OI HNO OM HOO HH WO BS rt rt Nod 1G 15 I~ 05 00 Se i Oh cs Be ce De ee | HOO DM OHO HOM IN HOO DSBSSHAHHHHSROBS So Os se oe Oo Bh oe he ee | AA ODO OSAAADPAAAAH BSOAAGHHHHNSRBASHN See SSeS SS ANNN HIND OM-OODRMONNM Wt HAMAD SK DSOHAD 1S Saco sus cr ons SAK HIND OOH N DOr WOON M19 BANA ISROBSHAM OOK 0929 CO ON HOO OOD INT HOD AGWOMWDSBSANH ORAS 1 Cea eae peSS GtaeESS Oe 6023°—Bull. 299—15——_5 65 g 9°9 £8 G01 8°TL 0° LPL 0°97 68ST 01% 9°26 bP (Ae bases e°¢ 6°L L°6 GIL GOL G8 £°S1 6°L1 6°61 ble Zk ctr! 9 0's BL 6 L°01 6 IT 631 o FT 6°9T 8°81 206 61% ice ek! £ L'} 0'2 9°8 T Or £11 £61 8°eL 6°ST LLt 0°61 L°02 bees Gee G bh 9°9 &'8 9°6 LOT 9°IL 0°ET 6 FT 9°9L 6° LT P61 or ae Oe 4 g 1% &°9 Lk 06 TOL O1T L@r 6°81 9ST L°9t @ ‘81 E 4 S71 a] P 8'§ 8°¢ oh g°8 G6 £°0T GIT 6 OL GPL 9°ST 0°L1 Sass ed! oe I G's bg 8°9 0°8 6°8 9°6 9°OL 031 béL PPL 8°ST ference ed D 5 £ o's 0'¢ £°9 PL £8 6'8 8°6 OTL £°OL £81 9 $1 Saree ea 4! ae £ 6% 9'F 8°¢ 8'9 9°L £'8 16 00 GIL ara | § ET Remar aed i! ay j 9% Ip €'¢ z'9 0° 9°L o'8 0°6 Z 01 T'1t ZL ec aAOY bp 6 £% Lg 8°h Tees |kS9 6°9 GL 1'8 16 0°01 601 Crane 70 Oo j 0% £°§ bP T'¢ Lg o'9 8°9 TL 0°8 8°8 L°6 ietemees, tH onl o “SHAUL LOOW-0L _ ect ee a ee SS eal -) TL 8°0T o ST LPT G‘9OL & 02 L'¥G 6°26 008 1'GE Awa RDO ical 8°9 POT LI GPL 6°ST 9°61 8°86 L°9% 1°86 8 08 meer) ( aA 9°9 0°01 £ OL LST $°oT° 8°81 8 °@6 GSS P26 G66 Peer 3 6 [eal £°9 9°6 8°11 $°ST 8 ‘FL T'8T 8°1Z PPS 69% G82 i caiageiee NS 0'9 16 e°1T 8 OL GPT GL 8°02 £°& 6% 69% eer 4 Ky Lg 88 8 ‘OL 8 °Or L°&1 a! 8°61 3 GS L°&% 9°S% ss we SG 3 mi £'8 € ‘01 2°11 T&T 9°ST 6°8T 01% 9 °GS b PS cater BUG < G'S 08 6°6 $I GOL 6°FT 6°LT 6°61 P16 Z 8 ae OL A, 6'F gil b°6 8 ‘OL 0°31 mas 6°9T 8°81 & 02 6°1% orgs 7OL ie} L’? Ts 6'8 £01 ian 4 §°&T 6°ST L°L1 061 L°0% aee aa! =) bP a) b'8 8°6 8°01 bOI 6°FT 9°9T 6°L1 P61 Sera Pe! " OF £°9 0's £°6 f'01 pA 6°ET ocT L°9T o ‘ST SS we 02) L°e 8°9 bl L'8 9°6 6'OT 631 GPL 9°ST 0°21 eee A! i b's Gg (ir 4 Z'8 0°6 @ 01 0°31 PS ma! 8°cT fae eT €1 =) lets Tg ¢°9 9°L -'8 o'6 OTL € OL €°&1 9°FT a} MPRIOL 8% 9'F 0'9 Td 8°2 8°8 0'OL o'IL ara PG aie | See Salat = 9°3 &'P gg g°9 GL T'8 0°6 @ OL TTL GGL ba OL 3 £3 8's 0's 0°9 9°9 PL T'8 1) 0°01 6 ‘OT ees okt) nN eae 0% BE GP bg 0°9 9°9 TL 0°8 8'8 L°6 fae oe 8 i, iD “sayouy — EA *SoTPUI—Y.lVq, OPISUT 10JOUNIVL (T ae : ; “yar 4 sIseq | G6"90T | 8°86 | 99°06 | G'zB | SEFL | 3°99 | GOSS | GOP | GLI | 9° Gh Sz e°L1 ST'6 o'F € z I 4sbo1q P Jo OUIVI(T *400J—PUNOIS 9AOG®B YYUSIOH, ‘SHAUL LOOA09 “punoib ayn acogn sqybray quasaffyp 7D yung aprsur suajaworyp burnb ‘abv ur suvah FT 02 G4 ‘s7ybroy pun siajounyp qualefip fo sian HSV NATTY) lof 21907 Jad} 10 Uo —'3Z TTAVL 66 67 THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. THE ASHES me are ANH NAOMmOMHOMHMIDOROON ANID SS 16 8°éT CLT 6°61 L°1% 6°GS 8° FS 8°63 P98 L GP 9° LP 63S 06 Gel TZT ¢'6L €°1% Lae (x6 6°86 bGe VIP 6 SP ¢ 0S 8°8 (nea 8°9T 0°61 8°06 6°16 b's 0 "8% GPS T ‘0p € bP € 87 9°8 0°81 v9T 9°8T £'0G PIG 08 P16 g'ss 8 °8E L OP & OP b's L@l 0°9T 3°81 8°61 0°16 GGG 8°96 GOs g°ls SIP bbP i "PS €'8 PGT 9°ST L°LT b6I 9°06 TGS 1°93 ia be 698 L°68 GOP TERR oe HTS 18 TOL 6ST €°LT 0°61 106 9°16 g°Gs 9°08 0S €'88 8 OP ae Ag 6°L 81 8 FT 8°9T ¢'8T 2°61 T'I@ L¥G 9°66 L°8& 6°98 & 68 eer erelty LL GIL bP b'9T T'st o 61 9°06 0°P3 9°83 9°SE G'gs L°l8 PS aere0G 9°L IL aa! 6°ST 9°L1 8°81 0°02 G&S LLG PIs Ts &0E Pens eels pL 6 ‘OT GST GST o LT €‘8T o'6r 9°26 1°96 G°08 8°28 8°PE Pare sett SG, GL 9 OT T&T IST L ‘91 6°LT 0°6T 6°16 1°96 0 66 b's mete 69 3 OT LOI 9 PL 391 €°L1 GST T'1@ L¥G 6°16 0°08 T0& 8°9 6°6 € OL TPL L°ST 6 '9T 6°LT B06 8 °&% 1°96 1°86 8°08 G9 9°6 6 IT L&T TST 391 §°L1 ¢°6T 8°66 G°SG b LG G62 £9 £°6 A LAE @ EL Lol 8°ST L°9T 6°81 8°16 b'PG 396 G86 L9 0°6 O'IT 9ST TPL 6ST f OL S81 80% § °& 6°86 6 96 6°S 9°8 9 OT TOL G'éT 9 “FT 9°ST PLT 8°61 66S L°& 9 SS 9°g 6°8 TOT Oacr 6 SI O°PT 0°ST L°9T 6°81 0°13 9°36 PPG eres ""08 bg BL 16 TTL & 31 oéT PPT 8°ST 6° LT 6°61 PTS ar "61 Tg PL 6 GOL LIT 8 OT L&T 6 FT 6 ‘9T 8°81 G06 616 SS “81 6h TL 8°8 0°0r aa as € OL 0°&T ea 6ST LL1 0°61 1°06 Shee pug Gar, 19 £°8 P'6 GOT 9°IT € OL GET 6 ‘FT 991 6 LT b'6L ches ynael: €P £°9 SL 6'8 0'0T OIL Gab § OT 6 ET GST 2°91 G81 Soe ee Gib 0? 8°¢ EL b'8 £6 GOT 6 OT GIT 6 C1 GPT 9 °ST 0°2T ae A Le gg 8°9 82 L°8 9°6 TOL 8°OT 0°3T b ST amas 8ST TeSys tek Pe 0's 29 GL 0°8 8'8 b'6 0°OT O°1T €°O1 €°&T 9°PL SECES SaiGk I'é 9°P 8°¢ 99 pL o'8 L°8 66 0°OT GIL ara bE ne “Tr 8% oP og 0°9 8°9 bel 82 b'8 0°6 6 ‘OL TTL (xa) ssross a0 GG 8'é Ly cee. 3°9 49 T2 Lk T'8 16 0°OT 6 OT i) £3 La I? 8'P itt 6°¢ €°9 8°9 Ts 08 8°8 16 east ts) ‘SHAUL LOOA08 6 ae | 6°ST 8°LT 0°6T 8°06 0°S% 9°08 0°SE £°88 8 OF Lee STR Oe 6 8ST BST PLT G81 T 06 £ FG 9 66 L°8& 6°98 o 68 Sat Tomo 6 PCL 6 FL 8°91 0ST G61 PES 9°86 9 GE G°gé L Le Senne OG 8 0°GT GPT £91 G°Lt 061 1° 2°16 PTE TP | 6 9E 5 SL Has OG 8 Cay: a 8°ST 0°LT PST 6 °1Z 1°98 G '0E 8 3& 8 FE 8 aaa G'&I €°ST 991 0ST (a6 L°GG 0°66 PTE G's ‘L 8°OL T&T 8°PL 0°9T pL P06 L’¥G 6°16 0 0& T GE ‘L vO 9 CI € FL 9ST 6°91 2°61 8 8% L°9% 1°86 8 °0E v) 0°OL TGr 8ST agi €'9T 0°61 8°66 G°Gs PL G66 ‘Y) G6 9517 €°&1 9 FT 8ST €°81 8°16 PPS Z'9G 686 9 T'6 (a as 8°OI TPL €°ST G°LT 8°06 £78 6 FS 696 19) 28 L 01 € OL 9°€1 LI 8 9L 861 6 G6 1°86 9 °SS Pewter 14S . — BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 68 « COIIDNNMAMAG “SIStv, | 96 °90T ANN Ss dtdttdtidis ih ih Sh SSSSrerKr nr nr HDdsHKKHHKHKS AWOAMDrMONADONMOLPOAONVMODOANADHMACHAMODAAS G°@8 Ge "pl AP FANOMEAHNIAMOAMOAONNDOA OOM HAS SSSSRNRAADHSASAAS . &°99 Mow widid ii sssrn ‘ey aale Bore ee Oe re Oe Oe Oe ee Oe Oe he oe ee oe oe | HH id SSSRKRAASGBABSSHHAANAN MORMON HOO OMDMOOMODANNANGCOMOCOMNOCOMrOmM G0 "89 WSSKEHHASBASS (SSS NN SCMAMN~-HOOMONOCOC —. tx =a TSH USNNAKDISASSSHAANA SS oS be BO Me Oh Sho S| MAW AOMM OAM HHO Ooo 6 6F SSNS SSS SS SS SSB SHB ANAANANANN ADONAPMIADNIOOAMANDMIDMNDNDAMNCOSCUADNOMraw ISSR KBBBSOHAAAH HAA SHSSRKADADBASSHHAN *sotoUI—yjAVq, OPISUT JoJOUNVECy *4o0J—pUNOIS OAOGR IYSIOL GL°TP OHNMAOMOOHOONDWONDHOHONOHDHDOHAMRARO WBSMEKASSSHAN SHAMS SSRKERKHHKSSSSHHHAANSS SS eS SH AAA AA Neves aray 9°EE Per yet ee Yee ek Pe a SSMASSSHAN STH HSH SKK KHDSSSSHHAAN wixdiu SS aS SSS RRARNNNRRAAR MOPmON OPS OME HOM FORE HRON EPH AMAMOwWmOm SPSS SS. el OT CTIESIESRe SIGE SSS SSS SS SAAS RAR R ARR AARAAAA SHODBOHAANAHAHASSSRHAKDABABSHHANAD SOSH IDO ADEA VOM ANDINA AWD AMHWMHOMWMIW MIAMI OMOC SLT Mews Snnadaac AARRAAARAREES MAOMOOUNOMHAO SOIC OCS Sn N epee wa eiaze nite Sansa SrHAASHANGHWSSSRIOS OOIQM HORM OW MH Oh O19 09 ST°6 MOBSHANDASSKRHASBSHABHYSSRASSHASMIHSOKRASD SHAS S SSSR ASARNNRARAARRA SSB Owes MAOOSOOAMAAAAAHDNH DO DER GOCSCMMMOAM aH ato oo Sadao srssdasss OD OD OD GD OD OD OD OD SH HH sae sc Sh BASHA BWISSRASHAD WIS SAN SOA SCAANMAMDDMORDAONMMHOERAOCNTORNOAN DHMH OMS IDS h a Ss Kong . PPE LTA BOA SOS MORN BSOHADSSHOG aN BRNO So RS eS ODA tia IACI IA Do ose DOAAMDMOMAONMOPMOANMEOMOHHOIADMEAS HOCH OM ARARRSSSSSSSSSSSREBES AANA O OSA HE AN HO ANID DH 10 DW NIN 1H SH OD 09 10 SS 0 O19 PSASASRASRARA feeoeaaial (2 hahaa UES RFE | Peat ieee A farriegee! 