Taye ar iyeed ity O° sili sent PHY ; f Oi it : A aka, aati rare | a leer i] it ons i . ya an SS a es Renee f rie } Aim Hy fat WEA: al ite ¥ Aaa sa zat ahah ie on $ f ii ey] Sibel + ee anaY an canes ie Sen Feith Ald bs Ri er sabs ; he pikes eee + ’ " hat, Ps : 7 4 4 old Aspe dt age rt ; i ky eed R 7 See eld Hae f Hey fe Ree wate PS a! 4 Sinettteeates iva ? 3 t Hen ke baeh een] rae 10) ‘ dias tta e ipstetet ert ‘ '] ; "y ‘i aie 9 ; a ; ‘ H a4. aig ith ety A nee dere Leer Katiey ty TL Sain pqs nsoshy epee Teh ahaha Wig os in tla taped eis
COD OCT NN
Be
SPOON
CONTENTS.
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 371. pT EONBeE DIVIDENDS IN COOPERATIVE
GRAIN COMPANIES:
GEOG LTONE seis ai isicre wiser esc ae Sie ees Su mmcle son eels Fe es ear ea ease
Cooperative organization in relation to patronage-dividend payments. ....
Accounting and business practice in relation to patronage-dividend pay-
TOSI, oo SSS he SSeS ENS NS ay AS re A Oe eas Ras Mears
Publications of the United States Department of Agriculture relating to
COOPEEALIVC MATK OGIO ae Soles stasis apeaia oe io scijate hee somes oes wate
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 372.—COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF THYMOL FROM
Horsemint (Monarpa. Puncrata):
VEaADRC GLU HLC hs Beas Saeco ea eS ee ERR pe UR SAL
Colomalemethods for horsemintsss.0 3.02 eo ees ee
TS IBA OST G ss Oa lee ane 2 ee PR eh At DU) eR eee ee
TD TSR Sion sie tae cha cot NS lo cl ae re te ge eE e
Exirachonomtherthym olsen 2s hos ee eae: Se EOE oe ia
STRONG! TOGIE GYR e as ee MIS UNS © ob ate Ot aN <0 Sage 207
—
We)
he
|
|
i" 5
\|
BU ose, od. ke 2, he eds errr
iia a G SAT Rs Be 2 esate ae
ade Ww, OLE A
=p beth
=k Pen 8
INDEX.
Bulle-
Acacia— tin No.
gregeli, occurrence and forage value, Arizona........------------ 367
palida, forest tree for Porto Rico, reeommendations.....-.----.---- 354
Accounts—
patronage dividend payments in cooperative grain companies. 371
system for primary grain elevators, bulletin by John H. Humphrey
TAC AOL Meee Sie Saree ia ig bee a cas se ais 362
See also Bookkeeping.
Agriculture, extension course in soils for self-instructed classes in mov-
‘able schools, bulletin by A. R. Whitson and H. B. Hendrick....-.. 355
Agowansceussource-of thyMol 5.520525. se se cn coe cose et ee 372
Alabama rocks, Toad-pulldine. physical’ tests: (2. - 5-00-2522 522-0 ose 370
Alaska wheat—
description, history, and variant names............-..---.------- 357
PRPIOMBIMNOR, » sneeeede San sheadsg = ceaeseneddsoscs a seccossecee 357
varieties misrepresented, bulletin by Carleton R. Ball and Clyde
TB); LEGS USE Se ra re ee a ee Aare mR cere 357
yields, milling and baking tests, comparisons with other varieties. . 357
Alfalfa—
curing, moisture loss during early stages. ...-.-.-.--.------------ 353
erowing, moisture content, changes during a day......---------- 353
moisture:content at different|stages. ~ -Mcj-jis. seinciste esse. 2s oc 3534
Aristida—
bromordes, occurrence, growth habits and forage value, Arizona... 367
divaricata, occurrence, growth habits, and forage value, Arizona... 367
Arizona—
ROCkAaroad-pullding, physicalttests. ) 2 s2s22 5452.25. 5 ee cee 370
Santa Rita Range Reserve, forage, nature, and distribution......- 367
southern—
climatic conditions of Santa Rita Range Reserve........-...- 367
grazing ranges, carrying capacity, bulletin by E. O. Wooton.. 367
Arizona-Egyptian cotton, spinning tests with Sea Island and Sakellari-
. dis Egyptian varieties, ‘pulletin by Fred Taylor and William 8. Dean. 359
Arkansas—
pink corn worm, occurrence and damage to stored corn. ...--.----- 363
rocks, road- building, physical testsiss Auta oo Sais hee oie es ee 370
Arsenate, ‘Tead, use against cherry leaf beetle, experiments. Ep -- ot ooe
Auditing, erain elevator books, importance and recommendations peas 362
Bacilli, presence in commercial bottled waters, organism isolated, list.. 369
Bacillus, coli, presence in bottled waters, significance Bears aees aera 369
Bacterial count, milk, comparison with the sediment or dirt test, bulle-
tin by H. C. Campbell Dens CMCC ar meee een nan Os eran rane ieee 361
Bacteriological studies—
eommercialthattled waters (4 255. j8cu. Abget 2. greece -b. 369
publications of Department, liste ee eee 369
BALL, CARLETON Bi and CiybDE E. Lerienry, anetn on “Alaska and
Stoner,” or “Miracle” wheats: Two varieties much misrepresented .. 357
Batrachedra rileyi. See Corn worm, pink.
Bean, mesquite, forage value, Rrionait: Cee ee eee ee 367
Beetle, cherry leaf, a periodically important enemy of cherries, bulletin
by R. A. Cushman and Diol Wselys oes 5 5 eed yaya se 352
Beets, sugar, soil requirements, lesson for movable school.........---.- 355
-. 15810°—17——2 9
\
24, 26-27
9-10
13-15
13
Salis;
10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 351-875.
Bulle-
Bibliography— tin No.
cherryleat beetle .22 ci! ooo Spee a 302
forests of Porto Ricos se. = SoS ao. eee Geet 354
MIStICtOe se. <2 aN ayers 2 3 SUN ee Na A ea ee 360
PUK HCONT Worm ys ee ees OTN ERS ee ete ee oe ee 363
terrapin scale | emer: ooo. Coreen enn pele ee 351
Birds—
dissemination, of mistletoe seed,,note 2.222825. 12. 22552 ene 360
scarcity on cane plantations in Porto Rico, remedies, suggestions.. 354
Bituminous roads, rock requirements for different kinds of traffic. .... - 370
Black-grama grass, occurrence, growth habits, and forage value, Arizona. 367
Bleaching—
cotton, fumigated and unfumigated lint, comparisons. .........-. 366
cotton yarns, tests of different COUUOUS eee ee eee 359
Boerner, KE. G., bulletin on ‘‘The intrinsic values of grain, cotton seed,
flour, and similar products, based on the dry-matter content”... ... 374
Boll weevil—
development in squares and bolls, comparison. ..---.--.-.-..---- 358
fecundity, studies; tabulated datas... 222... -2 secon ao eee 358
feedinie; habits. ss... Se sete yee Meters 3 /aierevare arate ms Nee ee eye ee 358
females; oviposition... 22. [2% Whe ce Seon. apa aac oes 3584
siood plants 7 (se roa xe soos nS ee gs °.. Se penrenttes tener Mate era 358
generations, number and dates of development.........--......-- 358
longevity under various conditions, records... ..---....--0202.2. 358
Mexican cotton, Mississippi Valley, studies, bulletin by R. W.
1S ONE rene oan Home he BOO Hb Se Ores One ERCOSSCHBUENoR Gb oss 358
Sexes e PrOpOrtlOnes tee cen elie Seton ween ee 358
Bookkeeping—
elevator, system of Office of Maricts and Rural Organization...... 362
elevator BYSCCMB es Nessa Sag ot Atco aie ens erate eaten a one 362
patronage-dividend payments in cooperative grain companies. ...- Bil
Bottle, milk—
SLOG GION oe aie e aid a siete Sc ncleaye nia a ~ cteyetelbie, «sie e Se eRe eae eee 356
treatmentitor-contestimilki2 22's 3. s.stesene- sec e Sees 356
Bouteloua—
aristidoides, occurrence, growth, habitat, and forage value, Arizona. 367
rothrockii, occurrence, growth habits, and forage value, Arizona... 367
Brick—
inspection and testing for paving, methods.......-.-....-------- 373
manufacture, processes and ep aeeatk RE Ra oa eee 373
pavements—
GCOSbs ILEMIS Ue ace ca asies wee ee a ae ce ec ak re eee 373
maintenance SIaIE aD io DODO ECan HE 4 DSS oOMnBeBUAoE Ode se doc 373
paving—
abrasion test,;method ic. cee cee ae ae ee a ee 373
crushing strength, discussion 2. 73 eG eee SSS eee eee 373
requirements SSO BAe Spee HO Cpa Epn a OSU NOHCAEBO SER Oboe oes 6 373
roads, bulletin by Vernon M. Peirce and Charles H. Moorefield.... 373
testaapparatusvand operation:2.2.....sgs2= «-eeecceec. a eee .. s7af
testine?for road pavement eit? < t22 aes aie a boa eee 373
Brooxs, CHARLES, and D. F. Fisuer, bulletin on ‘“‘ Brown rot of prunes
and cherries in the Pacific Northwest”. .....2..02.-se0s.eeeceeeeee 368
Brown rot—
prunes and cherries, distributing agents, note...........-....----- 368
prunes and cherries in Pacific N orthwest, bulletin by Charles
Brooks: and). F. -Pisherises a: = fy. ses 3s SN as 368
Brusu, W. D., Lours S. Murray, “and C. D. MELL, article on ‘‘Trees of
Porto Rico 2. UatAGe NIL T Honan eosin owe toes code. eee 304
Cabbage, soil requirements, note..--...-.--.2+---2-2--22-22- uO) Oe 355
Cacao—
industry in Granada ge Seah noe SORE AO DS aes 354
Plantations imek ontowkilcoe sass maces oo. ema oat ace nna meee 394
California, rock, road- -building, physical testes... 2c. e2. 2+ <- we eee 270
INDEX. 11
Bulle-
tin No. Page.
CamMPBELL, H. C., bulletin on Comparison of the bacterial count of
mille with the sediment or dirt test”. ......+2.-.01+-s+eee25ee20--: 361 1-7
Canada, rocks, road-building, physical tests. - 2 be O02 99100
Cane plantations, Porto Rico, scarcity of birds, remedies, ‘suggestions. --- 304 49
Carbon bisulphid, use against pink corn worm, directions and value... 363 16-18
Se ummajomanvoil, source of thymol. 2...) ofc ete ieee co cia eeia-e 372 10
10-11
=
attlespoisonine by larkspur, symptoms, et¢C....2222 2.22 452225 242. - 365 Ronee
82-84
cleny, icolkrequirements, Note: s.2.2-5-- 020. 0s- cece e este ee esiet 355 82
Cement—
blacks road-buildine, requirements:)..2...0 52 ..24--221-.-2 scenes: 370 12
LOL SUC KALE (UITeMeN ts oi... 2 o(c oe cee bese crear cee esis Se 370 12
Cereals, soil requirements, lesson for movable school...-.-.-.-..------- 355 83
Charecaltpmdustry,1n: Porto Rico... ... +. 25. .eeeizeek os Hoes see sae8 354 44-45
Cherries—
blossom infection by brown rot, investigations and treatment, Wash-
. AC LOM ER Siete Sora ena. 3 ce EVD fore = aS Ugo = cheers 368 9
brown rot—
(and of prunes), Pacific gud, bulletin by Charles Brooks
aid! 1D. 195) IMG CW ae s8hce saccades eoasecduamoe: Beate 368 1-10
spraying experiments, recon Lesale alaeettia 3 aus etuep etre tare eavene te aimee 368 9-10
enemy, cherry leaf beetle, bulletin by R. A. Cushman and Dwight
Weel b7< Seis AEE RS PS NE So ea hie Sie Le 352 1-28
Cherry—
early Richmond, injury to trees by cherry leaf beetle............-- 302 6
leaf beetle—
a periodically important enemy of cherries, bulletin by R. A.
Cnshmanvand Dywieht Isely.2. esse oes 02 eee See 352 1-28
control, experiments. ssteia nie wisieiue ope eeeey s By peyepaees eseaaye sale 352 19-24
control of larvae, difficulties and recommendations ........-. 352 23-24
PEC MIME MAD IS son. 2 Socios 5 ie wa Seite PENG etre erga ae 352 5-6
food plants, distribution and historical notes............---.-. 352 2-5
MEP MIS CONV CLC. ocio.c nk oateye fests a Meese tat erg anys ys © Eyre ms a ee 302 6-18
Guibreak 95 iistoryen 2 i us Se hg 8 ey eee i ese re 352 3-5
trees, defoliation by cherry, leai;beetless: BP 24.280 see Rea ees 352 6
Sheri road pull ding properties. ecg oss ewer tae eel Sache. biseoe oe 370 8
CuItrENDEN, F. H., bulletin on ‘The pink corn worm: An insect de-
SunMeLINeTLO,COEMeN GHC) CTD: sceoccan ils) s cca Soto ce aire eae teae 363 1-20
Crawson, A. B., C. Dwicut Marsn, and HapieicH Mars, bulletin on
“Larkspur poisoning Of liverstoclaye ie Same SOeara te Vea ieae 365 1-91
Clay soils, management, lesson for movable school.............------- 395 = 71-74
Clays, brick—
jleanness? and ‘fatness!’ usesol, terms ce 226 eee. So oe St Sees 373 3
Maiwuine aNcere quire CT tS. caete aio yifr (si ee He ae Pee ela [eter yes 373 2-3
Coccinellidae, enemies of terrapin scale, note..........---------------- 351 63
Ao comutgoalm, CTOVeSs, POLLO.RICOs..- 5-2-0 eee oe a ye eee ee 304 34-85
Coffee—
PORES Pee OFLO RAC Oc isc oc sicicjeia sso eee Hee Teen eee Sere 354 35
shading with leguminous trees, practices and advantages........-- 354 35-36
Colorestandards:toncottom=scecwesmece esis foe Go. eee oe eee 366 12
Colorado—
rocks, rcad-building, physical tests .....-..-.....---.----------- 370 17
sheen, poisoning byglarkspUts: ees es. ee sae fer ce fener 365 11-13
Conifers—
; fungous—
4 Pp ircks, relation(to mistletoe! bumls.23 sm 7. sie gers yo spo 360 25-26
i enemies, occurrence and relation to mistletoe burls..........- 360 25-28
r imine by.mistletoe, MAtUre: 5... -. ses sakemwee eee eee “Gla oas = 360 2-13
i mistletoe-infected—
y €mecton crowthi co 2s.-1.42 peyeie pei eee peor © eb days Mere 360 2-11
relation fofinscet attack ett wae Rabiete ena h RL Loy 360 28-30
Northwest, injury by mistletoe, bulletin by James i. Weir lach yo 360 1-38
~.Beed production, Telation to mistletoe tayurys 24-4 eee eee 360 30-31
species injured by mistletoe.............-----------2------------ 360 1
,
12 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 351-375
Bulle-
tin No- Page.
Connecticut rocks, road-building, physical tests.....................- 370 =: 17-18 |
‘“Conuco” farming system, Porto Rico... Sens ae 354 13
Cook, L. B. , ERNEST Ketry, and J. A. Gamstg, bulletin on “Milk and
cream Constests?? 60.3200 0 220. aio 7. eee ae he ae 306 1-24
Corn—
fumigation against pink corm WOrM......2222-10 S55. 6b ee 363 16-18
soil requirements, lesson formovable schools =: 2 ns. 3. eee 355 =: 80-81
storage in husk, danger from pink corn worm.............-------- 363 15
stored, destruction by pinkscorn ‘worm. heii). eee ee 363 2-3
value on dry-matter basis, comparative studies, tabulated......... 374 30-32
Corn worm, pink—
bibliography Bada Gob rect, aie ctcae a Sart cain 5 cee eho areata 2 yeni Oe eee 363 19-20
controlsmeasures).- 3) Bodin eo 5 eee ee SrA OUy a isan 363 14-18
deseription and life-history .2.-5.. 2. .--.2.22 522: eee 363 3-6
destructiveness on corn in the crib, bulletin by F. H. Chittenden... 363 1-20
distribution and records of injury... 2552-2. 22/3). Sa ee 363 6-12
Rife dale es
TROStS ate, RRS AD sarc ceiase case tet sinte «SRN cyte ee eee 363 { 13, 14
imjury to corn, nature and extent. .< 22s... Sa eee 363 2-3
Corn-ear worm, relation to damage by pink corn worm, note. ......... 363 3, 10
Corn-husk moth. See Corn worm, pink.
Cotton—
boll weevil—
Mexican, in Mississippi Valley, studies, bulletin by RoW:
OW i ed oso hed oils on eR OS icin a Sievers oo on ee 358 1-32
See also Boll weevil.
fumigation with hydrocyanic- -acid gas, manufacturing tests, bulle-
tin by Walltam'S 2D ean ose oo. aes See 2 at eee 366 1-12
gins, outturns from seed cotton, lint, seed, and trash, by grades and
Marketsess ss ses so sta c ss snc Game SAS Mee 375 4-6
new variety, introduction, difficulties... .-) 5.22.12... soet ae 359 16-17
outturns from gin, percentage Of seed cottons 1001 os 375 4-6
pinc ay? Wouf auabioua hpyoo4{— TX AAV I,
ee
Se
re
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. Ly
Table XII gives a summary of these data, with some additional
details from Tables VII and IX. It also compares 13 normal females
from each isolation.
TasLe XII.—A summary of the emergence data from Tables VII, VIII, IX, X, and XI.
Maxi- z
Average Emer-
Number Emer- mum Emer- Emer-
No. Year. a Number of larvee ei gence daily | gence, 50 | gence, 75 100 per
emerged. foriialee started. ee per cent, | per cent. cant
4 19121 Total 26... 4, 258 163.7 | June 16} June 18 | June 25] July 1) July 15
SES Be ee eds **\\Normal 13. QN753 21 Sam eee Osc see Osea bee Ones lee Oe cies Do.
A 1913 Total 41... 12, 336 297.95 | June 13 |...do....| June 23 | June 29 | Sept. 30
Th eae ete ---)\Normal 13. 5,211 400.8 |...do..:-]...do....| June 24 | July 10 Do.
1 All females on twigs were dissected July 15. The isolated females in 1912 had all stopped producing
young by July 15.
900
800
NUMBER OF LARVAE
[SL aE a Ee Be
es
eee ee eee
[24 ae See eae
Lae ee a ee
CoE TNT
COPEL ECCT BEL PRET
Ca CEELEEEE EEL PS
Fig. 3.—Emergence curve for the terrapin scale; first 22 days of emergence, June 13 to July 4, inclusive,
: Mont Alto, Pa.,1913. (Original.)
-. 20782°—Bull. 351—16——2
18 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The 1912 emergence was shortened by the drying of the twigs to
which the females were attached. This was due to the method of
isolation. This difficulty was overcome in the 1913 record.
The larve of Hyperaspis binotata Say were more destructive in 1913
than in 1912, but on the whole both records are very true to the
conditions prevailing in the orchard during the respective seasons.
For convenience in comparison and also to show the effect of
weather conditions upon this emergence, two graphs, figures 3 and 4,
JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER | 0cT
13-19 20-26 27-3, 4-10,11-17, 18-24 25-91) - 7 8-14, /5-2) 22-28, 29-4,5-/! 12-18 19-25 26-2, 3-9
neo eal ss: 3) \|owlla7o = v2 | 19 | 74 | 25 | 76 | 77
#900
F550
F200
3ESO
P5500
w
is
q
98
2800
OF LARVAE
2450
2/00
1/750
NUMBER
1/400
4050
700
G50
Fig. 4.—Curve of the leafward migration of the terrapin scale for the total emergence period of 1913.
( Original.)
are appended. Figure 3 has a solid line added. ‘This represents the
weather correction for the curve. In figure 4, where the curve is
determined from weekly observations, very little irregularity, due to
the daily weather conditions, appears.
The emergence period of 1913 was moderately favorable. The
temperature was high and the storms were of short duration. On
June 19, 22, and 26 rain checked the emergence, but the larve
merely rominedi in the brood chambers over night and emerged on
the following day.
The graph of total emergence by weeks during 1913 (fig. 4) shows
a very uniform curve. From the graph it appears that the major por-
tion of the young emerged during the first three weeks of the period.
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 19
LEAFWARD MIGRATION.
The migration to the leaves begins immediately after emergence.
The larve start emerging usually about 10 a. m., or even earlier if
the temperature is high, and by 3 p. m. the daily migration has
nearly ceased. At Mont Alto, Pa., during the noon hours of June 15
to 20, the branches of infested trees were swarming with countless
numbers of migrating larve. During the leafward migration the
larve are strongly phototropic and negatively geotropic. The time
required for an individual to make this mi-
gration and to take its position upon the
leaf is remarkably short.
Two hours is about the average time from
emergence to the completion of the migra-
tion. Many reach the leaves and attach in
less than an hour, but others, especially those
that have ascended dead branches, may con-
tinue to move about for several days if a
suitable leaf is not found sooner.
It is very unusual for the larve to relocate
when they have once taken position upon a
leaf, though they do this when the leaf loses
its vigor. The larve, except in rare and
unusual cases, attach to the underside of the
leaves, mostly alongside and parallel to the
midrib, or the larger veins. (Fig. 5.)
Larve usually attach to the first avail-
able leaves. The basal leaves upon an
infested branch are always more heavily
infested than those farther up. A sticky
secretion upon the very young leaves repels
the young larve and prevents them from _ jy¢. 5.—Peach leaf with attached
attaching. The wooly coat of the fruit pro- ‘#rve of the terrapin scale.
tects it from larve. Larve frequently crowd ae)
upon the fruit, but in their struggles to free themselves from the fuzz
they invariably fall to the ground.
The rate of migration varies with the temperature and the surface
upon which the larve are placed. Table XIII gives the rate per
hour, time, temperature, and the distance traveled by five migrating
larvee of the first instar upon smoked wrapping paper. The average
temperature in this experiment was very favorable, being 87° F.
The rate per hour was very low, owing to the annoyance caused
20 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the larvee by the fine soot deposit upon the smoked paper. The dis-
tance traveled varied from 97.7 cm. to 175.8 cm. Figure 6 shows a
tracing made by four of the above-mentioned larve.
TasLe XIII.—Record of travel of five first-instar terrapin-scale larve on smoked paper,
Oct. 9, 1912, Mont Alto, Pa.
| : Average
No. | Start. End. Time. Distance. Ralewwey temper-
$ ature.
Ars. Min. Cm. Cm. 2
ee Soe See rale ce ye De eat 9.26a.m 7A seat tee a 34 113.7 26. 54 87
DSU eee ns Bick be See 9.26a.m 3.15 p. m.. 5 49 175.8 26. 596 86
BER ee ere At hese epee: 13-208; m.|°2 p.m... 2 40 97.7 36. 64 89
if Re Sa SOS NES 2) Aiea 10.08 a.m.) 2p. m..... 3 a2 99. 6 25.76 87
Deena eee ae on a ae ns ee eee 9.26 a.m 2.50 p. m-. 5) 24 161.7 29.94 86.7
PANVOTAR OLE coin ooe coca ase|sootke het ee les st aceees |[jasus ame ones | area 29.095 87
The larvee are so small that they leave no trace when moving over
the finest soot deposit. The deposit, moreover, retards them. In
moving they are constantly exploring the surface with their antenne,
and these soon become coated with soot particles. When this hap-
pens the insect halts until the antenne are cleaned. (For compari-
son with the rate of progress upon smooth, unsmoked paper, see
Table XIV.)
A single larva that emerged at 12.10 p. m traveled, when placed
upon plain wrapping paper, 826 cm. during the 3 hours and 20 min-
utes in which it was under observation. This larva traveled con-
stantly after the first interval, and its speed was about eight times
that of larve on sooted paper. Figure 7 shows a tracing made of
this larva.
TaBLe XIV.—Record of the travel of a newly emerged larva of the terrapin scale on plain
wrapping paper, July 10, 1912, Mont Alto, Pa.
1 1
Time of observa- | Tempera- | Total dis- | Interval Rate per pee
tion. ture. tance. distance. hour. Sead
. oo: Cm Cm. Cm Cue
1: Cte! ERE AR Soo Sd Doone sees Eaeeeerorsaatod poconcccce
12 86 35.3 35.3 141.2 86
1 86 184.4 149.1 255.6 86
a1 86 239.3 44.9 179.6 86
Le 86 298.3 59 236 86
2: 87.5 473.4 175.1 262. 65 86.75
2: 87.5 95752 §3.8 251.4 87.75
oe 88 $26 188 282 88
5 AE PR as Sopa ae PR SPT Frees 231.356 | 86.9
In 1912 three experiments were performed to determine the longey-
ity of the leafward migrants when they were unable to reach the
leaves. The data from these experiments are recorded in Table
XV, and summarized in Tables XVI and XVII. They show that
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 21
the migrating larve can live from 2 to 3 days. More than 78 per
cent of the larve died upon the second day, and the mortality of the
remainder was about equally divided between the first and third day.
It was apparent that the third day was of very little value to the
larvee as they were in a state of collapse.
TasLe XV.—Longevity of larve of the terrapin scale at the leafward migration.
Expe- Num- Num-
riment pero Time of start. | Time of finish. Surface. Time of observatiou. periot
used. ; dead.
Teese 2 3 | July 2,9a.m..] July 4,1 p.m--..; Dead peach twig..} July 2,9a.m-......... 0
Julyi35 Waamls aos. 3-- 0
Julys45 Oa ms - 535 ss 2
July24 spams eecee. 3
i eae 125 | July 7,12noon.} July 10,3.30p.m.| Exterior surface | July 7,12noon........ 0
of test tube over
water.
DULY 88! an Ms. foe 10
JiTLyA9s47-30! ay 22.2, - 108
July 9,12 noon.......- 110
July OF Sias mile eho ae: 122
- July 10, 3.30 p. m....-. 125
TMB ee 13 | July 4, 8.30 | July6,8.30a.m-_.} Inner surface of | July 4, 8.30a.m-.....-. 0
a.m. test tube over
water.
Julys43) Passa. es- 0
Julye55.8230 aeons nce 5
Muily2o 4s nee seas 7
Slyn5; 9p epee ee eee 7
July 6, 8.30 a. m......- 13
Taste XVI.—Daily mortality of larve of the terrapin scale from data in Table XV.
a A : Per cent
Experi- | Experi- | Experi- | Dead, by
Day of death: ment I. | ment II. | ment III. days. Cee!
DENG oo Goccceee VAG eee a oer oe a een 0. 10 5 15 10. 63
SEQDIG so 55 bean Ceo oe ED eB eee Sener oce aa ter ee 2 100 8 110 78. O1
INDIO ok oo Sob oe cs BOE eee en ein tam ee ae 1 | 15 0 16 11.34
NOMEN 5. See eee eee eet eee he Reh eee 3 125 13 141 9S. 98
The summary in Table XVII shows that. the average longevity for
the three experiments was 2 days 94 hours and the maximum longey-
ity 3 days.
TABLE XVII.— Maximum longerity of migrating larve of the terrapin scale from
experiments given in Table X
coat Number of ;
Experiment. specimens. Longest life.
Je seo Gist SIE IE en aes eee ell ree ue oe ea EM cea a 3 | 2 days 4 hours.
UL a eae 8 be eee ets en reece ee Ste 2 ipa BE SC =, a cee anaes are pater te 125 | 3 days.
TI: co02 56a cot D eS Se BELE Sees Renee) Oars ce oe Se bee SU 9 ame eee Cae 13 | 2 days.
ASIGTETONG BoE NGO ge Mies a aan SRW, NO RE hae se wien Apr Oe Sie ae 2 days 93 hours.
Dp) BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Tar LEAPWARD MIGRATION AS A FACTOR IN THE SPREAD OF THE TERRAPIN SCALE.
The leafward migration is a strong element in the spread of the
scale over the branches of infested trees, but it is not directly effective
in spreading it from tree to tree unless the trees are in actual contact.
Indirectly it is one of the strongest factors in the spread of the
scale. The young larve are not readily displaced by wind, but
they sometimes drop purposely
from dead twigs, especially when
they have reached the tips with-
out finding foliage. Such larvee
may fall upon foliage lower down
or drift in air currents to foliage
onadjacent trees. Most of them,
however, perish on the ground.
During windy days particles of
bark and loosened leaves are car-
ried by the wind. That wind is
a prominent factor in the local
spread is indicated by the fact
that infestations travel through
orchards in the direction of the
prevailing wind. Thunderstorms
sometimes come so suddenly that
the young migrants are washed
from the twigs before they have
reached the leaves. This seldom
happens, because the young do
not ordinarily emerge when the
humidity ishigh. The migrants,
when displaced by rain, will float
for some distance, especially if ac-
companied by particles of bark
Fra. 6.—Tracing of four young terrapin scales during or other debris: : :
the leafward migration. Reduced 8times. Tem- The spread, except as indicat-
perature, 87° F. Average rate per hour, 29.095 em. ed, requires the aid of some trans-
(Original.) : d 3
porting agent. The migrating
larvee cling readily to hairs, to feathers, and to other small ob-
jects. While the author has never taken insects with the larve
attached, he has placed specimens of Brochymena upon branches
covered with migrating young, with the result that the larve
were soon clinging to their legs. Feathers touched lghtly to
the same branches were clasped by the moving young. A pair
of cloth gloves placed for 10 minutes upon a branch had 20
larvee upon them when removed. This last observation indi-
END
START
START START START
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 93
cates that orchard workers during the migrating period might unwit-
tingly aid in the dispersal of this pest.
