rte PEL ELEE RARE DY LOD IG DAIS OE eee ered = o panes weer ==22=2=5==- <== i HH iil bhael biabibhe stay abbbe Ween int targpnagy) soregseygy retnas Hilt seen epee vhs LE POR TE RE © Rage FOR EDVCATION FOR] S ChE IN Gib “L.A LAN hy LIBRARY 4 gr / THE AMERICAN-MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY y nA f if V f CaN 7. / VL U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Department bulletins Nos. 3801-325, GS ip Ce | z a) WITH CONTENTS ey AND INDEX. Prepared in the Division of Publications. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOE, 1917, i 4 yee % eS St ae 4 Shela CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 301—Smver-rox Farmine my Easrern Norra AMERICA: Page. niTOdMChION.....~..22-------522s-+-- 22. - Se 1 Re VER LOX. - ..-.-\ar.0\- = seine =e s+ + sce: ae - ee 2 Ehniery of domestication....- 2. . 2. --- ah 4-.---.-<\- = ee A areagmted. for fox farming... 05... gs... 32.22. .be 6 OMMIN ILO 2 ooo <2 .)el2 aoa cae ae) s-- - Jee += bese ae 2) 8 LINGIOTTESIS 8 SSS BS SOS Sees Sc eee SOS See eNMne SENN co. 9 oa aar iat eis) Sete sles ioe in - He ae eS eaten s s/o ee = ea 15 SORE LIDGE 253g SSR SSB: eae ee SMA +: Co SHEE ON Ine eee. 18 ob S01 TD Ero ss She do ac SASS 2s oc ose eeosee beeen’ $s/ssocbeeee 21 A(t) DE OSS BRHE Ses SSSR SS SS ¢ Sula hed see Soe area sec eadade 22 SATE SEEN OT SRS Eas I nO gE ee ea Se 23 «ES TEPE YEG STE ei RO al, ee ul nee UREN 25 ob PU EEROTEL Se SRE Ce Ae aa aI 2s NY 28 a eee et. EEN EIee cee hee ayel volepeva io SiolyeleR a eerontea oye 1 PEC role HIS iN Vest Paton ss 32 sey 5: Wee e vis ase iarsige oaks: oe ars tee ier eke 2 MMA OPANANTIA GLOW e825 22 1\— 5 Nous Be pame cic iiiacornizi ders ere ce ny onskat rte, 3 2 MPEP OLTT VLOL FCO CTEANY 2 -tahst.0.02/ o's beara Be eo a era Le om oe ae crore era 3 SEIN CTO DACLODIA) += 120-2. =. 3 = eran = Pe aie aeiataryare sce siath eed eiastele 4 MEUEeEONPS OL DACKCTIAS | 322 ...0' «o> oo. sy sMekie wes see ee Oe Hae ote 7 PIERCE INT CS COA 3.2 fais, «2 EME oie & cise tases Geese dices maha 15 PMRR CULT CONCLUSIONS 32 oct. = oom oc Aah ie Ee ole etc cm onc aye 22 RR NEU SLY oaths ote ar or oo oo, = A aa NE ob Sta ee my cans ohn IE pin, nm pre 24 Department Buiietin No. 304.—LAND DRAINAGE BY MEANS or Pumps: MRMMATICT AO girs 2b cys 5 iad «3x = Bigs cpp hs) offend (ae Hor Gsialerageed «mide Gormrald-ers Shale 1 mmectiveness of drainage reclamation - - . -.-.- 2.0.00 = e002 2 5is/awieietafals ine viele 2 Drainage pumping in northern Europe..........-...-----7.----2--+-0-- 4 Even experionces in the United States. oo. inne. ocr eterna oe ein wen widicinpe 6 Drainage by pumping in the Mississippi Valley......................---- i Present status of drainage by pumping. ...-.....0..-...----c een enenelnne 55 ET Bes GR OER ANS MEDS ERE = SS a ae a a a es 56 Publications of the United States Department of Agriculture relating to UMaEEMCMESEELICAIC Ig Cre ae hols 8c a MER ee a a cle ar cpe liars hrccyaharececsinys teenies 60 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 301-325. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 305.—EXERCISES WITH PLANTS AND ANIMALS FOR SouTHERN RuRAL SCHOOLS: Introd uctloms.. es pee ee. ek, ear ene ete eet piel 5 September... . a2: As s(a ei seeeie = << + eRe oc Sere October: 2.0.2. ee5 St ee BBE: 128 eee ee November 2... 32/5422 sae See ay sis = PR ye Oe a mee ene a Wecember a2 seeee ae si 2 yan a Aimy tc 2 SA op a eat TS ce ee Apriland Maye. ..52 2 /Sose See = co Uae se a io Appendix. ---e eee eee eer. ee «arate = Se oie elo: 225 ee First-generation plants from cross-pollinated parents. ............-.-.---- Comparison of first-generation plants from cross- pollinated and close-pol- lunated ‘parents es oo2 222022 2S 2 scree aes ac coe ee ee Second-generation plants from cross-pollination..-.....-....--..-.------ Reproduction of selected plants from cuttings: -----.:22!::24.220-2- Wonclusions: 3 aa sen ccc cocycle eee Meee Oe ent DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 307.—TEsts oF CORN VARIETIES ON THE GREAT PLAINS: Imtroduction. .c. .2ne=\. sass eee sec = - See oe eee Natural limatations|toicorn production 22. -2-)- = — eee = ene =. See Adaptability, of varletles---2c-2 <2 2.0 - oe 2 es eee ibimeme quired forma turity ee eee eee 2 Results of tests of varieties. "...° 2 n22 5 Uses cance ee Summary of tests. WIRED DRS LLNS SS SAAS eat Ae See ae Peo of United States Department of Agriculture relating to tests OL COMM? 2G 22 Soto oscaee als gee oo. oe ee ee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 308.—SHORTLEAF PINE: Its Economic IMPORTANCE AND ForEST MANAGEMENT: Adaptability for iorest management...) 0 422---5-5------ 5) 5-ee eee INA. oo a we Sis ees cielocineine ee won. SemNet. ahi ioe er Present supply... 2-222. Geea eee coal ieee seen eee Annual cut of southern yellow pine - v yer so seein eee ee eee MMC WOOd SS Seis. tease ete cats so bee seen ce 02 kee eters Lumber industry ee ee Ae en ACESS AARON bam aos ccc conc Stumpage valuesets 2 220s.0. bie Sets. Se ee Essentials of forest management: :2 37). 22easeeee.- 2 ees eee 2 ee Protection 2222 32550 Sos see te ctce esto 1 Ree ee oan ae a Rotat a ee eet a eA, CRANES S54 Oo a2 Cain: and 1X] SROGUMOD = sooas5sdeugessss cas oubsasdssuoasscsss=2252- Cutting on the national forests of Arkamsas......-.-.-.-.-.--------------- Regeneration by sowing and planting. 222225222. 2 2-2. =-- 2. eee Appendix. . OA NO MRE AS eR Cate es Ok EL Publications of the United States Department of Agriculture relating to forest management: :+..22-22222<2 ¢ = USBI SE eee DEPARTMENT ButietIn No. 309.—ZAcATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL: Introduction . Boe UR RE eagle 2 Sins taaiereras tenance lev tts ats) ere Botanical history and: Systematic position of zacaton. -2 2222-25 2 eeeeee Distribution‘of zacaton 2225) 22270 2. Pesce 26 ons eee Laboratory, tests ek pulp prodiiction.: < 42 22... oe eee oe eee eee Micromeasurements of fiber and other cells...........-.-.-.--------------- Chemical investigation ofthe srass and pulps 3222-22-24: = see Cellu@losetiromyzalcatone see eeeeere eee leer seed wield SER eee Semicommercialitests of the pullpis..- «-as-e sees eee eee eee Physical ‘tests\oivzacaton paperss4-.-/.4 9. -eeeeee cee eee ese CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 309.—ZaAcATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL— Continued. Gonchtusron +... «7. os Ete foie eee Publications of the United States Department of Agriculture relating to Hitieria ls 1Or Papen Sf ee pe we oe nee eee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 310 —Dicestripiniry oF Some ANIMAL Farts: AMNGOGICELON... - - | STL. sc sein ee ee ek a doe stele lovcye dinicie é INeture of the dict. Gaeeeee ee A RE ns i are Pxperimental Meth Otek cee eee Scie 2 ope wnt alee elves ernie ss = Digestion experiments.........-... 6 General discussion. ......-....... a RE ree gS Publications of the United States Department of Agriculture relating to food and nutrition: - . SSeee..28 CR ee ArizoNAa-EGYPTIAN COTTON OF THE SALT RrveR VALLEY: iniheddcwion...°.....-.---.- Wee -.- ae. ees 3 Sse Weecsiny tor clean picking. Wes 5... -Bepen-2 6.2 see ke PIMEIPPIOuSeeCd COULOD . 22 3 a eine. - - ERS eee Herth sisi eal ie) Bryce 2 Ermmmcine Arizona-beyptian Cotton .. es. sstees tae. eee es Eamguncscotton at the ein stands. ..... 285... geeescs (mete sel) Soe Pemenconarcoverine: the cottom as)... . fame... eck. eae bali berie wees cia oe Padeapiitiny Ol PIN: COMMPLessiONe 325... Mees ee ely param usw sed Tagging, marking, branding, and weighing the cotton................---- Simimeemnemmned Heyptiam Cotton... . se. ... sherk arsse set Jot Aen - Rigas de ATIZ0na-P py ptian COLLON .. Sees «steps =n Sh ye oie ene oS Hera we “STD ES so resi Bees mee aa EO Se Oe Ne rent ees OF PTAdIn & COLON {202 928. eee eos ceo see wed asi dae taert Werekeniciol ATIZzOna- Mey pial COLLON . Bema = oa =o: cree jatyeieie bree oye = Sis el (TE CUS CTE G hs Sear aie 2 ea. 5 oo POR ae a ly A RPO DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 312.—PuHosSPHATE Rock AND METHODS PROPOSED FOR ITS UTILIZATION AS A FERTILIZER: SMT AOU So aio oes os sno eee ee shee. y+ ae gS ae eee Reel Pisplate deposits of the United States. 22oi2ie222Ge 225. 2c ae ee Forms in which phosphoric acid is applied tosoils........--.-22--22+--+-- Processes for treating phosphate rock in the manufacture of phosphoric eam MME OS PNAC 1eMbLZeTS >: 2. Sat aers ores cee ore she rsye cavers ers rok edie rogeestens, SO Processes for the production of phosphoric acid or soluble phosphates by caupined heating and acid treatmentys.: >> oo <= 2): . 22s 08. fh nae eee ee Piantine willows:ctrrs sess 2eee2 Ue: Ri Se es Cultivation:andicare ssc pen) 3h ERROR See See Cuttings a2 e 2 ot cne eer sence oes: 8 SAMO oe ee et Costioberowime willowsto. 2. sone eee ee eee ee Yaeld trom wallow: plantationss.2- 22. ees. 4° ose os eo eee DEPARTMENT BuuueTiIn No. 317.—Larcu MistLetor: Some Economic Con- SIDERATIONS OF Its INJURIOUS EFFECTS: IED OMONESt SS esis 5 ete Ae) RE TANT ARORA TR ott ee Physical and climatic features of the forest region. ...........----------- Fungous/enemies'of the larch 22>. <+. : SSeS eee Thevetiects of mistletoeronatsihostc: 2: . Season eee eee Effect of mistletoe burls on the merchantability of larch trees.....-.-.-.-- Method:of controle 24 = -...- 5... .-...2-225-55 eee The bankerand stabilization. .- - 2.25. --,< = «92 cyan se a ee eee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 325.—HONEYBEES: WINTERING, YIELDS, Imports AND Exports OF HONEY: Wintering of honeybees, winter, 1914-1915. ........-...5.+-22--e-ceeees= Conditions and honey, yields, season; 41915_:- -- 5222-2 -_- - 2s eee Imports and exports of honey ., ./- |e). <)2- fs 2 eas-i-4 5 2 oe eee INDEX. Alabama— farm practices and conditions in Pike County........-. yellow pine lumber, production, percentage of total cut Bd MMA HeTOr sawmills: WO oye es 9. < oe yete cpere es Alaskan islands, fox ranches, considerations and availability - Alkaloids, production in belladonna, some effects of selec- Pmepiletimipy A. i. Sievers... ...<....2e5-+++-<<.---s Animals, studies for Southern rural schoools.........---.-..- PIS LUGTeH TOM BCNOO! <=. hetoe ys sys ER Paejerss tore Apple— market investigations, 1914-1915, bulletin by Clarence W. Moomaw and M. M. Stewart-.......--------+---- markets— foreign, consignment methods. .........---------- foreign, shipments 1910-1914, by countries...-....- WEP GOMGITH I Bes see en Sae ae eS 6 Soh See a eee shipments, Pacific Northwest to New York, via Pnnerne AMEE MMV CSSA LIONS: <-(2 ojc.cc0 a, veins vemiise es eke e Apples— cold-storage holdings and movement, investigations. . - - distribution, mediums, investigations...........------- grade and packing laws, effect on PLOMUCt As 5-0. eee fanaine by 5 and 10 cent stores--..-.-.2.-.- =. naenh ae inferior, | BiOCHOM MAnkeGsc: ote eee ees eee Oe market preferences for varieties and packing.......---- purchase and selling prices of different varieties, retail PEPeEIS OPA OUISS o-oo a ep cele oe EERE 4 Be receipts and prices at St. Paul and New York markets. receipts of four cities, barreled, boxed, and 1 in bulk. SesermeteDHOCSIaNC CORES... >)--1- ~~ -.- =. - Sean Secesepe sig shipment under ventilation and refrigeration, investi- LDIGiils 22). oe eee eee Sone Eee vendors, classes, methods, profits, etc..........-------- Arizona— cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots, by stations. ...... cotton, handling and marketing.........-..-----------: BMOUMEONISCOUMNOLG: 20 neo. 3S eS ee Arizona-Egyptian cotton, picking, requirements, prices, etc.. Arkansas— cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots by stations........ yellow pine lumber, production, percentage of total cut SHaMMuMperj of sawmills) 1913.2 2222. 28. eee Artificial limbs, use of willow wood, selection, seasoning and Rte as Fy kee oerteee sess AY OD aee SE mem seuce posts, life. and cost... . ... 32)..42)-\sjaetswe- -tsielakie- Asia, rice exports to United States, by countries.......-.-.. Atropa belladonna. Sce Belladonna. Australia, sheep— ETE a oon 5 pice a. ncs os a ad aie td io ra conditions, land area, number of sheep and ree, Se nnaegem foes "7, industry, features, comparison with United States and New Zealand, bulletin by F. R. Marshall............ Autointoxication— NE RLY oo iccs a a wlnivin ia watts Oplayrerw ba inls wkleiee o's treatment with Bacillus bulgaricus, discussion........- - Ayers, 8. Henry, and Wim11aM T. JOHNSON, jr., bulletin on “A bac teriologic al study of retail ice cream’’.......... 106859°—17——_2 Bulletin No. 320 308 301 306 305 305 302 302 302 302 302 302 302 302 302 302 302 302 302 302 302 302 302 315 oll 324 311 316 308 316 321 323 313 313 313 319 319 303 Page. 58-61 5 33-34 1-20 { 3, 0-8, 10-29 31,32,34,36—-62 17 2 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. Bacillus— bulgaricus— nature, therapeutic value, etc.....---...-....-.-.- tablets, preparation and caution...........-------- caucasicus. See Bacterium caucasicum. coli, determination, methods and count, comparisons. - - lebensis. See Bacterium caucasicum. Bacteria— alkali group in ice cream, percentage in summer and vie? |OROCMIGHS). desea sceostesbSndes saecdasase apEHoe colon group in ice cream, percentage BED? CUS ae ice cream content, groups, proportion and determination. inert group in ice cream, nature. ..-.-.....------------ peptonizing group in ice cream, percentage bobocosSHsC ieee Bactervum, caucasicum— action (on mille | 110s et pee 0 OE teas Charactenistiess ss ssee eee ee. se mente Meeae Baldwin apples, receipts and prices at New York market. . Baling cotton, covering, gin compression, and protection... Bank revetment, use and value of willow............----.-- Banker, relation to stabilization of standardized cotton in- dustry pigs ean We SA POPU 20 LM peepee STP Banks, protection from erosion, use of willows.-.-......-.---- Banke ewallow, tanmmnicontent=s-s<.see ree serene ae eee Basic slag, production in iron and steel industries, processes. . Basket-willow, demand, production and species.......-..--- Bean— ponavist— lablab, or hyacinth, bulletin by C. V. Piper and W...3);, Morse: oe 222 sss Ae oe are ee See also Bonavist bean. hyacinth. See Bonavist bean. lablab. See Bonavist bean. Beetiat, digestionvexperiments: =. - 74-2552 eee eee Bees— condition of colonies, etc:, 1915.2 .252...2ssc202--2- 2 condition of colonies, etc., by States.................-- fall condition and wintering, feeding, protection, etc., Dy; States! Reo AG eS ee oh Le es anual es a food requirements in winter, North and South, compari- losses from diseases, 1915, by States..............------ losses in winter, causes and percentage, by States.....-- losses in winter, Calises ;e6G. 2 NOEs Ste ROL Se ees protection in winter, practices edad en Ute aes studies forschool..2.. 23 eveenn cee ce eee ee wintering, yields, imports and exports of honey, bulletin bby: SamuelVA Jonesey-sosce ace. c4> meen eee Belladonna— alkaloid content— influence of weather conditions.............------- relation to different stages of growth, record......- growing for increase of aklaloids, management....-....-. plants, pollination control, method................----- production of alkaloids in, some effects of selection, ulletimybycACsheSieverste=eere rere. eee eee quality of supplys NOte sy. <5 ciereeelarorarera- = tore rere totter reproduction from cuttings, Arlington farm.............- Beverage, buttermilk preparation.........-.-..--...------- Birds— dissemination of seed of larch mistletoe, note.......--.- groups, list: =o ames 3. A, ae oe mete studiesifor schoole.2. osteo eee Oe ne 301—325. Bulletin No. Page. 319 4-6 319 8-9 303 15-21 303 11-12 303 19-21 303 7-17 303 11 303 13-14 319 21-22 319 21 302 23 311 5-6 316 39-41 324 15-16 316 37-39 316 35-36 312 14-15 316 34 318 1-15 310 8-11 320 3-6 325 11, 12 325 9 325 2 325 ie 325 10 325 2-3 325 2,9 305 17-18 325 1-12 306 16-17 2, 3, 4, 6-9, 308 { 12-15 306 2-19 306 2-3 306 1-20 306 iL 306 18 319 14 317 24 305 61-62 3,5,7,10, 12-13, 14-16,19,21-26, 305228, 31-32, 34,36, 38, 40-46,48-54, 56 INDEX. Bitumens, determination of characteristics and composition, Bituminous— emulsions, examination, methods..........--.----.---- road materials, methods for examination, bulletin by Prévost Hubbard and Charles 8. Reeve........-.- Saget SEMISE ICSEERDIION |. 2. 2-0. a2 do annie oo crotejcte clansyei ee wes Black willow— excelsior manufacture, cost of stock, etc.......-...-.-.-- life history, form and growth habits...........-.-.---.- SPE, WEG lee oS eek Seen re a ee = lt ego | wood, comparison with white willow wood.........-...- Bleaches— flax paper pulp, composition and use.......-..-.------- PEMTOW A ADOTALOLy, teStsh: 2 sie s5 5266451. + Baek aso sieny: Blue Mountain region, larch mistletoe, prevalence.........- Blue Mountains, forest region, physical and climatic features. Bonavist— bean— botanical names, historical notes...............-...- characteristics, varietal differences, etc...--....--- FontaNsestan GuvalWes= occas ss. | Peel se ee a Srowimandarutting habits. = -.-<.-.-ceeeeacecsieec < hay, production and quality, comparison with cow- A: 2 2 cee tees Se AE) eo on 2 ee ee ee ee si a and early use, historical note....-.....--... 2 RESCH ONG UAMIELES: <--e eee ete es > =k =, ep ete tea ye cre lablab, or hyacinth bean, bulletin by C. V. Piper and MN GNE A ei a eo) So winiaiace - + fee ni cheesey Branp, CHArwes J., and Jason L. Merrit, bulletin on “Zacaton as a paper-making material’”’........---.-.-....- Breeding, foxes, management, care of young, etc.--.-.....- British Guiana, rice exports to United States............... British India, rice exports to United States.......-..-...-.- Broom-root grass. See Zacaton. Building, short-leaf pine, uses and value.........------.-.- mutter, digestion experiments. .......-.-.---------------+- Buttermilk— SMI OM PH 2S. 5 ill oe cise ota alvin < EEN Sota ne te making in the home, directions........-.-.-.-.------- nature, and methods of poe ee Bt (2 ne SEU, YA Starters, preparation and use... .. 2222 -clee- eee eons use in treatment of intestinal disorders, note........---- use with lemon juice as beverage. .....---.----------- yogurt, home manufacture, directions................--- California— cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots, by stations........ Imperial Valley, community production of Durango cot- ton, bulletin by Argyle McLachlan ....-...-........ Canada, rice exports to United States.........-..--.---..-- Cantaloupe— | industry, States shipping in car lots...............-..-- prices, factors influencing..........-...-2-.-..0.2.00-- Meet 1914, Dy SLAtes, -- 2. 22-2. 2 --deee aee nse once taloupes— cost and profit to dealers from shipper to consumer.... .. marketing— factors influencing demand and price............-.- in the larger cities, with car-lot supply, 1914, bulletin by Wells A. Sherman, A. Dexter Gail, jr., and TERRE EXON OAWT ois set uo vee 'n uw utes an to ok OME standardization, importance..........--....+------ MCINONOA GS co cn «weds IIL ib sin ee ee Uae ees ye ee EIRRUDCIROMILY. ¢. 054000 c dat UE eI Se. Cartridge, aper manufacturers, importation of flax waste. . - Caspian willow, use as sand-binder in Russia, note.......... Bulletin No. 314 314 314 301 316 316 316 316 322 322 317 317 318 318 318 318 318 318 318 318 309 301 323 323 308 310 319 319 319 319 319 319 319 315 324 323 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 322 316 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. Catalpa, fence posts, life and cost: 222... 202.2202. 22L CATES, H. R., bulletin on “ Farm practice in the cultivation COs BGL6) 0 ESR el © oP ie GN Palen pine, pals en PSS os Cedar, fence. postas lifeland:costi2ce<-cueme eos nsee ee oe ae Charcoal, willow, manufacture, and use.....-.........-...- Cherry, fence posts, life and cost.....---.-.-.-...-....---- Chestnut, fence posts, life and cost.-...................--- Chiendent. See Zacaton. China, rice exports to United States.................-.....- Chinese Tice), dESCHIPtLON, -ehep aber on? pen te se en ere Colon bacilli, determination, methods and count comparisons Colorado— Akron, corn growing, experiments with different varie- CLES is see eebe irae cee Re © AR RS ge rare cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots, by stations. .....- Community— cottonigrowing, advantages so .0 sa) er en. esa. credit, organization and management...........-.-.... Concrete fence posts— hite/amrdicost acess hee eer ee See erga er rem molding, handling, and seasoning........-...--------- Conifers, occurrence of larch mistletoe........-.-.-.------- Connecticut, farm practices and conditions........-.....---- Cooperation — cotton handling, Imperial Valley, organizations and MIGITEE TIEN Gs cocgoaasadas cog seqoaussacdsatscassooous ginning and oil company, organization......-.-.-.----- Cordwood, yield of shortleaf pine stands................-.- “Cork legs,” origin of term, materials used, etc..........--- Corn— aereageiandeyielduint 2 lnrectonssssene ers see ee eerie belt, tillage practices in corn cultivation............---- cultivation, farm practice, bulletin by H. R. Cates..-.- growing— investigations, methods and scope.-....------------ practices|anvarioustregions=c. =) eee sare cee ee publications of Department, list...-.......--.----- tillage practices in different regions, cost, yield, etc. planters déscmptions and uses ese eee eee plantings practices sas eV ee eae eR * aa ain o ee eer production, Great Plains, limitations, causes..--.-.-.--- tests, publications of Department relating to........-.-- varieties— for Great Plains, descriptions and characteristics. - - Great Plains, tests, bulletin by L. L. Zook....----- order of maturity, classes and list.........-..--.-.- yieldwtactorsiotherstmanstillacess..- ees ae eee Corriedale sheep— breeding flock, purchase for Animal Husbandry Division of. Department... 205255900 | Bayo Seiya es Hlockenistonles sae eae= = rere eer eee Cee ere ere eee origin, characteristics, and value..............-------- Cotton— ; : acreage and yield in 21 regions. ...;..-..--5-2-<---<-225 Arizona-Egyptian— classification, considerations, advantages, etc.....-.- PYiGeS. teks aso Seee 2 PRs Subp le pay en ae Salt River Valley, handling and marketing, bulletin by J. GaMartin 0520.02.00 0). ope ae Boeteyte sampling, baling, and covering...-.-.-.----------- baled, tagging, marking, weighing, etCsiegit’ 4. ees belt, corn growing, tillage practices.......-.....:.-.-.- classes, Arizona-Egyptian type...----..-.-----+-+---+--- clean, importance in marketing Arizona-Egyptian type. cooperative handling, organizations and management. - Durango, community production in Imperial Valley bul- letin by Argyle Mclachlan: -- 2222. @ejee- se seene 301—325, Bulletin No. 321 320 321 316 301 321 323 323 303 307 315 324 324 321 321 317 320 324 324 308 316 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 307 307 307 307 307 320 313 313 313 320 311 dll 311 311 311 320 311 311 324 324 INDEX. Cotton—Continued. gin compression, advantages..........-----------.-.--- grower, duties in stabilizing long-staple cotton-......--- growing— commnumity, advantages. .2cccka- veiaest vie vi bate ratooning practices, objections, etc..........------- industry— California and Arizona, magnitude. ..-.-......---- foimanerial Valley, history... ..---c2cesie+s0sccsen long-staple, factors influencing stabilization...........-- RECHESLOTA SC Sania .5 2 OEE |, SERIE a Males Arizona-Koyptian type....-...-.cs----s+-->+-- storage of Arizona-Egyptian, management and impor- IMPIKCRS s 6S bo goeasae ee eee Sa eh m aromas ae Ae Cotton-growers’ organizations, relation to stabilization of in- JSST: 2 2 SO gg ee eee eee ae ee Cottonseed, selection, importance in stabilizing cotton... ... Cottonwood— lumber, comparison with willow lumber.........------ value for overflowed land, comparison with willow....-.- Counter boards, manufacture from flax straw, experiments. - Priweasildes TO SCMOOl a .2= 14 - scinemint da Sateeeie Hees sees Cowpea, comparison with bonavist bean........---.------- Cream— Rare, pracesses and (Cause: 2.2 5.50..-lgece< 2-2 22 singer See also Milk. Creosote, use in preservation of fence posts. --....--------- Crops, garden and field, studies for school. ...-...-.-.--.--- Salitvators, kinds, for corm culture: S!..¢ 2 eee fe. Cuttings, willow, material, size, storage, etc..........----- Cypress, lumber cut and per cent of total cut, 1909-1913 - _- PEPE ING) o 8 =) oeepe es ee aed. 2 OE ewes Hee oes Peeiens W barley sox farming. works... 2 q=-',S0ehe i. 2C DeEarzBorn, NeEp, bulletin on “Silver fox farming in eastern _ TLL Gr eS Cee. So soa een Delaware, cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots, by stations. - Dendroctonus frontalis, injury to pine forests and control Dent corn, varieties for Great Plains, characteristics and PR GGs) ese eee more een Diet, experiments in digestibility of animal fats.......--.-- Digestibility, animal fats, bulletin by C. F. Langworthy and EST a en eae oer ee ever Dispora caucasicum. See Bacteriwm caucasicum. MMREM AO SCHOOIS ooo seo o pioie na os ieee aisle weleia ine Dolichos lablab, introductions by Office of Foreign Seed and Brentabntroduction, 1899-1913. 2. o.0.-.- -'» =. PEE Ww sa asisus es ditches, interior for levee protected district, need and RAAT O TIONG oy ain tis wis ish dines ays ams on SEI wisle ele ae Se land, by means of pumps, bulletin by 8. M. Woodward Py \OKey Yi od stasis Lind. Aa eedet el. Leche projects, Upper Mississippi Valley, description work, etc. pump, amount and cost of pumping.......--....--.--- pumping— cost, considerations and suggestions. .....--.-.----- cost with different types of plants............-...- northern Europe, work and effectiveness..........- sluiceways, construction and management........-.--- Durango cotton, growing in Imperial Valley, comparison with short-staple varictics..........-.+cccccccccccccccece Bulletin No. Page. 311 5-6 394 10-12 324 13-15 304 12 324 1 394 2-6 324 10-16 31] 3 311 9-10 311 7 324 13-15 394 if 316 28 316 25-26 392 13-16 305 14-15 318 1-3 319 9 321 29-24 4-6, 9, 12-15, 305) 21, 23, 25, 30, 40, 58, 57, 59 24, 26, 28, 30, Lie a 316 4448 308 5 319 20 301 4 301 1-35 315 18 308 25-27 307 7 310 2-3, 20-29 310 1-23 305 39-40 318 7-14 308 5 320) 17 320 12-13 304 13-19 304 1-60 304 7-55 304 49 304 55-56 304 49-53 304 4-6 304 19-20 324 6 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 301-325. Education— Bulletin exercises with plants and animals for southern rural No. schools, bulletin by E. A. Miller....................- 305 wool growers and employees, Australia...............- 313 wool growers and employees, courses at agricultural col- leges, Australia and New Zealand.............-.-...- 313 Egyptian cotton, growing in Imperial Valley, experiments. - 324 Bim? fence posts iiteandlcost: 4.) sae eee 321 England, drainage of fenlands, use of windmills and steam pumps, Comparisons....422 4o.-.- - 2c. a eee see 304 Epicampes macroura. See Zacaton. Erosion, willows as protection, growing and management. ... 316 Kurope— market for, apples=222 45. 12/0. 1.) 2 Ree ee one 302 rice exports to United States, by countries....--.....-.- 323 Excelsior, willow, manufacture, grades, and objections. - --- - 316 Exports— apple shipments to South America, by countries to which consignedsalOlO— VOI” =: erie ease arse 302 apple shipments to various countries, 1910-1914. ....--- 302 honey, NOt@ 2-03 80s Ae ee Rae he 325 Farm— practices and conditions in various States...-.---.----- 320 products, marketing, publications of department, list - - 315 Harmers; flax ssusegestionss=:= 254. -:-a5e esas == oe Te 322 Farming, corn-growing regions, farm acreage, price of labor, CtC nin c etaeee.. Laas nha coas.:- eS Ney 320 Farms— ; acreage and yield of different crops in twenty-one MOOTONS! she Reale siaais Aas Ss Sia ee eee 320 fencing, cost in North Central States, bulletin by H. N. HUM Phreyaee a2 k Cod ae Hes eee eee ae 321 fencing requirements, relation of type of farming, acreage and highways2..-255s85 be vee wc JR ee 321 Fats— animal, digestibility of some, bulletin by C. F. Lang- worthy an dWAC DP Holmesi = 354--saeeee eee eee 310 digestibility, experimental methods......-.----------- 310 Beeding fox Sis 4. o5. dacenteertns eos So ot ee 301 Fence— fox, requirements and suggestions........-..--.------- 301 posts— life, cost, preservation and materials............--- 321 preservative: treatm entrar ComiparisOnse= <5) as4scce< = 1 Soe ee ee 304 lVermented milks— bibliographiys Se cee cc eecic SASS 2 JE ee 319 319 bulletin by#lA. Rogers..........222 see ee ces ano 1-23 2-22 15-18, 24-25 11-15 21-26 22-24 22, 25 29 22-24 21-22 5-10 16-18, 30-31 10-12 INDEX. Fertilizer— distributor, description and use on corn land........... phosphate rock, methods proposed for its production, bulletin by William H. Waggaman and William H. Fertilizers, phosphatic, classes, descriptions.............---- Fiber board— prex-tawy Tt bests act 2s SSS sso 5 es PE ie industry, utilization of flax straw, comparison with flax WOSLCremee sons fa tote late oie ot RM Se iced making, utilization of American flax straw (and for paper making), bulletin by Jason L. Merrill.......-.-- SEPeLeRES ON. MANUACEUTe. LU Ss ee 2S RR Oe Fire— MENPPMeIOTAMON. 222258 2255/2 2598 2: See ee SAEMICES§ SHOC eS HONS = 2.55242 522222242 SRO IeS es Ae growing, acreage by States, 1899-1913. .......------.-- growing, soil, requirements and exhaustion.......------ pulp, cells, dimensions, relation to value, etc...--.--.- straw— American, utilization in the paper and fiber-board industry, bulletin by Jason L. Merrill. ...-.-.--- marketing by farmer, suggestions........-.-..------ TG 33i- pee aE ee SER te eM: (to eet sraria utilization, economic considerations........-.---.- yield of washed fiber, comparison with flax tow and HESS Ws ned Gb cane See ee oo psan eee ese ae tow— fibperspoards mill tests ssc. 2s es Se oe ee mills, number and consumption of flax. ......-..-..- SP PiuysandvUsedsaoe snacks sees: eee seeks eee See also Tow, flax. waste— imported, yield of washed fiber, comparison with HAUXESGEAW? ANOS ARAGOW = - 2. 2 See ae ee - mUpOrts tor Various purposes... eee. P36). koi Yaa and imports, effect of European war.......-- Flaxseed— merence and yield, 1899-1914 . . 2 -22..g8ese ses elses production, acreage and value.............------------ RUC PERDHCUCS LOM SCHOOL ssssia ac ans is see Cee ieee eee MiIpeee, AIT DTActice sash) 2: | SRE LB Leeds Fleeces, handling and sale, Australia and New Zealand... -- Mies AbUdies for SChoole) ess 2) Leah RY ips eel yey tye Flint corn, varieties for Great Plains, characteristics and TAIN GE AE aes Or oe, ems tS trea =) eh Ege Florida— cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots, by stations........ yellow pine lumber, production, percentage of total cut ane iienber’ of sawimilla; 1913. 2. . hese oj. ocd 2 Flour— corn, varieties for Great Plains, characteristics and PLPRCINODIONS! sos yeh rots icin A eyo See eet » lssall chemical analysis, comparison with meal and rice. 00 — pousvist bean, usesiand -values-22..feeecs-eeieebeelbecss publications of Department, list...............-------- Forest— management, publications of Department relating to. . - tree diseases, publications of Department, list.......... Bulletin No 320 312 312 322 322 322 322 308 308 322 322 322 322 322 322 322 322 322 322 322 322 322 322 322 322 322 322 305 313 313 305 307 315 308 307 323 318 310 308 317 8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. Fox— cubs— disease, causes and treatment.........----------.- rearing, practices and suggestions.................-- dens, construction and requirements...............--.-- farming— industry, development and present status.......... legal aspect, considerations .....-...-....--...---. site and:otherrequirementss.-)e5-4 aaeeeeee taoee peltswsrl vernaluess: 256 o/c saee ee ae ARR eB eee ee ranch, establishment, accessories, cost and profits. ..... ranches, number and distribution.....................: silver, farming in eastern North America, bulletin by NediD carbone 2 ie nai 2 1 I a oe yards, fencing rumways,.denss CLC... seen see oem ey): Foxes— Ibneedine-;selectioni ee seca 0+ <<: ee eee eee descriptions of species and values of pelts......-.--.-.- diseasesyandptreatmentiee aaa... een a eee ne domesticated, number and value.................----- domestication, behavior, handling, and sanitation....... food requirements: 2 J 25205. 522 aes ets eae Aye aie killing and skinning, care of pelt, etc.......-..-.....-- SWhiZeiny OAKES) OF CUlles cee ee Soe ee. . 35 SONU a eames Fruit stands, apple sales, prices and profits...............--- Fry, Witiram H., and Wittram H. WacGamaAN, bulletin on ‘Phosphate rock and methods proposed for its utilization PEKSUEY AN SVL WHEN esate an ND OE TORI a Fur— demand! and supply-ydiscussiones.s: -saseene eee ea ae farming— silver fox, eastern North America.................- Silivertox@pellts: sOrlCes sc oan oso cies oa iee eee oe eee Furniture, shortleai pine, uses and value...........--.-.---- Gait, A. Dexter, jr., Weis, A. SHERMAN, and Fairs L. YeEAw, bulletin on ‘‘Cantaloupe marketing in the larger cities) withicar-lot supply, 19147 - 2... op Se eeeeer pose Gardenycrops,;studies tornschoolenet 35 «vee ee eee Gates, number on farms of various sizes............--------- Georgia— cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots, by stations.....-... cotton, Mote. ees AR Seer pe | Nee Melee dees A ol Bede yellow pine lumber, production, percentage of toal cut and number of sawmills, 1913 .........:..........-. Germany, rice exports to United States..........-...------ Ginner, cotton, relation to stabilization of standardized cot- TOM Hairs Geir eae icyens ee a RE Ce RO see Eee Sea Ginning— INAAOUEI DES OMEN COMMON. 6 ss5c5550Gn suo cuscsacesesauc cotton— cliectionstiberiwhentwebseneeec: eee r eee ee ee Importance on ood workeseer a: Pere eee eee as Giodduinaturesi) ya Fe PRR Bi ok sean aida geen Ka Goatystuciestiorischoolwe yee aapeene feet e nee eee eee oe Grading, cotton, considerations and advantages. .......-..-- Great Plains— corm growing sections, descriptions... - 225-2 24225.----.- corn production, limiting influences. .......-----.---- corn varieties, tests, bulletin by L. L. Zook.....--...-- Greece, rice exports to United States.......-...----------- Grocers, apple sales, methods and profits........-...-...-..- 301—325. Bulletin No. 301 301 301 301 301 301 301 301 301 301 301 301 301 301 301 301 301 301 301 302 312 301 301 301 301 308 315 305 321 315 324 308 323 324 311 311 324 319 305 311 307 307 307 323 302 INDEX. Haarlem Lake, Holland, drainage project and area reclaimed. Harrows, descriptions and use in corn cultivation. -.....-.- Hawaii, honey shipments and imports. ..-.-....------------ Hay— acreage and yield in twenty-one regions.......-.------- bonavist bean, yield and quality, comparison with cow- Preted teees. disadvantages, and extent of use. -..---.---. Hemlock— Poe CEMOSES Te ANG COSts: <2. 25. 0555 «~'s peer einns 958 lumber cut and per cent of total cut, 1909-1913......-. Hill pine. See Shortleaf pine. “‘Hippe.”’ See Kefir. Holland, see proj ects, magnitude and effectiveness. .-. Homes, A. D., andC. F. Lanaworruy, bulletin on ‘‘ Diges- Ment yanisonie animal tats’ =! 2" 20 ...o Se Honey— GEREID, UIQ) ssc ces reece see esis apenas ema es eh crop, distribution. -.-. ph tenet. °,", «passe at pens Eo UCWIS) WO 6S aes ee nee ase cS ee eeRpo coc odas wAnesee imports, 1910-1914, statistics and discussion. - production, forms of disposal, etc., by States. . requirements for wintering bees, by States. - SHEE WHEL aS,, UST S) 55 oe culmea eel an aaa emma te a a Saat yields, imports and exports, and honeybees, bulletin by pamuelWAe Jones: 244). 2224. o 5 Ee BS Honeybees— wintering, yields, imports and exports of honey, bulletin © byeoaniiel A! Jonesy 228 0.) SORA a 2s See also Bees. Hongkong, rice exports to United States. .......-...--.---: lorsesshiaiestior SChOOl 5. 2e uns foes OO Fs Horses, Asiatic, characteristics, MOLE si 5) costes: elo icons HUBBARD, Privost, and CHARLES S. ReEEvE, bulletin on “Methods for the examination of bituminous road mate- DIBIG) A he bs See een = [ee RES WER ESIC > IN Rees ae Hucksters, apple sales, methods and profits...............-- Houmpurey, H. N., bulletin on ‘‘Cost of fencing farms in the Maril@eniral States’”) 2... 2622.22. 2 ss Hyacinth— bean. See Bonavist bean. bonavist, or lablab bean, bulletin by C. v. Piper and W. J. Morse. Hach rics a eS SOIC... 5 Sa area Ice cream— 4 acidity, testing, methods and results 2 PR yFe np totorey saree tees bacteria content, groups, proportion, nature and deter- BSRER NOTE rere oe te Sci eine = Sore I nee eae lees es Ai bacterial counts in products from different sources. --.-. - bacteriological study, bulletin by S. Henry Ayers and Beeeet A DOUTISON), Jie sec As «2 <== @ eiai-sn nies yen eine oiete exaLiination for bac teria, MS hHOdS yee es Ae erate ss Idaho, cantaloupe shipments, 1G14:-car: lotee. 3. Aes eee Illinois— cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots, by stations........ Coal Creek levee and drainage district, operation of plant, ramfall and mn-off s.-. ..--./..dherewre na eee. East Peoria levee and drainage district, operation of ERD e CAMLALY ONG TUT- OL o)5,... « « -2.> ai ere si ntae ieleis sjris 5, farm practices and conditions in Moultrie County...... Max, acreage, 1899=1913 a 1)'% |. y. 2). ys weil wononl. alse Pekin-La Marsh levee and drainage district, eyernt ion of MEAG TALTALL ANG FUN Offs. oa. 2 fis.c chide tee wore en cw wales Peoria, precipitation, 1855-1911, monthly.............-. River, bottom lands, drainage projec ts and work....... Bulletin No. 304 320 325 320 318 321 321 308 325 305 304 310 323 325 325 325 325 325 325 325 325 323 305 319 314 302 321 318 303 304 303 303 303 315 315 304 304 320 322 304 304 304 10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 301—325. Imperial Valley— - Bulletin community production of Durango cotton, bulletin by No. Page. Argyle Mclachlan 2.20.2)... “sear yet 324 1-16 cotton crops, 1909-1914--.-- 2-2 324 6 cotton gins, mills, and compresses, location, (Sierras Gants 324 4 Cotton-growers’ Exchange, organization and work....-- 324 7-8 Long-staple Cotton Growers’ Association, organization BIG SPUR OSC Hee meer teeta) 4)-t= = Sere ee ere ee 324 9, 10 13-15, IG Implements, tillage, description and use in corn cultivation. 320 20-21 ee, 60, 63, 65 Imports, honey, 1910-1914, statistics and discussion -........ 325 6-8 Indiana— cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots, by stations... ..-. 315 18 farm practices and conditions in Tipton County.......-. 320 22-24 8, 19-20, 26, Imsects) studiestorschoolsteeee=ss24-\4- eee se eee eee eee 305 29, ie a Be 54-55, 59-60 Towa— farm practices and conditions in Tama County....-.... 320 31-32 flaxacreare.11899 1903 yo. 3/5 25-25 eee ee eee 322 4 Louisa-Des Moines Drainage District, operation of plant; rainiallvand aun-ofiee 2): . saree aoe eae 304 27-29 Muscatine, precipitation, 1846-1911, monthly --.-...... 304 29-30 Tron making, production of phosphatic slag..........------ 312 14-15 Iitalysricelexports to Wmited States... sseereese ae os see 323 2,3 Japan, rice exports to United States...............-..------ 323 2 Javiarbiees Ceserip toms: 6 eyed esc ee meters near ara 323 4 “Jobber, = userot term) ee yet aac rs oleae See eee 315 3 JOHNSON, Wii1AM T., jr.. and S. Henry AYERS, bulletin on “A bacteriological study of retail ice cream’’...-......-- 303 1-24 Jones, Samuey A., bulletin on “Honeybees: Wintering, yields, imports and exports of honey, jee eee ee ee eee 325 1-12 Jugurt. See Yogurt. Kansas— farm practices and conditions in Russell County....---. 320 63-66 flax acreage;-1899—1913. 5 | 2.4.52. . eee eee Seay ae 322 4 “‘Kaphir.’’ See Kefir. Kentucky— cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots......-...-..------- 315 18 x Fee practices and conditions in Christian County..... 320 39-41 e chemical anally sisii csqsee (cee = : eee eee errr 319 14 “eralns, 7 @escripiwioniand mature. -— saeeeeeeee es anor 319 14-15 making: directions. ae. oN ce. ae teal eet es 319 16-18 natures preparationyandmuses=-4----o seen see ee ae eee eee . 319 14-18, 20 *“Kephir.’’ See Kefir. ““Kepi.’”’? See Kefir. “Khapon.’’ See Kefir. “‘Kiaphir.’’? See Kefir. Kissélomilékotimatures.455- e 55.26. dae eee eee Ore 319 20 Kumiss— COMMPOSIION G2 Fe sees iriaiue eins ice. ee ree 319 19 MAGUINO 3 SURO Ee ok Ni cz a IRA CIE gp 319 20 production in Russia, economic importance, etc..-.--..- 319 18-20 therapeutienvalue;memarkss)- se. = nese eee eee 319 19-20 Lablab— bean. See Bonavist bean. bonavist, or hyacinth bean, bulletin by C. V. Piper and W.J: Morse. ei ok aS aa ey as 318 1-15 INDEX. “Tactic-acid bacteria, occurrence in milk, growth, etc..-.-- Lams, Grorce M., bulletin on “Willows, Their growth, use, PMBTPUREATICG 3 5/8. 2 ae ts se eee OGD, VG Lambing returns, sheep industry in Australia, note......... Land drainage by ee of pumps, bulletin by S. M. Wood- Tr SLTS, BATNVG! OI NVMG ] ee a as er ene Lands, wet, drainage rea) effectiveness, discussion... LANGWORTHY, C. ih and A. D. Hommes, bulletin on ‘‘Di- gestibility of some animal fate ett! SOY, cueeeene ee Larch— mistletoe— some economic considerations of its injurious effects, bulletin by James R. Weir -.......--..--. See also Mistletoe, larch. western— deterioration, effect of larch mistletoe............-- HERP OURFENCUMES 2 )ae atts a - Wee tates eels ou Med, dipestiomexperiments..<--- 3252-225 ee-e 6s =e o Larix occidentalis. See Larch, western. PeaEMET AO NAGUIC 5-5. 8 Opes cue ss ea AE Blt Levees— location, design, construction, and maintenance... ..-- losses tTOMa MOON CONStrUCUION: 452 «. =. Sees: > sete 7 Listers, corn, description and use.......--.----------..--- Lobolly pine— cost of lumber used by wood-manufacturing industries. . See also Shortleaf pine. Pocusi ence posts, liteand' cost 0.2: 2. Suan eee 8 Loggins— CosisioOs NATIONS OPETALONS:. 5.22. -\2)-/\sened 0k ne ee. BIC HMC Sm SOUL. 2 =! 2 ac bk Ss. 2 MRE AGAR waste, practices, and utilization................-..-.- Longleaf pine— lumber used by wood-manufacturing industries.....-... BECAME OAT OT yO 1 oa nia 22 5 ssa e ce ere Ht SEL Long-staple— cotton, stabilizing, factors influencing, discussion. . . . - . Upland cotton, growing in Imperial Valley, production HNdueconomic amportancel.... 2... Sseee sale ee Louisiana— cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots, by stations ....--. reclamation of wet lands, work and area..............- willow cooperage production. . oe ee Sie ei Sls yellow pine lumber, production, per cent of total cut and number of sawmills, HOTS = 5 yet 2 ae ek ee ae A Lumber— industry, logging, marketing, prices, etc.......-.-.---- production, seven leading woods, SOS SUG See eae ae ret Southern yellow pine, prices, fluc ‘tuations, ete... willow, production, prices and demand............--- Lumbering— willow timber, losses from waste...........----------- yellow pine, methods, cost, grades, waste, etc......... mammals, stiidies for schools. .).... 062.2 22-02 se nninaccee- Mange, foxes, cause and treatment.............----------- Manufacturer, relation to stabilization of standardized cotton. Mare’s milk— composition, comparison with cow’s milk.............- CDG NON a ee Oe ae ae oe 11-21 5 19-21 27-29 20 12-19 5-6, 10, 14-15, 16-17, 23-26, 28, 32, 34, 36-37, 39, 41, 42, 45, 48, Bl, 54, 57 24 16 19 18-20 12 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 301-3825, Market— apple, investigations, 1914-1915, bulletin by Clarence W.Moomaw and M.M. Stewart. .........---.------- wooluwsalestab oyaneywAprile plod = 2 ite seca eee eee Marketing— Arizona-Egyptian cotton of the Salt River Valley.....-. cantaloupes— distribution within cities, channels. ............-. in the larger cities, with car-lot supply, 1914, bulletin by Wells A. Sherman, A. Dexter Gail, jr., and arthvl ease ae vce... ee ae oe eeieeys a investigations, securing data, methods and difficul- IOS 2. e's Seep I a ts ee ghd lay een toe quality and condition of product, effect on demand. trade) factors\amiluencine 4. 02 ee eee farm products, publicatiors of Department, list......... southern pine lumber, practices......-...-:----------- wool, preparation, cost and wages, Australia. ......---. wools, considerations and management. .....------.---- Markets apple, wat: conditions: is: 6. 4.) eee nee eee MarsHatt, F. R., bulletin on ‘‘ Features of the sheep indus- tries of United States, New Zealand and Australia com- BEN SO WA ses 3 Silo eam as I ORME LS PN, UD cae en ENOL Grainlemil drainace yyy PUPS eee ai... eee pees Martin, J. G., bulletin on ‘‘The handling and marketing of the Arizona-Egyptian cotton of the Salt River Valley”’. . . Maryland— cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots, by stations....-..- yellow pine lumber, production, percentage of total cut, And num |b erLOh Sawaal sy Osi ey ee ee Mattoon, WiLBuR R., bulletin on ‘‘Shortleaf pine: Its eco- nomic importance and forest management”’.....-.....--- Many aaa ture. Mame cege ys ct Geos Rr SEI ee 2a ala eek ee Maz INT AT UTC ait ee eis ce cure SoCo e cays eran Car ca os apie ge pay uate McLacutAn, ARGYLE, bulletin on ‘‘Community production of Durango cotton in the Imperial Valley”’........--.-..- Meal, corn, chemical analysis, comparison with wheat flour BING TICE 2s ee SBS Ge a eh 1 eee eth CoM ee esc atte Merino sheep— divergence of standards, of Australia and United States... origin, production and value in Australia...-..........- MERRILL, JASON L— and CHARLES J, Branp, bulletin on “‘Zacaton as a paper- Makan eateries one Se ae Mai le bulletin on ‘‘Utilization of American flax straw in the paper and fibre-board industry”’.......-.....-------- Metchnikoff— bacillus, nature, therapeutic value, etc......-.-------- theory of prolongation of life by Bacillus bulgaricus..... Mexican whisk. See Zacaton. Mexico, rice exports to United States..........-----.-.-.- WHS, Snobs) torr Genel ooo bebS ba scoskocusosoobodeeduddce Michigan— cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots, by stations....... farm practices and conditions in Kalamazoo County....- flaxitaereage S99 10) Sm ae eee sree eden e rap epare Milk— COM PositlomUAss neh oe is aN ek eee ee. Sap e euime ties effectiol Bacterium caucasieum= == -- ee eee eee eee fermenteds food value ta ates a2 ere ete ee eaten Sourine-processesiandlcaises-sae se - heen ee eee Milks, fermented— Poibliogra ply es eke DEE ats 3 A oe By ee bulletin by sirAePRocersteaaso\c 2: . at ane ester forms sna tiunetamd vale mse a: epee pe ee ee ee therapeutiesvalue, experiments: ==. 2-2) Sepeeen eee ee crademamilesiamdpio rinse ee ee pa Bulletin No. 302 313 311 315 315 315 315 315 315 308 313 313 302 313 304 311 315 308 308 319 319 324 323 313 313 309 322 319 319 323 305 315 320 322 319 319 319 319 319 319 319 319 319 INDEX. 'Muiter, E. A., bulletin on ‘‘Exercises with plants and ani- acer Southern mitral schools”’.:-..-...-/22--------+++s Mannesata, tax acreage, 1899-1913. 2.5. Seles. te ec eee Mississipp1— cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots, by stations ....... farm practices and conditions in Holmes County........ River— bank revetments, use and value of willow. ........ bottom lands, drainage projects and work......... Valley— black willow stands, growth form, and yield........ Upper, drainage by pumping, system, work, etc.... yellow pine lumber, production, percentage of total cut and number of sawmills, 1913.........-----.---.... Missouri— cantaloupe shipments, 1914, car lots, by stations....... corn cultivation in Bates County, practices. ...-...-.... farm practices and conditions in Bates County. -.-.-....-.. St. Louis, precipitation, 1830-1911, monthly..... Seas yellow pine lumber, production, percentage of total cut, and number of sawmills, 19138..................-... Mistletoe, larch— Panne eetCCOMMCN GATIONS... o.- ic ~~~ seisicce ee sce ecm description, and prevalence in Blue Mountain region... effect on host, extent and nature, investigations........ occurrence on conifers in Northwest..............-.-.-- Some economic considerations of its injurious effects, Pollciinjby James Ri Weits. 7 2... see. s os SUES L) [DT DLW Sea ee lh Se eames Monohammus titillator, injury to dead or felled pine trees. . . Montana— 2 Mometerenee elSo0 191 Ge ites. ce ee ees detec eee. Huntley, corn growing, experiments with different varie- TES oe So gee OOO I ee ET eae RE > Cicer wal a ieee Moomaw, CLARENCE W., and M. M. Stewart, bulletin on ‘Apple market investigations, 1914-1915”............... Morse, W.J., and C. V. Piper, bulletin on ‘‘The bonavista, Peeeotsnnaeintl DEAN) 2<2.262% < 2.55) Seecwe aed Jos BEML GUCHUCICS SOF SCHOO)... et cae. 5 RL an Oe 2 Mulberry, fence posts, lifeand cost..................------ Muskmelons. See Cantaloupes. Mutton— PM GIPCAEION OXPCTUMCNtS... <5 -\ Bills} 313 315 320 320 308 322 310 321 308 320 320 322 313 304 320 308 321 301 304 316 313 302 315 322 322 322 309 322 322 322 316 322 309 309 308 309 INDEX. ‘Paper-stock supply, shortage, note......-...--------------- Pasture, acreage in twenty-one regions............--.--.--- RPE DTI CCS 2c oo oie ini eee se oe ss en Pennsylvania, farm practices and conditions in Bradford Ne chan oo epi cininicinis ~ ~j- Sales = ise 4 Phos hate— Peraciis, regions and forms of occurrence...-.--.-.------ rock— 3 2 _LELIGIN Kees See pee iis 2 ase nee Phosphates, enrichment, processes........-..-.------.----- Phosphoric acid— ROMMPMPIE CUES ONS 0 oo 5 een oe S.-i tee te BeetPMITAALION, PLOCCSSeS. ~~ 5... 22 = cence cine e ise Picking cotton, requirements and prices for Arizona-Egyp- ence oceans men = Seen aeesienis Pine— beetle, southern, injury to pine forests, and control * EE TLCS) Hix LIU Tee a iC yeni a a forest, regeneration by sowing and planting...........- forests— injury from southern pine beetle, evidences of infestation and control measures....-.-.---------- manacement 1m tne! SOUUN +22... -. aes cee ee losses from southern pine beetle..............-..-- Menace by Zacaton, HOLES). 5254... -aadonoes eo PPR CDOT AUCH ee 2 a5 25, ats naka oro ciclo AE EEO sawyer, southern, injury to dead or felled pine trees. - - . shortleaf— “Its economic importance and forest management,”’ bulletin by Wilbur R. Mattoon.......-...-.....-- See also Shortleaf pine. timber, insect enemies in South.................22.--. SeeaHotn, injury to pine trees........... - 082.2. vis Pines— mistletoe infection on West............-.-....2.------ Southern— physical properties of wood of important species. - . varieties important in lumber supply, note......--- Pinus echinata. Sce Shortleaf pine. Planters, corn, descriptions and use...................-.-+-- -Planting— EEIECINCES 25. SSS ees oe ee nga SCO OLA CS choke co rs aga ee hind io okt mann Plants, studies for Southern rural schools..............----- Suemane, corn land, practices...........----00«c--eeccseece memows, kinds, for corn culture..........2.2-20ceecececeeees a ee memollard ” willows, production..............-.0-----+++0+++: a, control, growing belladonna.............-.----- op — le ne ee A a ee trees, characteristics. comparison with willow........... Bulletin No. 322 320 301 320 312 320 390 { 319 316 306 316 316 1-37 2-3 8-18 17-18, 31-34 19, 35 19, 20 18-22 62 2-10, 12-16, 18-19, 21, 22-23, 24-25, 27-28, 30-35, 37-59, 62 13-16 13-15, 24, 26, 28,41,43,60, 65 20 31 2-3 2 2 16 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Bork iat, digestion experiments ane.: - seme eee eee Porto Rico, honey, shipments and imports. ............--..- Posts— fence— life, cost, preservation and materials............... See also Fence posts. willow, durability, seasoning, setting, etc............... Potatoes, acreage and yield in twenty-one regions. ......... ‘Powder willow,’’ prices, demand, and method of produc- GOT Se eee ane i Precipitation, Mississippi Valley, 1830-1911, monthly ....-- Prices, cantaloupes, car-lot, jobbing, and retail, 1914........ Prince Edward Island, fox-farming industry, development and present status... .- Publications— Department, on forest-tree diseases, list............-.--. useful forschoolsislist Ss sosi a8 8 25.” Ae ete eae Pulp wood, consumption Pumping— , imports, and demand............ istrict, land drainage, organization and area........... drainage districts, Louisiana, influence of rainfall and TUDN=OLE eee plant— drainage, operation and maintenance............... drainage operations, requirements, capacity, etc.... Pumps, use in land drainage, bulletin by S. M. Woodward andiC naw Okeveeneae: Queensland, sheep industry, magnitude, land area and flocks. Rabbit studies tomschoolss-ce4- jsscci.- eee eee Eee Rags, importation for paper making. ....-22222.-2--2-2.--- Raiz de zacaton. See Zacaton. Rams, production, prices and sale, practices in Australia. .-- Ranches, fox, number and distribution.................... ‘“‘Rank,’’ willow excelsior stock, preparation, measurements, and pricestes see seen sl Ratooning, cotton, practices and objections............-..-. Razoumofskya laricis. See Mistletoe, larch. Reeve, CHArtes S., and Prevost Hussparp, bulletin on ‘‘Methods for the examination of bituminous road mate- TELE SHAN ee EN Retinia frustrana, injury to pine trees...............-.---...- Revetment work, Mississippi River, use of willow, cost, and Guirations=eee see Rice— brown, sources.....- chemical analysis of imported, comparison with wheat flourtandaconnpmn eal: sey ee sili: 5 crenata ieee ener imports— kinds from various countries..........--..--------- quantity and value, by countries from which con- sigmedmes sa loss of food constituents in milling....................--- mechanical analysis of imported. ..................... milled— importance and characters of imports, bulletin by HIB EWAIRG 22) 080 A car 0 a a aga types, descriptions. . Rice-root grass. See Zacaton. ‘‘Ripened milk,’’ nature BULS. 301-325, Bulletin No. 310 325 321 316 320 316 304 315 301 317 305 309 304 304 304 304 304 304 313 305 322 313 301 316 324 314 308 316 323 323 323 323 323 323 323 323 323 319 INDEX. Road materials, bituminous— classification and scheme of examination.............-- methods for examination, bulletin by Prévost Hubbard arn | Cine (ash Saul 1G T eh (ee Ae Ne ls me oo ee testing and inspection, laboratory equipment. --...-..- Rodents, dissemination of mistletoe Seeds notesssscee ee Roesrs, L. A., bulletin on ‘‘ Fermented milks’’......-.-..-- Rollers, ‘land, descriptions and use on corn land.--.---.--.-. Rosemary pine. See Shortleaf pine. Round-headed borer, injury to dead or felled pine trees. - - - Rye, acreage and yield in 21 regions..........-------.----- Salix— acutifolia, use as sand binder in Russia.....-...-------- monadescripton and. range. 225: 2522.2 2 SPREE oe amygdaloides, description, range, and value-.-.-..-.-.---- babylonica, description, range and value. .-.--.----.---- Jendleriana, description and range..-....--------------- fragilis, description, range, and ryalne. -sebees eseans i laevigata, description and range. ......---------------- dastolepis, Gescription’and range:-222205..22 2022222222. Penna, Gescription and Tange... - 22 420-52 os nigra. See Black willow. Salt River Valley, Arizona-Egyptian ‘cotton, handling and saarketine, bulletin by Ji. G: Martin: :-:225f562222.22222- San Jose scale, REhuOlstudiessesns sae ios: erent Sand binder, willow, use and value..................---.-- Sand-bar willow— aeseripiion, rance and values. -- 2-2 -025 222 Po. 2-2 aoe use and value for bank revetments......--....--------- museum sence posts, life and cost... -- .-..-,-. <2 --secccee Sawmills, number reporting yellow pine lumber, by States. - Schools, Southern rural, exercises, with plants and animals, bulletin yeh Ne Maller’. 5). 2ese 4. |. ek Seed— ‘ Mes conl, Tequirements-.--+--2-- 2-2 sss sek ate ote os Be MUSLOLASC sae celalaceseieiatiete <1 arcicic's cra steteyeeteiewiaiie sistas mistletoe, dissemination by birds and rodents, note... .- poplar, characteristics LF OOOO RELISTS 0 6 CO CORO RAE MallowAChAaracteristicE es. cess. nls Meet eke ee Seeds, bonavist bean, prussic acid occurrence, investigations. Shearing— sheds, cooperative, in New Zealand...............-.-- BEPep ey PLACICes -).. 29.288 oso sos 5. S. See ie eee ees Sheep— breeding stock, requirements and demand in Australia. - Breeds ane types, Australias’ os eh decease oases See se ATES A WO hae GHG —* aioabain9> ii ak } aban to daa eg ie eA oa a a m4 Se ee es . fad Bidet! te UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE y BULLETIN No. Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv October 29, 1915 SILVER FOX FARMING IN EASTERN NORTH AMERICA. By Nep Dearsorn, Assistant Biologist. CONTENTS. Page. Page. LEED EG We ere fh Elona dlineto mes) see seceete tee oue ante aaels eve 22 BRCISHMCT UGK es) 26 2 USS 2b ek eos to hoe Dal Souaniey iO Mae ee het rons ee npn ee ey ere epee cae ny 23 History of domestication...............----- AN lamiproveGsstrainses sete cen een eee ears 25 Area suited for fox farming....-.......-.---- 6 | Accessories. ---- Bee ee Bet cae Serine atau See 28 PTI! TGS. 122 See ee ee re Bi) COStSR een seman se tise ase cee nse aeeeemeras 3 TnGUSiIOS < = eee ees ee eee Of | MTOM tS ers ar Aes Seem ee ces mae 31 TET et dk octbge See oe eee ae eee 15 etre paraonvOtss ka lis pees eee aa er 31 TPiTTEG 2A OB eee ee a ieee AS) begaliaspects: te lee cee eee ee 32 Behayior in captivity -.........-.----------- PAL || IOUTMITEIS . 5 sack enous scaussusoscosecoscoees 34 INTRODUCTION. Furs are the most useful and valuable of the several products derived from wild animals. Indispensable to primitive man, they are scarcely less important to the civilized, for in warmth, beauty, and durability no manufactured fabrics equal them. As the result of in- crease of population and of encroachments upon the breeding grounds of the fur bearers the supply of furs has steadily diminished and prices have correspondingly advanced. Trappers have been stimulated to penetrate farther and farther into the uninhabited regions of the north and to redouble their efforts to merease their catch nearer home. Many of the more valuable animals are now so scarce that the demand for their pelts is met by the substitution of inferior products. Among the most important of the fur bearers of North America is the silver fox, which furnishes the subject of this bulletin. The natural production of first-class furs seems to be approaching a sure end, and the growing and world-wide demand for them requires that the present supply be supplemented with stock obtained through domestication. Experience has demonstrated that some of the fur bearers may be raised without much difficulty. This is likely to lead 5238°-—Bull. 301—15—1 D, BULLETIN 301, U. S,, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, to the establishment of fur farming on a small scale as an additional source of income on farms in many places along our northern border, much as poultry is now raised. When properly conducted, fur farm- ing may become very profitable. It will pay not only in direct returns to the producer but, indirectly, the natural and legitimate desire for furs can be gratified, the extirpation of the most valuable and interesting of our fur bearers can be prevented, and an extensive department of manufacture and trade supporting a large population can be continued. Success in domesticating wild animals, as in other branches of husbandry, depends on experience, adaptability, and prudence. No one should engage in the business unless he enjoys it and is familiar with the habits, characteristics, and climatic requirements of the animals he intends to propagate. The choice of location is of prime importance. The best furs come from cool, moderately humid regions. If a locality furnishes native furs of high grade, that locality is favorable to the domestication of fur bearers. The climate of the Middle and Southern States is not well suited to this industry, as shown by the medium or low prices commanded by furs from these areas. The ratio of expense to income must be considered with care. One can not pay the exorbitant prices animals for stock- ing purposes sometimes bring and expect to raise fur at a profit. Neither can one expect to raise furs of a fine quality from inferior stock. But given a normal market for breeding-stock and pelts, a favorable location, a love for animals, and an ordinary degree of prudence, one may engage in black or silver fox farming with a good prospect of satisfactory returns, provided, of course, a high price for pelts is sustaied. Values of animals and pelts were very high a few years ago, when the industry was bemg launched, but are now on a much lower basis. Persons who contemplate going actively into the business or Investing their money in corporations or com- panies organized for fox farming should thoroughly investigate it in — all its phases. THE SILVER FOX. The name ‘‘silver fox,’ as commonly used by furriers, includes the dark phases of the ordinary red fox,! variously called silver, silver gray, silver black, or black. It should not be confused with the gray, or tree, fox? of the United States, the fur of which is of compara- tively little value. The color of the red fox of the Northeastern States and of its allies of the colder parts of North America varies from red to black, and these extremes, with their gradations, form four more or less distinct phases, known respectively as red, cross (or patch), silver, and black. In the red phase the fur is entirely 1Genus Vulpes. 2Genus Urocyon. SILVER FOX FARMING. 8 rich fulvous, except for restricted black markings on the feet and ears, _ a white area at the end of the tail, and certain white-tipped hairs on the back andrump. Grading into the next phase the black increases in extent until, in the typical cross fox, the black predominates on. the feet, legs, and underparts, while fulvous overlaying black covers most of the head, shoulders, and back. the southern boundary of the ¢ the Biolo b 8 BULLETIN 301, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. North Dakota, and extends southward along the mountains in New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and in all the States of the Rocky Mountain region and westward. South of the forested regions of the northern tier of States and western Oregon, however, the Canadian Zone, although sufficiently cold, is too dry and sunny for the production of first-class fur. In the Transition Zone, foxes hay- ing a fair quality of fur may be raised, but the best are obtained only in more northern latitudes. RANCH SITES. One of the most important conditions affecting the choice of site for a fox ranch is security from unusual noises and occurrences. Not that the animals must be kept where they can neither see nor hear the doings of civilization; but these must not be irregular or obtrusive, and every precaution should be taken to prevent unusual dis- turbances. Thefoxis naturally timid and nervous. It can be tamed toa degree, but its excitable temper- ament can be com- pletely overcome only by a long process of careful breeding and selection. It is espe- cially shy and irrita- ble during the breed- ing season. ; Foxes like to be B202-96 screened from obser- vation, and by day in the wild state are rarely found far from cover. During the heat of summer, especially, they enjoy dense shade. Furthermore, sun- shine is deleterious to the color and character of fur. It is advisable, therefore, to locate aranch among a growth of young trees thick enough to shade about half of the ground. Deciduous trees are preferable to evergreens, as they allow the sun to make the yards more comfortable in winter and to clear the ground of snow earlier in spring. Old trees are likely to be broken by storms, and in falling to demolish fences, On a slope with a southern exposure the snow will be gone and the ground warm when the cubs are ready to leave the dens. A clay Fig. 3.—Vertical cross section of a barrel den. SILVER FOX FARMING. 9 surface is to be avoided, but a subsoil of clay or hardpan is an advan- tage, as foxes will not dig ground hard enough to require a pick to break it up. Gravel affords excellent drainage, but foxes burrow deeply in it and thus are difficult to manage, even though they may not escape. INCLOSURES. A model fox ranch has three kinds of inclosures: Dens, where the animals are sheltered and in which the young are born; yards or runs, where they may have sunshine and shade and sufficient exercise to keep them in good health; and a guard fence surrounding the entire ranch, for the double purpose of preventing intrusion from without and escape from within. - DENS. The walls of a fox den should exclude moisture, deaden sounds, and protect the occupants from extremes of heat and cold. During the Fic. 4.—Horizontal longitudinal section of barrel den, ] breeding season, when foxes are unusually nervous, and when the cubs can not withstand exposure, these features are particularly impor- tant. Provision should also be made for ventilation without admit- ting light or drafts. The barrel den shown in figures 3 to 6 is merely a clean barrel, having a smooth interior, surrounded by dry sawdust, within a wooden box. In one head of the barrel is an entrance hole 8 inches wide and 10 inches high. A similar opening is made in the upper side for inspection, cleaning, and ventilating. Above the barrel a screen door is hinged to preclude escape when the cover is raised. A sheet of burlap tacked to one side of the screen- door frame and spread over the netting when the covers are raised for ventilation will keep out air currents and light. At the entrance hole is an elbowed spout, 2} feet in the shorter arm and 6 feet in the longer. 5238°—Bull, 301—15——2 10 BULLETIN 301, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, The large den shown in figures 7 to 9 has advantages not found in barrel dens. It has double walls, the interspaces being lined with building paper and filled with sawdust. The exterior may be bat- tened, shingled, or covered with tarred paper. It is large enough to give the foxes lounging room outside the nest compartment, and is arranged so as to be easily cleaned and disinfected. By leaving the door open on fine days, the interior can be exposed to the drying and purifying effects of sunshine. The door and the opening to the exit chute should face southward, and the rear end should be raised enough to give the floor a slant downward toward the door. The B2094-96 Fic. 5.—Vertical longitudina! section of barrel den. entrance to the nest compartment and the inner end of the chute should be about 4 inches above the floor to prevent the cubs’ getting out before they are able to return. The corners around the floor of the nest compartment are filled with a chamfered strip of board (figs. 7 and 8) to keep very young cubs in contact with the vixen and thus prevent their becoming chilled. To accommodate a large family of cubs running about the yard, it is advisable to have extra dens improvised from barrels or boxes, as.shown in figures 10 and 11. Such shelters increase the diversity of the yard, and afford the animals a choice when seeking protection from the weather. As to the proper location of a den, opinions differ. SILVER FOX FARMING. 11 Some place it near the middle of the yard, where the foxes are sup- posed to feel more secure. Others locate it outside the yard, in order that the vixen may not jump to and from the roof and thus cause abortion. All dens placed outside of yards should have an inner door of wire netting if they open to an alley. YARDS. Although fox yards vary in size, shape, and construction, depending on conditions on different ranches, there is a definite type now gener- ally recognized as best adapted to fox farming. Such a yard has an i area of from 2,000 to 2,500 square feet. The majority in the recently i built ranches are 50 feet square. Some breeders prefer long, narrow yards, which give the foxes more space for a hard run when they are y, frolicsome, though the ¢ost of fence materials is considerably greater than for square yards of the same area. The JA arrangement of a @ series of yards de- Y pends upon the space poeso6 they are to occupy. When arranged as nearly as possible in the form of a square the expense of inclosing by a guard fence is less than when side by side in a row. Two plans of four-yard ranches are shown in figures 13 and 14, the smaller com- partments being for males. The expense for posts and scantlings in building a ranch on the plan of figure 13 is less than for the plan of figure 14, inasmuch as adjacent yards have a common frame between them. But the extra cost of building detached pens as shown in figure 14 is more than compensated for by the greater conven- ience in caring for the animals and in controlling them in case they escape from their yards. If a fox gets out of its yard, it is sure to be discovered in one of the alleys, whence its return to its proper quarters is a simple matter. The supports of a fence are ordinary wooden posts set in the ground at intervals of from 12 to 16 feet. The heaving effect of frost, however, has caused many fox owners to abandon them for a framework of scantlings entirely above ground. The foundation may be of stone, concrete, or creosoted planks. The posts of framed fences are tied together by the netting and braced from the ground as shown in figure 15, A durable and attractive fence support ~ -" -~ Fic. 6.—Exterior view of a barrel den (see figs. 3-5). 12 BULLETIN 301, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. recently adopted by several fox owners is shown in figure 16. It has a concrete foundation 4 feet deep, 9 inches thick at the bottom, and 6 inches thick at the top, and projects slightly aboveground. In this are embedded posts of 1-inch galvanized-iron pipe. Tie-rails of 2-inch pipe connect these posts at the top and also just above the foundation. Wire netting for fox-yard fences has been in use from the beginning. It allows free circulation of air and per- mits the animals to take an active in- terest in their surroundings and in one another. The netting ordinarily used is like that for poultry runs, except that the wire is heavier. It may be of 2-inchmesh in 14, 15, and 16 gauge. The lower part of a fence should be made of the heaviest wire obtainable, the lighter grades being used for the middle and upper parts. As very young foxes are likely to become entangled in 2-inch netting or even to go through it, many fox breeders use only 14-inch mesh. Those having 2-inch mesh usually reinforce it from 6 inches above the surface of the ground to 6 inches below it with boards or a strip of 1-nch netting. The disposition of foxes to take an adversary at a disadvantage has led to serious injuries when adjoiming yards were separated by only a single partition of coarse netting. In a number of instances a climbing animal has had its foot seized, pulled through the fence, and held by the occupant of the next yard until its frantic strug- gles to escape resulted in a badly man- B2096-96 Fig. 7.—Ground plan of a double-walled den. Are gled leg. Such accidents can be Fic. 8.—Vertical cross section of double- avoided by making double-walled par- welled den. titions, the walls separated by at least 4 inches, or single-walled partitions of 1-inch netting or of boards. The necessity of erecting double partitions is overcome, however, by use of the plan illustrated in figure 14. The height of a fence depends somewhat upon the depth of the snowfall. In Maine and the Maritime Provinces the usual height is 9 or 10 feet, while in Labrador it is 12 feet. To prevent foxes from SILVER FOX FARMING. 13 digging out, the fence is either extended into the ground (fig. 17) or turned abruptly inward at the surface (fig. 18) to form a mat 3 feet wide, the inner edge of which is pinned firmly to the ground and usually covered with earth or stone. A fence extended into the ground must reach a depth of 4 or 5 feet if the soil is soft, and be turned inward a foot at the bottom. If there is a subsoil of clay or hardpan, the fence need not enter it more than 6 inches. Instead of netting, the under- eround part of a fence may be made of 2-inch creosoted planks. As foxes climb wire fences readily an inward over- hang about 18 inches wide should be placed at the top to prevent escape (figs. 15-20). When 2 UW O©oa<) eyes scrambled up toanoverhang, its only means of descending is by falling. B2098-96 Fic. 9.—Double-walled den; exterior broken to show inner den (see figs. 7 and 8). Sometimes valuable animals have been seriously injured in this way. To’prevent accidents of this kind an intermediate overhang is sometimes constructed 5 feet from the ground, as shown in figure 16, or a smooth zone of boards or sheet iron is inserted in the upper half of the fence, as shown in figure 20. The yards for sequestering males are usually adjacent to the main yards, with which they are connected by a chute having a sliding door (fig. 21), though sometimes they are separated from the family 14 BULLETIN 301, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, yards. It is advisable to have them roomy, as indicated in figures 13 and 14, in order to give the animals enough runway to make them vigorous during exile. When allowed to be together the pair may have the run of both yards. Although quarters for constant oecu- pancy should be roomy, those for temporary use, such as are required by dealers and by ranchmen for isolating sick or newly arrived animals, may be comparatively small. Temporary pens are often not more than 6 by 10 feet on the ground and 4 or 5 feet high. They are made with netting on top, bot- tom, and sides, stretched over a frame of scantlings. The posts donot enter the ground, but rest upon sills, to which. they are securely nailed. By means of braces the frame can be made rigid, and when covered with netting is strong enough to be moved without weaken- ing. The cheapness, security, and portability of these pens make them a very useful adjunct. Foxes have bred and reared young in temporary pens that were only 12 by 15 feet, but such narrow quarters are not recommended for permanent use. When alleys are used between pens, as shown in figure 14, it is well to have them closed at the outer ends to facilitate the return of es- caped animals and provided with over- hangs. Entrance to the yards should be by way of these alleys. Doorsmay bemade entirely of wood, or : of netting attached ue to a durable frame which can not be gnawed by a fox or warped (fig. 19). If they are divided into upper and lower sections of equal size, much of the labor of clearing paths when snow is deep can be eliminated by leaving the lower half of each door closed. Silence ! AM PSTN Ae Sree, eae Sen can \ prod Attlee on mS 5 if gruel madara wha % = D oe Caan my) ) za ce SS BVA a My oy yy SS Stes ‘ i te =u) y i {38 SUIS yyy Sa B2099-96 Fie. 10.—Den improvised from a box. Fia. 11.—Den improvised from a barrel. GUARD FENCES. The guard fence surrounding a fox ranch is generally constructed like the yard fences already described. Where snow drifts badly, the fence should be built of boards rather than netting, in order to keep the snow from piling up in the yards. In addition to the usual SILVER FOX FARMING. 15 inward overhang it should have an outward overhang of barbed wire to keep out dogs and other intruders (fig. 15). B630M Fic. 12.—An inexpensive type of den. Table in foreground is for the food of parent foxes; by means of it young cubs are prevented from obtaining too much meat. FOOD. Wild foxes eat a wide variety of food, including mice, rabbits, birds, insects, and wild fruits. When grasshoppers are present large quanities areeaten. Meat, therefore, is only a part of their natural diet. 70" 130" | 120 B2102-06 Fia. 13,—P lan for rectangular yards in series; dens within yards, Indeed, foxes, like dogs, are almost om- nivorous, and there is less danger in feeding any particular kind of food than in feeding too large quantities at irrecular intervals. The rations of do- mesticated foxes in- clude beef, horse meat, mutton, veal, woodchucks, rabbits, liver, fish, eggs, milk, bread, mashed pota- toes, crackers, mush, dog biscuits, and soft fruits. The selection of meats is largely a matter of circumstances. At irregular and uncertain intervals one may obtain injured or worn-out but otherwise 16 BULLETIN 301, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. healthy horses, old sheep that can not be fattened for mutton, all of which, when slaughtered, make good and cheap meat. Wherever available, whale meat is used extensively. Woodchucks and rabbits, freshly killed, are always welcome in a fox yard. When cheap meats fail, beef and poultry are used. S ava Fic. 14.—Plan for square detached yards; dens and doors in alleys. BS Fortunately, foxes do not need meat every day. Some keepers feed it but two or three times a week. Young foxes are not allowed meat until they are four months old, as it is lied to cause rickets. Milk, with some sort of bread or cooked mush, is the standard food for old and young. Foxes which are fed twice a day usually have meat in the morning and bread or mush and milk at night. In summer the proportion of meat is less than in winter. When smelts or trout can be had they are frequently substituted, but fish is not considered SILVER FOX FARMING. 17 good for foxes in warm weather. Coarser fishes are sometimes used, but are not very much in favor. It is not deemed well to feed milk and fish on the same day. Milk and eggs are often given to females — about the time cubs are expected, to strenghten them, relax their bowels, and allay fever. Fish, liver, and tripe are other laxative foods which may be used instead.of milk and eggs. A diet of eggs, milk, mush, and wheat bread without leaven or salt is excellent. - The preparation of food for foxes deserves careful attention. All dishes should be kept clean. Meat that is diseased, tainted, or infected with parasites must be boiled. It is better to skin rabbits, as their hair readily =~ N SS x Sey us RS S = yan SS ZEGIDLODE CEILI OAEU LG LEO DIG: SSS UY “J me I SY NN NN WHY ‘ Ny eS Sak Ga’ SENSES RAS SSS LEESL TR = SS SS = RK SESSES SS ak SSS Ss ~~ = RS ER SS = SSS ees Ss SEAR SS SS SWRPA’ =) SS SO SS SS SS = <== S&S i SS Sens <= re 2 SS SS 2S SSS <= TS re SERS SET = Ss Ni N SS SS SS) PRES RE RS TESS —S SS SS EN was SS b a) NN SS a u a AN SS > Tes SSS { Bs 5) ae ~sS wat! SS NS =NN NSS) Carrs toe “ a o) HS Se aha ‘ ay BS Bp itos CT meena WR ET Pout 17y B2104-96 Fic. 15.—Sections of yard and guard fences, with frame sup- ports. Theyard fence, a,hasa foundation of creosoted planks. The guard fence, b, rests on stones and has a mat to prevent foxes from digging out, and an outward overhang to keep out dogs and other intruders. felts and sometimes forms in balls in the stomachs of animals which feed on them. Their heads and entrails also should be removed, as these parts are frequently infested with parasites. Smelts and small trout may be fed whole, but larger fish should be dressed and the backbones removed. Chilled meat should be warmed before being offered to cubs or nursing females. Oatmeal or cornmeal mush should be thoroughly cooked. All food for sick animals should be cooked to make it more digestible and to free it from disease germs. 5238°—Bull. 301—15 sy v 18 BULLETIN 301, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Foxes should be fed regularly twice a day, morning and evening. This is especially important in hot weather, as whatever is left from the first meal will spoil before time for the next. By giving at each feeding only the proper quantity, the injurious effects of gorging can be avoided. Overfeeding is more dangerous than underfeeding. Fat animals are not prolific breeders. Eight or ten ounces of meat is sufficient for one meal. BREEDING. Foxes breed only once a year, the mating season occurring im February or March, and lasting anywhere from a few hours to two or three days; it is often indicated by a brownish discharge. The period of gesta- tion is about 51 days, the young being born in April or May. The number of young in a litter varies from two to eight, the average number born to adult parents being four. In the wild state foxes are monoga- mous, and while the young are being reared the male duti- fully forages for them. In captivity, however, one male sometimes has been mated successfully peer with two or even eee gery eee Gee fimols, Tn one of which (5 feet from the gound) is to prevent foxes from climbing certain cases this to the top and the resulting injury from the greater fall. may be desirable, but i very often it results in no increase whatever. Breeders generally prefer to keep their foxes in pairs. Males are removed from the breeding yards for a part of each year, the length of their exile depending upon the relations of the pair. If they are quarrelsome, it is best to separate them soon after the female becomes pregnant. If, on the contrary, they agree and show attachment to each other, it is wise to keep them together until the cubs are four weeks old, but after that the male is likely to bite them during scrambles for food at meal times. While the vixen is devoting SILVER FOX FARMING. 19 herself to the young, the male carries food to her and warns her by sharp barks whenever he suspects danger. While sequestered, the males are usually kept in small pens which may adjoin the breeding yards, as shown in figures 13 and 14, or removed : to a separate inclosure, where they may be JE allewed to run together in a large yard or con- fined in individual pens. Because of their inchi- nation to fight, individual pens are preferable. The reproductive period in foxes is about 10 years. Approximately 50 per cent of the females in domestication breed each year, and the aggre- gate increase is not far from 100 per cent for the total stock on ranches. Failure to breed is attributable to a variety of causes, among which ~ are sterility, injuries, worry, and mismating. Females barren for two years in succession fre- quently become productive on being mated toa different male. Prolific vixens, run down by several litters in succession, sometimes skip a year in which to recuperate. Foxes breed more freely on the ranch where they were reared than *™* a eres amid strange surroundings. Their wild nature dominates most of their actions. They are constantly in a state of apprehension, and it is only by the greatest care that confidential relations can be established between them and their keepers. This fear may cause the female to refuse the atten- tions of the male; or she may become excited so as to injure herself and give birth prema- turely. But worst of all, even after producing a litter of healthy young, she may be so solici- tous for their safety as to maltreat or kill them in her efforts to get them out of imaginary harm’s way. Often when her young are just born, or only a few days old, she will carry them about the inclosure all day, apparently seeking a place to hide them. Perhaps she digs a hole in the ground and removes them one by one from the warm den to the cold earth. Thus the little bar things may be moved successively to a number Fic. 18.—Fence turned inwara 01 freshly dug holes and to and from these and at surface of ground to form the den until they die. From the time the cubs abs are born until they are two or three weeks old constant care must be taken to prevent losses in this manner. Any unusual sight, sound, or odor, by day or night, is lable to alarm a vixen and cause her to maltreat her young. The best way of dealing with a worried vixen is to shut her with her cubs in the den for several WS SS hy SN SS SS Si! \ SQ SSS ~S B2106-96 WN \ SQ \\ \\ W Wh Ny} \ AN \ SSW Sooe S Sse TS SS 20 BULLETIN 301, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, hours or until she becomes pacified. If she is disturbed by the proximity of other foxes, as sometimes happens, her view should be limited by boarding in the lower 2 or 3 feet of her yard. B631M Fig. 19.—Details of entrance, mat, and overhang ofa fox yard. CARE OF YOUNG. Young foxes are subject to other troubles which, unless corrected, often prove fatal. They may be infested with external or internal parasites, or their mothers may not have enough milk to nourish SILVER FOX FARMING. ik them properly. It is very important that their condition from day to day be known. But the great value of the cubs, and their danger from the uritability of their mothers, generally cause the keeper to refrain from looking into the dens. By watching the behavior of the mothers they judge whether or not the young are doing well. It has been demonstrated by at least one progressive keeper that this uncer- tainty is by no means necessary. Foxes are not excited by routine events. By giving them large two-room dens, similar to the one shown in figure 9, and always feeding them in the outer compartment, they are led to expect the entrance of the keeper as the regular pre- liminary to each meal, and even to welcome it. When the keeper enters, they, of course, depart, leaving him free to look into the in- ner den. He should not touch the cubs un- less they need attention. The young are small and weak at first, and their mother remains with them almost con- ip stantly for the first three days. They grow by Me rapidly and usually begin to appear outside HART the den in about a month. When 6 weeks old they eat more or less solid food. After this they may be weaned. Many breeders leave the weaning entirely to the vixen un- less she is becoming emaciated. 4. BULLETIN 302, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. had to be discarded at destination and as a result the returns from the sale of the merchantable grades were reduced materially by the cost of shipping and handling the unmerchantable fruit. It can not be said that the consumer paid more for good apples, because the wholesale buyers as a rule discount sufficiently the price paid to the farmer so that all costs and other losses for handling this character of mixed stock will be met. The operation of the New York standard package and grade law was noted especially, and information regarding its results will be found on page 13. STUDIES IN THE MARKETS. TRACING DISTRIBUTION. The mediums through which apples usually pass in the large mar- kets are the wholesaler, jobber, and retailer. In the case of consign- ments, the sales are usually made by the commission merchants to the jobbers. Frequently a wholesaler, commission merchant, or jobber performs the functions of all three, so that there is no distinct line which apples may be said to take in process of city distribution. Growers east of the Rocky Mountains form market contacts in many ways. Frequently the original sale is made at the orchard to local or itinerant buyers, who sell to large operators or city dealers. The brokers in the producing areas and in the market centers do a large business as salesmen or purchasing agents for all those engaged in the distribution to retailers. Such are the usual steps when the erowers act individually. Collectively or cooperatively short cuts are possible, because through organization all the growers of a com- munity may make direct market contacts with the city dealers. ¢ In those markets where investigations were carried on an effort was made to trace the distribution of specific lots of apples through to the consumers in order to observe the various steps and ascertain the cost of handling, including trade margins. It proved very diffi- cult, however, in most cases, to trace the whole of any original ship- ment through to its final sale to the consumer, and the larger the city the more difficult the tracing. It is easy to trace wholesale lots from the shipper to the wholesaler, but just as soon as the lot is broken up the record of its disposition becomes more difficult to obtam. The wholesaler may sell to the jobber or to the retailer or perhaps direct to some large consumer. He will probably have a record of the sale to a jobber, but many of his sales to retailers are likely to be in small quantities, for cash, and without record of the purchaser. The jobber, in turn, may sell either to a retailer or to a large consumer, and a very large part of his sales are likely to be for cash, without further record. It is possi- ble, therefore, to follow only a small part of the shipment even so far APPLE MARKET INVESTIGATIONS, 1914-15. 5 as the retail dealers. Further, a considerable part of the retail business is handled by hucksters, from whom it is difficult to get much satis- factory information with regard to sales and expenses, even if it were possible to find out from the wholesaler or the jobber what particular hucksters had purchased the apples that were being traced. And, in addition to the lack of records on the part of the dealers, the problem is often complicated by the fact that in some cities half a, dozen nationalities may be represented in those receiving parts of a single original shipment. ‘This is especially true in New York City. RETAIL METHODS AND COSTS. In studying the various phases of city apple marketing, special attention was given to retail methods and costs. The purpose of this study was chiefly to learn whether the wholesale supply con- trols the price. The cost of operation as a factor in determining retail prices also was investigated as far as possible. Retail apple distributors may be classed as follows: (a) Fruit-stand vendors. (6) Fancy grocers, fruiterers, etc., catermg almost exclusively to high-class or fashionable trade and doing a verv extensive credit business. (c) Grocers catering to a cheaper class of trade. largely upon a cash basis. (dq) Hucksters or street peddlers. Relatively high prices were charged for apples purchased at Sant stands. Extra “oney Northwestern and Colorado Jonathans were sold to the dealers during October and November at prices ranging from $1 to $1.25 per box. Apples which grade 150 to the box retailed at 2 for 5 cents, or $3.75 per box. This meant a gross profit of about 250 per cent. In the 96 size, extra fancy Jonathans sold at 3 for 10 cents, or $3.20 per box, showing a gross profit of about 200 per cent. In the East Side tenement section of New York City it was learned that by reason of the cheap prices prevailing and the heavy supply of apples arriving the peddlers were operating to the detriment of fruit stands. The fruit-stand dealers were selling only about one- third to one-half the quantity of fruit handled in former seasons. The pushcart and wagon peddlers as a rule buy. packed or loose fruit cheap and go direct to the homes of the residents, selling at prices considerably below the fruit-stand men. The peddlers handle a large quantity; make quick cash sales, and pay no rents. Other dealers incur heavy operating expenses and generally sell not for the purpose of moving a large quantity, but for the highest price ob- tainable. Consequently, the movement is restricted. 6 BULLETIN 302, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The largest profits were found usually in barreled apples. For instance, New York B grade, 2 inches minimum, approximately 600 apples to the barrel, sold for a cent each or $6 per barrel. These apples cost the retail dealer not over $2 per barrel delivered to his store, allowance being made for jobber’s profit and drayage. The investigator saw ‘‘A grade” fruit, 24 inches minimum, averaging about 400 apples per barrel, which cost the retailer not over $3, being displayed for sale at 2 for 5 cents, or $11.25 per barrel. Such prices prevailed at no less than 25 retail stores visited in one day. Apples were being offered for sale at retail all over New York City at prices ranging from 1 cent each at the cheap corner fruit stands, to 50 cents and 80 cents per dozen at the fanciest fruit stores. In general, it may be said that the gross profits of fruit-stand vendors range from 100 to 250 per cent. Operating expenses other than rent in most cities except New York are not relatively high and all sales are on a strictly cash basis; hence the net profits on good fruit are large. Grocers catering to high-class trade buy only the best apples. Extra fancy Jonathans, Grimes, etc., preferably 138’s and 150’s size, were purchased at $1 to $1.25 per box. These apples were taken from the box and repacked in small splint trays similar to the peach basket used in a six-basket carrier. Each box of apples filled approximately 10 trays. Each tray sold for 30 cents; hence the - box brought $3, representing a gross profit of about $1.75. Extra fancy Delicious and Winter Banana, 72’s size, purchased at $2 per box, retailed at 5 cents each, or $3.60 per box. Other sizes and varieties brought corresponding prices. No attempt was made by this class of grocers to stimulate consumption by temporarily reducing prices. The retail prices quoted above were maintained consistently throughout the 1914 season, regardless of prevailing jobbing prices. The large margins charged by the retailers, for the most part, were due apparently to the small amount of business handled, the perish- able nature of the commodity, and the cost of operation. An elaborate and efficient delivery service must be maintained by the grocers, and many small deliveries are made each day at an actual loss to the dealer. A large proportion of the grocery-store patrons buy on credit and pay when. it becomes convenient. Many of these accounts are never paid. Hence it becomes apparent that the good customer who pays his bill regularly each week, or who pays cash, must suffer for the shortcomings of others. However, there can be little doubt that reducing prices would materially increase con- sumption and in the end result in equally good profits for the retailer. Reduced prices and better business practice should prove to be very beneficial to grower, dealer, and consumer. « APPLE MARKET INVESTIGATIONS, 1914-15. fl The profits derived from the sale of cheaper grades of apples to zhe poorer class of consumers are not so large. It was learned that those catering to sueh trade operated on a margin of 75 to 100 per cent of the purchase price. Table 1 shows the purchase and selling prices of certain varieties of apples handled by retail grocers in St. Louis, Mo., on October 13 and 14, 1914. TaBLE 1.—Purchase and selling prices of apples handled by retail grocers in St. Louis, October 13 and 14, 1914. Selling price, per peck,! received by 10 retail grocers. Variety. Purchase price per barrel. No. 1.|No. 2./No. 3.|No. 4.] No. 5.| No. 6. | No. 7.| No. 8.}| No. 9.|No. 10. Ben Davis. ....--- $1.55 to $1.75. - York Imperial....| 2.25 to 3.00.- Jonathan.......-. 21.00 to 1.25... STi 56a aes PNG BMY SE |S gene Gane se soa: = 33: 1:65) £0) 1.8082) 52223 - P Rome Beauty...-| 1.65 to 2.60-.-|...--. s Hubbertson ..... ND) LOM2- 0082 |seseee _ LSS ofrinct PETG ape TTA ay og ARAN reo es TAY ASS Ia a HI Pa SPS 2) ae | pe |e Greening. ......-- PSIG) Oye PUY ot sell (Pe eae ks tap al [a | en ee ao Pe a HEM 1 Grocers secure 12 to 13 pecks from a barrel of apples; 4 pecks from a box of apples. 2 Per box. By keeping prices at a rather high level, the stores move. only a small quantity each day. Considering the fact that overhead and operating charges are not so high as in the case given above, and that there is a greater proportion of strictly cash trade, it appears that the margin of profit is rather great. It is reasonable to believe that sales could be made on a very much closer margin and still offer ample protection and profit to the dealer. ‘ These grocers, how- ever, seem to prefer handling small quantities rather than moving large quantities upon small margins. The peddler and pushcart men truly may be called distributors. These dealers are large factors in creating a demand for fruit. They make an effort to find customers and by so doing dispose of a large quantity. As a rule, they handle only the poorer grades, buying extra fancy and fancy boxed apples only when the price is extremely low. ‘This year they handled more box apples than ever before, and the margins were small. The circumstances under which they work enable them to make a close price, and it seems certain that any reduction they could afford to make would not affect materially the rate of consumption. In general, it appeared that retail apple prices were too high this year, and there is little doubt that the amount used would be increased greatly if grocers would buy in larger quan- tities and sell at a price sufficienly low to attract public attention. In a middle western market: there is a chain of retail stores which handle apples ina very original manner. ‘They sell for cash, make no Di. ee 8 * BULLETIN 302, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. deliveries, and have no telephones in their stores. Their plan is to sell a peck of apples proportionately as cheap as they could sell a barrel. The concern publishes a weekly newspaper which in one week had a circulation of 26,000 copies. In this paper they advertised the commodities on which they would make special prices. On Novem- ber 4, 1914, they quoted “‘ Excellent cooking apples,” which cost them about 10 cents, at 15 cents per peck. ‘This company moved a large quantity of fruit through their various stores at low prices, made a profit of about 50 to 60 cents a barrel, and enabled the consumer to buy far below the usual retail prices. The investigator also secured the record of sale of 118 barrels of apples through 5 and 10 cent stores. The complete distribution of this lot from grower to consumer is given in Table 2. It will be noted that the 5 and 10 cent stores handled this fruit for 21.8 per cent of the consumer’s dollar. A large Pacific coast growers’ organization, in its efforts to secure a record of the distribution of the orange consumer’s dollar, secured reports covering the market prices of oranges for a whole year. When these reports were tabulated it was found that 334 per cent of the orange consumer’s dollar remained with the retailer. So it would appear that through distribution con- ducted as in the case given above a saving of 11.53 per cent can be effected, 1t bemg granted that apples and oranges are retailed in a similar way. TaBLeE 2.—Distribution of the consumer’s dollar ina sale of 118 barrels of apples distributed through medium of 5 and 10 cent stores. . Per cent of Retail costs per barrel. anise S Growerreceivieds(Omsthe sree) oe icp eesye elas ease See ee ae a ee Eee em $1. 455 38. 49 Cost of barrel, picking, grading, packing, and hauling..............--.-..-...--- . 66 17. 46 Fruit growers’ association selling charges........-......-..--------------------- 135 3.57 Hreight, oniginwWoidestinaliomy eee aes ae eee oe ee eee eee ence eee - 416 11.00 Cartage at destination (depot to store)... .. Satie hee ae ae ee eeiee es aE 05 1.31 Wossi(Ghrinkage)stonwholesalers sserre sees eee een ee eee eee eee - 032 . 84 Cost:toxwholesaler: sie eaG Pea is fe eect rae ae ee a ee eee 2. 7481s casita Wholesaler’s profit.....-.-- yates Sy Acer atc ysisicio = OSes eC ey NaS a Cine ae Ne Te . 208 5. 53 Costtoyoand al Oicentstoresss-2 he soncc seen ee ee eee ae eee eee 2.956): 2s Saesemeer LAO IN, WO) GAG! 10) Csi, SHOES A pacoacodsoudasosessodescoo seu deceancnnoseenessoe= . 824 21.380 Price) paid by. Consumer sjass4c get eset eee a Se EE oe Sees eee ae 3.78 100. 00 For distribution and costs this lot of fruit was marketed very satis- factorily, but of course the case is not typical of retail handlng. It is interesting to note that the distribution was from a growers’ asso- ciation through wholesaler and retailer to consumer. In the large cities the jobber usually intervenes between the wholesaler and retailer, while wasteful methods and costly service come between the retailer and consumer, with the result that prices are charged which may be prohibitive of heavy consumption. APPLE MARKET INVESTIGATIONS, 1914-15. 9 MARKET PREFERENCES FOR VARIETIES. Tt can be truly said that most markets can always find use for a good quality apple, no matter what its shape or the color of its skin may be. It is probably unreasonable to say that one market will take only certain varieties while another will take other varieties. Conditions are always changing preferences. For instance, due to low prices, there was a noticeably increased demand in some cities, known as barreled-apple markets, for box-packed fruit. The certainty of securing uniformly sized, highly finished fruit at extremely low prices was the only reason given for this condition. To illustrate how a market takes a new apple, it may be stated that on October 27 two cars of extra fancy northwestern boxed fruit of little-known variety sold to the retail trade at 75 to 85 cents in one of the markets. Three days later apples of the same grade, pack, and variety were selling well at $1.25 because they had become better known. It must be said, however, that markets do not usually ex- hibit such quick action in taking up new varieties of fruit. A new variety must have exceptional merit to cause a market to act as quickly as in the above case. GRADES—BOXED, BARRELZD, BULK. As has been mentioned previously in this publication under ‘‘ Mar- ket preferences,’ some cities are known as boxed-apple markets and some as barreled-apple markets. Other cities or sections are known as good markets in which to dispose of bulk apples. Every community, be it known as a boxed, barreled, or bulk apple market, has different classes of consumers who demand different classes of fruit. In New York City, for instance, there were received from various apple-producing sections from October 19 to November 21, 1914, 1,882 carloads of barreled apples, 383 carloads of boxed apples, and 443 carloads of bulk apples, or a total of 2,708 carloads of apples for a period of 28 business days. It can not be stated, how- ever, that this proportion would apply in New York City throughout similar apple seasons. Table 3 gives the number of carloads of barreled, boxed, and bulk apples received in New York, Chicago, Detroit, and St. Paul for the periods shown, and also the percentages of each class of fruit used by each market. It shows, in addition, the totals for all four markets, and the average percentage of barreled, boxed, and bulk fruit han- dled jointly by all four markets. Thus it will be noted that the barrel-packed fruit predominates by over 50 per cent. 4534°—Bull. 302—15——2 10 BULLETIN 302, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE: TaBLe 3.—Number of carloads of barreled, boxed, and bulk apples received in cities named. Carlot receipts. Num- Total. ber of Barreled Boxed Bulk City. From— To— busi- apples. apples. apples. ness days | Per Per Per Per Cars. | cent. | C28: | cent. | C23: | cent. | C225: | cent. New York....... Oct. 19 | Nov. 21 28 | 1,882 | 69.5 383 | 14.15 443 | 16.35 | 2,708 100 @hicagosesse-ee- Sept. 15 | Dec. 5 70 } 1,683 | 41.96 900 } 22.44 | 1,428 | 35.60 | 4,011 100 IDO soosodase Noy. 2] Nov. 30 24 140 | 53.28 8] 3:04 115 | 43.73 263 100 Sit, JEM oSeseo Oct. 16 | Nov. 17 27 318 | 60. 46 99 | 18.82 109 | 20.72 526 100 Totals and averages.......-...-...-..-- 4,023 | 53.58 | 1,390 | 18.52 | 2,095 | 27.90 | 7,508 100 Detroit was receiving such heavy supplies of bulk fruit from the Michigan orchards, and it was selling so cheaply, that western and northwestern growers were practically unable to make any sales in that market. It will be noted that 8 cars of box-packed apples were all that Detroit handled. New York received an average of 96 carloads of all classes per day. It must be remembered, how- ever, that New York is a large export market. All of these apples came direct to the New York terminals, part going into immediate consumption, part into cold storage, and part being exported. In most cases the fruit exported from the port of New York, however, was billed direct, origin to destination via New York City, and these cars were not recorded as having been received by the local freight offices. It was interesting to note that the boxed fruit this season went to all classes in New York City, rich and poor alike, while in normal seasons only the rich and moderately well-to-do middle classes could afford to purchase such fruit. This condition existed also in other markets, and the extremely low price at which boxed fruit sold this year was the cause of this condition. Well-graded and highly-colored barreled fruit also reached this same class of trade. Low grades of barreled fruit and all bulk apples went to the pie men and the poorest people. Knowledge of the requirements, customs, and changing conditions of the markets is most important in alla apples. The growers can acquire this knowledge best through efficient cooperative organ- izations, with capable sales managers in charge. THE EFFECT OF INFERIOR APPLES UPON THE MARKET. An effort was made in some of the markets visited to study the movement of low-grade apples and the general effect of such move- ment on the apple market in general. Judging from observations APPLE MARKET INVESTIGATIONS, 1914-15. 11 made from September 15 to December 5, inclusive, and the statements of large apple dealers, the investigator in the Chicago market found that approximately 25 per cent of car-lot bulk arrivals, equivalent to about 350 carloads, and 10 per cent of the contents in barreled shipments, equivalent to about 160 carloads, or a total of about 510 carloads of the apples received, were so poor in grade and quality that they would not have heroes freight charges had this kind of fruit been received in straight opallead! quantities. Those farmers shipping apples to Chicago that season would have saved the cost of their barrels and the Fein loading, and part of freight charges had they eliminated the poor fruit. They also would have relieved their market, thereby giving the good stocks an opportunity to net a reasonable and profitable return. Similar conditions were found to obtain in Louisville, Ky., where a large portion of the bulk apples received were bruised and covered with mud or otherwise soiled, showing that the fruit either had been blown off the trees or else had been shaken off by the grower. Such apples also showed decay. In one instance the commission merchant to whom was shipped a car of inferior York Imperial apples, which arrived at Louisville about November 16, 1914, wired the shipper that he could not handle them advantageously, and the consignment was delivered to another dealer. The apples were sold ‘‘for grower’s account’ at 40 cents per 100 pounds. The railroad waybill indicated a total weight of 19,000 pounds, and the statement of sales is as follows: Gross sales, 19,000 pounds, at 40 cents per hundredweight-_.-...............-. $76.00 © ELL 5 Ra IRS a rain ee te. ee im $52. 00 Seumiscion tonselline..at 10 percent... 22 Sota teee cen i 7. 60 Lane aro ed is st 28 Fhe ie 2 3 apd eta UR Melo era 59. 60 BBC ROC CCAS =a nel ne Meret hood bAD 27) ie Reems eae ius in ee AT ea 16. 40 It is seen that this sale netted the grower just $0.0863 per hundred- weight, an amount which barely paid the cost of assembling the fruit for shipment. Moreover, the purchaser of the car lost about 25 barrels on account of decay. Plate I shows the contents of one barrel of apples inspected and regraded by the investigator in New York. The fruit was supposed to be strictly No. 1 grade, 24 inches minimum in transverse diameter. The larger pile, representing about two-thirds of the barrel, were true to grade. The smaller pile contained culls. The investigator had no trouble in finding this barrel of apples, and could have found others just as poorly graded. The condition of the original pack indicated ignorance, carelessness, or ‘‘sharp practice” on the part of the packer, 12 BULLETIN 302, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SHIPMENTS UNDER VENTILATION AND REFRIGERATION. Some cars of apples inspected in the markets visited showed softness and decay. It was thought this was due to lack of refrig- eration, poor ventilation, or poor grading of the fruit itself before being packed and loaded on the cars. Of the three classes of fruit (boxed, barreled, and bulk) consigned to the markets, the box-packed apples usually arrive in the best condition. This class of fruit is usually well graded and tightly packed, thus giving assurance of its carrying well. The principal fault found with box-packed apples (especially the Jonathan variety) during the 1914-15 season was that a large percentage of the ship- ments arrived in overripe condition. At first it was thought that this may have been due to shipping this variety without refrigeration during the warm weather of the early fall months in order to save refrigeration costs. It was learned, however, that weather conditions and failure of the grower to gather the fruit at the proper time caused the Jonathan’s to be overripe at time of shipping. While refrigera- tion may have retarded the deterioration, still it was a question if the extra cost would have been justified, so in most cases such fruit was rushed in ventilators to the nearest markets. Under the con- ditions no power could have delivered this fruit in good condition and the results secured were only to be expected. Coming to markets already heavily supplied with first-class fruit and of necessity being destined for prompt consumption on account of their condition, these apples sold for prices slightly below the market for stock with keeping qualities. Dealers who ordinarily would have paid fair prices feared to do so in direct competition with good, firm stock. On the Kansas City market alone it was learned that approximately 20 cars of boxed apples from the Northwest were sacrificed on account of arriving in ripe condition. It is thought that these apples sold at a discount of approximately 25 cents per box, for, although they were in fair condition for immediate con- sumption, they had no storage value. It is desirable for the growers to realize that no expenditure for refrigeration or cold storage can compensate for failure to pick and pack at the proper time. The refrigeration of overripe apples will not restore them to a sound condition nor prevent their progressive deterioration either in transit, in storage, or in the market. On the whole, there was noticeable a great improvement in all barreled stock arriving. The regulatory law of New York State caused the growers and packers to grade more closely and to display their names on the heads of the barrels. Thus poor, wormy, fungous, or scabby fruit, that formerly went to market in barrels, generaily was kept at home. PLATE lI. -Bul. 302, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “STAND CHIH L-3NO—YOLVDILSAAN| Ad MHOA MAN NI Ga0vuOsY Saiddy 40 1aYuYuvg V a wa e . sZ *. , “ ‘ c a * & yo #y APPLE MARKET INVESTIGATIONS, 1914-15. 13 Great improvement could have been made in shipping bulk fruit. A number of cars arrived in bad condition, due principally to two causes. First, large quantities, of undersized, wormy, bruised, and otherwise defective fruit were shipped in heavily loaded cars and decayed easily when subjected to the heat generated in fresh vege- table products placed in bulk. Furthermore, bulk fruit was shipped frequently in ordinary box cars. It was impossible properly to ven- tilate the fruit in these cars, although attempts were made in some cases to slat the doorways, thus allowing a shght circulation of air. Some shippers used foresight and good judgment in ordering venti- lators far in advance of shipment, but it is impossible to secure this equipment at all times when the movement of fruit products is heavy. Many consignments of properly picked and graded bulk fruit arrived in very poor condition, because they were loaded in improp- erly constructed cars. Other consignments of bulk fruit, having been shipped under proper conditions, arrived at the markets in such good shape that the owners packed the fruit in barrels and placed it in cold storage. In some cities the transportation companies provided for the fruit a minimum of protection from the weather. After a few days of con- tinuous rain in St. Louis, Mo., the investigator of this office visited the levee, where thousands of barrels had been stacked three tiers high. It was noted that the commission men had attempted to protect the barrels with tarpaulins, but this was insufficient. The coverings failed to cover all of the barrels, and those at the bottom of the stacks were thoroughly soaked also as the water ran down the leyee. These barrels immediately swelled, the hoops split, and the heads and staves bulged. The fruit depreciated 25 cents or more per barrel on account of poor terminal facilities. GRADE AND PACKAGE LAWS. In New York State the effect of the apple grade and package law was studied. The law is mandatory and provides for four grades— “Fancy,” ‘“‘A grade,” ‘‘B grade,” and ‘‘Unclassified.”” Very few growers packed the ‘‘Fancy grade,” because they thought its speci- fications too strict, and owing to the large crop and scarcity of labor there was a tendency to pack those grades which could be prepared most easily. The first year’s operation of this statute resulted in a marked improvement in the marketing of the apple crop of the State, and it is generally conceded that it has been very beneficial. It established confidence at a time when confidence was sorely needed. Its grades for the most part proved to be a common language between the 14 BULLETIN 302, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. shippers and receivers, sales being made readily and adjustments of difficulties more easily effected upon the basis of its standards. It may be said that the New York growers strived to comply with the law. Many, fearing that they could not do so, marketed their crops in bulk during the fall, and much inferior stock was kept at home, _ thus leaving the market to the better grades. The New York State law differs from the Federal apple grade and package law, commonly known as the Sulzer law, which is not mandatory. Some packers who may have failed to comply with or who did not desire to grade by the New York State law have attempted to take advantage of the conflict between the two laws. The New York State law does not prevent compliance with the Sulzer but imposes additional requirements as .to grading. It frequently occurred in case of condemnation by the State inspectors that the packers erased the New York markings and substituted brands allowed by the Federal law. With the enactment of grade and package laws in other Common- wealths, there are likely to be many conflicts between the laws of the States and between State and National laws. The advisability of uniformity in legislation along these lines is apparent. Maine and Vermont now have individual laws providing for standard grades and packages for apples, and legislation is pending at present. in Massa- chusetts, New Hampshire, and Connecticut. These laws are all very similar, and it is believed the fruit interests of the various sections will cooperate in securing as great uniformity as possible. Utah, Oregon, Washington, Montana, and Idaho have laws fixing the standard box and providing for the elimination of wormy fruit, but the grades are not specified. These laws are believed to have rendered an excellent service in improving the general quality of fruit grown in the sections affected. COLD-STORAGE HOLDINGS AND MOVEMENT. Reports emanating from unofficial sources indicated that sufficient cold-storage space was not available in the fall of 1914 for conserving the supply of apples for distribution throughout the winter and spring, and it is claimed that large quantities of apples wasted in the orchards for lack of storage facilities. Cold-storage owners must fill their space for as much of the year as possible. Eggs, butter, and other commodities are sources of revenue during the summer and early fall, especially in the markets, but these commodities generally give place sufficiently by the first of October to provide for the apple crop. During the past season, however, the egg market was very inactive, and stocks cleared very slowly. Space for apples, therefore, was in great demand, and many storages would quote only a season rate, whether the fruit was to be stored for a long APPLE MARKET INVESTIGATIONS, 1914-15. 15 or short term. There is no indication that the rates were increased; on the other hand, in western New York the storage firms reduced the usual 50-cent charge to 40 cents on account of the low prices which were being paid for apples. | Until the past season accurate information regarding the quantity of apples placed in cold storage and the progress of the movement during the winter and spring has not been available to the public. In October the Office of Markets and Rural Organization undertook to secure and publish the data, so that growers and dealers alike might direct the sale of their holdings in an intelligent manner. The cooperation of the cold storages was solicited for this purpose, and a large number assisted in making the office reports valuable. However, many concerns failed to answer the inquiries which were sent to them at the end of each month, and many submitted only partial reports, some reporting one month and failing to do so the next. The holdings of such firms necessarily were eliminated from considera- tion in estimating the progress of the movement, for the reason that a comparison between the holdings from month to month with the holdings on December 1 is necessary for determining the movement. The office mailing list now includes the names of 667 cold-storage firms. Of these, 443, with a capacity of 8,902,013 barrels, have reported their holdimgs one or more times during the season. The balance, or 224 concerns, failed to reply at all. It was not possible, therefore, to publish quantitative reports showing the total number of barrels and boxes held. Still, the number of firms which responded was thought to be sufficiently large to justify the issuance of per- centage reports through the medium of the press. This was done monthly, and a detailed report of each investigation was printed in the current number of the Agricultural Outlook and mailed to the cold storages, trade papers, and individual growers and dealers. These investigations embraced the holdings of apples not only during the season of 1914-15, but also of 1912-13. The crops of the two years were similar, and it was thought that a comparison of the holdings would be helpful to growers and dealers in arriving at true values. Estimating upon the basis of the reports received, it was found that the holdings on December 1, 1914, amounted approximately to 114 per cent more than those of December 1, 1912; on January 1, 1915, 23 per cent more than January 1, 1913; on February 1, 1915, 28.4 per cent more than February 1, 1913; on March 1, 1915, 5.7 per cent less than March 1, 1913; on April 1, 1915, 15.6 per cent less than April 1, 1913; on May 1, 1915, 13.2 per cent less than May 1, 1913. Of the total number of storages reporting, it was found that 289 responded December 1; 306, January 1; 280, February 1; 289, March 1; 270, April 1; and 258 on May 1. While the minimum number of 16 BULLETIN 302, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. storages reporting for any one month was 258, still only 179 firms reported uniformly for each month. Estimates for the monthly movement for the entire season, therefore, are based upon this num- ber. Table 4 shows the monthly movement from these 179 plants in terms of percentages: TaBLE 4.— Monthly movement of apples from 179 cold storages reporting—estimated on the basis of their total holdings December 1, 1914. Per cent | Per cent | Per cent Month. (0) (6) of total barrels. | boxes. | holdings. PVC COTDD Lee ee 5 ps ets ae Se SE pare ISIS Sra a ICIS lays ee restos 11.1 5.7 9.7 Tanuanyis Sass saya eS SE segs Se eee ee ED eas ae se ae ee 20.1 12.3 18.1 ING LOTT Yas cc sae oe eas eae Sea en eI Te Sete ME eee et eetsle 20.5 26. 2 21.9 ANCHE AS ers) 2s Ee ED PEN ge sd oR RL Ee eee eee ek See 24.5 26.3 25.0 NG OF EIU UR oe ee eee deny 2b IL ANE A RRO EE ts oR Sn eee 14.5 15.6 14.8 There remained in storage on May 1 approximately 10 per cent of all apples held in the coolers on December 1, if the conditions existing in these plants may be accepted as a criterion of the general situation. It is interesting to note that the market supply of apples as indicated by the 179 plants on May 1 was 13.2 per cent less than May 1, 1913, whereas the crop of last year was much in excess of two years ago. It would appear, then, despite the war and depressed conditions here, that the actual movement of apples from cold storage has been very satisfactory in comparison with 1912-13. It is thought that the liberal consumption of this fruit was due to the uniformly low prices which prevailed in the early fall and throughout the entire year. In February, however, the situation looked especially grave, for the reports of February 1 indicated unusually large holdings. In publishing the data secured at that time the office issued a timely warning ! to growers and dealers advising them that a regular, vigor- ous movement would be required to prevent disaster in the spring. Fortunately for trade in apples, the late spring prevented heavy shipments of first southern vegetables and made conditions excellent for the handling of apples, so that holdings rapidly diminished. PACIFIC NORTHWEST APPLES VIA THE PANAMA CANAL. Reports of four shipments of boxed apples made during the past season from the Pacific Northwest via the Panama Canal to New York City for export were secured. These shipments, which were made in December, January, and February, consisted of 54 cars and repre- sented practically the entire quantity forwarded through the canal. With the exception of 8 carlots, all of this fruit arrived in New York in first-class condition. These 8 carlots, which represented the total 1 Farmers’ Bulletin 651, p. 10. APPLE MARKET INVESTIGATIONS, 1914-15. ai shipment upon one of the steamers, showed overripe condition and slight decay, supposedly as the result of poor refrigeration conditions. All of these Panama shipments were sent across the Atlantic. Although no cold-storage space was available on board the trans- Atlantic lines, practically all of the fruit, with the exception of 8 earlots previously mentioned, was said to have shown excellent condition and sold for relatively good prices in the European markets. The water freight rate from the Northwest ports via the Panama route to Brooklyn is 55 cents per hundred pounds, whereas the railroad rate is $1 per hundred pounds. It is to be remembered, however, that the Panama route is available only to those fruit districts which are near the Pacific coast, and that when wharfage, dockage, and inland freight are included there is a relatively small saving even for those districts. Tt is estimated that the saving to Hood River on shipments via Panama is 16 cents per box for apples which would have gone in railway ventilators and 27 cents per box for refrigerators. The saving to Yakima and Wenatchee is from 8 to 10 cents on ventilator stock and 18 to 20 cents on refrigerator stock. Owing to the long time (approximately 37 days) required for shipment through the canal as compared with shipment by rail and the resultant risks, it is thought that the actual saving per box is inconsiderable, and that, for this route to be largely profitable to Pacific Northwest shippers the rate of transportation must be lowered and trans-Atlantic cold- storage space must be available upon arrival at New York City. As far as physical handling is concerned, it is believed that the canal route has been proven entirely practicable, although its use upon the basis of present rates necessarily must be confined to ship- ping points near the Pacific coast and to markets on the Atlantic seaboard or beyond. Apples coming through the canal at present can not be distributed profitably inland from the Atlantic coast, for when terminal and inland charges are added this route can not com- pete with the transcontinental railways. EXPORT MARKETS. THE UNITED KINGDOM AND EUROPE. It has been stated that prior to the shipping season of 1914 it was generally believed, under the war conditions, that Europe could not be expected to demand its usual quota of apples; consequently there was much speculation as to what would be done with the export surplus. When the crop of winter varieties began to move, shippers cautiously forwarded considerable quantities to England. Although sales were not high, the low level of prices obtaining in the United States justified continued shipments across the Atlantic, 4534°—Bull. 302—15——3 18 BULLETIN 302, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The cheapness of the fruit invited heavy consumption, with the result that the movement increased rapidly until the quantities for- warded not only exceeded all expectations, but proved to be little short of the largest export years. The United States was favored for the reason that steamers plying between Canadian and English ports were requisitioned for transport purposes, thus placing limita- tions upon the exportation of apples from the Dominion. Direct dealing with Hamburg, Germany, had increased rapidly in recent years, but this outlet into the German Empire was closed so effectually that not a single package of American apples has been forwarded direct to that port. On the other hand, the Scandinavian markets, which formerly received their supplies through English and German channels, have taken large quantities direct. This should prove to be of real benefit in future years, for the reason that when direct dealing is once established it is likely to continue. The following statement of total export shipments from the United States and Canada during the past five years is given for purposes of comparison: TABLE 5.—Total export shipment of apples from United States and Canada. From the United States|*T0m Canada Fiscal year. for fiscal 5 Total. years ending years ending Tune 30. Mar. 31. Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. TRCKUO SSUES eh TE See we Se eats ee Man TRE Re Hs 1, 721, 106 523, 65 2, 244, 764 TOTTTES LGR See seer ge ee tae Ruy SP ere Meee Vere Sipe a 1, 456, 381 1, 664, 165 3, 120, 546 GUD EIS eects hep Sete aU OD Y=, ke ee 2, 150, 132 1, 324, 769 3,474, 901 TAS) 7 ele 2 ne Sn ee ta Cereb he 955 Sse Sa Cee CEL Saree Ge 1, 506, 569 947, 382 2, 453, 951 AQIS ss Peas, in eae. CA nr eM 1 1, 846, 224 1, 117, 336 2; 963, 560 1 Official report not yet available. Number given is reported by New York forwarding agents as rep: resenting shipments from New York, Boston, and Portland. SOUTH AMERICA. American shippers have made a special effort to develop markets for apples south of the Equator. Direct trade with South America may be said to have begun five years ago. Prior to that time sup- plies had been secured principally from England and Australia, apples from the United States frequently gomg to these markets through the hands of English dealers. Direct sales to South Amer- ican markets were small in the first year, and they were made sub- ject to acceptance upon arrival, the shipper paying all freight and imsurance charges and collecting through the medium of English banks by sight draft attached to the documents. The shipments from New York direct to South America increased approximately 400 per cent in the first four years after direct trade began. No consignments were attempted without previous sale APPLE MARKET INVESTIGATIONS, 1914-15. 19 until the fall of 1913, when an exporter shipped 13,000 boxes to Buenos Aires via New York and, a little later, 9,000 boxes via the Straits of Magellan. An early opportunity was secured to dispose of the 22,000 boxes at a profit of about 40 cents a box, but a large proportion of the con- signment was held too long, resulting in a loss to the shipper on the transaction as a whole. The same shipper, however, is now pre- paring for further shipments to South America early in the coming season, for the handling of which arrangements have already been made. During the past year a New York firm of distributors sent a repre- sentative to study the South American markets and make trade connections for direct handling. This firm formerly had sold apples and other products to New York exporters. The representative spent two months in South America, but met with considerable difficulty in interesting the importers, who, it appeared, were very well pleased with their trade connections in the United States.. Contracts for the sale of approximately 9,000 boxes for fall delivery were secured eventually, and agents appointed in Buenos Aires. Sales were arranged upon easy terms, but when deliveries were made only 1,600 boxes were accepted, the balance of the shipment being sold by the commission agent. Thereafter regular consignments to this market were made for the purpose of supplying the demand independently of the importers who formerly had con- trolled the handling of this commodity. Much of the fruit has been sold at auction, circulars being previously distributed among small dealers, hotels, restaurants, etc. On March 3, 1915, 5,000 boxes of apples were sold in this manner. It is not known just what the future results of these experiments may be. It is thought by those who have had the longest experience with South American importers that these markets can be developed best by handling the business in a manner most acceptable to the dealers. Attention is called to the fact that the importers have been accustomed to supply their markets by placing orders judiciously and receiving only such stock as has been bought previously. The consignment of apples, therefore, is severely discouraged by them, and it would appear from the experience of the past two years that those shippers who have endeavored to secure this trade by over- stepping Latin customs have not been entirely successful in their ventures. It is understood that formerly the margins of gross profits have been very large. Owing to the risks involved, it is only to be expected that this business could not be handled upon margins that might prevail in the United States or between the United States and 20° BULLETIN 302, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Europe. Apparently, American trade with markets below the Equator has been conducted with profit both to the American shipper and the South American importer. The consignment methods would seem to decrease the profits per package, and it is possible that this accounts for some of the opposition reported to have been encoun- tered. It is too early to arrive at definite conclusions regarding the effect of these consignments upon future business. At Buenos Aires, the chief market for this commodity, the cold- storage facilities are considered to be excellent and space for short- time storage costs from 1 to 13 cents per box per day. Consignments to Brazil have not been attempted. A duty of $1 per box is imposed by the Brazilian Government, and this adds to the risk of shipping fruits unsold. The chief market is Rio Janeiro, but the trade of that city is considered to be somewhat controlled by one concern, which operates the only cold-storage plant. It has been reported that a Brazilian railway company with terminals at Rio Janeiro plans the erection of a competing storage. If this plan is executed it is thought the conditions in this market would be considerably improved for receiving and handling consignments of American apples. The ocean freight and insurance amounts to $1.20 per box. The facilities for safe transportation have been greatly improved within the past two years, owing to an increase in the imporation of fresh meat from Argentina. Refrigeration is necessary for meat trans- portation, and the cold chambers are well suited to the transportation of apples on the return journey. If trade in meat products between South America and the United States continues to increase, the facili- ties for handling large quantities of apples are expected so to improve that space will be sufficiently available to justify lower rates. When the cost of transportation and the usual trade margins are combined, it will be seen that the selling price of apples in South America of neces- sity must prohibit heavy consumption. If transportation facilities can be improved so as to decrease the rates and the risk of deteriora- tion in transit, it is believed that trade margins may be decreased reasonably and that the result in price to the consumer will be such as to encourage a large increase in shipments. In order to assure the safe transportation of apples to South America it is necessary that the fruit be carefully selected, graded, and packed by hand, special care being exercised to eliminate every- thing that can not be classed as ‘‘Fancy” or “Extra fancy.” The box package is preferred for the reason that the fruit arrives in much better condition than when packed in barrels. To illustrate the need of care in this respect, the experience of an eastern fruit growers’ association may be given. Through its foreign agent the sale of several carloads was made to a South American importer at 12 APPLE MARKET INVESTIGATIONS, 1914-15. rad shillings per barrel delivered on board the steamer at New York City. Delivery was made and the money collected, but the future patron- age of the buyer and probably the prospect of future sales in his market apparently have been lost, because the fruit was not prop- erly graded and packed at the time it was shipped from the producing area. An investigation has shown that this fruit had been packed without inspection on the part of the organization and that the pack- ing was done some days in advance of shipment. Only a few barrels in each lot were inspected when the fruit was loaded on the cars. Table 6 shows the direct shipments of apples in terms of barrels from New York to the respective South American markets within the past five calendar years. The values given were those entered upon the steamship manifests and were estimated either upon the basis of the New York market or upon the value at destination. TaBLEe 6.—ELxzports of apples from New York to South America, by countries, during the years 1910, 1911, 1912, 1913, and 1914. 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 Country a SS SSS SS Barrels.| Price. |Barrels.| Price. |Barrels.| Price. |Barrels.| Price. |Barrels.| Price. Argentina........_- 1,182 | $4,340 | 8, 464 |$36,882 | 6,939 |$37,511 | 36,513 |$158, 378 | 28,045 |$194, 358 Brazil Hee ey 8 Soc 9,186 | 34,525 | 16,150 | 67,370 | 14,977 | 63,688 | 21,936 | 111,780 | 13,264 | 96,523 Gian Se ees eee) eee ehh Oe a 5 QOS Ee AAO A RE (ROR Tk EECA NREL ORI Colombia... ....-.- 450 | 2,077 638 | 2,564 896 | 2,985 929 | 3,379 718 | 2,475 British Guiana. ----. 126 61 581 | 2,081 551 | 2,118 448 1,934 127 Dutch Guiana... -- 260 | 1,138 273 | 1,187 203 750 187 763 104 327 saa Guiana... 3 12 7 26 9 B19 erat 494) ee ee Beer ere Ea AR Viesooec a2 305 | 1,270 583 | 2,795 280 902 603 2,352 | 2,240 9,931 RE ~Re PAE eens 1,144 | 4,121] 1,570] 6,557] 2,213] 7,977} 1,579 5,746 | 1,686 5,175 Mopaleene sae. 12,656 | 48,044 | 28,271 |119, 432 | 26,068 |115,964 | 62,195 | 284,332 | 46,244 | 309, 185 CONCLUSION. The information secured from the apple market investigations conducted by the office in 1914-15 would seem to warrant the follow- ing conclusions: (1) That relatively low prices in large crop years in the beginning of the season make for quick movement and rapid consumption, with the natural result of better season averages. (2) That the marketing of inferior grades along with good ag in large crop years is not profitable. 3) That the effective operation of grade and package tabs may be counted upon to aid in stabilizing apple markets, (4) That the general dissemination of accurate information regard- ing the holdings of apples in cold storage at stated periods tends to eliminate speculation by bringing about a more even distribution upon the basis of actual values. 29 BULLETIN 302, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (5) That the Panama Canal route may be an increasingly impor- tant factor in the distribution of apples grown along the Pacific seaboard. (6) That the exports of apples during the season 1914-15 were large, despite the unsettled conditions caused by the war in Europe, and that a demand for American apples may be expected to continue. (7) That apples from the United States are growing in favor with South America, and that by judicious cooperation with the Latin- American trade shipments may increase. The studies conducted in the markets during the fall of 1914 indi- cated the need for more strict grading and careful handling, the elimi- nation of culls from the fresh-fruit markets, more intelligent distribu- tion, and the effective operation of cooperative associations. Often when the individual growers act independently in marketing the crops, there is little uniformity in the grading and packing, much poor fruit is shipped, much good fruit is forwarded in overripe condi- tion, and the output of the community is dumped on the markets with little regard for equitable distribution or proper storage conser- vation. Better methods are required for profitably marketing the increas- ingly large apple crop. These methods are provided best by effective cooperative organizations. In those States in which apples are packed in boxes, the growers’ associations handle a very large percentage of the output. The quality of their fruit, the uniformity of the pack, and the distribution of the crop far surpass the individual results of the Middle West and East. Unusual difficulties were responsible for the development of cooperative associations in the Far West, and it is thought that the problems of the growers east of the Rocky Moun- tains are coming to be so great that dire need will require them to organize for the purpose of securing more profitable results. APPENDIX. The charts included in this Appendix show the daily carlot receipts of barreled, boxed, and bulk apples and the total receipts in the markets of St. Paul and New York City during selected periods in October and November, 1914. Charts 3 to 7 show the total receipts and wholesale prices per barrel of Greening and Baldwin apples in New York City during the 1909-10 season and subsequent seasons to date. Charts 8 to 12 give similar data for York Imperial and Ben Davis apples, in the same market. 23 ik ata sees rs ‘Lot eabeyorraiwelst METH oh : + Te CHART -1. Bul. 302, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. sll SU sd (sl ay NH tek 76 ee a ee l€ O€ €2 Ge Le 92 Se 2 €@ 22 I2 02 EI BI A YSGWIAON 43980190 RMR VMbsh aes ep [ease ca a ee neo ee ve = He JG UE oN 4 ViR= 4 Un SUNDER an Ce RIARL ALY NAS . 1 TERCERA LI _ ROPES RMANEMMALES ca SARACEN a fl COSIVER LL ety HPT 002 Aine 022 Re LF CN as : Vaimanats - al eae a Ui ac se le 5 ot ee Hn es cee SER ee 4161°9) AON-ZI 100 ANd LS NI 3O0IYg JTIVSIIOHM JOVYBAY ONY SlidIZOIY WWLO] GNV SdiddV WING GNV G3IXOG‘QIIGYYVG 40 SldIZDIY IM YuvQ AIVG Bul. 302, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. CHART 2. DAiLy CAR-LOT RECEIPTS OF BARRELED, BOXED AND BULK APPLES AND TOTAL RECEIPTS 1N NEW York City OcT.19-Nov. 21, 1914. (03) | 150 : ina aa Te - fame ec 140 R NOVEMBER aed 22 23 % 2 27 282 30 2 4 5 6 CHART 3. Bul. 302, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. SAG0v¥9 Ft YO AYVYNIGHYO 4O SNOILVNLIONTIA SMOHS *7*" ALAIBYVA = NIMG1VG 001 SQVY9 LSANIS JO SNOILVNLONIS SMOHS ALAIDVA NIMQ1V§ c7zl AGVYoS I HO AYVWNIGHO 4O SNOILVNLONIA SMOHS ~--- ALAIHVA ONINS3AYO o¢s'| 3aGvy¥9 IS3NI4 JO SNOILYNLONISA SMOHS —— AlaIdVA OININAZYEOD SL| SR ER Te ee Rrneeesseee 002 Sa ete eee y et piers S22 osz | SLé oo'e 00'9 sz9 os'9 Slg 00'L$ { 3018d = — ow wlrm|w]ow w elof=lSl=|ololua ST3uuvG =] 5 BS |S & 2/5/88 FIGISISIZISISIS(SISISiSiSlalal[xy|V S1di303 cre ress tact ea ree te ql2(S/21a PISISIS (S12 (S/S iS aS iS iS iElelsls SOSA ae 8 B/2\3 RISIGIRZIS D elals eu SlalGi=lS A Se ae HOUWN [ANVnHaa4| ANVANVE| H3GWIOTC [YIGWIAON| YAGOLIO Jnosvss Ol16I—606! NOSV3S S3IddY NIMQIVG ANY ONINSSYD JO ALIO MYOA MAN NI WYYVG Yad SIIYd IJIWSIIOHM ANY SidIZ93y BGVYo If YO AYVNIGHO JO SNOILVALONIS SMOHS |0N73M TWddV aeuv AYVNHEI4|/AYVANWE| H3EWI03G HISWIAON| Y3SOL9O Inosyas 7I6I—E161 NOSV3S SIIddV NIMOIVG GNV ONINSIYD JO ALIO AYOA MIN NI VBYYVEG Yad $IIYd JIVSFIOHM ANV SldI393Y e L102 9961Z 6208! 6L9z 7S9SE SyE0E Z0191 S72 £291 S172 SLE Bul. 302, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bes I@edi io ces JOVYS I# YO AYVNIGYO JGVYOD 1LSANI4 JGVY¥o I%# YO AYVNIGYO JQVYD LSANI4 Si[elslolN|RI|Sle SNS Sp INS HOSS ES |S) = | ©o o NISlSisiSyeolRle AV | TedW _| Bul. 302, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 4JO AG JO 40 0161—606! SNOILVNLO SNOLLVNLO SNOILVALO SNOILLVALO P| > AYVNE eS NOSV3S: N14 SMOHS <*:res-: ALFIYVA SIAVG NIG N13’ SMOHS —— ALZINVA SIAVG Nag M14’ SMOHS. =--- ALJIYVA IWIYSdN| HYO,A Als SMOHS ——— ALZINVA WIHadW}| AHOA SID LOlae | r=) top) 34/AUYVANVP] Y39W3030 [W3ENSACN| 4380100 Sa1ddy SIAVG N3g GNV WIY3SdN] MYOA JO ALIO WHOA MAN NI Ta¥eVG-Y3d SII JIVSSTIOHM ONY SldI3039Y4 00} Sep os) cL h 00¢ oc? 0s? SLE o0¢ See ose » GAS 007 S2'7 0S'7 SL? G0°S S2's 0s°S CLS 00:9 $29 0s9 $£9 0028 ddd Sia¥yuvg $1d1303y AIWMAIM UTEI—6DE NOSVW4S CHART 9. Bul. 302, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. JOVYED “1# YO AYVNIGHO 40 SNOWVALONIS SMOHS -*- * ALJIYVA SIAVG NI JOVYD AS3NI4 JO SNOILVNLONT4 SMOHS:—— ALJINVA SIAVG NIG JOVED 14 YO AYVNIGHO 40 SNOILVNLONIS SMOHS --==- ALZINVA IVINSdWI MYOA JGVYD LSANIZ 40 SNOILVNLONIS SMOHS =—— ALZIYVA TVINIdW| aun NS Ww 11GI—O161 NOSvIS .. say SIAVG N3G ONY WINIMW] AYOA JO ALIO YYOA MIN NIQVAYYVG Y3d S30Yd IJIVSIIOHM GNV $1d1393Y CHaRT 10. Bul. 302, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 4O SNOIWALONTS JO SNOILWALONIAS 3O SNOlLWALONTS 4O SNOIlLWNLOANS JO0VYD 1 YO AYVNIGHO J3QvVyS LSANIi4 3OQVYD 1# YO AYVNIGHO J0vued ISANIJ i161 —1161| NOSVI3S SMOHG sss" ALIINVA SVG Nag SMOHS —— AL3INVA SIAVG N3g ALBINVA TVINAdN | MHOA ALJINVA IAVINAdWS WYO, SIS |S ete a Seas SIA B/S SS Sd1ddV SIAVG N39 CNV WIYADW] AYOA JO ALID ABOA MIN NI WYYVE Y3d SADYd JIVSFIOHM ANV $1di999Y CHART 11. Bul. 302, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. BOvY"9 1# YO AYVNIGYO 3O SNOILVALONIA SMOHS --*+--- ALSINVA SIAVG NIG 30v¥9 LSANIZ 40 SNOlLVNLONI4 SMOHS —— ALZINVA SIAVG N3G. 3qVyu9 1# YO AYVNIGHO 4O SNOILVNLONIS SMOHS -=== ALFIYVA TVINSdIW] AYOA 3GV¥9 LSANI4 40 SNOIJLVN1ONAS SMOHS —m——ALBIYVA TVINSdW] AYOA ol [i | tisay | touvn pemeess} anvaner fpsansbscusenanont eaa0100 €16I—ZIl6| NOSVAS SA1ddV SIAVG N3G ANV WIYIDN| AHYOA JO ALID MYOA MIN NI WYYVEG Yad SIOYd IIWSIIOHM GANV Sidi303Y4 ry JOVHS I# YO AYVNIGYO JO SNOILVNLONIS SMOHS += ** ALAIYVA SIAVG NAG 001 Si JQGVeO ASANIA 4O SNOMVALONIS SMOHS —— ALZIYVA SIAVG NIG Se" iS 3OVveo 1# YO AYVNIGHO 43O SNOILVNLOMIS SMOHS ---= ALFBIBVA TVIHSdW] MYO, Os} z JQVES 1ISANI4 4O SNOHMVALONAS SMOHS ———- ALZIYVA TAVINAdN| AHYOA SL 00 LF 3dIWd ee ae Seis a i e als = s1auuvg Ble E1818 /=|8 SSIS e lS SlSlaie ia eels Slsls Seis el ele eels s|S a GIS BSS SISSIES iAlS/a/R SIE SS si RlS S/R INF (S18 |S ls /e |= |S re BloliLlolalilaleia N 1@ ror) - RIG|G|G|GIS layaam | AVN | isdy | HOU AUYABEIIIAUVANVE| B3aN3030 |BIEW3AO N Y3S0L00 |Noswas VIGI—E€161 NOSV3S SdIddV SIAVG Nag GNV TWWISSdWY AYOA 40 ALID WHOA MIAN NI WYEVG'Y3d SIWYd BIWSIIOHM ANV $id!993Y Bul. 302, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. t UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE & : va 7 BULLETIN No. 303 4 Vs ‘ ~, Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry Se7 TT A. D. MELVIN, Chief Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 29, 1915 A BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDY OF RETAIL ICE CREAM. By S. Henry Ayers, Bacteriologist, and Wrm11aMm T. Jonnson, Jr., Scientific Assistant, Duiry Division. INTRODUCTION. A bacteriological examination of ice cream as the consumer re- ceives it from retail sources is, we believe, the first logical step in the study of the bacteriology of ice cream. - The results obtained from the examination of ice cream in this last period of its history will show the final bacterial flora. This type of investigation does not show where the organisms are introduced, but it will show the number and kinds of bacteria present in the cream at the time it isconsumed. To determine where these organisms are introduced and their signifi- cance is another phase of the general problem. It is well known that commercial retail ice cream contains large numbers of bacteria. This is well illustrated in a summary of the results of examination of ice cream in various cities, presented in Table 1, taken from a paper by B. W. Hammer.’ From these figures it is evident that the number of bacteria in ice cream throughout the country averages extremely high. TaB_e 1.—Summary of Hammer’s bacterial investigations of ice cream. ria per cubic centimeter. Date of Number Bacteria per cubic centimete: Source. investi- ples ex- gation. | amined. Average. Highest. Lowest. | O60) OE A SE i ald gli 1905-06 49 | 17, 833,031 79, 800, 000 70, 000 LOL! Si as ee a 1906-07 85 | 23,000, 000 150, 000, 000 | 1,000, 000 URI OM a aA BS y ty eee oh Ae eG ee b4 aa eae 1906-07 263 | 26,612,371 365, 000, 000 137,500 COA: ciphectelelnd peat os? lesen Siete cee Sie eae 1909 89 | 16, 662, 134 125, 000, 000 20, 000 Ossi. 1910 806 | 15,401,000 100, 000, 000 20, 000 Do. oe LO ees am 1, 800, 000 200, 000, 000 90, 000 Milwaukee 1911 AO lSratats eatte m stolen 4 8, 000, 000, 000 200, 000 Des Moines... 1911 10 | 19,920, 000 39,000, 000 | 4,200, 000 Iowa State Col 1911-12 11 | 19,775, 000 72, 000, 000 500, 000 1 See bibliography at end of paper. 5020°—Bull. 303—15 1 2 BULLETIN 303, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. iM \4 Bacterial counts, while of value, only tell us the numbers, and this is not sufficient information. It is necessary for a thorough knowl- edge of the subject to know the kinds of bacteria which are generally present in ice cream as well as the number. There is relatively little exact information regarding the bacte- riology of ice cream, and in consequence probably many applications of the subject to the industry are neglected. Extensive research work on bacteriological problems connected with the manufacture of ice cream is needed, and it is probable that many investigators will devote themselves to this subject when the value of such work is — realized. Our investigations on the general subject of the bacteria of ice cream will be divided into three main parts. 1. A study of the number and kinds of bacteria in commercial retail ice cream as the consumer receives it. 2. A study of the bacteriology of ice cream during manufacture. 3. A study of the development of bacteria in ice cream during storage. : These studies have been undertaken solely with the idea of securing information of fundamental importance relative to the bacteriology of ice cream. We hope by these investigations to be able to give the manufacturer information which will enable him to produce a product of the highest quality. We believe that bacteriology will be of great value to the manufac- turer in controlling the quality of his raw material and the quality of his final product, and in checking the efficiency of the various opera- tions in the production of ice cream. OBJECTS OF THIS INVESTIGATION. The first part of our investigations is presented in this paper, the objects of the work being as follows: 1. To determine the number of bacteria in commercial ice cream during the summer and winter seasons. 2. To determine what groups of bacteria are found in commercial ice cream. 3. To determine the relative value of different methods for the de- termination of Bacillus coli m ice cream. METHODS OF EXAMINATION. The ice cream was purchased in one-half-pint paper boxes from various stores throughout the city of Washington, D.C. Throughout this paper reference is made to summer and winter samples. The samples of the former were collected from June 20, 1912, to Novem- ber 11, 1912. Winter samples were obtained during February and March, 1913, the coldest months of the year in Washington. The Lf BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDY OF RETAIL ICE CREAM. NS samples were taken directly to the laboratory and portions from vari- ous parts of each sample were transferred to a sterile Erlenmeyer flask. After the ice cream had melted it was thoroughly shaken to remoye as much air as possible and at the same time mix the sam- ple. One cubic centimeter was then plated by the usual methods on plain infusion agar prepared according to standard methods prescribed by the Committee on Standard Methods. The plates were incubated at 30° C. (86° F.) for five days, then counted. Special methods for the determination of colon bacilli will be dis- cussed Jater in this paper. In order to divide the bacteria into groups the ‘‘milk-tube method”’ of differentiation was used. This method, devised by the authors, is fully described in a previous publication. Briefly described, the milk-tube method consists in picking each colony from an infusion agar plate and inoculating into tubes of litmus milk. The reactions produced in the litmus milk are recorded after 2, 5, and 14 days’ incubation at 30° C. (86° F.). Knowing the 14-day reaction produced by bacteria from each colony on the original plate, it is possible to determine the number of bacteria in the original material plated and to divide them into groups, namely, the acid- coagulating, acid-forming, inert, alkali-forming, and peptonizing. An examination of samples collected as mentioned gives the bacterial flora of ice cream just as the consumer would receive it. THE ACIDITY OF ICE CREAM. Before entering upon a discussion of the bacteriological results of this work it seems advisable to discuss a few miscellaneous analyses which were made during this study. Al the samples of vanilla ice cream were tested for acidity by titration with tenth-normal sodium hydroxid, using phenolphthalem as an indicator. Most of the ice cream of other flavors could not be tested on account of the color. The maximum acidity found was 0.387 per cent and the minimum 0.09 per cent, calculated as lactic acid. The average acidity of 65 samples was 0.206 percent. Many of the samples were distinctly sour to the taste, and evidently some manufacturers used either old sour cream or else aged the cream in their plants at temperatures suffi- ciently high to allow lactic-acid bacteria to produce acidity. The acidity did not seem to bear any definite relation to the bacterial count, however, as the samples showing an acidity of 0.387 per cent contained 217,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter, of which 74.51 per cent were acid-forming bacteria, while ice cream with an acidity of 0.09 per cent contained 49,000,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter, of which 89.79 per cent were acid-forming bacteria. . BULLETIN 303, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE NUMBER OF BACTERIA. Numerous samples of ice cream were purchased from various stores in Washington during the summer and winter season; they repre- sented 24 different manufacturers.1 Samples representing 11 plants were examined during both seasons. The ice cream from 5 manu- facturers was examined during the summer season only, and from 7 plants during the winter season only. In Table 2 are shown the total (average of the two kinds of samples) average counts of ice cream from each plant, together with the average of the samples collected during the summer and winter seasons. It will be seen that only two plants, K, and P, out of the 24 showed an average bacterial content of less than 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter. It is possible that if more than one sampie had been examined from plant P the average count for that plant would have been more than 1,000,000. TABLE 2.—Average number of bacteria per cubic centimeter in ice cream from different manufacturers. All samples. Summer series. Winter series. Manufacturer. Average = | Average = Average Total peas per Number | SEE per Number Bae eereee samples. | cubic centi- cubic centi- cubic centi- meter. samples. meter. samples. meter. 32 2,986, 187 19 5, 008, 333 13 416,000 27 32,007,500 10 31, 226, 000 17 | 47,763,529 19 27,779,631 11 47,909,090 8 101, 000 11 18, 836, 363 8 | 26,125,000 3 6, 066, 666 9 44, 783, 333 3 118, 000, 000 6 8,175,000 8 5,381, 500 3 | 8, 966, 666 5 3, 230, 400 12 2,580, 250 5 6,192, 500 7 1, 160, 428 5 4,203, 600 4 5, 207,500 1 188, 000 8 15, 487,500 5; 18,360,000 3 10, 700, 000 3 5,890, 000 1} 14,100,000 2) 1,785,000 4 265, 750, 000 4 2654100} 000) | 8 5222 seen | eee 12 357,583 4 530, 000 8 271,375 4 32, 225, 000 4 32, 2205 OOO ae nae 25s See eee 4 10,910, 000 4 105910; 000))|'5- 4 2s Seep eee eee 3 5, 723, 333 3 551235 300° |22> ac oeee | ee eee 6 46, 465, 000 6 465.465; 000) (5 ee |e eee 1 920, 000 1 92050009232 Piste Reece eee 2 AOS 503 COO MS ois. Serer) =a =teperavsrete oye ete 2 19, 750, 000 th | 2509500 000)| 21 Seen ss eee ee 1 | 20,500,000 3 RGEC Ses Mee 5 Ys||Lopsoana seas oe 3 2,463,333 4 S650 0008| 25. ease one seen eee 4 3,650, 000 2 282500700072: eee eee aes 2 | 28,500,000 3 V4 (008000) |. Sepce oc cen cee 3 14, 700, 000 3 LS5665666)|. | per eel es roe ee 3 17,566, 666 aK, same plant as K, but there was probably a change in management. An interesting point is shown in the bacterial averages of ice cream from manufacturers K and K,. The average bacterial content of ice cream from K was 265,750,000, and from K, 357,583 per cubic centimeter. These represent the same plant, but in all probability there was a change in management. We are not certain of this point, but after the four samples were taken from K the condition 1 Throughout this paper reference is made to samples from different manufacturers or plants, but it must be remembered that the samples were obtained from stores and not at the plants. BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDY OF RETAIL ICE CREAM. 5 of the store was much improved as regards cleanliness, the ice cream no longer contained gelatin, and the bacterial count dropped ina remarkable manner. When the bacterial averages of the two kinds of samples (summer and winter) are compared it may be seen, by reference to Table 2, that of the samples from 11 plants the bacterial counts averaged decidedly lower during the winter months in every case with the exception of plant B. In that case the average winter count was higher than that of the summer season. Assuming cream to be the greatest source of bacteria in ice cream, we should expect to find the bacterial content of ice cream higher during the summer months. This is probably explained by the lack of proper facilities on the farm for keeping cream cool during the summer, and also by the fact that owing to the increased demand for ice cream during the summer season poor grades of cream are utilized. In the case of plant B, we have no explanation for a higher average bacterial count in winter than in summer unless the cream was aged at the plant for a con- siderable time at temperatures not sufficiently low to prevent bacterial growth. In order to show more clearly the comparison of the bacteria in ice cream during the summer and winter seasons, the samples have been grouped in classes according to their bacterial content, as shown in Table 3. TABLE 3.—Comparison of bacterial content of summer and winter samples of ice cream. Summer. Winter. Bacteria per cubic centimeter. Number Number of Per cent. of Per cent. samples. samples. 10,000,001 to 20,000,000....... 20,009,001 to 39,000,000....... 30,000,001 to 50,000,000......- 0 5 0 8 9 3 9 2 16 1 : 5,000,001 to 10,000,000. ....... 12 12.77 5 5. 49 13 1 10 5 8 3 50,000,001 to 100,000,000. .... . 9 4 8 4 Over 100,000,000...........-- 4. 40 TOpaliaee. settee 94 | 100.00 91 | 100.00 It may be seen that of 94 samples examined during the summer months, none contained fewer than 100,000 bacteria per cubic centi- meter, while of the 91 samples examined during the winter season, 14.28 per cent were lower than 100,000. Of the summer samples, 9.57 per cent contained fewer than 500,000 per cubic centimeter, and of the winter samples 39.55 per cent contained fewer than this number. Of the summer samples 19.14 per cent contained fewer than 1,000,000 6 BULLETIN 303, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. per cubic centimeter, while 41.75 per cent of the winter samples con- tained fewer than 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter. Finally, there remain 80.86 per cent of the summer samples and only 58.25 per cent of the winter samples which contained more than 1,000,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. These results are shown perhaps 24 23 O S a /-30,000,000 100, OO/-00,000 10,00, Si 50,00/-/00,000 500,00/-400 4,000,00/-5,000,000 5,000 00/-10,00Q000 1Q00G00!-20,000000| F0,000,00/-50,000, fal OVER 100,000,000} 5Q000,00/-100000, soll 2O BACTERIA PER CUBIC CENTIMETER. Fic. 1.—Frequency curve showing bacterial content of summer and winter samples of ice cream. more strikingly in figure 1, where the samples have been plotted mm a frequency curve, showing the difference in bacterial content between the summer and winter samples. The differences in the average counts of ice cream from different manufacturers at different seasons are summarized in Table 4. TABLE 4,—Summary of the bacterial counis of ice cream. Summer Winter Item. series (94 series (91 samples). samples). Average number of bacteria per cubic centimeter. ..........--.--.----------- 37, 859, 907 10, 388, 222 Maximum NUM per tases Saece is sca aaa ae coc. sepa ea eee neecee eases 510, 000, 000 114, 000, 000 Minimum muombers.enceeees wae ee SS Sete SR oe od ee Beye ee 120, 000 13, 01 These figures show a wide range in the bacterial content of ice cream during both the summer and winter months. The mimimum counts of 120,000 during the summer and 13,000 in the winter series BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDY OF RETAIL ICE CREAM, 7 furnish evidence that ice cream can be made commercially, at least under some conditions, with a low bacterial content. If these aver- age counts are compared with the average counts from other cities, as shown in Table 1, it will be seen that, so far as bacteria are con- cerned, the quality of the ice cream is about the same in different localities. THE GROUPS OF BACTERIA. THE GENERAL GROUPS. The bacteria in 71 summer samples and 28 winter samples of ice cream were divided into groups by the milk-tube method of differen- tiation heretofore mentioned. With this method it was possible, ACID COAGULATING FI. GE Fe PEPTOIMIZIINVG RE 3. C2 % GP Fic. 2.—Average bacterial groups found in one cubic centimeter of ice cream during the summer months, showing percentages of groups. Group. Bacteria per c¢. c. PSD TA GIINE roars bictorsla's = eis o ate oc ao. 2 a ethno “l2.c1= 5 Ape = sere aie he ae se eos ed ob eewts eilare Seeds 18, 861, 805 1 Ea st (oe el inn a ia i A RRR 5 BAIA Se Beye ete Rains aac 7,844,575 aia Ps 8 Bris 2 Sea ioe ee AP = aot cto «2 = Ry a ae minfa Hee Share as plane a/erdaparninw 9 sieiae 5, 292,815 we tL Be ope caceta A Rimaceata nS By eit a et RA. 2s ira des BEN Sloe Ane pars De eh are Oh dada Se Mt 704,195 MU Tupi tiick Ral Sen ae SES oe aio As See Neo eet nua eae oer meee Ae 2 eee nese eee 5, 156,519 SRI RRREM ES Pate gi iy pi Ee hla mip halo) isis - - «(sate Ponts ele are a eteinjaajaleialticiorsiciye eeieinis 37,859, 909 on the basis of the 14-day reaction in litmus muk, to divide the bacteria into five groups, namely, acid-coagulating, acid-forming, inert, alkali-forming, and peptonizing. For convenience in obtaining a view of the average groups in an average sample of ice cream, the results are presented graphically. Figure 2 represents 1 ¢. c. of ice cream and is divided into five sectors, each representing the average percentage of a group of bacteria. The averages are based on the analyses of 71 samples of ice cream examined during the summer season. It may be seen from the figure that the bacteria of 1 ¢. c. of 8 BULLETIN 303, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. an average sample of ice cream during the summer season may be divided into five groups in the following proportions: Per cent. Acid-coagulatingfenroup. 2082 kis eye ek ep ee ge Ae 49. 82 Acid-formingyeroupsis 22. 2S ee eh Ea a Es Pe 20. 72 Inert SOUP Hate skids as ease Lee eer he | Sees o See ae. Mee 13. 98 Adal siormimesorOup asi: ge.- senso ee a= oe ee 1. 86 Peptonizing groupesie tee 1 247, 656 DMTIMEUUET APG Societe Mota ores Wie viele cia sass vic'a Sis, 5:cle = SRR 68°} 1,449, 533 25 268, 693 URL Sn OO ee oranone Ce Hebe Be 44 25° Bee PED Eene > colt eeaas ec 21,000,000 |.......... 2,974, 400 UOT GG Sie CR Sas oR BEE Pep DEE ES CegeeDBBe > 575] Gaeeeer ee BO 005i | bleteietelatate tale 1,194 The during the winter. commercial ice cream contains a large number of peptonizing bac- bacterial averages were much higher in the summer than It is evident from these figures that the average teria. In order to show the range in the percentage of peptonizers, the entire lot of summer and winter samples has been plotted in a fre- quency curve, as shown in figure 4. It will be seen that the majority of samples contained from 0.1 to 5 per cent of peptonizing bacteria. A large proportion contained, however, as high as 25 to 30 per cent, and in a few samples they were present to the extent of from 90 to 95 per cent of all the bacteria. 14 BULLETIN 303, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Among this group there are a large number of different types of organisms. Many rapidly peptonize the casein of milk and render milk aikaline or slightly acid, while others first attack the lactose and only produce a slight peptonization after several days’ growth. From the milk-tube method of differentiation of the bacterial groups it was possible to gain some information as to the extent of these different classes of peptonizers. In Table 9 are shown the average percentages of the peptonizing group in summer and winter samples of ice cream. Based on the 14-day reaction among the summer NUMBER OF SA/TPLES FPEFCEIVIAGE OF TOTAL BACTERIA Fig. 4.—Frequency curve showing percentage of peptonizing bacteria per cubic centimeter of ice cream, summer and winter series combined. samples, 13.62 per cent of the bacteria belonged to the peptonizing group. According to the 2-day reaction, there were 5.93 per cent. Therefore 43.54 per cent of the peptonizing bacteria were sufficiently active to produce a peptonization within two days. Among the winter samples 34.06 per cent of the peptonizing bacteria were suffi- ciently active to peptonize milk within 48 hours. These active peptonizing bacteria are more important than the slower-acting varieties, since their peptonizing action is usually more complete than that of the latter-named varieties, and if any harm is produced by this group, they are most likely to be the organisms concerned. TABLE 9.—Changes in the percentage of the peptonizing growp of bacteria im ice cream when determined by litmus-milk reactions after various lengths of incubation. Per cent reacting after incu- bation for— Peptonizing group. 2days. | 5days. | 14 days. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. INV CENRD Or 7b ohana? SeyIA OES. Soc aoyoesasboasepaeoccosoqsosogneseadsan se 5.93 9. 76 13. 62 INSPETNAS OPA) lata? SEVEN DES 66 oanceoae soc ooseoSe eo coseedancadsesssaesosc 7.12 13.58 20.90 BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDY OF RETAIL ICE CREAM, 15 COLON BACILLI IN ICE CREAM. Since the presence of colon bacilli has been understood in water analysis to indicate fecal contamination, many investigators and boards of health apply the same tests to milk, and naturally then to ice cream with the same idea. In water analysis lactose-bile fermentation tubes are used for the examination for colon bacilli. By using different dilutions the min- imum number of gas-forming bacteria inva given amount of water may be determined. This preliminary test has to be followed by confirmatory tests in which cultures are isolated and their character- istics studied in order to prove the presence of colon bacilli. In our work we have used this method to some extent, but have endeavored to prepare a synthetic medium which would restrict the growth of the majority of bacteria found in ice cream and at the same time would allow colon bacilli to develop and produce characteristic reactions. During the experiments 53 different combinations were used, as shown 1n Table 10. Asparagin was used as a source of nitrogen in almost all media. Throughout our work we used medium No. 1, which was made as follows: Agar, 1.5 per cent; asparagin, 0.3 per cent; sodium dibasic phosphate, 0.1 per cent; lactose, 1 per cent; and 2 per cent of a satu- rated neutral solution of litmus. This medium proved the most satisfactory of all, and when tested with 10 different strains of Bacillus coli it was found that they all grew well. Medium No. 13, recom- mended by Dolt, did not prove satisfactory, as several of the strains of coli did not develop well on this medium. Medium No. 53, com- posed of agar 1.5 per cent, lactose 1 per cent, ammonium malate 0.2 per cent, sodium acid phosphate 0.02 per cent, and 2 per cent satu- rated neutral solution of litmus, proved very satisfactory in a few ex- aminations, but as this medium was developed late in the work it has not been thoroughly tested. The value of the other media will not be discussed here but will be reserved for a later continued study of the subject. ; When ice cream was plated on litmus-lactose-asparagin agar, colon bacilli proved to be about the only organisms which grew and formed acid. The colonies were quite distinctive in their appearance and with little practice could readily be counted. Occasionally there developed on the plate a few very small acid colonies which were not gas formers, and sometimes a few nonacid-forming colonies were observed. The majority of bacteria in ice cream did not grow on this medium, at least not in 48 hours at 37° C. (97.5° F.), and it was possible to plate as low as one-tenth of a cubic centimeter when tooboos dilution had to be used with infusion agar. 16 BULLETIN 303, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . 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See |r| e| 3] 2 [‘seseyue010d se possoidxe syunoury | A “Wn. aot UL Yoo srynong fo uoYnUNUIaZap ay) Lof arqnjNsS WNIpaL Dp aonpoid 07 7dwUwA}ID UD UA DYpeU dYaYy;uhs fo uornsodwog— OT aTAV I, 17 BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDY OF RETAIL ICE CREAM. ‘9yeydsoyd prov umipos Z0'0 Pus 9}e[eW WIMTUOUIUIe Z'0 |-*- 7" |77 7" OES [eee d| POs geo ww 1 AD ND 19 1 19 19 iD 1D 1D 19 1 AD et ‘ Lr) _ On) ev 6D pkarkariarkarkariariarkarkaciacicis 109 nid ee ee ee eee ee et | eg | 1¢ o¢ 6F OF cr t a 18 BULLETIN 303, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In order to test the value of this medium as compared with the bile tube method, 43 samples of ice cream were examined. The results are shown in Table11. It may be seen that the colon count as deter- mined on litmus-lactose-asparagin agar was higher than the number estimated from bile tubes in 41 of 43 samples. In most samples the number determined from the asparagin plates was much higher; in one sample it was 47 times as high as the number calculated from bile tubes. TaBLE 11.—Comparison of the number of Bacillus coli in ice cream determined by the bile-tube method and on litmus-lactose-asparagin-agar plates. a Buy Litmus-lactose-asparagin-agar plates. a ais Litmus-lactose-asparagin-agar plates. , Cultures is Cultures iS) icke ° picked z, (Ginib. || eee Per cent || 3 Cul- : Per cent ‘2 | B. coli. | B. coli. | tures cane gas ‘@ | B.coli.| B. coli. | tures eee g e picked. aacrase formers. | picked.| 5, lactose formers. 3 broth. 3 broth. HQ 0) ALi gl| Hes eee ae 15, 400 154 146 94. 80 23 55000) 103s OOO bi ts sae te SUA Ae eee | aie Naa eee 86, 000 80 78 97.50 241) 505000) |p 12050008 | ee | Sere | een 3 50 DOOM re cya Aste teen | ieee whe 25 OOO eH OLONESSeancaleaso so fe ons 4 (1) 0 100 1 1 100. 00 26) | 1005000) |300;,000) | 9252 22a eee de 5 500 8, 000 8 8 100. 00 2 MOOS CO) | COON ocscasscllecee+eesac||-s2a5--55 6 500 900 9 9 100. 00 28 15000. )f:47 30008) 3 se ee ee tl 1, 000 2,500 22 22 100. 00 29 250 5; 600. oor sa kee sae ee eee ee 8 5,000 | 13,000 12 12 100.00 |). 30 1,000 6; 500K) oo.) eek Pe ee 9 750 2,900 29 29 100. 00 31 100 1 UU teresa Moses cacie||saacssocs 10] 2,500} 5,600 53 51 ROL ||) SA BOO ||, LEC [esos se ec-onte cee ||-a-- 25 11 1,000 7, 200 62 57 91.93 33 500 OOO Ei recep Cretepee cere are hed eetedetage 12 250 400 4 4 100. 00 34 500 B00 Bees) Weriesro cae acco soac 13 1,000 | 12,000 12 11 91.61 35 250 D5 730H Sc eeaie| Ss Sees Neen |e eee 14 2,500 | 11,900 86 80 93. 02 36 75 SOO ile eee Sei Sa ane eee 15 7, 500 | 123, 000 91 85 93. 29 37 1,000 QS D300 eh clatter fl eee ceo es ee 16 75 | 3,000 3 3] 100.00 |} 38 250M 525 350s eer ees eee ae Repu 17 50 3, 900 39 34 87.17 39 75 20) | sic eter Se sae eee 18 750 | 39,000 38 38 100. 00 40 50 @)iOnlesaseeee late re 19 250 5, 000 5 5 100. 00 41 75 MUU BaMeremel emonetcrclyssodos6> 20 750 2 A OOM ASN Sa re ore teagan od 21 42 100 230} jo sstoa eile ee cee ee peer eee DA li al OOOH I Terr OON ee eens ve mRNA eS) UE 43 750 820% 22. ee aoe eee eee re 22 2508 mad 00 eaeaabas | eameaeneae Ia a ee. 3 1Jn ,3, dilution. 2Tn 3, dilution. BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDY OF RETAIL ICE CREAM. 19 TaBLeE 12—Bacteria of the colon growp found in ice cream as determined on litmus- lactose-asparagin agar. B. coli B. coli B. coli Sample Hanes per cubic || Sample Mang per cubic || Sample ae per cubic Yo. aynen centi- No. paren centi- Yo. aaa centi- 5 meter. | ‘ : meter. meter. 32 A 120 160 (0) 10 49 K 120, 000 33 A 86, 000 161 C 30 50 K 75, 000 37 A 100 186 Cc 140 51 K 300, 000 38 A 100 187 Cc 700 79 Kl 150 39 A 8,000 188 C 50 80 Kl 40 40 A 900 44 D 2,400 81 Kl 30 83 A 420 45 D 7, 700 82 Kl 40 124 A 80 89 D 4,600 134 Kl 10 125 A 10 52 E 600, 000 135 Kl 20 138 A 10 53 E 47, 000 136 Kl 1Q 139 A 10 54 E 5, 600 137 Kl 1Q 143 A 10 140 E 30 70 M 1, 730 151 A 10 141 E 10 71 M 550 152 A 40 142 E 400 72 M 2,530 153 A 10 67 F 3,900 73 M 2,350 168 A 50 68 F 3, 900 84 O 7, 600 169 A 30 69 F 5, 000 87 O 12, 200 31 B 15, 400 146 F 100 62 L 11, 900 41 B 2,500 147 F 10 63 L 3, 000 42 B 17, 100 74 G 20 64 L 3, 000 43 B 2,800 75 G 10 65 L 123, 000 126 B 300 76 G 100 66 P 3, 000 127 B 100 77 G 230 144 Q 20 128 B 200 78 G 820 145 Q 20 133 B 1,000 148 G 120 132 R 10 158 B 2,900 149 G 50 175 Ss 300 162 B 1Q 150 G 200 176 iS} 800 163 B 400 59 H 6, 500 177 Ss 600 164 B 700 60 H 1, 200 171 oy 90 165 B 10 61 H 15, 000 172 T 800 166 B 1, 400 157 H 10 173 “uy 1, 200 167 B 1, 800 55 i 5, 600 174 T 100 170 B 14, 000 56 T 7, 200 178 U 1, 400 46 Cc 700 57 I 400 179 U 4,000 47 Cc 2,400 58 T 12,000 180 Ww 2, 700 85 C 13, 300 154 TI 1Q 181 WwW 300 86 C 13, 500 155 I 900 182 w 700 90 Cc 6, 000 156 T 300 183 xX 4,100 91 Cc 8,300 88 iq] 3,100 184 x 30 159 | Cc 40 48 K 108, 000 185 x 300 1Tn +; dilution. During this series of examinations the suspected colon colonies on the asparagin-agar plates from 19 samples were picked off and inoculated into lactose-broth fermentation tubes. After incuba- tion for 48 hours at 37° C. (97.5° F.) the tubes were examined for the presence of gas. The number of cultures picked off and the num- ber showing gas, together with the percentage of the cultures suspected of being gas formers from the examination of the plate, are shown in Table 11. An examination of the results shows that in 10 of the 19 plates studied all the colonies considered gas formers developed gas infermentation tubes. In other words, 100 per cent were gas formers. Among the other 9 samples the percentage ranged from 87.17 to 100 per cent. This shows that it is possible to detect quite accurately any colonies of gas-forming bacteria on litmus-lactose-asparagin agar. One hundred and twenty samples of ice cream were examined during the summer and winter seasons by the use of the above-men- tioned medium. The results are tabulated in Table 12. Gas-forming 20 BULLETIN 303, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. bacteria were present in 106, or 88.33 per cent, of the samples, and absent in one-tenth of a cubic centimeter in 14, or 11.67 per cent, of the samples. Of the 14 negative samples, 13 were of the winter series and the other one was examined during October. The number of gas formers ranged from 10 to 600,000 per cubic centimeter. Among the entire number of samples the average number of gas- forming bacteria was 16,298 per cubic centimeter. Of the 57 summer samples, the average was 29,544. The winter samples showed an average of 889 gas formers per cubic centimeter. Apparently ice cream contains a far greater number of colon bacilli during the summer months than in the winter season. The question naturally arises, Does this asparagin agar bring out all the gas-forming or colon bacili? To gain some information on this point a comparison of this medium was made with Endo’s medium, which is highly recommended by some authorities for the determina- tion of the colon bacillus. The Endo medium was prepared according to the directions given by Kinyoun and Dieter. TABLE1 3.—Comparison of colon counts on litmus-lactose-asparagin agar and on Endo’s medium. Number of B. coli. Number of B. coli. Sam- Sam- ple | Litmus- ple | Litmus- No. | lactose- | Endo’s No. | lactose- | Endo’s asparagin| medium. asparagin| medium. agar. agar. 1 90 | 125,000 10 2,700 11,000 2 800 75, 000 11 300 10, 000 3 1, 200 98, 000 12 700 12,000 4 100 25, 000 13 30 5, 700 5 300 92, 000 14 300 11, 400 6 800 3, 000 15 140 600 7 600 92, 000 16 700 2,200 8 4,000 39, 000 17 50 1,200 As shown in Table 13, the number of colon bacilli determined in litmus-lactose-asparagin agar was decidedly lower than when Hndo’s medium was used. It was then a question of what percentage of the colonies on Endo plates called colon bacilli were generally gas formers. To determine this percentage typical colonies were picked off from six Endo plates. Inoculations were made in lactose-broth fermenta- tion tubes and the presence of gas recorded after 48 hours’ incubation -at 37° C. (97.5° F.). The percentage of the gas-forming cultures ' from colonies which would be called colon colonies is Shown in Table 14. t a BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDY OF RETAIL ICE CREAM, 21 TaBLe 14.—Culiures picked from Endo’s plates showing the number of gas formers. Cultures showing gas in lac- Calenine tose broth. Endo plate. picked. Gas-+ Gas— Gas-+ Number. | Number. | Number. | Per cent. LR eS te Seta 160 91 69 56. 87 OES ene ete Mal eee 32 G 25 21. 87 Cee SEE Seer hey ame 78 69 4 94.52 (oe ee Se eee eee 9 1 8 11.11 GB SAPs ee at ee 10 0 10 . 00 Gree see ee 21 16 5 76.19 From one plate, of the 10 colonies picked off, none produced gas in lactose broth. Of 160 cultures from suspected colon colonies from sample 1 only 56.87 per cent were gas formers. In sample 3 a high percentage—that is, 94.52 per cent of cultures—were gas formers. lt is evident that in many cases it is impossible to count the typical colonies on Endo plates and say that they represent gas formers or colon bacilli. Typical colon bacilli are supposed to form on Endo’s agar medium-sized colonies which are distinctly red and have a metallic sheen, but doubtless the appearance of colon colonies is quite variable. In a study of the colonies of 10 different strains of Bacillus coli on Endo’s plates it was found that many of the colonies showed no metallic sheen. Some were pinkish instead of red; there was a red coloration of the medium around some colonies and none around others, and many of the colonies were very small. We also found that a number of nongas-forming bacteria of the acid group and some peptonizers would grow readily on Endo’s medium, and the colonies had all the appearance of those of some of the 10 strains of B. coli used during these experiments. It must be conceded, however, that a much larger number of gas-forming bacteria can be found in ice cream when using Endo’s medium than when plating on litmus-lactose-asparagin agar, and the asparagin plates showed a much higher number than the lactose-bile tubes. The use of Endo’s medium for the determination of colon bacilli in ice cream is com- plicated by the fact that bacteria other than gas formers may give the typical reaction of the colon bacilli; also because when a dilution low enough to determine the number of B. coli is used the plate is sometimes overgrown by other bacteria which are present in large numbers. It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss the best method for the determination of B. coli in ice cream, for the reason, which is obvious, that an entirely satisfactory method has not yet been per- fected. Each process has its merits and objectionable features, but in view of our present knowledge of the colon group of bacteria it is impossible to say that any one method is the best. 22 BULLETIN 303, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. Samples of ice cream as sold at retail were examined in Washington during the summer season from June 20 to November 11, 1912, and also during the winter season in February and March of 1913. 1. The average acidity of 65 samples of vanilla ice cream examined during the summer and winter season was 0.206 per cent, calculated as lactic acid. The maximum acidity was 0.387 per cent, the mini- mum 0.09 per cent. No definite relation was found between acidity and the bacterial count. 2. The average number of bacteria found in 94 samples of ice cream examined during the summer months was 37,859,907 per cubic centimeter. The maximum count was 510,000,000, the minimum 120,000. Of the 91 samples examined during the winter months the average count was 10,388,222, the maximum 114,000,000, and the minimum 13,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. Among the 94 sum- mer samples none contained fewer than 100,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter, while 14.28 per cent of the 91 winter samples were lower than 100,000. Of the summer samples 9.57 per cent contained fewer than 500,000 per cubic centimeter, and of the winter 39.55 per cent contained less than that number. Of the summer samples, 19.14 per cent contained fewer than 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter, while 41.75 per cent of the winter samples contained fewer than that num- ber and 80.86 per cent of the summer samples and 58.25 per cent of the winter samples contained more than 1,000,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. There was a wide range in the bacterial content during the summer and winter seasons, and with one exception, the average number of bacteria in ice cream from each manufacturer was distinctly lower during the winter months. 3. The bacteria in 71 summer samples and 28 winter samples were divided into groups by the milk-tube method. The percentages of the various groups of bacteria, together with the calculated number of bacteria in each group in an average sample of ice cream examined during the summer and winter seasons, are summarized in the fol- lowing table: TaBLE 15.—Summary of bacteria in ice cream.* Summer samples. Winter samples. P Average Average Bacterial groups. number of | Average | number of | Average bacteria | group per-| bacteria | group per- per cubic centage. per cubic centage. centimeter. centimeter. AVC -coagUlatin gas ee eee ne ose ee ce cone ae Sosa 18, 861, 805 49.82 | 3,203,728 30. 84 INGIdetormin gs tees iey i ie ea ot rare Nino (nee 7, 844,575 20.72 | 3,950,641 38. 03 IGS rs See ale ae Eo SA Sk UU A oe ce 5, 292, 815 13. 98 499, 673 4. 81 Alicalif forming ei sis oa 6 pues au eS At ae ay op 8 ale 704, 195 1. 86 563, 042 5. 42 Reptomizineewe nn. sree JOb oosdpdaedossesbosdsosumeNeaeds 5, 156,519 13.62 | 2,171,188 20. 90 ol Moy rez) Repeat eR RLS. Geen ene ERR St STARE oo icle 37, 859, 909 100.00 | 10,388, 222 100. 