3 adap veeree eng caiman "Ce pereeerst ts merase HY Reet 1is4 pee SE bide eth aga >) fi “way ~4Sba1q JOJOUIVIG ‘ponurjm0j—punoub ay7 acogn siybray quaaf{ip ‘SHHUML LOO-06 qo yung apisur sinjaunp bub ‘abo ur suvah EFT 02 G4 ‘siybroy pun siajownyp qualafp fo sia HSV NATYD 4of 21901 sadv) 40 UWloY— 3% ATAVL, THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 69 Fat SESS eC ret CQ et rt 248 R . ‘ ‘ . . . . . . ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ' . ' ' ' ‘ . ‘ ’ ’ ‘ 1 ' 1 1 ‘ ' ‘ : ' . ' ' DAMDOWOMOW HAH MIDDONAHE ADMIN AONMIONRAONM1N000 Nooo tistics maids id SS SSSSRKEKKHHHHAHAKHSBSBAGAIS NAH Trad SOO) 36D CIC OO) CRS OO) rt NIE Tal C10 OU CABO ES RICH CO) C19 269 E13 vt tt 20900) > o> > MHS IG HGOSNNNDHOHDSASASHSSSSHAAAAAA A A cd 05 a5 09 Ss Ah A oe oe oe oe ee ee | Welle ai) NOOHHMDAOSOM™ANODNOAMOOMOANGOANDODH HOON 03.03 x WiASSSMNKHHASASBSSSHHAANANK HMO didiGS SOON ane Se OO Oe Oh OO Oe Be he Oh ee oO SWHOMSMHOHOCHAMDNDOMAMEAHNAMEAHNOANDOWONID I~ 06 00 SHSM DHBASSSHAAASHSOHAMHSOHSSREKNDHHSSSSS Sos ee ee | Se Oe re Oe Oe ee OO ee Oe Be Oe Be Be ee ee Ano OADM MDOOANANANAOAOHOOMANNOMN ADHD A009 i SEE HHDASSHHAAN KH OHH HHSSKREKRHHDDSASSHHHANS ANAN 3 SN dd ed dd dd ed td Pat ON omy GHAHOOMOOAH ABO AOADONANANNOHOOHOMOMOD ean 0 Aa tro Sanna TAD IGGS SNE HDASBSBSSHHAANA DOH dH Id & on CON cE HOIAM OM OAM MOONAM NAMI OM OMOWOBONOMONO xf xis MODABSAAA GH IGHSSNMEHOSBSSAIA 1A 63 63 NAN i= SRR RANA NNN ° () BA 199 S 1 010 69 PO IDA MOANA HAM AOA OO OMIAONOOONONOINN Nelvol wy NWBSSAAN GH Wid GSSNKHHBSSHAANA GG Hi widid Roloy wa wes) NAN ra SSS RRNA NAN NANA NAAR ome ADRBOBASCDOACH IAM MOO MMINOOND HAO ed OIN O19 BAS BSOANGBHAHSSRKRASDSSHHANG HHH ISSSKKKDHASSS NN OD os SA SSS SAFRAN NARA MNRAS Ooo DIAN SAM OID HAG ON OAS ON HAM 11919 09. cd AR OIA 63 Haid SAAAGTSSNHHGSAADES Pid SER AABSSCHAN SD Hdd on 6 OD wo SSSA AAA NNANNNNNNN NAN OD OD OD 09 OD OD OD 0 0D CONN SOSSCAARAAAAAHD DO OOS NNN OO O19 1099 19 HH HID SIAN Sonn SHAN HDASSRASBSHADHASBSORABDSHANAHNYDSKRASGSOHA Sas : a No oO Oa oe Sea oe Se es aS ait AOD ANC HDIDON ORONMAHOERAONHORONNOHHROHONOD 5S AGMMSSRAGBHAAGDASSRGOHADDSORASOHAHTDSHSS SD Se co R SoS a A eo eae ae a oe ease 19 00 a AAC HON AONTONANTNONWHNIAMDNANMMOMOMDOM MOH sh cS OO SNS ASSKRASHAHDASKRAHSHAAISCHSHAA ISON SHAS eR raR te) SN NNN NN NAN 0D 09 09 09 09 69 09 OF SH OSH SH OSH OSH OSH LD 19 19 19 1D HO : AHOWDONHRANTHOANNDHNOANRNAWDNMHMMDNAANOIONWOG aos ISTH ISNAOASHSHDMDHMNSHBSAMHASRASOANHSHOADKSHSS oor Ae SSSR RRA RRA ASS BOOED SSSR BDSSSL 5 ‘ xi a 20h s Doreen oes OB Seinen Cie meee 20 beeneceas PH (i remote Oe Pere nea PA eae ae BO ceca 40..... A ercni < AD erureras AB secu noe oo oe epee yee oA Gt. 9 (eee) 19 SO anc CD eeeee AB usioa cs Le eens LO eased ie Siar Le esis TB ecto WAS eas BO se 34..... Rh eae sone BO Sores Blinn Oe asdacae BO Nereis 70 ide bark at ameters insi d in age, giving . hts, 75 to 149 years Ug: different heights above the ground—Continued. TABLE 28.—Form or taper table for GREEN ASH trees of different diameters and he 110-FOOT TREES. Basis. BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, (ND HE CDOAMBONMAHOMMDOMOW MO mre Mitt rt rs 181 Trees. Height above ground—feet. 106.95 58.05 66. 2 74.35 82.5 | 90.65 98.8 49.9 de bark—inches. insi Diameter . ' . DONMPTMONOGHATONDRBOHAMHNRDROHNM HINO AIA AAAI AAI AN 05 04 09 09 09 09 0d Hi tt tt at i tt i fi fi ad 15 15 15.15.15 1515 DODO ONHOWNMINNONHODONHODARHMNDWONMION Sedo di didi did GS SSSSSMEE ERK KHKHHHDABSBGGS DOMOOANVAHMHOMIDO HH OMOWDH HOON HOD MOSNOD TIM SDS SSSMN EN HHAAPSSASSSS Hd rn AAA A sod Se Bn OB Oe Bh oe Rh OMA HRA HR HOHHONDDNCANNANMDOH MORNE SSSRKKNADHDSSSSSSHHHAANNA Go odididiidididdccd Se es cs Oe ee Oe Oe Oe ee ee ee ee ee 2 SBS OY 19 G3 69.00 TAOS 10 00.60 60 rt SO? CN Be O20 00.019 SO et HCO CN OH Ee SN AHHSASSSrHnnA AN Ss osos WH Sis GSSHMKNHHISS Se DO DO Dc Be Be Dh Dh he | De Deir 169 O08 aR OSSD O26, 00. CN Be NO C2 SOON OD co ENS NAASASSHAACAA SSH WS SSHNKHHDSESSSAAA SRS SSS SNR RNNANANANN 69 00 HO 19'S AO AO AOE AE ND 69 IS AE NES 09 00 019 00 019 00 60'D BHSSSAHAAAN GG His HSSHRNAHDSSHSSHUAAA GS wx SRS SNA SANA ANANNANNANAANN DPIDANL ODDO ONAKNMODHRMNOHONKRMDMOHOMDOOHRAN BASSHAANVGDHASHSSRHADSSSSHAN GOH Hiss SS SSNS SSN ANNNNNNNNNNANNN Sil DS OIES 69S 169 CY. GOISE OSS ad BS 000) S80 ES NO? tt ONG TCO ICN E1001 COM SSSHAAGH HG GSSrHAHSSSHn INN See osssnns Se SSS SSS SSRN NNNNNG NNANNANANANAAN DROMONMDHOHADHORAROIHOMODNHHOMAHOOHKN MA SSAANANGHHHSSRKAASBS SHAAN GOH Hid MSR E HAS SAA ANNA AANAANNANAANANANAA TCO) SEE LCOS) SIP OF SOC Pe 9 08, COCA O20 CNC 1.0 rt Es OES Ee SSHANGHBASSSRASDASSHAN SHH TiS SSHRABSBSSHAN SSSA ASSASSIN NNANNNNNNNANANANAAN 09 0D 09 09 UEC AIS Des LONI ON rt COCO :SON1E9 CN 9.00 Es COSCO S00 00 E29 0 el CORES SAAN God HSM OHSS rata Gs RADSBSSHASHIDDS SSRN RR AAR NARA RRBRBARBSD SSCARARBABARDHNDNDDN NNN OOO IND HHH OIOAN BANA SORASBSHA Ono MASH iS SrmAsSSoH HAG SSSR OG SINGI SSR OS SrA Sse Season pie ke ns arses ec ee aE mae tier ny ne Mri rae eee ve ae Ae eS Nos Hid SN OS ii os Had RSS HABSSE SSAA TS 53S NS SARA NARA AAS RRBSROOSS BY) C0 SIO TS OFS COUSIN HEH 00 at Oa, Cr ES CNS CS 9 S.C RSIS CD rst WS SNrAaASHAG x HSHAA tT SsSASHATasKn ada BS 06 BIGGS SSINGASNN Sn Aae Seas DOO DAT HS G2 NT HO OD NT DO 4 19 C0 NN EN 00 AD SH 19. 03 19 SD COD SH Ot SSNASSARAARRTSUSSASHSSAISRSRSESSSR Inches. » (RIN erase BAP Satoh a ’ ’ ’ ' ‘ vn yu or ast Ch Reenacod 7) ete 7 aa | | Se 022 eae Po eee Cl Ne eaeee 3) Lea Cy) pee ee Ope eee Obese see 1 Ingeeeen ss 1 ee ee 1G SS Eeeee (i eee WE oes ZV ene 73 THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 71 OOM OO HINOIQDQOAN HAO sri ca 5 DOHMA DOR RMOAAWMNORRMOHAHNONRWDOHAMHO AAA A A IAI AN 05.09 09 09 00 08 08 00 Ht at ti Ht i ot ti ad 1d 15 1 19:19 HODONMKLAAMNOKRAONHOWDONMONRAONMHOWOM dedoddixtinixniwididas dh GSSSSSNRKEKK KK KHHWHHAH > A HES AI 1D 00 1H 69 © OO O09. 00 HOD LO 00 rH. 09 OGD 1.09 O00 © 0 SO Hididad isSSSNKKN KBHHASSAAASSSSHHHHAAG SO OO en Tet LES S60) OES O69 0 O2.C8 6003, 9 COB rt NH 1 SH'CON 19:00\r31) 49) = SSSGHENHHASASSASSSH A a al od 03 o9 Hi wi wid id 18 Ser OB OO Pe De De ADONL-AUIADOSDWOWHODME SOMAD OA AAC 41900 NEN KCASSSSSHnriniddacded ww ws Gssormosoo Fe OO Ot OO Oe cD Dh he NAWOMNOWOMNENOGOOHAMONM OM ADAH HH HO oD 010 OD BBSSASSHAAA SG Gos wi widiG SSGNN BSBA SSAA FH 2D PAOD THO OO. OS 26). S 2109. O19. G2 Hd 19 CO 1. ECO VD) BAI SSHAAAA SG 3 His GSGOM MN BHAS on MAN ooo wt xi SARA NSAP ANNAN ANAINNNANNN COSCON 5O rl COLCA OO /CV0 OO) |C19) 3) S329 O11 00 C0 SO CON EC BDSSHAAG HAMS HSOSKRKHADESSHHAAANH HHS SARA NASSP SNS ANNAN NANNNNNANNN PASCO SES CVO OSE 8D CIGD) SH 9/469 AEC) 3/209. E> 92/11 1 ONO NO SHANNA GSAS IGSSORKRABASSH Naiasos Hid ison 06 SANNA NSS SVS SANA NNNANNNNANNANNANANAN D2 O69 20.00 SHS 6O C79, > 69 1. 