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HORT EE SPE OR EE
FOR EDVCATION

FOR SCIENCE

hy
OF
THE AMERICAN MUSEUM
OF

NATURAL HISTORY

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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Department Bulletins
Nos. 376-400, | gs.

WITH CONTENTS
AND INDEX.

Prepared in the Division of Publications.

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1919

cae = Na Oe

CONTENTS.

DeEprarRTMENT BULLETIN No. 376.—THE FLow oF WATER IN WooD-STAVE PIPE. Page.

ETT Ae epee eae ieee aR, eee eS Ae ula a. nih bia mpaaen me a 1
Ripsrene nures fie ly AT AE | ee i 0 1 A 3
Formulas for flow of water in wood-stave pipe..............-.--------000- 4
Trend of engineering thought regarding the carrying capacity of wood-
RieCRUDCS Os = sath 5.) Sale either no ie ie crepes oc = Siemens ae OLR 7
Necessary field data for determination of retarding elements of various
TL oe oe ee ee a A ead ee aa 14
Equipment and methods employed for collecting and interpreting field
Ra RP ren ee aco St Se oo L.A rg ec 16
Elements of field tests to determine friction losses and comparison of
observed velocities with velocities computed from various formulas. .... 26
BE sre lA PST LCTANO Le PUDOS orp pe cece pret t nada cf etn Schaar ata e Miter ores to law 40
A new set of formulas for the flow of water in wood-stave pipe........-...- 48
Somparison of thecvarious tormulass o.oo oe oee lo. ME IB ee 55
Kutter’s formula as applied to wood-stave pipe..........-..-.-.---------- 56
Effect of age upon the carrying capacity of wood-stave pipe.-...---.--.---- 58
SAAenNAOL WwOOd-StAVe Pipes: socc-c-lece ss. Sees. ae nee osc 58
Baeaiecoiacrans and, table. 2550s c occa nc. s cee: Me cers «be ce oe 66
Capacity of wood-stave pipe compared with that of cast iron and riveted
BEBE 2 Seo SS a RECHT (eC... URE 72
OPE BN TISECH TPS psy RR Sa a eg aR RA <1 t aglaes P 73
EHEC OID CHS. o. 2o 2 nce cacam meee kc os aa as sc os Sele e+ « pease cores < 74
RPRETTIDR Dee ese ay a oh Oe | Mies SIS Hen 74
2 ESS STrovris AAs See eee ele eR Niele: enti See Ni deem RY ietahie AEe Ss ne 81

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 377.—THE ARGENTINE ANT: DISTRIBUTION AND
CONTROL IN THE UNITED STATES.

EeiCeIBI LORY ee oo ea tes bt +s JOAN see RTE) SRE BOSC OS
Metiuralecomtrolie css ttt eee TERE AN Bile PS ay A he
Feenressonest: SLU ie ON Tae | PP ee) RR eT ee 1
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 378.—FisH MEau: Its UsE AS*A STOCK AND POUL-
TRY Foon.

1 ife fiTiOd NEWEST NSS Beane yt yet a Ne Mee ay 1
ermicwaoislitera tule saene eee oe so olen rete aia: « Alera aale 2 aie Sapa 3
Composition and qualities.or fish meal 2 .......5. 2.0. > - as. wae S23 2k ee 9
Beet ROM EHIMETIS) | tere ee eo. tds IE. . oR ie withers MEP Se 11
General methods for the manufacture of fish meal..............---------- 16
Opinions of the trade in regard to feeding fish meal...........----------- 18
Rawamatenoalavadlapleton fishimeale 95-2 4.50... jy lose eee ose 19
Greer a leCOMCLUBTONS ae yee ee ern ek eye a ees AP hp eee Lat leaadaa 20

——

4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 376-400.

DEPARTMENT BuLuEeTIN No. 379.—Dust ExXPLosIoNs AND FIRES IN GRAIN
SEPARATORS IN THE Pactric NORTHWEST.

ATOM GON ic): See Sl eaeene tn. elena etapa do ee apa me a ABE Seas
Blan OmiMVestieatlOMe aes ce cece cK Nk << eae Sais Sal ohe CneM Rach
Classiiertion' Ol eX PloslONS. 2 hey e, so Meee Oo sep Se ee ye,
Resulta/ot field Investmationi= oe... Sess euar ate 2 Sever ao eee
Static electricity asa cause offexplosious¥.5.2.9.2...2---:..-2----++c-cece
Expenmental field and laboratory work -.25 >. 220224.) 252.2 eae
Nature ordusivex plosions: . {oko ee. . Sein cce oe Seis Seer = cio eee
Methods developed for preventing explosions or extinguishing fires--......
Special acknowledgments....-.....- me Pee ca = elegant ae oes ae

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 380.—ENDOTHA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES.
WaxOnOMy.....-220- - Be bj- nin soc SRE oe Re baade teh Shee tee bee 458 whee
Morphelopy and deyelopment...4s-+..Hete22. eteueds -eaheecebees shies
Ay SIOlOP YS oath - Meee eee See. . Men's bel Chto coer peers Semaeee

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 381.—Business PRaAcTIcCE AND ACCOUNTS FOR
COOPERATIVE STORES.
Introduetiongies; fee cnes! ied. arene de nb piece . Plat 948 ies

Maniites)an.5:,. <M eee cee a ee 4) Sets ss saan Pillay Oe is
Subscription agueemen tess. os-tete we to) b 54) oa -e-eeeeent 35-b52aeee
Centifigaite: boo kar. 255 ee) oa. ot cel es ee pera thts ions piers
Stocks certii ca temecister. chose ake face Seer oe ee og ee
Diva d end sre cistern eat oc cee Bh Se asieoe a AEE GER ac meee. eee
Memibership led@er2 geo sesso a) toe re ee er ee
interest and divadend) account. 225.3 ssee- sega be ee eee eee
Siatementaand Teponis. a. 0 oor eae ane emit ag sioner 2 erie cee
IMaNAS ELS STEP Ol ee eas Aa eee Ste ae ee a hs 2
mV eENLOLY:.=. +... Seon «on eee on aie seat cee ie ec. . ae
PNUGILON 8 TeDOLisee es: 3-0 Seem: Cee cont cee: Scan cee Occ eee. aaa
IBTOsIG Ent 8; Le pOkiee cc sane ere eee hon Le ee meee ee
Operate erCCOrls”.’. Pet seeee ees oe ke Ses Ske yee Ss Be ee ee Se
Shae bly Cadit (USES asset tat ort et alts AR: 9b As ee
Bothvessh: andctedtt buBiness #84 Reso 2< Sec Fee ASSL ee Sa

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 382.—CotTton BOLL-WEEVIL CONTROL IN THE
Mississtepi DELTA, wITH SpEcIAL REFERENCE TO SQUARE PICKING AND
WEEVIL PICKING.

MarTEROCU CHO ose... Ape oe ope g Pe ee ran RRA OED, ot get PNY ae
Nellare prekames. Bile) Was Oe ae Me arene Obes Mieco S
Weevil pieking sc... Ben ste eon ce ene ee ee Ree eee ere er eee
General CONSIG CTA tLONS ms 25s Se ake meee eee eee es Seer ar eee reece
Summary, and conclusions: J2e- pee eee eee eae oe oe eee oe ee eee ae

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 383.—NEw SorGHUM VARIETIES FOR THE CENTRAL
AND SOUTHERN GREAT PLAINS.
Vir aycicaye OVC HKG) 0 Ne NOR mR: eRe RA LEAD AC Ts ote Bes ar A te er a Sea a
Description and adaptation of the new varieties of sorghum.......--....---
Comparison of the field records of the new sorghum varieties........---.---
Value of the varieties in different portions of the Great Plains............
General Come] Usions see eee ies ayes a ee a cee meme ee

ON OW

CONTENTS. 5

DEPARTMENT BuLuETIN No. 384.—Costs AND SoURCES OF FARM-MORTGAGE

LOANS IN THE UNITED STATES. Page.
Rss orineercnt and: Commission. 45 49 cots ae el: Bee. ek ss beat 1
Somrees) of capital’ for farm-mortgage loans. 2.521)... .is.-... lie cecicee eo eek 9
Factors which influence the terms on farm-mortgage loans................ 13
SigeEdeed (OF, IMPrOVed fa CUIEAES -, sit <,--Gisaia-aidarererverarayain.— = Peevererciar «2 o PEE 14
Desirability of State and Federal legislation...............-.-------+---- 15
“DEL ELTSOTS eS a re rey oer i On, Se MOS cNcroe CLEC UREA 16

DEPARTMENT BuLuLETIN No. 385.—ScHooLt CrEepDIT ror Home Practice IN

AGRICULTURE.
aR CHOMP eh Fie as e See ea ies PAR ey AAR SL eg 1) 1
iIMethodsitor the teacher’s use:. 2! 2.222488) SesgiskSo ave. A PME 2 ty 2
Schooladmiinistrationy basis of credit. eee cece eres cee ee eee 13
Racianacement, basis Of school Credits. - <— 2262.c.c:icrcre---< feces eiereistee ed OSE 17
SURENIF TL g SRS Seas aera = em Le Seen EN Ra, 5 iece are tC 20
Supplementary tables of labor requirements.-..........-....-----.---+---- all
Selec tednc lulls Te CONG Seisse cresiey rete eis roo IES e SRI SIS >= SPS Sleeve 26

_ DeparRTMENT Buuuetin No. 386.—Pusiic Roap Minzace AND REVENUES
oF THE MippLEe ATLANTIC StaTEs, 1914.
Ta ROCUCTORY = 3 sees oo err he eee 1
Meran=mplan and sources of information:...<:2220--.... 22s. 2s22.. 2225: 2
Road administration in the Middle Atlantic States...................---- 3
EOP EID (GG Ta EWES OOS epee oy a hee lig ce eR, 2 SO ong 3
LCLG Tirol Giver IG) eee thea ee ee en ee oo ae aa 4
Wewelopment oLlew types of highway. 072.2. 500.52. See. 5
Wernledsimtorma tong States: 52-222 45255~ case lek Stele 's «eens welds ec ees 6
DEPARTMENT Butietin No. 387.—Pusiic Roap MmEAGE AND REVENUES
IN THE SOUTHERN STaTEs, 1914.
Introductory:
Working plan and sources of information............---.------------ 2
Road administration in the Southern States...................----+--- 3
Eos eICO Me VCIUGH =o eee rece ee eRe ~~ Enotes 3
County and district road and bridge bond issues. ...........-.--.--- 5
INOS GL Srv e272 aS A a eee, See ae ae ee A ee. SCR gee LP PSE eL 5
Maes olsuriaces Toads: : 2322/2. - htt eee, . SRS PY 7
JMIEN DANITY i ct et ty a ale CR ee lat ee LA a a aa am Parsee ee PLAS 8
JTRS SES, bes ec tie ei a i ee el 3 al OB 11
NL Le Rei epe ne ete on ne eae aS DE TES RS aoe | - Ieee ee 15
lemace er as) AeA ASA ee oe OE. pL en 16
“SEU, LB Pcie sk MAUS as ict CE a 2 a Oe 18
IOs re cet Ray pe oe ater 8029.1. tren fee ee eS es aoe cere. 20
LGU 5 SASS So Con Cee a ae at My Neher em eae al 23
Sud es sayy bapa | es A NR NR Nel a RR A le en la ai 26
LuLSSTISSOTON 5 aie: deed yale eeicatelle oe meen ade ed a ORS. sea gM lee a 29
Nori nE@ acolinamieyiygs eas aero eee rere ee IR eas ae at 32
ikelbsierny anes ee Beep a ee ay Rh Nee He 8 ee Ae eric aL ROM I teem Rg 35
SOnih, Cancliiwe: Ssocyees sess e sakes see Meee ae .. ore eee Hien 37
ANDROS SSS aS ee ee eee re ee ef Se ee 40
MONT sod eBA Seis oaks eens Sea a tN el a A a a: bl eee eS 43
Waar <6 8 Seed Gh aoe ONE Be ee ERS ets Ae Die cnet PI ne epee See ade 45
Wiest Wiiremiityee & os Sea See BESS SES eS es Eee EERE, <i easels ets 49
AS DUCIG Tee eee eae cae ee ae ae ie Re an en LG, 1 Clee ey RG I-LXXI

6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 376—400.

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 388.—PuB Lic Roap MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN
THE New ENGLAND Sratzs, 1914.
PN tHOMUCLON Ye bi o's Bole onic Piss nie Bien 3 aie lenons ES OSS ASI PSS LIE gol

New sbampshire. .. Met suscnite ct aey oN vine alt is eres garam ae
IiCTINOVE Fit Soe n,n Meese aie eee Acie Sines = ay ein wn I etna Les Pee ape ees} | Satan ye

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 389.—PuBLic Roap MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN
CENTRAL, MoUNTAIN, AND Pactric Statss, 1914.
NM GHOGWCTLOM ek ce BOO sen Sic 2 Ae pills Ren a ig area pray SOS Fa Slag
PATON A Bees 82 28 ce cc MB cc sere hae uspeietn, =) eR eae Nyy eps ae eee pains rey elie ie
(CEU NC IT REREAD: Ie AD Alen means Sule fa
Colorad oO: eisghs o .< Bein <5). cies ee eee oe ser Sek ie ey eek eee

Machin cane see oo: «Aiea. = 2 ee Ec Bh ROR cde PU ee get 8 | ee

J EraNTOWS'Stoy aes es Sa ae Se A RINE ie eA Oe Ee SSE
. v

SIVA UTEP tpt) ML a IM i 2 CL eat Aa LY aR ee

Weashingeton)..2: 22... eo... 202eet Seet eee: Sukh sue Thiel Repeater
WWASCOMSINS.)fec 2. PES So aeccip wen Boss sce ebace eee Seat ORoe eee eae
VSO oi os Se on ol se he cine ec ice ee yee: SES See By 2p.) se
ING) C@i0N6 lb ee) ae . ) ne ee eR PE ABIL AR Rau me BPS
PANDEMIC os = MMB he eS oile ee ticraicie wise so eee aia oe ee a

PANERA UNO) ai 22 2 | MMS wee Saas chat vente nic nacich a Sree ee ore coat nearest

DEPARTMENT BuLueTiIn No. 390.—Pusiic Roap MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN
THE Unirep Sratss, 1914: A Summary.
Iba caro KCNC ZS SME © el aet SEM OS AES SEI NAVEE os sna eS
Gienerais iain aii. Mire. le. oS een ic tosias> ya oneal ares ora leter cee ae
ili exeoadene yeni Cees wie ays ol. Loss Seatac nice cele cloisonne ee
Analy sis\ot reyeniuesson) various bases. =[2)- <2. .s- => - = 2-2-2 nine amie
Roadvandilord ee bomen messi oie, tec aves is loi ic sinecoe cine oes pee eae
Road wmilleapeses..\. Shee eis sss «ne Res VON Re Sel eC OME 5
Analysisiot mileage on Various Wass! <n ..)-\5 ss <2 se sine = 2 2 ne ee Se
(Eyes olusuiria ced atoms scene eps setae les oleae Aes eee ree eee ee

DEPARTMENT BuLLETIN No. 391.—AccuRAcY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF
OPENED Kees.

1Gaynaoys hb helm ce) een. Sages ee ENE ee RM Ae SMe eo NEES
Purpose: plan jand extent of imvestigation. = 05.20. .- 42 see ee
History and bacterial content of samples. -...-.-...-----.------- PEI
Effect of condition of shell on bacterial content of egg......-.------------
Relation between number of bacteria and physical condition of the egg
(COMPINe Sae sees Geet AEM sc oM see Sop ase e amc Dob ob eI saHoonaas AGS tate

AOwwwwnnr

amr N EH

11

CONTENTS.

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 391.—AccuRACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF
OpENED Eaoas—Continued.

Descriptions and bacterial counts of eggs graded out of the shell..........
Effect of contaminated eggs upon composite products.......--.........--
Besarejected during Sradimg. <<< ..-...S-ceetick SIE 5 Boe LS lak BL
SUMS 6 ee eeee bah ear Cee obec eesor aeaoesore oe - Sneha nee

DEPARTMENT BuLuEeTIN No. 392.—LEssons ON TOMATOES, FOR RuRAL
ScHOOLS.

PEESHETEGS CHUEC GI OURS eens rare ee eset ore rek oe woe eee talc ena ove os crane Sedma Spl Diet tee
OEY EAMG IN POTtAN CEs fata arairatn 2s ae tok SURES 5 elles SAE
WeiMGtegs Ea Seen ae ee een, reese A, 5 LO PRS key Regen ares

Sen Kad preparation, fertilization. - 9. 224-0 = = aeie)- = - <A eiisan es oie =
Hardening off plants: Preparing land and transplanting........-....-.....
Penaine eprIMIne yang CULLLVALINE. «¢ ac ocis.cc cca cence ee lccectincca ss
Eerie MISeAn eS ANG UNRECLS 0 on aero e era a ae = AM ie tne wo = 33
ALAbmOT SALE ATINO ME teste aoe es oe tenes sama eee ioe es o's
“CADEELESTLDT Fae BL SS oe ella pha pried lh aR Si Pe cee ee ee

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 393.—Economic SurvEYs or County Hiqu-
WAY IMPROVEMENT.

