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COD OCT NN Be SPOON CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 371. pT EONBeE DIVIDENDS IN COOPERATIVE GRAIN COMPANIES: GEOG LTONE seis ai isicre wiser esc ae Sie ees Su mmcle son eels Fe es ear ea ease Cooperative organization in relation to patronage-dividend payments. .... Accounting and business practice in relation to patronage-dividend pay- TOSI, oo SSS he SSeS ENS NS ay AS re A Oe eas Ras Mears Publications of the United States Department of Agriculture relating to COOPEEALIVC MATK OGIO ae Soles stasis apeaia oe io scijate hee somes oes wate DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 372.—COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF THYMOL FROM Horsemint (Monarpa. Puncrata): VEaADRC GLU HLC hs Beas Saeco ea eS ee ERR pe UR SAL Colomalemethods for horsemintsss.0 3.02 eo ees ee TS IBA OST G ss Oa lee ane 2 ee PR eh At DU) eR eee ee TD TSR Sion sie tae cha cot NS lo cl ae re te ge eE e Exirachonomtherthym olsen 2s hos ee eae: Se EOE oe ia STRONG! TOGIE GYR e as ee MIS UNS © ob ate Ot aN <0 Sage 207 — We) he | | i" 5 \| BU ose, od. ke 2, he eds errr iia a G SAT Rs Be 2 esate ae ade Ww, OLE A =p beth =k Pen 8 INDEX. Bulle- Acacia— tin No. gregeli, occurrence and forage value, Arizona........------------ 367 palida, forest tree for Porto Rico, reeommendations.....-.----.---- 354 Accounts— patronage dividend payments in cooperative grain companies. 371 system for primary grain elevators, bulletin by John H. Humphrey TAC AOL Meee Sie Saree ia ig bee a cas se ais 362 See also Bookkeeping. Agriculture, extension course in soils for self-instructed classes in mov- ‘able schools, bulletin by A. R. Whitson and H. B. Hendrick....-.. 355 Agowansceussource-of thyMol 5.520525. se se cn coe cose et ee 372 Alabama rocks, Toad-pulldine. physical’ tests: (2. - 5-00-2522 522-0 ose 370 Alaska wheat— description, history, and variant names............-..---.------- 357 PRPIOMBIMNOR, » sneeeede San sheadsg = ceaeseneddsoscs a seccossecee 357 varieties misrepresented, bulletin by Carleton R. Ball and Clyde TB); LEGS USE Se ra re ee a ee Aare mR cere 357 yields, milling and baking tests, comparisons with other varieties. . 357 Alfalfa— curing, moisture loss during early stages. ...-.-.-.--.------------ 353 erowing, moisture content, changes during a day......---------- 353 moisture:content at different|stages. ~ -Mcj-jis. seinciste esse. 2s oc 3534 Aristida— bromordes, occurrence, growth habits and forage value, Arizona... 367 divaricata, occurrence, growth habits, and forage value, Arizona... 367 Arizona— ROCkAaroad-pullding, physicalttests. ) 2 s2s22 5452.25. 5 ee cee 370 Santa Rita Range Reserve, forage, nature, and distribution......- 367 southern— climatic conditions of Santa Rita Range Reserve........-...- 367 grazing ranges, carrying capacity, bulletin by E. O. Wooton.. 367 Arizona-Egyptian cotton, spinning tests with Sea Island and Sakellari- . dis Egyptian varieties, ‘pulletin by Fred Taylor and William 8. Dean. 359 Arkansas— pink corn worm, occurrence and damage to stored corn. ...--.----- 363 rocks, road- building, physical testsiss Auta oo Sais hee oie es ee 370 Arsenate, ‘Tead, use against cherry leaf beetle, experiments. Ep -- ot ooe Auditing, erain elevator books, importance and recommendations peas 362 Bacilli, presence in commercial bottled waters, organism isolated, list.. 369 Bacillus, coli, presence in bottled waters, significance Bears aees aera 369 Bacterial count, milk, comparison with the sediment or dirt test, bulle- tin by H. C. Campbell Dens CMCC ar meee een nan Os eran rane ieee 361 Bacteriological studies— eommercialthattled waters (4 255. j8cu. Abget 2. greece -b. 369 publications of Department, liste ee eee 369 BALL, CARLETON Bi and CiybDE E. Lerienry, anetn on “Alaska and Stoner,” or “Miracle” wheats: Two varieties much misrepresented .. 357 Batrachedra rileyi. See Corn worm, pink. Bean, mesquite, forage value, Rrionait: Cee ee eee ee 367 Beetle, cherry leaf, a periodically important enemy of cherries, bulletin by R. A. Cushman and Diol Wselys oes 5 5 eed yaya se 352 Beets, sugar, soil requirements, lesson for movable school.........---.- 355 -. 15810°—17——2 9 \ 24, 26-27 9-10 13-15 13 Salis; 10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 351-875. Bulle- Bibliography— tin No. cherryleat beetle .22 ci! ooo Spee a 302 forests of Porto Ricos se. = SoS ao. eee Geet 354 MIStICtOe se. <2 aN ayers 2 3 SUN ee Na A ea ee 360 PUK HCONT Worm ys ee ees OTN ERS ee ete ee oe ee 363 terrapin scale | emer: ooo. Coreen enn pele ee 351 Birds— dissemination, of mistletoe seed,,note 2.222825. 12. 22552 ene 360 scarcity on cane plantations in Porto Rico, remedies, suggestions.. 354 Bituminous roads, rock requirements for different kinds of traffic. .... - 370 Black-grama grass, occurrence, growth habits, and forage value, Arizona. 367 Bleaching— cotton, fumigated and unfumigated lint, comparisons. .........-. 366 cotton yarns, tests of different COUUOUS eee ee eee 359 Boerner, KE. G., bulletin on ‘‘The intrinsic values of grain, cotton seed, flour, and similar products, based on the dry-matter content”... ... 374 Boll weevil— development in squares and bolls, comparison. ..---.--.-.-..---- 358 fecundity, studies; tabulated datas... 222... -2 secon ao eee 358 feedinie; habits. ss... Se sete yee Meters 3 /aierevare arate ms Nee ee eye ee 358 females; oviposition... 22. [2% Whe ce Seon. apa aac oes 3584 siood plants 7 (se roa xe soos nS ee gs °.. Se penrenttes tener Mate era 358 generations, number and dates of development.........--......-- 358 longevity under various conditions, records... ..---....--0202.2. 358 Mexican cotton, Mississippi Valley, studies, bulletin by R. W. 1S ONE rene oan Home he BOO Hb Se Ores One ERCOSSCHBUENoR Gb oss 358 Sexes e PrOpOrtlOnes tee cen elie Seton ween ee 358 Bookkeeping— elevator, system of Office of Maricts and Rural Organization...... 362 elevator BYSCCMB es Nessa Sag ot Atco aie ens erate eaten a one 362 patronage-dividend payments in cooperative grain companies. ...- Bil Bottle, milk— SLOG GION oe aie e aid a siete Sc ncleaye nia a ~ cteyetelbie, «sie e Se eRe eae eee 356 treatmentitor-contestimilki2 22's 3. s.stesene- sec e Sees 356 Bouteloua— aristidoides, occurrence, growth, habitat, and forage value, Arizona. 367 rothrockii, occurrence, growth habits, and forage value, Arizona... 367 Brick— inspection and testing for paving, methods.......-.-....-------- 373 manufacture, processes and ep aeeatk RE Ra oa eee 373 pavements— GCOSbs ILEMIS Ue ace ca asies wee ee a ae ce ec ak re eee 373 maintenance SIaIE aD io DODO ECan HE 4 DSS oOMnBeBUAoE Ode se doc 373 paving— abrasion test,;method ic. cee cee ae ae ee a ee 373 crushing strength, discussion 2. 73 eG eee SSS eee eee 373 requirements SSO BAe Spee HO Cpa Epn a OSU NOHCAEBO SER Oboe oes 6 373 roads, bulletin by Vernon M. Peirce and Charles H. Moorefield.... 373 testaapparatusvand operation:2.2.....sgs2= «-eeecceec. a eee .. s7af testine?for road pavement eit? < t22 aes aie a boa eee 373 Brooxs, CHARLES, and D. F. Fisuer, bulletin on ‘“‘ Brown rot of prunes and cherries in the Pacific Northwest”. .....2..02.-se0s.eeeceeeeee 368 Brown rot— prunes and cherries, distributing agents, note...........-....----- 368 prunes and cherries in Pacific N orthwest, bulletin by Charles Brooks: and). F. -Pisherises a: = fy. ses 3s SN as 368 Brusu, W. D., Lours S. Murray, “and C. D. MELL, article on ‘‘Trees of Porto Rico 2. UatAGe NIL T Honan eosin owe toes code. eee 304 Cabbage, soil requirements, note..--...-.--.2+---2-2--22-22- uO) Oe 355 Cacao— industry in Granada ge Seah noe SORE AO DS aes 354 Plantations imek ontowkilcoe sass maces oo. ema oat ace nna meee 394 California, rock, road- -building, physical testes... 2c. e2. 2+ <- we eee 270 INDEX. 11 Bulle- tin No. Page. CamMPBELL, H. C., bulletin on Comparison of the bacterial count of mille with the sediment or dirt test”. ......+2.-.01+-s+eee25ee20--: 361 1-7 Canada, rocks, road-building, physical tests. - 2 be O02 99100 Cane plantations, Porto Rico, scarcity of birds, remedies, ‘suggestions. --- 304 49 Carbon bisulphid, use against pink corn worm, directions and value... 363 16-18 Se ummajomanvoil, source of thymol. 2...) ofc ete ieee co cia eeia-e 372 10 10-11 = attlespoisonine by larkspur, symptoms, et¢C....2222 2.22 452225 242. - 365 Ronee 82-84 cleny, icolkrequirements, Note: s.2.2-5-- 020. 0s- cece e este ee esiet 355 82 Cement— blacks road-buildine, requirements:)..2...0 52 ..24--221-.-2 scenes: 370 12 LOL SUC KALE (UITeMeN ts oi... 2 o(c oe cee bese crear cee esis Se 370 12 Cereals, soil requirements, lesson for movable school...-.-.-.-..------- 355 83 Charecaltpmdustry,1n: Porto Rico... ... +. 25. .eeeizeek os Hoes see sae8 354 44-45 Cherries— blossom infection by brown rot, investigations and treatment, Wash- . AC LOM ER Siete Sora ena. 3 ce EVD fore = aS Ugo = cheers 368 9 brown rot— (and of prunes), Pacific gud, bulletin by Charles Brooks aid! 1D. 195) IMG CW ae s8hce saccades eoasecduamoe: Beate 368 1-10 spraying experiments, recon Lesale alaeettia 3 aus etuep etre tare eavene te aimee 368 9-10 enemy, cherry leaf beetle, bulletin by R. A. Cushman and Dwight Weel b7< Seis AEE RS PS NE So ea hie Sie Le 352 1-28 Cherry— early Richmond, injury to trees by cherry leaf beetle............-- 302 6 leaf beetle— a periodically important enemy of cherries, bulletin by R. A. Cnshmanvand Dywieht Isely.2. esse oes 02 eee See 352 1-28 control, experiments. ssteia nie wisieiue ope eeeey s By peyepaees eseaaye sale 352 19-24 control of larvae, difficulties and recommendations ........-. 352 23-24 PEC MIME MAD IS son. 2 Socios 5 ie wa Seite PENG etre erga ae 352 5-6 food plants, distribution and historical notes............---.-. 352 2-5 MEP MIS CONV CLC. ocio.c nk oateye fests a Meese tat erg anys ys © Eyre ms a ee 302 6-18 Guibreak 95 iistoryen 2 i us Se hg 8 ey eee i ese re 352 3-5 trees, defoliation by cherry, leai;beetless: BP 24.280 see Rea ees 352 6 Sheri road pull ding properties. ecg oss ewer tae eel Sache. biseoe oe 370 8 CuItrENDEN, F. H., bulletin on ‘The pink corn worm: An insect de- SunMeLINeTLO,COEMeN GHC) CTD: sceoccan ils) s cca Soto ce aire eae teae 363 1-20 Crawson, A. B., C. Dwicut Marsn, and HapieicH Mars, bulletin on “Larkspur poisoning Of liverstoclaye ie Same SOeara te Vea ieae 365 1-91 Clay soils, management, lesson for movable school.............------- 395 = 71-74 Clays, brick— jleanness? and ‘fatness!’ usesol, terms ce 226 eee. So oe St Sees 373 3 Maiwuine aNcere quire CT tS. caete aio yifr (si ee He ae Pee ela [eter yes 373 2-3 Coccinellidae, enemies of terrapin scale, note..........---------------- 351 63 Ao comutgoalm, CTOVeSs, POLLO.RICOs..- 5-2-0 eee oe a ye eee ee 304 34-85 Coffee— PORES Pee OFLO RAC Oc isc oc sicicjeia sso eee Hee Teen eee Sere 354 35 shading with leguminous trees, practices and advantages........-- 354 35-36 Colorestandards:toncottom=scecwesmece esis foe Go. eee oe eee 366 12 Colorado— rocks, rcad-building, physical tests .....-..-.....---.----------- 370 17 sheen, poisoning byglarkspUts: ees es. ee sae fer ce fener 365 11-13 Conifers— ; fungous— 4 Pp ircks, relation(to mistletoe! bumls.23 sm 7. sie gers yo spo 360 25-26 i enemies, occurrence and relation to mistletoe burls..........- 360 25-28 r imine by.mistletoe, MAtUre: 5... -. ses sakemwee eee eee “Gla oas = 360 2-13 i mistletoe-infected— y €mecton crowthi co 2s.-1.42 peyeie pei eee peor © eb days Mere 360 2-11 relation fofinscet attack ett wae Rabiete ena h RL Loy 360 28-30 Northwest, injury by mistletoe, bulletin by James i. Weir lach yo 360 1-38 ~.Beed production, Telation to mistletoe tayurys 24-4 eee eee 360 30-31 species injured by mistletoe.............-----------2------------ 360 1 , 12 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 351-375 Bulle- tin No- Page. Connecticut rocks, road-building, physical tests.....................- 370 =: 17-18 | ‘“Conuco” farming system, Porto Rico... Sens ae 354 13 Cook, L. B. , ERNEST Ketry, and J. A. Gamstg, bulletin on “Milk and cream Constests?? 60.3200 0 220. aio 7. eee ae he ae 306 1-24 Corn— fumigation against pink corm WOrM......2222-10 S55. 6b ee 363 16-18 soil requirements, lesson formovable schools =: 2 ns. 3. eee 355 =: 80-81 storage in husk, danger from pink corn worm.............-------- 363 15 stored, destruction by pinkscorn ‘worm. heii). eee ee 363 2-3 value on dry-matter basis, comparative studies, tabulated......... 374 30-32 Corn worm, pink— bibliography Bada Gob rect, aie ctcae a Sart cain 5 cee eho areata 2 yeni Oe eee 363 19-20 controlsmeasures).- 3) Bodin eo 5 eee ee SrA OUy a isan 363 14-18 deseription and life-history .2.-5.. 2. .--.2.22 522: eee 363 3-6 destructiveness on corn in the crib, bulletin by F. H. Chittenden... 363 1-20 distribution and records of injury... 2552-2. 22/3). Sa ee 363 6-12 Rife dale es TROStS ate, RRS AD sarc ceiase case tet sinte «SRN cyte ee eee 363 { 13, 14 imjury to corn, nature and extent. .< 22s... Sa eee 363 2-3 Corn-ear worm, relation to damage by pink corn worm, note. ......... 363 3, 10 Corn-husk moth. See Corn worm, pink. Cotton— boll weevil— Mexican, in Mississippi Valley, studies, bulletin by RoW: OW i ed oso hed oils on eR OS icin a Sievers oo on ee 358 1-32 See also Boll weevil. fumigation with hydrocyanic- -acid gas, manufacturing tests, bulle- tin by Walltam'S 2D ean ose oo. aes See 2 at eee 366 1-12 gins, outturns from seed cotton, lint, seed, and trash, by grades and Marketsess ss ses so sta c ss snc Game SAS Mee 375 4-6 new variety, introduction, difficulties... .-) 5.22.12... soet ae 359 16-17 outturns from gin, percentage Of seed cottons 1001 os 375 4-6 pinc. seis fe. ghee ee eS 3! 356 See also Milk. CRESWELL, CHARLES F., bulletin on ‘‘ Disadvantages of selling cotton (Hh N® SHC.” Sos Seeds ee PESE Skt cEnaees Amen ames 7 a Meare papa maria 375 Crops— rotation, advantages and systems, lessons for movable school... .---- 395 soil adaptation, lesson for movable school..............2..-------- 359 Crowfoot grama grass, occurrence, growth habits and forage value. ....... 367 Gubarockssroad pbuilding, physical tests....c-l2e5. fos es 370 Cucurbitsysolirequirements; mote sess eee eee eee el: 399 Curbinebrick-paved-roadsy.construction<: -.222 020 hice. 2 Po bee 373 CusHMAN, R. A., and Dwicurt Isrery, bulletin on ‘‘The cherry leaf beetle, a periodically important enemy of cherries”......-..--------- 352 Cymene, separation from thymol in horse-mint oil...........22222-2---- 372 Dairy Show, National, milk and cream contests...............--.----- 356 Damnymensibenefits of milk contests..... 565624 S240 8 3.2 OSE 356 Dean, Witi1AM S.— and Frep Taytor, bulletin on ‘‘Comparative ee tests of the different grades of Arizona- Egyptian with Sea Island and Sakel- PAniGicie Aptian. COULONS 2. aan tien ke Ah HSRC Ge Ahi eis eid 359 bulletin on “Mant ufacturing tests of cotton fumigated with hydro- GyAMIe=ACIAhC AS Were es 2 oe oe SO SSS I ES EA 366 Delaware rocks -road- building physical teste c2 2 -ij-- orn 370 Delphinin, effects on animals, experiments! Wee Set ee eee MOOS 1365 Delphinium— alkaloids, investigations and discussion... . -... - Rg SP ce See val es ea Fe 365 species— considered in peeeHt poeouue: 4 deseriptionss2o22 es 365 poisonous, list. - SRE! Boss ci crsekos Soles SEL SOOO See also Larkspur. Dirt test, milk, comparison with bacterial count, bulletin by H. C. (Cereal O1OveN Ss Se ee AS ae eee ree PUR cect) ruiepierys amend sees eV Ey AAas 361 Wistillationhorsemunt.oil yields;ete.csi2 88 Wake es BO erase: 372 Dolomites, road- building PTOPCLbICR HAVEL RM Tee eRe oe Ge 370 “Dolphin flower.” See, Larkspur. Dramege, sole lesson for movable school..s. 22... 4.52 te 300 Dyeing cotton yarns— . ect of hydrocyanic-acid gas fumigation, tests.......-......-.---- 366 TESTS OMGIeTent COLLONS. 28 Pee PIL Me ee 359 Pyesscontomrcolor-standards: 728 0! 2 soi Sg RGR Yh AS e90 Tat 366 Eden wheat. See Stoner wheat. Education, agriculture, extension courses in soils for self-instructed Clossesimaumovalble schools. 2 220) les aan es caeala ir eee EON Cae eke ee Tee 355 Egyptian wheat. See Alaska wheat. Elevator— companies, cooperative organization, relation to patronage-divi- GSO AyINCTOS oe as je Ae ts! eee SER SRD ea 371 grain, office equipment, REQ WikeMen tel? fees sy eee ee LRAT Oe ale 362 Elevators, erain, system of accounts for, bulletin by John R. Humphrey PraeiVeR ED Rone 5 Sa Senne oe = ke nM RO ot ao Tapes 362 frosion, retardation on range lands; Arizona-.-2-....-..2..--.-2---2-2- "307 Bulecanium PORES Te See Terrapin scale. Farming, Porto Rico— REOMUCO! ” SySveneei eters beett RTS ee AN Ne LO RS ced Seed 354 land utilization, practices, and recommendations. - Yds ERT STO OF Fertilizers— horse-mint crowing, 6x periments..2).).. 13) ee Re ae HeEssonniOn MONA bleSCh@ol seme celts akan cae ee eee Ee Is 300 Filtering, milk, practices of dairymen....-: Sa a Pas BOE eee 361 Filters, milk, comparison of ditierent kan otek. Soe WS Ge EBA Sa 361 SY) 14 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 351-375. Bulle- Fir, Douglas— tin No. mistletoe infestation in Northwest.-..:2...2......2..22..2..0.05. 360 mistletoe-infested , growth rates2. 2-2-2 22202222 n ee ee 360 Fire protection, southern pine region, economic considerations. ....... 364 Fires, forest— effect.on forage‘and new srowthhs... 7222.2 se A Te 367 relation of ‘watches’ brooms?< im Northwest: 2-22 05-222:452epeee 360 southern -pinewresion, losses frome. 252 he te ee 364 Fisseér, D. F., and CHARLES Brooks, bulletin on “ Brown rot of prunes and cherries in the Pacific Northwest”. .......-2.--20l--22-20----- 368 Flavor, mill;ciniluences: esses 22 2: Se ee 356 Florida rocks, road-building, physical tests... “io! sens ye 370 Flour— buying and selling on dry-matter basis, advantages and considera- TIONS SSS eas fs Pe ese MSE eae es 374 value based on dry-matter content (and grain, cottonseed, and similar products), bulletin by E. G. Boerner...........-..-.--. 374 values, on dry-matter basis, deterimination methods............... 374 Forage— curing, loss of moisture during early stages...........-22...--.22022- 353 moisture content— bulletin by H. N. Vinall and Roland McKee................. 353 comparisons, of different kinds. 1.2.22. 4s sss55520..05_ 2) eee 353 plants, moisture content, relation to stage of growth.............-- 353 shrinkage, bulletin by H. N. Vinall and Roland McKee.........-. 353 southern Ari izona, nature and distribution on Santa Rita Range ROSOIW.@2/a)i a2 ee a asec swe 3. 2 SR eet 367 sun-dried, comparison with shade-dried samples........-.......... 353 yields, correction, use Obsamples. 3... eee eee ae oo ee 353 Forest— conservation, southern pine region, bulletin by J. Girvin Peters... 364 southern pine region, losses from... 0). os inane 364 industries in Porto Rico,.-s..t6.--... co. 2 2e.02 1 scl ae 354 management— Porto Rico— recommend ationse: aco .2 2s ee eee 354 recommendations by Board of Commissioners of Porto Rico. 354 practices and needs in southern pine region. .........-......- 364 planting, Porto Rico, need and recommendations..............-.. 304 products, Porto Rico, MOLE. Sia oe ee Ee es ele Oe eee 304 relation of “witches’ brooms” in Northwest...........-..++--+--- 360 Forestry— Departments, State, establishment and advantages......-.-.----- 364 Statecaid: trom: Hederal Government-:=5--24 + 2.222 (Si 2 sseeeee 364 Forests— conservation, publications of Department relating to.........---- 364 deciduous, Porto Rico, characteristics and occurrence. ..-.-...----- 354 pine, grazing practices and damage in South. =<. 222. 22222 s2eeee 364 Porto Rico— ibibliographysie ta bes Sie. AR ae ee ee 354 past, present, and future, and their physical and economic environment, bulletin by Louis S. Murphy. 2: = 5-2 ---- see 354 State-owned, advantages Sal ieee). eRe eee 364 taxation in Porto Rico, objection and recommendations. -....---.- 354 Forty-to-one wheat. See Stoner wheat. Fruits, deciduous— insects injurious, Department publications relating to....-....-.-- 352 insects injurious, publications of Department relating toi bol Fruit-tree leaf syneta, injury to prunes, Pacific Northwest, “note: - 262880 368 Fumigation, cotton, effect of hydrocyanic-acid gas, manufacturing tests, bulletin by William Sy Dean... sc2.f) 4) dee oe gees Geen ee ee 366 Galerucella cavicollis. See Cherry leaf beetle! GAMBLE, J. A., ERNEST Ketzy, and L. B. Cook, bulletin on “Milk and prea contests” ieee BL, et oy aire a ee as Ane 306 Georgia, rocks, road-building, physical ‘iss BP ujel. Secedpin cee aan ree 370 1-24 19-23 INDEX. Bulle- tin No. Gins, cotton, outturns from seed cotton, lint, seed, and trash, by grades emi) TOME RE HS ok al eal a ae scr fee ms yt op DD Se ae enter Nd 375 emeiseerosxdopuildine properties...22.2s22. 02 On ee 370 Grain— 5 buying and selling on dry-matter basis, advantages and considera- {U1 ING ene eee reeds ee oes wee roe esc creaye oid Urea ysis alm cpruseat eye ey anevtrniavs ib) Spey 374 companies, cooperative, patronage dividends, bulletin by John R. Bee chomlplreysads Wis Ee OK erm 22 ble Dike. Lee ee 371 elevator, office equipment, requirements. . 362 elevators, primary, system of accounts for, “pulletin by John R. Humphrey BGs He Cereus ee EN Sea eee 362 grades by moisture content, comparative values............----.-- 374 handling at elevator, cost analysis, importance and method. ...... 362 shrinkage in weight, relation to reduction of moisture..-.-.......-- 374 value— based on dry-matter content (and cottonseed, flour, and similar products), bulletin by E. G. Boerner...-.-.-.-...-- 374 on dry-matter basis, determination methods.................- 374 Creat ameaca Oma UsbIiyj-r- i) setae eS SN arerlretale S cieie o/c cha lalosa ey SON ReNa ENEE DEM ke OO ay foe 361 national contests, 1913, 1914, scope and requirements. .......---. 356 publications of Department list 2 sia. Sho ee 356 samples, management for milk contest.............-.-.....-.---. 356 score card: National WairyaShows= .s8s-2< sane Sk eee 356 Scoring; directions, NationallDairy Show. 2: 2. 22- -222222-2--2ee" 356 sediment test, witility: i gees TS eee eee ee se esa 361 Minnesota rocks, road-building, physical tests............-.-.---.--+-- 370 ‘“Miracle” wheat. Sec Alaska wheat; Stoner wheat. Mississippi— pink corn worm, occurrence and damage to corn.....-.---------- 363 rocks;road-building.“phyeical-tests “222s oe 370 Valley, Mexican cotton boll weevil, studies, bulletin by R. W Howee: o.02. 05s oat ee Se Ue eee Oe 358 Missouri rocks, road-building, physical tests..................---+---- 370 Mistletoe— bibliography... 2. Vee BOS AIS SSA es Ee 360 burls,anjury-to lumber? Northwest. 22292222 2s. ee eae 360 controlcon conifers in-Northwest:<.....---:-.2us 7 ee 360 eradication in: Northwest forests:22.. 1/34) 2235 292 232 360 germination and growth on conifers, studies..............---..... 360 host trees in. North westss24 322 See PPE, Ei ae 360 injury to conifers— in the Northwest, bulletin by James R. Weir. .......---.---- 360 relation to:tungous attack....2..2789.008.3 Sos eee 360 seed, distribution, factors............ Berea sa be SAE ae OO eee 360 Mold, peach, control, formulas and experiments............---------- 351 Molds, presence in commercial bottled waters, list. .......-----.--.---- 369 Monarda punctata. See Horsemint. ‘“Monolithic” brick pavement, construction, advantages, etc......... 373 Montana rocks, road-building, physical tests.............-.---.-..--- 370 MooreFIELD, CHARLES H., and VERNON M. Petrce, bulletin on ‘‘ Brick TOAdS S55. ete STUER eae Ps RL Ac eee 373 Morrison, Donald, statement on feeding habits of grouse in Northwest, MOLE se cs ne ae ROTATE SESE A UE Ie RR ae ee LO ae ee eee 360 Moth, pink corn worm, description and life history...........--.------ 363 Muhlenbergia porteri, occurrence, growth habits and forage value, Ari- ZOU Aes woes patie ciaaie(eislbis elbitace SS cicid: cere reicianey ea oie lc ea res Caen a 367 Murruy, Lovis $8.— bulletin on ‘Forests of Porto Rico, past, present, and future, and their physical and economic environment”..............------- 304 W. D. Brusu, and C. D. MELL, article on ‘‘Trees of Porto Rico”... 354 Naval-stores industry, South, magnitude and importance..........-.-- 364 Nebraska rocks, road-building, physical tests.........-.....-..----.-- 370 Needle grass, occurrence, growth habits and forage value, Arizona..... 367 New Hampshire rocks, road-building, physical tests...............---- 370 New Jersey rocks, road-building, physical tests..........-....-..----- 370 New York rocks, road-building, physical tests. -:/5 50245 2)-41) aise ee 370 Nicotine sprays, use against terrapin scale, experiments.-_.....-.-.---- 351 Nicotine-sulphate sprays, use against cherry leaf beetle, experiments... 352 Nitrogen, supply of soil, lesson for movable school..........2+-+-++-- 355 North Carolina— foresirires: losses irom. sees 2: 02. . eee ee se ees eee 364 rocks, road- =-building | physical tester Jamar t 32. e Sao eee 370 Northwest, conifers, injury by mistletoe, bulletin by James R. Weir... 360 Oat grass, tall— curing, moisture loss during early stages......-.......--.---------- 353 moisture content at different stages of curing.......-..-----.------ 353 Oxgst, Maup Mason, bulletin on ‘‘Bacteria in commercial bottled WRU eercaSsqnde SoSee OSS Ao ee ee nme EA ee A a5 5 369 Ohio rocks, road-building, physical tests...............-2.----.---:- 370 : INDEX. Bulle- Oil— tin No. horsemint— POUMETNC RC OMILC ING He see ee as ee eae otnais pepe pens fa ay need WACKMOIGIeKeEnt/ Species ie vA sais fA ECs eile ss Ae 372 STC IMP CTAACKO ui a coe yeni eee ie ee Oe Rte 372 sprays, sooty-mold control in peach orchards, formulas and experi- TELE TING Spee rey casero a jee soi pete nces eu vers aie SIRS ee RESP EES 301 Oklahoma rocks, road-building, physical tests............-.2.-----+-.. 370 Miktaretoodmoiboll weevil so. ee 2 ce eieislaa Sie inser EE Boles VA 358 Orchard grass— curing, moisture loss during, early. stages.:....--1..-2----e-.6 5-2. 353 moisture content at different stages of curing............----.-.--- 353 @regon rocks, road-building, physical tests.......-.....----------+-2 370 Pacific Northwest, brown rot of prunes and cherries, bulletin by Charles Prookspamee Dee sbISher noe ee ee ee eae ares 368 Pavements, brick, construction, requirements and suggestions........- 373 Peach orchards, insect enemy, terrapin scale, bulletin by F. L. Siman- WOM so osoocscossbnoS ou gOS Cereb Habbo BUONO FORO SHUMo SROBnOeO Renae aas 351 ‘Peco.’’ See Larkspur. Prrrcr, VERNON M., and CHartes H. Moorerietp, bulletin on BAIL CKSRO AC Swe ees yk te SEALE EU? SoA UUM QUT 373 Pennsylvania rocks, road-building, physical tests............----..... 370 Peters, J. Grrvin, bulletin on ‘Forest conservation for States in the SOULIELAVSTPIY, | 3SIGW SHA eteaTCa} 04 One Rete ans ethereal erin nt ree RSI NOE 364 Phenol pyazeld. per -dcre)of, horsemint.......-.0ewiece eo. eet io. 372 Phosphorus, soil content, lesson for movable school.....---....-.-..--- 355 Pine— forests— grazing, practices and damage in South..................--.. 364 South, damage by fire, losses, and suggestions for protection ... 364 imseceimdamace- relation to forest fires... 4h)... 25.2) Sys 4 see) 364 lands, cut-over, reproduction, menace from forest fires...-......-- 364 region, southern, forest conservation, bulletin by J. Girvin Peters.. 364 yellow, timber in South and cutting rate......... SERIA Ge LR 364 Pines, mistletoe-infected, growth rates of different species....-..------ 360 Pink corn worm, destructiveness on corn in the crib....-..-..-.------ 363 Pink worm. See Corn worm, pink. Plant growth, study in relation to soils, lesson for movable school. - - - . . 355 ‘Poison weed.’’ See Larkspur. Poisoning, larkspur, of live stock, bulletin by C. Dwight Marsh, Hesbea@ lawson. and, Hadleigh Marsh: = -ec¢e.Seecn tse eee eee 365 Porto Rico— CACHOsMOMMNS ACV ANLAGCS te i)e oe Clase meets a ise eee 304 chimatierconditionsite cis ethene bases sete ee eee aes 354 facmine; relation to forests, practices, ete: ...--22-2--224--5 see 354 forest conditions, history, formations, and influences.............-- 354 forests, past, present, and future, and their physical and economic environment, bulletin by Louis§. Murphy.....--...---..----.. 354 Eres Hise: ThokanaNe hotsima leche eee mn One eee UE a pierce Mo ekna ls iy WEE 354 geosraphic situation, areaamd extent: 232.555 -J- es bes 354 land in, distribution, utilization, and taxation............ EBA 354 mountain ranges, formation and physical features.......-..------- 304 Aolysiealsfea tures. 2.4 i) cme tes, aN nar ene ae Mahe SU epee a TirereeenS 354 population, increase, nature, and density, historical note....-.... 354 Tacks, roud-building: physical testsis:.2a:cs {ele ees ee 370 HIM Dems pply. and) demandi.+ si. a-rats ta Sen tas aoe te eee oe 354 transportation facilities, discussion and suggestions.........------- 354 Potassium, soil content, lesson for movable school.......---..-------- 399 Potatoes, soil requirements, lesson for movable school......-- - Men anacs 355 owlaind wheats, characteristics:+....-b saat) socks ohh aha ices Bis 357 Prices— cotton— comparison with lint prices for seed cotton.........---..----- 375 ginned and unginned, variations for given grade...........--. 379 20 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 351-375. Bulle- Prices—Continued tin No. seed cotton— conversion tolint prices.2 2525). 7526-222. << - 2 ees 375 highest and lowest grades in same market in same week... ---- 375 Prunes— blossom infection by brown rot, investigations and treatment, Washinetones <3 oo iin teen a oe eee ee eee 368 brown rot “(and of cherries), Pacific Northwest, bulletin by Charles Brooks and D. F. ree BE sc cise paikes Kae ee ee cy ee 368 fruit rot, spraying experiments and results.............---------. 368 Publications— deciduous-fruit insects, list of Department........---.-...------- 352 Department— Hist -milksand creams 2. ake eae | ere on bacteriological studies, dist: 2 ache sa0tith Dos Mate ae 369 on cotton, list’ eet a. ae = ee 359 relating to bacterial: content:of milks 22.2.2) 21 ee 361 relating to insects injurious to deciduous fruits: (0123 eee 351 Quarizite, road-building properties:......2...---.222---024- ee 370 Rain, forests, nature and occurrence in Porto Rico..............------- 354 Range— carrying capacity, quadrat measurement, Santa Rita Range FUGSGiN Cs sATIZ hone cas eras. . Soeee st ttn ake ace ee 367 fires, effect on forage and new growth............. (sic i is eee 367 hay ‘production and cutting, Santa Rita Range Reserve, Ariz...... 367 reseeding, experiments on Santa Rita Range Reserve, Ariz........ 367 Ranges— depleted, nature and rate of recovery, Arizona........--...---.-- 367 grazing, carrying capacity in southern Arizona, bulletin by E. O. Wooton: 25223. sos eels s « -'. Sa eee i eee 367 wRattler< vest 10n paving: brickre sc. 2. qe te 3734 Razoumofskya, spp. See Mistletoe. Red corn worm. See Corn worm, pink. Reed wheat. See Alaska wheat. Rhode Island rocks, road-building, physical tests......-.-.--.-------- 370 Roadbed, preparation for brick pavement..........--.-.------------- 373 Road- building rock, physical tests, results, bulletin by Prévost Hubbard and Frank H. Jackson, JRee chs he. PES. She eee 370 Roads— bituminous, rock requirements for different kinds of traffic....-.-.- 370 brick— bulletin by Vernon M. Peirce and Charles H. Moorefield....-- 373 maintenance: U-sc4, see ate.. 5s SPs See Ue Se 373 specifications for construction. 2s2-22525552 45 - -< eee 373 building, rock selection, factors influencing.-...-.....-...------- 370 cement, rock requirements Se ieict. =! AE STG Jo Se tS 370 deterioration, aPeNCles: Causing. «= =< ace ee ee iia- cae oo 370 macadam, rock requirements for different kinds of traffic.......--- 370 PortorRico, conditions:and needs... Kee ses Ssak: a eee 354 Rock— road-building— physical properties, determination..........-.-.-----.------- 370 physical tests, results, bulletin by Prévost Hubbard and Frank H. Jackson, j | Lhe pee eRe Mee HE Aree IELTS SST ABS Si cit 370 Valiati ous in propertiessss2 ic. 22se ee See ae eee 370 selection for road building, factors influencing.....-..------------ 370 Rocks, road-building— physical tests, anles by States, tabulated.......--.------------ 370 rare, names and properties Lists: 2. ORE e es. ose 2c. eee 370 Sakellaridis Egyptian cotton, spinning tests with Arizona-Egyptian and Sea Island varieties, bulletin by Fred Taylor and William 8. Dean. . 359 Sandstones, road- building properties:. = (ae. ace ae eee eee eee 370 Sandy soils, management, lesson for movable school. ....---.---------- 355 INDEX. 21 Santa Rita Range Reserve, Ariz.— CLAS CROCUN a ganar eno TOA A OAeMe near mint pace tro ae Mae meee 367 1-40 Loporrapayiand plant distribution, maps... ----2 22. .5- 5) en 367 3-6 Santo Domingo, forest area and lumber imports.......---------------- 354 19 Seale, terrapin. Sce Terrapin scale. Semamxozd bulldine properties. 2.222.222.2228 ee eee ee 370 a Schools, movable, agricultural, extension course in soils forself-instructed classes, bulletin by A. R. Whitson and H. B. Hendrick..-.........- 355 1-92 Sclerotinia cinerea. See Brown rot. peonearcrmilke National Dairy Show: 203-2 ascii wcities Sots 5 356 7-9 Sea Island cotton, spinning tests with Arizona-Egyptian and Sakellaridis Egyptian varieties, bulletin by Fred Taylor and William S. Dean... 359 1-21 Sediment— test, milk, comparison with bacterial count, bulletin by H. C. Wammppelies ee ce hee Seer ec .-_..--.:...7....-)-2eee- 370 Stoner, K. B., introduction of Stoner wheat, history.....-........... 357 Stoner wheat— description, history, and exploitation.......-..-..-.......23 357 investigations by: Department — - Sees nes so > oe 357 misrepresentation, bulletin by Carleton R. Ball and Clyde E. heighitys +22 s.2. cess. ee Se EL PERE Bo os Se 357 Sugar beets. See Beets, sugar. Syneta albida, injury to prunes, Pacific Northwest, note............... 368 Syrian wheat. See Alaska wheat. Taxation, forest lands in Porto Rico, objections and recommendations. 354 Taytor, Frep, and WiiutaAm S§S. Dean, bulletin on ‘‘Comparative spinning tests of the different grades of Arizona-Egyptian with Sea Island and Sakellaridis Egyptian cottons”............-- Peel Bie 359 Teachers, agriculture, in movable schools, suggestions................- 355 Tennessee rocks, road-building, physical tests............-.......-.-- 370 Terrapin scale— i bibliceraphtys/ 72S oe ete eae el Slee ee ee EMCMICS He 2 Sons See ne oo eo Se ee ee ee 351 history, distribution, and economic importance. ....-....-..----- 351 hostsplants ss ee ie tes ee eae oe eS hee re 301 life history studiesssse== eRe Us Se ares the ee 351 peach enemy, bulletin by F. L. Simanton...............--.:.---- 351 Texas— forestry department, law authorizing......................------ 364 pink corn worm. occurrence on cotton and corn, notes.........-.--- 363 frocks road-puildine= physical testss 22-2 2 370 Thymol— extraction from horsemint oil, methods...................-.-.---- 372 amMporations,, LOOG It oe = Sek. eee eet es) ee a 372 production from horsemint, commercial, bulletin by S. H. Hood.. 372 production from horsemint, commercial prospects. ......--------- 372 Sources and Useses ioe. Jose... ea 372 yaeld*per acre of horsemuinte: = 5/5... ee 372 Timber— destruction by forest fires in South, losses and preventive measures 364 southern pine region, standing and cutting rate. ............----- 364 Timothy— curing, moisture loss during early stages. ..........--.----------- 353 moisture content at different stages..-....-... isc ose 353, ie 25. 26-27 we 23 ‘ Bulle- tin No Page, Tobacco, soil requirements, lesson for movable school... .-.-.-------- 355 81 Momacoesysoilrequirements, Motes. .222 25... 2.2.2.5. bene. os 359 82 Trap rock, road- foul ini esp TO PELUIESeseee tcc aeeee = feces ee eels a 370 5 iirecs, Porto) Rico, list and descriptions... -.......---<+..22--------- 304 56-97 Triumph cotton, prices, comparison with other seed-cotton sales, Crowder, CIS oie aR ace a nee ee eee da 375 16-18 Wiah rocks, .troad-building, physical tests. .:....-2-..222--.-4..-..----- 370 77 Wermont rocks, road-building, physical tests. ......--......<-.--+---<: 370 78 Vinatu, H. N., and Rotanp McKes, bulletin on ‘‘ Moisture contrac- tion and shrinkage of forage and the relation of these factors to the Mecitiacvmeowexpermental data rifle. 282. tate le cee ace 353 1-37 Virginia rocks, road-building, physical tests. ...-.....---..---------- 370 79-87 Washington— prunes, investigations and treatment of brown rot..........-.-.-- 368 4-5 rocks, road- building, pUysicalstestse a. ca teae seks eee ee 370 88-92 Waste, cotton, spinning tests of fumigated and nonfumigated lint...... 366 1-5 Wastes, cotton spinning, comparison of Arizona-Egyptian with Sea i Island and Sakellaridis-Egyptian cottons................-...------ 359 4-5 > Waters— commercial bottled— é bacteria in, bulletin by Maud Mason Obst. ............-..--- 369 1-14 . examination, and tabulated data. .....-.-.-.---.----+------ 369 4-14 PUTIDyATequUITeMeN ts) OPINIONS) =-— fees sa. sla 369 2-3 eg Sprung. bacteriological examinations... cas sose---2--52-2e4-222- 369 TNS Weevil, Mexican cotton boll. See Boll weevil. Wer, JAMES R., bulletin on ‘‘ Mistletoe injury to conifers in the North- : WROTE.” 5 3 SG Se SE a es reo De a ge ee 360 1-39 _ West Virginia rocks, road-building, physical tests. .......-.---------- 370 92-95 _ Wheats, ‘‘ Miracle” (Alaska and Stoner), varieties much misrepresented, : bulletin by Carleton R. Ball and Clyde E. Leighty...............-- 357 1-28 I Wuitson, A. R., and H. B. Henprticx, bulletin on ‘‘ Extension course i in soils for self-instructed classes in movable schools of agriculture”. 355 1-92 _ Wild goose wheat. See Alaska wheat. Wisconsin rocks, road-building, physical tests. .........------------- 370 95-99 ‘* Witches’ brooms, ”’ formation on conifers, effect Onshost eles cee. 360 13-20 Woodlands, Porto Rico, typess 28 ee Jee ies aes elas 354 25-34 Wood-working, uae USIByy Tin) Jeter) IRMGOQ. GS sods bases cabecoesccocaossuc 354 45-46 Wooton, E. O., bulletin on ‘‘Carrying capacity of grazing ranges in ROWMUMenMpATIZON A, sacs Pde Ske ae ens cise Uns eke uy ay ea eet eres 367 1-40 Wyoming rocks, road-building, physical tests...........-.....-------- 370 99 Yarn, cotton— bleaching fumigated and unfumigated product, tests..........---- 266 10 tensile strength, tests of fumigated and nonfumigated...........-- 366 5-7, 10 Yarns, cotton— bleaching qualities, tests and comparisons............-...-.------ 359 13-14 dyeing qualities, tests and comparisons................-.-.--.--- 359 14-15 mercerizing qualities, tests and comparisons. ..........-.--- ess 359 15-16 tensile strength, comparison of Arizona-Egyptian with Sea Island andmsaicellaridis Hey piian 228 Joes nee ee ee ee ena 359 7-11,18 Peano ie ee So eR eS UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 351 Ws Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, Nw > L. O. HOWARD, Chief. : Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. April 22, 1916 THE TERRAPIN SCALE:' AN IMPORTANT INSECT ENEMY OF PEACH ORCHARDS. By F. L. Smanton, Entomological Assistant, Deciduous Fruit Insect Investigations. CONTENTS. Page Page IMtROGUCTION Essen oe oes cose ccs eae et eA bend ants ashes ye Sele arse mem ee eas A 62 HEDIS COT pee eee Sot ee ee ee eS IESE. nl Ipredaceousienemiess 424s25-0 eee oe 63 DAS THU DUGION ese has aoe eee ek ere De | SP ATASTtOS ese e a Mis Seve ese Ra ic Ne 65 Economic importance..............-..--.--- 3) | SOOLYeMIOlUSS- 2c eae eee ese 66 ITT UIRY sa BGoere Gees Cle aera aaa ee ae ye ae 34|\ sRemedialimeasuresin. sence seo sate sees 67 IBOOGL TORN so a aos Ge aE Ban See ae eee ee 4. Sum arp ee Seo eal et eee rau 86 ILAURS TAU RO AY oho COOSA SES SE eee eae 4 | Recommendations for control.......--..----- 89 Seasonal mistonye ec: oss 52e2 220508. obs. Gils ||P Bibliographyessersa-ceassse ce cee cea see ee 90 INI@IBINN ESC oc ade ee ben O ROSE OSnEe EReEae eens 61 INTRODUCTION. For several years the terrapin scale, Hulecaniu mnigrofasciatum Per- gande, has been increasing in abundance in certain localities in the eastern United States, and complaints have recently come to the Bureau of Entomology from orchardists in numerous localities within the Appalachian peach belt of severe injury to peaches, and of inability to control the insect with the materials commonly used. In order to investigate the insect under favorable conditions the Office of Deciduous Fruit Insect Investigations of the Bureau of Entomology maintained a field laboratory during the seasons of 1912 and 1913 at Mont Alto, Pa., which is well within the limits of the badly infested area. The following pages contain a record of the life-history studies made, together with a short historical account of the species. A detailed account is also given of its habits and of the remedies that have been devised for its control. The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. A. L. Quaintance, under whose direction this investigation was conducted, and to thank Messrs. D. M. Wertz and Aaron Newcomer for the use of their orchards and spraying machinery. 1 Fulecanium nigrofasciatum Pergande. - 20782°— Bull. 351—16—. 2 BULLETIN 351, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, HISTORY. The terrapin scale, Hulecaniwm nigrofasciatum Pergande, is a native species which came to the notice of economic entomologists about 1870. Mr. Theodore Pergande, of the Bureau of Entomology, observed it as early as 1872. It was then believed to be the Euro- pean scale Lecanium persicae Fab., an insect of similar habits. The publications prior to 1898, for the most part, refer to it under the latter name. Miss Mary E. Murtfeldt was the first writer to treat of this insect at any length. She observed it in 1893, at Kirkwood, Mo., but did not completely work out its life history. Her observa- tions are recorded in Bulletin 32 [old series] of the Division of Ento- mology, United States Department of Agriculture (1893), under the name Lecanium persicae Fab. Dr. L. O. Howard treated this species in the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1894 under the name Lecanium persicae Modeer, and there figured it for the first time. Mr. Theodore Pergande became convinced that this lecanium was distinct from L. persicae Fab., and described it in Bulletin 18 [new series], Division of Entomology, United States Department of Agri- culture (1898), as Lecanium nigrofasciatum, new species. Since about 1898 the terrapin scale has gradually assumed more and more importance as an enemy of the peach, until now it is feared by the peach growers of Maryland and Pennsylvania more than any other species of scale insect. Most of the States east of the one hundredth meridian have mentioned this pest in their entomological publications during the last 10 years. At the present time it appears to be most abundant in portions of Maryland and Pennsylvania. DISTRIBUTION. There are no indications that the terrapin scale occurs outside of North America. It is at present, for the most part, confined to the humid area of the Austral Region, but there is danger that it may ultimately invade western peach orchards, especially those in the Austral Zones. This species has been taken in New Mexico and is doubtfully reported from southwestern Colorado, but, so far as known, it does not now occur in the other Western States. It has a slight foothold in Ontario Province, Canada, mostly upon maple. At the present time considerably more than one-half of all the known infes- tations are found in Pennsylvania and Maryland. (See fig. 1.) In general this scale has advanced into the region of its principal food plants, having spread through the peach belt of the Eastern United States, and progressed northward beyond this belt by attack- ing ornamental trees, of which the maples and sycamores seem to be its favorite hosts. It has also extended its range in the Southwest THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 3 by attacking the mistletoe, upon which it thrives very well. It will undoubtedly spread considerably beyond its present range by ad- vancing farther into the territory of its chief host plants. Those regions in which the peach, the plum, the maple, the sycamore, and the mistletoe are abundant probably offer suitable conditions for its growth. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. The terrapin scale, in its range and importance, ranks easily as second among the scale pests of the peach, and while not so prolific and not so injurious as the San Jose scale, Aspidiotus perniciosus Fic. 1.—Distribution in the United States of the terrapin scale (Hulecanium nigrofasciatwm). (Original.) Comstock, it is even more of a nuisance, owing to the difficulty met with in its control. INJURY. This insect causes injury first, by sucking the sap from the trees, and second, by covering the fruit, leaves, and branches with a sweet sticky fluid known as honeydew. The injury to the trees from the loss of sap taken by the scale is considerable in badly infested orchards, but is small in comparison with the damage resulting from the deposit of honeydew. This deposit, while objectionable, would not cause serious injury were it not for a black or sooty fungus which grows abundantly in the honeydew whenever this is present. On trees which are badly infested with the scale the fruit soon becomes covered with a black sticky coat which makes it almost unsalable, as it is nearly all classed as culls and is sold accordingly. 4 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FOOD PLANTS. Eulecanium ngrofasciatum attacks more than 30 species of plants. It becomes abundant, however, upon only a comparatively few of these. Its preference for its principal food plants is about in the following order: Peach, plum, maple, cherry, sycamore, mistletoe. The following list includes all of the host plants known to the author: Acer pseudoplatanus L. Sycamore maple. | Nerium oleander L. Oleander. Rose Acer saccharinum L. Silvermaple. - bay. Acer saccharum Marsh. Sugar or rock | Olleasp. Olive. maple. Padus sp. Wild cherry. Amygdalus persica L. and var. Peach | Phoradendron sp. Mistletoe. and nectarine. Platanus occidentalis L. Sycamore or Benzoin aestivale (L.) Nees. Spice-bush. plane-tree. Betula sp. Birch. Platanus orientalis L. European plane- Bumelia angustifolia Nutt. Saffron plum. tree. Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh. Chest- | Populus deltoides Marsh. Cottonwood. mrt Prunus sinconii Carr. Simon or apricot Cercis canadensis LL. Red-bud. plum. : : Chaenomeles japonica Lindl. Japan Prunus spp. Cultivated and wild cher- ries and plums. Pyrus communis L. Pear. Pyrus malus (L.) Britton. Apple. Quercus virginiana Mill. Live oak. Ribes sp. Gooseberry. Rosa spp. Roses. Salix babylonica L. Weeping willow. Salix spp. Willows. quince. Clematis sp. Clematis. Crataegus oxyacantha L.. Hawthorn. Crataegus. Most species. Cydonia oblonga Mill. Quince. Elaeagnus angustifolia L. Oleaster. Euonymus atropurpureus Jacq. Wahoo or burning bush. Sapindus marginatus Willd. Soapberry. _ Fraxinus sp. Ash. Tilia sp. Linden or basswood. Ilex opaca Ait. American or white holly. | Umbellifere. One species. Magnolia virginiana L. Sweet bay. — Vaccinium spp. Blueberries. Melia azedarach L. Wild China-tree. Vitis vinifera L. European grape. Morus spp. Mulberry. Vitis spp. LIFE HISTORY. MATURING OF FEMALES IN SPRING. Hibernation is terminated by weather conditions. The conditions that cause the peach buds to open also bring this lecanium to the end of hibernation. At Mont Alto, Pa., in 1913, hibernation ended about ~ April 1, at which time many blossoms were ready to burst. From April 1 to May 1 growth was rapid. From May 1 to May 16 it was comparatively slow. At the latter date the advanced females reached their maximum size, which they retained until the period of reproduction was nearly over. All the females had reached maturity by June 10. Table I shows the minimum, maximum, and average sizes of 414 specimens measured during the spring development and the reproduction periods of 1912 and 1913 at Mont Alto, Pa. THE TERRAPIN SCALR. - 5 This material was taken from vigorous trees. Twigs containing about 200 specimens were cut to secure material for each measure- ment. To overcome the natural variation in size the 50 largest speci- mens were removed from the twigs and the largest of these taken each time for measuring. These measurements show the following maxima: Weng the Max dG3 1 OU» sees e er Sasa 5 SLs G8 3.7 mm. Waclitape Mice 30) VON sek ue es Seo SAN. ee ch eka ies oe 3.35 mm. erate Wave 24 oh 9135 tice sees ee eer) ie dS 1.60 mm. TaBLE 1.— Measurements showing growth of 414 females of the terrapin scale during the spring development, Mont Alto, Pa., 1912 and 1913. Length. Width. Height. Date. nenct : Spec: | Mini- | Maxi- | Aver- | Mini- | Maxi- | Aver- | Mini- | Maxi- | Aver- mens. /mum.}|mum.} age. |mum.}]mum.]| age. | mum.|mum.| age. Mm. | Mm. | Mm Mm. | Mm Mm Mm. | Mm. | Mm Feb. 24,1913..-...-.- 25 | 1.80 2.375 | 2.076] 1.8 2.275 | 2.030] 0.725} 1.10 0. 908 Mar. 28, 1913....-.--- 20) | 22. 726-)) 2.0535) 9 1.8918) 9 1.683) je 246. al 758) -65 - 85 741 Apis, 1913 25-)------ 20} 1.825 |. 2.31 2.114°) 1.87 2.255 | 2.060 73 - 975 854 JXjo%rs NO), UGA Se ease 10 | 1.81 2.2 1.995 | 1.75 2.2 1.905 8 1.15 949 emetiigia ell! Vi LCEN |leeslg@yi al bechad e aiscee la wbs@)a lp aceey pect ce riag ial Mae Ajo LOOM e saaae se 13) 156 2.55 1.926) 1.5 2.30 Lo fey tata metas icecream ects JNjorPS U7/ Bye Sones] PQ), | Pade te¥/ 2.53 2.195 |: 1.842 | 2.365] 2.037 865} 1.1 953 Apr: 19,1912:--..-.- 10 | 2.05 2.7 2.372 | 2.1 2.375 | 2.302 825 | 1.00 922 JN oR OP UO Bee eace OM eled 2.3 2.057 | 1.6 2.25 VECO ed tecnica leap acede sees ae Apres 23 lOlse sae a= 20 | 2.24 2.98 2.576 | 1.82 2.613 | 2.298 85 1. 225 995 PANO Ta Onl OU Anes TO) SOG Pe OH OREM is eda ||

ay? Wouf auabioua hpyoo4{— TX AAV I, ee Se re THE TERRAPIN SCALE. Ly Table XII gives a summary of these data, with some additional details from Tables VII and IX. It also compares 13 normal females from each isolation. TasLe XII.—A summary of the emergence data from Tables VII, VIII, IX, X, and XI. Maxi- z Average Emer- Number Emer- mum Emer- Emer- No. Year. a Number of larvee ei gence daily | gence, 50 | gence, 75 100 per emerged. foriialee started. ee per cent, | per cent. cant 4 19121 Total 26... 4, 258 163.7 | June 16} June 18 | June 25] July 1) July 15 SES Be ee eds **\\Normal 13. QN753 21 Sam eee Osc see Osea bee Ones lee Oe cies Do. A 1913 Total 41... 12, 336 297.95 | June 13 |...do....| June 23 | June 29 | Sept. 30 Th eae ete ---)\Normal 13. 5,211 400.8 |...do..:-]...do....| June 24 | July 10 Do. 1 All females on twigs were dissected July 15. The isolated females in 1912 had all stopped producing young by July 15. 900 800 NUMBER OF LARVAE [SL aE a Ee Be es eee ee eee [24 ae See eae Lae ee a ee CoE TNT COPEL ECCT BEL PRET Ca CEELEEEE EEL PS Fig. 3.—Emergence curve for the terrapin scale; first 22 days of emergence, June 13 to July 4, inclusive, : Mont Alto, Pa.,1913. (Original.) -. 20782°—Bull. 351—16——2 18 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The 1912 emergence was shortened by the drying of the twigs to which the females were attached. This was due to the method of isolation. This difficulty was overcome in the 1913 record. The larve of Hyperaspis binotata Say were more destructive in 1913 than in 1912, but on the whole both records are very true to the conditions prevailing in the orchard during the respective seasons. For convenience in comparison and also to show the effect of weather conditions upon this emergence, two graphs, figures 3 and 4, JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER | 0cT 13-19 20-26 27-3, 4-10,11-17, 18-24 25-91) - 7 8-14, /5-2) 22-28, 29-4,5-/! 12-18 19-25 26-2, 3-9 neo eal ss: 3) \|owlla7o = v2 | 19 | 74 | 25 | 76 | 77 #900 F550 F200 3ESO P5500 w is q 98 2800 OF LARVAE 2450 2/00 1/750 NUMBER 1/400 4050 700 G50 Fig. 4.—Curve of the leafward migration of the terrapin scale for the total emergence period of 1913. ( Original.) are appended. Figure 3 has a solid line added. ‘This represents the weather correction for the curve. In figure 4, where the curve is determined from weekly observations, very little irregularity, due to the daily weather conditions, appears. The emergence period of 1913 was moderately favorable. The temperature was high and the storms were of short duration. On June 19, 22, and 26 rain checked the emergence, but the larve merely rominedi in the brood chambers over night and emerged on the following day. The graph of total emergence by weeks during 1913 (fig. 4) shows a very uniform curve. From the graph it appears that the major por- tion of the young emerged during the first three weeks of the period. THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 19 LEAFWARD MIGRATION. The migration to the leaves begins immediately after emergence. The larve start emerging usually about 10 a. m., or even earlier if the temperature is high, and by 3 p. m. the daily migration has nearly ceased. At Mont Alto, Pa., during the noon hours of June 15 to 20, the branches of infested trees were swarming with countless numbers of migrating larve. During the leafward migration the larve are strongly phototropic and negatively geotropic. The time required for an individual to make this mi- gration and to take its position upon the leaf is remarkably short. Two hours is about the average time from emergence to the completion of the migra- tion. Many reach the leaves and attach in less than an hour, but others, especially those that have ascended dead branches, may con- tinue to move about for several days if a suitable leaf is not found sooner. It is very unusual for the larve to relocate when they have once taken position upon a leaf, though they do this when the leaf loses its vigor. The larve, except in rare and unusual cases, attach to the underside of the leaves, mostly alongside and parallel to the midrib, or the larger veins. (Fig. 5.) Larve usually attach to the first avail- able leaves. The basal leaves upon an infested branch are always more heavily infested than those farther up. A sticky secretion upon the very young leaves repels the young larve and prevents them from _ jy¢. 5.—Peach leaf with attached attaching. The wooly coat of the fruit pro- ‘#rve of the terrapin scale. tects it from larve. Larve frequently crowd ae) upon the fruit, but in their struggles to free themselves from the fuzz they invariably fall to the ground. The rate of migration varies with the temperature and the surface upon which the larve are placed. Table XIII gives the rate per hour, time, temperature, and the distance traveled by five migrating larvee of the first instar upon smoked wrapping paper. The average temperature in this experiment was very favorable, being 87° F. The rate per hour was very low, owing to the annoyance caused 20 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the larvee by the fine soot deposit upon the smoked paper. The dis- tance traveled varied from 97.7 cm. to 175.8 cm. Figure 6 shows a tracing made by four of the above-mentioned larve. TasLe XIII.—Record of travel of five first-instar terrapin-scale larve on smoked paper, Oct. 9, 1912, Mont Alto, Pa. | : Average No. | Start. End. Time. Distance. Ralewwey temper- $ ature. Ars. Min. Cm. Cm. 2 ee Soe See rale ce ye De eat 9.26a.m 7A seat tee a 34 113.7 26. 54 87 DSU eee ns Bick be See 9.26a.m 3.15 p. m.. 5 49 175.8 26. 596 86 BER ee ere At hese epee: 13-208; m.|°2 p.m... 2 40 97.7 36. 64 89 if Re Sa SOS NES 2) Aiea 10.08 a.m.) 2p. m..... 3 a2 99. 6 25.76 87 Deena eee ae on a ae ns ee eee 9.26 a.m 2.50 p. m-. 5) 24 161.7 29.94 86.7 PANVOTAR OLE coin ooe coca ase|sootke het ee les st aceees |[jasus ame ones | area 29.095 87 The larvee are so small that they leave no trace when moving over the finest soot deposit. The deposit, moreover, retards them. In moving they are constantly exploring the surface with their antenne, and these soon become coated with soot particles. When this hap- pens the insect halts until the antenne are cleaned. (For compari- son with the rate of progress upon smooth, unsmoked paper, see Table XIV.) A single larva that emerged at 12.10 p. m traveled, when placed upon plain wrapping paper, 826 cm. during the 3 hours and 20 min- utes in which it was under observation. This larva traveled con- stantly after the first interval, and its speed was about eight times that of larve on sooted paper. Figure 7 shows a tracing made of this larva. TaBLe XIV.—Record of the travel of a newly emerged larva of the terrapin scale on plain wrapping paper, July 10, 1912, Mont Alto, Pa. 1 1 Time of observa- | Tempera- | Total dis- | Interval Rate per pee tion. ture. tance. distance. hour. Sead . oo: Cm Cm. Cm Cue 1: Cte! ERE AR Soo Sd Doone sees Eaeeeerorsaatod poconcccce 12 86 35.3 35.3 141.2 86 1 86 184.4 149.1 255.6 86 a1 86 239.3 44.9 179.6 86 Le 86 298.3 59 236 86 2: 87.5 473.4 175.1 262. 65 86.75 2: 87.5 95752 §3.8 251.4 87.75 oe 88 $26 188 282 88 5 AE PR as Sopa ae PR SPT Frees 231.356 | 86.9 In 1912 three experiments were performed to determine the longey- ity of the leafward migrants when they were unable to reach the leaves. The data from these experiments are recorded in Table XV, and summarized in Tables XVI and XVII. They show that THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 21 the migrating larve can live from 2 to 3 days. More than 78 per cent of the larve died upon the second day, and the mortality of the remainder was about equally divided between the first and third day. It was apparent that the third day was of very little value to the larvee as they were in a state of collapse. TasLe XV.—Longevity of larve of the terrapin scale at the leafward migration. Expe- Num- Num- riment pero Time of start. | Time of finish. Surface. Time of observatiou. periot used. ; dead. Teese 2 3 | July 2,9a.m..] July 4,1 p.m--..; Dead peach twig..} July 2,9a.m-......... 0 Julyi35 Waamls aos. 3-- 0 Julys45 Oa ms - 535 ss 2 July24 spams eecee. 3 i eae 125 | July 7,12noon.} July 10,3.30p.m.| Exterior surface | July 7,12noon........ 0 of test tube over water. DULY 88! an Ms. foe 10 JiTLyA9s47-30! ay 22.2, - 108 July 9,12 noon.......- 110 July OF Sias mile eho ae: 122 - July 10, 3.30 p. m....-. 125 TMB ee 13 | July 4, 8.30 | July6,8.30a.m-_.} Inner surface of | July 4, 8.30a.m-.....-. 0 a.m. test tube over water. Julys43) Passa. es- 0 Julye55.8230 aeons nce 5 Muily2o 4s nee seas 7 Slyn5; 9p epee ee eee 7 July 6, 8.30 a. m......- 13 Taste XVI.—Daily mortality of larve of the terrapin scale from data in Table XV. a A : Per cent Experi- | Experi- | Experi- | Dead, by Day of death: ment I. | ment II. | ment III. days. Cee! DENG oo Goccceee VAG eee a oer oe a een 0. 10 5 15 10. 63 SEQDIG so 55 bean Ceo oe ED eB eee Sener oce aa ter ee 2 100 8 110 78. O1 INDIO ok oo Sob oe cs BOE eee en ein tam ee ae 1 | 15 0 16 11.34 NOMEN 5. See eee eee eet eee he Reh eee 3 125 13 141 9S. 98 The summary in Table XVII shows that. the average longevity for the three experiments was 2 days 94 hours and the maximum longey- ity 3 days. TABLE XVII.— Maximum longerity of migrating larve of the terrapin scale from experiments given in Table X coat Number of ; Experiment. specimens. Longest life. Je seo Gist SIE IE en aes eee ell ree ue oe ea EM cea a 3 | 2 days 4 hours. UL a eae 8 be eee ets en reece ee Ste 2 ipa BE SC =, a cee anaes are pater te 125 | 3 days. TI: co02 56a cot D eS Se BELE Sees Renee) Oars ce oe Se bee SU 9 ame eee Cae 13 | 2 days. ASIGTETONG BoE NGO ge Mies a aan SRW, NO RE hae se wien Apr Oe Sie ae 2 days 93 hours. Dp) BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tar LEAPWARD MIGRATION AS A FACTOR IN THE SPREAD OF THE TERRAPIN SCALE. The leafward migration is a strong element in the spread of the scale over the branches of infested trees, but it is not directly effective in spreading it from tree to tree unless the trees are in actual contact. Indirectly it is one of the strongest factors in the spread of the scale. The young larve are not readily displaced by wind, but they sometimes drop purposely from dead twigs, especially when they have reached the tips with- out finding foliage. Such larvee may fall upon foliage lower down or drift in air currents to foliage onadjacent trees. Most of them, however, perish on the ground. During windy days particles of bark and loosened leaves are car- ried by the wind. That wind is a prominent factor in the local spread is indicated by the fact that infestations travel through orchards in the direction of the prevailing wind. Thunderstorms sometimes come so suddenly that the young migrants are washed from the twigs before they have reached the leaves. This seldom happens, because the young do not ordinarily emerge when the humidity ishigh. The migrants, when displaced by rain, will float for some distance, especially if ac- companied by particles of bark Fra. 6.—Tracing of four young terrapin scales during or other debris: : : the leafward migration. Reduced 8times. Tem- The spread, except as indicat- perature, 87° F. Average rate per hour, 29.095 em. ed, requires the aid of some trans- (Original.) : d 3 porting agent. The migrating larvee cling readily to hairs, to feathers, and to other small ob- jects. While the author has never taken insects with the larve attached, he has placed specimens of Brochymena upon branches covered with migrating young, with the result that the larve were soon clinging to their legs. Feathers touched lghtly to the same branches were clasped by the moving young. A pair of cloth gloves placed for 10 minutes upon a branch had 20 larvee upon them when removed. This last observation indi- END START START START START THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 93 cates that orchard workers during the migrating period might unwit- tingly aid in the dispersal of this pest. It is possible for larve of the first instar which have attached themselves to leaves to be transferred to other trees, as the following experiment shows. Thirty larve that had loosened themselves from a wilting leaf were placed on the foliage of another tree July 22 at02) p.m. Lhe first of these was found at- tached July 23 at 8 a.m., and all of them were at- tached by July 24 at 8 a.m. Dispersal may occur at this period in at least four ways: (1) By dropping of lar- ve from dead branches, fruit, etc. (2) By wind transpor- tation. (3) Through transpor- tation by storm water. (4) By animate agents (insects, birds, orchard workers, etc.). Morratiry Durine Miara- - TION. Practically all of the emerged young make a successful migration. The only exceptions are in cases where the larvee START stray upon dead branches rc. 7.—Tracings of a young terrapin scale for the first 3 hours or the fruit and areunable and 20 minutes of the leafward migration. Reduced 8 times. 4 Temperature, 86.90° F. (Original.) to return and in the case of those destroyed by the occasional attacks of predatory enemies. The mortality at this time is indicated by the small number of larvee that fail to attach themselves to the leaves. Of the 12,336 larvee that migrated in.1913 from the isolated scales, all but 15 successfully attached to the underside of leaves. The mortality upon the average orchard tree is slightly higher than is shown in the case of these isolated larve. 94 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SizzE OF THE LARV& AT TIME OF MIGRATION. The size of the larve varies. Strong females produce larger young than weak ones. The larve are largest at the beginning of reproduction. They gradually become smaller as the season advances. Measurements made in June, 1913, of 10 larve give the following results: Length, maximum 0.475 mm., minimum 0.41 mm., average 44 mm.; width, maximum 0.26 mm., minimum 0.20 mm., average 0.23 mm. DESCRIPTION OF THE MIGRATING LARV#. The distinguishing characteristics of the leaf migrant are: Average length, 0.43 mm.; average width, 0.283 mm.; color, pale translucent yellow, with reddish brown eye-spots; body very flat and oblong; antenne with six joints; feeding tube internal and folded midway upon itself. (Pl. I, fig. 2, p. 8.) The anal plates have each a single major apical seta 0.2 mm. in length. The plates have their distal ends just reaching to the tips of the body lobes. These plates are held in a relaxed position, that is, with their adjacent edges forming an acute angle. The terminal anal plates, together with the folded feeding tube, are reliable characters for identifying the leafward migrant. LEAF-ATTACHED LARV, FIRST INSTAR. The larve emerge, make their migration, and attach to the leaves during the second day after birth, but take no food until after attach- ing to the leaf. Death by starvation and exhaustion results during the third day after emerging provided an attachment is not made. It is doubtful whether the larvee can live in the brood chamber more than 4 or 5 days, and at any rate they would be too weak after the fourth day to make an effectual effort to reach the leaves. In 1912 there were several periods in which it was cool and wet for four successive days. After these periods many dead larve were found in the brood chambers, some chambers becoming so clogged as to prevent the further escape of young. The larva, after attaching to the underside of the leaf, retains in the main its earlier characteristics. The proboscis is thrust into the leaf tissues. The anal plates, which during the migration were car- ried with their adjacent edges diverging, are now held in close contact when in repose. The body lobes, which at attachment were even with the tips of the anal plates, grow steadily backward and inward until they meet behind the anal plates. By this growth the anal plates with their long setz are made to recede from the posterior edge to a position upon the dorsal surface, as shown in Plate I, figure 3, a, 6, p. 8. A thin, brittle covering of wax appears on the dorsal surface of the larvee during the latter part of the first instar. AIL leaf-attached THE TERRAPIN SCALE. D5 larve that have their anal plates adorned with major apical sete are in the first instar. The growth is constant. Both length and width increase in the same ratio. In the first instar the larve increase their length and width about two and one-half times, but they do not noticeably in- crease their height. Tables XVIII and XIX show the measurements for a total of 201 larvee at various ages during the first instar. The data in Table XVIII are from larve that emerged late in the season of 1912. They encountered more than the usual amount of unfavor- able weather. The data in Table XIX are from larve that emerged in July, 1913, and that had favorable conditions. This table also shows the percentages in the first and second instars at various ages. It required about 25 days for larve emerging on August 9, 1912, to reach their full development (0.9 to 1 mm. long) and to molt for the first time, while those emerging July 1, 1913, reached this stage on the sixteenth and seventeenth days. TasLe XVIII.— Measurements of 91 first-instar larve during the unfavorable season of 1912, Mont Alto, Pa. Number i i =nac;. | Average | Average | 7 3 No. Age. ohsped length, aad the Emerged— Doys. - Mm. Mm. loo paQe add bo aS BARR EE ane Beenie ae an Beer aaaace 0. 25 6 0. 44 0. 23 Aug. 9 OAs aes cen Saeed bE SHER OPEB e An aohepaoeeE soe 5 5 - 5325 - 2044 Do. SE I eS ee este aise ke ee eis elseike entnse 6 3 555 . 287 Do. bess pelb rose Aa ETENe SN a Cen ee Ie ees ea ye 7 2 - 6046 . 276 Do. Bits osen tae See er ee eee 9 14 - 6307 279 Do. Oo ccscbocue Sacco e GaSb pee o Ee es See eee 12 6 8467 425 Do Goas sacctoed abet an COB Ee ae ea ne Ree 15 24 8968 - 439 Do Se eae cos Sine ae charm a terajeelt wlalaibreriese ime 1 12 931 50 Do Re eee aes oi sanincis sintsisas aac tna a cea 22 7 +9348 499 Do Qe, os Sot cosd Se SOS C Oe EA ORS Ree que een Bees eon 25 12 999 522 Do TOWN: See oe uaae Be eR Ber aa oe are eee an AAs (SaaS aeeoe DING | Siereteersirttse | tcicistbereiere aoe ee memo TaBLe XIX .— Measurements of 110 first-instar larvx during the favorable season of 1913, and the percentages of larvx on the trees in the first and second instars. Niamiber k a et cent rer cent x sfee ea verage verage caq_| Of larvae | of larvee No. Age. preys il length. | width. |2™ersed—| in first |in second ais instar. instar. | Days Min Mm. eae ee aes sete) oy Le Ab oa 22) 0.5176 Q. 2659 July 17 LOOE RRR Seas Ds gitis Has oP ae ee 5 21 555 228 (30n eed On eeee LOO Ee ee ee Bod p EEO SS SEE CR Se Erste 8 15 7275 39 July 1 1 el ee ebases a at Oe 15 19 94725 52385 SAGO ABA Se OO Se eons REM onsite SES BOER A tw 17 8 9625 IUD soos Goce 80 20 G35. ESS Soe Se ee eee 18 10 9975 525 OBE ee ee 48 52 Cackead iS FiRS wee | ee eee 19 5 97 52 WOR Ses ee 20 80 8 os eS oe ae See ee Any 20 3 9375 525 June 26 10.9 89.1 SS Sa ere Se aie en ee 21 3 9916 5416 July 1 7 93 1Q 555 eee ee ae ees 22 3 925 525 June 24 10.7 89.3 1 6 OS Se SEE eee ne eae Greene eae a 23 1 975 55 June 26 3.2 96.8 12s on sheen TeR eee Ee se ee DEEN tae ey hel RPE ele ae ene July lH aesaseece 100 PTO) ew ore Soe Cee generac We ae TESUQY AIRS ate ates RS aera SOS RL ea eel el co eg S| We ee 26 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The second column in each table gives the age in days. This is calculated from the time the larve left the brood chamber. The sixth column gives the date upon which the specimens emerged. There are added to Table XIX two columns of data to show the percentages of larve in the first instar and second instar at different ages. An examination of these columns will show that 50 per cent of the larve had passed from the first to the second instar upon the AGE /N DAYS UMEHD &OKROOHLR S x 8 : LENGTH Fic. 8.—Growth curves for the first instar of the terrapin scale. (Original.) eighteenth day, and that all had left the first instar by the twenty- fourth day. Eighteen days is the normal time spent in the first instar by larvee during favorable seasons. Figure 8 shows the deflec- tion of the growth curve for larve in the first instar which resulted from the late emergence during the unfavorable season of 1912, as compared with the curve for the favorable season of 1913. These curves are derived from the data in Tables XVIII and XIX. The curves are similar, but the broken curve shows clearly the effect of unfavorable weather in 1912 at both the beginning and the end of the instar. THE TERRAPIN SCALE. bo ~I LENGTH OF THE First INSTAR. The earliest molts were upon the sixteenth day and were observed during the very favorable weather of June and July, 1913. Eighteen days is the average length of the first instar at Mont Alto during fav- orable years, as shown in Table XVIII, columns 7 and 8. This time may be nearly doubled by unfavorable weather. Honeydew is ex- creted during this instar, but in very small quantities, and is of no economic importance. DISPERSAL OF Frrst-InsTAR LARV® BY LEAVES. It is probable that this species is dispersed to some extent by the transportation of larvee upon wind-borne leaves during storms. An experiment performed July 22, 1913, showed that first-instar larvee can loosen from slowly drying leaves and that they can move about and reattach to living foliage, so that if infested leaves should lodge in adjacent trees the latter would undoubtedly become infested. SExuAL DIMORPHISM IN THE Frrst INSTAR. There are no noticeable indications of sex during this instar, except in the anal ring. It is possible in some cases to distinguish the females from the males after the fifteenth day by their increased width. At this time the length of the females is usually less than twice their width, while the length of the males is usually greater than twice their width. Nearly all specimens are distorted by crowding, or by contact with the veins of the host (fig. 5), so that this variation in the ratio of length to width can not be depended upon for distinguishing the sexes. By dissection, however, they can be distinguished. The anal ring of the male consists of only six sete, while the anal ring of the female consists of eight. THe First Mott. There is no change of position at the first molt. The skin splits along the back and is worked downward and backward underneath the body. The last portion to loosen is that about the anal plates. The major apical setz disappear at this molt; hence the absence of these is positive evidence that the first molt has passed. The larvee stop growing one day before molting and become more opaque. The time required to make this molt is from 5 to 30 min- utes, depending upon the weather conditions and the vigor of the larve. The molt is usually made in the early morning. Observations made upon 5,000 larve approximately one-half of which emerged from June 24 to August 9, 1912, and the others from _ dune 24 to July 1, 1913, show that this molt may take place as early as the sixteenth day and as late as the twenty-sixth day. The aver- 28 BULLETIN 351, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. age age for this molt in 1912 was 20 days, but this period is longer than in favorable years. During the favorable season of 1913 a few specimens from the rearing of July 1 made this molt on the sixteenth day, but the largest daily molts were from the eighteenth to the twenty-second day, with the maximum molt upon the eighteenth day. It is, however, very frequently delayed.- Table XX gives details of the first molt as shown by three rearings in 1913 and by data ob- tained in orchards in 1912. It will be noticed that in all cases molt- ing started either upon the sixteenth or seventeenth day and that it terminated in all cases by the twenty-sixth day. The 1913 rearings all had favorable weather and would undoubtedly all have given their maximum daily molts upon the eighteenth day had it not been for a local storm on that date which retarded the natural emergence for the rearings of June 24 and June 26. TABLE XX.—Details of the first molt of the terrapin scale from 3 rearings in 1913 and from orchard data of 1912. Age at Per cent molted at various days specified. Ave at pent start- | maxi- Date larvee ing of ; aaa ae oie first | i7th. | isth. | 19th. | 20th. | 2ist. | 224. | 26th. | Sally molt. (UD. € . Jtn. Le SU. . a) . molt. Days. | Days. July 1, 1913... 16 20 52 SOMA ee eee ieececae LOO! ss ekeeee 18 June 24, 1913. 16 2 Sciicatetcle tre nek Sis meee na 40 85 100 22 June 26, 1913. 16 5 20 60 90 | 91 LOO} eee 19 Orchard. lar- ee Ot2 eel oe 17. ace iG) ole sae pastels eae Ve asta anions eee 20 1 Blanks represent days upon which no data were taken. It wasimpossible to determine, under orchard conditions, the percentage of the total infestation that molted at definite ages. LEAF-ATTACHED LARV2, SECOND INSTAR. The second instar lasts in favorable weather for 18 days and usually extends from the eighteenth to the thirty-sixth day. In the orchards about Mont Alto specimens can be taken in this instar at almost any time after the middle of July. The instar is at its maxi- mum from July 20 to August 5. This stage of development is char- acterized by sexual differentiation, which begins very early in the instar. The female larve continue to widen and tend to become circular in outline, while the males lengthen and tend to become oval. The male secretes during this instar the characteristic puparium. This is a waxy scale which forms over the dorsal surface. It is roof- like and is held in place by elastic strands which extend from points upon its edges to the surface of the leaf.- (Pl. II, a, e, p. 52.) It can be recognized as early as the seventh day, but it does not reach its full development until the next to the last day of the instar, at which time growth ceases and the larva shrinks, preparatory to making the second molt. THE TERRAPIN SCALE, 29 DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEMALE. FEMALE LARVA, SECOND INsraRr. During the second instar the females increase in length fron an average of 1 mm. to an average of 1.6 mm., and in ayia from an average of 0.525 mm. to 1 mm., but there is very little increase in height. Table X-XI shows the average measurements of 268 females taken at frequent intervals during this instar. These females emerged from June 20 to 26, 1913; that is, during the height of the emergence period. TABLE XXI.— Measurements of 268 female terrapin-scale larve of specified ages during the second instar, Mont Alto, Pa., 1913. Average No. of an of A D No. Yo. 0 time of |Age when) Days in aes eae Emerged.| speci- | entering | meas- second a yas pete mens. |. the sec- ured. instar. SHEE |e WAKO ond instar. Days Days. Mm. Mm. 20 19 20 1 1.054 0. 558 39 19 21 2 1.076 590 17 21 22 1 1.063 55 30 19 23 4 1.114 - 638 21 19 24 5 1.257 . 676 19 22 26 4 1,431 «775 16 22 27 5 1.380 . 776 a 22 30 8 1.471 892 17 22 30 8 1.395 5783 21 22 31 9 1.504 - 835 16 19 32 13 1.506 937 20 22 33 11 1.587 .978 11 22 34 12 1.575 1.012 14 22 36 14 1. 483 - 966 7Ad}e))| Apes Meee | Gonddccooe PG caeaess SCE ds SaSa oma ates The rate of growth is very uniform throughout the second instar, but there is a variation in size among specimens of the same age. This is instanced in lines 8 and 9. Such variations are common and are usually the result of weather conditions or of low vitality in the host. In this instar there is very lttle growth in height, the aver- age height at the end of the instar being about 0.11 mm. There is no change in color. The excretion of honeydew is moderate and 1s unimportant. The female has but shght ability to change position and seldom moves from one position to another upon the leaf. Larve from withering leaves, when placed upon fresh ones, mostly fail to make a satisfactory attachment. In an experiment, twigs, the leaves of which were infested with second-instar larve, were placed in water. The larve soon loosened and migrated to the twigs. The advanced specimens made the sec- ond molt prematurely and migrated in the third instar; the young specimens, even those less than half the normal size, migrated also, but without molting. Some of the smaller specimens would un- doubtedly have reattached to fresh leaf tissue had there been any ‘on the twigs. The others attached in the normal manner to twigs. 30 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table XXII shows the time spent in the second instar by larve at Mont Alto. The orchard data are derived from the maximum daily emergence and the maximum daily molts. These data show for the season of 1912 a variation in the length of the instar from 16 to 36 days. Most of the specimens in the orchard, from July 20 to August 5, spent 20 days in the instar, while in the rearing of July 22 two-thirds of the larve completed the instar in 18 days. TaBLe XXII.—Data showing the length of the second instar of the terrapin scale from 4 rearings of larve at Mont Alto, Pa. | “EN Length ps 4 oF ing sec- 4 > Year. Brood. Faire B eelnming of ee End of second instar. of the instar. Days 1912....}| Rearing A....) July 22 | Twentieth day..... First specimen, thirty-sixth day ........ 16 Maximum number, thirty-eighth day... 18 Last specimen, forty-ninth day.......... 29 Rearing B....| Aug. 9 | Twentieth day....| First specimen, thirty-sixth day........ 16 Maximum number, thirty-eighth day... 18 Last specimen, fifty-sixth day........... 36 1913....| Rearing A....| June 24 | Twenty - second | First specimen, thirty-fifth day........ a 13 day. Maximum number, thirty-ninth day.... 17 Last specimen, fifty-third day........... | 31 Rearing B....| June 26 | Nineteenth day...| First specimen, thirty-third day........ 14 Maximum number, thirty-seventh day -.| 18 Last specimen, thirty-ninth day......... 20 In 1913 the maximum daily orchard emergence was two days earlier than in 1912. The first instar required 18 days as against 20 days for the previous year. However, when the age at the end of the second instar is considered, it appears that in both seasons the maxi- mum numbers completed the instar upon the fortieth day. The larve used in Table XXII were placed upon 1-year-old peach trees. For the date of entering the instar is given the day upon which the maximum number entered it, and the date of leaving the instar is given for the first specimen, for the last specimen, and for the maximum daily number. The table shows that the second instar may last from 13 to 36 days and that the maximum number of specimens remain in it from 17 to 18 days; the greatest number molting upon the eighteenth day. SEcoND MOLT OF THE FEMALE. The second molt of the female coincides with that of the male and is little more than the casting of the skin in response to growth. There is no change in the structure of the appendages or of the mouth parts. In 1912 the second molt for a rearing of 213 females that emerged July 22 extended over a period of 10 days. The maximum daily molt was upon the thirty-eighth day after emergence, and 50 per cent had molted by thefortieth day. Arearing of 100 females that emerged upon August 9, 1912, made its maximum molt upon the thirty-eighth day after emergence. One-half of the rearig molted upon that day. THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 831 In the orchards at Mont Alto, Pa., in 1912, the maximum molt was upon the fortieth day. In all the rearings there was a very short interval between the first molt and the maximum daily molt. This interval varied from 2 to 5 days, with 3 days as the normal time. In 1913 observations were made upon two rearings, one of which emerged June 24. This rearing of 174 females made its maximum daily molt upon the thirty-ninth day. Reference to Table XXII will show that the first molt for this rearing was made upon the twenty-second day. It was slightly delayed by a storm, but the larvee reached the maximum of the second molt on the thirty-ninth day; that is, 1 day ahead of the average time for the orchard larve. © TaBLe X XIII.—Age of the terrapin scale at the second molt as determined from the maxi- mum daily molt. | = Age at the + Number of | —3- = = ie Year. Material. 3 maximum | Weather conditions. specimens. | gaily molt. | Days. NOL Ses BBroodliorwaly 22535003. 5 ore. esses ee. Sad 213 38 | Unfavorable. IB rOOdsomAte: Ohya tase ce tae = a eee ee 100 38 Do. IBTOOdCOMOKCh Ard emeleese aoe ese soe eee | 1,765 37 Do. Average for the’ year- =.) o.2-- 22.2. 5.2--5- lecenceseosur aye ION Sees LOOd Ol UNe) 245 oo 502) esi ci cece eee Bes, 174 39 | Favorable. IBTOOdVORITING:26na0 nese ee eee ee eee eee - 69 37 Do. IBTOOGKOMOLCHATG LS ayo octane esa eee eee 190 36 Do. verare forthesyears =.= 24-959 e eee | Sen eee ee | 37.3 1 piso data refer to larve reared upon isolated twigs at Mont Alto, Pa., and not to the entire orchard rood. The foregoing data show that the averages for the two years differ by only two-tenths of a day. Some of the individuals, however, departed 4 or 5 days from this average, while in 1912 some specimens made the molt as late as the forty-second day and in 1913 some made it as early as the thirty-second day. Lear PuHase or THE Turrp INSTAR. After molting to the third instar the females remain motionless on the underside of the leaf for a period of 1 day while they secrete a very thin dorsal scale which protects them during migration to the twigs. ; The individuals vary in size in the same season, and there is a slight variation in the average size from year to year. The measure- ments from 11 specimens showed a minimum length of 1.387 mm. and a minimum width of 0.862 mm.; a maximum length of 1.65 mm. and a maximum width of 1.074 mm.; an average length of 1.545 mm. and an average width of 0.995 mm. The average length in 1912 was 1.465 mm. and the average width 0.974 mm. In 1913 the average length was 1.64 mm. and the average width 1.02 mm., showing an increase in size for the latter year of 0.175 mm. in length and 0.046 mm. in width. 32 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MIGRATION TO THE TWIGS. The twigward migration of the females starts about the Ist of August and reaches its maximum before the middle of the month, after which it continues in a small way until the leaves fall. In the vicinity of Mont Alto, Pa., from 80 to 90 per cent migrate between August 8 and August 20. (PI. I, fig. 4.) Table XXIV gives data from observations made upon 1,494 migrating females during 1912 at Mont Alto, Pa. The observations in Part I were made upon larve that settled naturally upon orchard trees. The material considered was isolated with tree tanglefoot August 1 and the females as they migrated were removed and counted at two-day intervals. The age at which these particular larve migrated is not definitely known, but was about 40 days. The rear- ing of July 22 (Part IL) migrated from the thirty-ninth to the fiftieth day after emergence, and made its maximum daily migration August 30, which was the thirty-ninth day. The rearing of August 9 (Part Ill) migrated from the thirty-first to the fifty-seventh days and made its maximum daily migration upon September 15, which was the thirty-seventh day. 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OF DEPARTMENT tek 301, € . BULLETIN 46 ‘0d. ‘od “og ‘od “OL od Od ‘od ‘od od od OL ejo[duiog ‘oc ‘od od od ‘od og ‘od od od “SOLOZ PUODES PUL ISAT] ‘od “9UOZ ISALT “OUON “SoulozZ PUODS PUB ISAT “VUsIS teeeeeeeee es opeerss reeeeeeeee se gperres teeeeeeree spires: “4[Npe UL SB UOT -ejueursid Jo yunoury teeteteree sr opreresferees “95pe JO UOTyIpuo,) ROD® pace ; Tee tO Dias ayetdurog |*-* wexoig oyetduioy |°---*- JOG(UR JUST *pueq Ha *purq [es1op peue oy? 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Wouf saynas Ur ‘ponulyuoj—S76r ‘Dg dnusay aypuiaf fo sabunyo 10j00 pun YINo49— TITAXX @IAVL, THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 47 THe FemMaLteE Uron THE Twic: Rate or GRowTH. To determine the relative rate of growth of females after attaching to the twigs Table XXIX was compiled from the data obtained in 1913. This shows an increase from attachment on the twigs to the sixty-seventh day of 500 per cent in height and a pronounced increase in length and width. It is evident from this table that nearly all the growth takes place during the first 19 days. Taste XXIX.—Size of twig-attached females of the terrapin scale after the specified days upon the twigs, Mont Alto, Pa., 1913. Number : Spar Period Average Average Average Date. See on twig. length. width. height. Days. Mm. Mm. Mm. INR TS 10 (1) 1.542 1.03 0. 125 Aug. 7 3 1 1. 600 1S O5SE ee oases ane Aug. 8-. 3 2 1.65 TATA eevee ss Ain Aug. 19. . 10 4 1.649 1. 297 208 Aug. 20. 10 5 1. 619 TS On tellea noes Hae Aug. 23. - 13 8 1. 686 I Pen aoaesemeeaae Aug. 26. - 4 11 1. 762 25s ail eek ese Aug. 29. . 8 14 1. 887 Dee Paes Serene cage Ae Sept. 3... 13 19 1,996 1. 592 615 Oct. 21... 16 67 2. 057 1. 680 - 625 1 Just attached. Tur FEMALE Upon THE Twic: Movement Artrer ATTACHING TO THE TWIGS. It is very doubtful whether the females ever reattach after the first week’s sojourn upon the twigs. During the first few days specimens have been observed to move, but whether or not the proboscis had been inserted into the host is unknown. Efforts were made to deter- mine this, but no data were obtained. However, observations made upon specimens attached to slowly drying twigs indicate that they do not change position after the eleventh day. THe Derm. With the arching of the dorsum during the first week the flat wax scale which protected the female larva during the migration from leaf to twig scales off; meanwhile the exposed surface thickens and hardens until by the end of the week it is so rigid that it responds to the growth changes by crimping. This hardening and thickening of the dorsum which produces the hard shell-like derm is completed by the twenty-fifth day. The excretion of wax, however, continues and wax flakes can be found attached to the derm up to the time of death. HONEYDEW. The attachment of the females to the twigs marks the beginning of the maximum period of honeydew deposit. If it were not for the deposit at this time the honeydew would be of very little economic 48 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. importance. This period of excretion extends to the time of hiber- nation, but practically all the honeydew is deposited during the first 25 days. The anal apparatus is specially adapted to the excretion of honey- dew. The anal plates, which are situated near the posterior end of the derm, are so hinged at their anterior ends that they can be both elevated and separated. When in this position they expose the anal chamber which lies just below them. This chamber is boundei laterally by the body lobes and connects ventrally with the brood chamber, while a cloacal cavity extends forward, within which there is a retractile spindle-shaped rectum, at the distal extremity of which the anal aperture is located. It is surrounded by a fringe of eight filaments called the anal ring. During repose the rectum occupies the anterior part of the cloacal cavity, and the anal fringe, which is folded into a cylindrical mass, occupies the posterior part. When the scale is not excreting the anai cavity is empty and closed at the top by the idlike anal plates. Preparatory to excretion the anal plates are elevated and separated; the rectum with its fringe is drawn backward from the cloacal cavity into the anal chamber, from which it is thrust through the opening between the elevated anal plates. Contraction of the muscular walls of the rectum causes the contents to ooze into the basket formed by the filaments of the anal ring, where it forms a bubble which is held in piace upon the end of the rectum by the supporting filaments, much as a jewel is held in its settmg. When the bubble is fully formed it bursts, hurling the liquid composing it in the form of minute drops to a distance of from 3 to 8 inches. Cohesion between the honeydew and the filaments of the fringe is very slight. As a result no honeydew remains upon the fringe after the bursting of the bubble. The rectum is always with- drawn and the anal cavity closed after each expulsion. The deposit of honeydew from the twig-attached females becomes noticeable in orchards during the first week in August and rapidly increases in amount during the remainder of the month. At Midvale, Pa., in 1913, the deposit was first noticed August 4. It was made by the few advanced females then upon the twigs. The amount excreted reached its maximum on August 23, after which the amount upon the trees remained nearly constant until the first week of September. The sooty fungus which develops upon this honeydew increases in abundance with the increased deposit, and by the end of August its lack spores have transformed the transparent honeydew into a sooty paste. By the end of the first week in September the leaves, branches, and fruit are covered by a black film of dried honeydew and spores. In some cases the infestation is so severe that the soil under the tree is coated almost as thickly as the limbs. The deposit THE TERRAPIN SCALE. _ 49 appears at its worst upon varieties that ripen after September 1. A basket of sooty peaches, with two normal peaches for comparison, is shown in figure 16. HIBERNATION. The scales depend for protection during hibernation upon their protective coloration, their hard derm, and their waxy coating. The color, while conspicuous in detached specimens, blends so nicely with the color of the young twigs as to conceal them effectively. The hard derm protects them from birds and insect enemies, and the wax film protects the insect from rain, surface moisture, and scalecides by prevent- ing their passing un- der the scale. SIZE DURING HIBERNATION. Eulecanium nigro- fasciatum passes the winter as an impreg- nated female. The following measure- ments, which were ta- ken from fresh speci- mens at Mont Alto, Pa., February 24, 1913, are typical for the hibernation period: Length, maxi- mum 2.375 mm., maini- FG. 16.—A basket of “‘sooty’’ peaches with two clean ones for con- trast. (Original.) mum 1.80 mm., aver- age 2.072 mm.; width, maximum 2.28 mm., minimum 1.79 mm., aver- age 2.0308 mm.; height, maximum 1.1 mm., minimum 0.725 mm., average 0.9084 mm. POSITION ON TWIGS DURING HIBERNATION. This species when on peach locates exclusively upon the last three seasons’ growth, and by far the largest number of specimens is found upon the earliest formed wood of the last growing season. (See ene ties. 1, 2.) | The females in 1912 continued more or less active until November 12, and they remained dormant until April. This made the hiber- nating period cover about 44 months. MORTALITY DURING HIBERNATION. Practically every normal female will pass the hibernation period safely unless some accident happens to the host. Specimens at Mont er 20782" Bull 351-16 = 4 An = 50 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Alto, Pa., during the winter of 1912-13 passed this period with a mortality of less than 10 per cent. At Midvale, Pa., during the winter of 1913-14, specimens upon poorly nourished trees had a mortality as high as 54 per cent. Neither birds nor other animals make a noticeable attack during hibernation, but there is a strong parasitic attack upon the young females before hibernation. This was espe- cially noticeable during the first week in September. DEVELOPMENT OF THE MALE. Mate Larva, Seconp InstTaAr. In this instar the elongation of the larva and the secretion of the puparium undoubtedly start immediately after the first molt, but it is usually five or six days before they can be detected. The male increases, as 1s shown in Table XXX, from an average length of 1.03 - mm. to an average length of about 1.706 mm., and in width from an average of 0.421 mm. to an average of about 0.830 mm. There is also an appreciable increase in height. TABLE XX X.—Average measurements of the male terrapin scale in the second instar at various ages between the twenty-fifth and thirty-fourth days, at Mont Alto, Pa. Number a Date - | Average | Average Year. emerged. Age. obspert length. | width. | | Days Mm. | Mm 1912 | Aug. 9 25 1 1.031 0. 468 AGU 205s dO Sseet 26 2 1. 218 - 421 1913 | June 24 30 14 1. 628 - 830 1912 | Aug. 9 3L 4 1.579 - 642 1913 | June 26 32 13 1. 661 - 809 1913 June 24 33 13 1.621 . 813 LOTS =e Ors) 34 8 1. 706 777 In 1912 the instar extended to the fortieth day, but practically all males had shrunk in preparation for the second molt by the thirty-fifth day. The following table compares the measurements of 54 females in the second instar with 48 males of the same rearing, and shows that the females average 0.168 mm. wider and 0.111 mm. shorter than the males. TABLE XX XI.—Comparative measurements of male and female larvex of the terrapin scale during the second instar, Mont Alto, Pa. Datu cleNumber Length | Width | Number| Length | Width Age. eriece adel eerinl of of of of of Bee ales- | males. | males. | females. | females. | females. Days Mm Mm Mi Min 30 | June 24 | 14 1. 628 0. 830 7 1. 507 0. 982 32 | June 26 13 1. 661 . 809 16 1. 506 - 937 33 | June 24 13 1.621 . 813 20 1. 587 . 978 34 SiQOz=2- 8 1. 706 777 11 1.575 1.012 Total.... AS ra Rie oe sass eee aces 5A ee ee | S382 eee AVCTA SON Peas a= once 1.654 | Btls |S secasssor 1. 543 ~ 975 THE TERRAPIN SCALE. bya The male larva stops growth one day before the second molt, after which it shrinks and tends to assume a cylindrical form. The amount of this shrinkage, as is shown, averages 0.16 mm. in length and about 0.137 mm. in width. As a result of this shrinkage the edges of the puparium extend beyond the larva like the eaves of a roof. TaBLE XX XII.—Shrinkage of 13 male larvex of the terrapin scale during the last day of the second instar, 1913. | July 27. July 28. | Difference. | Mm. Mm. Mm Averaveilengiheeeaaas emcee aici o cto ne oe ce iseioec Se beens macciseseien 2.17 2.01 ; PASVET AC ORWi CL lberierere clelstnie c)-1212 2 Saale a(cinis etaierefoteelaielet=\o afurenrneic aie sleieraeeyate 1.075 9375 . 1375 The author’s observations indicate that both sexes make the second molt at the same time and that they spend the same number of days in the second instar. Tue PUuPARIUM. The puparium is a transparent protective covering under which the male passes the third, fourth, and part of the fifth instar. It is secreted by dorsal wax pores during the second instar (PL. II, a, e), and has the same dimensions as the full-grown larva, but owing to the shrinking of the larva the puparium at the end of the second instar is the larger. This structure is held in place by elastic bands which extend from points upon its edges to the leaf below. The largest of these is attached directly in front of the head. The orna- mentation of the puparium consists of 2 longitudinal lines, 3 cross- lines, and a spear-shaped notch, which coincide in position at the time of its secretion with the anal plates and anal cleft of the larva. The longitudinal lines extend from the anterior end of the anal notch in mildly diverging curves anteriorly to a termination on the lateral edges near the position of the eye-spots of the larva. The cross lines, which are broken, are located at the middle and on the anterior and posterior thirds. In this species the puparium is always placed upon the underside of the leaf (PI. ITI, fig. 3) and never upon the twigs. In this it differs from Hulecanium corni Bouché, which frequently has puparia upon the twigs. Twenty-four puparia taken at Mont Alto, Pa., during 1912, had the following sizes: Length, maximum 1.725 mm., minimum 1.443 mm., average 1.641 mm.; width, maximum 0.825 mm., minimum 0.54 mm., average 0.707 mm. The puparia of 1913 in the same orchard were slightly larger; 13, measured July 28, averaged in length 1.706 mm. and in width 0.778 mm. 5Y BULLETIN 301, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Seconp Mout or THE MALE. In 1912 the second molt was made by orchard larve from the thirty-eighth to the forty-third day, with its maximum upon the forty-first day, after emergence from the brood chamber. In 1913, with a more favorable season, this molt was made by orchard larvee upon the thirty-sixth day. Since the larve entered the second instar upon the eighteenth day, they averaged 18 days in the second instar. Two rearings were made in 1913, the first from larve that emerged June 24 and the second from larve that emerged June 26. The former made their maximum daily molt for both sexes upon the thirty-seventh day, the latter upon the thirty-fourth day. When the male larva shrinks at the end of the second instar the larval skin retains its original shape and position (PL. II, 6). This leaves the larva nearly free within. At this time a decided meta- morphosis begins. The original legs, antenne, and mouth-parts dis- appear and the anal lobes, which in the second instar are one-half.as wide as the body and extend caudad beyond the anal plates (PL. II, a), now shrink to short, narrow projections which extend only slightly beyond the anal plates. As a result of this change in the anal lobes the anal crease disappears and the anal apparatus assumes again its original position on the caudal margin. During this meta- morphosis the hard portions of the mouth-parts remain attached to the larval skin and disappear at the second molt, after which all trace of the mouth-parts is lost. In the act of molting the larval skin is ruptured by contortions of the larva along the middorsal line, and in a few minutes it is worked downward and backward and is expelled at the caudad margin of the puparium, where it usually remains for a few days clamped under the puparium. THe PREPUPA. The prepupal instar is characterized by a rapid metamorphosis, which, however, actually starts before the casting of the second molt skin. The plump anal lobes of the first and second instars shrink, and the characteristic anal plates (Pl. II, a) are lacking. The most evident characters at the beginning of the instar are the wing-pads and the pointed anal lobes. The prepupal period covers but 2 days, yet the metamorphosis is so rapid that decided changes occur. The wing-pads expand to their full size; the antennal sheaths expand from buds to nearly one-half of their final length, and the leg sheaths, which at the beginning of the instar were indicated by imaginal buds, become one-fourth devel- oped. The metamorphosis of the anal region continues throughout this instar and at its end all trace of the conspicuous anal plates is lost. In their place there now project from the caudal extremity two Bul, 351, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. THE TERRAPIN SCALE. puparium; b, same, shrinking in the last day of the second imago before emergence; f, pupa case clamped under the pupa- i, enlarged antenna. a, The second instar under the 2 instar; c, prepupa; d, pupa; ¢, x rium; g, imago at twigward migration, h, lateral view of caudal extremity, All much enlarged. (Original.) , Bul. 351, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. THE TERRAPIN SCALE. Fic. 1.—Appearance of the scale on peach twig during winter; somewhat enlarged. Fic. 2.— Same, about natural size. Fic. 3.—Male puparia along midrib of peach leaf; considerably enlarged. (Original.) THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 538 fleshy lobes, between which are the sheaths of the copulatory appa- ratus. (Pl. II, c.) The ventral eyes are represented at the end of this instar by two brown spots. This instar is quite constant in its length, being almost invariably 2 days. Table XX XIII gives data upon 18 males from the rearing of June 24, 1913. The average length was 2 days. TABLE XX XIIJ.—Average duration of the prepupal instar for 18 specimens of the terrapin scale, Mont Alto, Pa., 1913. | { Date of | Date of Date of | Date of No.. second. | thir une ua) | No. second | thir Time in molt. molt. -| PrePupa- molt. molt, | DEePupa. Days. Days. lL ABSeEREBeecaeseaeE July 31] Aug. 2 7 Je lta Ul ese a ees July 31} Aug. 3 3 QE ree mre cla tainie Aug. 4| Aug. 6 PN Fee es ess eer July 30} Aug. 1 2 BAPE aele ae Sineiaat July 31| Aug. 2 PNR es th om cas Beene es July 31 Chasse 1 Ae cosets cisijainsins July 30) Aug. 1 Ig ll es caeoceeoasaESaoac July 29 | July 31 2 Saupe dee eee eee dopees lee doses. 2) Wb seston elon Aug. 1| Aug. 3 2 Gees eise wink EGO eeeee ee Oban PACH fd Ge ates Phe aes ee eae se O02 ote dotenae 2 (loncse panes SCeBree doves; Aug. 2 DA BL a ae Ne oS se so Aug. 5| Aug. 7 2 Bie Ms Pe seco HdOessee Aug. 1 QE DURE teem meee Aug. 4] Aug. 6 2 hope atoweisiocsiseise| Aug. 1] Aug. 3 2 SB Ssenqhesaseoseae July 31] Aug. 2 2 PAVOLAS O cee ce |Sesec cect cl cicciiee resis 2 Larve that emerge upon the same day may vary as much as 10 days in the time required for them to reach the prepupa. The normal time of entering this instar, however, is clearly defined for most individuals. One-half of the males in any rearing will ordinarily become prepupe upon the same date. The normal time for enter- ing this instar in the region about Mont Alto, Pa., is upon the thirty- eighth day after emerging from under the parent scale. Prepupz were abundant in the orchard at Mont Alto, Pa., in 1912, from August 8 to August 20. They were present in largest numbers about August 12; after this they became gradually less abundant until August 25. After August 25 they were very scarce. At Mid- vale, Pa., in 1913, the first prepupz were taken July 18. At Mont Alto, Pa., in 1913, the first prepupz were taken July 24. This is 5 days earlier than they appeared at Mont Alto the preceding year. Since both sexes made the second molt at the same age, and since the females migrate twigward upon the second day after this molt, it happens that the twigward migration of the females coin- cides with the prepupal instar of the male. In 1912 the first returned females—6 specimens in all—were taken July 29. While there were undoubtedly as many prepupe as returned females at this time upon the trees, none was found. \ By August 2 the number of returned females had greatly increased and, upon this date, the first prepup of the season were taken. There was a difference in 1913 of 6 days in the appearance of prepupe at the Wertz and in the Newcomer orchards. This was due to the difference in the localities. The Wertz orchard has a strong 54 BULLETIN 351, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. westward slope and is located at an altitude of 1,100 feet, with a mountain crest extending 1,000 feet above it. There is consequently a good air drainage and a partial exclusion of the sun’s rays during the forenoon. The Newcomer orchard, upon the other hand, is located upon a slight knoll, with relatively level surroundings. Its altitude is less than 900 feet. Consequently the air drainage is not good and the sun’s rays are unobstructed. Four prepupe were measured in 1912, with the following results: Length, maximum 1.29 mm., minimum 1.08 mm., average, 1.208 mm.; width, maximum, 0.618 mm., minimum, 0. 562 mm., average, 0.587 mm. On April 28, 1913, 8 specimens gave the following measure- ments: Length, maximum 1.420 mm., minimum 1.25 mm., average 1.33 mm; width, maximum 0.6 mm., minimum 0. 525 mm., average 0.559 mm. Turrp Mott. The prepupa starts the third molt by a series of convulsive move- ments which cause the dorsal skin to split over the thoracic region. The skin is loosened and removed almost entirely by extending and contracting the abdomen. ‘The extension thrusts cause a tension upon the ventral part of the molt skin which draws the head down- ward and under. This causes the dorsal thorax to protrude through the split in the molt skin. This tension increases with each thrust of the abdomen, so that the head is drawn farther and farther down- ward and backward until it finally slips free from the skin. The larva then assumes its regular position. In stripping the molt skin from the legs and antenne the thrusting movements of the abdomen are aided by the puparium, which, owing to its attachment with elastic bands, yields to the molting movements and serves as a clamp to hold the skin in place while the abdomen contracts for the next thrust. The thrusting movements of the abdomen usually cease before the skin is completely expelled from under the puparium. Because of this the cast skins are mostly found clamped under the posterior end of the puparium. The duration of this molt varies with the temperature at the time of molting and also with the vigor of the specimen. The molt usually starts in the forenoon with the resumption of the daily activity. The average time for this molt is less than an hour. Upon days when the temperature reaches 70° F. before 9 a. m., practically all the molts for the day will be completed by 10 a. m. At low temperatures many specimens die without completing it. Some specimens kept in the laboratory where the temperature did not rise above 70° F. required 18 hours for this molt. They started molting about 4 p. m. and became dormant before completing it. These molts were completed the following day. THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 55 THe Pupa. The pupal instar is one of development. In it the rudimental structures of the preceding instar reach their full development. The leg sheaths are mere tubes at the beginning of the instar; at the end they contain the matured legs. The wing sheaths have a similar history, bemg at first transparent bags, which develop gradually until the last third-of the instar, when the wings fold and the charac- teristic fleshy color appears. The pupa (PI. II, d) has a pale flesh color with chitinized areas upon the head and anal region. There is also a crescent-shaped spot and a transverse band of a bright flesh color. The antenne and legs are at first ventral, but they elongate and finally appear prominently in the dorsal view. TIME. IN PUPA. The pupal instar varies in length, occupying from 4 to 11 days, and averages about 6 days in favorable weather. Those individuals that spend only 4 days in this instar have invariably been delayed as prepupe. It is very exceptional for a male to pass 8 days in the pupa, even when weather conditions are unfavorable. When condi- ‘tions are such that the pup require over 9 days, there is a heavy mortality. Many die, and those that enter the adult stage mostly die without leaving the protection of the puparium. In both 1912 and 1913 rearings were made to determine the length of the pupal period under varying conditions. Observations made upon the specimens in the orchard showed that most of the specimens remained in the pupa 6days. A brood that emerged July 22, 1912— that is, approximately a month after the height of the normal emer- gence—was retarded 6 days by unfavorable conditions. Thirteen males passed successfully through the pupal stage and gave an aver- age of 8.15 days in the pupal instar. The average mean temperature for July, August, and September- 1912, was 71.5° F. A brood that emerged June 24, 1913—that is, appproximately at the height of emergence—passed through the larval instars in a nor- mal manner, and the imagos left the puparia upon the forty-sixth day. These specimens were slightly retarded, owing to their removal _ while in prepupa from the orchard to the laboratory. Fourteen of these specimens passed through the pupal instar in a normal manner. They gave an average of 6.2 days for the pupal instar. The fraction of a day in excess of 6 days is small and is clearly due to the unfavor- able environment of the laboratory. Table XXXIV gives the indi- vidual record of these 14 males. The average mean temperature for June, July, and August, 1913, was 73.4° F. 56 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste XXXIV.—Length of the pupal instar of the terrapin scale for larix that emerged June 24, 1913, Mont Alto, Pa.—Conditions favorable, tt = Date Date Pupal Date Date Pupal Ne. entered. | left. stage. | ne entered. | left. stage. Days. Days. i Hepa SA re ees Aug.. 2 | Aug. 10 Sl ROL Sh arte ets as gee Aug. 2] Aug. 9 7 Do) ED ee POR YS idoweece Aug. 8 Gul POs ans Hee ee oe ae Aug. ug. 8 iG Ds ct eee AMS. 1h etd Ose 2ae Hhes|| Ae Se a emt ee July 31] Aug. 5 5 AREA ee) de REE t tenet Wid0d25. Aug. 7 Gi | SU ZR IEN Ss eee tee ee Zed eee Aug. 6 6 eee A neintiee nr = teed Oesees Aug. 8 We || Gloces ss eeaecees Aug. 3| Aug. 8 5 (: Pieris fe Se ote Ages 2) edOees = G|-4 ee ees ates Aug: 21) -Augse7 6 [eam Se ee Aug. 1] Aug. 5 4 Se tae esas a ene Aug. 3 | Aug. 10 7 | AV OTAR OS 2) ok |2 oe aa ah yoke eee ener 6.2 | APPEARANCE OF PUPA IN THE ORCHARD. Pupee appear in the orchard upon the second day after the females start migrating to the twigs, and they are most abundant about the sixth day after the maximum daily migration. At Mont Alto, Pa., 80 per cent or more of the males pass through the pupal state during the first half of August. SIZE OF PUPA. The pupe are slightly smaller than the prepupe, but owing to the ereat size of the wing-pads the pupe average slightly wider. Table XX XV gives measurements for 20 specimens, the first 10 of which were from 1912 and the remainder from 1913. The sizes are quite uniform for the two seasons and average 1.248 mm. long and 0.5918 mm. wide. A comparison of the prepupal and pupal measure- ments from the same individuals shows an average decrease in length of 0.09 mm. and an increase of 0.03 mm. in width in passing into the pupal instar. TaBLE XXXV.— Measurements of 20 mature pupex of the terrapin scale, Mont Alto, Pa., 1912 and 1913. No. |Length.) Width. No. Length.| Width. No. Length.} Width. Mim. Mm. Mm Mm. Mm Mm GESE Ge stern Saree 1.2250 0.55 Qe sco aasNelarenis 1.1000 036007 || 16oss-seeeceeee ee 1. 250 0. 650 DPB a pres eee re 1.3375 MOTO OSes cesemesceet 1. 2500 62 Wee ose eee iealz(s) 575 Bee the Sh) ene eee ote 1.2750 OOOn Aes see scot tee 1.325 62521518 Ses See gee 1.275 650 ANB ILS AR TaD Sos 1.3000 COOK Mh 2eer re cence ate 1.250 475i | 192 eee 1.250 625 Br er acs ee ann 1.3000 SO Has Beg oe Se sbees 1. 250 650). |h20 Sos Sea eee 1.250 600 (GEASS dole Seas 1. 2500 NOOOR LAS ee ee Ne eee 1. 250 - 550 — CESS Entre eae 1. 2500 OO2i | (ML Os masters staelscrt 1. 200 - 600 Average...| 1.2481 .5918 OR eae aie eo orer tans 1. 2000 . 625 FourtH Motr. The fourth molt, like the third, usually starts in the morning when the temperature rises to about 70° F. The first indication that a molt is about to start is a series of convulsive movements. These cause the thin pupa case to split along the anterior third of the mid- dorsal line. As these movements continue the dorsal thorax pro- THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 57 trudes more and more through this slit and the head is forced down- ward. Before the head escapes the anterior legs are withdrawn from their sheaths. These are the first appendages to become free. They push the case downward until the head is free. After this they force the case backward under the body. The antennal sheaths cling tightly to the antennz and have to be stripped free from them. The middle and posterior legs take no active part in the molt, but lie motionless along the edges of the abdomen. The antennal sheaths are the last parts of the case to be shed. After the head escapes from the case it presses against the anterior-end of the puparium, which serves as a fulcrum in forcing the adult free from the pupa case. Pupe that escape by accident or are removed from under the pupa- rium are unable to complete the molt. They continue the effort for about 24 hours and then die. In the case of weak specimens the impulse to molt often ceases before the tips of the antenne are free. After this molt the pupal case is usually found lightly clamped under the posterior edge of the pupartum. (See PI. II, f) This molt ordinarily requires about 2 minutes for specimens at temperatures above 70° F., but at a temperature of 66° F. the time required is 5 minutes. This molt should take place about the forty- seventh day, but it is frequently delayed. For example, part of a brood that emerged August 9, 1912, was removed from the trees when in pupa. They were placed in the laboratory late in September, away from heat and sunlight, and under these conditions many of the specimens died. The remainder were abnormal and did not molt until the fifty-fifth day, or 8 days after the natural time. It was evi- dent that a slightly longer delay would have resulted in the death of all the specimens in the pupa or during the molt. THE ADULT MATE The fourth molt, like the third, is made under the puparium. The young imago at Set has soft and folded wings, but these soon assume their naturalshape. Several hours, however, are required for them to harden and to become fully colored. After expanding they protrude sheghtly from under the posterior end of the puparium and serve as a means of identifying this stage. The time spent under the puparium varies from a few hours to 4 days. The normal time for the male to remain under the puparium is from 1 to 2 days. The male regularly enters the imago in the forenoon of one day and emerges during the afternoon of the following day, but there~are well-defined exceptions to this. If favorable weather has so accelerated the growth as to shorten the preceding instars, the imago tends to remain under the puparium until the regular time for emerging, but when the early instars are lengthened by unfavorable weather the imago emerges in ‘less than 2 days. 58 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In Table XXXVI are recorded data from 14 males that emerged late in the season of 1912. They had the fourth molt delayed to the fiftieth day and give an average of 1.36 days as the time spent under the puparium. Specimen No. 3 partly escaped from under the puparium during the fourth molt. It remained in this position for 4 hours and an emerged and started to leave the leaf. TaBLe XX XVI.—Emergence of 14 males of the terrapin scale from a brood that made the fourth molt upon the fiftieth day, Mont Alto, Pa., 1912. Fourth molt. Emergence. i Time spent No. under pupa- Date. | Time. Date. Time. UAB Days. Hrs -| Sept. 6 | 8.40a.m 1 -| Sept. 10 | 10a. m.. 1 0 -| Sept. 11 | 10a. m.. 4 Sept. 14 | 6a.m... 3 0 Sept. 12 | 6a. m.. 1 16 SdOsess6 6pm 12 Sept. 14 | 9a. m.. 2 PAL Sept. 13 | 6a. m.. ep ly 200 zes02 Gams 1 16 -d0 2322. Giaomessce 12 Sept. 12 | 6a. m.. 18 Sdoeses. 6a. m.. 18 EdOze.e2 Gianimseece 1 21 =GOzesss 6a.m.. 1 15 witb ae date al eee eee eee 1 9.07 In Table XX XVII are recorded data from 12 imagos that emerged from the brood chamber June 24 and made the fourth molt upon the forty-fifth day. They were thus normal in development. They give an average of 2 days spent under the puparium. Eight specimens from this same brood were removed from the orchard 7 days before they emerged as imagos and placed upon glass plates in the laboratory. As a result of this treatment they were delayed in the pupal stage and spent only one day under the puparium, a reduction of one-half in the time due to the changed conditions. TaBLE XXX VII.—Emergence of 12 males of the terrapin scale from a brood that made the fourth molt upon the forty-fifth day, Mont Alto, Pa., 1913. pete Imago aime = Date Im: ie 0. of four under pu- 0. of fourth under pu- molt. emerged. parium molt. emerged. arium. Days. Days. IL esses Sate operas Aug. 10 | Aug. 11 iT | ee emer ee neaHenueec Aug. 10 | Aug. 11 1 2s eee eee Aug. 8} Aug. 9 12 iit RoseeeeuBSeecaueen Aug. 8 | Aug. 10 2 Sa ee er a eee Bac Wesod laos doxs-r HL || LOR S3 Sersrerceine eisererae PNR 7 |pece@aon 3 (Ee eevedoeseemeseeea July 7| Aug. 11 Gs Ot eRe eeeeaenoaEitoee Aug. 5]| Aug. 8 3 Bia aiec sein need ey eee Aug. 8} Aug. 9 IPs Sede Godesacessess Aug. 8 | Aug. 10 2 Gus eh ee. eee ExtOsssallene doze: 1 (ReRSSsaenapeGocshnce Aug: 75 ||. <0 4 AV CT ASC cel pecieicecicts Cemeeeence 2 shows that the A comparison of Tables XXXVI and XXXVII time spent under the puparium by the imago varies from 4 hours to 4 days and that the average time for normal development is 2 days. THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 5Q Imagos were taken from under puparia in small numbers at Mid- vale, Pa., on July 27, 1913. These were the earliest specimens taken during the two seasons of observation. EMERGENCE OF ADULT MALE. The imago (PI. I, g) usually leaves the puparium about the forty- ninth day. In 1912 the early part of the season was favorable and the imagos emerged upon the forty-ninth day, but later in the season males reared from larve that emerged from the brood chamber August 9 did not leave the puparium until the fifty-second day, with several specimens delayed until the fifty-eighth day. In 1913 the males emerged from the forty-third to the fifty-ninth day, with the maxi- mum emergence upon the forty-ninth day. DESCRIPTION OF ADULT MALE. Length, exclusive of style, 1 mm.; style 0.15 mm.; caudal lobes 0.075 mm., being one-half as long as the paired lateral appendages; antennz 0.6 mm.; wing, 0.44 mm. long, 0.8 mm. wide. Light flesh color in general. Head light flesh color; anterior pair of dorsal eyes reddish brown; posterior dorsal eyes similar and one-half as large; ventral pair dark brown and slightly larger than the anterior dorsal pair; antennze whitish, 8-jointed, joint I short, thick, semiglobular; joint II slightly longer than I, claviform; joint III as long as both I and II, slender and cylindrical; the remaining joints cylindrical and subequal. Collar short cylindrical; prothorax narrow; dorsal mesothorax light flesh color, with a flesh-colored shield-shaped spot above, and ter- minated posteriorly by a narrow bright band of the same color; metathorax light flesh color. Wing iridescent, surface granulose, false vein through anal third; hal- teres none; caudal filments none; legs and style light brown. TWIGWARD MIGRATION OF THE MALE. The male backs out from under the puparium and at once starts for the twigs. The wings are not ordinarily used in this migration. The insect is attracted by strong light and seems to be guided some- what in its movements by gravity and possibly also by the scent of the female. The males leave the underside of the leaf and pass down the petiole. When the twig is reached they turn downward and examine the surface carefully as they pass overit. The antennz are held aloft and nearly motionless, but the anterior tarsi are kept in constant motion, tapping and feeling the surface of the twigs. The males frequently in their search pass to the tips of the twigs, and in such cases they may circle the twig a few times and then return to the base and pass on, but when the illumination is strong they alight upon other twigs and start again in active search. The interval between emerging and starting the active search for the female scales is very brief, being always less than 30 minutes. The male is sexually mature when he emerges. When he approaches a female he taps upon the derm with his anterior legs, usually pass- ing several times around the specimen in doing so, or he may conduct the examination while upon the female’s back. During such an 60 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. examination the male is often diverted and may move away, but he will return, again and again, before finally abandoning his efforts. Those females that have copulated are indifferent to the male, but females of the same age that have not copulated respond by elevat- ing and distending the anal plates. After a preliminary examina- tion of the dorsal surface of the female the male mounts and takes the copulating position, with the head forward and the body paral- lel to that of the female. In the act of copulation the abdomen is curved under until the tip is in contact with the anal plates. The act of copulation requires from 2 to 10 seconds, according to the degree of exhaustion of the male. At the end of copulation the male departs and continues his search for additional mates. If by chance he returns a second time to the same female his tappings bring no response. The male is decidedly polygamous and con- tinues copulating with one female after another until he dies of exhaustion. The following observations were made upon a male that left the puparium September 6, 1913: Emerged from, pu partum. go sac os oe ecists See ocsparet ses eat gece clare 9.40 a. m. Discovered first susceptible female and copulated........:............-- 9.42 a. m. Discovered second female and copulated...............--.+-+.--+-+----- 9.44 a. m. Discovered third female.a0- 2-2... 22st wean: Sele ee 9.46 a. m. Discovered fourth female ...20 oe. Sede doen et ae ee 9.50 a. m. Miseoveredstitth female 222) osce os tose ee one eee ee 9.56 a.m. WiedtolexnaustiOns: 625 j0.0 Fo ose ke ee ee ee ee ee 9p. m. At the end of the fifth copulation detailed observations stopped, but the male continued in diligent search for more females. This in- dividual died of exhaustion 12 hours after leaving the puparium. The active male, when moving naturally upon the host plant, lives less than 24 hours. Almost invariably the male emerges in the fore- noon, exhausts himself in copulation during the hottest portion of the day, and dies before midnight. When confined singly in test tubes they live from 1.25 to 2.75 days. Six specimens confined im test tubes gave 2.75 days as the maximum, 1.25 days as the minimum, and 1.625 days as the average longevity. SumMMaARY OF Lire History OF THE MALE. The male lives an average of 49 days and passes through 5 instars. In the first two instars it is a vigorous feeder, and accumulates all the energy used during the remainder of its life. The 3 remaining instars are characterized, as a whole, by the absence of functional mouth-parts and by the development of the adult organs. : The length, in favorable weather, and the distinguishing character- istics of the instars are as follows. The feeding instars: First instar, length 18 days—vegetative; second instar, length 18 days—sexual differentiation. THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 61 The nonfeeding instars: Third instar (prepupa), length 2 days— metamorphosis; fourth instar (pupa), length 6 days—development of adult structures; fifth instar G@mago) dormant phase, length 2 days—hardening of exo-skeleton; active phase, length 1 day—migra- tion and copulation. SEASONAL HISTORY. There is one generation of the terrapin scale annually. This species passes the winter as immature females. At the start of hibernation these are very plump and the ventral part of the abdomen crowds against the surface of the host, so that there is no vacant space be- neath the scale, but by the middle of March the abdomen has shrunken until there is a dome-shaped cavity beneath it. When the spring growth starts the specimens become plump again and the space beneath the scale disappears. Most of the specimens reach maturity during the middle of June and begin at once to produce young. The majority of the scales reproduce for a period of about one month. but an occasional female may continue actively reproducing for as long as 34 months. On the second day after the first young are born they begin to emerge from the brood chamber of the parent, mostly through the anal cleft. During the first 5 weeks there is a heavy migration of larve to the leaves. This migration reaches its maxi- mum during the first week of emergence. It then gradually declines, until by the end of the fifth week it amounts to less than 5 per cent of the maximum emergence. (See figs. 2 and 4.) At the beginning of the sixth week after the appearance of the first young the female larve start migrating from leaf to twig. By the end of the seventh week the females are ready for copulation and the males migrate to the twigs. Copulation occurs at this time and the males die at once, but the females start upon a period of rapid growth, during which they excrete a vast amount of honeydew, which is responsible for most of the injury caused by this scale. After 2 or 3 weeks of extreme activity their growth gradually slackens, but it continues until cold weather forces the partly mature females into hibernation, after which they remain dormant until the following spring, dying about mid- summer ae the production of young. MORTALITY. There is more or less mortality at all seasons of the year. Ordi- narily there seems to be comparatively little due to winterkilling, though at times this may be considerable. The amount of winter- killing depends mainly upon the vigor of the host plant and upon the severity of the winter. During 1912-13, upon well-nourished trees, the mortality from this source was not more than 5 per cent of the hibernating scales. During 1913-14, however, scales upon trees of low vitality had a mortality as high as 40 per cent. 62 BULLETIN 3651, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The females during the spring development are sometimes heavily attacked by hymenopterous parasites, especially species of the genus Coccophagus. At the start of reproduction the larve of the cocci- nellid Hyperaspis binotata Say (fig. 17) enter the brood chambers and attack the lecanium larvee, while later the maturing larve of this beetle, in attempting to enter the brood chambers, dislodge many of the gravid females, thus destroying at once both the female and the unborn young. (See fig. 18.) Cold, wet weather at the time of reproduction causes many larvee to die in the brood chamber. These frequently clog the exit and pre- vent the egress of the remainder of the brood. This condition was especially noticeable in the season of 1912, when owing to protracted rain 5 per cent of the gravid scales were affected in this way. During the leafward migration most of the young succeed in reach- ing the leaves, and the loss at this period is due mainly to drowning by sudden rains and to the dropping of larve from dead twigs. Dur- ing the leaf phase the larvee are often heavily attacked by predatory enemies, but the female ijarve are practically free from parasitic attack, and the males are but slightly attacked. However, after returning to the twigs the females are subject, at times, to a heavy parasitic attack which may cause a mortality as high as 20 per cent. They are also subject to attack at this time by a pyralid moth, Laetilia coccidivora Comst. In conclusion it may be said that the mortaility from weather conditions throughout the year is not more than 50 per cent, and that in favorable seasons it is almost negligible. ATTENDANTS. The terrapin scale excretes a honeydew which is very attractive to ants, and during the time in which it is being deposited all the species of ants in the vicinity will be found working upon it, while at other seasons no ants will be about. In the early spring, when the fruit buds are about to burst nto bloom, considerable honeydew is excreted and ants are then actively working, but during the period of re- production very few ants appear. When, however, the twigward migration of the females starts, the ants return and remain in almost constant attendance until the scale hibernates. There is no species of ant that habitually attends this scale, but most of the orchard ants feast upon its bounties. Only slight benefit to the scale results from the attendance of the ants. Some of them are pugnacious and undoubtedly tend to ward off predators and to frighten away and confuse parasites. The following four species taken at Mont Alto, Pa., attending this scale were identified by Dr. W. M. Wheeler: Formica truncicola Nyl. subsp. integra Nyl. Formica fusca L. var. subsericea Say. Lasius niger L. var. americanus Emery. Prenolepis imparis Say. THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 63 PREDACEOUS ENEMIES. At Mont Alto, Pa., in 1912, the lacewing fly Chrysopa nigricornis Burm. made an attack during the twigward migration which was un- important, although it continued until the larve migrated to the twigs. This species was reported in 1893 by Mary E. Murtfeldt as actively attacking the larvee of this lecanium. Larve of Hemerobius stigmaterus Fitch were present in 1912 in considerable numbers and the result of their attack was quite notice- able. The predaceous pyralid Laetilia coccidivora Comst. was present in 1913, and its larve made a very vigorous attack. The eggs were placed singly among the scales upon infested twigs, apparently during the first half of June, and hatched in about 6 days. The larva is greenish black, with a black, shghtly bilobed head, and feeds within a delicate silken tube which it constructs from scale to scale as it ad- vances along the twig. It first attacks the gravid females, and hundreds of their empty derms can often be seen clinging to one another and to the silken tubes upon trees where it has fed. When the larva reaches its full development it spins a cocoon within the silken tube, usually near the axil of a bud or at the base of a fruit spur. L. coccidiwvora, at Midvale, Pa., requires about 10 days to pass through the pupal stage. The imagos emerged from their cocoons during August and deposited their eggs upon the twigs among the young scales, which were at that time migrating to the twigs. The larve of this second brood made a vigorous attack upon the young females. This predator is aggressive and under favorable conditions can undoubtedly control this scale. The author observed its work during the season of 1913, in the orchard of Mr. A. Newcomer, near Midvale, Pa. It was, however, heavily parasitized, and so made very little impression upon its host. Two species of parasites were reared in abundance from this pyralid at Midvale, Pa. They were Mesostenus thoracicus Cress. and an undescribed species of Habro- bracon. ; The predatory bug Camptobrochis nebulosus Uhl., although not found at Mont Alto, Pa.,was reported by Mary EK. Murtfeldt as prey- ing upon the active larve of this lecantum at Kirkwood, Mo., in 1893. Species of Coccinellide of the genus Hyperaspis are undoubtedly the most efficient agents in the control of this lecanium. Miss Murtfeldt, in reporting upon Hyperaspis signata for 1893, says: ‘‘The flocculent larve of this coccinellid were very numerous and active among swarming larve of L. nigrofasciatum but were not found upon any other coccid or aphis during the season.’’ Mr. A. B. Gahan, m Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 149, mentions the attack by ladybirds and says: ‘‘* * * the species most commonly observed being the twice-stabbed lady- 64 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. bird, Chilocorus biwulnerus.”” The writer has occasionally taken the adults of this species, which is scarce about Mont Alto, Pa., upon trees infested with the terrapin scale, but has never observed either it or its larves preying upon this scale. At Mont Alto, Pa., there was, in 1912 and 1913, a heavy and effective attack by Hy- peraspis biynotata Say. This ladybird was taken abundantly in the orchard of D. M. Wertz in 1912 and was very abundant there and in adjacent orchards during the follow- ing year. It was also taken in considerable numbers during 1913 at the Newcomer or- chard near Midvale, Pa. This ladybird Fig. 17.—A predaceousenemy ot Worked so effectively at Mont Alto, Pa., as the terrapin scale, Hyperaspis nearly to exterminate a very severe infesta- ee Much enlarged. tion, H. binotata (fig. 17) differs somewhat from the common species of ladybirds, both in its habits and life history. The adult beetles hibernate under bark and in rubbish and become active in early sprmg. They feed upon Fic. 18.—Eggs and a second-instar larva of Hyperaspis binotata as it appears under a displaced scale: a, Second instar as disclosed by displacing the host; b, larvee of the terrapin scale; c, a displaced scale; d, eggs of the predatory beetle Hyperaspis binotata in situ; e,egg, highly magnified. All much enlarged. (Original.) honeydew and upon aphides during the early part of the season but are unable to attack the lecanium in the spring because of its hard derm. They feed upon it readily when the derm is crushed. THE TERRAPIN SCALE, 65 The eggs, which are a salmon color, are deposited singly upon the twigs, a favorite place being upon the ringlike scars that mark the limit of the seasonal growth. (Fig. 18, d, e.) The eggs are too small to be seen readily by the unaided eye. They commence to hatch about the middle of May and the young seek the mature scales and enter their brood chambers by way of the anal cleft. When once within the brood chambers they prey upon the newborn young. The ladybird larve make their first molt within this brood chamber and continue to feed until the end of the second instar; by this time the Hyperaspis larvee are so large that they crowd the brood chamber and often displace their host. Finally the larvee leave the host and make the second molt, usually at the base of a fruit spur, and then attack other scales, which they do by forcing their heads un- der the margin and displacing them. In this manner they continue through the third and fourth instars, each larva de- stroying many gravid scales. When all the gravid females are destroyed the Hy- peraspis larvee, which are then mostly in the fourth instar (fig. 19), migrate to the | leaves and continue their feeding upon such of the larve as have reached the as Deeb oeafour th instar, darva ot leaves. Afterwards the ladybird passes the Pe celine Bae pupalstage im a pupa case attached to ‘mpm scale. Much’ enlarged. the leaves or to the twigs, and sometimes ake in cavities under the bark. Most of the hibernating beetles die before the first brood emerges from the pupa. PARASITES. The terrapin scale is heavily parasitized, and this parasitism is mostly confined to the female, though the male is slightly attacked. The first and second instars are very free from parasites, but a heavy attack starts soon after the young females have attached to the twigs. This attack increases in violence until checked by the approach of winter. Most of the parasites pass the winter within the host and emerge early in the season to make a new attack, which reaches its maximum just before the scales begin producing young. Coccophagus lecanit Fitch was the most abundant species reared in 1912, but C. cognatus Howard was also abundant, especially in the fall. In 1913 C. lecanw Fitch was rare. In its place C. cognatus -20782°—Bull, 351—16 5 66 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. appeared im large numbers and attacked the developing females in the spring. That which was apparently the first brood emerged from the hosts about June 30. This infestation was very noticeable owing to the excessive blackening of the scales, as from 20 to 50 per cent of the scales were killed. Later this same species made an attack upon the male larvze when in the second instar, and in some instances 5 per cent of the males were destroyed. At Ledy Station, Pa., and at Midvale, Pa., this species made a heavy attack in the fall, but at Mont Alto, Pa., it was scarce, owing to the almost complete destruction of the host by Hyperaspis binotata. Aphycus stomachosus Gir. was the most abundant parasite in 1913, being more numerous than (C. cognatus. It was reared in greatest, numbers from the nearly mature females in the early part of June, but it was also taken in large numbers in the orchards during the first half of September. Aphycus johnson Howard was reared in small numbers from both Hulecanum nigrofasciatum Pergande and E. corni Bouché at Mont Alto, Pa., but the last-named species seemed to prefer LZ. corni as a host. Besides the foregoing parasites, Blastothrix sericae Dalman was reared from FE. nigrofasciatum in 1912, as well as numerous specimens of a new genus of Encyrtide. A number: of specimens of Prospalta sp. were taken from the parasite cages during the season of 1912, but these may have come from armored scales that were introduced by accident. The records of this bureau contain references to the following speciés as parasites of Hulecanwum nigrofasciatum: Coccophagus ater How. Anagyrus nubilipennis Gir. cognatus How. Eunotus lividus Ashm. lecanii Fitch. Pachyneuron altiscuta How. (secondary). cinguliventris Gir. Prospalta aurantii How. longifasciatus How. Chiloneurus albicornis How. flavoscutellum Ashm. Blastothriz sericea Dalm. Jraternus How. Comys fusca How. Aphycus annulipes Ashm. johnsoni How. stomachosus Gir. SOOTY MOLDS. Eulecanium nigrofasciatum does most of its damage to the peach through its mold-infested honeydew, which is deposited in, varying amounts throughout the entire season. While this honeydew is objectionable, it would cause very little damage were it not for the sooty molds which grow abundantly on the leaves, twigs, and fruit and on, the soil beneath the trees when these are coated with the honey- dew. This honeydew becomes noticeable only at three times during the year. A slight deposit from the maturing females appears in THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 67 April and May, and another in July from the leaf-attached larve; but neither of these deposits is sufficient to do much damage. The really important deposit starts about August 10, at the time when the females attach to the twigs, and continues until the approach of cold weather. The amount of sooty mold produced is limited apparently only by the amount of honeydew excreted. The mold becomes noticeable during the first week in July as black streaks which first appear in the depressions on the upper surface of the leaves. It gradually increases in amount until the middle of August, and from this time until the middle of September the increase is very rapid. The infestation is at its worst about the middle of September, at which time fruit, foliage, and branches are covered with a sticky black slime. The extent of the injury depends upon the degree of infestation and upon the time of ripening of the fruit. Late varieties are damaged most by the mold-infested honeydew, as it shows worse upon fruit which ripens after the middle of August. REMEDIAL MEASURES. At the beginning of this investigation lime-sulphur was known, to be ineffective and kerosene emulsion was considered unsatisfactory in the control of the terrapin scale. The so-called miscible oils (pro- prietary emulsifiable oils), however, were believed to be reasonably efficient when properly employed, though it was believed that there was more or less danger to the trees and fruit buds from their use. For convenience in treatment the materials used in these experi- ments are considered in groups. In all 62 experiments were per- formed, most of them in the orchard of D. M. Wertz, at Mont Alto, Pa. The others were at Midvale, Pa., and at Washington, D. C. A consideration of the life history of this scale shows that it can be attacked both in the larval and the adult stages. The adult stage, owing to its long duration and accessibility, obviously offers the more favorable opportunity for treatment. During the first season spray- ings were made against both the larva and the adult. OIL SPRAYS. Experience shows that all oil sprays are most effective when appled as a fine mist and under strong pressure. All oils were appled with disk nozzles of the Vermorel type, having apertures of one-sixteenth inch. The oils noted in Table XX XVIII, all of which were applied in the spring after the buds had started to swell but before they had opened, proved to be inefficient. These oils were emulsified as follows: RanCCh iN eeeceecacr Sinem d LA are al Sno Ae er egee TN age ee scare eS . .2 gallons. [SHO 6) Lover IN) aie a ene ale la eg 4 pound. = Jal WENIEIS Aoosaccec Seer ee Ment papier ce tee Mea ae Ree ALLE OS 1 gallon. 68 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The soap was dissolved in the water and to this the oil was added. The whole was churned through a spray pump until no free oil remained. The emulsion was then diluted to the required strength and applied. Figure 20 shows that portion of the Wertz orchard in which most of the experimental work was done. The orchard is in apples, inter- planted mostly with Smock and Chair’s Choice peaches. The trees were 11 years old in 1912 and very vigorous. At the beginning of the investigation these trees were grouped into 14 major plats, as shown in the figure. The check plats were used as such until a better method of checking was devised, when they were subplatted and sprayed. Most of the checking was done by scale counts from tagged branches upon special check trees left within the plats. The rosin-oil emulsion was very efficient so far as killing scales was concerned. This oil dried rapidly, the trees soon appeared as if covered by a varnish, and the scales died almost at once. Unfor- tunately this oil gave very severe spray injury and some of the trees were so severely damaged that they required drastic pruning and stimulation to save them. While the spray injury could have been lowered by reducing the amount of oil, it was not thought advisable to continue the experiments. The corn oil, which was also used as a 20 per cent emulsion, was equally good as a scale Killer but formed a waxy scum over the branches and penetrated deeply into the tree, causing the death of many large limbs. These trees required drastic pruning and stimu- lation, but the injury was not so severe as in the case of the rosin oil. It was, however, too severe to justify its further use. The gasoline, which was used as a 10 per cent emulsion, had a very low efficiency as a scale treatment but gave promise in other ways, as it readily dissolved the wax film which protects the scale from water, and it caused the scales to loosen temporarily from the bark. After the emulsion evaporated, however, the scales soon resumed their normal condition. This emulsion produced no spray injury. MISCIBLE OILS (PROPRIETARY EMULSIFIABLE OILS). 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THE TERRAPIN of “U01) B13 “SUOT[eS 0¢ 10}eM ‘spunod -TUL PICMSIAY 0z° anydjns ‘spunod st ‘od “-op"""| 0 0 0 001 0 OOr « |" ""op"*") “er6r ‘or Arne | curry ou04s “spumod OT meh eS op’ ~*| er Sees ene “OL *SUOTTe ; ‘od --op"-"| 0 0 0 001 0 oor 8 BLY, “*"SI6T ‘OT Aine | 0G 1oyea “spunod OT «mopg |--* ~~ op"-*| aI Cie is cay eee gS 6 Och | aro pamelerc 9% g PL Oc; =| 00r a| 0 vaeeY) es ceromeceTmn | crac sees SeenODs ‘|i@ives | Tent eesenccee yak 8 “quopoysour |*“Op"~"| 1Z 9% g bd, 9% OOT x De cOD Sais ETO Tye O DEAT | ithas ° ST6T (OL AN ae eeegeecon’ 2aa287eC i ek O Dereon | ances "Op" -*! @1 Cl hae eater ac oc Neos TZ 66 g T 66 O0T . b “sny |" "-eT6r ‘OT Ammey\........ cer etce eee =O Dacia “-°°0p"-:| ZT Fa Pagel gee OCI Z “"Op"""| Te 66 ¢ II THE‘T | gt‘T | 2 Arne |---etér ‘or ounce . *SUOTIVS 0G 107e.M ‘spunod J 0¢ <«anydins ‘spunod ct 2 “quopoyge ATA |” OUON | 1% 16 | ¢ 6g 86 400‘T | 8° Arne |--" eL6t ‘ZI ouNg | cum ou0ys ‘spunod OT Mo, |--""-AAVOH] ZI | BE ft L "SDI : “poziqs . peop eit ae yu as ‘BULALT | “pvog | ‘[ejoy, | “eq ; : - sesh ee en ee ae ee LOO gallons:2e > see at se eee ee ee ee ae 2. 99 THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 83 It requires from 14 to 24 gallons of this emulsion thoroughly to spray a vigorous 12-year-old tree. The average tree of this age requires about 2 gallons, while a 2-year-old tree requires from a pint to a quart. It appears that from these figures the spray material will cost from 1 cent to 8 cents per tree. A single application of this spray, if carefully made, will control the terrapin scale. It has been found that the best way of preparing this spray is by mixing 5 gallons of raw linseed oil and 3 gallons of gasoline and then adding 2 pounds of soap dissolved in 4 gallons of hot water. The whole is churned for 5 minutes through a spray pump, then diluted to double its volume and churned again for 1 minute, after which it should be diluted to 100 gallons, when it is ready to use. MIXED OILS. Two experiments were performed in 1913 with emulsions of mixed oils. These emulsions were made and applied in exactly the same way as the linseed-oil emulsions. Table XLII shows the chief details, and the results for the mixed- oil emulsions. These experiments, when compared with experi- ments 3 and 4 of Table XLI, show that these mixed oils were less efficient than raw linseed oil and that there is no advantage in mixing them. NICOTINE. Eight experiments were made with nicotine compounds. These sprays were applied partly with a barrel sprayer and partly with a power sprayer, but the same set of disk nozzles was used in all cases. The chief details and the results of these experiments are recorded in Table XLIII. When reference is made to nicotine sulphate, the commercial article containing 40 per cent of nicotine is intended; likewise references to tobacco extract refer to preparations contaming 2.7 per cent of nicotine, or its equivalent. Experiments 5 and 6 of Table XLIV and experiments 5, 6, 7, and 8 of Table XLV are to be considered in connection with Table XLII. Of these 14 experiments, 5 were directed against the hibernating scales (4 of these in the spring and 1 in the fall); 5 against the leaf- attached larve, 2 against the females while making the twigward migration, and 2 against the young females while making their maximum growth. These experiments were all negative and showed that nicotine is ineffective against the terrapin scale. COATING SPRAYS. A-number of experiments were performed in 1912 with coating sprays, to determine the feasibility of smothering the scale. The chief details and the results of these experiments are recorded in 84 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table XLIV. The first 4 experiments were made with self-boiled lime-sulphur, 8-8—50, and were applied with coarse nozzles at a pressure of 100 pounds. In experiment 1 the application was made May 24, when 95 per cent of the overwintered scales were mature. This spraying was both extensive and thorough, but was inefficient against the mature females and failed to control the sooty molds. Experiment 2 was directed against the larve during the beginning of the leafward migra- tion, but gave an efficiency of only 15 per cent and also failed to control sooty molds. In experiment 3 two applications were made, the first at the be- ginning of the leafward migration and the last when 95 per cent of the larvee were upon the leaves. Both sprayings were ineffective and the small mortality (6.3 per cent) came entirely from the first appli- cation. In experiment 4, 3 applications were made, when the leafward migration started, when 95 per cent were upon the leaves, and just before the twigward migration. These applications were also ineff- fective, and the mortality was no greater than in the case of experi- ment 1. The fungus was partly controlled, but the fruit was coated with lime to such an extent that the general effect was injurious rather than beneficial. In experiments 5 and 6 tobacco extract was added to the self- boiled lime-sulphur, and the applications were made when 95 per cent of the larve were upon the leaves. These experiments gave no better results than the preceding ones and showed that tobacco extract is inefficient, at the strength used, when applied against the larvee when they are upon the leaves. In experiment 7 self-boiled lime-sulphur was modified to increase the thickness of the coating, and was directed against the young females. The branches of the young twigs were coated just before the females started their twigward migration. This experiment was ineffective. Experiment 8 was made to test the smothering properties of Paris white and glucose. The application was made with a barrel pump, just before the females started migrating to the twigs. The spray was ineffective. In experiment 9 a thick whitewash, to which casein had been added, was applied just before the young females started the twig- ward migration. ‘The limbs were heavily coated, but the scales were not killed. : In experiment 10 pulverized china clay was used. It proved to be a poor coating material and was inefficient. Considered as a whole the experiments in Table XLIV indicate that self-boiled lime-sulphur is ineffective when applied at the time of the twigward migration, THE TERRAPIN SCALE, 85 both against the scale and the sooty molds. They also indicate that the other substances tested are ineffective against the terrapin scale. The experiments with coating sprays performed in 1912 were fail- ures, so far as controlling the terrapin scale was concerned, but they were valuable in showing that sulphur was the active component of self-boiled lime-sulphur and that its efficiency could be improved by increasing its spreading and sticking powers. It was evident also that sulphur was ineffective against the mature females. COATING SPRAYS WITH FLOUR ADDED. In 1913 experiments were made to perfect a coating spray by adding a spreader and sticker to self-boiled lime-sulphur and by increasing the sulphur content. The chief details and the results of these ex- periments are recorded in Table XLV. In these experiments the flour was first made into a thin batter with cold water and then cooked to form a paste. The other ingre- dients were combined exactly as in making self-boiled lime-sulphur, after which the flour paste was added. In the first four experiments the same spray was used. Experi- ment 1 was directed against the larve during the leafward migration and was very successful. Experiment 2 was directed both against leafward migrants and against the larve upon the leaves. It shows high efficiency, which is, however, entirely due to the first spraying, as is shown by the negative results in experiment 3. | Experiments 5, 6, 7, and’8 were performed with the same formula used in the preceding experiments, except that 1 pint of 40 per cent nicotine sulphate was added. The results from these experiments show that the nicotine adds nothing to the efficiency of the spray. Experiment 9 was made with flour paste and shows that flour acts only as a spreader and adhesive and not as a killing agent. Experiment 10 was made with modified self-boiled lime-sulphur to which flour paste was added, and was directed against the larve after they were well established upon the leaves. The spray was ineffective, as were all other applications made against the leaf- attached larve. si From these experiments it appears that the terrapin scale can be controlled by a coating spray applied against the larve during the leafward migration and that these sprays are inefficient at other times. Coating sprays are more difficult to apply than the oil sprays and require a first-class sprayer with a powerful agitator and plenty of pressure. Coarse-angle nozzles should be used and the underside _ of the leaves should be thoroughly drenched, and the spray must be applied just before the young emerge. The time for applying this spray, which is immediately after the appearance of young under the 86 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. scales, can best be determined by displacing a number of scales daily during the early part of June. In the region of Mont Alto, Pa., the young will appear under the scales about June 12. For this coating spray use the following formula: Pounds Stone: Hime ess ee ee eee 15 Sulpburgi: 225 os a vee sees 20 | Ed Keys eae RI ee As a rd nes ATA, 2 10 Water to make 50 gallons. The lime and sulphur are combined exactly ab in making self-boiled lime-sulphur. The flour is made into a thin batter with cold water and cooked to a paste. It is then added to the lime-sulphur, and the whole should then be diluted to 50 gallons, when it is ready for use. Particular care must be taken to get a batter free from lumps; if this is done, and the spray is strained through a sieve, there will be no trouble in passing it through the nozzles. This spray when properly applied will kill from 94 to 100 per cent of the larvee. It is effective only against the leafward migrating larve and is useless if applied after the larve have attached to the leaves. SUMMARY. SUMMARY OF LIFE HISTORY. The female of the terrapin scale reaches maturity about the Ist of June and gives birth to living young soon afterwards. These are retained for a period of from 1 to 3 days in the brood chamber, which is a dome-shaped cavity beneath the scale. They then emerge and migrate at once to the underside of the leaves, where they settle, mostly along the midrib and the larger veins. The first instar, which lasts about 18 days, is vegetative and the larvee show no sexual differ- entiation, but during the second instar, which also lasts about 18 days, sexual differentiation is very pronounced. At the end of this instar the female is very flat and circular, while the male, which is flat and decidedly oval, is protected by a conspicuous waxy structure called the puparitum. After the second instar the sexes follow entirely different lines of development. 5 The female remains for 1 day upon the leaves after entering the third instar, which is the final instar for this sex. During this day it secretes a thin wax scale, which protects it durmg the twigward migration. At the beginning of this migration the female larve abandon the leaves and pass to the basal part of the new growth, where they make their final attachment within the area of greatest illumination. They then commence a period of rapid growth, during the first 11 days of which they develop their mating color, which is a conspicuous red band upon the middorsal line. At the time the dorsal band is completed the male migrates to the leaves, mates, and THE TERRAPIN SCALR. 87 dies. Thefemale after mating starts a rapid growth during which the mating colors and the larval characters are lost and during which vast quantities of honeydew are deposited. By the end of the twentieth day upon the twig the female has assumed all the adult characters. After this, growth gradually slackens until the cold of the approaching winter forces the scale into hibernation. In the spring growth is resumed. Maturity is reached early in June and the scale dies early in July, after having lived about 13 months. The male, which makes the second molt and passes all of its remain- ing instars, except the last day of the imago, under the protection of the puparium, loses its mouth-parts at this time and lives during the remainder of its life upon nourishment taken in the first two instars. The third or prepupal instar lasts about 2 days and is a period of rapid metamorphosis, in which the larval organs are replaced by the adult structures. In the fourth or pupal instar, which lasts for about 8 days, the adult organs reach their full development. At the fourth and final molt the imago escapes from the pupal case, but remains for about 2 days under the puparium before emerging, when it migrates at once to the twigs, copulates, and then dies, after having lived about 49 days. : SUMMARY OF REMEDIAL MEASURES. An endeavor was made to prevent the soot injury which is the main cause of complaint from orchardists against this scale. During the first season one series of sprayings was made to control it in the presence of the living scale, and another series was made to control it by destroying the scale. It was found impracticable to control the ‘‘soot”’ directly. Accordingly in the second season all sprayings were made against the scale. Seven groups of materials were tested, the first of which contained corn oil, rosin oil, and gasoline. Of these, the two former were good treatments, but were very injurious to the trees. The latter was inefficient but gave promise as a wax solvent and penetrant. MIscIBLE OILS. The second group contained miscible oils. Nine experiments were made with miscible oil, including 5 with miscible oil and gasoline, and 2 with miscible oil and nicotine. | ; In the first case it was evident that miscible oil was injurious when used in the winter at effective strengths, but that it could be used without injury if applied in the spring between the swelling and the bursting of the fruit buds. It was also evident that healthy 11-year- old trees could be sprayed for three consecutive seasons with miscible oil 1 to 18 without injury to the trees, and that the scale could be controlled by two seasons’ spraying with this oil. 88 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In the second case it was evident that combining gasoline emulsion and miscible oil added to the efficiency of the oil. The greatest effi- ciency was obtained when 5 parts of miscible oil were added to 3 parts of gasoline (emulsified) and 92 parts of water. In the third case it was evident that adding nicotine did not increase the efficiency of miscible oil. COTTONSEED OIn. The third group consisted of 10 experiments made with cottonseed oil. This was a promising oil and both its penetration and wax- solvent powers were greatly increased by the addition of gasoline. The highest efficiency was obtained by using an emulsion containing Cottonseed: ole tes ee 5 gallons. Gasoline 2258 we sehea youeee ron = 3 gallons. Soaps sas. a Menasha deo aerate 2 pounds. Waters eee mevscen' | line: cat tent 92 gallons. combined as indicated on page 67. This oil proved nearly as effective as linseed oil. LINSEED OIL. The fourth group consists of 5 experiments made with raw lin- seed oil. It was soon evident that this oil was promising. It was very efficient when used alone as a 10 per cent emulsion, but it gave even better results when combined with gasoline. The gasoline component increases the fluidity of the oil, dissolves the protecting wax film, and tends to asphyxiate the scales. After the emulsion has penetrated to the underside of the scale this component evaporates, while the other component, after smothering the scale, becomes inert. In this respect it is superior to the oils ordinarily used against this scale. The best results are obtained by using an emulsion made up as follows: Raw linseed‘oilia: 2225 2's 5 gallons. Gasoline sso Sem herr ae 3 gallons. aund ry soapecsscssseneces 2 pounds. Wise tere ceca seem ora as an 92 gallons. When made as indicated on page 82, this emulsion applied in the spring before the buds burst will control the terrapin scale at a single application and at a cost for material of from 1 to 8 cents per tree. This was found to be the most effective treatment of any of the reme- dies tried against this insect. Mrxep Ors. Group 5 contains only two experiments. They show conclusively that there is no advantage in mixing linseed and cottonseed oils. ! This is the mintmum amount; more may be required if the soap is mild. - THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 89 NICOTINE. In group 6 the efficiency of nicotine was tested in 14 experiments. Both the commercial sulphate and the aqueous solution were tested. This substance proved inefficient in all cases. CoaTING SPRAYS. In group 7 various coating sprays were tested. Twenty experi- ments were made. They were intended for the control of both the sooty fungus and the terrapin scale, but were ineffective against the “‘soot’”’ in all cases where the insect was not killed. From these experiments it is evident that the period in the life history of this insect when it can be most readily controlled by a coat- ing spray is during the leafward migration. It is also evident that sul- phur is the efficient component in the coating sprays, and that the ordinary self-boiled lime-sulphur lacked the spreading and adhesive properties necessary to make it an efficient coating spray. The modi- fied formula given under ‘“‘Recommendations” (second formula, below) was accordingly devised. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CONTROL. Spray in the spring before the buds burst, with the following emulsion (see page 82): Raw linseed! ol’: o2c- eee ee 5 gallons. Gasoline sy 72 oS. aes 3 gallons. OAD csp ckteiess oO eran 2 pounds. Wiaiteraeae. silavasemieca ape ae ll 92 gallons. If the foregoing formula is not used, spray with proprietary miscible oils, containing not less than 75 per cent mineral oil, at the rate of 1 part to 16 to 20 parts of water. Applications of this formula should likewise be made in the spring during the period between the swelling and the opening of the buds. (See pp. 68-73.) To protect a crop after the trees are in foliage, spray just before the leafward migration (see pp. 19-24) with the following formula (p. 85): Mlowr Gnipaste)ioseee ete ee 10 pounds. Stone lune). aaa es ee 15 pounds. Sul pluses eee eee eee 20 pounds. Wiatertol makes xo yuk es 50 gallons. This Ehoald be applied at the time the young appear in the brood chambers, but before they have emerged. This time can be best determined by making a daily examination of infested twigs. Since the young are not destroyed after they have attached, only one thorough application is advisable. This treatment, owing to the limited time for its application, is not as practicable as the dormant sprayings and should be used only in emergencies. This spray does not seriously coat the fruit. 90 BULLETIN 351, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Becxwitu, M. H. Report of the Entomologist. Jn 7th Ann. Rpt. Col. Agr. Expt. - Sta., p. 160-175, 5 fig., 1895. Plum scale, p. 168-169. Banks, NatHan. Principal Insects Liable to be Distributed on Nursery Stock. U.S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bul. 34, n. s., 46 p., 43 fig., 1902. The peach lecanium, p. 11-12. Britron, W. E. The Chief Injurious Scale-Insects of Connecticut. Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 151, 16 p., 17 fig., June —, 1915. Terrapin scale— Fulecanium nigrofasciatum Perg., p. 8-9. BetuuNE, C.J.S. Remedial note. Jn 38th Ann. Rpt. Ent. Soc. Ontario, p. 20. 1907. BetuuneE, ©. J. 8. Insects Affecting Fruit Trees.. Ontario Dept. Agr., Agr. Col. Bul. 158, 36 p., 49 fig., 1907. The peach lecanium scale (Lecanium persicae), p. 23. CaEsAR, LAwson. Observations on a few insects of the season. Jn 40th Ann. Rpt. Ent. Soc. Ontario, p. 16-18, 1910. General note, p. 18. CHamBuss, ©. E. Scale Insects: San Jose and Other Species. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul., v. 10, no. 4, p. 140-151, 1898. The peach lecanium, p. 149. CocKERELL, T. D. A. Miscellaneous notes on Coccidae. Jn Canad. Ent., v. 27, no. 9, p. 253-261, Sept., 1895. Lecanium persicae upon an umbellifer, p. 256-257. CocKERELL, T. D. A. Scale insects. Jn Sci. Gossip, v. 3, no. 33, p. 239-241, 1897. Lecanium associated with ants. CocKERELL, T. D. A., and Parrott, P. J. Contributions to the knowledge of the Coccidae. Jn Industrialist, v. 25, no. 4, p. 227-237, 1899. Note on locality and characters, p. 234. CLost, C.P.,and Battarp, W.R. Peach Culture. Missouri Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 159, pl LOO MLO ial The terrapin scale, p. 189-190. Dover, ©. R. Scale insects of the peach. Jn Field and Forest, v. 3, nos. 7 and 8, p. 131, 1878. Fett, E. P. Scale Insects of Importance and List of the Species in New York State. N.Y. State Mus. Bul. 46, v. 9, p. 290-377, 15 pl., 5 fig., 1901. Locality note, p. 357. Feit, K.P. Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees. N.Y. State Mus. Memoir 8, v. 1, 459 p., 48 pl., 63 fig., 1905. Black-banded scale, p. 200-203. Frernatp, H.T. TheSan Jose Scale, and Other Scale Insects. Penn. Dept. Agr. Bul. 43, 22 p., 9 fig., 1899. Life-history note, p. 21. FERNALD, Mrs. M. 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The proportion of sexes under natural conditions was not deter- mined, but among those reared in the life-history cages the males and niece pope du in almost exactly equal stan eR, there being 282 males and 281 females. SEASONAL-HISTORY SUMMARY. The cherry leaf-beetle hibernates in the adult stage. The beetles emerge from their winter quarters in the late spring, and, after feed- ing for a few weeks and mating, the females go to the bases of the trees and deposit their eggs in the accumulation of rubbish. In some- thing less than two weeks the eggs hatch. The larve grow rapidly and ‘in less than two weeks attain full growth, when they burrow a short distance into the ground, pass through their pupal stage, and, in from two to three weeks after entering the ground, reappear as adult beetles. These beetles feed until cold weather compels them to seek shelter for the winter. The season of 1915 was unusually cold and wet, and this condition undoubtedly delayed the development of the insect to a considerable extent. The hibernating beetles appeared at North East on June 7. Within two weeks their numbers were noticeably diminishing, but beetles of both sexes were observed as late as August 5, and females collected at this time stull contained eggs. Unfortunately the natural food plant and egg-laying habits were not learned until the 3d of August, but at this time many eggs were still unhatched. Larve continued to emerge until August 14, and from another lot of eggs collected August 5 larve were hatched as late as August 18. At the time these eggs were collecte1 there were full-grown larve on the trees, and many had undoubtedly entered the ground for pupation. Larve were observed on the pin cherry as late as September 10, when a full-grown larva and a young third-stage larva were found on some foliage that had been brought into the laboratory two days earlier. The active feeding portion of the larval life in the cages varied from 10 to 20 days, the average being 12.33 days. The period spent in the ground in the cages varied from 14 to 28 days, the average being 22.36 days. The total developmental per- iod is from 45 to 50 days. The earliest adult to emerge in the cages appeared on August 23, but the pale, newly emerged beetles were nce ved in the open on the 16th. On August 31 the. adults of the new brood were abundant on pin cherry, while many young beetles and pupz and a few larvee were found in soil and leaf mold under the bushes. On September 8 adults were abundant, but by September 23 they had begun to disappear, and no pup could be found in the ground, although a few newly emerged adults were observed. 7 THE CHERRY LEAF-BEETLE. 19 A PREDATORY ENEMY. In the leaf mold at the base of wild cherry trees, in which cherry leaf- beetles were transforming in great numbers, small carabid beetles with astriking color pattern of black and yellowwere also abundant. These beetles were determined by Mr. E. A. Schwarz to be a large form of Lebia ornata Say. (Fig. 9.) In confinement these carabids would eat pup and callow adults voraciously. In attacking an adult Galerucella the carabid would tear off one elytron and then eat the soft body tissues. In confinement one Lebia killed four callow Gale- rucella adults in one night; only one was eaten, but the others all had the wings on one side torn off and were more or less mutilated otherwise. When pupe were killed nothing was left but the pupal skin. Several other carabids were found in places where the cherry leaf-beetle transforms, but none was found feeding upon it, nor could any of them be in- duced to do so in confinement. CONTROL. PREVIOUS RECOMMENDATIONS. f g i d : 0 6 : : Fic. 9.—Lebia ornata, a There is no indication from entomological litera- TrGdntOr a rena at ture that any experiments to control this beetle thecherryleat-beetle. have been conducted previous to 1915. Pettit Ot ee (1898), Chittenden (1899), and O’Kane (1914) have recommended the use of Paris green and other arsenicals, doubtless basing their recommendations on their knowledge of related insects. Pettit (1898) recommended also the use of soap solution and kerosene emulsion, if spraying must be done on the trees when fruit is ripening. EXPERIMENTS IN 1915. When the cherry leaf-beetle appeared in the vicinity of North East, experimental spraying against the grape-berry moth was in progress at this station. Consequently no experimental work to control the beetle was undertaken until four days later, when the work in hand was finished. The effectiveness of poisoned sprays in these experiments was lessened somewhat by the fact that the beetles were feeding less heavily at the time of the application than they had been immediately after their arrival in this region. All spraying experiments made against beetles of the spring migra- tion were in two small orchards belonging to the late J. L. Spofford and M. D. Phillips, except some small cage experiments which were conducted in the insectary yard. These two orchards adjoined each other and were alike in so many ways that they were treated as 20 “BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. one orchard. The trees were 4 years old and of Early Richmond and Montmorency varieties. The former variety was used almost exclusively in the experiments. ARSENATE OF LEAD. KILLING STRENGTH. In order to determine the amount of poison necessary to kill the cherry leaf-beetle, trees were sprayed with various strengths of arsen- ate of lead on June 11. Two, 3, 4, 5, and 6 pounds were used to 50 gallons of water; one-half pound of lime was added to each of these mixtures. In addition mixtures at the rate of 3 pounds to 50 gal- lons and 5 pounds to 50 gallons, to which had been added 14 gallons of molasses, were applied. To supplement the conclusions on the effect of the various mixtures drawn from observation of the beetles on the trees sprayed, about 100 beetles were confined in a bag on a branch of one tree sprayed by each of the different mixtures. No burning of foliage followed the application of any of the solutions used. The various arsenate of lead and lime mixtures were ineffective in killing many of the beetles. The stronger solutions—4, 5, and 6 pounds to 50 gallons—were repellent and consequently to an extent protected the trees. The weaker solutions—2 and 3 pounds to 50 gallons were ineffective even as repellents, for the beetles confined in bags on trees thus sprayed fed without apparent inconvenience. The beetles confined in bags on the trees sprayed with the stronger solutions, especially 5 and 6 pounds to 50 gallons, fed but little, although they were confined for a week. A negligible number of beetles, never 10 per cent, was found dead in the bags. The sweetened arsenate of lead used at the rate of 3 pounds to 50 gallons was comparatively effective, although far from satisfactory. There were some dead beetles on the ground, and 40 per cent of those in the bag were dead. There was a good deal of feeding on the tree. The sweetened arsenate of lead applied at the rate of 5 pounds to 50 gallons was effective. There were many dead beetles on the ground under the trees, and of the beetles in the bag 96 per cent were dead when examination was made three days after spraying. The trees sprayed with this mixture were effectively protected from injury. On June 14 a tree that had been sprayed with 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons three days previous was resprayed with the same mixture to test the effectiveness of a double spray with a weulk solu- tion. The application was ineffective. A second comparison of the sweetened and unsweetened mixtures of arsenate of lead was made June 19. The only strength of poison used was 5 pounds to 50 gallons of water, the weakest solution THE CHERRY LEAF-BEETLE. 91 ya) effective in the first experiment. No lime was added to the un- sweetened mixture and the molasses was used at the same rate as formerly, viz, 14 gallons to 50 gallons of water. Dead beetles were found under all the trees sprayed, but they were far more numerous under the trees sprayed with the sweetened mix- ture than under those sprayed with the unsweetened mixture. Also there was less feeding on the trees sprayed with the sweetened arsenate, although there was comparatively little on either, while the unsprayed check was loaded with beetles. EFFECT OF LIME IN COMBINATION WITH ARSENATE OF LEAD. To test the effect of lime as a repellent when used in sprays in com- bination with arsenate of lead, beetles were caged on parts of a tree in the insectary yard sprayed with lime water at the rate of 1 pound to 50 gallons and 5 pounds to 50 gallons. In both cages the beetles fed as freely on the leaves thus sprayed as on those that had not been sprayed. ContTAcT SPRAYS. SOAP-CARBOLIC ACID SOLUTION. A solution of fish-oil soap, 10 pounds to 50 gallons of water, to which three-fourths of a pint of carbolic acid was added, was tried as a contact spray on June 11. Immediately upon the application of this solution the majority of the beetles fell from the tree, appar- ently dead. Several hundred of these were gathered from the ground, placed in vials, and taken to the insectary. By the evening of the next day practically all of the beetles were active again and appar- ently uninjured by the spray. The solution is not permanently repellent, for the trees thus sprayed were badly attacked again two days after the application of the spray. This spray was not injurious to foliage. NICOTINE SULPHATE. A solution of 40 per cent nicotine sulphate at the rate of 1 part to 600 parts of water, to which was added fish-oil soap at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of liquid, was used as a contact spray on June 11. The effect was apparently similar to that of the soap-car- bolic acid solution; some of the beetles escaped by flight but the majority fell from the tree when hit by the spray and soon appeared dead. Several hundred of them were gathered and taken to the insectary to test the permanence of this state. They were kept under observation for five days without showing any signs of life. In order to compare the effectiveness of nicotine sulphate without soap, a large tree in the insectary yard was sprayed with nicotine 29, BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sulphate (40 per cent) on June 27. Of the beetles that fell from the tree, 318 were collected on a sheet and placed in a ventilated cage in the insectary. Five days later practically all of them, over 98 per cent, still showed no signs of life. Weaker dilutions of 40 per cent nicotine sulphate were tested on September 9 on beetles of the new brood. Pin-cherry trees were sprayed, because at this time the beetles were feeding on no other. The following strengths were used: One part of nicotine sulphate to 800, 1,000, and 1,200 parts of water, respectively. Soap was added as in the first experiment at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of liquid. None of these strengths was effective, and none of them showed the immediate effects that followed spraying with a solution at the strength of 1 to 600. Many of the beetles hit with the sprays of the strengths of 1 to 800 and 1 to 1,000 became very sluggish and in 10 or 15 minutes appeared dead. Very few of those hit by the 1 to 1,200 solution appeared injured at all. About 150 beetles were collected from trees sprayed with each solution and placed in jars in the insectary. On the evening of September 10, 60 per cent of the beetles sprayed with the 1 to 800 solution, 68 per cent of those sprayed with the 1 to 1,000 solution, and 96 per cent of those sprayed with the 1 to 1,200 solution were active and feeding. RESULTS FROM SPRAYING BY GROWERS. Immediately following the advent of the cherry leaf-beetle in the Lake Erie grape belt there was unusual spraying activity to check it. Arsenate of lead was used in most instances, but applications of lime- sulphur, Bordeaux mixture, nicotine sulphate, soap, and lime, used in various combinations and at various strengths, were also made. The results were various. Orchards in which arsenate of lead had been used at the rate of 5 pounds to 50 gallons of water, with and without lime, were observed by the writers. In these orchards the trees were generally quite well protected, although few dead beetles were found on the ground under the trees. Where weaker solutions of poison were used the results were far from satisfactory in the orchards observed. The use of sweetened arsenate of lead was observed in only one orchard outside of the experimental plats, and in this instance it was entirely unsuc- cessful. The spray was applied immediately before a heavy rain, which washed it all off. A number of combination sprays in which 40 per cent nicotine sulphate was used were successful. The nicotine sulphate was sometimes used at rates as strong as 1 to 400. The following is a typical effective mixture: Arsenate of lead, 3 pounds; 40 per cent nicotine sulphate, 1 pound; laundry soap, 2 bars; water, 50 gallons. THE CHERRY LEAF-BEETLE. 22 ad Hydrated lime, dusted on trees by hand, was used as a protective measure, and in some instances appeared to be effective. SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTS. From the experiments and observations described, the following conclusions may be drawn: Arsenate of lead must be used at a rate of not less than 5 pounds to 50 gallons of water to be effective in protecting trees from injury by the cherry leaf-beetle. A mixture fo which molasses was added at the rate of 14 gallons to 50 gallons of the mixture was effective in kiling practically all of the beetles which fed upon the trees on which this mixture was applied. This addition of sweetening to the arse- nate has the serious disadvantage of making the spray easily washed off by rains. Arsenate of lead used without molasses was less effective in protecting the trees, although it killed some beetles and it was to an extent repellent to them. Lime in the amount in which it is added to an arsenate-of-lead spray was not repellent. Forty per cent nicotine sulphate applied with water at the rate of 1 to 600, with or without soap, was effective as a contact spray. Weaker dilutions of nicotine sulphate and soap-carbolic acid solu- tions, although apparently effective at the time of application, did not have a permanent effect. CONTROL OF LARVZ. If the larve fed on a cultivated plant, control measures might be directed against it, thus preventing the adults from developing in destructive numbers. But it feeds on a wild plant that is usually present where control measures can not be applied, often on land that is in no way controlled by the fruit grower, and not even in the imme- diate vicinity of fruitfarms. Nevertheless the clearing up of cut-over timberland and the destruction of the wild hosts of the larva of this beetle would greatly limit its possibilities of destructiveness. Should the cherry leaf-beetle become a permanent pest, cooperative work along this line might be advisable. " RECOMMENDATIONS. Spray practice for the control of the cherry leaf-beetle at the time of its next appearance in economic numbers can not be absolutely determined from the foregoing experiments. The numbers of the beetles, the duration of the migration, and the weather conditions at the time must qualify any recommendation. More extensive experiments also might modify the results. Nicotine sulphate, while temporarily effective, does not prevent a new invasion of an orchard on the day following its application. However, its use in peach orchards is recommended, for the greater 94 BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. strengths of arsenate of lead would be likely to cause severe injury to peach foliage. The addition of 2 pounds of soft soap or 1 pound of hard soap to 50 gallons of the mixture has been generally found to increase the effectiveness of the nicotine sulphate. Sweetened arsenate of lead is recommended for cherry trees because of its efficiency in killing the beetles and because its effect is con- tinuous in favorable weather. Rain destroys the effectiveness of this spray. The combination found most useful is 5 pounds of arse- nate of lead, 14 gallons of molasses, and 50 gallons of water. If the beetle migration should occur during a rainy period, the unsweetened arsenate of lead might be most useful. In applying a poison spray care must be taken to cover the under- side of the leaves where the beetles feed. In some instances it may be necessary to spray only young cherry trees or older trees of the thin-leaved varieties. In large orchards into which the beetles are migrating in great numbers it is advisable to spray first the trees most susceptible to attack, for during the season of 1915 the maxi- mum injury occurred immediately after the first arrival of the beetles. In no case should the sweetened arsenate of lead be used with Bor- deaux mixture as a combination spray, for burning of foliage is likely to result. 1865. 1891. 1893. 1894. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1898. BIBLIOGRAPHY. LeConte, J. L. On the species of Galeruca and allied genera inhabiting North America. Jn Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 204-222. Page 216. Galeruca cavicollis. Original description in Latin. . Pacxarp, A. 8. Insects Injurious to Forest and Shade Trees. Fifth Rpt. U.S. Ent. Com., 957 p., 50 pl., 306 fig. Page 529. Galeruca sanguinea observed in great abundance at Berlin Falls, N. H., Sept. 13, eating holes in leaves of wild cherry. Brief description of beetle. Scuwarz, E. A. Galeruca sanguinea. In U.S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Insect Life, v. 4, nos. 3 and 4, p. 94. Correction of name used by Packard (1890). ‘‘Common northern species.”’ Horn, G. H. The Galerucini of boreal America. Jn Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., v. 20, p. 57-144, pl. 1. Pages 76-77. Galerucella cavicollis Lec. Description in English. ‘Occurs from Canada to the New England and Middle States westward to Wisconsin; North Carolina (Lec.).’’ Davis, G. C. Report of the consulting entomologist. In 7th Ann. Rpt. Expt. Sta. State Agr. Col. Mich., p. 85-93, 5 fig. Page 93. Adimonia cavicollis. Davis, G. C. Special insects of the year. In U. 8. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Insect Life, v. 7, no. 2, p. 198-201. Page 200. Adimonia cavicollis recorded as injuring cultivated cherry at Bellaire, Mich. First record of injury to cultivated cherry. HamItton, JoHN. Catalog of the Coleoptera of Southwestern Pennsylvania, with notes and descriptions. Jn Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., v. 22, p. 317-381. Page 371. Galerucelia cavicollis mentioned as rare in southwestern Pennsylvania. Davis, G. C. Report of the consulting entomologist. In 9th Ann. Rpt. Expt. Sta. State Agr. Col. Mich., p. 135-138. Page 136. Adimonia cavicollis attacking, in addition to cherry, apple, peach, and plum. Arsenites reported as of little value for control. Lintner, J. A. Galerucella cavicollis Lec. In 11th Report on the Injurious and Other Insects of the State of New York f. 1895, p. 197-198. Recorded as feeding on the foliage of cultivated cherry and as ta™en on chestnut at Au Sable Forks, N. Y. Quotes Davis, Packard, and others. Jounson, C. W. Report on insects injurious to the spruce and other forest trees. Jn 3rd Ann. Rpt. Penn. Agr. Dept., Pt. II, p. 69-110, 6 pl., 11 fig. Pages 106-107. Galerucella cavicollis, beetles and larvee feeding in myriads on leaves of “‘fire cherry ’’ first week of September in Wyoming Co., Pa. Barrows, W. B., and Pettit, R. H. Some insects of the year 1897. Jn 37th Ann. Rpt. Mich. State Bd. Agr. f. 1897-1898, p. 565-602. Pages 593-594. Galerucella cavicollis Lec. Comments on change from wild food plants to cultivated trees. Quotes Davis. Life cycle. Recommends Paris green, fish-oil soap, and kerosene emulsion. : Feit, E. P. Galerucella cavicollis Lec. In Bul. N. Y. State Mus., v. 5, no. 23 (14th Rpt. State Ent. N. Y.), p. 235. Records injury to cherry at Corning, N. Y. Quotes Lintner. 25 26 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1903. 1905. 1906. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1914. BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fett, E. P. Notes on some of the insects of the year in the State of New York. In U.S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bul. 17, n. s., p. 16-23. Repetition of foregoing. . Surry, J. B. Galerucella cavicollis. In U. 8. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bul. 17, N85.) 2o% Records finding species on peach in Pennsylvania. CHITTENDEN, F. H. The cherry leaf-beetle (Galerucella cavicollis Lec.). In U.S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bul. 19, n. s., p. 90-93. Only long article on this species. Summarizes previous accounts and records injury to cherry at St. Ignace, Mackinac Co., Mich., and to peach at Spruce Creek, Huntington Co., Pa., and at Lebanon, Lebanon Co., Pa.,in 1898. Distribution. Description of egg and incubation period. Arsenical spray, as described for use against the leaf-beetle, recommended. . Lueaer, Orro. Fifth Ann. Rpt. Ent. State Expt. Sta. Univ. Minn. f. 1899, 248 p., 6 pl., 249 fig. Pages 152-154. The cherry leaf-beetle, Adimonia femoralis Melsh. Native plum and “fire cherry” (Prunus pennsylvanica) as natural food plants. Descriptions of adults, egg, and larva. Life cycle. Harvey, F. L. Notes on insects of the year 1899. Jn Maine Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 60, p. 31-36. Page 35. Adimonia cavicollis. Reports injury to cherry in vicinity of Orono, Me. Pettit, R. H. Insect and animal life on the Upper Peninsula Experiment Station. Jn 40th Ann. Rpt. State Bd. Agr. Mich., p. 184-195, 7 fig. Page 192. Galerucella cavicollis Lec. Mentions ‘pin cherry’ as natural food plant. Cites two occasions when it attacked cultivated cherry in Michigan, quoting Davis (1894) and Pettit (1897). Paris green effective remedy. WasHsorn, F. L. Injurious insects of 1903. Univ. Minn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 84, 184 p., 1 pl., 119 fig. Page 96. Galerucella cavicollis Lec. Brief mention in list of cherry insects with reeommenda- tion of ‘‘arsenical sprays if any remedy should be called for.”’ Pertir. R. H. Insects injurious to the apple. Special Bulletin No. 24. In 44th Ann. Rpt. State Bd. Agr. Mich., p. 287-346, 70 fig. Pages 312-313. Galerucella cavicollis. Natural food plant, pin cherry. Hibernation and habits of hibernated beetles. Larva also works on foliage. Feit, E. P. Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees. Memoir 8, N. Y. State Mus., 877 p., 70 pl., 223 fig. Albany. Page 550. Galerucella cavicollis Lec. abundant on wild cherry in Adirondacks in August, 1900. Quotes Lintner. Suir, J. B. Report of the New Jersey State Museum f. 1909. The Insects of New Jersey, 888 p., 340 fig. Trenton. Page 347. Galeruceila cavicollis Lec. feeds on peach, plum, and cherry. BuaTcHLEY, W.S. Coleoptera of Indiana. 1386 p., 590 fig. Indianapolis. Page 1169. Galerucella cavicollis Lec. Description of adult. Distribution. GossaRp, H. A. Galerucella cavicollis. In Ohio Agr. Expt. Bul. 233, p. 129. Recorded as occurring in September. Control spray of arsenate of lead, 3 to 5 pounds to 50 gallons of water. O’Kane, W. C. Injurious Insects, 414 p., 606 fig. New York. Page 263. Galerucella cavicollis Lec. feeds on cherry, plum, and peach. Larve also feed on the leaves. Pupal stage in ground. Two broods annually. Arsenate of lead or Paris green recommended. PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO INSECTS INJURIOUS TO DECIDUOUS FRUITS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape East of the Rocky Mountains. (Farmers’ Bulletin 284.) Spraying Peaches for the Control of Brown Rot, Scab, and Curculio. (Farmers’ Bulletin 440.) The More Important Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Fruit and Foliage of the Apple. (Farmers’ Bulletin 492.) The Gipsy Moth and the Brown-tail Moth, with suggestions for Their Control. (Farmers’ Bulletin 564.) The San Jose Scale and Its Control. (Farmers’ Bulletin 650.) The Apple-Tree Tent Caterpillar. (Farmers’ Bulletin 662.) The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer. (Farmers’ Bulletin 675.) Grape Leafhopper in Lake Erie Valley. (Department Bulletin 19.) Control of Codling Moth in Pecos Valley, N. Mex. (Department Bulletin 88.) Walnut Aphides in California. (Department Bulletin 100.) The Lesser Bud-Moth. (Department Bulletin 113.) The Life History and Habits of the Pear Thrips in California. (Department Bulletin 173.) Studies of the Codling Moth in the Central Appalachian Region. (Department Bul- letin 189.) The Cranberry Rootworm. (Department Bulletin 263.) Pear-tree Psylla. (Entomology Circular 7.) Buffalo Tree-hopper. (Entomology Circular 23.) Boxelder Plant-bug. (Entomology Circular 28.) Larger Apple-tree Borers. (Entomology Circular 32.) Apple Maggot or Railroad Worm. (Entomology Circular 101.) Oyster-shell Scale and Scurfy Scale. (Entomology Circular 121.) San Jose Scale and Its Control. (Entomology Circular 124.) How to Control Pear Thrips. (Entomology Circular 131.) One-spray Method in Control of Codling Moth and Plum Curculio. (Entomology Bulletin 80, pt. VII, revised.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. Homemade Lime-sulphur Concentrate. (Department Bulletin 197.) Price, 5 cents. Life History of the Codling Moth in Maine. (Entomology Bulletin 252.) Price, 10 cents. ° American Plum Borer. (Department Bulletin 261.) Price, 5 cents. The Parandra Borer. (Department Bulletin 262.) Price, 5 cents. Miscellaneous Insecticide Investigations. (Department Bulletin 278.) Price, 10 cents. Canker-worms. (Hntomology Circular 9.) Price, 5 cents. Woolly Aphis of Apple. (Entomology Circular 20.) Price, 5 cents. Pear Slug. (Entomology Circular 26.) Price, 5 cents. _ Fruit-tree Bark-beetle. (Entomology Circular 29.) Price, 5 cents. Peach-tree Borer. (Entomology Circular 54.) Price, 5 cents. | Plum Curculio. (Entomology Circular 73.) Price, 5 cents. Aphides Affecting Apple. (Entomology Circular 81.) Price, 5 cents. 20 28 BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Terrapin Scale. (Entomology Circular 88.) Price, 5 cents. Nut Weevils. (Entomology Circular 99.) Price, 5 cents. Leaf Blister Mite. (Entomology Circular 154.) Price, 5 cents. San Jose or Chinese Scale. (Entomology Bulletin 62.) Price, 25 cents. Pecan Cigar Case-bearer. (Entomology Bulletin 64, part 10.) Price, 5 cents. Papers on Deciduous Fruit Insects and Insecticides. (Entomology Bulletin 68, 9 parts.) Price, 25 cents. Spring Canker-Worm. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 2.) Price, 5 cents. Trumpet Leaf-Miner of Apple. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 3.) Price, 5 cents. Lesser Peach Borer. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 4.) Price, 5 cents. Lesser Apple Worm. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 5.) Price, 5 cents. Demonstration Spraying for Codling Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 7.) Price, 5 cents. Grape-leaf Skeletonizer. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 8.) Price, 5 cents. Peach-tree Barkbeetle. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 9.) Price, 5 cents. Periodical Cicada. (Entomology Bulletin 71.) Price, 40 cents. Codling Moth in the Ozarks. (Entomology Bulletin 80, part1.) Price, 10 cents. Cigar Case-bearer. (Entomology Bulletin 80, part 2.) Price, 10 cents. Additional Observations on the Lesser Apple Worm. (Entomology Bulletin 80, part 3.) Price, 5 cents. On Nut-feeding Habits of Codling Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 80, part 5.) Price, 5 cents. Life History of Codling Moth in Northwestern Pennsylvania. (Entomology Bulletin 80, part 6.) Price, 10 cents. Fumigation of Apples for San Jose Scale. (Entomology Bulletin 84.) Price, 20 cents. Grape Root-worm, with Especial Reference to Investigations in Erie Grape Belt, 1907 to 1909. (Entomology Bulletin 89.) Price, 20 cents. Papers on Deciduous Fruit Insects and Insecticides. (Entomology Bulletin 97, 7 parts.) Price, 25 cents. Life History of Codling Moth and Its Control on Pears in California. (Entomology Bulletin 97, part 2.) Price, 10 cents. ‘Vineyard Spraying Experiments Against Rosechafer in Lake Erie Valley. (Ento- mology Bulletin 97, part 3.) Price, 5 cents. California Peach Borer. (Entomology Bulletin 97, part 4.) Price, 10 cents. Notes on Peach and Plum Slug: _ (Entomology Bulletin 97, part 5.) Price, 5 cents. Notes on Peach Bud Mite, Enemy of Peach Nursery Stock. (Entomology Bulletin 97, part 6.) Price, 10 cents. Grape Scale. (Entomology Bulletin 97, part 7.) Price, 5 cents. Plum Curculio. (Entomology Bulletin 103.) Price, 50 cents. Life-history Studies on Codling Mothin Michigan. (Entomology Bulletin 115, part 1.) Price, 15 cents. One-spray Method in Control of Codling Moth and Plum Curculio. (Entomology Bulletin 115, part 2.) Price, 5 cents. Life History of Codling Moth in Santa Clara Valley of California. (Entomology Bulletin 115, part 3.) Price, 10 cents. Grape-berry Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 116, part 2.) Price, 15 cents. Cherry Fruit Sawfly. (Entomology Bulletin 116, part 3.) Price, 5 cents. Lime-sulphur as Stomach Poison for Insects. (Entomology Bulletin 116, part 4.) Price, 5 cents. Fruit-tree Leaf-roller. (Entomology Bulletin 116, part 5.) Price, 10 cents. Insects Injurious in Cranberry Culture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 178.) Price, 5 cents. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1916 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 303. Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 16, 1916 MOISTURE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE OF FORAGE AND THE RELATION OF THESE FACTORS TO THE ACCURACY OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA. By H. N. Vinatt, Agronomist, and Rotanp McKez, Assistant Agrostologist, Office of Forage-Crop Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page Introduchioneeeeosce cette see ee eee eet eke 1 | Variation in the moisture content of growing General plan of the experiments..........-.- 2 alfalfa during a single day...-.-.-.-------- 31 Use of samples in correcting forage yields. ... 3 | Moisture content of baled hay.........-...-- 31 Relation of the stage of growth of forage plants Shrinkage of hay after storing and variation in to their moisture content..........-....--. 22 weight due to changes in atmospheric hu- Loss of moisture in forage during the early 001 KO BLAM A EN ON RO HSN LSPs ev nae 32 ESbAPES OL CUPIN GAs sas- sens sleesc cence eens se QT Summary As See ste jskoe ae sake se seetlact er 36 INTRODUCTION. Agronomic literature contains but little in the way of well-planned investigations on the subject of the moisture content of different forage plants either green or cured, a matter which is intimately related in farm practice to the proper handling and wise marketing of forage crops and in investigational work to the correct interpreta- tion of yield data. This subject is of sufficient importance to justify much more attention than has previously been given to it by experi- menters. Careful investigators have long recognized that many of the published data on forage crops are inaccurate, on account of the uncertain amount of water included in the yields. The term “air dry,” as used in the investigations described in the following pages, refers to that stage of curmg when the humidity of the forage and the humidity of the atmosphere have reached a state of equilibrium. The percentage of moisture in the forage when air dry of course varies with the changes in atmospheric humidity, 1 Messrs. W. J. Morse, H. L. Westover, M. W. Evans, A. B. Cron, and R. E. Getty, members of the staff of the Office of Forage-Crop Investigations, have contributed quite largely to this publication by their assistance in collecting and preparing records of the numerous samples required. " 21216°—Bull. 353—16——1 Ps BULLETIN 353, U. S&S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, but this variation is within rather narrow limits. The term “field cured”’ is more indefinite, denoting that condition of forage which obtains in general farm practice when the hay or fodder is consid- ered sufficiently well cured or dried so that it will not spoil when placed in bales, stacks, or in a haymow. In this stage the forage is very seldom comple oly air dry. Most publications on forage crops use the term ‘‘field cured’ to denote the condition of the forage under consideration, but such a term does not imply a uniform percentage of moisture, aed little or no care has ever been used to indicate even approximately the moisture content of the forage when the yields were determined. It is, therefore, impossible to interpret correctly many data found in such publications. The variation in the moisture content of forage when yields are taken is often greater than the actual difference in yield that we may expect from improved varieties or improved methods. There is little dependence therefore to be placed in experimental results along these lines until this factor of error is eliminated, or at least greatly reduced. The data presented in this bulletin are sufficient to sug- gest a remedy for this difficulty, and it is hoped that experimenters will consider carefully the method here indicated. Aside from the experimental value of this work, it has an economic significance, in that it points out the relative weight value of forages at different stages of maturity. However, the economic side of the question is not discussed in detail and is given only as it forms a part of the experimental data presented. GENERAL PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENTS. During 1914 a series of experiments was carried out to secure data on which to base a sampling system that would give greater accuracy to field tests in forage experiments. In connection with the efficiency of the sample method, investigations were also carried on to determine the amount of moisture in forage plants at different stages of devel- opment, the variation in moisture content due to locality and to cutting at different times of the day, and the differences in loss of weight when samples are dried in the sun as compared with those dried in the shade. Information was also secured on the rate of moisture loss in forage in the early stages of curing and the changes in moisture content of hay stored in bales and loose in a barn. In conducting the experiments at the various places the methods followed were the same or varied only in minor details. Half-bushel and_bushel cotton bags were used. to receive all samples except the largest, for which common burlap grain bags having a capacity of 2 bushels were used. For inclosing the bales of hay a close-weave burlap was used. In taking samples of field-cured forage, care was MOISTURE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE OF FORAGE. 3 used to have each sample representative of the entire crop. Material from the outside as well as from the middle and bottom of the wind- rows or shocks was included. Samples of green material were taken by cutting the plants either by hand or with machinery, each sample including only that part of the plant that is used in making hay or fodder. The samples of different sizes in both the field-cured and green material were replicated five or six times, and each sample was marked with a tag bearing a number and other data necessary for identification. In taking samples, the work was done as quickly as possible, to avoid loss in weight by evaporation. Each sample as soon as prepared was weighed immediately. After the samples ! were placed in the containers and weighed, they were stored in a favorable place to facilitate further drying and at the same time were given protection from rain. In ascertaining the total water and dry-matter content of the various samples, determinations were made by the usual method of oven drying. For this purpose a special oven having a capacity of 164 cubic feet was built. Steam heat under pressure was used and a temperature of 100° C., or a little above, was maintained. In the following account, the outline for each experiment is given as it was carried out at the various stations, and this outline is followed by a tabulated statement of the original data from which the sum- maries are prepared and conclusions drawn. USE OF SAMPLES IN CORRECTING FORAGE YIELDS. McKee, in the Journal of the American Society of Agronomy,? gives a general discussion of moisture as a factor of error in determin- ing forage yields, wherein it is suggested that forage-yield data can be made much more nearly comparable if small samples taken at the time of weighing field-cured or green material are used in determining the moisture content of the material and these data used in reducing the yield either to an air-dry or to a dry-matter basis. In the experiments described in the present bulletin, the efficiency of correcting ordinary green and field-cured forage weights with 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, or 16 pound samples was determined with the following crops: At Arlington Farm, Va., alfalfa and a mixture of tall oat-grass and orchard grass; at Chico, Cal., alfalfa; at New London, Ohio, timothy; at Amarillo, Tex., sorghum; and at Hays, Kans., sorghum. To provide a basis for checking up the moisture loss in small samples, 100 pounds of ordinary field-cured forage were taken from the shock 1 The samples of tall oat-grass and orchard grass at Arlington Farm, Va., were prepared by H. N. Vinall - and H. L. Westover; thealfalfaat Arlington Farm, Va., by W.J. Morse; the alfalfa at Chico, Cal., by Roland McKee; the timothy at New London, Ohio, by M. W. Evans; the sorghums at Amarillo, Tex., by A. B. Cron, and at Hays, Kans., by R. E. Getty. 2 McKee, Roland. Moisture asa factor of errorin determining forage yields. Jn Jour. Amer.Soc. Agron., v. 6, no. 3, p. 113-117, 1914. 4 BULLETIN 353, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. or windrow and 500 pounds of green forage were taken immediately after cutting and placed on a canvas to prevent loss of weight other than moisture. When the forage on the canvas had become suffi- ciently dry, these bulk lots were placed in burlap bags and kept in an open shelter until they ceased to lose weight. Composite samples, 2, 4, 6, and 8 pounds in size, of field-cured forage, part from the outside and part from the inside of shocks, were secured at the same time and from the same material as the 100- pound lot before mentioned. These samples were weighed at once and put aside to become perfectly air dry. Samples, 4, 8, 12, and 16 pounds in size, of green forage were taken immediately after cutting and were treated similarly. Samples were replicated five or six times to check the variation due tosampling. All samples were taken at the stage of maturity generally recognized as the proper cutting time for each crop. The samples were kept in a shelter and weighed at intervals until they ceased to lose weight. They were then shipped to Washington, D. C., for the purpose of reducing them to a moisture- free state in the drying oven. The intention was to secure samples of timothy at both New London, Ohio, and Arlington Farm, Va., so that each crop would be handled at two stations, but an unfavorable season caused a failure of the timothy crop at Arlington Farm, and it was found necessary to substitute there the mixture of tall oat-grass and orchard grass. In Table I an attempt has been made to arrange the data so as to make the conclusions to be derived from them as clear as possible. Column 1 contains the number under which the identity of the sample was preserved from the time it was prepared until it was finally weighed from the drying oven. Column 2 gives the original weight of the sample, whether green or field cured. Column 3 gives the weight of the sample at a date between the time it was prepared and the date when it was considered air dry. This column is intended to show about what time is required for each sample to lose most of its moisture, that is, when it was drier than field cured, but in most cases not yet air dee. This column is blank in sections A and B because no weights were obtained between the date of cutting and the date when thesamples were completely air dry. Column 4 carries the air-dry weight of the sample. In some cases this was the weight obtained just before the sample was placed in the drying oven, but where an earlier weighing made at the field station showed the sample to be CRG as dry at that time, the earlier weight is given. Column 5 gives the weight of the samples oven dry and represents the dry matter contained in each sample as nearly as it can be deter- mined in an ordinary oven. MOISTURE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE OF FORAGE. 5 Column 6 carries a statement of the percentage of moisture in each of the original samples, as determined by the difference between the original and the oven-dry weights. It is recognized that this loss may not necessarily be exclusively water. Slight losses may have taken place through volatilization of substances other than water or through fermentation due to enzyms or bacteria, but such losses are undoubtedly small when the hay has been quickly cured. The percent- ages as given are determined by using the original weights of the samples as the base. It is recognized that this practice is open to criticism, owing to the fact that the original weights vary in relative importance, due to the differing percentages of moisture which the samples contain. This criticism is of little importance in the present case, however, since the percentage of moisture is very nearly the same in each group where a comparison is made. The use of the absolute dry matter as a base from which to figure: the percentages was tried, but this method seemed impracticable, because it makes the percentages so at variance with the moisture percentages as usually given. Column 6 also gives the means of groups of three and groups of five or six samples, with their probable errors. In tables where there are only five samples in each class the second group of three represented by the second mean includes the remaining two samples and the one next above, which has already been considered in the first group. For example, in section A the first ‘‘mean of 3” is based on samples 1, 2, and 3, and the second ‘‘mean of 3” on samples 3, 4, and 5. These means are set in black-faced type, so that they will be apparent at a glance. The consistency in the per- centages of moisture in each set of samples is remarkable. In only one case has the probable error for the group of six samples exceeded 1 per cent, and the probable error for a single sample averaged con- siderably less than 1 per cent, although in exceptional cases it ap- proached 2.5 per cent. The probable error was chosen as the most efficient measure of the comparative reliability of the different sizes of samples and methods of sampling. Since the moisture is here stated in percentages, means of practically the same size are dealt with, and the need for a term like the coefficient of variability is lacking. Column 7, as shown by the heading, is a record of the percentage of moisture in the air-dry material, the weight of which is shown in column 4. — Column 8 gives the percentage of moisture which was lost in reduc- ing the material from its original state to an air-dry condition. The base on which this percentage was calculated is the weight of the original material given in column 2. The actual losses of weight in 100 pounds of field-cured and 500 pounds of green material under the same conditions as those surrounding the samples are given fol- lowing the tabulation of sample weights. 6 BULLETIN 353, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 1.—Comparison of different-sized samples of forage. SECTION A.—GREEN ALFALFA COLLECTED AT ARLINGTON FARM. [Dates of weighing: Original material, Oct. 16; air-dry material, Feb. 2.] Weight. Moisture. Sample. Orig- | Inter- Aue dr Oven Original Air-dry Lost in air inal. | mediate. Vey tary: material. material. drying. Ounces.| Ounces. | Ounces. | Ounces. Percent. | Percent. Per cent. No.1 64 18.0 16.0} 75.0 Hira! 71.9 B 74.2 8.3 71.9 75.0 13.5 71.1 74.740. 148) | 5 22o25 Set ees eee 71.9 10.0 68. 8 74.2 10.8 ala! 43.04 . 510, 222i. 2. Sey ee eee ee 74.14 .344 | 10.740.510 71.0+0. 237 chi je 769} | 55-2 oe | ee en aes 75. 4 10.5 70.3 75. 4 10.0 72.7 75.4 10.0 72.7 24.04 3307) |5 22ers | 74.6 10.9 4155 75. 0 Hea 71.9 75.02: 21274)... 2 eee eee eee eee 74.8+ .225| 10.54 .129 71.84 .259 250) | oc oe ecee | eee ee 76.0 10.7 73.2 75.8 11,2 72.7 75.0 a Eat 71.9 79.62 2168: |. Sco. escal eeeeeeeeceeee e 75.3 11,2 72.2 75.5 10.5 72.7 25.2: JO8L.). cc. 2 eee eee a 75.5+ .160| 10.9+ .107 72.54 .136 sb. 248) So ete 5 eek: | eee ae 77.3 10.8 74.6 76.8 11.9 73.6 76.0 10.2 73.2 16:7. 2074 eee ae eee ee 76.2 9.6 73.6 76. 4 11.7 VERY 76.2+ 2063) |S. yeas coos | Eee eee 76.54 .155 | 10.84 .251 73.64 .155 st. B47). 2 es eee. SECTION B.—FIELD-CURED! ALFALFA COLLECTED AT ARLINGTON FARM. [Dates of weighing: Original material, Oct. 20; air-dry material, Feb. 2.] 5 29.0 9.3 O60 ee eter se eee ee 3/2 INOW 22 ei ool eres Gy | Pees eoos 33.0 29.5 teats ee | Se ee INO 2S Ee ac ean PA eset apy ale B2n5) 29.0 9.3 95.6) is a gear cle IM CATV OLS ts so2 ene Seer oe [eee cee | Sse eee [pees ne 8.820.294 | oN Sofas bos seine a INOS 24 Beer icine BY) ou e Saber 32.0 29.0 9.3 93° ee Oe eee eer es = INO 25 soo eee Ba eae eee 32.0 29.0 9.3 9.3), ape |aseceeee eas: Meanto fs Sassy es (see. bla ee EEE 2 toe Raced 2 Des 93-0) oc Sas Sask Se eee eee IM GRNOT 55 See eros sel | eteeenge eel nese oie a aetcel| Geet es. ed 9.0+ .193 9.5405 045 "| Soot eee =} PN TTOL OL ESF sees | este ee taal | Sk ks gl | een 6 432i) So 3 eal ee ee eo i 10wing to unfavorable weather conditions, this material was moved into a greenhouse shortly after it was cut, and the curing was finished there. This explains the unusual dryness of these samples. They are pol te be considered field cured, and the percentage of moisture lost in air drying is therefore dis- regarded. MOISTURE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE OF FORAGE. 1 TaBLE I.—Coneparison of different-sized samples of forage—Continued. SECTION B.—FIELD-CURED ALFALFA COLLECTED AT ARLINGTON FARM—Continued. Weight. Moisture. Sample. : Orig- nter- . Oven Original Air-dry Lost in air inal. | mediate.| A! 4TY-| ary. material. material. drying. Ounces.| Ounces. | Ounces. | Ounces. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 64 64.0 57.5 | 10.1 10.1 Z 64 64.5 57.5} 10.1 10.7 64 63.5 57.0} 10.8 10.2 eat SSeS Ses rst RSME Ate al PN a A) be Sate FS (3 Je Ss 20 Ae ee a Fah Ye Y Me IMGaTMO lS tees aero cs cies | cigic ices ayaie |= < Mateos oetel | Womielewtecee Eg ee LOS cree iat aoe [Pears ee eee INOS SO eee Siiccececcss LO ony | reas — ee 126.0 TT25 OF 2 1253 SLRTEG es ple! [Dy tae eer ae ae sea INO #40 Weer eaansinces W280 Al xcodeesc 124.5 111.5} 12.8 1OS8e-scr ie leo resersdeeeee' Mea INO fa seems ces | seuss cistciliem ecclesia > | Soesttereietoie aisle eeteersie Lora: OR ee eee Se re | oem mem erees INIGESTL OH OSB Hes GSdl Be Ce ees SHEE EEE Bbccoseesal sesecerssod W2AO+ .1Sl | WO 2185s oe. PETOTIO Lele aes seseiora lie scan eieiai| cia le late oo = osu, [< Memes aie |e nara a EL LOGE Sacre ee ae eee Soe ste eles SECTION C.—GREEN ALFALFA COLLECTED AT CHICO, CAL. (Dates of weighing: Original material, June 11; intermediate, June 30; air-dry material, July 23.] INONSOM eS scence wes 60.5 17. 50 17.25 16.0 | 73.6 or Wag INOW502 SSeS sei oe ce eece 60.5 17. 00 16. 75 15.5 | 74.4) 7.5 (253 ING GU seocecesesesses 60.5 16. 00 15.75 14.5 | 76.0 7.8 74.0 IMCATINOLIS Series sie | ese ed csalloe ca ce aoe 2 lee cee Stowe cree BPE ON 3898 eee ciokelee Seis cil sercny mie alee ENO (4 ee ees erate et ert 60.5 16.25 16. 25 EHO) I) 762 Ta5 T3e2. INOS RUB obo ues oreo eee 60.5 16. 50 16. 00 14.5 | 76.0 ShB i, 73.5 INOS 506 See es 60.5 16. 00 16. 00 15.0 | 75.2 6.2 73.2 IMGa MONS eee es Bete Se 2s [oe Eo, : | oe NE its BoeOse. la She occa secs ses alle See IMCATHTONG See ee AE SOE oe. ce eee oe 75.14 .258 7.640. 253 73.0+0. 249 IB FEOMOL eer tee le cee secre | carte wine il pears ae alline increas GY (GN aoe Men HS aia Natgeats Rie aaa Os INO SO VE 8 Se: ae 123. 2 33.95 32.70 29.0} 76.5 11.2 72.5 INO NSO S ee eee ae 123. 2 31.95 30. 45 27.0 78.1 11.4 75.3 INO SOD MES rere 124.5 36. 25 BPA, Oa) 30.0] 75.8 8.4 (B87 WHICH al (ORG Ee areas. cas Me AR a oe oS eee al Selec. Benn CsA S REG | cube cons cobed seEBEmoESdoees INO eal OM es recs a 123.2 34.20 32. 45 29.0 F 76. 4 10.7 73.7 INO STS i ee ee 124.5 35. 00 33.25 30.0] 75.8 9.6 (0583 INGOT Z Reet nts Sak 124.5 33.75 30.25 28.0} 77.5 7.4 75.7 Mea of 5 eros eee ae ee AL i aT is Bee TBH Bees BUI Ree RE rn eat eee I USEC CGR a [RR Ba) Rene an se be Sh 96.74 .234 9.8+ .407 74.24 .258 TESELOL OL yee Cera eee ae es lees sels | hes tae re SER 7 ANG | eee tp pce oe lo Oe ate 4) 1 8 BULLETIN 353, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE I.—Comparison of different-sized samples of forage—Continued. SECTION C.—GREEN ALFALFA COLLECTED AT CHICO, CAL.—Continued. Weight. Moisture. Sample. Orig- Inter- Neat Oven Original Air-dry Lost in air ina mediate. y- dry. material. material. drying. Ounces.| Ounces. | Ounces. | Ounces. Per cent. Per cent Per cent. NOS 513s ereee ten obese 187.2 50. 20 45.20 40.5] 78.4 10.2 75.9 INO MSTA eee cee ose 187.2 50. 20 45.70 41.0 78.1 10.2 75.6 NON5i5 eaeee yesh ocak 187.2 51.70 46. 20 ALS idee 10.0 75.3 Mean ofS. 4 ccs: etl Asters svalet See yates cciayastall eiatsia ceria BBL 0952 oe oie he AE tS et NOASI GS Sec annne 187.2 52.95 48. 20 43.0] 77.0 10.7 74.3 NORDIN sSai cccee ee ense 187.2 50.95 46.70 41.5 77.8 11.0 (ayy NOW518 ios 220 oe oses cee 187.2 50. 20 47.20 42.5) 771.38 9.8 74.8 Mean of dei rs tns ee en 2 RE ks Sh Rey eT eee ed eictaraicrasavehe Be 125) | edt Se IB ce ata MeanohGne: $25 82 andat chelate joee [Sacer ace nctiee acces 77.74 .129 | 10.384 .113 75.2+ .144 TTTLOM OL Sesser cts eae | sem ome ee alle ae ciete sine batile oc oe 816 ee Se ee eee INONSI Qe Seas et 251.2 72. 70 61. 45 55. Sah v7.9 9.6 MONO INOFS20o Mae eee es eee 25152 73.45 62.95 56. bal sla 10.1 74.9 IN OSS 2 Lay lieth 251.2 72. 20 59. 95 Se OU 18s 4 10.5 76.1 Mean of doses ceca | Sas cereale Xe cals abil sisicwibine Sa |New ee son 78.03). <.195)|'. 2.220225 S28 | See eee IN OP O22 een ve nea ue 2ole2 69. 95 60. 70 54.5 | 78.3 10.1 BST INOPS 232 een eons Zoli 76.95 62. 20 BO508) 77.7. 10.0 15e2 NOWS245 ces soca ce 251.2 71. 70 62. 20 50. Daltddee 10.7 75.2 MGA MVOL Se Se irare | re ciaihe tees | erase ots ete aie [or ayeteteetaeonal | lore rarel on araeat 948.0+-, 2.098) |. oecgece cee | ee eee Mean:ofGisssnsniat | eae oases SSE [oe wists aida [ew eels oS 78.0+ .109 | 10.2+ .098 75.44 .108 MOD og ap cho) Ue Lee seas st (a ee ea Og AE Vane ee 267 HES Bee fa Ree ate SEcTION D.—FIELD-CURED ALFALFA COLLECTED AT CHICO, CAL. [Dates of weighing: Original material, June 13; intermediate, June 30; air-dry material, July 23.] INOS525et esteem es 28.5 24.00 24.00 2225) a2t0 6.2 15.8 INOMS260 ss see eeecce 28.5 25.25 25.25 23.5 L755 7.0 11.4 IN O52 Teenie yuna 28.5 24.75 25.00 23.0 19.0 8.0 12.3 Meantofidetiaccll scien Set aeice| saecsssoee teehee 22 8 19.2+0..51) 220.424 ee eee INO BS 28 eee ere ee 28.5 23. 50 23.75 22.0 | :22.5 1d 16.6 INOSD29 ete c cece eae 28.5 24.00 25. 50 22.5 21.0 11.7 10.5 Nox 530 MR: eae an” 27.2 23.70 23.70 21.0 | 22.7 11.3 12.8 Meat of ieee ac rio (Mies A oe tera Mofo odo Mee a ow 290. 297 We ee anes ee eee oe MGA TINO IGE sate NIRS Rie eS SRR ATG SNS, See 22 20.6+ .558 8.640. 587 13.2+0. 611 19} OVO) Wal eet a ST ar ca eed [ge aap | chy et $1. 247. be es eee eee eee » 69.2 51.20 51.45 46.5 | 21.2 9.5 13.0 59.2 49.95 50.45 45.5 2350 9.6 14.8 59.2 48.45 49. 20 44.0 | 25.5 10.4 16.8 Meamroti git 2 OOo eave ceen AoE eee oe LE Seis es Cie eee | DS Dt 685, les ee eee ae INORS a4 eee oes 59.2 48.70 48. 20 43.5 || 26.3 9.7 18.6 INOM OSD See een ee 59.2 50.45 50.70 46.0 22.0 9.3 14.3 INON586 38 os Bee A 8 59.2 48.45 48.70 44.0 | 25.5 9.8 17.7 IMG ATVO LES Betsy ec sks eal ey pate teal Rel ef anc eat scare aN IMac OY Ye aay 7 a Se ee a MeamroliGec ea] cei so OMT TT SUCRE ESO a ee Re 23.94 .585 9.74 .095 15.94 .548 Errors Lele) 8 | ee eae scape evete iT Lah ee at (IB aps 71. B08 ha I a a eee INOMS8 TAS eee eee 91.2 75.70 75.45 68.5] 24.8 9.1 17.2 IN OSS 38 es: Asean 91.2 78.70 77.95 71.0 22.0 9.0 14.5 INOS 89 cee seus 91.2 78.20 77.95 CALA PPA) 9.0 14.5 DAZE Wao) Ges Pa I 8 Pe Ng A ek 292-5. 514 [5-2 semen ease aeeeeeee ee INO 540 eee au 91.2 77.45 76.70 69.5 | 23.5 9.5 15.9 INO N54 Te ne 91.2 79.95 80. 20 72.5 20.3 9.6 12.1 IN'O. S42h Rana hes 91.2 79. 20 78.95 Mle Siledeo 9.4 13.4 Mean: ofes oon Seva | eeaerery cea Io ike Gea 4 Dh IS Rey Gel Pea aS Sa ee beaue Mea OF GHGS IE LNG RRR CN SATS RES a 22.4+ .399 9.34 .067 14.64 .452 TN TTOT OL RUE 5 SS ee | LES MEAN | Ae reaes cease te eo ed ell tara SEAL! (70h eM MMA Lyne ee OS Soe MOISTURE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE OF FORAGE. TaBLE I.—Comparison of different-sized samples of forage—Continued. SECTION D.—FIELD-CURED ALFALFA COLLECTED AT CHICO, CAL.—Continued. Sample. Weight. Moisture. Orig- | Inter- : Oven Original Air-dry inal. | mediate. Air‘dry. dry. material. material. Ounces.| Ounces. | Ounces. | Ounces. Per cent. Per cent. 114.0 96. 25 99.00 87.5 2353 11.6 116.5 105. 00 105.75 94.25 17.7 10.9 115. 25 101. 50 102.75 91.75 | 20.5 10.7 SEBO HOt Cae D OCHO SEED o Coed Soe pe sercs 2026-97 ane eee 115.75 100. 50 101. 25 90.00 | 22.3 11.2 115.75 96.75 97.75 85.75 21.0 12.3 116. 25 92.75 94.00 82.25 | 29.3 12.5 eS Se |S eae oa aS | [nn AOA DT se eee ase e eae SEAS Ha ctu eee EPs cool crores 22.44+1.454 | 11.54 .186 Bee ere steral| Sepeteracsieie: oye |b bc Sere tete |e esigeie steie Qe AO ie eee hoe Lost in air drying. Per cent. 13.1 SECTION E.—GREEN TALL OAT-GRASS AND ORCHARD GRASS! COLLECTED AT ARLINGTON FARM. [Dates of weighing: Original material, June 2; intermediate, July 3; air-dry material, July 18.] Mean of 5......- Mean of 3......- Mean of 5........ HTT OT One sees. Mean of 3....... Mean of 5. Brror ofl... 2... 22.5 19.0 21.5 18.0 22.5 19.0 21.5 18.0 22.0 18.5 46.0 38. 0 42.0 35. 0 43.0 35.5 45.5 37.5 44.0 38. 0 - 493 - 599 . 391 . 873 . 081 70. 3 15.5 65.5 71.8 16. 2 66. 4 70.3 15.5 65.5 UD dsb 245) | bingocobanesace SdoesBadorisaoe 71.8 16. 2 66. 4 71.1 15.8 65. 6 CS IS OyEs Gacosnaseeees|boeeonsoucanne 71.14 .203 | 15.8+0.095 65.9+0. 129 gE CBI Keabad ss cosess|aenacueoonaece 70.3 17.4 64.1 72.6 16.6 67.2 72. 2 17.3 66. 4 Uiloties oth lEodaoshaqusoos||ano0eencondade 1Samples 46, 47, 48, 49, and 50 were cured in the shade for comparison with the other group of 8-pound samples which were cured in the sun. 21216°—Bull. 353—16——2 10 BULLETIN 353, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Taste I.—Comparison of different-sized samples of forage—Continued. SECTION E.—GREEN TALL OAT-GRASS AND ORCHARD GRASS COLLECTED AT ARLINGTON FARM—Con. Sample. Weight. Moisture. Orig- Inter- Warde Oven Original Air-dry Lost in air inal. | mediate. Y-| dry. material, material. drying. Ounces.| Ounces. | Ounces. | Ounces. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 256 83.0 82.8 68.5 | 73.2 Le 67.6 256 83.3 82.8 68. 0 73.4 17.8 67.6 256 88.0 89.5 eon i tled Wind, 65.1 Mfg Stacia ead eecte | el se etre clare [emir 2 0 72.64 '. B69 [oe occ eee ee 256 84.5 82.5 68.0 | 73.4 17.6 67.8 256 77.5 78.0 64.0] 75.0 17.8 69.5 Mean O83 snncsctos oetoeac ais | ead een ac etesen onl eceececeae 43.2 £5590 + one o ees oo ee eee eee scteesesiiacueeclscee et seee ster. ccbe 73.8+ .355 | 17.64 .079 67.64 .424 ae he ied base els eee et Ee cae Bey (Sie eee! ab cisG co Seoee Error of 1...... SECTION F.—FIELD-CURED TALL OAT-GRASS AND ORCHARD GRASS COLLECTED AT ARLINGTON FARM. [Dates of weighing: Original material, June 6; intermediate, July 3; air-dry material, July 18.] INOS6622-cececleece 32 0 26.5 22.0 NOS 6 (oc ciate eros 32 27.0 27.0 22.5 INONG8Sat sees 32 26.5 26.0 21.5 Mean: of Sisc2cstcc|¢s.cscex|s weteseteelstaets ealoteeec tees NOn60%e8sscecsccee 32 26.5 27.0 22.0 INO S70 ace cise 32 26.0 26.0 21.0 Meaniot dea ai eens |Sersciecld ofa ntoesaies| a dae eins otc saben < ote Mean: ofi5 S25 ce c6|usess esl seoeaetens ates sees ac|secese oo cee Meamotaiccciccis| Santeeoaloaceeessiwlect vac cee odemecss cis No s74orasticticece 64 56.0 55:5 46.5 INO (Oni eheaes secre 64 56.0 56.0 46.5 Mean ofe3osnecaccal nose cen soso soso cine esta ae|s codec =i Meant os eee yo en er CR cet AH Is AT ess Se ITO Of Dts Nese i a Ea al ee SI ae are a aS NOG secre sec esce 96 84.0 82.5 68. 0 NORTE eae core 96 83.5 84.5 70.5 NON(SescOsce sees 96 83.0 82.0 67.5 Means otis ay tecrrse eyewear rote ie atoll tote oe aloes | eotetcmisiia rie NOs19 2s cstisc css 96 83.3 83.0 68. 5 NOs 202eE Bee oe 96 86.3 87.0 72.0 IMG ATALO NS SS aor srak| Sieysieneare et | ee tee Oe ee atoTS Septerserk ois Mean of 5..... 93.0 + .304 31.2 16. 8 17.1 29.7 16.6 15.5 32.8 17.3 18.6 B1.34:0. 488 {2 ea eee 31.2 18.5 15.5 34.3 19.1 18.6 O28 5498826 cee alee eee 31.84 .409 | 17.740.295 | 17.1+0.418 4. 914i[5oks2 Sook | 32.0 24.3 17.9 25.8 21.6 10.8 33.6 19.8 17.1 $0.5+1.310 |). ee eee 27.3 16.2 13.2 97.3 77 11.7 39 44.1. 157 |. ne Paps eee ee 29.2+ .750| 19.94 .861| 14.14 . 863 He 1. O77 ilo se ee | ee 29. 2 17.6 14.0 26.6 16.6 12.0 29.6 17.6 14.5 98.64 .518 | 2 ee 28.5 17.4 13.5 25.0 17.2 9.3 OTT 764 oo ncete ee eee 27.8+ .522| 17.84 .112| 12.74 .566 21. 167 [ooo eee 26.9 19.7 9.0 26.6 19.4 9.0 97.4 19.8 9.3 BI Osk 100 |: ac oe en 27.4 18.8 10.5 26.9 19.1 9.7 Dato 4+ 098 [22 2a. pee eee eee 97.2+ .136| 19.44 .113| 9.54 .169 MOISTURE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE OF FORAGE. 11 TABLE I.—Comparison of different-sized samples of forage—Continued. SECTION G.—GREEN TIMOTHY COLLECTED AT NEw LONDON, OH8IO. [Dates of weighing: Original material, July 10; intermediate, Sept. 2; air-dry material, Sept. 28.] Weight. Moisture. Sample. te : Orig- | Inter- | 4 ir dry Oven Original Air-dry Lost in air inal. | mediate.| ~ : dry. material. material. drying. ‘ Ounces.| Ounces. | Ounces. | Ounces. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. INOMAOTR eects cine 64 33 31 26.5 | 58.6 14,5 51.3 INO; CUBS sodoceceoueses 67 33 32 27.5 | 59.0 14.0 52.3 INON 40322 emcee ccisiss se 63 32 31 26.0 | 58.8 16.1 50.8 IMCATIKO MSE eeeeicts lect tare lela eislerelciaicleless| isle steietsraie | sideicie,cicicveis OSS ONOGSh ascetics emccltcoccae ce oeae 0} 57.0 15.1 49.3 57.9 15.6 50. 0 57.4 14.7 50.0 Eels Sera I Ven eo ec erage Nearae ssa pe ninee el+ .204|] 15.0+0. 192 50.6+0. 272 AO ie eae MeN ieercrle he seecesce ce 58. 2 15.1 50.8 59. 2 15.0 52.0 58.8 15.6 plea | DS seas Olea |e aeciee cies ere | tine see cece ae 56.3 15.1 48.5 56.3 15.1 48.5 57.8 15.6 50. 0 DO 8 eo 21D ectseiorate is ac ctorntelal| eaten era) tea 57.8+ .310| 15.8+ .070 50.24 .359 BY (01 Del Sans ase ERE a eit 57.2 14.7 49.8 57.6 14.1 50. 6 57.6 15.9 49.5 Daca OA aetna cas cals See eee ses 58.6 14.5 51.6 58. 4 15.7 51.6 57.6 15.1 50.0 MCAT OLS Meare |e Siete revareta | o's olsie Sio's ois | eleielateteterevetal| cisicrernevetse OSD LGB eae Mee eerie cece MeamvonGieensnracalsssiccisies |sosinice soc] sentence cer smmisjsistereate 57.8+ .137 | 15.0+ .176 50.54 .230 TROL Ole eee ciation tnicce cates | ote sis siecters|| clelereteistetnets|| sis eters eletiete BGG Hye eater eases Saas oa | mle ees Rarer nreN INOF 419 Sei astasicinie x cic 256 128 126 107.0} 58.2 15.1 50.8 INIOSZ PD sseseseadsseses 256 126 123 105.0 | 59.0 14.6 52.0 INON4 21 ae eiecccee 256 130 127 108.5 | 57.7 14.6 50. 4 IMCATION Sse ccicis am |sicretsic clos] cisjeiote ols o'n's | slamaleein cic] be cisicisiee a BSB Es 208 ness goss ena ese asec IN ON 42 Dees cileesisies els 256 126 125 105.0 | 59.0 16.0 Beeb dere, INOs 423 ee as Sctcieicinice sia 256 126 126 105.5 | 58.8 16.3 50.8 INO 4240 od Sele cicle 256 130 129 109.0 | 57.5 15.5 49.7 IMGATONSeeiatctsrcinicis|'s sisisiels sie aieisisic wiel= o'< | ottiate metois ate | sigiorsis's wiavete BSF R260 creme ciuecivee ccleecoeemse see ce MeamonGie sc ajacins|socicnc ca lsice sisiecic« | cseisiciceicinn | sine cctcioeers 68.4+ .167 | 15.4+ .179;} 50.84 .194 IDO Gi I so So S500 booogose jasoasoabed ocoosesde bosuesceee 38 52) ecccooadoocand|bacoodsboscene SECTION H.—FIELD-CURED TIMOTHY COLLECTED AT NEW LONDON, OHIO. [Dates of weighing: Original material, July 11; intermediate, Aug. 27; air-dry material, Sept. 28.] INO 425 ecm ncciscicienc 32 30 30 26.0 18.8 13.3 6.3 INONAZG Eee ctecics os nie 32 30 30 26.0} 18.8 13.3 6.3 INONAQ Tc ieercie cto ciewie'nste 32 30 81 Zoo plac 14.5 3.2 Mean of 3....... Fe Seah So BABSaen eee Edoooac REA Le Saas 18.840. 294 |............. Sle INIONA2R Rie se oe 32 30 30 25.5 | 20.4 15.0 6.3 INO NAO O eae te visicie uate 32 30 pal 26.0 | 18.8 13.3 BAe INO.43072 2.5 2... sees 32 29 30 26.0 18.8 13.3 6.3 IMG ATI ONS sais sas carc lee cioe laligioe ns a 2 5 lenreeeins cletiasm actiee NE 204 eG Pecmicae cnet cce| settee = NA MSIEH AU COS RUG NS IR I SR 0 TO ER DS eI Se Cote 18.8+ .254 |. 18.8+0. 192 5.30. 402 1D HOMO) US Se aces boceeose loc SE Eh eA EA Uae TRIAD ET Y eee tae eg as o/s 4 12 BULLETIN 353, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TaBLe I.—Comparison of different-sized samples of forage—Continued. SECTION H.—FIELD-CURED TIMOTHY COLLECTED AT New Lonvbon, OnIo—Continued. Weight. Sample. Ori g- Inter- Oven inal. | mediate. Air dry. dry Ounces. | Ounces. 60 Ove 59 51.5 58 50.0 Meaniof3..:.....7 Mean of 6 Error of 1 Moisture. Original Air-dry Lost in air material. material. drying. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent 19.6 14.0 6.3 19.6 12.7 7.9 21.9 13.7 9.4 90.4 2422 \0. 0c. Feet eos ae 22.7 14.6 9.4 20.3 15.0 6.3 20.3 15.0 6.3 OD £440 Nl e2 oat Rees | ee eae 20.7+ .321 | 14.24 .224 7.6 + .384 451,786), 2 22 Ae tee AG | eee eee 21.4 14.1 8.4 21.4 15.1 i3 21.4 14.1 8.4 QV .4+ 2000.) joo. 2 Siete | Seeeeerese 20.8 13.6 8.4 21.4 15.0 7.3 24.0 14.1 HG O31 4D ic ee | ee 21.74 .285 | 14.84 .148 8.64 .388 sb '5.6975) 20. SE rene 21,2 14.4 7.9 21,2 13.7 8.6 19.9 13.8 Tek 20:8 £289 {552.5 obs Seen eee 20. 6 14.0 7.9 18.8 14.7 4.7 18.8 13.3 6.3 19545-8384 [225 Ee ee ee ere 20.1+ .277 | 14.04 .127 Zolt .354 06 O78. ole. case ec teisateoeemnees SECTION I.—GREEN RED AMBER SORGHUM COLLECTED AT AMARILLO, TEX. [Dates of weighing: Original material, Sept. 4; intermediate, Dec. 5; air-dry material, Dec. 16.] INCHED LaveSdeeccusedss 64.0 32.0 25.0 16.5 INOS 202 Meter ameter 65. 0 32.0 25.0 15.5 INO3203 Senne Pee oe res 70.0 35. 0 28.0 19.0 Meamotsie oc sccalete techn aceite eels tetas Smaloee eee sais INO: 204 Soe ee uel 64.0 34.0 27.0 16.5 INOA205 Se enosecaccloes 72.0 40.0 33.0 22.5 NICER OUR SSS SoReal Man Ades| asses Heal EoGOSESods| beter ACrees ANEW a Cop Gea) 2s Le pat hac a | La ar Ua te sh oil EN EROTAO Lele ee ayaa pal ere ie varetal | oe eieloleisieiall orate oletereretell eeeinereleleeieic INO; 20635). 2 teteee = 137.0 73.0 65.0 39.0 INOS 20 (eee ees 128.0 64.0 HOnD, 35.5 INOS 208 iret ctieome ces 136.0 76.0 66.0 40.0 Mea mot sence sccm [eee cise| nislwiaiciese Be EHS Sone ee Sees INOS209 wien eee woe 139.0 72.0 64. 0 41.0 INO OSS Hgonoueeoesodad boGboo Bass) bssadéodos bookeeenon Mean of 4......... PRR Leip SIT Ni WAU vecer Lr ws che ies Uiodee [patties I ELOT Obese a lee eee bts lew aisisaicialsl| siccls cisinlee ial | eiaioeiclsieic INO SPARS ana San aS 204.0 110.0 100.5 61.0 INORMIESGES Ss Soeaeees 192.0 96.0 87.0 62.5 INO 213 ee eet 200.0 110.0 100.0 61.0 MGR OL Sees eo erento ad pan tear eee l| Aen sieeeca (ete cell eee soa 74.2 34.0 60.9 76.2 38.0 61.5 72.9 32.1 60.0 9424-0. 62810. eS ee 74.2 38.9 57.8 68.7 31.8 54.2 94: 807 [sis eee | ee 73.24 .516 | 84.840.894| 58.9+0.801 EL, 158, | eerie | eae: 71.5 40.0 52.6 72.3 36.0 56.6 70.6 39.3 51.5 hod 270]... ke eee | eee 70.5 35.9 54.0 71.24 .248| 87.94 .630] 58.74 .643 EUG (VW (MeN gal es lo 70.1 39.3 50.7 72.7 39.7 54.7 69.5 39.5 50. 7018+ 6541 | ee 1 Sample injured by mice. MOISTURE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE OF FORAGE. 13 TaBLE I.—Comparison of different-sized samples of forage—Continued. SECTION I.—GREEN RED AMBER SORGHUM COLLECTED AT AMARILLO, TEX.—Continued. Weight. Moisture. Sample. | Orig- | Inter- Air dry Oven Original Air-dry Lost in air inal. | mediate. 2 dry. material. material. drying. Ounces.| Ownces. | Ounces. | Ounces. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. INOP 21 e sean. coef 196. 0 106.0 97.5 62.5] 68.1 85.9 50.3 INOR2I5 eas cee nse 202.0 104.0 96. 5 61.0] 69.8 36. 8 52.2 69:0 e148 as Sen cease cexcakiosanests 70.i+ .451 |] 38.1+ .476 51.64 .523 SATS O10 eeecninealtins- lasceeeae 70.6 37.6 52.9 69.8 36.1 52.7 70.0 37.8 51.7 TOE ABSs |Seee Sec tee oe ooaeeeee ner 69.1 38. 0 50.2 71.8 37.8 54.6 90.84 .437 |..........- oats | ee Seize eS 40.8+ .274| 37.54 .20 52.44 .437 SOQ eet eec cae ecl tas ceies sae eele SECTION J.—FIELD-CURED RED AMBER SORGHUM COLLECTED AT AMARILLO, TEX. [Dates of weighing: Original material, Nov. 9; intermediate, Dec. 5; air-dry material, Dec. 16.] 42.9 22.6 26.0 51.4 29.2 31.4 50.0 26.0 32.4 Ts en Day td] oe eee Matias ees 47.5 23.6 31.2 50.0 26.9 31.6 FUND tay) eee eee oomen ie tek meee Wee 48.44 .812 | 25.540.712 | 30.540. 694 SEIUSTG: [Pets Cee 1G neers: 47.0 32.4 21.6 47.1 32.4 21.7 45.0 29.4 92.1 AG Aa 77a ee EY 45.7 29.6 22.9 38.2 23.3 19.4 ARQ eae gigs eee reper 44.64 .987 | 29.341.003 | 21.54 .351 SiON OD ig ete oe oe ange re ne 41.0 ~ | 29.1 16.7 40.0 26.9 17.8 40.7 29.2 16.2 TATA aan) eee eel eae ete 41.8 31.6 15.0 42.9 31.3 17.0 AUG HO S101] Le) ei MES 41.34 .300] 29.74 .515| 16.54 .281 Sore MeV |e ogee el We BRL ee 38.3 27.8 14.7 41 31.5 14.1 35.8 26.2 13.1 Sia aie RAO eee ae tee eee ee Se Oe Roe 38. 8 30.5 12.6 37.3 27.0 14.2 SPRATT ee ee eee eee 14 BULLETIN 353, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RELIABILITY OF AIR-DRIED SAMPLES. The reliability of air-dried samples may be determined in three ways: (1) By a comparison of the percentages of moisture loss in the samples with that in the 100-pound and 500-pound quanti- ties, which, on account of their bulk, approximate field methods; (2) by a careful comparison of the relation between the moisture lost in air drying and the total moisture content as revealed by oven drying; and (3) by noting the variation in the percentage of moisture remaining in the air-dried material. A comparison of the moisture loss in air-dried samples with that in bulk lots of the same material is given in Table IT. TaBLeE II.—Comparison of the loss of moisture in green and field-cured forage when air dried in small samples and in large bulk. Moisture in field-cured Moisture in green material. material. Place. Crop. Loss in | Loss in Loss in | Loss in Total. samples.| bulk. Total. samples. | bulk. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 9 74.5 73.0 22.3 4.3 11.5 ChicoyCalineese. ac..-) sAultal ia er gaan seen. 76. : 73. 1 5 Arlington Farm, Va...} Tall oat-grass and 72.0 66.3 64.3 29.0 13.4 13.5 orchard grass. New London, Ohio...| Timothy.......... 58.0 50.5 49.2 20.3 7.2 10.1 Amarillo; Mext- 2 .:-- Sorghumi.2-. 25.2: we 2 54.2 58.2 43.2 20.5 16.8 Hays Kanss tones (ese 7 eae scaring im Loach toa 65.8 600: tee 26.0 22.1 It will be seen that the losses in the small samples of green material, except for those of sorghum at Amarillo, Tex., which were not well cured, averaged from 1.3 to 4.9 per cent greater than it did in the bulk lots. This was to be expected, since the small sample naturally dries out more completely than the bulk. The difference, however, is slight, and the loss of moisture in the small samples seems to be fairly consistent with the loss which was found in the bulk lots. The comparison of small samples with bulk lots of field-cured material is not so favorable to the use of the sample method as in the case of the green material. Table II also shows that the mois- ture loss in the samples, when compared with the total moisture con- tent, is not quite so consistent as the percentage of moisture loss in the bulk lots. A better way to determine the reliability of the sample method is by a study of the percentages themselves, especially in the column devoted to percentage of moisture in the air-dry material. The uni- formity of these percentages throughout one crop means that the air drying of samples can be depended upon to bring samples to a nearly uniform moisture content, and this method therefore serves the pur- pose of correcting field weights almost as well as to oven dry the samples. The moisture content of the air-dry samples is not en- MOISTURE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE OF FORAGE. 15 tirely uniform, but except in a few instances the probable error is quite low, averaging for over 200 samples only 0.28 of 1 per cent. With such a low probable error it seems entirely reasonable to depend upon the air drying of samples for all practical purposes. COMPARISON OF SAMPLES OF GREEN FORAGE WITH SAMPLES OF FIELD-CURED FORAGE. Summary Table III gives a complete comparison of the averages of the probable error in green and field-cured samples for the differ- ent crops as collected by six individuals. These averages include more than 250 samples of green material and more than 200 sam- ples of field-cured material. The best index to the reliability of these samples is in the percentage of moisture in the original samples. TasLe III.— Mean percentages of moisture in forage samples of different sizes, showing also probable errors. SEcTION A.—GREEN MATERIAL. Moisture. Sample. Crop. Place. Original Mink Lost in air samples y: drying. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. A-DOMNG Mee eie eae sisialeiaclee clos Sorghum..} Amarillo, Tex.| 73.2+0.516 | 34.8+0.894 58.9+0. 801 S=WOUNG eee ercpciciaiciciejoicinte cieicie lei As Ko yaa oes doses hes 71.24 .248 | 37.94 .630 53.7+ .643 22 OUI Pee en a ciel ierclsisieleieseillsisin Gore. souleeeee (Choe ae 70.1+ .451 | 38.14 .476 51.6+ .523 Ie FOODS eho gees socboeeeesoudsellon p40 Ks) Se sod oe eeadod 70.384 .274 | 37.54 .209 52.44 .437 I so Gate aN G ESSE OROReG SCBA EEPESS scone saan rs 71.2 87.1 54.2 A-TOUTIG ae eer esis ssi e wate Sorghum s.|pElayskcansis| see os asec senses eels 66.9+ .526 S=POUTIG eC ee are ec ease cle eecdO. Sd ocleeron COS | sea Soe meters | eeciensle ters Nevers 68.0+ .296 IGA DOGS Bane soogodseaEeeaoecsad as 2d05* oa Baas: GO seth sceees eae orens aes cee einer ee 64.94 .289 NG“ POUNCE) area mice aaa ajni cia ele ltags -do. qacB ee Gatos boossessncesen paasceaaseaoaa 63.44 .393 MCHA eats arate sale as sca soc cel eenice omni comes setae sn swec ieueneaeueemes 65.8 aepoundeee eee. eee el os 42sec Timothy. New London, | 58.14 .204| 15.0 .192| 50.64 .272 io. S-POUNG Ree ee see coca ceicje cise ce SQ0e 3. Saal eeeee doneeeaes 57.8H .310 | 15.3+ .070 50.2+ .359 AL ZEW OUI Beats eee iecin ris all Siete dos 3 eee Goes 57.84 .187 | 15.0+ .176 50.5+ .230 TG=POURG eee see Secreta sieete-lo 6 (oho eeescllscose Coser aes: 58.4+ .167 | 15.44 .179 50.8+ .194 IGA Tie sik se Sle aye aiaialtra| etejalsie ye = ciate cee Sees welsiee ee eo 58.0 15.2 50.5 C9010) 61010 1 GUS Geese Bee eenate Tall oat-'| Arlington, Va.} 71.14 .203 | 15.84 .095 65.9+ .129 ass. S- MOUNT Sys Hee siaaje beac Pe cic a Be Sallosues (Ole eae 71.54 .268} 17.44 .145 65.5+ .353 L2EDO UT ee eh Ce ees dos 2a Beas doss.s2255 72.24 .056 | 17.54 .157 66.34 .060 TG MOUNGHS ashe aso o 8 ks cesaloas dO. ase dOnSseacnecs 73.384 .355| 17.64 .079 67.54 .424 SSS Se Ree eee OSHS Reames? | rea are Mate dl 72.0 ‘17.1 66.3 Alfalfa....| Arlington, Va.| 74.04 .344 |] 10.74 .517 71.0+ .237 acs .-.do 4, 225} 10.54 .129 71.84 .257 ..do 160 | 10.94 .107 72.54 .136 eee ates citectie vetaieneatesl ete do 155 | 10.84 .251 73.64 .155 Se CR SAAS SCORN EEO Eas) A Nece MEE Sabo SouRTSoAseeres 10.7 72.2 Alfalfa... 258 7.64 .253 73.04 .249 OS GSO SE ORO ere siepnG| [eesay d 234 9.8+ .407 74.24 .258 Ia tas aes a/b Nayalate tateieney ayy ohare Nea do 129} 10.3+ .113 75.24 .144 Meeeicteiais saci tws See easen clive do 109} 10.2+ .098 75.4+ .108 Bie EERO SSSR CE SESS GE once ane oe lo soc Geecee Eee 9.5 74.5 1 Average probable error for the 4-pound samples, 0.305; for the 8-pound, 0.257; for the 12-pound, 0.187; for the 16-pound, 0.212; and for all the samples, 0.240. 16 BULLETIN 353, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TasLe III.—Mean percentages of moisture in forage samples of different sizes, showing also probable errors—Continued. SECTION B.—FIELD-CURED MATERIAL.! Moisture. Sample. Crop. Place. Rae eee rigina * ost in air samples. Air dry. drying. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 2-POuUnd S222 Fsce.2 bate eteeee Sorghum..| Amarillo, Tex.| 48.4+0.812 | 25.510.712 30. 5+0. 694 4-poundersesnaas o2 ict te eee ican piled Oseerccieel| serene Co Koen 44.64 .987 | 29.341.003 21.54 .351 G-pound see Rite At asserts dos cies dovre:. 28 41.34 .300 | 29.74 .515 16.54 .281 S-PoOuNds si 52s cea: casessees eee aes dope se boeee dose. . 2288 38.34 .528 | 28.64 .617 13.64 .290 Means 2) 28 achicha sud woe ool Saleen wcomsenle neces pinesa Gi scsgugeouagcs 91.2 26. 70 26. 95 24.0 | 73.6 10.8 70.4 IGEN Se ogoueaecod BcHoE sanee BAeEeeeod aesonccaaalisaccaasoss 74.74 .263 | 11.64 .127 | 71.84 .261 The mean for the two methods of treatment shows 1 per cent more moisture in the alfalfa at 8 a.m. than at 3 p.m. While this differ- ence is not large, there is a sufficient number of samples so that the results are dependable. In actual practice this result has little sig- nificance, but it is of interest to find that in the open field under favorable moisture conditions transpiration may exceed the absorp- tion of water by the roots sufficiently so that the moisture equilibrium in the plant tissues is not maintained. MOISTURE CONTENT OF BALED HAY. In order to give some idea of the amount of moisture in ordinary baled hay, samples were taken from oat hay in the bale at Chico, Cal., at two dates, the first about one month and the second about two months after the hay was baled. Ordinary commercial hay was used in this experiment, so the moisture percentage may be con- sidered as fairly representative of that in the grain hays on the market in California. The moisture content, as determined by two sets of samples, is given in Table XIII. oe BULLETIN 353, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE XIII.— Moisture content of baled oat hay and moisture lost in air drying at Chico, Cal., in 1914. Weight. Moisture. Sample. Orig- . July July July July | Aug. | Aug. | Aug. | Oven | inal pose 1. 10. 20. 27. 4. 19. 24. dry. | sam- | qv; ple ying Ounces. |Ounces. |Ounces.|Ounces.|Ounces. |Ounces.|Ounces.|Ounces.| Per ct. | Per ct. INO DOU Se eee ee acc 44.5] 48.00 43.25 ADE Bi ocike sche esteem eeeiete 39.0 12.4 4.0 INOB5G2 Seat eee oe 44.5} 43.00 43.25 42550 Pe ue cose eee seat aoe waene 39.0 12.4 4.5 INO: 563 Sse oe tines 44.5 42.75 43.00 ADE oO nao oa.se once lisnecaciee 39.0 12.4 4.5 INO: 504 Seer. See 44.5 43.25 | 43.50 4250053 Seceaslnoceoeselecceseee 39 11.3 3.2 INOj566 3225 ose aod AAS 5h -ADS5Ok |, 4 287 5a Ags 20n | oce eee ae tae ace 39.0 12.4 5.1 Average....... 44.5.| 42.90.) 435055242560) |oo2.5- se sece eh [esc cos ee 39.1 12.2 4.3 NOSSO Loses ee see acest wars | eras and | es eee (teen eae a 44.5] 438.25] 43.00 39.5 11.3 3.2 INO 502 Se Sonie 2 tetera eon mers Penner |eomenee mes 44.5 | 43.00} 48.00 39.5 11.3 3.2 INOS 503 Ee fale oc ihei: Sec ie ee | ES SER | Bae oe a | semen 44.5 | 43.25) 43.25 40.0 10.0 4.0 IN OR SO4 setae Sei sl Semi tees a[rie nnlemee | re eyntios || eget 44.5 43.00 43.00 39.5 11.3 3.2 NOR 595s eRe ee eee | Liiva sh OE eee RN iia 44.5] 43.25 | 438.25 39.5 11.3 4.0 AVOLAS Ol ac2 o2| eek ale seer aes | sececuee aeeernee 44.5 | 43.15 | 48.10 39.6 11.0 3.0 Thesamples described in Table XIII were taken from bales 566 to 570, used for the investigations recorded in Table XIV. This hay was baled on June 1, and the samples taken one month later had 12.2 per cent of moisture, while the five samples taken two months after baling averaged only 11 per cent of moisture. The weather during July and August was unusually dry and hot, so that the loss of 1.2 per cent of moisture from July 1 to August 4 is not excessive, even for baled hay. The 44.5-ounce samples which were inclosed in cotton bags and suspended under a shelter where the air could circulate freely about them lost in the same period an average of 4.3 per cent of moisture. This loss probably left the samples practically air dry, since the samples taken from the bales August 4 lost only 3.5 per cent during the period from August 4 to August 24. SHRINKAGE OF HAY AFTER STORING AND VARIATION IN WEIGHT DUE TO CHANGES IN ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY. In order to determine just what shrinkage in weight might be expected in baled hay and also the effect which radical changes in atmospheric humidity might have on this weight, four bales of oat hay were weighed at intervals during the season from June 1 to De- cember 1, 1913, and five bales during the season from June 1, 1914, to February 25, 1915, at Chico, Cal. The record of these weights is given in Table XIV. MOISTURE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE OF FORAGE. 33 Taste XIV.—Shrinkage of oat hay after baling and variation in weight, due to changes in atmospheric humidity, at Chico, Cal., in 1913 and 1914-15. Weight. | Bale. Loss,! June 1to—} @Gain1 When | july | Aug. | Sept. | Nov. | Dec. Sept. baled 7 1 25 4 1 25 t aTienie g i c 2 : to Sept. 25.| Dec. 1. | Dec. 1. Tests in 1913: Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds.| Pounds.| Pounds. | Pounds. | Per cent.| Per cent | Per cent. Oe 588. 225.0 221.0 217.5 213.0 215.0 216.5 h 8 1.5 INOS 2A cence cee 240. 0 231.5 230.0 227.0 230. 0 231.0 5.4 3.8 1.6 INO soe ousaae ae 245.0 237.0 234.0 230.5 233.0 235.0 5.9 4,1 1.8 IN OWA ere erie hae 265.0 256. 0 254.5 252.0 253.0 254.0 4.9 4,2 Sze Average...--- 243.8 | 286.4 | 284.0) 280.6] 232.8 234.1 5.4 4.0 1.4 Loss,! June i to— i When Gain,} baled, July Aug. Oct. Dec VEE) OY ON re IGE, BL Fane. 1 31. 16. 17. 1915. | aug | Feb. 25,| © Heb. 31. 1915. fl Tests in ee Pounds.| Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds.| Pounds. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. No. 566........- 160 | 150.25 147.75 147.75 152. 00 158. 5 7.7 0. 6.8 No. By Hee Abe 190 | 176.50 | 172.50} 172.50 175.25 182.5 9.2 3.9 5.3 INORDGSeee ese 165 154.00 151.75 | 152.25 155. 50 162.0 8.0 1.8 6.2 No. 569........- 200 | 189.00} 184.50] 184.50] 187.75 194.0 7.8 3.0 4.8 INOS GOsscesacaa 175 163. 00 161.00 | 161.50 164. 25 172.5 8.0 1.4 6.6 Average...... 178 | 166.55 | 163.50 | 163.70 | 166.95 173.9 8.1 2.2 5.9 1 Tn figuring all the percentages, the original weight of the bale was taken as the base. It is unfortunate that no determination of the moisture percentage was made for the hay used in 1913 and also that the weights were not continued through the winter, so that the gain due to increase of atmospheric humidity could have been more fully recorded. A com- parison of the results in 1913 with those in 1914 indicates that the hay used in 1913 was somewhat drier than that used in 1914, since the total shrinkage was less; however, this may have been due, to some extent at least, to the character of the season. July and August in 1914 were unusually dry, while the months of December, January, and February, following, were extremely wet. The month of No- vember, 1913, was also quite wet, having a precipitation of 8.5 inches and 21 cloudy or partly cloudy days. Under the extreme conditions in 1914, the variation in moisture content of the oat hay was quite large. The shrinkage in weight from the time of baling, June 1, to August 31, when the weight was least, amounted to 8.1 per cent of the original aaeiclite Such a loss in sraieht would require the producer to advance the price of his hay considerably after holding it in storage several months, in order to protect himself against loss. The Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station 1 found a shrinkage of 5.7 per cent in baled oat straw when stored on a barn floor from September until 1 Hickman, J. F. Experiments with oats. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 57, p. 111, 9 tab., 1894. 34 BULLETIN 353, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. March of the following year. Jordan‘ in his work at the Pennsy]l- vania State College, 1882, found the loss of weight on hay stored in a barn to average 24 per cent. On this basis he figured that hay sold for $10 per ton when taken from the field should bear a price of nearly $12.50 per ton at the beginning of winter, provided no con- ditions affecting the price had changed other than loss in weight. Calculation indicates the exact price warranted by such a change in weight to be about $13.15 rather than $12.50 per ton. A loss of 8 per cent in weight when the price of hay was about $10 per ton at baling time would require an advance of 85 cents to $1 per ton, in order to insure the owner against loss. Table XIV also shows that at Chico, Cal., baled hay following its loss of weight during the dry summer months takes up moisture dur- ing the wet winter months and gains back nearly all the weight lost, so that there is only a slight difference in weight between the time of baling and the weight at the end of the following February. The difference in this case was only 2.2 per cent, the hay having taken up 5.9 per cent of moisture between August 31 and February 25. This gain did not really begin, however, until after the October 16 weighing. An almost equivalent gain was found in 1913, where the baled hay showed a gain in weight between September 25 and December 1 equal to 1.4 per cent of the original weight of the bale. At Chico, Cal., holding the hay until late winter would, it seems, overcome to a great extent any decrease in weight caused by loss of moisture during the summer months. This gain, however, takes place slowly. It appears from a consideration of the results obtained in both years that baled hay in a humid atmosphere will take up about 1.5 per cent of moisture the first month and in four months increase in weight approximately 6 per cent. The shrinkage in loose timothy hay and the variation in its weight because of changes in atmospheric humidity are shown in Table XV. The hay used in both lots 1 and 2 was practically pure timothy which was cut July 10. The hay in lot 1 was allowed to cure in the field and the 108.5 pounds were taken from the windrow July 11, when it appeared to be in about the right condition for placing in the mow. The hay in lot 2 was taken immediately after cutting and weighed, while green, 512 pounds. After weighing, it was spread out on a canvas and allowed to cure until the following day, being turned or stirred several times to hasten the drying process. On _ July 11 it was placed in burlap sacks and removed to a barn, where it was kept under the same conditions as lot 1. The first weighing of lot 2 was made on July 17, and even at this date it was evidently not so dry as lot 1 had been on July 11, although both lots appeared 1Jordan, W. H. Experiments and investigations conducted at the Pennsylvania State College, 1881-2, p. 7-14. Harrisburg, Pa. MOISTURE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE OF FORAGE. 85 dry enough on that date to place ina mow. The weight of the hay at this stage, when it was supposedly ready to be placed in a barn, is used as the base for figuring all percentages. TaBLE XV.—Shrinkage of timothy hay after storing and variation in weight due to changes in atmospheric humidity, New London, Ohio, 1914. Lot 1. Lot 2. Date of Percent Percent Weath diti weighing. ercent- : ercent- : eather conditions. Weight age of Loss in Weight age of Loss in * | original | weight. * | original | weight. weight. weight. Pounds Per cent.| Pounds Per cent. EA TD peal Roe GRE a A Sea | TA F650) at al SIRS (NNO ERO AEE Clear. July 11..... 108. 5 100. 0 ON RE UD IOUS ls Bae 0. Julysleee- 103. 5 95. 4 4.6 295. 25 100.0 0 Do. IATIZS 2 eee 97.5 89.9 10.1 246. 00 83. 4 16.6 | Rain, Aug. 6. Sept.222een2 101.0 93.1 6.9 250. 00 84.7 15.3 | Rain. Sept.0e 99. 5 91.7 8.3 250. 75 85.0 15.0 Sept. 21... .. 97.5 89.9 10.1 242. 25 82.1 17.9 | Very dry. Sept. 28..... 97.5 89.9 10.1 244.75 83.0 17.0 | Clear. Gin@csosos 96.5 88.9 1b lsal 243. 75 82.6 17.4 | Cloudy. Oct. 13...... 99.0 91.2 8.8 251. 75 85.3 14.7 Rain on several preceding ays. Octo 100. 5 92.6 7.4 255. 50 86.6 13.4 | Cloudy and some rain on every day since Oct. 13. OER 78.5 4645| WSBSSAGAS sl EBS e ae (Osea eee 253. 00 85.8 14.2 | Clear from Oct. 20 to 23; Oct. 24, rain; Oct. 25, clear; Oct. 26, rain. INANE Aoscodb| bosee eee MARR irae Alsen agate ba 250. 75 85.0 15.0 | Weather clear nearly all the time since Oct. 26. WOW 66564 BAGS S AON ESE ee eS aaa a 247. 75 84.0 16.0 | Weather clear since Nov. 2. IDEs 6 Seal RGSS See Eee ames | Mee SEs ae 252. 00 85. 4 14.6 | Cloudy for four or five days preceding Dec. 2. Rainon two days. The seasonal effect is not so marked in this instance as it was in the alfalfa at Chico, Cal., but the more frequent weighings provide an opportunity to observe the almost immediate response of loose hay to changes in atmospheric humidity. This point is illustrated best by the increase in weight during the period from October 13 to October 26, a maximum increase of 4 per cent over the weight reg- istered on October 5 being noted on October 19. This decided increase in weight is accounted for by a period of almost continuous rain between these dates. Clear, sunny weather after October 26 caused sufficient loss of moisture to reduce the weight 2.6 per cent by November 11, showing that even as late as this in the season dry, sunny weather would affect the moisture content noticeably. The average amount of shrinkage from a field-cured condition in lot 1 was 8.6 per cent, while in lot 2 the shrinkage was 15.6 per cent. A compilation ' of the results obtained at several experiment stations showed an average shrinkage of 17.9 per cent in timothy when it was stored in a barn from 5 to 10 months. These figures represent fairly well the shrinkage that is to be expected in timothy hay which has been stored in a haymow, but more data on this point are needed. TVinall, H. N., and McKee, Roland. A digest ofliterature relating to the moisture content and shrink- age of forage. In Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron., v. 8, no. 2, 1916. 36 BULLETIN 353, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUMMARY. The variation in moisture content in field-cured forage often gives rise to errors greater in amount than the differences in yield between improved varieties or different methods of culture. A study of the use of samples in correcting forage yields indicates the following results: (1) Air-dried samples are a little less accurate than oven-dried samples, but the difference is so small that the air drying of samples can be relied upon for all prac- tical purposes in correcting forage yields. (2) Much greater extremes are found in the samples of field-cured material than in the samples of green material, indicating that replication of samples is more important in the former than in the latter. (3) Corrections by means of samples can be accurately made from either green or field-cured material, provided care is used in sampling. (4) Considering accuracy of results, facility of handling, and ease in figuring per- centages, 5-pound samples of field-cured material and 10-pound samples of green material are recommended as the most desirable sizes for practical use. (5) Samples need not be replicated more than three times. (6) The percentage of moisture in the different crops at that period of growth when they are ordinarily harvested for forage was as follows: Alfalfa at Chico, Cal., 75 to 78 per cent; average, 76.9 percent. Alfalfa at Arlington Farm, Va., 74 to 76.5 per cent; average, 75.2 percent. Tall oat-grass and orchard-grass mixture at Arlington Farm, Va., 71 to 73 per cent; average, 72 per cent. Timothy at New London, Ohio, when in full bloom, average, 67.2 per cent. Sorghum at Amarillo, Tex., 70 to 73 per cent; average, 71.2 per cent. These percentages are probably near the average for each crop, but the fact that McKee found 85.8 per cent and Farrell an estimated 79.5 per cent of moisture in alfalfa indicates that it will be impossible to establish any arbitrary percentage of moisture in the green plant as a basis for correcting forage yields. (7) The average amount of moisture in field-cured material was as follows: Alfalfa, 22.3 per cent; timothy, 20.3 per cent; tall oat-grass and orchard-grass mixture, 29 per cent; sorghum, 43.2 per cent. The moisture content of field-cured material varies so widely that it can not be foretold with accuracy. The use of the sample method in correcting forage yields would ereatly assist in standardizing agronomic data and do much to promote greater accuracy in field tests. The system of correcting yield data by the use of air-dried samples is of most value in succulent crops like sorghum and Sudan grass and is of least value in fine-stemmed plants like millet, which cure quickly and rather completely. . The relation of the moisture content to the stage of development in the plants was studied in alfalfa, timothy, and sorghum. The results were as follows: (1) Alfalfa at Chico, Cal.: Very young (12 inches high), 78.9 per cent; one-tenth in bloom, 77.1 per cent; full bloom, 74.6 per cent; past full bloom, 73.4 per cent. (2) Sorghum at Amarillo, Tex.: Very young, 90.6 per cent; shooting for heads, 87.1 per cent; beginning to head, 84.8 per cent; full bloom, 80.4 per cent; seed ripe, 75.3 per cent. (3) Sorghum at Hays, Kans., varied from 89.2 per cent when very young to 73.2 per cent when seed was ripe, showing practically the same gradations as at Amarillo, hex. MOISTURE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE OF FORAGE. 37 (4) Timothy at New London, Ohio: Very young (10 to 12 inches high), 77.5 per cent; just heading, 76.6 per cent; early bloom, 71.4 per cent; full bloom, 67.2 per cent; leaves drying, 58.6 per cent; seed mature, 51.2 per cent. (5) The excessive percentage of moisture in young sorghum explains the very chaffy character of sorghum hay when the crop is cut too soon, and the 90 per cent loss in weight is an additional reason why sorghum should be fairly mature before it is harvested. (6) The moisture content of any crop at a given stage of maturity is not constant, but may vary with the conditions under which the crop is grown. - A study of the rate of loss of moisture in forage during the early stages of curing shows the following results: (1) The approximate losses in the different crops were— Moisture loss. Crop and location. 4hour. | Lhour. | 2 hours. | 3 hours. | 4 hours. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 6 PA faliara ti Chicoyenii sie sss(aileisinieisis « ciele'a'a a slsijenaniaieieclcielsiemienare 17 SOE ae: Alfalfa at Arlington Farm...............---...------ 6 14 23 28 32 Tall oat-grass and orchard grass at Arlington Farm -. 5 12 24 30 - 34 MimothysatiNewVondon!y) 252.2 5. ese) 6 10 18 25 30 SOLEDUMU ATH AY Sc o:cjeclocinicierwisiclnte sie snsie nie sis sisiiepaie ies 2 5 9 12 13 (2) The rate of loss of moisture after cutting differs in different varieties of the same crop, as well as in different crops. (3) Although the Arabian alfalfa loses moisture faster than the Peruvian or ordinary alfalfa in the first one or two hours after cutting, still the total percentage of moisture is about the same for the three varieties. (4) A high percentage of leaf surface in alfalfa varieties is correlated with a rapid loss of moisture immediately after cutting, but it does not indicate a high moisture content. Studies of the variation in the moisture content of growing alfalfa during a single day at Chico, Cal., show an average of 1 per cent more moisture in the alfalfa at 8 o’clock a. m. than at 3 o’clock p. m. Studies of the shrinkage in hay after storing and variation in moisture content due to changes in atmospheric humidity made with baled oat hay at Chico, Cal., and loose timothy hay at New London, Ohio, indicate results as follows: (1) At Chico, Cal., where the atmospheric humidity changes radically from the dry summers to the wet winters, baled oat hay showed a shrinkage in 1914 of 8.1 per cent between June 1 and August 31, and a gain in weight from August 31, 1914, to February 25, 1915, of 5.9 per cent oi the original weight. (2) The results at Chico, Cal., indicate that even baled hay responds noticeably to changes in atmospheric humidity, and that hay dealers are justified in taking into account the shrinkage of their hay when fixing prices. (3) The results secured at New London, Ohio, with loose timothy indicate a shrinkage of 8.6 per cent in one lot and 15.6 per cent in another lot when the hay was stored in a barn for about three months. The effect of a week of rainy weather was indicated by an increase of weight in the loose hay. - ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY V BULLETIN No. 354 4 Contribution from the Forest Service, HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. Vv October 20, 1916 FORESTS OF PORTO RICO; PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE, AND THEIR PHYSICAL AND ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT. By Louis 8. Murpny, Forest Examiner. CONTENTS. \ Page. Page Introduction. .... dedadadeoouoBucaueDsaUENosS 1 | The Forest—Continued. Physical and economic features : Horest formations 22-2 sss-e sees eens 23 Geographic situation. ..........-...----- 2 Horestiiniluences a4. 2 sete eee eee 36 Physiography and soils..-..-..--..------ 3 CommercialtaspectSss--s scence se a ee 39 IDFR eG) 253 SOB bee eRe bane Oe AE ewan aemsaae 7 Morestrindustrieset@ = 2 scsee ne eee 44 limiters es er ese ke aoe Ra aay te 7 Horest products’: hey steeeeyecle ae seme - 46 Land distribution, utilization, and taxa- Horest,proplemse yo eee see ee ne 46 GION Pree ree seen nse sileyeiaice nine cle ee 9 Tnsularforestpolicys 2f22--4>-ostes ae -ee 51 Ropulationteisi nas ft. aac eee eecee 16 The Luquillo National Forest....-....-- 55 Mranspontatlomessneese seca setae eeeeee 18 | Appendices: The Forest: Tei TeeS; Of eOLLOVR COs se seer eee aesee 56 Forested condition and distribution. .... 21 iis Bibliography assess nececee ences eee 98 INTRODUCTION. Every year the people of Porto Rico consume over three times as much wood as the forests of the island produce. Great quantities of timber have been cut or burned by the ‘‘conuco”’ to make a clear- ing, which is abandoned after a few years and becomes a mere waste. The charcoal burner is still at work destroying the young growth needed to keep up the forest. Failure to put an end to the destruc- tive practices that are rapidly reducing the forests or to provide the means of developing and fully utilizmg them in a scientific manner has already brought about a shortage in the domestic supply of wood and consequent hardship to the people. Its the object of this bulle- tin! to give a complete account of the trees and the forests of Porto 1 Under an informal cooperative arrangement between the Secretary of the U. S. Department of Agri- culture and the Governor and Board of Commissioners of Agriculture of Porto Rico the author spent six months, from November, 1911, to May, 1912, on the island, making.a first-hand study of its forest problems. A preliminary report of his findings and recommendations regarding these problems was published in the “First Report of the Board of Commissioners of Agriculture of Porto Rico,” San Juan, Jan. 1, 1912, pp. 48-60. In this report it was recommended that the authority of the board be extended to cover the man- agement of the forests; and that an insular forest service, with a qualified and experienced forester in charge, be established to carry on the work. This service could be established at a maximum cost of $20,000 and maintained for $8,000 or less a year, and would effect an annual gain to the island through the scientific Management of its forests amounting to over $350,000. : 21871 °—Bull. 354—16—1 2 BULLETIN 304, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Rico, to show their value to the people of the island, and to suggest the means of improving them and making them permanent.t PHYSICAL AND ECONOMIC FEATURES. Porto Rico is very sparsely wooded. The impenetrable forest jungles, commonly associated with the West Indies, are so scarce that one may cross and recross the island without seeing them, for, with the exception of those in the Sierra de Luquillo, they are tucked away in the more inaccessible places into which few except the ‘jibaro” ever penetrate. The island is, however, by no means devoid of wood growth. Around almost every habitation there are groups of trees, such as the bread fruit and mango; and numerous scattered single trees, mostly palms, dot the open landscape. The protective cover of shade trees of the coffee plantations gives a decidedly forested appearance to many localities. Porto Rico presents an unusual combination of physical and eco- nomic conditions. The insular and geographic position of the coun- try, its diminutive size, its restricted area of level lands, and its density of population, to mention but a few of many influences, have occasioned unusual demands‘ on the forests. The same cycle of change is found here as is recorded by civilization everywhere—a profligate waste and despoliation of the bounties of nature, followed by an acute need for what has been destroyed. GEOGRAPHIC SITUATION. Porto Rico is the easternmost and smallest of the Greater Antilles and is well within the Tropics. It is situated between latitudes 17° 54’ and 18° 30’ north and longitude 65° 35’ and 67° 15’ west, occupying a position about midway in the chain of islands connecting Florida and Venezuela and separating the Carribean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 450 miles east and slightly south of the nearest point of Cuba; about 500 miles north of the nearest point of Venezuela; about 1,000 miles from Colon (Panama); about 1,500 miles from New York and New Orleans, and a little more than twice that distance from Gibraltar. \Tn addition to new material the present bulletin revises and brings up to date two previous bulletins of the Forest Service: ‘Notes on the Forest Conditions of Porto Rico,” by Robert T. Hill, Bulletin 25, Division of Forestry, Department of Agriculture, 1899, and ‘The Luquillo Forest Reserve, Porto Rico,” by John C. Gifford, Bulletin 54, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905. It is appropriate to acknowledge in this place the author’s indebtedness to the works enumerated above and in the bibliography. Special acknowledgment is due to the officers and employees of the Insular Government and of the Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture) for giv- ing the author access to official unpublished data and personal assistance in locating and getting to the various places visited; to Mr. Paul Buffault, Conservateur, Administration des Eaux et Forets, France, and Mr. Thomas R.. Wallace, American consulat Fort de France, for valuable information concerning forest conditions and legislation in Martinique (French West Indies); also to the Office of Acclimatization and Adaption of Crop Plants of the Bureau of Plant Industry, PBX IE WTO of Agriculture, for the use of photo- graphs comprising Plates I,1V,and VI, fig. 1. FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 38 Porto Rico has a total area of 3,435 square miles (2,198,400 acres). The main island is 3,349 square miles in extent, and the islands of Vieques, Mona, Culebra, and other adjacent smaller islands within its governmental jurisdiction are 51.5, 19.5, 11, and 4 square miles, respectively. The territory as a whole is thus about five-sixths the size of Jamaica or the island of Hawaii, seven-tenths the size of Connecticut, and four times as large as Long Island. In general outline it is almost a geometrically regular parallelogram, approximately 100 miles long and 35 miles wide. Its longest dimen- sion lies east and west. The sea line is nearly straight and the coast is usually low, especially on the southern side, although there are a few headlands. The only protected harbors are San Juan on the north coast, Guanica and Jobos on the south, and Ensenada Honda on the southeast. The remaining ports, such as Arecibo, Mayaguez, and Ponce, are scarcely more than open road- steads. CONNECTICUT eae 05 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND SOILS. e, MOO Se, 0-8 6, 5egtorets Porto Rico and the other islands of the Antilles and Central America and northern South America were formerly, according to : 8 Fig. 1.—Porto Rico compared in size with Connecticut and Long geologists, a united and eo Noe None distinct continental land mass—the Antillean continent. Then came a great subsidence, which left only the tops of the mountains above water. After awhile the ocean floor was again thrust up, the old continent reappearing. The sediment of which it was composed, covered in the meantime by deep-sea muds and chalks, was then folded into huge mountain systems, individual peaks reaching as high as 20,000 feet above sea level. Another but lesser subsidence of the Antillean continent ac- complished its breaking up into the present island groups, Jamaica being the first to be isolated, then Cuba, and finally Porto Rico and Haiti. . There are at the present time three main physiographic regions of the island of Porto Rico—a central mountainous core of volcanic 1“ Areas of the United States, the States and Territories,” Bulletin 302, U.S. Geological Survey. This -area is the one officially determined upon by the U. S. Geological Survey, the General Land Office, and the Bureau of the Census, and is based on computation from the U. S. Coast Survey map. The detailed figures concerning the areas of the smaller islands were obtained directly from the Office of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 4 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. origin, an elevated area of coral limestone (former marginal marine deposits) surrounding the mountainous portion, and the coastal plain. CENTRAL MOUNTAIN AREA. The central mountain area occupies by far the largest portion of the island. Viewed from the sea it presents a rugged and serrated aspect; numerous peaks and summits, with no definite crest line, rise from a general mass, which has been cut by erosion into lateral ridges, sepa- rated by deep, steep-sided gorges. The drainage divide is approxi- mately parallel to the southern coast and about 10 or 15 miles distant from it. The region thus has a long and relatively gentle inclination toward the north coast, but falls off rather abruptly toward the south. The Sierra de Luquillo,' the most easterly of the three ranges making up the central mountain mass, is surrounded by low coastal plains, and iscompletely isolated, except for alow water-divide which crosses near Las Piedras to the Sierra de Cayey. By thus completely dominating the landscape it gains the appearance of being very high; and one of its peaks, El Yunque (the anvil), has been credited with being. the highest eminence on the island. According to the most recent determinations ? this peak reaches an altitude of 1,062 meters (3,483 feet). The east peak has an elevation of 1,054 meters (3,457 feet) and the west peak 1,020 meters (3,346 feet). These higher peaks are flanked by numerous lateral ridges which extend in every direction. The valleys, known as ‘‘quebrados,” are deep and gorgelike and are separated one from another by very narrow, almost knife-edged ridges, ‘‘cuchillas.” Falls, cascades, and rapids are conspicuous features of the drainage system here. This range ee the only large tract of virgin forest growth on the island. The remaining mountain mass forms an uninterrupted expanse of broken uplands. The main crest line extends from Humacao on the east through Aibonito and Adjuntas to within a short distance of Maya- guez on the west coast. The portion east of Aibonito is known as the ‘Sierra de Cayey;” that to the west, the ‘‘Cordillera Central.” This region has an average elevation of about 2,500 feet, above which the higher peaks project irregularly, a few to an elevation of more than 3,500 feet. The thirteen highest peaks on the island are in the ‘‘Cor- dillera Central.” The highest of these (not named on the Coast and Geodetic Survey chart) situated about due south of Jayuya, has an 1 Herrera (see Bibliography) describes the Luquillo as follows: ‘Ten leagues East-South-East from the City of Puerto Rico is a very high and great Mountain, with three Breaks on it, call’d del Luquillo, or of the little Madman, on Account of a revolted Indian {that withdrew to it. he highest Point of it is call’d Furzidi, a Name given by the Blacks, signifying a place always clouded, and the third is call’d of the Holy Ghost.’’ 2U.8. Coast and Geodetic Survey Chart 920, issued J uly, 1910. 3 These two together appear to be given the name “ E1 Cacique” (The Indian Chief) by Gifford. He also names the round mountain to the west ‘El Toro” (The Bull), and the mountain next to it on the south ¢¢#1 Carnero”’ (The Sheep). ul. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agricult etal S, “hy, F-I9769A OPENING IN VIRGIN STENT OF MIXED TROPICAL HARDWooDS. RAIN-FOREST FORMATION ' NEAR LA ISOLINA (ARECIBO). > FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 5 elevation of 1,341 meters (4,398 feet), while ‘‘Mt. Guilarte,’”? com- monly considered second to El Yunque, is 1,204 meters (3,950 feet). The many lateral ridges which diverge from the central mountains, mostly from the north side, are commonly very steep-sided and nar- row-crested, and the valleys are deep, V-shaped, and almost devoid — of level bottom land. Rock outcrop is generally infrequent, except toward the outer portion, where the ridges are often capped with hard limestone. The central mountains are composed largely of black or other dark- colored igneous rocks, which occur in the form of tufls, conglomerates, silts, and an occasional dike of diorite. Their volcanic forms have been destroyed by erosion. ‘The material thus worked over into sedi- ment in prehistoric ages now occurs in well-defined strata. Two rela- tively inconspicuous limestone formations also occur, one black, bi- tuminous, and shaly, and the other light gray and crystalline. As a result of the almost uninterrupted action of an abundant pre- cipitation, a high relative humidity, and a warm temperature, rock weathering at the higher elevations is more rapid than erosion, as shown by a soil mantle of unusual depth and almost no bare indurated rock here. The characteristic soils are deep, reddish clay loams and tenacious red clays. So cohesive, unctuous, and compact are these soils that they are able to maintain themselves in an almost vertical position. Cultivation, in consequence, is in many places carried on to the very tops of the ridges and on the steepest slopes, yet evidence of excessive erosion and landslides is surprisingly inconspicuous. At the lower elevations the sandy character of the soil and the more common occurrence of outcrop show that the rate of rock erosion has _ exceeded that of weathering. THE CORAL LIMESTONE BELT. The belt of coral limestone is several miles wide in places and on its interior border overlaps the igneous rocks. This area is of sedimen- tary origin. Where rock solution has been the most active agent of decay, it retains the general form of a table-land. Where erosion has been the most active only isolated conical hills remain. In certain parts of the-island the limestone extends directly to the water’s edge, where it terminates in steep scarps, often 100 feet or more in height, notably on the south coast west of Ponce and on the north coast west of Quebradillas. Elsewhere on the island the rem- nants of this formation stand as steep, sloping, solitary mounds or. domes, which rise singly or in chains above the coastal plain. Along the junction of the central mountains and the limestone belt is a distinct line of weakness marking the former shore line. Strong valley lines are developed there, separating the two physiographic regions. These ‘‘parting valleys” are especially well developed on the 6 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. south side of the island in the valley of the Guanajibos at Sabana Grande, and on the north side at the junction of the Don Alonso (or Limon) and Arecibo Rivers. An uninterrupted block of limestone formation, known in places as the Pepino Hills,’ occurs along the north side of the island from Ciales nearly to Aguadilla, and is some 6 to 10 miles wide from north to south. It offers a marked contrast to the low rounded limestone hills which flank it to the north, because of its greater elevation, rough, angular topography, pitlike valleys, bare rock outcrops of chalky whiteness, and subterranean drainage. Wherever the large rivers, such as the Rio Grande de Arecibo and the Manati, cross this area they have cut deep canyonlike valleys whose sheer cliffs of con- siderable height occasionally rise directly from the water’s edge. Otherwise the area is strikingly devoid of surface drainage features. The hills are very closely packed together, their connecting ridges hardly more than rocky septums separating the disconnected pitlike valleys. The steep-sided depressions show, on a tremendous scale, to what an enormous extent rock solution takes place under tropical conditions. The region, if viewed from above, would look like a honeycomb. Not infrequently the ‘‘sinks” are 100 feet and occasionally 200 feet or more deep. The larger pits sometimes contain an acre or more of bottom with a very fertile soil, commonly under cultivation to such crops as coffee, bananas, and ground provisions. The bottoms of others are occupied by bogs or small lakes. The crags and summits are almost invariably wooded. Caves, which mark the early stages of pit formation, are common. Travel here is extremely difficult. Roads are out of the question and the trails are not numerous and are extremely rough. There is no alternative but to cross the pits in succession, descending to the bottom of one and then chmbing to the rim of the next —— straight down and straight up again. THE COASTAL PLAIN. The sandy ridge fronting the coast forms a barrier between the sea and a narrow low-lying area scarcely above tidewater level, and partly marine and partly alluvial in origin. On the north side of the island there are many swamps and lagoons covered with a thick growth of mangrove bushes. The most typical are the Cafio y Laguna de Tiburones between Arecibo and Barceloneta, Laguna del Tortuguero north and east of Manati, and the string of lagoons east of and connected with the harbor of San Juan. On the south side, 1 The term ‘pepino”’ (cucumber) undoubtedly refers to the appearance of the elongated mammillary summits of the hills. Anequally characteristic term, “cockpits,” applied to a similar formation in Jamaica is descriptive of the valley bottoms. FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 7 the mangrove is only slightly developed, but there are in places extensive saline plains too low and wet for cultivation, where rank grasses, a few scattered acacias, or low, succulent, salty herbs con- stitute the only vegetation. The coastal plain proper is elevated but a few feet above the sea, and has but a slight gradient toward the mountains. It terminates ‘rather abruptly at the foothills, except in the valleys of the larger rivers. These plains are entirely sedimentary, having been laid down when the island stood at a somewhat lower level than now. The coast-plain hills are isolated, low, and dome-shaped. Some have been nearly buried by the alluvial deposits of the rivers; others rise 100 feet or more above the level of the plain. The soil, except on the hills, is largely a fine, rich alluvium, sandy in places, and is almost entirely under cultivation or in pasture. DRAINAGE. It would be difficult to find another country of its size so well watered as Porto Rico. Within the mountainous area are many swift-flowing streams which have cut for themselves deep, steep- sided valleys. In their upper courses they traverse steep, angular gorges, where numerous cascades and cataracts are to be found, par- ticularly in the Sierra de Luquillo. The peculiarity of the drainage system where it passes from the central mountain into the limestone region has already been described. Within the coastal plain the valleys are broad, with considerable areas of bottom land through whcih the rivers pursue a meandering course. The streams flowing north from the main divide are much more numerous and longer than those from the south side, and they likewise carry a much greater and more constant volume of water. The island is reported to have upward of 1,300 named streams, of which the Rio de la Plata is con- sidered the longest, about 45 miles. None of the rivers is naviga- ble, except for small boats, and then chiefly in their tidal reaches. They, nevertheless, are of tremendous importance as a source of domestic water supply, and their power possibilities are also very considerable. 2 oe CLIMATE. WINDS. Though Porto Rico is well within the Tropics, it has an equable © and comfortable climate, for the modifying influences of the ocean are accentuated by its position in the direct path of the North Atlantic trade winds. These counteract the enervating effect of the high temperature and humidity, the occasional periods of sultry and oppressive weather invariably occurring when they fail. They vary in direction from northeast to southeast, usually coming from east or east-southeast. Their average velocity from month to month is 8 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. remarkably constant, rarely varying more than a mile from the annual average of 11 miles per hour, excepting in July, when the velocity rises to 13 miles, and in October and November, when it falls to 8 or 9 miles. Hurricanes whose centers pass over the island are rare; in the past 40 years there have been but three, the most recent as well as the most destructive being that of August 8, 1899. The recorded storms of this character for the entire West Indies average about one a year and occur chiefly during the months of August, September, and October. TEMPERATURE. The temperature throughout the year is uniform. The records of the United States Weather Bureau for a period of more than 10 years show a combined average annual temperature for over 40 stations in the island of 76°; during the coolest months of winter the average is 73° and during the warmest months of summer 79°. The daily range is much more than the seasonal range; thus at San Juan the difference between the afternoon and early morning temperature is 10° or 11° and at an inland station may be as much as 20° or 25°. In the afternoon the temperatures along the coast rise to an average of 84° in the winter months and to 89° in the summer months and in the early morning fall to 66° and 73°. In the hills and mountains of the interior the average daily maximum is about 81° in winter and 87° in summer, while the corresponding minima are 61° and 68°, respectively. The extremes of temperature recorded during the past 10 years do not differ greatly in different portions of the island. At the more elevated stations the maximum range is between 90° and 95° and along the coast and in the valleys 95° and 100°. The extreme maxi- mum has reached 100° only three times during the 10 years, at one. time reaching 103°. The minimum temperatures range between 50° and 55° except for stations on the immediate coast, where the tem- perature seldom goes below 60°. The lowest recorded temperature is 43°, and it is probable that on the highest elevations it goes some- what lower. It is, however, extremely doubtful if it ever approaches very near to the frost line. RAINFALL. The average annual rainfall is much more variable than the temperature. The average for a 12-year period from 44 stations shows 77.30 inches; for the year 1901 it was 93.72, and for 1907 but 64.18. The geographic distribution of rainfall shows a still wider variation. The heaviest is recorded in the Sierra de Luquillo, which is exposed to the full sweep of the moisture-laden trade winds. The average annual rainfall here exceeds 135 mches, with a maximum FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. | 9 record in 1901 of 169 inches. There are two other well-defined areas where the average annual rainfall exceeds 100 inches, namely, the peaks about Adjuntas and the mountains surrounding Las Marias and Maricao, San Sebastian, and Lares, in the central and west-central portions, respectively, of the Cordillera Central. These centers of heavy precipitation are likewise centers of heavy forestation. Except for the Luquillos, the forests are artificial ones, being largely coffee plantations, yet their influence on climate is in all respects similar. While abundant rain and the absence of protracted droughts char- acterize conditions on the north side of the island, the reverse obtains to the south, where several months may elapse with little or no rain. Here precipitation is not only scanty but unevenly distributed through- out the year. The average annual rainfall for the stations along and near the south coast is 45 inches. The minimum average annual rainfall of 37 inches is recorded at Guanica, while 21 inches in 1907 is the absolute recorded minimum of recent years. The rainfall on the whole island increases from 11 inches in the winter months (February being the hghtest) to 16 mches durmg the spring, 23 inches during the summer, and 26 inches during the fall. The maximum generally occurs in September on the east coast, in October along the south coast, and in November along the north coast. The rainfall is largely in the form of showers, which, although fre- quently very heavy, seldom last over 10 or 12 minutes. Rain for a day or more at a time is comparatively rare. Rain falls practically every day in the year over some portion of the island, except possibly a few days in February. For the island as a whole the average number of days in a year with rain is 169, the _ minimum and maximum frequency are 28 at Guanica on the south coast in 1907 and 341 in the Sierra de Luquillo in. 1900, respectively. The average humidity for the island is about 78 per cent, the minimum in the driest month, 75 per cent, and the maximum in the most humid, 81 per cent. LAND DISTRIBUTION, UTILIZATION, AND TAXATION. Lanp DistriBution. The land policy of Spain appears to have been conceived in a spirit of great liberality. It not only provided for the usual extensive grants to the grandee and to the soldier of fortune, but also offered encouragement to the bona fide settler of small means. The first law,! promulgated by Ferdinand V under date of June 18, 1513, a scant 20 years after the discovery of America, granted settlers free title to holdings of something in excess of 170 acres, upon compliance with 1“Law First”? (See Recapitulation de Leyes de los Reinos de las Indias, Book 4th, Title 12th). Translation by Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Department. 10 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. certain requirements concerning residence and cultivation, resembling very strikingly our own national*homestead act, passed 350 years later. : GOVERNMENT LANDS. By 1830 the Government had disposed of approximately half of the island, and between that time and the Spanish-American War had given away about nine-tenths of the remainder. The rest of the Crown lands, which, by the Treaty of Paris, December 10, 1898, became the property of the United States, amount, as nearly as can be ascer- tained from the records,! to 147,971 acres, of which 7,400 acres are classified as swamp land. These lands, except a small amount reserved for Federal use, were ceded by act of Congress approved July 1, 1902, to the people of Porto Rico. Some 3,000 acres in addi- tion have reverted to the local government in default of taxes. Thus the entire public domain, including Federal and insular lands, amounts to less than 151,000 acres. By far the greater part of this land lies in the tiouniae Except for a few of the more accessible tracts, comparatively little is known about its present condition, or even its location, since in only one or two instances has any survey or detailed examination been made. General information gathered in the vicinity of some of the larger tracts indicates that only a very small amount of this land supports a productive forest, except a tract in the Sierra de Luquillo. The greater part is at present an idle, unproductive, grass or brush covered waste. In some few instances it is so situated as to be suitable for coffee culture, but in the aggregate it is of slight agricultural value, though it has a large potential value as forest land. PRIVATELY OWNED LANDS. Figure 2? indicates for the years 1828, 1900, and 1912 the compara- tive areas of public lands and of private lands under cultivation to different crops, under pasture, and under forests. In 1828, while slightly over half of the island was privately owned, scarcely more than 3 per cent was under cultivation. Agriculture was then carried on largely for the production of home staples. Thus plantains, Indian corn, and rice covered more than half, while the commercial agricultural staples of to-day, cane, coffee, and tobacco, together covered scarcely one-fourth of the whole cultivated area. Between 1828 and the end of the Spanish régime the area under culti- vation had increased to about 13 per cent. Nearly half of this was in coffee, and somewhat more than one-fifth of the remainder in cane. 1 See report of the Commissioner of the Interior for Barts Rico, 1909. 2 Compiled from Flinter’s ‘‘ Porto Rico,’’ containing the official returns for 1828, from Knapp’s “‘Agri- cultural Resources and Capabilities of Porto Rito,’ and the summary of tax assessment (corrected to Aug. 10, 1912) in Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1912. FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 11 During the same period the area of so-called satis land had more than doubled, so that it exceeded in extent all the other land classes combined, and privately owned forests had increased slightly. Private owner- ship was thus almost doubled, having absorbed nearly 95 per cent of the total land area. During the period of American occu- pation the cultivated area has nearly doubled, amounting in 1912 to 23.28 per cent.! Of this area cane covers a trifle more than two-fifths, coffee more than one-third, minor fruits about fifth, and tobacco, coconuts, oranges, and, pineapples, in the order named, the remainder. This agricultural ex- pansion has been carried on about equally at the expense of “pasture’’ and ‘timber and brush” lands. On account, however, of the much greater area of pasture lands, these were rela- tively little affected in the aggregate, while the forest lands were reduced nearly two-fifths. There is no information available showing the average-size holdings in the various classes of property or in what proportion the economically de- veloped lands are held in conjunc- tion with the waste and forested Jands. The data upon which the dia- erams (fig. 3) are based most nearly approach this information by showing for the assessment area analyzed the proportion of the total, “by num- ber” and “by area” of the farms in 4828 328% ipnaroet, PUBLIC LAND [—_] BEES CULTIVATED LAND certain acreage groups. - PRIVATE: | E222] PASTURE 2 LAND ) f= TIMBER AND BRUSH 1 This figure differs from the one (56 per cent) given - (EES) UNCLASSIFIED in the Register of Porto Rico for 1910, which also varies (i912 ONLY) from the so-called “improved area’’ (75.3 per cent) given Fic. 2.—Land in Porto Rico. Thechanges by the Thirteenth Decennial Census (1910). Both of these from public to private ownership and the percentages have included in them a considerable area main uses to which it is put. of so-called ‘‘pasture’? land. The grass land in the low country might be considered “‘improved,’’ because it is used part of the time as pasture and is then plowed up and put into cane, but it is impossible to conceive of more than one-fourth to one- half of the total of land classified as ‘“‘pasture’’ as being thus alternately cropped and pastured. This would make the “improved”? acreage aggregate 35 to 50 per cent of the total territorial domain. The remaining one-half to three-fourths of the land classed as “‘ pasture’’ could more properly be classed as waste land or “ruinate,’’? as is done in Jamaica and elsewhere, because it serves no productive economic use. 12 BULLETIN 354, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. We find 91.34 per cent of all farms have an area less than 100 acres each, which would indicate a wide popular distribution of the land in small holdings. But the average area per farm in this group is only 21.4 acres; so that by far the greater number of individual holdings must be much less than 20 acres.1 It is not surprising, therefore, that the remaining 8.66 per cent of the whole number of farms covers 55 per cent of the total farm area, or that these farms | have an average of about 280 acres per farm. With 93 per cent of the land in private ownership, the success of any reforestation work attempted by the Government will depend in a large measure upon the cooperation which can be secured from the private landowner. The conditions are the most unfavorable in the mountain region, where there is a considerable proportion of Number of farms — Fer cent Acreage Groups 102220! SOL8FO 50 7 44 80_ 2 100 / to 100 Acres (91.34%) WL ee /0/ 10200 Acres é ae pa and over Area of Farms -Fercent Acreage Groups /0_ 20 50 40 50 60 70 80 90 1/00 110100 Acres (44.72%) WL WLLL Gee aS t01 to200 Acres(/6.26%) 7777, |_| | | ae 201 10500 Acres(9. 19D V7 le | ee 30/ to400Acres (5.58%) gi ttt 40! to 500 Acres (4.67%) Zoe ee SOL tasjov0 Acres 0.272) 77h |e |e | eg 100! tols00Acres(4.22%) 74 | | | | tt tt (sOhendover £15.09%) 7) | ischial ios es [eee Fig. 3.—Distribution of land ownership in Porto Rico by acreage groups and number and area of farms. From data compiled by bureau of property taxes, Government of Porto Rico. small holdings, from which as a class very little cooperation can be expected. In addition to the small farms, there are a few coffee and tobacco plantations. Much of the land, however, is not even under small-farm cultivation. Vast stretches of it are nothing more than grass land, which is classed for assessment purposes as “‘pasture.”’ In the coastal country the holdings are larger and offer better possi- bilities for cooperation. Many of the coast hills are already wooded, while others have been cleared for pasture. Here the need for forests on account of their protective influence on water and soil is not of : importance, but the demand for wood is obviously urgent. Forests are needed in this particular section also as a refuge for birds, which are an important factor in controlling insect pests in the cane fields, besides being of esthetic value. 1 According to the census of 1899, 51 per cent of all farms were less than 5 acres in extent, while the Thir- teenth Decennial Census (1910) reports 72 per cent of all farms less than 19 acres in extent. IS KILOMETERS- G.T. Trembley hae smear THE NORRIS PETERS CO., WASHINGTON, D.C. Bel S34, US. Dept of Agncutture MAP I. 8730 == ; sar == oa 7 = 64 6615 7 : 6715 : 6700 6645 6630 1 S600 6545 65°30 6515" PrAgujeremtn = a Pt Borinquaayye? iff pete or SM AeVADILLA ARR arcaderos Gap N= PrJiguerd | je is! | - | 1) | PrAldarroRW MAYAGUEZ Bay } A Z We | | Guansjibo| C val i ese lof hone “ i _'SpntaAnaFh\ § 2 Brame 2 es 3 Haye Randers |} iS ¥ < Py i | = i a | = Ttoreal s eo Es 5 ; eon i) oy, Ie <8 } |} wn ! ma x U.S.DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Ls) Ss FOREST SERVICE | HENRY S.GRAVES FORESTER ; | epee . oi PORTO RICO AND CONTIGUOUS ISLANDS UNDER ITS JURISDICTION FROM DATA BY THE WAR DEPARTMENT U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY AND DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR OF PORTO RICO LEGEND | —— Insular Roads Completed Insular Roads Projected SCALE APPROXIMATELY 5 MILES=! INCH EC A LT B B S& N i | Trails 5 2. 0 5 ines A S = Telegraph Lines (Along Roads) = == == +/279 Location & Elevation of Peaks (by UIS.C.4G.S.) 4 — | E —_ = ss 67s 6700 : G6'45 6630 Longitude West from Greenwich 6615) 6600 6545. 65°40 FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 13 Lanp UTILizATION. Porto Rico is essentially an agricultural country and will undoubt- edly continue as such. Of its commercial staple crops—sugar, coffee, and tobacco—only the first two are important competitors of the forest from an acreage point of view, tobacco occupying less than 1 per cent of the insular area. Coffee cultivation is a most satisfactory form of agriculture for the steep mountain slopes where it is carried on and its replacement of the forest is usually justified, for it exerts many of the beneficial influences of the forest and few of the detrimental ones of the field crops. Sugar might be said to offer little economic competition with forests, because it usually occupies the more level and strictly agricultural soils. Cattle raising was early taken up, and there was formerly a very considerable export trade in live stock, hides, and tallow. The total live stock now on the island amounts to not more than 350,000 to 400,000 head, and there is no export trade whatever. Cattle and horses make up nine-tenths of the stock (cattle alone three-fourths), the larger part of which is work stock. These are, to a considerable extent, used in the low country and are grazed in the pastures there. There seems, therefore, to be little economic justification for any longer retaining the bulk of the cleared uplands in pasture. Their - partial or complete reforestation would add materially to the pro- ductive wealth of the island. Tt is in the cultivation of native ground provisions—rice, yams, and the like—that agriculture comes into closest contact. with the forest. From time immemorial, not only in Porto Rico but through- out the Tropics the world over, the same primitive agricultural prac- tice has prevailed. Wherever it is in operation the ‘‘conuco,” or by whatever other name! the method is known, is essentially the same. Upon the area which it is desired to cultivate all the trees are felled and set on fire. Sometimes the larger ones are killed by girdling and allowed to remain standing. Clearing is most apt to occur during the dry season, when conditions are most suitable both for burning and for planting the new crop. Little or no care is taken to control the fire and it often burns over a far greater area than is wanted for cultivation. The beans, rice, or other ground provisions are planted immediately following the burning, the ashes having enriched and sweetened the soil. Little or no cultivation is given the crop, and cropping seldom continues for more than 3 years. Eventually, as the fertility of the soil decreases and grass, weeds, and other volunteer growth get the upper hand, the area is aban- doned and a new clearing made. 1 What is known as the “‘conuco”’ in Porto. Rico and other of the Spanish West Indies is known in the Philippines as caifigin, in India variously as jhum, kumri, and khil, in Burma as juangya, and in Ceylon as chenaor hena. The same Drectice is also reported from the Sudan, Central America, and many other parts of the Tropics. 14 BULLETIN 354, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The best types of forest are invariably the ones first selected, because they give the richest ash and are less difficult to clear than areas of small, thorny growth. Thus for a meager crop of native provisions a valuable timber crop is destroyed, which it will require a generation and more to reproduce. Where the amount of available land is scarce an area may be successively cut over several times at intervals, the parts cleared becoming naturally reforested again between cuttings. Where, how- ever, climatic, particularly moisture, conditions are not favorable it may be difficult or impossible for the forest to reestablish itself in competition with a grass cover. , In such cases the succeeding forests may grade from a dense thorny growth through chaparral and low brush, or a very fragmentary scattered tree growth, to open savanna and even desert. Itis almost certain that the vast and almost totally unproductive area of so-called pasture land in the central mountain section is the direct result of this practice, which is even now being extensively carried on in all its primitiveness. The total lack of property survey, lax title registration, and the _ free and unmolested operation of the prescriptive right have made it easy for this devastating practice to thrive. Legislation can and ought promptly to be undertaken to eliminate these contributory causes. But the government must go farther. There must be a serious educational campaign combining, unifying, and extending the work of the public-school system, the agricultural experiment station, and any other agencies working for rural betterment, until there can be instilled into the mind of the “‘conuco”’ farmer a proper regard for the fundamentals of economic agriculture, by which con- tinuous cultivation under a suitable rotation of crops will be substi- tuted for the present nomadic system. To give force and effect. to that campaign the government must, of course, provide these people with the means of acquiring the land and other essentials to the practice of such improved agriculture. TAXATION. The same archaic provisions are in force in Porto Rico for the taxa- tion of forest property as are to be found throughout the United States. The system of taxing the forest annually is unjust and dis- criminatory, encouraging forest destruction. In a country like Porto Rico, with practically no forest resources, 1t becomes prohibitory as well. Certainly few will elect to plant new forests or apply forestry to improve the productiveness of forests already there if by so doing they merely invite an increased assessment and taxes. The system, in fact, offers a distinct incentive to the owner to destroy what timber there is, so that there will remain but the bare land to tax. ST ee Oe FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 15 Under these circumstances the law should make it possible for the forest to be classed as a crop. The growing of a forest is no less desirable to encourage than the growing of a crop of sugar cane, coffee, or tobacco; yet these latter are exempted entirely from taxation, while the forest is classed as an “immovable” and taxed annually at its full value. There is little wonder, under these circumstances, that no effort is made to practice forestry, which would inevitably increase the extent and value of the forest; or that the value of this class of property has decreased regularly from year to year, and for the fiscal year 1912-13 amounted, both timber and land together, to but 3.3 per cent of the total assessed value of all real property. _ The law should at least provide that the land and timber be classi- fied, assessed, and taxed independently of one another. The average forest crop requires several years, often decades, to mature. During this period it yields little or no revenue whatever. It is only fair to the producer of such a crop that his taxes be arranged to fall due in large part at the time when the crop matures and is sold. This may be accomplished in one of three ways. If the owner pays throughout the entire period a tax based on the full productive value of the bare land, then the timber should be exempted entirely. At most it should be taxed but once—on its sale value as it stands in the forest in the year that it is cut. The rate in this case should be the same as that applied to all other real and personal property for that particu- lar year. Asecond method is to defer collecting any tax on the land until the timber is cut and then to take both the land and timber tax out of the sale value of the standing timber in that year. The rate in this case would, of course, have to be considerably higher than the general property tax rate and would properly be graduated accord- ing to the length of the period since the previous tax was paid. A combination of these two methods, modified according to circum- stances, though less just to the landowner, would be at once an advance over the present plan and the most likely to be acceptable to the community. Thus an annual tax cn the land would be levied either at the full general property rate on a nominal fixed value for the bare land or at half or other fractional part of the general prop- erty rate on the full productive value of the bare land. Then when the timber was cut, it, too, would be taxed, but at a rate corre- spondingly higher than the general property rate, say 10 per cent. Porto Rico is fortunate in that it has no constitutional obstacles to remove before it can proceed to a change. Neither the organic act nor any of the subsequent acts of Congress puts any specific restric- tions on taxation. It is only necessary, therefore, in order that this unjust discrimination’ against forests and forestry may be removed, to induce the legislative assembly to amend the present law. 16 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A decidedly favorable feature of the present taxation system of the island is its centralized organization. The insular government assumes the responsibility for the assessment and collection of all taxes, general and municipal, thus reducing the chances of imequali- ties being introduced between urban and rural properties, and be- tween similar classes of property in different municipalities. Until, however, there can be effected a complete cadastral survey of the island, making possible the enforcement of compulsory title regis- tration and the assessment of land values based thereon, any system of taxation, no matter how adequate, must, as now, be a dead letter in its real property provisions; and the present practice of ‘ distrain- ing personal property for all taxes due and only proceeding on real property when no personal property exists”? must continue. POPULATION. Porto Rico has had a steady increase in population since Columbus found 30,000 native Indians ' on the island, except in the early years of settlement, when through conflict, disease, emigration, and slavery, the native population was rapidly reduced to a state approaching extinction. Although it was reported in 1543 that but 60 Indians ‘remained on the island, it is probable that relatively pure Indian stock persisted in the mountainous sections up to comparatively recent times.? Here, too, the aboriginal type of feature is readily discernible to-day and the primitive method of ‘‘conuco”’ cultivation is most commonly encountered. Because of extensive slave importations almost from the beginning of settlement and the correspondingly slow colonization up to the middle of the eighteenth century, as late as 1820 the negro popu- lation outnumbered the white by 5 to 4. At present, however, the white race dominates all others by more than 7 to 4. Except for Cuba, there is no other island in the West Indies where this condition is even closely approximated, all but two showing 10 per cent or less of white people. Porto Rico has also a smaller proportion of negro population than most of the southern seaboard States. The density of population in Porto Rico is phenomenal, particularly as there is a great preponderance of rural inhabitants. It is exceeded in but few of the other West Indies, is 1 per cent more than in China, and slightly more than in Japan. Porto Rico, with 325.5 persons per square mile (79.9 per cent rural), ranks fourth among the political subdivisions of the American territory,’ after Rhode Island with 508, Massachusetts with 418.8, and New Jersey with 337.7. On the 1 Fewkes, Jesse Walter, ‘The Aborigines of Porto Rico,” 25th Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, BH oe (see bibliography) remarks that there were in 1832 Indian families living inthe mountainous aoe Decennial Census (1910), FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. . 17 basis of rural population alone, Porto Rico, with 260 country people per square mile, outnumbers its nearest competitor, New Jersey, by more than 3 to 1,.and Rhode Island by 17 to 1. Furthermore, Porto Rico’s rural population density alone outranks the total popu- lation density of any but the three States mentioned (fig. 5). The distribution of population in Porto Rico is remarkably even, and the centers of area and population are less than 5 miles apart 200M “00M One W107 =? BCE Ceres eS a a at veel ptf aol ee Zane SOOM at in \N\ _ aaa cite Ca \< \\N | it Pit TTT) ll eet aware \ < . Sane He BW~W WNW SSS XS 3 we Soe “(540 1650 1750 1/800 18/0 20 JQ 4O SO 6O 70 LEGEND (___ waite Race GRR S/ave (AtricanNegro) EEA Black (Negro Stock) WA Native Indian WW Sree (African Negro) MM Mu/ere (Mixed) Fic. 4.—Growth in population in Porto Rico. 1. 1493. Island discovered by Columbus. Pre-Columbian population (Fewkes). 2. 1508. First white settlement under Ponce de Leon. 3- 1515. Indians imported from Jamaica and other West Indies in servitude (Fewkes). 4, 1530. First numerical record concerning importation of African negroes (census 1899). 5. 1543. Bishop of San Juan reported to the King of Spain but 60 native Indians remaining on the island (census 1899). 6. Total population middle of seventeenth century, 880 (census 1899). 7. Slavery abolished by act of the Spanish Revolutionary National Assembly, March 22, 1873. 8. Census of 1877 adopted new classification dividing the colored population into ‘‘mulattoes” and “blacks,” which it will be seen closely conforms to the earlier classes of ‘‘free’”’ and ‘‘slave”? (census 1899). in a direct linet The center of population lies to the north of the center of the island, because of the more equable climatic conditions, the greater area of arable land, and the location of the capital and largest city, San Juan, on the north side. - 1 The center of area of the island is situated 3 miles north and 2.1 miles west of the town of Barros, and the center of population (1899) was 6.6 miles west and 2.4 miles north of the same town, making the two points distant from each other 6 miles east and west and 4.5 miles north and south. (Census of Porte Rico, 1899). 21871°—Bull. 354162 18 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Occupational statistics show that 33 per cent of the total popu- lation’? are engaged in gainful occupations, and that 62.8 per cent of that number are engaged in ‘‘agriculture, fisheries, and mining,” the two latter of which are almost negligible.2 Almost three-fourths of the men and boys engaged in any gainful occupation are employed directly in agriculture. Literacy is a feature of population statistics which has changed so considerably since the American occupation that but little value attaches to the 1899 figures, which are the latest available. Some idea, however, can be gained by a comparison of the school attendance, which has increased from between 2 and 3 per OS OWA aaah SR AG 40.0.2 TFO.O% STATE NAMES IN THE ORDER PER CENT : OF THEIR TOTAL DE: POPULATION | OF RURAL POPULATION PER SQ.MILE hd & ae "OF ee tawon: fie PER SQ.MILE | POPULATION 100 200 _J00 400 500 BREE (4 Wrage SLANE 000808 Soe one IY ye Wags 2 MASSACHUSETTS cea ALE Banton nrc cece: To Busc3Yyb ai ae) ee a CS | I MEW SERSEY. 2n on enens ey fe peepee A -b seen, ////// Bi eel phesemened Gaaal Y | L vee 4#PORTO RICO 325.5 79.8%... WLM MMs a_—_|_] NAQN |S CONNECTICUT.F..--0-s PATS Ei cee Oe 21), See 7 Beek weal er eI Re] RASS 6 MEW YORK... 22 nn ne vee II 2p 2 eee AL 2B. / SSS | 7 PEVVSVLVANIA 02 cnveil 71 Ov oon av en ev F968 000 VY) Sab 8. MARYLAND MS vo cnc ven ISOS 2c 2 on cores PIE Bosene ess 9 DO .vaa eon eeevevnel |Z. rece eee e- 44.18... Yfff} RRAQ | 0 DELAWARE.» ae nerve OT-O- nn one 2 S2OR.... GRBS Wi LINO. 2. one ones 100.65 peti 58.5%... Q(B AENTUCKY...~ one won nee 57.02 wane == 75.7 2-.-| RHA TENNESSEE. fo econ wee SZ: Fock w ccc cde oT I: OIG QR |S VWARGINIA,----------- Oe ee AOE § 16 WEST VIRGINIA ®® 11. 50. Bau oe wnnen-- O/3%-.f [7 SOUTH CAROLINAS... £9.72 2 22----- 95.2%... GY g ? [__] URBAN POPULATION BS | 2/ WORTH CAROLINA... AG Sen BOS Oss WA nat PORUEA TION SE | 22 GEORGIA... 2222 2222 AFF. 222s 222-80. O% Za x 24 ALABAMA. 00 c0e connect /.Z. none nee-.. 82.7%....Gy N x NS y Nn < w $ iS es R ‘STATES HAVING A RURAL POPULATION OF IN RURAL POPULATION PERCENT 27 MISSISSUPPL 2 «0 2nern0ee 59.8. --- 5 28 LOUISIANA... 200+ 00re-4y2 F605.» --- 70.Of%, 29 ARKANSAS ©. 0202 02ecee SOLO. nanan 222-87. Boi Z ST ONLAHOMAH. . o ceeese BS. Ieee eee 20---80.7 2... Y 34 HANSASH. .- 222222010020. 7a00--------70.88.....G SE NEBRASKA OX 15S ve oven FSQK....G 37 CALIFORMA®, . 2. 2200 IS Snn = 2 wn S824... | SB TEXAS Hoe eee ee TELE ELITE GAY STATES MARKED THUS ® CLOSELY APPROXIMATE PORTO FICO IN THE NUMBER OF THEIR RURAL POPULATION OTATES MARKEO THUS % HAVE GROSS POPULATIONS EXCELZOING THAT OF PORTO RICO BY LESS THAN SE % Fig. 5.—Comparative density of populations, showing graphically the relative position of Porto Rico and certain selected States. cent of the total population during the year following the close of the Spanish-American War to 14.4 per cent in 1912.3 In 1899, of the total population over 10 years of age, only 16.6 per cent could read. TRANSPORTATION. The mountainous character of the island, the heavy and unctuous qualities of the soil, and the excessive rainfall conspire to render road building both expensive and difficult, so that until comparatively 1 Thislow percentage of persons engaged in gainful occupationsis occasioned largely by the abnormally large number of women and of children under 10 years of age, most of whom are enumerated in the dependent class. Thus 30.9 per cent of the total population are children under 10 years of age, and 43.9 per cent under 15 years. (Census, 1899). 2 The census of 1899 showed but 455 fishermen and 48 miners or quarrymen on the entire island. 8 Report of the Commissioner of Education (Annual Reports, War Department, fiscal year ending June 30, 1912, Report of the Governor of Porto Rico). —_> . | FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. — 19 recently roads and other means of travel in Porto Rico have been poor. This confined early settlement and development to the sea- board and delayed the opening up of the interior. Then, too, the products of one section have not been sufficiently different from those in another to sustain an intra-island trade either by land or water. These circumstances and the system of trading which flourished — between the West Indies, Kurope, and America until recent times made the ports of the south coast, for instance, each commercially closer to Bilboa and Cadiz and to the world ports in general than to San Juan or each other. San Juan in particular, being formerly the last port of call on the voyage to the Old World from Gulf and Carib- bean ports, often found it easier to get timbers and other natural products from Santo Domingo than from the immediately adjacent country or a neighboring Porto Rican port. The fact that for over a century Santo Domingan timbers have been in common use in San Juan has led to the belief that Porto Rico was never well timbered or that what large material there was soon became exhausted, whereas the lack of adequate internal transportation facilities offers a more likely explanation. This paucity of transportation facilities persisted until well past the middle of the last century.?, The famous military road, the main artery of the projected plan for highways under Spanish sovereignty, was commenced about 1842 and finally completed in 1888, with a total length of 134 kilometers (about 84 miles). The remaining mileage of improved roads, which aggregated 275 kilometers (about 175 miles) at the close of the Spanish régime in 1898, largely com- prised isolated sections of several road projects.. From the Ameri- can occupation to June 30, 1912, 794 kilometers (500 miles) of mac- adam road have been constructed, making a total of 1,069 kilometers (670 miles). ‘These are largely trunk-line roads, from which extend many dirt roads suitable for the bull cart and like vehicles, while beyond these are mountain trails where pack and saddle horses and the land canoe, or flat-bottomed dugout hauled by oxen, are still the only means of transportation. It is usually only rough mountain trails that reach the ‘‘conuco’”” farmer, the forested area, and many of the coffee plantations. These trails are mostly in very bad condition. Absolutely without drainage, 1 One can see the effects of similar conditions in operation to-day in Santo Domingo. With 85 per cent of her land area under virgin forests, a sixth of which is pine, Santo Domingo imported from the United States in 1911 forest products to the amount of $130,800, including 3,937,000 board feet of lumber, valued at $91,296, and shooksand other unmanufactured timber products, exclusive of naval stores, valued at $12,206 additional. : 2 Robin (see bibliography) in 1802-1806 testifies not only to the poor transportation facilities, but to the abundant forests, in the following reference: ‘The island of Porto Rico is still little saineioiesl, in spite of the earliness of its settlement. * * * The habitations, isolated and dispersed over the island, lack communication with one another. * * * It is, however, not necessary (in order to provide roads) to cut the mountains, raise the valleys, or fill the marshes, but simply cut down the large and vigorous trees.’”? 20 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the tenacious clay soil, already saturated with moisture, has kneaded into it additional water through the travel of the bulls and heavily burdened pack animals until in places it becomes a semifluid mass resembling thick orange-red paint, often of a depth reaching to a horse’s belly. During the dry season, when they dry out on top and crust over, these ‘‘baches’”’ are even more treacherous than in their semifluid state, for when a horse breaks through the crust he is the more liable to get mired. Only horses bred to this kind of travel know how to handle themselves under such trying conditions. For draft purposes in this back country the bull is almost exclu- sively used. Most of the freighting across the island and into the interior is even now, and on the best roads, done by bull carts, except for a short line of railroad between Rio Piedras and Caguas. Very recently the auto truck and auto stage have been tried in the cross- the-island freight and passenger service, as well as along the coast, and their use unquestionably will be extended. At the time of the American occupation there were 254 kilometers (about 160 miles) of narrow-gauge railroad in operation in the coastal portion of the island. At the present time (1912) it is possible, through the connections established between the various sugar com- panies’ railroads and the original public-service road, almost to en- circle the island by rail. THE FOREST. The forests of Porto Rico are now so fragmentary and so limited in extent and have been so materially modified by the acts of man during several centuries that they afford of themselves little basis for classification and description. Clearings, severe cuttings, and the culling of the more desirable timbers were noted by the earliest tray- elers. Then, too, many native species have been transplanted from their natural haunts to others and many introduced species have been brought in and spread over the island. It has consequently been necessary to draw extensively on information from a num- ber of sources and to study the various formations as they have been described in their undisturbed natural state in whatever other part of the Tropics they could be found. In this manner only could a egroundwork be obtained for classifying and distributing according to their proper relations the remnants of the once extensive Porto Rican forests.' 