It is possible for larve of the first instar which have attached
themselves to leaves to be transferred to other trees, as the following
experiment shows. Thirty larve that had loosened themselves
from a wilting leaf were placed on the foliage of another tree July
22 at02) p.m. Lhe first
of these was found at-
tached July 23 at 8 a.m.,
and all of them were at-
tached by July 24 at 8
a.m.
Dispersal may occur at
this period in at least
four ways:
(1) By dropping of lar-
ve from dead branches,
fruit, etc.
(2) By wind transpor-
tation.
(3) Through transpor-
tation by storm water.
(4) By animate agents
(insects, birds, orchard
workers, etc.).
Morratiry Durine Miara- -
TION.
Practically all of the
emerged young make a
successful migration.
The only exceptions are
in cases where the larvee START
stray upon dead branches rc. 7.—Tracings of a young terrapin scale for the first 3 hours
or the fruit and areunable and 20 minutes of the leafward migration. Reduced 8 times.
4 Temperature, 86.90° F. (Original.)
to return and in the case
of those destroyed by the occasional attacks of predatory enemies.
The mortality at this time is indicated by the small number of larvee
that fail to attach themselves to the leaves. Of the 12,336 larvee
that migrated in.1913 from the isolated scales, all but 15 successfully
attached to the underside of leaves. The mortality upon the average
orchard tree is slightly higher than is shown in the case of these
isolated larve.
94 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SizzE OF THE LARV& AT TIME OF MIGRATION.
The size of the larve varies. Strong females produce larger
young than weak ones. The larve are largest at the beginning of
reproduction. They gradually become smaller as the season advances.
Measurements made in June, 1913, of 10 larve give the following
results: Length, maximum 0.475 mm., minimum 0.41 mm., average
44 mm.; width, maximum 0.26 mm., minimum 0.20 mm., average
0.23 mm.
DESCRIPTION OF THE MIGRATING LARV#.
The distinguishing characteristics of the leaf migrant are: Average
length, 0.43 mm.; average width, 0.283 mm.; color, pale translucent
yellow, with reddish brown eye-spots; body very flat and oblong;
antenne with six joints; feeding tube internal and folded midway
upon itself. (Pl. I, fig. 2, p. 8.) The anal plates have each a single
major apical seta 0.2 mm. in length. The plates have their distal
ends just reaching to the tips of the body lobes. These plates are
held in a relaxed position, that is, with their adjacent edges forming
an acute angle. The terminal anal plates, together with the folded
feeding tube, are reliable characters for identifying the leafward
migrant.
LEAF-ATTACHED LARV, FIRST INSTAR.
The larve emerge, make their migration, and attach to the leaves
during the second day after birth, but take no food until after attach-
ing to the leaf. Death by starvation and exhaustion results during
the third day after emerging provided an attachment is not made.
It is doubtful whether the larvee can live in the brood chamber more
than 4 or 5 days, and at any rate they would be too weak after the
fourth day to make an effectual effort to reach the leaves. In 1912
there were several periods in which it was cool and wet for four
successive days. After these periods many dead larve were found
in the brood chambers, some chambers becoming so clogged as to
prevent the further escape of young.
The larva, after attaching to the underside of the leaf, retains in
the main its earlier characteristics. The proboscis is thrust into the
leaf tissues. The anal plates, which during the migration were car-
ried with their adjacent edges diverging, are now held in close contact
when in repose. The body lobes, which at attachment were even
with the tips of the anal plates, grow steadily backward and inward
until they meet behind the anal plates. By this growth the anal
plates with their long setz are made to recede from the posterior edge
to a position upon the dorsal surface, as shown in Plate I, figure 3, a, 6,
p. 8. A thin, brittle covering of wax appears on the dorsal surface of
the larvee during the latter part of the first instar. AIL leaf-attached
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. D5
larve that have their anal plates adorned with major apical sete are
in the first instar.
The growth is constant. Both length and width increase in the
same ratio. In the first instar the larve increase their length and
width about two and one-half times, but they do not noticeably in-
crease their height. Tables XVIII and XIX show the measurements
for a total of 201 larvee at various ages during the first instar. The
data in Table XVIII are from larve that emerged late in the season
of 1912. They encountered more than the usual amount of unfavor-
able weather. The data in Table XIX are from larve that emerged
in July, 1913, and that had favorable conditions. This table also
shows the percentages in the first and second instars at various ages.
It required about 25 days for larve emerging on August 9, 1912, to
reach their full development (0.9 to 1 mm. long) and to molt for the
first time, while those emerging July 1, 1913, reached this stage on
the sixteenth and seventeenth days.
TasLe XVIII.— Measurements of 91 first-instar larve during the unfavorable season of
1912, Mont Alto, Pa.
Number
i i =nac;. | Average | Average | 7 3
No. Age. ohsped length, aad the Emerged—
Doys. - Mm. Mm.
loo paQe add bo aS BARR EE ane Beenie ae an Beer aaaace 0. 25 6 0. 44 0. 23 Aug. 9
OAs aes cen Saeed bE SHER OPEB e An aohepaoeeE soe 5 5 - 5325 - 2044 Do.
SE I eS ee este aise ke ee eis elseike entnse 6 3 555 . 287 Do.
bess pelb rose Aa ETENe SN a Cen ee Ie ees ea ye 7 2 - 6046 . 276 Do.
Bits osen tae See er ee eee 9 14 - 6307 279 Do.
Oo ccscbocue Sacco e GaSb pee o Ee es See eee 12 6 8467 425 Do
Goas sacctoed abet an COB Ee ae ea ne Ree 15 24 8968 - 439 Do
Se eae cos Sine ae charm a terajeelt wlalaibreriese ime 1 12 931 50 Do
Re eee aes oi sanincis sintsisas aac tna a cea 22 7 +9348 499 Do
Qe, os Sot cosd Se SOS C Oe EA ORS Ree que een Bees eon 25 12 999 522 Do
TOWN: See oe uaae Be eR Ber aa oe are eee an AAs (SaaS aeeoe DING | Siereteersirttse | tcicistbereiere aoe ee memo
TaBLe XIX .— Measurements of 110 first-instar larvx during the favorable season of 1913,
and the percentages of larvx on the trees in the first and second instars.
Niamiber k a et cent rer cent
x sfee ea verage verage caq_| Of larvae | of larvee
No. Age. preys il length. | width. |2™ersed—| in first |in second
ais instar. instar.
| Days Min Mm.
eae ee aes sete) oy Le Ab oa 22) 0.5176 Q. 2659 July 17 LOOE RRR Seas
Ds gitis Has oP ae ee 5 21 555 228 (30n eed On eeee LOO Ee ee ee
Bod p EEO SS SEE CR Se Erste 8 15 7275 39 July 1 1 el ee ebases
a at Oe 15 19 94725 52385 SAGO ABA Se OO Se eons
REM onsite SES BOER A tw 17 8 9625 IUD soos Goce 80 20
G35. ESS Soe Se ee eee 18 10 9975 525 OBE ee ee 48 52
Cackead iS FiRS wee | ee eee 19 5 97 52 WOR Ses ee 20 80
8 os eS oe ae See ee Any 20 3 9375 525 June 26 10.9 89.1
SS Sa ere Se aie en ee 21 3 9916 5416 July 1 7 93
1Q 555 eee ee ae ees 22 3 925 525 June 24 10.7 89.3
1 6 OS Se SEE eee ne eae Greene eae a 23 1 975 55 June 26 3.2 96.8
12s on sheen TeR eee Ee se ee DEEN tae ey hel RPE ele ae ene July lH aesaseece 100
PTO) ew ore Soe Cee generac We ae TESUQY AIRS ate ates RS aera SOS RL ea eel el co eg S| We ee
26 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The second column in each table gives the age in days. This is
calculated from the time the larve left the brood chamber. The
sixth column gives the date upon which the specimens emerged.
There are added to Table XIX two columns of data to show the
percentages of larve in the first instar and second instar at different
ages. An examination of these columns will show that 50 per cent
of the larve had passed from the first to the second instar upon the
AGE /N DAYS
UMEHD &OKROOHLR
S
x
8 :
LENGTH
Fic. 8.—Growth curves for the first instar of the terrapin scale. (Original.)
eighteenth day, and that all had left the first instar by the twenty-
fourth day. Eighteen days is the normal time spent in the first
instar by larvee during favorable seasons. Figure 8 shows the deflec-
tion of the growth curve for larve in the first instar which resulted
from the late emergence during the unfavorable season of 1912, as
compared with the curve for the favorable season of 1913. These
curves are derived from the data in Tables XVIII and XIX. The
curves are similar, but the broken curve shows clearly the effect of
unfavorable weather in 1912 at both the beginning and the end of
the instar.
THE TERRAPIN SCALE.
bo
~I
LENGTH OF THE First INSTAR.
The earliest molts were upon the sixteenth day and were observed
during the very favorable weather of June and July, 1913. Eighteen
days is the average length of the first instar at Mont Alto during fav-
orable years, as shown in Table XVIII, columns 7 and 8. This time
may be nearly doubled by unfavorable weather. Honeydew is ex-
creted during this instar, but in very small quantities, and is of no
economic importance.
DISPERSAL OF Frrst-InsTAR LARV® BY LEAVES.
It is probable that this species is dispersed to some extent by the
transportation of larvee upon wind-borne leaves during storms. An
experiment performed July 22, 1913, showed that first-instar larvee
can loosen from slowly drying leaves and that they can move about
and reattach to living foliage, so that if infested leaves should lodge
in adjacent trees the latter would undoubtedly become infested.
SExuAL DIMORPHISM IN THE Frrst INSTAR.
There are no noticeable indications of sex during this instar,
except in the anal ring. It is possible in some cases to distinguish
the females from the males after the fifteenth day by their increased
width. At this time the length of the females is usually less than
twice their width, while the length of the males is usually greater
than twice their width.
Nearly all specimens are distorted by crowding, or by contact with
the veins of the host (fig. 5), so that this variation in the ratio of
length to width can not be depended upon for distinguishing the sexes.
By dissection, however, they can be distinguished. The anal ring
of the male consists of only six sete, while the anal ring of the female
consists of eight.
THe First Mott.
There is no change of position at the first molt. The skin splits
along the back and is worked downward and backward underneath
the body. The last portion to loosen is that about the anal plates.
The major apical setz disappear at this molt; hence the absence of
these is positive evidence that the first molt has passed.
The larvee stop growing one day before molting and become more
opaque. The time required to make this molt is from 5 to 30 min-
utes, depending upon the weather conditions and the vigor of the
larve. The molt is usually made in the early morning.
Observations made upon 5,000 larve approximately one-half of
which emerged from June 24 to August 9, 1912, and the others from
_ dune 24 to July 1, 1913, show that this molt may take place as early
as the sixteenth day and as late as the twenty-sixth day. The aver-
28 BULLETIN 351, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
age age for this molt in 1912 was 20 days, but this period is longer
than in favorable years. During the favorable season of 1913 a few
specimens from the rearing of July 1 made this molt on the sixteenth
day, but the largest daily molts were from the eighteenth to the
twenty-second day, with the maximum molt upon the eighteenth day.
It is, however, very frequently delayed.- Table XX gives details of
the first molt as shown by three rearings in 1913 and by data ob-
tained in orchards in 1912. It will be noticed that in all cases molt-
ing started either upon the sixteenth or seventeenth day and that it
terminated in all cases by the twenty-sixth day. The 1913 rearings
all had favorable weather and would undoubtedly all have given
their maximum daily molts upon the eighteenth day had it not been
for a local storm on that date which retarded the natural emergence
for the rearings of June 24 and June 26.
TABLE XX.—Details of the first molt of the terrapin scale from 3 rearings in 1913 and
from orchard data of 1912.
Age at Per cent molted at various days specified. Ave at
pent start- | maxi-
Date larvee ing of ; aaa
ae oie first | i7th. | isth. | 19th. | 20th. | 2ist. | 224. | 26th. | Sally
molt. (UD. € . Jtn. Le SU. . a) . molt.
Days. | Days.
July 1, 1913... 16 20 52 SOMA ee eee ieececae LOO! ss ekeeee 18
June 24, 1913. 16 2 Sciicatetcle tre nek Sis meee na 40 85 100 22
June 26, 1913. 16 5 20 60 90 | 91 LOO} eee 19
Orchard. lar-
ee Ot2 eel oe 17. ace iG) ole sae pastels eae Ve asta anions eee 20
1 Blanks represent days upon which no data were taken. It wasimpossible to determine, under orchard
conditions, the percentage of the total infestation that molted at definite ages.
LEAF-ATTACHED LARV2, SECOND INSTAR.
The second instar lasts in favorable weather for 18 days and
usually extends from the eighteenth to the thirty-sixth day. In the
orchards about Mont Alto specimens can be taken in this instar at
almost any time after the middle of July. The instar is at its maxi-
mum from July 20 to August 5. This stage of development is char-
acterized by sexual differentiation, which begins very early in the
instar. The female larve continue to widen and tend to become
circular in outline, while the males lengthen and tend to become oval.
The male secretes during this instar the characteristic puparium.
This is a waxy scale which forms over the dorsal surface. It is roof-
like and is held in place by elastic strands which extend from points
upon its edges to the surface of the leaf.- (Pl. II, a, e, p. 52.) It
can be recognized as early as the seventh day, but it does not reach
its full development until the next to the last day of the instar, at
which time growth ceases and the larva shrinks, preparatory to
making the second molt.
THE TERRAPIN SCALE, 29
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEMALE.
FEMALE LARVA, SECOND INsraRr.
During the second instar the females increase in length fron an
average of 1 mm. to an average of 1.6 mm., and in ayia from an
average of 0.525 mm. to 1 mm., but there is very little increase in
height.
Table X-XI shows the average measurements of 268 females taken
at frequent intervals during this instar. These females emerged
from June 20 to 26, 1913; that is, during the height of the emergence
period.
TABLE XXI.— Measurements of 268 female terrapin-scale larve of specified ages during
the second instar, Mont Alto, Pa., 1913.
Average
No. of an of A D
No. Yo. 0 time of |Age when) Days in aes eae
Emerged.| speci- | entering | meas- second a yas pete
mens. |. the sec- ured. instar. SHEE |e WAKO
ond
instar.
Days Days. Mm. Mm.
20 19 20 1 1.054 0. 558
39 19 21 2 1.076 590
17 21 22 1 1.063 55
30 19 23 4 1.114 - 638
21 19 24 5 1.257 . 676
19 22 26 4 1,431 «775
16 22 27 5 1.380 . 776
a 22 30 8 1.471 892
17 22 30 8 1.395 5783
21 22 31 9 1.504 - 835
16 19 32 13 1.506 937
20 22 33 11 1.587 .978
11 22 34 12 1.575 1.012
14 22 36 14 1. 483 - 966
7Ad}e))| Apes Meee | Gonddccooe PG caeaess SCE ds SaSa oma ates
The rate of growth is very uniform throughout the second instar,
but there is a variation in size among specimens of the same age.
This is instanced in lines 8 and 9. Such variations are common and
are usually the result of weather conditions or of low vitality in the
host. In this instar there is very lttle growth in height, the aver-
age height at the end of the instar being about 0.11 mm. There is
no change in color. The excretion of honeydew is moderate and 1s
unimportant. The female has but shght ability to change position
and seldom moves from one position to another upon the leaf.
Larve from withering leaves, when placed upon fresh ones, mostly
fail to make a satisfactory attachment.
In an experiment, twigs, the leaves of which were infested with
second-instar larve, were placed in water. The larve soon loosened
and migrated to the twigs. The advanced specimens made the sec-
ond molt prematurely and migrated in the third instar; the young
specimens, even those less than half the normal size, migrated also,
but without molting. Some of the smaller specimens would un-
doubtedly have reattached to fresh leaf tissue had there been any
‘on the twigs. The others attached in the normal manner to twigs.
30 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Table XXII shows the time spent in the second instar by larve at
Mont Alto. The orchard data are derived from the maximum daily
emergence and the maximum daily molts. These data show for
the season of 1912 a variation in the length of the instar from 16 to
36 days. Most of the specimens in the orchard, from July 20 to
August 5, spent 20 days in the instar, while in the rearing of July 22
two-thirds of the larve completed the instar in 18 days.
TaBLe XXII.—Data showing the length of the second instar of the terrapin scale from 4
rearings of larve at Mont Alto, Pa.
|
“EN Length
ps 4 oF ing sec- 4 >
Year. Brood. Faire B eelnming of ee End of second instar. of the
instar.
Days
1912....}| Rearing A....) July 22 | Twentieth day..... First specimen, thirty-sixth day ........ 16
Maximum number, thirty-eighth day... 18
Last specimen, forty-ninth day.......... 29
Rearing B....| Aug. 9 | Twentieth day....| First specimen, thirty-sixth day........ 16
Maximum number, thirty-eighth day... 18
Last specimen, fifty-sixth day........... 36
1913....| Rearing A....| June 24 | Twenty - second | First specimen, thirty-fifth day........ a 13
day. Maximum number, thirty-ninth day.... 17
Last specimen, fifty-third day........... | 31
Rearing B....| June 26 | Nineteenth day...| First specimen, thirty-third day........ 14
Maximum number, thirty-seventh day -.| 18
Last specimen, thirty-ninth day......... 20
In 1913 the maximum daily orchard emergence was two days earlier
than in 1912. The first instar required 18 days as against 20 days
for the previous year. However, when the age at the end of the
second instar is considered, it appears that in both seasons the maxi-
mum numbers completed the instar upon the fortieth day.
The larve used in Table XXII were placed upon 1-year-old peach
trees. For the date of entering the instar is given the day upon
which the maximum number entered it, and the date of leaving the
instar is given for the first specimen, for the last specimen, and for
the maximum daily number.
The table shows that the second instar may last from 13 to 36 days
and that the maximum number of specimens remain in it from 17 to
18 days; the greatest number molting upon the eighteenth day.
SEcoND MOLT OF THE FEMALE.
The second molt of the female coincides with that of the male and
is little more than the casting of the skin in response to growth.
There is no change in the structure of the appendages or of the mouth
parts.
In 1912 the second molt for a rearing of 213 females that emerged
July 22 extended over a period of 10 days. The maximum daily molt
was upon the thirty-eighth day after emergence, and 50 per cent
had molted by thefortieth day. Arearing of 100 females that emerged
upon August 9, 1912, made its maximum molt upon the thirty-eighth
day after emergence. One-half of the rearig molted upon that day.
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 831
In the orchards at Mont Alto, Pa., in 1912, the maximum molt was
upon the fortieth day. In all the rearings there was a very short
interval between the first molt and the maximum daily molt. This
interval varied from 2 to 5 days, with 3 days as the normal time.
In 1913 observations were made upon two rearings, one of which
emerged June 24. This rearing of 174 females made its maximum
daily molt upon the thirty-ninth day. Reference to Table XXII
will show that the first molt for this rearing was made upon the
twenty-second day. It was slightly delayed by a storm, but the
larvee reached the maximum of the second molt on the thirty-ninth
day; that is, 1 day ahead of the average time for the orchard larve. ©
TaBLe X XIII.—Age of the terrapin scale at the second molt as determined from the maxi-
mum daily molt.
|
= Age at the
+ Number of | —3- = = ie
Year. Material. 3 maximum | Weather conditions.
specimens. | gaily molt.
| Days.
NOL Ses BBroodliorwaly 22535003. 5 ore. esses ee. Sad 213 38 | Unfavorable.
IB rOOdsomAte: Ohya tase ce tae = a eee ee 100 38 Do.
IBTOOdCOMOKCh Ard emeleese aoe ese soe eee | 1,765 37 Do.
Average for the’ year- =.) o.2-- 22.2. 5.2--5- lecenceseosur aye
ION Sees LOOd Ol UNe) 245 oo 502) esi ci cece eee Bes, 174 39 | Favorable.
IBTOOdVORITING:26na0 nese ee eee ee eee eee - 69 37 Do.
IBTOOGKOMOLCHATG LS ayo octane esa eee eee 190 36 Do.
verare forthesyears =.= 24-959 e eee | Sen eee ee | 37.3
1 piso data refer to larve reared upon isolated twigs at Mont Alto, Pa., and not to the entire orchard
rood.
The foregoing data show that the averages for the two years differ
by only two-tenths of a day. Some of the individuals, however,
departed 4 or 5 days from this average, while in 1912 some specimens
made the molt as late as the forty-second day and in 1913 some made
it as early as the thirty-second day.
Lear PuHase or THE Turrp INSTAR.
After molting to the third instar the females remain motionless on
the underside of the leaf for a period of 1 day while they secrete a
very thin dorsal scale which protects them during migration to the
twigs. ;
The individuals vary in size in the same season, and there is a
slight variation in the average size from year to year. The measure-
ments from 11 specimens showed a minimum length of 1.387 mm.
and a minimum width of 0.862 mm.; a maximum length of 1.65 mm.
and a maximum width of 1.074 mm.; an average length of 1.545 mm.
and an average width of 0.995 mm. The average length in 1912 was
1.465 mm. and the average width 0.974 mm. In 1913 the average
length was 1.64 mm. and the average width 1.02 mm., showing an
increase in size for the latter year of 0.175 mm. in length and 0.046
mm. in width.
32 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
MIGRATION TO THE TWIGS.
The twigward migration of the females starts about the Ist of
August and reaches its maximum before the middle of the month, after
which it continues in a small way until the leaves fall. In the
vicinity of Mont Alto, Pa., from 80 to 90 per cent migrate between
August 8 and August 20. (PI. I, fig. 4.)
Table XXIV gives data from observations made upon 1,494
migrating females during 1912 at Mont Alto, Pa. The observations
in Part I were made upon larve that settled naturally upon orchard
trees. The material considered was isolated with tree tanglefoot
August 1 and the females as they migrated were removed and counted
at two-day intervals. The age at which these particular larve
migrated is not definitely known, but was about 40 days. The rear-
ing of July 22 (Part IL) migrated from the thirty-ninth to the fiftieth
day after emergence, and made its maximum daily migration August
30, which was the thirty-ninth day. The rearing of August 9 (Part
Ill) migrated from the thirty-first to the fifty-seventh days and
made its maximum daily migration upon September 15, which was
the thirty-seventh day. It is evident from a comparison with figure
11 that the maximum in Part III was retarded.
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THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 47
THe FemMaLteE Uron THE Twic: Rate or GRowTH.
To determine the relative rate of growth of females after attaching
to the twigs Table XXIX was compiled from the data obtained in
1913. This shows an increase from attachment on the twigs to the
sixty-seventh day of 500 per cent in height and a pronounced increase
in length and width. It is evident from this table that nearly all the
growth takes place during the first 19 days.
Taste XXIX.—Size of twig-attached females of the terrapin scale after the specified days
upon the twigs, Mont Alto, Pa., 1913.
Number :
Spar Period Average Average Average
Date. See on twig. length. width. height.
Days. Mm. Mm. Mm.
INR TS 10 (1) 1.542 1.03 0. 125
Aug. 7 3 1 1. 600 1S O5SE ee oases ane
Aug. 8-. 3 2 1.65 TATA eevee ss Ain
Aug. 19. . 10 4 1.649 1. 297 208
Aug. 20. 10 5 1. 619 TS On tellea noes Hae
Aug. 23. - 13 8 1. 686 I Pen aoaesemeeaae
Aug. 26. - 4 11 1. 762 25s ail eek ese
Aug. 29. . 8 14 1. 887 Dee Paes Serene cage Ae
Sept. 3... 13 19 1,996 1. 592 615
Oct. 21... 16 67 2. 057 1. 680 - 625
1 Just attached.
Tur FEMALE Upon THE Twic: Movement Artrer ATTACHING TO THE TWIGS.
It is very doubtful whether the females ever reattach after the first
week’s sojourn upon the twigs. During the first few days specimens
have been observed to move, but whether or not the proboscis had
been inserted into the host is unknown. Efforts were made to deter-
mine this, but no data were obtained. However, observations made
upon specimens attached to slowly drying twigs indicate that they do
not change position after the eleventh day.
THe Derm.
With the arching of the dorsum during the first week the flat wax
scale which protected the female larva during the migration from
leaf to twig scales off; meanwhile the exposed surface thickens and
hardens until by the end of the week it is so rigid that it responds to
the growth changes by crimping. This hardening and thickening of
the dorsum which produces the hard shell-like derm is completed by
the twenty-fifth day. The excretion of wax, however, continues
and wax flakes can be found attached to the derm up to the time of
death.
HONEYDEW.
The attachment of the females to the twigs marks the beginning
of the maximum period of honeydew deposit. If it were not for the
deposit at this time the honeydew would be of very little economic
48 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
importance. This period of excretion extends to the time of hiber-
nation, but practically all the honeydew is deposited during the first
25 days.
The anal apparatus is specially adapted to the excretion of honey-
dew. The anal plates, which are situated near the posterior end of
the derm, are so hinged at their anterior ends that they can be both
elevated and separated. When in this position they expose the anal
chamber which lies just below them. This chamber is boundei
laterally by the body lobes and connects ventrally with the brood
chamber, while a cloacal cavity extends forward, within which there
is a retractile spindle-shaped rectum, at the distal extremity of which
the anal aperture is located. It is surrounded by a fringe of eight
filaments called the anal ring. During repose the rectum occupies
the anterior part of the cloacal cavity, and the anal fringe, which is
folded into a cylindrical mass, occupies the posterior part. When
the scale is not excreting the anai cavity is empty and closed at
the top by the idlike anal plates. Preparatory to excretion the anal
plates are elevated and separated; the rectum with its fringe is
drawn backward from the cloacal cavity into the anal chamber, from
which it is thrust through the opening between the elevated anal
plates. Contraction of the muscular walls of the rectum causes the
contents to ooze into the basket formed by the filaments of the anal
ring, where it forms a bubble which is held in piace upon the end of
the rectum by the supporting filaments, much as a jewel is held in
its settmg. When the bubble is fully formed it bursts, hurling the
liquid composing it in the form of minute drops to a distance of from
3 to 8 inches. Cohesion between the honeydew and the filaments of
the fringe is very slight. As a result no honeydew remains upon the
fringe after the bursting of the bubble. The rectum is always with-
drawn and the anal cavity closed after each expulsion. The deposit
of honeydew from the twig-attached females becomes noticeable in
orchards during the first week in August and rapidly increases in
amount during the remainder of the month. At Midvale, Pa., in
1913, the deposit was first noticed August 4. It was made by the
few advanced females then upon the twigs. The amount excreted
reached its maximum on August 23, after which the amount upon
the trees remained nearly constant until the first week of September.
The sooty fungus which develops upon this honeydew increases in
abundance with the increased deposit, and by the end of August its
lack spores have transformed the transparent honeydew into a
sooty paste. By the end of the first week in September the leaves,
branches, and fruit are covered by a black film of dried honeydew
and spores. In some cases the infestation is so severe that the soil
under the tree is coated almost as thickly as the limbs. The deposit
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. _ 49
appears at its worst upon varieties that ripen after September 1. A
basket of sooty peaches, with two normal peaches for comparison, is
shown in figure 16.
HIBERNATION.
The scales depend for protection during hibernation upon their
protective coloration, their hard derm, and their waxy coating.
The color, while conspicuous in detached specimens, blends so nicely
with the color of the young twigs as to conceal them effectively.
The hard derm protects them from birds and insect enemies, and
the wax film protects the insect from rain, surface moisture, and
scalecides by prevent-
ing their passing un-
der the scale.
SIZE DURING HIBERNATION.
Eulecanium nigro-
fasciatum passes the
winter as an impreg-
nated female. The
following measure-
ments, which were ta-
ken from fresh speci-
mens at Mont Alto,
Pa., February 24,
1913, are typical for
the hibernation
period: Length, maxi-
mum 2.375 mm., maini- FG. 16.—A basket of “‘sooty’’ peaches with two clean ones for con-
trast. (Original.)
mum 1.80 mm., aver-
age 2.072 mm.; width, maximum 2.28 mm., minimum 1.79 mm., aver-
age 2.0308 mm.; height, maximum 1.1 mm., minimum 0.725 mm.,
average 0.9084 mm.
POSITION ON TWIGS DURING HIBERNATION.
This species when on peach locates exclusively upon the last three
seasons’ growth, and by far the largest number of specimens is found
upon the earliest formed wood of the last growing season. (See
ene ties. 1, 2.) |
The females in 1912 continued more or less active until November
12, and they remained dormant until April. This made the hiber-
nating period cover about 44 months.
MORTALITY DURING HIBERNATION.
Practically every normal female will pass the hibernation period
safely unless some accident happens to the host. Specimens at Mont
er 20782" Bull 351-16 = 4
An
=
50 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Alto, Pa., during the winter of 1912-13 passed this period with a
mortality of less than 10 per cent. At Midvale, Pa., during the winter
of 1913-14, specimens upon poorly nourished trees had a mortality
as high as 54 per cent. Neither birds nor other animals make a
noticeable attack during hibernation, but there is a strong parasitic
attack upon the young females before hibernation. This was espe-
cially noticeable during the first week in September.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MALE.
Mate Larva, Seconp InstTaAr.
In this instar the elongation of the larva and the secretion of the
puparium undoubtedly start immediately after the first molt, but
it is usually five or six days before they can be detected. The male
increases, as 1s shown in Table XXX, from an average length of 1.03 -
mm. to an average length of about 1.706 mm., and in width from an
average of 0.421 mm. to an average of about 0.830 mm. There is
also an appreciable increase in height.
TABLE XX X.—Average measurements of the male terrapin scale in the second instar at
various ages between the twenty-fifth and thirty-fourth days, at Mont Alto, Pa.