00 SHH S209. CN GOH rt V9 9/4) CN CO SHS CO SAAN AG WH SSSHNHBSSSHAAGHTSHSEN OS SSSA ASSASSIN NANNANNNNANNNANNNAN elios | 2D 69 DO C92 O VD 1D. CN'00 19 O Pe HOES 69 OE 09 LOU DIO. FANS SD HSSSRAABSOSHANGDHHIOSSON RS SASS SSS SSSI NANNNANNAANANAN 120-FOOT TREES. 27. 28. 29. RIN OOW HM OP HSHWIONN OOS ON OM HORWNORW AAG A SSRN AHSBSBSHMAGDHAHSSHRABBSHnAIGS SSS SSS SSSI NANANANNAA AN AN AIA 09 09 OF 0D OD FOOT SECS aa EBD /C10 CUO} O0)5O) CA 2/ C0100 ROE CUO) ICR OOS) A 65.8 HSS HIGHS A 1919.5 SSSONAN MH io sO pele ER RAANRA SENS Bi 83 83 63 63 09 3 O60 CO See CB 8 ee me SSIES OO ER SR Re Ur DA RH NG 2 oF Wid oS Ss j 2 po & ; 5 LID OAHOW NM MOOMHODOMOONWOONDOAHh & se Witidtoididid SSSSSREEKDHDHABAASSSSHAH aS oo So ee ie Roe ee > oO P= & 5 ie CODD AHHERAMDONMDOHNAWERHMOKROHONINNDNINAD ES Jo) SOSCOSSCRKKKDKDHDBSBASSSHHAHNAN SOO Hts 7 ¥ Se re Oe ee Oe De Be Be ee | ’ > oS { a = HORID RH HORMINDHNIANOAMKANOHHMRHOOSO ; S ai NK HDKLDBASBSSSHHAANANA MOH Hid iS OKRA Ml N SSS SS SS SS SK SS SSS ‘ oO fo 4) > —— Re A OOD 1919 © HOO O19 00 09 00.09 1009 00 00 00 HO HO = co BBBABSSSHAANAN GOTH HSS SKK ABHOSSS So 5 3S N68 WH IG OO OOS SSAA GS WS SSM HGECS HS ISAS SOHANHAAMGSORASBSHAMTIGSN DS WSMAKSBSOHADSNSRADSHAGDMSSKASH SrASSHAAV CSE SSS SSS SSSA NNNNN Sess sss SVS VBANNANNANANAN SSS SS SVM NQNANANNAANN WAG SSK EKABDSHOHAANAKHNHMIHOOR OHSAS SASS SSS AAV ANNANNNNANNAAN Aes SS AV BBNNNANNNAAA NOD OD Se oe Oe AGHAHSSKHDHAGDASASHAONM AHO SOKK AD TFT HSrEKABSSHANHHHHSSRABSSHAN WWIOM™ DHOOCHAMNAPOOMWOODOONAMNAA tH ISN AKSSOAAGDMWHGSORKAGBSOHAND OMS THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. FMF AHONODMEHIANArOMDMNNOMNMr~SO SWOOGOSCOAMAPADANAAHOREYMNOMOMO DWDONMDMINADPOONMMOADO MAOH 19 OM DON OWDMNANMRIADODA~MOOSMOMmMAr~O OS ARMOMAAMDWDNAROMOWDMNBDOMAMOAMI9 OIAOMRMDHODOSOMHOr-AHARDWDNONDONAGD SOHODMNCOMMMNS OM WANS OS O19 60 oc HH ARAODWDOMr-MOAMNNROOMOMMNMNOOrON IIDAH HMMM AOOAOSr-rOODINMMMNANHO reer re renDnoonAnnNMtooor~nnnor AMDAHIQOM- DON MNNODONHEONMEONME OOAMSCOMMAOOOCHONEMOWORMRON “SHHUL LOOW-O8 THE ASHES DOSE So 00 rH 19 eR mA S oe GG) eS igae “"" "66 neat SaaS, ae eam OG) eae fae or OS ~J o> ters inside bark at different iame d years in age, giving ameters and heights, 75 to 3800 ‘i d heights above the ground—Continued. TaBLE 30.—Form or taper table for BLACK ASH trees of different 90-FOOT TREES. Diameter breast- high. BULLETIN 299, U. = SOOM ONNM OMAN tet el a 2 ‘ deo ate ond o C B md : sian : ~ . ‘ . . . ea) & ; oh oP Beta irre) Sree seen co eel te Boy Ge OTS a PYAR) de, sapveltatbet te rather eat us AS Het ec ct eyes 3 sts Gab Nec ke! yh caaits By Geo ee oa ' ' . . Ci . . . . . . ' he Oe OMT ae tinG Heigiccao Yo) ‘ Pa nfal Coe ke Pa Th Reva te a : ite eRe abr egrene - Sevinteancnerinieasaacens Aa irs 1D MOANSCONNODANDEOHOrANNMD 38) MOOG Mad ig isSSSr eK re CHO ok ~ CHAMODMENOHMHAAMRMADNNO a WIG SSMMAHBASSSHINAS rs ee ee eel ‘3 HOMOOALMMAMNOOHONDMNHA tH SS SMM BAHSASSAAA GH oF 1915 6 bee ee en Bos oe Oe Oe oe oe | re) ad OAODHH-MOMADMONrYTNOMNS fo) MHDS SSHAANG AiG Gern aad . Se eo ee Oe Oe Oe oe oe oe fer) a r an g ON WINN DID ARDIDARDONPINNOD Nz) da OrvadisSrnraass a 2 HFSS AN gsos ig Gorn sacs | aan go = | 5 td 6 5 a OOK MHDINARONHDTHOSMO oO o BSSHANGDHAAGSKRKRHABSBSHA o 4 og Se AS SSN SRNR HNNN b oD = Ss oO a Q A S a) = RS PNM OM BACH HASH MASH 1000 op 10 3 BSOAANAG SHS SK HKHOSHHAS 3 ~~ g SSS SSAA NINNNAN 1S 3 an] a A ADDN MHOr-NMARM~MOMHArO co SHAAN AH ISR HHOASHAAOH ms See AAR NNANNNANNN ~ Sal AMr~OWMNAROr-ONNOOCOMMO AAGHHSSKROBGDOHANDH Hid nr} Saige SASHA MANAAAANAN a HMOARCOCHOEErONWTIMNMNAR AAGHSSSKRHADSHADT HSK ite) Fe 8 SO OS RNA clout aac x HOROCHANMMANNOONRDOORON BAGH SRADSOHANH ISSR OSH 0 BASSAS SAS RAANRASARASS ASR aw yiqges Peaags Ga aaa eae AtigGSrAcdn anaast MIM=ADOOOCHMONE™MOMOI- DORON WOODHANANIOMm OOM IDO Orin GS VRINIESRSASSS OSes Inches. De ASescssin es 14 eee ess 15 .c25ncnse 1622222422 Qables scsi DA eae trices 100-FOOT TREES. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COnEANDON OSrKDDS CONDMOW HAGASSH Ne eB | ID Io 1D 4 SSSHAAG Se oO oe oe oe CO AC1DN Ow Srna nSs Se Oe Oe Be oe oe 1D DH1NN 19 MANA is nal OOr-triow No Hd 5S sees McHHOoS Ad ws 6S é Soe Bho i oe ce ee ee oe MANODOMWN SIS id Sr SaeeaAes OD AN rtm 00 O19 Tig Ssras aan Coo Orrlt IHSSrOADS aes” CANN OO MHD GG Rano es SORA AAN MODONTE SSSanka CONnRONESD ANARNAS VEER esere ee UL ee 2. Ue see epee PA Sei ere 22 SSE ROE THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. WNOOMAONID SCHKHHHDAS DAMADOMNM acsnnaan renseae es OwmnwWoowoast AA 6d 09 Si HHS eae . ce . 00 19 Pe Co at HO OO rH He wii Hi 15 1915 1555S ANDONWDADOID SrrAHHSASSS Sn I oe SRO 10 ACOSO lS SASSHAN A od Se oe Oe ee oe oe Oe | SHAK HHS dS Se Orwwodnonowntorw BAN tid igonn Moe AeA Ase COM CO 0D 00H O10 OO Hadid om Se i ee Oe De DON OW sry HG SSM HHS Se De ADIARDOMOS SSHHHSBOR SrA ANN oO Ob Hr cold SASSHAN Hoeossang OO OD CON OD SH ASHHAD AAO AA NA SEae) Gey Co Ss) BacnaAnaxdt MANANNANNN MAO AOO1N cD SI AA 6d 3d ANANAARA OOIDIDH HOO miles wid S06 AAANAANAAAN OANtrRONDOr ISM OSridics + AAA Nos 69 6d co DWHOMAIRON SID SHS riod WO 69 6 09 CD CD SH XH 26S So Sene Hisasonaace “OE Si heeree 110-FOOT TREES. ON WDIDONADNHHRDOA Nog Hid 6S Sr HO Se ee HHODOAM~MOAOMO BaF sGSsscr soso SB ee MODUINRONNRIr-N Tid GORE ASSSH So ee ee et ee ee ee OD OS | HON HHOOMHOID DWSHROHABSBSAAA See SANA OOMMAAr-UIANDSO WSrHHASBSHAAS AeA NNANNANN HHHODMOINSH MOO SLASBSSHAGHH SASS ANAANAN OO 00 O29 SHA ret rt OO Pe ~ SSA NSH HIS By nN ecuiciccs ReErowonnas SB SHANS HS SNS AAR ANKRAAAANA CO HID OOM OORO Snasowtissrdor AANANAAAAN Coo AWNONWEONME Ast srdadriaed s NAAN AAA N09 69 60 09 AM MOHOnNMAON RASH SSHSHS CII cD 09 09 69 09.00 OO SH SH 5 TCS a aT : Bie obo 0 ¢ 30 esa Ovo 2G : 1 Deo Ono o : Den og : Pena anole : AGG 0.0.0 =) WSKOSS a NAANANA e 17 78 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 31.— Volume in cubic feet of stem wood, exclusive of bark, of WHITE ASH trees of different diameters and heights, under 75 years in age; and factors to multiply by to reduce to cubic feet including bark. Total height of tree—feet. Diameter breast- 20 | 30 | 40 50 | 60 | 70 high. : Peeled volume—cubic feet. Inches. 0.2 0.3 .6 RS e EAMntseciey Penmaes ipal 1.4 1.8 PAal 255 16 2.2 227 one 3.8 2.3 3.1 3.9 4.7 apis) 3.2 4,2 Bud 6.3 7.4 4.1 55. 6.8 8.2 9.6 Dal 6.9 8.6 10.3 12.0 pa 8.6 10.7 12.9 15.0 10.3 12.9 15.4 18.0 eee ce 1253 L5s4 18.5 22.0 Beet Seal esa 17.9 22.0 25.0 So ecto | she eitete 21.0 25.0 29.0 wfslaepes a c\| Sacer 24.0 29.0 34.0 ebdaemellaeceeee 27.0 33.0 38.0 ee Mie elie easy Be aise 37.0 43.0 Se Bi eae ere caccce |aeciomee 41.0 48.0 Meee nn Rene al Pees iie 46.0 54.0 ye Se crore (va eerie a ers LESS 51.0 60.0 Sle AN VN Abn DT i 56.0 66.0 SCAG Beene Meese 62.0 72.0 kos | sci eet ia | heen ae 10.9 12.3 13.7 15.4 17.2 19.3 21.0 23.0 25.0 28.0 29.0 32.0 33.0 38.0 38.0 43.0 44. 