00 1 The counts were made from the average percentage of each group and the average total count. BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDY OF RETAIL ICE CREAM. 93 The bacterial groups bore much the same relation to each other in the average summer and winter samples. There was, however, in the summer samples a higher percentage of the acid-coagulating group of bacteria and a lower percentage of the alkali and peptonizing groups than in the winter samples. In spite of a higher percentage of the two groups last named in the average winter sample, the number of bacteria of these was much lower, owimg to a lower average total bacterial count. 4. Among the summer samples of ice cream 52.81 per cent of the bacteria of the acid-coagulating group were active enough to coagu- late milk in 48 hours when incubated at 30° C. (86° F.). The remain- ing 47.19 per cent coagulated milk more slowly and may represent a different variety of acid-forming bacteria. Only 26.69 per cent of the acid-coagulating group of bacteria in the winter samples coagu- lated in 48 hours. There is therefore a higher percentage of rapid acid-coagulating bacteria in ice cream during the summer months. 5. The average number of peptonizing bacteria found in the sum- mer samples of ice cream was 1,449,533. The maximum count was 21,000,000, the minimum 36,063, peptonizing bacteria per cubic centi- meter. Durimg the winter season the average number was 268,693, which is about one-fifth the average summer count. The maximum number was 2,974,400 and the mmimum 1,194 bacteria per cubic centimeter. The majority of the samples during the entire investiga- tion contained from 0.1 to 5 per cent of peptonizers. A large propor- tion contained as high as 25 to 30 per cent, and in a few samples they were present to the extent of from 90 to 95 per cent of the total bacteria. Among the summer samples 43.54 per cent of the pep- tonizing bacteria were sufficiently active to produce a peptonization in milk within 48 hours at 30° C. (86° F.), while 34.06 per cent of these bacteria in the winter samples were able to produce this change in the same time. It is probable that these active peptonizers are more important than the slower-acting varieties, since they usually produce a greater decomposition of the milk. 6. Gas-forming bacteria of the colon-aerogenes group when deter- mined on litmus-lactose-asparagin agar were found present in, one- tenth of a cubic centimeter in 106, or 88.33 per cent, of the 120 sam- ples examined, and absent in one-tenth of a cubic centimeter in 14, or 11.67 per cent, of the samples. Of the 14 negative samples, 13 were of the winter series and 1 was examined during October. The average number of gas formers in the entire series of samples was 16,298 per cubic centimeter. Fifty-seven samples examined during Dy ? ° 1 (| the summer averaged 29,544 per cubic-centimeter. The 49 winter samples contained an average of 889 per cubic centimeter. Ice cream contained a much larger number of gas-forming organisms during the summer season. ), 5.54 1857....| .61] 5.80 1858....| 1.60] 3.80 pbc a 44 3.89 IS60= <=) 1.17 43 IS6i- "=|, 1.50 2.87 1862....| 4.00} 2.50 1863. . 1.70} 1.50 1864....} 1.05 . 25 BSG5 os . 46 2.90 1866....| 3.38 .58 1867.... oto 3. 62 1868. ... .30 95 1869....| 1.62 1. 63 1870. . 2.04 -18 1871. Zio 2.09 1872. -06 | 1.30 1873. 8.49 .30 1874.. 4.72 2.88 1875... . 65 1.50 1876... 8.23 | 2.85 1877... 1.58 | 2.00 1878. - 40 1.56 1879... 1. 20 1.07 1880. 3. 02 1. 63 1881....) 1.34 3.49 1882. . 84 1.10 1883. . 1.66 | 4.67 1834. . 1.05 1.40 1885. 2.3 2. 21 1886. 4.21 1. 43 1887. . 1.88 4.12 | 1888. . 1.49 .70 1889. 1. 43 1.3 1890. . 1.90 1.70 1891. . 1.75 2.19 1892. . 1.35 1,08 1893. . 1.35 1. 60 1804. 1.80 1.25 1895....] 1.83 84 1896 1 10-1; 18 1897. 5. 46 Zhe 1898. 3.33 1,72 } ) Mar. | Apr. | May. | June 2.10} 5.40} 3.40] 4.20 2.94 3.30 3.50 4.60 2.31 . 70 3. 40 2.50 2.51 4.70 4.70 | 12.20 OHS |) bbe? |) 870) 3.50 3.03 | 3.60 | 12.60 | 14.30 8. 60 5.30 6. 50 2.20 -90 | 11.80 | 4.60] 6.40 123} 1.76 6. 21 - 66 1.87) 2.55 1.94 4.75 -61] 3.44 4.39 | 2.68 3.34 1.90 2.75 . 90 2.20 5. 87 8. 40 6. 67 5.01 3.70 7.49 | 5.82 .55 1. 67 1.42} 3.66 4.50 | 3.93} 3.06 7? 920 | 7.00} 2.65 6. 74 2.00 1.52] 1.89 -91 2.59 3.43 3.39 li 7 2.76 6. 02 1.05 3. 69 1.94 3.91 1.18 2. 82 1.93 2.34 5.77 4.70 Dao5 7.43 7.07 2.50 1.53 2. 64 4.47 9.15 Aho -38 1.86 -93 1. 88 1.95 1.93 6.71 PEE 3.92 7.57 Be il/ 1.90 1.45 4.31 1.91 2.39 2.93 Te 5 3.70 1.99 . 90 2.65 4.97 3.54 4.00 7.38 4.45 4,28 3.57 74.945, 7.44 2.87 2.36 7.49 4.09 2.18 1.81 4.54 3.78 3.62 | 3.02 8.25 deh, 2.58 2.11 2.43 | 10.38 2.98 4.00 8.36 | 8.25 5 if 5.00 6.19 4.77 4.28 2.08 5.57 4.03 1.25 |14.00 4.18 4.81 4.16 2.62 5.05 |11.30 1.14 1. 26 2.26 2.10 3.10 |11.60 6.78 3. 82 . 65 4, 28 4.17 5. 68 3.29 1,12 3. 61 6. 68 3.50 |13.10 2.51 4. 87 3.90 4.31 | 10.32 8. 83 3.49 5.33 2.35 3.61 2.44 5.33 2.05 2.04 1.75 83 3.05 98 1,32 5,72 §. 21 2. 02 2. 80 5, 23 1.59 2.54 3. 64 3.74 5, 30 3.34 These are chosen, as they are located at 1 Values taken from surrounding stations, July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct 1.30 | 0.50] 5.50 1.30 1.20} 3.30] 2.10 1.21 5.70 | 9.10] 3.00 4.30 1.40 | 12.20 5.00 4.80 5.00 | 138.00 3.90 2.70 8.60 | 14.00 3.50 1. 40 3.70 | 2.80] 8.30] 7.60 6. 60 1.70} 6.20 . 20 2.22 Shans 1.13 4.22 2.35 | 3.51 1.84 | 2.81 2.74 1.36 | 2.45 5.21 4.67 6. 60 1.88 1.95 7.30 4.12 6.10 4.95 2.93 1.70 1.80 - 85 4.03 2.30 2.76 1.00 2.65 | 2.80] 9.30] 7.20 3. 45 7.25 4.50 | 2.85 3745) 4.15 2.41 3.54 3,745 || Peal 3.20 | 3.11 4.50] 4.25 AUG) |B} iB} 5.18 | 3.36 4.71 1.94 3. 24 1.65 3. 44 1.00 4.59 2.85 5.18 .94 8.55 5.35 1.95 1.59 1.05 4.46 4.59 3.95 3.28 | 6.12 1.07 | 3.73 2.97 | 5.84 4.15 . 84 PEGI Ge saeoe 1.30 1.44 2. 26 3.54 6.58 . 90 6.72; 2.56] 9.38 UP 9.15 5.72 6.53 1.84 4,82 4.49 U6 25) 6.03 8.57 | 7.438 | 2.81 4.35 3.40 | 4.56] 2.37] 2.85 3. 84 4.48 3.17 $20 EBT 1.36 6.59 7.03 4.55 LeU fs) 1.38} 4.29 4.3 1.45 1.19 6. 23 3. 63 ie Wel 5,23 6. 46 5.03 7.38 2. 88 2. 80 BOs 2.62 3.05 4.70 2.90 | 2.40 3.49 2.24 3.39 7.24 2.00 1.50 6. 69 1.15 8.95 1.04 1. 88 2.35 2.52 4.24 3.29 5. 20 1.35 1.49 8. 85 1.70 47 . 82 2. 59 1.02 5.05 1.14 24 2.74 5.85 2.10 7, 82 4,22 2.12 1.02 6.59 | 4.43 | 3.63.) 1.89 3.51 1. 21 2. 50 78 A) 6, 22 2.34 3.74 Nov. 5 ESS HRS BES POF EL DORORSIES BOLERO SSO gS 5 LGC eo Dee. 6 Mo FORRES ee). Be RR IL OG el SSO ea at ac Re Annual 34. 55 28. 50 39. 62 32,35 36.37 30 BULLETIN 304, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 8.— Monthly precipitation, in inches, Muscatine, Iowa—Continued. Year. 1899. ... 1900. .-- 1901. ... 1902. ... 1903. .-. 1904. ... 1905.... 1906... - 1907. .-. 1908. ... 1909... 1910... eps cee Mean 1-00) 0 0-0 -0-0- U-0 0-0. 0 ee 8 8 8 ew ee Mean Jan Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov .88 | 1.52 | 1.75 | 3.18} 7.61) 2.385 | 2.67] 3.14] 1.08) 1.24] 1.52 1.72] 2.65] 3.86|) 2.02] 4.05} 1.57] 3.65] 6.31 4.31 1.96 | 1.36 1.46} 1.63} 2.81 1. 81 1.26 | 4.50) 1.44 -40 | 2.17 .99 .95 -59 -95 | 2.33 | 2.14] 4.66] 8.79] 7.93 | 8.94] 4.21 | 3.28] 3.28 .68 | 1.72} 2.01 | 3.76] 6.80} 3.46] 4.79] 5.13] 5.26] 1.82 .97 2.27 .71 | 2.65 | 2.83 | 2.87] 2.385] 3.52] 6.44] 2.14] 1.01 . 20 ~72| 2.15] 1.42] 3.08] 2.84] 6.73 | 2.81] 3.52) 1.17] 4.05] 2.41 3.12] 2.91} 3.12] 1.88] 3.76) 3.89 ¥ 96} 2.75 | 2.78 | 1.42] 2.55 4.78 -49 | 2.55 | 2.35 8.26 | 4.66] 8.80 | 5.20] 2.55 1.49 -97 -66 | 2.03 | 2.17] 2.34] 6.10] 3.86] 38.72] 8.77] 2.02) 2.10} 2.80 2.19 | 2.30] 1.58} 5.46] 3.385] 4.43] 3.63 | 2.61] 1.96] 1.68] 5.538 1.73 . 74 .36 | 2.40] 4.39] 2.62) 3.04] 3.17] 2.80 - 66 . 42 1.38 | 3.91 -95 ; 3.45 | 2.65] 2.33 | 4.85] 38.11] 8.58] 2.48} 4.22 1.90 1.97 | 2.66 | 3.36 4.40 4.46 | 3.87 4.28 | 3.55 2.64 | 2.40 TABLE 9.— Monthly precipitation, in inches, Peoria, Ill. Jan, | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. 0.80} 1.03 | 0.25 | 1.72} 4.03) 1.50] 2.83] 1.39] 0.76} 1.66] 4.00 .37 | 5.33 3. 84 1539 | 2-80) | 2277 1.40 | 5.61 2.16 | 2.01 1.33 1.48] 1.95] 3.28} 6.25 | 10.64] 5.95 | 5.75 | 3.24] 2.96] 3.24] 4.85 1.50 | 1.42) 5.82) 2.60} 3.17] 2.18 .67 | 4.14] 2.84] 2.15 | 2.40 1.86} 2.40 | 1.13] 1.64) 2.00|) 4.95 | 8.87] 2.39] 2.00 .70 | 3.18 1.25 | 2.46] 3.96] 4.95 | 2.19] 2.31} 2.31] 2.78} 3.72] 2.33] 1.09 4.27 .70 | 2.71 | 5.03} 1.46] 3.67] 7.74] 9.04] 5.09) 1.61] 1.81 2. 83 3.20 | 2.61 1.52 | 2.97 -45 | 4.82] 2.24] 2.51] 3.92 71 1.42 41 | 2.20) 4.81} 1.88 | 2.55] 2.92] 1.56) 4.81 1.53 | 3.82 .22) 4.01] 3.57) 4.27] 2.384] 1.86] 5.77] 3.61] 8.31 1. 67 .3l 3.21 LOM 24540 ee 2 Gon |ea2s ola aol: 5.17] 3.97 | 6.50] 2.87 .51 1.36 | 2.88 1.74 1.57 4.40 | 2.92] 2.65] 2.26 . 60 1.10 1.93 Ss Ut .75 | 5.38] 3.18 | 7.85 | 1.48] 1.47] 2.74] 4.46] 1.41] 4.50 -99 | 2.62] 1.71} 3.59] 6.09] 8.35] 7.35] 3.39 74] 1.53 | 3.18 2.05 .33 | 4.37 -45 1.62 509) -68 | 3.26] 3.56] 4.27] 1.21 2.45 | 1.62] 3.24] 2.58 | 1.93] 3.47] 3.76] 4.95 -65 | 3.37] 2.09 . 20 .69 | 2.50} 2.95 2.38 | 9.76] 7.80} 4.54 4.13 -80 | 2.00 3.47 | 1.29] 1.30] 4.76] 4.78] 2.96] 4.25] 1.25] 3.65 | 2.26] 1.46 3. 04 1.45 1.11 2.90 | 2.51 1.95 1.46 | 5.60 1.15 1.00 | 2.20 .382 | 2.20} 2.05 | 2.00] 4.23] 3.00] 8.28! 1.02] 9.63] 3.46 71 2.60 | 2.00] 4.70} 2.66] 3.94] 6.17] 5.54] 3.14) 4.51] 4.86] 2.63 . 92 .06 | 3.32] 2.86 | 2.57] 9.43] 3.01 2.04 | 2.83] 5.68] 3.65 5) PE Ps) 2.10 | 3.75 4.45 | 3.49] 2.58 | 4.42 .97 | 3.96 -91 1.05 .97 | 1.80] 2.95 -93 | 3.23 | 3.42) 1.88] 3.72] 2.17] 4.93 3.38 | 3.95 | 3.30] 5.94] 6.738 | 2.32] 3.17] 3.38 | 3.09] 1.75) 1.92 -02 | 3.51 3.52 1.62 | 3.50] 7.20] 2.43 1.38 4.05 | 5.56] 4.26 1.27) 3.21 3.12] 2.41 6.34 | 11.18 | 2.91 1.92 1.53 | 3.76 | 2.08 1.31 4.14 .77 | 6.18 | 6.54 4.39 | 3.57 580 |) 2A ER) SLEW 4.19 .70 | 3.18 | 2.17 | 2.62] 5.50 | 3.87] 3.67 | 4.13 | 5.76) 4.80) 2.19 2. 63 . 87 . 24 4.44 1.70 | 4.07] 4.73 | 2.64 5.28 | 2.32 1.04 2.41 | 1.86) 2.25 | 2.75 | 2.90 | 3.67 .47| 3.57 | 4.68] 1.81 1.34 1.10 |. 5.45 . 94 1.53 1.24 1.538 | 2.85 | 2.72) 2.53 | 2.14 1. 62 1. 87 1.66 | 4.03 1.18 | 6.72 1.84 |} 6.48 | 2.30 4.79 | 2.29 | 2.67 1.70 . 84 1.50 | 2.79} 3.92] 6.30] 7.64 1. 23 2.61 | 2.28] 2.91 2.80 1.36} 2.73 | 2.33} 2.74 2.42 5 URN PESO) PRU ||) BLc45 1.79 1.68 | 1.90] 2.68] 3.64 1.97 | 3.31 2.82 |. 5.71 | 2.00 5 Ui 4.08 1.25 1.84] 2.45] 4.54 7.70 | 6.05 | 3.08 73 | 2.35} 1.20] 2.72 .87 | 2.92] 3.01] 7.86) 4.65] 1.82] 2.48 -44 | 3.02 -70 | 2.21 2.60 | 1.48] 3.06] 2.22] 3.58] 4.18] 1.00} 2.50] 4.42) 1.45] 2.92 1.32 .387 | 1.02] 2.89 1.84 1.67] 8.72} 2.27) 4.92 67 | 4.17 1.30) 1.95] 1.05] 4.47] 5.74] 2.23] 7.02] 4.69] 4.86 -23 || 2:20 5.39 | 1.19} 4.70 | 2.87} 1.29] 2.11] 4.65] 1.02 -93 .04 | 3.48 4.08 | 2.59} 5.74] 3.02] 5.54] 3.37 .47} 3.26] 6.05] 3.00] 2.03 72 | 1.96] 2.97] 1.36] 6.03 | 2.60] 1.69] 1.27] 5.24] 2.78) 2.25 1.92 | 5.64] 1.42] 1.09] 5.54] 1.44] 2.45] 5.39] 2.94] 2.90} 1.87 1.98 1.24} 4.31 .81 1.50 | 4.32] 3.97] 1.29] 2.64 - 90 . 80 .67 | 1.41] 2.71] 2.29] 2.99] 9.60] 7.30] 7.42) 6.78] 3.78) 2.83 .89 | 1.70] 3.66] 5.15] 4.22] 2.39} 4.91 | 7.22) 5.78) 2.13 . 85 1.87] 1.29] 4.42] 3.48] 4.06] 2.44] 5.58] 4.13] 6.67 .10 .12 1.15 | 1.45] 2.00] 3.99] 4.53 | 5.13] 4.24] 1.36] 1.78 | 2.77 | 2.45 1.70 1.85 2.55 | 2.77] 2.88] 3.24] 2.48] 1.59] 4.92] 1.00] 2.42 5.39 .14| 2.34] 2.82] 2.08} 3.99] 4.89] 6.60] 2.94 .35 1.68 .59 | 3.98 | 2.50] 4.08] 7.76] 4.09] 3.94 2.78 . 82 71 1.89 1.55 | 3.67 1.81 7.17] 3.72] 3.56 | 4.57 7 3.68 | 3.59 | 5.53 1.97 | 1.10 .52 | 3.56 | 4.49 -78 | 3.23 .68 | 3.12] 1.69 79 2.37 | 2.39} 2.64] 2.69] 1.03] 6.64] 2.58] 1.73 | 12.30) 2.65] 3.01 1.77 | 2.06 | 2.66] 3.21] 3.83] 3.77] 3.95 | 3.03 | 3.75 |} 2.26 | 2.35 Dec. |Annual 2.21 28. 65 .99 34. 45 1.72 21.14 2. 41 49.51 .99 | 37.29 2. 43 29. 42 -87 | 31.77 1.69 | 31.83 81 42.91 -56 | 37.13 2.90 | 37.62 -96 | 23.29 2.02 39. 43 2.06 | 37.58 Dee. |Annual 8670 |leeeae oe 6.13 | 26.10 1.50} 30.51 3.67 | 53.26 1.23 } 30.12 3.08 34.15 .94 | 30.29 5.20 | 48.33 4.49 | 32.27 3.06 | 30.97 1.08 | 37.02 2.05 | 35.75 1.21 24. 62 1.81 35. 75 2. 63 42.12 1.02 | 28.57 2.04 | 32.15 1.07 | 38.82 7.15 | 38.58 .67 25. 04 2.39 | 39.29 .28 | 43.03 3.45 | 39.82 2.08 | 31.46 1.92} 28.97 -96 | 39.89 3.50} 41.05 1.76} 41.49 1.37 | 39.53 3.21 41.80 2.44 32. 40 .89 | 28.60 38.65 | 27.30 2.39 | 38.22 1.33 | 35.05 41 25. 26 2.39 | 32.89 1.75 | 35.66 1.74 | 31.72 1.58 | 30.99 5.86 | 35.72 -40] 36.14 1.16} 28.83 - 93 40. 08 2.12 | 30.99 .39 | 32.99 2.26 | 26.02 1.54 49.32 -95 39. 85 1. 33 35. 49 1.60 | 32.45 1.65 | 29.05 1.66 | 34.88 -82 | 33.96 2.50} 42.14 1.25 | 23.18 2.13 42.16 2.14 | 34.78 LAND DRAINAGE BY MEANS OF PUMPS. 31 Taste 10.—WMonthly precipitation, in inches, St. Louis, Mo. Year. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. An- ee eee ee SS UGS) 2 5 SSS a Bares sacs cel eee ote Sc wet eames 4.97 |12.25 |} 5.16) 5.79] 1.28) 0.55 |_.....- 1831...-| 2.08) 1.06] 4.58} 4.389) 1.95] 1.34] 1.88] 2.51 |] 1.99] 6.76} 4.08] 3.68] 36.30 IER cc Jd ec at cs ASessee ase Soed| aseceee SSecese Seecare 3.66 | 6.51 | 5.90} 2.59} 4.20) 5.02 |....... 1837... . 84] 1.35] 3.13 | 2.34] 3.00] 3.46] 2:48) 2.73] 2.85 -79 | 1.96] 2.01 | 26.94 1838..-.| 3.72] 1.11] 1.51] 3.36] 1.68] 3.73 | 3.13 | 4.47 -06 | 3.06] 2.09 44 | 28.36 1839....| 2.21] 2.50} 2.59] 5.46) 7.93) 7.26} 5.71 | 2.89 | 2.45] 3.96) 2.48} 2.00] 47.44 1840....| 1.80} 1.38] 2.10} 3.31] 4.58] 6.27) 2.36] 7.15 | 3.96] 6.30] 1.73 71) 41.65 PGdPe =f 284 -88 | 4.99] 3.85] 2.38] 1.67] 3.09] 5.63] 3.22] 6.81 | 5.44] 3.93) 42.73 Ieee -45 | 3.90] 2.21] 3.48] 3.22] 5.12] 1.76} 2.64] 2.17] 2.57] 2.38) 2.39} 32.29 1843...-| 2.34] 1.90] 3.49] 4.87) 4.15] 3.95] 2.49] 1.32] 2.19} 1.55] 4.82) 1.72] 34.79 1844....| 3.36] 1.73] 4.84] 3.86 /11.26] 6.85] 8.13 45 .30 | 2.25] 1.17] 1.61] 45.81 1845...-] 1.83 | 1.07] 3.18] 2.28} 4.42] 10.01} 4.75] 6.23] 1.03] 1.16] 1.10 -93 | 37.99 1846...-}| 2.98 | 1.27] 1.27} 4.84] 3.75] 5.21 84] 4.73 | 4.84] 2.71] 2.11 |10.90 | 45.45 1847....} 2.12] 3.58] 2.28) 3.98 | 4.36] 8.61] 5.37 -90 | 3.26] 8.74] 8.63 -89 | 52.72 1848....} 1.86] 2.27] 6.61} 3.16] 8.10/17.07) 5.37] 9.74) 1.12] 2.41) 1.91] 5.74] 65.36 1849...) 4.18 -06 | 2.70} 2.64) 2.71] 6.46) 9.40] 5.15) 5.81] 2.17] 2.11] 1.82) 45.71 1850....} 1.94] 4.10] 5.63) 7.68] 7.47] 1.47] 4.83] 2.10} 3.74] 2.71] 6.24] 2.59] 50.50 1851... . -61] 6.74} 3.14) 4.70} 2.83) 6.19} 1.77) 8.97 -49| 1.51 | 1.99] 3.90 | 42.84 1852....; .99] 2.12] 7.67] 2.28} 5.19] 10.25] 3.36] 1.60] 1.47] 5.26] 3.29] 3.48] 46.96 iaseos oe | 1.67 79 | 3.24] 3.64] 3.23] 4.10] 5.48] 4.67 -96 | 1.51] 1.08] 30.89 1854...-| 1.18] 3.11] 7.49] 7.60] 6.30] 3.21 -92} 1.80} 1.44] 4.15] 1.94) 1.49] 40.62 1855...-| 4.66 -70] 2.89) 2.65] 7.46] 4.27] 5.17] 6.53] 3.89] 3.89| 5.16} 3.10| 50.37 1856...-| 1.03 | 3.64] 1.06} 6.35] 3.03} 1.24) 4.61] 6.32] 3.51] 2.10} 4.90} 4.29] 42.08 1857... - -41| 7.74) 1.80] 1.72} 4.81) 3.71] 2.82) 4.15 | 3.18] 3.02] 3.80] 1.871} 39.03 1858...-| 3.42] 2.12] 3.96] 6.07] 10.64} 6.69) 8.03] 2.87} 3.86] 7.73] 4.92] 8.52] 68.83 1859....| 2.32} 5.35] 7.32] 4.89] 6.60] 11.02) 5.54] 2.93 | 4.44] 1.80] 5.43] 3.76] 61.40 1860..--| 1.80} 2.60] 1.16) 2.03] 2.29} 6.58) 2.97] 2.96} 2.11) 1.58] 1.63} 2.08) 29.79 1861...-| 1.16} 2.01] 7.38] 3.18] 4.39] 4.96] 2.04] 3.44] 4.14] 2.85] 1.39] 1.09] 38.03 1862...-| 4.01 -80} 4.11} 4.82] 2.51} 2.85] 3.61] 1.32] 6.27] 3.73] 3.59] 6.38] 44.00 1863..--| 4.11] 3.99} 3.02] 1.55] 2.68} 3.16) 2.51] 6.93} 1.56) 4.76] 2.15} 4.03) 40.45 1864...-| 2.74 -82} 1.71] 5.58] 3.90 -41] 3.60} 4.91] 2.82] 3.15] 5.25) 2.72] 37.61 1865 - -87 | 3.75] 8.61] 3.31] 5.66] 5.21] 7.94] 1.97] 2.60] 3.33 -00 | 3.63 | 46.88 1866... 4.16] 2.24} 2.80] 1.56] 2.24) 5.59] 3.68) 3.71 |10.53 | 2.01] 1.37] 1.87] 41.75 1867... 2.28 | 4.81 | 2.37 -03 | 8.26] 5.64] 3.71] 2.29 17) 1.31 | 2.74] 3.65 | 37.76 1868... 1.71 -55 | 7.66} 7.08] 3.96} 1.58) 2.03] 8.53] 5.25} 2.11) 2.04] 3.09] 45.59 1869....| 2.02] 2.49] 4.24] 4.61] 3.60] 6.25] 2.49) 5.51] 1.70} 3.42] 7.48] 3.16] 46.97 1870. 2.25 .33 | 2.76} 2.39] 2.73} 1.38) 1.59} 6.55) 1.14} 3.35) 1.94] 2.76| 29.17 1871. . 2.53 | 2.92] 1.27 -49 | 3.15} 2.51) 1.64] 3.55 -25] 2.07} 1.83] 1.17] 23.28 1872... 64] 1.15] 2.48] 2.77) 6.04] 4.28] 4.59 -93 | 3.38 -55 | 2.01] 1.70] 30.47 1873. 3.53 | 1.52] 2.10] 6.88] 5.73] 6.68] 5.96 -07 | 3.02] 3.27] 1.64! 5.10] 45.50 1874. . 3.14] 3.66} 4.36] 3.44] 3.70) 2.00} 5.71 | 4.70] 2.30] 1.09] 2.32] 1.46] 37.88 1875. 04] 2.59] 4.08] 2.53] 5.48 | 10.84) 9.50] 2.66 24) 1.23 .89 | 2.42] 43.00 1876...-| 4.75 | 2.86} 6.90] 2.25] 3.13] 3.43] 5.90) 5.03] 7.63} 1.66] 1.74 -18 | 48. 46 1877. 1.24 -88} 3.41] 3.03] 3.11] 8.69] 2.88] 2.61 | 3.56] 4.92] 3.76] 3.34] 41.43 1878. . 3.36} 1.69] 2.79] 6.74] 4.63] 2.40] 3.92] 4.75] 3.42] 3.27] 1.38] 3.48] 40.83 1879...-| 1.64] 1.48]. 1.92] 2.31 -95| 4.04] 1.97] 2.23] 1.34 -68 | 4.30} 2.84] 25.70 1880. . 3.83 | 2.65] 2.51] 3.31] 3.44) 2.56] 5.17] 1.53) 3.10] 2.09} 2.67) 1.80] 34.66 188i_--.-| -49 | 4.16) 1.95) 3.14] 3.96 | 2.74) 2.13 -31 | 3.14] 7.21 | 6.74] 1.40] 37.37 1882... 2.80 | 8.94] 3.49} 3.58] 4.55] 4.53] 3.84] 2.20) 1.73 | 2.44] 3.24] 1.81] 43.15 1883. - -94| 5.88} 2.29) 3.31] 2.89] 5.04) 4.31) 3.34 -O1} 6.60} 3.71] 1.78} 40.10 1884... -79| 4.43} 3.00] 4.15] 2.68] 4.52] 2.86) 1.21] 6.04] 2.48] 2.30] 6.18] 40.64 1885... - 3.26 - 87 -40| 4.84) 2.80) 7.68} 2.58) 2.96} 8.98] 7.51} 1.68) 2.03] 45.59 1886. . 3.11} 1.71 | 3.04] 2.10} 7.84] 7.09 .55 | 2.44] 9.60 -85 | 3.36] 2.65 | 44.34 1887... -65] 3.68] 3.54] 4.36] 5.27] 2.54] 2.74] 1.14] 2.47 76 | 4.61] 3.54] 35.30 1888 . 2.19} 2.3 3.79) 1.88] 3.81; 8.09} 2.09) 6.66] 1.31); 2.59) 4.40; 2.01 | 41.17 1889. . 3.04 | 4.78 | 1.62] 1.68] 3.80] 4.72] 2.02 85] 3.54] 1.65] 4.43] 1.03 | 33.16 1890. . 7.47 | 2.86] 5.99} 4.05] 5.81) 3.18 .37 | 2.43 | 1.80 .86] 1.55} 1.32] 37.69 1891... 1.35 | 2.95 | 2.29) 2:29) 2.73 |) 5.97 | 1750) 2:75). 1.438 -65 | 5.30] 1.32] 30.58 1892... 1.52} 4.89] 1.92] 7.60] 7.87] 2.73) 4.64] 1.75] 1.59| 1.66] 3.46) 1.99] 41.62 1893. . -33 | 2.98} 5.10 |10.84| 5.42)}.3.49| 2.49 -65 | 3.69} 1.66] 1.36} 1.32] 39.33 1394... 2.56 | 2.88] 2.69} 2.68] 3.61) 1.12] 1.35) 1.66] 3.11] 1.56] 1.49 | 2.73) 27.44 1895... 1.65 -43 | 2.82 -46) 3.16] 2.46) 7.26] 2.08} 2.01 .23 | 3.98} 4.66] 31.20 1896... 1.43} 2.81] 2.03 | 2.43 | 9.12] 4.57] 4.67] 2.12] 2.42] 1.20] 3.70] 1.05] 387.55 1897. . 3.75 | 2.67| 8.25] 4.66) 1.59) 5.32] 3.23 - 66 09 -31 | 6.21] 3.43] 40.17 1898. . 4.53 | 1.71| 7.73) 3.85] 8.55] 3.85] 7.44 .87 | 3.23 | 4.34] 2.07] 1.03] 49.20 1899... 1.66 | 3.40] 3.96} 1.98] 6.32) 2.32] 4.54] 2.77) 1.27| 2.89] 1.95) 1.55] 34.61 1900... 65) 5.09} 1.45] 1.83] 4.47) 2.62} 3.85] 1.30] 2.68] 2.07] 3.10 -40 | 29.51 1901. . 1.12] 1.86] 2.94] 2.35) 2.69] 3.92] 1.47 - 76 -64} 2.12} 1.21] 3.72] 24.80 1902... 1.18 83] 4.50| 2.49| 3.04] 7.86] 2.34] 5.20] 1.98} 2.00] 3.20] 3.81] 38.43 1903... 1.76 | 3.14] 3.20] 2.79] 2.08] 5.71] 2.68) 6.16] 3.06] 1.37 -61 | 1.25) 33.81 1904... 8.15 -84| 7.87] 8.25) 2.88] 4.64] 3.09] 2.62] 2.97 50 54} 1.36] 33.71 1905.. 2.47) 1.12] 2.35 | 2.382) 4.6 2.72| 4,42) 2.58] 5.56] 6.64) 1.63] 2.06] 38.54 1906....| 3.57 | 2.92) 4.53 1.98] 2.61] 2.80 -98 | 3.72] 4.40] 1.25] 4.67] 2.09] 35.52 1907....| 7.35 | 1.12} 2.39| 3.65] 5.57| 4.96] 3.32] 4.36] 1.57] 3.15] 1.89] 2.06] 41.39 1908....| 2.08] 3.39] 3.43 | 3.84 7.72 | 3.02 4.24 1.55 1, 24 21 2. 83 - 64 34,19 1909 . 3.20 | 3.94 3.69 | 6.18] 5.99] 2.63} 7.84 -66 | 4.22] 3.40] 4.36) 1.89] 47.50 1910. 2.73 6.22) .14 4.09 5. 23 4,24 4. 21 1.90 6. 09 3.98 . 30 1,18 87.31 1911. 85 3.02 | 2.22 7.46 2, 26 1.34 | 64 3. 51 7.09 2. 63 3.44 1, 67 36. 13 Mean | 2,27 2.67 | 3.55 B70 | 4.53) 4.74) 8.70) 3.42] 38.111 2.85 | 2 85 | 2.58 | 39.83 ’ | | i | | | | j | 32 BULLETIN 304, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In each of Tables 8, 9, and 10 the maximum for each month is shown by heavy-faced figures, as is also the yearly maximum. It will be noted that the greatest mean monthly rainfall is in June in two cases and in July in the other, thus showing that the maximum rainfall is to be expected during the months when farming operations are at their height. The mean annual precipitation for the three stations is 37.39 inches. A study of the tables has shown that a monthly rainfall of 6 inches occurs a little oftener than once each year. A monthly rainfall of 8 inches occurs once in 3.5 years, and one of 10 inches once in 11 years. A rainfall of 15 inches during a period of two successive months occurs once in 3.6 years. It would appear from these figures that a pumping plant should be able to handle a monthly rainfall of at least 8 inches. Table 11 shows the average number of storms per year, of the given intensities, for short periods of from 1 to 10 days, that may be expected in the section under consideration. This table was obtained from a study of the daily precipitation records of Muscatine, Peoria, and St. Louis. A study of the rainfall records of Muscatine, Peoria, and St. Louis shows that about two-thirds of the storms of the various intensities given in Table 11 occurred from April to September, inclusive, the months during which crops are most injured by occasional flooding. During the six months from October to March, inclusive, occasional flooding of the land would do little if any damage in the section under consideration. Therefore the storms occurring during the winter months may be disregarded in the determination of the proper capacity of pumping plant. This can be done by reducing the number of storms of each given intensity by one-third. For instance, Table 11 shows that on the average a storm of 2 inches in two days occurs three times a year. Only two of these storms occur at a time of the year when damage to crops would be caused by flooding. TABLE 11.—Average yearly number of storm periods of from 1 to 10 days’ duration. [Based upon daily precipitation records of the United States Weather Bureau for Muscatine, Iowa, 1854— 1914; Peoria, Il., 1856-1914; and St. Louis, Mo., 1843-1914.] Average number of storms per year. Total rainfall. 1-day | 2-day | 3-day | 4-day | 5-day | 6-day | 7-day | 8-day | 9-day | 10-day period. | period. | period. | period. | period. | period. | period. | period. | period. | period. Syme eobas5osedese 479 CLO) | agate Tg eas Ie ats GIO) 1 7 eb 528 Sellgsocscos|lescoscsolssscesas 4ninchestsers teres 172 320 438 . 545 . 651 775 0. 847 OLQUD | oe sree eee HN TMCV sceososesesee 041 083 142 . 160 . 195 290 355 . 444 0. 479 0. 520 Ghinichesheas eee 012 024 041 - 047 . O71 077 100 . 118 1 207 (ein CHES Here a heel meee 006 012 018 . 030 047 053 . 059 071 077 Sy CM ESR aes: seca hele pai | Me pas mek peer dak he OA 006 . 006 . 012 . 024 . 024 . 030 9 inches. .... PUTA SEE itis ot yaar Reo Nt SES EU IO F ean | . 006 . 012 . 018 .018 - 018 TOTES Sees ey Mae ee leu OM eS gigas [at ACR a ac al a yl Us ay . 006 . 006 . 006 PLATE I. Dept. of Agriculture. S. U . 304, Bul "ASAS GNVS T1H4 OlINVYEGAH GSAHSINI4—"S “Dl4 "YALVM ONY GNVS ONIDYWHOSIG Sdid "NOILONULSNOD YSN 33Aaq WN4 OnvEGAH—"| “SI4 Bul. 304, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. LEVEE CONSTRUCTED BY DRAG LINE EXCAVATOR, MUSCATINE-LOUISA LEVEE AND DRAINAGE DISTRICT. Note earth barriers across borrow pit, Bul. 304, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fic. 1.—SLUICE GATE IN OPERATION, ONE GATE OPEN, DES MOINES COUNTY DRAINAGE District No. 1. Fia. 2.—SucTION SIDE OF LAZWELL PUMPING PLANT OF DES MOINES COUNTY DRAINAGE District No. 1. Bul. 304, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. | Fic. 1.—Crop OF 1910, CoAL CREEK LEVEE AND DRAINAGE DISTRICT. Fic. 2.—Hoop BASIN, COAL CREEK LEVEE AND DRAINAGE DISTRICT. Bul. 304, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Fia. 1.—MAIN DITCH, COAL CREEK LEVEE AND DRAINAGE DISTRICT. FiG. 2.—BRANCH A, COAL CREEK LEVEE AND DRAINAGE DISTRICT. Bul. 304, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. Fic. 1.—PUMPING PLANT AND DISCHARGE BAY, LOUISA-DES MOINES DRAINAGE DISTRICT. Fla. 2.—ENGINE Room, LOUISA-DES MOINES DRAINAGE DISTRICT. Bul. 304, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. ui ARIANA WENT VIEW OF DISCHARGE PIPES OF LAZWELL PUMPING PLANT OF DES MOINES COUNTY DRAINAGE DistTrRIcT No. 1. Bul. 304, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. Fic. 1.—REAR OF PUMPING PLANT, LouisA-DES MoINES DRAINAGE DISTRICT, SHOWING SUCTION PIT. Fic. 2.—WOODEN FORMS FOR CONCRETE SUCTION PIPES FOR PUMPING PLANT ON MUSCATINE-LOUISA LEVEE AND DRAINAGE DISTRICT. LAND DRAINAGE BY MEANS OF PUMPS. 33 It is considered that it will be of value to introduce at this point the results of very careful and extensive investigations of rainfall and run-off on pumping drainage districts in southern Louisiana. While various local conditions are different, it is believed that for the six summer months mentioned above the relations between the rainfall and the run-off are quite similar; that is, in both sections the same percentage of the rainfall would appear as run-off. A total of 45 heavy storm periods occurring in southern Louisiana were therefore selected and the results averaged. The average precipita- tion during the storms selected was 4.90 inches over an average period of six days. The average run-off from these storms was 2.45 inches, distributed over a period of 7.5 days. An increase of another day in the period over which the run-off was taken would have increased the total run-off very little, while a decrease of a day in the average period of run-off would have decreased the total run-off very mate- rially. Very few of the storms included in this list occurred after a prolonged dry period, while perhaps 20 per cent of them followed periods of rainfall that had saturated the soul. Therefore the result undoubtedly is somewhat too large, and if provision be made for such a percentage any error will be on the safe side. It will be noted that the period covered by the run-off figures is one and one-half days longer than the length of the average storm. The districts from which these records were taken average about 2,500 acres in area. As most of the districts in the upper part of the Mississippi Valley are much larger than this, it is assumed that the time required for the run-off to reach the pumping plant will be somewhat increased; therefore in the discussion following the difference between the length of the storm period and the length of the period during which 50 per cent of the rainfall would run off is assumed to be two days instead of one and one-half days, as found for the districts in southern Lou- isiana. It will be noted in the above table for storm intensities that a 4-inch rainfall during a three-day period occurs a little less fre- quently than once in two years. Decreasing this frequency by one- third, as explained above, a 4-inch rainfall in a three-day period would occur in the growing season once in three years. Fifty per cent of it, or 2 inches, would appear as run-off in five days. The aver- age storage capacity of the canals and ditches on such districts is about 0.25 inch; thus 1.75 inches of water would have to be pumped in five days to prevent flooding, requiring a pumping capacity of at least 0.35 inch per 24 hours. If it were considered that flooding of the lower portions of the dis- trict to a small depth for 24 hours once in three years would not be greatly injurious, the time for removing the water could be made six days, requiring a capacity of 0.29 inch. It is believed that a 34 BULLETIN 304, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. capacity of about 0.30 inch per 24 hours would be satisfactory on most districts. Districts of less than 5,000 acres might better increase this somewhat, while it is possible that districts having more than 15,000 acres could decrease this capacity with safety. By applying a similar process to any other storm intensity, the necessary capacity to prevent flooding could be approximated. In cases where especially valuable crops were to be raised it might well pay to provide for storms that occur only once in 10 years. While run-off data on pumping districts in this section were not extensive enough to draw any very definite conclusions, the majority of the districts have a capacity of plant sufficient to remove a depth of 0.25 inch in 24 hours. On most of the districts this capacity has given satisfaction. LOCATION OF PUMPING PLANT. In general the pumping plant should be so located that the drain- age water may be brought to it with the least expenditure for interior ditches. However, a more expensive ditch system will often permit the combination of several small districts into one large one, thus reducing very materially the charge for pumping-plant construction and operation. The expenditures should be adjusted so that the annual charge for interest on investment, depreciation, and opera- tion of pumping plant will be aminimum. Where convenient, there is some apparent advantage in locating the plant on a suitable arm of the river rather than on the main river channel. The location should be so chosen as to be most easily accessible for the delivery of fuel and for convenience of attendance. Thus, in the Pekin-La Marsh District the pumping plant is situated at the upper end of the district, so as to be close to the town of Pekin. TYPES OF PUMPING MACHINERY. Since pumps are to be depended upon to remove promptly surplus water whose presence may endanger a whole crop, it is of the utmost importance that the pumping plant be able to work with certainty and reliability whenever needed. The annual cost of a pumping plant is made up of three main items: (1) The charge for interest on the original cost of the plant and for depreciation; (2) the cost of fuel, or electricity if motors are used; and (3) the cost of labor. Certain general principles concerning the mutual relations of these different items must be understood before taking up the comparison of the different types of machinery avail- able for pumping. The interest upon the original cost of the plant goes on every year whether the plant is operated much or little. Depreciation also takes place whether the plant is operated or not, and for such installations LAND DRAINAGE BY MEANS OF PUMPS. 85 as are under discussion it probably does not depend much upon the length of time the plants are in operation each year. What amount to allow for depreciation is a difficult matter to decide The length of time before such machinery will wear out depends chiefly upon the original quality of the installation and the care that is taken of it afterwards. We can not safely assume that such machinery will last more than 20 or 25 years. Much of it will be discarded sooner, either because it is outgrown or worn out. With proper care it is probable that such machinery may be made to endure twice as long as it will last if it is carelessly treated. It is customary to include with depreciation an item for repairs. This should be very small during the first few years of the life of a well-constructed plant, but will grow larger as the plant becomes older. The cost of fuel per year depends to a considerable extent upon the kind of machinery used and also upon the amount of time the plant istun. Whenever asteam plant starts there is a certain consumption of fuel in preparation before starting, the heat value of which is lost when the plant is stopped. Hence, since the operation of a pumping plant is very intermittent, the fuel consumption is not strictly pro- portionate to the time run. The amount of fuel used also depends largely upon the skill of the fireman. An unskillful man may easily use 25 per cent more fuel than is really necessary. Different types of equipment require different amounts of fuel to produce the same result; that is, some types are more economical of fuel than others. The cost of the labor at the pumping plant depends upon the class em- ployed and the length of time it is required. The cost of electricity per year depends on the type of pump and the care used in installa- tion, as well as upon the total time the plant is run. The distance from the transmission lines of the large power companies will influ- ence the power rate. On the larger districts the power rate is usually less than on the smaller ones. In general, in a given location, that type of pumping plant will be best which requires the least annual cost, including all the elements enumerated above. To a certain extent, variations in these different elements tend to offset each other. For example, a highly efficient plant from the point of view of fuel economy is complicated and expensive, and hence will have a relatively high charge for interest and depreciation. Likewise, it will require skillful and high-priced attendance, but may, on the other hand, in a large plant, require fewer men. If cheap labor is employed, the coal and repair bills will be increased and the deterioration of the plant will be more rapid. The advantage of fuel economy is relatively more important in loca- tions where fuel is especially high, and in a large plant than in a small one, but in any plant it diminishes in importance as the time of run- ning per year decreases or becomes much interrupted. 36 BULLETIN 304, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The above principles have long been regarded as fundamental in the science of mechanical engineering design. Applying them to drainage pumping, where the work is usually confined to a small portion of the year, the labor available is cheap and unskilled, and the other condi- tions are not favorable for effective care of the plant, the fundamental requirements in a drainage pumping plant are reliability and sim- plicity. The centrifugal pump is the kind most often used for drainage. It is simple, has no valves, and can be obtained in all sizes. Its dis- advantages are, that it must be primed in starting, that it can operate satisfactorily under a given set of conditions only within a narrow range of speed, and that its efficiency when operated under practical conditions that obtain in dramage pumping is not high. Recently pump manufacturers have given more attention to the design of centrifugal pumps for drainage pumping, and the newer pumps are better fitted for such service. In order to work economically and to maintain a uniform capacity, the speed must be varied with the changes in the total head under which it operates. The size of the centrifugal pump is usually given as the diameter of the discharge opening—for example, a 24-inch pump is one having a discharge pipe 24 inches in diameter as it leaves the pump. Most large pumps are made with a horizontal shaft and are called horizontal pumps. When larger than 24 inches they frequently have a double suction, thus bringing water to both sides of the impeller; this has the advant- age of balancing the side thrust on the impeller and shaft. Without this arrangement some automatic balancing device must be used in connection with the impeller and a collar thrust bearing on the shaft. The capacity of a pump is usually reckoned by assuming the water to have a velocity of 10 feet per second through the discharge opening of the pump. However, some manufacturers base the rated capacity of their pumps upon an assumed velocity of 12 feet per second. While it is possible to obtain a velocity of 10 feet per second through the discharge opening of the pump by the use of proper speed at the various heads, as the pumps are usually operated in practice the dis- charge is often 20 per cent less than the theoretical rating. This is due to underestimation of the power required for the various heads pumped against; as the head increases the speed must also be in- creased. During the high-water stages of 1913 on the Illinois River several plants had their capacity reduced about 50 per cent because the engines were not large enough to turn the pumps at the requisite speed. If enough power is furnished, the capacity of the centrifugal pump can be pushed as much as 25 per cent above its rated capacity with a relatively small loss in efficiency. Tests of such plants have been made which showed the amount pumped to exceed the rated LAND DRAINAGE BY MEANS OF PUMPS. 37 capacity by 50 per cent, but at this overload the efficiency of the pump is but a small part of its best figure. - Rotary displacement pumps and plunger pumps have occasionally been used for pumping drainage water, but they are not adapted to this use. They may have a very high mechanical efficiency, but their cost more than offsets this advantage. Scoop wheels have been extensively used in England and Holland, and to some extent in this country in Louisiana. They may be made to have a higher efficiency than centrifugal pumps, especially for very low lifts, but they are not adapted to locations where the head is subject to wide fluctuations. A full description of the construction and operation of these scoop wheels has been given by W. W. Wheeler.t. Another publication ? describes a recent large and sucessful installation in Holland, and gives the results of tests. Recently large screw pumps have been installed for the pumping of drainage water from districts in Louisiana. One district of about 9,000 acres has installed and is operating two such pumps, each having a diameter of discharge pipe of 78 inches. The city of New Orleans recently contracted for and is now installing 12 such pumps for the disposal of drainage water; these have diameters of discharge of 12 feet. The impeller in the screw pump is a segment of a screw and is somewhat similar to a boat propeller, except that it has many more blades. On the discharge side diffusion vanes take the water from the blades of the impeller and change its partly spiral motion to one which is parallel with the axis of the discharge pipe. It is expected that such a pump will operate more satisfactorily under changing heads than will a centrifugal pump, and for very large installations it is cheaper than a centrifugal pump of equal capacity. SOURCES OF POWER. Steam, gas, and electricity are all used as sources of power for pumping plants. In Ilinois soft coal is abundant and cheap, though in some places crude oil or natural gas may be found more available. A suction gas producer with a gas engine has been tried, but such a plant requires hard coal or coke for fuel, which greatly increases the expense. Furthermore, such a type of plant is not adapted to inter- mittent working. Electricity is by far the most convenient source of power where it is available, but in general it will be considerably more expensive than using coal to produce steam. Its convenience will perhaps offset its cost, especially for a small plant. In the latter part of this bulletin, under the heading “Amount and cost of pump- 1) ing,” data from a number of districts are given which show the com- !The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands by Gravitation and Steam Power. London and New York, 1888, 2 Engineering News, 63 (1910), No. 20, p. 581. 38 BULLETIN 304, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. parative cost of power in the various districts. These data indicate that where cheap coal or gas is available steam is the most economical source of power. Return tubular, marine, locomotive-type, and water-tube boilers have all been used. For a small plant the locomotive type or the simple return tubular boiler is simplest and cheapest. For plants of over 200 horsepower water-tube boilers have decided advantages, though they may cost somewhat more than the simpler fire-tube boilers. The boilers of all large plants should be kept constantly insured by some reliable boiler insurance company. KIND OF ENGINE OR MOTOR. Hither vertical or horizontal engines may be used. When possible, it is best to have the pump directly connected to the engine. This is usually not feasible for a pump smaller than the 24-inch size, because such a pump would require too high a speed of the engine. In this case the pump must be driven by a belt or arope. The engine should be condensing and, if large, should be compound. A high-speed automatic engine is more difficult to operate with inexperienced labor than a slow-speed engine, but it has the advantage of being smaller and lighter for the same power than the slow-speed engine of the Corliss or some similar type. In general, however, the high-speed engine is not as economical of steam as the slow-speed type. The en- gine should be provided with a governor able to keep it from racing if the entire load is suddenly removed. The engine should be adjustable for a considerable range of speed, should be able to carry a consider- able overload, and should work as economically as possible through a wide range of load. As will be explained more fully below, it is especially desirable that an engine for this work should be capable of very flexible operation. If a motor is used to drive the pump, it should be of the constant- speed slip-ring type. If the motor is direct-connected to the pump or is connected by some means that does not allow the speed ratio to be changed, the pump will work satisfactorily at only one head; that is, the head suitable to the fixed speed. If the lift be higher, the quantity pumped will be much reduced, while if the lift be lower the quantity will be much increased, the efficiency lowered, and danger of overloading the motor will be incurred. Manufacturers have recently placed on the market a centrifugal pump with a modified screw-type impeller which requires about the same horsepower for a rather wide range of heads. The screw pump previously described also has this feature. Both the screw pumps and the centrifugal pumps with the modified screw-type impeller have been connected to motors with a fixed-speed ratio, such as by the use of gearing, and have worked satisfactorily. However, as the head increases the LAND DRAINAGE BY MEANS OF PUMPS. 39 quantity pumped must decrease. Along the upper Mississippi and the Illinois River the greatest demand on the pumping plant usually occurs at the time when the head pumped against is greatest. If the speed of the pump be fixed to give full capacity at the greatest head, at lower heads the discharge of the pump will be greatly increased and the efficiency much lowered. As the average lift will be much lower than the maximum, usually scarcely half, the yearly efficiency of the pump will be small and the consumption of power large. By far the better method is to connect the pump and the motor by means of a belt with three sizes of pulleys or with silent chain drive with two or three sizes of sprocket wheels. The pump speed can then be altered to suit the head. In Louisiana, where the fixed- speed ratio is used, the greatest demand on the pumping plant occurs. at the lowest head, and as the head increases the amount of water to be pumped greatly decreases; consequently the capacity of the pump fits the need. AUXILIARIES. The steam plant will require the usual auxiliaries. A surface condenser will furnish pure feed water, but some form of jet con- denser is simpler and cheaper. For priming the pumps a steam ejector is the simplest arrangement, though an air pump may be used. Separators and traps, filters and heaters, should be used as needed for safe and economical operation. Piping and _ boilers should be well covered, to reduce as much as possible the amount of radiation and condensation of steam. In large plants boilers, engines, and pumps should all be divided into two or more equal-sized units, so arranged that they can, when necessary, be operated independently, and the auxiliaries should be installed in duplicate. CALCULATION OF THE SIZE OF PUMPING PLANT. To illustrate the method of determining the size of machinery to be installed in a pumping plant, the calculation will be made for a district of 10,000 acres. To remove a depth of water of one-fourth inch over the whole district in 24 hours will require a capacity of 105 cubic feet per second. For such a district it will be best to use two separate pumps, which should be identical in size. A 30-inch pump will be rated at about 49 cubic feet per second, a 32-inch pump at about 56 cubic feet per second, and a 36-inch pump at about 71 cubic feet per second. In this case it would be best to use two 32-inch pumps, which would seem to have a slight margin of excess capacity. However, since pumps of this style so frequently fail to have the capacity assumed, they should be taken only under the guaranty of the manufacturer and subjected to a thorough test after they are installed. The pumps will need to be run at about 40 BULLETIN 304, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 200 revolutions per minute, and hence may be directly connected to two separate engines. Assume that the difference between the river-surface level outside the district and the desired ground-water level within the district will vary from a possible maximum of 20 feet during spring floods to nothing in the late summer. The machinery must have sufficient power to pump against the highest head, although much of the time it will run against a lower head. This is a disadvantage, so far as the efficiency of the machinery is concerned, because every engine runs most efficiently at about its rated capacity, and if it is either overloaded or underloaded its efficiency is reduced. The actual head against which the pumps must force the water, sometimes called the dynamic head or the hydraulic head, is always greater than the difference in water level as described above, which is called the static head. This increase is due to the friction of the water in the suction and discharge pipes and the so-called velocity head—that is, the head necessary to start the water into motion in the pipes. The friction in pipes carrying water at a high velocity is greatly affected by the kind of pipe used and the smoothness of the interior surface, and hence can not be predicted with certainty. For a velocity of 8 feet a second the friction in 200 feet of 48-inch pipe would probably amount to 2 feet of head and in a 24-inch pipe to at least 6 feet of head. 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AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. The Wet Lands of Southern Louisiana and Their Drainage. (Department Bulletin 71.) Report upon the Black and Boggy Swamps Drainage District, Hampton and Jasper Counties, 8. C. (Department Bulletin 114.) A Report on the Methods and Cost of Reclaiming the Overflowed Lands along the Big Black River, Miss. (Department Bulletin 181.) Report upon the Cypress Creek Drainage District, Desha and Chicot Counties, Ark. (Department Bulletin 198.) Tile Drainage on the Farm. (Farmers Bulletin 524.) Report on the Drainage of the Eastern Parts of Cass, Traill, Grand Forks, Walsh, and Pembina Counties, N. Dak. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 189.) A Report upon the Back Swamp and Jacob Swamp Drainage District, Robeson County, N.C. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 246.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. Mechanical Tests of Pumps and Pumping Plants Used for Irrigation and Drainage in Louisiana in 1905 and 1906. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 183.) Price 10 cts. Report on the St. Francis Valley Drainage Project in Northeastern Arkansas. (Office cf Experiment Stations Bulletin 230. Part 1. General Report.) Price 70 cts. Report on the St. Francis Valley Drainage Project in Northeastern Arkansas. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 230. Part 2. Bench marks.) Price 10 cts. Tidal Marshes and Their Reclamation. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 240.) Price 35 cts. ° Land Drainage by Means of Pumps. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 243.) Price 10 cts. Swamp and Overflowed Lands in the United States, Ownership and Reclamation. (Office of Experiment Stations Circular 76.) Price 5 cts. A Report upon the Drainage of Agricultural Lands in the Kankakee River Valley, Ind. (Office of Experiment Stations Circular 80.) Price 10 cts. A Preliminary Report on the Drainage of the Fifth Louisiana Levee District, Com- prising the Parishes of East Carroll, Madison, Tensas, and Concordia. (Office of Experiment Stations Circular 104.) Price 5 cts. 60 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 305 4 Se IY Contribution from the States Relations Service 1) A. C. TRUE, Director Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER November 11, 1915 EXERCISES WITH PLANTS AND ANIMALS FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS.’ By E. A. Miiier, Specialist in Agricultural Education. CONTENTS. Page. Page BTAAHCHIORE fe). J5\o5 = co2 a daieees. tees WM iehanuUaryy- sacs steek ese ee sea e teats Aeeeis= 37 POptCMae Le ear ty a= -).2 20 -t Se akn ce Oeste cee 2p | He DEUAGY st ecsecec osc cedeeee one aoe 43 CGT TR a seein ae ANOS ee See eer Seats AUG t OW IBN ROS te coe 6 2 ee ees Tee St aN 49 LEST EEL! TUTE ai 210) Arikan de Mayes pec sca cts co eietae ae oe ce 55 BERIT eT Mees ee. lis. 5. cbisseeissan-seenue2 30F Atppendixeeter ve aecee sec ame sane ee eesieee 61 INTRODUCTION. The purpose of this bulletin is to set forth simple exercises with plants and animals arranged after a monthly sequence plan for the first five grades in southern rural schools. The monthly sequence plan is followed so that plants and animals may be studied at a time when they are most interesting. The monthly exercises provide work for each of the first five grades of the public school. Practical exercises and field trips are suggested. If the best results are to be obtained each pupil should be required to have notebooks and keep records of the observations made and the information secured. In connection with each exercise correlations with other subjects are given. These are intended to be suggestive, but if the idea is followed out and supplemented the ordinary public school branches may be greatly vitalized. It is intended that this publication shall serve as an approach to the study of formal or textbook agriculture in the upper elementary grades. It is to be understood that this is in no sense a textbook, but a guide for the teacher. There may be communities to which all the exercises given here are not adapted, but in that event they should prove sufficiently suggestive to be helpful to the teacher in planning ! Prepared under the direction of C. H. Lane, Chief Specialist in Agricultural Education. Note.—This bulletin is intended especially for the use of rural school teachers in the Southern States. RAGAS... Rll 20h..1h——-1 2 BULLETIN ,305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. work that may be substituted. Nothing definite is said concerning the place this work should take in the daily program, but it is sug- gested that the period of one or two regular classes be used once or twice each week. In other words, it need not be treated as an addi- tional subject in the curriculum but for the sake of its own importance and the vitalizing influence on the other public school subjects this work should be substituted for one or two other recitations each week in the several grades. All publications referred to in this bulletin may be had free while the supply lasts from the U.S. Ree of Agriculture, Wash- ington, D.C. SEPTEMBER. (Plate I.) To TracHEeRS.—The accompanying calendar is a suggestion. One similar to this should occupy a conspicuous place on the blackboard or on a large wall placard. The idea is to have each month some striking feature of nature or of farm life. The calendar may be prepared and decorated by the teacher, or a drawing contest can be conducted with the pupils, awarding to the winner the aninvllers of EEE and decorating the calendar.! FIRST AND SECOND GRADES. The work of these grades for the year consists of learning the names of the animals and plants of the community, giving special attention to birds as to where they live, what they eat, and their nesting habits, and to garden flowers and vegetables as to seasons in which they grow. Individual birds and plants are studied. PLANTS. Review.—Review the pupils in plants to ascertain what they already know. Assigned work.—What seeds are being sown in the home or school garden this month—lettuce, radishes? What plants are up and beginning to grow—lIrish potatoes, turnips? What plants are in bloom—late corn, okra? What plants maturing or ripening seed— onions, pepper, tomatoes, pole beans? How do these plants grow— on beds, rows? Do the vines or stalks run on the ground, stand erect, or are they supported by frames and poles? Practical exercises—Have pupils bring to school roots, leaves, flowers, and seed of garden plants for study. Mount typical speci- mens of each. (See Farmers’ Bul. 586.) The pupils of this grade should start two or three winter vegetables in the school or home plat. (See planting table in the Appendix.) Make frequent trips to the school garden to study seed in process of germination and to learn the names of the parts of the plantlets. 1 The calendar suggestions were furnished by Miss Margaret McAdory, Manual Training Supervisor, Birmingham, Ala. EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 3 Correlations.—Correlate the work with language lessons by having the pupils tell orally short stories of their experiences in the garden planting seed, collecting specimens, and observing germinating seed. These short stories should be reduced to writing by pupils of the second grade and the work given a place in the class notebook. (See Piatt) Outlines of leaves, roots, flowers, seeds, and fruits of plants studied should constitute the work in drawing. ANIMALS. Review.—Ascertain what the pupils of these grades know about birds and animals. Continue learning the names of animals and birds. Assigned work.—Specialize in bird studies. List the names of birds that may be seen this month. Study a few particular birds, such as the blue jay, the humming bird, the mocking bird, the bluebird, and the swallow. Do they reside permanently in your State? Do they migrate south? What do they eat? Where do they build their nests? Is there a reason for the nest being located as it is? What-is the color of the head, the breast, the wings, the back, the tail? Do they hop or run, or both? Do they sing—character of note? Imitate. Practical exercises.—Encourage birds to frequent school and home yards by putting at particular places lunch remnants, meat scraps, and broken grain. Make them ‘“‘gentle”’ by feeding and kind treat- ment. Make trips to the school grounds, fields, and woods to observe the habits of the birds being studied. Make records of observations in the class notebook. The following is an example record: The Bluebird. 1. Most bluebirds go south in winter. Some remain. 2. They collect most of their food from the ground—insects and weed seeds. 3. They build their nests in hollow stumps, posts, and rails, in gardens, fields, and orchards. 4. There are two special reasons for the location of their nests—to protect their young, and to be convenient to source of food. 5. Color: Head, blue; breast, brown; wings, blue; back, blue; tail, blue. 6. Bluebirds both hop and run. 7. Bluebirds sing. Correlations.—Ample material abounds for correlation work. Listing birds seen this month, making records of observations, relating stories, oral and written, of experiences on observation trips furnish language lesson exercises. The best written work should have a place in the class notebook. Make drawings of particular feathers and tracks of each kind of bird studied. The best drawings should be mounted in the class notebook. 4 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THIRD GRADE. In this grade the population studies in a general way are continued with all plants and animals. More particular studies are made with garden crops. Additional work with annual wild flowers and weeds is undertaken. Particular attention is given individual plants. The bird studies are continued in greater detail, and additional work is undertaken with domestic and economic wild mammals. Lessons with particular animals are outlined. PLANTS. Review.—Review the pupils on recognizing at sight trees, flowers, and garden and field crops. This recognition work should be carried further than with the preceding grades. ‘Trips to the forests and fields should be planned for this purpose. Children are easily inter- ested in things that are attractive. Take advantage of this and direct their attention to plants that are attractive in foliage, flowers, or fruit this month. Have pupils make lists of trees, flowers, and garden and field crops they are able to recognize at sight. Assigned work.—What garden crops are planted this month? Why can they be planted in the fall? Do they continue to grow during the winter months? What garden plants are blooming this month? When were they planted? Why? What garden crops are maturing seeds, roots, or tubers this month? When were they planted or transplanted? Were the plants started in the open or in hotbeds? Why? Will*they grow during the winter months? How are their plants reproduced—by seed, roots, or tubers? If left to propagate themselves how would the seed be distributed? Answer these questions with regard to okra, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, and pole beans. Are there any wild flowers or weeds blooming or ripening seed on the school ground, in the garden, on the roadside, in the pastures, or in the fields? How do they reproduce—by seeds, roots, or underground stems? How are the seeds scattered—attached to clothes of people or skins of animals, by bursting pods, by flying appendages, by birds, or otherwise? Answer these questions with regard to beggar lice, bitterweed, goldenrod, crab grass, milkweed. List and copy in the class notebook the names of wild flowers and weeds that bloom or mature seed this month. (If you can not learn the names of any that you find, mail them to the State agricultural college with the request that ine, be identified for you.) Hine oumaee pupils to have fall and winter garden plats either on the school yard or at home. While caring for the garden plats have them observe seeds in process of germination and learn to name and locate the parts of plants—roots, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds. Bul. 305, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I, PD SENSES RAINE RO NCR TEETER ON ) j Fen ALAA SOD ALI Wns alin nm resin Nia eis t BLACKBOARD CALENDAR SUGGESTION FOR A FALL MONTH. ee rm re ww ee (CARDEN PLANTS NOW WEACLE THEM GROW | EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 5 Practical exercises —Have pupils select from choice garden plants seeds that are maturing this month. Store seed in smali paper bags in 2 place not subject to extremes of temperature and to the ravages of insects and mice. Collect roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and seed of blooming and seed- maturing garden plants, wild flowers, and weeds. Mount the leaves and flowers in the classnotebook. The roots, stems, and seed should be mounted on separate cards and labeled so as to indicate the name of the plant, the month collected, and the class making the collection. (See Farmers’ Bul. 586.) Correlations.—Language lessons: The trips in search of wild flowers and weeds afford material for written work. The location of a plant, its general appearance, the kind of leaves, flowers, and seed -it bears, the manner of distributing its seed should form an outline for a written story. Drawing: Sketch the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruit or seeds of plants studied this month. The best drawing should be mounted in the class notebook. ANIMALS. Review and continued work.—Continue population studies. Study birds more in detail. Are there new birds to be seen this month? Are they seen in flocks or alone? What do they eat? Do they go farther south or remain for the winter? Begin to look for the bobolink, or rice bird, and the field lark. What member of the class will be the first to report the appearance of a new bird? Some or all of the following birds will seek a warmer climate during the winter: The cuckoo or rain crow, catbird, martin, kingbird, night and sparrow hawks. They should be given attention before they go away. Compare the males and females. Which are bright? Which dull? Can you give reasons? Uses of feathers on different parts of the body—shedding water, warmth, flying, balancing in air and on perches, propping on trees. Compare the feathers on the neck, breast, back, wing, and tail of a chicken with those of some other farm fowl—turkey, goose, or guinea. Learn the parts of a feather—quill, barb, and barbel. New work assigned.—Begin the study of domestic and wild mam- mals (animals that suckle their young) that are of economic im- portance this month. What domestic mammals are rendering service? Idle? Gathering their own food? Being fed? What wild mammals are destroying or damaging garden or field crops? Does the damage done justify their extermination? Are they useful for game ? Answer the following questions with regard to the animals you select for study: Where do they live now? What is the winter home 6 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of each? Do they continue active during the winter or do they hibernate (go into winter quarters)? What do they eat? How do they obtain food ? Practical exercises —Make trips to study animals and list those studied and record the facts learned in connection with each. Best records should have a place in class notebook. Oorrelation.—Language lessons: Write stories on the use of feathers and on the habits of mammals studied this month. Drawing: Sketch animals studied this month and mount the best ones in class notebook. Find pictures of animals in farm papers and mount in the class notebook. FOURTH GRADE. In this grade population studies are continued with plants and animals. Theadvanced plant studies include field crops and domestic and wild shrubs. The special studies with birds and mammals are continued and additicnal work with toads and a few common insects is taken up. PLANTS. Review and continued work.—Continue the practice in recognizing trees, domestic and wild flowers, garden and field crops. The plants that are especially attractive at this season should be given attention. It is easier to associate names with striking features. Make trips and give reviews often. As new plants are learned add names to the list. New work assigned.—What field crops are planted this month? Why should they be planted in the fall? Oats? Wheat? Rye? Crimson clover ? What field crops are in bloom this month? When planted and why ? Make a list of all field crops that are planted or that are blooming and maturing seed this month. Practical exercises.—Select choice seed from field crops and shrubs and store for study or planting. If the seeds are not sufficiently matured to gather, mark them to be gathered at a later date. Seed for identification study should be mounted on cards or placed in screw-capped bottles and labeled. Gather the matured garden crops, clear away rubbish, and begin preparing soil and planting fall crops. Insist on all pupils of this grade having a garden plat either at home or at school. (See suggested garden crops for this season in Appendix.) The interior of the schoolroom should be tastily decorated with plants bearing fruit and seed from the gardens and fields. Have pupils bring these to school and assist in decorating. Vitalize the school work by giving the schoolroom an ee ce of the products of life processes. EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. € Correlations.—Language lessons should consist of stories and de- scriptions concerning the plants studied, the garden work done, and the fruit and seed collections mounted and stored. Ample material for drawing lessons is provided by the plants, leaves, fruit, and seed studied this month. Geography: Simple lessons in distribution of crops may be drawn from such questions as: What crops or parts of crops studied this month are consumed by the family? By the animals and poultry ? Are sold for community use? For shipment to other sections? (Blackboard exercise.) The studies should be correlated with history by simple lessons on the crop under consideration as suggested by the following questions: What plants have been grown in the community a long time? Recently introduced? What shrubs are native? Which introduced ? Which have been domesticated a long time? Which recently? (Blackboard exercise.) Gather data and state problems on cost of production, value, and estimated yields per acre of crops studied this month. ANIMALS. Review and continued work.—Birds: Continue the population stud- ies. For advanced work, group the birds you have been studying according to their methods of catching insects. Do they climb over buds, leaves, and limbs looking for insect eggs? Do they search on the ground for cutworms, crickets, and grasshoppers? Do they look among the branches and leaves for caterpillars or do they perch in some open place and dart into the air after flies and beetles? Mammals: Continue the study of domestic and wild mammals, as indicated in the outline for the third grade. New work assigned.—The toad is of inestimable value to man in the destruction of harmful insects of garden, orchard, and field. Children should be taught that this homely amphibian is a real friend and that it should be protected in every way possible. The toad will soon go into winter quarters, so the pupils should be encouraged to observe its habits. (Farmers’ Bul. 196.) Some attention should be given to some of the more common insects, such as the boll weevil, the cattle tick, the house fly, the potato beetle, and the white fly. Where common, bring them to school, learn to identify them, become familiar with the injury they work, and note the ways in which they are active during the month. Practical exercises.—Locate one or more toads in the school yard, home yard, garden, or orchard. Watch closely this month. Is the coat or skin shed? What time of day is the toad moving about? What kind of tongue has the toad? Does the tongue differ from those of other animals in shape? In the way in which it is attached ¢ How is the tongue emploved in catching insects? What insects does 8 BULLETIN 305, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the toad eat? Feed it live snails, thousand-legged worms, spiders, grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, cutworms, army worms, tent cater- pillars. How does the toad differ from the tree frog? (*armers’ Bul. 196.) Collect a number of quart bottles with as large mouths as possible. Place in one of these cotton squares with specks on the side that have just been shed, cover with some thin cloth and observe them daily and study the developments. (Farmers’ Bul. 512.) In another bottle place orange or grapefruit leaves that have white dust, small scale-like specks smaller than a pinhead; thick, round- bodied grubs with very short legs and with a bright red spot on the back, or small white flies attached to the under surface. Study developments. In another bottle place fall Irish potato vines that are infested with beetles. Study daily to become familiar with the various stages of development. Fresh leaves should be added from time to time to furnish food. Attempt to answer these questions: (1) Where do house flies breed? _ (2) How long do they require to develop? (3) How many generations are grown in a season? (4) How are they dangerous?) How prevented? (Farmers’ Bul. 679.) Mount specimens of insects studied this month. (See Farmers’ Bul. 606.) Correlations.—Language lesson material is abundant. Describing the toad, its habits and means of livelihood and recording observa- tions with the insects studied provide ample subject matter for writ- ten work. Drawings of the toad and the different stages of ite insects studied should be made. Exercises based on estimates of the number of insects destroyed annually by the toad, the number of descendants from one house fly, one boll weevil, one white fly, or one cattle tick in a year, and on estimates of the damage done to the various crops by the descendants of one of these insects in a year provide interesting correlation in arithmetic. (See references for estimates.) Locate counties freed of cattle tick. Locate on the map the point at which the boll weevil was introduced into this country. Indicate on the map the part of the South infested with the boll weevil. FIFTH GRADE. Population studies in plants and animals of all kinds are continued. Advanced studies with orchard and forest trees are taken up. Some more detailed work with mammals and birds is undertaken and special attention is given to economic insects and fungus growths. EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 9 Review.—Review the pupils of this grade on the plant population of the community. They should be able to recognize at sight those plants that have been studied by pupils of the lower grades. New assignment.—Give special attention to orchard and forest trees. Locate and name those that are ripening fruit or maturing seed. Having listed and located the foregoing designated plants, study them to be able to answer the following questions: What are the parts of the trees? In what location—hill, hollow, swamp, ledge of rock—do they flourish? What are the uses of the wood, sap, fruit, seed ? For study throughout the year select a striking tree of economic importance on or near the school yard and begin this month to make observations, take notes, and make drawings along the lines indicated by the following: (1) Outline drawing, accompanied by written description of the tree as it appears this month; (2) outline of a small branch, showing how leaves are attached—long or short stem, opposite or alternate; (3) cutlines of leaves, with descriptions to show the relative sizes of leaves from different parts of the tree. Show the color of upper and lower surfaces, the arrangement of veins, and the kind of margin. (The foregoimg should be followed throughout the year in the study of the tree selected.) Practical exercises.—Collecting and mounting leaves, seed, and small specimens of wood of the trees being studied this month and learning to identify them should constitute a part of the practical work. (See Farmers’ Bul. 586.) A large chart should be prepared and placed in a conspicuous place on the wail of the school for recording (phenological) observa- tions. Its purpose should be explained, and the pupils of ail grades should be encouraged to assist in gathering data. (For sample chart and explanation see Appendix.) Kvery pupil of this grade should have a garden either at school or at home. Gathering vacation crops, clearing away rubbish, prepar- ing and fertilizing the soul, and planting fall and winter crops should occupy the attention of the pupils. Crops should be planted that can be consumed or gathered in time for planting early spring gar- dens. (For suggested crops see Appendix.) Correlations.—Language: Write descriptions covering practical exercises with plant studies. Drawing: Make drawings of the specimens of wood collected. Colored crayons should be used to indicate proper shade of the dif- ferent parts of the wood. Geography: Make an outline map of the school district and indi- cate the locations of orchards and considerable groups of forest trees that have been given special attention this month. 5394°—Bull. 305—15——2 10 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. History: Have members of the class prepare statements of the facts as to the kinds of forest and fruit trees that have been and are dying out in the community, and, if possible, state reasons. Arithmetic: A simple method for determining the number of feet of lumber in a log is: Subtract 4 inches from the diameter of the small end to allow for slab, multiply the remainder by one-half itself, then by the length of the log in feet, and divide by 8. (1) Find the number of feet in a log 24 inches in diameter and 16 feet long. (2) A tree is cut into three logs each 12 feet long. The diameters for the smaller ends are each 36, 30, and 24 inches. Find the number of feet of lumber in the tree. ANIMALS. Review and continued work.—Population studies of all kinds of animals, birds, and insects are continued. Begin the study of a particular group of birds, say, the wood- peckers or sparrows. Follow this study month by month. Some of the more common woodpeckers are hairy woodpecker, downy woodpecker, flicker or yellow hammer, red-headed woodpecker, and yellow-breasted sapsucker. The following outline is suggested as a guide to group study for the year: (1) General form, size, and appearance of each member of group; (2) color—back, head, throat, breast, tail—both of males and females; (8) methods of each in procuring food and what is eaten; (4) manner of climbing and descending trees; (5) use of beak. What is the drum, and how and when used? (6) Holes—kinds of trees, location, extent, uses; (7) manner of flight; (8) resident or migrant, time of arriving and leay- ing; (9) places frequented—woods, fields, yards, swamps; (10) kinds of songs, notes, etc.; (11) useful, how? Harmful, how? Begin a month by month study of a particular group of wild mammals, such as squirrels. The squirrel family includes the gray squirrel, the red squirrel, the ground squirrel or chipmunk, and the woodchuck or ‘‘ground hog.” The following outline suggests observations and studies for the year with any group of mammals it is convenient to consider: (1) General form and size of each animal of the group. (2) Color of different parts—head, back, tail, under surface. (3) Characteristic parts peculiar to each member of the group or to the group as a whole—teeth, toes, and tail. (4) Manner of moving—on ground, climbing and descending. (5) Where they make homes—in hollow trees or logs, in burrows, under banks or rubbish. (6) What places they frequent—gardens, orchards, fields, woods, barns, and houses. (7) What do they eat? Manner of procuring food? (8) Do they store a supply of food for winter, go into a dormant or sleeping stage, or gather food in winter? (9) Are they useful? How? Harmful? How? (10) What are their natural enemies? (11) If harmful, how may they be combated? (Yearbook Separate 491, Use of Poisons for Destroying Noxious Mammals, Yearbook 1908, p. 421.) EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS, il New assignment.—Give special attention to insect pests and fungus diseases of gardens, orchards, fields, and forests. During this month many of these are especially active making preparations to send a large number of pupe and spores through the winter months. In- sects and fungus diseases that are not recognized should be sent to the State college of agriculture for identification. Insects found should be studied to learn their life history; that is, appearance of the egg and where deposited, the appearance of the larva and the proper common name to be used for it (grub, caterpillar, or maggot), the length of time spent in that. stage, the damage done, and means of destroying; the appearance of the pupa or dor- mant stage, places in which found, the time spent in this stage, and the methods of destroying; the appearance of the adult and its common name, the places it frequents, the damage done, if any, where it deposits eggs, and methods of destroying. Have pupils of this grade study and make reports on insects in any stage found during this month im the gardens, orchards, fields, and forests. Parts of plants being attacked should be brought to study the damage done. In the gardens look for cabbage and collard worms, potato beetles; in fields look for the boll weevil, the cotton caterpillar, and the cotton bollworm, the grass or corn worm; in orchards look for the San José scale and the white fly (where citrus fruit is grown); also look for the cattle tick. The pupils should study and report on fungus diseases. Note the appearance of affected parts, the character of the damage done, and methods of combating. Look for tomato blight, potato blight, potato scab, apple scab, apple black rot, apple bitter rot, sooty mold of citrus fruit and shrubs, fire blight of apple, pear, and quince, cotton boll rot, and corn smut. (See Farmers’ Buls. 243 and 440.) Correlations.—Keeping records of studies with birds, mammals, insects, and fungus diseases and describing the damage done by insects and fungi furnish ample material for written work. Best records and descriptions should be given places in class notebooks. (See Pl. IT.) Drawings should be made showing the different stages of the life history of insects, the damage done to plants attacked by them, and the appearance of fungus diseases on plant parts attacked by them. These studies may be correlated with geography by making a map » of the school district showing the places in which damage is done by insects and fungi. This map should be preserved to be filled in with the results of the studies in the other school months. Noting the insects and fungi that are native and those that have been introduced, recording the dates of introduction in the case of those that have been introduced, and writing accounts of damage done in each case are suitable for correlation with history. 12 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Problems based on estimates of insects destroyed by different birds studied, and on the damage done by insects and fungi to the garden, field, and fruit crops of the community can be used to sup- plement the work in arithmetic. OCTOBER. FIRST AND SECOND GRADES PLANTS. Review the work of September. Assigned work.—What garden crops are being planted this month— fall radishes, spinach, onions ? (1) Do you plant radish seed in rows or on a bed? (2) What portion of the radish is eaten? (3) Do you plant spinach seed in rows, on bed, or broadcast? (4) What portion of the plant is eaten? (5) From what are fall-planted onions grown—seed, bulb, set? (6) Are onions planted in rows, on beds, or both? (7) What part of the plant is eaten? Answer similar questions for other garden crops being planted at this time. (1) Are early-planted turnips and fall potatoes ready for use? (2) Bring specimens to school if none are in the school garden. Practical work.—Get some boxes and fill in a thick layer of small stones or cinders, on top of this place a thick layer of loam or leaf mold, on this a layer of clean sand. Set in the sand hyacinth bulbs 3 inches apart each way. Cover the bulbs with a layer of mold, leaving only the tops exposed. Cover with straw or an old sack. Keep in a cool place and water occasionally. After four to six weeks remove the straw or sack, keep in a warm place exposed to morning sun. Water and watch growth. Continue to care for the school or home garden plats. Correlations.—Language: Require pupils to relate the story as to preparing and planting hyacinths; also relate their experiences in their garden plats. These narrations should be reduced to writing. Drawing: Make drawings of sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes, and turnips. Outline turnip and Irish potato leaves. ANIMALS. Review the September bird studies. All of the birds suggested for that month have not migrated yet. Become familiar with their habits before they leave. Assigned work.—(1) Be on the lookout for new birds—(a) winter residents, those that spend the winter; (b) transients, those that are en route to warmer climate. (2) Note the disappearance of any of the summer residents; some will be leaving the latter part of October. ‘MSW Spa Ye aye Sa es EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 13 (3) The following birds are permanent residents: Flicker or yellow hammer, bobwhite, cardinal or redbird, dove, tufted titmouse, screech owl, wild turkey, American crow, red-eyed vireo, white-breasted nuthatch, house wren, brown thrasher, song sparrow, chipping sparrow, English sparrow, barn owl, red-tailed hawk, blue darter (hawk), killdeer. (4) Select two or three of these for study this month. Follow this outlme m studying them and making records: (1) What is eaten this month? (2) Roosting place?: (3) Color of parts—head, breast, wings, back, tail? (4) Hop, run, or both? (5) Character of song—imitate. Practical work.—Trips to the places frequented by these birds are necessary. Make records of observations as suggested in the fore- going paragraph and copy in the class notebook. Correlations. —Language lessons are provided by making records of observations. These notes should form the basis of oral narrations. Drawing: Make sketches of birds studied. Reading: Read to the class stories of the bobwhite and other birds studied this month, found in Farmers’ Buls. 54 and 630. THIRD GRADE. PLANTS. Review the work of the preceding month. If the school term did not begin in September take up as much of the work outlined for that month as is practicable and connect it with the work in October. Forest trees are putting on gay colors and are dropping nuts this month. Take advantage of those attractive features to familiarize the members of the class with the names of such plants. Note the general appearance of these trees and such particular features as bark, leaves, and nuts. Third-grade pupils should become familiar with the appearance of all field crops that are maturing seed. Are there any members of the class who do not know at sight the plants and seed of corn, cotton, peas, chufas, soy beans, velvet beans, peanuts, and sorghum ? Assigned work.—Have pupils report to class the names of garden crops that are being planted at the homes. Onions? How are such crops planted—in rows, in beds, broadcast? When are such crops expected to be ready for use? What parts—root, stem, seed—are used for food? What parts planted ? What fall garden or truck crops are ready for use or to be harvested this month—tIrish potatoes, sweet potatoes, parsnips, others? How and where grown? What parts of the plants are used for food? 14 BULLETIN 305, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Are there any wild flowers or weeds blooming or maturing seed by the roadside or in the field, orchard, pasture, or garden this month ? Answer the following questions and record in the class notebook: Name? Where found? Kind of blossom, if any? Appearance of seed? How scattered—by wind; by animals, by birds, by water or by being attached to clothing of people or skins of animals? Which are harmful? Which useful? Keep accurate records of all plants named and studied. Any flowers or weeds you are unable to recog- nize pack securely and mail to the State college of agriculture with the following letter: GENTLEMEN: I am sending to you by this mail securely packed a plant found by pupils of my, school. Kindly give us the name, and state whether it is troublesome or useful. Very truly, yours, Practical exercises.—Select and mount garden seeds, wild flower and weed seeds maturing this month. (For instructions see Farmers’ Bul. 586.) Plant fall onions in the home or school plats. Care for the young _ plants in the garden and observe their parts—roots, stems, leaves. (See planting table in Appendix.) Correlations. —Language lessons: Short written narrations and de- scriptions are features of practical exercises covering such points as where seeds were found, method of scattermg, and general appear- ance. Garden notes form the basis for short written stories. Drawing: Make drawings of the wild flowers and wild seeds studied this month. Sketches showing the parts of young garden plants should be made. ANIMALS. Renew.—Continue the work of learning at sight the names of all kinds of domestic and wild animals and birds. Keep a record of the birds that leave this month. Some few will seek a warmer climate. Be on the alert for the arrival of new birds. These are of two kinds— those on their way south and those that come to spend the winter. Do they travel in flocks or alone? What do they eat? Among the transients look for the ruby-crowned kinglet and the hermit thrush. Among the winter residents look for yellow-bellied sapsucker, downy woodpecker, purple finch, and phoebe. (See Farmers’ Buls. 54 and 630.) Continue the study of the use of feathers on the different parts of the body—shedding water, warmth, flying, balancing in air and on perches, propping on trees. New work assigned.—The cow is one of the most useful animals and should be given the very best treatment. Study the cow this month to be able to answer the following questions: EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 15 (1) In what way is the cow useful? (2) What things does she like to eat? (3) How does she get food into her mouth? (4) Has the cow upper front teeth? (5) What takes the place of the upper front teeth? Crackled pad. (6) How does the lower jaw move in chewing? (7) Examine the lower front teeth of the cow. Do they seem loose? Can you find a reason? (8) Does the cow stop to chew grass as she grazes? (9) What is the cow’s cud? (10) Have cows as many toes as people? (11) How many true toes has the cow? (12) How many useless toes has the cow? (13) How are the toes of the cow protected? (14) What means of defense has the cow? (15) Does the cow get up on her hind legs or front legs first? (16) How do you call your cow? Imitate. What wild mammals are destroying or damaging garden or field crops this month? Does the damage done justify their extermina- tion? Are they useful for game? Practical exercises.—Watching for the coming of new birds, record- ing the disappearance of the summer residents and studying the cow at home with the view of answering the questions suggested in the foregoing outline will keep pupils busy and interested. All facts learned should be recorded in the class notebook. Correlations.—Language lessons: Ample written work is provided in keeping records for the month. Drawing: Make drawings of the cow’s foot, ear, horn. FOURTH GRADE. PLANTS. Review.—Continue population studies and review the work for September. New work assigned.—Are any of the farmers of the community planting oats, wheat, rye, or clover this month? How planted—in rows or broadcast? Can the pupils tell why these crops are planted in the fall? What are the uses of these crops? When should they be ready for use, if planted now ? What field crops and domestic and wild shrubs are maturing seed and ripening fruit this month? Corn? Cowpeas? Peanuts? Chufas? Soy beans? Pumpkins? Red haws or ‘thorn berries?”’ In case of the field crops, when was each planted? From what part of the plant grown? How planted—in rows or broadcast? How are the different parts of each plant—root, leaves, seed—used? If left alone, how would each kind propagate itself? In case of domestic or wild shrubs, what are the uses of the different parts of the plant? If a domestic plant, how is it propagated—from seed, cuttings, or grafts ? 16 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Practical work.—List all plants studied and record the facts indi- cated in the above questions in class notebook. Collect seed from the different fieid crops and mount and label. Seeds or fruits of shrubs should be collected, mounted, and labeled. In case of fruits they should be thoroughly dry before stormg or mounting. Keep the schoolroom decorated with field crops. Correlations.—Language lessons: Making records of the practical work and descriptions of plants and their uses provide sufficient written work. Drawing: Make drawings of ears of corn, pea and bean pods, pumpkins, fruits, and seeds of shrubs. Geography: Have pupils make a product map of the school dis- trict. Outline the district as accurately as possible and paste on seed of the different kinds of crops bemg planted or harvested this month. Arithmetic: (1) Examine an ear of corn of average size. How many rows has it? How many grains per row? How many grains per ear? How many grains in a pint measure? How many grains per bushel? (2) Add two more rows to the ear. How many grains would these add? How many such rows would be required to make a bushel? | (3) By selecting his seed a farmer added 5 grains to each row on the ear. If each ear has 16 rows, how many grains are added to each ear? From how many such ears would this number of grains have to be shelled to fill a pint measure? (4) From the foregoing statements develop other exercises. ANIMALS. Review and continued work.—Keep up the annual population studies. Before they leave for the winter, classify all the birds that are summer residents according to their manner of catching insects. As new birds arrive observe them carefully and classify them in the same way. The four methods are: (1) Climbing over buds, leaves, and limbs for insect eggs; (2) searching on the ground for cutworms, crickets, and grasshoppers; (3) looking among leaves and branches for caterpillars; and (4) perching in some open place and darting into the air after flies and beetles. Keep records of the work in class notebook. This is the season of abundant food supply for all kinds of animals. Wild mammals are grouped into three classes according to the man- ner in which they make provision for the winter: (1) Those that store up nothing for winter, like the rabbit and fox; (2) those that collect a large supply and store it away in a hollow tree or in a burrow, like the chipmunk or ground squirrel; and (3) those that consume a great EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS, 17 deal of food at this time and lay on sufficient fat to enable them to sleep all the winter, like the ground hog. Study as many of the animals of your community as possible this month and classify them under one of the three heads. Assigned work.—The ant and the bee are quite similar in some respects. They are making preparations for the winter. In the early part of October attention should be given to these busy little creatures. Valuable lessons can be learned by the pupils from their industry and organized efforts. The ant community or nest consists of: (1) Workers, which are wingless, and the ones commonly seen; (2) queens, or females, usually one or few at best in a nest and never seen except at mating time (the queen is much larger than the workers). At first they have wings, but after collecting a colony about them they tear their wings off and begin laying eggs; (3) males, smaller than queens, also have wings, but are short-lived and are not seen about the nest except at mating time; and (4) “‘soldiers,”’ a kind found among some ants which are recognized by their large jaws. In the latter part of September and the first part of October the young queens and males come out of their nests to mate. Some communities or nests of ants should be located and watched care- fully for the purpose of studying the males and queens when they come out. The workers should be observed to note what preparations they are making for winter in the way of supplying food and arranging their nests. (Reference: Bureau of Entomology Cire. 34.) The beehive consists of: (1) Workers, the ones usually seen; (2) the queen, one in a hive much larger than the workers, which lays the eggs; and (3) males or drones, smaller than the queens. They mate with the queens in the fall and then die. Bees should be studied at this time to become familiar with their methods of getting ready for the winter in the way of collecting honey and preparing their hives. (See Farmers’ Buls. 442 and 447.) Practical exercises.—The pupils of the fourth grade must keep their eyes and ears open at home, in the fields, on the way to school, and on the school grounds to learn the things suggested as animal studies this month. The teacher should plan a few trips to the woods and to the home of some one in the community who keeps bees. Let some pupil bring a small bit of honey to school and place at a con- venient place outside the building. Watch the bees that visit it. Correlations.—Making records of the bird and animal groups, and writing stories of the ant and bee provide ample practice in language work, Drawing: Make drawings of the different kinds of ants and bees. 5394°—Bull. 305—15——3 18 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Geography: Fill in the plant product map of the district with pictures and drawings of the wild mammals studied this month. Arithmetic: (1) Some queens lay as many as 5,000 eggs per day. In how many days can a queen lay a sufficient number of eggs to produce a hive of 20,000 bees? (2) One bee can visit on an average of 15 blossoms per minute. How many can it visit an hour? Day? FIFTH GRADE. PLANTS. Continued work.—The pupils of the fifth grade should keep up with the population studies of the various kinds of plants engaged in by the pupils of the lower grades. Have the more advanced pupils form the habit of sending specimens of unknown plants to the State col- lege of agriculture to be named. New assignment.—Have each pupil:make a list of the different varieties of the iate fall apples in his or her home orchard and bring to school a few specimens of each. Learn to recognize the fruit of the different varieties. In studying each variety observe the fol- lowing points: (1) The prevailing size, (2) the characteristic shape, (3) the prevailing color of the skin with the special markings, (4) the thickness of the skin, (5) the flesh of the apple—firmness, color, characteristic taste, and (6) winter keeping qualities. Record in the class notebook the names of all the fall apples grown in the community and the facts learned pertaining to them. Have the pupils prepare a list of all the domestic and wild plants in the community bearing ripening nuts, such as black and Enelish walnuts, pecans, and different varieties of hickory nuts. Have specimens of each brought to school and learn to recognize them at sight. Study the outside hull—color, thickness, shape; the whole nut—shape, color, density or hardness of shell; kernel—general shape, color, taste. Take notice of location in which each kind or: variety of nut prefers to grow. Record all the foregoing facts in the class notebook. Continue studying the particular tree selected on or near the school yard. (1) Make a new outline showing the general appearance of the tree this month. If the leaves are colored this effect should be given to the outline by use of crayons. (2) Individual leaves should be outlined and properly colored. (3) Drawings should be made show- ing all the parts of the seed. Written descriptions should accompany the outlines and drawings. This month’s study should occupy a place in the class notebook. (Remember that the studies with trees are to be continued through the year and all records for each month should be carefully preserved in a well-bound notebook.) EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS, 19 Practical work.—Collecting material for the foregoing studies affords ample practical work. Specimens of all the different kinds of nuts found in the community should be placed in large bottles with large mouths and labeled for future study. Correlations.—Language exercises in abundance are afforded in keeping records and writing descriptions of the work outlined for the month. Drawing: Properly colored drawings of apples, nuts, and parts of nuts should be made. Additional work in drawing is suggested in the study of an individual tree. Geography: In connection with the geography lesson study the uses of the nut-bearing trees of the community, especially walnut and hickory. History: If pecans or English walnuts have been introduced into the community, have members of the class prepare statements cov- ering these points: Date introduced, by whom, difficulties met with in their growth and the general success with which they have been grown. If neither of these nuts has been introduced, have members of the class prepare statements covering the history of the devasta- tion of the hickory or walnut timber of the community. Arithmetic: By counting the number of pecans, walnuts, hickory nuts, etc., in a small measure determine the number in a bushel. Approximate the number produced by some of the trees in the community. Develop exercises on the value of the crops of nuts produced by different kinds of nut-bearing trees in the community. ANIMALS, Continued work.—Population studies with all kinds of animals, birds, and insects are continued. This work should be done in con- nection with the lower classes. The object is to learn to name at sight the animals with which the pupils come into contact. Continue the studies with a particular group of birds as suggested in the September outline. (For a list of the groups of the more common birds in the South and the individual birds in each group, see Appendix.) The month by month study of a particular group of wild mammals as suggested in the September outline should be continued. The insects and fungus diseases studied in September should be continued. The same general suggestions serve for the work of this month. ; New assignment.—Take up at this time the study of the grain weevil in corn and the dry rot of sweet potatoes. Have members of the class bring to school ears of corn and samples of peas attacked by the weevils. 20 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Examine the grains of corn (1) to note the damage done, and (2) to determine the density or firmness of the grains. Are the varieties prolific or large-eared or both? What variety seems most subject to the attack of the weevil? Do the farmers whose corn is attacked . by weevils fumigate their cribs with carbon bisulphid ? Have members of the class bring to school sweet potatoes affected with dry rot. Examine them (1) to note the outside appearance, (2) the inside appearance, (3) the odor, and (4) the varieties affected. Are there any varietes not affected ? Seed potatoes should be carefully examined before being stored and then again before being bedded for the purpose of removing all those that are diseased. Dry rot is caused by a germ and the pota- toes should be dipped in a formalin solution to kill the germs before being bedded in the spring. Practical work.—Getting facts with regard to birds, wild mammals, insects, and fungus diseases afford abundant practical work. All facts ascertained should be recorded in the class notebook. Separate books should be used for birds, animals, insects, and fungus diseases. Specimens of insects should be mounted and preserved for study. (See Farmers’ Bul. 606.) . Correlations—Making records of the class studies and describing insects and fungus diseases and the damages done furnish material for written lessons. Drawing: Make drawings of weevils in different stages and the appearance of corn attacked by them. Also make drawings of potatoes showing their appearance when affected with dry rot. Geography: If a robin nests in New York State and spends the winter in Alabama, over what States must he pass in traveling from his summer to his winter home? About how many miles apart are his two homes ? History: Have members of the class prepare a written statement of the loss sustained at each home from dry rot with potatoes. This account should include such points as, when the disease first appeared, the extent to which it has developed, the loss in potatoes each year, and what attempt has been made to prevent it. In case there is no such disease at any of the homes let the account cover the same points with reference to weevils. Arithmetic: How many bushels of sweet potatoes have been harvested at the homes of the members of the class this month? About how many bushels had dry rot? At the present price of potatoes what is the loss to each home? To the community? EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS, 21 NOVEMBER. FIRST AND SECOND GRADES. PLANTS. Review.—Continue the work suggested for October. Teach the pupils to recognize cone-bearing trees, such as pines, cedars, and spruces. Assigned work.—Have each of the pupils bring to school a turnip and an Irish potato. There. may be several varieties in the col- lection. First name the different varieties of both turnips and potatoes. Record the names of each in the class notebook with a brief description as to shape, size, and color. This exercise should not be coneluded until each pupil can name at sight the different varieties of both the potatoes and turnips. The next exercise should consist of a comparative study of the potato and turnip. Do both grow in the ground? Are both roots? One is a root and one is a stem. Which is the root and which the stem? Which has eyes? What are eyes? Buds? Do roots have buds? Do stems? What other garden plants resemble turnips? Potatoes? Why are turnips and potatoes so thick and fleshy? Why do people eat turnips and potatoes? Why do not people eat cabbage roots? Lettuce roots? Make a list of all the garden plants known by members of the class that have fleshy roots or underground stems. Practical exercises.—Refer constantly to the instructions given in the October exercise as to caring for hyacinths. See that they are properly cared for. Studying the development of the young plants should prove interesting work for the members of the class. Tend carefully the garden plat. If the garden is at home, the > pupils should report weekly as to the work they have done, the progress the plants are making, and what disposition is being made of the matured plants. Correlations.—Language work is provided in recording in the class book facts pertaining to studies of the month. Drawing: Make drawings of potatoes and turnips. Each variety should be indicated by shape and coloring. ANIMALS. Review or continued work.—Continue to look for the arrival of birds that are (a) winter residents and (b) transients. Some tran- sients are on the wing and others spend a little time resting and feeding. Such facts should be noted and recorded. Try to learn the names of all the new ones, both transient and winter residents. (See Farmers’ Buls. 54, 456, 497, 506, and 630.) Dp BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. What summer residents are still to be seen? Make a note of their absence when they disappear. Assigned work.—¥or study select two or three additional birds that reside permanently in the community as suggested in the Octo- ber exercises. Observe them to be able to answer the following questions: (1) What are they eating? (2) Where do they roost? (3) Color of parts—head, neck, breast, wings, back, tail? (4) Do they hop, run, or do both? (5) How do they fly—slowly, rapidly, undulating, soaring, sailing, flapping? (6) Character of song? Imitate. Learn the names of all fowls at the homes of the pupils. What are little chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys called? Grown males? Grown females? What does each kind of fowl like to eat? Keep records in the class notebook. and from school, and during rest periods must be consumed in obsery- ing the birds along the lines suggested above. Some few excursions to particular fields or woods must be made for observation. Make observations and records as indicated in the following outline: Flicker or yellow hammer. (1) Where is the flicker found this month? (2) How can it be told from the field lark—color, flight? (3) Describe the color—top of head, back of sacle. throat, back, tail, wings, ' breast. Color and shape of fend (4) What does the flicker eat at this season? (5) Imitate the sound made by the flicker. (6) Locate a conspicuous white spot. When is it seen? Correlations.—Oral and written sentence making, based on observa. tions with the birds, should be engaged in. Further exercises are. furnished in recording facts learned about the birds studied this month. Drawing: The birds given particular attention should be outlined. Where feathers may be had without injuring the birds, drawings should be made of them. Reading: See Farmers’ Buls. 54 and 630 for selections relating to the birds studied this month. THIRD GRADE. PLANTS. Review or continued work.—With the plant population studies, special attention should be given to cone-bearing trees—pines, cedars, and spruces. Learning to recognize the different plants at sight and EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS, Ze becoming familiar with the eones and leaves should constitute the work. Pupils of this grade should observe the fall crops to be able to distinguish young grains from clovers. They should be able to name at sight the young garden plants. Some specimens of each plant should be brought to the schoolroom for the purpose of famil- iarizing the pupils with them. Assigned work.—Before the weeds and wild-flower stalks that are dying down have disappeared, the teacher and pupils should go out with a grubbing hoe and dig up and bring to school the roots of a Baber of those that have been studied. lace the roots in two groups—those that are paditeliale and thin in one and those that are thick and fleshy in another. Emphasize the fact that the roots in the first group belong to annual plants and are of no further service, and that those in the second group furnish food for a new growth the following spring. Weeds of the first group are destroyed by preventing their producing seed, and those of the second by keeping the tops and the leaves cut back so that food ean not be stored up in the roots or underground stems. Discard the first lot. Take the second lot and regroup them. Put those that have ‘‘eyes’”’ or buds into one group and those that have notinto another. Which are trueroots? Which underground stems ? Look for Johnson grass, poke, Canada thistle, cocklebur, jimson weed, ragweed, crab grass, and ground cherry. (See Farmers’ Bul. 660.) Practical work.—Carrying out the suggestions above outlined pro- vides practicalexercises. Fleshy roots and underground stems should be dried and mounted or stored. Correlations.—Short written descriptions of the different kinds of roots found provide practice work in language. Drawing: Abundant material is supplied for drawings. Young field and garden plants and the roots and underground stems found should be outhned. ~ANIMALS, Review and continued work.—Keep up the population studies. Note and record the names of birds that leave for a warmer climate; also the arrival of new birds. Some are transients and some come to spend the winter. Do they travel in flocks or alone? What do they eat? Do they frequent woods, fields, swamps, orchards, or gardens ? Begin to look for wild geese and ducks, red-winged blackbirds, robins, crow-blackbirds, junco or snowbird. Observations should be continued for the purpose of learning the use of feathers on the different parts of the body—shedding water, warmth, flying, balancing in air or on perches, propping on trees. New work assiqgned.—The horse is one of the most faithful animals, and as the cold weather comes on his welfare should be kept in mind. 24 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A warm, well-littered stall should be provided. He should be fed, watered, and brushed with regularity. Study the horse this month to learn the following interesting things about him: (1) In what way is the horse useful? (2) What does he like to eat? (3) How dees he get food into his mouth? (4) Does the horse chew his food betore swallowing? (5) How many toes has the horse? One? (6) The horse walks on the end of his middle toe. (7) The nail has grown all around the end of his toe—what is this called? (8) Why does the horse wear iron shoes? (9) What is indicated when the horse (1) points his ears forward; (2) backward? (10) Can the disposition of the horse be told by the expression of his eye? (11) Why are blinders put on horses? (12) Which part of the horse lies down first? (13) Which part gets up first? (14) How do the horse’slegsmove in walking? Trotting? Pacing? Running? (15) What is meant by saying a horse is 15 hands high? (16) How does a horse defend or protect himself? Biting, pawing, kicking, running. (17) Why does a horse shy? - How cured? (18) What sounds does a horse make and for what purposes? (19) What do you think of a person who leaves his horse standing hitched in in the cold without a blanket? (20) Compare the horse and cow as to their feet, manner of eating, and their teeth. Continue the study with harmful wild mammals. Note the damage done to field, garden, and orchard. In each case when is the damage done—during the day or at night? Practical work.—Watching for the coming and going of birds, studying the horse with the view of answering the questions outhned, and watching for wild mammals keep the pupils busy. Records of observations should be kept accurately in the notebook. Correlations.—Keeping records of the month’s work and short written stories covering the points outlined for the horse provide ample language work. Drawing: Drawings should be made of the horse’s foot and ear. Outline the horse’s body. FOURTH GRADE. PLANTS. Rewew and continued work.—General population studies are kept up as suggested in the other grades. Review the work assigned for October. Study the evergreen shrubs found in the yards of the community. Have the pupils bring branches, leaves, and seed to school for study. How are these plants propagated, by cuttings or by seed? Should EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 25 cuttings be made this month? Describe the leaves, the bark, the seed. Keep records of facts noted and mount leaves, stems, and seeds. Study young plants—oats, wheat, rye, and barley. These different stalks may be distinguished by observing the attachments of the leaves to the stems. Does the base of the oat leaf have a clasp? Compare the clasps of the bases of barley, wheat, and rye leaves. Which has the largest? Barley. Which the next—wheat or rye? The clasp of which has small hairs? Wheat. Practical work.—Providing specimens of the different plants sug- gested and keeping records of the facts learned with reference to them give abundant practical exercises. Pupils should care for the home or school garden plats and keep the unoccupied ground thoroughly broken or spaded. Correlations.—Describe the attachments of the leaves of oats, wheat, rye, and barley. ope: Make drawings of evergreen leaves and seeds and of erain plants showing leaf attachments. Geography: Develop some questions on the uses of oats, wheat, rye, and barley. The following are suggestive: In what different ways are oats fed to stock? Hay? Gram? How is the grain separated from the straw? In what form do oats appear on the table? Some uses of wheat—straw? Grain? Similar questions with rye and barley. History: Have pupils give a chronological statement of the various steps from the planting of wheat until it appears on the table in the form of bread. Arithmetic: How many acres of oats, wheat, rye, and barley have been planted this fall at the homes of the pupils of the fourth grade? How many bushels each have been planted at all the homes of the members of the class? How many acres planted in all kinds of srain? If each acre planted in oats should yield 5 bushels more than if planted next spring, what would be the increased yield ? ANIMALS. Renew and continued work.—Classify the new birds as they arrive according to their manner of catching insects. See October exercise for directions. Keep a record of notes in the class book. Continue the study of wild mammals to learn their methods of making provision for the winter. Many continue to provide winter supplies during this month. See October exercise for suggestions. Assigned work.—The cottontail is one of the wild mammals that do not hibernate in winter. It feeds on grasses, clovers, vegetables, and other herbs in the spring, summer, nits fall, but sometimes it’ is 5394°—Bull. 305—15 26 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. necessary for it to eat the green bark of young fruit trees in winter. Study cottontails to be able to answer the following questions: (1) What kind of track does the cottontail make? Can you tell which way i is going? (2) What time of day does it move about? (3) How does it spend the day? (4) What are the two most noticeable peculiarities of the rabbit? (Hars, hind legs.) (5) How does the rabbit hold its ears—when resting? When startled? When not certain about the direction of the noise? When running? (6) How does the rabbit move its head to detect a scent? Observe and explain movements of its nostrils. Note the upper lip, the teeth, whiskers— uses? HEyes—why so placed? (7) Compare front and hind legs. How do they differ and why? Front and hind feet. (8) Describe the coat. How does the rabbit escape being seen? What is meant by a rabbit ‘‘freezing’’? (9) What kind of nest has the cottontail? Whatitisit called? Form. (10) What are some of the cottontail’s enemies? How does it escape them? Do rabbits fight? How? How do they show anger? With which foot do they stamp? (11) What do cottontails eat at this season of the year? (12) Let some member of the class capture a cottontail in a box trap and bring it to school in a wire cage for study. Are there white rabbits at any of the homes of the community? Compare the white rabbit and the cotton- tail. Spiders are engineers. They build suspension bridges, aeroplanes, and balloons. They are of great value to man since they destroy millions of injurious insects every year, such as flies, mosquitoes, bugs, and grasshoppers. There is not so much danger from their bite as is often thought. Study cobwebs in the school building and in the homes this month to learn the following facts: (1) Is the web a sheet or a mass of crisscross tangled threads? How are the threads held in place? (2) What is the purpose of the web? Describe the place where the spider hides. (3) Entangle a fly or other insect in the web and watch the spider. What does he do with the fly? (4) Imprison a spider in a small bottle. Examine carefully to note the number of legs, sections of the body, and pairs of eyes. Practical work.—Looking for and recording facts concerning new birds and wild mammals, and studying and recording facts with reference to the cottontail and house spider give an abundance of class work. At least one cottontail and a number of house spiders should be made captive and brought to school. Some member of the class should make a box trap and catch a rabbit for study. He should be put into a small cage made of chicken wire and brought to school. Do not keep him in captivity long. The spiders should be placed in EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 27 small bottles and brought to school for study. The web can be studied either at home or at school. Correlations.—Recording the facts outlined for the study of the rabbit and the spider and writing stories about them give interesting written exercises. Drawing: Drawings should be made of the cottontail, its ear, front and hind foot. Representations of webs and spiders should be made. Reading: Have the class read selections from Farmers’ Bul. 496. Geography: Some interesting facts may be brought out by develop- ing questions similar to the following: (1) Where does the cottontail make its home or form? (Forest, fields, gardens.) (2) What does it eat? (3) Does it store up food for winter? (4) Isits home or form near to or remote from its source of food supply? (5) What relation is there between its color and its safety? Its speed and its safety? (6) The cottontail has many enemies and it is very prolific—is there any relation between these two facts? FIFTH GRADE. PLANTS. Continued work.—Practice in recognizing at sight the various plants of the community as they appear this month should be made profitable exercises. To become proficient in recognizing the different varieties of apples it may be necessary to continue practice in this work. See suggestions in October exercise. _ Assigned work.—Special attention should be given to cone-bearing plants—pines, cedars, and spruces. How are these trees alike? Unlike? Compare them as to size, shape, kinds of bark, leaves, cones or seed balls, uses. | Select a striking pine tree and study it according to the following outline: (1) Is it like the other pines of the community? (2) Kind of bark—ridged or scaly? (3) Foliage—where borne, color, number of needlesin bundle. Appearance of single needle. (4) Cone—kinds, where borne, arrangement of scales. (5) Scale—size, shape, location of seed, means of scattering seed. (6) How long do pine trees live? Count the rings of a pine stump or the end of a pine cut. (7) Uses of pines—wood? Sap? Continue the studies with the tree selected for the year. (1) Make a new outline showing the appearance of the tree at this time. Are the leaves brown? Wave some been shed and does the tree look ragged? Have the leaves been shed and is the tree bare? (2) What has become of the seeds? Tow are they scattered? 3) Make drawings and write brief descriptions covering the above suggestions. 28 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In the far South special attention should be given to the ripening citrus fruit. Hereis abundant material for a month’s work comparing oranges, lemons, kumquats, and grapefruit. Practical work.—Froviding apples, bark, leaves, cones, and making observations called for in the foregoing exercises and keeping records in the notebooks furnish practical work. Look after a school or home garden plat. Care for the crops and keep vacant ground in good condition for early spring crops. Correlations —Writing records and descriptions of the plants sug- gested for study provide language exercises. Drawing: Outline a pine tree, a cone, a scale, a seed, a bundle of needles, a singie needle. Geography: Have pupils prepare a statement as to the locations of the different cone-bearing plants in the community. Where do the different kinds of pime grow—long-leaf, short-leaf, loblolly? Where do the cedars grow? Spruce, if any? Peculiarities of the various locations should be noted. History: Have members of the class write statements giving the history of the pine-timber industry in the community for the past 10 years. . Arithmetic: Use the rule given on page 10 to find the number of board feet in logs of various dimensions suggested by pupils. ANIMALS. Continued work.—Learn the names of the new birds that come to the community this month. Do any of them belong to the particalar sroup selected for study during the year? Continue the studies with this group. For suggestions see September exercise. (For lists of groups and individuals of each see Appendix.) These additional facts with reference to the individual members of the group should be noted: (1) Appearance—alert, pensive. (2) Disposition—social, solitary, wary, unsuspicious. (3) Flight—slow, rapid, direct, undulating, soaring, sailing, flapping. The studies with the particular group of wild mammals is con- tinued. Follow the suggestions in the September exercise. Which members of the group go into winter quarters? If the squirrel group is being studied, compare the methods of hibernating of the chipmunk or ground squirrel and the woodchuck or ground hog. Both usually live in the ground and both bore two or more openings to their burrows—one stores up food in its burrow to eat during the winter, and the other gets fat and goes to sleep. assigned work.—No insect is of greater economic importance to the southern farmers than the boll weevil. In a very short time it EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 29 will have covered the entire area of this section. The best authorities ' maintain that winter is one of the most important seasons for com- bating this injurious pest. For these reasons it is very important that the study of insects should include some work with the boll weevil during this month. (1) Look for the weevil (a) in cracked bolls, (b) in empty burs, (c) under trash and grasses in the field, (d) in cracks in the soil, and (e) in Spanish moss. (2) Does the weevil hibernate in the pupal stage or in the adult state? (3) Does it show evidences of being alive when found? (4) What means of destroying the weevils in such winter quarters suggest themselves—cutting and burning stalks ? Raking and burning the rubbish and grass? Breaking the land? (5) Store some weevils in bottles in a cool place. Do they die during the winter? If not, note when they become active in the spring. Have members of the class find and bring to school potatoes affected with soft rot. Study them after this outline: (1) How does affected part appear? (2) Can black mold be seen on the potatoes? Is this the cause of the rot? Is this the mold seen on bread? (3) What kind of odor do affected potatoes have? (4) Have the rotting potatoes bruised or cut places? Should bruised or cut potatoes be stored? (5) Are there indications of ‘“‘sweating” or moisture on other stored potatoes? (6) Can soft rot be prevented? How? (7) What varieties suffer least? Most? Practical work.—Searching for boll weevils and potatoes with soft rot and making observations with mammals and birds as suggested give interesting practical work. Boll weevils should be examined and destroyed, and records should be made of all work in notebooks. Correlations.—The teacher should experience no difficulty in finding ample material for written work. Drawing: Make drawings of boll weevils, and potatoes affected with soft rot. History: Read pages 3 and 4, Farmers’ Bul. 548. Arithmetic: If a pair of boll weevils produce a progeny of 10,000,000 individuals in one year, estimate the number that would be pre- vented if by raking and burning rubbish on an acre of land six hiber- nating insects should be destroyed. Develop problems for the areas in cotton at the different homes in the class; for the cotton acreage of the community. 30 BULLETIN 305, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, DECEMBER. (Plate IV.) To TEACHERS.—The accompanying calendar is a suggestion for the winter months. FIRST AND SECOND GRADES. PLANTS. Review the lesson with potatoes and turnips. Observe the trees. Note their condition at this season and compare with earlier months. Teach the pupils to recognize winter evergreens such as holly, bay, laurel (ivy), mistletoe, and magnolia. Assigned work.—There should be growing in the school or home gardens spinach, collards, lettuce, and possibly cabbage. If these plants are not found in the school garden one or more specimens of each should be brought to school for study and comparison. If different varieties are grown a sample of each variety should be brought. Direct the attention of the pupils along the following lines: (1) Examine the roots, stems, and leaves. (2) What part of each plant is used as food—roots, stems, leaves? (3) The leaves of which form compact heads—cabbage, collards, lettuce, spinach? Do all varieties of lettuce form heads? (4) How may cabbage be distin- guished from collards? From lettuce? (5) How may lettuce be distinguished from spinach? (6) Have the pupils name all the garden plants that they know, the leaves of which are used as food. Practical work.—Providing the material for the foregoing lessons affords interesting work. Follow instructions given in the.October exercise as to the care of the hyacinths. Have the members of this grade grow some Chinese sacred narcissus or lily plants to give as Christmas presents to their mothers and friends. Observe the following directions: (1) Have each pupil secure a glass dish or crock 3 inches deep and 6 inches in diameter. (2) Secure two large bulbs from seed store. Cut away shallowly the hard skin at the top of the bulbs, being careful not to injure the leaf growth. (3) Get some coarse pebbles. Puta layer 1 inch deep in the dish. Set bulbs? on this layer. Fill in around bulbs with pebbles until dish is filled. (4) Put in sufficient water to cover lower half of bulbs. As bulbs continue to grow add more water. After bulbs have grown sufficiently high, fill dish each day with warm water. Pour water in gently on one side and let it flow out on the other side until there has been an entire change of water. (5) Keep dish in warm place away from sun for two weeks, then give it abundant sunshine. 1 Florists often slit the bulbs vertically around the apex asif to quarter, but cut only about one- fourth of an inch deep. This is thought to facilitate flowering. EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS, 31 Correlations —Language exercises may be provided by relating oral and written stories concerning the vegetables studied and the experiences with flowers. Drawing: Outlines of cabbage and lettuce heads and leaves, and leaves of collards and spinach should be made. Drawings of the bulbs used should be made. ANIMALS. Review and continued work.—Continue the bird studies suggested for November. Take up one or two more of those that reside per- manently in the State. Follow the outline suggested in November. in making observations. All facts should be recorded in class note- book. Learn the names, uses, and kinds of feed of the farm animals of the community. Assigned work.—Observe the junco or snowbird and record the facts learned as suggested by the following questions: (1) Where is the snowbird seen? (2) Does it resemble the sparrow? How? (3) Describe as to color—top of head, back of neck, throat, tail, wings, breast. (4) What does the snowbird eat this month? (5) Can you imitate its sounds? Practical work.—Spend as much time as the weather conditions will permit obtaiming information called for in the studies. Correlations.—Oral discussions and making records furnish ample language work. Drawings: Sketch the birds that have been given special attention. Where feathers may be had without injury to birds drawings should be made oi those taken from the different parts of the body. Reading: Selections from Farmers’ Bul. 630 should be read to the class. ° THIRD GRADE. PLANTS. Review and continued work.—Population studies should be con- tinued especially with domestic and wild evergreen shrubs and trees. Have the pupils bring to school branches of plants being studied. Assigned work.—During this month the time of the pupils of this grade may be profitably spent studying and comparing the weed seeds collected and mounted in the fall. Use the following sugges- tions as a guide in learning to recognize the different weed and wild flower seeds: Note (1) the size, (2) the shape, (3) the color, (4) the kind of seed covering, and (5) special parts for use in diseeminatine the seeds by wind, water, and animals. Practical work.—The work out of class should consist of locating and bringing to school branches of the evergreens being studied. Notes should be made as to the locations at which these plants are found. 39 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Correlations.—Brief written descriptions of the weed and wild flower’seeds being studied and classified should be made. Drawing: Ample work in drawing is provided in outlining and coloring the seeds. ANIMALS. Review and continued work.—So far as weather conditions permit keep up population studies with birds and animals. Look for new birds and study them after the outline suggested for previous months. New work assigned.—The pig is one of the most important sources of animal food. A large number of them are butchered during this month; hence it is opportune to study this valuable farm animal. The following suggestions are given as a guide in making investiga- tions: (1) How does the pig’s nose differ from that of any other animal? Uses—smell- ing, rooting. (2) How do hogs fight or defend themselves? Describe the fighting teeth. (3) Do hogs see well? (4) What shapes are the heads of hogs—wedge? Dish-faced?. Do the ears stand out straight or are they lopped? Is the wedge-shaped head an ad- - vantage to the wild hog? (5) Observe the pig’s hair. Is it thick enough to keep off flies? Why do hogs wallow in the mud? Are they naturally filthy? Do they attempt to clean themselves? When do the hog’s bristles stand up? (6) What does the hog like to eat? (7) How many toes has the pig—true? False? Of what use are the false toes? Can the pig run fast? (8) What uses has the pig’s tail? (9) What cries and noises does the pig make that are understood—hunger? Satisfaction? Anger? Fear? Others? (10) Mention instances to show the hog’s intelligence. Practical work.—Practical work is provided in observing hogs and the damage done by wild mammals and making records of the facts learned. Many important facts about hogs may be learned while they are being dressed. Correlaitions.—Have members of the class tell short stories orally and in writing concerning their observations with hogs. Drawing: Make outline drawings of the hog showing wedge- shaped heads and dished faces. FOURTH GRADE. PLANTS. Review and continued work.—The pupils of this grade should give special attention to the laurel (sometimes called poison ivy) this month. It is of considerable economic importance since its leaves - contain a very active poison. Owing to its bemg green at a season when most plants are not, stock running in pastures or open woods ; ae ee a co ecg celta camera SEES, =P RN A a RE TROT NR AS ng wg OR a NS ee PLATE IV. 4 +4 \ 27 ~ we r A pics OS ae a Bie KI NEAT HM nh ots IRI I ENE, ey 25 26 3) 34 92 9% AG 2! as Y} Waa # 2 q =, g ae & a & —_ oy BLACKBOARD CALENDAR SUGGESTIONS. 28 29 Tisemaesttenstopaicnananiaaisnasalonneenepdanesintietaimaneinacemers mm re \ edn oe aled Uebel tee keed eee Cee a women as AA LLIOIE IONE EN Bs ion clan heist ale Lad he VOT Bed SSE a ee re reer i See BOTS: emia paler Sines {ied > A oe ere aan PU Nise SE ES: es ak eA ORY Bul. 305, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 33 where it is found are attracted to it. Pupils should be taught to recognize the plant and remove it from pastures. The following questions suggest an outline of study: (1) Where does the laurel erow? (2) What kind of soil does it like? (3) How tall do the plants usually grow? (4) What is the shape of the leaves? The shade of green? (5) What other plant leaves are similar? Assigned work.—The pupils of this grade should learn to prepare and “‘heel-in”’ cuttings. (1) What is a cutting? Use? (2) Of what part of the plant are cuttings made? Last season’s growth. (3) Name some plants grown from cuttings—grape, gooseberry, willows, poplars. (4) How long should the cutting be? How many buds should it contain—one, two, or more? (5) Should the cuts be made near the buds or at some distance above and below? (6) What is the bud at the lower end for? The upper end? (7) Should cuttings be planted in December? (8) What should be done with them until planting time? Tied in bundles and buried in trench, bottom end up. (See Farmers’ Bul. 157, pp. 10, 11, and 12.) Practical work.—Secure laurel branches for schoolroom study. Have pupils bring from their homes grapevine prunings to be used in making cuttings. Make cuttings from healthy last year’s growth. Use sharp knife. Let each cuttmg have a bud near top and near base and be about 10 to 12 inches long. Tie in bundles and bury bottom end up in a trench in some corner of the school ground. Does the scuppernong grape root readily from cuttings? They may be readily propagated by “‘layers.’”’ What is a “‘layer’’ ? Correlations.—Language lessons are provided by brief written descriptions of the laurel and written accounts of the steps taken in preparing grape cuttings and layers. Drawing: Require the class to make drawings of laurel leaves— attached to the branch and detached; also outlines of ideal and im- proper cuttings. Geography: Develop questions as to the locations m which laurel and grapes prefer to grow. Compare these locations, showing in what respects they are alike er unlike. What lesson may be drawn from this study with reference to there being a place for everything and (if left undisturbed) everything in its place ? History: Have each pupil who brings a grapevine to the school report the name of the particular variety. Let questions be developed to show the date of introduction into the community, the uses and the relative merits of the different varieties. Arithmetic: Have pupils of the class report the number of grape- vines at their homes. Find the total number of vines and estimate the yield for each vine and the total yield in pounds or gallons Gn case of scuppernong) of all vines reported. «BA BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ANIMALS. Review and continued work.—Continue the study of birds. Watch those of the different groups classified according to their manner of catching insects, and note what the members of each group are eating. Do some of them continue to look for insects and insect eggs in the crevices of bark and under bud scales? Encourage the birds to visit school grounds by placing lunch remnants, broken grain, scraps of meat and suet at places convenient for them and out of reach of cats. Continue the study of wild mammals that provide their food during the winter months. What are rabbits, rats, opossums, and squirrels eating this month? Where do they get their food? At what time do they go forth in search of food ? Offer some reward to the member of the class that first finds a wood- chuck or groundhog burrow. Visit the burrow with the class to become familiar with the home conditions of this interesting mammal. Employ the following outline in a study of the house mouse this month: (1) What is the color of the mouse? Is the color an advantage? (2) What is the nature of the coat of the mouse? (3) The tail—length compared with that of the body; its use? (4) Compare the front and hind limbs; front and hind feet. Can it climb the side of a wall? How? (5) Can the mouse see well? Hear well? Smell well? (6).What are the uses of the teeth? The whiskers? What kind of teeth has the mouse? (7) What kind of food does the mouse eat? How does he get it? Steal? (8) Where does the mouse make its home? Of what material? How do baby mice appear? Can they see when quite young? (9) Mice are great travelers. How do they get from place to place? (10) How many kinds of mice do you know? Practical work.—Make observations with birds and mammals as suggested above. Make a trip to the home of a groundhog. Study it and take notes. Capture a mouse, imprison it in a large-mouthed bottle and study it as suggested in the outlme. Keep records of all observations and facts learned. Correlations.—Write stories about the home of the woodchuck and the habits of the mouse. Geography: Compare the homes of the woodchuck and -the house mouse as to location. History: Read ‘‘Introduction,’’ Farmers’ Buls. 369, How to Destroy Rats, and 670, Field Mice as Farm and Orchard Pests. FIFTH GRADE. PLANTS. Continued work.—Noting the appearance of familiar trees at this season and comparing their appearance with that of fermer months furnish interesting and instructive observation exercises. EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS, 35 Review the work with cone-bearimg plants. Their peculiar method of bearing seed and their great usefulness make them an important group. Continue the studies with the special tree selected for attention this year. (1) Make an outline showing its appearance this month. (2) Have the leaves been shed? (3) Where were the seeds borne the past season? (4) How have they been scattered? (5) How are the seed naturally protected from the cold? New work assigned—Give special attention to other evergreens, such as holly, bay, magnolia, laurel, mistletoe. Compare the bay and magnolia as to (1) general appearance, (2) character of bark, (3) shape, size, and color of under surfaces of leaves. (4) Do they appear to be related? Note the peculiarities of the holly—the leaves and the fruit. The leaves of the holly have spines and the leaves of the laurel contain poison. Of what value are these to the plants? Can animals eat holly leaves? What is the result if animals eat laurel leaves? Study the leaves, fruit, source of food of the mistletoe. Is this plant found on living, dead, or dying trees? Itiscalleda parasite. Why? . Study the holly after the following outline: (1) Where in the neigh- borhood does the holly grow? (2) What is its general shape? (3) How tall does it grow? (4) What are the size, shape, and peculiarities of the leaves? (5) Does the holly shed its leaves? (6) Where are the seeds borne? (7) How are the seeds scattered? (8) Do animals or birds eat holly seeds? (9) What are the uses of the holly plant? (10) At what season is it used for decorative purposes? Why is it so highly valued for this purpose? Practical work.—Ample practical work is provided for in making observations and securing materia] for study as called for in the fore- going suggestions. Make cuttings of willow twigs and store in boxes of sand and keep in cool place. Have vacant garden plats well spaded. Keep clean and in condition for early spring vegetables. Get mate- rials together to make a hotbed for forcing early spring vegetables. (See Farmers’ Buls. 255 and 647.) Correlations.—The material for language work is abundant. Make records of the studies outlined and develop written accounts from these facts. Drawing: Make drawings of the leaves and seeds of plants studied. Make a sketch of the hotbed. Geography: Have the pupils prepare a statement giving the par- ticular locations in the community at which the several plants studied grow. ‘These statements should include the points characteristic of each locality—along streams, on lowlands, uplands, or ledges. Arithmetic: Develop problems on the sizes of hotbeds necessary to furnish given numbers of plants. 386 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ANIMALS. Continued work.—Continue the studies with birds as outlmed for the previous months. How the members of the bird group get their food, what they eat, and what places they frequent should constitute the principal points for consideration. Some members of the squirrel group have gone into winter quarters. Tt is advisable to take up some one member of the group and devote special attention to it this month. The following suggestive outline is offered for the study of the gray squirrel: (1) Where does the gray squirrel make its home? (2) Does it run or hop? (3) How does it go up a tree? Down? (4) How does it pass from tree to tree? (5) How does it hold its legs and tail while jumping from tree to tree? (6) Describe the colors of the gray squirrel above and below. (7) Do the squurel’s colors protect it from its enemies? (8) Locate and describe the squirrel’s eyes? Are its legs long or short? Why? Compare fore legs and hind legs. (9) Describe and give uses of the tail. (10) What does the squirrel eat in winter? Where stored? How does it carry its food? (11) How does the squirrel express excitement, surprise, anger, joy? Note its sounds. (12) How does the squirrel get the kernel out of a nut? (13) How are its teeth arranged to gnaw holes in such hard substances? (14) Are squirrels of any use to man? (15) What damage is done by squirrels? ass bring to school branches of fruit trees—apple, peach, etc., known to be affected with San José (San Hosay) scale. Use magnifying glass to show both the scale and the insect body beneath it. Examine closely to become familiar with the general appearance of affected parts. Study the effect of this scale upon the manner of growth and general appearance of a peach tree. What parts are killed first? Why? Impress the following facts upon the pupils: (1) The San José scale is an insect. (2) Its body is protected by a scale covering. (3) To the naked eye the scale consists of light and dark gray rings with dark spot in the center. (4) Where abundant, scales give an ashy-gray appearance to the bark of the affected part. (5) It is one of the most injurious orchard pests. (6) During the winter months is the time to combat the pest, and lime-sulphur wash is the best spray. (7) Every farm boy and girl should be able to recognize it. (8) Burn affected parts after examination. — EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 387 Practical work.—Trips to observe birds and squirrels are neces- sary. Aiter members of the class have become familiar with the appearance of parts of fruit trees affected with San José scale trips should be made by the class to neighborhood orchards for the pur- pose of detecting the presence of the pest. Correlaiions.—Written exercises on the squirrel and description of plants and parts affected with San Jesé scale furnish language lesson work. f Drawing: Sketches of the squirrel and parts of plants affected with the scale should be made. Geography: Have pupils of this grade prepare an outline map of the school district and indicate thereon the locations of orchards affected with San José scale. History: Have pupils prepare written accounts covering the data of introducticn, the spread and the damage done by the San José scale in the community. Arithmetic: Have pupils report to class the number of fruit trees at their homes that have been destroyed by the scale. Develop exercises in arithmetic as to the loss sustained by the community in this way. JANUARY. FIRST AND SECOND GRADES. PLANTS. Continued work.—Studies with spimach, collards, lettuce, and cabbage should be continued. If young plants can not be obtained in the schocl or home garden a few seeds of each should be planted in a cigar or crayon box and some specimen plants grown for the class to study. Review the work with evergreen trees. Practice the pupils in recognizing orchard and forest trees that are bare. Assigned work.—Under the direction of the teacher let the pupils of this grade start a window box. Observe the following directions: 1. Secure or make a box 7 inches deep, 8 to 10 inches wide, and as long as the window is wide. 2. Bore several small holes in the bottom of the box, place over these broken pottery, hollow side down, then a half-inch layer of peb- bles or small stones, and cover these with an inch layer of leaf mold or fine trashy material. 3. Will with soil consisting of one part thoroughly pulverized manure, one part garden soil, and one part sand. : 4. Water thoroughly and let stand for two or three days, and add more soil if it settles. 5. When the soil becomes mellow so that it falls apart when compressed lightly within the hand it is in the right condition for planting the seed. 38 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 6. Make slight depressions with the edge of a straight board. Sow any of the following kinds of seeds: Petunias, begonias, pansies, sweet alyssum, and geraniums. If a variety is desired, sow two or more kinds. 7. Water frequently m the late afternoon and keep box indoors when the weather is very cold. Hanging baskets may be provided in the same general way. One or more of the following plants with drooping habits may be planted: Variegated periwinkle, trailing fuchsia, wandering Jew, and oxalis. Practical work—Ample practical work is provided in securing boxes, preparing soil, planting seed, and watering and caring for the plants. Correlations.—Language: Talk about the work. Write names of equipment and flowers on blackboard. Drawing: Make a sketch of the window box. ANIMALS. Continued work.—Have pupils collect scraps of meat, mixed grain, and luncheon remnants for the birds. Place these in convenient places about the school yard. Study the birds that visit the grounds this month. Continue the studies with farm animals. Assigned work.—The cardinal or redbird furnishes an interesting topic for study. The following questions suggest an outline for study: (1) Where is the redbird seen most frequently? (2) How do the males and females differ in color? (3) Describe the color of each—head, neck, back, breast, wings, tail. (4) What does the redbird eat this month? (5) Imitate its song. Practical work.—Make observations with a view to answering the questions in the foregoing studies. Find an old redbird nest and bring to school for study. : Correlations.—Language: Have pupils copy in their notebooks a record of the observations with the redbird. THIRD GRADE. PLANTS. Continued work.—The practice in recognizing weed seeds should be continued as suggested for December. Assigned work.—Cooperate with the second grade pupils in pre- paring window boxes. Pupils of this grade should arouse the inter- est of the parents in such work at their homes. | Practical work.—This is provided in making window boxes, mixing the soil, sowing seed, and caring for the plants. EXERCISES FOR SCUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS, 39 Begin preparing the soil in the school and home gardens for the early spring planting. Apply manure broadcast. Spade or plow the soil thoroughly and make lists or beds for the seed or young plants. Lettuce and cabbage plants should be started in the hotbed or in a box kept indoors. For the indoor box use a soil mixture similar to that used for a window box. | Correlations.—Language: Have pupils copy in class notebooks directions for making window boxes. See second grade work. Drawing: Outline window box. Make drawings of seed. ANIMALS. Continued work.—Make a list of all birds seen in the community this month. They consist of two kinds, namely, permanent residents and winter residents. This list should be made as complete as pos- sible. Compare with the list made in September. What birds are missing? What birds are found that were present in September ? What new birds are found that are not in the September list? What birds were seen in October, November, and December that were not seen in September and that are not found now? Classify these groups under the following heads: Summer residents, transients, win- ter residents, and permanent residents. Assigned work.—The dog is the first animal domesticated by man. In many ways he has proved a faithful friend and valuable helper to his adopted master. The fact that the dog in his undomesticated state had social instmcts accounts for the ease with which he was domesticated. As a wolf the dog lived in a pack and when domesti- cated he readily transferred allegiance from the pack leader to his new master. Study the dog carefully this month to learn the follow- ing facts: ; (1) How many useful toes has the dog in his front foot? How many useless? (2) How many of each on the hind foot? (3) Locate the dog’s wrist, elbow, shoulder. (4) Locate the dog’s heel, knee, hip. (5) Teeth—front or incisors, like a wedge; canine or dog teeth, long and sharp for seizing and holding prey; molars or jaw teeth, like scissors for chop- ping meat. Compare the dog’s teeth with those of the horse. (6) How does the dog lie down? (7) The dog barks at his enemy or prey. Why? (8) How is the dog enabled to follow his prey? Examine the tip of the dog’s nose. (9) Name the kinds of dogs that like to hunt; that care for flocks and herds of animals; that watch or guard premises. (10) Does the dog make a desirable companion or playfellow? What tricks may be taught to a dog? (11) What makes dogs fat, lazy, and stupid? (12) Should a grown dog be fed more than once a day? What kinds of food do dogs like? Tow does a dog drink? 40 BULLETIN 305, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Practical work.—Listing birds and studying dogs provide ample work. All facts should be recorded in the class notebook. Correlations.—Language: Making records called for in practical work provides sufficient written work. Drawing: Make a sketch of a dog. Have each pupil make a sketch of the ear of his dog. Compare the drawings. FOURTH GRADE. PLANTS. Continued work.—From the class notebook get a list of the domestic and wild shrubs that have been studied i the class in previous months. Examine them in their bare state and compare them with appearances when studied before. plant seeds in the hotbed to start plants for the pupils of the first five grades. Cabbage, lettuce, eggplants, and pepper seeds should be planted in the hotbed this month. Shallots and cabbage plants started in the fall should be set out this month. Have the pupils of the fourth and fifth grades prepare the ground and sow some sweet peas. Observe these directions: 1. Select the border of the school garden or yard. 2. Spade the soil to a depth of 10 or 12 mches and loosen up the subsoil several inches. 3. Mix the soil with 3 or 4 inches of well-rotted manure. 4, Sow the seeds an inch apart in single rows. Cover 1 inch and BS the ground down firmly. . . When plants are well out of the ground thin to 3 inches apart. 6 When plants begin to run support them with brush or stakes about 4 feet high. 7. Keep soil loose and free of weeds. If soil becomes pee water oe . Cut flowers ae to pee the blossoming period. Page worl with shrubs, seeding hot- beds, planting sane gardens, preparing the soil and planting sweet peas give ample work. : . Correlations.—Language: Have pupils prepare a written account covering the steps in planting sweet peas. ANIMALS. Jontinued work.—The birds to be seen this month are either per- manent or winter residents. The permanent residents have been placed in one of the four groups in previous months. The winter residents should be closely observed and classified. Answer the following questions: EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. Al (1) Of what does the bird’s clothing consist? (2) How are the feathers arranged on a hen’s back? Breast? Neck? Have a hen brought to the class for study. (3) Compare a feather from the back and from the breast. (4) Are both ends of feathers alike? How do they differ and why? (5) Are some feathers all fluff or down? (6) At what age are the feathers of a bird or chicken all down? How protected from the weather at this age? (7) What is a pin feather? (8) How does the hen oil her feathers? Where does she get the oil? Why does she oil her feathers? Have you seen a hen or bird oiling its feathers? What are the wild mammals doing this month? Rabbits? Squir- rels? House mice? How do they protect themselves from the cold ? What do they eat? What damage, if any, is being done by any of them ? Assigned work.—Collect cocoons found on oaks, hickories, and cedars. Cut some open and note the state of the insect. . This is the pupa, dormant or sleeping stage. Preserve some cocoons in a bottle to note the emergence of moths in spring. Give plenty of room and have twigs in the bottle for moths to alight on. (See Farmers’ Bul. 606.) Practical work.—Make the observations and collections provided for in the preceding work and make notes in the class booklet. Ask the girls in the class to provide bottles, and the boys to collect the cocoons. Correlations.—Language: Describe the cocoons and the appearance of the insects at this stage. Drawing: Make sketches of feathers from the different parts of the body of the hen; of the cocoon and of the insect in the pupa stage. Geography: Why do birds go farther south in winter, for food or for a warmer climate? What impression with reference to this ques- tion is to be had from studying the winter residents of the com- munity ? History: Have members of the class relate superstitions concern- ing the screech owl. Let the teacher take occasion to decry these fallacies. FIFTH GRADE. PLANTS. Continued work.—Review the studies with evergreens as outlined for December. Continue the studies with the special tree selected at the beginning of the year. Make an outline drawing of the tree accompanied by a written description. Collect specimens of the bark. Study it and compare it with bark of related trees and those not related. Com- pare the drawings of the tree for the previous months with that of January. 42 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. New work assigned —During this month the time of the pupils may be profitably spent comparing the seeds of different forest and fruit trees. These should have been collected in October and Novem- ber and stored or mounted for use at this time. Note: (1) Theshape, (2) the color, (3) the character of coats or cases, and (4) the kernel of the different seeds. Special attention should be given to the differ- ent kinds of acorns, chestnuts, hickory nuts, walnuts, and peach stones; also orange, grapefruit, sad lemon angi: iEicaaenl work.—Making notes of observations in connection with the particular tree bemg studied and the different nuts, and copying these notes in the class notebook furnish practical work. The pupils of this grade should cooperate with those of the fourth grade in seed- ing hotbeds. Some early vegetables should be planted in the open. (See planting table.) Correlations —Language: Have members of the class write a description of one or more seeds studied, covering the poimts given as in the outline. Drawing: Make drawings of the seeds and nuts studied. ANIMALS. Continued work.—The studies with the group of birds selected for the year should be continued. Have any members of this group gone farther south? Have others come from farther north? How are they securing their food? What are they eating? What places do they beer: , The group of mammals selected for study throughout the year should be given attention. How do they protect themselves from the cold? What do they eat? How do they compare in these respects with other wild mammals? Compare the gray squirrel and the rabbit ? Assigned work.—The transverse borers resemble very much cotton boll weevils. They should be studied for this reason. Examine the roots of cocklebur and ragweed for this insect. Gather the roots of a number of these plants, split them open and look for the insects. Locate and learn to identify shot-hole borers. These are found in both the outer and inner bark of peach, plum, and apple tree trunks and limbs. Their presence is indicated by small holes and gum exudation on peaches and plums. The larvee of this insect may be removed by digging into the bark with a sharp knife at the point where the hole or gum appears. Practical work.—Make observations and take notes on birds and mammals as suggested. Further practical work is provided in searching for endl: Epcaee to identify transverse borers and shot-hole borers. Specimens of these should be preserved. (See Farmers’ Bul. 606.) Correlations —Language and drawing: Write descriptions and make drawings of transverse and shot-hole borers. Sa Se OE ee EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS, 43 FEBRUARY. FIRST AND SECOND GRADES. PLANTS. Continued work.—Care for the window and porch boxes as sug- gested in the January exercise. Begin the outdoor garden work. Each pupil should have a plat either at home or at school. (See planting table in the Appendix.) Assigned work.—Start plants in the open garden. Onion sets, radishes, lettuce, and spinach are among the garden plants that the pupils of this grade should get started this month. Such questions as the following should be asked by the teacher with reference to each plant: (1) How planted, in rows, on beds, or broadcast? (2) How far apart should rows be? (3) How far apart should plants stand in rows? On beds? (4) What quantity of seed is required to plant a 100-foot row? (5) To what depth should seed be planted? (6) When should the plants be ready for the table? Sweet Williams, pansies, sweet violets, white verbenas, petunias, and zinnias are among the flowers from which selections may be made for beds and borders. The soil should be prepared and fer- tilized and the seed planted this month or the early part of March. Practical work.—Caring for the window and porch boxes and pre- paring the soil, adding fertilizers and sowing vegetable and flower seeds provide ample practical work. Correlations.—Language: Have pupils keep notes of their garden experiences such as kinds of seeds planted, date of planting, amount of fertilizer and such items. Drawing: Make an outline slits of the individual plat, also of the boards that are to be used to indicate the location of different kinds of vegetables and flowers. ANIMALS. Continued work.—Continue feeding birds and learning to recognize them. Be on the lookout for transients on their way back north. Note the dates on which they are seen and the manner of their flight. Do they pass on without stopping or do they tarry some time in the community? Look for the following: Wild geese, wild ducks, hermit thrush, and bobolink. Study the dog with the class, using the following outline: (1) Kind of dog at each pupil’s home. (2) Name the different kinds of dogs in the community. (3) How does the dog express friendliness? Affection? Anger? Fear? Shame? Attention?, (4) What should the dogs be fed? (5) What should be done to make dogs comfortable? (6) In what ways are dogs useful? Harmful? 44 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Assigned work.—Among the woodpeckers the red-bellied wood- pecker is one of the most interesting for special study. Employ the following outline in studying this or some other member of the woodpecker group: (1) Where seen most frequently? (2) How do the males and females differ in color? (3) Describe the color of head, neck, back, breast, wings, and tail of each. (4) What does the woodpecker eat this month? (5) How does it obtain its food? (6) Imitate its song or cry. Practical work.—Making excursions to study and take notes on birds furnishes ample practice work. Pupils should make observa- tions at home, on the way to and from school, and at school. These observations should be briefly noted. Correlations.—Language: Record in the class notebook facts learned concerning the woodpecker. Also note dates on which transients are seen. THIRD GRADE. Continued work.—Study the plants being grown in window and porch boxes and give them proper attention. Thin the plants to a stand, carefully remove grass and weeds, water regularly, and do not permit the surface of the soil to bake. A sprinkler should be used in watering flowers. Assigned work.—Begin planting early spring vegetables and flowers. The work suggested for the second grade applies here. - Trish potatoes and English peas should also be planted. Locate and collect specimens of weeds that are beginning to appear in yards, gardens, and along the roadway. Learn to recog- nize them at sight. If they can not be named send specimens to the State agricultural college for identification. Practical work.—Care of box plants, planting vegetables and flowers, collecting, mounting, and labeling weeds furnish ample practical work. (See Farmers’ Bul. 586.) Correlaitions.—Language and drawing: Have each pupil make a drawing of his plat and locate and name each vegetable and flower planted. On the same sheet make a list of flowers and vegetables planted and give the dates, amount of seed, distance between plants, the depth to which planted, and the approximate date each plant should be ready for the table. ANIMALS. Continued work.—Review the lessons with the dog. Continue to note the migration of birds. The following are permanent residents: Klicker or yellow hammer, partridge, bobolink, mourning dove, sparrow hawk, tufted titmouse, wild turkey, cardinal or redbird, screech owl, American crow, Carolina chickadee, red-eyed vireo, EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 45 white-breasted nuthatch, brown thrasher, house wren, song sparrow, chipping sparrow, English sparrow, downy woodpecker. The fol- lowing are some of the winter residents: Red-winged blackbird, robin, meadow lark, purple finch, crow blackbird, yellow-bellied sapsucker, junco, red-bellied woodpecker, phoebe, towhee or chewink. Add others to each list. Note the disappearance of winter residents. Be on the lookout for transients. The following are some of the transients that may be seen this month or next: Wild geese, wild ducks, hermit thrush, wood thrush, bobolink, Baltimore oriole, ruby-crowned kinglet. Note others as well as these and record the dates on which they are seen. Assigned work.—Have the class study the sheep this month accord- ing to the following outline: (1) How many breeds of sheep in the community? Name them. (2) How does the coat of the sheep differ from other animals studied? , (3) What are the enemies of sheep? (4) Do their feet and legs enable them to escape from their enemies? (5) Why are men sometimes referred to as following ‘‘like a flock of sheep”? (6) Do sheep fight? How? (7) How do males differ from females in some breeds? How does the sheep show anger? (8) Can sheep see and hear well? How does the sheep’s eye differ from the cow’s? What is the position of the sheep’s ear? When it is peaceful? When there is danger? (9) Does the sheep chew its cud like a cow? (10) Why does the lamb have such long legs? What becomes of the lamb’s long tail? How does the lamb play? (11) How much of the sheep’s language is understood? Imitate. (12) What do sheep like to eat? (13) For what purposes are sheep kept—wool, meat, milk? (14) What animal is used sometimes to guard sheep? Have the pupils of the class seen a collie? Practical work.—Noting and recording facts with reference to the migration of birds and studying sheep as suggested in the foregoing outline provide ample practical work. Correlations.—Language: Make a list of the different breeds of sheep found in the community in the class notebook. Also record the facts learned about sheep. Drawing: Clip from farm papers and other sources pictures of different breeds of sheep, paste them in the class notebook and label them. Make a sketch of a sheep. FOURTH GRADE. PLANTS. Continued work.—The garden work should be kept up. Trans- plant cabbage, lettuce, and eggplants; sow turnips, radishes, spinach, and carrots; and plant Trish potatoes and onion sets. The soil A6 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. should be thoroughly prepared and well fertilized. Vegetables with small seed should be planted on a ridge or bed. _ Assigned work.—With the assistance and direction of the teacher pupils of this grade should set plants for a permanent screen. The help of older pupils should be secured, but let it be the enterprise of this class. The snowball makes a beautiful screen for unsightly places. If the school grounds are not inclosed, secure California privet plants and set them this month. Make a ditch around the school grounds 10 to 12 inches deep and 12 inches wide. Fill the ditch half full of a mixture of manure and soil. Set the plants in single or double rows 12 inches apart. Finish filling in with soil to the depth that the plants stood in the nursery. Practical work.—The work provided for in the foregoing directions should be done either after school hours or on the weekly holiday. If it is desired to set a privet hedge, one or more of the patrons should be invited to contribute the manure and haul it to the school yard. If the school yard is quite large, one of the patrons should bring a turn plow along with which to make the excavation for the plants. The pupils of this grade should be required to take notes on the several steps in the planting process. Correlation.—Language: Develop the foregoing notes and copy them in the class book. Drawing: Make a sketch of a privet plant showing roots, stem, and branches. Arithmetic: Develop problems as to the number of privet plants required to make a hedge around the school yard; also as to the cost of the plants. ANIMALS.” Continued work.—The study of birds and wild mammals should be kept up as suggested in January. What is ‘‘ground-hog day” ?. Continue collecting and studying cocoons. Store them for observa- tion and study. ee i Assigned work.—Twig girdlers puncture and lay eggs in small twigs and then girdle the twig so that it breaks off and falls to the ground. Have pupils look for twigs of hickory or pecan trees lymg on the ground or hanging on the trees. Note how they have been cut off. Examine the twigs close to the buds to find small punctures. Cut away the bark and determine whether there is an egg or grub present. All twigs lying on the ground or hanging on the trees should be removed and burned during the winter. E Look under the bark of dead or dying pine trees for pine weevils, bark-beetles, and sawyers. Practical work.—Studying and making notes on birds and mammals, and looking for cocoons and twigs provide outdoor work. A number EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS, , 47 of twigs should be brought to school to study in class. Place punc- tured parts in a bottle and watch developments. Correlations —Language and drawing: Make a sketch of a punc- tured twig and the egg of grub found. Accompany the drawings with a brief description covering such points as the appearance of the girdled end, the location and appearance of the puncture, and the appearance of the grub and egg. Geography: Compare the ways in which insects, birds, and wild mammals spend the winter. Some go to sleep, others migrate to a warmer climate, and still others remain active. Give reasons. FIFTH GRADE. PLANTS. Continued work.—The study of the special tree should be kept up. Special attention should be given to the buds. Note the arrangement, on the stem, the outer coverings, and the sizes of buds. Note the condition of the buds of different sizes. Are some swelling? Make notes of all observations. . Assigned work.—The pupils of this grade should assist the fourth- erade pupils with their practical work. The gardens should be started either at home or at school. (See planting table in Appendix.) During the month of February shade trees should be planted on the school ground. Under the guidance of the teacher and with the help of other pupils the fifth-grade pupils should assume the responsibility of this project. Among the trees that make good shades are silver maple, water oak, live oak, and weeping willow. (See Farmers’ Bul. 134, for plantimg directions.) ‘Trees for shade and decoration are of so much importance to the school yard that the pupils of this grade should plan an Arbor Day. The twenty-second day of February is an appropriate occasion. Secure the cooperation of the patrons and make it a community affair. Let a part of the day be devoted to the rendering of an appropriate program of exercises. Practical work.—Gather twigs of the special tree for study in the class. The garden work consists of preparing and fertilizing the soil, sowing seeds, and transplanting the vegetables that have been started in the hotbed. The work in the planting consists of locating and securing trees, deciding on a planting plan and securing the coopera- tion of friends and patrons of the school in providing fertilizers, haul- ing the trees, making the excavations, and setting the trees. Have pupus take notes on the various lines of work. Correlations.—Language: Develop and copy in the class book the notes on practical work. Drawing: Make an outline drawing of the tree-planting plan, show- ing the location and the name of each tree. 48 BULLETIN 305, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Geography: From what locations were the trees for the school ground secured? Did they grow on upland or lowland? Do they require much or little moisture ? Arithmetic: Develop problems: on the cost of trees planted in the school yard. ANIMALS. Continued work.—Continue the studies with the special bird group. Note the coming and going of members of the group, their methods of securing food, the places frequented, and whether they are found in flecks or lone! Do any members of the special group of mammals come out of winter quarters this month? The woodchuck or groundhog? The chipmunk or ground squirrel ? Assigned work.—Pupils in the extreme southern part of the country should look for the citrus white fly. It is found on the plants of citrus fruit, cape jessamine, and privet. The insect is in the pupa or dor- mant stage. It is oval in shape, has a thin light-green case, and is found under edges of bark. Have pupils secure specimens and bring them to school for study. and identification. Store some in a bottle and note developments. By following turnplows this month white grubs, cutworms, and beetles may befound. Pull loose bark away from stumps m fields and collect insects found there. Study to identify them. Send those that can not be identified to the State agricultural college, with the request that the name and the helpful or harmful characters be furnished. (See Farmers’ Bul. 606.) Have pupils examine seed Irish potatoes for scale and blight.. The blight is indicated by the presence of brown, sunken spots on the skin schon into the flesh of the tuber. Affected seed should either be discarded or treated with formalin solution before being planted. Practical work.—Take notes on observations with birds and mam- mals and copy them in the class notebook. Collect, identify, mount, and label insects as suggested in the foregoing studies. (See Farmers’ Bul. 606.) Correlations.—Language: Have all the members of the class write letters to the State experiment station with reference to insects being sent for identification. Select the best one and mail it. Drawing: Make drawings and label the insects studied this month. Rondtine: Have the shee read selections from Farmers’ Bul. 606. Ebene and geography: What connection has the Baltimore oriole with American history? Who was Lord Baltimore? Where did he settle? Why did he come to America? What are the colors of the oriole? What were Lord Baltimore’s colors? Does this fact account for the name of the bird ? Bul. 305, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. MARCH 1} SMIWTFS vy ‘% - _— eS @ : rd e 328 f ‘ a 4 / : 5 P ; if a { : « Baw Y ? j 4 3 H ; eis ; 4 BLACKBOARD SUGGESTION FOR A SPRING MONTH. EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 49 MARCH. (Plate V.) FIRST AND SECOND GRADES. PLANTS. Continued work.—Window and porch boxes should receive careful attention. Water frequently with a sprinkler and do not let the surface soil bake. Early planted vegetables need attention. Stir the soil around the plants. See that plants are thinned to a proper stand. Continue the work of learning to recognize plants that are blooming. Do not permit the soil of flower beds and borders to bake. As soon as the surface soil dries after a hard rain, stir it gently with a hand rake. Keep grass and weeds removed. If any garden plants or flowers grow slowly, it will be well to make an application of liquid manure. To prepare liquid manure secure a barrel, tub or candy bucket, a fertilizer sack, and some barn- yard manure. Place manure in the sack equal to one-half the capacity of the vessel used, tie the mouth of the sack and place it in the vessel. Finish filling with water. The water in a few days becomes dark brown in color. Before using it dilute to a light brown. As the liquid manure is removed add more water. Assigned work.—Sow pepper and tomato seeds in hotbeds or boxes. Water carefully. Germinating boxes may be made by following the directions for making window or porch boxes given in the January exercise. Have pupils bring to the class a few radish, cabbage, lettuce, and garden pea plantlets. Have them name the parts—roots, stems, leaves. Which part in each case is used for food? Why? Compare the roots, stems, and leaves as they appear now. Practical work.—Care for the plants growing in boxes and in the gardens. Keep records of work done. With the assistance of older pupils prepare some liquid manure. If the school has not a hotbed, make a germinating box for tomatoes and peppers. Correlations.—Language: Describe a germinating box. Drawing: Make outline sketches of the plantlets studied, showing roots, stems, and leaves. ANIMALS. Continued work.—This is an interesting month with the birds. Transients are on their way north and the summer residents are put- ting in their appearance. Have the pupils make observations at home, on the way to school, and on the school grounds, and report the names of all birds seen this month. Have “the punille describe 50 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. those that they are unable to name and assist them in naming them. (See Farmers’ Buls. 506 and 630.) Assigned work.—The robin does not nest in the South but it is of so much interest that it should be given special attention this month. It spends a few days in each State on its way north. Have the pupils study it according to the following outline: (1) What is the color of the rcbin’s head? Breast? Back? (2) Where is it seen? (3) Is it alone or in company with its fellows? (4) What is the robin eating? (5) Where does it obtain its food? (6) Have the males and females the same color? (7) Imitate its note. Practical work.—Making observations to learn the names of birds and making special studies with the robin provide field work. Correlations.—Language: Have pupils record in their notebooks the results of their studies with the robin. Drawing: Have the pupils of the class sketch the robin and add the proper colors with crayons. Reading: Read to the class How the Robin Came, by J. G. Whittier. THIRD GRADE. PLANTS. Continued work.—Look after the window and porch boxes and con- tinue planting early spring vegetables. Recognition work with weeds and wild flowers occurring in yards, gardens, orchards, pastures, and along the roadway should be kept up. Any that can not be identified should be sent to the State agricultural college with the request that they be named. Assigned work.—The study of weeds is one of the most important phases of nature study. The pupils of this grade should become familiar with the most economically important ones. The following outline suggests a plan of study: (1) Name the weeds found in the garden. (2) Name those found in the home yard. (3) Name those found in the orchard. (4) Name those found in the pastures. (5) Name those found along roadsides. (6) What sort of root has each plant? (7) Did the weed grow from an underground stem or from a seed? (8) How is it protected from being eaten by animals? Thistles? Prickly leaves? Bitter juices? (9) How may each plant be destroyed? Practical work.—Collect specimens of all weeds and wild flowers found this month. Examine them carefully for identification. EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS, 51 Mount on cardboard and label specimens of leaves and roots. Leaves should be dried carefully between blotting paper before mounting. Correlations —Language: Copy carefully in the notebook facts learned about weeds. The record of each weed should include the name, where found, from what it grew, the kind of root it has, how protected from animals, how it can be destroyed, and any other facts learned about it. Learn to spell-all new names. : Drawing: Make a drawing of the entire weed and separate drawings of the root and leaf. ; Reading: Have the pupils read selections on collecting and mount- ing plants found in Farmers’ Bul. 586. ANIMALS. Continued work.—Review the lesson with sheep. Keep up the study of migration of birds as suggested in the February exercise. Note the winter residents that are leaving, the transients that are passing by, and the summer residents that are returning. The fol- lowing are summer residents: Barn swallow, blue jay, mocking bird, American cuckoo or rain crow, bluebird, humming bird, catbird, purple martin, kingbird, nighthawk, and sparrow hawk. Are there others ? Assigned work.—Have the class study the goat this month, using the following outline: (1) Compare the goat with the sheep as to size, coat, and horns. (2) How do goats defend themselves? (3) Do their feet and legs enable them to escape from their enemies? What are their enemies? (4) What facial appendage has the goat that gives it a comical appearance? (5) Can goats see and hear well? What is the position of the goat’s ears when it is peaceful? When frightened? (6) Does the goat chew its cud? (7) How much of the goat’s language is understood? What does each particu- lar cry indicate? (8) What do goats like to eat? (9) For what purposes are goats raised? Hair? Meat? Milk? (10) What are young goats called? Practical work.—Ample work is provided in making observations with birds and in studying the goat. Notes should be taken while observations and studies are being made. Correlations.—Language: Write neatly in the notebook the names of all birds studied and the results of studies with the goat. Let the facts about goats be woven into a short story. Drawing: Make a drawing of a goat. Collect any pictures that may be found and paste them in the notebook, properly labeled. 52 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FOURTH GRADE. PLANTS. Continued work.—Look after the growing garden plants and con- tinue the work of planting. (See the planting table in the Appendix.) Tomato, cabbage, and pepper seeds should be sown in hotbeds or germinating boxes. Complete the work of setting hedges, permanent screens, and other shrubbery. List the shrubs that are blooming or putting forth leaves. Assigned work.—What field crops are being planted this month— clover, alfalfa, oats, early corn, grasses, other crops? Answer the following questions as to each crop that is being planted: (1) How is the seed bed prepared? (2) How are the seeds planted—in drills, broadcast? What quantity is planted per acre? (3) Ii drilled, are the seeds pianted on beds or in open furrows? (4) How are the seeds treated before being planted—inoculated, dipped in solution to prevent diseases? (5) How are seeds planted—by hand, with seeders? (6) Is fertilizer applied? How? (7) For what is the crop grown—hay, grain? (8) When will the crop be ready for use? Practical werk.--Each pupil should provide himself or herself with a pocket notebook in which to take notes on the work done in the garden and on the facts learned in connection with the plants being studied according to the foregoing outline. The pupils should make inquiry at their homes to ascertain the facts called for. These should be discussed in the class. Have the pupils bring to school a few specimens of seed being planted at their homes. Make permanent mounts of any that have not been previously mounted. (See Farm- ers’ Bul. 586.) Correlations —Language: Weave into a short written story the facts learned with reference to one of the field crops. Record in the class book the facts learned with reference to the several plants studied and also the principal facts in connection with the garden operations. Drawing: Make drawings of all seeds being planted in the fields at this time. Arithmetic: Develop problems on the number of pounds or bushels of the seeds necessary to plant given areas. ANIMALS. Continued work.—The study of birds and wild mammals should be kept up. Some animals that have been in the sleeping state are now waking up and moving about. Among them are the chipmunks, woodchucks, flying squirrels, and bats. EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS, 53 This class has studied birds grouped according to the manner in which they catch insects. It is interesting to note what the different eroups of birds are eating and how they gather food in the absence of an abundant supply of insects. Continue collecting cocoons and storing them in bottles for study as previously described. New assigned work.—The pupils should be taught with great em- phasis the danger from flies. This is the time of year to begin com- bating them. Each fly destroyed now represents thousands later in the summer. All windows and doors of the house should be screened. Study the fly according to the following outline: (1) Examine the fly’s eyes. Do they appear like honeycomb? Are there a number of litile eyes? Is there a dot on top of the head? This consists of three eyes. (2) How many wings has the fly? What is the color of the wings? Are they transparent? (3) How many legs has the fly? Examine the legs and count the joints. (4) What is the color of the fly’s body? (5) Can you see the fly’s tongue when it eats? Can you feel it when the fly eats from your hand? (6) How does a fly clean its head? Front feet? Middle feet? Hind feet? lis wings. (7) How does a fly carry disease? What diseases do flies carry? 48) Where do flies lay their eggs? FIFTH GRADE. PLANTS. Continued work.—A close watch should be kept on the special tree being studied by the class. Note the dates it blooms or puts on leaves. Mount and label specimens of these. Assigned work.—Have pupils prepare a table similar to the follow- ing and fill in the facts indicated by the headings with reference to all orchard and forest trees: Table of plant facts. Date blooms become com- mon. Date leaves become com- mon. Date blooms first appear. Date leaves Name of plant. Orchard or forest. first appear. 54 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Have the pupils collect the following mformation at their homes and report to the class: (1) What fruit trees are being sprayed this month? (2) For what purpose are they sprayed? (3) What sprays are used? Record these facts in notebooks. Practical exercises—Preparing tables and collecting the facts called for in the foregoing lessons supply ample work for the pupils while out of the class. Oorrelations.