PRWEOCER LOL ei alo ne rte See Codella soe sec ccist 5. + eieice tae a Ss
Comparative analysis of economic effects of road improvement............
SUE ALA COMME eV etter ete a cake oe... ames eee ee.
DIG (COUREI ATV At oii hate eats tte toate < ee eee Sas
Lage COMA eat l RE SU oe A aor Ce st ae eee
NTIS. (CIS TET 2 OR Dee ie ee tors eno SE = aa ee
PERERA COUMGY,,. N.Y <2 << <,<.<j2.<.2,0:.0.--.5 2.50 nein See ee in.< = emeeitra Stans biet sty are 8
LD GILGYS, (COTTA gie2 Nl BR es Ne nee Sec Sem, eee vee ee
Wamdcrcae County, Masso). 2. 36 S02 32. oo 5 ween» aaa? shiddeck on
PME CCMUOHIEDV TE aah 32.5 PATS de. sree oe NEG) EOE ae a + BEE nici eine hanna

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 394.—A SuRVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES
IN THE UNITED STATES.

ue pose, scope; and method of the survey..-.....5-:.-+-J2242s-eh-.u5-5-
SnteetHmota tHe SLOLOS o.2 =x, <:ci0\ 5 oe epteiene Bes Spey Se stares Sid ho, SpE je cicero en
General organization . shay ate ee er ha OS ha alc sia on, <I al eh Fereicrciens Dis

MerOMmines TEVOLS, ANG aUGIne: «. Josssie. ct... - Bites. cc -e le c=
PAPI 2 Aes Hele ye Stewie w aeieees Devel o Medl- - te ascites
sithicapalanceishCetsr eens iret emma. | UEOe iy NS seks
MEE OT EXCUSES seme Saree ce Nese Mi gers wie ta Says e aM pe ca os cide eibiets
Misch rnOns 20d CONCLUSIONS: -<.4- f-atwce cs - kos oe amie + Spies aie cece 5 ak ore
PATEL CRE yam nie eerste nie Se ene ee cic eee tals « eet eee eeu eg

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 395.—PEacuH re AND Its CONTROL.

METAR NSIT OTI eee se epee eae ee ec ala oo SEC a aac. cidlepain wit en
SRE ROSAS OE 0 eye es iar tp cps Sa iele cs Ri as tola a 5, Sian \cte = apeyeiaia nce in ' nya'syala's' pe
MRE contin Olas Decree ee enone mein sewn aan > Sep es Selene aie
Life history of the causal organism in relation to pathogenesis........-.-.
Wontrolmm cag ures sees a ta tame eer wets tei a aici ee sin'e a-ofele ale cine walclaiaie wee
SURI a iyo Salad ea fle ay Oia ea BE Ne ea ie ee Ra aie a1 emer ERR

*
8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 376—400.

DEPARTMENT BuLieTIN No. 396.—Smconp ANNUAL Report or Brrp
Counts In THE Unitep States, with Discussion or RESULTS.
Introduction! tsi MMe ys wees Tali pipe. ykmren ple univ eyed Pan oats heed ie (Gti. Be opeedey bees
Plansiforithe 1915, coumtsit/ hs a eohnenneey: elpents atcha Tia eRe) oyna aes fey
ResulisnitheWortheastern) Stabese.- sees...) oes eee setae es

herb exwanaesba:,, pind Count site. peptic eres: Oe eee
Nomemotablle reportaye ado. q.e eee epee cee pobre eiccin. alate nes
Variations/am bird: late irom year to) yedtes- eee e see eeeeeee ne. eee eee
hespossibilitves, from bird, profection st. - .-44-saer ee oer ae eee
SUNT NN eee, Vee ae StS i Rem, OMe heen BASE TOPO E! 8 eT

DEPARTMENT BuuietTiIn No. 397.—THE GRazine INDUSTRY OF THE BLUE-
GRASS REGION.
VEST ITROVGHUNGTTCO WOT GMMMM, © 2S uM i aM ye aes si Ala eae ya Sa
Dheyditterent/eradesor blucorass! pastuness- ene emec ese cins ae] eee
Eiechionwilnter orazamMoOOnnbGHe SOG: . emis ce Cee ae metee re aie ms ere eee =
eintdistotilaverstock praised ay cueye0) is 5 sien) opcis esePe tee ausyere aiepe iene oie rasp ELe Ne
Naimitenine the steersee corse se hi, ei Mena ee SN 2 aT esi ray
Gre tim oaysso Clee Se ie oie a Me Us ae Ree ea 2 BREE Serge nce: <a
Value of a pasture when grazed with cattle........-.-. Be Ose a ee SOR
Value of & pasture when grazed with sheep........---..----------------
Mamtammesthe fertility: ot sthe soil =. -<s).0 == 2m aem sett = lie ere
‘Rhreypropertate tojomaze.: «awaits. hte ces Cle ee ee ee ea Sg

CaTCrO lL AStUNeS.’.- Meet eee heyy <i eg ee fee ee Sa e e oe Oe

Mmiversupplyiot stockerg: . Lc ke ceil eA Reh L ANTENA eign Dee 8 Se

DEPARTMENT BuLietTin No. 398.—CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT THE JUDITH
Basin Susstation, Moccasin, Mont.

Hinaits OG CGO aes hee. gee rar nare so eese He tere tora fore cored tava rovers reenter loved haope. ene
Description of'the-Judith . Basinic:sas..c nes eee se vst ee ee
ihe Judith Basin substation. .et. ci... tas fe OS Se eee
Experiments with weeatisee eee teeter ere e se ei Hes Oo eee
Bi mperimentatwath: Oats JESS OeNey, Wik SES Ie Ae SS ae. Wy NRE Os 1 aa
Experments wath barleyee st. 4 <c)ccce ee oan Wenn s MANET SEE teas
Hxpemiments with) flares ts sosc4522 0) (SOR 2 26 A ee EE eee
Comparison of the leading varieties of cereals...............-------.-+--
Pxperimentsswith nainoricerealsss5 eee) eer einrclete ie airtel tat aars
SULTAN OR. ee al lo UC ERA Ar enn Soe amish

DeraRTMENT BuuitetiIn No. 399.—THE PropvuctTion or SWEET-ORANGE

Om anp A New Macsine For Pretine Cirrus Fruits.

Tontroductionars.. -. Meee cco. i Vee oleae = else acne eae
empontanceronbhe: IMGUSthy, 22) occ eee ce eee tsa ns la see ete aie crease aici
Material available for the production of orange oil.......................-
Methodsiotiextractionbar i587 Nike UMAR Ree ieee) s aiteiais ere ofaterersia ileus
Teawewsrsrate bony Are I |, 1 eee a OR a SNe GMa cucuas c
Comiparisontol the Vamous oils jy. eee eee eee lae eeriele ioe re
@ommienciallipossibilameseeas ser sce Meee eee eater enolate
@ostionmrod etion!. cee see sec ti ne ccice eae ieee oa eee ee areata ae
Nake fe Bort (owl West avi bee). RR eben tae ME eee cco c
Siodrohor are ce meM. le Ae eee yes et oa eae ome scye ¢

DEPARTMENT Buxietin No. 400.—ExPERIMENTS witH Marquis WHEAT.
TTtROGNIC HOTS: Heth. iememiat ays ia cial ie Mensa, see Tn ad, a) a) Spear Coke e ete
Elistony, Of Wananmds wileart= ale se sere le feler ete ele cle larva letate a= Cyn ielatae ete tebe ot et a
Meserippionol Marqiisiwheatss cece ec ene coarse Cee eee e ecie
Warretalyexperinentsuetner sis jce aires) eielers ee varele eran Bie ota ete cree iors
Mallinevand)ibakine; quality 2225 058s cee acts ae eerie elem secretarial i

INDEX.

Accounts, cooperative stores, and business practice, bulletin
Dye leeAcebsexell and) Wi Ee Kerrs S25... eee. ets
Agriculture—
home practice—
school credit for, bulletin by F. E. Heald...........-
school requirements, discussion. .....------.--------
school credit for home work, advantages, and requirements,
GEISCUISET ONO op) 4 Cera piel I ti a Mere SRA IA ru AE
Alabama—
bonds and scrip, road and bride, 1914, by counties.....-..
highway improvement, management and economic survey
TES: LO UDIUEYS: (CIOUTITT IN gs oa PRR en ae ae ee oe

roads, supervision, revenues, mileage, etc., 1914.........-.-

Ants—
Argentine—
iiatekaOnpmMtantaIMstan ee. fais 1s wee ee
ColomiesMocationloMiease. face eel Sea wee steel
COMETOMIMEASUTES se ete re co cee ee SE eae ans
distribution and control in the United States, bulletin
byglinnesty Re Barberry. cas..cc.. 2 sees ae ee.
effect of weather conditions...............-.-.-++2--+-:-
habits and economic importance. .....-...-.-.-.----
infestation of cities, control, plans.........-.---.-..--
BORER LOT ee ee Met RE et ae
eceurrence im Southern States... ..--.. -.)-<-.----- =
spread, habits and factors influencing.............-.--
trapping, experiments.......... SO OO eR Ee SEG csbee
EmieOnemmAGUTS ANG Use .: <5 oo4 5602 sss alse Be dewas see ok =
Argentine ant: Distribution and control in the United States,
pullers; Hrmest Re Barber: .2.22.... 2-2-6. --)soe55 +
Arid western basin, wheat yields at experiment stations,
SSPATEE|, 22s 2 8 3 RR ga ey
Arizona, roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage and bonds..........-..-...
types, mileage, revenues and bonds, 1914, by counties. .
Arkansas—
bonds and scrip, road and bridge, 1914, by counties.......

roads, supervision, revenues, mileage, etc., 1914..-.......

PACA Rezes, Investigations Of... /.-.-as02oieee Tek Leos eee
Balu, CARLETON R., and J. ALLEN CLARK, bulletin on ‘‘ Experi-
ments with Marquis pC ar 071) Seve ertareeeral = Cyatrcrareyers See siae) c
Pemticsianmnmortgage loans... 2.0.22 bs -cece de esde sees oh
BarzeEr, Ernest R., bulletin on ‘‘The Argentine ant: Distri-
bution and control in the United States”..........---.-.-.
Barley—_
growing at Judith Basin substation, Montana..............
growth data at Judith Basin substation, Monitanaieees see:
yield of different varieties at J udith Basin substation,
WWI Ta ATO CHES piers 2 eM SRO ALS ROE) Mei weal oat ony Se ae
Barrows, Lucius D., article on public roads of Maine........
Beech, injury by Endothia, studies and inoculation experi-

Bexet., J. A.—
and W. H. Kann, bulletin on ‘‘Business practice and
accounts for cooperative SHOES UIERE tae Mies eeeseinciial Gh fi:
Hector MacPuerson, and W. H. Kerr, bulletin on ‘“‘A
survey of typical cooperative stores in the United
ISSUE UESIS) Hw NRG STR 2 OR A a ROL eR co
Bibliography, Hndothia parasitica........-.---.-----++++-++---
Bichlorid of mercury, use against Argentine ant...........-.-.

114336—19——2

Bulletin
No. Page.
381 1-856
389 1-27
385 2-9
385 13-20
387 XXXIV

393 1-3, 6-10, 62-68
387 ee I, XLVI-—
XLVII

377 5-6
377 6-7
Bil 10-23
377 1-23
377 9-10
377 3-7
377 2-3, 22
377 7-9
377 2-3
377 3-5
377 22-23
377 1J-22
377 1-23
400 30-34
389 7-9
389 I, XXX, LXIV
387 ‘A 3-0-7

—14, xtvu-—
387 xe
391 3-25
400 1-40
384 9-11
377 1-23
398 31-34
398 34
398 32
388 6-9
380 59-61
381 1-56
394 1-32
380 77-82
By7 11

2 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 376—400.

: Bulletin -

Bird count— No. Page.
Berwyi bar, [Ol aeeees Some se so) See, ME ee ae 396 12-13
United States, second annual, with results, bulletin by

WielIIStAG Wonke sieetase of) 2 tans 5 Sees oe 396 1-20
PAMALONUMOM Ey CAO VERE aa anciss aes = ocala ee oe 396 16-17

Birds—
enumeration, requirements and suggestions.............. 396 3-4
increase in numbers, management on farms..............- 396 11-12
protection in home grounds, possibilities.................. 396 17-20

Bluegrass—
fat-producing qualities, discussion.................-....-. 397 2-3
region, grazing industry, bulletin by Lyman Carrier. ..... 397 1-18
sod cestablishmen tipracticess2efe a). 8 224 ace ee le 397 8

Bookkeeping, cooperative—
bppsiress Abiblioorapiy....2-. seeeess.. -qaeneans ee Se eee 381 56
stores, bulletin by J. A. Bexell and W. H. Kerr........... 381 1-56

Boll-weevil—
controliby,pickansambenefits: ete: _... S22 52--2sensec2e sae 382 , 7-9

rn pices as control measure, methods and value.......... 382 5-7

onds—
New Jersey road and bridge, by counties-.-.............. 386 11
Pennsylvania roadwandibridge.. 2.0.55 a21..02c. 6st. ee 386 23-24
road—

12-13, 28-29,
issiiance and management.<.¢.<<2<+.--. He ewes 393 Bite? Poo
b ?
69-70, 79-80
[SLENNEROIE TCISD EEN 2 Ci Si ees So Pater, Magen ante a, eehared 5 393 24

road and bridge—
by States’and teounties, 1914 22 on eee oe eee ee 387 XXXIV-XLVI
4,9, 12, 14, 16,
19, 23, 25, 28,
Central, Mountain, and Pacific States. .............. 389 vi ae is &
51, 54, LXIv—
LXXV
Central, Mountain, andjPacific States, by counties... 389 LXIV-LXXV
iMassachiaset tease. -2i5 re ein tee pepe wee ec epenrsle ate 388 43-45
& 8, 11, 18, 20,
New: Eneland (Statess awe. Joke eee eee septs 388{ 24 43-45
Quistandimes ISDS byes tates a= -ospessse-s cee. = ses ae 390 8
South; assues' by States, 1914--.55-- 225-585... ------ 387 5

Boys, labor records, agricultural clubjwork............-..---- 385 26-27

Brick roads, mileage, 19I4. by States. .:./-.------.25022--i26- 390 ll

Bridge tax, North Carolina, 1914, byfcounties............-.-- 387 XV-XVIII

Bridges, public. See Roads.

California—
roads—

supervision, revenues, mileage and{bonds.......-.-.-. 389 9-12

types, mileage, revenues, and bonds, 1914, by counties. 389 Tt ee

wheat yields at Davis experiment station, varieties. ...-... 400 33-34

Carbon bisulphid, use against Argentine ants..............--- 377 22-23
Carrier, Lyman, bulletin on “The grazing industry of the

bluegrass nesiony’<. ee esse Nas.) es eee ie) Eads, ord 1-18
Castanea, injury by Endothia spp., studies and inoculation

EXPCTIMGNES: Goee =. | Sen a= Gaia 222 2 0) oa \ein ancien Sree cess * 380 59-61

Cattle— ;
bluegrass region, breeds and selections............---.---- 397 5
feeding with fish meal, abstracts from experiments........ 378 4,5,7
prass-féd, quality, wintering, etey:..:2270..14. 3 Ree 397 1-2

Cereals— ;
experiments at Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont.,

bulletin, byw: CaDonaldson:: 2.2.2 2-475 2 eee 398 1-42

yields and farm value at Judith Basin substation, Mont.,
COMPARISOUse! SMe Set scl sedge See hee Geeemaee 398 39

INDEX.

Chestnut—
~ blight—
Endothia parasitica, and related species, bulletin by
C. K. Shear, Neil E. Stevens, and Ruby J. Tiller. .
See also Endothia.
CARERS ELL XKONONL Ye oe seat ns oe Ne Ne
injury by Endothia spp., studies, inoculation experiments,

x timber, decrease in Southern States, causes, discussion....
Citrus fruits—
peeler, description and operation.............---------+---
peeling machine, and the production of sweet-orange oil,
bulletin by S. C. Hood and G. A. Russell........22...-
Cladosporium carpophilum. See Peach scab.
CLARK. J. ALLEN, and CARLETON R. BAtt, bulletin on “ Experi-
MeomrnmLuMvarguis Wheat 9-2... 22. 2 eu t ssf sshe25.,.
CiaRKson, J. P., article on public roads of Florida...........
Club—
Sete MOL ORATZ ALI HE»? sod 0's 9) Fs 808 Bs bass UR SME TDS
work, boys’ and girls’, labor records..........-.---.-...--
Coav, B. R., bulletin on “Cotton boll-weevil control in the
Mississippi Delta, with special reference to square picking
Fi SPELL GTA ee ea ee
CoLEMAN, G. P., article on public roads of Virginia............
Colorado—
roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage and bonds..........-.
types, mileage and revenues, 1914, by counties.......
wheat yields at experiment stations, varieties..........-.
Concrete roads, mileage, 1914, by States........-.2.-.-.2.-.--
Connecticut—
land area, road mileage and population..............-.--
roads—
and bridges, revenues, bonds, mileage and types.-.--.
mileage and types, by counties.............--.-..- af!
revenues applied, 1914, by counties and towns. ......
supervision, revenues, bonds, and mileage.........-.
Convict labor—

peo Ford pullding in South! Ho. Nes 2 2 Ie ee
mao on publicreads in Vermont.......-<-.-.--- =< - iar =~

Convicts, use on public roads, Central, Mountain, and Pacific
SDUES. 2 22 Sh O SSSA EOS AO ee Se ee ya eee

Cooke, WELLS A.—
bulletin on “Second annual report of bird counts in the
United States, with discussion of results”............--
Mee CIBMOCAL IS 2 nee re es teks ng A! |
Cooperation, accounts, and practice in stores, bulletin by
fepeesexerLand W. EH: Kerns. ies eee I
Cooperative— ,
business, bookkeeping, bibliography.................----
stores, typical in United States, survey, bulletin by J. A.

Bexell, Hector MacPherson, and W. H. Kerr........-..
Corn, labor requirements, items.2-!.22. 2.2.20 5 00.2.2...
Cornell University, bird count in campus, by species.......-.-

Cotton—
boll-weevil, control in Mississippi Delta by square picking
and weevil picking, bulletin by B. R. Coad.......-...--

See also Boll-weevil.