1Jn describing the fundamental features of the various formations the works of Schimper and of Broun particularly have been freely drawn on, and in reference to special features those of Harshberger, of Fer- now, and Taylor, and of Woodward (see Bibliography), not to mention the various historical works which have contributed side lights on matters of general distribution. The work of defining the distribution of formations is a comparatively simple one, because of their close relation to the distribution of rainfall, which latter has been carefully charted by the local Weather Bureau Bul. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il. F-19765A Fic. 1.—AN UNIMPROVED COUNTRY ROAD THROUGH THE LOWLANDS. F—l9763A & Fla. 2.—NATIVE MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION WHICH REQUIRES NO ROADS. COUNTRY ROAD AND NATIVE TRANSPORTATION. eo uals Se i aia FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 91 FORESTED CONDITION AND DISTRIBUTION. There can be little doubt that Porto Rico was at one time forested fiom the shores of the Atlantic to the Caribbean, from the Virgin Passage to Mona.’ Historians, while-in general silent as to the extent and character of the forests on the island, have in the aggre- gate left a considerable collection of data concerning the subject,’ sufficient it would seem, together with present-day indications, to bear out the contention of a once completely forested Porto Rico. One has but to turn to the neighboring islands of the Greater Antilles, which are closely related both geologically and botanically, if further corroboration of Porto Rico’s original forested condition is required. This close relationship and similarity even down to such details as common names is strikingly brought out by a comparison of the description by Fernow and Taylor * of the Sierra Maestra in Cuba, by Woodward,’ of the Santo Domingo forests, and by Gifford,* office. Slight departures only are necessary to make allowance in certain cases for the influence of the limestone soils. Altitudinal differences are so slight as to have comparatively little effect. In the descriptions local names, wherever possible, have been adhered to, and following each such name is a number in parentheses, thus, guaraguao (74), which number refers to the specific description in Appendix I, ‘‘The Trees of Porto Rico.”’ Whenever desirable, a brief paragraph in small print concerning the chief features of the same or a closely related formation in other parts of the Tropics follows the description of the local Porto Rican formation. Thus it is hoped that interest inthe forest willbe heightened through comparison and that the way may be opened for the judicious selection of new species to be introduced into Porto Rico. 1 The following from a letter from Mr. Alex. Wetmore, assistant biologist, Bureau ofthe BiologicalSurvey, U.S. Department of Agriculture, who recently completed an exhaustive study of the bird life of the island, is of considerable interest in this connection: ‘‘On examining the endemic species of Porto Rican birds, T find that with one or two exceptions they are forest-inhabiting forms, pointing thus to a very extensive forest area on the island. The forms as differentiated here must have inhabited such an area during the period of evolution, and species with a preference for open savannas may have come in later, or may have been very few in number until within historicaltimes. ‘The extensive area of moist deciduous and tropical rain forests shown by you on the forest-distribution map, all point to this hypothesis.”’ j 2 Oviedo, writing of the early years of 1500 concerning animals, trees, and the like in Porto Rico, stated that they did not differ from those already described in the ‘Isla Espanola.”’ The North American and West Indian Gazetteer (1778) states that ‘the sides of the hills are covered with trees of various kinds, proper for building ships and other useful purposes.’’ Fray Ifigo (1788), besides mentioning the superior and much greater variety of timber trees in the uplands, also states that many trees are found in the southern part of theisland as well, although conditions there were much more arid and less fertile than on the north coast. In the account of the capture of San Juan by the Earl of Cumberland (1597), the small island on which San Juan is situated is described as ‘‘for the most woods.’”’ Continuing, the Luquillo region and the interior generally are described as follows: ‘‘The valleys are much wooded but in very many places interlaced with goodly large Playnes and spacious Lawnes. The woods are not only underlings but timber trees of goodly tallnesse and stature, fit for the building of ships and ofevery part of them.’’ Accord- ing to Herrera, (English translation, 1726), ‘‘The Island * * * has much good pasture for cattle, which decreases, by reason of the great number of trees increasing * * * so that the Island is over- grown with Woods.’’ Flinter (1834), speaking of the surroundings of Guayama, says that 5 or 6 years previously it was merely ‘‘an immense tract of woodland.” He also says: “‘The forests which cover the mountains of Porto Rico are filled with timber of the best quality for the construction of ships and houses. In some parts of the coast from the very improvident manner in which wood has been cut down and burned for charcoal and much left to rot on the ground, timber is getting scarce; but in the interior there is yet an abundance of superior timber.’’? In 1830 timber to the value of $21,000. was exported through the customhouses of this island, exclusively of what is shipped clandestinely.”? This work in particular has numerous other references to the extent and luxuriance of the forest growth on the island. Finally Barrett (1902) tells us that ‘‘more than half a century ago the Spanish planters of the island began clearing the interior districts for coffee and tobacco. culture. There being no good roads and but little demand for timber, the trees were burned where they fell; hundreds of thousands of dollars’ worth of lumber and cabinet woods were thus destroyed.”’ 8 See Bibliography. ho -BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the Luquillo. The forests of Porto Rico differ from those of the other islands chiefly in the absence of any pine growth. Santo Domingo, now least changed from its original pre-Columbian con- dition, still has fully 85 per cent of its land area under virgin forest. Probably at least 50 per cent of Cuba is wooded, not far from 30 per cent being virgin forest. Santo Domingo has a population density of 33 per square mile, Cuba 46, and Porto Rico 325. There is little wonder that Porto Rico is nearly deforested. The assertion of a completely forested Porto Rico does not mean that there were no open lands at the time of Columbus’s first visit. There were in fact even then more or less extensive clearings surround- ing each native village. These clearings were continued and extended by the white settlers that they might cultivate sugar cane, ginger, i een tidy 50 FOREST CLASSIFICAT/ON BASED ON MAP OF MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION ~ ‘i785 Shown thus 80 =—— GOR 1899-1903 ACCORDING TO U.S. WEATHER BUREAU Ee) aI abeeeaen fe MANGROVE g HHH) L/7T ORAL WOODLANDS ORY TIDAL WOOOLANOS } oe He figures near eres hh ‘ / (ICO S /PTDICP/lO Fi ~ V771\ wors7T DECIDUOUS FORESTS. 7% bah Geer VLA TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS 62% Y fe) RSS O44 O£C10V0US FORESTS Z2Eb% Fig. 6.—Porto Rico. Pre-Columbian distribution of forest formations. (Diagrammatically shown.) and other crops, and provide pasture for cattle brought from Spain. The clearing proceeded more rapidly on the north than on the south side of the island and was likewise confined for the most part to the lowland. Until nearly the middle of the nineteenth century the interior mountain forests were probably but little disturbed. The gradual ascendency of the coffee industry over that of sugar and tobacco, which culminated during the closing years of Spanish rule, undoubtedly strongly influenced the development of the interior. Of the once extensive virgin tropical forest there now remain only isolated remnants scattered over the island in its most mountainous parts. The best known and most famous of these, and the largest as well, still covers a considerable portion of the Luquillo Range. While it has for upward of half a century been gradually encroached upon, progress has been slow. The abruptness of the slopes and the size of the trees have made timber exploitation by native methods FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 23 very difficult. Exposure to excessive and constant strong winds, abnormally heavy precipitation, and extended cloudiness have pre- vented the region from being invaded to a greater extent by the coffee planter. These same conditions also have doubtless not been entirely to the liking of the ‘‘conuco”’ farmer, at least so long as there were other lands available. This tract has an aggregate acreage of between 35,000 and 40,000 acres, including several thousand acres of low gnarled growth on its summits and wind-swept slopes. A part at least of this forested area is in government ownership. Other tracts, more or less limited in extent, of virgin or only lightly culled high forest are to be found near Maricao, in a deep ravine at the headwaters of the Rio Maricao, near Jayuya, on Mount Morales and Mount Mandios;! near ‘‘La Isolina”’ on the Rio Limon between Utuado and Ciales,? and in Barrio Angeles between Lares and Utuado on the Rio Angeles.2 The aggregate of all such areas, aside from the Luquillo, is believed to be well within 5,000 acres, making the total area of high forest scarcely 2 per cent of the total land areas There are besides about 400,000 acres assessed as ‘timber and brush lands’”’ and a few thousand acres additional classified as swamps and largely under mangrove. Of the timber and brush areas the bulk will be found in the southern, southeastern, and south- western parts of the island, on the dry limestone hills and other land of little or no agricultural value. On the north side such areas will be found almost exclusively on the thin-soiled, conical limestone hills. Thus, including virgin forests and all, the total wooded area amounts to approximately 20 per cent of the total land area. In all probability not more than from one-fourth to two-fifths of this area (5 to 8 per cent of total land area) is now under forest capable of yielding a wood product other than charcoal and fuel wood. If now there be added the 168,000 acres in coffee plantations and the 6,500 acres under coconut palms which are in effect artificial forests, the erand total of all lands under a forest or brush cover will approximate 600,000 acres, or 27 per cent of the insular domain. FOREST FORMATIONS. The term “virgin forest’? was formerly applied by travelers in the Tropics exclusively to the evergreen forest found in constantly humid regions or those of similar luxuriance along the watercourses; in other words, to the tropical forest jungle. Not only are these not 1 Reported by N. L. Britton in Journal N. Y. Botanical Garden, May, 1906. 2 Reported to the writer personally by the director of the U. S. Weather Bureau at San Juan and by L. M. Underwood in Journal N. Y. Botanical Garden, Nov., 1901. 3 Reported personally to the writer by the lieutenant of police at-Utuado. 24 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the only virgin forests in the Tropics, but in many cases they them- selves may not be virgin at all, but second growth.! ; Because the rain-forest—the jungle—presents not only unusual but often spectacular features which make a most direct appeal to the interest and a most lasting impression on the mind, it has come to typify the tropical forest in general. Yet it would be scarcely less misleading to represent the mammoth redwoods or the giant fir and cedar forests of our Pacific coast, or even the magnificently diversified hardwood forests of the Appalachian region, as being the typical and prevailing forest growth of temperate North America. In its original forested condition Porto Rico undoubtedly pre- sented a diversity of forest formations unexcelled in any other similar area in the West Indian Tropics. Of the general types found throughout the Tropics, only those were impossible of occurrence which result from extremes of altitude and of drought. Thus alpine and desert elements were unquestionably never developed here. The various formations in the order of their occurrence from the coast toward the interior are as follows: Littoral woodlands, moist deciduous forests,? and tropical rain-forests on the north or humid side, and the dry deciduous forest * on the south or semiarid side. ‘The distribution of these formations was, of course, not so simple as might be implied by the last sentence, there being more or less overlapping. Remnants of these formations are, with few excep- tions, still to be found in the out-of-the-way places of the island, although their original balance and relative importance have been very much modified.‘ 1 This is very interestingly brought out in Cook’s “Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central America” (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 145), from which the following is quoted: ‘Many localities which are now occupied by apparently virgin forests are shown by archological remains to be regions of reforestation. Thus in the Senahu-Cahabon district of Alta Vera Paz, relics of two or three very different types of primitive civilizations indicate that as many ancient populations have occupied successively the same areas which are now being cleared anew by the coffee planters as though for the first time. “Tt does not yet appear that any considerable region of forest has been explored in Central America without finding similar evidence that the present forests are not truly virgin growth. * * *” And again, speaking of the evidence of antiquity as exemplified by the crumbling of large earthenware pots of an earlier civilization, he continues: ‘‘ We can not know how long it has taken the pottery to crumble, but we can at least contrast the condition of these decayed pots with other pieces of pottery placed in caves of the same district in later prehistoric ages, which will appear fresh and new, as though recently burned. And yet the bones beside these apparently new pots have also crumbled nearly to dust, and there has been time for the surrounding country to be occupied with old forests of hardwood trees, like true virgin growth.”” He also mentions terracing of the land as showing that agriculture was formerly extensively practiced and notes the presence of a type of terrace evidently designed ‘‘to hold drainage water and prevent erosion * * * being frequently met with in the heavily forested region of eastern Guatemala.” 2 Called ‘monsoon forest’’ by Schimper. 3 Also called ‘“thorn-woodland” by Schimper and “chaparral”? by Harshberger. 4The natural balance and relative importance of the different formations as given by Woodward for Santo Domingo on a percentage basis for the total forested area is as follows: Wet hardwood type (which includes the ‘‘moist deciduous” and ‘‘tropical rain” forests of the above classification), 58 per cent; dry hardwood type (‘“‘lituoral woodlands” and “dry deciduous” forests), 28 per cent; pine type (lacking entirely in Porto Rico, but occurring on a similar site to the ‘dry deciduous” forest), 14 per cent. PLATE III. Bul. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. vesl6l—s4 "(OGIOAUY) VNITOS] V7] YVAN NOILVWHOY LS3YO4 snonaioaq LSsIOW "OONNVEVL 4O GNVLS NIDUIA FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 25 LirrToRAL WOODLANDS. -The littoral woodlands, although most characteristically developed on the humid side of the island, have certain strong resemblances to the dry deciduous forests of the south coast, the one merging into, giving way to, or overlapping the other at their points of contact. Both formations are forced to struggle continually against the effects of drought. In the case of the littoral woodlands this is occasioned largely by porous and saline soil conditions accentuated by certain adverse climatic factors, strong wind particularly. With the dry deciduous forests, the determining factor is deficient rainfall, to which adverse soil conditions give added effect. The littoral wood- land formation presents two distinct types, namely, the mangrove or wet tidal woodlands below high-water mark and the dry tidal woodlands above high-water mark. THE MANGROVE. The mangrove, or wet tidal woodland, is a distinctly tropical for- mation. Though unable to withstand unbroken wave action on the open coast, it readily establishes itself in the shallow brackish waters of protected embayments, creeks, and lagoons, where, under favorable climatic conditions, it forms dense, almost impenetrable thickets. The Porto Rican mangrove rarely attains a height of over 10 feet above the water, though elsewhere it reaches very respectable forest dimensions. Even in the more or less protected lagoons it is gen- erally exposed to the strong trade winds, which accounts in part for its low stature, while its popularity for fuel and other uses undoubtedly prevents it from attaining its full size. The sea, receding at low tide as far as the edge of what seems at high tide a veritable forest rising from the waters, reveals a tangled mass of stilthke roots anchoring the trees to the blue-black muck along the shore. With every tide new soil material is deposited among the mangrove, which keeps gradually pushing out to occupy new ground, through its remarkable mode of reproduction. The fruit when it reaches maturity remains attached to the parent plant, the seed embryo all the while continuing its development into a new young plant. Having attained a certain size this plant releases itself, falls into the soft mud, strikes root, and becomes firmly fixed within a few hours. : The mangrove in general attains its most favorable development where the humidity is high, precipitation abundant, and an inter- mittent cloudiness prevails. Its distribution accordingly coincides in general with that of the rain-forest... Thus the mangrove in Porto Rico is most abundant along the north and east coasts, is much more restricted on the west coast, and is only sparingly and locally de- | _ 1ee Schimper’s Plant Geography. 26 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. — veloped on the south. Here it occurs chiefly at the mouths of the larger rivers, where a dilution of the sea water enables it to grow in spite of the otherwise unfavorable climatic conditions. Three of the four common species of the western mangrove,! of tropical American and West African coasts, occur in Porto Rico. One is known locally as mangle colorado (122),? and the other two as mangle blanco (or bobo) (127 and 157). Mangle colorado occupies the outer exposed edge of the formation, while mangle blanco occur, the one (Avicennia) intermediately and the other (Laguncularia) at the inner boundary. The latter often forms pure mangrove. Other species associated with this formation are mangle botén (125) and mangle prieto (unidentified), small trees, usually under 20 feet in height. On drier islets within the formation other species may occur, and likewise on the inner side, where by a gradual transition the man- erove gives way to the dry tidal woodlands. Epiphytes, so charac- teristic of other tropical forest formations, are scarce and are con- fined to a few bromeliads and lichens. The mangrove is of considerable economic importance, furnishing fuel, especially to the bakeries, from its limbs and branches, and posts and house piling from the submerged parts. For these latter uses it is very highly prized because of its resistance to decay and to the attack of the white ant. The bark contains a tanning material and a dye, though to what extent it is used locally is not known. Practically all of this mangrove land belongs to the insular govern- ment. Ina few places, as in parts of San Juan Harbor, the mangrove will have to be cleared away to make room for needed water-front improvements. Other tracts might perhaps be converted into arable land by drainage. Most of these lands, however, should be retained by the government and managed under approved forestry principles as public wood reserves. They would constitute a most valuable 1The fourth species, Avicennia tomentosa Jacq., is not identified from Porto Rieo. The eastern man- grove is much richer in forms. Thus in Farther India and the Malay Archipelago, where it shows its greatest diversity, it consists of Rhizophoracee (9 species), Lythracese (3 species), Combretacez, Meliacez, and Verbenacez (2 species each), Myrisinaceze, Rubiacese, Anthraceze, and Palme (1 species each); 22 species in all, according to Schimper. 2 The figures in parenthesis refer to the descriptive list (Appendix I). 3TIn many eastern tropical countries the immense value of these swamp areas is now fully appreciated. In the Federated Malay States the mangrove is classed as ‘‘one of the two important divisions of the com- - mercial Malay forests.’ In 1904 the development of the mangrove areas as a source of fuel supply for the Government railways and for general public consumption was begun under sytematically prepared working plans. (Burns-Murdock, A. M. “‘Notes from the Federated Malay States,’ Indian Forester, Vol. XXX, No. 10, Oct., 1904). In the Philippines the mangrove is regarded as “‘in many respects one of the most valuable forest assets of the islands.’”’ The bureau is now’engaged in selecting the most important commercial areas and thor- oughly investigating their possibilities. (Director of Forestry of the Philippine Islands, annual report for fiscal year ending June 30, 1912). The mangrove is managed on a short rotation under a clean-cutting system, making it a simple crop to handle. As practiced by the Philippine natives in growing ‘‘bacauan’’ (includes several mangrove species) for cordwood, the seed is collected and sown at a cost of about $2.50 an acre. Then without any further attention the crop at the end of six years is ripe to cut, and brings as high as $20 an acre on the stump, according to W. D. Sterrett, formerly forester of Bataan Province, Philippine Bureau of Forestry. ——— Tanta ated Cho aeneh 8 va _ FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. ON source of cheap wood supply for general use, where it is most needed, in and around the coast cities, and would yield a considerable income to the government through the sale of the wood and other products. Dry TrpaLt WoopLaNnpDs. The dry tidal woodland is confined to the sandy or gravelly soil areas skirting the open shore or lying directly behind the mangrove type in the sheltered embayments. While its former extent and distribution can be reasonably well defined, its original composition can only vaguely be surmised. Its sole representatives at the present time are groves of coconut palm; the dry deciduous forests of more or less strongly modified composition, due to the intermingling of typical shore species such as uvero (14) and others; and the open shrub growths of these latter species alone.t The coconut palm type will be considered in more detail elsewhere as will also the Pay decid- uous forests. EASTERN LITTORAL WOODLANDS. The littoral woodland is readily distinguishable in the East Indies and adjacent continental areas, where it has been more or less carefully studied and described, par- ticularly in Java. At present two of the most conspicuous trees planted in and around San Juan are from this formation, the almendra (123) and the more recently intro- duced Casuarina equisetifolia (Australian beefwood). Other characteristic tree species of the eastern littoral are Cycas circinalis, Pandanus (several species), Calophyllum inophyllum (Guttiferee), Cerbera odollam (Apocynaceze), Hibiscus tiliaceus and Thes- pesia populnea (‘‘Emmajagua” and “‘Santa Maria,’ respectively, of Porto Rico), (Malvaceze), Hernandia peltata (Hernandiaceze), Heritiera littoralis (Sterculiaceze), and various Leguminose (Inocarpus edulis, species of Albizzia, Cynometra, Erythrina, Pon- gamia glabra, Sophora tomentosa, and others). _Morst Decipuous Forests. Transitional between the littoral woodlands and the rain-forest formations in all probability originally occurred the moist deciduous forests. On the north side of the island this formation occupied the limestone belt lying between the coast and the central mountains and extending from San Juan west to Aguadilla. On the south side it very likely was confined largely to the middle and upper south slopes of the central mountain clay soils. Little forest growth of any sort, however, now remains on these areas. Particularly is this true of the south slopes of the Cordillera Central, where the trees are scattered 1 The failure of plant geographers to recognize and segregate this information in the West Indies is prob- ably due to the fact that.the sites where this formation had formerly attained most characteristic develop- ment have long been exclusively appropriated by man for the cultivation of the coconut palm. Else- where, possibly by cutting and the more aggressive competition on the part of the closely allied dry decidu- ous formation, its composition has been so modified as to make these two formations ey distinguish- able one from the other. 28 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. singly or in small clumps on the open grass slopes and in narrow strips along the watercourses.! On the north side of the divide the virgin forest area near La Isolina constitutes a possible remnant of this moist deciduous forest. Here the tabanuco (69) is a prominent feature in the stand. Else- where, as on the limestone uplands north of Lares, the moralon (15), aceitillo (66), capa blanca (155), limoncillo (129), granadillo (124), and other large trees are reported formerly to have been common. Here, too, we should expect to have found the caoba (72). Some of the rich forest growth was cut for fuel and building material, but much of itis reported to have been cleared away by the ‘‘conuco.” The land here is now ee open grass land. In the ‘‘pepino”’ or ‘‘pit’’ country a homogeneous forest cover is impossible. In the att bottoms, which are now largely under culti- vation to bananas and coffee, a high forest cover of the moist deciduous type undoubtedly prevailed. The steep sides and summits of these hills in many places even to-day present a well-wooded appearance, though the occurrence of an occasional fair-sized tree in some par- ticularly inaccessible place throws into contrast the main-cover, which is low and bushy and much like that of the dry deciduous formation. Undoubtedly these rough crags have been cut over in the past, but owing to their absolute uselessness for cultivation they have escaped being burned over. - EASTERN MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS. The moist deciduous formation of India and Ceylon contains most of their valuable timber trees, such as teak ( Tectona grandis), sal (Shorea robusta), satinwood (Chloroxy- lon sutetenia), ebony (Diosypros ebenum), trincomalie-wood (Berrya ammonilla), etc. Near the coast a number of evergreen trees are found in mixture, as Mimusops hexandra, M. elengi, species of Memecylon, Pleurostylia wightii, Nephelium, Sapindus, etc. In Australia this is a savanna forest and consists largely of acacias and eucalypts. In South America this formation more closely resembles the savanna than the rain- forest type and is known locally as ‘‘campos,’’ ‘‘Ilanos,’’ ‘‘caatinga,” etc. It is important economically because of the rubber-yielding trees which grow within it, the ‘‘ceara-rubber” tree or ‘‘manisoba” ( Manihot glaziovii, M. dichotoma, M. piyau- hensis, etc.) and the ‘‘para-rubber” tree (Hevea braziliensis), the former in the open savanna forests of northern Brazil and the latter in the basin of the Amazon. TropicaL Ratn-FoRESTS. Forest vegetation culminates in density and luxuriance of growth in the rain-forests, the most extensive of the original forest forms, 1 Fringing-forests—Closely allied to both the moist deciduous and rain-forest formations are the appropriately named fringing-forests or gallery-forests, mentioned, respectively, by Schimper and Broun, dense tropical forests of unusual luxuriance oceupying the banks of streams and rivers within dry regions. They owe their luxuriance to the abundant moisture in the soil. Their extent back from the river thus depends on the quantity and constancy of the stream flow and the modifying influence it is able to exert on the adjacent soils. Such was the type of forest in all probability that Flinter (see note, p. 21) referred to particularly as occurring in the vicinity of Guayama. Remnants of these forests are to be seen to-day, in many places bordering the south coast streams where they have not been destroyed to make way for cane growing. The contrast between them and adjacent forests of the dry deciduous formation is very Striking. The rich forests of the Amazon are to a considerable extent of this type. Bul. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. F-19760A Fig. 1.—SECOND GROWTH Moist Decipbuous ForREST BETWEEN ISABELLA AND QUEBRADILLAS. * F-I97574 Fia. 2.—‘‘ FRINGING FORESTS” WHICH SKIRT THE WATER COURSES THROUGH THE SEMIARID SOUTH COAST REGIONS, YET EXHIBIT MANY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE Moist DECIDUOUS AND RAIN-FOREST FORMATIONS. z TYPES OF FOREST. FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. AS) formerly covering the entire central uplands of the island, including the valley plains of the large rivers, and reaching quite to the coast on the east and west ends of the island. They undoubtedly attained their richest development in the bottoms and sheltered slopes of the larger river basins, but these being the most productive and the most accessible, were the first to be stripped of their forest wealth. There is little doubt that the greater part of this splendid natural resource was never utilized, but was felled and burned. What remains is but a poor example of this once magnificent forest domain. The rain-forest from a distance looks not unlike our northern deciduous forests, except where groups of palms or the yagruma (136) occur in mixture with the broadleaf trees or where the bright-colored blossoms of some flowering tree or epiphytic plant perched high in the crown of its towering host interrupts the green of the background. The foliage presents a variety of the duller and more somber greens, but lacks entirely the fresh new green of the spring foliage in the north. The crown level is also less regular than that of our northern woods. Individual trees with wide-spreading crowns tower far above the general level, the whole presenting a jagged and haphazard appear- ance. On closer inspection a further contrast is apparent in the greater number of trees with compound leaves, such as cedro (71), guaraguao (74), and many others. The crown of the average tree of the rain-forest is very much less branched than that of the northern deciduous forest tree, there being but few main branches, themselves only slightly branched, so that the tree has a very irregular appear- ance. ‘The leaves are highly diversified, not infrequently glossy, and of a fine leathery texture, and though pinnate seldom finely so or felted with hairs. They are usually set obliquely with relation to the direct overhead light and often aggregated in tufts at the ends of long, bare branches. The interior of the rain-forest is still more striking in contrast and more haphazard in appearance than its exterior. The growing space appears to be unequally utilized; in places the stand is very dense and is matted and tangled with a profusion of thick-stemmed woody lianas and countless epiphytic orchids, bromeliads, ferns, and even trees, covering every branch and extending to the tops of the tallest trees; in other places the cover is very much broken, permitting great patches of sunlight to reach the ground. In the denser parts the ground is very sparsely covered, while in the openings palms and other young trees, or a most detestable cutting grass, strive to occupy the ground. True shrubs are inconspicuous, most of the undergrowth being of the same species as the main forest cover. The soil in the forest is not only in large measure bare of herbaceous growth, but it is very poor in vegetable mold. It is simply blackened by the decaying vegetable matter. Humus, as we know it in the 80 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. broadleaf forest of. the the north, is very rare. Decomposition is extremely rapid under the influence of tropical heat and great humid- ity, and these, together with more gradual leaf fall, extending over the entire year, prevent the accumulation of litter. Then, too, the tor- rential rains wash much of it off the steep slopes almost as rapidly as it is formed. As to the trees themselves there is almost infinite assortment of kinds, sizes, and forms. One of the most striking features is the large number of light-colored, smooth-barked species resembling in appear- ance our northern beech.t. Then, too, the trunks of the trees forming the main crown cover are very characteristic, being for the most part of very unequal thickness, and usually more slender? than those in the virgin forests of the Temperate Zone. Large trees up to 5 feet in diameter above the root flare, however, are not lacking even to-day in the Luquillo. There are, besides, many trees, tabanuco (69) for instance, with a much-buttressed base formed by planklike outgrowth from the trunk and the uppermost roots. There is a striking lack of uniformity in association and in distribu- tion of species. The reasons for this are the vast number of species,? the combination of accidental association that such a number makes possible, and the absence of any considerable modifying soil or other conditions tending to form fixed associations within the broader and more uniform climatic one.t’ The presence or absence of a tree, par- ticularly one of the more valuable kinds, like cedro, appears to be a matter largely of chance. The really valuable trees seem almost hopelessly in the minority, while the inferior species are so numerous as to impress one with the apparent worthlessness of the forest. Un- questionably many of the so-called worthless woods are unjustly 1 According to Schimper this is owing to the prejudicial effect of humidity on the formation of cork, the bark thus remaining poorly developed. The formation of bark is often so poor that moderately large trees show green, owing.to the chlorophyll of the cortical layer being visible through it. There is, never- theless, considerable individuality to the bark of different trees; some have thin flaky and scaly bark, as in Myrtace, or a green surface, asin some Leguminosee; others, again, are armed with spines or corky warts, while still others exude resins when wounded. 2 This, according to Schimper, is a distinguishing characteristic of the virgin tropical forest. Woodward, too, discussing the rain-forest in Santo Domingo, states that while trees over 5 feet in diameter and 100 feet high are occasionally found, the average is far below these figures. 3 Gifford and Barrett in their ‘‘ Trees of the Luquilio Region” (appendix to Bulletin 54, Forest Service, “The Luquillo Forest Reserve, Porto Rico’’) compiled a classified description of something over 100identi- — fied species and enumerated besides the common names of nearly 100 more. 4 That the condition is not peculiar to Porto Rico, as many believe, and that, except inextent, the rain forests of the Luquillo do not essentially differ from the other Antillean forests, the following will show: Woodward remarks that in the virgin rain-forests of Santo Domingo two caoba (mahogany) trees to the acre constitute a good stand. Fernow, likewise, is speaking of the virgin forests of the Sierra Maestra, Cuba, remarks that it was most puzzling to discover a law of distribution. ‘‘ After many days cruising,” he says, “over canyon, slope, and ridge one finds in identically the same kind of locality a new species, asingle tree or group never to be seen again in further cruisings. Nearly 400 miles had been traveled before the first group of ebony was met.”? He further states that “the openness of the main stand may be judged from the statement that as developed by some 1,200 acres of sample area, less than 1.4 trees of commercial size per acre were found. When it is considered that over 100 species participate in making up this stand the diffi- culties of a commercial or even a botanical survey will be realized.” i - FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 31 discriminated against because their good qualities are commercially unknown. There is an almost complete absence of species having a gregarious habit, the tabanuco (69)! and palma de sierra (3) being the chief exceptions. RAIN FORESTS OF THE LUQUILLO. The entire forested area in the Sierra de Luquillo is within the rain-forest belt. The situation is, however, a generally unfavorable one as compared with other areas of abundant rainfall by virtue of its unshielded exposure to the full force of the trade winds, so that the forests here represent rather the minimum tropical rain-forest development. The main stand of the typical rain-forest development previously described covers probably somewhat more than half of the mountain area. Its four leading species are tabanuco (69), guaraguao (74), laurel sabino (17), and ausubo (141), in the order of their numerical importance. Largely because it has always been in great demand among the natives for all manner of uses, the ausubo is now quite scarce. Cedro (71), too, is only occasionally to be found here. It is doubtful if there was ever more than a scattering of caoba (72), because of its preference for.a slightly less humid site. While these forests are usually considered to be undisturbed original growth, such is not, strictly speaking, the case, for cedro and others of the more valuable woods have been taken out a tree at a time by a eradual culling process extending over many years.” Two subordinate types within the tropical rain-forest belt of the Luquillo are the “hurricane hardwood” and “sierra palm”’ types. The former, occupying the places of greatest exposure, the ridge sum- mits and the easterly slopes above 2,500 feet elevation particularly, is a low, gnarled, and stunted tree growth, mainly of the inferior species.* Brocade 25 feet high, the stands are in most places very dense and the limbs of the trees interlace and are covered with water-laden moss. For days at a time this type may be continuously bathed in 1 See Plate IIT. 2 There is authentic information concerning one cedro cut within the last 6 years from the south side of the range, the stump of which yet remains and measures 18 feet in circumference (53 feet in diameter). Several attempts are reported to have been made before a purchaser could be found for this tree because of its size and the difficulty of felling it and moving it away with the ordinary means at hand. Another, still standing at the present time, measures 25 feet 5 inches in circumference. 8 An instance called to the attention of the writer relative to one of the secondary peaks visited by himin 1912 toward the south side of the range (elevation 3,000 feet) suggests the possibility of the hurricane of 1898 being at least a contributory cause of the low cover found on these exposed sites and led to the selection of the name ‘“‘ hurricane hardwood” type to designate this growth. An American resident said thatat the time she took up residence there in the winter of 1899-1900 this peak was stripped entirely bare ofall vege- tation and that it remained so for 2 to 3 years afterward. Gradually it showed patches of green and eventually became entirely covered. The present stand is a dense young growth of yagrumo, palma de sierra, and other of the poorer quality hardwoods. It may be significant that Dr. George Eggar, quoted by Hill, does not remark on the presence of such a growth at the time cf his exploration of El] Yunque in 1887,-when a more normal growth may have been present. 32 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. moisture by the clouds, which leave the summits of these mountains only intermittently during a considerable part of the year. Although commercially of no value whatever, this scrub growth is tremendously important in protecting the exposed slopes from erosion. Palma de sierra occurs throughout the uplands and in places in sufficient numbers to dominate the stand, forming what may be called the ‘‘sierra palm” type. This occurs alike on the exposed easterly slope and in the protected basins, often where the land is rough and stony and windfall most likely. Consequently it is quite likely a temporary type brought about through windstorm or other accident to the original stand. In the protected localities the associated species comprising the more valuable hardwoods are numerous and usually well developed, so that the growth is not without commercial value and future possibilities. At present these two types—the “hurricane hardwood.” type, of no commercial value, and the “sierra palm’’ type, only partially merchantable—ageregate about half the forested area and dominate the mountain tops and exposed uplands of the Luquillo. RAIN FORESTS OF THE EASTERN TROPICS. Many valuable species, including the great natural order of the Dipterocarpaceae, find their homes in the luxuriant rain forests of the Philippines, the other East Indies, and the neighboring mainland. The different trees of this order by the variety of their woods, varying from those resembling our soft pine to the heaviest and hardest cabinet woods, are suitable to almost every conceivable use. Several are gregarious and form more or less pure forests, as for instance the eng (Dipterocarpus tuberculatus) of Burma, the hora (D. zeylanicus) of Ceylon, also Vatica obscura and V. roxburghiana of Ceylon. Other forests are dominated by members of this natural order. Thus, in the moister forests of Ceylon there are portions composed almost entirely of different species of Doona, freely mixed with Dipterocarpus, Shorea, Stemonoporus, Hopea, and along rocky gullies Vateria. In the Philippines 70 per cent of the total stand of timber is said to consist of trees of this family. Economically, therefore, this natural order is a very important one, for besides its major timber products it yields many valuable minor products, as camphor from Dryabalanops aromatica, gum resin and dammar from several species of Shorea, Doona, and Dipterocarpus, and so on. The tribe of the bamboos also finds in these wet tropical forests its greatest development. Besides the above there are many species of value both in the East Indies and on the mainland, in Africa, and tropical Australia and Queensland. This region, not to mention the resources of tropical America, affords opportunity for almost infinite selection for introduction by which to repair any deficiencies in commercial qualities of the Porto Rican tree flora. : Dry Dercipuovus Forests. The dry deciduous formation known in others of the West Indies and in Central America and Mexico as chaparral was in pre-Colum- bian times the second most extensive. Typically a formation of the semiarid region, it dominated the south coast lands, foothills, plains, and lower slopes of the central mountains from Patillas to Hormin- PLATE V. od Bul. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. F-—19762A Fic. 1.—SOUTH SLOPES OF LUQUILLO MOUNTAINS. Cleared almost to the summit. ‘‘ La Florida,’ the fruit farm in the ‘foreground, is in the southeast corner of the Forest onthe Rio Blaneo. The elevation here is about 100 feet while the peak in the background, scarcely 2 miles distant, is 3,000 feet above sea level. F—I9759A Fla. 2.—LUQUILLO MOUNTAINS FROM THE NORTH. Valley of Rio Maneyes in foreground. El Yunque, elevation 3,483 feet, at the right. Smoke in the middle ground probably from the burning of cane refuse after the harvest. LOQUILLO NATIONAL FOREST. Bul. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI F—I9761A Fia. 1.—THE WOODED SUMMIT OF EL YUNQUE, FROM LAS PIEDRAS, A ROCK BALD CLOSE TO THE SUMMIT. Note the sierra palms mixed groupwise in the hardwood stand. F—20022A Fia. 2.—VIEW TO THE EAST FROM EL YUNQUE, SHOWING THE OUTLINE OF THE EAST COAST FROM CAPE SAN JUAN SOUTHWARD. The greater part of the forested tract in the foreground belongs to the insular government Note the smoke in the right center from a charcoal pit or conuco clearing, doubtless. LUQUILLO NATIONAL FOREST. FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. Sis eueros (not far from one-fourth the area of the island), as well as Vieques, Culebra, Mona, and the other outlying islands. It still occupies to a large extent the thin-soiled, rugged limestone hills, and has extended itself on the poorer soils of the north coast, principally at the expense of the dry tidal woodlands and moist deciduous forests of the limestone formation, In both situations, however, its compo- sition is somewhat modified through the persistence of some of the more tenacious species of the formations displaced. On the deeper soils of the more gentle slopes and plains of the south coast country back from the streams the dry deciduous forest has in large meas- ure been displaced by agriculture—nomadic agriculture originally, which burned and destroyed the forests and planted on their ashes. This land once cleared and then abandoned reverts to a forest growth with extreme difficulty, if at all. The open grass-covered savanna is the general result, with but here and there a tree where a particu- larly large individual escaped destruction or local conditions favored its getting a start and enabled it to compete with the turf. A tran- sitional form of forest which might be called the ‘“‘savanna forest” may occasionally be met with where the open savanna and the true forest join. Here the most hardy and drought-resisting varieties of trees form open stands in the grassy waste. Although the dry deciduous forests vary from the closed chaparral form to that of the open savanna, they have certain well-defined characteristics. They are more or less leafless during the several months of the dry season and have a generally brown and parched appearance, evergreen trees such as the pajuil (86) being rare. Grass and other herbaceous growth under and between the trees is almost always present. Lianas are small and slender and absent entirely from the more open parts of the formation. Tillandsia (Spanish moss) festoons many of the trees and is the most conspicuous and most common among the epiphytes, here known collectively as pifiuelas. There are afew other bromeliads and an occasional orchid. Exceedingly characteristic also of the formation are the ee (120) and tuna (120), the tree cactuses and opuntias. The trees themselves, rarely over 30 feet high, are short and thick- bodied, have a thick, fecured bark and a light, open, feathery crown which in the open is very apt to be flat-topped and umbrella-shaped, or to have its branches and foliage arranged in tiers. Leguminous trees with thorny branches and fine, usually firm-textured compound leaves, are particularly disdagiausiile. Among the more common of these are guava (36), guama (37), tachuelo (54), cobana negra (44), algarrobo (45), campeche (50), moca (58), and many others. The wood of many of these trees is extremely heavy, hard, and durable. _:21871°—Bull. 354—16-—3 34 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Among nonleguminous trees are guayacan (60), jobo (87), almacigo (70), tea (64), guano (107), ucar (126), quebra hacha (94), and a host of others. The ceiba (105) is a conspicuous tree of the open savanna.' OLD FIELD GROWTH. The old field type is an incidental and temporary one, in many places in a formative state. It varies considerably from place to place, the designation having been selected for all situations where there is a manifest tendency of land formerly cultivated and now more or less covered with grass to revert to forest. This tendency is at present general except on some dry south coast situations. The palm-studded hills most strikingly display this effort of nature to restore the balance. Palms, through their ability to grow in dry situations, are to that extent admirably adapted to assume this pioneer role. Their poor reproductive capacity, with the possible exception of the palma de sierra, renders them less aggressive than they otherwise might be. Another conspicuous oid field pioneer growth is the poma rosa (133). The ‘‘poma rosa”’ type is very con- spicuously developed on the uplands between Cayey and Guayama and in the vicinity of Aibonito. Natural reforestation even by this apparently more aggressive tree is slow. This may be due in part to a practice of successive clearings rotating this volunteer wood growth with intermittent cropping to rice, beans, and the ike. Cut- ting for charcoal and for other uses also undoubtediy interferes. CULTURAL FORESTS. A description of the forests of Porto Rico would be incomplete without mention of its cultural forests. They not only cover a con- siderable acreage and are uniformly developed and kept up, but they are the most conspicuous forest growth on the island taken as a whole. COCONUT PALM GROVES. The palma de coco (4), or simply coco, is of uncertain origin,? but, however that may be, it has by one means or another been distributed 1 One especially notable tree of this species near Ponce measures, according to Cook and Collins, 36 meters (118 feet) in circumference 4 feet from the ground, following the sinuosities of the trunk. Herrera says of the ceiba that it ‘‘has so great a shade that a strong man can not threw a stone across it. The tree isso big that a carpenter whose name was Pantaleo made a chapel of one hollowed out, being so thick that 15 men holding hand in hand can not grasp it.” 2 Cook (The Origin and Distribution of the Coconut Palm,” by O. F. Cook, Contributions from the National Herbarium, Vol. VII, No. 2) scouts the currently accepted opinion that this species originated in the Indian Archipelago and concludes: ‘‘ The original habitat of the coco palm is to be sought in South America, the home of all the other species of cocos and of most of the closely related genera.” He likewise controverts the common notion that the coconut originated as a strand plant, that the thick husk is an adaptation to enable the dispersal of seed by ocean currents, and that even the seeds thus transported have the ability to germinate and maintain themselves in competition with the other strand vegetation. ‘The coco palm,” he says, ‘‘is unable to maintain an existence when subjected to the competition of the wild vegetation of tropical shores and forests.” And, finally, ‘‘the idea (that they can not thrive in undisturbed nature) is recognized in the Cingalese proverb, ‘The coconut will not grow out of the sound of the sea or of human voices,’ and in the belief held among the same people that the trees will not thrive unless ‘ you walk and talk amongst them,’ ”’ FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 35 widely throughout the maritime regions of the Tropics. How long it has been cultivated can only be surmised, but sufficiently long at any rate for the development of many varieties. These varietal forms are mostly found in the islands of the Indian Ocean and the Malay region, little attention having been given to improvement by selection in tropical America. These groves line the shore in many places and, when well cared for, are a profitable source of income. As yet the nut is the only product exported from the island.1. There were, according to the 1912 tax assessment list, 6,556 acres of land under coconuts, having a total value of $663,710, and an average value per acre of $101.24 (maxi- mum $269.45 in Anasco and minimum $24 in Comerio). THE COFFEE FORESTS. Coffee will grow without difficulty at sea level, but it thrives best in the upland district above 2,000 feet elevation. Because of this adaptability to soil and climatic conditions more or less unfavorable to crops requiring clean cultivation, its extension throughout the uplands of the interior was readily accomplished. Whether or not the coffee bush was ever cultivated in the open here, as in Brazil, it is now considered necessary to grow it under shade.2 While areas of virgin forest were available these were used for coffee culture, the overwood being thinned and the underwood cleaned out and replaced by the coffee tree. In the absence of a natural forest growth the leguminous trees guava (36) and guama (37), and to a less extent . bucare (59), are planted instead. The shade trees and coffee bush are planted at the same time, the former by their naturally rapid growth reaching a size to afford the requisite protection by the time the coffee tree comes into bearing. The coffee forests are of interest from the forestry standpoint chiefly because of the protection which they afford to the steep mountain slopes, although, on account of the relatively thin cover and the small amount of cultivation they get, a certain amount of soil erosion necessarily occurs. ‘CACAO PLANTATIONS. Practically no cacao is now cultivated commercially, although formerly it was to a limited extent. It is a semiforest crop growing 1 The coconut yields in addition “coir,” a fiber obtained from the husks and used in the manufacture of cordage and for many other purposes; ‘‘copra,’’ the dried meat of the nut, which when pressed yields coconut oil and a ‘‘cake’’; besides the various uses of the wood. (See Appendix 1, under ‘‘Coco.’’) 2The advantages which may be attributable to the shading of the coffee, particularly when leguminous trees are used for this purpose, are as follows: The trees hold the soil in place, at the same time protecting the superficial roots of the coffee tree, require little care or replanting, discourage by their shade the growth of weeds, diminish the cost of cultivation, and lessen the bad effects of drought, act beneficially in breaking the force of the strong trade winds and of the pelting of the torrential rain, and enrich the soil.. The actual shade itself, however, is said to be unnecessary and even prejudicial. The use of leguminous shade trees is Said to be aremnant ofa prehistoric agricultural practice employed in the cultivation of both cacao (choco- late) and coca (cocaine) by the natives of Central and South America before the advent of Europeans and ig still in favor among them. 86 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. under a forest-tree shade, liké coffee, but, unlike coffee, it does best in the low country at elevations below 500 feet. It is chiefly of interest here as offering a suitable means of restoring a forest cover and providing an agricultural crop on some of the less fertile cane lands,! where a forest cover is particularly desirable because of its influence on bird life so necessary to the control of msect pests. FOREST INFLUENCES.2 Forests make their presence felt through their influence on climate, on stream flow, and on soil erosion. In a country as abundantly watered as is Porto Rico whether the forests cause slightly more rain in the aggregate matters little. Within the forests, particularly those in the mountainous interior, the temperature of the air is appreciably milder and the humidity relatively higher than in the open. One effect of this may be observed in the formation during the dry season of clouds above the. forests of El Yunque and vicinity, when none exist elsewhere. These rapidly disappear as they pass on to the westward and come in contact with the columns of heated air rising from the open slopes and cultivated valleys toward Juncos and Caguas. The modifying influence is likewise manifested in the cool air which descends after sundown into the open cultivated valleys from the wooded slopes of the coffee district. The most important influence of the forests is in the checking of floods and erosion, though the conditions in Porto Rico are such as to make control of floods by forestation alone impossible. Through- out a greater part of the year the forest soils, except those of the limestone hills, are nearly, if not quite, saturated with moisture. Steep slopes and rain in the form of brief but torrential downpours are the rule and complete a combination favorable to most rapid run-off. These make it necessary to supplement forestation by a 1 Cacao undoubtedly could be grown as profitably in Porto Rico as in Granada (British West Indies), where conditions of configuration, rainfall, soil, trade winds, etc., are very similar and where an even greater density of population prevails. According to a “Report on the Economic Resources of the West Indies” (by Daniel Morris, assistant director Royal Gardens Kew, in Kew Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, Additional Series 1, 1898) cacao was first planted in Granada on mountain lands as it formerly was in Porto Rico, the lowlands being entirely in sugar estates. But later it was tried on the lowlands and found to rival sugar in productiveness. In 1895 Granada was said to be the only West Indian colony of Great Britain that was independent of sugar. An especial feature of the cultivation of cacao is that it can be raised to advantage on small holdings. 2 Of more than passing interest in this connection are the following observations by Col. Flinter (see Bibliography), written in 1834: ‘‘The government has most wisely ordered that three trees should be planted for every one cut down. It is to be hoped that this order may be rigorously enforced; for, in the first place, wood is the great and principal agent in the atmosphere for the attraction of the clouds, * * * Tf these laws on this head are carried into force by the local magistrates the island will always have on it an inexhaustible source of timber; but if, on the contrary, these useful precepts are not followed, water will become scarce; the rivers will dry up; the fields will become scorched savannas for want of moisture; the cattle will find neither food nor shade from the noonday sun; and this beautiful and fertile island will at once be deprived ofits enchanting verdure, its fertility, and itsriches. Thisis not the dream ofimagination or the ridiculous prognostication of idealills. I am aware that this can not happen before the expiration of a century; but it is the duty of governments and individuals to look forward to posterity. It is their duty, by wise and prudent measures, to foresee and prevent at the present day the ills which may be inflicted on future generations by undue considerations or concessions of temporary interests.’’? (Italicizing is the author’s.) PLATE VII. Bul. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 4SBO d 04} SUOCLTB YIMOIS 991} SNONIIdsSuUOd JsOUL OL "AOU LNNOOOD Y—'s ‘Ol SLSAYOS WYUNLING “ysnq 99700 oY} JO do, oY} WIA [eAo] B UO Suteq BIOTBD ‘JSoIOJ OY} JO JUIMIOSUBIIG PdTIO}S-OM} OY} SAMOS Ydeis -0J04d ‘PpUBIS! OY} UO YIMOIS 48010} SNONOIdsMOD sour oy} A[QBqoIg “1S3YuO4 3354409 Y—'| ‘Old Voll6I—s4 ‘LO3d4da GNV ASNVO *NOISOYS ‘sodoys urezunoUL 4 doojs oY} WO SuLMIVT OONTOD PUB SUT[BOOIBYD JO s}[NsoL YOOITpUT oy} o18 UOdN poTOBROLNUO Sp[oOy. O[LAOJ Puv AVMB PopOdo OI’ SYUL OL “SAWIL YSHLO LV NMAYLS YA0TMOG ANV Aud ‘NIVY JO SAWIL NI Gaqoo14 a3synog WvaYy1S—'?g ‘ol SOSINOD WUBOIIS IOMOT OY} UT Spooy pus sodoys ons uosur[[Vy ULBI oY} JO Yo-unx prdva B Joy pouodo st Av OY} Sodo[s ULB] UNOUt doo4s oY} 0} Popud} xo Orv SUOTYBL0do OSOYY UDY AA “NOILVYAdO NI NIM IWOOYVHO—"} ‘ol4 g9Lz9— PLATE VIII. Bul. 354, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. — Sil succession of reservoirs and a cleaning up of the channels if any noticeable reduction of the eroding effects of floods is to be had. Forests aid in conserving the water in the soil. The trees both aid the water in getting into the soil and then help the soil to hold on to it. In the first place, the trees break the beating force of the rain, which in the Tropics is considerable, and thus help to keep the surface layers of the forest soul from being beaten down and rendered compact and impervious like the soil in the open. Then the roots of the trees make the soil more open and accessible to percolating water. The roots and such ground cover and litter as there are impede the progress of surface run-off and afford the soil more time to absorb the water. With more water getting into the forest soil than in grassland soil, both being of a retentive character, there will be more water to find its way to springs and be specially poured out into the rivers to sustain them during the periods of little rain. The forest influences erosion in two ways: By reducing the force .and interrupting the passage of the surface run-off in the catchment areas around the headwaters of the streams it slows up the washing away of the surface layers of the soil and greatly impedes gullying. At the same time the ability of the run-off to transport eroded ma- terial is very considerably lessened. A grass cover, if it forms a firm, well-knit sod, is also quite effective in resisting the erosive action of surface run-off. When, however, the grass grows in bunches and is interspersed with patches of bare ground or with tender, succulent herbage that dies out in dry weather, leaving the soil exposed, erosion and run-off is little affected. This is often the condition on the upper and drier slopes on the south side of the island. That these open slopes are not scored ‘more deeply than they are is undoubtedly due in large measure to the tenacity of the soil. It is when the run-off is gathered into the streams of the island and reaches the foothills country, where the character of the soil changes from the heavy clays of the interior to the lighter and more readily eroded coast soils, that the greatest damage is done. The rivers are generally too short to choke up and overflow, as would otherwise more frequently happen. Yet they are continually widening and shifting their channels, cutting off islands from adjoin- ing fields, and undermining their banks. Frequently it is not so much the water that creates the havoc as the material which it picks up and transports. Besides the finer soil particles and gravel, large bowlders are dislodged and rolled along with great destructive force. Thus the volume of water which comes from the hills may in the course of its passage to the sea be doubled by the material trans- ported by it or dumped into it from caving banks. A fringe of forest growth along the banks will materially lessen the liability to this kind of erosion. Certain of the bamboos are par- 38 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - ticularly suitable for this purpose and formerly were plentiful along the water courses in Porto Rico. But since sugar cane has become the all-important crop in the lowlands, the bamboo has been sacrificed — to secure afew more feet of land or because it shaded the cane planted near the edge of the field. The folly of this procedure can be seen in places where the extra feet of cane rows thus secured at the sacrifice of bamboo and several more with them have been subsequently undermined by flood and dumped into the river.! | The close relation of forests to stream flow and erosion is not difficult to observe in Porto Rico. Compare, for instance, the lower reaches of the north coast rivers, particularly those rising in the coffee district or the Luquillo, with the south coast rivers, as, for instance, the Portugues. The former have relatively few abandoned channel beds and less spreading stream bottoms, are obstructed only by sandy or gravelly bars and relatively small bowlders, and show a reasonable flow of water evenin the dry months. The Portugues and other south- side rivers, which are largely fed by the rains falling on the steep grass slopes of the Cordillera Central, have wide, dry bottoms showing often no less than six different channels separated by low islands, and many shoals, remnants of a former river bank. The bowlders, which are everywhere strewn about, are several times the size of those in the north coast rivers, the banks are often steep and undermined, and the stream is of almost inconceivable insignificance on the midst of surroundings indicative of such destructive power. The many streams and waterfalls in the heart of the interior flow from the wocded slopes (even when swollen by heavy rains) practically clear, carrying but little sediment; on the other hand, the waters of the south coast embayments at the mouths of the rivers are red-brown in the flood season with the soil brought down by the rushing torrents. Many examples might be found in the Tropics of serious injury resulting from destruction oi the forest or of benefits following its restoration. Owing to reforestations effected on a large scale, the rainfall on the island of St. Helena has actually been doubled since the time of Napoleon I; and in Lower Egypt, where in the eighteenth cen- tury rain only fell on from 10 to 12 days in the year, the number of rainy days nowadays reaches from 30 to 40. On the other hand, in Syria and Palestine there are numerous regions which were formerly in a flourishing condition but have become arid and waste in consequence of the destruction of forests.2 In the West Indies themselves, the experiences of Martinique are particularly instructive. Here as early as 1843 the man- 1 The following, which bears closely on this situation, is quoted from the 1907 report of Lorrin A. Thurston, chairman of the committee on forestry of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association: “Tn the past the subject of forestry has been largely treated by this association as an interesting incident, but not as one of direct concern or of possible immediate benefit or profit to its members. Wéthin twe years I have heard of trees bounding fields being cut out because the shade injured the adjoining cane. “Tn all earnestness I urge upon the association that the time for this view of forestry and its possibilities in Hawaii has passed, and that the preservation, propagation, and utilizing of forests and forest products should from this time forth be made one of the leading features of the efforts of the planters’ association, both by it as an organization and through the individuals and corporations which give it its strength.” (Italicizing is the author’s.) 2 General report by C. Capolletti, of the proceedings of the Navigation Congress at Milan in 1905. FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 39 ufacture of charcoal was recognized as the most serious single cause of the forest de- struction which resulted in timber shortage, interruption and impairment of stream flow, soil wastage, damage to valuable agricultural lands through erosion, and shortage in the supply of water for power and other purposes. To remedy this situation the ex- portation of charcoal was prohibited, and stringent measures were adopted to regulate its manufacture, sale, and distribution. Most important of all, however, a forestry association ! was formed which issupported by the Government. It has not only made a beginning in experimental reforestation, but is working through the schools, the celebration of Arbor Day, and the distribution of forest-planting stock at cost to arouse public interest in forestry. The subject of conserving the forests for their influence on the water supply has not been without consideration in Porto Rico, since there appears in the ‘‘law of waters’’ this very significant language: ‘‘The colonial secretary shall also direct that a study be made of the portions of the basins and watersheds which it is advisable to keep wooded in the interest of a control of the water supply.” ? Like many another good piece of Spanish legislation, it remained legis- lation to the end. It is still, however, a part of the laws of the realm to-day and awaits as formerly official action. So much and more should be undertaken without delay. COMMERCIAL ASPECTS. In the larger commercial sense the forests of Porto Rico are insignificant. Leaving out of consideration coconuts and coffee, there is not a single article of export which is in any sense a forest product. The forests are, however, of tremendous importance as a source of domestic wood supply. Locat TIMBER.AND Woop SupPpPLy. The estimated present resources of those forest lands capable of yielding saw logs are placed at 96,442,500 cubic feet (1,155,000 cords). Of this amount, however, there are only 4,592,500 cubic feet (27,- 500,000 feet, or 55,000 cords) of saw-log size, the great bulk being chiefly suitable for fuel, small house logs, and piling, posts, and the like. There are about 110,000 acres of such lands on which it is believed the average yield will not exceed 876.7 cubic feet (10.5 cords) per acre, of which 41.7 cubic feet (Q.5 cord) will be found suit- able for saw logs. On another 333,000 acres, comprising small wood and brush lands, including mangrove, the produce consists largely of fuel, house piling, and other small materials, averaging scarcely 334 cubic feet (4 cords) per acre. This will add another 111,222,000 cubic feet (1,332,000 cords) to the general resources. The total present supply is, therefore, 207,664,500 cubic feet (2,487,000 cords). 1 “Ta Societe Martiniquaise des Amios des Arbres’’ was founded in November, 1909. 2 Art. 59 of the Spanish law of June 13, 1879, which was extended over Porto Rico by Royal decree of Feb. 5, 1886, and reenacted and amended by the Legislative Assembly of Porto Rico, Mar. 12, 1903. 40 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Stated in one lump sum it seems considerable, yet it is equivalent to scarcely 185 cubic feet per capita—less than the annual per capita consumption of the United States or Canada. The value of this resource is $6,780,000, on the basis of 3 cents a cubic foot for all material except free which is estimated at 15 cents. The value of any by-products and the far more important soil protective value are, of course, left entirely out of account. The wood value alone, however, if invested at 5 per cent, would yield in interest approximately $340,000. The expenditure through an appropriation from the insular treasury of less than 6 per cent of this latter amount, or about $20,000, for a forest service to protect and improve the principal, would seem, therefore, to be a fully war- ranted, sound, and businesslike policy. LuMBER AND TIMBER IMPORTS. Commercial expansion during the last few years has created a heavy demand for building lumber, timbers, and the like, which, because of the scarcity of suitable native woods, have been imported. Naturally most of this material has come from the United States, the Gulf ports more particularly. Imports of forest products from the United States for the fiscal year 1911 totaled $1,308,579, an increase of 225 per cent over those of 1909. Besides this the United States supplied furniture and other manufactures of wood amounting to $684,560. Foreign lumber, timber, and manufactures to the amount of $131,623 were imported, of which material worth $14,616 came through the United States. The gross value from all sources was thus $2,124,762, of which lum- ber, timber, etc., exclusive of naval stores or manufactures of wood, paced to $1, 399, 506. The quantity of nyood rape exclusive of such products a as shingles, box shooks, etc., amounts to 9,120,872 cubic feet (54,616,000 feet b. m.), ielucine 8 382,064 cubic feet (50,192,000 feet b. A) in lumber, scantling, and sawed timber from the United States, and 738,808 cubic feet (4,424,000 feet b. m.) from abroad. In addition, there was imported from the United States 26,717 cubic feet in hewed timber. Thus the grand total of wood imports amounted to — 9,147,589 cubic feet, or about 8.2 cubic feet per capita. DEMANDS FOR Woop. The demands for wood products are about half for commercial and half for domestic uses. Most of the commercial demands are supplied by imports. The commercial demands supplied by native- grown wood come chiefly from power development, which takes 3,633,336 cubic feet (43,513 cords) each year, equivalent to 3.25 FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 41 cubic feet per capita.! The raw materials for the manufacture of furniture and novelties, native carts, ox yokes, and the like, also railroad ties, for narrow-gauge roads principally, posts and heavy structural timbers, in the aggregate probably amount to less than 1 cubic foot per capita. : Probably not less than 11,180,000 cubic feet (133,892 cords), equivalent to 10 cubic feet per capita, is consumed for domestic purposes. This means that an average family of five persons con- sumes only a little more than half a cord of wood each year. The demand for house piling, rafters, flooring, and the like is at the present time inconsiderable—not more than 2 cubic feet per capita (2,236,000 cubic feet)—because of the great scarcity of wood over most of the island and the prevailing low standard of living, especially among the rural population. | The various present demands for wood, aside frem the manufac- tures of wood, may thus be summarized: Character of de- Raa: Source of supply and uses. Per capita. Total. Cubic feet. | Cubic feet. Commercial.........] Imports, building material, etc..........-..-..-.---------- 8.2 9, 147, 589 OCR TielOnl yi8 seer eee tse Ona eee eee eee 3. 25 3, 633, 336 Domeshicasse eee sea: TOCA FUG Re ero eared cia ea comet oy maligna cot er LUV 10.00 | 11,180,000 House pilings, and poles, posts, etc.....-.......--..------- 2. 00 , 236, FRO Gea ee ee eis Sa hess A BRI UN a CIR Nepmest ie yak 23.45 | 26,196, 925 Netitotalvexcludingimportsseaceoasseeecn cece ee ae ee ne 15.25 | 17,049,336 Nore.—The domestic demand is entirely an estimate; the commercial demand is based on the census and customs reports for 1910 and 1911, respectively. The present status of the supply and demand is graphically repre- sented in figure 7, which shows that the present. per capita supply, at the rate it is now being consumed, will be exhausted in about 12 years. Yet at the present rate of production it will require more than 45 years to produce a similar supply, or nearly four times as 1Manufactures, Porto Rico; Bulletin of the Thirteenth Census, 1910: “Closely related to the question of kind of power employed is that of the fuel used in generating this power. * * * Porto Rico has no mineral fuel, and its wood supply is being depleted as manufactures increase. The following table shows the quantity of each kind of fuel used in 1909.” ‘ Oil, ‘ Anthra- | Bitumi- includ- Industry. eitelConlelmonsiegaltl: ose: ‘Wood. ing gaso- Others. * Jine. Tons. Tons. Tons. Cords. | Barrels. Tons. All industries. .... SUSE oes Fae ae 946 41,988) 368 43, 513 1, 036 520 Bread and other bakery products......... Oe Saat 6 13, 444 Can | eee ners Coffee, cleaning and polishing. ............ 128 1, 293 234 2, 846 ERY Aceemenee Liquors, distilled..-...-......-.--- aaa DJ 72000) QIN Ne sce eae. Byrd lie mash colle aes 2B a Slearandemolasses ss oo cesses nce saeco faeem eae er SOS Be ssiecye eciays 19, 656 365 275 MOWACCOMMAMUUTAC TUNES Hct serene aa aneo| cece MOOR aaa Serr hoe eee V7e | Sos eee Ali other industries.........-..-.....-.--- 613 5, 385 128 6, 830 546 245 49 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. long to produce as to consume it. New growth, however, during the period will extend the supply to slightly more than 16 years. It is, however, not to be expected that the island will be denuded of all woods at the end of this period. Experience teaches us that what actually happens in such cases is that consumption decreases as more res: Sy hs 3y gilable sow ee la Se Hee a Toe Af ee Dove Za Ze V. eens x SY ear y, 5 Oa N20 YEARS : /~7th Year | | 6thYear« re oe “in 30 Yeans— ” ss (Seid ' “IN 40YEARS t Fig. 7.—Per capita supply, production, and consumption of wood in Porto Rico, showing the rate at which present merchantable wood supply is being drawn on each year to meet domestic need, and the rate of its replenishment through new growth. The large circle represents the present per capita wood supply (185 cubic feet) exclusive of imports. The small circle represents per capita of wood production in one year (4 cubic feet), and the dot and dash circles the corresponding production per decade. (Based ona present annual growth of 10 cubic feet per acre per annum, equivalent to 4 cubic feet per capita.) and more people are unable to pay the advancing prices. In the present instance it simply means a progressively increasing privation. TREND OF FUTURE DEMANDS. Education and the establishment of a more permanent form of agriculture will imevitably raise the standard of living among the lower classes and increase correspondingly the demands on the forests for both building materials and fuel, and besides these is the normally increasing demand occasioned by increased population. Kerosene and denatured alcohol can not, at least for a long time, FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 43 take the place of wood. The change would necessitate not only the displacing of the customs of centuries, but an investment in stoves and burners, which the average person can not afford. The domestic per capita consumption of fuel can therefore be expected to rise from year to year. The sugar mills are now the largest commercial users of native wood. Under present improved methods the refuse cane fiber, known as ‘‘bagasse,”’ is burned under the boilers, which effects a considerable wood saying. Some wood is still required to sustain this “bagasse”’ fuel, but as one ‘‘central’’ has already substituted crude oil for this purpose with satisfactory results, it is possible that in time all the larger mills at least may likewise adopt that fuel. It is thus probable that the maximum demands on the native wood supply have been reached by this industry. A gradual decline may consequently be expected. The bakeries are the second largest commercial consumers of wood, and they demand cordwood of regulation size. The possi- bility of their changing to oil or other substitute fuel seems remote at the present time. The business is conducted on a small scale, with too limited a capital to justify such an outlay. The Army bakeries also consume a relatively large amount of cordwood. Any imme- diate decrease in demands of these or other industries where wood is largely used in the generation of power is thus hardly to be looked for. BALANCING SUPPLY AND DEMAND. Everything points to a sustained or an increased demand for wood. Commercial expansion can and will be taken care of by an increased volume of imports. But local and domestic needs accommodate themselves less readily and less promptly to new sources of supply. - With production falling behind consumption, hardship and depriva- tion must be the inevitable consequences. This condition promises to grow more serious unless relief can be had through increased pro- duction. Two ways are open to effect this—planting new forests and improving the existing woodlands. The restoration of a reasonable balance between cleared lands and forests is necessary. One-half million acres under prime forest srowth will scarcely more than meet the situation. At present a large part of the 443,000 acres of timber and brush land yields not more than 10 cubic feet per acre a year, worth, at 3 cents per cubic foot, about $135,000. The improvement of these and the planting to new forest growth of 100,000 acres besides would provide approxi- mately one-half acre of productive forest per capita, which is about the minimum required by a people to meet their own needs. A con- servative estimate of the average annual growth to be expected on such area under forest management would be 30 cubic feet per acre, 44 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. worth in the aggregate approximately $490,000. Accordingly, to neglect to adopt a constructive forest policy for the future will mean the loss of a possible income from wood products of $355,000 per annum. FOREST INDUSTRIES. CHARCOALING. One could hardly expect that with depleted forests there would be many or very flourishing industries.1_ The charcoal industry is prob- ably the leading forest industry of Porto Rico, as of many other of the West Indies. Charcoal is the fuel most generally used, particu- larly for domestic purposes. It is the only fuel of the poorer classes in the cities and is still in use to a great extent among the better classes also. Generally speaking, the charcoal is of exceedingly poor quality and small size. Some is scarcely larger than pea coal. Such stuff, the good and the bad indiscriminately, sells in San Juan for as high as 25 cents a can.? A sack holding about 2 bushels sells for from $1 to $1.25. The manufacturing part of the industry is carried on in a crude and haphazard way. All sizes of material, even to brushwood and small limbs scarcely one-half inch thick, and all kinds of wood are fired in the same heap. Because of its crookedness the wood is cut into short lengths—4 to 6 inches. The kilns are of poor and crude construction, and the fire control consequently is ineffective. Too rapid combustion is thus apt to occur and great waste results through the complete consumption of part of the wood, or incomplete com- bustion may leave some of the wood only partially carbonized, which renders the product very variable in burning and heating qualities. The sources of supply are numerous. Most of the material comes from the clearing of land for agricultural use, but the mangrove swamps and the south coast hills furnish considerable. In some instances the charcoaling is done by contract with the bona-fide owners of the land, especially of land being cleared for the cultivation of sugar cane. In this case the large material is frequently cut and sold at from $1.50 to $2 a ton ‘ to the “central.” The charcoal opera- 1 The census (1910) reports 8 establishments classed as ‘‘lumber and timber producis”’ industries, having a totalpersonnel of 171—26 proprietors, 22 clerks, and 123 laborers. These industries represent a combined capital of $113,392 and handle a product valued at $268,719, of which $90,301 is the value added by manu- facture. ; : 2 Since the advent of the automobile the 5-gallon gasoline containers have become very plentiful and have been adapted to a variety of uses, one of which is as a unit of measure for the retailing of charcoal, e 3 A small amount of charcoal is brought in from Santo Domingo, but only one instance is known to the writer of any being brought from the mainland. The sale of this, however, under adverse market condi- tions yielded a slight profit and shows not only the high price of the native product but the possibility of developing a successful and profitable competition with it. 4The wood is thrown loosely into the car and is of varying lengths and frequently crooked. Under these conditions a car having a capacity of 1,000 cubic feet weighed 22,548 pounds, or about 224 pounds per cubic foot. Making an allowance for the condition of the wood in the car, 150 cubic feet seems a fair equivalent ofa properly cut and stacked cord. On this basis a cord would weigh about 3,400 pounds. PLATE IX. Bul. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘soovtd doais ATqissoduir 1908S P[NOM IVY UL S[BUIIUB OSOY] UIA. OUOP SISUIPPIYS ‘UdIxXO oY} SULTYOA JO pOYJOW 0} 9ION “1S3YO4 SHL NI GAMVS ANV1d LNO ONIGGINS—’S “Sif BL6LE—J4 “ONIYAENNT] ‘Oulr} B YB yUR[d B pepprys Jo puvy Aq {nO pollavd pus poT[ey o1B LOY} O1NYM YUBld O7UT Ind pue perenbs oq 0} oAvyY Ss0[ OF} YB Sov] O[qIssadOVUT TONS UI 4nd U9IJo SeaL, “LSa3YO4 SHL 43O LYVAH AHL NI Lid-MVS—"| “DI PLATE X, Bul. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. gb6Le—A YadWNN 7] GNV TIINMVS SAILVN G “O14 “SAIYLSNANI 1isayod Rene ‘A1Vd IVAOY SHL 4O NOILYOd YaLNO GYVH 3SHL WON4 FONINVIY GYVOsdVIO— | e1lz9—4 “‘Ol4 FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 45 tor may be given the material for clearing up the land or he may pay the owner a stipulated amount per sack of charcoal yielded. Often the charcoaling is not even done ‘‘by your leave,” since it is an adjunct to ‘‘conuco”’ farming. When the squatter finds a piece of woodland which he wants to cultivate he may first cut such mate- rial as is suitable and make charcoal from it, or a charcoal burner may cut over a piece of land for charcoal without having an intention of subsequent cultivation. The public lands have by this process been largely despoiled of their forest growth. LUMBERING. As an organized business lumbering hardly exists at all. Probably the nearest approach to it is in the Sierra de Luquillo, where a few lumbermen or woodcutters are to be found. They own their own implements and log on contract; that is to say, if any one wants a piece of ausubo for an ox yoke or bull cart or any other special mate- rial these men will go in and get it out for him. Their method of lumbering is a very gradual process of culling. Having found a suit- able tree, they fell it and cut it into logs of the desired length. The log is squared with an adz, then a knob is fashioned at one end, to which a rope may later be made fast to drag it out by. Finally the log is placed on a rudely constructed scaffolding of poles erected on a hillside and sawed by the world-old pit-saw method. If they may be skidded directly from the pit, the planks are not sawed through the whole length of the log, but the log is left intact for a short distance back from the knob end to facilitate handling. Otherwise each plank is entirely severed from the log and carried out by hand to a place accessible to oxen. There the separate planks are assembled as they were in the log, a rope is made fast to the knob, and they are skidded the rest of the way to their destination or to where they can be loaded on a cart. The smaller logs and pole and post timbers are skidded singly or sometimes several at a time. Skidding is accomplished by oxen on slopes where such work seems impossible. Grade appears to receive scant consideration, the skid- ding trails in places descending straight down the slope. Frequently these are hollowed out, whether intentionally or by the wearing of the logs is not evident, and stakes are driven at the side, where they turn sharply around a shoulder or follow obliquely down the hillside. After a time erosion supplements the wearing of the logs and the ‘ trails become so deep in places that they have to be abandoned. Woop-workine INDUSTRIES. With this system of lumbering there is, of course, no need for sawmills! -What few mills there are—located principally in the 1 Flinter (see Bibliography) reported one water sawmill on the island in 1830 near Camuy. 46 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. seaport cities, San Juan, Mayaguez, and Ponce—resaw American lumber. Some of these carry a small stock of native logs which they saw on order for special work. One of the largest manufactories on the island, located near San Juan, is devoted to the making of cigar boxes. The stock, cedro (71), for this factory is entirely imported, in large measure if not wholly, from Cuba. It comes in strips already cut to the proper thickness, namely, } inch and 3; inch. The annual consumption amounts to about 2,000,000 superficial feet, or something less than 1,000,000 feet b.m. Sieoe seis 140, 144 co CaO as She Shee See ee Caimitorde: Perro:e3222..2 0% 144 Gas CaimitoMoradoss 53-245 ek oS 143 Waimito Verdes: 2s2ec3202252% 144 (note) CaimitOst se ews os ate Rae ete 143 (Cy Ui ERS eee yee Se aay et ete 86 Calabashess ss se SSeS eae 161 @alambrenass = sasscs eres Ses 15 (note) Callicarpaiamplas4os 2.) eee 154 (note) Calocarpum mammosum....-.-- 138 (note) Calophytlum calabas. = 530 ae: ils Calycogonium biflorum.....-- 134 (note 2) Calycogonium squamulosum.. 134 (note 2) Calypthranthes sintenist .......--- 131 Gamascyice sess aona gas 134, 134 (note Camasey Blanco.......--.-- 134 (note 1 Camasey Colorado.......--- 134 ae 2 Camasey de Costilla....-.-- 134 (note 1 Camasey de Oro.......----- 134 (note 2) Camasey de Paloma......-- 134 (note 2) Wambroncees pss snes yas ie meets 163 Campechers se ossee tae ees eee 50 Campeche, Palo de.....-......--- 30 Canatistila aie ees wae 3 | S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Cafiafistula Cimarrona.........- ie 49 Candela, Palo des 3:5 = eee 118 Candle Wood... 2. i222 4559 69 Candleberry Tree... -. 222-227-5522 82 Candlenut: -: 9.222222 eee 82 Canela sivi2cn esa se 25 (note), 27, 30 Canelillo 2.222. 428232 See 30 Canelons i220 22/3222 2S 27 Caobas2: sist tas ie 72 Capac ices tes oo sibet eeegnees 158, 155 Capa Amarillo. ...: .25> S555 eee 155 Capa Blanca: 222525 155 Capa Cimarron. 5222-22083 153 (note) Cap4 de Sabana. 2... 2525255 155 Capa de Sabana, Palo de.......-..- 155 Capa Prieta: .2 22.20/72 Sea ee 153 Capa Rosai sss2 5 eae see 154 (note) Capa Sabanero./- 2.2. 7s ae 155 CAPPARDIACEM, Xo: <2 i522 ae. (32) Capparis jamaicensis......-...- 32 mie) Capparis portoricensis........---- CAPRIFOLIACES, LVI......- SS, ( ini) Caracolilloz: 2 ake ee 75, 117, 119 Carubio.s. s02 022) ee 62 (note) Casearia arborea: .).2.- 5 2 ees 119 Casearia bicolor: 22-3. 222 eeeeee 119 Casearia decandra..<... 222 119 Casearia giianensis. « =:2-25 see 119 Casearia sylvestris..~. 222.22 eee 119 Cashew ‘Tree. -i2 22 2a 86 Cassia -fistula.ic. 2-22-20 s eee 48 Cassia grandis. 2) 2 a eee 49 Cassipourea alba. ....-------- 122 (aot Castafiaes2::5 2222 Soon eee Cayuse ic. tase 42 ee eee 09 Cayures: 2520222232. See ORS 22 Ceboruquillo.:<: 22452 Ss asee ete 94 Cecropia peltata...22 ose a eee 12 Cedar; Bastards i2..> 2.22. jah 110 Cedar, Cigar-boxX:. 22:22. 2 ee 71 Cedar, Spanish. = 5: .225 4223232 71 Cedar, West Indian...........-..- 71 Cedrela odorata: 223--- <2 * Sess eeee ial @edro: i282 2222 Sa5d bee 71 Cedro: Hembra. 22-22. 2 ees 71, 93 Cedro Macho. 32k 5 2. sass cepa 29, 81 CedroPrieto: 5: 23: 2252) ee: 89 Ceiba. 282k ee ee 105 Ceiba pentandra seats 105 CELASTRACE A, XOX Vilo2 eee (92) Cenizols Soe. kaa ee 61 Central American Oak........-.-.- 91 Cereus peruvianus......----------- 120 Cereus quadricostatus.......--+--- 120 Cereus swarizv (see 120). Cereus triangularis.....-.-.------- 120 Cereus trigonus. 3) 2522 see 120 @erezaso. css. 2 Ss ee 119 @ereza Amarilla: sia52 Sse see 78 Cereza Cimarrona...........-- 153 (note) @erezasi ss se ee ee 78, 153 eke) Cerezores 2 2he Jaca ce eee Cherimoliaz <2 6 S25 eke Sees 38 Chifle;de: Vacas2 2 ee 157 Chingses 22 ssh sene ae ees 65 China Berry... 2222662656 73, 73 (note) TREES OF PORTO RICO. : No. enmapOilcess: Ae ee es ° OlnmayNaramyae ss. 52s cis ec Oak GhioneWenost.5 562522. 2502 167 (note 2) AOhrimmMayas ss a Gee oe ew a Chlorophora tinctoria......----.-- : Chrysophyllum argenteum. .--- 144 a Chrysophyllum bicolor. ..-..-- 144 (note) Chrysophylium cainito.....-.------ 143 Chrysophyllum oliviforme...-.----- 144 Chrysophyllum pauciflorum... 144 eo) Olnpaceall Oe iavs ao sia swine = eS 116 (Clanienn Celle sabes saa aoe nce amrmermer tilt) Cichimbo; Paloide... 522222 45-- 170 CCHUGIEAN Bi SSE 0 Ne BRS SEs pote 65 (note) @reneousllone eat 0 oS 121, 130 Cigar-box Cedars canes. nsek 7Al Cinnamodendron macranthum (see 116). Winall es. oes ee cies 99 (Cinta tho. ones Ce enone oe ees 88 @iruelaidelsPais:: s.. ..5-scwe sd. 88 GriihO A 5 Seas ae ae 65 ot) Cisiaunaninum. 28. N02 oS ecbies Citrus bigaradia... Beer Oa) Ca Crinusdecumand..... 2. 1%. =< 65 Bae Citrus hystrix subsp. acida..... 65 (note) @icrosvbamMettass 45. a. c-s< 65 (note) CrinusilymonUnys. 2-2 a1. = CD ae Cisnusimedicies 2 2)-\.) 0 «713 65 (note) Citharexylum caudatum........ 154 (note) Citharexylum fruticosum....------ 154 Citharexylum quadrangulare (see Clammy Cherry.......-.----- 153 (note) Cleyera albopunctata........------ 111 Clusia acuminata (see 114 note). Clusia krugiana.........-..--- 114 (note) CIYSIETOSZUE SO eee eae a 114 (COLRIIE). 55 GSA R Ren eee ee eesE meee A4 Oabana iN Geta) 5:2. 2 23a Fe cee 44 CGDANOS HOO Me secs 2 NS ek nee isis 44 Coccoloba diversifolia....-...-- 15 (ote) Coccoloba grandifolia P.......-.--- Coccoloba laurifolia.......----- 15 oe OCCOLODE. NWVED. = a.-)5 5-2 ois ot 15 (note) Coccoloba obtustfolia.........-- 15 inoie) COCCOLOOG TUQOSA. 58 o.oo. 2/5 pei s = 3 Coccoloba urbaniana......-.--.- 15 note) OMECOODOUVY ENG. «= < os cic EES SOGDE gL oe Ohad Raat eng creyeee ve ‘Ol Gray 12H ne ee aka eee sree 4 Woeowvalma de.) 622. food 4 ‘PCCD SA eee nee ae 4 BP SRROMR OMS ee 86) eel fei km 92 MOCO MICYENG os ww oie KE oe 4 ReemtelOn ese sees soe ae 4 Covemarabica yh eh es 2 168 Winieer ys ie AHO Fete Spey 168 ‘ CISTIDY Ob Ss a Soe pate ee 40, 43 Wojobanas-- 222 ---2-- 38 (note), 40, 43 Rprabilloses oc: ee Ne a 43 OTIC SY Che aie ee ee atte ed 43 Colubrina ferruginosa.........- 100 Colubrina reclinata........... 100 (note) ComBRETACEH, XLI...-..... (123-127) 125 Gonocarpus erecta......-.....2--- ¢ No. Conireventzs 204 eee lo: 139 Wopaliy eases Meco Ba M opek 68 Corals Woods 5 oi 5 s oase See 59 WOralttas Ny aeye esse Sa 42 Corazones Sete crs Leet 23 (mote) Corazon Cimarron. Ea ee Corel ow te gs ses as SE 1G. 22, ‘ae Cordia;alliodora..e 52: 33288 e es: 153 Cordia borinquensis.......-.--- 153 (note) Condia collococeds. :...-).-icia- 222 153 (note) Cordia gerascanthoides (see 153). Cordia gerascanthus (see 153). Cordianitida. 2 sess see 153 (note) Cordia sebestena. .......-...-.- 153 (note) Cordiarsuleaiass ee 153 (note) Corks Woods sso Uae s22 sare 8 22, 105, 107 CoOscorrolisess< Se hsase eee es 92 Cotarrerillo assis 5 want eee es 119 Cotorrot: Palo dex 52528) a 163 Cotton#iree ez st se. ee ee 105 CourbArile ess ese ae Reese 45 GCrescentiaieujetes-3225 22s SOP eee: 161 Crestaide Gallo. he: ee es 53 @ucubano sss so e222 Sask 15 (note) Cucubano:Palo-de: <+;2-2sn52s'32-— 165 Cuerode Sapo esas 52 arcs asneens 90 Cupania americana........-.------ 96 Cupanrareriquetias.- 52 ie a ee Ue 96 Cupels es preed Atte 114 ae Cupetllomcts: 2275s 114 (note Oupeyetes - ss ec4 ens se Coke 114, 114 (note Cupey.) Paloide 4+... paas Seas 114 Custard: Apples. 222.4.435:528 23 (note) Dacryodes excelsas 11722429 eee 69 DajaOs see Ree cain act be eet 169 Dajao. Ralorde:. 2522s seca 169 Daphnopsis caribaea: 2222242 25.2.) 7 V2 Daphnopsis philippiana....-....-- 121 Didymopanax morototoni........-- 136 DIOS PUROStebenasten 2.5. een. ee ne 147 Dipholas saliciporia. 2. ap ee 142 Dipholis sintenisiana........-- 142 (note) Woncellse e554 V4 esse 97, 97 nets) Doncellastealo dens s0 see Doncella, Sangre de.............. uy Downe hree 2. ost oho Ge eas 107 DT DCLES QLDO asta te an aenen = eee 80 IDR DOES HTC RAMOS 2 Bae ear 3 80 Gee) DD MCLESLOLCTALON Ge ss eee ieee East Indian Walnut........-.---- 39 HBENACHAD, XUN 25 soe a (146, 147) ELAEOCARPACEH, XXIX....---.-- (101) Elaeodendron xylocarpum var. co- UTOOSUTIES joes Sete ed ce 92 Bln West Indian <2 252222520222. 109 HA AGUA Se See ess se aes 102 Hmaiacia Brava. 2.05 2ne. ose ee 121 Emajagua de Sierra.--..........-.- 121 nasa e milla see Cee eerste lS Eriodendron anfractuosum (see 105). Erythrina corallodendron.......-.- Erythrina glawca......-..-.-------- 59 Erythrina micropteriz.......--..--- 59 HISCAMOTON. coseueece cc gk cess. acer 163 60 No. Mspejuclorec << cca ee 133 Eugenia sintenisit...-.------- 132 (note) Bugenia stances. 2s see 132 (note) AIGENIO Ne. ee AE 93 EUPHORBIACE®, XXI_.-..-.-.---- 78-84 Exothea:ponniculata <0: 2... <8 28- 98 HOQGra COTIOGEG.. Jo 25 5.2 22 62 (note) HO GATONLOVO iene ian Mee sae Waelonet 62 Fagara martinicensis........-.-+-- 61 Fagara monophylla......------ 62 (note) Hagar trifouuaua. «sz sqs sis 62 (note) Faramea occidentalis......-------- 170 Ficus laevigata var. lentiginosa sub- VAD SUOCOTOQU ccc c eee ee ees 11 Ficus lentiginosa (see 11). CUS UU cee. Se laos oot 11 (note) SHUCUS SUNTENISU oe aw aa eee 11 (note) SE CUSISIONIU Hs = 2 swine css ete 11 (note) Bddles Wood 25.) asc ayteew: 155, 156 uo balsam. 22/550 yon ses soni 114 FLACOURTIACE®, XXXVII.. eo E Mlamboyan.<..2 52.22... (39,51 Flamboyan Blancow (so ob eles 47 Flamboyan Colorado.......---..- 51 Rlamesirees 2-22.22... 22s, .Sbeent ee 51 lorida sblum sec. sascels fe cece 79 Borve Ventura... tio os ee yess e 56 iWrangipanic: Blanc. ......2222-55-% 151 BROMAG CTs aca tae aoc <= 2. eel = 105 ISO ene cra acenagyS ay Noell ek 8 (Cera hss ns 2 eR A I ga 75, 98 Gallia eee testicles eta a Sona 53 Gatlosi@restarden site ein ea ee a ee 53 Ganoulin, Palo dé: 3.22322 -2e- 135 (note) Gamrochaseacreso28 cae = oo ete LOO Garrocha; Palo de! os. 4.522 soe 106 GarroGnosee enor se en wees ose cree 106 Gastead Osea aecea cae ue svi nas 15 (note) GeirendMeen rece ne) ce ee 153 (note) Genlipyhteeieis sae ee en 95 Genipaame;nvcana2? oie ase Bee 164 Genipor essen cen see a ees 95 (COINS Eee ae Meni ey RA OEE 56 Geno-Geno: 202 Gee ogee seis oe ie 56 Gaon Mam sale a lecs eben aie ceo ass 119 GiaaVierd el ie si i eae ae 119 (CHO GRMTE ROOTS BARS A BAER ERS 135 Gilibertia laurifolia...-.-.----- 135 (note) ( EOHey Oya ik zy aS pu nee aeioa ei eS “98 Glateadomece ae 5252 nese 15 (note) Gongoli, Palo'deé: >. . 3.2. 25. 122 (note) EXOUAVEZD) Dc eVAE ” x Sesh eee ea oa GRA MINGO eI VEEL eo Soe 7a (172) Granassbalma Gere. oe se ea Granadilla Cimarrona.....-. 134 (note 2) (Gram cicalll] OB eee peer ee es 124 Grape Fruit........- festa ehars Sae 65 (note) Gravium ers. Sane sala haps ers ore 136 i) BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Grayume Macho.-...-......42182. 136 Grayumo sos... 2a 136 Greenheart, West Indian.........- 100 Grosella.:5. of.) .23.. 422 78 Grosella Blanca... 1) 272 78 Guabat*!. 22. .8 sc Sa 36 Guacaran.. 2.25... 3 98 Gudcima....2.... co: eee 109, 110 Guécima del Norte. 2.25% See 109 Gudcimaidel Surs2) 22005. eae 110 Guacimilla 2.2/1 ee 6 Gulaita 225.2. 22-022... ee 75 Guajacum officinale.......-------- 60 Guajacum sanctum....-..------ 60 qe) Guang). Je eee Guandbana... -... 5522-0 eee ee 3 Guandvana Cimarrona......... 23 oe) GUaNg0!.J25. 232 Ss ee Guano.) 3 ins eae eee 107 Guara s. so0.o5. 5. 2S s se eee 94, 96 Guara Blanea: 25222 5-.-45 Pee 96 Guaraguaillo:. 22.453 74 (note) Guaraguao.. 2 22..222: 529 eae 74 Guaraguao Macho.......-----.- 74 (note) Guarea:ramiflora2: = -- 22 74 oe Guareatrichilioidess =, 2-3-4 aa ee Guarema : 2s ee ee oe Guarumbo=: 2.32222 43222- ee 12 Guasavera..... scene 132 Guatterre blaine ee 20 WAV Oi Sco oo to eee 36, 128 Guayabal.205) ee ee 128 Guayabacoa..2:-2.2-..2sseeEe 114 (note) Guayabacén:...2.27224- ee 130, 132 Guayabota..- 7.242.228 132 (note), an Guayabota-nispero...-.-.--------- 146 Guayacén.::--. 2... 60 Guayacan Blancos... 1 oie 60 (note) Guayacancillo.22- 222 42 60 (note) Guayarote: 22) <0. 22 ase 92 Guayavas. 2252222282 Sees 128 Guayava Pera..f)2.22 2a ee 128 Guayavachns: =. 222 See 75, 130 Guayrote ss: j:.62 se eee eee 99 Guazuma guazuma (see 109). Guazuma Plumes s ase 109 Guazuma tomentosa....----------+- 110 Guazuma ulmifolia- 222.2222 = 22 2 109 Guazymillos 3 3-pee-- 22s) eee 6 Guenepa 2 Atie2) cee ae 95 Guettardakrugit== 2-22 -e) ee 165 (note) Guettarda laevis.......-------- 165 (note) Guettarda ovalifolia.....----- . 165 oe) Guettordascabrg: <>: ee 165 Guiana Plumes so: 2s ase eee 79 Guitarans 92422 s 5252s eee 100 Guitarra. "Palo-des722e22 =e eee 154 Gumbo Limbo.............------- 70 GUTTIFERH, XXXIV..-....--- (112-114) Hacana: J0 02 02S eee 139 Hachs.Cabo de: .. =< )5:e-e seer 78 Haciielo..... (05.2. 54 PMacksas sa ce 27025 ieee eee 169 Haematoxylum campechianum ... - - 50 Haemocharis portoricensis ..--.-.--- 111 TREES OF PORTO RICO. No. PACU en Eats said os ond 164 TAIOML OV erties eies onc a aoa Spare 22) ay 11 (nate) [eloyh Jin re een sae ee Mere Hatsbalm: Porto Rican: <<. 4.25. i TEL EHOL 2 5c: csea cre a a a nc IS ee 102 TSLaK iri NBN 5 eae senor Ps es 84 Relea Oe es ek Kt 84 DPA eee la yan iow oo ole jeiaieitan hod 20 Heyablame gene. oh she ees eicd 19 Hleiy ae Man Gaess se aig = 28) kes at 20 an abertetate ska ka ee 18 hediomailas ee ee ateyiae ks Ae 41 Henriettella fascicularis.... . 134 (note 2) Henrietiella macfadyenii..... 134 (note 2) Henriettella membranifolia.. 134 (note A RT NONANG, SONOTA=~.. .. <5 oe wae IGERNANDIACEA, XX... .2.2- 2.345 ( 1) Heterotrichum cymosum.....- 134 (note 2) Hibiscus elatus (see 102). ‘ SELUGTSCUSHERMACCUSE fas = oo e Aee 102 Hieronymia clustoides......-.------ 81 Eivernnowizalonderaneeee. osc ee 169 Higuerillo........ 78, 154, 154 (note, 156 PANO ITEL OMe aie ee Sa cieiori tes 11 (note), 161 Rect Oe oti sie aie eee mniene 78 Eee uillOnPTeto. 2125-2. sed s(h 11 (note! iiMehasWMEVOSe s-).2 052-2242 54:- Hippomane mancinella.........--- 33 FLinteulannOGOSQs- 58 sa. oc aos 35 JEG RIGID, GOTT TU SARA ae Oe 35 oemigumer se. bes nt BMG 89 aja vienudaseeces 662s. ol TORTS Homalium racemosum......------ 117 eirearpiskaneO- 22200. 6 ss 2 5 a oan 126 tresillome eer so od ise ite 150 LENO so cds Gane eee eae 67, 80 eROMANCO sah a% 2 5 = -ceierd xe Petane 150 Hueso, Palo de.... 67,90, 122 (note), 150 HES OMS LO sees acein Ne asece = wicier cals 67, 90 AU CLONCUE PENGUWlA. fo. Phe .22 29 HUN ORCREDULONS 2 te 5 SSP ie cian 84 HEMTONALO, COUNDOTULS = 2 = = 5 ose bac 45 Ay pelata paniculata (see 98). CACTI) 5 Sic ae een ences EROS re 35 Ilex dioica (see 90). INGE GANT TDs) SA EA SRO A A a 90 Ilex sideroxyloides var. occidentalis. . 91 indvony Almond... . 25-20 2eseei2 123 ordian a Valmute 22222. ssi a AO 82 TRGOWOURING ics s.0c2 2 epee ca ses 37 MG OREO Afro 3 2.2 cS) ae abe 36 in ISG LS a ee ae tees a at 163 WIROUESICHUSIOTUMN 6005 08 eS. 1 MPOGeSIOOR COs S82) ik eaters ke 1 LESTE COC! ia en ee 100 Tronwood, West Indian or Mar- (EOIVG PIS) 5, 07 CB ee Pa 169 SOTO J ARRAS oO eS Os A 169 ESDS0 fe he ee eee Senna 6 <1 SACI eee 2 OR a Since teense ENS fe reso SEUSS ae hte TE TUL note Jamaican Walnut.....-...:.2<-%- : No. Jambosa jambos (see 133). JaguecaPaloide.. - 2.22. 0262.5; 103 TAtOD as Jers es en Oe eG 45 Heuvalll Of See tee ree. 84 CATA Ariane eet Same 161 Jienertlloee ease ose so aa he il SG Vee eles ee ea a 75, 88 AIO) Oy a pe i Rte nets eee raae 87 DODOSP TAN CeSh eco Ss eet hg 88 JUGUANDACE Al 222 eee (5) AUGLANS JOMMICENSIS] 2 one at 5) KopakDreet: 212i Hak ius) 105 Laguncularia racemosa......------ 127 Mance wood wie as seas wee ne 24 Lancewood, Black. ....:...-..2.. 18 Lancewoods True. . 22.5. 58s 18 Lancewood, White............... 19 Wary RIN@ rag, UXO. oy ee ak (25-30) Maureen eye ate Oe 11 feote), 17, 26, 26 (note), 27, 28, 39 RaurneleAmarillos ste 02220). see 28 WaurelAvAsplll os jo0e 526 eae 27 Baurel/Blamco. 20). gee ue ee 28 Laurel Bobo..-....-. REE es one 26, 27 waurelsCanelone ra eee ee 28 Haurelide Indias. 2-2. 22222 11 (note) Raurelilispada. =). 802s ase ee 119 BaureliGeo. 2-22 - <2 on eee 27, 28 Waurel Geo-seos~. 2. 23s set 26, 27, 28 Paurel Macho) 22) 1.5 ep ees 28 BaurelRosetaee. 3503 bea es 28 Waurelesabino tec: os eee 17 Waurel’Sassafragec 222 -) sesh eee ae Oi Watine| (Savino: is... < eee ees 17 Banrelilon. 22 ee ee ae 28 Teche Prieton eo ea 140 Techesillo......... 11, 81, 144, 144 (note) HEU MEN OS an XG See eae 36-59) Themonpee ee she Se. cee 65 mete) TGCWCOCORQUYUCO Sse ee ee Tienumy Vitae ee os sae eg eae 60 Tere e spes ea 73 iiibenibanl estes oe chek ook sis a ie ava a 93 Diam ae ahs ie se eee ay a 65 (note) Tein ese ar silos sec eee 65 (note) Tami Gin Ae bee eee yee 65 (note) Taimong Dil cease imoneillos. = 8s) eee eee 9, 129 (note), 131, 132 (note) 131 Limoncillo de Monte.......---.-- Innocienaidomingensis: 2 e156 Tinzards Woods s/s 2) 2 Gs yeh ery 156 Pilaer ume sss 2 even x) ee ae eae 136 Iilagrunmie Macho. - 73222422 eoee 136 Telagruim o 22 ss See ak ae 12 Tocust Tree: st Mita! oe. usec e Rian 45 Roo Woodie os ssw tee las te eae eas 50 Lonchocarpus domingensis.....---- 56 Lonchocarpus glaucifolius...-.---- 56 Lonchocarpus latifolius......------ 56 Moran Neora so. sete sail ge a 10, 20 Lucuma multiflora... Beane dasa 139 62 : No. Maba sintenisi ses) eee ee 146 Mabie hear Ree - 100, 100 ee) iMachineel 2 <2 ces ee oe Madre de Cacao: =: 25:22:22. 22202 5 Maga risa ieee es aos sss eee eos 104 Mopar. = 22s iaiviensag oenis se eee 104 Magasi 2 hoee ese ork cece Sat 104 Magnolia portoricensis...------ 17 (note) Magnolia splendens...-...-------- a1 MAGNOLIACES, VIT.0. 2222022. (17) Miao sito cictins Aen eee 31 Ma Rag ae o2 scars etic cae ete 102 Mahoe, Blue or Mountain......-. 102 Man Opa ce See a ccitee hea orien: 72 MER Ot Meee ee see Bee 102 Mahot-franc3. <2 2522 202 Ue Sas 102 Majagtass sass oS o5 eee a hos « 2 eIO. 102 Majagua Quemadora......-.-..... 121 Malaguetas. “oie 2252223 129, 129 (note) MALPIGHIACE®, XX....---.-.-- (76, 77) MALVACEAS; XOXX . se ei2sse ss (102-104) Mame. As eensas)2 22: rises gishe tints 112 Mamey.Sapote 222%... 138 (note) Mameyuelo......-- 137, 137 (note), 145. Mammies,. 20.5.5. s2sto ss Pees 112 Mammea americana. ..2222 =f 92222. 112 Mammee Apple: :::--.2-+2::29022 112 Mangijera indica = 228 set ee 2 =5285 Manple2o2. 2s cess 2. oa ae 122, 125 Mangle:-Blanco:=+* 42. 225242 S282 127, 157 Mangle*Bobo:s2 2c. 5 vem. 2 202 127, 157 Manele:-Bot6n 22822222 20s eee 125 Mangie Botoncillo.2. 22 27-248 125 Mangle Colorado..........-....- 122,125 Mangle Sapatero::. 2.255200 54 122 ManigGs seaetu ne Seek ie 85 Mansrove, Black 2= 202-2 WES2 3e 157 Manorove:s Red: 22... 22519882 122 Mangrove, White...--- Be eesSEed 127 Manzanillos ste ot) 222 2 ox OSE 81, 83 Mapuritossse27 152 so5.-22% see 62 (note) Maranon. Siteeee 2 sole e 2 vee eee 86 Maria; Palo deus 2-252 Soe 113 Marigss. eel. aren 113 Maricao: 22 --42224- betfleaniee s 76, 111 Martin Avilas..-2-22¥2 222 167 ; (note) 2 Martinique Ironwood. : 169 Masa set) 22 esicc ise ct ttstises 68 Masa Colorado: -:2..22.422222-22- 68 Mastic Mies a2 .2 Banoo ee seats 141 Mastichodendron (see 141). Matayaba apetala...-......---- 97 (note) Matayaba domingensis...-....----- 97 Mato niin eee 2 BEE NMA NS 42,52 Mato Colorado. -. 242-22 2 DSS 2. 42 Matorealoides 2:8) 2 we coe aie 42,52 MAUTICIO! 2:25 .2/02/-2 oe 17 (note) Mayepea domingensis (see 150). MELASTOMATACEH, XLIII..--..- (134) IMEI IOI OZCUATOCI as seer rr eee BPs 73 Melia azedarach umbraculifera.. 73 (note) Mie rTA@E at KOE XGE a See ee (71-75) Melicocca bijuga BPP LSA Ap OLS SIE 95 Meltosma herbert. 25 55- < eee 99 Meliosma obtusifolia.....---.-.-- 99 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. No. Melon;Palo des..:..2- 22-2, sae 161 Melon’Tree s+. .2 252 ees 161 Metopium taviferum Sore ten eee 89 Miconia guianensis........ 134 (note 1) Miconia wmpetiolaris. - . 134 (note 1) Miconia prasina........-... 134 (note 1) Miconia tetrandra 2.22. 2225s 134 Micropholis-curvatac: i. 212 5ae ee 140 Micropholis garcinifolia........-.-- 140 Millosscss feet ss. ti eee 78 Millo, Palo de.....:+. 240 eee 78 Mimusops duplichta : . 2222 145 Mimusops globosa (see 145). Moumusops nitida: .\.2 22 145 Mocase: [o. saeee ee 58 Moca Blanca....:+. 2... esas 58 Molinillo.. 2.5 023..2). Sa 75, 84 Monkey’s Dinner Bell............ 84 OTB oi. eis Se ee ee 8 Mora, Palo de... .-::. 2S) ee 8 Moracras, TV .-2 2.22 ae 7-12) Moral: s2s255 222.25 153 (note) Moral de'Pag2 2222s. esse 153 au) Moralone! 222 5.2.2.2: 4222 eee Motilloz-2 #222 s22252225e2 ten 101 Mountain Mahoe 102 Miultacsec i522: 2n2esge anne 122 (note) Mufieca: 3.225522 7522288 135, 153 (note) Mufieca, Palo de_-.: 2222228 153 (note) Mufieco, Palo de_--: .2 = 42h e as ee Murta.3) s032 222 se soe seem 132 et) Musk Wood s.-:...: 15-5. oMees Mycropholis chrysophyllovdes......- 140 Myrcia-deflera...-- 2.2 ee 130 Myrcia leptoclada........--22 22-0: 130 Myrcia ? pagani.- =. -<22s2ee eee 130 Myrcia splendens... 130 Myroxylon buxifolium (see 118). Myroxylon schwaneckeanum (see 118). MYRSINACER,, XUV .222 sie (137) MyYRTACES, XL =e (128-133) Naceberry.. ..2 20-22 See 138 Naranjae so... 5. See eee 65 Ber). Naranja China eee Mao oie Nectandra, corvacea .. .. 122 Soars es & Nectandra Krug. See ee 28 Nectandra membranacea.-.--------- 28 Nectandra patens...-----.--------- 28 Nectandra sintentsti. ...-.--++---- 28 Negra Dora.:.2- 522... eee 10, 20 Nemocas)) os... eee 27 Ninoide: Cota. ...i..::..22o. eee eee ill Nispero. <2 25-:c.10 303. jc eee 138 Nispero Cimarron, Palode......-. 148 Nogallsc 2s... See cie eee e eee 5 Nopalea coccinellifera........--.--- 120 IN ted 2 its ice eee eee 82 Nuez.de India: 3.2.2 82 Nuez:Moscadan ys. 2. ees 27 Nuez Moscada Cimarrona....---- 27 Nuez Moscada del Pays. .-..------ 721 Nuez:Palo des... eee 5 Nutmeg? oi. 22 2c ee 27 NYCTAGINACES, VI ...20:5-222 ese (16) TREES OF PORTO RICO. No. Oak, Central American...:------ 9 (DARA CY ee en ae ie 107 (LODUTE: GILG LI Oe a are 27 Ocoren pronoun... 2S 27 Ocotconlcuconylon ss. 2 Je Sa 27 Ocotconmoschatae 2 ea eat 27 Ocotea portoricensis.....-.-.------ 27 OLOLCORWINOUE ss OES eS 27 Orencmanmeaa 2 Pet ee (150) Olive Wood of Jamaica, Wild..-.- 126 Opuntia catacantha......-.-.----- 120 Opava OUATCONG 2 ee 120 Orejayvrdlodes. vs. 6 ss. 122 cole Orcodoxareartbacn. ©2 5. ./. Oreodoxa regia (see 2). OnmemAmerique: 22...) - 2 110 MOSM MUG ee te eee 52 Orieconee meets tek 13, 15 wore) Otaheite Gooseberry...-----.----- Oxandra-lanceolata.< 22-72... 2 fe Oxandra laurifolia. - - - - Lath Breet capers 19 iPr fillea Ae ea ees laa aes pana 86 IEMEICOMMCOMMUPTNG S22 22 8 os. oo a 170 UTR O OCONEE oe eho a bas ape 4 Palm, Pa eee eee enh ae 1 Palm Porto Rican Hat-. 22-2222. - 1 Palm, TRO IGE bes te a i ee ee 2 atmaan@ostaee ccs ei. So. eS: 2 PalmagdelCocon os. 2252 Oss 4 almaadengran|g: ooo ese et 2 Palma delaiSterra. <2. 2222.22. 3 Palmasde Sierra: 22 5/6-.-. 222 5.% 3 Palma de Sombrero. .--....------ 1 Ealmaide Yasuas=: > 2.220525... 2/% 2 olmneived bes ayo le. eee: 2 almactes se eee oo. Ss Lees tie 2 12 ASEAN TA (Ue i eae a (1-4) nlopAManoopees os So aa re) Bee 152 PAlOuplanCOn ees sss Shee 80 (note) 119, 150, 167 (note 2) Palo Blanco de la Costa... ... 122 (note) ipalopbobows..5-'2 325. 15 (note), 16,33 Palo Cachumba. --.-...--- 135, 135 (note) BalaColorado.:. 222-2 29, 111, 118 Ppalomerncentes: 6. 7s Fi oes 68 Palo de Aceituna..........---. 80 a) aloe Anastasio: 2252222 352; PAlORPMesBOV Ore 3. ena ee, a Palo de Burro Prieta..-......-. 32 (note) PalowderCabray 2525825. es iP 6, 148 Baio de Campeche. .: 2-42 2.2.22: 50 alode: Candela: 240 selon re 118 Palo de Capé de Sabana.....-.--- 155 ode ©ichimbo: =< 222.253) 7 3722 170 Halo de Cotorra. 220225222228 81, 163 alo de) Cucubano- 272-0 2022. 165 ElodeCupey. ++ 2222292 114 Palo de Dajao-....---- Bre NRE Cee 169 walowde Doncellao= 2s: 22522252! 77 Elo de Psapinillo. 222.25. 532.222 163 Rellode Galline = Oh Oro rapes 81 Palo de Gangulin..........-. 135 (note) Ealowde Garrocha: {2-22.26 227: 106 Hate-de Gongoli. ... 222.22. 2: 122 (note) Palade Guitarra.:-.:.5:-.. heats 154 63 No. Palojde Hierros so ese ane 169 Palo de Hueso...-- 67, 90,122 (note, 150 Palo de Jaqueca:----------------- 103 Palomde: Marita. 2 oes e se eas 113 Palo;deiMasanve: eas eee See 68 Paloide Maton i eice. 62s sae sies es 42, 52 Palo;desMelon: =: 5s iaeetk cee 161 Palosde Mall gee ee eee a Palowde:Moras sobre ee etree Palo de:Munecass tiie SSeS 153 inte) Palo desMunecossae2 eee &. 152 Palo de Nispero Cimarron. avs ae PalosdesNuezysite Sots ee eee Palo;deOrejaessce soe seek 122 note) Ralo;de Pantie: Sac eeeee Paloide. Réndula ss 55-135 oe sane 156 Palowe-Pollows 2a ere ane oe 55 PalomexQuina ease eres 167 Paloxdevleat shoe ene ee meee 64 Palomeshoro a easeece 122 (note), 170 PalorderViaca scesc.2 cates 135 Gore) Palode-Vaca;blancosss2225 0-2 Palovieaiondors eee. ae eres 33 RalopMabinscur ya ciee en: one 100 ete) Bal on BOtl oe ase r ete a eral | EA The ay cased rine Me A Sets A 9, 133 RamasCimarrong sss tis eae 136 le OE NO Gee os MOR ORES ooedrcbes 89 Paritium tiliaceum (see 102) ast lass 5 oe sig os on anh ae 9 oe Sate 73 Rendolasesees ses sie ethers ens 15 Péndola Cimarron. -.....-.--- 154 (note) Rendle: sos ie eee co aay 154, 156 Péndula-Blaneorst eee eee 156 iPendula Colorado:=2-3.22 2s 154 Péndula, Palo de. 156 Berane 2/8 ieee ee ee ae 52 Reronitlas asst aia ee eee 42 PLOT SEGSOMLCTICONG = ore ere les 25 Persea gratissima ( see 25). IRERSCOMCTUGUU: Se Jes ene ers 25 (note) CU AONUNGCNSIS = He ease ees 3 8 Phoebe clongatd= 225 22 ee oe Phoebe montana. he - 26 cna) Phyllanthus distichus.......2+- 0+ Phyllanthus nobilis var. antillanus . 73 Picramnia pentandra..-..--------- 67 Pictctimoculeata ays ae 54 Pictetia aristata (see 54). EOCERCUSITOUCTIUS S371 75 Wood light brown, turning darker with age, fine and straight-grained, resembling somewhat ‘the wood of our papaw (Asimina triloba Dunal.), which is called “ Anona” in Spanish. It is soft, light, not strong, brittle, not durable in contact with the soil. Pores very small, s solitary, or occasionally 1 in, pairs, and very evenly distributed throughout the annual rings of growth, which are scarcely visible to the unaided eye. ~Pith rays humerous and indistinct. 22. Anona palusiris L. Cayul, Cayur, Anon, Corazon cimarron, Cayures, Corcho; Alligator apple, Cork wood (Br. W. Il) Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 8 to 12 inches in diameter. It grows usually in swampy localities and is found along the coasts. Wood used for raits, floats for fishing ae and as stoppers for bottles. Wood gray or light brown, somewhat tinged with green, lustrous, fine and straight-grained, soft, very light, weak, not durable in contact Sai the soil, resembling that of the papaw ‘(Asimina triloba Dunal. ). Pores small, solitary or in small groups, and evenly distributed. Pith rays scarcely visible to the unaided eye. 23. Anona squamosa L. Anén, Anonde escamas, Chirimoya, Ceatnoliy Sweetsop; Sugar apple (Br. W. I.). Tree from 10 to 20 feet high. An Kast Indian species, introduced into all tropical countries, and now extensively cultivated for its fruit. It is found in most parts oftheisland. The wood isoflittle use. Wood light brown streaked with yellow, fine- grained, moderately soft, light, weak, brittle, and not durable in contact with the soil. Notr.—Of the other two species found on the island, Anona reticulata L. (Corazon; Custard apple, Bullock’s heart [Br. W. I.]) is a tree from 15 to 30 — feet high and from 6 to 12 inches'in diameter, extensively cultivated throughout the island for the sake of its fruit, Anona montana Macf. (Guanavana cimarrona), which attains a height of from 30 to 50 feet, occurs chiefly in mountainous regions. The wood of both is similar to that of the other pepo cs and is of little use except for firewood. 70 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 24. Rollinia mucosa (Jacq.) Baill. Anon; Lancewood (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 50 feet high and from 8 to 12 inches in diameter, of limited occur- rence in Porto Rico. Indigenous also to several islands in the Lesser Antilles, to Trinidad, and to Mexico. The wood is said to be occasionally used as a substitute for the true lancewood (Oxandra lanceolata), which it resembles. Wood light yellow. moderately hard, heavy, strong, and tough. LX. LAURACES. 25. Persea americana Mill (=P. gratissima Gaertn.). Aguacate, Avocate, Avo- cado; Alligator pear, Butter pear (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 40 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter introduced from’ Mexico and now growing spontaneously throughout the island. It is widely planted throughout tropical and subtropical regions for its edible pear-shaped fruit. The fruit yields an abundance of oil for burning and for soap making. A deep indelible black juice used for marking linen is obtained from the seeds. The wood is suggested for use in cabinetmaking. Wood light reddish-brown, beautifully figured and fine grained, soft. light (about 40 pounds per cubic foot), and brittle. Pores small, numerous, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed throughout the annual rings of growth, which are only faintly visible. Pith rays very minute and inconspicuous. Nore.—Persea krugit Mez. (Canela) is reported as a tree from 30 to 50 feet high, with a very limited occurrence on the island. Wood similar to that of the above. *26. Phoebe elongata (Vahl.) Nees. Avispillo, Laurel, Laurel bobo, Laurel geo-geo. Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter, from the Luquillo region. Wood light brown, fine, and cross-grained, taking a good polish; hard, heavy, strong, and tough. Pores very small, evenly distributed. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. Note.—Phoebe montana (Sw.) Griseb. (Laurel, Avispillo), another species of this genus is of limited occurrence in the interior of the island and is similar in size and in the character of its wood. 2%. Ocotea. A genus of limited occurrence and little known uses in Porto Rico, isrepresented by the six following species: Ocotea wrighttt (Meissn.) Mez. (Canela, Canelon); Ocotea moschata (Meissn.) Mez. (Nemoca, Nuez moscada, Nuez moscada cimarrona, Nuez moscada del pays, nutmeg); Ocotea cuneata (Griseb.) Urb. (Sassafras, Laurel sassafras); Ocotea floribunda (Sw.) Mez. (Laurel); Ocotea leucoxylon (Sw.) Mez. (Cacaillo, Laurel, Laurel bobo, Laurel geo, Laurel geo-geo); Ocotea portoricensis Mez. (Laurel, Laurel avispillo, Laurel geo). Trees from 30 to 90 feet high and from 1 foot to 3 feet in diam- eter, occurring in mountain forests. The wood resembles that of Phebe elongata. 28. Nectandra. The following five species of this genus are reported from Porto Rico: Nectandra sintenisii Mez. (Laurel, Laure] amarillo, Laurel blanco, Laurel geo, Laurel macho); Nectandra krugii Mez. (Laurel, Laurel canelon); Nectandra membranacea (Sw.) Griseb. (Laurel, Laurel geo-geo, Laurelillo); Nectandra patens (Sw.) Griseb. (Laurel, Laurel roseta); Nectandra coriacea (Sw.) Griseb. (Avispillo, Laurel). Trees from 30 to 70 feet high, occurring mostly in the mountains of the Luquillo region, and relatively unim- portant. Wood light brown. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, inconspicuous. 29. Hufelandia pendula (Sw.) Nees. Aguacate cimarron, Cedro macho, Laurel, Palo colorado. Tree from 50 to 60 feet high and from 1 foot .to 14 feet in diameter, occurring in mountainous regions. Wood yellowing-brown turning darker with exposure to air and light. Itisfineand straight-grained, hard, moderately heavy, strong,and tough. Pores numerous, small, and evenly distributed. Pith ray8 narrow and inconspicuous. 30. Acrodiclidium salicifolium (Sw.) Griseb. Canela, Canelillo. Tree from 25 to 50 feet high. Common in the mountainous districts, but of slight economic value. TREES OF PORTO RICO. all X. HERNANDIACES. 31. Hernandia sonora L. Mago. Tree from 30 to 60 feet high, with a limited occurrence in the mountains of the Luquillo region. Wood little used. Wood cream colored, fine-grained, rather soft and light. Pores visible to the unaided eye, isolated or in groups of two to six, often more, evenly distributed. XI. CAPpPpARDIACES. 32. Capparis portoricensis Urb. Burro, Burro blanco. Tree from 45 to 60 feet high, found near the southern coast. Wood white or light yellow, fine-grained, taking a , good polish, moderately hard and heavy. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two to four, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, incon- spicuous. Note.—Capparis jamaicensis Jacq. (Burro, Palo de burro. Prieta), is reported as a shrub or tree from 10 to 50 feet high, occurring along the coast. Wood similar to the preceding. XII. BRUNELLIACES. 33. Brunellia comocladifolia H. & B. Palo bobo. Tree from 45 to 60 feet high, of limited occurrence in the mountainous region of the island. XIII. Rosacrea. 34. Prunus occidentalis Sw. Almendron, Almendrillo. Tree from 40 to 50 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter, common throughout the island. Wood employed, like the black cherry (Prunus serotina), for cabinet work and interior finish of houses. Wood light brown, fine and straight-grained, taking an excellent polish, and often — difficult to distinguish from light-colored mahogany. It is hard, heavy (about 66 ounds per cubic foot), strong, moderately tough, and very durable under water. Pores small, numerous, evenly distributed throughout the annual rings of growth, which are easily seen on a smooth transverse section. Pith rays moderately narrow and easily visible under the hand lens. 35. Hirtella. Two species are reported from Porto Rico: Hirtella tiandra Sw. (Teta de burra) and Hirtella rugosa Pers. (Teta de burra cimarron, Icacillo). Described as shrubs or small trees ranging from 20 to 50 feet high and from 6 to 12 inches in diameter, occurring throughout the island, chiefly in mountainous regions. The wood is used principally | for fuel and charcoal. Wood light brown, turning darker with age, fine and straight-grained, hard, heavy, strong, tough, and moderately dura- ble in the soil. XIV. LecumiInosaé. *36. Inga vera Willd. Guava, Gauba. Tree from 30 to 50 feet high growing in mountainous region and extensively planted for shade in coffee plantations, for which it is considered the most important tree in Porto Rico. Wood used only for fuel and charcoal. Wood light gray, fine grained, moderately hard, heavy (40 ranma per cubic foot), and strong. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed and sometimes connected tangentially by the wood-parenchyma ‘fibers surrounding each pore. Pith rays minute, inconspicuous. *37. Inga laurina (Sw.) Willd. Guamé. Tree from 30 to 50 feet high, abundant in the foothills, and very valuable as a shade free in coffee plantations, being considered only second to Inga vera for this purpose. Wood used for firewood and charcoal. Wood dark gray, fine-grained, moderately hard, and heavy (44 pounds per cubic foot). Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed, and often connected by tangential lines of wood-parenchyma fibers. Pith rays minute very lnconspicuous. 72 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. *38. Pithecolobium saman (Jacq.) Benth. Saman, Guango; Rain tree (Br. W. I.). Cultivated tree from 45 to 60 feet high, occurring sparingly throughout the island. Native of Central and South America. Excellent for shade in yards and along road- sides, as well as in pastures where through the property of its roots to accumulate and store nitrogen in the soilitis also beneficial to the grass crop. It yields pods very suit- able for food for cattle. It is believed to be superior to the bucare (Erythrina) as a shade for nutmeg, cacao, coffee, tea, and similar crops because less liable to fall and injure the plantation. Ii is especially well adapted for planting in dry arid regions. In Central America the wood is used to make wheels for oxcarts. : Wood red, fine-grained, taking a good polish, fairly hard and heavy, not durable. Pores moderately small, isolated or in groups of two to four, evenly distributed sur- rounded by wood parenchyma which sometimes forms tangential lines. Pith rays small, inconspicuous. Norse.—Pithecolobium arboreum (L.) Urb. (Cojoba, Cojobana) is reported as being a tree from 45 to 60 feet high and about 18 inches in diameter, occurring in many partsoftheisland. The structure of the wood is similar to that of P. saman. *39. Albizzia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Acacia amarilla, Amor platonico, Flamboy4n; East Indian walnut, Siris tree, Woman’s tongue (Br. W. I.). Beautiful cultivated tree from 30 to 40 feet high, drought resisting, and planted in the southern part of the island. Native of the East Indies. Has no economic uses in Porto Rico, but elsewhere the wood is used for house and boat building, furniture, sugar-cane crushers, etc., while the gum, as an adulterant of gum arabic, is used in calico printing. poe Wood dark brown, lustrous, and rather cross-grained, resembling our black walnut (Juglans nigra L.) in appearance and finish, takes a good polish, seasons and works well, is hard, heavy (about 48 pounds per cubic foot), moderately strong, and durable. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed and more or less surrounded by wood parenchyma. Pith rays small, inconspicuous. 40. Acacia nudiflora Willd. Cojoba, Cojobana, Tamarindo cimarron, Acacia nudosa. Tree from 25 to 50 feet high and about a foot in diameter, with a limited distribution on the east coast. Wood brown, tinged with red, somewhat coarse and straight- grained, taking a good polish. It is hard, heavy, strong, moderately tough, and durable. Pores rather large and arranged in more or less irregular tangential rows visible on smooth transverse surface. ; - Norz.—Another species, Acacia riparia H. B. K. (Zarza), is reported as quite generally distributed on the island. It attains at times a height of 45 feet and has a wood similar to the above. *44, aay, (L.) Benth. Acacia palida, Hediondilla; Ipil-Ipil (Philippine slands). Tree from 25 to 30 feet high and sometimes a foot in diameter, quite common through- out the island and tropical America generally. The tree is especially well adapted for reforestation of grassy wastes because of the ease with which it establishes itself in competition with the grass sod and its rapid growth. Wood used locally for making tools, handles, etc. : Wood brownish, tinged with red, rather coarse and straight-grained, taking a good polish. It is hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable. Pores rather large, solitary, and evenly distributed. Pith rays very narrow and indistinct. 42. Adenanthera pavonina L. Coralitas, Mato, Mato colorado, Palo de mato, Pero- nilas. Tree seldom more than 30 feet*high, introduced from the East Indies, and growing spontaneously in many places. The wood resembles red sandalwood (Pterocarpus) and is used for making a red dye. The seeds when crushed and mixed with borax make an adhesive substance. Wood used for house building and cabinetmaking. TREES OF PORTO RICO. 73 _ Wood takes a good polish and is hard, heavy, strong, and durable. - Pores moder- ately large, solitary, and surrounded by abundant wood parenchyma, which occa- sionally forms tangential lines. Pith rays very numerous and inconspicuous. *43. Piptadenia-peregrina (L.) Benth. Cojobana, Cojoba, Cojobillo, Cojobo. Tree about 60 feet in height and about a foot in diameter, quite generally distributed on theisland. Incentral and South America it grows to be a very large tree, yielding valuable timber known as ‘‘yoke,”’ but in Porto Rico no uses have been recorded except for fuel and charcoal. Wood dark reddish-brown, close-grained, hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable. 44. Siahlia monosperma (Tul.) Urb. Cobana negra, Cébana, Cébano, Polisandro. . Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and about-a foot in diameter, found chiefly along the coast and watercourses. The wood is much used for making furniture, also for rail- road ties for the cane roads. Wood is black, hard, heavy, strong, and tough. *45. Hymenexa courbaril L. Algarrobo, Courbaril, Quapinole jutahy, Jatoba; Locust tree (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 90 feet high, with a diameter of from 4 to 6 feet, well distributed throughout the island. The wood is used largely for the cogwheels of sugar mills, for wagon wheels, in carpentry, and especially for cabinet work and fine furniture. A resin, known as American copal, resina copal, and courbaril obtained from this tree is used as a medicament and for ornaments. The fruit is sometimes used as food. Wood, red with light and dark streaks; sapwood lighter, beautiful, somewhat resembling mahogany, very fine grained, capable oi a high polish, hard, heavy (about 64 pounds: per cubic foot), tough, durable (except when placed underground), and seasons well. Pores moderately small, isolated or in groups of two to four, evenly distributed, surrounded by wood parenchyma, which often connects them) tangen- tially. Annual rings of growth clearly visible. Pith rays small, scarcely visible to the unaided eye on a smooth transverse surface. *46. Tamarindus indica L. Tamarindo; Tamarind (Br. W.T.). Tree from 20 to 60 feet high, very common throughout the island, and widely cultivated in the Tropics for the acid pulp of its fruit. It is a beautiful ornamental tree, well adapted for roadside planting. Its leaves, bark, seeds, and flowers all have-medicinal and other useful properties. Probably native to tropical Africa. The wood is highly esteemed for the handles of tools, as axes and hoes, is sometimes used for building purposes, and is said to furnish excellent charcoal for the manu- facture of gunpowder. Wood light yellow, fine and cross grained, hard, heavy (about 59 pounds per cubic foot), touch, elastic, and very durable. Pores moderately small, isolated or in groups of two or “three, evenly distributed, often connected by conspicuous tangential lines of wood parenchyma. Pith rays minute, very inconspicuous. 4%. Bauhinia kappleri Sagot. Flamboyan blanco, Seplina, Varietal. Tree from 30 to 50 feet high, introduced from Asia. Grows spontaneously in many parts of the island. Wood used for fuel and sometimes for making small articles of furniture. Wood brownish in color and very handsome, fine grained, and takes a beautiful polish. _ *48. Cassia fistula L. Cafiafistula. Cultivated tree from 20 to 60 feet high and about a foot in diameter, a native of tropical Asia, and very common over the entire island. Wood is used for fuel, the bark for tanning, and the pulp of the pods medicinally. Wood of a reddish color, hard, heavy (about 60 pounds per cubic foot), coe tough and durable. *49. Cassia grandis L. Cafiafistula cimarrona. Cultivated tree from 40 to 60 feet high and from 1 foot to 13 feet in decane occur- Hg mostly in the southwestern part “of the island, found to some extent in a wild ~ 74 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. state. Wood used for carpentry and cabinetwork. Wood reddish- baal handsome, fine and straight grained, taking a high polish, hard, heavy (about 5L pounds per cubic foot), strong, and durable. *50. Hxmatoxylum campechianum LL. Palo de Campeche, Campeche; Logwood. Tree from 20 to 40 feet high and 6 or more inches in diameter, occurring in the western part of the island chiefly along the coast and throughout tropical America. It is occasionally planted on the island for its wood, the logwood of commerce, which is used in making dyes. Wood blood red, very fine and cross grained, taking a very high polish, hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable. 51. Poinciana regia Boj. Flamboy4n, Flamboyan colorado; Flame tree (Br. W. I.). Cultivated tree from 45 to 60 feet high, found mostly in the western part of the island. Native of Madagascar. It is a beautiful ornamental shade tree very common in the West Indies and widely planted throughout the Tropics. Wood little used. Wood white, moderately fine grained, taking a good polish, but soft, light, and not strong. Pores. small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Tan- gential lines of. wood- -parenchyma fibers very prominent. Pith rays minute, very inconspicuous. 52. Ormosia krugii Urb. Palo de mato, Mato, Peronia. Tree from 30 to 80 feet high, with a limited occurrence throughout the island. The wood is used only for charcoal. Wood very light, soft, and inferior. 53. Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers. Gallito, Baculo, Cresta de gallo. A tall shrub or small cultivated tree-from 10 to 30 feet high, quite generally planted over the island. Probably a native of the East Indies. The wood is used for poles, posts of native houses, and firewood. Parts of the tree are used medicinally and as food. Wood white, soft, light, and not durable. Pores of medium size, isolated or in groups of two to five, evenly distributed. Pith rays small, indistinct. *§4. Pictetia aculeata (Vahl.) Urb. (=P. aristata P. DC.). Tachuelo, Hachuelo. Tree from 15 to 30 feet high, found chiefly in the southern and eastern coastal regions. The wood is often used in native house construction for underpinning, shingles, and shelving, and for cabinet work. It becomes with age extremely hard, so that it will turn the edge of almost any woodworking tool. It is somewhat used for fuel, but the charcoal burner avoids it because of the effect upon his ax. Wood dark brown, fine, and straight grained, taking a very high polish, extremely hard, heavy, strong, ‘tough, lasting almost indefinitely i in contact with the soil. Pores rather small and connected by numerous fine tangential lines, which are visible only under a hand lens on a smooth transverse surface. 556 eG officinalis Jacq. Palo pollo, Palo de pollo. Tree from 75 to 90 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter, found chiefly in swampy iecalities: in Porto Rico, but more generally distributed in other parts of the West Indies and Central America. Wood is used for fuel. Wood light brown or rusty colored, fine and straight grained. It does not take a very high “polish and is soft, light ( about 35 pounds per cubic foot), weak, brittle, and not “durable i in contact with “the soil. 56. Lonchocarpus. This genus is represented in Porto Rico by three species which are of but slight ~ economic importance. Lonchocarpus latifolius (W.) H. B. K. (Palo Hediondo, Forte Ventura), a tree occasionally 60 feet high found in many parts of the island. The ‘wood, sometimes used locally for furniture, is reddish with occasional dark or black streaks. Lonchocarpus domingensis (Pers.) P. DC. (Geno-geno), and Lonchocarpus glaucifolius Urb. (Geno), tree from 15-to 45 feet high with a limited distribution in the western part of the island. Wood used for fuel. TREES OF PORTO RICO. 5 *57. Piscidia piscipula (L.) Sarg. Ventura. Tree often 60 feet high and about 2 feet in diameter. It has a very limited occur- rence along the shores of the island. Wood is light yellow-brown, very fine and straight grained, taking a very good polish, hard, heavy (about 54 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and very durable in contact with the ground. Pores rather large, not numerous, and surrounded by softer tissue which is clearly visible in transverse surface as numerous tangential bands. 58. Andira jamaicensis (W. Wr.) Urb. Moca, Moca blanca; Cabbage tree (Br. W. I.); Bastard cabbage-bark, Angelin (Jamaica). Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 12 to 30 inches in diameter, quite generally distributed in the forests throughout the island. The wood is very suitable for piles, bridges, boat construction, the hubs of wheels, flooring, and all kinds of carpentry work. Its most common use in Porto Rico is for the framework of country houses. The wood is imported into Europe and this country for walking sticks and umbrella and parasol handles and for the turned parts of cabinetwork. Wood reddish-yellow with dark streaks, cross and coarse-grained, capable of a high polish, hard, heavy (from 47 to 55 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and espe- cially durable in water. Pores moderately large, isolated or sometimes in groups of two to four, evenly distributed, and connected by tangential branching lines of wood- parenchyma fibers. Pith rays narrow, indistinct. 59. Erythrina. A genus represented in Porto Rico by two native and one introduced species. Of the native species Hrythrina corallodendron L. (Bucare, Pifion espinoso; Red bean tree [Jamaica]; Coral wood, Arbol madre [Mexico]) is a shrub or small tree from 10 to 20 feet high, found chiefly on limestone hills, while Erythrina glauca Willd. (Bucago) is from 380 to 40 feet high, with a limited occurrence, usually along rivers. Both species occur quite generally throughout tropical America. Their wood is made into corks, floats for fishing nets, light ladders, etc., and is light in color, coarse-grained, corky, soft, light, and weak. Pores of medium size, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays easily distinguishable on a smooth transverse surface. Hrythrina micropteryx Poepp. (Bucare, Palo de boyo; Boisimmortelle, Madre decacao[S. Am.]) is a tree from 45 to 60 feet high, cultivated in many localities on the island, mostly on coffee plantations, for its shade. Indigenousin Peru. Wood soft, similar to the other two species. XV. ZyYGOPHYLLACESR. *60. Guajacum officinale L. Guayacdn, Lignum-vite. Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, occurring chiefly along the southern coast. The wood is highly esteemed for its wearing qualities, and is widely used for pulleys, rollers for casters, wooden cogs, mortars, hubs for wheels, and wherever great strength and hardness are required. Wood dull yellowish-brown with dark olive-brown streaks, very fine, close and cross grained, greasy to the touch, takes a fine polish, and is extremely hard and heavy (about 85 pounds per cubic foot), very tough, and durable. . Pores minute, isolated, and easily distributed. Pith rays minute and very inconspicuous. Nore.—Another species said formerly to have been abundant by now of only limited occurrence along the south coast is Guajacum sanctum L. (Guayacén blanco, Guayacancillo), a shrub or tree from 30 to 45 feet high, having a wood similar to that of the preceding. XVI. RuTacta. 61. Fagara eanmect Lam. Cenizo, Espino, Espino rubial, Ayua; Prickly ash (Br. W. I.). Tree from 40 to 80 feet high and from 1 foot to 3 feet in diameter, found in the moun- tain forests throughout the island. The wood is used for furniture and cabinetwork and.also for house building. The bark contains a dye. a 1 Fagara= Zanthoxylum. 716 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF ANCOULAU EE. Wood? ght yellow, fine and straight eanieds taking a very beautiful polish, hard, heavy (60 pounds per cubic foot), strong, somewhat brittle, and not considered dura- ble for outside work. Pores small, solitary or sometimes grouped i in twos and threes. Pith rays very narrow and scarcely visible under the hand lens. *62. Fagara flava (Vahl.) Kr. et Urb. Satinwood, Yellow wood (Br. W. I.). Tree from 10 to 30 feet high and from 10 to 12 inches in diameter with a limited distribution in the southwestern part of the island. The wood is used for veneering, cabinetwork, and furniture. It is too valuable for structural purposes. It was for- merly exported as a substitute for the true satinwood (Chloroxylon swietenia DC.) of India. : Wood light Die but darkening withage. It hasa satiny luster on a longitudinal surface, where it shows when polished a beautiful rippled pattern. Itis harc d, heavy (about 60 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and moderately tough. Structure of wood similar to the preceding. Nore.—Other species of this genus in Porto Rico are Fagara caribxa Krug et Urb. (Espino Rubial), a tree from 30 to 60 feet high; Fagara monophylla Lam. (Carubio, Mapurito, Rubia, Espino, Espino Rubial ); and Fagara irifoliata Sw. (Espino Rubial), trees from 10 to 30 feet high, each commonly occurring in the foothills and south coast regions. 68. Ravenia urbani Engi. Tortugo Prieto. Tree from 30 to 50 feet high, of rare occurrence, reported only from the high forest region of the Sierra de Luquillo. 64. Amyris maritima Jacq. Tea, Palo de tea. Tree from 15 to 30 feet high and from 4 to 8 inches in diameter, growing in thickets near the sea. It is very suitable for turniture, and splinters are used as torches by the natives. It is especially useful in exposed situations. Wood light yellow, with a spicy odor, very fine-grained, and oily to the touch. It takes a fine polish and is hard, heavy, strong, and durable. Pores minute, isolated or in groups of two to twelve, ‘sometimes more, evenly distributed. Pith rays very smal! and inconspicuous. *Nore.—Another species of but slight importance in Porto Rico is Amyris bal- samifera L. (Tea; rosewood or torchwood [Jamaica]), a tree from 15 to 20 feet high, with whitish wood very similar in properties and uses to A. maritima. *65. Citrus aurantium L. China dulce, Naranja China; Sweet orange (Br. W..I.). A cultivated tree from 15 to 40 feet hich and occasionally nearly a foot in diameter. A native of southern Asia, it has been widely introduced throughout the Tropics. It is planted everywhere on the island and to some extent grows spontaneously. The wood is much used for making walking sticks, in cabinetwork, and for knickknacks of various sorts. The fruit varies widely in quality and size, but the best of it is heavy and juicy and has a fine flavor. Wood light yellow, close and straight grained, taking a beautiful polish, hard, heavy (about 55 pounds per cubic foot), very strong, tough, and durable. Pores very small, numerous, and more or less evenly distributed. Numerous fine tangential lines of soft tissue visible on a smooth transverse surface under the hand lens, Pith rays very narrow, numerous, and inconspicuous. Norr.—The principal horticultural varieties also cultivated for their fruit, some of which are to be found growing in the semiwild state, are: Citrus bigaradia Loisel (Naranja; Sour orange [Br. W. 1.]); Citrus decumana ‘lb (Toronja, Pomelo, Grapefru:t); Citrus hystrix, ~ subsp., acida (Roxb. ) Bonavia (Lima, Lime); Citrus limonum Risso (Limén, Lemon); Citrus medica 1. (Toronja, Cidra, Citron, Citrus limetta, Bergamota, Limon dulce, Sweet lemon). 1 See pp. 10 and 11, Forest Service Circular 184, ‘‘Fustic Wood: Its Adulterants.” TREES OF PORTO RICO. ak XVII. SrmAaRUBACER. %66. Simaruba tule Urb. Aceitillo; West Indian satinwood (Br. W.1.). — Tree from 20 to 50 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, occurring in moun- tain forests from the Luquillos to Maricao. Itis reported formerly to have been plen- tiful on the limestone uplands north of Lares, in association with moralon and capa blanca, and to have been cut into lumber for building purposes. Now so scarce as to be no longer of any importance. Elsewhere in tropical America it is considered one of the rarest and most expensive ornamental woods for furniture and interior finish, being so much sought after that the stumps are often dug up and cut into veneer. Wood light yellow, very fine, and often wavy-grained, taking a high polish, hard, heavy (about 55 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and durable. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, not vist ble to the unaided eye. 67. Picramnia pentandra Sw. Guarema, Hueso, Hueso prieto, Palo de hueso. Tree from 15 to 35 feet high and from 15 to 25 inches in diameter, occurring quite generally on the island. Wood used in house building. Wood dark colored, fine grained, taking a good polish, hard, and very heavy (about 76 pounds per cubic foot). Pores small, isolated or in eroups oi two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous. XVIII. BurRsSERACES. 68. Tetragastris balsamifera (Sw.) O. Kuntze. Masa, Masa colorado, Palo de aceite, Palo de masa; Copal (Guatemala). A common forest tree from 20 to 70 feet high and from 16 to 20 inches in diameter, found in the mountainous parts of the island. This tree yields a very desirable wood for interior work of houses. Wood rose-colored or yellowish, beautiful, fragrant, and fine-grained, moderately hard, light, strong, and very durable. Pores small, isolated or in eroups of two to four, evenly distributed. Pith rays small, inconspicuous. 69. Dacryodes excelsa Vahl. 'Tabanuco, Tabonuco; Candle wood (Br. W. IJ.). A tree from 60 to 75 feet high and from 3 to 5 feet in diameter, found quite generally in the mountainous regions, especially in the Luquillos, where it often occurs in large stands. One of the most valuable trees on the island for lumber, because of its large size, straightness of bole, and occurrence in close, pure stands. A resin obtained from the gum is used extensively by the natives for candles and torches, as incense, and medicinally. The wood is used for flooring, ceiling, etc., and is often stained and sold as mahogany. Wood brown, sometimes cross and fine grained, often giving a ‘‘satiny” appearance. It is similar in physical properties to our yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.), lumber dealers of this country placing them in the same class. Tabanuco is, however, handsomer and finer grained than yellow poplar and capable of a higher polish, It is moderately hard, heavy, strong, and not durable when exposed. “Pores small, soli- tary, or in groups of two or two or three, and evenly distributed. Pith rays small, inconspicuous. *70. Bursera simaruba (L) Sarg. ey 13. Te , Jacq.). lg cies. Gumbo limbo, West Indian birch (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 40 feet high, very common on the island. This is the largest tree of the chaparral forests on the limestone hills of the south side of the island. Like the jobo (Spondias lutea), it is readily propogated from cuttings, even from stakes of large. size. It is therefore used for “live” fence posts and is one of the commonest trees to be seen along the roadside, where it also serves, though poorly, for the purpose of shade. The wood is of little value. Wood light brown, often with dark discolorations, fine grained, very soft, spongy, light, weak, and very liable to decay. Pores numerous, small, isolated or in groups of twe or three, sometimes more. Pith rays very inconspicuous, 78 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fh XIX. MELIACES. *71. Cedrela odorata LL. Cedro, Cedro hembra; West Indian cedar; Spanish cedar; Cigar-box cedar (Br. W. I[.). Tree from 50 to 100 feet high and from 4 to 6 feet in diameter, formerly common to all parts of the island, but now rare except in the inaccessible places. Spanish cedar is one of the most highly esteemed woods in the West Indies and is used for more purposes than any other. Its principal use, however, is for cigar boxes. The wood is pale reddish-brown, but varies considerably from very light to very dark, depending upon the age and the kind of soil in which it grows. It has a general appearance similar to that of mahogany and possesses a characteristic fragrant odor. It is moderately soft, light (about 30 pounds per cubic foot), rather strong, somewhat tough, and very durable in contact with the soil. Pores are rather large, not numerous, solitary, or often in small groups distributed evenly throughout the wood. Pith rays few, narrow, and indistinct to the naked eye. *42, Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. Caoba; Mahogany (Br. W. I.). AZ Tree from 50 to 100 feet high and from 3 to 5 feet in diameter. This tree has not been reported from Porto Rico by recent botanical explorers. There is some evidence, however, that mahogany occurred at one time on the island. It is the most highly esteemed wood for furniture and interior finish. No other wood has such a wide range of uses and so many substitutes. Wood light or dark brown, with a very pleasing appearance when polished. It is fine and cross grained, works rather easily, hard, heavy (varies from 35 to 67 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and very durable. Pores are moderately large, often filled with white or brown substance (tyloses), and arranged singly or in small groups; pith rays inconspicuous to the unaided eye. *73. Melia azedarach L. Alilaila, Lilaila, Pasilla; China berry (Br: We) Tree from 20 to 50 feet high and from 8 to 15 inches in diameter, cultivated and growing spontaneously in various parts of the island, including the Cordillera Central and the limestone formation of the western and southwestern coast. This tree has been introduced from Asia and is now very common throughout tropical and sub- tropical parts of the world for shade and ornament. The wood is sometimes used by the country people for tool handles and the like. 5; Wood mahogany colored, witha coarseand straight grain, moderately soft, light, weak, and not durable in contact with the soi!. Pores rather large in early wood, which ren- der the boundary of the annual rings of growth usually very conspicuous; the pores in the late wood are much smaller and inconspicuous. *Note.—An umbrella variety of the alilaila, Melia azedarach wmbraculifera Sarg. (Umbrella China tree, China berry (Br. W. I.), which was developed in Texas in about 1880, is planted in Porto Rico merely for shade and ornament. The wood has characteristics similar to the one above. *74, Guarea trichilioides L. Guaraguao, Acajou; Musk wood (Br. W. I.). Tree from 40 to 80 feet high and sometimes 6 feet in diameter. It occurs in mountain forests from the Luquillos to Maricao and is one of the leading woods of the island, being very highly prized by the natives. Because of the great demand it is now rather scarce. Its principal uses locally are for strong wagons and carriages, farm imple- ments, and general carpentry. The wood resembles mahogany and Spanish cedar and is useful for the same purposes. Wood light reddish-brown, sometimes streaked with lighter and darker shades, hard, moderately heavy, strong, tough. and very durable in contact with the soil. It has in a general way the appearance of dark-colored mahogany and an odor resem- bling musk. Pores small, very numerous, and connected by fine tangential lines of softer tissue which are scarcely visible to the unaided eye. Pith rays very narrow, numerous, and inconspicuous. *Nore.—Another and little-known species of this genus is G. ramiflora Vent. (Guaraguaillo, Guaraguao macho), a tree usually under 25 feet and rarely ‘ TREES OF PORTO RICO. 79 60 feet high, occurring in the forests, widely distributed, but not plentiful, throughout the uplands | from the Luquillos to Mayaguez. Wood similar to the one above. 95. Trichilia. Three species of this genera occur in Porto Rico: Trichila pallida Sw. (Caracolillo, Gaita, Ramoncillo, Cabo de hacha); Trichilia hirta L. (Cabo de hacha, Guaita, Jobillo, Molinillo, Palo de anastasio, Retamo, Guayavacén); and = Trichtlia ‘triacantha Urb. trees from 15 to 60 feet high, occurring principally in the mountainous regions of the island and to some extent in the limestone hills of the south coast. Wood, though very similar to that of G. trichilioides, is seldom used except for fuel. XX. MALPIGHIACES. *46. Byrsonima spicata (Cav.) L. Cl. Rich. Maricao. Tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter, occurring quite generally in forests throughout the island. The wood is used for furniture and house building. The bark is astringent and is used for tanning. Wood dull reddish brown, moderately fine grained, taking a good polish, moder- ately hard, heavy, and strong. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, Sank distributed. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous. *97. Byrsonima lucida (Sw.) L. Cl. Rich. Palo de doncella, Sangre de doncella. Tree from 20 to 30 feet high, quite widely distributed on the island. The wood is highly esteemed for furaiture and interior finish. Wood dark brown, very fine grained, taking a good polish, moderately hard, heavy, and strong. Pores minute, isolated, orin groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. XXI. EuPHORBIACES. 38. Phyllanthus. Two species of this genera are found in Porto Rico, one a native (Phyllanthus nobilis var. antillanus (Juss.) Mill. (Amortiguado, Avispillo, Higuerillo, Higuillo, Millo, Palo de millo, Siete-cueros [mas.], Yaquillo [fem.]) is a tree from 30 to 60 feet high, widely distributed on the island; the other Phyllanthus distichus (L.) Mull. (Grosella, Grosella blanca, Cerezas, Cereza amarilla, Otaheite gooseberry), introduced from India, is a tree from 15 to 30 feet high, cultivated for the sake of its fruit. Wood of both is but little used, although very beautiful, white, hard, stroag, and tough. *79. Drypetes amore (Sw.) Kr. et Urb. Varital; Florida or Gaia plum, White- wood (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 5 to 10 inches in diameter, found principally near Bayamon. Itis also common in southern Florida and on the islands of the West Indies. Wood rich dark brown, very fine and cross grained, hard, heavy (about 58 pounds per cubic foot), not strong, brittle, and liable to check in drying. Pores small, solitary, or in short radial rows, with numerous very fine tangential lines of softer tissue present. Pith rays very numerous and i inconspicuous. 80. Drypetes alba Poit. COafeillo, Hueso, Palo de vaca blanco. Tree from 15 to 60 feet high found in the mountain forests of the Sierra de Luquillo and Cordillera Central. The wood is often used for hubs of wheels, and also for fuel and charcoal. Wood light yellow, with irregular, thin, yellowish-brown streaks, fine and cross grained, taking a high polish, hard, ’ moderately heavy, strong, tough, and difficult to split. Pores rather small, solitary or in short interrupted radial rows, evenly dis- aad Pith rays yay narrow, but plainly visible on a smooth surface under the and lens. Nore.—Another species of this genera of slight importance, yielding a wood of inferior quality which is seldom used except for fuel and charcoal, is Drypetes glauca Vahl. (Palo blanco, Cafeillo, Varital, Palo de aceituna), a tree from 20 to 50 feet high and from 1 to? feet i in diameter, generally distributed throughout the mountain forests and somewhat in the woodlands along the south coast. It is also common throughout a number of the islands of the West Indies. The wood _is of inferior quality. 80 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 81. A group of unimportant genera of this family, each represented by a single species, comprises Hieronymia clusioides (Tul.) Mull. (Cedro macho), a tree from 45 to 100 feet high, occurring in the western parts of the island. Native also to other of the West Indies. -There are no recorded uses for the wood nor descriptions of “its characteristics. Alchorneopsis portoricensis Urban. (Palo de gallina), tree from 30 to 50 feet high, known only from the Luquillo, and central regions of the island. It yields a soft wood of little use.’ Alchornea latifolia Sw. (Achiotillo, Palo de cotorra, Yobillo), a tree from 25 to 60 feet high, quite widely distributed, yielding a wood with properties similar to that of Palo de gallina. Sapium laurocerasus Dest. (Hincha- huevos, Lechesillo, Manzanillo, Tabeiba), a tree from 15 to 50 feet high, widely dis- tributed in mountainous regions on the island. *82. Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. (= A. triloba Forst.). Nuez, Nuez de India; Candleberry tree, Candlenut, Indian walnut (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 40 feet high. Introduced from tropical Asia and the South Sea Islands and planted here and there throughout Porto Rico. It is useful mainly for shade throughout the Tropics and for the nuts it bears, which are called ‘“kukui” nuts in the Sandwich Islands. Wood little used. Wood very light yellow, soft, light, weak, and not durable in contact with the soil. Pores smail, isolated or in groups of two to five, radially disposed, and evenly distrib- uted. Pith ra ys minute and very inconspicuous. *83, Hippomane mancinella L. Manzanillo, Machineel. Tree from 15 to 50 feet in height, occurring in the coastal regions. It hasa poisonous acid sap which necessitates considerable care being taken in felling and in thoroughly seasoning the wood before working. The wood is suitable for furniture and is used largely for veranda floors and weatherboarding because of its durability when exposed. Wood yellowish brown, with darker stripes, beautiful, slightly fragrant, straight and very fine grained, resembling in general appearance and texture the boxwood of commerce (Buxus sempervirens L.). It takes a high -polish, is hard, varies from light to heavy (from 36 to 50 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, very durable, and very easy to work; in ali these qualities this wood resembles mahogany. The pores are minute, numerous, solitary, and evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, scarcely visible to the unaided eye on a radial surface. 84. Hura crepitans L. Javillo, Molinillo, Havillo, Havarilla; Sand-box tree, Mon- key’s dinner bell (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 50 feet high and from 1 foot to 24 feet in diameter, introduced from South America. It is planted extensively throughout the island for shade, because of its spreading crown. The acid irritant sap necessitates careful felling and season- ing of the wood before working. The wood is valued locally for making canoes and for interior work in houses. In some parts of the West Indies the trunks are often hol- lowed and used extensively for holding cane sugar. Wood very light brown, with darker brown stripes, fine and straight grained, taking a fine polish. It is soft, ‘light (about 31 pounds per cubic foot), extremely brittle, and is said to resist the action of water. Pores very small and evenly distributed uerouehouy the annual rings of growth. Pith rays very inconspicuous. XXII. ANACARDIACES. *85. Mangifera indica L. Mango. A cultivated and sparingly naturalized tree from 30 to 50 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, native of southern Asia or the Malay Archipelago. It yields a very common but highly prized fruit of the Tropics, comparable in quality and value with the apple or the orange, though entirely different from either in texture and flavor. The wood is useful for the same purposes as our common ash (Fraxinus), gunstocks, tool handles, window frames, ete. . Wood grayish brown, fine grained, hard, heavy (about 50 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and elastic. Pores smail, isolated or in groups of two to four, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous. + TREES OF PORTO RICO. 81 86. Anacardium occidentale L. Pajuil, Cajuil, Acaju, Marafidn; Cashew tree (Br. A wild and cultivated tree from 20 to 40 feet high and from 9 to 12 inches in diameter, occurring in all parts of the island. It is used largely in boat building, for carriage hubs, yokes, and farm utensils. Its principal use in Porto Rico is for char- coal and fuel. The nuts are edible when roasted, and yield oils which are useful for many purposes. An acrid irritant substance contained in the soft shell of the nuts necessitates care in handling them. This is driven off as poisonous fumes in roasting. Wood pinkish, fine grained, hard, moderately heavy (about 36 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and durable. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two to four, evenly distributed. Pith rays small, inconspicuous. 