0 49.0 49.0 55.0 55.0 62.0 61.0 69.0 68.0 77.0 75.0 85.0 82.0 93.0 Factors to multiply by to reduce to | Basis. cubic feet including bark. Trees 1. 23 65 1.22 70 22 81 1.21 57 1,21 80 1.20 57 1.20 63 1.20 54 1.19 45 1.19 33 1.18 28 1.18 19 1,18 14 1.17 10 LE7, 6 1.17 6 1.16 3 1.16 4 1.16 1 806 TABLE 32.— Volume in cubic feet of stem wood, exclusive of bark, of WHITE ASH trees of different diameters and heights, 75 to 149 years in age; and factors to multiply by to reduce to cubic feet including bark. Total height of tree—feet. Diameter breast- 50 60 70 80 90 100 high. 4 Peeled volume—cubic feet. Inches Grete yeceos 4.0 4.8 ESL] SSosotae Sosostos tocsraeses lerenroecce 5.4 6.5 TEGH| See cae Se ae eee Seis semaine 7.0 8.4 9.8 LD in| Sh ae yell aa aS aS BABocES 8.8 10.6 12.3 LAR Ae Sarat omeereae LOS ee oi 11.0 1352 15.4 17.6 LOB aS eee ene 1 Pe ae 1342 15.8 18.5 21.0 DAS ON | Saceeseee MC e as Meisinne 15.8 19.0 22.0 25.0 28.0 32 1 Pee 18.4 22.0 26.0 29.0 33.0 37 VCS Somers 21.0 26.0 30.0 34.0 39.0 43 UD BRS eeobe 25.0 30.0 34.0 39.0 44.0 49 i eeseecear 28.0 34.0 39.0 45.0 50. 0 56 dy fee Beetle 32.0 38.0 44.0 51.0 57.0 63 Bois Ree ene 35.0 42.0 50. 0 57.0 64.0 val 1h! Ste 39.0 47.9 55.0 63.0 71.0 79 7 SS eee 44.0 52.0 61.0 70.0 78.0 87 VAS Seen 48.0 58. 0 67.0 77.0 87.0 96 Dae zieus 53.0 63.0 74.0 84.0 95.0 106 69. 0 81.0 92.0 104.0 116 75.0 88.0 100. 0 113.0 126 82.0 95.0 109. 0 123.0 136 89.0 103.0 118.0 133.0 148 stomps 111.0 127.0 143.0 159 is aps 120.0 137.0 154.0 171 K (mi nigherey ct 129.0 147.0 165.0 184 erciontls ie 137.0 157.0 177.0 196 BOR rd ere asec 168.0 189.0 210 Bike cite SANE 179.0 | 201.0 204 He Aaco NOMCcose 190. 0 214.0 238 Lartete sion mieniciee ome 202.0 22740, 252 Beetle fail cin ateteterore 214.0 240. 0 267 wb ees Pa ONOoee 226.0 255.0 283 | 110 | 120 ATE) sate etre OL hosoGacccr 62 67 70 76 78 85 87 95 96 105 106 116 116 127 127 139 138 151 150 164 162 177 175 191 188 205 202 220 216 236 231 252 246 268 261 285 278 303 294 321 31) 339 reduce to | Basis. cubic feet including bark. THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 19 Taste 33.— Volume of stem in cords,‘ including bark, of WHITE ASH under 75 years in age, for trees of different diameters and heights, and per cent of bark in trees of different diameters. 4 [Based on taper table.] Total height of tree—feet. Diameter te breast- 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Bark. Basis. high. Volume—cords. i Inches. { Percent. | Trees. fae Heer 0.009 | 0.014 | 0.017 0.022 | 0.026 OKOB IR ese eens i Ai aig ce 18.6 65 DWassumnent 013 . 020 . 027 . 033 . 040 - 046 OF O05 40) 2 sees: 18.3 70 (Dee 5 a ayers - 020 . 028 - 038 . 048 . 057 . 067 HOMO Araceae 17.9 81 Ylgels sb SOU OO eae - 039 . 051 . 064 . 076 . 090 . 102 0.115 17.6 57 (cl ao Ses Pesce . 050 . 067 . 082 - 099 - 116 . 132 . 149 L723 80 OC) ee eA eee . 061 - 083 . 103 124 144 . 164 . 185 17.0 57 IQ Reioteic ocala eel Peart . 103 . 128 EDD . 180 . 206 e2d2 16.7 63 tO Oboe S6c| Ae a Oo BE eae ean . 124 palate) . 185 . 216 . 247 . 278 16.4 54 hae eC Orel oO OG UGE BOSC EEe - 146 . 183 . 220 . 257 . 293 . 330 16.1 45 BSS Go eedodIIce Nese Eee peers ~ 213 . 256 . 299 . 342 - 884 15.8 33 Teas Repu A RNogat ie SALMON KNOG . 247 . 295 345 . 394 444 L555) 28 TR oe oe cle Sal OSeoe Cun RoC OS bes) Bae ooeE . 283 . 340 . 396 - 453 .d10 19.2 19 TR sega cE C EO Ee eee Obes merrier 7 O22 . 387 451 . 516 . 579 15.0 14 Is coetcrbrlPate soba RSsb re BoE Onsenes Eemmooee . 433 - 504 577 . 649 14.7 10 SEs semana ts dee os oo eee els - 484 . 565 . 646 e127 14,4 6 LO ee Goce ollGS ESE SESE eel Heise eiel pace smeere - 539 . 629 . 720 . 808 14.2 6 BO coco bod Soe Obes Speco Gen cial eects . 592 . 690 . 789 . 887 13.9 3 DO ee co od GEE OSC OCS GEE GG eI eeel Praensereere . 654 . 763 . 872 . 981 13.7 4 Dates eae ecard ee ei aedeagal Say . 836 . 956 1.075 13.5 1 696 1 To reduce to cubic feet, including stump, multiply the number of cords in each case by 100. TABLE 34.— Volume of stem in cords, including bark, of WHITE ASH 75 to 149 years in age, for trees of different diameters and heights, and per cent of bark in trees of different diameters. [Based on taper table.] Total height of tree—feet. Diameter breast- 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Bark. Basis. high. Volume—cords. Inches Percent. | Trees. Baap yt tye OU OS Ss | OSOGG ONO Zim aes yey rear ool epee me Mom Reaches) HUGO ep La Bs 2s 5 Meas 073 . 088 . 103 QL Te eis B/S ose ee cael at a G3 ee 26.3 8 Sor aneeaaet 094 palit} allt na al eee meets |e, Seti Seam soe 25.4 13 Sirs Heine 116 . 140 . 162 ATs (GWG Mae OFA 0s) es exegesis Beal seas eres (OAs Ba ek 24.5 23 TOM eee 144 BS . 202 231 aU NE eee cents eae NIC Rees oe ty al Nas Un aN . 23.6 28 aN ence. 172 . 205 . 240 274 309 QRS Ao in tere teceene a ieee Senet 22.8 42 1) ae Oe ae 202 . 243 . 283 324 . 364 AA Ea asa aguilera 22.0 49 es seseres 234 . 281 328 ROMS . 420 467 Oeil 4 eer ney 212 46 Ae eet ae 270 324 378 431 . 485 539 SOU BH eo acet tee 20.5 51 Vay gies aha 308 . 369 430 . 492 . 554 615 . 676 0. 738 19.8 32 Ges eousees 347 Malia 486 . 556 . 625 . 694 . 764 . 833 19.1 51 RS Sues 389 . 466 544 622) . 700 5 ee . 855 . 932 18.4 30 Uae ameersey 432 -518 . 605 . 691 2117 . 864 ~950 1.037 17.7 24 They OS aaa 477 Bae) . 668 . 762 . 858 . 953 1.049 1.145 lyfe i 21 DO Rous 523 . 628 Eon . 838 . 942 1.046 1.151 1.255 16.5 17 PHILS aie 574 . 688 . 803 .917 | 1.033 1.147 1.261 1.377 15.9 10 SN ie ase 623 . 748 . 872 .997 | 1.121 1.246 1.371 1.495 15.3 11 PE RARC Poni ie elena eS . 812 TO Aa wes OS2 Mi Lor 13853 1. 488 1.623 14.8 7 pA eh atc .882 | 1.028} 1.176] 1.322 1.470 1.617 1.763 14.3 iL Bas Sete Suellen 949 | 1.108] 1.266] 1.424 1. 582 1.740 1.899 13.8 5 OX eo en el eae POLO Ele SSH msl 5 Salle 2:7 1.697 1. 868 2.037 13.3 2 a ae eed ee reed mene 1.281 | 1.465 | 1.648 1.831 2.014 2.196 12.9 2 OS eta SO oe ee Ge aes GEeoeaee 1.366 1.562 1.757 1, 952 2.147 2.342 12.5 2 DO bye eienaiie|| Ae Sra AU epee 1.465 | 1.675; 1.883 2.093 2.303 2.511 12.1 3 BD) Sects eee ee ees [akan 1.554 | 1.775 | 1.998 2.219} 2.441 2.663 11.7 1 a AS Grr lice Osan [ese Meson Kae may 1.895 } 2.131 2.368 2.606 2. 842 11.4 2 BOS echt coca Rua aS FG a (peed aes ees 2.004 | 2.253 2.504 2.755 3.005 11.0 1 487 1 To reduce to cubic feet, including stump, multiply the number of cords in each case by 100. 80 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 35.—Average amount of branch wood 2 inches and over in diameter, in second- growth WHITE ASH trees of different diameters in New York, and the per cent which it forms of the total stem volume without the branches. Diameter | Volume! Fer Cenk Diameter | Volume? Foca | breast- of branch- Sere Basis. breast- of branch- stem; Basis. ; high. wood. high. wood. f volume. volume. Inches. Cubic feet. | Per cent. Trees. Inches. Cubic feet. | Per cent. Trees. 8 0.2 2 16 16 5. 11 10 2) -5 4 11 17/ 7.0 12 re) 10 1.0 6 20 18 8.4 13 5 11 15) 7 18 19 10.0 14 -|.. 