—Language: Tabulate the facts with reference to trees and write up the observations in connection with spraying. List new words and learn to spell them. Drawing: Make drawings of leaves and flowers that appear this month. Geography: Note the locations of plants that are earliest in put- ting forth blooms and leaves. Are they on hilltops or in low places ? On the south side or the north side of hill or mountain? Give reasons. \ ANIMALS. Continued work.—Continue the studies with the special group of birds. Note the coming and going of members of the group, their method of securing food, the places frequented, and whether they are found in flocks or alone. What members of the special group of mammals are putting in their appearance? What are they eating? Are they providing summer homes? Where? What kind? Assigned work.—The chief reason for studying the mosquito in the South is that one kind (genus) is the means of transmitting malaria. This is quite a common disease and does much to incapacitate south- ern people for efficient work. The idea that malaria originates in swampy or marshy places is entirely erroneous. The disease is trans- mitted solely through the anopheles mosquito. In most cases the disease may be controlled by the use of quinine under the direction of a physician, but the best method is to contro! or destroy the mosquitoes. Have the pupils make a study of mosquitoes, at the same time emphasize the importance of keeping the home premises free from them. These pestiferous insects soon begin to put in their appear- ance if preventive measures are not taken. Instruct the pupils to rid their premises of all discarded tin cans, jars, buckets, and the like, dram pools of water, and fill wells that are no longer m use. Those places that can not.be drained should have their surfaces cov- ered with oil. Let the following outline serve as a guide in the study of the mosquito: EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS, 55 (1) Collect all the kinds of mosquitoes that can be found. (2) Name and describe each kind. (3) Do the males or females bite? (4) When at rest, which kind is short and humpbacked? Which kind stands with hind legs in the air? (5) Which kind has spotted wings? (6) Which kind bites during the daytime? Yellow-fever mosquitoes. (7) Why are outbreaks of yellow fever no longer common in, the South? (8) How does the mosquito transmit malaria? (9) How does malaria affect the farm operations of the community? Would the farmers of the community be able to make larger and better crops if this disease did not exist? (10) Get a small bottle of stagnant water containing wrigglers (wiggle-tails). Have the pupils examine these closely. These are the larve of mos- quitoes. (11) Why does kerosene oil poured on the surface of water kill or prevent mosquitoes? (For information covering the foregoing outline see Farmers’ Buls. Nos. 444, 450, and 547.) Practical ior Collect different kinds of mosquitoes and place them in bottles for study. Have members of the class bring to school small bottles of stagnant water containing mosquito eggs and wrig- glers. Correlations.—Language and drawing: Make sketches and write de- scriptions of wrigglers and adult mosquitoes. APRIL AND MAY. FIRST AND SECOND GRADES. PLANTS. Continued work.—Continue to care for the window and porch boxes. Plant additional vegetables (see planting table); gather those ready for the table and study plants as suggested for the preceding month. Teach pupils the names of all plants that are putting out flowers. Names of plants should be written on the blackboard and copied in the pupils’ booklets. Assigned work.—Have the pupils of this grade plan their part in the early spring vegetable show. Selecting, preparing and arranging vegetables for display provide interesting and instructive work. It is now time to plant some of the later flowers and vegetables such as dahlias, zinnias, cosmos, peppers, tomatoes, and cabbage. Practical work.—There is abundant work provided for in carrying out the suggestions contained in the foregoing outline. Correlations. —Have members of the “elas tell about the things seen at the show this month. Drawing: Make sketches of vegetables now ready for the table. Make simple drawings of flowers and leaves. 56 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ANIMALS. Continued work.—The summer birds are back home again. They have put on their new coats and are singing their sweetest songs. It is now mating time—the happiest season of the year with the birds. Soon they will be building their nests. It is an easy matter at this time to direct the attention of the pupils to bird study. Have the pupils make a list of the birds now to be seen, describe their colors and learn to imitate their notes or songs. Assigned work.—Study the catbird according to the following outline: (1) Where does the catbird build its nest? (2) Is the squall of the catbird like the mew of a cat? When and why is this note used? (3) Does the catbird imitate the songs of other birds? What other bird does this? (4) Compare the catbird and the mocking bird as to appearances. (5) Compare the catbird and robin as to size, shape, and color. (6) What is the color of the catbird’s head, neck, wings, tail, breast, under- arts? (7) What do catbirds eat? What places do they frequent? Practical work.—The pupils are amply paid for the time spent in studying birds during April and May. When going out to make observations they should take notebooks and make a record of the facts learned. In taking notes on birds that the pupils are learning to recognize use the following form: Bird notes. IN ichoaKomoy a ovtxc eae ee me Te US Oe ee ee eRe e ono Goor Wihiere. 866i: ous oer ae ee cae ee anlete oe ae eee Coe ee eee Colors Heade= aes sass Breast ha: shee peek Tab. A Gkee eee Correlations.—Language: Copy in class notebook the names of birds and facts learned concerning them. Learn to spell all new names. Have each pupil relate orally an experience with birds. Drawing: Sketch a bird. THIRD GRADE. PLANTS. Continued work.—Continue the work with plants as outlined for March. Practical work.—Continue collecting, mounting and labeling speci- mens of weeds and wild flowers as suggested in March exercise. Make preparations for vegetable show. Correlations.—For language, drawing and reading follow the sug- gestions for the preceding month. ANIMALS. Continued work.—By examining the notebooks answer the following questions: How many birds has the class learned to recognize this EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 57 year! Name the permanent residents, the summer residents, the winter residents, and the transients. Review the ieton with the goat. What animals has the class studied this-year? Which proved the most interesting? Which does the class consider the most useful? Where there are differences of opinion have the pupils give the reasons. Assigned work.—Require the pupils of this class to make a collection of snails, earthworms, crayfish, daddy longlegs or grandfather gray- -beards and spiders. Place these in bottles and tin cans. Have the pupils study these closely to be able to answer questions with reference to the parts of their bodies, their methods of moving about, how they defend themselves-and what they eat and how they secure it. Many interesting facts may be learned from a study of these little animals. Practical work.—Securing bottles and cans and searching for the small animals mentioned in the foregomg lesson provide abundant outdoor work. Correlations—Language: Have the pupils describe briefly each of the small animals studied. Drawing: Make sketches of the snails, spiders, and other small animals. FOURTH GRADE. PLANTS. Continued work.—Look after the growing garden plants, continue the work of planting (see planting table, p. 62), and gather vegetables now ready for the table. Have the pupils of this grade prepare their exhibits for the early spring vegetable show. Seeds of plants providing temporary screens and backgrounds and of climbing plants should be sown. Four o’clocks and hollyhocks belong to the first group mentioned, and morning glories, ornamental gourds, and climbing nasturtiums to the second. The pupils of this grade should be encouraged to grow these plants both at home and at school. Assigned work.—What field crops are being planted during April and the first part of May—corn, cotton, sorghum, sugar cane? What other crops ? Answer the following questions as to each crop that is being planted: (1) How is the seed bed prepared? (2) Are the seed planted in furrows or in. beds? (3) What quantity of seed in each case is planted per acre? (4) How are seeds planted—by hand, with planters? (5) What distance apart are the rows? How far apart are the seed planted? (6) Is fertilizer applied? How? In what quantity in the case of each crop? (7) or what is the crop grown? (8) When will each crop be ready to harvest? 58 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Practical work.—Use the pocket notebooks to take notes as indi- cated by the questions on crops. Also require notes to be taken on the work that is done in the pupil’s garden plat either at home or at school. Have pupils bring to school and mount specimens of all kinds of seeds being planted at this time. (See Farmers’ Bul. 586.) Correlations.—Language: Copy im the class notebooks the informa- tion gathered with reference to field crops. Drawing: Make drawings of seeds being planted at this time. Arithmetic: Develop problems on the quantity and value of seed of each kind being planted this month. ANIMALS, Review the lesson with flies. Continue the work with birds as to the manner of catching insects. Assigned work.—Fleas are a nuisance and are known to carry disease. Pupils should be taught their characteristics and how to combat them. Have the pupils examine the dogs and cats at their homes for fleas. Have some brought to school in small bottles for examination. (1) Fleas are closely related to flies. How do they differ? (2) Explain why the flea has lost its wings? (3) Is it due to the fact that it subsists on other animals Ete and does not need the wings? (4) Have each pupil tell how fleas are combated at his or her home. (Farmers’ Bul. 683.) Take up again the study of an ant colony. How many kinds are found inacolony? What differences are noted in sizc? In shape of head? In shape of body? What is the character of work done by each kind? Practical work.—Use the pocket notebooks and take notes on the flea and the ant. Bring to school in small bottles a few specimens of each for study in class. Correlations.—Language: Have each pupil write out detailed directions for destroying fleas. Drawing: Make an enlarged drawing of a flea. Make drawings of different kinds of ants. Reading: Read to the class Proverbs XXX, 24-28. FIFTH GRADE. PLANTS. Continued work.—Continue the compiling of facts with reference to orchard and forest trees. Use the table suggested for March. When the special tree being studied by the class is in full foliage make an outline drawing of it. Compare this drawing with those of previous months. EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 59 Assigned work.—The strawberry is one of the most interesting and delightful of the small fruits. Use the following outline as a guide in studying the strawberry plant and fruit: (1) How should strawberries be planted—in rows? How far-apart should rows be? How far apart should plants stand in the row? Is April a good time to plant strawberries? (2) From what do strawberry plants grow—seeds, runners? (3) Examine a strawberry plant in the class. What kind of root—fleshy, branching? Color of the root? How are the leaves arranged? How many leaflets in each group? (4) Examine a strawberry blossom. How many parts are there to the hull or calyx? How many parts are there to the blossom? Is there a green button in the center of the blossom? Are the blossoms found in clusters? Do they all open at the same time? What parts of the flower fall away and what parts remain? What insects visit strawberry blossoms? in what way are they helpful? (5) Examine several ripe strawberries. Are they all the same shape and color? What are the specks on the surface of the berry—seed? Is the berry the same color on the surface as it is within? How many kinds of straw- berries are grown in the community? Name them. Practical work.—Gather data with reference to orchard and forest trees. Bring to school strawberry plants, blossoms, and fruit for class study. Let the members of this class also join in the early spring vegetable show. Correlations —Language: Have the pupils write a description of a strawberry plant, including the blossom and fruit. Drawing: Make drawings with proper colorings of strawberry leaves, flowers, and fruit, both green and ripe. Arithmetic: Develop problems involving the number of strawberry plants, the yield, and the value of yield from a given area. ANIMALS. Continued work.—Continue the studies as previously suggested with the special group of birds. Are they seen in pairs? Are they pre- paring to build nests? Note particularly the locations at which they are most commonly seen. What do such locations afford as to natural protection? Food supply? Nesting places? Review the lesson on mosquitoes. Assigned work.—The 12-spotted cucumber beetle is the parent of the southern rootworm or budworm of corn. This beetle may be found most everywhere at this time. It is recognized by 12 black spots on a yellowish-green background. Have the pupils collect specimens of these in small glass bottles and bring them to school for study. During the months of April and May the pupils should make a large collection of insects. Mount and label these according to instructions found in Farmers’ Bul. 606. Those insects which the 60 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. teacher and pupils are not able to identify should be sent to the State agricultural college with the request that they be named. By fol- lowing this plan the pupils may become familiar with most of the insects in the community. The pupils of this class should secure the cooperation of all the pupils of the school in this campaign for a large collection of insects. Practical work.—Abundant outdoor work is provided in the cam- paign for a collection of insects. For equipment, see Farmers’ Bul. 606. Corrclations.—Language lessons and drawing: Make drawings and write brief descriptions of the principal insects found. APPENDIX. SOME GROUPS OF BIRDS. (1) Thrushes and allies —Biuebird, robin, catbird, brown thrush, and mocking bird. (2) Nuthatches, titmice, creepers, and wrens. Nuthatches.—White-breasted and red-breasted. Titmice.—Chickadee or black-capped titmouse, long-tailed aenlen and Caro- lina titmouse. Creepers.—The brown creeper. Wrens.—House wren, long-billed marsh wren, short-billed marsh wren. (3) Warblers and vireos. Warblers.—Blue yellow-backed warbler, Nashville warbler, Tennessee warbler, yellow warbler or summer yellow bird, black-throated green warbler, Ameri- can redstart, Maryland yellow throat. Vireos.—Red-eyed, warbling, yellow-throated, and white- -eyed. (4) Shrikes, waxwings, swallows, and tanagers. Shrikes or butcher birds.—Great northern shrike, loggerhead shrike. Waxwings.—Cedar waxwings or cedar bird. Swallows.—Barn swallow, eaves or cliff swallow, white-bellied swallow, brink swallow, and purple swallow. Tanagers.—Scarlet tanager, rose tanager or summer redbird. (5) Finches and sparrows. Finches.—Evening grosbeak, pine grosbeak, purple finch, goldfinch or thistle bird, snowbird or snow bunting, and rose-breasted grosbeak. Sparrows.—Vesper sparrow or grass-finch, tree sparrow, white-crowned, white- throated, field sparrow, Savanna sparrow, chipping sparrow, junco, or black snowbird, song sparrow, dickcissel (small ‘‘field lark”), and English sparrow. (6) Blackbirds, crows, and jays. Blackbirds.—Purple grackle, bronzed grackle, red-winged blackbird, cowbird, bobolink, and meadow lark. Crows.—Common, magpie. Jays.—Blue. (7) Fly catchers, humming birds, swifts, and night hawks. Fly catchers.—Phoebe or pewee, kingbird, great crested pewee, least crested pewee, and wood pewee. Humming birds.—Rubythroat. Swifts—Chimney swift or chimney swallow. Nighthawks.—Whippoorwill, nighthawk or bullbat. (8) Woodpeckers, kingfishers, and cuckoos. Woodpeckers.—I vory-billed, pileated woodpecker, hairy, downy, flicker, red- headed, and yellow-bellied sapsucker. Kingfishers.—Belted kingfisher. Cuckoos.—Yellow-billed, black-bellied. (9) Owls. Barn owl, short-eared owl, barred owl, screech owl, long-eared owl, Acadian or saw-whet, elf, great horned, snowy owl, and burrowing owl. 61 62 BULLETIN 305, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (10) Hawks, eagles, kites, and vultures. Hawks.—Sparrow hawk, broad-winged hawk, Swanson’s hawk, rough-legged or hew hawk, red-shouldered hawk, red-tailed hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper’s hawk, fish hawk, and marsh hawk or marsh harrier. Eagles.—Bald, and golden. Kites.—Swallow-tailed. Vultures.—Turkey buzzard, black vulture or carrion crow, and California condor. (11) Pigeons, grouse, and shore birds. Pigeons.—Passenger pigeon, mourning dove, band-tailed pigeon. Partridge and grouse.—Bobwhite, ruffed grouse, prairie hen, Columbian sharp- tailed grouse, mountain partridge, California partridge, and dusky grouse. Plovers.—Ring-neck, killdeer, and golden. Snipes.—American woodcock, American or Wilson’s snipe, gray snipe or dowitcher, marbled godwit, Hudsonian godwit, willet, sreater yellow-legs, upland sandpiper. Curlews.—Long-billed or sickel-bill, Hudsonian, and Eskimo. Phalaropes.—Wilson’s, red, and northern. Rails.—Clapper, king, Virginia, Carolina, black, yellow croke. Gallinules.—Purple, Florida, coot, whooping crane and sand-hill crane. Tbises.—White, wood, bittern or stake-driver. Herons.—Great blue, green, and great white egret. (12) Water birds. Ducks.—Mallard, black, wood or summer, whistler, old squaw, butterball, ruddy, American eider, king eider, and fish or mergansers. Geese.—American white-fronted, snow, Canada or wild, and brant. Swans.—Trumpeter, whistling. Gamuts.—White and brown. Darter.—Cormorant, pelicans—white and brown. PLANTING TABLE. SUCCESSION AND COMPANION CROPS FOR SCHOOL AND HOME GARDENING. FALL AND WINTER CROPS—SEPTEMBER TO FEBRUARY 15. Distance for plants to stand. Seed Kind of vege- Depth of Time of nis per 100 Ready for use table. Roimean Pepeen planting. planting. | “feet or rows, | 2ter planting. rows. plants. Onions........ 1 to 3feet....| 3 to 5inches..| 1 to1}inches.| Sept-Oct. {Seed} nee \ 90 to 130 days. g 3 Run pSeeeeeee 2 to 3feet....| 3 to 4inches..} }inch........ Aug.-Sept.| 4 ounce...... 60 to 80 days. Carrots==2---- 13 to 3 feet...| 3 to 4 inches... Aug.-Sept.| 1 ounce......-| 75 to 100 days. Lettuce....... 14 to 24 feet..| 4 to 6inches..| 4 Sept.-Oct.} } ounce..---- 60 to 90 days. Radishes.-...-- 13 to 3feet...| 2 to 3inches..| 4 .| Sept.-Oct.| i ounce... .--. 20 to 40 days. Spinacheeseee 13} to 3 feet...| 2 to 4 inches.. Sept.-Oct.} 1 oumce...... 30 to 50 days. EARLY SPRING—FEBRUARY 15 TO MAY 15. Onions (sets)..| 410 3 feet....| 3 to 6 inches..| 1 to 1 inches.| Feb.-.-..- i quarts-...-- 60 to 90 days. ILGHROAC) 5 oso55- 13 to 24 feet_.| 4 to 6 inches..| }inch.....-.-- ING). Sons 4 ounce....... 60 to 90 days. eRMATNApS Sees eee 2 to 3ifeet....| 3 to 4inches..| }inch........ Feb.—Mar .| 4 ounce....-- 60 to 80 days. Radishes...... 14 to 3feet...| 2 to 3 inches 2 inchepeaeaee Feb.—Mar .| 1 ounce...... 20 to 40 days. Spinach.....-: 13 to 3feet...| 2 to 4inches..] 4inch.......- Feb.—Mar -| 1 ounce.....-. 30 to 60 days. Carrots........ 13 to 3feet...| 3 to 4inches..| 4imch.......- Feb.—Mar .| 1 ounce...... 75 to 100 days. English peas. -] 2 to 3 feet....| 3 to 6 inches..| 2 inches...... Feb.—Mar -| 4 pint......-- 50 to 80 days. VACATION PERIOD—MAY 15 TO SEPTEMBER. Onions........ 1 to 3feet....| 3 to 6 inches..| 1 to 13 inches.| May-..--- Bee ee \ 90 to 130 days. pebbage ea isiteste 2% to 3feet_..| 2 to 24 feet....| inch........ May-June.| 4 ounce...... 90 to 130 days. IPEPPeL=-= eee. 23 to 3feet...| 1 to 14 feet....) 4inch........ May-June.) 4 ounce..-..- 100 to 140 days. Trish potatoes .| 24 to 3feet...| 1 to 1} feet....| 2 to 3 inches..| May.----- 5 to 6 pounds.-| 80 to 140 days. Pumpkins. ..-| 6 to 8feet....| 6 to 8 feet... 1 to itinches.| May...-.- 4 ounce...-.- 100 to 140 days. Tomatoes. ..-- 3 to 4feet....| 24 to 3 feet...) 4 tod “inch... WEN os S65 $ounce.....- 100 to 140 days. Beets maces. = 2 to 3 feet....| 3 to 5inches..) 4 to linch....| May...... 2 ounces......| 60 to 80 days. Parsnips...... 2 to 3feet....| 3 to 4inches..| 4inch.......- Web ~asoase % ounce...... 125 days. EXERCISES FOR SOUTHERN RURAL SCHOOLS. 63 REFERENCES. The publications referred to in this bulletin may be had as long as available by writing to the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. The following is a list of the references: Farmers’ Bulletins Nos. 54, Some Common Birds; 134, Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds; 157, The Propagation of Plants; 196, Usefulness of the American Toad; 243, Fungicides and Their Use in Preventing Diseases of Fruits; 255, The Home Vegetable Garden; 369, How to Destroy Rats; 440, Spraying Peaches for the Control of Brown-rot Seab, and Curculio; 442, The Treatment of Bee Diseases; 444, Reme- dies and Preventives Against Mosquitoes; 447, Bees; 450, Some Facts About Malaria; 456, Our Grosbeaks and Their Value to Agriculture; 496, Raising Belgian Hares and Other Rabbits; 497, Some Common Game, Aquatic, and Rapacious Birds in Relation to Man; 506, Food of Some Well-known Birds of Forest, Farm, and Garden; 512, The Boll-weevil Problem; 547, The Yellow-fever Mosquito; 548, Storing and Marketing Sweet Potatoes; 586, Collection and Preservation of Plant Material for Use in the Study of Agriculture; 606, Collection and Preservation of Insects and Other Material for Use in the Study of Agriculture; 630, Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer; 660, Weeds: How to Control Them; 670, Harvest Mice as Farm and Orchard Pests; 679, House Flies. Bureau of Entomology Circular No. 34, House Ants. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY V ber ate a rege UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. October 15, 1915 SOME EFFECTS OF SELECTION ON THE PRODUCTION OF ALKALOIDS IN BELLADONNA. By A. F. Sievers, Chemical Biologist, Drug-Plant and Poisonous-Plant Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. HAPORAMEHION a. 4. S525 Fs ks th. Sse 1 | Second-generation plants from cross-pollina- Selection of typical plants..............-...- 2 TEEUOTINS, Sp BIS Be SNS a rena lea pe re 11 Method of controlling pollination...........- 2 | Reproduction of selected plants from cuttings 18 First-generation plants from cross-pollinated Conclusions: 43280 yas se ssase gs coca an eeee eee 19 PALOIS Eee coco ste ayes item rth odes 8 Comparison of first-generation plants from cross-pollinated and close-pollinated parents 6 INTRODUCTION. The improvement of many of our important agricultural crops has been brought about by means of plant selection and breeding, and similar methods are being extended to various other fields of plant production in the hope of achieving similar results. With a few exceptions, the growing of medicinal plants is still in its early stages, and it is a much-debated question whether these plants when cultivated lose any of their therapeutic properties; but with the constantly diminishing supply of many of our important native drug plants cultivation becomes more and more imperative. Also, the quality of some of the drugs on the market has deteriorated to such an extent that improvement is much to be desired, and it is hoped that this may be accomplished through the methods employed by the plant breeder. Atropa belladonna is an important mydriatic drug, the supply of which has been of such inferior quality in recent years that the Office of Drug-Plant and Poisonous-Plant Investigations has been conducting experiments for some time with special reference to in- creasing the alkaloidal content of the plant. The first step was to make a general study of the plant with regard to individual variation 5031°—Bull. 306—15—1 Chey A hth 2 7 BULLETIN 306, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the alkaloidal content; then to study the relation of physical and chemical characteristics—the influence of environmental factors, such as climate and soil—and the fluctuations in the alkaloidal content during the growing season. ‘The results of these investigations have already been reported. SELECTION OF TYPICAL PLANTS. A number of plants were selected which from the data obtained in the preliminary investigation showed typical alkaloid-producing tendencies. Although only those plants which produce a high per- centage of alkaloids are of commercial value, plants of the opposite type, namely, those which produce only small quantities, were also selected, in order to furnish more comprehensive data on the trans- missibility of alkaloid-producing characteristics. An enumeration of the individual plants which were selected from the original lot, show- ing the alkaloidal content of their leaves at the various stages of growth during two seasons, is given in Table I. TaBLE I.—Alkaloids in the leaves of selected belladonna plants during two seasons, at Arlington, Va. Alkaloidal content (per cent). Yield of alkaloids Stage of growth, 1911. Stage of growth, 1912. Plant No. on which selection | ¢ 3 was based. g : % ; c ; el oe ee | ee | eee a S _ 5 S cs) a S o=| 5 oa) o =I 3 ° = > 3 3 ea iS) =) Be Fy DM os 5 Disa ate 4 == 526 - 468 - 497 Uns ee ee 654 - 658 . 656 (Les 442 492 467 ee ESS - 591 - 646 619 a Eero eoone Ol BREE eee 1 eee oe - 409 550 480 ih es eee ee 427 470 -449 Be eo tog ata tine -510 586 - 548 ee a Pee - 685 753 119 i Pepe Cer ee - 650 712 681 lian 's lo iae 60 - 340 626 - 483 eter Be eee 626 «705 666 ee ON ee 492 633 563 Lot and number. Lot 7w, close polli- nated—Contd. 18 Average...... Lot 7w, cross-polli- nated: Average...... Lot 23, cross-polli- nated: Average...... Lot 46, cross-polli- nated: First stage Aug. 19. Alkaloidal content (per cent). Second stage, Sept. 23. Average. Bal) aeseeee cel tneabeacad - 383 - 406 -395 - 369 382 376 451 - 480 - 466 SH Ne aes eid Oot a face. ALVA GSMS E SE OOebe Cans - 480 741 - 611 400 - 366 - 383 332 316 .024 407 Ba! | relate states) <7e 8 BULLETIN 306, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tapie 1V.—Alkaloids in the leaves of first-generation belladonna plants from close polli- nation and cross-pollination of selected parents at two stages of growth at Arlington, Va., during the first season, 1913—Continued. SUMMARY OF AVERAGES FOR THE VARIOUS LOTS. Alkaloidal Lot. yield of parent WMotiGw,closeypollinatedeee=see eee a= esa eer ree = eee High...... WotGwA CLOss-pOllimate daee se ee eens peer ere anne: Aaa ere eee i dope): ObwaWACLOSeyp Ollinalbe (eee eee ae ee ee eee eee sands se06 TMot7w, Cross-pollinated=== “aa. sae ec eee = = ee saa0Osoncos Lot 23, cross-pollinated......-.-.----------------------------- Low.----- Lot 46; cross-pollinated.--_--..-..------------22----22-----<-= _S Goes Average alkaloidal content (per cent). First Second stage stage. Season. 0. 672 0. 701 0. 686 - 586 - 602 - 594 - 095 - 632 - 614 - 618 -611 -615 ADB) | crore - 408 - 407 - 448 - 428 The following year, 1914, these plants were again analyzed. The first picking was made on August 1, when the berries were be- ginning to ripen. experiments, the greatest percentage of alkaloids is present. This is the stage at which, as shown by other The second picking was made on September 5, when the berries had all ripened. Table V shows the percentage of alkaloids in each case, the averages being summarized at the close. Taste V.—Alkaloids in the leaves of first-generation belladonna plants from close polli- nation and cross-pollination of selected parents at two stages of growth at Arlington, Va., during the second season, 1914. Lot and number. Alkaloidal content (per cent). First stage, Aug. 1. Lot 6w, close polli- nated: 1 See ee ae 0. 864 OS eet Sa eeeras -770 Bite so oars cia . 746 (A aehies ores . 858 ons SA erect -771 (i eat Regatta ce 761 Tested GAT EST ea he ase at bol Spa SR cal - 924 Qi area - 916 AT aps tal srok aa - 859 SU pe eens Ra Miele bas eos ala Ae eee ee a eek 1.045 1 I FSS ele eth IN) PO SR Mas AGS oes elites RS Sele ey oe ect fe sede 1D ERS. Ramm eos 646 AG re REO Arad eee Sane SESE Ae ae - 739 TS en ate See - 943, HO eeepc poere - 930 20 SAE ete . 681 21a Ee ee ere . 935 2D ENR AS pee ed 1.016 7A Seed eas Reet oi Yea by Geen 7 Wee ene ends 1.193 20 anno ae 969 PASE IOS 990 PA RENE toes eM. 1.103 PUN Ce ae 976 7A ea os eae ie ee a 797 BO Ese ss - 941 Second stage, Sept. 5. Average. Lot and number. Lot 6w, close polli- nated—Contd. Average... .-- Lot 6w cross-polli- nated: Alkaloidal content (per cent). First Second stage, stage, | Average. Aug. 1. | Sept. 5. : 1.030 0. 783 0. 906 - 902 - 792 - 847 13081: || javs¥esacaleeee eee 1.096 - 908 1.002 1.048 765 - 904 - 860 - 657 - 908 . 744 - 454 - 049 - 906 SORE es ee he SM 3 2 DMD loascmocece 1.169 - 687 - 923 - 969 717 - 843 1.074 - 756 -915 - 990 -575 - 782 - 987 - 930 - 758 - 790 - 565 -677 . 804 - 663 - 733 1. 062 . 647 - 854 dtl . 712 - 741 - 943 . 626 - 784 - 903 .572 - 737 . 810 697 - 733 3929 No ioein Scletone See eee . 728 -621 . 674 EFFECTS OF SELECTION ON ALKALOIDS IN BELLADONNA. 3 Taste V.—Alkaloids in the leaves of first-generation belladonna plants from close polli- nation and cross-pollination of selected parents at two stages of growth at Arlington, Va., during the second season, 1914—Continued. Alkaloidal content (per cent). Lot and number. First Second stage, stage, | Average. Aug. 1. | Sept. 5. Lot 6w, cross-polli- soe contd. Lot 7w, cross-polli- nated: Peer saw on - 992 -672 - 832 745 8S SS O62 Nes esas onal east So: esc ainaie = = - 864 - 596 . 730 Bee) tis. 252 - 810 - 523 - 666 Fie ha cain a « 911 -553 - 732 Cee oso s22. 1.036 - 696 - 866 Me arc oN 568 - 463 -915 Alkaloidal content (per cent). Lot and number. First stage, Aug. 1. Lot 7w, cross-polli- pated Contd: Second stage, Sept. 5. Average. SUMMARY OF AVERAGES FOR THE VARIOUS LOTS. Lot. ROU OW, Close pollinated: 22.7.5 eee eke ce ee ccaeee OV Our, Crops-DOUNatAd, oo). jo ale op oc dieese brine n+ Lot 7w, Close pollinated... 20. oc cece ceca cn ences Lot 7w, cross-pollinated. . . 5931°—Bull. 306—15——2 Pee MU Oy CLODEPOLUIDALOR >. oc ic ecccawcdrctecscceccces EOt2s, Crosepollinateds >. oo. ces aidvindle sc psrj cielo’ : Average alkaloidal content Alkaloidal ceen Cen: yield of parent. First Second stage. | stage, | Season. Bits ig iwesee: 0. 906 0.765 | 0.83: are ae do....- 952 1634 | .793f0- 814 bc SIRI erAGhesdsee . 855 svete) - 804 773 b Pee sai MLO Se b's . 865 -619 | .742f ° eae Low...... .409 -473 | .441 be MLO BSW a ectieiy satan - 497 . 497 10 BULLETIN 306, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. From Tables IV and V it becomes apparent that during both the first and second seasons these first-generation plants dispiay very markedly the characteristic of the parents as regards alkaloid pro- duction. Thus, in 1913 the average percentage of alkaloids found in the plants from the original parent 6w and the parent 7w, which were selected for high alkaloid-producing tendencies, was 0.640 and PERCENTAGE OF ALAALOOS Fig. 5.—Diagram showing the alkaloidal content of the leaves of first-generation belladonna plantsfrom close-pollinated and cross-pollinated selected parents at two stages of growth during the first season, 1913. The percentages indicated represent the average of all the individuals from each parent plant: a, Plants from close-pollinated parents; b, plants from cross-pollinated parents. 0.615 per cent, respectively. On the other hand, the averages from the plants 23 and 46, which were produced from parents of the opposite tendencies, are 0.408 and 0.428 per cent, respectively. Again the following year we find the average of plants 6w and 7w to be 0.814 and 0.773 per cent, respectively. Lot 46 was not picked that year, but lot 23 averaged 0.497 per cent. It will be seen from the tables that the effect of close pollmation as compared with cross-pollination is not as great as would be expected. In the case of 6w the plants from close pollina- tion are on the average 0.091 per cent richer than those from cross-pollination in 1913, and 0.042 per cent richer in 1914. The 7w plants show a difference of 0.001 per cent in favor of cross-pollination in 1913 and a difference of 0.062 per cent in 1914. Figures 5 to 8 graphi- ye 0) 9 23(6) F6(t) TWG) 71) CHG) 6G) PERCENTAGE OF ALHALOIOS Fig. 6.—Diagram showing the average alkaloidal content of all the individual belladon- na plants from each parent for the first season, 1913: a, Plants from close-polli- nated parents; b, plants from cross-pollinated par- cally illustrate these conditions. Sufficient. information has not been obtained to indicate with any degree of certainty the influence of cross-pollination and close pollination on the tramsmissibility of the alkaloid-producing char- acteristic. As .a possible explanation of the ents. large percentage of plants with high alkaloidal content among the first-generation plants secured from cross-polli- nated selected parents, Dr. W. Van Fleet, of the Office of Drug- Plant and Poisonous-Plant Investigations, has prepared the following statement: The arrangement of anthers and stigma in the belladonna bloom and the respective periods of their maturity and receptivity are such as to fit the plant in a high degree EFFECTS OF SELECTION ON ALKALOIDS IN BELLADONNA. 11 for cross-pollination and to almost exclude the probabil'ty of close fertilization in individual flowers. However, the feeding habits of the principal pollinating insects (mostly night and day flying lepidoptera), which visit in turn many open blooms on the same plant, may tend aiter all to promote self or close pollination on a consider- able proportion of blooms on any given plant. If all the seeds in a single fruit should mature and produce plants with a high alkaloidal content or any other transmissible Baca % & 8 SUISIVSS on) \ iy & RN PERCENTAGE OF ALKALOIDS 8s Te Cw 6) Fic. 7.— Diagram showing the alkaloidal content of the leaves of first-generation belladonna plants from close-pollinated and cross-pollinated selected parents at two stages of growth during the second season, 1914. The percentages indicated represent the average of all the individuals from each parent plant: a, Plants from close-pollinated parents; 6, plants from cross-pollinated parents. feature of the seed parent, it does not necessarily follow that the pollen of another individual possessing this feature in a lesser degree might not have a reducing effect on the desired characteristic, as the seeds planted may easily be the result of actual close pollination between different blooms of the maternal plant or even of self- fertilization of an individual bloom. It is but fair to suppose that a majority of the seeds of a given plant may thus be self-pollinated, notwithstanding nature’s adapta- tion of the blooms for’ crossing, unless it has been made apparent that belladonna blooms are not receptive to their own pollen or to that of flowers on the same plant, but must be fertilized by pollen produced by another individual. This conclusion has not been demonstrated by any controlled experiments that have come to my knowledge. 4/00 V9 SECOND-GENERATION PLANTS FROM CROSS- POLLINATION. Up to this point the investigation has dealt entirely with first-generation plants. During the season of 1914 analyses were made of plants Fic. 8.—Diagram showing the which represented the second generation of the original selected individuals. The seed which furnished these plants was secured from the following first-generation plants in the fall of 1913: 6w,, 6Wio; 6W11, 7W5, 22) 23, 31; 3g) 37, 344, 34,, 34,,35,. The plants from 6w and 7w were average alkaloidal content of all the individual belladonna plants from each parent for the second season, 1914: a, Plants from close-polli- nated parents; b, plants from cross-pollinated parents, selected as types of high eee yielding plants, those from 2 as medium, and those from 3 and 34 as low alkaloid-yielding types. The seed was planted in the as at Arlington, Va.,in January, 1914, and the plants were transferred to small pots when of suitable size. 12 BULLETIN 306, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. When the plants were about 3 inches high they were divided into three lots. One lot was transplanted to the gardens at Arlington, Va., another lot was shipped to Timmonsville, S. C., and a third lot to Madison, Wis. The object was to grow at these widely separated locations under different soil and climatic conditions plants which were obtained from a definite source. Data would thus be secured which would serve to indicate whether the transmissibility of the alkaloid-producing quality would be affected by external influences. Furthermore, it would throw some light on the question of alkaloid production as dependent on sunlight, rainfall, and soil conditions, which is a question still unsettled. At Arlington and at Madison two pickings were made of all the individuals, while at Timmonsville only one collective sample was secured from the plants from each individual parent. In Table VI the percentage of alkaloids in the individual plants at Arlington and Madison is presented, the summary of averages and the results from Timmonsville being added at the close. Taste VI.—Alkaloids in the leaves of second-generation belladonna plants from cross- pollinated parents at two stages of growth at Arlington, Va., and Madison, Wis., in 1914. : Arlington, Va. Madison, Wis. Lot and number. First | Second :First | Second stage, stage, Average.| stage, stage, Average. Aug. 18. | Sept. 12. Aug. 4. | Sept. 5. Lot 6w7: Tee as 66 AEC BESR A EERN ESE aA SEES ea aoe 0. 783 0. 461 0. 622 0. 962 0. 956 0.959 De A Nips aye, 542 570 - 556 - 707 813 7 Bisa OF cos 5 CERRO DESEO An cates aaron Haennenes. 488 488) | Reeete es 781 781 Le ae io 6d Ee ORS See ee sees 791 666 728 - 653 653 653 aod Sacee Geese > oa soso cn eeeeseos 414 558 486 . 791 530 710 GREE BES | SS Soy ee SA ee onal sme catee oae 851 851 . 765 707 736 Ce MB Me ST | Se ee ee ee, 574 620 597 . 580 791 685 bo a Se a es sd qe OAT AS Sees 716 646 681 . 599 861 730 O2Ee Pee ens See Re ate Aes we Seen 837 835 836 . 794 583 688 1) 3 Se US Bon SO ao abe Oe AAR ees 554 653 603 - 478 461 470 1 Le Se ey SE ee ey te AS Bean Fa 708 522 615 1.020 727 873 TS See ae ee ee a 674 340 557 1.322 1.027 1.174 1 ae a Oy SOR ate eR ee Boe 695 605 650 . 867 813 840 WU: Ba eae Dee NS pI NE Uo EU AES 8 588 669 628 - 956 908 932 LF se Ste Sietaye, 2) Slciere cee Ss re ee ee ee 525 525 - 538 949 793 Lot 6Wio: 1 736 . 557 . 646 2 653" |Sacaeeeere - 653 3 685 - 829 S(HYS 4 806 . 759 783 5 822 1.068 945 6 762 . 876 819 7 740 - 813 776 8.. 803 - 733 - 768 9. 1. 062 . 908 985 10. 695 - 838 766 11. 905 1.115 1.010 128 752 - 813 - 783 13. 775 - 943 859 14. 554 . 605 579 15 806 752 779 Lot 6wi: Ae SRES Set ORS Uae Ee ha 2 a gy a - 554 - 488 - 521 7 ey Sic Sa Me — at ee a 557 Woes tee 557 GY Eye se eases 573 Sess sah Sees Sak Ne tee Sree 630 636 633 580 759 669 EFFECTS OF SELECTION ON ALKALOIDS IN BELLADONNA. 13 Tasie VI.—Alkaloids in the leaves of second-generation belladonna plants from cross- pollinated parents at two stages of aaowih at Arlington, Va., and Madison, Wis., 1914—Continued. Lot and number. m Lot 6Wi:—Continued. 6 Arlington, Va. First Second First stage, stage, Average.| stage, Aug. 18. | Sept. 12. Aug. 4 Madison, Wis. Second stage, Average, Sept. 5 14 BULLETIN 306, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe VI.—Alkaloids in the leaves of second-generation belladonna plants from cross- pollinated parents at two stages of growth at Arlington, Va., and Madison, Wis., in 1914—Continued. : Arlington, Va. Madison, Wis. Lot and number. First | Second First | Second stage, stage, | Average.| stage, stage, | Average. Aug. 18. | Sept. 12. Aug. 4. | Sept. 5. EFFECTS OF SELECTION ON ALKALOIDS IN BELLADONNA. 15 Taste VI.—Alkaloids in the leaves of second-generation belladonna plants from cross- pollinated parents at two stages of growth at Arlington, Va., and Madison, Wis., in 1914—Continued. SUMMARY OF AVERAGES FOR Eacu LoT, INCLUDING RESULTS AT TIMMONSVILLE, S. C. Alxaloidal content (per cent). Arlington, Va. >, Madison, Wis. Timmonsville, S. C. Lot. : First Second First Second rns . stage, stage, | Average.| stage, stage, | Average. Same Average Aug. 18. | Sept. 12. Aug. 4. | Sept. 5. © A study of Table VI will reveal the fact that the plants showed marked differences in the percentage of alkaloids produced at the different stations. Thus, the general season average of all the plants at Arlmgton was 0.512 per cent, at Madison 0.663 per cent, and at Timmonsville 0.804 per cent. At the last-mentioned station, how- ever, only one picking was made, which may account in some measure for the unusually high percentage of alkaloids found. At Arlington the first picking assayed considerably higher than the second, while at Madison the second picking was richer. It should be remembered, however, in this connection, that the season at Madison is somewhat later than at Arlington. Previous experiments have shown that the plants are richest in alkaloids when the flowering period is over and the berries are beginning to ripen. At this stage the leaves are small but very rich in alkaloids. At Arlington the first picking was made August 18, when the plants were in the stage just described, and the second picking was made later in the season, when the new growth had reduced the percentage of alkaloids considerably. At Madison, on the other hand, the first picking was made August 4, before the 16 BULLETIN 306, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. rich stage was reached, and consequently the second picking, Sep- tember 5, corresponds very closely to the first picking at Arlington 100. GV & © NINN N SSSR hy & F TF 2 7WEWV F IGF © 7W6W ARLINGTON, VA. SIADISON, WIS. TUUTONSVILLE, S.C. Fic. 9.—Diagram showing the alkaloidal content of the leaves of second-generation belladonna plants from cross-pollinated parents at two stages of growth at Arlington, Va., and Madison, Wis., and at one stage of growth at Timmonsville, S. C., during the first season, 1914. FLACLNIACLE OF AULAALOIOS SS TSS ST ST) 3 92 2 7WEW in so far as the stage of growth is concerned. It is evident from the results obtained that at all three stations these second-generation plants show the characteristics of the parents as regards their alkaloidal content. Naturally, there are individual variations, and the plants at one station may be uniformly lower in alkaloidal con- tent than at another station, but the point to be observed here is that at all the stations it is true in a general way that the plants selected originally from parents of high alkaloid-yielding ta fe, daa, roe tendencies show generally a greater percentage of ing the average alka. 2®lKaloids than those from parents of the opposite loidal content ofallthe tendency. ‘Table VI and figures 9 and 10 show iahesdual pecond-een- this very plainly. It must be pointed out, how- plants from each par- ever, that only a few plants were included under es eee > lot 7w;, and this must be borne in mind when Timmonsville, 8. C., studying the averages. soe st seasom, «Tn. order to gather some information regarding the influence of climatic conditions upon alkaloid production, a tabulation was made of the principal weather characteris- tics at or near the three stations for the four months, May to August, in- clusive, of the year 1914. This compilation is shown in Table VII. ad SF 2 7WEW PERCENTAGE OF ALAALO/« EFFECTS OF SELECTION ON ALKALOIDS IN BELLADONNA. 17 “Taste VII. — Temperature, precipitaton, and days of sunshine at Arlington, Va., Madison, Wis., and Timmonsville, S. C., during May, June, July, and August, 1914. Temperature (° F.). Precipitation. Aspect of sky (days). ~ Station and month. itera. | Nise DePaE Daye ote maxi- | mini- | Mean.| Total. Clear. Y |Cloudy. Seat datas from 0.01 or cloudy. ; : normal. more. Washington, D. C.:1 Inches. | Inches. iri ye eee Se Cw eS? 78 55 67 1.72 —2.1 7 14 11 6 SUIT ee ono imine 84 64 73.8 6. 20 2 11 12 12 6 “FELN tees pee eee 85 67 75.9 2.32 —2.3 12 i 12 12 706g! Cees eee 86 66 76. 4 6. 00 1.6 10 10 13 8 GEL 68 ccs SSeS Sel SSeS eee ee eer ae ate LUGS PAN OS ae Penal FA el ee 43 48 32 Fiorence, S. C.:2 Wty werent ateccs se: 87. 2 57.4 (258) E70) Cee See = 2 14 13 4 demeee: fo toss 92.1 68. 9 80. 5 SO SS a lec sea 7 12 12 6 lye nace a2 92.8 68. 5 80. 6 Ss SLE mere a 6 12 16 3 PROSE S Gee cassis cacin = 89.9 69.3 79.6 AS ALON |i Se ayeeaceeearae 10 8 15 8 NG sein ane eel kcerege Gs ol Sel aes a ele PS OS Me ere Dees eet RN KS 46 56 21 es Wis.: 1 69.7 50. 9 60.3 5. 97 2.35 13 9 14 8 SN ERTA Ce pense ook 75. 7 57.6 66. 6 3. 46 —0. 64 14 8 12 10 SLY see cece. 83 64.6 73-8 1.49 —2. 50 8 13 13 5 AR Stececicrrcomciis 79. 6 61 62.5 3. 60 . 39 a il 12 8 LST oe Be | RE a ee PARS ZH ES. <5 sae | ee se. ee 41 51 31 1 The conditions at Washington should approximate very closely those at Arlington, Va. 2 About 7 miles from Timmonsville, S. C.; volunteer observer. It has been claimed by some investigators that dry and sunny seasons will result in greater alkaloid production than wet and cloudy seasons. The data in Table VII will serve to throw some light on this point. The plants from the three localities specified were all grown from the same seed, and it would appear that if the contention regarding climate were correct there should be some correlation be- tween the quantity of alkaloids found and the seasonal conditions. However, in the four months there is a difference of only about 3 inches in the rainfall and a difference of only five in the number of sunny days. It is true that at Timmonsville the precipitation was the least and the number of sunny days the greatest, and the per- centage of alkaloids was also the greatest. It has already been pointed out, however, that only one picking of leaves was secured at this place, which may account for the high average percentage of alkaloids found; and, furthermore, the difference in climatic con- ditions is so small that little significance can be attached to it. It is possible, of course, that differences in soil conditions at the three stations may be sufficiently great to influence any relationship due to climatic conditions which might otherwise be apparent. BULLETIN 306, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 18 REPRODUCTION OF SELECTED PLANTS FROM CUTTINGS. In the fall of 1913 cuttings were secured from the first-generation plants and rooted in the greenhouse. Although the season had been bad and the condition of the cuttings was rather poor, a good per- centage of them rooted and by spring furnished plants 3 to £ inches high. These were transplanted to the field early in May. The severe drought during that month caused a considerable number of the plants to die, although they had developed a good root system. On August 18, when the flowering was mostly over, the first picking was made. On October 12, after most of the berries were ripe and some new leaves had developed, a second picking was secured. In Table VIII are given the percentages of alkaloids found in each individual plant, the summary of seasonal averages being added at the close. Taste VIII.—Alkalotds, at two different stages, in the leaves of belladonna plants grown Jrom cuttings from selected parents at Arlington, Va. Alkaloidal content (per cent). Alkaloidal content (per cent). | Lot and number. | pirst | Second | Average || Lotand number. | first | Second | Average stage, stage, for stage, stage, for Aug. 18. | Oct.12. | season. Aug. 18. | Oct. 12. | season. Lot 6wi: Lot 6wi.—Contd. bes aera Settiois 0. 573 0.491 0. 532 Lethe ees SIRES 0.602 0.613 0. 608 Lot 6we: 11s LEpeteaen eB ave 28 . 871 . 669 -770 We eae ape ae -512 ~525 .517 12: eee eee eee - 801 . 829 815 Lot 6ws:: 132 soe sasee bee - 680 . 420 550 1 StasGe oe anaes |saesasssacd - 520 - 520 | eae > conde Bar abe ones - 630 630 DAs are . 725 - 593 . 659 NG osha AL a 510 . 238 374 Remooesbac7HecccllooeBnoGnoS - 496 - 496 1 Bese Saeuabad nacaeectess - 537 537 QUE peti - 606 - 620 -613 19 ee See eee 6657) <- 5252820 )2. ee cene Gene SSCA OTE - 604 . 488 . 546 — CSS os - 837 . 749 493 Average....-- 687 - 611 649 Average...-... - 693 . 578 - 634 || Lot 6wie PSOE BBE aARb ALE . 624 . 610 617 Lot 6ws: SLAs e AS sep eas - 731 -398 565 Aaa tacree obae -573 -522 . 548 CSE eee omni Pamela cl «445 445 ee SE eer) . 615 - 580 - 997 Bee Peer are ems - 585 . 343 . 464 Average...... 677 - 484 - 581 CE eee ora Me racy . 607 - 478 - 43 SR eee te Uae an Be eee ae: . 589 . 589 || Lot 7ws3: ESrecatrniacrias tel trae 315 315 2. SAE. SPE 477 - 429 453 (Ges anatase Soeeee -973 . 442 - 508 De Hoopes Bec lase eae - 794 794 Sincere eee .516 372 444 Average...... 477 - 611 - 544 Average...-.- - 575 - 455 - 565 Lot 7w4 Lot 6ws Mis SORE - 587 . 567 517 Ne cbGecnoscdeess - 795 . 797 - 796 ARS AOS OHSS SA BO BASS Osesc - 500 -507 Qetse see anes . 745 . 749 . 747 Besar sein gees - 562 - 520 - 544 Ls See eer - 631 - 666 - 648 Average...... .770 50083 772 CRESS Ce eed) CHeeeie GAS OR sca) brsccoGanon Lot 6wo: CIES se Ae 436 669 503 (ew . 770 .516 - 643 ce a a Average.....- - 553 597 575 Lot 6wio J ects eae th - 623 -618 621 || Lot 7ws Sedosbsdessoscas - 660 . 691 . 676 i Seroadadeneded| paepeetace - 569 - 569 7 BENS SO SCE EBTIIES DOE So Aaee - 636 - 636 Average...... 641 654 . 648 A eee Se . 584 - 784 - 684 Da ceesicieiu ise aeles - 837 - 759 - 198 Lot 6wi Gre cessices aes - 734 - 620 -677 1 SBE aembooeeBDS -774 - 653 714 Mieristsisietsisiere cis eis - 639 - 700 - 669 2AnconosdooSeaNe O02) Re cals sieis;e 602 Bi teesckcessecss . 657 578 - 668 De seen eases Si OQOMETs cis ersiearers 598 GpSesprbaceeeoe . 682 - 752 717 Average...... 690 . 664 677 See soneceo Lease - 661 775 718 == ae EFFECTS OF SELECTION ON ALKALOIDS IN BELLADONNA. 19 TasLeE VIII.—Alkaloids, at two different stages, in the leaves of belladonna plants grown from cuttings from selected parents at Arlington, Va.—Continued. Alkaloidal content (per cent). Alkaloidal content (per cent). Lot and number. First Lot and number. Second | Average First Second | Average stage, stage, for stage, stage, for Aug. 18. | Oct. 12. season. Aug. 18. | Oct. 12. | season. Lot 7wio: Lot 343 + jj /3 1S SERS 516 688 . 602 SH 555 Ses eee te D623 0 bass oe ee 0. 623 Petco ect eeee 2 eee 864 . 864 Dp ee ie ee -539 0.596 . 567 776 646 Average.....- 581 596 588 Lot 34; 636 636:||* epReeh eS SS REE 514 439 476 391 445 Ao cae Reet ee - 458 440 449 525 562 - 408 483 Average...... 486 440 463 . 590 596 510 SHR i/ SUMMARY OF SEASONAL AND GROUP AVERAGES. Average alkaloidal content (per cent). Mesloid Lot. yield o 1 parent. Sars For season. aayen SENTAD parent. Lot 6wi 0.532 Lot 6we..- -517 a 6w3..- 5 oe ot Gws.-. Stehats sere: = 5 Lot 6w... 772 0. 616 Lot 6wo - 643 Lot 6Wio - 648 Lot 6wiu . 649 Lot 6Wi2 . 581 ee 7W3. . He Lot 7W4 3 Lot 7ws 1677 0.610 Lot 7wio . 646 LeU LUG +2225 Se See eRe ane See eee” oo See . 537 PU ce oe Ee eee ee eee Se 5. =e Re | ae - 588 0.529 eT ee Ln et es Se ee ee 8 Se etn) SESE - 463 Here, again, the plants from lots 6w and 7w show marked superiority over those of lot 34, the parent plant of which was poor in alkaloids. These plants will be observed and studied carefully through another season, to determine whether the same relationship holds true, after which desired individuals will be selected and further propagated through cuttings. . CONCLUSIONS. It having been established in the previous investigation that a wide range of variation exists in the alkaloidal content of belladonna plants, the present investigation was undertaken to determine whether the characteristic of alkaloid production is transmissible to 20 BULLETIN 306, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the progeny through seed and whether the character is changed by vegetative propagation. The results thus far show that the first- generation plants secured from seed of cross-pollinated selected individuals display the characteristic of the maternal parent with regard to alkaloid productivity. This condition is generally true at all stages of growth during a season and also for at least two suc- cessive seasons. Close pollination of the parent plant has shown only a moderate influence on the transmission of this characteristic. Second-generation plants from cross-pollination have been grown at Arlington, Va., Madison, Wis., and Timmonsville, S. C., and at all three stations they have displayed the relative alkaloid-producing tendencies evident in the original parent plant and the generation preceding. While the plants at the different localities showed a parallel rela- tionship toward each other, there was considerable difference in the general quantity of alkaloids produced. Thus, in the case of Madison and Arlington, where two pickings were made at fairly corresponding stages of growth, it was found that the Madison plants yielded more alkaloids than those at Arlington. At Timmonsville the yield was still greater than at Madison, but here only one picking was made, and it is hardly possible to make a true comparison. Nothing definite developed to indicate that a relationship exists between the amount of precipitation and sunshine and the percentage of alkaloids pro- duced. Plants were grown from cuttings, and at two stages of their growth these plants showed a marked tendency to display the same charac- teristic regarding alkaloid production as the plants from which they were propagated and the original parents of those plants. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V FERS GE Aes Ss Pe PEL ESs Stee ). S98 $Sioer WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER December 14, 1915 TESTS OF CORN VARIETIES ON THE GREAT PLAINS. By L. L. Zoox, Physiologist, Office of Corn Investigations CONTENTS. Page. Page MHEOATICUION. - 20-6025 5- 25625-2555 en ccs see 1 | Time required for maturity ......-.-...-...- 7 Natural limitations to corn production. . ...- 1 | Results of tests of varieties. ..........-.....- 8 Adaptability of varieties ...................-. 3:| (Sumumnanyeof tests’. sesesos - -e- cee scence. 17 INTRODUCTION. This bulletin contains results of varietal tests conducted on dry land and under irrigation at several stations ' in the Great Plains area. These tests have been conducted for the purpose of studying the possibilities of the region for corn production, to study in what ways the climatic influences would affect different varieties and seed from different localities, and to determine what varieties might offer the best possibilities for further improvement and adaptation to the region. The tests have not been conducted for a sufficient length of time to make the results conclusive. They have, however, furnished in- formation regarding varietal differences which is thought to be of sufficient interest to warrant publicationsat this time. NATURAL LIMITATIONS TO CORN PRODUCTION. The chief limitation to corn production on the Great Plains is that of climate. This area is characterized by scant and uncertain pre- cipitation and short, variable growing seasons. The effects of these ) ! These tests have been conducted by the Office of Corn Investigations at Huntley, Mont., Newell, S. Dak., and Mitchell, Nebr., in cooperation with the Office of Western Irrigation Agriculture; at North Platte, Nebr., in cooperation with the Nebraska Experiment Substation; and at Akron, Colo., in cooperation with the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture. At the first two stations mentioned the work has been for the most part conducted by Dan Hansen and Beyer Aune, farm superintendents. At the other stations assistance has been rendered by Fritz Knorr, V. V. Burr, and O. J. Grace. Note.—This bulletin is of particular interest to farmers, investigators, and teachers in the Great Plains area. 6827°-—Bull. 307—15——1 2 BULLETIN 307, erst DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. — influences vary in amount from only slight injury to total crop failure and in extent from restricted localities to extended areas. A year seldom occurs in which as a result of these influences there is not some restriction to the growth and development of the corn plant. In favorable seasons and localities good yields are frequently ob- tained, but efforts to grow corn for grain with the natural rain- fall of this area have often resulted in par- tial or total crop fail- ures. It is to be ex- pected that the same conditions and results willin a large measure continue to occur. In those localities where it has been pos- sible to supplement the natural rainfall with irrigation, corn is raised with consid- erable success. Fail- ures which at first oc- curred on account of carelessness and the unintelligent use of water and from at- tempting to grow va- rieties not adapted to the locality are being corrected as knowl edge is gained from experience. The part of the Great Plains area best adapted to corn Fic. 1.—Sketch map of the Great Plains area, showing the annual d t : = th rainfall (heavy black lines) and the region (dotted section) to P©rOGUCt1ION IS ; which the varietal adaptations of corn discussed in this bulletin north-central section. ees (Fig. 1.) In this sec- tion, notwithstanding the frequent failures of corn to produce grain, the area devoted to its production has increased until corn is one of the most generally and widely grown crops. Corn is less successful in the southern Plains area, as drought injury is more severe, on account of the higher evaporation rate. Corn does not successfully compete in production with the grain sorghums under these conditions, and TESTS OF CORN VARIETIES ON THE GREAT PLAINS. 3 the quality of the crop produced is usually poor, owing to earworm injury. } In the most northern sections and in the high altitudes along the western border, the short season prevents the growing of any except very early varieties of corn, and these reach full EY only in favorable years. ADAPTABILITY OF VARIETIES. Not much attention has been given to seed selection and improve- ment in this area. Established varieties are few, and seed shortages are frequently caused by crop failures. These conditions create a need for information as to what may be expected from different kinds of seed. A The following descriptive list of varieties and results of trials re- ported calls attention to differences which have been found to exist between the varieties grown and indicates in a general way what may be expected from them in different localities. This list includes varieties which have been grown in at least two trials made by the Department of Agriculture in the Plains area. Many other varieties are adapted to and grown in this area. For various localities some of these may be superior to any varieties included in this list. A great variety of colors is found among dent, Aint, and soft corns. ee flint corns white and yellow colors srademimr ie while among flour corns blue and mixed colors are of more frequent occurrence. Dent, flint, and soft varieties of corn are listed separately, and a brief introductory description is given of the importance and peculi- arities of each class. : DENT VARIETIES. The dent corns are more extensively grown in the Plains area than are the flint and flour or soft corns. A considerable diversity of type exists between varieties, and within many so-called varieties almost as great diversity exists as between varieties. In dent corns, which have been grown in this section for some time, there is a tendency toward flintiness or hardness of texture. Whether this 1s due to mix- ing with flint corns or to a natural effect of the adverse climatic con- ditions has not been determined, A greater tendency to sucker is also evident among these corns than among the dent corns of the corn- belt States. This is probably due both to the lack of selection to suppress the tendency and to the stimulus of favorable conditions in the early stages of growth. In much of this region the soils are fertile and usually in good physical condition in the spring. They are light enough in texture to warm up readily and usually contain sufficient and seldom an excess of moisture. These conditions favor a rapid early growth, which is usually accompanied by profuse suckering. 4 BULLETIN 307, U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The discussion of adaptations of varieties given in the following list applies only to that section of the north-central Plains shown as a dotted area in figure 1: U- S- Selection 160.—Kernels light yellow; depth medium shallow; hard, and but slightly dented; cob white; ear surface smooth. Seed secured from central Cali- fornia. This variety is not adapted to this section. % Calico.—The corns of this name are extensively grown in this section. There are many vari- ations in color, hard- ness, size and shape of ear, and length of time required to ma- ture. All are charac- terized by red stripes on the seed coat or hull of the kernel, but the color associ- ated with this may be either white or yel- low. Mixed cob col- ors predominate, but white and red cobs occur. Two strains are given below. (a) North Platte Cal- ico.—Kernel color medium; depth me- dium to _ shallow; somewhat flinty; sur- face, medium to smooth. Grown at North Platte Experi- ment Substation for several years, where some attention has been given to its se- lection to reduce sucker production and to increase yield. This corn has been used as a standard for the variety tests conducted at North Platte and has been outyielded there in but few instances. It will mature in the southeastern part of this section. (6) Mitchell Calico.—Similar to North Platte Calico except that it is about 10 days earlier in maturity and suckers somewhat more. This corn has been grown under irrigation for several years on the Scottsbluff, Nebr., Experiment Farm. It is adapted to similar conditions. Silver King, or Wisconsin 7.—Kernels white, medium to deep, inclined to starchiness; cob white; ear surface rough. Seed secured from Wisconsin. Will mature in the southeastern part of this territory. wees % Ws te * te Vaal TI'ig. 2.—Ears of corn of U.S. Selection 133. TESTS OF CORN VARIETIES ON THE GREAT PLAINS, 5 Minnesota 13.—Kernels yellow, depth medium to shallow; cob red. Seed secured from Minnesota. This corn is grown over a wide range of territory in the North- Centrai States, and seed secured from different sections requires different seasons to mature. Average seed will mature in the southeastern half of this territory. U. 8S. Selection 133.—Kernels yellow, depth medium; cob red; ear surface medium smooth. Seed secured from Wisconsin. Will mature in the greater part of this territory. This corn has occupied a high rank for yield in all tests in which it has been included, fre- quently outyielding seed grown in the vi- cinity of the tests. Typical ears are shown in figure 2. Golden ~ Glow .—Kernels yellow, depth me- dium; cob red; ear surface medium. Seed secured from Wisconsin. Willma- ture only in thesouth- ern half of this ( ; ) 5 Be de de territory in favorable seasons and locations. Colorado Early Select.— Kernels yellow, depth medium; cob red; ear surface me- A neve 0 ] 4 i Sao J f Tl age any 100 at g 4 SETS | \" jae dium. Seed secured from eastern Colo- rado. Toolateinma- turing for most of this territory . Ninety-Day Disco.—Ker- nels white, depth me- dium; cob white; ear surface medium. Seed secured from southeastern South Dakota. Will ma- ture in the southern part of this territory. Swadley.—Kernel color rig. 4.—Kars of Martens White Dent corn. vg 000g geen Apa © uy i Ab ~ ai met ‘— Af <9 white-capped yellow, depth rather shallow;. cobs red: ear surface usually smooth. Variablein type. Seed secured from Washington County, Colo. Quite commonly grown and popularly regarded as being adapted to dry-land condi- tions. It will mature in about the southern half of this territory. Ardmore Yellow.—Kernels yellow, shallow, and broad; cobs mostly white; ear surface smooth; usually eight rows of kernels on the ear; variable in type; stalks short and ears borne close to ground; suckers profusely, Seed secured from south- western South Dakota. This corn is very early and will mature in any part of this territory. It usually produces some grain even in severe years, but yields less than larger varieties in favorable years and localities, 6 BULLETIN 307, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Martens White Dent—Kernels white with some yellow mixture, depth medium to shallow; cob white; ear surface medium; quite variable in type. Seed secured from northwestern Nebraska, where it has been grown without irrigation for a number of years. It has occupied a high rank for yield in a number of tests and seems to be a very hardy, early-maturing corn. It will mature in all of this territory except in localities of shortest season and in seasons when very early frosts occur. Typical ears are shown - in figure 3. Brown County Yellow.— Kernels yellow, small; cobs red; ear surface medium to rough. Seed secured from eastern South Dakota, This is a very early, hardy corn and will ma- ture in any part of this territory. Under favor- able conditions it will not produce as heavily as some of the larger and later varieties. Northwestern Dent.—Ker- nels red with light-col- ored caps; cobs white; ear surface medium to smooth; stalks short; produces many suck- ers. Seed secured from central North Dakota. Seed from different lo- calities varies greatly in time required to ma- ture. Averageseed will mature in almost any part of this terri- tory. Particularly adapted to localities having short growing seasons. Minnesota 23.—Kernels yellow with white caps, depth medium to shallow; cobs red; ear surface medium to smooth; stalks small with few suckers. Seed secured from Minnesota. This corn is among the very early dent varieties. - Payne White Dent—Kernels white, depth medium to shallow; cobs white. Seed secured from eastern South Dakota. Will mature in the southeastern half of this territory. Fig. 4.—Ears of White Australian corn. THSTS OF CORN VARIETIES ON THE GREAT PLAINS, va FLINT VARIETIES. In most of this territory the flint corns are less popular and less extensively grown than the dent corns. Their objectionable features are the hardness of the grain when fully mature and the difficulty of husking. The flint corns are regarded as being very hardy and under adverse conditions frequently outyield dent corns. The flint corns sucker profusely and respond to favorable conditions by producing ears on suckers and by producing more than one ear to the stalk. If fed before becoming fully mature and under conditions where it is possible to harvest the crop with live stock, some of the flint corns - may exceed dent varieties in profitable production. White Australian.—Kernel color dull white; very hard; ears smooth and with 10 to 14 rows of kernels. Seed secured from eastern Colorado. Of the flint varieties this corn is that most generally grown in this territory. It will mature in nearly all localities. In all tests in which it has been included it has compared well in yield with the best flint and dent varieties. Typical ears are shown in figure 4. Cassia County Flint —Similar to White Australian. The two varieties are probably of the same origin. Seed secured from southern Idaho. ese Gehu Flint—Kernels light yellow, small, and very hard; cob white; ears small‘ and smooth; stalks small and ears borne very close to ground. Seed secured from central North Dakota. This corn is one of the very earliest grown in the United States and will safely mature in any part of this territory. Amber Flint—Kernel color amber; ears medium size. Seed secured from eastern South Dakota. Will mature in the southeastern part of this territory. SOFT OR FLOUR VARIETIES. The soft or so-called flour or squaw corns.are grown to a somewhat less extent than the flints in this territory. In appearance, character of plants, and habits of growth they are very similar to the flint corns. As the name implies, they are soft in texture. The mature corn is more easily eaten by live stock than flint corn, but it is prob- ably somewhat inferior in feeding value. Between the true flint and flour types there are all gradations in texture. Mitchell Blue Flour.—Kernels blue, with some white mixture; has a slight flintiness; cob white; small stalks with ears close to ground. Seed secured from extreme west-central Nebraska. Will mature in any part of this territory. Dakota Red Squaw.—Color dark red; has a slight flintiness; cobs white. Seed secured from eastern South Dakota. This corn matures in the southern half of this terri- tory and has given fair yields where tried. 3 TIME REQUIRED FOR MATURITY. The time required for any variety of corn to reach maturity depends largely upon the conditions of temperature, sunshine, and moisture of the locality where grown. The performance of a variety in one locality can not, therefore, be taken as an indication, except in a general way, of the time required by that variety to mature in other localities where conditions of growth are different. Under like 8 BULLETIN 307, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. conditions, however, different varieties are affected in much the same way; that is, differences between early and late varieties are in a measure retained, whether maturity is delayed or hastened by growing conditions. _ The varieties previously described are arranged in Table I in their approximate order of earliness, as nearly as this could be judged from all the tests conducted. The earliest varieties are placed first and the latest varieties last in the table. The extreme range in time of maturity is about 25 days. The earliest varieties require under average conditions from 75 to 85 days, while the latest ones require from 100 to 110 days to mature. For convenience of reference the varieties are divided into three classes, designated as very early, early, and comparatively late. There is a marked difference in the average time of maturity of these classes, but the lines between classes are necessarily somewhat arbi- trary; that is, the differences between the last varieties in one class and the first varieties in the next class are not greater than the differ- ence between varieties of the same class. TasBLe I.—Corn varieties in the order of their earliness in reaching maturity. Class 1. Class 2. Class 3. Very early varieties: Early varieties: Comparatively late varieties: Gehu Flint. Martens White Dent. North Platte Silver Mine. Northwestern Dent. U.S. Selection 133. North Platte Calico. Minnesota 23. Minnesota 13. U.S. Selection 160. Brown County Yellow. Cassia County Flint. Ardmore Yellow. White Australian. Mitchell Blue Flour. Swadley. Dakota Red Squaw. Ninety-Day Disco. Amber Flint. Mitchell Calico. Golden Glow. Colorado Early Select. Wisconsin 7. RESULTS OF TESTS OF VARIETIES. Tests of corn varieties have been conducted at several stations in the north-central Great Plains area. Yields secured for each station and year when a successful crop has been produced are shown in Tables II to VII. These yields do not indicate what may usually be expected in any locality in an average or normal season. They more nearly represent what may be expected in favorable seasons under good farming practice. Careful attention has been given to securing uniform conditions for all varieties in each test, but no unusual or intensive methods of cul- tivation or manuring have been employed. At all places where the crop has depended upon the natural rainfall for moisture, total failures or very low yields have resulted in some years. The results indicate the behavior of different varieties under the same conditions. TESTS OF CORN VARIETIES ON THE GREAT PLAINS. 9 Since small differences are of little importance in judging the value of different varieties, the varieties are divided into three classes according to yield for each year and the result is shown in the last three columns of the summary tables. Class 1 is made up of varieties yielding above the average; class 2 of varieties of about average yield, and ciass 3 of varieties yielding less than the average. In calculating yields, 70 pounds of dry ears are used for 1 bushel. TESTS AT HUNTLEY. The tests at Huntley, Mont., have been made under irrigation. Three years’ results are available. In 1912 the test contained 6 varieties; in 1913, 7 varieties; and in 1914, 11 varieties. Each variety unit was composed of two rows; in 1912 and 1913 these rows were 132 feet long and 34 feet apart, making an area of about one- forty-seventh acre per plat; in 1914 the rows were 170 feet long and 32 feet apart, making the plats one thirty-fifth acre in area. In 1913 and 1914 the variety plats were alternated with check plats planted to a common variety, and the series was repeated three times. In 1913 the check plats were planted to Minnesota 13, and in 1914 to Northwestern Dent. The seed was drilled in the rows, and the plants later thinned to one about every 18 inches. The yield in pounds of ears for each variety and check plat and the total yield of each variety are shown in Table Il. Check plats are totaled in groups of threes, to correspond with the total yields of varieties. In 1913 there were large differences in yields of replicate plats of the same variety and between the yields of check plats. The test for that year has little value except as the results corroborate those of other years in indicating good varieties. In 1914 the differences were smaller between replicate plat yields and the results were more reliable. The yields in bushels per acre, the increase of the variety over adjacent checks, and the rank and class of each variety according to yield are shown in the summary of Table II. For 1912 the varieties are ranked according to actual yield. For 1913 and 1914 the varieties are ranked according to the amount by which the average yield of the three plats of each variety exceeds the average yield of the six check plats adjacent to them. The varieties which have yielded relatively high in all tests at Huntley are Northwestern Dent and U.S. Selection 133. 6827°—Bull. 307—15——2 10 BULLETIN 307, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.. TasieE I].— Yield of corn varieties grown at Huntley, Mont., by plats, for the years stated. x Plat Yield Plat Yield Plat Yield Total Yearand variety. No. | ofears.| No. | ofears. | No. | ofears. | yield. Season of 1913: Pounds Pounds Pounds. | Pounds. Minnesotad3 soa scrs-seeeces ase eae il 45 13 14 25 46 105 Northwestern Dent.........--.------- 2 48 14 27 26 42 117 MinneSOtamleseece te saan eee 3 48 15 31 27 43 126 Minn eSO (a3 es mee eee eee eee 4 35 16 27 28 42 104 Mira M ESO baa seer ee ete a tee eee 5 47 17 33 29 39 119 WE Ss Selection 33.5525 555 aoe 6 43 18. 28 30 49 120: MIMICS O tag 3s ee nee Ce eee 7 34 19 26 31 65 125 Brown County Yellow.....-...------- 8 30.5 20 21.5 32 57 109 IWianayestoriey IG oe eeaeeoen = -sa5csaacen= 9 31 21 26 33 77 134 IATOMOLO: seo Sh ees Ass See he ae 10 BB} 22 28 34 68 119 MinneSOfapl ieee seo er eae 11 15 23 27 35 70 112 PACD OTP Helin t= Sees ae ee ee eee 12 10 24 25 36 50 85 Min eSO Lael ose eer eee ees 13 14 25 46 37 81 141 Season of 1914: Northwestern Dent..-.------.-------- 1 75 21 105 41 106 286. Miniesotal 3.465 ee seas se pee 2 72 22 88 42 80 240 Northwestern Dent.........-.-------- 3 79 23 111 43 94 284 WAS Selectionw33es=s=- ne aa 4 72 24 104 44 113 289 Northwestern Dent..............--..- 5 111 25 117 45 105 333 Minn eso ta23 se Se See eee ae ee 6 68 26 74 46 71 213 Northwestern Dent..__...........--.- ri 100 27 108 47 96 304 Brown County Yellow.-.........------ 8 95 28 105 48 79 279 Northwestern Dent...............--.- 9 97 29 115 49 90 302 Martens White Dent ................- 10 109 30 126 50 108 343 Northwestern Dent...._........-.--.- 11 99 31 96 51 92 287 Gehushling shes ee ees ee eee eee 12 70 32 8&3 52 69 222 Northwestern Dent...............-..- 13 97 33 116 53 65 279 Cassia Couniyehlint a= sss 14 J12 34 130 54 103 345 Northwestern Dent..................- 15 101 35 103 55 4 298 ANPIDIA ON INGE 2 oe Sek enoncassos 16 102 36 123 56 119 344 Northwestern Dent._.......-..._.-..- 17 106 37 93 57 94 293 HOTiwie Cke SO Ua were == nee eee 18 48 38 75 58 46 169 Northwestern Dent.................-- 19 108 39 106 59 81 295, NZ OTSTe lI Ove U LI tee ee 20 83 40 90 60 91 264 Northwestern Dent....-....=...._..-- 21 105 41 106 61 78 290 SUMMARY SHOWING THE RELATIVE RANK AND CLASS OF EACH VARIETY FOR THE Years 1912, 1913, AND 1914. Increase over Yield per acre average of ad- (bushels). jacent checks Rank. Class. Variety. (bushels). 1912 (1 |1913 (3 1914 (3) 1913 (3] 1914 (3) 1912 (1| 1918 (3) 1914 (3) 1912 (1 1912 (3) 1914 (3 plat). | plats).| plats).| plats).] plats).) plat). | plats).| plats).| plat). | plats).| plats). Northwestern Dent....| 58.5 | 25.0 | 49.0 0 0 4 2 4 1 1 1 Brown County Yellow.| 51.5} 24.5] 46.5 | —3.7 |— 4.0 6 5 6 2 2 2 Minnesota 13......-.-- 59.0 | 27.4] 41.0 0 |— 8.2 3 1 8 1 1 3 Minnesota 23....-.---- 52. 0 24.0 35.5 | —2.5 |—17.5 5 3 10 2 2 3 U.S. Selection 133. -__- 63.0 26. 0 5) seer |= 167 1 3 5 1 1 1 WASCOnSInY ies =e = OPE Paxoeea|Sescasc||b55aes-\|ss500ne 2 eter | eee ae eeeerser eases Ardmore Yellow......|------- P59) |lonae se Wot |eedesddllesonesc | Bole las es peeeee Eh eee /aMoae WAbWM Rs sob ao s|eesease IRE eesaeee EOet), |S oases essence Gillean S a ee Be etsens Ss Martens White Dent ..|...----|------- B50! lseesse= ONG | Saat alam eee 8 | S2eeeS | eee 1 Coin ilk. ssoseccecs|sos5c05 anaes SieW) Edessa: 211057) Bacaeas| easeese 9.235 ae eee 3 Aeon Ibi. 5 .easc\lasscosallesceses Bio) \oase555 LOR OMPERG soe en aces 2) |i se 1 HortiBeckesqUeaweesse4|seseees | seen D808 eee =A Sano eeeros ae 11 Noo ee ae eee 3 HWonetelloweblinte pee eee here eee AAS) See ee TR (| Sigs a |e ea Tee eee 3 Cassia County, Mlintass ese ees eee Nis lsosocse TOG) |S Sees Baseeee i | eee 1 TESTS AT NEWELL. Results covering three years are available from the station at In 1912 the test was on dry land. ‘The variety units were single rows 132 feet long, with the rows 34 feet apart. The variety rows were alternated with check rows planted with Newell, S. Dak. TESTS OF CORN VARIETIES ON THE GREAT PLAINS, 11 Northwestern Dent seed and the series was repeated five times, making a total area for each variety of about one-nineteenth of an acre. The yield in pounds of ears for each row and the total yield of each variety are shown in Table III. In 1913 and 1914 the tests were made on both irrigated and dry land. The dry-land tests were so badly injured by drought in both years that yield records were not secured. The irrigated plantings were made in 2-row units and the series repeated twice in 1913 and three times in 1914. The yield in pounds of ears for each plat and the total yield of each variety are also shown in Table III. The check-plat yields are totaled by twos or threes, to correspond with the total yields of varieties. The yields in bushels per acre and the rank and class of each variety for the three years are shown in the summary of Table III. The rankings are given according to the average yields of the plats of each variety. U.S. Selection 133 has produced relatively well in all three years. Martens White Dent has outyielded all other varieties by a consider- able amount in the two years in which it was grown. Taxsie III.— Yield of corn varieties grown at Newell, S. Dak., on dry land and under irrigation, by plats, for the years stated. is. on Yield Bane Yield Row Yield Dow Yield Row Yield Total Variety. No of No of No of No of No of fala * | ears. * | ears. * | ears. 5 ears: > | ears. |¥ cs On dry land, in 1912: Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs. Ardmore Yellow......--.---- 1] 15.0 33 | 16.8 65 | 17.0 97 | 19.4 | 129] 17.4] 85.6 MIGNUESOLAN - 2-2-4 senses 2| 14.5 34 | 13.5 66 | 14.5 98 } 18.1 130 | 15.2] 75.8 PREAINOLEG. Yi CLOW: s.o.-c:cis =-,0-1- == 3 | 14.2 35 | 17.8 67 | 20.8 99 | 21.0} 1381] 17.4] 91.2 WIRE SOLAN Lo ats ate a ic.ate Se e's)=csiee 4112.8 36 | 13.6 68 | 15.8 100 | 16.3 132 | 16.9] 75.4 Ardmore Yellow......--.---- 5 | 16.2 37 | 19.4 69! 19.0} 101 ! 22.2] 183! 18.6] 95.4 Us 8-_ Selection 133....----2-=- 6 | 15.4 38 | 15.4 70 | 16.8 102 | 20.2 134 | 24.3] 92.1 Ardmore Yellow.......-.---- G || WG! 39 | 17.8 71) 19.2} 103 | 18:8] -135 | 16.8] 88.0 Brown County Yellow....--..- 8 | 14.6 40 | 14.9 72 | 14.9] 104] 17.0} 136] 18.6} 80.0 Ardmore Yellow......--.- oie 9} 17.0 41 | 18.4 73 | 17.8 105 | 19.2 137 | 21.2] 93.6 TCC OMAW = occ 5o--2-202--2 ste 10} 4.6 42) 6.4 74 9.7 106 | 10.6 138 | 15.1 46.4 Aramore Yellow ......--..<.- 11 | 14.1 43 | 16.2 75 | 16.2 107 | 19/6 189 | 17.0} 83.1 WHASCOUSING ceca ==> oy ee PAN) Feel 44 9.1 76 | 10.8 108 | 14.5 140 | 15.9} 58.2 Aramore Yellow....,.0:.--.6-4 Lon |elose 45 | 15.8 77 | 19.0 109 | 19.0} 141] 20.6] 89.6 GOGO GOW ines. scscc cece 14 } 11.2 46 | 14.9 78 | 14.5 110 | 17.6 142 | 20.1 78.3 ATAMOTEY CLOW .-.0.4 o2cs ence 15 | 14.0 47 | 18.6 79 | 19.8 111 } 18.4 143 | 21.8 92.6 U. 8. Selection 133 x U. S BOIECTIOMN AGO so 3. fas sees ck 16 | 9.6 48 | 10.2 80 | 11.8 112 | 14.7 144 | 13.8 60. 1 mramore VelUOW. ......--2----- PE Nei) 49 | 12.5 81 | 18.0 113 | 15.0 145 | 16.6 tad Brown County X U. S. Se- IBPTAOU OOS on oe osha oh be 20 | 11.0 522.3 84 | 13.1 116 | 13.6 148 | 20.6 70.6 Ardmore Yellow.......-..---. 21) 14.01 53] 14.8 85 | 17.4 Ulf |) ale 74 149 | 21.8 85. 2 U. 8. Selection 160............ 22 2.6 54 3.7 86 3.0 118 4.7 150 8.9 22.9 Ardmore Yellow......-.-.-... 23 | 14.6 55 | 14.8 87 | 17.0 119 | 16.2 151 | 19.8 82.4 White Australian............ 24 | 14.0 56 | 19.3 88 | 19.3 120 | 21.0 152) | 28:'5 97.1 MTAMOLE W CLOW so ccs coon ce 25 | 15.0 BY || ney 89 | 17.6 121 | 17.6 153 | 16.2 79.6 White Australian x U.S. Se- BERS IRITUALOA) oo. sos oo zcecinis Sake 26 6.4 58 ded 90 | 11.2 122 8.7 154 | 14.6 48. 4 TOTUOLE Y CLOW < od.0cncnceeas 27) \ Lb. 8 59 | 17.8 91} 16.8 123 | 16.8 55 | 17.4 | 84.6 Northwestern Dent........-.. 28 | 14.8 60 | 15.8 92 | 16.6 124 | 14.8 156) 17.8) 79.7 Ardmore Yellow......--.,-<< 29 | 15.4 61 | 17.0 93 | 19.0} 125) 17.8 17 | 16.6 | 85.8 Payne White Dent........... 30 | 15.1 62 LT a7, 94 | 21.6 126 | 20.4 158 | 23.6 98. 4 Aramore Yellow...:...----2.- 31 17.3 63 | 16.2 95 | 19.4 127 | 15.6 159 | 12.9 81.4 12 BULLETIN 307, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE III.— Yield of corn varieties grown at Newell, S. Dak., on dry land and under irrigation, by plats, for the years stated—Continued. UNDER IRRIGATION IN 1913. , Plat | Yieldof| Plat | Yield of} Total Variety. No. ears. No. ears. yield. © Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. PAIRIN'OLnENY CllOW as Soncacce pacts cine ge oe cee io eee 1 76.5 10 84.0 160.5 NorthwestemlDent 5.2 mesa cost eeeenceee se eee eee 2 87.5 11 85.7 173. 2 Brown County Yellow... 3 82.7 12 84.5 167. 2 U.S. Selection 133... -.-- 4 85. 0 13 102.5 187.5 MiG IDINGOis2os-c5ccncvasesecacescnoose 5 79.5 14 95.2 174.5 Amber Blin tel eicsscce cle ce ee Cane te se cee eR eeh coe eee 6 64.5 15 74.2 138.7 Martensiwihite Dent... 23. eee eeeemice ne ee ae eee 7 104. 0 16 93. 2 197.2 Minnesota sins cle shiz oss aces ooh Oe eS eee eso eee 8 57.7 17 60. 7 118.4 PaymeswWihi tev ent seem. sccersea cee oe te eee eee 9 101.5 18 79.0 180.5 UNDER IRRIGATION IN 1914. VAiee Plat | Yield of | Plat | Yield of | Plat | Yield of} ‘Total y: No. ears. | No. ears. No. ears. yield. : Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. NiocihiwestemnpeD entities sereat ene aee errr 1 60. 0 9 66.5 17 50. 0 176.5 Brown Countyavellowes eee tenes eee ete ee 2 64.5 10 74. 0 18 66. 0 198. 0 Ardmoresyiellowsee ee eeo eee eee diary tapes 3 65. 0 il 62. 0 19 73. 0 200. 0 Wess SORGHOMIBE ES bso cscsceanoseccassosec 4 80. 0 12 65. 0 20 82.5 227.5 INN AlD ey IDIEO ss soacecdosaeocedcossacuse 5 74.0 13 62.5 21 73.0 209. 5 IjymanwWihtie; Capeepeeeee-eoeee eee eee 6 62. 0 14 69. 0 22 82.0 223.0 Wikies Wilaitie IDG Cob nsosssScessoccucese 7 78.0 15 $2.5 23 90. 0 251.0 IAAT \WWaw® IDEM os.sossosescecceasseseue 8 62.0 16 68.5 24 75.5 206.0 SUMMARY SHOWING THE RELATIVE RANK AND CLASS OF EACH VARIETY FOR THE YEARS 1912, 1913, AND 1914. Yield per acre (bushels). Rank. | Class. Variety. 1912 (5 | 1913 (2| 1914 (3 | 1912 (5 | 1913 (2| 1914 (3 | 1912 ¢5 | 1913 (2 | 1914 (3 plats). | plats). | plats). | plats). | plats). | plats). | plats). | plats). | plats) Ardmore Yellow......-.---- 23.0 49.0 37.5 4 |. 6 5 || il | 2 2 Northwestern Dent.......-- 21.5 56. 0 30. 0 5 2 “a | 1 1 3 We Saselectionyl 335-55 - eee 25.0 56. 0 41.0 3 2 33 | 1 1 1 Brown County Yellow...-.-- 21.5 51.0 38. 0 5 5 4 1 2 2 Payne White Dent...--....- 26.5 55. 5 37.0 1 3 6 | 1 1 3 Minnesorar2seeneeeeeee eens 20. 5 38210, |Le eases 7 Silt eosctas 2 Girl meaaoe Minnesouasl3eee seeeeee eres PADS ee neceslseceace c SPR eaSee ea leeeeees Dh PSE es |e ree IWASCONSING (Men ee eee eee G30) Seesaass SaoosL oe Pho ees |e Bits pests ata ERs GoldeniGlowereeeeeeeseeeeee PALAU SS ea Gcel isedeso 5 (as) Aesace Reaeadac PAM eres Sos lle ae eine White Australian.......-.-- 2650) Sea a sel ee PAA eam el i ey 1 ee Ta eee es IR(XG! SOMA Soo eac cosonocsae W2E SSIES cee | Mee See WAY ES ses leooe eee Be iss eee UA Ss selection IG0ss= sass 650), | HAS es ete eee By eC pease 3) SSE ee ee Ninety=DayeDiscomessseeerr|seeee eee 54.5 aie llbaasouse 4 Sil] sees 1 2 JNviM) oY TWEE S 6 Oa quan esueaecn |soadaess LES Gy ams = lbs Sots eae ( Seeeesse lseescose ONllzseseee Martens White Dent......-.|....._.- 60.5 akey (1) le Soaeeee i ME eae 1 1 ibpammean, \aiiiey CBY)5 .hs6-s5-cllaccoscacllasoscass ADSM Ee cee a| pseu Dh bec Sele | See ee 1 U.S. Selection 133 x U. S. Selection 6025 see aes AGSON Bese eee ce eee 10) seo r esl lenses ial EA Gee Se Brown County Yellow x U.S. Selection 160......... 1.9803 | Pe ee |e ee Os | ees aes eae eee 3h oe aes |e ee White Australian x U. S. Selections! 60 sees aaa PS ON Serom ae hose ee 1K se eeeel neers SSS | ee Curren X U.S. Selection 160.| 15.0 )|......-..|-.-...-- Phi eee sats eerste 3) |e eee | TESTS AT MITCHELL. Results covering three years are available from the station at Mitchell, Nebr. The tests have been made each year on urigated and on dryland. In 1914 the crop on dry land was injured badly by drought and no yield records were made. The units were in all years 2-row plats, 132 feet long and 7 feet In 1913 and 1914 the variety plats were alternated with check plats in which a common wide. In 1912 no check plats were grown. TESTS OF CORN VARIETIES ON THE GREAT PLAINS. 13 variety was grown. ‘The series were duplicated in all years, making a total area for each variety of about one twenty-fifth of an acre. The yield in pounds of ears for each plat and the total yield of each variety are shown in Table IV. In that portion of the table relating to 1913 and 1914 the yields of check plats are totaled by twos, to correspond with the total yields of varieties. Yields per acre, the ranking of varieties, and the variety classes are given in the sum- mary. The rankings in 1912 are according to average yields of dry ears for the plats of each variety. The rankings for 1913 and 1914 are according to the amount the average yield of the two plats of each variety exceeds the average of the four check plats adjacent to them. TaBLE IV.— Yield of corn varieties grown at Mitchell, Nebr., on dry land and under irrigation, by plats, for the years stated. On dry land. Under irrigation. Total yield. Variety. ——————————— ES Plat | Yield | Plat | Yield | Plat | Yield | Plat | Yield | Dry Trri- No. | of ears.| No. | ofears.| No. | ofears.| No. |ofears.| land. | gated. Season of 1912: Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.|Pownds.|Pounds. focal white. _-.--.-2-.-- 1 69.5 20 75.4 1 69. 2 24 74.0 144 143.2 U.S. Selection 160...... 2 44.5 21 47.0 2 45.7 CAH Mena ge 91 145.7 White Australian ....... 4 105.0 23 87.0 4 77.5 27 74.5 192 152.0 Wriscousiny7_2.5=------- 5 67.5 24 71.5 5 55.0 28 63.0 139 118.0 Martens White Dent.... 6 97.3 25 70.0 6 63.0 29 63. 0 167.3 126.0 Golden Glow.......-.--- 8 70.0 27 73.0 8 57.4 31 72.5 | 143.0 129.9 Golden Ideal............ 9 58.7 28 66. 2 9 55.4 32 58. 7 124.9 114.1 Brown County Yellow... 10 60.9 29 69. 4 10 60.6 33 62.0 130.3 122.6 Minnesota 13-.......--.- 12| 66.6 3l 60. 5 12 77.0 35 73.9 127.1 150.5 Minnesota 23......-..-.- 13 60.3 32 56.6 13 70.5 36 71.2] 116.9 141.7 U.S. Selection 133.....- 14 76.5 33 64.8 14 62.7 aye 66.5 141.3 129.2 Red Squaw-........---- 15 85. 2 34 64.5 15 88. 2 38 62.5 149.7 144.7 North Platte Calico. ..-. 16 47.4 35 45.8 16 52.2 Cale aeeaied 93. 2 152.2 Mitchell Calico.......... 18 44.8 37 34.1 18 67.0 41 62.5 iB, 7 129.5 Salzer Fodder........... 19 46.5 38..| 5. eee 19 67.0 LOI a Be aud 146.5 1 67.0 Australian Flint x U.S. Slee TIO ILO apes teeitrs le aie cee eo bs| > Oe 22 80. 2 45 (P88) |Besoccce 152.5 Brown County Yellow x : ea SCLC OWL OO Hiaes| = tea cercoes| oc <2 |=) SeaBee 23 67.2 46 O7non | eeeeeee 134.7 Colorado Early Yellow..|....--|..-.---- 39 G27 Ee ere |ey-teeietstaral| eisai Seal a -tercte oaeel|lo es aretetoees aaa 2 3a Race Be Gee bee eee 40 Ge | seers [sapere Silene sallom tics ae 1p OP Eseoscco Season of 1913: MEN CHAIN CAN COs. cpa 2 acto xlo2\ooergckad 26 AH 53s | eee |e micey. = 26 GLAS Ses aoe Jatin ee oe 1 32.1 27 38.6 1 49.3 27 54.8 70.7 104.1 Mitchell Calico.......... 2 30.5 28 40.5 2 56. 4 28 61. 4 71.0 117.8 Ardmore X U.S. Selec- THOM OD este 2. Selo 2 clare 3 35.5 29 41.6 3 ot 29 59.4 Witenes 117.1 Mitchell Calico........-. 4 33.0 30 37.2 4 58. 1 30 61.0 70. 2 119.1 U.S. Selection 133...... 5 40.0 31 43.2 5 62.2 31 68.0 83. 2 130.2 Mitchell Calico.......... 6 37.2 32 37.6 6 57.2 32 61.8 74.8 119.0 Brown County Yellow x ; U.S. Selection 133. ... 7 39.1 33 32.8 i 52.8 33 59.4 71.9 112.3 Mitchell Calico.......... 8 37.2 34 35.5 8 58.0 34 63.0 72.7 121.0 Brown County Yellow Dic 252 a i 9 33.1 35 32.2 9 48.1 35 49.8 65.3 97.9 Mitchell Calico.......... 10 39.1 36 39.2 10 51.4 36 57.2 74.3 108.6 Colorado Early Select... 11 28.8 37 28. 4 11 55.0 37 63.9 57.2 118.9 Mitchell Calico.......... 12 33..5 38 36.3 12 53.5 38 59.0 69.8 112.5 UAT 9 1s ee ee 13 38.1 39 29.8 13 43.8 39 55. 2 67.9 99.0 Mitchell Calico.......... 14 38.4 40 33.5 14 53.9 40 60. 2 71.9 114.1 Martens White Dent.... 17 42.4 43 39.0 17 51.1 43 64.6 81.4 115.7 Mitchell Calico.......... 18 38.4 44 32.6 18 58.5 44 60. 2 71.0 118.7 Ninety-Day Disco ...... 19 45.6 45 24.2 19 53.7 45 67.0 69.8 120.7 Mitchell Calico.......... 20 43.8) 46 31.3 20 60.7 46 64.0 Wow 124.7 Minnesota 23.........--- | 2 32.6 47 21.6 21 35.5 47 56.3 54,2 91.7 Mitchell Calico.......... | 22 38.0 48 20,5 22 58.9 48 63.9 58.5 122.8 I Niet gl Oh | rr i 23 20. 2 49 7.8 23 32.6 A9 68, 0 28. 1 100.6 Mitchell Calico.......... 24 41.4) 650 5.8 24 58.9 50 64,0 47.2 122.9 Mitchell Blue Flour..... 25 83.5.) 51 17.7 25 70.4 51 75.0 51.2 145.4 Mitchell Calico.......... 26 40.5 | 52 14,2 26 61,8 Biihs shlaee CSU 7" arn ee ae 1 Single plat. 14 BULLETIN 307, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe LV.— Yield of corn varieties grown at Mitche?., wWebr., on dry land and under irrigation, by plats, for the years stated-—Continued. Variety. Season of 1914, under irrigation: Mitchell Calico Martens White Dent Mitchell Calico Martens White Dent x Calico Mitchell Calico Local White Mitchell Calico Ninety-Day Disco x Calico Mitchell Calico U.S. Selection 133 Mitchell Calico Brown County Yellow Mitchell Calico Mitchell Calico Mitchell Calico....-- Ardmore Yellow...- Plat | Yield of No. ears. Pounds. 1 103. 5 2 113.0 3 103. 0 4 110.0 5 117.5 6 114.5 i 123.0 8 103. 0 9 111.0 10 107.0 11 115.0 12 109. 0 13 94. 5 14 104. 5 15 90. 5 16 98. 0 17 117.0 18 98. 5 19 42.0 20 105.5 21 87.5 22 108. 5 Plat | Yield of No. ears. Pounds. 22 108. 5 23 102.0 24 98. 0 25 107.0 26 102. 0 27 98. 0 28 107.0 29 120.0 30 106. 0 31 107.0 32 109. 5 33 111.0 34 113.0 35 92. 5 36 ~ 111.0 37 92. 5 38 100. 0 39 131.0 40 103.0 Al 76. 0 42 110.0. 43 97.0 44 103.0 Total yield. Pounds. SuMMARY SHOWING THE RELATIVE RANK AND CLASS OF EACH VARIETY FOR THE YEARS 1912, 1913, Variety (2 plats of each variety each year). Mitchell Calico.......-- WOCaVViht tee ese oe Martens White Dent... U.S. Selection 133....- Brown County Yellow. White Australian Minnesota 13 Minnesota 23 IWASCOMSIN Wee pee nae Red Squaw North Platte Calico..-.- Ardmore Yellow....--- Colorado Early Select. . Haldeen Ninety-Day Disco Amber Flint Mitchell Blue Flour. -. Northwestern Dent... - White Australian x U.S. Selection 160... Brown County Yellow x U.S. Selection160-. Ardmore X U.S. Selec- tion 133 BrownCounty X U.S. Selection 133 Calico Ninety-Day Disco xX Calico AND 1914. Yield per acre (bushels). Rank. Class. Dry land.| Irrigated. Dry land.| Irrigated. Dry land.| Irrigated. 1912 | 1913 | 1912 1913 | 1914 | 1912} 1918 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | 1912 | 1913 | 1912} 1913 | 1914 45.0] 23.0) 43.0) 35.0} 73 8g 5 9 4 5 1 2 2 2 2 48. O]-..-- 47. 5)..... 74 Ae Sie Ol Sees 6 nN tests 3 all exci any? 56. 0} 27. 5) 42.0) 34.0) 70 2 1) 10 6 8 1 1 2 2 2 47.0} 28.0} 43.0) 39.0) 78 6 2 9 2 3 1 1 2 1 1 43. 5] 22.0] 41.0) 29.0) 64 Gy 3) = eal Wee oe 2 3 2 3 3 64. 0} 50. 5} 50. 5)... -- 85 ll eeeee 74 ae es 1 See il eee 1 42.5). 2222 60), O|osccallsssae 10|Peeee @) aces] laseee Deets | Hera. (esha Stes 39.0} 18.5) 47.0} 27.0)...-- 12 11 G| eels eee 3 3 1 3)stene AD,5)|scecoll EW oaasclloasos Uleeoae Ie aied| |aadue i Peer 7) ental eis ATE Ol Rye 43.0)----- 75 Sleseies eases 4 Soe Aeaee 2 AD eeee 3850lPeereleceee 10 eee ie) eect ee Se Pes Peers hee ob 4 50. O}--.-- 48: Oleeeere| serine Alesaad A Sera llteyetes ill eee Be AN ee tates |e Bs Oicesse Hy Woehso\jsdoce 115) eSoce 4 eases asnise Blesoce bi Saeealteaece Sil, Olasee 44. 5)....-|-..-- 3 | eee SiiARe slates Binsdas Dee sel sies 30Soleee BO) Hloegaullsodos 1 eeee 15) aoe ao ae I |Senacle: BO) cocslesses Bate 24.0)-2-- 4) 8150)" 63). 5523 Gleseae Qe WO osose PAWSB Sy ol 2 3 Wie Ge IA esocel) ob lesnaalleoss WA sese alibseeallasass ailssaen Me cysee tases 2 Olscsool Zeb Gleacuellocss- Ulsesae LOS eps) sees Ql eee PARE EE as IBS DMecoce|| Bis Ulescoallacce- Bliss ee (es Q\ ese 7 aes ae ay agate O Blesces)| 80s 0 sasedliosocs Wessex Taal ces Bliz Seas Sta wete iy Wa socel| 48h0) bh esoalloecoe Al oe al iSeaSallacase Petia aes Bea sa\pacial panos boats 63). eel eseta aessali sec Qh occ |iet ce ee ee leeeee 3 Bee ee ies SLO e268 25 8] alee 1 eae SHncel Risse alisasas Leste aleeeae Bode (ees ae 2 Se ses GaSe sscoclbecdo esas Remae| Reacallas sae Aba ass Sees menos AMY |sssse|} ees 0 |esscullossec 3}.---- Sliccites| ose i ere 7A Se moietee 7S Visas) o-b0sodssllaosec Uleaaee (ABSA aa esas sf era 2ese ss Fae | Saas ancee iasace CPA sl oe Bal eerie ae gas {i Rens Besson seats cagce 2 Sous -||seceqlscose|[bsoss C3] Mecca |ooaae Seeeal steer 7) eal Barkers oa cia 1 U.S. Selection 133, Martens White Dent, and Mitchell Calico have all produced relatively well. The yield differences between these TESTS OF CORN VARIETIES ON THE GREAT PLAINS. 15 varieties are not sufficiently large to indicate the superiority of any one of them. White Australian has occupied a very high rank in the years in which it has been grown. It should be given further trial as a corn for hogging off. TESTS AT NORTH PLATTE. The results of only one year are available from the station at North Platte, Nebr. The tests were made on dry land. Plantings were made in 1912,1913,and 1914. In 1913 and 1914 the drought injury was so severe that yield records were not made. The variety units were made up of plats 175 feet long and 7 feet wide, making an area of about one thirty-fifth of an acre, and each plat contained two rows. The variety plats were alternated with check plats, all planted to the same variety. The series was grown in duplicate. The yields in pounds of ears of each plat and the total pounds of ears produced by the two plats of each variety are shown in Table V. In the total column, the yields of the check plats are combined by twos in the same order as the plats of the different varieties. _ Actual and corrected yields per acre and the rank and class of each variety are shown in the summary. The corrected yields are secured by decreasing or increasing the actual average yield of the two plats of each variety by the amount the average yield of the four adjacent check plats exceeds or falls below the average yield of all check plats. The rankings are according to corrected yields. TaBLE V.— Yield of corn varieties grown at North Platte, Nebr., on dry land, by plats, wm 1912. race Plat Yield Plat Yield Variety. No. of ears. No. of ears. Total ; Pounds. Pounds. | Pownds. LOE LEU 25 Ce Se a aE ee 1 111.4 28 89.9 301.3 SANGRE one nos pe misinejaecine vbcciwic wom 2e ae vis aoee es 2 96.7 29 89.1 185.8 REPOS ELE OALICO oo 2 2. 3 fotos Poetics ot tieiwns see seh 3 97.9 30 99. 4 197.3 IOIGPIGNMCH LEE eee tes olen e teeta acces ibe ese. ald 4 91.9 31 88. 2 174.1 North Platte Calico........... Alon hoe SEO oce ceo peer 5 103.9 32 85. 2 189.1 LSD Tt ee BP] a es Se ee 6 73.8 33 45.0 118.8 Mori cusece Calico... 3.0.5.0 003.52-.--° ee Ue 7 107.0 34 73.8 180.8 PRCA EMI MUSOU clo eb Se abe oie coda b cnet eed 8 80. 4 35 58. 0 138.4 PORE LOCOCO cow eines nolan eee ae ieee <= 8 ) 95.7 36 66.3 162.0 EEG es = Se = pS S52: aie - 1; |: es eee 1b eee DA eee De Saas ss 1 LTO Dh 2s Le eae eee) eee 1 sere 1 |) ez, rial eats Delp 2 Bh See el esoae Northwestern Dent........_-- 1 2 1 Paes. 1k lle At epee ae ees nae 3a seca eet | lve ars Lea LS OEE a oe ee eens (eee ae 3 See eae tS Ses Tes irae, SU aan eee eee 1 Wireceesclnchionil60s 2-2-2 8 NR Ro 3: |e ae a | tees Sees ARLE 3 3 [EPH GLUCAN | peel ee |S Py 2 1 2 2 Pa elates SSeoe || Serene ete Lo THAD TELUGU SS eee [2 me nen) em PS re Sy ieee BY eee alam 1 2) Ppa PICVVNI DOs oe ee Ra. |, ee ThA eased 1h oe PAs |eceee Boal eee te TOUT AL TETRA RIG STU bee DT ee eet Ae ae 2 LA TS ae Hee ee 1G | ee Pee AMATILO DEN aoe ose fet ek bee 1 1 A Leases ll |S eee | ee hepa rer ce RvR ys ed al a LES Gee | SOE ere se ie een || el Ila Ste Gr Festi vee sn Hees = Colorado Early Select... ------ Babee! See ber aaes) Me Mee) oi aloe Pan heehee AL anes sae ee Se Ninety-Day Disco..........-- eC Socal oe 1 Si eeeee 1b ||Beee 1s eee SI ae Lirih ep in Te aes 8) be soc eee 3} (Pesos Benes Slee Stal veel Genes el erent PC HOIBENIH OMEN DU So peso eos ees |S emails oc. ce see ee ene Oe eee 11g PR a L RTE CADE soe e|o= ls] ee Re Sos | 1 | eee [eres | eee i llomee oS eit ee Chase County Blue Flour...-- See See See I pc ipso ce Salle ee pee lee Ley eee ree COUNG 6 8 = Peet oe a» fe a |g SP Mean EAS, ~ ll = Sateen cn Pes eels eee ein | eam [Sa ae 3 TE LT ENDL Re a a Be | NT ares sc = 2 Re | eet mee pee | error I See eG (pene ll Seca Pe Wal 1 GCasse County Wlint =~. .- =| -|u_.=. it mieten es = =| ae oe Geen Se a ee Ue Tee | 3 STEP TIGT Roe ees cis S20 AOD (os Se) Niet | (a ol eR Re. || eee | | (| (ae eee Pee EE 2 UPUEDT ETRY Sh cscs e 2 cere Be Ree | are lee Pere pe = hee a B (ee e ee|ee e dl eee saee CTL 2 eee ee Se Oa [pre l= ee he ea ean eee eames Oy: age Ca DAR OLD Weer. oa). os een | rl pea (ere ea eit cr Iie ack ben ol Ro Sree ee mei wellow Dent. 2. 2-2-..25.|2...- Sey geval (ies = | |S es et ee | |e SH hes SEAS TOG FP a eel | on be el eee eee. Se S| DNV Sy Ha ites ai] wg oe Certain varieties, such as Minnesota 13 and Northwestern Dent, in some cases have been in the best class and at other times have given poorer results. This may indicate a narrower range of adaptation or less adaptability than that possessed by the varieties which have more often given good results, or it may indicate variability in the seed used. A few varieties, such as U.S. Selection 160 and Amber Flint, have failed to give good results in any of the tests in which they have been included. This can not be attributed to poor seed, as that used germinated well and produced good yields in the localities where the seed was grown. The conclusion seems justified that the poor per- formance of these varieties was due to lack of adaptation to the con- ditions of the tests. PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO TESTS OF CORN. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Grades for Commercial Corn. Department Bulletin 168. Corn in the Great Plains Area. Department Bulletin 219. Corn, Milo, and Kafir in the Southern Great Plains Area: Relation of Cultural Methods to Production. Department Bulletin 242. Crop Production in the Great Plains Area. Department Bulletin 268. The Production of Good Seed Corn. Farmers’ Bulletin 229. A More Profitable Corn-planting Method. Farmers’ Bulletin 400. Jorn cultivation. Farmers’ Bulletin 414. How to Grow an Acre of Corn. Farmers’ Bulletin 537. FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. The Commercial Grading of Corn. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 41. Price, 10 cents. A Study of Cultivation Methods and Crop Rotations for the Great Plains Area. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 187. Price, 15 cents. Crossbreeding Corn. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 218. Price, 10 cents. How to Test Seed Corn in Schools. Office of Experiment Stations Circular 96. Price, 5 cents. : Corn Culture in the South. Farmers’ Bulletin 81. Price, 5 cents. 20 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 308 ¥ Nis Contribution from the Forest Service, HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER November 22, 1915 SHORTLEAF PINE: ITS ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE AND FOREST MANAGEMENT. By Wicsur R. Mattoon, Forest Examiner. CONTENTS. Page Page Adaptability for forest management.......-. Ler yerotection 3.4 sis 59.4 oc SSE REESE 24 LETTS Sa Sos Se Se es ee ne Same y-7ead PRPS Art 2) (6 Se AOS AI et REE SEI rene Mee 27 LETTS Un AGT 00) ee 2*|-Rotationmee. ct scssaaseg ote ae se sae o ace 32 Annual cut of southern yellow pine.........- 5} | Melanie SE es) EERE See ey es 34 THI a= Se oe ee eee 6 | Cutting and reproduction.................... 45 PEMMPCIINGHSLLY = 255 2o! 5} 2,319, 982] 2,426, 554) 2,555, 308] 2, 836,129) 3,051,399] 6.0) 6.2} 6.9} 7.1] 6.9 Western pine.....- 6| 1,258, 528] 1,219, 444] 1,330, 700] 1,562,106] 1,499,985} 3.3] 3.1] 3.6] 3.9] 3.4 Cypress........---- 7| 1,097,247| 997,227] 981,527] 935,659] 955,635] 2.9] 2.5] 2.7] 2.3] 2.1 UTIs ICA ae eet 38, 387, 009/39, 158, 414/37, 003, 207/40, 018, 282/44, 509, 761/100. 0/100. 0/100. 0/100, 0/100. 0 | 1 Bureau of Census reports in cooperation with Forest Service, 1909-1912; Bureau of Crop Estimates in eraper ator with Forest Service, 1913. L 2 All southern yellow pine except a very small amount of pitch pine and scrub pine in the Middle and North Atlantic States. 3 Total of all woods (about 40 species). The cut of yellow pine ranged from 36.6 per cent of the entire cut of the country in 1909 to 38.7 per cent in 1913, when it amounted to 14,839,363 board feet. Of the eight States holding highest rank in 1913 in timber production, five owe their importance chiefly to their output of yellow pine, of which a large proportion is shortleaf. The production of yellow pine by States in 1913 is shown in Table 4. TaeLe 4.—Production of yellow-pine lumber in 1913 by States. _ | Num- Num- get ber of ete ber of State. Quantity. | age of | 2¢tive State. Quantity. | age of | Alive 3 total cut. | ees cut. | cae Board feet. Per ct. Boardfeet. | Perct. United States.) 14, 839,363,000 |100.00 | 7,639 || Virginia............ "810, 362, 000 5.5} 1,023 ns —— Oo Bape doeoe 662, 043, 000 4.5 671 Louisiana.......... 8,092,375,000 | 20.8 299 || South Carolina..... 635, 426, 000 4.3 492 Mississippi......... 2, 224,711,000} 15.0 540 |) Oklahoma.......... 120, 860, 000 8 55 RM ies a 2 o'er 2,024, 231,000 | 13.7 817 || Maryland.......... 65, 143, 000 4 165 North Carolina. .... 1,515, 102,000 | 10.2) 1,522 || Tennessee.......... 60, 137, 000 4 343 PRIAAID. Uscecccce | 1,395,059, 000 9.4 TAS MISSOUTI a. os cece ne 57, 023, 000 4 130 EEUIOAG: oo cscccone | 1,174,498, 000 7.9 467 || All others?......... 78,520, 000 .5 678 MUG fain tae naw 3 923, 873, 000 6.2 193 | 1 Bureau of Crop Estimates and Forest Service, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 2 Includes establishments distributed as follows: Connecticut, 24; Delaware, 35; Tllinois, 3; Indiana, 2; Towa, 2; Kentucky, 195; Maine, 25; Massachusetts, 30; New Iampshire, 8; New Jersey, 46; Ohio, 25; Pennsylvania, 193; Rhode Island, 6; Vermont, 3; and West Virginia, 86. 6 BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ESTIMATE FOR SHORTLEAF PINE. An estimate based on the assumption that the rate of cut of each species of southern yellow pine is approximately proportional to the stand would place the total lumber cut of shortleaf in 1913 at 22 per cent of the total southern yellow pine lumber cut, or 3,264,660,000 board feet. Another estimate may be made by taking 4.1 per cent* of the esti- mated total stand in 1913 (Table 2). This would place the cut at 3,313,784,000 board feet of saw timber, a difference of only 1.5 per cent from the first estimate. A complete calculation would take into account the timber cut for poles, ties, piling, and other uses, although for some of these uses longleaf, because more resinous, is doubtless more extensively used. It is believed that about 3,500,000,000 board feet is a fairly good estimate of the present total annual cut of short- leaf pine. Certain regional facts throw a good deal of light upon the ques- tion. For example, the percentage of shortleaf cut has rapidly in- creased in some sections of the South through the extension of steam logging roads into the hilly country. Many mills throughout Arkan- sas and adjoining States which formerly cut a good deal of loblolly pine from the low, flat country are now drawing much of their timber supply from shortleaf growing in the uplands. In the same manner shortleaf in the southern Appalachians is becoming accessible. Fur- ther, the cut of second growth in old field stands has increased by leaps during the past five years. In the central Atlantic States a region of heavy lumber production lies over the coastal plain where loblolly pine occurs in heavy stands. Larger areas of shortleaf, how- ever, occur in these same States, although the cut is perhaps lighter than that of loblolly. The yellow pine cut from a large geographical region covering both the Piedmont and the lower slopes of the Ap- palachians consists almost exclusively of shortleaf pine. THE WOOD. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. The wood of shortleaf pine is straight fibered, uneven textured with alternate hard and soft concentric rings, resinous, and mod- erately heavy, hard, and rapid growing. The heartwood is light red- dish or orange in color and is clearly defined from the nearly white sapwood. The weight of oven-dry shortleaf averages about 34 pounds per cubic foot. Air-dry wood (15 per cent moisture) averages about 38 1 The rate at which southern yellow pine was being cut in 1909. SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 7 pounds, but varies in accordance with the moisture content, which ranges from 12 to 18 per cent. Green shortleaf in the log averages 45.5 pounds per cubic foot, with a moisture content of 31 per cent for heart and 88 per cent for sapwood. The loss of weight in drying amounts to about 25 per cent for the heartwood and about 60 per cent for the sapwood. In passing from a green to an oven-dry condition the wood shrinks about 12 per cent in volume, about one-third of which occurs in passing from the green to the air-dry (15 per cent) condition. The density of absolutely dry wood is variable, its specific gravity being from 0.48 to about 0.56.1. This difference in density seems largely due to the varying conditions of growth over its wide geographic range. In resin content shortleaf ranks lower than longleaf pine and about the same as loblolly, although all are variable, and the amount of difference has not been definitely determined. When the sapwood of shortleaf is freshly cut limpid resin oozes out freely. Occasionally the heartwood and normally the bases of all large limbs become highly impregnated with resin and furnish “lightwood” and “ pine knots,” extensively used for firewood. In fuel value shortleaf aver- ages about 12 per cent below longleaf, of which 1 cord is approxi- mately equivalent to a ton of coal. This is largely due to the differ- ence in the average density of the two woods. For woods of the same weight per cord of the two species it is believed there is little difference, if any, in heat producing power.’ The wood varies somewhat in hardness, and in some regions is moderately soft. In its southern range it averages about as hard as longleaf pine when there is the same proportion of summer wood in the annual rings. The wood grown in the more northern regions or at higher altitudes in the southern region seems to be softer. The width of the rings is greatest in early life. Ten to twelve rings to the inch is an average rate of growth during the middle period, say from 60 to 140 years. Within the individual annual ring, the transition from the spring to the summer wood is normally quite abrupt, giving the annual ring the appearance of two sharply defined lines or bands. In young and rapid-growing trees and in those growing where the summers are short, the transition is com- monly more gradual. Since the fibers are straight and do not interlock, the wood is straight grained, easy to split and but shghtly subject to warp and check in drying. The wood is easily worked, may be given a good finish, and takes paint and wood preservative well. The contrast 1 Latter figure not definitely determined. 2Yorest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. 8 BULLETIN 308, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. between the hard and soft layers in each annual ring gives the wood a very pleasing figured effect. Even under a high-power microscope the woods of the important southern pines appear strikingly similar though not identical in structure. With a view of bringing out the features helpful in dis- tinguishing the wood of shortleaf pine from the other important southern pines, a brief summary of characteristics is given in Table 5. TABLE 5.—Average physical properties of the important southern pines. Wieieut gee cubic Moisture content. Grain (compara- Width | tive width and Air- Green. Air-dry.2 Species. of |number ofannual| Resin content. dry ; sap- rings per (15 wood. inch).! Green.| per Orer cent THis Heart.| Sap. | Heart.| Sap. ture) Inches. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct. | P.ct. Longleaf| 2to3| Narrowest | Veryabundant.} 52.5 | 43.5 | 39.0} 34.0] 95.5 15 15 pine. (14 rings). Slash pine...| 3to6 | Wide............]..-.. do.....--.--| 52.5 | 45.0 | 41.5 | 32.5 | 84.0 15 15 Shortleaf| 3to4]} Intermediate | Moderate.....-.- 45.5 | 38.0 | 31.0] 31.0] 88.5 15 15 pine (11 rings). Loblolly | 3to6 | Widest (7rings).|..... do: eae 54.0 | 39.0 | 36.0] 36.0] 82.0 15 15 pine. 1 Variable in all species so that rapid-growing longleaf might be taken for any of the others. This order prevails in the average. 2 Heart and sap will ultimately reach the same moisture content if thoroughly air dried under the same conditions. - DURABILITY AND PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT. Shortleaf pine is only moderately durable in contact with the soil. The presence of a large amount of resin, as in “ light wood,” is commonly thought to increase materially the natural durability of the wood. Sapwood is much less durable than heartwood; it can not ordinarily be expected to last over two or three years, while good heartwood may last seven or eight years. When not in contact with the soil or under conditions particularly conducive to decay, the wood has given good satisfaction. By proper preservative treatment the durability of short-leaf pine can be very materially increased. Wood preservation is discussed in a number of publications, among which are Forest Service Bulletins 78, 84, 107, 118, and Circular 209. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES. The wood of shortleaf pine is strong and stiff and therefore very valuable for structural timber. It often contains the same number of rings per inch and is very similar in wood structure to longleaf pine, which holds first place among the southern pines used for this Bul. 308, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. F-13191A F-13192 Fia. 2.-LOWER PORTION OF TRUNKS. TREES 160 YEARS OLD, 20 To 28 INCHES IN DIAMETER, AND ABOUT 110 FEET IN HEIGHT. TWO VIEWS OF A GROUP OF MATURE SHORTLEAF PINE TREES, SHOWING THE NARROW CROWN AND STRAIGHT CLEAN BOLE TYPICAL OF THE SPECIES. Bul. 308, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE ll. F-67319 GROSS CHARACTER OF SHORTLEAF PINE IN CROSS SECTION. Bul. 308, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. nig th atl = 5 = be F-15050A Fic. 1.—A 70-YEAR-OLD SHORTLEAF PINE STAND IN NEW JERSEY, WELL THINNED AND ALL THE THINNINGS FULLY UTILIZED. F-14610A Fia. 2.—WASTEFUL LOGGING OF SHORTLEAF PINE IN SOUTH CAROLINA BY LEAVING MUCH HIGH-GRADE MATERIAL IN STUMPS. STRONG MARKET DEMAND FOR EVERY- THING DOWN TO 2 INCHES FOR CORDWOOD. THINNING AND UTILIZATION OF SHORTLEAF PINE. PLATE IV. Bul. 308, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. A F-13186 . 1.—SECOND-GROWTH LimBy ToP LEFT ON ACCOUNT OF POOR GRADE OF TIMBER. Fia F-13185A OLD SHORTLEAF IN 60-YEAR- 000 BoarD FEET PER ACRE 1 “YIELD OF 18 Fig. 2/— FOREST STAND. LOGGING SECOND-GROWTH SHORTLEAF PINE. SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 9 purpose. Other woods much used for structural timbers are Doug- las fir, western hemlock, tamarack, Norway pine, loblolly pine, and western larch. Comparative tests of these in both a green and an air-seasoned condition, and for both structural sizes and small, clear, straight-grained pieces,’ give shortleaf a relatively high place in all strength values, including bending, compression, and shearing. The values found in the various tests are shown in Table 6: TABLE 6.—Average strength values of shortleaf pine, air seasoned, and green structural timbers with ordinary defects, and small, clear specimens cut from them. Com- ; . pression Bending. Cont Dression parallel to perpen-| Shear. = SEIS dicular Hori- to grain. +5 Rings} zontal Ae and per | shear inch.| per | Fiber _ | Medu- Crushing} Modu- sq. in. |stress at ogre: lus of aed strength] lus of oar Shearing elastic elas- at maxi-| elas- strength limit [FUPtUTe! ticity [at elastic) yum ticity [2 elastic per per ; per limit per} }oad per| per limit per sq. in. sq. in. sb Hae Sq. in. eels Hae sq. in. | sq. in. Sila Tals Air seasoned struc- Pounds.|Pounds.|Pounds.|1 ibe: Pounds. | Pownds. |1,000lbs.| Pounds. | Pownds. tural sizes....... 12.4 364 | 4,675} 6,573 | 1,726 4,070 6,030 | 1,961 196) | ees Small specimens. .|......)....--.. 7 780 | 12,120 L (MP2) osaeees 6,380 Beau neae 926 1,135 Lobe Poe eee & eee 60 54 O6f sss 25252 U5) iscsasae5 G10) Boppepeed Green structural si 12.1 332 | 3,237] 5,548] 1,473] 2,460] 3,435) 1,548 Satie eee Small specimens. -]......}........ AESO0) [yf LON| eld bm eee meres SH GY) | sadaccos 400 704 LS ee ee 9 eee 74 72 LOG: |PECe ee ee 96 ane e2).. toa ESS OCrS 1 Tables 1, 2, and 10 to 15, Forest Service Bulletin 108, ‘‘ Tests of Structural Timbers.”’ Though true longleaf pine averages heavier, stronger, and tougher, many pieces of shortleaf have greater density, strength, and tough- ness than the average longleaf pine. Also some longleaf pine lacks density and is weaker than the average of the other species, the den- sity or dry weight of the wood being a much better criterion of the strength than the species. USES.? The general uses of shortleaf pine are as varied as those of long- leaf and the two go together without preference or prejudice for many purposes. For heavy building and structural work, however, where the architect desires timber to sustain pressure and withstand shocks, longleaf is usually preferred. Because of a high degree of strength and elasticity, the heavier classes of shortleaf* are being substituted for longleaf and are giving practically the same service. This recent * Conducted by the Iorest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. 2 Based in part upon State cooperative wood manufacturing studies and Forest Service Zulletin 99, “ Uses of the Commercial Woods of the United States: Pines,” pages 17 to 20. * Timber having the same density as longleaf. 6497°—Bull. 308—15——2 10 BULLETIN 308, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. change is due chiefly to the recognition of the relation between the strength and the density of the wood. Shortleaf pine is one of the chief house-building materials through- out the eastern and middle western United States. It is used both for house frames and for finish, including ceiling, weather boarding, wainscoting, baseboards, cornice, carved work, railing, panels, sash and doors, window and door frames and casing. The grain is hand- some and shows well in natural finish or when stained. Because of its wearing qualities, pleasing appearance, and ready response to oils, wax, and other floor finishes and dressings, a good deal of shortleaf is made into flooring. Many of the large lumber mills of the South, particularly Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas, advertise shortleaf pine as a specialty for finishing lumber and are producing it in great quan- tities and in many forms. Furniture manufacturers find shortleaf an admirable wood for frames for couches, lounges, tables, large chairs, stands, and desks. It is also used for veneer in box, crate, and basket manufacture, and for excelsior and slack cooperage,! in agricultural machinery and tools, wagon bottoms and cart beds, hoppers, drawers, boxes, chutes, and compartments in fanning mills, corn shellers, grain drills, and in numerous other labor-saving machines and devices. Large quantities are used in car construction for roofing and siding. Railroad com- panies buy a large amount, of which the heavier kinds are used, with longleaf, in bridge and trestle work, and the rest for track timber, piling and crossties, usually treated with wood preservatives. As a material for ship and boat building, shortleaf has held a prominent place during the past two centuries not only along the coast within a hundred miles or so of the supply, but in practically all boat building ports east of the Rocky Mountains. It is worked into nearly every- thing of wood that is required in modern boat building. The southern pines seem particularly adapted for the manufac- ture at low cost of strong, brown wrapping, or “kraft” papers.? The wood fibers are long and thick walled, and the wood has high specific gravity, implying large yields of pulp per cord. Several - species of pine are now used in large quantities for the making of various kinds of wrapping paper, including kraft, and also for the manufacture of white book paper. Small timber and woods and mill waste are used for this purpose. Through recent development 1The quantities of shortleaf made into veneer, crates, baskets, excelsior, cooperage, erossties, and piling are not known because the southern yellow pines so used are not listed separately. 2 The importance of this class of paper is shown by the fact that wrapping paper stands third among the paper products of the United States, the amount and value being less than that of news and book papers only. In 1909 the production of wrapping papers of all kinds aggregated 764,000 short tons, with a value of $42,296,000. The value of wrap- ping paper imported in 1912 was $846,500. SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 1] in Europe, especially Sweden and Norway, of the sulphate process, the superior quality of paper made from resinous woods has brought attention to shortleaf, along with the other southern pines, as an important source of pulp in this country.’ With the use of either the sulphate or the soda process, the presence of knots, pitch pockets, and streaks, and remnants of decayed wood and bark is not very objectionable. Mill waste, consisting of slab edgings and trimmings, logs and tops left in the woods, and small logs which are now cut with little or no profit would supply a very large amount of raw material for pulp making. It costs more, how- ever, to handle and prepare slabs and pieces of irregular shape than round pieces. Experiments? with longleaf pine have shown con- clusively that it is well adapted for the manufacture of natural- color kraft pulps and papers, equal in quality to the imported and domestic kraft papers now on the market. Because of the close similarity of the wood of shortleaf to that of longleaf, it seems quite probable that further experiments will show a like suitability of shortleaf for this class of papers, except perhaps that it may produce less pulp per cord because of the difference in specific gravity of the two pines. LUMBER INDUSTRY. LOGGING AND MILLING. The methods of logging and milling naturally show wide varia- tions over a territory so extensive and representing so many different market conditions. Logging is still done by oxen to a considerable extent in the rougher lands of the southern Appalachians. Here the spring and fall months are usually chosen for operations. Steam skidders are not so much in use in logging shortleaf as in logging longleaf and loblolly pines, which belong to the lower level country. Teams do the majority of the hauling to the temporary logging spurs. The small mill with a planer, located near some town center and producing timber for building and general construction for the neighborhood, and the portable mill are the most typical forms of manufacture in the great region of second growth in the eastern United States. Such mills usually have a daily capacity of 5 to 10 thousand feet. In the virgin pine country the mills more often rep- resent a good-sized fixed investment and operating capital. The equipment includes logging railroads and buildings, machinery, 1 Based upon Bulletin 72, U. S. Department of Agriculture, ‘ Suitability of Longleaf Pine for Paper Pulp.” *Conducted by Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. 12 BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. teams, and other logging appliances. With the retreat of the source of timber farther back into the hills many roads which at the start were purely railroad logging trams have been improved and organ- ized as commoncarriers. Many mills in the Central South arehauling logs from 50 to 80 miles over their own rails, and some over 100 miles. As a rule the cost of handling prevents the separation of the rough milling from the finishing operations, and practically all of the mills in the Mississippi region manufacture large amounts of the stand- ard forms of finished products. The larger mills commonly have two band saws, and the largest ones employ gang saws in addition. The capacities are mostly from 100 to 150 thousand feet in an ordi- nary working day, while the largest mills can turn out about 300 thousand feet a day. cost. The straight stem, the small crown, the clear and straight-grained character of the wood, and the gregarious habit of the tree make the cost of lumbering shortleaf pine relatively low. Large yields per acre afford opportunity for economy in method and equipment. On the other hand, the occurrence of shortleaf over rolling or hilly lands would tend to increase logging costs and the home of longleaf and loblolly over the low coastal plain affords easier logging and shorter hauls to seagoing transportation for the finished product. The cost of manufacture in three representative regions—New Jersey, South Carolina, and Arkansas—is given below. A lumber- ing operation on private land within the Lebanon State Reserve, Burlington County, N. J., costs about 70 cents for cutting, $3.50 for hauling logs 8 miles to the mill, and $4 for milling. With the addi- tion of 60 cents for depreciation the total cost was $8.80 per thousand feet of rough lumber. The timber was mostly 70 to 110 years old. In the uplands of South Carolina logging and sawing rough pine lumber by portable mills in small tracts often cost not more than from $5 to $7 per thousand feet. The mills are small and most of the output is roughly manufactured. In the virgin shortleaf forest region from Alabama to Texas—for the past 10 or 15 years the greatest yellow-pine lumbering region of the United States—lumbering is on a comparatively permanent basis. In general, the cost of logging may be placed at from $4 to $7 per thousand feet and milling at $6 to $8, under average conditions and good management in the upland shortleaf regions. In this connec- tion the itemized manufacturing costs of 30 mills cutting shortleaf timber in central and western Arkansas, shown in Table 7, will be interesting. The average cost of logging was $5.47 and mill- ing $7.22, or a total cost of the finished timber aboard the car of SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 13 $12.69. The labor is more largely negro than white, logging is in hilly country, with contract team hauling, and usually railroad log- ging spurs built up the larger depressions or drainage tributaries with rail hauls of 10 to 40 miles. TABLE 7.—Average cost of manufacture of shortleaf pine by 30 mills. Average = Range of costs Operation. per a poor Coe na abst feet. Logging: Dollars. Dollars. RPA UAETA py Sate oe o tote 5 ofa! = ya area eralnin tale iso ninie onre, Pia ese dtts omen ania 0. 28 to 1.00 0. 63 aE Setestrnfoa wa Lt CAINS af wie cate nisin aisles one eo sie nc ie SOE ee See eee ae 1.00 to 4. 56 2.24 PACINO CALS a6 45s Satan Sbats Sajcs's seers Saiccn e Sesee Meee ee Sa ereaetes -17 to 1.50 48 LEU Song Mi ie Se eee oe a a oe ern oe eens orator 1.00 to 5. 49 1.94 Mer HEA CCHAL LO le cieyaay mre cle eye Sen sic cleynie gieiS mcioe Gers mete te eerste s sisieteee sheets -08 to .25 -18 _ ROB sce. chsed acer oBAbs Coss sna E BOE SsE BG Sepp eBBHns Hbocesobune seecouas acon saoucoraaeneeee 5.47 g: ———_— oStuetet eee me Se eis SS 5 dif ie, clues, (s/o sak sinne seice emis ieee AIS 1.10 to 3.00 1.74 Kiln : a Beee tone 53 - 11 to 1.50 -73 . 64 to 3. 00 1.46 Hauling with teams nce - 55 to 3. 00 1.42 IIA OUICATS Hee. sce P lo. PMI see tel) De EAL eli -20to .75 -40 MI OEHOHOICH ATION ee Soe sols sees see oe idee cc ie cee eee Saat’ 35 to 3. 82 1.47 LE la Ae SOS 52s see o SEBO ES aE ar Heise BE GREE SRE SSS (Bld a Gc SESS ce SeHSs i Re a hea cies am 7.22 Rerlloreinsandimillingsy. tee se sctso caso ka toe ee misee cise arene ee sae oa] eee eee artek oo ee 12.69 1 Logging mostly in hilly country and milling by both large and small permanent mills in central and western Arkansas in 1912. On the National Forests of Arkansas, portable mills with daily capacities of 10 to 20 thousand board feet saw the bulk of the timber. These mills cut about 2 million feet to each set, and thus greatly reduce the high cost of the log haul in rough country. Generally each company has its own planers at the most convenient railroad point, to which the rough lumber is hauled for distances of from 6 to 15 miles. In some sections smaller mills cutting 5 to 7 thousand feet daily are the prevailing type. ‘The capital represented by these mills averages from $5,000 to $8,000 each. The ownership of the land is composite and the government timber is more or less cut up with small private holdings in various stages of development. The log- ging and milling costs do not vary widely and the present lumber prices are such as to allow net returns of 16 to 22 per cent on the full interest-bearing investment. 670 520 560 440 300 72 72 72 Sreinisfei=e'sleie 630 500 540 420 300 66 68 68 20 400 220) | Jesetieer| se celeeeee | peowise sins |e eer ce 125 Sdalb se cess 25 510 300 105 170 110 50 145 100 55 30 585 305 145 220 150 85 165 115 60 35 640 395 170 275 195 110 175 120 65 40 690 425 200 335 240 140 175 125 70 45 720 220 390 275 160 170 125 75 50 750 470 245 435 310 180 165 120 75 55 765 490 265 465 330 195 160 120 75 60 780 510 285 345 205 155 115 80 65 790 § 300 495 355 215 150 115 80 70 795 535 315 500 360 220 145 110 80 UB bok aocodas 5 330 505 365 225 140 110 75 SG0oGCGUS 2 550 340 505 370 230 135 105 75 1 Based on 38 fully stocked sample plots; total area, 5.8 acres. Saw timber scaled to 5.5 inches in top inside bark. Stump height, 1 foot. All trees 6 inches and over breast-high diameter were scaled. 2 A continuation of these figures indicates a culmination of mean annual increment at about 100 years with an increment of about 560 board feet. ROTATION. It is always desirable to determine in advance the length of the period through which the stand should be allowed to grow. This depends largely upon (1) the age at which the average yearly growth is greatest, (2) the kind of material desired, pulpwood, cordwood, or saw timber, and (3) the total cost of producing the material. The most reliable basis for determining the age at which to cut the stand is the time when the average yearly production is the greatest. This will then be modified in accordance with the kind of timber that is desired. Other factors to be considered are taxes and protection ~ figured on the basis of compound interest, as well as stumpage values and market demand. The age at which the highest net money re- turn will be secured, or the financial maturity of the stand, may SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 33 precede or follow the age of greatest annual growth, depending upon demand and market prices. Yield and growth tables show the relation between age, size of trees, and total yields. They form the basis, therefore, for deciding when to cut in order to obtain any desired quality and size of timber. For example, on Quality IT sites the maximum mean annual yield per acre of saw timber in North Carolina for trees 6 inches and over in diameter (scaled by the Scribner log rule) occurs at about 90 years (Table 15, note), with an average yield of about 420 board feet per year. Fully stocked stands in Arkansas for average Quality IT sites appear to reach a culmination of yield of 570 board feet pro- duced annually at the age of about 100 years (Table 17, note). Measurements of similar unthinned stands in Virginia’ show the culmination of annual yield in’saw timber at about 57 years, and those of a few pure stands in New Jersey indicate a maximum annual yield there at 45 to 50 years. The age of culmination in annual volume production is thus increasingly later as the region of growth is better. The production of cubic volume or cordwood without regard to size or quality appears to culminate about 20 to 30 years earlier than the production of saw timber. The maximum mean annual yield in cubic volume for unthinned well-stocked stands in North Carolina is obtained on the best sites at about 50 to 60 years, on medium or second-quality sites at about 65 to 75 years, and on the poorest or third-quality sites at an estimated age of about 85 years. At 80 years, stands on third quality sites were found not yet to have passed their maximum in volume production. The more rapid growth of thinned stands hastens the date of their financial ma- turity by from 15 to 30 years. If the aim is to raise saw timber, a rotation of from 80 years on the better sites to 100 years on the poorer sites will apparently give the greatest yield in the shortest time; for cordwood the age of highest production lies mostly between 60 and 80 years.? In practice stands will more likely be cut in shorter rotations, or before they reach their maximum rate of growth. Pine is extensively cut for ties at 12 inches breasthigh diameter. This size is reached at 65 years in North Caro- lina, and the tree is then 70 feet high. Such a tree will make two to four ties, according to the size of the tie desired. The disadvantage of holding charges at compound interest tends strongly to reduce the rotation. iW. W. Ashe, “ Shortleaf Pine in Virginia” p. 28), published by the Virginia Depart- ment of Agriculture and Immigration. “Scrub and pitch pines are extensively used for firewood and are usually removed from mixed stands with shortleaf because of their inferiority for saw timber. 6497°—Bull. 308—15——5 34 BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. On the National Forests of Arkansas the Federal Government in its management of shortleaf pine aims to produce the sort of material most needed by the people, which is mostly medium-sized saw timber. A rotation of about 100 years in fully stocked pure stands affords the largest annual yield. The average tree at this age, grown under forest conditions, is 74 feet in height by 16.6 inches in diameter, and contains not less than 270 board feet 1 of merchantable lumber. While the interval between successive cuts is many years, it is well to bear in mind that present cuttings on private holdings in the region are tak- ing very little timber younger than 60 years. Where the stand, whether of pure shortleaf or a mixture of shortleaf and various hardwoods, is moderately open, as is the case over considerable of its range, the culmination in annual yield is earlier. A rotation of 90 years under these conditions will probably give the highest average yearly yield of saw timber on the Arkansas National Forest. Under natural conditions, and without fire protection until very recently, shortleaf pine on the Arkansas National Forest at 90 years measures mostly from 14 to 18 inches in diameter, averaging 15.9 inches, and trom 60 to 110 feet in height, averaging 73 feet. The average tree of this size contains 240 feet of saw timber. Judging from the character of similar stands up to 80 years old, pure stands at 90 years on aver- age sites in Arkansas yield from 30 to 40 thousand feet, while com- pletely stocked stands on the same situations contain about 170 trees per acre and yield about 50 thousand feet of saw timber. THINNINGS. The extensive areas of shortleaf pine in the younger stages of growth and the quick response of the species to changes in light supply? make thinnings very important in its management; their purpose is to admit the right amount of light so far as is possible to each individual tree. The available soil moisture and growing space for the roots must also be considered. Thinnings are made neces- sary by the dense seeding which usually takes place under protection from fire, in openings, such as abandoned fields or forest clearings. While natural thinning gradually reduces the density of the stand, progress is slow and much time is lost in the production of a mature crop. Fires thin stands, but in a haphazard manner, accompanied always by severe loss and injury. Thinnings made by selecting the proper trees at the right intervals result in an increased yield, a notable improvement in quality, and frequently a higher net money return on the investment. 1Table 29 in Appendix. 2U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 244, ‘‘ Life History of Shortleaf Pine.” SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 35 RELATION BETWEEN TREE DENSITY AND YIELD. A thinning is very desirable between the ages of 10 and 15 years. It should be somewhat earlier for the better than for the poorer sites and regions of growth. Subsequent thinnings should be made at regular intervals of 5 years up to the age of from 40 to 60 years, and thereafter about every 10 years to the close of the rotation. If, for any reason, it is impracticable to repeat the operation so often, the interval may be increased to from 7 to 10 years. Ten years is satis- factory for older stands of timber managed under a longer rotation. It is thoroughly practical to start thinnings even at considerably later ages than those mentioned. The limit has not been definitely determined, but vigorous recovery after suppression has been ob- served up to 80 and 100 years of age. Perhaps ages of 50 to 60 years on the better situations and best regions of growth are approxi- mately near to the average limit of the period of good recovery. This allows a period of 20 to 30 years prior to the culmination of height and diameter growth. On the drier and thinner soils the correspond- ing upper limit seems to be reached from 10 to 20 years earlier. Too heavy thinning stimulates leaf development and wood produc- -tion over the lower branches, correspondingly reduces the rate of height growth, and is injurious also through the exposure of the soil and humus to the unfavorable action of sun and wind. The ideal thinning removes a sufficient number of the trees to relieve over- crowding without creating large openings in the canopy. Obviously, long intervals between thinnings make necessary the removal of a greater amount of material than shorter intervals, and increase the danger of soil exposures and the development of long dense crowns. It should be borne in mind, however, that young stands which are so open as to be considered understocked may often close up as they grow older and be fully stocked at maturity. The close relation between the number of trees per acre and the resultant yield of saw timber is indicated by Table 18 derived from seven different portions of a 30-year old shortleaf stand of irregular density. The best yield resulted from a density of 350 trees per acre, with decreasing yields at about the same rate from both understock- ing and overstocking. Thinnings made in Hanover County, Va., for the accurate determination of the resulting growth in a typical shortleaf stand of similar character and age removed 42 per cent of the trees but only 6 per cent of the total cubic volume of wood. 36 BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 18.—Relation between tree density and yield of shortleaf pine in board feet per acre. Trees §| Saw timber.? | Aver- Trees 8| Saw timber.2 | A ver- | inches | age inches | age | Total trees per | and dia- Total trees per | and : dia- acre. over | Scrib- | povjig | Meter acre. over | Scrib- | 7 oyle | meter } in dia-| ner Tile (breast- in dia-| ner nai (breast- meter. | rule. : high). meter. | rule. . high). Board Num- | Board | Board feet. | Inches. ber. feet. feet. | Inches. 6, 600 11.5 255 | 15,350 | 7,900 8.1 | 8,450 10.9 235 | 13,200 | 6,800 Tail 9, 700 10. 4 215 | 11,250 | 5,800 fe3 10, 600 9.8 195 | 9,250 | 4,450 7.0 10, 800 9.4 180 | 7,500 | 3,200 6.6 | 10, 200 8.9 160 | 5,900} 2,000 6.3 9,000 8.5 140 | 4, 250 800 6.0 1A 30-year old stand of varying densities on good quality site and protected against fire, Montgomery County, Ark. : 2 Yield of trees 8 inches and over in diameter at breast-height. In a selected old-field stand in Arkansas, 20 years old (PL VII, fig. 1) a density of 1,440 trees per acre gave a yield of 1,600 board feet, counting all trees 8 inches and over in diameter, while a normal stocking of 520 trees per acre in the same stand yielded 10,200 feet of saw timber. The overstocked stand contained only 40 trees per acre 8 inches and over in diameter and merchantable for saw timber, — the well-stocked stands 200. The relation between number of trees per acre and diameter growth is so regular that it is almost sus- ceptible of expression with mathematical exactness. The sections in Plate VIII represent the average growth in a 33-year-old stand of shortleaf pine coming up under full-light exposure in an opening of about 10 square miles caused by a cyclone. A density of 370 trees per acre gave a yield of 18,000 feet of saw timber, a density of 550 trees per acre 21,800 feet. The trees widely spaced averaged 1 inch larger in breast-high diameter, thus yielding a higher grade of lumber. The number of trees to be left per acre in thinning shortleaf stands of specified ages varies chiefly with the quality of the situation. Table 19 indicates approximately the number of trees in natural un- thinned stands and also the trees left after thinning. The better class is representative of the more southern and western portions of the shortleaf range; the poorer class, of unfavorable local situations in this portion of the range, and the more northern and eastern areas of distribution. SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 37 TABLE 19.—Trees per acre in unthinned and thinned stands of various ages.* Trees per acre. Trees per acre. Better situations. | Poorer situations. Better situations. | Poorer situations. Age. Age. Un- After Un- After Un- After Un- After thinned| thin- |thinned} thin- thinned} thin- | thinned] thin- stands.| ning. | stands.| ning. stands.| ning. | stands.| ning. Years. Number. | Number. | Number. | Number. Number.| Number.| Number. | Number. 1,40 990 “ 225 195 eae ik , 400 2,120 | 1,460 260 | 230 3D... Ae 680 525 990 820 200 175 200} 190 4D... nn ee 480 380 680 540 185 165 185 | 180 [a 2 Ht 340 280 460 380 175 160 180| 175 ...2 4 270 230 340 290 1 Represents about an average number based on measurements in 128 well-stocked stands in various portions of the range. TREES TO BE REMOVED. For convenience in thinning, trees may be divided into four groups of “dominant,” “codominant,” “intermediate,” and “suppressed.” These groups are termed “crown classes,” and represent the relative importance of the trees in the composition of the stand. The domi- nant and codominant trees compose the bulk of the stand, forming the general level of the forest canopy. They receive full light from overhead, and the dominant ones some from the sides also. The co- dominant trees are somewhat crowded on the sides. The intermedi- ate trees have smaller crowns and are generally below the main level of the stand, where they receive only a small amount of hght from above. They clearly belong to the class of trees which is be- ing gradually crowded out. The suppressed trees are the smaller sickly ones completely below the general forest canopy. Athough there are certain more or less essential rules for thinning average shortleaf pine stands, they will not fit all cases, and the removal of the trees is largely a matter of individual judgment. In general, thinnings should be made primarily for the better development of the dominant and codominant classes. This is accomplished through the removal of the more crowded intermediate and suppressed trees on the lower side and the exceptionally large, overshading or “ wolf” trees on the upper side. In the crowded groups it is often necessary to remove as many as one-half, or occasionally two-thirds, of the intermediate trees, together with a few trees of the codominant class. Figure 3 represents an overstocked 30-year-old shortleaf stand and several subsequent thinnings. In ordinary early thinnings the num- ber of trees removed is about one-third of the total stand. The sup- pressed trees are making exceedingly small growth and exert no ap- preciable influence upon the stand. Their removal, however, is beneficial in decreasing the fire menace. Large openings should al- 38 BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. S i | Sn | | H H | | : { i ! i ! | i \ | F | I | Li es AS Cr ripoat a+ > - b “| A, “5 i Wee. Teny Fig. 3a.—Profile of trees in the original unthinned stand; 15 trees living. _ _—< eae —_., —— ——— ——— ————— ——————) ———————— SSS SSS ee ————————_—>=y A — ais 28 vt y HH Fic. 3b.—Same stand after first thinning by removing 7 trees; 8 trees living. Fig. 3.—Successive thinning in an overstocked, even-aged shortleaf stand, 30 years old. mediate ; 4, suppressed; 5, dead. ‘Tree outlines in original stand. SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 39 7 43 Le tf ! Fic. 3c.—Same stand 7 years later after second thinning; 6 trees living. ae Sia “at ret eh Fic. 8d.—Same stand 8 years later following third thinning; 5 trees living. Shaded trees to be removed in next thinning. 1, dominant; 2, codominant; 3, inter- taken from “‘ Principles of Handling Woodlands,” by H. S. Graves. 40 BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ways be avoided in order to prevent soil deterioration and the ~ entrance of weeds or undesirable hardwood species. In the absence of other trees over a space larger than about two or more square rods trees of all crown classes should be retained. The trees in a well-stocked thinned stand of shortleaf should maintain a general uniformity in height. Figure 4 shows graphically the actual appearance of the canopy of a 30-year-old stand and the same after it was thinned by the removal of 9 suppressed and 4 intermediate trees, equivalent to 46.4 per cent of the number of trees, or about 8 per cent of the cubic volume. In this case thinning was badly needed because of the number of trees in the lower crown classes and overcrowding in the main Fic. 4.—Canopy of a crowded shortleaf pine stand 30 years old; (A) before thinning; (B) after thinning. D dominant, C codominant, I intermediate, S suppressed. canopy. The expansion of the crowns of the remaining trees will rapidly fill openings, making a second thinning necessary in about five years. The selection of trees among the various crown classes for thinning should always be preceded by the removal of unsound and defective trees, such as those with crooked, forked, or short knotty trunks. The presence of “punk,” or the fruiting body of a fungus, is certain evidence of a diseased tree. In mixed stands the pine should be favored at the expense of the hardwoods practically always except on the least favorable situations and extreme outer limits of its range. Artificial thinning will ac- celerate growth, however, and make the tree successful on situations formerly considered unfavorable. In proportion to the amount of air and soil space occupied shortleaf pine produces more timber SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 41 than any of its hardwood associates. In the lower and deeper soils red gum comes close to shortleaf pine in volume production. In general the principles of thinnings stated above for pure stands apply with only minor modifications to mixed pine and hardwood stands. RETURNS FROM THINNED STANDS. The relation of cost to financial return is much the same for thinning shortleaf stands as for similar operations with farm crops. The material obtained from thinnings can usually be utilized for cordwood, rails, and other purposes, and often pays for the work from the start. A market for peeled poles can perhaps be developed, especially in view of the success of treating sap pine with wood pre- servatives. The factors which determine the immediate financial success of thinning an acre of young pine vary widely with age, density, location, and opportunity fcr using the product. The results obtained by thinning shortleaf pine in Virginia have been studied by the Forest Service in cooperation with the Depart- ment of Agriculture and Immigration of the State of Virginia. The study was made by Mr. W. W. Ashe, of the Forest Service, and the results are embodied in a publication issued in 1913 by the State, entitled “ Shortleaf Pine in Virginia—The Increase in Its Yield by Thinnings.” ‘The tables and discussion which follow are based upon this report, and may be considered applicable over the northern and central Piedmont region, and with relatively small modifications over the entire region of distribution. Saw timber—tThe largest yield of saw timber is obtained from stands which are periodically and lightly thinned, following an earlier period of moderate crowding. The possibilities of increase in yield of lumber as a direct result of thinning are clearly indicated in Table 20, showing yields for understocked, thinned, and crowded unthinned stands. Taste 20,—Yield* of saw timber from understocked, crowded, and thinned stands of shortleaf pine in Virginia. {Trees 9 inches and over in diameter at breast height.) Crowded stands, Fully stocked, Understocked unthinned. thinned stands. stands. BO ee Trees e Trees Trees F per acre. Yield. per acre. Yield, per acre, Wield Years. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. 20 1, 235 200 765 8, 400 850 8, 800 40 860 6, 000 505 16, 400 800 5, 700 50 535 13, 100 855 20, 400 150 6, 900 60 395 16, 800 255 | 23,000 100 7, 800 1 Yield in terms of mill cut production under close utilization, 42 BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The yield in saw timber of a crowded stand 30 years old is very small, because very few trees have attained a merchantable diameter. The largest diameters occur in understocked stands, which yield con- siderably less, however, than fully stocked thinned stands. If the material derived from the thinnings is of sufficient value to pay for the cutting or to yield a profit, the cost per thousand feet of growing saw timber in fully stocked thinned stands is less than in either crowded or understocked stands. If thinnings do not pay for them- selves the cost is greater. At the age of about 48 years, when thinned stands reach their maximum annual yield, the diameter of the average- sized tree is about 9.5 inches breast high, or 11.5 inches on the stump. The average annual yield of saw timber at that time from trees 9 inches and over in diameter is 410 board feet. For similar unthinned stands the maximum annual yield occurs at the age of about 57 years, and the tree averages 8.2 inches at breast height, or 9.8 inches on the stump. The annual increment at different ages from unthinned and thinned stands is shown in Table 21. TABLE 21.—Average annual increment per acre of saw timber from thinned and unthinned shortleaf-pine stands in Virginia. [Trees 9 inches and over in diameter, measured at breast height.] Thinned stand (thin- nings neglected). Unthinned stand. Age. Periodic Periodie Average | annual Average | annual _ annual | increment] annual | increment increment.| foreach |increment.| for each decade. decade. Years Bad. ft. Bad. ft Bd. ft. Bd. ft 280) Ps earsreyet ees | Beerei see eres Bee eraser ers 40 410 800 950} 5-226 S82 2 50 408 400 262 710 60 383 260 250 190 70 357 200 238 170 In calculating the cost of growing shortleaf pine saw timber, com- pound interest on the value of the land, accumulated taxes, and other expenses must be considered. The effect of thinning upon the final yield and upon the cost of growing shortleaf pine are shown in Table 22. The calculation assumes a land value of $5 per acre, taxes and other expenses at the rate of 1 per cent on the land value, and net annual returns of 5 per cent on the investment in land and cost of stocking. The lowest cost for unthinned stands was $6.25 and for thinned stands $2.21 per thousand feet. The age at which the cost is lowest, or the financial maturity of the timber, was 45 years for natural stands and 35 years for the thinned stands. Naty SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT, 43 Taste 22.—Cost of growing shortleaf-pine saw timber in thinned and unthinned stands in Virginia. Unthinned stand. — Thinned stand. eae Net cost Cost of stand. | Accumu- Cisinan || Meusizislas OSu0 lated cost of| Yield. growing east Final yield. Snel investment. per crop.! fect. Years Dolls Bd.ft. Dolls eae Bd. ft. Dolls. BA || Se Be Be Se RO Seabee Bceeoocos]e ss Os ents cee Sora acolo cicmlacareiek 25 HGSAGY eee oe oce sec] oocnseeooses 15.68 900 17.00 30 23.72 PAL Dae Beemeeccricer 21.75 8, 400 2.59 35 33. 43 1,400 23.80 29. 64 13, 400 DOT 40 46. 43 6. 7.64 40.06 16, 400 2.44 45 63. 82 10,200 6.25 54.33 18,700 2.90 50 87.10 13,106 6. 70 73.70 20, 400 3.61 1 After allowing for profit from thinnings in the form of cordwood. The total stumpage value of old fields at various ages and the gross returns yielded on the original investment in land are given in Table 23. The investment on which the gross rate of profit is based ineludes taxes and cost of protection, assumed to be 1 per cent of the land value, here placed at $5 per acre. The material from the thin- nings is assumed to cover the cost of cutting without profit or loss. Tasre 23.—/nterest yielded and total stumpage value per acre of thinned and unthinned stands of shortleaf pine in Virginia. Thinned stand. Unthinned stand. eee of Value of | Gross rate Gross rate Yield per stand percent | Yield per | Value of per cent acre. neglecting | yielded on acre. stand. yielded on thinnings.! |land value. land value. 1 Stumpage at $2 per thousand feet. Cordwood.—Since the yield of cordwood from stands of shortleaf pine depends more upon the number than upon the size of the indi- vidual trees on a given area, thinnings are not so profitable for cord- wood as for saw timber. At the age of 45 years properly thinned stands show an increase in cordwood of 33 per cent, including thin- nings; an increase in saw timber of 80 per cent over natural unthinned stands. In each case regular thinnings are made at intervals of five years. Since there is little increase in the actual volume of unthinned stands after the ages of about 35 to 40 years in Virginia, the rotation for cordwood there is relatively short and the maximum yield is reached much earlier than for the production of lumber. 44 BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tables 24, 25, and 26 show the total yield in cordwood, yearly increment, cost of growing, and the stumpage value per acre, and gross rate of money return on the investment for various ages from thinned and unthinned stands. TABLE 24.—Cordwood yield per acre of unthinned and thinned pure stands of shortleaf pine in Virgima. [Trees 3 inches and over in diameter breast high.]} Unthinned stands. Thinned stands—Yield of thinnings. Number . Average eal Volume | trees Apples, Volume | Total | Total | annual Age. ait, | Average | ofstand | which | 73050, | oftrees | ofall | thin- | inere- i é incre- before can be Gieaneee removed | previous; nings | ment, in- Spee vedlpements each |removed |°OF0ec- | ineach | thin- | and | cluding ees thinning.| in each thinning.| nings. | stand. | thin- Years.| Cords.2 Cords.2 Cords. Inches. Cords. Cords. | Cords. Cords. 20 47 2.3 47.0 930 3.3 GUase eee ee 47.0 2.3 25 57 252, 52.0 205 4.5 5.1 6.1 58.1 2.3 30 62 Phat 57.0 150 5.0 5.0 11.2 68. 2 2.3 35 64 1.9 60. 0 110 5a5) 4.8 16. 2 76. 2 De 40 65 yd, 60. 0 85 6.0 4.3 21.0 81.0 2.0 45 64 i683 59. 0 68 6.5 4.0 745533 84.3 1.8 50 63 te2 57.0 55 7.0 3.6 29.3 86.3 1.7 55 61 Bal 54.5 45 (N64) Seer zewees 32.9 87.4 1.6 1Column 9 is the sum of colums 4 and 8. : : é 2 A cord refers to the standard cord of 128 sticked cubic feet, reducible to the long cord by dividing by 1.25. Wood has the bark on and all trees are taken 3 inches and over in diameter. TABLE 25.—Cost per cord of growing shortleaf-pine cordwood im unthinned and thinned stands, thinnings included. Thinned stands. Unthinned stands. Thinnings. Age. Net cost ae ae Der acre | inal Cost of ota of pro- : growin: « Cost of Assumed} Accu- A yield. Sted ate growing |Amount.| value | mulated See per cord. acti per cord.2 per cord.| value.? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Years.| Dollars. | Cords. | Dollars. Cords. | Dollars. | Dollars. | Dollars. | Cords. | Dollars. 2) Seren 11. 04 47 0. 23 6.1 OMLOR Reese aes = 11. 04 47 0. 23 765 16. 46 Sr . 28 bom 15 0. 78 15. 68 52 30 BO ree 23.72 62 -38 5.0 20 1.97 21.75 57 38 BH SBE 33. 43 64 -52 4.8 25 3.79 29.64 60 ~49 40.2... 46. 43 65 -81 4.3 25 6.37 40. 06 60 66 45.22. 63. 82 64 -99 4.0 .20 9. 50 54.33 59 -92 ase 87.10 63 1538:). caesar 13. 40 73.70 57 1,30 1 Obtained by calculating the interest at 5 per cent, plus 1 per cent for taxes, making a total of6 per cent, compounded annually on a land value of $5 per acre. Since the land will remain after the timber is sold, its value is not included in the cost of growing. 2 Obtained by dividing column 2 by column 3. 3 The pape et of columns 5 and 6 compounded at 5 per cent every 5-year period. The value of wood zemnove in thinnings (column 6) is only nominal on account of its small size and the difficulty of making innings. 4 The remainder after deducting column 7 from column 2. 5 Obtained by dividing column 8 by column 9. PLATE IX. Bul. 308, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 15059A F Fic. 1.—SHORTLEAF REPRODUCTION ENTERING AS SECOND STORY IN OPENINGS IN AN EVEN-AGED STAND IN NEW JERSEY. Od We ; - STG TF ere O8A. F-142 Fic. 2.—A 30-YEAR-OLD SHORTLEAF STAND IN VIRGINIA PRIOR TO THINNING, STANDS OF YOUNG SHORTLEAF PINE, Bul. 308, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. F-98469 TYPICAL INCREASED GROWTH OF A 66-YEAR-OLD SHORTLEAF PINE SINCE LOGGING 5 YEARS AGO. HELLBIG, PIKE County, ARK. ABouT 200 PER CENT INCREASE OVER PREVIOUS 5-YEAR PERIOD. SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 45 TABLE 26.—Stumpage value per acre and gross interest yielded on land value from cordwood in old field stands of shortleaf pine in Virginia, Thinned stand. Unthinned stand. Total value per acre includ- | Gross rate : Gross rate Age. | Final. | ingaccumu- per cent | Yield | Value of| per cent yield. | lated value of | yieided per stand. yielded thinnings at 4} on land acre. on land per cent com- value.2 value. pound interest. Years.| Cords. Dolls. Per cent. | Cords.| Dolls. Per cent. 20 CIV ok 6 GAO aes Oa Ee eee Cee 47 11.75 4.3 52 13. 74 4.0 57 14.25 4.2 1 Cordwood stumpage valued at 25 cents. 2 Gross interest rate is figured on an investment including cost of protection, and interest on land value assumed to be $5 per acre. ‘Taxes and other costs equal 1 per cent. CUTTING AND REPRODUCTION. In forest management the cutting of stands is looked upon as an intermediate step in the continuous process of timber production. The capacity of the species for natural regeneration usually deter- mines the method of final cut. The easy reproduction of shortleaf pine avoids a loss of time between the timber crops and permits of concentration and economy in lumbering. As the seed is small and matures in abundance about every third year, with partial crops in the interval, it is aggressive and takes complete possession of abandoned fields and clearings. (See Pl. V.) The essential requirements for the formation of fully stocked young stands are (1) an abundance of light, secured by making large-sized openings, and (2) the presence of seed-bearing trees scattered over or near the openings. The method of cutting depends upon whether the stand is pure or mixed. Shortleaf is most produc- tive in pure stands (PI. IX). PURE STANDS. For pure stands some form of the clear-cutting system should be used. Two methods are suggested. One leaves isolated seed trees scattered uniformly over the tract, and is applicable when the bulk of the contents of the stand is to be taken at one lumbering oper- ation. This system may be modified and applied in the form of a strip, group, or compartment. The other is to clear cut in strips. The first method scatters seed uniformly and leaves a few trees on the ground for local use after the young growth has been estab- lished. This is often a convenience on farms or near small settle- ments. ‘Trees left for seed should have well-developed crowns and 46 BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. good root systems so as to be windfirm. Such trees may not occur naturally in the stand. In this case it is advisable to make the last thinning in such a manner as to develop from 4 to 10 good seed trees per acre, well distributed over the area. The number will depend upon the age and size of the trees, more being left on eleva- tions than elsewhere. In the case of long-stemmed, slender trees, groups of two to four serve the purpose better than single trees. At least an average of three of these small groups should be selected for each acre. The crowns of the individual trees or groups as a whole should be entirely freed on all sides by the last thinning. Due allowance should be made for old “ forest” or “ heart ” pine trees that may be left along fence rows or along the margin of a stand. These are usually heavy seed producers. It is essential to mark the good seed-producing trees in advance of logging. Blazing or boxing is injurious and should be strictly avoided. Some simple method, such as the use of strips of old sacking or burlap, is effective and inex- pensive. Light hacking in the outer bark only, if done carefully on two sides of the tree, is one method of identifying the trees against cutting. All other merchantable trees may be cut, but if the stand is younger than about 35 years many of the small-sized lower crown classes will recover if left after logging. In most stands there are shade-enduring hardwoods, such as persimmon, sassafras, and dog- wood, which have entered small openings in the pine. It is desir- able to cut these in order to prevent their developing later and overshading the pine saplings. In unthinned, well-stocked stands good seed trees are not usually developed until the maximum height growth is passed and crown iso- lation begins to take place, which is at about 40 or 50 years. There are present also many trees of the lower sizes, too small to saw into lumber without a high degree of waste. In such cases the large trees may be logged in a first cutting and the operation repeated after an interval of 5 to 10 years. Groups of seedlings will establish them- selves in the successive openings thus left. The remainder of the stand, previously thinned at the time of the second cut, may be re- moved in a third cutting as soon as a thorough restocking is assured, or they may be held over to form large standards for cutting during the first thinning of the younger stand. In understocked stands a larger per cent of the trees are of a merchantable size and can be taken in the first cut. Seed trees are developed from the smaller trees, which are of less value for saw timber and show rapid develop- ment in crown spread and seed production through an increased light supply. The second method (strip method) leaves alternate strips of clear- cut land and standing timber. The openings may be as wide as four times the average height of the trees and the timber strips one-fourth SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 47 the width of the opening. With trees averaging 60 feet in height the relation would be 240 feet of opening to each 60 feet of timber. This would remove four-fifths of the stand and reduce the second cut, or removal of the seed strips, to an operation of small size. If logging costs or market conditions should make such a small cut impracticable the strips should be made of equal width. In case a large tract is being managed to secure a periodic yield, which is sustained, but com- paratively small, the strips are cut successively starting from some point or points on the leeward side of the stand. A strip is cut at right angles to the prevailing winds, and another is made to the wind- ward as soon as regeneration is fully secured in the first, and so on. When a strip is being cut, the next one may be thinned by the re- moval of all the smaller and some of the medium sized trees. This stimulates seed producing within the stand as an aid in restocking the cleared strip. The last remaining strip in the series should be heavily thinned at the time of the preceding cutting and only 15 to 20 of the larger trees left on each acre. These will serve as seed trees, and on account of the rapid crown development following thinning they should fully restock both strips in the course of three to seven years. After this has been accomplished they are removed, as the final cut- ting of the original stand. MIXED STANDS. In mixed stands where shortleaf pine is in competition with various hardwoods it has been found most profitable to encourage the pine, thus bringing about a gradual change in the forest type. Detailed studies carried on by the State in western North Carolina show that this is true in forest management of mixed second-growth oak and pine forestst over the Piedmont region from Virginia to Georgia. This is recommended because of the rapid rate of growth and greater general usefulness of the pine timber. Its compact crown and ability to grow with only overhead light enable young shortleaf pine to keep pace with or emerge from the general level of its asso- ciates following the coppicing of hardwoods. In brief, the essential steps in accomplishing this desired end are (1) adequate provision for pine seed trees, (2) protection of the young pine in cutting and logging, (3) opening up the forest by the removal of a larger percent- age of the hardwoods, and (4) reducing the firemenace. Inthe mixed stands in the National Forests of western Arkansas and adjacent regions the ranging of hogs in large numbers for many years past has very greatly reduced the natural seeding of the associated nut- bearing oaks and hickories, and by preparing a good seed bed has considerably increased that of shortleaf pine. An advantage ‘is 1 Pulletin 23, Forest Conditions in Western North Carolina, and Press Bulletins 64 to 84, North Carolina Geologic and Economic Survey. 48 BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. gained over the hardwoods by cutting them from July to early September, when the sprouting capacity is at its lowest point. In mixed stands the crowns average larger than in pure stands, with the result of an earlier and larger seed production. The crowns of seed trees should be freed on all sides. Not less than three and usually not more than eight trees, varying with the average seeding capacity, will be needed for each acre. The formation of pure groups on favorable sites, rather than pure stands over larger, vari- able sites, should be the aim. In some parts of the South scrub pine competes strongly with shortleaf, and on account of its inferior tim- ber should be removed in order to favor shortleaf in seeding up cut-over tracts or abandoned agricultural land. The selection and clear-cutting methods are alike applicable to mixed and uneven-aged stands. Of these, the selection method is best suited to the prevailing form of mixed stands. The groups of shortleaf pine frequently found among mixed hardwoods are in reality small-sized pure stands and should be handled as such. They are usually even aged, and can be regenerated best by leaving suffi- cient seed trees to restock the tract completely at an early. date. The individual selection of the trees as soon as they have reached the most profitable size is the simplest form of final cutting. This must be modified as required by the dominant aim of increasing the proportion of shortleaf over the less valuable hardwoods. To do this, trees for natural seeding purposes are needed. In many in- stances much of the shortleaf may profitably be left for the second - cutting. It will then have served its purpose of seeding, and a larger amount will be ready for the saw. CUTTING ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS OF ARKANSAS. On the two National Forests of Arkansas, where the mixed type prevails, the ultimate aim in the silvicultural management of short- leaf pine is to convert the present more or less uneven-aged forest into even-aged stands. The bulk of the shortleaf pine on these Na- tional Forests large enough to cut is from 70 to 175 years old, ranging from over 225 years down to 55 years for trees on the warm slopes. Careful marking of all trees to be cut assures sufficient seed trees. In addition, a minimum diameter limit of 14 inches breast high, equivalent to a stump diameter of 14.9 inches inside bark on a stump 1 foot high, protects the young trees, whose growth and value are increasing at the most rapid rate. It usually provides ample seed trees for restocking and some basis, at least, for a second cut. Growth?! and volume? tables for western Arkansas show a 14-inch 1U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 244, “‘ Life History of Shortleaf Pine.’ 2Table 29, Appendix. -SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 49 shortleaf pine to be 70 years old, 69 feet high, and to contain 170 feet of saw timber, scaled by the Scribner rule. If left 30 years for a second cut, the 14-inch tree will be 100 years old, 16.5 inches in di- ameter, 74 feet high, and scale 270 feet by the Scribner rule. An area of 18 acres on a typical cut-over tract on the Arkansas National Forest cut to a 14-inch diameter limit contained an average of 21.4 shortleaf pines per acre, of which 12.4 were 10 inches and over, breast-high diameter, and yielded 1,497 board feet per acre. The actual cut of pine on the sale area of 800 acres averaged 2,434 board feet per acre, or almost exactly 62.5 per cent of original stand of 4,000 feet. Table 27 shows the size and number of trees left on a sample 18 acres of this sale: TABLE 27.—Shoritleaf pine left on 18 acres of typical cut-over tract on the Ar- kansas National Forest. Trees. Diamotes. |s—a a L S vases (breast- Je tract.t reas _high) Baunple Wack. Average | . high) in 1910. §|———_—__———__——__| Tota]. ] number | in 1940.2 1 2 3 per acre. Inches Inches eeceesee hol ese ese 8 9 0.5 11.0 Greece ot 2 4 10 16 9 12.0 ((epecteese 2 9 20 31 ie ?/ 12.3 Sees ae 3 14 27 44 2.4 12.8 Lae Sane 14 14 35 63 3.5 13. 4 1Oe eee ces 4 12 24 40 2.2 14.0 Tile Ses 24 14 26 64 3.6 14.6 i Dee ae 16 5 25 46 2.6 15.2 Bea ee 12 3 13 28 1.6 16.0 1 omer Bee 5 2 13 20 1.1 16.6 i eee 3 3 5 il -6 17.3 oe eee ae 3 3 3 9 ae | 17.8 | ie ae ee Ll Sasceeee 1 vl 18.5 Ie Baie el ee Sasa CS eeree ae 1 1 sil 19.2 Total 89 84 210 383 21 4e lps. DIAMETER AND YIELD IN ABCVE STAND. Trees. Yield. Diameter : fp | ees | proups 2 samaier breast-) EP U2Se, Total (18|} Average | Total (18} Average high) acres). | peracre.| acres). | per acre. in 1940. Inches. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Inches. AV Os ase-22 161 Ce) oe ee ee ee 11 to 13.5 10 1046. 2 a0 178 10.0 20,980 1,166 | 14 to 16 14 and above. 44 2.4 5, 960 331 | 16.5 up. Total... 883 21.4 26,940 DGD 7) Ste xleratpios whe 1 Plots selected and measured by H. D. Burrall, January, 1911, in mixed shortleaf and hardwood stand. Three sample plots of 6 acres each. Stand cut to 14-inch diameter limit. 4 Based on diameter and growth tables in U. 8. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 244, ‘Life History of Shortleaf Pine.” If a second cut is made in 30 years, the trees now 10 to 14 inches will have reached diameters of 14 and 16.5 inches, respectively. On 50 BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. this tract there should be at least 10 trees per acre, allowing for a 20 per cent loss in the 30 years. Since shortleaf in forest stands, unless crowded, begins to seed at 30 to 40 years, trees 14 inches and over are at least 3 decades beyond the beginning of seed-bearing age, and probably fully one-third were actual seed producers at the time of the logging. A minimum diameter limit of 14 inches usually provides ample seed trees and a basis of about 10 trees, varying considerably, for a second cut in 30 years. The volume of the 12.4 trees per acre, 10 inches and over in diameter, left on the above cut-over tract, in 30 years will scale 2,675 feet, not counting losses. On the basis, however, of a probable reduction to 10 trees per acre ~ and allowing 20 per cent reduction in scale for defect and breakage, the yield at the end of 30 years will be approximately 2,100 feet or an increase of 40 per cent over the present yield. The factor of accelerated growth, which must be included in the calculation, may safely be counted on to increase the rate at least one-half of the normal, or to a total yield of 2,400 feet. The power of accelerated growth following suppression is definitely known to be retained by shortleaf west of the Mississippi to considerably beyond the age of 70 years. In 7 representative trees, averaging 67 years old (45 to 101 years old), the growth in basal area in the 5 years after logging was 171.4 per cent greater than in the previous 5-year period prior to cutting. (Plate X.) It is believed that the above calculation is conservative. A 10-inch diameter limit, which represents an average age of 40 years, is about the present minimum commercial diameter limit for the region. If this limit were adopted, it would clearly be neces- sary in every operation to make special provision for retaining sufli- cient seed trees. This sort of cutting would result in more uniform conditions on the ground following logging, largely increase the area for incoming reproduction, and thereby gain some ground toward bringing about the desired even-aged form of forest. Wher- ever the present stand is dominated strongly by pine, in contrast to the mixed pine and hardwoods, and the region is rough or rather inaccessible, it appears that cutting to include the smallest mer- chantable size will give good results. The silvicultural principles upon which the marking and logging of shortleaf pine are based are: The high capacity of the species for recovery after suppression, and abundance of seed and demand of the seedlings for light; the possibility, under certain conditions, that shortleaf can profitably be managed on a relatively short rotation; the desirability of growing shortleaf in even-aged pine stands, and at the same time, where necessary, during the first rotation, retaining the younger portion of the stand for a second cut in 30 or more SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 51 years. The procedure, in summary, is to (1) protect the vigorous younger growing stock and all pine reproduction against cutting; (2) retain sufficient wind-firm and full-crowned seed trees to provide for completely restocking the area, if possible within the next three years, or natural cycle of full seed production; (3) cut diseased and deformed trees if not needed for seed (leave these for seed only in the absence of better trees); (4) create as full an opening of the forest floor as possible to supply light to the young trees; (5) utilize the hardwoods, favoring white oak over other species because of its greater value; and (6) prevent fires. It is practically certain that shortleaf pine can be profitably extended much more widely within its natural range than it is now by following these suggestions. REGENERATION BY SOWING AND PLANTING. Where it can be secured, natural reproduction is of course best, but sometimes it is desirable to start a complete young stand by sowing or planting, especially to fill in blank spaces. The vigor and hardi- ness of shortleaf pine on well-drained or moderately dry soils make it particularly valuable for reforesting eroded slopes and dry ridges, where, on account of lack of moisture, the growth of hardwoods is retarded. Within its range few other species are so well adapted for reforesting abandoned fields, even those badly gullied, and water- sheds supplying water to towns and cities. The work of sowing and planting is especially important because the mature trees which seeded the present old field stands a quarter of a century ago have now become very scarce. METHODS. Sowing the seed directly in the field is usually much the cheaper, but transplanting the young trees from nursery beds is the surer method of securing a complete stand. In direct seeding two methods of preparing the soil are commonly employed. Throwing two or three furrows together reduces the weed competition and prepares a favorable seed bed. Where the surface is rough, steep, or otherwise unfitted for the use of a plow, seed spots are prepared by digging up a space 12 to 18 inches square with a mat- tock, or, in very loose soil, an ordinary garden hoe. If the soil is loose and reasonably free from weeds, etc., smaller “ spots” are some- times satisfactory. The seeds are then well scattered in the prepared soil and carefully covered. In the plowed furrows seed is sown either in seed spots and covered by using a light mattock or heavy garden hoe or scattered by hand and the strip run over by a brush or spike- toothed harrow. A covering usually of not more than one-quarter of an inch of fine mineral soil is desirable. Too deep covering is unfav- 52, BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. orable. In dry, loose soil light pressure with the hoe, mattock blade, or shoe sole will aid in checking excessive drying of the surface layer. In order to secure good germination nothing is better than to scatter a half inch or so of fine leaf litter or humus over the surface in addi- tion to the light firming of the mineral soil. A handful of partly decomposed “ pine straw ” will answer this purpose very well. Early spring is probably the most favorable time for seed sowing, although good results may be expected from fall sowing if the seed is not mo- lested by animals. Fresh seeds will germinate in 15 to 30 days, vary- ing with local climatic conditions. A spacing of 6 by 6 feet for the seed spots, or 1,210 per acre, is con: sidered about right to provide for a density during early life close enough to stimulate rapid height growth. Regular spacing is not always possible, especially if the tract to be sown contains scattered trees and bushes. A spacing of 8 by 8 feet may be used but does not give quite the desired form development; and closer spacing, for example, 4 by 4 feet, is objectionable, chiefly on account of the addi- tional expense and the need for earlier thinning when the product is insufficient to pay for the labor. Losses of seedlings in considerable numbers because of fungi and animals may be expected during the first one or two years even if protection is afforded. At least 15 to 20 seeds should be sown on each seed spot, allowing for a germination of 40 to 50 per cent for average seed, and the usual destruction of young seedlings during early life. It is desirable that by the end of the germination period each seed spot should contain from five to eight thrifty seedlings. At this rate of sowing and spacing a little over half a pound of seed will be required to sow an acre.1 Sowing broad- cast in plowed furrow strips will usually require a little more seed to obtain the same stand per acre. Shortleaf pine bears seed abundantly at intervals of from one to three years. The collection of seed is a simple process and not ex- pensive. It is done to best advantage where logging is in progress. The cones are collected from the tops during a period of two to five weeks prior to the time when they would naturally open on the tree. The seed is readily released by applying heat gradually to the cones spread ‘on fine wire mesh, or by exposing them to the dry- ing action of the sun.? Planting nursery-grown seedlings gives more uniform results than field sowing, but is generally more expensive. The seeds are sown in early spring in prepared and protected beds. Beds 4 by 12 feet 1 This allows for average well-cleaned seed. If the seed contains much cone scale and leaf litter, allowance should be made accordingly. Clean shortleaf pine seeds average sixty thousand to the pound. 2 For additional directions, see Forest Service Circular 208, “‘ Hxtractine and Cleaning Forest Tree Seed.” SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 53 are convenient and are extensively used. Sowing is sometimes done in drills spaced 6 inches apart running crosswise in the beds. This permits of cultivation between the rows. Otherwise seed is sown broadcast over the bed and covered by sifting fine sand to a depth of about one-quarter inch. This method better utilizes space in the seedbed and is therefore cheaper. In the latter case about 300 seeds should be sown on each square foot, or a total of one-quarter of a pound of clean seed on each standard seedbed (4 by 12 feet) in order to obtain a final stand of about 5,000 seedlings. This is about 100 per square foot. Sowing at the rate of 50 seed per linear foot in the drills, less than one-tenth of a pound of seed will be required for each seed bed, on which a stand of 2,000 seedlings is desired. These quantities of seed are based upon a germination vigor of 50 to 60 per cent and the probable natural loss of seedlings during the first few weeks. One-year-old seedlings are inexpensive to raise and handle and give good results when planted out in favorable situations. Two- year-old stock, either seedlings or one year in the transplant bed, give better results on weedy or otherwise unfavorable sites. For the most unfavorable situations 2-year-old transplants are best. To produce these, 1-year-old seedlings with their roots pruned to about 8 inches in length should be transplanted early in the preceding spring into open nursery beds. A spacing of 3 inches in rows 6 inches apart is recommended. Field planting is done preferably in early spring just before root activity starts. Late fall is also a favor- able time, and in case of large operations advantage may be taken of both seasons. FORM OF PLANTATION. Shortleaf pine is admirably adapted to pure plantations, which are strongly recommended over any kind of mixture in starting young forest stands. Shortleaf may, however, be planted in mixture with heavier foliaged species of slower growth—for example, sugar maple and such durable and valuable wood as red juniper. This mix- ture occurs naturally as a two-storied forest in the Piedmont region. Other species suitable for use in mixture are white, chestnut, red, and black oaks, and hickory. All of these except the close-crowned juni- per require much larger growing space and greatly decrease the yield of the pine per acre. In the higher portions of the Piedmont plateau and the southern Appalachian range, white pine and short- leaf in mixture have given good results.1. The shortleaf, unlike the white pine, prunes itself quickly. The red pine and western yellow pine are not successful in mixture with shortleaf because of the at- 1 Dr. C. A. Schenck, formerly in charge of the forest on the Biltmore Vanderbilt estate. 