Number
a Date - | Average | Average
Year. emerged. Age. obspert length. | width.
|
| Days Mm. | Mm
1912 | Aug. 9 25 1 1.031 0. 468
AGU 205s dO Sseet 26 2 1. 218 - 421
1913 | June 24 30 14 1. 628 - 830
1912 | Aug. 9 3L 4 1.579 - 642
1913 | June 26 32 13 1. 661 - 809
1913 June 24 33 13 1.621 . 813
LOTS =e Ors) 34 8 1. 706 777
In 1912 the instar extended to the fortieth day, but practically
all males had shrunk in preparation for the second molt by the
thirty-fifth day.
The following table compares the measurements of 54 females in
the second instar with 48 males of the same rearing, and shows that
the females average 0.168 mm. wider and 0.111 mm. shorter than the
males.
TABLE XX XI.—Comparative measurements of male and female larvex of the terrapin scale
during the second instar, Mont Alto, Pa.
Datu cleNumber Length | Width | Number| Length | Width
Age. eriece adel eerinl of of of of of
Bee ales- | males. | males. | females. | females. | females.
Days Mm Mm Mi Min
30 | June 24 | 14 1. 628 0. 830 7 1. 507 0. 982
32 | June 26 13 1. 661 . 809 16 1. 506 - 937
33 | June 24 13 1.621 . 813 20 1. 587 . 978
34 SiQOz=2- 8 1. 706 777 11 1.575 1.012
Total.... AS ra Rie oe sass eee aces 5A ee ee | S382 eee
AVCTA SON Peas a= once 1.654 | Btls |S secasssor 1. 543 ~ 975
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. bya
The male larva stops growth one day before the second molt, after
which it shrinks and tends to assume a cylindrical form. The
amount of this shrinkage, as is shown, averages 0.16 mm. in length
and about 0.137 mm. in width. As a result of this shrinkage the
edges of the puparium extend beyond the larva like the eaves of a
roof.
TaBLE XX XII.—Shrinkage of 13 male larvex of the terrapin scale during the last day of
the second instar, 1913.
| July 27. July 28. | Difference.
|
Mm. Mm. Mm
Averaveilengiheeeaaas emcee aici o cto ne oe ce iseioec Se beens macciseseien 2.17 2.01 ;
PASVET AC ORWi CL lberierere clelstnie c)-1212 2 Saale a(cinis etaierefoteelaielet=\o afurenrneic aie sleieraeeyate 1.075 9375 . 1375
The author’s observations indicate that both sexes make the
second molt at the same time and that they spend the same number
of days in the second instar.
Tue PUuPARIUM.
The puparium is a transparent protective covering under which
the male passes the third, fourth, and part of the fifth instar. It is
secreted by dorsal wax pores during the second instar (PL. II, a, e),
and has the same dimensions as the full-grown larva, but owing to
the shrinking of the larva the puparium at the end of the second
instar is the larger. This structure is held in place by elastic bands
which extend from points upon its edges to the leaf below. The
largest of these is attached directly in front of the head. The orna-
mentation of the puparium consists of 2 longitudinal lines, 3 cross-
lines, and a spear-shaped notch, which coincide in position at the
time of its secretion with the anal plates and anal cleft of the larva.
The longitudinal lines extend from the anterior end of the anal notch
in mildly diverging curves anteriorly to a termination on the lateral
edges near the position of the eye-spots of the larva. The cross lines,
which are broken, are located at the middle and on the anterior and
posterior thirds.
In this species the puparium is always placed upon the underside
of the leaf (PI. ITI, fig. 3) and never upon the twigs. In this it differs
from Hulecanium corni Bouché, which frequently has puparia upon
the twigs. Twenty-four puparia taken at Mont Alto, Pa., during 1912,
had the following sizes: Length, maximum 1.725 mm., minimum
1.443 mm., average 1.641 mm.; width, maximum 0.825 mm., minimum
0.54 mm., average 0.707 mm. The puparia of 1913 in the same
orchard were slightly larger; 13, measured July 28, averaged in length
1.706 mm. and in width 0.778 mm.
5Y BULLETIN 301, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Seconp Mout or THE MALE.
In 1912 the second molt was made by orchard larve from the
thirty-eighth to the forty-third day, with its maximum upon the
forty-first day, after emergence from the brood chamber. In 1913,
with a more favorable season, this molt was made by orchard larvee
upon the thirty-sixth day. Since the larve entered the second instar
upon the eighteenth day, they averaged 18 days in the second instar.
Two rearings were made in 1913, the first from larve that emerged
June 24 and the second from larve that emerged June 26. The
former made their maximum daily molt for both sexes upon the
thirty-seventh day, the latter upon the thirty-fourth day.
When the male larva shrinks at the end of the second instar the
larval skin retains its original shape and position (PL. II, 6). This
leaves the larva nearly free within. At this time a decided meta-
morphosis begins. The original legs, antenne, and mouth-parts dis-
appear and the anal lobes, which in the second instar are one-half.as
wide as the body and extend caudad beyond the anal plates (PL. II, a),
now shrink to short, narrow projections which extend only slightly
beyond the anal plates. As a result of this change in the anal
lobes the anal crease disappears and the anal apparatus assumes
again its original position on the caudal margin. During this meta-
morphosis the hard portions of the mouth-parts remain attached to
the larval skin and disappear at the second molt, after which all trace
of the mouth-parts is lost. In the act of molting the larval skin is
ruptured by contortions of the larva along the middorsal line, and in
a few minutes it is worked downward and backward and is expelled
at the caudad margin of the puparium, where it usually remains for
a few days clamped under the puparium.
THe PREPUPA.
The prepupal instar is characterized by a rapid metamorphosis,
which, however, actually starts before the casting of the second molt
skin. The plump anal lobes of the first and second instars shrink,
and the characteristic anal plates (Pl. II, a) are lacking. The most
evident characters at the beginning of the instar are the wing-pads
and the pointed anal lobes.
The prepupal period covers but 2 days, yet the metamorphosis is
so rapid that decided changes occur. The wing-pads expand to their
full size; the antennal sheaths expand from buds to nearly one-half
of their final length, and the leg sheaths, which at the beginning of
the instar were indicated by imaginal buds, become one-fourth devel-
oped. The metamorphosis of the anal region continues throughout
this instar and at its end all trace of the conspicuous anal plates is
lost. In their place there now project from the caudal extremity two
Bul, 351, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.
THE TERRAPIN SCALE.
puparium; b, same, shrinking in the last day of the second
imago before emergence; f, pupa case clamped under the pupa-
i, enlarged antenna.
a, The second instar under the
2 instar; c, prepupa; d, pupa; ¢,
x rium; g, imago at twigward migration, h, lateral view of caudal extremity,
All much enlarged. (Original.)
,
Bul. 351, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.
THE TERRAPIN SCALE.
Fic. 1.—Appearance of the scale on peach twig during winter; somewhat enlarged. Fic. 2.—
Same, about natural size. Fic. 3.—Male puparia along midrib of peach leaf; considerably
enlarged. (Original.)
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 538
fleshy lobes, between which are the sheaths of the copulatory appa-
ratus. (Pl. II, c.) The ventral eyes are represented at the end of
this instar by two brown spots.
This instar is quite constant in its length, being almost invariably
2 days. Table XX XIII gives data upon 18 males from the rearing
of June 24, 1913. The average length was 2 days.
TABLE XX XIIJ.—Average duration of the prepupal instar for 18 specimens of the terrapin
scale, Mont Alto, Pa., 1913.
| {
Date of | Date of Date of | Date of
No.. second. | thir une ua) | No. second | thir Time in
molt. molt. -| PrePupa- molt. molt, | DEePupa.
Days. Days.
lL ABSeEREBeecaeseaeE July 31] Aug. 2 7 Je lta Ul ese a ees July 31} Aug. 3 3
QE ree mre cla tainie Aug. 4| Aug. 6 PN Fee es ess eer July 30} Aug. 1 2
BAPE aele ae Sineiaat July 31| Aug. 2 PNR es th om cas Beene es July 31 Chasse 1
Ae cosets cisijainsins July 30) Aug. 1 Ig ll es caeoceeoasaESaoac July 29 | July 31 2
Saupe dee eee eee dopees lee doses. 2) Wb seston elon Aug. 1| Aug. 3 2
Gees eise wink EGO eeeee ee Oban PACH fd Ge ates Phe aes ee eae se O02 ote dotenae 2
(loncse panes SCeBree doves; Aug. 2 DA BL a ae Ne oS se so Aug. 5| Aug. 7 2
Bie Ms Pe seco HdOessee Aug. 1 QE DURE teem meee Aug. 4] Aug. 6 2
hope atoweisiocsiseise| Aug. 1] Aug. 3 2
SB Ssenqhesaseoseae July 31] Aug. 2 2 PAVOLAS O cee ce |Sesec cect cl cicciiee resis 2
Larve that emerge upon the same day may vary as much as 10
days in the time required for them to reach the prepupa. The
normal time of entering this instar, however, is clearly defined for
most individuals. One-half of the males in any rearing will ordinarily
become prepupe upon the same date. The normal time for enter-
ing this instar in the region about Mont Alto, Pa., is upon the thirty-
eighth day after emerging from under the parent scale.
Prepupz were abundant in the orchard at Mont Alto, Pa., in 1912,
from August 8 to August 20. They were present in largest numbers
about August 12; after this they became gradually less abundant
until August 25. After August 25 they were very scarce. At Mid-
vale, Pa., in 1913, the first prepupz were taken July 18. At Mont
Alto, Pa., in 1913, the first prepupz were taken July 24. This is 5
days earlier than they appeared at Mont Alto the preceding year.
Since both sexes made the second molt at the same age, and
since the females migrate twigward upon the second day after this
molt, it happens that the twigward migration of the females coin-
cides with the prepupal instar of the male. In 1912 the first returned
females—6 specimens in all—were taken July 29. While there were
undoubtedly as many prepupe as returned females at this time
upon the trees, none was found. \ By August 2 the number of returned
females had greatly increased and, upon this date, the first prepup
of the season were taken.
There was a difference in 1913 of 6 days in the appearance of
prepupe at the Wertz and in the Newcomer orchards. This was due
to the difference in the localities. The Wertz orchard has a strong
54 BULLETIN 351, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
westward slope and is located at an altitude of 1,100 feet, with a
mountain crest extending 1,000 feet above it. There is consequently
a good air drainage and a partial exclusion of the sun’s rays during
the forenoon. The Newcomer orchard, upon the other hand, is
located upon a slight knoll, with relatively level surroundings. Its
altitude is less than 900 feet. Consequently the air drainage is not
good and the sun’s rays are unobstructed.
Four prepupe were measured in 1912, with the following results:
Length, maximum 1.29 mm., minimum 1.08 mm., average, 1.208 mm.;
width, maximum, 0.618 mm., minimum, 0. 562 mm., average, 0.587
mm. On April 28, 1913, 8 specimens gave the following measure-
ments: Length, maximum 1.420 mm., minimum 1.25 mm., average
1.33 mm; width, maximum 0.6 mm., minimum 0. 525 mm., average
0.559 mm.
Turrp Mott.
The prepupa starts the third molt by a series of convulsive move-
ments which cause the dorsal skin to split over the thoracic region.
The skin is loosened and removed almost entirely by extending and
contracting the abdomen. ‘The extension thrusts cause a tension
upon the ventral part of the molt skin which draws the head down-
ward and under. This causes the dorsal thorax to protrude through
the split in the molt skin. This tension increases with each thrust
of the abdomen, so that the head is drawn farther and farther down-
ward and backward until it finally slips free from the skin. The
larva then assumes its regular position. In stripping the molt skin
from the legs and antenne the thrusting movements of the abdomen
are aided by the puparium, which, owing to its attachment with
elastic bands, yields to the molting movements and serves as a
clamp to hold the skin in place while the abdomen contracts for the
next thrust. The thrusting movements of the abdomen usually
cease before the skin is completely expelled from under the puparium.
Because of this the cast skins are mostly found clamped under the
posterior end of the puparium.
The duration of this molt varies with the temperature at the time
of molting and also with the vigor of the specimen. The molt
usually starts in the forenoon with the resumption of the daily
activity. The average time for this molt is less than an hour. Upon
days when the temperature reaches 70° F. before 9 a. m., practically
all the molts for the day will be completed by 10 a. m. At low
temperatures many specimens die without completing it. Some
specimens kept in the laboratory where the temperature did not rise
above 70° F. required 18 hours for this molt. They started molting
about 4 p. m. and became dormant before completing it. These
molts were completed the following day.
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 55
THe Pupa.
The pupal instar is one of development. In it the rudimental
structures of the preceding instar reach their full development. The
leg sheaths are mere tubes at the beginning of the instar; at the end
they contain the matured legs. The wing sheaths have a similar
history, bemg at first transparent bags, which develop gradually
until the last third-of the instar, when the wings fold and the charac-
teristic fleshy color appears. The pupa (PI. II, d) has a pale flesh
color with chitinized areas upon the head and anal region. There is
also a crescent-shaped spot and a transverse band of a bright flesh
color. The antenne and legs are at first ventral, but they elongate
and finally appear prominently in the dorsal view.
TIME. IN PUPA.
The pupal instar varies in length, occupying from 4 to 11 days,
and averages about 6 days in favorable weather. Those individuals
that spend only 4 days in this instar have invariably been delayed
as prepupe. It is very exceptional for a male to pass 8 days in the
pupa, even when weather conditions are unfavorable. When condi-
‘tions are such that the pup require over 9 days, there is a heavy
mortality. Many die, and those that enter the adult stage mostly
die without leaving the protection of the puparium.
In both 1912 and 1913 rearings were made to determine the length
of the pupal period under varying conditions. Observations made
upon the specimens in the orchard showed that most of the specimens
remained in the pupa 6days. A brood that emerged July 22, 1912—
that is, approximately a month after the height of the normal emer-
gence—was retarded 6 days by unfavorable conditions. Thirteen
males passed successfully through the pupal stage and gave an aver-
age of 8.15 days in the pupal instar.
The average mean temperature for July, August, and September-
1912, was 71.5° F.
A brood that emerged June 24, 1913—that is, appproximately at
the height of emergence—passed through the larval instars in a nor-
mal manner, and the imagos left the puparia upon the forty-sixth
day. These specimens were slightly retarded, owing to their removal
_ while in prepupa from the orchard to the laboratory. Fourteen of
these specimens passed through the pupal instar in a normal manner.
They gave an average of 6.2 days for the pupal instar. The fraction
of a day in excess of 6 days is small and is clearly due to the unfavor-
able environment of the laboratory. Table XXXIV gives the indi-
vidual record of these 14 males. The average mean temperature for
June, July, and August, 1913, was 73.4° F.
56 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Taste XXXIV.—Length of the pupal instar of the terrapin scale for larix that emerged
June 24, 1913, Mont Alto, Pa.—Conditions favorable,
tt
= Date Date Pupal Date Date Pupal
Ne. entered. | left. stage. | ne entered. | left. stage.
Days. Days.
i Hepa SA re ees Aug.. 2 | Aug. 10 Sl ROL Sh arte ets as gee Aug. 2] Aug. 9 7
Do) ED ee POR YS idoweece Aug. 8 Gul POs ans Hee ee oe ae Aug. ug. 8 iG
Ds ct eee AMS. 1h etd Ose 2ae Hhes|| Ae Se a emt ee July 31] Aug. 5 5
AREA ee) de REE t tenet Wid0d25. Aug. 7 Gi | SU ZR IEN Ss eee tee ee Zed eee Aug. 6 6
eee A neintiee nr = teed Oesees Aug. 8 We || Gloces ss eeaecees Aug. 3| Aug. 8 5
(: Pieris fe Se ote Ages 2) edOees = G|-4 ee ees ates Aug: 21) -Augse7 6
[eam Se ee Aug. 1] Aug. 5 4
Se tae esas a ene Aug. 3 | Aug. 10 7 | AV OTAR OS 2) ok |2 oe aa ah yoke eee ener 6.2
|
APPEARANCE OF PUPA IN THE ORCHARD.
Pupee appear in the orchard upon the second day after the females
start migrating to the twigs, and they are most abundant about the
sixth day after the maximum daily migration.
At Mont Alto, Pa., 80 per cent or more of the males pass through
the pupal state during the first half of August.
SIZE OF PUPA.
The pupe are slightly smaller than the prepupe, but owing to the
ereat size of the wing-pads the pupe average slightly wider.
Table XX XV gives measurements for 20 specimens, the first 10 of
which were from 1912 and the remainder from 1913. The sizes are
quite uniform for the two seasons and average 1.248 mm. long and
0.5918 mm. wide. A comparison of the prepupal and pupal measure-
ments from the same individuals shows an average decrease in length
of 0.09 mm. and an increase of 0.03 mm. in width in passing into the
pupal instar.
TaBLE XXXV.— Measurements of 20 mature pupex of the terrapin scale, Mont Alto, Pa.,
1912 and 1913.
No. |Length.) Width. No. Length.| Width. No. Length.} Width.
Mim. Mm. Mm Mm. Mm Mm
GESE Ge stern Saree 1.2250 0.55 Qe sco aasNelarenis 1.1000 036007 || 16oss-seeeceeee ee 1. 250 0. 650
DPB a pres eee re 1.3375 MOTO OSes cesemesceet 1. 2500 62 Wee ose eee iealz(s) 575
Bee the Sh) ene eee ote 1.2750 OOOn Aes see scot tee 1.325 62521518 Ses See gee 1.275 650
ANB ILS AR TaD Sos 1.3000 COOK Mh 2eer re cence ate 1.250 475i | 192 eee 1.250 625
Br er acs ee ann 1.3000 SO Has Beg oe Se sbees 1. 250 650). |h20 Sos Sea eee 1.250 600
(GEASS dole Seas 1. 2500 NOOOR LAS ee ee Ne eee 1. 250 - 550 —
CESS Entre eae 1. 2500 OO2i | (ML Os masters staelscrt 1. 200 - 600 Average...| 1.2481 .5918
OR eae aie eo orer tans 1. 2000 . 625
FourtH Motr.
The fourth molt, like the third, usually starts in the morning when
the temperature rises to about 70° F. The first indication that a
molt is about to start is a series of convulsive movements. These
cause the thin pupa case to split along the anterior third of the mid-
dorsal line. As these movements continue the dorsal thorax pro-
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 57
trudes more and more through this slit and the head is forced down-
ward. Before the head escapes the anterior legs are withdrawn from
their sheaths. These are the first appendages to become free. They
push the case downward until the head is free. After this they force
the case backward under the body. The antennal sheaths cling
tightly to the antennz and have to be stripped free from them. The
middle and posterior legs take no active part in the molt, but lie
motionless along the edges of the abdomen. The antennal sheaths
are the last parts of the case to be shed. After the head escapes from
the case it presses against the anterior-end of the puparium, which
serves as a fulcrum in forcing the adult free from the pupa case.
Pupe that escape by accident or are removed from under the pupa-
rium are unable to complete the molt. They continue the effort for
about 24 hours and then die. In the case of weak specimens the
impulse to molt often ceases before the tips of the antenne are free.
After this molt the pupal case is usually found lightly clamped under
the posterior edge of the pupartum. (See PI. II, f)
This molt ordinarily requires about 2 minutes for specimens at
temperatures above 70° F., but at a temperature of 66° F. the time
required is 5 minutes. This molt should take place about the forty-
seventh day, but it is frequently delayed. For example, part of a
brood that emerged August 9, 1912, was removed from the trees
when in pupa. They were placed in the laboratory late in September,
away from heat and sunlight, and under these conditions many of
the specimens died. The remainder were abnormal and did not molt
until the fifty-fifth day, or 8 days after the natural time. It was evi-
dent that a slightly longer delay would have resulted in the death
of all the specimens in the pupa or during the molt.
THE ADULT MATE
The fourth molt, like the third, is made under the puparium. The
young imago at Set has soft and folded wings, but these soon assume
their naturalshape. Several hours, however, are required for them to
harden and to become fully colored. After expanding they protrude
sheghtly from under the posterior end of the puparium and serve as a
means of identifying this stage. The time spent under the puparium
varies from a few hours to 4 days. The normal time for the male to
remain under the puparium is from 1 to 2 days. The male regularly
enters the imago in the forenoon of one day and emerges during the
afternoon of the following day, but there~are well-defined exceptions
to this. If favorable weather has so accelerated the growth as to
shorten the preceding instars, the imago tends to remain under the
puparium until the regular time for emerging, but when the early
instars are lengthened by unfavorable weather the imago emerges in
‘less than 2 days.
58
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In Table XXXVI are recorded data from 14 males that emerged
late in the season of 1912. They had the fourth molt delayed to the
fiftieth day and give an average of 1.36 days as the time spent under
the puparium. Specimen No. 3 partly escaped from under the
puparium during the fourth molt. It remained in this position for
4 hours and an emerged and started to leave the leaf.
TaBLe XX XVI.—Emergence of 14 males of the terrapin scale from a brood that made the
fourth molt upon the fiftieth day, Mont Alto, Pa., 1912.
Fourth molt. Emergence. i
Time spent
No. under pupa-
Date. | Time. Date. Time. UAB
Days. Hrs
-| Sept. 6 | 8.40a.m 1
-| Sept. 10 | 10a. m.. 1 0
-| Sept. 11 | 10a. m.. 4
Sept. 14 | 6a.m... 3 0
Sept. 12 | 6a. m.. 1 16
SdOsess6 6pm 12
Sept. 14 | 9a. m.. 2 PAL
Sept. 13 | 6a. m.. ep ly
200 zes02 Gams 1 16
-d0 2322. Giaomessce 12
Sept. 12 | 6a. m.. 18
Sdoeses. 6a. m.. 18
EdOze.e2 Gianimseece 1 21
=GOzesss 6a.m.. 1 15
witb ae date al eee eee eee 1 9.07
In Table XX XVII are recorded data from 12 imagos that emerged
from the brood chamber June 24 and made the fourth molt upon the
forty-fifth day. They were thus normal in development. They give
an average of 2 days spent under the puparium. Eight specimens
from this same brood were removed from the orchard 7 days before
they emerged as imagos and placed upon glass plates in the laboratory.
As a result of this treatment they were delayed in the pupal stage and
spent only one day under the puparium, a reduction of one-half in the
time due to the changed conditions.
TaBLE XXX VII.—Emergence of 12 males of the terrapin scale from a brood that made
the fourth molt upon the forty-fifth day, Mont Alto, Pa., 1913.
pete Imago aime = Date Im: ie
0. of four under pu- 0. of fourth under pu-
molt. emerged. parium molt. emerged. arium.
Days. Days.
IL esses Sate operas Aug. 10 | Aug. 11 iT | ee emer ee neaHenueec Aug. 10 | Aug. 11 1
2s eee eee Aug. 8} Aug. 9 12 iit RoseeeeuBSeecaueen Aug. 8 | Aug. 10 2
Sa ee er a eee Bac Wesod laos doxs-r HL || LOR S3 Sersrerceine eisererae PNR 7 |pece@aon 3
(Ee eevedoeseemeseeea July 7| Aug. 11 Gs Ot eRe eeeeaenoaEitoee Aug. 5]| Aug. 8 3
Bia aiec sein need ey eee Aug. 8} Aug. 9 IPs Sede Godesacessess Aug. 8 | Aug. 10 2
Gus eh ee. eee ExtOsssallene doze: 1
(ReRSSsaenapeGocshnce Aug: 75 ||. <0 4 AV CT ASC cel pecieicecicts Cemeeeence 2
shows that the
A comparison of Tables XXXVI and XXXVII
time spent under the puparium by the imago varies from 4 hours
to 4 days and that the average time for normal development is 2
days.
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 5Q
Imagos were taken from under puparia in small numbers at Mid-
vale, Pa., on July 27, 1913. These were the earliest specimens taken
during the two seasons of observation.
EMERGENCE OF ADULT MALE.
The imago (PI. I, g) usually leaves the puparium about the forty-
ninth day. In 1912 the early part of the season was favorable and
the imagos emerged upon the forty-ninth day, but later in the season
males reared from larve that emerged from the brood chamber August
9 did not leave the puparium until the fifty-second day, with several
specimens delayed until the fifty-eighth day. In 1913 the males
emerged from the forty-third to the fifty-ninth day, with the maxi-
mum emergence upon the forty-ninth day.
DESCRIPTION OF ADULT MALE.
Length, exclusive of style, 1 mm.; style 0.15 mm.; caudal lobes 0.075 mm., being
one-half as long as the paired lateral appendages; antennz 0.6 mm.; wing, 0.44 mm.
long, 0.8 mm. wide. Light flesh color in general. Head light flesh color; anterior
pair of dorsal eyes reddish brown; posterior dorsal eyes similar and one-half as large;
ventral pair dark brown and slightly larger than the anterior dorsal pair; antennze
whitish, 8-jointed, joint I short, thick, semiglobular; joint II slightly longer than I,
claviform; joint III as long as both I and II, slender and cylindrical; the remaining
joints cylindrical and subequal. Collar short cylindrical; prothorax narrow; dorsal
mesothorax light flesh color, with a flesh-colored shield-shaped spot above, and ter-
minated posteriorly by a narrow bright band of the same color; metathorax light
flesh color. Wing iridescent, surface granulose, false vein through anal third; hal-
teres none; caudal filments none; legs and style light brown.
TWIGWARD MIGRATION OF THE MALE.
The male backs out from under the puparium and at once starts
for the twigs. The wings are not ordinarily used in this migration.
The insect is attracted by strong light and seems to be guided some-
what in its movements by gravity and possibly also by the scent of
the female. The males leave the underside of the leaf and pass
down the petiole. When the twig is reached they turn downward
and examine the surface carefully as they pass overit. The antennz
are held aloft and nearly motionless, but the anterior tarsi are kept
in constant motion, tapping and feeling the surface of the twigs.
The males frequently in their search pass to the tips of the twigs,
and in such cases they may circle the twig a few times and then
return to the base and pass on, but when the illumination is strong
they alight upon other twigs and start again in active search. The
interval between emerging and starting the active search for the
female scales is very brief, being always less than 30 minutes. The
male is sexually mature when he emerges. When he approaches
a female he taps upon the derm with his anterior legs, usually pass-
ing several times around the specimen in doing so, or he may conduct
the examination while upon the female’s back. During such an
60 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
examination the male is often diverted and may move away, but
he will return, again and again, before finally abandoning his efforts.
Those females that have copulated are indifferent to the male, but
females of the same age that have not copulated respond by elevat-
ing and distending the anal plates. After a preliminary examina-
tion of the dorsal surface of the female the male mounts and takes
the copulating position, with the head forward and the body paral-
lel to that of the female. In the act of copulation the abdomen is
curved under until the tip is in contact with the anal plates. The
act of copulation requires from 2 to 10 seconds, according to the
degree of exhaustion of the male. At the end of copulation the
male departs and continues his search for additional mates. If
by chance he returns a second time to the same female his tappings
bring no response. The male is decidedly polygamous and con-
tinues copulating with one female after another until he dies of
exhaustion. The following observations were made upon a male
that left the puparium September 6, 1913:
Emerged from, pu partum. go sac os oe ecists See ocsparet ses eat gece clare 9.40 a. m.
Discovered first susceptible female and copulated........:............-- 9.42 a. m.
Discovered second female and copulated...............--.+-+.--+-+----- 9.44 a. m.
Discovered third female.a0- 2-2... 22st wean: Sele ee 9.46 a. m.
Discovered fourth female ...20 oe. Sede doen et ae ee 9.50 a. m.
Miseoveredstitth female 222) osce os tose ee one eee ee 9.56 a.m.
WiedtolexnaustiOns: 625 j0.0 Fo ose ke ee ee ee ee ee 9p. m.
At the end of the fifth copulation detailed observations stopped,
but the male continued in diligent search for more females. This in-
dividual died of exhaustion 12 hours after leaving the puparium.
The active male, when moving naturally upon the host plant, lives
less than 24 hours. Almost invariably the male emerges in the fore-
noon, exhausts himself in copulation during the hottest portion of the
day, and dies before midnight. When confined singly in test tubes
they live from 1.25 to 2.75 days. Six specimens confined im test
tubes gave 2.75 days as the maximum, 1.25 days as the minimum, and
1.625 days as the average longevity.
SumMMaARY OF Lire History OF THE MALE.
The male lives an average of 49 days and passes through 5 instars.
In the first two instars it is a vigorous feeder, and accumulates all
the energy used during the remainder of its life. The 3 remaining
instars are characterized, as a whole, by the absence of functional
mouth-parts and by the development of the adult organs. :
The length, in favorable weather, and the distinguishing character-
istics of the instars are as follows.
The feeding instars: First instar, length 18 days—vegetative;
second instar, length 18 days—sexual differentiation.
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 61
The nonfeeding instars: Third instar (prepupa), length 2 days—
metamorphosis; fourth instar (pupa), length 6 days—development
of adult structures; fifth instar G@mago) dormant phase, length 2
days—hardening of exo-skeleton; active phase, length 1 day—migra-
tion and copulation.
SEASONAL HISTORY.
There is one generation of the terrapin scale annually. This species
passes the winter as immature females. At the start of hibernation
these are very plump and the ventral part of the abdomen crowds
against the surface of the host, so that there is no vacant space be-
neath the scale, but by the middle of March the abdomen has
shrunken until there is a dome-shaped cavity beneath it. When the
spring growth starts the specimens become plump again and the space
beneath the scale disappears. Most of the specimens reach maturity
during the middle of June and begin at once to produce young.