8%. Spondias mombin L. (=S. lutea L.). Jobo; Hog plum (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 40 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter. Very common throughout the island, particularly along roadsides. It is much used for stakes and fence posts, which are very durable because they take root and live. It is probably due to this property, as with the almacigo (Bursera simaruba), more than to any specially favorable quality as a shade tree that they are so commonly found along roadsides. Itis one of the trees commonly pollarded for fuel wood and bears an edible fruit which is much esteemed. Wood yellowish brown, fine grained, soft, light (about 30 pounds per cubic foot), and moderately strong. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, very inconspicuous. 88. Spondias purpurea L. Ciruela, Ciruela del pais, Jobillo, Jobo frances; Spanish plum (Br. W. I.). A tree or shrub from 20 to 30 feet high, occurring in mountainous regions. It is often cultivated for its fruit, which is considered superior to S. mombin. Wood in all respects similar to S. mombin. 89. Metopium toxiferum (L.) Krug. et. Urb. Cedro prieto, Papayo; Poison wood, Hog plum (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 50 feet high, with a short trunk sometimes 2 feet in diameter. It has-a limited distribution in the southwestern part of the island, and occurs through- out the West Indies and on the keys of southern Florida. Wood rich, dark brown streaked with red, fine and straight grained, resembling the wood of our native sumacs. It takes a fine polish, is easily worked, moderately hard, heavy (about 50 pounds per cubic foot), not strong, and only moderately tough. Pores small, very numerous, and evenly distributed throughout the wood. Pith. rays very narrow and inconspicuous. XXIII. AQquiIFoLIAcEs. 90. Ilex mitida (Vahl.) Maxim. (—J. dioica Griseb.) Cuero de sapo, Brigueta naranjo, Hueso prieto, Palo de hueso. Tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 10 to 15 inches in diameter, occurring in the mountain forests of the Luquillo region and generally throughout the island. The wood is used for fuel and for hut building. Wood light-colored, fine-grained, hard, and heavy. 91. Ilex sideroxyloides var. occidentalis (Macf.) Loes. Gongolin; Central American oak (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 50 feet high, occurring in the mountain forests of the Luquillo region. Wood of little use. Wood flesh-colored, hard, and heavy. XXIV. CenastRaces. 92. Hlzodendron xylocarpum var. corymbosum (Vahl.) Urb. Cocorron, Coscorron, Guayarote. Shrub or tree from 10 to 30 feet high, occurring quite generally along the seacoasts of the island. - Wood fine-grained. Pores minute, isolated, or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays moderately narrow but conspicous. 21871°-—Bull. 354—16——_6 82 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. XXV. STAPHYLEACES. 93. Turpinia paniculata Vent. Avispillo, Cedro hembra, Eugenio, Lilaililla, Sauco cimarron. Tree from 30 to 60 feet or more high, occurring in the mountains and waste places. The wood, which is used for fuel and charcoal, is somewhat similar to that of out blad- der nut (Staphylea trifolia L.). XXXVI. SAPINDACES. 94. Thouinia striata Radlk. Ceboruquillo, Guara, Quiebra hacha, Seburoquillo. Tree from 25 to 65 feet high, occurring generally throughout the island, usually in the drier situations. No usesare reported for the wood, doubtless because of its extreme hardness. Wood light-colored, very fine-grained, with many fine light lines, giving a pleasing figure. It takes a fine polish and is extremely hard, heavy, strong, and tough. Pores minute, isolated, or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, inconspicuous. 95. Melicocca bijuga L. Guenepa, Quenepas; Genip tree, Genipe; Ginep (Br. W. I.). A cultivated and semiwild tree from 25 to 60 feet high and up to.3 feet in diameter reported from the east, south, and west parts of the island. It is native of tropical America and is found throughout the West Indies. It is cultivated somewhat for its fruit and is also suitable for ornament and for roadside shade. Wood is said to be heavy and hard and useful for all purposes except in exposed situations. No local uses are reported. *96.° Cupania. ! There are two species of this genera represented in the tree flora of Porto Rico, namely, Cupania americana L. (Guara, Guara blanca), and Cupania triquetra A. Rich. (Guara). Trees from 30 to 60 feet high, quite widely distributed locally, and occurring gener- ally throughout the West Indies. The woods of all are alike and are used largely for posts. Wood very light brown, with a conspicuous wavy grain. It takes a high polish, is soft, moderately light, and brittle. Pores solitary or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, very inconspicuous. *97. Matayaba domingensis (DC.) Radlk. Doncella, Tea cimarrona, Raton. Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 8 to 10 inches in diameter, occurring chiefly in Luquillo and central mountain regions. It is found also in the other Greater Antilles. No local uses for the wood are reported. ' Wood red, fine and straight grained, taking a beautiful polish and resembling dark- colored mahogany. Itis hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable. Pores rather large, solitary, and evenly distributed; pith rays are narrow and more or less indistinct except under the hand lens. Notre.—Another species Matayaba apetala (Macf.) Radlk. (Doncella) is also reported from the same localities. Size and uses are not noted, although in Jamaica it is reported as attaining a height of from 40 to 60 feet and a diameter of 24 feet and as being a most useful hardwood, suitable for all purposes and especially for exposed situations. 98. Exothea paniculata (Juss.) Radlk. (=Aypelata paniculata Camb.). Guacaran, Gaita. Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, occurring in the limestone hills of the western part of the island. Wood used occasionally for cabinet work. Wood white, moderately hard, heavy, and strong. XXVII. SaBraces. 99. Meliosma. Two species of this genus oceur in Porto Rico: Meliosma obtusifolia Krug. and Urb. (Guayrote arroyo, Aguacatillo, Cacao bobo, Cacaillo, Ciralillo, Serillos), and Meliosma herbertii Rolfe. (Aguacatillo, Cacao bobo). Trees from 30 to 60 feet high, generally TREES OF PORTO RICO. 83 distributed throughout the mountainous interior from the Luquillos to Maricao and Anasco. Reported also from several other of the West Indies. No local uses for the wood are reported. Pores of wood small, isolated, or in groups of from two to eight or more. Pith rays small, inconspicuous. XXVIII. RHAMNACEA. 100. Colubrina ferruginosa Brongn. Abelluello, Abejuelo, Achiotillo, Aguacatillo, Aguaytardn, Guitaran, Quitaran, Mabi, Raton, Sanguinaria; Snakewood, Iron- wood, West Indian greenheart (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and sometimes 2 feet in diameter, quite generally dis- tributed throughout the island. The wood is used for building and occasionally for piling on account of its resistance to decay in water. Wood light yellowish- brown, very fine and wavy-grained, taking a very good pol- ish, very durable in contact with the soil, hard, heavy (about 60 “pounds per cubic foot), strong, and tough. Pores very small, somewhat more numerous in the early wood than in the late wood. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. *Notrr.—Another species of little economic importance is Colubrina reclinata (’Hér.) Brongn. (Mabi, Palo mabi), a tree 15, rarely 30, feet high from tiene south- western part of the island. Wood eae to the preceding. XXIX. ELomcarPaces#. ° 101. Sloanea berteriana Choisy. Cacao motilla, Cacao otillo, Cacao roseta, Cacaillo, Motillo. Tree from 25 to 90 feet high and sometimes over 2 feet in diameter, occurring chiefly in mountain forests. The wood is used locally for fuel and building purposes. Wood white, taking a high polish, very hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable in exposed situations. XXX. MALVACE. *102. Hibiscus tiliaceus L. (=Hibiscus elatus Sw.—=Paritium tiliaceum A. Juss.) Emmajaqua, Emajagua, Majagua, Mahagua; Blue or mountain mahoe (Br. W. T.); Mahot, Mahot franc (Haiti); Hau (Hawaii). Tree from 10 to 30 feet high, growing in moist situations, widely distributed through- out the uplands of the island. Common also in the other West Indies and throughout the remaining tropical world. The bark furnishes a strong and flexible fiber com- parable to jute, which is often used in making cordage. Nearly all the ropes in Porto Rico are made from this tree. It has also been highly recommended as a raw material for paper making. The wood makes handsome furniture, cabinetwork, and flooring, and is used largely for shingles and railway sleepers. Wood dark bluish green, with dark and light streaks,(about 47 pounds per cubic foot), straight and fine-grained, taking a fine polish, hard, heavy, beautiful when, pol- ished, strong, tough, and very durable. Pores small or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, inconspicuous. 103. Thespesia populnea (L.) Scland. Emajaguilla, Palo de Jaqueca, Santa Maria. Tree from 30 to 60 feet high, occurring on the north and west coasts in moist situations. Tt is a common tree on the seashore of most eastern tropical countries and throughout the West Indies. The inner bark of the young branches yields a tough fiber which is used for cordage. The wood is little used locally, but elsewhere in the Tropics is used for cabinetwork, building, and a variety of other purposes. Wood dark brown, tinged with red, beautiful, “satiny,” fine-grained, reser bline in general appearance our black walnut (Juglans nigra L.). Itis hard, heavy, ‘tough, and very durable, especially in water. Pores small, solitary, or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays moderately narrow, distinct, clearly visible on _ a polished radial surface, where they appear as light ‘flecks and give a pleasing appearance. ~ 84 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. *104. Thespesia grandiflora P. DC. Maga, Magar, Magas. Tree from 30 to 45 feet high and from 1 to 3 feet in diameter, occurring quite gen- erally throughout the island. The wood is highly esteemed for furniture, flutes, guitar pegs, etc. It is also used largely for shelving and for foundations, house piling, etc., because of its durability in the ground. Wood rich chocolate-brown, beautiful, fine-grained, taking a good polish, hard, heavy (42 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and very durable in contact with the soil. Pores solitary or occasionaily in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays inconspicuous. XXXI. BomBacace&. *105. Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. (=Eriodendron anfractuosum DC.). Ceiba; Silk-cotton, Cotton tree, Kopak tree, Cork wood (Br. W. I.); Fromager (Haiti). Tree from 60 to 100 feet high and sometimes from 8 to 10 feet in diameter, most com- mon in the south and west coast regions, particularly on limestone soils. It is also widely distributed throughout the Tropics and usually present in open plains and cul- tivated fields. The wood is used for making boats, dugouts, rafts, tubs, and basins. Boards and shingles are often made of this wood after treating it by immersing the logs in limewater. In West Africa its chief commercial value lies in the “floss’’ or “ ko- pak’’! asit is known to commerce, which is a cottony substance surrounding the seeds. Wood white or light brown, coarse and straight-grained, very soft, light (about 28 pounds per cubic foot), rather strong, and not durable in contact with the soil. Pores large, evenly distributed throughout the annual rings of growth; the latter are not always clearly marked. Pith rays conspicuous. 106. Quararibea turbinata (Sw.) Poir. Garrocha, Garrocho, Palo de Garrocha. A shrub or tree from 25 to 30 feet high, common in all parts of the island. *107. Ochroma lagopus Sw. Guano, Corcho; Bois Liege (Haiti); Cork wood, Down tree (Jamaica); Balsa wood (of commerce). Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and 1 foot or more in diameter common on the limestone soils and along the shore directly behind the mangrove in the north and west coast regions and generally throughout the south coast and south slopes of the Central Mountains. Particularly common along the roads. It is a tree of the open country, like the ceiba. The wood, because of its extreme lightness, is sometimes used as a substitute for true cork, for stopping bottles, as floats for fish nets, and for other pur- poses where a light wood isrequired. The bark yields a chestnut-brown fiber suitable for rope making, and the seed envelopes yield a soft cotton or down extensively used for stuffing pillows and mattresses and to a limited extent for making into garments. The bark is also used locally for the tannin it contains, and both bark and roots are used medicinally. The wood is nearly white or slightly tinged with red, showing practically no dis- tinction between heartwood and sapwood. It has a silky texture, loose structure, and soit tissue easily compressible under the thumbnail, and is very fibrous and diffi- cult to work. Itissaid to be the lightest of all woods, having a specific gravity varying 1 This floss of the ceiba is exported in large quantities from the East Indies and West Africa; the variety from Java is regarded as a fiber of great merit, and is used for stuffing pillows and sofas. Its lightness, soft- ness, and elasticity render it superior to the best qualities of feathers, wool, or hair. This material has been employed also as a buoyant material for packing life belts and for making hats and bonnets, and has even been suggested for the manufacture of paper and guncotton. It is too short in staple and too weak to be spuninto yarn. Unfortunately the silk cotton from the West Indies is accounted oflittle value at present, but it only remains for some one to start its collection here and ship it to American markets. It has been estimated that the average yield of silk cotton from a single tree in the West Indies and Mexicois approxi- mately 100 pounds. Many thousands of bales ofsilk cotton might be collected annually in the West Indies and turned to economic use. In 1907 alittle over 20,000,000 pounds of silk cotton was exported from Java and Sumatra, and of this quantity about 3,000,000 pounds were consumed in the United States for a great variety of purposes. : TREES OF PORTO RICO. 85 from 0.120 (or about 74 pounds per cubic foot) to 0.240. Pith rays quite conspicuous on a transverse section; they are also plainly visible on the radial surface and give fioure to the wood, resembling the character of beech or sycamore, only they are more numerous. *108. Theobroma cacao L. Cacao. A cultivated and seminaturalized tree from 12 to 30 feet high occurring locally on the north and west sides of the island. It is native to tropical America and is grown commercially in a number of the West Indies. It is said to grow best under thor- oughly tropical conditions of moisture and warmth at or near sea level (below 500 feet). It is commonly grown under the shade of some one of the leguminous trees, usually Erythrina micropteryx (or E. umbosa). XXXII. STERCULIACES. *109. Guazuma ulmifolia Lam. (=Guazuma guazuma Cock). Gudcima, Gudécima del norte; West Indian elm, Guazuma plum (Br. W. 1I.). Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 15 to 18 inches in diameter, very common throughout the island, the Antilles generally, and on the continent. Wood used for oars, posts, staves, fuel, and charcoal. Wood light grayish-brown, fine and straight-grained, rather soft, light (35 pounds _ per cubic foot), moderately weak but tough. Pores small, solitary or in groups of two or three, rarely more, evenly distributed. Pith rays distinct, but rather inconspic- uous, plainly visible on a smooth radially cut surface. 110. Guazuma tomentosa H. B. K. Gudcima, Gudcima del sur; Bastard cedar (Br. W. I.); Orme d’Amerique (Fr. W. I.). Tree from 45 to 60 feet high and from | foot to 2 feet in diameter, very common along the southern coast of the island and distributed quite generally throughout tropical America. In Jamaica the wood is said to be used largely for staves of sugar hogsheads, and the best of the young shoots is used extensively for cordage. Wood light or grayish-brown, rather fine and straight-grained, fissile, taking a fairly good polish, moderately soft, light, rather tough and durable in exposed situa- tions. Pores small, solitary or in radial rows of from two to three. Pith rays narrow and inconspicuous. XXXII. TERNSTROEMIACE. 111. Represented in Porto Rico by three genera and five tree species, none of which are commercially important. These are Ternsiroemia peduncularis P. DC., from 20 to 30 feet high; Ternstroemia heptasepala Krug et Urb., from 15 to 25 feet high; Ternstroemia luquillensis Krug et Urb. (Palo colorado), from 30 to 60 feet high; Cleyera albopunctata (Griseb.) Krug et Urb. (Teta prieta), from 25 to 30 feet high; and Haemocharis portoricensis Krug et Urb. (Maricao, Nifio de cota), from 15 to 60 feet high; all common in the Sierra de Luquillo, the second last extending through the Cordillera Central to Maricao. XXXIV. Gurtireraz. *112. Mammea americana L. Mamey, Mammea; Mammee apple (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter, common in all parts of the island. Its fruit is very highly regarded by the natives and it is very gen- erally planted on this account here and elsewhere throughout the American Tropics. The tree also produces-a medicinal gum. The wood is well adapted for house build- ing, posts, and piles. Wood reddish brown, beautiful, wavy, and fine-grained, taking a good polish, hard, heavy (61 pounds per cubic foot), resinous, and very durable in damp situations. Pores.small, solitary, or occasionally in pairs, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, very inconspicuous. é 86 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. “113. Calophyllum calaba Jacq. Marias, Palo de Maria; Santa Maria (Jamaica). Tree from 45 to 60 feet high and from 2 to 3 feet in diameter (in Jamaica said to attain a height of 150 feet and a diameter of 5 feet and over), rather common in the humid north, east, and northwest sections and occasionally along the banks of the streams in the semiarid southcoast region. Common also throughout the West Indies. The wood is said to be greatly prized locally for carpentry work, and for canoes when the trunk is large enough. Elsewhere it has a variety of uses, such as construction work, shipbuilding and heavy machine work, posts, furniture, fellies of wheels, and shingles. Seeds yield an oil said to be used in lamps. ‘Tree is suitable for ornamental planting. Wood white or reddish in color, hard and durable. Reported to weigh about 46 pounds per cubic foot. *114. Clusia rosea Jacq. Cupey, Palo de Cupey; Balsam Fig; Balsam tree (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter; commonly starts as a parasite on the branches of other trees, although it may start directly on the ground. It is quite generally distributed on the island and throughout the West Indies. The wood is used largely for posts and fuel. Wood reddish-brown with brown and white streaks, very cross and fine grained, hard, heavy (55 pounds per cubic foot), and durable. Pores small, solitary or in pairs, evenly distributed. . Pith rays moderately narrow, distinct, but not conspic- uous. Nore.—Other incidental and unimportant trees in this and a closely related genus are Clusia krugiana Urb. (Cupey, Cupei, Cupeillo), occurring in the Lu- quillo region, and Rheedia portoricensis Urb. (=Clusia acuminata Spreng= Tovo- mita elliptica C. & C.) (Guayabacoa, Sebucan), growing along the seacoasts, shrubs or trees from 10 to 60 feet high, with wood resembling that of Clusia rosea. XXXV. BIXACEA. 115. Biza orellana L. Achiote, Achote, Bixa, Biji, Arnatta, Anatto. Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and about a foot in diameter, occurring in the interior. It is planted in many parts of the island. The wood is little used. A coloring matter extracted from the arillus of the seed is much used locally for coloring rice, soup, etc.; and as the ‘‘anatto” of commerce is widely used for coloring cheese, chocolates, and butter, also by varnish makers for imparting a rich orange tinge to some grades of their products. Wood nearly white in its natural state, but when polished turns slightly yellowish or reddish. On a radial surface it has narrow lines of slightly darker color, which correspond with the annual rings of growth clearly visible in transverse sections. It is very soft, light (about 25 pounds per cubic foot), weak, brittle, and not durable in contact with the soil. Pores rather conspicuous in the early wood, rendering it somewhat coarse and open-grained. \ XXXVI. WINTERANACES. 116. Represented by two genera, each with one tree species, neither one of which is of importance. . Winterana canella L. (Barbasco, Wild cinnamon), a tree from 25 to 45 feet high, of rather general distribution along the coast and throughout the West Indies, with a pale, orange-colored, aromatic bark which is used as a tonic; and Pleodendron macran- thum (Baill.) v. Tiegh. (=Cinnamodendron macranthum Baill.) (Chupa gallo, Chupa- callo), a tree from 20 to 30 feet high, from the Sierra de Luquillo, with a white, hard, and heavy wood. XXXVII. FLAcoURTIACES. 11%. Homalium racemosum Jacq. Tostado, Caracolillo, Cerezo. Tree from 20 to 60 feet high, quite generally distributed throughout the island. The wood is very useful for building and carpentry. - TREES OF PORTO RICO. 87 Wood light-colored, fine-grained, moderately hard, heavy, and strong., Pores minute, numerous, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays numerous, minute, inconspicuous. 118. Xylosma. Two species very similar as to their wood and uses and neither of any great impor- tance are Xylosma schwaneckeanum Krug. & Urb. (=Myroxylon schwaneckeanum Krug. & Urb.) (Palo de candela, Palo colorado), and Xylosma buxifolium A. Gray (= Myroxylon buxifolium Krug. & Urb.) (Roseta), trees from 15 to 35 feet high and 1 footin diameter, the former found chiefly in the Luquillo region and the latter through- out the southwestern part of the island and the West Indies generally. The wood has no uses except for fuel.and charcoal. Wood light brown, turning darker with age, straight and fine-grained, hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable in contact with the soil. Pores numerous, very small, arranged singly or in short radial rows. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. 119. Casearia. Five species attain tree size, namely, Casearia guianensis (Aubl.) Urb. (Cafeillo, Cafetillo, Palo blanco), from 15 to 30 feet high; Casearia bicolor Urb. (Talantrén, Cotorrerillo ?), 45 feet high; Casearia decandra Jacq. (Caracolillo, Cereza, Cotorrerillo, Gia mansa, Palo blanco), from 18 to 25 feet; Casearia arborea (L. Cl. Rich.) Urb. (Gia verde, Rabojunco, Rabo ratén), from 15 to 45 feet high; and Casearia sylvestris Sw. (Cafeillo cimarron, Laurel espada, Sarna de perro), from 25 to 60 feet high. These trees are most common in the calcareous foothills and along the coast in all parts of the island, except the last two, which are reported well distributed through- out the interior mountains from the Sierra de Luquillo to Maricao and Mayaguez. They are also widely distributed throughout the West Indies, except C. bicolor, which is reported only from Porto Rico (Utuado). Wood of C. guianensis reported to be yellow, hard, and heavy (about 65 pounds per cubic foot), and to be used for lumber, for building native huts, for fences, and for similar uses. XXXVIII. Cactacez. 120. Represented in Porto Rico by four genera (one exotic) and eight species (two exotic). These have an erect form and attain tree proportions, or at least are designated ‘‘Pitajaya’’ (meaning tree-cactus) by the natives, although they do not all have a true woody structure and are consequently not real trees, namely, Cereus quadrico- status Bello (Pitajaya, Sebucan), from 6 to 30 feet high; Cereus triangularis (L.) Haw. (Pitajaya); Cereus trigonus Haw. (=C. triangularis Stahl. C. & C.) (Pitajaya), from 3 to 9 feet high; Cereus peruvianus (L.) Mill, a continental species from 15 to 25 feet high, occasionally cultivated in gardens; Pilocereus royenit (L.) Riimpl. (=Cereis swartzii Stahl. C. & C.) (Sebucan), 9 feet high; Opuntia catacantha Lk. et Otto, 15 feet high; Opuntia guanicana K. Schum. (Tuna), from 12 to 15 feet high; and Nopalea coceinellifera (L.) Salm-Dyck (Tuna de Espafia, Tuna mansa), a tropical American and West Indian species 12 feet high, occasionally cultivated in gardens. .. Their natural distribution is limited largely,to the semiarid south coast region, including the small adjacent islands, as Culebra, etc., though they occasionally are found on the limestone hills along the north side of theisland. All, except C. quad- ricostatus and Opuntia guanicana, which are strictly local in occurrence, are more or less common to the other islands of the West Indies and tropical America. XXXIX. THYMELHACEA. 121. Daphnopsis. Two species attain tree size in Porto Rico: Daphnopsis caribaea Griseb. (Emajagua de sierra), from 15 to 45 feet high, found chiefly in the Sierra de Cayey and Cordillera Central and widely distributed throughout the West Indies; and Daphnopsis philip- tana Krug et Urb. (Cieneguillo, Emajagua brava, Emajagua de sierra, Majagua quemadora), from 8 to 25 feet high, occurring throughout the mountains from the Sierra de Luquillo to the Cordillera Central. 88 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. XL. RHIZOPHORACEA. *122. Rhizophora mangle L. Mangle, Mangle colorado, Mangle sapatero, Red man- grove (Jamaica). Tree from 30 to 50 feet high and from 1 foot to 3 feet through, growing in tidewater swamps. Wood used for making hogsheads and for knees and ribs of boats and other small craft, also for charcoal and fuei. The logs are used for posts and piling and occasionally cut into boards for flooring and interior finish. Wood light red or reddish brown with darker, often nearly black, streaks, fine and cross grained, taking a good polish, very hard and heavy (about 70 pounds per cubic . foot), strong and durable. Pores very small, numerous, isolated or in groups of two to five or more, evenly distributed. Pith rays visible to the unaided eye on a smooth transverse surface of the wood. Nore.— Cassipourea, a closely allied genera, is represented by a single species, Cassipourea alba Griseb. (Multa, Palo blanco de la costa, Palo de gongoli, Palo de hueso, Palo de oreja, Palo de toro), a shrub or small tree of from 15 to 30 feet high, with a rather general distribution in various parts of the central mountain area, as Well as on the limestone foothills. XLI. CoMBRETACEA. *123. Terminalia catappa L. Almendra, Almendrén; Indian almond (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and about 2 feet in diameter. This is a species intro- duced from the East Indies, but naturalized and now a very common tree through- out the West Indies, especially in the lowlands. The wood is similar to mahogany and is used for furniture and house building. Wood is brownish, coarse and straight grained, taking a beautiful polish, moderately hard and heavy (about 40 pounds per cubic foot), brittle and not strong. Pores of moderate size, evenly distributed, and connected by numerous tangential lines of soft tissue. Pith rays narrow and inconspicuous. *124. Buchenavia capitata (Vahl.) Eichl. Granadillo; Yellow sanders (Br. W. I.). Tree from 40 to 80 feet high and from 2 to 3 feet in diameter. Thisis avery common tree throughout the island. The wood is used for furniture and fancy carpentry work. Wood fine and often wavy grained, satiny, taking a beautiful polish, moderately hard, heavy, strong, and tough. This wood hasa very wavy grain. Pores moderately large, evenly distributed, solitary or sometimes in small groups. Pith rays narrow and inconspicuous. : *425. Conocarpus erecla L. Mangle, Mangle botén, Mangle botoncillo, Mangle colorado. f A shrub or small tree from 6 to 25 feet high, growing in thetidewaterswamps. Wood used for making charcoal and for fuel. *126. Bucida buceras L. Ucar, Ucar blanco, Hucar blanco, Bucaro; Wild olive wood of Jamaica; Bois grisgris (Haiti). Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and about a foot in diameter. It is found chiefly near the coast. The wood is used for shelves in houses and for mallets, wooden cogs, and shingles. It was formerly used for knees in boat building. Wood white or ashy brown, fine and cross grained, remotely resembling the wood of American elm. It is hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable in water. Pores very small, numerous, cccurring solitary, and evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow but distinct. 127. Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn. Mangle blanco, Mangle bobo; White man- grove (Jamaica). Tree from 20 to 30 feet high, growing in the tidewater swamps. Wood used for making charcoal. e TREES OF PORTO RICO. 89 XLII. Myrtacea. *128. Psidium guajava L. Guayava, Guayaba, Guayava pera; Guava (Br. W. I.). Tree from 15 to 25 feet in height and from 6 to 8 inches in diameter. It is culti- vated throughout the island and in the Tropics generally and is well known on account of its fruit. The wood is used for making agricultural implements for structures where strength and elasticity are required, and for posts, fuel, and charcoal. Wood brownish gray, tinged with red, compact, fine and straight grained, with a mottled and often very beautiful appearance. It is hard, heavy (about 45 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and tough. Pores very small, not numerous, and distributed in rather wide inconspicuous zones, visible only under the hand lens. Pith rays very inconspicuous. *129. Amomis caryophyllata (Jacq.) Krug et Urb. Auzti, Aust, Guayavita, Limon- cillo, Malagueta, Pimienta malagueta; Bayberry tree, Bay rum tree, Wild cinnamon (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 45 feet high and about 2 feet in diameter, occurring in mountainous parts of the island and throughout the West Indies. The wood is suitable for car- pentry, cabinetwork, posts, sills, cogs, rollers, and other millwork, and was formerly exported. The leaves have the taste and odor of lemon, and an essential oil of bay or bay oil is obtained by distillation. Wood dark, mottled, compact, fine and occasionally cross grained, taking a beautiful polish. It is very hard, heavy (about 60 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and very durable. Pores very small, numerous, evenly distributed throughout the wood. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. *Notr.—A variety of this species is also recognized, Amomis caryophyllata var. grisea (Kiaersk.) Krug et Urb. (Limoncillo, Malagueta, Pimienta), a tree some- times 50 feet high in mountainous regions, the wood of which is very similar to that of the preceding. 130. Myrcia. The genus is represented in Porto Rico by the following four species, which attain tree size: Myrcia leptoclada P. DC. (Guayabacén, Guayavacén); Myrcia splendens (Sw.) P. DC. (Rama menuda, Hoja menuda); Myrcia? pagani Krug et Urb. (Aust); and Myrcia deflexa (Poir.) P. DC. (Cieneguillo, Guayavacon). Trees from 15 to 60 feet high, found in the mountainous regions of the island. The wood is used very little except for fuel and charcoal. Wood reddish brown, hard, heavy, and strong. 431. Calyptranthes sintenisii Kiaersk. Hoja menuda, Limoncillo, Limoncillo de monte. Tree from 15 to 25 feet high and from 6 to 10 inches in diameter, occurring in the Luquillo region. The wood is used in carpentry and for fuel and charcoai. Wood fine and straight grained, hard, heavy, strong, and flexible. Pores small and numerous. Pith rays inconspicuous. 132. Hugenia aeruginea P. DC. Guasdvera, Guayabacén. ‘Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter, rather widely distributed on the island. Wood light brown or chestnut colored, fine and straight grained, beautiful when polished, hard, heavy, strong, and flexible. Pores very small and arranged singly or in radial rows of irom two to three between the very narrow inconspicuous pith rays. _ Norr.—Other species of this genus very similar to the above but of slight importance are Hugenia stahlii (Kiaersk.) Krug et Urb. (Guayabota, Limoncillo), tree from 15 to 60 feet high and from 1 to 2 feet in diameter; Eugenia sintenisit (Kiaersk.) Krug et Urb., from 45 to 60 feet high; and Eugenia floribunda West (Murta) 30-feet high. All are common throughout the island and their wocds are similar to the preceding. : 90 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. *133. Hugenia jambos L. (=Jambosa jambos Millsp.). Poma rosa; Rose apple (Br. Weel): Tree from 20 to 50 feet high and from 1 to 2 feet in diameter, introduced from the East Indies and now largely naturalized throughout the island. The wood is used for barrel hoops, poles, fuel, and charcoal. It also furnishes material from which large baskets are made. Wood grayish brown, fine and straight grained, hard, heavy, strong, and tough. Pores small and arranged in irregular tangential lines. Pith rays very narrow and scarcely visible under the hand lens. XLII. MetastoMaTACcEs, 134. Miconia tetrandra (Sw.) D. Don. Camasey. Tree from 30 to 50 feet high and about a foot in diameter, common in the moun- tains of Porto Rico and found on all the islands of the West Indies. The wood is used for.poles, fuel, and charcoal. Wood light brown, fine and straight grained, hard, moderately heavy, strong, flexible, and durable in the soil. Pores small, numerous, and evenly distributed. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. Note 1.—Three other species in this genus similar in size, distribution, and uses are Miconia guianensis (Aubl.) Cogn. (Camasey, Camasey blanco, Camasey de costilla); Miconia impetiolaris (Sw.) D. Don (Camasey, Camasey de costilla) and Miconia prasina (Sw.) P. DC. (Camasey). Nore 2.—Three other genera and six species in this family attain tree size, though they are of but slight local or general importance, namely, Calycogonium squamulosum Cogn. (Granadilla cimarrona), from 15 to 30 feet high, from the Sierra de Luquillo; Calycogonium biflorum Cogn., from 25 to 30 feet high, from near Barranquitas; Heterotrichum cymosum (Wendl. ) Urb. (Camasey colorado, Camasey de paloma, Terciopelo), from 25 to 30 feet high, from various parts of the island; Henriettella macfadyenu (Triana), 60 feet high, from Sierra de Luquillo and Cordillera Central, found also in Jamaica; Henr iettella membranifolia Cogn., 30 feet high, from Lares; and Henriettella fascicularis (Sw.) Ch. Wright (Camasey de oro, Camasey de paloma), from 25 to 30 feet high, from various places on the island, also throughout the Greater Antilles. XLIV. ARALIACER, 135. Gilibertia arborea (L.) E. March (=Aralia arborea L.). Mufieca, Palo cachumba, Pana, Vibona. Tree from 30 to 60 Heet high, quite common throughout the island, and found in all parts of the West Indies. The wood resembles boxwood (Buxus sempervirens L.) and should make a suitable substitute. Wood light or pale yellow, very fine grained, taking a good polish, very hard, heavy, strong,-and tough. Pores very small, numerous, scarcely visible under the hand lens, and evenly disiributed. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. Nore.—Another species in every way similar to the above is Gilibertia lauri- folia E, March (Palo cachumba, Palo de gangulin, Palo de vaca, Vibona). *136. Didymopanax morototoni (Aubl.) Dene et Pl. Yagrume macho, Yagrume; Grayume, Grayume macho, Grayumo, Pana cimarrona, Llagrume, Llagrume macho. Tree from 40 to 60 feet high and about a foot in diameter, very common in the mountains and distributed quite generally throughout tropical America. The wood is used for boards and beams in house building, and has been suggested as a good material for making matches. Wood light olive brown, fine and straight grained, moderately hard, heavy, brittle, and not strong. Pores small, very numerous, and more or less evenly distributed throughout the annual rings of growth, which can be readily distinguished by means of the hand lens. Pith rays very conspicuous. TREES OF PORTO RICO. Oj XLV. MyrsInaces, 137. Ardisia glauciflora Urb. Mameyuelo. Tree from 15 to 25 feet high, occurring in the Luquillo region. The wood is used for furniture. Wood white, beautifully marked with fine lines, fine-grained, taking a good polish, hard, and heavy. Pores minute, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly dis- tributed, Pith rays humerous, broad, very conspicuous. Nore.—Another species, Ardisia guadalupensis Duchass. (Badula, Mameyuelo), attains a somewhat larger size and wider distribution on the island. Its wood is similarly used and has the same structural characteristics as the above but is a light reddish brown instead of white. XLVI. SaAporacem. *138. Achras zapota L. Sapodilla, Nispero!; Naceberry, Bullet tree (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 45 feet high and about a foot in diameter. It is cultivated and wild on the island, having been originally introduced from Venezuela, and widely planted for the sake of its fruit. It is said to yield a gum similar to ‘“‘gum chicle,’’ principally obtained from Mimusops globosa and Sapota zapotilla. The wood is adapted for inside work, cabinetmaking, and furniture. Wood light red with darker stripes, fine and straight grained, susceptible of a high polish, difficult to work on account ot its extreme hardness, heavy (about 74 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and very durable in contact with the soil. Pores very small, numerous, and arranged in more or less distinct radial rows between the narrow pith rays. Notr.—Closely related to the above is Calocarpum mammosum (1.) Pierre - (Mamey Sapote; Bartaballi, [Br. Guiana]), a tree trom 30 to 40 feet high and of limited occurrence on the land 139. Lucuma multiflora A. DC. Acana, Hacdna, Jacana; Contrevent (Br. W. I.). Tree from 40 to 90 feet high and irom 2 to 3 feet in diameter, found quite gener- ally on the island and throughout tropical America. It yields very excellent timber which is used for mill rollers, frames, furniture, and house building. Wood light colored, fine and straight grained, beautiful when polished, hard, very heavy, strong, tough, and durable. Pores small and arranged in radial rows. Pith rays narrow and indistinct. 140. Micropholis. There are three tree species in this genus, Micropholis garcinifolia Pierre (Caimi- tillo), from 45 to 60 feet high; Micropholis curvata (Pierre) Urb. (Leche prieto), from 30 to 60 feet high; and Micr opholis chrysophylloides Pierre (Caimitillo, Leche prieto), from 60 to 75 feet high, the former in the Sierra de Luquillo chiefly and the others in the Sierra de Cayey and Cordillera Central. The wood, particularly of the last named, is very hard and heavy, similar to that of Mewes Zapota and is tegarded locally as a first-class wood. *441. Sideroxylon fetidissimum Jacq. (=S. mastichodendron Jacq.). Ausubo,? Tortuga, Tortugo amarillo, Tortugo prieto; Caguani (Cuba); Mastic (Fla.). Tree from 30 to more than 50 feet high and from 2 to 3 feet in diameter, occurring on the coast. It is common in southern Florida and throughout tropical America 1 This should not be confused with the true medlar, Mespilus germanica L., to which the Spanish ‘‘nis= pero” most commonly applies, nor with the Japanese medlar or loquat (Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.), neither of which are known to the Porto Rican public (C. & C.). 2Two species, Siderorylon fetidissimum and Mimusops nitida are both known as ‘‘ausubo.’”’? Of the former Gifford and Barrett say, that it is “probably the most valuable wood per cubic foot in Porto Rico.” although they admit that ‘‘possibly two species are included under this name,’’? which is more likely. According to Urban, Siderorylon fetidissimum is not reported from the Sierra de Luquillo or other parts of the interior, while Mimusops nitida is. Acocrding to Fernow and Taylor, however, this Sideroxylon is widely distributed in the Sierra Maestra (Cuba). 92 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. : a and the West Indies, ranking as a very valuable timber. The wood is used locally for all purposes requiring great strength and durability, such as beams and rafters, also for all parts of wheels, axles and other parts of native bull carts, for ox yokes and other native uses, and somewhat for furniture. Wood maroon-red, very fine and straight grained, susceptible of a good polish, easily worked considering its hardness, ‘and very durable in the Tropics; tn the temperate climate it is less durable. Wood hard, heavy (about 65 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and tough. Moderately conspicuous ducts in short detached long and short. chains (single lines of cells) evenly diffused; chains usually between two medullary rays. Medullary rays very numerous, minute, indistinct. Wood fibers slightly interlaced and appearing straight-erained. Resembles somewhat a fine- grained teak. (Hill and Sudworth.) Nore.—Another species of very limited distribution is Sideroxzylon portoricense Urb. (Tabloncillo), a tree from 75 to 90 feet high, reported only from the vicinity of Utuado and Lares. Wood similar to that of Siderozylon frtidissimum, and probably similarly used. *142, Dipholis salicifolia (L.) A. DC. ialece satu Tabloncillo. Tree from 30 to 40 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, occurring in dry limestone soils near the coast. It is common in southern Florida and throughout the West Indies. The wood is used locally principally for fuel and charcoal. Wood dark brown-red, fine and straight grained, taking a beautitul polish, hard, heavy (about 55 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and tough. Notse.—Another rather incidental species is Dipholis sintenisiana Pierre (Espejuelo), a tree from 60 to 70 feet high, from the northwestern part of the island, having a wood similar to that of D. salicifolia. *143. Chrysophyllum cainito L. Cainito, Caimito, Caimito morado; Star apple (Br. Weil) é z Tree from 45 to 60 feet high and from 12 to 18 inchesin diameter. Itisa cultivated and wild tree and found in most parts of the island. The wood is suited to a variety of uses and particularly in exposed situations. Wood red or reddish-brown, very fine and curly grained, taking an excellent polish, hard, heavy, strong, touzh, and very durable in contact with the soil. Pores very small and arranged 1 in short radial rows between the rather inconspicuous pith rays. *144,. Chrysophyllum oliviforme L. Teta de burra, Lechesillo. Tree from 30 to 40 feet high and about a foot in diameter from the southwestern part of theisland. It ts distributed throughout the West Indies‘and southern Florida, but is nowhere common. Wood light brown tinged with red, fine and straight grained, taking a good polish hard, heavy (about 58 pounds per cubic foot), very strong, and tough. Pores small and arr anged in short radial rows, which are easily seen on a smooth transverse surface under a hand lens. Norr.—Other species of this genus are Chrysophyllum bicolor Poir. (Caimitillo, Lechesillo), from 30 to 50 feet high, occurring very locally and in Porto Rico only; Chrysophyllum argenteum Jacq. (Caimito verde, Lechesillo), from 25 to 60 feet high, occurring rather widely distributed throughout the island and others of the West Indies, and Chrysophyllum pauciflorum Lam. (Caimito de perro), from 40 to 60 feet high, reported only from the southern part of the island. Wood of each is similar to that of the above. 145. Mimusops. Two species of this genus occur in Porto Rico, Mimusops nitida (Sessé et Moc.) Urb. (Acana, Ausubo a a tree from 20 to 50 feet or more high, occurring in moun- tainous regions; and Mimusops duplicata (Sessé et Moe.) Urb. (= M. globosa Griseb.) (Mameyuelo, Sapote, Sapote de costa, Zipote, Balata), from 40 to 60 feet high, occur- ring along the north coast. Both are local species. 1 See footnote under Siderorylon fetidissimum. TREES OF PORTO RICO. 938 Wood of these two species is dark brown, fine and straight grained, taking a splendid polish, hard, heavy (about 60 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and very durable in contact with soiland water. Pores very small, and arranged in more or less oblique radial rows which are visible under the hand lens. XLVII. EBENACES. 146. Maba sintenisii Krug. et Urb. Guayabota-nispero, Tabeiba. _ Tree from 25 to 30 feet high, of uncommon occurrence, reported from only two localities on the island. Wood very light brown, very fine and straight grained, taking a very good polish, very hard, heavy, strong, tough, and durable. Pores very minute, numerous, and arranged in indistinct radial rows. Very fine tangential lines of soft tissue are visible under a strong hand lens. *147. Diospyros ebenaster Retz. Guayabota; Zapote negro 6 prieto (Mexico). Tree about 30 feet high, of infrequent occurrence in the mountains. It is native of the West Indies, Mexico, and Malay Islands. It hasa black bark and heartwood. This tree attains much larger size in Mexico than it does in Porto Rico, where it is used only for fuel and charcoal. XLVIII. Sympitocaceaz. 148. Symplocos. Genus represented in Porto Rico by five tree species, namely, Symplocos lanata Krug et Urb. (Palo de nispero cimarron), from 24 to 30 feet high, from Adjuntas and Pefiuelas; Symplocos micrantha Krug et Urb. (Palo de cabra), from 20 to 50 feet high, from the Sierra de Luquillo and Cordillera Central; Symplocos martinicensis Jacq. (Aceituna, Aceituna blanca, Aceituna cimarrona), from 10 to 30 feet high, from Bayamon and Afiasco; Symplocos polyantha Krug et Urb. (Palo de cabra), from the Sierra de Luquillo; and Symplocos latifolia Krug et Urb. (Aceituna), from 25 to 45 feet high, from Sierra de Cayey and Cordillera Central. Except for the third of these, which occurs generally throughout the West Indies, all are local species. Their woods, which are alike, are apparently very little used. The wood of S. martinicensis is white, hard, moderately heavy, and strong. Pores small, numerous, isolated or in groups of two to four, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous. XLIX. STYRACACES. 149. Styrax portoricensis Krug and Urb. Tree apparently little known even locally. Reported as being from 30 to 60 feet high and occurring only in the mountain forests of the eastern part of the island. L. OLEACEA. — 150. Linociera domingensis (Lam.) Knobl. (= Mayepea domingensis Krug and Urb.). Hueso blanco, Palo de hueso, Huesillo, Palo blanco. Tree from 30 to 45 feet high, quite generally distributed throughout the northern part of the island. Common also to the other islands of the Greater Antilles. Wood light colored, moderately fine grained, hard, and moderately heavy. Pores small, isolated or in groups of from two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays nar- row, inconspicuous. LI. APocyNAcEz. 151. Plumiera alba L. Aleli, Aleli cimarron, Tabeiba; Frangipanic blanc, Bois de lait (Fr. W.1.). Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 6 to 10 inches in diameter, occurring along the | coast, very common throughout tropical America. The wood is used for carpentry work, and as a substitute for true sandalwood (Santalum album L.). ~ Wood yellowish-white or light grayish-yellow, marked with numerous irregular undulating lines, giving the wood a very pleasing appearance. It is very compact and fine grained, taking a very good polish, hard, heavy, strong, and tough. ~ 94 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 152. Rauwolfia nitida Jacq. Cachimbo, Palo amargo, Palo de mufieco. Tree from 30 to 60 feet high, common to the sandy coast soils. Common also to other of the West Indies. LILI. BorraGinacez. 153. Cordia alliodora (R. & P.) Cham. (=C. gerascanthus Jacq. and C. gerascanthoides ©. & C.) Capa, Capa prieta; Prince wood, Spanish elm (Jamaica). Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, found commonly in the mountainous interior. Although now rather scarce, this wood is very highly . prized locally because of a variety of good qualities. In Jamaica it is considered one of their best woods. It is used for furniture, fiooring, doors, venetian blinds, beds, interior finish, carriage building, posts, and cooperage. , Wood rich light brown with dark streaks, fine grained, taking a good polish, mod- erately hard and heavy (about 36 pounds per cubic foot), strong and durable. Pores small, numerous, isolated or in groups of from two or three, evenly distributed. Annual rings of growth visible on a smooth transverse surface. Pith rays narrow but conspicuous, visible to the unaided eye on a smooth transverse surface. Notre.—Other species of this genus are Cordia sebestena L. (Vomitel colorado, San Bartolomé; Aloe wood [Br. W. I.]; Geiger tree [Florida Keys]), from 20 to 35 feet high, occurring along the eastern, southern, and western coasts. It is often planted as an ornamental tree in tropical gardens. Wood brown, fine grained, moderately hard, and heavy. Cordia collococca L. (Cereza cimarrona, Palo de mufieca; Clammy cherry [Jamaica]), from 15 to 30 feet high, occurring in the south- western part of the island near the coast. Used for barrel staves in Jamaica, having a wood which is soft, brittle, and not durable. Cordia nitida Vahl. (Cere- zas, Cereza cimarrona, Mufieca), from 15 to 60 feet high, occurring in the southern part of the island. Cordia sulcata DC. (Moral, Moral de paz), from 30 to 60 feet high, found in the interior mountain forests. Wood little used. *Cordia borin- quensis Urb. (Mufieca, Palo de mufieca, Capaé cimarron), from 20 to 60 feet high, found in interior mountain forests, having wood light yellow, fine grained, taking a good polish, moderately heavy, and hard. LIT. VERBENACE. 154. Citharexylum fruticosum L. (=Citharexylum quadrangulare Griseb.). Péndola; Péndula, Pendula colorado, Palo de guitarra, Balsamo, Higuerillo. Tree from 20 to 40 feet high and from 12 to 20 inches in diameter, occurring near the eastern and southern coasts. It is used for furniture and in house building. The natives make their guitars from it. Wood light red, moderately fine-grained, fairly hard, heavy (about 46 pounds per cubic foot), and strong. Notr.—Incidental species in this and a closely allied genera are Citharexylum caudatum L. (Higuerillo), from 15 to 60 feet high, from the Sierra de Luquillo and Cordillera Central, also occurs in the other of the Greater Antilles, the Baha- mas, and Mexico; and Callicarpa ampla Schauer (Capa rosa, Péndola cimarron), from 25 to 50 feet high, occurring only in mountainous regions of Porto Rico. *155. Petitia domingensis Jacq. Capa, Capé blanca, Capa sabanero, Capa de sabana, Capé amarillo, Palode capa de sabéna; Fiddle wood (Br. W.1I.). Tree from 20 to 50 feet high and 2 feet or more in diameter, occurring chiefly in the interior. Common also to the other islands of the Greater Antilles. The wood is used locally for making rollers in coffee-hulling mills and is suitable for cabinetwork, inte- rior finish, and general building purposes where a hard, tough wood is required. Wood light to dark brown, streaked with a decidedly beautiful wavy grain, moder- ately fine grained, taking a good polish, hard, and heavy. Pores small, isolated, or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, inconspicuous. Struc- turally similar on the radial section to the American beech. TREES OF PORTO RICO. 95 156. Vitex divaricata Sw. Higuerillo, Péndula, Palo de péndula, Péndula blanco; Lizard wood, Fiddle wood (Br. W. 1.). Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 20 to 30 inches in diameter, found in mountain- ous regions, common to many of the islands of the Lesser Antilles. Used locally for shelves, boards, framework of houses, in cabinetwork, and suitable for all inside and outside work. : Wood white, moderately fine grained, hard, heavy (about 50 pounds per cubic foot), _ strong, and durable. Pores small, isolated or in groups of from two to five. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous. *157. Avicennia nitida Jacq. Chifle de vaca, Mangle blanco, Mangle bobo; Black mangrove (Br. W. I.). Shrub or tree from 40 to 70 feet high and from 12 to 24 inches in diameter, found in tidal swamps. Widely distributed throughout the West Indies, and the shores of the American and African continental Tropics. The wood is used locally for foundations, underpinning for houses, fence posts, drains, and for charcoal and fuel. Wood dark brown, rather coarse grained, with conspicuous tangential lines visible on a transverse surface, hard, heavy, and very durable in damp situations. Pores small, isolated or in groups of from two to five, arranged largely in radial lines. Pith rays narrow, 1nconspicuous. LIV. BIGNONIACEZ. 158. Tabebuia. This genus embraces two local species, first described by Urban in 1899, of very lim- ited distribution, namely, Tabebuia rigida Urb. (Roble), from 20 to 60 feet high from the Luquillo region, and Tabebuia schumanniana Urb. (Roble colorado), from 30 to 50 feet high, occurring in the mountains near Utuado. Wood light brown, fine grained, taking a good polish, moderately hard and heavy, strong, tough, and very durable. Pores small, numerous, arranged in conspicuous tangential lines visible to the unaided eye on a smooth transverse surface. Pith rays inconspicuous. *159. Tecoma pentaphylla (L.) Juss. Roble, Roble blanco; West Indian boxwood. Tree from 20 to 60 feet high, quite common throughout the island, particularly in the limestone hills, and found in the Antilles generally. The wood is used in Porto Rico and throughout tropical America for ox yokes, piles, for house and boat building, and for general purposes. Wood white and fine grained, moderately hard, heavy (about 52 pounds per cubic foot), and strong. Poressmall, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Faint tangential lines of soft tissue may be seen with a hand lens. Pith rays minute, _ inconspicuous. 160. Tecoma leuycoxylon (L.) Mart. Roble, Roble prieto; White wood (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 60 feet high most commonly found in the limestone hills of the south coast and less frequently in the Sierra de Luquillo and Cordillera Central. Not an important tree in Porto Rico, but in other parts of tropical America it yields a wood used for furniture, house building and sounding boards, and musical instruments, also for posts, piles, and other purposes in exposed situations. Wood resembles somewhat that of the preceding. Norr.—Another species of little importance is Tecoma haemantha (Bertero) Griseb. (Roble), from 25 to 30 feet high, from the coast hills and interior valleys. *161. Crescentia cujete L- Higiiero; Calabash (Br. W. 1.); Jicara, Tigulate, Temante, Palo de melon, Melon tree (Mexico and Central America). Wild and cultivated tree from 10 to 45 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, widely distributed throughout the island. The wood is not known to be used locally, but the rind or bony cutside covering of the fruit, like the shell of the coconut, finds a multiplicity of domestic uses for cooking utensils and tableware. The wood is used - 96 BULLETIN 354, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in Jamaica for tool handles, carriage parts, fellies of wheels, saddles, and chairs. It is also employed for ship’s knees and cabinetwork in Mexico and Central America. Wood light brown, coarse grained, taking a good polish, moderately hard, heavy (about 54 pounds per cubic foot), very tough, flexible, and durable in the ground. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Alternating tangential wavy lines of hard and soft tissue are barely visible to the unaided eye on a smoothly cut tranverse surface. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous. LV. Rupiacez. 162. Rondeletia portoricensis Krug & Urb. A recently described tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 12 to 20 inches in diameter, occurring in various places in the Sierra de Luquillo and Cordillera Central. *163. Randiaaculeata L. Tintillo, Palo de espinillo, Palo de cotorra, Cambrén, Escam- brén; Ink berry (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 6 to 9 inches in diameter, widely distributed throughuot the island. Wood little used. Wood dark brown, fine, close and straight grained, taking a very good polish, hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable. It resembles the true lignum-vite in general appearance. Pores exceedingly small and indistinct. Pith rays very narrow and scarcely visible under the hand lens. *164. Genipa americana L. Jagua, Hagua. Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 15 to 20 inches in diameter, widely distributed throughout the island and the West Indies generally. The wood is suitable for pack- ing boxes, shoe lasts, barrel hoops, and wherever strength and elasticity are required. Wood light brown, tinged with red, very fine grained, moderately hard, heavy (about 54 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and durable; in these qualities it resembles the ash. Pores small, isolated, or occasionally in pairs, evenly distributed. Pith rays numerous, narrow, inconspicuous. 165. Guettarda scabra (L.) Lam. Palo de cucubano, Serrasuela. Tree from 20 to 40 feet high and from 8 to 12 inches in diameter, occurring in the coast hills chiefly, and sparingly in the interior valleys. The wood is used principally in building native huts. Wood ash-colored, moderately fine grained, rather hard and heavy (about 54 pounds per cubic foot). Pores small, isolated or in groups of from two to five or more, and evenly distributed. Pith rays small, inconspicuous. Nore.—Other less important species with very limited distribution and wood similar to the above are G. krugit Urb., G. ovalifolia Urb., and G. levis Urb., . which attain a height of from 30 to 60 feet and occur chiefly in the coast hills and shore woodlands. 166. Antirrhea obtusifolia Urb. Tortuguillo. Tree from 25 to 45 feet high, found in the mountains of the Luquillo region and Yabucoa. The wood is apparently little used, although suitable for structural and cabinet work. . Wood light reddish-brown, straight and fine grained, taking a good polish, hard, heavy, and strong. Pores minute, evenly distributed throughout the annual rings of growth, which are easily visible to the unaided eye. 167. Antirrhea coriacea (Vahl.) Urb. Quina, Palo de quina, Boje, Boje quina. Tree from 40 to 50 feet high and sometimes 2 feet in diameter, chiefly occurring in the northern part of the island. Occurs also in several of the islands of the Lesser Antilles. 'The wood is used for carpentry work, furniture, cabinetwork, and frame- work of houses. TREES OF PORTO RICO. 97 Wood yellowish, very fine and straight grained, taking a very good polish, hard, heavy, strong, though brittle, and very durable in contact with the soil. Norte 1.—Antirrhea sintenisii Urb. (Quina) is a tree sometimes 45 feet high, described from the limestone hilis in the vicinity of Utuado, Lares, and Manati, and yielding yellowish wood similar to that of Antirrhea coriacea. Nore 2.—Chione, a closely related genus, is represented by one species of little known importance. Chione venosa (Sw.) Urb. (Martin avila, Palo blanco, Santa olalla), a tree from 20 to 50 feet high reported from the Sierra de Luquillo, Sierra de Lares, and the vicinity of Bayamon and Toa-Alta. Found also in severa: other of the West Indies. -Wood is said to be made into lumber. .*168. Coffea arabica L. Café, Café macho; Coffee (Br. W. [.). A cultivated and seminaturalized tree from 16 to 20 feet high and from 2 to 4 inches in diameter, grown in plantations at all elevations but doing best in sheltered locations at or above 2,500 feet on the northern and western parts of the island. Native of Arabia. Coffee is one of the most important articles of export of Porto Rico. The wood is often used for walking sticks. Wood white, very fine grained, taking a fine polish, hard, heavy, strong, and tough. Pores minute, very numerous and evenly distributed. Pith rays minute and incon- spicuous. *169. Ixora ferrea (Jacq.) Benth. Palo de hierro, Dajao, Palo de dajao, Hackia; West Indian or Martinique ironwood (Br. W. I.). Tree from 15 to 30 feet high, occurring quite generally in the limestone hills and somewhat on the slopes of the interior mountains. Elsewhere in the West Indies and: in the northern part of South America it sometimes attains a height of from 30 to 60 feet and a diameter of from 1 foot to 2 feet. The wood is not reported as being used locally, but in the other countries where it occurs it is used largely for cogs, shafts, and furniture. Woed dark brown, taking a very beautiful polish, exceedingly hard, heavy, very strong, and tough. 170. Other genera of this family represented by tree species. Psychotria brachiata Sw. (Palo de cichimbo), usually a shrub or small tree, but occa- sionally 45 feet high; Palicourea alpina (Sw.) DC., shrub or small tree from-15 to 30 feet high; and Faramea occidentalis (L.) A. Rich (Cafeillo, Palo de toro), from 15 to - oe hia all rather widely distributed locally as well as generally throughout the est Indies. ‘LVI. CApPRIFOLIACEA. 171. Sambucus intermedia var. insularis Schwerin. Satico. A cultivated and seminaturalized tree occurring in various places throughout the Pree Introduced from Central America and found in many of the other West In- ian Islands. LVII. GRAMINEA. 172. Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. Bambti; Bamboo. This bamboo (although the bamboos belong to the grass family and are not trees at all) has an erect wood stem which attains a height of 40 feet and a diameter of 4 inches, and is rather commonly distributed over the island, particularly along the watercourses and throughout the West Indies. It is a native of Java. The bamboos, of which there are many species, are-adapted to a wide variety of uses and their planting should ~~ be greatly extended in Porto Rico. i 21871°—Bull. 354—16——_7 APPENDIX II. BIBLIOGRAPHY. LIST OF THE BOOKS CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS WORK. ABBAD Y LasteRRA, Fray Nico. Historia geografica, civil y politica de la Isle de S. Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico. Madrid, 1788. AREAS OF THE UNiTED StaTss, THE STATES AND THE TERRITORIES. Bulletin 302, U.S. Geological Survey. Barrett, O. W. The Fall of Porto Rican Forests. In Plant World, Vol. V, No. 6, June, 1902. and Girrorp. (See Gifford.) Britton, N. L. Recent Botanical Explorations in Porto Rico. Journal New York Botanical Garden, May, 1906. Brown, A. F. Silviculture in the Tropics. MacMillan, 1912. Burns-Murpocr, A. M. Notes from the Federated Malay States. Indian Forester, Vol. XXX No. 10, October, 1904. Carne, THomas A. (See Dorsey.) CaPoLLetti,C. General Report of the Proceedings of the Navigation Congress. Milan, 1905. Census oF Porro Rico 1899. Taken under the direction of the U. 8. War Depart- ment. Crensus, U.S., Thirteenth Decennial, 1910. CurrrorD, GrorGE, 3d Earl of Cumberland. The Voyage to Saint John de Porto Rico. In Purchas, his Pilgrimes, pt. IV, 1625. Couuins, G. N. (See Cook.) Coga@sHALL, GEORGE. 36 Voyages to Various parts of the World between 1799 and 1841. Coox, O. F. The Origin and Distribution of the Coconut Palm. Contributions from U.S. National Herbarium, Vol. VII, No. 2. Shade in Coffee Culture. Bul. 25, Division of Botany, U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture. | Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central America. Bul. 145, Bureau of Plant Industry. and G. N. Coutins. Economic Plants of Porto Rico. Contributions from the U: S. National Herbarium, Vol. VII, pt. 2, 1903. ; ~ Dorsry, CLARENCE W., ‘Louris Mesmer, and Tuomas A. Carve. Soil Survey from Arecibo to Ponce, Porto Rico. Field Operations, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1902. Export or Farm anp Forest Propucts, 1909-1911. Bul. 96, Bureau of Statistics, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fassia, Ontver L. The Climate of Porto Rico. Unnumbered Circular, Weather Bureau, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Frrnow, B.E. The High Sierra Maestra (including a list of trees and botanical notes by Norman Taylor). Forestry Quarterly, Vol. IV, No. 4, December, 1906. Fewkes, Jesse Watter. The Aborigines of Porto Rico and Neighboring Islands. Part of 25th Annual Report Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington, 1907. Furnter, Col. G. D. An Account of the Present State of the Island of Porto Rico. London, 1834. GazeTtEER oF Porto Rico. Bul. 183, Series F, Geography. U. S8.. Geological Survey, 1901. >, Joun ©. The Luquillo Forest Reserve, Porto Rico (with appendix, Trees of iquillo Region, by John C. Gifford and O. W. Barrett). Bul. 54, Bureau of — 77. §. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 99 Harris, W. The Timbers of Jamaica. Bulletin, New Series, Vol. I, No. 1, Depart- ment of Agriculture. Jamaica. HARSHBERGER, JOHN W. Phytogeographic Survey of North America, being a part of Die Vegetation der Erde, by Engle and Drude, 1911. Hearn, Larcapro. Two Years in the French West Indies. New York, 1890. Herrera, ANTONIO DE. The General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America * * *, transiation by Capt. John Stevens. Vol. IV. London, 1726. Hitt, Ropert T. Notes on the Forest Conditions of Porto Rico, Bul. 25, Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1899. Imports oF Farm AND Forest Propucts, 1909-1911. Bul. 95, Bureau of Statistics, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. INico, Fray. (See Abbad y Lasierra.) Knapp, Seaman A. Report on Investigation of the Agricultural Resources and Capabilities of Porto Rico. Senate Doc. 171, 56th Cong., 2d Sess. Leprut, ANDRE Prrrre. Voyage aux files de Ténériffe, La Trinité, Sainte Thomas, Sainte Croix, et Porto Rico, etc. Vol. II. - Paris, 1810. Leyes DE Los Rernos DE Las InpiAs. Recapilacion de, Book 4, title 12, Trans. by Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Dept. Mesmer, Louis. (See Dorsey.) Morris, DanreLt. Report on the Economic Resources of the West Indies. Kew Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, Additional Series, I, 1898. Murpny, Louis 8. A Preliminary Report on the Forest Problems of Porto Rico. First Report Board of Commissioners of Agriculture of Porto Rico, January 1, 1912. Norra AMERICAN AND West INDIAN GAZETTEER, 1778. Ovinpo y VALDES, GONZALO FERNANDEZ DE. Historia General y Natural de las Indias, Vol. I. PHILIPPINE, Director oF Forestry. Annual Report of 1912. Porto Rico. Reports of the Governor of, from 1899 to 1913. The Registers of, for 1901 and 1910. Rea, JoHN T. West Indian Timbers. Indian Forester, Vol. XXVIII, No. 12. Dec., 1902. Ropin, C. C. Voyages dans |’interieur de la Louisiana, de la Florida, occidentale, etc. * * * pendant les annees 1802-6, Vol. I. Scurmernr, A. F. W. Plant Geography upon a Physiological Basis (Trans. by W. R. Fisher). Oxford, 1903. SumMARY oF TRANSACTIONS in U. S. Customs District of Porto Rico for the fiscal years 1909, 1910, and 1911. Taytor, Norman. (See Fernow.) Tuurston, Lorrin A. Report of, Chairman of Committee on Forestry of Hawaii Sugar Planters’ Association, 1907. TRADE witH NoN-conTicuous PosssEssions iN Farm AND Forest PRopucts; 1901-1903, 1904-1906. Buls. 31 and 54, Bureau of Statistics, U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture. UnpEerwoop, L.M. Report on a Trip to Porto Rico. Journal New York Botanical Garden, November, 1901. _Wevt, W. E. Labor Conditions in Porto Rico. Bul. 61, Bureau of Labor, Depart- ment of Commerce and Labor, November, 1905. Witson, H. M. Water Resources of Porto Rico. Water Supply Paper No. 32, U.S. Geological Survey, 1899. Woopwarp, Kart W. Informe sobre las Condiciones Forestales de la Republica Dominicana. Santo Domingo, 1910. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 25 CENTS PER COPY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Ni ‘y Contribution from the States Relations Service A. C. TRUE, Director Washington, D.C. — Vv April 13, 1916 EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS. By A. R. Wuitson, Professor of Soils, University of Wisconsin, and H. B. HENpDRIcK, Assistant in Agricultural Education, States Relations Service. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Lesson I. Origin, formation, and com- Lesson VII. The phosphorus and potassium Wosition/ofisoilsy ease 2 OT/SOIS oo ais a See Aa al 47 II. The soiland plant growth.... 10 VIII. Manures and fertilizers........ 54 III. Physical properties of the soil. 17 IX. Soil acidity and liming....... 62 IV. The water supply ofthe soil... 24 X. Management of special soils... 68 V. Soiltemperature and drainage. 31 XI. Soiladaptation to crops....... 80 VI. The nitrogen supply of the XII. Crop rotations and soil fer- SOT Air A aD ole Seat 41 LET Da pened A aan ea NE a 84 GENERAL SUGGESTIONS TO LEADERS. Although it is not necessary that the leader of this course shall have had any special training, his work will be easier if he reads at least a lesson ahead of the class work, or, better still, goes more or less rapidly through the whole bulletin in advance. In this way it will be easier for him to make suggestions regarding the practice work in connection with each lesson. The references of each lesson have been carefully selected and are thought to be about sufficient to utilize the remainder of the forenoon after the lesson text has been carefully read and discussed. Where a choice is given between two references, the leader may use his judg- Notre.—This course has been prepared by direct cooperation between the authors and J. M. Stedman, Farmers’ Institute Specialist, of the States Relations Service, and is designed to aid agricultural colleges in their extension work. It is intended for the use of small groups of farmers assembled as a class to study the subject in a systematic manner with one of their number asaleader. It is adapted for use in any part ofthe United States. The agricultural college is to loanthe class the reference library listed in the Appendix and also a set of apparatus and the supplies designated therein. The class meets as often as convenient in a suitable room where tables for exercise work are available. The forenoon is devoted to the lesson and reference work and the afternoon to the exercise work, an entire day being thus consumed for each lesson. At the completion of the course and as often as desired the college conducts examinations through the leader and corrects and returns the papers. 21862°—Bull. 355—16——1 2 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ment as to which will be most profitable for the class to read. No attempt should be made to read tables of record data, but many of these can be carefully studied by the class and conclusions called for by the leader. If in any lesson the references should be too short, it will be easy to select others from the reference library; if, on the other hand, they should prove to be too long, the leader can cause certain parts of least importance to be omitted. The exercise equipment and supplies should be put away, and only such parts of them as are needed for the exercise in hand should be handled or used during the period. The leader should make him- self responsible for this practice by the class. The queries at the end of each exercise are intended to aid in fixing the leading points of the lesson in the minds of the members and should be conducted at the close of the practicum work. The majority of the questions have to do with facts brought out in the lessons, but some of them refer to matters which the class is expected to have gathered from experience and thought. LESSON I. ORIGIN, FORMATION, AND COMPOSITION OF SOILS. The intelligent use and management of the soil is based on an understanding of its structure and composition. A good soil consists largely of two parts: (1) The organic matter derived mainly from plants which have previously grown on the land and have decomposed more or less, but also to some extent from the remains of animal life; (2) inorganic or mineral matter, derived originally from rocks. If soil is burned at a red heat, the organic matter is burned off, leaving the rock material. The organic part is the principal factor con- tributing to the dark color of soils. The inorganic is that derived from the rock and is made up of particles of all sizes from coarse sand or gravel down to those so minute that they can not be seen by the naked eye. Both the organic and the inorganic matter play important parts in determining soil fertility. ORIGIN OF SOIL. Rocks and minerals as soil factors (Ref. No. 3, pp. 1-3, 7-12).— Minerals are the substances of which rocks are composed and con- stitute the inorganic part of soils. Some familiar minerals are gypsum or land plaster, and calcite, which occurs in marble and limestone. Some of the most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feld- spar, hornblende, and mica. White sand is nearly pure quartz. The fertility of the soil is closely related to the minerals which it contains. Rocks are masses of minerals, physically united, and form a con- siderable portion of the earth’s crust. Geologically rocks are grouped with regard to their origin and structure. The most important group, agriculturally, are the aqueous rocks, so-called because they EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS. 3 are believed to have been formed mainly through the agency of water. Examples of one class of these rocks are the deposits of gypsum and phosphate beds. The most important classes of the aqueous rocks, however, are those of sedimentary origin. They are composed of the materials resulting from disintegration of older rocks and from the mineral remains of animal and plant life. These rocks are largely distributed over the earth’s surface and include the limestones, the sandstones, and the shales. Organic matter as a soil factor (Ref. No. 7, pp. 120-125).—The organic matter of the soil has many important relations to the soil’s fertility. Vegetable matter, commonly in the form of leaves, and of stems and roots of plants which have died, undergoes a process of decomposition in which it breaks down into simpler substances. When moisture and the air have ready access to it, vegetable matter slowly decomposes into the substances which were taken by the plant, in growth, from the soil and those which were absorbed from the atmosphere. The process 1s much the same as though the vegetable matter were slowly burned, and, like burning, it pro- duces volatile gases and mineral ash, which again serve as plant- food materials. However, when the air does not have ready access to the decomposing vegetable matter, it undergoes much slower and often different changes, yielding residues known as humus, muck, and peat. Humus may be defined for present purposes as vegetable matter in such an advanced stage of decomposition as to have lost its original physical identity. The degree of fertility of soils is very closely related to the amount of humus which they contain, and one of the most important problems of a farmer is to manage his soil so as to retain a high humus content. The quantity of vegetation returned, the drainage, the temperature, and the character of the soil are conditions affecting humus content. Peat and muck are terms applied to vegetable matter which has undergone changes under water, largely without air, and which may be in various stages of decomposition. Marsh soils are largely composed of muck and peat. FORMATION AND COMPOSITION OF SOILS. Agencies of soil formations.—The principal agencies which have formed soils from rocks and organic matter may be classified as physical, chemical, and biological. (Ref. No. 9, pp. 1-6.) A physical change in matter is one which does not produce a substance or substances of different composition. For example, the changes of water to ice or to steam are physical. The form of the matter is changed, but not the composition. Likewise, the dis- solving of salt in water produces a physical change. The physical 4 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. agencies which have most affected the formation of soils are tem- perature changes, or heat and cold, water, ice, and wind. A chemical change, or reaction, is one which separates or rear- ranges the elements of a substance or compound. Chemically, an element is a single substance which can not be separated into two or more different substances; a compound is a union of two or more elements in certain definite proportions. Gold, silver, quicksilver, oxygen, and nitrogen are examples of elements. There are about 80 known elements. -Common salt is a compound of the elements sodium and chlorin; water is a compound of the elements hydrogen and oxygen; carbon dioxid, present in the air, is a compound of the elements carbon and oxygen. The formation of carbon dioxid in the decomposition of vegetable matter and the uniting of this gas with other substances to form carbonate compounds, are common examples of chemical changes in the soil. A biological change is one resulting from plant or animal life within the soil and may affect soil substance physically or chemically. Insect life in the soil is a matter of common knowledge. When plant or animal organisms are so small that they can be identified and studied only by the use of the microscope, they are called microorganisms, and a study of those commonly occurring in the soil is called soil microbiology or soil bacteriology. Nitrification, or formation of nitrates, is a typical example of microbiological (bacterial) changes in soils. The work of nodule-forming bacteria upon the roots of red clover, alfalfa, and other leguminous plants, is another example of — such changes affecting the productiveness of soils. The biological changes produced in the soil are very extensive and important. See Lesson VI. | The physical, chemical, and biological factors which have been potent agencies in the formation of soil for past ages are constantly producing soil changes. Their action may be advantageously con- trolled to some extent by the farmer, as will be shown in other les- sons. | Residual soils (Ref. No. 3, pp. 31-35).—Soils formed from the rocks immediately underlying them are called residual soils. On examin- ing a stone quarry, it is usually found that the upper portion of the quarry rock is more or less broken up and pieces of the rock are embedded in the lower layer of the soul. In fact, the finer pebbles and cobbles of stone often extend all the way to the surface of the soil. 70 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. These windstorms usually do not have much chance to develop dur- ing the summer when the ground is more fully covered by growing crops. To prevent this danger of wind-blown sand the ground should be kept covered with growing crops as much as possible. Land on which potatoes have been grown may be seeded to rye at once after the digging of the potatoes, and, if desired, clover may be sown on the rye early in the following spring. In this way the ground is never exposed for any length of time to the wind. Fields on sandy farms should also be laid out in long narrow strips, so that the ground on which the tilled crop, such as corn or potatoes, is planted will alter- nate with strips bearing grain or grass which protects the ground. Fertility (Ref. No. 7, p. 415).—Sandy soils are low in the total amount of plant food they contain, and often what they do have is rather unavailable because of the coarseness of the grains of which it consists. It is particularly desirable that the organic matter of such sous be increased, partly because by so doing the nitrogen can be best increased, and partly because the organic matter acts on the mineral matter in the soil so as to make it available for growing crops. For adding organic matter legumes should be used as far as possible, since they have the power of gathering nitrogen from the air. In the erowing of these legumes, such as clover, soy beans, etc., the use of a fertilizer containing potassium and phosphorus is important. Lime is also often needed to secure satisfactory crops of alfalfa or clover. These plants can secure much of their nitrogen from the atmosphere, but they require the mineral elements from the soil just as all plants do. However, it is important to notice that in the decomposition of organic matter produced by the growing and plowing under of legume crops the phosphorus and potassium which was used in their growth become available to succeeding crops, and this further increases the value of legumes as fertilizers. Crops for sandy soils —The readiness with which sandy soils may be worked, even immediately following rains, especially adapts such sous to the growth of crops requiring considerable manual labor, such as vegetables and small fruits. The advantage which sandy soils have in this respect is so great that it offsets their low fertility and makes it preferable to use them for such purposes, even though fer- tilizers must be purchased in larger quantities than would be necessary on heavier soils. The low water-holding power of such soil also per- mits it to become warm much more quickly in the spring than heavier soils which contain much water, the evaporation of which keeps them cold. This higher temperature of sandy soils adapts them to certain crops requiring a high temperature, such as melons, tomatoes, and potatoes. The fact that sandy soils are subject to drought during periods of small rainfall in the summer makes them poorly suited to grass crops, which should grow all the season, especially when used EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS. 71 for pasture. This seriously lessens their value for such crops as sugar beets, cotton, or corn, which grow through the whole summer. On the other hand, some small grains, which make their growth very early in the season, are better adapted to such land. Crop rotation for light soil should be short. Many of the best rotations are of but three years’ duration. Live-stock farming on sand.—The use of pasture is still, and prob- ably will long remain, an important factor in most lines of live-stock farming. This is partly because in grazing, stock harvest their own feed, and in this way greatly lessen the expense for labor. Since sandy soils, as we have seen, are poorly adapted to pasture grasses, they are not as well suited to most lines of live-stock raising as are heavier soils. However, it is frequently the case that considerable quantities of produce, grown in connection with truck raising on sandy soils, are not marketable and should be fed to some form of live stock. A small number of live stock, therefore, should usually be kept, even on sandy farms, the principal business of which is the growing of truck or vegetable crops. CLAY SOILS. Formation and location.—Clay soils are commonly formed by the settling out of fine sediment in standing bodies of water into which streams carrying the sediment have run. Such areas of standing water occur as lagoons along main river vaileys like those of the Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri, and other large rivers. They were also formed in extensions of the Great Lakes which existed toward the close of the glacial period.’ Broad belts of extremely heavy clay soils were formed in this way along the southern shore of Lake Superior, along Lake Michigan in Wisconsin, and on the southern borders of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. Many shallow lakes existed for a comparatively short time at the close of the glacial period. In these great areas heavy clay soils were formed. Lake Agassiz in Minnesota, North Dakota, and Manitoba (long since dried up) is one of the best illustrations of the formation of heavy clay soils. The clay soil of the Champlain Valley in New York has its origin in the same way. Some aréas of heavy clay soil have also been formed along the sea- shore as deltas and in bodies of salt water formed by shutting off the main portion of the ocean. As stated in Lesson I, a residual soil from limestone is also an extremely fine clay. This is because the soil is made up of the insoluble portions of the rock, the soluble portions having been dissolved and carried away by percolating water. | Characteristics of clay soils (Ref. No. 7, pp. 95-99).—Clay soils owe their special character largely to their very fine texture. Their large water-holding capacity and poor underdrainage is the immediate resuit of this texture. As a secondary result they often have poor tilth and are liable under certain conditions to be cold during the 12 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. spring. They usually have a high content of potassium, and the phosphorus content is sometimes large. Their treatment, therefore, must be such as to overcome their peculiar difficulties and take advantage of their particularly strong points. Drainage.—Since large portions of these heavy clay soils were formed as deposits in standing bodies of water, they very commonly have comparatively level surfaces. They therefore frequently have poor surface drainage as well as poor underdrainage. For general farming everything possible must be done to secure good surface drainage when the expense of tile is unwarranted. Tile drainage, however, is often necessary in order to permit the use of such land for crops requiring considerable tillage. This form of drainage for such land is usually profitable, even for staple crops. The expense, of course, varies, depending on the distance to an outlet, the presence of stones in the subsoil, and other factors. Ordinarily the expense is between $20 and $30 per acre. Since a tile system once carefully installed in clay soil will last almost indefinitely, the expense to be charged to the land is simply that of the interest on the investment, or from $1.50 to $2 per year. Indeed, the entire expense is very commonly recovered by the increase of crops in from one to three years. Tilth.—The most serious difficulty in the management of heavy clay soils results from their poor tilth. Such soils are apt to bake and form large clods, so that preparation of a good seed bed and the cultivation of the crop is difficult and involves much extra labor. This poor tilth is due to the fact that the films of water surrounding the fine grains draw the particles so closely together when they dry that they are held with considerable tenacity. This difficulty may be overcome to a limited extent by increasing the amount of organic matter. Humus and vegetable matter in such soils has the effect of lessening the tendency to form clods. Thus, after a heavy clay soil has grown a crop of clover, or has been in grass for some time, it is easier to retain a good tilth than if it is kept in tilled crops con- tinually. As before shown, liming of clays, especially with quick- lime, produces a flocculating effect upon the soil and so reduces the tendency to clodding and greatly improves its tilth. Another extremely important factor is the moisture condition when they are cultivated. As before stated, when such soils are plowed or other; wise worked in a wet condition, they have a marked tendency to puddle and run together in such a way that very hard and resistant clods are formed. It is extremely important to do all the work of tillage on such land when the soil is in just the right condition of moisture, so that the clods will break down in the soil. This condi- tion must be determined for each individual field and with a little practice can readily be recognized. Plowing clay land in the fall and EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS. 73 leaving it in the rough plowed form gives frost and weather an oppor- tunity to break down the clods, causing them to crumble. Care must be taken not to attempt to work the land in the spring until the surface is dried off enough to permit harrowing or disking without causing puddling. , Crops for clay soilOn account of their fine texture and the diffi- culty with which roots penetrate clay soils they are not well adapted to such crops as have coarse roots, which can not readily enter the soil. On the other hand, extremely fine roots of grass are able to find their way into the most dense clays and can therefore take advantage of the large water-holding capacity such soils possess. Small grains, such as barley and wheat, do well on these soils for the same reason. Vegetable and truck crops are, as a rule, very poorly adapted to heavy soils, because their roots usually find difficulty in penetrating the soil, especially in a climate characterized by frequent summer rams. This soil is particularly objectionable for the growing of pota- toes, since it is very difficult to prevent the soil from baking and cracking after cultivation has stopped, thus permitting the sun to strike the tubers and cause sun scald. When all of these factors are taken into consideration, it is evident that such lands are best adapted to the growing of cereals, corn, alfalfa, clover, and grass, and that stock raising in which the grass is used for pasture is especially adapted to them. Fertilizers —Clay soils vary a great deal in chemical composition. This applies to practically all elements of plant food. Since potas- _ sium is almost always present in relatively large amounts, it is often unnecessary to add potash fertilizers. The phosphorus content, on the other hand, is frequently found to be comparatively low, as in the case of the heavy clay soils occurring in the Lake Superior and Lake Michigan region. Besides such soils frequently contain considerable iron, which tends to reduce the availability of the phosphorus. For this reason, and because heavy clays warm up rather slowly and vegetation is apt to be slow and backward, particularly in the spring, a good supply of this element in available form is desirable in such soils. The element phosphorus has a very marked effect in hastening the maturity of practically all crops, so that it is often possible by the use of moderate applications of phosphate fertilizer on cold soils to cause crops to mature from one to two weeks earlier than they would otherwise do. The amount of nitrogen in such soils is extremely variable. In many cases a considerable supply of organic matter containing this element occurs in clay soils as a result of their more or less marshy condition before drainage. This condition permitted the growth of considerable native vegetation, but lessened its decom- position. Soils of this character are usually found well suppled with nitrogen after drainage and cultivation. It often happens, however, 74 BULLETIN 355, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that a considerable part of this black humus is of a very resistant character, and after the more decomposable portion has been used up by a few years’ cropping, the nitrogen does not become available rapidly enough to supply the needs of growing crops. Under these conditions nitrogen must be supplied by the growing of legumes, the use of barnyard manure, or in some other way. The amount of lime occurring in these soils is also quite variable. As a rule, soils which were formed in standing bodies of water contain a fair amount of this material, secreted by shell animals and deposited as the clay formed, and also derived from streams running into such bodies of water, which very commonly carry more or less lime. Nevertheless, clay soils of this character are often found which are very low in lime carbonate, or are even acid, so that lime must be used. Erosion (Ref. No. 2, pp. 50-54; 3, p. 14).—The erosion of soil is a cause of much loss of fertility, and on hillsides, especially of clay soils, it often nearly ruins the fields eroded. Sandy soils are not so readily eroded as clay, because the coarser texture permits the water, except in beating rains or on frozen ground, to pass down into the soil instead of running off the surface. The most practical means of lessening or preventing erosion are: (1) Keeping a high content of decaying vege- table matter in the soil, (2) the maintenance of a grass sod where practicable, (3) the use of channels having a slight grade, keeping grass growing in the bottom where possible, (4) subdrainage, and (5) terracing. 91 92 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUPPLIES. Specimens of common rocks as follows: | 1 quart kainit. Granite, schist, shale, slate, limestone, | 1 quart acid phosphate. marble, sandstone, quartzite, feldspar, | 1 quart rock phosphate. hornblende, quartz, black and white | 1 quart bone meal. mica, calcite, gypsum. 4 ounces ammonium carbonate. 1 pound paraffin. 4 ounces marble dust. 4 ounces muriatic acid. 6 packages each of red and blue litmus 1 quart powdered limestone. paper. Several small pieces limestone. 1 pound lump sugar. 1 quart sodium nitrate. 1 pound powdered sugar. 1 quart muriate of potash. 6 sticks sodium hydroxid. 1 quart sulphate of potash. 1 quart burnt lime. 1 quart ammonium sulphate. 1 stick sealing wax. Note.—The apparatus and supplies have been estimated for aclass of twelve. Ordinarily two people will work together in laboratory practice, and the quantity of apparatus and supplies may be varied to suit the size of the class. The different soils needed should either be furnished as a part of the supplies, or else arrangements must be made for the class to secure and dry them before the work of the course is begun. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY A UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE . 3, BULLETIN No. 356 4 Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry ‘A f A. D. MELVIN, Chief Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 7, 1916 MILK AND CREAM CONTESTS. By Ernest Keuty, in Charge of Market Milk Investigations, and L. B. Cook and J. A. GAMBLE, Market Milk Specialists, Dairy Division. CONTENTS. Page Page Prtroductione se sesso esse eee seen Sensis = Le 1 | Average scores of recent contests...........-- 15 Nationalicontestsss: sss. 2 2. eee clee se Aa etn 2 | Benefits of milk contests to dairymen........ 17 How contests are conducted.....--....------ 4 Hxtracts rom) letters:: 2. tase. scscsacgece 18 Haducationaliteatunesccee sce cee ceo. ae set = 11 | Suggestions for production of contest milk... 19 Mishotexhibitionssses see. ese eee Se 12 | : INTRODUCTION. Among those engaged in the production of sanitary milk there is an axiom that “‘education accomplishes more than legislation.”” To a certain point law can be applied; glaringly insanitary conditions and willful wrongdoing can be severely dealt with, but after a certain degree of cleanliness has been reached much of the subsequent improvement must be based upon the.incentive offered the producers to go to more trouble and expense to improve the product. For the purpose of teaching producers the fundamentals of clean- milk production, as well as offering them an incentive, the plan of holding milk and cream contests was devised. On February 14-24, 1906, during the National Dairy Show in Chicago, IIl., the first milk and cream contest was held. A tentative score card was devised for rating the samples, and from time to time, as defects were demon- strated, this card has been modified. From the beginning rapid progress has been made and in the nine years from February, 1906, to February, 1915, 87 such contests have been judged by members of the Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. In March, 1907, with the belief’ that these contests would aid greatly in improving the milk supply of a city, the first city milk Norr.—This bulletin is of interest to dairymen generally, and especially to those who are engaged in improving the output of their establishments. 22097°—Bull. 356—16——1 2 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. contest was held in Cleveland, Ohio. The Dairy Division, by sup- plying judges and lecturers, cooperated with the chamber of commerce of that city. Since the Cleveland exhibit several other cities have seen the value of these contests and have conducted similar enter- prises. Usually the chamber of commerce arranges for the exhibit by securing a meeting place, furnishing the prizes, and sending advertising matter to the dairymen and consumers. Among the cities that have held such contests are Cleveland, Columbus, Toledo, Cincinnati, and Dayton, Ohio; Pittsburgh and Philadelphia, Pa.; Detroit, Muskegon, Grand Rapids, and Pontiac, Mich.; Jacksonville and Tampa, Fla.; South Bend, Ind.; Cumberland, Md., and Roches- ter, N. Y. The exhibits have not only increased in number, but have grown greatly in size. NATIONAL CONTESTS. The contest for milk and cream producers annually held in con- nection with the National Dairy Show has grown remarkably since the first exhibit in 1906. Such a national contest brings together a set of unusually fine samples, from all parts of the country. From the data on the production of these samples much useful and inter- esting information can be obtained. The two most recent contests in connection with the National Dairy Show, in the years 1913 and 1914, brought out 217 entries, from 20 States and from Canada. The following-named States were represented, the figure after each State indicating the number of samples submitted: Wisconsin, 6; Ohio, 10; Illinois, 9; Michigan, 56; Pennsylvania, 38; Massachusetts, 12; New Hampshire, 3; Virginia, 1; New York, 10; Indiana, 2; Missouri, 1; Kentucky, 3; Washington, 37; Iowa, 1; New Jersey, 13; Texas, 1; West Virginia, 2; Connecticut, 3; Maryland, 6; Minnesota, 1. Two entries were from Canada. Thus samples were sent from as far west as the Pacific States, from as far east as the New England States, from as far south as Texas, and from as far north as Canada. The form of entry for the National Dairy Show is presented here- with: [National Dairy Show Association. Milk and Cream Show. Chicago, Ill., Oct.23to Nov. 1, 1913, under the direction of the Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agricul- ture.] [Only this official entry blank will be accepted.] CLASS 209, MARKET MILK. Gentlemen: Please enter for me 4 pints of market milk in competition for prizes offered by the National Dairy Show, in accordance with the conditions herein prescribed. 2 aso aie RM RRS es che cnt couse Pre al Proprietor. ETS S YTS ran 9a Jeehalae Mie aye at bec aR OL CL ae Bre ©) WAtd dressy se Ue ee ti cree cece ae age Bills aarehaish tyes MILK AND CREAM CONTESTS. 3 (1) Competition in milk and cream department is open to all milk and cream pro- ducers in the United States and Canada. (2) Producers of market milk may compete in both market milk and market cream classes. (3) Producers of milk can make but one entry in any one class. (4) Producers of certified milk are barred from competition in market milk and market cream classes. All samples of certified milk must be accompanied by a cer- tificate issued by a medical milk commission. (5) Entries in milk classes consist of 4 pints of milk in pint bottles. (6) Entries in cream classes consist of four 4 pints of cream in 4-pint bottles. (7) All entries of milk and cream after scoring become the property of the United States Department of Agriculture. (8) No exhibitor will be entitled to a medal or diploma who does not make answer to each question, sign declaration, and forward this official entry blank to Ernest Kelly, superintendent of milk and cream exhibits, National Dairy Show, 817 Ex- change Avenue, Chicago, II. HOW TO COMPETE. Milk entered to compete for prizes must be sent by express or otherwise from station nearest the producer direct to Ernest Kelly, superintendent milk and cream exhibit, care of Armour & Co., Chicago, butter and egg storage department. EXPRESS CHARGES ON EXHIBITS MUST BE PAID TO DESTINATION. Bottles must be carefully packed, caps should be sealed, making bottle air-tight, and both top of bottle and cap should be protected with paper, metal, or other material and all covered with crushed ice sufficient to maintain a low temperature during transportation. The package should be plainly addressed on outside. A card should also be tacked on box, on inside, giving plainly sender’s name and address so as to avoid mistakes in identifying packages. In order that all milk entered by exhibitors may be of the same age when scored, it is hereby specified that it shall be produced on Thursday, October 16, and shipped and delivered to express company at once. This is necessary for perfectly fair competition. A representative of the Department of Agriculture will be in Chicago to take charge of the milk on its arrival and see that it is properly cared for. Whenever possible, entries should be shipped in cases which need not be returned. The show association does not guarantee the return of shipping cases, but will endeavor to have them returned to the proper owner at the owner’s expense when properly requested. QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED IN DETAIL BY EXHIBITORS OF MILK. . How many cows contributed to the sample of milk entered? .................... . How many cows in your herd are now giving milk? .........-............+-.-- . How long since the cows contributing to the sample of milk freshened? (Average mon 6. What kind and amount of feed was given cows daily during the week preceding theyproductionof thisisample;ot milky} eee adele (his Are aera ai Sean 7. Were cows cleaned previous to milking? ............. If so, describe method of (ANSE NOTION ge tout eves ret r her CAC he Br Ag Oh ia Rape na eRe Ra ROC, Came nr ued 4 BULLETIN 356, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 9. What nrecautiona were rea i the milkers as regards cleanliness of clothing and hands? Joscec tee ieee rele dee See etet 2 ee eee 13. Was milk drawn from the cow direct into the pail or through cloth cover or cotton fiber? 2 Deed PES aes aS RE ae 14. What method g ster ns if any, was Ee Ld So Teas a a ee 16. Describe. milk cooler, if any was used:.2i..2..5. 2022.52 2.5 a 17.. How ‘was milk‘cooler prepared for use?) :!25.....'.0 55 6.2.02. Je Soa Se 18. To what temperature was milk cooled? -Je0s. 22.20.0222. 504) ae ee 19. How were bottles and ‘caps prepared for use? 2.22. 2..0:.2... 2.52.5 SSS es 20. What bottling process or what method of bottling was followed? ....-........... 21. How was ale cae for after ole and previous to shipment? ................ 24. Have you irovenioUlaliy erhibited milk or cream at any local, State, or National SHOW: vis). Steins Sone 25. Give name and address of medical milk commission certifying to your product? Aiea tees Sarees Veit certoepises oa i3 Jos , do hereby declare each and every statement in answer to the above questions to be absolutely true. I do furthermore declare that the milk submitted by me in this contest is the pure natural product, free from preservatives, and that it has not been heated or changed in any way. te cate cts MEU eta UIE: claayotuioe hoy oy vm reap Proprietor. Pohic His ahah EN On Mido) Be Ss a Seas ae Ania Manager. HOW CONTESTS ARE CONDUCTED. In preparing for a milk and cream exhibit the persons who have charge of the contest usually send out preliminary notices to the dairymen, stating that a contest will be held at a certain time and place and urging them to prepare to enter samples. Samples should be produced about six days before the meeting; this gives ample time for announcing results and awarding prizes, and affords an oppor- tunity for contestants to discuss their scores with the judges. Later, entry blanks, such as shown above, are sent out. The fillmg out and returning of these blanks is made a prerequisite to the entering of samples of milk or cream in the contest. Usually there are several classes for which prizes are offered, such as certified milk, market milk, market cream, and pasteurized milk. Certified milk and cream must be produced under the direction of a medical milk commission and bear the proper stamp of certifica- tion. Market milk and cream classes consist of those samples which are not eligible to compete as certified. All samples in the market and certified classes must be free from preservatives. Producers of MILK AND CREAM CONTESTS. 5 certified milk or cream are usually prohibited from entering any samples in the market classes. MANAGEMENT OF THE SAMPLES. There are no restrictions placed on the dairymen as to the produc- tion of the samples for the contest. The answers to questions on the entry blank show that many methods of milking are pursued. On some farms the cows are milked in the barn; at other places they are milked in the pasture or feed lot. Various methods of cleaning the cows are resorted to, and the milk is handled in a varied number of ways after it is drawn from the cow. All the samples of milk that are entered in a contest must be produced on the same day. This makes all the samples the same age when they are scored. After the milk is bottled, it is packed in a shipping case and surrounded with ice so that it will be in the best possible condition when it arrives at the place of exhibition. Mixing salt with the ice may cause the samples to freeze. The samples should be consigned to some cold-storage warehouse in the city where the exhibit is to be held, and upon their arrival put immediately into a cold room. In each entry should be four bottles, one for chemical analysis, one for bacteriological examina- tion, one for judging flavor, odor, sediment, and appearance, and one to be placed on exhibition. When all these samples have arrived, the four bottles in each entry should be given a number, preferably on a tag put around the neck of each bottle. The bottles, bearing simply the number, are submitted to the judges, and the scores are all made by numbers instead of by the names of the dairies or of the owners. It will be noticed on page 15 that some contests are tabulated separately. These contests were held under somewhat different regulations. Instead of allowing the dairyman to submit a sample of milk produced in any way, the samples, at irregular intervals through one entire month or more, were taken from the regular supply, as it was delivered. It was believed by those in charge of these contests that such a procedure would give a more definite idea of the average milk furnished by the dairymen and would also have the advantage of continuing a supply of high-grade milk from all the dairies entered. Two objections to this method have been raised by some authori- ties. First, the taking of samples, through an extended period and at times unknown to the dairyman, is the legitimate duty of any health department; therefore a contest conducted in this way is very hable to confuse the dairymen as to the distinction between health- department work and milk exhibits. The second objection is the more potent one. Under the usual procedure the dairyman knows 6 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. just when and how the milk submitted to a contest is produced. At the time of milking he has to answer questions as to all the details of the process, so that he has a record of the condition of the cows, the feed, the cleanliness of his utensils, etc. Then, when he receives his score card and observes, for instance, that he has received a cut on flavor, he can go over the various details of the production of that milk and perhaps find the method which caused the trouble. When the samples are taken at times unknown to the dairyman, the direct educational value is lost to a certain degree. The dairymen, unless they have kept a complete diary of all methods and operations dur- ing the entire month, do not know until sometime afterwards when the samples were taken and have no means of knowing the conditions that prevailed when the milk was drawn. On the other hand it has been argued by some that the score on a sample of milk submitted by a dairyman is not a correct indicator of the average product handled by that man. For instance, a man may ordinarily have a very mediocre supply of milk but by special efforts he may produce a very high-scoring sample for competition. No claims, however, should be made at the milk exhibits by those in charge that a high-scoring sample indicates that the exhibitor has an average supply of the same high quality. It is thought, more- over, that a man who learns the principles of clean milk production well enough to produce one sample of high-scoring milk is much more likely to put those principles into general practice than a man who has not studied the principles at all. Excellent results, however, have been obtained in the collected-sample contests. SOME EXAMPLES OF PACKING. Much ingenuity has been shown in shipping milk to some of the shows. One firm in Canada made a large box about 4 feet square, the sides, top, and bottom of which were made of thick cork. The whole was then covered with a preparation of tar to make it water- proof, and the bottles of milk were placed in a rack inside and the box filled with ice. The whole was then crated to prevent injury to the cork-board box. The cork was intended to serve as an insulation and to keep the ice from melting so rapidly. In 1911 one Colorado dairy sent to the National Dairy Show milk which was shipped in a specially constructed crate made as follows: A galvanized cylinder, fastened at the bottom in a galvanized-iron box, was made for each bottle of milk or cream. The bottles of milk or cream were set down in the cylinders and a tightly fitting cover placed over the top of each one. Then the space surrounding each cylinder inside the galvanized-iron box was filled with crushed ice. | MILK AND CREAM CONTESTS. i So much interest in proper refrigeration of the samples has been manifested that exhibitions as far away as Seattle, Wash., have sent a man with the exhibit to re-ice it whenever necessary upon the journey. METHOD OF SCORING THE EXHIBITS. The samples are scored for bacteria, flavor and odor, visible dirt, fat, solids not fat, acidity, and the appearance of the bottle and cap. Cream is scored on the same basis as milk, except that no score is given for solids not fat, the total of 20 points under chemical compo- sition being given solely to fat. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, DAIRY DIVISION. SCORE CARD FOR MILK. IBGE 4G Sls Gres ey eRe ae EN eU Ee ree IU PaO MTR SUA ae RN RL RU a ONL (QUES s Gs S155 ak Uae Re ee a th 3 ioe ea Esch ithNOee ses eyes Nae ete ha Perfect Z . Item. aeprel Score allowed. Remarks. IBactenaseeeeen es eee ae SYS} ey eae ee Bacteria found per cubic centimeter.......-. Flavor and odor......... DA Nol | act e Cowy, bitter, feed, fiat, strong..........--... Wisibleidingies.- 45-5.» GND pi Rae Clo ach HO tea ao eat ADI RA tt ac RE IDE e cagdbodose tau OOo R Ete TORY eae) ea Pericentifoun dese Nyasa eae a | Solids not fat...........- SIC) Sie Pe an Rericent founda eee elie ete INGIdI ty eee: soso. Bugle Seba Sees on IReracent oun diya-s a eee eee eee CAD ed odacsdegunoe ne doneccauwedbondsauasondde Bottle and cap.........-- iW eee a eae 1BYO)AH Gh oSeC Se ROC aR Ste acme eae A 2 Mota see Sis TOO fis ees ee sey acs 2 1B scl oh] OUTER ye ey ea ae ae re Ue eA ea Ee BNC ATS ae fa VG IN SE SMR a OE So 0 UA US a (USHA OVEKOL Wien Seah Cor geht RR hi aes iin aL eC SA Judge. NB) GCM erro Ue | aes uta Nera cies , 191 D. D. No. 452. [OVER.] 8 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Points. Under! 500 2.25. e2cseksecctsce ene sa cscs Ces 35.'0912125;001=30,000:--55-..cssesecseeeeee 5OOET O00 Rs esas eee ae AEN eS cod 34.9 918530'001=35,000...=--22 nes seer 1 OOIRT 500s see ces cle Peres Sena a Be Te 34.,8)210e35,001-80; 00052 -22 teeters seh Ses 1501=2, 000) fis 7 eee eke Seton ome ee eos 34; 7ilee405001=45;000L 222 eae ee ce eee FOOTE 7500 st es essa cierto ek eye tere Oe 34.6'4|= 45;001-501000.. --.. 12-2200 eee 2300153 000 ue ot eeeec eaten state ane Sen ecis 34.5 00;001=—55 00025232): 2s eee StOOT=SS 500 tan eee cee ere eins soe 34. Aili 1001-60, 0002-295. ses cee eee a} OM be Ssor ceacaunmareodseuesbeseoscac 34.3 60;001=65;000: = 522-22235 22 See Ai O01 S000 Sa: sata sss seen tee es as 3420 ji's65:001-70,000. .-2 022 -c-u eae 0016000 eros see soe eine ciee ee Bee fees ats BES) 70;000=75,0008 so 205-350 .oee sae Seis GiO0T= 7 000 totes ee 2 Bee ce 33: 6 185 75;001=805000: 5-2 Ae Ae ee eee 7001-8: 000 Stes eee ee eee TS 33..4001/'80;001=85 000-2... fecicn os oe see STOOLEO O00 Sse. eee eens Saakr tare Se 33.9 1/85 001=90,000ssnsc ee «es aoe GYOdI=1 000022222 ene fae ee ent oe 33°) lem90:001=05, 0002 seeses sas ee ne NOLO TAIT“ O00 see a ee eeu ee een) con: 3978.95 001=100/0008- 2. oe eee ete TAF OO1= 12000 ste eee eee eer eee 32) 6:-l42100:001=120:000....-- 2.2... soe eee LZ OOTH13 3000 seen ete eee es sciaaroc ea 99.4: )/.02; 001-140 000 ns 2 ace oe eee re teers 133001= 14 000: teers ees ee at * 199 9™l140.001-160,000.22 5 eeeee aaa 14,001-15,000- ---. Mecin tac Seen recess seyianies ee 32. 0/al%21605001-180;000-- 2 S22... sose soos 155 001-20) 000 Rates ee eee eee cance Os: 0 511 805001=200; 0002 2S 2s 22. see eee 20: 001= 25! 000 sa aes cee ene Ae ses Se A 3050 seAbove. 200,000.02... 22. eeneeee DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING. BACTERIA PER CUBIC CENTIMETER—PERFECT SCORE, 35. RE RAM CISHS 0.0 Note.—When the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter exceeds the local limit the score shall be 0. FLAVOR AND ODOR—PERFECT SCORE, 25. Deductions for disagreeable or foreign odor or flavor should be made according to conditions found. When possible to recognize the cause of the difficulty it should be described under Remarks. VISIBLE DIRT—PERFECT SCORE, 10. Examination for visible dirt should be made only after the milk has stood for some time undisturbed in any way. Raise the bottle carefully in its natural, upright position, without tipping, until higher than the head. Observe the bottom of the milk with the naked eye or by the aid ofa reading glass. of the slightest movable speck makes a perfect score impossible. The presence Further deductions should be made according to the amount of dirt found. When possible the nature of the dirt should be described under Remarks. Fat IN MILK—PERFECT SCORE, 10. Points. Points. 4:0:permcent and Oven wel). os sieleis fee ee one 10 352: per Cents. jk ess gai ea eee ee eee 6 ODOT. CONG eae ep ener ral antenatal 9.8) <3: per cent.) 2.20... ~2-. Se eee eee eee 5 OSSD OL CON Liege eee eo oe Cain aintats ete 8 dare 9..6%:/3:0 per cent... s2---2)2 so Se eee eee 4 SrA CTRCO Mb wey. soa eys Sete eee See eels winieeis esis 9.4 Wie? 9 per: cen tye = oat cocecc he aa eee Eee sigemee 3 Oo OsPOIg CON bens eee Neto peers ieee acre sil nore 9.2) | 2e8iper- Cent. vai2k. 222 hack eee eee eee Sra. PB ELE) OS) BL S12) AIL ea eee a eS Ey Ni ce I 9 2/sper Cents: 2. bis Fase eee eee 1 OPA DOL COME Ese pe een te Ns oie wae es A 8 isessithan'2:7 percent. . .c<. 14 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. List of milk and cream contests held in cooperation uith the Dairy Division during the use of second score card—Continued. Num- Name and place. Date. Product. bet of pcre entries. : Certified milk......... 15 91.18 National Dairy Show, Chicago, Ill......-.... { Oe Nov.2, patois Sr as a 6 ; 7 Market cream......... 18 79.75 City milk show, Detroit, Mich........-..+.+ nein 1017 [\Manest cresrac.2 11h meglio wes Pacific International Dairy Show, Portland Certified milk. ..-.-.-- d eae 0 Ty ? , \Nov. 21,1912. .|; Market milk......-..- D 91. 73 ee Market cream.......-- 1 95. 40 City milk show, Jacksonville, Fla...........- Dee F 14-21, | Market milk.........- 21 91.39 1912. Certified milk.......-. 3 93. 79 State Dairy Union, Harrisburg, Pa.....-.--..- Jan. 22, 1913... eee Mik. seceeseee 30 88. a arket cream.....---- 4 89. : Swite . r 4 ike ote 2 De State Dairymen’s Association, Saginaw, Mich.| Feb. 4-7, 1913. {Market green 2 Sonn EB S pe State Dairymen’s Association, Richmond, Va.| Feb. 6, 1913... heen area Via 6 eb: a Bureau of Social Service, Muskegon, Mich....| Feb. 7-10, 1913 rere eet POA M4 a og Certified milk.-.....-. 2 92. 60 Farmers’ week show, Amherst, Mass......-..- Mar. 19, 1913.. Mer eot Milk i722 sone 63 a8. re arket.cream...:--2-- 16 b Industrial Exposition, Rochester, N. Y...... Sept. 16, 1913-- Maret Milks see eee 15 85. of erti Milk eee 2 95.1 State Fair, North Yakima, Wash ........-.-- Oct. 1;1913. 2... {Market il enue 27 0, ty asteurized milk.....- 6 57. City milk show, Tacoma, Wash............-. Oct., 1913..... {Peete ruaa nie "i ealineaege ae : , Z Oct. 23-Nov. |{Cettified milk......... 23 90. 58 National Dairy Show, Chicago, Ill.........-. { 1. 1913 * 4 Market milk... -..--.2 73 92. 22 : i Market cream........- 19 88. 68 State milk show, Springfield, Mass.........-.. Dec. 2-3, 1913... ese ee tere et Be 6 State Dairy Union, York, Pas o..0.122------ Jan. 13, 1914... Sate eee 3 an 20 City milk show, Salt Lake City, Utah........ Jan. 22,1914... {Berrereiea Gites pe ep oF oe State Dairymen’s Association, Grand Rapids, | Feb. : 10-13, hater milks ie eesse 39 87. oe ich. : 1914. Market cream-.-....-..-. 9 79. Farmers’ week, Amherst, Mass........-.--.-- Mar. 18, 1914... Market ms irae Pet aS a 2 Citysshow., LacomasWashiss js/2- Ss aerst se. Apr. 21, 1914..| Market milk........-- 42 72. 36 American Association of Medical Milk Com- \sune 10, 1914 ieee Milkess-oseee 17 86. 63 missions, Rochester, N. Y. 2 “"\\Market milk....-.-.-- 17 86.95 Charter Oak Fair, Hartford, Conn............ Aug. 27, 1914.. eee See ess. 18 po ; Sie Sept 71g. |(Certified milk........- 2 80. 32 State Fair, Detroit, Mich....................- { 1914 2 Market Milk eee 111 Si 49 t arket cream..-....--- 4 81. Certified milk.......-. 19 91.31 National Dairy Show, Chicago, Ill......-...- Oct. 24, 1914... Market Milk ei eeer 64 = BY arket cream.......-- 18 h Chamber of Commerce, Cumberland, Md..... Nov. 9, 1914... Merkel me : 17 84. 2 arket, milk. 37/52 mee 133 89. State show, Worcester, Mass........--------- Dec. 2, 1914... eae Gai. 94 87.91 State Delrymen’s Association, Manchester, Feb. 10, 1915 (Moree Mile ee eee 45 92. oa oe ig er arketcreamiss. oc oace 8 92. Pure-food department show, Tampa, Fla..... Hebe 12-16, | Market milk.......-.- 23 84. 77 1915. ’ State Dairymen’s Association, Flint, Mich....| Feb. 17, 1915.. ae ee mae: ne a 8 City milkshow, Grand Rapids, Mich......... Feb. 22, 1915.. Market creat arj salam 1 . c . . arket milk... .-2. 2-2 36 89. City milk show, Pontiac, Mich............... Feb. 25, 1915.. {Market SATees 75 gg. 22 ; arket cream: -7---2-2 20 91. 72 Farmers’ week show, Amherst, Mass........- Mar. 19, 1915... pastecstnaa Stiles... 6 87.25 Summary of scores made with the second card. INumiberolcontestses ae see Ie Riots Scere eerste eee eee 45 Certified. -2 7-2 165 Malle eae oo 2, 090; Market....--...- 1, 905 Number of samples.......... 2,434 Pasteurized....-.- 20 Cees 344 heer Pee sis 21 fo See Marketi 2. s2-ssseeeuoce ‘MILK AND CREAM CONTESTS. 15 The following-named contests, on account of the different methods of collecting samples, are not included in the averages: Number Name and place. Date. Product. of Averages. entries. Dec. 7-8,1911 | Market milk...... 33 67. 07 State Dairymen’s Association, Baltimore, Md..--|; Nov. 20,1912 | Market milk.....- 17 81.18 Geta Stas a boa ve A Nov. 15,1913 Market aul Bees a a” 05 ranite State Dairymen’s Association, Concord, Db arket milk. ..... 2 BIN EN ey porate fae nae ecto icia tineiNe Gclatsin/siais'es ce Feb.11-12,1914 reas cream..... 4 (1) Certified milk..... 2 93. 33 City show, Portland, Oreg........-........-.-.- Mar. 20,1914 |, Market milk......- 106 76. 19 Pasteurized milk. . 17 69. 44 Certified milk..... 5 95. 37 City show, Seattle, Wash.......-.-..--. Mes eH Nem May 18,1914 |;Market milk. _.... 76 82. 63 Pasteurized milk. - 17 66. 21 Certified milk..... 2 93. 12 City show, Portland, Oreg.-....-.-..--.-----.--- June 8,1914 |; Market milk...... 105 85. 88 Pasteurized milk. . 10 84,19 Certified milk...-. 5 94, 21 City show, Seattle, Wash..........-..-....--.--- Sept. 9,1914 |{ Market milk. ..... 73 76. 56 Pasteurized milk. . 15 67. 28 Tilinois State Fair, Springfield, Ill............... Sept. 18,1914 | Market milk...... 35 (1) State Dairymen’s Association, Baltimore, Md...} Nov. 13,1914 | Market milk. ..... 25 82. 01 Certified milk... .-. 2 94. 70 City show, Portland, Oreg...........--.-..--.-- Dec. 11,1914 |{ Market milk...... 111 87. 66 : Pasteurized milk. . 15 88. 36 « Certified milk..-.. 5 95. 34 City show, Seattle, Wash...........-.--.-..----- Jan. 8,1915 |;Market milk. ..... 80 83. 06 Pasteurized milk. . 19 72. 18 Certified milk... .-. 2 95. 12 City show; Portland, Oreg:.-...---)-j---5---..+-- Mar. 31,1915 |; Market milk. ..... 101 90. 42 Pasteurized milk. . 15 88. 60 Portland Pure Milk Co., Portland, Oreg ..-.-....- Jan. 29,1915 | Market milk.....- 63 91. 59 1 No data. One hundred and twenty-nine other samples have been judged under regulations somewhat different from those described. AVERAGE SCORES OF RECENT CONTESTS. The average scores of the contests in which the second score cards were used are as follows: Average scores, in detail, of contests where the second cards were used. Milk. Cream. Item. a aha Perfec erti- e Perfect Certi- score. fied. Market. score. fied. Market. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Bacteria. SOS CEU AAS OCS ROR RAGE oBOnee 35 31.04 30. 51 35 28.83 26.00 HlavoOman dlod Olas seen sae eee eae 25 20.29 22.95 25 20. 43 20.08 WASIDIOWGIN OE as took esa on terre cee 10 8.85 8.67 10 9.28 9.18 DERE it SESE SG Re SEs Se Sia ences Sree 10 9.33 9.19 20 19.52 19.91 Soladsimotiateecss-ssceee eo casnees eee OF es 10 9.53 QE OG Re ee eee SSE ae Le aes ANGOLA Seas ae pee SC On Cone Ob ae cae be menses 5 4.94 4.89 5 4.76 4.85 Bottloandi capes. 22 i222 22 ee 5 4.94 4.62 5 4.77 4.73 Mo taleee tS os: PAWL SLs a Mad 100 88. 92 89.92 100 87.59 84.75 To demonstrate further the weakest points in the spvarales entered in these contests, the table below shows the scores on each class of milk and cream in terms which indicate the per cent of the average score to the perfect score. 16 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Per cent of perfection attained by samples in preceding table. Milk. Cream. Item. Certi- e Certi- fied. Market. ode Market. Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Bacteria: .\.ccs coo. Va bCe eile Cee Seemed coo). o eee kare 88. 68 87.17 02. 37 7A. 2. Mlavoriandodor a. ete ee eee oe Scan to hays SR moras 81.16 91.80 81.72 80. 32 V. dsible C6 hoy pene ney Stee aD sr Sara ive om eS Rar sea a) a 88. 50 86.70 92. 80 91.80 eA ahala soso elec Se te eee ta raletbtne, tie tne ls RB Foie cutie eh ed 93. 30 91.90 97.60 99.55 Solids MOD Lae cyt eee tae conte, Seman ene AAU Test, Sep ee ae 95. 30 91 90 car eat eee ee AOL Ysa cts jane se eee po ES ee = UL e cire, Sep re cane 98. 80 97.80 95. 20 00 Bottlerand cap. See ee eet ao Se tk is 2 eee econ tate 98. 80 92.40 95. 40 94.60 These two tables bring out some very interesting data concerning the samples of milk and cream entered. It is believed that the second form of the milk and cream score card which was in use gave a great deal better analysis of the quality of the milk than the old one. The first milk and cream score cards put certified milk and cream at a disadvantage, as different cards were used for the certified and market classes, the standards for certified milk being much higher. This must be remembered in examining the average scores made in the contests held while the first cards were in use. Also a higher standard was made for acidity in certified milk than in market milk. It was decided after much deliberation that only one score card - should be used for milk, whether it be certified or market. The ereat point to be made in the consideration of milk is its value as a food for infants, so in the final analysis all milk must be considered from the same standpoint when held up to the standard of perfection. The second card balanced up the desirable characteristics in a much better way than the old, and the results seem to justify the change. Certified milk averaged better than market milk on every point except on flavor and odor, where it fell about 24 poimts behind market milk. The average score of the certified milk for bacteria, 31.04 per cent, indicates that the average sample submitted contained from 6,000 to 7,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. The average fat content was between 3.6 and 3.7 per cent. The average solids not fat were almost 8.7 per cent, while the average acidity ran between 0.2 and 0.21 per cent. In the market milk the average score indicates a bacterial count of between 7,000 and 8,000; the fats average between 3.5 and 3.6 per cent; the ene not fat between 8.6 and 8.7 per cent; while the acidity was between 0.2 and 0.21 per cent. Considering that some of the samples above were cupped 2,000 miles or more, were several days in transit, and after their arrival they were held in storage for several days, making them over a week MILK AND CREAM CONTESTS. 17 old when scored, the showing is remarkable and points out very strongly the fact that milk properly produced and handled and thoroughly refrigerated in transit and storage can be kept sweet for a considerable length of time. The latest card shown on page 7 is more nearly uniform as to cuts in bacterial rating than the former cards. For the same increase in bacteria practically the same cuts are made, there being no serious breaks. BENEFITS OF MILK CONTESTS TO DAIRYMEN. As milk and cream contests are intended primarily for the educa- tion of the dairymen, it is interesting to go over the scores made in some of these contests to see whether they accomplish the purpose. In examining the scores of contests which have been held in the same place two years in succession, two things are very noticeable. The first is that dairymen who compete for two successive years almost always do better in a second contest than they did in their first, showing very plainly that they have received valuable suggestions as to the production of sanitary milk. The second is that dairymen who have had experience in these competitions nearly always do better than those who are competing for the first time. The follow- ing results which have been tabulated from three contests show con- clusive figures along these lines: MARYLAND STATE DAIRYMEN’S ASSOCIATION, 1911 CONTEST. Average score. hOineniwiorcompeted: the year previous: - Wee eee Nhe ee ee Peo ee ae 73.83 2onnenvcompenne tor the: first times 2/2.) epee Ee ye 2 Shes eae ae 64.15 ILLINOIS STATE FAIR. Average Average i score 1910. score 1911. 7 dairies which competed both years........--.-- tipsy ante yen ar de 74. 64 79. 68 vadeiriesswhich didnot compete in 1910: eee eee er ee ee 64.39 NATIONAL DAIRY SHOW. Market milk: 5 dairies which competed both years..........-.-...----+---- 89. 50 89.53 23 dairies which did not compete in 1910................ RE ates oe 83. 62 Certified milk: 14 dairies which competed both years.......-.--..-.-------- 83.10 91.05 3 dairies which did not compete in 1910.-_...-...........-.-+----- 75.72 Looking at the Maryland State Dairymen’s Association’s 1911 con- test, it is seen that the 10 men who had had previous experience in preparing milk for contests averaged more than 9 points better on the score card than those men who were competing for the first time. At the Illinois State Fair in 1911 those who had competed the previous year bettered their former scores by more than 5 points and 18 BULLETIN 356, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. averaged more than 15 points higher than the dairymen who were com- peting for the first time. The scores made by both market and certified milk samples at the National Dairy Shows in 1910 and 1911 have been compiled, and they show similar results for the two years, though in the case of market milk the improvement from 1910 to 1911 is very small; but the fact that the dairies which had had the advantage of a previous competition averaged 6 points better than the new competitors bears out the truth of the statements made im this connection. The improvement in the certified milk was very remarkable, as in 1911 14 dairies increased their 1910 score by nearly 8 points and exceeded by more than 15 points the 3 certified dairies which were competing for the first time. These figures, which are the result of the compilation of a large number of samples, show how the dairyman is taught by these con- tests to improve the quality of his products. The score cards made on each exhibit of milk and cream are always sent to the competitors with comments on the defects of the product, and they should contain suggestions for improvement. Progressive dairymen everywhere are availing themselves of the benefits derived from these contests and are finding that the competition aids them in many ways. EXTRACTS FROM LETTERS. The following are quotations from letters that have been received from dairymen subsequent to milk contests: I was so much surprised on the following morning after the announcement; when | arrived in town the people came in every direction to congratulate me on my success; I could not believe it. From the fact that there are so many older and more experi- enced dairymen than myself I was not expecting anything of the kind. I have this much confidence in myseif that if I won this time I will try again. I have discovered where I can make much improvement next time in flavor. I expect to use narrow-top pails hereafter. I use straw for bedding; I dampen my bedding with a sprinkler just before the cows goin. I washed my cow 12 hours before milking; later, I rubbed her down: one hour before milking I rubbed her down again with a damp cloth. * * * * * Xs * We are very glad that we had our goods entered. The winning of cup and honor- able mention are a source of satisfaction, not from their value, but to know our standing. We have been trying to produce good, clean, wholesome products, but did not know where we stood as compared with others, as this was our first entry. It has certainly been a good advertisement for us, as we have not been able to fill our orders since. * * * * * * * Although my milk was not good enough to receive a diploma, I learned more than if it had scored better. The appearance of the samples on Friday made me think I was free of many undesirable kinds of bacteria, and I believe that if my methods are improved I can produce as good milk as is produced in the much more expensive plants. MILK AND CREAM CONTESTS. 19 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF CONTEST MILK. It has been found in examining the answers to the questions con- cerning the production and handling of the best samples of milk and cream entered in contests that the producers have in every case exercised great care, and that the results obtained bear out the prin- ciples which from time to time have been laid down as necessary for the production of pure milk. It is not the purpose here to go into great detail regarding all methods which might be used, but a short résumé of the more important things to be considered in preparing a sample of milk or cream to, enter in one of these contests will be presented. BACTERIA. As the bacterial count has so much weight on the score card, it will very naturally be the source of much consideration on the part of the producer. The bacterial count in samples entered in past contests has varied from below 100 to several millions per cubic centimeter. As it can be assumed that any one preparing samples for contests will exercise all the care and intelligence which he pos- sesses, it must be concluded that at the present time many of our producers do not understand just where the bacteria come from and how their entrance into the milk can be prevented. First of all, in the production of milk which will have a low bacte- rial count, it is necessary to have absolute cleanliness in every branch of the work. The barn itself and the barn air must be free from dust at the time of milking. ‘This can be accomplished by keeping the walls, ceiling, and floors scrupulously clean, and some producers just before milking time have even gone so far as to sprinkle the air in the barn, and also the bedding, with a fine spray of water to lay the dust. The cow herself is a source of very dangerous bacterial contamina- tion. She very often carries on her skin dust, dry manure, loose hair, and other impurities, which fall into the milk pail during the process of milking. To produce milk of the highest grade it is necessary to have the cows thoroughly groomed with the currycomb and brush. Just before milking is commenced the cow’s udder and flanks should either be wiped with a damp rag or the parts thoroughly washed and then dried with a clean towel, so that no water can drip from the body into the milk pail. Better results are obtained, however, if the cow’s hair is slightly moist during milking. This method washes from the cow’s hide much dust and dirt which might not be removed by currying. The hands of the milker should be thoroughly cleaned, and to secure the best results he should milk dry-handed. Tt has been demonstrated that a large number of the bacteria that get into the milk may be excluded by the use of a small-top pail, which protects the milk from dust and germs which may drop from 20 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the cow’s body. All utensils, such as pails, strainers, bottles, dippers, etc., which come into contact with the milk, should be sterilized with either live steam or boiling water. Many dairymen make the mis- take of thoroughly washing the bottles and then rinsing them with water which is only warm. This does not kill the bacteria which may be on the surface of the utensils, and considerable contamination ensues. Many competitors have been in the habit of discarding the first few streams of milk that come from each teat, for it is known that the first milk drawn contains a larger proportion of bacteria than that which follows. Milking should be done as quickly as possible and with as little agitation of the cow’s udder as is possible, as such a disturbance is very liable to shake bacteria from the cow’s hide into the milk pail. As milk is so easily contaminated it is necessary, as soon as drawn, to take it to a clean, convenient milk house, where it can be cooled immediately. The milk house should be well protected against flies and should be scrupulously clean. As bacteria grow very fast in warm milk, prompt cooling is an absolute necessity. Fresh milk con- taining 100 bacteria per cubic centimeter, if not cooled will in the course of time contain the offspring of the original bacteria which may amount to millions. In the scoring of cream it has been noticed that the bacterial count has averaged higher than that of the milk samples submitted. This may be attributable to the fact that clumps of bacteria are broken up by the force of the separator, and hence an apparently larger count is the result, or it may be caused by milk passing through one more piece of apparatus, namely, the separator, which is not always thoroughly cleaned and sterilized. The bottles into which the product is put and the caps with which they are sealed should be sterilized so that no contamination can ensue. In cooling the milk it is not necessary that any special form of cooler be used. In fact, many of the successful competitors in the past who have obtained very low bacterial counts have believed that the exposure of the milk to the air in passing over a cooler was not a desirable feature, and have bottled the milk warm and cooled it with ice water. While this method does not cool the milk quite so quickly, it saves it from any possible contamination caused by expos- ing it in a thin sheet to the air. Bottles should be kept in ice or ice water until ready for shipment; then they should be packed in a durable shipping case surrounded with ice and forwarded without delay. FLAVOR AND ODOR. Several causes contribute to undesirable flavors and odors in milk and cream. One instance is the flavor which is the result of bacterial action. This may be owing to the lactic-acid bacteria which sours MILK AND CREAM CONTESTS. Or milk. In some contests those in charge have received samples that were actually curdled; such milk, being of no value as market milk, could not, of course, get credit for flavor or odor. Then certain forms of bacteria cause fermentation or decomposition in milk, and when they have worked for a considerable length of time they cause a very undesirable flavor. Certain feeds also contribute to the flavor and odor. In several competitions milk scores have been cut heavily because of a pro- nounced garlic flavor. Silage flavor is very often in evidence, espe- cially during cold spells in the winter when the barns are kept tightly closed. If the silage is fed directly after milking instead of either before or during milking, there should be no trouble on account of silage flavor in milk. There is one thing, however, that must be remembered: If the cows leave any silage in the mangers it must be cleaned out and taken from the barn when they are through, as the warm milk very readily absorbs the silage odor if it is in the air. The stable air, if close or ‘‘cowy,” is another source of bad odors which are absorbed by the milk. Sometimes flavors are detected in milk which are due to foreign substances. Milk has been sub- mitted in bottles from the rubber parts of which it had absorbed a flavor of rubber. The use of unparaffined caps may give rise to a “brown paper” flavor in the milk. It would seem that the best results, so far as flavor and odor go, can be secured by mixing the milk of three or more cows. Some- times the physical condition of the cow or the period of her lactation influences the flavor of the milk considerably, so that if the milk from only one cow is submitted there is a risk of the individuality of the cow playing some part in the flavor. It is also best to avoid “stripper” milk on account of a strong flavor which very often develops. VISIBLE DIRT. With proper care in milking or even with proper care in straining there is no excuse for large amounts of sediment in milk. As a matter of fact, however, few samples, even in the certified milk class, have been scored perfect on this pomt, and some samples have been so extremely dirty as to receive a zero on the score card. The sedi- ment usually found is a fine, dark-brown or black precipitate, which is the result of dust and dried manure finding its way from the cow’s hide into the milk. Some of this fine sediment in a state of tempo- rary suspension in the milk may pass through coarse strainer cloths, if such are used, and settle to the bottom of the bottle after the milk is allowed to stand for any considerable time. Very often large pieces of foreign matter have found their way into the milk. Insome cases it is almost unbelievable that such matter could get into contest 22 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. milk and escape the observation of the producer. Bits of straw or hay an inch or an inch and a half long have been found in the bottom of the bottle, and cow hairs are often found in the sediment, and occasionally bristles from brushes. To avoid visible dirt in the milk and thus receive a high score on this point it is necessary to follow the rules for cleanliness laid down under the heading ‘“‘ Bacteria.’”’ Sometimes the sediment is due to the fact that pails or bottles after being sterilized are allowed to stand uncovered. If there is any wind stirring, chaff, dust, etc., are almost sure to be blown into the pails or bottles and will thus appear as sediment in the milk. Coarse strainers should be avoided if the producer wishes to get all the fine dirt out of the milk. The best results in the past have probably been secured with the use of cotton as a straining medium. Various forms of cotton are on the market, some in bulk and some prepared in thin sheets especially for strain- ing. In the answers to questions on the production of milk for con- tests there does not seem to be any special advantage in milking on to a strainer over the milk pail. Unless the strainer cloth is changed when each cow is milked such a practice is liable to result in worse contamination than when the milk is simply milked into an open pail and then strained into the can. FAT AND SOLIDS NOT FAT. Except in occasional cases a normal milk having a fat content of 4 per cent contains more than 8.7 per cent of solids not fat. In some contests several samples have been entered which apparently had been modified by the producer in the attempt to obtain a higher score on chemical composition. Milks testing 8 per cent of fat and over have been submitted. Fortunately, such an adulteration is very easily seen by the judges when the fat is compared with the solids not fat. The contestant who tries to improve upon nature in this manner often decreases, rather than increases, his score. Any milk containing as much as 4 per cent of fat receives a perfect score, so that an 8 per cent milk gets no higher score on fat than a 4 per cent milk. The result of adding cream to milk to bring it from a 4 per cent to an 8 per cent fat is to lower the proportion of solids not fat in the milk, so that the score on that item is sometimes cut consider- ably. In normal milk the solids not fat increase as the fat increases but not in the same ratio. In milk to-which cream has been added, however, the fat increases and the solids not fat are decreased. To eliminate contact with all unnecessary utensils some contest- ants have milked directly into the milk bottle. The first part of the milk drawn from the cow is quite deficient in fat, while the very last of the milk runs high in that constituent. In order to have a normal MILK AND CREAM CONTESTS. De: chemical composition in milk it is necessary to mix the entire milk from one or more cows. ACIDITY. The presence of acid-forming bacteria in milk in large numbers is usually responsible for a high acidity. It may be that there are other factors which play an important part in the acidity of milk, but at the present time they are not well understood. To keep down the acidity of milk caused by acid-forming bacteria it is necessary to keep the bacterial count as low as possible by following the precautionary measures previously mentioned. To check the growth of bacteria the milk should be thoroughly iced from the time of milking until it is scored. BOTTLE AND CAP. It is best to select bottles which are made of clear glass and which are free from flaws and other imperfections. The bottles should be filled up to the cap seat with the milk or cream. The cap should fit the mouth of the bottle tight enough to prevent leakage but not so tight that it will have to be jammed in order to force it into place. When it is in place melted paraffin may be poured on it, taking care to fill the depression in which the cap rests. The bottle top may be protected by waterproof material, such as oiled or paraffined paper, tin or tin-foil caps, etc. The most common cut against the appear- ance of the bottle and cap has been made because either the bottles have not been filled or because the cap and the mouth of the bottle were not properly protected. The protection of the mouth of the bottle is important not only from the standpoint of appearance but because iced cases of bottles are piled one above the other and often the dirty water resulting from the mixture of dust and melted ice trickles down upon the bottles. PUBLICATIONS OF U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO MILK AND CREAM. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. The Application of Refrigeration to the Handling of Milk. (Department Bulletin 98.) The Alcohol Test in Relation to Milk. (Department Bulletin 202.) Estimation of Total Solids in Milk by Use of Formulas. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 134.) Influence of Stage of Lactation on Composition and Properties of Milk. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 155.) Chemical Changes Produced in Cows’ Milk by Pasteurization. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 166.) Extra Cost of Producing Clean Milk. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 170.) Utilization of Exhaust Steam for Heating Boiler Feed Water and Wash Water in Milk Plants, Creameries, and Dairies. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 209.) Use of Milk as Food. (Farmers Bulletin 363.) Care of Milk and Its Use in Home. (Farmers Bulletin 413.) Bacteria in Muk. (Farmers Bulletin 490.) Grading of Cream. (Separate 536 from Yearbook 1910.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS Medical Milk Commissions and Certified Milk. (Department Bulletin 1.) Price, 10 cents. Fat Testing of Cream by Babcock Method. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 58.) Price, 5 cents. Bacteria of Pasteurized and Unpasteurized Milk Under Laboratory Conditions. (Bu- reau of Animal Industry Bulletin 73.) Price, 5 cents. : Market Milk Investigations: 2. Milk and Cream Exhibit at National Dairy Show. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 87.) Price, 10 cents. Milking Machine as Factor in Dairying. Preliminary Report: 1. Practical Studies of Milking Machines; 2. Bacteriological Studies of Milking Machine. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 92.) Price, 15 cents. Chemical and Physical Study of Large and Small Fat Globules in Cows’ Milk. (Bu- reau of Animal Industry Bulletin 111.) Price, 5 cents. Variations in Composition and Properties of Milk from Individual Cow. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 157.) Price, 5 cents. Study of Bacteria Which Survive Pasteurization. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bul- letin 161.) Price, 10 cents. City Milk and Cream Contest as Practical Method of Improving Milk Supply. (Bu- reau of Animal Industry Circular 117.) Price, 5 cents. Some Important Factors in Production of Sanitary Milk. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 142.) Price, 5 cents. Competitive Exhibitions of Milk and Cream, with Report of Exhibition Held at Pittsburgh, Pa. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 151.) Price, 5 cents. Improved Methods for Production of Market Milk by Ordinary Dairies. (Bureau of - Animal Industry Circular 158.) Price, 5 cents. Extra Cost of Producing Clean Milk. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 170.) Price, 5 cents. Fermented Milks. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 171.) Price 5 cents. Pasteurization of Milk. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 184.) Price, 5 cents. Directions for Home Pasteurization of Milk. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 197.) Price, 5 cents. Milk and Cream Contests and how to Control Them, and How to Prepare Samples for Competition. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 205.) Price, 5 cents. 24 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1916 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv April 27, 1916 ALASKA AND STONER, OR “MIRACLE,” WHEATS: TWO VARIETIES MUCH MISREPRESENTED. By CARLETON R. BALL, Agronomist in Charge of Western Wheat Investigations, and CrybE HE. Leienuty, Agronomist in Charge of Eastern Wheat Investiga- tions. CONTENTS. Page. | Page. A OMuUC HONep cere ecninseciseseeeee eae cee ne 1 | Stoner, or ‘‘ Miracle,’’ wheat—Continued. PAllas anit ea eee sete see eee sus Si Ts 2 Reapenimentaldataeceosss- sees eee ee 19 DESCRIP IONE easement eee ee ne. 2 Yields in comparison with other Hanlyghistonyaees sceessescseeeeer es 3 VARIO TICS He Le Says Speke teense ¥3 19 IVECEN eX PlOltATION as aoe eee sc 6 Tests at the Maryland Agricul- Natal Steet eeier ce ioce casement b, 9 tural Experiment Station-..- 19 Mallineabestsense je joke aeons neeeee a: 11 Tests at Arlington Farm.....---. 20 Stoner, or ‘‘ Miracle,”’? wheat.......-.-------- 14 Tests at Nephi, Utah........---- 21 DESCRIPTIONS ance se emee sess soeee css 15 Rate-of-seeding tests.....-.-.-.-.---- 22 BEDS CORYpea eens Sei eee Tye 15 Mil erin oa OW ers neha ease ee en 24 Exploitation in Philadelphia.......- 17 General tests by State experiment Promoting ‘Miracle’? wheat in SUALIONSEE ss oes oe eee Mae e 25 (CLUE A ao 5 Ace e Sen ao Spee 18 Tests in Kentucky........---.-- 25 Promoting ‘‘Marvelous’’ wheat in Tests in Pennsylvania-......---- 26 TAA Ue Waa Ss ee a Ne eS oS ee 18 Tests in Indiana ......-.-.------ 27 Promoting ‘‘Miracle’”? wheat in Conclusions seers sesh peste tose sae 27 ISO d hates eReMeeaeeessTaesee ose 18 The Stoner Seed Wheat Company.. _18 “ INTRODUCTION. There are many named varieties of wheat and other cereal crops. New varieties and new names for old varieties are appearing con- stantly. Many of these new varieties, or so-called. varieties, are good; some are not. The good varieties are sometimes advertised as being much better than they really are. Varieties of little value sometimes are claimed to be the best of all. : There are various ways by which the promoters of supposed new varieties interest their customers. Sometimes it is a story of wheat of mysterious or foreign origin; sometimes it is a new or unusually developed character that is claimed. Examples of this are the enor- mous tillering power claimed for the so-called Miracle wheat or the > 23342°—Bull. 357—16—_1 oD, BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. wonderful productiveness claimed for the branched heads of the so-called Alaska wheat. Always, however, the yields are said to be enormous. Sometimes the same variety is exploited again and again under a new name and with a new and wonderful story.* The present paper deals with two misrepresented varieties of wheat. They have had very interesting and varied histories in past years. This bulletin tells what they really are, gives the story of their origin, quotes the claims made for them, and states what they may reasonably be expected to do under average conditions. Active efforts to promote the sale of these wheats are still being made and many farmers are being misled into purchasing them be- cause of the plausible statements made by the promoters. The United States Department of Agriculture and the State agricultural experi- ment stations endeavor to keep informed concerning all such exploi- tations and to warn their constituents of the danger. The present paper is the result of this endeavor. | ALASKA WHEAT. The so-called Alaska wheat is merely a very old variety under a new hame. Attempts to promote it under one or another of its many names have been numerous and persistent for more than a hundred years. There is evidence that these exploitations usually have been profitable to promoters and expensive to purchasers. In order that the reader may know definitely some of the ways in which it has been promoted its history is given rather fully. Quotations from early American writers show former exploitations, while the most recent one is fully discussed. These instances should serve to put readers on guard against future exploitations. This wheat has never been proved to have value anywhere in the United States. DESCRIPTION OF ALASKA WHEAT. The variety recently exploited under the name Alaska wheat belongs to the poulard subspecies of wheat. Botanically, the poulard wheats are known as T7viticum turgidum or Triticum aestivum turgidum. They are somewhat intermediate between the common and the durum wheats. All of them are bearded, and the beards are more or less intermediate in their length and color between those of com- mon wheat and those of durum wheat. They have the peculiarly flattened heads, the broad chaff, and the amber kernels of the durums. The chaff, however, is rather thin and papery, and the kernels are shorter, softer, and more humpbacked than those of durum wheat. These wheats are not grown commercially anywhere in this coun- try, and the relationships of the different varieties are not well known. 1 See Ball, C. R. ‘‘ Three much-misrepresented sorghums,”’ U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cir. 50, 14 p., 2 fig. 1910, ALASKA AND STONER, OR ‘‘MIRACLE,’? WHEATS. 3 The chaff is usually without hairs, but sometimes it is hairy. Some have simple heads, like the common and durum wheats; others have branched heads. The poulard variety here discussed as Alaska wheat is fairly well known in the United States. It has branched heads and no hairs on the chaff. It has been adver- tised many different times under many names, but has never become per- manently estab- lished. On account Fie. 1.—Larege, medium, and small heads of Alaska wheat. (About half natural size.) of the large, branching head it has always been easy to interest people in this variety. Heads of this wheat are shown in figure 1. ‘EARLY HISTORY OF ALASKA WHEAT. Poulard wheat in one or another of its forms is grown to some extent in the Mediterranean region of Europe. This variety of poulard wheat with branched head has been known in this country under many different names. Among them are Alaska, Egyptian, Eldorado, Jerusalem, Many-Headed, Many-Spiked, Miracle, Multi- ple-Headed, Mummy, Reed, Seven-Headed, Smyrna, Syrian, Wheat 4 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of Miracle, Wheat 3,000 Years Old, and Wild Goose. It is probable that as many more names for this variety could be found if early agricultural literature were searched. Like many other crops, it probably was introduced in colonial days. In 1815, a letter dated 1807 and signed by John Keemle! was pub- lished concerning a so-called Jerusalem wheat. This was a part of a small crop produced by Dr. Keemle from seed secured by him from Ireland and sown in the fall of 1806. These statements are found in this letter (p. 137): Its productiveness may be estimated by the number of heads on a single straw, on some there are 3-5-7 heads, as you will observe by those I send you. The straw is 6 feet high, and very stout, sufficiently so to bear its own weight uncommonly well. The grain is full and plump, differently shaped from our wheat, and somewhat larger, From this it is evident that the Jerusalem wheat of 1807 was iden- tical with the Alaska wheat of the present time. In connection with this letter the origin of the name Jerusalem is given by Dr. J. Mease,’? secretary of the Philadelphia society. According to this statement, a small sheaf of this wheat was brought from Palestine by a traveler and used as “a sign to an alehouse which he kept for some years after in Dublin.” Some seeds from this sheaf were picked up and planted by a farmer, who several years later sold the produce of several acres at about $3.65 a pound. Dr. Mease further states (p. 138) : It is believed that the same variety of wheat was introduced into this country in 1792, as some of a kind answering to the description of the Jerusalem wheat was presented to the society, and distributed among the members, but as it has been lost it is more than probable it possessed no particular good qualities. In the issue of the American Farmer for September 26, 1840, there is an engraving from a drawing of a head of wheat, without doubt the same as the Alaska wheat of the present time. This wheat was grown by Mr. Alpheus Baker,® of Abbeville, S. C., who is quoted in part as follows: The wheat to which you allude was brought to this place from the Osage Nation, by Col. Spieren, who had been sent to them as a commissioner by the President of the United States. * * * We sell the wheat at $5 per head. In the same journal, in the issue of October 7, 1840, Mr. Gideon B. Smith,t of Baltimore, Md., writes as follows: 1Keemle, John. On Jerusalem wheat. In Mem. Phila. Soc. Prom. Agr., v. 1, p. 1385-— 137%. 1815. 2Mease, James. On Jerusalem wheat. Jn Mem. Phila, Soc. Prom. Agr., v. 1, p. 137-138, 1815. 3 Baker, Alpheus. [A new wheat.] Jn Amer. Farmer, n. s., v. 2, no. 19, p. 148, 1 fig. 1840. 4 Smith, Gideon B. The new species of wheat. Jn Amer. Farmer, n. s., v. 2, no. 20, p. 154. 1840. ¢ ALASKA AND STONER, OR ‘‘MIRACLE,’’ WHEATS. 