3323.2 12 2.1 8 21 20 11.6 -14 5 13 2.8 9 15 14 3.6 9 9 144 H 15 4.6 10 12 1 To reduce to cords divide by 100. TaBLE 36.— Volume in board feet of WHITE ASH, under 75 years in age, for trees of different diameters and number of logs, scaled by the Scribner log rule. [Based on taper curves; scaled mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Height ofstump, 1 foot. Measurements taken in Vermont, New York, Michigan, Indiana, and Tennessee.] Number of 16-foot logs. Diameter Diane breast- 4 2, 24 3 34 4 44 5 packiot Basis. high. top. Volume—board feet. Inches. Inches. |. Trees. eee 25 38 BOM sac srelersic|® cise nee acimecibee | sacews eats Saves 6 80 eee 27 41 54 MD eee Seere' |e ee eee leer oe san eemec seems 6 57 LOR Sees 30 44 60 79 LOO} eet cal Soee eee aeons 6 63 te 32 48 67 88 MAQUI See saseeel soee cee ome lo ete coe 6 54 Dee eetia 35 54 75 100 120 L5ON | tasekeeeo=| seeteecece 6 45 1B esa aSo5 Sanooeos 62 85 110 140 OS See sores | Sees 6 33 1 ee ena eee 70 95 120 150 190 2208 tec ne cet 6 28 1b ene sh eaSseeeee 80 110 140 170 210 ZAQ cc odeaetee 6 19 Gti ee ese 92 120 150 190 230 DLONaskiee eee 6 14 UE eon eiia| Raaaae esl SESE Beas 140 170 210 250 SOOM Some scmees 6 10 TESS Ae | Pease erael ee meena t 150 190 230 280 330 380 6 6 LO MESS aaa aac resect cee 170 220 260 310 370 420 6 6 YA) Sdogosel Beasties. Se eseeee 200 240 290 350- 410 470 6 3 Lee treet es shee ys | Peo A ome 220 270 320 390 450 520 7 4 FORE SSA Pes a ate oh Lae Ae 240 300 360 430 490 570 7 1 2B paGONGo| bE pSo aoa bemaneee 270 330 390 470 540 620 dH Eee ae PDS Pe MO] CEE ae ed ae me 300 370 430 2 510 580 670 8)) eee 423 THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 81 TaBLE 37.— Volume in board feet of WHITE ASH, 75 to 149 years in age, for trees of different diameters and number of logs, scaled by the Scribner log rule. [Based on taper curves; scaled mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Height. of stump, 1 foot. Measurements taken in New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Indiana, Tennessee, West Virginia, and North Carolina. | Number of 16-foot logs. Di Dianeter | S aaenet breast- 2 | 2h | 3 | 3h 4 | 43 | 5 | 5h Gel aeacecr ) Basis: ee | eres eee Eee ee ee Volume—board feet. top. Inches. | Trees. tl BESS oeooood |Gcacoacs lShasaces seme tere 6 13 SO el eee ee eel eee oe ae 6 23 Qe Via eR a ree ll Sa ace oS 6 28 100) 2 eS a Seer oeetee tte litte ck cise |[eieiaenee 6 42 120 L401 ee ea eternal eee ers cis clio seeieistsic e010) 49 130 UE Scpecce lssoocond beeodeee paecosse 6 46 150 180 200 281i |BeSdeees beusceae 6 51 170 200 230 200M eee os osha 6 32 190 220 260 290 330 | 370 6 51 210 250 290 330 370 | 410 6 30 240 280 320 370 410 460 6 24 270 320 360 420 460 520 6 21 300 360 410 470 520 590 6 Hy 340 400 460 520 590 660 7 10 380 450 510 590 660 750 uf il 420 500 580 660 750 840 8 7 460 550 650 740 840 940 9 1 510 610 730 830 940 | 1,050 9 5 570 680 810 920 | 1,050| 1,170 10 2 630 760 890 | 1,020| 1,160] 1,300 10 2 690 840 980} 1,130} 1,280 1,440 11 2 760 920 | 1,070] 1,240] 1,410] 1,590 11 3 830 | 1,010] 1,170| 1,360{ 1,550] 1,750 12 1 900 | 1,100} 1,280] 1,490! 1,690] 1,910 13 2 990 | 1,190| 1,390] 1,620| 1,850| 2,080 13 1 1,070 | 1,290] 1,510] 1,760] 2,020] 2,260 14h a eran 1,160 | 1,400] 1,640] 1,910] 2,200] 2,470 ries 2 1,250| 1,500] 1,760| 2,050| 2,380] 2,600 15 1 1,340 | 1,610] 1,890] 2,210] 2,560] 2,90 16;||eucos 1,440 | 1,720] 2,020] 23360] 2,740] 3,120 16\9G heme 1,540 | 1,830] 2,160| 2,520] 2,930] 3,350 17% Stee 1,650 | 1,950] 2,310] 2'690| 3,130] 3,620 1:72) cee 1,760 | 2,060) 2,470| 2,870) 3,340] 3,900 1 BS oie sy 475 TABLE 38.— Volume in cubic feet of stem wood, exclusive of bark, of GREEN ASH trees of different diameters and heights, under 75 years in age, and factors to multiply by to reduce to cubic feet, including bark. Total height of tree—feet. Factors to Die — ——— a) inl ime | Oe | SOA aneoman |e 70" [SoS geo | 100 | toreduce to | Basis ge Hnaaatine Peeled volume—cubic feet. bark. 6 Inches. Trees Leelee am 1.4 Oa Been caress RGR orencee ate ceceene ecsacacane Menaacanad 1.29 Deemer eas 2.0 PASTA ABO OCE dnc |GESCBR Ree once cnOna ae cacqn cool bapseceaee 1.28 12 Geet ce 2.8 3.7 4.6 53/5) | voce arenes | Saceeecies olaaseeeeene 11622 14 ecassteae 3.7 4.8 6.0 hee BS Bakara) Booscosace teecaseoss 1525 24 SHC Aneel 4.6 6.0 7.6 9.1 Ae ees oececad EeSseaease 1.24 13 0) Sa Aaeee 5.7 7.4 9.2 ileal TCH eee senna Beoacetaue 1.23 15 IO) Sas eaeae 7.0 9.1 LAD 13.5 16.3 19.3 22 1.22 21 ill Saou bede Neceaeae 10.7 13.3 15.9 19.3 23.0 26 iL zal 25 1 eee | aermeiceress 12.6 15.6 18.8 23.0 27.0 32 1.20 24 135s Goeaan sosessds 14.5 17.9 22.0 26.0 31.0 37 1.19 23 ARS ee enree loin iste 16.6 21.0 25.0 30.0 37.0 43 1.18 28 1535 5aa|eadeosuallanoonaasr 23.0 28.0 34.0 42.0 49 1.17 19 119s soosqed aoseasaalseocoeese 26.0 32.0 39.0 48.0 56 Ue il 17 Wiesoossea boenescaidosogasse 29.0 36.0 44.0 53.0 63 1.16 9 14 SoaSballoncoddeallspooosuD. 32.0 40.0 50. 0 59.0 val 1.15 7 19), See4555||Sn6o5acaleeooooaos 35.0 44.0 55.0 66. 0 79 1.15 9 20. 38.0 49.0 61.0 73.0 87 1.14 3 Oh AG 6bdee Beene Seonsecta secs 53.0 67.0 80.0 96 1.14 2 ore ee |e orsiese 57.0 72.0 88.0 106 1.13 2 DBE Meecha |eeicaclee clemeccemes| oases 63.0 79.0 96. 0 116 1.13 3 Da epee recall ie eteteicion| Metres tase eerie 68. 0 85.0 105. 0 126 1.12 1 278 6023°—Bull. 299—15——6 82 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 39.— Volume in cubic feet of stem wood, exclusive of bark, of GREEN ASH trees of different diameters and heights, 75 to 149 years in age, and factors to multiply by to reduce to cubic feet, including bark. i Total height of tree—feet. i valeiple ie ty Diameter a AYA i megs 7 to reduce to mah 60 | 70 | 80 90 | 100 110 | 120 | 130 cubic feet, Basis. | : including Peeled volume—cubic feet. Bark: | He Inches. Trees be Bees 2 8.6 10.0 LL 1! I ees Beers ee aanis octisccccc 1.27 { Ome cee 10.7 12.5 14.3 1GS08| Saareees See cce see aeseee se Titccree anes 1.26 14 ; ORs aoe 13.2 15.4 17.6 19.8 22) |S fens eel Sees cee leneeeete 1.25 14 t sh eee ae 15.8 18.5 21.0 24.0 262 | Gee eee ater [i etc ase 1.24 25 LD aeee oes 19.0 22.0 25.0 28.0 32 BL ey eee ae ee sees 22, 29 oho se 22.0] 26.0] 29.0] 33.0 37 AO) ee tee |e eae oes 121 34 af eee 26.0 30.0 34.0 39.0 43 47 9 Lg eset aes A a 1.20 40 BI eee aes ie 29.0 34.0 39.0 44.0 49 53 58 Niscseet cane 1.19 47 1622.52 tO b eo bon sabe sub in BIGY NWN ee SSSR TES on He 09 GO DD DODD eS et _ i J _ bo a 86 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Taste 44.—Volume in cubic feet of stem wood, exclusive of bark, of BLACK ASH trees of different diameters and height, 75 to 300 years in age, etc.—Continued. Total height of tree—feet. Factors to . multiply by Diameter breast- 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 - | 110 to recuceltom is iiasis, ] ? high. a includin: Peeled volume—cubic feet. es Trees. 50. 