The majority of the scales reproduce for a period of about one month.
but an occasional female may continue actively reproducing for as
long as 34 months. On the second day after the first young are born
they begin to emerge from the brood chamber of the parent, mostly
through the anal cleft. During the first 5 weeks there is a heavy
migration of larve to the leaves. This migration reaches its maxi-
mum during the first week of emergence. It then gradually declines,
until by the end of the fifth week it amounts to less than 5 per cent
of the maximum emergence. (See figs. 2 and 4.) At the beginning
of the sixth week after the appearance of the first young the female
larve start migrating from leaf to twig. By the end of the seventh
week the females are ready for copulation and the males migrate to
the twigs. Copulation occurs at this time and the males die at once,
but the females start upon a period of rapid growth, during which
they excrete a vast amount of honeydew, which is responsible for
most of the injury caused by this scale. After 2 or 3 weeks of extreme
activity their growth gradually slackens, but it continues until cold
weather forces the partly mature females into hibernation, after which
they remain dormant until the following spring, dying about mid-
summer ae the production of young.
MORTALITY.
There is more or less mortality at all seasons of the year. Ordi-
narily there seems to be comparatively little due to winterkilling,
though at times this may be considerable. The amount of winter-
killing depends mainly upon the vigor of the host plant and upon the
severity of the winter. During 1912-13, upon well-nourished trees,
the mortality from this source was not more than 5 per cent of the
hibernating scales. During 1913-14, however, scales upon trees
of low vitality had a mortality as high as 40 per cent.
62 BULLETIN 3651, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The females during the spring development are sometimes heavily
attacked by hymenopterous parasites, especially species of the genus
Coccophagus. At the start of reproduction the larve of the cocci-
nellid Hyperaspis binotata Say (fig. 17) enter the brood chambers and
attack the lecanium larvee, while later the maturing larve of this
beetle, in attempting to enter the brood chambers, dislodge many of
the gravid females, thus destroying at once both the female and the
unborn young. (See fig. 18.)
Cold, wet weather at the time of reproduction causes many larvee
to die in the brood chamber. These frequently clog the exit and pre-
vent the egress of the remainder of the brood. This condition was
especially noticeable in the season of 1912, when owing to protracted
rain 5 per cent of the gravid scales were affected in this way.
During the leafward migration most of the young succeed in reach-
ing the leaves, and the loss at this period is due mainly to drowning
by sudden rains and to the dropping of larve from dead twigs. Dur-
ing the leaf phase the larvee are often heavily attacked by predatory
enemies, but the female ijarve are practically free from parasitic
attack, and the males are but slightly attacked. However, after
returning to the twigs the females are subject, at times, to a heavy
parasitic attack which may cause a mortality as high as 20 per cent.
They are also subject to attack at this time by a pyralid moth,
Laetilia coccidivora Comst. In conclusion it may be said that the
mortaility from weather conditions throughout the year is not more
than 50 per cent, and that in favorable seasons it is almost negligible.
ATTENDANTS.
The terrapin scale excretes a honeydew which is very attractive to
ants, and during the time in which it is being deposited all the species
of ants in the vicinity will be found working upon it, while at other
seasons no ants will be about. In the early spring, when the fruit
buds are about to burst nto bloom, considerable honeydew is excreted
and ants are then actively working, but during the period of re-
production very few ants appear. When, however, the twigward
migration of the females starts, the ants return and remain in almost
constant attendance until the scale hibernates. There is no species
of ant that habitually attends this scale, but most of the orchard
ants feast upon its bounties. Only slight benefit to the scale results
from the attendance of the ants. Some of them are pugnacious and
undoubtedly tend to ward off predators and to frighten away and
confuse parasites.
The following four species taken at Mont Alto, Pa., attending this
scale were identified by Dr. W. M. Wheeler:
Formica truncicola Nyl. subsp. integra Nyl.
Formica fusca L. var. subsericea Say.
Lasius niger L. var. americanus Emery.
Prenolepis imparis Say.
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 63
PREDACEOUS ENEMIES.
At Mont Alto, Pa., in 1912, the lacewing fly Chrysopa nigricornis
Burm. made an attack during the twigward migration which was un-
important, although it continued until the larve migrated to the
twigs. This species was reported in 1893 by Mary E. Murtfeldt as
actively attacking the larvee of this lecanium.
Larve of Hemerobius stigmaterus Fitch were present in 1912 in
considerable numbers and the result of their attack was quite notice-
able.
The predaceous pyralid Laetilia coccidivora Comst. was present in
1913, and its larve made a very vigorous attack. The eggs were
placed singly among the scales upon infested twigs, apparently during
the first half of June, and hatched in about 6 days. The larva is
greenish black, with a black, shghtly bilobed head, and feeds within
a delicate silken tube which it constructs from scale to scale as it ad-
vances along the twig. It first attacks the gravid females, and
hundreds of their empty derms can often be seen clinging to one
another and to the silken tubes upon trees where it has fed. When
the larva reaches its full development it spins a cocoon within the
silken tube, usually near the axil of a bud or at the base of a fruit
spur. L. coccidiwvora, at Midvale, Pa., requires about 10 days to pass
through the pupal stage. The imagos emerged from their cocoons
during August and deposited their eggs upon the twigs among the
young scales, which were at that time migrating to the twigs. The
larve of this second brood made a vigorous attack upon the young
females. This predator is aggressive and under favorable conditions
can undoubtedly control this scale. The author observed its work
during the season of 1913, in the orchard of Mr. A. Newcomer, near
Midvale, Pa. It was, however, heavily parasitized, and so made
very little impression upon its host. Two species of parasites were
reared in abundance from this pyralid at Midvale, Pa. They were
Mesostenus thoracicus Cress. and an undescribed species of Habro-
bracon. ;
The predatory bug Camptobrochis nebulosus Uhl., although not
found at Mont Alto, Pa.,was reported by Mary EK. Murtfeldt as prey-
ing upon the active larve of this lecantum at Kirkwood, Mo., in 1893.
Species of Coccinellide of the genus Hyperaspis are undoubtedly the
most efficient agents in the control of this lecanium. Miss Murtfeldt,
in reporting upon Hyperaspis signata for 1893, says: ‘‘The flocculent
larve of this coccinellid were very numerous and active among
swarming larve of L. nigrofasciatum but were not found upon any
other coccid or aphis during the season.’’
Mr. A. B. Gahan, m Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin 149, mentions the attack by ladybirds and says: ‘‘* * *
the species most commonly observed being the twice-stabbed lady-
64 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
bird, Chilocorus biwulnerus.”” The writer has occasionally taken the
adults of this species, which is scarce about Mont Alto, Pa., upon
trees infested with the terrapin scale, but has never observed either
it or its larves preying upon this scale.
At Mont Alto, Pa., there was, in 1912 and
1913, a heavy and effective attack by Hy-
peraspis biynotata Say. This ladybird was
taken abundantly in the orchard of D. M.
Wertz in 1912 and was very abundant there
and in adjacent orchards during the follow-
ing year. It was also taken in considerable
numbers during 1913 at the Newcomer or-
chard near Midvale, Pa. This ladybird
Fig. 17.—A predaceousenemy ot Worked so effectively at Mont Alto, Pa., as
the terrapin scale, Hyperaspis nearly to exterminate a very severe infesta-
ee Much enlarged. tion, H. binotata (fig. 17) differs somewhat
from the common species of ladybirds, both
in its habits and life history. The adult beetles hibernate under bark
and in rubbish and become active in early sprmg. They feed upon
Fic. 18.—Eggs and a second-instar larva of Hyperaspis binotata as it appears under a displaced scale: a,
Second instar as disclosed by displacing the host; b, larvee of the terrapin scale; c, a displaced scale;
d, eggs of the predatory beetle Hyperaspis binotata in situ; e,egg, highly magnified. All much enlarged.
(Original.)
honeydew and upon aphides during the early part of the season but
are unable to attack the lecanium in the spring because of its hard
derm. They feed upon it readily when the derm is crushed.
THE TERRAPIN SCALE, 65
The eggs, which are a salmon color, are deposited singly upon
the twigs, a favorite place being upon the ringlike scars that mark
the limit of the seasonal growth. (Fig. 18, d, e.) The eggs are too
small to be seen readily by the unaided eye. They commence to
hatch about the middle of May and the young seek the mature
scales and enter their brood chambers by way of the anal cleft.
When once within the brood chambers they prey upon the newborn
young. The ladybird larve make their first molt within this brood
chamber and continue to feed until the end of the second instar;
by this time the Hyperaspis larvee are so large that they crowd the
brood chamber and often displace their host.
Finally the larvee leave the host and make
the second molt, usually at the base of a
fruit spur, and then attack other scales,
which they do by forcing their heads un-
der the margin and displacing them. In
this manner they continue through the
third and fourth instars, each larva de-
stroying many gravid scales. When all
the gravid females are destroyed the Hy-
peraspis larvee, which are then mostly in
the fourth instar (fig. 19), migrate to the |
leaves and continue their feeding upon
such of the larve as have reached the as Deeb oeafour th instar, darva ot
leaves. Afterwards the ladybird passes the Pe celine Bae
pupalstage im a pupa case attached to ‘mpm scale. Much’ enlarged.
the leaves or to the twigs, and sometimes ake
in cavities under the bark. Most of the hibernating beetles die
before the first brood emerges from the pupa.
PARASITES.
The terrapin scale is heavily parasitized, and this parasitism is
mostly confined to the female, though the male is slightly attacked.
The first and second instars are very free from parasites, but a heavy
attack starts soon after the young females have attached to the
twigs. This attack increases in violence until checked by the
approach of winter. Most of the parasites pass the winter within
the host and emerge early in the season to make a new attack, which
reaches its maximum just before the scales begin producing young.
Coccophagus lecanit Fitch was the most abundant species reared
in 1912, but C. cognatus Howard was also abundant, especially in
the fall. In 1913 C. lecanw Fitch was rare. In its place C. cognatus
-20782°—Bull, 351—16 5
66 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
appeared im large numbers and attacked the developing females in
the spring. That which was apparently the first brood emerged
from the hosts about June 30. This infestation was very noticeable
owing to the excessive blackening of the scales, as from 20 to 50 per
cent of the scales were killed. Later this same species made an attack
upon the male larvze when in the second instar, and in some instances
5 per cent of the males were destroyed. At Ledy Station, Pa.,
and at Midvale, Pa., this species made a heavy attack in the fall,
but at Mont Alto, Pa., it was scarce, owing to the almost complete
destruction of the host by Hyperaspis binotata.
Aphycus stomachosus Gir. was the most abundant parasite in 1913,
being more numerous than (C. cognatus. It was reared in greatest,
numbers from the nearly mature females in the early part of June,
but it was also taken in large numbers in the orchards during the
first half of September. Aphycus johnson Howard was reared
in small numbers from both Hulecanum nigrofasciatum Pergande
and E. corni Bouché at Mont Alto, Pa., but the last-named species
seemed to prefer LZ. corni as a host.
Besides the foregoing parasites, Blastothrix sericae Dalman was
reared from FE. nigrofasciatum in 1912, as well as numerous specimens
of a new genus of Encyrtide.
A number: of specimens of Prospalta sp. were taken from the
parasite cages during the season of 1912, but these may have come
from armored scales that were introduced by accident.
The records of this bureau contain references to the following
speciés as parasites of Hulecanwum nigrofasciatum:
Coccophagus ater How. Anagyrus nubilipennis Gir.
cognatus How. Eunotus lividus Ashm.
lecanii Fitch. Pachyneuron altiscuta How. (secondary).
cinguliventris Gir. Prospalta aurantii How.
longifasciatus How. Chiloneurus albicornis How.
flavoscutellum Ashm. Blastothriz sericea Dalm.
Jraternus How. Comys fusca How.
Aphycus annulipes Ashm.
johnsoni How.
stomachosus Gir.
SOOTY MOLDS.
Eulecanium nigrofasciatum does most of its damage to the peach
through its mold-infested honeydew, which is deposited in, varying
amounts throughout the entire season. While this honeydew is
objectionable, it would cause very little damage were it not for the
sooty molds which grow abundantly on the leaves, twigs, and fruit
and on, the soil beneath the trees when these are coated with the honey-
dew. This honeydew becomes noticeable only at three times during
the year. A slight deposit from the maturing females appears in
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 67
April and May, and another in July from the leaf-attached larve;
but neither of these deposits is sufficient to do much damage. The
really important deposit starts about August 10, at the time when
the females attach to the twigs, and continues until the approach of
cold weather. The amount of sooty mold produced is limited
apparently only by the amount of honeydew excreted. The mold
becomes noticeable during the first week in July as black streaks
which first appear in the depressions on the upper surface of the
leaves. It gradually increases in amount until the middle of August,
and from this time until the middle of September the increase is
very rapid. The infestation is at its worst about the middle of
September, at which time fruit, foliage, and branches are covered
with a sticky black slime. The extent of the injury depends upon
the degree of infestation and upon the time of ripening of the fruit.
Late varieties are damaged most by the mold-infested honeydew, as
it shows worse upon fruit which ripens after the middle of August.
REMEDIAL MEASURES.
At the beginning of this investigation lime-sulphur was known, to
be ineffective and kerosene emulsion was considered unsatisfactory in
the control of the terrapin scale. The so-called miscible oils (pro-
prietary emulsifiable oils), however, were believed to be reasonably
efficient when properly employed, though it was believed that there
was more or less danger to the trees and fruit buds from their use.
For convenience in treatment the materials used in these experi-
ments are considered in groups. In all 62 experiments were per-
formed, most of them in the orchard of D. M. Wertz, at Mont Alto,
Pa. The others were at Midvale, Pa., and at Washington, D. C.
A consideration of the life history of this scale shows that it can
be attacked both in the larval and the adult stages. The adult stage,
owing to its long duration and accessibility, obviously offers the more
favorable opportunity for treatment. During the first season spray-
ings were made against both the larva and the adult.
OIL SPRAYS.
Experience shows that all oil sprays are most effective when
appled as a fine mist and under strong pressure. All oils were
appled with disk nozzles of the Vermorel type, having apertures of
one-sixteenth inch. The oils noted in Table XX XVIII, all of which
were applied in the spring after the buds had started to swell but
before they had opened, proved to be inefficient. These oils were
emulsified as follows:
RanCCh iN eeeceecacr Sinem d LA are al Sno Ae er egee TN age ee scare eS . .2 gallons.
[SHO 6) Lover IN) aie a ene ale la eg 4 pound.
= Jal WENIEIS Aoosaccec Seer ee Ment papier ce tee Mea ae Ree ALLE OS 1 gallon.
68 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The soap was dissolved in the water and to this the oil was added.
The whole was churned through a spray pump until no free oil
remained. The emulsion was then diluted to the required strength
and applied.
Figure 20 shows that portion of the Wertz orchard in which most
of the experimental work was done. The orchard is in apples, inter-
planted mostly with Smock and Chair’s Choice peaches. The trees
were 11 years old in 1912 and very vigorous. At the beginning of
the investigation these trees were grouped into 14 major plats, as
shown in the figure. The check plats were used as such until a better
method of checking was devised, when they were subplatted and
sprayed. Most of the checking was done by scale counts from
tagged branches upon special check trees left within the plats.
The rosin-oil emulsion was very efficient so far as killing scales was
concerned. This oil dried rapidly, the trees soon appeared as if
covered by a varnish, and the scales died almost at once. Unfor-
tunately this oil gave very severe spray injury and some of the
trees were so severely damaged that they required drastic pruning
and stimulation to save them. While the spray injury could have
been lowered by reducing the amount of oil, it was not thought
advisable to continue the experiments.
The corn oil, which was also used as a 20 per cent emulsion, was
equally good as a scale Killer but formed a waxy scum over the
branches and penetrated deeply into the tree, causing the death of
many large limbs. These trees required drastic pruning and stimu-
lation, but the injury was not so severe as in the case of the rosin oil.
It was, however, too severe to justify its further use.
The gasoline, which was used as a 10 per cent emulsion, had a very
low efficiency as a scale treatment but gave promise in other ways,
as it readily dissolved the wax film which protects the scale from
water, and it caused the scales to loosen temporarily from the bark.
After the emulsion evaporated, however, the scales soon resumed
their normal condition. This emulsion produced no spray injury.
MISCIBLE OILS (PROPRIETARY EMULSIFIABLE OILS).
In order to secure data for the better understanding of the factors
that enter into the successful use of miscible oils the sprayings
enumerated in Table XX XIX were made.
69
TERRAPIN SCALE.
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16 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DELPHINIUM MENZIESII D. C.
Delphinium menziesii (Pl. II, fig. 2, and Pls. III and XIII) is
a perennial, growing from a cluster of small tuberous roots from
which the stem is easily detached. The stem is slender, simple, and
puberulent. The leaves are deeply cleft into segments which are
linear in form. The flowers are deep violet-blue in color, on slender
pedicels, and arranged in a loose raceme. There may be as few
as four to six flowers, but they are more numerous on thrifty plants
growing in favorable locations.
Delphinium menztesti grows at altitudes of from 4,000 to 12,000
feet. It is found on open hillsides and in parks, growing in great
abundance. The picture of Pass Creek Park (Pl. III) gives an
idea of the number of plants found in that locality. When they were
in blossom the surface of Pass Creek Park as seen from a neighbor-
ing hill presented a uniform blue appearance. In June, 1908, Su-
pervisor Kreutzer, of the Gunnison National Forest, with the senior
author, picked and counted 1,340 of the plants in blossom on a square
rod near Crystal Creek, Gunnison County.
Delphinium menziesii is widely distributed, being found from
the Rocky Mountains to California and Oregon, and from Alberta
to New Mexico. It appears soon after the snow has melted, and at
high altitudes the plants may be found growing in immediate prox-
imity to snow banks. It grows to a foot in height and the blossoms
appear about the middle of May, the time of blossoming varying with
the advancement of the season and the altitude. The seeds, which
are formed the last of June, are immediately shed and the plant dies
down and disappears. After the first week in July the plant is very
rare except at the highest altitudes. at which it grows.
DELPHINIUM BICOLOR Nutt.
Delphinium bicolor is a perennial growing from long fibrous
fascicled roots. The stem is glabrous or pubescent, and the leaves
deeply cut into linear lobes. The rather stout stem is short, not ex-
ceeding 12 or 15 inches in height. The raceme has a few flowers much
larger than those of Delphinium menziesti and of a deep violet-blue
color. It is one of the most beautiful of the American larkspurs.
It grows at a lower altitude than Delphinium menziesti and, so far
as observed, never in such dense masses. Its range is given as from
Washington and Oregon to South Dakota. It is the common low
larkspur in Montana, and like D. menziesii, blossoms about the
middle of May and disappears early in July.
DETECTION OF LARKSPUR SPECIES IN STOMACH CONTENTS.
In connection with these studies cases of poisoning not infre-
quently occur in which the cause of death can not be determined
Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.
Fic. 1.—TALL LARKSPUR (DELPHINIUM BARBEY! HUTH) BEFORE FLOWERING.
Fic. 2.—TALL LARKSPUR (DELPHINIUM BARBEYI HUTH) IN FULL BLoom,
PLATE II.
Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
*(°O °C NSAIZNSW WNINIHd13q) YNdSMYv] MO[—'S “DI5}
(STAN ‘WV WO.LY11NONO WNINIHd13q) YNdSMYV7] WAV L—' | “DI
PLATE Ill
Dept. of Agriculture.
S
Bul. 365, U.
"WOSSO1g NI (lISSIZNSW WNINIHd13q) YNdSMYV7] MO HLIM “0109 ‘MYVd MASUD SSVd
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. a
from the readily available evidence, and recourse must be had to
a study of the contents of the rumen. On account of the maceration
of the plants most of the material is unrecognizable on macroscopic
examination, the leaves especially being almost disintegrated. Fre-
quently, however, stems of grasses and other plants retain their
structure sufliciently to show some characteristic features, the fibro-
vascular bundles in many cases being more or less intact when the
looser tissues have been disintegrated.
As the poisoning due to Delphinium barbeyi was being investi-
gated, an attempt was made to determine whether the stomachs of
the poisoned animals contained this plant, by comparing sections
of stems found in the rumen with sections of stems of Delphinium
barbeyi. In this way it was found ‘possible to determine whether
an animal had eaten larkspur, and this method was successfully
applied in a number of cases where portions of stomach contents
had been preserved in formalin. This work led to the sectioning
of stems of other species of Delphinium in order to discover whether
it was possible to differentiate between the species by stem sections,
especially since in the region where the station was located two
species of larkspur occur. This work is here recorded, not in any
sense as a complete study of the stem anatomy of the genus, but
as a few interesting facts brought out by a comparison of cross
sections of stems of a number of species of Delphinium.
In looking up the literature of this genus, no anatomical work was
found on the American species. -A number of articles have been
published both in Europe and America on the anatomy of the Ranun-
culaceze as a whole and of some of the other genera, but those deal-
ing with Delphinium in detail are few and are European. In 1885
Albert Meyer published an article onthe systematic anatomy of the
Ranunculaces, in which he grouped the genera according to anatomi-
cal characters, and also differentiated many of the species, giving a
key based on anatomical characters. His work was on the char-
acters shown by cross-sections of stems. Paul Marié, 1885, pub-
lished an extensive paper on the histological structure of the Ranun-
culacee. In this work the detailed anatomy of all parts of the plant
is described for a number of species in each genus, and the dis-
tinguishing characters of the family and of the different genera
are discussed. The only article which is devoted solely to the anat-
omy ot Delphinium is that of Lenfant, 1897, on the genus Delphin-
jum in a series of contributions to the anatomy of the Ranunculacee.
‘The histological structure of four species (two of which, ajacis and
consolida, have been introduced into the United States) is studied
for all parts of the plant and for various stages of growth.
" 26876°—Bull. 365162
18 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The present work includes the foilowing 29 species of Del-
phinium: D. ajacis L., D. andersonii Gray (National Herbarium
No. 419245) , D. barbeyi Huth, D. bicolor Nutt., D. blochmanne Greene
(National Herbarium No. 2060), D. californicwm T. & G. (Na-
tional Herbarium No. 419726), D. cardinale Hook (National Her-
barium No. 1928), D. carolinianum Walt. (National Herbarium No.
449717), D. consolida, L., D. cucullatum Aven Nelson, D. decorum
F. & M. (National Herbarium No. 1939), D. depauperatum Nutt.
(National Herbarium No. 529204), D. geraniifolium Rydb. (Na-
tional Herbarium No. 245524), D. geyeri Greene, D. glaucum Wats.,
D. menziesii D. C. (National Herbarium No. 333235), D. nudicaule
T. & G. (National Herbarium No. 612398), D. occidentale Wats.
(National Herbarium No. 506615), D. recurvatum Greene, D.
robustum Rydb., D. sapellonis CklL, D. scaposwm Greene, D. scopu-
lorum Gray (National Herbarium No. 2384530), D. simplex Dougl.
(National Herbarium No. 226416), D. tricorne Michx., D. trolliifo-
lium Gray, D. variegatum Gray (National Herbarium No. 342458),
D. variegatum apiculatum Greene (National Herbarium No. 1887),
and D. virescens Nutt.
These species were used, partly because they are the species which
have been met in the field work on poisonous plants, and partly be-
cause they were convenient to obtain for comparison. The specimens
of barbeyi and menziesii were from fresh specimens which were fixed
and embedded in the field, from specimens preserved in alcohol, and
from dried specimens. The sections of sapellonis and cucullatum
_ were from dried plants sent in from the field. The remaining speci-
mens were from the United States National Herbarium, the Economic
Herbarium of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and from the collection
of Mr. Ivar Tidestrom. In addition to these species of Delphinium,
stem sections were made of two species of Aconitum, for the purpose
of comparison, since the two genera are very similar in structure, and
since the two occur side by side in the field and both are suspected of
poisoning stock.
In preparing the dried herbarium material for sectioning it was
treated with 2 per cent sodium hydroxid solution for 24 hours, or
until the tissues were softened and swollen, then washed thoroughly
in water, and put in a 10 per cent glycerin solution, the glycerin being
gradually concentrated through a period of several days. The sec-
tions were then cut in pith with a hand microtome, and stained with
safranin. Perfect sections are not always obtained by using this
method, but for the purpose of the identification of stems in field
work it is preferable in most cases to embedding.
Comparison of the different species was based solely on the char-
acters appearing in the cross sections of stems. For each species
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. _ 19
cross sections of the main stem of the plant were made without refer- -
ence to any particular point in the stem. In the case of Delphinium
barbeyt and D. menziesia and Aconitum bakeri, sections were made
from the subterranean portion of the stem, the petiole, and the
peduncle. A photomicrograph was made of a portion of a section of
a stem of each species, all the photographs being magnified 65
diameters. ‘
The sections of course showed certain characteristics typical of the
Ranunculacez, the most noticeable being the form and disposition of
the fibrovascular bundles. The bundles are of the closed collateral
type and are isolated, being separated by wide médullary rays. The
xylem mass has in cross section a somewhat V-shaped appearance, the
arms of the V partially inclosing the cambium and phloem. There
is no interfascicular cambium. This type of bundle is common to
the Ranunculacez, but is found almost nowhere else among the dicot-
yledons (Solereder, 1908, p. 18, and Jeliffe, 1899, p. 339). Another
feature of the bundle peculiar to the Ranunculaceze among dicotyle-
dons is that the phloem consists only of sieve tubes and companion
cells, with no phloem parenchyma (Strasburger, 1908, p. 113).
These facts in regard to the fibrovascular bundles serve to differen-
tiate the Ranunculacee from other dicotyledons, but are also points
of resemblance to some of the monocotyledons. Therefore in identi-
fying larkspurs in the stomach contents of poisoned cattle it was
necessary to differentiate carefully from some of the grasses when
only fragments of the stem could be obtained.
The genus Delphinium has a characteristic stem structure, as shown
by cross sections. Vesque, 1881, page 28, says that it is impossible to
distinguish anatomically the genera of the Ranunculacez, but that
certain groups of genera can be recognized, and he places Aconitum
and Delphinium in one group. Myer, 1885, page 46, in his key, gives
means of distinguishing both Delphinium and Aconitum, the latter
being differentiated from Delphinium by the presence of a complete
ring of sclerenchyma outside the fibrovascular bundles.
In cross section the external circumference of a Delphinium stem
is either approximately circular or approaching an octagonal shape,
and the stem is hollow. It is covered externally by a layer of epi-
dermal cells whose outside walls form a thickened cuticle. The epi-
dermis usually bears unicellular hairs of varying shape, size, and
number, and is pierced by simple stomata. Beneath the epidermis —
there is a layer of hypodermal cells similar to those of the epidermis
but without thickened walls. Inside the hypodermis there are two
to five rows of cortical parenchyma cells, bearing chlorophyll, and
arranged loosely with intercellular spaces. In one species it was
possible to distinguish an endodermis, but as a rule the endodermis
can not be distinguished from the other cells of the pericycle. The
20 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
pericycle consists of a ring of sclerenchymatous tissue between the
cortex and the phloem portion of the fibrovascular bundles, and is
composed of the bast fibers of the bundles and the interfascicular
sclerenchyma. The cells of the pericycle have thickened walls, es-
pecially in the case of the bast fibers, the cells of which are also
smaller than those of the interfascicular sclerenchyma. Inside the
pericycle are the phloem and xylem portions of the fibrovascular
bundles, the bundles being separated by the medullary rays, which
are as wide as the bundles, and the cell-walls of which are some-
times thickened so that they are not distinctly marked off from the
pericycle. The medullary rays are continuous with the medullary
portion of the stem, in which there is a medullary lacuna of varying
size.
The fibrovascular bundles are of the closed collateral type, ‘ar-
ranged in a single circle, just inside the cortex. In this description
the bast fibers are considered as part of the fibrovascular bundle.
The group of bast fibers seen in cross section varies from a wedge
shape to a somewhat circular shape, and is usually not sharply de-
fined from the interfascicular portion of the pericycle. It partially
incloses the phloem and cambium, while the curved outer border of
the xylem partially incloses the cambium on the inner side. The
phloem consists of sieve tubes and small companion cells. The
cambium is composed of several rows of smal] thin-walled cells,
elongated tangentially, lying in a curved line, with the convexity
toward the xylem. Between and surrounding the tubes of the xylem
proper is a varying amount of xylem parenchyma.
Classified according to cross sections of stems, the 29 species of
Delphinium examined fall into six groups, as follows:
Group 1. Delphinium barbeyi, D. californicum, D. cucullatum, D. geranii-
folium, D. glaucum, D. occidentale, D. robustum, D. sapellonis, D. scopulorum,
D. troliifolium.
Group 2. Delphinium andersonii, D. bicolor, D. decorum, D. depauperatum,
D. menziesii, D. nudicaule, D. tricorne.
Group 3. Delphinium blochmanne, D. cardinale.
Group 4. Delphinium carolinianum, D. recurvatum, D. simplex, D. variegatum,
D. variegatum apiculatum.
_ Group 5. Delphinium geyeri, D. scaposum, D. virescens.
Group: 6. Delphinium ajacis, D. consolida.
These six groups may be combined in three main sections. Section
I includes only group 1, which comprises all the species which are
commonly known as tall or giant larkspurs. Section II includes
groups 2, 3, 4, and 5, and in general represents those species known
as low larkspurs. Section III consists of group 6, the European
consolida group.
Delphinium barbeyt has been price as the type of group 1.
Figure 1, A, is a diagram of a cross section of a stem D. barbeyi,
he
=. = ee eee
' LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 21
with only part of the bundles drawn in; B is a diagram of a typical
fibrovascular bundle of group 1. In Delphiniwm barbeyi (Pl. IV,
AAARAELERALY
| | \CoR7EX
/TEDULLARY LACUMA | AERICYOELE,
WLLDLLLA
POL
EL LEOTEAM GET TRO GE TER oT
CORTICAL - COZ
PARENVCYA 44 ———
PEPRICVCLE
Fig. 1.—A: Diagram of cross-section of stem of group 1. B. Diagram of fibro-
g vascular bundle of group 1.
fig. 1) the stem is large, with a large medullary lacuna. The outer
circumference is roughly octagonal. The bundles are about 32 in
22 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
number, and rather small in proportion to the diameter of the stem,
those at the angles being a little larger than the others. The cross
sections of the xylem and the bast are about the same in size, both
being somewhat circular in form. The horns of the bast mass and ~
the xylem mass nearly inclose the lens-shaped phloem. There are
only a few rows of xylem parenchyma at the inner end of the xylem.