5 THE NEW SPECIES OF WHEAT. BALTIMORE, October 3, 1840. To the EprToR OF THE AMERICAN FARMER. Sir: I think it proper to take the earliest occasion to notice the new species of wheat, a drawing of which has just been published in the American Farmer and copied into the American and Patriot, accompanied by a letter from Mr. Read. I do this for the double purpose of saving money and trouble to all concerned. This new species of wheat is, without doubt, the Egyptian wheat Triticum compositum, for a drawing and description of which, see Loudon’s -HMneyclopedia of Plants. The engraving in Loudon and that in the Farmer present the same characters precisely. Besides, I have often seen the Egyptian wheat, and the head of the new species which has been exhibited to me is identical with the Egyptian. This kind of wheat was introduced into Eng- land in 1799, and from that time to the present has made frequent appearances in the United States. It has been called successively the Egyptian, Syrian, Many-spiked, Seven-headed, Reed, Wild Goose wheat, etc. The name Wild Goose was given to it from the fact that a few grains of it were found some years ago in the crop of a wild goose that was killed on the shores of Lake Champlain. The name Reed wheat was given to it because of its stout stem resembling a small reed or cane. It was received by the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, in 1807, from Gen. Armstrong, then our minister at Paris. Judge Peters took charge of a part of it, and grew it five or six years. It was at first very productive under his cultivation, a pint of seed sown in drills and hoed producing one bushel and a peck of grain. But after the first three or four years, the Judge says it did not thrive sufficient to authorize extensive cultivation. At that time it was extensively distributed by the above-named society. Judge Buel says he had seen extensive fields of it. In the Domestic Encyclopedia, published in 1821, it is stated that the Hgyptian wheat does not yield as much flour as any of the other kinds, and that the flour is scarcely superior to that obtained from the finest barley. In March, 1838, it was selling in Albany, N. Y., at $5 per bushel. It has several times been brought from Santa Fe by travelers and traders. It appears to be cultivated in that country, probably owing to its better adaptation to the climate than other kinds. That the Osage Indians might have obtained it from Santa Fe is no way improbable. How it found its way from Egypt to Santa Fe I cannot pretend to guess, unless a wild goose also carried it from the former to the latter country, which, on reflection, is scarcely more improbable than the fact stated above, that one of these birds carried it to the shores of Lake Champlain. ; From all these facts it would appear that if the wheat in question had been adapted to our climate, or was susceptible of acclimation, and in other respects a good variety, it would have gone into general cultivation long before this time, as I take it for granted that an article that had been so extensively distributed and so thoroughly experimented upon would have been retained and universally cultivated, if it had been found valuable. During the 20 years of my agricultural experience it has been presented to my notice at least 20 times. Your obedient servant, GIDEON B. SMITH. The names Egyptian, Miracle, Mummy, and Wheat 3,000 Years Old all are derived from one of the most common untrue stories about this variety. The story varies somewhat in detail but in gen- 6 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. eral it tells that when the coffin of an Egyptian mummy 3,000 or 4.000 years old was opened, some wheat was found. Seed was planted, but only a single kernel grew. The resulting plant proved a wonderful yielder and very different from any wheat now known. Of course, this story in all its forms is a fabrication, pure and simple. Stored under most favorable conditions, seeds of wheat will not keep their vitality more than a few years. No wheat thousands of years old has ever been known to germinate. The name Egyptian wheat has recently been used in exploit- ing a very different crop, namely, a variety of sorghum properly known as shallu.t| The name Miracle has been recently used for an entirely different kind of wheat. The name Wild Goose has been used also for Arnautka durum wheat and for Polish wheat. It always has seemed easy to interest people in this wheat. The branched head and the mummy, wild-goose, and other stories have been the very profitable stock in trade of many a promoter. It seems very natural to many people that if an unbranched head will yield so much, a branched head should yield much more. Head for head, this may sometimes be true, but acre for acre it is not, as shown by the results of experiment. The wheat is not grown commercially anywhere in this country, and ought not to be until it is shown to possess better qualities than are known at present. RECENT EXPLOITATION OF ALASKA WHEAT. In the early summer of 1908 accounts of what was claimed to be a wonderful new wheat appeared in the press. These set forth in brief that in 1904 an Idaho farmer had found, in a secluded spot on the Alaskan coast, a wheat plant with branched heads. They further stated he had brought back one head and sowed its seed that fall, increasing the quantity to 7 pounds in 1905 and to 1,545 pounds in 1906, the latter being an increase of 220 fold, from which it was argued that sowing 1 bushel to the acre would produce 220 bushels. One of the statements about the wheat which awakened much in- terest in the Eastern States was al follows:? And, last and best of all, it will bring back wheat raising to the worn-out farms of the East, where, with wheat yields 200 bushels to the acre, farmers can afford to use manures and chemicals and make a profit. There was obtained soon after a well-illustrated advertising cir- cular containing exaggerated and misleading statements regarding the origin of the wheat, its yieiding power, its milling value, its drought and cold resistance, its adaptability to poor soils, ete. This 1 Ball, C. R. Three much-misrepresented sorghums. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cir. 50, 14 p., 2 fig. 1910. 2Day, O. F. G. A miracle in wheat. In Sat. Even. Post, v. 181, no. 7, p. 11. 1908. The assertions made in this article were later disavowed by the paper. (Editorial, Sat. Even. Post, v. 181, no. 11, p. 16. 1908.) ALASKA AND STONER, OR ‘‘ MIRACLE,’ WHEATS. v4 bore the name of a seed-grain company in Juliaetta, Idaho, which offered a limited supply of the seed at $20 per bushel. The following quotations from this circular contain the claims made for the origin, character, yield, and value of the Alaska wheat: THE BIRTH OF ALASKA, Alaska wheat is the result of a bright idea on the part of Abraham Adams, an Idaho farmer, who realized the possibilities of a ‘‘ double” wheat crop if it could be perfected. After working Several years he perfected a head of wheat with one single central head, around which were nine other shorter heads. If this head would repeat in the planting, it meant a crop six to ten times greater than ordinary wheat. The double head was planted in the fall of 1904, and the next summer 7 pounds resulted, and every head was double. The 7 pounds planted in the spring of 1906 brought forth 1,545 pounds, 2224 times the plant made, or, at 1 bushel plant to the acre, 2224 bushels to the acre. THE ALASKA WHEAT REVOLUTION, It means that it is made possible to increase the wheat yield of the country tenfold when Alaska seed is plenty. It means that with Alaska wheat the farmer with a hundred acres finds his acreage value increased to a thousand acres. Farmers in the winter-wheat countries will have a winter wheat that will. be hard wheat instead of soft. The worn-out farms of the East can again raise wheat, because with such a yield farmers can afford to use fertilizer and get valuable returns. Farmers in dry countries will find in Alaska wheat an ideal wheat for dry land, where it flourishes, because its native spot was dry. Farmers in hot countries will find a wheat that remains cool and green after two weeks of dry weather with the thermometer at 140° in the fields. Farmers in cold countries will find a wheat that resists frost and bail that would ruin any other wheat. ALASKA’S YIELD. Regarding the trial of Alaska, a hundred bushels to the acre is only a small yield. It has run from 100 bushels to 2223 bushels to the acre in large tracts, and even more in favored places. Like all wheat, much will depend on the soil; the better the soil the larger the yield. From correspondence with the promoter of the wheat, it is known that in the spring of 1908 samples of seed were sent to a chemist for analysis. The report of this analysis, submitted in May, 1908, was favorable to the wheat. Without making a milling test, the chemist reported that probably it would be as good as, if not superior to, Palouse Bluestem: for flour-making purposes. : The United States Department of Agriculture early in June, 1908, began an investigation of the exploiting of this wheat. A warning statement, issued on August 18 following, was widely distributed. At the same time a cereal expert in the department was instructed to study the wheat in the Idaho fields and report on the yields obtained. 8 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, At Juliaetta, on September 4 and 5, 1908, the expert found about 700 acres of this wheat being grown for the seed company. The wheat in different fields was then being thrashed and was found to be yielding from 10 to 35 bushels per acre. The average was esti- mated to be about 25 bushels. Well-known wheat varieties of the Pacific Northwest were yielding as much and more under identical conditions. It was found that good farmers around Juliaetta were not growing this wheat. This accords with a statement made by the promoting company in a later pamphlet to the effect that the farmers refused to rent their summer fallow for the growing of this wheat, and the pro- moters were obliged, therefore, to sow it on continuously cropped land. Orders and remittances for the seed wheat were being received in large numbers. Most of the wheat was being shipped in bushel and half-bushel lots to farmers of the New England and Atlantic States. It will be remembered that the wheat had been advertised as having especial value for eastern conditions. An agent was spend- ing his entire time taking orders in the South. Very little was found to have been sold in the Northwest. Many telegrams cancel- ing orders were also being received, probably as a result of the press notice given out by the United States Department of Agriculture and of the disclaimer published by the paper which contained the original article. A widespread controversy immediately arose concerning the iden- tity and value of the so-called Alaska wheat. Those who had seed for sale claimed that it was a wheat of wonderful producing power. State and Federal investigators reported it to be nothing more or less than the old Egyptian or Seven-Headed wheat under a new name. Chemical analyses and milling and baking tests were made at several places, with results unfavorable to the flouring value of this wheat. The Post Office Department in 1908 took account of the doubtful nature of the advertising matter being circulated and issued a fraud order against the promoting company. In 1909, however, another campaign was begun in favor of tie wheat. Various press items appeared contr adicting the conclusions of the chemists and millers. It was claimed that the wheat was — just as good for milling and baking purposes as the Palouse Blue- stem or any other wheat. A 12-page pamphlet was published by the promoting company, discussing the controversy which had arisen over the value of the wheat. Extracts from Idaho Agricul- tural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 65, issued in November, 1908, are included in this pamphlet. ALASKA AND STONER, OR “‘MIRACLE,’’ WHEATS. 9 Extracts from letters said to have been written by several well- known agronomists of the country are frankly included also, al- though unfavorable to the wheat. Their opinions may be summed up in these quotations: Farmers are warned to avoid this wheat as they would a pestilence. It is one of the p»orest wheats known for flour-making purposes, and it is never grown where o.dinary varieties of wheat will thrive. Not even good for stock feed. Shun it as you would tie smallpox. Warning against what I must now recognize as a brazen fraud. The illustrations in this pamphlet are exactly the same as those in the original advertising circular. Some of the statements con- tained in the previous circular are repeated, and in addition afh- davits from growers, thrashers, and others are included. The only figures in this circular from which a yield per acre can-be deter- mined are to the effect that on one field, in 1908, 501 sacks were thrashed from 30 acres. Assuming that these sacks contained the usual 24 bushels each, this vield w ould be only 373 bushels per acre. It is stated also that ane 1 BAB pounds g erown in 1906 yielded 538,000 pounds in 1907. The acreage is not given, but this is an increase of only 35 fold. A greatly increased acreage was harvested in 1908, but the acre-yields are not given. In the pamphlet the price is still given as $20 a bushel, for sale by a certain seed grain company. Little more public attention was attracted to the Alaska wheat until the spring of 1915, when it was placed on exhibition by the promoter at the Panama-Pacific Exposition. Visitors at the exhibit were invited to take a copy of the pamphlet just discussed. It had been provided with a new cover, the last leaf of which is so pasted on as to cover the name of the seed grain company and the quoted price of $20 a bushel. The front cover announces that Alaska wheat, “smut proof” and a “big yielder,” is for sale by the promoter at Juliaetta, Idaho. Early in 1915, also, still another exploitation of this wheat seemed to be getting under way. This time a Wyoming association offered the seed under the name of Egyptian Seven-Headed Wheat. The price was $10 a bushel. YIELDS OF ALASKA WHEAT. An agent of the United States Department of Agriculture visited the field of Alaska wheat being grown in the vicinity of Juliaetta, | Idaho, in 1908. There were about 700 acres in all. The yields were found to vary from 10 to about 35 bushels to the acre, the average yield being about 25 bushels. Other varieties, growing under condi- tions apparently identical, were yielding as much and more. - 23342°—Bull. 357—16——2 10 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Regarding the yield of Alaska wheat, this statement is made by French and Jones. The yields this season, 1908, have not been phenomenal in any way. In some cases the wheat was quite badly mixed with other varieties, such as Canadian Hybrid and Little Club. An estimate of the yield, verified in some cases by the thrashing-machine record, is from 20 to 40 bushels per acre. This is about the same yield as obtained from ordinary winter wheat this season. That it will exceed these yields when grown under field conditions remains to be proven. Alaska wheat has been frequently tested in rows and small plats in several States in different sections of the country by the United States Department of Agriculture in cooperation with the respective State experiment stations. The results of some of these tests are here reported. At Akron, Colo., when sown in 20-foot rows in the spring of 1909, two tests of Alaska wheat gave yields at the rate of 14 and 11 bushels per acre, respectively. There were 82 rows in the nursery of this year, exclusive of checkrows, consisting of many different varieties and strains. Of these, 69 yielded at rates in excess of 14 bushels per acre, the best of the Alaska yields. In 1912 Alaska wheat was again tested at Akron in 20-foot rows and yielded 5.5 and 11.5 ounces per row, respectively, in two tests. There were in this year 114 rows in the nursery, exclusive of check rows, consisting of many varieties and strains. Of these, 28 yielded more than 11.5 ounces per row, the best yield of the Alaska wheat. In 1913, at Akron, Alaska wheat was tested in nine rows, each about a rod in length. It varied in yield from 2 to 9 ounces per row, with an average of 5.8 ounces. There were no less than 60 rows of several varieties, out of more than 600 rows grown, that yielded more than 9 ounces, the best yield of the Alaska, and a great many more that yielded better than the average. In 1914, Alaska wheat again gave about an average yield in row tests at Akron. When sown in short rows at Williston, N. Dak., in the spring of 1909, Alaska wheat was one of the poorest yielding varieties among the many durum and common kinds tested. It was so poor that it was not continued. 3 When sown in a 60-foot row at Belle Fourche, S. Dak., in the spring of 1912, Alaska wheat yielded about the amount of seed sown and was not continued. When sown in rows a rod long at Cheyenne, Wyo., in the spring of 1913, Alaska wheat yielded a little more than the seed sown, or at the rate of about 14 bushels per acre. A common spring variety 1 French, H. T., and Jones, J. 8S. Alaska wheat investigation. Idaho Agr. Exp. Sta Bul. 65, p. 6. 1908. ALASKA AND STONER, OR ‘‘MIRACLE,’’ WHEATS. hl yielded in a similar test about 7 bushels per acre. In 1914 at this place on a plat containing 1/142 of an acre it yielded at the rate of 18.9 bushels per acre, while Fife and bluestem wheats yielded at the rate of 8.3 and 9.5 bushels per acre, respectively, in similar tests. At Chico, Cal., in 1912, out of 57 selections tested, Alaska wheat ranked forty-third. In the Judith Basin, Mont., Alaska wheat was sown in the fall of 1908, but winterkilled. These results, meager as they are, indicate that Alaska wheat is not a valuable wheat in respect to yield in many parts of the central and western United States. Alaska wheat has been tested for several years in short rows at the Arlington Farm, at Rosslyn, Va., and has done very poorly there. Tt has never yielded much more than the seed sown and has usually yielded less than this quantity. It is clearly not a valuable wheat for the eastern part of the United States. Alaska wheat has usually proved a total failure or has given poor results when it has been tried in a small way at the various stations of the United States Department of Agriculture. This and its known inferiority as a milling wheat are responsible for its not being sown in the plats along with other varieties that are being tested. Usually only the better wheats are included in such tests. This wheat, either under its present name of Alaska or under some of its earlier names, has doubtless been tried on many types of soil in many. parts of the United States in the course of the last century. That it has never become established indicates apparently that it is not a valuable variety under any of the conditions where it has been grown. It has remained for promoters to resurrect it time and again and, aided by its striking and unusual appearance, to sell it to the unwary at exorbitant prices. Agricultural literature abounds in instances of this deception. MILLING TESTS OF ALASKA WHEAT. Regarding the tests made at the Idaho station,’ it may be said that milling and baking tests were made of wheat “secured at the ware- house in Juliaetta from the spring and winter Alaska wheat stored there” and of a good grade of Little Club wheat. Without going into details regarding these tests, the following quotation indicates what results were secured : 3 The results uniformly bear out the laboratory experience that there is very little difference in the baking qualities of flour obtained from the Little Club wheat and that obtained from the Alaska wheat. The Little Club is a soft wheat grown extensively in this part of the State, both as a spring and winter 1 Data from the following: French, H. T., and Jones, J. S. Alaska wheat investigation. Idalio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 65, 12 p. 1908. 12 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, wheat; for milling purposes it would probably be placed about halfway be- tween the best and the poorest milling wheats. We understand that it is con- sidered a good mixer by commercial millers and doubtless much of it is milled accordingly. It should be remembered that all the work mentioned was done upon wheat of this year’s crop. It is possible that if samples representing these same lots were taken and ground three months from now and the flour so ob- tained compared in the same way, more decided differences might be revealed. A bushel of the Alaska wheat was secured from Mr. Adams’s ranch, in 1908, and forwarded to the Grain Standardization Labora- tory of the United States Department of Agriculture at Fargo, N. Dak., where it was milled at the experimental mill at the North Dakota Agricultural College. Mr. L. A. Fitz, assistant in grain standardization, reported the results as follows: A baking test of the three grades of flour obtained was made two days after milling and this was followed by a second test after the flour had aged three weeks. A “standard” or “check” loaf was baked from a hard red spring- wheat flour each day to compare with the particular flour being tested. In all eases 340 grams of flour were used, and the amount of water used was regu- lated by the absorptive ability of the flour. The same amounts of sugar, salt, and yeast were used in all cases. The results of the milling tests were as follows: Laboratory sample No. 243 of Alaska wheat, milled November. 10, 1908. Weight per bushel: Bran 2k ba oem per cent__ 9. 74 Before cleaning___pounds__ 59. 5 SOT ES a ce do____ 19. 48 After cleaning, scouring, Total flour EEE do 20-08 and tempering__pounds__ 51.5 Wheat per barrel of flour: Quantity milled_________ do____ 60. 0 Bushels 22 ane 4 Loss in milling ______ per cent__ 53 POUNndSi ees 2/4 We Eee 38 Of the total flour 54.14 per cent was patent flour, 38.76 per cent was first-clear flour, and 7.10 per cent was second-clear flour. This wheat was tempered with water and steam just before grinding. It milled rather peculiarly, reducing to middlings very easily, but was slow to pulverize to flour. In comparison with the data just given, 16 samples of hard red spring wheat gave the results shown in Table I. TaBLE 1.—WMilling test of hard red spring wheat. Wheat per barrel of | Flour (per cent). Gna Sixteen samples. | | Total. Patent. Bushels. Pounds. Mascimms See ie tonal meee ten cme se. 12 aaa 75. 64 78. 41 5 0 Au Gruaub aa bh on lee weseeh seis aaah aly letra es UU lesa ne ae a) 2 EA) 69. 99 63. 52 4 23 SAV ELA GORE: 2 yeti eU ram ea iek poesia 4 eee 73. 22 74. 30 4 34.5 The baking tests of Alaska wheat Table II. gave the results shown in ALASKA AND STONER, OR ‘‘MIRACLE,’’ WHEATS. 13 TABLE IIl.—Baking report on sample of Alaska wheat. Loaf. Date and mark. wate Color. Texture. Remarks. Weight. | Volume. Nov. 12, 1908: Cie: Grams. CRc Percent. Standard patent -...........-- 185 459 2, 433 97 | Good......| Grayish. Alaska— f (Ratent heres esos ss Sc 162 427 1, 049 99 | Poor...-.-- bins cleansene. sec. eee 172 439 1,195 91 |...do.......| Dull and ashy. Second clear..............- 180 455 1,098 82) ed Oseeass- Dec. 2, 1908: Standard patent........-...-. 184 475 2,368 100 | Good...... Alaska— akembm seeks eee 183 473 1,155 99) | ROOT 22 oe Dull. Birstieleans 2 2205.) S225. 196 488 1,320 91 } Fair......- Second clear............--- 209 498 1, 270 82/5 2d Os eee The test on November 12 showed that the water absorption was lower, the weight was less, and the volume of loaf was less by half than that of hard spring patent. The color and texture were both quite poor. The test made on December 2 merely showed the im- provement which was to be expected as the result of aging. Fic. 2.—Whole loaves (above) and cut loaves (below) baked from patent flours: 1, “ Standard,” from hard spring wheat; 2, from durum wheat; 3, from Alaska wheat. Photographs of the loaves obtained in the first baking aid in in- terpreting the data given. Figure 2 shows whole and cut loaves baked from the patent flour of (1) hard spring wheat, (2) durum wheat, and (3) Alaska wheat. The hard spring loaf is used as the 14 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. standard for comparison. Figure 3 shows whole and cut loaves baked from (1) durum first-clear flour, (2) durum second-clear flour, (3) Alaska first-clear flour, and (4) Alaska second-clear flour. Fic. 3.— Whole loaves (above) and cut loaves (below) baked from first-clear and sec- ond-clear flours: 1, First-clear flour from durum wheat; 2, second-clear flour from durum wheat; 38, first-clear flour from Alaska wheat; 4, second-clear flour from Alaska wheat. The results of these tests show that Alaska wheat is clearly not in the same class.and does not deserve to be compared with the hard red spring, the hard red winter, or the durum wheats. The reason for this becomes more apparent on considering the results of the chemical analyses given in Table ITI. Tasre III.—Chemical analyses of flour made from Fife, bluestem, and other wheats, compared with flour made from Alaska wheat. Patent flours. First-clear flours. Second-clear flours. Sam- rie, . n Title: qd. 2 . . 2 Kind of wheat. ples Sis aS oe aS Ae Ss as fe 3 aver | Sig | mig | BE Oss | is |) Sa leks eee aged: | 5x [8x | Se i) sx=| Sx | SSclesx ese Be | se | a" | ae | se | ae | aS | oS ae PACE Pct Pct. Fife and bluestem... 12} 12.00 6.70 | 56.06 | 12.92 6.95 | 53.865 | 13.71 7.10 51.17 UN eee cease 13 | 11.33 6.58 | 58.35 |. 12.61 6.77 | 53.98 13-23 6.97 52.91 Preston and winter : , wiheats estes cesnens 4 9.60 5.55 | 58.80} 11.03 5.84 | 53.105 | 11.16 5.89 53.19 Aillaska= 23st hss Sal ae 7.64 3.99 | 52.24 8.72 4.39 | 50.313 }- 9.75 4.61 47.39 STONER, OR “ MIRACLE,” WHEAT. In the last 10 years a variety of wheat has been widely advertised in the United States under the name “Miracle” wheat. Some very valuable characters have been claimed for it, and for that reason its history, characters, and value, as determined from experiments, are presented in this paper. é ALASKA AND STONER, OR ‘‘MIRACLE,’’ WHEATS. 15 The name Miracle is undesirable, so the Department of Agriculture has named this variety Stoner, after the man who first grew it. Other names that have been applied to it are Eden, Forty-to-One, and Marvelous. This is not the only wheat variety that has been called by the name Miracle. Curiously enough, that name has been apphed also many times during the last century to the Alaska wheat. DESCRIPTION OF STONER, OR “ MIRACLE,’ WHEAT. The wheat here discussed is a variety belonging to the soft red winter wheats. This is the class of wheat commonly grown in the eastern United States from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River and beyond. ‘The Stoner wheat has bearded heads (fig. 4), white, hairless chaff, and a medium-sized, rather soft, red kernel. This shows it to belong in the group with Bearded Purple Straw (fig. 5) and Fulcaster (fig. 6), both well-known varieties in the Middle At- lantic States. It grows from 35 to 44 feet tall, according to soil and season. It ripens at about the same time as these two varieties which it so closely resembles. Heads of all three varieties are shown in figures 4, 5, and 6. The Stoner (Miracle) wheat is a pure strain; that is, it is descended from a single plant. HISTORY OF STONER, OR “MIRACLE,” WHEAT. The strain of wheat now known as Stoner originated on the farm of Mr. K. B. Stoner, of Fincastle, near Roanoke, Va. It was first brought to the attention of the United States Department of Agricul- ture through a letter from Mr. Stoner,’ dated June 8, 1906. In the spring of 1904 Mr. Stoner noticed a large bunch of grass in his garden; when headed it proved to be wheat. It had 142 stems, or tillers, and he became impressed with the idea that it was a very wonderful wheat. Just how the kernel of wheat became sown in the garden or from just what variety it came, Mr. Stoner does not know. The Fuleaster variety is commonly grown in that section of Virginia, however, and the Bearded Purple Straw less commonly. Tt is reasonable to suppose, therefore, that the Stoner wheat is a pure line from one of these varieties, which it so closely resembles. Mr. Stoner saved the seed and increased it during the two years 1905 and 1906, as shown in his letter. He stated that while he could have his wheat grown at Fincastle on shares, he receiving two-thirds, 1Jn the year 1904 there originated with me a plant of wheat, producing more than a thousandfold. The product of this single grain twice sown (in the years 1904 and 1905) will this harvest (1906), we think, yield sufficient to sow much more than 100 acres. The yield (I suppose) is unprecedented in this or any other country, and for that reason difficult of belief. Possibly this wheat may enable us to successfully compete with the Canadian yield; surely so, if we can grow 2 bushels to their 1. The drought injured wheat here, but I have single grains showing a thousandfold, and some near twice that. I think the wheat capable of exceeding 100 bushels to the acre, and think experiments made show that not more than a half bushel should be sown to the acre. The mistake so far has been oversowing. 16 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. he wished to get a foothold in Kansas and Iowa as soon as possible. He further asked that an expert be sent to see the wheat and advise regarding its propagation. The following three chief claims were made for this wheat by the introducer in his various letters of 1906 and in the years fol- lowing: (1) That it would outyield any other variety anywhere. (2) That it tillered more freely; that is, that it sent up more stems from one seed than any other variety of wheat. (3) That 20 pounds of seed to the acre was enough to produce maximum yields, while other varieties required 8 pecks (120 pounds). Tic. 4.—Representative head of Stoner, or Fie. 5.—Representative head of Bearded “Miracle,” wheat. (About half natural * Purple Straw wheat. (About half nat- size.) ural size.) In the fall of 1907 an agent of the department visited Mr. Stoner’s farm. The visit occurred after harvest, however, and only the stub- ble field and shocks could be seen. The agent reported that this wheat had been grown in the field for two seasons, but not many definite facts about its value could be obtained. The report states that “on one farm the yield was 27.5 bushels per acre, which was 3 to 5 bushels more per acre than that of other varieties on the same farm.” * * * The Miracle wheat was sown at the rate of only 3 pecks, however, while the other was sown at the rate of 8 pecks per acre. A single test in a single year on different fields, with a difference of 5 pecks per acre in the rate of seeding, is inconclusive. The report states further that when sown in fields at the 3-peck rate, from 8 to 15 heads were produced on each plant, while the ALASKA AND STONER, OR ‘‘MIRACLE,’? WHEATS. shes widely spaced plants in the breeding nursery each produced from 10 to 50 heads. In any case the number varied with the rate of seeding and the fertility of the soil, which is true of all wheats. EXPLOITATION IN PHILADELPHIA. Mr. Stoner’s desire to have his wheat grown on a large scale in the Mississippi Valley has been noted already. He expected to have about 800 bushels from the harvest of 1907. At some time in the summer of that year a Philadelphia promoter undertook the handling of the wheat and Mr. Stoner wrote to the United States Department of Agriculture that he now could get all the money necessary to promote the growing of his wheat on a large scale. The plan first proposed by this promoter was to lease a farm in Texas and increase the supply of seed rapidly. It seems that this plan was not carried out. In the early spring of 1908 the promoter organized a company to exploit this wheat, and a 20- page illustrated circular was is- sued. Plausible in most of its language, the circular contained several erroneous statements. For instance, it contained what was said to be the report of the Government agent who inspected the fields of Stoner (Miracle) wheat. The language was so changed, however, as to alter entirely the meaning of the report. The statement that in one field the Miracle wheat had yielded from 3 to 5 bushels more than other varieties on the same farm was made to read “two to three times the yield of other varieties.” In lke manner the figures for the average number of heads to each plant in the field and in the breed- ing nursery were greatly exaggerated. The plan proposed in this circular was to place the wheat with responsible farmers in each county of the wheat-growing States. The farmer receiving the seed was supposed to contract (1) to de- posit $5 for each bushel received, (2) to grow it exclusively for the promoting company, and (3) to receive $1.25 per bushel for all that he grew and also the return of his original deposits. The wheat was thus to be increased during the two years 1909 and 1910 and then Tic. 6.--Representative head of Fulcaster wheat. (About half natural size.) 18 “BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sold in foreign countries, according to the pamphlet. It does not appear, however, that any part of this plan was followed. PROMOTING ‘‘ MIRACLE’? WHEAT IN CHICAGO. In the summer of 1908 the financial interest in this wheat seems to have been transferred from the Philadelphia exploiting com- pany to a grain company in Chicago. The details of this trans- action are not known, though press items appearing on July 30, 1908, stated that Mr. Stoner had sold the rights to his wheat to western pur- chasers for a large sum of money and that the wheat would be sown the next season in the great wheat-producing States of the West. The stated intention of growing this wheat in the West seems to have been carried out at this time, for in the fall of 1908 a con- troversy developed between the grain company and State officials in Kansas over the merits of the wheat. Nothing further has been heard of this company in connection with this wheat. , PROMOTING ‘‘ MARVELOUS”? WHEAT IN INDIANA. In 1908 Mr. Stoner sold a quantity of his wheat to a seed company in Indiana. By them it was renamed “ Marvelous” wheat and ad- vertised in extravagant terms as a wonderful variety. This company is still advertising the Stoner wheat under the name given above. PROMOTING ‘f MIRACLE”? WHEAT IN BROOKLYN. In the summer of 1911 an organization in Brooklyn began adver- tising Miracle wheat at $1 a pound in its own publication. Two or three years previously it had quoted a portion of the pamphlet pub- lished by the exploiting company of Philadelphia. In the summer of 1912 this organization issued a four-page special publication, of full newspaper size, the entire first page of which was an advertisement of the wonders of Miracle wheat and spineless cactus. The headlines read: “Spineless cactus—Miracle wheat— Millionaires and vast irrigation schemes are Bible propositions.” The seven columns of text were to the effect that these two crops are creations in fulfillment of biblical prophecy. By means of an enor- mous irrigation project, financed by Wall Street millionaires, all the arid West was to be converted into vast fields of wheat and cactus. THE STONER SEED WHEAT COMPANY. During these years when various organizations were exploiting this wheat, the introducer centinued to sell seed. There is no reason to think that he had any connection with any of these organizations. In June, 1911, he published an illustrated advertising booklet to increase the demand for the seed. Testimonials from “12 growers are printed therein, but only one gives an actual yield from a piece of ALASKA AND STONER, OR ‘MIRACLE,’ WHEATS. . 19 ground of stated size. That one got 12 bushels from a half acre, or at the rate of 24 bushels to the acre. Part of the others tell what they think their wheat will yield. The rest tell what their 2-pound and 4-pound lots yielded without stating the size of the plat on which these were sown. The statement is repeated that this wheat will yield more when sown at the rate of 2 or 3 pecks per acre than when sown at 8 pecks, or than other wheats will yield when sown at the usual rate. Ref- erences are made to the size of the plants and the large number of grains produced by them when widely spaced in the nursery. Defi- nite statements that prove in any way the superior value of the wheat was not found in the pamphlet. The pamphlet states that previously the wheat had been selling at the rate of $1.25 a pound, with 4 pounds the largest quantity sold to any one person. At this time, however, the price was re- _ duced to $5 a bushel. In recent correspondence Mr. Stoner has stated that during 1911 and 1912 the demand for the seed was not very large. He states further, however, that interest in the crop is increasing rapidly and that during the last two seasons sales have been numerous. Previ- ously much of the crop had been milled for lack of a demand for it as seed wheat. Mr. Stoner still claims that his wheat is a superior yielder. He still claims that it will make better yields from thin seeding than other wheats will from thick seeding. He even advises using less than a peck of seed to the acre and closing each alternate seed tube in the drill. ' EXPERIMENTAL DATA ON STONER (MIRACLE) WHEAT. The Stoner (Miracle) wheat has been tested at several of the State experiment stations and by the United States Department of Agriculture. These tests have been made in comparison with other varieties, and the best approved methods have been used without favor or bias. Actual yield tests in comparison with other varieties, tests of the effect of different rates of seeding, and tests of the tillering of the variety are therefore now available. YIELDS OF STONER WHEAT IN COMPARISON WITH OTHER VARIETIES. TESTS AT THE MARYLAND AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.” At the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station the Stoner (Miracle) wheat has been tested since 1912, in cooperation with the - United States Department of Agriculture, in one-twentieth acre plats, with the results shown in Table IV. rFor further data concerning the tests made at College Park, Md., and at Arlington Farm, Rosslyn, Va., see Stanton, 1’. R., Cereal Hxperiments in Maryland and Virginia, U.S. Dept. Agr., Bul. No. 336, 52 p., 6 fig. 1916. - 20 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasBLeE IV.—Yield of Stoner (Miracle) wheat tested at College Park, Md., at different rates of seeding, in comparison with other varieties seeded at the rate of 6 pecks per acre. Yield per acre of Stoner wheat at differ- ent rates of seeding. Best yield ob- | Number pen eol . | tained of va- Crop year. 2 pecks. 6 pecks. from rieties latiof other tested. eae varieties. z Grain. Straw. Grain. Straw. | Bushels. | Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds. | Bushels. WO12 aaa o2 8 oe eee eee | 22.67 4,540 27. 87 5, 740 29. 20 52 5 LONG Pt oc ee Set ceen ees 12.53 1,948 16.20 1, 988 28.33 42 34 POTS 22S ios eotiee eees een sees 34. 23 3,686 32.33 3,740 41. 87 41 31 ‘Average... eee [Pea314°. 3: 30ttln andy 03805 (eee [each oa eeu From the data given in Table TV it is seen that better yields of grain were obtained from the 6-peck seeding in two years out of three, and the average for the three years is 2.33 bushels larger for the heavier seeding. The 6-peck per acre seeding has resulted in the better yield of straw for each year of the test. It is further seen that Stoner (Miracle) wheat is not as good a yielding wheat as many others that are being grown. In the year 1912, when it did best, compared with other varieties, it was fifth in yield among the 52 varieties tested and feil behind the best variety 1.33 bushels. In 1913 it was thirty-fourth among the 42 varieties tested, and in 1914, thirty-first among the 41 varieties tested. TESTS AT ARLINGTON FARM. Tests similar to those made at the Maryland Agricultural Ex- periment Station have been made at the Arlington Farm, Rosslyn, Va., by the Office of Cereal Investigations of the United States Department of Agriculture. The wheat used in these tests was developed from a small amount of seed presented to the office by Mr. K. B. Stoner in 1907. The tests here have been carried on for four years, 1911 to 1914, inclusive. The varieties were grown in one-tenth or one-twentieth acre plats and were seeded at the rate of 6 pecks per acre. The results are shown in Table VY. TABLE V.—Yield of Stoner (Miracle) wheat tested at Arlington Farm, Rosslyn, Va., in comparison with other varieties in similar plats. — [ Best yield | Number vie a obtained | of varie- | Rank of Crop year. & toner from other | tiesand } Stoner eat varieties | strains | wheat. eat. | and strains.| tested. Bushels. Bushels LOUD GaSe ssa ee eee eae en cee ne 2 =. eee 25.20 32.30 34 1l BD eee oes Slee np eos cs 2 gy aera et OTD le Sea 30.17 Selle 37 16 1S) bs Sera One a i eta Sore Ee SC OO aE ME EOTE ace SOC oe 22.00 34.70 41 18 ee ee a eee tee Ss ae Ck eee = Se 32. 30 38.20 36 6 EAVOTA DO” Siti eas aie lene reeiet is aie eicie cis | ener 27-42 Nite. cs 2 eee eee ALASKA AND STONER, OR ‘‘MIRACLE,’’ WHEATS. 21 - It is seen from the results here presented that this wheat has never ranked better than sixth in yield, and was then 5.9 bushels under the best variety tested. It has always ranked among the bet- ter half, but only once among the best fourth of the varieties tested. The 30 varieties and strains with which the Stoner (Miracle) wheat has been compared during the entire four years it has been grown, 1911 to 1914, inclusive, in the plat tests at Arlington Farm and the yields of these are shown in Table VI. Varieties that have not been grown in these comparative tests for the entire four years are omitted from the table. The varieties are arranged in the table according to average yield for the four years. It is here shown that this wheat has ranked tenth in the 31 kinds in average yield for this period, and has yielded 6.55 bushels less than the best variety. TasLte VI.—Yield of the varieties of winter wheat grown each year at Arlington Farm, Rosslyn, Va., 1911 to 1914, inclusive. Yield per acre (bushels). C.I. No. Variety. 1911 1912 1913 1914 | Average. LOLS ORUTPLONS tra Wiss isc eiciccisic oes Seles cael Scere 25.80 | 37.17 | 34.70] 38.20 33. 97 1733 | Dawson Golden Chaff...........--------------- 24.80 36.00 25. 80 35. 20 30.45 NOS TM MAUT POS Ua Wis.cjscee sence -cc oe oe ces oe ee 31.30 33.08 | 24.20 30. 80 29. 84 AOC oulpwancasters25- coats shee Onecickeece ses oo eee 28.80} 29.08 | 26.50] 33.30 29. 42 NO 79m ROO leResnose sere seine heene ds cose cee 2 eee 24. 30 31.92 |. 26.60 | 29.20 28.00 L744avinGenesee: Giant. : 0.2.2 s2sse ens. 5 ee 20. 30 30. 67 28. 40 32. 50 27.97 NOTA eMissounimeBiluestem=s: 26222 es ee 28.60! 32.08 | 22.50] 28.70 27.97 1942 | Bearded Winter Fife.............----------+--- 26.60 | 36.42 | 24.90 | 238.30 27.80 1980 Ri eROCky. Mountaine= oes Yea ss ssl eee 25. 80 31.50 26. 20 26. 30 27.45 2980" /estoner, (Miracle) 229-23 285) 4.25 4... | ee 25. 20 30.17 22.00 32.30 27.42 1949 | Maryland Flint.........-...-..---------- ela S50) 29.08 23.50 23.70 27.14 eps. || INAS Se eoaossochoaocee al 20920 31.22 22.70 29.10 27.05 1973 | New Amber Tene Dery, 26.50 | 29.50 | 22.70 | 29.50 27.05 2008 | Mammoth Red... --| 25.30 | 29.20} 25.20] 28.20 26.97 3617 Hybrid ee Bs alae 21.70 | 34.67 21.80 27.80 26.49 1981 | Dietz1_._. 25. 20 28. 34 21.10 | 28.20 25.71 3277 | Virginia... : 24. 50 35.15 21.00 21.50 25. 54 1969 | Michigan Amber..-.....--...-------------+2--- 28.00 | 28.83 | 21.00] 21.00 24.71 SOAs mEkyionid =: 942 foe Ge ees. eee. ee 16.80 | 30.07 | 19.20} 31.30 24. 34 3608 |.-..- GOS een eet Hee ee col on 21.20 | 31.67 19.07] 25.30 24. 31 AO7AS ie Miar timicAumib eras Dio ee 21.90 | 31.50 | 20.00] 23.70 24.27 SolGu| ely bridisy Ate vee eee tee ees li 2 - 20.00 | 29.67 16.10 31.00 24.19 1933) | guionesaWanter, Hitessee- 22m s-s55--- = 3 - ae 22.80 | 24.00] 24.70 | 24.70 24.05 SOlSa|PEbybnid:: stokes A eee oe. oo. ele? 2) ee 22.50 30. 55 20. 80 22. 20 24.01 1911 | Bearded Purple Straw.......-.-....----.------ 20.10 | 28.67) 23.20} 22.30 23. 57 1980 | Fultzo-Mediterranean...........-.-.----.----.- 21.70 | 28.83] 19.20} 22.50 23.06 SOLON Eby OriGene ear ee AES ok 16.70 29. 20 22.00 21.00 22. 22 3609 |----. Cops i even ii Pe ees 14.70 32.53 18.01 23.30 22.13 3613 |.--.-. GOSS s eae Olean 2a sc jens eee 12.00 OPP 19.70 31.20 21.29 3611 |.-... GOs Peps ences aoe cee ote ce abe ss ee 20.70 21.60 15.70 24.70 20. 67 3612 |..... LOA ae aos ease eewecaceey eee 13.80 | 20.27°} 19.50] 24.50 19.52 a 1 Used as the check; the figures given are the average of the yields from several plats. TESTS AT NEPHI, UTAH. Stoner (Miracle) wheat was tested at Nephi, Utah, in 1911, by the United States Department of Agriculture in cooperation with the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, in one-twentieth acre plats, in comparison with several other varieties. The results are shown in Table VII. In this test of seven varieties, this wheat ranked sixth in yield, producing 26.7 bushels, or 11.4 bushels less than the best yielding variety. 22 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasleE VII.—Yield of wheat grown at Nephi, Utah, in 1911 from pedigreed seed of 1910. spo ea Yield per Variety. G.I. No. Class. eras Bushels. Odessaes ccs se i yee seee eee oe ee eee sees. seen eee 3274-1 | Soft winter........ 3 EM aT KO Les eae PERE arene ee eee er oon acne? | Haier oa eres 1583-2 | Hard winter....-- 31.0 A lbertarRed ss <2s 32 S25. tase eenose eee eo eae cso. Saeeigee ees 2979-17 |..-... GOs 5 eee 29.3 UPUTKOV Se Sree cess ee ce Seem ee eee eee ect 2998-1 |..... dO 2232 sae 2 27.7 DOs vitaess Sas 3055-13 |... -. do! 2 Sse 27.3 SON ers 853 secs Fee A Se ee eee can Sais 2 eee 2980 | Soft winter....... 26.7 TMUPKCY ceo sos Soe ee aes we ae eae oe oe eee 1571-2 | Hard winter.-...-. 18.0 IAN CTA SC ese Naps sensi Sap aeons ieee etree ose sep eae epel| evetateretete evessies | 2a eee 28.3 RATE-OF-SEEDING TESTS. Rate-of-seeding tests have been conducted on the Arlington Farm by the United States Department of Agriculture with the Stoner (Miracle) wheat for three years, it having been first included in these tests in the sowings made in the fall of 1911. In these tests this wheat was compared in the first year with seven other varieties, four of which are well-known sorts commonly grown among farmers. In the two succeeding years it has been compared with three of these well-known sorts. The names of the varieties used and the yields for the different rates of seeding are given in Table VIII, only those varieties being included which have been used throughout the entire 3-year period. In 1912 no seeding of less than 4 pecks per acre was made of any of the varieties. In the succeeding two years seed- ings of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 pecks per acre were made. The plats were one-twentieth of an acre in size in 1912, and the tests were not replicated, but in 1914 the size of the plats was reduced to one-fortieth of an acre, and the sowings were made in duplicate and the results averaged. These results show that the best yield of Stoner wheat has been obtained by sowing 4 pecks per acre. When 2 pecks were sown in the two years 1913 and 1914, 22.15 bushels were harvested. In these same years 24.5 bushels were harvested from 3 pecks sown and 24.95 from 4 pecks. From sowings of 5, 6, 7, and 8 pecks, less quantities were harvested than from the 3-peck or 4-peck seedings, but in each case more than from the 2-peck seeding. An addition of 2 pecks to the quantity sown has increased the yield over the 2-peck sowing an average of 2.8 bushels per acre for the two years. Including the year 1912 and averaging for only the 4, 5, and 6 peck seedings, the best yield was again obtained by sowing 4 pecks, the vield here, 26.52 bushels, being larger than that secured from sowing either 5 pecks or 6 pecks per acre. Smaller or larger sowings were not made in the year 1912. ALASKA AND STONER, OR ‘‘ MIRACLE,’ WHEATS. 23 TasBce VIII.—Yield of Stoner (Miracle) wheat and other varieties in compara- tive rate-of-seeding test at Arlington Farm, Rosslyn, Va. Yield per acre (bushels) at different rates of seeding. Variety and year. 2 pecks. | 3 pecks. | 4 pecks. | 5 pecks. | 6 pecks. | 7 pecks. | 8 pecks. Stoner (Miracle): I) os cs Sey aos pS IS eae ae 29.67 32.22 BOSD] esas ene ees cas LOIS Reese css 8 Sey 17.40 18.30 17.10 17.50 14. 70 14. 50 16.00 TS oe ae ae sane 26.90 30. 70 32. 80 28.90 29.70 30. 90 29.80 Average 1913-14.......-.- 22.15 24.50 24.95 23.20 22.20 22.70 22.90 IAT CTAPOLOII—V4 «oy. vse I RON Se oon 26.52 26. 21 24 860s olscin tell cisciecte see Dietz: HN ener eye easiness cisnicee eek ces eases 28.00 24. 50 PUL OIM E asnpabenal |Gosoraobos 1S Se ROaGSCON Os ReaaE Ne aae 18.90 19.90 16. 80 18. 70 19. 40 17. 40 19.70 TU i oie I oe 26.70 30.00 29.50 | 27.80 29.70 30. 60 32.50 Average 1913-14.......... 22.80 24.95 23.15 23.25 24.55 24. 00 26.10 VAViOrAageW 912-14 xg. ee es aes 8 24.77 23.67 #535083: Gaeacogaaclaoonscsece Fultz: | 1 DA eB Sac erga Be CAB Eanes Maer aaiem Pees ea os 32.55 32. 42 BBP ?4 so bocadadalsapecansas ONS eiseiies waa - wee cee ee 19.10 22.70 24.70 24. 60 24.00 21.30 24. 80 NOMA esecisciseicie ss eisiciec esis 29.70 | 33.00 39.00 37.70 36. 20 37.40 37.90 Average 1913-14.......... 24. 40 27.85 31.85 31.15 30. 10 29.35 31.35 PANY OFA Oi 1 GU2 Uden Ce dele Ble faye 32.08 31.57 BU) on SauGpoulloosecudsos Martin Amber: OLB B ee tert ss neice cine Seaece ll uceeuie a ae HOBAGES EAE 34. 92 31.83 Q8E Si lseete sia sal eseisese cise MONS age este Sepaie srereeee cals ae 18. 40 19.70 19.00 17.20 17.40 12. 40 14. 70 NOVA sa ualesis/= cin vik eee 22.60 27.00 26.00 24.90 27.80 25.60 23.90 Average 1913-14.......... 20.50 23.35 22.50 21.05 22.60 19.00 19.30 Average 1912-14.......... SoS dacSUbolbUNOuaneES 26. 64 24. 64 PES ecooasanel|loqzoueouES Average of all: | Average 1913-14.......... 22.46 25.16 25.61 24. 66 24. 86 23.76 24.91 Average 1919-14222. 2|.2 2222. ye ane 27.50 26.52 PREC) tal Aan SAE IME maa eS 6 When these results are compared with those for the other varieties used, it is seen that as an average for the two years 1913 and 1914 the largest gross yields were obtained from sowing 8 pecks of Dietz, 4 pecks of Fultz, and 3 pecks of Martin Amber. On account of the larger quantity of seed used in sowing 8 pecks, the largest net return from the Dietz was from the 3-peck seeding. The largest net returns from the other varieties were from the same seedings men- tioned above. Including the year 1912 and averaging for only the 4, 5, and 6 peck seedings, the largest net and gross returns were obtained for the three years 1912-1914 in every case from the smallest quantity; that is, from the 4-peck seeding. When all varieties are averaged both for the two years, 1913-1914, and for the years, 1912-1914, the best gross and net yields were obtained from the 4-peck seeding. The 4-peck seeding yielded 0.45 bushel more than the 3-peck and 3.15 bushels more than the 2-peck seeding. | It must be concluded that Stoner wheat does not differ from the other varieties tested in requiring less seed per acre, and also that 2 pecks are not sufficient from which to obtain maximum yields. It should be said in connection with these tests that these wheats were drilled in fertile soil in a well-prepared seed bed. More seed 24 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of all these varieties would probably be required where conditions are not so favorable. TILLERING POWER OF STONER (MIRACLE) WHEAT. Tests to determine the tillering power of Stoner (Miracle) wheat were made at Arlington Farm by. sowing, in both 1912 and 1913, individual kernels of this variety and of three standard varieties, each kernel being given plenty of room for maximum development. These kernels were sown 6 inches apart in rows 1 foot apart and 5 feet long, in uniform, soil, the order of sowing being that given in Table IX. All varieties were grown under identical conditicns on small adjacent plats of land. TasLe IX.—Tillering power of Stoner (Miracle) wheat in comparison avith other varieties at Arlington Farm, Rosslyn, Va. Number of plants, crop of 1913. | Number of plants, crop of 1914. Number of heads per plant. Seen : : artin c : Martin Fultz. | Dietz. | Stoner. eager Fultz. | Dietz. | Stoner. AGnber ees ofe| eee 1 Lo) sees Se | art te ean Sees ee sriese cs enor aces 1 1 2 1 1 5 20. 1 3 4 3 Sale 2 3 2 1 2 6 4 6 3 4 1 1 3 4 4 8 2 D) 2 1 | 1 6 5 3 1 4 3 20 9 6 3 4 3 12 16 8 3 2 5 11 9 5 3 4 3 5 Ui 6 7 1 1 6 19 4 4 | 2 3 6 4 4 1 eects teat 2; 2 | cian) 2 1 Dall eee aes 2 d SOS 1 Teale eae 1 1 & Ua 2a cesar OSes oes ol Seb eeeke | Ee SS Se ees See 2 1 fhe ee A ae emer lesan Urs Sean lh aS 1 Marts ||! Sicieeten (Oras ae es Sareea ae 1 eee Rs ee ee INS ea Saat ae Aer 1 GOSS eae lhe ese Sena il Pee eoks Scaasanh Total-plauts. 32 9:2 = ss. eece se 57 42 41 41 92 91 Average number of culms per Plant Hoe eee Se Se eae 10.6 10.3 8.7 9.0 10.1 10.4 9.6 12.2 } Table LX shows that in 1915 the 41 plants of Stoner wheat pro- duced an average of 8.7 culms to the plant. This is the smallest number produced by the plants of any of the varieties used, Martin Amber producing 9 culms, Dietz 10.3, and Fultz 10.5. . The results for 1914 are similar to those of the previous year in this respect, that the plants of Stoner wheat again produced the smallest average number of culms, there being in this year 9.6 to the plant of this variety. Fultz produced 10.1, Dietz 10.4, and Martin Amber 12.2. The tests for these two years indicate, then, that Stoner is the poorest of these four wheats in tillering power. These results also show that in neither year was there a larger number of culms than 18 produced by any plant of the Stoner wheat, while there is a total of ten plants of the other varieties in the two years which produced more than 18 culms eack. é ALASKA AND STONER, OR ‘‘MIRACLE,’’ WHEATS. 95 Similar tests to determine the tillering power of Stoner (Miracle) wheat were’ conducted in the years 1909, 1911, and. 1912 at Nephi, Utah, by the United States Department of Agriculture in coopera- tion with the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station. The sowing was In head rows 10 feet long and 1 foot apart, the seeds being placed 4 inches apart in the row. The results are shown in Table X. The average number of culms produced by the plants of this wheat in the three years is 11. It is third in rank among the nine va- rieties tested for all or part of the time, but it produced eight culms less than the best tillering variety, the Turkey, which produced an average of 19 culms per plant for the three years. In no year was the Stoner wheat highest in culms produced. In yield this wheat ranks third as an average for all varieties tested for the three years. A yield test in head rows, however, is inclusive. ' Yield tests in one- twentieth acre plats at Nephi have been previously reported. TaBLE X.—Tillering power and yield of Stoner (Miracle) wheat and eight other wheats at Nephi, Utah, in the years 1909, 1911, and 1912. Average number of Yield per row (grams), heads per plant. C. I. No. Variety. Class. Aver- & Avere 1909 1911 | 1912 age. 1909 | 1911 | 1912 age. B05D—13ee eas Murkeyi2 ..2-- Hard red winter. 252 13 25 18 19 210 181 148 180 Cae asdacaes Koffoid......- Soft white winter - - 9 16 10 12) 5253) 265) |h 157 225 2996-2. 20:0 22. Gold Coin. ....|..--- Moses == =) 7 16 7 10 191 165 129 162 2OR Se ee eS Miracle........| Semihard red win- a 16 11 11 | 213} 186) 116 172 ter. iMlaskam sae .2% Soft white winter Si |e eres| bes aoe 3 ATs eeioue. ease 47 (or spring). PAW Oaaccseseaaes Black Don ®22-) Durum - sa22- 2. 5 Gy Secaae 5 56 25) eee 41 3001S eens Silver Club....| Soft winter club.... Ui losanceleaasaa (el eal SGeodalleagase 211 DOS ad ce een Galgalos.......| Seft white spring... (3. eeeGen| Boaene GH Area eS ces 144 2084R Ni: Biot IDbbabhons 225 44q)) ID\biibhooeseesanseeen 4 3 3 RiSlenine Salles eme epouea|sauaae PAV ETAC ONSET eesenee asta SW Me eerie od 6.8 | 13.5 9.8 &.2 |165.6 |164.4 |137.5 | 147.7 GENERAL TESTS BY STATE EXPERIMENT STATIONS. TESTS IN KENTUCKY. The following results of tests of Miracle wheat made at the Ken- tucky Agricultural Experiment Station are published in Bulletin 155 of that station: Yield per acre in 1911. Seed sown per acre. Harvest Miracle. King. Bushels. Bushels. 22 OCS Cs Aandi Gc ey OB SE SAE Sn a aae Berto iaS Sane ERE 0-501) 6 SOUS ASE aos SAE eae Blse), JoeeHeassagoc RTO CC IGS epee rpc santa eco EVE para eR EVA yaar alc = arpa eR me ea Ce aS BPAY fe Eee nae ae ARTCC Sam te ee ciel es ai Pear pets Ee Ft. LL. - 25 Re epee es a 34.7 35. 0 5) OGCLSod See a SOOO NSE aor BORO BES oe SU ae BOR Ue Se eee MIEISIE LS 010" oo Sols hae ecte ese i age 35. 3 35. 0 (GTO S ES Sorte gate cel Ne ks sp Ee ee EE Bho on ris SAMs ee aa 36. 7 34.7 a (ORORSes Sea cece easenup ace Saaes os BOA NGS Cie ERNE > ooo OS ey Ob URE Bee ee Geel Me Senene ARB 36.3 26 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The party furnishing Miracle wheat recommended 2 pecks per acre, claiming great stooling power for it. : Subsequent results obtained at the Kentucky station are given in the letter below from E. J. Kinney, assistant agronomist of that station : I beg to say that we did not continue the experiments recorded in 1911 in Bulletin 155 any longer than the one year. The Miracle wheat showed no greater propensities for stooling than any of the standard varieties of wheat, and there seemed no necessity for carrying the experiment any farther. So far as moisture was concerned, 1911 was a very normal season; in fact, better than a normal season, according to my records, so that the thinner sown wheat had the best opportunity to stool. In 1912 Miracle wheat yielded only 22.5 bushels, as compared with 28.1 bushels for Fulcaster and an average of 30 bushels for a standard Fultz va- riety; 1912 was a very hard winter, and only the hardiest varieties of wheat came through in good shape. In 1918 Miracle yielded 28.7 bushels per acre, or a corrected yield according to check plats of 32 bushels, as compared with an average of the check plats of 32.8. Fulcaster the same year gave a corrected yield of 33.9 bushels per acre. In 1914 Miracle gave a corrected yield of 26.76 bushels, as compared with an average check-plat yield, which was Fultz, of 32.98 bushels per acre. In all these cases, the crops were planted at the same time, in the same field, with the same preparation of soil and the same rate of seeding. In 1914 a farmer brought in a variety of wheat which he said was sold to him as Marvelous, and which I imagined and still believe is the same as Miracle. It was reported as giving a full yield with a light seeding; say, 2 pecks. I planted a plat of this at the rate of 6 pecks per acre and one at the rate of 2 pecks per acre, the corrected yield being 31.17 bushels for the 6 pecks per acre rate of seeding and 24.46 for the 2 pecks rate of seeding. I do not see that Miracle or Marvelous stooled any more than a standard variety of wheat, such as Fulcaster or other varieties. Certainly, in all cases where we have tested these varieties with the proclaimed stooling characters, the thicker seeding has given decidedly the heavier yield. TESTS IN PENNSYLVANIA. The Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station sowed the Stoner (Miracle) wheat at two rates in the fall of 1912. The yields in 1913 are given in Bulletin 125 of that station, and are as follows: Actual yield. Corrected yield. Stoner (Miracle) wheat. Grain. Straw. Grain. Straw. i= Seeded at— Bushels. | Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds. 2 pushelsperjacrese = ss---eee eee assess; - see eee 33.6 4,665 30.8} 4,478 bushelipentactef5e secs ace eee ee: 2-1 Care ee eee ee wee 28. 6 3, 350 25.5 3, 419 The increased yield of 5 bushels resulting from the sowing of 1 bushel more of seed is certainly worth the increased expense for seed. ALASKA AND STONER, OR ‘‘MIRACLE,’’ WHEATS. On Regarding subsequent tests made of this variety by the Pennsylva- nia Agricultural Experiment Station, the following extract from a letter received from Charles F. Noll, assistant professor of experi- mental agronomy, is self-explanatory: Replying to your letter of May 28 in regard to Miracle wheat, we seeded this variety in 1914 only at the rate of 2 bushels per acre, which is our usual rate of seeding the variety testing plats. I have averaged the yields of our named varieties for the years 1913-14, and find that Miracle gave us a yield of 32.5 bushels of grain and 3,772 pounds of straw per acre. In yield of grain for these two years, it has ranked eighth, and fifth in yield of straw. For our conditions it is a good variety of wheat, but there is nothing remark- able about its productiveness or its tillering. TESTS IN INDIANA. The Miracle wheat under the name of Marvelous has been tested by the Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station at Lafayette, Ind., and the results secured are given in the following extract from a letter from C. O. Cromer, associate in crops at that place: Last year (1914) was the only year in which we have secured any data on this wheat (Marvelous). The other years that we sowed it the winter was too severe for it. In looking up our records I find that in comparison with the Michigan Amber, the variety which we have used as our check for a number of years, the Marvelous wheat stands as follows: The Michigan Amber at 3 pecks per acre produced 10.9 bushels. The Marvelous produced 4.8 bushels. The Michigan Amber at 6 pecks per acre produced practically the same as the Michigan Amber at 3 pecks, while the Marvelous at 6 pecks produced 5.5 bushels. The spring survival of the Michigan Amber was 85 per cent; that of the Marvelous was 45 per cent. A much larger percentage of the Marvelous wheat lodged than was true of the Michigan Amber. The straw of the Marvelous is a little stiffer, however, as a rule. The Michigan Amber, according to our data of last year, was on the average 4 inches taller than the Marvelous wheat and ripened two days earlier. CONCLUSIONS. The reader should remember these facts about the branch-headed wheat known ag Alaska, Seven-Headed, Mummy, Egyptian, or by some other name: (1) That it has been used in this country very often as a means of deceiving people and very seldom as a farm crop; (2) that it has failed to produce even fair yields when tried in many parts of the country, and has never been known to pro- duce extraordinary yields; (8) that itis not as good a milling wheat as many other widely-grown varieties, some of which are much better adapted to any given location; (4) that the branched head is not a sign of superior yielding power. Stoner wheat does not differ essentially in value from many other wheats now being widely grown in the eastern half of the United States. It is not as good as some and is somewhat better than others. The class of wheat (soft red winter) to which it belongs is adapted 28 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to the eastern United States, but the variety itself is only of average value. It is not adapted to dry lands. The claims made by the originator of Stoner (Miracle) wheat and by those who have exploited it are not substantiated by the ex- perimental results reported above. Tt was claimed that it would outyield any other variety anywhere. In the tests it has never outyielded anywhere all other varieties with which compared, and many other varieties have surpassed it in yield. It was claimed that it tillered more freely than other varieties. The tests show that other commonly grown varieties have exceeded it in number of culms to the plant produced whereve er grown in com- parative tests. It was claimed that 20 or 30 pounds of seed per acre were suffi- cient for maximum yields. The tests show that better yields are ob- tained from it when sown at higher rates to the acre. PUBLICATIONS OF U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELAT- ING TO CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS. -AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Cereal Investigations at Nephi, Utah, Substation. (Department Bulletin 30.) Cereal Experiments at Dickinson, North Dakota. (Department Bulletin 33.) Cereal Experiments at Williston Substation. (Department Bulletin 270.) Cereal Investigations on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm. (Department Bulletin 297.) Cereal Experiments in Maryland and Virginia. (Department Bulletin 336.) Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. (Separate 649 from Y. B. 1914.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. Experiments with Wheat, Oats, and Barley in South Dakota. (Department Bulletin 39.) Price, 10 cents. : Improvement of the Wheat Crop in California. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulietin 178.) Price, 10 cents. Cooperative Grain Investigations at McPherson, Kansas, 1904-1909. (Bureau of Piant Industry Bulletin 240.) Price, 5 cents. Cereal Experiments in the Texas Panhandle. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulle- tin 288.) Price, 10 cents. Dry-land Grains for Western North and South Dakota. (Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 59.) Price, 5 cents. Dry-land Grains in the Great Basin. (Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 61.) Price, 5 cents. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 12, 1916 STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. By R. W. Howe. Entomological Assistant, Southern Field Crop Insect Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. | Page imino duchHOmey emcee eee cee eae 1: |) Raitevofowipositioney sees sees pease 24 Longevity of adult weevils. .........------.--- 3 | Maximum number of eggs per day...--...--.-- 24 Food plants of the weevil....-...-..--.-------- 8 | Period from deposition of last egg to death... 24 Feeding habits on cotton leaves and terminals. 11 | Activity of females in different parts of the Nexiota dultsecen ees ayes seth el Ga eee cies ssc 12 Gaiysae Sessa Naas quckiene shcnek AS eres 25 Period from emergence to oviposition. ......-.- 12 | Cessation of oviposition by hibernated weevils. 26 Period from first feeding on squares to ovipo- Total developmental period...............-.-. 26 SUDO AEP ee ee oses serials cent! CEL 13 | Effect of size of square on weevil development. 30 sHeGuuIN iby ae neesit eee se eee Soe oak 13°]. {Geren ey T OM See eee reper orem teccee eee ee A 30 Ongpositlomspeniodseeess se ease en eee cee 23) 2|" Summ amyeeeecaen soe cece sea oe eee eeeeee ee 31 INTRODUCTION. Shortly after 1892, when the Mexican cotton-boll weevil (Antho- nomus grandis Boh.) invaded Texas on its northward and eastward journey and its extreme importance was seen, complete data were secured on the various biological functions. In recent years, how- ever, numerous observations have shown that, under new climatic and other environmental conditions to which the weevil has been subjected in its spread, changes have been taking place in many of these functions. In addition, a new variety of the boll weevil has been found breeding in a wild cotton (Thurberia thespesioides) occur- ring in the mountain ranges of southeastern Arizona, and this weevil (which has been described as Anthonomus grandis thurberiae Pierce) has been found to possess habits which differ in many ways from those of its near relative on cultivated cotton. Consequently, it has been necessary to repeat many studies under both the old and the new conditions and to include the new variety. In this way the Note.—This bulletin is of interest to entomologists in the cotton belt. 23922°—Bull. 358—16——1 > 2 BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. extent and trend of the variations may be determined and a more definite knowledge of what to expect in the future may be obtained. As every phase of the contro! of the weevil is based upon biological facts, life-history studies have a very direct economic bearing upon the boll-weevil problem. During 1913, 1914, and 1915 the writer conducted a number of studies on the biology of the weevil at the Delta Boll Weevil Labo- ratory at Tallulah,' La. The present paper deals largely with the results of these two years’ observations, but before detailing these it is probably best to review very briefly the times and conditions under which the similar studies have been conducted. The earliest work was that at Victoria, Tex., in 1902 and 1903, the results being published early in 1904.2. This was followed by similar investigations at the same place during 1904, and the results of these studies were included in a bulletin issued in 1905.3 During 1910 similar investigations were conducted at Tallulah, La., and the results were published in 1911.4 Then, in 1912, these studies and such others as had been made elsewhere were brought together in a large bulletin issued in 1912.° During 1913 another series of studies was conducted at Victoria, Tex., to check those which had been made at the same place 10 years earlier. It was found that the weevils had made a number of important changes in their life history, principal among these being a much greater adaptability to plants other than cotton as food. The biology of the Arizona Thurberia weevil was also studied, and this variety was-hybridized with the Texas cotton weevils. The results of these studies are included in three papers.® In 1914 the life history and habits of the Arizona weevil were studied under natural conditions in the mountains near Tucson, Ariz. These studies are discussed in two papers.’ 1 The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Mr. E. K. Bynum for assistance in the work of 1915. 2 Hunter, W. D., and Hinds, W. E. The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Bul. 45, 116 p., 16 pl., 6 fig., 1904. 3 Hunter, W. D., and Hinds, W. E. The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Bul. 51, 181 p., 23 pl., 8 fig., 1905. 4Cushman, R. A. Studies in the biology of the boll weevil in the Mississippi Delta region of Louisiana. InJour. Econ. Ent., v. 4, no. 5, 1911. p. 432-448. 5 Hunter, W. D., evil Pierce, W. D. Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Bul. 114, 188 p., 22 pl., 34 fig., 1912. 6 Coad, B. R., and Pierce, W. D. Studies of the Arizona Thurberia weevil on cotton in Texas. Proc. Wash. Ent. Soc., v. 16, no. 1. p. 23-28. 1914. Coad, B. R. Feeding habits of the boll weevil on plants other than cotton. U.S. Dept. Agr. Jour. Agr. Res., v. 2, no. 3, p. 235-245. 1914. Coad, B. R. Recent studies of the Mexican Cotton Boil Weevil. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 231,34 p., 1 fig. 1915. 7Coad, B. R. Relation of the Arizona Wild Cotton Weevil to Cotton Planting in the Arid West. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 233,12 p.,4 pl. 1915. Coad, B. R. Studies on the Biology of the Arizona Wild Cotton Weevil. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 344, 23 p., 2 pl., 1 fig. 1916. 5 COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 3 Thus it is seen that these studies embrace a wide range of time and conditions. In fact, the conditions of humidity, rainfall, tem- perature, altitude, soil, etc., include practically all extremes found in the cotton belt. The various breeding series of 1914 and 1915 were conducted in a large insectary located at the Delta Laboratory, Delta, La. (fig. 1). This was provided with screen sides to furnish free air circulation, and the curtains were so arranged that the direct sunshine did not reach any of the breeding cages. Practically all of the breeding Fig. 1.—Insectary at the laboratory at Delta, La., for studies on the boll weevil. (Original.) work was done in glass tumblers partially filled with moist sand and covered with a double thickness of cheesecloth. LONGEVITY OF ADULT WEEVILS. A considerable number of observations were made on the adult longevity on different foods. The data secured are separated by seasons, SEASONS OF 1913 AND 1914. Table I gives the observations made during the seasons of’ 1913 and 1914. The maximum record of longevity in 1914 was made by a first-generation female fed on cotton squares. This female emerged July 13 and died October 28, with a total life of 107 days. The maximum length of life of male weevils fed on cotton squares was 100 days; this individual emerging July 14 and dying October 22. The average longevity was 9.8 days on cotton leaves, 10.5 days on cotton bolls, and 46.3 days on cotton squares. 4 BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe 1.—Duration of life of boll weevils. Observations of 1913-14. VARIETY GRANDIS WITHOUT NORMAL FOOD. Aver- | Maxi- Season and period. Food. Eee beet ieee RES Remarks. gevity. | gevity. 1913. Days. | Days. Sept. 24 to Oct 7....| Hibiscus leaves... 4 24 6.0 13 | In paper bags on plants. Sept. 24 to Oct. 10...) Hibiscus bolls... 4 25 6.3 16 Do. IDL he earecises: Hibiscus leaves, 4 46 115} 16 Do. flowers, and bolls. Sept. 24 to Oct. 9....| Okra buds and 8 44 afi) 15 Do fruit. Sept. 24 to Oct. 12...) Okra fruit.....-- 8 75 9.4 18 Do. Sept. 24 to Oct. 8....| Okra leaves. .... 4 26 6.5 14 Do. Sept. 24 to Oct. 10...) Thurberia leaves 4 42 10.5 16 Do. Sept. 24 to Oct. 4....| Thurberia tips 4 34 8.5 10 Do. and buds. Sept. 24 to Oct. 8....| Thurberia 4 29 led 14 Do squares. Total longevity on malvaceous plants. . 44 345 7.8 18 VARIETY GRANDIS WITH NORMAL FOOD. 1914. | IA S61 LO eee ere Cotton leaves...-! 40 390 9.8 17 | In glass tumblers. July 15 to Aug. 1....| Cotton bolls...-- | 20 210 10.5 16 Do. June 3 to Oct. 28....| Cotton squares. | 24°) 1,106 46 107 | Females in glass tumblers. JuNnewWsito: Oct282s-|'4-25- (Ole pasate 24 1,118 46.6 100 | Males in glass tumblers. Total on normal food.........-...------ | 108 pe at 107. In the abnormal food studies the weevils lived an average of 6 days on Hibiscus leaves; 11.5 days on Hibiscus leaves, flowers, and fruit; 6.25 days on Hibiscus tips; 6.5 days on okra leaves; 9.4 days on okra fruit; 11 days on okra leaves, flowers, and fruit; 10.5 days on Thurberia leaves; 8.5 days on Thurberia tips and buds, and 7.3 days on Thurberia squares. These records are all low, probably due to the experimental methods, as the weevils were all placed upon the food in paper bags and later observations show that the method apparently causes an early death. SEASON OF 1915. The studies of 1915 compare the longevity of grandis weevils on moist sand with no food, on moist sand with okra and Hibiscus, on moist sand with different parts of the cotton, and also thurberiae, on moist sand with okra, with cotton bolls, and with cotton squares. The species of Hibiscus used were H. militaris and H. moscheutos. The results are given in Table IT. ie i 3 4 ‘| 4 5 4 , i 4 ‘ COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. Tasie I1.—Duration of life of boll weevils. VARIETY GRANDIS WITHOUT NORMAL FOOD. Observations of 1915. Males. Females. Bot 58 ee ele is Date. Stance pro- | el ane Se a eal ee Notes on weevils. : & és} eg Seo | 2 Bel =ESUEES S S| = |S 25/8) a | 28 lables) &= aR i 1 2) Season lice eo Si cs Ai o/s fe" 8] 8 |S [eR BS 5] 2 5 s Beles > BS |e > 42) 2-14 |2 |a) Fe 14 le le |< Days.|Dys Days.|Dys|Dys| Days June 9..... No food......-.- 54 | 2.77} 40) 9 36) 4.0 | 15} 40) 2.9 | Hibernated wee- vils. Io yesaollaseac Che eadocbe 30} 162) 5.4] 10) 30} 167) 5.57) 11) 11] 5.48) Collected in field. Hibernated. IN PY= 5 colleoaoa (GOs ee Sedaane 20 40} 2.0 6) 20 48) 2.4 5} 6) 2.20) Bred. Sepbsserece eee (lO sae Gbacons 12 ii 2. 20|, 3] 2 Bey 25 76)) 3} 3}, 2:50 Do. AUR NS eccllodood C0) > aecraneecs 20 63) 3.15] 10) 20 69} 3.45) 10} 10) 3.30 Do. Total without food...--.| 136) 440} 3.24) 40) 91) 353] 3.88) 15 40 3.49 Julys2eeee: Young okrafruit 6 2213.67), 6) 46 ONAN te Gs 7| +7| 4.1 | Bred from squares collected in field. dbl 2 aaoallbooed Goes see 2252 11 48} 4.36) 12) 10 39) 3.9 5] 12) 4.1 Do. Aug. 13 Okra bloom and 9 124) HON PAY) 441 4.9 | 12) 12) 6.4 | Bred from squares bud. and fed on blooms | until Aug. 7. Aug. 2.....| Okra fruit......- 10 OlpadetOr|. - Li eal 75| 7.5 | 14) 17| 7.5 | Collected in field. INS NBS Eaelaosd Coes Sean atlas 8 60) 7.5] 15) 8 55} 6.9 | 12) 15) 7.2] Bred weevils. Aug. 24-2700)... Clo) se sesaodae 14 123] 8.8 | 18} 14 164] 11.7 | 20] 20] 10.3 | Field collected. Sept Qeeece | eeecre G\os see mneaas 12} 131) 10.9] 39} 12) 155) 12.9 | 20) 39) 11.9 Do. July 28. ---- Hibiscus leaves 7 By eb aeeel Heme @)} @) (4) |.---] 5) 5.1 | Collected in field. Not sexed. Not included in aver- ages by sexes. ae eB. "7" |;Hibiscus blooms} 32) 156)......|....]....|------|------|---- 12} 4.9 Do. July 28.-... Hibiscus buds...] 4 ie eee eee Meer [cic ocliaida aaa eee 5) 4.5 Do. een eee \Hibiscus Bollser|ys40ly 185[0 0 -|. | ee een tle ee g| 4.6 Do. Total on malvaceous plants other than CORON. -AdeeSesaosoees 70) 531) 7.6] 39) 69) 559) 8.1 20); 39] 6.7 VARIETY GRANDIS WITH NORMAL FOOD. Bee ee \cotton leaves...| 57, 540) 9.47, 40) 38, 404) 10.55, 27 40) 9.01| Hiibernated. June7..... 7 oe ee \. adore 1? an 40| 269/ 6.73] 17] 40| 259| 6.25] 15 17| 6.60| Bred. Aug.9..... - ia Seta \....do yt 38| 258] 6.80] 17] 39] 332] 8.51| 32| 32] 7.661 Do. Total on cotton leaves. .| 135} 1,067) 7.9 | 40) 117) 992) 8.48) 32) 40) 8.17 rane he i Field collected; Wei)... \cotton terminals} 28! 468) 16.70) 43) 28) 627) 22.40) 42) 43) 19.55 Brpably, hiber- ee nated. DulyeSete secs (oko Ps eee 14] 232) 16.60} 32) 15) 282) 18.80) 43) 43) 17.72) Bred. JTC ON ee ee eae Gorse 13 142] 10.90) 31) 11 159} 14.50) 31) 31) 12.54 Do. Septs veers. He dost Asso: 20) 259) 13.00} 31) 19} 187) 9.84) 45) 45) 11. 44 Do. Total on cotton ter- ; minals. ope aioe ae aU 75) 1,101) 14.68} 43} 73) 1,255) 17.19} 45) 45) 15.92 | s ea d za ae July 34,7, Cotton bolls... 17| 345] 20.3 | 75] 17| 723] 42,53] 82| sa} 1.41] Do Junot... yCotton squares..| 11] 729) 66.27| 83) 13] 762] 58.62, 81) 83) 62. 13|\Pred: Rinst gen- July 16..-..| Bred. Second gen- eg } doweelnels 5] 197|-39.40] 57] 5] 167] 33.30] 59) 59] 36. 4o|t eee Total on cotton squares.| 16) 926) 57.88} 83] 18) 929) 51.61) 81] 83) 54.56 -, Total all grandis on ee GOON eAcadeasacoocnk 243] 3,439) 14.15] 83} 225) 3,899) 17.33) 81) 83) 15.68 6 BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste II1.—Duration of life of boll weevils. Observations of 1915—Continued. VARIETY THURBERIAE. sis Both Males. Females. eae ae s |e ls la le : ubstance pro- se | & Pe ee Het Ke si]< Date. waded Z | a ae ee a Sale Notes on weevils. ei [tae] ob Seales) |S ee Sls |S (ec1 8) a | & |esle Telli heel ae 5 be = 5/2 3's Bao (eet (arise) eerie o lec lie Zo ee at eS |e ald ja |& a Days. |Dys Days. |Dus|Dys| Days. : Aug. 30....| Okra fruit......- 8) 163) 20.4 | 39) 8) 129) 16.1 | 37] 39) 18.3) Removed from bolls collected in Arizona Mar. 1, 1915. May 35.:2.- Cotton leaves...| 11 647} 58.82) 97) 10 616) 61.6 78} 97| 60.14) From Thurberia bolls collected in | Arizona Mar. 1, | 1915. guly iS eaase eens doseediessee 5 350) 70.0 {to (ects Baaeme eae eee Mee ee re: Do. yi l8i2e |\First generation = = Do. Sept. 2 alt Gaerne \ 1,136] 71.0 | 104| 19] 1,269] 66.8 | 89] 104] 68.7 Ulyeliseces Second genera- = = malwiaio Par Do. Sept. 23... ne crane 6| 250| 41.7| 61] 10| 478] 47.8 | 66| 66) 45.5 nlye2(ese = - 3 y ere Sa cs 5 Santos \on cotton bolls. . \ 531 53.1) 73) 9) 392) 43.6 | 73] 73) 48.6 Do. Total all thurberice on | | Cotton serena sae 48) 2,914 60.71) 104) 48 zee 57.40} 89] 104] 59.05 ! Weevils not sexed. The grandis males averaged 3.24 days with no food; 7.6 days on okra and Hibiscus; 7.9 days on cotton leaves; 14.68 days on cotton terminals; 20.3 days on cotton bolls, and 57.88 days on cotton squares. The average longevity of male grandis on parts of the cotton plant was 14.15 days. The thurberiae males averaged 20.4 days on okra fruit; 62.3 days on cotton leaves, 53.1 days on cotton bolls, and 63 days on cotton squares. The average longevity of thurberiae males on parts of the cotton plant was 60.71 days. The grandis females averaged 3.88 days with no food; 8.1 days on okra and Hibiscus; 8.48 days on cotton leaves; 17.19 days on cotton terminals; 42.53 days on cotton bolls, and 51.61 days on cotton squares. The average longevity of female grandis on parts of the cotton plants was 17.33 days. The thurberiae females averaged 16.1 days on okra fruit; 61.6 days on cotton leaves; 43.6 days on cotton bolls, and 60.2 dese on cotton squares. The average of female thurberiae on parts of the cotton plant was 57.4 days. A comparison of the longevity of the two varieties on okra fruit, cotton leaves, cotton bolls, and cotton squares is shown in Table III. COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 7 TasiE II1.—Comparative longevity of Anthonomus grandis and A. g. thurberiae. Average Average 3 Food. ; longevity longeusly) of grandis. enine Days. Days. Qkara {atDETEK. ceca dowene Sadness sSeuSdeogb Ss SoS Re BSE BBEEEs 6 ocodnoddennasebodSnadace 5. ce 18.3 (Coiitiam Nees osodecdsbceSbe sons On ae SUS BERR OBEORNBE De > oS boocbaceanaaeacocOnS 8.17 62. 04 Coiitiom INOS. « ssocsedsecssesreaeses ance adeseeE MenSHeeeroS -cccseooducedaud Maen 31. 41 48.6 Wot bomisqWaresmeeenee eer == ae Arne | 6 ee || Rae 1 €or | 29 |e “sny | g eung | 9% Avy cs “shng ‘shog ‘shog “shvg ‘shi ea) ° & “sqnpe . SD a7 Z suronp ‘ *poried “porq | ‘porrod STeu9s RG) BPalE *Ayreu | Aypeur} *porr] . 5 Ey -o1d | ‘soxes | ‘sAep os jequour}| ‘sAvp | sjrA | Teqyuour|) ‘sep | *poerq ee ‘peop ‘peop | umnutr posiese TROL -104X%| -10N | -od Eee need Dene ca] s330 | WJ0Oq |[TAvom at im -do | [TAeemM | -o0M -do_ | [TAeoM |s[TAvoM Ay abe e[euley | e[vul | -IxXeVyy Ay wor} Santas -tsodrao | eeurey a) ese | polled | [eJOL -[oAep jo[vuley | e[eur | -[oAop | e[Vy_ | Ole a oyed eyed -sod | 7.7 OE a ra -4u190 (e1O.L O[VUIO -Of | OLR pore I TAQ Ua ere cr S18 Gh =) 19d Be ‘poyrsodep ss3op ae 1 *solvluej [enprAtrpur Aq peonpoid Aueso01g “So[VULO} [RNPTAIpul Jo AYTATOV 14 ‘afy burunp fyyunjsuoa saynu ym qday sipunsbh snmouoyjuyp fo saypuaf pamusaqry fo hipunsag— TA ATAV I, 15 COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. “0% A[Ng ‘WOT}ISOdTAo Jo UOT}esse0 Jo OYep ESvIOAY “Ez snSNV ‘morisodap Jo 07ep 4soqe'T ‘pedvosg 1 : Fs eee steteeee Te g 0 | Seater | MOF Beers (eet nae ete TANTO, sreceeee Te 621 0g GRE S|) Ub |RSS ane 7) UUnUxe Megas g: co'T | sar |¢ 8% '9E Gage Osa To lGy, 61 1 CGT essa sect oey| GO eames iron canines “| Z80'T SCI 406 =| OOO T| Te ee SIRO, 10°86 GL°EL | 022 9T 9ST 60T 8 6 eT TIT 8 ¥ 0% LG 0 1g 8% 2 Ane | of oung {----og 8 9T 7 FL | TOL L VI | 8% z 9%1 | el g 9 0% eh 0 &F ew | Apne | gr oung |----og 1B 03 8 eI | 102 ST LST 96 L 6 ‘TI TIT 8 L 9T ip G GL: oF re Ayng | OT eune |----og 8 SE GEL | €0E £% vet FEL Or 8°€T 6L1 €1 j Lat seit) 9 6G —-: | 8& oe Apne | eT oung |----og Te “ST 8°€L | 202 ST €F1 621 6 €1 82 9 g PT 86 eI cg rad 0@ “3ny | OL eung |----og L9°9T GT | 06 g) v1 GF € 9T 8F € 0 0% 9g T ce ST 9% eunf | 6 oUNg |----og 19 °9T O'eL | LIT 6 I 6E g I 8L 9 g 9'T 7S 0 Fo i253 11 Ang | #1 oung |----oq Tg °8 OFT | 99 ¥ 91 | 91 I a a € z 9° LF 91 Te cL | s% ‘Sny | of eung |----oq eee eure rears ES (eee a ai | Peed oe | pee cae | aed eg cg | Rabe eee 6 as g 66 T GT ¢ Ang | 6f eune |----og 6 v 12 6 ral 6y | I “Bny | 9¢ ounr |----0oq z 6" OF I 68 ce | ct Ajne | tf eunr | z oune 6 T'¢ 661 j Ler Ty | At Aqne | 2 oun |----og 9 9° 6E 0€ 6 %9 LT -8ny | ST eunc |----oq 9 i 9 G i oF og Arne | GT eune |----0og II Gg ia 0 1 96 | Arne) 6 oung |----og T 35 LT II 9 6¢ | “sny | 2 eung |----0g &T ge &T ¢ 8 xa Og eunf | L eune |----0q OT a 8T 8 OT 162 6t Aqng | 6 oung |----oq 9 Se 8 i if 42 |8 Arne | ot oung |----0og 00 °S3 ge lyalt T LT LT T 0 0 LO Res ears ames eae (6° y z 6 02 8z eunf | 6 oun |----0og L9°9 GL | GI I ai rai T 0 0 0 T v" CT I as 9¢ 1¢ Ajo | 9f oung |----og L99T OST | 82 61 9ST OST IL West LOT 8 6 87% FIT 0 FIL Iv 6r Aqng | 6 oune. |----0oq 96 “ST 9°ET | OST IT ¢ eT 18 9 8 °ET 69 ¢ i 8° 8c 6 6h LL ce sny | 4 eung |----0oq OFL FI | 8 a 0 0 0 ia! 86 G 4 lis 1% T 9% 68 OL Aqng |----op--*|----0og €T 83 GFT 81 6 Le60 IP € ¢o FT 18 Ors Nae lip eae oT (49 0 G& 8% 6 eunf | @ ounf |], eungr ‘sing “sing ‘sing ‘shoqg ; | “synpe : z ; ‘eT eu ‘Aepased| “Av =: : UIDND eae sales es alepoua||uboled |e ‘ pets bole a ‘ : jo ae mauelreacae yeyog, | “Alem | “Areca P| ‘pepue | ‘ueseq | -poqooy -o1d BSE Pe TAD A erated 1k) BEY Be Tey seeP | Pet | uyeop | PPP | xen | -0ay SETPSL | ONT yO u0T} wor -[00 gggqo_|_ W100 | TrAeem | 3, |-wourdo| [racem | -0am |-uetmdo} {races | sracaM 01 33a | Orewa | wor | -1sodrao | -1sodrao | opeurey aSvjueo | POHed | [e101 1e10g, asee je[eure esa glouOP PW | OTe 1st] o1eq ioe ened Bee Cie 20d en | el ran ported “‘pejisodep s33q an | “So[BUley [eNpTATpur Aq peonpoid AueSoig *SO[BUI9) [VNPIAIpUI Jo AAW oo ‘buds up przyruaf jou sypuvib snmouoyjuy fo saypuaf pawusoquy fo hupundiog— TIA TAI, 16 BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. From the results of these two series, shown in Tables VI and VII, it develops that all of the 25 isolated females deposited eggs, although 4 of them deposited less than 10 eggs each, whereas of the 20 fertilized females only 3 individuals deposited less than 10 eggs. The average oviposition period was 34.5 days for the isolated females and 40 days for females with the males. The average eggs for the isolated females was 41.2 with a maximum of 129, while for the females with males the average was 69.8 with a maximum of 157. However, it is seen that the isolated females averaged 5 eggs deposited externally while the females with males averaged only 0.45. Earlier studies have shown that practically all eggs deposited externally are infertile, which would indicate a lack of fertility on the part of isolated females. The average eggs per day for the isolated females ranged from 0.1 to 3.1 with a general average of 1.03, whereas for the females with males it ranged from 0.6 to 5.6 with an average of 2.05 eggs, thus proving the greater fecundity of the females with males. The latest date of cessation of oviposition, August 23, was the same in both series, but the average date for the isolated females was 7 days later than that of the females with males. All eggs secured in both series were retained and as many adults as possible were reared. It is seen that 17.25 per cent of the eggs from the isolated females produced adults, while 14.46 per cent of those from the females with males produced adults. However, the eggs from every female in the series with males produced some adults, while those from 4 females in the isolated series failed to produce any. From these observations it seems quite evident that at least a very high percentage of the females emerging in the spring are more or less fertile, but that their fecundity is considerably increased by later copulations. Fecundity of first-generation grandis females.—The weevils used in - this series were the first weevils bred during the season of 1915, the earliest emerging June 20. Thirteen pairs were mated and placed with cotton squares. (Table VIIL.) COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 17 Taste VIII.— Fecundity of first-generation females of Anthonomus grandis on cotton squares. Eggs deposited. Date ovi-| Date ovi-| Oviposi- Date female emerged. position | position tion Maxi- began. | ended. | period. | otal. | Per day. | mum per day. Days. 74 198 2.5 8 40 197 4.93 10 62 91 1.5 7 31 57 1.8 5 25 89 3.7 9 19 66 3.5 11 54 191 3.5 8 66 160 2.4 8 62 142 2.3 12 65 107 1.6 6 62 lil 1.8 6 33 110 3.3 7 59 204 3.5 10 650) | ehe723 een |e toc |e mare 50 13255 Deer tie ihereme 74 204 9 12 19 57 1.5 5 The total number of eggs deposited by each female ranged from 57 to 204 with an average of 132.5. The average number of eggs per female per day was 2.7 and the maximum was 12. The oviposi- tion period varied from 19 to 74 days with an average of 50 days. Fecundity of second generation grandis females.—Five pairs of weevils emerging from the first generation series were mated and placed with cotton squares during the last of July and the first of August (Table IX.) TaBLe 1X.—Fecundity of second-generation females of Anthonomus grandis on cotton squares. Eggs deposited. Date Date P A Ovipo- ovipo- ovipo- Ae Date female emerged. Sein inion ee Maxi- began. | ended. | PeTl0¢- | ‘Total. | Per day. | mum per day. Days aur liv Ge pe eas Ai See A ef July 23 | July 29 7 13 1.9 4 ANTHERS SDSS sees IU eee ee eel ree ane tL eet Aug. 18 | Sept. 4 18 42 253 6 PUT iy ae Meeps Ne a ce Reed July 27 |.-.do-.. 40 93 2.3 8 surly ape 9 ees ne 2 ee a ee Aug. 2] Sept. 5 35 175 5.0 10 ANTE, Ooo gctes Ba Agee SERA Tale eee menee Aug. 17 | Aug. 28 13 24 1.6 6 BO tales ee he ee ae see Se ES... re 113 (isin | a ee ae eee ae a PAR CLAP Compe nine nm nin) Aan ae eer eh A... ree 22.6 69.4 eh bascecoace Masai uimeaces iow Sees Mat) eae dee) Pw 2 ete 40 175 50) |} 10 ING Ta bTR ODE eee eee etc s ape ee oem Poeseeaeee|<2=2-==2- 7 13 1.6 4 The total number of eggs per female ranged from 13 to 175 with an average of 69.4. The number of eggs per female per day varied from 1.6 to 5.0 and the maximum number was 10. The oviposition period ranged from 7 to 40 days with an average of 22.6 days. 18 BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fecundity of hibernated thurberiae females.—The weevils used in this series were hibernated individuals extracted from cells in Thurberia bolls collected in Arizona on March 1, 1915. Nineteen pairs were mated on cotton squares on June 18. (Table X.) TABLE X.—Fecundity of hibernated females of Anthonomus grandis thurberiae on cotton squares. Date Date one Eggs deposited. Date installed. ake cae sition Maxt- began. | ended. peed Total. | Per day. | mum per day. Days JUNEHTS He More cae Nee ete mete mene ae June 29] Aug. 8 41 46 eal 4 Oe Rea esse cen de oak tees Nae Soe June 28| Aug. 2 36 82 2.3 6 1 Xo ie ental nee fea Pea RN ay cere MeN July 5 | July 25 21 9 4 3 XO re tetera duly, -DaeAr ee 7 38 109 2.9 7 IID) Sees he ce tarece) en ee Seats re -d0.% = -;ieepu.. 04 66 90 1.4 4 DD Ore ae yeiohe ee one eee See ade June 29 | Aug. 16 49 49 1.0 4 HD) ENS Safe nia stot tate oar NG hae dos sell ys a7, 19 26 1.4 5 f 59 76 1.3 5 47 47 1.0 4 27 54 2.0 4 20 5 ~20 2 74 58 -8 5 34 54 1.6 6 32 62 1.9 5 51 45 o¥) 5 58 57 1.0 5 54 69 1.3 6 29 73 2.5 6 39 57 1.5 4 794 1; 068" (sce te ne [nee ene 41.79 56. 2 A ee adlleomeee eee 74. 00 109 2.9 7 19. 00 5 PIS escheat oe The total eggs per female ranged from 5 to 109, with an average of 56.2. The average eggs per female per day was 1.3, while the maxi- mum was 7. The oviposition period varied from 19 to 74 days, with an average of 41.79 days. Fecundity of first-generation thurberiae females.—Ten pairs of the progeny of the hibernated thurberiae reared in cotton squares were mated on cotton squares. (Table XI.) TaBLE XI.— Fecundity of first-generation females of Anthonomus grandis thurberiae on cotion squares. Eggs deposited. Date ovi-| Dateovi-}| Ovipo- Date installed. position | position | sition Wise! began. ended. | period. Total. | Per day. |mum per day. Days DU DAY i Gh Pie ate aa Na ER RS oP AA July 24] Sept. 1 40 72 1.8 5 BAW Ae a rn iS a Caen. ore ly aaneusty July 28 | Aug. 24 28 37 1158} 4 COANE HOSS HERA aOo Cab Baas HAO UNG Rae E July 24 | Sept. 20 59 39 otf 5 DO Se eRe Hea SER a ene ine es Wane nts isne July 25 | Sept. 9 47 15 oo 3 DD Oe Mesis a camies sate oue ee ae ees July 25 | Aug. 28 35 12 3 3 ATL Wd aise el ar asare ieyete ra, saicle wrereneie iain ores niet Aug. 10 | Sept. 5 27 27 i.0 5 Sly 19 Sere eso kh: eee See ee ees July 29 | Sept. 22 25 11 8 2 ob PPE Nhe ciaee i orem ee remiss July 25 | Aug. 3 10 7 Sif 2 dt W/E ES 6 bene cadena auaereseeuemuararsen Aug. 3 | Aug. 26 24 6 3 2 INOS Ns SeGugabacuosocsoxomSbRSgéauesouseda Aug. 7 | Aug. 25 19 18 1.0 4 AT Obal ens Nasi eisjeise sae ee eementetetre ee [ee cie oaie sna | Meera 314 PLE Beuooosees|:soueeseas IAVOL ALO: a (clajaiciate ia areca pene ee Reine iaieeate cee | eae ee all meses eae 31.4 24.4 DAN ace Seeeniee Macias oe cee pe as a ae en eels alllotis sce el Meee ees 59 72 1.8 5 Wibhat bon iba laeey a eee eae a meas Me tind Spel rane ae |n Sara oe 10 6 BO adeopeoon COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 19 The number of eggs per female ranged from 6 to 72, with an average of 24.4, while the average per female per day was 1.4 and the maxi- mum per day was 5. The oviposition period ranged from 10 to 59 days, with an average of 31.4 days. From this and the preceding series the greatly reduced fecundity of thurberiae under the artificial condition prevailing at the Tallulah laboratory is quite evident. Fecundity of bred grandis females mated with male thurberiae.—Late in June 12 newly emerged female grandis of the first generation were mated with hibernated male thurberiae on cotton squares. (Table XII.) Taste XII.—Fecundity of bred females of Anthonomus grandis mated with male A. g. thurberiae on cotton squares. Kiggs deposited. Date ovi-| Dateovi-| Ovipo- Date installed. position | position | sition Mat began. | ended. | period. Total. | Per day. |mum per day. Days 9 35 3.9 7 38 134 3.5 9 27 124 4.6 8 28 19 all 2 13 29 2.2 7 28 100 3.6 8 10 31 3.1 5 37 87 2.4 6 14 32 2.3 5 48 87 1.8 6 6 13 2.2 6 38 113 3.0 7 44 166 3.8 15 312 Si) caliganosGacaclloosudeoood 26 72.5 Desi ES screen 48 166 4.6 15 6 13 se, \eioroeectniaers 1 A complete record was not secured from this female owing toits escape on August 30, and consequently the figures are not included in the totals and averages. The total eggs per female varied from 13 to 166, with an average of 72.5, and the average per female per day was 2.8. The oviposition period ranged from 6 to 48 days, with an average of 26 days. The hybrid progeny reared from these eggs were mated on cotton squares and laid fertile eggs Fecundity of female aaperiac mated with male grandis.—In June 18 hibernated females of the variety thurberiae were mated with an equal number of male grandis on cotton squares. The detailed results are shown in Table XIII. 20 BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe XIII.—Fecundity of hibernated female Anthonomus grandis thurberiae mated with male A. grandis on cotton squares. | Eggs deposited. Date Date : oviposi- | oviposi- | Oviposi- Date installed. tion tion tion Maxi- began. | ended. | period. | Total. | Perday.| mum per day. Days. JunerOass eel eee OR Eee ae July 31] Sept. 7 67 31 0.5 3 DOr? oaks ee ek June 28] Sept. 3 68 77 iia 4 Dot Ghia A Ga air ein ree July 2) Aug. 13 43 133 oat 8 I) Oars Ea Ss Ns eo yep ae ae pees er | June 28] Aug. 6 40 48 1.2 5 1D Ye eta Aen Reeds Aso Cae! Eee ea June 29 | Sept. 2 66 72 Eyl 4 DOS te ae Seer Haar gt ne (Sido: sae Aug. 3 36 65 1.8 5 DOS etre eee ee ee eee eee July 3] Aug. 4 3 47 1.4 4 IB) OF zee seers eee ene eee eee July 5] July 24 20 31 11,8} 33 Doses Sasi een teeta Staats ans Ogee June 30 | Aug. 22 54 59 iil 4 Do sia cse a ie se ee Bey Bee: ; July 7] Aug. 21 45 40 .9 4 HD) OPE See SE ye eens Mane ee Se July 5] Aug. 20 47 51 TAL 4 DO eset = ee acannon tony Ena July 2] July 28 27 30 11 4 DOSES ae ee eee eee Semen ne June 28) Aug. 2 36 77 2.2 6 DB Yo reese tat ta 3 Pa UD et a22 C022 se eAuet IL 45 71 1.6 5 DOeRa se yaar dict Gee canoe es July 1] Aug. 24 55 47 9 5 DO Mea eeta eect eee eee enn ses July Aug. 4 32 32 1.0 2 AD) Oe se ene een tee eee June 28) Aug. 2 36 35 1.0 4 DOS see ee eee ec oe eae =dos July 24 27 24 =9 4 Total 2 Asesasoe seen eee es ae aa oe fo Ae S| ee ee 777 O70". 2s nce Seeeee eee SAV OTA ROS: cS ae see ene eee ae haces Sats a | 2aoanee eemeeee eas 43, 2 54 ho} eee eseee Maximum . < ssc 2222 soca tet rss eee eee [eewi eosssc|eeeeee ess 68 133 3.1 8 Minimum Yossie yeaa sees eee Sasa a 22| Se ate non meee ase 20 24 SRS cee re sae | The total eggs per female ranged from 24 to 133, with an average of 54, and the general average per day was 1.3 eggs. The oviposition period varied from 20 to 68 days and averaged 43.2 days. The progeny of this cross were also mated and produced fertile eggs. ; Fecundity of bred grandis females on cotton bolls —Kighteen pairs of bred grandis weevils were placed with cotton bolls and furnished only this food until death. Seven of these females died without depositing a single egg. The activities of the remaining 11 are shown in Table XIV. TasLe XIV.—Fecundity of bred females of Anthonomus grandis on cotton bolls. Oviposition. Eggs per day. Date installed. ae . i Maxi- Started. | Ended. | Period. Average.| tim. Days df at Saat aa aaes Sains intro as ae noes AEE July 18] Aug. 1 5 0.3 1 One eee Meehan eee eC Etter July 19] July 25 6 3 A) 2 DOS) Ne eee iae nee = July 14} Sept. 7 45 17 4 2 1D) Oe atte co ee eee acne July 28 | Aug. 22 26 13 a0 2 DD) OF 3555 5ae ee See ee ee ae July 16 | Sept. 5 52 17 +3 2 DOF inet eee atone eee July 12 ; Sept. 10 61 2. 4 3 Sule 6 a5 AS an - San aa ee es eee ice July 23 | Aug. 7 16 5 -3 3 aye) eae abeia werone Bono s euaopecaonee Aug. 7 | Aug. 17 il 2 2 1 CRED SE ee ee eee seen sons ae aaee Aug. 6 | Sept. 16 42 5 - 01 2 IDB Boone SAPP snuriosnanc oop mS cache an July 30 | Aug. 17 19 2 - O01 i ID tama hanes SO Bo moe Senos Pa aeerme July 26 | Sept. 16 22 8 4 2 Total. ss sane eee eieadec cee cioalls Selcomatnee lococcadece 317 a0 Re el ee iS aoc IANCVAGO UN =. 52/55 Se ae ote eerie aa Sere| iain) Telos io aescceeee | 29 9 Pie sae aero sae Maximum -.92) aaa ee ere een eae |i. 5 eee ieee: | 61 24 ai 3 Minimum! a2 ce-eeeeeeeee eee ee locas ener | Bee aces | 6 2 201) Saas COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. Ort The total eggs per female varied from 2 to 24, with an average of only 9, and the average per day was only 0.3. The oviposition period ranged from 6 to 61 days, with an average of 29 days. These results indicate the great difficulty with which oviposition is performed when only bolls are offered for food, but at least a large percentage of the eggs deposited were fertile, as 20 adults were reared from them. Fecundity of hibernated thurberiae females on cotton bolls.—Nine pairs of thurberiae weevils were extracted from their hibernation cells in Thurberia bolls on July 27 and placed with cotton bolls at once. They were offered only this food until death. The results are given in Table XV. Taste XV.—Fecundity of hibernated Anthonomus grandis thurberiae on cotton bolls. E deposited— core Maxi- Ovipo- ari en erh ovipo- ovipo- vi mum Date installed. mirion sinGin sn Mare nes per began. ended P 5 = Total. day. mally. nally. 1 62 63 7 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 6 8 14 3 2 5 7 2 1 2 Bi \lonsbooapos 4 1 5 2 1 1 2 1 pretence 1 1 1 11 74 Chil Pees koe 1.3 9.3 WO6G | beoctooces 4 62 63 7 Rees aces 1 ee eee ee | 1 This female escaped Aug. 20, and consequently is not included in the averages. One of these females escaped, and consequently only eight are considered in the averages. These eight deposited a total of only 85 eggs, and 74, or 89.4 per-cent of these were deposited externally. It is striking that every female that deposited any eggs laid one or more externally. This is positive evidence of the unsuitability of bolls as food for these weevils. The average total eggs per female was 10.6 and the average num- ber deposited normally was only 1.3. These eggs were fertile, how- ever, as several adults were reared from them. Fecundity of grandis females on cotton bolls and squares on alternate days.—In addition to the foregoing studies on the effect of cotton bolls on the deposition of females another series was conducted in which each female was offered squares and bolls on alternate days. These females were bred individuals, which were fed squares until normal deposition started. Consequently this series does not show the effect of the boll food upon the fecundity of the females, but 22 BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. simply shows the relative effect of the bolls and squares upon the act of oviposition. Table XVI shows the activity of nine females treated in this manner. TaBLeE XVI.—Fecundity of females of Anthonomus grandis on cotton squares and cotton bolls on alternate days. Eggs deposited in squares. Eggs deposited in bolls. Maxi- Maxi- Total. mum a welnee Total. mum sveraee per day. P y- per day. P y- 10 2; 0.36 16 2 0.58 21 8 1.28 6 2 wb2 24 6 2.00 5 1 . 50 21 9 5. 26 6 8 1.50 5 3 28 8 3 - 46 40 1 2.42 19 3 1.16 25 7 1.36 16 5 . 86 23 5 1.54 11 2 . 74 4 3 16 1 1 w2 37 11 1.42 21 4 . 80 41 9 1.52 12 Bi . 68 251 11 iByAl 121 5 59 From this it is seen that the average eggs per female per day was 1.21 on cotton squares and 0.59 on bolls. Consequently the greater suitability of the square for deposition is quite evident. Summary of all fecundity observations on cotton squares.—Table XVII gives a brief summary of the foregoing studies on fecundity when the females were with males throughout life and were fed cotton squares. Here it is seen that the three series containing thur- beriae females gave the lowest average of total eggs per female, and that the first-generation grandis gave the highest. The average eggs per female in all series was 68.2 and the average per day was 1.8. TaBLe XVII.—Feeundity of all boll weevils on cotton squares: Summary. | Eggs per day. D Average Average | pine z Source. Number’ | gees per | OViposi: females. | female ee Maxi- * | period. | Average. mum. Days. EN ernatedygnand siecle eee eee eo lees 20 69. 85 34.5 Pil 12 rst SeneravloniGna Nd Sres seem eee ee ate le ie ee 13 132.54 | ~- 50 2010 12 Second generation grandis .....---...-:---.-------.-- 5 69. 4 22.6 Gul 10 FRIDernatedycnUn; bent dem emesis eee attain 19 56. 2 41.79 1.3 7 First generation thurberiae _.......-------.---------- 10 24.4 31.4 3.5 5 Female grandis and male thurberiae_...--....-...---- 12 72.5 26 2.8 iD) Female thurberiae and male grandis............-...-. 18 54 43. 2 1.3 8 MPO GALS Es aS os SE Pe en ee SEE ES Let er Al REE ene Cee mer es aces’ tees odocasace PA VOTA RO tee repecnainaste lege ac eats io retatopa ies terapere cle wins Goats, vata feeererceea Se 68.2 Bio NBT Bar seacoast The averages are all surprisingly low, the lowest on record for a season for the boll weevil, infact. In 1902 to 1904, at Victoria, Tex., the females averaged 89 eggs each at the rate of 2.8 per day, while at COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 23 the same place in 1913 they averaged 212 eggs each at the rate of 5.9 per day. That this year’s low record is not due to the difference in localities is shown by the fact that at Tallulah in 1910 the weevils averaged 208 eggs per female, at the rate of 5.5 eggs per day. The low records of 1915 may have been due to the extremely hot, dry weather prevailing during the period when most of the observations were made. OVIPOSITION PERIOD. The oviposition period of 122 females was observed during 1915. The results are shown in Table XVIII. TaBLE X VIII.—Oviposition period of the boll weevil on cotton squares. Period. Number Source of weevils. Season. of females. Maxi- Mini- ates aaegTTa, are Average. Habernatedignandiss tse... a oc May-June.......-- Bape 20 65 1 34.5 Hibernated grandis unfertilized in | June-August........-- 25 77 15 40.0 spring. First generation grandis.......-.------ June-September....-- 13 74 19 50.0 Second generation grandis.....:.-.-.-.|----- do...) ae 5 40 7 22.6 Hibernated thurberiae............--.-.--|----- do: eee a8 19 74 19 41.79 First generation thurberiae.........-.-- July-September 10 59 10 31.4 Male thurberiae and female grandis. -..- June-September . ----- 12 48 6 26.0 Male grandis and female thurberiae......|...-- do22: eae 18 68 20 44.3 Mo taleteriee sersisce acecek eats os fe May-September...-.-- IOP eee ee eaaue Pe eR tale ee Se Wieishitedtavierdcewe stiri ce 8 On Eee oS 2 eee eee eeal ae ee eee eis Hare pose eieesie oe 38. 2 Ma xo a eee lee Ce A ea ee TH peerasocte tl emcdeHene IN DWAR 5 Sac Goethe UB On OBO DE RCe Eee |S REEE ReeEEME ES on ocabads labcaseoeoulaeeeecatee PH eoacacae The table shows that the oviposition period ranged from 1 to 77 days, with an average of 38.2 days for all females. The first genera- tion grandis had the longest average period and the second generation grandis the lowest. There is no great difference between the length of the oviposition periods of grandis and thurberiae. A series of 8 thurberiae females on cotton bolls averaged 25.5 days, with a maximum of 59 days and a minimum of 1 day, while a series of 11 grandis females on cotton bolls averaged 29 days, with a maxi- mum of 61 days and a minimum of 6 days. Observations of 32 females on cotton squares at Tallulah in 1914 showed an average oviposition period of 34.4 days, a maximum period of 80 days and a minimum period of 10 days. The average oviposi- tion at Tallulah in 1910 was 34.44 days, and the average period in Texas in 1913 was 35.8 days. All records of female oviposition periods average several days less than the 1915 record of 38.2 days at Tallulah. Thus it is seen that if there is any tendency toward a change in the length of the oviposition period of the weevil it is in the nature of an increase rather than a decrease, . 24 BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RATE OF OVIPOSITION. The rate of oviposition by thirds of the period is shown in Table XIX. From this it is seen that the general average eggs per female per day was the same in the first and second thirds, while in the last it was lower. TaBLE XIX.—Rate of oviposition of the boll weevil obtained in all experiments.! Rate of oviposition. | l [eee First third | Second third | Last third Nature of weevils. of fe- Season. ofperiod. | of period. of period. males - | Total Daily; Total | Daily) Total-| Daily | eggs. | avg. | eggs. | avg. | eggs. | avg. Hibernated grandis........--------- 19 | MaytoAug...| 505| 2.3] 504] 2.2 387| 1.7 First generation grandis....-.-.-.-- 13 | June to Sept.. 518 |- 2.7 | 2 6921352 453 2.0 Second generation grandis.....-...-- 5 | July to Sept... 152 | 4.2) 1P23)) BEB} 77 1.9 First generation thurberiae.....-.-. 101... -dosseuees: 133: | 1:3.|> S65)lgees6 46 4 Hibernated thurberiae.--...-.------ 19 | June to Sept... 407 | 1.6] 379] 1.4 282 1.0 Male grandis and female thurberiae. - 18)|22- > 00S eereeee 397 | 1.5) 373] 1.4 198 8 Male thurberiae and female grandis... 13))5-52 COzscesteee 289 | 2.7 392 | 3.5 275 2.3 Rotal ses Skee ee ee ea see ae eae tes |sseseeesooe eee a; AG IH Sera 2, D2 sos see- aPe7Aks}| SGaeas 7 YA eo Gericonaoe Sor CSECor becSener Pacesncass5-5058 pee aaee || <2. 0 oho ocean ZEN esos 1.4 1 Owing to the fact that the oviposition periods were rarely exactly divisible by 3 it was frequently necessary to allow a difference ofa day on one or more ofthe periods. For this reason the divisors used in computing the final average were slightly different, and consequently the same average per day was secured in the first and second period, though the total eggs were slightly higher in the second period. MAXIMUM NUMBER OF EGGS PER DAY. The maximum number of eggs deposited by a female in a day was 15, this number being deposited on July 17 by a grandis female fertilized by a thurberiae male. This maximum is much lower than the maxima of previous years. The maxima of the various series carried through this year varied from 5 to 15 eggs. The record for maximum eggs per day was made at Tallulah in 1914 when a first generation female laid 27 eggs. The maximum number of eggs in a day before this time was 26, this record being made by a female at Victoria, Tex., in 1913. PERIOD FROM DEPOSITION OF LAST EGG TO DEATH. The number of days from the deposition of the last egg to the death of the female varied from 54 days to death on the same day as the last deposition. The average of the 120 weevils observed during the season was 5.8 days. Typical grandis averaged 4.4 days to death, the periods of the individuals varying from none to 13 days. Typical thurberiae averaged 9.7 days, the periods varying from none to 54. Female grandis mated with male thurberiae averaged 2.3 days, the periods varying from none to six, while female thurberiae mated with male grandis averaged 6.2 days, the period varying from none to 24 - days. COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN. THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 25 This period in the 1914 studies varied from 22 days to death on the ‘same day that the last egg was deposited, with an average of 3.4 days. Death on the last day of deposition was observed five times during the season. ACTIVITY OF FEMALES IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE DAY. Early in August, 1914, two tests were conducted to determine the egg-laying activity of the females during the different parts of the day. Nine actively depositing females were used in each test. The results are shown in Table XX. TaBLE X X.—Periodic division of oviposition of boll weevils. «FIRST TEST: AUGUST 4 AND 5. Percent: : | Total age of Maxi- : i totalovi-| mum Period. | Length of period. eggs position | tempera- ; in each ture. period. Per cent. ae IDE tle S du cbno Sao SbeeO OSs eens Coote sae ee reer 5a.m.to9a.m 16 12.8 77 WU UGG y ROUTER PS GS Us aaa |9a.m.tolp.m 47 37.6 86 ATC OEM OOMEEA EERE Reet nea saosseee erect teesetiided 1p.m. to5p.m 29 23.2 90 SOOM oa.ca5edsied C652 SU S8> One SORA SRE e ene See EneeE | 5p.m.to8p.m 23 18.4 85 INTE Dobos dose SOs geese aeeeae pipet hemko ee eis Ids AA! a | 8p.m.to5a.m 10 8.0 75 SECOND TEST: AUGUST 7 AND 8 IDES = ca b65e AoC RU AOE OSC OS eee are ae ea | 5a.m.to9a.m... 8 9.1 72 WIGHMITINES 5 5 obodea co eH OSes BE OEEe Oneon cata eae ae aerIeS 9a.m.tolp.m.. 27 30.7 81 PAG OMMOOM crete Ges eis snis ins Seiseatecs cee eee ot oe oe 1p.m.tod5p.m. 39 44.3 86 TBNROMUIS So CSc oo SSCS RE BEES CESARE EEE Ge aan rere | 5p.m.to8p.m. 10 11.4 80 INGEN 5 ob cb Saco eSHe CoE RACER Cena ee eee eee | 8p.m.to5a.m. 4 4.5 75 SUMMARY: BOTH TESTS. IDES ou BBS. oS 5 Oe RIES Sn SRS Si aes ees aN 5a.m. to9a.m... 24 11.3 77 MO RTIM Cpe paver resin te Nee MC a ee 9a.m.tolp.m.. 74 34.7 86 AMICI OOM 6 35 oda Sau Dea SCe eB EeTS CBSE eee ree Eee E> | lp.m.to5p.m.. 68 31.9 90 PRON ae peers Soe os aiofe Ae ace ie wa iciidie wns sell 5p.m.to8p.m.. 33 15.5 85 NGA soso GeSSGS TAD RAMUS SEO SCC SIS co ear aeten eae maeee 8p.m.to5a.m-.. i4 6.6 75 From this table it is seen that in the first test the greatest activity was exhibited in the morning period and the afternoon period ranked second, while in the second test the afternoon period was highest and the morning period was second. In both cases the night was the lowest of all. | The only other test of this sort which has been conducted was at Tallulah during 1910 when it was found that the afternoon period ranked first and the evening period was second. However, this test was conducted during July and the one this year was in August, so the results are not strictly comparable owing to differences in the light and temperature conditions during the various periods. > 26 BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CESSATION OF OVIPOSITION BY HIBERNATED WEEVILS. Observations on the date of cessation of oviposition were made with 45 hibernated females collected in the field early in the season and fed on cotton squares. As shown in Table XXI the dates ranged from June 9 to August 23 and the average date of cessation in both series was July 17. All the females excepting two laid eggs on June 20 or later and a majority laid eggs well along in July. Since these females were nearly all selected from the first to appear in the spring it is certain that the later emerged adults would continue to oviposit con- siderably longer in the fall. Thus the futility of late planting of cotton to escape boll weevil attack is seen. TasLe XXI.—Dates of cessation of oviposition of Jirst hibernated females of the boll weevil. | Females isolated Females isolated With males throughout life. from malesin || With males throughout life. from males in spring. | spring. Date Date Date Date Date Date stopped stopped ; : stopped stopped Date collected. ovipos- ok ovipos- Date collected. ovipos- |, ie Giieoe: iting. "| iting. iting: —|)°2S"| siting. May 2628s aeaocinss sees Aug.= 3 | Juned.| June, 297\|" Sune 17-2. ...2 2-2 ee Aug. 23 |..do July 15 WORSE ac sex none June 9 |..do....| July 10 DD O35 s2 oeeroe eee July 18 |..do Aug. 13 DOz saa seece eee June 26 |..do- Aug. 22 WOR es tiem ater July 14 |..do July 3 IDAs gunenaoneee June 29 |..do. July 19 DO. 2os ssa nsececeee June 20 |..do-. Aug. 23 WO ne e.kaseeseeeee July 5 |.-do. July 21 IDO MEMEREaRe aaaa sas Aug. 4 |..do- July 17 I) Omtieeeiees Somes June 28 |..do. June 28 Ons e ase ee e Aug: .5-|--do. June 26 LD) OSs seca TUMORS Oss eI ye Sell ieie ee 2 eee eee peers | yee .do. Aug. 20 DOs Sse asso oe July 19 |..do. VAT ANGE | beg ees 8 = i, = ee eee eae -do. July 22 DOSS. Sas Uee erase: July 10 |..do. JUNOBO lepers Sv =: PS See Skene -do. July 24 Doris ness ecee July 12 |..do Ang. AN eres sa eS he ae Bll Ee .do. July 3 DOM ees cores July 8 |..do. SAT PA ce ees ir = Sip | eR ee -do. July 7 DOF ese July 31 |.-do. July 30 || Earliest datestopped..} June 9 |........ June 26 ID) ORs Sete June 23 |..do....| Aug. 17 |} Latest date stopped ...| Aug. 23 |........ Aug. 23 TUNG Wie ees see July 31 |..do.:..| July 17 || Average date stopped .| July 13 |....-.... July 20 TOTAL DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD. Observations of 1914.—The time required from egg deposition to adult emergence was observed with all weevils bred in the various series until September 5. any weevil was 20 days and the minimum period was 11 days. The maximum developmental period of The results are tabulated according to season and generation in Table SOSH. COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 27 TaBLE X XII.— Total developmental period of the boll weevil: Observations of 1914. g he VS |e else lass : rs a Siar a ko} Q ‘ o aes lg ie els |= ‘ 0 =] oO: . oO alos 5 Nature of | par Period of ovipo- ro > A |ad Be a |Add! eB rH b arval food. sys ro) @ ® PB o ab weevils. sition. 8 i g & 5 iB © co & is & S cs & A aS alenn lS 3 (8 | 8 5 3 3 >is 5 > lo S > A a (414 |e < ola a <4 : Dys Days. Days. First generation .| Cotton squares.| June 2-July 2.... 3 4414.7} 7} 110) 15.7) 10 154) 15.4 Second genera- |..--. do......---| June 23-June 30. 2 3115.5) 3 45| 15 5 76| 15.2 tion. ID YO Sareea tees GO! Sse Jiliyel=5ae oe 11 170/15. 5} 18) 269) 14.9) 29 439) 15.2 IDO Sea es Col aeoSe do... July 8-12........ 14, 200)14.3} 16) 230) 14.4) 30 430} 14.3 ID) OME Mees aes. 2 Choe Re eens July 13-20....... 50} 753)15.1] 41 603] 14.7) 91] 1,356) 14.9 ID OS settee Mera dow: July 21-31....... 104] 1,475)14.1| 92) 1,303] 14.2) 196) 2,778) 14.2 ID XG) 2 ey eR Se do... ANGI SS GY eee 40} 598/15 34] 509} 15 74, 1,107] 15 IDO Son aceedse lasses do... Aug. 6-11......- 33 495\15 25) 375) 15 58 870) 15 ID) OMe alia ae= do.... Aug. 12-31. ..... 16| 245/15.3} 26 384| 14.8) 42 629} 15 DD OS eee eb ci. do... Sept. 1-15....... 5 72\14. 5) 15) $232] 15.5) 20 304) 15.2 ot aleeere | sees ca ncccea|teesceeacel caceceec 275) 4, 039/14. 7| 270) 3,950) 14.6] 545) 7, 989)14.6+ Third generation)... .- Goeesasaco-| ulye15-21e 222282 20) 279/14 17; 242) 14.2; 37 521; 14.1 ID) Ses oo eee eeoee Go eae eee | plys22—265 Ps. 21 305/14. 5) 30 436) 14.5) 51 741) 14.5 DORR emai. sce doisie Be atlye2(— oles one 14 204\14.6) 13 187} 14.4) 27 391} 14.5 IDO. Soe leeee Gon see e5-| Auer2=102. 22. 14, 208)14.9} 22 330} 15 36 538} 15 IDO ay otnnoee eens dommes eA Oe = 24a ae 9} 127/14.1) 11) 164) 15 20 291} 14.6 TRO tell eee | eee eee eens Mane ent ook 78| 1,123]14.4} 93] 1,359] 14.6] 171) 2,482] 14.5 Fourth genera- |-.--. Gow sas-| PAU 2-10. 5 soe) 14) 211/15.1) 18) 266) 14.8] 32 A77| 14.9 tion. IDWS Ssegesead sasre Goze: Aug. 11-23...... 22} 312/14.2) 29] 416] 14.3] 51 728) 14.3 WCE casas Gheeadllecsoaceeeesendeca GoseSsee ase 36) 523)14.5) 47) 682) 14.5) 83) 1,205] 14.5 Fifth generation .|....- do... Sept. 2-5......-- 5 72/14. 5) 6 86) 14.3) 11 158} 14.4 ANON oc Sel ees SS ere RARER eae 397) 5, 801\14. 6| 423) 6,187} 14.6) 820) 11,988) 14.6 During the entire season 397 males and 423 females were bred. The average developmental period for both sexes was 14.6 days. Weevils bred later than September required a much longer develop- mental period but no positive record was kept of these weevils. Observations of 1915.—The total developmental periods of all weevils observed during 1915 is detailed in Table XXIII. 28 BULLETIN 358, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE XXIII.—Total developmental period of the boll weevil: Observations of 1915. GRANDIS WEEVILS. Males | Females. & a © | Ee Se hs vipositi 7 So] eo 5 Source of weevils. Larval food. Oviposition ls [a [els |e | eso eeales period. 2gleal Se siegiealaviisl sien \goo/OR] He Sig e|PRlE Sia | a 5 JBS(CS(SRIS5/CS/EElS |o |[F Zz |e 2Kel- Island. || zona. | y.j.nq_ | leridis. || zona. | Sakel- || 7 laridis. | | laridis. || 7° | | 99. 29 | 93.66 | 100.74} 102.11 | 96.40 | 98.43 |! 90.41 | 95.51 72.7 70.13 | 70.17 | 73.04 |) 70.12] 72.23 |] 67.21 | 68.72 4. 98 49.00 | 47.96 | 52.39 {i 48.03 | 48.89 47.78 | 48. 41 42.93 39.11 | 38.738 | 41.25 |! 39.45 | 39.49 39.06 | 39.09 26. 26 | 24.15 | 24.41! 25.14 |} 23.62] 24.33 23.38 | 23.02 20.24 || 18.00] 18.48 | 18.08 \) 17.81 | 18.61 | 17.23 | 16.82 | | | | | 1.92 | 49.01 | 50.09 | 52.00 | 49.24 | 50.33 } 48.46 | 48.59 A careful analysis of these tensile strength tables discloses the fact that if comparisons of each kind of cotton and each number of yarn are made, the yarns manufactured from the Sakellaridis Egyptian cotton were proportionately stronger in the greatest num- ber of cases, the yarns made from the Sea Island ranked second, while those made from Arizona-Egyptian cotton were lowest in ten- sile strength. There were, however, considerable variations, showing that first one kind of cotton and then another was superior in breaking These variations might be falcon. as indications that each different kind of cotton is best aber ted to certain numbers ef yarn. these smail differences ¥ any two lots of cotton of even the same kind. It seems more probable, however, that would exist naturally in the manufacture of The average of the tensile strength of all the different numbers of yarn with 3.25 as twist constant compared according to the grade arrangements given in Table X shows that in two cases out of four Arizona-Egyptian is the strongest, and in two cases Sakellaridis is the strongest. The average tensile strength of all the different numbers of yarn with. twist constant of 3.80 as shown in Table XI shows that Sea Island is strongest in one case and Sakellaridis in three cases. COMPARATIVE SPINNING TESTS. 11 Referring again to page 6, it may be seen that the comparisons between the three grades of Arizona-Egyptian and Sakellaridis Egyptian show that the average differences in waste cotton were 6.80 per cent, 6.38 per cent, and 7.07 per cent, respectively, in favor of the Arizona-Kgyptian. In the comparisons of the two grades of Sea Island cotton with Arizona-Egyptian there were differences of 4.49 per cent and 5.73 per cent, respectively, in favor of the Arizona- Egyptian. The tensile strength of the yarns made from the different cottons is affected by the percentage of waste discarded. Therefore, where the differences in waste are so evident, in order to make a more com- prehensive determination as to the comparative tensile strength, it would seem advisable to remove the same amount of waste from each kind of cotton. BLEACHING, DYEING, AND MERCERIZING. Investigations were made to ascertain the relative values of Arizona-Egyptian, Sea Island, and Sakellaridis cottons as to their bleaching, dyeing, and mercerizing qualities. These tests! were made upon both loose cotton and yarns. The following numerical designations arbitrarily represent the different grades and kinds of cotton. For example, 1 to 4 represents Arizona-Kgyptian, 5 to 6, Sea Island, and 7 to 9, Sakellaridis. Number. Grade. Kind. Tec eie le 5 es SA is Ra 6 ae eg Dextre 2 | eee eae Ayizona-Keyptian. Oh id Ea 9 Sea el ta (Choice)... Aas aaaaie Do. Doc cde Ae ae are rae Standard). aes Do. Cee as ae aE a ieee ea tara A Medium..: 3532 ne Do. Ey epee 2 ial act cay fe Ss ng Nan Gy,2 +. aa Sea Island. Bes oa eRe Extra, Cholcesemsc. 2.) Do. US es al Saami ta eons aut Good: "= . Aas sees Sakellaridis Egyptian. SoS AGO Mee pitta imi eae Fully good fair..-..-- Do. G2 Nae See A ie ee Hain S233 eee Do. BLEACHING LOOSE COTTON. The different methods used in bleaching will be referred to as methods (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), @), (A), and (B). Method (a)—The cotton was bleached by treating it, without scouring, with a solution, obtained by the electrolysis of salt, con- taining 0.5 grams of chiorine per liter. In the future this solution will be designated as ‘‘electrolitic chlorine.” Method (6).—The cotton was scoured in a solution containing 1 gram of soda ash in each 10 cubic centimeters; then bleached as in (a). Method (c).—The cotton was treated with 2 per cent acetic acid and bleached as im (a). - 1These tests were made at the New Bedford Textile School in the laboratory of the department of chemistry, by Everett H. Einckley, professor in charge of this department. 12 BULLETIN 359, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Finally all the samples were blued with 0.001 per cent of blue violet acid dye. These three methods represent the usual means taken to obtain white cotton for spinning, except that the quantity of bleaching agent used was reduced in order to magnify any variations in the results obtained. Method (d).—The cotton was boiled two hours in a 10 per cent solution of soda ash and bleached cold in electrolitic chlorine con- taining 2 grams of chlorine per liter. Method (e).—The cotton was treated as in (d) except that a chloride lime solution, containing 8 grams of chlorine per liter was used for the bleaching agent. Method (f).—The cotton was treated as in (d) except that an alkaline solution of sodium- peroxide equivalent to 15 grams of chlorine per liter was used. After bleaching, all the samples were blued as in processes (a), (b), and (c). The above concentrations of bleaching agent represent those used in commercial practice to obtain equal bleaching results. Method (A).—The cotton was treated cold for two hours in a 2-degree Twaddle solution of bleaching powder, containing 5.82 grams of chlorine per liter; rinsed with cold water; soured with 2 per cent solution of acetic acid; rmsed and antichlored in a 2 per cent solution of sodium bisulphite 30 minutes; then finally rinsed and blued in water containing 1 gram of ‘‘Vat Blue” in each 133 liters. Method (B).—The cotton was treated as in method (A), except that a solution of electrolized salt, containing 2.87 grams per liter of available chlorine was used as a bleaching agent. Laboratory samples of the cottons were bleached by methods (a), (b), and (c). The Arizona-Egyptian cotton bleached more easily than did the Sakellaridis, and very closely resembled the Sea Island in this respect. Samples were also bleached of each of the cottons by methods (d), (e), and (f). The results obtained by these tests were negative, as the treatment was sufficiently severe to have produced the same white on all of them. Finaliy, 2-pound lots were treated according to method (B), and the results obtained matched against a series of standard whites. Table XII shows the results of this comparison. TaBLE XII.—Bleached cotton of the respective grades and lois matched against a series of 7% standard whites. Arizona-Egyptian. Sea Island. Sakellaridis. COMPARATIVE SPINNING TESTS. 13 The above standards consist of set No. 1, a range of yellow tints; set No. 2, a range of blue tints; and set No. 3, a range of red tints. The better the bleach obtained, the less yellow would be apparent, hence such samples would find their match in set No. 2 or No. 3. In each set there were 10 standards, varying with regular increasing intensity of tint, the higher numbers having the highest color. Hence from the above tables it will be seen that the Arizona-Egyptian in case of samples No. 1 and No. 4 gave shades equal to the true Egyptian, and in the case of samples No. 2 and No. 3 gave shades equal to the best obtained on the Sea Island. BLEACHING YARNS. Yarns made from the cotton designated No. 1 to 9 (p. 11) were used in the bleaching tests. The bleaching of these yarns was carried on according to methods (A) and (B). The whites obtained were matched against the standards with the results given in Table XIII. This table shows that with either method of bleaching, better whites were obtained with the Arizona-Egyptian and Sea Island than with the Sakellaridis. TasLe XIII.—Bleached yarns matched against a series of standard whites. Arizona-Egyptian. Sea Island. Sakellaridis. Method. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (VSS) 4 SIC EAS Eee Ao. tisicrs BERLE a eee eI aaa 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 SHAVER ee oe Ue ee ane 7 7 7 7 vl Gi 6 6 6 GENE eSeteremee wht eee Me 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 RS ben ar ee eee as an ie ag 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 4 4 In the laboratory tests, the deviations in the numbers were stand- ardized on the basis of the average number of the gray, the bleached, and the mercerized, respectively. When the tensile strength of the gray yarn was compared with the results obtained in the laboratory, yarn from the same bobbins was used in each case. From these bobbins 60 yards instead of 120 yards per skein were used. (See foot- note 1, p. 8.) The tensile strength of 80/2 yarns of each of the nine kinds was taken before and after bleaching with methods (A) and oy The results of these tests are shown in Table XIV. 14 BULLETIN 359, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe XIV.—Tensile strength before and after bleaching. Gray. Bleach A. | Bleach B. Tensile strength. Tensile strength. Tensile strength. Sample number. te ae Nam: - ber of | Pounds | Ounces} ber of | Pounds | Ounces) ber of | Pounds | Ounces yarn. ;perskein| per yarn. |perskein| per yarn. |perskem| per (60 single (60 single (60 single yards). | thread. yards). | thread. yards). | thread. 42.3 37.9 8.7 46.4 31.1 7.0 47.0 | 34.6 8.3 42.3 34.8 8.5 46.4 26.7 7.3 47.03) sco sseeeee eee cece 42.3 36.2 8.2 46.4 28.8 7.1 47.0 33.0 8.4 42.3 34.3 7.9 46.4 28.5 Tel 47.0 31.0 8.6 42.3 38.2 9.0 46.4 29.7 6.9 47.0 38.8 8.7 42.3 35.1 8.4 46.4 21.2 6.7 47.0 28.0 7.0 42.3 37.7 8.4 46.4 31.7 7.4 47.0 37.0 8.2 42.3 36.0 8.6 46.4 33.8 8.3 7.0 29.5 8.8 42.3 o2a0 8.2 45.4 28.3 7.8 | 47.0 4.0 7.9 Averaven=O2= se seen eh TADS 35.8 | 8.4 46.4 | 295 123: 47.0 | S322 8.2 Average 14 2025.2 5 Sos 1 .42.3 35.8 | 8.3 46.4 28.8 fel 47.0 32.9 8.4 Average 5-6............ 42.3 36.6 8.7 46.4 28.4 6.8 47.0 33.4 7.9 Acvveraze 7-9:...--2..-.2 42.3 35.4 | 8.4 | 46.4 31.3 7.8 | 47.0 33.5 8.3 A comparison of the figures in Table XIV shows that the Arizona- Egyptian cotton was sughtly weaker in the gray than the average of ail, and that the Sea Island was stronger than the average of all. When bleached according to method (A) the Arizona-Egyptian was also weaker than the average and the Sakellaridis stronger. When bleached according to method (B) the Arizona-Egyptian was the weakest and the Sea Island the strongest. These deviations from the average strength, however, are not greater than the variations found between the several tests on the same yarn. Hence, this table of averages does not indicate a very serious variation in the strength. DYEING. Samples of the yarns were bleached according to method (B), but not blued. These samples were dyed pmk and blue by the methods given below for direct and basic dyes. The results of these tests indicated no appreciable difference in the dying values of the nine cottons tested. The two methods are as follows: Direct dyes —The yarns were dyed in a bath containing a 0.1 per cent benzo rhoduline red B, 5 per cent of salt, and a 0.5 per cent soluble ol. The volume of dye bath equaled 25 times the weight of the goods. ‘The goods entered the dye bath cold, and the tempera- ture was raised to the boillmg pomt in 30 mmutes. They were boiled 15 minutes and ailowed to cool mm the bath 15 minutes. The light blue was dyed in the same manner, except that a 0.1 per cent benzo fast blue B N was used mstead of the benzo rhoduline red B. . Basic dyes—The goods were mordanted in a solution containing 0.015 of a gram of tannic acid in each 100cc. The goods were entered cold; the temperature of the bath was raised to 190° in 45 minutes; it then was allowed to cool over night, rinsed and treated cold for 15 minutes in a bath containing 0.01 of a gram of tartar emetic. COMPARATIVE SPINNING TESTS, 15 The pinks were dyed in a bath containing 0.05 per cent of rhodu- line red B, 0.5 per cent of acetic acid, cooled 30 minutes, then raised to 140° during 30 minutes. The blues were dyed in the same manner as the pink, except that 0.05 per cent of methylene blue B B was used. : MERCERIZING. Samples of each of the nine kinds of yarns (60/2) were singed and mercerized collectively at one of the milis of New Bedford, Mass., and subsequently tested for their tensile strength and degree of mercerization. The tensile strength and the numbers of the yarn of all nme samples were taken before and after mercerization. The results are shown in Table XV. TaBLE XV.—Tensile strength before and after mercerization. Gray yarn. Mercerized yarn. Tensile strength. ‘| Tensile strength. Number of sample. Number Pounds | Ounces nae Pounds | Ounces c * | per skein per ve | per skein per (69 single (60 single yards). | thread. yards). | thread. Ue area a ele fayesereyaiciecs siais (eve sic ielsisie are s)= ere) slseie = | 31.6 48.5 11.6 33.6 OV fats) 16.5 EE eps eae Tae tela role a cinta efetats ola )nj niet laisieia\cinda, wie 31.6 48.0 10.9 33.6 59.9 16.7 SSRIS BUS DO UG DID CUB CHEE E BeSoe RCOC emer 31.6 49.3 ID 7 33.6 56.8 17.2 ease nee oat authioniie Gaooesbetwaals 31.6 49.9 11.8 33.6 56.9 16.4 Drocos bo Jota bbOCTESatds0 6 Sa SE See ceaee mere 31.6 DEO) Wisseqaoeses 83.6 60. 4 | 17.9 Ge eat payeltetetne Acie sinibicicisidz aie bide Els he wiere 31.6 48.9 11.5 33.6 57.0 i8.4 Usadac cd deb Soba poSes BOS HOCH Oe Eee ree. 31.6 61.4 12.1 33.6 59.8 18.3 ONES Yate rt -ictoteiaia 2) te aicratepe sie que sie sa cies 31.6 51.5 12.3 33.6 59. 4 18.1 Dae pee paa ease eis bietels Sie ened = pine Heiner 31.6 51.3 2.1 33.6 56.5 17.3 JASTEIRDRTD (EO) Sb reas GERO B BA VE REET OCS SEE sere 31.6 50.0 11.8 33.6 58. 2 17.4 ENSViCRA CO mae ene RO ope Ne Eo 81.6 48.9 11.5 33.6 57.8 16.7 BAW OTAGO D— GRE Ea wince lee be artemis anes 31.6 040) Nemoadeeous 33.6 58.7 18.2 PASVOR AG Ohi =O ames e usee es oe et Bo 31.6 51.4 12.2 33.6 58.6 17.9 It will be noticed in Table XV that the mercerized samples 1-4, inclusive, show a lower breaking strength than samples 5-6 or 7-9. The yarns were tested for degree of mercerization by dyeing them in 1 per cent benzo purpurin 4B, 10 per cent salt, 1 per cent soluble oil for 30 minutes at 160°, volume of bath equal to 100 times the weight of goods treated. In order to determime the degree of mer- cerization, samples of mercerized Egyptian yarn were dyed in the same ‘baths after dyemg the samples 1-9. These exhaust skeims furnished a means of measuring the degree of mercerization, for the better mercerized samples of cotton absorb more dyestuff and con- sequently leave less in the dye bath. Table XVI represents a set of standards obtained by dyeing mer- . cerized Egyptian yarn with the following percentages of dyestuff salt and soluble oil by method given above, benzo purpurin 4B bemg used as the dyestuff. > 16 BULLETIN 359, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE XVI.—A set of color standards. Standard: Now J52he. these tee stieeetosese tases it 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 DVO PEN Cent os ecole skeen e oes sae merse sere 5 | 4.5 4] 3.5 3| 2.5 Pa \eealsta) 1 Saltper cents: ss sossscec sete ee ee eae 20 | 20 20 | 20 20 | 20 10 | 10 10 Soluble:oil sper; cent. 3. - 222-22 soe cescs sw eaesees 2| 2 2) 2 Dele" 2 Alsi re al 1 StandardsNOas.: sae ) eiteraturescited Mae see sees eoeceeeaeeees 39 INTRODUCTION. It is not generally known that the injury by the mistletoes to coniferous trees in the northwestern United States is such as to assume in many regions the nature of a serious forest problem. The aim of this bulletin is to point out some of the direct and indirect results of this injury. The species of trees most subject to injury are Larix occidentalis (western larch), Pinus ponderosa (western yellow pine), Pinus contorta (lodgepole pine), and Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Douglas fir). Each of these trees is attacked by a particular species of mistletoe of the genus Razoumofskya (Arceuthobium). With a few exceptions, these species very rarely occur in nature on any other than their common hosts. In the order of the above-named hosts they are Razoumofskya laricis Piper (Pl. I, fig. 1), &. campylopoda (Engelm.) Piper (PI. II, fig. 2), R. americana (Nutt.) Kuntze (PI. I, fig. 2), and R. douglasii (En- gelm.) Kuntze (PI. II, fig. 1). 1Thanks are due Mr. H. E. Hubert for assistance in the preparation of the graphs and a number of the other illustrations used in this bulletin. _ 24182°—Bull. 360—16——_1 al 2 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GENERAL NATURE OF THE MISTLETOE INJURY. The general nature of the injury to forest growth by these para- sites principally consists sooner or later in a localization and gradual reduction of the assimilatory leaf surface of the host. As will be shown, this is caused by various burl and broom formations on the trunks and branches. The reduction of the leaf surface causes a falling off of the annual increment. During the progress of a study on the larch mistletoe in the Whitman National Forest, Oreg., in the summer of 1913, many data on the retardation of growth of its host by this parasite were assembled. More recently, in the lodgepole and yellow pine belt of eastern Washington and northern Idaho, the study Was continued on these species, and at frequent intervals on the larch and Douglas fir in the Missoula region of Montana. The methed of investigation was as follows: Borings from heavily infected (burled and broomed) and uninfected trees were taken with a Mattison increment borer at 45 feet from the ground, at which point the trees were calipered. With practice the eccentricity of growth due to slope, unequal crown development, injuries, etc., may be very skill- fully judged, so that it is possible to strike the pith of trees within the range of the borer with a fair degree of accuracy. In order te determine as nearly as possible the average radius, in the more doubt- ful cases three borings were taken. On steep slopes the eccentricity of trees may be more accurately judged than on flat land, through the knowledge that more rapid growth takes place on the downhill side of the tree. Height was computed with the Klaussner height meas- urer. Trees of the same species were selected as near as possible from the same type of stand and of the same general age class and the same soil conditions. Only dominant trees free from serious wounds and other possible causes of deterioration were recorded. Finding that the effects of the mistletoe on the increment of the host could be read from the last 40 years’ growth of the age classes and conditions of infection selected, Table I was prepared. TasLe I1—The retardation of growth of forest trees caused by mistletoe, for 40 years, 1874 to 1913, inclusive. Average. Basis sys (num- Host and condition. ber of Diameter] Total trees). |Ageclass.| Height. | breast annual high. growth. Pinus contorta: Years. Feet. Inches. Inehes. NNT EC TER era eu S orale STARE RANI STH A ial TUM LEE nt a nee 50 65 Ship 33 6.3 0.93 Wmintected/ see ee sees a MMB aN ay A RN a 50 60 48.5 7.8 2.93 Pinus ponderosa: : TIC Tec eters sy esos iy tease a RUE CML Atak a eaten 50 100 49.5 18.2 1.54 MU MINTEC tS eae yah Crete COANE th ei an 50 100 77.2 22.2 D.00 Larix occidentalis: ' Amie chedys= eee ea ee Re Nas wena dae Aa ia Ea 80 144 63.0 11.5 1.28 Wiminfec techs: serene sey sete pe shes Sees Pe | Ry 80 144 115.0 19.5 2.154 Pseudotsuga taxifolia: TMTOC TOC ese ERO Ogee lea N eee l CN no DER sa terX0) 97 62.0 17.3 2.175 WITTE CTO wie IS RE ety lettres ele a Ae en ana 40 97 73.0 22.2 3.28 MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 3 The results in Table I, although based on a relatively small number of trees, prove quite conclusively the effects of mistletoe on the growth of its host. They are graphically shown by the accompany- ing series of illustrations (figs. 1 to 4). A glance at these graphs shows that although there is considerable fluctuation in growth, the line of the uninfected rarely falls below that of the infected trees. These results are not at all surprising when the nature of mistletoe injury is thoroughly appreciated. In a heavily infected region, where all species and ages are more or less involved, dead, dying, or 137 ; | euler ce! 1/2 ey IF ai 11 t 40 i AMVCPTES (ZG) = + ; [i OS iOZ 061+ — OS 1 Ba OF OF ! ao ot > Po iq \\v ry Wy levy M HN an 02 IRANI rae TAR AT V / NAINIAZIN| LAIN OO : naa Fy wo A AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH. = ae te a} 1874 1880 1885 Age S895 4900 S905 79/0 (4/3 c& Fic. 1.—Graphs showing the average annual growth (in inches) for 40 years (1874 to 1915, inclusive) of 50 trees of lodgepole pine heavily infected with mistletoe, compared with 50 uninfected trees of the same species for the same period. 4A, Heavily infected trees: Average-age class, 65 years; average height, 35.2 feet; average diameter, breast high, 6.3 inches. B, Uninfected trees: Average-age class, 60 years; average height, 48.5 feet ; average diameter, breast high, 7.8 inches. weakened mistletoe trees, hastened in their decline by the inroads of fungi and insects, are a common sight. If these trees are carefully examined with respect to the average possible growth for the region, it will be found, as Table I shows, that most of them have died or have become irrevocably weakened or suppressed at a time when rapid or a normal growth should be taking place. This has been found to be true in all regions visited in the Northwest where excessive mistletoe infection is common. Infected trees of immature years, pole size and younger, may linger along indefinitely if secondary agents do not appear and may reach an advanced age, but may not. attain a merchantable size. Heavily infected and, as a result of this > 4 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. infection, badly stunted yellow pine, larch, Douglas fir, and lodge- pole pine growing in the open and on otherwise good sites often measure less than 6 inches at the stump, but show ages ranging from 100 to 200 years or more. Young seedlings, if not killed outright within a comparatively short time after infection, usually show a . S as cre 9 Nee NS N Neo RG ON SG SN ON 6 AG ACN S5e ae Se ~ oe nN Se eee oe AVERAGE ANNVCIAL GROWTH /NCHES _ A RR E Se 1874 1830 S885 1890 SEIS 1900 1905 7910 (HP FEARS Fic. 2.—Graphs showing the average annual growth (in inches) for 40 years (1874 to 1913, inclusive) of 50 trees of yellow pine heavily infected with mistletoe, com- pared with 50 uninfected trees of the same species for the same period. A, heavily infected trees: Average-age class, 100 years; average height, 49.5 feet; average diameter, breast high, 18.2 inches. B, Uninfected trees: Average-age class, 100 years; average height, 77.2 feet; average diameter, breast high, 22 inches. 8 S marked falling off of the foliar surface of the parts uninfected and finally succumb to the attack (fig. 5). Very frequently young in- fected seedlings develop into ball-lke brooms. Table II shows the youngest age class of five hosts at which mistle- toe infection has been found to occur and the locality where the observations were made. MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 5 TasLE II1.—The youngest age class of mistletoe infection on five different hosts. Youngest age at : : Host _ which Locality where observations : infection were made. is known to occur. Years. PSeudOtSUee LAxMOMaacNe sate cascc cero te asus See eee 4 | Clark Fork Valley, Mont.1 RR ieee ent oe ea iiten Jad ee ak cats SH aes 7 | Blue Mountains, Oreg. MearixeOCCidembalisme cies to ce ede eco cis citle tie Seater 5 | Priest River Valley, Idaho. 1) Om ge RIOT Seas ole de cues seam iras 4 | Blue Mountains, Oreg. IDO secede Chote SERS RUS SEU E OH SACRE eee Heenan etei cat 3 | Missoula, Mont. 51D) Oa ee ge MC ONAN Tous GISe Les oa Oe ea 7 | Sullivan Lake, Wash. PAS COMA yo et a IE eee ea aR 5 | Spokane River, Wash. IDO) poco pad doc SSS RCE BE THGNE hy CORSE EES EE MOOR HAR AEE ae ac us 3 | Blue Mountains, Oreg. IDO. oo S65 cose SS SUSE OS HRD Ie ERE eterna a Ue 6 | Coeur d’ Alene, Idaho. PITTISH PONG OROSE seen cae ne ee Ne hoses ee eee 5 | Spokane River, Wash. IDG scien 6 Hodes CAO EES HG OES Siete Er ere Sie et mm mare obey OPS 3 | Blue Mountains, Oreg. IDO sombcoecodes Go SS See ESE pee Aeon a amen ma eeRe eras 4 | Coeur d’ Alene, Idaho. Msu'vayweteropb yas nono eae ene BAeeeee cle Les Leer ee 8 | Clearwater River, Idaho. 1 Valleys of the so-called Bitterroot and Missoula Rivers. There is no reason why a seedling should not become infected during its first year if seeds should happen to be favorably located upon it. Seeds falling at the base of terminal buds of yellow-pine branches have been known to effect an entrance in the succeeding AVERAGE ANNCAL GROWTH INCHES Fig. 3.—Graphs showing the average annual growth (in inches) for 40 years (1874 to 1913, inclusive) of 80 trees of western larch heavily infected with mistletoe, com- pared with 80 uninfected trees of the same species for the same period. A, Heavily infected trees: Average-age class, 144 years; average height, 63 feet; average diam- eter, breast high, 11.5 inches. B, Uninfected trees: Average-age class, 144 years; average height, 115 feet; average diameter, breast high, 19.5 inches. season’s growth within the year. All infections of firs and spruces have been found on trees ranging from 50 to 150 years. They occurred principally on the branches, resulting in large brooms, so that nothing could be determined as to the probable age of the hosts when infection took place. > 6 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. No evidence is at hand to show that the primary sinker of these parasites can penetrate other than the more tender epidermis of young parts of the host. Germinating mistletoe seeds located on the smooth bark of the Douglas fir or on the irregularities of older stems of yellow pine or larch have never been observed, even after a protracted contact of the disk of the hypocotyl with the surface of the branch, to penetrate the bark. Removing the exhausted hypocotyl and carefully examining the point where the disk was attached, a barely perceptible pit or indentation is sometimes visible, 20 BCMA ERED TN Of 5 /\\ O7 .O6 -OS OF OF AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH). /NCHES pee 1874 18EO 1GES 18.30 1895 7900 1905" SHO kB YEARS Fic. 4.—Graphs showing the average annual growth (in inches) for 40 years (1874 to 1918, inclusive) of 40 trees of Douglas fir heavily infected with mistletoe, com- pared with 40 uninfected trees of the same species for the same period. A, Heavily infected trees: Average-age class, 97 years; average height, 62 feet; average di- ameter, breast high, 17.8 inches. B, Uninfected trees: Average-age class, 97 years; average height, 73 feet; average diameter, breast high, 22.2 inches. possibly indicating the presence of a solvent, which, however, is ineffective upon more mature bark. There is as yet no proof to sup- port the theory of the presence of a digestive substance which enables the sinker to penetrate the bark more readily. If this were true, infection could possibly occur on older tissues, provided they were not too thick and the food supply in the seed did not become exhausted. As it is, mechanical force, supported by the nonmoy- able position of the seed, and irregularities of the stems, such as leaf scales, exits of leaf traces, and leaf sheaths, particularly at MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 7 the nodes and the basal scales of the terminal buds, are the chief factors in the penetration of the primary root. The occurrence of mistletoe plants on the thick-barked branches of old trees or on the main trunk are the result of earlier infection, when the bark was thinner. What appears to be a recent infection on the older parts of trees is often merely a retarded or suppressed condition of an earlier in- fection which has. ex- pended most of its energy in the production of a sub- cortical stroma and later breaks through the bark. Periods of suppression and dominance are frequently noticeable in all mistle- toes, a condition noted to be in several instances di- rectly referable to the state of vigor of the host. An excessive flow of resin sometimes appears in the second and third year of the life of a new infection on larch and yellow pine, which, if not fatal to the young plants, may seri- ously retard their growth for years. Until infection by actual inoculation, using natural methods, is attained, all statements of the ability of the parasite Fic. 5.—Four-year-old yellow-pine seedlings killed by : mistletoe. Note the hypertrophy of the stem at to effect an entrance in the point of infection and the shortening of the x needles. The two seedlings on the right were old barked branches or killed principally by having the wood and cambium trunks can not be accepted in the swelling infiltrated with pitch. The para- site killed the seedling on the left by invading the and must be considered ieee faulty observation. The writer has never succeeded in causing the infection of branches at any point older than four years. The ease of infection is found to be more or less in proportion to the decrease in age of the branches tested. This was proved in the case of yellow pine by inserting seeds at regular intervals in the axils of the leaf sheaths of young branches, from the terminal bud to the tenth internode. The results of this experiment are shown in Table IIT. . 8 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasle Il1.—I/noculation of Razoumofskya campylopoda on Pinus ponderosa, made in November, 1911. [x=Inoculation effective; 0=inoculation not effective.] Seeds | Results in November, 1914, on branch— = sown on Age of part of branch tested. eachicne ternode. | No.1. | No. 2. | No.3. | No. 4. | No. 5. | Season’s growth s2ne ee 10 | x Xs Ex j 0 0 1 year-- 10 0 0 x axe 0 2 years. 10 0 0 0 0 x 3 years. 10 0 0 0 0 0 4 years. 10 0 0 0 0 0 5 years. 10 0 0 0 0 0 6 years. 10 0 0 0 0 0 7years..- 10 0 0 0 0 0 8 years... .- , 10 0 0 0 0 0 Oryears..2 2 =2 : 10 0 0 0 0 0 VO years erste: 2 aN neeie ae Aree eee em aia o seer 10 0 0 0 0 0 A study of Table III shows that the branches were infected in three out of the five test cases on the youngest and last internode on which the seeds were placed. Infection occurred on two of the five tested branches on that part 1 year old at the time of sowing, one infection only being on the 2-year-old portion. Infection did not take place on the older parts of the branches. A tree never be- comes too old for infection to occur on its youngest branches. Sup- pressed trees may escape, owing to the fact that slowness of growth und more rapid formation of thick bark lessens the chance of infec- tion; also shortness of twig growth gives less opportunity. The demand for a fair amount of light is also a factor in such a case, not, however, for the stages of germination and penetration of the primary root, but for the subsequent development of the aerial parts. Mature trees becoming infected on tender branches may not suffer any appreciable injury, but in time the decline of the tree is surely hastened, since the gradually increasing hypertrophy of the branches, the breakages, and the thinning out of the foliage of the tree as a whole cause it to be greatly weakened. Almost always the result of a heavy infection on the trunk and branches of some conifers is the death of the upper portion of the crown, causing staghead (fig. 6), 1The dying back of the crown of trees, commonly known as spiketop, or staghead, is attributed to various causes; as many, in fact, as the varied conditions under which trees grow. One of the most common theories is that on opening up a stand the admission of light to the trunk and lower crown deflects the transpiration current to the older branci orders or, as with some species, promotes the formation of a secondary crown on the main trunk. This stimulated foliar activity below reduces the water supply at the top of the crown; consequently the topmost branches die back. This is exactly what happens in the case of mistletoes. The extra crown development below, by brooming, starves out the crown above, resulting in its death. Miinch (Silva, December, 1911, pp. 415-416) claims to have found a parasitic Ascomycete which causes staghead in the oak of Europe by attacking the bark and outer wood of the main shoots. The writer has found a wood-destroying fungus which attacks the upper crown branches of the chestnut in southern Indiana and causes their death. The “ pencil rot,’ which seems to be fre- quently the cause of staghead in the western red cedar, is another example of fungi at- tacking the crown of trees. Lightning is a common cause of staghead; also injury by insects. Bul. 360, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE I. Fic. 1.—BRANCH OF LARIX OCCIDENTALIS INFECTED WITH RAZOUMOFSKYA LARICIS. The staminate and pistillate plants are in close juxtaposition, the former at the end of the twig. rt “wast” i - Fic. 2.—RAZOUMOFSKYA AMERICANA ON PINUS CONTORTA. Staminate and pistillate plants; long trailing form. Bul. 360, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE Il. Fic. 1.—RAZOUMOFSKYA DOUGLASII ON PSEUDOTSUGA TAXIFOLIA. Staminate plants, slightly less than natural size. Fia, 2.—RAZOUMOFSKYA CAMPYLOPODA ON PINUS PONDEROSA. The staminate and pistillate plants are growing close together on the same branch, a very common condition for all species, but not generally known. Bul. 360, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fia. 1.—AN OPEN STAND OF YELLOW PINE HEAVILY INFECTED WITH RAZOUMOFSKYA CAMPYLOPODA. Note that some of the treesare dead and that others have very thin foliage. The structure of the dead brooms is plainly shown. Some of the trees bear burls on the main trunk. The young growth is seriously infected with mistletoe. Fic. 2.—A HEAVY GENERAL INFECTION OF A 15-YEAR-OLD YELLOW PINE BY RAZOU- MOFSKYA CAMPYLOPODA, RESULTING IN A DISTORTED AND OPEN CONDITION OF THE > CROWN WITHOUT PRONOUNCED BROOMING. The natural excurrent growth of the main trunk is entirely changed. Bul. 360, U; S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fia. 1.—NEEDLES OF DOUGLAS FIR FROM A NORMAL BRANCH (AT THE RIGHT) AND OF A MISTLETOE BROOM ON THE SAME TREE, SHOWING THE DIFFERENCE IN SIZE. Fic. 2.—YELLOW PINE AT THE HEAD OF A CANYON, SHOWING MISTLETOE INFECTION. Note that the heaviest infection occurs on the immediate edge of the canyon and that the intensity of the infection decreases as the distance from the brow of the canyon increases; also that the upper crowns of the infected trees are becoming very thin. MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 9 or in some cases the entire tree may succumb (fig. 7 and PI. ITI, fig. 1.) In many parts of the Whitman National Forest, wherever the heaviest infection of yellow pine occurs the percentage of dead or spiketopped trees reaches a comparatively high figure. In a report to Supervisor Ireland, Ranger Smith, in referring to the seriousness of the infection of yellow pine in the vicinity of Susanville, Whitman National Forest, states that since 1907, the year in which the mistletoe damage in the region first received at- tention, the infection of all age classes has been growing worse, probably 40 per cent of the stand now be- ing infected. Of the more mature stand, approximately twice as many trees near the station as were noted in 1907 have since died. Ranger Smith further states that for a most pro- nounced general in- fection of all species the drainage basin of the South Burnt River particularly ilustrates the devas- tating effects of mis- tletoes. “Almost every yellow pine from seedlings up and Douglas fir above Fic. 6.—Douglas fir, showing the death of the upper por- sapling size is heavily tion of the crown caused by Razoumofskya douglasii. F The tree to the right with the series of immense brooms infected and most of also has a dead top. A large broom had split off from the mature timber _ the trunk of the tree on the left. All the young growth in the vicinity of these trees is seriously infected. shows great retarda- tion of growth and is now adding little or no increment. This infection covers a large part of the best yellow-pine sites in the yellow-pine belt of this watershed.” This region was not visited by the writer, but to judge from studies in other parts of the same forest Ranger Smith’s observations are undoubtedly correct. _In order to determine the relative amounts of different species cut as snags on the W. H. Eccles Lumber Co. sale (Whitman Na- 24182°—Bull. 360—16 2 10 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tional Forest), the following figures were assembled by Mr. T. J. Starker, covering a period of 28 days of cutting: Western larch _____ Be ee pi ee SS 556 Western yellow pine=_.* + == +0 3 ee eee 1, 221 Doulas. fies tees ee ek ee ee ae ee 2a ees 422 AO Ga ie ais 2, 199 Tt must not be assumed that the death of these trees resulted from mistletoe. It is doubtful whether the death of even a small percentage of them, with the exception of the larch, can be so referred. A more conservative statement would be that mistletoe had a large share in their death by. causing spiketop, the brooming of branches, and the formation of burls on the trunk. These are com- mon forms of mistletoe in- jury for all three species in this region and lead up to serious insect infestation, of which more is said later. That mistletoes are capable of actually causing the death of their hosts is first shown by their effects on young growth from three to eight years old. In a heavily infected but very open stand of yellow pine | on the bench lands of the Tic. 7.—Douglas fir killed by mistletoe. Note the Spokane River, Wash. (Pl. total absence of normal branches. The structure TI. fig. i) 4 an attempt was of the brooms is here plainly shown. Note the : straight trunk of the larch in the background. It made to ascertain the is uninfected by mistletoe and still retains its amount of injury resulting original branches. s : j to the seedlings of an aver- age sample acre, which included in its area nine semimature and heavily infected trees in all stages of suppression. The acre was divided into plats and all young growth counted and examined as to infection and the condition of the infection. The number of seedlings and small growth below 8 feet in height totaled 480, which is an excellent reproduction for this region. Just a little more than half of this number, or 245, were found to be infected, representing every possible type of infection on stem and branch. It is not to be expected that these seedlings would ever grow up to form merchant- MISTLETCE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 11 able trees. Considering the severity of the infection, they could not be expected to attain near the size of their parents shown in Plate III, figure 1, and from which they received the mistletoe. Of the 245 infected seedlings, 49 were dead. An examination of the root system of each seedling showed it to be well developed. In the absence of any other deteriorating influence except an occa- sional needle infested by Chionaspis pinifolia Fitch, the death of these seedlings must be ascribed to the lux- uriant growth of mistletoe which they had supported (fig. 5). In most cases the tufts of mistletoe had fallen away. The bark of the large fusiform swellings was usually ruptured and both the wood and bast tis- sues were so heavily infil- trated with pitch that the passage of food materials between the crown and the roots was wholly impossible, resulting in death. In, this respect there is a parallel Tic. 8.—A group of Douglas firs with their entire between this type of mistle- lower crowns developed into brooms by Razouw- toe injury to seedlings and mofskya douglasii. Note the sparse foliage of : the upper crowns and the young brooms in the o r that resulting from the tree on the right, showing how the parasite perennial mycelium of some travels upward. The branches between the eaulicolus Peridermiums. brooms have died from lack of nourishment. A further study of the large trees shown in Plate III, figure 1, is illuminating. Two of them, the right and the left in the figure, are dead. .Scarcely a single normal branch is to be seen, but instead are numerous large gnarled and distorted brooms. These trees measured on an average 9.3 inches in diameter at 44 feet from the ground, and increment borings showed the age of each to be 190 years. This is far below the diameter of normal trees of the same age for the region. A careful search for secondary causes of injury resulted negatively. The trees were absolutely sound. Lightning injury, which sometimes causes spiketop in yellow pine and other conifers and which sometimes is erroneously attributed to mistletoe, was not present. With the evidence in hand, it is safe to state that the trees 1 BULLETIN 360, U. Ss. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. were lulled by the parasite. The other trees in the figure show various stages of suppression and an abnormal thinness of foliage. The tree on the extreme right shows midway on its trunk a typical mistletoe trunk burl. It is often disputed that mistletoe is a cause of spiketop or that it is totally unknown for some species. The first and heaviest seat of infection in nearly all trees of economic importance is in the lower part of the crown (figs. 6 and 8). This is not necessarily a result of the seeds of the parasite falling first on the lower branches, but is rather the result of the fact that the main shoot continues for a time to grow in height, and the crown may attain its normal height be- fore the effects of the parasite become dominant. The mistletoe spreads upward from the lowermost branches, with the result that the more recently formed branches are continually being infected. That these infections may not cause a brooming of the branches in the beginning is abundantly shown by the entire absence of any brooming on young infected branches of several host species. This, however, is only the first stage in the hypertrophy of the branch. After the lapse of several years, typical brooms are formed. With the increasing hypertrophy .of the lower portion of the crown, food materials are more and more appropriated at this point. The result is a drain on the resources of the entire tree to support the brooms. Materials traveling upward from the roots are likewise utilized by the broomed branches, with the result that the upper portion of the crown starves and in cases of severe infection finally dies (figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8). Spiketop is an almost universal condition in heavily infected larch. The tendency to form spiketop in this species, how- ever, is greatly augmented by the brittleness of its branches. Douglas fir probably comes next in order of frequency of dead tops resulting from the growth of mistletoes. The condition is common for yellow pine in all regions where observations have been made by the writer and is reported to be of frequent occurrence by correspondents in Utah and Wyoming. Lowland and mountain hemlocks, when heavily infected, quite commonly exhibit dead tops. An unusual case of heavy infection of the former species was studied in the St. Joe National Forest. Practically every tree in the entire stand was dead in the top (fig. 9). Lodgepole pine is less affected in this manner than any other conifer so far studied by the writer except spruce and fir. The last-named species are so seldom infected, however, that they would not enter into the discussion. There can be little doubt that spiketop is very often the result of heavy mistletoe infection, but varies in degree for the several hosts. This condition is of importance, since the proportion of snags in the stand is thereby increased, which may promote injury by fungi and insects; it also increases danger from lightning fires. _MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. — 13 With the conclusion of this general statement of mistletoe injury a more detailed discussion of the various types of infection will now be taken up. RESULT OF INFECTION ON THE BRANCHES. One of the first effects of infection, either of stem or branch, is the formation of a fusiform swelling (fig. 10). Sometimes this swelling is very pronounced and may resemble the enlargements caused by some species of Peridermium (fig. 11). The swelling is the first stage of the future hypertrophy commonly known as witches’-brooms. The absence of any pro- nounced brooming from early infections has led some observers to the conclusion that brooms are never pro- duced on some conifers. Any change from the normal branching is here considered a broom. Still it is not necessary to draw such sharp lines, as the brooms produced by all mistletoes of the genus in question are quite typical. It may re- Fie. 9.