0 57.20 64 CAN Sec cons 1.16 4 56. 0 64.0 12 80. Soeheee te 1.16 if 62.0 71.0 80 804 he ae 5) 55 69. 0 78.0 88 98 108 5 3 76.0 87.0 98 108 119 1.14 8 83.0 95. 0 107 119 131 1.14 2 91.0 104. 0 117 130 143 via i} 2 99.0 113.0 127 141 155 1.13 1 wenasamiteied lao seeeee nee 123.0 138 153 169 1.12 2 ek acaisrate a Ae SMe retee 13350 149 166 183 1.12 1 eisiset hee mae asics hee ee 143.0 161 179 197 aay 2 ected ath Seteicic oe 154.0 173 193 212 nears 1 Exe atcy ee 165. 0 186 207 221 ieabl 1 wise odioe ries |Site entemer e 17750 199 221 243 yal 1 aor TasueE 45.— Volume of stem in cords,! including bark, of BLACK ASH 75 to 300 years in age, for trees of different diameters and heights, and per cent of bark in trees of differ- ent diameters. {Based on taper table.] Total height of tree—feet. Diameter i breast- 60 70 80 90 100 110 Bark. Basis. high. Volume—cords. Inches. Percent. | Trees. Gee zl SONOGG a OSOFT ebay GOsOSSul Rees Stes ceo Eten a a Be eens ecysiete 850i) eee Tete ec Rs 17.6 2 Le Aad 17.2 4 QS oe HM LEB [io che RL OM SAL OOH ES Sted he ehyal ae Seer ameter | kee ess yepsrecctoere 16.8 6 Oe re OU STO = MAR SQOB The RSQ B AL erat ermal Me cite ctctsie£ | alist eteveeraistele 16. 4 8 He cep tee) AP oAL2h|) covebere cae athce i NORE he ee eal eet ct nyee| Sea Soe eenee 16.0 5 ee Se QDS came Hee OOR hon ta tOOS) |e eee OOO Maleate ys Aerie all Sic cles eer UG 7/ 10 eee eceelia oa Lino! |e) Oa aa te a clre OO UN imme (etek et obtarcte -.5.2 . 80 21 4.3 1,192 24.0 1.1 1,072 584 1, 656 Johnsons ees sate 95 22 hil 492 7.4 -3 228 312 540 Saundersen 225-200 156 22 4.8 446 7.5 +0 138 188 326 Hamiltons<-.---'-_* 1.10 23 5.3 496 15.6 SY 294 280 574 SViOKCs aes eee 1.70 23 4.7 835 17.3 8 425 410 835 WWiebDSler-as.c2 5212 6.60 25 3.8 517 4.0 ae 51 155 206 Willmore. so. -225) 4.24 25 5.7 345 12.4 Pz) 190 111 301 ancaster aeccsse -48 25 5.3 497 14.8 ati) 327 240 567 Polke S52 js sak 3.10 27. 6.2 309 11.6 4 441 208 649 Butlers se feiss se .38 29 4.9 950 20.1 suf 490 480 970 Clava esos ee 5.30 30 5.8 352 10.0 3 246 184 430 Saunders..2 2.222 1.50 30 6.1 368 19.3 .6 1, 068 370 1, 438 Doak Faeaes aoe 1.10 30 7.4 236 26.4 9 1,162 486 1, 648 DOA eee 1.50 32 4.6 553 12.9 4 343 330 673 Cuminge = B25, 33 4.6 530 14.8 2D 465 420 885 Saundérss-2sbaee. 3.10 33 7.0 383 18.9 6 1,040 420 1, 640 1 From Circular 45 of the Forest Service. TanLe 49.— Yield of GREEN ASH plantations in the Plains States.' Value of post per acre per annum. Total ; . Age. A Firsts and Trees e Height. value. of Without | 4 percent | seconds. | per acre. IES interest interest on the on the investment.|investment. Years Feet Per cent. Number. TO aE Se oe ena ere Rs Benes cd Aes 8 $147.10 $7.74 $5.32 a 75 CERCA ASE Ee aA SERRA Re eas 3 272.50 11.85 7.44 39.3 1,274 Deen clean eect nari aoe 22 137. 20 5.97 3.75 41.6 908, DNS SSeS SSS EEE Gee SEO a 49 270. 90 10. 84 6.51 49.7 680 aoe renee een eisicloere ie cle eee 25 135. 00 3.86 1.82 42.7 436 Al ee ee eee sons renee nie nce ee 53 240. 45 6.01 2.53 67.5 500 1 OE CBOE HERES ae GAS ila nt 45 250. 60 6. 26 2.64 70.5 535 1 From Bulletin 86 of the Forest Service, by Carlos G. Bates. Notre.—The following conclusions were drawn from the above table: (1) Highest financial returns in 25 years. (2) Ash posts of best quality only at much greater age. (3) Best posts with closest spacing; without this, trees crooked, branchy, and knotty. (4) Should not be planted on dry sites, as the growth is too retarded. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Y ; BULLETIN No. 300 Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER November 10, 1915 EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. By D. L. Yarne.t, Drainage Engineer. CONTENTS. Page Page EMUTO CU CLIOM syater-ee eta =/a/-(ahaieie slerwterciaistci= dior ce el~'s 1 | The dry-land grab-bucket excavator. ........ 28 Development of excavating machinery.....- 2 | Theitempletiexcayvator. -.-5-- 2... 5-2-1 28 The floating dipper dredge.............-..-- : 3 | The wheel type of excavator.........---..--- 30 The floating grab-bucket dredge..-..-.-...-. 17,.| The hy dranlieldredgessss 22-22 he. sc cee see 33 The drag-line scraper excavator...........--. 18 | Machines for cleaning old ditches..........-- 35 The dry-land dipper excavator............-- 2) ||/; SUNN ay aeepem erate tayecisnics( ceiciesiere ats cere 37 INTRODUCTION. The excavation of nearly all dramage ditches, other than mere field drains, and a large part of the levee work are now done by power machinery. In the carrymg out of community drainage projects in agricultural districts it is often the case that persons upon whom must devolve the ultimate responsibility for the correct design and proper prosecution of the work are but little experienced in the applicability of the different types of excavating machines, and have little practical knowledge of the methods and cost of operation of such machinery. This is frequently true of county drainage commissioners, drainage district commissioners, and of local engineers who, though of limited experience in the technicalities of ditch and levee construction on a large scale, are nevertheless, by virtue of their office, called upon to origmate or pass upon plans for drainage improvements, draw up specifications, and award contracts. It is for the purpose of supplying information that would be useful in such cases that this bulletin has been prepared. In obtaining the information embodied in this bulletin the writer has been aided materially by data furnished by private engineers in charge of improvements and by various contractors and manufacturers. Note.—This bulletin is of interest to those who have to do with the installation of systems of drainage; it is suitable for distribution in the eastern part of the United States, 4908°—Bull. 300—15——1 2 BULLETIN 300, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The various publications of the different manufacturers of exca- vating machinery have also been freely consulted, and a number of projects under construction have been inspected. DEVELOPMENT OF EXCAVATING MACHINERY. Open drains were no doubt dug on wet agricultural lands during the early settlement of this country. Smee only hand tools were then in use, the ditches were small. If the channel was too large to permit the material to be dug and thrown out im one operation, it was neces- sary to rehandle the dirt with shovels or to carry it out in baskets or wheelbarrows. These methods were very slow and expensive. Al- though the ditches then constructed served their purpose for the small agricultural tracts which were generally on high ground, the increase in population and the resulting spread of agricultural opera- tions to the lower lands soon demanded the construction of larger channels. Teams and scrapers were then used where conditions per- mitted. If the material was hard it was first loosened with a plow and then