The walls of the cells of the pericycle are not v ery greatly thickened.
The bast fibers of the bundles lying between the angles of the octagon
are separated from the cortex by one or two rows of cells continuous
with the interfascicular sclerenchyma.
As a type of the second group, Delphinium menziesii has been
used (Pl. IV, fig. 2). The stem is much smailer than that of
Delphinium barbeyi and has a medullary lacuna much smaller
in proportion to the diameter of the stem. The circumference of
the stem is practically circular. The bundles are about 24 in num-
ber, of two sizes arranged alternately. The fibrovascular bundle
exhibits in cross section a form quite distinct from that of group 1.
The bundle is longer and narrower, the bast being wedge-shaped
with the larger end situated externally. The phloem portion of
the bundle is open laterally, the inner boundary of the bast and
the outer line of the xylem being only slightly curved. The xylem
proper is small in extent, but there is a large amount of xylem
parenchyma extending toward the medullary lacuna.
Group 38 is represented by Delphinium cardinale (P1. V, fig. 1),
and in type of stem structure can not be differentiated from group
2> The group 2 type is here exhibited on a larger scale, with a bast
larger in amount, and more sharply differentiated from the inter-
fascicular sclerenchyma, and composed of thicker-walled cells, and
with a stouter structure all the way through.
In group 4, typified by Delphinium recurvatum (Pl. VI, fig. 1),
we have a stem structure which may be considered as intermediate
between the true low larkspur type of group 2, and the taller forms
represented in group 5. The general form of fibrovascular bundle
corresponds to that of group 2, but the stem is more compact in
structure, the bundles longer and arranged more closely, and the
alternate large and small bundle arrangement less prominent.
For the fifth group, Delphinium geyert was used as the type (PI.
V, fig. 2, and fig. 3, A and B). The medullary lacuna of the stem
is very small and the external circumference approaches the octago-
nal. The bundles are about 30 in number, those at the angles
being slightly larger than the others. The cells of all the tissues of
the stem are relatively small and numerous. The fibrovascular
bundle is similar in the form of cross section to that of group 2, but
is larger and much elongated, the bast in particular being very ex-
tensive. The bast is oblong to wedge-shaped, and composed of very
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK.
28
small, heavy-walled cells.
The xylem proper is small in amount,
generally curved at the cuter boundary more than is the case in
.
Sa)
\
ZN
SG
H
so
SOX
Se
SS
\|
ie ICORTEX
\ | VAERYC VOLE
MEDULLARY LACUNA '\AEDULLA
SoS rs
77 POODLE AYA: -
CORTICAL Ws CORTEX
SAAPRLNONASAT
PEFRICVCLE
MEDULLA
AVLLSS
PARLIVO) IA IA4- ——-——
B
Fig. 2.—A. Diagram of cross-section of stem of group 2. B. Diagram of
° fibro-vascular bundle of group 2.
group 2. The xylem parenchyma extends some distance inward from
the xylem.
94 BULLETIN 365, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Group 6 is represented by Delphinium ajacis (Pl. VI, fig. 2, and
fig. 4, d and B). The stem is circular and has a relatively small
medullary lacuna. The bundles are about 46 in number and are of
two sizes, the large and small arranged alternately. This is the only
group in which it was possible to distinguish a row of endodermal
cells. All the cell walls are much thickened, which is a distinguish-
ing characteristic of this group. The shape of the fibrovascular
bundles is quite characteristic. The bast is wedge-shaped, composed
of cells whose walls are so thickened that the lumen is reduced almost
to a point. The phloem is small and completely inclosed by the
bast and xylem. ‘The xylem mass is larger than the bast, elongated,
and includes a large amount of xylem parenchyma.
Delphinium consolida is similar to D. ajacis, but the bundles are
less numerous, the cell walls in the pericycle are thickened still
further, and part of the cells of the cortical parenchyma have thick-
ened walls. ,
Any of the species which were examined could be quite easily
placed in one of the above groups, but within the groups the work
thus far done has not revealed sufficiently characteristic differences
in stem structure to make identification of species possible. Vesque,
1881, page 29, says that while it 1s impossible to distinguish genera
by anatomical characters, it is easy to distinguish species, but he
uses different characters to differentiate the species, such as the struc-
ture of the petiole, the development of palisade cells, and the dis-
tribution of stomata in the leaf. On the other hand, the present
work is based on stem characters, which serve to differentiate be-
tween genera in the family Ranunculacee, and in this case between
groups of species in the genus, but not between individual species.
An exception to this is group 6, of which we have only two species
in America, and these two can be distinguished by the anatomy of
the stem. These two are European species which have been intro-
duced into the United States, and are described anatomically by
Lenfant (1897, pp. 26-27, Pl. VII) and Marié (1885, pp. 117-118,
Pl. VI). The specimens of ajacis and consolida from the Na-
tional Herbarium which were examined had evidently been mis-
named, one for the other, as was discovered by comparing cross sec-
tions of the stems with the descriptions and figures of Marié and
Lenfant.
Sections were also made of two species of Aconitum, A. bakert
Greene (PI. VI, fig. 3; and fig. 5, A and #) and an unidentified species
from California, in order to compare them with and to differentiate
them from the tall larkspurs. The cross section of the stem shows a
structure similar to that of the tall larkspurs, but it can be easily
distinguished by the lack of a medullary lacuna, and by the complete
Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.
Fic. 1.—Cross SECTION OF STEM OF DELPHINIUM BARBEYI.
Fic. 2.—Cross SECTION OF STEM OF DELPHINIUM MENZIESII.
Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Gee t=
Fic. 2.—Cross SECTION OF STEM OF DELPHINIUM GEYERI.
Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. : PLATE VI.
PRROCR eae
as dem ction a
Be OI Tor se
e pe ec te
Fic. 3.—Cross SECTION OF STEM OF ACONITUM BAKERI.
Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.
Fic. 1.—STATION AT MOUNT CARBON, COLO.
$
i
:
x
:)
Fic. 2.—STATION AT GREYCLIFF, MONT.
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 25
ring of sclerenchyma outside the bast fibers. As is shown in the dia-
gram (fig. 5), the circumference of the stem is circular, with the
ZG iB
GGE4 KS pe,
PA S5
\
SSS
ar a
\ SPIEDULL AT CORTEX
Il |
PIEDULLARY LACUNA LLERICKOLE
LYVOLIY 9 =
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CORTICAL
FARELEN STIS ZA
FYILOL/7. ~~ — ==
CAMEINT ~~~ -——
NYLL/G-—--—
XYLLSF RUN
FPARLNCH YAY -—-——
MEDULLA -
a
Wie. 3.—A. Diagram of cross-section of stem of group 5. 8B. Dia-
gram of fibro-vascular bundle of group 5. :
exception that at two points the cortex is thickened. The bundles are
of about the same size, and about 30 in number arranged in a single
26 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
circle. The pericycle is similar to that of Delphinium, but is dis-
e several layers of thick-walled
Pn a eta [
i | | CORTEX
MEDULLARY LACLIVA ! \ EFYCVOLE:
; MEDULLA
SS
IE OLEP DL AEA a Fa CORIEDS
CORTICAL
PARENVCHIYTIA
FEFICKCLE
POET Te ae
CA/IEIU/4 -— —— ——
DOLL T rl
SIEDULLA
Fic. 4.—A. Diagram of cross-section of stem of group 6.
B. Diagram
of fibro-vascular bundle of group 6
cells continuous with the interfascicular sclerenchyma, separating
the bast from the cortex. The cross section of the fibrovascular
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. Oi
bundle is similar in size and shape to that of the Delphinium group 1.
The bast is smaller and crescent-shaped, while the xylem is long and
FL thee
BGG
NUEVA
4
4F 4
3 ]
4
ASO
A
| “CORTEX
MIEOULL A LOERICYOLE
LYYDER
HIYP ODL CORTEX
CORTICAL
FPIPLIVOST ILA.
PEFYICVOLE
4YLOL/A=— — — —
CNYIGILI9A =~ ---—
XYLLII -- —
IIEDULLA
Fig. 5.—A. Diagram of cross-section of stem of Aconitum. B. Diagram of
fibro-vascular bundle of Aconitum.
pointed. The outer border of the xylem is only slightly curved and
does not inclose the phloem.
28 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
As a result of the study of the stem structure of 30 species of
Delphinium and 2 species of Aconitum it has been found possible,
by an examination of cross sections of the stems, to distinguish be-
tween Delphinium and Accnitum and between six groups of species
in the genus Delphinium. This has been put to practical use
in the examination of the contents of the rumen of poisoned cattle,
by which means it has been possible to determine whether the animal
had eaten Delphinium, and to which group of species the plant
eaten belonged.
PART II.—EXPERIMENTAL WORK.
THE STATION AT MOUNT CARBON, COLO.
The station for the detailed study of larkspur poisoning was
located four miles north of Mount Carbon village, in Gunnison
County, Colo. (Pl. VII, fig.1). Through cooperation with the Forest
Service, a ranger’s station, including a cabin, barn, corrals, and
pastures, was provided for the experimental work. This station was
in the Ohio Creek Valley at an elevation of about 9,000 feet, in a
region where Delphinium barbeyi and Delphinium menziesii were
extremely abundant. In this region, also, losses which are attributed
to larkspur occur every year to a greater or less extent, and in some
years the losses have been very heavy. This station was selected, too,
because it was a favorable location from which studies could be made
upon a number of other plants supposed to be poisonous. It was in-
tended, however, that the principal experimental work should be
upon these two species of larkspur. The station was equipped with
the necessary laboratory facilities, and arrangements were made for
cattle and horses for experimental purposes, the work being in-
augurated on June 10, 1909, and continuing through that summer
until October 1. In 1910 and 1911 it was resumed about the middle
of May, and continued until nearly the 1st of October. Durmg
these seasons experimental work was conducted upon cattle, horses,
and sheep. Acknowledgment shoeuld be made to the Forest Service
not only for the assistance rendered by equipping the station, but for
the continual help of the officers of the Service during the progress
of the experimental work. It is desired also to acknowledge the
assistance rendered by the stockmen who had cattle upon the Castle
Creek and Anthracite ranges. Through the courtesy of these men a
large number of cattle were loaned for the experimental work, and
thus much material assistance was rendered.. While the experimental
work was going on the force kept in close touch with the men con-
trolling the cattle upon the ranges, and one or more members of the
station force accompanied the stockmen during the time the cattle
were driven from the Castle Creek range to the Anthracite range,
x
+
x
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. . 29
in order to be present at the times when larkspur poisoning was
deemed most likely to occur. The location of the station was most
favorable, not only because of the abundance of larkspurs in the
_ immediate vicinity, but because it was located in the immediate
neighborhood of the summer ranges of the cattle, so that a most
intimate knowledge of range conditions could be gained.
THE STATION AT GREYCLIFF, MONT.
In 1912 and 1913 the field experimental work in poisonous plants
was carried on at Greycliff, Mont. (Pl. VII, fig. 2). An old sheep-
shearing plant was loaned for the purpose by the owner, Ole Birke-
land, and the necessary repairs were provided by the Forest Service,
including fitting up the house for use as office, laboratory, and dining
hall, necessary repairs to the barn, and construction of fences and
corrals.
While experimental work was to be undertaken on a number of
poisonous plants, this location was considered especially favorable
for the study of the effects of feeding Delphiniwm cucullatum and
Delphinium bicolor. The main industry in this region is sheep
grazing, and it was considered an especially favorable point to study
the effect of the Montana species of larkspur on sheep. Here, as in ©
Colorado, the stockmen of the neighborhood showed most helpful
interest in the work and assisted materially by loaning sheep and
cattle for experimental work.
EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM BARBEYi TO CATTLE IN 1909.
In 1909, 42 experiments were conducted of feeding Delphiniwm
barbeyi to cattle on 26 different animals. Table I gives a sum-
marized statement of these feeding experiments. The work was not
commenced until the last of June and definite results were not ob-
tained until the last of July. Of these 42 cases 22 were poisoned.
As the season progressed it was evident that larger quantities of
the plants were necessary to produce toxic effects than had been
supposed at the beginning of the experiments, and this fact doubt-
less explains the failure to produce poisoning in the earlier experi-
ments. The summarized results in regard to symptoms and treat-
ment are given later in this paper. Following are a few typical
cases given in some detail.
CaAsE 92.
This case was interesting as being the first one in which there
were definite symptoms of poisoning. Case 92 was a cow weighing
about 990 pounds which had been used for experimental purposes
with Delphinium menziesii without any effect. On June 30 she
ate 30 pounds of leaves and stems of Delphinium barbeyi. On the
BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
30
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32 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
morning of July 1 it was noticed that she staggered as she walked,
her hind legs appearing stiff. She gave evidence also of some ab-
dominal pain. This peculiar stiffness in gait continued through
the day of July 1 and was still noticeable on the morning of July
2. No other pronounced symptoms of poisoning were noticed.
CaAsE 605.
Case 605 was a yearling heifer loaned for experimental purposes
by Mr. J. H. Eilebrecht. She was estimated to weigh about 450
pounds.
‘During July 30 and 31 she received 35 pounds of Delphinéum bar-
beyi, the material including stems, leaves, and some flowers and
seeds. This material was chopped up and mixed with chopped hay
in order that the animal might eat it more readily. She was fed at 5
p- m. on July 31 and was apparently entirely normal. At 5.30 it was
noticed that she appeared somewhat weak upon her hind legs when
forced to walk about the corral. She soon fell, her fore legs giving
away first, and she was unable to get up. She moaned as though
in pain. Several times she tried to get up but apparently did not
have sufficient strength. Her pulse at this time was 60, her tempera-
ture 102.2° F. There was no evidence of bloating. At 6 p. m.
respiration was 70 and rather irregular. The pulse was slower than
when observed before. At 6.11 she suddenly got upon her feet
and walked away. She was weak and staggered but otherwise
seemed all right. No further symptoms were noticed during that
evening. :
It was noticed that during this illress she urinated rather freely.
She appeared well on the morning of August 1 and the feeding
was resumed, giving her as before stems and leaves of Delphinium
barbeyi with some flowers and seed, the material being cut up and
fed with hay. During the forenoon she ate 12 pounds of this
material. At 1.15 p. m. while walking about in the corral she
suddenly fell and was unable to rise. The pulse was 68, respira-
tion 68 and somewhat irregular. She was constipated and moaned
as though in pain. At 1.25 her temperature was 102.3. At 1.30
she suddenly got upon her feet, ran around the corral, and fell
down again. At 1.45 her pulse was 60 and respiration 45. At 1.50
she got upon her feet. She stumbled as she attempted to rise, but
did not go down again. When started up she stumbled and fell
upon her knees, but was able again to get upon her feet. As she
stood, the abdominal muscles contracted as if she were in great
pain and there was also spasmodic twitching of the muscles of the
shoulders. ) ;
She remained on her feet after this time and as she appeared
normal the feeding was resumed at 3 p.m. She ate 94 pounds. At
Bul. 365, U.S, Dept. of Agriculture. p Pirate VIII.
Fia. 1.—CAsE 603 AT 4.45 P. M., Fic. 2.—CAsE 603 AT 4.54 P. M.,
AuGusT 21, 1909. AueusT 21, 1909.
Fia. 3.—CASE 603 AT 4.54% P. M., Fia. 4.—CASE 603 AT 4.5414 P. M.,
AuGusT 21, 1909. AueusT 21, 1909.
Fic. 5.—CASE 603 AT 4.5434 Pp. M., Fic. 6.—CaseE 603 aT 4.58 P. M.,
AuGusT 21, 1909. August 21, 1909.
Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX.
Fic. 1.—CASeE 603 AT 4.5814 P. M., FIG. 2.—CASE 603 AT 4.59 P. M,,
AuGuUSsT 21, 1909. AuGusT 21, 1909.
Fig. 3.—CASE 603 AT 5.15 P. M., Fic. 4.—CaseE 603 AT 5.15% P. M.,
AuausT 21, 1909. AueusTt 21, 1909.
Fia. 5.—CASE 603 AT 5.1534 P. M., . Fia. 6.—CASE 603 AT 5.16 P. M.,
August 21, 1909. AuausT 21, 1909.
Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X.
Fic. 1.—Case 117 SHOWING HIND LEGs Fic. 2.—CAseE 117, AuGust 15, STAG-
BRACED APART IN THE EFFORT TO GERING.
REMAIN STANDING.
Fia. 3.—CAseE 117, AUGUST 15, REMAINING Fic. 4.—Case 117, AuGust 15, IN THE
ON ITS FEET WITH GREAT DIFFICULTY. _ ACT OF BACKING IN THE MANNER CHAR-
ACTERISTIC OF LARKSPUR POISONING.
Fig. 5.—Case 117, Auaust 15, Just Fic. 6.—Case 117, AuGusT 15, FALLING
BEFORE FALLING. IN THE MANNER TYPICAL OF LARKSPUR
POISONING.
Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLate XI.
Fia. 1.—Case 117, Auaust 15, Just Fia. 2.—CaAse 117, Auaust 15, 9.10 A. M.,
AFTER AN ATTEMPT TO RISE. ATTEMPTING TO RISE.
Fig. 3.—CaAse 117, AuausT 15, 9.35 A. M., Fia. 4.—Case 117, AuGust 15, 10 A. M.,
AGAIN ATTEMPTING TO RISE. UNABLE TO MOVE.
Fia. 5.—CAse 117, AuGusT 15, 12.05 Pp. M. Fic. 6.—CASE 117, August 17, AFTER
RECOVERING FROM POISONING.
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 33
6.50 p. m. she was found down again and unable to rise. She was
moaning as if in pain. At 7.20 her pulse was 65, and at 10.45 it was
60 and somewhat stronger. She remained down during the night
unable to rise, but at 6.45 a. m., on the following morning, she got
upon her feet, moved about and although she fell, was able to rise
again. A little later, however, she stumbled and fell and could not
rise, but at 8.15 a. m. she was again upon her feet and eating as
though hungry. At 10.15 a. m. she appeared quite well, with the ex-
ception of some weakness, and was ghee back into ihe pasture with
the other animals.
During the first of this series of illnesses she was given a drench
of potassium permanganate, the treatment being repeated in the
evening. There seemed to be no reason, however, to think that this
had any definite effect. She was also given hypodermically an in-
jection of 25 grains of caffein sodio-benzoate at 10.45 in the evening.
There was no evidence that this produced any effect. This case was
particularly interesting because of the successive illnesses produced
by renewed feeding of the Delphinium barbeyt.
CASE 603.
Case 603 was a yearling heifer, weighing about 550 pounds, which
was loaned to the station for experimental purposes by Mr. O. E.
Wiseman. From August 2 to August 4 she received 34 pounds of
Delphinium barbeyi, including stems, leaves, flowers,and buds. This
was mixed with hay and corn chop in order that it might be eaten
with greater readiness. No effects were noticed until the afternoon
of August 4. She was apparently well at 4.30. At 6.50 she was
found lying flat on her side and at first was supposed to be dead.
She was breathing, however, and soon kicked a little. A dose of 1
grain of atropin was administered subcutaneously. She was raised
up so that she lay upon her belly with her head off the ground. In
this position she held her head around by her side as if in pain. At
6.55 respiration was 24 and the pulse between 75 and 80 and weak.
At this time she was given a drench of potassium permanganate. At
7.03 respiration was 23 and temperature 101.2° F. At 7.15 a hypo-
dermic injection of 30 grains of caffein sodio-benzoate was given.
At 7.30 the temperature was 101.3° F. At 7.45 she attempted to get
upon her feet but was unable. At 8.20 respiration was 22, pulse
about 90 and not very strong. At 9.10 she was upon her feet and
from this time showed no further symptoms of poisoning.
She was brought into the corrals for further feeding on August 18.
Between August 19 and August 22 she ate 95.75 pounds of Del-
phinium barbeyi, the material including stems and leaves. At 4.35
‘on August 22 she was found lying with her head turned to the right
of the body. She got up, staggered about and fell, but lay with head
26876°—Bull. 8365—16 3
34 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
erect. At 4.54 she began to walk about uneasily, staggering, and
finally fell, going down upon her forefeet first, with her head ex-
tended upon the ground.
Plate VIII, figure 1, shows her attitude while lying down at 4.45,
and figures 2, 3, 4, and 5 show successive attitudes taken by the
animal during the minute from 4.54 to 4.55; figure 2 shows her with
arched back and lowered head, in the attitude she took while stag-
gering about the corral; figure 3, taken immediately after, shows
very nearly the same attitude; while figure 4 shows her after
coming down upon her fore legs, with head extended upon the
ground in an attitude which is very characteristic of animals
poisoned by larkspur; figure 6 shows her again upon her feet at 4.58.
At 4.58 she commenced to stagger, and was upon the ground at
5 o'clock. Plate VIII, figure 6, and Plate IX, figures 1 and 2, show
her successive attitudes in this process. She arose again at 5:14, but
fell almost immediately. Plate IX, figures 3, 4, 5, and 6, show her
attitudes at this time, and it will be noticed that they are com-
parable with the two preceding series. These four pictures were
taken within less than a minute: At 5.26 she was again upon
her feet, but at 5.30 commenced to stagger, backing around the
corral in a way that was found to be characteristic of larkspur-
poisoning cases. She attempted to defecate, moving her head up
and down as if in great distress, and then fell down again. She was
upon her feet again at 5.44, but at 5.53 fell. Her respiration at this
time was 30. At 6 o’clock she was again upon her feet, but moved
her head up and down, stepping about uneasily, backing as before.
She staggered somewhat, reminding one very much of the actions
of a drunken man. At 6.04 she lay down, but at 6.07 got up with.
no apparent difficulty and began picking up hay in the corrals. At
6.15 she showed uneasiness, moving her head up and down. Then
she lay down again. During this latter time she went down yolun-
tarily and was evidently improving, for during the earlier stages
of the poisoning she was entirely unable to get upon her feet after
falling. At 7.15 she seemed normal, and no further symptoms of
poisoning were noticed.
During this case of poisoning there was an interval of two hours
from the time the animal first fell until the time when she was able
to remain standing.
Case 117.
Case 117 was a steer weighing about 620 pounds. On August 13
he was fed stems, leaves, and flowers, and a few seed pods of
Delphinium barbeyi, receiving 32.25 pounds.
On the morning of August 14, at 8.30, it was noticed that he
was acting in a somewhat abnormal manner. When walking he kept |
i
a —_—
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 35
upon his feet with difficulty, his legs being too weak to hold him up.
Some of the time when standing he would tremble, and at times
he would place his legs wide apart as if to keep from falling over.
This was particularly noticeable as he walked down hill. Some-
times in walking he would stagger to one side or the other. It was
noticed that he urinated quite frequently but the quantity was not
great. At 10.30 he seemed to be stronger upon his legs and no
marked change was noticed during the rest of the day. Several
times he was found lying down but was able to get up without much
difficulty.
As showing his weakness it was noticed that when he swung his
head around to brush off flies the movement would cause a loss of
balance so that he would stagger and almost fall.
Plate X, figures 1, 2, 3, and 4, show some of the attitudes assumed
by him during the day. When first seen on the morning of August
15, between 6 and 7 o’clock, his condition did not seem to be changed
from that noticed on the preceding day. He was upon his feet and
moving about a little. At 8.15 he seemed much weaker. He was
down and made no effort to get up. Even with assistance, he was
unable to raise the fore part of the body. Plate X, figures 5 and 6,
show his attitude at this time; in figure 5 he was trying to hold
himself upon his feet while in figure 6 he was falling again. At
8.25 he was given a drench of potassium permanganate. His heart
action was very weak at this time and it was with great difficulty
that his pulse could be detected. Respiration seemed normal, al-
though his breathing apparently caused pain. At 8.30 he was given
subcutaneously 1-grain of atropin dissolved in camphor water.
A. little after this he tried to get up but was unable. He could
not get his forequarters off the ground, but did succeed in moving
himself around. Plate XI, figure 1, shows him just as he had fallen
back_after an attempt to get upon his feet. During the rest of
the day he made several attempts to get up but was generally
unable to raise his hindquarters from the ground. It was evident
that he was in constant pain and this forced him to attempt to
change his position. At 9.55 a. m. his pulse was about 95, his
respiration 36. The pupils were very much dilated from this time
on, probably from the influence of the atropin. There were .spas-
modic contractions of the abdominal muscles.
Plate XI, figure 2, shows the animal attempting to get up at
9.10; figure 3 shows him at 9.35 when he was attempting without
success to get up. The abdominal pain was apparently very severe.
At 10.80 he was given subcutaneously 25 grains of caffein sodio-
benzoate. At 10.40 his temperature was 102.4° F. Plate XI, figure
4, shows his attitude at 10 a. m. and figure 5 shows him at 12.05, noon.
At 2.45 he seemed weaker than at any preceding time and the pulse
was hardly perceptible. He was given 1 grain of atropin in cam-
6 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Qo
phor water. At 3.25 the pulse was fairly strong. At 4.25 he very
nearly succeeded in getting upon his feet. The muscles of the shoul-
ders and flanks were trembling much of the time.
As he was much constipated, feces being discharged only once dur-
ing the day, he was given at 6 p. m. 12 ounces of Epsom salt as a
drench. At 9.10 p. m. he appeared very much brighter than at any
time during the day. Trembling was not so pronounced and the pain
was less. He breathed normally, held his head from the ground
and took notice of what was passing around him. He was not seen
again until the morning of August 16. At 6.45 a. m. on August 16
he got up, ate a little hay and drank water. During the forenoon
of August 16 he lay down most of the time but occasionally got up
and walked from place to place. The improvement continued during
the afternoon and night. He still staggered when walking and re-
mained upon his feet only a few minutes, but could get up and down
at will. On the morning of August 17 there was still some trembling
of the surface muscles of the shoulders. Plate XI, figure 6, was
taken at 7.25 a. m. on August 17 when he appeared fairly normal.
He was driven back into the pasture still showing weakness,
trembling, and staggering when hurried, but after this his recovery
was rapid and complete.
EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM BARBEYI TO CATTLE IN 1910.
The experimental feeding of Delphinium barbeyi in 1909 had
indicated somewhat clearly the symptoms of poisoning and the
dosage so that the work of 1910 was largely directed to experiments
with various remedies. The discussion of these remedies is taken up
later in this paper. Tabie II gives a summary of the experimental
feeding of Delphinium barbeyi to cattle during this second summer.
Forty-three feeding experiments were conducted on 24 different
animals. Following is a detailed description of some of the more
typical cases.
CASE 612.
Case 612 was a yearling heifer loaned for experimental purposes
and weighing about 500 pounds. From July 2 to July 5 she received
76.5 pounds of Delphinium barbeyi, including leaves, stems, and
flowers. At 4.15 p. m. on July 5, as the animal had apparently felt
no effect from the feeding, an attempt was made to run her about the
corral. After being run about a few times she began to tremble,
her legs giving out, and she fell and was unable to rise. Respiration
was 60 and irregular and the pulse 160 and weak. At 4.20 she fell
over upon her side, the surface muscles contracting spasmodically.
At 4.24 the pulse was 100 and rather weak. At 4.27 she was given
ae
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. ot
subcutaneously one-half grain of atropin. At 4.29 the pulse was be-
tween 95 and 100, respiration 46 and slower and deeper than when
noticed before. At 4.38 respiration was 60 and irregular. At 4.40.
the pulse was 75 to 80. At 4.51 respiration was 40 and the pulse 94.
At 5.01 she suddenly got up without any apparent effort and walked
the length of the corral. She stood for a moment, trembling vio-
lently, then fell, going over upon her left side. At 5.30 an attempt
was made to get her upon her feet, when she began to vomit. She
was held up for about ten minutes, until it was evident that there was
no regurgitated material in the lungs or trachea. At 5.55 she at-
tempted to get upon her feet, but was unable. At 6.10 she was given
a hypodermic injection of one-fourth grain atropin, and at 6.30 she
was given hypodermically 10 cubic centimeters of undiluted whisky.
At 6.45 she lay with head extended, eyes partly closed, lips apart,
muscles of the flanks twitching, with rapid breathing, and was ap-
parently about to die. At 6.55 she was given a second dose of 10
cubic centimeters of undiluted whisky. At 7.10 her head was raised
and she was able to keep it erect. At this time she attempted to get
up and made another attempt at 7.12. At 7.22 she got up, went the
length of the corral and walked about nervously. There was still
some twitching of the muscles of the body. From this time on she
seemed to improve in condition, and showed no other symptoms of
poisoning. There seemed to be no doubt that in this case the injec-
tion of whisky had bridged over a period of weakness which other-
wise might have ended fatally.
CasE 118.
Case 118 was a yearling steer born August 9, 1909, whose estimated
weight was 300 pounds. He received July 7, 18.25 pounds of Del-
phintum barbeyi including stems, leaves, and blossoms. This was
given in three feedings, one at 9.15 a. m., one at 9.40 a. m., and one
at 2.40 p.m. At 3.55 he was found down and unable to get up,
apparently from weakness. At 4 p. m. the pulse was 70 and rather
weak, respiration 72. At 4.09 respiration was 100 and pulse 75.
Saliva was running from his mouth. At 4.28 the pulse was 60. At
5.01 there were a few spasmodic contractions of the legs, but nothing
that could be considered as convulsions. During these spasmodic
contractions he went over on his left side and remained there. Res-
piration was 54. During this time he had made several unsuccessful
attempts to rise. There was some belching of gas from the stomach.
Two subcutaneous injections of atropin were given, the quantity
given being one-half grain in all. The respiration became more and
moré shallow and soon stopped entirely. An attempt was made to
stimulate it by inhalation of ammonia, but it was unsuccessful.