—Western hemlock (T'suga heterophylla) infected 0 by Razoumofskya tsugensis. These trees do not possess quire several years for a single normal branch. All are broomed. The trees in the broom to form. If the background are spike topped. The tree in the fore- if ground has had its growth in height arrested by an young trees are gen- immense terminal broom. erally. infected they : sometimes assume an open, ragged appearance, which to the casual observer would not be considered a broom (PI. III, fig. 2). Never- theless, the tree is no longer excurrent. A similar condition is sometimes noted in more mature larches, where the infection is so | generally distributed throughout the entire crown that no typical brooms are produced for years. Heavily infected branches of old trees of all species are seldom without brooming of some kind, and im most cases typical brooms are formed. The mistletoe plant may die. out entirely on very old brooms, especially those of yellow pine 14 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (fig. 12), but the stimulus to abnormal branching may continue. Brooms are formed on all hosts attacked by this genus of mistletoe. Those of the yellow pine, owing to their loosely branched con- dition (fig. 12), are sometimes not as con- spicuous as those pro- duced on Douglas fir (figs. G27 (> andeals)). larch (fig. 14), hem- lock (fig. 9), or lodge- pole pine. In all the regions where the yellow-pine mistletoe has been ob- served in the States of Washington, Oregon, Tdaho, Montana, and South Dakota, broom- ing is a common result of the growth of the Fic. 10.—Young, first infections of Razowmofskya cam- parasite on this tree. pylopoda on western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa). Correspondents in Wy- oming, Utah, and Colorado report that old infected trees are seldom without them. MacDougal (8)! refers to the excessive brooming of yellow pine by mis- tletoe in the South- west. Meinecke (10) refers to the very conspicuous brooms on Jeffrey pine, sugar pine, yellow pine, lodgepole pine, and Douglas fir. The old brooms of the Douglas fir, be- cause of the long, trailing, willowlke Fic. 11.—A larch branch, showing the result of a first infec- bran che S of the tion at its base by Razoumofskya laricis. ‘This is the be- lower portion of the ginning of a burl at this point, which will spread to the C main trunk. broom, are more con- : spicuous than those of other conifers (fig. 18). They sometimes attain an immense size, often including the entire crown (fig. 6). In 1 Reference is made by number to ‘“ Literature cited,” p. 39. MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 15 most cases brooms are initiated on the Douglas fir soon after infec- tion. Young seedlings frequently die in the top, owing to the forma- tion of a lateral broom midway on the stem. In the heavily infected regions of Montana, especially in the Clark Fork (Bitterroot and Mis- soula Rivers) drainage, brooming of the Douglas fir is so universal and of such extent that scarcely a single infected tree is free from brooms of some type (figs. 6 and 7). The structure of these brooms is very plainly shown if the tree succumbs to the parasite, as it often does (fig. 7). The formation of brooms invariably results from mis- tletoe infection on the western larch. They may be situ- ated on any part of the branch or at its base (fig. 14). In the latter case the entire branch even- tually dies or is broken off by the wind, and its place is usually taken by a series of short, serubby secondary branches forming a trunk broom. This broom eventually dies, leaving a large knotty burl of seri- Fic. 12.—Typical broom on yellow pine caused by Ruazouw- ous consequence not mofskya campylopoda. Note that the end of the branch only to the life of the el Hk tree but greatly decreasing its value for lumber. Excessive brooming is a common feature wherever infected larch occurs and is the chief cause of injury to the species. In some localities in the Blue Moun- tains of Oregon and parts of Idaho and Montana, where this mistletoe is common, a normally formed larch is seldom found. Instead of the symmetrical, conical crown so characteristic of the normal tree, the crown develops under the influence of the parasite into a denuded spike, bearing only a few ragged branches. When it is recalled that practically every larch in these regions, from pole size up, is more or less infected and seldom attains a normal size, in many cases being killed outright, some notion may be had of the seriousness of the effects of the parasite on its host. » 16 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The brooming of the branches of the lodgepole pine by mistletoe is as characteristic as for the other hosts mentioned. Frequently the entire tree is involved, but more often only the lower branches. A few instances have been noted where the parasite hung in long festoons from the sev- eral infected branches Fic. 13.—Typical broom of the weeping-willow type on Doug- las fir caused by Razoumofskya douglasii. Note the long, flowing branches. Sometimes these branches are 8 to 10 feet long. without any particular hypertrophy of the branch asa whole. This condition is more apt to occur in dense stands. Observations by the writer on Picea engelmanni, P. mariana, Abies grandis, A. lasiocarpa, A. concolor, A. Fic. 14.—Typical brooms of old magnifica, Tsuga heterophylla, T. merten- siana, Pinus monticola, P. albicaulis, P. flexi- lis, P. attenuata, and other conifers show that brooming of the branches is a common phe- nomenon attending mistletoe infection of these species. The weight of these brooms on many coni- fers is frequently sufficient under stress of winds and rain to cause the branches to split infections on western larch caused by Razoumofskya lari- cis. Very few of the origi- nal branches remain, and they are heavily broomed and covered with lichens. The old branches are replaced by short scrubby secondary branches. Note that two of the original branches still re- main, but are dead. from the trunk, or to break farther out if the brooms are located far out from the trunk. This very commonly occurs in the case of MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 17 yellow pine and Douglas fir (fig. 15) and is the rule for larch. The stunting effect of these brooms on the trees as a whole was in one instance very interestingly shown by the fact that a middle-aged Douglas fir increased the radial dimensions of its annual rings after the removal by the wind of an immense broom located midway on the trunk. The weight of the brooms on some conifers is very often ereatly increased by the accumulation of dead needles, lichens, ete. (fig. 14). When loaded with snow or saturated with moisture the brooms are more easily broken off by high winds. The ground around the base of heavily in- fected larches is very frequently littered with brooms broken off in this manner, often insuring the death of the tree in case of ground fires. During the early part of October, 1914, an unusually heavy fall of soft snow occurred locally over a small area around Missoula, Mont. The snow ac- cumulated in such quantities on the mis- tletoe brooms of the larches and Douglas firs throughout the area that the ground around the more heavily infected trees was piled high with fallen brooms. The foliage of old and mature mistletoe brooms is usually not as long lived as that of normal branches of uninfected trees. This is not true in the case of young well-nourished brooms. It has been observed to any extent only in old brooms which have begun to tax the food supply of the tree or the branch on which they are located. In the course of one year it was determined that 655 more needles fell from a small but mature broom on a Douglas fir than from a normal branch of a neighboring uninfected tree of the same species. The number of needles falling from the broom totaled + 24182°_Bull. 360—16-—3 glas fir and piled about the base of the tree—a serious fire menace, 18 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 976, from the branch 321. On very old brooms of the western larch it is often noticed that the needles begin to turn yellow some time before those on the branches of uninfected trees. Exactly the re- verse may occur in the case of recently formed brooms, owing to the larger amount of newly stored food materials in the swelling on the main branch and the branches of the brooms. That the broom may be the cause of a great localization of food substances is indicated by the fact that in heavily infected Douglas fir and larch the last part of the tree to succumb is usually the smaller and younger brooms of the tree. Frequently trees of these species are noticed with only a single small broom living, the rest of the branches being apparently dead; likewise the old and exhausted brooms. The increase in the number of needles on the broom due to the multi- plication of its branches is usually at the expense of the needle de- velopment on the normal parts of the tree. For this reason an excess of food materials for the tree as a whole does not take place. The foliage beyond the broom becomes thin and, in most cases, the end of the branch dies (figs. 12 and 14). The food materials are entirely stored and appropriated by the broom itself. The phenomenon is analogous to the formation of spiketop of the main trunk. That brooms do not always necessarily mean an increase in foliar surface for the host, since we have seen that parts of the branches not supporting brooms frequently die, is shown by a comparison of the needles of old brooms with those of normal branches either of the same tree or of uninfected trees. Such a study was made in the case of the Douglas fir. It was found that the needles of the brooms on the trees studied were uniformly a little less than one-half as long as the leaves of the normal branches (PI. IV, fig. 1). Neither were they as thick or as broad. By compensation it would be possible to determine approximately the actual foliar surface of a given broom and compare it with that of a given normal branch of the same whorl and of the same age. This difference in the size of the needles was found to hold good only in the case of old, mature brooms of trees which were beginning to be suppressed. Young brooms, especially on young trees from 10 to 20 years old, often have abnormally long needles on the still upright branches, but this condition is not long maintained. Soon these branches begin to droop, the broom be- comes denser, the needles disappear from the center outward, and they are often sparingly distributed along the stems but more densely assembled on the last few years’ growth (fig. 13). With continued suppression of the Douglas fir and exhaustion of the broom, a new type of branching often appears. The long trailing, weeping-willow- like branches cease to elongate and the cortical stroma of the parasite is enabled to catch up with the terminal bud and kill it. The branch Pe MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 19 ceases to grow in length and instead forms abnormally abundant lateral branches. The terminal buds of these are likewise overtaken by the parasite, resulting in additional lateral branches, and so on, until a type of dichotomous branching results. This is more notice- able in the compact type of broom than in the long, trailing type, but is quite common in both, especially on exposed and wind-swept areas. A very interesting hypertrophy of the foliage spurs is often shown by the brooms of the larch. The spurs are frequently abnormally large and may be four or five times as long as those of normal branches (fig. 16). On such spurs the needles are usually shorter and spar- ingly clustered. Eventually the para- site enters the spur and kills it. Not in- frequently a mistle- toe plant is found growing out at the apex of the spur or from its side, caus- ing great distortion and the total disap- pearance of the nee- dles, and eventually the death of the spur. The reduction of fe. 16.—Abnormal foliar spurs of the western larch caused foliage by the thin- by Razoumofskya laricis. Note their size as compared with normal spurs. ning and shortening of the needles of the trees as a whole, and ott fe brooms sooner or later, is characteristic of mistletoe infection on all hosts. The food material, which undoubtedly is accumulated in the brooms, seems to be entirely appropriated at these points and does not serve the host as a whole. The support of the excessive number of branches is necessary, but the parasite itself undoubtedly appro- priates a large share at the expense of the healthy branches. The yellow-pine mistletoe has been observed to become more luxuriant and to develop abnormally long stems on swellings which had been lacerated or gnawed by rodents. Evidently the accumulation of 20 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. extra food materials in the healing tissues at this point exercised a beneficial influence on the parasite. The actual nutritive relation between these parasites and their hosts is not at present well understood. The constant removal of all the needles of six lodgepole pines 8 to 12 years old on which large clumps of mistletoe were attached has not in the second year of the experiment resulted in the death of either the host or parasite. The controls, viz, six young pines of the same age, stripped of their needles but bearing no mistletoe plants, have died. This experi- ment indicates a possible transfer between the host and parasite not only of water and inorganic salts, but of or- ganic food materials as well. However it may be interpreted, 1t seems that the pines were kept alive temporarily by the mistletoe. Probably it is a mutual subsistence on stored materials. It must be remembered that the whole tendency of the activities of these mis- tletoes (Razoumofskya spp.) is to reduce the life functions of the host to their lowest point, and this is the fact that should be of chief concern to the forester. RESULT OF INFECTION ON THE TRUNK. Another form of mistletoe injury results when infections occur during the early life of the tree, with the formation of burls on the trunk. No case is on record of any mem- ber of the genus Razoumofskya effecting an Fic. 17.—Area on the main trunk of a yellow pixe ; infected by Razoumofskye entrance to its host through the mature cor- campylopoda. The rough, 4 oe x : : iereoaieipaeinaiontés the: CCX If apparently recent infections on old location of the burl tis: parts of trees are carefully examined, the sues! few short meve mistletoe plant will be found -toshavesmer toe plants not visible in ; : the illustration were pres- sisted from the time when the branch or oes trunk was young. Until it is proved by actual inoculation that the parasite is able to penetrate the mature cortex with its outside covering, commonly called the bark, the fore-. going statements must remain valid. Burls on the trunk caused by mistletoe are very common for some hosts, but vary in frequency on others. In point of frequency the western larch is most seriously affected by this kind of injury. Two types of burls occur on this tree, determined by the nature of the original infection. If the infection occurs at the base of a branch (fig. 11) and travels to the main trunk, a basal branch burl results, giving rise to a broom, which later dies, leaving a great burl, often of large proportions. If infection occurs directly on the main trunk the beginning of a trunk burl is immediately initiated. With 7 es ee ol le Pele e MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 21 the increasing age of the host the burl tissues radiate outward in a fan-shaped area when viewed in cross section and soon leave an open wound, through the death of the central part of the infected wood. These two types of burl are so common on larch in mistletoe regions that the quality of the wood is seriously injured, resulting in a Jarge amount of cull. In the several regions studied by the writer mistletoe burls on yellow pine are frequent. In one section of the city park at Coeur d’Alene, Idaho, are 30 or 40 large, old yellow pines. About half of the trees have mistletoe burls on the first Fig. 18.—Cross section of a mistletoe burl on the yellow pine shown in figure 17. (The tape shows feet in tenths.) ; log length and in most cases the parasite is still living in them, with a few scattering short aerial parts. Similar conditions pre- vail throughout the Spokane River Valley and around Coeur d’Alene Lake. Mistletoe burls on old yellow pine may or may not be con- spicuous. Frequently there is no pronounced swelling (fig. 17) and sometimes the only means of detecting the diseased condition is by the presence of the mistletoe or an unusual roughness of the bark. A section through the tree at this point, however, shows the curly grain and the old roots of the parasite extending to the point of original infection (fig. 18). These burls are often very conspicu- 22 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ous, large barrel-shaped swellings, from which pitch usually exudes in large quantities. Infection on one side of the tree generally re- sults in the type of burl shown in Fic. 19.—Common type of burl on yellow pine caused by Razoumofskya campylo- poda. The tree is 8 feet in diameter at this point. on western hemlock wherever the parasite occurs in quantity. The same is true for the mountain hemlock. In the Marble Creek region of the St. Joe National Forest mistletoe burls on the _ hemlock are of frequent occur- rence. Allen (1, p. 20-21) writes of this type of injury as follows: “Tf, however, the plant gets foothold on the leading shoot, a burl follows which persists throughout the life of the tree and not only ruins a log, but ren- ders the tree apt to be broken by the wind.” Infection on the main trunk of lodgepole pine is often attended by long fusiform swell- ings as the parasite progresses from the original point of in- fection. This may continue until figure 19. : Burl formations resulting from mistletoe are a common feature Fic. 20.—-Main stem of a lodgepole pine in- fected by Razoumofskya americana. Note the spread of the parasite from the original point of infection. The bark at this point very frequently dies, leaving an open wound. (Photographed by George G. Hedgcock.) the bark becomes so hard that the plants can not push up through it and the spread of the parasite ceases (fig. 20). The parts ee ee ee a ee MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 23 infected, however, may continue to produce aerial branches of the mistletoe to a very advanced age. True mistletoe burls are probably of less frequent occurrence on Douglas fir than on any other economic tree species. Burls do occur, however, with sufficient frequency to be characteristic of mistletoe infection on the trunk of this tree. Large elongated mistletoe burls, including the entire circumference of the trunk, occasionally occur in heavily infected trees in many parts of Idaho and Montana (fig. 21). More frequently there is a series Fic, 21.—Large mistletoe burl on Douglas fir PIG. 22.—A Douglas fir, showing numer- caused by Razouwmofskya douglasii. This ous burls caused by Razoumofskya burl is approximately 10 feet long and 2 douglasii. The branches are heavily feet in diameter at its widest part. broomed.. A high degree of infection, but a common condition, is shown. of individual burls, more or less confluent, on one trunk (fig. 22), each burl representing the seat of an old infection, from which the aerial parts of the parasite have long since disappeared. Longitu- dinal and cross sections through these burls show the characteristic fan-shaped areas of infection (fig. 23). In numerous cases the burls originate from infections at the base of branches. If the branch dies or is broken off, an open wound is formed in the center of the burl. Very peculiar swellings or small burls frequently occur on * 94 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the branches of brooms. ‘These are sometimes so numerous as to cause the branch to resemble a chain cf spherical balls. Mistletoe infection on the trunks of spruces in the East often results in the formation of burls; also on the western firs. It can be safely stated that swellings and distortions of the main trunk which persist throughout the hfe of the tree are a characteristic feature of mistle- toe infection on most conifers of economic importance. The spread of the burl tissues tangentially and longitudinally, which, as previously indicated, are frequently inhabited by the Fic. 23.—Cross section of one of the burls on the Douglas fir shown in figure 22. This section does not pass through the point showing the age at which the infection first occurred. (The tape shows feet in tenths.) parasite until a very advanced age,! results, as is the case with most species, in cutting off the transporting tissues and hastens the de-- cline of the tree (figs. 20, 23, and 24). The bark and wood of the 1 Meinecke, in 1912 (9, p. 38), records the age of a mistletoe plant (Phoradendron juniperinum libocedri Engelm.) at approximately 230 years. Species of the genus Razou- mofskya are likewise capable of maintaining themselves to a very advanced age. One instance recorded hy the writer may be cited of Razoumofskya campylopoda. A cross sec- tion through a mistletoe burl of this species, 3 feet from the ground, on yellow pine—a po- sition precluding any but an original infection at an age when the bark was thin—showed that the parasite had continuously lived in the burl tissues for 340 years. The old roots, now dead except those immediately next the cambium, could be readily traced to the point of original infection The age of the tree at this point was three years. The buri bore a single fertile aerial branch of the mistletoe. The greater mass of the cortical stroma was entirely without aerial parts, indicating the remarkable condition of parasitism first pointed out by Meinecke for Phoradendron juniperinum libocedri. MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 25 outer central area of the burl die soon after the death of the cor- tex, especially in burls on the larch, and open wounds are formed, inviting the attack of forest-tree insects and wood-destroying fungi (fig. 24). The abnormal thickness and the soft, spongy consistency of the inner bark of mistletoe-infected branches are attractive to various gnawing animals; they are also an index of the storage of food materials at this point (fig. 25). Fic. 24.—Cross section of a burl on a western larch caused by Razoumofskya laricis. Diameter of burl, 2 feet. Note the presence of borers and fungi. The check ap- peared in seasoning. RELATION OF MISTLETOE INJURY TO FUNGOUS ATTACK. Some very interesting data have recently been assembled by the writer on the relation of mistletoe burls to fungous attack. From cutting areas on the dry bench lands of northern Idaho, 540 mistle- toe-infected living larches were examined. Out of 600 mistletoe burls found on these trees, 278 were inhabited by serious wood- destroying fungi and other unimportant species. According to frequency of occurrence the most important of these fungi are Trametes pint (Brot.) Fr., Homes laricis (Jacq.) Murr., Polyporus sulphureus Fr. (four occurrences at 20 feet up on the trunk, a very » 26 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. unusual habitat), Zvametes sertalis Fr., and Lenzites sepiaria Fr. Fomes pinicola Fr. was found rotting the heartwood of living trees in three different cases and had entered its host through mistletoe burls 10 feet from the ground. Polyporus volvatus Pk. occurs fre- quently on the burls of larch and yellow pine. Several species of Thelephoracez were collected from the mistletoe burls, chief of which were Stereum sulcatum Burt, Corticium berkeleyi Cooke. C. galactinum (Fr.) Burt, and Peniophora subsul- phurea (Karst) Burt. Cera- tostomella pilifera (Fr.) Wint., the bluing fungus, appeared occasionally in the dead wood of the burls. Trametes pini affected 80 per cent of all burls attacked by fungi. Since the most advanced stages of decay were always at the burl or in its near vicinity, it was as- sumed that the fungi had en- tered at this point. The de- cay at or in the burl tissues was in most cases not con- nected with the decay which is often present in other parts of the trunk. The breakage of old branches possessing heartwood, through the accumulation of brooms at their outer ex- tremities, is hkewise a means of fungi entering the tree. Fig. 25.—The soft spongy cortex of a mistletoe infection on lodgepole pine gnawed by rodents. This is a very common type of injury in mistle- Not infrequently Fomes toe-infected trees. nee : : laricis enters its host by this means. Mistletoe burls on Douglas fir are known to become infected with Zrametes pint. A mistletoe burl on Alpine fir was found to be inhabited in one instance by Pholiota adiposa Fr. Meinecke (10, p. 58) refers to the mistletoe cankers of Abies concolor as offering an easy entrance to germinating spores of E'chinodontium tinctorium. Burls on yellow pine, owing to their resinous condition, are seldom attacked by wood-destroying fungi. The bluing fungus, however, has been found by the writer in the distorted tissues of mistletoe burls on living yellow pine. MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. Di GENERAL SUPPRESSION AND FUNGOUS ATTACK. Aside from the fact that fungous enemies enter these conifers through broken branches, lesions, and burls caused by mistletoe, heavily infected trees are, owing to their weakened condition, more susceptible to fungous attack on any part—roots, trunks, or leaves. In the lake region of Idaho the larch of all ages and conditions is at present suffering from an epidemic of a needle disease, Wypoder- mella laricis Tub. It is observed that in practically every instance the needles of very old mistletoe brooms are first attacked, whereas those of the uninfected trees of particular age classes or exposures may ward it off for a longer period.t It is a common observation that in regions of heavy mistletoe infection (and nowhere is it better shown than in the forests of eastern and central Oregon and many parts of Idaho and Montana) many heavily infected trees are in a dead and dying condition. If these trees are carefully examined with reference to average healthy growth for the region, it will be found that they have died prematurely. It has already been indicated that mistletoe is capable of causing the death of its host in some instances. The whole tendency of the parasite is to reduce the life functions of its host to the lowest point, and if death does not result from this cause alone the way is opened to various secondary agents, which may or may not attack vigorously growing trees. The gradual thinning out of the foliage of heavily infected trees and the appropriation by the brooms of much of the elaborated food materials must necessarily result in an unbalanced relation between the crown and the root system. Consequently, there may be a dearth of food materials for the latter, wholly inadequate to support its present extent. It may be naturally inferred that this results in the suppression of the roots or a dying off of the more extended members of the system. A close examination of a hundred or more windfalls of heavily infected Douglas fir, yellow pine, and larch in the regions above mentioned shows quite clearly that the horizontal and brace roots of these trees in most cases were badly decayed. Since few windfalls of the heavily uninfected trees of the same average age and size were observed in the same region, it may be inferred that a possible relation existed between the sup- pressing effects of the mistletoe and the decay in the roots. Avmiét- laria mellea (Vahl.) Quél. was definitely associated with some of the decay in the roots. In most cases, however, owing to the absence of fruiting stages, the cause of the rot in the fallen trees could not be determined. 1 Hypodermella laricis was first named and described by Von Tubeuf on the European larch (Larix europaea). This is the first note of its occurrence in North America. The fungus, characterized by its four clavate spores to an ascus, is very destructive and is the cause of considerable damage in the larch forests of the northwestern United States and Canada. a8 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tt is a well-known fact that wounds heal quickly in young or in strongly growing trees, principally due to the protection afforded by an abundant flow of resin. It may be assumed that trees having their life functions brought to a low ebb by excessive mistletoe infections, with resulting decrease in annual increment, will not be able to heal or protect their wounds as quickly as normal trees; hence, are more liable to infection. This may be one of the reasons why so many open burls are formed on infected larches. These open burls are seldom, if ever, healed, although the parasite in its tissues has long since died. There is a slight increase in the number of resin passages in early burl formations, but this is entirely offset by the early dying out of the bark of the burl exposing the wood. It is an observed fact, experimentally proved by the writer, that strongly suppressed yellow pine, larch, and Douglas fir do not as readily form traumatic wood or exude the normal quantity of resin on being wounded on any part as do normal, healthy trees. Such a tardy reaction to injury does not afford a ready antisepsis against the entrance of fungi which may attack these trees. Since turpentine orcharding is becoming more extensively practiced in the West it would be an interesting experi- ment to determine the relative flow of pitch from trees strongly sup- pressed by mistletoe and from those in a high state of health. RELATION OF MISTLETOE INJURY TO INSECTS. In the same manner that burls and other types of mistletoe injury on some conifers are open doors to fungi, they are found to afford a ready means of entrance for some species of forest-tree insects which do not in this region habitually attack vigorous unwounded trees. Old mistletoe burls on larches are almost invariably attacked by borers (figs. 23 and 24), and burls on yellow pine are, in the ex- perience of the writer, quite as frequently infested by bark and wood boring beetles. In this connection a very curious and interesting phe- nomenon often occurs on young yellow pines from 10 to 20 years of age. An infection by mistletoe will have occurred, completely enveloping the trunk some 2 or 3 feet from the ground. The parasite having advanced somewhat each way from the point of original infection, the intervening space is attacked by Dendroctonus valens Lec. The combined influence of the beetle and mistletoe results in the complete infiltration with resin of the space between the two edges of the advancing mistletoe, so that the cambium dries out and dies. Strange to state, this does not always kill the tree. The crown goes on manufacturing food materials, being supplied with water through the inner wood of the girdled area. The elaborated food not being able to travel downward, since the cambial tissues of the entire cir- cumference of the stem have been destroyed, is stored just above the MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 29 girdled area and initiates an abnormal swelling (fig. 26). The swell- ing continues to increase in size and weight, likewise all members of the crown, so that eventually the slender stem below can no longer support the overdeveloped crown and is broken down by the wind. A specimen in the laboratory shows the number of rings of the stem at the girdled area at the time it was cut to be eight, with a diameter of 1 inch. The swelling just above and within the same internode showed 15 rings, with a diameter of 3 inches. The same phenomenon is sometimes produced in yel- low pine by Peridermium fila- mentosum Pk. When it is re- called that the cambium and the outer wood of the girdled area are actually dead, the length of time the crown con- tinues alive is really remark- able. In point of general insect at- tack it has been noted that the beginning of an infestation may start with trees badly suppressed by mistletoe. The fact that trees heavily sup- pressed by mistletoe have a weak flow of sap causes them to be first selected by certain forest-tree insects. For this reason mistletoe areas form centers from which infesta- tions may spread. Again, nu- merous infestations may start simultaneously over a _ wide territory, owing to the weak- rie, 26—a young yellow pine, showing com- ening of the trees by these par- plete girdling of the stem by a combined at- : 3 tack of mistletoe and insects. The cambium asites instead of from a few is destroyed, but the crown remains alive and detached areas, as is often the . continues to elaborate food materials, which i are stored just above the girdled area. case. This has been found par- ticularly true in the case of yellow pine and the red turpentine beetle mentioned above. In all regions of heavy mistletoe infection of the Douglas fir, Dendroctonus pseudotsuga Hopk. is usually very abun- dant. This was the rule in the Whitman National Forest, Oreg., and though the numerous dead trees of this species in the forest were undoubtedly the result of an immediate attack by the beetles, their work was hastened, it seemed, by the serious mistletoe suppression which was exhibited by most of the dead trees. During the season 30 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of 1914, a large number of badly suppressed Douglas firs on the foot- hills bordering the Clark Fork (Missoula River) Valley have died from a combined attack of mistletoe and beetles. Most of these trees. which supported scarcely a single normal branch, had the bark of limbs and trunk almost entirely removed by woodpeckers in their search for the beetle before the leaves were entirely dead. The few uninfected Douglas firs of the same region have not been attacked by the beetles. The branches of large mistletoe brooms on yellow pine and Doug- las fir from which the parasite has entirely disappeared are very Fic. 27.—Seats of original mistletoe infection on two living branches (in center and at left) of mistletoe brooms on yellow pine infested with bark beetles. No other part of the broom or tree was attacked. Main stem of young living yellow pine (at right) attacked by bark beetles at the seat of an old mistletoe infection. frequently found infested with bark beetles (fig. 27), while the trunk and normal branches of the trees are entirely free from attack. INFLUENCE OF MISTLETOE INJURY ON THE SEED PRODUCTION OF THE HOST. Germination tests of seeds of yellow pine taken from mistletoe- infected trees show that the percentage of germination is consid- erably lower than is the case with seeds taken from normal trees (12, p. 7). Experiments conducted by the writer with seeds taken from cones produced on very old mistletoe brooms of Douglas fir, larch, and lodgepole pine showed a germination on an average of 10 per cent below that of seed taken from uninfected branches of MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. ol the same trees. Given the general average percentages of germina- tion of 30 for the former and 40 for the latter, it seems that either from exhaustion of stored materials or tendencies toward abnormal seed production in general the uninfected branch, though suppressed, is still capable of producing a higher quality of seed than the broom. Whether this would be true in the case of young, vigorous brooms is doubtful. Seeds from the uninfected branches of the same strongly suppressed trees used in the above experiment gave a gen- eral average of 15 per cent below that of seeds taken from vigorous uninfected trees of the same age, species, and habitat. The per- centage of 65 for the uninfected and 40 for the infected shows quite clearly that suppression by mistletoe causes a serious falling off in the quality of the seed of its host. The experiment was conducted in the following manner. Col- lections of cones were made from each of five strongly suppressed and five uninfected trees of all three species. This included one col- lection from the brooms, one from the uninfected branches of each of the suppressed, and one collection from each of the uninfected trees; in all, 45 different collections. One hundred seeds were ex- tracted from each collection and germinated in sand at an average temperature of 35° C. Counts were made at different intervals dur- ing the progress of the test, which was continued for 90 days. Con- siderable difficulty was experienced in procuring the required num- ber of seeds for all conditions, owing to the sterility of the cones on the old brooms. With the increasing age of the broom the seed production falls off, until, as it is with most species, no cones are produced at all. Seeds from recently formed brooms were not tested. Tt is supposed that they would show a higher percentage of germi- nation. The cones on badly suppressed trees are very often aborted, with shriveled, undeveloped sporophylls, and are frequently infested by cone beetles and cone worms. Seeds, if produced in such cones, are usually below the normal size. A study of microtome sections of the staminate flowers from heavily infected lodgepole pine showed that there was a reduction in the number of pollen mother cells. The staminate flowers when compared with those of normal trees of the same age and condition were found to be uniformly smaller. The sporophylls on the more fertile or convex side of the young pistil- late cones very frequently bore only one ovule (megasporangium), a condition not observed in cones from healthy trees. HOST AFFINITIES IN RELATION TO SILVICULTURE. For practical purposes the following statements on the host re- quirements of the mistletoes of coniferous trees will be found to be of some interest with regard to the silvicultural management of forests. 32 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Razoumofskya douglasti (Engelm.) Kuntze is of economic impor- tance only on the Douglas fir. The affinities of the very small and rare forms of Razoumofskya on spruce and fir,t described by Engelmann (6, p. 253) under the name of Arceuthobium douglasit var. micro- carpum for the former host and A. douglasii var. abietinum (3, v. 2, p. 106) for the latter, are not definitely established. In point of time of blooming and seed maturity, it coincides with that of Razoumofskya douglasii for northern regions, and their form and color are quite similar, especially the color of the staminate flowers. These small plants, together with the Douglas fir mistletoe, are the only mem- bers of the genus exhibiting a pronounced color of the lobes, which are a bright, deep purple. Until cross-inoculation experiments are perfected, these particularly small mistletoes on spruce and fir may be considered wholly unimportant from a silvicultural standpoint. For the sake of convenience, they may be placed with the Douglas fir mistletoe and the whole designated as the Pseudotsuga-A bies- Picea group, characterized by their small size and colored flowers. Razoumofskya laricis Piper, the most universally distributed and probably the most injurious of the entire genus, is associated with the western larch. This species in a single instance has been col- lected by the writer on lodgepole pine near Missoula, Mont. It is a significant fact that this infection is not vigorous and appears to be dying out. FR. americana (Nutt.) Kuntze is more strictly asso- clated with the lodgepole pine, but is the cause of serious damage to the jack pine (Pinus banksiana) where these two species approach each other in Canada. WP. tsugensis Rosend., as far as observations in the field have gone, is confined to the hemlocks. The remaining species of importance may be divided into two main groups, a fact that has not been heretofore set forth, viz, those associ- ated with the soft or white pines and those attacking the hard yellow pines. It seems that the members of one group are not in a single in- stance associated with the hosts of the opposite group. The former group includes the following species and hosts: Razoumofskya divari- cata (Engelm.) Coville on the nut or pinion pines, P. edulis and P. monophylla (6, p.253) ; &. eyanocarpa A. Nels. on P. flexilis (4, p. 146), P. albicaulis, and P. monticola. Pinus monticola has not been previ- ously reported as a host for these parasites. Pinus strobiformis, the Mexican white pine, is reported (11, p. 65) as the only host of R. blu- meri (A. Nels.) Standley. The second group may be included by the two-form species: 2. campylopoda (Engelm.) Piper and &. crypto- poda (Engelm.) Coville. The fornier is principally injurious to Pinus ponderosa, but is common on P. attenuata (7, p. 366; 13) and P. jeffreyi (10, p. 88). The latter is likewise an injurious parasite on 1Abies concolor is also host for Phoradendron bolleanwm (Seem.) Hichl. (5, p. 193). — MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 33 P. ponderosa, but occurs on P. jeffreyi (5, p. 192), P. arizonica (2, p. 248), and P. mayriana (2, p. 243). R. campylopoda has recently - been collected by the writer near Coeur d’Alene, Idaho, on P. contorta. Sparingly distributed throughout the Northwest are some large forms of Razoumofskya on Abies. Plants collected by the writer on A dies grandis and A. concolor are apparently the same as that described by Engelmann (3, v. 2, p. 106) on the former host under the name Arceuthobium occidentale var. abietinum. Although it would prob- ably be better on morphological grounds to refer this form to R. campylopoda (Engelm.) Piper, as Engelmann’s Arceuthobium occidentale 1s now named, owing to its seeming close affinity to the genus Abies and the absence of cross-inoculation data it could well be raised to specific rank. These mistletoes in point of mor- phology are in great contrast with the small forms on Abies previ- ously mentioned. They may be considered typical of a group of large forms occurring only on Abies. From the foregoing, it seems possible that the members of the genus Razoumofskya may be arranged in a series of natural groups accord- ing to their host relationships. It is also interesting to note that the largest, the longest lived (both cortical and aerial parts), and the * most strictly parasitic forms are associated with the hard or yellow pines. These pines exhibit anatomically a high differentiation. This may throw some light on the nutrient relation of some mistletoes to their hosts; also their family peculiarities. SUGGESTIONS FOR CONTROL. Tt is clear from the foregoing pages that the damage to forest growth by the mistletoes of coniferous trees in the Northwest is of sufficient importance to receive the attention of every forester. Steps should be taken in all logging operations, where local problems of economy do not interfere, to make a beginning of the eradication of mistletoe by marking every infected tree for cutting. In some cases it would seem advisable to introduce into the contract a special clause dealing wholly with mistletoe-infected trees. The most injurious of the mistletoes of the genus Razoumofskya on coniferous trees, as indi- cated; are in the main confined to their own particular hosts or to spe- cial groups; hence, it is not advisable to establish in mistletoe regions pure stands of a species much subject to attack. In this respect the problem of the control of mistletoe is similar to that of forest-tree fungi. Mistletoes being light-loving plants, close stands should be maintained as much as possible on all exposed parts of the forest. For the same reason rims of canyons and all exposed areas, such as the borders of bench lands, natural parks, shores of lakes, etc., should be protected with species which are not usually subject to the ravages 34 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of mistletoes (Pl. 1V,fig.2). In this class would fall the firs, spruces, arbor vites, cedars, junipers, and yews. If this can not be done, owing to certain requirements by these species on soil and climate, the stand should be composed of as many different species as possible. Aside from reasons already set forth, isolated seed trees heavily or even slightly infected by mistletoe should not be retained. The vigor of the parasite on the parent tree will become greater, owing to its response to open and well-lighted conditions. Reproduction under the tree and in its near vicinity, if of the same species, will readily become infected. The same will be true of seed plats. The force developed within the mature seed capsule of these mistletoes and exerted in the expulsion of the seed is a factor of great signifi- cance for the spread of the parasite. It has been demonstrated in the case of one species that this force is sufficient, starting at an elevation of 8 feet on the level, to carry the seed a distance of over 66 feet. In addition to the forcible expulsion of its seeds by the parasite, strong wind is an important factor in seed dissemination. In one instance seeds of the larch mistletoe were collected in number from the roof of a cabin one-fourth of a mile away from the nearest infected tree. This is not at all extraordinary, in view of the fact that the larches of the region are very tall and are heavily infected in the crown. Also strong winds are frequent during the period of seed maturity. Birds and animals play a minor role in the distri- bution of the seeds of these mistletoes.t In the present instance, however, the seeds adhered to the substratum in the usual and nor- mal manner and could not have been transported in such numbers by any other means than strong wind. In view of the fact that strong air currents are factors in the dis- semination of the seeds, some consideration should be given to the topography and prevailing winds of a region where mistletoe abounds, as influencing the selection of seed plats (if such methods are employed), the placing of strip cuttings, and even of nursery and transplant beds. On a previous page, the tender age at which coniferous seedlings are liable to infection by mistletoe is indicated, so that the above statement regarding nursery sites is not merely a conjecture. Since considerable time elapses between the actual penetration of the primary sinker and the time the infection becomes conspicuous, three years in some instances, it is quite possible for 17—n Bulletin 317 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, page 24, the writer pub- lished a footnote on the role of birds and animals in the distribution of the seeds of these mistletoes. Since this publication was issued additional observations show that the seeds are probably more widely distributed by this means than was formerly believed. A rumor has been long extant that grouse feed upon the mistletoes. This has recently been verified by the writer by finding in the crop of a grouse the mature seeds and plants of the Dougias fir and larch mistletoes. Mr. Donald Morrison, an old, experienced hunter resid- ing in the mountains near Missoula, states that grouse in the late fall, with the coming of the winter snows, make a practice of congregating in the dense houselike brooms of the Douglas fir mistletoe. Mr. Morrison states quite positively that these birds feed upon the plants and mature seeds of these parasites when other forms of food become scarce. MISTLETOE INJURY. TO CONIFERS. 35 young infections on nursery stock to escape detection. Accordingly, young infected seedlings may become a means of distributing and establishing the parasite in plantations generally, not only locally but to far distant regions, when growing stock is shipped either for experimental purposes or for permanent plantings. That this is possible is shown by the discovery in the planting areas near Wal- lace, Idaho (Coeur d’Alene National Forest), of a yellow-pine seedling showing a very recent infection of mistletoe. Since the plantings were made on a widely denuded area and no yellow-pine mistletoe is as vet known to occur in the immediate region, it seems that the seedling must have become infected while at the home nursery at Boulder, Mont., where this mistletoe occurs. In view of the fact that there is a very grave danger of transporting agents injurious to forest growth, either fungous diseases or mistletoe, by sending nursery stock to distant parts of the country, the need of strict sanitation in the neighborhood of forest-tree nurseries can not be overemphasized. Whenever new nursery sites are planned in or near forests, a close pathological survey should be made of the surroundings, and trees diseased or suppressed from any cause what- ever should be cut out. This should be done also where nurseries are already established. The influence of the physical type on the severity of attack should receive considerable attention in any plan of management of forests in mistletoe regions. Forest Assistant Gilkey, in a report on the western larch of the Whitman National Forest, states that “a total of several hundred trees in various parts of the forest shows 79 per cent of the larch to be attacked on the dry-slope type, with only 27 per cent on the more moist sites.” The writer’s own investigation in the same forest shows an even greater difference between the moist- valley type and the more exposed slopes, which was 87 per cent for the latter and 15 per cent for the former. The severity of the infec- ~ tion on yellow pine and Douglas fir in other regions likewise shows wide extremes as influenced by elevation and exposure. Mr. E. E. Hubert, of the Laboratory of Forest Pathology, reports from ex- tensive observations during a reconnoissance of the lodgepole pine in the Big Hole Valley, Mont., that the most favorable sites for mistletoe are exposed dry ridges and south slopes, where the infec- tion ranges from 50 to 70 per cent of the stand. In the valley type the percentage of infection was much lower. ; In view of the-fact that all economic species so far observed are subject to attack at any age, it is hardly possible to establish an age at which infection becomes so serious as to interfere with the mer- chantability of the host. In regions of heavy mistletoe infection it would be quite impossible, for the reason that there is a much greater chance for all age classes to become infected. In numerous in- 36 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stances, however, it is noted that in some regions Douglas fir, larch, and lodgepole pine first become conspicuously infected at sapling or pole size; that is, it has required several years for earlier infections to become prominent. In any case, the matter turns on the time of life at which a tree becomes infected. If seriously infected before pole size is reached, the whole tree will in all probability be a cull and a menace to the forest. If infected during or after pole age, the tree may furnish some merchantable material, but will mature far in advance of uninfected trees of the region. Trees infected during early maturity may not be seriously influenced by the parasite ex- cept that their hfe functions may be slightly changed by brooming and breakage of branches, thus hastening the period of decline. Cutting old and suppressed mistletoe trees is, of course, a saving in several ways, not only to the future forest, but it is getting the best out of a rapidly declining forest capital. Their destruction, how- ever, does not mean that a great advance is being made in eradicating the mistletoe from the region. It simply lessens the chance of infec- tion for a time. Cutting the old and merchantable infected trees and leaving the younger unmerchantable but infected growth will not answer the purpose of control in regions of heavy infection. Very frequently the removal of only the more merchantable mistletoe trees causes the parasite on the trees that are left to develop more vigorously. Numerous observations show that infected trees of various ages succumb very rapidly to the parasite after a certain percentage of the stand has been cut out. For this reason marking the most seriously infected trees for cutting, with the prospect of the least infected reaching a normal maturity or a state of high mer- chantability, should in many regions be discontinued. The only plan left, then, in many regional units of infection is to practice heavier marking than hitherto employed, or, better still, clean cut- ting. It is believed that a close survey of the forests of each district will result in the discovery that there are units or centers of great infection either for one species of mistletoe or for different species. Instances of great regional infection for the Northwest have al- ready been indicated. Strange to say, in some cases these centers of infection are quite sharply defined. It seems entirely possible that if these regions were carefully studied and mapped as to the possible environmental factors governing the vertical and horizontal distribution of the parasite, much practical knowledge would re- sult. If the region should be accessible, the sales policy could be modified, with strong emphasis on the control of the mistletoe, and the knowledge already gained from a detailed study of the region should be available for future forest management. It must be re- membered that the great injury now exhibited by forest growth is the accumulation of many vears of unhindered activity by these MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. oN mistletoes. Through a proper appreciation of the need of adopting control measures in all sales areas where the percentage of infection is high and in all replanting projects in mistletoe regions, with the free-use privileges of mistletoed trees and the cutting of all infected growth in the vicinity of forest-improvement stations, a good be- ginning could be made toward the eradication or the lessening of the ravages of these parasites. SUMMARY. The conifers in the Northwest most subject to injury by mistle- toes of the genus Razoumofskya are Laria occidentalis, Pinus con- torta, Pseudotsuga taxifolia, and Pinus ponderosa. In the order of the above-named hosts the mistletoes most responsible for the greatest damage are Razoumofskya laricis, R. americana, R. doug- lasti, and 2. campylopoda. The general nature of the injury by these mistletoes is expressed in a gradual reduction of the leaf surface of the host, which causes a great reduction of growth in height and diameter. New infections take place only through the agency of a germinat- ing seed, which reaches the point of infection through the natural expelling force of the seed capsule, which may be made more effec- tive in point of distance traveled by the aid of strong winds, by falling from branches above after they have been loosened from their original resting place by rains, and by animal life. Trees of all age classes are liable to infection provided the mistle- toe seeds fall on parts of the host not yet protected by the mature cortex. The parasite may spread from the original point of infec- tion into older cortical tissues, which are not liable to infection from without. The spread of the cortical stroma in the reverse direction from the line of growth of the branch may continue until the outer cortex becomes too thick for the aerial shoots to penetrate it. After this, the cortical roots become suppressed and eventually die, or they may become wholly parasitic. Excessive mistletoe infection of the lower branches of a tree may cause the upper portion of the crown to die, giving rise to the phe- nomenon commonly called staghead or spiketop. Severe infection throughout the entire crown often results in the death of the tree. Young seedlings from 3 to 6 years old are often killed within a com- paratively short time after infection. Infection on the branches in practically all cases causes the forma- tion of large brooms, which seriously interfere with the life function of the tree. The same is true in the case of infection on the trunk, whereby burls are formed. The weakening effect of the formation of burls and brooms by mistletoe on forest trees is often responsible for serious depredations by fungi and forest-tree insects. 38 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In point of quality and quantity the seed-producing capacity of trees suppressed by mistletoe is tar below that of normal uninfected trees. Mistletoe can be controlled. It is suggested that a beginning may be made in its eradication or in the reduction of the ravages caused by these parasites by working along the lines indicated in the last section of this bulletin. (1) (2) (3) (4) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) LITERATURE CITED. ALLEN, H. T. 1902. Western hemlock. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Forestry Bull. 33, 55 p., 5 fis., 13 ple BLUMER, J. C. 1910. Mistletoe in the Southwest. Jn Plant World, v. 13, no. 10, p. 240-246. Brewer, W. H., and WATSON, SERENO. 1876-1880. Botany. [Geological Survey of California.] 2 v. Cam- bridge, Mass. CouLter, J. M. [1909.] New Manual of Botany of the Central Rocky Mountains 646 p. New York. CoviLte, F. V. 1893. Botany of the Death Valley expedition . . . Jn Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb., v. 4, 363 p., 21 pl., 1 map. EXNGELMANN, GEORGE. 1887. Loranthacez. Jn Report upon United States Geographical Surveys West of the One-Hundredth Meridian, v. 6, Botany, p. 251-254. JEPSON, W. L. 1901. A Flora of Western Middle California. 625 p. Berkeley, Cal. MacDouaat, D. T. 1899. Seed dissemination and distribution of Razoumofskya robusta (Engelm.) Kuntze. Jn Minn. Bot. Studies, s. 2, pt. 2, p. 169-173, 1 fig., pl. 15-16. MEINECKE, E. P. 1912. Parasitism of Phoradendron juniperinum libocedri Engelm. Jn Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters, v. 7, no. 1, p. 35-41, pl. 1-e. 1914. Forest tree diseases common in California and Nevada. 67 p., 24 pl. Washington, D. C. Published by the U. 8S. Dept. Agr., Forest Service. NELSON, AVEN. 1913. Contributions from the Rocky Mountain Herbarium. XIII. Jn Bot. Gaz., v. 56, no. 1, p. 63-71. PEARSON, G. A. 1912. The influence of age and condition of the tree upon seed produc- tion in western yellow pine. U.S. Dept. Agr., Forest Serv. Cir. 196, 11 p. PiERcE, G. J. 1905. The dissemination and germination of Arceuthobium occidentale Eng. In Ann. Bot., v. 19, no. 738, p. 99-113, pl. 3-4. O 39 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry A. D. MELVIN, Chief Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER June 29, 1916 COMPARISON OF THE BACTERIAL COUNT OF MILK WITH THE SEDIMENT OR DIRT TEST. By H. C. CampBELt, Expert in Milk Hygiene, Pathological Division. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Utility of the sediment test-:.....-.......--- 1 | Details of the experiments—Continued: Objectioltsth enw orks eee erisieiece sts ce teste 2 Comparisons with unfiltered market milk 3 Outlineohkexperimentessece ose 2-52 s ese. 2 Comparisons with filtered milk.......... 5 Method of collecting samples........--.--.--. 35 CONCIUSIONS Was homie ee Mase ne eee a ee eee 6 Details of the experiments..-.....-....--.--- 3: |PReferences|toliterature. sj seem eeee eee 6 UTILITY OF THE SEDIMENT TEST. The sediment or dirt test has been used for some time as a means of detecting visible dirt in milk. It was first applied in Europe to grade the milk as it arrived at the milk-receiving stations. After the milk had passed through the cotton disks they were cut in two, one part being kept for reference and the other mailed to the pro- ducer. In this manner it was found to be valuable in inducing the farmer to produce cleaner milk. During the past few years the sediment test has gained great favor among milk inspectors in this country. They say it has been of great value, as they can actuallyshow the farmer when his milk is insanitary and in this way better fix a standard of prices at the milk-receiving stations. Until recently the grading of milk and cream at receiving stations was based entirely upon such tests as those for per cent of fat, acidity, odor, etc. No test was used whereby any information _could be gained. regarding the sanitary conditions under which the milk was produced. Since the discovery of the sediment or dirt test the grading or judging of milk at receiving stations has been of two kinds, chemical and hygienic. It has been the opinion of inspectors that when milk contained sediment or dirt it was insanitary, but until the discovery 26052°—Bull. 361—16 2 BULLETIN 361, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the sediment test they never had a means of quickly determining the exact amount. It has also been a fact long and fairly well estab- lished that milk containing sediment or visible dirt, such as manure, hair, etc., was produced under insanitary conditions, but when these ingredients were not present in the milk no field inspector could determine its purity. Upon the adoption of the sediment test as a means of detecting insanitary milk at the milk-receiving stations, the producers un- doubtedly began to use methods calculated to remove the visible dirt. Such methods have been resorted to as straining the milk through cotton, cheesecloth, and Canton flannel to prevent the detection of visible dirt at the station by the field inspector. These methods have so changed the value of the sediment test as a means of judging pure milk that when no sediment or visible dirt can be detected it is often almost impossible to state whether the milk is produced under sanitary conditions or not. In order to determine whether the sediment test could be wholly relied upon as a means of detecting insanitary milk at milk-receiving stations, an experiment was conducted with this purpose in view. OBJECT OF THE WORK. The object of this experiment was to prove whether milk contain- ing little or no visible dirt, as often occurs when filtered through certain substances by gravity, was free from a large number of bac- teria. It was decided that by comparing the bacterial count with the sediment test (also when milk was filtered through various utensils) certain information could be obtained regarding this point. OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENT. Briefly, the experiment was conducted as follows: Three of what we considered the most practical sediment-test apparatuses were used, namely, the Gerber, the Wizzard, and the Lorenz. The Gerber apparatus was selected because it represents a gravity method. The average length of time required for one pint of milk to pass through the disk by this method was 15 minutes. The Wizzard was selected as a pressure type which could be easily car- ried for field work and attached to the milk bottle without removing the milk. By this method the time required for the milk to pass through the disk was about two minutes; its disadvantage was that when the pressure was applied there was no means of holding the apparatus securely to the bottle. The Lorenz apparatus was se- lected as a pressure type in which the milk is placed in the metal container and the pressure applied. The time required by this Bul. 361, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture PLATE I. COOD FAIR MEDILIT Fic. 1.—CoTTON DISKS SHOWING FouR DEGREES OF SEDIMENT FROM MILK. Fia. 2.—COMPARISON OF DISKS IN PAIRS RESULTING FROM THREE KINDS OF SEDIMENT TESTS. BACTERIAL COUNT OF MILK AND DIRT TEST. o method was also about two minutes, and we found it to be the most satisfactory for field work. Fifty samples of milk were collected on the railroad station plat- form from milk cans as they arrived from various farmers throughout the section. Upon arrival at the laboratory the temperature was taken and a bacterial count made. After preparing plates each sample was passed through one of Gerber’s sediment tubes. The sediment disks were kept and compared with the bacterial count. A similar comparison was also made with the Wizzard and Lorenz apparatuses, using 50 samples in each case. After 50 samples had been tested with each apparatus, 20 samples were filtered through 4 pieces of cheesecloth, 20 through one thick- ness of absorbent cotton, and 20 through one of Canton flannel. Each of these samples was then subjected to the sediment test and a bacterial count made in each case; this was done to determine the effect that straining the milk would have upon the test. We also made a comparison of the filtered samples with the bacterial count after passing them through the cotton disks used in the Lorenz apparatus. The writer wishes to thank Dr. John R. Mohler, assistant chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry; Dr. Louis A. Klein, dean of the veterinary school, University of Pennsylvaria; and Dr. C.J. Marshall, State veterinarian of Pennsylvania, for many valuable suggestions in the work. METHOD OF COLLECTING SAMPLES. The milk in the can was thoroughly shaken and 1 pint taken as a sample. The sediment in this kind of sample would, in our opinion, represent the amount of dirt contained in an ordinary bottle of milk. A few inspectors believe that the sample should be collected from the bottom of the cans before shaking, but it seems to us that this may at times be unfair to the producer. DETAILS OF THE EXPERIMENTS. In our experiments the character and quantity of sediment upon the cotton disks is represented by the words ‘‘good,” “‘fair,’’ ‘me- dium,” and ‘‘bad.”’ (Pl. I, fig. 1.) This gives four classifications, which we considered sufficient for all practical purposes. These classifications are illustrated in Plate I. COMPARISONS WITH UNFILTERED MARKET MILK. Table 1 shows the laboratory results obtained by comparing the bacterial count with the Gerber sediment test on 10 average samples out of 50. L BULLETIN 361, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TaBLE 1.—Comparison of bacterial count with Gerber sediment test (unfiltered market milk). Sample No. Bacteria : Bacteria per cubic apes Sample No. per cubic area centimeter. centimeter. 5 2,690,000 | Fair. Gere a oe Dee 1,206,000 | Fair. 1,812,000 | Medium. Msiste Sabie ays ae eal RNS 108,000 | Bad. 1,537,000 | Good. Bee ce SER a of haem 263,000 | Good. 186,000 | Bad. OF Nee amin wi ie et Nae 1,803,000 | Fair. 643,000 | Medium. LOG Fe asp nee Ch Neh ed 319,000 | Medium. | In these results it will be seen that some samples had a high bac- terial count, yet tested ‘‘good”’ or ‘‘fair’”’ with the sediment test, while others which had a low bacterial count tested ‘‘medium”’ or “bad.” Plate I, figure 2 (upper), shows two of the samples—No.7 and No. 1. No. 7, having a large amount of sediment and classed as ‘‘bad,” has a low bacterial count, while the other, No. 1, is classed as ‘‘fair,”’ and has a high bacterial count. Table 2 shows the tabulated results obtained by comparing the bacterial count with the Wizzard sediment test on 10 average sam- ples out of the 50. .—Comparison of bacterial count with Wizzard sediment test (unfiltered market TABLE 2 A milk). Bacteria : Character 7 Sample No. per cubic P Sample No. montinietan of sediment. |) Me ais hore sasas chao ate 2,131,000 ) Fair. Gi Rees, “pay aa ES aaa i, Se Dire Sr yetcisl a ola a pT Rede 622,000 | Good. Ea ed an eae a) Bee Gey Her Nea e ae 1,391,000 | Do. SR Serer Loe ae ae AERIS, SAS: SAU Mae 812,000 | Bad. OUR Sak Aah RECS TA OyacioertisaO oosceeeee eRe see 377, 000 Do. Hl OMe ess see si< Soe ee eee Bacteria per cubic centimeter. 246, 000 3,558, 000 4, 102, 000 2, 688, 000 243, 000 Character ofsediment. Bad. Fair. Good. Fair. Bad. It will be seen here that a greater difference occurred than in the preceding table. Plate I, figure 2 (middle) shows disk No. 8, classed as ‘‘ good,’ con- taming 4,102,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter, while disk No. 10, classed as ‘‘bad,” contained only 243,000 per cubic centimeter. Table 3 shows the tabulated results obtained by comparing the bacterial count with the Lorenz sediment test on 10 average samples out of 50. TABLE 3.—Comparison of bacterial count with Lorenz sediment test (unfiltered market Sample No. Bacteria per cubic centimeter. 768, 000 99, 000 63,000 |. 57,000 34, 000 milk). Character of sediment. Sample yNo: Fair. Gustin hteesear seer t eee Good. Tih AS HO es Se ER Ed fee Bad. Baa Serre re CU Do. Opener are es Do. LOR ae ca onoe nae eee | Bacteria per cubic centimeter. 329, 000 49, 000 Character of sediment. 5 BACTERIAL COUNT OF MILK AND DIRT TEST. This table, ike the others, shows considerable variations; No. 1, which had a bacterial count of 768,000, tested ‘‘fair’’ by the sediment test, and No. 8, which has a count of 7,200, tested ‘‘bad.’”’ These disks are shown in Plate II (lower). COMPARISONS WITH FILTERED MILK. After comparing the bacterial count with the various sediment tests of unfiltered market milk, it was decided to make a comparison after the milk was filtered through such substances as are frequently used as strainers by farmers to remove dirt. Twenty samples were filtered through 4-ply cheesecloth and the Lorenz disks compared with the bacterial count. The table below shows the results obtained from 10 average samples out of 20; filtering through cheesecloth. TaBLE 4.—Comparison of bacterial count with Lorenz sediment test (milk filtered through cheesecloth). | Bacteria : iI Bacteria " Sample No. per cubic acpatacten Sample No. per cubic Bye pee centimeter. : centimeter. iment. AULT RA Ghd PIL CN || 109,000 | Good. Ios PReReeM Sea. ane ot 33,000 | Good. Po scbadocqucsoeosounsaceed 67,000 Do. Wisteria socoscoscsbusosscaneded 84, 000 Do. Do tosocdsounaceasauapanoae 46, 000 Do. Sao eect teeta eee 93, 000 Do. Ao eS ns oleae a 24,000 | Do. Cit aN share) Ra 54/000 | Do. aw eRe inne ote Sessa 639, 000 Do. DRS Soe bei Soa aa Ba one 316, 000 Do. ] Twenty samples were filtered through one ply of Canton flannel and the bacterial count compared with the Lorenz disks. shows the results obtained from 10 average samples out of 20. Table 5 TABLE 5.—Comparison of bacterial count with Lorenz sediment test (milk filtered through 1-ply Canton flannel). Bacteria Bacteria 5 Character : Character emg ING: ober cubic | ofsediment. SamplaNo: ober cuble lof sediment. pL REO eee eiscic 78,000 | Good GES Sree ee reparation cng ee 19,400 | Good 15 6. HES abe ae 31, 000 Do. [RS SECA RSs etter er ae 316, 000 Do. ene A acres). Saree telbe wd 41, 000 Do. Berar reais apt eS Leash 129, 000 Do. i as Oe RC aa re a 108, 000 Do. ORE RI Ce, BEE ay 149, 000 Do. rots hoo Boeke oe Bench eas 18, 000 Do. Me Sab oe scab ae ae ae 119, 000 Do. Twenty samples were filtered through 1-ply ordinary absorbent cotton, covered above and below with 1-ply cheesecloth. The Lorenz disks were compared with the bacterial count, as in the preceding table. Table 6 shows the results obtained from 10 average samples out of 20. 6 BULLETIN 561, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 6.—Comparison of bacterial count with Lorenz sediment test (milk filtered through 1-ply absorbent cotton and cheesecloth). Bacteria | Bacteria Sample No. per cubic | Bec pahee Sample No. per cubic | eneneceey centimeter. i centimeter. 3 1 es CE ane eee eae 760,000 | Good. Otic neste: Boece 57,000 | Good. Desi 8 cee bets SS Se 67, 000 Do. Maas ce deuee eae SRO 362, 000 Do. BY KBABS BEE hae Saee se 31, 400 Do Boe ccee Otomo oe ro ee 471, 000 Do Ath Means FP reps wraith 42,000 Do Oe Sere So an Seta oe oe ee 48, 000 Do Es aac fe ater oie Sede ae in agen a 61, 300 Do TO ee earns Se ae 191, 000 Do In every instance in which the milk was filtered through any sub- stances to remove visible dirt the disks were classed as good. It would seem from the results shown in the last three tables that if milk is strained before applying the sediment test the latter is of little, if any, value in estimating visible dirt. _ CONCLUSIONS. 1. The writer considers the Lorenz apparatus the most convenient and practical for demonstrating dirt in milk. 2. The quantity of sediment or visible dirt present on the disk is no criterion as to the kind or number of bacteria contained in the milk. 3. The various sediment tests are applicable only in roughly esti- mating the quantity of sediment in unstrained milk, and can not be used solely as a means of determining the hygenic conditions under which it was produced. 4. If milk is strained through the substances mentioned, the sedi- ment testers are of little value in estimating the degree of contami- | nation. REFERENCES TO LITERATURE. New and Improved Tests of Dairy Products. S. M. Babcockand E. H. Farrington, Wisconsin Station Bulletin No. 195, pp. 3-13. The Milk Sediment Test and Its Application. A.C. Baer, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular of Information No. 41. Experiment with Fliegel’s Apparatus for Determining Dirt in Milk. J. Klein, Milchw. Centbl. 1. (1905), No. 7, pp. 305-307. Comparison of Bacteria in Strained and Unstrained Samples of Milk. H. W. Conn and W. A. Stocking, Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, 1903-1905. PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO BACTERIAL CONTENT OF MILK. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. A Bacteriological Study of Retail Ice Cream (Department Bulletin 303). The Present Status of the Pasteurization of Milk (Department Bulletin 342). Care of Food in the Home (Farmers’ Bulletin 375). The Care of Milk and its Use in the Home (Farmers’ Bulletin 413). Bacteria in Milk (Farmers’ Bulletin 490). Production of Clean Milk (Farmers’ Bulletin 602). FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. The Alcohol Test in Relation to Milk (Department Bulletin 202). Price, 5 cents. Pasteurizing Milk in Bottles and Bottling Hot Milk Pasteurized in Bulk (Department Bulletin 240). Price, 5 cents. Relation of Bacteria to the Flavors of Cheddar Cheese (Bureau of Animal Industry Builetin 62). Price, 5 cents. The Bacteria of Pasteurized and Unpasteurized Milk under Laboratory Conditions (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 73). Price, 5 cents. The Milking Machine asa Factor in Dairying, Preliminary Report: 1, Practical Studies of a Milking Machine; 2, Bacteriological Studies of a Milking Machine (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 92). Price, 15 cents. The Bacteriology of Cheddar Cheese (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 150). Price, 10 cents. Methods of Classifying the Lactic-acid Bacteria (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 154). Price, 5 cents. A Study of the Bacteria Which Survive Pasteurization (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 161). Price, 10 cents. Bacteria in Milk (Separate 444 from Yearbook 1907). Price, 5 cents. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. — AT 5 CENTS PER COPY WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1916 iit ie \ | | 4 =~ a <« | } : i fl: } | if t] (| esa 1 € H i} = iF = Is zi ree \ \ ot ! eee f Pl he - ” " s 4. * ne : \ eat a < , Pie qvar kath fa voce VOR ek Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural Organization CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief Washington, D.C. Vv May 6, 1916 A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR PRIMARY GRAIN ELEVATORS. By Jonn R. Humpnurey, Assistant in Market Business Practice, and W. H. Kerr, Investigator in Market Business Practice. CONTENTS. Page. | Page. AMCHOG UCU OMe eye ceieivciele eee eins pela e)= cles nn = - 1 | Description of the Office of Markets and Types of elevator accounting sestamns aiziaatele 2 Rural Organization grain elevator account- Oflicerequipmente ce sess ses sccs sears - 2 ATO US NTS COTTA ie Ie AaL Naf ye Ag A aan a 4 Malkin eanyinvVentOLy- cine. ss oscess cesses 3 | Instructions for operating the system-.....-.. 8 AI GUvIN geHOWDOOK Ss sec cccisciceas oie cecels ») hand.” It is always important for a manager to know whether the grain which he has on hand belongs to the elevator in whole or in part, or is partly or entirely stored grain. By subtracting the gross amount of bushels of grain purchased from the gross receipts the total amount stored at date will be shown. Should this be greater than the net on hand, it will indicate that some grain which has been stored has been sold without being purchased from the owner of the grain—in other words, that there has been an amount of stored grain sold. Should the total stored at date be less than the net on hand, then the difference between the two would be the amount of purchased grain on hand. MERCHANDISE REPORT. The merchandise report (Form No. 8; see p. 23) serves merely as an inventory, giving the total on hand at the last inventory, purchases, sales, and net on hand, which should agree, allowing for proper deductions or additions, with the actual inventory. CASH, JOURNAL, PURCHASE, AND SALES RECORD. The cash, journal, purchase, and sales record (Form No. 1), facing p- 20) differs from ordinary books of first entry in that both the debit and credit entries, which are to be posted later to the ledger, are of necessity entered on this form before it can be balanced. The debit columns of this form are designated as follows: Date. Folio. Cash. Bank deposits. General ledger. Accounts receivable ledger. - Hard coali(bs)=-- 7 amount. :.). Soit coal (Ibs. -.-., amount ._--). There are also provided columns in blank which may be used to suit the convenience and requirements of the individual elevator. The credit columns comprise the following: Check number. Folio. Bank withdrawals. General ledger. Accounts receivable ledger. Sales ticket number. Hard coal (Ibs. ...., amount ....). Soft coal (Ibs. ...., amount ....). 12 BULLETIN 362, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. There are also blank columns to be used as desired. A column is provided between the debit and credit sides, marked *‘Ttems,’”’ in which are written all items and an explanation of them. Desir COLUMNS.- CASH. In order that an accurate check may be had upon the amount of money received so that an identical amount may be deposited each day, all cash receipts of whatever nature should be entered in the “cash”? column. These entries are footed daily and represent the amount of the deposit and are not carried forward during the month, all deposits being set down in the “bank deposits” column as the deposit is made. BANK DEPOSITS. In some instances where drafts are drawn directly against com- mission companies by the bank the money is not received at the elevator, and in such cases the deposit of drafts may be made directly into the ‘‘bank deposits’? column. In this way the “bank deposits”’ column would include the total receipts at the elevator plus all receipts of drafts at the bank, and the total of this column carried forward during the month should equal the sum of the deposits in the bank pass book. ~ GENERAL LEDGER. The ‘‘general ledger’ column is provided for entry of all items to accounts in the general ledger for which no special columns are pro- vided, and postings should be made in detail from this column to accounts in the general ledger. ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE LEDGER. The accounts receivable ledger carries items for all local accounts receivable, and items in this column are posted in detail to accounts in the accounts receivable ledger. MERCHANDISE PURCHASES. Under the heading ‘“‘ Merchandise purchases”’ will be found columns — designated “hard coal,” ‘‘soft coal,” etc., in pounds and amounts. All purchases of merchandise of this character are entered in their proper columns under this heading, and the totals only are posted at the end of the month to their respective accounts in the general ledger. CREDIT COLUMNS. _ The “check number” column accommodates the numbers of all checks drawn for expense and general accounts other than grain checks. The “bank withdrawals” column records the amounts of these checks. In this column is also entered the total of the grain ACCOUNTS FOR PRIMARY GRAIN ELEVATORS. | 13 checks drawn during the month. The “general ledger” and ‘‘ac- counts receivable” columns serve the same purposes on the credit as were explained on the debit side. LOCAL SALES OF MERCHANDISE AND GRAIN. As all the sale tickets are numbered consecutively, their numbers are listed in the ‘‘sales ticket number” column, and the merchandise in pounds and amount is entered in the proper column to the credit of the account to which it belongs; such as “‘hard coal,” ‘‘soft coal,” ‘‘flour,” etc. These columns are totaled at the end of the month and the totals only are posted to the accounts in the general ledger. Only the items which are posted from the general ledger, accounts receivable ledger, and the miscellaneous columns are listed in detail, all other columns, both debit and credit, being posted as totals. At the be- ginning of the month the first entry to be made on this form is “‘cash balance,” and this should be set down in the ‘“‘ bank deposits” column as an amount carried forward. - Because of the fact that every debit has a corresponding credit, the two sides of this form should always be in balance, but the fact that we have carried forward the cash bal- ance, which appears on one side only, must be taken into considera- tion. In order that the form should foot and prove correctly, it should always be out of balance by the exact amount of the cash entry at the beginning of the month. THE LEDGER. The ledger should be divided into two general divisions—one car rying general accounts and the other accounts receivable—and may be designated under the headings “‘General ledger” and ‘‘ Accounts re- ceivable ledger.”” In the general ledger will be found such accounts as: (1) Cash, which is the monthly balance as shown by the cashbook; (2) ‘“‘accounts receivable control” account, to which are posted debit and credit totals in the ‘“‘accounts receivable” columns in the cash, journal, purchase, and sales record, the individual items having been posted previously to the accounts receivable ledger. This account serves as a proof of the correctness of such individual postings. (3) Bills receivable, including all promissory notes, time notes, bills of exchange, or acceptances receivable. It has been the practice in some elevator accounting systems to show a subdivision of expense in the journal, but the small number of items of this character is much better taken care of through a subdivision of the ledger accounts. An ordinary ledger page may be ruled by the bookkeeper into seven or eight columns, and, as entries to expense in most cases are debit items, no credit columns need be provided. When credits occur they should be posted in red ink and deducted in the addition of the items in the column. The 14 BULLETIN 362, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. several columns of the expense account may be headed ‘‘Salaries;” “‘Telephone, telegraph, and electric light;” ‘‘Taxes;” ‘‘Gasoline;” “‘Repairs;” and ‘‘Miscellaneous,” or similar headings suitable to the nature of the expenses incurred. An account should be provided showing the capital stock outstand- ing or the portion of the net capital which is used or is available for the working of the business. Separate accounts should be opened for each kind of grain handled, showing the amount and value of grain purchased on the debit, and the amount and value of grain sold on the credit. At the end of the year, by crediting these accounts with the inventory of the kind of grain specified, the net profit on each kind of grain may be deter- mined. In the case of local sales of grain, it is advisable to open separate accounts so that a clear record may be kept of the amount of grain sold locally, as well as in car lots. These local sales accounts should be closed into the general grain accounts at the end of the year. During the course of a shipping season a considerable number of claims will arise against railroads for losses of grain in transit. Two accounts should be opened to accommodate this condition: A debit account—claims against railroads for leakage in transit, and a credit account—loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit. These accounts operate after the following manner: When a ear is reported short a certain number of bushels under that recorded by the elevator’s automatic scale, a charge is put through against the railroad respon- sible in the first-named account, and a corresponding credit is carried to the latter account. When recovery is received by remittance from the railroad company, the company is credited with the amount of the check. If the check does not cover the full amount of the claim, and no further action is to be taken lookmg toward its collec- tion, then a journal entry for the remainder should be passed, credit- ing the account of the railroad in the claims account and debiting loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit. This latter account constitutes an Income account and may be written off direct to profit and loss; or if the composition of the account is known, the specific items applying to certain kinds of grain may be credited to the grain - accounts. The following entries in the cash, journal, purchase, and sales record will serve to illustrate the method of accounting for loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit. When the grain is reported lost, the first entry to be made is as follows: Ser Debit claims y(BaceMiy Railroad) so): sect emcee ee ee ee 25. 00 Credit loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit.................-.--- 25. 00 _ After negotiations with the railroad, assume that settlement by an allowance of $15.00 is received by check. Entry would then be ACCOUNTS FOR PRIMARY GRAIN ELEVATORS. 15 made of the check showing ‘‘Cash debite $15.00,”’ and ‘‘B. & M. Railroad credit $15.00.” This leaves a credit of $25 to the account for loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit, and a debit to the railroad of $10. Considering that the transaction has been definitely settled, and that no further recovery can be made, the following journal entry should be passed: Debit loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit............-..--- 10. 00 Creditelammsis sAMie Railroad - i.) pense of cai Fk tas vee eras ba fiat 10.00 This simply closes the railroad account, and leaves a balance in the loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit representing the true amount of recovery. THE COST ANALYSIS. The cost analysis (Form No. 15A; see p. 30) has been provided to furnish information affecting the unit and relative cost of handling grain and merchandise. ‘The method of operation is as follows: Opposite ‘‘Bushels of grain handled’’ should be set down, first, the total of all grain taken into the elevator, this amount being ex- tended under the different kinds of grain as shown by the footings of the record of grain receipts, the total grain taken in being 100 per cent. The relative percentage of each kind of grain is then set down opposite the per cent mark under the column designated. On the same line should be added the value of coal and merchandise sales. After taking out an amount which would seem to be sufficient for the selling of merchandise, the different kinds of expense applying generally to all kinds of grain and merchandise, such as salary, in- surance, interest, power, and repairs, are then prorated according to the grain percentages. This amount will be, necessarily, more or less of an estimate, but a manager, by keeping account of the time spent on coal and merchandise sales in the space of a month, can arrive at a fair basis for the division of salaries. Insurance, interest, repairs, and miscellaneous, relating to merchandise, are contained in a few items and can be easily ascertained. _ Such items as ‘‘Power, operating’ apply only to grain. ‘‘Corn shelling—direct labor’’ includes only that labor which has been pro- cured especially for corn shelling, and would not include the mana- ger’s or assistant manager’s time, as their wages are prorated under ‘‘Salaries.”’ Car cooperage should be distributed according to the amounts of grain received, except in cases where an account has been kept in the ledger showing the exact amount of cooperage against each kind of grain. - After having prorated the different expense items, the addition of these gives the gross expense. Returns from storage and returns from dockage sold are then set down under the kinds of grain which 16 BULLETIN 362, U. §8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. have furnished these returns, and subtracted. Any returns from cobs sold are subtracted from cob corn. The net expense is then ascertained from these subtractions. The net unit expense is determined by dividing the amount of ex- pense by the number of bushels handled. Since in the operation of an elevator there are other items of expense which are more or less fixed, and not within the control of the manager, it is necessary to take these into account as a further consideration in arriving at the total cost of operation. Bad debts in most cases will be prorated between sales of coal and sales of other merchandise. Depreciation should be distributed against the elevator on the same basis as other charges after having deducted a proper amount for depreciation of coal sheds, warehouses, etc. Shrinkage and scale loss should be distributed according to the amount of loss on each commodity as shown in the ledger accounts. Other losses and charges, which will include such losses as uncollected claims against railroads for leakage in transit, therefore, will be directly chargeable against the kind of grain or merchandise upon which the loss occurred. After having prorated the above charges, addition should be made of these amounts to the net expense, and this will give the total cost of operation. The total cost of operation being 100 per cent, the per cent of cost of operation on each kind of grain and merchandise will be determined as being the relative percentage of each to the total. The net unit cost of operation is determined by dividing the amount of costs of operation by the number of bushels handled in the case of grain or by dividing the amount of cost of operation by the value of the goods sold when determining the net unit cost of operation for merchandise. The net unit cost of operation would be in terms of cents and decimals of a cent per bushel on grain, and in the case of sales of coal and other merchandise, it would be represented by a cer- tain percentage, as, for instance, 6 per cent of the gross sales. BALANCING CASH WITH THE BANK. To determine the correctness of the cash transactions for the — month the following method will be found simple and adequate: (1) Determine whether the ‘‘bank deposits’? column agrees with the bank pass book as to individual deposits. Be sure that it is cor- rectly footed. (2) Sort the returned vouchers, arranging them consecutively. Compare them with the entries in the ‘‘bank withdrawals”’ column and ascertain which, if any, are missing. List the numbers and ~ amounts of all outstanding checks for the next month’s reference. Outstanding checks may be listed either on an adding-machine tape ACCOUNTS FOR PRIMARY GRAIN ELEVATORS. 17 or by writing them into the cashbook. The difference between the ‘bank deposits”’ and ‘‘bank withdrawals’’ columns, plus the total of _outstanding checks, should equal the balance as shown in the bank pass book. No error, however small, should be ignored in balancing cash with the bank. RESERVE ACCOUNTS. RESERVE FOR DEPRECIATION ACCOUNT. In order to show the true condition of the plant a reserve for depreciation account is essential. To this account should be credited annually a certain percentage of the money invested in the plant, and an equal amount should be written off profit and loss.! RESERVE FOR BAD DEBTS ACCOUNT. During the operation of a business where credit is given to a large number of customers there is likely to be a loss on account of uncol- lectible debts. This amount may besmall one year and large another. For that reason it is well to set aside a sufficient amount of capital from the yearly profits to offset such losses. To effect this, ‘‘reserve for bad debts”’ should be credited and ‘‘ profit and loss”’ debited with an amount which experience would dictate is sufficient to take care of the uncollectible debts of the company. While many elevator companies make a practice of furnishing supplies to members and others on credit, all supplies, if possible, should be handled on a strictly cash basis. Any system of extending unprotected credit requires a large capital and often results in con- siderable loss. RESERVE FOR SINKING FUND. In some States, notably South Dakota, where the cooperative law is in operation, a statutory regulation requires that a certain per- centage of the capital invested be set aside each year in a reserve for sinking fund, so that the company will be in a position to retire its capital stock at the end of a given period. Companies operating under such conditions should set up a reserve for sinking fund in accordance with the requirements of their State laws. Where the custom of hedging grain prevails, an account should be opened designated “profit and loss on hedging.” To this should be debited or credited the losses or gains incident to the hedging of grain, the opposite entry being made to the commission account handling the business. 1 For further explanation of reserve for depreciation see U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 178, ‘Cooperative Organization Business Methods.” 18 BULLETIN 362, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To determine the profit and loss for the year, all income accounts should be credited and all expense accounts debited to this account. When the amount of profit has been ascertained, dividends may be declared and paid, and the remainder transferred to the surplus account. After the books have been closed for the year, any errors discovered affecting the previous year’s business should be entered in the account affected and carried to the opposite side of the surplus account, the profit and loss account being reserved for the current year’s business. The individual needs and the peculiar conditions surrounding elevators in different parts of the United States may require other accounts besides those discussed above, and if such is the case, accounts covering these special requirements may be opened along the same general lines as those previously discussed. The following balance sheet is submitted as a guide in the arrange- ment of assets and liabilities. Other asset and lability accounts may appear on the books of an elevator and in such case should be included. STATEMENT. BaLANcE SHEET, YEAR ENDING..-....- ASSETS. (CRN) CASE carer ar Soe a er eae aR. ied eM ee ees eS $287. 50 BNC COUMES MRC COMVAD IOs cece tain e sikin cc aed i Ree rae eee $3, 208. 00 sess reserve toribad debts..2i 022i. sis SRS), See 400. 00 2, 808. 00 Notes receivable........---- SLATS R We) ahs Cpecrge eyes ace eee 325. 00 Helamtran derealeestate ssn assis. <:<.c.c:s\aj< ba. 4 ocege Pegs ee iaeie sees 9, 500. 00 Gessmmeserve for depreciation = -=)-.-.. apes aa eas ea 1, 300. 00 ee UOT 00 Grain commission accounts. .......-- Beate iG eee eM R Ee So 5 5 860. 00 Inventory Viton (Rn mmre ee heir 6o or ai heirs Gali reg lee ko bale 1, 458. 00 Orie eee ein rt gee takes, Syhoc demote yom «to apie EN hoot eed ee 395. 00 ORD Ss goch oc eos OSS BaD et ae ES SS S02 oa eee 536. 00 RV Ore seer eerste ns po 3 a.< ne cine ee ss (sake eee 3 28. 00 ISB HA ENS Ses Ae re eae ene. 2 his eee Amen 106. 50 Hard (coal eee st SESE ibs ES RR Lake Cbs, 281. 60 Softicoalteraer rere Sec co. 2b cesar parce ie mye 354. 00 Othersmerchandise;(supplies) i. <6. 3.) see a 2, 976. 70 —————— 6, 185. 20 18, 615. 70 LIABILITIES. : A CCOUMLS PA VADle wae ents es Soo eae 2 eee eee ee oe Oe ere 876. 55 INOtes payables: Meer e eerie neces oo ee arn Stato seta ee ta 4, 200. 00 Capitals paid ine ss se eee ela cle Soe 5. pe a cl oi ee 8, 950. 00 Surp hiss: S55 oe oe a tosis Nice. cae cee. eee 2 Sale ees See 4, 589. 15 18, 615, 70 CC ACCOUNTS FOR PRIMARY GRAIN ELEVATORS. 19 UPPLY ACCOUNTS SETTLED WITH GRAIN. When requests are received from patrons to deduct from the amount due for grain sold the amount which they may owe the com- pany for supplies purchased, two grain checks should be issued. The first check should contain the total number of bushels and kind of grain being purchased, together with the balance due the patron after deducting the amount of his account from the full value of the grain. A second check should then be made without reference to bushels of grain, and marked ‘For a/c receivable,” in the full amount de- ducted from the previous check. This check is then indorsed over to the elevator by the patron and both checks are entered in the record of grain purchases, the first check going to the patron and the second being deposited to the account of the elevator as cash received. By this means both sides of the transaction have been carried out through the only proper medium of settling accounts, which is cash. For the convenience of those interested in the system described in this bulletin and for those who desire to have the system printed, the Office of Markets and Rural Organization has provided printer’s copy of the several forms for free distribution. All elevators installing the system of accounts may refer to this office any questions regarding its installation or operation. A sectional post transfer binder has been found convenient and adequate for binding the accounting forms. The standard size is, length over all, 154 inches, width 104 inches, posts five-sixteenth inch in diameter and 7 inches from center to center. CONCLUSION. The foregoing pages outline very briefly certain information regard- ing operating grain elevators, and in particular describe the methods used in operating a system of grain-elevator accounting devised to accommodate the various requirements in primary elevators through- out the United States. The adoption of a uniform system of account- ing for primary elevators should be of benefit both to the companies and to the men employed by them as managers, but the simple keep- ing of the records is not sufficient. To obtain benefits commensurate with the opportunities open in this field the manager and directors of the elevators possessing such an accounting system should make use of all the information which it is able to furnish. In order that the management of the elevator may be fully advised, not only as to the condition of the business, but as to the economic advantage of the method of doing business which is being pursued, it is advisable that in every case proper attention should be paid to ascertaining the costs as provided for in the ‘‘cost analysis’’ included with this sys- 20 BULLETIN 362, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tem. If the information thus obtained is made available to the stockholders and other interested parties, and they are thereby assured that the business of the elevator is being handled in a com- petent manner and that details and statistics regarding it can be furnished at any time, it will tend to strengthen the financial position of the company with those who extend credit to elevators during the season of crop movements. In some of the forms that follow, sample entries are inserted in italics. These entries do not represent actual transactions; they are given merely to show how the forms are to be used. ee << NAL AND PUR arkets and Rural Org 4 } : | 5,616 | 95 = | | Bank rm *olio. with-- | drawals. ] 34 -) eee! | eee Joma) |eoncas| eee | ates Jsac}|ascscce| o-o-|]bosssca}o--ol| posses 287 | 22 |)... ----. 2 POTN) BES orel Beeel | Bepeenes| Pees) | Beeeeee Peee|| pee soee bec | eccesee =+-||--------]---.]]---....- “ 8 612 1008 Ad 61,40) ||-===-=25| cod|| boo s2n5 eos||oo- 2A eee precesc| cel |bssscocd becel Posssscel bse] |e oe ee cel poseeccd| boae|[Eonescc4) S| | See 109 loool bocesoed| 61 | 40 ||-.--....].-..|]-.----.. 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Lcd paccocedt e2||basescod Loo 28 || 619 1017 .67 652.00 ||..------ ee | Serene! faccici| m2 Ree | acces Ace] bassosc| boss |baasneee S| Roe j----||------+-]-~~-[|-------- pe | eS See! Ginn | Sees Dito | Sen inirn bebe | Dien nnrn| bene] Sone nnn Pecd | Peeccsed peed |peccosee| Peed | peescced loo Reomeecr ncedfeeeceses] ced|fboseccee| boo “30 620 |} 1018 69} 865.40 ||.....-.. becel|eacecod bee |Esacocad 2 Peeses 4 eee | eee Bes | Hasson a4 |Pasaac base | boSaceee] boo |p2ea| becsoced brad bsosccod bced | pasosece| ho] bsocaony | bocoosoe| bool boccosad Sor|| bacosoo4 cax||-nececos||--ed|bosecece) olllosenzend bacel| bocmacod eo ( del 1019 -69|| 593.40 ||......-- Loel| boszcosd bocdlfeo=as 22d bead|pocece tl pacr||peconsod od] bezccosd psz4||bacootsa| Be eee! et | etcetera eee | eee tee | ete cee | ieee | eee eee | Sees 22¢fpoococod Fac |paeseaee Peod | Besoeees bac | peeeeece 5,010.25 || 12h |b. 766\|(00)|| 722 |. Fe 0) || S| eae eel | ||| 189\|/45 ||| 326 |a2)||e 183 | 80 98 | 00 ||... (mall call e5 | y x x x Siig | See ee eaasee y x | aca | Se 7 cn | eon ee | —— 3 a aa % y-aCarried)to cash journal! = Carried to grain report. If desired, additional grades under ‘‘wheat” can be inchided, extra columns being provided if necessary. A\ll items carried in bushels, fractional bushels in pounds. RECORD OF GRAIN SHIPMENTS AND SALES. 5 Office of Markets and Rural Organization, Grain System Form No. 4. a = es = ae At Spe ee a Wi er = Te 7 Z ———— Wheat. Durum, Barley. Oats. Rye. i Plax. Shelled corn. Data. Shipped to— Car No. |] Weight. || Dt? || Price. peas. Folio. ~ = oo oS | = : | Gross. | Dkg. No, 1. No: 2: No. 3. | Proceeds. Gross. | Dkg. | Net. Proceeds. Net. Proceeds. Net. Proceeds. Gross. | Dockage. Nat Proceeds, || Gross. | Dkg. Net. Proceeds. Grade. Grade 2, Grade. Grade. Grade. Grade. Proceeds. Deter |e ee 1014. | | | {| Lipsey & Co.. 1,200 || Dec, 15 \} 1.09. i 1,250 \| “ 24) 1.118 | | 4 1,020|| © 30|| 1.85 I; HAO GO able | | | ioe ol e ea eall | I Net proceeds to be detited to grain dealers, and proceeds of each variety of grain to be credited to grain accounts in general ledger, posting to be made direct, If desired, additional grades under “Whe an be included, extre columns being provided if necessary. Amount of bushels t0 be carried to grain report. Allitems carried in bushels, fractional bushels in pounds, 25749°*—Bull. 36216, (To face page 20,) No.3. 21 ELEVATORS. ACCOUNTS FOR PRIMARY GRAIN r) , az Vat —O0Is'T VA 96 ” &@ ” — | 066°T || "9698 M di SO A or | ‘une |] 2 uo || — | 008‘T || soto “Md sL “SI6T “GI6T “Dib “09g 09 UIDLY “by wnwald || —009‘T || & 0g | 9d || T@ | 9a |} — | 009'T |\"""9896 “Md st || Maytm Yyovag || 7 “Aigaq || 89 VA ““uloa "JAX || — | 0009 || gr 2g | ras 9012 ea SGoh (08 \| 86 ” 1é| 5 = | ORAL Poe eeree3 92968 “¥ “obnanuy, Sie tS | 6r | “9@ || 8 EEXOR IGE ee 67996 -V || “00 mp hasdig || or “unr |) 79 g “ulor "A || — | 0008 || 7 9 | TI6T | “TI6I “9161 “TIGL — | | “qqystem || ‘opeas |}. ‘ Ssiice : ae 5 pesteoes peddrys VUSIOM : cS 9yep : ; : ; . SYLMVULY, e a oe aed aed sweddryg pordde siep 0} plog AAC Avg || “epeiy pubs SOUS, ayed ‘9 ‘ON WOW UleySAg ULeLy ‘MOLezIUesIO [VIN Y, pus sjoyIeyy JO eoyzo “MAIMAVY OL SHTVS HO GHOOUd Se | age | ea |e ara eG re ene) | CR | Ine | on Gees a ees eee 801 a & «|| wosuaywn eT « ||"| 000°% || ee -2@ “09 81 ‘wos | ajduhis : ; “UWIYUDAT ht || TEE | ayn |) > hop oq || sid COLDS WE CLG EMS ETE MEO RC SWS |i 60 "qyN@ |" hong || op wom |)" sid ||--| 000‘T oiane IT ‘edHId || ‘PUL || WIUOT || 04 plog||yexTepY|| “slousng || “oyeq | -orog 0) Id || eof || ‘pUry || WUoP || “Woy yysnog |exrey_ || “sjoysng || eveq “SyIeMe yf : : 2 “pos semngn it “s}UM0008 *g 7 “d. “qysnoq semgniy ‘CON W110, woyskg UIVID ‘WONVZIULSIO [eINY pPUe SJoyLeTY JO coo ‘SHOddH HO G4Ooed fs p ole =) =) Oo = 6c Oo the leaves. 16 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DELPHINIUM MENZIESII D. C. Delphinium menziesii (Pl. II, fig. 2, and Pls. III and XIII) is a perennial, growing from a cluster of small tuberous roots from which the stem is easily detached. The stem is slender, simple, and puberulent. The leaves are deeply cleft into segments which are linear in form. The flowers are deep violet-blue in color, on slender pedicels, and arranged in a loose raceme. There may be as few as four to six flowers, but they are more numerous on thrifty plants growing in favorable locations. Delphinium menztesti grows at altitudes of from 4,000 to 12,000 feet. It is found on open hillsides and in parks, growing in great abundance. The picture of Pass Creek Park (Pl. III) gives an idea of the number of plants found in that locality. When they were in blossom the surface of Pass Creek Park as seen from a neighbor- ing hill presented a uniform blue appearance. In June, 1908, Su- pervisor Kreutzer, of the Gunnison National Forest, with the senior author, picked and counted 1,340 of the plants in blossom on a square rod near Crystal Creek, Gunnison County. Delphinium menziesii is widely distributed, being found from the Rocky Mountains to California and Oregon, and from Alberta to New Mexico. It appears soon after the snow has melted, and at high altitudes the plants may be found growing in immediate prox- imity to snow banks. It grows to a foot in height and the blossoms appear about the middle of May, the time of blossoming varying with the advancement of the season and the altitude. The seeds, which are formed the last of June, are immediately shed and the plant dies down and disappears. After the first week in July the plant is very rare except at the highest altitudes. at which it grows. DELPHINIUM BICOLOR Nutt. Delphinium bicolor is a perennial growing from long fibrous fascicled roots. The stem is glabrous or pubescent, and the leaves deeply cut into linear lobes. The rather stout stem is short, not ex- ceeding 12 or 15 inches in height. The raceme has a few flowers much larger than those of Delphinium menziesti and of a deep violet-blue color. It is one of the most beautiful of the American larkspurs. It grows at a lower altitude than Delphinium menziesti and, so far as observed, never in such dense masses. Its range is given as from Washington and Oregon to South Dakota. It is the common low larkspur in Montana, and like D. menziesii, blossoms about the middle of May and disappears early in July. DETECTION OF LARKSPUR SPECIES IN STOMACH CONTENTS. In connection with these studies cases of poisoning not infre- quently occur in which the cause of death can not be determined Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Fic. 1.—TALL LARKSPUR (DELPHINIUM BARBEY! HUTH) BEFORE FLOWERING. Fic. 2.—TALL LARKSPUR (DELPHINIUM BARBEYI HUTH) IN FULL BLoom, PLATE II. Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. *(°O °C NSAIZNSW WNINIHd13q) YNdSMYv] MO[—'S “DI5} (STAN ‘WV WO.LY11NONO WNINIHd13q) YNdSMYV7] WAV L—' | “DI PLATE Ill Dept. of Agriculture. S Bul. 365, U. "WOSSO1g NI (lISSIZNSW WNINIHd13q) YNdSMYV7] MO HLIM “0109 ‘MYVd MASUD SSVd LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. a from the readily available evidence, and recourse must be had to a study of the contents of the rumen. On account of the maceration of the plants most of the material is unrecognizable on macroscopic examination, the leaves especially being almost disintegrated. Fre- quently, however, stems of grasses and other plants retain their structure sufliciently to show some characteristic features, the fibro- vascular bundles in many cases being more or less intact when the looser tissues have been disintegrated. As the poisoning due to Delphinium barbeyi was being investi- gated, an attempt was made to determine whether the stomachs of the poisoned animals contained this plant, by comparing sections of stems found in the rumen with sections of stems of Delphinium barbeyi. In this way it was found ‘possible to determine whether an animal had eaten larkspur, and this method was successfully applied in a number of cases where portions of stomach contents had been preserved in formalin. This work led to the sectioning of stems of other species of Delphinium in order to discover whether it was possible to differentiate between the species by stem sections, especially since in the region where the station was located two species of larkspur occur. This work is here recorded, not in any sense as a complete study of the stem anatomy of the genus, but as a few interesting facts brought out by a comparison of cross sections of stems of a number of species of Delphinium. In looking up the literature of this genus, no anatomical work was found on the American species. -A number of articles have been published both in Europe and America on the anatomy of the Ranun- culaceze as a whole and of some of the other genera, but those deal- ing with Delphinium in detail are few and are European. In 1885 Albert Meyer published an article onthe systematic anatomy of the Ranunculaces, in which he grouped the genera according to anatomi- cal characters, and also differentiated many of the species, giving a key based on anatomical characters. His work was on the char- acters shown by cross-sections of stems. Paul Marié, 1885, pub- lished an extensive paper on the histological structure of the Ranun- culacee. In this work the detailed anatomy of all parts of the plant is described for a number of species in each genus, and the dis- tinguishing characters of the family and of the different genera are discussed. The only article which is devoted solely to the anat- omy ot Delphinium is that of Lenfant, 1897, on the genus Delphin- jum in a series of contributions to the anatomy of the Ranunculacee. ‘The histological structure of four species (two of which, ajacis and consolida, have been introduced into the United States) is studied for all parts of the plant and for various stages of growth. " 26876°—Bull. 365162 18 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The present work includes the foilowing 29 species of Del- phinium: D. ajacis L., D. andersonii Gray (National Herbarium No. 419245) , D. barbeyi Huth, D. bicolor Nutt., D. blochmanne Greene (National Herbarium No. 2060), D. californicwm T. & G. (Na- tional Herbarium No. 419726), D. cardinale Hook (National Her- barium No. 1928), D. carolinianum Walt. (National Herbarium No. 449717), D. consolida, L., D. cucullatum Aven Nelson, D. decorum F. & M. (National Herbarium No. 1939), D. depauperatum Nutt. (National Herbarium No. 529204), D. geraniifolium Rydb. (Na- tional Herbarium No. 245524), D. geyeri Greene, D. glaucum Wats., D. menziesii D. C. (National Herbarium No. 333235), D. nudicaule T. & G. (National Herbarium No. 612398), D. occidentale Wats. (National Herbarium No. 506615), D. recurvatum Greene, D. robustum Rydb., D. sapellonis CklL, D. scaposwm Greene, D. scopu- lorum Gray (National Herbarium No. 2384530), D. simplex Dougl. (National Herbarium No. 226416), D. tricorne Michx., D. trolliifo- lium Gray, D. variegatum Gray (National Herbarium No. 342458), D. variegatum apiculatum Greene (National Herbarium No. 1887), and D. virescens Nutt. These species were used, partly because they are the species which have been met in the field work on poisonous plants, and partly be- cause they were convenient to obtain for comparison. The specimens of barbeyi and menziesii were from fresh specimens which were fixed and embedded in the field, from specimens preserved in alcohol, and from dried specimens. The sections of sapellonis and cucullatum _ were from dried plants sent in from the field. The remaining speci- mens were from the United States National Herbarium, the Economic Herbarium of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and from the collection of Mr. Ivar Tidestrom. In addition to these species of Delphinium, stem sections were made of two species of Aconitum, for the purpose of comparison, since the two genera are very similar in structure, and since the two occur side by side in the field and both are suspected of poisoning stock. In preparing the dried herbarium material for sectioning it was treated with 2 per cent sodium hydroxid solution for 24 hours, or until the tissues were softened and swollen, then washed thoroughly in water, and put in a 10 per cent glycerin solution, the glycerin being gradually concentrated through a period of several days. The sec- tions were then cut in pith with a hand microtome, and stained with safranin. Perfect sections are not always obtained by using this method, but for the purpose of the identification of stems in field work it is preferable in most cases to embedding. Comparison of the different species was based solely on the char- acters appearing in the cross sections of stems. For each species LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. _ 19 cross sections of the main stem of the plant were made without refer- - ence to any particular point in the stem. In the case of Delphinium barbeyt and D. menziesia and Aconitum bakeri, sections were made from the subterranean portion of the stem, the petiole, and the peduncle. A photomicrograph was made of a portion of a section of a stem of each species, all the photographs being magnified 65 diameters. ‘ The sections of course showed certain characteristics typical of the Ranunculacez, the most noticeable being the form and disposition of the fibrovascular bundles. The bundles are of the closed collateral type and are isolated, being separated by wide médullary rays. The xylem mass has in cross section a somewhat V-shaped appearance, the arms of the V partially inclosing the cambium and phloem. There is no interfascicular cambium. This type of bundle is common to the Ranunculacez, but is found almost nowhere else among the dicot- yledons (Solereder, 1908, p. 18, and Jeliffe, 1899, p. 339). Another feature of the bundle peculiar to the Ranunculaceze among dicotyle- dons is that the phloem consists only of sieve tubes and companion cells, with no phloem parenchyma (Strasburger, 1908, p. 113). These facts in regard to the fibrovascular bundles serve to differen- tiate the Ranunculacee from other dicotyledons, but are also points of resemblance to some of the monocotyledons. Therefore in identi- fying larkspurs in the stomach contents of poisoned cattle it was necessary to differentiate carefully from some of the grasses when only fragments of the stem could be obtained. The genus Delphinium has a characteristic stem structure, as shown by cross sections. Vesque, 1881, page 28, says that it is impossible to distinguish anatomically the genera of the Ranunculacez, but that certain groups of genera can be recognized, and he places Aconitum and Delphinium in one group. Myer, 1885, page 46, in his key, gives means of distinguishing both Delphinium and Aconitum, the latter being differentiated from Delphinium by the presence of a complete ring of sclerenchyma outside the fibrovascular bundles. In cross section the external circumference of a Delphinium stem is either approximately circular or approaching an octagonal shape, and the stem is hollow. It is covered externally by a layer of epi- dermal cells whose outside walls form a thickened cuticle. The epi- dermis usually bears unicellular hairs of varying shape, size, and number, and is pierced by simple stomata. Beneath the epidermis — there is a layer of hypodermal cells similar to those of the epidermis but without thickened walls. Inside the hypodermis there are two to five rows of cortical parenchyma cells, bearing chlorophyll, and arranged loosely with intercellular spaces. In one species it was possible to distinguish an endodermis, but as a rule the endodermis can not be distinguished from the other cells of the pericycle. The 20 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pericycle consists of a ring of sclerenchymatous tissue between the cortex and the phloem portion of the fibrovascular bundles, and is composed of the bast fibers of the bundles and the interfascicular sclerenchyma. The cells of the pericycle have thickened walls, es- pecially in the case of the bast fibers, the cells of which are also smaller than those of the interfascicular sclerenchyma. Inside the pericycle are the phloem and xylem portions of the fibrovascular bundles, the bundles being separated by the medullary rays, which are as wide as the bundles, and the cell-walls of which are some- times thickened so that they are not distinctly marked off from the pericycle. The medullary rays are continuous with the medullary portion of the stem, in which there is a medullary lacuna of varying size. The fibrovascular bundles are of the closed collateral type, ‘ar- ranged in a single circle, just inside the cortex. In this description the bast fibers are considered as part of the fibrovascular bundle. The group of bast fibers seen in cross section varies from a wedge shape to a somewhat circular shape, and is usually not sharply de- fined from the interfascicular portion of the pericycle. It partially incloses the phloem and cambium, while the curved outer border of the xylem partially incloses the cambium on the inner side. The phloem consists of sieve tubes and small companion cells. The cambium is composed of several rows of smal] thin-walled cells, elongated tangentially, lying in a curved line, with the convexity toward the xylem. Between and surrounding the tubes of the xylem proper is a varying amount of xylem parenchyma. Classified according to cross sections of stems, the 29 species of Delphinium examined fall into six groups, as follows: Group 1. Delphinium barbeyi, D. californicum, D. cucullatum, D. geranii- folium, D. glaucum, D. occidentale, D. robustum, D. sapellonis, D. scopulorum, D. troliifolium. Group 2. Delphinium andersonii, D. bicolor, D. decorum, D. depauperatum, D. menziesii, D. nudicaule, D. tricorne. Group 3. Delphinium blochmanne, D. cardinale. Group 4. Delphinium carolinianum, D. recurvatum, D. simplex, D. variegatum, D. variegatum apiculatum. _ Group 5. Delphinium geyeri, D. scaposum, D. virescens. Group: 6. Delphinium ajacis, D. consolida. These six groups may be combined in three main sections. Section I includes only group 1, which comprises all the species which are commonly known as tall or giant larkspurs. Section II includes groups 2, 3, 4, and 5, and in general represents those species known as low larkspurs. Section III consists of group 6, the European consolida group. Delphinium barbeyt has been price as the type of group 1. Figure 1, A, is a diagram of a cross section of a stem D. barbeyi, he =. = ee eee ' LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 21 with only part of the bundles drawn in; B is a diagram of a typical fibrovascular bundle of group 1. In Delphiniwm barbeyi (Pl. IV, AAARAELERALY | | \CoR7EX /TEDULLARY LACUMA | AERICYOELE, WLLDLLLA POL EL LEOTEAM GET TRO GE TER oT CORTICAL - COZ PARENVCYA 44 ——— PEPRICVCLE Fig. 1.—A: Diagram of cross-section of stem of group 1. B. Diagram of fibro- g vascular bundle of group 1. fig. 1) the stem is large, with a large medullary lacuna. The outer circumference is roughly octagonal. The bundles are about 32 in 22 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. number, and rather small in proportion to the diameter of the stem, those at the angles being a little larger than the others. The cross sections of the xylem and the bast are about the same in size, both being somewhat circular in form. The horns of the bast mass and ~ the xylem mass nearly inclose the lens-shaped phloem. There are only a few rows of xylem parenchyma at the inner end of the xylem. The walls of the cells of the pericycle are not v ery greatly thickened. The bast fibers of the bundles lying between the angles of the octagon are separated from the cortex by one or two rows of cells continuous with the interfascicular sclerenchyma. As a type of the second group, Delphinium menziesii has been used (Pl. IV, fig. 2). The stem is much smailer than that of Delphinium barbeyi and has a medullary lacuna much smaller in proportion to the diameter of the stem. The circumference of the stem is practically circular. The bundles are about 24 in num- ber, of two sizes arranged alternately. The fibrovascular bundle exhibits in cross section a form quite distinct from that of group 1. The bundle is longer and narrower, the bast being wedge-shaped with the larger end situated externally. The phloem portion of the bundle is open laterally, the inner boundary of the bast and the outer line of the xylem being only slightly curved. The xylem proper is small in extent, but there is a large amount of xylem parenchyma extending toward the medullary lacuna. Group 38 is represented by Delphinium cardinale (P1. V, fig. 1), and in type of stem structure can not be differentiated from group 2> The group 2 type is here exhibited on a larger scale, with a bast larger in amount, and more sharply differentiated from the inter- fascicular sclerenchyma, and composed of thicker-walled cells, and with a stouter structure all the way through. In group 4, typified by Delphinium recurvatum (Pl. VI, fig. 1), we have a stem structure which may be considered as intermediate between the true low larkspur type of group 2, and the taller forms represented in group 5. The general form of fibrovascular bundle corresponds to that of group 2, but the stem is more compact in structure, the bundles longer and arranged more closely, and the alternate large and small bundle arrangement less prominent. For the fifth group, Delphinium geyert was used as the type (PI. V, fig. 2, and fig. 3, A and B). The medullary lacuna of the stem is very small and the external circumference approaches the octago- nal. The bundles are about 30 in number, those at the angles being slightly larger than the others. The cells of all the tissues of the stem are relatively small and numerous. The fibrovascular bundle is similar in the form of cross section to that of group 2, but is larger and much elongated, the bast in particular being very ex- tensive. The bast is oblong to wedge-shaped, and composed of very LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 28 small, heavy-walled cells. The xylem proper is small in amount, generally curved at the cuter boundary more than is the case in . Sa) \ ZN SG H so SOX Se SS \| ie ICORTEX \ | VAERYC VOLE MEDULLARY LACUNA '\AEDULLA SoS rs 77 POODLE AYA: - CORTICAL Ws CORTEX SAAPRLNONASAT PEFRICVCLE MEDULLA AVLLSS PARLIVO) IA IA4- ——-—— B Fig. 2.—A. Diagram of cross-section of stem of group 2. B. Diagram of ° fibro-vascular bundle of group 2. group 2. The xylem parenchyma extends some distance inward from the xylem. 94 BULLETIN 365, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Group 6 is represented by Delphinium ajacis (Pl. VI, fig. 2, and fig. 4, d and B). The stem is circular and has a relatively small medullary lacuna. The bundles are about 46 in number and are of two sizes, the large and small arranged alternately. This is the only group in which it was possible to distinguish a row of endodermal cells. All the cell walls are much thickened, which is a distinguish- ing characteristic of this group. The shape of the fibrovascular bundles is quite characteristic. The bast is wedge-shaped, composed of cells whose walls are so thickened that the lumen is reduced almost to a point. The phloem is small and completely inclosed by the bast and xylem. ‘The xylem mass is larger than the bast, elongated, and includes a large amount of xylem parenchyma. Delphinium consolida is similar to D. ajacis, but the bundles are less numerous, the cell walls in the pericycle are thickened still further, and part of the cells of the cortical parenchyma have thick- ened walls. , Any of the species which were examined could be quite easily placed in one of the above groups, but within the groups the work thus far done has not revealed sufficiently characteristic differences in stem structure to make identification of species possible. Vesque, 1881, page 29, says that while it 1s impossible to distinguish genera by anatomical characters, it is easy to distinguish species, but he uses different characters to differentiate the species, such as the struc- ture of the petiole, the development of palisade cells, and the dis- tribution of stomata in the leaf. On the other hand, the present work is based on stem characters, which serve to differentiate be- tween genera in the family Ranunculacee, and in this case between groups of species in the genus, but not between individual species. An exception to this is group 6, of which we have only two species in America, and these two can be distinguished by the anatomy of the stem. These two are European species which have been intro- duced into the United States, and are described anatomically by Lenfant (1897, pp. 26-27, Pl. VII) and Marié (1885, pp. 117-118, Pl. VI). The specimens of ajacis and consolida from the Na- tional Herbarium which were examined had evidently been mis- named, one for the other, as was discovered by comparing cross sec- tions of the stems with the descriptions and figures of Marié and Lenfant. Sections were also made of two species of Aconitum, A. bakert Greene (PI. VI, fig. 3; and fig. 5, A and #) and an unidentified species from California, in order to compare them with and to differentiate them from the tall larkspurs. The cross section of the stem shows a structure similar to that of the tall larkspurs, but it can be easily distinguished by the lack of a medullary lacuna, and by the complete Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fic. 1.—Cross SECTION OF STEM OF DELPHINIUM BARBEYI. Fic. 2.—Cross SECTION OF STEM OF DELPHINIUM MENZIESII. Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Gee t= Fic. 2.—Cross SECTION OF STEM OF DELPHINIUM GEYERI. Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. : PLATE VI. PRROCR eae as dem ction a Be OI Tor se e pe ec te Fic. 3.—Cross SECTION OF STEM OF ACONITUM BAKERI. Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. Fic. 1.—STATION AT MOUNT CARBON, COLO. $ i : x :) Fic. 2.—STATION AT GREYCLIFF, MONT. LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 25 ring of sclerenchyma outside the bast fibers. As is shown in the dia- gram (fig. 5), the circumference of the stem is circular, with the ZG iB GGE4 KS pe, PA S5 \ SSS ar a \ SPIEDULL AT CORTEX Il | PIEDULLARY LACUNA LLERICKOLE LYVOLIY 9 = AYP ODL) CORTEX CORTICAL FARELEN STIS ZA FYILOL/7. ~~ — == CAMEINT ~~~ -—— NYLL/G-—--— XYLLSF RUN FPARLNCH YAY -—-—— MEDULLA - a Wie. 3.—A. Diagram of cross-section of stem of group 5. 8B. Dia- gram of fibro-vascular bundle of group 5. : exception that at two points the cortex is thickened. The bundles are of about the same size, and about 30 in number arranged in a single 26 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. circle. The pericycle is similar to that of Delphinium, but is dis- e several layers of thick-walled Pn a eta [ i | | CORTEX MEDULLARY LACLIVA ! \ EFYCVOLE: ; MEDULLA SS IE OLEP DL AEA a Fa CORIEDS CORTICAL PARENVCHIYTIA FEFICKCLE POET Te ae CA/IEIU/4 -— —— —— DOLL T rl SIEDULLA Fic. 4.—A. Diagram of cross-section of stem of group 6. B. Diagram of fibro-vascular bundle of group 6 cells continuous with the interfascicular sclerenchyma, separating the bast from the cortex. The cross section of the fibrovascular LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. Oi bundle is similar in size and shape to that of the Delphinium group 1. The bast is smaller and crescent-shaped, while the xylem is long and FL thee BGG NUEVA 4 4F 4 3 ] 4 ASO A | “CORTEX MIEOULL A LOERICYOLE LYYDER HIYP ODL CORTEX CORTICAL FPIPLIVOST ILA. PEFYICVOLE 4YLOL/A=— — — — CNYIGILI9A =~ ---— XYLLII -- — IIEDULLA Fig. 5.—A. Diagram of cross-section of stem of Aconitum. B. Diagram of fibro-vascular bundle of Aconitum. pointed. The outer border of the xylem is only slightly curved and does not inclose the phloem. 28 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. As a result of the study of the stem structure of 30 species of Delphinium and 2 species of Aconitum it has been found possible, by an examination of cross sections of the stems, to distinguish be- tween Delphinium and Accnitum and between six groups of species in the genus Delphinium. This has been put to practical use in the examination of the contents of the rumen of poisoned cattle, by which means it has been possible to determine whether the animal had eaten Delphinium, and to which group of species the plant eaten belonged. PART II.—EXPERIMENTAL WORK. THE STATION AT MOUNT CARBON, COLO. The station for the detailed study of larkspur poisoning was located four miles north of Mount Carbon village, in Gunnison County, Colo. (Pl. VII, fig.1). Through cooperation with the Forest Service, a ranger’s station, including a cabin, barn, corrals, and pastures, was provided for the experimental work. This station was in the Ohio Creek Valley at an elevation of about 9,000 feet, in a region where Delphinium barbeyi and Delphinium menziesii were extremely abundant. In this region, also, losses which are attributed to larkspur occur every year to a greater or less extent, and in some years the losses have been very heavy. This station was selected, too, because it was a favorable location from which studies could be made upon a number of other plants supposed to be poisonous. It was in- tended, however, that the principal experimental work should be upon these two species of larkspur. The station was equipped with the necessary laboratory facilities, and arrangements were made for cattle and horses for experimental purposes, the work being in- augurated on June 10, 1909, and continuing through that summer until October 1. In 1910 and 1911 it was resumed about the middle of May, and continued until nearly the 1st of October. Durmg these seasons experimental work was conducted upon cattle, horses, and sheep. Acknowledgment shoeuld be made to the Forest Service not only for the assistance rendered by equipping the station, but for the continual help of the officers of the Service during the progress of the experimental work. It is desired also to acknowledge the assistance rendered by the stockmen who had cattle upon the Castle Creek and Anthracite ranges. Through the courtesy of these men a large number of cattle were loaned for the experimental work, and thus much material assistance was rendered.. While the experimental work was going on the force kept in close touch with the men con- trolling the cattle upon the ranges, and one or more members of the station force accompanied the stockmen during the time the cattle were driven from the Castle Creek range to the Anthracite range, x + x LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. . 29 in order to be present at the times when larkspur poisoning was deemed most likely to occur. The location of the station was most favorable, not only because of the abundance of larkspurs in the _ immediate vicinity, but because it was located in the immediate neighborhood of the summer ranges of the cattle, so that a most intimate knowledge of range conditions could be gained. THE STATION AT GREYCLIFF, MONT. In 1912 and 1913 the field experimental work in poisonous plants was carried on at Greycliff, Mont. (Pl. VII, fig. 2). An old sheep- shearing plant was loaned for the purpose by the owner, Ole Birke- land, and the necessary repairs were provided by the Forest Service, including fitting up the house for use as office, laboratory, and dining hall, necessary repairs to the barn, and construction of fences and corrals. While experimental work was to be undertaken on a number of poisonous plants, this location was considered especially favorable for the study of the effects of feeding Delphiniwm cucullatum and Delphinium bicolor. The main industry in this region is sheep grazing, and it was considered an especially favorable point to study the effect of the Montana species of larkspur on sheep. Here, as in © Colorado, the stockmen of the neighborhood showed most helpful interest in the work and assisted materially by loaning sheep and cattle for experimental work. EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM BARBEYi TO CATTLE IN 1909. In 1909, 42 experiments were conducted of feeding Delphiniwm barbeyi to cattle on 26 different animals. Table I gives a sum- marized statement of these feeding experiments. The work was not commenced until the last of June and definite results were not ob- tained until the last of July. Of these 42 cases 22 were poisoned. As the season progressed it was evident that larger quantities of the plants were necessary to produce toxic effects than had been supposed at the beginning of the experiments, and this fact doubt- less explains the failure to produce poisoning in the earlier experi- ments. The summarized results in regard to symptoms and treat- ment are given later in this paper. Following are a few typical cases given in some detail. CaAsE 92. This case was interesting as being the first one in which there were definite symptoms of poisoning. Case 92 was a cow weighing about 990 pounds which had been used for experimental purposes with Delphinium menziesii without any effect. On June 30 she ate 30 pounds of leaves and stems of Delphinium barbeyi. On the BULLETIN 365, U. S. 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. morning of July 1 it was noticed that she staggered as she walked, her hind legs appearing stiff. She gave evidence also of some ab- dominal pain. This peculiar stiffness in gait continued through the day of July 1 and was still noticeable on the morning of July 2. No other pronounced symptoms of poisoning were noticed. CaAsE 605. Case 605 was a yearling heifer loaned for experimental purposes by Mr. J. H. Eilebrecht. She was estimated to weigh about 450 pounds. ‘During July 30 and 31 she received 35 pounds of Delphinéum bar- beyi, the material including stems, leaves, and some flowers and seeds. This material was chopped up and mixed with chopped hay in order that the animal might eat it more readily. She was fed at 5 p- m. on July 31 and was apparently entirely normal. At 5.30 it was noticed that she appeared somewhat weak upon her hind legs when forced to walk about the corral. She soon fell, her fore legs giving away first, and she was unable to get up. She moaned as though in pain. Several times she tried to get up but apparently did not have sufficient strength. Her pulse at this time was 60, her tempera- ture 102.2° F. There was no evidence of bloating. At 6 p. m. respiration was 70 and rather irregular. The pulse was slower than when observed before. At 6.11 she suddenly got upon her feet and walked away. She was weak and staggered but otherwise seemed all right. No further symptoms were noticed during that evening. : It was noticed that during this illress she urinated rather freely. She appeared well on the morning of August 1 and the feeding was resumed, giving her as before stems and leaves of Delphinium barbeyi with some flowers and seed, the material being cut up and fed with hay. During the forenoon she ate 12 pounds of this material. At 1.15 p. m. while walking about in the corral she suddenly fell and was unable to rise. The pulse was 68, respira- tion 68 and somewhat irregular. She was constipated and moaned as though in pain. At 1.25 her temperature was 102.3. At 1.30 she suddenly got upon her feet, ran around the corral, and fell down again. At 1.45 her pulse was 60 and respiration 45. At 1.50 she got upon her feet. She stumbled as she attempted to rise, but did not go down again. When started up she stumbled and fell upon her knees, but was able again to get upon her feet. As she stood, the abdominal muscles contracted as if she were in great pain and there was also spasmodic twitching of the muscles of the shoulders. ) ; She remained on her feet after this time and as she appeared normal the feeding was resumed at 3 p.m. She ate 94 pounds. At Bul. 365, U.S, Dept. of Agriculture. p Pirate VIII. Fia. 1.—CAsE 603 AT 4.45 P. M., Fic. 2.—CAsE 603 AT 4.54 P. M., AuGusT 21, 1909. AueusT 21, 1909. Fia. 3.—CASE 603 AT 4.54% P. M., Fia. 4.—CASE 603 AT 4.5414 P. M., AuGusT 21, 1909. AueusT 21, 1909. Fic. 5.—CASE 603 AT 4.5434 Pp. M., Fic. 6.—CaseE 603 aT 4.58 P. M., AuGusT 21, 1909. August 21, 1909. Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. Fic. 1.—CASeE 603 AT 4.5814 P. M., FIG. 2.—CASE 603 AT 4.59 P. M,, AuGuUSsT 21, 1909. AuGusT 21, 1909. Fig. 3.—CASE 603 AT 5.15 P. M., Fic. 4.—CaseE 603 AT 5.15% P. M., AuausT 21, 1909. AueusTt 21, 1909. Fia. 5.—CASE 603 AT 5.1534 P. M., . Fia. 6.—CASE 603 AT 5.16 P. M., August 21, 1909. AuausT 21, 1909. Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. Fic. 1.—Case 117 SHOWING HIND LEGs Fic. 2.—CAseE 117, AuGust 15, STAG- BRACED APART IN THE EFFORT TO GERING. REMAIN STANDING. Fia. 3.—CAseE 117, AUGUST 15, REMAINING Fic. 4.—Case 117, AuGust 15, IN THE ON ITS FEET WITH GREAT DIFFICULTY. _ ACT OF BACKING IN THE MANNER CHAR- ACTERISTIC OF LARKSPUR POISONING. Fig. 5.—Case 117, Auaust 15, Just Fic. 6.—Case 117, AuGusT 15, FALLING BEFORE FALLING. IN THE MANNER TYPICAL OF LARKSPUR POISONING. Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLate XI. Fia. 1.—Case 117, Auaust 15, Just Fia. 2.—CaAse 117, Auaust 15, 9.10 A. M., AFTER AN ATTEMPT TO RISE. ATTEMPTING TO RISE. Fig. 3.—CaAse 117, AuausT 15, 9.35 A. M., Fia. 4.—Case 117, AuGust 15, 10 A. M., AGAIN ATTEMPTING TO RISE. UNABLE TO MOVE. Fia. 5.—CAse 117, AuGusT 15, 12.05 Pp. M. Fic. 6.—CASE 117, August 17, AFTER RECOVERING FROM POISONING. LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 33 6.50 p. m. she was found down again and unable to rise. She was moaning as if in pain. At 7.20 her pulse was 65, and at 10.45 it was 60 and somewhat stronger. She remained down during the night unable to rise, but at 6.45 a. m., on the following morning, she got upon her feet, moved about and although she fell, was able to rise again. A little later, however, she stumbled and fell and could not rise, but at 8.15 a. m. she was again upon her feet and eating as though hungry. At 10.15 a. m. she appeared quite well, with the ex- ception of some weakness, and was ghee back into ihe pasture with the other animals. During the first of this series of illnesses she was given a drench of potassium permanganate, the treatment being repeated in the evening. There seemed to be no reason, however, to think that this had any definite effect. She was also given hypodermically an in- jection of 25 grains of caffein sodio-benzoate at 10.45 in the evening. There was no evidence that this produced any effect. This case was particularly interesting because of the successive illnesses produced by renewed feeding of the Delphinium barbeyt. CASE 603. Case 603 was a yearling heifer, weighing about 550 pounds, which was loaned to the station for experimental purposes by Mr. O. E. Wiseman. From August 2 to August 4 she received 34 pounds of Delphinium barbeyi, including stems, leaves, flowers,and buds. This was mixed with hay and corn chop in order that it might be eaten with greater readiness. No effects were noticed until the afternoon of August 4. She was apparently well at 4.30. At 6.50 she was found lying flat on her side and at first was supposed to be dead. She was breathing, however, and soon kicked a little. A dose of 1 grain of atropin was administered subcutaneously. She was raised up so that she lay upon her belly with her head off the ground. In this position she held her head around by her side as if in pain. At 6.55 respiration was 24 and the pulse between 75 and 80 and weak. At this time she was given a drench of potassium permanganate. At 7.03 respiration was 23 and temperature 101.2° F. At 7.15 a hypo- dermic injection of 30 grains of caffein sodio-benzoate was given. At 7.30 the temperature was 101.3° F. At 7.45 she attempted to get upon her feet but was unable. At 8.20 respiration was 22, pulse about 90 and not very strong. At 9.10 she was upon her feet and from this time showed no further symptoms of poisoning. She was brought into the corrals for further feeding on August 18. Between August 19 and August 22 she ate 95.75 pounds of Del- phinium barbeyi, the material including stems and leaves. At 4.35 ‘on August 22 she was found lying with her head turned to the right of the body. She got up, staggered about and fell, but lay with head 26876°—Bull. 8365—16 3 34 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. erect. At 4.54 she began to walk about uneasily, staggering, and finally fell, going down upon her forefeet first, with her head ex- tended upon the ground. Plate VIII, figure 1, shows her attitude while lying down at 4.45, and figures 2, 3, 4, and 5 show successive attitudes taken by the animal during the minute from 4.54 to 4.55; figure 2 shows her with arched back and lowered head, in the attitude she took while stag- gering about the corral; figure 3, taken immediately after, shows very nearly the same attitude; while figure 4 shows her after coming down upon her fore legs, with head extended upon the ground in an attitude which is very characteristic of animals poisoned by larkspur; figure 6 shows her again upon her feet at 4.58. At 4.58 she commenced to stagger, and was upon the ground at 5 o'clock. Plate VIII, figure 6, and Plate IX, figures 1 and 2, show her successive attitudes in this process. She arose again at 5:14, but fell almost immediately. Plate IX, figures 3, 4, 5, and 6, show her attitudes at this time, and it will be noticed that they are com- parable with the two preceding series. These four pictures were taken within less than a minute: At 5.26 she was again upon her feet, but at 5.30 commenced to stagger, backing around the corral in a way that was found to be characteristic of larkspur- poisoning cases. She attempted to defecate, moving her head up and down as if in great distress, and then fell down again. She was upon her feet again at 5.44, but at 5.53 fell. Her respiration at this time was 30. At 6 o’clock she was again upon her feet, but moved her head up and down, stepping about uneasily, backing as before. She staggered somewhat, reminding one very much of the actions of a drunken man. At 6.04 she lay down, but at 6.07 got up with. no apparent difficulty and began picking up hay in the corrals. At 6.15 she showed uneasiness, moving her head up and down. Then she lay down again. During this latter time she went down yolun- tarily and was evidently improving, for during the earlier stages of the poisoning she was entirely unable to get upon her feet after falling. At 7.15 she seemed normal, and no further symptoms of poisoning were noticed. During this case of poisoning there was an interval of two hours from the time the animal first fell until the time when she was able to remain standing. Case 117. Case 117 was a steer weighing about 620 pounds. On August 13 he was fed stems, leaves, and flowers, and a few seed pods of Delphinium barbeyi, receiving 32.25 pounds. On the morning of August 14, at 8.30, it was noticed that he was acting in a somewhat abnormal manner. When walking he kept | i a —_— LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 35 upon his feet with difficulty, his legs being too weak to hold him up. Some of the time when standing he would tremble, and at times he would place his legs wide apart as if to keep from falling over. This was particularly noticeable as he walked down hill. Some- times in walking he would stagger to one side or the other. It was noticed that he urinated quite frequently but the quantity was not great. At 10.30 he seemed to be stronger upon his legs and no marked change was noticed during the rest of the day. Several times he was found lying down but was able to get up without much difficulty. As showing his weakness it was noticed that when he swung his head around to brush off flies the movement would cause a loss of balance so that he would stagger and almost fall. Plate X, figures 1, 2, 3, and 4, show some of the attitudes assumed by him during the day. When first seen on the morning of August 15, between 6 and 7 o’clock, his condition did not seem to be changed from that noticed on the preceding day. He was upon his feet and moving about a little. At 8.15 he seemed much weaker. He was down and made no effort to get up. Even with assistance, he was unable to raise the fore part of the body. Plate X, figures 5 and 6, show his attitude at this time; in figure 5 he was trying to hold himself upon his feet while in figure 6 he was falling again. At 8.25 he was given a drench of potassium permanganate. His heart action was very weak at this time and it was with great difficulty that his pulse could be detected. Respiration seemed normal, al- though his breathing apparently caused pain. At 8.30 he was given subcutaneously 1-grain of atropin dissolved in camphor water. A. little after this he tried to get up but was unable. He could not get his forequarters off the ground, but did succeed in moving himself around. Plate XI, figure 1, shows him just as he had fallen back_after an attempt to get upon his feet. During the rest of the day he made several attempts to get up but was generally unable to raise his hindquarters from the ground. It was evident that he was in constant pain and this forced him to attempt to change his position. At 9.55 a. m. his pulse was about 95, his respiration 36. The pupils were very much dilated from this time on, probably from the influence of the atropin. There were .spas- modic contractions of the abdominal muscles. Plate XI, figure 2, shows the animal attempting to get up at 9.10; figure 3 shows him at 9.35 when he was attempting without success to get up. The abdominal pain was apparently very severe. At 10.80 he was given subcutaneously 25 grains of caffein sodio- benzoate. At 10.40 his temperature was 102.4° F. Plate XI, figure 4, shows his attitude at 10 a. m. and figure 5 shows him at 12.05, noon. At 2.45 he seemed weaker than at any preceding time and the pulse was hardly perceptible. He was given 1 grain of atropin in cam- 6 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Qo phor water. At 3.25 the pulse was fairly strong. At 4.25 he very nearly succeeded in getting upon his feet. The muscles of the shoul- ders and flanks were trembling much of the time. As he was much constipated, feces being discharged only once dur- ing the day, he was given at 6 p. m. 12 ounces of Epsom salt as a drench. At 9.10 p. m. he appeared very much brighter than at any time during the day. Trembling was not so pronounced and the pain was less. He breathed normally, held his head from the ground and took notice of what was passing around him. He was not seen again until the morning of August 16. At 6.45 a. m. on August 16 he got up, ate a little hay and drank water. During the forenoon of August 16 he lay down most of the time but occasionally got up and walked from place to place. The improvement continued during the afternoon and night. He still staggered when walking and re- mained upon his feet only a few minutes, but could get up and down at will. On the morning of August 17 there was still some trembling of the surface muscles of the shoulders. Plate XI, figure 6, was taken at 7.25 a. m. on August 17 when he appeared fairly normal. He was driven back into the pasture still showing weakness, trembling, and staggering when hurried, but after this his recovery was rapid and complete. EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM BARBEYI TO CATTLE IN 1910. The experimental feeding of Delphinium barbeyi in 1909 had indicated somewhat clearly the symptoms of poisoning and the dosage so that the work of 1910 was largely directed to experiments with various remedies. The discussion of these remedies is taken up later in this paper. Tabie II gives a summary of the experimental feeding of Delphinium barbeyi to cattle during this second summer. Forty-three feeding experiments were conducted on 24 different animals. Following is a detailed description of some of the more typical cases. CASE 612. Case 612 was a yearling heifer loaned for experimental purposes and weighing about 500 pounds. From July 2 to July 5 she received 76.5 pounds of Delphinium barbeyi, including leaves, stems, and flowers. At 4.15 p. m. on July 5, as the animal had apparently felt no effect from the feeding, an attempt was made to run her about the corral. After being run about a few times she began to tremble, her legs giving out, and she fell and was unable to rise. Respiration was 60 and irregular and the pulse 160 and weak. At 4.20 she fell over upon her side, the surface muscles contracting spasmodically. At 4.24 the pulse was 100 and rather weak. At 4.27 she was given ae LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. ot subcutaneously one-half grain of atropin. At 4.29 the pulse was be- tween 95 and 100, respiration 46 and slower and deeper than when noticed before. At 4.38 respiration was 60 and irregular. At 4.40. the pulse was 75 to 80. At 4.51 respiration was 40 and the pulse 94. At 5.01 she suddenly got up without any apparent effort and walked the length of the corral. She stood for a moment, trembling vio- lently, then fell, going over upon her left side. At 5.30 an attempt was made to get her upon her feet, when she began to vomit. She was held up for about ten minutes, until it was evident that there was no regurgitated material in the lungs or trachea. At 5.55 she at- tempted to get upon her feet, but was unable. At 6.10 she was given a hypodermic injection of one-fourth grain atropin, and at 6.30 she was given hypodermically 10 cubic centimeters of undiluted whisky. At 6.45 she lay with head extended, eyes partly closed, lips apart, muscles of the flanks twitching, with rapid breathing, and was ap- parently about to die. At 6.55 she was given a second dose of 10 cubic centimeters of undiluted whisky. At 7.10 her head was raised and she was able to keep it erect. At this time she attempted to get up and made another attempt at 7.12. At 7.22 she got up, went the length of the corral and walked about nervously. There was still some twitching of the muscles of the body. From this time on she seemed to improve in condition, and showed no other symptoms of poisoning. There seemed to be no doubt that in this case the injec- tion of whisky had bridged over a period of weakness which other- wise might have ended fatally. CasE 118. Case 118 was a yearling steer born August 9, 1909, whose estimated weight was 300 pounds. He received July 7, 18.25 pounds of Del- phintum barbeyi including stems, leaves, and blossoms. This was given in three feedings, one at 9.15 a. m., one at 9.40 a. m., and one at 2.40 p.m. At 3.55 he was found down and unable to get up, apparently from weakness. At 4 p. m. the pulse was 70 and rather weak, respiration 72. At 4.09 respiration was 100 and pulse 75. Saliva was running from his mouth. At 4.28 the pulse was 60. At 5.01 there were a few spasmodic contractions of the legs, but nothing that could be considered as convulsions. During these spasmodic contractions he went over on his left side and remained there. Res- piration was 54. During this time he had made several unsuccessful attempts to rise. There was some belching of gas from the stomach. Two subcutaneous injections of atropin were given, the quantity given being one-half grain in all. The respiration became more and moré shallow and soon stopped entirely. An attempt was made to stimulate it by inhalation of ammonia, but it was unsuccessful. BULLETIN 365, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 38 “Od *MOT}RIS IVE N Tg 16 *SSUq TOTO | 8 ‘08% “of od “Oc, ‘od “od od od od “od od od od od od Od od od “Oo "UOT}CIS LEON, “poureygo sea poy guvyd yor WOW DOTZVoIO'T LOT “VU stOM GATT JO spunod. 000‘T 04 poy qyunoury SieALes ei" OP eee ria | en eee ee he sr oterenice seep os" 5°" SOINUTULOP p22 +27. SUle}S pees pus Poos| j= 2) 7: TOD aus nO e, 000: —S-. 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fifty cubic centimeters of alcohol was given subcutaneously about the time respiration stopped, but this was evidently too late. The pulse could be felt for about three minutes after respiration had stopped. - An autopsy was made on the morning of July 8. The heart was found to be in diastole with petechiz upon its walls. The mucous membranes of the larynx and trachea were inflamed and the lungs congested. The walls of the first stomach were congested near the esophageal opening. The walls of the second and third stomach were strongly congested at the cardiac end. The duodenum was congested, the jejunum slightly congested. The ileum was slightly congested throughout its length. There was congestion in the upper part of the cecum. The walls of the rectum near the anus were extruded and inflamed. The kidneys were congested. It was noticeable in this animal that while there was mucus in the trachea and bronchi there had been no actual vomiting. CASE 610. Case 610 was a yearling heifer weighing about 500 pounds which was loaned by the Castle Creek stockmen. She was fed leaves, stems, and flowers of Delphinium barbeyi on July 13, being fed at 9, 9.30, and 10 a. m., eating altogether 20 pounds. At 11.40 she became uneasy and soon went down, and by the time the observer could obtain assistance from the laboratory she was found on her left side, flat upon the ground. She was immediately given a subcutaneous injection of physos- tigmin salicylate three-fourths grain, pilocarpin hydrochlorid 14 grains, and strychnin sulphate one-half grain. At 11.45 respira- tion was 80 and pulse 64. A picture was taken at 11.49, which shows her lying flat upon the ground (PI. XII, fig. 1). At this time there was some trembling and some salivation and she was kicking about as though in pain. At 11.45 the pulse was 76, respiration 60 and shallow. At 12.11 the pulse was 75. At 12 o’clock a small amount of feces was passed and more at 12.12. There was a further passage at 12.35. From 12 until about 12.30 considerable gas was expelled from the stomach. At 12.30 she was able to raise herself upon her belly. At 12.35 the pulse was 72. It was noticed that there was considerable secretion during this time from the lachrymal glands. By 1.40 considerable gas had accumulated in the rumen, and as she did not seem to be able to relieve herself by expelling it per os, the trocar was thrust into the rumen. This relieved the pressure and the breathing became easier. The animal lay at this time with her head around to her side in the position shown in Plate XII, figure 2. From 12.30 on it was noticed thdt she perspired quite freely. This was probably due to the effect of the remedy pilocarpin. At 2 Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII. Fig. 1.—CaAseé 610 AT 11.49 A.M., JULY 13. FiG.2.—CAseE 610aT 11.4914 A. M., JULY 13. Fia. 3.—CASE 612 AT 1.18 P. M., AUGUST 7. Fic. 4.—CASE 612 AT 1.30 P. M., AUGUST 7. Fia. 5.—CASE 612 AT 1.37 P. M., AUGUST 7. ‘FIG. 6.—CASE 612 AT 1.47 P. M., AUGUST 7. Bul. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII. Fia. 1.—CASE 82 AT 3.20 P. M. Fic. 2.—CASE 82 AT 3.24 P. M. Fia. 3.—CASE 82 AT 3.27 P.M. Fic. 4.—CASE 82 AT 3.56 P. M. Fic. 5.—CASE 82 AT 3.56 P. M., AFTER . Fic. 6.