removed by means of slip or wheel scrapers. This method, however, became too expensive as larger ditches were required. Moreover, drainage channels must frequently be constructed on lands so wet and soft as to preclude the use of teams. The increasing demand for suitable excavating machinery has engaged the atten- tion of many men of mechanical bent, and the result has been the invention of modern types of machinery, the development of which has been rapid. By the use of modern machinery the cost of drainage work has been so reduced as now seldom to afford valid excuse for failure to drain. “4 Perhaps the first successful use of power machinery in drainage work was on a project in Illinois in 1882 when a floating dredge was used for digging the channels. During the early development manu- facturers entered their machines in contests for medals offeved for the best diggmg machines. Thus in 1886, three dredging concerns entered their mince in such a contest before the ‘Tlinois State Board of Agriculture. ae The early, type of dipper dredge was equipped with the old-fash- ioned vertical spuds, and the hull was built wide to prevent tipping. The ditches desired at that time were usually small and owing to the width of hull the operator was nearly always compelled to excavate more material than he was paid for. The bank spud, which runs directly from the side of the machine to the bank, was invented to do away with this unnecessary width of hull and the consequent useless excavation. Although many delays and difficulties were encountered in the early stages of development, the cost of excavation by machin- ery was soon reduced far below that by hand labor. This period marks an epoch in the progress of drainage in this country. EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE, 33 In late years the so-called dry-land excavators of various types have been developed and have reduced the cost of excavation under con- ditions to which floating dredges are not adapted. The growth of the drag-line scraper excavator has been especially prominent. At present this machine probably has a wider field of usefulness than any other type of excavator made. The cost of all kinds of excavation has now reached a very low figure as compared to the prices prevailing for work by machinery only a few years ago. This has mainly been brought about by the entrance into the contracting field of many men equipped with modern machinery who, through the keen competition, have taken contracts at prices permitting only a small margin of profit. THE FLOATING DIPPER DREDGE. The floating dipper dredge is probably the oldest and most widely used type of machine for the excavation of drainage ditches. The essential parts are the hull, engines, boiler, A-frame, swinging circle, spuds, boom, and dipper. Withthe exception of the dipper theseparts appear in some form on every type of floating dredge used for ditching. Various manufacturers have different patented details of construction, but the general principles of construction and operation are the same on all floating dipper dredges. ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF CONSTRUCTION. HULL. The hull may be either of wood or of steel; the use of the latter material will undoubtedly constantly increase in the future owing to the ever-increasing cost of timber that is suitable for building hulls. The many difficulties met with in the operation of the earlier machines have taught manufacturers that certain fixed relations exist between the dimensions of the hull and the positions and weights of the other parts of the dredge. Unless these relations are considered in the design of the hull much trouble will result in the operation of the dredge. The smaller dredged ditches are generally constructed by machines with from 1 to 14 yard dippers. The machinery necessary for operating these sizes being comparatively light, the hulls are of such dimensions that they can easily be floated in the smaller channels, although the width of hull used for a machine of given capacity varies somewhat with the different manufacturers. Some dredges are so designed that the thrust of the dipper, when digging, is carried directly from the A-frame through the spud arm to the spud shoe and the bank of the ditch. By this arrangement aslightly narrower hull can be used than is necessary where the machine is differently designed. 4 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A dipper dredge to withstand the severe stresses due to the con- stantly changing loads must be very strongly built. If the hull is of wood it is made up of a strong frame work of timbers planked on the sides and bottom with 3-inch (or heavier) planks. It is always strengthened with numerous cross trusses inside, to prevent buckling. The front end of the hull should always be of double thickness to pre- vent damage and possible smking through the dipper striking the hull. In the larger sizes of dredge built at the present time the common practice is to make the hull of the same width, top and bottom. On some of the smaller machines, especially those with steel hulls, the top is made wider than the bottom. Hulls must be very carefully caulked, since in operating the dredge the strain on the hull will tend to loosen any poor caulking. Tt often becomes necessary to dismantle a dredge in order to move it from one project to another. Wooden hulls, because of the necessity of their bemg so strongly built, are practically destroyed by bemg taken down, and it is in many instances cheaper to build a new hull than to move and rebuild the old one. To save this expense steel hulls are used to some extent on the smallest-sized machines, although they have not been generally favored for the larger dredges. On some of the small one-half yard or three-fourths yard dredges the hull has been made in sections, which can be taken apart and hauled or shipped to another project. This method, however, is not adapted to the larger machines. The machinery of a dredge is ordinarily placed on the deck of the hull. It is, however, sometimes placed below the deck in order to gain head room, Sometimes the boiler and coal bins are placed on a deck from 1 to 3 feet lower than the main deck. ENGINES AND BOILER. The power most commonly used on dipper dredges is steam, although a number of machines are now in operation which are equipped with internal-combustion engines or electric motors. The majority of dredge operators are more familiar with steam plants than with oil engines. Also, steam power has the advantage of being good for from 50 to 100 per cent increase over its rated capacity. Internal-combustion engines are generally run on either gasoline, kerosene, naphtha, or distillate oil. Practically all of the dredges equipped with this type of engine are of the one-half yard or i-yard size, although it has been used in at least one instance on a 3-yard machine. An internal-combustion engine is usually rated at its actual capacity. Therefore, when replacing a steam engine with a gas engine, it is a good plan to put in a plant with from 50 to 75 per cent greater power than the rating of the steam engine which it is to replace. Contractors as a rule do not consider internal-combustion EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. 