BULLETIN 365, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
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Fifty cubic centimeters of alcohol was given subcutaneously about
the time respiration stopped, but this was evidently too late. The
pulse could be felt for about three minutes after respiration had
stopped. -
An autopsy was made on the morning of July 8. The heart was
found to be in diastole with petechiz upon its walls. The mucous
membranes of the larynx and trachea were inflamed and the lungs
congested. The walls of the first stomach were congested near the
esophageal opening. The walls of the second and third stomach were
strongly congested at the cardiac end. The duodenum was congested,
the jejunum slightly congested. The ileum was slightly congested
throughout its length. There was congestion in the upper part of
the cecum. The walls of the rectum near the anus were extruded and
inflamed. The kidneys were congested. It was noticeable in this
animal that while there was mucus in the trachea and bronchi there
had been no actual vomiting.
CASE 610.
Case 610 was a yearling heifer weighing about 500 pounds which
was loaned by the Castle Creek stockmen. She was fed leaves, stems,
and flowers of Delphinium barbeyi on July 13, being fed at 9, 9.30,
and 10 a. m., eating altogether 20 pounds. At 11.40 she became
uneasy and soon went down, and by the time the observer could
obtain assistance from the laboratory she was found on her left side,
flat upon the ground.
She was immediately given a subcutaneous injection of physos-
tigmin salicylate three-fourths grain, pilocarpin hydrochlorid 14
grains, and strychnin sulphate one-half grain. At 11.45 respira-
tion was 80 and pulse 64. A picture was taken at 11.49, which shows
her lying flat upon the ground (PI. XII, fig. 1). At this time there
was some trembling and some salivation and she was kicking about
as though in pain. At 11.45 the pulse was 76, respiration 60 and
shallow. At 12.11 the pulse was 75. At 12 o’clock a small amount
of feces was passed and more at 12.12. There was a further passage
at 12.35. From 12 until about 12.30 considerable gas was expelled
from the stomach. At 12.30 she was able to raise herself upon her
belly. At 12.35 the pulse was 72. It was noticed that there was
considerable secretion during this time from the lachrymal glands.
By 1.40 considerable gas had accumulated in the rumen, and as she
did not seem to be able to relieve herself by expelling it per os, the
trocar was thrust into the rumen. This relieved the pressure and
the breathing became easier. The animal lay at this time with her
head around to her side in the position shown in Plate XII, figure 2.
From 12.30 on it was noticed thdt she perspired quite freely. This
was probably due to the effect of the remedy pilocarpin. At 2
Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII.
Fig. 1.—CaAseé 610 AT 11.49 A.M., JULY 13. FiG.2.—CAseE 610aT 11.4914 A. M., JULY 13.
Fia. 3.—CASE 612 AT 1.18 P. M., AUGUST 7. Fic. 4.—CASE 612 AT 1.30 P. M., AUGUST 7.
Fia. 5.—CASE 612 AT 1.37 P. M., AUGUST 7. ‘FIG. 6.—CASE 612 AT 1.47 P. M., AUGUST 7.
Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII.
Fia. 1.—CASE 82 AT 3.20 P. M. Fic. 2.—CASE 82 AT 3.24 P. M.
Fia. 3.—CASE 82 AT 3.27 P.M. Fic. 4.—CASE 82 AT 3.56 P. M.
Fic. 5.—CASE 82 AT 3.56 P. M., AFTER . Fic. 6.—CaseE 82 AT 3.59 P. M.
FALLING.
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. Al
o’clock her respiration was 85, deeper and much more regular than
before the gas was allowed to escape from the stomach. At 4.06 the
pulse was 80 and apparently weaker, respiration 44. At 4.15 as
she seemed to be growing weaker she was given a hypodermic in-
jection of 20 cubic centimeters:of whisky. At 4.20 respiration was
40. At 4.25 the pulse was 100 and stronger. While, during the
afternoon she had seemed stupid, paying very little attention even
to the flies which were around her in great numbers, at 4.52 she
became sufficiently lively to attempt to get rid of the flies. There
was still some twitching of the muscles of the flanks. At 5.48 the
pulse was 86 and respiration 28. At 6.40 respiration was 24. She
continued down until 8.03 when she was able to get upon her feet.
At 8.06 she arched her back with her hind feet apart and trembled
all over. She fell down, going over on her side. The pulse was 90
and weak, the respiration seemed normal. At 8.33 she was able
to get up again. She had urinated very little and apparently there
had been very little urination for a considerable time before her
illness. She was also very much constipated. During the night of
July 18 considerable urine was passed and some feces. On the morn-
ing of July 14 she was still weak and was kept in the corrals until
July 15, when she was turned out as recovered.
CASE 612.
Case 612 was brought in for further experimental work on August
1. During August 6 and the forenoon of August 7 she received 25.5
pounds of seeds and seed stems of Delphinium barbeyi. At 1.05 p.m.
August 7 she was found lying down, but when approached walked
away apparently in good condition. At 1.07 her back was arched,
she began to tremble, backing around the corral in an uneasy manner,
and soon fell, going down upon the forelegs and lying upon the
belly. At 1.10 when disturbed there was some muscular twitching
of the shoulders. She remained upon her feet until 1.18, when she
began to tremble and went down. She lay upon her right side flat
upon the ground. Plate XII, figure 3, shows her position at this
time. She was rolled over and placed with head erect. At 1.23 her
pulse was 80 and weak, respiration 92, and fairly regular. At 1.26
she was given hypodermically physostigmin salicylate, 1 grain;
pilocarpin hydrochlorid, 2 grains; and strychnin sulphate, one-half
grain. |
Plate XII, figure 4, shows her position at 1.30. She had made
several unsuccessful attempts to get upon her feet, but at 1.387 was
able, to get up. Plate XII, figure 5, shows her in the act of rising.
She walked across the corral but at.1.38 stumbled and fell again,
going over upon her side. At 1.23 respiration was 143. She was
492 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
expelling some gas from the stomach. At 1.42 the pulse was 120.
At 1.46 the pulse was 104. At 1.47 she raised herself without much
effort. Plate XII, figure 6, shows her at this time. At 1.52 she was
trembling, her back was arched, and she was stepping about uneasily.
There was considerable salivation, and there was and had been for
some time dribbling of urine. At 1.55 the trembling was very much
decreased. She walked with a stiff gait and at 2.04 seemed to be over
the attack. No further symptoms were noted.
EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM BARBEYI TO CATTLE IN 191i.
Because Delphinium menziesii disappears about the first of July,
the station work in the early part of the seasons of 1909 and 1910
was very largely concentrated on this plant, and most of the work
on Delphinium barbeyi was done after the plant was in blossom. As
the season in 1911 was about two weeks later than in 1910, Delphinium
barbeyi in the middle of July in 1911 was in about the same stage of
development as at the first of July in 1910. In addition to confirming
the work of the preceding seasons on symptoms and remedies, especial
attention was paid to the poisonous effects of the plant in its early
stages. Two experiments were made of feeding the dried plant, as it
was desirable to determine whether the plant lost its poisonous
properties by drying.
Twenty-six feeding experiments were conducted on 22 different
animals, and the greater poisonous effect of feeding the larkspur
within a short period of time was much more clearly brought out
than in the preceding seasons.
The experimental work with remedies made it possible to deter-
mine quite definitely the quantities of physostigmin, pilocarpin,
and strychnin which could be used to the best advantage.
Table III shows the results of the feeding in a summarized form
and they are discussed later in the paper. None of the cases are given
in detail, since the feeding experiments were conducted in the same
manner as in the preceding years and the general results were the
same.
EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM MENZIESII TO CATTLE IN 1909.
During the season of 1909, nine experiments were made of feed-
ing Delphinium menziesii, the experiments commencing on June 24
and continuing until July 25. Part of the material used was col-
lected around the station, and was.to a large extent mature, the
plant being in flower and in some cases containing seeds; the re-
mainder was obtained at Kebler Pass, and consisted of small plants
before flowering. The whole plants, including roots, stems, and
flowers, were fed to some animals, while in other cases only the
tops were fed, and in still others the roots ground up with grain.
,
-LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 43
It is commonly believed by stockmen that the root of this plant
is the most poisonous, and it is generally supposed that the plant pro-
duces more cases of poisoning after a rain, because at that time the
ground is soft and the animals can pull up the plant by the roots
and thus get the part in which the poison is supposed to be con-
centrated.
Table IV gives a summary of these experimental feedings.
Experiments were made by feeding the roots alone, the animals
used being Nos. 92 and 117. Number 92 in two days ate a quantity
equivalent to 2.04 pounds per 1,000 pounds of weight, while No. 117
in one day ate 2.1 pounds per 1,000 pounds. The greatest quantity
fed at any time was to No. 115, which between July 10 and July 12
received 100.7 pounds of tops, seeds, and flowers per 1,000 pounds of
weight. The greatest quantity of the whole plant that was fed, in-
cluding not only tops but roots, was given to No. 97, which re-
ceived on July 25 21.2 pounds per 1,000 pounds of weight. No. 91
received 5 pounds on July 2 and 3, and again on July 16 received
21.2 pounds. In none of the cases of feeding Delphinium menziesii
was there any evidence of toxic effect, although the plant was fed
at different stages, part of it before flowering, part after flowering,
and even after seed had commenced to form, and attempts were
made to find out whether one part of the plant was more poisonous
than another.
If it were particularly poisonous it seemed that the feeding in a
single day of 21.2 pounds per 1,000 pounds of weight would have
produced some effect. It is true, however, that animals upon the
range, when hungry, will sometimes eat enormous quantities of a
given plant and it seemed necessary to conduct further experiments
in order to demonstrate conclusively whether this plant can poison
or not. So far as the experiments of 1909 only were concerned, it
appeared probable that the plant was not poisonous, or if poisonous
at all would do harm only under exceptional circumstances.
EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM MENZIESII TO CATTLE IN 1910.
In 1910, 14 feeding experiments of Delphiniwm menziesii to cattle
were carried on with 11 different animals. Of these experinients 9
produced illness and 3 death. The result of these experiments showed
that the failure to produce poisoning in 1909 was not due to a lack
of toxicity in the plant but to feeding it in too small quantities.
Doubtless similar results would have been produced in 1909 had the
experiments been continued for a longer time. Table V gives a
summary of the feeding experiments with Delphinium menziesii to
cattle in 1910,
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46
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LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 47
A few of the typical cases will be noticed in detail, as follows:
CASE 117.
Case 117 was fed on flowering tops of Delphinium menziesii from
June 7 to June 9, receiving, all told, 79.5 pounds, or about one-
eleventh of its weight. At 9.25 p. m. June 9, when disturbed, he
attempted to walk and fell- down, recovering himself with little
effort. Other than this there were at this time no symptoms of
poisoning. He was observed up to 10.30 p. m. and at that time
seemed to be fairly well. On the morning of June 10 he was found
dead. He lay upon the left side with his head lower than the rest
of the body. Some of the contents of the stomach had flowed from
the mouth and nostrils. The heart was in diastole, both sides being
filled with blood. The pericardial fluid was slightly bloody and
abundant. The external walls of*the ventricles showed petechiz.
The lungs were congested. The fluids of the pleural and peritoneal
cavities were also slightly bloody. The trachea contained some of
the contents of the rumen. The inner wall of the trachea was con-
gested and this condition extended into the bronchi. The inner wall
of the first stomach was inflamed beneath the mucous membrane,
the inflammation being especially deep at the cardiac end of the
stomach. The same condition of the wall beneath the mucous mem-
brane was found in the second stomach at the cardiac end. The
inner wall of the fourth stomach was also inflamed at the cardiac
end. The duodenum was not inflamed near the stomach but there
were deep spots of inflammation near the entrance of the bile duct.
More or less congestion was found throughout the ileum, this being
so deep in some spots as to show through from the outside of the
intestine. The left kidney was congested. The brain was congested,
probably due in part to the fact that the head was lower than the
body. The immediate cause of death was asphyxiation, resulting,
partly at least, from the introduction of the contents of the stomach
into the trachea, although it seems probable that this was accom-
panied by respiratory paralysis. ;
CASE 82.
Case 82 was an old cow weighing about 1,000 pounds. From
June 11 to June 14 she ate 116.5 pounds of Delphinium menziesii
in flower. It was noticed on the morning of June 14 that she was
much constipated. She showed no other symptoms of poisoning un-
til 3.20 p. m. of that day, when she was found down. She was able,
however, to get upon her feet, but went down again immediately.
At 3.26 she was given hypodermically physostigmin salicylate,
14 grains; pilocarpin hydrochlorid, 3 grains; and strychnin sul-
48 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
fate, 1 grain. At 3.28 the respiration was 22. Figures 1, 2, and
3 of Plate XIII show her attitudes at various times between 3.20
and 3.28. She got upon her feet again at 3.28. At 3.30 she trem-
bled, arched her back, and fell, rising again at 3.33. At 3.35 she
fell, but was upon her feet again at 3.36. Respiration at 3.43 was .
42. There was considerable salivation at this time. At 3.56 she
began stepping about uneasily with her head down, and, trembling
violently, she staggered and fell. Plate XIII, figure 4, shows |
her attitude just before she fell, while figure 5 shows her position
after she was down, and figure 6 shows her attitude as she was
attempting to get up at 3.59. At 4 o’clock her pulse was 112 and
rather weak. At 4.01 the pulse was 94. At 4.25 she defecated,
probably as the result of the dose of physostigmin salicylate. At
this time she showed considerable intestinal discomfort. She con-
tinued lying down, but apparently feeling quite comfortable from
evening until night. At 5.45 a. m., June 15, she was found in the
ditch in the corral with water flowing about her. She was thor-
oughly chilled and constantly trembling, and there seemed to be
little probability that she would live. Apparently she must have
risen upon her feet during the night, fallen into the ditch, and was
unable to get out. The water was turned off and she was given alco-
hol in hot water as a drench. Half an hour later she was given a
drench of whisky. Soon after this she attempted to get up, and
at about 9 o’clock was on her feet. After getting up she urinated
copiously. It seemed probable in this case that defecation produced
by the physostigmin resulted in relief from the immediate symptoms
of larkspur poisoning, and that the alcohol bridged over a period of
weakness, due in part to the chill and in part to the effect of the
larkspur poisoning. Without the dose of alcohol she would in all
probability have died.
Case 113
Case 113 was a steer weighing about 900 pounds. Between June
20 and June 22 he received 56 pounds of Delphiniwm menziesii tops,
which included flowers and seeds, the full amount being about one-
sixteenth of his weight. At 9.30 p. m. June 22 he was found lying
in the corral in a normal manner, but when disturbed he was unable
to rise. At 9.35 he attempted to get up, fell over on his side, and was
unable to raise himself again. He was given, hypodermically, physo-
stigmin salicylate, 14 grains; pilocarpin hydrochlorid, 3 grains;
and strychnin sulphate, 1 grain. The pulse at this time was 72 and
rather weak. Respiration was 16 and fairly deep. While down he
was making violent attempts to rise, kicking and lifting his head
rather high and then falling back. This action seemed to be more
pronounced after the remedy was given, and it was a question
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 49
whether it was not partly caused by the peristaltic action resulting
from physostigmin salicylate. At 10 p. m. the pulse seemed slightly
stronger. He was evidently in pain, as he groaned a great deal of
the time. At 11.20 it was found that he had moved himself quite a
little distance in the corral and passed a small amount of hard
feces. At 11.30 he got upon his feet and walked about the corral.
His gait, however, was stiff, the stiffness being particularly notice-
able in the hind legs. At 11.44 he passed a considerable amount of
feces and acted as though he wished to eat. As he appeared to be
very much better at this time, he was left for the night, and was
found in good condition at 7 a.m. June 23. He was turned into the
pasture at 8.30. In the afternoon of this day he was found in a
clump of aspens in the pasture and was driven out. He went about
100 yards in a slow trot, going down a side hill, and fell. This was
at 3.55. At 4.05 he began to vomit. His pulse was about 85 and
weak. At 4.12 respiration had ceased. The pulse was perceptible
for about three minutes, stopping at 4.15. The animal was slightly
bloated at first and began bloating rapidly when down. A consider-
able amount of material from the rumen had been vomited. At the
autopsy the heart was found in diastole. The outer walls were
slightly inflamed. Both ventricles were dilated and full of blood.
The veins under the skin were congested. The nares, larynx, and
trachea were full of the material vomited from the stomach, and this
material had also extended into the bronchi. The walls of the fourth
stomach were greatly inflamed, and the walls of the duodenum, jeju-
num, ileum, and rectum were slightly inflamed. A microscopic ex-
amination was made of the contents of the stomach, and it was found
that Delphinium barbeyi was present. It seems probable that the
animal, after recovering from the poisoning by Delphinium menziesii
had commenced to eat the Delphinium barbeyi, which was fairly
abundant in the pasture, and that his death was cavecd by this dose
of the tall larkspur.
CasE 609.
Case 609 was a yearling heifer weighing about 500 pounds, loaned
to the station for experimental purposes. Feeding was commenced
at 7.05 a. m. on June 26, the material being tops of Delphinium
menziesii, which at this time was mature and included seeds. On
June 26 and 27 she ate 43.75 pounds. The material on June 27
contained flowers as well as seed. Distinct symptoms of poisoning
were observed early on the morning of June 28. Before that it had
been thought that she was somewhat uneasy, but the symptoms were
not positive. At 4.55 a. m. she got up and walked a few steps, trem-
bled, and fell, but at 5 she got upon her feet and after this time was
able to stand. She was down only about five minutes. During the
-26876°—Bull. 365—16—_4 .
50 -—SO: BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
day she ate about 74 pounds of Delphinium menziesii. At 4 p. m.
she appeared uneasy. There was occasional forcible expiration and
much constipation. After a time her uneasiness seemed to subside
and she began to ruminate and appeared hungry. At 5 p. m. she
was run around the corral, with no result. Feeding was renewed
at 5.15 p. m., and during the evening she received 18.75 pounds of
Delphinium menziesii, including the seeds. At 9.30 p. m. she was
found with her back arched, but appeared fairly well. At 10.15
p- m. she stood with her tail between her legs and her head rather
low. The impression was that the poison was taking effect. She
started to run about the corral, stumbled and partly fell, but recov-
ered herself, then fell and could not rise. The observer went to the
laboratory to get a remedy and on returning found her upon her
feet, and she remained upon her feet even after running around the
corral. She was left again at about 11.40. During all the time she
was watched she was uneasy. She occasionally would expel gas
rather violently, and once she moaned. She was evidently very un-
-comfortable, but not very sick. At 12.10 midnight she was on her
feet, but moved around the corral slowly. She began to back un-
easily with her head low, and feil and, although making violent
efforts to rise, was unable to do so. At 12.15 she was given subcu-
taneously physostigmin salicylate, 1 grain; pilocarpin hydro-
chlorid, 2 grains; and strychnin sulphate, 1 grain. She was in great
pain, breathed noisily, and occasionally expelled gas from her
stomach. She would stretch her legs out rigidly and kick violently,
moaning all the time. At 12.40 she passed a little hard feces. At °
12.45 her respiration was 40 and continued at about that rate. She
perspired copiously and acted like an animal in a violent attack of
colic. At 1.25 she raised her head, making efforts to rise, but fell
back, striking her head violently upon the ground. This was re-
peated at 1.30. From this time she seemed to be somewhat easier,
although the change was rather gradual. She lay upon her side,
breathing noisily. Her legs much of the time were stiff, but the
movements were not so convulsive and apparently her pain was less.
During the most violent spasms of pain she was given a little am-
monia inhaled from saturated cotton. At about 2 a. m. after several
violent efforts she succeeded in getting upon her feet, staggered across
the corral, but did not fall. She was watched at intervals during
the rest of the night and was upon her feet all the time. She was
given a little hay and corn meal in the morning and hay at noon.
On the following day she appeared to be entirely recovered.
EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM ROBUSTUM TO CATTLE.
The species of larkspur which has been identified as Delphiniwm
rvobustum and which is quite different from Delphinium barbeyi and
Delphinwm menziesii of the Mount Carbon station is abundant in
Sitti B
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 51
parts of the Cochetopa and Uncompahgre National Forests. It is
more nearly related to the Delphinium barbeyi than to Delphiniwm
menziesii, and should be classed as one of the tall larkspurs. The
entire feeding experiment with this plant was carried on at the ranch
of A. J. Hack, of Parlins, Colo. Two animals, Nos. 629 and 630, were
used for feeding.
The feeding began at 7.15 a. m. on August 22. 1910. No. 630. ate
very little of the larkspur and was not affected by it. No. 629, weigh-
ing about 500 pounds, ate on August 22 about 20 pounds, which in-
cluded leaves, stems, flowers, and seeds. No effect was produced, and
at 6 a. m. on August 23 she seemed to be all right with the exception
of constipation, but at 10.35 she was found down on her side and
unable to rise. She struggled when approached, but was unable to
raise herself even upon her belly. At 10.40 respiration was 32 and
somewhat irregular. There was some trembling of the muscles of
the sides and some salivation. At 10:45 the pulse was 80 and weak.
At 11.10 respiration’ was 50, very irregular and shallow. At 11.34 she
arose without any marked difficulty, but at 11.37, after being run
about, she went down again, trembling before she fell. With assist-
ance she got upon her feet and started to run, but fell again. She
was up again at 11.42 and during the rest of the day seemed to be
all right. In the evening she was given more of the Delphiniwm
robustum, it being estimated that she ate about 8 pounds. On the
morning of August 24 she was found down and unable to rise. A
little later she arose with some difficulty, but fell, getting upon her
feet again at 6.35, when she immediately fell and was unable to rise.
At 6.40 she got up and walked away. She started to run and fell,
but immediately got upon her feet, only to fall again, trembling as
she fell. At 6.45 she got upon her feet and walked about in a normal
manner. She was seen frequently during the forenoon and seemed
to be all right, with the exception of some constipation. —
Tt will be noticed that the symptoms as recorded are exactly com-
parable with those found in the cases of poisoning by Delphinium
barbeyi and Delphinium menétiesiz.
EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM CUCULLATUM TO CATTLE.
During the summer of 1912, at the Greycliff station, Delphinium
cucullatum was fed experimentally to six head of cattle with resulting
symptoms of poisoning in four, none of the cases resulting fatally.
One was only slightly sick and received no remedy. The second was
treated with arecoline with no apparent good results, but recovered
after treatment with magnesium sulphate, a glycerin enema, and a
hypodermic injection of whisky. The others were treated in the rou-
tine way worked out at Mount Carbon with physostigmin and pilo-
carpin and recovered. The symptoms were strictly comparable with
those produced by the other species of Delphinium and it does not
52 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
seem necessary to give the history of the cases in detail. In the dis-
cussion later in this paper the minor points of difference will be
brought out. Table VI gives the summary of these feeding
experiments.
TABLE VI.—Summary of feeding experiments upon catile with Delphinium
cucullatum.
. Amount
No.of | Weight of é
F of plant Date of feeding. Part of plant fed.
animal. animal. ba.
Pounds. Pounds. 1912.
GHZ ees 8 550-4 1225) |) June 28-29. ese sees Leaves and stems.
Che Pea 700 18:5.) June 80-July does cee. ee Do.
G54 see 600+ 21 TUL Yi 23Le: crews a ee Leaves, stems, and flowers.
G52 ese 500-+ 2425) | August:8-9: 2032285 tp se Leaves, stems, flowers, and seeds.
6582 .2e eee 700+ 2.'5:| Aligustog0sslissceiieei- sees se Leaves, stems, and seed.
(atop Mee 550+ L725) Septem ber: 3i2t 25 sac eee eee Do.
Amount
fed to 1,000 Location from
No. of | Time sick until able which plant
animal tostand. Remedy used. Result. pounds of Poel Waa
animal obtained
weight. :
: Pounds.
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March......... 938|' 8 | 250| 8] 356] 11] 430] 14). 403] 13-| 442 1° 14)|/\-1408
Atprile ee 210] 7] 270| 9} 3521 12|} 496] 17) 420| 14| 414] 14). 394
May.. 209| 7] 240] 8{| 405] 13] 527|) 17| 429] 14] 430] 14] - 403
nel eeae 216:|) 97% | 2487 8] 488) 15] 510) 17) 470°!’ 20:1 © 380 1/13)! 6390
uly eee 995.|° 7:| 302] 10| .442|°44\|° 527 | 17|- 510°] 16 |- 603) 20!) 248
August......-- 240| 8| 278] 9] 445] 14} 434] 14|/ 583] 19] 561] 18] 375
September....| 237/ 8] 600] 20] 450] 15] 492] 16| 570] 19] 402] 13] 398
October....--. 271| 9) 233] 8|: 368] 12| 527] 17] 589| 19] 563] 18} “405
November....| 260} 9] 289/ 10} 380} 13| 480] 16] 510] 17| 485] 16| 305
December..... 271| 9} 367] 12) 399] 13 |...470} 15|° 432 |--14 | 493 | 16 | <284
Total....] 2,817 | 7 | 3,613 | 10] 4,437 | 12} 5,722| 15] 5,744| 16 | 5,462} 15 | 4,567
Acres per head 103.1 80. 2 65. 6 50.9 50.5 53. 2 63.5
Since the fenced area available to each man is relatively small, and
since each of them has just as much right to the use of the open
range outside his fence as anyone, it has been their custom to watch
the condition of the feed outside their pastures and the condition of
their stock at all times and to carry their stock on the outside feed
just as much of the time as possible. This policy causes them to turn
out stock as soon as the feed outside warrants it, a procedure that
results beneficially for the fenced pastures, because it allows the
plants inside the fence to grow to the best advantage during the
growing season. The control given by the fence makes it possible
to save this feed until the outside feed is mostly eaten, when the
stock can be brought inside on good grass. This method of treat-
ment throws the greater part of the burden upon the outside range.
and tends to build up the carrying capacity of the inclosed area.
Under such a method, if the fenced area is stocked to its full
capacity, but not overstocked, the carrying capacity derived from
the numbers actually carried is probably a little in excess of what
might be expected from the same land if stocked to its legitimate
limit all the time. [or this reason the carrying capacity indicated
in Table VIT and the diagram (fig. 5) may be a little too large.
But this conclusion is not true if for any reason the pastures have
not been stocked to their limit, or if they have been overstocked,
either of which conditions may have arisen.
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. Pata b
To understand these possibilities it is only necessary to call atten-
tion to two or three factors which would affect the result. If for
any reason a pasture were understocked there would be excess feed
on it, but the figures for average monthly and yearly numbers car-
ried, as well as the average carrying capacity, would be lowered.
Such a condition might arise if the stock-water supply should
diminish or fail, a condition that did obtain for some time on the
Ruelas place during 1913 and part of 1914.
If, because of exceptionally high prices, a man should sell a large
part of his stock and not restock at once, or if, for any reason, he
should be forced to sell or was unable to buy whenever his pasture
warranted it, the number of animals on the pasture would be less
PROCTOR
AVERAGE NUMBER OF ANIMALS CARRIED: By Month =\—-— By Yeor —*—— INDICATED CARRYING CAPACITY: Number of animals per Section ——- ——e
Fic. 5.—Curves showing variations in the rate of stocking on those parts of the reserve
that have carried stock for the past six years. The curves numbered 1 show the
average number of mature animals (cattle, horses, or burros) carried on each pasture,
by months, for the full period. Curves numbered 2 show the same data by years.
Curves numbered 3 show the average carrying capacity in acres per head per year for
each pasture during the period of observation. Curves numbered 3 rest upon the
assumption that the pastures have been stocked to their legitimate limit each year.
than it could carry, and all the figures relating to numbers carried
and carrying capacity would again be below what the feed in the
pasture might warrant.
Again, if the user should overestimate the capacity of his range
and put on more stock than it could properly carry, the result would
be an increase in all the figures, at least for a time, and a noticeable
drop at a later period. Seasonal climatic variations of marked degree
also would tend to decrease all values if unfavorable and to increase
them if favorable to the growth of forage, though such variations
would tend.to counteract each other during a series of years.
BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMED GRI LE.
32 367, TMENT OF AGRICULTURE
There can be no question that the productivity of the areas whic2
have been pastured is normally greater than the average for the
whole inclosed area, because these pastures lie in that part of the
grassed land which gets the most water. (See p. 8.)
The forage-distribution map (fig. 8) shows a small patch of six-
weeks grass in each of the pastures, a condition which would seem.
to indicate that these pastures may be somewhat overstocked. The
general opinion of the various men is that their pastures have im-
proved under protection, and these poorly grassed areas may be the
remnants of larger areas that are being gradually replaced, though
more slowly than on the completely protected area.
In the opinion of the writer, the pastured areas have not deterio-
rated noticeably since July, 1911, nor have they materially improved.
He believes that during that time they have been kept at about
uniform productivity, but slightly below their maxima. The result
of this is to make the carrying capacity appear a very little larger
in figure 5 and in Table VII than it actually is.
The above remarks apply with most force to the MacBeath pasture,
less so to the Proctor pasture, and hardly at all to the Ruelas pasture.
It should be understood that McCleary has not been running cattle
upon his pasture. He has had it lightly and about uniformly
stocked with horses and burros. These animals have been on the
land continuously with little or no shifting, and the range which
was unable to carry stock at the rate of 29 acres per head in the
earlier days of the experiments? is now not noticeably different
from the completely protected area lying immediately north of it.
It is hardly possible to tell by the condition of the grass that there
is any stock on this area. From such data it is perfectly certain
that 50 acres per head per year is considerably under the carrying
capacity of such range pasture.”