EApOr PemiiFCMen ts sIhOMIS. 2.0 )- 7 - 2/)o Sas lan oo'ain ese cine
square picking in hboll-weevil control.........-.-....-----
Cows, dairy, feeding with fish meal, abstracts from experiments.
Credit, cooperative stores, practices...........-.-------- ae

Crops, labor requirements for growing different kinds, tables...

Bulletin

No.
380

380

3-5
70-74
40-42
21-24

10, 13, 17, 19,
22, 25, 28 31,
33, 36, 44, 47,
51

14

9, 11, 13, 16,
19, 21, 23, 25,
27, 29, 31, 33,
36, 37, 41, 43,
45, 47, 49, 51,
54, 5D

1-20
1

1-56
56

1-32
22-23
13-15

1-12

24
3-5
4,5,7
12-13
21-25

4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 376—400.

Bulletin
Delaware— No, Page.
bonds, road and bridge, 1914, by counties..............-. 387 XXXV
roads, supervising, revenues, mileage, etc., 1914 .......... 387 15, I, XLIX
Diaporthia parasitica, identity with Endothia parasitica, estab-

RIShiENeTN Tass 2 eet: . Sie as (nie aie Aine Ent Pat wd 380 1-3
Dogfish, utilization for fish meal, recommendations Det ii. = tarts 378 20-21
Donatpson, N. C., bulletin on ‘‘Cereal experiments at the

Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont.’’..... 398 1-42
Dry lands, experiments with cereals at Judith Basin substation,

Moccasin, IVI OriGeree . eMac Liles ew Se a ce rele pal 398 1-42
Dry-land—

crop, dwarf feterita, description and value.............-. 383 4-5
crops, sorghum varieties, escriptions and value.......-... 383 3, 5, 7

Dust explosions—
grain separators—

damage to thresher and grain, investigations.......... 379 , 8-9
investigations, plan and work...............-.-.---- 379 2-9
localities;mumiber; and dates: +: . 222.05 t2222 22 2h 379 3-4
naturevind theorists: CCC NUN MT a ea 379 17-18
Pacific Northwest, bulletin by David J. Price and E. B.
Mre@ormi chee... Wes ot eee ele. cy. ys ener Met AA ee 379 1-22
Education—
lessons on tomatoes for rural schools, bulletinby E.A.Miller 392 1-18
Tuna | Netectwot. Coodmronds ken. ooh ee carer en oes 393 6
EpWarps, R. W., and H. N. Vrvnat1, bulletin on “ New sorghum
varieties for the central and southern Great Plains”.......- 383 1-16
Egg shells, dirty, relation to bacterial content of opened eggs,
investigations RARE. 2 BRENT (A oo 2 accuser ci sie lo.e Aecevc cmtactags Moret of EE 391 6-10
Eggs— 2
bacterial—
COUN AOpen yprad Wete soe seems hele eee treet 391 4-6
findings ial aTIOUS) CTOMPS: che See eee ek eso eee 391 14-18
commercial grading, accuracy, bulletin by M. K. Jenkins
and Norman Hendrickson.........----c+-+s++secceeees 391 1-27
contaminated, effect on composite products......--.-.---- 391 18-21
physical condition of content, relation to bacterialcount... 391 11-14
MEJCCHONMIN STACING Re! hk eM iene ke ek eee 391 21-25
Exprines, M. O., and J. E. PennyBaAcKER, bulletin on “ Eco-
nomic surveys of county highway improvement’ Besse nts 393 1-86
Electricity, static, in thrashers and grain mills, cause of explo-
sions and fires, investigations..............--+-.-.--.--.--. 379 9-11
Endothia—
genus, establishment, studies and synonymy.......------- 380 3-13
parasitica—
and related species, bulletin by C. L. Shear, Neil E.

Stevens) andukuub yrde taller see ee = see eee see 380 1-82
bibliography x MMS LO Se aR) a 2G 380 77-82
discovery in China and Japan, historical notes.......-. 380 54-58

spp—
descriptions andiranre: 0.255022 bes Sala: oom eee 380 13-22
distribution and factors influencing..-....-.-.------- 380 48-59
hostrelations, inoculations, experiments, etc.....-.-- 380 59-74
morphology and development UIE Naa ce Yr ss eae cre 380 22-35
physiology, cultural studies.........--.-------------- 380 36-48
Engineering departments, supervision of highways in Cali-
fornia and UKiansage. TRU te uN Gees Nie EN NE Se opiate ag 389 9, 24
Engineers, State highway, appointment and duties, Central
Mountain, and) Baciti cistates i: qaesseee soe cease seers 389 7-8, 24, 55
iixhibits, garden products, school lessons......-...---.------ 392 17-18
Experiment—
station, Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., estab-
lishment and organization .........-..-.2+++.++00++-++ 398 1,9
stations—
northern Great Plains, altitude and precipitation.....- 400 iy
northern prairie States, altitude and precipitation... .. 400 10

Explosions, dust, in grain separators, Pacific Northwest, bulle-
tin by David J. 'Priceand E. B. McCormick..........-.------ 379 1-22

INDEX.

Fagus, injury by Endothia spp., studies and inoculation exper-
TUERYEAT AIS) SEE ANE a OR et a 2 Ce een eRe gk ee
Farm—
lands valienetect of c00d roads!) 2 2ee eee ee.
management, school credit for home work, discussion... .. -
mortgages—
loan, difficultiesand suggestions..........-.-.-.------
loans, costs and sources, bulletin by C. W. Thompson. .
feans: sources, Of capital cre fare Samet ssi ia.
Feed, fish meal—
SEDGE NIG AU ee ee ee ae Orne eared RE e ya
value for stock and poultry, bulletin by F. C. Weber...----
Feeding, cattle in bluegrass region, practices....-...-..--------
Perniucer, ish, application of term...-2.---.-:--+--.+-+-------
Fertilizers, use on bluegrasspastures .........--:-------------
- Feterita, varieties for Great Plains, descriptions and value ....-
Fires, dust, in grain separators in Pacific Northwest, bulletin
byeDavid Je Priceand Hy. By. McCormick: 225.2222224224452--
Fish—
canneries, utilization of waste for fish meal, discussion ..- - -
chum, use as feed, note...... dail aie en Ah a. ph oebrcucs a .
Seana DpMcation Of ten... .2.c.-52 2 see os eee ees es <
mea]—
Cail OMVOIgbenmnen er ye aya aris pees eee Ss
Composition and: qualities. s.—~ oa.) eens oi = =
MATMIG AC LUTE LOC LOOSE a aieeiaeince epee ey ce erie eee cee = =
Cv a i enialvaVvatlale np. ase sone senor io es se ==.
tiseasieed. review. or literature..........5.22-5.sc6<--
use as stock and poultry feed, bulletin by F. C. Weber.
pomace—
application of term? .: 52.2.2. 8252 22. ape ie a aE
uisehasiieed: Motes.) Bunk sei Ih fs set PE Wy eh aly 3
scrap—
acidulated, preparation and caution...............--
App CAbONVOL LEM ae! 52 V5 Hanis 2a es es
Flax— —
growing at Judith Basin substation, Montana............--
seeding experiments, Judith Basin substation, Montana... -
yield of different varieties at Judith Basin substation,
igmperOy eee 46 ke. eR dienes eens os
Florida—
bonds, road and bridge, 1914, by counties............-.----
highway improvement, management and economic survey
ayaa tee COUNTY: 2. 5..< cache Sie ek Seieioe asi

roads, supervision, revenues, mileage, etc., 1914..........

Georgia, roads, supervision, revenues, mileage, etc......-..---
Girls, labor records, agricultural ela pvovle\ayeahn epee L.2
Grading, commercial, of opened eggs, accuracy, bulletin by
M. K. Jenkins and Norman Hendrickson......-....--.-----
Grain—
machines, grounding methods to prevent explosions, exper-
TTTVESOUISS FS RS Sa SIN el ea ih al AIS ea cl a
separators, “dust explosions and fires, Pacific Northwest,
bulletin by David J. Price and E. B. McCormick ....-.--
Grapefruit, peeling, labor requirements per ton with peeling

Gravel roads, mileage, 1914, by States..........-.:-...-.----
Grazing—

industry, bluegrassregion, bulletin by Lyman Carrier..... -

FACS POLO COTASS) PAsbUTC aa serene a sc ee ee tek seine

wanter.ettect on, blilecrass\sod. 2502.24. 2s-24--6s--02---
Great Plains—

AGH aOIrdneounbs (OIA Lie oe ey oe as ee se

sorghum varieties, new, bulletin by H. N. Vinall and

TR WWW To Ree bse a Ai il 0 I ates Pied in i i aa

Gum, injury by Endothia spp., studies and inoculation experi-

BET OTN LS pepe tat ey Vets al craves a aay cie ote day ooo faye ayo REY a ee eg kee

Bulletin

No. Page.
380 59-61
393 6-7
385 19-20
384 14-16
384 1-16
384 9
378 11-15
378 1-23
397 6-7
378 18
397 14
383 4-5
379 1-22
378 19-20
378 2
378 18
378 18
378 9-11
378 16-18
378 19-20
378 3-8
378 1-23
378 18
378 2
378 19
378 18
398 34-39
398 38-39
398 36
387 xXXXV

1, 3, 6, 8-10,
393 "79-86
387 16-18, I-IV, L
387 18-20
385 Dal
391 1 7/
379 11-15
379 1-22
399 13
390 idl
397 1-18
397 14-15
397 3-5
396 7-8
383 1-16
380 59-61

6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 376—400.

Hatlino costs) savinovby ood roads-2.c0eaee ek ee eee
Hawkweed, damage to pastures, description, growth habits,
ClCH is ieee sees. ME ces SE eis Se ee See Se
Heap, F. E., bulletin on “School credit for home practice
TTUACTIUCULGUTE RIL & See eae ta re OBS a: AR Nd Pat an eS
Hegari, dwarf, description and adaptation to Great Plains ......
Henprickson, Norman, and M. K. Jenkins, bulletin on
“* Accuracy in commercial grading of opened eggs’’ ..........-
Henny, D.C., discussion of waterin wood-stave pipe.........-
Hens, feeding with fish meal, experiments. ..-...........----
Hieracvum pratense. See Hawkweed.
Highway—
commissioners—

appointment and duties, Central, Pacific, and Moun-
CAT States eee: =o heise ss a ecess ne ee Se ays

New England, appointment and duties..............--

State, appointment and duties in New England......

department, Pennsylvania, organization and operation... .
departments—

°

organization and duties in various Southern States..--

organization and duties, Michigan and Missouri....-.-
improvement. county, economic surveys, bulletin by J. E.
Pennybacker and M. O. Eldridge..............-------
State-a1d Maine; supervision... -.-/...2sdes.ecen-- See

See also Roads.

Hogs—

feeding with fish meal, experiments-.........---.-.-----
fish meal as feed, extracts regarding experiments......---
Home grounds, bird protection, possibilities. ........-----.--
‘“Home project” work, school credit, basis, helps for teachers.
peer ice in agriculture, school credit, bulletin by F. E.
CANO). SPM iced Tape Siro ON: iene
Honeydew insects, attendance by Argentine ant............--
Hoop, 8. C., and C. A. RussEtt, bulletin on ‘“‘The production
Gee eee eens oil and a new machine for peeling citrus
its 22 ORECAST: CMR ELS LA SE SES Oe eh i ech

‘‘ Hoop-and-sack”’ weevil picking, advantages and cost. .-....
Hosxins, L. M., discussion of flow of water in wood-stave pipe-
Idaho— |

roads—

supervision, revenues, mileage, and bonds.........--
types, mileage, revenues, and bonds, 1914, by counties
wheat—
yields at experiment station, varieties.............--
yields on Aberdeen experiment farm, varieties. .-..-.
Illinois roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage, and bonds..............-

types, mileage, revenues, and bonds, 1914, by counties. - -
Indiana roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage, and bonds......-..-.---.---

types, mileage, revenues, and bonds, 1914, by counties...

Infants, attack by Argentine ants, instance........-.-.--.---.-

Bulletin

No. Page.
393 7-8
397 16
385 1-27
383 2-3, 10-13
391 1-27
376 84-87
378 8, 11-12
12, 14; 16 - 17,
19-20, 21-22,

24, 28, 32, 34,

389) 36-37, 38,40,
41, 44, 45, 47,

49, 51-52, 55,

6 — 7, 9, 12, 16,
388 9,21
6-7, 9-11, 12-

388; 14, 16, 19-20,
22-23

386 21-23
8-10, 11-13, 16—

17, 20-22, 26—

387, 28, 29-31, 33,
35-36, 41-42,

46, 50-51

389 25-26, 30
393 1-86
388 6-7
378 12-15
378 3-8
396 17-20
385 2-27
385 1-27
377 6
399 1-19
382 6-7
376 91-95
389 14-16
389 IV, XXXII, LXV
400 31
400 37
389 16-19
V-VI, XXXIV—

389 XXXV,
LXV-LXVI

389 19-21
Vu-VItl,

XXXVL-

Set XXXVH,
LXVI-LXVII

377 5-6

INDEX.

lowa—
roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage, and bonds..........--

types, mileage, revenues, and bonds, 1914, by coun-
(IS a oh ae ar Ne ent oe a eae oe ee es

wheat yields at experiment stations, varieties-.........--
Iridomyrmex humilis. See Ant, Argentine.
Trrigation—
pipe, wood-stave, water flow, studies, equipment, and in-
terpretation of data. -
water, velocities in pipes of different sizes, comparisons. - -
water-flow in wood-stave pipe, bulletin by Fred C. Scobey.
water-flow, wood pipes, formulas and experiments ......-
wheat yields at experiment stations. .........--....-.---

JENKINS, M. K., and Norman HENDRICKSON, bulletin on ‘‘ Ac-
curacy in commercial grading of opened eggs”
Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., establishment and
Eas UREA ELT OER me a oS Oh Os RE oy Sn fn

Kafir, Schrock, description and adaptation to Great Plains... -
Kansas—
roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage, and bonds..-..-....--
types, mileage, and revenues, 1914, by counties. -...
sorghums, field records of different varieties...-....------
Kerrr, G. W., bulletin on ‘‘ Peach scab and its control”... ...
Kentucky— ‘
bonds, road and bridge, 1914, by counties........-...--.-

roads, supervision, revenues, bonds, and mileage, etc, 1914-

Kerr, W. H.—
and J. A. BEXELL, bulletin on ~ Business practice and ac-
counts for cooperative stores”
J. A. Bexett, and Hecror MacPHerson, bulletin on ‘‘A
survey of typical cooperative stores in the United States”
Kutter’s formula, application to wood-stave pipe...--.--.-----

Labor—
convict—

use in road building, South. - - -

use on public roads in New England...........-----
use on roads in Central, Mountain, and Pacific States-

farm, requirements for production of various crops. . . ----
tax—

roads, Central, Mountain, and Pacific States........--

roads, days, cash value, etc., Southern States, 1914, by
COUPES eee eres PE NE Epes oe va. 2 Ae

Land values, effect of good roads. . -

Land-grant funds, capital for farm-mortgage loans.......-...--
Lannon, Peter J. article on public roads of Rhode Island......
Life i insurance, companies, capital for farm-mortgage loans. -
Limestone pastures, bluegrass region, value for finishing cattle.
Inquidambar, injury by Endothia spp., studies and inoculation
XP CLUMIC TITS Mee ee eee = ears ct eS clei Peete nyStS oa fatc

Bulletin
No Page
389 21-23
Ix-x,
389 XXXVIUI-—
XL, LXVIII
400 11
376 16-71
376 96
376 1-96
376 4-71
400 36-38
39k 1-27
398 1
383 7-8
389 24-25
389 XI-XII, XLI-XLI
383 10, 12-13
395 1-66
387 LOOOY
~{20-23, vII—vilt,
387{ LITI-LIV
381 1-56
394 1-32
376 56-57
10, 18, 17, 19-
Bs. 25-28, 3,
Bol 331 6) ‘47,
388 iu
Oye TS" 16519"
21, 23, oa 27.
29. 31, 33. 36,
389) 37’ 41, 43,45,
47. 49, al, ‘54,
55
385 21-25
aan Daa) PAL.
iL 25° 39. 41,
47, 53
I-XXXI
Va 19-20, 41—
393 42, 58-59, 66,
78-76, 83 85
384 12
388 19-21
384 iL
397 2-3
380 59-61

8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 376—400.