—CaseE 82 AT 3.59 P. M. FALLING. LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. Al o’clock her respiration was 85, deeper and much more regular than before the gas was allowed to escape from the stomach. At 4.06 the pulse was 80 and apparently weaker, respiration 44. At 4.15 as she seemed to be growing weaker she was given a hypodermic in- jection of 20 cubic centimeters:of whisky. At 4.20 respiration was 40. At 4.25 the pulse was 100 and stronger. While, during the afternoon she had seemed stupid, paying very little attention even to the flies which were around her in great numbers, at 4.52 she became sufficiently lively to attempt to get rid of the flies. There was still some twitching of the muscles of the flanks. At 5.48 the pulse was 86 and respiration 28. At 6.40 respiration was 24. She continued down until 8.03 when she was able to get upon her feet. At 8.06 she arched her back with her hind feet apart and trembled all over. She fell down, going over on her side. The pulse was 90 and weak, the respiration seemed normal. At 8.33 she was able to get up again. She had urinated very little and apparently there had been very little urination for a considerable time before her illness. She was also very much constipated. During the night of July 18 considerable urine was passed and some feces. On the morn- ing of July 14 she was still weak and was kept in the corrals until July 15, when she was turned out as recovered. CASE 612. Case 612 was brought in for further experimental work on August 1. During August 6 and the forenoon of August 7 she received 25.5 pounds of seeds and seed stems of Delphinium barbeyi. At 1.05 p.m. August 7 she was found lying down, but when approached walked away apparently in good condition. At 1.07 her back was arched, she began to tremble, backing around the corral in an uneasy manner, and soon fell, going down upon the forelegs and lying upon the belly. At 1.10 when disturbed there was some muscular twitching of the shoulders. She remained upon her feet until 1.18, when she began to tremble and went down. She lay upon her right side flat upon the ground. Plate XII, figure 3, shows her position at this time. She was rolled over and placed with head erect. At 1.23 her pulse was 80 and weak, respiration 92, and fairly regular. At 1.26 she was given hypodermically physostigmin salicylate, 1 grain; pilocarpin hydrochlorid, 2 grains; and strychnin sulphate, one-half grain. | Plate XII, figure 4, shows her position at 1.30. She had made several unsuccessful attempts to get upon her feet, but at 1.387 was able, to get up. Plate XII, figure 5, shows her in the act of rising. She walked across the corral but at.1.38 stumbled and fell again, going over upon her side. At 1.23 respiration was 143. She was 492 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. expelling some gas from the stomach. At 1.42 the pulse was 120. At 1.46 the pulse was 104. At 1.47 she raised herself without much effort. Plate XII, figure 6, shows her at this time. At 1.52 she was trembling, her back was arched, and she was stepping about uneasily. There was considerable salivation, and there was and had been for some time dribbling of urine. At 1.55 the trembling was very much decreased. She walked with a stiff gait and at 2.04 seemed to be over the attack. No further symptoms were noted. EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM BARBEYI TO CATTLE IN 191i. Because Delphinium menziesii disappears about the first of July, the station work in the early part of the seasons of 1909 and 1910 was very largely concentrated on this plant, and most of the work on Delphinium barbeyi was done after the plant was in blossom. As the season in 1911 was about two weeks later than in 1910, Delphinium barbeyi in the middle of July in 1911 was in about the same stage of development as at the first of July in 1910. In addition to confirming the work of the preceding seasons on symptoms and remedies, especial attention was paid to the poisonous effects of the plant in its early stages. Two experiments were made of feeding the dried plant, as it was desirable to determine whether the plant lost its poisonous properties by drying. Twenty-six feeding experiments were conducted on 22 different animals, and the greater poisonous effect of feeding the larkspur within a short period of time was much more clearly brought out than in the preceding seasons. The experimental work with remedies made it possible to deter- mine quite definitely the quantities of physostigmin, pilocarpin, and strychnin which could be used to the best advantage. Table III shows the results of the feeding in a summarized form and they are discussed later in the paper. None of the cases are given in detail, since the feeding experiments were conducted in the same manner as in the preceding years and the general results were the same. EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM MENZIESII TO CATTLE IN 1909. During the season of 1909, nine experiments were made of feed- ing Delphinium menziesii, the experiments commencing on June 24 and continuing until July 25. Part of the material used was col- lected around the station, and was.to a large extent mature, the plant being in flower and in some cases containing seeds; the re- mainder was obtained at Kebler Pass, and consisted of small plants before flowering. The whole plants, including roots, stems, and flowers, were fed to some animals, while in other cases only the tops were fed, and in still others the roots ground up with grain. , -LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 43 It is commonly believed by stockmen that the root of this plant is the most poisonous, and it is generally supposed that the plant pro- duces more cases of poisoning after a rain, because at that time the ground is soft and the animals can pull up the plant by the roots and thus get the part in which the poison is supposed to be con- centrated. Table IV gives a summary of these experimental feedings. Experiments were made by feeding the roots alone, the animals used being Nos. 92 and 117. Number 92 in two days ate a quantity equivalent to 2.04 pounds per 1,000 pounds of weight, while No. 117 in one day ate 2.1 pounds per 1,000 pounds. The greatest quantity fed at any time was to No. 115, which between July 10 and July 12 received 100.7 pounds of tops, seeds, and flowers per 1,000 pounds of weight. The greatest quantity of the whole plant that was fed, in- cluding not only tops but roots, was given to No. 97, which re- ceived on July 25 21.2 pounds per 1,000 pounds of weight. No. 91 received 5 pounds on July 2 and 3, and again on July 16 received 21.2 pounds. In none of the cases of feeding Delphinium menziesii was there any evidence of toxic effect, although the plant was fed at different stages, part of it before flowering, part after flowering, and even after seed had commenced to form, and attempts were made to find out whether one part of the plant was more poisonous than another. If it were particularly poisonous it seemed that the feeding in a single day of 21.2 pounds per 1,000 pounds of weight would have produced some effect. It is true, however, that animals upon the range, when hungry, will sometimes eat enormous quantities of a given plant and it seemed necessary to conduct further experiments in order to demonstrate conclusively whether this plant can poison or not. So far as the experiments of 1909 only were concerned, it appeared probable that the plant was not poisonous, or if poisonous at all would do harm only under exceptional circumstances. EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM MENZIESII TO CATTLE IN 1910. In 1910, 14 feeding experiments of Delphiniwm menziesii to cattle were carried on with 11 different animals. Of these experinients 9 produced illness and 3 death. The result of these experiments showed that the failure to produce poisoning in 1909 was not due to a lack of toxicity in the plant but to feeding it in too small quantities. Doubtless similar results would have been produced in 1909 had the experiments been continued for a longer time. 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LET) Bec) Nel COS) Wena |e ea ie ee a eae pre ceeraonn cl oun Sead SOS ODS BOW OOOOe SjOo1 pus ‘SiaMop ‘sureys ‘Seager |7- 777-777 gz Ayne | 9:01 (SOG top ees 16 “yIvg Jaq “GoM pue sseg Je[qexy Fa Peeeeeoeey| [a Fanta aoe ROE eee ie enn al ea ee eer aS RO RRD NE IONOF “sjoor pue ‘sreMog ‘sue}s ‘seAvorq: |" "77777 ot Aqne | 81 0862 sale 16 STC ROG GOAN ET Pili acca |e Se EIS ce | ee a ciel a poes pur ‘sureys ‘seavey |--2--- ">> ar Ayne 6 QIK eee SIL ASSOTTcAS TC On ted | sO se | sa een yee see ala ieee [crea cite ae $1001 pue ‘pees ‘steMop ‘stueys ‘soavey |-~* ~~ Zi-01 Ame | 719 (Dy 5S SIL bi BAeya OGL ONS (=) Wag ek ort ca ares fai eet ire cee pen eee tet ree) Pr erie Ot CCE AIA ORR COR ogoce pees pus ‘siamo ‘sute}s ‘seavey |7 777-777" ODS ae 6/61 (UK) 2 fees GIT . ‘od epee oes | ig era eee al en cea et a fee Mea Repent UC SS Oe (sjuvyd sunod) sjoor pure ‘suteys ‘Seavey | --" "7 -* e-¢ Aqnc |g O8Gig 50a oe 16 (G5 ae (eee eo eet Neen ei ler Pee ere ee Ihren ee omnes ete Te COT co POS ooge se (0) ORGS Reese S T Aine | € 1 O60 se =| Ree 111 PE Gre Soe ertetpee sea = ac es eee eee lapeibess eS Atego memes = eee nee ar oP SOR OOO RRO spyooy | ~~" 42-9g OuUNL | FS 066 ee aS "66 PIES ere EG) (0 Kes Fae eh a ees ae RR ee A ee See SE ORO CSR O le Ena Ce (syue[d sumo) sjoor pure ‘sumeys ‘seave'yT |-----"" "gz ounL | FF O19 aaa Soy aca | pee oe Init act ee eel (eae a eae Re Skee 9202 COnQne “""SIeMopy pus ‘sume4s ‘Seavey |-"-""-gz—fg oune | F°ez Ole = ee | eae GIL “Spunod ; “spunog “SpUunod “VUSTIOM a *pourey [eure jo ; x *pey JUV ‘[eullue |. -qoO sem poy guerd spunod “qIMsery ‘ pee Eye ed ae “pay quel jo qivVg “SUIpodj JO EVV jo jo a “ON OEY Woy woryea0rT | 000'T 0} Dey poe ee Wir ects auane qgumoury | 44510 AA yunoury “G06L ‘Vsaizuau wnaiuydjag ypar a1j409 Uodn sqyueunsadxa Bwupasf fo hinunng— Ay aIavy, “yysIom AIC z “qnoqy 1 “UMOp 10U ‘og Aine : 0d PG Se NERO) Oita IS ety (eee rot pitied et OO ee EP LOS Tite CLL SU OG) | eset tee aan se OD states UO poxdeT[09 “FZ -“SNW | GITz GU amen eieeeds FE9 “uruyoAIys : “og Ayne “sSBq 1eTqexyt | 9°GZ ~--AdeAooexy | pue ‘urdreosojtd = ‘urerstysosAyq |-~~*""smmoy Fey |* “slomoy pues ‘sureys ‘saave'T | U0 pexoeT[oo ‘oT “Sny | GIT z OSF FESO Ee) ‘0d Gis O Gi sated | (ae Bing em Sura ee Ie a ROS, mes ine | a AR re CT nt | ei ha a sap O Duciiritietn| | eget ies tata OD sates ¥8 OS 9S a een SP “pees 2 Ua) MIS NPA oe Odes =o Be OOD EI |e OR SO FOO CRI IG Aig ieee ath OP OS9| CGR O0 apes pues ‘slemog ‘stmeys ‘seavey |77- 777777 SI-I1 “sny 631 CLP PALO Ya) “UAMOp 100 “sseq Jetqoyy | $°29T BOC) F(0) ohana ac eke De CEE OR OAR Or PEGE, ‘peyedysu0p |--s1oMog pus ‘sumeys ‘soAveyT |-- 77777777 “"6-8 “SNYy 19 00F “7"""OF9 ‘uruyosays *poes c “U0T}BIS IBON | €°k6 ~-"AJoAooay | pue ‘urdieoojid ‘urustysosAyq |°*°--""samoy f9 | pue ‘siemog ‘sumejs ‘soAve'yT J--7 77777 gS GP OSF aan S 2) « BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 46 ‘0d rat *yoog sseg “SSVI IO[qOXT “MIVA 10q -QOM PUB Yoorg ssvg “od *YOOIO sseg “YOoIg sseq pue ‘ory 4S jo Yjtou “WOrTeYS IeON od “od “od “od “od “MOT}BIS IVE N “pourey -qo sea poy qued YOryM WOi, WOreo0'T £6 1°96 GLE ST G°18 669 FOT GEOLy: €°88 T°LOT POT sé G*LOT T Lg ‘SDUNOT “qVUSIOM *[CuUILUe Jo spunod 000‘T 09 poy yunoury piace ias A19A.0003 eae “yO wt rteseerope sss: “opto Ses res AIOA0D0Y “WTNSOY ay Series eit ice ies tag Sit ODiae a ese eee eT BOG “urUYoAIS pur ‘urdavooprd = ‘urursysosAyg |"soynuru cp pue smoyz sig ee cee ee Sanitaria rie rant coal [oe UMOP JOU Ynq “Yor Saar orcas Gopi Do aat here | Cedar ea SOV OUTIL, ates eT aes OD. ayes | tae hen ahs aR OR TLOUEZ, ‘uruyoAs pus ‘urdrvoond = ‘urusrsoskyg |-77 777777 77° SO|NUTUL OZ ‘Joyoo|e pues ‘uruyoAI4s ‘ardavoond ‘urmsrmsosAyg |-77 7777 Ssmoy 8T weiss Rah awceweeee es oes See | Gace crere eee sestgpttte- “uruyo £148 pus ‘upoyeo‘priopyo untied |--"-7 77777 qyeod “uIUyoAS pus ‘urdieoontd = ‘urursrmsosAyg |7->** soynurur OF jNoqy_ TSS Ueieieciec SOAS SIS SSIs Sister | Sine seis ees COTM TIO Hh: *posn Apouleyy AA, QTqe [MUN Yyors ew4ry, *poes pue ‘sIoMoy ‘SUIO}S ‘SeAvOTT [77777777 e-g Ang *poos pue ‘sures ‘soavey |-7777" 0&-62 CUNL “poos pur ‘SOMO ‘SUIO}S ‘SOABOTT [7777777777 OD sass *SIOMOT pues ‘suiejs ‘soavory |*"---""""gz ounr ipceminrie Waren: Op" "*" "|" " *"" "26-98 eunL eter re gees Op’ ~* "|" >" ""%s-06 oun *poes pus ‘sTaMop ‘sue}s ‘Seavey |" ~""""gT-ZT ounr *SIOMOT pues ‘stre}s ‘soavey |°-""-"$1-TT oung *poos pue ‘sTomoy ‘sumeys ‘soavery |-*>-** “6-1 ounr Pete oe ODP ees Barnes SP -eoun "SIO MOTT pues ‘suieys ‘soavory |" “Tounr—0e Avy DEST gate OE ODEs iia cess aR ZENCINL ee suejs pue soavoryT |- ~~~" -2z-c% ACT ‘sjoor =| pue ‘sures ‘soavery |--7 77" 9z-Ge AVIV “poy queyd jo qaeg “SUIPOD] JO OVVC “OL6T ‘usorzuew wnvurydpeg yn 27409 uodn sjuamrdiadxa burpaaf fo himnmung— A aTaVy, “pey quid jo yunoury 00g “-" = -HI9 OGr? te |eeaae 119 O00 ane 609 00g “=== =609 Ws pee 609 Wily es |Reoe eI ose SORT ODOSTe4 [=o sna zs 006i =o |e oes LIT 009° * ass 801 ie [= ctrg 009 "79" JOT 000; 3 s| eee 101 009 See a0T *SpunogT tee “yeurTe quae, | 7° ON LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 47 A few of the typical cases will be noticed in detail, as follows: CASE 117. Case 117 was fed on flowering tops of Delphinium menziesii from June 7 to June 9, receiving, all told, 79.5 pounds, or about one- eleventh of its weight. At 9.25 p. m. June 9, when disturbed, he attempted to walk and fell- down, recovering himself with little effort. Other than this there were at this time no symptoms of poisoning. He was observed up to 10.30 p. m. and at that time seemed to be fairly well. On the morning of June 10 he was found dead. He lay upon the left side with his head lower than the rest of the body. Some of the contents of the stomach had flowed from the mouth and nostrils. The heart was in diastole, both sides being filled with blood. The pericardial fluid was slightly bloody and abundant. The external walls of*the ventricles showed petechiz. The lungs were congested. The fluids of the pleural and peritoneal cavities were also slightly bloody. The trachea contained some of the contents of the rumen. The inner wall of the trachea was con- gested and this condition extended into the bronchi. The inner wall of the first stomach was inflamed beneath the mucous membrane, the inflammation being especially deep at the cardiac end of the stomach. The same condition of the wall beneath the mucous mem- brane was found in the second stomach at the cardiac end. The inner wall of the fourth stomach was also inflamed at the cardiac end. The duodenum was not inflamed near the stomach but there were deep spots of inflammation near the entrance of the bile duct. More or less congestion was found throughout the ileum, this being so deep in some spots as to show through from the outside of the intestine. The left kidney was congested. The brain was congested, probably due in part to the fact that the head was lower than the body. The immediate cause of death was asphyxiation, resulting, partly at least, from the introduction of the contents of the stomach into the trachea, although it seems probable that this was accom- panied by respiratory paralysis. ; CASE 82. Case 82 was an old cow weighing about 1,000 pounds. From June 11 to June 14 she ate 116.5 pounds of Delphinium menziesii in flower. It was noticed on the morning of June 14 that she was much constipated. She showed no other symptoms of poisoning un- til 3.20 p. m. of that day, when she was found down. She was able, however, to get upon her feet, but went down again immediately. At 3.26 she was given hypodermically physostigmin salicylate, 14 grains; pilocarpin hydrochlorid, 3 grains; and strychnin sul- 48 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fate, 1 grain. At 3.28 the respiration was 22. Figures 1, 2, and 3 of Plate XIII show her attitudes at various times between 3.20 and 3.28. She got upon her feet again at 3.28. At 3.30 she trem- bled, arched her back, and fell, rising again at 3.33. At 3.35 she fell, but was upon her feet again at 3.36. Respiration at 3.43 was . 42. There was considerable salivation at this time. At 3.56 she began stepping about uneasily with her head down, and, trembling violently, she staggered and fell. Plate XIII, figure 4, shows | her attitude just before she fell, while figure 5 shows her position after she was down, and figure 6 shows her attitude as she was attempting to get up at 3.59. At 4 o’clock her pulse was 112 and rather weak. At 4.01 the pulse was 94. At 4.25 she defecated, probably as the result of the dose of physostigmin salicylate. At this time she showed considerable intestinal discomfort. She con- tinued lying down, but apparently feeling quite comfortable from evening until night. At 5.45 a. m., June 15, she was found in the ditch in the corral with water flowing about her. She was thor- oughly chilled and constantly trembling, and there seemed to be little probability that she would live. Apparently she must have risen upon her feet during the night, fallen into the ditch, and was unable to get out. The water was turned off and she was given alco- hol in hot water as a drench. Half an hour later she was given a drench of whisky. Soon after this she attempted to get up, and at about 9 o’clock was on her feet. After getting up she urinated copiously. It seemed probable in this case that defecation produced by the physostigmin resulted in relief from the immediate symptoms of larkspur poisoning, and that the alcohol bridged over a period of weakness, due in part to the chill and in part to the effect of the larkspur poisoning. Without the dose of alcohol she would in all probability have died. Case 113 Case 113 was a steer weighing about 900 pounds. Between June 20 and June 22 he received 56 pounds of Delphiniwm menziesii tops, which included flowers and seeds, the full amount being about one- sixteenth of his weight. At 9.30 p. m. June 22 he was found lying in the corral in a normal manner, but when disturbed he was unable to rise. At 9.35 he attempted to get up, fell over on his side, and was unable to raise himself again. He was given, hypodermically, physo- stigmin salicylate, 14 grains; pilocarpin hydrochlorid, 3 grains; and strychnin sulphate, 1 grain. The pulse at this time was 72 and rather weak. Respiration was 16 and fairly deep. While down he was making violent attempts to rise, kicking and lifting his head rather high and then falling back. This action seemed to be more pronounced after the remedy was given, and it was a question LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 49 whether it was not partly caused by the peristaltic action resulting from physostigmin salicylate. At 10 p. m. the pulse seemed slightly stronger. He was evidently in pain, as he groaned a great deal of the time. At 11.20 it was found that he had moved himself quite a little distance in the corral and passed a small amount of hard feces. At 11.30 he got upon his feet and walked about the corral. His gait, however, was stiff, the stiffness being particularly notice- able in the hind legs. At 11.44 he passed a considerable amount of feces and acted as though he wished to eat. As he appeared to be very much better at this time, he was left for the night, and was found in good condition at 7 a.m. June 23. He was turned into the pasture at 8.30. In the afternoon of this day he was found in a clump of aspens in the pasture and was driven out. He went about 100 yards in a slow trot, going down a side hill, and fell. This was at 3.55. At 4.05 he began to vomit. His pulse was about 85 and weak. At 4.12 respiration had ceased. The pulse was perceptible for about three minutes, stopping at 4.15. The animal was slightly bloated at first and began bloating rapidly when down. A consider- able amount of material from the rumen had been vomited. At the autopsy the heart was found in diastole. The outer walls were slightly inflamed. Both ventricles were dilated and full of blood. The veins under the skin were congested. The nares, larynx, and trachea were full of the material vomited from the stomach, and this material had also extended into the bronchi. The walls of the fourth stomach were greatly inflamed, and the walls of the duodenum, jeju- num, ileum, and rectum were slightly inflamed. A microscopic ex- amination was made of the contents of the stomach, and it was found that Delphinium barbeyi was present. It seems probable that the animal, after recovering from the poisoning by Delphinium menziesii had commenced to eat the Delphinium barbeyi, which was fairly abundant in the pasture, and that his death was cavecd by this dose of the tall larkspur. CasE 609. Case 609 was a yearling heifer weighing about 500 pounds, loaned to the station for experimental purposes. Feeding was commenced at 7.05 a. m. on June 26, the material being tops of Delphinium menziesii, which at this time was mature and included seeds. On June 26 and 27 she ate 43.75 pounds. The material on June 27 contained flowers as well as seed. Distinct symptoms of poisoning were observed early on the morning of June 28. Before that it had been thought that she was somewhat uneasy, but the symptoms were not positive. At 4.55 a. m. she got up and walked a few steps, trem- bled, and fell, but at 5 she got upon her feet and after this time was able to stand. She was down only about five minutes. During the -26876°—Bull. 365—16—_4 . 50 -—SO: BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. day she ate about 74 pounds of Delphinium menziesii. At 4 p. m. she appeared uneasy. There was occasional forcible expiration and much constipation. After a time her uneasiness seemed to subside and she began to ruminate and appeared hungry. At 5 p. m. she was run around the corral, with no result. Feeding was renewed at 5.15 p. m., and during the evening she received 18.75 pounds of Delphinium menziesii, including the seeds. At 9.30 p. m. she was found with her back arched, but appeared fairly well. At 10.15 p- m. she stood with her tail between her legs and her head rather low. The impression was that the poison was taking effect. She started to run about the corral, stumbled and partly fell, but recov- ered herself, then fell and could not rise. The observer went to the laboratory to get a remedy and on returning found her upon her feet, and she remained upon her feet even after running around the corral. She was left again at about 11.40. During all the time she was watched she was uneasy. She occasionally would expel gas rather violently, and once she moaned. She was evidently very un- -comfortable, but not very sick. At 12.10 midnight she was on her feet, but moved around the corral slowly. She began to back un- easily with her head low, and feil and, although making violent efforts to rise, was unable to do so. At 12.15 she was given subcu- taneously physostigmin salicylate, 1 grain; pilocarpin hydro- chlorid, 2 grains; and strychnin sulphate, 1 grain. She was in great pain, breathed noisily, and occasionally expelled gas from her stomach. She would stretch her legs out rigidly and kick violently, moaning all the time. At 12.40 she passed a little hard feces. At ° 12.45 her respiration was 40 and continued at about that rate. She perspired copiously and acted like an animal in a violent attack of colic. At 1.25 she raised her head, making efforts to rise, but fell back, striking her head violently upon the ground. This was re- peated at 1.30. From this time she seemed to be somewhat easier, although the change was rather gradual. She lay upon her side, breathing noisily. Her legs much of the time were stiff, but the movements were not so convulsive and apparently her pain was less. During the most violent spasms of pain she was given a little am- monia inhaled from saturated cotton. At about 2 a. m. after several violent efforts she succeeded in getting upon her feet, staggered across the corral, but did not fall. She was watched at intervals during the rest of the night and was upon her feet all the time. She was given a little hay and corn meal in the morning and hay at noon. On the following day she appeared to be entirely recovered. EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM ROBUSTUM TO CATTLE. The species of larkspur which has been identified as Delphiniwm rvobustum and which is quite different from Delphinium barbeyi and Delphinwm menziesii of the Mount Carbon station is abundant in Sitti B LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 51 parts of the Cochetopa and Uncompahgre National Forests. It is more nearly related to the Delphinium barbeyi than to Delphiniwm menziesii, and should be classed as one of the tall larkspurs. The entire feeding experiment with this plant was carried on at the ranch of A. J. Hack, of Parlins, Colo. Two animals, Nos. 629 and 630, were used for feeding. The feeding began at 7.15 a. m. on August 22. 1910. No. 630. ate very little of the larkspur and was not affected by it. No. 629, weigh- ing about 500 pounds, ate on August 22 about 20 pounds, which in- cluded leaves, stems, flowers, and seeds. No effect was produced, and at 6 a. m. on August 23 she seemed to be all right with the exception of constipation, but at 10.35 she was found down on her side and unable to rise. She struggled when approached, but was unable to raise herself even upon her belly. At 10.40 respiration was 32 and somewhat irregular. There was some trembling of the muscles of the sides and some salivation. At 10:45 the pulse was 80 and weak. At 11.10 respiration’ was 50, very irregular and shallow. At 11.34 she arose without any marked difficulty, but at 11.37, after being run about, she went down again, trembling before she fell. With assist- ance she got upon her feet and started to run, but fell again. She was up again at 11.42 and during the rest of the day seemed to be all right. In the evening she was given more of the Delphiniwm robustum, it being estimated that she ate about 8 pounds. On the morning of August 24 she was found down and unable to rise. A little later she arose with some difficulty, but fell, getting upon her feet again at 6.35, when she immediately fell and was unable to rise. At 6.40 she got up and walked away. She started to run and fell, but immediately got upon her feet, only to fall again, trembling as she fell. At 6.45 she got upon her feet and walked about in a normal manner. She was seen frequently during the forenoon and seemed to be all right, with the exception of some constipation. — Tt will be noticed that the symptoms as recorded are exactly com- parable with those found in the cases of poisoning by Delphinium barbeyi and Delphinium menétiesiz. EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM CUCULLATUM TO CATTLE. During the summer of 1912, at the Greycliff station, Delphinium cucullatum was fed experimentally to six head of cattle with resulting symptoms of poisoning in four, none of the cases resulting fatally. One was only slightly sick and received no remedy. The second was treated with arecoline with no apparent good results, but recovered after treatment with magnesium sulphate, a glycerin enema, and a hypodermic injection of whisky. The others were treated in the rou- tine way worked out at Mount Carbon with physostigmin and pilo- carpin and recovered. The symptoms were strictly comparable with those produced by the other species of Delphinium and it does not 52 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. seem necessary to give the history of the cases in detail. In the dis- cussion later in this paper the minor points of difference will be brought out. Table VI gives the summary of these feeding experiments. TABLE VI.—Summary of feeding experiments upon catile with Delphinium cucullatum. . Amount No.of | Weight of é F of plant Date of feeding. Part of plant fed. animal. animal. ba. Pounds. Pounds. 1912. GHZ ees 8 550-4 1225) |) June 28-29. ese sees Leaves and stems. Che Pea 700 18:5.) June 80-July does cee. ee Do. G54 see 600+ 21 TUL Yi 23Le: crews a ee Leaves, stems, and flowers. G52 ese 500-+ 2425) | August:8-9: 2032285 tp se Leaves, stems, flowers, and seeds. 6582 .2e eee 700+ 2.'5:| Aligustog0sslissceiieei- sees se Leaves, stems, and seed. (atop Mee 550+ L725) Septem ber: 3i2t 25 sac eee eee Do. Amount fed to 1,000 Location from No. of | Time sick until able which plant animal tostand. Remedy used. Result. pounds of Poel Waa animal obtained weight. : : Pounds. GBT) Rea Slightlysick:notdowm|-ousiess saceuncececoseneees Recovery ... 22.7 | Cabin corral. Gd3 ees . indicates plant collected at Kebler Pass about 1,000 feet higher than the station; those marked LZ received leaves and stems; those marked S received seeds and the pods and stems bearing them; all the others received the whole top of the plant. The short horizontal line indicates duration of feeding. The weights of plant are given per thousand pounds of animal. 92 pounds; the Delphinium barbeyi cases of 1910 averaged 100.4 pounds, while the Delphinium menziesii feeding of 1910 averaged LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. ; 69 95.8 pounds. The cases of 1911, all being of Delphinium barbeyi poisoning, averaged 63.3 pounds. It was the impression among the observers at the station during the first two seasons that about one-tenth the weight of the animal was the toxic dose, and it is certainly rather TONE: remarkable that the averages come so close to that quan- tity. A careful study of the cases of the three seasons, how- ever, shows not only that in the average case this is an over- estimate, but that there are two factors Fic. 8.—Chart of feeding Delphinium barbeyi to cattle which profoundly experimentally poisoned in 1911, showing the dates, : A quantities fed, and duration of feeding. @ indicates modify the quantity plants collected near station; X indicates plants col- necessary to produce lected at Kebler Pass about 1,000 feet higher than the i 5 ° 5 « Station; those marked -L received leaves; the others poisoning in indi- were fed the whole top of the plant. vidual cases. One factor, the seasonal variation in the toxicity of the plants, is dis- cussed under a special heading on page 75. The second factor is the length of time during which the plant was fed. This is indicated in charts 11 to 14, and it will be noted that in general the size of the toxic dose increases Pea — with the time during which the animal is 2. [a ° ° eee fed. This is shown HEHE in a striking way in the animals poisoned by. Delphinium bar- * beyt in 1909. After tabulating the num- ber of days of feed- ing and the quanti- ties fed, and making Fie. 9.—Chart of feeding of Delphinium menziesii to cattle experimentally poisoned in 1910, showing dates, quanti- CUE ies of the €ase> ties fed, and duration of feeding. The short “horizontal 1t was found that of line indicates duration of feeding. The weights of plant the animals p oisoned are given per thousand pounds of animal. by 1 day’s feeding, the average siquienitity was 53.2 pounds; of those poisoned by 2 days’ feeding, 82.1 pounds; of 3 days’ feeding, 133.7 pounds, and of 4 days’ feeding, 160.1 pounds. The averages for the other two years show the same thing but not so clearly, as the seasonal variation in s Ny N S S : 70 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, toxicity plays a more important part in those years. The average toxic dose for 1 day’s feeding in 1910 was 54.9 pounds, and in 1911 it was 69.5 pounds. It thus appears that, in the general average of cases, cattle weighing 1,000 pounds will be poisoned if they eat as much as 60 pounds in one day. This quantity varies, how- ever, within wide limits, in one case being as low as 30 pounds, and at the other extreme as [Ce a ce 93.3 ds. eS e pT PEEP | Ue eee A tabulation of ' Fie, aoe coe’ of feeding of Deanne Bar Rey tte cattle the quantities eaten experimentally poisoned in 1909 based on weekly aver- ages. The weights of plant are given per thousand the first day by ani- pounds of animal. : . mals poisoned in 2, 3, or 4 days shows that few exceeded the toxic limit; of 15 cases in 1909, No. 115 ate 37 pounds, No. 98 ate 58.16 pounds, and No. 112 ate 56.5 pounds. Of 15 cases in 1910, No. 612 ate 43 pounds, No. 610 ate 386 pounds, and No. 121 ate 388 pounds, while in 1911, of 6 cases, No. 639 ate 62.2 pounds and No. 647 ate 46 pounds. It will be noticed that only one of these exceeded the average quantity which poisons in 1 day’s feeding, but that all exceeded the minimum. EEEEEEEE EEE hile some of the ove a Wie. 11.—Chart of feeding of Delphinium barbeyi to cat- differences in the tle experimentally poisoned in 1910 based on weekly toxic dose can be ex- averages. The weights of plant are given per thou- ; sand pounds of animal. plained by seasonal differences in the plants and the duration of feeding, many remained unexplained. These differences, under apparently the same condi- tions, are shown in cases 637, 646, 639, 647, and 640 of 1911. All these animals were fed between July 25 and July 31, with the following POUNOS OF PLANT POUNDS OF PLANT _LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. el: results: No. 637 was poisoned in 1 day by 51 pounds per 1,000 pounds of weight; No. 646, by 40 pounds; No. 640, by 90 pounds; No. 639 was poisoned in 2 days by 91.1 pounds; and No. 647, by 81.1 pounds. These differences are made more striking when we find that No. 639 ate 62.2 pounds the first day, and No. 647 ate 46 pounds. All these animals were of approximately the same age, treated in the same way with larkspur gathered from the same place, and all were fed within 6 days. The difference may be due in part to the condition of the animals when receiving the plant, for it is reasonable to assume that the rapidity of absorption may be affected by the condition of the alimentary canal and its contents. The condition of the excreting glands, too, may profoundly modify the toxic effect of the plants. Other minor factors doubtless come into play, which may be grouped together under the menerabeterin) the: (8) =. ONE ee UL ee Oe varying susceptibil- ity of theindividual.” In this connection it may be noted that apparently rumina- tion did not neces- sarily precede intoxi- cation. While com- plete notes were not | kept on this subject, K & . Ny S g S g 3 a : Fig. 12.—Chart of feeding Delphinium barbeyi to cattle it was definitely experimentally poisoned in 1911, based on weekly aver- known that some of ages. The weights of plant are given per thousand B pounds of animal. the animals which were poisoned in a short time did not ruminate at all. The minimum - toxic dose, then, is about 30 pounds, and the average of the three seasons about 84 pounds, with a maximum of 280 pounds. This maximum, of course, would run to infinity late in the season. In the practical handling of cattle it is dangerous for an animal to eat more than 3 per cent of its weight in one day, although it may eat two or three times as much before showing signs of intoxication. The figures, as given above, in regard to the toxic dose apply to Delphinium barbeyi and Delphinium menziesii, and it is interesting also to note that the quantity necessary to produce poisoning in the case of Delphinium menziesii does not differ materially from the quantity in the case of Delphiniwm barbeyi. In the single expéri- ment with Delphinium robustum 40 pounds per 1,000 pounds of weight of the animal produced poisonous effects. Inasmuch as this feeding was rather late in the season, this single experiment. would indicate that Delphiniwm robustum might be rather more poisonous than the two species experimented sau at. Mount Carbon. It is WZ BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. not safe, however, to draw any definite inference in regard to this. The toxic dose in the experiments with Delphiniwm cucullatum varied from 22.7 pounds to 49 pounds. This apparently indicates a greater toxicity for this species than for the Colorado larkspurs. The experiments were few in number, however, and all taken during the time of probable maximum toxicity of the plant, and it seems likely that a wider experience would show greater BU any to the standard of the Colorado plants. It is somewhat surprising to notice how great a quantity of lark- spur must be eaten in most cases before poisonous effects are pro- duced, and this fact may perhaps be the explanation of the cases which are frequently recorded of the passing of succeeding herds of animals over the same poisonous area, some being poisoned and others going without any harm whatever. It seems very probable that the animals showing the symptoms of poisoning may have come to these areas when particularly hungry and that individuals on this account may have eaten large quantities of the poisonous weed. It is well known that a ruminant when very hungry will eat enor- mous amounts of material which attracts it. It is also well known that under these conditions animals are more apt to take the plants which are most prominent, and if the larkspurs were more con- epicuous than other forage plants it is very probable that the animal under such conditions would eat an unusual quantity and conse- quently suffer. The practical inference from this is that in handling cattle care should be taken not to drive them over a supposed poison- ous area when they are particularly hungry. On this account it would doubtless be better to make the drive over such an area in the afternoon rather than in the morning. It will be noted, too, that the quantity which may be poisonous varies within very wide limits, and that an animal may suffer from eating not more than 25 or 30 pounds. Perhaps special emphasis should be placed upon the fact that the toxic dose is quite large. The larkspurs are not violently poisonous plants and may be eaten in quite large quantities with no bad results. Because a region contains some larkspurs it is not necessarily a dangerous locality for grazing. The region is dan- gerous only when the plants are present in considerable numbers or when there is.a lack of other forage so that the cattle eat the lark- spur in large quantities. Delphinium menziesii in some localities is so scattered that it can donoharm. This is true of areas in southern Utah. While Delphinium bicolor, the low larkspur which is charac- teristic of the region about the experiment station at Greycliff, un- doubtedly has the same poisonous properties as the other larkspurs, it does not grow in that region in sufficient abundance to cause any harm. It occurs in scattered groups of a few plants and it would . be impossible for cattle to get enough in grazing to produce intoxica- LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 73 tion. In fact, from what is known of the distribution of Delphinium bicolor it seems probable to the authors that this species is of no economic importance in causing losses of stock. It certainly does not poison sheep and it is highly improbable that it ever grows in sufficient abundance to be dangerous to cattle. POST-MORTEM FEATURES OF LARKSPUR POISONING. During the season of 1909 three autopsies were made upon the station experimental animals and three upon others that were sup- posed to have died of larkspur poisoning. In 1910 nine autopsies were made on animals that died at the station, and in 1911 three. Generally speaking, as has been noted elsewhere, if animals found dead upon the range are lying upon uneven ground, the head will be found lower than the rest of the body. This was true also of the animals that died in the corrals, and is probably explained by the fact that as the animals throw themselves about they get their heads lower and are unable to turn themselves back. Generally, too, the animal dying upon the range is found very much bloated. It is very difficult to determine the post-mortem condition of range animals, as it is seldom possible to make autopsies immediately after death, and as the number of animals autopsied at the station was small the facts observed can not be supposed to demonstrate conclusively the detailed conditions of larkspur poisoning. In nearly all cases the heart was found in diastole and filled with blood. Commonly, the walls of the heart were more or less congested and frequently with petechis. The peripheral veins and venous system of the abdomen were found congested. In stripping the skin from the animal it was usual to find the veins immediately beneath the skin very much swollen. The lungs were congested, and the kidneys acutely congested. There was generally a hyper- emic condition of the central nervous system, as would be expected from the general condition of the circulatory organs. Commonly the inner walls of the trachea and sometimes of the bronchi were very deeply congested. Inflammation was almost invariably present in the rumen near the esophageal opening. In some cases the walls of the second and third stomach were inflamed and in practically _all cases the pyloric end of the fourth stomach. This inflammation extended in greater or less degree through the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. In three cases the colon was inflamed. In five cases the wall of the cecum was inflamed, and in most cases the walls of the rectum. To summarize we noticeable points brought out by the post- mortem examinations of these animals, there was marked inflam- mation in all parts of the alimentary canal, marked congestion of "4 BULLETIN 365,-U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the kidneys, and distinct congestion of the walls of the heart, asso- ciated with a general congestion of the peripheral circulation. TOXICITY OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE PLANT. In the course of the experiments careful notes were made with regard to the part of the plant fed to the animals. Some animals were fed leaves and stems; others leaves, stems, and flowers; others the tops with the seed; and, in the case of Delphinium menziesii and Delphiniwm andersonii, some were fed the roots alone. - There is a widespread belief among the stockmen of Colorado that the roots of Delphinium menziesii are much more poisonous than other parts of the plant. It is said that cattle are much more likely to be poisoned after a rain, when they can pull up the plants by the roots and devour a large quantity of the latter. In the summer of 1909 special attention was paid to the feeding of roots to the cattle. Two animals—Nos. 92 and 117—were fed roots alone of Delphinium menziesii. No. 92, in 2 days, ate an equivalent of 2.47 pounds per 1,000 pounds of weight, and No. 117, in 1 day, ate 2.1 pounds of roots without any symptoms of poisoning. These quantities, to be sure, were not very large; but it is highly improb- _ able that an animal upon the range would ever be able to consume as much. The stem of Delphinium menziesii is quite brittle and, while it is entirely possible to pull up the roots by the stems while _ the soil is moist, the larger part of them, as was proved by experi- ment, will break, and it is improbable that cattle in their grazing will get any considerable number of roots. These experiments would seem to prove that the roots of Delphinium menziesii are not violently toxic. The roots of Delphinium barbeyi are long and tough and are never pulled up by stock, so that for grazing they need not be considered. The feeding experiments with Delphiniwm men- ziesti throughout the season of 1910 were of the whole plant, and there was no reason to think that the roots were especially toxic. In the experimental feeding of the roots of Delphinium andersonii, given in detail on page 58, only sheep were used, so no results were reached as to the comparative toxicity of different parts of the plant, as there is no evidence that sheep are poisoned by any part of the plant. The experiment was significant as indicating that in ail probability sheep are not injured by the roots of this plant. The charts (figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10) for the feeding of both Del- phinium barbeyi and Delphinium menziesii show quite clearly the greater toxicity of the seeds. It will be noticed from the charts that in the feeding of plants at the time when seeds were present a smaller quantity was necessary in order to produce symptoms of poisoning. In this connection, the case of heifer No. 633 is especially interesting. This animal was found dead in the pasture September 2,. 1911. a - ili a a i St LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 75 Although Delphinium barbeyi was common in the pasture, no trouble had been experienced from this source, probably because there was an abundance of good feed. Moreover, none of the experimentally fed animals had been poisoned since August 8, on account of the diminished toxicity of the plants. The autopsy showed that No. 633 had died of asphyxia, as it had vomited, and the stomach contents were found in the larynx and trachea. As the animal had been dead for two or three days, the autopsy was unsatisfactory, but, so far as it could be made, showed conditions typical of larkspur poisoning. A careful examination of the contents of the rumen demonstrated the presence of a large amount of stems and seeds of Delphiniwm barbeyt. This, then, was clearly a case of larkspur poisoning. in which the seeds were the most important factor, for it was too late in the season for the leaves to produce poisoning. AGE OF PLANTS AS AFFECTING TOXICITY. From a careful examination of the charts for the feeding of Delphinium barbeyi and Delphinium menzies certain facts are brought out quite clearly in regard to seasonal changes in toxicity. If an average curve were made for the charts of Delphiniwm barbeyi feeding in 1909, 1910, and 1911 (figs. 6, 7, 8, 10, and 11), it would be found that the quantity necessary to produce poisoning increases pro- gressively from the first of the season until the time when seeds are formed in the plants.. Taking into account the length of time during which the plant was given in individual cases, the appar- ently aberrant cases of very large quantities in these years are easily explained, as, in those cases, by reason of the prolonged feeding, there was more or less elimination of the poison. Tt is a striking fact that the smallest quantity needed to produce poisoning was in the earliest cases. It seems quite clear that Del- phinium barbeyt progressively loses toxicity after blossoming until the time when the seeds are formed. At this time the leaves and stems are not particularly toxic and if the seeds were disregarded, the curve would indicate diminished toxicity from early in the season until the middle or last of August, at which time on the Colo- rado ranges the plant becomes perfectly harmless. As a matter of fact, stock on the range do not eat the seeds of Delphinium barbeyi to any extent, so that the fact that the seeds are especially toxic has little practical bearing so far as the stockmen are concerned. It may be stated as a general fact that after the middle or latter part of August, depending upon the season, Delphiniwm barbeyi ceases to be poisonous, and under ordinary range conditions in Colorado few cases of poisoning occur after the middle of July. Not only does it cease to be injurious, but it has been noticed that 76 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. late in the season during the month of September the leaves of Del- phinium barbeyi are eaten by stock with great apparent eagerness: Before the season is concluded, where a range 1s grazed with any thoroughness, nearly all the leaves of Delphinium barbeyi will be stripped from the stems by the grazing cattle and eaten with no re- sulting harm. The chart for Delphinium menziesii, figure 9, determined by the experiments of 1910, would seem to indicate that the quantity neces- sary to poison stock grows smaller as the season progresses. This probably is explained by the fact that in the latter part of June many of the plants have formed seed and that these seed pods were eaten by the cattle. If the plant has greater toxicity in the latter part of the season than in the earlier, as this chart would seem to in- dicate, it is doubtless explained in this way, for the seeds are formed in Delphinium menziesii while the leaves are still more or less green and doubtless attractive to a grazing animal. The principal inferences from these facts in regard to the variation of toxicity with the age of the plant may be summed up as follows: First, Delphinium menziesii is poisonous during the whole period of the life of the plant. Immediately upon the formation of the seed, the plant withers and disappears, so that it no longer is a factor in poisoning. If Delphinium menziesii does more harm in the early season than in the latter period of its existence, it must be due to the fact that, because of the poorer feed earlier in the season, cattle may eat more of it than they do later when the grasses have sprung up. Second, Delphinium barbeyi in Colorado is poisonous from early spring until the middle or last of August, its toxicity after blossom- ing gradually diminishing until it entirely disappears and the plant can be eaten with impunity by cattle. It would appear that it is vastly more toxic early in the season and without doubt it is in the month of June that the most harm is done by this plant. The fact of the great toxicity of the seeds has little practical importance be- cause cattle rarely feed upon them. So far as inferences may be. drawn from a somewhat limited experience it would appear that Delphiniwm cucullatum. varies in its toxicity as does Delphiniwm barbeyt. Investigations in the Sierras, where the common larkspur is De- phinium glaucum, show a somewhat different condition from that noted in Colorado. Here the snowfall is very heavy and the snow does not disappear in some localities until very late in the season, making the period of blossoming late. Larkspurs may be in blossom as late as September, and the period of possible poisoning of cattle is extended through nearly the whole grazing season. LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. Tye Tt should be borne in mind also that in any given region, climatic conditions vary. In a dry, hot season the larkspurs will ripen earlier, while in a cold, wet season the time of blossoming and form- ing of seed may be much delayed. Referring to the work of Loy, Heyl, and Hepner, which is noticed on page 11, it will be seen that their results in regard to the toxicity of different parts of the plant correspond fairly well to the results obtained in the field experimentation. It may be noted that the large content of alkaloid in the leaf and stem of Delphiniwm geyeri as compared with the other species may be accounted for by the fact that the plant was collected early in the season before blossoming, at the time when it might be expected to be more toxic, while the Delphinium glaucum was collected at the full maturity of the plant and very likely at a time when the toxicity was beginning to diminish. ANTIDOTAL TREATMENT OF CASES OF LARKSPUR POISONING. The early treatment of larkspur poisoning at the Mount Carbon station was based upon the recommendations in the literature of the subject. Wilcox, 1897, page 45, recommends the use of atropin sulphate, stating that he had had good results with sheep in Montana. Chesnut and Wilcox, 1901, pages 72 and 80, recommend atropin for counteracting the physiological effects, and suggest that alcoholic — stimulants and ammonia can be used to advantage. They recommend also permanganate of potassium and sulphate of aluminium. Craw- ford, 1907, pages 9 and 10, states that poisoning takes place more quickly when elimination is interfered with, as, for example, by tieing the ureter of the animal experimented upon. It seemed best, therefore, in the experimental work at Mount Carbon to make trial of atropin, potassium permanganate, and caffein sodio-benzoate. The latter substance was used partly because it is a heart stimulant and partly because it is a diuretic, on the assumption that stimulation of the Iidneys might aid in the elimination of the poison. In several cases during the first season’s work at Mount Carbon these remedies were used, and while all of the animals to which the remedies were given recovered, there was reason to think that none of the remedial meas- ures were especially effective. On comparison of the animals treated with those not treated, it could not be shown that there were any advantageous effects from the administration of these remedies. _ Reference may be made here to the experiments detailed in pages 41 to 43 of United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 125, “Zygadenus, or Death Camas,” in which it is shown that good re- sults can not be reasonably expected from an antidotal remedy like potassium permanganate, given per os to a ruminant, inasmuch as the antidote is not likely to come in contact with any considerable 78 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. quantity of the poisonous substance unless it is given in many doses repeated at very frequent intervals. It was noticed early in the work of 1909 that all the poisoned animals were very constipated, and the question was raised whether the removal of this condition might not either prevent the poisoning or predispose the animals to recovery. Cowboys upon the range have remarked that whenever animals commence to defecate recoy- ery is assured. Therefore if the animals were so treated as to keep up a free movement of the bowels, it might be possible to prevent the poisonous action of the larkspur. To test this, No. 602 was brought into the corral on September 8, 1909, for experimental feed- ing. Feeding of Delphinium barbeyi was commenced on September 9, using the leaves, stems, and fruit of material that had been col- lected at Kebler Pass. Although this material was mature, it was green and fresh. Feeding was continued to September 16. During this time the animal, which weighed about 450 pounds, ate 388.25 pounds of the plant, or, on the basis of 1,000 pounds of weight, 862.8 pounds. On September 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, and 16 she re- ceived 4 ounces of magnesium sulphate in the drinking water. In spite of the large quantity of larkspur eaten the animal showed not — the slightest effect of poisoning. The bowels were kept rather more loose than normal. Inasmuch as the general results of the experi- mental work show that the larkspur as it grows older loses much of its toxicity, the question was raised whether the failure to poison this animal was not due to the fact that the larkspur was old and had perhaps lost some of its poisonous properties. In order to test this No. 112 was brought into the corrals on September 15, and feed- ing was commenced on September 16 of material obtained from the same place as that fed to No. 602. She was fed during September 16 and 17 794 pounds, or, on the basis of 1,000 pounds of weight, 130 pounds. At 5.35 p.m. on September 17 she was found down in the corrals. At 5.38 she was disgorging material from the rumen, this material consisting of larkspur and water, part of it passing up through the nostrils and interfering with her breathing. At 5.42 she was raised up in order that the trachea might be less likely to be filled with the vomited material. She was hardly able to hold up her head. There was some twitching of the flank muscles and the muscles of the forelegs. Respiration at this time was very slow and shallow. The pulse could not be found at all. At 5.48 she was dead. This animal during the feeding was very much constipated. She received larkspur from the same localities as that fed to No. 602, and the material was in practically the same condition. It should be noted, too, that not only did No. 602 receive a much larger total quantity of larkspur, but the daily feeding also was very much LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 79 larger. On one day this animal received almost twice as much as was given to No. 112 on the second day when it became ill. While these two cases can not be considered as furnishing positive proof that the administration of magnesium sulphate will prevent the action of larkspur, the results were very significant. In connection with this case, comparisons may be made with some others. No. 606, a heifer, weighing about 450 pounds, belonging to Otis Moore, was fed, between August 28 and September 6, 195 pounds of Delphinium barbeyi, or, on the basis of 1,000 pounds of weight, 434.8 pounds. Part of this material was collected at Kebler Pass and was green. A smaller part, about 50 pounds, was collected near the station and was older and drier. This feeding was of leaves and stems without the seeds. She was given 4 ounces of magnesium sulphate in the drinking water on August 30 and September 3. No poisonous effects were noticed. At the same time, August 28 and 29, No. 605 was fed 294 pounds, or, on the basis of 1,000 pounds weight, 66.5 pounds, and became sick. The material fed was of stems and seeds of Delphinium barbeyi. It should be borne in mind, however, in comparing Nos. 605 and 606, that the seeds are more toxic than the leaves and stems, as has been - shown elsewhere, and that it is possible the result in the case of No. 605 may have been caused by the larger number of seeds in the feeding. With this, however, may be compared No. 98, which, between Sep- tember 18 and 25, received 357.25 pounds, or, on the basis of 1,000 pounds’ weight, 776.6 pounds of Delphinium barbeyi, collected at _ Kebler Pass. This material included not only stems and leaves, but the seeds. The animal ate a very large proportion of its own weight of larkspur. Four ounces of magnesium sulphate in its drinking water were given every day between September 18 and 25, inclusive, the effect of this being to keep the action of the bowels in very nearly anormal condition. The animal was not affected at all by the poison- ous material eaten. - 3 Summing up these cases, then, it would appear that it is very prob- able that the injurious effects uf larkspur eating might not appear if means were taken to produce free movement of the bowels in the animals feeding upon the plant, and it indicates also that if some remedy could be used which, in the beginning of the poisoning, would quickly stimulate the intestinal excretion it might serve to save the lives of the animals. Inasmuch as the work of 1909 at the Mont Carbon station brought out very clearly the fact that one of the most prominent symptoms connected with larkspur poisoning was constipation, and also showed _very clearly that death resulted primarily from respiratory paralysis, 80 BULLETIN 365, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in planning for the remedial work of 1910 it seemed wise to use sub- stances which would probably counteract these most pronounced symptoms. It was at first thought that some combination might be made with barium chlorid, using the barium chlorid for the pur- pose of getting a quick evacuation of the intestines, combining with it caffein or digitalis to relieve the depressing effect which barium has upon the heart and adding strychnin to serve as a respiratory stimulant. Tablets were prepared of various combinations for the summer’s work. One case of Delphinium menziesii poisoning was treated with -barium chlorid, caffein, sodio-benzoate, and strychnin nitrate, and died. One case of Delphinium barbeyi was treated with the same combination and died. It was not clear, therefore, that there were any beneficial results from this treatment, and as it was found diffi- cult to handle the combination without hot water for solution it was abandoned as impracticable for field use. A hypodermic injection was used of physostigmin salicylate, pilocarpin hydrochlorid, and strychnin sulphate. This combina- tion dissolves very readily and can be used in a comparatively small amount of water. The treatment was used in 32 cases of larkspur poisoning with a total of 4 deaths. One fatal case was known to be due to an overdose of strychnin and two received too small a dose of physostigmin. One case died, apparently, in spite of the remedy. Fifteen were allowed to go without treatment, and of these 6 died. This seems to make a good showing for the remedy, although, of course, too much stress must not be put on the statisti- cal results of a comparatively small number of cases. It is pre- sumed that probably a larger proportion of range animals would die than of corral-fed cases, for the latter, even if no remedy was given, are cared for and put in a favorable position for recovery. - Excluding the animal killed by strychnin and the 2 receiving too small a dose, there was only 1 death in 29 treated cases; in other words, there was 96.54 per cent of recoveries. While this per- centage might not hold in a larger number of cases, there is good reason to believe that most cases of larkspur poe may be cured if this treatment can be applied promptly. In comparing the effects obtained in the aieeeu cases it was found that the best results in animals weighing 500 to 600 pounds were reached by using the following formula of this remedy: iPhysoshiemin= salicylates 22 ee ee eee 1 grain. Prloecarpiny sy Groh] O1iG eee sree easier eee eee ee 2 grains. Strychnin STUMMGN es ose Se ee + grain. As much as 1 grain of strychnin was used in some cases, but it seems probable that this is too much. There was little doubt that an overdose was given to No. 613, a fatal case of Delphiniwm barbeyi se Feb <9 nee Oem ox LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 81 poisoning in 1910, as there were distinct symptoms of strychnin poisoning. Smaller doses were tried with some of the cases of 1911, but they were less effective and the two fatal cases in this season, when this remedy was used, are considered as due to the use of an insufficient amount of the remedy. It is possible that a heavier dosage of physostigmin salicylate and pilocarpin hydrochlorid might be used, but experience seemed to show that the pain connected with the more rapid action of this remedy more than counterbalanced its advantage.. The results of the summers of 1910 and 1911 ap- peared to show quite conclusively that the hypodermic injection of this combination would aid in the recovery of most animals. The at- tempt was made to use arecolin in place of the physostigmin and pilocarpin but the results were very unsatisfactory. It was found that a distinct benefit resulted from the use of hypo- dermic injections of 20 cubic centimeters or more of whisky or a corresponding amount of 50 per cent alcohol. This stimulant was given to tide over a time when the animal might otherwise collapse. It was not found desirable to give the whisky in all cases but only as the symptoms seemed to demand it. In passing, perhaps a word should be said in regard to the ordi- nary remedy of bleeding used among the stockmen for larkspur poisoning. This was not attempted in the station work, because there seemed to be no good reason for the proceeding. It is barely possible that at the critical stage of larkspur poisoning, with the heart about to stop, bleeding might stimulate it to further action. It was not | found, however, in the station experiments that the symptoms at any time definitely indicated this as a desirable measure. Indiscriminate bleeding for larkspur poisoning is probably worse than useless and does much more harm than good. Among stockmen the claim is frequently made that 50 per cent of the sick cases may be saved by bleeding. It may be questioned whether this number might not re- cover without any treatment. Dr. Sanford, of Gunnison, Colo., a physician of long and successful experience in a stock country, states that. he has bled a large number of animals poisoned by larkspur and has no evidence of beneficial results. Bleeding is the common remedy used by stock people for many of the ills affecting their animals, and is considered especially: effica- cious in cases of illness resulting from eating poisonous plants. ‘While it did not seem worth while to test it out in the larkspur poisoning of cattle, it was used experimentally with sheep poisoned by Zygadenus (death camas), as stated in Bulletin 125, with no benefit. Summarizing, then, the work of the station upon remedies, no defi- nite advantageous results were obtained with potassium permanga- 26876°—Bull. 365—16——6 82 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. nate, atropin, or the combination of barium chlorid with caffein, sodio-benzoate and strychnin. The combination of physostigmin salicylate, pilocarpin hydrochlorid, and strychnin sulphate, used hypodermically, and supplemented as symptoms demand by hypo- dermic injections of whisky or dilute alcohol, would seem in the ma- jority of cases to produce beneficial effects. These remedies can be easily administered by stockmen upon the range, as they can be car- ried in solution in small compass and administered by the hypo- dermic syringe, with the use of which most stockmen are familiar. It can not be too strongly stated that when cattle fall from larkspur poisoning no attempt should be made to get them upon their feet, or, if they get upon their feet themselves, care must be taken that they should not be hurried under any circumstances. Many of the ani- mals when poisoned, if allowed to he quietly with no other attention than to be turned so that the head will be higher than the rest of the body, will recover. As has been stated elsewhere, bloating seldom occurs in cases of larkspur poisoning. If it does, it should be relieved by paunching, and every stockman should be provided with a trocar to perform this operation. METHODS OF PREVENTING LARKSPUR POISONING., Tt is recognized that under ordinary range conditions many cases of larkspur poisoning occur which can not be prevented. The cattle are not under direct observation and may not be seen for weeks or months, and the first intimation of trouble is when the rider, in going over the range, finds bodies of animals that may have died long before. There is no opportunity to apply a remedy. It is possible, however, to save many cattle by proper handling in accordance with the conditions of the ranges upon which they are grazed. From the fact that the low larkspur dies early in July and ceases to be a factor in poisoning, it is very evident that if the cattle can be kept away from this plant until about July 1 there probably will be no fatalities. This has been recognized very generally by the stock- men. In some localities on the western slope of the Rocky Moun- tains in Colorado “riding for poison” is a regular business among the stockmen during the month of June. By this “riding” the cattle are kept below the poisonous area until after the plants blossom. In some localities, also, through the instrumentality of the Forest Serv- ice, drift fences have been erected for the same purposes. There seems to be no question that if cattle can be kept away from the areas of low larkspur until the plant matures there will be no losses, but if they are permitted to graze freely upon these areas loss is almost certain to occur. These losses, of course, will be greater LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 83 when the grasses are less conspicuous. Just so far as the larkspur is more evident than other forms of forage plants, it is sure to be eaten in larger quantities and will produce correspondingly greater harm. The tall larkspur is especially dangerous in Colorado during the months of May and June. After it springs up in the early part of the season it grows in large tufts of rather attractive appearance and extends above the forage plants. It is at this time that it is most likely to be eaten by cattle. In narrow valleys where the larkspur is quite abundant, if cattle collect in the early part of the season to graze, they are almost certain to take a considerable quantity of the larkspur with more or less losses resulting. It is entirely feasible in many of these small canyons to clear out the major part of the larkspur and thus prevent poisoning, and it is definitely recom- mended that in such restricted areas the plant be dug, out. Experimental work carried out upon the range has shown that the larkspur can be killed by cutting the root 2 or 3 inches below the surface of the ground, and this has been done by the Forest Service in some localities on a somewhat large scale. Complete eradication of the plant, however, is impossible, and in many places it is eco- nomically unprofitable to dig it out. In some valleys it is so scat- tered among the willows that it is difficult to approach it, and on some ranges it is distributed so widely and in places so difficult of access that the expenditure of labor necessary to destroy the plant would exceed the value of the range. The practicability of digging out larkspur on any range depends upon the characteristics of that particular range, and can not be decided without a careful examina- tion of local conditions. It was found, while investigating the conditions of larkspur poi- soning in the Sierras, that in many especially harmful regions the heavy growth of larkspur is confined to particular valleys, or, in some cases, to a very limited area in a valley. Some of these val- leys can be easily fenced off and used for horses rather than for cat- tle, and the small isolated areas can be cleared of most of the larkspur at a small expenditure of time and money. When cattle are driven hurriedly from one range to another they are much more apt to become poisoned, as it is well known that hungry cattle when hurried along will eat the most conspicuous plants, and under such circumstances quite large losses may occur. It is evident, then, that in handling cattle in areas where the tall larkspur is abundant, particularly early in the season, great care should be taken that they should not come upon these areas when they are especially hungry. The subject of the proper handling of range animals in order to avoid poisoning is treated more specifically 84 BULLETIN 365, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 720, Prevention of Losses of Live Stock from Plant Poisoning. After the plant has matured, as has been shown elsewhere, its toxicity diminishes, and cattle, finding at the same time an abun- dance of other more attractive feed, eat very much less of the larkspur so that the danger of poisoning is very slight, and in the fall, after the plant begins to dry, cattle may and do eat it in large quantities with impunity. It is generally considered by stockmen that poisoning is more likely to occur immediately after a rain, or even when the plants are wet with dew. There seems to be no reasonable explanation of the supposed fact of the greater toxicity of the plant when wet. It seems possible, however, when cattle are feeding hastily in a larkspur area after a rain, that rather than thrust their heads and faces into the wet grass they may eat more of the higher plants; in this way they would consume more of the larkspur and consequently become poisoned. Cattle, too, in the time of a storm gather together in the valleys and under trees where larkspur is very abundant, and doubt- less eat more of it on this account. . Probably, also, when cattle are handled upon a supposed poisonous area it would aid somewhat in preventing loss if pains were taken to make sure that none of them were constipated. This probably could be accomplished, where cattle are watered at specific places, by the use of a small amount of magnesium sulphate or sodium sulphate in the drinking water. GENERAL SUMMARY. 1. The larkspurs from very ancient times have been recognized as poisonous plants, but complaints of stock poisoning by these plants have been confined almost entirely to the mountain ranges of western North America, where heavy losses have been reported, especially among cattle. 2. It is rarely possible to recognize macroscopically larkspur ma- terial in the stomach contents of cattle. By means of microscopic sections of stems, however, not only can Delphinium be distinguished from other plants but groups of the genus can be distinguished from each other. The genus falls into six different types of stem struc- ture. 3. Experimental feeding of larkspur was carried on for three seasons at Mount Carbon, in Gunnison County, Colo. In this work four species of Delphinium were used which have been identified as Delphinium barbeyi, D. menziesii, D. andersonii, and D. robustum. A large number of animals were used in this work, including horses, cattle, and sheep. Similar feeding experiments were conducted LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 85 during one season at Greycliff, Mont., on Delphiniwm cucullatum and D. bicolor. 4, These experiments showed that the larkspurs are poisonous to cattle and horses but not to sheep. Horses, however, in pastures or upon the range do not eat enough of the plants to produce any ill effects, so that losses of stock from larkspur poisoning are confined to cattle. 5. The low larkspurs are poisonous during the whole life of the plants, but inasmuch as they disappear early in July, cases of poison- ing are confined to the months of May and June. 6. The tall larkspurs live through the summer season, appearing in early spring. They are most poisonous in their early stages. After blossoming the toxicity gradually diminishes and disappears and the plant dries up, although the seeds are very toxic. Most of the cases of poisoning in Colorado occur in May and June, with sporadic cases in July. In other localities where the larkspurs blossom later poisoning may occur as late as August or even September. 7. While definite feeding experiments have been performed upon only a few species of larkspur, it may be assumed, from the knowledge of plant poisoning upon the ranges, that other species have the same properties as those experimented upon and that feeding upon them produces the same results. 8. The experimental work and the autopsies showed a clearly de- fined line of symptoms and certain definite pathological results. 9. The feeding showed that there was no marked difference in toxicity between the different species of larkspurs and that the quan- tity necessary to produce effects varied within rather wide limits, but that, generally speaking, a quantity equal to at least 3 per cent of the weight of the animal was necessary to produce poisoning. 10. From somewhat extensive experimental work on antidotes it was found that beneficial results could be obtained by using, hypo- dermically, injections of physostigmin salicylate, pilocarpin hydro- chlorid, and strychnin sulphate, ello by LP DOMEDEL injections of =f when needed. 11. Poisoning upon the range may be prevented in some cases by digging up the tall larkspur when the greater number of plants is confined to comparatively limited areas. In other cases the handling’ of the cattle in such a way that they will not have an opportunity to feed upon the larkspur may prevent losses. In the case of Del- phinium menziesii it is desirable that the cattle should be kept away from the ranges where this plant grows in abundance until about the 1st of July, when the plant dies. D. barbeyi loses its toxicity after blossoming, so that a range with this plant is safe for cattle in the late summer and fall. It should be remembered, however, that local 86 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and climatic conditions may delay the time of blossoming, so that no arbitrary date can be given when a range is safe. D. bicolor probably never grows in sufficient quantities to be dangerous as a poisonous plant. Inasmuch as the experimental work seems to show quite conclusively that sheep may feed upon larkspurs with entire impunity it is desirable in some cases, where there is an especial abundance of larkspur, to use the ranges for sheep rather than for cattle or to combine sheep grazing and cattle grazing in such a man- ner as to keep the areas of low larkspur eaten down by the sheep. LITERATURE CITED IN THIS PAPER. Bussey, C. E. 1902. }: 0.8.) 057 -)- 0.6 | 0255) V0.4 a ONS rE Os 25 Os Saltapercent __= } NANG No i > RRR nr SS SENS SEMA C2 Z IAIN ig IA 2S hophoph gag BETH TIENT zs 2 NEE i x .) i aah ‘' SX) ~ b LAN > q ‘ EX Ni DPSS 3 Gara RAY CLD A ‘ ‘{ AN NI : Vibe SS — > Yi SH yy, \ Gee oS. Me ee NS NRE OOS ee Caesars aT 4, NS Wo ae \ et an mn 7 en I SES S SS x ES EXPLANATION. RRS y Yu ! pe a] We ax Ss SSS Kok NG, : PKS I RSS NU yet SN PP ey Fic. 3.—Map of the Santa Rita Range Reserve, Ariz., Showing the present distribution of the principal forage-plant associations: No. 1, The six-weeks-grass association. No. 2. The black-grama association. No. 3. The crowfoot-grama association. No. 4. The needle- grass association. No. 5. The oak belt. No. 6. The forested area. Those parts of the reserve upon which the mesquite (Prosopis velutina), the cat’s-claw (Acacia greggii), and other shrubs or low trees occur, more or less abundantly, are indicated by dots (No. 7) on the map. In the same way, the crosses (No. 8) and the check marks (No. 9) show where the tree cactus (Opuntia spinosior) and the cholla (Opuntia fulgida) are important members of the plant associations (PI. I, fig. 2). region had been subjected, and that under the protection of the fence these plants have been and are still readjusting themselves to the normal ecologic conditions. Maps of this kind made at various in- 5 BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tervals should show something of the changes taking place, and the more accurately they can be drawn the more valuable will be the in- formation obtainable from such a series. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. The importance of those factors known as climatic conditions do not need to be argued, especially in relation to the arid grazing lands, where the whole crop of forage is so patently dependent upon them. The peculiarities of the seasons upon the Santa Rita Range Reserve have already been discussed by Dr. Griffiths,t who calls par- ticular attention to the two growing seasons and shows that they depend upon the amount and distribution of rainfall. Fic. 4.—Curves showing the variations in the total monthly precipitation at two stations on the Santa Rita Range Reserve, Ariz., through a period of six years. The spring growing season is dependent upon the rain of the previous fall and winter, taken with what may fall in the spring proper. In April and May, and in at least a part, if not all, of June, there usually occurs a period of dry weather, during which most growth ceases and the spring annuals dry up. July, August, September, and sometimes part of October constitute the summer growing season, since it is during this period that the greater part of the rain falls and, the temperature being high, rapid growth occurs. Records of the rainfall by months at McCleary’s house have been kept since July 1, 1901. In June of 1909 a rain gauge was placed at MacBeath’s house and the records from both these stations are given in Table I. A comparison of the two records by months is ‘shown in the diagram (fig. 4). 1See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 67, pp. 38—44. ye GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. Mi TABLE I.—Precipitation, in inches, at MacBeath’s place and at McCleary’s place, Santa Rita Range Reserve, Ariz., by months, 1909 to 1914, inclusive. MacBEATH’S PLACE. Month. 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 | Average, ry | TAMIA sy eerie Mt Nal Men Na tt) 1. 69 1.40 0 0. 93 0. 60 | 0.92 PS RU ATC ree ais ae Mise naisle se 0 2.03 .70 3.71 ats) 1.44 Mian Cheese tree tas icist ie Hc ee al 213 26 5.18 - 60 1. 29 1.49 UAC OS Ld [a a 0 .18 .62 23 0 20 INN icdcdu Rabo see oe OURS aoe Tees aee 0 -38 24 40 05 21 JUN OR ease sae ous saes- ° > ° oa i) > to) > iS) > a < = < a < a < i < = io) > ° > ° > ° > ° > & iq |e |4 |e /4 |e v4 |e [4 |e |4 |e Ia eal | January.....--| 230] 7] 290] 9| 168] 6| 465] 15| 434) 14] 345) 11 |: 488 February....- 210| 7) 246] 8| 234! 8] 364]. 13] 394] 14] 344| 13) 474 March......... 938|' 8 | 250| 8] 356] 11] 430] 14). 403] 13-| 442 1° 14)|/\-1408 Atprile ee 210] 7] 270| 9} 3521 12|} 496] 17) 420| 14| 414] 14). 394 May.. 209| 7] 240] 8{| 405] 13] 527|) 17| 429] 14] 430] 14] - 403 nel eeae 216:|) 97% | 2487 8] 488) 15] 510) 17) 470°!’ 20:1 © 380 1/13)! 6390 uly eee 995.|° 7:| 302] 10| .442|°44\|° 527 | 17|- 510°] 16 |- 603) 20!) 248 August......-- 240| 8| 278] 9] 445] 14} 434] 14|/ 583] 19] 561] 18] 375 September....| 237/ 8] 600] 20] 450] 15] 492] 16| 570] 19] 402] 13] 398 October....--. 271| 9) 233] 8|: 368] 12| 527] 17] 589| 19] 563] 18} “405 November....| 260} 9] 289/ 10} 380} 13| 480] 16] 510] 17| 485] 16| 305 December..... 271| 9} 367] 12) 399] 13 |...470} 15|° 432 |--14 | 493 | 16 | <284 Total....] 2,817 | 7 | 3,613 | 10] 4,437 | 12} 5,722| 15] 5,744| 16 | 5,462} 15 | 4,567 Acres per head 103.1 80. 2 65. 6 50.9 50.5 53. 2 63.5 Since the fenced area available to each man is relatively small, and since each of them has just as much right to the use of the open range outside his fence as anyone, it has been their custom to watch the condition of the feed outside their pastures and the condition of their stock at all times and to carry their stock on the outside feed just as much of the time as possible. This policy causes them to turn out stock as soon as the feed outside warrants it, a procedure that results beneficially for the fenced pastures, because it allows the plants inside the fence to grow to the best advantage during the growing season. The control given by the fence makes it possible to save this feed until the outside feed is mostly eaten, when the stock can be brought inside on good grass. This method of treat- ment throws the greater part of the burden upon the outside range. and tends to build up the carrying capacity of the inclosed area. Under such a method, if the fenced area is stocked to its full capacity, but not overstocked, the carrying capacity derived from the numbers actually carried is probably a little in excess of what might be expected from the same land if stocked to its legitimate limit all the time. [or this reason the carrying capacity indicated in Table VIT and the diagram (fig. 5) may be a little too large. But this conclusion is not true if for any reason the pastures have not been stocked to their limit, or if they have been overstocked, either of which conditions may have arisen. GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. Pata b To understand these possibilities it is only necessary to call atten- tion to two or three factors which would affect the result. If for any reason a pasture were understocked there would be excess feed on it, but the figures for average monthly and yearly numbers car- ried, as well as the average carrying capacity, would be lowered. Such a condition might arise if the stock-water supply should diminish or fail, a condition that did obtain for some time on the Ruelas place during 1913 and part of 1914. If, because of exceptionally high prices, a man should sell a large part of his stock and not restock at once, or if, for any reason, he should be forced to sell or was unable to buy whenever his pasture warranted it, the number of animals on the pasture would be less PROCTOR AVERAGE NUMBER OF ANIMALS CARRIED: By Month =\—-— By Yeor —*—— INDICATED CARRYING CAPACITY: Number of animals per Section ——- ——e Fic. 5.—Curves showing variations in the rate of stocking on those parts of the reserve that have carried stock for the past six years. The curves numbered 1 show the average number of mature animals (cattle, horses, or burros) carried on each pasture, by months, for the full period. Curves numbered 2 show the same data by years. Curves numbered 3 show the average carrying capacity in acres per head per year for each pasture during the period of observation. Curves numbered 3 rest upon the assumption that the pastures have been stocked to their legitimate limit each year. than it could carry, and all the figures relating to numbers carried and carrying capacity would again be below what the feed in the pasture might warrant. Again, if the user should overestimate the capacity of his range and put on more stock than it could properly carry, the result would be an increase in all the figures, at least for a time, and a noticeable drop at a later period. Seasonal climatic variations of marked degree also would tend to decrease all values if unfavorable and to increase them if favorable to the growth of forage, though such variations would tend.to counteract each other during a series of years. BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMED GRI LE. 32 367, TMENT OF AGRICULTURE There can be no question that the productivity of the areas whic2 have been pastured is normally greater than the average for the whole inclosed area, because these pastures lie in that part of the grassed land which gets the most water. (See p. 8.) The forage-distribution map (fig. 8) shows a small patch of six- weeks grass in each of the pastures, a condition which would seem. to indicate that these pastures may be somewhat overstocked. The general opinion of the various men is that their pastures have im- proved under protection, and these poorly grassed areas may be the remnants of larger areas that are being gradually replaced, though more slowly than on the completely protected area. In the opinion of the writer, the pastured areas have not deterio- rated noticeably since July, 1911, nor have they materially improved. He believes that during that time they have been kept at about uniform productivity, but slightly below their maxima. The result of this is to make the carrying capacity appear a very little larger in figure 5 and in Table VII than it actually is. The above remarks apply with most force to the MacBeath pasture, less so to the Proctor pasture, and hardly at all to the Ruelas pasture. It should be understood that McCleary has not been running cattle upon his pasture. He has had it lightly and about uniformly stocked with horses and burros. These animals have been on the land continuously with little or no shifting, and the range which was unable to carry stock at the rate of 29 acres per head in the earlier days of the experiments? is now not noticeably different from the completely protected area lying immediately north of it. It is hardly possible to tell by the condition of the grass that there is any stock on this area. From such data it is perfectly certain that 50 acres per head per year is considerably under the carrying capacity of such range pasture.” It is almost certain that stocking heavier than 53 animals per sec- tion (12 acres per head per year) on the MacBeath place and between 45 and 50 animals per section (13 or t4 acres per head per year) on the Proctor place is not warranted by the present condition of these pastures, under their present form of management. It is more dificult to get an estimate for the Ruelas place, because other im- portant but as yet unmeasured factors enter the problem. From the standpoint of feed alone, the Ruelas pasture will doubtless carry as much per section as the MacBeath place, but for some time past the supply of stock water has been insufficient for all the stock which the pasture would carry. 1See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 177, p. 21. * The horses on this area have very light work and little of it. They are always fed a small amount of grain whenever they are worked; at other times all their feed is the native grass grown on the area. Bul. 367, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE VII. Fic. 1.—BALING HAY ON THE SANTA RITA RANGE RESERVE IN SEPTEMBER, 1914. Fic. 2.—BALED HAY ON THE RESERVE READY TO BE HAULED TO A FARM IN THE VALLEY, 25 MILES AWAY. Fia. 3.—ONE OF THE WATERING PLACES IN MACBEATH’S PASTURE, ON THE RESERVE. , Bul. 367, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. Fia. 1.-A DENSE GROWTH OF MESQUITE BUSHES IN STONE CABIN CANYON, ON THE SANTA RITA RANGE RESERVE. Some stools of saccaton (Sporobolus wrightii) are shown near the center of the picture. This grass thrives where other grasses are killed by the shade. Fic. 2.—A SINGLE MEDIUM-SIZED MESQUITE BUSH ON THE RESERVE, SHOWING ITS CROP OF BEANS ON THE GROUND. The dried beans from this bush weighed 1034 pounds. These beans are very nutritious and are eaten freely by all kinds of stock. Bul. 367, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. Fic. 1.—CONDITIONS IN AN ARROYO, SHOWING HOW THE GRASS RETARDS EROSION AND HELPS TO FILL IN WASHED PLACES ON THE SANTA RITA RANGE RESERVE. Hundreds of places may be found on the reserve where different stages of this process of leveling up are in progress. Fic. 2.—THE BOUNDARY FENCE BETWEEN THE MCCLEARY (LEFT) AND MACBEATH (RIGHT) PASTURES IN MAy, 1914, SHOWING THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE FORAGE ON THESE PASTURES IS FED OFF EACH SEASON. Bul. 367, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. Fic. 1.—AN OPEN SPOT AMONG THE MESQUITE BUSHES ON THE SANTA RITA RANGE RESERVE. A good stand of grass has been obtained by persistent sowing. (Compare with fig. 2.) Fic. 2.—A SIMILAR OPEN SPOT, SHOWING THE BEGINNING OF THE GROWTH OF GRASS. No results were obtained on this spot (which is less than 100 yards from the other) for several seasons, though seeds were scattered each year. (Compare with fig. 1.) GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 33 Tf allowance is made for the facts (1) that these pastured areas produce more feed than other parts of the area under observation, (2) that they are carrying more under the present form of manage- ment than they would if an average number of animals were kept on them continuously, and (3) that there is some indication that they are shghtly overstocked, it is seen that the results obtained from the pasturing experiments are in reasonably close agreement with the average for the whole reserve derived by other means and presented elsewhere in this bulletin. (See p. 21 et seq.) MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. The effects of fire-—The complete protection of the reserve for a number of years has resulted in a rather heavy crop of dry grass, which burns readily, especially in the dry, hot weather of May or June, just before the summer rains begin. Several such fires have occurred, due to lightning, carelessness of passers, or incendiarism. The only serious damage they do is to burn off the fence posts and let the fences fall. These fires are always extinguished as quickly as possible after they start, but sometimes considerable areas have been burned over. Attention has been called to the effect on the mesquite bushes. The spines of the cacti are usually singed off, and some of the stems blistered, and a few are killed. Opuntia spinosior seems to suffer more seriously than any of the other species. In June, 1914, occurred one of the largest and hottest fires, which burned over about four sections of the heaviest grass. Along the arroyos where the grass was highest and thickest the mesquite bushes were killed completely in several places, and many were killed back to stumps. The following growing season on the burned area there was a much larger proportion of annuals in the summer collections and a particularly noticeable abundance of one grass, Bouteloua parryt, which has not been observed in any abundance recently. It was common in many parts of the reserve in the earlier years of the experiment. Whether or not the burn was responsible for these occurrences the writer is unable to say. The fire was doubt- less responsible for a noticeable decrease in the hay crop obtained on part of the burned area this season.1 Of the grasses, Bouteloua erip poda and Heteropogon contortus suffered most, though old stools of Aristida divaricata also showed retardation and some killing. The mesquite bean crop.—An important part of the forage of this region is furnished by the herbage and flowers of the cat’s-claw (Acacia greggit) and the mesquite (Prosopis velutina), as well as by beans of the latter. Two measurements were made of the crop of mesquite beans from medium-sized trees in 1914. The blossoming 1 See Table IV, p. 24: Proctor’s records for 1914. 34 BULLETIN 367, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. season of 1914 seemed to be very favorable, but very few trees set fruit. The data as to measurements are as follows: One tree about 1 mile nearly east of the location marked I on the map (fig. 2), 9 feet high, with a spread of 10 feet, produced as second crop 102 pounds of dried beans (Pl. VIII, fig. 2). Another tree near McCleary’s house, 9 feet high and with a spread of about 14 feet, produced 10 pounds of dry beans as a first crop. Probably 60 per cent of the trees on the reserve are as large or larger than the two measured. Erosion retarded.—The process of leveling the land by the action of water, assisted by the growth of vegetation, has been going on ever since the stock were put out of the reserve and the plants com- menced to reestablish themselves. It has been carried to completion in some of the shallower arroyos, and the bottoms of the watercourses are entirely covered with plants. The larger arroyos still have well- marked sandy channels where nothing but coarse annual weeds grow, but the grasses are rounding off the banks of such channels and gradually diminishing their width, while in many places they pre- vent further erosion by growing directly in the narrow cut and helping to hold whatever earth may be washed in by the run-off CER EXG Sti os 1). Seed sowing—Numerous attempts at reseeding have been made on this range reserve and elsewhere, the results of which have been reported in previous bulletins.t| Most of the attempts have resulted negatively. Particularly is this true with reference to introduced species, although these have been selected with the best judgment ob- tainable as to the requirements of the region and the possible adap- tiveness of the species tried. It by no means follows that nothing will ever be found that will suit the conditions, and there is believed to be good reason for expecting that some valuable finds of this kind will be made in regions not yet carefully explored with these desires in mind. The alfilaria, previously reported as seeming to take hold, has since been entirely crowded out by the native perennia! grasses. Several annuals that gave some promise have also given way to the native perennials. Trials of Sudan grass were made at three different places on the reservation in 1914—near MacBeath’s house, near McCleary’s, and in the large field on the plowed ground (near H, fig. 2). The seeds germinated well at each place, but the young seedlings were not able to bear the dry weather that occurred after the first rains. Plants at MacBeath’s which were watered during the first dry spell made a good growth (about 3 feet) and produced some seed. Plants 1 See Bureau of Plant Industry bulletins as follows: No. 4 reporting results on a small range near Tucson; No. 67, giving later results on the same area; No. 117, treating of metuods and results of reseeding in general; No. 177, treating of results on this range. GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 35 that were not watered grew about 8 inches high or less. It is very doubtful if a crop of this grass can be grown without irrigation, even on that part of the reserve that receives most water. Not so unsatisfactory, however, are the results obtained by scat- tering seeds of the native grasses upon the bare spots, even where the soil conditions are not good. For a number of years it has been the habit of Mr. McCleary to scatter seeds of the local native grasses upon bare spots in his pastures. Since hay cutting has been going on, it has been possible to get seeds in some quantity at the hay baler, and he has taken advantage of this means and has each year scat- tered seeds in considerable quantity. Many gravelly slopes that would otherwise have remained bare are now grassed as the result of this treatment. (PI. X, fig. 1.) Other things being equal, this method will get results in the course of two or three years that would occur much more slowly without scattering the seeds over the ground, though difficulty in getting germination sometimes occurs. (Pl. X, fig. 2.) This method of reestablishing the native species is very inexpensive and seemingly warrants the time and effort. Experiments with sheep—After the large field had been under fence for a number of years and the crowfoot-grama area had shown considerable improvement, an arrangement was made to try feeding off with sheep that part of it lying north of Box Canyon. ‘ ! ; . i . ; : ts ‘ } { rt Pe ay . 7 ¢' . j y 7 . { ; : s os Guan ; i ¢ * > \ : - . ' R . 7 7 : A ' f r A . ‘ : 7 : ' 7? . , - ‘ . he 7 i ’ r 4 7 7 . . - , . ’ i" ' . ‘ . . : : ' i} ‘ : a BROWN-ROT OF PRUNES AND CHERRIES. 9) The first and fourth applications have been especially important _ the past season. BLOSSOM INFECTION OF CHERRIES. Observations made near Vancouver, Wash., on April 8 and in the - vicinity of Salem, Oreg., on April 13 showed that there had been a blossom infection of cherries similar to that already described on prunes (PI. I, figs. 1 and 2). On the latter date Monilia was fruiting luxuriantly on the blighted cherries. It appeared that most of the infection had taken place after the petals had fallen and before the fruit had had a chance to push through the husk. Black Republican cherries seemed especially badly infected. Estimates made on April 13 indicated that on this variety fully 90 per cent of the blossoms were infected with Monilia, and in many orchards of other varieties at least 75 per cent were similarly infected. A grower near Felida, Wash., sprayed some of his cherry trees while they were in full bloom, using lime-sulphur solution diluted 1 to 30. He delayed the spraying of the others until the calyx browning had begun to appear and then applied the same spray he had used earlier. Counts made on April 8 of representative branches from each lot of trees showed 9 per cent of infected fruit in the former case and over 40 per cent in the latter. Spraying trees in full bloom is not to be recom- mended, but the results show the value of early spraying. BROWN-ROT OF CHERRIES. Spraying experiments for the control of brown-rot on the fruit were carried on in the orchard of L. T. Reynolds, of Salem, Oreg. The work was begun late in the season. The first application was made on May 7 and 8, when the fruit had begun to color, and a second on June 1, when the fruit was approaching maturity. The latter application was delayed for nearly a week on account of rain. Plat 1 received Bordeaux mixture, 2—4—50, plus 2 pounds of resin- fishoil soap; plat 2, commercial lime-sulphur, 1 to 50; plat 3, self- boiled lime-sulphur, 8-8—50, plus 2 pounds of resin-fishoil soap; and plat 4 was unsprayed. No injury resulted from the use of any of the fungicides. The Royal Ann cherries were picked on June 17 and the Black Repub- licans on June 24. A regular 10-pound box of sound cherries was packed from each plat and placed in cold storage at 40° F. until June 27, and the fruit was then shipped by express to Wenatchee, | Wash. Notes on the Royal Anns were taken on July 2 and on the Black Republicans on July 6. The former were thus in cold storage at 40° F. for 10 days and at air temperature for 6 days, the latter in cold storage for 3 days and at air temperature for 10 days. Table Iff gives the results obtained. 10 BULLETIN 368, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe II1.—Spraying cherries for the control of brown-rot at Salem, Oreg., during the season of 1915. Brown-rot (per cent). Plat. Treatment, if any. | Royal Ann. Black Republican. | At After | At After | picking. storage. jppiceing: storage. INO: 12. 22823 cde acd: Bordesuxmixcure: 2.52202 sesee eee oe ee | 0.17 11 0.03 7 INOW 2i Serer sc seneccos Pame-sulphute. 22+ cass 5-60 eso saseen [ee or eeeeet ee eee -05 § INOL BE Sots oeees sseee Self-boiled lime-sulphur-...-..---.-.-.--- «25 14 -07 2 8 IN Os Fool dence ctosre WTS Pray. cerincse ise Seine se ee eae eee . 67 55 -03 1 There was not enough brown-rot evident on any of the plats at picking time to make the contrasts of any great interest. (PI. II1.) After the severe storage tests the effects of spraymg were more eyi- dent, the fruit from the self-boiled lime-sulphur plat having only one- fourth as much brown-rot as that from the unspr ayed plat in the case of the Royal Anns and one-ninth as much in the ease of the Black Republicans. With the Royal Anns better results were secured with Bordeaux mixture than with the self-boiled lime-sulphur. The sprayed fruit held up much better at the local canneries than the unsprayed fruit. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION FOR CHERRIES. While the work on cherries has not been carried out as fully as was desired, it seems evident that the Monilia blossom blight was the cause Ee serious losses in the Willamette Valley in the season of 1915 and the brown-rot of the fruit the cause of considerable joss at the canneries and heavy losses in the shipping of fresh fruit. No early sprayings were mads, and therefore no results were obtained on the effect of spraying upon the blossom infection. The brown-rot at the canneries and in storage has been greatly reduced by late applica- tions of Bordeaux mixture and self-boiled lime-sulphur. It seems probable that a treatment for cherries similar to that outlined for prunes would give satisfactory control of both the blossom infection and the later brown-rot attacks on the fruit. . WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH: 1916 Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER May 26, 1916 BACTERIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS. By Mavup Mason Osst, Bacteriological Chemist. CONTENTS. Page. Page TAGTOCUIC HOTIMm te hen ees prs teiee o eerie 1 | Examination of commercial bottled waters. - 4 Significance of bacteria in potable waters. .-. 2*| Conclusions essa 54524 PIA PE a eset 3 MU 6 Inspection of springs....-..--..-..---------- 3: pelabulated\datared.. sso t=se ss Sate ei 7 INTRODUCTION. During the last six years from 1 to 17 samples of bottled waters from each of 110 American springs and from 57 sources in foreign countries have been examined in the Bacteriological Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry... A comparative study of the results obtained should, therefore, contribute toward the formation of an opinion as to the freedom from contamination which we have a right to expect and to demand in the case of this product. These bacterio- logical analyses have been brought together and tabulated; and the results of this study have been considered to determine whether the standard adopted by the United States Public Health Service? for water on trains could be fairly applied to bottled waters, or whether some other standard would be more just. A questionnaire was also sent out to a number of bacteriologists who have been associated with sanitary and alled problems. This questionnaire was arranged primarily to learn the attitude of a widely distributed group of workers in regard to bacterial tolerance in bottled waters. Of the 49 correspondents who have replied, 8 had not worked upon water sufficiently to feel competent to express any opinion. The remaining 41 replies are summarized as follows: Eight (19.8 per cent) stated that to them the term “bottled water” implied an unwritten guaranty of absolute purity;’’ five (12.1 per 1 Examinations were made by various ee of the Bacteriological Laboratory, including Dr. Geo. W. Stiles, Minnie Jenkins, Carleton Bates, Ruth C. Greathouse, and the author. The author wishes to acknowledge the valuable assistance rendered by Dr. Charles Thom in the prepa- ration of this paper. 2U.8. Public Health Reports, 1914, p. 2059. (Not more than one out of five 10 ce portions shall show gas.) 30614°—Bull. 369—16 . 2 BULLETIN 369, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cent) desired no rigid standard; only one desired a standard of no B. coli in 10 ce quantities; thirty-five (85.4 per cent) desired to apply the Hygienic Laboratory standard or one more rigid; eight (19.8 per cent) would tolerate no B. coli in bottled waters; one of the five bac- teriologists desiring no rigid standard considered water to be suspi- cious if three 10 cc portions show B. coli. We have a right to demand that bottled water shall first of all be clean. Whatever other qualities it may claim or offer are secondary to cleanliness. In a study, therefore, of the bacteria found, we have a right to consider them not only as possible evidences of danger to health but as indices of conditions in the bottling room for which the operator is clearly responsible. SIGNIFICANCE OF BACTERIA IN POTABLE WATERS. It is understood that natural waters may contain bacteria which multiply in the presence of very small amounts of organic matter. Bacteriologists who have worked with distilled water are familiar with the micrococci which multiply rapidly therein when the per- centage of organic material is extremely low. The presence, there- fore, of a large number of organisms in waters which have been bottled for several days or weeks has little significance unless the characters of these organisms are more or less definitely known. The presence of B. coli in large numbers in waters is universally considered as an indication of the possible presence of its dangerous associates. The conditions under which waters are bottled and held and the mineral substances present may, in some cases, exert influences upon the multiplication of B. coli differing slightly from the effect of surface or well waters in nature. Preliminary studies in this laboratory indicate an immediate decrease instead of any possible increase of B. coli in freshly inoculated bottles of certain spring waters.t Houston? found that B. coli disappeared in stored water from the River Lea. Dunham® observed that distilled water enriched with either hay infusion or nutrient broth (1 ce in 1 liter) and inoculated with over 20,000 B. coli showed a marked reduction of the total number of B. coli at the end of 24 hours. He also reported that sterile water inoculated with pollution from ordinary soil does not show an appreciable number of B. coli. It may, therefore, be assumed that bottled waters in which B. coli are found in appreciable numbers contained approximately all of those B. coli (if not more) when they left the springs or bottling 1 Browne, W. W. (Jour. Infect. Dis., v.17, No. 1, 1915, pp. 72-78) finds multiplication of B. coli in stored water, but an analysis of his experiments shows that the water used was so enriched as to be no longer comparable to stored spring waters. 2 Houston, Reports on Research Work, Metropolitan Water Board, London, 1907. 3 Dunham, E. K., Value of bacteriological examination of water from a sanitary point of view, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., v. 19, No. 8, 1897, p. 591. BACTERIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS. 3 houses. It is reasonable also to assume that when people pay from 2 cents to $30 per gallon for bottied water they expect to ob- tain a pure, or at least a safe water. Whipple’ has defined a “pure” water as one which is ‘‘free from bacteria or other organisms which are liable to cause disease, and also free from B. coli.”’ INSPECTION OF SPRINGS. The ultimate test of the fitness of a particular water for sale lies in its condition at the sprig. When contaminations are found in the bottled article, the determination of responsibility for the condition found calls for inspection at every stage of its handling. Such inspections of springs have been made from time to time, usually resulting in locating the source of trouble. The results of the inspection of three springs are included in Tables I, II, and III. These illustrate certain typical sources of pollution. In spring No. 1, insufficient coverings over the spring evidently permitted the entrance of a rotten lemon or orange, containing the mold Penicillium italicum, a short time previous to the collection of these samples. This mold can not exist long in water, and is practically never found except on decaying citrus fruits. The actual inspection of this spring and statements by the people of the vicinity disclosed the fact that freshets would cause the water in the creek flowing past to back through a swimming pool and into the spring. Inadequate care was also apparent in the method of cleaning and rinsing the bottles before they were filled. These bottles, as were those used at sprmg No. 3, were rinsed with polluted water just before filling. (See Table III.) The water in spring No. 2 was undoubtedly grossly polluted at times from the creek which flowed past. A culture of B. paratyphosus B was obtained from a shipment of bottled water from this spring four months prior to the inspection. It is not always possible, however, to locate the source of contami- nation at the spring even by several inspections. One such spring is still under observation. This spring is on high land well removed from farm buildings and large streams of surface water. Its water is highly mineralized and at its source contains B. coli in 1 ce or @.1 cc quantities. It is said that the water is boiled and the bottles sterilized before the bottling; yet 88 out of 96 bottles purchased at retail stores have been found to contain B. coli in 10 ce quantities, and 64 out of 96 in 1 ce quantities. The B. coli found were identified in all instances as belonging to the communis and communior groups. Evidently the survey has been incomplete in some essential point. Naturally carbonated waters occasionally contain large numbers of organisms. In general, however, artificially carbonated waters 1 Whipple, Geo. C. zoialte of pure and wholesome water, Biol. studies of the pupils of W. T. Sedgwick, June, 1906. 4 BULLETIN 369, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. were found to contain no B. coli in 10 ce quantities and very low total counts at both temperatures of incubation. The total counts very seldom were above 50 per cc, and often were less than 10 per ce. In certain instances legal actions have been brought against com- panies preparing and selling bottled waters when the waters examined have contained an excessive number of organisms, including B. coli. These companies having been thus impressed with the necessity of pro- ducing a clean commercial product have responded by placing on the market later consignments from which no B. coli were isolated in 10 cc quantities from 12 or more bottles. Repeated examinations of water from many springs have failed to show any B. coli in 10 ce quantities. EXAMINATION OF COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS. The methods employed in making these bacterial examinations were those prescribed from year to year by the committee on water analysis of the American Public Health Association. The high- temperature counts have always been made on plain agar after incubation at 37° C.; but the earlier low-temperature incubations were made on agar at 25° C., instead of on gelatin at 20° C., as during the last two years. Dextrose broth, lactose bile, and lactose broth have been used at different times for the preliminary tests for B. coli; but in nearly every instance, when reported present, B. coli have been isolated. Many of these have been verified by testing special dextrose cultures with methyl red, as recommended by Clark and Lubs.t. A summary of all these examinations follows: Of 110 domestic springs (see Table [V)— 47 (43 per cent) contained no B. coli in 10 ce quantities. 63 (57 per cent) contained B. coli in 10 ce quantities. 61 (55 per cent) contained B. col in 5 ce quantities. 59 (53 per cent) contained B. coli in 1 cc quantities.? 49 (44 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.1 ce quantities. 31 (28 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.01 cc quantities. 10 (9 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.001 ce quantities.’ Sixty-nine (62 per cent) gave counts of less than 100 per ce on one or more bottles after incubation at 37° C. for two days. Eighteen (16 per cent) gave average counts of less than 100 per ce on six or more bottles at 37° C. Fourteen (12 per cent) gave no counts of less than 1,000 per ce on Six or more individual bottles. ., The highest average count on all samples from any one spring was 191,238. 1 Clark and Lubs, The differentiation of bacteria of the Colon-aerogenes family by the use of indicators Jour. Infect. Dis., v. 17, No. 1, 1915, p. 160. 2 Any potable water supply containing B. coli in 1 ce quantities is considered suspicious by health departments and is at once investigated. 3 Water containing B. coli in 0.001 cc quantities is too suggestive of dilute sewage to be accepted by anyone. BACTERIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS. 5 Of 57 foreign springs (see Table V)— 29 (51 per cent) contained no B. coli in 10 ce quantities. 28 (49 per cent) contained B. colt in 10 ce quantities. 25 (45 per cent) contained B. coli in 5 ce quantities. 21 (37 per cent) contained B. coli in 1 ce quantities.! 16 (28 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.1 ce quantities. 8 (14 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.01 ce quantities. 2 (3 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.001 ce quantities.” Forty (70 per cent) gave counts of less than 100 on one or more bottles after incubation for two days at 37° C. Twenty-five (44 per cent) gave average counts of less than 100 per ce at 37° C. The highest count shown at 37° C. was 37,000 perce. This sample gave an average count of 16,000 per cc, and B. colt were found in one- third of the bottles examined in 5 ce quantities. Two imported waters bearing on their labels the words ‘“ bacterio- logically pure’’ gave the following results: Sample No. 1; six bottles examined— Lowest number of organisms per cc developing on gelatin at 20° C....-. 700 _Average number of organisms per ce developing on gelatin at 20° C..... 2, 450 Lowest number or organisms per cc developing on agar at 37° C........ 300 Average number of organisms per cc developing on agar at 37° C.....-. 1, 250 4 bottles contained B. coli in 10 ce quantities. 4 bottles contained B. coli in 5 ce quantities. 4 bottles contained B. coli in 1 ce quantities. 2 bottles contained B. coli in 0.1 ce quantities. Sample No. 2; seven bottles examined— Lowest number of organisms per cc developing on gelatin at 20° C.....- 120 Average number of organisms per cc developing on gelatin at 20° C..... 9, 410 Lowest number of organisms per cc developing on agar at 37° C.......-- 40 Average number of organisms per cc developing on agar at 37° C......- 482 6 bottles contained B. coli in 10 cc quantities. 5 bottles contained B. coli in 5 cc. quantities. 5 bottles contained B. coli in 1 cc quantities. 5 bottles contained B. coli in 0.1 ce quantities. 3 bottles contained B. coli in 0.01 ce quantities. Among the organisms which have been isolated from the above samples are: B. coli, B. cloace, B. mycoides, B. paratyphosus B, B. aerogenes, B. aurantiacus, M. citreus, B. maritumum, B. ovale, B. pro- digiosus, B. fluorescens liquefaciens, B. fluorescens non-liquefaciens, B. subtilis, and long-chain streptococci. Molds of the genera Trichoderma, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Citromyces, Fusarium, Actinomyces, and Sporotrichum were identi- 1 Any potable water supply containing B. coli in1 ce quantities is considered suspicious by health departments and is at once investigated. 2 Water containing B. coli in 0.001 ce quantities is too suggestive of dilute sewage to be accepted by anyone. 6 BULLETIN 369, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fiedt Without attaching too much significance to the occurrence of any of these forms, it may be remarked that Actinomyces and Sporotrichum are both large ill-defined groups, some of whose mem- bers are pathogenic to man as well as to other animals. A large num- ber of spores of a species of Actinomyces culturally resembling the pathogenic form were found in one imported water. Similarly, Sporotrichum in large numbers was found in another water as taken in the market and as taken directly from the spring three months later. While proving nothing, such observations do not add to the attractiveness of such waters. The other genera listed are regularly found in soil and in decaying vegetable matter. Sufficient to say, they are not indicative of cleanliness. CONCLUSIONS. Bottled water for table use should either be actually sterile or should comply with a strict standard as to the number of B. coli tolerated. No water should be permitted to be sold which is seen LN at the source in any manner. Inspection of springs and bottling establishments together with the analysis of official samples indicates that ignorance of proper precautions, carelessness, and neglect, are fully as large factors in the contaminations found as are impurities actually present in the springs. The numbers of B. coli in official samples collected in the market may be safely assumed to be less rather than greater than the num- bers in the freshly bottled stock. ; The data as summarized show the need of improvement in the bacteriological condition of many of the brands of bottled water to be found in the market. Careful consideration of cases to which spe- cial study has been given shows that there are some springs used for the production of commercial bottled waters which should not be so used. It is evident that the presence of serious and unremoyvable contamination should shut the water of a spring permanently from the market. Such contamination-could easily be ascertained before a water business is established. In other cases, the contaminations found are clearly those of manipulation. Before a person undertakes to operate a water business he should be prepared both in equip- ment and in operating knowledge to turn out a product free from contamination. This is demonstrated to be commercially possible, without burdensome restrictions, by the number of firms already mar- keting water free from contamination. It is equally evident in the ability of other firms to produce clean water after the need of doing so has been emphasized by court action. 1 Identifications were made hy Dr. Charles Thom, of the Bureau of Chemistry. BACTERIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS. 7 The results clearly show that bottled waters can be made to con- form to the requirements of the United States Public Health Service for drinking water furnished upon trains; that is, that not more than one 10 ce sample out of five should show the presence of B. coli. TABULATED DATA. TasLe I.—Results of the bacteriological examination of water collected from spring No. 1. Colonies of organisms per cc de- Smallest quantity in which veloping after— were found— | 4 days’ incubation on Description of sample. GERD ATE pubent gelatin at B, coli. cubation | on nutrient |— - | Molds. agar at A : OC Total | Liquefi- at ce 2 days count. Cieuford Pee eal Ie een ion. lection. “Clean”’ bottle rinsed with 100 cc ster- ce. ce. a. ile water...-------------+-+++-22+--- 1,000,000 | 1,400,000 | 17,000 0.1 Orla. Do... 2.222222 -- eerie ee eee 00, 000 540, 000 800 sil rT Nee [ae cee wr reate “Dirty” bottle rinsed with 100 cc ster- | ChWatenemee seita cine te eee ieeisien 700,000 | 1,100,000 | 120,000 -O1 YOOiMy | Henevienin ot O.. +22 ee eee eee tee epee ete 1,000,000 | 1,400,000 | 59,000 01 OD Les Mee 16 caps rinsed with 70 cc sterile water - - 4, 800 700 18 1.0 GRU ecco soe Water used for washing and rinsing povtles sete cece eect sete tee eeee ee 790, 000 400,000 | 18,000 “Al Os aetna wcrescce ress cer errr ects tsetse 840,000 | 1,000,000} 90,000 ail Lists em pests Be Water: from bottling spring..--.------- 3,000 48, 000 1,000 () (1) 0.001 cecesece rrr teste estes er ets t erase 4, 500 38, 000 1,000 1) Q) 001 Water from creek 100 feet from bot- tling spring....------+++++---------- 410,090 900,000 | 10,000 01 SNOT |e erate orteats Water from swimming pool, after use liiy DNA Oo os opoacesqsodeauedousd peedouseneed||sscccésosendllseaeceauue Wiha beeen Ponce 9 Water from swimming pool, after use (day NZO WACO OccadgaceuooscansacasedaleoeaodoacdeHloadoccbeeceu|bonoccasor OO1G|Eaiee eee | een 12 bottles collected after inspection; : average results. .....------+---++---- | 126,000 152, 400 5, 150 BOOM Nos oheakene 001 1 No B. coli were present in 10 ce quantities. 2 This determination was made at the time the sample was received at the laboratory. TasLE II.—Results of the bacteriological examination of water collected from spring No. 2. Description of sample. “Clean” bottle rinsed with 100 cc ster- 12 capsrinsed with 100 ce sterile water. . War from bottling spring......-....-- Water irom creck 5 feet from bottling SPEDE. .- 10 bottles collected after saEecnn: AVELACE LESUIES see eee ates Colonies of organisms per ec de- veloping after— Smallest quantity in which were found— 4 days’ incubation on ‘a nutrient gelatin at B. coli. 2 days’ in- 20°C. cubation on nutrient Molds. agar at ; 3 WP C: Motaleey eliquatis\|)w se |) 2days conte ane of collec- | after col- : tion. lection. d ce. ce. ce. 280, 000 800, 000 800 0.1 TOV =", ae ee ee 300, 000 500, 000 33, 000 1.0 1.0 0. 001 870 1,100 100 5.0 bt Uw a eee ea 137, 000 110, 000 2,000 1.0 Be een Gere wise 117,000 85, 000 1, 100 1.0 Be pier aero eee 310, 000 (2B) fort leases ee . 001 {000k | pete 297, 000 (yet |e es 001 SOOM ISssseccces 2, 220 2, 262 98 pie Viorel earner lowes Cee 2 1 Liquefied. 2 This determination was made at the time the sample was received at the laboratory. 8 BULLETIN 369, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe II].—Results of the bacteriological examination of water collected from spring No. 3. Description of sample. “Clean” bottlerinsed with 100 cc ster- ile water Water used for washing and rinsing Colonies of organisms per cc de | (ees quantity in which bottles Do Water from feeding tank for bottling. | 6 bottles collected before inspection; | average results veloping after— were found— { | 4 days’ incubation on | _. | nutrient gelatin at B. coli. 2days’in- |} 920°C. cubation | on nutrient | cy Molds. agarat | 37°C. Total | Ligue. | 2-0 time | 2 days count. GeRb tion. | lection. ce. cc. ce. 2,700 3, 700 110 1.0 gal es Oe eS 37, 000 40, 000 3,300 OL O35 | ees 1,000 2, 100 30 al Pili [Boer yi eae 1,700 1,500 40 aul ep West) Shee oats 14 4 0 (1) (Bs | seeeeeee 8 3 0 () @)es | Seeeeeeces 330 290 190 10.0 LOZ ORS eaee meeetie | 110 170 60 10.0 LONO| epee 170 3, 100 0 1.0 5203) ae 10, 100 33, 500 313 CO I ne eh = ee er 1 No B. coli were present in 10 ce quantities. 2 This determination was made at the time the sample was received at the laboratory. BACTERIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS. “S770 F UL SPLOW "891910 F UL SPIO ‘mmntAodsopely ‘tINIT ‘eullepOyoiy, :Set10q Z UL SPlOW “‘Se[}}0q F UL SPIO “SPIOW ooo ocooonoocoocooocoooocooooonooooomMmooooo:°s SOONMOAMNOOSCOMMNOCOOCOOCOCOCOCOCOnNOSo o ONO cooow “09 100°0) “99 10°0 SOnOMDHODNHOOCOMDOOOCOCnMArOSCOROCn ool ONY oOOOCs 00 T'0 Smal N Sal mas or N *00 T N re Sn A oo oe Nn antag SCOMMOSCHMOOAANTOOCHRMOMNNOCOCCOMErOoo 00 ¢ are N 4 oa ral Nn Qe COMMOOCMIMOONMINHMONMRMIANCSOSONOHAMOCSOSDHA “09 OT —Ul 2709 *g ZUIMOYS SeT}10q JO JEqMINnN czo‘e = | 06 GIL ‘9 06 Goo‘TT | 00% T 990 ‘9 00S ‘T sect | 0. 80F ‘Lh | 00F C18‘ OFF mee ny ZI | 00% F 18 ee ‘ 69F ‘2 00L . ae it ‘ 899 ‘T 0 g¢ 0 cos ‘¢ OIL 0SO0‘ZET | 022 99% I GGL 62 0S6'F | 00L TDK O&F 008 ‘% 002 869 | Of 000 2 000 ‘T g € fa eng? 009 SFT OOF Z8L ‘T 6% z 0 OlF % 00g 080 ‘Z 0 PSL ‘G OIZ 000 ‘2 000 ‘961 000 F% - 000 ‘ST 008 ‘T 000 ‘21 ee 000 ‘00¢ c Ove 000 ‘cet Ore, 000 ‘¢ 000 ‘2 OST, 000°, oe OOT ‘% 008 ‘TT re 000 ‘F 000 ‘ST 9 ‘ 000 ‘68 008 ‘ 002 ‘OT g 009 ‘8 008 ‘IT 000 ‘Gz 99'S 1% 000 ‘g¢ 85 '8 | OF 000 ‘0s GLO ‘ZT | OFT 000 “¢ gee ‘et | 002‘F | 000 ‘0S 6F At 03T en ‘ 0 ‘ 8 c CO‘ZF | OEE | 000‘LFT 000 ‘¢ 000 ‘Oz 3 ‘ : 000 ‘F6 $99‘2 | OOF 000 ‘22 089‘ | 2 009 ‘8% OSS | OLT 000 ‘FT 928‘T | OOT 000 ‘¢ 188 06 006 CSF 002 002 286 ‘FE | O19 000 ‘098 £66 '‘T ge 000 *28 G09 OOF ‘T 2g8‘@ | 002 000 ‘8 POL OL 006 € OFF OF 002 ‘T 9 [Or Be 000‘8 | 000‘T | 000 ‘9T ra z cee 02 061 009 ‘F eS) 000 ‘T 00L‘T | 62 OOT ‘TT I 0 z 00¢‘T | TF 009 ‘9 9c 0 006 ‘T 08% 9 OZT ‘T "088 | -asomory, “4S0USTET “IDA VY Pp ‘9SV19A VY |"YSAMO'T| “SOUSIH “DO oL8 FV “CO 8% 10.00) amj4e1edM19} MOT IV —Ul}e[e8 10 1838 d JUSTI{Nu WoO Surdojerep BI1eJ0eq JO SETUOTOD Jo IEquIN Ny “89717 0q JO 10q “Un N COMNHK AH MINTA ANAM ODMANMOHAR AND Heo tO ‘sald -WIes Jo 10q WN ‘shuuds upiwup wolf dan fo suoynununxa pooiboporsajong ay) fo hunmung— A, AIAV, . . , . ’ : ‘ ‘ . oe ayes noe oo. 06 eo. eo. ee oo : ; (AMC ID OM AOD 369, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LLETIN BU 10 *91190q AIOAO UL HOTINIIP 99 1000 UL SPLOW *Sop}}Oq TT Ur SooAUAOIATD PUL LANTT[LOTU f “SPIOW sore =| OL ~— | 000 ‘FT L9°8T | SB ‘| 000 “os ozo‘2t | 000‘ | 000 ‘g9 818 O28 | OSL ‘T a, OS Lae ees ‘th | 0082 | 00062 £866 | 00S 008 ‘1 C66 oso, | ose 'T 00S °9T | 000°FT | 000‘6T (OO) Atjupe RTECS REE aa 269 ET | 0&8 O0F ‘02 828 08 008 ‘F 10P 6 O&T | 000 ‘ge 0000 | OOk'E | 000 f0LT 008 ‘% 00g T | OOF ‘e ZP9'8 0 000 ‘99 09 0G2 ‘8 000'€ | 0008 000‘r | 000'T8 000°% | 008 ‘9T 08 OOF f OOF O9P OOT ‘8 0g 002 ‘¢ 06 | OOP *) (000 ‘21 00L‘F | 000 ‘8% 698° 02 006 ‘er S10 ‘T OL 008 *% G20 ‘S 028 008 ‘8 ‘ODVADAY |'4SOMO7| “YSOUSTET 0) 0 0 p p Gg Pel ‘Tt | OT 000 ‘9 0 0 Fé p RROSOOVAPEIPRISN (ropy te Ml (Os) 000 ‘0 0 0 0 0 0 0 +1 0 91 0 0) 0 9 9 9 916 06 006 0 , 5 r RS SARE Ea | er | 0 0 0 0 0 0 ie) Ole g I 9 9 9 9 9 99¢‘T | OOT‘E | OOF ‘ES 0 0 0 0 0 0 909 ‘T | 009 0 0 0 0 0 0 Te ha tel penne T I 6 z z ra 00S ‘ET | 000 ‘TT 0) i T it 1 I rea ets: ; 0 I z } g G 6Lb‘9 | 09 002 ‘BP 0 0 0 I G l 03% Gg Ogg i 9 ra al cl GI 920'% | 0¢ 000 £22 Or 11 PT ST LI 81 000‘0F | 002, | 000 *4eT 0 I z V6 6 z ose ‘Ss | 00L‘T | 000‘¢ 0 G GT 9g LP SP O6P Of OOF ‘OT 0 0 0 0 0 0 O1 z pS 0) 0 0 0 0 0 € T L 0 0 I it if | a heels et tee a Peg eee , 0 0 4 ; Mite htee eh Uieereee bauececcor 0 0 0 I T T OOO! Sieg sees ste 0 0 I I IT I 00¢‘T | 000‘T | 000 ‘% 0 0 z p L 8 eee ‘Sb | 000‘8T | 000 ‘TOT 0 z OT rat ral ral L98 ‘ST | T 000 ‘8 0 0 0 0 0 0 9T8‘r | 000'T | 0066 0 0 0 0 0 0 al OL 00% 0 0 0 ) 0 0 Sh 19 621 ‘T 0 0 } 9 9 9 raan I 06P 0 G g p p p 129 02 000‘ 0 0 0 0 0 0 913 06 008 0 0 0 0 0 0 002‘ | 006 002 ‘8 0 p II €1 GT at 682 09 ogg ‘T 0 t4 z } € g 991 06 09% 0 0 T G 8 0 GE6 b 006 ‘P ae “WSOMO'T] “YSOUSTTT “00 T00°0) 09 10°70] *90 TO | “oot | "00g | 100 OF —-— SOroL SLi “CO 09% 10 02) OIN}VIOAULOY MOT PV —Ur 2709 *g SULMOYS Sop}od JO Laquin NY —UTYVIOS 10 ede JUOTANU LO SUTAOPPAOP VILOJOVG, JO SOFMOTOD JO LequaNn N ‘ponurjuo)j—shuwds wpowowp wou “sop}}oq Jo 10q -UnLN wap JO suoynuruDnxa yWobojoiwapong ay? fo hunmung— A] ATAV J, = Oe een rel MOOMmANAMIN ‘sold “Wes jo 10q -UWINN ‘ON sunidg 11 BACTERIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS. *S91}40q ZE UL SPOT moooomtococooooooooooocooooooooeooo~eoeoooooHnd “uot? “IP 99 T00°O TT seq}40q 6 UT MANYoTIWOI0dg | ¢ Samal SD HOMONDDOMOOMOOOCOCOOCOSCOCOCCOCSCSCOoSCSCOCneonOoSCOoOnOOoNS SD DOMMNDDOODOOCOCHOOCOCCOnROOCOONOOSTONOONOONNOO mo ise) Sol sal oO N re oO BOW WAG IS FIPO ONO OI OO MO QOS Os SS ao Saco IT II a ZI 0 0 F P 6 6 0 0 6 Or sae L L 62 88 0 0 L 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 i T 8 8 0 0 z z 0 0 (00 8 8 0 0 G g i Z 0 0 0 0 9 9 0 0 0 0 8z ee 0 0 8 6 Or Or z z G 9 9 9 id &% 0 0 OOF ‘¢ 009. 000 ‘¢ 006 “T 000 ‘FT Ones? 009 ‘T 1&6 0 OFS | OFT SILT. | 02 : 09 190% {060 908 ‘T z £802 08 98 0 0S2 ‘9 008 , Ocr ‘Zr | 009‘e OFS € OC, OIL, ESP iL | 0066 800 ‘T OF 6ET , Ore £86 °S 000 ‘% 082 ‘9 006 ‘T 0 0 C6L ‘8 0% 00 Z2T | 000‘T S19 ‘EE | 002, 999 ‘9eT | 0002 P86 L SOF Lz 86 09 OST ‘é 086 G18 % 02% ZOL‘ST | OOF ‘T 089 ‘ZI | 00€ 998 °% 00¢ gIS' 009 OLI'% 008 , 000 *2 000 “¢ 696 ‘4 Gog ‘8 01% cc al - £98 °% & 196 “2 0ZI NN MANNKMHANMNANNM RONAN NTANN NANA HE MAHA HON BULLETIN 369, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 12 *"saqq10q & UL SPIO oooocococecoecococp“(e “sap}}0d % UL SPIOW co —) —) SOSSSCOSSOSCONSSSSSSOSSSCSCSCSSSCSMONSOSOSOSOS ‘00 | "00 T00°0 | TO0°O 0 0 0 0 ee al Soy 009 FF | F 000 ‘Oat I z Zz rd Tox ‘T | 0 000 ‘2 OPS ‘9 ré 000 ‘22 0 0 0 0 0 0 T z 0 Or 0 T T I GZ oo TA EO SS SS epee aCe Wants games hme 0 0 0 0 z 0 g 0g 0 OST 0 0 0 0 iad 9 a TOT €9 09% P P L l 096 0 000 ‘9 eye OF 000 ‘TT 0 0 0 0 91 0 OL GhL SL 002 ‘8 g G g 9 CSF OF 002 ‘T OIF 6 a 000 ‘F% 0 0 0 0 Ge 0g OF 0g9 00g 008 p PT 61 0% 28 0 OOF GcZ € 000 ‘€ is 0 0 0 wreceteeee[ermteceeeel G BS Si as alee at 0 I T € OFT ‘8 | OLF 000 ‘62 | 269% O9T 000 ‘2 0 0 0 I 02 Rees ac | tease sae RO Viale 2 FEB ESS os 0 0 0 0 0zz‘T | 00¢ 000 “F OOF ‘2 00g ‘1 000 ‘Tz 0 0 0 0 z 0 € 2G9 OF OOF ‘T 0 0 0 iT (Adrenal peeeee ore al reece per Ui OGIG kde ess Bees yon 0 0 0 0 ors ‘% | OF 000 “6 O19 08 009 ‘T 0 0 T rd G2 0¢ 09¢ P if 01 0 0 0 0 CGP OIT 008 OT 0 02 PL eed a b | OS@‘T | 008 000°0% | OSh% =| O04, 008 * 0 0 0 0 9 0 a £99 ‘9 OOT ‘T OOF ‘2% 0 0 0 0 C6 9 OF9 80g 02 O10 ‘T 0 0 0 0 6 z 91 tT (6 sé Cd i i i G29 OOF 006 199 OPT OOT ‘T 0 0 0 0 POF O1T | OFS 000 ‘ogt | 00g ‘e 000 ‘OTZ 0 0 0 0 € g mea en oe 0 I (6 ra z ‘4 ze (6 OZT 01 0 0g 0 {0 |0 {0 | 000‘e | 000‘e — | 000‘e ‘| 000% | 000° | o00'¢ 0 0 0 0 8L G 061 219 ‘T OSF 006 ‘8 0 0 0 0 Pee T OFS 068 0 002 ‘T 0 0) 0 0 ST 0 08% 8¢ 0 008 0 0 0 0 es 0 st al z ree 0 0 0 0 zes‘% | 08 000‘FT | sFt‘9 OFF 000 “Gz 0 0 0 0 OF L 08 OF ra OL eds “48 A SIP | ‘a3 “4SOMO “4SOust -10AV {SOMO'T 4soq, TH odBIOA VY qSOM' LAL 4So¥U. TH *00 ry Ce: ae T0 vo T oo Gc dD 0T 2 ; "CO 09% O olf FV IO ,0Z) ernye1eda1e} Moy VV —u —UT}R]O3 10 1VsB 1109 “gq SULMOYS So]}}0q JO AoqUINN suajon pajsodua fo sadus fo suoynurumxa yoovbojorwajong ay) fo hupuung— A aTav JUGTAINUE To Surdopoaop VIAOJOVG JO SOTMO[OO Jo JOqTUNN ny} Sa) Col Te) el ea osteo lah ey lS EAS CORIO STs ANF MOFRRBANTANN TR RRNA BRP ARO MRAM NAR RR HN “Sop. *sord -joq | -ures jo 10q | JO 10q -uny | -ainN ‘Oo suridg 13 COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS. IN BACTERIA ’ SOCOnOCOMHMOnROOCOCONCCOSCOCOo SOSH HHAAMIMANOOCOONONMNMOOM SACO DHARAMIMANSONMNOMOMMNOON oooonooorncoocoo SMA DAA MIMNOSONNOMOMNTS Oot 6 a put > eh “0 as ine ‘9 as e ) ( z z 0g 0 OFS 08z (6 002 “F &% P 89% 0 008 ELE z 008 6 v 008 09 008 919 44 00F ‘T g T GOP O0T 002 ore ‘% OFS O0T ‘F P I e1o | OFT 000;T | OLT'T | OTF 00r% | & I is if ne 006 if wh wh O0T ‘% 000‘8t |.¢€ T G P 61 fp T om ‘OT w 09 18 at “8 ; 00F ‘2 g T : 0g g T T69‘T | OTT 009 “€ 19, 086, OOTT | 9 T oao‘e |oor't |ocee | ose lover lore |e \t ee es xe 08 ‘T 004 '¢ g T 9IT | see‘F 7 oor ‘se | 6 i Bae “G2 see NOE cal Ors 0 Ost Vee 106 oa saalaes ee weeee| r pos al fon O08 a 0966 | 008% | OOL'S | TT i7 ? OT ‘T 8ZL 0g oT ‘S €I g 060‘T | 08 aS Peesee es eres eases ee se lue T 81 ré OL Lite 0 0S ral T G6E OF 00F ‘T 89% “E 09% 000‘stT 12 T PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDIES. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Bacteriological Study of Retail Ice Cream. (Department Bulletin 303.) Bacteriological Studies of Soils of Truckee-Carson Irrigation Project. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 211.) Bacteria in Milk. (#armers’ Bulletin 490.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. Relation of Bacteria to Flavors of Cheddar Cheese. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 62.) Price, 5 cents. Bacteria of Pasteurized and Unpasteurized Milk Under Laboratory Conditions. (Bureau of Animal Industry Builetin 73.) Price, 5 cents. Bacteriology of Commercially Pasteurized and Raw Market Milk. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 126.) Price, 15 cents. Bacteriology of Cheddar Cheese. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 150.) Price, 10 cents. Methods of Classifying Lactic-Acid Bacteria. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 154.) Price, 5 cents. Study of Bacteria which Survive Pasteurization. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 161.) Price, 10 cents. Bacillus Necrophorus and Its Economic Importance. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 91.) Price, 5 cents. ; Review of Investigations in Soil Bacteriology. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 194.) Price, 15 cents. ° Effect of Copper upon Water Bacteria. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 100, Part VII.) Price, 5 cents. Miscellaneous Papers: Testing Cultures of Nodule-forming Bacteria. (Jn Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 120.) Price, 5 cents. _ 14 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1916 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER July 20, 1916 THE RESULTS OF PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD- BUILDING ROCK. By Prtvost Hupsarpb, Chemical Engineer, and FRANK H. JACKSON, Jr., Assistant Testing Engineer. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Introduction lessees _ el pee Ce) ee ee 1 } Interpretation of results of physical Agencies causing road deterioration__ 2 ECS TS ee A ED aS STI 9 Factors influencing the selection of | Table IV.—Geographical distribution rock for road building ____________ 2 of samples tested_________________ 12 Physical properties of road-building Table V.—Results of physical tests of TRO) Le oS gaa ly Al ea Al apc as 3 road-building rock_-___-__________-_ 13 Variations in results of tests___-_-___ 5 INTRODUCTION. The purpose of this bulletin is to furnish highway engineers with the results of physical tests of road-building rock made in the labo- ratories of the United States Office of Public Roads and Rural En- gineering to January 1, 1916. It is proposed to revise this bulletin from time to time, so that additional data secured by the office may become promptly available. Detailed descriptions of the methods of determining the physical properties of road-building rocks have been ‘given in a recent publication by Jackson.t. Interpretation of the results of these tests has, however, been reserved for publication with the tabulated data here given. It should be noted that Bul- letins Nos. 347 and 370 therefore constitute a complete revision of Office of Public Roads Bulletin No. 44, by Albert T. Goldbeck and Frank H. Jackson, Jr., which was published in 1912. As a matter of interest it may be stated that since January 1, 1912, approximately 1,350 additional samples have been classified and tested, raising the total number from the United States and Canada to about 3,650. 1 United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No, 347. 31693°—Bull. 370—16——1 2 BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AGENCIES CAUSING ROAD DETERIORATION. Roads may deteriorate from both external and internal causes. The destructive agencies may be classified as mechanical, chemical, and physical, but in some respects it 1s more convenient to consider deterioration as being due to the effect of (1) traffic, (2) climatic con- ditions, and (8) faulty construction. The first two are external agencies and the latter is internal. Traffic—Traffic divides itself into two classes, (a) horse-drawn vehicles and (b) self-propelled or motor-driven vehicles. In the former the impact of horses’ feet tends to disturb the position of indi- vidual fragments of rock in the wearing course and also to fracture the rock. At the same time wheels, especially steel-tired wheels, not only exert an abrasive action which grinds away the rock sur- faces, but tend to crush the fragments of rock in proportion to the load per unit width of tire. Automobile traffic exerts a severe shearing action upon the road surface which tends to loosen the individual fragments and, ulti- mately, to remove them from the road. Where chains or armored tires are used, considerable abrasion may also result, especially under those conditions which favor slipping or skidding. Climatic agencies.—So far as the rock itself is concerned, climatic or weather conditions are not important destructive agencies. While it is true that rain and surface waters gradually dissolve or react with certain rock-forming minerals, the action is so slow as to be practically negligible as a source of deterioration during the life of a road. Frost may cause some deterioration in the more porous types of rock, but both rain and frost are more destructive to the road structure than to the rock of which it is built. Wind also is a negli- gible factor so far as the rock is concerned. Faulty construction—Faulty construction may resulé in rapid deterioration of the road proper, due to a number of causes, such as poor drainage, lack of proper consolidation, the use of the wrong size or wrong grading of broken stone, etc. Destruction or disinte- gration of the fragments of rock may also be hastened by these errors in construction. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SELECTION OF ROCK FOR ROAD BUILDING. In accordance with the preceding discussion it is evident that from the standpoint of destructive agencies traffic conditions are the most important factors to be considered in the selection ef rock for road building. Availability as well as relative cost are also impor- tant factors in so far as ultimate economy is concerned, but need not be considered in this bulletin. In addition, the type of road to be PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. 3 constructed is a most important consideration, and in general the se- lection of rock should be based upon the character and volume of traffic as related to the type of road in which it is to be used. The more common types of road in which stone is used are: 1. Water-bound broken-stone roads, as macadam, maintained as such. 2. Water-bound macadam roads maintained with dust palliatives. 3. Water-bound macadam roads with bituminous carpet. 4, Bituminous broken-stone roads with a seal coat of bituminous material constructed according to the penetration method. 5. Bituminous concrete roads with a seal coat of bituminous material. 6. Bituminous concrete roads without a seal coat of bituminous material. 7. Portland cement concrete roads with a coarse aggregate of broken stone. 8. Stone-block pavements. The destructive effect of traflic, both with respect to character and volume, varies to a considerable extent for the different types of road. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. The success or failure of a rock for road building depends largely upon the extent to which it will resist the destructive influences of traffic. The three most important physical properties are hardness, toughness, and binding power. Hardness is the resistance which the rock offers to the displacement of its surface particles by abra- sion; toughness is the resistance which it offers to fracture under impact; and binding power is the ability which the dust from the rock possesses, or develops by contact with water, of binding the Jarge rock fragments together. In order to approximate as closely as possible in the laboratory the destructive effects produced by the various agencies which have been mentioned, certain physical tests have been developed. Brief descriptions of these tests are as follows: HARDNESS TEST. Hardness is determined by subjecting a cylindrical rock core 25 mm. in diameter, drilled from the specimen to be examined, to the abrasive action of quartz sand fed upon a revolving steel disk. The end of the specimen is worn away in inverse ratio to its hardness and the amount of loss is expressed in the form of a coefficient as follows: : i Coefficient of hardness = 20—1/3 w, where w equals the loss in weight after 1,000 revolutions of the disk. 4 BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . TOUGHNESS TEST. ‘Toughness is determined by subjecting a cylindrical test specimen 25 by 25 millimeters (1 by 1 inch) in size to the impact produced by the fall of a 2-kilogram (4.4-pound) hammer upon a steel plunger whose lower end is spherical and rests upon the test piece. The energy of the blow delivered is increased by increasing the height of fall of the hammer 1 centimeter (0.39 inch) after each blow. The height of blow in centimeters at failure of the specimen is called the toughness. DEVAL ABRASION TEST. A test devised by the French for measuring the combined action of abrasion and impact is as follows: Five kilograms (11 pounds) of freshly broken rock between 2 and 24 inches in size is tested in a special form of cylinder so mounted on a frame that the axis of rotation of the cylinder is inclined at an angle of 30° with the axis of the cylinder itself. The fragments of rock forming the charge are thus thrown from end to end twice during each revolution, caus- ing them to strike and rub against each other and the sides of the cylinder. After 10,000 revolutions the resulting material is screened through a 74-inch sieve and the weight of the material passing is used to calculate the per cent of wear. The French coefficient of wear is calculated from the per cent of wear as follows: . 40 French coeflicient of wear=<——_-_—_—_. Per cent wear CEMENTING-VALUE TEST. To determine the binding power, or cementing value, as it is usually called, 500 grams (1.1 pounds) of the material to be tested is crushed to pea size and ground with water in a ball mill until it has the con- sistency of a stiff dough. It is then molded into cylindrical briquettes 25 by 25 millimeters (1 by 1 inch) in size, which, after thorough dry- ing, are tested to destruction in a special form of impact machine. A 1-kilogram (2.2-pound) hammer falls through a constant height of 1 centimeter (0.89 inch) upon an intervening plunger, which in turn rests upon the test piece. By means of a suitable arrangement a graphic record of the number of blows required to destroy the speci- men is obtained. The number of blows producing failure is called the cementing value of the material. SPECIFIC GRAVITY—WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT—WATER ABSORPTION. The specific gravity, weight per cubic foot, and the water absorp- tion in pounds per cubic foot are obtained on samples of rock which are tested to determine their road-building qualities. The weight vain | | : t i 4 ai 1 eet ae | i } 1 t sagan = T t i + : ! t A ! { 1 if a | i i t ft : i fi TT ! + 1 im = 1 sa ee SReeuae ca! euueeae fuae! tt Ht i - Ht - rt z ct Ett ‘al tty rt | Sceuseuseunen ; a {J f oI crt f } Bee t : | : t 1 Ti : 1 { } i reer ; ; { | « t : I T 1 r } t ‘ : ieee ga f PEEP : L t ce ; HI EEE t os ai aoe f f t t i H t +t T 5 acl 1 + a | FEEL T r t - tf f i t | t L t eet } : Pee eet t i + T eee tt us : EEEEEE HE : nee + i 4 t | po eee a 4 pet SERETuEaae! j ct Pee seen t f } : i : cea + i T t ‘ eet : owen + t a t + i r { 1 i" = t E + + t : t 1 Ls 1 1 f 1 oS rm i t i t =* SEEGERS tr t et T i T ++ : t oH t t t +] { { t + : Ei Pee fret } t } i t t mt f i : Perec : = ; i : i f : t + : H PEEEEEE EE ia Bee i ; f Ht : t i t + - i 1 i t EEE i t rt i : T i t f aaa : t : + t n : I t t ma t ieaanaee f H : t 1 1: t 1 T T T t - + ; 1 + : f t ; : { 7 t t rat Het i : ~ t TEE f t 4. ~ 1 ett Heer Ht t + + id i FRE t H i : ppbesaaasuas i Terre it n 4 t f A c= t ; roeaa } peer ; t tet r H f t i i Lot : f t pS + : : t { tt : tet f tt | r 1 if + 1 corr 1 | t EEE : ! ; f + T 1 i 1 : t t 1 t rH f T + { t t 1 f f t i ct n + Peete { + t : : t t => t f EEE 3 i) Ss i=") oe g & ° =) LS aot = + oo q a : 3s eeoeee a oe f ja) Ht ; = =| ty o iat pene i: : a = : =) ons pSeeeee? EH Se] _— t es : 5 ieee: = 3 PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. 5 per cubic foot 1s calculated from the specific gravity of the material obtained on a 10-gram sample by the usual displacement method. The gain in weight of this fragment after four days’ continuous immersion in water is used to calculate the water absorption in pounds per cubic foot of the solid rock. VARIATIONS IN RESULTS OF TESTS. Because of the fact that the various rock families, when subjected to the tests outlined above, give results which are more or less dis- tinctive of a group or type, these results can best be discussed in many cases collectively. There are 14 families of rock which are more or less commonly used in macadam-road construction. The varia- tions which have been found to exist in the three principal tests for each of these are shown in graphic form in the accompanying chart. The values of the tests are arranged as abscissa, with the zero points to the left and the values numerically increasing toward the right. The ordinates or vertical lines represent the percentages of the total number of samples having values corresponding to the abscissz on which they are plotted. The figures in parentheses in the upper right-hand corner of each block represent the total number of de- terminations from which these percentages were calculated. TRAP-ROCK GROUP. The first six rock families, Andestte, Basalt, Diabase, Diorite, Gabbro, and Rhyolite, comprise the well-known group of road-build- ing rocks commonly known as “trap.” They are all of igneous origin, but are denser and finer grained than the granites, possessing as a rule a peculiar interlocking crystalline structure which imparts to them their distinguishing characteristic—high toughness. Thus, by referring to the chart, it will be noted that the average toughness of all the traps, with the exception of gabbro, which runs somewhat lower, is about 18. This is a considerably higher average than that shown by any of the other types or groups. The same relationship holds true in the abrasion test, the average French coefficient of wear running from about 13 to 15. Comparatively slight variations in hardness are noted for any family or for the group as a whole, the average hardness for which is about 18. The binding power of the traps, as determined by test, varies through wide limits, depending largely on the degree of weathering they have undergone, as shown by Lord.t. The specific gravity of this group averages about 2.9, giving an average weight per cubic foot of 180 pounds. Individual samples are seldom less than 2.7 nor more than 3.2 specific gravity. Water absorption may vary from a few hundr a of 1 per cent to over 7 per cent. 1 United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 348. 6 BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GRANITES. Granite, the typical rather coarse-grained igneous rock, is charac- terized by low toughness and high hardness. The average value for the former, as will be seen from the chart, is about 8, while that for the latter runs as high as for the trap group, about 18.5. The abra- sion test develops an average French coefficient of wear of about 11, somewhat lower than for the trap-rock group. Cementing values made on granites run low, as has been demonstrated by experience, the only exceptions being very highly weathered material which usually shows low toughness and resistance to wear. ‘The specific gravity of the granites averages close to 2.7 and is seldom less than 2.6 or more than 2.8. The weight per cubic foot, therefore, averages 168 pounds, and may ordinarily vary from 163 to 175 pounds. Water absorption has been found to run from about 0.04 to 3 per cent. LIMESTONES AND DOLOMITES. The limestones and dolomites, or magnesium limestones, are un- doubtedly the most widely used road-building rock. It will be seen from the chart that they run much. lower in hardness, toughness, and resistance to wear than do the traps or granites. The average French coefficient of wear is about 8, toughness 7, and hardness 15. The cementing values are usually good, about 75 per cent of all samples tested running over 25, The specific gravity of the limestones and dolomites averages close to 2.7, about that of the granites, and is sel- dom less than 2.6 or more than 2.85. In general, the weight per cubic food will run from 160 to 178 pounds, with an average of about 168 pounds for the limestones and 170 pounds for the dolomite. Absorp- tion may vary from a few hundredths of 1 per cent to over 13 per cent. SANDSTONES. The sandstones are characterized by wide variations in the results of alltests. In fact, the highest and lowest values obtained for all sam- ples tested have, with one exception, been upon sandstone. The aver- age French coefficient of wear is about 12, average toughness about 10, and average hardness about 16. The cementing value of sandstones varies widely, depending upon their composition. Thus certain varieties of feldspathic sandstone somewhat resembling trap rock in appearance almost invariably show high binding value in the labora- tory. Their specific gravity also varies between wide limits, but usually lies between 2.4 and 2.8, with an average of 2.62. The weight per cubic foot therefore varies from 150 to 175 pounds and averages 164 pounds. Absorption runs from a few hundredths of 1 per cent to about 2 per cent. PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. u MARBLE AND QUARTZITE. Marble and quartzite are the two families of nonfoliated meta- morphic rocks corresponding to limestone and sandstone, respec- tively. While in some respects it is convenient to consider marble with the limestone and dolomite group, it will be seen from the chart that the average toughness of marble, about 5, is lower, and that the average hardness, which is less than 14, is also somewhat lower. Marbles usually show good cementing value tests with about the same range as the limestones and dolomites. For those samples tested, the specific gravity ordinarily falls between 2.7 and 2.9 and the weight per cubic foot averages 173 pounds, which is somewhat higher than the average for either limestone or dolomite. As would therefore be expected, the maximum absorption is less, being under 2.5 per cent. Quartzites show an average toughness of 15, as compared with 10 for the sandstones. The coefficient of hardness is also higher and for the samples tested shows a much smaller range of values than for the sandstones. The quartzites invariably show a low cementing value. Their specific gravity from tests made usually lies between 2.6 and 2.8 and their average weight per cubic foot is about 167 pounds. Their water absorption runs from a few hundredths of 1 per cent to nearly 3 per cent. GNEISS AND SCHIST. Both gneiss and schist belong to the foliated metamorphic type of rocks. The former is in reality a metamorphosed granite and therefore shows physical properties similar to the granites. The average French coefficient of wear for the gneiss samples is about 9, being somewhat lower than for the granites, while their average hardness and toughness is about the same. Their specific gravity, weight per cubic foot, and absorption are approximately the same as for granite. The schists show an average French coefficient of wear of about 12. Their average hardness is about 17.5 and their toughness averages 11, the latter being higher than for gneiss. It should be noted, however, that the toughness test for both gneiss and schist is made perpen- dicular to the plane of foliation. If taken horizontal to the plane of foliation much lower results would be obtained, as failure would then occur along these natural lines of cleavage. The specific gravity of schists usually lies between 2.65 and 2.90 and the average weight per cubic foot is about 181 pounds. Water absorption is seldom over 2 per cent for this family. With the exception of the highly altered varieties, both gneisses and schists show a rather low cementing value. 8 BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CHERT. Chert is a very hard material, but frequently shows a low resist- ance to wear, owing to its tendency to fracture along lines which have developed as shrinkage cracks in the rock structure. For this reason it is extremely difficult to test for toughness. The cementing value of pure chert is usually low, but some highly weathered deposits develop in service good cementing value, especially if a high-binding clay is associated with it. Comparatively few samples which have been submitted for examination have been found suitable for all tests. Of those examined, however, the French coefficient of wear has usually been found to lie between 2 and 8, with an average of 5; toughness between 7 and 26, with an average of 16; and the hardness coefficient between 19 and 20. Specific gravity usually lies between 2.4 and 2.65 and the average weight per cubic foot is about 160 pounds. Water absorption may run from a few tenths of 1 per cent to over 8 per cent. SHALE AND SLATE. Shales and slates are highly laminated rocks that tend to break into flat plates not suitable for road-building purposes. They are seldom used in road construction, except perhaps as a filling for sub- foundations. They vary greatly in nearly all of their physical properties. : RARE ROAD-BUILDING ROCKS. A comparatively few samples of a number of families of rocks which are occasionally used in road building have been examined in the laboratories of the United States Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering. They need not be considered in detail, but the usual ranges as well as the averages of results of the more important physical tests of these rocks are given in Table I. Taste I.—The rare road-building rocks. French coefficient Nee ete Toughness. Hardness. bere f Name. SS eee ples. Ordinary | Aver- | Ordinary | Aver- | Ordinary | Aver- range. age. range. age. range. age. 20.) Amphibolitest: stir. J. Se eee 11. 3-26.7 16.7 12-40 19] 16.6-19.0 17.5 10h clogitets S55 73k se SEES Shas s 12. 7-22.7 16.1 14-28 26 | 18.4-19.3 18.5 L2H WE pid Sitemeter aac hta.- an) a le 10. 0-18. 7 13.0 10-23 16 | 17.6-19.5 18.0 TT Hels tess eee ee Bone Sa 11. 9-21.3 LOWS dl Sao ee 16 Stee. cLelee 18.7 G2 | [PRerid otitesae seat mesic eae 7. 6-138. 2 10.3 9-12 10 | 13.3-16.6 15.0 SHiiSenpentinewseeae ces isace ae 2. 6-14. 2 10.1 11-21 14 | 18.3-18.6 18.4 | PABLO UGA dorado cau SSaRUaueROReO 11. 5-28. 5 16. 2 21-34 22 | 17.7-19.1 18.1 19s MOV ONTO sarees ens coe see 7.0-18.7 13.1 8-22 14 17. 3-19. 2 18.1 PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. 9 SLAGS. Many slag varieties resemble in certain outward respects the com- mon road-building rocks. However, in general, they are more porous and glassy, and vary so greatly in physical properties that with ref- erence to their physical characteristics from the standpoint of road construction they can not well be considered as a single class with definite limits or general average numerical values. INTERPRETATIONS OF RESULTS OF PHYSICAL TESTS. The results of physical tests are only of value in predetermining the suitability of a rock for a given type of road under given condi- tions when the behavior of other rocks, having the same general physical characteristics, is known. Much investigation is still neces- sary to accurately correlate laboratory tests with service results, but in this connection certain facts have been determined from experi- ence, which may be briefly discussed under the different types of roads. As the amount of traffic to which a road is or will be subjected is a most important consideration, and as the terms light, moderate, and heavy are commonly used in describing the amount of traffic, such terms should be defined. For the purpose of comparison it has been assumed that traffic of less than 100 vehicles per day is light, between 100 and 250 moderate, and over 250 heavy. WATER-BOUND MACADAM ROADS. The ideal rock for the construction of a water-bound macadam road resists the wear of traffic to which it is subjected to just that extent which will supply a sufficient amount of cementitious rock dust to bind or hold the larger fragments in place. It is generally admitted that the ordinary macadam road is not well suited to any considerable amount of automobile traffic, because such traffic rap- idly removes the binder without producing fresh material to take its place. Cementing value is a necessary quality for rocks used in macadam road construction. As determined by test, cementing values below 25 are called low; from 26 to 75, average, and above 75, high. In general, the cementing value should run above 25. For rocks which show a low French coefficient of wear, however, a relatively high cementing value is more necessary than for those which have a high French coefficient. Interpretation of results of the cementing value _ test is subject to a number of influencing considerations. For in- stance, it has been found that certain feldspathic varieties of sand- stone give excellent results in this test, while experience has shown that they do not bind well when used in the wearing course of macadam roads. In the case also of certain varieties of the trap 10 BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. group low results are frequently shown by laboratory tests for rocks which bind quite satisfactorily upon the road, provided traffic is suf- ficiently heavy to supply the requisite ‘amount of fine material. Cer- tain granites, gneisses, and schists which are not suitable for use as binding material give good results in this test. In such cases it is usually found that the highly altered nature of the material reduces its toughness and resistance to wear to such an extent as to condemn it, for use. Experience has shown that in general the following table of limit- ing values for the French coefficient of wear, toughness, and hardness may be used in determining the suitability of a rock for the con- struction of the wearing course of a macadam road: TABLE IIl.—Limiting values of physical tests of rock for water-bound macadam road construction. Limits of tests. Character of traffic. French coefficient of wear. Toughness.) Hardness. 1Brt-d ir SOLS S ORS eee SRS 5-8= (5-8 per cent wear). ./Jv2! LULL false. its 5-9 10-17 Moderates: oti see ese. 8=15=\(2:7=5' percent Wean)e -o:J\//- tees - + teaaeneeee 10-18 | Over 14 HMeavyii i. tii - i ti42! Over 15= (less than 2.7 per cent wear)...--..--.--------- Over 18 Over 17 With relation to the limitations for hardness it may be noted that as a result of comparing hardness and toughness tests of some 3,000 samples, the authors? have shown that when any given value for toughness falls within certain limits which define the suitability of the material for macadam road construction under given traffic conditions, the corresponding value for hardness will fall within similar limits for hardness. In this connection it will be seen, in Table I, that a maximum limit for hardness is only given in the case of vere traffic. It has been found that the great majority of samples having a French coefficient of wear of from 5 to 8 and a hardness of over 17 are granites, quartzites, and hard sandstones, which are unsuited for use in the wearing course of water- bound macadam roads due to their lack of binding power. BITUMINOUS ROADS. For broken-stone roads which are maintained with dust palliatives, the same limits for French coefficient of wear and toughness should hold as for ordinary macadam roads. In bituminous work observations indicate that in some cases it is advantageous to use a rock of relatively high absorption rather than one with low absorptive qualities, owing to a better adhesion of the bituminous material by a partial surface impregnation of the rock. 1 Relation Between the Properties of Hardness and Toughness of Road-Building Rock, Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. VY, No. 19, D-3. PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. 11 While the binding or cementing value of a rock is a most impor- tant consideration from the standpoint of ordinary macadam con- struction, the same is not true of broken-stone roads which are car- peted or constructed with an adhesive bituminous material. The French coefficient of wear is also of relatively less importance, ow- ing to the fact that the fine mineral particles produced by the abrasion of traffic combine, or should combine, with the bituminous material to form a mastic which is held in place and protects the underlying rock from abrasion so long as by proper maintenance it is kept intact. The toughness of the rock is of more importance, as the shock of impact is to a considerable extent transmitted through the seal coat and may cause the underlying fragments to shatter. Tt would, therefore, seem that the minimum toughness of a rock for use in the construction of a bituminous broken-stone road or a broken-stone road with a bituminous-mat surface should, for light traflic, be no less than for ordinary macadam subjected to the same class of traffic. For moderate and heavy traffic, however, the same minimum toughness should prove sufficient, owing to the cushioning effect of the bituminous matrix. No maximum limit of toughness need be considered for any traffic. In the case of bituminous concrete roads, where the broken stone and bituminous material are mixed prior to laying and consolidation, it generally appears advisable to set a minimum toughness of 6 or 7 for light-traflic roads, instead of 5, in order to insure that the frag- ments of rock which have been coated with bitumen shall not be fractured under the roller during consolidation; and 12 or 13 for moderate and heavy traffic, instead of 10 and 19, as in the case of water-bound macadam roads. Bearing in mind the fact that availability, cost, and various local conditions may often modify the selection of proper limits, Table III may be used as a general guide for minimum limits of French co- efficient of wear and toughness in connection with bituminous broken- stone roads. TaBLe Ill.—Minimum limits of physical tests of rock’ for bituminous-road construction. Light to moderate traffic. Moderate to heavy traffic. Type ofroad. 4 rrench coefficient of French coefficient of Caan Toughness. Woon ta °" | Toughness. Broken stone with bituminous carpet. (5= (not over 8 per cent 5 7=(not over 5.7 per Bituminous broken stone with wear). cent wear). \ 1 seal coat. : i Bituminous concrete with or | 7=(not over 5.7 per 7 10=(not over 4 per 13 without seal coat. cent wear). cent wear). 