It is almost certain that stocking heavier than 53 animals per sec-
tion (12 acres per head per year) on the MacBeath place and between
45 and 50 animals per section (13 or t4 acres per head per year) on
the Proctor place is not warranted by the present condition of these
pastures, under their present form of management. It is more
dificult to get an estimate for the Ruelas place, because other im-
portant but as yet unmeasured factors enter the problem. From
the standpoint of feed alone, the Ruelas pasture will doubtless carry
as much per section as the MacBeath place, but for some time past
the supply of stock water has been insufficient for all the stock which
the pasture would carry.
1See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 177, p. 21.
* The horses on this area have very light work and little of it. They are always fed a
small amount of grain whenever they are worked; at other times all their feed is the
native grass grown on the area.
Bul. 367, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE VII.
Fic. 1.—BALING HAY ON THE SANTA RITA RANGE RESERVE IN SEPTEMBER, 1914.
Fic. 2.—BALED HAY ON THE RESERVE READY TO BE HAULED TO A FARM IN THE
VALLEY, 25 MILES AWAY.
Fia. 3.—ONE OF THE WATERING PLACES IN MACBEATH’S PASTURE, ON THE RESERVE.
,
Bul. 367, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII.
Fia. 1.-A DENSE GROWTH OF MESQUITE BUSHES IN STONE CABIN CANYON, ON THE
SANTA RITA RANGE RESERVE.
Some stools of saccaton (Sporobolus wrightii) are shown near the center of the picture. This
grass thrives where other grasses are killed by the shade.
Fic. 2.—A SINGLE MEDIUM-SIZED MESQUITE BUSH ON THE RESERVE, SHOWING ITS
CROP OF BEANS ON THE GROUND.
The dried beans from this bush weighed 1034 pounds. These beans are very nutritious and
are eaten freely by all kinds of stock.
Bul. 367, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX.
Fic. 1.—CONDITIONS IN AN ARROYO, SHOWING HOW THE GRASS RETARDS EROSION
AND HELPS TO FILL IN WASHED PLACES ON THE SANTA RITA RANGE RESERVE.
Hundreds of places may be found on the reserve where different stages of this process of
leveling up are in progress.
Fic. 2.—THE BOUNDARY FENCE BETWEEN THE MCCLEARY (LEFT) AND MACBEATH
(RIGHT) PASTURES IN MAy, 1914, SHOWING THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE FORAGE
ON THESE PASTURES IS FED OFF EACH SEASON.
Bul. 367, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X.
Fic. 1.—AN OPEN SPOT AMONG THE MESQUITE BUSHES ON THE SANTA RITA RANGE
RESERVE.
A good stand of grass has been obtained by persistent sowing. (Compare with fig. 2.)
Fic. 2.—A SIMILAR OPEN SPOT, SHOWING THE BEGINNING OF THE GROWTH OF GRASS.
No results were obtained on this spot (which is less than 100 yards from the other) for several
seasons, though seeds were scattered each year. (Compare with fig. 1.)
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 33
Tf allowance is made for the facts (1) that these pastured areas
produce more feed than other parts of the area under observation,
(2) that they are carrying more under the present form of manage-
ment than they would if an average number of animals were kept
on them continuously, and (3) that there is some indication that they
are shghtly overstocked, it is seen that the results obtained from the
pasturing experiments are in reasonably close agreement with the
average for the whole reserve derived by other means and presented
elsewhere in this bulletin. (See p. 21 et seq.)
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
The effects of fire-—The complete protection of the reserve for a
number of years has resulted in a rather heavy crop of dry grass,
which burns readily, especially in the dry, hot weather of May or
June, just before the summer rains begin. Several such fires have
occurred, due to lightning, carelessness of passers, or incendiarism.
The only serious damage they do is to burn off the fence posts and
let the fences fall. These fires are always extinguished as quickly
as possible after they start, but sometimes considerable areas have
been burned over. Attention has been called to the effect on the
mesquite bushes. The spines of the cacti are usually singed off, and
some of the stems blistered, and a few are killed. Opuntia spinosior
seems to suffer more seriously than any of the other species. In
June, 1914, occurred one of the largest and hottest fires, which
burned over about four sections of the heaviest grass. Along the
arroyos where the grass was highest and thickest the mesquite
bushes were killed completely in several places, and many were
killed back to stumps. The following growing season on the burned
area there was a much larger proportion of annuals in the summer
collections and a particularly noticeable abundance of one grass,
Bouteloua parryt, which has not been observed in any abundance
recently. It was common in many parts of the reserve in the earlier
years of the experiment. Whether or not the burn was responsible
for these occurrences the writer is unable to say. The fire was doubt-
less responsible for a noticeable decrease in the hay crop obtained on
part of the burned area this season.1 Of the grasses, Bouteloua
erip poda and Heteropogon contortus suffered most, though old stools
of Aristida divaricata also showed retardation and some killing.
The mesquite bean crop.—An important part of the forage of this
region is furnished by the herbage and flowers of the cat’s-claw
(Acacia greggit) and the mesquite (Prosopis velutina), as well as by
beans of the latter. Two measurements were made of the crop of
mesquite beans from medium-sized trees in 1914. The blossoming
1 See Table IV, p. 24: Proctor’s records for 1914.
34 BULLETIN 367, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
season of 1914 seemed to be very favorable, but very few trees set
fruit. The data as to measurements are as follows:
One tree about 1 mile nearly east of the location marked I on the map (fig.
2), 9 feet high, with a spread of 10 feet, produced as second crop 102 pounds
of dried beans (Pl. VIII, fig. 2). Another tree near McCleary’s house, 9 feet
high and with a spread of about 14 feet, produced 10 pounds of dry beans as
a first crop. Probably 60 per cent of the trees on the reserve are as large or
larger than the two measured.
Erosion retarded.—The process of leveling the land by the action
of water, assisted by the growth of vegetation, has been going on
ever since the stock were put out of the reserve and the plants com-
menced to reestablish themselves. It has been carried to completion
in some of the shallower arroyos, and the bottoms of the watercourses
are entirely covered with plants. The larger arroyos still have well-
marked sandy channels where nothing but coarse annual weeds grow,
but the grasses are rounding off the banks of such channels and
gradually diminishing their width, while in many places they pre-
vent further erosion by growing directly in the narrow cut and
helping to hold whatever earth may be washed in by the run-off
CER EXG Sti os 1).
Seed sowing—Numerous attempts at reseeding have been made on
this range reserve and elsewhere, the results of which have been
reported in previous bulletins.t| Most of the attempts have resulted
negatively. Particularly is this true with reference to introduced
species, although these have been selected with the best judgment ob-
tainable as to the requirements of the region and the possible adap-
tiveness of the species tried. It by no means follows that nothing
will ever be found that will suit the conditions, and there is believed
to be good reason for expecting that some valuable finds of this kind
will be made in regions not yet carefully explored with these desires
in mind.
The alfilaria, previously reported as seeming to take hold, has
since been entirely crowded out by the native perennia! grasses.
Several annuals that gave some promise have also given way to the
native perennials.
Trials of Sudan grass were made at three different places on the
reservation in 1914—near MacBeath’s house, near McCleary’s, and
in the large field on the plowed ground (near H, fig. 2). The seeds
germinated well at each place, but the young seedlings were not able
to bear the dry weather that occurred after the first rains. Plants
at MacBeath’s which were watered during the first dry spell made
a good growth (about 3 feet) and produced some seed. Plants
1 See Bureau of Plant Industry bulletins as follows: No. 4 reporting results on a small
range near Tucson; No. 67, giving later results on the same area; No. 117, treating of
metuods and results of reseeding in general; No. 177, treating of results on this range.
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 35
that were not watered grew about 8 inches high or less. It is very
doubtful if a crop of this grass can be grown without irrigation,
even on that part of the reserve that receives most water.
Not so unsatisfactory, however, are the results obtained by scat-
tering seeds of the native grasses upon the bare spots, even where
the soil conditions are not good. For a number of years it has been
the habit of Mr. McCleary to scatter seeds of the local native grasses
upon bare spots in his pastures. Since hay cutting has been going
on, it has been possible to get seeds in some quantity at the hay baler,
and he has taken advantage of this means and has each year scat-
tered seeds in considerable quantity. Many gravelly slopes that
would otherwise have remained bare are now grassed as the result
of this treatment. (PI. X, fig. 1.) Other things being equal, this
method will get results in the course of two or three years that would
occur much more slowly without scattering the seeds over the ground,
though difficulty in getting germination sometimes occurs. (Pl. X,
fig. 2.) This method of reestablishing the native species is very
inexpensive and seemingly warrants the time and effort.
Experiments with sheep—After the large field had been under
fence for a number of years and the crowfoot-grama area had shown
considerable improvement, an arrangement was made to try feeding
off with sheep that part of it lying north of Box Canyon. ‘
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BROWN-ROT OF PRUNES AND CHERRIES. 9)
The first and fourth applications have been especially important
_ the past season.
BLOSSOM INFECTION OF CHERRIES.
Observations made near Vancouver, Wash., on April 8 and in the
- vicinity of Salem, Oreg., on April 13 showed that there had been
a blossom infection of cherries similar to that already described
on prunes (PI. I, figs. 1 and 2). On the latter date Monilia was
fruiting luxuriantly on the blighted cherries. It appeared that
most of the infection had taken place after the petals had fallen and
before the fruit had had a chance to push through the husk. Black
Republican cherries seemed especially badly infected. Estimates
made on April 13 indicated that on this variety fully 90 per cent of
the blossoms were infected with Monilia, and in many orchards of
other varieties at least 75 per cent were similarly infected. A grower
near Felida, Wash., sprayed some of his cherry trees while they were
in full bloom, using lime-sulphur solution diluted 1 to 30. He delayed
the spraying of the others until the calyx browning had begun to
appear and then applied the same spray he had used earlier. Counts
made on April 8 of representative branches from each lot of trees
showed 9 per cent of infected fruit in the former case and over 40 per
cent in the latter. Spraying trees in full bloom is not to be recom-
mended, but the results show the value of early spraying.
BROWN-ROT OF CHERRIES.
Spraying experiments for the control of brown-rot on the fruit
were carried on in the orchard of L. T. Reynolds, of Salem, Oreg.
The work was begun late in the season. The first application was
made on May 7 and 8, when the fruit had begun to color, and a second
on June 1, when the fruit was approaching maturity. The latter
application was delayed for nearly a week on account of rain.
Plat 1 received Bordeaux mixture, 2—4—50, plus 2 pounds of resin-
fishoil soap; plat 2, commercial lime-sulphur, 1 to 50; plat 3, self-
boiled lime-sulphur, 8-8—50, plus 2 pounds of resin-fishoil soap; and
plat 4 was unsprayed.
No injury resulted from the use of any of the fungicides. The
Royal Ann cherries were picked on June 17 and the Black Repub-
licans on June 24. A regular 10-pound box of sound cherries was
packed from each plat and placed in cold storage at 40° F. until
June 27, and the fruit was then shipped by express to Wenatchee, |
Wash. Notes on the Royal Anns were taken on July 2 and on the
Black Republicans on July 6. The former were thus in cold storage
at 40° F. for 10 days and at air temperature for 6 days, the latter in
cold storage for 3 days and at air temperature for 10 days. Table
Iff gives the results obtained.
10 BULLETIN 368, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TasLe II1.—Spraying cherries for the control of brown-rot at Salem, Oreg., during the
season of 1915.
Brown-rot (per cent).
Plat. Treatment, if any. | Royal Ann. Black Republican.
| At After | At After
| picking. storage. jppiceing: storage.
INO: 12. 22823 cde acd: Bordesuxmixcure: 2.52202 sesee eee oe ee | 0.17 11 0.03
7
INOW 2i Serer sc seneccos Pame-sulphute. 22+ cass 5-60 eso saseen [ee or eeeeet ee eee -05 §
INOL BE Sots oeees sseee Self-boiled lime-sulphur-...-..---.-.-.--- «25 14 -07 2
8
IN Os Fool dence ctosre WTS Pray. cerincse ise Seine se ee eae eee . 67 55 -03 1
There was not enough brown-rot evident on any of the plats at
picking time to make the contrasts of any great interest. (PI. II1.)
After the severe storage tests the effects of spraymg were more eyi-
dent, the fruit from the self-boiled lime-sulphur plat having only one-
fourth as much brown-rot as that from the unspr ayed plat in the case
of the Royal Anns and one-ninth as much in the ease of the Black
Republicans. With the Royal Anns better results were secured with
Bordeaux mixture than with the self-boiled lime-sulphur. The
sprayed fruit held up much better at the local canneries than the
unsprayed fruit.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION FOR CHERRIES.
While the work on cherries has not been carried out as fully as was
desired, it seems evident that the Monilia blossom blight was the
cause Ee serious losses in the Willamette Valley in the season of 1915
and the brown-rot of the fruit the cause of considerable joss at the
canneries and heavy losses in the shipping of fresh fruit. No early
sprayings were mads, and therefore no results were obtained on the
effect of spraying upon the blossom infection. The brown-rot at the
canneries and in storage has been greatly reduced by late applica-
tions of Bordeaux mixture and self-boiled lime-sulphur. It seems
probable that a treatment for cherries similar to that outlined for
prunes would give satisfactory control of both the blossom infection
and the later brown-rot attacks on the fruit.
. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH: 1916
Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry
CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER May 26, 1916
BACTERIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS.
By Mavup Mason Osst, Bacteriological Chemist.
CONTENTS.
Page. Page
TAGTOCUIC HOTIMm te hen ees prs teiee o eerie 1 | Examination of commercial bottled waters. - 4
Significance of bacteria in potable waters. .-. 2*| Conclusions essa 54524 PIA PE a eset 3 MU 6
Inspection of springs....-..--..-..---------- 3: pelabulated\datared.. sso t=se ss Sate ei 7
INTRODUCTION.
During the last six years from 1 to 17 samples of bottled waters
from each of 110 American springs and from 57 sources in foreign
countries have been examined in the Bacteriological Laboratory of
the Bureau of Chemistry... A comparative study of the results
obtained should, therefore, contribute toward the formation of an
opinion as to the freedom from contamination which we have a right
to expect and to demand in the case of this product. These bacterio-
logical analyses have been brought together and tabulated; and the
results of this study have been considered to determine whether the
standard adopted by the United States Public Health Service? for
water on trains could be fairly applied to bottled waters, or whether
some other standard would be more just.
A questionnaire was also sent out to a number of bacteriologists
who have been associated with sanitary and alled problems. This
questionnaire was arranged primarily to learn the attitude of a
widely distributed group of workers in regard to bacterial tolerance
in bottled waters. Of the 49 correspondents who have replied, 8
had not worked upon water sufficiently to feel competent to express
any opinion. The remaining 41 replies are summarized as follows:
Eight (19.8 per cent) stated that to them the term “bottled water”
implied an unwritten guaranty of absolute purity;’’ five (12.1 per
1 Examinations were made by various ee of the Bacteriological Laboratory, including Dr. Geo. W.
Stiles, Minnie Jenkins, Carleton Bates, Ruth C. Greathouse, and the author.
The author wishes to acknowledge the valuable assistance rendered by Dr. Charles Thom in the prepa-
ration of this paper.
2U.8. Public Health Reports, 1914, p. 2059. (Not more than one out of five 10 ce portions shall show gas.)
30614°—Bull. 369—16 .
2 BULLETIN 369, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
cent) desired no rigid standard; only one desired a standard of no
B. coli in 10 ce quantities; thirty-five (85.4 per cent) desired to apply
the Hygienic Laboratory standard or one more rigid; eight (19.8 per
cent) would tolerate no B. coli in bottled waters; one of the five bac-
teriologists desiring no rigid standard considered water to be suspi-
cious if three 10 cc portions show B. coli.
We have a right to demand that bottled water shall first of all be
clean. Whatever other qualities it may claim or offer are secondary
to cleanliness. In a study, therefore, of the bacteria found, we have
a right to consider them not only as possible evidences of danger to
health but as indices of conditions in the bottling room for which
the operator is clearly responsible.
SIGNIFICANCE OF BACTERIA IN POTABLE WATERS.
It is understood that natural waters may contain bacteria which
multiply in the presence of very small amounts of organic matter.
Bacteriologists who have worked with distilled water are familiar
with the micrococci which multiply rapidly therein when the per-
centage of organic material is extremely low. The presence, there-
fore, of a large number of organisms in waters which have been
bottled for several days or weeks has little significance unless the
characters of these organisms are more or less definitely known.
The presence of B. coli in large numbers in waters is universally
considered as an indication of the possible presence of its dangerous
associates. The conditions under which waters are bottled and
held and the mineral substances present may, in some cases, exert
influences upon the multiplication of B. coli differing slightly from
the effect of surface or well waters in nature. Preliminary studies
in this laboratory indicate an immediate decrease instead of any
possible increase of B. coli in freshly inoculated bottles of certain
spring waters.t Houston? found that B. coli disappeared in stored
water from the River Lea. Dunham® observed that distilled water
enriched with either hay infusion or nutrient broth (1 ce in 1 liter)
and inoculated with over 20,000 B. coli showed a marked reduction
of the total number of B. coli at the end of 24 hours. He also reported
that sterile water inoculated with pollution from ordinary soil does
not show an appreciable number of B. coli.
It may, therefore, be assumed that bottled waters in which B. coli
are found in appreciable numbers contained approximately all of
those B. coli (if not more) when they left the springs or bottling
1 Browne, W. W. (Jour. Infect. Dis., v.17, No. 1, 1915, pp. 72-78) finds multiplication of B. coli in stored
water, but an analysis of his experiments shows that the water used was so enriched as to be no longer
comparable to stored spring waters.
2 Houston, Reports on Research Work, Metropolitan Water Board, London, 1907.
3 Dunham, E. K., Value of bacteriological examination of water from a sanitary point of view, Jour.
Amer. Chem. Soc., v. 19, No. 8, 1897, p. 591.
BACTERIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS. 3
houses. It is reasonable also to assume that when people pay
from 2 cents to $30 per gallon for bottied water they expect to ob-
tain a pure, or at least a safe water. Whipple’ has defined a “pure”
water as one which is ‘‘free from bacteria or other organisms which
are liable to cause disease, and also free from B. coli.”’
INSPECTION OF SPRINGS.
The ultimate test of the fitness of a particular water for sale lies in
its condition at the sprig. When contaminations are found in the
bottled article, the determination of responsibility for the condition
found calls for inspection at every stage of its handling. Such
inspections of springs have been made from time to time, usually
resulting in locating the source of trouble. The results of the
inspection of three springs are included in Tables I, II, and III.
These illustrate certain typical sources of pollution. In spring No.
1, insufficient coverings over the spring evidently permitted the
entrance of a rotten lemon or orange, containing the mold Penicillium
italicum, a short time previous to the collection of these samples.
This mold can not exist long in water, and is practically never found
except on decaying citrus fruits. The actual inspection of this
spring and statements by the people of the vicinity disclosed the
fact that freshets would cause the water in the creek flowing past
to back through a swimming pool and into the spring. Inadequate
care was also apparent in the method of cleaning and rinsing the
bottles before they were filled. These bottles, as were those used
at sprmg No. 3, were rinsed with polluted water just before filling.
(See Table III.) The water in spring No. 2 was undoubtedly grossly
polluted at times from the creek which flowed past. A culture of
B. paratyphosus B was obtained from a shipment of bottled water
from this spring four months prior to the inspection.
It is not always possible, however, to locate the source of contami-
nation at the spring even by several inspections. One such spring
is still under observation. This spring is on high land well removed
from farm buildings and large streams of surface water. Its water
is highly mineralized and at its source contains B. coli in 1 ce or
@.1 cc quantities. It is said that the water is boiled and the bottles
sterilized before the bottling; yet 88 out of 96 bottles purchased at
retail stores have been found to contain B. coli in 10 ce quantities,
and 64 out of 96 in 1 ce quantities. The B. coli found were identified
in all instances as belonging to the communis and communior groups.
Evidently the survey has been incomplete in some essential point.
Naturally carbonated waters occasionally contain large numbers
of organisms. In general, however, artificially carbonated waters
1 Whipple, Geo. C. zoialte of pure and wholesome water, Biol. studies of the pupils of W. T. Sedgwick,
June, 1906.
4 BULLETIN 369, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
were found to contain no B. coli in 10 ce quantities and very low
total counts at both temperatures of incubation. The total counts
very seldom were above 50 per cc, and often were less than 10 per ce.
In certain instances legal actions have been brought against com-
panies preparing and selling bottled waters when the waters examined
have contained an excessive number of organisms, including B. coli.
These companies having been thus impressed with the necessity of pro-
ducing a clean commercial product have responded by placing on the
market later consignments from which no B. coli were isolated in 10 cc
quantities from 12 or more bottles. Repeated examinations of water
from many springs have failed to show any B. coli in 10 ce quantities.
EXAMINATION OF COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS.
The methods employed in making these bacterial examinations
were those prescribed from year to year by the committee on water
analysis of the American Public Health Association. The high-
temperature counts have always been made on plain agar after
incubation at 37° C.; but the earlier low-temperature incubations
were made on agar at 25° C., instead of on gelatin at 20° C., as
during the last two years. Dextrose broth, lactose bile, and lactose
broth have been used at different times for the preliminary tests for
B. coli; but in nearly every instance, when reported present, B. coli
have been isolated. Many of these have been verified by testing
special dextrose cultures with methyl red, as recommended by Clark
and Lubs.t. A summary of all these examinations follows:
Of 110 domestic springs (see Table [V)—
47 (43 per cent) contained no B. coli in 10 ce quantities.
63 (57 per cent) contained B. coli in 10 ce quantities.
61 (55 per cent) contained B. col in 5 ce quantities.
59 (53 per cent) contained B. coli in 1 cc quantities.?
49 (44 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.1 ce quantities.
31 (28 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.01 cc quantities.
10 (9 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.001 ce quantities.’
Sixty-nine (62 per cent) gave counts of less than 100 per ce on one
or more bottles after incubation at 37° C. for two days.
Eighteen (16 per cent) gave average counts of less than 100 per ce
on six or more bottles at 37° C.
Fourteen (12 per cent) gave no counts of less than 1,000 per ce on
Six or more individual bottles. .,
The highest average count on all samples from any one spring
was 191,238.
1 Clark and Lubs, The differentiation of bacteria of the Colon-aerogenes family by the use of indicators
Jour. Infect. Dis., v. 17, No. 1, 1915, p. 160.
2 Any potable water supply containing B. coli in 1 ce quantities is considered suspicious by health
departments and is at once investigated.
3 Water containing B. coli in 0.001 cc quantities is too suggestive of dilute sewage to be accepted by
anyone.
BACTERIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS. 5
Of 57 foreign springs (see Table V)—
29 (51 per cent) contained no B. coli in 10 ce quantities.
28 (49 per cent) contained B. colt in 10 ce quantities.
25 (45 per cent) contained B. coli in 5 ce quantities.
21 (37 per cent) contained B. coli in 1 ce quantities.!
16 (28 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.1 ce quantities.
8 (14 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.01 ce quantities.
2 (3 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.001 ce quantities.”
Forty (70 per cent) gave counts of less than 100 on one or more
bottles after incubation for two days at 37° C.
Twenty-five (44 per cent) gave average counts of less than 100
per ce at 37° C.
The highest count shown at 37° C. was 37,000 perce. This sample
gave an average count of 16,000 per cc, and B. colt were found in one-
third of the bottles examined in 5 ce quantities.
Two imported waters bearing on their labels the words ‘“ bacterio-
logically pure’’ gave the following results:
Sample No. 1; six bottles examined—
Lowest number of organisms per cc developing on gelatin at 20° C....-. 700
_Average number of organisms per ce developing on gelatin at 20° C..... 2, 450
Lowest number or organisms per cc developing on agar at 37° C........ 300
Average number of organisms per cc developing on agar at 37° C.....-. 1, 250
4 bottles contained B. coli in 10 ce quantities.
4 bottles contained B. coli in 5 ce quantities.
4 bottles contained B. coli in 1 ce quantities.
2 bottles contained B. coli in 0.1 ce quantities.
Sample No. 2; seven bottles examined—
Lowest number of organisms per cc developing on gelatin at 20° C.....- 120
Average number of organisms per cc developing on gelatin at 20° C..... 9, 410
Lowest number of organisms per cc developing on agar at 37° C.......-- 40
Average number of organisms per cc developing on agar at 37° C......- 482
6 bottles contained B. coli in 10 cc quantities.
5 bottles contained B. coli in 5 cc. quantities.
5 bottles contained B. coli in 1 cc quantities.
5 bottles contained B. coli in 0.1 ce quantities.
3 bottles contained B. coli in 0.01 ce quantities.
Among the organisms which have been isolated from the above
samples are: B. coli, B. cloace, B. mycoides, B. paratyphosus B, B.
aerogenes, B. aurantiacus, M. citreus, B. maritumum, B. ovale, B. pro-
digiosus, B. fluorescens liquefaciens, B. fluorescens non-liquefaciens,
B. subtilis, and long-chain streptococci.
Molds of the genera Trichoderma, Penicillium, Cladosporium,
Citromyces, Fusarium, Actinomyces, and Sporotrichum were identi-
1 Any potable water supply containing B. coli in1 ce quantities is considered suspicious by health
departments and is at once investigated.
2 Water containing B. coli in 0.001 ce quantities is too suggestive of dilute sewage to be accepted by
anyone.
6 BULLETIN 369, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
fiedt Without attaching too much significance to the occurrence
of any of these forms, it may be remarked that Actinomyces and
Sporotrichum are both large ill-defined groups, some of whose mem-
bers are pathogenic to man as well as to other animals. A large num-
ber of spores of a species of Actinomyces culturally resembling the
pathogenic form were found in one imported water. Similarly,
Sporotrichum in large numbers was found in another water as taken
in the market and as taken directly from the spring three months
later. While proving nothing, such observations do not add to the
attractiveness of such waters. The other genera listed are regularly
found in soil and in decaying vegetable matter. Sufficient to say,
they are not indicative of cleanliness.
CONCLUSIONS.
Bottled water for table use should either be actually sterile or should
comply with a strict standard as to the number of B. coli tolerated.
No water should be permitted to be sold which is seen LN at
the source in any manner.
Inspection of springs and bottling establishments together with
the analysis of official samples indicates that ignorance of proper
precautions, carelessness, and neglect, are fully as large factors in the
contaminations found as are impurities actually present in the springs.
The numbers of B. coli in official samples collected in the market
may be safely assumed to be less rather than greater than the num-
bers in the freshly bottled stock. ;
The data as summarized show the need of improvement in the
bacteriological condition of many of the brands of bottled water to
be found in the market. Careful consideration of cases to which spe-
cial study has been given shows that there are some springs used for
the production of commercial bottled waters which should not be so
used. It is evident that the presence of serious and unremoyvable
contamination should shut the water of a spring permanently from
the market. Such contamination-could easily be ascertained before
a water business is established. In other cases, the contaminations
found are clearly those of manipulation. Before a person undertakes
to operate a water business he should be prepared both in equip-
ment and in operating knowledge to turn out a product free from
contamination. This is demonstrated to be commercially possible,
without burdensome restrictions, by the number of firms already mar-
keting water free from contamination. It is equally evident in the
ability of other firms to produce clean water after the need of doing
so has been emphasized by court action.
1 Identifications were made hy Dr. Charles Thom, of the Bureau of Chemistry.
BACTERIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS.
7
The results clearly show that bottled waters can be made to con-
form to the requirements of the United States Public Health Service
for drinking water furnished upon trains; that is, that not more than
one 10 ce sample out of five should show the presence of B. coli.
TABULATED DATA.
TasLe I.—Results of the bacteriological examination of water collected from spring No. 1.
Colonies of organisms per cc de-
Smallest quantity in which
veloping after— were found—
| 4 days’ incubation on
Description of sample. GERD ATE pubent gelatin at B, coli.
cubation |
on nutrient |— - | Molds.
agar at A :
OC Total | Liquefi- at ce 2 days
count. Cieuford Pee eal Ie een
ion. lection.
“Clean”’ bottle rinsed with 100 cc ster- ce. ce. a.
ile water...-------------+-+++-22+--- 1,000,000 | 1,400,000 | 17,000 0.1 Orla.
Do... 2.222222 -- eerie ee eee 00, 000 540, 000 800 sil rT Nee [ae cee wr reate
“Dirty” bottle rinsed with 100 cc ster- |
ChWatenemee seita cine te eee ieeisien 700,000 | 1,100,000 | 120,000 -O1 YOOiMy | Henevienin ot
O.. +22 ee eee eee tee epee ete 1,000,000 | 1,400,000 | 59,000 01 OD Les Mee
16 caps rinsed with 70 cc sterile water - - 4, 800 700 18 1.0 GRU ecco soe
Water used for washing and rinsing
povtles sete cece eect sete tee eeee ee 790, 000 400,000 | 18,000 “Al Os aetna
wcrescce ress cer errr ects tsetse 840,000 | 1,000,000} 90,000 ail Lists em pests Be
Water: from bottling spring..--.------- 3,000 48, 000 1,000 () (1) 0.001
cecesece rrr teste estes er ets t erase 4, 500 38, 000 1,000 1) Q) 001
Water from creek 100 feet from bot-
tling spring....------+++++---------- 410,090 900,000 | 10,000 01 SNOT |e erate orteats
Water from swimming pool, after use
liiy DNA Oo os opoacesqsodeauedousd peedouseneed||sscccésosendllseaeceauue Wiha beeen Ponce 9
Water from swimming pool, after use
(day NZO WACO OccadgaceuooscansacasedaleoeaodoacdeHloadoccbeeceu|bonoccasor OO1G|Eaiee eee | een
12 bottles collected after inspection; :
average results. .....------+---++---- | 126,000 152, 400 5, 150 BOOM Nos oheakene 001
1 No B. coli were present in 10 ce quantities.
2 This determination was made at the time the sample was received at the laboratory.
TasLE II.—Results of the bacteriological examination of water collected from spring No. 2.
Description of sample.