54 BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tacks of Aecidium pini, a rust fungus. Pure plantations of shortleaf promise larger financial returns than any other form. Mixed stands afford better protection against large losses from disease and insect ravages, as well as a variety of wood for use on the farm and to supply markets which may offer better returns for such sales. _ Plantations of shortleaf now cover several hundred acres on the Vanderbilt estate at Biltmore in western North Carolina. These were planted beginning about 1900 when this estate was placed under intensive forest management. The average growth in height of the 9-year-old shortleaf pine measured on eight different tracts cover- ing an area of 66 acres was exactly 2 feet annually. The stock used was mostly 1-year-old seedlings, and some 2 years old. Shortleaf has been planted in pure stands and in mixture with sugar maple, white pine, walnut, and other hardwoods. The plantations are strikingly uniform in development and have suffered no serious injury. At 9 years old in mixed plantations sugar maple averages about 7 feet in height, shortleaf pine 18 feet, and white pine mostly from 2 to 5 feet less than the shortleaf.t_ For the upper altitudes of 2,200 to 3,000 feet this mixture was successful, although the pure stands are equally so and are to be preferred. The trees were mostly planted 2 feet apart in rows spaced 5 feet,? and following the con- tour of the hills in order to check soil erosion. The small 1-year-old seedlings were planted in holes made with a dibble (wooden spike with a handle). Experimental plantations have been made by New Jersey, South Carolina, and possibly other States, but the planting of shortleaf pine on an extensive scale at Biltmore furnishes the best example of the possibility of artificial reforestation. PROTECTION. Protection against fire and cattle is essential until the trees are 2 to 4 inches in diameter and the bark is thick enough to prevent injury from these sources. Shortleaf, however, sprouts freely fol- lowing fire or cutting during the period up to about 10 years of age. In field seeding, mice, chipmunks, and other forms of animal life frequently cause damage during germination. The best means of combating these is to scatter poisoned grain or seed over the tract about a week before and again at the time of seed sowing.? In more remote regions, where stock laws are antiquated or poorly enforced, it may be necessary to exclude hogs, since they sometimes root up seed spots, although they do not eat the small seeds to any extent. 1Dr. C. A. Schenck, formerly in charge of the forest on the Biltmore Vanderbilt estate. 2 For average conditions this is much too close a spacing. % Formulas for poisoned bait can be obtained upon application to the Bureau of Bio- logical Survey, Washington, D. C. SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 55 COST. The cost of direct seeding varies with the price of labor and size of the operation. From one-half to 1 pound of seed is required for an acre, and one man can sow at the rate of an acre a day. On the basis of $1.50 for labor and $2.50 for seed, the cost is not over $4 per acre. If the soil preparation is by furrow plowing, the item of labor is increased from 50 cents to $1 per acre. To this must be added the value of the land to get the total initial cost of the in- vestment. The cost of raising 1-year-old seedlings in lots of 50,000 to 200,000 is about $2 per thousand, 2-year seedlings about $2.50, and 2-year-old transplants $3.50 per thousand. The field labor for planting an acre, spaced 5 by 5 feet, requires one man about two days with the 1-year- old seedlings, or three days with the largest-sized transplants. The total cost of plantations is $5 to $8 per acre. The returns and cost of carrying the investment can be calculated on the basis of the rate of growth, yields at various ages, results from intermittent thinnings, and final cutting, as discussed under the corresponding headings above, the value of the land, the initial cost — of establishing plantation, and annual expenses, including taxes and protection, calculated at compound interest. APPENDIX. VOLUME TABLES. Volume tables are usually based on diameter at breastheight and either the total length of the trees or contents of the tree in number of logs of standard length. The contents are most conveniently ex- pressed in cubic feet and board feet of saw timber. It will be noted especially that the contents of the trees scaled by the Doyle rule is very much less than by the Scribner rule. The latter represents much more correctly the actual contents of saw timber in pine stands up to the size of about 24 inches breastheight. Both volume and taper tables for the Piedmont region are based upon measurements of well-stocked, even-aged second-growth or “old-field” stands in North Carolina taken in 1909, 1910, and 1911. The tables will be found applicable to practically all second-growth shortleaf pine throughout the Piedmont region and lower extension of the Appalachian Plateau. Volume and taper tables for shortleaf pine in Arkansas are based upon the measurements of over 3,000 trees and show the form and average contents of trees of specified diameters in board feet scaled by both the Scribner and the Doyle rules. These tables, although based mostly on measurements taken on the Arkansas National Forest, have been supplemented and found by actual checking to apply in other parts of Arkansas and generally over the southern Mississippi Valley. TABLE 28.—Volume in board feet and cubic feet of shortleaf pine of different diameters and heights growing in well-stocked stands in the Piedmont region, North Carolina. [Based on taper curves scaled in 16-foot logs, with an additional 8-foot top log in some cases; stump height, 1 foot; diameter inside bark of top, 6 to 8 inches.) Total height of tree. Diame- ter 40 feet. 50 feet. 60 feet. breast- 2 high. Scribner | Doyle | Cubic | Scribner | Doyle |} Cubic | Scribner} Doyle | Cubic tule. Tule. | volume. tule. Tule. |volume.|} rule. rule. | volume. Inches. Bd.ft. | Bd.ft.| Cu.ft. Bd.ft. | Bd.ft.| Cu.ft.| Bd.ft. | Bd.ft.| Cu.ft. 6 1 1 ED 4 2 1.7 9 3 2.2 7 4 2 3.4 12 4 4.4 20 5 5.3 8 10 5 5.8 20 7 7.3 30 9 8.7 9 18 7 8.2 30 10 10.4 43 14 12.2 10 30 11 10.7 43 16 13.5 57 21 15.9 11 43 IN es erases 58 25 16.9 73 33 19.8 12 56 265 | eee sees 73 35 20.0 90 47 24.0 ae an Boecoeeess| pemece oc mecaaecars 89 46 24.0 110 63 28.0 TEE el a See mererarse le cacat mane 106 57 28.0 130 82 33.0 Dealt Semeice [ocean | ecg a rteeie ol | ee Gee a ene eee eee 150 101 38.0 165i) secrecy cs | eee ea | lcerstciorherel lle eiste crete all erect goers 169 122 43.0 1 eM ec ace eecl Bee cone POE CORE ee] Bonet netecl tacoscon Geteeoas 195 143 48.0 1S ae See eee BI =~ deel Sone eee eee ewe Sad coueblaceeasas 220 164 53.0 EQN | Seren arse rare | Bs es I ese ete re ere OE | Beye | ce cere | oe ee | Se QD fin cS AR Ae Sg SM ps S| RR aa ec ie | | ee ee ee SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 57 TasLEe 28.—Volume in board feet and cubic feet of shortleaf pine of different diameters and heights growing in well-stocked stands in the Piedmont region, North Carolina—Continued. Total height of tree. Diame- a 70 feet. 80 feet. 90 feet. Bacien oe Scribner | Doyle} Cubic | Scribner | Doyle} Cubic | Scribner | Doyle| Cubic Tule. tule. |jvolume.} rule. rule. | volume.} rule. tule. | volume. Bd.ft. \Bd.ft.| Cu.ft. | Trees. Taslte 29.—Volume in board feet of shortleaf pine of different diameters and heights in Arkansas, scaled by the Scribner and Doyle log rules. [Based on taper curves; scaled mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary; height of stump, 1 foot.] Total height of tree. 50 feet. 60 feet. 70 feet, 80 feet. Diameter inside Busi ee bars F F of top. Doyle} SCT! IDoyte| S°T!P- |Doyie| Set! | Doyle Tule. mile Tule. i tule male Tule. Bd. ft.| Bd. ft. |Bd. ft.| Bd. ft. |\Bd. ft.| Bd. ft. | Bd. ft.| Inches. | Trees. 0 9 40 12 50 15 60 20 6 3 20 50 | 24 60| 28 70 33 6 8 31 70| 36 80| 42 90 49 6 17 41 80| 48 100} 56 110 66 6 49 53 100| 61 120] 71 140| 83 7 96 64 120] 74 140| 86 170| 100 7| 180 78 150| 95 170 | 110 200] 130 7| 367 98 170 | 120 200 | 140 230] 160 8| 389 120 200 | 140 230 | 170 270} 200 8| 401 150 230 | 170 260 | 210 310} 240 8] 345 170 260 | 210 300 | 250 350} 290 8| 342 200 290 | 240 340 | 290 400 | 340 9| 266 230 330 | 280 380 | 330 450] 390 9| 207 500} 450 9| 164 5501 510 10} 120 610} 570 10 85 680 | 630 10 63 740 | 700 10 34 810} 770 11 21 830 | 840 in 25 960 | 910 rh 9 1,030] 990 WW 9 1,110 | 1,080 12 2 1,180 | 1,160 12 1 1, 260 | 1,240 12 2 CPG pail eee 12 1 Sab (aS A EE IS: 2 01) ar i ea ee aa i ae RIEL PRM CPeaR eres culcrenitesoaeed| tedachasdsd sa dlesacen alse atasaaee 3, 206 ee ne ee ee ee ee eS ee ee | 58 BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste 29.—Volume in board feet of shortleaf pine of different diameters and heights in Arkansas, scaled by the Scribner and Doyle log rules—Continued. Total height of tree. . ia ny as oP 7.) an [Sat RISES I | Diameter Diamster 90 feet. 100 feet. 110 feet. 120 feet. inside OAS Ve i Sey ers Ser a ea) Ts ee TR i a | ite (De ee Basis Scribner | Doyle | Scribner | Doyle ‘Scribner Doyle | Scribner] Doyle | of top. tule. Tule. Tule. Tule. Tule. Tule. Tule. Tule. Inches. | Bd. ft. | Bd fé | Bd. ft. | Bd.ft.| Bd.ft. | Bd.ft.| Bd. ft. | Bd.ft. | Inches. | Trees. Chl Eeeedreced Beocened Sacceccood ssad5c0q boacsoaccd eusasone Sess sseaieasoeuee 6 3 Ohl SSeepeneed lososesoo Mpeeodcoodescasccd lsoscasosdallaesdoces|lsecessssddlescosces 6 8 10 110 55 120 604) costes tedh cesses de) sseceecesel eee sees 6 17 11 130 75 150 88: ee ae Sa a | Ae al ge ee 6 49 12 160 99 180 120 200 130 230 150 7 96 13 190 120 220 150 240 170 270 190 7 180 14 230 160 260 180 290 210 320 240 7 367 15 270 190 300 220 340 260 370 290 8 389 16 310 230 350 270 390 310 430 350 8 401 17 360 280 400 320 450 370 510 420 8 345 18 400 330 460 380 520 440 580 490 8 342 19 460 390 520 450 590 510 660 570 9 266 20 510 450 590 510 660 580 740 650 9 207 21 570 510 660 580 740 660 830 750 9 164 22 640 580 730 660 830 750 930 840 10 120 23 710 650 810 750 920 850 1,040 950 10 85 24 780 730 900 830 1,020 950 1,150] 1,070 10 63 25 860 810 990 930 1,130 | 1,060 1,280 | 1,190 10 34 26 940 890 1,090 1,030 1,250! 1,170 1,420) 1,320 il 21 27 1,030 980 1,190] 1,130 1,380 | 1,290 1,580 | 1,460 11 25 28 1,120} 1,070 1,310 | 1,240 1,510 | 1,420 1,740 | 1,620 il 9 29 1,210] 1,170 1, 420 1,360 1,660 1,560 1,910} 1,780 11 9 30 1,310 | 1,280 1,540 | 1,480 1,800 | 1,710 2,100 | 1,950 12 2 31 1,420 | 1,380 1,660 | 1,610 1,960 | 1,860 2,290! 2,120 12 1 32 1,530 | 1,490 1,780 | 1,750 2,120} 2,010 2,490 | 2,300 12 2 33 1,640 | 1,610 1,920} 1,880 2,290 | 2,180 2,710 | 2,480 12 1 34 1,740 | 1,730 2,050 | 2,020 2,460 | 2,340 2,920 | 2,660 133} Seen 4 0): Ie Aer Pees el (aeons De are Pees ga no Se Bees Setsrd srr ostacae a6 3, 206 TABLE 30.—Volume in board feet of shorileaf pine of different diameters and merchantable lengths in 16-foot logs in Arkansas, scaled by Scribner log rule. [Based on taper curves; scaled mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary; height of stump, 1 foot.] Diame- Number of 16-foot logs. Diame- ter ter inside : breast- : TSE Basis. high. 14 2 24 3 3h 4 44 5 5h 6 of top. Inches. | Bd.ft.| Ba.ft.| Bd.ft.| Bd.ft.| Bd.ft.| Bd.ft. | Bd.ft. | Bd.ft. | Bd.ft. | Bd.ft. | Inches. | Trees. s| 30| 42 68| 82 by eee tal emer Peace saeco cao ached ccal Snes acad| mecuecas 6 3 9 38 50 63 77 OB slays sas dee hohe seme | tees seen) e-em sees 6 8 10 44 59 74 90 110 IP) Sees ace bEsesaca| bee sree) Becaroes 6 17 11 53 69 87 | 110 130 UG) oabe eas boocacas| pos sescallenacsocs 6 49 12 60 79} 100} 130 150 170 BUD ||scocodeullsecssoss||soseeose 7 96 13 73 96} 120] 150 180 210 2 eeriacanilece racer Benoscas 7 180 14 80} 110) 140] 170 200 240 270 SLO} Sacer es -|s-neeee ui 367 Ws looooee 130 | 160} 190 230 270 310 B80) {icconscobllesosSoor 8 389 IG |pss5ae 140 | 180] 220 270 310 350 4003 |- Semmes | Ssese = 8 401 7) bsoese 160 | 210} 250 300 350 400 450 S00) |leooecacs 8 345 ES |eosoas 180 | 230} 280 340 390 450 510 GY) |Eosoas~< 8 342 IG) | esassaise secs 260 | 320 380 440 500 570 640 |...--..- 9 266 20 eater | eee 290 | 360 420 490 560 640 2D) |eesecace 9 207 PA con aelloode as 320 | 390 470 540 620 710 800)|aaseeeee 9 164 SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 59 TABLE 31.—Volume in board feet of shortleaf pine of different diameters and merchantable lengths in 16-foot logs in Arkansas, based on Doyle rule. [Based on taper curves; scaled mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary: height of stump, 1 foot.] Number of 16-foot logs. ‘i iam- Diame- ice Bat ter inside | Basis breast- bark high. 13 2: 24 3 3% 4 44 5 54 6 of top Inches. |Bd.jt.\Bd.ft.|Bd.ft.|Bd.ft.\Bd.jt.| Bd.ft. | Bd.ft. | Bd.ft. | Bd.ft. | Bd.ft. | Inches.| Trees. 8 9 13 17 22 27 6 FORM TABLES. The form or taper of shortleaf trees of different diameters and heights is shown in Tables 32 and 33. The points selected are at breastheight (4.5 feet), and successive intervals above the stump of 8 feet plus 0.15 foot, or 3.6 inches for a 16-foot length, allowed for trimming the log. Table 34, giving the butt taper at various heights up to breastheight for trees of different diameters, will be found useful in correlating stump measurements with the standard tables based upon breastheight diameters. The same is true of the double width of the bark at breastheight for trees of different diameters and heights shown in Table 35. [Stump height, 1 foot.] 40-FOOT TREES. Height above ground. BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ah =o a i te : t se at 0 G t : t t t ‘ H : t fs 2) Ss rn ral open OGle Cost Heh arta |e URL HOR Si eS RS B/E Os ia Di} Die ae BON Dural lio 2 ' : t : 1 ‘ t ‘ ‘ ' t : t ‘ ' t ' os {aa} iS : ‘ i i 2 Doan ° i t t 0 ‘ i ; ive ae 5 ' 6 0 t ' qi i ' ‘ ' ' o ' t ‘ : Ale: FO Oe ee ON ee Sse ers ' ' Le) Pe gE be aint SE fed Rend baie AY Wad Ned mol dy ’ ‘ . ' . . ’ OOP aie wom WwW «6 * UY ou 0 0 FW Oo ' , Fo ) 0 0 O° 0 0 ' oo . Oo 0 0 coon oo 0 0 Gare) s ' PoiDes OOO Oss Ow.th Oe0 : H GiaQs. Ges0m DetD, sO" Osd een. 0 Cia (Seamer (os eet metre fo 0 no 0.6 1 - oO Li . on OG Of 0 6 ee) ’ 0-1 Cet 0 oo oo. ' eC es oe ns ‘ B Bb 8 he 8 Og bw Bes TERE GR Ceti ican Rigi Bagot Fee Oe Bor pe bene t « ' ' ' ' Ch tll» haat) Oe a ' ' ' ' ' ' heeled 4 Loe We 2 ae OL CD . 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RAL eae ae ap ene a Ok Be bee er Oe ' ' ' ' ' ' Ot Oe her Or AD ' ' 7. : Ss s o Do 0 0 0 00 Doon OO NOOMMAKNAIDANS | ALAN MO DINAH ONO ’ ‘ ‘ . ' Ly a . ‘ ) 0 Dinesh SI Ste Sarees) Siem e Lee ae Mbetel- tae tem tet a the ie ee, | Cae oh ep eur weuleal ate} Mel cette iter alee oe ee Lt D R ' Hore ee bn ' : OI 69 09 09 Ht : 4 ONOKRHHONHOM ' 4 OA OID NOM 19 N 0019 ODD ' a 00. OD ACO OD HOO CD41 00 0 0 IT 0 OF ih BY aN Oe O ie ai 4 Ol | Reale Rd |) ast Sg liad g tow g Ba Gene ne len deters, (mel ‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * Ane IS Aci od cd wi wind ‘ it) C109 sH Hid 6 00 00 ‘ © Tig ig9ervownnOonann ' ~ IDOE MOMOHBONAN HH AS S ‘ As Oh pe es oe 4 Son Or Os en on | t ; ae... 7 7 3) 8 Sap eiariaes Ser 4 DOMNOMmINMNHADO : PLD MORMM-MIMAARWOWN g HOD ODN OO He a Nod HH stad oS ‘ AGH GSSCMAAAS Mo SGNr nN Adon AGH ' SS MOMOASHAA OH ids bonds =| ‘ ae PS ‘ Se SONS Nala as ‘ NEN oof fea fs a fa ' i ' 7 19 45 200 OM HH 0000 : FORK ONANHODO ‘ SCAWOIDAHMAHAH OOH ' DOMOHHNHORMON ' 3 Sobvidiscdr ' Mod Hid SrOdBSSH ‘ IDDSNOSSA AAS Hd ' SCrOBSHANHHAHidSr ' Dee i \ Sos An Boe ' Son os he oe Bn O FO sO oO oe ‘ 5 i 7 7 a ee 7 aes 1D HAD 19 09 ' HOAHORDOrN O19 : NANHORMMOMOOI9IO. HC ‘ AAHODOKER MAAN ' Pe eC Se) ee We) fo eed (ONT) eT) eeaty of) ena) @ tar (Ue me) ety ely ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =A § od dididcd od ‘ WA GSrNMOBSHAN ' IID SMMOOHBOHAAM Hid Ss ‘ MOARBSSHANM HIS Sr OO ' oo ‘ weer ‘ bes es Oe Oe | e Se Oo Os en De Be ‘ ‘ a a a : ee ; bs HIN OM ORS ' Hino rOdBOHNOH ' OMOROHAMDHIDOND ' WRAOHNMHIDON ORS ' ® o4c = 3 3 3 3 3 lbo _— ~ os) ~~ aed & ° ° ic) iS) ae g is a TasLeE 32.—Diameters inside bark at successive 8-foot intervals of shortleaf pine of different diameters and heights, growing in well-stocked stands in the Piedmont region, North Carolina—Continued. 80-FOOT TREES. Height above ground. Diameter ne 2 breast- high. | 4.5 | 9.15 |17.30| 25. 45|33. 60 41.75 | 49.90] 58.05] 68.20 | 74.35] 50; feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | “25S Inches. | In..| In. | In. | Ins | In. \\ In. |) Fn: In. | In. In. Trees. 10} 9.1 8.8 8.3 7.8 1383 6.7 5.8 4.7 GyFe ee eae 2 11 | 10.1 9.7 9.1). 8.6 8.1 7.4 6.5 5.3 BNW IaS abc Se een see 12 | 11.0] 10.6 | 10.0 9.5 8.9 8.2 Ue 5.8 Se Ohi eae 9 13 | 11.9] 11.5 | 10.8 | 10.2 9.7 8.9 7.9 6.5 AR A) | rapier A WS Ay Pa ero Si Gal sO) 1084 9.7 8.6 7.1 PAO is i 24 15 | 13.8 | 13.3 | 12.4 | 11.8] 11.3 | 10.4 9.2 Tie i 15), BASIE Sess Oe] see ee U3 |) eee ee BES) Pe PAG) beak 9.9 8.3 Lays el SR eee 14 17 | 15.6 | 15.0 | 14.1 | 13.4 | 12.7 | 11.8 | 10.6 8.9 GE alee Se ec aes Se 18 | 16.5 | 15.9 | 15.0 |] 14.2) 13.5 | 12.5 | 11.3 9.5 688 loses 8 2 19 | 17.4 | 16.8 | 15.8 | 15.1 |] 14.2] 13.3 | 12.0 | 10.1 hs PA ete His 5 Beal sete ese Pt Sos, eleva Load tox!) LocOn aac O) Plea Oks (Os |e Sie il SUT Se eS | | Ue PF Re ds SCE ae 52 90-FOOT TREES. 12 | 11.0} 10.8 | 10.3 9.8 9.3 8.7 8.0 ie, 6.1 4.5 2 eet Osleble etl.) 4056))) 10:1 9.6 8.8 7.8 6.6 ASOT eee 14 | 12.9 | 12.6} 11.9 | 11.4 | 10.9 | 10.3 9.5 8.5 teil 9} 2 15 | 13.9 | 13.4 | 12.8 | 12.2 | 11.7] 11.0) 10.2 9.1 7.6 byiby | Aeee Bee 16 | 14.9 | 14.3 | 13.6 | 13.0 | 12.4 | 11.8 | 11.0 9.7 8.1 5.8 2 17 | 15.7 | 15.2 | 14.5 | 13.9 | 13.3 | 12.5 | 11.7 | 10.4 8.6 Oe2p es ese WS G67) 1650))) 1553) | 1426") 14. On) 1323) 1254) | ALO 9.1 6.5 5 19) 17-56 | 1720)) 16.05) 1525) | 14. 85) V4.0) 1 13. 1) 11.7 9.7 68 9Mle es oaece 20) 1855 | 1759)) 17207) 1653°>| 15.65) 1457 |) 13h 7a)) 1253) |l0: 2 Tors 3 LG es SA Ee ee BSA ASR CS oe Oe Mee eee Comte ise ie ol Samer ecb teresa 14 TABLE 33.—Diameters inside bark at successive 8-foot intervals* of shortleaf pine of different diameters and heights, Arkansas. Diameter breast- high. | 9 15 feet. | 17.3 feet. | 25.45 feet.| 33.6 feet. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. 6 §.1 4.6 4.1 3.0 cf 6.1 5,5 4.9 3.2 8 6.9 6.3 5.5 3.9 9 7.8 16! 6.4 4.1 10 8.7 8.0 7.0 4.5 Bi 9.6 8.8 7.8 4.9 12 10.4 9.6 8.5 5.4 13 11.4 10.5 9.3 5.8 14 12.3 11.3 9.9 6.3 15 3.1 12.2 10.7 6.7 16 14.0 3.0 11.4 7.2 | a | [Stump height, 1 foot.] 40-FOOT TREES. Height above ground. 41.75 feet. 49.9 feet. | 58.05 feet.|66.2 feet. Inches. Inches. \ Inches. growing im average stands im Basis. | Three-tenths foot allowed for trimming on each 16-foot length, or 0.15 foot for each 8-foot length. BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 62 growing im average stands in pine of different diameters and heights, TABLE 35.—Diameters inside bark at successive 8-foot intervals of shortleaf Arkansas—Continued. 50-FOOT TREES. Basis. QP OS De rOe Chae nC ra) echt rma ata } 70 Height above ground. 17.3 feet. | 25.45 feet.| 33.6 feet. | 41.75 feet.| 49.9 feet. | 58.05 feet.|66.2feet. 9.15 feet. BNO OM ODO A OID H O19 AN Soot tad isSSSr rN ob S S $B OD DPD A OO XH 4 CO 69 DOO? OHMS SSNAKDSSOHAA S aaa Ss BDA DI HA DO 09 4 0019 OD OL SHG ISKOWDBSOHANG Ho 8 Be OR oe oe Os oe os | Ss s So es Boe Dh Be Eh Ss Diameter breast- high DWOOMAA CHIDO ODS SO Do oe Bh | Totalees|Paeee 60-FOOT TREES. 565 60-0 0 6 09 UO 0 fF Oo 0 0 0 & 6 O00 G0 CeO ere dete Nevet tse 0-050 0°60 0 f GO Oo 0 Oo 96 VN OD OD SH SH SH 1D 1) CO CO. P= P= 00 00 00 OD ED HOD COIN HE MODOONNRMROHNN OAM GSSMNABSBSSHHANG OH 5 ee | OOM HANS HOM MONONA HID WISE OHABSBSHAAAG AS HISSS SO sO DO Do MO MOOHHROOHHOMOANChON THSHNAGBAHSAAAG HSSSNO c Be eB TAD WD OD A DE LD OD A DP 1D OD A OH IGAIDOSMAOHABASHAGM A HIGSREAD Seana 1D HOA BAAN OMASWOOIDAH On WSMHHSBSHAGHASSNAOAIS Be De | Motaless|eece 70-FOOT TREES. : ro ' oo (AHO ONM™ OO DIQQNOORID HAN Ut ' AMOOOD Hehe noe » Ae FA co PN oF co Fo ' ' ' 1 ' ' ' 1 Tee ere . ’ UU se Onan. S00 muna oo Oe Oe tie Ce ecinett, wd oo oon noo og 0 8 Ff On Db OG Dp AT b1 0 oo 6 oo Gide CO) 0 oe Sos ‘ ' 70 00 7 O D On oo 0 0 UO Oo Oo Doo ff oo Ds 1040s (0550) SO. "0820, > Oleh she ete at ‘ 00 0 OG 0D 0 0 Oo 0 0-0 0 0 0 0.08 Oo Oo 0 0 8 ' Oo Go 0 0-0 0 foe fh oo Ob OD GD SH OSH OSH AD AD 19) OO COP Pe Pe WH COO DODD 00 69 00 6D BS 0D B= 09 P= 69 00 69 E~ 09 00 019 CO } ct = Sy SI S > 5 3 3 = > d NN 3 WY 3 WHOM RIOWROWNHONWUROOWNIE OO * PAIS ED OOS So 9 NWEOWONWAWONKR DOR WONONEPRDOOW' DIR SUR IR CON FS OO DON DONG WN 1 SO OOS Sooo ee eo en oO PILI ERED ED SSOSNSIE SOE SSSHIBAG RON EE SO PDO WRRPODNIOOR NW POWOONWOATOORW" PRABHU SSIES OH OID SP SNE SO oo KDE PDWTWOONWOMDWONWOANTORWRODOO* BSPNPOWDOR WONTON ONORWOINOONR GS: SAK VSG SSOHIDARU AWN SSOON WONORMWOINTORK WRHWOWOOR POOR PATO’ KES ASSHOIDAUT BR WWE SSO 00N RPWONTOR POOR WHO WATIOWDONW CIO P* BUY ASSSDADIAS ROU N ES OO MOND CNTON ONT H WOOK ONOWOOWODOWATH PAT PABA WOW MEM SSOO WWINIAH AN OWN O OM WN OF O10 010 O10 O10 Or Oa Or * BUN ERSS OOO WWIII DH Hoo GU eye G9 WHOROTUORAINOROUNTROMNOON ORE AT WPNODWEHOMDNONMNMWOWOMHLNOWDOPRNO* RS WNHNNNYNNNNNNNEP EERE Eee ee eee DWNNWNNYNNNNNNNE EERE Eee eee e OR SRR Ma Saha eRm a binSlels NWNDNDDNNNN NEE A Eee ee WONNNNNNNNE EEE EER Eee eee NNN NNNNEP REE RE eRe ee ee eee NNWNNNEP RRR EE eRe Ree Re ee NNER RE Re BE ee Ree eRe eRe ee NNN PPM AOSD EPP 1 09 WN NN NNN TID Ou BS Fac Ree eee ee 110-FOOT TREES. 12} 10.9} 10.7 | 10.5 | 10.1} 9.7 13 | 11.8} 11.5 | 11.2 | 10.9 | 10.5 14 | 12.7 | 12.3 | 12.1} 11.7 | 11.1 9.2} 8.6] 7.9] 7.1 5.8} 4.1] 2.4 9.9) 9.3] 8.6] 7.7] 6.3] 4.5] 2.7 10.5) 9.9] 9.2} 83] 68] 4.9] 2.9 15 | 13.6 | 138.2 | 12.8 | 12.4] 11.9 | 11.4] 10.6] 9.8] 8.7 7.2)| 5.3 | 3.1 16 | 14.4 | 14.0 | 13.6 | 13.2 | 12.6 | 12.0 | 11.3 |.10.5 9.4 7.7 5.7 3.4 17 | 15.3 | 14.8 | 14.4 | 18.9 | 18.4 | 12.7 | 11.9 | 11.0 9.9 8.2 6.1 3.6 18 | 16.1 | 15.6 | 15.2 | 14.7 | 14.1 | 138.5 | 12.7] 11.8 | 10.6] 8.7] 6.5] 3.9 19 | 17.0 | 16.5 | 16.0 | 15.5 | 14.9 | 14.2 | 138.4 | 12.3 | 11.1 9.2 6.8 4.1 20 | 17.8 | 17.3 | 16.9 | 16.3 | 15.7 | 15.0 | 14.2 | 138.1 | 11.7 9.7) 7.2] 4.3 21 | 18.7) 18.2 | 17.7] 17.1 | 16.4 | 15.7 | 14.8 | 13.7 | 12.3 | 10.2 7.6 4.6 22 | 19.5 | 19.1 | 18.5 | 17.9 | 17.2 | 16.5 | 15.6 | 14.5 | 12.9 | 10.8 8.0 4.9 23 | 20.5 | 19.9 | 19.3 | 18.7 | 18.0 | 17.2 | 16.3 | 15.1 | 18.5 | 11:4] 8.5] 5.1 24 | 21.3 | 20.8 | 20.2 | 19.6 | 18.9 | 18.1 | 17.1 | 15.8 | 14.2 | 11.9 8.9 5.4 25 | 22.3 | 21.7 | 21.1 | 20.4 | 19.7 | 18.8 | 17.9 | 16.5 | 14.8 | 12.4 953) |) a7 26 | 23.1 | 22.5 | 21.9 | 21.3 | 20.5 | 19.7 | 18.6 | 17.2 | 15.4 | 13.0 9.8 5.9 27 | 24.1 | 23.4 | 22.8 | 22.1 | 21.4 | 20.5 | 19.4 | 17.9 | 16.1 |] 13.6 | 10.2; 6.2 28 | 24.9 | 24.3 | 23.7 | 23.0 | 22.2 | 21.3 | 20.1 | 18.6 | 16.8 | 14.1] 10.6] 6.4 29 | 25.9 | 25.2 | 24.5 | 23.8 | 23.1 | 22:1 | 20.9 | 19.3 | 17.3 | 14.7 | 11.1 6.7 30 | 26.9 | 26.2 | 25.4 | 24.7 | 23.9 | 23.0 | 21.7 | 20.1 | 18.0 | 15.3 | 11.5 7.0 31 | 27.9 | 27.0 | 26.3 | 25.6 | 24.8 | 23.8 | 22.4 | 20.8 | 18.7 | 15.8 | 12.0} 7.2 32 | 28.9 | 28.0 | 27.2 | 26.5 | 25.7 | 24.6 | 23.3 | 21.5 | 19.3 | 16.4 | 12.5 7.5 33 | 29.8 | 28.9 | 28.1 | 27.4 | 26.6 |] 25.5 | 24.0 | 22.3 | 20.1 | 17.1 | 12.9 7.8 34 | 30.8 | 29.9 | 29.0 | 28.3 | 27.5 | 26.3 | 24.8 | 23.0 | 20.8 | 17.7 | 13.4 8.1 Total| o..clesc sah secs PBS EEE See | as ee ee ee ele a. |e es eee 120-FOOT TREES 12 | 11.1] 10.9 | 10.5 | 10.2 9.8 9.3 8.9 8.3 7.6 6.4 i 3.7 OA 7A oes Ss 13 | 12.0 | 11.6 | 11.3 | 10.9 | 10.5 | 10.1 9.6 9.1 8.3 7.1 5.6 4.2 256" |e. 14 | 12.8 | 12.4 | 12.2} 11.8 | 11.3} 10.8 | 10.3 9.7 9.1 7.8 6.2 4.6 2:8 )|2 Seca. 15 | 13.7 | 13.3 | 13.0 | 12:6 | 12:1 | 11.6) 12.1} 10.5 9.6 8.3 6.7 5.0 Spe Hel ee a oe 16 | 14.5 | 14.2 | 13.9 } 13.4 | 12.9 |] 12.4 | 11.8} 11.2] 10.4 9.0 lee 5.5 Be a meer a 17 | 15.4 | 15.0 | 14.6 | 14.1 | 13.7 | 138.1 | 12.6} 11.9 | 11.0 9.6 7.9 5.9 3510) |||s seems 18 | 16.3 | 15.9 | 15.5 | 15.0 | 14.5 | 13.9 | 13.3 | 12.6 | 11.8 | 10.3 8.4 6.3 BaOls| eee 19 | 17.1 | 16.7 | 16.3 |] 15.8 | 15.3 | 14.7 | 14.0] 13.4 | 12.4 | 10.9 9.0 6.9 4.1 1 20 | 18.0 | 17.5 | 17.1 | 16.7 | 16.1 | 15.5 | 14.8} 14.1 | 13.2 | 11.7 9.6 7.3 4.5 2 21 | 18.9 | 18.3 | 17.9 | 17.4 | 16.9 | 16.3 | 15.6 | 14.9 | 13.8 | 12.2 | 10.2 7.8 4.7 1 22 | 19.7 | 19.3 | 18.9 | 18.3 | 17.7_| 17.1 | 16.4 | 15.5 | 14.4 | 12.9] 10.8] 8.3 5.1 1 SHORTLEAF PINE: IMPORTANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 65 TasBLeE 33.—Diameters inside bark at successive 8-foot intervals of shortleaf pine of different diameters and heights, growing in average stands in Arkansas—Continued. 120-FOOT TREES—Continued. Height above ground. Diam- 2 ae eter est 9.15 | 17.3 | 25.45 | 33.6 | 41.75 | 49.9 | 58.05 | 66.2 | 74.35] 82.5 | 90.65 | 98.8 | 106.95 Basis &4- | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. |feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. : Inches.| In In En, Ue \\ 1506 |) ORs SE05 LES WE TOR Waa WT EOa In. | Trees 23 | 20.7 | 20.2 | 19.7 | 19.1 | 18.5 | 17.8 | 17.2 | 16.3 | 15.2 | 13.6 | 11.4 8.8 5.4 2 24 | 21.5 | 21.1 | 20.6 | 19.9 | 19.3 | 18.7 | 17.9 | 17.1 | 15.9 | 14.3 | 12.0 9.2 5.7 2 25 | 22.5 | 22.0 } 21.5} 20.9 | 20.2 | 19.4 | 18.7 | 17.8 |. 16.7 | 15.0 | 12.6 9.7 OSG |B ee 26 | 23.4 | 22.9 | 22.3 | 21.7 | 21.1 | 20.3 | 19.5 | 18.6 | 17.4 | 15.7 |} 13.2 | 10.3 6.4 1 27 | 24.3 | 23.8 | 23.3 | 22.7 | 22.0 | 21.1 | 20.3 | 19.3 | 18.1 | 16.4 | 13.8 | 10.7 6.6 1 28 | 25.3 | 24.8 | 24.3 | 23.6 | 22.9 | 22.1 | 21.1 | 20.1 | 18.9 | 17.1] 14.7 | 11.3 7.0 2 29 | 26.3 | 25.8 | 25.2 | 24.6 | 23.8 | 22.8 | 21.9 | 20.8 | 19.5 | 17.8 | 15.1 | 11.7 TONS Se Sa 30 | 27.3 | 26.8 | 26.3 | 25.7 | 24.7 | 23.8 | 22.8 | 21.6 | 20.4 | 18.6 | 15.8 | 12.2 ON ee ee oe 31 | 28.3 | 27.8 | 27.2 | 26.6 | 25.7 | 24.7 | 23.5 | 22.4 ) 21.1] 19.3 | 16.4 | 12.7 TES sa ostiee 32 | 29.3 | 28.8 | 28.3 | 27.7 | 26.7 | 25.7 | 24.5 | 23.3 | 22.1 | 20.1 | 17.0 | 13.2 8.1 1 33 | 30.3 | 29.8 | 29.3 | 28.5 | 27.6 | 26.5 | 25.3 | 24.1 | 22.7 | 20.9 | 17.6 | 13.7 Sh4 Renee 34 | 31.4 | 30.9 | 30.4 | 29.7 | 28.6 | 27.6 | 26.3 | 25.0 | 23.7 | 21.5 | 18.2 | 14.2 BRS ulerecerse LT a hens Bell SS SES Sra Pe 8 8 By at Pe Qe) eee Ve | CNN ee | | ee oe 14 TABLE 34.—Butt taper of - Diameter Height above ground. breast- mens outside aries 1 foot. 2 feet. 3 feet. Inches. | Inches.1 | Inches.1 | Inches. 4 4.2 3.8 3.4 5 5.3 4.8 4.4 6 6.4 5.8 5.4 7 7.4 6.8 6.4 8 8.5 7.8 7.3 9 9.5 8.9 8.4 10 10.6 9.9 9.4 11 IIE 7/ 11.0 10. 4 12 12.8 12.0 11.5 13 13.8 13.1 12.5 14 14.9 14.2 13.6 15 16.0 15.3 14.7 16 17.1 16.4 15.8 17 18, 2 17.4 16.8 18 19.3 18.5 17.9 19 20.4 19.6 18.9 20 21.6 20.7 20.0 | 21 22.8 21.8 21.0 22 23.9 23.0 22.1 23 25.1 24.1 23.2 24 26.3 25.3 24,2 25 27.5 26.4 25.3 26 28.7 27.5 26.4 27 29.9 28.7 27.5 28 31.1 29.8 28.6 29 32.3 30.9 2Ds ik 30 33.5 32,1 30.8 31 34.7 33. 2 31.9 32 35.9 34.4 33.0 33 37.1 35. 5 34, 2 34 38.4 36.7 35.3 85 39.6 37.8 36.4 36 40.9 39. 0 37.5 PR OUAL Ss ehia ne oes lau o dee 2+ clus samaeele 4.5 feet. Inches. } Sil 4.0 COLTS) SORIA BROLIN) CIRCE GH SSSSo SCOSoOSD SCOOoOD CHOOMDOS NWNNN BRR RE BRR 1 Diameter inside bark. Basis. Trees. shortleaf pine of different diameters in Arkansas. 66 BULLETIN 308, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 35.—Bark width at breastheight of shortleaf pine of different diameters and heights in Arkansas. , Height of tree. Diam- eter: | . Basis. Dretsl: 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 | 120 Heese feet. feet. feet. feet. feet. feet. feet. feet. feet. Inches. | Inches. Lithes: cera te Inches.1| Inches.1| Inches| Inches.) Inches) Trees. 8 5 15 3 0007 lence mads|ee vost iuleseeeees Seen ce See 2 9 92 . 82 71 BOR Heeb eA Ae a Rae RN | ae 2 10 -98 - 88 .78 SGT 8 | RE IAS 2 ee Ses | Se oe 10 11 1.04 .94 - 85 B hash ah Pees asi ariel ees eee ol A ene CE GS OL 82 16 UOZe sal I) 1.00 91 -8l AGA VES A (Rd Cha PCE ee 47 13 1.15 1.06 97 .87 SO Fe So a RESO ER A eC a 34 14 1. 20 1.11 1.02 - 93 - 85 Sse Wee ee A ll nls 49 15 1. 25 1.16. 1.06 97 - 90 BOW SE PL 2s | oe RI A ai 44 = 16 1.29 1.20 1.10 1.01 . 94 VST es Soe RE | Dn is BRI ae 53 dE fai eae ae a 1.25 1.14 1.05 98 -91 3856S | 5 Ree Rae 48 183 ssseseee 1.29 1.18 1.08 1.01 . 94 .88 (OB lai a see oe 44 Ve eee les os ay abe 1.21 We at 1.04 .97 -91 386) 2 |Bsee ERE 113 20) |i ae eee pe 1.24 1.13 1.06 |} .99 .94 388: pl Meee eee 74 DA Ne (rae cas pat ees ah ee es 1.27 1.16 1.09 1.01 - 96 -90 - 80 56 js ERR SR | Ee 8 1.30 1.18 1.11 1.03 -98 .92 - 82 36 DE Si Seems see 1.33 1.20 iL, 110) 1.05 1.00 .94 . 84 47 Det ss ioe | a I eb 1.22 1.14 1.06 1.01 -95 . 86 31 Po ee ACG) RESCTIGSG ESSE SoS 1.23 1.15 1.07 1.02 - 96 87 32 OAC Receeise eens roc! acini aeie eo Isolate 1.17 1.09 1.03 97 - 89 21 Qi See ee ee Ba UE ee ee 1.18 1.09 1.04 -98 - 90 25 DR ak Bee Aa al Ae aa he Aah ey Hg des NR 1.19 1.10 1.05 99 .91 9 294) nro | Oh a ee es | ole 1.19 1.11 1.06 .99 . 92 SO a] Se Rs] SIRs oa ag SCs aN ae 1.20 1.12 1.06 1.00 .92 2 By be ee eal ses Sees eo eGeecsladesee se 1. 21 1.12 1.06 1.00 . 93 1 Nea et a an aa | ae tee HE Wey fa 1.13 1.07 1.00 - 93 2 Ba ea rea 2 at A ea tes Ba 1.14 1.07 1.00 . 94 1 Totals|ic. ce. 5 Lye Bek oF See Sea AG SI ieee Se ak re Dee An 21 ea 808 1 Double width of bark at breastheight. PUBLICATIONS :OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO FOREST MANAGEMENT. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Forest Management of Loblolly Pine in Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. Department Bulletin 11. White Pine under Forest Management. Department Bulletin 13. New Facts Concerning White Pine Blister Rust. Department Bulletin 116. Life History of the Shortleaf Pine. Department Bulletin 244. How to Transplant Forest Trees. Forest Service Circular 61. Management of Second Growth in Southern Appalachian Forest. Forest Service Circular 118. : What Forestry Has Done. Forest Service Circular 140. Conditions of Cut-over Longleaf Pine Lands in Mississippi. Forest Service Circular 149. Primer of Forestry (pt. 1). Farmers’ Bulletin 178. Primer of Forestry (pt. 2). Practical Forestry. Farmers’ Bulletin 358. Dying of Pine in Southern States. Farmers’ Bulletin 476. FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. Timber Pines of Southern United States, with Discussion of Structure of Their Wood. Forest Service Bulletin 18. Price, 50 cts. Check List of Forest Trees of United States, Their Names and Ranges. Forest Service Bulletin 17. Price, 15 cts. Forest Working Plan for Township 40, Totten and Crossfield Purchase, Hamil- ton County. New York State Forest Preserve: Preceded by Discussion of Conservative Lumbering and Water Supply. Forest Service Bulletin 30. Price, 25 cts. Woodsman’s Handbook. Forest Service Bulletin 36. Price, 25 cts. Working Plan for Forest Lands in Central Alabama. Forest Service Bulletin 68. Price, 10 cts. Forest Resources of the World. Forest Service Bulletin 83. Price, 10 cts. Western Yellow Pine in Arizona and New Mexico. Forest Service Bulletin 101. Price, 15 cts. Status of Forestry in United States. Forest Service Circular 167. Price, 5 cts. Commercial Importance of White Mountain Forests. Forest Service Circular 168. Price, 5 cts. Forests of United States and Their Use. Forest Service Circular 171. Price, 5 cts. 67 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D, C, AT 15 CENTS PER COPY Vv st tee ATH ey raKt sae OTS Bae 0) din rhiteth mind: pon t ott t wv a UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 309 Y¥ AN Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER November 4, 1915 ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. By Cuar.es J. Branp, in Charge, and Jason L. Merrit, Assistant Chemist, Paper- Plant Investigations.1 This bulletin is printed upon paper derived from the zacaton plant. CONTENTS. Page. Page. METAR OME eas orc cine soc a:sinie «les siciess Seieiste 1 | Chemical investigation of the grass and pulp. 15 Botanical history and systematic position of Cellwloseifromyzacatonsaerre-seeeeee eee eeeeee 18 At 2 i 2 ee ee 3 | Semicommercial tests of the pulp-...-..-.--.- 20 Pushabution! Of 7ZACaAton)...- 2-63 scsee-acess 6 | Physical tests of zacaton papers........-..--- 25 Laboratory tests of pulp production......... 10 |pComelusione cj eieccismiselsciaemecereeieis seco ses 27 Micromeasurements of fibers and other cells. 14 INTRODUCTION. There appears to beaconstant and increasing interest in the discovery of plant materials which may be substituted for wood and rags in the making of paper stock of various kinds. The uses to which paper may be put are multiplying rapidly, the consumption for present purposes is increasing greatly, and there is a constant depletion of existing supplies. Many materials from both wild and cultivated plants are at present going to waste, so that a natural desire to save them adds to the general interest in the subject. This interest is world wide and practically spontaneous. In southern China bamboos and rice straw are under experiment; in Manchuria the stalks of the grain sorghums; in Mexico wood waste and various trees not now used for other purposes; and in Egypt the plant formation known as Nile suud, which constitutes the dense jungle growth of the upper White Nile and contains a large proportion of papyrus plants. In the Philippines attention is being given to bamboos and various other grasses and also to the fibrous by-products of the Manila-hemp indus- 1 The Paper-Plant Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry are conducted under the direction of Charles J. Brand, Chief of the Office of Markets and Rural Organization. Note.—This bulletin should be useful to all persons who are interested in the economic phases of paper making, especially to print and book paper manufacturers. It has a botanic and chemical interest as well. 6826°—Bull. 309—15——1 4 2 BULLETIN 309, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. try. In this country scarcely a month’ passes during which some new wild plant or crop waste is not proposed as a certain and perma- nent relief to the paper manufacturer from the stress resulting from the rising cost of raw materials. The past 10 years have witnessed an enormous growth in the pulp and paper industry and a keener realization of the fact that the present wood supply of the United States can not indefinitely withstand the demands placed upon it. About 80 per cent of the paper stock used in this country is derived from wood. In 1900 about 2,000,000 cords of wood were used for pulp manufacture, and the present use is ap- proximately 4,500,000 cords a year. Pulp-wood imports in this country increased from 650,000 cords at $4.20 per cord in 1907 to 1,036,000 cords at $6.60 in 1913. In 1903, 131,000 tons of wood pulp were imported, as against 563,000 tons in 1913. In a report of the United States Forest Service in 1914 the annual growth of wood in the United States is placed at 12 cubic feet per acre per year, while there are being removed 36 cubic feet per acre per year; in other words, as a nation, wood is being used three times as fast as it grows. Without doubt imported wood will play an important réle in the paper industry of this country for many years to come. New woods are in common use to-day which would not have been considered a few years ago, and reforesting is being given very serious attention, all of which goes to show a desire on the part of the pulp manufacturer to husband his present source of supply or to secure new sources. Since the demand for paper stock is gaming so rapidly upon the supply it is very clear that the price of raw material will continue to increase and in so doing will bring other raw materials into competi- tion. It is for this reason that investigations of the adaptability of fibrous plants and crop wastes should be carried on with some of the more promising materials. The Office of Paper-Plant Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry has numerous materials under examination and proposes from time to time, as the data obtamed may warrant, to publish the information which has been secured. The publication of these data will not mean that the work with the material has been com- pleted or that the conclusions reached are final. There is always a possibility that further information and the devising of new and better methods may result in taking a raw material from the class of unpromising materials and placing it in the class of promising materials. The work with zacaton (Hpicampes macroura Benth.) has pro- gressed to a point where at least a preliminary publication of results is desirable. ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. 3 BOTANICAL HISTORY AND SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF ZACATON. The genus Epicampes was established by Dr. J. S. Presl, of the University of Prague, in his treatment of the Graminee in 1830.1 The type species of the genus is Epicampes strictus, which Presl figures on plate 39 of his work. The following characterization of the genus is taken from Scribner:? Epicampes Presl, Rel. Haenk. 1:235, t. 39. 1830. Spikelets small, 1-flowered. Empty glumes 2, membranaceous, slightly unequal, convex on the back, carinate, often finely 3-nerved; flowering glumes 3-nerved, obtuse or emarginate, a little shorter or about the length of the empty glumes, and tipped with a slender, usually rather short awn, which is rarely wanting. Stamens 3. Styles distinct, short; stigmas plumose. Grain included within the glumes, free. Tall, perennial grasses with usually very long, spikelike, many-flowered panicles. The genus belongs to the tribe Agrostidez of Engler and Prantl,? to which the true esparto, Stipa tenacissima L., also belongs. This grass is extensively used for paper making in the Old World, the raw material coming chiefly from Spain, Algeria, and Tripoli. The species Hpicampes macroura* has received several common names, most of which refer to the utilization of its roots in the manufacture of brushes. Broom-root grass, wire-grass, and rice-root grass are the common English names. Rice, in this case, has no relation to the well-known rice grain of commerce, but the name arises from the 1Presl, K.B. Reliquiae Haenkeanae... v.1,p. 235, pl. 39. Pragae, 1830. 2 Scribner, F.L. American grasses—III. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Agros. Bul. 20, p. 75, 1900. 3 Haeckel, Ernst. Graminez (echte Griser). In Engler, Adolf,and Prantl,K.A.E. Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien ... T.2, Abt. 2, p. 45,50. Leipzig, 1887. ; 4 This grass was first brought to the senior writer’s attention in December, 1909, by Mr. L. H. Dewey, Botanist in Charge of Fiber Investigations, who transmitted a bundle of the grass tops for possible test. The sample weighed between 2 and 3 pounds and had been sent to Mr. Dewey from Mexico by the Ox Fiber Brush Co., of Frederick, Md. Subsequently, Mr. O. F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge of Crop Acclimatization and Adaptation Investigations, directed the writer’s attention to certain notes of his on Epicampes pre- viously published. (Cook, O. F. Vegetation affected by agriculture in Central America. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 145, p. 19-20, 1909.) These notes are of sufficient interest, showing the size, resistance, and aggressiveness of the grass, to warrant quoting them in this connection. Discussing the distribution of pines and oaks as determined by the clearing of land, Mr. Cook says: “A bility to resist fire is the characteristic that enables the pines to establish themselves in open grass lands. Young pines with the growing bud surrounded by many green needles can survive fires that kill seedlings ofother plants. As the trees grow larger they are protected by a thickened bark which is a very poor con- ductor of heat and not readily combustible. Nevertheless, the survival of the pines depends on the chance of frequent fires which prevent the accumulation of grass in large quantities. With grass enough to burn, even large pines may be killed by fire and the pine forest driven back from areas it has already occupied. In this way a species of wire-grass (Epicampes) is destroying forests of alders and pines on the upper slopes of the Vulcan de Aguain Guatemala. Before the access of fires this grass appears to have been confined to the crater and to the very dry upper slopes, where the pine trees are small and scattering. Now that the belts of humid forests lower down have been broken by clearings the grass has the assistance of fire and is destroying the trees with increasing rapidity. “There are no springs or streams on the upper slopes of the volcano, so that the grass is not pastured. Its long wiry stems and leaves accumulate until there are quantities of fuel sufficient to kill large trees and to drive back the forest for long distances at each conflagration. The lower the grass comes the more luxuriant its growth and the more destructive the next fire. This will continue as long as the grass is ungrazed or care is not taken to burn the grass every year in order to prevent the accumulation of dangerous quantities of fuel. “The roots of this grass are well protected from the fire by masses of the closely packed stems. ‘These tufts remain wet while everything else is thoroughly dried. Ixcept in rainy weather, no water can be obtained from the extremely coarse and loose volcanic ashes and rocks of which the upper parts of the moun- tain are composed.’”’ 4 BULLETIN 309, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fact that the Mexican name for the roots is ‘‘Raiz de zacaton’’; that is, roots of grass, in literal translation. Zacaton1 is the name most commonly applied to the species in Mexico. The French name for the root-brush mate- rial is ‘‘chiendent,”’ while ‘‘Mexican whisk’’ is still an- other name applied - to it. The first known collection of Hpi- campes macroura was made by Hum- boldt and Bonpland in the mountains of Toluca, in the State of Mexico, at an altitude of 10,500 feet, sometime prior to 1815. In the working up of this collection the speci- mens were assigned to the genus Crypsis Ait. under the spe- cific names mda- croura, phleordes, and stricta. About 1829, when Kunth published that por- ' tion of his ‘‘ Révision des Graminées’”? containing the Agro- meee _ stidez, he evidently DIOR pa DT eR av apegliad changed _ his Fic. 1.—Zacaton (Epicampes macroura), whole plant, one-sixth natural mind as to the oS size. a, Threespikelets, 4 times natural size; b, empty glumes, 4 times signment of t h ese natural size; c, flowering glume, dorsal view, 4 times natural size; spe cim ens to Crypsis d, palet, dorsal view, 4 times natural size. and reassigned them to Linneus’s genus Cinna. Many years later, about 1886, Hugéne Fournier,*? in working up the collections of Mexican plants deposited in the herbarium of the Museum of Paris, established a new genus, SS SS ee 1 Zacaton as a common name is applied also to Muhlenbergia distichophylla (Presl) Kunth and Sporobolus wrightii Munro, 2 Kunth, K.S. Révision des Graminées. 3 v. Paris, 1829. 3 Fournier, Eugéne. Mexicanas Plantas... pars. 2, p.90. Parisiis, 1886. ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. 5 which he called Crypsinna, based in part on the Crypsis of Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth,’ and in part on the Cinna of Kunth. As established by Fournier, Crypsinna included the species stricta, ma- croura, and setifolia. In November, 1881, Bentham,? having seen a proof or a copy of Fournier’s work before its publication, disagreed with him and assigned the species macroura and stricta both to macroura in the genus Epicampes Presl. The following characterization of Epicampes macroura has been translated from the original Latin description by Humboldt, Bon- pland, and Kunth: ? Crypsis macroura. Culm erect, simple, glabrous; leaves and sheaths scabrous; panicle spikelike, very long, cylindrical, erect; glumes equal, [floret] nearly as long astheglumes. Found on the sunny side of a mountain in the State of Mexico near the mountain of Toluca, at an altitude of 11,000 feet. Flowers in September. Fic. 2.—Cross section of part of a culm from the epidermis to the central cavity, x 320, showing hypodermal stereome, two mestome strands, and colorless parenchyma between them. Culms erect, simple, 3 or 4 feet tall, glabrous, pubescent below the glabrous nodes. Leaves narrowly linear, convolute (?), striate, slightly scabrous. Sheaths rather lax, striate, glabrous, longer than the internodes. Ligule very long, less than | inch, bifid (2-cleit), glabrous, the lobes acuminate. Panicle spikelike, dense, cylindrical, strictly erect, |footlong. Spikelets pediceled, the pedicels scabrous. Glumes linear, acuminate, carinate, subequal, nearly glabrous, ciliate-hispid on the back, green. Floret slightly shorter than the glumes, lanceolate, acute, the lemma and palea concave, equal, slightly scabrous, green; the lemma 3-nerved, the palea 2-nerved, narrower. The general appearance of a few culms taken from the tufts in which this grass usually grows is shown in figure 1, which was drawn from a herbarium specimen. Figures 2 to 6, inclusive, show the microscopical structure of the zacaton plant.’ The appearance of an average and two small-sized tufts is shown in figure 7 These 1Tfamboldt, Alexander, Bonpland, A. J. A.,and Kunth, K.8. Nova Genera et Species Plantarum , . t.1, p. 140-141. Lutetiw# Parisiorum, 1815. 2 Bentham, George. Noteson Graminew. Jn Jour, Linn. Soc. [London], Bot., v. 19, p. 87-88. 1881. * The drawings for figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 11 were made by Dr. Theodor Holm. 6 BULLETIN 309, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tufts furnished the raw material for the first laboratory experiments with zacaton. DISTRIBUTION OF ZACATON.! The genus Epicampes is exclusively American. About 16 species have been described, some of which, in the opinion of expert agros- tologists, would not retain specific rank under critical study. The ranges of the various species extend from California and Texas southward to the Argentinian Andes Mexico is richest in number of species, and there also the root-harvesting industry has reached its highest development. . macroura has been reported from many widely separated localities from Texas to Central America. The collection in the United States National Herbarium embraces speci- mens from the following localities in Mexico: Canyon de San Diego, State of Chihuahua; San Luis Potosi, State of San Luis Potosi; — Se DDL OMI peongU ore: deo HAT Pad TOT TOES OT Us Doavep inne har tgs Ol, HOP TD obcaisecnengn eee yoneG vpGbnegtypentyo PCat GuSELned Und putys @ Fic. 3.—Longitudinal section of culm, X 480, showing spiral and porous vessels, stereome, and thin- walled parenchyma. Sayula, State of Jalisco; Morelia, State of Michoacan; Nevada de Toluca, Ixtaccihuatl, Popocatepetl, Salazar, Cima, Federal District of Mexico; Eslava, State of Mexico; Mount Orizaba, San Marcos, San Andres, and San Miguel, State of Puebla. Zacaton grows most profusely in the mountain regions east and west of the City of Mexico. It is especially luxuriant in the districts around Sayula and Toluca, in the States of Jalisco and Mexico, respectively (it will be remembered that the original collection of Humboldt and Bonpland was made on the mountain of Toluca), while the finest quality of roots is now said to be harvested around Uruapan, in the State of Michoacan. The grass is generally consid- ered a pest, but a few attempts to subject it to crude methods of cultivation are reported to have given good results. It is perennial, 1 Many of the data in this and the following paragraphs regarding distribution, climate, and the harvest- ing of the roots have been secured from Mr. A. McEwen, Frederick, Md. ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. ii and after the rainy season sends up new shoots profusely. These are relished by cattle while the tops are immature. the tops become so tough that stock refuse to eat them. The growth is al- if most entirely a wild one from self-sown seed. The mature panicles are not unlike those of timothy. Unless checked by fire, cultivation, or the har- vesting of the roots, rice- root grass soon covers a field solidly. It is not uncommon to find areas many square miles in ex- tent covered densely with this wild grass. One of the fields harvested by Mr. McEwen was 3 miles wide and 7 miles long, covered almost entirely by arelatively pure stand of Epicampes macroura. SE Sarr Soon, however, Fig. 4.—Longitudinal section of a culm, xX 343, showing sclereids and pith. The information that has been secured indicates the possibility of growing this grass successfully in some localities in the Southwest, ar oe = 2 AS UAE yy rer, CO IRI FN SAY {eS : BAe tea Ax Pe, Lj ry 9 PESOS! Cy Ea es BON SEN in. eR LO hig 2 Cer ROC id ey 08 senees: 1 ee LEY OGRE eS Ox} Sorat SSO EY OD TE) HEPES § SR, | = RN LN SS hy oe, vase 4 ax | % COMP 2p 9, Fic. 5.—Cross section of a leaf blade, % 80. especially for paper-produc- ing purposes. Three allied species grow scatteringly from Texas to California. Regarding the climate that prevails in the sections where zacaton-root harvest- ing is extensively carried on, Mr. McEwen states: We have no means of determin- ing the rainfall, but there is a considerable quantity of rain, and the morning dew is almost as heavy as the average small shower in the States. In Sayula it rains about three months of the year, the rest of the year being dry, and one of the most beautiful climates that you can possibly imagine. The rains, when they come, are very heavy and in the middle of the day the thermometer registers about 80° I’., but it is not uncommon for it to drop to 50° at night; this is a good average through the 8 BULLETIN 309, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. summer, for my brother says that all through the present summer it has been cold enough for an overcoat at night in the town of Sayula, where he resides. During January, he says that it reaches to near zero and at 10 o’clock the next day it is up to 70° again. Mr. O. F. Cook corroborates Mr. McEwen’s observations regarding the relative coolness of the climate in which this grass thrives. In Guatemala, where the former has noted the plant especially, he found the same conditions. Figure 8 shows a comparatively sparse stand of zacaton on the Vulcan de Agua, near Antigua, Guatemala, one of the early localities from which the plant was collected. Figure 9, from a photograph taken in Guatemala, shows the grass promptly claiming the neglected portion of a formerly cultivated field on a terraced hillside along the road between Totonicapam and Quezaltenango, Guatemala, show- ing also in the middle distance, on the mountain slope below the pines, a character- istic Wire-grass formation con- tending with the pines for suprem- Fic. 6.—Cross section of aleaf blade, x 240, showing hypodermal stereome, @C y- B ot h of the large water-storage tissue, the palisade tissue, and the mestome sur- rounded by a parenchyma sheath and a thick-walled mestomesheath. | these figures LES from negatives made under the direction of Mr. Cook by Mr. C. B. Doyle, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The grass is said to flower from August to October, depending upon altitude and other conditions, and usually attains a height of 5 to 7 feet. The usable portions of the roots vary in length from 2 to 30 inches. The diameter of the roots range from one sixty-fourth to three thirty-seconds of an inch. They are gathered at all seasons of the year, peons digging them up with an implement resembling a hoe. in shape. After washing, cleaning, and drying, the roots are cut from the grass, graded, and separated according to quality, length, and color, and finally baled ready for shipment. Vera Cruz and Tampico are the chief exporting ports, while France, Germany, and the United States are the chief users of the brushes into which the roots are manufactured. Roots of a pale yellow, a decidedly charac- - teristic color, are preferred by the trade. It is estimated that an acre of grass yields a ton of marketable roots and at least 3 tons of tops. At present the tops are not used in any way. It seems likely that root operators might find it worth while to attempt the utilization A y wes; 16 he SS (ee ESO ONES SSO500 ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL 9 of the grass for pulp manufacture in sections where there are large acreages of luxuriant growth and where the cost of collecting the raw material i in commercial quantities is not prohibitive. —— Hat \ | Fia. 7.—An average tuft and two small tufts of zacaton grass The writers have not as yet been able to obtain accurate figures as to the production of roots in pounds, but such figures as are available indicate a total production of from three to five million pounds per 6826°—Bull. 309—15——2 4 10 BULLETIN 309, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. annum. ‘The cost of producing the roots per pound is, roughly, as follows: Ground rent, or the harvesting privilege.-.-...-......-..----_- $0. 04 Par eSNG oy RI 2 5) I (RS Se i ay ene 014 Cleaning and! topping. 1s) sete ey ame ora ae) cD en a ae . 04 Hauling) to primanysshippines point la ee a ae eee eee . 002 Frevght ito, New) York. 2205.0: sia)sp- samen sae Sore ee Alaa 02 If the tops can be gotten out economically and reduced to pulp without an expensive freight haul, there would seem to be no question as to the promise of this raanvienie | which at present is purely a waste Fic. 8.—A sparse stand of zacaton on the Vulcan de Agua, near Antigua, Guatemala. product. It would be unwise to attempt to put a value on the tops delivered at a pulp mill, but it can be said that properly harvested esparto from Spain, Algeria, and Tripoli brings from $17 to $23 per ton in the English market. A good zacaton range can be profitably gone over for root brush material every third year. LABORATORY TESTS OF PULP PRODUCTION. An investigation of the paper value of any new fibrous plant can be conveniently separated into two distinct divisions, just as the manufacture of paper is commercially divided into two distinct branches. The first division embraces the separation and purifica- ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. fet tion of the plant-cellulose fibers, while the second division concerns the physical treatment and formation of these fibers into the finished sheet. The separation and purification of the cellulose fibers is necessarily investigated first, and should be brought to as satisfactory a con- Fie. 9.—Zacaton grass claiming a formerly cultivated field on a terraced hillside near Quezaltenango, Guatemala. clusion as possible before actual paper making is considered. This investigation is most advantageously, almost necessarily, pursued in the laboratory, where conditions can be produced and accurately controlled. Fiber separation or production is effected commercially by one of the four following processes: The mechanical process, by 12 BULLETIN 309, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. grinding; the sulphite process, by acid hydrolysis; the caustic-soda process, by hydrolysis with caustic soda; and the sulphate process, by hydrolysis with sodium hydrate and sulphid. From previous general knowledge of the paper value of fibrous plants and from the similarity of zacaton to known species, it was decided to investigate this material by the soda process, which con- sists in subjecting the material to the action of a caustic-soda solution at moderately high temperature for a definite length of time, which operation is technically known as cooking. Since the soda solutions at the temperatures required exert a steam pressure of 50 to 100 pounds to the square inch, the cooking is effected in large, strong steel cylinders, known as digesters, which are of two general types, the upright stationary and the horizontal rotatmg. The preliminary cooking of zacaton was conducted im an autoclave, simulating the conditions of the upright stationary digester. The autoclave was of the regular laboratory type, of 7}-liter capacity, composed of a rigid stand supporting the spun-copper autoclave shell, which could be securely closed by clamping on a bronze head or cover, the seal being secured by polished surfaces between the body and the head. The head was provided with a pressure gauge and thermometer well. A gas burner underneath the shell served to heat the charge to any ~ desired temperature or pressure. The method of operation is to place a certain weight of material in the body, to cover with a soda solution containing sufficient caustic soda to completely reduce the material, to securely close the autoclave, and, by means of the gas burner, to heat the entire charge to a definite temperature or pressure. This pressure is maintained the required number of hours, after which the charge is allowed to cool and the contents are removed and washed free from the dark- colored spent soda solution known as black liquor. Undercooked pieces of grass, which are invariably present, are separated from the pulp by screening through a No. 10 screen, in which the slots are 0.01 of an inch wide. ; If the material under examination contains pith cells which by reason of their high percentage or quality tend to impart undesirable qualities to the finished sheet, it will be necessary to separate them from the true fiber at this pomt. Separation can readily be accom- plished by manipulating the pulp on a 60 or 70 mesh wire cloth with a stream of water, whereby the small pith cells are washed away, leaving the long, true fibers on the wire. In the case of zacaton it does not appear necessary or advisable to separate the pith, and it was done only in cook No. 1. In autoclave cook No. 1, 404 grams of grass, bone-dry basis, were treated with 24.4 per cent of caustic soda at a concentration of 19.7 ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. 13 grams of caustic soda per liter for 6 hours at a steam pressure of 90 pounds per square inch. It was very apparent that the long fiber, and even the screened fiber, was superior in quality to that of many other fibrous plants which had been tested, the soft feeling and bright luster being very noticeable. In cook No. 2, 400 grams of grass were treated with 23 per cent of caustic soda at a concentration of 29 grams per liter for 74 hours at a steam pressure of 90 pounds per square inch. The yield and general appearance of the fiber from this cook were very similar to those of the one preceding, and the conditions of treatment were possibly all that could be desired with this type of digester. Further economy of Fic. 10.—Experimental rotary pulp boiler. treatment might be obtained with the rotary type of digester, where a lower percentage of caustic soda and a smaller volume of solution in proportion to the grass used would be possible. This method gives a more uniform pulp and affords a somewhat cheaper recovery of the spent soda, which is essential to the economic application of the soda process. The rotary type of boiler employed was a }-inch steel shell, 124 inches in diameter by 294 inches in length (38 liters in capacity), supplied with a hand hole and screw cap and mounted so as to rotate on its long horizontal axis one revolution per minute. (Fig. 10.) The charge was heated by gas burners underneath and controlled by a thermometer inserted in a well extending from the end of the shell into the center of the charge. Table I shows the yield of fiber ob- tained from these two cooks. 14 BULLETIN 309, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE |.—Fiber yields from two bone-dry cooks of zacaton grass, using different concen- trations of caustic soda under a steam pressure of 90 pounds to the square inch. Caustic soda. Yield. 2 Quan- - Time Cooke tity. | Per per poiled. | PZessure- | screen- Sem Pith, | Long | Total liter age ings. fiber. fiber. | fiber. Grams. | Grams. Hours. | Pounds. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. INO ae eer 404 19.7 24.4 6 90 4.7 35. 4 7.5 27.9 40.1 INO ME Eee ee oe 400 29.0 23.0 74 90 4.6 STM cee | ee 41.7 Cook No. 3 was made in the rotary by treating 2,400 grams of grass, bone-dry weight, with 19 per cent of caustic soda at a con- centration of 71 grams per liter for 6 hours at a steam pressure of 80 pounds per square inch, which gave a yield of 50.8 per cent of total fiber. The pulp was very uniform, soft, and of good appearance, and the cooking conditions were not as harsh or expensive as those for commercially treating poplar wood. Cook No. 4 was made from a bale of zacaton which was received in a dry but very moldy condition, and the grass was quite brittle. A charge of 2,400 grams was treated with 19 per cent of caustic soda at a concentration of 70 grams per liter for 6 hours at a steam pressure of 80 pounds per square inch, giving a yield of 49 per cent of total fiber. It was impossible to distinguish any difference in quality between the pulp from the sound and that from the moldy grass, the fungi apparently attacking only the less resistant forms of hemi- celluloses. Cook No. 5 was made by treating 2,000 grams of zacaton with 18 per cent of caustic soda at a concentration of 70 grams per liter for 5 hours at a steam pressure of 90 pounds per square inch, giving a yield of 44.6 per cent of total fiber. Cook No. 6 was made by treating 2,400 grams of grass with 16 per cent of caustic soda at aconcentration of 70 grams per liter for 54 hours at a steam pressure of 90 pounds per square inch, giving a fiber yield of 47.7 per cent of the total bone-dry grass. The expenditure of soda and time was very moderate, the yield was very fair, and the general appearance of the pulp was remarkably good. MICROMEASUREMENTS OF FIBER AND OTHER CELLS. Table IL shows the comparative measurements of the cells of zacaton grass. The measurements were made on the screened stock from which paper No. 76 was made. Tas LE I1.—Comparison of the cell measurements of fibers and other cells of zacaton grass. Long epidermal Parenchyma of pith. é Parenchyma. Bast. ells. Measurement. : = peer aeenee es Penne ene Length. | Width. | Length. | Width. | Length. | Width. | Length. | Width. Mm Mm Mm. Mm Mm Mm Mm Mm Maximum eee eee 0. 112 0. 072 0. 079 0. 011 0. 223 0. 058 3.0 0. 013 Minimumeeeee eee - 072 057 - 072 O11 . 162 - 018 a) - 005 sAvyerage lees re ye - 092 - 061 -075 - 011 - 193 - 038 1.7 - 0085 ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. 15 The true fiber (fig. 11) has remarkably good felting qualities, but its length is less than that of esparto, which varies from 1.5 to 1.9 millimeters. CHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE GRASS AND PULP. In cooperation with the Department of Commerce, an investiga- tion of the chemical nature of zacaton grass and pulp in regard to such points as have a bearing on their paper value was conducted at the Bureau of Standards. The pulps examined were from cooks 7, 8, 9,and10. Thereport of this chemical inves- tigation, which needs no comment, is given in full, as follows: 1. Original straw.—(a) Ash; (6) moisture; (c) ether- alcohol extract; (d) water extract; (e) cellulose by (1) Cross and Bevan chlorin method, (2) Cross and Be- van dilute nitric method, (3) Renker’s chlorin method; and (/) loss on boiling with dilute caustic soda. It was found necessary to grind the straw very fine, on account of the lack of homogeneity of the samples. The largest sam- ples practicable with the unground straw gave widely varying results, so recourse was had at once to grinding all the straw in a clean coffee mill be- fore analysis. Analyses for comparative value should refer to dry material; hence the mois- ture was determined first Fiqa. 11.—Pulp of Lpicampes macroura, X 352: 1, Bast; 2, porous parenchyma; 3, sclereid; 4 and 4, parenchyma; 6, modified epi- dermal cells; 7, parenchyma of pith; 8, short epidermis cells; 9, long epidermis cells; 10, pitted trachea; 11, annular trachea; 12, bast. to be 4.8 per cent. The ash gave 9.1 per cent in one determination and 8.8 per cent in another. In both cases a very large proportion of the ash was silica, as shown 1 The chemical work on zacaton was done by Mr. George 8. Tilley, at that time cellulose expert at the Bureau of Standards, United States Department of Commerce. 16 BULLETIN 309, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. by volatilizing with hydrofluoric acid. In one case silica was 7.5 per cent of the original straw and in the second 6.5 per cent. (a) This is a rather high ash content and a particularly large amount of silica, in comparison with the analyses of other straws published by Mayer, Miiller, Hofmeister, and others. Itfuses ina glass with the other constituents of the black liquor if sharply ignited, but on slower ignition gives a cake which easily falls to pieces on extraction with water. There will probably not be silica enough to interfere with the usual soda recovery on the large scale, especially if some of the English silicaremoving processes are used. A trial of this point is, however, advisable where so much silica is found. This has, for example, nearly five times as much silica as esparto grass, as analyzed by Miller. (c) Ether-alcohol extraction was carried out, not so much for the purpose of secur- ing very valuable information, but in order to note abnormality, if any existed. One analysis gave 0.8 per cent loss, and a second 0.9 per cent, the nature of the extract not being further investigated. It is usually reported as fat, wax, and chlorophyll. (d) The ether-extracted straw was further extracted for 14 hours with water in the modified Wiley extractor, which extracts at the temperature of the boiling solvent. The loss under this treatment was 5 per cent in one case, and 5.6 per cent in the second. As straws go, this shows a high degree of resistance, it being possible to extract as much as 70 per cent of some straws in this way. This value for Epicampes puts it between rye and wheat straw, roughly speaking, although of course there are wide variations in individual cases. (e) ‘“‘Cellulose” was determined by three methods; in each case the ash in the resulting product was determined and the ash-free white fiber resulting from the pro- cess followed was reported as ‘‘cellulose.’”’ No process now in use can claim to give a ‘normal cellulose” from straw or wood, and the significance of the per cent of ‘“‘cellu- lose” reported is always relative to the analytical method followed. (f) According to the original Cross and Bevan ' method, as described i in their book, the yield of ‘‘cellulose” averaged 41 per cent. Renker, in his recent book,? advises omitting the treatment with dilute alkali both before and after chlorination. The yield of fiber by this method was 51 per cent average. Cross and Bevan claim incomplete removal of lignin by this method, but Renker is certainly right in saying that the dilute alkali attacks the cellulose considerably. As a test of this, weighed samples of the straw were boiled 50 minutes with | per cent caustic soda, then filtered, dried, and weighed. The losses averaged 45.1 per cent on the bone-dry straw, with a residue of 54.9 per cent. This certainly leaves little for the chlorin to do in bringing the residue down to the 41 per cent found. It is probable that the true value lies between the two. Concordance in results may be obtained by either method, but of course adds nothing but confirmation of care in performance of the work. The method of heating for 7 hours at 70° with 10 per cent nitric acid gave white residues (ash free) averaging 39.3 per cent. This is no doubt a minimum value and agrees fairly well with the results of the drastic original Cross and Bevan procedure. 2. Blow-pit stock.—Loss on bleaching was determined on the long-fiber unbleached stock. The determination is necessarily crude, because (1) if the stock be dried the chemical nature of the cellulose is changed and the bleaching may have a widely different effect, and (2) the water in the undried stock is about as serious a source of error. Determinations were made on both dried and undried stock. As nearly as possible, average samples of the undried stock were taken and moisture determined in some, while others were bleached. Limit cases were taken with (a) strongly alkaline bleach, with much active chlorin; (b) slightly alkaline, with a small amount of free chlorin. With the stronger bleach 1 Cross, C. F., and Bevan, E.J. A Text-Book of Paper-Making. 411 p., illus., 2 fold. pl. New York, 1907. 2 Renker, Max. Ueber Bestimmungsmethoden der Zellulose. Aufl. 2,107 p. Berlin, 1910. ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. 17 the losses ran about 20 per cent, while with the more dilute they were from 8 to 10 per cent, with, as was noted, a large factor of possible error. The ordinary bleaching practice would give results nearer the lower limit, if anything. The blow-pit stock from which the pith had not been separated did not bleach to a good color, even on long treatment. The loss in weight in one case which was weighed was 12.5 per cent, but the stock was not up to a pure white—rather a light cream color. This was due partly to the depth of coloring of the cooked pith and its resistant nature. The strongly resistant nature of the pith is seen by comparison of the results of dilute alkali and acid treatment with their effect on the original straw. The loss on boiling the pith 1 hour with 1 per cent caustic soda was 18.5 per cent in one case and 17.8 per cent in another. The straw lost 45 per cent under similar treatment, and the pure bleached fiber 20 per cent. The loss on heating the pith 7 hours at 70° with 10 per cent nitric acid was 18.3 per cent in one case and 17.9 per cent in another, while the straw lost 61 per cent and the pure bleached fiber lost 10 per cent under the same treatment. The necessity of removing the pith, even at the expense of some fiber, isapparent. There was quite a fittle fiber in the sample of pith, as shown by shaking up a sample with an excess of water, but no method of quantitatively separating the two has as yet suggested itself, unless fractional levigation or filtration may succeed in some form later. Chemically, there is not enough difference to effect even an approximate separation. 3. Black liquor.—The black liquor resulted from cooking Epicampes straw in an autoclave at 90 pounds for 74 hours, using 23 per cent caustic on the straw weight, at concentration of 23.9 grams per liter. It was investigated for specific gravity, per- centage of dissolved solids, saccharine matter, nitrogenous matter, ash, and total organic matter. The specific gravity of the liquor was 1.046. It had 9.9 per cent total solids dis- solved by one determination, and 10 per cent according toasecond. Of this, 2.89 per cent should be the original caustic soda (of course, somewhat altered by combi- nation with silica, etc.). A determination of the ash of the evaporated residue cor- roborated this; 6.2 per cent of the residue burned away in the blast, leaving 3.8 per cent ash, the 6.2 per cent being, then, total organic matter. The amount of ash does not by any means account for the silica of the straw,,even assuming that half of it is left in the finished paper. It is probable that much of it is loosened by the cook and is washed away as a fine suspension. A Kjeldahl analysis of an evaporated residue showed 2.1 per cent “‘proteid,’’ using the usual factor in calculation from the ammonia found; that is, there was about 0.2 per cent proteid in the liquor before evaporation. The addition of mineral acid to the black liquor gave a voluminous precipitate, consisting of acid cellulose, lignic acids, and some silicic acid. The amount of the precipitate was 4.8 per cent of the black liquor, leaving, then, 1.4 per cent organic matter in the filtrate. The filtrate was examined for sugars. In 100 c. c. of the filtrate only 33 milligrams of sugar were present, calculated to dextrose. Probably the remainder in solution was levulinic acid, humic acids, acid-soluble modifications of cellulose, and similar products of the breaking down of the complex substances in the straw, but their small quantity and lack of value after identification argued against the necessarily long and laborious task of isolating them, even if they could be identified. Conclusion.—The result of an investigation like the present one on substances of this nature gives necessarily only a general impression rather than a summary of defi- nite and precisely measurable constants. In general, it may be said that Lpicampes macroura gives a commercially practical yield of rather unusually high-grade paper fiber, with no particular trouble to be expected except from pith and silica in the process of manufacture. 18 BULLETIN 309, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CELLULOSE FROM ZACATON. The sample sent for examination was bleached pulp of E’picampes macroura in the form of waterleaf sheets. The purpose of the work upon it was to determine the nature of its cellulose as completely as possible. First, qualitative tests were tried. (a) Fuchsin-sulphurous acid (Schiff’s reagent) turned a bit of the pulp pink on standing a few minutes. (6) Sachsse’s solution (alka- line HgI,,2KI) was reduced on boiling with the pulp. (c) Fehling’s solution was reduced on boiling with the pulp. (d) Vitz’s methylene-blue test (boiling a bit of the pulp for 15 minutes with 0.5 per cent aqueous solution of methylene blue) dyed the pulp deep blue, which was not removed by long washing. A bit of pure rag paper was put in the dye at the same time, asacheck. It dyed light blue and washed nearly white under the same conditions of treatment. (e) Phenylhydrazin acetate boiled with the pulp gave a yellow hydrazone. (f) Ferric ferricyanid (Cross and Bevan) gave a blue precipitate with the pulp on standing some minutes. According to Cross and Bevan, this reaction is a quantitative measure of lignin. Later work has shown, however, that oxycellulose gives the same precipitate. (g) On distilling from a sus- pension of the pulp in hydrochloric acid of 1.06 specific gravity and adding a phloro- glucin solution to the distillate, a large amount of furfural phloroglucid was precipi- tated. These reactions show conclusively that the sample contained oxycellulose in considerable quantity. As oxycellulose is quite sensitive to attack by many destructive agencies, it was of importance to determine how much was in this sample from E’picampes macroura in relation to other celluloses. In the present state of knowledge (which, unfortu- nately, is rather a state of ignorance) of the constitution of cellulose, it is impossible to say how much of any given sample is oxycellulose. However, it is easy to compare samples and determine which has more or less of it. Accordingly, comparative quantitative determinations were made of (1) copper number and (2) furfural yield on the cellulose from Epicampes macroura, a bleached soda poplar pulp, and on cotton ‘‘cellulose” simultaneously. The ‘“‘copper number” of Schwalbe is the number of grams of copper precipitated by boiling 100 grams of the pulp in question for 15 minutes with Fehling’s solution, under certain definite conditions of concentration, heating, and so on. In the absence of other reducing substances it is an admirable measure of oxycellulose; hence, it was used here with a modified Low volumetric method of determining the copper instead of Schwalbe’s slower and no more accurate electrolytic method. It is at once evident that the Epicampes cellulose contains slightly more oxycellulose than the poplar pulp and much more than the cotton. (Contrary to the commonly accepted belief, the writers have found most cotton cellulose to contain a little oxy- cellulose, as shown by many tests.) For further confirmation and comparison, simultaneous quantitative estimations of the furfural yield from the same cotton, poplar pulp, and Epicampes pulp were made, following the method of Flint and Tollens. This, of course, would not be applicable in the presence of wood gums or various other pentosans or furfurosans, but was here applicable because the other furfural-yielding groups were absent. The numerical results of these two analyses are shown in Table III. ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. 19 Taste ITI.—Copper number and furfural yield of samples of cotton, poplar pulp, and Epicampes pulp in two determinations. Determination No. 1. Determination No. 2. Sample. Copper No.| Furfural. |Copper No.| Furfural. Per cent. Per cent. TUTE. + ob PS SSR SESS ee ES Cae ents eM 8/2 1.25 0. 40 1.31 0. 50 TUES GD. ossc ccs speeds pecs euss cose osaSoRSeeEeesisces 4.26 10. 01 3. 82 10. 00 ID TIGERS (D022 seal Pe eee eee Re eee oe 4.58 10. 92 4.39 10. 62 It is here again evident that Epicampes cellulose is close to poplar pulp in oxycellu- lose content and contains slightly more of it. This being so, the Epicampes cellulose should be more sensitive to attack by hydro- lytic and oxidizing agents. In verification of this, determinations were made (a) of the action of alkaline solutions and (6) of nitric acid on all three celluloses, using the same three of the preceding work. First, the action of a 1 per cent aqueous NaOH solution on the three celluloses was tried. Weighed samples were boiled 60 minutes — with a large excess of the solution, then filtered, washed, dried, and again weighed. This verifies, in so far, the prediction from the relative amounts of oxycellulose. Next, the action of concentrated NaOH solution was tried, according to the usual procedure for determining ‘‘loss on mercerizing.’”’ The agreement here is as good as can be expected of this reaction, because of the slow penetration and uneven action of the cold concentrated solution. It shows the same relation between the celluloses, although more roughly than preceding determinations. Next, the action of nitric acid was tried, (a) using ‘“‘nitrating acid”’ and determining “‘oain on nitration’? in the usual manner and (b) using 5 per cent HNO, at 70° C. for 7 hours. The resistance to combined oxidizing and solvent action of the nitrating acids (equal parts of concentrated sulphuric and fuming nitric acids) is very evident in the predicted order. Table IV shows the numerical results of these tests. TasBLe IV.—Action on cotton, poplar pulp, and Epicampes pulp of a concentrated nitrating mixture and dilute and concentrated solutions of sodium hydroxid. Determination No. 1. Determination No. 2. Sample. Loss in Loss in Fatal yield Loss in Loss in Pola yang NaOH,1 |NaOH,con-| Per in | NaOH,1 [NaOH,con-) Per 20 percent | centrated eanite percent | centrated na aratiig solution. | solution. miKiira Solution. | solution. mnie Per cent. Per cent. Grams. Per cent. Per cent. Grams. 2.0 7.9 177.7 1.4 9.1 180.7 12.3 15.4 159.0 12.1 18.2 () 19.3 17.3 149.2 19.4 18.4 140.8 1 Sample exploded during the process of drying. Next, the action of hot dilute (5 per cent) nitric acid was tested. Weighed samples of poplar pulp and Epicampes pulp were heated for 7 hours at 70° C. with 100 times their weight of 5 per cent HNO,, then filtered, washed, dried, and weighed. Because of the small amount of Epicampes pulp remaining, no duplicate could be made. The soda poplar pulp lost 6.1 per cent and the Epicampes pulp 10.2 per cent in the process. 20 BULLETIN 309, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This evidence was considered sufficiently complete with regard to the oxycellulose question. The behavior of Epicampes pulp with the usual solvents of cellulose was tried, with results as follows: (a) Schweitzer’s reagent dissolved all but the merest faint trace of the fiber. (b) Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolved the fiber quite rapidly and completely, — with a very faint darkening in color—not nearly so dark as straw celluloses usually give with sulphuric acid. (c) Zinc chlorid in concentrated hydrochloric acid dissolved the fiber more slowly than did sulphuric acid, but quite completely. (d) Zinc chlorid solution swelled the fiber, but dissolved it only slowly. ; The percentages of ash and moisture were also determined, ash being 2.2 per cent and moisture 4.8 per cent. Both determinations are of minor importance, the ash qualitatively and quantitatively being dependent on the previous treatment of the pulp and the moisture on the atmospheric conditions. The fact that they were not extraordinary had, however, to be determined. The moisture was within 0.2 per cent of that of poplar pulp under the same atmospheric conditions, indicating again the close chemical relationship that has been evident throughout in the comparison of poplar and Epicampes pulps, as it is well known that different forms of cellulose have widely differing hygroscopicity. It is, in fact, more closely related to poplar pulp than it is to straw celluloses, like those of wheat or rye. These latter give from 12 to 14 per cent of furfural, for example, while Epicampes pulp gave a 10.8 per cent average, poplar giving 10 per cent. The resistance of Epicampes cellulose to destruc- tive agents in general is correspondnigly higher than that of the usual straw celluloses. It was next intended to make a methoxyl determination on the Epicampes pulp, but microscopic examination showed (1) lignified cells still present and (2) cells in bundles that are usually completely separated by cooking, although only a very little of either. A methoxyl determination would be unfair to the sample when thus under- cooked, and so was not carried out. Direct determination of cellulose by any of the accepted aneiinodlg is obviously use- less here, (1) because the pulp has already been through processes for lignin removal and (2) because the presence of oxycellulose renders impossible a determination of cellulose accurate to 15 per cent, as it is always attacked much more than lignin by the usual reagents. There is no existing accurate method for these conditions. Carbon and hydrogen determination by combustion would add, perhaps, a little to the already present wealth of evidence of oxycellulose presence, but the relation of furfural yield to carbon percentage is so well known that the carbon could be pre- dicted to a fraction of a per cent. This determination, therefore, seemed needless for the complete characterization of the Epicampes fiber. Hydralcellulose was tested for during the ‘‘copper number’’ determinations, by Schwalbe’s method, and found absent. To sum up the net result of these determinations: Hpicampes macroura bleached pulp is a natural oxycellulose closely related to poplar pulp in chemical properties and considerably superior to the usual straw celluloses in power of resisting chemical attack by destructive agencies. SEMICOMMERCIAL TESTS OF THE PULP. Having experimentally determined the cooking conditions and found them to be reasonable and satisfactory and also having deter- mined that the chemical nature of the pulp was satisfactory, the work was continued on a semicommercial scale and was planned to include the actual manufacture of paper. There is a tendency on the part of many to discount the practical value of results obtained ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. 21 experimentally on a small scale, and doubtless in many cases this attitude is justified. Experimentation on a small scale has its own valuable sphere of usefulness, but great care should be exercised in its commercial interpretation. Therefore, with a view to giving this material a more reliable or commercial paper value the work was continued on a larger scale, more nearly under mill conditions and at a place where the services of actual mill employees could be secured for the work. The digester employed for this work was of the upright stationary type, measuring about 2 feet in diameter by 10 feet high and heated by direct steam. The cooked charge was “‘blown”’ in the regular manner into a blow pit of ordinary construction, where it was drained and washed free from black liquor. After screening in the regular manner the stock was bleached with mill bleach liquor in a beating engine and bleach chest, washed free from bleach residues, made into the desired furnish, and suitably beaten, after which it was run through a Jordan refiner and then to a Fourdrinier paper machine. The greater part of this whole work was performed by the regular mill employees.! The material used for the four cooks of this test was dry, but had previously molded to some extent, being the same as that used in cooks Nos. 4, 5, and 6. Table V shows the cooking conditions and the yields of the four cooks. Tasie V.—Conditions of cooking and total yields of fiber of four cooks of zacaton grass. . Concen- Yield Cook. Charge, peusiie tration of | Cooking yours bone dry, bone dry.| oaded. Gausule pressure. | pressure, of total Pounds. | Per cent. Pounds. oe nt oiod ha AOE BeBe EES eee eeeeee 175 20 41 100 5 38.6 #22722 ERR Se On pep GnOCeeeaneE “182 19 90 90 6 33.4 eee aimiais saa s cos cela cres'sc 2 ae Depee 192 UB eee 90 5 44.6 eS con sao e.ce cs bencetesccdSs 186 1G) | Seicceeeeise 90 6 45.2 « The charge in the digester was covered with water and heated to a steam pressure of 50 pounds per ee ‘a for 1 hour, after which the water extract was all drained off and the residue cooked in the regu- The higher yield of total fiber in cooks Nos. 9 and 10 is due to the lower percentage of soda added and the fact that its concentration was lowered by the water remaining in the grass after extraction. The general appearance of the pulp of these four cooks was very similar; they were soft feeling, bulky, and had a very silky luster. Screening was done on a No. 10 cut screen, and in place of a pulp thickener the screened stock was run over the wet end of a Fourdrinier paper machine and taken off at the first press. This procedure left the stock in fine condition to be transferred to the bleach beater. ' Much assistance and information was furnished by 8. D. Warren & Co., Cumberland Mills, Me. 22 BULLETIN 309, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Screened pulp from the four cooks was combined into one beater charge, heated to about 40° C., and after being thoroughly mixed with bleach liquor to the equivalent of 21 per cent of its bone-dry weight of commercial bleaching powder, was pumped to a bleach chest to exhaust. When the bleach was practically all consumed and the Fic. 12.—Semicommercial rotary pulp boiler. color of the stock was found to be satisfactory, it was drained and washed free from bleach residues. The bleached stock was then beaten with a medium brush for 24 hours, loaded with 25 per cent of clay, sized with a 0.5 per cent resin size and 2 per cent of alum, and run through a Jordan refiner and then to a 30-inch Fourdrinier paper machine speeded to 90 feet per minute. The stock acted very well on the paper machine, giving ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL, 23 very little trouble and producing a machine-finished sheet of good appearance and quality. Physical tests on this sheet, designated as No. 41, are recorded in Table VIII. Since the installation of a rotary type of digester by this bureau, further tests were made on Epicampes under the more favorable conditions afforded by this method of treatment. The rotary measured 6 feet in length by 4 feet in diameter, and was supplied with a large man head, thermometer well, pressure gauge, steam inlet, and steam relief through the hollow trunnions, and rotated at one-half a revolution per minute (fig. 12). A charge of 350 pounds could be handled conveniently, using a much stronger caustic solu- tion and yielding a more uniform pulp. The cooked charge was dumped into an iron drain tank under- neath, where, by means of a false bottom, the fiber could be drained and washed with no loss. By means of a vacuum under the false bottom, the water could be drained from the fiber uniformly, leaving only 70 to 80 per cent of water in the fiber, in which condition it could be sampled and weighed with a good degree of accuracy. Uniformity of chemical action on the grass was very noticeable and assisted very much in the subsequent operations and quality of the pulp. 7 The grass used for these tests was of good, medium quality and in perfect condition. Four cooks were made, in order to secure sufli- cient pulp for a fair trial on the beating engine and paper machine, the cooking conditions of which are shown in Table VI. Tasie VI.—Conditions of trials of four cooks of zacaton pulp. Grass. Maximum temperature, boiling. Rela- 0 4 tion of | Strength | Caustic Saualic Cook. Bone dry. eaustig oheaushie ee Saya € soda | solution. | added. i Le | =| oF GEA, added. aime Heat | Time dry. Pays reach used. | held. . | Pounds. e | cent. Pounds. Per ct. | Per cent. |\Pounds.|Gallons.| Hours.| ° C. | Hours. pl See 341 90.7 309 19.0 9.18 58.9 77 13 160 6 166 Lf) VAL Se a 361 91.0 328 | 20.1 9.18 66.0 86 2 160 4 166 | ae 335 | 90.8 304 20, 2 9.18 61.6 81 13 166 4 i ALT See 342 90.8 311 20.3 9.18| 63.2 82 14 166 3} As seen by the table, the cooking was controlled by temperature instead of by steam pressure. Since it is temperature and not pressure which.induces chemical action, and since steam pressure is indirectly an expression of temperature, it is obviously correct to employ either for control. On account of the presence of more or less air in the steam supply, and on account of gases which are 24 BULLETIN 309, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. liberated durmg the cooking, there is usually more pressure within the digester than the pressure corresponding to the temperature of the charge, and since this false pressure is usually unknown it seems preferable to employ temperature as the control. The results of the tests are shown in Table VII.. TaBLeE VII.—Results of trials of four cooks of zacaton pulp. Fiber. Caustic. Relation of | Causticity ; Cook. Bone dry. bone-dry of waste Relati f fiber. lution. i atlon 0. Wet. er solution Cousumed Relation of arent y grass. excess. Oded Per cent. | Pounds. 3 Pounds. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. IN@ Wee ebse 686 22.8 156 5OWA SSS Ate cies ots! Se aioe scien nal ee ers ee eae | eee IN@s WBeesec4 815 20. 0 163 49.7 35. 3 12.0 8.1 59 IN@s WBso065 715 20.1 143 47.0 38. 2 11.5 8.7 56 No. 14.....- 730 19.8 144 46.3 38.7 11.4 8.9 56 The average yield of fiber at 90 per cent bone dry is 43 per cent of the air-dry grass, which would average 80 per cent bone dry. The excess caustic soda, 8.1 to 8.9 per cent of the bone-dry grass, is doubtless higher than is necessary, and it would indicate that less soda could have been employed in the cooking. Pulp charges from the four cooks were remarkably similar in appearance and feeling; they drained and washed with great ease, a property not shared by the pulp of many plants and a fact of great importance in a commercial sense, because of the necessity of washing out and recovering the spent soda. On screening the pulp charges through a No. 10 cut screen there remained undercooked screenings to the extent of 2.05 per cent of the bone-dry pulp, or 1 per cent of the bone-dry grass. The screened stock bleached easily and to a satisfactory color with the equivalent of 12.7 per cent of commercial bleaching powder. After washing free from bleach residues, the stock was given four hours’ medium brushing in a beating engine (fig. 13) and furnished with 24 per cent of clay, 1.8 per cent of resin size, and 2 per cent of alum. At the close of the beating operation the charge was whitened by the addition of a small amount of blue or blue and red color, to offset the residual yellow tint invariably present in all bleached stocks. The finished stock was run through a Jordan refiner and to a 30-inch Fourdrinier machine speeded to 85 feet per minute. Although the stock was a little too “free” to get the maximum felting of the fiber it acted very well on the machine and gave a machine-finished sheet of good appearance and quality. Physical tests of this sheet, designated as No. 76, in connection with those of sheet No. 41 are given in Table VIII. ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. 25 PHYSICAL TESTS OF ZACATON PAPERS. It is impossible to grade these papers according to any recognized classification, since the fiber from the zacaton plant is not recognized as the equivalent of any commercial paper stock. From the fact that the chemical examination placed the fiber very close to soda poplar fiber it might be regarded as the equivalent of soda poplar in grading the samples according to any scheme of classification. How- ever, since the endurance of these papers, as well as their behavior under manufacturing conditions, yet remains to be proved, it would hardly be justifiable at present to regard zacaton fiber as the equiva- Fia. 13.—Beating machine supplied with washer. lent of any commercial fiber. It would seem better, on the whole, to consider each physical test by itself in characterizing these special papers. The system of classification and specifications followed in this work is that established by Veitch,! which in the main is.used as the basis in the purchase of paper by the Government. Sample sheets from the semicommercial tests were submitted to the Leather and Paper Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry for physical examination. This laboratory makes use of a testing room 1 Veitch, F. P. Paper specifications. In U.S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 89, p. 13-51, 4 fig. 1909. 26 BULLETIN 309, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which can be maintained accurately at a constant temperature and relative humidity, conditions which are absolutely essential to com- parative and absolute paper testing. The sample designated as No. 41 was manufactured from the com- bined pulps of cooks Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10, and the sample designated as No. 76 was manufactured from the combined pulps of cooks Nos. 11,12,13,and14. The report of the Leather and Paper Laboratory on these samples is shown in Table VIII. Taste VIII.—Physical properties of six paper samples made from zacaton pulp, accord- ing to tests conducted by the Leather and Paper Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry. Folding endur- Bursting strength. | Strength prion Folding factor. Weight factor c i L. and | Mark] 4 25x38, ae is Thick- 5 P. No. | No. i ite Aver- | Maxi- | Mini- Trans- | Longi- | Trans- | Longi- age. |mum.|mum. verse. |tudinal.| verse. |tudinal. Per ct.| Lbs. it, || J25 Pis. 30612 41 19.5 51.0 | 28.0 29. 0 27.0 0. 55 36 2ili 42 0. 53 0. 82 30613 41 19. 4 49.5 25.5 27.0 24.0 ry 34 25 39 79 30614 41} 19.2 51.0] 27.5] 29.0] 26.0 . 54 37 38 35 74 69 30615 76 22.4 EY. fa) 13.0 14.0 12.0 25 40 4 3 08 06. 30616 76 22.5 57.0 14.0 14.0 14.0 25 38 4 07 05 30617 76 21.4 52.5 13.5 14.0 13.0 - 26 39 33 3 06 06 Sample No. 41 contains the ash specified for a coated paper, namely, 20 per cent, although some uncoated book papers carry nearly this quantity. Practice varies in the different mills, some using more filler than others for the same general grade of paper. This sample shows a strength factor, which is the bursting strain divided by the ream weight, which is higher than that specified for a first-grade machine-finish printing paper, although the ash is four times that of this grade. The folding factor is likewise higher than is specified for a, first-grade machine-finished printing paper. Sample No. 76, according to the same classification, would fall below the fourth-grade machine-finish printing paper. It should be noted here, however, that at the time the specifications of Report No. 89 were drawn up, the chief object was to secure better papers in general for the use of the United States Government. The specifications, therefore, are somewhat different and more rigorous than would have been the case had it been the intention to apply them to the general run of commercial papers. According to present commercial usage, sample No. 41 would be regarded as much better than a first-grade machine-finish printing paper and No. 76 would be classed as a second-grade machine-finish printing paper ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. Onl CONCLUSION. Zacaton grass may prove to be a valuable paper stock, although at present it is a waste product and flourishes im a region remote from the paper-manufacturing sections. The grass can be chemically reduced to paper stock by the soda process under less drastic and less expensive conditions than those employed for the reduction of poplar wood. The well-known process, methods, and machinery employed for the manufacture of pulp from poplar send are entirely suitable for the treatment of this material. In place of the wood-sawing, chipping, and screening machinery, a grass cutter, and possibly a duster, is required. A production of 43 per cent of air-dry fiber from the air-dry grass is regarded as a very good yield, the fiber yield from poplar wood being from 46 to 48 per cent, and from esparto 43 per cent. For bleaching the stock it has been found necessary to use more bleaching powder than in the case of poplar stock. Paper manufactured from this stock has shown physical tests equal to those of a first-grade machine-finish printing paper. The paper has a very satisfactory appearance and feelmg. It is realized that in these two semicommercial tests the maximum possi- bilities of this material in all probability have not been attained, and better results may reasonably be expected. Moreover, an expe- rienced mill organization after a few months of operation would learn the qualities of the stock and be in a position greatly to improve the product. It would not be advisable, nor even possible, from the work here described, to make any estimate of the cost of manufacture or the value of the product. Such data can be secured only by extensive experimentation on a semicommercial scale or by actual mill opera- tions. PUBLICATIONS OF UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO MATERIALS FOR PAPER MAKING. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Suitability of Longleaf Pine for Paper Pulp. Department Bulletin 72. Crop Plants for Paper Making. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 82. Pulp and Paper and other Products from Waste Resinous Woods. Bureau of Chem- istry Bulletin 159. Paper-making Materials and Their Conservation. Bureau of Chemistry Circular 41. Paper Birch in the Northeast. Forest Service Circular 163. Experiments with Jack Pine and Hemlock for Mechanical Pulp. Forest Service Miscellaneous. FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. The Grinding of Spruce for Mechanical Pulp. Forest Service Bulletin 127. Price, 15 cents. Progress in Saving Forest Waste. Yearbook 1910. Price, $1. The Utilization of Crop Plants in Paper Making. Yearbook 1910. Price, $1. 28 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Vv WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 310 & Contribution from the States Relations Service BS A. C. TRUE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER November 9, 1915 DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL FATS. By C. F. Lanewortuy, Chief, and A. D. Hormes, Scientific Assistant, Office of Home Economics. CONTENTS. Page. Page. ERO C ION ano noone ane emis 1 | Digestion experiments—Lard, beef fat, mut- BEAGHECIGHUNO ICD ./..0- <2 /so---5 2005 cS- sce c 2 bon iat ibuttersssee eee soaeee etree tere 5 Experimental methods..................---- 4o)\sGeneraligiscussiones: s-t as saese alee etc 20 INTRODUCTION. Notwithstanding the fact that fats are ordinarily one of the prin- cipal sources of energy in the diet and are two and one-fourth times as effective for this purpose as either protein or carbohydrates, their use in the diet has received less attention by investigators, and is consequently less perfectly understood than that of other nutrients. It has generally been taken for granted that when eaten in favorable combinations fats are thoroughly assimilated and that the different kinds do not vary enough in this respect to affect materially the amount of energy which the body derives from them. The recorded experimental data, however, are not conclusive on this point. Ex- perimental data are also very limited on another poimt which is a matter of particular interest at the present time, when the increased demand for culinary and table fats tends to bring into the market kinds which have hitherto been used little if at all, namely, the rela- tion of melting point to thoroughness of digestion, (penal with respect to fats of high melting point. It is true that many digestion experiments have been carried on with food materials such as milk, cheese, meat, etc., which contain much fat, but relatively few dealing directly with culinary and table fats have been reported and only a small proportion of these have been made under comparable conditions, and while it is also true that the melting point of fats has been very generally and accurately deter- Note.—This bulletin records studies of the digestibility and melting point of lard, beef fat, mutton fat, and butter, and Is primarily of Interest to students and investigators of food problems, 6829°—Bull. 310—15——1 2 BULLETIN 310, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mined it has not been possible to correlate melting point with digesti- bility in an exact way on the basis of experiments hitherto made. The practical importance of further investigations on the subject is indicated by the fact that the common domestic practices in the use of fats, as of other food materials, is at present based very largely on empirical knowledge, and quality in the resultant product depends more upon experience and acquired skill than it does upon knowledge of the physical and chemical properties of the ingredients used and of their relation to the desired object. Yet it is obvious that the whole matter is one which can not be definitely understood, stand- ardized, and controlled unless such knowledge is available. A full understanding of the materials, of the nature of household methods of handling them, and of the resulting effects is necessary as a basis for real economy as well as for more rational and satisfactory use of foodstuffs. The right use of food materials must be governed also by a knowledge of their digestibility and their value as sources of energy available to the body. Neither can one overlook the modi- fications which are due to the combination of ingredients into foods and to the combination of foods to form meals. It seemed desirable, therefore, from both the scientific and the practical standpoint to study the digestibility of the more common culinary and table fats prepared in a comparable manner and incor- porated in a uniform basal ration. It was with this idea m mind that the digestion experiments with four of the more common animal fats reported in this bullet were undertaken. These experiments form part of an extended study of the food value and household uses of animal and vegetable fats of different sorts, having to do with (1) the thoroughness of digestion of the fats, (2) the specific dynamic effect of a diet rich in fats of different kinds, (3) the relation of the available (net) to the total (gross) energy values of fats, and (4) the relation of domestic ways of using fat to the quality of foods. NATURE OF THE DIET. The experiments here reported were made with beef tallow, mutton tallow, lard, and butter, which were purchased in the open market. The butter was a good commercial grade and was used as purchased. The beef, mutton, and pork fats were kidney fats. A fairly large quantity of each was rendered in the laboratory in order to provide uniform material for use in each series of experiments. The fat was cut into small pieces, freed from any noticeable muscular tissue, and finely ground in a meat cutter such as is used in the home. It was then rendered in a double boiler, when it was found that the fat sep- arated readily from the inclosing tissues (the temperature during rendering did not quite reach 100°.C.). The fat was finally strained through medium fine huckaback and heated, but not much above DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL FATS. 3 the temperature of boiling water, to drive off surplus water and thus improve its keeping qualities. Care was exercised not to heat the fat too hight Judged by the usual household tests, the resulting product in all cases was most satisfactory, being of good color and flavor and free from sediment. As sufficiently large quantities of the fats to be studied could not be consumed in the natural state, a method of preparing them for eating was sought. The most satisfactory one found was to incor- porate the fat in a blanc mange or cornstarch pudding. This was best prepared by cooking skim milk, to which sugar and a consider- able quantity of a caramel solution had been added, in an ordinary double boiler, at as high a temperature as could be reached (nearly 100° C.). A mixture of commercial cornstarch and the fat under consideration was then slowly added with continuous stirring, and the heating continued until the starch was well cooked. Skim milk was used to avoid the presence of any considerable amount of butter fat, which would interfere with the study of the particular fat under consideration. The caramel solution was designed to mask the pres- ence of the large quantity of fat by supplying a characteristic and uni- form color and flavor to the blanc mange, for a distinctly fatty flavor is disagreeable to many persons and, furthermore, experience has shown that it is highly desirable in making experiments of this character to avoid as far as possible any psychic effects, which in some instances may play an important réle in the digestion of food. It was usually necessary to add such a large quantity of the caramel solution that the blanc mange had a slightly bitter taste, but this feature was readily overcome by the addition after cooling of a little vanilla extract. The blanc mange prepared in this way resembled a common household dessert, except that it was not noticeably sweet. It has been used to a considerable extent and with good results in this laboratory as a medium for supplying special foodstuffs in experimental diets. The question of the nature of the food was not discussed with the subjects and the masking of the fat was so complete that none of them appeared at any time to notice differences in the flavor of the blanc mange; at least no comments on the matter were made. In studying the digestibility of a single food, experience has shown that it is desirable to incorporate it in a very simple mixed diet, since the ordinary individual is so accustomed to a mixed diet that, no matter how palatable a single food may be at first, it eventually becomes distasteful. Consequently, in these experiments it was decided to use, in addition to the blanc mange containing the fat under consideration, a very simple mixed basal diet composed of a commer- cial wheat biscuit, fruit, and tea or coffee, with a little sugar if the subject desired. 1Jt has been noted in the Biochemic Laboratory of the Bureau of Animal Industry that the keeping qualities of fate which have been subjected to elevated temperatures have apparently been lessened. 4. BULLETIN 310, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. Each test period included three days, or nine meals, a period long enough for the purpose, but, as shown by experience, not of sufficient duration to make the diet distasteful. In order that the subject should experience no sense of monotony, the ration in question was served for only one test period per week, followed by a rest period of four days, in which the subject lived as usual on a mixed diet. Fur- thermore, the tests with fat were alternated with tests of an entirely different sort of diet, so that the same sort of food was not eaten oftener than on alternate weeks. The subjects changed from time to time according to circumstances, but, since their ages, occupations, and modes of living did not vary materially, the results obtained for the different fats are believed to be directly comparable. The men were between 20 and 30 years of age, students in medical and dental schools, and sufficiently informed in physiological questions to appreciate the importance of accuracy in carrying out such directions as were given them. ‘They were urged to observe special care in the collection of feces, for accuracy in this particular is essential in determining the amount of food retained and assimilated by the body. They were asked to supply data as to their physical condition, both before and after, as well as during the time occupied by the experimental periods, but since all remained in normal physical condition none of the individual reports are incor- porated in this paper. The amounts and kinds of food eaten during each three-day exper- imental period were recorded as well as the total quantity of feces, and samples of both food and feces were analyzed to determine the quantities of protein, fat, carbohydrate, and mineral matter retained and assimilated by the body. Since sufficient quantities of blanc mange were prepared to serve for an entire test period, only one analysis of the blanc mange was necessary. Only occasional analyses of the wheat biscuit were made, as it was found to be of very uniform composition. In order to facilitate the identification of the feces of a test period, charcoal,' which imparts a dark color to the feces, was taken with the first meal of the test period and with the first meal following the test period. The feces first showing a dark color and all excreted until the color imparted by the charcoal was again noticed were re- tained for analytical purposes. The feces were freed from water by drying at 95° C., and analysis was made on the dry basis. The urine was not collected and no determinations of the heats of combustion of food or feces were made, since factors have been reported by means of which the available energy value can be computed with 1U.S8. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Bul. 143 (1904), pp. 66-77. DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL FATS. 5) reasonable accuracy. It was not considered necessary to determine variations in the body weight of the subjects, as the purpose of the investigations was to ascertain the availability to the body of the particular fats in question rather than to supply a diet of sufficient nutritive and energy value to meet the body needs. All analytical determinations were made according to the methods outlined by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists... The resultant data only are included in the report of the experiments which follow. The dates of the individual tests and all the detailed data not essential in interpreting the results are on file at the Department of Agricul- ture, where they may be consulted. DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS. LARD. Pork fat is utilized for food in a variety of forms, the most common of which are bacon, salt and fresh fat pork, and lard. Lard is used principally for frying and for shortening foods, though sometimes flavored with sweet herbs and spread on bread, like ‘‘drippings.”’ In view of the wide use of lard as a food material, it is noteworthy that no very extensive study of its digestibility has been found on record. Rubner ? determined the digestibility of bacon, making two exper- iments in which 100 and 200 grams were eaten daily, and found an average digestibility of 87 per cent. This obviously is not a true value, since he reports that the feces contained small pieces of bacon which had not been disintegrated. Work concerning fat resorption by man and animals in patholog- ical conditions was carried out by Adler.? His study of pork fat seemed to warrant the conclusion that in pathological conditions cooked bacon was more readily absorbed than raw bacon. Grindley et al.,* in a study of the influence of different methods of cooking upon the thoroughness and ease of digestion of meat, have reported four experiments with fat fresh pork, the fat of which was 99.4 per cent digested. In a number of tests comparing the digestibility of lard with that of some other animal fats, Levites® found that lard was somewhat less thoroughly assimilated than butter and beef fat, from which he concluded that lard possesses a laxative property. Moore,® in conducting experiments to determine the digestibility of some of the more common fats, found that about 97 per cent of 1U.8. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bul. 107 (1912). 2 Ztschr. Biol., 15 (1879), No. 1, pp. 170-174. 4 Zischr. Klin. Med., 66 (1908), No. 3-4, pp. 302-316. 4U.58. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Bul. 193 (1907), p. 41. 6 Zischr. Physiol. Chem., 49 (1906), No. 2-3, pp. 273-285. 6 Arkansas Sta. Bul. 78 (1903), pp. 33-41. 6 BULLETIN 310, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cooked lard was digested by mice and that raw lard was from 74 to 89 per cent digested by guinea pigs. To secure data regarding the thoroughness of digestion of lard by normal individuals living under uniform conditions, nine tests were made in this laboratory and six different subjects were used, The experiments were performed in different seasons of the year, because of the belief sometimes expressed that fats are better utilized in colder than in warmer weather. - following tables: The results are recorded in the Data of digestion experiments with lard in a simple mixed diet. Experiment No. 38, subject J. C.: Blane mange containing Lard so) sa Wheat Hiseuit ee cero wa eee ies Experiment No. 39, subject J. F.: Blane mange containing han GaSe se Wheat [DISCUIUS eae ee eee eames Experiment No. 44, subject J. C.: Blanc mange containing lard......-..-.- MWiheatiois cits see eee ee Pericentiutiliz ed seeseee eee aaa Experiment No. 47, subject R. L. Blane mange containing land eeaasesone Wiheat biscuits ieee een ane Experiment No. 48, subject I. D. B.: Blanc mange containing lard Wheat biscuit Weight. | Water. | Protein. Fat. nya ts Ash. Grams. Grams. Grams. Grams. Grams. Grams. 1,765.0 | 1,086.6 39.9 254.1 375.9 8.5 "186.5 15.9 25.0 2.1 140.5 3.0 1,471.5 | 1,278.7 11.8 2.9 170.7 74 1GSOH SR aealiet Soe S| re evey ae WHEW) 35 5ecn6550 3,591.0 | 2,381.2 76.7 259.1 855.1 18.9 685 5eleess eee 17.6 11.2 26.3 8.4 ooae eee Sane 59.1 247.9 828.8 10.5 AY Gy. cael Pont a 77.1 95.7 96.9 556 1,740.5 | 1,070.3 39.5 250.7 371.4 8.6 194.0 16.5 26.0 D9) 146.2 3.1 1,698.7 | 1,476.2 13.6 3.4 197.0 8.5 FLRY/ ae ee Paes sem ete beers pcr DIS TAICR EN was. 3,684.9] 2,563.0 79.1 256.3 766.3 20.2 Gu Ogle meen ome Diep 13.1 41.5 10.3 Be ie Da AR 58.0 243.2 724.9 9.8 peer: cs alleys he 73.3 94.9 94.6 48.5 1, 752.5 947.6 40.1 218.9 532.9 13.0 261.0 22.2 35.0 3.0 196.6 4.2 1,029.5 894.6 8.2 Dil 119.4 5.2 Ee Vaiss. | Sees eee eaters Ale eergl Poet 5OLSi Mee tees 3,102.5 | 1,864.4 83.3 224.0 908. 4 22.4 64. OM eee as 20.0 10.9 25.9 7.2 ye siege bn eae 63.3 213.1 882.5 15.2 ae Ek a 76.0 95.1 97.1 67.9 1,715.6 774.7 40.8 288. 4 597.1 14.6 493.3 41.9 66.2 5.6 371.7 7.9 734.7 638. 4 5.9 1.5 85.2 207 COPS eee ROO AFI rea eed 10378 oe: yee 3,014.3 | 1,455.0 112.9 295.5 | 1,124.7 26.2 81. 0) Paeeee ee 25.0 13.8 33.3 8.9 ra aie NS as 87.9 281.7 | 1,091.4 17.3 Dat a eee 77.8 95.3 97.0 66 1,717.9 777.2 40.8 288.8 596.2 14.9 391.8 33.3 52.5 4.5 295.2 6.3 1,158.6 | 1,006.8 9.3 D8) 134.4 5.8 39) 3 POR BN har escres ey MAbs in ee SO. Spy eee ee 3,307.6 | 1,817.3 102.6 295.6 | 1,065.1 27.0 117; S| eee 36.9 24.6 43.1 13.2 Le Sere 65.7 271.0 | 1,022.0 13.8 cr, Te Fe 64.0 91.7 96.0 51.1 DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL FATS. Data of digestion experiments with lard in a simple mixed diet—Continued. Experiment No. 53, subject W. D.: Blane mange containing lardhacect ese Mgheambisctit. 22 Fs A one BPELOMEMEGIZCG =< a5)= set osetia Experiment No. 54, subject I. D. B.: Blane mange containing lard pa ss: : VIG Tin NGS, ees See eee: a ee Frui Percent tlized +2 5..5-5< 85-5556 6. = n14,5) Experiment No. 55, subject R. L. 8.: Blane mange containing lard: 2222 3*: Wheat biscuit IBERICRI PTET Z CO = poeta aio aie: sic Experiment No. 56, subject E. M.: Blane mange containing Large: Sa aes Wear biscuit--=-----2---..----- SOnce ES CRICRIE DIL ALIZ OU 2 ctojse a 1- = acinaiais=/ aii Average food consumed per subject per day Weight. | Water. | Protein. Fat. Tene Ash, Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. 1,909.1 | 1,176.0 56.1 263.6 399.8 13.5 418.3 35.6 56.1 4.8 315.2 6.7 1,362.2 1,183.8 10.9 2.7 158.0 6.8 3,689.6 | 2,395.4] 123.1| 271.1] 9873.0 27.0 O24 ~| eee eee ests 19.9 15.8 44.9 11.8 Pie <= | eR 103.2 255.3 828.1 15.1 CS SE hs SS oases 83.8 94.2 94.9 55.9 1,924.1] 1,185.2 56.6 | 265.7] 402.9 13.7 578.1 49.1 77.5 6.6 435.6 9.3 1,245.2 | 1,082.1 10.0 25| 144.4 6.2 97.3, | Spee eee | um eee a eh ae Ret ees coerce 3,844.7 | 2,316.4 144.1 274.8 1, 080. 2 29.2 P5ON2 |. |S Sees 48.1 32.3 63.9 14.9 Ee oo) | ee 96.0 242.5 1,016.3 14.3 ees! as 66.6| 88.2 94.0 49.0 2,118.8 1, 305. 2 62.3 292.6 443.7 15.0 637.1 54. 2 85. 4 Wo 3 480. 0 10. 2 5 b 6.0 1.5 5 3.7 8.9 9.3 9.6 Hore. oe reves 94.0 96.6 67.8 1,808. 1 1, 113. 8 53.2 249.7 378. 6 12.8 465. 0 39.5 62. 4 i 8} 350. 4 7.4 1,496.6 | 1,300.5 12.0 3.0 173.6 7.5 110243: | SRE eee gale ce oaaeicce DLORSR sherman es 3, 880. 0 2,453. 8 127.6 258. 0 1,012.9 Pile tt 1103s | eee oes Hy 1 13.9 46. 7 13.8 Eee cts cela | Seater 91.7 244.1 966. 2 13.9 As opie Late 72.0 94.6 95.4 50.2 1,172.8 713.0 37.2 90. 2 324.1 8.4 Summary of digestion experiments with lard in a simple maxed diet. ‘ Carbohy- Protein Fat. istes Ash. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 77.1 95.7 96.9 55.6 73.3 94.9 94. 6 48.5 76.0 95.1 97.1 67.9 77.8 95. 3 97.0 66.0 64. 0 91.7 96. 0 51.1 83. 8 94, 2 94.9 55.9 66. 6 88. 2 94. 0 49.0 84. 2 94.0 96.6 67.8 72.0 94.6 95.4 50. 2 75.0 93.7 95.8 56.9 It will be noted on reference to the table that in experiments Nos. 48 and 54, both with the same subject (J. D. B.), the percentage digestibility of fat is materially lower than the others and that this 8 BULLETIN 310, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tends to lower the average. However, since there were apparently no abnormal conditions, these results have been included in obtaining the average. The digestibility of the fat content of the total diet, 93.7 per cent, should closely approximate the digestibility of lard, since over 97 per cent of the total fat consumed was lard. The ‘‘digestibility”’ of fat is often a matter of popular discussion, and not infrequently the statement is made that “‘lard is indigestible.” The term ‘‘indigestible” in the accurate sense implies that a large part of the food in question leaves the body unassimilated, though sometimes the expression is loosely used to explain a digestive dis- turbance resulting from eating the food. In these tests the fat was very thoroughly assimilated as compared with the other fats included in the investigation, so it was not indigestible in the sense that it failed to digest. No distress was experienced by the subjects, nor were any unusual circumstances observed, so in these experiments at least, the lard was not ‘‘indigestible” in the popular sense. It is frequently noted that those who think they can not eat lard have no such feeling in regard to bacon, which is one of the very popular fat foods. Before the whole question can be settled, it is desirable to make tests with lard, bacon, and other fats, in which the fat is incorporated with the other ingredients of the diet of which it forms a part and subjected to a higher temperature (as in frying and baking) than was used to make the blanc mange in these experiments. BEEF FAT. Beef suet is used as a fat for sautéing and deep frying and in making suet puddings and dumplings, which are fairly common in the United States, though less so than in Great Britain, and for other culinary purposes. Rendered beef fat is not used as a table fat in this country to any great extent, though in Europe families of small means often eat so-called ‘‘drippings” on their bread in the place of butter. Beef suet has a rather pronounced and characteristic flavor as weil as a comparatively high melting point; to these properties may be attributed the fact that it is not a common table fat in the United States. Experience and experiments show that it is possible to remove much of the characteristic taste. One household method which is fairly successful is to mix milk with the suet when it is rendered, using half a cup of milk to a pound of suet. On straining and cooling practically all the milk solids are occluded and serve to change or mask the characteristic beef-fat flavor. _ As was the case with lard, few reports of experiments on the diges- tibility of beef fat have been found. DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL FATS. 9 -Flurin ! was interested in determining the relative digestibility of butter and beef tallow, which he regarded as typical animal fats. The average coefficients of digestibility were found to be 95.9 per cent and 92.8 per cent, respectively. Levites ? studied the relative digestibility of beef fat, lard, and but- ter, and found that butter and beef fat were both 96 per cent digested. Grindley et al.,? in experiments to determine the thoroughness of digestion of various meats, found that the average digestibility of fat present in a shoulder of beef rich in fat was 97.3 per cent, but this coefficient may not be applicable to kidney fat. In an attempt to compare the digestibility of edible fats, using guinea pigs as sub- jects, Moore ? found that the fat of raw beef suet was 73.7 per cent utilized. In the work here reported the fat was incorporated in a blanc mange in the manner previously described. During the first three experiments the subjects ate large amounts, approximately 140 grams per day, but they reported a laxative effect from eating this quantity of fat. As this seemed to indicate that the limit of toler- ance was being approached, smaller quantities of fat were eaten in the succeeding periods. The results of the digestion experiments with beef fat contained in a simple mixed diet follow: Data of digestion experiments with beef fat in a simple mixed diet. Carbo- Weight. | Water. | Protein. Fat. hydrates. Ash. Experiment No. 61, subject W. D.: Grams Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams Grams. Blanc mange containing beef fat....... Ppp) || i) 1BY 5 45.1 412.8 649.6 13.5 AD ISC IIa nae | osc cae Scineisiden 544.9 46.3 73.0 6.0 410.9 8.7 LT sen SUSE ee aa ae ee 1,354.0 | 1,176.6 10.8 2.7 157.1 6.8 DEE 25 p SESE BAe a ee Ae Bes Sa OeeeeEee |. 5c0seceue| boeceosors Aacuodasrallesossarsdce naseeonee Total food consumed........---- 4,154.4 | 2,357.4 128.9 421.5 | 1,217.6 29.0 22 lo ceper et pec? cease aeeone Besson 80. S0 eee rere sei 17.5 23.8 31.2 8.0 PINOT UU LIZOG = ansaid eas eases [acess 2. 2 alee 111.4 397.7] 1,186.4 21.0 Per cent utilized............2.2--2-+-- CC eae 86.4 94.4 97.4 72.4 Experiment No. 62. subject E. M.: Blane mange containing beef fat... ..-.- 2,486.0; 1,250.5 49.7 454.9 716.0 14.9 WEMGaE DISCHI Ts: s-8) se eica eae ociosocene 499.8 42.5 67.0 5.5 376.8 8.0 AGRI ese ere. se tS Se aa dinob beets wie sain 1,220.3 | 1,060.4 9.8 2.4 141.6 6.1 110. 5 Experiment No. 63, subject R. L. S.: Blane mange containing beef fat... ... 2,141.4] 1,077.1 42.8 391.9 616.7 12.9 MEIC aa osc oct ie sabac en cc oun to 533.7 45.4 71.5 5.9 402. 4 8.6 MTU SR eo «2 soe aeo ne coe ase aeesneest 1,250.2 | 1,086.4 |- 10.0 2.5 145.0 6.3 A 8 ee Se eee ee 69. Olea so aca leiecreanicekic|| scciwe'e eee COOH recess Total food consumed............ 3,994.3 | 2,208.9 124.3 400.3 | 1,283.1 27.8 OOOO CE GLX. COCOPE OLE 116 Sibieioleelal st 0 28.7 44 82.4 10.9 STIMU NICLLIZOU Fick Sere wok cde te a nadeclonvces -- 0B re des 95.6 356. 1 1,200.7 16.9 Per cent utilized.........02.00e00e-0e-l- ae he 789 89.0] 97.4 60.8 1 Diss,, Army Med, Acad, St. Petersburg, 1890, p. 52. 2 Loe, cit, 6829°—Bull. 310—15——2 10 BULLETIN 310, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Data of digestion experiments with beef fat in a simple mixed diet—Continued. . : F Carbo- Weight. | Water. | Protein. Fat. hydrates. Experiment No. 69, subject R. L. S.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blanc mange containing beef fat... 2,265.1} 1,229.5 39.4 267.5 719. 4 Wrheatibiscuites: 2265-22 20-2- 222 661.1 56.2 88.6 7.3 498.5 AWG G Are ae a sece esac eisisine bees ne sees 1,131.0 982.8 9.1 2.3 131.2 Stipare Meeweeh eral age ed oS, eee eee i ees ||-° Cboary Seeeeceee | aeeaer 77.3 Total food consumed..-.-.---.-- 4,134.5 | 2,268.5 137.1 277.1} 1,426.4 NEC Hse ganar bade apoE seasooeousnacanods IBYGW) || acaaeSees 35.1 39.9 49.3 .0 5 : .4 Pernicentrbilizedis see o-eec cee oe | tae es nee alee Experiment No. 72, subject E. M.: Blane mange containing beef fat -.-. Feces Amount utilized Per cent utilized Experiment No. 102, subject I. D. B.: Blane mange containing beef fat..-..-- Percentitilizedeessse-eeeee-nereece Experiment No. 103, subject W. D.: Blane mange containing beef fat...-. IB GCOS & Sas sees sinisisers cles aes Amount utilized Per cent utilized Experiment No. 104, subject E. M.: Blane mange containing beef fat... -- Wheat biscuit......-.-.--.---------- iRencentutlizedees--- eee eee eee rere Average food consumed per subject per GAY ea. cites ees See oe oon eee Ash. _.| 2,462.4 4.1 @s7/ 4.4 81.6 91.2 97.1 59.8 42.8 290.8 782.1 10.1 5 6.1 ° 8.9 3.1 7.6 2,200.8 | 1,151.3 39.8| 206.0| 793.8 9.9 ; : 61 8.9 3.3 8.2 27.0 10.4 16.6 ee ee 79.2 87.3 96.9 61.5 _.| 1,145.0] 598.9 20.7| 107.2| 413.0 5.2 cs : : 28) 194.5 4.1 os 27| 154.4 6.7 a 19°" eae ce oe 779.9 16.0 34.3 9.8 745.6 6.2 95.6 38.8 2,510.0] 1,313.0 45.4| 234.9| 905.4 11.3 “| “7 398° 9 28.0 44.0 3.6| 248.0 53 (| 1,417.5 || 1,231.8 11.4 28| 164.4 7.1 Wy Bee 156. 27 aes tre | 7 eee arene 156024 ee _.| 4,412.6] 2,572.8| 100.8| 241.3| 1,474.0 23.7 e490 eee 28. 5 30.2 44.2 11.3 | Raa Soca 72.3| 211.1 | 1,429.8 12.4 (|e Tee 71.7 87.5 97.0| 523 _.| 1,368.0] 789.8 38.9 99.5 | 431.4 8.4 DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL FATS. et Summary of digestion experiments with beef fat in a simple mixed diet. Exper- Carboh = : - avi ament Subject. Protein. Fat. ante: Ash. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. FL |) \W oil Se eee eee ea ceteese eens ooo Ss omens 86. 4 : 97.4 72. 4 Fe (1D. Lifts 5 95903 Seek BO ee PROBE aie 318 5 ORE Rayo ote 78. 7 93. 8 97.3 64. 2 HS | Le. IDSs SSA eRe Ronee Se Seon teenie Ses raee 76.9 89.0 97.4 60.8 Fy) | ia Ile es See eRe Cee ee eee eae meee 2 Os alee 74. 4 85. 6 96.5 50. 6 TE) | TY TD a5 a oe re oe eR 3 ape ee 62. 4 87.7 95.4 45.1 Tle! AT ud D ate aaliyah 81.6 91.2 97.1 59.8 BETO tee a yane occas wince oeue scien - =, ce eeeee Cee 75.5 90.3 96.5 56.8 ie |! Ld De de dee Sea OSes Se ee 2 covet 79. 2 87.3 96.9 61.5 TS! VD ee ee ee el eee eS 2 ee eee 69.0 82.4 95. 6 38.8 Hit: ) [Dini SSeS ese Salt ee era ee eee. nee 71.7 87.5 97.0 52.3 PAVELALG Sn eee cane ce eens cae chee ore 75. 6 88.9 96. 7 56. 2 The average value, 88.9 per cent, is the digestibility of the fat con- tent of the entire ration. However, this, it is believed, may be taken to represent the coefficient of digestibility of beef fat alone, inasmuch as this fat comprised over 97 per cent of the total fat content of the diet. The digestibility seemed to decrease with the decrease in the amount of fat consumed. One reason may be that the ether extract of the feces contains not only the undigested fat, but also some ether-soluble metabolic products. If it be assumed that the amount of metabolic products remained fairly constant in the different tests, there would obviously be a proportionately larger quantity present in the feces as the amount of fat consumed decreased. MUTTON FAT. That only small quantities of mutton fat are used in the United States for culinary purposes may be due partly to a smaller available supply, partly to its marked flavor, and partly to its relatively high melting point and corresponding hardness. The possibility of extend- ing its use was considered in work undertaken with reference to the use of mutton in the diet.1 One method of utilizing mutton fat in cooking consists in mixing small quantities after rendering with softer fats, such as lard. The resulting mixture is somewhat softer than the mutton fat and may be used for various household purposes. It is possible to make a savory fat by heating the mutton fat at a low temperature with an onion or sour apple and a little summer savory or ground thyme until the onion or apple is thoroughly brown. The peculiar flavor seems to be masked by this process, the savoriness being quite likely due to a solution in the fat of specific flavoring bodies in the seasoning herb and the browned fruit and vegetable. Very little experimental work concerning the digestibility of mutton fat has been found. Grindley ? in his studies of the effect of cooking upon the digestibility of meats included among others a leg of mut- 1U.8. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 526 (1913). 2 Loe. cit. 12 BULLETIN 310, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ton, and found that the average digestibility of the fat in the ration was 98.5 per cent. His investigation was carried out, however, under conditions very different from those herein reported, as he included in the basal ration large amounts of meat. A total of seven tests, each of three days’ duration, was made with a diet containing a large quantity of mutton fat, and conditions paral- lel to those of the previous work were maintained throughout the experimental periods. The results are given below: Data of digestion experiments with mutton fat in a simple mixed diet. Experiment No. 93, subject R. L. 8.: Blane mange containing mutton fat... Wiheatibiscult®=. 30. ae aan eco eeeace uit ease Re eee eek eee ee Heces Sees Ace See Me eee oF ee Experiment No. 94, subject I. D. B.: Blane mange containing mutton fat... MECOS 2 icc es cee ee eee he eee Experiment No. 95, subject W. D.: Blane mange containing mutton fat... RIO CES ee cet Ree ee ese oo eee ee Per centwitilizeds ek po Ses eep sone SAP et a eee Experiment No. 96, subject E. M.: Blane mange containing mutton fat... MO COS Ree oe etre ce eee rari seeder Am oun tiitilize dee ase sons aes eee eee so eee eee Per centwubilized sy oss seer ae ein a amare ei Experiment No. 131, subject D. G. G.: Blanc mange containing mutton fat... Wheat biscuit Ibi SSSooeese GCOS sets ssc seeer creer Carbohy- Protein. Fat. aenrees Ash. Grams. Grams. Grams. | Grams. 26.7 120.7 628. 7 foil 62.6 5.1 302.2 120 5.1 1,8) 73.7 3.2 BOS cei a= cl eerie 4 Bese cie AQRD (hea as ee 94.4 127.1 | 1,103.8 24.4 34.2 32.8 70.0 92°8 | 1,071.0 74.1 73.0 97.0 32.0 144.6 753.7 79.4 6.5 446.7 11.2 2.8 162.0 BE SSE eal Bete Aenea SaBosace se 80. 2 122.6 153.9 | 1,442.6 27.5 29.8 42. Bee See 3 |i en 95.1 124.1] 1,400.6 Pee epto| tesa 77.5 80.6 97.1 16.2 73.3 382.0 35.1 2.9 197.5 10.9 2.70 158. 2 Se et OA a emer See ae oe ae 32.3 62.2 78.9 770.0 18.7 2157, 30.1 43.5 57.2 739.9 69.9 72.4 96.1 39.9 180. 1 938. 7 49.1 4.0 276.3 11.9 3.0 171.9 afer sirauh| bee See 82.2 100. 9 187.1] 1,469.1 35. 4 33. 7 51.0 65. 5 153.4 | 1,418.1 64.9 82.0 96. 5 DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL FATS. 13 Data of digestion experiments with mutton fat in a simple mixed diet—Continued. : . Carbohy- Weight. | Water. | Protein. Fat. rates? Ash. Experiment No. 132, subject H. D. G.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blanc mange containing mutton fat .. - 769. 0 355. 6 14.9 111.2 284. 0 3.3 WHE MRISCUN oe oe = ace osec5 = cena 483. 0 41.1 64.7 5.3 364. 2 lat DGG - Sen decease Cee e Enea ace 1,504.0} 1,307.0 12.0 3.0 174.5 7.5 Sis rea ne La spas SERS BE oes a ee re TEE BUDE |. - SA See Bde GcncHencs ee>cossese IREE Oh les secoco0e Total food consumed..--.-.-.---- 2,939.0 | 1,703.7 91.6 119.5 | 1,005.7 18.5 IP Pt2S. 5 - seco ceeson saeee aseOmSaeee eos BEG) ||ssconossce 22.6 19. 2 33.8 9.0 da SETA PRET DLV ZE% bes es ee eS Oa Pe amg 2 oe SE 69. 0 100.3 971.9 9.5 Per cont utilized..........2.....-022..[/..0.2.... ar 75.3 83.9 96. 6 51.5 Experiment No. 133, subject R. L. S.: Blanc mange containing mutton fat...| 1,472.0 680. 6 28.6 212.9 543. 6 6.3 MIHGALINISCHL. saeeeme sesso o5-- 42s 552.0 46.9 4.0 6.1 416. 2 8.8 TEL cc ee ee ie ae 1,360.0] 1,181.8 10.9 oni 157.8 6.8 PUPALS ee ere ew oe ete case ce eee sae. 63:10") SERIE Bimal Cheese Rae era ae (BRO Sean6s sche Total food consumed.....-...-.- 3,447.0 | 1,909.3 113.5 221.7 | 1,180.6 21.9 Tir 2 Eee eee ee 110.5) | epee e 28.7 36.7 32.3 12.8 PTFE HERE UUIZEC CS agtaet ca cieae cee eccac lock eects c | oeeteeem ee 84.8 185.0 | © 1,148.3 9.1 I ORACOMMAB UZ OMe Serta Sa seek i seei|- Sk 842 wt eee eas 74.7 83. 4 97.3 41.6 Averagefoodconsumed persubjectperday.| 1,115.8 623.6 | 34.5 53. 2 397.5 7.0 Summary of digestion experiments with mutton fat in a simple mixed diet. Experi- 2 . Carbohy- ey Subject. Protein. Fat. Greate Ash. Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. 74.1 73. 0 97.0 48.0 _ 17.5 80. 6 Yio dl 62.5 69.9 72. 4 96.1 41.2 64.9 82. 0 96. 5 47.7 77.1 88. 2 96. 2 51. 2 75.3 83.9 96.6 51.5 74.7 83. 4 97.3 41.6 73.4 80.5 96. 7 | 49.1 The above data show that relatively small amounts of mutton fat were consumed, which was probably due for the most part to the pronounced flavor and to the well-known fact that mutton fat makes the mouth feel “furry,” for it cools in the mouth and clings to the skin. This clinging effect is not noticeable with fats which remain fluid in the mouth. The low values for availability of fat obtained in experiments Nos. 93 (R. L. S.) and 95 (W. D.), have lowered the general aver- age. The digestibility of mutton fat would be increased to 83.6 per cent by disregarding these values; but, since the values for the digestibility of the protein and carbohydrate approximate the aver- age, the evidence is thought insufficient to warrant such a correction. The average digestibility of mutton fat, therefore, is given as 80.5 per cent. This is materially lower than that of any of the other animal fats studied, though it is apparent that in comparison with many common foods the fat is sufficiently well assimilated to serve satisfactorily as a food material. 14 BULLETIN 310, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUTTER. Many investigators have studied the digestibility of butter under a wide variety of conditions, because of its very extensive use in coun- tries where it is obtainable at relatively low prices. In a number of the earlier determinations the rations used consisted of only one food material in addition to the butter. Rubner,' as a part of an extended series of experiments, determined the digestibility of a simple ration of butter and potatoes, and of one made up of green beans (540.2 grams) and butter (53.4 grams).2, The coefficient of digestibility of fat in the first case was 96.3 per cent and ~ in the second 91.5 per cent. In another test,? with a ration contain- — ing a considerably larger proportion of fat—240 grams of butter— daily, this fat was 97.3 per cent assimilated. Atwater,! in studies made previous to his connection with the nutrition investigations of the Department of Agriculture, studied a simple diet of fish (1,584 grams) and butter (30.5 grams), and found that the fat had a coefficient of digestibility of 91 per cent. A similar experiment by Malfatti *® is reported in which polenta (a porridge made of Indian corn meal and butter), supplying 92.5 grams of fat per day, was used. The coefficient of digestibility of the fat of the corn meal alone was found to be 57.86 per cent, while the butter, which supplied by far the greater part of the fat content of the ration, was 97.7 per cent available. The variation in digestibility as determined by the different investi- gators is doubtless due to a lack of uniformity of conditions under which the experiments were performed. The results of these early experiments, however, agree fairly well in showing that butter is very completely digested. In later experiments, which are also of interest, a more complex basal ration seems to have been used. Mayer ° studied the thoroughness of the digestion of butter by a 39-year-old man and a 9-year-old boy, who were given butter in a sim- ple mixed diet. The average digestibility of butter as determined by three experimental periods, each of three days’ duration, was for the man 98 per cent and for the boy 97 per cent. Bertarelli’ investigated the nutritive value of butter, using three healthy men as subjects for one experimental period each. He ob- tained 94 per cent as an average digestibility. | Huldgren and Landergren * used a simple basal ration of rye bread made of rye flour, water, and yeast and baked in hard, thin cakes. 1 Ztschr. Biol., 15 (1879), No. 1, pp. 136-147. 2Tdem, 16 (1880), No. 1, p. 127. 3 Idem, 15 (1879), No. 1, pp. 174-176. 4Tdem, 24 (1887), No. 1, p. 16. 5 Sitzber. K. Akad. Wiss. [Vienna], Math. Naturw. K1., 90 (1884), III, No. 5, pp. 328-335. 3 Landw. Vers. Stat., 29 (1883), pp. 215-232. 7 Riy. Ig. e. Sanit. Pub., 9 (1898), Nos. 14, pp. 538-545; 15, pp. 570-579. 8 Skand. Arch. Physiol., 2 (1890), No. 4-5, pp. 373-393. DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL FATS. 15 The experimenters themselves were the subjects, and found that 95.43 per cent of butter fat was digested. Lihrig‘ found that butter in a basal ration of meat, bread, and vegetables was 96 per cent digested by a healthy man 29 years old. In a later paper” he reports a digestibility of 97 per cent. Another series of experiments in which the experimenters were subjects was conducted by Wibbens and Huizenga,*? who compared butter and sana (a butter substitute which contained no milk fat). A simple mixed diet was eaten during periods of three days’ duration. For one subject the fat digestibilities were: Butter, 97.33 per cent; sana, 95.3 per cent; for the other subject, butter, 96.5; sana, 73.79 per cent. A much longer experimental period, one of 28 days’ duration, divided into a fore period of 7 days, a period of 14 days on the special diet studied, and an after period of 7 days, was preferred by Von Gerlach. He determined the thoroughness of digestion of butter and of a commercial product called ‘‘sanella”’ (of vegetable origin), when the basal ration consisted of rice, zweiback, and oatmeal. Both fats were 97 per cent digested. Flurin® and Levites* have found that butter was 96 per cent assimilated. Investigating the digestibility of the protein, fat, and carbohydrate contents of the ordinary mixed diet, Atwater * used varying amounts of butter (40-grams to 343 grams per man per day) in the ration, and concluded that for three different subjects in 21 experiments the fat of the diet was 95.9 per cent available to the body. It is difficult to compare the results of all these investigations, since the experimental conditions were not of similar nature. In the main, however, they show that butter fat is very well assimilated. In the eight tests recently conducted in this laboratory conditions were more nearly uniform, as the butter was added to the same simple mixed diet and eaten by the same subjects who participated in the other experiments. The results which were obtained follow. 1 Ztschr. Untersuch. Nahr. u. Genussmtl., 2 (1899), No. 6, pp. 484-506. 2Idem, No. 10, pp. 769-783. 8 Pfliiger’s Arch. Physiol., 83 (1901), No. 10-12, pp. 609-618. 4 Ztschr. Phys. u. Diitet: Ther., 12 (1908-9), No. 2, pp. 102-110. 5 Loc. cit. 5 Connecticut Storrs Sta. Rpt. 1901, p. 235. 16 BULLETIN 310, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Data of digestion experiments with butter in a simple maxed diet. Weight. | Water. | Protein.| Fat. | ,C3'D0-.| Ash. Experiment No. 85, subject R. L. S.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams Grams. | Grams. Blane mange containing butter........ 1, 707.0 UME 28.9 314.9 585. 2 20.3 WiheapISCUiltsssmeaaeee ase aeeeee sees 403.8 34.3 54.1 4.4 304. 5 6.5 TUG acres cone Seen sites See eae SSE Ones 909. 9 790. 7 7.3 1.8 105. 6 4.5 Sugars soles ee ss cesses csiioae sa GIG (0) | SUE eee agandedos|ssusasoses BIRO) Weecsaaose5 Total food consumed ......-..-- 3,071.7 | 1,582.7 90. 3 321.1 | 1,046.3 31.3 Feces....-.- ie Ma sine Goes eee 7ERO |saeakaaeae 19.6 22. 6 24.2 7.5 Amount wtilized ef. oss taint se ese el eee ce ete 70.7 298.5 | 1,022.1 23.8 Pericentitilized'ss..- she sose see aes Ss ea Geese 78.3 93.0 97.7 76.0 Experiment No. 86, subject I. D. B.: Blane mange containing butter-.....-. 1,911.7 848.6 32.3 352.7 655. 3 22.8 Wiha tibiscuita sees etre mere eee eeereee : 53.4 4 6.4 OTUG Serre eae os ees Ree nee Bee 9.0 ee, 5.6 Sugar ees eis ies seas ees sees Total food consumed I ECOS se een eine sale Se seee Amount utilized Per cent utilized Experiment No. 87, subject W. D.: Blane mange containing butter.-...-..- 1, 008. 5 447.7 17.0 186.1 345. 7 12.0 Wheat biscuits s-ce-psere-eeeeeee ee 340.5 28.9 45.8 3 7/ 256. 7 5.4 RUT Eee tee ee Neen seen Seema 1,201.6 | 1,044.2 9.6 2.4 139.4 6.0 SUAS es Secs c ses nscicte ie Re teyeisie eee in See] Sleleyels-c 2. Sit SN ac os0 aa ee Sapte eat ee tae) oS as ee Total food consumed..-......-..- 2,550.6 | 1,520.8 72.4 192.2 741.8 23.4 Hecest pee to sa ce cere newer ese sees 83320 Bees eee 21.7 16.9 34.9 9.7 AMOUNT UbILIZed Sasa eaecesaccecece eae saciceneere teen eee 50. 7 175.3 706.9 13.7 PPOry Cem tyrntilize cl fee eee aera a eee ler ete 70.0 91.2 95.3 58.5 Experiment No. 88, subject E. M.: Blane mange containing butter....-..- 2,067.3 917.7 34.9 381.4 708.7 24.6 Wihea tibiscuite=*22- pease se aceseeeceeae 329. 7 28.0 44,2 3.6 | 248. 6 5.3 Pruitsieees Site Ser Seek ve 1,214.2 | 1,055.1 9.7 2.4 140.8 6.1 Sugari ns seek nee eee eee 4 TOM eens Soh Nae ai] oe 20s ese oe nee ers G45 Qi eae SN ce Total food consumed..........-- 3,706.1 | 2,000.8 88. 8 387.4 | 1,193.0 36.0 Feces...... a neer amare ee a SAB sh 963 Sees. 32 29.9 14.3 42.5 10.1 PAT OUME ULI Zed precise ea see aaa cee ts ane Meee aoe 58.9 373.1 | 1,150.5 25.9 IReriCennt tahized hase es cece ete re leer ok ae ee reas 66.3 96.3 96. 4 71.9 Experiment No. 117, subject R. L.S.: Blanc mange containing butter. -...... 1, 234.0 574.9 20.9 195.8 428.1 14.3 Wiles tibiscua tae ee ee eee 485.0 41.2 5.0 5.3 365. 7 7.8 BUG eae oe eee soe eee re 794.0 670.0 6.3 1.6 92.1 4.0 Sugarthcscso asec seen eee eee eee BA OR eae Szaale sna ce stele miciggeeecete AAS OMe seen Total food consumed.........--- 2,557.0 | 1,306.1 92.2 202. 7 at 929.9 26.1 IM OCES Fe ek to ei a Nees eee ce aaa eo) ee 30.5 18.5 33.0 12.7 Amount Utilized\ssee tse ec ee eee eine | heen cs 2 eel eros 61.7 184.2 896.9 13.4 Per cent utilized’ 22s eee 2 a mmteate 90.9 96.5 51.3 Experiment No. 118, subject I. D. B.: Blanc mange containing butter.......-| 2,017.0 939. 7 34.1 320.1 699. 7 23.4 Wheat DISCUIES ae east ae eee 497.0 42.2 66.6 5.5 374. 7 8.0 IRS SA aaa Aeecs conemaT CoHAcTeEOE 948.0 823.8 7.6 1.9 110.0 4.7 SUgar sees ek ee Se ee oo cee tee 92. OG meme sere He ota ico eal neice ctor ats 9220 Ne sees Saece Total food consumed..........- 3,554.0 | 1,805.7 108.3 327.5 | 1,276.4 36.1 Feces...-..-. SHB banc ab aobeaEduEESoassose OBS) || ce suosoo 27.9 17.4 47.8 10.5 NOU A LAILLA TOL SS Sogqaues co oSoodouoc|lsoudasoabalécosooasan 80. 4 310.1.| 1,228.6 25.6 Per:cen tintilizedine S222 Vesa Ae oils lee all spone sa Sm eee 74. 2 94.7 96.3 70.9 Experiment No. 119, subject W. D.: re Blane mange containing butter...... 1,501.0 699.3 25.4 238. 2 520. 7 17.4 Wiheat: biscuits tee sere see eee eons 354.0 30.1 47.4 3.9 266. 9 5.7 Bruit ee eo eee ae eases Ge eeee 1, 143.0 993.3 9.1 2.3 132.6 5.7 PS BE 1 em a ae er fag a eg GE ea a | | TO a REEL eo olloocoonaace Total food consumed............ 2,998.0 | 1,722.7 81.9 244.4 920. 2 28.8 FieGes ssc ee oe Seo eee oie hee eee 96 OR ERE See: 21.9 15.3 35.0 13.8 Amount utilized 222 seemosce ce soeeee pee ce eee eee 60.0 229.1 885. 2 15.0 Per cent utilized.............+- eae en 73.3 93.7 96.2 52.1 DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL FATS. 17 Data of digestion experiments with butter in a simple mixed diet—Continued. Weight. | Water. | Protein.| Fat. |,C@T>°- | Ash. hydrates. Experiment No. 120, subject E. M-: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blanc mange containing butter........| 2,198.0} 1,024.0 37.2 348.8 762. 5 25.5 Wihestipisciitc: 22.5.2 eee 294.0 25.0 39. 4 3.2 221.7 4.7 NRE? 3 Seba Se Ee pee Cae See RaEaE OEE =} 1,194.0] 1,037.6 9.5 2.4 138.5 6.0 SLEDS is ee a a ie ee 105.05) Seeees SSL Sr Ses e Aes S| Ace eS 1053 OPS aeeeeeee Total food consumed........---- 3,791.0 | 2,086.6 86. 1 304.4 | 1,227.7 36. 2 INGE 2S. Sos 52 USReE SERCO BEE CEE ene cone 84.2 | | Paeeaaea 24.1 15.2 34.8 10.2 PAVHONMP I TECIIZOG OSS co sesso eie cecis | cicicee as. 5 eaeae Lk 62.0 339.2 | 1,192.9 26.0 PORCHEE EHIZEd \ 2s seeks tose ee cece sch. RRR ESS te 72.0 95.7 97.2 71.9 Average food consumed per subject perday.| 1,072.7 578.7 29.8 99.5 354.4. 10.5 Summary of digestion experiments with butter in a simple mixed diet. Experi- 5 + Carbo- SE Subject. Protein. Fat. hydrates. Ash, Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 35, || diy Las ese saa he SBESe Sade eee eee Ia 5. Sarees ss 78.3 93.0 97.7 76.0 3b y (| TEs TD 2h ee aE se 63.3 95.3 95.6 67.2 TOO 1D) S28 05 See ne BOs aCe a Reon ae mnee omen. eee 70. 0 91.2 95.3 58.5 PEERS |] LD pa: ss es el a SL 66.3 96.3 96. 4 71.9 DUP 120 DSS eS eee eT 2 66.9 90.9 96.5 61.3 LIS |) lla Dial Shes ie Be eae tet separa i es Canter 4 74.2 94.7 96.3 70.9 aA OMAN Ane 2 cra tcins Seek eset - SeiS- hs fh Cees 73.3 93.7 96. 2 52.1 AMM ME aise ies mien sisie asec noes acs opines So seer se 72.0 95.7 97.2 71.9 PV OLALZG ayers sn a sain =/sjssie e's 5s sie's ocicia See 70.5 93.9 96. 4 65.0 Having an average digestibility of 93.9 per cent, butter fat may be considered more completely assimilated than any of the other animal fats considered in this report. Though a reasonable allowance of butter is 3 ounces, or 85 grams, per man per day, the experiments as a whole emphasize a fact of common experience, namely, that some- what larger quantities of butter (100 grams per day at least) may be eaten in ordinary circumstances and utilized without any noticeable physiological disturbance. ALLOWANCE FOR METABOLIC FAT. The coefficients of digestibility given in the preceding discussion are gross rather than net values. They have been derived in the customary way by analyzing the food eaten and the feces excreted during an experimental period to determine especially what proportion of the ingested fat was available for the maintenance of the needs of the body. For this purpose the total ether extract of the feces has been taken to represent the actual quantity of undigested fat—the unavailable residual of the fat eaten during the experimental period. That this assumption is not strictly true is apparent from a study of the composition of the feces. It is well known that the feces contain not only undigested residues of food, but certain other waste materials, 18 BULLETIN 310, U. S$. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which are ordinarily designated as metabolic products. These include residues of bacteria, digestive juices, internal secretions, and epithelial cells of the stomach and intestines. Some of these products of the body metabolism are soluble in ether and therefore occur in the ether extract of the feces, together with the fat actually unavailable. Moreover, these metabolic products are not derived necessarily from the fat under consideration, but may be formed from protein and carbohydrate as well, and probably are produced partly from food eaten prior to the beginning of the experimental period. To determine either the amount or the percentage of fat actually unutilized as distinguished from the total fecal fat (often called ‘‘ un- digested fat’’), allowance must be made for fat in the fecal metabolic products. The method adopted is not a direct one, since it is imprac- tical to make the separation quantitatively, but is based on the assumption that the quantity and quality of metabolic products found depend on the nature and the amount of ingested food—that the average percentage of metabolic products found in the ether extract when the basal ration alone is eaten will be approximately equal to that when the basal ration together with added fat is con- sumed. Four experiments are herein reported with the basal ration with- out added fat. The procedure was in no way different from that employed in those tests in which large amounts of added fat were eaten, the bulk of food in each series of experiments being approxi- mately equal. The results of these tests are given below and furnish a basis for calculating the necessary allowance for the meta- bolic products contained in the ether extract of the feces. Data of digestion experiments with basal ration. as F Carbo- Weight. | Water. | Protein. Fat. hydrates. Ash. Experiment No. 266, subject H. F. B.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blane mange w ithout added fat......- 2,307.0 | 1,296.8 45.4 14.5 939.0 11.3 Wiheatibiscuitessae eee ee eee eee 592.0 47.4 65.1 17.8 449.9 11.8 SEOUL Ge ee BE Ls aA a 1,392.0 | 1,211.0 IBS) leschoonacs 167. 1) |S. tees Sear Oe ee ee eons e ee sate ZAVE b 3 bes nsec Medan OS ee BABmneHtoE 20850) | aes eee Total food consumed....-------- 4,499.0 | 2,555.2 124.4 32.3 | 1,764.0 73.1 IBECESS Seer ae ane Oo eee em aoe BVH) Ne sesa5esse 38.9 11.8 73.4 11.9 ‘Amount utilized eee sters sa. 2 ene seal seee en ee Eee eee 85.5 20.5 | 1,690.6 11.2 Per cent utilized...........2.2-2---00-)-2-2---- Ee |, eee 68.7 63.5 95.8 48.5 Experiment No. 267, subject D. G. G.: Blane mange without added fat.....-- 1,922.0 | 1,089.4 37.9 12, 1h 782.2 9.4 Wheat biscuit: 2.05. geese eo Fe 335.0 26.8 36.9 10.0 254.6 6.7 TDP BN ee em Re ps «ie eee ee 1,027.0 893.5 ONS | ees 12332..| 4. pe eee SURPASS: Hosea Ser tee coe eee mtb cnies| peas LAO! OM Baer ari science ancen [ate ets L490 O82 oceans Total food consumed.-......--.--- 3,433.0 | 2,000.7 85.1 Ped iL || Th ae g 16.1 GCOS 2) se Soe: aes ao aes ee CYA) ||2eosengnee 28.6 8.3 7.9 AMOUntAILINZeG see eee oe cee ee aes. see cee cee 56.5 1B Shy]. i 268. 8 8.2 Per cent utilized...2) eee)... ea eo ee 66.4 | 62.4 96.8 50.9 DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL FATS. 19 Data of digestion experiments withbasal ration—Continued. Weight. | Water. | Protein.| Fat. -|,©2™P°-_| Ash. hydrates. Experiment No. 268, subject R. L. S.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. rams. | Grams. Blane mange without added fat........ 2,054.0 | 1,154.5 40.5 12.9 836. 0 10.1 Vea ISCTIG Ge Oe a oo oneness 424.0 33.9 46.7 12.7 322. 2 8.5 TEDL ce one then ees SHAR Se Bees See ese 1,225.0] 1,065.8 [25252 Sees MYON dbseodasec TTR once Bos Sees Eee ees CHUNE Sao sanod padecaotec Benpsooaect Ca Pea oobone Total food consumed..-..-...---- 3,789.0 | 2,254.2 99.4 25.6 | 1,391.2 18.6 GETS. nenecesegah Saar eee eee 93.0) | Beer csr 28.8 16.8 38.5 8.9 JS STUNT EADY A TTT NO 2% RS 2 ee 2 1 en 9 eR Pes a ese 70.6 8.8 | 1,352.7 9.7 Sot tpt See ee | co a 71.0| 34.4 97.2 52.2 Experiment No. 269, subject O. E. S.: Blane mange, without added fat.....- 2,222.0} 1,249.0 43.8 14.0 904.3 10.9 Wheat biscuit 65. 0 F 277.4 633 Dd! ine cossyeeeep ses See aes 0 SVR oc Se cee ee ee eee eee Total food consumed 8.2 Were ee eo es: 9.6 Amount utilized 8.6 Per cent utilized 7.3 Average food consumed persubjectperday} 1,264.1 720.1 33.3 8.8 495.7 6.3 Samples of the blanc mange (containing only small amounts of milk fat) and of the wheat biscuit (containing cereal fat) were analyzed, and in the calculation it has been assumed on the basis of a previous investigation ‘ that 5 per cent of the milk fat and 10 per cent of the wheat fat are undigested. The difference between the total ether extract of the feces and the amount of unutilized fat (5 per cent of milk fat and 10 per cent of wheat fat) is taken to be the amount of metabolic products occurring in the ether extract. In the following table are given the necessary data from the four basal ration experi- ments for obtaining the average percentage of metabolic products occurring in the ether extract of the feces. This value is a percentage of the weight of water-free feces. Allowance for metabolic products. Experi- Experi- Experi- Experi- ment No. | ment No. | ment No. | ment No. 266,Sub- | 267,sub- | 268,sub- | 269, sub- ject ject ject ject H.F.B D.G.G R.L.S O.E.S Grams Grams. Grams. Grams. mwcietiL OL water-frep feCeS 72.0252: -f3i52-0-5455sis0---0e5 136.0 87.0 93.0 110.0 MEMIRCR AU DNAUIC IAN OS | oe cee valciein ci mnwicrcecnceecict 14.5 12.1 12.9 14.0 Vegetable fat in wheat biscuit...............202-202000- 17.8 10.0 12.7 11.0 IDOMAROLUET OXEPACE OL16COS. < oiaa- bovc letamaln oa benec cree 11.8 8.3 16.8 late Undigested milk fat in feces (estimated)................ “iC 6 6 -7 Undigested wheat fat in feces (estimated).............. 1.8 1.0 1.3 1.1 Metabolic products in ether extract of feces............. 9.3 6.7 14.9 9.9 Per cent of water-free feces computed as metabolic prod- taetes in ether extract of feces... 2. centeccnccsncccccne 6.84 7.70 16.02 9. 00 ! Connecticut Storrs. Sta, Rpt. 1899, p. 104. 20 BULLETIN 310, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The average amount of the water-free feces occurring as meta- bolic products in the ether extract is, accordingly, 9.89 per cent. The method of making the allowance is indicated by the following equations: -9.89 X (weight of water-free feces) = metabolic products. (Total ether extract) — (metabolic products) = unutilized fat. (Utilized fat) + (total fat eaten) =per cent of digestibility. Applying these equations to the values which express the com- parative digestibilities of the fats studied, the coefficients of digesti- bility are increased to 97.3 per cent for lard, 93.1 per cent for beef fat, 87.6 per cent for mutton fat, and 97.1 per cent for butter. Should the percentage of metabolic products be based on the total weight of food as eaten, rather than on the weight of water-free feces, this value is found to be 0.27 per cent. The corresponding availa- bilities of the four fats, in the order studied, then become 97.3 per cent, 93.0 per cent, 86.8 per cent, and 96.9 per cent. That these values should agree so closely with those based on the weight of water-free feces is in accordance with the theory proposed by Prausnitz,' that the amount of metabolic products occurring in the feces is directly dependent upon the character and quantity of the ingested food— that food materials do not leave residues for feces, but produce feces composed principally of metabolic products. GENERAL DISCUSSION. All the fats included in this series of experiments were well assimi- lated, the coefficients of digestibility ranging from 97 per cent for butter to 88 per cent for mutton fat. The average amounts of fat eaten per subject per day during these experiments were 90 grams of lard, 100 grams of beef fat, 53 grams of mutton fat, and 100 grams of butter. The average amount of protein consumed daily by the subjects was somewhat lower than that specified in dietary standards, but it was only limited by personal choice, as the subjects were permitted to eat as much of the wheat biscuit as they desired. Moreover, since only the fat portion of the diet was under consideration, it was not considered essential to maintain any special nitrogen level. The values for the digestibility of the carbohydrate content of the diets were 96, 97, 97, and 96 per cent, for all practical purposes identical with its digestibility in the ordinary mixed diet, for which the average value is 97 per cent.? The average energy value available per man per day as calculated by the usual factors and the coefficients of availability found in the digestion experiments was 2,235 calories for the lard, 2,730 calories for the beef fat, 2,145 calories for the mutton fat, and 2,420 calories for the butter diet. These energy quantities would be insufficient for 1 Ztschr. Biol., 30 (1894), No. 12, p. 335. 2 Connecticut Storrs Sta. Rpt. 1901, p. 245. DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL FATS. 2 severe muscular activity, but should meet the needs of those follow- ing sedentary occupations. It is interesting to know whether or not the presence in the diet of the different fats in considerable quantity affects the digestibility of the other constituents and the coefficient of availability of the ration asa whole. It has been shown by work previously reported! that the total available energy and the “‘ coefficient of availability of energy”’ can be calculated with reasonable accuracy. ‘The average coefficients of availability of energy for the rations as calculated were 93.0 per cent, 92.7 per cent, 91.5 per cent, and 93.9 per cent for the diets contaiming lard, beef fat, mutton fat, and butter, respectively. These values agree with one another closely and are somewhat higher than the value 91 per cent which has been found to represent the coefficient of availability of energy of the ordinary mixed diet.2 It is reasonable to conclude, therefore, that the different fats did not exercise any unusual effect upon the digestibility of the other con- stituents of the rations. The statement has frequently been made that the coefficients of digestibility of fats are directly related to the corresponding melting points. The melting points of samples of the fats studied or of samples of fats similarly prepared are reported in the table below together with a compilation of values * determined by several investigators giving, presumably, the average range found in samples fairly true to name. The variation in the melting points of different samples of the same fat is consistent with the view that the melting points differ with the part of the body in which the fat is found and also with the animal from which it is taken. Comparison of digestibility and melting point. Coefficient of digesti- : < oe Sei ceeahiies Melting point. Fat studied. Pens With allow- B Deter- ancefor | “Uthors’ | Compiled -, |determina-| average mined. metabolic : products. tions. values.! Per cent. Percent. | Degrees C. | Degrees C. 94 97 32.0 28-36 ARERR Marte ae ols ote givierdsisa'n Oe EOS ote co alee tow ee Oe RCE e ia. Soise ne OS hoo clan ia Dae Swioe< oo ob es 94 97 35.0 30-44 EEO Se a ES Sa po le 89 93 45.0 42-50 LLG ae a ee ee | ae ere ae E67 80 88 50.0 47-49 ! Allen’s Commercial Organic Analysis. Philadelphia: Blakiston’s Son & Co., 1910, 4. ed., vol. 2, p. 72. “It seems fair to conclude that of those tested the fats of low melting points are capable of more complete assimilation than those which have a high melting point. ' Connecticut Storrs Sta. Rpt. 1809, p. 104. 2U?8. Dept. Agr., Expt. Sta. Bul. 136 (1903), p. 113. * Allen’s Commercial Organic Analysis. Philadelphia: Blakiston’s Son & Co., 1910, 4. ed., vol. 2, p. 72, 22 BULLETIN 310, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Many more culinary and table fats are being studied and it is expected that it will be possible to judge whether this phenomenon is merely applicable to the instances cited or whether in general the coefficient of digestibility decreases as the melting point increases. In the beef-fat experiments, in which approximately 140 grams of fat were consumed per day, the subjects reported a tendency toward a laxative condition, which was not noted when the amount of fat consumed was decreased. As no such condition resulted from eating the other fats, it would seem from the information at hand that the limit of tolerance for these may have been higher than for beef fat. Information in this regard is of considerable interest espe- cially when it is desirable to make use of a diet containing an excessive amount of fat. PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATIVE TO FOOD AND NUTRITION. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Meats: Composition and Cooking. By Chas. D. Woods. Pp. 31, figs. 4. 1904. (Farmers’ Bulletin 34.) Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food. By W. O. Atwater, Ph. D. Pp. 48, charts 2, tables 5. 1902. (Farmers’ Bulletin 142.) Nutsand Their Usesas Food. By M.E. Jaffia,M.S. Pp. 28,fig.1. 1910. (Farmers’ Bulletin 332.) The Detection of Phytosterol in Mixtures of Animal and Vegetable Fats. By R. H. Kerr. Pp. 4. 1918. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 212.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. Bouillon Cubes: Their Contents and Food Value Compared with Meat Extracts and Home-made Preparations of Meats. By F.C.Cook. Pp. 7, figs. 10, tables3. 1913. (Department Bulletin 27.) Price, 5 cents. . Experiments on the Effect of Muscular Work upon the Digestibility of Food and the Metabolism of Nitrogen. By Chas. E. Wait, Ph. D., F.C. 8S. Pp. 48, tables 45. 1902. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 117.) Price, 5 cents. Studies on the Influence of Cooking upon the Nutritive Value of Meats at the Uni- versity of Illinois, 1903-1904. By H. S. Grindley, Sc. D., and A. D. Emmett, A.M. Pp. 230, tables 136. 1905. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 162.) Price, 20 cents. Studies of the Effect of Different Methods of Cooking upon the Thoroughness and Ease of Digestion of Meat at the University of Illinois. By H.S. Grindley, D. Sc., Timothy Mojonnier, M. S., and Horace C. Porter, Ph. D. Pp. 100, tables 38. 1907. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 193.) Price, 15 cents. The Functions and Uses of Food. By C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D. Pp. 11. 1906. (Office of Experiment Stations Circular 46.) Price, 5 cents. Food Customs and Diet in American Homes. By C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D. Pp. 32. 1911. (Office of Experiment Stations Circular 110.) Price, 5 cents. 23 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY WASHINGTON : GOVERNMDPNT PRINTING OFEFICH : 1915 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 311 #3} Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural Organization, CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief. Washington, D. C. WV November 26, 1915 THE HANDLING AND MARKETING OF THE ARIZONA- EGYPTIAN COTTON OF THE SALT RIVER VALLEY. By J. G. Martin, Investigator in Cotton Marketing. CONTENTS. Page Page STOO TION seo es Eek A cas 1 | Storage of ginned Egyptian cotton .......-..-. 7 Necessity for clean picking.........-........... 2 | Classing the Arizona-Egyptian cotton.........- a Sponecienseed couton: 6) e235. 22002. LSS 3 aStaplewen syst seek Eee se py gues, vale ha as 9,15 Ginning the Arizona-Egyptian cotton......... Sill Rablesionclassificationes 54) serene seuss 9,15 Sampling cotton at gin stands..._.-.--.-.--.-. 4 | Advantages of grading cotton..........-..-.... 10 Baling and covering the cotton. ..........-.... 5 | Marketing of Arizona-Egyptian cotton.._...... 11 Advisability of gin compression.........-.-.--- ix [a COMCHISIONS Gea Resse etee sae eee tae cher eee ee 15 Tagging, marking, branding, and weighing “EEG Gipiyarel ss Ls * See ee RR Be 2 ee oe ee ae 6 INTRODUCTION. Since 1913 special work upon the handling, classing, and market- ing of the long-staple varieties of cotton grown in this country from Egyptian seed has been under way. Basic work was done during’ that year, and aid was given by the Department of Agriculture in continuing certain phases of it during the season of 1914. The work in 1913 was undertaken at a most opportune time, in the month of October, when picking had just begun. It was pos- sible, therefore, to observe closely not only the condition of the cotton in the field, the methods of picking, handling, and storage of the seed cotton on the farms and at the gins, but also the ginning of the cotton on roller gins. This opportunity of watching the handling of Egyptian cotton from the time it is picked until it is loaded into cars preparatory to its departure for the mills made it possible to note accurately the effect of proper and improper handling of the cotton. Notge.—This bulletin should be of interest to growers in Arizona and in California, A to dealers in Yazoo and Mississippi Delta cotton. It should be of interest to spinners in New EF rigle ind and the Caro- linas and to spinners of fine yarn in England and on the Continent, 8721°—Bull. 611—15 2 BULLETIN 311,,U. 5S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The purpose of this bulletin is to record the results of these inves- tigations, with special attention to the handling and marketing of cotton, and it records the results of the assistance given by the chief of the office of Markets and Rural Oragnization in cooperation. with the Southwestern Cotton Committee.! NECESSITY FOR CLEAN PICKING. The Egyptian cotton boll is three lock and somewhat smaller than the average boll of short-staple cotton grown in the Southern States, and its small size and sharp-pointed burr make clean picking a more difficult task than is the case with ordinary Upland cotton. Since the long, silky fibers of the Egyptian cotton are to be used in the manufacture of fine combed yarns, a great majority of which are mercerized and go into the making of fine goods that resemble silk, it is essential that it be picked free of leaf and hulls. The roller gin does not clean the foreign matter from the seed cotton as some saw gins do, hence the necessity for clean picking by hand. In order to accomplish this end it has been found necessary to pay as high as 2 cents per pound for picking, which enables the laborer to pick the Egyptian cotton carefully and still make a good wage for his day’s work. The cotton pickers of the Salt River Valley are white settlers from Texas and Oklahoma, Mexicans, and Indians from the Papago and Pima Reservations. At first there was a tendency on the part of the pickers to gather the cotton rapidly, making a very large wage at the expense of the grade of the cotton. To avoid this difficulty the farmer was advised that the price and quick sale of his cotton depended largely on the grade, which meant that he must insist upon his cotton being picked clean. The results of clean picking can be seen clearly in the table of grades (see Table II, p. ). It will be noted that the Mesa and Tempe cotton was picked cleaner than that grown elsewhere in the valley. This clean cotton may be accounted for by the fact that the Indians, who are known to be slow but good pickers, gathered a large part of the Mesa and Tempe crop. This is the first time that Indians have been used as cotton pickers in a commercial way (see PL. I, fig. 1). 1 This committee is composed of five members, as follows, the first named being chairman: C. S. Scofield, agriculturist in charge of Western Irrigation Agriculture; W. T. Swingle, physiologist in charge of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations; O. F. Cook, bionomist in charge of Crop Acclimatization and Cotton Breeding Investigations; T. H. Kearney, physiologist in charge of Alkali and Drought Resisting Plant Investigations; Charles J. Brand, chief, office of Markets and Rural Organization in charge of the Cotton Handling and Marketing Investigations herein described. This committee was organized to study the economic and agricultural problems connected with the establishment of this new industry, especially on the irrigation projects of the Salt River Valley of Arizona and the Imperial Valley of Cali- fornia, and it is practically to this committee that the industry in these regions owes its origin and develop- ment. Fora description of the establishment and development of the Arizona-Egyptian cotton indus- try in the Southwest, see Scofield, C. S., Kearney, T. H., Brand, C. J.,Cook, O. F., and Swingle, W. T., Community production of Egyptian cotton in Arizona. U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 382. HANDLING AND MARKETING OF ARIZONA-EGYPTIAN COTTON. 3 As a whole, the picking in the Salt River Valley was very fair, as will be seen by Tables I, II, and III, which show a good average erade. Table II shows that by careful and clean picking the greater portion of the crop can be made to grade Choice and above. It will be noted that there were only 72 bales of Medium and 274 bales of Standard out of the crop of 1,237 bales ginned at Mesa. STORAGE OF SEED COTTON. The storage capacity for seed cotton at the gins was inadequate during both seasons, and as there were no seed-cotton houses on the farms, the cotton in a great many instances had to be piled in a corner of the field, on the ground, until enough could be accumulated to make up a wagonload. The majority of the farmers live at a con- siderable distance from the gins, and the expense of hauling only a fraction of a wagonload is prohibitive. At the same time, the cotton left on the ground was subject to damage by exposure to heat, heavy dews, and rains. Seed cotton, loaded in wagons, was left standing in the fields, in barnyards, and at the gms. The cotton neglected in this manner was subject to damage by exposure, as it absorbed a certain amount of moisture and was ginned damp. Damp or wet cotton does not gin smoothly, but produces a curly and matted condition of the fiber, which lowers its grade and value. Unfortu-~ nately, the result was very marked in this case. In January, after a period of rainy weather which lasted several days, some of the cotton was so wet when ginned that the friction of the rollers against the knife-edge heated the cotton greatly, thus subjecting it to undue damage. The curly condition due to the ginning of wet cotton was very noticeable after each rain. GINNING THE ARIZONA-EGYPTIAN COTTON. The first half of the crop ginned in 1913 contained a great many crushed seed in the cotton; in fact, during the first part of the season all of the roller-gin stands at Mesa and Chandler were crushing the seed. It was found that the amount of crushed seed was greater at the ends of the rollers, where at times whole seeds would work around the end. Crevices were found in the rollers between the walrus-hide strips, where the seed would catch and be conveyed to the knife-edges. Here they would be crushed between the knife and the roller, passing into the lint. This defect in the gins was discovered and remedied. The ginner at Chandler discovered that the rollers were 2 inches too short for the frame of the gin. The rollers were extended to make them the proper length, thereby preventing further crushing of seed. With this fault corrected and the walrus-hide covering on the rollers madesmooth and free from crevices, the gins worked with satisfactory results. It was also found that on dry and well-handled seed cotton the gins did excellent work. 4 BULLETIN 311, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. As it was about the middle of January when these corrections were made it was not until after that time that the best grades of cotton were produced at the gms. Under ordinary conditions it is usual to expect the best grades to be made from the first cotton picked, but due to these conditions at the gins the higher grades were made from that part of the crop which was picked in the middle of the season. This accounts for the relatively few bales of Fancy found in the crop. (See Tables I, II, and III, pp. 9 and 10.) In the season of 1914 the Tempe and Mesa gins were equipped with cleaners and feeders which, when the cotton was dry, beat a great deal of the leaf out of the cotton before it went mto the gin stand. The manager of the Tempe gin, finding it essential to have the cotton dry in order to do proper ginning and also to lessen the wear on the walrus-hide rollers, arranged a system by which the seed cotton, when damp, was drawn by suction from the wagon, dropped through the center flue of the storehouse, a distance of about 40 feet, then was conveyed through the air-blast pipes for approximately 40 feet, returned to the seed house, and then conveyed to the gin stands. This process dried the lint considerably and allowed the cleaners to knock the leaf out of the cotton, thereby improving its grade. SAMPLING COTTON AT THE GIN STANDS. In order to secure a thoroughly representative sample of the Arizona-Egyptian cotton which would show the average quality of the cotton in the bale, the followimg method of sampling at the gin stands was inaugurated: The workman whose duty it was to gather the cotton from the gin stands and convey it to the press box was instructed to take a handful of lint cotton from each gin stand when a wagonload of seed cotton was started through the gin, then to take another when the seed cotton was about half ginned, and a third when the ginning of the bale was nearly completed. It will be seen that by this method samples were secured which represented the cotton in different parts of the bale. In the case of gins operating 10-roller gin stands the taking of samples from each gin stand, at the beginning, middle, and com- pletion, will give samples from 30 parts of the bale. The amount of cotton thus taken from the bale will weigh about 1 pound, and will be of sufficient size to split into types, on which sales may be made, and will do away with the practice of cutting the bagging at each sampling. Such cuttimg of the bagging not only wastes as much cotton as is taken out at the gins for the sample, but opens a way for further waste and damage, and also causes greater danger of fire. The effect of cutting the bagging of a bale several times for sampling purposes is shown by Plate I, figure 2, which represents an Arizona- Egyptian bale as it arrived in Liverpool. HANDLING AND MARKETING OF ARIZONA-EGYPTIAN COTTON. 5 BALING AND COVERING THE COTTON. All press boxes in the Salt River Valley are standard size, 1. e., 27 by 54 inches, thus pressing a bale to approximately 12 pounds den- sity to the cubic foot. This size is known to the cotton trade as a flat or uncompressed bale, and is similar to the great majority of the bales put up by the gins throughout the South. Tt is very difficult to secure bales of regular and uniform weight, as the weight and size of the bale depend upon the weight of seed cotton brought to the gin by the farmer. The manager of the gin weighs the wagon and cotton together on platform scales, and by deducting the weight of the wagon from the total he obtains the weight of the seed cotton. From the weight of the seed cotton the ginner is able to estimate the weight of the bales he will make out of the wagonload of cotton. It is undesirable to have a number of small lots of cotton left over to be stored; therefore the ginner uses all of the seed cotton which the farmer has on his wagon and dis- tributes the weight into the most convenient number of bales. He may be able to make either three light-weight or two heavy bales. The first cotton baled in the Salt River Valley was not covered sufficiently. Side strips were not used, nor were the heads properly covered. One of the gins used second-hand sugar bags as a wrap- ping, which were too light in weight and were more or less rotten, thus affording very little protection. Plate I, figure 2, shows that the covering of the cotton thus baled was not such as to afford protection against country damage and fire under the present method of sam- pling. During 1913 one gin used a good quality of bagging and baled the cotton properly. Every gin should use a good quality of new bagging or a heavy burlap of sufficient strength to withstand rough handling.' ADVISABILITY OF GIN COMPRESSION. A great improvement in the existing methods of marketing the Arizona crop could be made by the use of gin compresses. There are a number of well-known types of presses which give good results with cotton from the condensers of the saw gin outfit. The roller gin does not adapt itself to feeding into the roller feeder type of press. A gin compress without the roller feature is as well adapted to press- ing cotton from a roller as from asaw gin. The establishment of such a press for general use in Arizona might introduce a great saving to the producer in the way of samples, compress fees, and freight charges. It is a well-known fact that the gin-compressed bale is easier to handle and takes up less space (see PI. I, fig. 3, and PI. II, fig. 2), as the cotton is usually pressed to a density of 30 pounds per 1 No. 2 Calcutta bagging has been found to be of suitable weight and strength. 6 BULLETIN 311,:U. S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cubic foot, thus allowing 100 bales, which constitutes a unit sale and shipment of cotton, to be loaded into a standard freight car 36 feet long, whereas only 40 bales of flat or uncompressed cotton can be loaded into a car of the same size. Cotton put up by a gin compress can be shipped by railroads to ship side at the compressed rate, and if requested, the steamship companies will make a better rate on cotton of 30 pounds density than on the old-style compress bale of about 22 pounds density, as a greater amount of this cotton can be stored in the same space in the hold of a steamship. Another great advantage which gin compression affords is that if the bagging remains uncut, a farmer who grows a particularly good quality or variety of cotton would have his identifymg mark on every bale. If a farmer furnished a good quality of cotton under his mark, the spinners would learn to recognize it and to demand a cer- tain mark or brand of cotton suitable for their requirements. TAGGING, MARKING, BRANDING, AND WEIGHING THE COTTON. In order to secure accuracy and safety in handling, the folowmg method of procedure was recommended by the representative of the Department of Agriculture and used during both seasons: Tagging.—As the bale came out of the press box a fair-sized heavy tag was attached by means of a double copper wire. On this tag was printed the name of the gin and location and a serial number. The tag carried one or more coupons bearing the corresponding serial number. One of these coupons was detached and placed in the sample of the cotton. Marking.—The marking was done by means of stencils, with 4-inch letters. The size of the letters to be used should be governed by the quality of the bagging on the bale. For a covering of burlap a stencil with letters of 4 imches is large enough to be legible. On regular jute bagging weighing 2 pounds to the yard 6-inch letters should be used. Six-inch letters are large enough for marking cot- ton covered with any well-woven bagging. Branding.—The planter’s mark and the gin number were placed on the head of each bale, and the bale was branded on the sample- hole side. It was recommended that each organization of cotton growers adopt a brand which would identify the cotton not only as Arizona-Keyptian cotton, but as Egyptian cotton grown by a par- ticular organization. Weighing.