Live stock—
feed, value of fish meal (and as poultry feed), bulletin by

TO Wiel ber. ye ere any Tit = SAL Pa). SERRA ae arene | 24 REN Cee

grazing industry of the bluegrass region, bulletin by Ly--

TINA AIILOT. |. Pete ee Mp oc aE) rer aiere as ee Ma
Loans, farm-mortgage—
costs and sources, bulletin by C. W. Thompson ....---..
interest and commission, rates by States.........-..-----
terms, factors influencing. et NR es AE Utes eS (aa ee
Louisiana—
bonds, road and bridge, 1914, by counties.....-..-..--..-
roads, ‘supervision, revenues, mileage, etc.....---.------

Macadam roads, mileage, 1914, by States.....-.-.--..:---.--
MacPuerson, Hecror, J. A. Bexetn, and W. H. Kerr, bulle-
tin on ‘‘A survey of typical cooperative stores in the United
PSUR etc) a ale a. CY IME Rat hy Ge DOR, Fs ny eau tral gS Be
Maine—
bridges, number, construction, and maintenance, note... -
land area, road mileage, and population..................
roads—
and bridges, revenues, bonds, mileage, and types. - --
muleaserand siypess bye COUMtles!s sams sees eee ae
revenues and tax rate, by counties and towns, 1914...
supervision, revenues, bonds, and mileage, 1914... ..
Marquis wheat—
See ene bulletin by Carleton R. Ball and J. Allen
Ha Kee rarer. See enn am pe Ren ER AR aL AME: SE AOE 2. EO
Seé also Wheat, Marquis.
Maryland—
bonds, road and bridge, 1914, by counties......---.------
road commission, organization and duties..--...-...-----
roads, supervision, revenue, mileage, etc., 1914.........-
Massachusetts—
bonds, road and bridge, amount and rate of interest for
State LT CUGG OWLS ere ase eet CNRS NRE ALB EY I me ty
roads—
and bridges, revenues, bonds, mileage and types....--.
mileage and types; by coumties--.-*---.--.---------
revenues applied, 1914, by counties and towns....-.-
supervision, revenues, bonds and mileage, 1914.......
McAvoy, H. C., article on public roads of Maryland. . :
McCatuiz, S. W. , article on public roads of Georgia. -.-.------
McCormick, E. B., and Davin J. PRICE, bulletin on “Dust
explosions and fires in grain separators in the Pacific North-
WiC Bue ere ie ci. oi: Re ON TS 5 1 ROR a ed ge pe ee
cata? used as stock and pultry food, bulletin by F. C.
BCR r ats. . Taipei tas 2d tapeeten cto Rae aay |
Mealy bug, sugar-cane, attendance of Argentine ant, cause of
SUS ATLOSSEM ere «Rese os, arate erate eras pes ran etree ey
Menhaden fish- -scrap industry, material for fish meal, estimate.
Michigan, roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage and bonds. ...----..--.----

types, mileage, revenues and bonds, 1914, by counties...--

Mitter, E. A., bulletin on ‘‘ Lessons on tomatoes, for rural

schools” She oe Re RR | ka ARO eS A RR eR ge ee eK 3 NO
Milo, white, description and adaptation to Great Plains....---
Minnesota—

roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage and bonds. ......----

types, mileage, revenues and bonds, 1914, by coun-

1HiKS'S ee te ens: dee Ree Rew a enc Uae Meal See

wheat yields at experiment stations, varieties......---.--
Mississippi—

bonds, road and bridge, 1914, by counties....---..----..--
Delta, boll-weevil control by square picking and weevil
pickinebulletimvbyas) Ee Coad seat ser te ee

Bulletin

No. Page.
378 1-23
397 1-18

1-16
384 1-16
385 1-9
384 13-14
387 XXXVI

387 23-26, IX—XI, LV

390 J
394 —32
388 6
388 6
388 3-6
388 46-55
388 25-29
388 6-9
400 1-40
387 XXXVI
387 26-28

387 26-29, x1, LvI

388 43-45
388 3-5
388 64-68
388 35-40
388 15-19
387 26-29
387 18-20
379 1-22
378 1 os
377 6
a 19
389 25-28
XIII-XIV,

380{ XLII, LXIX
392 . 1-18
383 6-7, 11, 18
389 ‘98-30
XIV-XV, XLIV—

389{ XLV, LXX
400 14-15

387 XXXVII-XXXVIII

382 1-12

INDEX.

Mississippi—Continued.
highway improvement, management and economic survey
Pa era ale C OUI orgs ase celal) 1 Plai= shee ays aisisel- sl = =

roads, supervision, revenues, mileage, etc., 1914.........

Missouri, roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage and bonds.....-.-.-...--

types, mileage, revenues, and bonds, 1914, by counties. . .

Montana—
PERScoMavlvenin, gUdItn basil. 620). .oes se sesnees ss = 2 3
Judith Basin experiment station, climatic conditions,
30S, Gi Os ATEN SA Bis Ue ie ae ae ee
roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage, and bonds....-..-...-
types, mileage, revenues, and bonds, 1914, by counties
wheat yields—
at experiment station, varieties. .......-......---.--
on Huntley experiment farm, varieties..........----
Morirz, E. A., discussion of water flow in wood-stave pipe.--.
Mortgage companies, capital for farm-mortgage loans.....-.-...-

Nebraska—
roads—
supervision, revenues, and mileage............-.--.-
types, mileage, revenues, and bonds, 1914, by coun-
TICS Eg pyeecee Fay meeihes AEP etait aie Sey acad chee sachs o! 21s
wheat yields at experiment stations, varieties.....--..---
Nevada—
roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage, and bonds....-.-.-.----
types, mileage, revenues, and bonds, 1914, by coun-
THESE aera eae eee ee a en ate EY yet Rates Valse oP cond
_ wheat yields on Truckee-Carson experiment farm, varieties
New England, roads—
administration, revenues, types, and mileage.....-..--..-
mileage and revenues, 1914, bulletin...........-.-------
revenues applied 1904, 1914, by States............--.----
New Hampshire—
area, road mileage, and population..............-.-.------
roads—
and bridges, revenues, bonds, mileage, and types. - - -
mileage and types, by counties.......-......-.-----
revenues applied, 1914, by counties and towns. ..-.-.-
supervision, revenues, bonds, and mileage, 1914......
New Jersey—
automobiles, relation to roads, number per mile, etc....-
roads—
expenditures and mileage... Yenii)2 43,28 Jece Sere
expenditures and mileage, by counties.......-.------
neo Cale OLEAN Gee seL metic nay cee gore ale woe
EMAC eI LO OS pO UA eas we ot feel oe yceilpeieeie cian = <0
revenue and expenditures, 1914............---.-.---
VAD CS EPP SES ey Alay canton eb Natori cick afep susp mnemana/ Sit ieccc oy asa ae
New Mexico, roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage, and bonds.....-...------
types, mileage, revenues, and bonds, 1914, by counties. . - -
New York—
(OTEGS), ed Oy iN ey apr ees Sys = cee er a ey se ean ee
county roads, mileage, supervision, etc....--.-.----------
highway—
deparimentHorcaniza tones. 5 sees ie tee bose
improvement, management, and economic survey in
Piragakaay COU by el kee a os let oe as
roads—
expenditures and mileage, 1914, by counties...-..----
mea Pe RIA LI OOO TAr ee iy ei op hee le
revenue and expenditures, 1914..........-....-.-.--

Bulletin
No. Page.
393-1, 4-10, 68-79
29-32, XIII—
387{ XIV, LVI-LVII
389 30-32
XVI-XVI,
389 XLVI-XLIX,
LX
398 3
398 2-9
389 32-34
389° XVIII, L, LXXT
400 25-26
400 36-37
376 87-90
384 12
389 34-36

389 XIX—XX, LI-LIII
400 12-13, 18-19

389 36-38
OO pee OKC TEN Via XOX
400 37-38
388 2-6
388 1-74
388 3
388 $)
388 3-5
388 55-59
388 29-30
388 9-12
386 8
386 6-9
386 9-14
386 6-9
386 4-5
386 3-4
386 9
389 38-40
389 XXI, LIV, LXXI
386 15
386 15-17
386 15

393 1,3, 5-10, 52-62

386 14-20
386 4-5
386 3-4

10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 376—400.

Nicuoxs, C. G., article on public roads of Connecticut... . . --
“Nickels ant sirup 7

improvement, expemmen ts tly. epee ee eee cer

use against Argentine ants, experiments and value........
Nose, THERON A. , discussion of water flow in wood-stave pipe.
North Carolina—

bonds, road and bridge, 1914, by counties..............--

roads, supervision, revenues, mileage, etc...............

North Dakota—
roads—
supervision, revenues, and mileage........-.........

types, mileage, and revenues, 1914, by counties.....-

wheat yields at experiment stations, varieties...........
Northeastern States, bird!coumts, 1914)... 2235!) bo ees.

Oak, injury by Endothia spp., studies and inoculation experi-
TINO TAGS heels ae sg SMR NATO Mngt Ms Lola aye thln i gaa RP
Oats
growing at Judith Basin substation, Montana, experiments.
growth data, Judith Basin substation, Montany..........
yield of different varieties at Judith Basin substation,
Montages. : : . RRS SRL: SIRE My PE ee Stare ok
Ohio, roads—
SHpenVASIOn) revenues, mileage, one bondsMeess= sae Prenat

types, mileage, revenues and bonds, 1914, by counties... -

Oil—
extraction from orange peel, methods...........---------
fish, production from fish waste, keeping quality, import-
ance, CEN CS ER A aL el ee
orange—
exports from Italy and Sicily, 1906-1913. tags
TEA OT US at 9 0 ONC es tiaras seein 40 cee pevetane. <meta faa
THOM SMAy, WAM INT ooo sac on sansa seepeeseseacsase
prices, 1906-1915, New York market.........----.-.-
production and new machine for peeling citrus fruit,
bulletin by 8. C. Hood and G. A. Russell. .....-.--
production, costyyield, etc MAS . eae eles
Oils, orange, comparison of vacuum distilled and hand-pressed .

Oklahoma, roads, supervision, revenues, mileage, etc., 1914...

Orange—
oil, production and a new machine for peeling citrus fruit,
bulletin by 8S. C. Hood and C. A. Russell.....--.--.--
peelaextraction of-ol; methods: ss ase. 92) {keene
Oranges—
cull—
market returns, from fruit and oil per box.-...-.-...--

utilization for sweet- FOLATE LOU cee abe eae tok ga

low-grade, utilization for sweet-orange oil, suggestions and
Posstollinies==2) ee ree sree en aaa ee eee et aee eer
peeling, labor requirements per ton with peeling machine. .
Orchards—
DIrdrEG UNH. |. ; MER ew Metered keep eee Pee
damage from ‘Argentine ants.......-..- 222 2st jones nels
Oregon—
roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage, and bonds...--.....--

types, mileage, revenues and bonds, 1914, by counties.
wheat yields at experiment stations, varieties..........-.

Bulletin
No.

388

377
377
376

387

381

389
389

400
396 ©

380

398
398

398
389

389 |

399
378

399
399
399
399

399
399
399

387 {

399
399

399
399

399
399

396
377

389
389 {
400

Page.
21-24

14-22
11-14
82-84

XXXIX-XL
32-34,
XV-XVIII,
LVIUI-LIX

40-41
XXI-XX0l,
LV-LVI
22-24

4-6

59-61

26-31
29

28

41-44
XXII-XXI,
LVII-LVU1,
LX XII-LX XII

2-3.

1-19

10-12

9-10

35-37, XIX—
XX, LX-LXI

1-19
5-8

12
1-12

44-45
XXIV, LVINI—

LIX, LXXXIV
32-33

INDEX.

Pacific States, roads, mileage and revenues (and Central and
omaha tine States) doe fo Se 2. Se etree pe Tell ss 8
Palmetto, saw, tannin content, utilization in manufacture of
orange primes ee adie Neng ere. gala ives “san cae.
Pasture, poor spots, improvement by feeding hay and fodder. .
Pastures—
bluegrass—
SUGUEG, Sle ces eee beds sede loess nee ese ee soar
erazing value, Ota red ee 18 she ee ee ae ee hk Co
fertility, maintenance, discussion, and suggestions. .
Peach scab—
and its control, bulletin by C. W. Keitt........-.-.-.-.-
casual organism, studies and treatment. .....-......----.
Pemiemcceridiature os a sl eck ens.
occurrence, nature, and economic importance. ..-...-..--
pEonolaaical histology fo Bie: 702 es UO Pt PI Ls
Peaches, scab—
control, Loris irom sprayiners ssa. - +. 245.5 steatosis
nature, and effect on development. SATE ES, SEO OUES, EAE 38
Peeler, citrus-fruit, description and value in sweet-orange oil
industry | SRS DOR I ay AU EEE ee aaa tt ee pet oer Le Ce
Pee'ing, machine for citrus fruits and production of sweet
orange oil, bulletin by 8. C. Hood and G. A. Russell........
Pennsylvania—
Reba inarcount:: WOA yc. st pcp erate Ste ete a oye
roads—
Coneeol under: Sproul ACh] face sens 5.25222 - 2
expenditures and mileage, by counties.......--------
iaiail oak inal EUR Ea pee ae eee Cee. oe eae eee
relation to area and population. ..-.--......------.-
requirements, and controls. 40 to yt es ea se
revenue and expenditures, 1914............-.-....--
PENNYBACKER, J. E., and M. O. Exiprince, bulletin on “‘Eco-
ei nomic surveys of county-highway improvement.” ........--
igs—
feeding with fish meal, extracts regarding experiments ..
See also Hogs.
Pipe, wood-stave—
carrying capacity, effect of age.......--.-.-.-----.------
flow of water in, bulletin by Fred C. NGODCY.. teeter as
friction losses in water flow, studies. .........---.-------
Pipes—
irrigation, comparisons of wood-stave with cast-iron and
SINDELLSTTRHOU EXE lle San aS ENN a a GC APOE,
wood-stave—
PU) CUNY oe ses bee se - coos egseseslccaceceesanasens
carrying capacity, studies and opinions.
use in water flow, studies, descriptions and equip-
THAYST OB oy ERAS Ie Ake es NU CHR ct ie eee
water flow, solution of typical problems...........--.-
Poa pratensis. See Bluegrass.
Poisons, Argentine ant, nature and use.....-.....---.-.-.---
Potatoes, labor—
requirements for acre, variations, etc.. By les aha
requirements, items......-.-... SSS B CNS 5 DOSE BCE Stee
Poultry—
goed quiue of fish meal (and as stock feed) bulletin by F. C.
DSHS TR Dos SUG SN eye hE ML 2 a
feeding with fish meal, extracts from experiments...-...-.
Pratt, Joseph Hyde, article on public roads of North Carolina. -
Price, Davin J., and E. B, McCormick, bulletin on “Dust
explosions and fires in grain separators in the Pacific North-
BARS ames pee Pb ye IE cok eb Mines Forel eyed ol 5) ash le aed
Prisoners. See Convicts.

Quercus, injury by Endothia, spp., studies and inoculation ex-
periments Fy SESS SS ce SASS cs oh ee ee, kent NRT Sa pain ee
Questionnaire, cooperative stores, business PLACHICEB Rea acy

379

380
394

ibs

Page,
1-56, I-LXXV

40-48, 74-81
66-71

11-22

4-5
24

59-61

12 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 376—400.

Rhode Island—
land area, road milage, and population............-.----.

roads—
and bridges, revenues, bonds, mileage, and types. .
mileage and types, by COUNTIES LUA HIOL Jee Hikes
revenues applied, 1914, by counties and towns. .
supervision, revenues, bonds, and mileage, oT:

Road—
administration, Middle Atlantic States.................-
bonds—

issiance and managcenrent +2 +. / Sete see et ae

outstanding, 1915) by States) —.-o- 542 ah mee dee ao

improvement, economic effects, comparative analysis. -

Roads—

administration in Southern iALES - cee oe) ae eee
bonds, interest rates and terms, in Central, Mountain, and
Pacific States,, DyAcoUMtless Japs yk seis ays eas ae ee
building in Spotsylvania County, Va., management, cost,
CECE racrs osc Petes CES es pte Shee cee a cere pie

financing, management in eight counties.................

improved—_
economic benefits, survey of several counties........
percentage, by States. Zio IRENE: Cont aU RS RETR Na BRET Pa
improvement, economic surveys of eight counties, bulletin
by J. E. Pennybacker and M. O. Eldridge.
labor tax, days, cash value, etc., Southern States, 1914, by
COUT CO a epes - ¢ cena o ne apheresis rtm ee ee a pee
maintenance—
and improvement, management by county.........--

systems elphtreoumtiess 3822. cs - seins ace cece ceo

mileage—
and types in New England, by States and counties. .
Central, Mountain, and Pacific States..............-
in Middle Atlantic States, 1909, 1914................-
ame OOUth. 1914. ystabes say ok ye eae See og
relation to population in Southern States............-
surveyed in eight counties, types and taxes.

mileage and revenues—
Central, Mountain, and Pacific States, 1914, bulletin...
Middle Atlantic States, Lona ouillle hime as ss = eee
New England States, 1914, bulletin..................
1904, 1909, 1914, relation to area, property value, etc. .
Southern StateswiOl4 “pulletim see ee | eee
United States, 1914, summary, bulletin. ............