5 engines as suitable for operating machines which have such constantly changing loads as is the case with dipper dredges. Owing to the constant jar and pound on the hull the vertical engine is not so well adapted to excavating machinery as the horizontal type. On a large dredge an independent engine unit is used for each of the operations of swinging, hoisting, and handling spuds. The hoisting and swinging engines are generally of the horizontal, double-cylinder type and must be self-contained on a cast-iron or structural-steel bed plate. Steam engines are generally designated by the dimensions of their cylinders rather than by the horsepower they develop. Owing to the cost of fuel, the expense of transporting it to the dredge, and the impure and muddy water that must be used in some cases, the size and type of boiler must be selected with great care. The boiler commonly used is the locomotive type with either open or water bottom. Vertical boilers have been used in dredges of the smallest sizes, but are not economical in the consumption of fuel. The grate area of the locomotive-type boilers is ordinarily less than that for the same size of Scotch marine boiler. The return-flue ‘Scotch marine boiler is used on many dredges and meets with great favor. The earlier boilers were designed for a pressure of 100 pounds. Later this was increased to 150 pounds and the boiler was worked at 100 pounds or more pressure. The size of boiler should be at least 25 per cent greater than that theoretically required to operate the engines. Owing to the foul character of the water that must often be used, the boiler should have two separate and distinct boiler feeds, either injectors or pumps. A great saving of fuel can be effected by covering the boiler and steam pipes with asbestos. Hither wood or coal is used for fuel. A-FRAME. The A-frame is a tower composed of timber or steel members securely anchored on the deck of the hull near the front and joined at the top by a cast-steel head or yoke. (See Pl. I.) The A-frame may have either two or four legs. In the latter case the two front or main legs are set in a vertical plane. If only two legs are used they are inclined slightly forward. The A-frame must be strongly guyed and held rigidly in position, as the severe stresses from the outer and loaded end of the boom are carried by the top of this tower. Failure of any part of the A-frame may result im serious damage to the dredge and even in loss of life. The height is governed by the required elevation of the end of the boom, which in turn is determined by the depth of excavation and the distance at which the excavated material must be placed. On the top of the head block is a large pin on which the yoke revolves, this latter being a short beam to the ends of which are attached the cables which support the outer end of the boom. | 6 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SWINGING DEVICE. The swinging device used on the different makes of dredge varies greatly. In some cases it consists of a circular, double-channel frame, firmly anchored to the deck, with several sheaves bolted at intervals in the circumference of the frame to carry the cable that travels over them in swinging the boom. In this fixed type of swinging device a large diameter of circle can be used. There is also the movable type of swinging circle. This generally consists of a solid iron circle mounted on a pivot. The heel of the boom is over the point of the pivot and the boom is braced to the circle. This type requires more deck room than does the first named type. The turntable may be placed on deck (PI. I, fig. 1) or overhead (PI. I, fig. 2), but the deck plan is generally used. Independent engines may be used for swinging the boom or power may be obtained from the main engine to drive the swinging drums. If this latter plan is followed two independent friction drums are attached to the bed plate of the engine and geared so as to be driven by it. If internal-combustion engines are used, independent friction drums are necessary for the various operations of the dredge. The common practice on large steam-operated machines is to have inde- pendent swinging engines. SPUDS. Spuds are heavy timber or steel members, the purpose of which is to hold the dredge in position while operating. One is placed on each side near the front and the third in the center line of the boat at the stern. Vertical spuds extend directly downward at the side of the hull and rest on the bottom of the excavated channel. They are used on deep-water dredges or for excavating large channels. For a dredge with a narrow hull bank spuds, which extend outward and rest on the ground surface, are preferable, since they give a large bearing surface and the footing is usually on solid ground. These are important features, as a longer boom and a larger bucket can then be used on a narrow hall. There are various patented types of bank spuds. One is the con- vertible bank-and-vertical power spud. This type can easily be changed from a bank into a vertical spud and is most convenient in crossing old channels, digging cut-offs, or making a double cut. Another type is the telescopic bank spud, so designed that the spud is either lengthened or shortened by means of a telescopic device. There are other styles of bank spuds, which, although they possibly do not have as wide arange as the telescopic type, can, nevertheless, be operated successfully several feet above or below the water surface. Plate I, figure 1, shows a dipper dredge equipped with telescopic bank spuds. EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. 7 The vertical spuds of various makes are more nearly alike. The rear spud is always of the vertical type and is used to keep the stern of the boat from swinging from side to side as the dredge is operated. The spuds are usually raised and lowered by steel cables connected with the engine. On large machines they are sometimes operated by means of asteam cylinder placed in front of each spud, with a movable clamp or shoe encircling the spud and attached to the piston of the cylinder; this method is, however, wasteful of steam and expensive. Sometimes compressed air is used to aid in releasing the foot of the spud from the mud; less power is thus required to raise the spud. All types of spuds must be equipped with a strong locking device; they must also be so designed that little time is lost in raising or low- ering them.