—The Arizona-Egyptian cotton is sold on net weight— that is, on the total weight less the tare. The tare of a gin-com- pressed bale can be determined more accurately than the tare of one which is flat or uncompressed. The bale is uniform in-size and shape, and for this reason the amount of bagging and ties will be of uniform weight. Consequently when a gin-compressed bale is weighed at the gin the shipper knows exactly how many pounds to deduct for tare. HANDLING AND MARKETING OF ARIZONA-EGYPTIAN COTTON. i STORAGE OF GINNED EGYPTIAN COTTON. Although there is very little rainfall in Arizona, it is at times suf- ficient to wet any baled cotton that is left uncovered and exposed to the weather, thus causing considerable country damage. The stor- ing of cotton not only protects it against damage by the weather, but furnishes collateral security for obtaming loans by the farmer until he is prepared to sell. In the event that no warehouse is available the baled cotton should be removed from the gin platform to a cotton platform of sufficient distance from the gin to comply with imsurance regulations. If this platform is not large enough for all of the cotton, it should be ranged in the yard on dunnage, which is formed by skids or stringers, to raise the bales at least 4 inches above the ground, thus leaving them high enough to prevent dam- age and to allow free circulation of air under the bales. These bales should be turned over at intervals in order to allow the under side to dry, as, m spite of the dunnage, it is liable to absorb a certain amount of moisture. Information secured at the Mesa gin in January, 1914, serves to illustrate how quickly cotton will damage. Some of the cotton at Mesa was placed on the planks as described, and the remainder was _ left standing on the head of the bales on the ground. When the cotton was moved for shipment, it was found that the heads were damaged to an extent which ranged from 1 to 7 pounds per bale. (See Pl. III, figs. 1 and 2.) This damaged cotton was a total loss to the farmer, as the railroad and steamship companies have stringent rules regarding it. They will not accept cotton that is damaged unless a clause is attached to the bill of lading stating that the cot- ton is in bad condition. A bill of lading containing such a clause frequently is refused by the purchaser, or, if accepted, the cotton is subjected to a close scrutiny. In a case where damaged cotton is accepted, the buyer very often, in picking off the damaged parts, removes at the same time more of the good cotton than is necessary. This amount of damaged material removed from the bales reduces the weight of the cotton, and a claim for loss in weight is made against the shipper. : CLASSING THE ARIZONA-EGYPTIAN COTTON. The Arizona-Egyptian cotton was a new variety for which no standards for grades or staples existed, and there were no terms other than those in use by the Egyptian cotton trade by which this new staple could be described, while for all other varieties there were standards in use with trade names which designate the quality by which the cotton is sold. Hence the evident need of types for classi- ing the new Arizona staple cotton. The representative of the department during the season of 1913 established types which became fairly well known to the Salt River 8 BULLETIN 311, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Valley Cotton Association. The types were also used in part as a basis of business done with cotton merchants and mills in the East. During the season of 1914 work was continued on these types, taking into consideration the quality of the crop during both seasons, with the idea of perfecting them so that the Department of Agriculture could promulgate them later as standards. The amount of leaf, trash, foreign matter, and dead cotton, and the color, are determining factors in establishing the grade. The bulk of the crop of cotton up to the time of the first killing frost should erade better than the basis grade, Choice, provided the cotton pickers exercise a due amount of care in picking. The plant is alive, the leaves firm, and the cotton is free of boll stam and can be picked free of leaf. After a frost the plants are killed, the leaves dry and shrivel up, breaking nto small pieces which adhere to the cotton when picked ~ from the open boll. The frost having killed the plant, the boll is forced open before all of the fibers are mature. The action of the frost on the sap in the cotton boll stains the lint, and also causes flakes of cotton in the boll to perish; that is, the staple or fiber is attacked by a fungus growth which discolors and weakens the fiber. In making up types the following poimts were taken into consid- “eration: (1) Amount of leaf, hulls, or foreign matter in the bale. (2) Color of the lint cotton. (3) Silkiness. (4) Amount of boll stain, dead cotton, ete. (5) Length of fiber. (6) Strength of fiber. (7) Uniformity of length. The Arizona grades, as worked out during this investigation and study, with their equivalents in Egyptian cottons—corresponding to ‘the Official Cotton Standards of the United States in leaf only—are as follows: Fancy.—Clear and clean, creamy color (allows about as much leaf as Strict Good Middling, United States Government Standard), and is equal to Extra Fine Sakellaridis Egyptian. Eatra.—Clean, creamy or slight color (allows leaf about equal to Good Middling, United States Official Standard); equivalent to Fine Sakellaridis Egyptian. ; Choice.—Allows color after frost (allows leaf equal to Strict Mid- dling, United States Official Standard); equivalent to Good Sakel- laridis Egyptian. Standard.—(Leaf equal to Middling, United States Official Stand- ard.) Equivalent to Fully Good Fair to Good Fair Sakellaridis Egyptian. Medium.—(Leaf equal to Strict Low Middling, United States Official Standard.) Equivalent to Strictly Good Fair Sakellaridis Egyptian. Bul. 311, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Fia. 1.—INDIAN COTTON PICKERS. Fia. 2.—AMERICAN BALE IN LIVERPOOL, SHOWING FIG. 3.—GIN-COMPRESSED BALE. IMPROPERLY-COVERED COTTON. Bul. 311, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. Fia.1.—GIN oR ‘‘ FLAT” BALES ON RIGHT; RAILROAD COMPRESSED BALES ON LEFT. Fic. 2.—GIN-COMPRESSED BALES. Bul. 311, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fic. 1.—COTTON RESTING ON DUNNAGE. Fic. 2.—THE DARKENED SURFACE OF THE FIRST BALE SHOWS COUNTRY DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE FACT THAT IT WAS LEFT ON THE GROUND. HANDLING AND MARKETING OF ARIZONA-EGYPTIAN COTTON. 9 STAPLES. The three staple lengths of the Arizona-Egyptian cotton were erouped as follows: The longest and best staple was named Sacaton, the next was named River, and the third Valley. The following is a comparison between the lengths of staple of the Arizona-Egyptian cotton and the varieties of Egyptian cotton: The Sacaton staple is equivalent in length to that of the best Sakel- laridis imported into this country. The River staple is equivalent in length to that of the best Jano- vitch. The Valley staple is equivalent to the best Mit Afifi. This comparison was later confirmed by spinners of New Bedford, Mass., brokers throughout New England, by merchants in England, France, and Germany, and by the chairman of the arbitration com- mittee of the Liverpool Cotton Association. The New Bedford, Mass., fine-goods mills called the Sacaton staple 1; to 14 inches, River staple 13 to 14%, Valley staple 14 to 1,5 inches in length; other mill points using such cotton will call the staple about one-eighth of an inch longer. These differences in the estimation of lengths are well known to the trade and prices for identical lengths and qualities are very similar. The buyers for fine-goods mills of New England call the staple shorter than do the English, French, or German spinners. Prominent cotton merchants of Liverpool and Manchester, England, Havre, France, and Bremen, Germany, called the Sacaton staple 42 miulli- meters in length, which is equivalent to a fraction over 12 inches, while the chairman of the arbitration committee of the Liverpool Cotton Association declared it to be equal to the Egyptian variety of Sakellaridis. The following tables are given to show the number of bales of each grade and staple ginned in each of the localities in which cotton was grown in the Salt River Valley during the season of 1913: TABLES OF CLASSIFICATION OF ARIZONA-EGYPTIAN COTTON IN 1913. [This cotton was classed in even-running lots of 25 and 50 bales each.] Tapsie 1.—Class of Arizona-Egyptian cotton ginned at Chandler, Ariz. Sacaton River Valley staple. staple. staple. Total. Grades. Bales. Bales. Bales. Bales. 1 2 3 oo oa Es pap sa gaa 2 Ee ee | Qh esis new hea IM Ss oe ok one plceran aie wie Sins di cleans Hdj00 9 00'0 46 Sele oe 39 Bee acre sib ee 93 SEES. tok We shaped eee OS was ee La ule es Vibe vein’ dd Se RMER Reais 20 35 15 70 OE a, ai RS Tn Se een Pra --. ee 9 62 47 118 MUERTE TRIS ls ek Rob obeoe oet cco Sh wes bina s ao taamtanten en 1 16 16 33 INOUE Re toe. 5h 5h, bb ihe Moun tenss si). cds cused MMU de Hs 70 169 78 317 10 BULLETIN 311, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE II.—Class of Arizona-Egyptian cotton ginned at Mesa, Ariz. Sacaton | River Valley Grades. staple. | staple. | staple. | Total. MAancyerstSe ss SSS. VERE cee See EL Ee eee eee 24 2) |: Sa 36 RSD > ee a orace eames mie eis ine Panis Reiee Obed cae os = ae eee eee eceiee 388 184: 466 CHOICEH asc Sages oa Se ees serie aee an eae Ee ae ee Be 2 272 117i | Paee eee 389 Stand andes 25-25 2 as0: Gece eee one else aac eee aCe ae eese 182 80 12 274 Medium, 7 rth asi ek ce eiaee bbe <2 sie oe £8 Ses Se eee te eee 26 39 7 72 Motalee st. shoe selene eee asce seisemer oe kee eee eee eee see 892 326 19 1,237 TasLeE II1.—Class of Arizona-Egyptian cotton ginned at Glendale, Ariz. Sacaton | River Valley Grades. staple. | staple. | staple. | Total. Bales. Bales. Bales. | Bales. DENT enc oo snacdas sopecdoogseaaos su sqacoss sco asmecasseosaSousoCeC Jpacosscase|acessccasd||>ncosssnce|s22- seo 1D. ¢ ht ae re ae ee ee MS PL rs Ana ee ae 8 Le [eA nO Saco See S| See ee ee CHOICE ss Recess ys scree Boe he ce E is ee eeR eb: eee ee meas | 1 Orie see 6 Standard: 352343 Re A NAA BAA RSRR: Seat ee ad RARE ELE ee 6 31 4 41 Medi: 222 322622 ee se ce ea cee ee ae ae eeee See see ee see eee | 7 46 8 $1 | — YOUR Ne dee ES oS CR oS Sa cEs Cope ECCS EEESS aacanerern on | 14 82 12 108 ADVANTAGES OF GRADING COTTON. To conduct the business in the proper way, and in order to secure the best results, a buyer, in whatever line of business he may be, wishes to secure the material that is going to produce the desired result. For this purpose he will see that the material that he buys meets his requirements in every detail. This is true of the cotton manufacturer. A cotton-mill man who has sold a specific number of yarn requires a definite grade and staple of cotton in order to make this product. The broker has a certain knowledge of the requirements necessary to make the different yarns. The treasurer or president of the mill knows what kind of cotton he needs. He requests his broker to make him an offer of a specified number of bales, shipment to be prompt or equal portions of it to be made at stated intervals. Everything being satisfactory, the sale is consumated, and it then rests with the broker to secure the required cotton. If he can buy the cotton in even-running lots, the broker offers it at a price which allows a small profit to himself. However, if he be compelled to buy the cotton unclassed, or in a “hog round” lot, of which perhaps 25 per cent may not be suitable for his needs, that amount of cotton has to be stored and disposed of in some other way. Therefore he must buy his cotton at a price that will allow carrying charges and insure a profit sufficient to cover a possible loss. From this 1t will be seen that if cotton is sold in “‘ hog round” lots the price secured will not be as good as when the cotton is sold on grade, each grade bringing its own price. When a lot of cotton is sold at an HANDLING AND MARKETING OF ARIZONA-EGYPTIAN COTTON. 11 average price for the various grades composing it, the high or best erades do not yield a just return, and the farmer does not receive a fair value for his product. The farmer whose low grades are bought at the same price, however, receives too high a price, but it is at the expense of the farmer who is selling the high-grade cotton. MARKETING OF ARIZONA-EGYPTIAN COTTON. In 1913 and in 1914 the cotton associations of Arizona, after con- ference with officers of the department, sent a representative to New York, Boston, Providence, and other American cotton markets in which Egyptian cotton is sold. In 1914, through the Committee on Southwestern Cotton Culture, arrangements were also made for send- ing this agent on to England, France, and Germany to introduce the Arizona staple cotton in those countries, and arrangements were made for selling it. The declaration of war in August, 1914, how- ever, caused all agreements to be canceled. Marketing conditions being abnormal in 1914, the descriptions of the work of these two seasons are given separately. In 1913 members of the Southwestern Cotton Committee of the United States Department of Agriculture met with the members of the Arkwright Club of Boston, which is an organization composed of the leading spinners of New England, at the invitation of that club. Types oi the Arizona-Egyptian cotton were exhibited and the quality of the cotton and other phases of the subject were discussed, and the members of the Arkwright Club apparently were very favorably mpressed with the new long-staple crop of Arizona. Also in this year a representative of the cotton growers of the Salt River Valley was given authority to sell, or to make the best arrange- ment possible, for all cotton belonging to members of the exchanges of the Salt River Valley. Types of the various grades and actual tagged samples, which represented lots of 50 bales each in even- running grade and staple, were made up and sent by this representa- tive to show the quality of this cotton. Sales of a part of the crop belonging to the members of the asso- ciation were made direct to the cotton mills; the remainder was consigned to cotton brokers, who advanced from 124 to 15 cents per pound, according to the class of cotton. This cotton was afterwards sold as classed out at prices that compared very favorably with sales made under similar market conditions of Egyptian cotton of similar staple and grade which was imported into this country. A small lot of the Arizona-Egyptian cotton was consigned to Liverpool, and on arrival in that market the greater portion of the cotton was sold at a very good price. These sales of the Arizona-Egyptian cotton serve to illustrate its comparative value with the Egyptian-grown cotton of similar grade and staple. 12 BULLETIN 311, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The best price obtained for this cotton in this country in 1913 was 22 cents, while a Liverpool merchant quickly bought the greater part of the offerings sent there for 11? pence, or 234 cents. At this time an order was received from a mill at Fall River, Mass., for 10 bales. As it was cheaper to reship to this country at a freight rate of 25 cents per hundred pounds than te ship from Mesa at a rate based on less than a carload shipment at $3.25 per hundred pounds to Fall River, 10 of the bales consigned to Liverpool were shipped back to fill this order. In 1914 Mesa was selected by the department’s representative as the most central and convenient point for conducting the work toward establishing standards for the crop and the marketing of it according to these standards, because of its location in the district of the greatest cotton production, and because the Central Associa- tion of Egyptian Cotton Growers had established offices at that place for the handling and selling of the cotton crop of its members. Here headquarters was established and a suitable room was equipped for classing cotton. The construction of a modern ginning plant at Tempe marked a distinct step in the development of the Central Association and of the Arizona-Egyptian industry during this year. The final satisfac- tory outturn of the 1913 crop, the long haul to the Mesa gin, and the inducements to an increased acreage caused the farmers to feel that the construction of this gin would be a good investment. As the 1914 season was such an unusual one, and as the growers of the Salt River Valley succeeded in obtaining a comparatively good price for their cotton, a somewhat detailed description of the causes and methods is given here. In the latter part of August, 1914, after the declaration of war by the European powers, the association sold 200 bales of cotton at prices equivalent to those on sales of similar grade made last season; that is, 22 cents was obtained for Extra, 21 cents for Choice, and 194 cents for Standard grade. This sale, No. 1, was made Sep- tember 1, 1914, for 50 bales of Extra, 100 bales of Choice, and 50 bales of Standard cotton, respectively, half Sacaton and half River staple, at the prices quoted above, f. o. b. Mesa or Tempe, and freight allowance to mill points, less 22 pounds per bale tare, insurance, and interest from time of payment of draft until cotton reached the mill, final settlement being made on mill weights. On September 10, 1914, eastern brokers agreed to take on con- signment 500 bales of cotton, advancing 15 cents on Extra, 14 cents on Choice, 134 cents on Standard, and 12 cents on Medium grade, f.0. b. Mesa. This consignment was known as consignment No. 1. On September 15, 1914, the association made their second sale. Sale No. 2 consisted of 200 bales of Standard at a slight decline from the original price. HANDLING AND MARKETING OF ARIZONA-EGYPTIAN COTTON. 13 Sale No. 3, of 200 bales, was made on September 15, 1914, after the market had declined materially. At the time of the sale, the prices -seemed very low to the grower, but later they were compelled to sell at a price 1 cent per pound below these sales. On September 19, 1914, consignment No. 2 was arranged with eastern brokers who took on consignment 1,000 bales of the Arizona- Egyptian cotton from the association, advancing a trifle less on each erade than in consignment No. 1. This consignment was sold a few days later on sale No. 5 at approximately 4 cents less for each grade, usual terms, than was obtained in sale 1. On December 30, 1914, consignment No. 4 of 100 bales was made and shipped to brokers, who advanced 13 cents f. 0. b. Mesa and Tempe on same. Later in the season it became evident that the association would not be able to fill sale No. 5 on account of the heavy rains of December, which lowered the grades to such an extent that there were very few bales of Choice and higher being ginned. As a com- promise, the agents made an arrangement with the mill to which they sold the 1,000 bales of sale No. 5 to accept against that sale the 100 bales of Medium at the price of 15 cents f. 0. b. Eastern points. By these sales, the problem of marketing the crop during the season was solved. _ The first Tempe cotton was classed October 5 and showed a very fair grade and a portion of it very good staple, although 3 bales, Nos. 4, 5, and 6, classed Fancy Valley, the highest grade and shortest staple. Later it was learned that these 3 bales were from volunteer or ratoon cotton, commonly called stump cotton, grown at Scotts- dale. It was quite evident throughout the season that all cotton volunteered or grown from the stump was shorter in staple, weaker, and less silky than cotton grown from seed in the same field. During the season of 1914 the rainfall was unusually heavy. Although the grades had been running lower than usual, it was not until October 14 that the first Standard grades appeared. Up to this date the low grades were not entirely due to the rains, but to care- less picking and to the fact that damp cotton was ginned. The percentage of low grades in 1914 was much greater than in 1913. (See Tables I, II, III, and IV.) When it seemed that shipping was quite safe from Egypt to England, and from England to the United States, the great pressure of the Egyptian crop was thrown on the market and there was a de- cline of several cents per pound in the price of Egyptian cotton. The third sale of 200 bales of Arizona-Egyptian was made at this time. Although the cotton market was demoralized and prices were very low, there was a market for the long-staple variety. On October 23, 1 See Scofield, C. 8., Kearney, 7. H., Brand, C. J., Cook, O. F., and Swingle, W. T’., Community production of Egytian cotton in Arizona. U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 332. 14 BULLETIN 311, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. eastern brokers offered to take 600 bales on consignment, making substantially the same advance as before. This proposition finally terminated in a consignment of 1,000 bales, the agency advancing | one-half cent per grade more than originally offered. On November 12, the same brokers telegraphed an offer on 500 bales, advising that they could sell 100 bales Extra at 17 cents and 400 bales Choice at 164 cents. The association authorized them to sell the 500 bales if they could apply the cotton shipped on the first consignment, thereby terminating the expense of carrying charges on it. The cotton from consignment No. 1 was applied against sale No. 4. On November 17 the agency telegraphed their representative, advising that they could sell 1,500 bales, 750 Extra and 750 Choice grade, half each of Sacaton and River staple, usual terms, for January, February, and March shipment, at a decline of a fraction of a cent below the last sale, f. o. b. New England mill points. On account of the great amount of lower-grade cotton which appeared so early in the season, it was deemed advisable to sell 1,000 bales of the grades of Extra, Choice, and Standard, shipment to be made as soon as cotton was ginned. Allshipments of the above grades on consignments were to apply on this sale No. 5, with the stipulated privilege that in case the association could not supply the full 300 bales of Extra the difference in amount could be shipped in the grade of Standard at the price for Standard named in the sale. As the October rainfall in the Salt River Valley was the heaviest in years, and as the industry was so new that the effect of excessive rains on the cotton had not been determined, it was not possible to guarantee the delivery of 300 bales of the grade of Extra. A slow, light rain began on December 17, 1914, and continued until December 28. During this time the cotton fields were so wet and muddy that picking ceased and the gins were forced to shut down. On December 29 cotton picking was resumed generally over the Valley. The first cotton hauled in to the gins was very damp, leafy, and discolored. Theseed cotton picked after the long, continuous rain, when ginned, turned out to be of a grade inferior to the lowest type, ‘“Medium.”’ Samples of the low-grade cotton were marked ‘‘ Rain” and expressed to a firm with whom the association had been transact- ing business. It was asked to name the advance it would make on the cotton and to try to place it as soon as possible. It reported that it would be very hard to sell cotton that was lower in grade than Medium, and that it was in fact difficult to sell Medium. It refused to take the very low grades on consignment and did not wish to take more of the Medium, but did agree to advance as much as 114 cents on it. Later in the season, after a material advance in the market, the local exchange at Tempe sold for the central association of cotton HANDLING AND MARKETING OF ARIZONA-EGYPTIAN COTTON. 15 growers 100 bales of the cotton below the grade of Medium at 14 cents f. 0. b. Phoenix. A few days later the eastern agency sold the Mesa 50 bales ‘‘Rain’”’ at 153 cents landed eastern points. It sold the 19 bales of very low grade at 15¢ cents, and the Tempe 12 bales, which were below the grade of Medium, at 15? cents, all landed New England mill pots, on usual terms. The following detailed information gives account of the cotton ginned and the classification of all cotton handled in cooperation between the Office of Markets and Rural Organization and the Central Association during the season of 1914-15: TABLES OF CLASSIFICATION OF ARIZONA-EGYPTIAN COTTON IN 1914.1 [This cotton was classed in even-running lots of 25 and 50 bales each.] TasLe IV.—Class of Arizona-Egyptian cotton grown and ginned at Mesa. Sacaton | River Valley staple. staple staple. Total. Bales. Bales Bales. | Bales. JPR DIE. scat Sas doe Sas ORCC Os Ae ae oe eee Aree it eer [ecto aeee 1 EOE Coen rete ne aan e = slo a lore Sic s cieles soon - os See ae aE Rees 93 116 1 210 (DEGHIEL GGG. ngage Sen ORS NOE SSeS tee ease eee aaBeoe S66 5ecoor 195 28TH Bera secieere 482 RBI AG Peeee oe or sonic Stina acnelsee'- 6 2 o- sce eee aes 210 20 4S Res eeemeee 414 MPR SAMPIAI ORAL Piet te tese) Peon = oe eel ans) ois 21s )a/e)miei=ie = =e eee OS 74 154 1 229 PI WICIASS Hee re ots ook Se ceee tees se Sites sibs eee 10 60 4 74 TG... oe eh Be cee eee eae eens 583 821 6 1, 410 1 The Chandler Association leased their gin, and therefore are not cooperating with the central association. The Glendale Association planted short-staple cotton and changed their equipment to saw gin, and therefore are not represented in this table. TasLe V.—Class of Arizona-Egyptian cotton grown and ginned at Tempe. Sacaton | River Valley staple.‘| staple. | staple. | Total. Bales Bales Bales. | Bales. DUEL Er EG 5 oe a ie ac | A Ye aad an a 3 RRMOL OR ee Sasol a ope av oe (aw lra ciate Ss eins oo SBI nee 44 81 3 128 CEE EU oS 22 ai car ai ae le ee ee RES IE iS xe 181 201 1 384 RIA AR OL AOD se tec si a fo sian a aiearsiayebiaicteiaie cams « waitin msitenenieraats 207 LOOM Eee en 398 Ut Lathit Uni hs colviie 5p eeiaee ee ae Bas i Se te a Melina 54 WOE \ioicescose 251 RIDEAU eee once ee Pe sce c a Daccic ca svc s2one see cleat er|eceiacds asic [es emis ssmel iene cenecee 1, 164 CALE DL a ie Ppa ae ees See Jo fcuboce 7 115 1 123 tS Te ME, el es) oe 2.1 eR | eee! aa ieee 1, 287 CONCLUSIONS. The increase in the estimated size of the Salt River Valley Egyp- tian cotton crop from 280 bales in 1912 to 2,200 bales in 1913, and to 6,187 in 1914, demonstrates the peculiar fitness of this locality for the production of Egyptian cotton. The continued improve- ments in methods of handling and equipment will serve to im- prove the grade of the product, while the classing of the cotton will tend to secure a more stable market at better and more uniform 16 BULLETIN 311, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. prices. Up to the present time the relatively small crop from the Salt River Valley has been so distributed that only a few spinners have been able to test this cotton. The testimony from a number of various sources, including some of the largest cotton firms, spmners, and exporters, indicates that the quality, character, and length of staple of this cotton is of such a nature as will establish for it a permanent market. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1915 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Soils MILTON WHITNEY, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv November 5, 1915 PHOSPHATE ROCK AND METHODS PROPOSED FOR ITS UTILIZATION AS A FERTILIZER. By Wicuram H. Waccaman and Wiuutam H. Fry. CONTENTS. Page. Page. MSEOMSHE LION se onan Sos asi o's accnca--dssleees ss 8 | Processes for the enrichment of phosphates. - 19 Processes for the production of phosphoric Mechanical treatment of phosphates ......-- 20 acid or soluble phosphates by combined Miscellaneous processes for the production of heating and acid treatment............-.--- 12 ayvallaplephosphatesesasesseeeeeeeeeeesse= 20 Double decomposition by means of an alkali, Appendix: Classified tabular list of patented an alkali salt, or alkaline earth............. 12 PEOCESSES's =e occe we ninacccecoeeseencerseemens 21 Processes to be used in connection with the iron and steel industries..-..----......-..- 14 INTRODUCTION. The basis of nearly all mixed fertilizers is water-soluble or so-called “available” phosphoric acid, which is produced by submitting bones, a mineral phosphate (apatite or phosphorite), or some other phos- phate-bearing substance to a treatment by which the constitution of the original body is materially changed. Our supply of bones is entirely inedbeuate to meet the present demands of the fertilizer industry, while apatite has proved obj ection- able because of the difficulty and expense of mining the mineral and on account of the quantity of fluorine which it contains. By far the greater part of the phosphate fertilizer is derived from phosphorites or amorphous phosphate rock, of which there are enormous deposits in the United States. For many years the importance of the phosphate industry has been growing steadily. At present the conditions in Europe incident to war have temporarily curtailed the output of phosphate rock, in this country as well as abroad, but on the termination of hostilities the 6819°—Bull. 312—15——1 2 BULLETIN 312, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. production of fertilizers will undoubtedly continue its interrupted advance, and the phosphate industry will resume its former activity. The output of phosphate rock in this country, by States, is given in Table I, and the production, exports, imports, and consumption in the United States for the last 14 years are given in Table II. TaBLE I.—Production of phosphate rock in the United States.1 [In tons of 2,240 pounds.] 1910 1911 1912 Phosphate. 2 : . Tons. Value. Tons. Value. Tons. Value. . Florida hard rock....-.-.----- 392,088 | $2,940, 660 474,094 | $2,953,606 536,379 | $3,218, 274 Florida land pebble.........-- 1,637,709 | 6,550,836 | 2,020,477 | 6,809,007 | 2,043,486 | 7,101,186 Total, Florida..........- 2,029,797 | 9,491,496 | 2,494,571 | 9,762,613 | 2,579,865 | 10,319,460 South Carolina land rock.....- 185,000 786,250 | 2169,156 673,156 | 2131,490 524, 760 South Carolina river rock....- 16,347 By Goss Ae eee ene eee ee meri Coo oc ee Total, South Carolina. .- 201, 347 843, 564 2169, 156 673,156 | 2131,490 524, 760 MeTinleSSee eee ee 440,699 | 1,586,516 542,761 | 1,918, 489 443,065 | 1,710,000 Other'States: 325-425 5252s 10,095 40,380 3 10,505 39, 882 211,612 46, 450 Total, United States....| 2,681,938 | 11,961,956 | 3,216, 993 12,394,140 | 3,166,032 | 12,600,670 1913 1914 Phosphate. Tons. Value. Tons. Value. Blorida hardsrock25 328 pa ssece soe eee 485, 811 $3, 206, 343 2 309, 689 2 $1,912,197 Hloridalandipebb lesser ester re see eee eee eee 2, 043, 403 6,334, 549 21, 829, 202 25, 442, 547 Total Wlorid async oss sees ale eee ae ee 2,529, 214 9, 540, 892 2 2,138, 891 27,354, 744 South! Carolina landirockevs 2tecs.s sea a-= ee eee eee crs eaeneececeeee 2106, 919 2415, 039 South: Carolina river'rock 5.5 -\< 2222252 Jos bss see seaee ee eoeee| sees seems sence] 2 see se ee eeeee EE Eeee eee eee Dotal,|SouthiCarolinass- 525-254-222 = 2 ac ee eee eee eee | eeeeeeee eee 2106, 919 2 415, 039 Mennessce rs esecaceee see eeee eee Case we eee eee 434,193 1, 628, 224 2483, 203 21,822,770 Other'S tates 75.22 See Se eee aa eno 499, 600 4 398, 272 25,030 215, 488 MotalaUnitedistates sa seae sa ae 3,063,007 | 11,567,388 | 22,734,043 | 29,608,041 1 Statistics collected by Mineral Industry, except as otherwise noted. 2 Reported by the U.S. Geological Survey. : 3 Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming. -4 Figures include production of South Carolina and other States not separately mentioned. TaBLeE I1.—Statistics of phosphates for the United States. [In tons of 2,240 pounds.] Produc- | Im- : Consump- Produc- | Im- Consump- Year tion. ports. Exports.?) tion. Year. tion. ports. Exports.? tion. B it assasae 1, 483, 723) 180,714] 729,539} 934,898|/ 1908........ 2,375,031] 26,734! 1,196,175] 1,205, 590 IG DLS codse 1,600,813] 145,793] 802,086} 944, 250|/ 1909........ 2,463,766] 11,903] 1,020, 556] 1,455, 113 1903 03 532 | 1,581,576) 153,972] 785,259) 950, 289)| 1910......-. 2,681,938} 19,319) 1,083, 037] 1, 618, 220 1904........ 1,874,428] 166,090} 842,484) 1,198, 034|| 1911......_. 3,216,993] 16,153] 1,246,577| 1,980, 569 1905 552s ee 1,933,286] 82,072} 934,940] 1,080,418]; 1912.......- 3, 166,032} 28,821) 1, 206, 520} 1, 988, 333 1Q06 Ses treae 2,052,742} 46,228) 904,214] 1,194, 756|| 1913........ 3,062,975] 26,408] 1,338, 450| 1, 724, 525 190 ees 2,251,459] 25,896] 1,018,212] 1,259, 143/| 1914........ 2, 734, 043|........ 964, 114] 1, 769, 929 1 Production statistics of 1901 and subsequent years, except 1905 to 1913, are those of the U. S. Geological Survey and are based on marketed products. 2 Neglecting the insignificant exports of foreign products. PHOSPHATE ROCK: UTILIZATION AS FERTILIZER, 3 The various deposits of phosphate differ considerably in their geologic occurrence and age, as well as in their physical properties and chemical composition. The value of a phosphate deposit depends primarily on the grade of the rock, but the mode of occurrence, accessibility, and distance to markets are also factors of the utmost importance in determining its economic value. The location and character of the American phosphate deposits, © their geological occurrence and origin, the methods of mining and extracting the rock, and the cost of production at the various phos- phate fields have been described in some detail in a number of papers,} but a brief description of the more important deposits is given here in order to compare their possibilities in the economic production of phosphoric acid and soluble phosphates. PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF THE UNITED STATES. FLORIDA HARD-ROCK PHOSPHATE. The Florida hard-rock regions lie toward the west coast of the Florida Peninsula and extend from Suwanee and Columbia Counties southward to Citrus and Hernando Counties—a distance of over 100 miles. The mines are reached by both the Atlantic Coast Line Rail- road and the Seaboard Air Line Railway, or spurs from these roads. The rock is hauled to the seaports on both the east and west coasts and loaded for shipment abroad. The rock belongs to the Middle Tertiary period and occurs in irregu- lar pockets embedded in a matrix of sand clay and soft phosphate, the whole usually resting on a limestone. In general the phosphate is a hard, close-grained, nodular, white or cream-colored rock contain- ing from 75 to 80 per cent tricalcium phosphate (bone phosphate of lime), less than 3 per cent of the combined oxides of iron and alu- minum, and small percentages of lime carbonate. The remainder of the material is largely silica. Owing to the pockety nature of the deposits and to the fluctua- tions in the richness of the phosphatic matrix, the average cost of mining hard-rock phosphate is quite high, but the excellent grade of the product is such that it has heretofore found a ready market in European countries. FLORIDA LAND-PEBBLE PHOSPHATE. The land-pebble phosphate area at present productive lies to the south of the hard-rock regions in Polk and Hillsboro Counties. The mines are reached by the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad and the Seaboard Air Line and the Charlotte Harbor & Northern Rail- ways, or spurs from them. 1 Bul. 69, 76, $1, Bureau of Soils, U. 8. Dept. of Agr.; Bul. 18, U. 8. Dept. of Agr. 4 BULLETIN 312, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Most of the rock is hauled to Tampa and Port Tampa and there shipped by water to Europe or to the east coast of the United States. The rock belongs to a more recent period than the hard-rock phos- phate and is much more regular in its occurrence. As a whole the rock consists of medium-sized, light-gray pebbles somewhat softer than and not of as high grade as the hard-rock phosphates. Its con- tent of tricalcium phosphate runs from 68 to 75 per cent and it con- tains as a rule less than 4 per cent of iron and aluminum oxides. The hydraulic method of mining is practiced almost entirely in the pebble regions, and on account of the uniformity of the deposits and the ease with which the material can be handled the rock can be pro- duced very cheaply. Pebble phosphates are by far the most exten- sively mined of all the American deposits, and up to the year 1914 the output from these fields steadily increased. The consumption of the product has heretofore been about equally divided between this country and Europe. TENNESSEE BROWN-ROCK PHOSPHATE. The brown-rock phosphate of Tennessee occurs in the central part of the State, extending in a general north and south direction from the northern to the southern boundary line. The most important deposits so far exploited occur in Sumner, Davidson, Williamson, Hickman, Maury, Lewis, and Giles Counties. The deposits are reached by the Louisville & Nashville and the Middle Tennessee Railroads and the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway. The deposits in Davidson and Sumner Counties have easy outlet to the Cumberland River. The brown rock is of Ordovician age and in general consists of beds of brown porous plates of varying thickness overlying the original or slightly altered phosphate limestone from which it is derived. Fre- quently the beds of brown rock are much disintegrated and require special machinery to separate the phosphate from the impurities with which it is mingled. The brown-rock phosphate, as separated by mechanical means, contains from 72 to 78 per cent tricalcium phosphate and from 3 to 5 per cent of iron and aluminum oxides. Practically all of the brown-rock phosphates is now consumed in this country. TENNESSEE BLUE-ROCK PHOSPHATE. The important deposits of blue-rock, or Devonian, phosphate in Tennessee lie along Leatherwood Creek, in the western part of Maury County, south and east of Centerville in Hickman County, on both sides of Swan Creek in Hickman County, and in the eastern part of Lewis County near Gordonsburg. The mines are reached by the Louisville & Nashville and the Middle Tennessee Railroads and the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway. The Duck River is PHOSPHATE ROCK: UTILIZATION AS FERTILIZER. 5 the only navigable stream convenient to the blue-rock fields, and this river has not been used for shipping the rock in recent years. The blue-rock phosphate, as its name implies, is a massive grayish- blue or black rock, composed of flattened ovules and the waterworn casts of phosphatic shells. It weathers on exposure to a rusty yellow. The beds vary from 1 foot to 4 feet in thickness and are overlain normally by massive blue-black shale. In some localities the blue rock directly overlies the brown phosphate, making the mining of the - two types quite profitable. As a rule the blue rock is of lower grade than the brown, but its content of tricalcium phosphate varies all the way from 60 to 80 per cent, the average content being not far from 72 per cent. The oxides of iron and aluminum are as a rule less than 3 per cent. The cost of mining blue-rock phosphate is about $2.50 per ton. TENNESSEE WHITE-ROCK PHOSPHATE. The deposits of white-rock phosphates so far exploited lie in Perry and Decatur Counties, both east and west of the Tennessee River. Some of the deposits in Decatur County are not far from a branch of the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway at Parsons, Tenn., but the only ready means of transportation afforded the present mines in Perry County is the Tennessee River, which is from 4 to 6 miles distant. The white-rock phosphate is of secondary origin and is more recent than either the blue or brown phosphate. It resembles soméwhat the hard-rock phosphate of Florida and some of it is fully as high grade. Picked samples contain as high as 85 to 90 per cent of tricalcium phos- phate, with only a small percentage of iron and aluminum oxides. In carload lots the rock will grade from 72 to 78 per cent tricalcium phosphate. Because of the irregularity of the deposits and the lack of adequate transportation facilities the white phosphates have been exploited only to avery limited extent. Itis doubtfulwhether these deposits will be extensively developed before the more accessible brown-rock and blue-rock fields have been depleted. . No mining has been done in these regions in recent years, so that it is difficult to arrive at the actual cost of production. The average cost of producing white-rock phos- ’ phate would probably be slightly more than that of mining blue-rock phosphate. SOUTH CAROLINA PHOSPHATE. The phosphate area of South Carolina lies along the coast in a belt which is in places fully 20 miles wide, extending from the Wando River in Charleston County to the Broad River in Beaufort County. The rock is of Tertiary age and occurs as nodules and bowlders em- bedded in a matrix of sand and clay. The beds have an average 6. BULLETIN 312, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. thickness of about 1 foot and are mined by means of grab buckets or clam-shell dippers. The rock as a whole consists of gray nodules of medium Wheentees frequently much pitted and the holes filled with clay or calcareous mud, which must be removed by a washing process. “The average grade of the marketed product is about 61 per cent tricalcium phosphate. The average cost of producing South Caro- lina phosphate is not far from $3.46 per ton, including interest, overhead, etc., and the rock, on board cars at the mines, brings about: $4 per ton. Since the discovery of the higher grade and more cheaply mined phosphates in Florida and Tennessee, the exploitation of South — Carolina rock has gradually fallen off. Most of the rock now mined is consumed locally for the manufacture of acid phosphate and double acid phosphate. The latter product, beg very rich in soluble phosphates; will stand the cost of transportation. THE WESTERN PHOSPHATES. The western phosphate fields are located in southeastern Idaho, western Wyoming, northern Utah, and western Montana. The regions in which the phosphate has been mined or developed so far lie in southeastern Idaho, near the little towns of Soda Springs, George- town, and Montpelier on the Oregon Short Line Railroad; along the western front of the Sublette Mountain Range, near Border Station on the Idaho-Wyoming border; at the south end of this same moun- tain range, about 14 miles from Cokeville, Wyo., which is also on the Oregon Short Line Railroad; and in the Beckwith Hills in southwest- ern Wyoming and in northern Utah along the western front of the Crawford Mountains, about 5 miles from Sage Station, Wyo. Practi- cally no development work has been done in Montana, but the phosphate has been recognized near Melrose, Mont., a town on the Oregon Short Line Railroad, and also at Garrison, Philipsburg, and Cardwell on the Northern Pacific Railway from 40 to 70 miles north of Melrose. The topography of much of the phosphate area is extremely rugged, but many of the beds of phosphate are readily accessible and within easy reach of the railroads mentioned or possible spurs from them. The western phosphates are original sedimentary deposits laid down * when that portion of the earth’s surface was submerged in water. The rock is of Carboniferous age and occurs in beds from 2 to 6 feet thick, overlain by limestone and phosphatic shales.” It ranges in color from light gray to jet black and in texture from a readily crushed, coarsely oolitic material to a hard massive rock difficult to crush. The rock varies in its phosphate content from 65 to 75 per PHOSPHATE ROCK: UTILIZATION AS FERTILIZER. it cent tricalcium phosphate, with only very small percentages of iron and aluminum oxides. The average cost of mining the western phosphate is from $1.50 to $2 a ton. Because of their great distance from the fertilizer market, the western deposits have been mined to a very small extent, but the tonnage of high-grade rock in this region far surpasses that of any other area yet discovered. THE PHOSPHATES OF ARKANSAS. The phosphates of Arkansas are not generally considered of great economic importance, for, though small bodies of high-grade rock have been found in several localities, the average phosphate content is far below that of the rock mined in Tennessee and Florida. Mining has been conducted to a considerable extent only in the northern part of the State, in Independence County, about 12 miles from Batesville, a town on the Missouri Pacific Railway. Here the phosphate rock is of Silurian age and occurs in two strata, one directly overlying the other. The upper stratum (from 34 to 6 feet thick) is the only one considered worth mining, and averages about 55 per cent tricalcium phosphate, with 5 or 6 per cent of the combined oxides of iron and aluminum. No mining has been done in these fields for over a year, since it has been found more economical to supply the demand for phosphate from the richer deposits of Tennessee. par The mining of Arkansas phosphate was conducted in a manner similar to the mining of Tennessee blue-rock phosphate, and the cost of extracting it was approximately the same. KENTUCKY PHOSPHATE. Several small deposits of high-grade phosphate rock have been found in the Ordovician limestone in Woodford, Scott, Fayette, and Jessamine Counties, Ky. The phosphate occurs in thin, close-grained plates, brownish gray in color, and resembles closely the brown-rock phosphate of Ten- nessee. In order to prepare a high-grade product, the material must be put through a washing process like that employed in the brown- rock fields. The cleaned product varies in its content of tricalcium phosphate from 60 to 75 per cent. A small amount of development work has been done and a small tonnage shipped from Midway, a little town on the Louisville & Nashville Railroad between Frankfort and Lexington, Ky. So far all the rock sold has been finely ground for direct application to the field. 8 BULLETIN 312, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FORMS IN WHICH PHOSPHORIC ACID IS APPLIED TO SOILS. There are at present three broad classes of phosphatic fertilizers on the market, namely, water-soluble phosphates, phosphates which are not soluble to any extent in water but dissolve in a solution of ammonium citrate, citric acid, or some other organic solvent, and finally, phosphates which are aonetenly insoluble in the anecerine mentioned, but are supposed to yield under proper conditions a slnospiartte solution sufficiently strong to produce a marked effect on the crops thus fertilized. The form in which the first of these classes is usually applied is as monocalcium phosphate, better known as ‘acid phosphate” or — ‘“‘superphosphate,’’ which is produced by the action of a mineral acid (usually sulphuric) upon phosphate rock. Besides soluble calcium phosphate, however, there are other well-known soluble salts of phosphoric acid, though “these are used to a very small extent as fertilizers. To the second class of phosphates belongs chiefly basic ie a by- product of the steel industry. Finely ground steamed bone also yields part of its phosphate content to certain organic solutions. The third class of phosphates includes raw bones and finely ground raw phosphate rock, both of which are quite resistant to the solvent action of the mediums mentioned. By far the most extensively used of these three classes of phos- phates is the water-soluble class, but large tonnages of basic slag are annually consumed for agricultural purposes, particularly in European countries. Most of the acid phosphate produced contains a consider- able percentage of “‘reverted”’ (so-called) phosphoric acid, which is not soluble in water, but dissolves in ammonium citrate solution. Because of the undoubted agricultural availability of the phos- phoric acid of basic slag, bones, dicalctum phosphate, ete., it has become customary to regard phosphates which are soluble in certain organic mediums as having a fertilizer value nearly equal to that of water-soluble phosphate. Such phosphates therefore are known as available phosphates. PROCESSES FOR TREATING PHOSPHATE ROCK IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PHOSPHORIC ACID AND PHOSPHATIC FERTILIZERS. Numerous processes have been proposed and patented for the pro- duction of soluble or available phosphoric acid. The claims made for some of these processes are not justified, while many other processes are entirely impractical from a commercial standpoint. Much unnecessary labor has been expended in repeating experiments and in devising processes and apparatus already invented, when a thorough acquaintance with existing methods would have saved both time and money. It is thought, therefore, that classified lists PHOSPHATE ROCK: UTILIZATION AS FERTILIZER. 9 of the processes devised for the manufacture of phosphatic fertilizers arranged in chronological order, and giving short abstracts of the processes or apparatus employed, the treatment proposed, and the results or new features claimed by the inventors, will aid materially those engaged in researches of this character. It is impossible in an article of this kind to give more than the briefest abstracts or mention of most of the numerous processes on this subject, but those are described more fully which appear to possess features particularly interesting from either a commercial or scientific standpoint. For convenience these various methods for treating phosphate rock may be classified as follows: (1) Acid treatment, which includes the manufacture of superphos- phate and phosphoric acid; (2) combined heating and acid treat- ment; (3) double decomposition by means of a silicate or an alkali; (4) processes used in connection with the steel industry; (5) processes in which the phosphorus or phosphoric acid is volatilized; (6) treat- ment dealing with the production of two or more fertilizer elements; (7) electrolysis; (8) enrichment or concentration of phosphates; (9) processes and apparatus for the mechanical treatment of phosphates; (10) miscellaneous processes. ACID TREATMENT. The production of water-soluble phosphates by the treatment of phosphate rock or bones with sulphuric acid is the oldest and most widely used process. Nitric acid and hydrochloric acid have been tried in place of sulphuric, but the latter has proved itself the most satisfactory, because the calcium sulphate formed is not only a dehydrating agent, but is also only sparingly soluble in dilute solu- . tions of phosphoric acid. In making superphosphate, orden chamber acid (50° B.) and ground phosphate rock are thoroughly mixed in equal proportions by weight and the mass allowed to cure for 24 to 36 hours. The equation showing the reactions in simplest form may be represented thus: Ca,(PO,).+2H,80,+2H,0=CaH,(PO,).+2(CaSO,.2H,0). In this case the gypsum formed renders the material dry and pulverulent, and in excellent mechanical condition for mixing with other ingredients in making a complete fertilizer. The richest superphosphate which can be made, however, by a single acid treatment of the highest grade phosphate mined in the United States (Florida hard rock) contains about 18 per cent of phosphoric acid (P,0O,). The remaining 82 per cent consists of gypsum, siliceous material, and other impurities. It is obvious therefore, that it is poor economic policy to ship such material long 6819°—Bull. 312—15 2 10 BULLETIN 312, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. distances. In order to produce a more concentrated phosphatic fertilizer, the following method is émployed: The ground phosphate rock is mixed with dilute sulphuric acid, and the phosphoric acid thus produced is separated from the gypsum and impurities both by decantation and filtration. The acid is then con- centrated by evaporation and sold as such or used to treat another batch of phosphate rock in the production of double acid phosphate, which contains as high as 40 per cent of phosphoric acid (P,O;). The equations showing these reactions may be represented thus: Ca,(PO,)o+3H,$0,+6H,0=2H,P0,+3(CaS0,.2H,0); 4H,PO,+Ca,(PO,).=3CaH,(PO,)o. A list of the patents on this subject, arranged in chronological order, is given in Table IIT, Appendix. Several of the processes cited in Table III, if they accomplish what is claimed for them, should make it possible to produce soluble phosphate more cheaply than by the methods now generally used, or to produce a more concentrated fertilizer, which will admit of shipping it long distances. The following processes have features of interest from either a scientific or an economic standpoint. The process of Designolle ' consists in treating phosphate rock sus- pended in water with sulphur dioxide under pressure, producing thereby a solution of monocalcium phosphate and sulphite of lime— ae Ca,(PO,)»-+280,-+2H,0—CaH,(PO,),+2CaS0,. The suspended matter is allowed to settle in some suitable vessel and the solution is boiled with steam to drive off the excess of sulphur dioxide and to precipitate the calcium sulphite. The solution of monocalcium phosphate is then poured off, evaporated to a sirupy consistency, and treated with plaster of Paris to take up the excess of water. Bergmann ? claims that dicalcium phosphate free from calcium sul- phite is obtained by first mixing phosphate rock with sulphurous acid in the cold, then adding monocalcium phosphate to the solution, and finally boiling the solution to precipitate the dicalctum phosphate and drive off sulphur dioxide. In the process of Machalske,? phosphate rock is subjected to the action of sulphur dioxide in a small quantity of water. The resulting mass is leached with a dilute solution of sulphur dioxide to extract the soluble phosphates, and the residue, which is said to contain a large percentage of calcium sulphite, 1S enleimed to recover the sulphur dioxide, which can be used again. 1 United States Patent No. 196881 (1877). 2 United States Patent No. 852371 (1907). 3 United States Patent No. 902425 (1908). PHOSPHATE ROCK: UTILIZATION AS FERTILIZER. 11 Processes of this type, if practicable, would have an advantage over the one now generally employed in that they produce available phos- phoric acid from phosphate rock in a single operation, thus obviating the necessity of first manufacturing sulphuric acid. Experiments in the laboratories of the Bureau of Soils have shown, however, that phosphate rock is very resistant to the action of sulphurous acid or sulphur dioxide, and efforts to obtain complete decomposition of phosphate rock by such treatments were unsuccessful. Further work along these lines, however, seems desirable. The processes of Glaser 1 have for their object the production of con- centrated phosphates by treating phosphate rock with sufficient dilute sulphuric acid to produce phosphoric acid and then using this phos- phoric acid as a solvent for more phosphate rock. They involve the well-known method of making double acid phos- phate, a method admirably suited for the treatment of low-grade phosphate rock containing but little iron and aluminum. The equa- tions showing the reactions taking place in this process have already been shown on page 10. The product usually requires artificial drying, since it contains but little sulphate of lime. The patents of Glaser have now expired. In order to produce a dry pulverulent product, Memminger ? pro- poses to mix calcium fluoride or fluorite with phosphate rock “on then treat the mixture with sulphuric acid. The generation of gaseous compounds of fluorine, he claims, renders the acid phosphate porous and thus facilitates the escape e moisture from the hot mass. While this procedure would no doubt produce a high-grade acid phosphate, the poisonous nature of the fumes evolved during the curing of the acid phosphate would make it objectionable to employ such a method either in the vicinity of towns or in a farming country. Moreover, it is questionable whether the extra quantity of acid required to act upon the fluorite would not offset the advantages gained. This patent expired in 1908. Hoyerman * devised a process to economize on the quantity of acid required to produce available phosphoric acid. His process consists in adding to phosphate rock a quantity of sulphuric acid sufficient only to convert it into dicalctum phosphate, a product which has practically the same trade value as monocalcium phosphate. Such a process, while theoretically possible, presents difficulties in actual practice. The quantity of ordinary sulphuric acid required is hardly sufficient to mix intimately with a large bulk of ground phos- phate, and, therefore, the resulting mass is apt to contain a con- siderable percentage. of so-called unavailable phosphoric acid, owing to the fact that some of the phosphi ute rock has not t be en ac te sd upon. 1 United States Patents Nos. 389566 (1888), 417820 (1880), 459575 (1891), 2 United States Patent No. 445567 (1891). + United States Patent No. 736730 (1903). 12 BULLETIN 312, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The processes of Schlutius+ and Bretteville,? in which nitric acid is employed as a solvent instead of sulphuric acid, are of interest because calcium nitrate and soluble calctum phosphate are produced, both of which are fertilizer materials. Ca,(PO,).+4HNO,=CaH,(PO,).+2Ca(NO,)>. Such a mixture is sufficiently high grade to stand the expense of long shipment, but the well-known hygroscopic properties of calcium nitrate form a drawback to its use in fertilizers and would probably necessitate shipping the material in air-tight containers. PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHORIC ACID OR SOLUBLE PHOSPHATES BY COMBINED HEATING AND ACID TREATMENT. In general, these processes are not very promising, since they involve both acid treatment and the expense of heating the product. A list of the patents under this head is given in Table IV, Appendix. The process of Scribner * appears to be of much interest. It con- sists in either roasting a mixture of phosphate rock and sulphur or passing sulphur dioxide over highly heated phosphate rock. In either case it is claimed that citrate-soluble phosphate results. This scheme is similar to two described under “Acid treatment.” If it accomplishes what is claimed, much unnecessary time and expense may be saved in the manufacture of available phosphates. From the experience in the Bureau of Soils laboratories, however, it would seem rather difficult to conduct this process so as to effect the complete conversion of the phosphoric acid into an available form. This patent expired in 1900. DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION BY MEANS OF AN ALKALI, AN ALKALI SALT, OR ALKALINE EARTH. — All the processes under this head except four depend on heat to effect the conversion of insoluble phosphate into a water-soluble or citric-soluble form. In Table V, Appendix, a list of the various patents on this subject is given. The object of the processes described below is to obtain a neutral or alkaline product containing available phosphoric acid. Owing to the acid properties of superphosphate there exists among certain farmers considerable prejudice against its use. Fertilizers of the type described below have, as a rule, an alkaline reaction, and there- fore are popularly believed to counteract any acidity in the soil. In the process of Commins,* phosphate rock is either heated to redness and then saturated with a solution -of sodium chloride or first treated with the salt solution, heated, and then plunged into gas-house liquor. In the more recent process of Lowman,’ a mixture 1 United States Patent No. 872757 (1907). 4 United States Patents Nos. 74799, 78061 (1868). 2 United States Patent No. 1011909 (1911). 5 United States Patent, No. 922494 (1909). 3 United States Patent No. 283426 (1883). PHOSPHATE ROCK: UTILIZATION AS FERTILIZER. 13 of phosphate rock, sodium chloride, dolomite, and fluorite is made into a paste with water and then baked for 12 hours at 700° F. The inventor claims that citrate-soluble phosphoric acid results, but states that he does not know what reactions take place. Considering the materials used, however, it is probable that a more basic phosphate containing both lime and sodium is formed on heating such a mixture. Day’s! process consists in heating (with or without a potash salt) a natural or artificial mixture of phosphate rock, silica, and lime- — stone to a temperature just above that at which carbon dioxide is driven off. He claims that the resulting product contains phosphoric acid soluble in a 5 per cent solution of citric acid. The length of time of heating required varies between rather wide limits, depend- ing on the materials used and the thoroughness with which they are mixed. . Rocour,? Newberry and Barrett,? Meriwether,* and Landis* have devised processes in which double decomposition is brought about by heating a mixture of phosphate rock and sodium sulphate; or phosphate rock, lime, and sodium sulphate. Probably the process under this head which has attracted the most attention is that of Newberry and Barrett. It is understood that the process as worked on a commercial scale differs somewhat from that described in the original patent, but the general plan consists in submitting an inti- mate mixture of phosphate rock and sodium sulphate to a constantly increasing temperature till a temperature of about 2,800° F. is reached. The clinker formed is then ground, sacked, and sold on the basis of the citrate-soluble phosphoric acid which it contains. It is also said that the final product contains a considerably higher percentage of phosphoric acid than the original mixture, owing to the volatilization of some of the products formed at the high temperatures. While the reagents required (sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, etc.) to convert phosphate rock into a citrate-soluble form in such processes are comparatively cheap, the expense of maintaining the necessary high temperatures for protracted periods adds considerably to the cost of production. It is claimed, however, that in some of these processes the cost of phosphoric acid per unit is less than it is in acid phosphate. In order to utilize low-grade phosphates unfit for acid treatment, Wiborgh,’® Connor,’ Newberry,’ and Galt ® have devised processes in which ground phosphate is mixed with an alkali hydroxide or car- 1 United States Patent No. 542080 (1895). 6 United States Patent No. 601089 (1898). 1 United States Patent No. 284674 (1883). 7 United States Patents Nos. 931846 (1909). + United States Patent No. 1042588 (1912). 1042400, 1042401 (1912). 4 United States Patent No. 1058249 (1913). ® United States Patent No. 978193 (1910). 6 United States Patent No. 1004857 (1914). 9 United States Patent No. 1016989 (1912) 14 BULLETIN 312, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. bonate and the mixture heated in a suitable furnace to a bright-red or yellow heat. Newberry also employs lime or limestone in his mix, and Galt uses ‘‘lime mud” (a mixture of calcium carbonate and sodium hydroxide), a by-product of the soda industry. While these processes have not been thoroughly tested in this laboratory a conversion of at least a portion of the phosphate into a citrate-soluble form can undoubtedly be effected by such treat- ments. The proportions of alkali, lime, and phosphate rock required are such that the resulting product contains a much higher percentage of phosphoric acid than ordinary acid phosphate. For the commer- cial success of such processes, however, it must be borne in mind that the cost of heating plus the price of the reagents used in the pro- duction of a unit of phosphoric acid must not exceed the cost of the sulphuric acid required to produce a unit of phosphoric acid in super- phosphates. Payne, in discussing calcination processes, places the cost of available phosphoric acid produced by such processes at about 24 cents per unit. PROCESSES TO BE USED IN CONNECTION WITH THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRIES. Processes under this head have to do chiefly with the production of tetracalcium phosphate or some other basic phosphate soluble in a 2 per cent solution of citric acid. Because of the high temperature required, these processes can hardly be employed economically except in connection with the smelting industry. A list of the patents dealing with the production of available phosphoric acid along these lines is given in Table VI, Appendix. In 1884 Thomas? devised a process for producing an alkaline phosphate from pig iron high in phosphorus. His plan consists in pouring the molten metal upon an alkali carbonate in a basic Besse- mer converter. The resulting slag contains, according to his claim, phosphates of soda which can be separated by lixiviating the mass with water. This patent expired in 1901. The processes of Reese * are also worthy of consideration. One of his processes consists in adding to the usual furnace charge a certain quantity of phosphate rock to enhance the value of the resulting slag. Another of his processes consists in dephosphatizing the iron or iron ore in two stages. In this way the first slag run-off contains a high percentage of available phosphate. In a third process phosphate rock and basic open-hearth slag are fused together, resulting in the production of available phosphoric acid. If this claim is borne out in actual practice it should be economically 1 Available phosphates by furnace treatment. Amer. Fertilizer Handbook, pp. 62-64 (1914). 2 United States Patent No. 301407 (1884). 3 United States Patents Nos. 412792; 412793 (1889); 714331 (1902). PHOSPHATE ROCK: UTILIZATION AS FERTILIZER. 15 practicable to manufacture the product by mixing the phosphate rock with the molten slag as the latter flows from the furnace. The heat of the slag could thus be utilized. The fertilizer value of basic (phosphatic) slag is unquestioned, and it would be practicable to produce large quantities of this material by using phosphatic limestone to smelt siliceous iron ores, but it would be very difficult to overcome the prejudice against using a phosphorus-bearing substance in smelting operations when the chief aim is to eliminate phosphorus from the metal product. PROCESSES IN WHICH THE PHOSPHORUS OR PHOSPHORIC ACID IS VOLATILIZED. Processes under this head have been exciting considerable interest in recent years. They are all based on the method long in use for the manufacture of phosphorus and require a high temperature and a furnace which will resist both the temperature and the corrosive effect of the volatile products formed. The main advantage of the processes listed in Table VII is that comparatively pure concentrated phosphoric acid can be obtamed from rather impure raw materials. The first recorded American process for obtaiming phosphoric acid in this way is that of Giles and Shearer. Their process of separating phosphoric acid from its impurities consists In passing a current of steam over the acid heated to redness. The distillate condensed and collected in some suitable vessel consists of relatively pure phosphoric acid. In 1907 Landis? described a process for producing phosphoric acid and phosphorus from phosphate rock, which consists In mixing phosphate rock, sand, or a silicate and coke with some binding material, and molding the mixture into briquettes. The briquettes are subsequently placed in an electric furnace and heated. The inventor claims that by this method a more even distribution of the heat is obtained, excessive temperatures can be avoided, and less dust and impurities are carried over with the volatilized phosphoric acid. The methods of Levi,? Washburn,‘ and Haff ® are three of the more recent processes for the production of phosphoric acid by volatiliza- tion. Described in brief, they are as follows: Levi heats a mixture of phosphate rock and. silica or silicate in an electric furnace, claiming that the following reaction takes place: Ca,(PO,).+38i0,—P,0,+3CaSiO,. The phosphoric anhydride which is volatilized is then absorbed in water, producing phosphoric acid (H,PO,), and the fused calcium 1 United States Patent No. 393428 (1888). 4 United States Patents Nos. 1047864 (1912); 1100639 (1914). 2 United States Patent No. 859086 (1907). % United States Patent No. 1084856 (1914). 2 United States Patent No. 984769 (1912). 16. BULLETIN 312, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. silicate which remains in the furnace may be converted into a soluble silicate by the addition of an anhydrous salt of potash or soda. Levi states that it is preferable to have a furnace of such a type that the reacting mass is not in contact with the carbon electrodes, — so that the phosphoric acid formed will not be reduced to phosphorus. Washburn, on the other hand, states that he has carried on experi- ments like the above on a large scale and claims that unless a reducing agent, such as carbon, be added to the mixture of phosphate rock and silica, the volatilization of phosphoric acid is very incomplete. He heats a mixture of phosphate rock, silica, and carbon until the mass is. entirely fused and the phosphorus driven off as such, and also in the form of oxide. He then exposes the gases to an oxidizing atmosphere and converts. any phosphorus present to phosphoric anhydride and subsequently to phosphoric acid. He claims that under the proper conditions 90 per cent of the phosphoric acid present in the rock is volatilized. In a more recent patent, Haff describes a process very similar to the above, but states that pieces of broken carbon should be placed on the bath to form a conducting path of increased current density between the electrodes and thus allow of a higher temperature in the furnace- Another process of Haff’s,! as well as a patent taken out jomtly by Wilson and Haff,’ might be included in the subsequent table dealing with processes for the production of two or more fertilizer elements, but since they depend on the volatilization of phosphoric acid they are placed under this head. In these processes_a mixture of phos- phate rock and feldspar is heated in an electric furnace to a tempera- ture at which both the phosphoric acid and the potash are driven off. The products are then condensed and collected in some suitable manner. It is generally conceded that cheap hydroelectric power is essential for the commercial success of any of these processes. At present the demand for hydroelectric energy is so great that in any of the locali- ties where it has been developed so far it brings a higher price than can possibly be paid for power in the economic production of phos- phatic fertilizers. The enormous energy that can be developed at certain sites, as, for instance, on the St. Lawrence and the Saguenay Rivers in Canada and on the Columbia River in Oregon, energy which, owing to the distance of the power sites from large industrial centers, can not be absorbed through the usual channels, may in the future cause a revolution in the fertilizer industry by making it feasible to produce concentrated phosphates from relatively low- grade materials at considerably less cost than is possible by methods now in general use. 1 United States Patent No. 1018186 (1912). 2 United States Patent No. 1103910 (1914). PHOSPHATE ROCK: UTILIZATION AS FERTILIZER. ey. PROCESSES DEALING WITH THE PRODUCTION OF TWO OR MORE FERTILIZER ELEMENTS. At first glance these methods appear particularly attractive from an economic standpoint, because two or more salable products are obtained by a single operation. Two of the seemingly very promising processes, however, on being tested in the laboratory proved to be commercially impracticable. A complete list of the processes under this head is given in Table VIII, Appendix. The processes of Bickell ' and Klett ? deal with the production of soluble phosphoric acid and potash from phosphate rock and feldspar. _ Bickell’s process consists in heating in a reverberatory furnace to a light redness for two hours an intimate mixture of 1 part feldspar, 0.5 part phosphate rock, and 3 or 4 parts of lime. It is claimed that both phosphoric acid and potash in available forms are obtained by this treatment. On testing this process in the laboratory it was found that Bickell’s claim was not substantiated, for over 44 per cent of the potash present in the mixture was volatilized upon ignition, and of that which remained in the residue only 9 per cent was water-soluble. While none of the phosphoric acid was volatilized, less than 39 per cent of it was soluble in a 2 per cent solution of citric acid. Klett’s process is similar to that of Bickell and consists in heating to redness for five hours an intimate mixture of 2 parts carbonate of lime, 1 part phosphate rock, and adding for each part of potash (K,O) in the feldspar 2 parts of calcium fluoride. It is claimed that a soluble silicate of lime and potassium phosphate are thus obtained. In view of the fact that the percentage of potash in the mixture is relatively small and that the time of heating is very long, it is hardly likely that the value of the product would cover the cost of manufac- ture. Moreover, the claim that phosphate of potash is formed in the operation is not justified. The process, however, was tried out on a laboratory scale and results obtained similar to those found in repeating Bickell’s method. Nearly all of the potash was volatilized, while less than one-half of the phosphoric acid present in the residue was citric-soluble. Both the patents of Bickell and Klett have long ago expired. The processes of McDougall,? Terne,‘ Washburn,® and Wilson and Haff * all deal with the neutralization of the acid in superphosphate by means of ammonia, producing thereby a mixture of gypsum, ammonium sulphate, and calcium ammonium phosphate. These 1 United States Patent No. 16111 (1856). 2 United States Patent No. 49891 (1865). 4 United States Patent No. 135995 (1873). 4 United States Patent No. 709185 (1902). 5 United States Patent No. 1100638 (1914). 6 United States Patents Nos, 1062869 (1913); 1112183 (1914); 1122183 (1914). 6819°—Bull. 312—15 3 18 BULLETIN 312, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. processes correct the acidity of the superphosphate which some farmers consider so objectionable, and at the same time enhance the value of the product. The process of Collett’ consists in dissolving phosphate rock in dilute nitric acid, and then adding ammonium sulphate to the solu- tion, with the result that lime is precipitated as sulphate, and ammo- nium phosphate and ammonium nitrate remain in solution. After separating the gypsum, the ammonium salts may be crystallized out by concentration of the solution. The reactions may be represented thus: (1) Ca;(PO,).+4HNO,=CaH,(PO,),+2Ca(NO,)>. (2) CaH,(PO,),+2Ca(NO,),-+3(NH,),90,—3CaSO,+4NH,NO,+2NH,H,PO,. This last process is particularly interesting from a commercial standpoint, since it has for its object the production of a high-grade fertilizer containing both phosphoric acid and nitrogen in readily available forms. Where phosphate rock occurs in regions far from the fertilizer markets, the production of a highly concentrated product which will admit of long shipment is essential to the successful develop- ment of the mining part of the phosphate industry. The evaporation of the solutions, however, to the point where the ammonium salts begin to crystallize out would entail considerable expense. PROCESSES DEALING WITH THE PRODUCTION OF AVAILABLE PHOSPHATES BY ELECTROLYSIS. Processes under this head are of two types: (1) Those in which the phosphate rock is fused and the electric current passed through the melt; and (2) those in which some water-soluble salt or acid is used as an electrolyte and the ground phosphate rock suspended or dis- solved in the solution and the electrolysis performed in the wet way. A list of the patents on this subject is given in Table [X, Appendix. The process of Palmaer and Wiborgh ? for the production of dical- cium phosphate is said to have been successfully practiced in Norway where cheap water power is available. The process is as follows: Perchloric acid and sodium hydrate are produced by electrolizing a solution of sodium perchlorate in a diaphragm cell. Phosphate rock is then treated with the anode solution (perchloric acid) and the resulting solution of phosphate filtered. One half of the cathode solution (sodium hydrate) is then added to this filtrate, resulting in the precipitation of dicalcium phosphate and the formation of sodium perchlorate again. The other half of the cathode solution is treated with carbon dioxide and added to the solution decanted from the dicalcium phosphate precipitate, thus precipitating the lime as carbon- ate and completely regenerating sodium perchlorate. 1 United States Patent No. 1058145 (1913). 2 United States Patents Nos. 707886 (1902); 748523 (1903). PHOSPHATE ROCK: UTILIZATION AS FERTILIZER. 19 The reactions taking place at various stages of the process may be represented thus: (1) NaClO,+H,0-+ Electric current=HCl0,4+Na0H. (2) 6 HC1O,+Ca,(PO,).=2H,PO,+3Ca(C10,)>. (3) 2H,PO,+3Ca(C1O,),+4NaOH=2CaHPO,+ 4NaClO,+Ca(C10,),+4H,0. (4) 4NaClO,-+-Ca(C10,)>+Na,CO,—6NaCl0,-+-CaCO,. This process was designed to treat low-grade phosphates which are not suitable for the manufacture of acid phosphate. Cheap electric power is essential for the commercial success of the process. PROCESSES FOR THE ENRICHMENT OF PHOSPHATES. The list of patents given in Table X, Appendix, includes processes for the enrichment of raw or natural phosphates, as well as those which have been chemically treated. While the writers have placed but five processes under this head, a number of patents classified under other heads could have been included here as well. The processes of both Ottolengin ! and Coates ? have for their object the enrichment of phosphate soak or phosphatic limestone. Ottolengin advocates the grinding of the phesphate and then effect- ing the separation of the phosphate particles from the impurities by the difference in their specific gravities, such a separation being made either by a blast of air or by suspending the material in moving water. Unfortunately, in many of the natural deposits of phosphate, the impurities contained therein have a specific gravity so nearly equal to that of the phosphate rock that a separation on the above basis is usually very incomplete. In the case of the brown-rock phosphate of Tennessee, however, such a scheme is practiced with great success. By burning, slaking, and subsequently screening phosphatic lime- stone Coates effects a segregation of the coarser and more phos- phatic particles. This process, however, is intended primarily to produce a finely divided sterile phosphatic material for subsequent treatment. Pratt’s* process for the enrichment of acid phosphate consists, first, in adding sufficient lime to the superphosphate to convert the monocalcium phosphate to dicalcium phosphate, then leaching out the gypsum contained therein with some suitable solvent. The sol- vent recommended by Pratt is sea water. 1 United States Patent No. 86574 (1869). 2 United States Patent No. 971830 (1910). “United States Patents Nos. 1014254, 1014255 (1912). 20 BULLETIN 312, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF PHOSPHATES. The patents listed in Table XI, Appendix, deal with the mechan- ical treatment of either raw phosphates or the chemically treated product. The first seven processes are primarily imtended for the treatment of bones or phosphates to be used in the manufacture of baking powder. The other processes listed hardly require any more detailed descriptions than those given in the tables. All the patents covering these processes have long since expired, and they can there- fore be used without payment of royalties. MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF AVAILABLE PHOSPHATES. Under the head of miscellaneous are included all the processes which can not very well be separately listed. Many of these processes are on their face practically valueless, while others have features which make it appear they might be successfully employed in the production of fertilizers of some value. A list of the patents under this head is given in Table XII, Appendix. The process in the above table which has probably attracted the most attention is that of Coates,| in which the inventor claims to produce available phosphoric acid and potash from minerals con- taining these elements by the action of bacteria, which attack and break down the rocks. His process consists in first obtaining a culture by adding breaking-down or decaying rock to a sterilized culture medium. He then inoculates sterilized phosphate rock or feldspar with the culture thus prepared, with the result that the bacteria attack the rock minerals, rendermg the phosphoric acid and potash contained therein soluble in the soil solution. It is understood that field experiments are being conducted to test - the fertilizer value of rock treated in this way, but the results of these experiments have not yet been reported. 1 United States Patent No. 947795 (1910). 21 UTILIZATION AS FERTILIZER, PHOSPHATE ROCK *TOZTTVAO Jo saxyed OM} JO UoToNpoIg “TOZTT OF JO uoonpoid pue oseMoes jo JUSMIVee UL YueTMOAOId TOT -ayeyd -soyd prov jo uormonpoid pus plow oj4SeM JO WOTYeZTTT A) *yooI pus Plow SUIXIUI JO poyjet poAoid my ‘oc -oyeyd -soyd proe oid jo worjonpolg ‘od sayeyd -soyd prow jo womonpoig 7 ‘COd)H °7HN) pue ('Od)'H eo Foseg jo wuononporg ‘OH 10*ONH JO WOMe[sIp PUB [BI107 “CU JOZIIj1o} JO wWoKoNpoIg ayeydsoyd ple juopnsz9sAtnd sonpoid og, *SULXIUL JUOLOIO 01 onp jonpoid poaoidiy *proe [elouTUL JeYO oUIOS esn OY, “yonpoid yuepn41eA -jnd Arp jo uoronpoid oy, ‘ouRns yee) pus oyeIBdoes OY, ‘OUBNS 9101S9L OT, ‘ouRns Yoru 10 eAOId UT OT, “OTN UBUL poyeByuwe0u0d JO WoLoNporg Tai “IOZTT}AOJ] SNOUNS O11 ju oyeydsoyd jo woronporg ‘ssoooid jo yoo oO “OUIT POYVIS TIM POXTU Woy) SI oye[Iy “sserd Jay ysnoim pessed woy pue poe,eNpoe st yoor o}yeydsoyg --9SvMOS TIM pozeed) Jonpold pues pere[nprae st aor oyeydsoyg “91D 0} PoOMOT[R SI OnNpoid pues poxtur ATYSNo10Y oie SP USI pois Uy “qSBIq IIe Aq 10 wrva}s JO suveur Aq poxtUl o1B FOS4FT pue yor ayeydsoyg Sri milo ie aS SONEH UL Souod JO WOT4NTOs 0) poppe SI FOS*H “$ONH Uf poaros -sIp oyeydsoyd Jo wornyos 0) poppe uey} pus peylind st O92, “poppe Usy} ov [BooIvypO ouod pu seo ‘{IOd uABaYs B AG, po}Voy “{VA PoUl|[-pve] BV UL poYVol ASI St plo’ onmyYdjns poynwtiq “ammssoid Ys] JOPUN GINIXTUL OY} OLUT Poy ST UIve}s pur ‘tepuT[AD SUTATOAOLI & UL poord ore “Yyoq 10 ‘axeo 4Yes ‘ax1vd JeqTU JOY PU ‘107M ‘souOg ‘yeoy AQ JO USATIP STEONH ‘pezeyrdroerd snyy FOSeO pue peppe st 4OS*H “ONH UL pearossrp st 4(FOd )*8OD eobiee: “ouroeUr [eroeds & UL PaXIU a1v }OS*zT puv yoor oyeydsoyq -ayeydsoyd prov Jo surly eur OU} ULFOSFEH 40} PoyNjTSqns SE %Og JO UOTINIOS B 10 [OH LOUIE OCC OR OOO Bao ae aor Or FOS*H WIA pepyurads st ouens oy, OS*H WIA Ajoze1edes pozvo.4 qaed ove puv ouy oy} ULOAy poyearvdos ore OWENS JO Soporjaed os.1v0d OL, PAS Sa 01ND 0} PeMOT[V PUB PoXxTUL ATT sNO1OY 018 S}USTIposUT *pexTul AjYsno10y} ooyM oy} pus ‘peppe ore sqyes ourlpexyle ‘Ost YIM javd ‘10}9RUr [euTUe pMbIT YAIA. poXrur st ouewns jo yaeg en tab) 0} PeMO|[V puv poxTu ATT SNoIOY} 918 S}WOIpIIsUT SNOTIBA OL, ‘ad 0} POMO]][V PUB ProV OMY Ns YIM poextur ATYsno10yy oie syUETpPoIsUT SNOLIBA oy, *{UOUI}VOLT, ----FOg*H ‘ewl] paxeis ‘yoor oyeydsoyg “€QO0eO FO9*H ‘001 oyeydsoyd ‘esemoeg “yoor ayeyd -soyd mmepoijed Jo suruyor WOT FO S?H *FOS*H ‘urevays “yoor ayeydsoy seuog ‘FOS*H ‘ONH FOS*H poygiind ‘ON FH 10 [OH ‘yoor syeydsoug euog “uTBeIS ‘1907B AN FOSSH souog, euoq peumad Fost “(FOd )FHRO ‘TBooreud FOS*H ‘aye ‘Ives ‘souog ‘oxeo qyes IO O¥BO Jo}IM ‘SOATJVALIOP S}I 10 oUOg FOSSH “ONH ‘ouny jo ojyeyqdsoyd orseqiiy, poe ee ae FOStH ‘yoor ayeydsoyd ®QO9 10 [OH ‘ouens vssvien BRR SISOS Oso FO Sey ‘ouens vssvaen "> 19] BUT [VUUTUB “FOS*H '[OVN ‘ourny “SUBS OUTTRYTV Ost ‘10}9eur peuTUR pmbry ‘oueny | FOgS*H ‘10}9 vu [euTUG‘OULNS a}eydsoy *(6) 10]) Bul [BUUTUG pmbr “(96) FOS*H ‘(00T) Novrq euog “qu ‘amuvar pmbry FOS*H *pasn syuesReyy *Ss}ueqg.tos snp euog | | | | gocc hiccinacs VN 81g eccose uojse 7 seqiog cereeee eee UA ‘10Te'T Shiela 'aieiaieeisere = y qeang Bea Societe N *a ‘paojsi0yy “"N °G ‘paAojsioy pue “aH *D “WOsTEM J 0a5) “WOSTEAA N ‘a ‘paloysioyy ‘JOUVS 7) “SIQer'T rT ‘sedrexy [enw ecen cs enee al ‘aren eka Wf “AYN Sees eecabeweeene 1 ‘prey “90]UaIvq ‘quaujyna pron fg saynydsoyd apqvpwan so aj7qnjos fo woryonpoid ayy of sassa0tg—J{[ VAY, *XIGNUddV 698T 698T S98T SORT SOgT S98T S98T SO8T S98T 99ST CORT COST POST FOST FOST E98 E19SeT OTFEIL OOL9F 900TF E9OTF STFIF OFOSE COSFE ESsel ON jUeIwT BULLETIN 312, U. 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 22 *1o2T[T}A9J ovetydsoud peeyueuod JO WOLonpolg ‘opeyd -soyd eaqnjpos Jo woronpoig “VIAL AjIpvol jou seop orTyAr ayerydsor jo wornonporg “SPWOULOTO 1OZT]T} Loy Joyo puv 2O%q suTUTe} HOD Jozt[Tytoy AIp JO woronpoid “O%q 9[QNTOs JO UoTONpoIy “O57 IQVIIVAv JO UOTON pol “8O%q7 9[QnTOs Jo uoTpON por “OFF [VIVA SUTUTLY -109 07841 dr0e1d Jo WOT}On poly ‘od “doztTt -10} PpoAoIdut Jo worjonpolg FOd*H Jo uoronpoig *TOZTL}.10F eyeydsoyd jo wormonpoig 8O%q o[QUpLeAv JO WOTJON pol, ‘srivd jo 104Sse7d TIM ous surAip pues ayeydsoyd prov yo worjonporg ‘IOZTT}.A9J PoAOId Wy, VOd*H Jo woronpolg *OUIT] JO ayeydsoyd prov jo worjonporg, *soyeydyns pure OU] WOIZ oaIy soyeyd -soyd 10'O q®*H{ Jo uorjonpolg ‘OTUs JO VOTYdr1osqe pus oyeydsoyd prov Jo worjonporg, ‘oUvS BUTYVUL JO poyyeut pues JozI[TI0F JO Woronporg ‘yoo oyeydsoyd 3uljvoly Ur YuoIOAOId Uy *yoor o}eydsoyd Jo t[97eq Tso.aj B 4VeI} OF Poesn St WOMNOS Suysel oy, *Od®EH UI PoAalossip st Yoor oyeydsoyg ; “yoor oyeydsoyd osodtosep 0} PosN WOLNIOS oY} PU 10}VM JOT UL POATOSSIP SI FOSHBN OTL FOS*H WIM poyeor7 Woy) ‘pouro[vo pu pexTUr ov OjLULO[Op puv oyeydsoyd oy, “poppe or’ SVS TOZI[IZA0y 19y,O pur ‘porip ‘pe19y[y. WOLNOS oy) ‘pexrur ATYsno10y} o1e prow pue oyeydsoyd oy ! *pe)eely, WOTyNTOs SUIJTNSEL OY} PUB pextu ATYSNo10YY xv prav puv soyeydsoyd oul “97 Vly -soyd peztieAtnd poyeey oy} Ysno1y) possed o1v 209 pure uILo}g “(OH 40 “ONH *OS*H) proe [es0 -ULUE & TIM pozvo.1) pus “pouroyeo “poxtur ‘puno.s oie S$} USTpo.1sUy “WOTJNIOS ot} 0} popps TOY} SOUT JONTN TOM UIA pozvosy Uoyy “poysvo.l ysay SE svg SUSE a eCE eH Sauls Nausea seo Hapbneghe enti Se cies Seen Pestopes ts sie Rate nisi See Ne Sinelc\ate poztieatnd pure ‘perrp ‘poxtur oie s}Uerporsuy ==" "peloqfy joeyXo plo’ pUB POXTUI ATYSNoI0Y} ore SyUSIpoIsUyT "7" """FOStE WIA popyurids ATYSsNo.10Y} Sp Svs sovuUsNy ASVq ou ONE Sos ae Sg sel Blea 01ND 0} POMO][G PUB POXTU S}USIpSIsUL PolIsop sv pozvedy oq Uvo oyvydsoyd proe Suryns “OY “qvoy AQ UOTN]OsS WIO.1y YO MOATIP 20g pure ‘poyearedos OUT jo oyrydyns ‘amssoid rtoptm %Og Aq Poafossip St 3xoor oy vydsoy po “777>-9IMd 0} PoMOT[V puv poxtu ATYSNOIOY) 0.1 Sy UetpoisuyT POR Re ZOO WIM PozB.nyzRs 10jVM TIA po}Vo.l] SE yoor oyvydsoy ‘oyeydsoyd poasep Aue oonpoid 07 pesn WoryNnyjos oY} PUL PEOY SESTYL “(HO)PE UTA poyvor, pus Jo UMevIp SIUOTINLOG *%OS*H Aq FOd*E 0O}UT pojt9A UOD ST Yoor oyeydsoy gd “Yoleys YIM dn eye, pus poyeiodvagd PUB POXTUL 1B SUTY[NSEI SUOTINTOS OL, “TOE WIM puooss oy PUBrO SE YIM ISA oy ‘sosavyo OM UT po} vol} oe SOUOG POTN, *poyVlodvao o[OYM PUB JOVIYXE 0} POPPB OV SITCS AOZI [TAT ‘qyno passed %O% 7 ofqnjOs puw yonpoid YIM polly oie ssvg *10)}V] OY} SUIPULIS OITA yoor oyvydsoyd YIM POXTUL St }OS*ET “sseq Maru SUTUIOD [VI10} -CUL 0} poppe ST ou], possord puv yonpoid WATM poy ore ssvg *1O}YV] OY} SULPULAS OI oor oyeydsoyd YIM PoXTU St hOG*TT ‘sseooid jo yoolqo *VUOUL} VOL, sors sesse22h0 ahr ‘oovydsoyd jerouryy *--sfoor oyeydsoyd ‘4OSeNHYO UOTNTOS FOS*H ‘oyrut -ojop ‘seyeydsoyd unurmmMye pue worT “STS 1OY}O FOS*H eyn[Ip ‘UMULUIN]e 10 Wo. Jo Soywydsoy FOS*H OyNIIp ‘TQ0q 10 ‘win -TumMy[e 10 WOM SuTUIe}UOD soyeydsoyg “UIs %og ‘oyeydsoyd wnurumye 10 woIy oo 0) co) cay 00 (0) (0) 0) Jo ouny ‘oyeydsoyd wmutumye 10 WOT Sete eehy See 078" OUT “TOM {Seys orseg SSTHSSAGIESIOSS FOS*H ‘ros yystu ‘ourns) “= "FOS* “ros yYystu ‘901 o7eydsoyg OSH ‘UnUIUMys pues wom jo soyeydsoyd riggers “77 -FOgszy ‘(ORT ASsBIq) SRlg mot essessss=s-ORd FOOSE ‘oud PUNO.) ~avoy ‘stad jo 10ysetd ‘(oamssoid Jopun) 208 ‘yoor oyeydsoy g ----"bOgs*y ‘ommuvur ‘ouvns snp euog eS eae * ToyVAar ‘ZO “poor oyeydsoy eS ouny FOd* EH ‘3001 oyvydsoy “UML JO WIIOJ YUSTUGATIOD OTTO 10 &HO)vG Fost ‘39001 oyeydsoyg “yorrys ‘are “Roy ‘ITOH ‘Te00 eu0g ‘107M ‘FO G2zT ‘souod pouing, sinlsioie by ecigieg cas FOStH ‘31001 oyeydsoyd piciseisiei sls: oul] ‘FOS*A ‘oor oyeydsoy lalate S1710 (0 a CS14] 9) aa sqqnqd 4% uoqqig ““*poojoosy 7 WRUNTTTS srereseesgpttse: “Te ‘suoq “qi pue “p “SIqorT sratelececiotele V a ‘touqriog ore H ‘V ‘peojooxy SS CUCeicls [reg ‘19lqrampog Se aaa see ate op SS ee xf “Sano x si eae foe Qusrayy “W400 -urddry 2 4,00urddry “-"*=svuor “uosuvTusnye 7D TD ‘ofoustsoq, peck ih DV SUMBED SESE ASO SEE “y ‘see SST Sets fusg ‘1ouUe,T, WL ‘yA'T pure “EL Bfoioyg Sanco "NCO “PIOJS.LOEL veteeeees STMO'T 2p 941 SOS n tans VON {1981 *posn S}U93BO yy “90queIey 888T S881 P88T PS8T PSST E88T E88T E881 E88T E88T E881 T88T 6L8T ZL8T 9L8T GL8T EL8T EL8T GL8T GL8T GL8T UCT @ 99S68E 869665 6FZS0E 999208 8PCTOE LOFESS GE9T8S CPPBLS OSP8L6 E8E8LE EPTOLS OPC8ES 8ESTIS T8896T TO9ELT LGPPOT 6SSOFT SEOLET 86208T CSL86T FO69CT ‘ON 4uoyeg *ponuryu0j—juawyna7 prov fig saynydsoyd apqnjwwan wo apqgnjos fo uovyonpoud ay) sof sossa004g—'J{J WTAV\L, 23 UTILIZATION AS FERTILIZER. PHOSPHATE ROCK “08d O[QNIOS-o14y10 JO wWoONpoIg “JOZT ITY -J9J poaoidur jo uoONpoIg ‘soveydsoud tin -O[eorp pues Wnrto;eooucuL JO OIMJXIU @ JO VOTONpelg ‘soqyeydsoyud Winpovorp pue Tanopeoouour jo woronpolg “JOZTIN -Je} PoAOIAM Jo WOTjONpoIg ‘oreyd -soyd oun, poyeirdroeid jo wonesedes Jo woMonporg ‘eveydsoud peye1ue0u0s jo uUoTjONpoIg “prow orioydsoyd -o1hd tmory eos soyeydsoyd ple elqnop jo wornonpoig ; “OBI euoq yueds: mol, JOZITIy -Joj o1yeydsoyd jo woonporg ‘tunsd AB puetOd Hen Jo aoronpolg ‘oyeydsoyd e[qnjos jo woronpoid prdeyy “IOZTTN -10} poaosduy jo uoTONpoIg *UOLB10 -dBA0 JNOUIIM 8014S BUT -MOI3 JO ¥O q®FT Jo WOTINpolg ‘oyeyd -soyd proe Arp jo uoronpoig. * LOZTT}.AO] peaoidmr jo wononpoig “oye -soyd oun, poyetdrooid pues ‘epos omsneo “eurut “nye UOJ i soyeydsoyd poyeyrdroorid yo woronpoig ‘oyeydsoyd pire eqnop jo womonpoig *LoZTTyaloy Aap poaoidunr ue jo womonpoig “LOZTTE -1oy poAomduy JO Woronposg, ‘oyeydsoyd unto -[eoIp 0} yoor eyeydsoyd 4IeATOD 07 Poppe SI *OG*H JuUeTOyNE +OQOQ*H pue yoo oyeydsoyd YIM POXIU Woy} ‘osvoIs TOI] AT Cod] 07 PoSesIp 4SIY St esvqey ‘toreiodvas Aq paaoulel JojVM OY} PUB poppe Voy} SI7OSHBVN ‘301 WI Soprlsiongy puv soyeuoqieo youy -}@ 01 F}OS*FT JUSLOUNS PUL OAT UJIM PoXTUL SE Yoor oyeydsoyg ‘QIN XTU OY} YSno01yy possed st Aqror1y09To JO JueIMO ®B pue ‘mwoMnpoOs ‘OSHEN UIIM pox Ajo VUIT} UT St yOoI oyeydsoyg “‘qonpoid YIM pox1Ul ATYsno10YY US} ST Joos eyeydsoug ‘“ .00P 18 Yoor ojeydsoyd YIM poze} st osvqrey ‘TOPHN S07R100103 -91 pus CUI] OY} SoyeyTdroeid Yorum “OOD YAM pexvel} Woy) ST UOMNIOS ey “YO pesei~y pus peyeyidroesd snyy st oyeqdsoyd emITeyT, ‘out Aq FOgs(FEN) JO Uorptsoduto.ep ey} TOI] Poy SE fHN UOIUM O4UT JoUTe{U0d pesopo B UT peoed pues poyeicdeae pues pelei[y Wey SI MOT}NTOs oyeydsoyg 10}eA\ UL pepuedsns yoor oyeydsoyd jo ssetu & OJUT pay STIOH peajtoace cy, %OS*H TIM [OTH N Suyyve1y Aq poonposd 4s ore [OH pue *OS*HN) ‘oyeydsoyd e10Ur 1801} 07 pasn Moy} SI Torn -09 ‘poJWedep TOTIN[OS PU Jo} YIM POXTU WEY} SI yonpor ‘pURIS 01 PAMOT[S PUB PlOe YIM poxtur ATYSsnos0Y} st oyeydsoyg “poyTis pus “punoss “pormp st ssvy *O SIT MOTO PpPY SUpoq o1nyvsodure, “pe[log PUL PeXTUL OI¥ S}UETpeIsuy “JO PeMIUIIYs SLosverH “porlog puv pextu ATYsn010y4 sy UerpeisUy, Petes WOT}NIOS 0} poppe SE®ONVD FOd*®H UT PEATosstp St FOS*N oe Signe cee ee “--peyeoy pues ABA [eNsN OY} UL PoxTUL s}UETpeisuy ‘poppe setog 10 xo01 oyeydsoyd pues ‘Yo poultaryS st yey FOOFTET UL POATOSSIP SE 1097¥UT OTULSIO *yoor eyeydsoyd O10 4BO1} 07 POSN SL Plow Jo 0IN}XTUT OY} PUL FO Ss B1OU OYNITp OF pasn st suryNsed ’O q®§H jo wong FOS*H NTP UA PoxTUt [eo}eUL oyvVasoy OSH YIM Pojvos] ONIXTUL OT} pue Joyje30} AjoyeuryjyuL punois ore %7eQ pue yoo1 oyeydsoyg 7 aA [009 0} poMOT[e pus poxtur ATYsno10Y) 9.18 S}WErpo1suy, *po1e1[ 9POYM OT} PUB TOT|N]OS oy} 07 poppe uot? SI OUNT JO TW “YO polejyy St YoryM “euruMye pues UOT so7e7 djooid pue }OT HCN Seats "OWN JO UONppY FOdSHeN BSUATS FOS%N TIM poyvory sp _uornjos om “8(FOd)*eO 10 FOS* FT JO UOToR oY Aq poonpo.d st 'Og* FH 10 oyeydsoyd prow “amd 04 PoMOT[ puvlO F2T YATM pozvo.ay st oor opeydsoyd punoss Ajoury Glia agian ro --"9M9 0} PoMOT[e pus ATYSNo10Y} POXTUL 01 S}WOTPOIsUT eat hig “9nd 07 POMOTTe pure poxrur ATYSNo10y} ore S}UOTpPoAsUT --==--(0¢) FogtH “(O0T) Ho01 eyeydsoyg |-~-~~ ~~~ 5 ‘mueuieA0H weer eee FOS*E ‘oSeqze3 ‘yoor oyeydsoug |-------- gq “w “aodmen oasis 'osH FOSHEN ‘001 oyeydsoyg “A{1OLI}00T9 ‘EQ NH JO 1OS°H ‘O°H “OSHEBN ‘oor eyeydsoyg |-~~~- story “uemasaey eoFagse FogtH ‘eseqies ‘yoo1 oyeydsoyg |-~~ JeAve[D 2p IPeISSNy “1078M “yvaT] ‘OUIIT %O0 SOS*H ‘IOTHN ‘oor oyeydsoyg |-----~ "9 *¢ MORTeT AA wcecee pe SS sr ‘Txes ~=722°°>*cavoy FO qsH ‘Ho01 oyeydsoyg |---"---- 7" “") “emus “FOgty ‘MorvogtImd fro mol YORTq ouog |~-"--- ">" uyor ‘Ar05015H PUR eae 20080 *Od*H FOS*N |7-"""" ~ > “OeThy, “reAORy “-qvoy [euIezxe ‘FOgt*y ‘yoor oyeydsoyg |--"--""*" 0 ‘a ‘ueMyoy FOSSH 510} -}8U oT@esso ‘soumOd Jo yoo! avy dsoyg |-°* Stapn'yT “Jey[NUIssry Riese Fos*y o1NTp ‘[ersioyeur oywydsoyg |*-"*>-**"""seyO “JesepyH sreeeee --"FOgtE SB peo ‘yoor oyeydsoyg |******** y ‘IeSuUTMETY *9)), bUL [RUr -rue “ysnp Teo FOgty ‘yoor oyeydsoyg |--*7 7777 @ “UTA\ ‘Teag *quoTy ‘oTaTT TOSteN FOStH ‘out, Jo eyeydsoyd |***@ “A *O “AsuTSsuT AA - ial sroressoe tO geez Syoor oyuydsoyd |*******"** "svyO “Teseypp “SQ 9Rp FOS*H ‘10))8Ur jeujae aa Saat SSeS TSS = Onssss- TOSSH ‘qoyyRur peumue ‘seyeydsoyd epuopey c06T T06T TO6T TO6T 006T 668T FEST O&L9EL C6ZE0L 6F0069 SF0069 FIOESY LTLLS9 Soresg ISTIE9 gorse ecrros LS996F OFGFOF CLogePr LQCCFF COeOHE OSTSTF OSLIF THELOF | OFGLOF BULLETIN 312, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 24 ‘oreyd -soyd prove jo woronpolg “O%d O[QNOS-d11y19 Jo WorjoNpols F%OAHBO Jo UoTonporg “6(€Q N)VO SULUILIUOD ISZIpy -Joy eyeydsoyd jo uoronpolg “O%d S1qnypos Jo worjonp -old puv #og*y ur AuIOMOO “q1oA0I ATIPVOL 40U Soop OA JOzZT[I110y eyeydsoud Yori Jo wotonpolg ‘oveydsoyd 00 %Qg jo worjoe Jo suveotm Aq oyeyd -soyd ejqnjos jo woronpolg “prow ori0yd -soyd efqnjos jo woMonpoig ‘soqrydyns u101y eel] FOGH*O JO UoMonpoig FOAH8O Jo uoonporg -oveydsoud UINIposiy jo woronpo1g “sseaoid yo yo0lqo FOStH WIM pefkeards Ajsnoeue}NUIs pus yueImMod IB ue jo suvet Aq poxejyIse A[YSNoOIOYY St [eIleyewu eyeydsoug ERAS ORS er eae! peuroyeo pues ATYSNoIOy} Poxtud oe syUSrpeIsuy “UIVSB POSN PUB PAA[OAD SI [OH ‘sseudip 0) peyeiodeas pus #OgvO oY} Wold polo y ST WOTJNTOS OEY, “LOH Pure FOS*H WLM poe}vel) St Yoo oyeydsoyg ‘TMONeI[Y 10 UOTE URoep Aq payeaedes oyvardroosd pue uo “NOS OY} 0} poppe sLeuryT “ONH UT peajossip st yoo1eyeydsoug *poyoeyjvun ole Spunodulod WINUIUIN]S pue UOT yey} OS SoINIVISAUIE} MOT IU FO SH UIA PONTUL SI YooLojvydsoyg “peppe SI ®ONH jo Aqyuenhb [[euls & YOM 0} 1OS*H WIM JoMUBT TeNSN ot} UT pojvoty st yooI oyeydsoyg “peuloTvo US} ST FORO Jo enprsey “OS UM poyeinyzes Ja}M UL PSAfOSsIp WUA [VLIeyeUL epqnjog -10j7VM Jo AqryUeNb ]IVUls Jo sotioseid UL ZO g JO WOTJO’ 04 pozoolqns ST yoor eveudsoud “Ue30I14TU OTIOYAsOUL ye sutztprxo Aq pourezqo §ONH UIE pezve.7 st yoo1 oyeydsoyg ‘o1Rj1d1o01d 9G} 0} Peppe ST plo’ J0y40 ETOS IO FOS* A ‘MOT}VIvdos JeyJy ~pozejdroo1d ST £OgeO pus FOGHRO Jo oiN}xXIU B pu suTTIOG Aq po}eUTUIITS WOU} STEQS GOIFOUT, “OR*H PlOO UI POAossip SI YOo1 oyvydsoyg ¥O GHeO 910 JO WOT} BITdpOe1d UL StPANSeI ‘o,eIVTY 07 peppe wou st FOg)HeD “peyeydrooid ¥O HV pue poytog UO} SI WONNTOS oYT, “OS*H Pld UI PoATOssip SI Yoo egvyascey gq TOI’ YIM POXTUl CUB polei{y Woy} st 10nDdIyT OU.L “JVM YIM Pe eSIp oi evo J9}{U pues yool eyeydsoyg “FOgt*y ‘(punois Ajowy) yoo1 eyeudsoyg PE oS Joye FOS*y ‘yo01 oyeydsoug “7 -qvou ‘ITOH FOS*H “001 eyeydsuyg trees oul] “ONH ‘yoo eyeydsoyg “HN ‘ToTyelosiTjer FOg*y ‘yoo eyeydsoyg adaseoodd fONH 7OS*H ‘yoos oyeydsoyg eS yeoy ‘O%H “og ‘yoo1 eyeydsoug ‘U9801}1U JO SOPTXO 1oqjO 10 EON H ‘yoo1 oyvydsoug FOS*H Jo ‘OH “Ootg pues Wos ‘1o7eM ‘oor eyeydsoug “yeoy, (FO d) reg “Og ‘eye ‘yoor eyeydsoyg +101} VUL SN0VD -euoqies ‘exo Jeytu ‘yoo1 eyeydsoyg Seats aM HONE cece eee A “Hl ‘mequndg ‘NH “jormeg pue “g “g ‘AleqMon octtee ee V ‘o[[rae}o1g ABeeenoasa > ‘SURI MA Boer ans seen) ‘TE7VeSNO see “CW “oyspeyoeyy See f¢ ‘sntnpyas SSe00005 oy ‘mueUIsI0g snéonoe “Ha “dopo {UST} BOLL *posn S}Wesve ry -g04Ue}eq PI6T cI6T CI6I TT6T TI6T TI6T 806T 2061 2061 LO6T €06T POESOTT O60FE0T €ST0ZOT 606TTOT T89€00T 896166 SCFc06 LSLELB GLECES TLEGS8 SoTPPL 3 ‘ON red | queqeg *penutju0)—juawjoay prov fig sajnydsoyd ajqnjwan 10 ajqnjos fo worjonpoud ay7 Lof sassa001g— JJ] ATAV I, 25 UTILIZATION AS FERTILIZER. PHOSPHATE ROCK CT *IOZIII410} @ JO MOTJONpOIg SUIT] OOlS pue oyeqdsoydorAd wnt -[€0 SULULC}100 [el1e} eu OT q, “N[OS-0}e81}10 @ JO DOMONpolg -oyeqd -soyd out ‘perisep jr ‘pue epos o1snevo JO worjonpoIg “yus0senb -ljepuoun + pue ‘ssoutyoris W10Jj Ger {104% UL e]qnTos ATusty St yorum jonpoid y “eULMIN]e Pus WOIT 740 JO eyveydins Zururej}u0 oyeyd -soydejem @ jO mOlonpolg ‘ove -soyd o[qeireae jo uorjonporg "IOZT O[qepIeAv Jo UOTJONpoIg *qu0UL ~101} PIO’ 10 WOT}T PMO 104 ‘IopMod AIp & Sv [VI10} eu OF} EARLE] 0} posn suIog pioe qsnoue AToO ‘FOS? WIIM pexe[S WEY} pus PeUTo[eo SI ony -X]UI CY, “pextul pus polepmod oie euojseutl] pus eyeydsoug ey} sasodmiooep siyyg, ‘oloydsomye sulzIprxo ue UI peuloleo SI OINIXIW F%OS*H WII pextul pues peztseaqnd si oyeydsoyg “MOLINOS UT SUIVUIOI Epos OF}SNvO pus 4NO seyeredes oyeydsoyd ouNT ‘OUlI] OIISNGO WIM pe}eel} PUL POATOSSIP SI epos jo oeydsoyd ey “Ajoyeredes ,,JN0 pej[es,, 018 YOIM BpOs JO eprso;yo pus o7ey -soyd Sule}M00 UOTNJOSSIy,, “10}eM OJUI UNI Hoy} pus po}vey AOU SE Jonbiy Ajsed ey, “pesuspuoo suleq [OH peAloagd 6} ‘pe}e.1}M90000 pue FOUMBIP SIIONbI]JueyeuJedng “poppe @p0s JO 0}eY [Ns JO MOT}NjOs & PUB [OH Ul peapossip st eyeydsoyg *“pe}8ey Wot} ST on} -XIMIOUL, “Poppe ros*H puerog*y pue‘pesepmod sroyeydsoyg |"e00 ‘FOStH ‘TOM 10FOS*H ‘oyeydsoyg : 10100 Aviz B SOMINSS® 4T TH}un peyeoy wey} pus ‘Tensn serOg?H WIM poyvery sroyeydsoyg *poyeoy mem} SISSeyY “*FOR*H IIA poueysrour A[SnorA -0.1d e110} VU SNHOSDRTIOG IO TTA POXTUL PUs PelEpPAOd SI [BIOUT A, ‘eyeydsoyd pozvoy ysnom} pessed st 20g 10 ‘pojseor SI g pus o}eydsoyd jo oMyXI;L ~49q 0JUT Souod synd duyuIng [~~ - ees EASA Ss peuimgd oie souog *ssooosd Jo yo0[q oO *{UOUI} VOLT, 7OSH “eeq ‘euojseun, ‘soyeqdsoyd eaten |-------~ -""47 "TZ fsaqBOg he Sh sites Mie “ooo HE Hane qeoy “FOs*H ‘oor eyeqdsoyg | puv “g “g “Alieqaen *OUITT aljsneo “yeoy 61078 “epos JO oyeydyns ‘OH ‘oyeydsoyd oroyeorp 10 ofopeorty, *pyeot SogtH ‘seyeqdsoyd wor pus umurainty |--" “wea “f ‘exyequrény “yvoy ‘FOS*H “[BIJejeur sno ovmogieo ‘q}0q 10 eyeydsoyd or1ey Io vulumye poyeipAy JO sorqtuenb e[qeiepisuod §=©surureyuoo)=—s Sy wou |--- 'T “sg ‘epepooy “grey “FOS io g ‘oyeqdsoqd wor JO umulTumypy |--*-"~**~ ¥ ‘q ‘reuqros SR eee re Seely a t qeoy ‘somuog |-"--"" "7 "WH “WOSTTAL *posn sjuesve yy “99]UEIET rat TI6T T6ST T6ST T6sT 88st SSst S9sT “aIeCT OSS*cOL S70S66 QIETOF SO69FF LS00FF FOMTSE QTFENT QEELL ‘ON }ueeg “qUaULjval) way puD prow paurquios fg pwn rwoydsoyd fo uoyonpoid 9y) Lof sasse00.g— AJ ATV], BULLETIN 312, U. 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 26 ‘eyeydsoyd (uinisse}od 10) UINIpos uINToTvOeI}03 O[QNJos-0781}]9 JO WoronpoIg ‘eyeqd[ns uinuror “nie pus oyeydsoyd wmnip -OS OISeqII} JO wolonpolg *TIOS 0} UT SUTISIXO SJUOA -[OS Up eqnjos eyeydsoyg ‘eyeydsoyd O[QNJOs-0781}10 JO MOLJoNpoIg -eyeydsoyd eully O[QNIOS-07°21}10 JO MOLJONpoIg ‘eyeqdsoyd mnuruinye O[QNIOs-0781}10 JO MOTjoNpoIg ‘oyeqdsoyd @[QNIOs-0181910 JO WOrONpoIg VOda®eN JO wOronpolg “8O%q Jo Apqepeae ey} suIsveloUr JO potiey ‘oyeyd -soyd wintpos jo woronpoig ‘eyeyd -soyd e[qnjos Jo woronpoig ‘oyeydsoyqd e[QNIOs-1078M JO WOrjonpoIg ce 10} -eorsiod eq},, JO uorjonpolg “*O%d Pqeleae IO e[qnjos jo wWoronpor1g ‘oyeqd -soqd o[qnjos jo woronpoirg ‘oyeydsoyd eUl[ey[e we jo woronporg *sseooid jo yoolqo Soma ne ent ide ea ino ace oe a wae ies a poe zeoy ST OINIXTIPL ‘oyeydins uNUUINys suppers “OS*H YIM po}voy ST OLBOT[IS MINUIUIN[S oY, “3NO poezii[eisA1O ST WOIQNTOS ur But -UlvuIeLeyeydsoyd UInIposeu, ‘“e7eOT]ISse pejetdroead snq} st SUIMIN[Y “WOlMN]OS oyvdl|IS MINI POS TIIM PeXTUl 07%1}[y 9} pus pe1e}[J W0q} SI4T + “WOLJN[OS Bpos o14SNed UI po|log st eyeydsoyg ei perucdcy sis sila ep ciaicin sie -cie/risinistslnis/2)e -7"*""*19q 4030} Po} [OUI O18 S[elIeJ Vy CHI 0}UI podunp wey} SI3IT “pues uodn sje} pus’ yno sun sseut posnjey,y, “edVUIM o11}09]0 Ue UT pesny pues poysnio sreyeydsoyg ‘omjerlodu19} AIBSso0u SIOMOT I[eHTe Ey @y@ 1:70) ze UWOr}Isoduro0dep Jo o1n}e10d ®@ 0} pozeoy SI x01 oyeydsoyg “peytsodep suleq mnurmnye jo oyeydsoyd ‘pejooo pue enprser wo peieredes SI WOINIOS JULITNSeY ‘“ouIUVEUI CT} UT peyeed Zureq ‘o7eu -OQ1Vd I[VY][V JO WOLIN]Os ITM pozve1} S1o}eydsoyd poprarp Apour sy “T[BY[V 19A0001 0} PINbI] SuUIUTVUIEI OY} 0} poppeSIoully “peje? -1dfoold suteq vuruINn{e jo oyeydsoyd “OO WIIM peiVinyes pus ONpIsel oy} WOT; po}eiedos SI MOL N]OS SUIZ[NSeI OUT, steel &q pe}OuL0id sulted STU} ‘WOryN]OS I[eX[e WIT poisosip St oyeydsoyg pO OLG DS Oger FOSVN TIM JSVOl wey. pus oyeydsoyd conporxy We JO IBS B JO TOMIPPY -010} GACY’ IN TOISNy MOjEq 4UTO: GAD OR CE GOOLE GEE ibe aten itboLinas pojeMploe pus peuing st omyxtyy ° “JO pezer -OdvA0 Hot} O18 [OH PUB eEINISIOW “[OVN WIE pervedd st+Og®H ‘pelip wey} pue SYOoM OA} 4NOGe Io; dvoy v UI UTeMEI 0} peMOT[e SI Sseur OY, “1e{8A TIM PeueSIOU PU POXTUI O18 YSB VpoOs pu 4snp ouog PoE Speleasht le initye yesis ie/eis (cies) ple!s)eleie(ain\chsiaisis.e)5/- “» “¢ “GsIOqI MA ‘¥OS°H ‘0} BOL ]IS UINTpOs Jo TOT} “NjOs snoenbe ‘wornjos epos o1sneo “eey ‘eyeydsoyd wumurumye eAneNn +10} BUI SNOoL Sep: wemley ‘ejoog -80[80 pus SnosoryIs ‘seyeydsoyd einjeny |--- 77777777 q “¢ ‘pees *10]@M. “pues ‘4ue1mod ofijoojo ‘yoor eyeydsoyg |--------> » Yourpeqooc “TRAILS Ue JO 7[es “Qeoy ‘(poppe oe Aoq} osouy Ule}U0D OU YOOI ey} pmmoys) &ODeD pue 2019 sufureyuoo yoor eyeydsoyg |--------" L pie ‘Aeq *yeoy ‘1018 ‘ITeyTe We Jo oyeydsoqd IO oyeuoqivo ‘eyeydsoyd wumurumpy |-------------"7-- Op-"--- ‘oully] %O0 “ye0q ‘morynjos Iyex[e ‘eyeqydsoyd wmnurminty |-----"-- SoTIVYO ‘1eseyo pers e FOStEN “Teoo ‘Sv]s oryeydsoyg |"---~--ses1004 ‘moooy *104) CUI SNOsdeUOG.Aed ‘s}[es Ysej0d Jo epos ‘o}eydsoyd wort 10 wnuTUINTY |-~ ~~~ SIQeTT 27 smOqqry Sei ie iii iy yeouy, TOeN *Od°H *(suOTIe3 0Z 01 ST) 1oeM ‘(Spunod 008) Use epos ‘(spunod Qog‘T) snp eucel “SSUl -1078.M ‘930 ‘somo 10 ouens o1yeydsoyg ‘tunsd 43 ‘euml] ‘MOrynjos yse}0d ‘yoor eyeydsoyg “Yoo eyeydsoyd ‘1onbty ses ‘mornjos 1OVeN “48S WOUTTIOO JO WOrNTos “yeoy ‘syTeIourUL oyeydsoyg *ysejod 10 ‘epos ‘eur, ‘eyeydsoyd woir 10 wWnutUNn,Ty pasweser myor ‘SuULuIuO* Foeeaoe I9do0g a B1qory *posn s}uesvery ‘90}0IVq artes ulmefueg ‘1euney, | 8681 | 680109 8681 | z81s6s L681 | 261689 26st | 99zeg¢ gest | 0g0cte T6st | oogesr- T6sl | 66zesr ER8T | FL9FSZ zest | ezoese ZL. | SPLeer TA8T | ¥666TT OL8I | SEFZOT 698T | 29006 89st | 1908Z 898 | 66LFL cost | T96SF - “ON “Yjiva auUYoyyD Lo “Yypy)D ‘aznor7Is D YUN Worpsodwodap liq saynydsoyd apqvjvwan wo ajqnjos fo uorvjonpoid ay} Lof sassa001g—' \ DIV, 27 PHOSPHATE ROCK: UTILIZATION AS FERTILIZER. ‘eyed -soyd o[qe[ivAe Jo Moron porlg ‘oveydsoyd P[GNIOs-0721}10 Jo UOT}ONpoIg ‘soyeyd -soyd efqnyjos jo uormonpoilg ‘od “IOI 1o] B JO WoTjONpoIg “Ord Q[QNyOs-97e1}10 Jo UOTJONpoIg “od ‘od -oyveydsoyd 8 QNIOs-071910 JO UO;jonporlg *proe oyr0yd ~soyd o[qviyeae Jo uoyjonporg ‘ove -soyd opqe[reae Jo Woronpolg YOd*H Wory VOS*eN sduryeredos Jo ssoo01g ‘oyeydsoyd O[GN[Os-o}e1}10 JO WOLjoNpoIg TE eS SMe Sue ee rea ree PME oy a peyeoy PUw POXTIUM OI’ S[BIIOIV PL *punois wey} SI4y *oingeired -110} YSIY B 07 pozoofqns ‘0784S JOM B Ul ‘pus ‘PoXTUI O18 S[eIIOLe IL “me pue we9}s pextm jo 4sev_q @ Aq poynqrsrp Ajouy SI sseur poe}ou ey} pus ‘104}080} po}[oUl ore o}eoITIS TeIoy4Ie pue oyeydsoug sgn “""*""-""==no9ivolyl Pus PoXTU oI8 oyeydsoyd pue pnur omy . “‘peppe oq Avur BIsou “BCU JO ayfmre13-Ysejog “puno1d pus 10}eM OJUT UNI Woy) ST 4 *posnjsseul oy} pus “punoduiod oul] ou} WIM poxtur si oyeydsoyg “pouleyqo suleq FOSeO pue “HO )eO ‘IOV pus tOS*H YIM poyeory st oyeydsoydordd OL “YO Wealip suteq eyuourure ‘poureiqo st oyeydsoqdorAd 8) ‘“po}seol pu’ poxTUI ole oJeYd[Ns UINTUOMIUIe pus oyeYydsoug 9784 “Idjooid 0) poppe HON pue [OH Ur peapossrp st yoor oyeydsoyud *@[QNIOS JI Lopuer 0} (}UOUT}B0I} [OH) poreed} 6q ysnur eyeydsoyd oy} ‘pesn uveoq sey %Q8O JI ‘UOryNJos 0381410 UL o[qNIOS SI poul1oy oyeydsoyd oyy ‘pesn useq sey 2[OsW JI ‘“poulioy oyeydsoyd yy1e9 I[eyle oY} SUTeJUOD COBILIN] Ol} Ut ONpIsoloy, “ureojs Aq [OH pus Oprxo or1109j OWT pesoduoo0p 6q ABUL YOIYA ‘pourso; SI OPLIOTYO O10} °C ,08zZ EAOGW “pasuep -u0d PUB POUIIOJ SI [OH *O G81 PAOGY ‘peulJoy st epr1o;yo UWINIPOs VINUIUINTS pu UOTyN]OS [OVN 0JUT poy ore s1odva oy} ‘0 00TPAOGY “UOTyBUTITTGns jeUOLoOvIy Jo o[droutid oy} 10458 Ie JO WO[snjOXe YIM pojeoy pus poxTUI oI’ OprIO[YO pus oyeydsoyq ac ma ee “*-**"puno1s pus ‘pouroyeo “poxTur OIB S[TVIIOJC PL Tose eseeseeerececerececeeessr=****DUN0IS PUB POULO[VO SI OINAXTWW *puno13 Woy} pues poxeoy SI oINYXTUI SIT, *10} “eM pue ‘Y4180 OUT[eYIR ‘I[Vyx[B ILM poxTul st oyeydsoyd punosy *snoooryis ATUSIy St yOOr oyeydsoyd oy} Woy poppe st Ysejog ~“poywoy Woy} SI sseut CYL “10}eM PUB OVN YIM poxTUr ore [TV ‘poztaoatnd pue peuing o18 eyfIony pus oyruojop pus ‘poztioatnd st oyeydsoyg *4no pozti[eysAro YOS*CN PUB IOSHEN JO WoP}N[os 8 Uy poAlosstp sf yoo oywydsoy os ea ee ad rie LIAS Gy diate Gh (2) 0 iz {67 pep [PUl O18 STLLIOP VP “(qsnp eng) eprxo wom ‘10j3eM ‘4voq ‘sITes UWINIpos ‘oJ ‘setlog 10 Yoor ayeydsoyg |~---~-*---*7*>> >" opis => “reyeM “eoy ‘xng ® se (ysnp ony) eprxo wom ‘yse epos Inydyns 10 yse epos ‘040 ‘souoq Io yO01 eyeydsoyg |------77 77 te [Op => *yeoy ‘10yeM ‘oyeyd[ns untpos Io ({snp onf) eprxo wort ‘epos ‘eu04s -oull] ‘oJ ‘souoq 10 yoo. eyeydsoyg “ire ‘urBeys ‘780 ‘(pues pue ‘ouojsemty ‘e7eyd[ns uMIp -OS ploe se yons ‘sjelioJeur MBI Tey} JO) soyeoryIs [eIoyty.1e ‘oyeydsoyd [einen “4eoy ‘3001 oyeydsoyd ‘(epos osneo Jo oimyoejnuem oy} ur Jonpoid-Aq @ ste pouTeIqoO HORN pus *OOe8) Jo emmzxTU &) pNut SUIT “BISOUSCUI IO O}T -ueis ysejod ‘10;8.M ‘yeoy ‘auII] JO Opt Foss sis “"""H *f¢ frou “M “SIO}[O.M pus “J “esery “sow "A 4TBy -lony Jo oyeuoqreo ‘ayeydsoyd yemyen | ~~~ *~ N ‘0 ‘roqjoearreyy “IojeaM FOS “voy ‘oyeyd [Ns unyuomme ‘oyeydsoyd wumpeg |~~-""-" AA “gq ‘sqorrerg ae ata. yoor eyeydsoyd “HO®N “IOH |*7*7*7**" “MA “TeemNTe I JOBRN “480 ‘Joy8M ‘SoploTyo BO Jo Sy ‘sey -soyd wimoyeo pus ‘uom ‘tunurunyy |*~~- yorureH ‘reporgos *yeoy ‘xny sv oyeuoqieo ysejOC Jo epos ‘oun, ‘euoq Jo yoor eyeydsoyg |**-~*- 7777 "ODeeses “geoy ‘ST 10 BN JO OSOy SB ONS sozeyd -soyd o[qnyos-10}8M\ 10 prow oroydsoyd “ajo ‘souoq Jo sozeydsoyd ypemjen “qRoy ‘1OVBAN ‘soprxoipAy Bg JO Spy 10 BO ‘seyeu0q ote sserer sg “KITOq. 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 28 : ‘O0%8N : *POPVIATXT] PUB ZOD WTA poyeory pus Od HN JO uoonporg | Mey} ST SSem SUIYINSEY “OD pues *-OS*BN WIA pojour st sefg | -- "~~~ 700 “0 FOS%N ‘Ses oreydsoyg |--- ~~ eosin] ‘oyerodwmy | ¢gst | irre ‘ *“SSBUI JO ODRT -IMS Iveu °Q%q JO UOIJeseldeg |-- ~~~ *7 =e A[MO|S AIOA [00D 0} POMO][S ST aele oneudsoua pe re ae 3UT[00D MojIS ‘(oryeydsoyd) Beg |----°**"* [eg ‘teTqreyos | sSssr | FOEZTE ’ ‘oyeydsoyd proe JO oMjovInUeU oY} UL pesn oihjxIm 94} IO poyeredos 19q}10 wey} St’Od*H eu, FOS°H SO pene pues poloyy St SIqL ‘oqeydsoyd o1i1oj SV MOIT OY} SUIYRIIGIOOId ‘TOTINIOS oY} 0} poppe “yeoy ‘O2H ‘SRS o14eydsoyd U0} SI Y[VyO polopMOg “Jude 19 }O OWIOS 10 [Q Aq pozIprxo SostH ‘oul, “uose Surziprxo ‘OH “L ‘WemuUIM Woly }Od®H JO UOLJONpoIg | Wey} Sf WOTNJOS UT eprxo snoIIO; [OH UIA pozvod} 4s1y st seg | ‘O%q pus eprxo UO SulureJUOD seIg | pue “H “g ‘seMONL, | F88I | 799908 “NOI SUTIBO! ‘PpoiVIAIXT] Pus YO UNI Uey) ST SeIS -snioydsogd wo oey OL 4WWseIq oy Aq poonporjUr st f§OO%*eN O10. “oOVUINY JouIeS ‘yeoy ‘Oe ‘oul ““ONSCN -soyd oul[ex[e JO uOTJONpOIg | -So_ oIseq B Ul o}eUOgIVO I[ey[e Ue MOdN poinod st [ejour ueqoP_ | ““OO%N ‘q SururejzUOD OI Sid MeqjOyY |7- "7-7 op-"**" FS8L | LOFTOS “UOTJNIOS 94} 0} poppe OUI : “U0 3uTIeeq-snioydsoyd pUeS Po}JVIAIXI] SI Se[S BULy[NSeY ‘ooue}sqns suUIp[eré-ues0Ip “qeoy ‘are ‘out, ‘O2H ‘8O20,q ‘sed WOly eully jo ojeydsoyd -AY 1oY}0 10 ‘Ses 1098M ‘UIBOIS JIM BUO[S 10419AU00 JouMIESSOg, I0}8M JO T1R03S po}voyiodns ‘gq 498d poyeyidiooid jo uoljonporg | & UL UOT SNIOYdsoYd oY} OJUT WMO] O18 SeplIo[YyO ouljpex[e oy, | 10d [| JoAO SuLUTe}UOD HOI ‘JOY IO[OBN |" °°") “Ss ‘SeMONL | FST | 90FTOE 5 *Po}VIALXT[ USY} SI SSePY *10}8] Pesn 3uleq suey SUIZIprxo ‘euIey SULIONPSL UL ooVUINY A10}V.19qG.1IGAOI UI po}vey Pus [vOo pus FOS*GN UIIM poxtul srojeW (Z) FOS%N Jo Sorryuenb [Teus ‘soyeqdsoyd omy[ex]e pus OUI] JO UOMIPPe of} YIM I09IOATOO OISeq BG UL HAO] ST ‘o*H ‘soqyIAd ‘ex09 Jo [eoo FOS*A O[QNIOS surUTe}qGO Jo SpoyjoW | 0}9VUL OWL, (1) ‘SUOTJIPUOD ZUTONpel JopuM posny ysiy st sejsouyy | FOS%N ‘our, ‘xng ‘3e[s oneydsoyg |-----------7- © ‘moooy | E88I | FL9F8Z. 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 36 *snqed ~edde 10 sse0id jo yoolqo a “TLTS ‘ON qUe}e@q Ul poqtiosep AOZTLPIOP esl YC Ue) OSS Olt = erage in ree ine ao eaaNe ete ene eT ORS S| BE ee oe ager og unre sg ree OP sees ae aes Bere = eS op---*- ¥68I | Z99LTS ‘eSnjoi esnoly *IOZI[I}IOJ JO WOTYONpOIg |--7- 7-77 pexIul pus punois AjYsno10y} ore syUoTpersuy | -10348ne[s pue oyeydsoyd wmuluNty |-°°-"-"~~ “q “N ‘101M0g | FEST | TO9LTS “TInt “SO%q O[QB[IVAV JO TOMONPOIg | --- [009 0} PEMOT[e PUG "D .GZE'O} .G4z 0} Po}VEY] ST OINI XT | -nYV pure worl yo soyeydsoyd poyeapAH |-------- ~~ I'S ‘elepi0y | e68T | 688E6r 8O%q O[Qe[IVAv SUITE} N09 oh Co) 110) 9 qonpoid Arp jo uorjonporg | ., Hols, WIM poxtar ATYSno10y} ore FQOVD pue Yyoor eyeydsoyg | #OOO «Hors, “oyeydsoyd wnurunyy | -- ~~ c¢ ‘TyequAny ueA | 681 | 6FLESF “19}VM YIM pepyUrids st epoym eyT, “OBO UZTA : ‘og sro AV] 018UI10}[8 UI poyId pue punors Ajouy st yoo oyeydsoyd oy, }°~- °° - 3938 ‘ORO ‘yoor oyeydsoyg |°-"-*~ “aq ‘suryspoH | O68T | OzEEecr 0d “> -qvoy YSIy 0} poq{uqns pus poxim ATYsno10y) 1 S}USTpersuy |----~- "~~~ yeoy ‘moqivo ‘yoo oyeydsoyg |°-°°""" "7 "> VD ‘sIqerT | I88I | S98IFz “SYJUOU [V19AeS "SOUL 0d IO} J04}veM 0} pesodxe pus pextur ATYSno10yy oie syuerpoisuy | -Ad uoyoiq Ajesreoo ‘yoor oyeydsoyg |°--°°-- >" * \L (004) ‘SIMO'T | + T88T | Selsez SO%q O[QB[lVAv JO MOIONpoOIg |----°-e 10}8M IM poxtu ATYSno10y} ore syUoTpersuy |---- "7 Fogg ‘ou0g poropMOdg |°---° V ‘Zig | SL8—I | 086602 ‘soyeydsoyd eyqn . “IOYBVIM OF -[0S JO WOT}VULIO} [eNpPeIs oT, | Pemol[e pu poxtur ATYsno10y} pues puNnoIs ore syUSTpeIsUT OY, |~-~ ~~~ ~~ ---seqriAd wort ‘yoor eyeydsoyg }°"°" ~*~ “49 ‘jomoaey | 948 | 9S8TZ ‘oyeydsoyd prov jo 01n4 *IOZIIT}.10J ag nIOs -O8JNUBUL OY} UI st rOS*H YIM PoxTU pue puNois ore sy[oYs eu, |-- °° ’OS*H ‘s[[OYS WIBID 10 1e3SAQ |°"° 7” He‘f ‘e100yy } 2981 | SeeZ9 “sul -purid seqeqtyroey uunsd AS ey, |-- °° punoi3 pue pextm ATYsno10y} ore sjUeIpeIsUl ey, |°--°"--** HOPS OO ITE: “-uansdA3 ‘souog |--""""-"""" “-"¢ ‘IeqSTAA | 998T | SEorS -yuaqed Jo yoolqo “qUOUIIeOL I, “posi sjuesvexy 99701948 J ‘aqeq ‘ne a *sassao0ud snoauppjaosvu fig sayoydsoyd a7qnj wav 10 aqnjos fo UoYyonpolg— TTX AAV], ‘oyeydsoyd 2ulpulis *yoo1 oyeydsoyd surysem (‘morMe14snq{II JO poyjowW Ul yUeMeAOIdUI] | T) ‘“oUryORUT Jo W110} [eIoods B UT poysem SI Yoor oyeydsoyd ou, |----~” euTyovur Zurysem ‘“Yoor oyeydsoyg |--"-°""-"** Oo 'm ‘mooeg | 98st | e29cEE Jo poqjem utr juste sorry pieelsice nee “10J8M TIM [I B Ul punos3 st yoo oyeydsoyd oy, | ~~ “[[rur Burpurs3 ‘107em ‘Yoor eyeydsoyg |-"-""""** L004 ‘SIMO'T | TL8T | S69FIT 97 8U -soyd prow Arp Jo uotonporg |--1e4i1p seputpAd jo urs0} tetoods & ysno1y} ynd st oyeydsoyd ploy |---1elrp [eormpurfAo pue eyeydsoyd proy |---- ~~~ -- apy 3 Hue | OLST | ZFI90T ‘oyeydsoyd “UI JO W110} [eVIOeds B 07UI posieyo ploe 10330q B JO WoOMoNporg | -SIp st yonpoad ey} Yoor oyeydsoyd pus prov ey} surxru 1exyy |---"- UIq JO UII0J [eToods eyeudsoud any |jecereseee2 “-*y qreandg | OZ8T | 6IgS0T *possed st 118 *IOZI[I}.10F *pessed SI Iv JOY YoOryM Ysnoyy ‘ssutr yoy Form Ysnoiyy ‘ssurye18 JO sorses oeydsoyd Arp Jouononporg | -4813 Jo seties B I9A0 sieAB] UL peords st oyeydsoyd ploe 10 oueny | uo poids ‘azeydsoyd prow 10 owens |----7""*~ “-q-q ‘qsneg | OL8T | 8F9Z0T “4901 891], *posn sjuesee xy *90}00}8q 078 ier d “ponutju0j—saynydsoyd ajqnjos pun yoo. oynydsoyd fo quawina.) poovunyoau ay? of snjouoddv pup sassav0d J — [TX ATAV I, 37 UTILIZATION AS FERTILIZER. PHOSPHATE ROCK “Ord @[QNOs-9}81410 Jo WoMONporg ‘oures sutonpoid jo ssoooid ~pue °O%q 9[Qe[IVeAv Jo Moonporg “eIuomUIe pues eyeydsoud -8]0UL MINTO[vo JO UOT;onpoIg *s[e1OUTUL eIq(NOsSUL Woy OF pue 60%] 9[QeTIeAv Jo Moon porg “O8P7G8 “ON 409784 UL POqTIOsep IOZI[IV10y OF einy xt sutzedoid yo ssooorg “O%q o[qeiieae supuyey “009 JOZI[I}A0J Jo UOTONpoIg “80% 7 9[GBIIeAB JO MOTjOnNpor SONIO MINE pue Od Jo uomonporg ‘oyeydsoqd A AdOO Wad SLND ¢ LV *9 ‘cd ‘NOLONIHSVM qOMdO ONILNIUd LNAWNUTAOD SINTNWN00d JO INAGNALNIMGdNAS FHL WOU GAUNIOUd AA AVW NOILVOIIANd SIHL AO SHIdO0 TVNOILIGGV *pUNOIS SI JONPOIg “Sewey SULZIPrxo Ul UOT pue erzeydsouye Sutonper Ul ysIy ‘peyvoy A[su014s Mey) st ony -XIUI OU, “poxIUl pus puNois oie UOgIes pus Yoor eyeydsoyg *@110108q JO [MOIS Pre 0} poppe oq ABU [el10jeM OULIVYOOVG +=‘poppe ore eliejoeq SUTAIINTU Sut -UIG} M09 [l104VU PU OTT] ‘yoo107zeydsoyd YAIM poxTu UeT4 ST 4I ‘04S@AA XBI0G 10 yvoy Aq PoZT[II0}s 4sIy st yved 10 snumMy oq, “JOVVM UJI po}eo1} SISIYY, “4107 OI Ul SUIVMIOI }OSeD pue eyeydsoydejour tunro[eo Jo omy xTUr ® pue odvase OFH pus fyN ‘poeureiye st -9 ,00¢ Jo eimyerz0d -119} @ [II peyseor pu PoxTul 0.18709 2(FAN) pus Yoor oyeydsoyg ‘poppe ore yoor oyeydsoyd pezi[l19}s pus etog PUNO pozTi104s ‘Avoop oor sosnvo YOM OIM}[Nd SUIATS ‘oN XTU O.1N4[Nd Of Poppe ST Yoor WMOp-sulyVvorg *punois Ajouy ore Ao} O10 ‘T[TUI & O7FUT possed Woy} puv poysniod ATYsnor sy 018 INYdMs pues yxoor oyeydsoyg ‘poppe O18 S[VliejVul BuTIBwed YSej,od 10 WesO1IN ‘punols pus poxtu AjoyeuryUr ore MYdins pus yoor oyeydsoyg y *punois puv PeTIp ofOyA\ oYy pue yoor oyeydsoyd YAIA pextu sisi, “Shoouesouoy si ssvur OY} [Un peyvey 4say st 1098M pus ‘ovaty ‘mMYydmMs jo omyxtu y “OO°EN UJIM posny onpise.t oy} pues Wo wel SLTOd “N Jo e10Ydsoul;e Ue UT posny STIOVN pure 3oo1 oyeydsoyd jo onyxtu y "OUIB} SUTZIprxo Jo comosoid UT po}voY PUB PoxTUI or’ s}UETporsUT sine oo ire ‘yeoy ‘toqivo ‘oor eyeydsoyg “qeoy ‘SeImg[Nd B10} -08Q BUI}R[IUIISSt-Ues01}IU ‘TeIIE} BUT eurIeyooes ‘emI]T ‘eysBA. xv10q ‘yred 10 snuIny ‘8R[s OIsVq 10 Yoo oyeydsoyg *IOYVM fey ‘FOS*FHN) oor ojvydsoyd “yoo oyeyd -soyd ‘eri0qoVq IO; POO; oUIOS ‘STIST UBsIO0ION SUTUTeIWOD YooI-UMop -BUTYVOIG ‘OINYXIUL eINQTMO peziyeys Ce surpuris ‘mydns ‘yoor oyeydsoy *STRIIO} BUT SUT -1e0q ST 10 N ‘ands ‘yoos oyeydsoyg *-"797BM\ ‘ORO ‘Mydyns ‘yoor opeydsoyg “qRoy O0%8N ‘N ‘D ‘TOBN ‘Hoor oywydsoyg “yeoy ‘asoues -UBUI PUB TOIT JO SOPTxXo “Yoorayeydsoyg | causes qu TAA StyPOSTYO ee ie Cg “OXSTRYORY qoovr ‘eseeyy 1161 TT6I OT6I 906T Q06T SO6T S06T cO6T | | 9LES0T SFCTOOT SFIGOOT COLLEO TSTFES OSTFES FILTOL OFFESL OSSFIL . ¢ ray . Sati Fas . * ; Bohs see icbe ts io sation aimed athe be «pied eels UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 313 ¥ Hh Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry A. D. MELVIN, Chief. Washington, D. C. Vv November 13, 1915 FEATURES OF THE SHEEP INDUSTRIES OF UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AND AUSTRALIA COMPARED. By EF. R. MARSHALL, Senior Animal Husbandman in Sheep and Goat Investigations, Animal Husbandry Division. CONTENTS. Page. Page SURG TGA - ep oereeesease Usesuonoceesede 1 | Expense o fpreparing wool for market....... 28 General conditions in New Zealand’s sheep Selling graded orclassed wools in the United LIS PETG Ise Un CA See eeeoeee a aepeaes 2 States eee acre ny aetna os woke 29 General conditions of sheep husbandry in Cooperative shearing shedsin New Zealand.. 31 2 TRUERUE SS: «see eee epseeeecaebe pepeeee 4 | Education of wool growers and their em- Tenure of pastoral lands..............-.-...- 6 DIOVECS Hehe tee neat ane comin uetiseate Sees 31 Hloeck management. -~.----2.------.-=.--..-- 8 | Sheep raisers’ organizations.....-......-.--- 33 Breeds and types of sheep in Australia...... 9 | Probable extent of future importations of Breeds and types in New Zealand........... 17 mutton and wool from Australasia........- 34 Shearing and wool classing.......-.......... 21 INTRODUCTION. In July, 1914, funds became available to the Animal Husbandry Division to be used “for the importation of Corriedale and other promising breeds of sheep for breeding purposes.” In August, 1914, the writer reached New Zealand to study the breeds of sheep in that country, and later spent six weeks in Australia visiting sheep sta- tions, shearing sheds, wool markets, and officials of agricultural de- partments conducting experimental and educational work relating to sheep raising. As a result of these observations and study, it was decided to use the funds available for the purchase of a foundation flock of Corriedales, and 53 ewes and 10 rams of that breed reached the Federal quarantine station at San Francisco on December 31, 1914. The adaptability of these sheep and their offspring to condi- tions in the Rocky Mountain States will be tested and reported in the future. The history and characteristics of Corriedale sheep are dis- cussed later on in this bulletin. 6830°—Bull. 318—15——1 Ds BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. American sheep raisers have not remained wholly unacquainted with the ideas and practices of Australian flock masters. During the past year lectures delivered in western States have done much to familiarize sheep raisers with the very efficient Australasian system of getting wool from the sheep to the mill. For some years persons connected with the wool trade have made it clear that in many phases of sheep raising, especially that of preparing wool for market, Ameri- can methods compare very poorly with those followed in Australasia. With conditions as they are at present, when sheep raising contains so much of promise and also of uncertainty, it is well to have at hand as much information as possible regarding the fundamental principles that have so firmly established the sheep industry in Aus- tralasia and made these far-off countries so prominent for both quan- tity and quality in the world’s wool trade. Because of these consider- ations, the impressions gained from a comparatively rapid view of sheep and wool matters in New Zealand and Australia by one having the American viewpoint have been prepared for publication. GENERAL CONDITIONS IN NEW ZEALAND’S SHEEP HUSBANDRY. Sheep raising in New Zealand is conducted on lines midway be- tween those followed in our farming States and in the range States. In comparison with American farm flocks, those of the smaller hold- ings in New Zealand have an advantage in that they rarely number less than 400 head and are a very important, if not the chief, source of revenue from the holdings. The total area of occupied land in New Zealand is under 45,000,000 acres. Of this, 5,000,000 acres have been plowed and sown to arti- ficial grasses for grazing, while over 9,000,000 acres have been sur- face-sown to artificial grasses without plowing. The first-mentioned lands support from 1 to 8 sheep per acre for the year, while the latter average from one-half to 2 sheep per acre. Grass is the principal crop. With a growing season of 10 months and a well- distributed rainfall, it is found profitable to keep in grass for stock alone lands valued as high as $150 per acre. Nearly one-half the occupied land is in holdings of over 5,000 acres, mainly used for sheep, there being 90 holdings of over 50,000 acres each oa 18,694 holdings of. from 50 to 200 acres. The number of sheep kept has advariced from about 19,000,000 in 1896 to 24,595,405 in April, 1914. This enumeration for Mptil cor- responds to November in the United States, coming after a large proportion of lambs have been marketed, and corresponding quite closely to the numbers of the shearing season to follow. Wethers, rams, and ewes under breeding age comprise about one-half the sheep SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. 3 population. The number of sheep slaughtered for food purposes during the 12 months ended March 31, 1914, was 4,019,831, and of lambs 4,338,180. The 1913 exports numbered 3,538,488 lamb car- casses and 2,201,365 carcasses of mutton. New Zealand’s fiocks number 21,500, and the average size of flock has increased from 1,081 in 1896 to 1,124 in 1913. About one-half the sheep are in flocks numbering less than 2,500 head, while seven-eighths of them are owned in flocks numbering over 500 head each. A contrast of these figures with others for the leading farm-sheep State and the leading range-sheep State in this country is of interest. Sheep in New Zealand, Ohio, and Wyoming. Holdings | Holdings | Average Total land | Sheep in : Y State. over 100 having size of eh State.? acres.2 sheep. flock. Acres. Number. | Number. | Number. Number. Wimemeslanden sce 8 nls lke os ps 66, 292, 232 | 24, 595, 405 25, 702 21, 527 1,124 Omg 3 3: PEPE Pet. RS SOELE . SAAN IES 26,073,600 | 3,263,000 94, 754 71, 556 55 Wivontintee crete 2s) of). et ssl e nf de. 62,459,160 | 4,472,000 9, 584 1,643 2,938 1Jan. 1, 1914. 2 In 1910. It is partly because of necessity that New Zealand lands are so largely devoted to sheep raising. A good quality of mutton and wool can be produced without the feeding of grain, the production of which is not favored either by the soil or by labor conditions. On the other hand, the place occupied by sheep is evidence of the profits obtainable when valuable lands are devoted to well-managed flocks of sufficient size to insure for them the lively interest and careful tending essential to their well-being and which in our farming States is the exception rather than the rule. While it is true that the values of other commodities do not call for other uses of land as in our farming States, this fact is offset by the lower prices paid for mutton and lamb in New Zealand. The advantage enjoyed there in the price of wool is quite largely due to the exercise of superior skill in preparing the clips for the market. It is true also that New Zealand flockmasters have no predatory wild animals to contend with. The problem of the domestic dog is not absent, however, but the dog is held in check, because the general and predominating interest in sheep gives support to well-enforced laws. Our farming States have experienced a decline in sheep rais- ing on account of unequal competition from cheap western lands. The force of that competition no longer exists, and the agriculture of the Middle and Eastern States will not again exhibit its most profitable status until the flocks of sheep therein are larger and much more numerous than at present. The main difficulty in the way is 4. BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lack of appreciation of the results obtainable from carefully tended flocks. GENERAL CONDITIONS OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN AUSTRALIA. Even a superficial study of the peculiar phases of the sheep industry in the country where it has its greatest magnitude must be of great interest and may be very profitable. While conditions and customs of sheep raising vary greatly in Australia, the varia- tions are less marked than in the United States. The sheep industry of Australia is still in the main what an American would call a “range proposition.” Crossbreeding and mutton production are of less concern even than in our Rocky Mountain and other western sheep-raising States. New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland possessed 85 per cent of the 83,263,686 sheep in Australia in 1912. Queensland is the larg- est and least developed of the three States mentioned. Eighty per cent of its land is occupied, 74 per cent being held under Govern- ment lease or license. On the 343,000,000 acres occupied in Queens- land there are 3,119 flocks which average 6,500 sheep. Data regard- ing size of holdings and size of flocks are available only for New South Wales and Victoria, consequently figures for only these two States, which possess 60 per cent of the Commonwealth’s sheep, are shown in the following table, and data for the western United States are included for comparison: Sheep in New South Wales, Victoria, and the western part of the United States. Fey cent of area Total acres : Area under |; : 3 Total area | having in holdings Section. Total area.) “Gwned.1 | 15 inches Loe over 100 or less : acres. rainfall. Acres. Acres. Per cent. Acres. Acres. ING was OUtHYWialleShaecceeeeea-te oer eee eee ne 198, 054, 420 | 57,818, 023 39.4 |124, 590, 163 | 181,195,753 Wictoriag eee ne Se ee Eee. EE 56, 245, 760 | 31,055, 920 37.0 | 14,443,191 | 44,502,618 Rocky Mountain States 2.......-..-..------- 398, 599, 680 | 47,016, 786 02:0) (Rox te eeeeeee 45, 155, 275 Southwestern States 3........--------------- 319, 175,040 |124, 951, 701 150") =a-ceeeeeeee 113, 281, 343 Pacific Statesite se cece ere eee e eee 203, 580, 800 | 51,328, 789 370: |S. teense 48, 027, 762 Sheep per Rn an ; acre on verage eep in Section. Teal holdings Nomber of size of | flocks over p- over : flock. 1,000 100 acres. Number. | Number.| Number. Number. | Per cent. New-SouthyWaleseees-cecesceececerea-ncaee 38, 855, 861 0.21 25, 549 1,520 84.5 Wictoria tenis cee ees epee. oe Bar tee Bes 11, 892, 224 .25 24, 838 480. 59. 7 Rocky Mountain States 2.........-.--------- 18, 196, 574 - 308 11, 323 1,607 86.8 Southwestern States 3..........--.--.------- 6, 382, 426 - 056 11,8381 537 80.6 Pacific: Statesteence seecee eee eee een eee 5, 592, 167 . 116 12, 368 452 89.7 1 Reported as in farms for United States. 3 Texas, Arizona, New Mexico. 2 Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado. 4 California, Oregon, Washington. SHEEP—-UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. 5 Much of the land in Australia now used as sheep runs is destined to be used for farming. “ Closer settlement” is actively assisted by all the State governments. Taking the Commonwealth of Australa as a whole, one-third of its land area lies in regions of less than 10 inches of annual rainfall. In these drier sections salt bush furnishes a large part of the sheep feed and is considered most satisfactory for dry sheep. Outside these sections the country enjoys peculiar ad- vantages favoring sheep raising, particularly in comparison with those areas of the United States which now and for an indefinitely long period can be used most profitably for the grazing of sheep. In considering sheep raising in Australia, it should always be borne prominently in mind that the flocks, or “ mobs,” are not kept collected and under the care of herders while pasturing. The lands are fenced into “ paddocks” of from 500 to 10,000 acres in size, and the sheep run safely at liberty in these. The lessening of labor by this plan is no more important than the greater thrift of the sheep as compared with those in charge of even the best herders. The amount of pasturage procured from each acre is much greater under the paddock plan. The fact that the sheep are very widely spread out at all times and never driven over dusty trails to and from dusty bedding grounds gives cleaner and lighter-shrinking wool from the Australian flocks, aside from the advantage of some regions in having soils that are not inclined to blow. Fencing the sheep runs and dividing them into paddocks of suitable size requires labor and expense, which, however, are much more.than counterbalanced by subsequent saving in the labor of handling the flocks and in the extra thrift of the sheep. In many cases sheep are mustered or rounded up but once in the year, at shearing time. Having their full liberty in paddocks from 500 to 10,000 acres in size, they are under practically natural conditions. The absence of wild animals from the paddocks and the climate together avoid the necessity for atten- tion at lambing time, except in the case of valuable stud ewes. On the other hand, difficulties with hired labor are greater in Australia and wages little if any lower than in the United States. The blow- fly is a serious pest in much of the country and necessitates frequent inspections, as well as crutching and dipping, which involve expense. Droughts, which occur with some regularity, are exceedingly serious. The number of sheep may be reduced by nearly one-half over large areas once in 10 years, entailing desolation and serious loss, especially to the smaller owners who can not move their stock and to owners who have stocked their lands to their full capacity in normal seasons. Vegetation recovers with exceeding rapidity at the breaking of a drought, and with the climate aiding the Australian Merino sheep’s habit of breeding at practically any time of the year, the flocks are 6 BULLETIN 318, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. quickly reestablished. Serious and widespread as are the Australian droughts, the handicap they impose upon the sheep business is not so great as appears at first sight. Only in such times is it necessary to feed the flocks in that country. With extra feed available, less is needed to maintain an animal through a drought period than through a period of cold and storm such as is experienced with greater fre- quency by American flocks. TENURE OF PASTORAL LANDS. The high rank of the Australian and New Zealand sheep raisers is due in part to the newness of their countries. Many areas now de- voted to sheep raising will ultimately be used for crop production. The fact that settlement is in its earlier stages affords greater scope and opportunity for pastoral pursuits. In the United States the sheep raiser has repeatedly been forced by the farmer to retreat to the drier, rougher, and more remote sections. It is a question whether the value of the total output of some sections has not been reduced as a result of the abandonment of grazing consequent upon the taking up of a few claims for farming. In large part, however, the efficiency of the Australasian pastoralist is due to the system under which he secures and holds his grazing lands. No Australasian sheep owner uses public domain without charge; neither is he in any danger of having the lands he has leased grazed by stock other than his own. In some “back” sections the cost of his lease may be practically nominal, but it gives him full use of the land and renders him liable to higher rates at such time as settlement has approached him and the lease value of the land has advanced. The conditions governing leasing, like those concerning the acquiring of freehold, vary considerably with the different States. LAND LEASING. The leasing policy appears to have been found satisfactory by the governments of the various States and is generally approved by the lessees. The acreage of land under lease in the Australian Common- wealth increased from 1901 to 1912 by 19 per cent, or over 137,000,000 acres, and in the latter year constituted 45 per cent of the Common- wealth area. New South Wales had 62 per cent of its area under lease, Victoria 25 per cent, and Queensland 74 per cent. The last- named State in 1912 granted 348 leases for grazing homesteads, aver- aging 11,000 acres each. and 223 leases for grazing farms, averaging 8,228 acres. In leasing provision is made for later resumption of lands by the Crown for division for smaller pastoralists or farmers. In such cases the original lessor retains his own central homestead and receives compensation for improvements upon lands resumed by the Crown. SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. i The Australian pastoralist who pays for the use of his lands according to a long-time contract is at a great advantage over the American pastoralist who enters into unlimited competition for wholly temporary and unlegalized use of public lands. The Austra- lian enjoys the control of the land he uses, and the length of his tenure encourages and justifies him in making investments necessary for the proper utilization of such land. He knows he is safe in making a generous expenditure of his time and capital in breeding his flocks to the highest point of efficiency, because after the result is attained he still has time under his lease to reap the benefits of his accomplishment. This is true, also, in regard to construction of fences, shearing sheds, and accommodations for labor. He builds for himself a reputation for producing a high quality of wool and for preparing it for market in an attractive and reliable manner, and is assured of remaining upon the same land long enough to reap the benefits of the reputation established for his output. Too commonly, and not without justification, the American wool producer argues that an investment in improved stock or in the appli- ances and intelligence required to secure a good reputation for his product can not safely be undertaken because of the uncertainty of his continuing in business long enough to reap the benefits. It is well known that under this lack of system the public range has been so overcrowded as to diminish most seriously the amount of feed pro- duced, and consequently its value to the Nation. While it is true that such use as is made of the public domain is made without charge to sheep owners, it is quite plain that a more permanent and _better- managed industry would result from a settled policy of leasing or apportioning for fixed periods, under a permit system, the remaining public lands suitable chiefly for grazing, and in blocks of the size necessary to permit the most economical management. Users of the American public domain are themselves becoming more agreed as to the desirability of a definite policy for control and improvement of the public grazing lands, even at added cost to them- selves. Such a policy is urgently needed to secure for the country the maximum production from its 290,000,000 acres of unappropriated and unreserved public lands lying mainly in the Western States. The State of New South Wales, Australia, is divided into 67 pastoral districts. For each district there is a pastures protection board, consisting of eight members, elected by the landowners and stock owners within the district. Acting through these the stock branch of the State Department of Agriculture enforces the pro- visions of the pastures protection act. The members of the local boards are themselves stock owners and enforce the laws in respect to diseases, quarantine and movement of sheep, fencing against rabbits, and payment of bounties for destruction of noxious animals. 8 BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The expenditures of the boards are paid from funds derived from rates levied upon the land and stock within the district. FLOCK MANAGEMENT. In general the policies of Australian flockmasters are more contin- uous and more completely worked out than in the case of the general run of American flocks. Remoteness from markets and limited crop production have occasioned less attention to mutton and more to wool. The method cf selling the wool and the system of land tenure have facilitated progress in breeding and in management. The ma- jority of sheep raisers appreciate the value of good blood and careful matings and steadily adhere to a plan of breeding to produce sheep having the peculiar characters necessary to adapt them to the partic- ular sections. Whether it is due to a peculiar attitude toward his business, the insistence of interested capital, or the favorableness of the climate, the general custom of having the station manager reside permanently upon the property he superintends is in marked contrast to the cus- tom of American sheep ranchmen, and in general the management is in most respects more efficient. Tt has already been explained that Australasian flocks running at liberty in large fenced paddocks require and receive no such continu- ous shepherding as is necessary in American flocks. Although the flocks of considerable size are all of Merino blood, the propensity to herd closely is not desired. The sheep in a paddock form into groups, each of which keeps to its own general area. The sheep are rounded up or driven only when required for shearing, classing, etc. Practi- cally no supplementary feed or cultivated grasses are used. Part of the labor saved in herding is offset by the employment of boundary riders to attend fences and wells, and a great many men are needed to keep rabbits in check. The number of hands steadily employed upon a sheep station in Australia is less than for an American ranch carry- ing a similar number of sheep, while the number of extra men em- ployed at shearing time is greater. CLASSING SHEEP. Ewes are ordinarily classed for breeding just previous to being shorn. This time affords the best opportunity to judge of the fleece and divide the ewes into uniform lots, each of which is later mated with rams chosen to improve defects of fleece or form. Classing at this time also gives fleeces of fairly uniform character, which facil- itates the work of the wool classer who is always employed at shear- ing time. In some cases a lot of young ewes once classed up are kept in the same groups as long as they are bred from. In other cases classing of all ewes is done each year. SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. 9 This division of the ewes into uniform lots is deemed to be of greatest importance. On one station visited, where only wethers are kept, it is the custom to go over purchased stock before shearing and make an examination of each fleece. Once assorted in this way a flock may run for several seasons with only such re-sorting as is made necessary by mixing or the presence of strays. After shearing, the ewes need only such attention as is given by the boundary riders until breeding time, when mustering is necessary only to remove the rams at the close of the season. LAMBING RETURNS. The lambing returns do not differ widely from western American figures. Three per cent is the common proportion of rams used. Lamb crops vary around 80 per cent, less in young ewes and more in stud ewes. Where the blood of British or mutton breeds has been in- troduced larger lamb crops result. Fall-dropped lambs are separated frown their dams at shearing time and, though only 3 to 5 months old, are also shorn. Shearing at this age allows better growth of the lamb and gives their yearling fleeces greater uniformity in length and quality. BUILDINGS. Aside from the shearing sheds, no buildings for sheep’ are seen except occasional sheds in near-by paddocks to keep the sheep dry as they come up for shearing. No feed of consequence is harvested or stored. In drought times purchased feed may be fed, but the com- moner plan is to ship the sheep to points where grazing can be leased. BREEDS AND TYPES OF SHEEP IN AUSTRALIA. Over 70 per cent of the sheep in Australia to-day are of Merino breeding. Of the crossbreds that make up a large part of the bal- ance, most are from Merino ewes. Australia’s sheep industry began with sheep of Spanish Merino blood imported from the Cape of Good Hope and from England, late in the eighteenth century. Con- siderable numbers of Saxony Merinos were taken to Tasmania and that State for some time produced many of the rams most highly esteemed on the mainland. The Australian Merino has therefore sprung from the same original stock as the American Merino. In the palmy days of fine-wool sheep breeding in Vermont many sheep were exported from that State to Australia. American Merinos are seldom spoken of by that name in Australia, but one frequently hears “ Vermonts ” referred to. For an American, the point of greatest interest and value in Australian sheep husbandry is the type of sheep that has been evolved for the profitable production of wool. There is nothing in 6830°—Bull. 318—15——2 10 BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. material or methods available in Australia that can not be used in the United States. It has been stated that Australians are fa- miliar with what they call the Vermont sheep and that the use of that blood has mainly been discontinued. In fact the terms used nowadays in Australia in referring to the “ Vermont” sheep are far from complimentary, and would seem to overlook the improve- ment in density and quality effected by American Merinos. Objec- tion is made to the excessive wrinkles on the body, to excess of oil in the wool, to shortness, and too great fineness of the wool. These objectionable features are considered to be indicative of and asso- ciated with a lack of constitutional vigor. DIVERGENCE OF AUSTRALIAN AND AMERICAN MERINO STANDARDS. It would be unwise and un-American to fail to give due weight to the Australian criticism of a type of sheep which is still largely kept in this country, especially since until recent years the standards of the two countries were quite stmilar. The plan of selling wool, whereby the price received by the grower is set by the manufacturer’s buyer, — enables the Australian to make a more accurate estimate of profit from various types of wool. The Australian argues that the extra price received for the very fine wools does not offset the value of the greater quantity of “robust ” wool secured per acre of land used with the type of sheep now favored. The clearly defined areas of leased land, with no transfer from winter to summer range, also give an added advantage in determining production costs. Corresponding to the A, B, and C types of American Merinos now recognized apart from the Rambouillet, Australia has the fine, me- dium, and strong types. None of these can be said to resemble the Rambouillet closely. The “strong” or “robust” wooled type pro- duces a fleece of considerably greater clean weight than is obtained from the finer, tighter-wooled type. The greater bulk and length of the robust fleeces, together with the lessened amount of oil, give a much greater weight of clean wool per sheep than is yielded by the -finer-wooled sheep. While the coarser wool may at times be worth less per clean pound than fine wool, it has for some years suffered no discount, and it is found easier to maintain in that uniformity of crimp and brightness that has much to do with fixing values. A further claim for the production of this robust wool is that the sheep which produce it are larger and stronger in constitution. AUSTRALIAN OPINIONS AS TO ROBUST WOOL. The following extracts from matter published in Australia in this connection shows the development of opinion in that country. In 1899 Mr. Jeffrey, Government wool expert in South Australia, wrote: FiInE Woot Versus Ropust.—Because of the many different types in the Merino class, it is most important to know what particular type is most adapted SHEEP—-UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. 11 for the locality on which they are depastured. But on account of the varying conditions met with throughout Australia, such as difference in country, climate, ete., aS was stated in an earlier portion of this chapter, no definite type can be suggested for each locality; still, taking for granted that the object of the wool grower is to keep sheep which will yield most money per head, and not sheep the wool of which simply realizes fancy prices per pound, some authori- ties maintain that, in most localities at any rate, financial advantage would be gained by the keeping of a more robust type of sheep than is generally found to-day. Whether such authorities be correct or not, it is a fact that the trend of wool is fast developing in the direction of a little more robustness or strength. In proof of this some of the best known fine-wool growers in Australia, who have for years past obtained amongst the highest prices for their wool, are purchasing rams from well-known robust-wooled flocks, in which, for a con- siderable time, great attention has been paid to this type of wool, with the most satisfactory results. It would be folly to suggest that the robust-wooled sheep, such as are found in South Australia, would be entirely suitable for every locality in Australia; still, a strain of stronger blood in most of the fine-wooled sheep would perhaps be of advantage. : In the drier or more arid parts, such as the Barrier district of New South Wales, the north of South Australia, and other similar localities, experience has proved that it is impossible te keep fine-wooled sheep with anything like the most satisfactory results. This type of sheep (if greasy) is much inclined to sweat, and the skin is teo thin to withstand the severe PEL ioe which is met with in such localities. The hair follicles or bulbs on the surface of the skin are very ‘eusceptible to the withering effects of the climatic conditions met with there, and the some- what tender or delicate fiber can not endure the hardships which are so com- mon under such conditions, All this will have more weight when it is remembered that wool has a tend- ency to become finer, and in the hotter and drier parts, should it be fine to start with, it generally goes “off” and becomes loose and open (particularly on the back), with the result that the dust and sand, which are so prevalent there, find their way right on to the very skin of the sheep, causing more or less injury to the fiber. Further, on account of the excessive openness, the heat of the sun much more easily operates upon the wool, extracting from it the yolk, which is the very life of it, thereby leaving it tender, mushy, and lifeless. On the other hand the robust or stronger-wooled sheep is eminently fitted to endure the hardships met with under such conditions, the skin being thicker and less inclined to sweat, the hair follicles or bulbs less susceptible to climatic effects, and the fiber stronger and hardier. Again, the wool being strong to start with, will not so readily “ go off” and become loose and open as the fine and delicate wool would, thus making it more able to withstand the ravages of the sand, dust, and sun. At one time it was objected that strong-wooled sheep of the robust type, on being taken to the drier parts, produced wool which became coarser, in fact, which developed into hair, and it has to be admitted that there was much truth in the objection; but the nonsuccess lay in the fact that the wrong type of robust-wooled sheep was taken up to these parts, and not that the robust sheep in itself was at fault. The failures were, generally speaking, caused by the use of rams of nonde- script type without any character in their wool, whereas, what is required and 12 BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. what has proved eminently successful, is the use of well-bred rams with plenty of character in the wool, which is denoted by the crimps or curls being well and evenly defined. The argument that the extra price obtained for the finer wool justifies the keeping of fine-wooled sheep in these arid parts does not hold good, because in the first place the fine wool, being generally more wasty, will yield to the manufacturer less than the average percentage of “top” and more “noil,” and as the noil is worth much less than top, it will be clear that the price ob- tained per pound in the grease must on that account be lessened. Even granting that the fine wool be healthy, and with a good “tip,” the small difference in value between it and the stronger wool is far more than made up by the extra weight from the stronger-wooled sheep. In fact, it can be said truthfully that the robust wool referred to fills the hand, fills the bale, and eventually fills the pocket of the careful grower. Believing that the introduction of the strong-wooled strain already spoken of will become more common, it will be well to anticipate the alarm of some of the extra-fine-wool growers who will maintain that by the introduction of a somewhat stronger strain the repute of the far-famed Australian high-class wool will be damaged, but it should be stated that by such introduction there is no reason why the character of the wool should be in any way altered, because the fresh strain introduced should be only of the very purest. Besides, it is only reasonable to suppose that many of the fine-wooled-sheep farmers, on account of the eminently suitable conditions under which their wool is grown, will still adhere to their type of sheep, so that any fear as to this class of wool becoming extinct may be allayed. In fact, there is little doubt that the demand for such qualities of wool will always be met, for it has to be admitted that such demands are not nearly so common to-day as they were in times past, the reason being, no doubt, largely on account of the much improved machinery used in the manufacture of wool. The following, written by ‘“ Camden,” appeared in the Pastoral Review of August, 1914, page 770: So much water has run into the sea since the days when the Australian sheepfold was divided into opposing forces on the subject of development that ene can now refer to folds and wrinkles without stirring up even the mildest form of hornet’s nest. And yet it is not so long ago, after all, that the subject was referred to with bated breath. Well within the last decade, those of us who moved about amongst stud flocks frequently heard ourselves remarking upon the “wonderful development” of sheep under inspection, and curiously enough that wonder was not diminished when we had to dig in among the folds and corrugations in search of indications of the true character of the wool. In this article I have inserted two photographs which illustrate the change that has come over the scene. The photo of the wrinkly ewe was taken within the last 10 years. She was champion medium-wool housed ewe at the Sydney show, and was immensely admired by a great many sheepmen at the time. Now, I would like to ask, Does one sheepman exist at the present day who does not think that the type of sheep represented by the illustration is not over the odds? We can all admire the sheep as a triumph of breeding, but as a commercial prop- osition at the present day what can be said in favor of a ewe like this? In the first place, what chance would there be of growing a fleece uniform in quality and length on a skin so corrugated? In the second place, it has been found that sheep of this type burden themselves with excessive grease, which in its turn accumulates dirt, so that the animal, already handicapped, is forced to bear the additional weight of rubbish that has no commercial value. And, lastly, but by SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. 13 no means least, the type represented by the photo could not be better designed as an attraction for the blowfly. The thick fleece, excessive grease, tight wrinkles combine to set up conditions extremely favorable to the operations of the maggot fly. In order to show the contrast between a stud Merino ewe of 10 years ago and the present day, another photo is inserted in this article, and it is safe to say that as a commercial sheep it represents almost the ideal type of Merino. With sheep of this type there is a chance of maintaining, to say nothing of building up, constitution. There is also a chance of maintaining evenness of length and quality throughout the fleece. This type of sheep also carries a characteristic that adds to its value, viz, a freedom from excessive grease. The wool handles free and soft, and is less liable to accumulate dirt and rubbish. Viewing these two photos side by side throws a good deal of light upon Merino history of the last decade or so, and they tell the following story: In the first place the early breeders started off scratch and type was fairly uniform. As the years went on and the breeders brought the results of their experience into operation they gradually divided themselves into two main bodies. One side remained fixed in its idea as to what constituted a commer- cial sheep and a sheep most suited to Australian conditions. It kept to the plain body and the light fleece. The other side steadily set out to improve the weight of fleece. People of this opinion also noted that the tendency of sheep Tun in the hot interior was to get light and fuzzy on the back, and they con- sidered that more yolk or grease was necessary to counteract this. And so the two factions pursued their different ways, one side sticking to a plain, ordinary-looking sheep, while the other quickly developed a type that could not fail to excite the wonder and admiration even of those opposed to the type. Breeders of this school endeavored to put on weight of fleece, and they found that as they mated for density more folds and wrinkles were produced. It soon came to pass that they found their best stud sheep among the wrinkly ones, and the doctrine spread that weight of fleece could not be maintained, let alone increased, unless there was plenty of “development” in the stud sheep. The leading Merino shows helped to force this doctrine upon the public, and for years the principal prize winners at shows were the most wrinkly sheep. The lesson that Australian sheepmen were learning was expedited and eventually brought to its crisis by the enterprise of several wealthy and promi- nent breeders, who imported the densely clad, heavy-yolked Vermont sheep. These sheep set an ideal before sheepmen who favored that type, and the zenith was soon reached. * * #* While all this progress was taking place those breeders who remained firm in their belief in the plain-bodied, free-wooled type of Merino increased their efforts to improve their sheep without departing from those lines. They pre- dicted that a reaction would take place, and they made themselves ready to meet it. The pendulum swung back to the plain-bodied sheep, and in doing so gave such an impetus to the owners of the big, plain-bodied, grass-fed stud flocks that they improved their sheep out of all recognition. Take any of the big stud flocks in Riverina, western New South Wales, and South Australia to-day and it will be seen that the sheep are superior in every way to their best standard of 10 or 15 years ago. The frames have been built up into better symmetry and heavier fleeces have been put on without loading the sheep with additional grease or body wrinkles. The achievement of results in breeding is necessarily a slow process, but Merino history has been made so fast in Australia within the last 10 years that the ideal type of sheep has become universally acknowledged. Where 10 years ago there was discord on this subject there is now harmony, and all practically agree as to the ideal type. 14 BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It should also be mentioned that the most highly esteemed Austra- lian rams have an “ open” face in contrast to the heavily wooled face demanded by American breeders. Covering of wool on the legs is desired, but only as a minor point. The type of sheep so popular for the drier, warmer sections with scattered feed might not prove to be fully adapted for our western States, but there is food for much thought in the Australian’s severe criticism of wrinkles, fine wool, heavy oil, and thin skin. Aside from the influence upon wool growth of extreme warmth and dryness, it must also be granted that our winters prevent us from producing the length of wool and the uniformity in quality, appearance, and char- acter possible under conditions occasioning no such checks. When running at liberty in paddocks, even on a light, dry soil, there is not the same amount of dirt in the fleece that is unavoidable under a system of continuous herding and several nights’ use of, and daily driving to and from, a single bedding ground. The demand of the American buyer in Australia for a light-shrink- ing wool has no doubt lent an added stimulus to progress in that country, but such progress even if altogether so promoted is none the less worthy of the attention of our sheep breeders and woolgrowers. MUTTON POINTS OF AUSTRALIAN MERINOS. Although frequent mention is made of the value of the carcass in discussions of the recently evolved Australian Merino, that sheep does not seem to be the superior of the American Merino in either size or points of mutton conformation. In both regards it is inferior to the Rambouillet as bred in the United States. The Rambouillet is little known or understood in Australia. There appears to have been some use made of an earlier type of the breed by the Peppyns, whose sheep in other hands have contributed largely to the advance of recent years. SALES OF STUD RAMS. Many very large and very valuable stud flocks are maintained. A few of these contain upward of 60,000 ewes, and one flock has sold as high as $260,000 worth of rams in a single season, at an average price of $30. At the 1914 annual ram sale held in Sydney, 268 Merino rams were sold, at an average price of $437, while over 2,500 other rams brought an average of $38. With a demand for flock rams in lots of 100 and more, at $20 per head, the stud sheep business is attractive to competent breeders and justifies paying two or three thousand dollars for a sire, as is commonly done. Over $7,000 has been given for single rams on several occasions. Such prices are not known in America, although breeders are not wanting whose sheep are capable of effecting an improvement upon general flocks similar SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. - 15 to that which gives the high values to Australian sheep. The ex- treme Australian prices are paid by breeders of stud sheep and are rendered possible by the patronage of a large number of owners of large commercial flocks who know that $500 or $1,000 invested in an exceptional ram is more than returned in the fleece values of the great number of sheep tracing descent to such a ram in a few years. Not only this, but improved breeding qualities of the ewes, aside from their wool yield, are highly appraised, because the owner is reason- ably certain to continue in the business, market his product in a way to secure its maximum value, and control enough money for invest- ments in connection with his business. The type and character of sheep in many of the prominent stud flocks is so well known and the confidence in the breeders is such that a large proportion of the sales of rams for flock use and some sales of stud rams are made without examination by the buyer. Some time before the ram-selling season breeders of rams class their offerings according to quality. Rams worth $20, $30, or $40 are drafted into corresponding lots. Higher-priced rams are sold singly or upon examination at home or at public sales. Buyers of the classed flock rams state what price they wish to pay, and the number required is drawn from the lot of the price named. In some studs an outside expert is employed to class the rams to be sold. Such a classer may also divide the breeding ewes into uniform lots, for which the owner selects suitable rams. MUTTON BREEDS. The use and popularity of the mutton breeds in Australia is on the increase, owing to increasing demands of the meat trade and of farmers who buy sheep to fatten for the market. The president of the New South Wales Sheep Breeders’ Association stated last year that in 10 or 15 years more than half the sheep of that State will be crossbreds. The term “crossbreds,” as used in Australia, includes all sheep other than Merinos or those carrying a preponderance of Merino blood. On account of the greater length and weight of wool and greater body weights when grown out, the long wools are used most for crossing by those who expect to keep the crossbred lambs until shorn. The Lincoln, Border Leicester, English Leicester, and Romney Marsh are all in demand. The Cotswold is little known. The down breeds are favored most by those who market their lambs before they are a year old, and of these breeds only the Shropshires and South- downs can be said to be widely known. The Corriedale is gaining ground in Australia. An organization of breeders of Corriedales was effected at Sydney in 1914, and pro- visions made for founding a flock book. Sixty-seven stud and flock 16 BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. rams sold in the 1914 Sydney sale at an average of $42 per head. During the same week one commission firm sold sheep of various breeds at the following average prices per head: 50 Shropshire flock rams at $8; 694 Lincoln stud and flock rams and ewes at $20; 551 Border Leicesters (mainly flock rams) at $28; and 450 Romney Marsh stud and flock rams and ewes at $25. SHEEP BREEDERS’ RECORDS. While American and Australian sheep breeders seem earlier to have been in agreement as to the points of wool-producing sheep, in the last quarter of a century their ideas have diverged. In contrast to the requirements of registration and the multiplicity of flock books in the United States the great Australian Merino sheep-breeding busi- ness still progresses with only private records. These private records are in some cases fairly complete but very seldom permit the full tabulation of a pedigree for three generations. In selling rams at from $2,000 to $5,000, which is commonly done, the descent or im- mediate parentage is a consideration, but is vouched for only by the breeder, which is really the only guaranty received by the purchaser of any animal having its pedigree entered in an association’s registry. SHOW SHEEP. Show-ring results apparently carry little weight with Australasian sheep breeders. Their regard for a line of breeding or for any par- ticular flock is based upon the sale of wool shorn from the offspring of representatives of such strains or flocks. Australian show man- agers seem to have succeeded somewhat better than those in America in having fine-wool sheep exhibited fairly. Evidences and claims of early or stubble shearing are not missing, however, and stud breeders whose flocks are well established prefer to offer their stock for sale without showing. In the Sydney annual show and sales sheep not exhibited usually sell higher than the prize winners. Having once secured satisfactory results by using rams from a _ particular stud flock the commercial sheep raiser is assured that other rams from the same stud will possess and transmit the same general qualities. This is especially true in Australia because the older stud flocks make but limited, if any, use of sires bred on other stations. The American breeder’s insistence upon an outcross in each generation finds its opposite in the Australian’s preference for stud sires of his own breeding. Of course the size of the flocks renders it possible to avoid very close matings. In some cases carefully bred stud flocks have retained their vigor for over 20 years with practi- cally no outside blood. PLATE |. Bul. 313, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. *po}Bd0T SI 9INYO 8U1}4NO UIvUL OY} YOIYAM IJopun ‘sprvk oq} Jo 109u90 04 ut Adouvd poddo4y "NOILVLG NVITVULSNY NV NO SGYVA ONILIVEG yey 8 SMOYsS oInjoId oy, Bul. 313, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. cs . $4 a 4 4 Be 4 REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES OF AUSTRALIAN “ FINE,” “MEDIUM,” AND “ ROBUST” WOOL. Bul. 313, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fic. 1.—THE TYPE OF MERINO RAM LARGELY BRED IN TASMANIA. FiG. 2.—THE TYPE OF MERINO RAM NOW POPULAR IN AUSTRALIA OUTSIDE OF TASMANIA. Bul. 313, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fic. 1.—A GROUP OF CORRIEDALE RAMS AT THE 1914 SHOW AT CHRISTCHURCH, New ZEALAND. Fia. 2.—SHORN CORRIEDALE YEARLING RAMS. SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. Ly BREEDS AND TYPES IN NEW ZEALAND. From a total of 15,000,000 sheep in 1886, New Zealand flocks have increased steadily to 24,500,000 in 1914. A part of this increase is due to breeding for mutton, as well as wool, instead of the almost exclu- sive aim to produce wool before the exporting of meat became com- mon. While wethers are still kept until 3 or 4 years of age in some sections, the number of breeding ewes is now about 12,500,000, an increase of 3,250,000 breeding ewes since 1904, during which time the total number of sheep increased by 6,000,000. The following para- graph from the New Zealand Official Year Book for 1914 explains the status of the various breeds: The Dominion is eminently suited for sheep breeding, practically every de- seription of sheep finding a favorable local habitat. In the hilly and down country of the South Island the Merino has been bred for very many years, and was the original sheep depastured. In fact, the Merino ewe furnished the foundation of the cross-bred stock which has made Canterbury mutton famous on British meat markets. In the early days of the Canterbury meat trade the English Leicester of the original type was the favorite ram for putting to the Merino ewe. Of later years the Lincoln has been largely employed to eross with the Merino, and black-faced rams have been further employed to put to the cross-bred ewes. In the North Island the Romney sheep, which suits the rather moist climate of this portion of the Dominion, has become the most popu- lar sheep; it is also increasing in numbers in the South Island. The Lincoln and Border-Leicester are also favored in both islands, while the Southdown is displacing other breeds for fat-lamb production right throughout the Dominion. The Leicesters, mainly the English variety, are still the most popular British breed in the South. With a total of 11,625,000 sheep in the South Island in April, 1914 (lambs are dropped mainly in September and October*), there were 85,299 breeding ewes in 491 registered flocks, distributed as follows: Number of | Ewes bred Number of| Ewes bred Breed. flocks. | in 1914. Breed. flocks. | in 1914. Border Leicester........-- 158 19,910 || Corriedale..........-....- 22 11,010 _ English Leicester......... 113 17,937 || Mermo- 24.822. 3.0... 0S! 15 7, 399 Romney Marsh.......---- 85 159100] Pineolneeenes seed se ee nae 14 1, 861 Southdown..........-.--- 46 4,989 || Ryeland.............-..-- 3 159 Shropshire.........-..---- 34 3,525 || Half-bred........-...-.-.- 1 3,399 THE CORRIEDALE. The study of Corriedale sheep and the selection of a trial importa- tion were the main objects of the writer’s visit to New Zealand. The Corriedale breed was produced and is still most extensively bred in the Province of Canterbury of the South Island of New Zealand. The Corriedale sheep, as now bred in New Zealand, is a wool and mutton sheep. Its breeders seem to have given special emphasis to wool, most of which would grade on our market as three-eighths pind and commonly h: has a length of 6 inches. At the Christchurch 1 Corresponding to Wearah and een re is srihped anmisebenel 6830°—Bull. 313—15——3 18 BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. show prizes are offered for Corriedale sheep entered in the wool and mutton competition. The following rules govern this competition : For the purpose of this competition the definition of Corriedale to be as follows: To be the progeny of half-bred rams from half-bred ewes, and the result of not less than 15 years of in-breeding, and showing a decided fixed type of half- bred sheep, the original stock to be the progeny of Merino and long-wool sheep of any pure breed. The breeding of the rams to be stated at time of entry. Hach exhibitor will be required to enter three Corriedale ram hoggets; all rams to be bred by exhibitor. The rams will be taken charge of by the committee, shorn and grazed as the committee may deem desirable, but at the owner’s risk. The rams will again be exhibited at the association’s show the following year; they will be shorn by the committee, the fleeces being carefully weighed and afterwards valued in the grease by an expert. The shorn rams will be judged by fat-sheep judges, who will be asked to fix the value of the sheep from a mutton point of view. The ram showing the greatest money value, carcass and wool taken into con- sideration, to be the winner. The following tabulation of the results of the 1914 competition shows the weights and quality of the fleeces and the carcass values: Corriedale wool and mutton competition, 1914. F Value | Value Total r mo Ear | Weight Weight Tovar. per per | Value of Nee value Nicer a x ate | Total tag.| of fleece. cease: || ii oN pound,|pound,| fleece. eayeeR of waranenten |e value. Dees: - | fleece. | pieces. pleces. | wool al ued lb. oz. |lb. oz.| 1b. oz. =|) 1B We BB 16 0 | $0. 26% | $0. 154 $3.56 | $0.51 | $3.87 | 48s_....- $6.60 | $10.47 8.. 12 10; 4 1 16 11 220 -16 3. 41 -65 4.06 | 50s...-.- 6.36 10. 42 @se ii 98 |) 8. al 14 4 26 . 154 2.91 47 3.38 | 48s...--- 6. 96 10. 34 15. - 1G ay 20 14 254 . 15% 3.86 -99 4.75 | 50s, 56s-- 5. 52 10. 27 ee iQ) = yy gb al 14 3 20 . 154 2.73 - 63 3.36 | 48s, 50s-. 6. 84 10. 20 Boole UB si ee & ly @ 27 . 153 3. 53 67 4.20 | 46s.....- 6.00 10. 20 16Re 225e 4 9 16 10 264 . 164 3.20 75 3.95 | 56s_....- 6.00 9. 95 Ear EE iyest 8) ly @ 20, 154 3. 88 49 4.38 | 46s..-..- 5. 52 9. 90 1h. |) 1B Bi B® 15 14 - 26 -16 3. 20 -57 $3.90 BUSsseocc 6. 00 9. 89 I} 12 10} 5 4 17 14 . 264 . 164 3.30 . 87 4a 21) 50S escee 5.64 9.85 Woe WW 8).5 4 16 12 «27 - 163 3.10 . 87 SnOM |LO0SS =e see 5. 82 9.79 bksslp 2 WB 2) |) og} i! 16 0 2 .16 3. 27 62 3.89 | 50s good 5. 88 9.77 1832 = it 8] 4 12 16 4 27 -16 3.10 Sis} 3.86 | 50s, 56s 5. 76 9. 62 lot 11 13) 3 4 15 1 5743) . 154 2.95 . 50 3.46 | 46s, 50s 6.12 9.58 ee We 8} 15 9 27 16 3. 36 50 S68) | B0Sco555 5. 64 9. 50 Oss 12 11} 3 8 16 3 274 16 3. 49 56 4.05 | 50s, 56s 5. 40 9. 45 LOR 10 15} 4 4 15 3 26 16 2. 84 68 3.52 | 50s. .---- 5. 88 9. 40 193, = TES S203 As 15 0 254 16 2. 84 62 3.46 | 50s.....- 5. 04 8.50 The illustrations give a fair idea of the general appearance of Cor- riedale sheep, though not many representatives have the carcass development of those shown with their fleeces removed. On the average the carcasses have much the same development as is shown by lambs from Merino ewes and sired by rams of the long-wool breeds in this country. A good many lambs of Corriedale breeding are mar- keted around six months of age and shipped with first-cross lambs as “Prime Canterbury.” Old or cast Corriedale ewes are commonly bred to mutton rams to produce carcasses of higher value, the ewes themselves then being fattened and sold. SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. 19 The development of the Corriedale started with the crossing of Lincoln and English Leicester rams upon Merino ewes to produce lamb carcasses for export. Finding that ewes of such breeding were profitable in some sections, attempts were made to create flocks that would breed true to the type shown by the half-bred of the first cross. Half-bred rams were mated with half-bred ewes, the ewe progeny very severely culled (sometimes only 25 per cent were retained) and again mated to selected half-bred rams, usually of the same genera- tion and also from the same flock. This continued inbreeding of half- breds, accompanied by careful and strong culling, has produced a class of sheep, which, as has been said, compare favorably with other breeds in respect to uniformity and trueness to type, as shown by evenness in separate flocks or similarity of different flocks. The following flock histories printed in the appendix of volume VII of the South Island Flock Book, published by the council of the New Zealand Sheep Breeders’ Association, relates the essential fea- tures in connection with three of the 17 Corriedale flocks entered in that volume: CORRIEDALE FLOCK. THE PROPERTY OF JAMES LITTLE. Mr. Little commenced experimenting with the view of producing inbred half- bred sheep when he was manager for the late Dr. Webster, proprietor of the Corriedale estate, Otago. Romney Marsh and Merinos were first used. The result was entirely satisfactory and would have been continued but for the decease of that gentleman and the sale of the property. On his taking up the Allendale estate, Waikari, Mr. Little continued to experiment. In 1879-1880 he put 4,000 large-framed high-class Merino ewes to Lincoln rams, bred by Mr. Sutton and some of the late Dr. Webster’s strain. From 100 of the best ram lambs, the progeny of these ewes, a heavy cull was made, when 20 of the best were retained for service. These were mated with a pick of the half-bred ewes, the progeny of the Merino ewes and Sutton and Webster rams, the result being a very high-class type of half-bred sheep. In 1890 two rams bred by Mr. Tanner from Merino ewes and Lincoln rams were used, but the result was not considered satisfactory. About the same time 20 stud Merino ewes were purchased from Mr. D. Rutherford and the same number from the LIlorsley Downs flock. By this means fresh blood was procured and was kept going on the line breeding until 1902, when a Corriedale ram was procured from Mr. James Stringfellow. In 1909 a ram was used bred by the New Zealand and Australian Land Co. (Moeraki estate). The rams used in the flock, with these exceptions, have all been descended from ‘‘ Old Jonathan,” bred by Mr. Little 20 - years ago. In 1903 the flock was transferred from Allendale to Dalmeny. Returns for 1911, Dimes, LOUr-Looth and upwards, put, to‘ralitte eee Lee ee ee eee 598 Sicriine; ewes Dubite warns) ch) oss oy ee eee lo See ark es 260 NE i re ee eS ae gee re ee egg 858 Lambs bred in 1910—Rams, 421: ewes, 483. Sires used in 1911, bred by owner. Rams sold—Two-tooth, 13 20 BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. .CORRIEDALE FLOCK. THE PROPERTY OF THE NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIA LAND co. (LTD.) This flock was founded by Mr. W. S. Davidson, at the New Zealand and Australian Land Co.’s Levels Estate, in 1874. One thousand Merino ewes were put to Lincoln rams, and out of the produce of these ewes 150 half-bred ewes were selected for mating with rams, also out of the same ewes. Since 1874 the progeny of these ewes have been inbred with rams out of the same flock. The only outside blood introduced was a ram bought in 1892 from Mr. Tanner, Hawke’s Bay (who had then an inbred fiock started about the same time as the Levels Estate flock), and one ram from Messrs. Reid Bros., Darfield, in 1902, but these two rams were very slightly used. In 1904, when the New Zealand and Australian Land Co. gave up the Levels Hstate for closer settlement, some of the Levels Estate Corriedale flock was transferred to the New Zealand and Australian Land Co.’s Moeraki Estate at Hampden, where its breeding has been continued on the same lines as in previous years, and no outside blood has been introduced into the flock since it was transferred to that property. Returns for 1911. Ewes) tour tooth: ands Overy eu ecOe Te Tle ee eee ren 391 Shearing ewes from own flock put to ram____-___-_______---___________ 500 MOG aD) gcse a 2 eal sea Eel 502 Lambs bred in 1910—Rams, 231; ewes, 257. Sires used in 1911, bred by owner. Rams sold—Two-tooth, 223; four-tooth, 4. CORRIEDALE FLOCK. THE PROPERTY OF C. H. ENSOR. This flock was founded by the late Charles Ensor, of Mount Grey, in the year 1889, by mating fine-combing stud Merino ewes with English Leicester stud rams. The progeny were then inbred for a number of years, the only outside blood used being rams from the New Zealand and Australian Land Co.’s (Ley- els) Corriedale flock, and later from the same flock but bred on the company’s Moeraki Estate. The leading sires have been bred in the flock. In 1901 the flock passed into the hands of Ensor Bros., who continued to earry on the flock and to follow the lines of breeding of the founder. In 1906 and the following year nearly the whole flock became the property of C. H. Ensor. It was then removed to Mount Grey, White Rock. Returns for 1911. Ewes, four-tooth and over, put to ram__—___-_____-____________ 2, 100 Shearling ewes from own flock put to ram_--_--_-__-__--_____________ 500 DN otek Ma aS a a a pl ep ra ee 2, 600 " Lambs bred in 1910—Rams, 1,080; ewes, 1,150. Sires used in 1911, ‘‘ Quality,” ‘“‘ Premier 4th,” “ Model,” ‘“ Jimmy,” and others bred by owner; “Samson,” bred by New Zealand and Australian Land Co.; others bred by G. D. Greenwood and C. N. Orbell. Rams sold—Two-tooth, 419; four-tooth, 20. As to the Merino’s share in forming the Corriedale there need be no question. It would be impossible to state accurately whether the breed is indebted most to the English Leicester or to the Lincoln. The question is not of great moment, since the Lincoln was itself improved by the English Leicester at one time. In the English Bul. 313, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Fic. 1.—A Group OF MERINO RAMS FROM ONE FLOCK SOLD BY AUCTION AT SYDNEY IN JULY, 1914, AT AN AVERAGE OF $1,770, THE RAM ON THE RIGHT BRINGING $5,000. Fia. 2.—A QUEENSLAND SHEARING SHED THAT TURNS OUT ONE OF THE HIGHEST SELLING CLIPS IN THAT STATE. Bul. 313, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. Fic. 1.—WooL Room OF A NEw SOUTH WALES SHEARING SHED. Fic. 2.—BALING ROOM IN AN AUSTRALIAN SHEARING SHED. An end of the classer’s table shows in the space between the wool bins at the left. Bul. 313, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTeE VII. Peach ta tena mara bs clei gles loreal GRINDER POSTS 4 | 4 | Lue | | | 4 | all eS dete Set CU SP | aa eae ee DNS tbe SE TIS ll iseenthg Nore ceteel IN aaa nine LR ean Z S$ S S HOUSE esis) (LS 4) See) LS) GES PES USS Gas ee Sse I eece oe re cee iT PIECE | PLAN OF WOOL ROOM AND SECTION OF SHEARING BOARD OF AN AUSTRALIAN SHEARING SHED. The sweating pens, filling race, and catching pens are built sufficiently high from the ground to permit shorn sheep discharged through the schutes to pass under- neath to the counting pens, which are outside the building. PLATE VIII. Iture. cu . Dept. of Agri s 313,U Bul. “S€NV] GNV SAMZ ONINAIN, SSAIVAA HLNOS MAN SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. 