New England States, revenues applied in 1914, by counties

PAK b TRON Aalst ty opAeMe oral eminem SU ANeani els care 1: NE Umea Sa

public, supervisory organizations in various Southern
States GWeles Chem e eae ects cise meets eee meee

revenues—
and expenditures in New England, by States, 1914...
and taxes, in Central, Mountain, and Pacific States,
DYACOUMELES Sen. yn cs) Goyal the cytes mies airy cae ee oO
applied) 1914. bycStatesse! ee he ee EO
applied, 1904, 1914, in Central, Mountain, and Pacific
States. 2 sche Ca ne | Seca erne pepe Seems

Bulletin
No. Page,
388 19
388 3-5
388 69
388 40
388 19-21
386 3

12-13, 28-29,
37-39, 45-46

393) 5455, 62-63,
69-70, 79-80
8

390
393 2-10
387 3
389 LXIV-LXXV
393 10-28
386 8-9
11-14, 28-30,
393 37-39, 45-48,
54-56, 62-64,
69-72, 79-81
393 6-10
390 &
393 1-86
387 TL SORERT
393 4—6
17-19,
Tee eee
388 46-74
389 5-7
386 4-5
387 5-6
387 6-7
393 9-10
389 1-56, I-LXXV
386 1-28
388 1-74
390 5, 10
387 1-52, I-LXXxI
390 1-12
388 25-42
8-10, 11-13, 15,
16-17, 18-19,

20-22, 23, 25,
387) 26-28, 29-31,

32-33, 35-36,

38-39, 41-42,

44, 46-48,

50-51

388 25-42
389 XXX-LXIII
387 4
389 2-3

INDEX. 303)

Roads—Continued. Bulletin
revenues—Continued. No. Page.
78
applied, 1914, New England States....-...-.---..-.- | 14, 17-18, 20,
23-24, 25-45
applied, 1904, 1914, relation to area, population, and

[EVRO} OCEAN NDE eer ees ene te ag eee nn 390 6-7
Aanvid dlevadlantic Stateds 6224. Woo elas lee tie 386 3-4
in Southern States, 1904, 1914...................... 387 3-4

supervision and administration in Central, Mountain, and
MEN S DALEK 7 tye) ios eit Aas cra site) Medal na elas Sleccle 389 2, 7-56
surfaced—
distribution of types in Central, Mountain, and Pacific

SIC: SE sed AAC RAO UE A Ces eh so0 aero ene Se 389 7
mileage, and percentage, 1904, 1909, 1914, by States.. 390 9-10
relation of mileage to population in South, 1914, by

MSEATES Wave ee se eicatel sel aioc 75 De Spiers seyd < SET is acale 387 6-7
types and distribution in South, 1914, by States... .. 387 8
types, mileage, 1914, by States... ..............-... 390 i

types—
and mileage in Central, Mountain, and Pacific States,

IRC OMRON oye te ee a oe e ee es ie 389 I-X XIX
development in Middle Atlantic States.............. 386 5-6
distribution and percentage, 1914, by States....... 2390 3,11

Rocky Mountain States, bird counts, 1914...............-.--- 396 8-10
Russet, G. A., and 8. C. Hoop, bulletin on “The production
of sweel- -orange oil and a new machine for peeling citrus

OE ie ee a nn eee, Le eee EAN OLY 399 1-19
Salmon, canneries, Pacific coast, material for fish meal, esti-

HARROP ere cients So a nee ec enais See ae ays Rade hE 378 19
Sand-clay roads, mileage, 1914, by States.........-.-.-...... 390 11
Sardine industry, material for fish meal, estimate...........-. 378 19
Scab, peach—

and its control, bulletin by G. W. Keitt . SCS EM Waiaoo 1-66
See also Peach scab.
School—
credit—
for home practicums, discussion and adjustment. .... 385 9-12
home practice in agriculture, bulletin by F. E. Heald. 385 1-27
funds, capital for farm-mortgage loans.............------- 384 V2
Schools—
ee Lauderdale County, effect of good roads...... 393 77-78
rural— :
Pilcetrol eOad Odds 2 Yih rest eet eee oe Lie es 393 9
lessons on tomatoes, bulletin by 2 AP Maller: 2... -.2 392 1-18
Virginia—
Dinwiddie County, effect of good roads.........-.--- 393 36
Spotsylvania County, effect of good roads......-.... 393 i
Wise County, effect of good roads. .....---.....----- 393 51-52
Schrock, Roy, introduction of Schrock kafir...............--- 383 7
Schroder, E. W., discussion of water flow in wood-stave pipe.. 376 90-91
ScoBeEy, FRED Oy and others, bulletin on ‘‘The flow of water in

wood-stave pipe” eee reye rete rata Pn A AGS RN Aas 376 1-96
Scrip, road and bridge, Alabama and Arkansas. 386 XXXIV
Seeding, wheat, date experiments at Judith Basin substation,

AW SIT) 3 CM OS RE Gr aE een nlc each eee 398 19-20
Shade trees, location in pasture, relation to maintenance of

HSyet TnI ENA el Sey 8 Cpe a a Riess te ai ea 397 12-14
SHEAR, C. L., Nem EB. STEVENS, and Rusy J. TILLER, bulletin
Stes “Endothia parasitica and related BPCCIES Ht ao had Yi Eo G 380 1-82

eep—
Saline with fish meal, abstracts from experiments........ 378 OO NOwd
grazing on bluegrass pastures, practices...-.-.----------- 397 11-12
management in bluegrass region, returns, etc...-.-.----- 397 ee

Silage, value in wintering cattle, comparison with corninshock 397

14 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 376—400.

Smut— Bulletin
dust— No. Page.
electrification in grain mills and thrashers........... 379 15-16
imflammability, investigations....................--- 379 16
grain, cause of explosions and fires in threshers, investiga-
TONS = Seeks. s'\ O REEDS erence fhe Tele | TL 379 if
Sod, bluegrass—
Mech Ot waMber Stayz oe apey- etc tel fet tarot -telteneeinyat tee ae 397 3-5
establishment Practiees aj. neta ee ee 397 8
Soils, bluegrass region, influence on grades of pasture........- 397 2-3
Sorghums—
growing in Great Plains, field records of different varieties. 383 8-10
varieties for central and southern Great Plains, bulletin
y HON. Vinall-and“R. W. Edwards)... 22 ceeceee Ae 383 1-16
South, MOS eCine ant, distribution: VOVS—-1915! .9N2) . ees 377 2-3
South Carolina—
bonds, road and bridge, 1914, by counties............--.-- 387 XLI
37-40
roads, supervision, revenues, mileage, etc., 1914......... 387 XXI-XXII,
South Dakota— UXT
roads—
supervision, revenues and mileage. ....--.......---- 389 45-47
types, mileage, and revenues, 1914, by counties..... 389 KXV, LIX
wheat yields—
on Belle Fourche experiment farm, varieties.......... 400 36
NU 2) SS ea ee ARUN sia SN bn a a 8 400 13-14, 20-22
South, public road mileage and revenues, 1914, bulletin....... 387 1-52, I-LXXI
Souther staceswipird populatlons ssa sew we eee assess 396 10-11
Spraying peachiscab, experiments fn 04 cee i. ke 395 36-40
Spring wheat. See Wheat, spring. y
‘Square picking,’’ boll-weevil control, management and value. 382 3-5
Steers, wintering in bluegrass region. .....-.-.-.-.---------- 397 5-7
Stevens, Nei E., C. L. Sagar, and Rusy J. Titier, bulletin
on Endothia parasitica and related species...-..-...--------- 380 1-82
Stock. See Live stock.
Stockers—
blucorassmecionsstipply a see e eee ae eae eee 397 17-18
buying for grazing in bluegrass region, practices..-...-.... 397 5-6
Store, cooperative, operating records, directions and forms.... 381 26-55
Stores—
cooperative—
business practices and accounts for, bulletin by J. A.
Bexellvand Weeder Werta ye cee ae ce eckyno scee 381 1-56
business practices, questionnaire......-------------- 394 3-6
GID IRINA RO ae 55456668 555k Se5 32 5c sdonse- eee" 394 9-13
CUS MINDS GAVEMEI. s-2 2 obs sgsgs55 4445s sae5322565¢ 394 21-26
Operation eq Mipment,ebe \2 oe) Bee ec ees yaaa eee 394 6-32
Cofeerial, eu avel, opgegey oul aray EO) ovis ees a ANN aa Pa ia, 394 3, 6-9
payment OimtraderainaAG end sates seem ae ee ae 394 30-32
records, directions and formas Lee en etme 381 3-25
‘typical cooperative in United States, ane bulletin by
J. A. Bexell, Hector MacPherson, and W. H. Kerr..... 394 1-32
Strawberries, labor Req Umment ents items). eee eeee em eee cree 385 25
Sugar-cane mealy bug, attendance of Argentine ant, cause of
[Ree aH Coys Pes ate M5 a Oh YC 377 6
Sweet-orange oil. See Oil, orange.
Tannin, yield of saw palmetto, utilization in manufacture of
GOLAN eerOUl Ry es! | SEN eye ye, Sica 1c SRE eee ia ea ates 399 8
Taxes, road— 711.13-14
and bridge, levies and application in New England....... 388 "15-16. 23
10-11, 13-14,
15, 17, 19, 22,
25; 28,31,
and bridge, levies and application in southern States, 1914. 387) 33-34, 36-37,
39-40, 42-43,
44-45, 48, 51,

L-XxXXxU1I

INDEX. 15

Bulletin
Taxes, road—Continued. No. Page.
13-14, 29-30,
assessment, rates, etc., in eight counties..............-.. sates Biss Gai
71-72, 80-81
eg e 15, 18)
229895) 27)
j ; 29, 31, 33, 35,
Central, Mountaim, and Pacific States. -..-.2-.-2-22/.522- 389 37, 39, 41, 43,
44, 46, 48, 50,
53, 05
Teacher, school credit for home practice in agriculture, bulle-
fammonastiaby eald vr Set ed: lin. ens Gt ael eet te. eho 385 1-27
Teachers, rural school, lessons on tomatoes....-..-.----------- 392 1-18
Tennessee—
bonds, road and bridge, 1914, by counties...........-...- 387 XLI
40-43,
roads, supervision, revenues, mileage, etc., 1914........- 387 XXIII-XXV,
LXII-LXIII
Terrell, R. C., article on public roads of Kentucky..........-- 387 20-23
Texas—
bonds, road and bridge, 1914, by counties...........--..- 387 XLI-XLIII
7 43-45
roads, supervision, revenues, bonds, mileage, etc.,1914.... 38 XXVI-XXXI,
LXIV-LXVII
sorghums, field records of different varieties. ......-..--- 383 9-12
Tuompson, C. W., bulletin on ‘‘Costs and sources of farm-
mMonicac%e loans im) the) nited states’ / 22252225 -s255-42-5.- 384 1-16
Thrashers—
explosions and fires, preventive methods. .....-.-----.-- 379 19-22
grain—
dust explosions and fires in Pacific Northwest, bulle-
tin by David J. Price and E. B. McCormick......- 379 1-22
explosionsiand fires; causes 702-2 ey-) semaine 2 2 - = 379 5-7
fire-fighting equipment, nature and value.........-. 379 9
static electricity, cause of explosions and fires, inves-
ipatvonsen alte Le aii eau eye te Aw S heey 228 379 9-11
TintER, Rusy J., C. L. SHear, and Nem E. Stevens, bulletin
on ‘‘ Endothia parasitica and related species”’...').2222...22. 380 1-82
Tomato—
clubs, organization and exhibits, school lessons........-.. 392 16-18
plants, production and treatment, school lessons......-.--. 392 9-16
Tomatoes—
growing, lessons for rural schools................-..------ 392 1-18
history and importance, lessons for rural school... Bea Oe 2-4
lessons for rural schools, bulletin by E. A. Miller. ....5... 392 1-18
varieties, harvesting, judging, etc., school lessons.....-.-- 392 4-9
21-27, 42-44,
Traffic, relation of good roads. survey of eight counties......-.. sa 50-51, 59, 62,
66-68, 77, 85-86
Trees, banding against Argentine ant, directions and value..... 377 10-11
Utah—
roads— ;
supervision, revenues, mileage, and bonds.........- 389 47-49
types, mileage, revenues, and bonds, 1914, by counties 389 eer
wheat yields at experiment station, varieties............. 400 30-31
Vai, E. M., article on the public roads of the Middle Atlantic
Seis Yee aS A Ee Sa ey heey une a 386 6-27
Vermont, roads—
and bridges, revenues, bonds, mileage, and types....-..-- 388 3-6
mileage and types, by COUIIET Ce unos MAN Signet, 388 59-63
revenues and tax rates, 1914, by counties and towns. ...- 388 30-34
supervision, revenues, ‘bonds, and mileage, 1914.........- 388 12-15

Vina, H. N., and R. W. EDWARDS, bulletin on ‘New Sor-
ghum varieties for the central and southern Great Plains”. 383 1-16

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 376—400.

16
Bulletin
Virginia— No. Page.
bonds, road and bridge, 1914, by counties......--.......- 387 XLIV-XLV
highway improvement, management and economic survey
ROUT Coumticn MUN ca ).\ cyeuNs:.\... SRRGmNao hy A aaM Fel. di 393 1-52
roads, supervision, revenues, mileage, etc., 1914. 387{ icifraate ee
Spotsylvania ma road building, Hy aid pean of
ANAMECS AMG WORK INE Ss ee ee heme eee & 393 10-28
Washington, roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage, and bonds......---..... 389 49-51
types, mileage, revenues, and bonds, 1914, by counties. . - 3894 cee
Waste, oranges, production of sweet-orange oil and new
machine for peeling ciinus ruts: 2b... ieee | HSE eer ait) 1-19
Water—
flow in wood-stave pipes, formulas, comparisons. seen SAG: 50-57
velocity in irrigation pipes, measurement, methods....... 376 23-25
Water-flow in wood-stave pipes, bulletin by Fred C. Scobey.. 376 1-96
Weser, F. C., bulletin on ‘‘Fish meal: Its use as a stock and
poultry Food, Fipple. 1 Suctanphena Mh iy ehyainee evtl el yen 378 1-23
Weeds, eradication from blue-grass pastures......--.--- Bagh coe 397 15-16
‘‘Weevil picking” methods, comparison and cost.....-.-.---- 382 5-7
West Virginia—
bonds, road and bridge, 1914, by counties.......-...----- 387 XLVI
roads, supervision, revenues, mileage, etc., 1914.......-- 387{ Bn eee
Wheat—
Marquis—
description, characteristics, and value......-...----- 400 6-7
experiments, bulletin by Carleton R. Ball and F
Jo Allin Qed. cook ee ckeeensnseacoasssaesondasec 400 1-40
growing under irrigation, experiments... 400 34-40
Northern Great Plains, work at experiment stations. 400 16-26
northern Prairie States, work at experiment stations.. 400 8-15
origin and introduction... yt Sie samkoa poets 400 2-4
varietal PUN IAS soace agen: ce see geoe pen ao or 400 7-40
western basin and coast, work at experiment stations... 400 26-34
spring—
growing at Judith Basin substation, Montana, com-
parison with winter wheat.-.-...---..-.-----.---- 398 22-26
varieties grown at Judith Basin substation, Montana,
Sxaie Rune nite sees eee eer eee eee eee 398 23-26
yields, comparison with winter wheat at Judith Basin
SU StALION MiLeme Ae Nee CRO Ci i) chal We ain cigiare 398 25
winter—
growing in Montana, experiments at Judith Basin
SUbStation.. .\:Aues Seek feel te a ve Bie oe 398 14-26
growth data, Judith Basin substation, Montana. . 398 18, 23
seeding date, experiments at Judith Basin substation,
Montana. . = AIRE EN PUES a ORL 398 19-20
yields at various western experiment stations........--.-- 400 38-40
Wheats, varieties grown at Judith Basin substation, Montana,
SVL CL SENN R Ny RNS HMM cs IN SSa | SIME e See Ls AAS Le 398 - 14-26
Williams, Gardner S., discussion of water flow in wood-stave
TOU OS ge i ISP 2 C!s CE eet aes Fs eNO St cr oe, Aen 376 81-82
Winter wheat. See Wheat, winter.
Wisconsin, roads—
supervision, revenues, mileage, and bonds...........--- 389 51-54
types, mileage, revenues, and bonds, 1914, by counties. .. 389{ an
Wood-stave pipe— '
Calman capacity, 6meetionage oes erases eee 376 58
flow of water in, bulletin by Fred C. Scobeys2 ai reeseee 376 1-96
use in water-flow, studies) descriptions 25202. -4su sees 376 40-48, 74-81
Wyoming, roads—
supervision, revenues, and mileage.......--------------- 389 54-56
389 X XIX, LXIII

types, mileage, and revenues, 1914, by ‘counties. ..... 2-2-4

O

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

S

Contribution from Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER © November 25, 1916

e

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE.

By Frep. C. Scosey, Irrigation Engineer.

CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
PrOGMChONe sss. sss eee ks ob Soe ceeleme cael e 1 | A New Set of Formulas for the Flow of Water
INOMTeNCIALULO WE so -2 55s csoc coe ceeae scence lee 3 in Wood-Stave Pipe......-................ 48
Formulas for Flow of Water in Wood-Stave Comparison of the Various Formulas........ 55
LETT OS E56 SIC RR UPA ES to aaa 4 | Kutter’s Formula as Applied to Wood-Stave
Trend of Engineering Thought Regarding PAPOs sees ee ok oa on ee ememisin see mie mto cite 56
the Carrying Capacity of Wood-Stave Effect of Age upon the Carrying Capacity
IPTC Ssecjabed see Cee Re as See RES eee oe ee ee it of Wood-Stave Pipe..........---.-.-...-.- 58
Necessary Field Data for Determination of Capacity of Wood-Stave Pipes............... 58
Retarding Elements of Various Formulas. . 14 | Estimate Diagrams and Table............... 66
Equipment and Methods Employed for Capacity of Wood-Stave Pipe Compared
Collecting and Interpreting Field Data...- 16 with that of Cast Iron and Riveted Steel. . 72
Elements of Field Tests to Determine Fric- Conclusions Paseey = sees ee oe eee teak 73
tion Losses and Comparison of Observed Aickniowled ements 3): eee ees ae eee e 3 74
Velocities with Velocities Computed from HNG 09 0{) 16 Yo UAE a RN RE Re 74
WariOuSsHOrmMmlas-Jecccas ctkec-. ce esece es 2539) DISCUSSION Gas eeeee ee Rae eise emneisnne CeneRiclac 81
Description of Pipes..-.--..-.2:-+---------« 40
INTRODUCTION.

During the past 10 or 15 years the use of wood pipe for the con-
veyance of water has been greatly increased. Such pipe is now quite °
commonly used to convey water for the irrigation of land, the domes-
tio needs of towns and cities, and the development of power. So
long as wood pipe consisted of bored logs its carrying capacity was
limited to a small flow and its adaptation to a limited set of condi-
tions, but the conversion of clear, sound lumber into staves and the -
making of stave pipe into sizes from 12 to 72 inches in diameter led
to a great expansion in both carrying capacities and uses. More
recently it has been found that stave pipe can be successfully built

Notzt.—This bulletin treats of the subject of flowing water in wood-stave pipes. It is based on field
tests made on pipes in commercial operation. New formulas are developed that more accurately fit all
known data than any others now used. This publication is offered for use of engineers designing and
measuring wood-stave pipes for irrigation, power, municipal, mining, or other purposes and for courts
and attorneys at law interested in cases involving the carrying capacities of wood-stave pipes.

42463°—Bull. 376—16——_1

2 BULLETIN 876, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and operated in sizes up to 12 and 13 feet in diameter, the largest to
date being 134 feet. This great increase in size and carrying capac-
ity has been brought about by providing yokes or cradles which
support the lower part of the pipe and thus prevent its collapse.