12 BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE AND STONE BLOCK. The most desirable limitations for broken stone to be used as coarse ageregate in Portland cement concrete wearing surfaces has not as yet been ascertained. In general, however, it would seem that the low limit for hardness should be no less than the hardness of the mortar which binds the rock fragments together. At the present time a minimum hardness of 12 for moderate and 16 for heavy traffic would appear reasonable. In consideration of the type of traffic to which concrete roads are subjected, a minimum toughness of 8 is suggested. Stone blocks are usually manufactured from granite or sandstone, although other rocks may also be used. Specifications for granite block adopted in 1914 by the American Society of Municipal Improve- ments? call for a toughness of not less than 9 and a crushing strength of not less than 20,000 pounds per square inch. It would appear wise to also require that the hardness be not less than 16. APPENDIX. The results of all of the physical tests made on rock samples in the laboratory of the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering from the date of its installation in 1902 up to January 1, 1916, are included in Table V, together with the results obtained by Logan Waller Page for the Massachusetts State Highway Commission previous to 1902. The rocks are classified according to their location, so that this table shows the availability and character of the materials, as far as they have been tested, throughout the United States. Table IV shows the number of samples of material tested in the different States. TABLE 1V.—Geographical distribution of samples tested. Number Number Number (0) Ce) of State. samples State. samples State. samples tested. tested. tested. ATSDAMB? oc ciscccee eS 29 || Massachusetts. 179 || South Dakota......... 11 IATIZONA seemless 3 || Michigan... .. 84 || Tennessee....-.-- 3 61 Arkansas. 14 || Minnesota. 16 || Texas.......... 62 Califormiakts ren 101 || Mississippi 117] Uae 13 Colorado.........----- 21 || Missouri. ... 33 || Vermont......- 32 Connecticut........... 43 || Montana............-. 4 || Virginia............... 404 Delaware..........- 30 || Nebraska.........-..-- 11 |} Washington........... 212 Blond ay sre OS 9 || New Hampshire...... 22 || West Virginia........- 139 . Georrias ne ty See 157 || New Jersey........--- 72 || Wisconsin. ..........- 139 Raa oe ea ai 9 || New York...........- 136 || Wyoming............- 3 AUInG isso sesh 122 || North Carolina........ 137 —-—_ Indiana yeas. Eien 151 TOs Se LAN SET 138 3, 605 TO Wale eRe egos ie 23 |} Oklahoma.........-.- 50)'|) Canadauaat ae. Wines 49 Kansas 32) se eae 11 |} Oregon..............-- 14 |} Porto Rico...........- 12 Kentueky sass ee 41 || Pennsylvania........- 599 uba....... 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 98 (1) (1) ‘onyea Sur ~VUOTLay onl re al rer Qin MO 191in AN OMAN Ma ttt Oo - oo = “ssou -ysnoy, cacy Se Oo | re Sees MrOr~rorronmnnoned TASHA SANSA SiS sN rere 15 1s Q loBts Sa ieee th ae thames ioe Mee ie ae ed 2D OD C2? rH OD OD © CO HK OD oss “ssou -pavyL 1dr ommMoonw CHMOD NMOMMIDOMHHMOMOMMdMMOON Soh dsdridivcwisndvsisrdvsid a setter ap nenikawepele in Ceti ADA os ~ ROSSovrne NAmN ws mo merece bs Bh ae | Mer aooern SANS “IBIM JO }Wapoyyooo YOuoILy DHHODMHAAANHR MDMA OMADAROOMNHO I Bedised ohis SHNSNN GAS ATSAGS IS i) SwHosesistanidadd SHON RE 10 OM MMOD IY 1D Sod os wi $ “IBM JO 400 107 16 °G “spunog “spUunOT ORE Peeps ae OIMAOTOP SNOsdRITIS.LY OUOISPULS SNOUTSNAIO Saw Pe See eee eee “op SS Ace oh eA Pee Aira ----0p “-OSVCOUUT AA ve cte|sesece sess eereeetQpe ees: we tteseeerecssccgpees sreeesopetts MEA heacannanas test eQpi ct ed “BYsoyNne A Peis SST TO AN GANG “yOOs orqno tod WoT -d.10sq y “OOF orqnd tod. JUSTOM *]BLIO} BUI JO OUI N *Aqunoy;) TRC /ciebe niclor to ale heteas las aaa YBUSON -----wehog cin ir laa pola encle tec icl ikea Re ee -- O1TULO Rig ree SEO ga aka --uojotdd y Ac tale Sir tese ine rie ebriahe icicaceget cic a2 ysoxysoO Peet R OC ee ie SOs OJTUBIS POY oid eit emer e gO aeRO! > OT[TAIO'T Bee deo On AO Oo aoe "=" "BO edneiM pages ---(Jo YyAou seqrur Zz) vovdne AA Ng et Soleo Eee ee er ach ache esas vovdne Poe eacaacens Ne cena eet ““90JNVMOI etelolatetataraVal opafotelaeta[aiasaialat=} =petenetertel Opies Sige Sg, AIT Ch hes ea ae RE mm 000) 000 cial fl PESNS SOI SAGAS CS rae ace aa T9VVMOITY AA *A}ID 10 UMOT, *ponuryuoy—NISNOOSIM GES9 162g TéZ9 F819 @819 PLO 8L19 €819 9819 S819 SLI9 9L19 LL19 6L19 OST9 I819 96L¢ 0268 €L¢9 L899 9669 9&Z9 129 98c¢ 86ET Trt Gehl SEPT OPST PLST 8108 TIOE SOFT 9698 €L19 oL19 TL19 OLT9 008E 6098 6919 ‘ON elieg ‘plwon—9T6L ‘7 hunnune 07 07a)d wos ‘nqny pup ‘oovy 07.10 q ‘vpvung ‘saqnj1G panugQ ay7 Worf yoo burpying-pno. fo $3803 yooshyd fo syjnsay— A ATAVY, oo OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. PHYSICAL TESTS “QOUIAOI, ¢ ‘uMoUy 1OU AITVOOT OVX z A ‘IPRUL JOU SOF, 7 9°8T PLT £3 60° 81 6902 0°81 £61 1x ol" PST ) | STS9 G°8T rans BiG nie LR TANG [Ps ae Seeege Sis eG sirici SO a a fee een he CLO er | ee er “* “Sour eonig | 00g9 OST 8ST GS 8T° I8T : yurog suquinyyT | 9819 LT G) (i) 98" SUTSQOE 26S ee tata aa “7 OSBQRIP POloITV |" CPS PARR sears eae Be aa spuIBqsod | 618s () () 9°06 61 GG" GOT 129.720.) OTTO S [Mts ie epee tonnes oh Omer leah Geeireinai mans “77 = moTessoyL, | O1SZ 6 ‘OT al 8°% 10° GLI pau!) eens lene cement 010 na panne mee ee (z) | 6202 6 ‘OL oS 0's g° oLT “01818 “777 LOCIVET YOONIOT | TCS €°8T 8°9 6°¢ 18°F CGI 35 ca aaa PER ERO TGA is BLOOM [CSE rl cece ae AO) a cece a cS AyIopug | 1992 ST rI gg Sr 'T GON ca Ee eee Se ne RS OD eae 6629 rST 16 vy g¢° COT {esBq SNOT A 8219 FOL () () 9¢°0 891 “OULOYSO UIT] OUT[[BISAID [°° ~~ ¢ BIQUINTOO YSttg 0999 “‘VAVNVO o'LT GIT gg GG" DRIES earala| Re Si ee a “wrooerq 4yeseg |777 "~~ “7s oqeimy | $08 0'OL L°9 09 Lie SOI <=, sala ace a *'*/ QUOVBOUITT. Noo a eas eet se es OD ee a | geen ae a oTem0,) | 008 (x) () mal 8% 60° lie. aoe. ks eae oe ne OVOrd ~~ sooun | 962 9 ‘FI 6'L ig 80° SO leuk 2 chy ee aaa RRA) eee ape eee eee een oral coSen Coes ee econ KokV) | $62 ia 69 8°¢ 02° SOT ete meee as peta eee @prree* SVIPETd OLY | S62, (1) (1) Lis); og 96° GO tetova eas 7777777 9UOISOUTT yeep | Z08 (1) (i) 001 0'F 68" SORE see ites ae ee erat eae ee 9OyTIOI Ba eae tes ope34.n | 108 G) (1) 7G wh L8° OG Teaihe sb (rac ck eee ~2'°'* @ULOYSO UNIT: te oe Se cee Dee aia lie uta aeeeraet as Siena oploery | 264 G) e Il gg Ort SOIR ete a She sees scearee oe aang Sie Ung ese, ae jo Dewi GOs () e°sT $9 8°9 68" ZO terel| Eas eheae a eee amide Oh aeaaers pean nena alec el Serena i anc ces nt SBIPOT | OLY | 66L € ST Lh og 6F° SON congener ae eee Wek Siam e (0) oeeeotein eeerena re unmerce 1 gteslsy iogmece cos ek vUTpOIeD | 862 () @ ea Sez eg 09°0 OSI Peal atin eeneoe baste ae rn 9U04SOUUIL'T “uowvkeg | 96 (1) Gee |B OL 0'F 70°T Sor -op-:---| exp 8 (1) £81 CEG 18° 891 vueqey | o1¢ (1 (1) 111 re 99° @L1 eplopg odueg | ZLF (i) () €°ST 97% 60° GOT 6 PPE SA ea ees TSQ BOUL Ws etree CUCL 0 cca aa "7 SoxonyueLD | TAF ‘Vano e°ST 9°6 oF 98°T GOT Ment Semen TO es PRES ODS n sy ae ek ea eae ea “"71Op"*"" "| 0882 $°ST 0'ST LiaG 6F ‘1 £249) Cini eaest | ese ~"=""""9UOISPUBS SNHOOIBOTBD |° °°" Op OIZUIYOW WOT | 602% 0°>9 8°S PPL g¢c'L OSL Ear eres “-""-@Tl0{Spues SNOUTS NAO if gin na hnes cman eat UL Es LO ESLO.L) I ps | aaa nae Der ee ee OU OP CHUESL TE rely A) ‘ONINOAM OFT ¢'¢ oy | ee: 89T | eis Sp on Le ke ee eh foato) (OKGi || eos BG ) (1) i) 69 SL 91 ooo ==" QTO]SOUITT SNOBOBT[LSLY |” Bee G BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 100 ‘UMOTY JOU APT[VOO] JOVX GT z ‘ope OU 4SAT, 1 ; 89 &I 6 F OT 8's G9" dh een eee epa gee Ot i onaa ies O Daan 89EL 8 II 2 GIL 9° 6° ran Up g oa ge aes oe 225 5220 Droid littenara L982 9 5 g 9°6 oP Glatt SOT. Geeta occa ere 2c ies DEeaee e882, Gg Or € (1) fr 18" (7 ae aig see aaa ange 7 tN ei OD aan C0e2 61 Or 8 (1) ) 19° SLI aes SPO Sees eOoeGhnua Over |PSoSe ose P's OTLB YU Ok llgttena sas ete eee sepunq | ¢0e GG val L Cail 9°8 1S chtom wed Pe suepe se pert es OJIULOTOP SNO I: QO UO TTC TS "9704, yet SY06 STF! LP Cd gee | . i= ‘T'2 INO TYN aC al Safa yy Can WH » fe 72 OML 24H ; WINNT 3 NOINNUL delle FAY g TRS el 4 WELD OML TAYW —YINIT OVIH 44 2) | Bees LLL Pe pd le, 2 OML DIVW ‘ w IWv44 INF 1 4 WF SN £97 “ "S2/Oc/" H - Lita WAAAY ANYON Ss ZA BRICK ROADS. 91 Tasle 1.—Ratio of thickness of cushions to width of roadway. Thick- Width of roadway | ness of (feet). cushion (inches). 20,orless= 5: 25. 4 20itOSO Ns. Sees a 30;tO 4053. 32 S552. 1 Oversea cee It Plates IV to VIII, and Plate IX, figure 1, show the various steps in the construction of a brick pavement. Plate IX, figure 2, and Plate X, figure 1, show the finished pavement as it should appear, and Plate X, figure 2, shows the advantage possessed by grout-filled joints over joints filled with a soft material. The partial or total failures shown in Plates I, II, and XI are intended to emphasize the importance of employing proper methods, materials, and workman- ship in brick-pavement construction. “MONOLITHIC ” BRICK PAVEMENTS. During the year 1915 several sections of brick road were con- structed in the vicinity of Paris, Ill., in accordance with an unusual method which offers at least partial promise of showing advantages not possessed by the common methods of construction now in use. The novel features of this work are: (1) The brick are laid upon a green concrete base with no intervening bedding other than a very thin layer of dry mortar spread by means of a specially designed templet; (2) no curbs are employed; (8) the construction of the base, the laying of the brick, and the grouting all proceed sufficiently close together to make the pavement practically a monolith, from which fact this type of brick pavement has been designated “monolithic.” The advantagesewhich the new type of brick pavement appears to possess may be briefly enumerated as follows: (1) Economy in cost of construction. In addition to the saving in materials and iabor effected by omitting the curbs, sand bedding, and expansion joints the labor cost can probably be somewhat. further reduced by having the construction of the concrete base and the laying of the brick carried on under the same organization. The reduction in the time during which it is necessary to keep the high- way closed to trafic, while the improvement is being made, is also an indirect economy. . (2) The elimination of the sand bedding ond appear to be of advantage from a construction standpoint, because it is hable to be disturbed and to cause trouble in case of a heavy rain during con- struction. Sometimes, even after the pavement is completed, the sand is disturbed by water getting in between the brick and the base 2, BULLETIN 3878, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. through poorly grouted joints, or otherwise. Also, when a sand bedding is used, the joints between the brick are nearly always partially filled by sand being pushed up into them when the brick are rolled, and the effectiveness of the grout may be thereby greatly reduced. (3) If the pavement continues to act as a monolith, the pressure on the subgrade, due to concentrated loads on the surface, will be much better distributed for the same depth of brick and base than if the two were separated and able to act independently. The two principal objections to this type which suggest themselves at present are: (1) The difference in the coefficients of expansion of brick and concrete may eventually cause a separation of the two materials, and as there is no adjustable bedding between them, any relative movement might result in shattering the bond between the brick and the grout. The only warrant for this apprehension at present, however, is in theory and not in fact. (2) Whenever it becomes necessary to renew or repair the surface of the pavement, it will probably be necessary to renew the base also. : Until sufficient time has elapsed to show how this new type of pavement will be affected by changing temperatures and increasing age, no specific recommendations can be made concerning its adop- tion. But the indications are certainly sufficiently promising to warrant a careful watch being kept on these pavements and to en- courage the undertaking of further experiments. COST OF BRICK PAVEMENTS. The cost of brick pavements varies widely and is affected by so many influences that it is difficult to attempt to derive a general expression showing the relation between probable cost and local con- ditions. The prices of brick, as also the prices of the various mate- rials entering into the foundation, vary greatly according to the locality and the freight rate. The cost and efficiency of labor is also far from being constant. Furthermore, the material composing the subgrade and the method of preparing it may exert a marked influ- ence on the cost of the pavement. The following statements regarding cost, then, must be considered as representing average conditions, and care must be exercised in applying them to special cases. They are intended as a guide in preparing estimates of probable cost. The grading is usually paid for by the cubic yard, and the cost, of course, varies with the character of the soil and the necessary amount of excavation. In light, easily loosened soils, grading may usually be done at from 25 to 40 cents per cubic yard. In hard earth con- a BRICK ROADS. 23 taining more or less loose rock the cost per cubic yard generally runs from 40 to 75 cents, while grading in solid rock may sometimes cost as much as $1.50 per cubic yard. The cost of the rough grading should be considered entirely apart from the cost of the pavement. The cost of shaping and rolling the subgrade after the rough grad- ing is completed will ordinarily vary from 3 to 5 cents per square yard. This cost should be included with the other items which make up the cost of the pavement. The cost of the curbs varies with the character of the material used. Stone curbs ordinarily cost from 25 to 75 cents per linear foot, while curbs made of Portland cement concrete cost, as a rule, from 20 to 50 cents per linear foot. The higher prices for the concrete curbs apply principally to special cases requiring extra form work or con- siderable extra material. The cost of the foundation depends largely on the cost of the materials with which it is constructed. Gravel or broken stone can usually be spread and rolled at from 5 to 7 cents per square yard, while the cost of these materials, delivered, varies from $0.60 to $2 per cubic yard. Mixing and placing concrete usually costs from 35 to 75 cents per cubic yard, according to the amount of work to be done and the methods employed, and the cost of the materials, delivered, ordinarily varies from $2.50 to $4.50 per cubic yard of concrete. The cost of paving brick at the kiln varies from about $13 to $16 per thousand. Estimating 40 brick to the square yard, each 1,000 brick cover approximately 25 square yards, which makes the cost at the kiln per square yard of pavement vary from 55 cents to about 65 cents. These figures mean very little, unless the kiln is located con- veniently near where the brick are to be used, for freight charges not infrequently amount to more than the cost of the brick. The amount of joint filler required varies of course with the thick- ness of the joints. If grout is used as a filler, it is customary to estimate about 1 barrel of cement to each 25 square yards of pave- ment. If a bituminous filler is used, not more than about 1 gallon of bitumen should be required for each square yard of pavement. A force consisting of one paver and five laborers should place on an average about 220 square yards of brick per 10-hour day; while supervision, rolling, and incidental expenses are ordinarily equivalent to the cost of hiring about three and one-half additional laborers. If C = cost of cement per barrel, S = cost of sand per cubic yard, A = cost of coarse aggregate per cubic yard, B = cost of paving bricks per 1,000, and L = cost of labor per hour, with all materials considered.delivered on the work and all costs expressed in cents, then the probable cost of constructing a brick pavement, including the 24 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. subgrade, a 6-inch concrete foundation, and suitable curbs, may be estimated by substituting in the formula: Cost per square yard = 1.90 L + .218 C + .188 S + .157 A + .040 B. The cost as estimated from this formula should usually be increased by about 10 per cent to allow for wear on tools and machinery and to guard against unforeseen contingencies. If it is desired to use a different thickness of foundation, it is safe to assume that each inch subtracted or added to the thickness of the foundation will make a corresponding difference of from 8 to 12 cents in the cost per square yard. MAINTENANCE OF BRICK PAVEMENTS. If brick pavements are properly constructed at the start, the work of maintaining them is very slight. Under the closest inspection, however, some inferior material is likely to become incorporated either in the foundation or in the surface, and it is therefore very important that a brick pavement be very carefully watched for the first few years of its life to see that no unevenness develops either because of defective brick having been used in the surface or because of insufficient support from the foundation at any point. Whenever any unevenness develops, it should Le immediately rectified. Other- wise the pavement will become irregularly worn in the vicinity of the defects, and expensive repairs will eventually be necessary. Not infrequently weak spots develop in broken stone or gravel foundations, owing to surface water finding its way through joints in the pavement which have not been properly filled with grout. Careful observation of the joints-should therefore constitute a part of the early maintenance work, and any defective joints discovered should be immediately remedied. Where the foundation is con- structed of concrete, however, slight defects in the joints seldom result in any very serious damage. If care is exercised to correct all defects which appear within the first few years of the life of a well-constructed brick pavement, the work of maintaining the pavement proper should thereafter, except for cleaning, be almost negligible for a considerable period. The shoulders and drainage structures, of course, need occasional atten- tion, just as in the case of any other pavement, but if they are properly constructed at the start repairs will usually be very slight. The life of a well-constructed brick pavement can not be estimated with any great degree of exactness, first, because the traffic condi- tions are constantly changing, and, second, because no brick pave- ment which has been constructed in accordance with the best modern practice has yet worn out. Such measurements as have been made BRICK ROADS. 95 of the amounts of wear sustained by given pavements during com- paratively long periods of years have not been sufficient to warrant eny very definite conclusions as to the probable terms of service, though they indicate that good paving brick wear very slowly under ordinary traffic. It is evident that in order to secure the full benefit of this excellent resistance to wear the surface of the pavement must not be permitted to become uneven because of the failure of a brick here and there. CONCLUSION. Before concluding this discussion of brick pavements, it would seem desirable to emphasize the importance of proper engineering supervision. In the past many communities have expended large sums in efforts to improve their public highways without first having secured the services of some one competent to plan and direct the work. The results have usually been very unsatisfactory under such circumstances and have frequently served to discourage further effort. One of the mistakes most commonly observed consists in constructing some expensive type of pavement on a road where the location is faulty or the grades are impracticable. Not infrequently sharp angles in the alignment or abrupt changes in the grade, which might be easily and inexpensively remedied by an experienced engineer, are left to impede traflic throughout the life of a costly and perhaps durable pavement. Even in constructing common earth roads it is doubtful economy to dispense with the services of a competent engineer, and if any considerable quantity of work is to be done, such services should certainly be secured. Since brick pavements are probably more ex- pensive to construct than any other type of pavement at present used for country roads, it is all the more important that their con- struction should be carefully planned and well executed. APPENDIX A. Typical Specifications for Constructing Brick Roads. SPECIFICATIONS ! FOR GRADING AND SURFACING WITH BRICK THE ROAD. Location.—The work referred to in these specifications is to be done on the Bete en eae tener =o .-road;, beginning at. 2 2 = and extendinomines: i eae ae direction ‘through 122-- 2222228" 2 {0 2a ee) distance’ of 2222" miles. Work to be done.—The contractor shall do all clearing and grubbing, make all excavations and embankments, do all shaping and surfacing, (construct all drainage structures and other appertaining structures),” move all obstructions in the line of the work, and, unless otherwise provided in these specifications, shall furnish all equipment, materials, and labor for the same. In short, the contractor shall construct said road in strict accordance with the plans and specifications and shall leave the work in a neat and finished condition. PLANS AND DRAWINGS. The plans, profiles, cross sections, and drawings on file in the office of pecrlesdler is cartes eee At Use ee show: the! locations gprofile tide: tails, and dimensions of the work which is to be done. The work shall be constructed according to the above-mentioned plans, profiles, cross sections, and drawings, which shall be recognized as a part of these specifications. Any variation therefrom which may be required by the exigencies of construction will in all cases be determined by the engineer. On all drawings, figured dimensions are to govern in cases of discrepancies between scale and figures. GRADING. Grading shall include the moving of all earth, stone, and any other material that may be encountered, all filling, borrowing, trimming, picking down, shaping, sloping, and all other work that may be necessary to bring the road and sub- grade to the required grade, alignment, and cross section, the clearing out of waterways and old culverts, the excavation of all necessary drainage and outlet ditches, the grading of a proper connection with all intersecting highways, the grubbing up and clearing away of all trees, stumps, and boulders within the lines of the improvement, and the removal of any muck, soft clay, or spongy material which will not compact under the roller, so as to make a firm, unyield- ing subgrade. All trees, stumps, and roots within the limit of the improvement shall be grubbed up so that no part of them shall be within six (6) inches of the surface of the ground or within eighteen (18) inches of the surface of the subgrade. 1 These specifications are substantially those prepared in the fall of 1913 by the Office of Public Roads for a project of considerable magnitude. 2 The clause in parentheses should be omitted if plans and specifications for drainage structures are not- included. 26 BRICK ROADS. Om, Embankments shall be formed of good, sound earth and carried up full width. The earth shall be deposited in layers not more than one (1) foot in thickness, and each layer shall be rolled until thoroughly compacted with a roller weigh- ing not less than ten (10) tons. All existing slopes and surfaces of embank- ments shall be plowed or scarified where additional fill is to be made, in order that the old and new material may bond together. When sufficient material is not available within the fence lines to complete the embankments, suitable borrow pits, from which the contractor must obtain the necessary material, will be designated by the engineer. If there is more material taken from the euts than is required to construct the embankments as shown on the plans, the excess material shall be used in uniformly widening the embankments or shall be deposited where the engineer may direct. Where embankments are formed of stone the material shall be carefully placed, so that all large stones shall be well distributed and the interstices shall be completely filled with small stone, earth, sand, or gravel, so as to form a solid embankment. During the work of grading, the sides of the road shall be kept lower than the center and the surface maintained in condition for adequate drainage. The grading of any portion of the road shall be complete before any surfacing material is placed on that portion; and where the plans do not call for any sub- stantial change in the grade of any existing section of the road the surface shall be completely scarified to a depth of three (3) inches or more before the sub- grade is prepared. SUBGRADE. The subgrade, or that portion of the road upon which the base for the brick roadway is to be laid, shall consist of good, sound earth brought to the proper elevation, alignment, and cross section, and shall be rolled until firm and hard. The rolling shall be done with a roller of the macadam type, weighing not Jess than ten (10) tons and not more than fifteen (15) tons. Should earth be en- countered which will not compact by rolling, so as to be firm and hard, it shall be removed and suitable material put in its place, and that portion of the sub- grade shall be again rolled. When the rolling is completed the surface of the subgrade shall conform to the cross section shown on the plans, and shall have the proper elevation and alignment, and shall be so maintained until the con- crete base is in place. MATERIALS. Cement.—The cement for use in this work shail meet the requirements of the United States Government specifications for Portland cement as published in Circular No. 33, United States Bureau of Standards, issued May 1, 1912. All cement shall be held at least ten (10) days after sampling before it is used ip any part of the work. If the cement satisfactorily passes all tests that may be made within that time, it may be used, and the twenty-eight (28) day test will not be insisted upon; but if it should fail to pass satisfactorily any test made within that time, then the cement shall not be used until it has satis- factorily passed all tests, including the twenty-eight (28) day test. All cement. shall be delivered on the work in cloth or paper bags, containing ninety-four (94) pounds, net weight, and this amount of cement shall be considered as having a volume of one (1) cubic foot. In order to allow ample time for inspecting and testing, the cement shall be stored in a suitable weather-tight building, having the floor blocked or raised from the ground, and shall be so stered as to permit of easy access for inspection, and so that each carload ship- ment may be readily identified. 28 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Sand.—The sand for use as fine aggregate in all concrete or dry mortar shall be composed of particles of hard, durable stone and not more than three (5) per cent, by weight, of clay or silt. No clay, however, will be permitted if it occurs as a coating on the sand grains. The grains shall be of such sizes that all will pass a one-fourth (4) inch mesh screen, that not more than twenty (20) per cent will pass a No. 50 sieve, and that not more than sixty (60) per cent nor less than twenty (20) per cent will be retained on a No. 20 sieve. The sand shall be of such quality that a mortar made in the propor- tion of one (1) part of cement to three (8) parts of the sand, according to standard methods, when tested at any age not exceeding twenty-eight (28) days, will have a tensile strength of at least one hundred (100) per cent of that developed in mortar of the same proportions made of the same cement and standard Ottawa sand. The cement used in these tests shall be from an accepted shipment of that proposed for use with the sand. The sand for sand bedding shall be composed of particles of hard, durable stone and not more than five (5) per cent, by weight, of clay, loam, or silt. The sizes of the grains shall be such that all will pass a one-fourth (4+) inch mesh screen and not more than fifty (50) per cent will pass a No. 30 sieve. Stone screenings will not be accepted for use in the sand bedding. The sand for the grout filler shall be composed of quartz grains and not more than one (1) per cent, by weight, of clay or silt. The grains shall be of such size that all will pass a No. 20 sieve and that not more than forty (40) per cent will pass a No. 50 sieve. The sand shall be of such quality that a mor- tar made in the proportion of one (1) part of cement to three (8) parts of the sand, according to standard methods, when tested at any age not exceeding twenty-eight (28) days, will have a tensile strength of not less than seventy- five (75) per cent of that developed in mortar of the same proportions made of the same cement and standard Ottawa sand. The cement used in these tests shall be from an accepted shipment of that proposed for use with the sand. Gravel.—The gravel for use in the concrete base shall be composed of hard, sound, durable particles of stone and not more than three (8) per cent, by weight, of clay or silt. No clay, however, will be permitted if it occurs as a coating on the particles of stone or as lumps more than one (1) inch in diame- ter. The particles of stone shall be graded in size between those retained on a screen having circular openings one-fourth (4) inch in diameter, or a one- fourth (4) inch mesh screen, and those passing a screen having circular open- ings two (2) inches in diameter. Not more than seventy-five (75) per cent of the particles shall pass and not more than seventy-five (75) per cent shall be retained on a screen having circular openings three-fourths (#) inch in diameter. The gravel for use in the concrete curbs shall be composed of hard, sound, durable particles of stone, thoroughly clean and graded in size between those retained on a screen having circular openings one-fourth (4) inch in diameter, or a one-fourth (4) inch mesh screen, and those passing a screen having cir- cular openings one (1) inch in diameter. Not less than forty (40) per cent shall be retained on and not less than twenty (20) per cent shall pass a one- half (4) inch mesh screen. Crushed stone.—The crushed stone for use in the concrete base shall be clean, sound, and durable, and shall be composed of all that part of the product of the crusher which is retained on a screen haying circular openings one-fourth (+) inch in diameter, or a one-fourth ({) inch mesh screen, and which passes a screen having circular openings two (2) inches in diameter. A sample of the stone, when subjected to the physical tests as described in the United States BRICK ROADS. 29 Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 347, shall satisfactorily meet the follow- ing requirements: Hardness not less than ten (10), toughness not less than five (5), and per cent of wear not more than twelve (12). The crushed stone for use in the concrete curb shall be clean, sound, and durable, and shall be composed of all that part of the product of the crusher which is retained on a screen having circular openings one-fourth (+) inch in diameter, or a one-fourth (4) inch mesh screen, and which passes a screen hay- ing circular openings one and one-fourth (14) inches in diameter. A sample of the stone, when subjected to the physical tests as described in the United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 347, shall satisfactorily meet the follow- ing requirements: Hardness not less than twelve (12), toughness not less than six (6), and per cent of wear not more than ten (10).* Slag.—The slag for use in the concrete base shall be steel-furnace slag, broken to such sizes that all of the particles will pass a screen having circular openings two (2) inches in diameter and will be retained on a screen having circular openings one-fourth (4) inch in diameter, or a one-fourth (4) inch mesh screen. Not more than seventy-five (75) per cent of the particles shall pass and not more than seventy-five (75) per cent shall be retained on a screen having cir- cular openings three-fourths (#) inch in diameter. The material shall be reasonably uniform in character, and a sample, when subjected to the physical tests, as described in United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 347, shall satisfactorily meet the following require- ments: Specific gravity not less than two and one-tenth (2.1), hardness not less than fifteen (15), toughness not less than five (5), and per cent of wear not more than fifteen (15). Water.—The water used in the mixing of concrete or grout shall be free from oil, acid, alkali, or vegetable matter, and fairly free from clay or silt. Brick.—The brick shail be standard wire-cut lug or re-pressed paving block. The standard size of brick shall be three and one-half (34) inches in width, four (4) inches in depth, and eight and one-half (84) inches in length. The brick shall not vary from these dimensions more than one-eighth (4) inch in width and depth and not more than one-half (4) inch in length, and in brick of the same shipment the maximum width or depth shall not vary from the minimum width or depth more than one-eighth (#) inch. All brick must be thoroughly annealed, regular in size and shape, and evenly burned. When broken they shall show a dense, stonelike body, free from lime, air pockets, ~ cracks, and pronounced laminations. No surface of any brick shall have kiln marks more than three-sixteenths (7%) inch in depth ‘or cracks more than three- eighths (2) inch in depth, and the wearing surface of the brick shall not have kiln marks more than one-sixteenth (7; ) inch in depth and shall be free from eracks. The brick shall have not less than four (4) and not more than six (6) lugs, all on one side of the brick, such that when the brick are properly laid in place in the pavement the joints between them will be not Jess than one-eighth - (4) nor more than one-fourth (4) inch in width. The name or trade-mark of the manufacturer, if shown on the brick, must be recessed and not raised. If the edges of the brick are rounded, the radius shall not exceed one-eighth ($) inch. The brick must not be chipped in such a manner that the wearing surface is not intact or that the lower or bearing surface is reduced in area more 1 The values given for hardness, toughness, and per cent of wear are intended to exclude unsatisfactory stone, but in communities where better stone is readily available the require- ments should be made more rigid. 30 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. than ten (10) per cent; but chipped brick, if otherwise satisfactory, may be used in obtaining the half brick for breaking courses and the necessary pieces of brick for closures. The brick shall not be salt glazed or otherwise arti- ficially glazed. Not less than five (5) samples of ten (10) brick each will be selected from each kiln or shipment and subjected to the rattler test recom- mended to the American Society for Testing Materials by its subcommittee on paving brick; one sampie from what appears to be the softest brick, which shall not lose of its weight more than twenty-four (24) per cent; one sample from what appears to be the hardest brick, which shall not lose of its weight less than sixteen (16) per cent or more than twenty-four (24) per cent; and three samples representing an average of the kiln or shipment, which shall not lose of their weight more than twenty-two (22) per cent: Provided, how- ever, That if the softest brick lose less than twenty-four (24) per cent, the permissible minimum loss of the hardest brick will be reduced a like amount. If the kiln or shipment of brick should fail to meet the above requirements— and it is fair to assume that it would meet them if not more than ten (10) per cent were culled—then the contractor may, at his option, regrade the brick. When the regrading is complete the kiln or shipment will be resampled and retested as under the original conditions, and if it fails to meet any of the above requirements it will be finally and definitely rejected. Sampling will be done at the factory prior to shipment or from cars when placed on siding at destination, and brick satisfactorily passing the rattler test will not be rejected as a whole, but will be subject to such culling as may be necessary to meet all of the above requirements. The brick shall be carefully unloaded from cars and wagons by hand and neatly piled along the work in such manner that they will be clean and in proper condition to be laid in the pavement when desired. Bituminous filler for expansion cushion.—The bituminous filler for the ex- pansion cushion between the brick pavement and the curb shall be a blown-oil asphalt. It shall be soluble in chemically pure carbon disulphide to at least ninety-nine (99) per cent, and when tested by the cube method, as described in United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 314, its melting point shall not be less than ninety (90) degrees centigrade and not more than one hun- dred and ten (110) degrees centigrade. The penetration at zero (0) degrees centigrade of a No. 2 needle acting one (1) minute under a weight of two hun- dred (200) grams shall be not less than two (2) millimeters. The penetration at forty-six (46) degrees centigrade of a No. 2 needie acting five (5) seconds under a weight of fifty (50) grams shall not exceed ten (10) millimeters. . CONSTRUCTION. Concrete base——Upon the subgrade prepared as herein specified shall be laid a concrete base of the width and thickness shown on the plans. The sub- grade shall be wet but not muddy when the concrete is placed upon it. The concrete shall be composed of the following materials, by volume: One (1) part of cement, three (3) parts of sand, and five (5) parts of gravel, crushed stone, or crushed slag, and sufficient water to form a quaky mass, and shall be thoroughly mixed in a machine mixer of the batch type so constructed and operated that the thorough mixing of the materials will be assured. The con- crete shall be so delivered to its place on the subgrade as not to cause or permit any separation of the materials. Wheelbarrows or other devices used for measuring the materials shall be of uniform capacity. The concrete shall be deposited in place immediately after it is mixed and shall be well compacted as fast as it is placed. The top surface shall be smoothed by troweling with BRICK ROADS. ok shovels or by some other means approved by the engineer, and when completed shall not vary more than one-half (3) inch from the proper shape and grade, as shown on the plans and profiles. The concrete base shall be kept wet by sprinkling with water during the first four (4) days after it is laid. No hauling over it or rolling or tamping of brick upon it will be permitted for seven (7) days after it is placed, and during this time it shall be properly protected from injury. Concrete shall not be mixed when the temperature of any of the ma- terials is less than thirty-five (85) degrees Fahrenheit. Concrete shall not be used after it has begun to show evidence of setting, and no concrete which has once set shall be used as material for mixing a new batch. Curbs.—Concrete curbs shall be built on the base as shown on the plans. The concrete shall be composed of the following materials, by volume: One (1) part of cement, one and one-half (14) parts of sand, three (3) parts of gravel or crushed stone, and water. The materials shall be thoroughly mixed in a ma- , chine mixer of the batch type or by hand. If the mixing is done by hand, it shall be done upon a water-tight platform with raised edges, in such manner as to insure thorough mixing of the materials and to meet the approval of the engineer. The concrete for the curb shall be placed upon the base before the concrete of either the curb or the base has taken its initial set, and care shall be taken, such as roughening the concrete of the base and tamping the concrete of the curb, to insure that the curb will be firmly bonded to the base. The eonerete shall be well tamped and spaded along the forms, so that when they are removed there will be no open and porous places on the sides of the curb. The top surface of the curb shall be floated or troweled to a smooth finish. The forms for the curb shall be smooth, clean, free from warp, and of sufficient strength to resist springing out of shape. They shall be well staked and braced, and the top edges shall be at the same height and set true to line. To protect the curb from drying out too rapidly it shall, within twelve (12) hours after it is placcd, be covered with gunny cloth, which shall be kept wet for five (5) days. Sand bedding.—Upon the base shall be spread a bedding of sand such that it will have a uniform depth of approximately one and one-half (14) inches when compacted. The base shall be thoroughly clean at the time the bedding is spread. The bedding shall be carefully shaped to a true cross section of the roadway by means of a template having a steel-faced edge, and so fitted as to be readily drawn on the curb. After the bedding is so shaped, it shall be rolled with a hand roller until the material composing it is well compacted. The depressions formed by rolling shall be filled and the surface of the bedding trued up with the template and rolled again. This operation of filling depres- sions, truing up with template, and rolling shall be repeated as often as is necessary to secure a well-compacted bedding true to grade and to the required — eross section. The rolling shall be done with a hand roller not less than twenty- four (24) inches in diameter, not less than twenty-four (24) inches in width, and weighing not less than ten (10) pounds per inch of width. Laying brick.—Upon the bedding, prepared as above described, the brick shall be laid on edge from curb to curb in straight courses at right angles to the curb, with the lug sides all in the same direction. The brick shall be laid so that the lugs of the brick in one course will touch the brick in the adjoining 11f a dry-mortar bedding is to be used substitute the following: Dry-mortar bedding.—Upon the base shall be spread a dry-mortar bedding composed of 1 part of Portland cement to 5 parts of sand thoroughly mixed. The dry mortar shall be spread in such quantity as to give an average depth of approximately 1 inch when com- pacted. The base shall be thoroughly clean at the time the bedding is spread, etc. a2 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. course, and the joints between the ends of the brick shall not exceed one-eighth (3) inch in width. Joints shall be broken by starting each alternate course with a half brick. Nothing but whole brick shall be used, excepting the half brick for starting alternate courses and pieces of brick for closures, and no piece of brick less than two (2) inches in length shall be used for making a closure. The cutting and trimming of brick shall be done by experienced men, and proper care shall be taken not to check or fracture the part to be used, and the ends of the part used shall be square with its top and sides. The brick shall be carried to the bricklayers on pallets or in clamps and not wheeled in barrows. The bricklayers laying the brick shall stand on the brick already laid and shall not in any manner disturb the bedding. No heavy driv- ing will be permitted to straighten courses, and in making closures the pieces of brick shall be so cut that they may be laid in place without driving. Brick shall be laid with the best edge up. Batting for closures shall progress with the laying. After the brick are laid they will be carefully inspected, and all those which are soft, cracked, glazed, spalled, overburned, or otherwise imperfect will be marked by the inspector. The contractor shall at once remove such brick from the pavement with flat-nosed tongs, without disturbing the bedding, and shall replace them with approved brick. Kiln-marked and slightly chipped brick, if not otherwise defective, may be turned over and, if the reverse edge is smooth, may remain in the pavement. If more than one kind of brick or the brick from more than one plant is fur- nished for the work, each particular kind or make shall be laid in a separate section. Rolling brick.—After the brick have been laid and after all objectionable brick have been removed from the pavement they shall be brought to a true sur- face by means of rolling. The rolling shall be done with a motor or steam tandem roller weighing not less than three (8) and not more than five (5) tons. The pavement shall be rolled in longitudinal and diagonal directions. The longitudinal rolling shall begin at the curbs and progress toward the center of the pavement. The pavement shall then be thoroughly rolled diagonally at an angle of forty-five (45) degrees with the curb. When this rolling has been completed the brick will again be inspected, and all that are broken or dam- aged shall be removed from the pavement and replaced with approved brick. If necessary to secure a uniform surface the brick shall then be again rolled, the roller moving diagonally across the pavement at right angles to the first diagonal rolling. To prevent the brick from being left careened the roller shall in all cases cover exactly the same area in making its backward trip as was covered in its forward trip, and shall proceed at a very slow rate of speed until the entire pavement has received the first rolling. In no event shall the rolling be done when the bedding is in a condition such that the sand or dry mortar will flow up into the joints more than three-eighths ($) inch. Filling the joints—After the brick have been rolled as above specified the joints between them shall be filled with a grout containing equal parts of cement and sand. The grout shall be mixed in a mechanical batch mixer or by hand in batches containing not more than one sack of cement. Hand mixing shall be done in a box about five (5) feet long, thirty (30) inches wide, and fourteen (14) inches deep, resting on legs of different lengths, so that the mixture will readily flow to the lowest corner of the box. The sand and cement shall be thoroughly mixed dry. Sufficient clean water shall then be admixed to produce a grout of a consistency about equal to that of ordinary cream for the first application and of a slightly thicker consistency for subsequent applica- tions. From the time the water is added to the mixture until all of the i a i i i i a BRICK ROADS. oS grout is removed from the box, the mixture must be constantly well stirred with mortar hoes. The grout shall be removed from the box with scoop shovels and applied to the brick in front of men supplied with push brooms, who shall rapidly sweep it lengthwise of the brick into the joints until the joints are practically- filled. After the first application has been made and the grout has settled into the joints, and before initial set has taken place, the unfilled portion of the joints shall be filled with the thicker grout, and, if necessary, refilled until the joints remain full to the top. After this has been done the pavement shall be finished to a smooth surface, free from any surplus grout, with a squeegee, which shall be worked over the brick at an angle of about forty-five (45) degrees with the curb. The pavement shall have been thoroughly sprinkled before the first application of grout is made, and shall be kept moist by means of gentle sprinkling until the grout is spread. The top surface, sides, and ends of the brick shall be thoroughly clean at the time the work of filling the joints is done. Immediately after the grout has taken its initial set the pavement shall be covered with a one (1) inch layer of sand or earth. This layer, immediately after it is placed on the pavement; shall be thoroughly wet by sprinkling and shall be kept wet by sprinkling for at least the five (5) following days. It shall remain on the pavement for at least ten (10) days and shall be removed before traffic is permitted upon the pavement. During this period of ten (10) days or longer, as the engineer may require on account of weather conditions, no traffic shall be allowed upon and no materials shall be placed upon the pavement. Ezepansion cushion.—An expansion cushion four (4) inches in depth and of the thickness indicated on the plans shall be constructed along each curb as follows: Suitable provision for the cushion shall be made at-the time the brick are laid by setting boards of the proper width and thickness on edge in proper position along the curb. After the brick have been laid, rolled, and grouted, and the grout has well set, the boards shall be carefully removed, so as not to damage the curb or the brick pavement, and the spaces which they occupied shall be filled with blown-oil asphalt heated to a temperature of not less than three hundred (300) degrees Fahrenheit and not more than four hundred (400) degrees Fahrenheit. ALTERNATE SPECIFICATIONS. SEPARATE CONCRETE CURBS. Where the plans call for concrete curbs separate from the foundation they shall be constructed before the subgrade is finally completed and shall have the cross section shown on the plans. Such curbs shall be constructed in sec- tions not less than six (6) feet and not more than twelve a) feet in length and shall be true to grade and alignment. The specification already given for concrete curbs constructed in combination with the foundation shall also apply to curbs constructed separate from the foundation as regards proportioning, mixing, and placing the concrete, con- structing the forms, and all other features of construction pynichs are not covered on the plans or in this specification. STONE CURBS. Where stone curbs are required, they shall be hauled and set before the subgrade is finally completed. The curbs shall be set true to line and grade 1 Jnstead of making a poured joint, as above described, the cushion may be constructed of some of the specially prepared expansion-joint materials, subject to the approval of the engineer as to the material and method of construction. 34 BULLETIN 373, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and shall be securely bedded in broken stone, gravel, or firm earth. In pre- paring the trenches for the curbs great care shall be exercised to see that the material upon which the curb is to be set is well compacted, firm, and hard. Stone curbing shall be quarried from hard, tough, homogeneous stone. The individual blocks shall have the cross section shown on the plans and shali be not less than four (4) feet in length. Each block shall be free from seams and all other imperfections and shall be neatly dressed and finished on all exposed faces. APPENDIX B. Method for Inspecting and Testing Paving Brick.’ The quality and acceptability of paving brick, in the absence of other special tests mutually agreed upon in advance by the seller on the one side and the buyer on the other side, shall be determined by the following procedure, viz: (1) The rattler test, for the purpose of determining whether the material as a whole possesses to a sufficient degree, strength, toughness, and hardness; (2) Visual inspection, for the purpose of determining whether the physical properties of the material as to dimensions, accuracy and uniformity of shape and color are in general satisfactory, and for the purpose of culling out from the shipment individually imperfect or unsatisfactory brick. The acceptance of paving brick as satisfactorily meeting one of these tests shall not be construed as in any way waiving the other. SECTION 1.—THE RATTLER TEST. THE SELECTION OF SAMPLES FOR TEST. IvemM 1. Place of sampling.—In general where a shipment of brick involving a quantity of less than 100,000 is under consideration, the sampling may be done either at the brick factory prior to shipment, or on cars at their destination, or on the street when delivered ready for use. When the quantity under consider- ation exceeds 100,000, the sampling shall be done at the factory prior to ship- ment. Brick accepted as the result of tests prior to shipment shall not be liable to subsequent rejection as a whole, but are subject to such culling as is provided for under Section II (Visual Inspection). Irem 2. Method of selecting samples—tIn general the buyer shall select his own samples from the material which the seller promises to furnish. The seller shall have the right to be present during the selection of a sample. The sampler shall endeavor, to the best of his judgment, to select brick repre- senting the average of the lot. No samples shall include brick which would. be rejected by visual inspection as provided in Section II, except that where eontroversy arises, whoie tests may be selected to determine the admissibility of certain types or portions of the lot having a characteristic appearance in common. In cases where prolonged controversy occurs between buyer and seller, and samples selected by each party fail to show reasonable concurrence, then both parties shall unite in the selection of a disinterested person to select the samples, and both parties shall be bound by the results of samples thus selected. Item 3. Number of samples per lot.—In general one sample of 10 brick shall be tested for every 10,000 brick contained in the lot under consideration, 1 Recommended by subcommittee on paving brick of the American Society for Testing Materials. a ae a ee BRICK ROADS. 35 but where the total quantity exceeds 100,000, the number of samples tested may be fewer than 1 per 10,000, provided that they shall be distributed as uniformly as practicable over the entire lot. IreM 4. Shipment of samples——Samples which must be transported long distances by freight or express must be carefully put up in packages holding not more than 12 brick each. When more than six brick are shipped in one package, it must be so arranged as to carry two parallel rows of brick side by side, and these rows must be separated by a partition. In event of some of the brick being cracked or broken in transit, the sample shall be disqualified if there are not remaining 10 sound undamaged brick. Item 5. Storage and care of samples—Samples must be carefully handled to avoid breakage or injury. They must be kept dry so far as practicable. If wet when received, or known to have been immersed or subjected to recent prolonged wetting, they shall be dried for at least six hours in a temperature of 100° F. before testing. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE RATTLER. Item 6. The machine shall be of good mechanical construction, self-con- tained, and shall conform to the following details of materials and dimensions, and shall consist of barrel, frame, and driving mechanism as herein described. Accompanying these specifications is a complete drawing (Pl. XII) of a rattler which will meet the requirements, and to which reference should be made. Item 7. The barrel—rThe barrel of the machine shall be made up of the heads and head liners and staves and stave liners. The heads may be cast in one piece with the trunnions, which shall be 24 inches in’ diameter and shall have a bearing 6 inches in length, or they may be cast with heavy hubs, which shall be bored out for 27-inch shafts, and shall be keyseated for two keys, each 4 inch by % inch and spaced 90° apart. The shaft shall be a snug fit, and when keyed shall be entirely free from lost motion. The distance from the end of the shaft or trunnion to the inside face of the head shall be 152 inches in the head for the driving end of the rattler and 112 inches long for the other head, and the distance from the face of the hubs to the inside face of the heads shall be 53 inches. The heads shall be not less than # inch nor more than ¢ inch thick. In out- line each head shall be a regular 14-sided polygon inscribed in a circle 282 inches in diameter. Each head shall be provided with flanges not less than # inch thick and extending outward 24 inches from the inside face of the head to afford a means of fastening the staves. The surface of the flanges of the head must be smooth and must give a true and uniform bearing for the staves. To secure the desired true and uniform bearing the surfaces of the flanges of the head must be either ground or machined. The flanges shall be slotted on the outer edge so as to provide for two #-inch bolts at each end of each stave, said slots to be +% inch wide and 22 inches center to center. Hach slot shall be previded with a recess for the bolt head, which shall act to prevent the turn- ing of the same. Between each two slots there shall be a brace 2 inch thick extending down the outward side of the head not less than 2 inches. There shall be for each head a cast-iron head liner 1 inch in thickness and conforming to the outline of the head, but inscribed in ,a circle 28$ inches in diameter. This head liner shall be fastened to the head by seven §8-inch cap serews through the head from the outside. Whenever these head liners become worh down 4 inch below their initial surface level at any point of their surface they must be replaced with new ones. The metal of these head liners shall be 36 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. hard machinery iron and should contain not less than 1 per cent of combined earbon. The staves shall be made of 6-inch medium steel structural channels 274 inches long and weighing 15.5 pounds per linear foot. The staves shall have two holes +é inch in diameter, drilled in each end, the center line of the holes being 1 inch from the end and 12 inches either way from the longitudinal center line. The spaces between the staves shall be as uniform as practicable, but must not exceed 7s inch. The interior or flat side of each stave shall be protected by a liner 2 inch thick by 54 inches wide by 19% inches long. The liner shall consist of medium steel plate and shall be riveted to the channel by three 34-inch rivets, one of which shall be on the center line both ways and the other two on the longitu- dinal center line and spaced 7 inches from the center each way. The rivet holes shall be countersunk on the face of the liner and the rivets shall be driven hot and chipped off flush with the surface of the liners. These liners shall be inspected from time to time, and if found loose shall be at once re- riveted. Any test at the expiration of which a stave liner is found detached from the stave or seriously out of position shall be rejected. When a new rattler in which a complete set of new staves is furnished is first put into operation, it shall be charged with 400 pounds of shot of the same sizes, and in the same pro- portions as provided in Item 9, and shall then be run for 18,000 revolutions at the usual prescribed rate of speed. The shot shall then be removed and a standard shot charge inserted, after which the rattler may be charged with brick for a test. No stave shall be used for more than 70 consecutive tests without renewing its lining. Two of the 14 staves shall be removed and relined at a time, in such a way that of each pair one falls upon one side of the barrel and the other upon the opposite side, and also so that the staves changed shall be consecutive, but not contiguous; for example, 1 and 8, 3 and 10, 5 and 12, 7 and 14, 2 and 9, 4 and 11, 6 and 13, etc., to the end that the interior of the barrel at all times shall present the same relative condition of repair. The changes in the staves should be made at the time when the shot charges are being corrected, and the record must show the number of charges run since the last pair of newly lined staves was placed in position. The staves when bolted to the heads shall form a barrel 20 inches long, inside measurement, between head liners. The liners of the staves must be so placed as to drop between the head liners. The staves shall be bolted tightly to the heads by four {-inch bolts, and each bolt shall be provided with a lock nut, and shall be inspected at not less frequent intervals than every fifth test, and all nuts shall be kept tight. A record shall be made after each inspection showing in what condition the bolts were found. Item. 8. The frame and driving mechanism.—The barrel shall be mounted on a cast-iron frame of sufficient strength and rigidity to support it without undue vibration. It shall rest on a rigid foundation with or without the interposition of wooden plates and shall be fastened thereto by bolts at not less than four points. Tt shall be driven by gearing whose ratio of driver to driven is not less than one-to four. The countershaft upon which the driving pinion is mounted shall not be less than 14% inches in diameter, with bearings not less than 6 inches in length. If a belt drive is used, the pulley shall not be less than 18 inches in diameter and 64 inches in face. A belt at least 6 inches in width, properly adjusted to avoid unnecessary slipping, should be used. BRICK ROADS. 837 Item 9. The abrasive charge.—The abrasive charge shall consist of cast-iron spheres of two sizes. When new, the larger spheres shall be 3.75 inches in diameter and shall weigh approximately 7.5 pounds (3.40 kilos) each. Ten spheres of this size shall be used. These shall be weighed separately after each 10 tests, and if the weight of any large sphere falls to 7 pounds (3.175 kilos), it shall be discarded and a new one substituted, provided, however, that all of the large spheres shall not be discarded and substituted by new ones at any single time, and that so far as possible the large spheres shall compose a graduated series in various stages of wear. When new, the smaller sized spheres shall be 1.875 inches in diameter and shall weigh approximately 0.95 pound (0.43 kilo) each. In general the number of small spheres in a charge shall not fall below 245 nor exceed 260. The col- lective weight of the large and small spheres shall be as nearly as possible 300 pounds. No small sphere shall be retained in use after it has been worn down so that it will pass a circular hole 1.75 inches in diameter, drilled in an iron plate +-inch in thickness, or weigh less than 0.75 pound (0.34 kilo). Further, the small spheres shall be tested by passing them over the above plate, or shall be weighed after every 10 tests, and any which pass through the plate or fall below the specified weight shall be replaced by new spheres; and provided further, that all of the small spheres shall not be rejected and replaced by new ones at any one time, and that so far as possible the small spheres shall compose a graduated series in various stages of wear. At any time that any sphere is found to be broken or defective it shall at once be replaced. The iron composing these spheres shall have a chemical composition within the following limits: Combined carbon, not less than 2.50 per cent. Graphitic carbon, not more than 0.25 per cent. Silicon, not more than 1 per cent. Manganese, not more than 0.50 per cent. Phosphorus, not more than 0.25 per cent. Sulphur, not more than 0.08 per cent. For each new batch of spheres used the chemical analysis must be furnished by the maker or be obtained by the user before introducing into the charge, and unless the analysis meets the above specifications the batch of spheres shall be rejected. THE OPERATION OF THE TEST. Item 10. The brick charge.—The number of brick per test shall be 10 for all bricks of so-called ‘‘ block size,” whose dimensions fall between from 8 to 9 inches in length, 3 to 34 inches in breadth, and 33 inches to 44 inches in thick- ness.1 No brick should be selected as a part of a regular test that would be rejected by any other requirements of the specifications under which the pur-~ chase is made. Item 11. Speed and duration of revolution.—The rattler shall be rotated at a uniform rate of not less than 29} nor more than 304 revolutions per minute, and 1,800 revolutions shall constitute the test. A counting machine shall be | attached to the rattler for counting the revolutions. A margin of not to exceed 10 revolutions will be allowed for stopping. Only one start and stop per test is generally acceptable. If from accidental causes the rattler is stopped and started more than once during a test and the loss exceeds the maximum per- on Where brick of larger or smaller sizes than the dimensions given above for blocks are to be tested; the same number of bricks per charge should be used, but allowance for the difference in size should be made in setting the limits for average and maximum rattler loss. 38 BULLETIN 3873, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. missible under the specifications, the test shall be disqualified and another made. Irem 12. The scales—The scales must have a capacity of not less than 800 pounds and must be sensitive to one-half of an ounce and must be tested by a standard test weight at intervals of not less than every 10 tests. Item 13. The results—The loss shall be calculated in percentage of the initial weight of the brick composing the charge. In weighing the rattled brick any piece weighing less than 1 pound shall be rejected. Item 14. The records—A complete and continuous record shall be kept of the operation of all rattlers working under these specifications. This record shall contain the following data concerning each test made: 3 1. The name of the person, firm, or corporation furnishing each sample tested. . The name of the maker of the brick represented in each sample tested. The name of the street or contract which the sample represented. The brands or marks upon the bricks by which they were identified. The number of bricks furnished. The date on which they were received for test. . The date on which they were tested. 8. The drying treatment given before testing, if any. . The length, breadth, and thickness of the bricks. 10. The collective weight of the 10 large spherical shot used in making the test at the time of their last standardization. 11. The number and collective weight of the small spherical shot used in making the test at the time of their last standardization. 12. The total weight of the shot charge after its last standardization. 13. Certificate of the operator that he examined the condition of the machine as to staves, liners, and any other parts affecting the barrel and found them right at the beginning of the test. 14. Certificate of the operator of the number of charges tested since the last standardization of shot charge. 15. The time of the beginning and ending of each test and the number of revolutions made by the barrel during the test as shown by the indicator. 16. Certificate of the operator as to number of stops and starts made in each test. 17. The initial collective weight of the 10 brick composing the charge and their collective weight after rattling. 18. The loss calculated in per cents of the initial weight; and the calculation itself. 19. The number of broken brick and remarks upon the portions which were included in the final weighing. 20. General remarks upon the test and any irregularities occurring in its execution. ~ 21. The date upon which the test was made. 22. The location of the rattler and name of the owner. 23. The certificate of the operator that the test was made under specifications of the American Society for Testing Materials and that the record is a true record. 24. The signature of the operator or person responsible for the test. 25. The serial number of the test. In event of more than one copy of the record of any test being required, they may be furnished on separate sheets and marked duplicates, but the original record shall always be preserved intact and complete. Se OS) Ne) BRICK ROADS. 39 ACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION OF MATERIAL. Item 15. Basis of acceptance or rejection.—Paving brick shall not be judged for acceptance or rejection by the results of individual tests, but by the average of not less than five tests. Where a lot of brick fails to meet the required average it shall be optional with the buyer whether the brick shall be definitely rejected or whether they may be regraded and a portion selected for further test as provided in item 16. Irem 16. Range of fluctuation.—Some fluctuation in the results of the rattler test, both on account of variation in the brick and in the machine used in testing, are unavoidable, and a reasonable allowance for such fluctuations should be made wherever the standard may be fixed. In any lot of paving brick, if the loss on a test computed upon its initial weight exceeds the standard loss by more than 2 per cent, then the portion of the lot represented by that test shall at once be resampled and three more tests executed upon it, and if any of these three tests shall again exceed by more than 2 per cent the required standard, then that portion of the lot shall be rejected. If in any lot of brick two or more tests exceed the permissible maximum, then the buyer may, at his option, reject the entire lot, even though the average of all the tests executed may be within the required limits. Item 17. Fixing of standards.—The percentage of loss which may be taken as the standard will not be fixed in these regulations, and shall remain within the province of the contracting parties. Tor the information of the public the following scale of average losses is given, representing what may be expected of tests executed under the foregoing specifications: General | Maximum average | permissible loss. loss. Per cent. Per cent. Hombruckysuliableworheavyatralll Crees ee eee = ee eee eee ee eee Herr eae 22 24 Hombrickssuitaplevormedilmstrath Chee) 5 sae or ae eae pee eee eee ee eee 24 26 Hombnrickasmitabletomlechtatra th cs sercer senses ea eee ae eee eee eee 26 28 Which of these grades should be specified in any given -district and for any given purpose is a matter wholly within the province of the buyer, and should be governed by the kind and amount of traffic to be carried, and the quality of paving brick available. Item 18. Culling and retesting—Where under items 15 and 16 a lot or portion of a lot of brick is rejected, either by reason of failure to show a low enough average test or because of tests above the permissible maximum, the buyersmay at his option permit the seller to regrade the rejected brick, sep- arating out that portion which he considers at fault and retaining that which he considers good. When the regrading is complete the good portion shall be then resampled and retested, under the original conditions, and if it fails again either in average or in. permissible maximum, then the buyer may definitely and finally reject the entire lot or portion under test. Ivem 19. Payment of cost of testing.—Unless otherwise specified, the cost of testing the material as delivered or prepared for delivery, up to the pre- scribed number of tests for valid acceptance or rejection of the lot, shall be paid by the buyer. (See also item 28.) The cost of testing extra samples made necessary by the failure of the whole lot or any portion of it shall be paid by the seller, whether the material is finally accepted or rejected. 40 BULLETIN 873, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, SECTION II.—VISUAL INSPECTION. It shall be the right of the buyer to inspect the brick, subsequent to their delivery at the place of use, and prior to or during laying, to cull out and reject upon the following grounds: Item 20. All brick which are broken in two or chipped in such a manner that neither wearing surface remains substantially intact, or that the lower or bear- ing surface is reduced in area by more than one-fifth. Where brick are rejected upon this ground, it shall be the duty of the purchaser to use them so far as practicable in obtaining the necessary half brick for breaking courses and making closures, instead of breaking otherwise whole and sound brick for this purpose. Item 21, All brick which are cracked in such a degree as to produce defects such as defined in item 20, either from shocks received in shipment and handling or from defective conditions of manufacture, especially in drying, burning, or cooling, unless such cracks are plainly superficial and not such as to perceptibly weaken the resistance of the brick to its conditions of use. IreEM 22. All brick which are so offsize, or so misshapen, bent, twisted, or kiln marked that they will not form a proper surface as defined by the paving specifications, or align with other brick without making joints other than those permitted in the paving specifications. Item 23. All brick which are obviously too soft and too poorly vitrified to endure street wear. When any disagreement arises between buyer and seller under this item, it shall be the right of the buyer to make two or more rattler tests of the brick which he wishes to exclude, as provided in item 2, and if in either or both tests the brick fall beyond the maximum rattler losses permitted under the specifications, then all brick having the same objectionable appearance may be excluded, and the seller must pay for the cost of the test. But if under such procedure the brick which have been tested as objectionable shall pass the rattler test, both tests falling within the permitted maximum, then the buyer can not exclude the class of material represented by this test and he shall pay for the cost of the test. Item 24. All bricks which differ so markedly in color from the type or average of the shipment as to make the resuitant pavement checkered or disagreeably mottled in appearance. This item shall not be held to apply to the normal varia- tions in color which may occur in the product of one plant among brick which will meet the rattler test as referred to in items 15, 16, and 17, but shall apply only to differences of color which imply differences in the material of which the brick are made, or extreme differences in manufacture. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AS » ¥, BULLETIN No. 374 We 7) Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Se Sn Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 17, 1916 THE INTRINSIC VALUES OF GRAIN, COTTONSEED, FLOUR, AND SIMILAR PRODUCTS, BASED ON THE DRY-MATTER CONTENT. By E. G. BoERNER, Assistant in Grain Standardization. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Nt reMuchHlOMey eee ai anit easels tisialeis <= 1 | Other factors to be considered.............-- 6 Comparative values on a dry-matter basis. . . 2 | Relation of reduction of moisture content to Method of determining comparative values on Shrinkage) wiele bites s.r eeteis reir 7 MaGy-Mablenbasisecesenasse eee eee nen a Am Explanation oftablessesaes sean e aces 8 Advantage of buying and selling on a dry- MAclLepAsiSe eee sce sss ye eee wens eee = 6 INTRODUCTION. Grain, cottonseed, flour, and other vegetable products are composed of dry matter and water. All vegetable matter contains a consider- able percentage of water even when it is thoroughly air dried. The proportion of water to dry matter in the grains or cottonseed varies in each case with the season of the year, the sections of the country in which they are grown, and the way these products are handled and stored after being harvested. The minimum and maximum limits of the moisture content vary somewhat with each kind of grain, cot- tonseed, and their manufactured products, but are usually within the range of 10 to 30 per cent. New corn, however, frequently exceeds 30 per cent in moisture, while the small grains and cottonseed when thoroughly air dry sometimes test less than 10 per cent in moisture. The water contained in these products, even when they are in an air-dry condition, is not considered as having any food or feeding value. Any additional moisture that it might be necessary or desir- able to add to air-dry grain, flour, etc., to put it in proper condition for feeding, manufacturing, baking, etc., can be added .as water at the proper time at a much less cost than to purchase it at the prices for which the products sell. 41645°—Bull. 37416 —1 tit 9 BULLETIN 3874;:U) §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COMPARATIVE VALUES ON A DRY-MATTER BASIS. Other things being equal, different lots of grain, cottonseed, flour, meal, etc., have an intrinsic value to the consumer, such as the live- stock feeder, the manufacturers of corn products, the cottonseed crusher, the miller of wheat, and the baker, in proportion to the amount of dry matter eontained in each lot. The grain, cottonseed, and flour which contains the least moisture of course contains the greatest amount of dry matter (fig. 1) and not only has the highest intrinsic value on account of this high dry-matter content, but it is also of greater value because of its better keeping qualities while in storage. Enormous quantities of grain and cottonseed are severely damaged by molds and fermentation each year because they contain a moisture content that is too high for safe storage or transportation, As the moisture content increases, both the risk of spoilage and the WEGHLEY, Y Ye Ce E) $e SS Y IAT TE? = = Le YMA iil ee MM)... = ———J L = = 2 = Y Yy pul g Wut —Y Y DRY /IATTEPRRY Yy MMM VM Y TESTING 12% 11 IIONSGTUPRE ARE EQLAL TO #B CAFPLOAQOS OF DRY AIATTE AND ZS CAPLOAD OF W44A7ER ‘Fic. 1.—Diagram illustrating the amount of dry matter contained in five carloads of grain, cottonseed, ete., when these products test 20 per cent in moisture and when they test 12 per cent in moisture and showing that two-fifths of a carload more dry matter is present when the moisture test shows 12 per cent than when the test shows 20 per cent. : damage from fermentation when these products spoil are accelerated with each additional per cent of moisture.! The value of a low moisture content in grain has been recognized by the trade for many years, as is evidenced by the rules governing the grading of grain, which specified that the grain to receive one of the higher grades must be “ dry’’; for a lower grade “reasonably dry” was sufficient, and the lowest grades allowed ‘“damp’’ or “wet” erain. These quoted terms, of course, are very indefinite and allow too much elasticity in their interpretation by the various interested parties. In comparatively recent years these indefinite terms have been converted into definite percentages as applied to certain grades. The Grain Dealers’ National Association was the first grain organiza- tion to place the factor of moisture in the grading of grain on a per- centage basis. In 1906 this association adopted grade rules defining 1 For the results of experiments to determine the relation of diferent moisture contents to deterioration in corn, see Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 55, ‘“‘American Export Corn (Maize) in Europe,’’ by J. D. Shanahan, C. E. Leighty, and E. G. Boerner; also U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 48, entitled ‘‘The Shrinkage of Shelled Corn while in Cars in Transit,’ by J. W. T. Duvel and Laurel Duval. INTRINSIC VALUES BASED ON DRY¥-MATTER CONTENT. 3 definite maximum limits of moisture for the various grades of corn. These grades were adopted by many of the State grain-inspection departments and grain exchanges and resulted in the wide adoption of the quick method for the determination of the moisture content of grain which was devised in the Department of Agriculture.t In 1914, the Department of Agriculture promulgated grades for commercial corn and fixed definite maximum limits of moisture which each of the six numerical grades might contain.2 These grades have been adopted and are now in force in most of the corn markets in the United States. The pure-food laws in some States also have certain reculations dealing with the amount of moisture which grain and flour may contain in order to enter the State. DPPH SIATTEL —- LES: eae tee eee N MAKITA \ MWOSTORE PaISTIO: PSGO OQ g0VINE WHE DECT/IAL FONT ONE PLACE TO CHIE LEFP7 CIVES THE VALUE IN CEIVNTS PER BUSHEL MOTE, EACL 1% OF DPRIYOPTATTELRE EQUALS .GAF BAGH CENTS PER GUSYTEL Fic. 2.— Diagram showing the amount of dry matter and of water contained in 1,000 bushels of corn testing the maximum percentage in moisture allowed in the six numerical grades for commercial corn and also the comparative value of the dry matter in 1,000 bushels of each grade when No. 3 corn is worth 70 cents per bushel. When a unit of weight of grain, cottonseed, etc., which contains excess moisture dries out naturally or is artificially dried to a lower moisture content, some of the water is lost but all of the dry matter is retained, and as only the dry matter is considered as having any value the total value will be the same after drying that it was before drying. The weight, however,willhave been reduced through the lossin moisture. Figure 2 shows the comparative values by grades of the dry matter contained in a carload of 1,000 bushels of corn testing the maximum limits in moisture allowed in the Government grades for commercial corn when No. 3 corn is considered as being worth 70 cents per bushel. 1'Yor a description of this method and the apparatus used with it, see Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 72, entitled ‘‘A Moisture Tester for Grain and Other Substances and How to Use It,” by J. W. T. Duvel. 2¥For an explanation of the rules for grading, see Department of Agriculture Bulletin 168, entitled “Grades for Commercial Corn,” by J. W. T. Duvel. 4 BULLETIN 374,\U: Si: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. METHOD OF DETERMINING COMPARATIVE VALUES ON A DRY-MATTER BASIS. The comparative values given in Tables II to XII, inclusive, are based on the dry matter contained in a unit of weight. The water contained is not considered as having any intrinsic value; therefore the whole value for any unit of weight is credited to the dry matter which it contains. The method of arriy- #0. : : ; ing at comparative Be values of the dry mat- ter contained in a unit of weight, when every- thing but moisture is considered as being equal, is explained m the solution of the fol- lowing problem: Example—tli the dry matter in a unit of weight (bushel, 100 pounds, etc.) of any grain, cottonseed, or similar product testing 10 per cent in moisture is worth $1.20, what is the value of the dry matter in a similar unit of weight of the same product which tests 16 per cent in mois- ture? GZ4SOFY, ca AIA T TLSO ROR Le A unit of weight of Ass \woRZY? LIS erain, cottonseed, or C012 A°OG= BAAR RE similar product test- 4 =O ALE ing 10 per cent in moisture contains 90 EACH 1% OF DAF PIATTIER. SF LWOATH leP FFI CTS per cent of dry matter Fie. 3.—Diagram illustrating the comparative values of the drymat- ond 10 per cent Oh ter in two 1-bushel units of wheat testing 10 and 16 per cent in moisture, respectively, based on a bushel of wheat testing 10 per water. If the 90 per cent in moisture being worth $1.20. cent which is dry mat- ter is worth $1.20, then each 1 per cent of the dry matter is worth 1/90 of $1.20, or 1.3333+ cents, and the dry matter in a similar unit testing 16 per cent in moisture and therefore having 84 per cent of dry matter is worth 84 x 1.3333+ cents, or $1.12. This is graph- ically illustrated in figure 3. If it is desired to extend any one of Tables II to XII, inclusive, so as to ascertain the comparative value of a unit which contains either more or less moisture than any unit shown in the table, it is only necessary to calculate the percentage of dry matter contamed in this ee INTRINSIC VALUES BASED ON DRY-MATTER CONTENT. 5 unit and multiply it by the value of each 1 per cent of dry matter shown in the right-hand column in the table. Example.—li a bushel of No. 3 corn testing 17.5 per cent in moisture is worth 80 cents, what is the comparative value of a bushel of corn testing 26 per cent in moisture? Table XI shows comparative values for units containing from 12 to 24 per cent of moisture content only, based on even money for a unit testing 17.5 per cent in moisture. Corn testing 26 per cent in mois- ture contains 74 per cent of dry matter and as each 1 per cent of dry matter is worth in this instance 0.9697 cents, as is shown in the right-hand column of the table, the 74 per cent of dry matter is worth 74 x 0.9697 cents, or 71.76 cents. Therefore, if a bushel of No. 3 corn testing 17.5 per cent in moisture is worth 80 cents, the compara- tive intrinsic value of a bushel of corn testing 26 per cent in moisture is 71.76 cents. The comparative value of a unit testing lower in moisture than the minimum shown in the table may be determined in a similar manner. If it is desired to extend any one of Tables II to XII, inclusive, so as to ascertain the comparative value of any unit, the value of which is over $1.20 but less than $2.00, such value can be found by divid- ing the given value into two parts, one of which will be an even dollar and the other the fraction of the dollar, and finding the com- parative value for each. The comparative value for the whole will then be the sum of these two results. Example.—lIif a unit weight of grain, cottonseed, or flour testing 12 per cent in mois- ture is worth $1.90, what is the comparative value of a similar unit testing 16 per cent in moisture? Proceeding as explained above, it will be seen from Table IV that the comparative value for the $1 part will be 95.45 cents, and the comparative value for the 90-cent part will be 85.91 cents; there- fore, the comparative value for the whole will be (95.45+85.91 = 181.36 cents) $1.81. Similar results can be obtained by moving the decimal point one or two places to the left, as may be necessary, and considering the figures given in these tables as dollars and cents instead of cents and fractions of a cent. According to this method, it is seen in Table TV that by moving the decimal point one place to the left, 19 cents in the 12 per cent moisture column becomes $1.90, and the compara- tive value in the 16 per cent moisture column will be $1.81, which is the same result as that obtained by the first method. _ It will be noted in Tables II to XII, inclusive, that the difference in value for each 1 per cent of dry matter increases in direct propor- tion to the increase in the price, so that as the price of the product mereases, the difference in value for each 1 per cent of dry matter or of moisture becomes of more material importance to the producer and consumer of the products under consideration. 6 BULLETIN 374, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ADVANTAGE OF BUYING AND SELLING ON A DRY-MATTER BASIS. Buying and selling grain, flour, and cottonseed on the basis of their comparative intrinsic values depending on the amount of dry matter contained in a unit of weight is not only fair to the consumer of these agricultural products but also gives the producer an incen- tive for putting them on the market in a dry condition. Much of the grain and cottonseed is sold from the farm merely as grain or cottonseed, and no premium is paid for these products when delivered with a lower moisture content than the average for the crop. The result of buying such products from the farmer on this basis is that it puts a premium on poor farming, in that it pays the farmer to sell as much water as possible at grain or cottonseed prices. When a farmer in selling to the country elevator or other buyer delivers grain or cottonseed which contains less moisture than the average for the crop, he is entitled to a price which is higher than the average price for the crop, because grain or cottonseed which tests low in moisture has a higher intrinsic value than grain or cottonseed which tests high in moisture. By paying the farmer what his products are worth on the dry-matter basis when he de- livers grain or cottonseed which contains a moisture content lower than the average for the crop, a premium is put on good farming and the result should be, with grain at least, that the farmer will have an incentive to grow an early-maturing grain which will dry out sufficiently on the farm to be in a marketable condition soon after harvesting. He will also have an incentive to store his grain and cottonseed on the farm in well-ventilated cribs and warehouses, which will facilitate natural drying and at the same time protect these products from rain and snow and thereby prevent much of the deterioration from molds, fermentation, etc., that now occurs in Many Cases. OTHER FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED. The relation of the moisture and dry-matter contents to the in- trinsic worth of grains makes Tables II to XII, mclusive, valuable in applying the factor of moisture content in the fixing of grades and also as a basis for fixmg market values. In these tables, only the factors of moisture and dry matter were considered in calculating the relative values of grain on a dry-matter basis; but, while these factors are fundamental and the basis is an excellent one from which to figure intrinsic values, other factors and circumstances affecting these values must still be considered in computing markct values, among which, for grain at least, can be mentioned: (1) The relative quantity of damp and therefore undesirable grain in the grain- — producing States that have a surplus, or in territory contiguous to any given grain market, and the relative quantity of the market receipts that is upon inspection placed in each grade; (2) the well- INTRINSIC VALUES BASED ON DRY-MATTER CONTENT. i known tendency of damp grain to deteriorate in storage and in transit and the accelerated risk from such deterioration as the moisture content increases; (3) conditions relative to supply and demand at the time the grain is marketed and the relative capacity of the grain markets to absorb it or dispose of it in a damp condition at a profit; (4) weather conditions at the time of marketing and future weather conditions as affecting the condition and carrying capacity of the grain; (5) consideration of the fact that when grain must be artifi- cially dried after being delivered to market, there is a certain extra charge for putting it through the drier and for freight on the water that must be handled; and (6) that when grain is artificially dried there is always a slight ‘‘invisible loss’? in weight in the drying process. Many of these factors are of equal importance with reference to the buying and selling of cottonseed, flour, and other products. It will therefore be seen that unless these products are purchased for immediate consumption, the relative values as given in Tables II to XII, inclusive, can not be literally applied as showing final market values, premiums, and discounts; and it was not intended that they should be so applied. RELATION OF REDUCTION OF MOISTURE CONTENT TO SHRINKAGE IN WEIGHT. Grain, and especially corn, frequently gets into commerce with a moisture content too high to receive one of the higher grades or to remain sound while in storage or durmg transportation. This is especially true in a year in which there is more than the usual amount of rainfall durmg the growing and harvest seasons. This condition has been partially met by the trade by the introduction of machines for artificially removing the excess moisture from the grain. These grain driers, as they are termed, are extensively used, and increas- ingly large amounts of grain are artificially dried by them each year. Whether grain dries naturally or is artificially dried, the percentage of shrinkage in weight is always greater than the difference in the percentage of moisture content before and after drying, as shown by the moisture tester, unless all of the moisture is dried out when the shrinkage and the reduction in moisture are equal. For instance, if corn having an original moisture content of 23 per cent is dried so that it tests only 14 per cent, the moisture content is reduced by 9 per cent. The shrinkage in weight, however, is 10.46 per cent, as is shown in Table I. When the original moisture content and the moisture content after drying are known, the shrinkage can be determined from Table I. The reason for the difference in the percentage of shrinkage and the reduction of the moisture content is fully explained in Bureau of Plant Industry Circular No. 32.1 |; 1See Duvel, J. W. T. Moisture content and shrinkage in grain. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cir. 32, 1909, p. 4-7. Sates 8 BULLETIN 374, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The formula for finding the percentage of shrinkage corresponding to any reduction in moisture content is as follows: Percentage of) (Percentage of = 100-(| dry mate| : | dry mate 72/100): Af econ of after drying before drying shrinkage. Example.—Find the percentage of shrinkage when wheat has been dried from 18 per cent moisture content to 12 per cent moisture content. Solution: 100—(88 : 82 :: 100 : z)=(100—93.18), which equals 6.82. In this case the moisture content was reduced by 6 per cent and the shrinkage in weight was 6.82 per cent. When the original weight and the moisture content before and after drying are known and it is desired to find the final weight, or, in other words, the weight of the dried material, it can be obtamed by the formula— Percentage of Percentage of = : dry mater : dry mate : eae { Final after drying before drying weight. weight. Example.—li 2,000 pounds of grain containing 18 per cent of moisture has been dried and the grain tested 12 per cent of moisture after drying, what is the weight of the grain after drying? Applying the above formula gives— _ (88 : 82 :: 2,000 : z)=(164000-+88), which equals 1,863.6. Therefore, the grain after drying weighed 1,863.6 pounds. EXPLANATION OF TABLES. . Table I shows the percentage of shrinkage in weight correspond- ing to definite reductions in the moisture content. Tables II to XII, inclusive, show the comparative values on a dry- matter basis of grain, cottonseed, and other products containing various percentages of moisture. Tables IT to IX, inclusive, are applicable to all grains, cottonseed, flour, and similar products, and give the comparative values for the _ dry matter in a unit contaiming from 10 to 24 per cent of moisture. These tables are based on even money for the units containing 10 to 17 per cent of moisture, respectively. Tables X and XI are more particularly applicable to shelled corn and give the comparative values for the dry matter m a unit con- taining from 12 to 24 per cent of moisture. These tables are based on even money for units containing the maximum moisture allowed in the Government grades for No. 2 and No. 3 corn, respectively. Table XII gives the comparative values, by grades, of a unit of corn containing the maximum moisture allowed in each of the six numerical grades established by the Government. Tables showing the comparative values of a unit of weight of grain on a dry-matter basis when applied to corn are applicable to shelled corn only. In ear corn, the cobs at the time of harvest test higher in moisture than the kernels, but during storage the cobs dry out faster than the kernels and contain less moisture than the kernels when the corn is in an air-dry condition. oO INTRINSIC VALUES BASED ON DRY-MATTER CONTENT. 9 Taste I.—Percentage of shrinkage in weight of grain, cottonseed, flour, etc., when the loss in moisture and the original moisture content are known. Original moisture content (per cent). Loss in mois- ture. | 5 8 9 10 11 | 12 13 14 15 Ga een 7, 18 19 20 21 Pe Cbs\ Mees CLs GPs CEs \chrs ct. PCH oP. chi eRe chs Re chiuP: ch OP. Ct.) P.-C Pa ctt\ik. cts|| Pct. 1percent..-.| 1.07] 1.09) 1.10) 1.11! 1.12) 1.14) 2.15) 1.16) 1.18] 1.19) 1.20) 1.22) 1.23) 1.25 2percent....| 2.13] 2.15) 2.17) 2.20, 2.22) 2.25) 2.27) 2.30; 2.32) 2.35) 2.38) 2.41) 2.44) 2.47 3 percent....| 3.16] 3.19} 3.22) 3.26) 3.30! 3.33) 3.77) 3.41) 3.45) 3.49) 3.53) 3.57] 3.61) 3.66 4percent...-} 4.17) 4.21) 4.25 4.30) 4.35] 4.39) 4.44] 4.49) 4.54! 4.60) 4.65) 4.70) 4.76) 4.82 5percent....| 5.15} 5.21) 5.26] 5.32) 5.38) 5.43] 5.49) 5.55) 5.62) 5.68) 5.75) 5.81) 5.88) 5.95 6 percent...-| 6.12} 6.18) 6.25} 6.31) 6.38) 6.45] 6.52) 6.59) 6.67) 6.74) 6.82) 6.90) 6.98) 7.06 7percent....| 7.07) 7.14) 7.22! 7.29) 7.37) 7.45) 7.53) 7.61) 7.69) 7.78) 7.86) 7.95) 8.04) 8.14 8 percent..-.| 8.00) 8.08) 8.16) 8.25) 8.33] 8.42} 8.51] 8.60) 8.69} 8.79} 8.89) 8.99) 9.09) 9.19 9 percent... -|.-.2.- 9.00; 9.09} 9.18 9.28) 9.37] 9.47] 9.57) 9.68} 9.78) 9.89) 10.00) 10.11) 10.23 LOipencentesse|esseslaco-- 10. 00} 10.10) 10. 20) 10.31} 10.42] 10.53} 10.64) 10.75) 10.87) 10.99} 11.11} 11.23 Mibpercentacec|eeccs|ss-c-- Weare Ae 11.00: 11.11] 11.22} 11.34] 11.46} 11.58] 11.70) 11.83) 11.96) 12.09) 12. 22 T2ipencenteees| esses clieck ae” See ee te | 12.00] 12. 12) 12. 24) 12.37] 12.50) 12.63) 12.76] 12.90] 13.04] 13:19 1S} Toei CIA < 65||5666s6 bone delaoUseEISSeceH Seseee 13. 00} 13.13] 13. 26} 13. 40) 13. 54) 13. 68] 13. 83] 13.98) 14.13 TEE COME SOS |S oco cal MEeS SO EB EEeE Meese cece Racer 14.00} 14.14] 14. 28} 14.43} 14.58) 14.74] 14.89) 15.05 HSS CHAS Acclloncssdlondaes S| a er Dn aes Perna 15.00} 15.15) 15.31) 15.46} 15. 62) 15.79] 15.96 IG OEPCOA Ss S36 So Sase Basses) Be Soee Seeese Ocesee caeatcllbesesa aeenas 16.00} 16.16) 16.33] 16.49) 16.67) 16.84 Wy DS PCRTIPE Gadlioeoead ee eee Mee nee (ee Bee Ve |, ST 17.00) 17.17] 17.35] 17.52) 17.71 Tf) [OP COMITS coc||Gooceellsseeadtanedse |seseee \Soscas lsepoaelacosod |seeecelssousleadecs 18.00} 18.18) 18.37} 18.56 ID POR CRM ce Soonee ES SOE Oa |SBEEG Babors Berea loococalacseos|oesens seceas ossmess 19.00) 19.19] 19.39 Oi) JOP CATIA Sell aco auel GOB SaE eoObrE Teseen Saeeos Seserel dosed lasuacd| Sonoda Sresca beoneelacmebe 20.00) 20.20 AlpernGentisinj ese =|(= en = - (Baecod SeRcod GBUGes lSceserliGccodnlmodcocl cesses lociaosullssocad lappoddlsocsas 21.00 22 23 24 25 26 | 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 | —_—— BP Chal Eas (Ch s|eEeanCbel bee Cbe|| bre Cla bre Chel Pre Cbs eve Chal Ege CEs boo C68 | Eas Cla Exes Che | (Pleat Cls| DEA CH: 1percent....| 1.26) 1.28 BON alse 33/ 1.35) 1.37) 1.39) 1.41) 1.43) 1.45) 1.47) 1.49) 1.52 2percent..--| 2.50) 2.53 56] 2.60 63) 2.67) 2.70) 2.74). 2.78] 2.82) 2.86] 2.90) 2.94) 2.98 38 percent....| 3.70) 3.75 80} 3.85 90) 3.95) 4.00) 4.05 11) 4.17) 4.22) 4.28) 4.35) 4.41 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4percent...-| 4.88) 4.94) 5. 5.13) 5. 233] O- : : b 5 5percent....| 6.02) 6.10) 6.17) 6.25) 6.33) 6.41) 6.49} 6.58 6.67) 6.76) 6.85) 6.94) 7.04) 7.14 6percent-...) 7.14 7.23) 7 7 7 7percent....| 8.23) 8.33) 8 8 9 8 percent....| 9.30: 9.41) 9.52) 9; : : i i : 9 per cent...-| 10.34] 10.46) 10.59) 10.71) 10.84) 10.97| 11.11 11.25) 11.39) 11.54) 11.69) 11.84) 12.00] 12.16 10 p2r cent... -) 11.36) 11.49) 11.63) 11.76) 11.90) 12.05) 12.19) 12.34) 12.50; 12.66) 12.82) 12.99] 13.16] 13.33 11 percent...) 12.36) 12.50} 12.61) 12.79) 12.94) 13.09) 13.25) 18.41) 13.58) 13.75; 13.92) 14.10) 14.28] 14.47 12 percent. ...| 13.33] 13.48) 13.64) 13.79! 13.95) 14.12) 14.28) 14.46] 14.63] 14.81) 15.00) 15.19] 15.38] 15.5 13 per cent..-.| 14.28) 14.44) 14.61] 14.77| 14.94] 15.12) 15.29) 15.48) 15.66) 15.85) 16.05) 16.25) 16.45] 16.67 14 per cent...-| 15.22) 15.38) 15.55) 15.73] 15.91) 16.09) 16. 28) 16.47] 16.67) 16.87| 17.07) 17.28] 17.50) 17.72 15 p2rcent...-| 16.13] 16.30) 16.48) 16.67) 16.85) 17.04) 17.24) 17.44) 17.65) 17.86) 18.07) 18.29] 18.52} 18.75 16 per cent...) 17.02) 17.20) 17.39) 17.58) 17.78) 17. 98) 18. 18] 18.39) 18.60) 18.82) 19.05) 19.28] 19.51} 19.75 17 per cent...-.| 17.89) 18.08] 18. 28) 18. 48) 18.68) 18.89) 19.10) 19.32) 19.54) 19.77] 20.00] 20. 24] 20. 48} 20.73 18 per cent. -..-] 18.75) 18.95) 19.15) 19.35) 19. 56) 19. 78) 20.00) 20.22) 20. 45) 20.69) 20.93} 21.18] 21.43} 21.69 19 per cent-...| 19.59) 19.79) 20.00} 20.21] 20. 43} 20.65) 20. 88] 21.11) 21.35! 21.59) 21. 84) 22.09) 22.35) 22. 62 20 per cent... -| 20.41} 20.62) 20. 83) 21.05} 21. 28) 21.50) 21.74] 21.98) 22. ; ; : 3 21 percent....| 21.21) 21.43) 21.65) 21.87) 22.10) 22.34] 22. 58) 22. 83) 23.08) 23.33] 23.59) 23. 86] 24.14) 24.42 22 percent....) 22.00) 22. 22) 22. 45) 22. 68) 22.92) 23.16} 23.40} 23.65) 23.91) 24.17) 24.44) 24.72] 25.00) 25.29 23 per cent 23.00! 23. : 5 - 96! 24. 21 bo dN bo bo bo bo pe x bo bo J (ey i) bo io) =e) bo oO bo i bo Bo on Ww 27 per cent 28 per cent 29 per cent 30 per cent L ; i : 3 Co Oa COM bE Us be ated Ree a me Soocosoooneslsbeqeed aH erralae. jlo scoud laomare 31.00) 31.31] 31. 63} 31.96) 32.29 BA NEe COM Shel see eeal me Geaa MeNnor BBASeE seocra ase seallsetc c. | ocean eel ins aes 82. 00} 32.32) 32. 65) 32. 99 33 per cent. -.-|- (RASA RARE aeMee RAO os SS aerial sisted ro & 100. 12 101.07) 99. 84 78 103. 93 102. 104. 88,103.60 105. 84/104. 55 106. 79)105. 49 107. 74)106. 43 108. 70|107. 37 109. 65/108. 31 110. 60 109. 26 111.56 110. 20,1 112. 51 111.14 113. 46 112. 08 66 72} 101. 39)100. 13 102. 82,101.05 103. re 96 100. 104. 18)102. 88 101. 105.12 103. 80 102. b 106.05 104. 72 103.39 102. 07/100. 106. 98,105. 64 104. 30,102. 96/101. 63 107. 91 106. 56 105. 21 103. 86)102. 51 108. 84 107. 48 106. 11 104. 75}103. 39 /109. 77 108. 39 107. 02 105. 65/104. 28 110. 70 109. 31 107. 93 106. 55|105. 16 = ih cous 02 111. 63 110. sis wae 84 107. 44/106. 05 | Value of each 1 per cent of dry matter. Cents. 0. 70930-+- . 72093 - 73256— . 74419— - 75081-++ - 76744 « T7907 — . 79070— - 80232+- - 81395+ - 82558-+ . 83721 — - 848384 — - 86046-+ - 87209-+ - 88372 - 89535— - 90698— - 91860-++ - 93023-+ - 94186 - 95349— - 96512— - 976744 - 98837-+- . 00000 - 01163— - 02325-+- . 03488-+- -04651-+ .05814— . 06977— - 08139-+- -09302+- . 10465+- 11628— 12791— 13953-+- 15116-++ 16279 17442— 18605— 19767+ - 20930-+- - 22093 23256— . 24419— - 29581-- - 267444. - 27907— - 29070— Se Se eee ee eee Re ee Ree ee ee 1.31395+ 1.32558-+- 1.33721— 1.34884— 1.36046+ 1.37209+ 1.38372 1.39535— 30232-- 20 BULLETIN 374, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TaBLE VII.—Comparative vaiue, on a dry-matter basis, of grain, cottonseed, flour, ete.;. showing the price per unit of weight (bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to $1.20, and the difference in value for each unit testing from 10 to 24 per cent in moisture when the price jor a unit testing 15 per cent in morsture is in even cents. 10.59 11.65 12.71 13.76 14, 82 15. 88 16, 94 18. 00 19. 06 20. 12 21.18 22. 23 23. 29 24.35 25.41 26. 47 27. 53 28. 59 29. 65 30. 71 31.76 32. 82) 33. 88 34. 94 36. 00 37. 06 38, 12 39. 18) 40. 23 41. 29 42, 35 43.41 44.47 45. 53 46. 59 47.65 48.71 49.76 50. 82 51. 88 52. 94 54. 00 55. 06 56. 12 57.18 58. 23 59. 29 60. 35 61. 41 62. 47 63. 53 Moisture content (per cent) and relative value per unit of measure. 13 14 ay ao 17 aS — SOMNSD oBRWNEO oOo aD OMA Sees | = CONS PWNWrOD oO [oa] 19 a “I00 COW OO. MHOC bon bo WIP PwWNroQ forwor nN | Value of each 1 per cont of 2 2 Ty 20 21 22 23 24 matron Cts.:|- Cts.\ (Cis. \Cts3| Cts: Cents. 0.94) 0.93) 0.92) 0.90! 0.89} 0.01176+ 1.88} 1.86} 1.83} 1.81) 1.79) .02353— 2.82) 2.79} 2.75) 2.72) 2.68) .03529+- 3.76) 3.72) 3.67! 3.62! 3.58) .04706— 4.70) 4.65] 4.59} 4.53} 4.47) .05882+ 5.65] 5.58] 5.51} 5.43] 5.36) .07059— 6.59) 6.50) 6.42) 6.34] 6.26} .08235+- 7.58) C048)" 7. 84) 2-7. 2ole 7b | ye OOF 2 = 8.47} 8.36} 8.26} 8.15} 8.05) .10588-+- 9.41) 9.29] 9.18) 9.06] 8.94) .11765— 10.35] 10.22} 10.09) 9.96] 9.83} .129414 11. 29} 11.15] 11.01] 10. 87] 10.73} .14118— 12. 23) 12.08) 11.93) 11.78] 11.62) . 152944 13.18} 13.01] 12. 85) 12.68] 12.52) .16470+- 14.12} 13.94, 13.76] 13.59) 18.41); .17647 15. 0°} 14. 87] 14.68] 14.49) 14.30) .18823-+- 16. 00) 15. 80) 15.60] 15.40] 15.20} . 29000 16. 94] 16.73] 16.52) 16.30) 16.09) .21176+ 17. 88) 17.66] 17. 43] 17.21) 16.99] .22353— 18. 82) 18.59) 18.35} 18.12) 17.88) .23529+- 19. 76) 19.52) 19.27) 19.02] 18.77} .24706— 29.70) 20.45] 29.19] 19.93] 19.67] .25882+- 21.65} 21.38] 21.11] 29. 83) 20.56] .27059— 22.59) 22.30) 22.02] 21.74] 21.46] . 282354 23. 53] 28. 23) 22.94] 22.65) 22.35) .29412— 24.47) 24.16] 23. 86] 23.55] 23.25] .30588-+- 25.41] 25.09] 21.78) 24.46) 24.14] .31765— 26. 35) 26. 02) 25. 69] 25.36] 25.03] .32941+4- 27. 29) 26.95) 26.61) 26.27) 25.93] .34118— 28. 23] 27. 88) 27.53) 27.18] 26.82] .35294+ 29. 18] 28. 81} 28. 45] 28. 08} 27.72] .36470+- 30. 12) 29. 74} 29. 36] 28.99] 28.61] .37647 31. 06} 30.67} 30. 28} 29. 89] 29.50) .38823-+- 32. 00} 31.60] 31. 29) 30. 80] 30.40} . 40000 32. 94] 32. 53} 32.12) 31.70] 31.29] .41176+ 33. 88} 33. 46] 33.03] 32.61] 32.19] .42353— 34. 82) 34. 39] 33. 95) 33. 52) 33.08] .43529-- 35. 76] 35. 32) 34. 87) 34. 42! 33.98) .44706— 36. 70) 386. 25] 35. 79] 35. 33) 34.87] .45882+- 37. 65] 37.18] 36.71] 36. 23] 35.76] .47059— 38. 59, 38. 10} 37. 62) 37.14! 36.66) .48235-+- 39. 53} 39. 03) 38. 54) 38. 05) 37.55) .49412— 40. 47} 39. 96} 39. 46] 38.95} 38.45] .50588+- 41. 41} 40. 89] 40. 38} 39. 86] 39.34] .51765— 42. 35) 41. 82] 41.29) 40. 76] 40.23) .52941-+- 43. 29) 42.75] 42.21) 41.67) 41.13} .54118— 44, 23] 43. 68] 43.13] 42.58) 42.02] .55294+- 45.18] 44.61] 44.05] 43. 48] 42.92) .56470+ 46. 12} 45. 54] 44.96] 44.39] 43.81] .57647 47. 06] 46.47} 45. 88] 45.29] 44.70) .58823-++ 48. 00} 47. 40) 46. 80) 46.20) 45.60} .60000 48. 94] 48.33] 47. 72) 47.10] 46.49] .61176+ 49. 88} 49. 26] 48.63] 48.01) 47.39] .62353— 50. 82} 50.19] 49.55) 48.92) 48.28) .63529+- 51. 76] 51.12) 50.47; 49.82) 49.18) .64706— 52. 70) 52.05] 51.39] 50.73] 50.07) .65882-+- 53. 65] 52.98) 52.31) 51.63) 50.96} .67059— 54.59] 53.90} 53.22) 52.54) 51.86} .68235+ 55. 53] 54. 83} 54.14) 53.45) 52.75} .69412— 56.47] 55.76) 55.06] 54.35) 53.65} .70588-+- INTRINSIC VALUES BASED ON DRY-MATTER CONTENT. 21 TaBLeE VII.—Comparative value, on a dry-matter basis, of grain, cottonseed, flour, etc., showing the price per unit of weight (bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to $1.20, ‘and the difference in value for each unit testing from 10 to 24 per cent in moisture when the price for a unit testing 15 per cent in morsture is in even cents—Continued. ————— Moisture content (per cent) and relative value per unit of measure. 12 13 14 15 | 16 104. 82 105. 88 106. 94 108. 00 109. 06 110. 12 111.18 112.23 113. 29 114. 35 115. 41 116. 47 117. 58 118. 59 119. 65 120. 71 121. 76 122, 82 123. 88 "424,94 126. 00 127. 06 104. 70 105. 75 106. 80 107. 85 108. 89 109. 94 110. 99 112. 03 113. 08 114.13 115. 18 116. 22 117. 27 118. 32 119. 36 120. 41 121. 46 122. 50 123. 55 124. 60 125. 65 104. 56 105. 60 106. 63 107. 67 108. 70 109. 74 110. 78 111, 81 112.85 113. 88 114. 92 115. 95 116. 99 118. 02 119. 06 120. 09 121. 13 122.16 123. 20 124. 23 Ctss\| Cts. 62. 43) 61. 72 63. 46) 62. 73 64. 48) 63. 74 65. 50} 64. 75 66. 53] 65. 76 67. 55) 66. 78 68. 58] 67. 79 69. 60} 68. 80 70. 62). 69. 81 71. 65) 70. 82 72.67) 71. 83 73. 69| 72. 85 74. 72| 73. 86 75. 74| 74. 87 76. 76| 75. 88 77.79) 76. 89 78. 81) 77. 90 79. 83] 78. 92 80. 8¢) 79. 93 81. 88} 80. 94 82.90) 81.95 83.93} 82. 96 84.93) 83. 98 5] 85. 98} 84. 99 87. 00} 86. 00 88. 02} 87. 01 89. 05] 88. 02 90. 07) 89. 03 91. 09} 90. 05 92. 12} 91. 06 93. 14] 92. 07 94. 16} 93. 08 95. 19} 94. 09 96. 21) 95. 10 97. 23] 96. 12 98. 26) 97. 13 99. 28) 98. 14 100. 30} 99. 15 101. 33/100. 16 102. 35)101. 18 103. 38/102. 19 104. 40/103. 20 105. 42/104. 21 106. 45/105. 22 107. 47/106. 23 108. 49/107. 25 109. 52/108. 26 110. 54}109. 27 111. 56/110. 28 112, 59/111. 29 113. 61/112. 39 114. 63/113. 32 115. 66)114. 33 116. 68}115. 34 117. 70116. 35 118. 73)117. 36 119. 75)118. 38 120. 78)119. 39 121. 80}120. 40 122, 89/191. 41 Cts. 59. 56 106) 104. 75 1079}105. 74 108)106. 73 109) 107. 72 119)108. 71 111)109. 69 112)110. 68 113)111. 67 141112. 66 115)113. 65 116)114. 63 127)115. 62 118/116.61 119}117. 60 126/118. 59 103. 50 104. 48 105. 46 106. 43 107. 41 108. 38 109. 36 110. 34 111.32 112, 29 113. 27 114. 25 115. 22 116. 20 117. 18 Cts. 58. 85 59. 81 60. 78 61.74 62. 70 63. 67, 64. 63 65. 60 31 66. 56 67. 53 68. 49 69. 46 70. 42 6) 71. 39 72.39 73. 32 74, 28 101. 29 102. 2€ 103. 22 104. 19 105. 1F 106. 12 107. 08 108. 05 109. 01 109. 98 110. 94 111. 90 112. 87 Cts. 58, 13 59. 08 60. 03 Value of each 1 per 20 60. 99) 60. 23 61. 94 62. 89 63. 85 64. 80 100. 06] 98. 82 101. 01 101. 96 102. 92/101. 65 103. 87 104. 82 105. 78}104. 47 106. 73 107. 68 108. 63 109. 59 110. 54 111. 49 113. 83 114. 80 112. 45 113. 40 105. 41 106. 35 107. 29 108. 23 109. 18 110. 12 111. 06 112. 00 115. 76)114. 35/112. 94 21 Cts. 56. 69 57. 62 58. 55 59. 48 61.34 62. 27 63. 2) 64.13 65. 06 65. 99 66. 92 67. 85 68. 78 60.41) é 69. 70 70. 638 71. 56 72. 49 73. 42 74. 35 75. 28 76. 21 ls es 78. 07 79. 00 79. 93 80. 86 81. 79 82. 72 83. 65 84. 58 85. 50, 86. 43 87. 36 88. 29 89. 22 90. 15 91. 08 92. 01 92. 94 93. 87 94. 80 {1 95. 73 96. 66 97. 59 98. 52 99. 45 100. 38 101. 30 102. 23 103. 16 104. 09 105. 02 105. 95 106. 88 107. 81 108. 74 109. 67 110. 60 111. 53 108. 70 cent of dry 24 matter. Cts. Cents. 54.54] 0.71765— 6] 55.43) .72941-+ 56.33| .74118— 8| 57.22). 752944 58.12) .76470-+ 59.01) .77647 59.90| .78823-++ 60.80) . 89000 61.69). 811764 62.59]. 82353— 63.48] . 8352944 64.38] .84706— 65.27| .85882-+ 66.16} .87059— 67.06! . 88235-++ 67.95| . 99412— 68.85}. 90588+- 69.74) .91765-+- 70.63} .92941-++ 71.53) .94118— 72.42) . 952944 73.32| .96470-+ 74.211 197647 75.10| 988234 76.00} 1. 00000 76.89] 1.01176+ 77.79| 1.02353— 78. 68) 1.03529-+ 79.58] 1.04706— 80.47| 1. 05882-+ 81.36] 1.07059— 82.26] 1. 08235+ 83.15] 1.09412— 84.05] 1. 10588+- 84.94] 1. 11765— 85.83] 1.129414 86.73| 1. 14118— 87.62] 1. 15294+ 88. 52| 1. 16470-+ 89. 41| 1. 17647 90.30] 1. 18893+ 91.20] 1. 20000 92.09] 1. 21176-+ 92.99] 1. 22353— 93.88] 1. 23529-+- 94.78] 1. 24706— 95.67| 1. 25882-+ 96.56 1. 27059— 97.46] 1. 282354 98.35] 1. 29412— 99.25| 1.30588" 100. 14] 1.31765— 101.03] 1.329414 101.93] 1.34118— 102. 82} 1. 35294+ 103. 72| 1.36470-+ 104.61] 1.37647 105.50) 1.38823-++ 106.40] 1. 40000 1 .44176+ 22 BULLETIN 874, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE VIII.—Comparative value, on a dry-matier basis, of grain, cottonseed, flour, etc., showing the price per unit of weight (bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to $1.20, and the difference in value for each unit testing from 10 to 24 per cent in moisture when the price for a unit testing 16 per cent in moisture is in even cents. oe Moisture content (per cent) and relative value per unit of measure. Value of each 1 { : per rent ol ary 10 il 12 13 14 15 | 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 TARE. Cis...) Cts. | Cis. \iCis a ise Cts...\\..Cts.| Cts.’ | -Ctsa) :Cts.:| ‘Cis. Cts. Cis |\CisaeCrss Cents. 1.07} 1.06} 1.05) 1.03) 1.02) 1.01 0.99} 0.97} 0.96} 0.95} 0.94) 0.93} 0.92} .90} 0.01190+ 2.141 2.12} 2.09} 2.07) 2.95) 2.02) 2) 1.98] 1.95} 1.93) 1.90) 1.88) 1.86] 1.83] 1.81} .023381— 3.21) 3.18 3.14] 3.11) 3.07} 3.03) 3) 2.96} 2.93) 2.89} 2.86) 2.82) 2.78) 2.75) 2.71) .03571+ 4,28) 4.24] 4.19] 4,14] 4.09! 4.05} 4] 3.95) 3.90] 3.86) 3.81] 3. 76) 3.71) 3.67} 3.62) .04762— 5.36) 5.30|- 5.24, 5.18] 5.12) 5.06} 5) 4.94) 4.88] 4.82) 4.76) 4.70) 4.64) 4.58! 4.52) .05952+ 6.43} 6.36] 6.28] 6.21] 6.14} 6.07] 6] 5.93) 5.86) 5.78) 5.71) 5.64) 5.57| 5.50| 5.43] .07143— 50 WeAZedsaol ale2D|. fel 27.108 Z| 6.92) 6.83) 6.75) 6.67! 6.58) 6.50) 6.42] 6.33] .08333-+-+ 8.57} 8.48) 8.38] 8.28! 8.19) 8.09) 8) 7.90} 7.81) 7.71] 7.62) 7.52) 7.48) 7.33) 7.24) .09524— 9.64) 9.53) 9.43) 9.32) 9.21) 9.11 9| 8.89) 8.78] 8.68) 8.57] 8.46] 8.36] 8.25) 8.14) .10714+ 10.71) 10.59} 10. 48) 10.36! 10.24) 10.12} 10) 9.88) 9.76) 9.64] 9.52) 9.40) 9.28) 9.17]. 9.05] .11905— 11.78} 11.65) 11.52}. 11. A 11.26) 11.13} 11) 10.87| 10.74) 10.61) 10.48} 10 34| 10. 21) 10.08] 9.95) .13095+ 12.86) 12.71) 12.57 12. 43| 12. 28} 12.14) 12) 11.86) 11.71] 11.57) 11. 43) 11.28} 11.14} 11.00) 10.86) .14286— 13. 93) 13.77) 13. 62| 13.46) 13.31) 12.15) 18) 12.84) 12.69) 12.53) 12.38) 12.23) 12.07] 11.92] 11.76) .15476+- 15.00) 14. 83| 14. 67] 14.50) 14.33} 14.17) 14).13.83] 13.67) 13.50} 13.33) 13.17) 13.00) 12.83) 12.67] .16667— 16. 07} 15. 89] 15.71) 15. 63/ 15.36) 15.18) 15) 14.82) 14.64) 14. 46/ 14. 28 14, 11) 13. 93) 13.75) 13.57] .17857++ 17.14) 16.95] 16.76) 16.57) 16.38) 16.19} 16) 15.81} 15.62) 15.43] 15.24) 15.05] 14. 86) 14. 67) 14.48) .19048— 18.21] 18.01! 17.81] 17.61] 17.40} 17.20} 17) 16.80] 16.59} 16.39] 16.19] 15.99)-15. 78} 15.58] 15.38) .20238 19. 28} 19. 07| 18. 86) 18.64] 18. 43) 18.21) 48) 17.78] 17.57) 17.36) 17.14} 16.93} 16.71) 16.50} 16.28) .21428+- 20. 36} 20. 13] 19.90) 19.68) 19. 45] 19.23) 19) 18.77) 18.55) 18.32) 18.09} 17.87] 17.64) 17.42] 17.19) .22619 21. 43) 21.19; 20.95) 20.71] 20.47) 20.24) 20] 19.76) 19.52) 19, 28) 19.05) 18.81) 18.57] 18.33} 18.09} .23809-+- 22. 50) 22. 25} 22.00) 21.75) 21.50) 21.25) 24) 20.75) 20.50} 20. 25) 20.00} 19. 75} 19.50} 19.25] 19.00) .25000 23. 57| 23.31) 23.05) 22.78) 22.52) 22.26, 22) 21.74) 21.47) 21.21) 20.95) 20. 69} 20. 43} 20.17) 19.90) .26190-+- 24. 64| 24.37] 24.09) 23. 82| 23.55) 23.27) 28) 22.73) 22.45) 22.18) 21.90) 21. 63] 21.36} 21.08) 20.81) .27381— 25.71) 25. 43) 25.14) 24.86) 24.57) 24.28) 24) 23.71) 23. 43} 23. 14) 22. 86) 22.57) 22.28] 22.00} 21.71] .28571+ 26.78) 26.49] 26.19] 25.89) 25.59) 25.30) 26) 24.70) 24.40) 24.11) 23.81) 23.51) 23.21} 22.92) 22.62) .29762— 27.86) 27.55] 27.24) 26.93] 26.62) 26.31) 26) 25.69) 25.38) 25.07) 24. 76] 24.45) 24.14) 23.83) 23.52) .30952+ 28. 93) 28. 61] 28.28] 27.96) 27.64) 27.32) 2%) 26.68) 26.36) 26.03) 25.71) 25.39] 25.07) 24.75) 24.43] .32143— 30. 00} 29.67) 29.33} 29.00} 28. 67) 28.33) 28) 27.67) 27.33) 27.00) 26.67) 26.33} 26.00) 25.67) 25.33] .33333+- 31. 67) 39.73] 39,33] 30.03} 29. 69) 29.34) 29) 28.65) 28.31) 27.96) 27. 62) 27.27] 26.93] 26.58] 26.24) .34524— 32.14) 31.78) 31.43) 31.07) 30.71) 30.36; 380) 29.64) 29.28) 28.93) 28.57) 28.21) 27. 86) 27.50) 27.14) .35714+- 33.21) 32. 84) 32.48) 32.11) 31.74) 31.37) 31) 30.63) 30.26] 29. 89) 29.52] 29.15] 28. 78} 28.42] 28.05} .36905— - - 99} 33. 7 . 1) 31. 24) 30. - C 7 5 x - 38095-+- 35.36) 34.96] 34.57) 34.18) 33.78) 33.39) 38) 32.61| 32.21) 31.82) 31. 43] 31.03} 30. 64) 30.25) 29.86] .39286— 36. 43) 36.02) 35. 62) 35.21) 34.81) 34.40) 34) 33.59} 33.19) 32.78) 32.38) 31.98] 31.57) 31.17) 30.76) .40476+ 37.50| 37.08] 36. 67| 36.25) 35.83] 35.42! 35) 34.58] 34.17] 33.75) 33.33] 32.921 32.50] 32.08] 31.67| .41667— 38. 57) 38.14) 37.71) 37.28) 36.86) 36.43) 386) 35.57) 35.14) 34.71) 34. 28) 33.86) 33.43} 33.00) 32.57) .42857+ 39. 64) 39. 20} 33. 76) 38.32) 37.83) 37.44) 87) 36.56} 36. 12| 35.68) 35.24) 34. 80] 34. 36) 33.92) 33.48) .440/8— 40.71) 40. 26} 39.81) 39.36) 38.90) 38.45) 388) 37.55) 37. 09] 36.64) 36.19] 35. 74) 35. 28) 34.83) 34.38) . 45238 41.78) 41.32) 40.86) 40.39) 39.93) 39.46; 39) 38.53) 38.07| 37.61) 37.14) 36.68) 36.21) 35.75] 35.28) .46428+- 42.86) 42.38] 41.90) 41.43) 40.95) 40.48) 40) 39.52) 39.05) 38.57) 38.09) 37.62) 37.14) 36.67) 36.19) .47619 43.93) 43.44) 42.95) 42.46) 41.97! 41.49) 41! 40.51) 40.02) 39.53) 39.05; 38.56) 38.07) 37.58] 37.09} .48809-+- 45.00) 44.50) 44.00) 43.50) 48.00) 42.50) 42) 41.50) 41.00] 40.50! 40. 00) 39.50) 39.00) 38.50} 38.00) .50000 46.07) 45. 56] 45.05) 44.53) 44.02) 43.51) 43) 42.49) 41.97] 41.46) 40.95) 40. 44) 39.93) 39. 42} 38.90) ~51190+- 47.14) 46. 62) 46.09) 45.57) 45.05) 44.52) 44) 43. 48) 42.95] 42.43) 41.90) 41.38) 40. 86) 40.33) 39.81) .82381— 48, 21| 47.68) 47.14) 46.61) 46.07| 45.53) 45] 44. 46) 43.93) 43.39) 42.86) 42.32) 41.78) 41.25) 40.71) .53571+ 49. 28) 48.74) 48.19) 47.64) 47.09) 46.55) 46) 45.45) 44.90] 44. 36) 43.81) 43.26) 42.71) 42.17) 41.62) .54762— 50. 36) 49. 80) 49. 24) 48.68) 48.12) 47.56) 47) 46.44) 45.88) 45.32) 44.76} 44. 20) 43.64) 43.08) 42.52) .55952+- . 51.43] 50.86) 50. 28} 49.71) 49.14] 48.57! 48) 47.43) 46.86) 46.28) 45. 71| 45.14) 44.57) 44.00) 43.43) .57143— - 52.50) 51.92) 51.33) 50. 75] 50.17) 49.58) 49) 48. 42] 47.83] 47.25) 46.67) 46.08} 45.50) 44.92) 44.33) .58333+ 53.57) 52.98] 52.38) 51.78) 51.19) 50.59) 50} 49.40) 48. 81! 48.21) 47.62) 47.02) 46.43) 45.83) 45.24) .59524— 54. 64) 54. 03) 53.43) 52.82) 52.21] 51.61) 51) 50.39) 49.78) 49.18) 48.57] 47.96} 47.36) 46.75) 46.14) .60714+ 55.71) 55.09) 54. 48) 53. 86} 53.24) 52.62) 52) 51.38) 50. 76] 50.14) 49.52) 48.90) 48. 28) 47. 67| 47.05} .61905— 56, 78) 56.15) 55.52) 54.89) 54.26) 53.63) 53) 52.37) 51.74) 51.11) 50.48] 49.84} 49. 21) 48.58) 47.95) . er b i fs B k - b b - 64286— 58. 93) 58.27) 57.62) 56.96} 56.31) 55.65) 55) 54.34) 53.69) 53.03) 52.38) 51.73) 51.07) 50. 42) 49.76) .65476+- 60. 00} 59.33] 58.67) 58.00) 57.33) 56.67) 56) 55.33) 54.67) 54.00) 53.33] 52.67) 52.00) 51.33) 50.67) .66667— 61.07] 60.39] 59. 71) 59. 03) 58. 36) 57.68) 57) 56.32) 55.64) 54.96) 54. 28) 53.61) 52.93) 52.25) 51.57) .67857-+ 62.14} 61.45) 60.76} 60.07) 59.38) 58.69) 58) 57.31) 56.62) 55.93) 55.24) 54.55) 53.86) 53.17) 52.48) .69048— - 63. 21| 62.51} 61.81} 61.11) 60.40) 59.70! 59) 58.30) 57.59) 56.89) 56.19] 55.49) 54.78] 54.08) 53.38} . 70238 64. 28] 63.57! 62. 86! 62.14! 61 43) 60.71! 60) 59.28! 58.57) 57.86) 57.14! 56.43) 55.71! 55.00! 54.28) .71428+- (vN) rs wo jot) oO =) w wt) on Le) w oo ren ie ivN) bo J fez) ew bo ow ioe) i) bo wt) me fer) to (Jt) a bo cy ies) i=) oo <2 (JN) Oo cs (or) w So j=} Ye) ie} ve) ~I = (Jv) (JX) i) Lo) ve) or INTRINSIC VALUES BASED ON DRY-MATTER CONTENT. 98 Taste VIII.—Comparative value, on a dry-maiter basis, of grain, cottonseed, flour, etc., showing the price per unit of weight (bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to $1.20, and the difference in value for each unit testing from 10 to 24 per cent in moisture when the price for a unit testing 16 per cent in moisture is in even cents—Continued. Moisture content (per cent) and relative value per unit of measure. Value of each 1 per cent ; ‘ of dry 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 | 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Rathore GissNaGESom CESS | Ors. | Ctse |: Cts.) "Cts | (Ces. | Ctssi@tss | Cts...) Cts.) Cts..\\ Cts. ts. 1 sents: 65. 36] 64. 63] 63. 90]' 63. 18] 62. 45) 61.73} 61) 60.27) 59.55) 58.82) 58. 09) 57.37) 56.64! 55.92! 55.19) 0. 72619 66. 43] 65. 69) 64. 95| 64. 21) 63. 47) 62.74! 62] 61.26) 60. 52) 59.78) 59.05] 58.31) 57.57) 56.83} 56.09] .73809+ 67. 50| 66. 75} 66. 00} 65. 25| 64.50) 63.75! 63] 62.25] 61.50) 60. 75] 60. 00) 59. 25) 58.50} 57.75| 57.00) . 75000 68. 57| 67:81) 67.05) 66.28] 65.52) 64.76] 64) 63.24) 62.47) 61.71) 60.95] 60.19] 59. 43] 58.67] 57.90) .76190+ 69. 64] 68. 87| 68.09] 67.32] 66.55| 65.77) 65] 64.23) 63. 45) 62.68] 61.90} 61.13] 60.36) 59.58) 58.81] .77381— 70. 71) 69. 93} 69. 14] 68.36] 67.57) 66.78] 66) 65.21) 64. 43) 63.64] 62.86) 62.07) 61.28) 60.50] 59.71) .78571+ 71. 78) 70.99) 70.19} 69.39] 68.59} 67.80) 67] 66.20) 65.40) 64. 61) 63.81) 63.01] 62.21] 61.42) 60.62) .79762— 72.86) 72. 05| 71.24] 70.43) 69.62] 68.81] 68] 67. 19] 66.38) 65.57) 64. 76] 63.95) 63.14) 62.33} 61.52) .80952+ 73.93) 73.11) 72.28) 71.46] 70. 64| 69.82) 69} 68.18) 67.36] 66.53) 65.71) 64.89) 64.07] 63.25) 62.43) .82143— 75.00) 74.17] 73.33] 72.50) 71.67| 70.83] 70} 69.17] 68.33) 67.50) 66.67) 65.83) 65.00) 64.17) 68.33) .83333-+ 76. 07| 75. 23) 74.38] 73.53) 72.69) 71.84| @i| 70.15) 69.31) 68. 46] 67.62) 66.77) 65.93) 65.08} 64.24) .84524— 77. 14] 76.28) 75.43] 74.57] 73.71] 72.86} 72) 71.14) 70. 28) 69. 43) 68.57) 67. 71) 66. 86) 66.00) 65.14) .85714+ 78.21) 77. 34| 76. 48] 75.61) 74.74] 73.87) 73] 72.13) 71.26) 70.39] 69.52) 68.65] 67.78) 66.92) 66.05) .86905— 79. 28| 78. 40| 77. 52| 76.64] 75.76] 74.88) 74] 73.12) 72.24) 71.36) 70. 48) 69.59] 68.71] 67.83) 66.95) .88095-+ 80. 36] 79. 46) 78.57) 77.68] 76.78) 75.89} 78} 74.11] 73.21) 72.32] 71.43) 70.53) 69.64) 68.75} 67.86] .89286— 81. 43] 80.52) 79. 62| 78.71) 77.81) 76.90| 76} 75.09) 74.19) 73.28] 72.38) 71.48) 70.57) 69.67) 68.76) .90476+ 82.50) 81. 58] 80. 67| 79.75] 78.83] 77.92) 77) 76.08) 75.17] 74.25) 73.33] 72.42) 71.50} 70.58) 69.67} .91667— 83. 57| 82. 64] 81. 71! 80. 78] 79.86] 78.93) 78] 77.07) 76.14] 75.21) 74.28] 73.36) 72.43] 71.50) 70.57] .92857+- 84. 64] 83. 70) 82. 76] 81.82) 80.88] 79.94) 79) 78.06} 77.12) 76.18) 75.24) 74.30) 73.36) 72.42) 71.48) .94048— .85. 71| 84. 76} 83. 81) 82. 86] 81.90) 80.95) SO} 79.05) 78.09; 77.14) 76.19] 75.24] 74. 28) 73.33) 72.38) .95238 86. 78] 85.82) 84. 86] 83.89] 82.93] 81.96] 81] 80.03) 79.07) 78.11) 77.14) 76.18) 75.21) 74.25) 73.28) .96428+- 87. 86] 86.88] 85.90] 84. 93] 83.95] 82.98) 82) 81.02) 80.05) 79.07] 78. 09) 77.12] 76.14) 75.17] 74.19] .97619 88. 93] 87.94] 86.95] 85.96] 84.97) 83.99] 83} 82.01) 81.02} 80. 03] 79. 05) 78.06) 77.07) 76.08] 75.09) .98869+- 90. 00} 89. 00} 88. 00} 87. 00) 86.00) 85:00} 84} 83.00) 82.00) 81.00} 80. 00) 79.00] 78.00} 77.00] 76.00) 1. 00000 91. 07} 90. 06), 89. 05] 88. 03] 87.02) 86.01} 85} 83.99) 82.97) 81.96) 80.95] 79.94) 78.93) 77.92] 76.90) 1.01190+- 92. 14] 91.12) 90. 09} 89. 07] 88.05) 87.02} 86) 84.98] 83.95) 82.93) 81.99] 80.88] 79. 86) 78.83} 77.81] 1. 02381— 93, 21) 92.18) 91.14] 90.11) 89.07] 88.03] 87} 85.96) 84.93] 83.89] 82. 86) 81.82) 80.78) 79. 75} 78.71) 1.03571-+ . 94, 28) 93. 24] 92.19) 91.14) 90.09} 89.05) S88} 86.95) $5. 90].84. 86) 83.81) 82.76) 81.71) 80.67] 79.62} 1. 04762— 95. 36] 94. 30] 93. 24] 92.18] 91.12] 90.06) 89] 87.94] 86.88) 85.82) 84.76) 83.70] 82.64] 81.58] 80.52) 1.05952+- .96. 43) 95. 36) 94. 28] 93.21) 92.14] 91.07] $0] 88.93) 87.86) 86.78} 85.71) 84.64) 83.57] 82.50] 81.43] 1.07143— 97. 50| 96. 42] 95.33) 94.25] 93.17] 92.08] 91) 89.92) 88.83] 87.75) 86.67) 85.58} 84.50) 83.42) 82.33) 1. 08333-++ 98. 57| 97. 48) 96.38) 95. 23} 94.19) 93.09] 92) 90.90) 89.81) 88.71) 87.62] 86.52) 85. 43) 84.33) 83.24] 1.09524— 99. 64! 98. 53] 97. 43] 96.32) 95. 21|.94.11] 93) 91.89] 90.78) 89.68) 88.57) 87. 46] 86.36] 85. 25| 84.14) 1.10714+ 100. 71| 99. 59} 98. 48) 97.36] 96.24) 95.12) 94) 92.83) 91.76) 90.64) 89.52) 88. 40) 87. 28} 86.17) 85.05] 1. 11905— 101. 78/100. 65} 99. 52} 98.39] 97.26] 96.13). 95} 93.87} 92.74) 91.61} 990. 48) 89.34] 88.21! 87.08] 85.95] 1. 18095+- 102. 86/101. 71)100. 57) 99. 43] 98.28) 97.14) 96) 94.86) 93.71) 92.57] 91. 43] 90. 28] 89.14) 88. 00] 86.86] 1. 14286— 103. 93/102. 77/101. 62/100. 46] 99.31] 98.15) 97) 95.84} 94. 69) 93.53} 92.338] 91.23) 90.07) 88.92) 87.76) 1.15476++ 105. 00/103. 83}102. 67/101. 50}100. 33) 99.17) © 98). 96. 83) 95. 67) 94. 50) 93.33] 92.17) 91.00} 89.83) 88.67] 1. 16667— 106. 07)104. 89}103. 71/102. 53/101. 36/100. 18) 99) 97.82) 96.64! 95. 46) 94.28) 93.11) 91.93) 90.75! 89.57) 1.17857-++ 107. 14/105. 95/104. 76)103. 57|162. 38/101. 19) £00) 98.81) 97.62] 96. 43) 95.24] 94. 05) 92.86} 91.67) 90.48) 1. 19048— 108. 21'107. 01}105. 81/104. 61/103. 40/102. 20) 101) 99. 80} 98. 59! 97.39) 96.19! 94.99] 93.78! 92.58) 91.38] 1. 20238 109. 28}108. 07|106. 86/105. 64/104. 43/103. 21) 202/100. 78} 99. 57) 98.36] 97. 14) 95.93] 94. 71| 93. 50} 92.28) 1. 21428-+ 110. 36)109. 13/107. 90/106. 68/105. 45)104. 23) 203/101. 77|100. 55; 99.32] 98.09) 96.87) 95. 64| 94. 42) 93.19) 1. 22619 111. 43/110. 19]108. 95107. 71)106. 47/105. 24) 104/102. 76)101. 52/100. 28) 99.05) 97.81} 96.57) 95.33) 94.09) 1. 28809-+- 112. 50}111. 25]110. 00/108. 75/107. 50/106. 25) 165)103. 75/102. 50/101. 25/100.-00) 98. 75} 97.50] 96.25] 95.00} 1.25000 113. 57)112. 31/111. 05)109. 78)108. 52/107. 26) 106/104. 74/103. 47/102. 21|100. 95) 99.69] 98. 43] 97.17} 95.90 114. 641113. 37/112. 09/110. 82/109. 55|108. 27] 107)105. 73)104.-45)103. 18}101. 90/100. 63] 99. 36} 98. 08) 96.81 115. 71)114. 43)113.-14/111. 86]110. 57/109. 28] 108)106. 71/105. 43)104. 14/102. 86/101. 57100. 28} 99. 00) 97.71 116. 78)115. 49/114. 19)112. 89)111. 59/110. 30) 169/107. 70/106. 40/105. 11/103. 81/102. 51/101. 21) 99.92) 98.62) 1.29762— 117. 86/116. 55)115. 24/113. 93/112. 62/111. 31) 110)108. 69/107. 38/106. 07/104. 76/103. 45}102. 14/100. 83) 99.52] 1.30952+- 1. 26190+ 1 1 1 1 118. 93/117. 61}116. 28|114. 96/113. 64/112. 32] 142]109. 68/108. 36/107. 03/105. 71/104. 39 103. 07101. 75'100. 43 ‘ 32143— 1 1 1 1 1 . 27381 — . 285714 120. 00)118. 67/117. 33/116. 00/114. 67/113. 33) 112/110. 67/109. 33/108. 00/106. 67)105. 33/104. 00/102. 67)101. 33] 1. 3338334- 121. 07/119. 731118. 38/117. 03/115. 69/114. 34) 115/111. 65/110. 31/108. 96/107. 62/106. 27/104. 93|103. 58/102. 24) 1. 34524— 122. 14/120. 78}119. 43}118. 07)116. 71/115. 36) 114)112. 64/111. 28/109. 93/108. 57/107. 21/105. 86/104. 50/103. 14) 1.357144 123. 21)121. 84/120. 48/119. 11/117. 74/116. 37| 115/113. 63/112. 26/110. 89/109. 52/108. 15/106. 78/105. 42/104. 05) 1. 36905— 124. 28/122. 90/121. 52/120. 14)118. 76)117. 38} 116/114. 62/113. 24/111. 86}110. 48}109. 09/107. 71/106. 33/104. 95) 1. 38095-+ 125. 36)123. 96/122. 57/121. 18/119. 78/118. 39) 117/115. 61/114. 21/112. 82/111. 43/110. 03/108. 64/107. 25/105. 86] 1. 89286— 126. 43/125. 02/123. 62/122. 21/120. 81/119. 40) 118/116. 59}115. 19|113. 78/112. 38/110. 98/109. 57}108. 17/106. 76) 1. 40476-+ 127. 50/126. 08}124. 67/123. 25|121. 83/120. 42) 119)117. 58/116. 17/114. 75/113. 33/111. 92/110. 50/109. 08/107. 67) 1. 41667— 128. 57)127. 14]125. 71/124. 28/122. 86/121. 43) 120/118. 57/117. 14/115. 71/114. 28/112. 86/111. 43)110. 00/108. 57) 1. 42857+- | 24 BULLETIN 374, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TasLe I1X.—Comparative value, on a dry-matter basis, of grain, cottonseed, flour, etc., showing the price per unit of weight (bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to $1.20, and the difference in value for each unit testing from 10 to 24 per cent in moisture when the price for a unit testing 17 per cent in moisture is in even cents. Moisture content (per cent) and relative value per unit of measure. 10 11 12 g i) Q 2 = 2 w im) ou gue 99 bo bo i] w ia 2) 13 14 ra ine OND oBwrwrD? ooNS Saba hrat ae trees: HEE OO: SS SaecSe 1) We) 61. 84] 61.13 62. 891 62.17 10.12 10 18 19 + No He oO ie CONMA pPovroQ 58. 29| 57.58 59. 28) 58.55 57. 83! 22 Value of each 1 per eeue of 28 Matter. Cts. Cents. -91| 0. 01205— 1.83) .02410— 2.75] .03614+ 3.66) .04819+ 4.58) . 06024 5.49} ,07229— 6.41) .08434— 7.32) .09638+ 8.24) . 108434 9.16) 120484 10.07) .13253 10.99) .14458— 11.90] .15663— 12.82) .16867-+ 13.73] .18072+ 14.65) .19277+ 15.57) .20482— 16.48) .21687— 17.40} .22891+ 18.31} .24096+ 19.23] .25301-++ 20.14) .26506 21.06} .27711— 21.98) .28916— 22.89} .30120+- 23.81) .31325+ 24.72) .32530+ 25.64) .33735— 26.55} .34940— 27.47) .361444 28.38) .37349+- 29.30) .385544 30.22) .39759 31.13} .40964— 32.05} .42169— 32.96) .43373-- 33.88} .44578+- 34.79) .45783-+- 35.71] .46988— 36.63} .48193— 37.54) .49397+ 38.46] .50602+- 39.37] .51807+ 40.29) .53012 41.20) .54217—. 42.12) .55422— 43.03] .56626-+- 43.95) .57831+ 44.87] .59036+- 45.78] .60241— 46.70} .61446— 47.61) .62651— 48.53) .63855+ 49.44] -.65060+- 50.36) . 66265 51.28) .67470— 52.19} .68675— 53.11} .69879-+- 54.02) .71084-+- 54.94! .72289+- INTRINSIC VALUES BASED ON DRY-MATTER CONTENT. 25 TasLe 1X.—Comparative value, on a dry-matter basis, of grain, cotionseed, flour, etc., showing the price per unit of weight (bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to $1.20, and the difference in value for each unit testing from 10 to 24 per cent in moisture when the price for a unit testing 17 per cent in moisture vs in even cents—Continued. Moisture content (per cent) and relative value per unit of measure. 01/101. - 10)102. . 18/104. . 26}105. - 39/106. 16 . 43}107, 23 . 52/108. 30 . 60}109. 37 - 69}110. 44 711. 52 . 85/112: 59 . 94/118. 66 . 02/114. 73 - 11)115. 81 118. 19}116. 88 119. 28)117. 95 120. 36)119. 02 121. 45)120. 10 122. 53/121. 17 123. 61/122. 24 124. 70)123. 31 125. 78|124. 38 126. 87/125. 46 127. 95}126. 53 129. 04)127. 60) 130. 12)128. 67 12 25 115. 30 116. 35 117. 40 118. 44 119. 49 120. 54 121. 59 122. 64 123. 69 124. 73 125. 78 117. 69 118. 75 119. 81 120. 87 121.93 122. 99) 124. 05) 125.11 126.17 127. 23 99. 47 100. 50 101. 54 102. 58 103. 61 104. 65 105. 69 106. 72 107. 76 6)108. 79 109. 83 110. 87 111. 90 112. 94 118. 97 116. 01 116. 05 117. 08 118. 12 119. 16 120. 19 121. 23 122. 26 123. 30 124, 34 Cts. 103. 43 104. 46 105. 48 106. 50 107. 53 108. 55 109. 58 110. 60 111. 63 112. 65 113. 67 114. 70 115. 72 116. 75 117.77 118. 79 119. 82 120. 84 121. 87 122. 89 Cts. 61. 73 62. 75 112. 34 113. 35 114. 36 115. 37 116. 38 117. 40 118. 41 119. 42 120. 43 121. 44 Value of each 1 per eee of dry Wl 88 19 20 21 22 23 24 aon Cis.| Cisse Oise, Cts.) Cts\| Cts: Cts. |. Cents. 61| 60. 26) 59. 53) 58. 79) 58. 06] 57. 32 55. 85) 0. 73494— 62] 61. 25] 60. 51) 59. 76] 59. 01] 58. 26 56.77) .74699— 63] 62. 24) 61. 48] 60. 72] 59. 96} 59. 20 57.69) .75904— 64| 63. 23] 62. 46) 61.69] 60.91] 60.14 58.60} .77108-++ 65} 64. 22} 63. 43] 62.65} 61.87] 61. 59.52). 78313-+- 66} 65. 20) 64. 41) 68.61] 62. 82} 62. 60.43] . 79518 67] 66.19! 65.38] 64. 58] 63. 77) 62.96 61.35] .80723— 68] 67.18] 66.36] 65.54] 64. 72! 63. 62.26) .81928— 69] 68.17) 67.34] 66.50} 65.67) 64. 63.18} . 831324 70) 69.16} 68.31] 67.47] 66.63] 65. 64.10} .84337-+4 7i| 70.14] 69.29) 68. 43] 67. 58] 66. 65.01) .85542+ @2| 71.13] 70. 26) 69. 40) 68. 53] 67. 65.93] .86747— 43| 72.12) 71.24) 70.36] 69. 48] 68. 60 66.84] . 87952— 34) 73.11) 72.22) 71.32) 70.43) 69. 54 67.76} .89157— 978) 74.10] 73.19] 72.29] 71.38] 70. 68.67} .90361-+ 76) 75.08] 74.17] 73.25} 72.34] 71. 69.59] .91566-+- 77| 76.07| 75.14] 74.22] 73.29] 72. 70.50) .92771 78] 77.06) 76.12} 75.18) 74.24] 73. 71.42) .93976— 79} 78.05] 77.10} 76.14) 75.19] 74. 72.34) .95181— 80} 79.03] 78.07] 77.11) 76.14] 75 73.25) . 96385-++ 81) 80.02] 79.05] 78.07] 77.10) 76. 74.17) .97590-+- 82) 81.01) 80.02] 79.04! 78.05) 77. 75.08) .98795+ 83} 82.00] 81.00} 80. 00} 79. 00) 78. 76.00) 1.00000 84| 82.99} 81. 98! 80.96] 79.95] 78. 94 76.91) 1. 01205— 85} 83.98] 82.95] 81.93} 80.90) 79. 77.83) 1.02410— 86} 84.96] 83.93] 82.89] 81.85} 80. 78.75) 1. 03614+- 87| 85.95] 84.90} 83.85} 82.81] 81. 79. 66] 1. 04819+- 88} 86. 94] 85. 88] 84. 82} 83. 76] 82. 80. 58] 1. 06024 89] 87.93] 86.85] 85. 78] 84. 71) 83. 81.48] 1. 07229— $0) 88.91} 87. 83] 86. 75]: 85. 66] 84. 82.41) 1.08434— 91) 89.90} 88. 81] 87.71] 86.61) 85. 83.32] 1. 09638+ 92] 90. 89} 89.78] 88.67] 87. 56] 86. 84.24) 1. 10843-++ 93} 91. 88] 90. 76] 89. 64] 88. 52} 87. 85. 16) 1. 12048+- 94! 92. 87) 91.73] 90.60} 89. 47] 88. 86.07) 1. 13253 95} 93. 85) 92. 71) 91.57) 90. 42) 89. 86.99] 1. 14458— 96] 94. 84! 93. 69] 92.53) 91.37] 90.22 87.90] 1. 15663— 97) 95. 83] 94. 66) 93. 49} 92.32] 91. 88. 82] 1. 16867-+ 98} 96. 82) 95. 64) 94. 46] 93. 28] 92. 89. 73) 1. 18072+- 99] 97.81; 96.61] 95. 42] 94. 23) 93. 90.65) 1. 19277+- 100] 98. 79} 97.59] 96.38] 95.18) 93.97 91.57] 1. 20482— 101] 99. 78] 98.57) 97.35] 96.13] 94. 92.48] 1. 21687— 102)}100. 77} 99.54] 98.31) 97. 08| 95. 93.40} 1. 22891+ 103/101. 76/100. 52) 99. 28) 98. 03) 96. 94.31) 1. 24096-+- 104/102. 75}101. 49]100. 24] 98. 99) 97. 95. 23) 1. 25301-++ 105)103. 73/102. 47/101. 20) 99. 94] 98. 67 96.14) 1. 26506 106}104. 72/103. 44]102. 17/100. 89] 99. 61 97.06) 1. 27711— 107)105. 71)104. 42}103. 13)101. 84/100. 55 97.98] 1. 28916— 108)106. 70/105. 40)104. 10/102. 79|101. 49/100. 98.89} 1. 30120-+- 109}107. 69/106. 37/105. 06/103. 75/102. 43)101. 99.81) 1. 31325+- 110}108. 67/107. 35}106. 02/104. 70/103. 100. 72} 1. 325380-+ 111)}109. 66/108. 32/106. 99/105. 65/104. 31)102. 97/101.64) 1.33735— . 112/110. 65)109. 30}107. 95/106. 60/105. 25}103. 90/102. 55} 1. 34940— 113)111. 64/110. 28)108. 91/107. 55/106. 19]104. 83)103.47| 1. 36144+- 124/112. 63/111. 25/109. 88/108. 50/107. 13}105. 76/104. 38) 1. 37849+- 115/113. 61)112. 23/110. 84/109. 46/108. 07/106. 69|105.30} 1. 38554+- 116)114. 60/113. 20)111. 81/110. 41)109. 01/107. 61/106. 22) 1.39759 113/115. 59)114. 18/112. 77/111. 36/109. 95/108. 54/107. 13} 1. 40964— 118)116. 58/115. 16113. 73/112. 31/110. 89}109. 47|/108.05) 1. 42169— 119/117. 56}116. 13}114. 70)113. 26/111. 83}110. 40/108. 96) 1. 48373+ 120 109. 88} 1. 44578-+- 118. 55)117. 11/115. ei 114. ae 7111. 32 26 BULLETIN 374, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Taste X.—Comparative value, on a dry-matter basis, of grain, cottonseed, flour, etc., showing the price per unit of weight (bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to $1.20 and the difference in value for each unit testing from 12 to 24 per cent in morsture when the price for @ unit testing 154 per cent in morsture (maximum moisture allowed in No. 2 corn, U.S. grade) is in even cents. _ Moisture content (per cent) and relative value per unit of measure. Value of each ey ‘ 5 7 ‘ 29 °O iY: 12 13 14 15 }15.5] 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 28 | a Te Cts..| Cts. | Cts. | -Cts. | Cts.|. Cts. Cts.| Cts. (Cis) Cts.) \- Cts3\ Cts) iGis:| Gra Cents. 1.04; 1.03] 1.02} 1.00) 1] 0.99! 0.98) 0.97] 0.96] 0.95] 0.93) 0.92) 0.91} 0.90] 0.011934 2.08] 2.06] 2.03] 2.01} 2{| 1.99] 1.96] 1.94] 1.92] 1.89) 1.87] 1.85] 1.82] 1.80] .02367— 3.12) 3.09] 3.05] 3.02} 3] 2.98] 2.95) 2.91] 2.87) 2.84! 2.80) 2.77] 2.73] 2.70) .03550+ 4.16} 4.12} 4,07] 4.02] 4] 3.98] 3.93] 3.88] 3.83] 3.79] 3.74] 3.69] 3.64] 3.60] .04734— 5.21] 5.15) 5.09} 5.03] 5] 4.97| 4.91] 4.85] 4.79) 4.73] 4.67] 4.61] 4.56] 4.50] .05917+ 6.25] 6.18] 6.11) 6.03] 6] 5.96] 5.80] 5.82) 5.75] 5.68] 5.61! 5.54] 5.47] 5.40] .07100+ 7.29] 7.21) 7.12) 7.04; 9] 6.96 6.87] 6.79} 6.71] 6.63! 6.54] 6.46 6.38] 6.29! .o08284 8.33] 8.24; 8.14] 8.05] 8] 7.95]. 7.86] 7.76] 7.67] 7.57| 7.48] 7.38] 7.29] 7.19] .09467-+- 9.37} 9.27) 9.16} 9.05] 9] 8.95] 8.84] 8.73] 8.631 8.52) 8.41! 8.31] 8.20] 8.09] .10651— 10. 41) 10, 29] 10.18} 10.06] 19} 9.94) 9.82] 9.70) 9.58) 9.47] 9.35] 9.23] 9.11) 8.99] 118344 11.45) 11.32) 11.19} 11.06] 114} 10.93] 10.80] 10.67] 10.54] 10. 41] 10.28) 10.15] 10.02) 9.89] .13018— 12. 50) 12.35] 12.21} 12.97) 19] 11.93) 11.79] 11. 64] 11.50} 11.36] 11.22] 11.08] 10.93] 10.79] .14201+ 13. 54] 13.38] 13.23] 13.08] 13] 12.92) 12.77] 12.61) 12.46] 12.31] 12.15} 12.00] 11.85} 11.69} .15385— 14.58) 14.41) 14:25] 14.08] 14] 13.92] 13.75} 13.58) 13.42] 13.25] 13. 09] 12.92] 12.76] 12.59] .16568 15. 62} 15. 44] 15.26} 15.09) 45] 14.91) 14.73] 14.55) 14.38] 14.20) 14.02] 13.84) 13.67} 13.49] .177514 16. 66) 16. 47) 16.28) 16.09} 16] 15.90) 15.72) 15.53) 15.34] 15.15] 14.96] 14.77) 14.58) 14.39]. 18935— 17. 70| 17.50] 17.30] 17.10] 17] 16 90 16. 70| 16.50] 16. 29) 16. 09} 15. 89) 15.69} 15.49] 15.29) .20118+ 18. 74] 18.53] 18,32) 48.11) 18} 17.89] 17.68] 17.47] 17. 25] 17.04] 16.83] 16.61] 16. 40| 16.19] . 21302— 19.79) 19. 56] 19,34] 19.11) 19] 18.89) 18.66] 18.44] 18.21] 17.99] 17.76) 17.54] 17.31) 17.09} .22485+ 20. 83! 20. 59} 20.35) 20.12) 20] 19.88) 19.64! 19.41) 19.17) 18.93] 18.70] 18. 46] 18.22) 17.99] . 23669— 21. 87| 21.62) 21.37] 21.12} 21] 20.87) 20.63] 20.38) 20.13] 19.88} 19.63] 19.38] 19.14] 18.89] . 24852 22.91) 22.65) 22.39] 22.13] 29] 21.87] 21.61] 21.35) 21.09] 20. 83) 20.57] 20.31) 20.05) 19.79] .26035+ 23. 95| 23.68] 23. 41) 93.14] 23! 22.86] 22.59) 22.32) 22.05) 21.77] 21.50} 21. 23) 20.96] 20.69] .27219— 24.99] 24.71] 24. 42) 24.14] 94| 23. $6| 23.57] 23.29] 23.00] 22. 72) 22. 44) 22.15] 21.87] 21.58] | 294094 26. 03} 25. 74] 25.44] 25.15) 25] 24.85) 24.56] 24.26] 23.96) 23.67] 23.37) 23.08] 22.78] 22.48] . 29586— 27.08) 26.77] 26. 46] 26.15] 26] 25.84) 25.54] 25.23) 24.92) 24.61) 24.31) 24.00) 23.69) 23.38) .30769+ 28,12) 27. 80) 27.48] 27.16] 27] 26.84) 26.52) 26. 20) 25.88] 25.56) 25. 24) 24.92) 24.60) 24.28] .31953— 29.16] 28, 83) 28. 50) 28.16 28] 27.83; 27.50) 27.17] 26.84] 26.51] 26.18) 25. 85] 25.51) 25.18} .33136 30. 20) 29. 86] 29. 51) 29.17] 29] 28.83) 28.48) 28.14] 27.80] 27.45] 27.11] 26.77] 26.42) 26.08} .34319+ 31. 24) 30. 89) 30.53) 30.18] 30! 29.82) 29.47) 29.11) 28. 76] 28. 40] 28. 05) 27.69) 27.34) 26.98) .35503— 32. 28] 31.92) 31.55) 31.18) 31} 30.82) 30.45] 30.08] 29.71] 29.35) 28.98) 28.61) 28. 25) 27.88] .36686-+ 33.32] 32.95) 32.57) 32.19] 32] 31.81) 31.43] 31.05] 30.67] 30.30) 29.92) 29. 54) 29.16) 28.78) .37870— 34. 37| 33.98) 33.58) 33.19] 33] 32.86] 32.41] 32.02) 31.63) 31.24] 30.85) 30.46) 30.07) 29.68) .39053+ 35, 41] 35.01) 34.60] 34.20] 34] 33.80) 33. 40) 32.99] 32.59] 32.19] 31. 79) 31.38) 30.98) 30.58] .40237— 36. 45) 36. 03) 35.62) 35.21) 35] 34.79! 34.38) 33.96) 33.55) 33.14] 32. 72) 32.31) 31. 89) 31.48) .41420+ 37. 49) 37. 06) 36.64) 36.21) 36) 35.79) 35.36) 34.93) 34.51) 34.08] 33. 66) 33. 23] 32.80) 32.38) .42603+ 38. 53) 38.09] 37.66] 37.22) 37] 36.78] 36.34] 35.90) 35.47) 35.03) 34.59) 34.15] 33.71) 33.28) .43787— 39. 57) 39. 12| 38.67] 38.22) 38] 37.77) 37.32) 36.87] 36. 42) 35.98) 35. 53) 35.08) 34.63] 34.18) .44970+ 40.61) 40.15} 39.69} 39.23) 39] 38.77| 38.31) 37.85) 37.38] 36.92] 36. 46) 36.00) 35.54) 35.08) .46154— 41.66) 41.18) 40.71) 40.24) 40) 39.76) 39. 29) 38, 82) 38.34) 37.87] 37. 40) 36.92) 36.45) 35.98) . 473837 42.70) 42.21) 41.73) 41.24) 41) 40.76] 40.27] 39. 79) 39.30) 38.82) 38.33) 37.85) 37.36) 36.87) .48521— 43. 74| 43.24] 42. 74| 42.25) 49] 41.75) 41.25] 40.76] 40. 26] 39.76] 39. 27| 38.77] 38.27) 37.77 »49704-+ 44.78) 44. 27| 43.76) 43.25) 43) 42.74) 42.24) 41. 73) 41.22) 40.71! 40. 20) 39.69] 39.18) 38.67] -50887+ 45, 82| 45.30) 44.78] 44,26] 44) 43. 74|-43. 22] 49. 70| 42.18) 41.66] 41.14) 40.61) 40.09) 39.57} .52071 |: 46. 86) 46.33) 45.80) 45.26] 45) 44.73) 44.20) 43.67) 43.13] 42.60) 42.07] 41.54) 41.00) 40.47} .538254+ 47.90} 47.36) 46.82) 46.27) 46] 45.73) 45.18] 44.64] 44.09) 43.55) 43.01) 42.46) 41.92) 41.37] .54438— 48. 95} 48.39) 47. 83) 47.28) 47| 46.72| 46.16] 45.61! 45.05] 44.50) 43.94) 43.38] 42.83) 42.27) .55621+ 49, 99} 49.42) 48. 85) 48.28] 48) 47. 72| 47.15] 46.58] 46.01) 45.44] 44.87) 44.31) 43. 74] 43.17] .56805— 51. 03) 50.45) 49. 87] 49.29) 49) 48.71) 48.13) 47.55) 46.97) 46.39) 45.81) 45.23) 44.65) 44.07] .57988+ 52.07) 51.48) 50. 89] 50.30! 50) 49.70) 49.11) 48.52) 47.93) 47.34] 46. 74) 46.15] 45. 56) 44.97] .59172— 53.11) 52.51) 51.90) 51.30! 51) 50.70) 50.09 49.49) 48.89) 48. 28) 47.68) 47.08} 46.47) 45.87} .60355 54.15) 53.54) 52.92) 52.31) 52) 51.69] 51.08 50.46] 49.84) 49. 23] 48.61) 48.00} 47.38) 46.77] ..61538+ 55.19) 54. 57| 53.94) 53.31) 53] 52. 69) 52.05) 51.43) 50. 80} 50.18) 49. 55) 48.92) 48.29) 47.67) .62722— 56. 24) 55.60} 54.96] 54.32] 54) 53.68) 53.04) 52.40) 51.76) 51.12] 50.48] 49.84] 49.21) 48.57) .63905+ 57. 28) 56.63} 55.98] 55.32) 55} 54.67) 54.02) 53.37] 52. 72! 52.07] 51:42! 50.77] 50.12] 49.47] .65089— 58. 32) 57. 66] 56.99) 56.33] 56] 55.67] 55.00) 54.34} 53.68] 53.02) 52.35) 51.69] 51.03] 50.37] . 66272+ 59. 36] 58. 69} 58.01) 57.34) 57) 56.66) 55.99) 55.31] 54. 64] 53.96] 53.29) 52.61) 51.94) 51.27] .67456— 60. 40) 59. 71) 59.03) 58.34] 58] 57.66] 56.97) 56.28] 55.60) 54.91) 54. 22) 53.54] 52.85) 52.16] . 68639 61. 44] 60.74) 60.05) 59.35) 59] 58. 65] 57.95] 57.25] 56.55] 55.86] 55.16) 54. 46] 53. 76] 53.06] .69822+ 62. 48] 61.77) 61.06) 60.35) 60) 59.64) 58.93] 58.22) 57.51! 56. 80) 56.09] 55.38) 54.67] 58.96] .71006— INTRINSIC VALUES BASED ON DRY-MATTER CONTENT. On| TABLE X.—Comparative value, on a dry-matter basis, of grain, cottonseed, flour, etc., showing the price per unit of weight (bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to $1.20 and the difference in value for each unit testing from 12 to 24 per cent in moisture when the price for a unit testing 154 per cent in morsture (maximum moisture allowed in No. 2 corn, U. S. grade) is in even cents—Continued. Moisture content (per cent) and relative value per unit of measure. Value : of each 1 pe cent F 9 ol ary 12 13 14 15 |15.5) 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 rattan’ CEM Oise wise) Cis Ctsei Cisea|) Cts ale Ciset| Ctss.| .Cts.cl .Cts..l Cts. |) Cis. |- (Cents: 63. 53} 62. 80) 62.08] 61.36] 61) 60. 64! 59.92) 59.19) 58.47) 57.75) 57.03) 56.31} 55. 58) 54. 86} 0. 72189-+ 64.57) 63. 83] 63.10) 62.37] 62] 61.63) 60.90} 60. 16] 59. 43] 58.70) 57.96) 57.23) 56.50) 55.76) .73373— 65. 61] 64. 86] 64.12) 63.37) 63} 62.63] 61.88} 61.13] 60. 39) 59.64) 58.90) 58.15] 57.41) 56.66) .74556+ 66. 65) 65. 89) 65.14] 64.38) 64] 63.62) 62. 86) 62.11) 61.35) 60.59) 59.83) 59.08) 58.32) 57.56) .75740— 67. 69) 66. 92) 66.15) 65.38) 65] 64.61) 63.85} 63.08) 62.31] 61.54! 60.77) 60.00) 59.23) 58.46 . 76923 68. 73] 67.95! 67.17] 66. 39| 66) 65.61! 64.83! 64.05! 63. 26) 62. 48! 61.70) 60.92! 60.14] 59.36) .78106+ 69. 77| 68. 98} 68.19] 67.40} 67) 66.60) 65.81) 65.02) 64. 22) 63. 43] 62.64) 61.85} 61.05] 60. 26) .79290— 70. 82| 70.01) 69.21] 68.40} 68] 67.60} 66. 79] 65.99] 65.18} 64.38] 63.57) 62. 77| 61.96] 61.16} .80473+ 71. 86} 71. 04) 70. 22) 69.41] 69) 68.59] 67.77) 66.96] 66.14] 65.32) 64. 51) 63.69) 62.87] 62.06) .81657— 72.90) 72.07| 71.24) 70.41} 70) 69.58) 68.76) 67.93) 67.10) 66.27) 65.44) 64.61] 63.79} 62.96} .82840+- 73. 94) 73.10) 72.26) 71.42) 71] 70.58) 69. 74| 68.90] 68.06) 67.22] 66.38] 65.54] 64.70! 63. 86) . 84024— 74.98) 74.13] 73.28) 72.42] 32] 71.57) 70.72) 69.87! 69.02) 68.16] 67.31) 66. 46) 65.61] 64.76) .85207-+ 76. 02) 75.16) 74.29] 73.43} 73) 72.57) 71.70) 70.84] 69.97] 69.11] 68. 25) 67.38} 66.52] 65.66) .86390-++ 77. 06) 76.19) 75.31) 74.44) %4] 73.56) 72.69) 71.81| 70.93) 70.06) 69.18) 68.31) 67.43] 66.56) .87574— 78.11) 77.22) 76.33] 75.44) 75) 74.55! 73.67) 72.78) 71.89] 71.00) 70.12) 69.23) 68.34] 67.45) .88757+ 79.15) 78.25) 77.35) 76.45} 76) 75.55) 74.65) 73.75) 72.85) 71.95] 71.05] 70.15} 69.25) 68.35) .89941— 80. 19) 79. 28) 78.37) 77.45} 72] 76.54! 75.63) 74.72! 73.81! 72.90] 71.99) 71.08] 70.16) 69.25) .911244- 81. 23) 80.31] 79.38] 78.46] 78] 77.54) 76.61] 75.69] 74.77) 73. 85| 72.92) 72.00] 71.08] 70.15) .92308— 82. 27) 81.34) 80.40) 79.47) 7@9| 78.53) 77.60) 76.66) 75.73) 74.79) 73. 86) 72.92) 71.99] 71.05) .93491-+ 83. 31) 82.37) 81.42] 80.47] 80) 79.53! 78.58! 77.63! 76.68) 75.74) 74.79) 73.84] 72.90) 71.95) .94674++ 84.35] 83.40) 82.44) 81.48] 81) 80.52) 79.56] 78.60) 77.64) 76.69] 75.73) 74.77] 73.81|°72.85) .95858— 85. 40] 84.42] 83.45) $2.48) 82) 81.51] 80.54) 79.57] 78.60) 77.63] 76.66] 75.69) 74.72) 73.75) .97041-+ 86. 44) 85. 45) 84.47) 83. 49 3) 82.51) 81.53) 80.54) 79.56) 78.58] 77.60) 76.61] 75.63] 74.65) .98225— 87. 48] 86.48] 85.49) 84.50) 84) 83.50) 82.51) 81.51) 80.52) 79.53] 78.53] 77.54) 76.54) 75.55) .99408+- 88. 52) 87.51) 86.51) 85.50} 85] 84.50} 83.49] 82.48) 81.48] 80.47) 79. 47| 78.46] 77.45) 76.45) 1. 00592— 89. 56] 88. 54] 87. 53] 86.51) 86) 85.49] 84.47) 83.45] 82.44! 81.42] 80.40] 79.38) 78.37) 77.35) 1.01775-+- 9). 69) 89.57) 88.54] 87.51} -87| 86.48) 85.45) 84.42) 83.39] 82.37] 81.34! 80.31) 79.28) 78.25) 1.02958+- 91. 64] 99.60} 89.56) 88.52) 88] 87.48] 86.44) 85.40] 84.35] 83.31] 82.27] 81.23] 80.19) 79.15] 1.04142 92. 69) 91. 63) 99.58) 89.53) 89} 88.47] 87.42) 86.37] 85.31] 84.26) 83.21) 82.15} 81.10) 80.05) 1.05325-- 93. 73) 92. 66] 91.60} 90.53} 90) 89.47) 88.40) 87.34) 86.27) 85.21) 84.14] 83.08] 82.01] 80.95] 1. 06509— 94.77) 93.69) 92.61) 91.54} 91} 90.46} 89.38) 88.31] 87.23] 86.15] 85.08) 84.00) 82.92) 81.84) 1.07692-+- 95. 81) 94. 72) 93.63] 92.54) 92) 91.45] 90.37) 89.28] 88.19} 87.10) 86.01] 84.92] 83.83) 82.74! 1. 08876— 96. 85) 95. 75] 94.65) 93.55} 93) 92.45) 91.35] 99. 25) 89.15) 88.05! 86.95) 85.85) 84. 74) 83.64] 1.100594 97.89) 95.78) 95.67) 94.56} 94) 93.44) 92.33) 91.22) 90.11} 88.99] 87.88] 86.77] 85.66) 84.54) 1.11243— 98. 93| 97.81} 96.69; 95.56} 95) 94.44) 93.31) 92.19] 91.06) 89.94] 88. 82] 87.69] 86.57) 85.44) 1.12426 99.97) 98. 84) 97.70] 96.57) 96) 95. 43] 94.29) 93.16) 92.02] 90.89] 89.75) 88.61] 87. 48] 86.34) 1.13609+- 101. 02) 99.87) 98. 72) 97.57) $7| 96.43) 95, 28) 94.13] 92.98] 91.83} 90.69] 89.54] 88. 39] 87. 24) 1.14793— 192. 06,100. 99} 99. 74) 98.58} 98) 97.42) 96, 26) 95.10! 93.94) 92.78] 91.62] 90.46) 89.30) 88.14) 1.159764 103. 10 101. 93/100. 76) 99. 59} 95) 93.41) 97. 24) 96.07} 94.90] 93.73] 92.56) 91.38) 90.21) 89.04) 1.17160— 104. 14,102. 96/101. 77/100. 59] 100) 99. 41] 98. 22) 97.04) 95. 86) 94.67] 93. 49] 92.31 91.12) 89.94) 1.18343+- 105. 18 103. 99'102. 79/101. 60} 101/100. 40) 99. 21) 98. 01) 96.82] 95.62] 94.43) 93.23] 92.03] 90.84) 1.19527— 106. 22 105. 02/103. 81,102. 60) 102 101. 40 100.19, 98. 98) 97.77) 96.57) 95.36] 94.15] 92.95) 91.74) 1.20710 197. 26 106. 05,104. 83/103. 61} 103 102. 39 101.17) 99.95] 98. 73) 97.51] 96.29) 95. 08} 93. 86] 92. 64) 1. 21893+- 108. 31 107. 08/105, 5104. 61] 104 103. 38 102. 15 100. 92] 99.69) 98. 46] 97.23) 96.00] 94.77] 93. 54) 1. 23077— 109, 35/108. 11/106. 86,105. 62) 105 104. 38 103. 13 101. 89]100. 65) 99.41] 98.16] 96.92) 95.68] 94.44) 1. 24260-+- 110. 39}109. 14/107. 88)106. 63) 166 105. 37/104. 12 102. 86/101. 61 100. 35] 99.10) 97.85] 96.59) 95.34) 1.25444— 111. 45 110. 16 108. 90\107. 63) 107/106. 37/105. 10 103. 83/102. 57 101. 30/100. 03| 98.77) 97.50) 96.24) 1. 26627+- 112. 47 114. 19,109. 92 108. 64). 108 107. 36/106. 08 104. 89/103. 53 102. 25/100. 97) 99.69] 98.41! 97.14] 1.27811— 113. 51 112. 22 110. 93 109. 64) 109 108. 35/107. 06 105. 77/104. 48 103. 19/101. 90/100. 61) 99.32) 98.03) 1. 28994 114. 55,113. 25,111. 95 110. 65) 110.109. 35/108. 05 106. 74/105. 44 104. 14/102. 84'101. 54/100. 24! 98.93) 1.30177+ 115. 60}114. 28/112. 97/111. 66] 111)110. 34/109. 03 107. 72/106. 40/105. 09/103. 77/102. 46)101. 15) 99. 83) 1.31361— 116. 64/115. 31/113. 99/112. 66) 113/111. 34/110. 01 108. 69/107. 36/106. 03/104. 71,103. 38)102. 06,100. 73) 1.32544-++ 117. 68/116. 34/115. 01/113. 67) 112/112. 33,110. 99 109. 66/108, 32,106. 98/105. 64,104. 31/102. 97/101. 63) 1.33728— 118. 72)117. 37/116. 02/114. 67] 114/113. 32/111. 98,110. 63/109. 28/107. 93/106. 58/105, 23/103. 88/102. 53) 1.349114 119. 76/118. 40/117. 04/115. 68] 115/114. 32/112. il 60/110. 24/108. 88/107. 51/106. 15/104. 79/103. 43] 1.36095— 120. 80/119. 43118. 06/116. 69} 116 115. 31/113. 94 112. 57|111. 19/109. 82/108. 45/107. 08/105. 70/104. 33] 1.37278+ 121. 84/120. 46 119. 08/117. 69) 117,116. 31)114. 92 113. 54,112, 15,110. 77/109. 38,108. 00/106. 61|105. 23) 1.38461-+- 122. 89)121. 49 120. 09/118. 70) 118 117. 30,115. 90.114. 51113. 11/111. 72,110. 32,108. 92}107. 53|106. 13] 1.39645— 223. 93/122. 52 121. 11/119. 70] 119 118. 29 116. 89 115. 48 114. 07/112. 69/111. 25 109. 84/108. 441107. C3] 1. 408284. - 113. 61/112. 19 110. 77,109. 35|107. 93] 1. 42012— 124. O7)123, oa ee 71 Habaeas ZOE eae we a l | | ———————— ——————————————————— EEE Eee eee eee eee eS 28 BULLETIN 374, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE XI.—Comparative value, ona dry-matter basis, of grain, cottonseed, flour, etc., showing the price per unit of weight (bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to $1.20, and the difference in value for each unit testing from 12 to 24 per cent in moisture when the price for a unit testing 174 per cent in morsture (maximum moisture allowed in No. 3 corn, U. 8. grade) 1s in even cents. Moisture content (per cent) and relative value per unit of measure. Value of each | 1 per cent of 12 13 14 15 16 17 (/17.5) 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 dry Matter. Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts.; Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | -Cts. Cents. 1.07} 1.05) 1.04) 1.03) 1.02} 1.01] 12) 0.99) 0.98, 0.97) 0.96) 0.94! 0.93] 0.92] 6.01212+ 2.13} 2.11) 2.08} 2.06) 2.04) 2.01) 2] 1.99) 1.96) 1.94) 1.91) 1.8¢] 1.87) 1.84] .024244 3.20] 3.16] 3.13} 3.09) 3.05) 3.02) 38] 2.98) 2.94) 2.91] 2.87) 2.84! 2.80} 2.76) .03636+ 4,27| 4.22) 4.17) 4.12) 4.07] 4.02) 4] 3.97) 3.93} 3.88] 3.83) 3.78 3.73] 38.63) .048484+ 5.33] 5.27) 5.21) 5.15) 5.09) 5.03) 5} 4.97] 4.91) 4.85} 4.79] 4.73) 4.67] 4.61) .06061— 6.40} 6.33) 6.25} 6.18) 6.11) 6.04) 6] 5.96) 5.89} 5.82] 5.74) 5.67} 5.60) 5.53) .07273— 7.47| 7.388) 7.30} 7.21; 7.13) 7.04, 7] 6.96 6.87) 6.79! 6.70) 6.62) 6.53) 6.45} .08485— 8.53] 8.44) 8.34) 8.24) 8.14) 8.05] 8] 7.95) 7.85) 7.76) 7.66) 7.56]. 7.47) 7.37) .09697— 9.60} 9.49} 9.38] 9.27] 9.16) 9.05} 9] 8.94) 8.84] 8.73] 8.62) 8.51} 8.40} 8.29) .109¢9 10. 67] 10. 54] 10.42) 10.36} 10.18) 10.06} 10) 9.94}. 9.82] 9.70} 9.57) 9.45) 9.33) 9.21) .12121+ 11, 73} 11.60] 11.47) 11.33! 11.20] 11.07} 11} 10.93} 10.80) 10.67} 10.53) 10. 40} 10.27] 10.138) .13333-++ 12. 86) 12.65} 12.51) 12.36] 12.22) 12.07) 12) 11.93) 11.78) 11.64) 11. 49) 11.34) 11.20) 11.05) .14545+ 13. 87) 13.71] 18.55) 13. 39} 18. 23) 13.038) 18) 12.92) 12.76) 12.60) 12.45) 12.29) 12.13) 11.97) .15757+ 14, 93} 14. 76} 14.69) 14.42) 14.25) 14.03} 44} 13.91) 13.74] 13.58] 13. 41) 13.24} 18.07] 12.90) .16970— 16. 00) 15.82) 15.65} 15.45) 15.27| 15.09} 15) 14.91) 14.73) 14.54] 14. 36] 14.18) 14.00) 13.82! .18182— 17.07] 16.87] 16. 68) 16. 48} 16.29) 16.10} 16) 15.90} 15.71) 15.51] 15.32) 15.13} 14.93] 14.74) .19394— 18.13} 17. 93] 17.72) 17.51| 17.31] 17.10} 17) 16.90} 16.69] 16. 48) 16.28] 16.07] 15. 87] 15.66) .20606 | 19. 20} 18. £8] 18. 76} 18. 54] 18.33) 18.11) 18] 17. 89} 17.67) 17.45) 17.24] 17.02) 16. 80] 16.58) .21818+ | 20. 27) 20. 04} 19. 80} 19.57) 19.34) 19.11] 19] 18.88) 18. 65) 18. 42} 18.19) 17. 96] 17.73) 17.50} .23030+ 21.33] 21.09) 20. 85] 20. 60} 20. 36} 20.12) 20) 19.88) 19.64) 19.39} 19.15] 18.91) 18.67) 18.42} .24242+ 22. 40) 22. 14] 21.89) 21. 63) 21.38) 21.13] 21) 20.87) 20. 62} 20.36) 20.11] 19.85) 19.60} 19.34) .25454+ 23. 47) 23. 20) 22. $3) 22. 67| 22. 40) 22.13) 22) 21.87) 21.60) 21.33} 21.07) 20. 80} 20.53} 20.27| .26667— 24. £3) 24.25) 23.97| 23. 70} 23.42) 23.14) 28) 22.86) 22. 58) 22.30) 22.02) 21.74) 21.47) 21.19] .27879— 25. 60) 25.31] 25. 02} 24. 73) 24.44) 24.14] 24] 23.85) 23. 56) 23.27) 22.98) 22.69) 22.40} 22.11} .29091— 26. 67| 26. 36] 26. 06) 25.76) 25.45) 25.15) 25) 24.85) 24.54] 24.24) 23.94) 23. 64) 23.33) 23.03] .30303 27.73) 27.42! 27.10) 26.79) 26.47) 26.16] 26] 25.84) 25.53] 25.21) 24.90) 24.58) 24.27) 23.95) .31515+ 28.80] 28.47) 28.14) 27.82) 27.49) 27.16, 27) 26.84) 26.51] 26.18) 25.85) 25.63) 25.20) 24.87) .32727+ 29.87] 29.53} 29. 19-28. 85) 28.51) 28.17) 28] 27.83) 27. 49] 27.15) 26.81) 26.47) 26.13) 25.79) .33939+ 30. 93] 30. 68} 30. 23) 29.88] 29. 53) 29.17) 29) 28.82) 28. 47] 28.12) 27. 77) 27. 42) 27.07} 26.71) .35151+ 32. 00} 31.64) 31.27! 30.91] 30.54] 30.18) 30} 29.82) 29. 45} 29. 09] 28. 73] 28.36) 28. 00) 27.64) .36364— 33. 07} $2.69) 32.31) 31.94) 31.56] 31.19] 31} 30.81] 30. 44) 30. 06} 29. 68) 29.31) 28.93) 28.56) .37576— | 34. 13) 33. 74! 33.36) 32.97) 32.68) 32.19} $2) 31.81) 31. 42) 31. 03} 30.64] 30.25) 29.87] 29.48) .38788— 35. 20) 34. 80) 34. 40) 34. 00) 33.60) 33.20} 83) 32.80} 32. 40) 32. 00) 31.60] 31.20) 380.80} 30.40} . 40000 36. 27) 35. 85) 35. 44) 35. 03) 34. 62) 34.20} 84] 33.79] 33.38) 32.97] 32. £6) 32.14] 31. 73} 31.32) .41212+ 37.33] 36.91) 36. 48) 36.06) 35.64) 35.21) 35] 34. 79] 34.36) 33.94) 33. 51) 33.09) 382.67) 32.24) .42424+ 38. 40) 37. 96] 37. £3] 37. 09} 36. 65} 36.22) 36) 35. 78] 35. 34] 34.91) 34. 47] 34. 04) 33.60} 33.16] . 43636-+ 39. 47) 39. 02) 38.57) 38.12) 387.67) 37.22) 37) 36.77} 36.33) 35. $8) 35. 43) 34.98) 34. 53] 34.08) .44848-+ 40. 53] 40. 07) 39.61) 39. 15] 38. 69) 38.23} $8) 37.77] 37.31] 36. 85} 36.39) 35. 93] 35.47] 85.00) .46060+ 41.60) 41. 13} 40.65) 40.18! 39.71) 39.24} 39) 38.76} 38. 29] 37.82) 37.34] 36. 87] 36.40] 35.93) .47273— 42. 67| 42.18) 41.70) 41.21] 40.73] 40.24] 40) 39.76) 39.27] 38.79] 38.30) 37.82) 37.33] 36.85] .48485— 43. 73| 43.24) 42.74] 42.24) 41.74] 41.25] 41) 40.75) 40.25) 39.76] 39. 26} 38. 76) 38.27) 37.77] .49697— 44, 80) 44. 29) 43, 78] 43.27| 42.76) 42.25) 42) 41.74] 41.24) 40.73) 40. 22) 39.71) 39. 20) 38.69} .50909 45. 87| 45.34) 44.82) 44. 30) 43. 78) 43.26). 43) 42.74) 42.22) 41.70) 41.17) 40.65) 40. 13) 39.61) . 52121 4- 46. 93] 46. 40} 45. 87) 45.33) 44.80} 44.27} 44) 43, 73) 43.20) 42.67) 42.13) 41.60} 41.07] 40.68) .53383+ 48. 00] 47. 45} 46.91) 46.36) 45.82) 45,27} 45) 44. 73] 44. 18) 43.64) 43.09) 42.54) 42.00) 41.45) .54545+ 49. 07| 48.51) 48.95) 47.39] 46.83] 46.28] 46) 45.72) 45.16) 44. 60} 44. 05} 43. 49] 42.93) 42.37) .55757-++ 59. 13] 49. 56] 48.99) 48. 42) 47.85] 47.28] 47] 46.71) 46.14] 45.58) 45.01} 44. 44] 43.87] 43.30) .56970— 51. 20] 50. 62} 50. 04) 49.45) 48.87} 48.29] 48] 47.71) 47.13) 46.54) 45.96} 45. 38] 44.80] 44.22) .58182— 52.27) 51. 67} 51. 08; 50. 48} 49.89) 49.30} 49) 48. 70} 48.11) 47.51} 46.92; 46.33} 45.73) 45.14) .59394— 53. 33) 52. 73) 52.12) 51.51] 50.91] 50.30} 50) 49.70) 49. 09] 48. 48} 47. 88} 47.27) 46.67) 46.06) .60606 54. 40} 53. 78) 53. 16} 52.54) 51.93] 51.31) 51) 50.69] 50.07) 49. 45] 48. 84) 48. 22) 47.60) 46.98} .61818+- 55. 47| 54. 84) 54.20) 53.57] 52.94] 52.31) 52) 51.68) 53.05} 50. 42} 49. 79] 49. 16} 48. 53} 47.90] .63030+- 56. 53) 55. 89) 55. 25) 54.60) 53. 96} 53.32] 68) 52. 68) 52.04) 51.39) 50.75} 50.11) 49. 47] 48.82) .64242+ 57. 60) 56. 94] 56. 29) 55. 63) 54.98] 54.33] 54) 53.67) 53.02) 52.36) 51.71] 51.05] 50. 40) 49.74) .65454-+- 58, 67] 58. 00) 57. 33) 56.67) 56.00} 55.33] 55) 54.67] 54. 00} 53.33] 52. 67) 52. 00) 51.33) 50.67) .66667— ea oe 59. 73] 59. 05} 58.37] 57. 70} 57.02) 56.34] 56) 55. 66] 54. 98] 54.30] 53. 62) 52.94) 52.27) 51.59} .67879— 60. 80) 60. 11) 59. 42) 58. 73] 58.04) 57.34] 57) 56. 65| 55.96] 55.27] 54. 58) 53. 89) 53. 20) 52.51) .69091— 61. 87) 61. 16] 60. 46) 59. 76] 59. 05] 58.35] 58) 57.65] 56.94] 56. 24) 55. 54) 54. 84) 54. 13) 53.43) . 70303 62. 93} 62. 22] 61. 50) 60. 79} 60. 07) 59.36] 59] 58. 64] 57.93) 57.21) 56.50) 55. 78] 55.07] 54.35) .71515-+- 64, 00) 63.27) 62. 54] 61.82] 61.09] 60.36} 60) 59.64) 58.91] 58.18) 57.45} 56. 73) 56.00) 55.27) .72727+ INTRINSIC VALUES BASED ON DRY-MATTER CONTENT. 29 Taste XI.—Comparative value, on a dry-matter basis, of grain, cottonseed, flour, ete., showing the price per unit of weight (bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to $1.20, and the difference in value for each unit testing from 12 to 24 per cent in moisture when the price for a unit testing 174 per cent in moisture (maximum moisture allowed in No. 8 corn, U.S. grade) is in even cents—Continued. Moisture content (per cent) and relative value per unit of measure. Value of each 1 per cent of 23 24 dry matter. 18 19 20 21 22 Cts. | Cis. | Cts..| Cts. 4 5 : ‘ 5 _ Sl Ctsen | nCtse Cents. 65. 07| 64. 33) 63. 59] 62.85] 62.11) 61.37) G61) 60.63) 59.89] 59.15] 58.41) 57. 67| 56.93} 56.19] 0.73939-+- 66. 13] 65. 38] 64. 63] 63. 88 5 i 2) 61. 62) 60.87) 60. 12) 59.37) 58.62) 57.87) 57.11] .75151+ 67. 20) 66. 44) G5. 67) 64. i ‘i b E 58. 80] 58.04] .76364— 68. 27} 67. 49} 66. 71) 65. 63.61] 62. 84] 62. 06] 61.28) 60.51] 59.73] 58.96] .77576— 69. 33] 68. 54! 67. 76} 66. 64. 61) 63.82] 63. 03} 62.24) 61. 45] 60.67) 59.88! .78788— 70. 40) 69. 60} 68. 80} 68. 65. 60} 64. 80) 64.00} 63. 20} 62. 40} 61.60] 60.80] .80000 71. 47| 70. 65} 69. 84] 69. 66. 59} 65. 78) 64.97] 64.16) 63.34) 62.53) 61.72) .81212+ 72. 53} 71. 71| 70.88) 70. 67. 59) 66. 76) 65.94) 65.11) 64.29) 63.47) 62.64) .82424+ 73. 60) 72. 76} 71.93) 71. j 64. 40) 63.66] .83636-+ 74, 67| 73.82) 72.97) 72. 65. 33) 64.48) .84848+ 75. 73| 74.87) 74. 01) 73. 66. 27) 65.40) . 86060-+ 76. 80) 75.93} 75.05] 74. 67.20) 66.33) .87273— 63. 13] 67.25) .88485— 69.07) 68.17} .89697— 70. 00) 69.09} .90909 70.93) 70.01} .92121+ 71.87| 70.93] .93333+ 72.80} 71.85} .94545+ 73.73) 72.77) .95757-+ 74.67) 73.70} .96970— 75. 60) 74.62) .98182— 76. 53) 75.64) .99394— 77. 47) 76. 46} 1. 00606 78. 40) 77.38) 1.01818+- 79. 33) 78.30} 1.03030-+ 80. 27} 79.22} 1.042424 81.20} 80.14) 1.054544 82.13} 81.07} 1.06667— 83. 07} 81.99} 1.07879— 84. 00) 82.91] 1.09091— 4) 84.93) 83.83] 1.10303 85. 87| 84.75) 1.11515-+ 86. 80) 85.67) 1.12727+ | 87. 73) 86.69) 1.13939-+- 88. 67| 87.51] 1.15151-+ 89.60) 88.44) 1. 16364— 90. 53) 89.36] 1.17576— 5} 91.47) 90.28] 1.18788— 0). 92. 40; 91. 20} 1. 20000 93. 33) 92.12} 1.21212-+- 94, 27| 93.04) 1.224244- 95. 20) 93.96] 1. 23636+- 96. 13} 94.88) 1. 24848-+- 97. 07| 95.80] 1. 26060-+ 98. 00) 96.73) 1.27273 — 98. 93] 97.65) 1. 28485— 99. 87) 98.57) 1. 29697— 101. 33/100. 18] 99. 03] 97.8 102, 40}101. 241100. 07} 98. 103. 47/102. 29]101. 11) 99. 104. 53) 103. 34/102. 16/100. 105. 60/104. 40/103. 20/102. 106. 67}105. 45}104. 24/103. 107. 73/106. 51/105. 28/104. 108. 80107. 56/106. 33/105. 109. 87/108. 62/107. 37/106. 110. 93)109. 67/108. 41/107. : 112. 00)110. 73!109. 45/108. 18/106. 91/105. 64 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 113. 07/111. 78/110. 50}109. 21/107. 93]106. 64) 106 114. 13)112. 84/111. 54/110. 24/108. 94/107. 65) 107|106. 35)105. 05/103..76/102. 46/101. 115. 20/113. 89/112. 58/111. 27/109. 96/108. 65} 108/107. 34/106. 04/104. 73/103. 42/102. 11}100. 80} 99. 49) 1. 30969 116. 27/114. 94,113, 62/112. 30,110. 98/109. 66 es 108. 34,107. 02/105. 70/104. 37/103. 051101. 73/100. 41} 1.32121-+- 10 iil 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 100. 39] 99. 16) 97.94] 96.71) 95. 101. 38)100. 14) 98.91). 97. 67) 96. 44 102. 37|101. 13} 99. 88) 98. 63} 97. 103. 37)102. 11/100. 85} 99. 59} 98. 104. 36/103. 09/101. 82/100. 54} 99. 105. 36|104. 07/102. 79/101. 50}100. 117. 33/116. 00)114, 67/113. 33/112. 00/110. 67 109. 33/108. 00|106..67|105. 33104. 00/102. 67/101. 33| 1.33333 118. 40/117. 05/215. 71/114. 36/113. 02)111. 67 110. 33/108. 98}107. 64/106. 29/104. 94/103. 60)102. 25} 1.34545-- 119. 47/118. 11}116. 75/115. 39/114. 03/112. 68 111. 32}109. 96}108. 60/107. 25)105. 89/104. 53/103. 17) 1.35757-- 120. 53/119. 16/117. 79/116. 42/115. 05/113. 63] 113/112. 31/110. 94/109. 58/108. 21/106. 84]105. 47|104. 10} 1. 36970— 121. 69/120. 22/118. 84/117. 45/116. 07/114. 69} 114/113. 31/111. 93/110. 54/109. 16/107. 78}106. 40)105. 02} 1.38182— 122. 67)121. 27/119. 88}118. 48/117. 09/115. 70 114, 30/112. 91]111. 51/110. 12/108. 73}107. 33105. 94] 1.39394— 123. 73)122. 33)120.-92]119. 51/118. 11]116. 70 115. 30)113. 89)112. 48}111. 08/109. 67/108. 27|106. 86} 1. 40606 124, 80)123. 38/121. 96/120. 54/119. 13/117. 71 116. 29)114. 87/113. 45)112. 04/110. 62|109. 20/107. 78} 1. 41813-+- 125. 87/124. 44/123. 00/121. 57/120. 14/118. 71 117. 28}115. 85/114. 42/112. 99/111. 56}110. 13)108. 70} 1. 43030+- 126. 931125. 49/124. 05/122. 60/121. 16119. 72 118. 28}116. 84/115. 39/113. 95}112. 51/111. 07/109. 62) 1. 44242-- 128. 00/126. 54/125. 09}1238. 63/122. 18/120. 73 119. 27/117. 82|116. 36/114, 91)113. 45|112. 00/110. 54) 1. 45454-- 80 BULLETIN 374, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Tasie XIT.—Comparative value of corn on a dry-matter basis, showing the price per unit of weight (bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 40 cents to $1, and the difference in value for each unit testing the maximum moisture allowed in the six numerical grades when the price for any given grade is in even cents. For No. 1 corn, U.S. grade. For No. 2 corn, U. S. grade. Moisture content (per cent) and | Value of | Moisture content (per cent) and rela-| Value oF eac relative value per unit of measure. | each 1 tive value per unit of weight. per cent per cent Sane EE EL Ee SSG DE A On ES Se | 14.0] 15.5 | 17.5 | 19.5 | 21.5 | 23.0 | matter. | 14.0 |15.5|] 17.5 | 19.5 | 21.5 | 23.0 | matter. Gis: | Cisne Cise|Ciss)| Cts.a\) Cts: Cents. %\ Cts. Cts!) Cis (Ciss|