21 Leicester and Merino are two breeds less mixed in their earlier ances- tries and bred for their particular improved qualities for a longer time than any other breeds of sheep. Flocks containing all three lines of Blood compare favorably with those containing only two, though breeders whose sheep have none of the Leicester blood claim heavier shearing qualities and greater vitality, to which latter claim objections are not wanting. Even among New Zealand breeders of Corriedales there is strong preference for the “stronger” wools, the reason assigned being practically the same as those quoted from Australian Merino breeders in an earlier part of this report. The character of country upon which the Corriedale is bred in New Zealand varies from level and fairly rich artificial grass pastures to rough hills with altitudes around 3,000 feet, on which snow some- times les for several months at a time. At its worst the feed is better than that produced on many of the dry-range areas of the United States. The breed’s greatest promise of usefulness in this country is for those localities which need and which can support sheep of more carcass development than the Merino has, and in which the wool is to be relied upon for at least one-half of the flock income. Owing to the paddock system of grazing sheep in New Zealand, selection has not regarded the herding instinct that ordi- narily shows in sheep having one-half Merino blood. The experi- ments which the Bureau of Animal Industry will conduct with this breed will be designed to test the herding instinct of the breed, its ability to thrive on various types of western ranges, and the extent to which it can impress its features upon the sheep bred in the sections where it seems desirable to raise a sheep such as the Cor- riedale now is. SHEARING AND WOOL CLASSING. The practices of American and Australasian woolgrowers differ more in respect to the handling of the shorn wool than in any other part of their work. In the United States the wool is not infrequently sold before it is shorn. Even when it is to be sold after shearing the sheep are not sorted for shearing and the entire fleeces are sacked just as they run. In disposing of the wool there is no possibility of fixing a price upon the amount of each of the various classes of wool in the sacks, but bargaining must be done upon the basis of the clip as a whole. The clips are usually sold to traveling repre- sentatives of houses located near the manufacturing centers. Manu- facturers may send their buyers to buy direct from the woolgrowers, but most of the concerns buying in the field assemble numerous clips and sell to mills in large lots from their warehouses. While in the dealers’ hands many, and in some years most, of the clips are opened 22 —- BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. up and the fleeces, without being untied, are graded .and placed in large piles awaiting sale. Practically all of the Australian and New Zealand wool remains the property of the grower until it is sold to the manufacturer. The cost of actually shearing the sheep constitutes only about one-half of the amount expended in preparing the wool. The main result of this extra labor and trouble is to divide the clip into various lots, each of which is so uniform within itself that the buyer knows by examina- tion of a single bale whether or not the lot is of the grade and quality of wool he needs, and is also sure that there will be in a lot purchased a minimum amount of wool differing from what the lot was sup- posed mainly to consist of. This gives certainty to the transaction and renders possible the Australasian system of selling wool through commission brokers to mul buyers. Independent operators may buy wool to sell again, -but the bulk of the offerings go direct from the warehouses of the selling agents to the mills. As a result of this plan the report of sales received by a grower shows the selling price of each of the lines into which the classer divided the clip. In view of the present interest in this country in improving the preparation of wools for market, it may be of advantage to discuss the more distinctive features of the Australasian system. Tt is not yet time in this discussion to consider the practicability of having American wools classed as are Australian wools, or the probability of the growers’ profiting thereby in the event of their becoming convinced that they can and should adopt the essential features of the Australian method of handling wool at the shearing shed. RELATION OF WOOL CLASSING TO BREEDING. The part that wool classing plays in promoting better breeding is of great importance. This phase of the matter is well expressed by a contribution to the Pastoral Review of January, 1915, page 135: The classification of his wool at shearing time is the woolgrower’s annual indication of the progress he is making as a breeder, for it shows him whether he is increasing the proportion of the higher qualities of wool and at the same time decreasing the proportion of the lower grades, and whether he is thus making his flock more profitable. If, therefore, the Australian woolgrower aban- doned the classing of his clip he might gust as well abandon all the other little points in sheep management the observance of which has done so much to place the wool industry where it is. He has spent huge sums of money on the best class of rams he can afford, on subdivision, and other improvements that are necessary for improving his sheep by selection, and he has done this so that year by year he will see his propor- tion of high-grade wools increase and bis proportion of low-grade wools de- crease. Is it likely, then, that at shearing time he will jumble all his fleeces up into a confused heap and bury beneath locks, stained pieces, necks, burry breeches, and bellies all the beautiful, clean, shafty wool he has managed to grow on the back and sides of his sheep? SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. 93 Experience tells them whether fine, medium, or robust wool stands their par- ticular climatic conditions best, and experience also tells them the most profit- able limit as regards length of staple. Having the right type of wool fixed in their eye, the Australian sheepmen, by the process of selection, endeavor to get as much of that type of wool as they can throughout their entire flocks. By care and skill, exercised for many years, a large number of breeders have brought their flocks to a wonderful standard of uniformity. * * #* THE WOOL FROM THE SHEEP TO THE BALE. An idea of what is required in preparing wool to secure the ad- vantage of full preparation can best be gained by following a clip from the shearing shed to its final sale. The sheep come to the shearing shed in uniform bands. Long- wool and crossbred sheep never run together, neither is either type mixed with Merino sheep. With mature sheep it is unnecessary to sort immediately before shearing except to separate lambs or a few strays. Young sheep are carefully classed before their first shearing and remain in the same uniform lots during their stay on the sta- tion. This uniformity in the single lot of sheep does not mean that all the fleeces go into one class. It means that the classer will have to deal at one time only with fleeces of the same general type and that by examining the sheep and studying the first few fleeces brought up he can determine how the wool should be divided up to bring the greatest total returns when sold. Great care is exercised to keep the wool in good condition. At one Queensland shearing shed the ground from the approach to the pens to the shed door is sprinkled with water to prevent dust from rising and settling upon the sheep. The holding pens all have slatted floors so that even if the sheep lie down no dirt adheres and the wool is not soiled. The shearer first removes the belly wool, separating it as a single piece from the fleece, when it is carried to the bin provided for “bellies” near the baler. When the rest of the fleece is removed it is picked up by a boy who carries it to a slatted-topped table in the wool room, and while retaining his hold upon the thigh wool, throws the fleece into the air and away from him in such a way that it falls upon the table fully spread out, flesh side down, as shown in Plate VI. SKIRTING AND ROLLING. The fleece is now skirted. Two men, one on each side of the table, remove the tags, “ britch ” wool, and discolored, sandy, or burry wool from the lower sides and as much as may be necessary from the neck. In some well-bred sheep it may not be necessary to go very deeply into the britch. While the skirters must use their judgment for each fleece as to how much to remove, either from the thigh, side or neck, their work is directed and supervised by the wool classer, who has charge of the wool after it reaches the wool room. 24 BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. After skirting, each man turns his side of the fleece in toward the center and one turns back the neck end while the other turns the other end in toward the neck end. ‘The fleece is then rolled up from the breech forward, making it into a neat bundle, which is then car- ried to the classer’s table. PIECE PICKING. Before discussing the work at the classer’s table, it will be best to follow the skirtings further. The wool dropped to the floor by the skirters is carried te the table of the piece picker. Ordinarily the piece picker makes three lots from what comes to his table—stained wool; first pieces, which consist of the lightest and cleanest pieces; and the inferior or second pieces. These three kinds of pieces are taken to corresponding bins convenient to the baler. If heavy dung locks are present they are thrown into a pile at one side until the wool can be clipped off during odd times or on wet days. In some cases, when it is necessary to remove considerable burry wool from the neck, this goes to the bin for broken fleeces and may also first have some pieces removed from it. The floor sweepings go over the piece picker’s table. The bellies commonly go direct to their bin in the baling room, though preferably the discolored wool is taken out as stained pieces, particularly in handling wethers’ wool. The second cuts, sweat locks, etc., that fall through the wool tables are baled as locks. The number of bales of bellies, pieces, and locks resulting from this work averages around one-third of the total number in the clip. Tt is claimed in some cases that the extra value received for pieces by having them assorted is sufficient to pay for the labor of the wool room. WOOL CLASSING. Most interesting, though perhaps not always most important, of all, is the work of the classer or grader, as he would be known in a United States warehouse. His table is located convenient to the bins from which the balers take the wool, and faces in such a way as to give him a view of the work at the tables. He directs and is responsi- ble for the work of the skirters and rollers, piece pickers, and balers. He receives the rolled fleeces at his own table and must assign each to its proper class. The number of classers and their designation de- pend upon the size and character of the clip. It is regarded as always desirable that the best lot should be the largest and that as few classes as possible should be made. At the same time a fleece that is tender or otherwise inferior is never placed with better fleeces to avoid making another class, as its presence would destroy the buyer’s confidence in the classing of the whole clip. This point is presented by a large wool-selling commission house in the following suggestions: SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. 25 Avoid overclassing, and, consistently with evenness, length, condition, and quality, make the lines as large as possible. The best average prices for the whole clip are usually secured when the biggest line brings the biggest price. Our recommendation is to skirt lightly and make the top lines of the fleece as large as possible, so as to get the best average price for the whole of the elip, which, after all, is the true index of the value realized for the wool. Another Australian authority says: A system of classing which applies generally to Merino clips * * * eon- sists in classing— (a) According to the length and strength of the staple. (6) The “condition” of the wool, i. e., the amount of yolk or grease, and the quality of earth or sand and vegetable matter (such as burrs, seeds, ete.) in the fleece. (ce) Color and general characteristics of the wool. Regarding classing crossbred wool the same authority says: It is in consequence of this variation (from 36’s to 56’s in fineness) that it is necessary in classing crossbred to take so largely into account the fineness or coarseness of fiber, but at the same time condition, color, and the general appearance of the wool must not be forgotten. The classing of the 1913 clip from a New South Wales flock of 7,000 head composed of ewes, hoggets (yearling ewes), and rams is shown. It possibly represents overclassing, though it was considered imperative to keep rams’, ewes’, and yearlings’ wool separate. Classing of the 1913 clip from a flock of 7,000 head. Price per Num- Brand.! ber of Description of wool. pound at bales. which sold. Cents A comb. E...-. 17 | Bright, clean wool with good length and character....-.....-------- 21 A comb. EH.... ZN oan (lon Bie 5 SOOOR ABS GaeoC 23> 20 Sonatas eSdO pace e sce raaeas bones 22 Acomb. R..... Salar Leer eee ele se a oe I ee eee er ice ieee cows eee ee 20 AAcomb. E... 29 | Second to A comb. E; shorter with more condition....-.....-.-.---- 20 AA comb. EH.. 5 | Second to A comb. EH; shorter with more condition...-...-.-.----- 18 AA comb. R.... 1 | Second to A comb. R; shorter with more condition.............----- 16 A fleece E....-- 8 | Bright, with good length, Dubtenderte tsetse sssse = eee cee ence es 18 A fieece EH... PN ees (tein oe bv Gee Ree EE: Je. oMSoc ee eee aeM Ee Beer Spree rater 18 icogtes -----=- AM AUlistrong ficecese-. 25220: ssas ewer pete ese ece eee cree tess these eters 20 Fleece E....-.-. 6 | Short and heavy conditioned fleeces (yellow).---..------------------- 17 Fleece EH...-.- Pe ecco Glin at Oba haa Core Haddad AP SS AadSaSe ae ssOBeE SSE OaneIon 17 Fleece R....--- 2M abe (omer tee 56 Pepe weres ec)s 05 2- Cee se pb demednees=ccasaneccee se 164 Broken E...-.... 21 | Necks and bulky pieces with very little burr and seed........-....-.- 184 Broken EH..... a Pra aen Oe rae oe o2= iain a Jefe EEE one rae e mmcicd bbe wae eben e astelek 21 Broken R....--. PA Bree (tO eee De OACUEREMER CON 2 o> 5d 0 SHS S ab Me pa NES A A oes aca deen aeae 20 A pieces E...... 29 | Second to broken E and heavy with burr and seed...--..-.---.---- 20 A pieces EH.... 9 | Second to broken EH and heavy with burr and seed..-.-....-....-- 17 A pieces R...-.. 4 | Second to broken R and heavy with burr and seed.......-.-.-...-- 14} Bellies E....... (PA Bc or eek s Anerie teas A RRBECIE DESL mS DOD AAS oe acct ESE es ee 13 Jellies EH. ...- PE ES a ES BP ae ICTS Oc, c-epe eR a eV ae ee ee 13 Bellies R....... 1 ie EAI SOUP ECO CRORE rie 017 Or eDOCS COED BORONC AMC etrIorent 11 Stained pieces. . 1h aso eis eit PEI CER UCC: BREET 2c COR CSE OME a SC en sia eae Ge beere 8 Locks E....-.... Bi ora c stent ees tan 0:20.00 cies RED siete Lager ERC ENS Soe 6 Locks EH...... DAN VS ye ES A es ea hc: is Sexi ae ee Sc Ae oT ee 6 MERE ins ae Le cesar anes te cans > 2 > > « vue oes ein eisai cia mamicl were weiss oe 5 Alambs........ 1 | Best of lambs, good length with iat (Psa bhai als Agee Peceiaete sien 19 AA lambs...... 5 | Shorter than A lambs, with a little burr and seed...........--...-.. 114 AAA lambs.... 6 | Very short and heavy with burr and seed.........-.-.-- aa pclae ol 7 1E—=Ewes. EF I. =Kwe eogbata: {<= Rams.. At a Queensland shed, where 10,000 5 ae wethers were shorn, the following classes were made: 1. AAA combing. This lot contained only the finer, best fleeces, having good length, sound, bright, and light shrinking. 26 BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2. AA combing. Similar to AAA combing, but heavier in tips, and would shrink more on that account. 5. AA. Similar to AA combing, but shorter. 4, A. Short-stapled and heavy in yolk. 5. AA fleece. Rougher and coarser than AA combing. 6. A fleece. Short, discolored. 7. Broken fleeces. Best parts of neck and britch wool from skirtings. 8. First pieces. Best and cleanest of skirtings that remain after separation of that going into broken fleeces. 9. Pieces. Sometimes called second pieces; dirtier and inferior to first pieces. 10. Locks. Second cuts and sweaty locks from below the wool table. 11. Bellies. The woo] bales are branded with the classer’s designation of their contents and so entered in the auction-sale catalogue. It will be no- ticed in the latter case that the best wool was called AAA combing, and AA combing was not so good. In the New South Wales clip referred to the A grade is higher than AA. This causes no confu- sion, because the buyer depends for his estimate upon his examina- tion of sample bales, and his chief concern in regard to the classing is to know that the skirting was properly done, and that there is uniformity throughout each bale and throughout the various bales in the lot as offered in the sale. Té is the aim to avoid, as far as possible, the selling of too many lots of less than 10 bales. As a rule a 50-bale lot will bring more per pound than a 5 or 10 bale lot of similar wool. It takes the buyer as long to value a small lot as a large one, and, if purchased, the smaller lot only partially fills an order for several hundred bales. A lot of three bales or less is sold as a “star” lot, either at a dif- ferent time or in a different place from the selling of the large lots. Selling houses sometimes “interlot” what would otherwise be star lots. Small lots of wools of the same kind and considered to have the same money value are combined to form a larger lot, and settle- ment with each consignor interested in the joint offering is made at the price realized for the interlotted offering. Report of a wool sale at Sydney in April, 1914. Lot. Mark. ‘ Description. Bales. | Price. GREASY. A Z 1 | H/Nandawar (from Boggabri).......--.-...-.---.- TED S'S tori ee eee 12 63 2 | Lumley Park/C (from Goulburn)....-....--.------ XOB bs sess eee eee 9 102 3.) Labratong\ (from) Nevertine)=- 92-2 9226-2. eee CS i SERS ORES EE Sana ae 16 23 AN een IN Zila Gnome raldw 00d) eaeee. ae oe eee eeeeeeee MWe ee ee acco erate ene 6 gk 5 | 7/Jh/New England (from Inverell)......-..---..-- AD yee ate sais tee aa Se gee 5 114 6!) “Dynie! GromsDandaloo)ee 2222 -- eo 14 3 7 | E/Lora Downs (from Coonamble) Oi sanese 8) | Willara| Grom Wianaantas) posse ee sesso ese ose eeeeee F 8 9 No lot 9. 10)|=:DD /lisear/Grom)Parkes)fsss5-es. 32 -=- soe see 20s Seas 15 Cid eee On econ Sa oe mio cette) See eee 1 W 9: | Bees Be MPa ese! GORE Base ene Cee oe oe Seine aac anes ose eee 10 os UG} ADE (Ganon WiGisesRD). ~~ - sob os ecoe cue SeoeEbocecscose 6 gt 14 | +/a/Kentucky (from Queanbeyan).....--------.- Wy and! Wii. s2s2.4 5. ke 7 1G4 15 | JP/Marysvale (from Goulburn)........-..-.------- IWR eS CO S4RS0 RE See cosaeas Jae 14 lif SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA, Report of a wool sale at Sydney in April, 1914—Continued. 212 rea No lot 216. CUP SPIMIP VAIO IL... 6.65. -csisec~ 218 sat i4:td {OB as oe es Re Se 223 Dot eniiela Ss eee oro ee No lot 224. 225 | ~/Jh/New England................ 1 5 Note.—The prices are given in English pence; Lot. Mark. Description. GREASy—continued. 16 | JP/Marysvale (from Goulburn) ...-..------.---.-- Me Seer Beene ee cee cise ane 17 | WJM (from Goulburn).-.-...-.-..--.------------- IEDs ee eeBane Alen S aac 18 ee Btation.t in oval (from Queanbeyan)..---- it Chm ee eensasasee Seeeeeee UE iceee ll Ce eccGe eee aee seonee Sep oooucoceEseSosenssmogdsc AWC OMIM Sa. i ance taeto 2.11) earese Go sera Biafra s tee ee siecle teins SRA 5 SaaS qe = AS 21 | Auburn Vale/Ans (from Inverell)....----.-------- ILI S8SS ae H eS CEES 22 Beeline Grom Niyican) eee eees se eee. eee PAUAPDDSE Af Ro cope Pts hod 23) 222s sce A ee eee ses a cept aoceeseodecspeEouse JN ALO Seer bee sears coeeoaseiae 24 aid) Criarra (from Queanbeyan).....------------ RR Rea CSET» FSCeE RE tes Pel ee One rena: = ate ata ra oes sesig as-is ini 9 X-B and X-B E....---..---. 26 | Ahni a dia./Cooyah (from Springsure, Q.)-...--.--- Rie AWW eet ee acee em ecene 24 (al | See Desses-sssserdestsccesscoossrsusssascssedoosds DAME) Ee Seva mete Nee aire errr 723i eae Oe sree essed Se ge = See Stars ais By Ss ars hors reece AWASW ie Sines ote eee secters Pool Weare Oma SEs RE AE ES es 2 See ARAN ee SP Eee Bl [pao OO. 2oe- Ge BESS See SSSR One BOSE EEE S See eEeee See A 12 1D Gs NVigaeaebeseeons Sig ee ed Bid. canqecGoamaades Ano Saseube Soe SEaUSUEneE aemoar JUGAL SRR esos aeaaasaoncsensen 32 | Bayrick (from Augathella, Q.)...--<-------------- SAUCE ES SELES eyes Le ERE 33) beae6 Oc RlSS ake At SOc ORS > au eenoner Hoaeepeeroseoe PACE Lie reper ieee sae Heevonstste tee Be p= 325. BG ae ie EPs liye SE A 8 ET A EM te J JOD} TS SE A EY ol 35) | acter Oe! 5: St ac® Se cenOHe 5b Gare sene . ane aretr see Ie csyeits See 36/22 -5 CUD EAS oP ee eee Se See Ree be 5 Bea eae eee 3.5 £ Pest! Stas sis. ssi. 37 | AM/Blairgowrie (from Jericho, Q.)..---.------.---- J NOIRE DiS Se oe a 38 | CM/Derribong (from Dandaloo) Lge De SRT Benes Sad See Crs SA 39 | ABT/Wirchilleba (from Cobar).....--..-.---..---- TURIEXES) 1 De een ee ee MOR Aten wWarchillebat #23220. 3b gee APCS) Dh oa Le eae ete REP IEE AA SE Tend GOES OD EDS DE DEEAGEE SEOs BEE E aeeeeaseec EO CK SHE eo Me SE Mie cane 42 eg nuerusella (from Brewarrina)....--.------- PAVAGHA BESS Peet Fo. SME 23) 22 ost (DSS eG SOBRE Soe Re Set eee ae eet ee aero GAWASKOET I PRES bP ies Ay No ae 44 to 48. SCOURED APNE ALON Soe SE eet eincd tye b= Bice as emit Pes Sek ee eee tese oases 50 See ecole wood aes OE iets seek eee oem Suipensieeerere eeeceree- eee Wh Creer DLs Spc S SSE Sees Sado sn Se 2 SIS e Eres Someries Saif 1 2 aes Sats meyer Z| UGS (De cpa Bi at ene a alt ae a ne a ee OCS ene eee ES uke No lots 53 to 65. Peiginivena es. ee Of oo kro See eet AL ee IMMInCS Le tee Ree Ae eae ee (teers TC EESE See eae esate > oS Soe ee eee ae RB OC KS icpactrcers ser Beier ie SEIU UEWALOVE een Vateer co ntet pee csc sess cce eee SRR steerer ete See eee 69} Rockview/Collingwood...-.--.----:+--------------- RES BAe tecre creme ete 70 ee nEOWTIS DEE CREB Sets GSS 5 oe eee mein Le TEs oh See any Pee te ee Ue see2- Ube. be- eet bio gesnbent aoseocsenreseeessess Std Pes Bete ence a0 Se as ia eee entice 2a eee oo ane oe Bls and Lks (C6) Sees (4) hoor ner dees oes cen aodore suse 5 ena aederorboss Wael#l.2 =f: Se cone Joddeaeseeee (i) eee Ce Sa eae MWockstsee sie saeeee eM MASE net oN ciao of ERY TA SEs TPE eect casemaslge TEE = eS ae eee neaeey No lots 76 to 199 PANE EN. ee 5 Se Soe eae Sodas ae ecs apes ee ID CS ER pees sates ne eee oink ay biess =. (5 BS Ie Seen ee ee ee ee ee es Woks: f 2 oth Le AE Pay Pee NANG A wate. 222 Sea s5. 2-22 socee ose ees eee TCS A eee meee ad ane 715 ee GO Lpel? pe 6 Cas 13S ee st ee eee ee eee ee Be BS eee eee ict ek Ae ee Se No lot 204. LAOH MC PA OODAN Ace th LL SSS Se le. CER ie andiClipsecteee nse antes 2A SOULS AQUA FASS Ee eo ees ace eee ||) OY Gee At ee oe oe 2 eta J ATV EIMC(W 22.03.5002. DFS So SAP eee Le MOLLE ARB. : eee BEY p Od cee e eee ees hs. PDE HeOBOULE oe, ore et. . fee oe cee se eee eens oa doae 1 ee et ne eS ee 8 oo 2A pe ee re Sie. ae er tee Rees elle ee ees tf Bog ee PEL Pt hie | ga gery et PAH. ae a oes See mek nie RT Be es ee MVOCKSe hac street eee PLL NW GICDOOWEr) 5.0232 be dnin ddn ttt e sees dd tone TBE hea} of: bt ey eae Hao ener ag SES S5. 6s NOAM DS te ae coctc at ctepie rise sds ORF ee EEE oe X-B Lbs X-B F and MF.... ain sas wabaee X-B Lbs & 2 X-B Lbs...... 1 penny equals 2 cents. Bales. at — = RPNIANION OOOO — mo a Owoeod Ree pn FReNpeNPeNNee Hoe Bee eo eee Cee nwmeep Spee 27 Price. 28 BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The sellers made the following comments on some of the lots: Lot 2. X-bred lambs 213 cents. Good quality and staple, dry, dusty. Lot 5. F 23 cents. Fine, good staple and condition, some burr. Lot 14. Fleece 203 cents. Fair staple and condition, skirty. Lots 18 and 19. 1st Com. 23 cents, A Com. 213 cents. Fine, soft, good staple, fairly good condition. Lots 26 to 30. AAAW 26 cents, AAAH 24% cents, AAE 234 cents, Pes. 214 cents, lambs 23 cents. Fine, soft, well grown, good color and condition. Lots 32, 34, and 55. AAH 233 cents, AE 21 cents, ist Pes. 22 cents. Good quality and condition, fair staple. Lot 42. AAE 203 cents, AAXH 223 cents. Fine, fair staple, dusty tip. EXPENSE OF PREPARING WOOL FOR MARKET. Australian wages for shearing flock wethers, ewes, and lambs are 6 cents per head, with no rations furnished. Wool skirters and roll- ers, balers, piece pickers and fleece carriers receive $10.75 per week, without rations. Other shed hands are paid $8.25 or $10 per week (without rations), depending upon whether they are under or over 18 years of age. The most common wage for the classer is $5 per 1,000 sheep shorn. It is considered that 16 men should do the work in a wool room for from 36 to 40 shearers. These are, 1 classer, 6 wool rollers, 4 piece pickers, 1 lock and belly picker, 3 wool pressers, and 1 man to weigh and brand the bales. In addition to this number, boys are needed to sweep the floor and carry fleeces, their number de- pending largely upon the arrangement of the shed. In one shed visited 12 boys were sweeping and carrying fleeces for 35 shearers, and the total number of employees other than shearers was 38. This shed was not well arranged, the wool was very burry, and the broken fleece wool was passed over the piece pickers’ table. At another New South Wales shearing shed the owner stated that when running with 36 shearers, 24 men and a classer cared for the wool until it was delivered in branded bales. The arrangements in this case reduced the distance for carrying wool but the greatest sav- ing was in the elimination of the piece picking tables and the neces- sity of gathering skirtings from the floor and carrying them to the tables. The tables were of extra size with four men stationed at each. Each man skirted always from the same part of the fleece and threw the wool into corresponding bins near at hand. In Australia considerable numbers of sheep are shorn by individ- uals or companies working on contracts. The sheep owner may or may not furnish the shearing machinery and he may employ his own classer, who then takes charge of the contractor’s hands who work in the wool room. In one shed visited, where shearing was done by contract, the owner delivered the sheep at the shed and furnished fuel and quarters for the hands and engaged and paid the classer. The contractor furnished the machinery, sheared the sheep, put up SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. 29 the wool, and delivered the bales at a charge of 12 cents per sheep, incurring the risk of loss through having to pay wages to shed hands when sheep were too wet for shearing. SELLING GRADED OR CLASSED WOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES. The terms “ grading” and “classing” have of late come to have distinctive meanings. Grading wool is understood to consist of assigning whole fleeces to different lots according to length and fineness of fiber. Classing is understood to comprise all that grading does, but in addition each fleece is skirted. Fleeces that would go into one grade may, in classing, be made into two or more lots, ac- cording to shrinkage, strength, or character. Classing is an elabora- tion of the principle of grading. It effects a greater uniformity and allows a closer appraisal for each lot of wool. It also entails more labor, and when carried too far, especially with small clips, produces a larger number of small lots than is desirable. There can be no doubt of the desirability from the wool grower’s standpoint of having his wool clip sold in as many separate parts as are necessary to separate the main general classes of wool contained. How far this division, classing, or grading of a clip should be carried depends upon the amount and kinds of wools it contains and upon the selling arrangements. After many years of classing his clip, the Australian is firmly con- vinced that he realizes more for his wool by selling it in such num- ber of distinct lots that a manufacturer can find in a single lot just the kind of wool he needs for a particular fabric and can buy that wool alone without having to include in his purchase some wool that he does not want at all or that he can not use for some time. It seems a reasonable principle that live stock, wool, or any com- modity offered in large numbers or amounts will market to better advantage to the seller when broken up into as many distinct lots as the offering includes and each sold on its merits. Good lambs or good wools look and sell much better in a lot by themselves than when mixed with inferior and unattractive stuff. Poor lambs or poor wools look and sell much better by themselves than when mixed with those of higher quality and value. Aside from added returns from wool and of even greater im- portance to the grower is the information that such a system furnishes regarding the proportions of each type of wool contained in his clip and the value of each to the manufacturing industry. This allows an accurate determination of the profit from various classes of sheep yielding peculiar types of wool. It may and often does happen that the heavier fleece of wool of slightly lower value per pound yields more profit than a lighter fleece having a higher value per pound. Separate sale of different classes of wool permits the sheep breeder 30 BULLETIN 313, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to determine definitely which class of sheep is most pa under his conditions. It is yet too early to say how far and in what way the principles of Australian wool classing and selling can profitably be adopted in the United States. There is nothing in the nature of American sheep or ranch conditions that constitutes an insurmountable obstacle to the employment of even the details of Australian shearing and classing of wool. The great and quite firmly established difference is in the methods of selling. The plan of preparing wool as followed in Australia is possible there because their auction system of selling permits a ready sale of a lot as small as one bale, or 400 pounds of wool. The minimum size of offering that can be satisfactorily dis- posed of in the American wool trade is 6,000 pounds, and few buyers care to purchase lots of less than 10,000 pounds. This is true because most American wools are purchased by manufacturers’ buying rep- resentatives in large lines of single grades from dealers who have purchased numerous entire clips at a lump price per pound. Ordi- narily each clip contains a considerable amount of each of a number of grades. By combining the few thousand pounds, say, of fine staple wool from one clip with the same kind from one or more other clips, a marketable offering can be made up. The success of ranch grading of wools is dependent upon the estab- lishing of such selling arrangements as will permit the grower to receive a report showing the weight and selling price of each part of his clip. Under such a method of selling as is used in Australia a mill buyer can secure from any day’s offering as large an amount as he needs of any one grade by buying lots of varying amounts of that grade, selected from over a million pounds that may be sold in the auction lasting only a few hours. Since it is the growers who need and desire a readjustment of American wool-selling methods, it is they who must take the initia- tive and incur any risks connected with new methods. It is quite plain that the benefits of selling graded wool can not be realized when the clip is sold on the ranch and as a whole. It can not reasonably be expected that speculative buyers, accustomed to buying whole clips, will buy a clip in six or seven parts, neither can the manu- facturer in need of, say, 50,000 pounds of a certain class of wool send his buyers to the ranches to bid upon even 10,000 or 15,000 pounds of such wool at a place and then more often than not fail to make a purchase. The Australian style of auction could not be inaugurated with offerings of classed and catalogued wools equal to less than 20 per cent of the American clip. With 50,000,000 pounds of wool suitably put up and offered by auction for a number of years, that system of doing business might be established. But such a move would neces- SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. 81 sitate cooperation among growers to an extent not likely to be possible for some years at least. The only other means of securing the results sought in auction selling is to consign classed or graded clips to commission saleshouses and permit them to combine different parts of various clips such as may be necessary to make up offerings of size suitable to the trade. This is the practice of interlotting described on page 26. Such prac- tice can succeed only when the grower feels that his selling agent, whether it be a cooperative or a private concern, will act fairly and use only wools of similar value in the combined offerings. Such selling facilities, or any others that are practised, can by no means remove the need of selling houses or firms to get the wool to the manufacturers. Such intermediate agencies may in the future consist more largely than at present of commission sellers, though it is unlikely that the time will ever come when no wool will be bought and held for market rises. COOPERATIVE SHEARING SHEDS IN NEW ZEALAND. In New Zealand the sheep raisers are equally as determined as those in Australia to have their wool clips well put up. A few farmers keeping very small flocks do not skirt or class their fleeces, and such clips commonly go to speculators, who do the skirting and classing and in selling combine various purchases so reworked. Some owners of medium-sized flocks (1,000 to 5,000) cooperate in the ownership and operation of a common shearing plant. Each sheep owner using the shed holds shares of stock in the plant in pro- portion to the size of his flock. Prior to shearing time the stock- holders meet and agree upon a salary for a superintendent selected by them for the season’s run. This superintendent hires shearers, shed hands, and a classer, purchases supplies, and in fact does all the busi- ness connected with the work, delivering to each stockholder his classed clip in bales, and the season’s expense is paid by the stock- holders on the basis of the number of sheep shorn for each. EDUCATION OF WOOL GROWERS AND THEIR EMPLOYEES. Australia has five agricultural colleges, with a total annual at- tendance of about 1,000 students. At each college students are given as a part of the agricultural course instruction in the handling of the wool at shearing time, and are required to assist in the work. Other sheep than those owned upon the college farm are sometimes shorn in order to prolong the run and permit each student to take part in each phase of the work. Bales of unskirted or unclassed wools are often purchased to be used as laboratory material in teach- ing the best methods of preparing a clip of wool for the market. 32 BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Agricultural college students also receive instruction upon the breed- ing and rearing of sheep, though in these lines also most of the time and attention is devoted to practical work. The agricultural college courses are planned equally for prospective farmers and pastoralists. Apart from the agricultural colleges, instruction pertaining to wools is included among the subjects offered in the technical colleges, schools, and trade schools, of which each State has its own system. New South Wales has 3 technical day schools with two-year courses, and 2 trade schools. In Victoria 20 technical schools receive State aid and 7 of them teach trade subjects. About 40 students were attending classes in wool classing and sorting at the Working Men’s College in Melbourne, Victoria, in 1914. The course in wools offered by this college covers two years, students attending 27 hours per week for 40 weeks each year. The work is divided into three grades, out- lined as follows: FIRST GRADE, To point out any portion of the fleece. To skirt a fleece properly. To roll a fleece properly. To sort skirtings according to their commercial value, making “necks,” “broken,” “ first,’ “ second,’ and “stained” pieces and “ locks,’ and be able to sort 40 pounds in 30 minutes. To skirt “bellies” and remove stains where necessary. To explain what is understood by the terms “ combing” and “ clothing,” and to divide the wool into these two classes. SECOND GRADE. To be thoroughly competent in all first-grade work. To distinguish the following descriptions of wool: Merino, greasy and scoured ; comeback, greasy and scoured; quarter-bred, greasy and scoured; half-bred, greasy and scoured; three-quarters bred, greasy and scoured; and Lincoln, greasy and scoured. To class wool into these qualities. To be able to sort 28 pounds per hour into these qualities. To explain the means used in preparing wools for market, as, for instance, ““ sreasy,” “scoured,” and “ fellmongered ” wool. To be able practically to class crossbred fleece and lambs’ wool into their respective grades ready for the market, and to class Merino wool, making the distinction between “ combing,” “ clothing,’ and ‘“ tender” wool. To explain how “crossbred” and ‘‘ comeback” wools are produced, illus- trating by specimens of wool what each crossing will produce. THIRD GRADE. To be thoroughly competent in all first and second grade work. To sort Merino and crossbred wools into all their lengths and qualities. To sort lambs’ wool, either Merino or crossbred, into all its trade qualities. To sort crossbred and Merino fleeces into trade qualities. To give an approximate yield of clean wool from greasy. SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. 33 Certificate will be given only to those passing in the three grades. - Before a certificate will be issued, a report from the owner or repre- sentative for efficiency in “ wool rolling” and “ piece picking” during one month’s work in a shed of at least 10 shearers must-be obtained, and the student must class the wool, supervise piece pickers and wool rollers in a shearing shed to be named for one run (1 hour and 20 minutes) to the satisfaction of two examiners. New Zealand has day technical schools which include agricul- ture as one of the studies. Technical work, including such subjects as wool classing, was taught at 132 centers in 1913. At 70 per cent of these centers 1,700 students were taught “wool sorting and class- ing, shearing, dairying, veterinary service, agriculture, and horti- culture.” The Christchurch Technical College has a term of three months and requires an attendance of nine hours per week in the course on wool classing. The outline of the course is as follows: Students are taught how to pick up, roll, skirt, class, and bale wool for the Colonial, London, Continental, and American markets. Farmers are instructed how to flay and prepare sheep skins and hides for market, both in tne dry and green state, and valuation of same at per skin and by weight. Notes and short lectures are given weekly. Wool sorting is taught according to Bradford Spinners’ Count Qualities, ranging from 32’s to 80’s. Second-year students are taught how to estimate the clear yield of wool on a top and noil basis. The education pertaining to wools offered in Australia and New Zealand is mainly calculated to aid production and train young men for employment with woolgrowers. The only instruction in wools offered in the United States is at a very few textile colleges, which prepare their students to engage in some phase of the manufacture of woolen goods. Although the position of the sheep industry in this country is not relatively so prominent as in Australia, yet its present status and need of development call for educational facili- ties that do not now exist. There are great areas in the Rocky Moun- tain and other Western States which in the interests of public wel- fare and true economy should always be used for sheep raising. While it is beyond the present scope of State institutions to conduct experiments on a scale commensurate with that of ordinary range operations, men and facilities are available for giving instruction that will help to put wool production upon a more skillfully con- ducted and remunerative basis. SHEEP RAISERS’ ORGANIZATIONS. Six strong pastoralists’ associations in Australia are federated to form a single body, called “The Pastoralists’ Federal Council of 34 BULLETIN 313, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Australia.” This council consists at present of 12 members, who rep- resent various associations or unions in the States. The purpose of this council is to make orders and regulations to insure unity of action by the federated associations. An important object of all the pastoral associations is to adjust labor matters for their members. They also represent their members in all matters affecting the occupation and development of land for stock farming and grazing purposes. The relation of local unions or associations to the federal council 1s shown in the case of the United Pastoralists’ and Grazing Farmers’ Association of Queensland. This association comprises five district associations, having a total membership of 880 stock owners, repre- senting 63 per cent of the sheep and 28 per cent of the cattle in the State. Each of the district associations holds its own annual meeting. The executive ofiices of this State association furnish advice and make representations to the Government land department. During the 1914 meeting discussions were held and action asked or taken on such questions as methods of assessing rates on pastoral holdings, imsurance of employees’ and members’ products, stock stealing, mini- mum area of grazing farms and homesteads, and extension of leases. During the year members were advised as to action in 19 cases of dis- putes with shearers and shed hands. Other organizations repre- sented in the federal council have similar functions and subsidiary organizations. PROBABLE EXTENT OF FUTURE IMPORTATIONS OF MUTTON AND WOOL FROM AUSTRALASIA. In the minds of many American farmers there exists an uncer- tainty regarding the influence upon the future course of prices of importations of mutton and wool. Australia and New Zealand are regarded by some as likely to greatly increase their production and supply our markets and thus:depress the price of the home-grown products. These countries can increase their production to a considerable ex- tent. Such an increase can not be a sudden one, and it is doubtful if an additional output can be produced at a lower cost than is possible by the use of the best methods in the United States. None of the land now unoccupied in New Zealand is capable of producing really high-class mutton or wool. An increase of that country’s sheep population is to be looked for chiefly through more seeding of nat- ural pastures and the cultivation of forage crops on present natural or artificial grass areas. With the ruling cost of labor and the com- paratively slow rate of increase in population, the advance toward any system requiring an increase of labor is likely to be gradual. In Australia there is a great deal of territory available for new flocks. Much of it, however, is subject to rather frequent droughts, SHEEP—UNITED STATES, NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA. 35 while labor conditions and restricted construction of railroads render improbable any rapid development. In much of this newer country it requires around 3 acres to support a sheep. Those competent to judge state that the present rate of increase in the sheep population of the interior no more than balances the loss in the moister coastal areas that have supported three sheep per acre and which are now being used more largely for dairying. Even with favorable seasons and aggressive development in Aus- tralia it is improbable that the proportion of the increase reaching the United States would seriously affect our market values. The United States is now one of the small importers of Australasian meats. It may be desirable for shipping companies to divert larger supplies to our ports to furnish eastbound cargo for vessels carrying back American manufactures. With an even greater meat shortage in the other countries receiving Australasian meats than exists here, prices are not likely soon to divert large amounts from European destinations into our markets. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY WS aS ie UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF 4 GUSTO. ANOLE ge Contributien from Office of Public Roads and ‘Rural iain cS o\ | LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. December 10, 1915 METHODS FOR THE EXAMINATION OF BITUMI- NOUS ROAD MATERIALS. By Prevost Hupearp, Chemical Engineer, and y ? J *) CHARLES 8. REEvs, Chemist. CONTENTS. Page. | Page. Classification of materials................-.-. 2 | Bitumen soluble in carbon disulphide ......- 25 PebeMoOorexamination ..--.--.--.-------.-- 2 | Bitumen insoluble in paraffin naphtha... -_.. 28 Specifie gravity determination. ............. 4 | Bitumen insoluble in carbon tetrachloride _ -- 30 Specific viscosity determination......-.....- 7, \Wlixedecarnbonteee sa. ese ese 3 eee 3 DUGE] (GS) 0 Cea Bese sete esoee es ees seeee aaa 9 “| iaraitiimtscales see vetuacs a tei Genie ie in eee 32 BOM GEAUOMILES bts. -<- Ones esac eb Silas ac 11 | Extraction of bituminous aggregates _...___. 35 Melting point determination.....:...-..-... 14 | Grading the mineral aggregate .........__._- 38 Mashand burnin’ points... ...25..2...-.-: 16 | Voids in the mineral aggregate .......-...... 39 MielabibAGONSLOSL =< 222s-S22 2d: - 2382s 2 19) SEMI MOUS emu STOT Sp see es eee 41 RSM OTMLOS UR laos oe ook = cin eierctee sees - 21. | RAo pen Ciscie e/a ee ey ern eee te as 43 Prmloweylsniphate test. $-25-2---.--25-+-..- 25 INTRODUCTION. This bulletin is the first revision of Office of Public Roads Builetin No. 38, which was issued July 27, 1911. Its object is to present a description of methods now in use by the Office of Public Roads and tural Engineering for the examination of bituminous road materials in such form that, with a little practice and proper equipment, such examinationsmay bemadeby any intelligent person. The various tests have, therefore, been described rather more in detail than would be necessary if they were intended for the use of chemists only; and illus- trations of practically all of the apparatus required have also been included. Since the publication of Bulletin No. 38 considerable progress has been made in the standardization of methods of examining bituminous road materials. Many of the methods described in Bulletin No. 38 have been generally adopted. Certain of these methods have, how- ever, been improved during the past four years and the constant demand for this bulletin has led to its present revision. The changes and additions noted below are the result of investigations conducted in the laboratories of the office and of cooperative work with certain technical societies. 8016’ —Bull. 3144—15—1 Z BULLETIN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Special attention is called to modifications m the penetration test, determination of fixed carbon, and determination of paraffin scale; and to the substitution of new methods for the old distillation tests and for determination of voids in the mineral ageregate. In addition descriptions of the following methods, which were not included in Builetin No. 38, are given: i (1) Determination of flash and burning points—open cup method. (2) Dimethyl sulphate test. (3) Methods of examining bituminous emulsions. While it is realized that the folowing. scheme of examination is not ae rfect and may in the future be improved, it has nevertheless been of great assistance in classifying bituminous road materials and determining their suitability for use according to various methods of _ application and construction. : CLASSIFICATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS. For the purpose of examination bituminous road materials may be classified under the following headings: 1. Petroleums and petroleum products, including heavy distillates, malthas, resid- ual petroleums, fluxes, oil-asphalts, and fluxed or cut-back oil-asphalts. 2. Asphalts and other solid native bitumens, and asphaltic cements produced by fluxing them. 3. Petroleum and asphalt emulsions. . Tars and tar products. Mixtures of tar with petroleum or asphalt products. 6. Bituminous aggregates, including rock asphalts or bituminous rocket bituminous concrete, asphalt block, mad bituminous topping. SCHEME OF EXAMINATION. Gy tS All petroleum, maltha, and solid native bitumen products are sub- jected to the following tests: Specific gravity. Volatilization at 163° C. Bitumen soluble in carbon disulphide. Bitumen insoluble in 86° B. paraffin naphtha. Fixed carbon. f Of these types the very fluid and sometimes the more viscous products may be subjected to the viscosity, flash, and burning-pomt determinations. Very viscous materials, too soft for the penetration test, are subjected to the float test, and semisolid and solid products to the penetration test. If the material is sufficiently hard at ordinary temperatures, a melting-point determination may also prove of value. Sometimes two or more of the above-mentioned tests, dependmg upon the character of the material and the use to which it is to be put, may be made to advantage on a single material. When for any reason it is suspected that the material under examination has been overheated “EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS. 3 and possibly injured durimg process of manufacture, or prepared from a solid native indurated bitumen, the determination of bitumen insoluble in carbon tetrachloride may be made. The paraffin scale determination is made on those materials which are to be identified as beig partly composed of heavy paraffin hydrocarbons. The residue obtained from the volatilization test is usually subjected to either the float or penetration test, and in addition it may be subjected to any or all of the above-described tests as occasion may require. Tar and tar products are subjected to the following tests: Specific gravity. Distillation. Bitumen soluble in carbon disulphide. Petroleum and asphalt emulsions are subjected to some of the methods of examination applicable to fluid and viscous residual petroleums and also to the following tests: Determination of water. Determination of ammonia. Determination of fixed alkali. Determination of fatty and resin acids. In addition, the viscosity test may be employed for fluid products and it is highly desirable that the float test be made on all of the viscous and semisolid tar products. The more er less solid refined tars or tar pitches are also subjected to the meiting-pomt determina- tion. Mixtures of tar and petroleum or asphait products are in addition subjected to the dimethyl] sulphate test. Some exceptional materials can not be satisfactorily examined according to any one predetermined scheme, and at the present time this matter must be left to the judgment and experience of the analyst. Practically all of the methods described in this bulletin are, however, applicable to the more common materials, and for a given material those methods should be selected which will give the most information concerning its character and suitability for the specific use for which it is intended. Bituminous aggregates are first of ali examined for the percentage of bitumen soluble in carbon disulphide. If the amount is in excess of 5 per cent, an extraction is then made on a large sample and the recovered bitumen is examined according to one of the above-men- tioned schemes if it can be identified, or, if not, it is subjected to those tests which are of most value as suggested above. The ex- tracted mineral aggregate is usually quantitatively graded and, if it is to be used or has been used as an integral part of the road proper, its percentage of voids is sometimes determined. Forms for reporting the results of examination of bituminous road materials according to the. methods described in this bulletin are given in the appendix 4 BULLETIN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINATION. _HYDROMETER METHOD USED FOR THIN FLUID BITUMENS. EQUIPMENT. 1 hydrometer jar approximately 35 centimeters long and 5 centimeters in diameter. (Fig. 1-a.) 1 1-pint tin cup, seamless type. (Fig. 1-0.) 1 enamel-ware dish approximately 2 inches deep and 9 inches in diameter. (Fig. 1-c.) 1 chemical thermometer rea ling from —10° C. to 110° ©. (Fig. 1-d.) 1 set of hydrometers—those with a double scale at 15.5° C. (60° F.), one for Baumé and one for a direct specific gravity reading to the third decimal place are used by the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineeiing. (Wig. 1-e.) 1 hydrometer reading from 0.800 to 0.900 specific gravity. 1 hydiometer reading from 0.900 to 1.000 specific gravity. 1 hydrometer reading from 1.000 to 1.200 specific gravity. i hydrometer reading from 1.200 to 1.400 specific gravity. METHOD. The specific gravity of thin fluid bituminous road materials is de- termined at 25° C. as compared with waiter at that temperature. This may be done with the above-mentioned apparatus by first pour- ing a sufficient quantity of the material into the tin cup, which is then placed in the large dish containing cold or warm water as occasion may require. The material in the cup should be stirred with the thermometer until it is brought to a temperature of 25° C., after which it should be immediately poured into the hydrometer jar and its gravity determined by means of the proper hydrometer. In case .. EXAMINATION OF. BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS:) a) the hydrometer sinks slowly, owing to the viscosity of the material, it should be given sufficient time to come to a definite resting point, and this point should be checked by raising the hydrometer and allow- mg it tosinkasecond time. The hydrometer should never be pushed below the poimt at which it naturally comes to rest until the last reading has been made. It may then be pushed below the reading for a distance of three or four of the smaii divisions on the scale, whereupon it should immediately begin to rise. If it fails to do so, the material is too viscous for the hydrometer method, and the pycnometer method should be employed. 3 The direct specific gravity reading obtamed by the foregoing method is based upon water at 15.5° C. taken as unity. For all practical purposes this reading may be corrected to water at 25° C., considered as unity, by multiplying it by 1.002. Thus: Specific gravity 25° C./25° C. =specifie gravity 25° C./15.5° C. X 1.002 PYCNOMETER METHOD (USED FOR VISCOUS FLUID AND SEMISOLID BITUMENS. AND EMULSIONS). EQUIPMENT. 1 large metal kitchen spoon. 1 steel spatula or kitchen knife. 1 Bunsen burner and rubber tubing. 1 250 cubic centimeter low-form glass beaker. 1 chemical thermometer reading from —19° C. to 110° C. l special pycnometer. (Fig. 2.) 1 analytical balance, capacity 100 grams, sensitive to 0.1 milligram. METHOD. The inconvenience and difficulty of employing the ordinary narrow- neck pyenometer when determining ‘the specific gravity of viscous fluid and semisolid bitumens has led to the use of the special form shown in figure 2. This pycnometer consists of a fairly heavy, straight-walled glass tube, 70 millimeters long and 22 millimeters in diameter, carefully ground to receive an accurately fitting solid glass stopper with a hole of 1.6 millimeters bore in place of the usual capillary opening. The lower part of this stopper is made concave in order to allow all air bubbles to escape through the bore. The depth of the cup-shaped depression is 4.8 millimeters at the center. The stoppered tube has a capacity of about 24 cubic centimeters and when empty weighs about 28 grams. Its principal advantages are (1) that any desired amount of bitumen may be poured in without touching the sides above the level desired; (2) it is easily cleaned; (3) on account of the 1.6-milli- meter bore the stopper can be more easily inserted when. the tube is filled with a very viscous oil than if it contained a capillary opening. 6 BULLETIN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, When working with semisolid bitumens which are too soft to be broken and. handled in fragments, the following method of deter- mining their specific gravity is employed. ‘The clean, dry pycnom- eter is first weighed empty and this weight is calied ‘‘a.” It is then filed in the usual manner with freshly distilled water at 25° C., and the weight is again taken and called ‘‘b.”’ A small amount of the bitumen should be placed in the spoon and brought to a fluid condition by the gentle application of heat, with care that no loss by evaporation occurs. When puecen ly fluid, enough is poured into the dry pycnometer, which may also be warmed, to fill it about half full, without allowing the material to touch the lis of the tube above ine desired level. The tube and contents are then allowed to cool to room temperature, after which the tube is carefully weighed with the stopper. This weight is called ‘‘c.” Distilled yI-C water, at 25° C., is then poured in until the arene is --'--.J full. After this the stopper is mserted, and the whole cooled to 25° C. by a 30-minute immersion in a beaker of distilled water maintained at this temperature. , Alisurplus moisture is then removed with a soft cloth, and the pyc- nometer and contents are weighed. This weight is called ‘‘d.” From the weights obtained the specific gravity of the bitumen may be. readily calculated by the Bean formula: ° : c Te < S052 C= Specific ovavity 25° C./25° C wae GES) Tie. 2.—Pye- Both ‘‘a” and ‘‘b” are constants and need be deter- meter . = | (Hubbard mined but once. It is therefore necessary to make but type). two weighings for each determination after the first. Re- sults obtained according to the method given above are accurate to within 2 units in the third decimal place, while the open-tube method is accurate to the second decimal place only. . The specific gravity of fluid bitumens may be determined in the ordinary manner with this pycnometer by completely fillmg it with the material and dividing the weight of the bitumen thus obtained by that of the same volume of water. The pycnometer may be readily cleaned by placing it in a het-air bath until the bitumen is sufficiently fluid to pour. As much is drained out as possible and the interior swabbed with a piece of cotton waste. It is then rinsed clean with a little carbon disulphide, and after drying is again ready for use. “EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS, 7 DISPLACEMENT METHOD (USED FOR HARD SOLID BITUMENS). EQUIPMENT, 1 chemical thermometer reading from —10° ©. to 110° C, 1 analytical balance, capacity 100 grams, sensitive to 0.1 milligram. 1 wood or metal platform. 1 150 cubic centimeter low-form glass beaker. 1 piece of fine silk thread. METHOD. For materials which are hard enough to be broken and handled in fragments at room temperature, the following method will prove convenient. A small fragment of the bitumen (about 1 cc.) is sus- pended by means of a silk thread from the hook on one of the pan supports, about 14 inches above the pan, and weighed. This weight is called “‘a.”’ It is then weighed immersed in water at 25° C., as shown in figure 3, . and this weight is call- ed “‘b.”” The specific eravity may then be calculated by means of the following for- mula: Specific gravity = a USE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINATION. The specific gravity determination is made on all bitumens con- taining less than 50 per cent mineral matter, and also on bitumens recovered from bituminous aggregates. The specific gravity is usually reported to the third decimal place. Fic, 3.—Displacement method of determining specific gravity. SPECIFIC VISCOSITY DETERMINATION, EQUIPMENT. 1 Engler viscosimeter complete with thermometers, burner, and rubber tubing. 1 100 cubic centimeter cylindrical glass praduate. 1 stop watch. METHOD. The viscosity of fluid bituminous road materials may be determined at any suitable temperature by means of the Engler viscosimetor, This apparatus is shown in figure 4, and may be described as follows: @ is a brass vessel for holding the material to be tested, and may be 8 BULLETIN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. closed by the cover b. To the conical bottom of a is fitted a conical outflow tube c, exactly 20 milimeters long, with a diameter at the top of 2.9 millimeters and at the bottom of 2.8 millimeters. This tube can be closed and opened by the pointed hardwood stopper d. Pointed metal projections are placed on the inside of @ at equal dis- tances from the bottom and serve for measuring the charge of mate- rial, which is 240 cubic centimeters. The thermometer e is used to ascertain the temperature of the material to be tested. The vessel a is surrounded by a brass jacket f, which holds the material used as a heating bath. either water or cottonseed oil, according to the tem- perature at which the test is to be made. A tripod g serves aS a support for the apparatus and also carries a ring burner h by means of which the bath is directly heated. The meas- uring cylinder of 100 cubic centimeters capacity, which is sufficiently accurate for work with road materials, is placed ‘directly under the outflow tube. As all viscosity de- terminations should be compared with that of water at 25° C., the apparatus should be previously calibrated as follows: The cup and outlet tube should first be scrupulously cleaned. A piece of soft tissue paper is convenient for cleaning the latter. The stepper is then inserted in the tube and the cup filled with water at 25° C.'to the top of the projections. The measuring cylmder should be placed directly under the outflow tube so that the material, upon flowing out, will not touch the sides, and the stopper may then be removed. The time required both for 50 and 100 cubic centimeters to run out should be ascertained by means of a stop watch and the results so obtained should be checked a number of times. The time required for 50 cubic centimeters of water should be about 11 seconds and for 100 cubie centimeters about 22.8 seconds. Bituminous road materials are tested in the same manner as water and the temperature at which the test is made is controlled by the bath. The material should be brought to the desired temperature Fig. 4.—Engler viscosimeter. EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS. 9 and maintamed there for at least three minutes before making the test. The results are expressed as specific viscosity compared with water at 25° C., as follows: Specific viscos-__ seconds for passage of given volume at a° C. ity ata°C. —_- seconds for passage of same volume of water at 25° C. USE OF VISCOSITY DETERMINATION. For all thin fluid bitumimous road materials the specific viscosity is determined at 25° C. with 50 or 100 cubic centimeters. Viscous fiuid products are run at 40° C. or 50° C. with 50 cubic centimeters and very viscous products at 100° C. or over with 50 cubic centimeters. This test is not always made on the materials above mentioned, but is a useful one when they are required to have a given degree of fluidity at a given temperature. FLOAT TEST. EQUIPMENT. 1aluminum float or saucer. (Fig. 5-a.) 2 conical brass collars. (Fig. 5-0.) 2 1-quart tin cups, seamless. - 2 chemical thermometers reading from — 10° C. to 110° C, 1 iron tripod. 1 Bunsen burner and rubber tubing. 1 burette clamp and support. 1 large metal kitchen spoon. 1 steel spatula or kitchen knife. 1 brass plate 5 by 8 centimeters. 1 stop watch. METHOD, The float apparatus consists of two parts, an aluminum float or saucer (fig. 5-a) and a conical brass collar (fig. 5-b). The two parts are made separately, so that one float may be used with a number of brass collars. In making the test the brass collar is placed with the small end down on the brass plate, which has been previously amalgamated with mercury by first rubbing it with a dilute solution of mercuric chloride or nitrate and then with mercury. A small quantity of the material to be tested is heated in the metal spoon until quite fluid, with care that it suffers no appreciable loss by volatilization and that it is kept free from air bubbles. It is then poured into the collar in a thin stream until slightly more than level with the top. The surplus may be removed, after the material has cooled to room temperature, by means of a spatula or steel knife which has been slightly heated. The collar and plate are then placed in one of the tin cups containing ice water maintained at 5° C., and left in 8016°—Bull, 314—15-——2 10 BULLETIN 314, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. this bath for at least 15 mmutes. Meanwhile the other cup is filled abeut three-fourths full of water and placed on the tripod, and the water is heated to any desired temperature at which the test is to be made. This temperature should be accurately maintained, and should at no time throughout the entire test be allowed to vary more than one-half a degree centigrade from the temperature selected. After the material to be tested es been kept in the ice water for at least 15 minutes, the collar with its contents is removed from the plate and screwed into the aluminum float, which is then immediately floated in the warmed bath. As the plug of bituminous material Wie. 5.—New York testing laboratory float apparatus. becomes warm and fluid, it is gradually forced upward and out of the collar, until water gains entrance to the saucer and causes it to sink. The time in seconds between placing the apparatus on the water and when the water breaks through the bitumen is determined by means of a stop watch and is taken as a measure of the consistency of the material under examination. USE OF THE FLOAT TEST. This test is always made on viscous and semisolid refined tars, and often on the viscous and semisolid petroleum and asphalt prod- ucts, although, when the penetration test can be employed on the two latter classes of material, the float test is not always considered necessary. Hor the more fluid products the test is made at 32° C. and for the semisolid materials, at 50° C. When the material under examination is quite hard, the test may be run at 100° C. ' EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS. ROAD MATERIALS. il The float test is a most convenient one for roughly checking the uniformity of different shipments of bituminous material furnished under specifications. PENETRATION TEST. EQUIPMENT. 1 penetrometer complete, with a seconds pendulum or metronome. (Figs. 6 and 7.) 1 tin box approximately 5 centimeters in diameter by 3.5 centimeters in height. Liarge metal kitchen spoon. : 1 steel spatula or kitchen knife. 1 glass penetration dish approximately 10 centimeters in diameter by 6 centimeters high. 1 enamel-ware dish approximately 3 inches deep and 9 inches in diameter. 1 chemical thermometer reading from —10° C. to 110° C. METHOD. The object of the penetration test is to ascertain the consistency of the material under examination by determining the distance a weighted needle will penetrate into it at a given temperature. A standard needle is employed for this purpose and this needle is usually weighted with 100 grams. The depth of penetration is de- termined upon the bitumen maintained at 25° C., while the load is applied for five seconds. The standard needle is made from round, polished, annealed-steel drill rod having a diameter of from 0.0405 to 0.0410 inches. The rod is tapered to a sharp point at one end, with the taper extending back one-fourth inch. It is then highly polished, tempered, and again polished with jewelers’ rouge. The finished needle is from 1} to 2 inches m length and exactly 0.040 inch in diameter. This needle, as made in the laboratory of the office, gives the same results as the old standard No. 2 cambric needle, and possesses the advantage that it can be exactly duplicated and accurately described. The penetration apparatus shown in figure 6 consists of a standard needle a, inserted in a short brass rod, which is held in the aluminum rod b by a binding screw. The aluminum rod is secured in a frame- work so weighted and balanced that, when it is supported on the point of the needle, the framework and rod will stand in an upright posi- tion, allowing the needle to penetrate perpendicularly without the aid of a support. The frame, aluminum rod, and needle weigh 100 grams with the weight c on the bottom of the frame, while without the weight they weigh 50 grams. Figure 6 shows the needle and weighted frame, together with side and front views of the entire apparatus, put together and ready for making a penetration. The shelf for the sample is marked d; e is the clamp to hold the aluminum rod until it is desired to make a test; and fis a button which, when pressed, ~ 12 BULLETIN 314, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 4 opens the clamp. By turning this button while the clamp is being held open, it will lock and keep the clamp from closing until unlocked. The device for measuring the distance penetrated by the needle consists of a rack, with a foot g. The movement of this rack turns a pinion, to which is attached the hand which indicates on the dial h the vertical distance covered by the rack. One division of the dial corresponds to a movement of 0.1 millimeter by the rack. The rack may be raised or lowered by moving the counterweight 7 up or down. The tin box containing the sample to be tested is marked i ‘this is submerged in water contained in the glass cup in order to maintain a constant temperature. This apparatus is known as the Dow pen- etration machine. An- other type of machine - known as the New York Testing Labora- tory penetrometer, based upon the same general principle and using the same stand- ards, is at present em- ployed by the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering. This penetrometer is shown in figure 7. Both ma- chines give practically the same results, if op-— erated under the same conditions, and it is therefore considered un- necessary to include a description of the latter. A cup suitable for holding the box containing the test sample dur- ing penetration is conveniently made from a glass crystallizing dish 10 centimeters in diameter, with straight sides about 6 centimeters high. Three right triangles with right angle sides 1 and 5 centime- ters, respectively, are cut from 7;-inch sheet metal. Some solid bitu- men is melted in the bottom of the dish forming a layer about $-inch thick, into which the triangles are placed, resting on the side five cen- timeters long. Their apexes should meet at the center, with their short sides dividing the circumference of the dish into three equal ares. When the bitumen has hardened, the triangles give a firm support for circular boxes, and the possibility of any rocking motion and conse- quent faulty results-is avoided. ) Fig. 6.—Dow penetration machine. EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS: ROAD MATERIALS, 13 The penetration test is made as follows: A sample of the material to be tested is first warmed sufficiently to flow, and poured into the tin box. The box and contents, after cooling for one-half hour at room temperature, are immersed in water maintamed at the temperature at which the test is to be made, and allowed to remain immersed for one and one-half hours. The sample in the tin box should now be placed in the glass cup and removed in it, covered with as much water as con- venient without spilling, to the shelfd. The brass rod with the needle is inserted into 6 and secured by tightening the binding screw. The rod is lowered until the point of the needle almost touches the surface oi the sample; then by grasping the frame with both hands it is cau- tiously pulled down until the needle just comes in contact with the surface of the sample. This can be seen best by having a light so situated that, upon looking through the sides of the glass cup, the needle will be re- flected from the sur- face of the sample. After thus setting the needle, the counter- weight is slowly raised until the foot of the rack rests on the head of the rod and a read- ing of the dial taken. The clamp is then opened wide by press- ing the button and held in this position for exactly five seconds, as determined by the pendulum or metronome. The clamp is then released, the rack lowered until it rests on the rod, and the difference between the first and second readings of the dial in hundredths of a centimeter is taken as the distance penetrated by the needle. Owing to the susceptibility of certain bitumens to slight changes in temperature, the water-bath should be accurately maintained at the desired temperature, both before and during the test, and, when the room temperature differs greatly from that of the bath, the water in the glass cup should be renewed after cach test. An average of from three to five tests, which should not differ more than four points between maximum and minimum, is taken as the penetration of the sample. The tests should be made at points on the surface of the sample not less than one centimeter from the side of the container and not less than one centimeter apart. Fic. 7.—New York Testing Laboratory penetrometer. 14 BULLETIN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, The needle should be removed and thoroughly cleaned by wipimeg with a dry cloth, after which it is ready for another test. The point of the needle should be examined from time to time with a magnifying giass to see that it is not injured in any way. If it is found defective, it may be removed by heating the brass rod and withdrawing with pliers.. A new needie may then be inserted in the heated brass red, and held firmly in place by a drop of soft solder. USE OF PENETRATION TEST. This test is made on all semisolid and solid oil-asphalts, asphaltic cements, and native asphalts, but seldom on tar products. It is alsc often made on the residues of materials subjected to the volatiliza- tion tests, when they are sufficiently hard. Fer work on residues, which seldom amount to more than 20 cubic centimeters, a small container, which should not, however, be less than 1 inch in diameter, will be required. While the standard conditions under which this test is made call for a 100-gram load applied for five seconds on the material main- tained at a temperature of 25° C., it is sometimes desirable, when very soft materials are tested, to make the test with a 50-gram weight. In order to ascertain how susceptible a material may be to temperature changes, tests may be made at any other desired tem- peratures, preferably 0° C., with a 200-cram weight for one mmute, and at 46° C. with a 50-gram weight for five seconds. Tn ail cases the results of tests should be reported in hundredths of a centimeter, as foliows, showing all the conditions in order that no misinterpretation of results may occur: Penetration, ( seconds, grams at ——° C.)= ——. MELTING POINT DETERMINATION. EQUIPMENT 1 iron tripod. 1 Bunsen burner and rubber tubing. 1 piece of wire gauze 10 centimeters square. i 800 cubic centimeter Jena glass beaker, low form. (Fig. 8-a.) 1 400 cubic centimeter Jena glass beaker, tall, without lip. (fig. 8-b.) 1 iron ring support (ring 7.5 centimeters in diameter) and burette clamp. (Fig. 8-c.) 1 metal cover. (Fig. 8-d.) 1 object glass. 1 piece of wire (No. 12 Brown & Sharpe gauge) 20 centimeters in length, bent. (Wig. 8-¢.) 1 chemical thermometer reading from 0° C. to 250° C. 1 cubical brass mold. (Fig. 8-f.) 1 large metal kitchen spoon. 1 steel spatula or kitchen knife. EXAMINATICN OF BITUMINGUS ROAD MATERIALS. “415 METHOD. Since bitumens are mixtures of various organic compounds, they can have no true meltme pomt, but an arbitrary method for deter- mining the so-called melting point of those materials sufficiently solid to maintam their form for some time under normal! conditions is of value as a means of identification and for control work. A number of methods have been tried, but the following has been selected as the most convenient and accurate for such materials. The material under examination is first melted in the spoon by the gentle application of heat until sufficiently fluid to pour readily. Care must be taken that it suffers no appreciable loss by volatiliza- tion. It is then poured into the 34-inch brass cubical mold, which has been amalgamated with mercury and which is placed on an amalgamated brass plate. The brass may be amalgamated by washing it first with a dilute solution of mereuric chloride or nitrate, after which the mercury is rubbed into the surface. By this means the bitu- men is, to a consider- able extent, prevented from sticking to the sidesofthemoid. The hot material shouid slightly more than fill the mold and, when cooled, the excess may be cut off with a hot spatula. After cooling to room temperature, the mold is placed in a bath maintained at 25° C. for one-half hour. The cube is then removed and fastened upon the lower arm of a No. 12 wire (Brown & Sharpe gauge), bent at right angles and suspended beside a thermometer in a covered Jena glass beaker of 400 cubic centimeters capacity, which is placed in a water bath, or, for high temperatures, a cottonseed-oil bath. The wire should be passed through the center of two opposite faces of the cube, which is suspended with its base 1 inch above the bottom of the beaker. The water or oil bath consists of an 800-cubic centimeter low-form Jena glass beaker suitably mounted for the application of heat from below. The beaker in which the cube is suspended is of the tall-form Jena type without lip. The metal cover has two openings as shown in figure 8-d. A cork, through which Fig. 8.—Melting point apparatus. 16 BULLETIN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, passes the upper arm of the wire, is inserted in one hole and the © thermometer in the other. The bulb of the thermometer should be just level with the cube and at an equal distance from the side of the beaker. In order that a reading of the thermometer may be made, if Becta? at the poimt which passes through the cover, the hole is made triangular in shape and covered with an ordinary object glass through which the stem of the thermometer may be seen. Readings made through this glass should be corrected for the angle of observa- tion, which ma y. be made constant by always sighting from the front edge of the opening to any given point on the stem of the thermometer below the cover. After the test specimen has been placed in the apparatus, the liquid in the outer vessel is heated in such a manner that the thermometer ~ registers an increase of 5° C. per minute. The temperature at which the bitumen teuches a piece of paper placed in the bottom of the beaker is taken as the melting point. Determinations made in the manner described should not vary more than 2° for different tests of the same material. At the beginning of this test the temperature of both bitumen and bath should be approximately 25° C. USE OF MELTING-POINT DETERMINATION. The melting-point determination should be made on ali bituminous road binders sufficiently hard to be handled at room temperature after removing from the mold. This test is not usually required for bitumens which are to be cut with a nonvolatile flux before use. DETERMINATION OF FLASH AND BURNING POINTS. CLOSED-CUP METHOD. EQUIPMENT. 1 New York State Board of Health oil tester with Bunsen burner. (Fig. 9.) 1 open-cup oil tester with Bunsen burner. (Fig. 10.) 1 chemical thermometer reading from 0° C. to 400° C. 1 piece of 6-millimeter glass tubing, 6 centimeters in length, one end of which has been drawn to a 1-millimeter opening. Soft rubber tubing for gas connection. METHOD. While for all ordinary purposes the open-cup method of determining the flash and burning points of bitumimous road materials is satisfac- tory, the closed-cup method described below is to be preferred, where greater accuracy is required. This is particularly true for materials of a relatively low flash point. The oil tester shown in figure 9 consists of a copper at cup @ of about 300 cubic centimeters capacity, which is heated in an oil bath 6 by a small Bunsen flame. The cup is provided with a glass cover c, carrying a thermometer d, and a hole e for inserting the EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS, 17 testing flame. The testing flame is obtained from a jet of gas passed through the piece of glass tubing and should be about 5 milli- meters in length. The flash test is made as follows: The oil cup should first be removed and the bath filled with cottonseed oil. The oil cup should be replaced and filled with the material to be tested to within 3 millimeters of the flange joining the eup and the vapor chamber above. The glass cover is then placed on the oil cup and the thermometer so adjusted that its bulb is just covered by the bi- tuminous material. ‘The Bunsen flame should be applied in such a manner that the temperature of the material in the cup is raised at the rate of about 5° C. per minute. From time to time the testing flame is inserted in the opening in the cover to about half way between the surface of the ma- terial and the cover. The appearance of a faint bluish flame over the entire surface of the bitumen shows that the flash pomt has been reached and the temperature at this point is taken. The burning point of the material may now be obtained by removing the glass cover and replacing the thermom- eter in a wire frame. The tempera- ture is raised at the same rate and the material tested as before. The tem- perature at which the material ignites and burns is taken as the burning point. At the conclusion of this test the te.9.—New York State Board 0’ Health flame should not be blown out for dan- OF Ee ger of splashing the hot material. A metal cover or extinguisher should be employed for this purpose by placing it over the ignited material. OPEN-CUP METHOD. A number of open-cup oil testers have been devised which are similar in design and give practically equivalent results. This type is shown in figure 10. It consists of a brass oil cup a of about 100 cubic centimeters capacity. The outer vessel } serves as an air jacket. No glass cover is used in the open-cup method. A suitable 8016°—Bull. 314—15——3 18 BULLETIN 314, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. thermometer ¢ is suspended from the wire support d directly over the cup so that its bulb is entirely covered with oil but does center of the iia fonefacafsifecafeceafuanfivngennfunp enfin fuvetcanfenyiceafaaafosifunyf tafser fn fli iinoe entmif not touch the bottom of the cup.. The testing flame is obtained from a jet of gas passed through a piece of glass tubing, and should be about 5 millimeters in length. The test is made by first filling the ol cup © with the material under examination to within about 5 millimeters of the top. The Bunsen flame is then applied im such a manner that the temperature of the material in the cup is raised at the rate of 5° C. per minute. From time to time the testing flame is brought almost in contact with the surface of the oil. A dis- tinct flicker or flash over the entire surface of the oil shows that the flash point is reached and the temperature at this point is taken. It will usually be found that the flash point as determined by the open-cup method is some- what higher than by the closed-cup method, for the same material. The burning point of the material 1s ob- tained by contimuing the test and noting that temperature at which it ignites and burns. The flame should then be extinguished by means of a metal cover supplied with the in- strument. USE OF FLASH-POINT AND BURNING-POINT DETERMINATIONS. a The flash and burning point deter- minations should be made on all bi- b tuminous road materials which have to be heated before application and upon all fluid and semisolid products Fie. 10—Open-cup oil tester. which show a loss by the volatilization test at 163° C. of over 5 per cent. It should also be made upon fluxes which are to be used in cutting hard bitumens. EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS, 19 YOLATILIZATION TEST. EQUIPMENT. 1 constant-temperature hot-air oven with rubber tubing. (Fig. 11.) 1 thermo-regulator. (Fig. 11-«.) 2 chemical thermometers reading from —10° ©. to 250° C. i tin box, 6 centimeters in diameter by 2 centimeters deep. 1 analyticai balance, capacity 100 grams, sensitive to 0.1 miiligram. METHOD. The object of the volatilization test is to determine the percentage of loss which the material undergoes when 20 grams in a standard- sized container are subjected to a uniform temperature of 163° C. for five hours, and also to ascertain any changes in the character of the material due to such heating. The oven shown in figure 11, known as the New York Test- ing Laboratory oven, is used by the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, although any other form may be used that will give a uni- form temperature throughout all parts where samples are placed. The bulb of one of the thermometers is immersed in a sample of some fluid, non- volatile bitumen, while the other is kept in air at the same level. The first thermometer serves to show the temperature of the samples during the test, while the latter gives prompt warning of any sudden changes in temperature due to irregularities in the gas pressure, ete. Before making the test the interior of the oven should show a tem- perature of 163° C. as registered by the thermometer in air. The tin box is accurately weighed after carefully wiping with a towel to remove any grease or dirt. About 20 grams of the material to be tested is then placed in the box. The material may then be weighed on a rough balance, if one is at hand, after which the accurate weight, which should not vary more than 0.2 gram from the specified amount, is obtained. It may be necessary to warm some of the material in order to handle it conveniently, after which it must be allowed to cool before determining the accurate weight. Fie. 11.—New York Testing Laboratory oven. 20 BULLETIN 814, -U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The sample should now be placed in the oven, where it is allowed to remain for a period of five hours, during which time the temperature _ as shown by the thermometer in bitumen should not vary at any time more than 2° C. from 163° C. The sample is then removed from ‘the oven, allowed to cool, and reweighed. From the difference between this weight and the total weight before heating, the per- centage of loss on the amount of material taken is calculated. _ The general appearance of the residue should be noted, especially with regard to any changes which the material may have undergone. Some relative idea of the amount of hardening which has taken place may be obtained from the results of a float or penetration test made on the residue, as compared with the results of the same test on the original sample. It is also frequently desirable to make the specific gravity and other tests on the residue for the purpose of identifying or ascertaining the character of the base used in the preparation of cut-back products. Before any tests are made on the residue, it should be melted and thoroughly stirred while cooling. Highly volatile and nonvolatile materials should not be subjected to this test at the same time in the same oven owing to a tendency on the part of the latter to absorb some of the volatile products of the former. USE OF THE VOLATILIZATION TEST. The volatilization test, as above described, is made on practically all bitumens with the exception of tars, for which the distillation test answers a similar purpose. The test is also frequently made at 105° C. for five hours, and with products containing small amounts of water it is usually necessary to make a test at the lower temperature before the material can be heated at 163° C. without foaming over. In the case of emulsions it is customary to determine the loss on a 20-gram sample at room temperature for 24 hours, after which the sample is heated at 105° C. for five hours. This additional loss is obtained and all determinations are made on the dried residue and reported accordingly. The volatilization test is also occasionally made at 205° C. for five hours on a fresh sample in order to show the effect of this higher temperature as compared with the results at 163° C. | Because of the fact that after the volatilization test it frequently happens that a penetration test can not be made upon the residue of a 20-gram sample in the container specified, it has been suggested that the volatilization test be made upon a 50-gram sample in a tin box 5} centimeters in diameter and 34 centimeters in depth. In many cases, however, the percentage loss by volatilization and the consequent hardening will be found to vary materially from that obtained with a 20-gram sample owing to differences in the ratio of exposed surface area to total volume of material. This fact should be borne in mind if the test is made with a 50-gram sample. EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS, 21 DISTILLATION TEST. EQUIPMENT. 1 250 cubic centimeter Engler distillation flask. 1 chemical thermometer reading from 0° C. to 400° C. 1 short condenser, with rubber tubing. 6 25 cubic centimeter glass cylinders, graduated to 0.2 cubic centimeter. l iron ring support (ring 7.5 cm. in diameter). liron tripod. 1 burette clamp. 1 tin shield. 1 pinchcock. 2 Bunsen burners, with rubber tubing, 1 quart tin cup, seamless. 1 pint tin cup, seamless. l rough balance, capacity 1 kilogram, sensitive to 0.1 gram. 1 analytical balance, capacity 100 grams, sensitive to 0.1 milligrams. METHOD. The Engler flasks for this test should meet the following require- ments: DDETSHET OY LUI) Oss Anse ee es eID “= Sac 3 PY Ln 0) de eR RR 8.0 © m. Length of neck...... Geen a eee rl... ..3 Seomepe ime. ol eh cies 15. 0c. m. eT SOU TICCLCS eno Ek aj - ae ain ho ae eos 4 1k ff Ge ta, PePemmIn I UATUTC 525s ks = >. icles a seo eee 15.0 c. m. emer retameiHUllarite=- 2. 0222.5... - .. see no Shae ece eee ees 0.9 ¢.m. eereeeneatiM later ee 2... 202 22052. SERRE OE IT 75° A 3 per cent variation from the above requirements is allowed. Thermometers should be thoroughly annealed and filled with earbon dioxide or nitrogen under pressure. The mercury column should rise from 15° to 95° in not more than five seconds, when plunged into boiling water. The thermometers are calibrated by setting up the entire apparatus (fig. 12) as though a distillation of tar were to be made. One hun- dred cubic centimeters of material of known boiling point is placed in the flask, which is then heated until the contents distil over at a uniform rate and the thermometer indicates a constant temperature, which is noted. By using three different materials of widely vary- ing boiling point, three calibrations on the thermometer scale are obtained from which other intermediate points may be plotted. The correct fractionating points for the calibrated thermometer are then ascertained. For calibrating thermometers in the laboratories of the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering the fractionating points are ob- tained from the distillation of distilled water (boiling point 100° C.), chemically pure naphthalene (boiling point 218.2° C.), and chemi- cally pure benzophenone (boiling point 305° C.). The boiling point, of course, varies with the barometric pressure, but if the thermome- ters are calibrated at a time when the barometer indicates about the Fe BULLETIN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. average pressure for a given laboratory, the variations in results due to varying pressures when the thermometer is afterwards used for distillation will be no greater than the possible errors in distillation. The method as a whole is practically the same as that tentatively recommended in 1911 by the Committee on Standard Tests for Road Materials of the American Society for Testing Materials.’ Briefly described, it consists in distilling 100 | cubic centimeters of the refined or dehydrated tar in an Hngier flask at a uniform rate of 1 cubic centimeter peri minute and collecting the various fractions in weighed glass graduates. In preparing for the test it will be found con- venient to mark permanently on the foot of each graduate its weight to within 0.1 gram. The flask should be supported in a vertical position on one pan of the rough balance and its tareaccurately obtained. From the specific eravity of the tar, the weight of 100 cubic cen- timeters is calculated, and this amount, after warming it in a tin cup, if necessary to make it sufficiently fiuid, is poured into the tared eo A cork stopper carrying the thermome- er is then inserted in the neck of the flask, bulb is opposite the mid- die of the tubulature, and the entire appara- tus set up as shown in ficure 12. A tin shield with small sight hole surrounds the flask and burner as shown in order to obviate the influence of drafts. The tar should be heated gradually by means of a Bunsen burner, and the heat should be so regulated as to maintain distillation at the constant rate of 1 cubic centimeter per minute. When the thermometer registers a temperature correspond- ing to 110°C., the graduated cylinder containing the first fraction is replaced by another. The receiver is changed again at 170° C. and at 270° C., using as many graduated cylinders as may be necessary with- out allowing any to become filled above the 25-cubic-centimeter mark. Fie. 12.—Distillation apparatus. 1 Proc. Am. Soe. for Testing Materials, 1911, Vol. XI, p. 240. so that the top of the EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS, Fig. 13.—Dehydrating apparatus. 24 BULLETIN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT. OF AGRICULTURE. When solid matter deposits upon the sides of the condenser, it may be melted by syphoning hot water through the condenser, and collected in the fraction to which it belongs. The last fraction is collected up to 300°C., after which the flask and graduates are cooled to room tempera- ture, and their contents determimed by volume and weight. The volume of pitch remaining in the retort is found by deducting the total volume of the distillates from the original 100 cubic centi- meters taken. Note should be made of the approximate volume of solids which precipitate from the distillates upon cooling to 25° C. The results obtained are calculated in percentages by volumes and weights to tenths of 1 per cent and reported as follows: Soe Dy: Percent, | Percent, Distillate. by volume. | by weight. Water or ammoniacal liquor..--...--.---.------------- Mirshligh tousiconlO SC ieee eee 5. eee eee Second light oils 110° os ate IES Ope CoCo. S See eE eae Heavy oils 170° C. to SAO SS See. Se SAS. 2s Lae SAR ee Sas Sc Eee Seer ee Heavy oils 270° C. to 300° (CES ee Se Be ado ee. Sapir aeeeee IPItCh resid uer sas tee Ses ee et es co Sete eae Coe aca Wee The above is applicable oniy to tars which contain no water. In distilling crude tars or tars which are contaminated with water, it is necessary to dehydrate them before submitting them to the regular distillation. A cylindrical copper still with circular burner, as _ shown in figure 13, is convenient for this purpose. ‘Two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters of the tar to be dehydrated is weighed in the retort and the apparatus is set up as shown. A low flame is applied to the upper part of the retort and the heating slowly and carefully continued until the volume of water in the separatory funnel shows no further increase. The volume of water collected is noted and calculated. The water is then drained from the separatory funnel and the supernatant layer of oil is run into and thoroughly mixed with the contents of the retort, which should first be cooled below 100° C. A 100 cubic centimeter sample of the dehydrated tar is then submitted to the regular distillation test as above described USE OF THE DISTILLATION TEST. The distillation test is made upon tars and tar products but seldom upon other materials unless the presence of tar is suspected, or where a determination of water is required. In making the water deter- mination on viscous or semisolid bituminous materials, it is usually advisable to render the samples fluid by the addition of kerosene or benzol before attempting the distillation. EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS, 25 DIMETHYL SULPHATE TEST. EQUIPMENT. Same as specified under distillation test, and in addition: 3 10-cubic centimeter glass cylinders with ground-glass stoppers, graduated to 0.2 cubic centimeter. METHOD. The dimethyl sulphate test is employed to detect the presence of petroleum or asphalt products in tar. The pitch (above 300° C.) obtained from the distillation test is used. This pitch, after beg cooled and weighed, is again distilled. Fractions are taken at 350° C. and 375° C. These fractions, together with the 270—300° C. fraction previously obtained, are separately stirred and, if necessary, heated to dissolve solids which may be present. Four cubic centimeters of distillate from each fraction are separately shaken with 6 cubic centimeters of dimethyl sulphate in a 10-cubic centimeter cylinder. After standing 30 minutes the resulting super- natant layer of insoluble oil, from the petroleum or asphalt, is read and calculated to its percentage by volume of the sample of distillate taken. The results are reported as follows: Per cent | of distillate | Per cent insoluble of distillate.| in dimethyl sulphate. Fractions. 210 SO B00RC —..... «< ..| Saas | See ssc SOOSTOSa0r Ge. Sh. 2. | eee seesc eas scene 3009 £0370 C2... Sc... : | eee sae ek arth USE OF DIMETHYL SULPHATE TEST. The dimethyl sulphate test is used only in cases where a mixture of petroleum or asphalt products with tar has been specified or is suspected. The test is mainly qualitative, but is valuable when as little as 3 per cent of petroleum or asphalt products are present in the tar. DETERMINATION OF BITUMEN SOLUBLE IN CARBON DISULPHIDE. EQUIPMENT. 1 100 cubic centimeter Erlenmeyer flask. | 500 cubic centimeter flask with side neck for filtering under pressure. 1 rubber stopper with one hole. | filter tube, 3.9 centimeters, inside diameter. | platinum or porcelain Gooch crucible. | piece of seamless rubber tubing, about 3 centimeters in diameter and 3 centimeters long. 50 grams of long-fiber amphibole asbestos. 26 BULLETIN 314, U. 5S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2 wash bottles; 1 for solvent, 1 for water. 1 Bunsen burner. 1 nichrome triangle. i iron tripod. 1 drying oven. i desiccator with calcium chloride. 1 thermometer reading from —10° C. to 110° C. 1 vacuum pump and connections. i analytical balance, capacity 100 grams, sensitive to 0.1 milligram. METHOD. This test consists in dissolving the bitumen in carbon disulphide and recovering any insoluble matter by filtering the solution through an aspestos felt. The form of Gooch crucible best adapted for the determination is 4.4 centimeters wide at the top, tapering to 3.6 centimeters at the bottom, and is 2.5 centimeters deep. : Hor preparing the felt the necessary apparatus is arranged as shown in figure 14, in which a is the filtering flask, 6 a rubber stopper, c the filter tube, and d a section of rubber tubing which tightly clasps the Gooch crucible e¢. The asbes- tos is cut with scissors into pieces not exceeding 1 centimeter in length, after which it is shaken up with just suffi- cient water to pour easily. The cruci- ble is filled with the suspended asbestos, which is allowed to settle for a few mo- ments. A light suction is then applied Fic. 14.—Apparatus for determining solu- +g draw off all the water and leave a ble bitumen. o 3 ; : firm mat of asbestos in the crucible. More of the suspended material is added, and the operation is repeated until the felt is so dense that it scarcely transmits ight when held so that the bottom of the crucible is between the eye and the source of light. The felt should then be washed several times with water, and drawn firmly against the bottem of the crucible by an increased suc- tion. The crucible is removed to a drying oven ior a few minutes, after which it is ignited at red heat over a Bunsen burner, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. From 1 toe 2 grams of bitumen or about 10 grams of an asphalt topping or rock asphalt is now placed in the Erlenmeyer flask, ~ which has been previously weighed, and the accurate weight of the sample is obtained. One hundred cubic centimeters of chemically pure carbon disulphide is poured into the flask in small portions, with ~ continual agitation, until all lumps disappear and nothing adheres to the bottom. The flask is then corked and set aside for 15 minutes. EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS, a i After being weighed, the Gooch crucible contaming the felt is set up over the dry pressure flask, as shown in figure 14, and the solution of bitumen in carbon disulphide is decanted through the felt without suction by eradually tiltmg the flask, with care not to stir up any precipitate that may have settled out. At the first sign of any sediment coming out, the decantation is stopped and the filter allowed to drain. A smali amount of carbon disulphide is then washed down the sides of the flask, after which the precipitate is brought upon the felt and the flask scrubbed, if necessary, with a feather or ‘‘policeman,’”’ to remove all adhering material. The con- tents of the crucible are washed with carbon disulphide, until the washings run colorless. Suction is then applied until there is prac- tically no odor of carben disulphide in the crucible, after which the outside of the crucible is cleaned with a cloth moistened with a small amount of the solvent. The crucible and contents are dried in the hot-air oven at 100° C. for about 20 minutes, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed. If any appreciable amount of insoluble matter adheres to the flask, it should also be dried and weighed, and any increase over the original weight of the flask should be added to the weight of insoluble matter in the crucible. The total weight of insoluble mate- rial may include both organic and mineral matter. The former, if present, is burned off by ignition at a red heat until no incandescent particles remain, thus leaving the mmeral matter or ash, which can be weighed on cooling. The difference between the total weight of material insoluble in carbon disulphide and the weight of substance taken equals the total bitumen, and the percentage weights are cal- culated and reported as total bitumen, and organic and inorganic matter insoluble, on the basis of the weight of material taken for analysis. This method is quite satisfactory for straight oil and tar products, but where certain natural asphalts are present it will be found prac- tically impossible to retaim all of the finely divided mimeral matter on an asbestos felt. It is, therefore, generally more accurate to obtain the result for total tl matter a direct ignition of a 1-gram sample in a platinum crucible or to use the result for ash obtained in the fixed carbon test. The total bitumen is then determined by deduct- ing from 100 per cent the sum of the percentages of total mineral matter and organic matter insoluble. If the presence of a carbonate mineral is suspected, the percentage of mineral matter may be most accurately obtained by treating the ash from tho fixed carbon deter- mination with a few drops of ammonium carbonate solution, drying at 100° C., then heating for a few minutes at a dull red heat, cooling, and waizhohe again. When difficulty in filtering is experienced—for instance, when. Trini- dad asphalt is present in any amount—a period of longer subsidence 98 BULLETIN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. than 15 minutes is necessary, and the following method proposed. by the Committee on Standard Tests for Road Materials of the American Society for Testing Materials is recommended: 4 From 2 to 15 grams (depending on the richness in bitumen of the ibaa is weighed into a 150-cubic centimeter Erlenmeyer flask, the tare of which has been previously ascertained, and treated with 100 cubic centimeters of carbon disulphide. The flask is then loosely corked and shaken from time to time until practically all large particles of the material have been broken up, when it is set aside and not dis- turbed for 48 hours. The solution is then decanted off into a similar flask that has been previously weighed, as much of the solvent being poured off as possible without disturbing the residue. The first flask is again treated with fresh carbon disulphide and shaken as before, when it is put away with the second flask and not disturbed for 48 hours. At the end of this time the contents of the two flasks are carefully decanted off upon a weighed Gooch crucible fitted with an asbestos filter, the contents of the sec- ond flask being passed through the filter first. The asbestos filter shali be made of ignited long-fiber amphibole, packed in the bottom of a Gooch crucible to the depth of not over one-eighth of an inch. After passing the contents of both flasks through the filter, the two residues are shaken with more fresh carbon disulphide and set aside for 24 hours without disturbing, or until it is seen that a good subsidation has taken place, when the solvent is again decanted off upon the filter. This washing is con- tinued until the filtrate or washings are practically colorless. The crucible and both flasks are then dried at 125° C. and weighed. The filtrate containing the bitumen is evaporated, the bituminous residue burned, and the weight of the ash thus obtained added to that of the residue in the two flasks and the crucible. The sum of these weights deducted from the weight of substance taken gives the weight of bitumen extracted. USE CF TOTAL BITUMEN DETERMINATION. This determination is made on all classes of bituminous products. In the analysis of tars the organic matter msoluble is commonly known and reported as ‘‘free carbon.”’ DETERMINATION OF BITUMEN INSOLUBLE IN PARAFFIN NAPHTHA. . EQUIPMENT. The apparatus is the same as for bitumen soluble in carbon disulphide. METHOD. This determination is made in the same general manner as the total bitumen determination, except that 100 cubic centimeters of o to 88° B. paraffin naphtha, at least 85 per cent distilling be- tween 35° C. and 65° C., is employed as a solvent instead of carbon disulphide. Considerable difficulty is sometimes experienced in breaking up some of the heavy semisolid bitumens; the surface of the material is attacked, but it is necessary to remove some of the insoluble matter in order to expose fresh material to the action of the solvent. It is, therefore, advisable to heat the sample after it is weighed, allowing it to cool in a thin layer around the lower part of —— 1 Proc. Am. Soe. for Testing Materials, 1909, Vol. LX, p. 221. _EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS, 29 the flask. If difficulty is still experienced in dissolving the material, a rounded glass rod will be found convenient for breaking up the undissolved particles. Not more than one-half of the total amount of naphtha required should be used until the sample is entirely broken up. The balance of the i100 cubic centimeters is then added, and the flask is twirled a moment in order to mix the contents thor- oughly, after which it is corked and set aside for 30 minutes. In making the filtration the utmost care should be exercised to avoid stirring up any of the precipitate, in order that the filter may not be clogged and that the first decantation may be as complete as possible. The sides of the flask should then be quickly washed down with naphtha and, when the crucible has drained, the bulk of insoluble matter is brought upon the felt. Suction may be applied when the filtration by gravity almost ceases, but should be used sparingly, as it tends to clog the filter by packing the precipitate too tightly. The material on the felt should never be allowed to run entirely dry until the washing is completed, as shown by the colorless filtrate. When considerable insoluble matter adheres to the flask no attempt should be made to remove it completely. In such cases the adhering mate- rial is merely washed until free from soluble matter, and the flask is dried with the crucible at 100° C. for about one hour, after which it is cooled and weighed. The percentage of bitumen magi | is Te- ported upon the Duets of total bitumen taken as 100. The difference between the material insoluble in carbon disulphide and in the naphtha is the bitumen imsoluble in the latter. Thus, if in a certain instance it is found that the material msoluble in carbon disulphide amounts to 1 per cent and that 10.9 per cent is insoluble in naphtha, the percentage of bitumen insoluble would be calculated as follows: Bitumen insoluble in naphtha _10.9—1 == Uae acd cate Total bitumen 1a 99 P USE OF NAPHTHA INSOLUBLE BITUMEN DETERMINATION. This test’ is made on all petroleums, malthas, asphalts, and other solid native bitumens and their products. It should be noted that petroleum naphthas are by no means defi- nite compounds, but are composed of a number of hydrocarbons which vary in character and quantity according to the petroleum from which they have been distilled. Their solvent powers also vary greatly. Thus naphthas produced from asphaltic petroleums, con- sisting mainly of naphthene and polymethylene hydrocarbons, are much more powerful solvents of the heavier asphaltic hydrocarbons than are the paraffin naphthas. The density of the naphtha also affects its solvent power, for those of high specific gravity dissolve the 30 BULLETIN 314, U. 5S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. heavier hydrocarbons more readily than those of lower specific erav- ity. As the main object of this test is to separate the heavier hydro- carbons of an asphaltic nature from the paraffin hydrocarbons, a paraffin solvent should be employed, and for ordmary purposes a paraffin naphtha of 86° to 88° B. as described has been found to be readily obtamable and fairly satisfactory. The determination is also frequently made with heavier naphthas, such as 66° B. and 72° B., for the purpose of grading the character of the bitumen present in the compound. A report should therefore always distinctly state the gravity and character of the solvent used. DETERMINATION OF BITUMEN INSOLUBLE IN CARBON TETRACHLORIDE. EQUIPMENT. The apparatus is the same as for bitumen soluble in carbon disulphide. METHOD. This determination is conducted in exactly the same manner as deseribed under ‘‘ Determination of bitumen soluble m carbon disul- phide,” using 100 cubic centimeters of chemically pure carbon tetrachloride in place of carbon disulphide. The percentage of bitumen insoluble is reported upon the basis of total bitumen taken as 100, as described under “ Determination of bitumen imsoluble in paraffin naphtha.” USE OF DETERMINATION OF BITUMEN INSOLUBLE IN CARBON TETRACHLORIDE. The bitumen insoluble in carbon tetrachloride, but soluble in car- bon disulphide, is commonly known as ‘“‘carbenes.” The test is occasionally made on petroleums, asphalts, and other solid native bitumens and their products, for the purpose of identification, or when there is any reason to suspect that the material under exami- nation has been injured by overheating during the process of manu- facture. DETERMINATION OF FIXED CARBON. EQUIPMENT, 1 iron ring support (ring 7.5 cm. in diameter). 1 platinum or nichrome triangle. 1 Bunsen burner and rubber tubing. 1 platinum crucible with a tight-fitting cover (weight complete, from 20 to 30 grams). 1 crucible tongs. 1 desiccator with calcium chloride. lanalytical balance, capacity 100 grams, sensitive to 0.1 milligram. METHOD. This determination is made in accordance with the method de- scribed for coal in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS, 31 1899, volume 21, page 1116. One gram of the maierial is placed in a platinum crucible weighing from 20 to 30 grams and having a tightly fitting cover. It is then heated for seven minutes over the full flame of a Bunsen burner, as shown in figure 15. The crucible should be supported on a platinum triangle with the bottom from 6 to 8 centimeters above the top of the burner. The flame should be fully 20 centimeters high when burning freely, and the determi- nation should be made in a place free from drafts. The upper sur- face of the cover should burn clear, but the under surface should remain covered with carbon, excepting in the case of some of the more fluid bitumens, when the under suriace of the cover may be quite clean. The crucible is removed to a desiccator and when cool. is weighed, after which the cover is removed, and the crucible is placed in an inclined position over the Bunsen burner and ignited until nothing but ash remains. Any carbon deposited on the cover is also burned off. The weight of ash remaining is deducted from the weight of the residue after the first ignition of the sample. This gives the weight of the so-called fixed or residual carbon, which is calculated on a basis of the total weight of the sample, exclusive of mineral matter. If the presence of a carbonate mineral is suspected, the per- @=———=—/ > centage of mineral matter may be most We. 15.—Apparatus for determining accurately obtained by treating the ash apes sa with a few drops of ammonium carbonate solution, drying at 100° C., then heating for a few minutes at a dull red heat, cooling and weighing. An excellent form of crucible for this test is shown in figure 15. It has a cover with a flange 4 millimeters wide, fitting tightly over the outside of the crucible, and weighs complete about 25 grams. Owing to sudden expansion in burning some of the moro fluid bitu- mens, it is well to hold the cover down with the end of the tongs until the most volatile products have burned off. Some products, particularly those derived from Mexican petro- leum, show a tendency to suddenly expand and foam over the sides of the crucible in making this determination, and no method of obviating this trouble without vitiating the result has thus far been forthcoming. Recent experiments in the laboratory of the Office of 32 BULLETIN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Public Roads and Rural. Engineering indicate that the difficulty may be overcome by placing a small piece of platinum gauze over the sample and about midway of the crucible. The gauze should be so cut or bent as to touch the sides of the crucible at all points, and is of course weighed in place in the crucible before and after ignition. USE OF DETERMINATION FOR FIXED CARBON. This determination 1s made on all bituminous products with the exception of tars, upon which reliable results can not be obtained, | owing to the error introduced by the presence of considerable quan- tities of free carbon. DETERMINATION OF PARAFFIN SCALE. EQUIPMENT. 1 one-half pint iron retort. (Fig. 16.) 1 piece iron tubing, 30 inches long. 2 100 cubic centimeter Erlenmeyer flasks. 1 500 cubic centimeter (16 oz.) flask, with side neck for filtering under pressure. 1 freezing apparatus. (Fig. 17.) 1 G-inch test tube, ?-inch diameter. 1 analytical balance, capacity 100 grams, sensitive to 0.1 milligram. 1 rough balance, capacity 1 kilogram, sensitive to 0.1 gram. 1 wash bottle. 1 pint tin cup, seamless. 1 vacuum pump and connections. 1 glass crystallizing dish, 50 millimeters in diameter: 1 steam bath. 1 desiccator with calcium chloride. 1 4-inch steel spatula. 1 Bunsen burner with rubber tubing. 2 iron stands with retort clamp, and 1 ring. METHOD. Fifty grams of the material under examination should be weighed into the tared iron retort and distilled as rapidly as possible to dry coke. The distillation should be complete in not over 25 minutes. The distillate is caught in a 100-cubic centimeter Erlenmeyer flask, the weight of which has been previously ascertained. During the early stages of distillation a cold, damp towel wrapped around the stem of the retort will serve to condense the distillate. After high temperatures have been reached, this towel may be removed. When the distillation is completed the distillate is allowed to cool to room temperature and is then weighed in the flask. This weight minus that of the flask gives the weight of the total distillate. | The apparatus for freezing out and separating the paraffin scale is shown in figure 17. It consists of a bell jar @ about 16 centimeters high and 14 centimeters in diameter, surrounded by a felt or cotton EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS -ROAD.MATERIALS, —- 33 cover 6. A copper jacket c, 44 centimeters in diameter at the top and 21 centimeters long, is held in the neck of the bell jar by means of a rubber stopper d, and fits into the upper portion of the rubber stopper 7. A glass filter tube e fits mside the copper jacket, and to prevent circulation of air and condensation of water between it and the jacket, a strip of heavy blotting paper f is wrapped around the top oi the filter tube. Just below the constriction in the filter tube a wad of absorbent cotton g is placed, tightly compressed to a length ot 2 centimeters by means of a glass rod. Above this is a wad of tightly packed asbestes wool f, about 5 millimeters in length, upon which an asbestos filtermg mat 7% is prepared. The filter tube passes through a rub- ber stopper 7 into a vacuum filtering flask k of 500 cubic centi- ° meters capacity. The rubber stopper 7 is placed as tightly as possible against the neck of the bell jar, but to insure that there is no circula- tion of air, a disk of blotting paper ZT is compressed between them. The thermom- eter m is capable of recording tempera- tures from —25° C. to 0° C. and has the —20° C. graduation at least 14 centimeters from the bulb. It is supported by means of a guiding cork n and cork disk 0, which is held tightly against the top of the filter tube by the clamp p. The bell jar is filled with a freezing mixture of ice and salt in the proportion of three to one, which as it melts is drawn off through the bent glass tube g, which is fitted with a rubber connection 7 and pincheock s and collected in the 500 cubic centimeter filtering flask ¢. The apparatus is supported on the ring uw and condenser clamp v, attached to the stand w. In separating the paraffin scale the following procedure is carried out. The filtering flask & is removed and a small cork stopper inserted in the lower end of the filter tube to assist in retaining the solution to be chilled in the upper part.of the tube. ‘T'en cubic centi- meters of a mixture of equal parts Squibbs’ ether and absolute alcohol Fic. 16.—Apparatus for distillation in determination of paraffin scale. 34 BULLETIN: 314, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is poured into the filter tube, the temperature of which has been reduced to. —20° C. From one to two grams of the well-mixed dis- iillate obtained in the manner previously described is then accurately weighed in a 100 cubic centimeter Erlenmeyer flask, mixed with 10 cubic centimeters of Squibbs’ ether, and poured into the filter tube. Ten cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol is next placed in the flask to wash out the ether solution, poured into the filter tube, and the cover carrying the thermometer placed on the tube. The mixture is maintained at a temperature of — 20° C. for 15 min- utes, then the cork ‘stopper is removed from the outlet of the filter tube and the filtermg flask is replaced. The corks supporting the ther- mometer are now loosened and a strong suction is applied te the filter flask until all of the solvent is drawn off. The con- tents of the filter tube are next washed with 10 cubic centimeters of a 1 to i mixture of Squibbs’ ether and ab- solute aleohol, which is chilled to —20° C. in the filter tube be- fore suction is applied. When the washings have been removed the vacuum is turned off and the filter tube removed from the apparatus. The filter tube is then placed in a clean filter flask which also contains a 6-inch test tube in which the dissolved paraffin scale is later collected. About 10 cubic centimeters of warm petroleum ether is poured into the filter tube and allowed to remain until the paraffin scale has been dissolved: Vacuum is then applied and the dissolved scale drawn into the test tube. This treatment is followed by two washings, one of 10 cubic centimeters and the other of 5 cubic centimeters of warm petroleum ether, which removes the last traces of paraffin scale. The entire contents of the test tube are Serr Fic. 17.—Freezing apparatus for determining paradiin scale. BHXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS, 35 then poured into a weighed platinum or glass crystallizing dish and the petroleum ether evaporated off over a steam bath. The dish is fhen placed in a drying oven maintained at 105° C. until the last traces of petroleum ether have been removed and the paraffin scale has attained a constant weight, after cooling in a desiccator. The weight of the parafim scale so cbtained, divided by the weight of the distillate taken and multiplied by the percentage of the total distillate obtained from the original sample, equals the percentage of the parafiin scale. USE OF PARAFFIN SCALE DETERMINATION. The paraffin scale determination may be made on ail native bitu- mens and their products which are suspected of bemg of a paraffin nature. It is not an extremely accurate determination, however, and is seldom employed by the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engi- neering. THE EXTRACTION OF BITUMINOUS AGGREGATES. EQUIPMENT FOR RECOVERING AGGREGATE ONLY. 1 cenirifuge extractor, complete with motor, speed regulator, and electrical connec: tions. (Fig. 18.) 1 hot plate. 1 enamel-ware dish approximately 2 inches deep and 9 inches in diameter. 7 hammer. 1 three-fourths-inch cold chisel. 1 large metal kitchen spoon. i square foot of one-sixteenth-inch deadening felt paper. 1 id-inch stiff flat brush. 1 500-cubic-centimeter bottle or flask. 1 balance, capacity i kilogram, sensitive to 0.1 gram, 7 sheet of heavy manila paper. ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT FOR RECOVERING BITUMEN. liron ring support (ring 10 centimeters in diameter). 1 iron ring support with condenser clamp. j round tin can, 10 by 12 centimeters, covered with asbestos paper. 1 100-watt incandescent carbon-filament lamp, with socket and connections. J asbestos hood. (Fig. 19-c.) 1 1,000-cubic-centimeter round-bottom flask, with cork. 1 spiral condenser, length of body 25 centimeters, with cork to fit, and rubber-tubing connections. 60 centimeters of glass tubing, 8 millimeters bore. 1 1,000-cubic-centimeter flat-bottom flask. 1 porcelain evaporating dish, 11 centimeters in. diamoter. } watch glass, 20 centimeters in diameter. 1 steam bath. 36 BULLETIN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. METHOD. The extractor shown in figure 18 was designed upon lines suggested by an examination of machines in use by JN E. Schutte and °C. N. Forrest. It consists of a one-fifth-horsepower 1,100 revolutions per minute vertical-shaft electric motor a, with the shaft projecting into the cylindrical copper box 6, the Rorrodi of which is so need as to. drain to the spout ec. A three-sixteenths- inch circular brass plate 94 inches in diameter is shown in d, and upon this rests the sheet-iron bowl] e, which is 84 inches in Hanncter by 235; inches high, and has a 2- inch circular hole in the top. Fastened to the inner side of the bowl is the brass cup f, having a circle of one- eighth-inch holes for the admission of the solvent, and terminating in the hollow axle, which fits snugly through a hole at the center of the brass plate: The bowl may be drawn firmly against - afelt-paper ring g, three-fourths inch wide, by means of the 24-inch milled nut for which the hollow axle is threaded for a distance of three- fourths inch directly below the upper surface of the plate. The axle fits snugly over the shaft of the motor, to which it is eee by a slot and cross pin 2. The aggregate is prepared for analysis by heating it in an enamel-ware pan on the hot plate until it is sufficiently soft to be ther- oughly disintegrated by means of a. large spoon. Care must be taken, however, that Fig. 18.—Centrifuge extractor the individual particles are not crushed. If ee a section of pavement is under examination, a piece weighing somewhat over 1 kilogram may be cut off with hammer and chisel. The disintegrated aggregate is then allowed © ~ te cool, after which a sufficient amount is taken to yield on ex- traction from 50 to 60 grams of bitumen. It is placed in the iron bowl and a ring three-fourths of an inch wide, cut from the felt paper, is fitted on the rim, after which the brass plate is placed in position and drawn down tightly by means of the milled nut. If the bitumen is to be recovered and examined, the felt ring should be previously treated in the empty extractor with a couple of charges of carbon disulphide in order to remove any small amount of grease or resm that may be present, although a proper grade of felt should be practically free from such products. The bowl is now placed on the motor shaft and the slot and pin are carefully locked. An empty bottle is placed under the spout and 150 cubic centimeters of carbon EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS. Se disulphide is poured into the bowl through the small holes. The cover is put on the copper box and, after allowmeg the material to digest for a few minutes, the motor is started, slowly at first in order to permit the ageregate to distribute uniformly. The speed should then be increased sufficiently by means of the regulator to cause the dissolved bitumen to flow from the spout in a thin stream. When the first charge has dramed, the motor is stopped and a fresh portion of disulphide is added. This operation is repeated from four to six times with 150 cubic centimeters of disulphide. With a little expe- rience the operator can soon gauge exactly what treatment is necessary for any given material. When the last addition of sclvent has drained off, the bowl is removed and placed with the brass plate uppermost on a sheet of manila paper. The brass plate and felt ring are care- fully laid aside on the paper and, when the ageregate is thor- oughly dry, it can be brushed on a pan of the rough balance and weighed. The difference between this weight. and theo original weight taken shows the amount of bitumen extracted. The aggregate may then be tested as oc- casion requires. When it is desired ‘to recover and exam- ine the bitumen, the apparatus shown in figure 19 will be found convenient and fairly safe for the distillation and recovery of such inflammable solvents as carbon disulphide. In the laboratory of the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering this apparatus is arranged so that the glass tubing passes through a stone partition between two sections of a small hoody thus keeping the distilling and receiving apparatus entirely separated. The solution of bitumen should be allowed to stand overnight in order to permit the settling of any fine mineral matter that is some- times carried through the felt ring in the extractor. The solution is then decanted into the flask a, and the solvent is driven off by means of heat from an incandéscent lamp until the residue is of a thick sirupy consistency. Meanwhile the solvent is condensed and recov- ered in the flask 6b. The residue is poured into an 11-centimeter Fig. 19.—Recovery apparatus. 38 BULLETIN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. porcelain evaporating dish and evaporated on a steam bath. The most scrupulous care must be taken at all times that no flames are in its immediate vicinity. Evaporation is carried on at a gentle heat, with continual stirrmg, until foaming practically ceases. If is advisabie to have a large watch glass at hand to smother the flames quickly should the material ignite. As the foaming subsides, the heat of the steam bath may be gradually raised, and evaporaticn is continued until the bubbles beaten or stirred to the surface of the bitumen fail to give a blue fame or odor of sulphur dioxide when ignited by a smali gas jet. The dish of bitumen should then be set im a hot-air oven maintained at 105° C. for about an hour, after which if is allowed to cool. Its general character is noted and any tests for bitumens that are necessary are then made upon it. GRADING THE MINERAL AGGREGATE. *° EQUIPMENT. 1 set of 8-inch stone sieves with circular openings of 14, 14, 1, 4, 4, and 4 inches, respectively. 1 set of 8-inch brass sand sieves of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 80, 100, and 200 mesh, respectively, with pan and cover. 1 rough balance, capacity 1 kilogram, sensitive to 0.1 gram. 1 14-inch stiff flat brush. Several sheets of manila paper. METHOD. While a mechanical sifter is employed in the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, the following hand method is given for the benefit of those who have not a machine of this character available. When a machine is used its method of operation should be checked against the hand method described below to obtain practically equivalent resuits. For aggregates containing particles too large to pass a 10-mesh screen, the stone sieves are used, and are stacked in their regular order over a sheet of heavy paper, with the largest size required on top. The weighed amount of stone is placed on the largest sieve and is care- fully protected from drafts which might carry away any of the fine material, The upper sieve is then removed from the stack and shaken over a large sheet of paper until no more particles come through. The material thus retained, including any fragments caught im the meshes of the sieve, is weighed and that which passes is added to the contents of the succeeding sieve. This operation is repeated with each succeeding sieve. When grading sands or fine aggregates, it is customary to take a 100-gram sample in order that the weights may give direct percentages to tenths of 1 per cent. The sieves are stacked in regular order with the 200-mesh sieve resting on the pan. The sample is brushed on the EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS, 39 top sieve, after which the cover is put on and the stack agitated for about five minutes with both rocking and circular shaking. Hach sieve is remoyed in order, and shaken and tapped on a clean piece of paper until no appreciable amount of material comes through, Ail lumps are broken up by crushing them against the side of the sieve with the finger or 2 small spatula. The contents of the sieve are emptied into the pan of the balance. All particles caught in the mesh are removed by brushing across the underside of the sieve and are added to the contents of the pan. As great opportunity exists for wide variations im the results of sand gradings made by different persons, owing to the possibility of always getting a little more material to pass by continued shaking, it is well for the novice to repeat his sifting on any given mesh, after having weighed it, in order to see what “fur: ther loss he can produce. If his judgment has not erred, several minutes’ further sifting should not produce a loss of over 0.5 gram. Where coarse ageregates have considerable material passing a 10- mesh sieve and it is desired to grade this material further, it should be weighed and well mixed, quartered, if necessary, and a 100-gram sample should be passed through the sand sieves. From the per- centages so obtained and the weight of material passing the 10-mesh sieve, the percentages of the total aggregate which these finer mate- rials represent may be calculated. The Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering has adopted the following recommendations of the Committee on Standard Tests for Road Materials of the American Society for Testing Materials as to the size of wire for standard sand sieves: Diame ter Diameter Meshes per liz:ear inch: Dpnas: Meshes per linear inch: ae eee he eres el eee 2) ONORT. GD) on aca Seeaeee are ae are ag oh cree“) OXO%!) PP EL DE Abe Lt 0165 80... 00575 PRE ae BAIL AE ITS... . 01375 TCU eee rreesenstatsies tte chara . 0045 OE ee sa aero 4 See . 01025 200. . . 00255 DETERMINATION OF VOIDS IN THE MINERAL AGGREGATE. EQUIPMENT. 1 1,000-cubic-centimeter graduated glass cylinder. 1 500-cubic-centimeter graduated glass cylinder. 2 pieces brass tubing (4-inch bore and 2 inches long). 1 wooden block mounted with soft rubber pad. 1 iron support with condenser clamp. 3 feet rubber tubing. 1 pinchcock. 1 14-inch stiff flat brush. 1 small tin scoop. 2 sheets of manila paper. AO BULLETIN 314,:U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. METHOD. The cylinders are constructed for this purpose by drilling a hole in che center of the bottom of each. This hole should be slightly larger than the outside diameter of the brass tubing, one end of which is cemented into it by means of a litharge and ahaa mixture. The upper end of the tube should be flush with the inside of the bottom of the graduated cylinder and in the large cylinder a piece of 200- mesh wire gauze should be soldered over the end of the tube to prevent fine material passing through. The apparatus is set up as shown in figure 20, with the pinchcock on the rubber tubing closed. The small caltndens 18 filled with kero- sene, after which the dhngneocie is slowly opened in order to —a permit the kerosene to —f force any air from the ae tubing and to come = flush with the bottom of the large cylinder. The pincheock is then closed. Theageregateis thor- oughly mixed and quar- tered, if necessary, until a representative sample of material of at least 300 cubic centimeters volume is obtained. This sample of aggre- gate is poured into the large cylinder, a scoop- ful ata time, with alight tamping of the cylinder against the rubber pad in order to compact the material. Best results are usually obtained by making a cylinder of manila paper inside the glass cylinder, and introducing the aggre- gate inside the paper. The paper can then be slowly withdrawn while the glass cylinder is bemg lightly tamped. Segregation of the several sizes of material must be avoided, and any fine material remaining on the paper should be brushed off and added to the ageregate. When the aggregate in the large cylinder has reached its maxumum state of compaction, the raltnine of kerosene in the small cylinder is read, the pinchcock is opened and the elevation of the small cylinder so regulated as to permit the kerosene to slowly percolate upward through the aggregate, until it has reached a point 20 or 30 cubic centi- Zee | uf e lit § ; | Il i {II 350 = 150, % || 3 int tbh d@—— | gee Fic. 20.—Apparatus for determining voids in the mineral aggregate. EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS, | Al meters above the tep of the aggregate. The meniscus of the kerosene in each cylinder and the volume of aggregate is then noted. ‘The per- centage of voids is calculated as follows: a equals initial volume of kerosene in small cylinder. b equals final volume of kerosene in small cylinder. ce equals meniscus of kerosene in large cylinder. d equals apparent volume of aggregate. Percentage of voids equals —_——! In some cases the kerosene fails to expel all the air from the agere- gate, and this fact will be evidenced by bubbles coming to the surface if the ageregate is stirred with a long thin metal rod after the final readings are taken. Accurate results under such conditions are obtained by stirring the aggregate until bubbles cease to appear. This will, of course, yield a lower reading on the meniscus of the kero- sene in the large cylinder, but the original readmg on the volume of rock should be taken. : METHODS OF EXAMINING BITUMINOUS EMULSIONS. . The exact determmation of the constituents of a bituminous emul- sion is usually attended with considerable difficulty and no predeter- mined scheme can be made applicable te ali materials of this character. In a number of cases, however, the following method has yielded satis- factory and fairly accurate results. In order to break up the emulsion, a 20-gram sample is digested on a steam bath with 100 cubic centimeters of : alcoholic potash. The digestion is carried out in a flask with a reflux condenser for about 45 minutes. The solution is filtered and the precipitate washed with 95 per cent alcohol. The filtrate is evaporated to dryness, after which the residue is taken up with hot water and any insoluble matter is filtered off. The aqueous solution, which contains the potassium soaps of the fatty acids, is acidified with dilute sulphuric acid and then shaken in a separatory funnel with petroleum ether. The aqueous portion is drawn off and the ethereal layer shaken up with cold water and washed twice, after which it is evaporated in a weighed platinum or porcelain dish to constant weight, first over a steam bath and then in a drying oven at 105° C. The residue consists of the fatty and resin acids present in the emulsion. The percentage of water in the emulsion is determined by distilling a 100-gram sample in the retort used for the dehydration of tars. The distillation is carried out in exactly the same manner as described for crude tars until the volume of water in the receiver shows no further increase. Any oils that come over are thoroughly mixed with the material remaining in the retort. 42 BULLETIN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. © A 2-eram sample of this dehydrated material is extracted with car- bon disulphide as described in the method for the determination of bitumen soluble in carbon disulphide, and in this manner the organic matter insoluble in carbon disulphide can be determmed. A 1-gram sample of the dehydrated material is ignited. The ash will contain any inorganic matter from the bitumen as well as the fixed alkali present in the soap. The results are, of course, ali calculated on a basis of the original material. Many emulsions contain ammonia, and when this is present a second distillation of the material is necessary. This is carried out on a 100- gram sample in exactly the same manner as described for the deter- minations of water, excepting for the fact that 40 cubic centimeters of a 10 per cent solution of caustic potash is added to the contents of he retort before beginning the distillation. The distillate is collected in a measured volume of : sulphuric acid. When the distillation is ‘completed the excess of acid is titrated with = caustic potash, and the ammonia thus determined. Having determined all constituents as above noted, it is assumed that the difference between their sum and 100 per cent is bitumen, which amount is reported accordingly. APPENDIX. LABORATORY EQUIPMENT. The necesgary equipment for a small laboratory about to engage in the ordinary routine testing and inspection of bitumimous materials is given in the followimg list. The maximum cost, exclusive of plaimum ware, solvents, and chemicals, should not exceed $300, and the material could no doubt be purchased at a lower figure by seeur- ing bids on the entire equipment from several of the chemical supply . houses. For the extraction of bitummous aggregates, the recovery of the bitumen, and examination of the aggregates, the additional equip- ment described for that work will be required at an additional cost of approximately $150. APPARATUS. l analytical balance, capacity 100 grams, sensitive to 0.1 milligram. 1 set of weights, 50 grams to 5 milligrams, with rider. 1 rough balance, capacity 1 kilogram, sensitive to 0.1 gram. 1 stop watch. S 1 Engler viscosimeter- 1 penetrometer, with seconds pendulum or metronome. 1 New York State Board of Health oil tester. 1 open cup oil tester with Bunsen burner. 1 aluminum float with 3 brass collars. 1 cubical brass mold, 1 brass plate 5 by 8 centimeters. 1 metal cover for melting point apparatus. 1 constant temperature oven. 1 thermo-regulator, 1 hot plate 14 by 18 inches. 1 steam bath. 1 small drying oven. 6 Bunsen burners. 1 pinchcock. 4 iron tripods. 4 iron ring supports. 3 rings for ring support, 7.5 centimeters in diameter. 3 condenser clamps. 3 burette clamps. 6 pieces of wire gauze, 10 by 10 centimeters. 2 enamel-ware dishes, 3 inches deep by 9 inches in diameter, 1 tin shield. 6 1-pint tin cups, seamless. 6 1-quart tin cups, seamless, 12 tin boxes, 6 centimeters in diameter by 2 centimeters deep, 43 44 BULLETEN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 6 tin boxes, 5 centimeters in diameter by 3.5 centimeters deep. 1 metal kitchen spoon. 4-pint iron retort. 1 piece iron tubing, 30 inches long. 1 copper still, with steel clamps, inside dimensions 6 by 34 inches. i ring burner to fit copper still. 1 10-centimeter steel spatula. 1 crucible tongs. 1 hammer. 1 2-inch cold chisel. 1 14-inch stiff flat brush. 1 triangular file. 1 small round file. 1 set of cork borers, Nos. 1 to 12. 1 brass filter (vacuum) pump. 1 piece of wire, 20 centimeters long (No. 12 Brown & Sharpe gauge). 3 chemical thermometers reading from —10° C. to 110° C. 3 chemical thermometers reading from 0° C. to 250° C,. 2 chemical thermometers reading from 0° C. to 400° C. 4 hydrometers, 0.800 to 0.900; 0.900 to 1.000; 1.000 to 1.200; 1.200 to 1.400. 1 hydrometer jar, 350 by 50 millimeters. 1 special pycnometer. 6 250 cubic centimeter beakers, low form. 6 150 cubic centimeter beakers, low form. 2 800 cubic centimeter beakers, low form. 2 400 cubic centimeter beakers, tall form, without lip. 1 10-centimeter crystallizing dish, deep, straight sides. 1 5-centimeter crystallizing dish. 12 100 cubic centimeter Erlenmeyer flasks. 2 150 cubic centimeter Erlenmeyer flasks. 2 500 cubic centimeter flasks with side neck for filtering under pressure. 6 250 cubic centimeter Engler distillation flasks of special dimensions. 1 short condenser. : 1 separatory funnel with stopcock. 4 500 cubic centimeter wash bottles, with tubulated glass stopper ground into neck for solvents. 1 1,000 cubic centimeter wash bottle for water. 6 100 cubic centimeter glass cylinders, graduated tc 1 cubic centimeter. 6 25 cubic centimeter glass cylinders, graduated to 0.2 cubic centimeter. 310 cubic centimeter glass cylinders with ground-glass stoppers graduated to 0.2 cubic centimeter. 1 150-millimeter desiccator with porcelain plate. 1 filter tube for Gooch crucible 3.9 centimeters in diameter. 1 object glass. i freezing apparatus. i glass connecting tube. 1 pound of light glass tubing, assorted. 1 pound of glass rods, assorted. 2 rubber stoppers, No. 8, with one hole. 2 rubber stoppers, No. 1, with one hole. 5 pounds of rubber gas tubing, + inch internal diameter. 1 foot of rubber tubing, 1 inch diameter, for Gooch crucibles. 5 pounds of heavy asbestos paper. Corks, assorted. EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS. Ad PLATINUM. 1 triangle, 5 centimeter sides (10 to 12 grams), or 1 nichrome triangle. 1 Gooch crucible, as specified (20 to 25 grams) for solubility determinations (may be porcelain). 1 crucible with tight-fitting, flanged lid (about 25 grams) for fixed carbon determina- tions. SOLVENTS AND CHEMICALS Carbon disulphide, chemically pure. 86° Baumé paraffin naphtha, distilling between 40° C. and 65° C. Carbon tetrachloride, chemically pure. Ether (Squibb’s). Alcohol, absolute (Squibb’s). Dimethyl sulphate. Naphthalene (C. P.). Benzophenone (C. P.). Cottonseed oil. Mercurie chloride or nitrate. Mercury. Ammonium carbonate (C. P.). Calcium chloride, granular for desiccator. Asbestos, pure long-fiber amphibole. Metric conversion tables. { | Length. | Capacity. Mass. ; | 5 ; : : rai United States} Cubic centi- || Avoirdupois Inches. Millimeters. ha ounces.| meters. ounces. A= 0.0312 07088. Vere Fea ee | 29. 574 ye= .0625 [Ars rome || hae ees a 59. 147 4= .1250 Buy 5O al7e Sob. Seer of 88. 721 | 4— .2500 6.3500 eS Cas 118. 295 4= .5000 1287000) ilvat-b- 2 Sate 147. 869 | Loe: = 25. 4001 eee Sea 177. 442 a | 50, 8001 Tig. cutest 207. 016 ie. 76. 2002 Baudet 236.590 | BN Pekt00> 6002 [roi 9.2232. 266. 163 aoe 127. 0003 16=1 pt... 473. 18 1 pits. 152.4003 || 32=1 qt 946, 36 ees os 177.8004 || 128=1gal 3, 785. 43 Gee 4 203. 2004 0.3381... 10 eee 228, 6005 6763..... 20 | 4.0144... 30 ra [te ee a 40 Centi- feeke OBO Ze... 50 meters, || 2-0288..... 60 2,3670...-- 70 | - Pe705U 24. 80 0.3937 | 1=10mm. | ee ea of é | ‘; A 2 er but ee ae 1,000=1 ar A | liter 1.5748 | 4 1.9685 | 5 2.3622 | 6 2.7559 | 7 3.1496 | 8 | 3.5433 | 9 AG BULLETIN 314, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Comparison of degrees Baumé and specific gravity. (Liquids lighter than water.) 140 A : 140 eS SSS _— o (1) Sp. gr-=jg9ceg. at 15.5°C. (2) °B. Sp. gr 180 at 15 Soe 153. “Sp. gr. “Bi, Sp. gr. 2Be Sp. gr. O13, Sp. gr. 10 1. 0000 31 0. 8695 52 0. 7692 73 G. 6896 il - 9929 32 . 8641 53 - 7650 74 - 6863 12 - 9859 33 - 8588 54 - 7809 75 - 6829 13 . 9780 34 - 8536 55 - 75097 78 . 6796 14 . 9722 35 - 8484 56 . 7526 77 . 6763 15 . 9655 36 . 8433 57 . 7486 78 . 6731 16 . 9589 37 8383 58 - 7446 79 . 5598 17 - 9523 38 - 8300 59 . 7407 &0 - 6666 18 . 9459 39 - 8284 60 . 1368 81 - 6635 19 . 9395 40 . 8235 61 - 1330 82 . 6604 20 . 9333 41 . 8187 62 . 7292 > 88 . 8573 21 . 9271 42 - 3139 63 . 7204 84 . 6542 22 . 9210 43 . 8092 64 . 7216 85 . 6511 23 . 9150 44 - 8045 65 . 7179 86 . 6482 24 - 9680 45 . 8000 66 - 7143 87 . 6452 25 . 9632 46 - 1954 67 . 7107 88 . 6422 26 - 8974 47 - 7909 68 . 7071 89 . 6393 27 . 8917 48 . 7865 69 - 7035 0) . 6363 28 . 8860 49 - 7821 70 . 7000 29 - 8805 50 o HUCt 71 . 6965 30 - 8750 51 - 7734 72 - 6931 | Comparison of Centigrade and Fahrenheit degrees. 9 5(G = 32) (1) °F.=3°C.432. (2) °C.= ( - y | C. F Cc F Cc, F Cc F | Cc | F. C. 155 | 0 32.0 38 | 100.4 76 | 168.8 || 114 | 237.2 | 152 | 305.6 || 190 374.0 i 33.8 || 39 | 102.2 77 | 170.6 |) 115 | 239.0 |! 153 | 307.4 || 101 375.8 2 35. 6 40 | 104.0 78 | 172.4 |} 116 | 240.8 |; 154 | 309.2 || 192 377.6 3 37.4 || 41 | 105.8 79 | 174.2 || 417 | 242.6 |} 155} 311.0 || 193 379.4 4 39.2 || 42] 107.6 80 | 176.6 |) 118 | 244.4 |) 156 | 312.8 || 194 381. 2 5 41.0 43 | 109.4 81} 177.8 || 119 | 246.24) 157 | 314.6 || 195 383.0 6 42.8 a: 111.2 82 | 179.6 || 120} 248.0 |] 158 | 316.4 || 196 384, 8 7 44.6 |} 46) 113.0 83 | 181.4 j| 121 | 249.8 )) 159 | 318.2 || 197 386.6 8 46.4 |} 46] 134.8 84 | 183.2 || 122 | 251.6 |) 160 | 320.0 || 198 388. 4 9 8.2 47 | 116.6 85 | 185.64; 123 | 253.4 }} 161 | 321.8 || 199 390, 2 10 50. 0 48 | 118.4 86 | 186.8 }| 124 | 255.2 | 162 j 323.6 |{ 200 392. 0 11 51.8 AQ} 120.2 87; 188.6 1) 125 | 257.0 }} 163 | 325.4 || 201 393.8 i2 53.6 50 | 122.0 88 | 190.4 || 126 | 258.8 |) 164 | 327.2 || 202 395. 6 18 5a. 4 51 | 123.8 89 | 192.2 || 127 | 260.6 |) 165 | 329.0 || 203 397.4 14 57.2 52} 125.6 90 | 194.0 || 128 | 262.4 || 166 | 330.8 |} 204 389. 2 15 59.0 53 | 127.5 91 | 195.8 || 129 | 264.2 | 167 | 332.6 || 205 401.0 16 60. 8 54) 129.2 92 | 197.6 || 130 | 266.0 || 168 | 334.4 || 206 402.8 17 62.6 55 | 131.0 |} 93 | 199.4 || 131 | 267.8 }| 169 | 336.2 }| 207 404. 6 18 64. 4 56} 132.8 94 | 201.2 |) 132 | 269.6 |} 170 | 338.0 || 208 406. 4 19 66.2 57 | 134.6 95 | 203.0 || 1383 | 271.4 1/171} 339.8 || 209 408. 2 20 68.0 58 | 136.4 96 | 204.8 |} 134 | 273.2 || 172 | 341.6 || 210 410.0 21 69.8 59 | 138.2 97 | 206.6 || 135 | 275.0 || 173 | 343.4 || 220 428.0 22) 71.6 60 | 140.0 98 | 208.4 || 136 | 276.8 || 174 |. 345.2 || 230 446.0 23 73.4 61 | 141.8 99 | 210.2 )| 137 | 278.6 |; 175 | 347.0 |; 240 464.0 24 75.2 62 | 143.6 |! 100) 212.0 || 188 | 280.4 | 176 | 348.8 || 250! 482.0 25 77.0 3 | 145.4 |) 101 | 213.8 |) 13 282.2 || 177 | 350.6 || 260 500.0 26 78.8 64 | 147.2 || 102 | 215.6 |) 140} 284.0 || 178 | 352.4 j| 270 518.0 27 80. 6 65 | 149.0 || 103 | 217.4 || 141 | 285.8 || 179 | 354.2 |; 280 536. 0 28 82.4 66 | 150.8 || 104 | 219.2 }/ 142 | 287.6 || 180 | 356.0 || 290 554.0 2 84. 2 67 | 152.6 || 105 | 221.0 || 14 289.4 || 181 | 357.8 || 300 572.0 30 86.0 68 | 154.4 || 106 | 222.8 || 144 | 291.2 || 182 | 359.6 || 350 662.0 31 87.8 69 | 156.2 || 107 | 224.6 || 145 | 293.0 |; 183 | 361.4 |) 400 752.0 32 89. 6 70 | 158.0 |} 108 | 226.4 || 146 | 294.8 || 184 | 363.2 || 450 842.0 33 91. 4 71 | 159.8 || 109 | 228.2 || 147 | 296.6 || 185 | 365.0 || 500 932. 0 34 93. 2 72 | 161.6 |} 110 | 220.0 || 148 | 298.4 || 186 | 366.8 || 550 | 1,022.0 35 95. 0 73 | 163.4 || 111 | 231.8 || 149 | 300.2 || 187 | 368.6 || 600 | 1,112.0 36 96.8 74 | 165.2 |) 112 | 238.6 || 150 | 302.0 || 188 | 370.4 || 650 | 1,202.0 37 98. 6 75 | 167.0 || 113 | 235.4 || 151 | 303.8 |} 189 | 372.2 |! 700 | 1,292.0 - EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS, AT FORMS FOR REPORTING TESTS. FILE CARDS. Form 93.—Rev. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS AND RURAL ENGINEERING, Washington, D. C. Sample No, ....---- PED OTE OM yoro5 Soc ee sas Joes isis so eis Seem e ssa +S SHER EERE NSS ose SSE Sees See EET TIBET AT a9 ph hrs CSE ere ins Se aS Sak 2 s RO eee sweets ewe e oe Rees pennies = se euGee sae Le LIT VAE, DS... 62 SESE SES SEIS SS IE Rees Sten Sos 5 I ee eee eee ‘Sr SET PTEG! TN SOR ee ee ee 8 er Ose ee ae ee eee ae ee ae LL EUIAROT (02 2 See ree ee Se ee ES Ser oe ee = ae Dice a A a Per ree Pk a %by |% by | Char- BeUNCEIUCHAFACTCE =. 2. <2). sau ceeiccdessces~ sess Distillation— vol. |_wt. | acter. SEEN Gre ey PS One ee AEN GSD cs SU a meme et elfen fe re fs ea MEL DIR opp Gee eos 2S 5- SRST ee ee ae bok Seek BEES Ce OTS Se (GeO SO) eat ee alle | Float test at .....--. SOE DE ieee sd Ofer ae Secondiichtioils=@i10—170°@) sees eee es Viscosity Engler at ._... S@rthe. ce. ©. specife... Heavy oils....-- CUOZ2 TORE) Hie. = Seal Sa ae Bitumen solnple in CSo- 2.2452 sse52s5ess-555~5 Heavy oils...... (270530026) saiee eas ee nee Free carbon (insoluble in C&9) .........-....-.-- Paipehwresidiw6 4S. 55. aes ae | GS eee eee eee a oe LOSI, 22 22 accSeGE SSR SABES See Ee eee ——_|—___|—__—. PE ee I ke cs eeseiaceis LNG SAE Ses Sy ne ei erate en cere [epi et Lene ie Le ESTES. 12 ce eb ea SSS aS Sa ete PEG Te eee ea 1-1 5 5 Sate oe Sree nt Rat Se ee uan era ga ene wWaterecelved.. 555-2555 4. PEDAL ePOLLeGs ees s eee eee PATENTS Gt wet ates eryene tea pam et Form 77.—Rey. : UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS AND RURAL ENGINEERING, Washington, D. C. : ISELTUDUCEINIO ee TREE os SE ASS SHAD A ACC SOCECESEA ROME 0 212 Sama CACO EROS Bees eGUCS SORE EL CEOS TR TS AS he i IS Sc et rd ey te teh ee ies mea 3 WSO" Sh 2S Ree ee RSE RAT to. 0 AA GOCE ORO CARS AS SSC aase Ree ees COS tL URE che ees Saal oa nae hes i AS A AS aR eS tare al Spae UL EST D1 un: be pe dete Gee aR es Re eo lates Sa te ei ne Peete akeh a EER UEAN A aN Sc eR READE MIA AC LOL ee oat noe 2 5)ay7- sree leis sxe | Loss ate 2 --: Fad Operas POUTS ee spectra ea anaes DREemIC pramliy Do /25°Cs eee en Characrertotmesiduere se essere eee ee LATS Toyo 9 Ls oe ee ee Consierenceiat residire Float test at_..... ROSS aoe | LPL Lb TAGLAR 1S) ees ae eee are ae H i Penetration at 25 °C. (mm.) LENE. 7 TUTE [EG ESE Ses ln ee a ee oe | BitmmenisolmbleimiG Sores ee cea ate) eee eee Viscosity at...... (SAae pee PIC Cn SWECUIC = ts eee Organie mater insoluble 2 o-oo as --s eesceeacne Laine LET pa eet BS) |e ee Tnorganiconaqberinsoluplerssnscoe on ee mene eee Float test at.... °C. time....; at.... °C. time.... % of total bitumen insol. in 86° aaphtha........._. wencwavion at 25°C. (mm)).--2-.--25.2-s5.-s205 %, of total bitumen insol. in CCly..................- Pe ae in os sicia ata cig SEO EER hice neo) 3 Se eee Submitted Dy... 5 22 cea esc ae cise PS see ees ine ees ecicc ese cieine e a e Bxamined fore: «524 2i2scic eee cieiaoca et OOS d San Sad eee Sacchi aie the Ai a Remarks. - Wecesstasse see woe Sees ese ee ae eee see Su eee Benne elses k bet eee - Form 109-B. : UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS AND RURAL ENGINEERING, Washington, D. C. Dates aes SOHO INO: =sAGsce- ROC DONE ON S672 sanz Sisto ae Sate See wie nis CI SIE Cee OSes eke cee ORE eee eee Edentification: Marks oc cecoski ds esas See te Se ae en Oe cl ae he ai is IKMOWD AS bora sets Ne Ss sites Sere at cai sein bial ASHER eee Se Ue ise ac ese SUS eee Submitted Dy. s2--2¢ hae ecsedhs ccna ses Se cekis etiam oe ae ea oe se Neen ke ale ee ee Mxamined! fore cs. se5he sec sa- deeb sseoe wes tS She eee ee nee FoR es ee General characteristics. ......-..-- wide Je cedeceeeeeer Sheso. les ee eee Specific gravity 25°/25°C. s..c1- osc. scm as ese esas ees =~ - Soa- ea S22: eae See Eee eee Eee Ee eae Melting point °C... ooo eee aS ea een oes See eRe aie wis = )otlseieeals see e keke = sea ee a Plash point; ° Cx 22 <...\. nde dace ta he ee oe jeconnie seule see eee eae ea Burning point [Co. es -ceec sees bet on cis eee ee se 1s oe anne ae ke eee ee Viscosity Engler at.....- S@oese a. GV Cs SPCCINGD: oa. J Jee age elec s client Gees nee e eee Eee eee Cannes Float test. ----- Gee inne sae Se Shera eiahys °C., TMG. soo .oh-0 ies -istoes cee ae eee eee i > \Renetration 25 °C. 100jiems. b:secondS:.\- see eres see ne ere Eee eee eee ee Bitumen’solublein’ CSo (totalybitamien)) see ease meee enn eencee se seen sees ae see eee ee Organic matter insoluble:: so2 G22 hen. ceeds se ec le se ash aces Bek ee eee Thorganic: matter insoliiblesc. seo. fs Jo) De ee OL, SOD. ae Per/centichitotall bitumenvinsolublesm!s6 oo Baaapht hase sss eeee eee a sere eee eee eee ee Per cent of total bitumen insoluble in CCly. -..........-.--.------- 22 abn Ses Sb eee Per cent fixed)icarbom: = 2..52.6 25 Fes Sse oS een ee Shee wd sate ede See e eee eee ee eee EEE EE eee Distillation— Character. %byvol. %by wt. Wraters oi.c8 one Naa saenice Seana seen Be SRR n sation Ore seiecinied sme siae eeu eee Hinshlightoils) (=e —WlO2@)) sae. = ae ee Soil wisiqcineen diese +) + sjysseeneny =e See ea eee Second. light oils:(1108=1702C 23.65. n= eee Be eee se cee | | aeosis Seles eee eee Heavy oils.....- (170822702C2) o5i26. 230 Sees be eee te ales | ER eee Se ee Heavy oils.....- (27022800°C2) 222 5: 3 Sse bests oct. 1. ee ee Seen eee PitGh. . 22 See 5. ofc c nea e 2 eee te 5 EE Been obec | See 2S eee eer Remarks. ...... Swagga ek Heese ES aSRU ES 25 SER ws Bk SSE IK as eS ee O UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 315 Contribution from Office of Markets and Rural Organization, CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief Washington, D. C. A October 23, 1915 CANTALOUPE MARKETING IN THE LARGER CITIES, WITH CAR-LOT SUPPLY, 1914. By Wetts A. Suerman, Specialist in Market Surveys; A. DEXTER GAIL, JR., Assistant in Market Surveys, and Farru L. YEAw, Laboratory Aid. CONTENTS. Page ' Page. WHINIRMEMON Sy © (582 28 Sec ssciciscine -2 shes 1 | Sometrade factors influencing the marketing ixtent of investications..-.-.-=:---+--2----- 1 Of icantaloupessetcesc- se pec cees- = Eeecee 11 Systems of distribution within cities.......-. 2 | Cantaloupeshipmentsin1914................ 15 Factors which influence prices....--.-.------ 3 INTRODUCTION. In the market survey work carried on by the Office of Markets and Rural Organization considerable attention has been given to the marketing of cantaloupes. During the summer of 1914 a study was made in a number of the larger markets of the East and Middle West in an effort to determine the factors that underlie the successful handling and marketing of this crop. The 1914 season was a very disastrous one to practically all canta- loupe-shipping sections, and, while the marketing difficulties encoun- tered were, in most cases, the same as in former years, they were accentuated greatly by unusual conditions surrounding crop produc- tion and consumptive demand. EXTENT OF INVESTIGATIONS. To secure comprehensive data, representatives of the office ! were located for various lengths of time in Chicago, St. Louis, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Milwaukee, St. Paul, New Haven, Cambridge, Hartford, and Kansas City. In addition, general information was secured in Buffalo and Minneapolis. ! These studies were carried on by the following market reporters: J. W. Fisher, jr., J. TT. Collins, R. Maynard Peterson, G. P. Warber, Grafton L. Wilson, Joseph W. McNaugher, and M. M. Stewart. Note.—This bulletin should be of general interest to cantaloupe growers, shippers, dealers, and con- sumers, and to transportation companies, 7710°.— Bull. 215—15——1 2 BULLETIN 315, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The distribution of a number of cars of cantaloupes was traced so far as was possible from the car-lot receiver in the market to the consumer, records being made of all changes in possession or owner- ship and of added charges. In a number of instances it was possible to secure these data from the time the carload of cantaloupes left the point of production. While practical difficulties made it impos- sible to make the record complete, an endeavor was made to secure the following items of information, so far as they applied, on each car traced: Carnumber and initials; pointof origin; consignor; consignee; selling fees of the marketing association, distributor, local buyer, or solicitor; date of shipment; date of arrival on market; date car was opened; date released; freight; refrigeration; switching charges; de- murrage; condition of stock on arrival; cartage charges; gross profits of brokers, wholesalers or commission merchants, jobbers and retailers. It can be seen readily that as the distribution of a car of canta- loupes in a city progressed, the difficulty of tracing the individual crates greatly increased. The cooperation of the wholesaler or the commission merchant who received the car was all that was required to secure a record of the initial sales, but as the carload was dis- tributed among scores of jobbers, retail grocers, fruit stands, huck- sters, and push-cart men, it became impossible for one worker to follow all the crates. Consequently the part of the carload traced through the retailer was small when compared with the number of crates sold by the car-lot receivers and jobbers on which it was possible to secure a record.1 In addition to the above outlined work on specific cars of canta- loupes, observations were made of all apparent factors which affected the cantaloupe market, either favorably or adversely, in the cities visited, such as the comparative receipts from the various competing areas, the order of the appearance of these shipments on the market, the quality and quantity of receipts, the preference of particular markets for the different varieties and grades of cantaloupes, the margin of profit, and general weather conditions. SYSTEMS OF DISTRIBUTION WITHIN CITIES. Where investigations were made, it was found that in the car-lot marketing of cantaloupes there were several channels of distribution after the car reached its destination. The three routes or channels here given seemed best defined: | shel [ Il. III. 1. Broker. 1. Broker. 1. Wholesaler or commis- De Wholesaler or commis-| 2. Jobber. sion merchant. sion merchant. 3. Retailer. 2. Jobber. 3. Jobber. 4. Consumer. 3. Retailer. 4. Retailer. 4. Consumer. 5. Consumer. 1 Acknowledgment is made of the helpful spirit shown by the large number of produce merchants who aided in the above work by allowing the office free access to their books, sales records, etc., and otherwise cooperated in securing necessary data. CANTALOUPE MARKETING IN THE LARGER CITIES. 3 Many firms, particularly those located in other than the larger mar- kets, combine the functions of the wholesaler and jobber! by selling either to the jobber or the retailer as the occasion demands. Thus, for instance, in the first channel cited, it is not correct to assume that there are necessarily four separate agencies of distribution con- cerned. However, it must be understood that when a firm sells to both jobbers and retailers, the prices named to the latter, who usually buy im small quantities, are, as a rule, higher than those charged the jobbers. In most markets the broker figures more prominently in the dis- tribution of western cantaloupes than of eastern stock, and it is safe to say that a much larger percentage of cars shipped from the West are handled by city firms on consignment than is the case with those originating at points east of the Mississippi. The practice of whole- sale buying of eastern cantaloupes may be partially explaimed by their lower delivered cost compared with that of western stock. The dealer has to invest less money and his risks are fewer. FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE PRICES. CAR-LOT RECEIPTS. The daily receipts of car lots of cantaloupes naturally play an im- portant part in determining prices. On the average large market, these receipts are from several widely separated producing sections. Table 1 shows how far-distant producing sections will compete with near-by areas on the same market in spite of great differences in freight and transportation rates. Tasie 1.—States from which cantaloupes were quoted in New York and Chicago on August 1, 8, and 15, 1914. NEW YORK CITY. CHICAGO. Aug. 1. Aug. 8. Aug. 15. Aug. 1. Aug. 8. Aug. 15. Maryland. | New Jersey. New Jersey. || Indiana. Illinois. Illinois. Virginia. Delaware. Delaware. Illinois. Michigan. Michigan. North Carolina. Maryland. Maryland. Arkansas. Indiana. Indiana. Arizona. Virginia. Virginia. || Nevada. Texas. Delaware. Nevada. Arizona. North Carolina. Arizona. New Mexico. Maryland. Nevada. Texas. || California. Arizona. Texas. Texas. Nevada. ] Nevada. New Mexico. California. i] California. California. Thus it can be seen that there is a great range in the location of the shipping sections and in the distances which the cantaloupes must be transported before being offered for sale. Cantaloupes from Cali- ! The use of the terms “wholesaler” and “jobber” in this bulletin conforms to the meaning given them in the eastern and some of the middle-westermn markets where the wholesaler buys in large quantities, usually in car lots, and disposes of most of his stock in sales of good size to jobbers and large retailers, The jobber, as a rule, buys in smaller amounts from the car-lot receiver and sells mainly to the retail trade. See U.S. D=partment of Agriculture Bul. 267, Methods of Wholesale Distribution of Fruits and Vegetables on Larve Marketa 1015. 4. BULLETIN 315, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, fornia were on the New York market with those from Maryland; a section distant more than 3,000 miles competing with a shipping area only some 200 miles away. On August 15, Texas points, 2,100 to 2,200 miles distant from New York City, were sending their melons to compete with those from New Jersey. New Mexico and Nevada compete with Indiana and Illinois for preference on the Chicago market. A good example of the competition between differ- ent producing areas is shown by the conditions on August 15 in the city of Chicago, when the melons from eight different States were quoted as being in direct competition with each other. It is inter- esting to note the wide area represented with Michigan in the North, Fic. 1.—Well graded and packed cantaloupes on the right. Crates at the left show shrinkage and the melons are jumbled, due to slack packing at point of production. Both lots were being sold by one commission firm, the crates at the right at a substantial profit and the ones at the left for less than transportation charges. Texas in the Southwest, California in the West, and Delaware and Maryland in the Kast. There are important reasons why competition from such widely separated areas is possible. Transportation and refrigeration facili- ties are such that it is now possible to deliver these shipments from distant points to eastern markets in practically as sound condition as that in which local supplies arrive. The question of competition narrows itself to a comparison of appearance and quality of the melons (figs. 1 and 2) and the difference in freight and refrigeration rates from these competing areas. If the melons from California and Texas are not superior in some way to those from Delaware, Mary- land, and Michigan, then they can not profitably enter the same market, unless the cost of production is sufficiently low to offset the increased freight and refrigeration charges. CANTALOUPE MARKETING IN THE LARGER SUPERIORITY QF WESTERN CANTALOUPES. CITIES. 5 A close study of the larger markets leaves no doubt that in a general way higher prices are paid for cantaloupes grown under irriga- tion than for those grown under rainfall. While the latter may be of equal quality at times, the quality varies more from week to week with changes in tempera- ture, rainfall, and sunshine at the point of origin. If urigation is controlled properly the western canta- loupes never he on wet ground, and are almost entirely free Fic. 2.—How some sections ship cataloupes to market. These melons were ungraded for size, quality, or ripeness, and did not make an attractive appearance. from the unattractive white side which characterizes most of those grown under rainfall, especially in very wet seasons. Table 2 gives the car-lot rates for freight and refrigeration from several well-known cantaloupe shipping sections to 12 of the large markets in the East and Middle West. Tas_e 2.—Car-lot freight and refrigeration rates on cantaloupes in effect during the spring of 1915. (These rates are subject to change on legal notice.] Brawley, E1 Centro, and Imperial, Cal. From— Mesa, Ariz. Las Cruces, N. Mex. Freight To— service. = he = Sk ee] 5° aa Dh he hare yest ao | Ea pee. IN. Nock is ant $1.25\¢112. 501 saltimore, Md........ 1. 25} 112.50 Boston, Mass......... 1,25) 117.50 WOMEIOSIN, XY 20 bso v2. 1.15) 107.50 Chicago, Ill...... .--| 1.00) 97.50 Cleveland, Ohio...... -| 1.15) 107 50 New York City,N. Y..| 1.25) 112.50 Philadelphia, Va...... | 1.25) 112. 50 Pittsburgh, Pa........ 1.15) 107. 50 Rochester, N. Y.. ... | 1.25) 112, 50 St. Louis, Mo......... | 1.00) 97.50) Washington, D. C.....) 1.25) 112.50 Express Freight Express Freight Express service, service. service. service. service. B A A Ks A F A BH SI a4 | 2 See tea |S ise |S. Baa les 2) ~,° ~,° us) Pee | yo] + .° Cc -, A aH ah q ee] q 3 A | 3h nD BS 5o nD BO |.32 Bo no | ho no v > nao ° nao oo bh on he @ oa 5D rs] BD o tp £m a) 8) Pa] — © bp — @ Fo a) Bo | &A BA) ao | HA lo | Ha | Ao | Ha “AS o vo i © eS @o iS ov ic) fea isa ca} (aa Fy ae] ica) aa Sal : : $2. 50/$105. 00) $1. 25)$115.00) (a) | (a) |$0.985] $72.50) (a) | (a) 2.50) 105.00) 1.25) 115.00) $2. 50)$105. 00) .97 72.50) $1.75 $75. 00 2.75) 110.00) 1.25) 120.00} 2.75) 110.00) 1.04 75.00) 2.00) 75.00 2.50) 105.00) 1.15) 110.00) 2.50} 105.00 86 65.00) 1.75) 75.00 2,25) 90.00) 1.00) 100.00} 2.25] 90.00} .65 | %.60) 1.25) 55.00 2.50) 100.00, 1.15) 110.00} 2.50) 100.00) .83 | 65.00) 1.75) 70.00 2.50) 105.00 1.25) 115.00} 2.50} 105.00) 1.00} 72.50) 1.75) 75.00 2.50) 105.00) 1.25} 115.00} 2.50) 105.00) .98| 72.50| 1.75] 75.00 2.50) 100.00) 1. 15) 110.00) 2.50} 100.00) .86 | 65.00) 1.75) 70.00 2.50) 105.00, 1.25) 115.00) 2.50) 105.00) .91 72.50) (a) (a) 2.25) 85.00) 1.00} 100.00) 2.25) 85.00) .65 b,60) 1.25) 55.00 2,50) 105.00, 1.25) 115.00) 2.50) 105.00) .97 72.50) 1.75) 75.00 «No carload rates in effect. » Per 100 pounds. 6 BULLETIN 315, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe 2.—Car-lot freight and refrigeration rates on cantaloupes in effect during the spring of 1915—Continued. From— ee muds Crownsville, Tex. Seaford, Del. Freight Express Freight Express Freight Express ho- service. service. service. service. service. service. 4 cS a c m sau] # Fst H eee 2 ag)2.|8¢)/ 8. | 2/326) 4g /2./4¢/2a) eg] & 2/82 / 8/22] s/2°s| s/e8]/ S/88/] 8] 3 ae) = S) na x Sy = es = n KS) = =) irs) n Fae) aa (oXe) ea ime |Son! 82a | Sa | sto | aa i=) H 2S eS) “Ss o HS |oas!| xRS|o PS |oaoo]}] KS i a | feozy el ola t= fpede || (maa ee a (4a |e" |ee) at] ep INMopIO A; INA NCS ce satscse \S0. 795) $65.00) (0) (b) |$0. 994)$0. 50 (5) | (6) |$0.249 $0.11 | $1.20)...... Baltimore, Md.........- -78 | 65.00 $1. 379) $50.00) .981) .50 | $2.00 $65.00; .189) .095 64 Race Boston, Mass.....------ -85 | 65.00 1.625; 50.00) 1.051} .51 2.25) 65.00! .315) .11 128 Pee iB uittalosNee are - 635) 60.00, 1.25 | 45.00) .816) .435 1.50) 60.00) .261 11 ISS b | sree Chicadeo ilar ae ae -46 | 50.00, 1.00 | 37.00) .65 - 385 1.50) 55.00) .368 125)! 284 pees Cleveland, Ohio......--- -605| 60.00 1.25 | 45.00) .785} .385 175] 60500) S260 25 ea eee New York City, N. Y..-| .81| 65.00 ¢1.375 ¢50.00 1.011) .50 2.00) 65.00) .21 2095|9) S94|2eeeee Philadelphia, Pa...-..-. -79 | 65.00 1.375 50. 00, -991) .45 2.00} 65.00! .189) .095 64) coe iattsburgh ease eee - 635} 60.00 1.375; 50.00; -.816) .4025) 1.75} 60.00} -221 11 1. 20S ee Rochester-iNe Yeo. eee -72 | 65.00 (©) (>) - 908} .50 2.00) 65.00) .249) .11 35 | eae Ste lomssMoss== aa -41 50.00 .875, 35.00) .58 - 3075, 1.25) 50.00} .431) .14 109 ae Washington, D. C....... -78 | 65.00 1.375, 50:00; .981) .50 | 2.00) 65.00) .221) .095) .90).----- a Express company does not provide refrigerator service. If any is desired the express company will supply refrigerator cars for quantities in excess of 12,000 pounds, but shippers must furnish the ice. > No earload rates in effect. c Delivery at Jersey City only. THE HOME-GROWN CROP. In the immediate vicinity of many important markets a large acre- age of cantaloupes is planted annually, and in 1914 a crop of unusual size was harvested. The quality of these melons was above the aver- age, and the markets were kept well supplied with this stock through- out the local season. These cantaloupes can be placed on the home markets at a minimum of expense as there are no heavy freight and refrigeration charges to pay and in some cases the packages are re- turned to the grower. The saving in transportation charges is considerable, as indicated in Table 2. In addition to this, the local growers have the great advantage of being able to offer dealers a daily supply of freshly picked melons. In many cases, in 1914, it was possible to dispose profitably of a large part of the local crop at prices which would not return the distant car-lot shipper his cost of transportation. As a result of this large home-grown supply the demand for melons shipped into many markets from distant areas of production was curtailed. CONDITION AND QUALITY OF RECEIPTS. As with most other highly perishable products, there is much complaint in the markets regarding deficiencies in the condition and quality of cantaloupes, both the home-grown stock and that which comes from a distance. There is no doubt that prices are greatly CANTALOUPE MARKETING IN THE LARGER CITIES. 7 depressed by the constant receipt of melons which are overripe, immature, or diseased. The channels of distribution become choked with this poor stock, which to be moved at all must be sold at prices which leave little or nothing for the grower. Even the better grades of cantaloupes do not bring their full value under these conditions, for the large quantities of melons of low quality and price give the buyer a lever to force down the price level for good stock. The dis- appointment resulting from purchasing poor cantaloupes so dulls the demand that the movement for the rest of the season is adversely affected. While a great deal of stock evidences poor quality or condition when it arrives in the market, these disadvantages are greatly aggra- vated by the deterioration which takes place while the cantaloupes are in the hands of the dealer. There is a harmful tendency on the part of many cantaloupe receivers in the markets to encourage the shipment of greater supplies than they can handle promptly. Each day their surplus stock is held it becomes harder to sell, and in an endeavor to move it before it becomes a total loss the fresher receipts are often held back and begin to deteriorate in turn. If conditions are to be satisfactory to producer, distributor, and consumer it is essential that the supply of a fruit as highly perishable as canta- loupes be gauged, to meet the consuming demands of a market, so that fresh stock may be received daily and distributed throughout a city without delay. It is just as important that the average receipts be of a quality calculated to stimulate the demand. Before this condi- tion can be met there must be great improvement both in regard to eating qualities and soundness of the average run of cantaloupes shipped. CANTALOUPE PACKAGES. The containers in use undoubtedly have an influence upon the sale of cantaloupes. The most common packages are the ‘‘jumbo,”’ “standard,” ‘two-thirds,’ ‘pony,’ and ‘‘flat’’ crates. Different producing sections have their own ideas as to just what packages should be used, and as a result an assortment of types and sizes is found on most markets. While this may not have been a large factor in determining 1914 cantaloupe prices, it is believed that more uniformity in the packages used would eliminate a good deal of the confusion noticed in the quoting and selling of the melons by wholesalers and jobbers, and would make possible desirable economies in their handling and, ship- ping. In seasons of heavy production the most active demand is for melons which are uniformly graded and packed, of standard size, and put 8 BULLETIN 315, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. up in standard containers (fig. 3). Under such conditions it is unprofitable, as a rule, to ship the ‘‘off sizes.”’ The shipment of pony crates in a season such as 1914 tends to clog up the markets Fia. 3.—A standard crate packed with 45 well-graded melons. with the smaller-sized fruit, which retards sales and lowers the prices on the more desirable stock. The two packages that are used with best results are the standards, holding 45 melons (fig. 3), and the flat, holding 9 to 15 melons (fig. 4). The flat is an ideal package for the consumer if the retailer will edu- cate him to buy in the original units. It contains no more than an Fig. 4.—A flat crate of cantaloupes. This container is especially well adapted to the consuming trade that desires to buy in the original package. average-sized family can use to advantage without incurring waste or decay. The use of packages of odd sizes or types should be dis- couraged by receivers of cantaloupes in the market. Growers who CANTALOUPE MARKETING IN THE LARGER CITIES. 9 are warned against their use should realize that the objections to such packages are well founded. Table 3 illustrates the need for standardization of packages used in marketing cantaloupes. It shows the different types and sizes of containers which were beg quoted on the Milwaukee market from three States on one day durmg the 1914 season: : TABLE 3.—Cantaloupe packages in use in Milwaukee on the same day. From Arizona: DUEEROING aha Oder =i nels 2 Seo A 1 MR eee 45 melons. LEE DD CRS 2 Ce 36 or 45 jumbo melons. TAN O.-{HETIROIS) CIR es Ba Oe ena OG 2 = Ses iele plaids . 30 melons. (PLY? COS eS SE ene Oo ea 54 melons. SPIT Sing EY GIN RES aes Sere ees OE rs eR 12 or 15 melons. PMMMEIACEALCS 1-2/5 ssi so 2 o-oo Sone ce eel 15 melons. TILTED 1A CIOS pec Oe eee reee MI 2 Ces eh ee tinea 9 or 12 melons. From Illinois: Cl iaiese lOPRIKOIS DG See ene Cae ele ene Co cee 14 to 20 melons. CE USE CSASL SE ce ee REG Rey Sere aS se 10 to 18 melons. ) 010? TE SESE cee Les SB Oe ee Sk Ae as 16 melons. “Canis... SUL oo beigoone pee eee eae 5: Acari 1 bushel. From Indiana: col Ut cei ae ee ee 36 or 45 melons. MME EMC NCS LONG. sa fae. cce esses ess ee oe 15 to 18 melons. MC PR CHCS LONG as. ee so = te wee 12 to 15 melons. SSS LSGIL, CIA CRS 2 DE Sa bes ec about 4 bushel. Silgrrtpae ASKe Uae s5t355.2 1s 42ers 4... - ee sats oe 14 to 20 melons. EFFECT OF WEATHER ON DEMAND AND PRICE. The demand for few fruits fluctuates more quickly in response to changes in weather conditions than does that for cantaloupes. Clear, hot days stimulate consumption to its maximum while a cold, rainy period acts as a decided check, often reducing demand to the point of demoralizing prices. To local growers such an occurrence is not so detrimental as it is to those far from market who may have hundreds of cars rolling, so allotted as to give each eastern city a supply which should be its maximum under best selling conditions. In such cases a few cold, rainy days in the East may so stagnate the markets that very heavy losses result. Such conditions occurred during September, 1914, while the ship- ments of Colorado ‘‘pink meats’’ were moving heavily. From about the 10th to the 16th of the month most of the States in the North and East experienced unusually cold weather, accompanied by rain in some sections. Light frosts were reported from several points. The effect of this was to decrease to a marked extent the demand for Colo- rado cantaloupes and reduce to a still lower level prices which were already ruinous to the shippers. 7710°—156—Bull. 315——2 10 BULLETIN 315, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COMPETING CROPS. The size of other crops competing with cantaloupes was above the ordinary during the 1914 season. These crops very evidently affect the price of and demand for cantaloupes. It is difficult for those out- side of the produce trade to realize to what extent the profitable marketing of one perishable crop may be hindered when a few hun- dred cars of a competing product are added to the average or antici- pated supply. The possibility of the consumers substituting one fruit for another is a phase of marketing that must always be borne in mind in dealing with highly perishable products. Such fruits as water- melons, peaches, plums, and grapes can easily replace cantaloupes on the average table, and when the supplies of these competing fruits are abundant and prices low a noticeable weakening in the demand for cantaloupes generally is felt. LENGTH OF SHIPPING SEASON. The duration of the cantaloupe season has a direct influence on the question of demand. The average length of time that cantaloupes are to be found on the principal markets is four and one-half to five months. Thisis along season for any fruit, and there is danger that the consumers will be tired of cantaloupes before the supply is ex- hausted. Many cases were found toward the close of the 1914 season where restaurants and cafés no longer included cantaloupes in their menu, although the quality was still good and prices were low. As > the trade turns to other fruits it becomes increasingly difficult to effect sales of cantaloupes. MARKET PREFERENCES. In some markets the preferences of dealers and of the consuming public for certain kinds of melons or certain packages are pronounced. These preferences are reflected through the grocer to the jobber and through the jobber to the wholesaler or broker. In some markets pink-fleshed melons are in greater demand than the green meats, while in other cities the opposite is true. Paper-wrapped cantaloupes are preferred by the trade of some cities on account of their attractive- ness, while in others the dealers object to the paper wrapper, believing that it promotes decay by retarding evaporation after the melons sweat on being taken from a refrigerator car. The wrapper also pre- vents easy inspection by the buyer. Some assert that as the bright- colored wrapper becomes faded by the sun and torn to allow inspec- _ tion, it detracts from, rather than adds to, the appearance of the fruit. CANTALOUPE MARKETING IN THE LARGER CITIES. ea Lah SOME TRADE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE MARKETING OF CANTA- LOUPES. A wholesale, jobbing, or retail merchant who deals in cantaloupes has a chance to demonstrate both ability and good judgment. The high degree of perishability of this fruit demands that great care be exercised in its handling. When it is possible to avoid it, canta- loupes should not be exposed to the sun or kept in a warm place. The quickest possible movement consistent with reasonable prices should be a fixed rule with every dealer. MARGINS OF GROSS PROFIT. In considering the results secured by following as large a part as was possible of certain cars of cantaloupes through to the consumer it must be borne in mind that the investigations made during the season of 1914 included comparatively few cars. In order to draw fair conclusions regarding the average margins of profit received by different dealers in the handling of cantaloupes it would be necessary to conduct studies covering a far greater number of cars in a larger number of markets and extending over several seasons. No conclusions for general application can be drawn safely from the examples which follow. The results on each car must be con- sidered as representing individual instances of cantaloupe marketing, typical only of the conditions which existed at that point during the time the car was sold. The 1914 cantaloupe season was abnormal, supplies being heavy and ruling prices exceedingly low during most of the summer. It must be understood that in giving detailed data on the cars o cantaloupes traced the margins mentioned represent gross profits. From these profits the dealers who bought their supplies outright were compelled to deduct all overhead expenses properly chargeable against the transaction, as well as all losses due to deterioration and decay of stock. All expenses for drayage and delivery are included in the gross profit made by the various dealers except in the case of the cars handled on commission, where the drayage from the car to the com- mission merchant’s store is, with few exceptions, charged to the shipper. In Table 4 figures are given on all cars of standard crates or flat crates followed, where the number of crates traced through to the consumer equaled 5 per cent or more of the contents of the car. a BULLETIN 315, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 4.—Compilation of data on crates of cantalowpes traced. THROUGH THE CAR-LOT RECEIVER. Contents of car. 747, | Percent | Total Car-lot | Average oie Nun of total |delivered| Total |receiver’s| gross pce No Total MES number | cost to | amount gross | profit or | 1 oft or icar, (Bumber| Type of | traced. | Ofctates | car-lot | of sales. | profit or | loss ine 5 OGRE oi crate. | in car. | receiver.a loss.¢ | per crate. : crates. il 260 | Standard... 260 100 $434.60 | $495.20 $60. 