Being well adapted to low heads and large diameters, such pipe
has proved one of the best and cheapest means of conducting large
volumes of water under low or medium heads from the sources of
supply to the places of use, regardless of whether the latter be a
power plant, a storage reservoir, the highest portion of an irrigated
tract, or the distributing reservoir of a municipality. Stave pipe is
also frequently used in the construction of inverted siphons, so
called, in conjunction with canals and grade pipe lines, to convey
water across gulches, ravines, or other depressions or down chute
drops to lower levels. It is likewise well adapted to rolling ground
where the building of canals on grade might be impracticable. °
Finally, in the smaller sizes it is often used to convey and distribute
water to orchard tracts, manufacturing plants, and municipalities.

The present economic importance of stave pipe in this country,
which arises from its adaptation to so many diverse uses, its wide
range of capacities, the ease with which it can be laid on rough ground,
and its cheapness when compared with other pressure pipes, has led
this department to investigate and report upon its merits and de-
merits. About three years ago a study was begun which comprised
the types, materials, methods of construction, and durability of wood
pipe. The results of this study were summarized in a recent depart-
ment bulletin." During the past two years another phase of the
same general subject has been investigated. This investigation has
included the making of tests and the collection of data on the flow of
water in wood-stave pipe, the results of which are embodied in this
report. Field work durmg the summer seasons of 1914 and 1915
consisted in the performance of 64 experiments on the flow of water
in wood-stave pipes ranging in diameters from 8 inches to 13% feet,
while the office work consisted in the collection and analysis of avail-
able records of all previous experiments of a similar character and
the preparation of the data herein presented. From the results of
all experiments made, which combined reach a total of 286, there
has been deduced a new set of formulas for the flow of water in stave
pipe which is here presented. (See p. 48.)

In another publication ? the writer has endeavored to show that
Kutter’s formula is applicable to the design of any open channel and
that the recommendations of the earlier writers on this subject con-
cerning the values of nm (which comprises all the influences retarding

1 Wood Pipe for Conveying Water for Irrigation, by S. O. Jayne, Bulletin 155, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.

2The Flow of Water in Irrigation Channels, by Fred. C. Scobey, Bulletin 194, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 3

the flow) were in the main correct. But a thorough study of the flow
of water in pipes, and more particularly wood-stave and concrete
pipes, has convinced him that Kutter’s formula is not best adapted
to flow through pipes running full and under pressure. The work of
recent experimenters indicates that the exponential type of formula
is best adapted to such flow. Therefore the new formula is of the
exponential type.

Much uncertainty has existed in the minds of hydraulic engineers
during the past 30 years with regard to the carrying capacities of
stave pipe. If the new formula helps to clear up former uncertain-
ties and give to those engaged in the design and operation of stave
pipes a reliable guide by which to determine flow through such con-
duits, it will have served its purpose.

NOMENCLATURE.

Unless otherwise noted, the various symbols used throughout
this publication will have the following significance:

d—The mean inside diameter of the pipe in inches.

D—The mean inside diameter of the pipe in feet.

r—The mean inside radius of the pipe, or 3D, in feet. :

Q—The mean discharge of the pipe, during the test, in second-feet.

A—The mean area of the pipe bore, in square feet, =zr’.

V—tThe mean velocity of the water, during the test, in feet per second.

L—tThe length of reach tested, in feet.

h,-—The head of elevation lost in overcoming internal resistances within a fairly

straight pipe of uniform size, in feet, =a

H—The above loss (termed friction loss) per 1,000 linear feet of pipe, = oa hy |

h,—The head of elevation lost in creating the mean velocity, V, in feet. Called
velocity head.
h,’—The velocity head recovered as the velocity is reduced at the pipe outlet, in feet.
h,—The head of elevation lost at a pipe intake due to impact and entrance resistances,
in feet, here called entry head.
P—The wetted perimeter; in a pipe under pressure, the inside circumference, =7D
or 2zr, in feet.
: : ues : 4 D
R—The hydraulic radius, =p; ina circular pipe, under pressure, =F"

s—The hydraulic grade or slope, in feet per foot of length of a pipe of uniform size,
hy

L

n—The coeflicient of retardation in Kutter’s formula.

O—The coefficient of retardation in Chezy’s formula.

C,—The coefficient of retardation in the Williams-Hazen formula. Not to be con-

fused with C in the Chezy formula.

i—The coefficient of retardation in the Weisbach formula. (This formula is variously

known as Weisbach’s, Weston’s, Darcy’s, and Chezy’s.) (Seep. 6.)

H=m V’?.—The general equation for the flow of water in a pipe, in which m is the
intercept on the vertical axis and z is the slope of the line, expressed as
the tangent of the angle between the line and the horizontal axis. (See
equation 17, p. 49.)

4 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

m=K d*.—The equation for the variation in m for a series of pipes of various sizes
but with the same characteristics; K is the intercept on the vertical axis,
and x is the slope of the line, when values of m are plotted as ordinates
and values of d as abscisse. (See equation 19, p. 49.)
m’—The special values of m found for each series of pipes, by drawing lines from the
centers of gravity for the observations in each series, at a constant slope, to an
intersection with the vertical axis.
No. —.—Wherever a pipe number is given, the reference is to the corresponding
number in Tables 2 and 3, to Plate V1I, ahd to the description of the pipe
under that number.

FORMULAS FOR FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE.

Water is caused to flow and velocity created by the force of gravity.
Thus the flow follows the general law of falling bodies, and the
velocity tends to become constantly accelerated. This tendency is
just balanced by the influences retarding the flow. For a pipe carry-
ing flowing water under pressure, the difference in elevation, H,

Fic. 1.—Hydraulic elements for loss of head in siphon pipe.

(fig. 1), between the surfaces of the water at the intake and outlet
is the effective head through which the force of gravity acts. The
effective or lost head is made up of several individual losses as fol-
lows (fig. 1):
V2
ag
This is the head absorbed in creating the mean velocity V, at which
the water is conveyed through the pipe. This loss occurs at the
intake.
As a rule, little or none of this velocity head is recovered at the
outlet of the pipe. The conditions under which recovery may be
expected are discussed on page 61. |

Velocity head =h, = (1)

Entry head, h.= "3 (approximately). wi ee)

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 5:

The amount of loss at the entry, due to the effect of contraction
eddies and other retarding influences, is variable and uncertain, but
most authorities agree that it should be taken as half the velocity head
unless the inlet structure is especially designed to minimize this loss.
For further discussion see page 59.

Friction head, hy, is that lost in overcoming the retarding in-
fluences within a reasonably straight pipe. In pipes of great length,
the amount of this loss so far exceeds the two losses first mentioned
that they may often be neglected, especially in small pipes. This
is the loss upon which the experiments described in this paper were
concentrated. Apart from all other losses of head it must be found
in order to permit solution of the various formulas for the flow of
water in pipes with the view to securing additional values for the
factor representing the retarding influences designated as friction.

In addition to the above losses, there may be others, such as those
due to bends and valves or other obstructions; but, as a general thing,
these items do not enter the design of wood-stave pipes, especially
for irrigation purposes. In this use the pipe is laid on such gentle
curves, both horizontal and vertical, that such losses need not be
considered. Valves are seldom set across the line of the pipe,
although there are often one or more valves of various sizes leading
from the pipe. The loss in the main line due to these valves is
also négligible compared with the friction and velocity head losses.

In 1775, Chezy, a French engineer, offered his now well-known
formula for the flow of water in both open channels and closed

conduits:
V=CYRs. (3)

Here C is a coefficient, originally thought to be constant, but now
known to vary with functions of the slope, the hydraulic radius, the
velocity, and with some factor representing the retarding influences
in the channel. Many of the formulas used in this country for the
design of pipes have accepted the Chezy formula as a basis and made
only such modifications as experience dictated, some of them merely
assigning definite values to the coefficient C for definite conditions of
velocity, roughness, and size of pipe.

Since the hydraulic elements secured in the field experiments fur-
nish the necessary data for the determination of the factor repre-
senting the retarding influences in all the formulas most used in this
country, this publication will show this factor as developed by field
tests for several formulas as follows:

(a) The Chezy formula, 3 on page —,

V=C-Rs — CR?°-5g0-5 (4)

6 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(0) The Kutter modification of the Chezy formula,

1811 4 4 96 4 0.00281
AD 1+(41 eg + 2.00281) 7 ce 4
s VR

in which C is elaborated so that it takes into consideration the in-
fluence of the hydraulic grade and of the mean hydraulic radius and
introduces a new variable, n, which is supposed to represent all the

retarding influences.
(c) The Weisbach formula,

="5De (6)
From the same field data comparison is made between the follow

ing formulas:
(d) The Tutton ! formula for flow in wood-stave pipes,

V =C,R°**s°5 with C,=129 (7)

C, in this formula is not to be confused with C in the Chezy formula.
(e) The Williams-Hazen general formula ? for many kinds of pipes

V =C,,Ro83g0:54 0.001-2:%4 (8)

which may be arranged in the same form as formulas 9 and 12 for
comparison, becoming, with C,,= 120,

469 V8

For wood-stave pipe a value for C, of 120 is recommended by Wil-
liams and Hazen. This recommendation is based on their study of
pipes Nos. 20, 41, 44, 47, and 48, Tables 2 and 3. The exponents
of the formula “were selected as representing as nearly as possible
average conditions, as deduced from the best available records of
experiments upon the flow of water in such pipes and channels as
most frequently occur in waterworks practice.”

(f) The Moritz formulas:

8.6 V#8 0.38 V8

l= (8a)

Fpodob gee 2
V=1.72 D®? 5 (10)
Q=1.35 D2? Hes (11)

These three formulas express the same values from different
points of view. Unlike formulas 4, 5, and 6, they were developed
1Tutton,C.H. Journal Assoc. Engin. Socs., 23 (1899), p. 151.

2 Hydraulic Tables, Williams and Hazen, 2d ed. New York, 1909.
3 Flow of water in pipes, E. A. Moritz, Eng. Rec., 68, No. 24, p. 667.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 7

from an extensive series of experiments on wood-stave pipe from 4
to 552 inches in diameter and were offered for use on wood-stave
pipe only either jointed or continuous.

In the development of formulas 9,10, and 11 Moritz used only his
own experiments on the pipes as indicated on Plate VII, rejecting
all prior tests by other experimenters.

(g) A new set of formulas is offered by the writer, based on all
experiments on round stave pipe known to him from description in
engineering literature, and supplemented by an extensive set of
experiments in which he was aided by Ernest C. Fortier. The
method used in developing these formulas is explained on page 50.
Hereafter any one of this set of formulas will be referred to as the
new formula. Arranged in the same order as the Moritz formulas for
comparison:

7.68 V8 0.419 V8

EE kuna eis (12)
V =1.62 D%-85 Ho-555 (13)
Q=1.272 D 2-5 H555 (14)

It is to be noted that the exponent of V in formulas 9 and 12 is
the same, as is also the exponent of H in formulas i0-11 and 13-14.
The difference in the formulas is caused by the wide divergence in
the intercept curves shown in figure 4 (p. 56). As indicated in these
curves, the difference becomes greater as the larger pipes are ap-
proached, for the reason that all weight for large pipes in the Moritz
formulas came from his tests on the 553-inch Mabton pressure pipe
(Nos. 45 and 46), and the position of the points representing the
intercepts for this pipe, in figure 4, indicates that this pipe was
abnormally smooth.

Referring to formula 8a, it will be seen that the exponent of D in
the new formula is almost identical with the exponent of D in the
converted Williams-Hazen formula and that it follows the sugges-
tion of Schoder:? “If the attempt is made to lump all pipes except
the very smooth ones and the small tuberculated ones, giving thereby
more weight to large rough pipes and ordinary lap-riveted pipes,
then m will be found to vary inversely about as D** to D°.”

TREND OF ENGINEERING THOUGHT REGARDING THE CARRYING
CAPACITY OF WOOD-STAVE PIPES.

The ideas of the engineering profession concerning the carrying
capacity of wood pipe, expressed as direct statements or as formulas,
have varied widely during the past 20 years. Wood-stave pipe
enters into direct competition with iron and steel pipe. The claim

1 For details of these experiments see Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 74 (1911), p. 411.

2 Friction Head Hydraulics and Pipe Flow Diagrams, Ernest W. Schoder, Cornell Civil Engineer, May,
1910.

8 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

has persisted that there is less friction in wood pipe than in metal
pipe. It has often been insisted that new wood pipe not only has
a higher carrying capacity than new metal pipe but that the wood
pipe becomes smoother with age, while it is a well-known fact that
metal pipe becomes rougher. (See discussion, p. 72.)

While the analysis of all the tests on wood pipe now available bears
out the above claims in a general way (excepting that wood pipe
is not shown to become smoother with age), yet the consideration
of tests on individual pipes led to hasty conclusions presently shown
to be greatly at variance with facts. The following ideas of hydrau-
licians have been extracted by the writer from all the literature on
the subject known to him:

The experiments of Darcy and Bazin in 1857 and 1859 (Nos. 22
and 33) and of Clarke in 1884 (No. 49) were considered but little in
later discussions for the reason that they were made on rectangular
rather than on round pipe. Smith’s test (No. 1), made in 1877,
has also not been considered in the discussion of wood pipe, as the
test was made on a bored pipe of very small caliber; yet these four
series supplied the data upon which Tutton based his formula. (See
p00.) Hits

Although none of the 81 tests considered by Kutter and his col-
league in developing the Kutter formula had been made on closed
channels running full, yet nearly all of the experimenters on wood-
stave pipe have determined for their tests the value of n in this
formula. Kutter’s formula has undoubtedly been used a great deal
in estimating the capacity of wood pipes, but the writer will endeavor
to show (p. 56) the fallacy of employing a constant value of m in
this formula and the advantages lying in a formula of the exponential
type.

The first experiment of public record was mentioned by the late
J. D. Schuyler’ in speaking of a test (No. 34) on the newly installed
30-inch pipe for Denver, but unfortunately he did not give sufficient
details by which the test might be weighed. Mr. Schuyler states
that “‘as low a coefficient of n as 0.0096 can be used.”” This appeared
reasonable, as the pipe was made of planed lumber and all lists of
proper values of n then published recommended a value of 0.009 for
such material. The earlier designers adopted a value of 0.010 “‘in
order to be conservative.”

The next tests were made by A. L. Adams? on the Astoria, Oreg.,
18-inch pipe (No. 23). Here, too, a low value of n was found, 0.00985,
which led Adams to observe ‘“‘that the value of 0.010 for n used by
many engineers in dealing with stave pipe, is here found to be practi-
cally correct.” The low value of the friction factor found in this

1 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 31 (1894), p. 144.
2 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 36 (1896), p. 26.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 9

test is the more remarkable in view of the fact that there are “‘in
addition to a succession of sweeping horizontal and vertical curves,
27 cast-iron bends with a radius of curvature of 5 feet, and with an
average central angle of about 31°.” (See Pl. XIV, fig. 1.)

The next test (No. 32), spoken of by F. B. Gutelius, ' was conducted
_by D.C. Henny ? on the Butte, Mont., 24-inch pipe in 1892. In this
test the value of n was found to be 0.0103. Here again was a value
so close to 0.010 that it tended to establish the fact that 0.010 was,
closely, the proper value. After these three tests by three different
experimenters an extensive series of tests would naturally be required
to convince the profession that a higher value of n should be used.
Attention may here be directed to the fact, however, that in the
three last-mentioned tests but one or two runs of water, with little
or no variation in velocity, had been observed.

In 1897 Profs. Marx, Wing, and Hoskins* of Leland Stanford
Junior University, made a careful and vastly more extensive series
of tests than any previously carried through (No. 47). The values
of n varied inconsistently between 0.010 and 0.0204. (See Table 2,
column 10.) Of the 22 runs in this series, all but one showed a value
of n above 0.0123, and most of them showed it above 0.013.

The experimenters did not publish their results as values of n,
merely stating: *

In regard to the applicability of Kutter’s formula it is to be said that the experiments
on the wooden pipe herein described give values of n ranging from 0.012 to 0.015, an
average value being perhaps0.013. The difference between this value and those given
for the Denver and Butte city conduits can hardly be attributed to the greater rough.
ness of the Ogden pipe. It israther to be supposed that the Kutter formula is defec-
tive. (See p. 56.)

In correspondence relating to these tests T. A. Noble offers the
values of n for the various observations.’ ‘These have been checked
by the writer and are found in Table 2, column 10. In the same
correspondence (p. 544) A. L. Adams offers his tests on the West
Los Angeles pipe (No. 20) where the values of n range from 0.0105 to
0.0111. Mr. Adams voices the following warning:

These values * * * do not indicate 0.01 as being a safe assumed value for n
as have all previous experiments.

Various arguments were brought forward tofurnish a reason for
the unprecedentedly high values of n in the Ogden pipe. These
included the following: That Kutter’s formula did not apply to pipes
as large as 6 feet in diameter; that sediment had deposited in the pipe;
that the nominal area was not the true area; that a constant reduc-
tion factor should not be used in computing the equivalent water
column from the mercury column.

1 Journal Assoc. Engin. Socs., 12 (1893), p. 219. 4Id., p. 516.

2 Journal Assoc. Engin. Socs.,-21 (1898), p. 250. 5Id., p. 547.
3 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 40 (1898), p. 471.

10 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In 1899 the same experimenters made additional tests (No. 48)
upon the same pipe with improved apparatus. Their experiments
were centered on a longer reach of pipe and a consistent set of values
of n was obtained, ranging from 0.0130 to 0.0133.

The trend of the discussion of the second Ogden tests shows that
a general belief existed to the effect that the difference in the values of
nm, when compared with n for smaller pipes, was due to defects in the
Kutter formula.