“Clean” bottle rinsed with 100 cc ster-
12 capsrinsed with 100 ce sterile water. .
War from bottling spring......-....--
Water irom creck 5 feet from bottling
SPEDE. .-
10 bottles collected after saEecnn:
AVELACE LESUIES see eee ates
Colonies of organisms per ec de-
veloping after—
Smallest quantity in which
were found—
4 days’ incubation on
‘a nutrient gelatin at B. coli.
2 days’ in- 20°C.
cubation
on nutrient Molds.
agar at ; 3
WP C: Motaleey eliquatis\|)w se |) 2days
conte ane of collec- | after col-
: tion. lection.
d ce. ce. ce.
280, 000 800, 000 800 0.1 TOV =", ae ee ee
300, 000 500, 000 33, 000 1.0 1.0 0. 001
870 1,100 100 5.0 bt Uw a eee ea
137, 000 110, 000 2,000 1.0 Be een Gere wise
117,000 85, 000 1, 100 1.0 Be pier aero eee
310, 000 (2B) fort leases ee . 001 {000k | pete
297, 000 (yet |e es 001 SOOM ISssseccces
2, 220 2, 262 98 pie Viorel earner lowes Cee 2
1 Liquefied.
2 This determination was made at the time the sample was received at the laboratory.
8 BULLETIN 369, U.
S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TaBLe II].—Results of the bacteriological examination of water collected from spring No. 3.
Description of sample.
“Clean” bottlerinsed with 100 cc ster-
ile water
Water used for washing and rinsing
Colonies of organisms per cc de
| (ees quantity in which
bottles
Do
Water from feeding tank for bottling. |
6 bottles collected before inspection; |
average results
veloping after— were found—
{
| 4 days’ incubation on |
_. | nutrient gelatin at B. coli.
2days’in- |} 920°C.
cubation |
on nutrient | cy Molds.
agarat |
37°C. Total | Ligue. | 2-0 time | 2 days
count. GeRb tion. | lection.
ce. cc. ce.
2,700 3, 700 110 1.0 gal es Oe eS
37, 000 40, 000 3,300 OL O35 | ees
1,000 2, 100 30 al Pili [Boer yi eae
1,700 1,500 40 aul ep West) Shee oats
14 4 0 (1) (Bs | seeeeeee
8 3 0 () @)es | Seeeeeeces
330 290 190 10.0 LOZ ORS eaee meeetie |
110 170 60 10.0 LONO| epee
170 3, 100 0 1.0 5203) ae
10, 100 33, 500 313 CO I ne eh = ee er
1 No B. coli were present in 10 ce quantities.
2 This determination was made at the time the sample was received at the laboratory.
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PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO
BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDIES.
AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION.
Bacteriological Study of Retail Ice Cream. (Department Bulletin 303.)
Bacteriological Studies of Soils of Truckee-Carson Irrigation Project. (Bureau of
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Bacteria in Milk. (#armers’ Bulletin 490.)
FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS.
Relation of Bacteria to Flavors of Cheddar Cheese. (Bureau of Animal Industry
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Bacteriology of Commercially Pasteurized and Raw Market Milk. (Bureau of Animal
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Bacteriology of Cheddar Cheese. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 150.) Price,
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Methods of Classifying Lactic-Acid Bacteria. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin
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Study of Bacteria which Survive Pasteurization. (Bureau of Animal Industry
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Effect of Copper upon Water Bacteria. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 100,
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14
WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1916
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER July 20, 1916
THE RESULTS OF PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-
BUILDING ROCK.
By Prtvost Hupsarpb, Chemical Engineer, and FRANK H. JACKSON, Jr., Assistant
Testing Engineer.
CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
Introduction lessees _ el pee Ce) ee ee 1 } Interpretation of results of physical
Agencies causing road deterioration__ 2 ECS TS ee A ED aS STI 9
Factors influencing the selection of | Table IV.—Geographical distribution
rock for road building ____________ 2 of samples tested_________________ 12
Physical properties of road-building Table V.—Results of physical tests of
TRO) Le oS gaa ly Al ea Al apc as 3 road-building rock_-___-__________-_ 13
Variations in results of tests___-_-___ 5
INTRODUCTION.
The purpose of this bulletin is to furnish highway engineers with
the results of physical tests of road-building rock made in the labo-
ratories of the United States Office of Public Roads and Rural En-
gineering to January 1, 1916. It is proposed to revise this bulletin
from time to time, so that additional data secured by the office may
become promptly available. Detailed descriptions of the methods
of determining the physical properties of road-building rocks have
been ‘given in a recent publication by Jackson.t. Interpretation of
the results of these tests has, however, been reserved for publication
with the tabulated data here given. It should be noted that Bul-
letins Nos. 347 and 370 therefore constitute a complete revision of
Office of Public Roads Bulletin No. 44, by Albert T. Goldbeck and
Frank H. Jackson, Jr., which was published in 1912. As a matter
of interest it may be stated that since January 1, 1912, approximately
1,350 additional samples have been classified and tested, raising the
total number from the United States and Canada to about 3,650.
1 United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No, 347.
31693°—Bull. 370—16——1
2 BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
AGENCIES CAUSING ROAD DETERIORATION.
Roads may deteriorate from both external and internal causes.
The destructive agencies may be classified as mechanical, chemical,
and physical, but in some respects it 1s more convenient to consider
deterioration as being due to the effect of (1) traffic, (2) climatic con-
ditions, and (8) faulty construction. The first two are external
agencies and the latter is internal.
Traffic—Traffic divides itself into two classes, (a) horse-drawn
vehicles and (b) self-propelled or motor-driven vehicles. In the
former the impact of horses’ feet tends to disturb the position of indi-
vidual fragments of rock in the wearing course and also to fracture
the rock. At the same time wheels, especially steel-tired wheels,
not only exert an abrasive action which grinds away the rock sur-
faces, but tend to crush the fragments of rock in proportion to the
load per unit width of tire.
Automobile traffic exerts a severe shearing action upon the road
surface which tends to loosen the individual fragments and, ulti-
mately, to remove them from the road. Where chains or armored
tires are used, considerable abrasion may also result, especially under
those conditions which favor slipping or skidding.
Climatic agencies.—So far as the rock itself is concerned, climatic
or weather conditions are not important destructive agencies. While
it is true that rain and surface waters gradually dissolve or react
with certain rock-forming minerals, the action is so slow as to be
practically negligible as a source of deterioration during the life of a
road. Frost may cause some deterioration in the more porous types
of rock, but both rain and frost are more destructive to the road
structure than to the rock of which it is built. Wind also is a negli-
gible factor so far as the rock is concerned.
Faulty construction—Faulty construction may resulé in rapid
deterioration of the road proper, due to a number of causes, such as
poor drainage, lack of proper consolidation, the use of the wrong
size or wrong grading of broken stone, etc. Destruction or disinte-
gration of the fragments of rock may also be hastened by these errors
in construction.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SELECTION OF ROCK FOR ROAD
BUILDING.
In accordance with the preceding discussion it is evident that
from the standpoint of destructive agencies traffic conditions are the
most important factors to be considered in the selection ef rock for
road building. Availability as well as relative cost are also impor-
tant factors in so far as ultimate economy is concerned, but need not
be considered in this bulletin. In addition, the type of road to be
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. 3
constructed is a most important consideration, and in general the se-
lection of rock should be based upon the character and volume of
traffic as related to the type of road in which it is to be used.
The more common types of road in which stone is used are:
1. Water-bound broken-stone roads, as macadam, maintained as
such.
2. Water-bound macadam roads maintained with dust palliatives.
3. Water-bound macadam roads with bituminous carpet.
4, Bituminous broken-stone roads with a seal coat of bituminous
material constructed according to the penetration method.
5. Bituminous concrete roads with a seal coat of bituminous
material.
6. Bituminous concrete roads without a seal coat of bituminous
material.
7. Portland cement concrete roads with a coarse aggregate of
broken stone.
8. Stone-block pavements.
The destructive effect of traflic, both with respect to character and
volume, varies to a considerable extent for the different types of
road.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK.
The success or failure of a rock for road building depends largely
upon the extent to which it will resist the destructive influences of
traffic. The three most important physical properties are hardness,
toughness, and binding power. Hardness is the resistance which
the rock offers to the displacement of its surface particles by abra-
sion; toughness is the resistance which it offers to fracture under
impact; and binding power is the ability which the dust from the
rock possesses, or develops by contact with water, of binding the
Jarge rock fragments together. In order to approximate as closely
as possible in the laboratory the destructive effects produced by the
various agencies which have been mentioned, certain physical tests
have been developed. Brief descriptions of these tests are as follows:
HARDNESS TEST.
Hardness is determined by subjecting a cylindrical rock core 25
mm. in diameter, drilled from the specimen to be examined, to the
abrasive action of quartz sand fed upon a revolving steel disk. The
end of the specimen is worn away in inverse ratio to its hardness
and the amount of loss is expressed in the form of a coefficient as
follows: : i
Coefficient of hardness = 20—1/3 w, where w equals the loss in
weight after 1,000 revolutions of the disk.
4 BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
. TOUGHNESS TEST.
‘Toughness is determined by subjecting a cylindrical test specimen
25 by 25 millimeters (1 by 1 inch) in size to the impact produced by
the fall of a 2-kilogram (4.4-pound) hammer upon a steel plunger
whose lower end is spherical and rests upon the test piece. The
energy of the blow delivered is increased by increasing the height of
fall of the hammer 1 centimeter (0.39 inch) after each blow. The
height of blow in centimeters at failure of the specimen is called the
toughness.
DEVAL ABRASION TEST.
A test devised by the French for measuring the combined action
of abrasion and impact is as follows: Five kilograms (11 pounds)
of freshly broken rock between 2 and 24 inches in size is tested in a
special form of cylinder so mounted on a frame that the axis of
rotation of the cylinder is inclined at an angle of 30° with the axis
of the cylinder itself. The fragments of rock forming the charge
are thus thrown from end to end twice during each revolution, caus-
ing them to strike and rub against each other and the sides of the
cylinder. After 10,000 revolutions the resulting material is screened
through a 74-inch sieve and the weight of the material passing is used
to calculate the per cent of wear. The French coefficient of wear is
calculated from the per cent of wear as follows:
. 40
French coeflicient of wear=<——_-_—_—_.
Per cent wear
CEMENTING-VALUE TEST.
To determine the binding power, or cementing value, as it is usually
called, 500 grams (1.1 pounds) of the material to be tested is crushed
to pea size and ground with water in a ball mill until it has the con-
sistency of a stiff dough. It is then molded into cylindrical briquettes
25 by 25 millimeters (1 by 1 inch) in size, which, after thorough dry-
ing, are tested to destruction in a special form of impact machine.
A 1-kilogram (2.2-pound) hammer falls through a constant height
of 1 centimeter (0.89 inch) upon an intervening plunger, which in
turn rests upon the test piece. By means of a suitable arrangement a
graphic record of the number of blows required to destroy the speci-
men is obtained. The number of blows producing failure is called
the cementing value of the material.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY—WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT—WATER ABSORPTION.
The specific gravity, weight per cubic foot, and the water absorp-
tion in pounds per cubic foot are obtained on samples of rock which
are tested to determine their road-building qualities. The weight
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PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. 5
per cubic foot 1s calculated from the specific gravity of the material
obtained on a 10-gram sample by the usual displacement method.
The gain in weight of this fragment after four days’ continuous
immersion in water is used to calculate the water absorption in
pounds per cubic foot of the solid rock.
VARIATIONS IN RESULTS OF TESTS.
Because of the fact that the various rock families, when subjected
to the tests outlined above, give results which are more or less dis-
tinctive of a group or type, these results can best be discussed in many
cases collectively. There are 14 families of rock which are more
or less commonly used in macadam-road construction. The varia-
tions which have been found to exist in the three principal tests for
each of these are shown in graphic form in the accompanying chart.
The values of the tests are arranged as abscissa, with the zero points
to the left and the values numerically increasing toward the right.
The ordinates or vertical lines represent the percentages of the total
number of samples having values corresponding to the abscissz on
which they are plotted. The figures in parentheses in the upper
right-hand corner of each block represent the total number of de-
terminations from which these percentages were calculated.
TRAP-ROCK GROUP.
The first six rock families, Andestte, Basalt, Diabase, Diorite,
Gabbro, and Rhyolite, comprise the well-known group of road-build-
ing rocks commonly known as “trap.” They are all of igneous origin,
but are denser and finer grained than the granites, possessing as a
rule a peculiar interlocking crystalline structure which imparts to
them their distinguishing characteristic—high toughness. Thus, by
referring to the chart, it will be noted that the average toughness of
all the traps, with the exception of gabbro, which runs somewhat
lower, is about 18. This is a considerably higher average than that
shown by any of the other types or groups. The same relationship
holds true in the abrasion test, the average French coefficient of wear
running from about 13 to 15. Comparatively slight variations in
hardness are noted for any family or for the group as a whole, the
average hardness for which is about 18. The binding power of the
traps, as determined by test, varies through wide limits, depending
largely on the degree of weathering they have undergone, as shown
by Lord.t. The specific gravity of this group averages about 2.9,
giving an average weight per cubic foot of 180 pounds. Individual
samples are seldom less than 2.7 nor more than 3.2 specific gravity.
Water absorption may vary from a few hundr a of 1 per cent to
over 7 per cent.
1 United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 348.
6 BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
GRANITES.
Granite, the typical rather coarse-grained igneous rock, is charac-
terized by low toughness and high hardness. The average value for
the former, as will be seen from the chart, is about 8, while that for
the latter runs as high as for the trap group, about 18.5. The abra-
sion test develops an average French coefficient of wear of about 11,
somewhat lower than for the trap-rock group. Cementing values
made on granites run low, as has been demonstrated by experience,
the only exceptions being very highly weathered material which
usually shows low toughness and resistance to wear. ‘The specific
gravity of the granites averages close to 2.7 and is seldom less than
2.6 or more than 2.8. The weight per cubic foot, therefore, averages
168 pounds, and may ordinarily vary from 163 to 175 pounds. Water
absorption has been found to run from about 0.04 to 3 per cent.
LIMESTONES AND DOLOMITES.
The limestones and dolomites, or magnesium limestones, are un-
doubtedly the most widely used road-building rock. It will be seen
from the chart that they run much. lower in hardness, toughness, and
resistance to wear than do the traps or granites. The average French
coefficient of wear is about 8, toughness 7, and hardness 15. The
cementing values are usually good, about 75 per cent of all samples
tested running over 25, The specific gravity of the limestones and
dolomites averages close to 2.7, about that of the granites, and is sel-
dom less than 2.6 or more than 2.85. In general, the weight per cubic
food will run from 160 to 178 pounds, with an average of about 168
pounds for the limestones and 170 pounds for the dolomite. Absorp-
tion may vary from a few hundredths of 1 per cent to over 13 per cent.
SANDSTONES.
The sandstones are characterized by wide variations in the results
of alltests. In fact, the highest and lowest values obtained for all sam-
ples tested have, with one exception, been upon sandstone. The aver-
age French coefficient of wear is about 12, average toughness about 10,
and average hardness about 16. The cementing value of sandstones
varies widely, depending upon their composition. Thus certain
varieties of feldspathic sandstone somewhat resembling trap rock in
appearance almost invariably show high binding value in the labora-
tory. Their specific gravity also varies between wide limits, but
usually lies between 2.4 and 2.8, with an average of 2.62. The weight
per cubic foot therefore varies from 150 to 175 pounds and averages
164 pounds. Absorption runs from a few hundredths of 1 per cent
to about 2 per cent.
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. u
MARBLE AND QUARTZITE.
Marble and quartzite are the two families of nonfoliated meta-
morphic rocks corresponding to limestone and sandstone, respec-
tively. While in some respects it is convenient to consider marble
with the limestone and dolomite group, it will be seen from the chart
that the average toughness of marble, about 5, is lower, and that the
average hardness, which is less than 14, is also somewhat lower.
Marbles usually show good cementing value tests with about the same
range as the limestones and dolomites. For those samples tested, the
specific gravity ordinarily falls between 2.7 and 2.9 and the weight
per cubic foot averages 173 pounds, which is somewhat higher than
the average for either limestone or dolomite. As would therefore be
expected, the maximum absorption is less, being under 2.5 per cent.
Quartzites show an average toughness of 15, as compared with 10
for the sandstones. The coefficient of hardness is also higher and
for the samples tested shows a much smaller range of values than for
the sandstones. The quartzites invariably show a low cementing
value. Their specific gravity from tests made usually lies between
2.6 and 2.8 and their average weight per cubic foot is about 167
pounds. Their water absorption runs from a few hundredths of
1 per cent to nearly 3 per cent.
GNEISS AND SCHIST.
Both gneiss and schist belong to the foliated metamorphic type
of rocks. The former is in reality a metamorphosed granite and
therefore shows physical properties similar to the granites. The
average French coefficient of wear for the gneiss samples is about 9,
being somewhat lower than for the granites, while their average
hardness and toughness is about the same. Their specific gravity,
weight per cubic foot, and absorption are approximately the same
as for granite.
The schists show an average French coefficient of wear of about 12.
Their average hardness is about 17.5 and their toughness averages 11,
the latter being higher than for gneiss. It should be noted, however,
that the toughness test for both gneiss and schist is made perpen-
dicular to the plane of foliation. If taken horizontal to the plane
of foliation much lower results would be obtained, as failure would
then occur along these natural lines of cleavage. The specific gravity
of schists usually lies between 2.65 and 2.90 and the average weight
per cubic foot is about 181 pounds. Water absorption is seldom over
2 per cent for this family.
With the exception of the highly altered varieties, both gneisses
and schists show a rather low cementing value.
8 BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
CHERT.
Chert is a very hard material, but frequently shows a low resist-
ance to wear, owing to its tendency to fracture along lines which
have developed as shrinkage cracks in the rock structure. For this
reason it is extremely difficult to test for toughness. The cementing
value of pure chert is usually low, but some highly weathered deposits
develop in service good cementing value, especially if a high-binding
clay is associated with it. Comparatively few samples which have
been submitted for examination have been found suitable for all tests.
Of those examined, however, the French coefficient of wear has
usually been found to lie between 2 and 8, with an average of 5;
toughness between 7 and 26, with an average of 16; and the hardness
coefficient between 19 and 20. Specific gravity usually lies between
2.4 and 2.65 and the average weight per cubic foot is about 160
pounds. Water absorption may run from a few tenths of 1 per cent
to over 8 per cent.
SHALE AND SLATE.
Shales and slates are highly laminated rocks that tend to break
into flat plates not suitable for road-building purposes. They are
seldom used in road construction, except perhaps as a filling for sub-
foundations. They vary greatly in nearly all of their physical
properties. :
RARE ROAD-BUILDING ROCKS.
A comparatively few samples of a number of families of rocks
which are occasionally used in road building have been examined in
the laboratories of the United States Office of Public Roads and
Rural Engineering. They need not be considered in detail, but the
usual ranges as well as the averages of results of the more important
physical tests of these rocks are given in Table I.
Taste I.—The rare road-building rocks.
French coefficient
Nee ete Toughness. Hardness.
bere f Name. SS eee
ples. Ordinary | Aver- | Ordinary | Aver- | Ordinary | Aver-
range. age. range. age. range. age.
20.) Amphibolitest: stir. J. Se eee 11. 3-26.7 16.7 12-40 19] 16.6-19.0 17.5
10h clogitets S55 73k se SEES Shas s 12. 7-22.7 16.1 14-28 26 | 18.4-19.3 18.5
L2H WE pid Sitemeter aac hta.- an) a le 10. 0-18. 7 13.0 10-23 16 | 17.6-19.5 18.0
TT Hels tess eee ee Bone Sa 11. 9-21.3 LOWS dl Sao ee 16 Stee. cLelee 18.7
G2 | [PRerid otitesae seat mesic eae 7. 6-138. 2 10.3 9-12 10 | 13.3-16.6 15.0
SHiiSenpentinewseeae ces isace ae 2. 6-14. 2 10.1 11-21 14 | 18.3-18.6 18.4
| PABLO UGA dorado cau SSaRUaueROReO 11. 5-28. 5 16. 2 21-34 22 | 17.7-19.1 18.1
19s MOV ONTO sarees ens coe see 7.0-18.7 13.1 8-22 14 17. 3-19. 2 18.1
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. 9
SLAGS.
Many slag varieties resemble in certain outward respects the com-
mon road-building rocks. However, in general, they are more porous
and glassy, and vary so greatly in physical properties that with ref-
erence to their physical characteristics from the standpoint of road
construction they can not well be considered as a single class with
definite limits or general average numerical values.
INTERPRETATIONS OF RESULTS OF PHYSICAL TESTS.
The results of physical tests are only of value in predetermining
the suitability of a rock for a given type of road under given condi-
tions when the behavior of other rocks, having the same general
physical characteristics, is known. Much investigation is still neces-
sary to accurately correlate laboratory tests with service results, but
in this connection certain facts have been determined from experi-
ence, which may be briefly discussed under the different types of
roads.
As the amount of traffic to which a road is or will be subjected is
a most important consideration, and as the terms light, moderate,
and heavy are commonly used in describing the amount of traffic,
such terms should be defined. For the purpose of comparison it has
been assumed that traffic of less than 100 vehicles per day is light,
between 100 and 250 moderate, and over 250 heavy.
WATER-BOUND MACADAM ROADS.
The ideal rock for the construction of a water-bound macadam
road resists the wear of traffic to which it is subjected to just that
extent which will supply a sufficient amount of cementitious rock
dust to bind or hold the larger fragments in place. It is generally
admitted that the ordinary macadam road is not well suited to any
considerable amount of automobile traffic, because such traffic rap-
idly removes the binder without producing fresh material to take its
place.
Cementing value is a necessary quality for rocks used in macadam
road construction. As determined by test, cementing values below
25 are called low; from 26 to 75, average, and above 75, high. In
general, the cementing value should run above 25. For rocks which
show a low French coefficient of wear, however, a relatively high
cementing value is more necessary than for those which have a high
French coefficient. Interpretation of results of the cementing value
_ test is subject to a number of influencing considerations. For in-
stance, it has been found that certain feldspathic varieties of sand-
stone give excellent results in this test, while experience has shown
that they do not bind well when used in the wearing course of
macadam roads. In the case also of certain varieties of the trap
10 BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
group low results are frequently shown by laboratory tests for rocks
which bind quite satisfactorily upon the road, provided traffic is suf-
ficiently heavy to supply the requisite ‘amount of fine material. Cer-
tain granites, gneisses, and schists which are not suitable for use as
binding material give good results in this test. In such cases it is
usually found that the highly altered nature of the material reduces
its toughness and resistance to wear to such an extent as to condemn
it, for use.
Experience has shown that in general the following table of limit-
ing values for the French coefficient of wear, toughness, and hardness
may be used in determining the suitability of a rock for the con-
struction of the wearing course of a macadam road:
TABLE IIl.—Limiting values of physical tests of rock for water-bound macadam
road construction.
Limits of tests.
Character of traffic.
French coefficient of wear. Toughness.) Hardness.
1Brt-d ir SOLS S ORS eee SRS 5-8= (5-8 per cent wear). ./Jv2! LULL false. its 5-9 10-17
Moderates: oti see ese. 8=15=\(2:7=5' percent Wean)e -o:J\//- tees - + teaaeneeee 10-18 | Over 14
HMeavyii i. tii - i ti42! Over 15= (less than 2.7 per cent wear)...--..--.--------- Over 18 Over 17
With relation to the limitations for hardness it may be noted that
as a result of comparing hardness and toughness tests of some 3,000
samples, the authors? have shown that when any given value for
toughness falls within certain limits which define the suitability of
the material for macadam road construction under given traffic
conditions, the corresponding value for hardness will fall within
similar limits for hardness. In this connection it will be seen, in
Table I, that a maximum limit for hardness is only given in the
case of vere traffic. It has been found that the great majority of
samples having a French coefficient of wear of from 5 to 8 and a
hardness of over 17 are granites, quartzites, and hard sandstones,
which are unsuited for use in the wearing course of water- bound
macadam roads due to their lack of binding power.
BITUMINOUS ROADS.
For broken-stone roads which are maintained with dust palliatives,
the same limits for French coefficient of wear and toughness should
hold as for ordinary macadam roads.
In bituminous work observations indicate that in some cases it is
advantageous to use a rock of relatively high absorption rather than
one with low absorptive qualities, owing to a better adhesion of the
bituminous material by a partial surface impregnation of the rock.
1 Relation Between the Properties of Hardness and Toughness of Road-Building Rock,
Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. VY, No. 19, D-3.
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. 11
While the binding or cementing value of a rock is a most impor-
tant consideration from the standpoint of ordinary macadam con-
struction, the same is not true of broken-stone roads which are car-
peted or constructed with an adhesive bituminous material. The
French coefficient of wear is also of relatively less importance, ow-
ing to the fact that the fine mineral particles produced by the
abrasion of traffic combine, or should combine, with the bituminous
material to form a mastic which is held in place and protects the
underlying rock from abrasion so long as by proper maintenance it
is kept intact. The toughness of the rock is of more importance, as
the shock of impact is to a considerable extent transmitted through
the seal coat and may cause the underlying fragments to shatter.
Tt would, therefore, seem that the minimum toughness of a rock for
use in the construction of a bituminous broken-stone road or a
broken-stone road with a bituminous-mat surface should, for light
traflic, be no less than for ordinary macadam subjected to the same
class of traffic. For moderate and heavy traffic, however, the same
minimum toughness should prove sufficient, owing to the cushioning
effect of the bituminous matrix. No maximum limit of toughness
need be considered for any traffic.
In the case of bituminous concrete roads, where the broken stone
and bituminous material are mixed prior to laying and consolidation,
it generally appears advisable to set a minimum toughness of 6 or 7
for light-traflic roads, instead of 5, in order to insure that the frag-
ments of rock which have been coated with bitumen shall not be
fractured under the roller during consolidation; and 12 or 13 for
moderate and heavy traffic, instead of 10 and 19, as in the case of
water-bound macadam roads.
Bearing in mind the fact that availability, cost, and various local
conditions may often modify the selection of proper limits, Table III
may be used as a general guide for minimum limits of French co-
efficient of wear and toughness in connection with bituminous broken-
stone roads.
TaBLe Ill.—Minimum limits of physical tests of rock’ for bituminous-road
construction.
Light to moderate traffic. Moderate to heavy traffic.
Type ofroad. 4
rrench coefficient of French coefficient of
Caan Toughness. Woon ta °" | Toughness.
Broken stone with bituminous
carpet. (5= (not over 8 per cent 5 7=(not over 5.7 per
Bituminous broken stone with wear). cent wear). \ 1
seal coat. : i
Bituminous concrete with or | 7=(not over 5.7 per 7 10=(not over 4 per 13
without seal coat. cent wear). cent wear).
12 BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE AND STONE BLOCK.
The most desirable limitations for broken stone to be used as coarse
ageregate in Portland cement concrete wearing surfaces has not as
yet been ascertained. In general, however, it would seem that the
low limit for hardness should be no less than the hardness of the
mortar which binds the rock fragments together. At the present
time a minimum hardness of 12 for moderate and 16 for heavy traffic
would appear reasonable. In consideration of the type of traffic to
which concrete roads are subjected, a minimum toughness of 8 is
suggested.
Stone blocks are usually manufactured from granite or sandstone,
although other rocks may also be used. Specifications for granite
block adopted in 1914 by the American Society of Municipal Improve-
ments? call for a toughness of not less than 9 and a crushing strength
of not less than 20,000 pounds per square inch. It would appear wise
to also require that the hardness be not less than 16.
APPENDIX.
The results of all of the physical tests made on rock samples in the
laboratory of the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering
from the date of its installation in 1902 up to January 1, 1916, are
included in Table V, together with the results obtained by Logan
Waller Page for the Massachusetts State Highway Commission
previous to 1902.
The rocks are classified according to their location, so that this
table shows the availability and character of the materials, as far as
they have been tested, throughout the United States.
Table IV shows the number of samples of material tested in the
different States.
TABLE 1V.—Geographical distribution of samples tested.
Number Number Number
(0) Ce) of
State. samples State. samples State. samples
tested. tested. tested.
ATSDAMB? oc ciscccee eS 29 || Massachusetts. 179 || South Dakota......... 11
IATIZONA seemless 3 || Michigan... .. 84 || Tennessee....-.-- 3 61
Arkansas. 14 || Minnesota. 16 || Texas.......... 62
Califormiakts ren 101 || Mississippi 117] Uae 13
Colorado.........----- 21 || Missouri. ... 33 || Vermont......- 32
Connecticut........... 43 || Montana............-. 4 || Virginia............... 404
Delaware..........- 30 || Nebraska.........-..-- 11 |} Washington........... 212
Blond ay sre OS 9 || New Hampshire...... 22 || West Virginia........- 139 .
Georrias ne ty See 157 || New Jersey........--- 72 || Wisconsin. ..........- 139
Raa oe ea ai 9 || New York...........- 136 || Wyoming............- 3
AUInG isso sesh 122 || North Carolina........ 137 —-—_
Indiana yeas. Eien 151 TOs Se LAN SET 138 3, 605
TO Wale eRe egos ie 23 |} Oklahoma.........-.- 50)'|) Canadauaat ae. Wines 49
Kansas 32) se eae 11 |} Oregon..............-- 14 |} Porto Rico...........- 12
Kentueky sass ee 41 || Pennsylvania........- 599 uba....... Pisa Cy te dd 4
Louisiana 32 sn es 7 || Rhode Island......... 38
Maines) vo a ea 72 || South Carolina... ....- 26 Total sarees 3, 670
Maryland ecco eo joes 116
ments, p. 511.
1 Proceedings of the 1914 Convention of the American Society of Municipal Improve-
13
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK.
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