60 $0. 233 13.9 2 A380) CWscsce 438 100 559. 04 371.75 | @187.29 d .428 433.5 3 Sia) |ooses domes 234 65 (e) 424.75 29.73 127 7.0 4 360 |.-.-- dosaeee 239 66.4 (e) 338. 45 23.69 - 099 7.0 5 SAL | IBIS occos 871 100 (e) | 439.68 43.97 - 050 10.0 6 Us) Nass oe doses: 768 100 (€) 393. 95° 39.40 | - 051 10.0 7 USS |ocsec CWsse56 756 100 (e) » 400.80 28.06 . 037 7.0 | THROUGH JOBBERS Contents of car. + Per cent Average | Per cent Ofice ae of total d sites al Total | Jobbers’ gross of gross 7 No. Total crates | Dumber |“ Coc; t, | amount | gross | profit per| profit on i 0. |Inumber| Type of ‘nie Gl of crates |. pnnorian ofsales. | profit. crate invest- ol car. | of crate. incar. |) ° bought. | ment. crates. 1 260 | Standard-. 200 76.9 | $422.20 | $440.15 $17. 95 $0. 09 4.3 2 ASS a Hence CWsisce 279 63.7 228. 44 263. 38 34.94 - 125 15.3 3 360) | Sener doze: 24 6.7 45.94 58.50 12.56 523 7.3 4 a0) |[os55e dose 29 8.0 50.75 61.85 11.10 - 383 21.8 5 Sila shlatseasee= 548 62.9 282. 98 333.45 50. 47 - 092 17.8 6 U3 \loceoc don No crates sold to jobbers. 7 TAD |[55045 GOs ss2- 516 | 68.3 | 270. 90 313.45 | 42.55 | - 082 | iss 7/ THROUGH RETAILERS. Contents of car. | = Per cent | Total Average | Per cent Orie ae of total | delivered} Total /Retailers’?) gross | of gross Xo Total crates | BUMmber | cost to | amount gross | profit per} profit on aa number} Type of meal of crates | retail- | ofsales. | profit. crate - | invest- C of crate. *| im ear. ers.@ b bought. | ment. crates. 1 260 | Standard... 250 96.1 | $543.99 | $700.76 | $156.77 $0. 627 28.8 2 ABS Neocon dopsaes f 23 5.3 30. 25 50. 82 20.57 894 68.0 BY 50) Noo a= doers 29 8.1 61. 20 88. 76 27.56 -95 45.0 4 SA leone - dokeers 18 5.0 35.35 47.50 12.15 675 34.3 5) Sil || Hats. -=2-- g 212 24.3 122.79 282. 90 160. 11 - 759 130.4 6 Utes |Sesss GM s555- 280 36.5 150. 50 200. 10 49.60 Bid 33.0 7 T9) |ee coe dos h 206 27.2 135.35 239.16 103. 81 - 504 76.7 a All cartage charges are treated as overhead expense to the various dealers and are included in their gross profits except those charges which accrue in hauling from the cars to the commission merchants’ stores. Such cartage expense is charged against the shipper. b emauats in this column include freight and express, but not cartage charges on crates sold to out-of- town ‘‘trade.’’ . c Car No. 2 is the only one recorded showing a loss. d Loss. e Car on commission. 7 One crate out of this number was sold to a hotel, which made a gross profit of $6.40 on the crate, or 457.1 per cent on the investment. This reduces the average gross profit of the other retail agencies to 30.644 per crate, or 49.1 per cent on their investment. 9 Seventy-one crates out of this number were sold to hotels, dining cars, etc., where an average gross profit of $1.72 per crate was made, or 287.5 per cent on the investment. This reduces the average gross profit of the other retail agencies to $0.267 per crate, or 47 per cent on the investment. h Twenty-six erates of this number were sold to hotels, dining cars, etc., where an average gross profit of $1.938 per crate was made, or 245.2 per cent on the investment. This reduces the average gross profit of the other retail agencies to $0.267 per crate, or 47 per cent on the investment. CANTALOUPE MARKETING IN THE LARGER CITIES. a From Table 4 and from the records of the three cars shown in Table 5 it can be seen that the average commission merchant and wholesaler suffer along with the shipper as a result of low prices and a sluggish market. TasLE 5.—Sales records of three cars of cantaloupes of poor quality. Car 1. Car 2. Car 3. LP OTSIG..-:.452crocbansecechch asoSs0sa do Se seen Sep eBeseme oct aoaeeessseees $84. 00 $97.15 $151.71 EMEP ORANG Mee ni elas semis sos = Se Sess 2 2s osc eee cae eae aes 57.75 50.00 27.55 LIF SSG. -.c SoS sede ast ea eene Je noc OS pO SCOR eae SeR EEE EaPebe - 4p SHE EeaEBeSeoe 7.50 7.50 7.06 PRAEEVRISSIOT Pe ete ayn a oe = sia dae a claciaie Dees ses Sha sep sess Ages ee eee oe 16. 63 13. 44 18.09 LOGh UD SUDN Sj0gT eS: So) ee Bee eee Oe eee ae Ie Ri cs See eae 46 23.91 54. 04 ETAISSISAIES Hy esp esse see eins seme oes ou + ~ 2.02 stereo 14 Malvern: 2a ase eeeesecece 13 Graviettetssseeneea eee 12 INDIA sos Saeens sees it Me Caskalletepeee eae ee 11 ID OtSON == eee ees 10 Deaneyville.....--.------- Z 1a eee sees aban cescEens 6 IMC ernyeeee eee eer 5 Sulphur Springs..--.-.--- 4 Belton so ee seeeeee ee 3 Shady Grove....-.------- 3 Der@ucenhese-seseeeensoe 1 ALO ae eoencosaecoscuTeasS 1 State total.....------- 453 CALIFORNTA. (May 15 to Aug. 1 ) Brawiley.sc2cscscensseeeees 2,411 FLEDeL asc Sas eee eeeeesee 777 Keystone (Grape)....-.--- 606 | PUTO CK See eee eee 524 Call deseuaccosansccesace 438 EKCYCS -acccmoncmnen See e 164 Centro tse sees eee 152 Sultana sess see eee tee 26 Coachellake sce seer 21 Thermal \sssc ose eee es: 20 imperial eee esee eeeenaee 4 Meloland.....-..--------- 3 State total.....-....-- 5, 146 COLORADO. (Aug. 10 to Oct. 1.) Rocky ford.....--..------ 1, 008 Ord wayeeereescss sesso 878 Swink eae es eee ee 224 a Jumbay See eee oe eee 133 ILBHE NOW@acosseascaoosccss 108 Manzanolasses=e-25 seeeeee 84 masrAmimase eee essere 80 Melontiel desert eee eee 72 Glhiftons 2525S eee: 54 IKigen-i42 25 eee st eee eee 44 beer Chins oesacccadsaccss 36 FLOUR Sao SE Oe Renee 31 OlneysSpringsesessee- sees 28 iRLO Wile eee rane 17 @hera wakes sas eee 8 WCltLZer st ae eee sen Sos 2 BristolTes: sa eee ee 1 IEEhee Rhee coe coceunone 1 Statemotalessssseesese 2, 809 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF Cantaloupe shipments, 1914. DELAWARE. (Aug. 1 to Sept. 15.) Carloads. Seatonds secre aase ce eeeeke 402 Bridgeville. ...-.....-...- 328 VUE Clie eae ee eee 229 ED Chm arose ees meee 170 ROSS Aes as Se ew he 53 Wann Oneee = Sees ere ae 45 IEOuUStOnE essa eee 15 OakaGrovies eee sees sae 9 Millsboro.............-..- 4 IMPOR S Socokccaesasce 3 DOVES <0: jee eee 2 Statesbotaleenessse=s= 1, 260 FLORIDA. (June 5 to July 25.) SDarr ee hse ase enerneeet 57 AmiGh oniyee eee ee 54 Kendricks Sassen eee 52 Gainesville. ._............ 47 AN RCRD eae ee Bae eis 25 Grand Ridge. ...........- 19 HOR GAVV EH Ce eee 10 Brantordijn seen eee 9 iDunnellone=seee=--) eee 6 OLN eee = Se pea ee 5 Ocala eee see 5 Jennin sae es 4 Melroseccciee 5 oiees cose 4 Orangehome....--..------ 2 DeLeon Springs. ......-- 1 UES es Ss coboeseces osc 1 Other stations. .......---- 89 State total...........- 390 GEORGIA. (June 10 to Aug. 1.) Camilla saeco eee 239 Valdosta ssseesssece see 188 Relham.< sees hte 89 Sylvestena qe eee 86 Mitze eral dee m@ AMG ON: =e aes 59 Ashburn 44 Tester. 2. eee Sees 42 Sale City 29 EAU aIY oS Sees eee 24 SN VGHMMOR | o Scassbansone 22 Poulan. 2. eee See 18 Rogersville.....-.-------- 16 INieWwSOMm™=) eeeeeer sence 14 Baconton Station........- 12 Douglas... sesassss sess see 10 Spence Siding.......-.-.- 10 SAT ADS <2 J Soe 8 Maid Gl Ox.5 eee eiae 8 Oalcfield': eee epee 7 JNAMIMERIOOS 6 co nocosseeesase 5 Sparks : ee ae eee 5 Gel aww. . see eee 4 Jallemmne == 5 55esscscseeac 3 Barretts ...-..---.- Saeraey 2 MGR ae: ssa eaenseene ae 2 West Green........------ 2 IBGNUISS. 232 = Ree eS 1 SOR WANs sss ceseecase 1 Hopedale s22ssesas-2- 2-6 1 CATES: eee ei seeere 1 el ages: .. aoa secs 1 IMiyStics.3) Seeeeeeeeee 1 Powersville 1 Quitman 1 Stone Mountain 1 Benny...) uaeeeeeeee wince 1 Other stations....--.----- 92 Statetctalesssssseer ee 1,120 AGRICULTURE. IDAHO. (Aug. 10 to Sept. 15.) Carloads. Hanmim ett: = -ee =e eeeeeeee 1 State total............ 1 ILLINOIS. (July 15 to Sept. 15.) Mount Carmel_.._....._.- 300 ‘Beardstown == sees 18 Wioodrivier=25455--epeenee 7 State total............ 325 INDIANA. (July 10 to Sept. 15.) Decker? 72... tase eee 278 Purcell ae eee 121 Johnsons =e 108 ANTIOCH aon Seen 100 SC Vi 0 Ue ee 80 Terre Haute.............- 65 Vollmer 2s ereereee 62 60 56 53 53 46 IReterspurce eee eee 38 New Lebanon........._-_- 37 Duncan. 92 eee ee 26 Oaktown es5- 2 eee 21 Hazletone nse 8 Mandajbach= === see aan 6 Princeton ese eee 6 Stewartsville 6 Sandy Hook 5 May Svall elses sees eeee 4 Owensville...........---- 3 Cantaloupe. .-....-...----: 1 State totalaeeees=aeeee 1, 243 KENTUCKY. (Aug. 10 to Sept. 15.) Elizabethtown......-.--.-- 3 Stabentotala sass ass 3 LOUISIANA. (June 1 to July 20.) Chouwdrant=2— = eee eee 3 Dubach= ooo eee 1 Ruston acess 3-o eee ee 1 Statewotaleeesesseees 5 MARYLAND. (July 20 to Sept. 15.) Salisbuny22= secs eeeeeee 169 Federalsburg.-....-------- 121 Burlocks.. 22526 - eeeee 112 rnwitland sess ee 90 Preston 3528 ieee 18 East New Market-....----- 6 Henderson.......--------- 6 Eden....--.- See = 255 4 Williamsburg...--..------ 2 Statentotaleseee=ssrer 528 CANTALOUPE MARKETING IN THE LARGER CITIES. 19 Cantaloupe shipments, 1914—Continued. MICHIGAN. (Aug. 26 to Sept. 20.) Carloads. Benton Harbor........--.- 270 OIG Se ee 20 WOOT eee 10 tAnetOLal. <= a2) Sa,- 300 MISSISSIPPI. (June 15 to Aug. 1.) MISSOURI. (July 5 to Sept. 1.) Worloyeen 65-5225 2 52.5 = 23 Glarkione = o-22=55-.---22 6 DiaALeLOtalea 2525. <5\3 29 NEVADA. (July 10 to Aug. 10.) LE a ee 306 Piste totalese. 22 SSF. 306 NEW JERSEY. (July 25 to Sept. 15.) Swedesboro.......-.------ 72 (JI ivi a a es 17 WopeDUNy 222-2... .5-.--2 13 ADESDOLODS= 02 5-—>-2-22- 6 PEARCISOWVIUOL. . 2. -.---- 1 Mauricetown...........--- 1 State total............ 110 NEW MEXICO. (Aug. 1 to Sept. 5.) ROBWCOM Ese er ce wt ie 66 MOLI PUIUNCr. 5. -- = - 6. 5. 55 Peale Se ees 225 29 Jn a ee 25 NEW MEXICO—Continued. Carloads. MhasiCruces:- 222.552. 18 hakewood) 2-2. .23eaeenees 14 Mesilla’ Park- =>. aap ee 5 Statestotal-o52e5—eee- 212 NORTH CAROLINA. (June 25 to Aug. 15.) Laurinburg 355 102 96 93 55 5 45 Omohundro Siding.._... 39 IMIMOTORS = - 2-25 eee 37 JAE ES 2 SES eee oS 31 IGP OWAY)..<42-52-a-e eee 29 Covington Siding.....-..- 16 Old Hiundreds- 225: .3332- 9 Goldsboro{ een. 3 -.-eeee 7 Dudley = 28). soe 6 Redispringsh=s-- = s-4aeeen 3 State total-<- ---csese 923 SOUTH CAROLINA. (June 15 to Aug. 1.) Estill Sycamore TENNESSEE. (July 10 to Sept. 15.) Enum boldtes-}=-- -2- --neee 27 Pleasant Grove....-..-.-- 17 Daytone. sete... - -- eee 7 Greenfield: >: .--...2/ 55 1 State: total... cere 52 TEXAS. (May 25 to Aug. 15.) Carloads. Clintees 5 -seasc ee nec 74 IReCOSRG er a-cic en cee eens 67 WernonU ye toes see ee 35 Carrizo Springs- - .. 12 Winnsboro....----- Seeks 11 PIaIMYViews ees eee ese 10 Sabineveasseeees 5. eee eee 10 Cotulla ssa tare Osa ree ae 5 Rlowlentoneese- ee eae e eee 5 Mia tiie. eo Sas a avert 5 IAN Ee Sees ease scececs 4 1EUG) Nae eee ep rie Bie aa 4 AIGIIG ROR es Pe Be 4 IMELSS 1 Taye ele Sage raat 4 WMerhallens . re soe toe 4 MAD ENG ere saat Se cece 3 IU Geka bi) Oni SGueeerososece 3 McA enh sres 2 bese eet 3 IAISier Ones sae ee a 2 INENASOIR o5sscengees 2 NG GUCKS Ee eey-e eee 1 NIV ORG saan eeint occ seer 1 @amiph elles sean 1 IMUTIERWASEt SES on:- Scie ses 1 SbabeOlaleseeee sees 271 UTAH (Aug. 1 to Sept. 1.) Greenrivierses = tsee- 6 sess 24 SHDN TOU ssaosoceds 24 VIRGINIA. (July 10 to Sept. 1.) Norfolk section..........- 71 ParkSlOVA nine oases os acees 2 Stabe mOvaless seers aes 73 WASHINGTON. (Aug. 1 to Sept. 1.) Wenatchee.........-...--- 22, SUBIG) WOM oe so ssece 22 Grandtotaleee-eesesee “16,401 PUBLICATIONS OF U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCTS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Strawberry Supply and Distribution in 1914. Department Bulletin 237. Outlets and Methods of Sale for Shippers of Fruits and Vegetables. Department Bulletin 266. Methods of Wholesale Distribution of Fruits and Vegetables on Large Markets. De- partment Bulletin 267. Factors Governing the Successful Shipment of Red Raspberries from the Puyallup Valley. Department Bulletin 274. Peach Supply and Distribution in 1914. Department Bulletin 298. Rail Shipments and Distribution of Fresh Tomatoes, 1914. Department Bulletin 290. Apple Market Investigations, 1914-15. Department Bulletin 302. FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. Factors Governing the Successful Shipment of Oranges from Florida. Department Bulletin 63. Price, 20 cents. Cooperation in the Handling and Marketing of Fruit. Separate 546 from Yearbook 1910. Price, 5 cents. A Successful Method of Marketing Vegetable Products. Separate 597 from Yearbook 1912. Price, 5 cents. Retail Public Markets. Separate 636 from Yearbook 1914. Price 5 cents. Cooperative Marketing and Financing of Marketing Associations. Separate 637 from Yearbook 1914. Price, 5 cents. System of Marketing Farm Products and Demand for Such Products at Trade Centers: Report 98, Office of the Secretary. Price, 25 cents. 20 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON ; GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1915 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Ferester Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER December 20, 1915 WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE. By Grorce N. Lamps, Forest Examiner. CONTENTS. Page Page LPM TD TTG HUT. je ceetedsechpaecseeeeeceeenesee 1 | Use of willow trees for protection............ 37 Phoetreeiand ats forms. .).-.. 22s) 5.5-/---25-- 2, |) Blantinowallowsseeteeeces sce: see eee eeeeas 43 Soil, moisture, and light................-..-. (| Cultivationiandscareemaeeerore ase sesseeceee 48 Susceptibility to injury........---.-..---.... 02) Cuttin gas seen se steetasastined secememsaeess 48 Life history of the black willow......-.....-. 9 | Cost of growing willows.......---.---------- 49 Characteristics of willow wood.........-.-.-- 26 | Yield from willow plantations..............- 50 Uses of willow wood.......-.-.-----2....-... 27 INTRODUCTION. There are in the United States and Canada from 80 to 100 species of willows, distributed from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Circle, and from tidewater to the tops of the highest mountams. They range from a tiny plant a few inches high to forest trees 4 feet in diameter and 140 feet in height. All the shrubbery species are useful as soil cover, forage, or basket material. Scarcely more than a dozen, however, are of prime economic importance. Of these, six are species imported from Europe: The basket willows, which are the American green willow (Salix amygdalina), the Lemley willow (Sala pentandra), and the purple willow (Salix purpurea), and three tree willows, the white willow (Saliz alba), the crack willow (Salix fragilis), and the weeping willow (Saliz babylonica). 'There is only one native tree species of wide distribution and importance, and this, the black willow (Salix nigra), is found from coast to coast and from the Lakes to the Gulf. It reaches tree size over most of this range, attaining its maximum development in the lower Mississippi bottom lands. The other native species of economic importance are Salix amyg- daloides, Salix cordata, and Salix fluviatalis, which are primarily eastern and central species, and Salix lasiandra, Salix laevigata, Salix lasiolepis, and Salix fendleriana, the western tree willows. 8210’—Bull. 316—15—1 2 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE TREE AND ITS FORMS. The botanical name of the willow genus, Salix, comes from the Celtic sal, meaning near, and lis, water. The poplar is a genus of the same family. Both have more species and wider distribution in North America than on any other continent, the willows being more widely distributed than the poplars but less generally attaining tree size. The fruit of this group is the characteristic by which it is most easily distinguished. In both genera it is a catkin an inch or more long, made up of capsules borne on a stalk and containing a cottony mass to which are attached numerous minute seeds. The catkins of the willow are smaller than those of the poplar and are generally erect; those of the poplar are generally pendant. In both cases the seed has a tuft of silky hairs attached to the base. When the cap- sules open the tiny seeds are borne up by the cottony hairs and carried long distances by the wind. Willow seed consists of the bare embryo or new plant and is protected by a very thin covering. It germinates in a few hours in a moist place; but if it fails to secure this condition, it loses the power of germination in two or three days. The willows can be distinguished from the poplars by their leaves, the poplars having typically long-stalked wide leaves; the willows, short-stalked narrow ones. Willow leaves occur alternately on the branches. There are several scales on each winter bud of the poplar, but only one on each willow bud. The willows do not normally develop a strong taproot. However, those grown on dry upland situations and some of the drought- resistant species form semitaproot systems. Usually willows grow in moist situations and places where the- water table is near the surface; so the root system is shallow, spreading, and fibrous. The bark of the different species of tree:-willows is very much the same, and does not furnish an obvious means of distinguishing them, except in the case of the sandbar willow, which has almost smooth bark even in trees of considerable size. The characteristics on which botanists separate the species are largely differences in the tiny flowers and the almost microscopical variations in the leaf parts. Several species are easily identified by the size, shape, or color of the leaves, but the majority have very similar gross characteristics. BLACK WILLOW. (Saliz nigra Marsh.) The black willow is by far the most important of the native species. In the region of its best development trees have been found 4 feet in diameter at breastheight and 140 feet in height. The leaves are WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE. 3 long and narrow, gradually running out into a long, usually curved tip. They are thin, occasionally sickle shaped, bright green, and rather shiny. In width they vary from one-eighth to three-fourths of an inch; in length from 3 to 6 inches, being usually about 3 inches. The buds are pointed, and one-eighth of an inch long. The flowers which are borne on aments terminal on leafy branches are from 1 to 3 inches long, with short yellow scales. The bark has characteristic corky protuberances on branches from 1 to 3 years old. These are particularly abundant on vigorous sprouts grown in the open and more occasionally in dense seedling stands. The bark of old trees is from 1 inch to 14 inches thick, occasionally 2 inches. The black willow group is spread from Maine to central Florida and westward to central Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas, and through Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona up to northern California. Dis- criminating botanists break up the group into several species. PEACHLEAF WILLOW. (Salix amygdaloides Marsh.) The peachleaf willow ranks next to the black willow in economic importance. It reaches a height of 60 tO 70 feet and a maximum diameter of 2 feet. The species is most easily distinguished from the black willow by its larger and broader leaves, generally whitish beneath. The bark is also distinctly smoother and the ridges firmer than that of the black willow. The leaves are from 34 to 5 inches long and 1 inch wide. The buds are a dark chestnut brown, and one- eighth of an inch long. In general appearance the flowers are very similar to those of the black willow. The peachleaf willow is closely related to the black willow, and the two species hybridize freely, producing intermediate forms. The range of the peachleaf willow is from northern New York, southwest (north of the Ohio River) through southwestern Arkansas and northern Texas, and northeast to central Washington, extend- ing into Canada all across the continent. West of the Missouri it gradually replaces the black willow. SANDBAR WILLOW. (Saliz fluviatilis Nutt.) The sandbar, or narrow leaf, willow in its various forms is typically a shrub, found in practically the entire United States. It is par- ticularly common on low river banks and on sand bars and new islands. A tendency to spread rapidly by root suckers makes it valuable as a soil binder. In the South Central States it has been reported as attaining a diameter of 2 feet and a height of 75 feet. This size is exceptional, and in the lower Mississippi Valley the 4 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. species is seldom over 40 feet in height and 6 inches in diameter. The narrow linear notched leaves make it easily distinguishable. They are one-eighth to one-third of an inch wide and 2 to 6 inches long. When young they are silky white, but generally become smooth at maturity. The buds and flowers resemble those of the peachleaf willow. The bark is grayish brown, and even in the large trees is scarcely furrowed. Old bark is somewhat rough. In the mountains and on the dry plains several forms have devel- oped which have been given separate names by botanists. From Quebec and Mackenzie to Virginia, Kentucky, Texas, and California several distinct forms have been recognized and given specific names. These variations occur principally in the western half of the United States. DIAMOND WILLOW. (Salix cordata Muhl.) The diamond willow group has a wide distribution, and over a considerable portion of its range it occurs with great frequency. Like the sandbar willow, it has numerous forms, many of which have been given a variety of names or have been classed as separate species. Hconomically they can be treated as one group. The Mis- souri River type occasionally attains a height of 50 feet and a diam- eter of 18 inches, but as a rule none of the forms reaches a large size. Diamond willow is valuable chiefly for protecting stream banks and for post material. In portions of the dry prairie region diamond willow posts have been far more durable than any other native species. It is distinguished by the diamond-shaped leaf scars on the branches. The bark is also smooth and firm, some- what similar to the sandbar willow but with more pronounced ridges. The leaves resemble the peachleaf willow at the base, but are wider in outline and more abruptly pointed. The hairy, reddish- brown winter buds, one-half inch long, also distinguish this species. The range of the diamond willow is from New Brunswick to British Columbia, Virginia, Missouri, Colorado, and California. WHITE WILLOW. (Salix alba L.) Of the willows imported from Europe the white willow is probably the most widely distributed in the United States. The earliest set- tlers brought cuttings to this country, and the species has now spread from coast to coast. It has been widely planted on the prairies and can now be found growing wild in most of the farming regions of the United States. As an individual tree it may attain a diameter of 5 to 8 feet, and when grown in stands, a height of 70 to 80 feet. WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE, 5 There are several forms of the white willow, one of which, the yellow willow (Saltz alba vitellina), is as common as the white willow. The bright yellow bark of this variety and its greater inclmation to branchiness readily distinguish it. The white willow has pale-green leaves with silky pubescence on both sides, but at maturity the upper surface is nearly smooth. The edges are finely toothed. The mature leaves are from 2 to 44 inches long and from one-third to two-fifths of an inch wide. The bark is from half an inch to 14 inches thick on large trees, dark brown on the trunk with a reddish timge higher up. It is deeply divided into broad, flat connecting ridges. Green, yellow, and red twigged forms are known to the trade. CRACK WILLOW. (Salix fragilis L.) The crack willow, or gray willow, as it is often called, is quite similar in general appearance to the white willow. Under the same conditions it easily reaches the size attained by the white willow, but is in general a more slender and better formed tree. It is easily distinguished from the white willow by its larger, coarsely notched leaves and by its reddish-green twigs, which are extremely brittle at the base. The leaves are from half an inch to 1 inch wide, nar- rowed at the base, and from 3 to 6 inches long. At maturity they are smooth on both sides, dark green above and paler beneath. The bark is smooth and green on the upper portions of the tree. On the lower trunk it is rough, scaly, ridged, gray-brown, and 1 inch to 14 inches thick. The crack willow does not produce so many water sprouts along the trunk as the white willow and there- fore makes cleaner timber. It is undoubtedly the best willow species for plantations in the Prairie States. Many of the so-called white willow plantations are really crack willow. It is commonly planted in eastern, central, and northern United States. 8 Wea RT 1, 480 | 1,660 | 1,870 | 2,090 | 2,280 | 2,500 | 2,690 15 1 S67 Ree EEE REG! | Ue 1,570 | 1,760 | 1,990 | 2,220 | 2,430 | 2,670 | 2,890 16 1 - 252 VOLUME IN CUBIC FEET. Table 11 gives in cubic feet the total volume, including bark, of trees from 5 to 44 inches in diameter, and from 40 to 140 feet high. The table is based on measurements of 256 trees, taken mostly in Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana, with a few in Missouri and The volumes of trees of average height are shown in heavy- faced type. Indiana. WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE. 19 TasLe 11.—Black willow— Mississippi Valley. Total height of tree—teet. ‘ Dia- meter B Saiaae 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 80 | 90 | 100 | 110 | 120 | 130 | 140 | Basis. high. Total volume of stem, including bark—cubic feet. Inches. Trees 5 2.8) 3.5] 4.3 FSU) al SERRE PY Pi i loki oicsl DS aca eS Rt IA een eet 6 CTL td baa Ded ea dP a as Ses bos oe oer Cg eacles Peete 1 7 IS | CEE] Pease EC i] LD a Bee a (ae Te eal Sree (aie eed ene 7 8 7 ese bam! Dan Oa 1 KS a al A a TE ee ee 7 9 9.2 | 11.5 | 18.8 | 16.1 | 18.0 PAD eee BeSaou| Reneesal Barer besaesee 6 10 11.3 | 14.2 | 17.0 | 19.9 | 22 PAN |e Se | et bate Ale ee ies 5 il 13.7 |. 17.2 | 21 24 27 30 By 4. SSE een [erect Peeeaeis 2 12 16.3 | 20 25 29 32 35 Giey |e sel SSE eters eae el levers eget IS 07) - asse2 24 29 34 38 41 45 AQ\ Wieser cs el Renee ces SEU Ak, 20k, Tic ap Beeb 28 33 39 44 48 52 SG} | emenia | seta ic [Sere ees cies ey) Ee eee 32 38 45 50 58 60 65 CRIN Tk kdl ean ON 2 Ue) See 36 44 51 57 63 68 74 Ore ea Al ae 3 LT ay | ene | 49 57 64 71 G7 83 89 CPA [ects ae 11 J i: }rclgl ae Oe il Pear 55 64 72 80 87 93 1 100] 103 |...... 9 UC) a Lede) leer 61 72 80 89 96} 104] 111} 115) 119 6 2 ES 68 79 89 98} 107 | 115| 123] 128) 181 12 SU Nee ® clams Sole ne. Se 83 98 108 | 118 | 127) 186] 141] 145 22 oA Sa anes So eakee cs aic © 96 108 119 | 129] 189] 149] 154] 159 23 78 ey eres Beeeed eee sa 105118 130 | 141 | 152] 163] 169} 174 23 PAs oee| aise selene on 114 (128 141 154 | 166] 177} 184] 189 24 POP Mee aslees feel ec |ane sce 139 153 | 167] 180} 192} 199] 205 15 2 REPEC Se eae Cees 150 166 | 181 | 195} 208) 216] 222 14 27} ey beet Papeete idee Peace 162 179 | 195} 210] 224) 233] 239 15 72 Se Mall eset et en Sa pe a Peeves 174 192 | 210} 226) 241 | 250] 257 9 PUM ee ona | Sane cel osese-|-csecn| ces ce 206} 225 | 242 | 259| 268] 276 9 51 || REA2 Se) Sere ae) Bets See Sreeee etree 221 | 241 | 259} 277|- 287) 296 8 Diem saemeic| seecea|aanaas| acces (senses 236 | 257) 277} 296] 307] 316 8 SAM eters tee se arctarsrcicll Barociaw. | bararsie’s 251 | 274] 295] 315] 327] 336 3 SES a eee! BS Seal [sateioets 2 a5 be ape 267 | 291 | 314] 335 | 348] 358 6 Bi OR eee (ee i De ee oe eee 284 | 309] 3383] 356] 369] 380 3 32) olpecd=-|be SSC OSES: SSeses SES SeS SSoece 327 | 353 | 377} 391} 402 1 afi) [be eel be eel Heme! BSeser| AEBS) eeresice 346 | 373 | 399 | 414] 426 1 aul Neoseeclinpsade| Sedioce| bacnsa|bencmel sosoce 366 | 394], 421) 437] 449 ........ 415) | Saee asl Se Saas eaeae | Heese epee ecm: 386 | 416 | 444] 461] 474 |....._.. Ae | Dee Be eel se odo Pes Seel Bene mere cts 406 | 488} 468] 485] 499 )}........ AQ aes |S dleaececl ssscealss o2.c2)| secre 428 | 461 | 492] 511} 525 ]........ AL oe | 22 oo] ae acal| soe 3 = =| =~ = 24] ahem | aveeee 484} 517 | 536] 552 ].......- AP sess Set pal Sa iecell ere testes se alee ses | Seeee 508 | 543} 563} 579 |....--.. AG ese e lenpicies|ocaetll oss se 65% “0 00. 0-0-6 Cn eee) peo peaked roo O70. 0 Oo OF OG Ce ee et ey Ce ee] C7 O80 o ooh 8 te Oo 2 0 6 fh -olo peo soe ee Oat 0 Ob Onan aie Os UmnOnnnd On DSC Gs eo oO OO) 0820, 0s. “Oe - Dap ona) 0. io 0.0 05 0° 00 0S oto 0-0-0 0 OO 50 0 7.6 G-0- 0.0 0-9-6 0 eo et =n fo.) sk 0 © @.0- oo) a <0 Oo 1 0-0 0 220 tf 020/50 ONO DOO 08 0 Sy Oyo 000 0.0 te 0 “0 0 eo 0-0 0 00) oO =0 0) 0 o Ou 00 0 ond Oe 0 0. 00S" -0 ae 0.0 0 0 0 0° = Go -b “G0 GeO sea 23 Os “Oe Oo 0. Oeste 00102 0 6-0-0 0-0> > <0 08 p Vo Pest SnS 0) Shes 0h tn ose ur oD J 0. 00-0. 0 0 fe 050 Inches. Diameter breasthigh. NANANA 0 0g On 0ao oo 0 50 20 20 Onn. O69 0-0-0 0-0) O--0s0-0 0 6 1 0 of 0 O86 go 0 0 0 20 Oh th 00 0 OO -08%)-20 0 A op 0 0 Oo O00 O70 50 00 0 0 0-56 0. .0 0 0-000 ee oO bo. <0 OO: 0. <0 0-"0 0 00-0 00 O00. 050. 0 f-O-0-05 0-0 Oth. Oe o No 0 0-0 0 0-0 0-7 090 WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE. 93 TasieE 14.—Diameters inside bark at different heights above the ground for trees of different sizes, etc.—Continued. 100-FOOT TREES. Height above ground—feet. Diameter breasthigh. i 4.5 9.15 | 17.3 | 25.45 | 33.6 | 41.75] 49.9 | 58.05 | 66.2 | 74.35 | 82.5 | 90.65 Inches. Diameter inside bark—inches. py eat 11.0] 10.5] 10.1 9.8 9.3 8.7 8.0 7.4 6.7 5.8 4.3 2.4 wee oS eee 11.9 11.4 10.9 10.5 10.0 9.4 8.6 8.0 16% 6.2 4.7 2.6 She Ou eso | ale SAE SHS TOC 7a ONO 9.3 8.5 Ube 6.6 5.0 2.8 SS, Giat aBy ae P3885 | PSs?) |) A226 e240) | te | ORT 9.9 9.1 8.1 7.0 5.4 2.9 TiRecae Se caSe eee 14.8} 14.0] 18.4] 12.8] 12.1] 11.4] 10.5 9.6 8.6 7.4 5.7 Soil YS eee 15.7 14.9 14.2 13.6 12.7 12.0} 11.2 10.2 9.1 7.8 6.0 oe, aS ee eae ee 16.7 15.8 15.0 14.3 13.5 12: 7 11.8 10.8 9.6 8.2 6.3 3.5 rt eee 17.6 16.7 15.9 15.1 14.1 183,83 12.4 11.3 10.1 8.7 6.7 35 7 Oe eae 18.6 17.7 16.6 15.7 14.9 14.0 13.0 11.9 10.6 9.1 7.0 3.9 Pikerepe rt 19.5 | 18.6] 17.6) 16.6] 15.6) 14.6] 13.6] 12.5] 11.1 9.5 7.4 4.1 Deis Mee = de 20.5] 19.5] 18.3] 17.3] 16.2] 15.3] 14.3] 138.1] 11.6] 10.0 thee! 4.3 13 er eee ae 21.5} 20.4 19.1 18.0 16.9 16.0] 14.9 13.6 12.1 10. 4 8.1 4.5 PD), Ss Se a 2255 | .21:3°} 20:0 18.7 17.6 16.7 15.5 14.2 12.6 10.9 8.4 4.7 OLS a a ae ae 280} 2200+], 2058 19.5 18.3 17.3 16.0} 14.7 13.2 11.3 8.7 4.8 D1 pe Ae ee eee 24.5) 23.3 | 21.6] 20.2 19.0 17.9 16.6 15.3 13.7 11.7 9.0 5.0 7 (ale. ee ee 25.5 | 24.2] 22.4] 20.9 19.7 18.5 17.2 15.8 14.2 12.2 9.3 5.2 0 es 2 eee 26.5] 25.2] 23.2] 21.6) 20.4 19.1 17.8 16. 4 14,7 12.6 9.6 5.4 0 eS ee 2a} (26.8 |) 2420) |; 2253) | 2820 19.8 18. 4 16.9 15.2 13.1 10.0 5.6 Lee 5 eae Qenoeaiale a4eoi| 2o0e 21s clezOno Os Onmel onl elon celle Dono kOss 5.8 Pees sk ae 29554) 128-0018 295 |) (2327, |e *22.30| aie t 19.6 18.1 16.3 13.9 10.6 6.0 AP): he SGA 30.5] 28.9] 26.3] 24.4] 23.0] 21.7] 20.2] 18.6] 16.8] 14.4] 10.9 6.3 33:2 ee ae DIS Zot atsONl = ZHAO) 2osGNeezzn on mecONOn GLO ein dra Sel an Sa imldeS 6.5 5 cle ee ee Sea OU tataS: a 2psvta een dorda| con One Le 19.7 17.9 15.3 11.6 6.7 412 oe ee ee ee SoD aOn eon 20.4) | 20. Olea OnlmEconOnl20sc, 18. 4 15.8 11.9 6.9 Alp aes Se es loa 34,5) ta2.0)) 2954 |) 2702) 2500 Wt 242 2286) | 2058 19.0 16.3 12.3 Wolk 110-FOOT TREES. Diame- Height above ground—feet. ter breast- Inches 14035. 12.9 | 12.5 5 SE Bs 13.8 | 13.4 | eee 14.8 | 14.2 | See 15.7 | 15.1 RE a 3 16.7 | 16.0 eee 17.6 | 16.9 /\ 8 5ee oe 18.6 | 17.8 | 19.5 | 18.7 1 a a 20.5 | 19.7 Dit ta 5 21.5 | 20.6 2 Cee 22.5 | 21.5 p) ee 23.5 | 22.5 26.. 24.5 | 23.4 Bhbucws 25.5 | 24.3 2 ae TP 26.5 | 25.2 ye 27.5 | 26.2 GN on st a 28.6 | 27.1 ae oe 29.5 | 28.1 $2......| 30.5 | 29.0 Wks anes 81.5 | 29.9 #A......| 32.5 | 30.9 iii | 33.5 | 31.8 36... -+| 34.5 | 32.7 De ooaa WHS AW OHM HKOKAQ WOKrWU “1c a high. | 4.5 | 9.15 | 17.3 25.6 | 32.6 | 41.75 Sen OC aor cr weoown S 115.1 49.9 5805] 66.2 1435) 82.5 0005 | 98.8 100.95 Diameter inside bark—inches. UR ER LOH ZA Br OE BL GRO CAR) ae palin LO POS SO tom meres |hnyetS.|balOatdall Ocenia l | mee eee | wm SURE PAA Up eh Salle RSM are sU lee ey db eho aaah am 5 TAU HIRO RUS Z|) ee bth steading a holiday ts] 2heeneellaaaisee W258) | 12. on Oona Oeid ttn ile 0.0) eas) ee ome| nome ee MGs Peer On enaeon ROMO Me oay (| anos |e Oston| i mast it | meee eee 14.2 | 13.3 | 12.4) 11.4) 10.2) 87) 6.6) 3.9 ].:....]...... 2429) | 133,95) LeAON LUO) |LOSS 1951) 6.8) 4: Ose oles ce. 15,’ 12 Conon mkcron ile Zul Oso) levee c4er20 cea ete loo eee 16.2 | 15.2} 14.2} 130) 11:7) 9.9'| 7.3) 4.3 ).....} oon 22. 16.9 | 15.9 | 14.8') 18.6) 12.2 | 10:3) 7.7) 4.532.020.4002... L726) 16, Ontos Le. fl oLOss Ite Oy 140,6), | Seciaee | eters a 18,3) 1752) 16cON4ae7 | 1892) ) 1162) 8.2) |! Ae eee ee 1859 | 175.89| L650 Fonz hs. 7")) TSG) © 8.16 lean ees re eee es 19.6 | 18.4 | 17.2} 15.8) 14.1) 11.9) 8.8) 5.2)... 1. 2006'| 1900 |W ia ap One L470 1258) 1 Oke) B52) |" caw |e oeeea 20.9 | 19.6} 18.3 | 16.9) 15.2 | 12.8) 9.4] 5.4/......]...... 21.5 | 20.2) 18.9 | 17,4) 15.7 | 138.2) 9.7) 6.6.2...-)..6... oe, | 20. 0) |) wena |e ke, Of kOr a2) 2a, 0 | LOL De) Ong leew lee een 22.7 | 21.4 | 20.0 | 18.5] 16.6) 14.0] 10.3] 56.8]......1...... 28.3 | 22.0 | 20:67) 19.1) 17.2 | 14.47) 10:7) 6.0 )....001 5.2. 24.1))°22,6 | 21.1 }.1956)) 17.6) 1428 | 10/9). 6.0). oc. g.1b- 222, 24.6 | 23.2 | 21.7 | 20.1 | 18.1] 15.2) 11.3) 6.8 | | | | 24 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 14.—Dviameters inside bark at different heights above the ground for trees of different sizes, etc.—Continued. 120-FOOT TREES. Diame- Height above ground—feet. high. | 4.5 | 9.15 | 17.3 255) 33.6 4.75 49.9 5s.05| 66.2 7435] 82.5 ‘065 98.8 100.99 115.1 Inches. Diameter inside bark—inches. LGissact- 14.8 | 14.3 | 13.6 | 12.8 | 12.1 } 11.5 | 10.7 | 10.1 9.4 Si7o)5 Wa9h|" (638s) 55:0) | ostsleaeaee Ae esas 15.7 | 15.2 | 14.4 | 13.6 | 12.9 | 12.2 | 11.4 | 10.8 | 10.0 9.2 8.3 7.1 5.3 BUG) |[pese se it See & 16.7 | 16.1 | 15.2 | 14.4 | 18.6 | 12.9 | 12.2 |} 11.4 | 10.5 OR 8.8 aD) 52 6) /. S50 pees AOR eee 17.6 | 17.0 | 16.1 } 15.2 |] 14.3 | 138.5 | 12.7 | 12.0 | 11.2 | 10.2 9.3 7.9 5.9 SU See oA 20 eee 18.6 | 17.9 | 16.9 | 15.9 | 15.0 | 14.3 | 13.4 | 12.6} 11.8 | 10.8] 9.6) 8.2] 6.2) 3.8 ].....- D7 eae ae 19.5 | 18.8 | 17.7 | 16.7 | 15.8 | 15.0 | 14.1 | 13.3 | 12.3 | 11.3 | 10.1 8.6 6.5 AO) ee PPE E 20.5 | 19.7 | 18.6 | 17.4 | 16.5 | 15.7 | 14.8 | 13.9 | 12.9] 11.8] 10.6] 9.0 6.8 Ca eee A Da asics 21.5 | 20.7 | 19.4 | 18.2 | 17.2 | 16.4 | 15.5 | 14.5 | 13.5 | 12.4] 11.0] 9.3 teil 404. \ oe PY Ee o 22.5 | 21.6 | 20.2 | 19.0 | 18.0 | 17.1 | 16.2 | 15.1 | 14.0 | 12.9} 11.5 9.7 7.4 425 | eo e Daya we 23.5 | 22.5 | 21.0} 19.7 | 18.7 | 17.8 | 16.8 | 15.8 | 14.7 | 13.5 | 12.0 | 10.1 1.64 SAN 7h Soasee SEEN B 24.5 | 23.5 | 21.9 |} 20.5 | 19.4 | 18.5 | 17.5 | 16.4 | 15.3 | 13.9 | 12.4 | 10.4 7.9 |= 4.9) |<. es PAGES 25.5 | 24.4 | 22.7 | 21.2 | 20.1 | 19.2 | 18.2 | 17.1 | 15.9 | 14.5 | 12.8] 10.8] 8.1] 5.1 J--.... OA ORES F 26.5 | 25.3 | 23.5 | 22.0 | 20.8 | 19.8 | 18.8 | 17.6 | 16.4 | 15.0 | 13.3 | 11.1 8.4] 5.2 ]....-. 74) een 27.5 | 26.2 | 24.3 | 22.7 | 20.5 | 21.5 | 19.4 | 18.2 | 17.0 | 15.6 | 13.7 } 11.5 8.6] 5.4 J...... Sse 4 28.5 | 27.2 | 25.1 | 23.4 | 22.2 | 21.2 | 20.1 | 18.8 | 17.5 | 16.1 | 14.2 | 11.8 859) |oxnO) || eee ee G3 eee 29.5 | 28.1 | 25.9 | 24.1 | 22.8 | 21.8 | 20.7 | 19.4 | 18.0 | 16.5 | 14.6 | 12.1 Qo Oss) ee eee By eee o 30.5 | 29.1 | 26.7 | 24.8 | 23.5 | 22.5 | 21.3 | 20.0 | 18.6 | 17.1 | 15.1 | 12.5 9.41 5.9 |e see Somes cee 31.5 | 30.0 | 27.5 | 25.5 | 24.2 | 23.0} 21.9 | 20.6 | 19.1 | 17.6 | 15.5 | 12.8] 9.6] 6.1 }_-.... B4ee Soe. 32.5 | 30.9 | 28.3 | 26.2 | 24.8 | 23.7 |} 22.5 | 21.1 | 19.7 | 18.1 | 16.0 } 13.2 9.9 622) ee Che one B 33.5 | 31.9 | 29.0 | 27.0 | 25.5 | 24.3 | 23.1 | 21.7 | 20.2 | 18.6 | 16.4 } 13.5 | 10.1 (GH See Se 3652-4: 34.5 | 32.8 | 29.9 | 27.7 | 26.2 | 24.9 | 23.7.| 22.3 | 20.7 | 19.1 | 16.9 | 13.9 | 10.4] 6.6 |...... 130-FOOT TREES. 1855542 16.7 | 16.2 | 15.3 | 14.4 | 18.6 | 12.8 | 12.0] 11.4} 10.7] 10.0] 9.4 8.8 7.6 | 5.7 3.5 19Feeer 17.6 | 17.1 | 16.2 | 15.3 | 14.4 | 13.6 | 12.8 | 12.0] 11.3 | 10.6} 9.9] 9.3 7.9} 6.0 3.7 20 eee 18.6 | 18.0 | 17.1 | 16.1 | 15.2 | 14.3 |} 18.5 | 12.7] 11.9] 11.1] 10.4] 9.6] 8.3 6.3 4.0 21ers 19.5 | 18.9 | 17.9 | 16.9 | 15.9 | 15.0 | 14.3 | 13.4 | 12.6] 11.8 | 11.0 ] 10.1 8.6] 6.6 4.2 22s 20.5 | 19.8 | 18.7 | 17.6 | 16.6 | 15.7 | 14.9 | 14.0 | 13.1 | 12.2 | 11.4} 10.5 8.9 6.9 4.5 93) pened 21.5 | 20.8 | 20.5 | 18.4 | 17.4 | 16.5 | 15.6 | 14.7 | 13.8 | 12.9 | 11.9 | 10.9 9.3 2 4.7 Py ae 22.5 | 21.7 | 19.5 | 19.1 | 18.1 | 17.2 | 16.3 | 15.4 | 14.4 | 13.4 | 12.4 | 11.3 9.6 7.5 5.0 DD swat 23.5 | 22.7 | 21.2 | 19.9 | 18.8 | 18.0 | 17.0 | 16.0 | 15.0 | 13.9 | 12.8 | 11.6 9.9 7.8 5.2 2622s see 24.5 | 23.6 | 22.0 | 20.6 | 19.6 | 18.7 | 17.7 | 16.7 | 15.6 | 14.5 | 18.4 | 12.1] 10.3] 8.1 5.5 Visseess 25.5 | 24.5 | 22.8 | 21.4 | 20.2 | 19.3 | 18.4 | 17.3 | 16.1] 15.1 | 13.8 | 12.5 | 10.6 8.4 5.6 2852 2228 26.5 | 25.4 | 23.7 | 22.1 | 20.9 | 20.0 | 19.1 | 18.0 | 16.8 | 15.6 | 14.3 | 12.9] 11.0] 8.6 5.9 PRUE 27.5 | 26.3 | 24.4 | 22.9 | 21.7 | 20.7 | 19.7 | 18.6 | 17.4 | 16.2 | 14.8 | 13.2 | 11.3 8.9 6.1 BW aaead 28.5 | 27.2 | 25.3 | 23.6 | 22.3 | 21.3 | 20.3 | 19.2] 18.0 | 16.7 | 15.2 | 13.6] 11.6] 9.1 6.3 al Despre 29.5 | 28.2 | 26.0 | 24.3 | 23.0 | 22.0 | 21.0 | 19.9 | 18.6 | 17.3 | 15.7 | 14.0} 11.9 9.4 6.5 Soe eee 80.5 | 29.1 | 26.9 | 25.1 | 23.7 | 22.7 | 21.7 | 20.5 | 19.2 | 17.7 | 16.2 | 14.4 | 12.3 9.7 6.7 BOs SaaS 31.5 | 30.1 | 27.7 | 25.8 | 24.4 | 23.3 | 22.3 | 21.1 | 19.8] 18.3 | 16.6] 14.7] 12.7 | 10.0 6.9 sf aes 32.5-| 31.0 | 28.5 | 26.5 | 25.1 | 24.0 | 23.0] 21.7 | 20.4] 18.9 | 17.1} 15.1] 13.0] 10.2 den BOs Se 33.5 | 31.9 | 29.3 | 27.3 | 25.8 | 24.6 | 23.6 | 22.4 | 21.0} 19.5 | 17.6 | 15.5 | 13.3 | 10.5 7.4 B6e5 see 34.5 | 32.8 | 30.1 | 27.9 | 26.4 | 25.3 | 24.2 | 23.0 | 21.6 | 20.0 | 18.0} 15.9 | 13.6} 10.8 7.6 YIELD (SMALL SAMPLE AREAS). The yield of the black willow varies greatly. Typically mature willow is usually found with cottonwood, occasionally in extensive pure stands. Even when grown with cottonwood it often occurs in pure groups or pockets of from 10 to 100 trees. Of the sample plots listed in the following table, Nos. 1, 2, and 3, near Helena, Ark., were selected from an area of several hundred acres on which willow occurred in varying amounts, averaging about 33 per cent of the total stand. In plots 4, 5, and 6, near Rodney, Miss., the willow was mixed with cottonwood and made up only about 8 per cent of the WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE, 25 total stand on approximately 1,000 acres. It occurred generally in groups one-eighth acre to 3 or 4 acres in extent. In plots 7, 8, and 9, on Raccourci Island, Williamsport, La., the willow stand was almost pure over several thousand acres. At other places the plots were in pure stands, ranging from 1 acre to 100 acres. In scalig the plots Table 9 was used. The top diameters shown in Table 5 more nearly represent the actual practice in cutting willow under the present wasteful lumbering, but in order to make a fairer comparison with cottonwood or other species more closely utilized it was considered desirable to base the yield on approximately the same utilization as for cottonwood. TaBie 15.— Yield of black willow in the Mississippi Valley south of Cairo, Til. WELL-STOCKED STANDS. Size Trees Aver- Plot No. Location. of Age. per age Yield per acre plot. acre. height. State. Acres. | Years. Feet. |Cubicfeet.| Board ft.| Cords Eee’ MISSOMEIL a) eects ss 8 0.25 35 76 84 6, 608 28, 320 66 i Sie = EREHMESSCO: 28 ona se a2D 40 84 90 8, 968 41, 920 89 1) 1 poe os a © 4] Pon eae G (0) = See = SS Se 50 45 98 90 10, 418 46, 820 104 Fhe = Pee Mississippi....-..--.-- 50 45 34 116 6, 124 30, 340 61 (1 Beer) (Se oe CIES Ss Soe an ee w20 47 56 116 7, 888 41, 280 79 Re Aan aaa ees a OMS neo reece 2D 50 52 116 8, 140 39, 840 81 eae eS Heonisianay.4)2 eS. 22: 2.50 55 41 110 7,800 38, 360 78 ee el Tat SA Sei eaeAee 1.00 55 36 107 7, 004 33, 989 70 Ate. #32 Arkansase: fie sis. 20585 74a) 55 64 110 1, 008 49, 760 90 Se Nee OG OSE ae ore 25 58 40 106 6, 113 30, 960 61 Srekyess Ieee Ci (6 fa ca rl A045) 58 56 109 9,016 48, 560 90 = eRe AMOWMISIAN A 96:35. = 5 <<. 55 2.50 58 56 103 6, 809 42, 280 87 UNDERSTOCKED STANDS. ieee SFT. Mississippi. -....-..--- 0.25 27 52 104 5,488 | 25,360 55 1 |S fa ae a MISSOUNIS: os. = oe By45) 37 58 75 4,992 20, 800 50 Ty APE Ee 2 Ours tes 52 okt ads, 41 62 62 4,836 19, 400 48 Le eee MiSsissippie 2222 5- .5=* 25 47 32 105 4,300 20, 720 43 ith SAA OR ee Out eres st4Lke es 25 47 32 100 4,640 22, 400 46 i Sea (AREANSASDS =. 2 hc. -25 49 36 97 4, 556 21, 440 46 i Ba Aes earl (i (0 Ae a Se ee .25 50 36 96 5,356 25, 800 54 Va eee PennMeEsSeOs 22% == -- 24. 22 Apes 51 56 86 5, 482 24, 400 55 Teese Ss... ri Colps eee ee ee B20 51 68 66 6, 208 27, 280 62 DONS a Monisianines 29.0 OL? ay 55 28 94 3, 844 26, 404 38 MANAGEMENT OF WILLOW ON OVERFLOW BOTTOM LANDS. The black willow is now receiving the attention of lumbermen because it is a substitute for cottonwood, which is being rapidly ex- hausted, and because it is especially adapted for management on the Mississippi bottom lands. The failing supply of cottonwood will be largely replaced by red gum for some purposes; but black willow must also become increasingly prominent, for it can be used in many ways and if is much lighter in weight than red gum, which, on account of the long distances this lumber must be shipped to reach the northern markets, is a decided advantage. Cottonwood is a better tree for planting than willow, but for the management of natural growth black willow is in many respects superior. It seeds as abundantly as cottonwood, reproduces by cuttings, and survives, when young, a greater variety of unfavorable conditions. The land that is in no danger of being inundated, covered 8210°—Bull. 316—15——4 26 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. with sediment, or cut away by the river, is too valuable agriculturally to be used for forest plantations. This leaves only overflow lands for forest purposes, and the condition of these is so unstable as to make the artificial establishment of plantations too precarious an investment to attract capital. The inferior timber on the ground and the natural reproduction will therefore continue to be utilized instead of better species bemg planted. Under these conditions the probability of success in forest management is greater with willow than with cottonwood. The main problem in the management of bottom lands is how to encourage the best species. In this discussion the lands considered are those lying below the 35-foot stage of the river. Above this: mark the willows are usually replaced by better species. The lower areas are covered by a mixture of black willow, cottonwood, and sandbar willow, the last beg both the most prolific and the least desirable. In the management of such areas the only way at present of encouraging the best species is to cut intelligently the material used in revetment work. By limiting the cuttings to stands of sandbar willow and leaving the cottonwood and black willow, the prevalence of the sandbar willow can be much reduced. In mixed stands, 7 to 12 years old, where all three species occur, all the cot- tonwood and enough of the black willow to stock the ground com- pletely should be left. If from 200 to 300 trees of cottonwood or black willow be left to the acre, the first crop of willows for revetment will suffer but a shght reduction and the second crop of sprout growth will receive but little shading from the trees left. The third crop of revetment willows will necessarily be smaller, but such a thinning can easily be made profitable; then after the period of these two crops, ranging from 10 to 15 years, the original trees left will soon make a complete canopy. By this method, at practically no ex- pense more than directing the cutting of the brush, a worthless area covered with mixed growth may be converted into timberland of considerable value. In further thinnings the cottonwood, if present, should be favored except on land that is receiving large accretions. On such land the black willow generally survives the cottonwood. CHARACTERISTICS OF WILLOW WOOD. Willow is characteristically a light wood. It varies considerably in weight in different species and under different growing conditions. The wood of the slow-growing species and shrubby forms is usually heavier than that of the larger and more rapid-growing species. The diamond willow is heavier and harder than the other native willows of economic importance. There is little difference in the weight of the wood of black, white, and crack willows, the specific gravity ranging from 0.4 to 0.45. WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE, ie The wood of the male trees of the white willow is heavier than that of the female trees of the same species 1 and on the same soil. This may be due to the usually faster growth of the pistillate trees that has been frequently observed. In planting to obtain wood for a particular purpose this characteristic should be taken into considera- tion. Willow wood in the sap is whitish to creamy yellow and in the heart pink to reddish brown. Occasionally the heart of the black willow of the lower Mississipp! is a light bluish gray when dry. The annual rings of all willows are relatively indistinct, the wood being quite uniform throughout. The rings of white and crack willow are much less distinct than those of the black willow. The black willow can be readily distinguished from the other two species even without a hand’lens, provided a smooth transverse surface is cut. No clear and constant distinction was found between the white and crack willows. The white willow shows a tendency toward being more porous in the early wood, the pores often being larger than those in the crack willow, so that the medullary rays bend around them, but their character is not constant and occasionally the crack willow shows the same structure. TO DISTINGUISH WHITE AND BLACK WILLOW WOOD. In the black willow wood (Saliz nigra) the pores diminish consid- erably in size and number toward the outer portion of the growth ring, with a strong tendency toward being grouped in wavy tangen- tial lines in the late wood. The heartwood is of a dirty reddish- brown or grayish-brown color. In the white willow wood (Salix alba vitellina and Saliz fragilis) the pores diminish only slightly in size and number toward the outer portion of the growth ring and do not have the tendency toward being grouped in wavy tangential lines in the late wood. The heartwood is of a clear salmon-brown color. USES OF WILLOW WOOD. LUMBER. According to census reports and millmen in the South, willow lumber has been cut in limited quantities for the last 8 or 10 years. It was marketed and used locally under the name of black or brown cottonwood until the last 7 years. Since then the production has increased until willow has found a place on the market under its true name. Practically all of the material so utilized has been cut from the black willow on the lower Mississippi, principally between Memphis, Tenn., and Baton Rouge, La., although small quantities 1K. R. Platt, ‘The variations of Salix alba,” Quar. Jour. Yorestry. 28 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. have been manufactured in the Middle Western States from planted groves of white and crack willow. The white and crack willow lumber is used locally in farm buildings and to a small extent in rough interior carpentry work. Much of the black willow is barged up the Mississippi to the vicinity of Cairo, Ill., where it is graded and distributed through the Northern States, principally in lowa, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The average grade of willow lumber on the market is high, be- cause only large clear logs are at present sawed into lumber. This entails great waste in the woods, as only a small part of the tree is taken. With a closer utilization the percentage of the poorer grades will increase considerably. The average willow now being cut is very little inferior to the average cottonwood. The following table shows the grades from average and select logs of willow, as compared with cottonwood, along the lower Mississippi: Cottonwood.1 Black willow.? Black Select logs.| Average. | Selectlogs.| Average. | graded at Cairo, Il. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 7 9 5 MIEStsandisecondseeseassee ses eee sree eee 40 18 30 20 32 INOSsLicommonteeee eset etc eee eee 35 30 25 30 40 INO 2 iGOM MOD Sige soe ese hice See 15 42 38 48 25 INORSICOMMON Ss oess sees ee eee eee 5 Ei ey Siete |e ies a 3 Mallieull 22282. SW geet haeeseee b ass RE eE Aer See eee 2 2p ceaauaeee tise 1 Department of Agriculture Bulletin 2 2 Based on annual mill-cut figures at ee 20,000 daily capacity mills. The price of willow lumber has increased steadily since it was put on the market. It was first shipped North in 1909 or 1910 and sold at from $10 to $12 per thousand, mill run, f. o. b. at the mill. At this price there was no profit for the manufacturer, and the lumber was secured and cut more or less as an experiment. It was easily marketed, and a request was immediately made for more. Since that time the price has risen to $16 per thousand, mill run. In Chicago and Grand Rapids furniture manufacturers pay from $24 to $25 per thousand for clear lumber. Further rises will only follow the general market. At present the cost of handling willow lumber is as high as is usually the case with a new product. Most of the willow shipped North is handled several times, and this adds materially to the cost. With a low-grade lumber it is especially important that it be handled as directly as possible. A number of sawmills and cooperage mills on the lower Missis- sippi, visited in the fall of 1913 in the course of this study, reported that they were using between 23,000,000 and 25,000,000 feet of black willow. Half of this went into box shooks or slack cooperage stock. Sawmills, in reporting their annual production of lumber, Bul. 316, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. I-1 52564 PILED WILLOw LumBerR, No. 1 Common, Vickspura, Miss., 1913. Bul. 316, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. 9 - o>) = x Zz ss a Zz rs c uJ x= - 2 fe) (op) z jens ul 2 oc x= n = [e) jon LL oc io) (<2) =) uJ Oo x uJ a fe) re a E = fe) ma o cs E = =) 2) WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE, 29 often list willow as cottonwood, so that available statistics do not indicate the full production of willow lumber. Willow lumber is light, 1-inch lumber weighing when thoroughly seasoned from 2,300 to 2,500 pounds per thousand board feet. This makes it as cheap to transport as yellow poplar. The wood varies in color considerably. When first cut it runs from dark reddish brown to blue and almost black, but when dry it is much lighter. Thoroughly seasoned wood is for the most part a light reddish brown with perhaps 10 per cent of it a grayish blue. Willow lumber, cut from only the best trees, as is the custom now, is seldom shaky, and when properly handled it checks scarcely at all. With close utiliza- tion the percentage of shaky lumber would increase considerably. Willow planking is satisfactory where strength is not of prime impor- tance, since it does not warp, splinter, or check, and wears out very slowly. It makes good barn and cell floors. The grades of willow lumber are firsts and seconds, No. 1 and No. 2 common, and the grading rules are similar to those used for cottonwood. Willow lumber of the high grades is used mostly in the North for furniture drawers and backing, while the poorer grades are used largely in the South for box material. As a substitute wood willow is very promising and for many uses equal to basswood. In fact, for many of the purposes for which willow was once used and for which it has scarcely a superior, basswood, poplar, and cottonwood were substituted because of their prevalence and relatively low cost. As willow comes back on the market at a lower price than these it bids fair to gain favor. A part of the willow lumber now manufactured is being used for refrigerators, pianos, cabinetwork, and furniture. Here it has taken the place of basswood, elm, or sap gum. As yet it has only been used for interior work, but it should eventually find a place in the manufacture of cheap furniture; for although it does not take a high polish, it takes a very attractive dull finish and can be stained to present a very creditable imitation of some of the costlier cabinet woods. Willow is suitable for small boats and athletic goods because it may be dented and bruised without splintering, and for keels, water wheels, paddles, and bungs because it is durable in water. It has always been used by leather workers for lapboards, cutting boards, and cutting tables, for which its lightness and spongy softness make it particularly desirable. Intense heat will not warp or split willow; therefore it is suitable for sleeve or ironing boards and for wheel- barrows for carrying ore, coal, or ashes in hot furnace rooms. Toys and novelties are now being made of it. For these, low-grade lumber can be worked up very closely and the dark color is scarcely a draw- back because most of such articles are stained or painted. 30 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SLACK COOPERAGE STOCK. For a number of years willow has been manufactured into slack cooperage stock in New Orleans and other places on the lower Mis- sissippi River. It was reported in the census returns of 1907 as furnishing 2,000,000 staves and 106,000 sets of headings. In 1908 these figures had more than doubled, being 4,485,000 and 240,000, respectively. In 1909 the production dropped over 25 per cent, but in 1910 it increased again, and manufacturers state that since then the reduction in the supply of other woods has led to even greater use of willow. Louisiana has from the beginning led im the utiliza- tion of willow in slack cooperage. Most of the mills are located in the vicinity of New Orleans and receive their logs from as far up the river as Vicksburg. The stave mills take logs above 16 feet in length and 8 inches in diameter. These logs are secured at a low cost and rafted down the river. From near-by points off the river the mills also bring in considerable material by rail, which is generally bolted in the woods into 21-inch pieces for heading and 32-inch pieces for staves. Willow cooperage is produced in two grades, No. 1 being used principally for sugar, rice, and asphalt, and No. 2 for potatoes, oysters, bottles, garden truck, and vegetables. The cull stock goes into half barrels. EXCELSIOR. Excelsior mills have been using willow for several years, those in Kentucky, Indiana, Missouri, Kansas, and Tennessee especially. The principal species used so far has been the black willow. It is taken in small sizes, most of the trees being under 12 inches in diameter and under 20 years in age. ‘Trees of this size when grown close to- gether furnish bolts relatively straight and free from defects. The wood is also largely sap and is thus much lighter in color than could be got from older and larger trees. The bolts are generally cut 43 feet long in the woods and are then recut to 18 inches at the mill. The unit used in measuring this wood is a rank 4 by 43 by 8 feet. Most of the willow for this purpose has been cut during the growing season, because at that time the peeling can be done at low cost. In Indiana the chopper cuts the bark at the base of the standing tree and then strips it upward in three or four strips as far as possible. After the trees are felled, the stripping is completed before the bolting is done. The cost of felling by this method was not over 25 cents per cord. The long hanging strips of bark are also extremely useful in dropping the trees, as in thick mixed stands the trees are apt to lodge. Willow cut in winter requires almost as much time for peeling as for felling and bolting, and, at the present price of $2 per rank for stacked, peeled, and split wood, a laborer would find it difficult to make fair wages. WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE. ou Excelsior is usually manufactured into three grades—coarse, medium, and fine, the latter being called wood wool. Willow goes into the first two grades, but not mto the wood wool, largely on ac- count of its color. Pure willow excelsior is seldom seen, because the willow is usually worked in more or less as an adulterant. Candy manufacturers discriminate against willow excelsior on the ground that it tamts their wares. Excelsior manufacturers in Indiana pay $7 to $7.50 per rank delivered at the mill for peeled willow cut in 44-foot lengths. The pieces must be not more than 6 inches in diameter or split so that at least one side of a quartered log is not wider than 6 inches. CHARCOAL. Though most of the charcoal manufactured is a side product of wood-distillation plants, the making of willow charcoal has been a separate industry for years. Willow charcoal is especially suitable for certain grades of black powder, and is in demand for chemical and medicinal purposes because it produces a very pure carbon. Several powder mills in the Eastern States, after having used all the native willows within many miles of the mill, have induced farmers to plant willows. These people, following the example of the powder mills, have grown “pollard”’ willows by setting out long poles and then crop- ping at intervals the sprouts produced at the top. The general price paid for “‘powder willows” delivered at the mills has been $6 per cord, green, or $7.50 per cord, peeled. Peeling done in the winter has cost $1.50 per cord. The sticks are 4 feet long and range in size from 1 inch to 5 inches. Above this size sticks are split. Splitting costs about $1 per cord. Of late years willows have become so scarce in several of these localities that considerable material has been imported from a distance, and often the companies have paid the transportation charges, giving the mill prices for cordwood delivered at the nearest railroad point. No distinction is made be- tween the different species of willows, as any willows of the desirable size seem to produce a high grade of charcoal. PULP. Willow wood is used to a limited extent for paper pulp, although its short fiber makes it useful only as a filler for the longer fibered woods. In the North, where most of the paper mills are located, willow does not occur in sufficient quantities to be given any particular attention. In the South, however, along the lower Mississippi and its tributaries, there is a good deal of willow which is not large enough for saw timber but would be suitable for pulpwood. On many thousands of acres trees from 5 to 15 inches in diameter form dense stands. These could for the most part be logged and transported o2 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to a mill with great economy. The willow could be mixed with long- leaf pie, which has very long fibers and which is coming into use in _the South for pulp. Should willow become important in that region for pulp, black willow on the Mississippi bottoms offers ideal conditions for prac- ticing forest management. The tree grows rapidly in dense natural stands and reproduces abundantly by seed or sprouts. The bottom lands are low priced and highly fertile, the growing season is long, transportation is cheap, and logging conditions excellent. ARTIFICIAL LIMBS. It is estimated that there are now in this country nearly 200 manu- facturers of artificial limbs. The first artificial leg, other than the ordinary wooden pegs, is said to have been made in London by a man named Cork in the early part of the nineteenth century. Although very imperfect, this device was a great improvement over the old peg. The early name of ‘cork legs’? was continued, and in time the public began to think that these legs were made of cork. The materials most commonly used are wood, leather, aluminum, fiber, or papier-maché for the major parts and rubber and felt for the minor parts. The majority of manufacturers use some wood, usually willow. Of the species used the following are most common: White, yellow, crack, black, and peachleaf willows. In New York the yellow willow is the most commonly used, although both the white and crack willow are used occasionally. In the Lake States the white and crack willows are used the most, and are about equal in impor- tance. The consumption of willow wood for this purpose offers to the enterprising farmer situated near a city a means of selling a por- tion of good willow trees at a fair price. TRADE NAMES FOR SPECIES USED BY MANUFACTURERS. The name “white willow” is usually applied to the sapwood of any willow and does not in the trade necessarily indicate the regular white willow, although it may. In Minnesota the crack willow is called white willow, as is also Salix amygdaloides, a common wild willow of that region, which is, however, seldom used. The wood called ‘“‘white willow” in Minnesota is tough, full of knots, and hard to work. The wild willow, when it is used, generally goes into some part that does not come in contact with the body. It is considered heavier, more porous, and stronger than the wood called ‘‘red wil- low.” The white willow of Missouri is Saliz amygdaloides and is also known to the trade as swamp willow. The so-called imported English willow is all grown in the United States, but is doubtless from the species Salix alba, which is the English white willow. The Pennsylvania red willow of the trade is also Sahz alba, and in this region the wood seems to be more reddish than farther west. WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE. 38 The wood of finest appearance is from the southern black willow, which comes in the market in two forms, the black and red heart- wood. In the south the willow grows to be a forest tree, often with a clear length of over 50 feet, from the heartwood of which it is possible to cut a good many bolts large enough, even when quartered, for any requirement. The wood is clearer than the other species, and although Several manufacturers declare it to be less tough and durable, it is very little, if any, inferior, provided it is cut at the proper time and thoroughly seasoned. CUTTING AND SEASONING THE WOOD. The consensus of opinion among manufacturers seems to be that the wood for artificial limbs should be cut in the winter. All, how- ever, do not agree on this point. One claims that willow blocks cut in July and properly handled are as good as any he ever used. Most manufacturers consider it necessary for the wood to season for from one to three years, although an occasional exception to this rule is found. The trees used are generally large enough to allow the log sections to be quartered and still be 6 mches or over through the section. This would take a tree 12 inches or over in diameter. In a few cases the wood from smaller trees is used. Round blocks are not desirable, however, being apt to check because when they are worked the hollow portion generally corresponds too nearly to the annualrings. Only a very small portion of a tree cut for this purpose is utilized. Since the blocks must be quartered from straight logs free from knots, the average willow tree, especially when grown in the open, furnishes less than 10 feet of merchantable material. Trees that yield but one 4-foot section are often cut. The bark is generally removed at the time of cutting and splitting, but it may be left on the sticks until they are ready to be worked up. It is desirable to split the logs as soon as they are cut, as, otherwise, they may so check in drying as to spoil a portion of the wood. Many manufac- turers also paint the ends of the sticks to prevent rapid drying and consequent splitting. It is also a common practice to bore a hole in the end for the same purpose. The wood is then stacked in a dry shed or left where there is a free circulation of air. The blocks are piled on dry wooden slats, so that they do not touch each other. Even after the blocks are treated in this manner there is often a loss of 10 to 30 per cent of the sticks, due to defects and rot. The length of the blocks varies from 8 to 20 inches. The sticks are, however, brought in in 4, 6, or even 8 foot lengths and recut later. Many manufacturers cut their blocks in 16, 18, and 20 inch lengths. In diameter they range from 5 to 12 inches. Blocks 6 inches in diameter and 20 inches long weigh 9 or 10 pounds when dry. A block 5 inches in diameter and 16 inches long weighs about 7 34 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pounds. It is claimed by some that sawed blocks are better than split blocks. Sawing the blocks would cost about 50 cents per 100 pieces. é The price paid for willow for this purpose varies greatly. Some manufacturers are able to buy fairly good material for almost cord- wood prices. Others insist on higher class material and often pay several times as much for it, especially if it is brought from @ distance. In Ohio 25 cents per block is paid for clear material averaging in size 5 by 5 by 16 inches. In Missouri fair material brings 50 cents a piece for pieces 6 by 6 inches by 4 feet and up. Fairly good wood may also be bought for $8 to $12 per cord. In Minnesota select wood brings $30 to $75 per thousand feet, board measuré, or $15 to $30 per cord. In New York the price ranges from 15 cents to $1.50 per stick, according to the size and quality. BASKETS. One of the most important commercial uses of willows at present is for willow furniture and baskets. For this purpose over 3,000,000 pounds of peeled willow rods are used every year, approximately half of this amount being grown in this country. Willows so grown are more of a farm than a forest crop. As a forest crop, they would be termed a system of coppice on a one-year rotation. Occasionally they are grown both for basket making and to protect the land they occupy from the ravages of floods. The crop may thus be made to pay for the labor involved in the planting and the protection afforded is often of great value. The principal species used in basket-willow culture are American Green, Purple, Lemley, and Patent Lemley, and to a smaller extent the Caspian willow. All of these are Euro- pean species. Other European species such as the White Osier (Salix viminalis), which grow splendidly there, have not been suc- cessful in the United States. None of the native American species of willow are at present cultivated for basket-making purposes. Several species growing wild have, however, been used to a consid- erable extent locally. Chief among these species are the sandbar willow (Sahz fluviatilis) and shiny willow (Saliz lucida). The Forest Service is at present making a trial of the native species. for basket- making purposes. Though it is too early to predict the outcome of these experiments, it can be said that a number of these species give evidence of being satisfactory basket willows. Further information in regard to basket-willow culture is contained in Farmers’ Bulletin 622, ‘Basket Willow Culture.”’ POSTS. There are many species that make better posts than willow, but in treeless regions and even in the better timbered localities its value should not be overlooked. Well-seasoned posts of the black or white WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE. 35 willow set in dry soil often last five to seven years. In soils that are alternately dry and wet and which freeze and thaw a great deal, willow posts are shorter lived, but under such conditions the life of any kind of post is much shortened. Posts of the diamond willow (Salix cordata) are very durable. More willow than cotton- wood posts can usually be produced on a given area in a given time, especially if the trees are planted in rows, and willow posts are gen- erally set in preference to cottonwood. Willow wood is light, fairly porous, and quite easily treated. A treated willow post is practically as good as a treated post of any other species and much more durable than an untreated post of most species. Where good cedar, catalpa, locust, or Osage orange posts are obtainable for 20 to 30 cents, it would scarcely pay to use treated posts, but in many parts of the Middle West the average price of a red cedar post is approximately 40 cents. At this price it would be economical to use treated willow posts. First-class willow posts can be grown on good farm land for 12 cents apiece and second-class posts for 8 cents. These can be treated at a cost of 10 cents. Including the cost of peeling at 3 cents each, the cost of first-class creosoted posts is 25 cents and second-class posts 21 cents. Willow posts should be seasoned 8 or 10 weeks before being treated. Round posts are better for this purpose, as the penetration is better in sapwood than in heartwood. A willow post properly treated should last from 12 to 20 years. There seems to be a decided difference in opinion as to the value of seasoning untreated willow posts. At one experiment station it was found that usually seasoning was of little importance, but experience elsewhere does not altogether corroborate this observa- tion. At Iowa Falls, Iowa, willow posts cut in the winter, seasoned with the bark on, then peeled and set out the following autumn, have had an average life of 10 years. At the same place willow posts cut in June and set out immediately lasted only 2 or 3 years. At numerous places in the prairie region seasoned willow posts have lasted 10 years, while most reports of decay in a short time also show that the posts were not seasoned. In setting willow posts care should be taken to avoid using material with doty heartwood. It may easily escape notice because the heart of willow shows very little dis- coloration until decay is far advanced. TANNIN. Willow bark is an important source of tannin in Europe, especially in Russia, France, Denmark, and Germany. In Russia it is used in the preparation of the finest leather, and combined with birch tar oil it produces the well-known scent of Russia leather. Von Héhnel states that the crack willow (Salix fragilis) and basket willow (Sala viminalis) are the best for this purpose, containing 12 to 14 per cent 36 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of tannin, while other species contain 6 to 11 per cent of tannin. H. G. Bennett in ‘‘The Manufacture of Leather” asserts that crack willow and S. arenaria contain 7 to 11 per cent of tannin and are commonly used. Alexander Watt in ‘‘ Leather Manufacture”’ states that the bark of white willow (S. alba) and S. cinerea is used for tannin in France. Tests made by the leather and paper laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry of willow bark collected in 1914 at Arlington, Va., by the Forest Service, produced amounts of tannin as follows: TaBLeE 16.—Tannin in willow bark. Per cent Per cent - tota Per cent | Percent | Number of Species: dissolved ee montannins.| tannins. samples. solids. : Sp utesdeh (Gaybbalic) ae eo odsassecouseodsdens 16.16 15.10 8.38 6.71 11 Serallbas(irunilke) ee Sate eee ee ee 18.13 17.03 9.40 7.63 11 Sepirarenllisy (Grune) see eee 23.32 22.27 14.12 8.49 12 S. fragilis (branches).............---------- 19. 62 18. 04 9. 64 8.40 9 Hemlock, chestnut oak, Spanish oak, black oak, hickory, and chestnut wood range above willow in tannin content, but in some cases the high tannin content is offset by the difficulty of securing or handling the bark. The. ‘ime left in the woods in the making of excelsior and the peel- ings from basket willows, of which a large amount is often collected in one place, could be utilized at a low cost. If manufacturers of tannin extract could be interested in willow bark and assured of a sufficient supply, a profitable industry might be established. OTHER USES. Willows, because they produce flowers from which a high grade of honey can be obtained, have long been recognized as a useful bee plant, especially in early sprmg. Many beekeepers have set out willows especially for this purpose. Great care should be exercised in such planting to make sure that the cuttings are from staminate trees, as the pistillate flowers are of little value as a bee food. In New Jersey, Delaware, and eastern Maryland willow is used for berry props and poles in truck gardening. For this purpose it is only fairly durable, but it is cheap and easy to secure. The freedom of willow wood from checking and the ease with which it is worked make willow desirable as a carving wood and for picture frames, wooden shoes, and woodenware, such as bowls, scoops, ladles, and trays. Bul. 316, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. FIG. 1.—POLLARDING WILLOWS FOR CHARCOAL Woop USED IN MANUFACTURING OF GUNPOWDER. Young healthy trees, beginning 2 years’ growth after cropping. Wilmington, Del. Fic. 2.—POLLARD WILLOWS CROPPED THREE TIMES. Trunks destroyed by injury due to floods and decay. Lowstumpsare more desirable in such ) y Injury t [ aeca) J situations. Wilmington, Del. POLLARD WILLOW Bul. 316, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. F-12343A Fic. 1.—A FIELD BADLY GULLIED AS A RESULT OF TOO HEAVY GRAZING. Fic. 2.—THE VIOLENT EFFECT OF A FRESHET ON LOOSE ALLUVIUM BANKS ON WHICH THE TREE GROWTH HAD RECENTLY BEEN REMOVED. TWO PLACES WHERE WILLOWS COULD BE USED SUCCESSFULLY FOR PROTECTION. WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE, 37 USES OF WILLOWS FOR PROTECTION. PROTECTION FROM EROSION. The adaptability of willows to moist conditions and their rapid erowth make them the best available plant for protecting soil from erosion by running water or wave action. In Europe, especially in Russia, very definite methods have been worked out for protecting soil from gullying and for the building up and improvement of gullied fields. In this work willows have been largely used and have given the best results obtained from any of the numerous species tried. In this country farmers are just begin- ning to realize the importance of such protection and improvement work. Thousands of acres of abandoned fields would still be pro- ductive if proper preventive measures had been taken to check ero- sion. To the farmer who sees great holes gouged into his fields and the fertile top soil washed away from the land the question of devising some means of checking this devastation is of vital importance. Most owners fail to appreciate the danger and allow the erosion to continue until the damage is done. Usually erosive action in a field is apparent first as sheet washing which is generally the fore- runner of a gully. This can be stopped by the use of cover crops, judicious tillage, or in extreme cases by terraces and ditches. A gully already formed should be filled with brush, straw, or stone, or planted with some tree or shrub. It is surprising how fast a gully builds up when the bottom has been thickly planted with willows. They break the force of the current and catch and hold the sediment. This process would kill most trees, but the willows are able to survive and to eliminate a gully in a few seasons. The tree growth may then be removed so that farm implements can pass over, unless danger of a recurrence of the gully makes it necessary to keep the area in sod. For the protection of stream banks willow plantations are generally the most effective, although cottonwood may also give good results. The best species to use are the vigorous growing wild ones found in the vicinity. Where native willows are not readily available, the white, yellow, crack, or weeping willow should give good results. Cuttings of any of these can be obtained cheaply from the various nursery dealers. The use of trees in the protection of stream banks is necessarily confined to creeks and small rivers and only to those having a medium velocity. Tree planting is generally without avail on caving banks of very swift streams, especially if the soil is loose, as it is also without avail along the large rivers even if they are not swift. These are problems for an engineer, although at the beginning the caving of a bank can often be prevented by proper treatment of the tree cover at dangerous places. Planting can be done success- 38 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fully, however, along the smaller streams that in the ageregate destroy large areas of the richest land. There are often places where floods have left perpendicular banks of soft soil, which, being constantly undermined by the current, cave in from time to time. It is very important that such places be protected, for such a bank is a constant menace to all the land lying back of it in the valley. Mechanical means of protection are gen- erally expensive and are often not permanently effective. A good method of protecting soft alluvial banks is to make them sloping instead of perpendicular. This may require considerable grading, but it is absolutely necessary. After the bank has been reduced to a slope, the less precipitous the better, the face of it should be thickly planted with willow cuttings. For this purpose any willow material available in the vicinity is suitable. Cuttings from 1-year-old shoots up to stakes several inches in diameter will grow vigorously. In the more exposed places, especially near the water’s edge, the larger sets are more satisfactory as they are less liable to be washed out before they have become firmly rooted. Willow is often more serviceable than walls of masonry, and the facility with which it is reproduced by seed, suckers, sprouts, and cuttings, both naturally and artificially, makes it both inexpensive and effective. In places where conditions are more severe the following procedure has been successful: Green willow poles 18 to 20 feet long are cut in the spring before growth begins; the poles are laid on the ground near the bank 2 or 3 feet apart with their butts toward the stream; woven wire fencing is then securely fastened to the poles, leaving 2 or 3 feet of the poles projecting below the wire if the margin of the stream is of soft mud and less than that if the bank is firmer. Sections of wire about 100 feet long can be handled to the best advantage. After the wire has been fastened to the poles, they are all pushed over the bank together so that the butts of the poles fall and sink into the soft mud at the water’s edge. As the banks cave off some of the soil lodges on the wire, partially burying and weighting down the poles, which take root and grow. The wire serves to hold the mass of willows together until they have been firmly rooted. The ends of the wire are made secure by small wire cables running back up the bank and each one held by a ‘‘deadman.’’ The caving and erosion of the bank soon round off its top edges and the growing willows catch and hold the soil, giving the bank the proper slope to resist erosion. Planting a few cuttings farther up the bank to hold this slope is often advantageous. This method can be varied by driving shorter posts firmly into the soil at the water’s edge, but leaning sonewhat toward the bank, and then attaching the woven wire. This holds the soil as it caves off, and as a slope is established it is planted with cuttings. WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE. 89 Another method which has been used to good advantage at the bends of small streams is to drive willow stakes 2 to 4 inches in diameter into the bank upward from the water’s edge at low water and quite ~ close together “and to fill the spaces between them with loppings from willow trees or brush of all sizes, of which as much as possible is made to touch the ground or is partially buried. Additional forked stakes are useful in making the brush secure. This procedure insures a growth of willows that will protect the bank from further erosion. In all operations for bank protection it is important to remember: (1) That a perpendicular caving bank must be made sloping before planting can be effective; (2) that planting should begin at the water line and proceed away from the stream; (3) that mechanical aids are often necessary to create conditions where planting can be done effectively; (4) that any part of a live willow and (usually) a cotton- wood will grow vigorously if placed in moist soil. BANK REVETMENT. Willow is largely used in the making of mattresses for bank revet- ments along the lower Mississippi River and its tributaries. In one district alone, in 1913, 145,847 cords were used. The total amount of willow used for this purpose is from 300,000 to 400,000 cords per year. The trees are largely sandbar, peachleaf, or black willow, and are small, ranging from 1 to 5 inches in diameter and from 25 to 40 feet in length. In the New Orleans district cull lumber is used for the mats. ‘This is partly because willows are not quite so plentiful in the lower portion of the valley and partly because the different districts working separately developed somewhat different methods of dealing with bank protection. Of the three species most commonly used the sandbar willow is the best. It is of slower growth than the other species, but it comes up in very dense stands and grows very straight. In thick stands it is practically free from branches except for a small crown. The habit this species has of sprouting prolifically from the roots insures a heavy stand when once started. The wood is slightly heavier than the other willows and somewhat tougher and stronger. Practically speaking, there is little difference in species, and con- tractors pay less attention to species than to size and form. The plentiful supply of willows has heretofore made their cost simply that of cutting and transporting them. In the last few years, however, the willows in the immediate vicinity of some of the larger revetment works have become so scarce that from $1 to $2 per acre has been paid for the privilege of cutting over private lands. The best willows come from the lower sand bars and islands. Willows growing above the 35-foot stage of the river are seldom used, both on account of the expense of getting them to the water and the fact that they are seldom of the right quality, being generally crooked and 40 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. branchy. In 1913 the contractors received $1.50 to $2 per cord for the willows leaded on barges, and at this price they were in some instances able to make wagon hauls of a mile and still operate at a profit. ; The first cutting is sometimes 10 or 12 years old, although willows 8 or 9 years old are most commonly used. On cut-over land the new crop is ready in 7 years, and in several places in lower Missouri three crops including the original seedlings have been grown and cut off in 25 years’ time. The average yield of fully stocked stands (and most of the stands are fully stocked) is 40 cords per acre, although it may range 10 cords above or below this figure on small areas. The original seedlings at this rate produce an average of 4 cords per acre per annum; and the sprout growth, between 5 and 6 cords per acre per annum. ‘These figures represent the maximum capacity of the land, complete utilization, and a low solid content per cord. It is doubtful whether the trees at this age reach their maximum pro- duction, but the increased production obtamed by a longer rotation would be offset by the less close utilization that would be necessary if the material went into cordwood for excelsior, pulp, or fuel. The land on which these willows are found is usually a rich sandy silt, although here and there occur patches of less fertile sands on which the growth is not so vigorous. This land, fertilized by a deposit of sediment each year, is rich enough to produce a relatively high yield of any kind of crop if it could be farmed. On poorer land, even if moisture conditions were favorable, it is doubtful whether more than one-half to two-thirds of this yield could be obtained. ; The use of willows by the Army engineers has so far been for the manufacture of channel, pocket, and facine mattresses. To make these mats, they have developed especially built machinery and barges, so that in recent years the cost has been much reduced. The mats are usually 1,000 feet long, 250 feet wide, and 12 to 14 inches thick. The dimensions, however, vary considerably in accordance with the requirements of the situation. After sinking the mat along the bank, the upper portion approximately at low- water mark, the bank is graded with a hydraulic grader to a slope of 1 to 3 and paved with rock varying in size from 4 to 100 pounds. (See Pl. VII, fig. 2.) The cost of making the mat varies consid- erably, but on the average is from $4 to $8 per square (a square is 100 square feet), or $10 to $20 per linear foot. The completed work, including the mattress, grading, and paving, costs $20 to $30 per linear foot. The mats will last for 30 years, or longer under favorable conditions. Portions of the mat exposed at imtervals of low water have a tendency to disintegrate very quickly unless buried Bul. 316, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. F-16782A. Fig. 1.—WEAVING A WILLOW MAT. SLOUGH NECK LANDING, TENN. V-16785A. Fia. 2.—REDUCING THE BANK TO THE PROPER GRADE WITH THE HYDRAULIC GRADER. SLOUGH NECK LANDING, TENN. BANK-REVETMENT WORK. Bul. 316, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. F-16787A Fic. 1.—THE MAT ASIT NEARS COMPLETION, 1,000 FEET LONG AND 250 FEET WIDE. F-16792A Fic. 2.—SINKING THE MAT BY THROWING ROCK BALLAST ON IT. BANK-REVETMENT WORK. Bul. 316, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. F-38260 FIG. 1.—WILLOWS COMING IN NATURALLY AND GRADUALLY BINDING TOGETHER THE SHIFTING SAND DUNE. NEAR MICHIGAN CITY IND. F-38301 Fia. 2.—WILLOWS AND POPLARS WORKING DOWN TO THE EDGE OF LAKE MICHIGAN. MICHIGAN CITY, IND. WILLOW AS A SAND BINDER. PLATE X Iture. icu Dept. of Agri Ss U 316, Bu “SL6L ‘vMO| ‘DUNE -SWVITHIM “SHVAA OF SOV (‘MOTIIM AOVED) “MOOLG 4O HOWSY SAOAV JOvIIOJ 3SN3q VPITSTA REGS "AYNLSVd NI MOY MOTIIM WOIdAL WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE, 41 im the mud and sand. In smking the mat into position stone is used. This process is shown in Plate VIII, figure 2. Table 17 shows, as near as it is possible to obtain the figures, the annual amount of willow used in revetment work. Where annual figures are not available, the average amount used for several years is given. Approximately 5 per cent of the amount is cottonwood or other species. TaBLE 17.—Amount of willow used in revetment work. Cords Missouri 10 Ohio River; average of 3 years.......2..-..-..25------6-22--222-- 25, 000 Missouri River, Fort Benton to Kansas City, 1913...-........---.---2...2.- 12, 000 Mimoner Haver, Kansas City to.mouth; 1913-022 ~ 922-1 -lssqv ec cence. 2s Le 43, 580 Mississippi River, St. Paul, Minn., to Missouri River, average of 4 years. ... 100, 000 Mississippi River, Cairo, Ill., to White River, Ark., 1913...........--..--- 48, 360 Mississippi River, White River to Warrington, Miss., 1913.........-.-.-.---:- 51, 633 Mississippi River, Warrington, Miss., to Head of Passes, 1913.......--..---- 53, 350 Mississippi River, South and Southwest Passes, average of 4 years.........- 23, 330 NEERCMeCEE SOL NLe IREIVGTSS8 on ne ee ee ook ea 900 Se cele 2b CaS Rae ee ee 358, 153 WILLOW AS A SAND BINDER. One of the most important uses of willows is for binding shifting sand. Along the Atlantic coast and the Great Lakes, and to a lesser extent along the Pacific coast, there are large areas which are being reclaimed or will be reclaimed as land becomes more valuable. On the eastern shore of Lake Michigan considerable work has been done and more should be undertaken, as the dunes are moving in in many places and covermg valuable farm land. Plate IX shows a dune being reclaimed naturally by willows and an older portion where poplar has followed the willows. Ordinarily it is customary to start grass first in such places, but where conditions are favorable willows can be started without this preliminary step. In Russia large areas have been reclaimed, principally by means of the Caspian willow (Saliz acutifolia). The willow is very successful where brush is available and can be scattered over the sand areas as a temporary shelter under which it may gain a foothold before being subjected to the full force of the wind. On the Pacific coast loose straw was thrown on the land, and although the wind was very strong a sur- prisingly Jarge amount was not blown away. Such a planting, how- ever, to be effective must begin on the lee side of a body of water or strip of timber or some object that prevents the blowing of the sand upon the planting to any appreciable extent. Planting begun in this way can be continued out over the shifting area indefinitely with little chance of failure. It is, however, worse than useless to attempt to plant up an area which has adjacent to it on the wind- ward side a body of loose sand. ® 492 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The native species are best adapted to this purpose. In all the regions mentioned there are to be found growing wild, even upon the sand, willows with which better success can be had than with imported species. The basket willow can not be recommended for this purpose, although in the less exposed and more fertile places they would perhaps grow very well. The white, crack, and yellow willows make a very thrifty growth in the sand where conditions are not too severe. Of the native species the black willow, the sandbar willow, and the laurel willow grow well in such situations. The cuttings should be from 12 to 18 inches long, the length de- pending somewhat on how much the sand dries out during the dry season. The rows should be run perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing winds, and from 6 to 12 feet apart, the distance depend- ing upon the slope and the intensity of the wind. The steeper the slope the closer the rows should be. The cuttings should be planted in the rows and as closely as possible. WINDBREAKS AND SHELTER BELTS. For windbreaks and shelter belts in the central prairie States there has been no more widely used tree than willow. When the settlers came into these States they immediately saw the necessity of pro- viding shelter around the farm buildings and planted such quick- erowing species as willow, cottonwood, and soft maple, willow pre- dominating. The stock was easily obtained, easily planted and _ required the minimum of care. The returns from these plantations have been good considering the treatment given them. Many are now dead or decadent and the question is what to do next. The wise settlers have underplanted their willow groves or started other species to replace them. The majority, however, overlooked this important matter. For starting a grove or windbreak in the prairie region there is probably no better tree than the willow. It grows rapidly, is fairly long lived except on dry clay soils, has a fuel value on the farm, and reproduces vigorously from the stump. The green ash or white elm are more valuable, but generally should follow the willow on a barren farm. Cottonwood as a windbreak or as a nurse tree is no better than willow, but occasionally even on the prairies it produces a fair grade of rough lumber, perhaps better than willow. Because of its branching habit, its lack of clear length until the tree becomes quite large, and its fairly heavy foliage the willow is not surpassed by any other broadleaf tree in the protection afforded. Willows can also be thinned heavily with the assurance that sprout reproduction will rapidly take the place of the material cut out. In fact, such thin- ning is beneficial to the windbreak, as the foliage is kept low and dense, and cutting back will often keep the row vigorous for from 40 to 50 - WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE. 43 years, whereas if the cutting is not done each plant develops one to three large trunks which in from 20 to 30 years reach maturity or are broken, the vigor of the original tree being thus practically destroyed. The capacity of a willow tree to put out vigorous sprouts begins to decline somewhat at the age of from 20 to 30 years, depend- ing upon the soil and moisture conditions, but it never entirely passes away. If the willows are to be considered permanent, they should be cropped in periods of 8 to 10 years, either by gradual or clear cutting. At the first evidence of decreasing vigor new trees should be set out and the first ones cut as soon as the second planting is large enough to be effective. Ordinarily the willows should be considered a ‘temporary shelter or a nurse crop and provision made for the estab- lishment of conifers or of the better hardwoods to take their place. PLANTING WILLOWS. SOIL REQUIREMENTS FOR WILLOW PLANTING. Willows grow best on a moist, rich, well-drained sandy loam. They will, however, tolerate a considerable variation of these con- ditions and still make a reasonably satisfactory growth. They will grow faster for the first 25 years than any other of the northern broadleaf species, with the exception of cottonwood, on any but the driest soil. They endure excessive moisture conditions better than cottonwood. Willows are not sensitive either to acid or alkaline soils, but a poor growth can be expected on soils where either of these conditions is very pronounced. Willows prefer land that is flat or nearly so, but they grow well on any slope where the other con- ditions are favorable. The adaptability of willows makes them particularly a waste-land species, but their greatest superiority shows itself in plantations on overflow land in the vicinity of streams. SPECIES FOR PLANTING. In the North undoubtedly the best willow species for planting is the crack willow. Its rapid growth, upright form, and freedom from side branches or water sprouts when fairly closely planted make it superior to every other. Many plantations in the treeless region have been of this species, although generally reported as white wil- low. The second best species is the white or yellow willow. In sheltered positions the weeping willow will grow almost as fast as the crack willow, but if exposed will be broken up by the wind at an early age. While it is possible for the weeping willow to produce almost as much fuel as the crack willow, the form of the tree makes the material it produces of little value for anything else. The weeping willow recommends itself over the crack willow only for situations where its particularly striking and beautiful foliage can be made 44 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. effective in the improvement of the landscape. Throughout the North the black willow is a smaller tree than the white or crack willow, and for this reason inferior to them. As a tree for planting it is not recommended except in places where the main consideration is the protection to be afforded, rather than the material produced. Under these conditions the black willow is very desirable, as it can usually be secured in the vicinity at little cost. In the South the same recommendations hold good except for black willow. The lower Mississippi Valley is the region of best development of this species, and its rapid growth and large size make it doubtful whether either crack or white willow would be superior to it. No records of the growth of crack or white willow in the region are available, and until they are preference should be given in plant- ing to the black willow, at least on bottom land. CUTTINGS. MATERIAL. Willows are more easily planted than any of the other commercial tree species of the United States. This is due to the fact that cuttings can be gathered and planted as cheaply as seed of most species, and the first year’s growth of cuttings is equal in vigor to that of 1-year- old seedlings. As compared with 1-year-old seedlings, cuttings are much less expensive. Cottonwood can also be propagated by cut- tings, but they are generally less easily secured wild, are more expen- sive if purchased, and unless rooted or calloused suffer a much greater mortality when planted. Under unfavorable conditions uncalloused willow cuttings will start where cottonwood fails completely. Willow cuttings can be obtamed for $1 to $1.50 per thousand. When large quantities of cuttmgs are desired and there is no particular hurry about getting them planted, a few cuttmgs planted in a row in the garden will supply the necessary planting material. The Forest Service furnishes a list of dealers from whom willow cuttings may be purchased. SIZE OF CUTTINGS. The cuttings should be obtained from healthy, vigorous plants, the size of the cutting depending upon the kind of crop desired and the conditions under which it is to be grown. If the plants must establish themselves in competition with other species, such as scrubby willows, the cuttings should be larger than where the plantation is to receive cultivation. In open spaces, especially those which can be cultivated for a year or two, cuttings of a foot m length can be used to advan- tage, and these after the first or second year will be abundantly able to take care of themselves, although cultivation for a longer period, if it could be done economically, would increase the growth consider- WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE. 45 ably. In general the smaller the cutting, if protected from mechani- cal injury, the less chance for disease. The best size for average con- ditions is about 16 to 20 inches long and from one-half inch to 14 inches diameter. In the method known as “pollarding,”’ sometimes employed in willow growing, the cuttings are made 8 to 10 feet long and from 1 inch to 3 inches in diameter from branches or shoots ranging in age from 3 to 5 years. These at the end of the first season present the appearance of a small tree with an 8-foot clear length, and when planted under unfavorable conditions are much more able to compete successfully with other species. However, this high-cop- pice system has its drawbacks. Such plants with a strong growth of sprouts produced 8 feet from the ground on a poorly rooted trunk give an excellent opportunity for serious injury. The wind alone is often sufficient to sway it enough to break the small new root system. If this occurs in the middle or the latter part of the growing season, it generally kills the plant. There are certain conditions, however, that may make the pollard system advisable. When the trees are to be planted in situations where they are likely to be periodically inundated, it may be better to have the limbs produced above the reach of the flood if there is no débris or ice to cause serious injury to the trunk. Where animals must be allowed to graze on the land it is better to have the spreuts above their reach, as they not only browse the tender branches but do further damage by tramping and break- ing off the limbs. High coppice is also desirable where the land is to be cultivated between the rows of willows, as the production of a sprout growth from the ground would take up so much room that there could be no economy in growing the two crops together. This is the chief reason why pollarding is resorted to in many parts of Europe. Such a crop practice is little used, however, in this country. The low coppice has the important advantage that it gives a chance for the individual sprouts, especially if they come from the region of the root collar, to form roots of their own so that the life and health of the sprout is not necessarily dependent upon the old trunk. It has been observed that in many instances where a low coppice sys- tem has been employed the original trunk has completely decayed but the surrounding sprouts have formed root systems of their own, from which they receive support and nourishment. Low coppice makes possible an indefinite regeneration of the tree, while the high coppice requires periodic plantings. AGE OF CUTTINGS. The cuttings should always be made from young, vigorously grow- ing wood. If old wood is used a smaller number of the cuttings will start and the growth at first will be less rapid. The cuttings from -old wood do not start as quickly after planting as do those from young 46 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. shoots. The reason for this is that on 2-year-old sprouts there are frequent buds ready to start growth at once, while on older wood the buds and shoots must start after the cutting has been planted and the growing season has commenced. Another advantage of the young sprout is that it is generally free from branches and thus easier to prepare and plant. Under less favorable conditions it is necessary to use cuttings from 2 to 5 years old. When it is known that willow cuttings are to be used the following year, it is a good plan to cut off limbs of small trees the year before in order that suitable material for planting may be produced. A little forethought in this matter will often make the purchase of material from dealers unnecessary, although the grower should make sure that he is planting the right species. TIME AND METHOD OF MAKING CUTTINGS. The cuttings can be prepared any time after the wood is well ripened in the fall, but in the Northern States the best time is in February, as this gives the cuttings a chance to callous before bemg set out and at the same time does not necessitate leaving them in storage long enough to become damaged. Cutting can be done with a large knife, a hatchet, a saw and miter box, or with large pruning shears. The cutting should be made smooth and clean. The small saw and miter box is a very rapid method but is likely to tear the bark from the wood, thus injuring the cutting. With a large pruner several sprouts can be cut at once without crushing the bark unless the sprouts are resting on top of each other. In the prepara- tion of larger cuttings an ax or saw must be employed. The ax is preferable. It is best to plant large cuttings as soon as prepared, as they are not easily stored. STORAGE AND SHIPMENT. It is often advisable to prepare cuttings a considerable length of time before they can be planted. In such a case it is necessary to provide a suitable place for stormg them. A cool dark cellar is ideal for this purpose, since at all times of the year growth is less likely to start there than in other places. The cuttings should be buried in an upright position (the buds pointing upward) in moist sand. Moist earth can be used, but it is not so satisfactory as sand. When no other place is available, cuttings can be heeled-in in pits im the open. The top of the pit should always be covered. Cuttings stored in this manner are likely to start early in the spring, and for this reason they should be carefully watched. METHOD OF PLANTING. In establishing a plantation of willows the amount of preparation to be bestowed upon the land is dependent upon its condition. Land well situated and free from other woody plants and rocks should WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE. AT be thoroughly plowed. If this can not be done and the cuttings must be planted among bowlders, among other trees, or in brush, clear spaces should be selected wherever possible or the brush should be lopped back in order to give the cuttings a chance to start. Once started, the willows soon outstrip the brush and eventually kill it by shading. . All planting should be done in early spring. How deep cuttings should be planted depends somewhat on their size. In planting for low coppice crops, a 12-inch cutting should be buried almost its entire length, leaving but 1 or 2 inches exposed. ‘This portion should possess one or two buds. When longer cuttings are used, the depth should be 12 to 15 inches. Pollard sets should be planted about 18 inches deep. For making the holes to plant small cuttings a sharp- ened iron bar may be used, but for the larger cuttings a spade is necessary. In every case the soil should be packed firmly around the cutting. The spacing of the cuttings is dependent upon the kind of land to be used and the crop desired. If the land is clear, a regular interval can be employed, but on steep slopes and among brushy or rocky obstructions it is better to plant wherever a favorable spot can be found or made. If a regular interval is employed and lumber is desired, the cuttings are planted 6 by 6 feet or 1,210 plants per acre. Thinnings are made at the end of 8 or 9 years, reducing trees to half the original number, and at the end of 16 or 20 years, reducing the number of trees to about 300 per acre. The material taken out can be used for charcoal wood or for fuel. At the end of 30 or 40 years the land should be stocked with at least 150 trees, most of them of suitable size and shape for willow lumber. However, the majority of willow plantations in this country will be intended for fuel, paper pulp, or posts, and for these purposes it is better to plant about 5 by 5 for a 6 to 10 year rotation and 6 by 6 or 8 by 8 for a 12 to 20 year rotation. COST OF PLANTING. Under most conditions willow plantations can be established more cheaply than plantations of any other species. Cuttings are used in all cases. It is well to prepare the land before planting by a thorough plowing, disking, and harrowing. This costs from $1.50 to $3 per acre. If the land is pasture land or an abandoned field, some work in brush or tree removal is often necessary. This costs up to $3 per acre. If a greater expense than this is necessary it is advisable to clear the land for plowing. In such cases it is best to destroy the brush cheaply, by burning, for instance, and then planting in spots wherever possible. By this procedure the cost of plowing is elimi- nated but the cost of planting is correspondingly increased. Cut- tings for planting can be made for 50 cents per thousand and can be 48 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. purchased for $1 to $1.50 per thousand. Planting is best done by a man and a boy. If the man makes the holes with a sharpened iron bar and the boy drops in the cuttings and firms the soil, they should plant 2 to 3 acres per day with a spacing of 6 by 6 feet, or 1,210 sets per acre. Allowing $2 as wages for the man and $1 for the boy, the cost of planting is from $1 to $1.50 per acre. Cultivation for the first two years consists in disengaging the willows in the planting spots on unplowed land and in horse cultivation on plowed land. This costs from $2 to $6. Table 18 gives the range in cost of estab- lishment of a willow plantation. TABLE 18.—Cost per acre of making a willow plantation. Minimum. | Maximum. reparaiion of soil: TUSH Clearing Po 2k o a eh alate Pease tees ne ae eee ae els eae a ese eiaee eel 2 oe ents $3.00 Plowing or preparation of planting spots...-...-.------.-------------------- $1. 50 3.00 Stock (Cuttings) ee eae ae en aes Se eemtare ne eee ae ee ae Se apace eee EN -50 1.50 Planting) (man-sand. boy; Crew, eais-2 seca ae ea eee enor Be beee ese ee 1.00 1.50 Cultivation (firsttwotyears)/-22- - se) sea ene oe eee eee nee sees Pf eee ce 2.00 6.00 AN le se no at SR ie AR earl geist aL eee eR eae Sa 5.00 15.00 CULTIVATION AND CARE. If the plantation is a haphazard one, planted among bowlders, stumps, or in uncleared land, it can not, of course, be systematically cultivated. However, a little care in such a place will probably pay better returns than anywhere else. The young plants are very likely to be crowded out the first year or two if they do not have a fair amount of room, and a little cutting back of other growth will often save many young trees. In regular plantations on cleared land the ground should be plowed between the rows about three times the first year, twice the second year, and perhaps once the third year. Subsequently the shade of the willows will be sufficient to kill most of the weeds and to prevent excessive evaporation from the soil. Cuttings which fail to start should be replaced the same season if possible. In close plantations it will be necessary to plant longer cuttings than the original ones to prevent shading out. Allowing the fail places to remain unplanted reduces the productivity of the land. All diseased material should be removed as soon as noted. CUTTING. The best time for cutting is in late winter or early spring, but it should be finished before the buds start to swell. Fall cutting is next best, but it may result in the frost separating the bark from the wood at the stump, which injures its ability to sprout. Wood that is to be peeled should be cut in summer. Where sprout reproduction is desired, the bark should be cut through around the stump, so that when the tree is felled the bark will not be torn away. WILLOWS: THEIR GROWTH, USE, AND IMPORTANCE. 49 COST OF GROWING WILLOWS. Table 19 gives the cost per cord of growing willows on land of different values, with different costs of formation, low, average, and high yields, and different rotations. In this table compound interest at 6 per cent is charged on the land value, the cost of formation, and taxes. With a cost of formation of only $3 and a high yield the actual cost of growing a cord of willows on land valued at $5 per acre is 20 cents. Such a combination of conditions is exceptional, however, and would rarely be encountered. A poor yield from land valued at $100 and a cost of formation of $15 makes the cost of growing a cord from $5.95 to $7.64, depending upon the rotation. Except where the wood lot has a decided value for other purposes than the wood crop itself the plantation is not justified by the returns. Leaving out every other consideration except the value of the mate- rial produced, it is poor business to grow willows when the cost is greater than $2 percord. This practically eliminates the use of $100 land for such a purpose unless a yield of 5 cords per acre is assured. TABLE 19.—Cost per cord of growing willows. $5 LAND. Formation, $3. Formation, $5. | Formation, $7.50. | Formation, $10. Formation, $15. Rota- e's tion— Yield in cords. years. 5 34 2 5 3h 2 5 33 2 5 34 2 5 34 2 Lae $0.24 |$0.34 |$0.60 |$0.35 |$0.49 |$0. 87 |$0. 48 |$0.69 |$1.20 |$0.61 |$0. 88 |$1. 54 |$0. 88 |$1.26 | $2. 20 TOs 2252 S20) S29) Joon 227 |) 23099) 368 |) 2736 |) 5280 290 455) 364) | Pers) 63) 2 902 S57: ‘ee 22: UA A a EPA N| SABI WONG GION) SSW GIe | ge 83 -61) 1.07} .59] .84] 1.47 71a Eee 222] .o2) 2.00 | .29|'..41 SIZ el os We eS mere Ooale tom G4e | Letanie S6r -87} 1.52 $10 LAND. ee $0.32 |$0. 45 |$0. 80 |$0. 43 |$0. 61 |$1.06 |$0.56 |$0. 80 |$1. 40 |$0. 69 |$0. 99 |$1. 73 |$0.96 |$1.37 | $2. 40 10505 -23 20 642) 218. | «86s 552°) 291 -45} .65]1.13] .54 -78 | 1.36 | .72 | 1.03 1. 80 Lee 31 -45| .78| 1.38 | .04 | .94)| .46) 1.65) 1.14 ~54 |) .77) 1.384) .70) 1.00) 1.74 7. | See sB0 o DL) 88)) 6421) 5.605] 1.04 .00| «71 | 1.24 | .58 -83 | 1.45) .74)1.06) 1:85 $25 LAND. Best bob 5 |$0.79 \$1.39 |$0.66 |$0.95 |$1.66 |$0. 80 |$1.14 |$1.99 |$0.93 |$1.33 |$2.32 |$1.20 |$1. 71 | $2. ae - 81 42 64 SUL | 2.60)) tou lole 1 2. 99 1. A * ‘ 04} 1.82) .82] 1.17} 2.05 | 1.00] 1.43] 2.50 Rus ew= a e -91 | 1.60} .70) 1.00) 1.76) .78)] 1.12] 1.96] .86 | 1.23 | 2.16 | 1.02) 1.46} 2.56 1 2, 81 Wicaco’ 1.06 | 1.85] .80|1.15|2.01| .88| 1.26] 2.21] .96| 1.38 | 2.41 | 1.12 | 1.61 $50 LAND. Dem pe | O6z‘T| T: [cr [St |*7-xBa“S‘uO}OIH 00 ‘812$ | 00°Ess] 09 OT | 00 cots} O08 ‘e |-*7-----|--- =] see ale Sc G8 T18 | 08"F6¢ | 96°s | o2-e | 0o'Os9‘T | ozs‘e| To |sz |8 |---3ea-*N GOUT i a LS ee ee eee SS ee a eee ‘adNVT WOLLOG Se eS pS hE SR eS ee ea 69 TT 28 °OI CL GL 88 °6$ “uv GP '9S | 09°68 89'S | 00 PSE 88 028) 02 “SLT “014 ~CUII0} *pooma -p100 [BUOr4Ip -pe pur sysod JoonjeA 0S 9F | 02°6 09°92 | 0€ 09 e$! O¢"9 "og 48 | *r0q One A | -WInNh "UOT4TD -pe UL Spo ee *spi00 pus ‘soxye4s ‘sysod ut poyeunyysoy ween le ee ee ee ele eee Sees ee ees eee sete el|---- eee 89°T settee ee es Sted bled Cd “7 *)>""sesRreAy 02°60T | O61'Z | OO"9LT | 0OZ‘z |} 099 | Oes, | 98°9 -| OO"FFT | TLE | O0-9e | Oz -O88‘z Og's9 | OLE T | 02°96 | OTT | O8"99TS] O6ET | 06°9 | OO'SEL | 4°T | OSE | O9°9TL‘z OG "TLS | O&F°T | OS TLS | 068 [> = I = Sh°0S | P8E8S | TOT | 96'S | OZ "EIS ‘T “splog | “sp.op | “yf-ng ‘sjuoo | . ‘syueo | . ‘syueo | : $98 lamin) 89% lemnng| £12? |onic| Soe | peqe | 928 enter N | onea N| onea au paca i zed | ‘exon enjea | aod | PIA | sod . 3 Tenuue) pporé e108 ‘3 ; qenuue | onpea | ose | tehod, Coa *sotour need d seqour d ese | [eqog, | _ JOAY wot [2 € 0} Z Soyeyg F 0} € S480 9 07 f S}SO0 -10A VW T8IOL Ssv[d-puodeg SSBIO-JSIL IT *PpOOMP1OD UT POywUITyS oT 092 ity og TZ “-uUTy “mee Ay OIs't | T° 6g z “7 ARCS ‘Pug 0c6T} TO | 0¢ &I “""4Bq “g “epuoD *saoP | “7aaq |°8i02X “9108 “S001 rod . jo S Syed gord |, % | -eaors ee S001} + | gusreq ae AqpRo'T jo raq [FOPMV] “ase |JOP8V -WmN “AV | Ga nee ec | lS kes bk oe ee “aNVTdN “suoynuDd nop yooso Wosf suUinjas 88048 PUD Pj —'0Z ATAV YL, 52 BULLETIN 316, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The returns from willows planted now may be more fairly estimated on the basis of what the best plantations of the past have done rather than the averages, because the average plantations represent a great amount of poor practice that may now be avoided. The following yields are for groves whose appearance and history show that they have been treated in a rational manner: TaBLE 21.— Yield of selected willow groves in Iowa. Yield Yield Size of “ Plot No. Age. per acre Location. plot. per acre. per year. Acres. | Years.) Cords Cords. 1 USOC i a eed oy aera SG DLE Nha Ds ae ae ee ean 0. 25 11 47.3 4.3 | Bottom land. OSE EEE aa eet Des AAG CUA SSO Ue AR eS . 25 16 76.8 4.8 Do. SCORE Hae eC GeEe See N rae Meat oitee mene 20 16 62. 4 3.9 Do. CER eis A eee oe Shel ete SOE o SOE eee . 25 18 109. 8 6.1 Do. HARE EIS e dt Gee BERD Me Sia ne noone Sean - 25 18 81.0 4.5 Do. (oR Se ER eat RU it ae Sie eat toes aS rd Ache aL ad . 25 21 109. 2 5.2 Do. UBS CBE E ERE eRe A este SCORN SG See . 25 21 73.5 3.5 Do. Bee eral d oaks 5 LER SERS Cl R ee ee ee DHE ett oe Srna rarer ~ 25 22 116.6 5.3 Do. SR BORGO OM SRO aCe SOLAS GER HSMR A ta ary aen ee . 25 24 132. 0 fy Do. I EU ae Sea gn Sg a Oe . 25 25 105. 0 4.2} Upland 1) Gs ae ae RS ier en oe ee ea IP Regs pore «25 25 95.0 3.8 Do. TOR pr Rte a a aN Os aL ne . 25 31 102.0 3.3 Do. SANVOLRA SO SOS eS LER Mea Np CE Ta. re Ree a ell emerctin a acral NOIR e/a Ears) evegee 4.5 1Tilinois Agricultural Experiment Station. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE §, BULLETIN No. 317 | Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 20, 1916 LARCH MISTLETOE: SOME ECONOMIC CONSIDER- ATIONS OF ITS INJURIOUS EFFECTS.' By JAMES R. WEIR, Forest Pathologist, Office of Invéstigations in Forest Pathology. CONTENTS. Page. Page. PROSE OTN ae ee 8s 1 | The effects of mistletoe on its host_- 12 heise mistletoe =—- === 3 | Effect of mistletoe burls on the mer- LUG? TR OTHES| He ges 2 d eo Se ees 3 | chantability of larch trees_________ 22 Physical and climatic features of-the Methodvoricontrol === ae Die PCC BECOI OM) 2 oe ne HleConchusionses =" 22 ne eee 24 Fungous enemies of the larch______ 11 INTRODUCTION. During the past four years, in connection with other pathological problems in the forest, the writer has made an extensive survey of the damage to forest growth by some of the mistletoes of coniferous trees. These parasites are very widely distributed in the forest regions of the Northwest, and occur in such abundance in many localities as to assume a very serious aspect in relation to many forest problems. The extent and nature of the injury done vary greatly with the forest type, the topography, and, in some respects, with the climate. This is well shown in the regions in which investi- gations are now being conducted. In the dense part of many forest regions, as in the vicinity of the great lakes of Idaho, mistletoe does but little damage. However, in the more open stands bordering on the lakes or along the edge of the valleys of the Priest and Pend Oreille Rivers mistletoe occurs so abundantly on the various conifers as to interfere seriously with the development of some of the more valuable timber trees. “About the shores of Lake Coeur d’ Alene, iThe writer wishes to express Ae thanks to Mr, J. PF. Pernot, without whose assistance the analysis of the trees would have been difficult, and to Mr, I. I, Iubert for assistance in the tabulations. 8521°—Bull. 317—16——-1 Dy BULLETIN 317, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. along the Spokane River Valley, and extending to the south into the Blue Mountains of Washington and Oregon the mistletoes are very abundant, especially on lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) , yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa), western larch (Larix occidentalis), and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia). In many localities the trees rapidly yield to the suppressing effects of these parasites, causing an open, ragged growth of the crowns, with the production of many brooms. The prevalence of a particular species of mistletoe varies greatly in the same general region. To illustrate: Along the hills fronting on the Pend Oreille River, Idaho, the lodgepole and yellow pine stands are heavily infected. Passing up the Priest River Valley, another mistletoe species appears, working considerable injury to the larch, whereas the same tree, wherever it occurs along the Pend Oreille River, is seldom infected. The yellow pine farther up in the Priest River Valley is not seriously attacked. In the Granite Creek drainage area and beyond the mountains to Sullivan Lake, in the Metaline Falls region of Washington, the larch is again very seriously infected, whereas this mistietoe seldom occurs on the divide between these points. The western hemlock (Vsuga heterophylla) in the forests of northern Idaho is practically free from mistletoe, as far as the observations have been carried. In a few of the more open valleys several collections of mistletoe have been made from this’ tree. At many points in Washington and British Columbia where the writer has had an opportunity to collect, the mistletoe on the hemlock seems more abundant. Numerous collections of mistletoes - are at hand from many of the forests of southern Montana, and likewise from the northern part of that State and from central Idaho. A trip through Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia during 1913 yielded much information on the occurrence of mistletoes in those localities, so that it will soon be possible, with the additional data now (1915) being collected, to give a fairly detailed statement of the range of these parasites in the principal forest regions of the Northwest. In. order to obtain reliable figures on the damage to forest growth by these plants, special studies of a directly practical nature are now being conducted in several of the most important forests of the regions indicated. It is believed that the results from these studies will be applicable to all the forest areas of the Northwest where trees of the same species are found infected by the same mistletoe. At the same time, work of an experimental nature, both in the field and in the laboratory, is adding to our knowledge of these parasites. This work is being continued, as having a practical bearing on the mistletoe problem, and will be reported upon as time and occasion permit. LARCH MISTLETOE. 3 THE LARCH MISTLETOE. This bulletin deals in the main with the immediate practical results of an investigation of the injurious effects of the larch mistletoe on its host in the Blue Mountain region of Oregon and serves to introduce one of a series of studies on the mistletoes of coniferous trees in general. The larch mistletoe (fig. 1), originally named Razoumof- skya douglasii laricis by Piper’ and given as a subspecies of the Douglas-fir mistletoe, has recently been raised by the same writer? to the rank of a full species under the following name and description: Razoumofskya laricis Piper. Pistillate plants olivaceous, clustered, 5-8 em. long, branched; joints 1.5-2 mm. thick, sharply 4 angled; staminate swollen, yellow, the flowers in short spikes; lobes ovate, acute; fruit oblong, acutish, bluish, 4 mm. long. Common on Larix occidentalis. The investigation was begun in the Whit- man National Forest, Oreg. For some time the general and grad- ual deterioration of the western larch had been reported as occurring throughout the entire Blue Mountain region. The writer was not aware of the great prevalence of the larch mistletoe in this region until his visit there during the early spring of 1913. From a preliminary survey it Vig. 1.—Staminate plants of Razowmofskya laricis. Note soon developed that 3 the hypertrophy of the branch. the primary cause of the deterioration of the larch resulted from the suppressing effects of mistletoe. A probable secondary factor on some of the more exposed sites seemed to be certain climatic influences unfavorable to the host but promoting the better development and spread of the parasite. THE FOREST. The Blue Mountains, in which further studies of the mistletoes are in progress, are well covered with forests. The yellow pine pre- 1Piper, ©. V. Flora of the State of Washington. U. S. Nat. Mus., Contrib. Nat. Werbarium, v. 11, p. 222. 1906. *Piper, C. V., and Beattie, R. K. Flora of Southeastern Washington and Adjacent Idaho, p. 80. Lancaster, Pa,, 1914, 4 BULLETIN 317, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. dominates as the principal tree on all the drier slopes and bench lands. This gives an open character to the forest and is of some significance as regards the growth of mistletoe on the larch wherever this tree is associated with the yellow pine. On the lower eleva- tions the yellow pine often occurs in pure parklike stands, with a ground cover quite characteristic of the typical yellow-pine forma- tion, usually indicated by the absence of any great amount of forest litter and by the uniformity and the small number of species of her- baceous and shrublike plants. On the south slopes and low, dry ridges, where the stand is very open, the yellow pine is quite gener- ally infected with its particular mistletoe, working great injury to the tree. At higher elevations in more moist situations, or even at the same level on protected parts of the typical stand, the yellow pine becomes mixed with larch, Douglas fir, white fir, and lodge- pole pine. The yellow pine gives way to greater percentages of larch, Douglas fir, and lodgepole pine on the north and east slopes. The two last-named species support large quantities of their respec- tive mistletoes wherever the conditions are favorable for the devel- opment of these parasites. The larch predominates in many north- slope stands, especially in the more open situations. Other forest types in which the larch occurs above 6,500 feet or more are of little importance in this connection, since the species of the types at this elevation are not as seriously infected by mistletoe as those on north slopes of 5,000 feet altitude and less. The influence of drainage, slope, and the general moisture condi-— tions of the soil on the distribution and vigor of the western larch is well shown in the region studied and is likewise reflected in the prevalence and distribution of its principal parasite. Owing to the general prevailing dryness of the region, the maximum development of the larch is attained in moist draws or in fertile valleys not par- allel with the direction of the prevailing winds. In such situations the tree is usually quite free from mistletoe, and uninfected trees often attain a diameter, breast high, of 60 inches or more. A full crown composed of the original branches is retained until late in life, the tree showing few defects except an occasional root-rot or a dead top occasioned by agents other than mistletoe. These situations are more favorable to the development of the host than to the mistletoe occasionally found upon it and must be considered the best sites for growing larch in these regions. On the drier slopes and benches, where the larch is associated more with yellow pine, the influence of the site on the vigor of the mistletoe is at once expressed by its greater abundance and its effects on its host, causing smaller diame- ters and thinner crowns on the infected trees. Occasionally trees in exactly similar situations for some reason escape the ravages of the mistletoe and attain a size of considerable proportions. The full LARCH MISTLETOE, 5 crown and degree of vigor shown by these trees late in life prove conclusively that the ragged, suppressed condition of their neighbors is not due wholly to unfavorable climatic or soil conditions, but to the effect of the mistletoe upon them. On some north slopes where the larch is crowded by lodgepole pine and white fir it becomes suppressed for a time very early in life, as indicated by the zone of suppression in the older trees. Those trees finally escaping by their more rapid growth from the influence of their neighbors usually become infected by mistletoe when the crown spreads out to the hight and air above. The opportunities for the mistletoe to attack suppressed trees with crowns overtopped by other species not subject to its ravages are not as great as when the trees are standing more in the open. This is due in part to the other species protecting the larch from seed falling on it, and in part to the fact that permanent tissue incapable of being penetrated by the primary sinker is more rapidly developed in the case of suppressed individuals. New growth is of short duration and fewer vulnerable points of easy infection exist. If the infection of the suppressed trees does occur and the infection succeeds for a time, the mistletoe plant may itself become suppressed, partly from a poor nutrient rela- tionship with its host and partly through lack of ight, and eventually may die without producing new infections higher up. The signs of old infections are frequently noted in the area of the zone of sup- pression in trees that have afterwards escaped from the crowding of their neighbors. If such trees again become infected later in life, they may attain a fair merchantable size before the influence of the parasite is made manifest. PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC FEATURES OF THE FOREST REGION. The later geological history of the Blue Mountains, in which the Whitman National Forest is located, is one of a great basaltic uplift surrounding but not submerging the older granitic formations. The several high and low laterally arranged ridges are composed in the main of granitic rocks, forming a type of soil upon which the yellow pine usually becomes the climax species. Other soil characters in- duced by local variations of climate, slope, and type of ground cover influence the distribution of the forest trees of this region to a marked degree, and indirectly that of the mistletoe. Summarizing the chief climatic characteristics of the region, com- piled from the reports of the United States Weather Bureau, they are (1) scanty rainfall, (2) wide range of temperatures, (3) low absolute humidity, (4) rapid evaporation, and (5) an abundance of sunshine. The influence of such climatic conditions may be con- sidered in general as unfavorable in a few localities to the best 6 BULLETIN 317, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. development of the larch, but decidedly favorable to the mistletoe found upon it. This is at once evident to those familiar with the environmental requirements of host and parasite. The region affords a most instructive study of the advance and predominance of a forest- tree parasite on its host, showing this advance to be in as near an exact proportion as the conditions for its optimum development become more favorable. The problem of the mistletoes in their ecological relationships, re- gardless of the fact that they are parasitic, is similar to that of all chlorophyllaceous plants: hence, they respond to light, gravity, and Fic. 2.—Cross section of a part of a trunk of a larch tree, showing the regeneration of branches from the same whorl to the fourth generation. (Tape in feet graduated in tenths. ) chemical influences, and in a far less degree to the influences of tem- perature and moisture. How, then, do the ecological requirements of the larch mistletoe hold with the climate of the region described, over which the parasite is widely distributed? The great variation in temperature, occasionally abnormally high, and the late, early, and winterkilling frosts of some sections, although seriously injuring the host, produce but little effect on the parasite. The uniform dryness of the air at all seasons of the year throughout the region does not greatly influence the mistletoe plant, which is essentially xerophytiec. On the other hand, the large percentage of sunshiny days and the ab- sence of clinging fogs are directly favorable to the parasite, as it is LARCH MISTLETOE. Fi positively phototropic. The possible influence of the low absolute humidity and rapid evaporation on the entrance of host, reproduc- tion, etc., is counteracted by the parasite by means of special struc- tures enabling it to withstand long periods of drought. Probably no factor of the region so greatly aids the destructive effects of the mistletoe on the larch as the high, strong winds so prevalent in these mountains. The velocity of the winds is sometimes very great. During 1913 hundreds of reserved yellow pines on the sales area of the Whitman National Forest were up- rooted. The wind in this case was mate- rially aided by the insecure rooting of the trees on the surface of a hard stratum of rocks and gravel, together with a cer- tain amount of decay in the brace roots. This is a condition often found in cases of this kind. Strong winds probably do greater injury to the larch than to any other conifer. An examination of the branching or crown of a mature or middle-aged healthy larch will show that in most cases, especially in windy regions, the tree has been able to reach the standard size only through the production of several generations of branches replacing those broken off by the wind and by other causes (fig. 2). The loss of branches through crowding or natural pruning is not here considered. Trees standing under open conditions from the beginning will show this interesting Fic. 3.—A larch tree of greatly phenomenon of regeneration. Increasing se parent eon et age, within a certain limit, on the part of brooms and the accumulation the main trunk does not interfere with the eat) Beta Mae i Ps a anatomical and physiological connections the branche:, also the witches’- of old branches. Consequently, branches (rine crawa aniving forming at any age sufficiently high on the trunk to escape the influence of suppression should and would remain intact, barring all deteriorating influences, during the natural life of the tree. Trees with wood exhibiting a natural brittleness, which is always very pronounced at the bases of branches, suffer greatly from break- age by the wind. The western larch is especially subject to this form of injury. The brittleness of its branches at their point of attachment with the main trunk is so pronounced that it is not un- 8 BULLETIN 317, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. common to find them lopped off by the wind. This is especially true of tall stems that have come up in close canopy and afterwards become more or less isolated. In the case of the larch the ill effects of the wind are greatly augmented by the heavy loads of long, trail- ing lichens (Alectoria fremontii Tuck. and Usnea longissima Ach.) supported by the branches (fig. 3). During rainy periods these lichens, through the absorption of large quantities of water, increase the weight of the branch by several pounds and, hanging downward in a saturated condition, offer a greater resistance to the wind. The amount of damage to the larch in many locations from this cause alone is much greater than is ordi- narily supposed. In the study in the Whitman National Forest it devel- oped that the injury to the larch by mistletoe (aside from the gradual effects of suppression by brooming up the branches and reduc- ing the assimilatory sur- face) was in a large meas- ure due to the pruning by the wind of the many branches which, being heavily loaded with witches’-brooms, caused an increased weight to be ex- lic. 4.—A larch, showing the original crown entirely erted at their bases. These saved oy rooming: Ts con durr ces 90" yrocins, are, OR Mega tities of “black moss” (Alectoria fremontii Tuck.), far out on the branch and which grows over and mats the foliar spurs. become densely matted with dead leaves and lichens (fig. 3). This increase in weight often amounts to several pounds more than that of a normal branch of the same age and size (Table II) and is further increased by the absorp- tion of water during rainy weather. In the winter the broom fur- nishes a collecting place for snow. It is very evident how the re- sultant of the two forces, viz, the wind in a lateral and the weight of the broom-laden branch in a vertical direction, may bring about the removal of all the main original branches (fig. 4). It is not uncommon to find large heaps of branches heavily loaded with brooms under the infected tree. Up to this point the breakage of normal wood uninfected by mistletoe roots has alone been considered. LARCH MISTLETOE. | 9 The infected wood of the branch, either at its base or other por- tions, where not too greatly enlarged by the stimulating effects of the parasite, requires a much smaller force to break it at the point of infection than is the case in normal branches of like age and thick- ress. The penetration and embedding of the vertical root system of the parasite in the wood of the host add nothing to the strength of the infected tissue, but diminish its normal strength when the force, as in the case of the wind, is applied at right angles to the grain of the infected branch. Since numerous infections occur at the bases of branches, the point of greatest stress, much injury to the tree results. The meristematic tissue in the cambium layer at the point lic. 5.—Cross section of the trunk of a larch tree, showing a typical basal branch burl. Note that the dead wood is attacked by borers which do not encroach upon the living sapwood, where the branch breaks usually produces secondary branches (see fig. 2). These in turn may become infected and are lopped off, so that eventually great burls are produced at this point on the trunk (fig. 5), seriously reducing the merchantable material. The dead wood thus exposed is a place of entrance for insects and fungi. Since it requires years for the secondary branches to attain a size and assimilatory surface capable of supporting the present bulk of the trunk, the vigor of the tree is gradually reduced. The younger portion of the crown above, being continually encroached upon by the parasite, is not able to supply the deficiency in food materials, and the tree, merely existing for a time, finally becomes a prey to various 521°—Bull, 317—16——2 10 BULLETIN 317, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. deteriorating agents and eventually dies before reaching its maxi- mum development (fig. 6). The radial dimensions of the last annual ring of trees in the final stages of mistletoe suppression (fig. 7) Arne 5 SR : a iF I'1c. 6.—A larch tree in the last stages of mistletoe suppression. A few of the witches’-brooms contain living branches. The tree was making no percepti- ble increment and was far be- low the normal size for the region. It was necessary to clear away from the base of the tree the heap of fallen witches’-brooms before it could be cut. Fic. 7.—Two larch trees barely living, as evi- denced by dissection of the bole. Note the very large witches’-brooms and numerous dead branches. were often so fine and narrow that they could be counted only with the aid of a compound microscope. In some of the worst cases the tree was able to produce but a single layer of tracheids in a year. In so far as climate influences the prevalence and destructive effects of the larch mistletoe, that of the Blue Moun- tain region is most favorable. It might be here added that when a particular tree species has succeeded in establish- ing itself outside of what may be con- sidered its optimum range and at the same time is followed up by a most destructive parasite which responds favorably to the habitat, the rapid deterioration of the species must necessarily follow, at least in the more unfavorable sites. LARCH MISTLETOE. 18 FUNGOUS ENEMIES OF THE LARCH. The larch on the tract examined was not attacked to any extent by fungi. The fungi collected were not present in sufficient quantity nor were their effects sufficiently evident to be considered the prime factor in the universal deterioration of the tree. The dead wood and bark of the mistletoe burls were usually infested by the larvee of Melanophila drummondi Kirby (figs. 5 and 8) and occasionally were followed by a fungus causing a black stain. Two burls were found infected Fic. 8.—Cross section of the trunk of a larch tree, showing characteristic fan-shaped burl tissues resulting from an original infection when the tree was 7 years old. The tree was 145 years old when cut. Note the presence of borers. (Tape in feet grad- uated in twelfths.) with Zrametes pini (Brot.) Fr. (figs. 5 and 9), but here, as in a number of other cases where fungi had entered at the burl, the hard- ness and pitchy condition of the wood counteracted the advance of the fungus, and it had not spread much beyond the burl tissue. It is safe to state, from long field observations in other regions, that mistletoe burls furnish admirable starting points for fungi; but since the burl in its early stages is very pitchy (fig. 10) and the dead wood becomes pronounced only after the tree is greatly injured by the mistletoe itself, the effect of the fungi is to destroy later the merchantability of the tree, and the mistletoe may not be the original cause of its deterioration. 12 BULLETIN 317, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE EFFECTS OF MISTLETOE ON ITS HOST. A preliminary survey by the strip method made at the foot of a north slope and partly on the level resulted in the accumulation of the data given in Table I, showing conclusively that the larch in this ~ region is heavily infected with mistletoe. No attempt was made to ascertain the age of the trees given here, so as to show the degree of suppression. A good idea may be obtained, however, of the nature of the infection, distribution, and quantity of mistletoe present on the trees. In general, the height of the trees here recorded is somewhat less than that of normal or uninfected trees in the same region. Fic. 9.—Cross section of the trunk of a larch tree, showing a large burl with white cellulose pits caused by Trametes pini. Note the small amount of living wood and that the dry wood is attacked by fungi and insects. (Tape in feet graduated in tenths.) The youngest specimen found infected was less than 5 years old, which means, of course, that such early infection will not allow a very high state of merchantability to be attained, even if the young tree is not killed prematurely. Usually very young growth first be- comes infected somewhere on the trunk where the bark is not yet protected by cork (fig. 11). The infection of very young seedlings causes them to assume various abnormal shapes and positions, espe- cially when the mistletoe is confined to one side of the stem. Burl LARCH MISTLETOE. 1133 tissues begin to form usually within a comparatively short time, from one to two years in young plants. If the infection occurs on the stem near the base of a branch, the cortical root system advances into the bast tissues of the branch, initiating a burl or witches’-broom at that point (fig. 1). The extension of the cortical roots upward along the main trunk is sometimes sufliciently rapid to keep within the 4 to 5 year old portion of the stem, although the larch mistletoe seldom alg if ul \ k 1 aaa } fic. 10.—Cross section of a trunk of a larch tree with a large burl, showing its struc- ture and a large pitch pocket. spreads very far from the point of original infection. The parasite, however, usually travels more rapidly along the young shoots which develop in number at the place of first infection. The spread of the parasite outwardly along the branch or upwardly along the leader may be hastened by the dissemination of seeds from the older infec- tions. In this manner the last year’s growth is often infected, and even the terminal bud. The branches of the parasite eventually fall away, leaving sears easily discernible on the older parts of the young trees (fig. 1). 14 BULLETIN 317, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE I.—EHatent and nature of. mistletoe infection in 36 larch trees in the Whitman National Forest. Number of burls. Number of witches’-brooms. : Gen- | Gen- eral ene Height eral | mer- Tree No. diam- ies On | At base | At base On Total | Fallen es ae eter. ° of of 1 h on from egeaee unes ee trunk. | hranches.! branches.| PT@CHS-| tree | tree. eeleaeut Inches Feet 12s eae 7 51 1 4 5 13 18 1 | Poor..|........ IGP Sea anne 7 68 1 4 6 10 16 1 |...do...| Poor Aas ren Se leans 9 75 0 0 0 0 0 0 | Good..| Good AS Se a saa ES 10 50 0 0 0 18 18 1 | Fair... Do. Dieser eeeiparen te 11 85 0 2 2 12 14 1 -do... Do. QR y Sena ee 12 64 0 0 4 15 19 2 do... Do. OSA ie Rea eee 12 66 0 0 3 ~ 16 19 0 do... Do. Ie a oa cee a 13 95 0 0 6 12 18 | 2 do...| Fair. TSR OA etna 14 78 0 0 0 0 0 0 | Good..} Good PA ee Shoe 14 122 0 0 0 0 0 0 0... Do. BS Sipner SSE MOB ae 15 98 1 0 4 8 12 2 | Fair.. | Fair. AS ean ne ee 15 84 0 3 4 15 19 3 do... Do. a (feces are tenes, eae 15 83 0 0 0 0 0 0 | Good..| Good VO eee ee 16 88 1 2 4 20 24 3 | Poor. -.| Poor. De ee oe ee 17 85 0 4 5 15 20 17 do... Do. Dilan OS as 17 88 2 8 4 20 24 3 do... Do. PPA’ Aig Sesh 17 90 0 1 2 11 13 1 .do...| Good NS) ee 18 99 1 0 3 8 11 1 | Fair... Do. Di) an eta 18 103 0 0 0 0 0 0 | Good.. Do. Bola ae eane wees 18 80 1 1 3 5 8 3 | Fair... Do. DSB 8 Ripeneee cee 19 99 0 0 0 0 0 0 | Good.. Do. Qa nea ace 20 103 1 2 4 18 21 4 | Fair_..} Fair. Dae nee eA ee 20 120 0 3 3 20 23 6 do... Do. DG ede Wheeg Nes 20 109 3 4 3 21 23 4 do... Do. ESS a Es Coa 22 107 1 1 3 10 13 0 do...| Good Beep hates enti 23 100 2 4 8 8 16 9 | Poor. .| Fair. GSR See 23 110 3 6 5 16 21 7 |...do...| Poor. SQ Re kenya 23 109 4 2 1 10 11 1 do... Do. DOE eee 24 110 1 2 3 15 18 4 | Fair...| Fair. BLS eee Ae ee 25 111 2 3 4 10 14 4 | Poor. .| Poor. DAL ac aig hee Seas 28 126 0 0 0 0 0 0 | Good..| Good VASE eS he ere eae aes 28 110 1 2 1 10 11 2) Fair... Do Bi) |S See re ee 28 119 3 1 2 20 22 2 | Poor. .| Poor. BS AE eae ece 29 123 3 4 6 10 16 2 do... Do. Bape ae eaten 29 125 0 14 5 20 25 6 do Do. SAS areas 30 120 0 3 2 6° 8 0.| Fair Fair. Owing to the slower growth of the branches in length as compared to the stem, the cortical roots of the mistletoe are enabled to extend into the older part of the 2-year-old internodes. After a time the branch is suppressed and the terminal bud becomes infected, resulting in a terminal broom. The cortical roots hkewise penetrate the foliar spurs, causing them to become greatly enlarged, with the result that few leaves are produced (fig. 12). It is remarkable how rapidly in some instances the burl tissues become differentiated. A slight swell- ing is first noticeable; then the bark begins to lose its fresh appear- ance, becomes rough around the edges of the infected tissues, and finally separates altogether from the normal bark (fig. 11). The vertical roots of the parasite continue to live for many years, elon- gating with the same rapidity with which the annual increment of the host is laid down. The hypertrophied tissues resulting from these early infections on the stem spread out in fanlike shapes when viewed in cross section (figs. 8 and 10). Original infections on branches not only cause a local hypertrophy of the immediately LARCH MISTLETOE. 15 infected area (fig. 13), but large brooms are almost invariably produced. In mistletoe regions no trees of any age are safe from infection. A great many trees surrounded by other species not attacked by the PURRRC TUT PRaae TSP ERAN Re PO RERIP CONT ann aes apne: Ba TEE WG pep Reuse ten yar a a ee ee ae a aaa EEE caf $ ao ee oe = os 4 ss 6 Mecticekusstoslsulasitudleclomfaalisol hurbash tu fhistrhaitutlsitintoatal Fic. 11.—The main stem of a young larch, showing two separate infections, one at the whorl of branches and the other on the internode. Both infections are of the same age, as indicated by the large primary sinkers, which terminate at the same annual ring. Note the rough bark on the swellings, the beginning of typical trunk burls. The branches of the mistletoe have fallen, but the sinkers are still living and, will remain alive for an indefinite period, stimulating the host tissues to a greater devel- opment. The central areas of the burl soon die, leaving an open wound. same mistletoe escape early infection and grow to a fair size, with normal, healthy crowns. Such uninfected trees are always conspicu- ous among their more heavily infected neighbors. These trees are eventually attacked, but owing to the ad- vantage of a some- what isolated posi- tion, they may not become badly in- fected, since the seeds must be brought from a dis- tance greater than the natural expelling force of the seed capsule is capable of exerting, Undoubt- Fic. 12.—A larch twig, showing the abnormal size of the foliar spurs when stimulated by the parasite. These spurs edly this force is 4re nearly four times the size of the normal spurs on the same branch, aided by the wind. The final result is the infection of the terminal twigs, and in most cases those of the lower branches. The infection gradually spreads upward; the branches either become broomed 16 BULLETIN 317, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and are broken off, followed in many cases by a secondary crown (figs. 38, 4, 6, and 7), too late to supply the deficiency in food materials; or the vigor of the present bulk growth and the vitality of the tree are reduced by a general infection throughout the entire crown. The latter type of mistletce injury frequently occurs. The tree seems to become infected at many different parts of the crown at ence, and while the branches are not broken by the formation of large brooms, the vitality of the host gradually sinks under the drain on its resources of so widespread an infection. When young trees are infected there is such an excessive broom development by the time they have reached pole size that the original crown has practically Fie. 13.—A common type of original infection on a larch branch, showing the beginning of branch witches’-brooms. disappeared. Bushy secondary branches grow out from the stumps of the old ones, and the lopping process may be continued to a third or fourth generation of branches (fig. 2). The width of the second- ary crowns becomes less and less, until practically nothing remains but the stubs of the former branches, bearing a few straggling green twigs (figs. 3,6, and 7). By this means the assimilatory surface of the tree is gradually reduced. During the period between the fall of the primary and the appearance of the secondary branches, the tree is robbed of a great amount of food material necessary to main- tain its vigor at its present stage, and it begins to show signs of LARCH MISTLETOR. ILA developing a “spike top” (figs.4,6,and7). All heavily infected trees by the time they have reached the age of 200 years, if they succeed in living to that age, have developed a “spike top” (Table IT). Occasionally infected trees attain a considerable size, due to the fact that the original infections occurred chiefly at the bases of the branches and did not spread. The attendant broom formation oc- curring on the branches next to the trunk allows the retention of the branches for a longer time than if brooms were developed farther out on the branch. The merchantability of the tree is greatly reduced, however, by the formation of a series of basal branch burls, causing streaks of pitchy wood to extend along the trunk from one burl to another. The spread of the parasite in the direction of the prevailing winds was very interestingly shown in a number of cases. One case in particular was noted in which a series of trees of nearly the same age standing in a row extending in the general direction of the more con- stant winds indicated that the infection had gradually traveled from the first and most seriously infected specimen to those least infected at the other end of the row. These trees had apparently originated under the protection of an old windfall. Since there were no in- fected trees immediately to the right or left, it is fairly evident that the wind was a factor in seed distribution and also determined the direction of distribution. In order to appreciate thoroughly the significance of the effects of mistletoe on the larch, a study should be made of figures 3, 4, 6, and 7, representing different stages of sup- pression and various types of infection. On the drier slopes, from 80 to 90 per cent of the larch of all ages has been found infected. On the more favorable sites, the percentage of infection was very low and therefore did not interfere seriously with the best development of the species. (See trees Nos. 40 and 41, Table II.) After the preliminary survey, and in order to answer definitely the question whether or not mistletoe is as great an enemy to the host as outward appearance seems to indicate and to obtain, as near as possible, comparable figures on mistletoe injury, 45 infected and uninfected trees were cut and such measurements taken as were thought necessary for the needs of the problem in hand. These data, along with many other observations having a bearing on the subject, have been arranged in Table IJ, whereby it is possible to follow out the main factors operative in the deterioration or suppression of the trees studied and by means of which fairly conclusive comparisons may be drawn. 18 BULLETIN 317, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe II.—Comparison of 45 lurch trees in the Whitman National Forest with respect to mistletoe infection. [Abbreviations: In columns 14 and 40, increasing degree of infection is shown by the number of cross marks; in columns 26, 31, and 32, B=borers, F=fungi, S=sound, St=stain; in column 36, D=dominant, = intermediate, S = Suppressed. ] Branches on Average weight | Average diame- Branch burls. burls. of— ter of branch. Ky aS SS Highest |Branch Length ee Tree point of | witch- Sa= Any || NGO aa infec- | es’- spike Branch} 77h | Normal, ; Num en Liv- | Origi- | tion. |brooms.| top. | Normal | witch- nS same ber. |} ae ing. | nally. branches.| es’- es. | Part of Bal: brooms.|)coms,| Whorl 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Wiis Feet. Feet. Feet. | Pounds. |Pounds.| Inches.| Inches. 0 ec eee eters! Eero ses rece eerste asc oes Oo cenee Remeeeoa Beene sS| eomab~ Sellcconacac|ascosesae Ci eee Retsne eneoeeed Bencee Seca sste||sGrescces |s- ccsece Coesae Aeareeeoad BAsonoce||ascaccsesccsersee G3) (AD ee esse salte ce etea| sepees|eacecios 47.0 de \|Sdecseen 2.0 3.0 0.5 0.8 (G9) tase Shee Sear eeec |sosnod Bacocsaa| Socsberee oo 2 5os56 basseeea Peassaoser sascoa=c\sosscucllsncesclen QO Gf scrs |Meat ga es | ene ey Dips | Mee si | ccc e cle Reo | ee eee ee 944d oss ced a) ace 2 ce Pal see sees oe SER ee eS laicisll ae ok ok I ae | a ee ee OGH|PQie S| acs a] ees Sealife Se si |e sete] Cee e ol resis eiallle Sioaro orci lars cache Sree pe eee | 96 | 43_. 2 20.0 8 10 57.0 Glee see 3.0 4.5 1.0 1.5 LOON Rees 3 35.3 10 18 80.0 (Oy SeSase se eas oweenas 4.5 Ve Sa|esecreeet LOS) So 1 23.0 3 4 77.0 Oe | Sateeere 5. 25 3.2 1.3 1.5 106 | 10.. 1 23.0}— 2 2 59.0 72's eee 1.6 3.2 1.0 -75 VO 7a pdldot 2 ees hs cece es wk Sas seed sae GaSe aos | Sheree! S- no Je5:|eseddese 35/2 ee a eee | Eee TA Ai Se oe Ae cree] ial ladeeebes (B) 40 |e @) Sees 226 | 35_- 12 49.0 5 58 “vivo we ie. J eee (0) > [esceee8 | Bees | eee 227 | 33.- 9 We 23 51 Tip. 10 Oe Ee Seereen Percraad sanapcoa||cscoss-c5 229 | 28.-. il 45.5 17 53 Tip. 10 12 (@)- ai] SeSeeeee (2) |\S-e2ee eee PBR) || B¥lo- 5 53.0 3 28 Tip. (| S225 28 (@) eee eee (@) |Eeeeeetee TENS || Loc 6} 48.3 7 33 Tip | eee fe mete (e) (2). See | eee 245 | 30-- 5 54.4 4 NO) Hiss Seeley 2S, | Seer | aie igh ets (1) > ujeense as] eee Eee 245 | 37-- 4 43.0 3 21 93.0 Di llspsis Sse (C) eee Nee OS 6s oSeciace 248 | 32_- 7 42.0 a 29 Tip. I ee parser ese aN 25:'03| S=e-\geteel | eee ore 249 | 2. 12 37.5 19 85 Tips: |Eeeeee = 2 (Bh) > Jassoec eel See oee Pee eee 249 | 12. 10 49.3 5 AGH eee Seppe 24 (4):-). |. Lace Peel ea Seance | Rae ees 252 | 38.-- 6 67.4 10 39 Bip: || Seeeeres | sscccace (6) eee Petes Seesedod|coccasas 253 | 20-- 3 34. 6 2 18 ARID. | gerne-t 42 (4). “|ponseeslie: eee aneeeeee 7 le eo S| Ie meee ene Ie ie ene ere eS SONS SCReAaee EEaReenree |Seoccccallsccacscallsosstcsc: 066 40222 ls = 52) Saccmeseloscie .|Pesme S3|5-eeere 2 |S eemenl ose sacine| semaase acm \ ose sae pee eee eee CY G- Sees Beeees So neeese EASteel Eecoacas|cecasssoulhs- isan lasetaasel PEASSHSacasenessaclosccoses FeGeneace a Branch witches’-brooms fallen to ground. g Crown secondary, infected. b Most original branches broken off. h Branches all fallen. ¢ One original branch. ~ Upper crown heavily infected. d Original branches broken off. j Branches secondary. e Crown secondary. % Branches mostly fallen. f Branches fallen; last stage. LARCH MISTLETOE. 19 TABLE I11.—Comparison of 45 larch trees in the Whitman National Forest with respect to mistletoe infection—Continued. & a : Occupied by each burl (per cent). =) Bors s = 8 Transverse sec . LelS S sec- ™ +, S 3 oa f £ tion through | Circumference. Aree ae gic & 6 >) 5 o conten! of living trees. Peas ee. |. 28 eee) 2 | | = 5 ; a & & 5, a Ist 2053) | 1stale2ds soda ielst 2d 3d 1 2 it 15 16 17 ES L959: | 20M 2 E22 he 23. 24 25 Yas: Feet. 30 45. 272.3.4 1 6 EGS? (8 OE See Aer Goaee Eee [ci oeeelasoce lsomeeal eeoeae lemme me O3*} 29-4. LS eo Se ahs See Me eee ere tl | a i le | ae | Pee) (Ee eee 63 | 42.. EeNe | esas oe eee Nc sete eee shel (ever ches| PeMmmmerel Ses) lessees (Steer pel arene eer | Soe 74 | 26..- © legac Seder Sane) cae ean Peace PMs || Seed Bae a Le OI ee eee 90 | 6....| Xxx 2 | 1355 65 95a | ems 65 (09) |eeson 33 UO eecose Os) Pete neers | eee | ee ee ea Sa. a aa se ee Seed 96 | 9.... (1) Le eS RR SR ae Pm a MU |e | a ae 6 eR 96 | 43...| xxx 1 | 15.0 700) | Seed ee 100R Bes 2) 222 TO eee ase 100 | 7-. XXX SF i izix®) 55 6 15} 100} 28) 20 100 100 160 NOS.) S522 I) xx 1] 11.0 AAs Messed seee pA} || cs ae a ee TOO ARE ee ees 106 | 10...| xxx 1] 6.0 ODN ee ese O5miee sale ee NOOR EE ee | acer 107 | 11. Tifiseackna cl bss Setel Pe eo pee eese| eee P| 18 Te Ae ae |S So let ea Nin LLL) Gees) SSC PE Rese BSS SE See ines Renee (ne =| |e eve eee at eee ed error Ieee 119 | 14. CD Nett ESE eS eS Se ia | ee am || | es | ere (ee 122 | Selexex| 1d |'Base.| 2160 |..2...|.2-2- Sagi 3 tea Oia meee = A123 \\52 -- xx PG reonOL WP BlOOR Sceeeelac ass LOOW ESS See (Wn Saeese seaces 123 | 44... Ree ee oe ee cle aoe | eee ase 2) = Se SIE eee es eer eae eu Uae OK EY ore eee] = elccies | aotea = =| Sant o| = Sa Maelo [brie oS heaters aera cost SET | BU) Ee) ae Se | ee eo | eee LO || ae Lee es | ee ee [eee ee ee 143 | 22. @) |p Scbncl Bes aeel Easel Eee ol aera DMM a oie ae SS || a ae ee 145 | 3-.- 20.34 3} 152 60 35 20} 60] 40 15 49 50 100 145 | 39.. 31 tees Al Rr eae (a S| es ed ae eae U1 6 bet] Pere UE ee | Le ga gs (UW see ei 5 SaaS fe SS a [RR ae ee aan || atl (ee ee | [Ree el ten been) Parra 180 | 23. Raves ee Lee ee ee til eee eh amclind ome alinn Ss St a a83 | ol. | xxx 1 | 16.5 EY) | ie SOM wae ea side PAU) |G eon (eens 205 | 15. . .|xxxx 1 | 25.0 AO Aese hee | See ea AOR Pane se |Basene 216 | 16. x 1 | 10.0 (3 Gs28e5 pees oo) | eee Seese GOW Ace al see 222) V7_..| xxx 2) 19.5 40 SOEs Se 50 Aa i ase 25 OU oats wee 224 | 36... XXXX Be ee sree epee S| ciate aise cetl | ~~ ae alm cba te Eee a esac 225 | 29_..|xxxx 1 | 48.0 eae ee O10) | 528 Ba eae LOS ees |e ies 226 | 35..-|xxxx | ees Se Boa leoee en |eos se 40S 5 /4| eae as | areal eee 227 | 33-- Ree eee | eee Lem |seeace| os 22 -|-- sgaleeeeelseceleeoaael eee se o[Matnecis 229 | 28_..\Xxxx 1 | 27.0 AD apr alse: = SON ees eee PA Sees peeeees 1 Ge oe ae) Ee 2 LS Ce on Vel Pen mm) || |e] || (ee Cae EER Po en SP sb etnias [eee sis facec.|- «ode ee cc|enct oe like on nal eee eed ltersio ere o£ CUE Weare a c| RD 2) a 8 ee oe ee ee ees || ed ee ee ad ee eee 245 | 37...) xxx 1 | 46.0 LOOM eee eo 2 00h Pesea|saase AQ Meals tets ol Ske of Tipe 2) ee! ee Bes SAante eee Miles | (Ghe es) Sere Sercod Rcesae Merce oe rx |. fi|-.- bok. | i a Vamea W eM I || Se file lag a 249 | 12_..|xxxx SO nS a el ee] Pee MPS I ese (eh Me pc eae ae ee eee le 2 AD rs 56) ee ES 9 | Se eR DR >) | ae |e | eae (ee ee 253 | 20...|xxxx 1 | 49.0 tC ts) | aaa 80525. 2)2ca<5 VAS eel Cees Si | 24. .- yh pate sj ae Sia ie oe | 2 A era || eS |G ae | 8 Cae | eer 566 | 40.. 7 ee es oo es 2 Hpac Es fs PS. lel eee eeeeres | Alea tus ee 623 | 41.. 1) pig Megane era peneee ne 52 |. . Ree mel ce |eve--]-----] 1 Burls on trunk. Condition. 26 Rings in sapwood (average). Number. 20 BULLETIN 317, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLeE II1.—Comparison of 45 larch trees in the Whitman National Forest with respect to mistletoe infection—Continued. Rings comprising | © : 4 present period of | © eee sh suppression. z x g it] 8 : eS : = oa | pa 2 8 “ Tree No. @ at g 3 5 $ i) d q g 3 a ap on ‘= = 5 4c) 7S) q uo) Ss 8 2 S a = = 5 a Ee] ES 4 SF & 2 cI q ZS I 3 Sa | 3 q B- | ‘ep Fs) = 3 a g Ss 5B = 5 ‘a I < = Z\O- | Ome et | ost ra ie era aed 1 2 29 30 | 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 WG. Inches. Feet In. | Feet BO) eA pete Sere seers 0. 25 i) S) pee ieee ais 0} S | 0.75 War AO ene Enea iene see ae 0 0 S) iS) GOS Ree 40 IL 6.65 | 1.0 GB} Bea eee enemoaaanee 25 20; S S| SB. lesedes AS || ID). |B 1.0 TAA 26 eel eee ese we 0 0; Ss Si 702" ooo. e. 20] I 6 1.0 CUO aes Gece see acaenice 4 30 B 18}. ||. Gal es aees 20 Ss 6 1.0 OAs lla oer ol Sino prayer re 0 0 s iS) 97 58 | 340 D {15 1.2 QOH ee ecto eee ie 0 Oo; Ss S | @2 32 80} I |9 1.0 SOR PAgeou ee Satter .4 30; S S | 65 30 200 DENG 1.0 OOH ieicom cps, Sa SEC oF 6] S So 93 48] 165} D /11 1.3 LOS VO aaee e622 Sea eee 383 4/ §$ S | 95 64 | 265] D (14 1.2 TOS WO) eases Ae Beas 4 30 Ss iS) 67 0 40 I 7 1.0 UDI Lees ae Se es wes terest 0 0; Ss Sigangs 64 | 325] D {16 1.0 TIL 1a ig Ne aerate .4 14 Ss iS) 85 48 | 140 I fil 1.3 Oia ABs ena ee a 0 Oo; Ss S- |122 80] 665} D /14 1.5 VPA A Nida eae Ne ee ee ee 0 OS S | 64.5 16 7 | D |9 15 TARA lite = a ae See repe nese -3 20 iS) S_ | 84 48 | 170 D /11.5 1.3 1235 | Adee ets see re 0 OFS S | 95 50 0| D {20 11f23.11 bs ei We -20 10 Ss S 93.5 64 | 435 D {17 1.5 M3 Oye | Divas coh ages Dale «2 10 s S |114 66 | 485 D {19.5 1.5 a lee) ea ee ee arr 0) 0 i.) S |113.5 82 | 595 D {18 1.5 Gyn Rs aan Rete See Sea 2 30 Ss) Ss 95 64 | 240 D (13 1.5 TE ERIC ak a ant ee eee ha 0 0| $s S |123 94 |1,045 | D |22 1.6 VAT DO ae B see See ae eae 0 0 Ss S —|102 80 | 550 D |17 1.5 PROG E DZ seen sense ea 2.5 30 iS) S {113 82 | 920 D (21.5 1.5 INGE) RON ie een ee See Oe se 516) 10; S Ss |119 82 1,010} D |24 1.5 PAUSE aes ae Beaune 1.2 86 Ss Ss |100 64 | 430 1D) |filz 1.5 ZilGM Nl Geeks er eee 1.2 10 iS) S |131 92 | 720 D {18 1.0 DO Da Deaton): Sten ees DS 255s Ss |119 80 | 885 | D (21 1.5 2 2AB |e 3 Gober carne eae -15 20 s iS) 86 50} 160 I jil 1.5 D2 diel DO Raean a hk eae 58) 40| S S |106 82 | 590) D |19 1.5 DOAK GN Weta ce tees eae, eel tree hs - 45 35 iS) Ss |121 82 | 790 D {20 1.5 OES OER ney ook oa es 4 38 Ss S |131 98 |1,540 D /26 1.8 : 5 S) S |107.5 82 | 700 D {18 1.0 S S |104.5 65 | 380 D {16 1.5 S) Ss |121 80] 820 D {20 1.0 S) S {113.5 82 | . 675 D |19 1.3 S) S | 97 60) 380] I 14 15) Ss S | 84.5 50] 305! S (14 1.5 S) S |1l2 90} 905 D {21 1.4 S) S | 88 48 | 470} D /|18 1.0 S S {120.5 82 | 780}- D |21 1.5 Ss s |112 81 | 870] D {21 1.4 S S 133.5 98 |1,905 D {31 1.5 SBM G Oma tl eoess cl eseealseesee 43 2.0 SgGse Shee rosie eeculees cee 51 2.0 Growth for last 10 years at stump. a The section passed through burl tissues. | b= | Degree of infection. LARCH MISTLETOE. 21 The trees were selected from a comparatively small area after the preliminary survey had shown the nature of the deterioration to be universal and similar over large areas of the same type of stand. Although the numerical basis for the figures in the table is very meager, interesting results are shown, which fully justify the arrange- ment. In the absence of suitable volume-table studies of the normal growth of the same age class for the region, the arrangement of the table is based entirely on the trees felled for study. An increasing degree of infection is indicated by the larger number of cross marks employed (columns 14 and 40). Selecting trees of the same age, the study of the table may proceed as follows: Trees Nos. 42 and 27 are of the same age. The infection of No. 42 is xx; of No. 27,0. By consulting oot 27 the average width of sapwood for tree No. 42 is found to be 0.53 inch, and column 28 shows that the sapwood con- sists of-an average of 16 rings; tree No. 27 has an average width of sapwood of 0.9 inch, with an average of 21.3 rings. Tree No. 42 showed a present period of suppression of 20 rings (column 30), the combined width of which is 0.5 inch (column 29); tree No. 27 has no present suppression and is marked 0 in the table. The condition of the sapwood, sound for both trees (column 31), indicates the ab- sence of secondary causes of deterioration, as does in like manner the column (32) on the condition of the heartwood. Referring to other columns, tree No. 42 is shown to have a total height of 53 feet {col- umn 33), a full volume of 25 feet, board measure (column 35), a breast-high diameter of 5 inches (column 37), and is dominant (col- umn 36) ; tree No. 27, on the other hand, has a total height of 60 feet, a full volume of 40 feet, board measure, a breast-high diameter of 6.65 inches, and is sufficiently overtopped and crowned by its neigh- bors to be marked intermediate. The fact that the infected tree stood fairly in the open, with no deteriorating agents other than mistletoe associated with it, leaves small room for doubt that the tree was suppressed by the parasite upon it. Table II shows that tree No. 42 has seven branch brooms (column 8), with an average weight of 3 pounds per broom (column 11) on and above the average weight of the normal branch, which is 2 pounds (column 10). The effects of the mistletoe on its host are further shown by the differences in the diameters of branches supporting brooms and those not so encumbered (columns 12 and 18). The analysis of these trees showed that both individuals started equally, but the measurements and study of all cross sections showed plainly a retarded growth during the last few years of life except at the stump, the section passing through burl tissues (column 40). The age of the tree can not be held responsible for the faliing off in increment. A compari- son of the measurements taken at the various cross sections and at VOX BULLETIN 317, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the stump was found to vary so little that the stump measurements were adopted to show the falling off in growth for the last 10 years. A study of all the cross sections of tree No. 27 showed a normal growth. It also possesses a crown of larger dimensions. The two trees stood within 100 feet of each other. Selecting from Table II that which is of greatest moment, trees Nos. 43 and 9 may be com- pared as shown in Table III. TasLteE II1I.—Condition of larches Nos. 43 and 9, selected from Table II for comparison. Item of comparison. Tree No. 43. Tree No. 9. SASS G5 3 FF SE EE SE RL IIE Se BASE Se a ee I Eee 2 Nee eile years 96 96 Breast-high: diameters. se. s2ssehes cstae ee ea eee Eee Ease sci inches. . 6 nifeGhions 6 Es 53 Ben cs kA a Pee aoe ee eee Messe es FEL his tase 0.0.4 0 Average width of sapwood. .-..--.-- GLE See = coarse sje inches. - 1.12 = e385 Average number of rings in sapwood....-----------.------------ Seensace 23 27 Width of present zone of suppression.........-...---.---------- ee Psa pe eights 6 52 sata cones ease eee oa ae ares Ac eee aos aos feet... 65 72 Merchantablelength £2252 255 28- kena potato eee eee een see do...- 20 32 Mallgvolumeshoardimcasuresss sen soe sees eee eee do..-.- 20 8) Growthsorlastl Olyeansaa s=paas eteS o ee ree inches. - 0.10 1 Relaiiontomeighborin gubkees esse eee a eae ee eae ee re Dominant. | Intermediate. Tree No. 43, as shown by the data in Table II, had burls on its trunk and at the bases of branches (columns 3 and 15). A trunk burl occupied 100 per cent of its total circumference (column 20) and only 10 per cent of it was living (column 23). The tree had six branch brooms (column 6), with an average weight of 4.5 pounds (column 11), and normal branches of 3 pounds average weight (column 10). In this manner tree No. 5 may be compared with tree No. 44; No. 10 with No. 11; No. 3 with No. 39; No. 5 with No. 25; No. 33 with No. 35; No. 2 with No. 12; No. 30 with No. 37; No. 33 with Nos. 35, 99, or 36; No. 18 with No. 34, ete. EFFECT OF MISTLETOE BURLS ON THE MERCHANTABILITY OF LARCH TREES. The effect of the formation of burls on the trunk and at the bases of branches, aside from injuring the tree from a physiological stand- point by cutting off the transporting tissues, introduces a cull factor of no mean proportion in the present timber capital. In bucking the tree it is possible in most cases to saw out the burls when they are far enough apart not to interfere seriously with the merchantable log length. In badly infected specimens the trunk and branch burls (figs. 5, 8, 9, and 10) are frequently so close together and so evenly distributed along the trunk that little merchantable material can be obtained. Sometimes these burls take up the entire merchantable LARCH MISTLETOE. 23 part of the tree and are very frequently more than 10 feet in length. Streaks of discolored wood, usually pitchy, and long checks may often extend from burl to burl, producing a very poor grade of lumber. Table IV shows the quantity of culls resulting from the mistletoe burls. Tasite 1V.—Culled larch lumber resulting from mistletoe burls. Trunk burls. Basal branch burls. ohoih i a ars Volume, b.m. Volume, b.m. BES Tree N aS ere at of culls due to ie of culls due to 2 2. ; burls. Maxi- burls. tree. Burl Wench mum | Num- ING} «|= $$$} clnias ber ter.@ At At Bor, | © For base. top. Bach tree Each. tree. Years. Inches.| Inches.| Feet. | Feet. | Feet. | Inches. Feet. | Feet. 1 6.6 Ga 22s5.. Berea ale cecees (OEE SARE aA SaaS Feel es noe a popaiecs 3 { 2) 85) 8 Jee (e) Bj pescesse Gy |. 165-0 ae it (PS TSE eae || Gali ce Se a Gey |e Cha POO ier 225228222. : ae a 1-2 ae 26.8 aie beige ere lsmects er 28.2 10. 0 E Pes] See 5 OK esse 1 15.1 14.8 3 25 25 15.1 1 205) 27.5 TH es eee if 8.1 7 9 14.5 14.5 9 1 1.4 15.9 122.5 |25y See 1 13.5 12.7 3 20 20 13.5 8 20 40 1753) 0G) 5 se 1 8.6 8.3 2 8 8 16 2 5 13 33 10 10 5 30 anak Stel epee call poms pSPaaas 4 30 12 180 180 6 175 245 12 170 195 Soe Aa 67.5 salu \ 292 5 30 30 4 20 40 12 140 165 9 190 190 11 150 260 5 60 60 6 80 80 5 70 70 4 60 60 7 75 145 eee foot] oe Sole I soe soho | mea ecre nics = |[o wee = alee ss etllleeetoe io eicilleraleeopies 21 190 190 BAD) Oe a ee EO Baceee pee S56 Bier Oe, Eee || > sas Seca nee neers Meier 10 0 110 Ape cae 2s eel a as cece lotr accel << >. - lslemee Soleeepcasclascacce 6 9 95 WEG IEOD Seis oe aic's4 22 1 18 17.8 16 210 (6) 19 3 120 330 a Average diameter taken between middle line of burl and either extremity. b Tree culled. ; ¢ See figure 8. d See figure 10. ¢ See figure 9. METHOD OF CONTROL. Since mistletoe is propagated and spreads from tree to tree by means of seeds, the method to be employed in eradicating it is similar to that which is now being adopted in many sales areas for reducing the ravages of forest-tree fungi. Results will be obtained in a much shorter time, however, than in the case of fungous enemies. Mistle- toe occupies only the aerial part of the host. Fungi attack all parts— roots, stems, and leaves; hence, cutting an infected tree does not 24 BULLETIN 317, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. eliminate some of the worst fungous enemies of the forest. Those of the roots escape and others attacking the aerial portion of the tree afterwards in many cases develop quite as vigorously on the dead wood as before. On the other hand, the mistletoe plant dies with the death of the host. Although the seeds of the mistletoe are ex- pelled from the pericarp with considerable force, they are not carried, even though aided by wind, for great distances, as are the spores of fungi. Birds and rodents * are factors in the distribution of mistletoe seeds, but the actual service rendered the parasite by such agencies is very small. It is very evident, then, that no trees, young or old, in- fected with mistletoe should ever be selected for seed trees, because all young growth beneath such trees and in the near vicinity would be in great danger of infection. By a gradual process of elimination cn every timber-sale area, governed by a clause in the contract requir- ing the taking down or girdling by fire of every mistletoe-infected tree, much may be accomplished within a comparatively short time. CONCLUSIONS. The principal conclusions which may be drawn from the present study are summarized as follows: The deterioration of the western larch in the more open and exposed stands of the Whitman National Forest is due to mistletoe. Although yellow pine and Douglas fir are the most valuable species, the larch, when free from mistletoe, attains a size on any site, so far as observed, sufficient to merit its being carried along in the rotation with the other species. From the fact that the larch mistle- toe finds its optimum development in the more exposed sites, future silvical operations should aim at confining the larch to moist bottoms and protected valleys. Since the principal defects of the western larch, excluding’ pitchy butt and shake, originate from mistletoe, the diameter and age limit of this tree may be greatly extended, provided methods for the eradication of the mistletoe are adopted. The larch mistletoe attacks’ trees of all ages, from seedlings to the unsuberized parts of mature trees. If not entirely suppressed or killed, trees attacked in early life seldom produce a good grade of merchantable timber. All trees seriously infected show poor health -and reduced diameter or height. Trees becoming infected in middle life may have the quality of the timber reduced by the large knots formed by the basal branch burls. 1The common English sparrow has been observed by the writer to feed upon the seeds of the yellow-pine mistletoe in the city park at Coeur d’Alene, Idaho. Mistletoe seeds have been found in the excrement of birds in mistletoe regions. Birds and rodents fre- quently build their nests in mistletoe brooms and are known by actual investigation to play a minor role in the distribution of the seeds of the parasite, LARCH MISTLETOE. 25 Burls found in early life on the trunk cause suppression by reduc- ing the food-transporting tissues, form open wounds for the entrance of fungi and insects, and cause streaks of pitch to appear in the wood, which often extend from one burl to another. Burls formed at the bases of branches produce similar injuries and may also cause a premature pruning of the branch. The extra weight of the brooms, together with the accumulated débris, causes the branches to break off readily under the influence of the wind and deprives the tree of its normal food supply. Mistletoe thrives best on trees of uneven stands. In dense, close, even-aged stands, as in deep valleys, the parasite usually causes less damage. The type of infection working the greatest injury in the shortest time is the formation of brooms on the branches. . Thinning promotes the development of the parasite in the crown; hence, all infected trees of any size, age, and condition should be marked for cutting. The mistletoe spreads more rapidly in the crowns of younger trees, owing to the greater number of twigs in ele proximity sus- ceptible to PAT eebION. ; Two types of infection by the mistletoe occur: (1) By the seed falling on the branches, where a broom usually develops if infection occurs, and (2) the gradual advance of the cortical root system of the mistletoe along the branch to younger tissues. The seeds of mistletoe have been known to fall on the healing tissue of wounds on old parts of trees, causing infection. Suppression by mistletoe causes a more rapid and an earlier forma- tion of heartwood in the younger age classes, thus inviting insects and fungi at earlier periods of growth. Mistletoe may be controlled by inserting in all timber-sale con- tracts a clause requiring the cutting on the sales area of all larches infected with mistletoe, whether merchantable or unmerchantable. is i a. Figils +5 | ... : PUBLICATIONS OF U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELAT- ING TO FOREST TREE DISEASES. — AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Forest Trees, Diseases common in California and Nevada. (Forestry Mis- cellaneous. ) Oregon Oak, Quercus garryana. (Forestry Silvical Leaflet 52.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. Diseases of Deciduous Forest Trees. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 149.) Price 15 cents. Mistletoe Pest in Southwest. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 166.) Price 10 cents. Plant-disease Survey in Vicinity of San Antonio, Texas. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 226.) Price 20 cents. Diseases of Ornamental Trees. (Separate 463 from Yearbook 1907.) Price 5 cents. 27 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY A WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH * 1916 shay te, . BASARARE wormtieawh Te irs Ee LORE ES a ine KI BAT Pre ee yy Je = ~ ‘> hid 9 sips ee es Soe eoee eo ae ’ He 3 cea Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER November 18, 1915 THE BONAVIST, LABLAB, OR HYACINTH BEAN. By C. VY. Preer, Agrosiologist in Charge, and W. J. Morse, Scientific Assistant, Forage-Crop Investigations. CONTENTS. Page Page ERP RANCERER TE A= EN) TAP | ToueauleENl imewenes 2k 4 Cultural characteristics ____..______ 1 | Notes on the introduction numbers peed producmon === 225 os 2 OLE DolichosHlablap== == ve MELrIPimCHaracrenrs, == —— = 2. |Ohiteratire citedu2sts saute cee oe cee 15 Weunmesrtoranuman) TOO. =. --—,.2=.-— 3 INTRODUCTION. The bonavist is a native of India and has been cultivated since ancient times. In tropical and subtropical countries it is generally grown for human food, the young pods of some varieties being used after the manner of string beans. In India, China, and, formerly at least, the West Indies, the dried seeds of certain varieties are also used as food. In temperate countries it is more commonly known as an ornamental plant, especially the purple-leaved floriferous vari- - eties, which are often used to grow over trellises or porches. To some extent the bonavist has also been used for forage and as a green- manure crop. Judging from the reports of early writers its use for such purposes in the Southern States was formerly common, but the plant is now rarely used there as a field crop. CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS. In most respects the bonavist is closely comparable to the cowpea, but it is more vigorous and more viny. oO ca S |e 4 a Acres.| Acres. Acres.|Acres.'Acres.| Acres. AN eEipton, Ind ==... July, 1913 | 29 | 184.6 | 153.0 |$209.48 | 7.8 | 2.2] 21.9) 7.4 |$1.21 |$24.90 B | Montgemery, Ohio]..... do...-| 29} 86.5 | 76.3 | 146.96 | 9.8] 2.4]17.9] 6.2] 1.42 | 19.00 C |} Mercer, N. J..:..- Aug.,1913 | 32 | 109.6 | 93.8 | 101.87 | 10.3 | 21.5 | 17.0] 6.9] 1.50 | 26.46 D | Moultrie, Ill....... Oct., 1912 | 59 | 192.9 | 177.6 | 198.30 | 24.7 | 11.3 | 18.4 | 8.8 | 1.18 | 28.67 E | Tama, lowa......- Aug., 1914} 25 | 148.8 | 109.7 | 196.40} 4.6 1.6 | 18.8 7.5 | 2.00 | 33.68 F | Kalamazoo, Mich-| Oct., 1913 | 26 | 172.8 | 138.9 | 101.40 | 20.3} 4.3 | 28.6 | 5.7] 1.50 | 24.67 G | Maury, Tenn ..-.... Nov., 1913 | 15 | 389.0 | 303.3 | 110.38 7.1 7.6 | 40.3 sz) 6 (a) || 176655 H | Hartford, Conn ..-| Oct., 1913 | 25 | 93.5) 62.7] 138.80| 4.6] 2.2) 17.8] 5.4] 1.68 | 26.67 I | Bradford, Pa......| Sept., 1913 | 28 | 109.4 83.7 51.20 | 6.3 | 16.8 | 28.3 2.6 | 1.30 | 22.00 J | Christian, Ky .-..-. Nov.,1913 | 26 | 404.0 | 345.0 | 69.04 | 29.2 ToO NW BEEO |) E45) |isecaoe 17. 43 K | Hamilton, Nebr-..| June, 1913 | 25 | 261.0 | 240.0 | 158.38 | 13.3] 3.1 | 27.4) 9.6 | 1.94 | 34.44 L | Rockwalland Gray- | SON TOX:= so. =. /3 Apr., 1913 | 24 | 271.6 | 230.4 | 103.41 | 41.3 | 25.0 | 30.9 | 17.6 1.12 | 25.00 M | Scotland, N. C....| Nov.,1912 | 38 | 274.1 | 170.8 | 113.50 | 37.6 | 14.4 | 24.7 | 19.3 SY) sacase N | Augusta, Va......| Sept.,1913 | 28 | 209.4 | 142.6 71.80 | 9.2] 14.2 | 33.8 4.7 | 1.08 | 16.40 O | Waushara, Wis...} June, 1913 | 26 | 170.4 | 126.8 48.27 | 14.0} 14.4 | 30.8 8.9 | 1.34 | 31.11 i (Bates, Mo... ; 2. < Aug., 1914 | 25 | 184.8 | 146.8] 95.00) 8.1 ail |) 24.83 8.0 | 1.45 | 24.25 Q | Alexander, N. C.-| Nov. 1913 | 14 | 236.0 | 97.8 39.14 | 14.6 | 13.8 | 32.6 | 11.2 SiN Sacere R | Oklahoma, Okla--.| May, 1913 | 21 | 214.9 | 134.3 50.00 | 13.3 4.8 | 23.1 | 15.0 | 1.12 | 22.92 Si) ehike: Ala... 2. Mar., 1913 | 21 | 328.4 | 198.0} 36.50 | 20.8 5.8 | 31.3 | 24.2 71 | 14.18 T | Holmes, Miss... .- - Apr., 1913 | 25 | 401.8 | 215.0 22.40 | 11.7 | 18.9 | 24.7 | 21.7 69 | 10.69 U | Russell, Kans....- Aug., 1914 | 25 | 655.0 | 331.0 43.20} 7.0 7.7 | 29.0 | 14.5 | 1.90 | 27.10 | The number of cattle and hogs found in a region is undoubtedly governed by the available pastures and the price of feeds. Where good pastures abound and where grain and hay can be produced cheaply more cattle and hogs are found. Less acreage is worked per horse in the regions where improved implements and heavy teams are employed than in the regions where small teams and 1-horse implements predominate. This is probably due partly to the fact that in the Central West, where a small acreage is worked per horse, many colts are raised, and extra mares are kept on the farm for this purpose. The fact that larger yields of crops are made and more live stock kept on the farms in the Middle West where these heavy horses and implements are used makes also for a 8504°—Bull. 8320—16——2 10 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. greatly increased amount of work other than tillage. Labor, how- ever, is more efficient and a greater acreage is cultivated per man where more horses and better equipment are used. The quality of labor available, the type of farming, and the topography of the land largely regulate the size of teams to be used. With very cheap labor, 1-horse implements may be more economical than heavier imple- ments, since slightly more land is worked with two 1-horse teams than with one 2-horse team. The cost of labor given is the average of what the farmers inter- viewed actually pay. Where cheap labor is available crops which require much hand labor predominate. ACREAGE AND CROP YIELDS. Table IV gives the reader a general idea of the types of farming practiced in each region surveyed. The normal acreages and normal crop yields, as shown, represent the averages for the farms visited in each region. TasLteE 1V.—Normal average acreage per farm and yield per acre of various crops on the farms surveyed in twenty-one regions of the United States. Region covered (fig. 1). Corn. Oats. Wheat. Hay. 5 ~ Yield Yield Yield Yield B Per Per Per Per a Count d State. er er er | er > Pec ees farm. eee farm. Acree farm. are farm. Aptos i Acres. |Bushels.| Acres. |Bushels.| Acres. |Bushels.| Acres. | Tons. PACS DID LOM wl dees ae tee eeee 52.1 57.4 24.1 51.0 19.6 21.4 35.3 1.89 B Montgomery, Oboes eee 20.4 52.3 6.1 40. 4 17.5 21.8 16.8 1.67 GF |eMercer Nes ei ces ema sees | 18.0 pol ile oe oclGeanertec Toi 24.2 24.0 1.79 D Moultrie, 10 rs ec meee hetoo-10 49.3 28.7 41.2 6.2 PAN?) i}55) 1.75 is |lamarlOwaderereeeeseeeee ee ae 44.0 46.6 26.6 35645) ||>Sscuace 20.0 21.5 1.50 ¥F | Kalamazoo, Mich..-..-....... 