A graphic presentation of the data then available was made on
ordinary squared cross-section paper. In the discussion a method
was offered for testing the correctness of experimental data by the
use of this paper, ‘‘if the loss of head varies as the square of the
velocity.”’? Although as long ago as 1808, Dr. Thomas Young?
suggested that the loss of head was in proportion to the 1.8 power
of the velocity, rather than the second power, many still insisted
that loss of head must vary as the square of the velocity. It is inter-
esting to note that 1.8 is the exact exponent found by both Moritz
and the writer, while Williams and Hazen use an exponent of 1.85
in their general formula for flow in many kinds of pipes.

In 1901 T. A. Noble * contributed greatly to the available knowledge
by making tests on 444-inch and 54-inch pipes (Nos. 41 and 44),
thus bridging the gap between 30-inch and 72-inch pipes. For both
these pipes the values of n ranged from 0.0120 to 0.0136, with the
higher values in the smaller pipe, although the same water flowed
through both pipes and they were constructed at the same time.
Also, strange to say, the pipe with the lower value of n contained more
curvature and growths of Spongilla which were not present in the
smaller pipe. Noble says:°

The writer can offer no suggestion as to why the value of C should be less and n
greater in the 44-inch than in the 54-inch pipe, when, to conform to the results of
other experiments, it should be the reverse.

In discussing the available data on this. subject,’ E. W.Schoder
of Cornell University suggests the possibilities of an exponential
formula derived from a study of the straight-line curves resulting
when the losses of head are platted on logarithmic paper as ordinates
and the velocities as abscissas. This was the method used later by
Moritz in deriving his formula, and also by the writer as being the
best known form by which to study the now extensive number of
tests upon wood pipe.

1 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 44 (1900), p. 34.

21d., p. 73.

3 Philosophical Trans., Royal Society of London (1808).
4 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 49 (1902), p. 112.

51Td., p. 143.
6Id., p. 145.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. {ah

Gardner S. Williams? says:

One of the most interesting features of the investigation is the light it throws upon
the inapplicapility of the long-honored law that loss of head varies as the square of the
velocity.

He offers the deductions, based on the study of more than 80
series of tests by 13 observers, that the exponent increases from 1.80
to 2 in pipes ordinarily used by engineers; that it increases as the
roughness increases; that it decreases as curvature increases, and
that it is different for different materials, being lowest for tin and
brass.

After the Noble tests nothing was offered in engineering literature
until J. L. Campbell? made tests on the El Paso & Southwestern
Railway pipe (Nos. 15 and 21). The values of n were so low that the
results were seized upon by some wood pipe manufacturers and given
out broadcast as the values of n to apply to wood pipe. These values
showed an enormously greater carrying capacity for wood than for
iron or steel pipe. The results are unquestionably too low for the
following reasons: In the discussion G. EK. P. Smith® asks, ‘‘Was
the first appearance or the average time of appearance, accepted for
computing the velocity of fiow?”’ to which Campbell replies (p. 188),
‘Referring to Mr. Smith’s question about the velocity measurements
by bran, the first appearance of the bran and the colors was taken
because the intervals of time given thereby were in close accord
among themselves and with the weir measurements.” (Italics are
the writer’s. )

In the opinion of the writer, who used color for many of his experi-
ments (see p. 23), the mean of the first and last appearance of color
comes quite close to the true mean. (See also the article by E. W.
Schoder in the Cornell Civil Engineer, December, 1911.) If the
first indication of color is taken, then the maximum thread of velocity
is used; or, if diffusion in addition to mechanical mixing occurs,
a velocity in excess of the true maximum is indicated. No one would
suggest accepting as the average the velocity of a float down the
maximum current in an open channel without applying a coefficient
which varies from about 0.55 to 0.95. The fact mentioned by
Mr. Campbell, that the ‘‘intervals * * * were in close accord
among themselves,” proves nothing but consistency. Regarding the
agreement with the weir it should be remembered that this device
gives discharge; color and bran tests give velocity. To permit
comparison with the results of weir tests the velocity must be multi-
plied by the area of the bore. If the velocity as determined by the
colors were taken too high and the assumed area of the bore too low,
SSS rrans "Amer Soe. Civ) Mus 49/1002), piss.)

2 Engin. News, 60 (1908), p. 225. Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 70 (1910), p. 178.
Trans. Amer. Soc. Engin., 70, p. 186.

12 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the results might still agree with a weir test quite closely and yet
include an error as to the velocity.

The writer dwells on this discussion for the reason that he has
before him three catalogues of prominent pipe makers, each of which
claims a very high efficiency for wood pipe (to the consequent dis-
paragement of iron and steel pipe), basing this claim on one question-
able series of tests and ignoring the other tests mentioned above for
the probable reason that the most of the latter show the capacities
of wood and new iron pipe to be more nearly the same.

In 1911 E. A. Moritz! offered the results of experiments which
were quite complete between pipes 4 inches and 22 inches in diameter,
with a gap then to one pipe 55? inches in diameter. He used much
the same methods (in fact, much of the same equipment) which were
used on the Ogden tests.

Rejecting all previous experiments and his own series on the
22-inch pipe (No. 28), Moritz developed the formulas given on page 6.
This left a very complete set of experiments between 4 and 18 inches
but with a gap from 18 to 553 inches. The positions of platted points
for the 552-inch pipe (Nos. 45 and 46) shown on Plates VI and VII,
when compared with corresponding points for other pipes, all indi-
cate that this pipe was exceptionally smooth. So much weight was
given the tests on this pipe, being the only tests on large pipe which
* were accepted, that the formulas derived from the experiments indi-
cate a greater carrying capacity for wood pipe generally and large
diameter wood pipe particularly than a study of all tests shows to be
warranted.

In the discussion of Moritz’s article, R. G. Dieck writes:

The use of the Kutter formula in pipe design has always been questionable, even
though its ease of application, in default of a more convenient formula, has commended
it * * *. Itis evident from the Sunnyside experiments that an adjustment in
the ideas of hydraulicians on this point is bound to come. * * * When the dis-
charge varies, all other conditions being the same, the value of n also varies; hence in
its present form, the Kutter formula can not be considered a true statement of condi-
tions.?

In the same discussion? Rudolph Hering states that he ‘‘recognized
as well as did Mr. Kutter himself, almost at the outset, that n was
not to be considered a precise and unvarying constant.’’ The writer
will take up the comparison between the Kutter and the new expo-
nential formula later (p. 56).

In the same discussion Gardner S. Williams objects to the incon-
sistency of the profession in introducing inches into a formula other-
wise expressed in feet and decimals. The writer agrees in this, but
the manufacture of iron, steel, clay, and wood pipe has been so long

1 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 74 (1911), p. 411. 21d., p. 452. 31d., p. 459.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 13

conducted on these units that it appears best to construct separate
formulas with terms in both inches and feet.

Also in the same discussion! J. S. Moore, who aided in the experi-
ments and computation of the Moritz data, offers tests on 48? and
31-inch pipes (Nos. 43 and 36). The 48?-inch pipe appears to have
been very smooth and the tests confirm the Moritz formulas. How-
ever, it must be borne in mind that this pipe is part of the same
siphon and subject to the same conditions as those affecting the 553-
inch pipe which contributed so largely to the data from which the
Moritz formulas were derived. Advocating the use of all previous
data accepted as criteria, Moore suggests the intercept line for the
exponential formula as shown by the dash line in figure 4. This
line approaches the position of the intercept line for the new formula
which considers all reliable data.

RECAPITULATION.

The above outline indicates that 25 years ago Kutter’s formula,
with a value of n of 0.010, was accepted as accurate in the design of
wood pipes. As tests were made on larger sizes of pipe, higher values
of n were found. These results were not accepted unreservedly,
however; rather were the experiments discredited by some designers
on the grounds that conditions in the pipes were not properly ascer-
tained or that methods of making observations were erroneous.
The experimenters themselves suggest that perhaps a constant value

_of m should not be used; that is, that Kutter’s formula does not
apply if a constant value of n is to be taken. The data were too
meager to develop the variation in n with the diverse elements.

As data accumulated authorities suggested interpreting results
by exponential formulas; but not being well known this method was
not extensively accepted until used by Moritz in interpreting his own
results. He attempted to compare his formulas with the results of
other experimenters but found this “a difficult and discouraging
problem.’”’ This was true because all previous data on large pipes
showed a much smaller relative capacity than the one pipe contribut-
ing so largely to his formulas. Though but tentatively offered by
Moritz, his formulas appeared to be the best available and have been
extensively accepted, in spite of the fact that Moore, who was per-
fectly familiar with the Moritz tests, suggests a formula that more
nearly fits all previous observations.

In the following pages of this publication, particularly beginning on
page 28, the writer will endeavor to show analytically the following:

1. That an exponential formula most nearly applies to the flow of
water in wood-stave pipes.

1Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 74 (1911), p. 463.

14 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

2. That the mean of all reliable observations on carrying capacity
of wood-stave pipes agrees with the exponential formulas in the fol-
lowing order and per cent (see Table 2):

Per cent.
LPS CODE Yas ok es eee o LO BAR Ser tects i Le —0. 33
2. VWillianas- Taiz emily e ited Gh 2 Ee P Sie 8a Bek fae +2. 41
Seo UT OM sash eek ere Ne A YTS Al nae heath deere enh apy ae Eo oe al de a ain +2. 44
AMO TUG A tice apse yee pez ah ey RU aCe tin ee ee oN Da Bs Re —9. 40

3. That the mean of the capacities of the several pipes agrees with
the exponential formulas in the following order and per cent (see
Table 3):

Per cent.
PIS CODE Yeates she aioe Sh cath AS | SEN Un, ena nate AUIS CE para tars) +0. 66
2.eWalliamis-Hazemst 22ers WOO) a hs SLSR Te eles TEE ME +3. 51
Se PLUEEOI MR Eee, MEET SEN ea NTO E EE) ACRE RPS EN AS SEIS EAS CAPR +5. 02
ZIPSIUN ro wy AS ge IN LE Sea FEO er og ae ray —7. 64

4. That Kutter’s formula with a constant value of n does not
apply to flow in wood-stave pipes running full.

5. That n decreases with an increase in velocity in a given size of
pipe and increases with the size of pipe for a given velocity, varying
from less than 0.010 for small pipes at high velocities to more than
0.014 in large pipes.

6. That this variation in n is so marked and complicated as to
render the use of Kutter’s formula inadvisable.

7. That the Ogden experiments showed the capacity of the 72-inch
pipe (Nos. 47 and 48) to be within from 5 to 8 per cent of the average.

8. That the Sunnyside experiments showed the 55?-inch pipe (Nos.
45 and 46) to be abnormally smooth by 18 per cent.

NECESSARY FIELD DATA FOR DETERMINING THE RETARDATION
ELEMENTS OF VARIOUS FORMULAS.

A glance at pages 5 to 7 shows that for study of the various formu-
las the same hydraulic elements must be determined by field tests.
These are:

1. The mean velocity, V, of water in the pipe.

2. The loss of head, h;, due to retardation in a section of pipe of
uniform size, within a known distance.

3. The internal size of pipe, D or d.

The above data having been secured, the observed velocity for any
particular observation may be compared with the computed velocity
for the same-sized pipe with the observed loss of head, for any of the
formulas.

MEAN VELOCITY OF WATER.

The velocity of the water flowing in a section of wood-stave pipe

may be measured in two general ways:

1 Using coefficient of 120 in Williams-Hazen formula.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 15

1. Directly, by timing a given volume of water through a known
distance.

2. Indirectly, by measuring the discharge of the pipe, thus deter-
mining the quantity, Q, andsolving the equation V = =

Where the velocity is tested by the direct method the error is
smaller than where the indirect method is used.

LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO RETARDATION.

Most of the recent experiments on the flow of water in pipes of
uniform size have been made with piezometer columns. This was the
method used by the writer. If a piezometer (fig. 1) be properly
attached to the pipe, the pressure in the latter will support a column
of water whose surface is at elevation H, on the hydraulic grade line.
In the same way the pressure at gauge No. 2 will lift a column to
elevation E,. The difference between these elevations is the head
lost, hy, due to the retarding influences.

INTERNAL SIZE OF PIPE.

It was not practicable to secure inside measurements of any of the
pipe tested in the experiments conducted by the writer. The method
used in ascertaining the inside cross-sectional area of the pipe is
recounted in the description of each test. In some cases several
joints of pipe, remaining from construction, were measured and their
mean inside cross-sectional areas accepted as the internal sizes of the
operated pipes. In other cases the external circumferences of the
reaches tested were measured in several places and the mean inside
cross-sectional areas computed, the thickness of the staves being
known. This thickness runs very uniformly, being determined at
time of manufacture by the use of the same templet.

In still other cases, especially on pipes of small diameter, the nomi-
nal diameter of the pipe was accepted. As the pipe runs very close
to nominal size the writer believes that no appreciable error is intro-
duced in accepting these areas, provided the conditions are such that
the pipe is not liable to be more or less clogged with rocks, sand, or
other débris.

SCOPE OF THE EXPERIMENTS.

The writer conducted 64 tests on 16 separate pipes, 13 of which
ranged from 8 inches to 4 feet in diameter; one was 64 feet; one, 12
feet; and one, 134 feet in diameter. Six pipes were of the machine-
banded type, put together in lengths, and 10 were of the continuous-
stave type. Mean velocities ranged from less than 1 foot per second
to more than 8 feet per second.

From other sources, listed in summary Table 3, and briefly described
in the appendix commencing on page 74, descriptions of experiments

16 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

on pipes up to 6 feet in diameter were abstracted, but no other than
the writer’s records are available for pipes between 6 and 12 feet in
diameter.

EQUIPMENT AND METHODS EMPLOYED FOR COLLECTING AND INTER-
PRETING FIELD DATA.

In order to correctly weigh any new data bearing on hydraulic
formulas it is necessary to know in detail the equipment used and the
steps pursued in both the field and office. Consequently these
features are described in some detail.

EQUIPMENT.

Tapes.—High-grade steel tapes, graduated in feet and hundredths,
were used in the determination of diameters, circumferences, etc.
For distance chaining the tape was graduated to tenths.

Level.—An 18-inch Berger engineer’s wye level, equipped with a
bubble whose sensibility was rated at 10 seconds of arc for 1 division
of scale equal to one-tenth of an inch was used. ‘The bubble vial was
6.5 inches long; the telescope power was 35 diameters. The instru-
ment was kept in excellent adjustment.

With one exception the levels in these tests were closed within the
limits suggested by the U. S. Geological Survey, the allowable error
in feet being 0.017 distance in miles.!. The exception noted occurred
in connection with the tests on pipe No. 37, where the levels were run
in high wind, over deepsand. Several trials were made, but the best
closure was to 0.023 foot, while to conform to the formula it should
have been to 0.012 foot, the distance being about 2,500 feet.

Rod.—A new Philadelphia rod, in three sections, equipped with rod
level and vernier reading to thousandths of a foot was used in the
determination of the elevations of gauge zeros with regard to an
assumed datum.

Thermometers.—Temperatures of air and water were taken with
all-glass laboratory thermometers, graduated to degrees and fifths,
Centigrade scale. The range covered in the graduations was only
that liable to be encountered in the tests, so that each degree was
represented by about three-sixteenths inch.

Hydrometer.—Specific gravity of water in the pipes was tested by
means of a laboratory hydrometer simultaneously with a like deter-
mination of the temperature of the water. The hydrometer was
afterwards tested by the U. S. Bureau of Standards. The proper
corrections were thereafter applied to readings before computation was
undertaken.

Current meter.—A small Price cup current meter of the combina-
tion type was used. This meter had been carefully rated by the U. S.

1 Precise Leveling, in Topographic Instructions of the U. S. Geological Survey, 1913, p. 100.

See ey a ee

eA

—— oo 4

tO

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE. PIPE. 17

Bureau of Standards the year previous, but had been used only a few
times, and then as a standard. Its rating curve was checked by the
writer and his assistant in the channel of the hydraulic laboratory at
Cornell University, just prior to these tests. No change was found
necessary.

Fluorescein.'—Direct measurements of velocity of water in a pipe
were made by injecting solutions of fluorescein and timing the passage
of the resultant green-colored water through the reach tested.

Weirs.—Where weirs had been installed to measure the quantity
of water from pipes the writer made use of them. Each is described
in the report of the test in which it was used.

Hook gauge.—A small hook gauge of the Boyden type, with vernier
reading to thousandths of a foot, was used to determine surface
fluctuations for head on a weir. (See PI. 1, fig. 1.)

_ Prezometers.—Two types were used:

Water column: This was employed where the pressure in the pipe
was low. A simple glass manometer-tube, engine-divided to tenths
and hundredths of a foot, was connected to the tap in the wood pipe
by a piece of rubber pressure tubing. (See PI. II, fig. 1.)

Mercury manometer: Where otherwise the pressure would have
compelled the use of a long water column, a mercury manometer of
the U-tube pattern was selected. Two of these U-tube mercury
gauges, as shown in figure 3, were provided. They consisted of
wrought-iron U tubes with unequal legs. The short leg was a glass
manometer tube surmounted by a tee connection provided with the
necessary cocks for manipulation. The long leg was formed of 2-foot
units of one-eighth inch wrought-iron pipe until a length had been
attained which permitted the top of the high mercury column to
show in another glass tube.

These glass tubes were engine-divided into tenths and hundredths
of a foot, the tenths and half-tenths lnes extending completely
around the tube and the other lines but half way around. By sight-
ing through the tube across the front and back of any one line, all
tendency toward parallax was removed and the mercury column
could be correctly read to thousandths of afoot. The relative vertical
positions of the two sets of graduations were of immaterial conse-
quence as the graduations on each gauge glass were brought into the
general scheme of levels above an assumed datum, as shown in
figure 2.

All abutting pipes screwed against fiber gaskets. The ends of the
gauge glasses were permanently set into sleeved couplings with sealing

1 The writer is indebted to R. B. Dole, of the U. S. Geological Survey, for suggesting the use of this won-

derful coloring matter. See ‘Use of Fluorescein in the study of underground waters,” R. B. Dole, Water
Supply Paper No. 160, U. S. Geological Survey.