1 2726 41.5 19.9 Sie, 39.4 19.8 24.0 1.45 GaliMaunyacbennse ere aera 1 5404 40.9 26.1 Bile 2 72.0 18.5 47.0 GY lal |) 1alayratorol, Coins ss scsdeeeccss | 9.3 39.9 1.4 SOMO sees eae 21.0 eei2. i |eBradiord Rares saeeeeeee | 7.8 38. 2 9.1 30.0 2.5 20.6 25.0 1.70 J | Christian, Ky ..-.--- 2 ae ODS 36.9 25.0 30.0 | 111.6 16.8 77.9 1.08 K Hamilton, Nebr > 83.8 35.0 19.0 28.7 77.0 23.5 | @26.2|) @3.50 L | Rockwall and Grayson, Tex 40.8 33.6 49.7 45.6 41.7 18:9.) 2. 22sec de eae M | Scotland, N.C.....- -| 40.0 33.0 3.0 Ue Mi Beresnen aocasas 5.3 1.10 N | Augusta, Wie _.| 20.0 BE} 0) lleobesaas Seekeeee 37.1 16.0 30.1 1.01 O | Waushara, Wis...........-..- iues1 883) 30.4 16.4 9954 site ee | ea vey) 1.04 Pa PB ateswMO ses so3 445 pees | 49.0 29.3 21.4 29.0 24.9 19.0 31.9 1.00 Q)| Alexander, N. C..-.-12221 22 1 8} 25.2 7.0 10.5 19.1 11200 |. eee ee eee RE eOkiahomas Okilae cee) eso 47.2 23.9 16.7 Sill. fs) 9.9 16.6 | 417.3 a 3.67 Ss PRTG Ai ae eas dee eee ek ae | 56.0 23.1 10.0 85.7 es ck Selanne Bee eee eee AVE || delaybanes, WikS oe. ee ee 112.5 22.0 4.0 2520) Ve oe nie |e i ee | eee (WW) | IRGRSEULE Toms ob seo cecckaces | PLEO 12 90); Ae seosellescaosce 185.0 17.5 | @10.0| @2.00 a Alfalfa. FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. alial) TaBLe 1V.—Normal average acreage per farm and yield per acre of various crops on the farms surveyed in twenty-one regions of the United States—Contd. Pas- ture Region covered (fig. 1). Cotton. Rye. Potatoes. Tobacco. aud _ other crops. iB 3 Yield Yield Yield Yield 2 | County and State. ee er | Fe eRe Se Sper nee per Per e | farm. es farm. Se farm. aXenG farm. sion. farm. 4 | Acres. |Pounds.| Acres. |Bushels.| Acres. |Bushels.| Acres. |Pownds.| Acres. cs, | IMPORT sj neVeTs has Spel yee vee | | Reem Rr ||P SBE |S ee Se nr cai Hae 5 21.9 BaeeeomEcomenye OhiO) 2 (sa ao 4 (25-2. 2 =| sacs eee | ee ane | ae 6.0 |1,004.8 9.5 Pa pMercereNar 2nd Ce else oon 13.1 20.6 IPP | eT ATS a ee Moe al 14.1 LD |] RA WersE Rete TESA Ses ea! ie Oa | NR Ieee || | oe ol be nL pte ei 45.7 ob) LTE. TIGRIS Fee See RO ale ie | AM EGE eo gen Per a LC ea 17.6 EIBRe AIA OO pMLIC hee) ee sae | oe. .| A 3 NR le De Af aoe ee ce 28.0 Gap Matiny eheniig es 22a be wes 3.3 Tal ee nl Ee as Bs oe ea eee 100.5 Eneraritord: Conn=2-- 32) 00 Be... 1.0 18.3 4! |] WL. © 8.3 |1, 799.0 20.3 Ly | TST ers [hd Ee a ee a oe 3:12 UGS, 55 eae ml ey 2 oe eeu ie eos 36.1 MGHEASU IAT ee eye anes =|. 5 ae ee ie | eae ee 27.3 | 936.0 47.9 K | Hamilton, Nebr ..... Hiaeeaese meh Seth. il ae eee | PMR ene cane ae ee Sal le a 34.0 L ! Rockwall and Gray- son, Tex. SOs le 720.0 | 5 ys eee | ees | ere ee acl ee ees reall eee cee oD M | Scotland, N.C....... Oyo NE yO eee: ed eae sobolnmsecas Sooosed (Seer smes 23.9 PESTS AMA me ane | ae eee fo 21. «oS Sen pe in pee ee al imene Nia Su pllkagc se 55. 4 2) MWSOC STE se | ee (ae ee 30.3 12.3 TUS IN SIGs A a es 25.9 wf |) TEN YES, MIDS OBS Baio sel |S ee eee eee meet ol et CSpot me [eae HG ae GE 19.6 Q | Alexander, N.C...... 8.5 | 794.2 8.1 SHEN Biren recenc ye ares Nave leet io 29.8 R | Oklahoma, Okla..... ADS: |k @OSORD! |. <0 eee eee eter aCe ee ee Ed al elses 30.7 Sl) | ea Ee Nea QAGS7) eSG2: 5s |. espe | eae gael ern ed TRE EL AE oe ean 37.2 T | Holmes, Miss ........ 5925 | pa70428) || came | meee Pees alee cea er oe sa ellsae seis 23.3 “DEBS S ils Tarr BS Aves le eee aa | Le a ar ae I es AGEs ee ee tee 11.0 SUBSOILING, DRAINAGE, AND TILLAGE BEFORE PLOWING. Subsoiling is the process of breaking up or loosening the subsoil without mixing it with the topsoil. This is usually done by plowing a furrow with an ordinary turning plow (fig. 2) and following in the bottom of this furrow with a shovel or bull-tongue plow, which loosens the subsoil but does not bring it nearer the surface or mix it with the topsoil. In some sec- tions partial subsoiling is prac- ticed by running a subsoil plow in the bottom of the corn row before planting the corn, as is the practice in Scotland County, N. we and Pike County, Ala. Vic. 2,—A 2-horse turning plow, a type of im- The results of subsoiling pre- plement used throughout the corn-growing sented in Table V clearly show me that this practice is not extensive and is usually carried on only in regions which have soils low in organic matter. The amount of data available in regard to subsoiling is so limited that no definite conclusions can be drawn. Table V presents a digest of the opinions of farmers concerning the effect of subsoiling on the crop yield, showing the percentage of those who have practiced it, the season when it is usually done, and the average depth. Opinions were recorded from some farmers who had not practiced subsoiling. 12 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tt is interesting to note that these opinions vary with the different kinds of soil. Where there is a sandy or loamy soil underlain with a heavy clay subsoil, as in Maury County, Tenn., the practice of sub- soiling is popular. Where the subsoil is of a loamy character, as in Christian County, Ky., the practice is not considered profitable. TaBLE V.—Corn culture in regard to subsoiling, drainage, and tillage before plowing in twenty-one regions of the United States. Region covered (fig. 1). Subsoiling. aaa earae ae Tillage before plowing. = , |Farmers 2 : S = |reporting— 3 Farmers using— u Qi u S| County and state. | 42 3 ; Gist bea ; = | County and State. | ., ¢ 2 25 B J ue ae = “ bb ° o a yn 3) tS a i) 5 a a a I 3 5 SNE pee ie (|e lee let ill ee | 1S e Be se es ee ee pe | eo) Bee ry) & a Aug lfotie alecegan cos eas) [eeel ea ecet @ | 4 |S Per Per | Per | Per | Per | Per | Per | Per | Per | Per cent. In. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent Male Dip tomy slides pss se ese 5 alk arsine ell ee eed ee Pato dete lle See ee 100 Bee oscboc SA occas 18} || WiomuronmnerAy, Olau).|o o scllooncoseosilcccoua|loosaoullseuooslloooacdllosadoc 1100 3.45 | ee AC aes @ SW Mier cers INGE sts 55 | Ree ah So ree Sek or el ae = 2 ee 21.9 | 46.9) 3.1 |...... SY eat ee 1D> |) Wiowlline, J 25 lececcallbeacossse UES Pry Sates] Pier es oe ae: b: |e recurs Pare 100 44.0 | 3.4 | 40.7 |..--.. 13} || Wenane, NOW bec ooclloscsoc|leccososca Petey a ey ls eyed te a 36.0 | 44.0 | 20.0 | 32.0 }...--- 326 Ol aaa F | Kalamazoo, Mich. .|......]....----- 1p | ae alls RA B46 | BiB. aoe. 52 es a eee G | Maury, Tenn...._. 40.0 Fall. 12) |} BBB} lkcecee 93835) 6ST lc Geo. [2 ee | Se | eens ISL || ds leyentool Coma e calla. val caopocadl scoccdllbocosulleusese 6850! 220512050) | ees eee ee eee It || Terexebiorel, IPB oe loge ea cllbce sence We sya re [Spee el) ees GTE9) Fed ac |e a a | ee J | Christian, Ky......| 15.4 Fall. 28 (ae iled) || B66 |lesosccllesoses Bf) |leooeos Bins) cased 1k | Je eyoaihioral Noles slleagasallooeoooss olsaccselloosoclescdce J Dilaaeocal Basaoe 76.0 | 24.0 | 72.0 |....-- L| Rockwall and (Ciesla Meyean celine cl ERR oenellestotnlacsealsasose 87 bioce ce eota-s| see ee ee eee M | Scotland, N.C.....| 5.3 Fall. 11 | 15.8 | 5.3 \@79.0 | 18.0 |..-..- 100 79.0 | 50.0 |..-.-- INE || AWB, We oso.) 88 |cso@Ws-o5)) I SEG |) 8G |) CSG VES esses elessscsilocceoclescecslescsce OF aWiausharas Weassies Sess ae eee ee Ses ee || epee eee @8050 hee ese] ete] 2esSule Sense epee eee P | Bates, Mo......... 4.0 | Spring. ME SO eecsce BPEO GbO eccccc 44.0 |.....- AA" OR Eee QA exam ler aINGR ese a apes 8 eet re | NO yi eteogalisceecs Teel! eee fe ee RRO klahomay©) lass | eeees| pees | seer EO oocses CEs eceeeliaseesce UB CEG Scoass|lsacc te S | Pike, Ala.......... | 33.3 | Spring. 10) |lesaace ALB IMCD — Wozssalbssece Mlee! WZ | ococcllacas=- T | Holmes, Miss....-- ee Ohl Bedaeseoc 115 Wh sete oO || COLO |lesccaclleccoue 32.0 | 16.0 | 20.0 4 Um SRussell sian sae ee eae eeias oe sn eeel eeteee.| Seams ASO" begacellasocce 60. 0 ee GORON Seeeee a Open ditches. Three principal types of drainage are practiced in the areas sur- veyed, namely, surface drainage, open ditches, and tiling. Surface drainage is practiced mostly in the rolling areas and where the soils are low in organic matter. The principal object of such drainage is to prevent erosion. This is accomplished by shallow surface ditches or terraces, which convey the surface water from the fields. These ditches are run with the contours and have enough fall to convey the water rapidly, but not enough to cause erosion. The terraces have less fall than the ditches and the water is conveyed more slowly. Occasionally surface ditches are employed in the bot- tom lands to carry off the surface water. In some areas the rolling lands are drained by surface ditches and the bottom lands tile drained, as in Tama County, Iowa. In Scotland County, N. C., and a part of Waushara County, Wis., the low lands are drained by deep, open ditches which surround the fields. These ditches collect the seepage water and answer the same FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 1183 purpose as tile drains, but occupy much land that might be culti- vated if tiling were used. It is probable that this land will be tiled when the relative value of the land occupied by the open ditches is equal to the cost of the tiles. Tile drainage is practiced extensively only on the most productive soils where land values are extremely high, as in the corn belt of Indiana and Hlinois. Tillage before plowing is prac- ticed most often to break up the stalks left from the previous crop. Where the stalks (mostly cotton and corn) grow rank, better plowing can be done and this vegetable matter decays more quickly if broken up be- fore plowing. These stalks are usually cut with a disk harrow or stalk cutter (fig. 3). In a few localities tillage before plowing Fig. 3.—A stalk cutter. This implement is ; 5 F used, before plowing, for chopping up 1S practiced to conserve moisture stalks and other vegetable matter on the and to prevent the land from 1224. breaking up cloddy, as in western Kansas, where the land is har- rowed with a disk in the spring and the corn is planted with a lister without further preparation. PLOWING. The choice of time for plowing, whether in the fall or spring, is governed largely by the character of the crop which occupies the land the previous year and by the type of soil. When corn follows sod, more land is generally plowed in the fall than when corn fol- lows some cultivated crop. When land is plowed in the fall it is usually broken deeper than when plowed in the spring. In some sections corn land is Fic. 4.—A lister, or middle buster, an im- Plowed in the fall and replowed eee oeey need atthe South the: sprime bekore’ planting. western corn States. ee : : ; : This practice is recorded in Table VI under “Fall and spring plowing.” In a few sections the land is sometimes plowed in the fall and then listed in the spring with either a middle buster (fig. 4) or a combined lister and planter (fig. 15), which is almost equivalent to rebreaking. This practice is quite general in the Texas and Oklahoma areas and to some extent in the Kansas area. 14 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste VI.—Preparation for corn, showing farm practices in regard to times and depth of plowing and the use of plows of various sizes in twenty-one regions of the United States. [The key letters under “‘ Region covered” refer to counties and States as follows: A=Tipton, Ind.; B= Montgomery, Ohio; C=Mercer, N. J.; D=Moultrie, Ill.; E=Tama, Iowa; F=Kalamazoo, Mich.; G= Maury, Tenn.; H=Hartford, Conn.; I= Bradford, Pa.; J=Christian, Ky.; K=Hamilton, Nebr.; L=Rockwall and Grayson, Tex.; M=Scotland, N. C.; N=Augusta, Va.; O=Waushara, Wis.; P= Bates, Mo.; Q=Alexander, N. C.; Russell, Kans. ] R=Oklahoma, Okla.; S=Pike, Ala.; T=Holmes, Miss.; U= Falland | Farmers yi an Fall plowing. Spring plowing. spring plow-| turning fone plows es ing. furrows— ue be Ss Sle a |3 S |s |Average | S| ea. a |s. & 18, | depth | SEE | vor tinal ce cael ete laeasenen: ak eel | So | aw Month. fi é ae : x : 2 5 alles (fa & | gs SBS] | s S\o|/8|¢|2\4 ahs Boel ete S lee |S ls |S | Bel Sa eee es 2 | 5 Sos Ese | 6] 2) \ose| ca) SeSe ees |e <= | D> OTB OUT ODD O11 WO CVD? OIG MT OUD CAD HD CUNT OV Or & Or Or or | | | Farms using, | per cent. .|..../93. 1/13. 8/89. 7/44. 8|13. 8) 6.9). --.| 79. 3162.1) 3.4) 3. } 5. Hoste yeced Reoaileeee, iMverige..|\6.7|..-.|.--.|---.|s--- (ee aie 2,81..<.| ee eee ....| 3.9] 5.51/57. 4 a Plank drag. About 75 per cent of the corn land is broken in the spring. Three- horse sulky plows (fig. 21) are largely used for breaking. The usual custom of preparation is to follow the plow with the disk harrow, then roll, and harrow with the spike-tooth harrow before planting. The planting is done with the 2-horse 2-row planter and the corn 24 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is planted in checks 34 feet apart each way, alternating the hills with two and three kernels. After planting, the field is usually gone over with the spike-tooth harrow or roller, first before and again after the corn is up. After this most of the cultivating is done with the 2-horse 6-shovel culti- vator (fig. 22). The customary practice is to give four cultiva- tions in alternate directions. — Few cover crops are grown and the corn land is usually either seeded to wheat in the fall or oats the following spring. Very little commercial fertilizer is used, but stable manure is fre- quently applied broadcast to the land before breaking for corn. The corn is mostly of the yellow dent varieties, but some white dent is grown. The most prevalent weeds for this section are foxtail, quack-grass, smartweed, plantain, ragweed, cocklebur, whitetop, and bull nettle. Fic. 21.—A sulky plow (for either two or three horses) used in the Central West. SURVEYS IN MONTGOMERY COUNTY, OHIO. The tillage records for Montgomery County, Ohio, were taken in the section around Brookville, in the northwestern part of the county. (Table XI.) The soil is of a silty clay-loam character with a clay subsoil. The land is rolling enough to allow good drainage, but not steep enough to inter- fere with the use of improved machinery, and the fields are of uniform size and convenient shape. Most of this land is tile drained and only a few surface ditches are necessary. The leading roads have been macadamized. Good country schools are maintained. Most of the farms are rather small and_are operated by the owners. They have exceptionally good farmhouses and outbuildings, and the country has a very prosperous appearance. A very uniform system of farming is practiced in this section. On most farms a rotation of corn or tobacco one year, wheat or oats one year, and hay or pasture one cr two years is maintained. Some alfalfa is grown with good results. Considerable red and alsike clover seed is produced. Little or no fruit is grown for market and Fic. 22.—A 2-horse 6-shovel corn cultivator. FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 25 little truck is produced. Hogs and cattle are extensively grown, but tobacco and wheat are the leading money crops. ~ Corn is usually grown on sod land, and in preparing for corn most of the breaking is done in the spring with a 3-horse sulky plow and immediately harrowed with a spike-tooth or disk harrow. Then before planting, the land is harrowed again with the spike- tooth harrew and rolled. The corn is usually planted in drills, with a 2-horse 2-row planter. The rows are usually 3} feet apart, with one stalk every 18 inches in the drill. TABLE XI.—Tillage practices with corn in Montgomery County, Ohio, showing depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal yield of the crop. {In columns 3 to 6 and 8 to 12 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] dullage eee and before Tillage after planting. 2 - cs = n 8 2 S Harrow. Cultivator. pole cule = Ve S 3 Farm No. z q aie i 2 > aa libres 2horse. | 2 |S |S ry S| a 5 eral eS She) El] | a| 3 3 a|3 alee|"42)a| 8 GH je) Sc af 2 . Rey || at! uP) ma ec are el 3 ee ee ee S & a i & Big <— iS ° B | O| 5 S| ao | & Z = S = [ee | g a ele | =| 6 &| ow a ) S fola|] & xo o |= A 1S RN ot: 1 Et Ee on pate aes is 1 z 3 4 5) 6 | 8 9 10 11 |12/138] 14 | 15] 16 ie setieeseeere Be eel 23: 50 Hie, he = a ee sea, L 3| 4 65 7 ee eee Zoailee ob 3] 4 75 Ly TIGA Ts ae Ee Sis Balhaaul 40 ee ee eee pa | Se 2 2 65 ee see fark 3] 4 40 [Oo Soe eilgd2| 2/ 4 65 ee eo Oe ees selene 3 3 45 Dee stevie nw ave,s sos|(soar| 3] 3 40 MOE Syscs oe. Se EEN a |) 36} 65 eee alae 3} 6 50 LASS Bee Gee seal Pal 8} 45 Di oe Be ws wis Ou eal 4| 5 66 Lis Se eo es eee eal toils} 2) 3 50 yey es AS a0 So. 1 | 3] 4 50 a See SS 1 3} 4 50 US Se ee eee 2 4 6° 70 EBS cowist 2: fogs 4 4 | 30 Lys eee 2 3} 5 40 ‘| Se 1 3) 4 40 7) St SE Oe epee 3 3 6 65 4 Se ee uihea 3] 3 50 DE erro 38 Se ue ah SAE 3} 3 25 ARF ot Foe ae a's Bavae 3 | 3 50 2S SO ae 1 38 | 4 50 2, os ee ae 1 BN CIN | GB of Se 2 38} 5 €0 CRIES let Ped » wide’ 3 2 5 50 eS 17 2 AN FE lo Farms using, per cent...... le aon| 4154 69 | 82.8 44.8 |. SoG 44.8] 44.8 | 44.8 62135 4) | OOM eeu b Pate: potet at orate POTN S| ee EL, ee Sea att | ile 2 ea ee SAGA PACH RAG abe } 8504°—Bull. 320—16——-4 26 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. After planting, the cultivation methods are very uniform. When the corn is up, the field is usually gone over with the spike-tooth harrow or roller and then cultivated three times with a 2-horse 6 or 8 shovel cultivator (fig. 23). The cultivating is generally level. The yellow dent varieties of corn are usually grown. Some commercial fertilizer is used and considerable stable manure is produced and applied broadcast. Cover crops are seldom grown. The most prevalent weeds found in this region are foxtail, rag- weed, pigweed, wild carrot, whitetop, and hunt reetl SURVEYS IN MERCER COUNTY, N. J. The records for Mercer County, N. J., were taken mostly in the potato-growing sections south of Trenton. (Table XII.) The soii here is principally of a sandy-loam nature, with a clay subsoil. Occa- sionally this clay is underlain with gravel. The land is rolling enough to afford good natural drainage, except in the bottoms, where it is necessary to use tile. These bottom lands are practi- cally all tiled. The country is level enough to enable the farm- ers to have fields of uniform size and shape and to use improved machinery to good advantage. The county is generally pros- perous. Most farmers have good houses, good rural schools are maintained, and the principal roads have been macadamized. The soil, being of a porous character, is rather low in humus content, and responds readily to a humus supply of any kind. Large quantities of commercial fer- tilizer are used on potatoes and corn and mostly applied in the drill before planting. The tillage practices and rotations are of a rather definite type in this region. Nearly all the farms maintain a rotation of corn one year, potatoes one year, rye or wheat one year, and hay one or two years. Considerable truck and fruit is grown near Trenton and on some farms this furnishes the principal income, but the source of in- come on most farms is from potatoes and rye. Corn is usually g grown on sod land, and about 75 per cent of the breaking is done in the spring. Most of the land is then harrowed Fic. 23.—A 2-horse, 8-shovel cultivator. FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. Dail twice with the disk, acme, or spring-tooth harrow, then with a spike- tooth harrow once, and the plank drag is used once just before plant- ing. TABLE XII.—Tillage practices with corn in Mercer County, N. J., showing depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal yield of the crop. {Tm columns 3 to 7 and 9 to 13 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on. the several farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] Tillage after plowing and < = : Beeee AES Tillage after planting. 4 : Pa = n 2 Harrow Cultivator Hoel Geli é = z x vations. © I Ss : S Farm No. on Z Salli 2 aS | Fal 2-horse. =a |S |o 2 = . . S o ro} fan! P a i) =O ere eee (ey | = 6 foal | a) a a slelslals Gen | A |ESaS) 8 | 8 3 | 2 leo: | lear x B84] ih |-Sla S| Mw | See | 2 |e | ul cule bot l) eee eae | o2aalets| ei eeulr ai/4/¢2i-: | ae aah | ° a5 et ES a OIA /S/AlaAlS i S}alse2 c ssi || dst GP ES = |S AIAldalalaIiAl/salale x ea | jen, (Sy | SL I | if Plea 4 Jo | 6 | M1 Saeono 11 12 13. | 14/15} 16] 17 i sells Abe 3) Gils wall. See 1 = Ze Glee Baie 5a |e 0 PA saa ||) * 4 ee ea sta Siw Gleaweel eeeee 2) 4! 6] 50 ia BAY able IT Stn see tes egw Debi al) 665 acres dh A ae Bey) die Leal DDG poaeaalioseoe i) Sl G&D BIS? ae le 3]. ALR eee eee TANS SiMe oe a cose! - 44) Zab 40) Re eile Ale ae Ae 2|'1,3,5 to 8) ---. . 4 1 7| 8 50 let ees fearolh 3) 23) Ol eeulese iS | By@Olsosaes seal 2G). -G|) 0 1) Soe es Ws ea) Die ae TStOvs | Rees Bsceal & 5; 40 1 SP | aleese BESS) ae ETOVA| == =e 2 Hp Mleasel| 7 7| 50 Lint | eae ae a feed ie Dj lisa 1to4| 5,6] 7,8)-- 8} 8] 60 dt! 24 eee ara Sis 4 RA eee ee TETOLO| Pee e sells eclce E 5} 68] «688 Kora eas PA Yat tea ll iW. DiO A Reese qa) Bi Gh SO ee il ese) alee os 2) net] Se iO Spe eacslescal Gir Gi aw 2 oe 210 03]. eal ame een es Spr el) ae al et a 2} 4| 6) 45 Ae) td| 22 =.-| (| ee BSS Sale eas IN TONG| Bae =| ercemellnaee 6} 6) 50 eee 2} 3) a4) 4 11 Veet 2 4 3,5,6) 1 5| 6) 80 Albee s (a; 41o- cc) ee | ee NEON) |beee ya 6,7 1 6 7| 50 Be) ae 1 7) ere 2 Lites 2bOXG| 22255 | Saat = 2 1 5 6, 50 PAG Te Oleea|> 32> 94| oid eee ea DB Al leap HG il & Gl 7 AV il) ee Maes ame Wo A EMS BA be ee a ae) 2) all GD i eee PAINE 2G) [ee ae Sate ae al Sen 12h 35 SiO se Olaer= 6; 6) 50 Hs peels 2) « Al) Sl aaeee 1) eee 7710) 3) app aes 6,7 1 6} 7} 50 pee io ot 2)" 3) sopemee 22 Tada eee Pee Sel eae | al) et ese) 85/500. oe see eee eee Tatots| Gees ZW ae ay al 0 SI en Perera 3 2 | Cemeee 1 PAN OES) ae mea Porte 1 4 5) 40 Tl se Z| 8] Metso lees ITtOA}= Ss 2.3 sees 5 5) 75 mir|| 1674 |r 4 7 ee 2to5 6} eS 5% 6} 6) 40 | ae oie 2| 3 1 3 DDONT| sarererate!| eager oats 2 5 7| 42 (Re ral oles. So tea (ae 1to4 5 6[Saeelit a6! | voles ek P| ee 3] 4 ANS eal 1St0;5| 2:50 | Paes eee | | OloO SAP eee = Lal araivs)|\, laa 1}. DEON oe Seo enyoree | 4. 5} 50 Lined one Se fee | 3 -| 1,2,3 CAE Seem meet 5 5} 40 Farms using..percent..|. ..|65. 6/18. 7/40. 6\93. 7.59.4)... . 28. 1/25. 0 100) 31.2) 46.8/53.1)..../...- Average.......... AeA oe ere ac Seal btaeae ies sc es stoia fies Reet eeoaes --.| 5.3) 5.9)51.1 } | a Koller. Nearly all the corn is planted level and about 70 per cent in checks 3% to 4 feet apart each way, with three kernels per hill. About 50 per cent of the planting is done with a hand planter and the rest with the 2-horse 2-row planter. After planting, about 50 per cent of the farms 28 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. use a weeder (fig. 24) or spike-tooth harrow for the first cultivation, and for the next four or five cultivations the 2-horse 8-shovel culti- vator 1s mostly used. The 1-horse 5-shovel 1-row cultivator (fig. 25) is often used for the last culti- vation. A 2-horse potato plow having four long sweeps and de- signed for ridging the land is often used for the last cultivation. About 35 per cent of the farm- ers grow crimson clover and rye or vetch as cover crops after corn. The principal varieties of corn Fic. 24.—A weeder used for the first culti- grown are of the yellow dent type, vation of corn. ¢ : but some white dent is grown. The most prevalent weeds are crab-grass, smartweed, nut-grass, Canada thistle, ragweed, and purslane. SURVEYS IN MOULTRIE COUNTY, ILL. The tillage records for Moultrie County, Il, were taken near Lov- ington, which is in the prairie region. (Table XIII.) This section is exceptionally level. The farms are divided into uniform fields, \ J Fic. 25.—A 1-horse 5-shovel corn cultivator; at left with sweeps attached, at right with shovels. which are well fenced. The farmers appear to be very prosperous, with exceptionally good houses and outbuildings, but only a few of the roads have been improved and hauling is very difficult during wet weather. The soil is a very dark-colored sticky clay, known as the prairie- loam type, which cakes easily and becomes extremely hard in dry weather, frequently cracking badly. It is very fertile, and prac- tically no commercial fertilizer is used. Nearly all the cultivated FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 29 land in this section is tile drained and the farmers have cooperated in establishing central drainage systems to dispose of the drainage water. Taste NIII.—Tillage practices with corn in Moultrie County, Itl., showing depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal yield of the crop. [In columns 3 to 5 and 7 to 12 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] _ | Tillageafter plowing 7 : a g and before planting. Tillage after planting. g E g = Harrow. 2-horse cultivator. Total cultivations.| 3 =I 5: Farm No. = é r ae ; 5 fe iS 2) SS iS) & g Pati a | 2 | |= | x ae Ee a |S — | ris d 2 2 iene 5 = ir) o ® a Hee se | os aI a| 3 s/£/s|8)/6)6|2 |. |esdlsg| & |e eel ood eal eels ort | ett le retell Cote ate Toll nels oy 4 ° = as} fo) n n 3 — Be} 3 = fe) A oD) (2) |) |) ep | teehee ra) + D A ia (e) --- 92 92 | 32 |....| 76 | 44 84 8 24 8 SSE ea, Boal somes Loy CC Re ee ee ee Kad Bees PsS| oo kal oe oe eel eosnsal beep as 3.2} 4.4] 49.5 @ Wight-shovel cultivator. The farmers in this county generally practice a rotation of corn two years, oats one year, wheat one year, and clover one year. Ire- quently wheat is omitted from the rotation and clover is seeded with oats. Still more frequently corn is grown for a number of years on the same land without any rotation. Very little fruit or truck is grown in this section and the corn crop is the principal source of income. Some cattle and hogs are sold. The fields are usually laid off in 40-acre squares and the breaking is done largely with 3 and 4 horse sulky plows. Generally large Percheron mares are worked on the farms and the geldings are sold 30 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for the city trade. These mares average about 1,400 pounds in weight, which permits the use of large implements and requires little man. labor. After the land is broken the seed bed is usually prepared with a 4-horse disk harrow, followed by a corrugated roller (fig. 26), and Fic. 27.—A 2-horse disk ecul- tivator used in cultivating corn in Moultrie County, Ill. Fig. 26.—A corrugated roller or pulverizer, an im- plement used in Moultrie County, Ill., and other sections of the Middle West. this is followed by a spike-tooth harrow. This leaves the land prac- tically level and in very fine conditino. Planting is done in most cases with a 2-row edge drop planter in checks 34 feet apart each way, alternating the hills with two and three grains. While the corn is coming up, or right after it gets up, the field is harrowed once or twice with a spike-tooth smoothing harrow. If the field is cloddy, a corrugated roller is used before the harrow. After this harrowing most of the cultivating is done with a 2-horse 6-shovel cultivator or a 2-horse disk cultivator (fig.27). Usually three or four cultivations are given in alternate directions. A type of implement known as the surface cultivator (fig. 28) is fre- quently used, especially for the Fie. 28.—A type of surface cultivator equipped with four long sweeps for stir- ring the soil, used for corn tillage in Moultrie County, Ill., and other sections of the Middle West. last cultivation. Thisimplement, instead of having shovels, is equipped with four long sweeps, which are very similar to the knives of a stalk cutter. These sweeps run two on either side of the row and about 1 inch deep. They are set at an angle to the soil of about 45°. The sweeps cut off and destroy the weed growth much more effectively than do the shovels. FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 81 Practically no cover crops are grown in this region. Both the white and yellow dent varieties of corn are grown. The principal troublesome weeds for this section are foxtail, smartweed, cocklebur, morning-glory, and buttonweed. SURVEYS IN TAMA COUNTY, IOWA. Tama County is located in east-central Iowa and is a typical corn- growing region, The soil is principally of the silt-loam type and is very productive. The country generally is gently rolling, but some parts of this county are rather hilly. This rolling condition with a loamy type of soil affords good natural drainage except in the bot- toms, which are practically all tile drained. The land is usually not too steep for the profitable use of improved machinery. (Table XIV.) TABLE XIV.—Tillage practices with corn in Tama County, Iowa, showing depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal yield of the crop. [in columns 3, 4, and 6 to 9 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation; 2 = second working or cultivation, ete.] Tillage after plowin : : Dp . lea Pere aia? Tillage after planting. ei na a 9) =) 5 S | Harrow. : 2-horse. Total cultivations.| 9° = 3) Farm No. 3 = Cultivator. g Ss a ° : a aq ‘S| A “a is) cs q bo aS Sei8;|/ & | 3 los 6 5 a) Bo | £ is ° ° ira ° = e “Oo I 4 ne = + ao BH Leal Ke a : b 2 od b F = on | OF 2 S) Er (Me le Sl ead lee ohare farsa as jad esol eho aaa ia 2) 4 5 = 6S wh 4 3 ~ f= i) rag fer) Seal ical el £ a Sao espe Moye || wean 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 | VDSS bios. 5 22: 5 B)| de Ded 4 12 Be Ae Gi Meal 2 3 5 45 I el 5 2 1,3 | 3 1 Qi tOlO) | Serine | ecia=iete 1 4 5 40 medi e. 8 5 i) eee eZ i, BVA. | SeeNe| OE a se 2 3 5 45 ee Pee 4 1 2 | 7a) Ree HEU) | Beets 1,2,3 3 2 5 65 Se eee 5 1,2 3,4 4 1,2 3) tO: Oalteeee- leseeees 2 4 6 63 Seas oe aw eis o 5 1 2,3,4 4 | 1,2 yA SO) eats sarels sors 2 3 5 60 Reger nen sats. s. 4 1,2 3 3 | 1,2 Bits | ot eesial|eeerne 2 ake 2 4 6 45 eae 5 3 1,2 3 1,2,3 ATOM AR tee fe lcie.o mares 3 4 7 40 1 5 3 1,2 3) 1,2,3 CO a Bee seeerince 3 3 6 45 ese 55s 3- > -- 5 1,2 3,4 4 1,2 Ae? re bigetao Ceeemee 2 3 5 45 Mesa wees esr acl Gultaonee 1,2 2 1,2 BLOG) |p ecene|seedenes 2 4 6 35 AR ee 6 1 2 2 1,2 GeAe Ol S oatmeal lssiacicias 2 3 5 48 Oe Se 6 1 2 2 1,2 DEOL) |= hes all's ox Seles 2 4 6 30 ee ee ea as | 4 1 2 2 1,2 Bi CG ON ease oe |e ae cciae 2 4 6 35 ae 36 1 2,3 3 1,2 20) econ Berane ee 2 4 6 45 Ae eae fb ot,2 3.4 4 1 Dregs (OMe ICL . he 1 3 4 20) Matacscacsss >> 4 ] 2 2 1,2 3,4 DEP oc ase 2 3 5 40 EASE 6 1,2 3,4 4 1,2 OIG | care aye crear 2 4 6 50 ae 4 1 2,3 3 1,2 Ee Sears Meroe 2 3 5 45 ew om nae J ae 1,2 2 1,2 BLO Oe hallo ais etaicte'e 2 4 6 50 a Se 5 1 2,3 3 1,2 Beau be (hee OL cctlee.|- 2 3 5 55 RS Fa\ca's Pas 0 7 1,2 3 3 1,2 Bea TD i cae salts assy 2 3 5 80 1 ae 4 1 2 71 ABR 1,4 00)7 0] Pearl SABE e 0 4 4 40 . S&S Aa ; 6 1 2 2 1 Oy A Fa siete | ata’e setae 1 3 4 40 0 0 Re Sr 6 1,2 3,4 4 1,2 BECDION |S Maleie)>||'=\a\0:5/6 ee = 2 4 6 60 Farms using, i A SE ee 92 100 foes... 2 92 100 4 4 OB I hata ionoul | taht intel itetwnare la Average. | pS | mae) lane Spas | Ie PR a5... tae ees teee sitet 3.4| 5.3] 46.6 39 BULLETIN 320, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The county generally appears very prosperous. Most of the lead- ing roads have been improved, good schools are maintained, and exceptionally good farmhouses and barns are found. Almost uni- versally the farmhouses are painted white and the barns red. Almost half the farms are operated by tenants, and usually a cash rent is paid. The average-sized farm is 148.8 acres, with 109.7 acres cultivated, not including the pasture lands. No definite rota- tions are practiced. The principal crops grown are corn, oats, and hay, with some little wheat. A general rotation of corn two years, oats one year, and hay and pasture two years is practiced to some extent. Not enough fruit is produced to supply home demands. Sweet corn is grown by most farmers living near Toledo, to supply the canning factory located there. Bluegrass does well in this sec- tion and pastures are maintained on most farms. Most of the grain grown in this section is fed on the farms to beef cattle and hogs. Some colts are raised and a few farmers keep sheep. The principal source of farm income is from the sale of live stock. In preparing land for corn heavy teams are generally used. Most of the breaking is done in the spring with a 3-horse sulky plow. Where corn follows sod often a part of the land is broken in the fall. After plowing, the land is usually harrowed with a disk harrow and then just before planting harrowed twice with a spike- tooth harrow. Corn is planted level and a 2-horse 2-row planter is used. The rows are generally 34 feet apart each way and the hills alternate with two and three grains. The cultivation methods after planting are exceptionaliy uniform. The corn is harrowed with a spike-tooth harrow before and just after coming up. Then three or four cultivations are given with a 2-horse 6-shovel riding cultivator. Practically no cover crops are grown, and no fertilizer is used other than stable and barnyard manure. Both the yellow and white varieties of dent corn are grown. The most prevalent weeds in this section are foxtail, bindweed, pigweed, ragweed, smartweed, and cocklebur. SURVEYS IN KALAMAZOO COUNTY, MICH. Where the tillage records for Michigan were taken in southern Kalamazoo County, principally around Schoolcraft, the country is level and is known as the prairie section. This region is prosperous and on most farms are found excep- tionally good farmhouses and good outbuildings. Most of the prin- cipal roads have been graveled or macadamized. Since the land is practically level the farmers are enabled to have uniform-sized fields and to use improved machinery to advantage. (Table XV.) The soil consists of a dark brown to black loam from 12 to 16 FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 33 inches deep. The subsoil is of a heavier clay loam to a depth of 3 feet, which is underlain with beds of sand and gravel, affording good natural drainage, which makes tiling unnecessary. In this region a type of general farming is practiced, with the farm income principally from grain and hogs. A rotation of corn one year, oats one year, wheat one or two years, and hay one year is maintained to some extent, but only a few farms have definite rota- tions. Very little truck is grown except around Kalamazoo, where numerous muck beds are found. These are principally used for growing celery. A few cattle are kept and the manure is usually applied broadcast to the sod land before breaking for corn. Prac- tically no commercial fertilizer is used. TABLE XV.—Tillage practices with corn in Kalamazoo County, Mich., showing depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal yield of the crop. [In columns 3 to 6 and 8 to 11 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] : Tul eines and Tillage after planting. cs Z é 5 : A Cultivator, 2- Total cultiva- 3 Harrow. 2 horse, tions, bs Farm No. | 6 =I AG = ee Pe || c= Jd |3../2 east By =) a) g a a) oo | a, ao |e Zyl eH eS |e he falter MSA) Pasha | choco | | Sol eee oe m | Baie) 6 is = x=| & | 24 = & s ° | Bo | eq E | = = =| A ra = is = Es 2) Bw | a — a a a }o = a, wa A, S53 /5 = iS) A on n A ~S < n S © n q ) Ol SiS /e12) 8 | o 3 | 3 | So |ESRIESl Slul a Sale\zle|/4lel|e| 3 14s] 6168 | & leesecsteki erg S|El2lelelsia| 2128/4) 4| 4 esle 2 lel s Al4]Alala/s]/a| FB lan| 6 |g | go \sPae 6 |a] 2 1 21/381/4/5/6/7)8 9 10 il 12 13 14 (15 )16)17) 18 We Staats 6 rel fee 74 ahr) bse) [atk etd Vessel ers esses) ts = 2 Sl pate OR Dh aes | ersten | fa 2 i al 40 = Sap We Pa 7 aqalpilsAlssaailases Ay i 74 ees 56) aces GPC een ala aess 3 Ay Bi 45 CTA ace ata £9 8 | era Seale Call) 285 sa (5 | eee (eee ae 3.45 as ee 2} 4| 6| 40 fe oa Se ee 7 7A ah eee | ies 74 We a Hose eae tates = |S ieee ete 2,3 Aiea all 2 50 Sy ET Nee ee pemect LO ele Ol eaiesee Bilas a OAs = | a el rere 4’ 5 leone 3 2 5) T 20 Deegan achat 5 8 1 7 Keen) eee Slee 12 A eee eases Ci ee ae PAW Sy 8)) 2 BAGS (st RMA PE 5 hoeseoe lbs BY ell be EAI 1,2 a Se a ea 3 ee aes Aloo eee aa foie ey ee Ae 7 ABLE) Sav ol enon | sae cee Bay w cee eee Spee coleoaee sl aeee 44 4 40 Qin she aes |) Aloe Slee Slee 1 POSS Sel Gene SBeoas Aled 3} 4 20 NOR ie ee es sb Ohaus eS Glia seallle. a 1) (a eae |e Wd vials 2} 2] 40 1iBae ole: sche 7 alls Slee sallSoe Die eal uae AL Fyayz (a Pe | eS SIs AW Zi il arta eet er AL 7 iPoliano|e S25 iI eGo 0) eee ea A, |e t3 |e eee TIS eer ok 6 1 file) Fest (a 9 Ea Ee TI) 2g RET Ia sca) 8 A) GE Ae pee Re 8 1 2) Bs ee 74 ies | bee eae, AD | Sees a seee ee eae te esas Sy Bf AP 177 ee tees. i 6 A 2 1 ees Dl Saeed | See iee TEGO ae ea een eee oes Neos 5) 5 40 Ce Ts | tet ee LO Oe eal saad TE Oe 21) (a Ay 3.4] oo ei | eed iene et oe ere 7 SANs | eal Ol iT cos Met l ae Seale ross |e 2e i 6| ae? | eG Es Seances: 8 1 Diese Qe Seals sell seer eee alee) lemerieres eee) ice 3 3 45 OS See aotateses 7 1 2)- <= - 2 41 es soca aouac 250 | seca eeeee 1 2 3 30 QO Beta aan ee 7 iNieoee iD era 2\ ee a Pes Se oe ee 2 3) see nee 1 2) 3} T12 DN heme. Beek 8 Al Bossel) . S- 1:9 | ane as 354 |i oa A Ba) GE Ae Cs 7 il eS ae) | a NOS | een pel nell Lee Arad) aed) SR 23% 8 7- Sea eee 8 NAO) ae eae Ziel PPA i= rare | a ea eee (A ar Bip PA) UN 3} 35 72 as ee aoa te 8 iL74 Oliices Gils oa Speer TEAL te al bscimten| sesocic Blesae 3 3 37 20s eiae Se seeeee 7 Ea ee PA ve) eae |e) eee 1) ecco) SR eee meee 354 see 4, 4 50 Farms using, Pericenteerss| se" et al 7) 5 sensei] 20) 40 48 16 24 16 56] [52/2 Cee |e pee Averages aali ie4leses|ossclasne BBE eae eee meeece bocca boncod Barean Basson tacsasabocs 3] 3.8) 39.9 a Yields are given in bushels except those marked “‘T,’’ which are tons of ensilage. No general rotation is practiced and tobacco is often grown on the same land for 20 years without a change. Usually enough corn and hay is grown to supply home demands. A large part of the corn is grown on sod land. Most of the breaking is done in the spring with a 2-horse plow. This land is very easy to get into good condition. After plowing, the land is usually harrowed once or twice with a disk or acme harrow and then once with a spike-tooth harrow. FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 37 Practically all the corn is planted level and mostly in drills 34 feet apart, with hills 2 or 3 feet apart in the drill and three or four stalks per hill. Chiefly the yellow flint varieties of corn are grown. After planting, either a spike-tooth harrow or weeder is frequently used for the first cultivation. The 1-horse spike-tooth (fig. 29) and the 1-horse 5-shovel cultivators are extensively used. The 2-horse 8-shovel and 6-shovel cultivators are also considerably used. A special 2-horse cultivator, equipped with sharp scrapers or knives for cutting the weeds and stirring the surface of the soil, is largely used (fig. 30). This cul- tivator was designed for culti- vating tobacco, and the knives are so adjusted that they will extend under the leaves and cultivate near the stalk without breaking or bruising the leaves. As shown in Table XVII there is little uni- formity in the cultivation methods in this section. Practically no cover crops are grown, and the supply of organic matter is largely main- tained by stable manure secured from the cities. Immense quantities of commercial fertilizers are used for corn and _ to- bacco, and about 15 tons .of stable manure per acre are applied to the tobacco land every other year. Fic. 30.—A 2-horse cultivator with scraper instead Very little stable manure of shovels, used in cornfields in Hartford County, is applied to the corn Conn., and in the potato sections of New Jersey. Fig. 29—A i-horse spike-tooth cultivator. land, however. The most prevalent weeds are ragweed, chickweed, pigweed, smart- weed, wild carrot, and barnyard grass. SURVEYS IN BRADFORD COUNTY, PA. The tillage records for Bradford County, Pa. (Table XVIII), were taken near Towanda, in the Volusia silt-loam area, which covers a large part of northern Pennsylvania, northeastern Ohio, and south- ern New York. The soils of this region are naturally divided into two main groups, upland or hill soils and the bottom-land soils. The hill or upland soils are extremely rough and rolling and are not usually very productive. The bottom-land soils are level and very fertile. 38 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. None of the upland and only a small percentage of the bottom land is tile drained. A few of the leading valley roads have been macad- amized. The valley farms usually have good buildings and show signs of prosperity, but the hill farms are not so productive. But few tenants are found in this section. TABLE XVIII.—Tillage practices with corn in Bradford County, Pa., showing depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal yield of the crop. {In columns 3 to 6 and 8 to 13 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several - farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] Tillage after plowing and Tillage after planting. before planting. ma . Total culti- a Harrow. Cultivator. SA GTS. 8 E g rm No.| => aie la eS E 2 Se ese eee ae enlieeneee| | 2 | malin d a 2) 2 | 22 |a\beFela|2| z a) £ 8 a Ad 0 & ae a a8 -21 9g ee ie Os ee eee |) 8 Rete Relea | | = = aS a4 % |S Es 5B 5 ae | 2 (2220) o | ee 8 oi 5 2s lola! | 2 q elect bs Ie se |S A a Al@lal4|/Ee]a a ay ale ft |o|a]| 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 | 7 8 9 10 11 12/13 | 14/15)16) 17 eseeenee 7 TO es sae S| see : Aires oa: TIO Ci Sebenincn| eaes RAE: E alles 3/ 3|. 50 Diskin 6 TAD) Par aia eat E Dia tis 9s] Vere eet: 110 Slesccllece lao 55a aC ENSSEe 5 1 ABE Race : Z| ahr Se sl) sees ects ees 1 to 6)_. bral Lats 6 6} T 10 Mca sii Gl YAPBeesss: 4}. EV gag Poet 110 Bloaceedes ee NEA be. IS Be tics = ees 7 Ip palincansal eaaaae SB easae ae aG 2to5 1)... Sees 5 5| 25 Gee AVS Toop aed ee a abana tea Ne Be So Al Bose. 31) >3I) 40 URE Opec Gla tor4 aes | sae 4 Di IL septal pee 2 to 5]... Be 1) 4 5 50 Sites aoe AP TOG) eed ally Sea Bl. 5 | OES te ales i) Ble ia Oe ts a seers Qleser 7A erecta econ Sao 4a ae 1 to4 5. . 5) 5 25 HOSS soa Gl) Le Biscosce GH) CAN Be ccoaallbocass WK Olsocaesae Qlasaallec 6 66 40 Thee ie TN Ve 23 | ek Ne Ree ne) sees [ee eet nS 1 Boe sale a) Bi G8 ake IPAS Pee rer 6 i, Wideesaallssaae- 7) Ree (Seal eis 55 1 to 6)... Salle 6 6 40 We Gs tes 6 Meer S2 5 3] eee sk Wace a te sis = Alaa 1 to 8).. als 8| 8 40 WA ee 5 DS lteeeyacaresl ee cuater | Fs ace creyy| eel | erareaee ees 1to4|.. eels 4, 4 40 ees 4 Gl) pulktov| ase Al. cae eaten TWO Zescolees ale Tide pe0 Ged axcees 7 Ee seicieiese acess 6) eee tse aes VO Desss-522 ls Helle 5 5) ak i 7h fee 3 | ane eg Be 6 ae ree aeT ie ee 1 to 6).- oan 6| 6| T 10 IRS cae 7 Wesesos PN. 1 yz i205 See 1 to4 Ses Beles 5 5 50 LOM eee 7 il ees Q|.. Mas ROO eg Sas ee ee ) sale | 2) Bs Dba 4 125 (asa ee ae Alea se eres alae LO | Sree aes Ne Dl X 7 eas ee 8 ill aes | (oe EME 2 33a Re ee Neeeeleeeal| eves) i Zee DO aaa nie 3 Oe Sule aoays ‘ D2 4 opel leap PSs sallusoelle 3] 3| 30 DE a TY 6 EPA caries 3]. - Rees ole ses 6 2,3 Wes gall 3 3 50 DA cree 5 Pesce 2\ee 22 a2 sore Been eeeaeeeiee Pelee Beals 3 3 35 is Saeee 5 Gear alecesen § Tage | os We ace eee 14253) 4. AA) 3 DGiiaeainee alfa ee 80 nr oH ZA ill oer Po DR eke Peed eeeaiouals Sy a XD CN eeanoee 1 isaeerellascccas f Baeeaalaas cue Or Soe sees a ae 4 4 40 Ta Sey 6 i eee 2 ee HW @illecccce DESMA See lie be agers i} 3) 4| 40 Farms us- ing, per Galeeanlsocacs 100} 3.6] 28.6) 7.1)....| 14.3 7.4 30.7 YO) Cie lll| Colle Sy ccallescells- sec Average:|: 6a aes. |t ee ee a telat age ll Val) Ales a a Pema Vea, Ls ..-|--..| 4.2] 4.4) 38.2 a Yields are given in bushels except those marked “‘T,’’ which are tons of ensilage. b Spike-tooth harrow. c Plank drag. As a general rule the farmers have no set rotation. A rotation of corn or buckwheat one year, oats or wheat one year, and hay two or three years is somewhat practiced. On a few of the bottom farms tobacco is extensively grown. Enough dairy farms are maintained FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 89 to supply local demands. A few apples are produced, and most farmers are engaged in general farming. A large percentage of the upland is in pasture and a considerable number of cattle are produced. Practically all the corn is grown on sod land. Most of the breaking is done in the spring with a 2-horse plow, and this is followed with the spring-tooth and spike-tooth har- rows. Because the land is very stony only a few disk harrows are used. Most of the upland farmers plant corn in drills 3 to 34 feet apart, with one stalk every 8 inches in the drill, but in the valleys and on level uplands corn is usually planted in checks 3 to 34 feet apart each way, with three and four stalks to the hill. In either case the planting is level. After planting, a few of the farmers use a spike-tooth harrow or weeder for the first cultivation, but most of the cultivating is done with either a 2-horse 6-shovel cultivator or a 1-horse 5-shovel culti- vator, the 5-shovel cultivator being largely used. Occasionally a 2- horse 8-shovel cultivator and a 1-horse 2-shovel cultivator are found. On the tobacco farms a special cultivator similar to that used in the Connecticut Valley tobacco district is used. This is a 2-horse cul- tivator equipped with scrapers or knives for stirring only the surface soil and cutting the weeds. It is so adjusted that the knives extend under the tobacco leaves and cultivate near the stalk without break- ing or bruising the leaves. Few cover crops are grown, and corn land is usually seeded to oats in the spring. Both the flint and dent varieties of corn are grown, but the dent is largely used for ensilage. The most prevalent weeds are ragweed, smartweed, pigweed, and wild carrot. SURVEYS IN CHRISTIAN COUNTY, KY. Most of the tillage records for Kentucky (Table XIX) were taken in southern Christian County, in the section around Pembroke. This is a level prairielike section with very fertile soil of a silt-loam type. This soil has good natural drainage, and ordinarily no tiles or sur- face drains are found. Practically all the leading roads have been macadamized. The farmers have exceptionally good houses and appear prosperous. Mostly negro labor is employed on the farms, which are large, but since cheap labor is available very little improved machinery is em- ployed. A general rotation of corn or tobacco one year, wheat two years, and hay two years is maintained to some extent on most farms. Cow- peas are grown for hay in this section and as a catch crop are often sown in corn at the last cultivation. 40 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The principal farm incomes are from wheat, hay, tobacco, and hogs. Most of the corn is fed on the farm. Very little fruit or truck is grown except for the local market. TABLE XIX.—Tillage practices with corn in Christian County, Ky., showing depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal yield of the crop. {In columns 3 to 5 and 7 to 12 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] Tillage after plow- ing and before Tillage after planting. Zz planting. 3 = aoe S) 3} Pal iS) “Oo qa 4 ig 25 os (ae Sa eee Seles) al a Eee eS |e CRs meee © A, “a S =| a, iS q SI = = S AN te | ey lord i at | wa | ol SS a) NS 4 |Z 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1,3 O) | eeaae 3 aI Sree 2 to5 1| 4 5 40 2 hi Ser eee 2 1 eee 2,3,4 ii) 3} 4 30 1,3 D \ococox 3 5: irre 3,4,5 || 3 5 30 ieee | eee | patter Musee ee tle cae, 2,3, 3 33 1,3 Ai eee 3 [2m eee 3 to 6 2] 4 6 40 163 OM sees 3 1D |encaee 3,4,5 Q | B 5 45 1,3 Dill eaiees NP 3 |Lenooe 4to7 3 || A 7 45 1 ill ne 2 POR NT ee 3,4,5 QD! 3 5 20 1 OF ate ane een 2 is) baa 2,3,4 1/2 4 40 1,8 ON sais 3 so pe 3 to 6 2| 4 6 35 Heres oa lee a tS IpD esccoall Bio 2| 4 6 45 1 Pee SS 2 ile es eee 2,3,4 ly} 3 4 30 19: aes 9) 8 Lees: 2,3,4 1) 3 4 40 ils Se asl eee 1 1D |eonsos 3,4,5 2 | 3 5 30 1,3 7A anes 3 bt ieee 3 to 6 2) 4 6 40 lee ee | ston 1 1 2) 3to6 2 | 4 6 30 2,3 105 Soeeeess 3 1h epee 2,3,4 ii) 33 4 30 pee ever |) aR ee) a lb ler eee 0 A 1,3 Shi |e 3 700 Weare 3,4,5 2| 3 5 30 1,3 bs Seah 3 16® Lassen 3,4,5 D2 5 40 3,4 Dl cone 4 TO ee oe 3 to 6 2| 4 6 35 2 | eae: 9) NOES | cee 4,5,6 3 8 6 35 1 24 Ny eee 2 1 ee 2 to5 1| 4 5 32 Farms using ...per cent--|.....- 96 84 Aor pai 100 4 WOO: |) WOO Neoscesisocese eee o Average....2.------ Ov Gi eee Se ees alle 2 eee 74583): |e Se seal sapere asocers| (oes act 3.4] 5.1 35 A considerable number of cattle and usually from 75 to 100 hogs are kept on a farm. Practically no fruit or truck is produced, and the farm incomes are largely from hogs, grain, hay, and cattle. The tillage practices with corn are very uniform. Usually the land is disked before plowing, which cuts up the stalks and puts the land in better condition. Practically all the plowing is done with a FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 43 4-horse gang plow (fig. 33) or a sulky disk plow (fig. 84) and the land is gone over immediately with a spike-tooth harrow. Then before planting, it is harrowed with the disk and again with the spike-tooth harrow. Practically all the planting is done with a 2-horse 2-row planter, and the corn is planted level in checks 34 feet apart each way, alter- nating the hills with two and three grains. After the corn is up, it is har- rowed once or twice with a spike-tooth harrow and then cultivated three or four times in alternate directions with a 2-horse 6-shovel cultivator. No cover crops are grown. The stable ma- nure is largely apphed to wheat, and no commercial fertilizer is used for corn. Both the white and yel- low dent varieties of corn are grown. The most prevalent weeds are foxtail, bindweed, smartweed, and pigweed. Fic. 33.—A gang plow for four or five horses, exten- sively used in the Central West for breaking land. SURVEYS IN ROCKWALL AND GRAYSON COUNTIES, TEX. The tillage records for Texas (Table X XI) were taken in Grayson County around Sherman and in Rockwall County near Fate. The soil in these regions is of the black clay-loam type and very fertile. The land is rolling and no tile drains are necessary. Only afew surface ditches are required. A few of the roads have been macadamized and others are be- ing improved. The farms have exceptionally good houses and outbuildings, and fair schools are maintained. A considerable por- tion of the land is worked by ten- ants, but usually under the super- vision of the owner. The fields are large, and 4 or 5 horse teams are commonly used. A few farmers find the traction engine economical. ic. 34.—A sulky disk plow. The seasons are rather uncertain, and crop yields depend largely on the amount of rainfall. No general rotation is practiced, but usually corn and cotton follow small grain. Frequently cotton is grown on the same land two years in succession and then is followed 44 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. by corn. Oats and wheat are not usually grown on the same land for | two succeeding years, but oats are often grown one year and wheat the next. Some fruit and truck is grown. Few cattle or hogs are kept, and the principal farm incomes are from cotton and grain. Alfalfa is grown on some of the bottom lands and does well except in dry seasons. TABLE XXI.—Tillage practices with corn in Rockwall and Grayson Counties, Tex., showing depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal yield of the crop. [In columns 4 to 7 and 9 to 11 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, | = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] Tillage cae Hee and before Tillage after planting. 4 q o eH Q 5 Harrow. ales Cultivator. | Total cultivation.) J r= =f dite f g siluc z|3 2 Saal ae s Farm No. ERs e ze a 3 oO a 2 3 oO a = y Cs] oO rn us} a Ble |g S\ba\ela| 8 | 48 |2sla.| 618 Sea eRe es|| 2S ae ele he) eS } 3) : S) ~ 2) = ® LE: ele dae Saeetaee\h el eels Sars = | 5 S/S le (oe 1B |S WEIS ak Bool Serle Sects ees |S 2 iz So i) =| a ge a re =| 5 ey | 2) || a A | AS <4<| an a a isn} o) < a 1 2|)3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Desi Eee! SRS 2 8 I Ae eal 1 2a | i 3,4 5,6 2 4 6 37 4 1 1 1,2 Bille sos 3 3 30 aby al 1 AP yn laces 3 3 25 4 1 A ea 4 4 40 eri al ASBy \lSoocec 3 3 30 8 1 ps eae 3 3 30 Yi i Bie elles sears 4 4 30 Sis ails welll |S kl cl Di ae eee (Fae el eee EL il, 3 Ries eee 3 3 20 FG Saas SpU ae sene 4 4 40 CBS) eres) ae me a lege sel kee barat aetna dW] 12 eRe lly “ep racer era eee tes eel Lea es 3 3 50 7 1 208) Ve ees 3 3 25 (6 e- 25 Sys ee 4 4 30 Beek Le ers cretig hetanl | Say =h-i[ Maeda eee al moma toy [einer 2 3 5 40 &) |jaos- MAO lee seee 5 5 40 aAleaee ono |ecmcee 3 3 20 By llsaae sOuns | seer 4 4 35 8) \s- acl ,95,6 3 3 6 30 Cea tod 1 4 5 30 Gal Bare Ano. neces 5 5 40 3 laan3 3) eee 3 3 40 Sale 4 1 3 4 35 Saleese Dee Aa eee 2 4 4 50 ibs) al aay | oS ee 3 3 35 5} 1 12h On| Sere = 3 3 25 DeLICeiM teases pees 41.6) 66.7 | 4.2] 54.2] 4.2 }....] 20.8 70.8 SiO) a 20587 | res eee eee AVETAP 42) (ONE ee | Se, ee a Wee a eee eee Bis 5S bese S| aaeaege ye el ees 3.5 | 3.9] 33.6 The tillage practices with corn are rather unusual. a Lister and planter combined. A large part of the land is broken in the fall with a 4-horse lister, or middle buster, which leaves the land in ridges the width apart the corn rows are to be. This implement (fig. 4) plows out a furrow by throwing the dirt to both sides. After ridging the land in the fall it is allowed to stand until spring without further preparation. Before planting, the ridges are usually harrowed with a spike-tooth harrow. Then FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. A5 in planting a 2-horse 1-row planter is used. This planter is equipped with sweeps or a broad shovel, which tears down this ridge and makes a furrow where the ridge stood, in which the corn is planted several inches below the surface level. Practically all the corn is planted in drills 34 feet apart with one stalk every 20 inches. Some farmers break the land level with 4-horse gangs, harrow with a spike-tooth harrow, and then lay off the rows with a lister and plant the corn in the bottom of this furrow about 4 inches below the surface level. In some of the bottoms where drainage is poor corn is planted on beds. On some of the higher lands which are inclined to be dry the land is bedded and corn planted in the water furrow between the beds. After the corn is up, a few farmers use a spike-tooth harrow for the first cultivation, and after this practically all the cultivating is done with a 2-horse 4-shovel cultivator, using either 4-inch shovels or sweeps. For the first workings the shovels are mostly used, espe- cially next to the corn, but sweeps may be used for the middle. At the last cultivation sweeps are mostly used and are set so that the land is leveled by the last cultivation. The yellow dent varieties of corn are principally grown. Little commercial fertilizer is used and stable manure is not considered very valuable; it is often burned. The most prevalent weeds are Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, pig- weed, cocklebur, and nut-grass. SURVEYS IN SCOTLAND COUNTY, N. C. Scotland County, N. C., is a typical cotton region, being very level, with a sandy-loam soil and a clay subsoil. Only on the heavy bot- tom lands is tiling necessary, nor is much surface ditching required. Some open ditches are found surrounding the fields. Most of the main roads have been improved, principally with sand and clay. Fairly good schools are maintained. The landowners have exceptionally good houses and the region appears very prosperous. Practically all the land is owned by white men and worked under the supervision of the owners by negro tenants on a share basis, in which the tenant furnishes the labor and gets one-third the crop. In some cases the tenant furnishes the labor, half the fertilizer, half the seed, and gets half the crop. A negro man and his family, with one horse, usually work about 19 acres of cotton and 6 acres of corn. No general rotation is practiced in this section. Corn is usually planted on the bottom lands which are too heavy for cotton and on the less fertile uplands. The principal crops grown are cotton, corn, oats, and cantaloupes. By far the most important crop is cotton, and the acreage in cotton is limited only by the labor available for picking. oe i r ieee OA etc ae: POUT |G Le Pigs aes Se es SNS Qo prrrtrtrsttttesttees £% F BF oil aeRO S| tae Ee g (8 Nal ee resin ere sae St || S Gece scien see Bey aos Go og P Tene cc he Sear cen aia loge ORCA Eg beolleeee Mae Polk. wal eae L Bie eth iar ica ge near 1Z OF g cay aH See canes Peg ag IOV TOI eee mal cess oo! Pp bee PalLC pare: | aaa Bo aes ee 06 ae 4 Ei ae A =O | eee ma PORTS weil es G PT v Til OAS eae has EC eS 61 5 j Ligeep lies all eel ae pal Cer eS T Le sane ol hae gee ¥ Fie Maal CE er Sere oes aes 81 & 8 Pp i Peace eee eer celta PCa Cie liceeesanl bongs tas eget alee ete ¥ Gre Sel |e casts eRe ek Ss LT lee ROG | ClO |e ee erties LONG RG fete ee ae eer Oral dees ey Cah OF - OF € (Bi oes Pee ee been ee pipes Cal aes g it | Oda lage a ees CT a OF ¢ P Toe | ee Pouce el aC (nL Oe. gee peg | ee ay P Giese | eee setae atheists ral ea lO | ER ai | nace reel ee ISG 1G jee enes a te Se elie es ees el eS eee ee ee ee ee Se Neh e pe eee pares 0 at Cee elie be ie cone Bevel Cra wee BS ate pee I Fe eee ee eal fc GF 7 Pehle sce 76 g eT z L OL Oo Ge v P Shi (ates ees eat oINly gla cee es ay eS I po ftccccectct eects 6 ~|yusored “SursnsuuET FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COR § Seems al! T Z Wot teeeesee ee esss = ge “8S ween eee et eens esses oT ~~ "63 SARS dase N anes \ Shy aca Drom e it~ weve tennessee eee sog OO SHS Sh S29 SS HO HI SH! OD SHH SHH SHI SHH CLO AN tH tH oO a ‘ MONARO OOOO MHA NOANINN ANNMMMNAMAMAANN ' . ‘ wate enn en seen en sage 48 BULLETIN 320, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Cantaloupes are largely grown, and at the last cultivation cowpeas are sown broadcast over the entire field, furnishing shade for the ripening melons. Later, crab-grass comes up among the pea vines, and the mixture makes excellent hay. Practically no fruit is grown and only enough truck crops other than cantaloupes are grown to supply local demands. Most of the cultivated land is in intertilled crops, labor being plentiful during the cultivation period. The cultivating is done with 1-horse implements (Table XXII). This is because more labor is available than is necessary during the cultivating season, in order that there may be enough available for picking cotton in the fall. Some time during the winter or spring the cotton and corn stalks are chopped up with a stalk cutter or disk harrow. Practically all the corn land is broken in the spring, mostly with a 2-horse plow. A few farmers practice breaking in the fall with a 2-horse plow and then rebreak in the spring with a 1-horse plow. It is a common practice to break the land for corn by throw- ing it up in beds the width the corn rows are to be apart. Occasion- ally land is broken level and then bedded. After bedding, no further preparation is given until planting time, and for preparation and planting a modified form of the Williamson plan is used. The corn is planted in the water furrow between the beds, but before planting a 1-herse subsoiling plow is run in the bottom of this water furrow, breaking the subsoil to a depth of 6 or 8 inches, and the corn is planted in this furrow by hand or with a 1-horse planter. The planting is always in drills about 54 feet apart, with hills 14 feet apart in the drill and one or two stalks to the hill. Most of the farmers employ a modified form of the Williamson plan of cultivation. After planting, the corn is allowed to stand for three or four weeks before the first cultivation is given, in order to stunt the growth of the young plants. This is supposed to give a larger production of grain with a smaller stalk growth. To further this process no fertilizer is apphed at planting time, but after the first cultivation some is applied at each cultivation, and during the season 500 to 700 pounds per acre are applied. For the first cultivation one furrow is run on either side of the row very close to the corn, with a 4-inch 1-shovel plow going as deep as one mule can pull it. The middle is not plowed out at this culti- vation. Usually for the second cultivation a furrow is opened with a lister directly between the rows; then with a 1-horse turning plow all the middle is plowed out, throwing the dirt to this furrow and away from the corn. This usually takes six furrows with the turning plow. For the next cultivation the middle is plowed out with the turning plow or sweep, throwing dirt to the corn. After this, practically all FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 49 the cultivating is done with sweeps covering all the middle with three furrows, and by the last cultivation the land is comparatively level. As shown in Table X XII, often two or more implements are used for the same cultivation. Fertilizer is frequently applied to corn at the second or third cultivation, in which case the fertilizer distributor (fig. 35) is run close to the corn row and the middle plowed out with the sweep or 1-horse turning plow. Very little stable manure is produced. Practically no cover crops are grown, but at the last cultivation cowpeas are often sown broad- cast between the corn rows. Frequently peanuts are planted in drills between the corn rows at the last cultivation, and after the corn is gathered the field is pastured with hogs. Most of the corn is -of the white dent varieties. The most prevalent weeds are erab-grass, cocklebur, and smart- ee NT weed. Fig. 35.—A fertilizer distributor. SURVEYS IN AUGUSTA COUNTY, VA. Augusta County is located in the Shenandoah Valley, Va., and the soil is of the Hagerstown series. This region is extremely rolling and in some places rocky, but the farms are divided into large fields, and improved machinery is generally used. (Table XXIII.) The work is mostly done with 2 and 3 horse teams. Except for a few bottoms none of the land is tile drained, but practically all the land is drained by surface ditches to prevent erosion. Most of the leading roads have been-macadamized and are operated under the toll system. The farms are usually operated by the owners with hired labor instead of tenants. The farms are large, and the people generally are in comfortable circumstances. On most farms a rotation of corn one year, wheat two years, and hay two years is maintained. A large percentage of the land is in pasture, and apples are extensively grown. The farm income is prin- cipally from apples and grain, supplemented by hay and cattle. The corn is grown on pasture or hay sod, and most farmers prefer to plow this land in the spring. Usually the breaking is done level with a 2-horse or 3-horse plow. After breaking, the land is har- rowed once or twice with a spring-tooth or disk harrow, and before planting it is gone over with a spike-tooth harrow or roller. The planting is largely done with 2-horse 2-row planters. Corn is usually planted level and in drills 3} feet apart, with one stalk every 18 inches in the drill. Where the land is not too rolling, the corn is planted in checks 35 feet apart each way, with two stalks to the hill. 50 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XXIII.—TVillage practices with corn in Augusta County, Va., showing depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal yield of the crop. {In columns 3 to 7 and 9 to 14 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2= second working or cultivation, etc.] Tillage after plowing and before planting. Tillage after planting. . Total eculti- | + Harrow. | Cultivator. SASTIES. a 38 a & n 5 I | 1-horse. 2-horse. 2 Ss Farm No. = : So 2 Kor ‘= Bisa ) a i p o}]+ = 5 eI z=] w| 8 2 Eales eilierS & (3/8\4] 2 rm 3 fs! ob q Cai ea =n |e oO =|) 2 abd ll ae me eS |p Sr dei i ce o 3 eS oo | S os Weg = ae ie S|) Ze)! el || in ° aay ~ 3 Ss q ==) 5) i) oO ro) 5S ee | = Te] oo 1 w | iS) i S 5 5 5 of e a is) 8 peel cet) St a Sl Sey Se orl ia ela Sh Oo (cee ae S| stad et arse bce x= ea ner ha Pe er eels) Ss |i |S Al a A lnlifslin|]< D ao | A al ea) = FS) Oma ee 1 2 3 4 5|/6|7/8 9 10 |11| 12 13 14 |15/)16/17}| 18 gb Pere Sy ern A ecoeaolleoo A ies By eee ll = ACOA. SSeS eae as eee 4 4 40 pia anes a fleas lies see 3) 3 [aceerctd eee 1h 083 | bese 225 |e se Al al. Sis Oe eee 8 2 | Soe Blet alae O| Fosece see AStOr4 Pee se 5/2 Rees seo 4 4 35 Cabarete 6 152, Sleceel aol sea D ReeRaE acces Meee Uo eeeoeel Soocadl|sace Hl. By 25 Bese eee ats 10 (FS SIO EStn (ea SBS 88 (8 ee = Bl aes ID [Es = Ss ISol a | 2 g Se we SS oe 8 S e SHE) Se i Blo ee |e $ Zl ais |ele| s A |S A nan |a!] n + a ey ee [2 |O |=) 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 |12;13)14)| 15 8 Ths | ert 1 1 4| 8 28 8 lease 1 1 4 7 15 Verlag | es ee Seine Uh 274 -| 4 4 25 6 Ue eeaes 1 1 4) 5 20 Sis So 1 Deiat) | B| 8 25 aed 0 4) 5 15 =i) 2 6| 8 50 -| 6 2 4 4 20 8 0 4/ 6 55 -| 6 0 || Bi 8 20 -| 6 il |e BY 4 20 _| 5h 1 |. 4] a| a 15 =| HE 1 oleae t4 15 8 2 5 | 6 30 Farms using, per cent.|..-. eee) O50) V7 SBE I WT Zeal BOS) ae so sedllssacoe Average....-..-- 6 toil 4.1 [5.1 |} 25.2 a Weeder. This land when properly treated is very productive, but when organic matter is not supplied the crop yields are low. No set rota- tions are followed, but an intertilled crop is usually followed by small grain, and the small-grain crops are followed by corn or cot- ton. Tobacco is grown on a few farms, but not so extensively as it was a few years ago. The leading money crop is cotton. Enough corn, wheat, and oats are grown for home use, and some wheat is sold. Considerable rye is grown for grain and also for green feed in the early spring. Very little fruit or truck is grown except for local demands, and few cattle or hogs are kept. In preparing land for corn, about half the plowing is done in the fall with a 2-horse plow. In the spring, before planting, this fall- plowed land is rebroken with a 1-horse plow and the rest is broken with the 2-horse plow. After plowing, very little preparation is given before planting. Usually the land is harrowed once or twice with a spike-tooth harrow. -A few farmers use a disk harrow. The corn is planted level and in drills 4 feet apart, with one stalk every 2 feet in the drill. Most of the planting is done by hand. A few farmers use a 1-horse planter. 56 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. When the corn is up the field is usually harrowed once or twice with a spike-tooth harrow. After this most of the cultivating is done with a 1-horse 4-shovel cultivator. The 1-horse 2-shovel culti- vators are frequently used and occasionally 2-horse 6 and 8 shovel cultivators are found. Four or five workings are usually given. Considerable hand labor is used in chopping out weeds and replant- ing. Practically all the corn grown is of the white dent varieties. A few farmers grow crimson clover as a winter cover crop with good results. Commercial fertilizer is used only in small quantities and com- paratively little stable manure is produced. The most prevalent weeds are crab-grass, sheep sorrel, Spanish needle, cocklebur, and ragweed. SURVEYS IN OKLAHOMA COUNTY, OKLA. The tillage records for Oklahoma (Table X XVII) were taken in the prairie section of northwestern Oklahome County, just west of Edmond. The county is divided into sections, and practically every section line is a public road. Through the prairie section these roads are in fair condition all the year except during very wet weather. Most of the farms are worked by the owners. Asa rule the farmers have exceptionally good houses and outbuildings. The soil consists of a dark silt loam 10 to 20 inches deep, which grades into a heavier silty clay subsoil. The subsoil is almost im- pervious and affords poor drainage conditions. It is hard for the crop roots to penetrate this subsoil, and the crops suffer badly during either wet or dry weather. The country is rolling enough to afford good natural drainage, but not steep enough to interfere with the use of improved machinery. There is very little timber in this section, and practically all the land is in cultivation or grass. The farms are divided into large uniform fields of convenient shape. This is a comparatively new section, and the settlers came from all parts of the country and brought with them the methods which were employed in the locality from which they came, so the systems followed are not uniform. Very little fruit or truck is grown. A large part of the land is in pasture, and cattle and hogs are extensively raised. No set rota- tions are practiced. The principal crops grown are corn, wheat, oats, cotton, alfalfa, kafir, and milo. Unless seasons are very favor- able cotton does not yield well, but it is one of the principal money crops. Alfalfa is grown mostly on the bottom lands near streams. A few farmers are growing it with success by irrigation. This crop is often utilized in hog pastures. FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 57 TABLE XXVII.—Tillage practices with corn in Oklahoma County, Okla., showing depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal yield of the crop. {Im columns 4 to 7 and 9 to 15 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] | Tillage after plowing and . Bi . eiare Dinan: Tillage after planting. 8 n oO 4 a ~ | an Total culti- | 3 g Harrow. 3 | Cultivator. z vations. 2 I le eae iL 2 = 2) as eS | £ Elbe (ie 3 Bema ES (een, |" Fl =) |B. 2 2-horse. .| 218 14 He 2) = 2 Sts = = lds} Ss & Ele SSE TS | Slicers) |) sai a o|/5 2 S a= a 5 Oo };fH n uo] = a bones a a) Ses} S |) a 2/2 \4 34/2 | 2 7/a| sie/8| 2 ==, | latest] (AS) q 5 se i 2 i: ! ; © i Bb Sia] s = Sosa a ules | ele] Ble | FO |) lca ies (CL od = 5 > SNE NSS el Sh S > us) yi iv z= i/o = ay) o fo} ° ad w SS = (3) = =| ETT Wes rapa ere = i na a za w Qf) ies ia q a ee or Once = ey ee D Da oa) Es] So |s Sf S| S alae) aye Ss | a 4 ms 3 Qh el let 1S ai 1 2,;383;4,;5/6,7)/8 9 10 11 12 13 |; 14|)15;16/17)18] 19 ila 2h res a Ae as eee aH Apes 4 4 20 De as Sas 4|.... Meer 2 ap 10 5 See Rae Glee =. 1}. 24 3 10 (ee ee ee ie 2 3 4 12 Done ar cee 6). 1147) ee 3 ay] 20 Geers oke 6)- ee 2 3. 3 15 ae ees alee He 2 4 4 30 eee i) eee 1 ee 2 Zs 30 ips se: 2 4Se4 SSeS ee Ae 1 4 4 35 (22S ee a ee ee 1 4 4 20 15 ep ees eens i) ae 1 aS 2 3 4 16 Word 2 ore (| Bers eer 1 71 eee 4 4 10 1 a] 8 25 2 4, 5 30 ae 3 3 25 1 4 Ae ateye i= {Ae Sis 2 2 4 4 40 2 2 3 25 2 4 40 6 7 45 3/66. 7}... -| 42.8) 42.8) 66.7) 33.3] 14.3) 9.5] 4.8/42.9)....)...-/--..-- PL TONS cc ccpll so open etre c'al| Gecieiers |e eee | serve oe enews 3.4] 3.9} 23.9 The methods of cultivating corn are quite variable, but in regard to crop yields, soil fertility and tillage methods are minor factors as compared to the amount of rainfall during the growing season. A few farmers plow the corn land in the fall and then rebreak in the spring just before planting. The common practice is to break the land level, harrow with a spike-tooth harrow, and lay off the rows with a double moldboard plow commonly known as a lister or middle buster, which plows out a broad, deep furrow, throwing the dirt to either side. The corn is planted in the bottom of this furrow. Most farmers use the combination planter and lister, which is the shovel plow and planter combined. This implement plows out the furrow and plants the corn at one operation. Frequently corn is planted with this implement without any previous preparation of 58 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the land. Especially is this true when corn follows corn or cotton. For such work a 3-horse or 4-horse team is used and the plow em- ployed has a broad shovel which breaks practically all the row. No difference in the yield is noted from the different methods of prepar- ing the land. About 90 per cent of the corn is listed and planted in drills 3 to 34 feet apart with one stalk every 18 inches in the drill. After planting, a spike-tooth harrow is frequently used just as the corn comes up. A disk cultivator especially designed for culti- vating listed corn is extensively used for the first cultivation. The 1-row cultivator of this type (fig. 36) is constructed on a sled which straddles the corn row and protects the corn plants from being cov- ered with dirt from the disk cul- tivators which run on either side of the row. The 2-horse 4 and 6 shovel cultivators and disk cul- tivators are used for the later cultivations. A few farms use a 1-horse 5-shovel cultivator. Usually three or four cultiva- tions are given. After the corn gets too high to cultivate, some farmers will, with one horse, drag a mowing-machine wheel between the rows, which destroys nearly all the small weeds and forms a shallow dust-mulch. Practically no cover crops are grown and no commercial fer- tilizer is used. i Nabe i The yellow dent varieties of Fic. 36.—A type of 2-horse disk cultivator 2 e E used in Oklahoma and western Kansas corn are principally grown. for cultivating listed corn. The most prevalent weeds are smartweed, crab-grass, ragweed, bull nettle, artichoke, and Johnson grass. SURVEYS IN PIKE COUNTY, ALA. The tillage records for Alabama (Table XXVIII) were taken in Pike County near Troy. The soil in this region is of a sandy or sandy-loam type, usually dark red in color, and underlain with a red- dish sand-clay subsoil. The land is very irregular and in some places extremely rolling. Drainage is principally obtained by means of numerous terraces, which divide the fields into small, irregular- shaped areas. These terraces are usually about 25 yards apart and are so constructed that they can not be worked over. On most of them Bermuda grass is grown to prevent erosion. 59 FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. TABLE NNVIII.—Tillage practices with corn in Pike County, Ala., showing depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal yield of the crop. {In columns 4, 5, and 7 to 11 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1 = first working or cultivation, 2 = second working or cultivation, etc.] Tillage after plowing and Tillage after planting. : before planting. a a oy g B Rows « |) =I tun 1-horse plow. | Cultivator. Totaleulti- | ~ o : vations. 2 | with— B Farm No. SA || ae 3 eh See = = 5 | © eis a Els See 4 |e a Je [sls adhe =| | = ah et & |Ssls.| &| s Q n "| 8 for) . Ola 2 S = ool Gi OB: 5 ; as | om 5 BolT Bb ro) oO] 4 se = So | 1 na ~o|. S| US 2) |) oo |i g 2 |od|x © BRIRS a! 3S a o Bae 2 I = n+ sed n Sn/08 © a SUS) tens 5 S| S ° 5 m Old 5 q S|Si4is [ai & Feeley als sf) dene lien S Ajalaia |<} a aN aa re ae || On teh 1 2/3)4/|15)|6 oF 8 9 10 11 12/}13) 14] 15 sitio): gee ee 10 1 Weel ia! 2 INAS are sears 3 lSacal| 8) |) 8 30 22 ee if FH | esos [ieee 2 | Dae By Ulndy |lasscl) “d) fi) 25 peer meres fb. 82 is wk Ore Se sR ND lhe DI 1c | Se eee lA Gee aay BB |lecsal} |) @ 25 ia. es IO). \NP rll eee Se Kee PRE ATED) SIT AS Seat 3H lo...| 6 8 18 ‘Tose bt ee 10 13 5 | eel ee 3 ost de ee 4})....| 4] 4 33 RS ee HO veel ete eel 1 lated! PP Kola. 4 5| Ieee 3,5 oon] B | & zt) Toe 6 210 We ce 2,4 Bl oie taal Se a 80 lesce| 8 | & 20 2 ot See 9 1 1 ee Wie aa Ae oe seelcecsad |jaecoes ANGST eee |uaNt! 7 20 dos semen eee 6 itil) 3k ee ee 2,4 1S 2 ee BH |lsacall BO |) 20 Wve: 2 eee eee 10 Tiel Gea ee ee TI ene a eae | eae D.sae coal Za 2 12 thee ooih Sante Aaa oe 5 RMS es [kal 2, | ee pe | IGOESUASa OL Anos 2) a 20 NI ee eo 4 ii ee ete | 1 Opal Saree | eee At [econ Zn a 15 8 eee 5 eho eee eee TEES |b sees, shai oe ren Ae Neca Sill B 20 Usa: er ae Sa eee ea [en Se eee eel merle De Ioceal) 4) 4 Ie coose iid see eee pal esha 1 Anis: 1 2 By Mel BG 18 ie i ae ada te 1s 1 SAA licen iil eee BBG Tool. Gili -@ lbeeeee i a5 ore Pelt Tiley se eta a TL Saas Aes: A ideal i a Weekes Li 3 1 eae es eer ER cea a Ae el Pearse yA eee VANS eee ee 2 SS o> Sia wsatls 5 i Sel Ree weeks 2,4 Tk | See Sei BED Noceal| || @lesesce sa 28 5 1 || 1 Pe} 4 Ue eee ® easel @ 5 3 Mite 4 i! 1 1 13 |------|.-----|------ PD SER NN ee: be |B S| pe : Farms using. .... percent. .|-..- 180. 9133. 3.23. 8]... . 85.7| 47.6) 38.1) 4.8 TOO Oa ee als cacllanades PR OTAR Oto somos ase (Hii na c2| nad meme WSR a ashe: laaboal boocealbambeelloeonoseal seer 4.7) 4.7) 23.1 Only a few of the leading roads have been macadamized, and during wet weather hauling is difficult. Owing to the mild winters and the scarcity of cattle, very cheap barns and outbuildings are found on most farms. Because of so many cheap tenant houses and the lack of good outbuildings, the country does not look prosperous, but the landowners have good dwelling houses and appear well to do. Some of the farms are operated by the owners with hired labor, but most of the farming is by the tenant system, in which the land- lord furnishes all supplies and supervises the work. The land is often owned in large tracts and operated by a number of tenants, each tenant cultivating about 25 acres. No general rotation is practiced. The principal crops are corn and cotton, with about two-thirds of the land in cotton. Some oats are grown on most farms. In the southwestern part of the county, considerable sugar cane is grown. Peanuts and velvet beans are 60 BULLETIN 320, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. planted between the corn rows at the last cultivation. These are either harvested or pastured by cattle and hogs after the corn is gathered. By this means a few cattle and hogs are grown. A good part of the land is pasture, but the native grasses afford poor grazing. Little fruit or truck is grown, and the farm income is principally from cotton. Under the tenant system here each tenant is usually given one mule and as much land as this mule can cultivate, so that prac- tically all the cultivation is with 1-horse implements. In _ break- ing the land for corn, sometimes an extra mule is furnished and the land is broken with a 2-horse Fig. 37—A 1-horse 1-shovel plow with: Plow, but the general practice 1s cotton sweep attached, used to cultivate to break the land with a 1-horse corn in the Southern States. At the top : is a broad shovel or solid sweep; below, plow, and instead of flat break- a narrow shovel, used in making furrows ing it is thrown into ridges or a ace _ beds the width apart the corn rows are to be. Sometimes a narrow strip of land is left between these ridges. This strip is plowed out with a 1-shovel plow (fig. 37) running very deep, and the corn is then planted in the furrow. A few farmers break the land level and then lay off the rows with a double moldboard plow known as a lister, or middle buster, which throws the dirt to each side and leaves a broad, deep furrow. The corn is planted in the bottom of this furrow. After plowing, the land is usually given no further preparation before planting. The corn is planted in drills from 5 to 6 feet apart, with one or two stalks every 2 feet in the drill, and either between beds or in the bottom of a furrow. After the corn is up, 4 1-horse spike- tooth cultivator (fig. 38) is often io. 3g—a horse spike-tooth cultivator, used for the first cultivation, but or side harrow, used in the rolling areas more often'a 1-horse turnings plow 9° 1 see or a 1-horse 1-shovel plow, known as a bull tongue, is used. One _ furrow is run on either side of the row, throwing the dirt toward the middle of the row and away from the corn, leaving the corn on a narrow ridge. Later, the middle is plowed out with the turning plow, throwing the dirt toward the corn. This cultivation tears down the ridge and leaves the land almost level. After this. the cultivating is done with broad sweeps covering all the middle with three or four FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF CORN. 61 furrows. Three to six cultivations are usually given, depending on the amount of rainfall and the weed growth. The white dent varieties of corn are almost exclusively grown. Commercial fertilizer is extensively used for all crops, but little stable manure is produced. Practically no cover. crops are grown, but winter weeds, principally life everlasting (cudweed), often make considerable growth during the fall and winter months, which make winter cover crops not so necessary. The most prevalent weeds are life everlasting, Johnson grass, purslane, cocklebur, and crab-grass. SURVEYS IN HOLMES COUNTY, MISS. The tillage records for Mississippi (Table X XIX) were taken in Holmes County, mostly around Lexington. The upland soils are of a silt-loam type, dark yellow in color, and from 6 to 10 inches deep. The subsoil is of a heavier silt loam, containing more clay and darker in color. Along the streams the bottom lands are much heavier and more level land is found, but the uplands are very roll- ing and erode easily. Practically none of the land is tile drained and very few surface ditches are found. Only about one-half the land is cultivated, and after a field has been depleted of its fertility by continuous cropping and erosion it is abandoned and other land cleared. Only a few of the roads have been macadamized, and hauling is. very difficult during bad weather. The land is mostly owned in large tracts or plantations and is worked by negro tenants under the supervision of the owner. ‘The landowners have good houses and appear prosperous, but the tenant houses and the lack of good out- buildings detract from the prosperous appearance of the country. The principal crops grown are corn and cotton, with some oats for hay. In the southwestern part of the county sugar cane is exten- sively grown. Truck crops, especially strawberries and cabbage, are much grown in the eastern part of the county and shipped to the Chicago market. Near Lexington very little truck or fruit is grown. Considerable land is in native grass, which furnishes pasture for a good part of the year, and a few cattle and hogs are kept. It is a common practice to sow cowpeas broadcast between the corn rows at the last cultivation and after the corn is gathered pasture them off with cattle and hogs. The principal money crop is cotton, but since the boll weevil has reached this section more corn and less cot- ton are grown. No rotations are practiced, and the land is usually kept in corn or cotton until the crop yields become so low that its cultivation is not profitable, ,» U. S. 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From an examination of Table 2 it will be seen that the amount of fence used per acre is considerably less in Area No. 4 than in theother areas. This is due to the fact that much less stock is carried in pro- portion to the size of the farms by the farms in Area No. 4. There are many purely grain farms in this area which carry no stock other than the necessary number of horses to do the farm work. Some of these farms have a pasture fenced for their horses, and the remainder of the farm is left unfenced. Table 2 also shows that as the size of the farm increases the number of rods of fence per acre decreases. The smaller fence requirement of the large farm is due first to the fact that less fence per acre is required to inclose a large field than a small one; a square 10-acre field requires 16 rods of fence per acre, while a square field of only 1 acre requires approximately 50 rods; secondly, the crop rotation practiced on the small farm is usually similar to that of the large farm and requires as many fields, therefore proportionately much more division fence than is required by the large farm. COST OF FENCING IN NORTH CENTRAL STATES. 13) The fence requirement of two farms in the same locality may differ if the cropping systems followed on these farms are not similar. Factors influencing the amount of fence needed by the farm are the number and kind of stock kept, the pasturage customs, and, as already stated, the length of the rotation and the size of the farm. Many farms have fields which are not easily accessible or are too rough for cultivation, and such fields are often kept permanently in pasture. If all the stock on the farm is kept on this permanent pasture during the entire growing season, much less fence is required, there being no division fences necessary between the crop fields. On other farms the pasture forms a unit of the crop rotation, and on many farms having small acreages in permanent pasture it is supple- mented by pasture in rotation. Often it is the custom to turn stock into the cultivated fields after the crops have been harvested in order that they may utilize such feed as is left on the ground after harvest. There are very few farms in Areas 1, 2, and 3 on which stock are confined entirely on permanent pastures during the entire pasturage season, and such a practice is not generally feasible. In order to utilize all farm land to its fullest extent in these areas it is necessary for the farm to be suitably fenced. The field arrangement of the farm is a big factor in influencing the amount of fencing required on the farm. Field arrangement is governed by the natural topographic conditions of the land, the shape of the farm, the roads running through or around it, and the cropping system followed. When the farm is located in a hilly or rolling county it is quite essential that the field arrangement be such as to make it as easy as possible to work over the uneven land. In a level country the question of topography will not have to be considered. The cropping system and the shape of the farm will be considered jointly. The length of the rotation will determine the number of fields on the farm. If a three-year rotation is to be fol- lowed, three crop fields will be required; if a five-year rotation is to be practiced, provision will be made for five fields. The arrange- ment of these fields should conform to the shape of the farm in such a way as to make each field readily accessible to the buildings and to permit the farm work to be done with a minimum of travel. Also the layout of the farm should be such as to make the amount of fence required as small as possible and still retain the other essentials. In much of the area covered by this investigation the land is divided into sections. Each section is a mile square and contains 640 acres. The highways follow along the section lines, and nor- mally each section is entirely surrounded by roads. A farm must furnish the entire amount of road fence about it, but only half of any fence separating it from another farm. Hence the location of 14 BULLETIN 321, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. roads along the farm boundaries will influence the amount of fence needed. Other things being equal, farms having the most frontage on public highways will require the most fence. The number and location of the roads surrounding a farm do much to determine the layout of the farm and consequently the amount of internal fence required. It is the common custom to place the farmstead adjacent to the main or most traveled highway. The field arrangement de- pends on whether this main road runs along the long side or along the short side of the farm. Many times the farm is cut into two or more separate divisions by roads, but it is more common for it to be in one division. This is especially true of small farms. For purposes of illustration figure 8 shows the field ar- rangement of two 80- acre farms. Each farm has the same 6 number and the same size of fields, yet B requires 120 rods more fence than A. In B the highway runs along the side of the farm, while in A it runs along the end. The number and cost of farm gates is another item of considerable importance. Fie. 8. TaBLe 8.—Numober of gates used on farms of varying sizes in Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois. Number of gates. Number Rods of Acreage grouping. peers of farms |_| fencing " |reporting.| Der farm.| Per acre. | Pe 8ate- 100 and under........ 78. 5 502 9.9 0. 126 61.5 OV tOMN40 Reese oe 124.1 367 12.7 102 64.6 Ib EA Kes fel) Secdoueoses 166. 0 512 14.3 086 67.6 SIT ONZAO PE eee sees 212.3 457 16.6 078 69. 3 PAV TO320 Ee ee esa 286. 3 276 19.2 067 Cle BYR UE Koooossadad 360. 0 137 21.6 06 fpok AOUTOG ID kossogacsieus 479. 4 138 29.2 061 73.0 GOIjtoN O00 See se eee 740. 7 50 32.6 044 110. 3 HOON tO 00S aeee cee 1,151.3 12 52.9 046 83.8 1,501 and over......-. 2,047.1 13 40.9 02 119.1 Average Total 2. |\u ate s404)| eon ee oe ofall ie aes The larger farms not only require less fence to the acre but they also require fewer gates for a given amount of fence. There is an average of 1 gate to every 61.5 rods of fence on the smallest farms, as compared with 119.1 on the largest and 71.2 on all farms. The average value of gates is $3.27 each. This makes an average cost of 0.045 cent per rod of fence for gates. The gates used on farms COST OF FENCING IN NORTH CENTRAL STATES. 15 vary greatly, both as to kind and cost of materials used and the manner of construction. It is not uncommon to find a gate, one that must be opened and closed many times every day, so made that it is a load for the average man to lift, and hung in such a way that every time it is opened and closed the operator has to drag it back and forth by main force. Gates of this kind have no place on any farm. They usually cost just as much as a gate that is so constructed and hung as to be easily handled. There are several types of automatic gates which may be opened and closed by pulling aces rieto rie. levers so placed that ao tee (= they may be reached + cee by the driver without reco | Fievo i reco dismounting from the wagon seat. A gate Totes of this type is very convenient, especially when spirited horses are used on the farm. The arrangement of gates on the farm should be such as to make the fields as readily accessible as possible. In figure 9 is shown a gate arrangement along a farm lane which will allow of the running of stock from one field to another by simply fixing the gates so that they connect the desired fields. The lane is 12 feet wide and the gates 11 feet 9 inches long. Tasre 4.—Distribution of fence on the farm and how it is effected by the size of farm. Size of farms (acres). Kind of fence. 100 | 101 | 141 | 181 | 241 | 321 | 401 | 601 | 1,001] 1,501 un- to age un- | 140. | 180. | 240. | 320. | 400. | 600. |1, 000. |1, 500.| over. | 28° Per | Per | Per | Per | Per | Per | Per | Per | Per | Per | Per cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. LT ee ee ee 24.6 | 26.2 | 30.9 | 30.5 | 35.3 | 34.6 | 34.8 | 42.0 | 47.7] 43.4] 36.3 Ait A See Bs eee St ee eee eee 25.7 | 26.1 | 23.2 | 23.9 | 22.3 | 23.4 | 23.4 | 20.6 | 18.0] 20.8] 22.3 Permanent inside................ 40.7 | 40.1 | 37.8} 38.0 | 35.6 | 35.9 | 36.1 | 32.8 | 29.3 | 32.5 | 35.3 Temporary inside................ VON) S| Sa eon econ | el) Pelee ABA ho) si 1.2 USCC GEG ye a ee ee ee 8.0) 6.5) 6.4) 6.25) 5.4) 5.2) 4.6) 3.6] 3.9) 2:6 4.9 DISTRIBUTION OF FENCE ON THE FARM. In Table 4 the fences were divided into five general classes with reference to their location on the farm. The names of these classes— namely, road, line, permanent inside, temporary inside, and farm- stead—are self-explanatory and denote the location of each on the farm. It may be noted that as the size of farm increases the pro- portionate amount of road fence increases, while the line or division fence decreases. The amount of permanent inside and farmstead fence is relatively smaller on the larger farms. It will be noticed 16 BULLETIN 321, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that permanent inside fence constitutes on an average 35.3 per cent of the total farm fence, and that there is but 1.2 per cent of tempo- rary inside fence used. In many cases a considerable amount may be saved by the use of temporary instead of permanent interior fences. Figure 10 represents a farm of 160 acres which is fenced on the four sides with permanent fence. The farmstead and the lane are both inclosed by permanent fence. By eliminating the re- maining interior fences there are 474 rods less fence to maintain. The annual cost of maintaining 474 rods of a fair grade of woven wire having an investment cost of 65 cents per rod and lasting 15 years is as follows: Costiof repairs,.at-$0024per-rod=+45 ee eee $11. 37 Interest on average investment (total investment $308.10), $154.05, at 5. per cent to. eer a he ee 7.70 Depreciation, one-ffiteenth of $3038 eee 20. 54 Motel S22) 5230S Lah eek eee Ae be Ae! Ate ee ae 39. 61 To maintain the necessary amount of temporary fence would re- quire a very small investment. Permanent and solid anchor posts should be placed along the lane and along the outside of the farm at the field divisions. This would require 14 anchor posts, 4 of which could be used in the permanent lane fence. They should not cost over $4 each for material and labor. There would be no de- preciation on posts of this kind if they are properly constructed. Enough wire would be 160 rds. needed to fence in any field on the farm. This ao i would require not to exceed 160 rods of fence. If the fence is taken up at the end of the season and stored, it will not be subjected to as much corrosion by weathering, but it would probably become unserviceable as soon as permanent fence on account of being handled and stretched so often. It would probably be more desirable to use medium-weight wire for this purpose on account of the greater difficulty of handling the heavy wire. If heavy anchor posts are provided, it will not be necessary to place the line posts closer than 2 rods apart, as the wire can be stretched very tightly ‘ and should not become loose enough in one season to permit stock to get through it. Only a fair grade of posts would be needed to last as long as the wire. Such posts should cost not to exceed 20 cents each, or 10 cents per rod. The largest item of expense would be the labor. This should not exceed 8 cents per rod. A glance at Table 8 (p. 80) would seem to indicate that this figure is liberal. The total approximate cost per rod of materials exclusive of anchor posts would be as follows: Woven wire, 28 cents; posts, 10 cents; barbed wire and staples, 4 cents; total, 42 cents per rod. Following is a summary of the cost of maintaining 160 rods of temporary fencing: 160 ras. COST OF FENCING IN NORTH CENTRAL STATES. 17 Interest on an investment of $67.20 (average investment $33.60) for fence . TEAST SUS GWE Bie) afer Core) a pos ER OR ee Le ES ee eee Ae ee ERE we $1. 68 Interest on an investment of $56 for anchor posts at 5 per cent__________ 2. 80 Miepreci tom .One- Mi Leentheoty oO. 20e.: 2 a eee ee te eed Ba 4. 48 Sg SUID URE. TB OROVE GURNEE Ra aR ES pepe RI rag aime eS 12. 80 Makan nails COStA Cates yer a oh iene i ee ae Oh aU, pL i Bhs ATG There is an annual saving of approximately $18 by the use of temporary fence in this instance. While the practices on some farms may require more interior fencing than the amount cited in this in- stance, others will not require as much. Many times it will be desir- able to pasture two or more fields at one time, and in such a case often only one cross fence will be needed. These figures refer to the con- struction of a temporary fence which is suitable to all kinds of stock. Often a far less expensive fence would answer the purpose where cer- tain kinds of stock are to be pastured for short periods of time. The farmers in lowa use a very inexpensive form of fence for hogging down corn. The fence is supported on a row of cornstalks which has had the ears removed and the stalks cut down to the height of the fence. The wire is woven in and out among the stalks so that four hills are on one side and four on the other, and soon. A fence of this kind requires no material for its construction other than the wire and end posts. It can also be quickly built. Besides the direct saving in the cost of maintaining the fences no land is lost to cultivation in the form of headlands along fence rows, and also there is no labor re- quired to keep down weeds and brush that would otherwise accumu- late along the fence row. | RELATION OF FIRST COST TO COST OF FENCE MAINTENANCE. The cost of maintaining a farm fence is determined by five factors: Interest, repairs, and depreciation on the fence itself, interest on the value of the land rendered unusable, and the expense of keeping down weeds. The cost of repairs and the annual depreciation depend largely on the construction. If a fence is made from a cheap grade of material and is cheaply constructed, it will need frequent repair and will be short lived. Such a fence will have both a high repair and a high depreciation charge, which will in most cases more than counterbalance the increased investment cost that the erection of a more substantial fence would require. If a fence is made of good materials and is properly built, its repair and depreciation charges should be very low; but if the increased cost does not represent a cor- responding increase in service the investment charge will be so much greater that the decrease in repair and depreciation charges will not counterbalance it. The efficiency of the fence depends upon the quality of the wire and posts used and upon the manner of construction. Each of these factors will be considered in the order mentioned. 18 BULLETIN 321, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The first step in the construction of a fence is to select the kind best adapted to the purpose for which a fence is needed. The condi- tions to which the different types of fence are adapted have been briefly discussed under the heading, “ Local requirements and adapta- tion,” but it may be well to review and supplement them here. As there stated, barbed wire, when used to inclose extensive pastures and where only cattle are to be restrained, makes a satisfactory fence. Generally speaking, however, its use alone as a fencing material is not desirable. Woven-wire fencing is fast replacing the other types in use on the general farm where several kinds of stock are to be pastured. Fifty-one per cent of the total fencing used in the area covered by this study is woven wire, and the percentage is rapidly increasing. This woven-wire fencing is made up in many different styles as-regards height, spacing of the wires, and size of wire. Each style is constructed so as to be adapted to meet certain conditions. LIFE OF AND TEST FOR WIRE FENCING. The cost and the life of the various styles of woven-wire fencing differ greatly. Many purchasers consider the first cost of the various kinds to such an extent that they lose sight of the difference in their length of service, which is the controlling factor of their ultimate cost. Table 5 has been computed from the experience of a large number of farmers with the use of the different styles of fencing and shows the relative durability of the different weights and heights of woven wire. TABLE 5.—Relative amount of service given by different weights of woven-wire fabric. Number Number Size of wire. of esti- a claee Size of wire. of esti- pape. mates. ¢ mates. " Years. No. 9 top and bottom, No. 11 Years. No. 9 throughout............- 637 21.1 laterals, No. 12 stays........ 53 IVES No. 7 top, No. 9 bottom, later- No. 10 top and bottom, No. 11 als and stays No. 11 or laterals and stays........... 23 16.7 IN OPI 2 er eee cee eee 35 20.3 || No. 11 top and bottom, No. 12 No. 9 top and bottom, No. 10 laterals and stays.........-. 43 14.6 laterals and stays......---.- 73 18.9 || No. 12 top and bottom, No. 14 No. 9 top and bottom, No. 11 laterals and stays..........- 46 De laterals and stays......-...- 490 17.5 No. 9 top and bottom, No. 12 laterals and stays..........- 349 17.4 Relative amount of service in years given by different widths of woven-wire fabric. Height of fence, inches ........... 26 32 36 39 42 47 55 Number of estimates ...........-- 206 214 19 247 42 865 156 Life of wire, years ..........-...-- 17.2 17 18.3 18.8 19.9 18.9 21.7 It is becoming generally recognized that the heavier styles of woven-wire fencing are more economical to use. The initial cost of the heavy wire is greater, but it lasts more than enough longer to offset the additional cost. It costs practically as much to con- COST OF FENCING IN NORTH CENTRAL STATES. 19 struct a fence in which a light grade ef woven wire is used as to build one of heavier wire; and as the heavy material lasts much longer the cost of construction is distributed over a longer time, hence it is less per year. During the life of the two types of fence the repair costs of the heavier fencing are less. The percentage of heavy wire manu- factured and sold for fencing purposes has greatly increased in the last five years. The use of the wider styles of woven wire has also become more general. The narrower types were first made, as pre- viously mentioned, on account of the excessive cost of materials. It has been the experience of farmers that they are more expensive to maintain, as stock get their heads under the barbed wires and crowd down the woven-wire fence. This is especially true where large hogs come into contact with these fences. Table 5 shows the higher fence has the longer life. In order to reduce the first cost of a fence, it has been the common practice to buy a woven-wire fabric of smaller-sized wire. By doing this the purchaser is reducing the weight of material, and conse- quently the initial cost; but in doing it he is practicing false economy. In many cases, however, the first cost of the fence can be materially lessened by eliminating unnecessary material from the fence in the shape of wires that are not needed; for example, when cattle, sheep, or horses are to be fenced against it is not necessary to have a fence with such close spacing as is required when swine are to be turned. The common general-purpose fence in use is one having approxi- mately 10 line wires anda total height of approximately 4 feet; the bottom wires are spaced about 3 inches apart. Such a fence is ad- mirably suited to general purposes where both large and small stock are to be fenced in, but it is not essential to the farmer who keeps either cattle, horses, or sheep, and no swine. A woven fence with fewer wires and wider spacings will serve to turn cattle, horses, and sheep, and such a fence can be erected at considerably less expense, due to the fact that there is less material in it. Woven-wire fencing is made in numerous styles which are adapted to use under widely varying conditions, so it should not be difficult for the farmer to secure a style of fence adapted to his needs. In the purchase of wire fencing it must be borne in mind that one of the deminant factors controlling the cost of the fencing is the weight of wire in it. This depends on the spacing of the wires and their size. The most accurate means by which the farmer may com- pare two different lots of wire fencing of the same style is to weigh them. Fencing containing undergauged wire will of course be lighter than fencing which is made from full-gauged wire, provided the spacing of the wires is the same in each case. Wire fencing should be sold by weight rather than by the rod. To a great extent the durability of the fence depends upon the size of wires used in its make-up. The number of wires used will depend upon the purpose for which the fence is to be used. 20 BULLETIN 321, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The chemical and physical properties of the wire and also the amount of galvanizing carried by it are factors in determining its durability. It is not the purpose of this publication to go into the details of the manufacture of the steel, as these are very exhaustively treated in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 239 of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. It may be well, however, to mention the proc- esses commonly used in the manufacture of steel wire. The steel from which most of the wire fencing is made at the present. time is manufactured by two processes, the Bessemer and the basic open hearth. Formerly steel for wire was made by what was called the puddled-iron process. This process involved the working of the steel by hand labor, which was necessarily slow and expensive, and upon the introduction of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes it was abandoned, as steel could be made by these processes so much more cheaply. It is generally believed that the steel made from the puddled-iron process was superior to that made by the Bessemer and open-hearth processes for the manufacture of wire fencing. Farmers point to the fact that the first woven-wire fences gave them | better service than those of the present day. It is, however, im- practicable to make wire from steel manufactured by the puddled- iron process, and the manufacturer of wire fencing of the present day improves his product by increasing the quality and quantity of galvanizing. People have come to realize that the amount of gal- vanizing carried by the wire greatly affects its life and demand fencing with a heavy coating of it. The relative amount of galvan- izing or spelter on a wire may be determined by testing the wire in a solution of copper sulphate. TEST FOR WIRE FENCING. The common test applied to determine the relative amount of spelter carried by a woven-wire fabric is as follows: A saturated solution of copper sulphate is made by dissolving 36 parts of copper sulphate to 100 parts of water by weight. Not less than a quart of the solution should be used in the test, and to make a quart of the saturated solution requires approximately 113 ounces of copper sulphate, or, as it is commonly called, blue vitriol. Slightly more than this amount should be used, however, as there should be a small excess of the copper sulphate. This may be either left in the solution or the solution may be strained off from it. The wire to be tested 1s immersed in the prepared solution, which should be at a temperature of 60 to 70° F., and left for one minute, at the end of which time it should be removed and wiped thoroughly dry. This operation should be repeated until the wire shows a deposit of metallic copper. The copper will not be deposited on the wire until the galvanizing is removed and a well-galvanized wire should stand at least three immersions in the copper sulphate solution without showing copper deposits on it. Some specially galvanized wire will withstand four immersions without showing copper. This wire is COST OF FENCING IN NORTH CENTRAL STATES. 21 known as four-minute wire, and may be had at a slight advance in price. When the common commercial copper sulphate is used in performing the test, there is a very slight excess of acid present in the copper sulphate solution which, if not neutralized, may cause the solution to act more strongly on the wire than it should. The acidity may be neutralized by adding a small amount of copper oxide; 2 ounces to a quart of solution should be sufficient. On account of the nonsolubility of the copper oxide it must be added a long time, at least a month, prior to the time the solution is to be used. POSTS: LIFE, COST, PRESERVATION, AND MATERIALS. In the construction of a fence the question of the selection of posts is a very important one. The cheapest post to use will vary with the conditions found in the locality where the fence is to be built. The kinds of native timber and their costs must be considered. It is not advisable to construct a permanent wire fence on posts that will not last as long as the wire. When this is done the fence has to be re- stretched on a new set of posts, the cost of repairs will be considerably increased, and the full efficiency will not be gotten from the wire. Table 6 shows the average life of the different kinds of fence posts in use in the localities studied, and the cost of these in the different areas. Upon examination of the table it will be noted that the ratio of cost to life is approximately 1 cent per year for most kinds of posts. These figures represent the lfe of fence posts of approxi- mately 4 inches in diameter, under average conditions. There are many factors influencing the life of a fence post, and these factors have not been considered in this table. The size of posts, the amount of seasoning they receive before being set in the ground, the quality of timber from which they are cut, the kind of soil, the climatic con- ditions to which they are subjected, and the kind of stock that are to be fenced against, all influence the life of the post. The figures in this table serve to compare one kind of wood with another as to their relative value for fencing purposes. It is shown that Osage orange, locust, red cedar, mulberry, and bur oak are the only kinds of timber that last on an average of more than 15 years when used for fence posts. The supply of practically all of these timbers is limited, and most of them are relatively high priced, especially in areas where they are not native. Osage orange posts are to be obtained com- mercially in only a small area of the country. This timber is native to northeastern Texas and Oklahoma. There has been much Osage orange hedge built in the past, and many of these hedges have been allowed to grow up into trees and posts have been cut from them. However, this practice is not a profitable one on high-priced land, as the hedge row consumes fertility from too much land which would otherwise go to crop production. The supply of locust timber has been affected by the depredations of the locust borer, and is constantly decreasing, while the price of this timber is increasing. Most of the iy) BULLETIN 321, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. red cedar posts which are used in the corn belt area have to be shipped from the Southern States, and their cost to the farmer is steadily advancing. To sum up the fence-post situation, it would seem that the decrease in the supply of timber suitable for use as posts and the increase in cost of this timber to the farmer will in the near future make it advisable to use a substitute for wooden posts or to treat the cheaper woods with a preservative material that will serve to prolong their life. TaBLe 6.—Average cost by areas and the average life of various kinds of fence posts. Average Average cost in each area. sveree cost inal ns areas. —_| Area No. 1.| Area No. 2.| Area No. 3.| Area No. 4. Kind of post. ant bey d ah i, a is gue Els Bue Bu 3. a 5S 53 58 53 52 38 23 4A | 23 , | 23 5 | Qe » | Oe - | Oe : Ba) g | 88) 2 88) 2 | Be) | 88] 6 | Se) % by 12 OP lez On 2 OMe Sy o Osage orange....-.-.-----.- 789 | 29.9] 774 22) 105 25 | 326 24 | 320 17 23 18 WOCUSTA tse ee ee ceeiae see 464 | 23.8] 465 24) 501 26 21 22 18 14 18 Red cedar 557 | 20.5 | 574 29) 346 29 97 31 104 27 27 21 Mulberry 88 | 17.4 82 19 45 20 25 17 12 be aeeec lasers Catalpa....--. 48 | 15.5 45 17 15 17 17 17 13 18 10 18 Bur oak. Bees 97 | 15.3 90 15 10 16 54 15 26 1ST SOE ll ssoive Chestnut -.-| 941] 14.8 15 91 M5 Man al Be AN ce 2 ee ee | White cedar..............-- 1,749 | 14.3 |1, 709 18] 642 18] 459 18 | 374 19 | 274 16 SVWWialnte rea aae aeivcish eats 60 | 11.5 13 6 15 11 13 39 IDR AS See Sn Wihiteoakeh': o:cie. seeeecee 1,242 | 11.4 |1, 218 12} 333 14| 389 11 421 12 75 13 A ETAYS Ae 5 SU ARES ES SO Oe Sane 41 | 11.2 37 18 12 23 7 22 3 11 15 12 Mamarackses-peae-seeeneeee 67 | 10.5 64 9 6 16 26 8 7 9 25 Gherny seas eee es Soe 9 | 10.3 9 8 7 2 Ch Rep aee Pieces Eee aanliarace IEW MOOD nNccaaosonouobece 10) 9.1 9 12 3 20 6 eee eee eae aio ee Sassafras. os -esecesceees 19| 389 17 14 11 15 6 LO Waieecers| eee | Pee eel ee Pe TTEREE EG OS ky hee ele 15} 88 15 12 6 10 5 9 4 15. AVS See JXGIS Sas Bee ON EE eh 69 | 8.6 58 10 17 11 2 10 15 10 24 10 Redioaki ee Stee wera see 220 24 7 6 7 10 8 45 ES See SWiill owe eee ear aaewioe 41] 6.2 33 7 1 12 2 7 25 7 5 9 Concrete (estimated) ...... 42) 48.0 | 121 30 53 30 48 29 19 31 1 35 Bioneers sere ee meee 11 | 36.3 15 Patan babatach ie xi Sear (rae Meee 4 38 11 35 Steel (estimated) .......... 131 | 29.9] 219 30 82 30 71 29 54 30 3 30 PRESERVATION OF FENCE POSTS WITH CREOSOTE. Decay of wood is brought about by the presence of fungi which live on the tissues of the wood. For the development and growth of these fungi certain conditions are necessary. Their growth requires heat, air, moisture, and a supply of food. It will be noticed that in the rotting of a fence post that part of the post which is at the ground line and just below the surface of the ground is the most affected. This is due to the fact that at this point all conditions are favorable for fungus growth. There is an abundance of air, moisture, and heat. In order to prevent decay it is necessary to remove one or more of the conditions necessary to the fungus growth. The purpose of treating timber is to remove the conditions favor- able to the growth of the fungi which cause decay. The moisture content of the timber may be reduced by placing a waterproof coating over it. Many experiments have been carried on, both by the Forest COST OF FENCING IN NORTH CENTRAL STATES, Zea Service of the United States Department of Agriculture and by various State experiment stations, with a view to determining the best preservative materials and the effect of the treatment of post timbers with them. It has been found that creosote, a by-product in the manufacture of coal tar, is the cheapest and most eflicient pre- servative, and that naturally short-lived timbers treated with it will withstand decay as long as the most durable woods. In many localities there is an abundant supply of cheap timber which in its natural state is of little value for fence posts, but which may be treated with a preservative so that its life will be greatly prolonged. The treatment is very simple, and can easily be done on the farm. The equipment necessary for the work is not expensive, but depends to some extent on the number of posts to be treated and the amount of time available for this work. If it is the intention to treat a few posts at a time, only one tank will be needed. The posts that are to be treated should be thoroughly seasoned and the bark should be removed from them so that the preservative will be able to penetrate into them. A good time of the year to cut them is in the spring after the buds begin to swell. They will peel very readily at this time, and should season in time for treatment in the late summer or early fall. After the posts are cut and peeled it is well to place them in piles so that the air will circulate through them, but so that they will not season so rapidly as to check. The method of treatment depends somewhat on the number of posts that are to be treated and the time available for this work. The posts are first placed in a tank of creosote which has been heated to a temperature of about 220° F. They are left in this tank until the creosote has penetrated through the sapwood of the post. The time required to accomplish this depends upon the kind of timber being treated. Soft woods will be more readily penetrated and absorb more creosote. When the post has been in the hot creosote the desired length of time it is then placed in a cold creosote bath, where it should be left for several hours. While in the hot creosote the fibers of the wood expand and force out the air and moisture present. When placed in the cold creosote they contract and form a partial vacuum, thus drawing a quantity of the preservative into the wood cells. If only a limited number of posts are to be treated, or if it is not necessary to complete the work in a short time, the posts may be left in the tank of hot creosote until alter it has cooled. If this method is employed, at the most, only two batches may be treated in a day. If many posts are to be treated, it is necessary to have an additional tank for cold creosote. The posts may be taken from the tank of hot creosote and immediately dipped in the cold. This permits a continuous process to be carried on, 24. BULLETIN 321, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The equipment necessary for the first process is a single tank which is large enough in diameter to hold the number of posts it is desired to treat at a time, and it must be high enough to support the posts and to allow the creosote to stand about 6 inches above the mark that will represent the ground line on the post when set. The creosote in the tank may be heated by several different methods— by placing the tank over a fireplace so that a fire may be built directly under it, by attaching a U-shaped pipe to the lower side of the tank so that a fire may be built under the pipe, or by placing steam coils in the tank in such a manner that they will not be in the way of the posts. The cost of the equipment will vary, but should be very small. Maryland Station Bulletin No. 163 estimates that the cost of the double-tank equipment should not exceed $50. It should cost but a small part of this amount to equip a single tank capable of treating two lots of posts each day. The cost of treatment will vary with the kind of wood used. It has been found that it does not pay to treat a naturally durable wood, because its fibers are so hard to penetrate with the preservative that the operation is a very expensive one, and after treatment a wood of this type is of no more value than a cheaper wood properly treated. Experiments have shown that beech, birch, gums, soft maple, poplar, sycamore, willow, and pin oak respond very readily to treatment. The cost of treating these timbers is approximately 10 cents per post. Creosote may be had in the Central States area for approximately 15 cents per gallon. It may be obtained from hardware dealers. There is a large area of country, however, where even cheap tim- ber is not to be had. In these localities the fence builder is wholly dependent upon the commercial supply of posts. The increased cost of wooden posts has brought substitutes upon the market in the form of steel and concrete. Posts of these types are coming into extensive use in certain areas and will no doubt be used in far greater numbers in the near future. Table 6 gives the estimated life of both steel and concrete posts, but it must be borne in mind that these figures are only estimates, as neither steel nor concrete posts have been in use long enough to determine their actual life. The estimate of 48 years of life for concrete doubtless does not take into consideration the number of posts that are broken off by accident and otherwise. Whether or not it is advisable to use either wooden, steel, or concrete fence posts will depend to a great extent on local costs of these materials. Until more is known of the service to be had from steel or concrete posts it will not be possible to compare their relative value with the more serviceable types of wood. It may be well to mention a few of the qualities of steel and concrete posts which commend their use. COST OF FENCING IN NORTH CENTRAL STATES. 25 STEEL POSTS. Among the qualities possessed by steel posts the one that perhaps appeals to the average fence builder with greatest force is the fact that they are so easily handled, and that fences may be erected in a much shorter time when they are used. Where conditions are right for driving posts, two men should be able to drive 500 steel posts in a day. These posts do not heave, as more bulky ones often do. It is claimed that they form a protection for stock in that they ground currents of electricity carried by the fence during electric storms. For this same reason they should prolong the life of the fence, as the disintegration of wire is partially brought about through electro- lytic action. The unfavorable criticism of steel posts is that they are bent by heavy stock rubbing against them. This may be avoided in two ways: First, if the fence is properly constructed, it should be tight enough that when pressure is brought to bear on the fence the strain will be transmitted to the end posts and the intermediate line posts, and thus not brought to bear on any one post alone; second, by the use of heavier posts. CONCRETE POSTS. The one point in the concrete post that appeals to the fence builder is its supposed durability. To secure a durable concrete post much care must be exercised in the selection of materials and in the con- struction of the post. Gravel or crushed rock should be used which does not exceed one-half inch or run under one-fourth inch in diameter. The sand used should be clean and sharp. To secure the best results a very rich mixture must be made and should run 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, and 3 parts gravel. It does not pay to stint the quantity of cement used, for a very slight reduction in cost caused by the use of less cement will make a very big difference in the quality of the post. It is important that the mixing of the materials be done very thoroughly. The reinforcement should be placed near the surface of the post, but not nearer than three-fourths of aninch. There should be enough reinforcing wires so that when a force is applied to the post from any direction at least one wire will be in tension. It has been found that when smooth cold-drawn wire is used for reinforcement purposes, the bond between the wire and the concrete is not strong enough; when a strain is placed on the post such a wire will slip in the concrete. This may be overcome by cleaning the wire with a strong caustic solution and washing with water, or the same result may be gotten by slightly rusting the wires with a diluted solution of sal ammoniac. Homemade wooden forms may be used in the construction of the posts, but better results can be obtained by the use of steel forms. Whether steel or wooden forms are used they should be thoroughly cleaned and oiled before using. The best time to clean the molds is just after the green posts are re- moved from them and before there is time for particles of concrete 26 BULLETIN 321, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to harden on them. The forms should be oiled before putting in the concrete, so that the surface of the posts when set will have a smooth appearance. A small amount of machine oil applied with a brush will answer the purpose. The concrete should contain enough water so that it may be poured, but not more than this. After being poured into the molds it should be jarred or vibrated so that it will settle and force out any air it may contain. This is essential to the making of a strong, smooth post. Ordinarily the posts can be removed from — the mold at the end of 24 hours, but they have to be handled very carefully at this time. They then should be laid on a smooth floor and kept covered for a week or 10 days. During this time they should be sprinkled with water daily to prevent them drying out too rapidly while seasoning. At the end of a week or 10 days they may be stacked on end in piles. "They should not be used for at least a month, and it is much better not to use them for three months, as they gain greatly in strength during this time. Tn handling a well-seasoned concrete post care must be used not to jar it more than is absolutely necessary. Owing to the excessive weight of concrete posts it is very doubtful if fencing can be erected as quickly with them as with wooden posts. They must also be handled more carefully. They should be weil set in the ground to prevent heaving. Should the post heave so as to lean over, its weight will tend to pull the fence down. Extensive experiments have been carried on at the State college at Ames, Iowa, with the construction of concrete fence posts. In these experiments the cost of the cement used per post varied from 4 to 8 cents, and the cost of reinforcing rods from 9 to 12 cents per post. On farms where sand and gravel are to be had, and where the work may be done at a season of the year when the time might not other- wise be profitably employed, the construction of concrete fence posts is quite feasible. If the work is to be done in winter the concrete must not be allowed to freeze. CONSTRUCTION OF WIRE FENCES. The manner in which the fence is erected has much to do with the service to be gotten out of it. No matter how good the wire and posts, if the fence is not properly constructed it will be a very poor one. The cost of erecting a fence is such a small part of the first cost of it that this work should always be well done, yet it is no exaggeration to say that 50 per cent of the wire fences in use are not properly constructed. The ends and corners are by far the most important elements of a tence. It is absolutely essential that they remain firm and solid in order to hold the fence rigid. In building a fence, therefore, the first thing to consider is the placement of the corner. There are several types of end and corner bracing systems in use any of which if properly installed will hold a fence solid. Plate II illustrates a COST OF FENCING IN NORTH CENTRAL STATES. ait few of the more common types in use. Points to be borne in mind when setting wooden end or corner posts are: First, the posts used should be large enough to give suflicient strength. Second, they should be set deep enough not to heave by the action of frost. Wooden end or corner posts should be put into the ground to the depth of 43 feet, and the brace post should be set 4 feet deep. Third, the brace post should not be set so close to the end post as to require the placing of the brace at an abrupt incline, for this tends to force the end post out of the ground (it is generally considered that 10 feet apart is about the right distance). This arrangement would require a brace 12 feet long, and it is usually inserted in a mortise on the brace post 12 inches from the ground line. The brace should be large enough to remain perfectly rigid. The manufacturers of steel posts issue instructions regarding the placement of their end and corner posts. These posts are set in con- crete, and if properly placed are very solid. Concrete end and corner posts are made in various styles and shapes. It is essential that they be made‘of a good grade of concrete and thoroughly reinforced. They may be reinforced with scrap iron, such as wagon tires, axles, etc., and the reinforcement should be placed so that the strain caused from the pull of the fence will bear against it. These posts should be allowed time to season thoroughly before the fence is attached to them. End, corner, and line posts should be placed so that the ground will have time to settle and harden around them before the fence is strung. It is more essential that the end and corner posts be placed sometime previous to the stringing of the wire. The best time of the year to set posts is in the spring after the frost is out and when the ground is soft. It will thoroughly settle soon after the frost leaves and will leave the posts solid. The wire can then be strung when- ever there is time for this work. Whether the posts are set or driven they should be kept in a straight line with the ends of the fence. If there is a curve ih the fence the posts may be set so as to make a slight angle, and the post at the apex of the angle should be thor- oughly braced in both directions. When steel posts are used they may follow the line of the curve, but in such a case they should be set in concrete and be anchored against the direction of the pull on the fence by using a brace set in concrete, or by the use of a deadman. When the fence is being built over a hilly country, or where there are depressions in the fence row, the posts that are placed in the depressions should be anchored down so that the upward pull of the fence will not tend to draw them out of the ground. This may be accomplished by spiking 2 by 4 crosspieces on the bottoms of the wooden posts before settling them in the ground. If steel posts are used they may be set in concrete. The distance apart line posts should be set depends on the location of the fence and the number and kinds of stock to be turned. The 98 BULLETIN 321, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. average distance in field fence is approximately 20 feet. Around barn lots and pens, where stock are in closer contact with the fence, they are set closer together. Many farmers set posts 1 rod apart. This arrangement is a very handy one in that it furnishes a quick means of measuring portions of a field. It is useful in checking up the amount of work accomplished daily in doing field work. The proper distance to set posts for the greatest efficiency with greatest economy is a matter requiring good judgment on the part of the farmer, for there are many factors involved. In order to construct woven-wire fencing properly certain tools are necessary. ‘These consist of a woven-wire stretcher, a single-wire stretcher to be used in attaching the fence to the end posts, a pair of wire cutters, a barbed-wire stretcher, a splicing tool, and hammers for stapling and fastening the fence. Some device should be used to unroll the barbed and woven wire. This may be done by attaching the roll of wire to the back of a wagon so that it will unreel as the wagon is drawn ahead, as shown in the illustration (PI. II, fig. 2), or it can be unreeled by running a bar through the core and drawing it along with a horse. Before the wire is stretched the fence row should be freed from obstructions, and ridges and un- even surfaces should be smoothed off so the fence will be straight on the ground. The wire should be securely attached to one of the end posts and then unreeled. If there is not wire enough in the roll to cover the length of the stretch to be fenced, more may be spliced on to it in the manner shown in Plate ITT, figure 1. After the wire is unrolled it should be drawn up to the line of posts and freed from adhering tzash. The stretchers are then at- tached, leaving plenty of chain to draw up the slack in the wire. The stretching should be continued until the line wires are so taut that they can not be pressed together by the hand. If the ground is uneven, the fence should not be stretched so tight that the wire can not be drawn to its proper height on the posts. After the fence is stretched it should be securely fastened to the corner to- ward which it is being stretched. The next step is to fasten the wire on the line posts. In doing this the line wires should be kept © as nearly horizontal as possible. They should not be allowed to follow small irregularities in the ground line and thus zigzag up and down from post to post. The fabric should not be fastened tightly to each post; the staples or ties should permit horizontal movement of the wire. This will allow the weight of the fence to come directly on the corner posts, and will take care of the con- traction and expansion of the wire caused by varying weather con- ditions; also if a blow is delivered against the fence it will not be borne alone by the fabric and posts at the point struck, but the force of it will be distributed along the entire fence line. The barbed wire should be stretched and fastened after the fabric has been fastened in place. It should be placed about 4 inches above Bul. 321, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il. FM6846 FM7020 DESIRABLE TYPES OF BRACES FOR ENDS AND CORNERS. Bul. 321, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Ill. FM7026 Fic. 1.—SPLICING WIRE. M7027 Fig. 2.—UNREELING WOVEN WIRE. Bul. 321, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. FM7025 Fig. 1.—STRETCHING WOVEN WIRE. FM7030 FIG. 2,—ATTACHING THE WIRE AFTER IT HAS BEEN STRETCHED. Bul. 321, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. FM6827 Fic. 1.—A STRAND OF BARBED WIRE SHOULD BE PLACED ABOVE THE WOVEN FABRIC TO PREVENT HORSES AND CATTLE FROM REACHING OVER AND CROWDING DOWN THE WoveEN WIRE. FM7023 Fig. 2.—TRIMMED HepD@esS MAKE UNTILLABLE CONSIDERABLE LAND; UNTRIMMED HEDGE ROWS OFTEN OccuPy A ROD OF GROUND ON EITHER SIDE OF THEM. FM6850 Fig. 8.—THE RAIL FENCE OccupPiES MUCH LAND ON EITHER SIDE OF IT WHICH CAN COST OF FENCING IN NORTH CENTRAL STATES. 29 the top of the woven wire so that stock will not be able to get their heads between it and the woven wire. A woven wire fence is not complete without the strand of barbed wire above it; this protects the woven wire by preventing stock from reaching over and crowd- ing it down. © TasLe 7.—Amount of fence that two men can build in a day, both when setting the posts and when driving them, and when they are spaced at various dis- tances ; also the labor cost in cents per rod with wages at $1.50 per day. Number of fences on Day’s work. Labor cost per rod. which estimates are based. Kind of fence. . ie a 13 to | 17 to | 25 to 13 to | 17 to | 25 to 13 to | 17 to | 25 to feet | 163 | 24 | 37 goers eaten) ean hay soot eye Win a less.1 | feet-1 | feet.1| feet. less.1 | (eet-1 | feet.1| feet.t| 1... 1 | feet.t| feet.1) feett | as ee ee ee el ee pes Se a Barbed wire: 2 strands— | Rods.| Rods.| Rods.| Rods.| Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. IRASts driven’... 5-2 Sc}. .'-: 89.5 | 95.0 |166.9 |.....- FOAM roe 2) ka Sulee 2s 19 9 11 Pasisisets- 355225252 58.7 | 71.5 | 75.0 |121.5 |) 5.1) 4.2) 4.0] 2.5 8 27 il 30 3 strands— Posts driven.....-. 64.0 | 89.1 /116.4 |156.0] 4.7] 3.4] 2.6] 1.9 78 | 160 42 23 IPOSESiSOte= <= 5-2-2 43.7 | 58.7 | 68.3 | 95.4] 6.9] 5.1] 4.4] 3.1] 101 | 433] 136 102 4 strands— Posts driven. .-...-- | 76.6 | 83.2 | 92.4 | 95.0] 3.9] 3.6] 3.2] 3.1 31 66 8 3 IPosisiset coo. =. 39.3 | 47.9") 50:6 | 70.84) 76) 6.3 | 5.9) |) 422 | 117 |, 315 64 24 5 strands— | Posts driven....... | §2.2 | 56.7 | 70.9 |100.0} 5.7] 5.3] 3.8] 3.0 16 18 5 1 asts Seta. -:25--2- | 25.3 | 34.1, 38.7 | 46.2] 11.8] 8.8] 7.7] 6.5 33 69 16 4 6 strands— _ Posts driven....... ech (POO, | Oe On | eee U2 Gee ee ees eeaaan 10 7 Bale tA: Posts set.......-..- 19.4 | 26.4 | 32.0 | 34.1] 15.4] 11.3] 9.4] 8.8 47 | 128 62 42 Narrow woven wire with 2 or more barbed wires: Posts driven..........-. 48.7 | 53.0 | 74.1] 89.8] 6.2] 5.7) 4.0] 3.3] 122] 343 78 48 OSIRISEL = ance So m= 26.3 | 33.0 | 37.9} 47.1 | 11.4] 9.1] 7.9] 5.5] 440 1,482] 535 338 Wide woven wire with 1 barbed wire: Posts driven...........} 50.9 | 55.3 | 77.2 | 94.2 5.9 5.4 3.9 3.2 114 3 77 50 eOspsisous cones eo. settee 27.2 | 33.9 | 39.9 | 49.7 | 11.0 8.8 1.9 4.6 | 430 |1,410} 539 332 Wide woven wire without barbed wire: Woste Grivel... .-.-...2¢ 61.3 | 65.4 | 80.2 |108.5 4.9 4.6 BHC 2.8 105 311 52 40 LEG Rs a re 30.6 | 39.0 | 45.8 | 56.7 9.8 WG 6.6 5.3 396 |1, 270 455 287 1 Distance apart of posts. The number of rods of fence that can be constructed in a day varies with soil conditions, the depth to which posts are set or driven, the ability of the men doing the work, the topography of the ground, and the distance apart of corner, end, and gate posts. Table 7 shows the amount of fence that two men can build in a day under average conditions. The posts are set at an average depth of 32 inches and the corner and end posts are placed approximately 40 rods apart. With long, straight stretches of fencing and with other conditions fa- vorable, two men could build more fence than the figures in the table indicate. On the other hand, if the fence is to be constructed over rough and uneven ground and on a soil where it is difficult to set the posts or dig the post holes, or if only short lengths of fencing are to be erected, two men would not be able to build the amount of fence indicated in the tables. The figures indicate the amount of fence that may be erected in a day when the material is on the ground, and do not include the cost of hauling. 30 BULLETIN 321, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COST OF MAINTENANCE OF FARM FENCES. As stated on a previous page, the cost of maintaining farm fences consists of (1) the interest charge on the money invested, (2) the annual depreciation charges, (3) repairs, (4) interest on the value of the land which is covered by fence rows and from which the farmer derives comparatively little or in some cases no benefit, and (5) the expense of keeping down weeds. The interest charge is usually reckoned on the prevailing rate of interest on half the cost of a new fence, or it may be reckoned on the average present value of the fences on the farm. The depreciation charge is determined wholly by the life of the fence. If this is 20 years, the annual depreciation charge would be one-twentieth of the first cost of the fence. COST OF REPAIRS. The repair charge will vary with the kind of fences used. The two most important factors influencing them are the quality of the fence and the use to which it is subjected. If the fence is built from good materials and is well constructed, the annual repair bill will be greatly lessened. A fence placed around a stockyard or pasture field will be subjected to harder treatment than one around fields where stock seldom reach it. Also, certain kinds of stock and some indi- vidual animals are harder on a fence than others. The repair charges on a fence are light during the early life of the fence, and increase as the fence grows older. There is, however, one item of expense which has to be considered as much with a new as an old fence. This is the cleaning up of the fence row and keeping it free from grass, weeds, and brush. It is estimated that the cost of keeping fence rows free from weeds, etc., amounts to 1 per cent per rod per year. Table 8 has been computed from a large number of estimates furnished by farmers in the Central States. The figures show that wire fences are by far the cheapest to keep in repair. Taste 8.— Average annual cost of repair per rod for several of the most com- monly used fences. Number | Cost of Number | Cost of Kind of fence. of esti- repair Kind of fence. ofesti- | repair mates. | per rod. mates. | per rod- -Woven wire........--.-------- 787 SONO22 7) | Vaal ee eee e eee seen eee 89}, $0.045 Barbed wire....-...-----.---. 290 020) ei Cke theme sesese ee eee re ene 17 047 BOAT Aes eccisecacecine ase emioene 26 GOI II USIQCIRS). oS codec onkstoadseasocs 1,067 - 043 Detailed records covering the cost of repair of woven-wire fence along its right of way for a period of 4 years were furnished by one of the large eastern railroads. These figures, although slightly higher than those in the table, check very closely with them. The annual charge for the upkeep of hedge given in this table covers the cost of trimming the hedge. It has been found by averaging a large number -of estimates that when hedge is trimmed once a year a man can trim 30 rods per day; when it is trimmed twice a year a man can trim 70 rods a day; and when it is trimmed three times a year a man can trim 110 rods a day. The cost of keeping the various kinds of wooden fences in repair is very high. COST OF FENCING IN NORTH CENTRAL STATES, 31 Taste 9.—Showing the width of the strip of land (from the center of the fence out on one side) which is made untillable by different types of fence. Amount Fence Amount}| Fence Number} ofland | required Number | of land | required Kind of fence. esti- made to lose Kind of fence. esti- made to lose mated. untill- | an acre of mated. untill- |anacre of able! | ground.! able! | ground.! Feet. Rods. Feet. Rods. Woven wire.......- 4,048 3. 29 802 || Hedge (well Barbed wire....... 3, 853 3.42 772 trimmed)......-. 2,356 7.6 347 EGC s.-ee seen 3,090 3.23 817 || Straight rail........ 2, 066 3.57 739 PACK Ghee es sect oe =< 2, 683 3.29 802 || Worm rail.......... 2,180 6. 05 436 1 Should the fence run between two pasture fields, practically no land would be lost, but when it divides two cultivated fields the width of the strip of land made untillable, as shown by the table, should be luvbled aut the number of rods of fence required to occupy an acre of ground would be one-half that stated in the table. When farm land is high priced the amount of land that is covered by fence rows becomes a matter of importance. [Yor this reason worm-rail and hedge fences are not practicable throughout the corn belt, where there are still many of them in use. Table 9 shows the amount of land rendered untillable by different types of fence. They must be doubled if the fence divides two cultivated fields. When a forage or small-grain crop is grown less land is lost along the fence row than when corn, potatoes, or some other cultivated crop is grown, for much land is taken for turning along the fence row with the latter. Local practices also influence the amount of land along the fence row which is not cultivated. Thus, in certain parts of Iowa and adjacent States, it is not uncommon for a farmer to leave a headland 10 to 12 feet in width along his fences; these are used for driveways. In many localities of the East it is the practice to use one horse to plow along the fence row in order to get as close to it as possible. Tt will be noted from the table that wire, board, and picket fences take up but a little over 3 feet on a side, while worm-rail fences occupy double this amount of land. The amount of land that the hedge fence renders useless for cultivation will depend upon the size of the hedge. If it is left untrimmed it will sap the fertility of the soil for more than a rod on each side of it; if it is kept well trimmed it occupies nearly double the amount of land taken by a wire fence. If the season is dry, a hedge does much more damage than when there is plenty of rainfall, as its root system extends out to a con- siderable distance and takes up moisture that is needed by the crops in the adjacent fields. SUMMARY. 1. The large farm requires proportionately less fence than the small one, and the ratio of fence required to the acre decreases in proportion to the increase in size of farm up to a certain limit. 2. Stone, hedge, and the different types of wooden fences were de- sirable at the time they were first built, but changing economic con- ditions make them impracticable at the present time, and they are being replaced with wire fencing. 3. The best kind of wire fencing to erect depends on the purpose for which the fence is used. On a farm where mixed types of live stock are kept, a general-purpose woven-wire fabric is needed. If only cattle and horses are to be pastured, a coarser and less expensive 32 BULLETIN 321, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, woven fence can be used. When fencing is needed to inclose exten-- sive pastures where only cattle or horses are to be kept the excessive cost of a woven-wire fence would not make its use desirable, for losses to stock by injury on barbed wire would not be large enough to counterbalance the difference in the cost of maintaining the two different kinds of fences. This applies to the extensive farming areas of the West. 4, It is economy to use a heavy grade of woven-wire fabric. The cost of woven wire is based upon its weight, and a reduction in cost may be obtained by using a style of fencing that has the wires spaced enly as close together as is needed to meet the requirements. It is false economy to reduce the first cost of the fence by using a light grade of wire. 5. To get the maximum of service out of a fence it is absolutely necessary that it should be well built. The corner posts must be . placed solidly in the ground in such a manner that they can not be heaved by frost or drawn loose by the pull of the fence. The fabric should be strung tightly to the end posts, but it ought not to be tightly stapled to the line posts. It should be fastened to line posts in such manner that the wires may move in a horizontal direction to take care of the contraction and expansion due to changes in tempera- ture, and to distribute the force of a blow along the fence line so that the strain will not come entirely on any one or two posts or any one point of the wire. A barbed wire should be placed a short distance above the top of the woven wire to prevent cattle and horses from crowding it down when reaching over or rubbing against the fence. 6. Cheaply constructed wire fences are expensive to keep in repair. Wooden and hedge fences require a large annual expenditure to keep them in shape. 7. Worm-rail and hedge fences occupy much more ground space than do the other types of fence in use in the area studied. Stone fences also occupy much ground, but very few of them were found in this area. 8. The cost of a good general-purpose farm fence constructed from durable materials will be as follows: First cost: Per rod. Line posts ; red cedar, hedge, locust, cement, or steel (1 rod apart)__ $0.28 Ends and braces; cedar, hedge, locust, cement, or steel (every 40 MEO CES) 8 LEE SHAS PERT en UR ACE git . 125 Woven wire; 10 strands, 47 inches high, stays 12 inches apart, all BSS OE a Gm oa SG ge Ue ee VE ISA IES A i ac UE OS SSIS Ne Se . 40 Barbed wire; 1 strand placed 4 inches above top of the woven wire. .035 Staplegve cua oo nis he kee I oe A ER ae ee . 005 Labor cost of construction 2222 Si eae as ee ee . 09 Po tallyts. is iis AW ek dle ial ale 2 ce aS a . 935 Annual cost of upkeep: Repairs, including the cost of keeping the fence row clean__________ . 024 Interest at 5 per cent on average investment ($0.4675)____________ . 023 Depreciation, estimating that the life of the fence is 22 years_______ . 048 MMO Gea ssi a Dal ee aT le a . 090 Interest on the land occupied at the rate of 5 per cent per year: 108.6 square feet per rod, valued at $125 per acre_______-____-__-____ . 155 Total/annual®eost: ses) ean a he Ns ye ae ee eh O BULLETIN No. 322 & Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry y WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. January 7, 1916 UTILIZATION OF AMERICAN FLAX STRAW IN THE PAPER AND FIBER-BOARD INDUSTRY. By JAson L. Merrity, Paper-Plant Chemist, Paper-Plant Investigations.* CONTENTS. Page. Page. TERA oo 1 | Flax tow in the fiber-board in- Migration of the flax crop_________ 3 GUStry aoe AALS esate Sse dee 16 Flax straw in the paper and fiber- Suggestions for flax farmers_______ 22 Gn) UGG 4.) COone@ltisiOn She ta ete Ae eae are eae 23 INTRODUCTION. The purpose of this paper is to report recent tests on the utilization of American seed-flax straw in the paper and fiber-board industry. Successful commercial tests have been completed, wherein domestic flax straw and tow were used in place of imported flax waste in the manufacture of fiber counter boards, which are employed to a great and increasing extent in making toe boxes and counters for shoes. The boards made during these tests were pronounced satisfactory by manufacturers and were sold to the trade at the regular price for such boards. From an economic point of view it seems inconsistent that this country should import flax waste from foreign countries for paper and board manufacture and at the same time actually burn one and one-half million tons of flax straw which is raised within its own borders. The reason usually given and naturally assumed is that it is more profitable to use the foreign article or that the domestic ma- terial is not suitable for the purpose. It will be shown in this report that these reasons have not been well founded. 1The work of investigating flax straw as a paper-making material was initiated by Mr. Charles J. Brand, now Chief of the Office of Markets and Rural Organization, when he was Physiologist in Charge of Paper-Plant Investigations of this bureau. Mr. Brand still retains supervision of this line of the bureau’s activities. Notre.—This bulletin gives an account of recent work on the utilization of American seed-flax straw in the paper and fiber-board industry and will be of interest to chemists, flax farmers, counter-board manufacturers, and paper makers in general. 8957 °—Bull. 322--16——1 2 BULLETIN 322, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Among other reasons why flax straw should be investigated as to its paper value there should be cited the present condition and tend- ency of our rag paper-stock supply, which would welcome new sources of material at this time. About 70 per cent of the rags used in paper manufacture in the United States are imported from European countries. It is well known that very good writing papers have been produced from flax straw, but the cost of the processes em- ployed up to the present time has not been justified by the quality and value of the product. ~The rope-paper and high-grade sack-paper manufacturers also have been consuming an immense quantity of foreign raw material, in spite of the fact that it is known that American flax straw is capable of being used for some of these purposes. But here again the product has not justified the cost of the process. Manufacturers of cartridge or shot shell papers annually import approximately 2,000 tons of flax waste for the production of their paper, and the question of a satisfactory substitute is engaging their attention. From the paper maker’s point of view, therefore, the flax crop represents a raw material of immense latent value, and, as will be shown, it is likewise a source of great latent value to the flax farmer. Certain promoters have made attempts to exploit this material, but their efforts often have been based upon insufficient evidence and data. It is the object of this paper to show to what extent flax straw may be utilized in the paper-making and fiber-board industries and to suggest further possibilities. One of our most highly prized and valued oils and one for which no satisfactory substitute has been found is linseed oil, which is manufactured solely from the seed of the common flax plant (Linum usitatissimum). The raising of flax is an industry of great im- portance, as is shown by the fact that the United States normally * has about 2,200,000 acres devoted to its culture, which produce about 20,000,000 bushels of seed, valued at approximately $33,000,- 000. This seed flax of the Northwest is different in type from that cultivated primarily for fiber production, and because of this dif- ference and the methods of cultivating and handling the crop the straw can not be made to produce a good spinning fiber. The straw resulting from the harvesting and thrashing of this crop usually is burned, not because it has no intrinsic value, but because no adequate industrial use has been established to absorb it. With a production of three-fourths of a ton of straw per acre, the total annual tonnage of straw amounts to approximately 1,600,000 tons, of which not more than 200,000 tons are at present put to any profitable use. 1 Five-year average, 1909 to 1913. UTILIZATION OF AMERICAN FLAX STRAW. 3 The utilization of the remaining 1,400,000 tons would be of im- mense economic importance, since (1) its paper-producing possi- bilities are equal to the annual production of wrapping paper and more than double the annual production of writing paper in the United States; (2) its sale would represent an added revenue to the. farmers of about $5,000,000 annually; (3) it would exert a very strong tendency toward maintaining the flax crop in our agricultural system; (4) it probably would result in the establishment of paper- manufacturing industries in sections where there are none; (5) it would aid in making our paper industry more independent of foreign raw paper-making materials; and (6) it would produce a keener realization of the latent value of some of our enormous crop wastes. MIGRATION OF THE FLAX CROP. The acreage of the flax crop has not remained permanent in any one section, and it.is this constant migration which is of as vital importance as is its total available tonnage. The total crop is variable in acreage and yield to the extent shown by Table I. Tarrte 1.—Acreage and yield of the flax crop in the United States for 1899, 1902, and from 1909 to 1914, inclusive. Year. | Acres. Bustiels of Year. Acres. Bushels of { cb ou pel | 2,110,000! 19,979,000 || 1911...........-.-------. 2,757,000 | 19,370,000 “Ol ae 3,740,000 | 29,285,000 || 1912...................... 2/851/000 | 28,073, 000 Sy 51083/000)| . 19, 512-000 || 19138 2uho cee 2’991'000 | 17,853” 000 mayen Ss: 9: 487,000)| 12,718,000 || 1914. ..-5..-..0c.-e-s oe 1,885,000 | 15/559, 000 During its entire history flax has been a pioneer crop, being used as a first crop on the upturned virgin soil. This soil is claimed to be too rich for corn and other cereals, but, on account of the very meager root system of the flax plant, it thrives here at its best. Flax does not do as well on the same land until after other: crops have been raised and the land put into grass again, when it is ready to be broken up for a new flax seed bed. The old prevalent idea that the flax crop is very exhausting to soil fertility has been shown to be a fallacy,’ and it has been proved that it does not tax the soil fertility as much as either wheat or oats. Table II gives statistics of flax acreage which show the migration of the crop in certain States since 1899. 1Bolley, WH. L. Flax culture. N. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Press Bull. 46, 4 p., 3 figs. 1911. ’ Bull, C. P. Flax growing. Minn. Farmers’ Libr. Ext. Bul. 27, 8 p., illus. 1912. 4 BULLETIN 322, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE II.—Area devoted to flax in certain States in 1899, 1909, and 1913, showing the migration of the crop. | State. 1899 1909 1913 State. 1899 1909 | 1913 | Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Olnsospassssscasce 3, 092 Dog eeese aces TOWae sess eete cess 126, 453 15, 549 28,000 VIN OISEAE ee eee eee 394 ADB | eee ee Minnesota.....---. 566,800 | 358, 426 350, 000 KANSAS Hee cere ne 192,167] 45,014 60, 000 || North Dakota...... 774, 000 | 1,068,049 | 1,000, 000 Nebraska.......--- 7, 652 2,934 9,000 |} South Dakota.....- 302,010 | 518,566 425, 000 Michigan..........- 883 261i Sascesce eS Montana.........-- 16 37, 647 400, 000 Wisconsin..-.....- 11,263 9, 423 9, 000 In 1879 Illinois, Iowa, and Indiana were the leading flax States. From present indications Montana is forging ahead very rapidly as a leading flax State, and Kansas and Nebraska also are becoming larger producers. Since North Dakota is the largest flax State, the effect of migration in that State since 1902 has been determined. A north and south line of counties in the extreme eastern end of the State and a similar line of counties in the extreme western end have been chosen for comparison (Table III), to show the etfect of migration. TABLE III.—Area devoted to flax in the eastern and western sections of North Dakota, in certain years, showing the westward migration of the crop. Percentage of total flax acreage of the State. Number of acres in flax. Year. Eastern | Western | Eastern | Western counties.| counties.) counties.| counties. 892,000 | 145, 400 47.0 7.6 498,800 | 208,090 42.3 17.6 267,000 | .404, 200 23.6 35.7 188,240 | 325,700 26.7 46. 2 The figures in Table III show very clearly that the crop has mi- grated westward across the State and that in twelve years the eastern and western sections have changed places in relation to the total flax crop of the State. It naturally might be inferred that the crop will migrate eventually entirely out of the State, but, because of the short distance to the Rocky Mountain region and the Canadian line and because of increased knowledge of successful flax raising, it seems very probable that flax will contimue to be an important crop in this State and region for a considerable period. FLAX STRAW IN THE PAPER AND FIBER-BOARD INDUSTRY. UTILIZATION OF FLAX STRAW IN THE PAPER INDUSTRY. There is a great diversity of opinion as to the possibility of economically manufacturing paper from flax straw, but there is an almost unanimous agreement that it contains a certain proportion of UTILIZATION OF AMERICAN FLAX STRAW. 5 fiber which would be of value could it be separated economically from the straw. Different requirements are made of a raw material, however, depending on the grade of product desired. It might, for example, meet the requirements of the board manufacturer in regard to product and cost and not be capable of interesting the writing- paper or wrapping-paper manufacturer, for reasons of product or cost, or both. It may be found also that the straw can be used in only one or two grades of product, as is the case with poplar wood and esparto grass. Much work has been done by different experimenters in testing this straw for its paper value, and samples of writing and sack papers have been produced which, so far as quality is concerned, seem to be satisfactory. A small flax-tow mill is in operation in North Dakota, which is equipped with a pulping boiler, beater, and other apparatus, and it has produced bleached flax pulp of an apparently satisfactory quality, from which good grades of writing paper have been manu- factured. But the work, although promising, is yet in the experi- mental stage. In 1908 the Bureau of Plant Industry, cooperating with the United States Forest Service, conducted a number of pulp-making tests with the straw and found that a very severe chemical action was required and that it was impossible to bleach the pulp economically with ordinary bleaching-powder solutions. In spite of all the activity in this direction, however, no industry has been established whereby paper manufacturers have been enabled to utilize this immense and valuable crop waste. _ UTILIZATION OF FLAX STRAW IN THE FIBER-BOARD INDUSTRY. In the manufacture of certain grades of fiber board known as counter board, one of the main constituents is flax waste from the tex- tile industries of Europe. The total quantity so used in this country is approximately 7,000 tons per annum. This waste is divided into four distinct classes, namely, flax card waste, flax card strippings, flax rove waste, and flax washed waste, depending on the particular operation from which each is derived. These wastes, with the excep- tion of the washed waste, have a certain amount of flax wood shives associated with them, the card waste containing the most and the rove waste the least. The washed waste contains no shives and is the highest priced; likewise, the least used in board manufacture. As to the possibility of substituting domestic flax straw for the im- ported flax waste, a comparison from a chemical and physical stand- point brings out the following facts: (1) Flax waste is derived from retted flax straw and consequently contains very little of the mucilaginous pectin compounds, such as 6 BULLETIN 322, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are present in domestic unretted flax straw. For this reason alone flax straw would require the use of more chemicals in its reduction than does flax waste. (2) The proportion of wood in flax straw is far higher than in flax waste, which probably would necessitate a higher consumption of chemicals in treating the former. If it should appear necessary to | exclude wood shives from the finished product, it might be found ~ necessary to reduce the wood to a greater extent than when using flax waste, in which case the reduction might require the employ- ment of a higher steam pressure or a longer time of treatment, or both. The greatest difference in a physical sense between straw and waste is that the former, being composed of lengths of the whole stalk, presents larger pieces, or masses, to the action of the chemi- cals, thus necessitating the employment of more time in the chemical reduction process. These chemical and physical differences, how- ever, do not differ in kind but only in degree, from which it would be concluded that the method found to be satisfactory with straw would differ in no fundamental manner from that known to be satisfactory with waste. LABORATORY EXPERIMENTAL TESTS ON THE PREPARATION OF PULP. In March, 1914, preliminary work was started by the Department of Agriculture on the utilization of flax straw as a raw material for sack or wrapping paper manufacture. It was decided that, of all the fiber-treating processes, the milk-of-lime process was the most worthy of trial, after the following factors, among others, had been con- sidered carefully : Lower initial cost of factory installation.—On account of freight rates, which figure so prominently in the final costs of manufactured products, and because of the remoteness of the flax region from paper mills, it might appear advisable to establish pulp or paper mills nearer the source of raw-material supply. It would be inadvisable to install a process which demands a heavy expenditure per ton, such as the soda, sulphate, and sulphite processes, before the true value of the material were proved by actual manufacture for a reasonable period of time. Such a practical test might be prohibitive because of the shipping cost for such a distance, and few, if any, manufacturers could be expected to operate at a loss or even at a low profit for a sufficient period to determine the advisability of factory installation. The same remarks apply to the milk-of-lime process, but not to the same degree. Tensile strength of the fibers preserved.—As is commonly known, caustic soda pulping lowers the tensile strength of fibers more than the milder milk-of-lime process. Class of employees required.—The milk-of-lime process does not demand the employment of as large a staff or as great a variety of skilled help as the soda, sulphite, or sulphate processes. UTILIZATION OF AMERICAN FLAX STRAW. " The laboratory work consisted of pulping tests, beating and wash- ing the pulp and making it into hand sheets. From the data gathered during this process and from the samples conclusions were drawn as to procedure and conditions to be employed on subsequent semi- commercial tests. It is fully realized that in general it is impossible to duplicate commercial working conditions on a small laboratory scale; therefore, laboratory results, valuable as they may be, should be interpreted commercially only with extreme caution. The follow- ing laboratory work and results are regarded, therefore, as approxi- mate indications, to assist in subsequent semicommercial tests. _ The flax straw used in these tests was of the ordinary seed-flax type raised in the vicinity of Fargo, N. Dak., was thrashed with the ordinary thrashing machine, as is the practice in that section, and was baled in an ordinary hay baler. The bales contained their proper complement of chaff, usually 30 per cent, and averaged 80 pounds in weight. To serve as a fiber suitable for paper manufacture it is necessary to reduce the woody portion by cooking or bleaching to such a condi- tion that the beater will be able to disintegrate mechanically or separate the woody shives to such a size or condition that they may be removed from the true fiber by washing in the regular manner. The proportion of woody matter that it 1s necessary to remove de- pends naturally cn the grade of product desired. Pulping tests, technically known as “ bleaches,” were conducted in an iron rotary boiler of 10 gallons capacity, heated by means of direct steam and gas burners, and retating | revolution per minute. In conducting a bleach, the boiler is charged full of straw, from which a sample has been drawn for a moisture determination, in order to calculate the weight of bone-dry straw employed. The pre- determined quantity of lime (burned lime), calculated in percentage of the bone-dry straw, is added in the form of milk of lime, together with sufficient water to amount to 1 gallon per 24 pounds of straw. After closing the boiler and rotating a few times, direct steam at 110 pounds pressure is admitted, the gas urners underneath are lighted in order to counteract excessive radiation, and the charge is heated to a certain point in one hour. The control of the degree of heat in a boiler is accomplished in practice by a steam-pressure gauge which bears a direct relation to the temperature of the charge, but since it is not pressure but tem- perature which induces the chemical actions, it would obviously be as correct to employ temperature as pressure for a guide. In all of the laboratory work the temperature control was used, being effected by a thermometer inserted in a horizontal well extending from the end of the boiler to the center of the charge. After the desired tem- 8 BULLETIN 322, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. perature has been reached this degree is maintained constantly for the required number of hours, after which the burners are removed and the boiler cooled in about half an hour by means of a small stream of water applied to the boiler shell. The resulting stock, on removal from the boiler and after remaining unwashed over night, is well washed with water, pressed into a uniform cake, weighed, and a sample drawn for a moisture determination, from which data the yield of total stock is determined. The stock after bleaching shows the bark more or less completely resolved and the bast very loosely held in the structure. The inside woody portion appears practically unchanged, but in reality it has Fic. 1.—Experimental 10-pound beater, supplied with washer. suffered a chemical and physical change whereby the structure is mechanically weakened. Next, the stock is “beaten” in an experimental 10-pound beater (fig. 1), which consists of a trough in which the stock is caused to circulate and pass between a bedplate of coarse knives or bars and a series of similar knives set in the periphery of an iron roll making about 150 revolutions per minute. The distance between the two sets of knives can be regulated and altered to any degree, according to the effect desired. This action causes the bleached stock gradually to be distintegrated into its ultimate cells, the bark being reduced to bast cells and the small connecting cells of the structure and the UTILIZATION OF AMERICAN FLAX STRAW. 9 woody portion partly to very fine shives and partly to the ultimate wood cells. The measurements shown in Table IV give an idea of the kinds and relative sizes of the various cellular elements of which flax pulp is composed. The pulp in this case was obtained by the soda process, on account of the more complete separation of the cells in the pulp (fig. 2). Fic. 2.—Microphotograph of pulp from flax straw before the smaller cells are removed. (Magnified 103 diameters. ) Tarte TV.—Dimensions of the cells of flav pulp. | | Kind of cells. ao cells (from the central portion of the Ep aaeniaiccils BER PAte oie Sse rerbe oe 22 ss muort parenchyma cells...........-.-.-2s----- Long parenchyma cells..........-.--.-------- 8 vor itted, and other vessels.............-. bers (from the woody portion of the stalk} ate ne tnd eels nal dean iain oe ats o's Bast fibers (the long fiber of the plant, which is of value to the paper maker)............. 1 xtending throughout ister of plant. ROR? al) 299 ~184_9 Dimensions (millimeters). ; = Ratio 44. of ° Length. Width. length ae 0 width. Maxi- | Mini- | Aver- | Maxi- | Mini- | Aver- ' mum. | mum. ] age. | mum. | mum. | age. 0.14 0.08 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.06 1.5 pp | 07 . 08 08 OL 02 4:3: 13 09 pil . 02 OL . 02 Tem -40 18 . 29 04 . 02 . 03 9, 2 () (1) (1) - 02 . 009 BOLLE cveratsatate 426 16 . 20 O13 009 |. OL 17.5 64 Pa ae a o's 039 O10 OLO no Siare 10 BULLETIN 322, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The short fibers or cells are not sufficiently long or correctly pro- portioned and shaped to possess the felting quality on which their value largely depends in paper manufacture; moreover, in distinc- tion from the long bast fiber, they are liquefied, which renders them very undesirable in the manufacture of durable products. The separation of the dirt and short fibers from the long true fibers was accomplished in the laboratory, as in practice, by means of a washer, which is a rotating drum covered with 20-mesh wire cloth on the sides and having helical scoops inside connecting with a hollow trunnion. This washer is attached invariably to the beater and by being lowered about one-third its breadth into the circulat- ing stock it removes water, dirt, and short fiber, while fresh water is admitted at the other end of the beater. Iie. 3.—Paper-testing machines in a constant-humidity room. Obviously, this light beating and washing should be carried to different degrees, depending on the quality of the product desired. For example, a medium grade of fiber board would not require as much washing as one of higher grade and a stock suitable for wrap- ping or sack paper would require a very complete washing. After having been washed to the desired degree, the stock is drained from the beater, pressed, weighed, and sampled for a mois- ture determination, in order to calculate the yield of the washed fiber. It is then returned to the beater, and the long true fiber is reduced to a degree which is suitable for manufacture into a sheet of paper. All sheets were made waterleaf on a hand mold 53 by 10 inches, dried on a steam-heated cylinder at 105° C. under a definite tension, and subsequently given physical tests under constant conditions of temperature and relative humidity. To show the effect on the physical constants of a paper caused by drying the wet handmade sheet under different tensions, the re- UTILIZATION OF AMERICAN FLAX STRAW. 11 sults of one series of tests on a lime-cooked flax-straw paper are here given (Table V). The wet sheets were placed on a cloth- covered iron cylinder heated by steam to 103° C. and held down by placmmg on top a cloth which was maintained at a definite tension. The sheets shrank more and cockled more under a light tension than under an increased tension. The physical tests were made at 80° C. and 65 per cent relative humidity (fig. 3). Tasrte V.—HLHffect on the physical constants of paper dried under different tensions. Folding peaking factor of ) ength sheet Tension of cloth. of sheet | ream 25 (meters).| by 40 by 500: 3, 165 0. 00312 3, 420 00407" 3,810 00487 4) 150 00571 3,960 00405 From Table V it appears that within certain limits the strength and folding quality of a sheet depend to a considerable degree upon the method of drying. Bleaches were made with from 12 to 25 per cent of burned lime, calculated on the bone-dry weight of the straw used, employing temperatures from 135° to 170° C. and treating at the definite tem- perature from 6 to 10 hours. The most thorough reduction and generally satisfactory results were obtained with 14 per cent of lime acting for 10 hours at 170° C., or the equivalent of 100 pounds steam pressure. The yield of total fiber obtained did not vary much with the different bleaching condi- tions, ranging from 60 to 68 per cent of the bone-dry weight of the original straw employed. Determinations of the yield of washed or separated fiber on the satisfactory bleaches gave an average of 32 per cent of the bone-dry weight of straw employed. MILL TESTS ON THE MANUFACTURE OF WRAPPING PAPER. Tests of wrapping paper from flax straw were made at Cumber- land Mills, Me. Semicommercial machines were used, and most of the work was performed by the regular mill employees. The straw used in these tests was raised in the vicinity of Fargo, N. Dak., being the same as that used in the laboratory tests. It was first sieved on a 44-mesh screen, in order to remove the loose chaff composed of dirt, seeds, and empty seed capsules, which amounted in total to 24.5 per cent of the original straw. | 12 BULLETIN 322, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Chemical reduction was effected in a steel, rotary pulp boiler, 6 feet long by 4 feet in diameter, which was supplied with a ther- mometer well, pressure gauge, and pipes for relief and direct steam inflow. Bleach No. 193.—A charge of 277 pounds (242 pounds, bone-dry -weight) was treated with 15 per cent of burned lime (36.4 pounds) and 100 gallons of water, the lime being slaked in part of the water before being added. Direct steam was admitted, so as to bring the charge up to 148° C., or 50 pounds steam pressure, in 1 hour; then regulated so as to maintain this pressure for 10 hours, after which the pressure was relieved and the contents removed. This stock was followed down with a fairly light roll and washed for 3 hours in a 400-pound beater, at which point the stock was removed, drained, pressed, weighed, and sampled for moisture content. From these data the yield was found to be 64.6 per cent of the sieved straw, or -48.7 per cent of the original bone-dry straw. - Bleach No. 194.—This bleach was made in the same manner as No. 193 and beaten and washed 3 hours, after which the stock from No. 193 was added to it in the beater. The combined stocks were beaten a total of 19 hours, the last 7 of which were fairly hard, the washer being used the first 4 hours. The long bast fibers were very strong and not easily reduced; likewise, the woody portion did not com- pletely reduce to the separated individual fibers, but remained as more or less fine shives, or cell aggregates. The washer used in this work was 60-mesh, while a much coarser, possibly 20 or 25 mesh, would have removed many more of the shives and given a far better product. This unsized and unscreened stock was pumped to the stuff chest and run over a 30-inch Fourdrinier paper machine, in conjunc- tion with a Jordan type of refiner. The stock acted well on the ma- chine wire, was strong after the second press rolls, did not cockle on the driers, but became very brittle on drying, doubtless due to the large amount of woody shives present. It was apparent that more wood must be removed from the finished product. This could be ac- complished by removing it from the straw before treatment, or by more severe chemical treatment, or by a harder beating and washing. Another test was made on the same lot of straw, which gave a sieving loss of 35 per cent of the original straw. Other bleaches.—Three bleaches, Nos. 202, 203, and 204, were made, similar to bleach No. 193, using 14.7 per cent of lime and treating 10 hours at 160° C., equivalent to 60 pounds steam pressure. ~ The stock from bleach No. 202 was beaten and washed eight hours in a 400-pound beater, following the roll down fairly hard. At this point the stock was removed and weighed, giving a yield of 63.8 per cent of the sieved straw, or 41.5 per cent of the original bone-dry straw. UTILIZATION OF AMERICAN FLAX STRAW. nS Stock from bleaches Nos. 203 and 204 was beaten and washed 74 hours, after which the washed stock from bleach No. 202 was added and the whole beaten and washed for 18 hours. The feeling and appearance of the stock improved during the whole beating and washing period, but it was still apparent that not enough wood was being removed. Competent employees judged that there were 250 to 300 pounds of stock in the beater at this point, which would represent a yield of 40 to 47 per cent of the sieved straw, or 26 to 30.5 per cent of the original dry weight of straw. ; The stock was sized with 1 per cent of size and 3 per cent of alum and run over the Fourdrinier paper machine at a speed of 91 feet per minute. The stock acted very well on the machine, but, as in the previous test, the sheet became brittle on drying. It was evident that a still harder or different bleach was necessary or that the manner of beating and washing should have been different. MILL TESTS ON THE MANUFACTURE OF FIBER BOARD. When the experimental work on the utilization of flax straw in the manufacture of paper had reached this point, there was a great uneasiness in the fiber-board industry concerning the supply of foreign raw material because of the outbreak of the European war. As previously noted, there are imported into the United States annually about 7,000 tons of flax waste derived from the foreign tex- tile industries, which are used almost exclusively in the manufacture of the counter-board grade of fiber boards. These counter boards are used chiefly for the manufacture of counters and toes for the stiffening of the heels and toes of shoes. The price of this flax waste has ranged from $25 to $29 per ton from 1908 to 1912, inclusive, and the average price in 1913 was $36.50. The waste had been constantly deteriorating in quality, until the same grade was 20 to 25 per cent poorer for fiber-board manufacture than in 1908-9. Soon after war was declared the available supply of flax waste was bought up and stored for future manufacture, and the importations were greatly curtailed. Finally, the waste was with- drawn from quotation, after reaching prices of about $65 per ton. It was thought that if American flax straw could be substituted for the imported waste, this would be the most propitious time to induce manufacturers to cooperate in the work and establish a market for this crop waste. One of the leading counter-board factories signi- fied its willingness to cooperate in the project and kindly placed at the disposal of the Bureau of Plant Industry many of its regular machines and its semicommercial testing equipment. The semicommercial testing equipment consisted of a direct steam, iron, rotary bleach boiler, about 2 feet in diameter by 5 feet in length ; 14 BULLETIN 322, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a 10-pound washing and beating engine; and a wet machine capable of producing board sheets 15 by 22 inches. After several preliminary tests on the small machines it was found that flax straw bleached with 14 per cent of lime for 15 hours at 170° C. and washed and beaten in the regular manner made a board which was almost invariably too hard and brittle, but if used with an equal amount of bleached old mixed string and an equal amount of bleached board cuttings a satisfactory board could be made. Still there was usually a little too much brittleness. Test No. 115.—A test was then made, designated as No. 115, using the large beater and wet machine. Two charges of 255 pounds each were made in a rotary pulp boiler, bleaching with 14 per cent of burned lime at 170° C. for 15 hours. About 275 pounds, dry weight, Wig. 4.—Fiber-board press or calender. of this stock was charged into a 700-pound beater and washed and beaten with a hard brush for 24 hours, after which the roll was raised and the washing continued one hour longer. The wood was reduced and removed to a considerable extent, and, although the bast fiber was reduced in length somewhat, there was no bast-fiber loss in the wash water. At this point the workmen pronounced the stock very similar in appearance and action to that from flax waste. The washed flax was then added to a beater containing an equal weight of bleached mixed strings, which had been washed and beaten for seven hours, and an equal weight of bleached board cuttings was added. The furnish therefore was one-third mixed strings, one-third flax straw, and one-third board cuttings. This charge was beaten down, sized, and loaded by the experienced beatermen of the com- pany in the equivalent of 12 hours total time. The stock was run into board on a regular 44-inch wet machine and dried in the loft UTILIZATION OF AMERICAN FLAX STRAW. 15 for 15 hours, after which it was put through the board calender (fig. 4). The thin or light-weight sheets were too soft, those of medium weight satisfactory, and the heavy ones a little too brittle. It should be stated that the stock needs to be reduced to different fiber lengths, depending on the weight of board desired. Those boards of this test which were of medium weight and were satisfactory were sold with the company’s regular stock and no complaint was received from them. Test No. 115—A test was then made, using the large beater and regular wet machine, employing the same furnish as in test No. 115, but the charge of mixed strings was added unwashed to the charge of flax straw, which had been washed for 3 hours. This combined charge was washed for 13 hours more, when the furnish of board cuttings was added and the charge sized, loaded, and beaten off in a total of 14 hours, or 11 hours after the addition of the strings. The board was tough, but much too soft. The old saying that “the paper is made in the beater” seems to apply equally well to fiber-board manufacturing, as the furnish in this test was the same as in test No. 115 and the difference in the method of furnishing was in- sufficient to account for the difference in the two products. Test No. 125.— | inch. Acidity. REA GaTS Grams, acetic Per cent.| Hours. | Pounds. acid. Grams,Cao. ee ne mx a niin aim loc mciecees ae 18.7 -3 0 85. 1 14.0 TO" | Sespewsee Masa MU ers See eee eee 2. 2 -6 0 94.4 20.0 p Ae Ee Ee Bee I Gravbanbeel. 65 ceseseesesocce 7.8 oil 0 79. 2 4.8 A=) see ae 8 samples, Japan rice, coated with tale: LN CIIE@ 5 0520 22s5eccnecszeec 20. 6 1.0 0 89.7 8.4 TISCOVER 685.9 2-5 Meshaum SS OS2 ey seSeee SEES 22.4 2.0 0 94.4 12.8 SaON| Be a aeeeee GUATNDGON Cc onen Ass Seosse 17.6 53) 0 83. 6 5.2 12) Shs eee 10 samples, Japan rice, grown in Italy: JANVICLAS Cries sees eye ee eee 20. 4 3.2 -8 97.5 1.5 V0) S22 525 eee" (Maxam ese es 21.0 6.0 4.0 99.6 2.8 3100526 oe INGrambenpNin. | pe aeeescoescece 19.8 4 0 95. 2 0 Of) “2 ease 66 samples, Chinese rice: INYVOINLS) oS s2ss0522622625< 12,7 4 .2 70.8 26.0 19.0 3. 06 Maxam ime: aes a a 16.8 3.5 3.0 83.0 26. 0 19.0 3. 69 MOM Une hee ee 11.8 pl 0 57.0 26.0 19.0 2. 64 44 samples, Java rice: IAWVICTIAS Obra se isel-