42463°—Bull. 376—16——2

18 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

wax. Both the couplings and attendant follow nuts were recessed
at an angle of 45° in order to effectively bind rubber gaskets. Joints
between ends of iron pipe units were made in the same way. A
cement made of equal parts of beeswax and turpentine softened the
rubber gaskets and gummed the pipe threads so that the joints were
mercury-tight. This was doubly assured by winding sewing thread
into the wax in the pipe threads.

The inside of all metal pipes and connections was japanned three
coats thick in order to prevent amalgamation with the mercury.

Oolor injector.—The only practicable method of measuring the
velocity of water in some of the pipes tested was by timing the passage
of some color or chemical. After various tests fluorescein appeared
to offer the best results. In order to inject the color into the pipe at
the upstream gauge the “fluorescein gun”’
was developed (fig. 3). This is connected
to the nipple C through the T connection
D. At the downstream manometer the
nipple C connects directly to the cock E.

Mercury container.—The usual lead tor-
pedo weights for the current meter were
dispensed with and a combination mer-
cury bottle and meter weight was con-
structed (fig. 3). The details are evident in
the illustration with the possible excep-
Fic. 2.—Hydraulic principles of mer- tion of the surge walls which divided the

cury manometer of U-tube type. hottle into small compartments so that the
mercury gave no trouble by surging when the bottle was used as a
meter weight. Likewise the small holes in the walls at the top of
the weight offered small chance of losing all the mercury in case of
accident.

FIELD METHODS.

CHOOSING A REACH TO BE TESTED.

In order to be considered adaptable for field tests, a pipe must be
practically water-tight (or the leaks measured) and of such length,
without bends or obstructions, that the effect of errors is minimized—
the longer the better. Gentle curves, both vertical and horizontal,
were thought desirable, as their effect must be considered in the
design of practically all wood-stave pipes. No distinct bend in any
pipe was included in the reaches tested. Such a bend would cause
an appreciable loss of head aside from friction loss. Some method
of determining the mean velocity in the pipe must be available.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 19

~» 246" WI. Pipe
12%2 over all a fg”

=sS Screw ca,
AP Voit pole
YZ

: Surge Wall. (2"c. foc.
Meter weight and Mercury-boit lee Cee!

ami
amt Enlargement

Open fo arr:

Nore ¥

Each glass and iron pipe

ae 2 feet longs us
GZinch Vil.pipe is, tins. diam.
A BS Hew har Gee
Blnch Wi pe IS VY, + inch diam.
All metal japanned 3 coats.

Graduated

Bieycle Purn

Mercury trap.

<"
S
x
%
eS
&
x
9
—e
2

> :

SS

SSSSS SLOG
F
rr SSSA

N

Ya "pipe unit.
Pressure

SSS

2 Y= 3 "nipple Fluorescein Gun
Lock nut, & Yt, 8 *SS pres-
Rubber—+s 18 air cock. sure tubing.

>>

, Garden
, Hose .

Fig. 3.—Method of attaching mercury manometers to wood-stave pipes. Details of menometers, fluores-
cein gun, and combined current meter weight and mercury bottle.

20 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ATTACHMENT OF PIEZOMETERS.

As it is not often practicable to secure permission to make several
holes at each manometer in a wood pipe used commercially, the
writer accepted the discussion of Profs. Marx, Wing, and Hoskins con-
cerning the position of the point of attachment to the pipe and whether
different results will be given by multiple attachment than by attach-
ment at a single pomt.t' Their first conclusion is:

When the pressure in the given cross section of the pipe everywhere exceeds that
of the atmosphere an open ptezometer will stand at the same height at whatever point
of the cross section it be attached, and whether it communicates with the pipe at
one point or at several. ;

As a rule taps were not made on the top of the pipe, as the writer
judged that more air bubbles would be in the water at this part of
the pipe than at some lower point. Care was exercised in choosing
the reach, so that guages could be set at each end of it, where the
positions of the two taps would be such that the same relationship to
velocity would hold. All taps were made on tangents. The posi-
tion on the circumference was chosen in the neutral zone where the
influence of curves would be a minimum. For instance, if the pipe
was straight in horizontal alignment, but curved vertically, the taps
were made in the side of the pipe. In experiments on pipe No. 52,
where the pipe followed a chosen gradient but was curved horizon-
tally, taps were made near the top of the pipe. (PL. V, fig. 3.)

The essential requirement in a piezometer connection is to exclude
all positive or negative influence of velocity head. The hole through
the pipe must be normal to the pipe and as clean cut as possible on
the inside. If splinters are pushed off the inner surface, then either
positive or negative influence from the velocity head must act on
the column in the gauge, whereas the pressure head alone is desired.

The gauges were attached to the pipe in a manner slightly modi-
fied from that used by Noble? and later by Moritz.* They bored a
hole for the nipple with a wood bit until the tip of the bit pierced
the inner surface. In the experiments described in. this paper a
seven-sixteenth-inch wood bit was used to make a hole about 1
inch deep. Then a twist drill one-eighth inch in diameter was
twisted by hand until the inner surface of the pipe was cleanly
pierced (fig. 3). Experiments made with both systems showed the
holes made by the last method to be more nearly free from splinters
which might affect the gauge tube by velocity head.

Hf 1 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 40 (1898), p. 526.

21d., 49 (1902), p. 119.
2Td., 74 (1911), p. 411.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 91
OPERATION OF GAUGES.

From observations on the ground or study of the profile, the
pressure in the pipe was known roughly. In assembling the gauge
the proper number of iron-pipe units was installed in the long leg
of the U so that the two ends of the mercury column balancing the
pressure in the pipe would appear near the mid-point of the glass
gauge tubes. ;

The gauge, as assembled in figure 3, was set up beside the tapped
pipe, the glass tubes being made truly vertical by means of a plumb
bob. Shade was always provided for the gauges.

With the cocks I and L open and G closed, mercury was filtered
into the tube T. A paper-lined glass funnel was inserted at the top
of T. The mercury filtering through a pin hole at the bottom of
the paper funnel was thus cleansed at each experiment and the
meniscus in each tube was made bright and clear. Mercury filtered
into a tube of small diameter in this manner will fill up without air
bubbles, but if it is poured into such a tube air bubbles will occupy
long reaches of pipe and may not be found if they occur in the iron-
pipe sections. When both legs of the gauge were filled to near the
top of the lower glass, I was closed and G opened until the mercury
column in M was pressed well down in the gauge, when G was again
closed. Mercury was then added and G was opened from time to
time until it might be allowed to remain open, the pressure holding
the mercury column in sight on both glass gage legs.

At this time there was probably a mixture of air and water above
the mercury in M, but the air was driven out by alternately closing
G and opening I for an instant. In using the gauges L was closed
and G and I opened every few minutes, so that water and any accu-
mulated air bubles might be blown out of the pressure tube between
the gauge and the wood pipe.

Because of the use of unequal legs on the gauge there was danger
of blowmg mercury out of the gauge at I unless the cocks L and G
were operated most carefully. To catch the mercury in the event
of such an accident, the tube J was discharged into the bottle K
which included a glass tube open to the air so that water was freely
discharged but the mercury caught.

Pulsations were nearly always present and as simultaneous readings
of both low and high gauges were necessary in order to determine
the length of the mercury column, readings were made in the follow-
ing manner:

Pulsation effect was reduced by partially closing either L or G
until the mercury was barely ‘alive.’ This assured an average
length of column. The cock was then completely closed, leaving a
“dead”? mercury column of the proper length. Both low and high
gauges were carefully read to thousandths after which the cock was

22 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

opened. This process was repeated every 10 minutes. All other
readings were taken by alternately reading high and low gauges
with the mercury just alive, the corresponding reading for the other
gauge being computed from the dead readings as described above.
Since the only change in the total length of mercury thread was
due to temperature changes, and since the gauges, which were made
of the highest grade of manometer tubing, were practically uniform
in diameter, no error was introduced by reading but one leg at a
time, alternately. (See p. 93.)

DETERMINATION OF LOST HEAD.

The exact amount of hy (fig. 1) must be determined. Where a
water column is used, say at gauge No. 2, the elevation EH, is the
gauge reading added to the elevation of the gauge zero above an
assumed datum, with proper corrections (see p. 23). Where a
mercury manometer of the U-tube pattern is used, the reasoning is
as follows: It is desired to know the elevation E, (fig. 1) for a water
column which is the equivalent of a mercury column in a U-tube
placed as for gauge No. 1. Referring to figure 2, the mercury in
the two legs of the U-tube below c—d will be seen to balance. There-
fore the pressure of the water at c is just balanced by the column of
mercury X. But the pressure at c equals that at d. If the mercury
X were replaced with water it would reach an elevation sX above
d, where s is the specific gravity of the particular mercury in the
gauge, compared with the particular water in the pipe. But the
elevation to which this water column would reach is the desired
elevation, E,. Therefore the elevation E,=sX+y.:above the as-
sumed datum. As applied to these experiments, referring to figures
1 and 2, the difference in elevation between the readings of the low
gauge and the high gauge multiplied by the specific gravity of the
mercury and added to the elevation of the low-gauge reading gave
the elevation of the equivalent water column when the proper cor-
rections had been applied.

a CORRECTIONS.

Although quite numerous, the principles involved in all of the
necessary corrections have been the subjects of such thorough inves-
tigation that appreciable errors are not liable to result from their use.

Temperature.—Corrections are necessary for the temperature
changes in both air and water. A temperature of 15° C. was adopted
as standard and the specific gravity of the mercury used in the tests
was referred to that temperature, being compared to distilled water
at the same temperature.

The mercury column balances the pressure of the water in the
pipe, but this water may be either heavier or lighter than distilled

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 23

water. Hydrometer tests of the water at the time of the experiment
showed the specific gravity of the water for that temperature. A
table was computed showing the proper specific gravity factor to
apply to convert the mercury column to the equivalent water column
for any observed specific gravity of water. No additional correc-
tion is necessary for the temperature of the water as the hydrometer
takes this into consideration.

The pressure in the pipe (fig. 2) supports the mercury column X
and in addition the water column from the pipe to the elevation
ofc. If this water is of a different temperature from that in the pipe
a correction is necessary, but in these experiments the water was
kept at about the same temperature by frequently blowing off the
water in the rubber pressure tube. The length of this water column
in a Mercury gauge at no time was more than 1 or 2 feet.

However, in a water column manometer the difference in tempera-
ture must be considered. The temperature of the water in the tube
was taken as that of the air adjoining, while the temperature of the
water in the pipe was determined at the same time that its specific
gravity was tested. Water columns were not blown off but air
bubbles were driven to the glass tube by striking the rubber tubing
sharply with a stick. Siphons in the pressure tubing were carefully
prevented.

Capillarity.—W ater rises by capillarity in a small tube and mercury
is depressed. ‘Two sets of glass tubes were used for water columns.
For one, with inside diameter of 4.5 mm., water rises 0.017 foot,
while in the other set, with diameter of 5.6 mm., the water rises 0.01
foot.

MEASUREMENT OF MEAN VELOCITY.

As a rule, each pipe tested presented its own problem as to the
method to be adopted to determine the mean velocity of the water,
and in case this method digressed from one of the following standard
methods it is described.

Current meter—Where the water entered or left the pipe in an
open channel the discharge was determined with a current meter,
and the velocity in the pipe was secured by dividing this discharge
by the area of the pipe. The two-tenths and eight-tenths depth
method was used, as the results obtained in this way, when com-
pared with the discharge found by the multiple-point method, gen-
erally agree with it to about 1 per cent.

Fluorescein.—About 1 teaspoonful of fluorescein (in the form of
red powder) dissolved in about a pint of water gave sufficient solution

_ 17he mercury used in experiments conducted by the writer was tested for specific gravity in the labo-
ratory of Nutrition Investigations, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The speciic gravity was found to
be 13.575 at 15° C., compared with distilled water at 15°C. These were the temperatures adopted as basic
for the computation of results.

24 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

for four injections of color in a pipe carrying up to 60 second-feet,
while in the 134-foot pipe (No. 52) the total contents of the ‘‘fluor-
escein gun”’ (fig. 3) were injected at one time, and for the volume
of water carried in this pipe (the maximum was 871 second-feet) a
saturate solution was used. Though not measured, this consisted
of about 4 teaspoonsful of the powder for each ‘‘shot’’ of about one-
third pint. The powder dissolved readily in cold water.

In making a test the coupling W is opened and the solution poured
into the pressure tube X. The gun is again connected with the
apparatus by the coupling W. With E closed Visopened. Pressure
in the wood pipe enters the gun, making pressures in both gun and
pipe equal. In order to inject the color into the pipe the only thing
necessary is to increase the now existing pressure in the gun. After
V has been closed the gun is pumped up like a bicycle tire. While
noting the time to a second the operator opens the cock V. By
the hissmg sound, it is probable that the jet passes well across the
diameter of a medium-sized pipe. If the contents of the gun are to

cover three or four injections V is opened and almost immediately
closed. If all the contents are to be used a few quick strokes of the
pump, after V has been opened, will clear the gun in a very few
seconds, the mean time being accepted in later computations.

The observer at the outlet, provided with a watch agreeing to the
second with that used in timing the start of the color, notes to the
second the first and last appearance of the color: The color is ex-
tended by the variation in the velocity throughout the section of
the pipe. This extension covers about 8 per cent of the total time
the color spends in the pipe. Comparison with carefully constructed
weirs shows that the color method is correct within about 3 per cent.
Wherever possible, a comparison between color and current meter was
also made. To secure comparative results the time the color spent
in the pipe is taken as from the moment of injection to the mean
between first and last sight at the outlet. These comparative tests
are shown in Table 1.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 25

TaBLE 1.— Velocities by color (fluorescein) compared with velocities by weir and current

meter.
F : Velocity
; Velocity Velocity
Refer- | Pipe | Crest length of | ; per second | per second | P&US°& | vo—Vin | Ve—Vw
ence | diam- 5 Meter method. OTN 39 cea cine vaw
No eter. weir. by color. | by meter. | “oi; z We
b 5 Valois We tells
’ w
Inches. Feet. | Feet.
60 Oa leOby Cipele says Beene meee. | 1. 295
61 8 do... | 1. 735

62 2. 09

63 2. 97

64 3. 37
132 AUS ee es Sa 6-tenths 3___... 2. 08 De Sd eres eres

(4) 36 | 10.0 Cip.t_...-.- TG Os Seto ae Sie 3. 48 3. 48 3.47

(OY ocd yah Rae dose ae 6-tenths 3_..... 3.48 3.55 3.47
192 AS ar te ae apa icreia 2+87_... 3.14 SO ile sea
193 AS etate tora cpeiare spss aioe oi Oost s ci 3.75 yA ohe aeosoasae
194 BOM Menace erences dome tens 4.75 CEG) UIRBaS ea eR en
263 USMS Seehe Soe enue oe Curve 8_......- 0. 911 5928) |p 5ss eee
264 HSA eayai B e A e Goseysne 0. 963 ONO (as ema emer ar
265 USF RBS ACe ER ate oe Merc (Wes seer 1.51 AG) eeseesaases
266 eS espe i i amici ts Gone oe. 2. 063 23087 joss mecae
(6) (Rohit eed cas Mears rs eee nee doseese se! 2.16 210) | See see
269 MSA eres o sae ce sine: Sl aye lejore GOs see wee 2. 40 Zoi sale ae eae
270 Oa scveeise cine selecees GOzes2 4-25 2. 44 242) yi ee ee ae
271 (ikeda| ete te Seg ory Rea dozce sit 2.79 280d) |e. So see ee

1 Cipolletti weir with good conditions of contraction and velocity. Seep. 40.
- 2 Rectangular weir with end contractions and sharp crest. Seep. 40.
3 Meter held in each vertical at 0.6 depth from surface.
4 From tests on a concrete pipe, made in 1915.
5 Velocity integrated by moving meter slowly from top to bottom and return.
6 Excluded from Table 2 because gauge data lost for manometer No. 1.
7 Meter held at 0.2 and 0.8 depths in each vertical; mean accepted for vertical. Seep. 44.
8 Rating curve developed by meter measurements. Velocity taken from curve. See p. 45

FIELD PROCEDURE.

After the reach of pipe was selected, the manometers attached,
and other equipment put in readiness the method for proceeding
with the field test was in general carried out as described in the
paragraphs followimg. Any necessary changes are noted in the text
in connection with the description of the individual pipes tested.

The watches used at both ends of the reach were adjusted to agree
to the second, and again compared at the end of the observation.
Manometers were read every one or two minutes (depending on the
amount of pulsation in the water) for a period of 30 minutes. Ifa
weir was used to measure the discharge of water a hook gauge above
the weir was read every two to five minutes, depending on the varia-
tion of discharge. If a current meter measurement was necessary
to determine the discharge it was made either during or immediately
following the series of manometer readings, thé manometers being
watched for appreciable variations of discharge. Where fluorescein
was used to time the actual velocity of the water it was injected into
the pipe at approximately known intervals, say, five minutes, through-
out the time during which the manometers were read. Ordinarily
the second gauge was near enough to the outlet of the pipe so that
one observer could both read the manometer and watch for the
appearance of the color. Sometimes a third observer was necessary.

26 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
OFFICE EQUIPMENT AND METHODS.

Original multiplication, division, and addition were performed on
mechanical devices. Checking was done by 20-inch slide rules and
graphic methods. All percentage comparisons were made on 20-inch
slide rules. Estimate diagrams were checked by proving random
examples.

Office procedure.—Where water columns were used at both ends of
the reach of pipe tested the loss of head in the pipe for the given
velocity was the difference in elevation between the top of the mean
water column at gauge No. 1 and the top of the mean column at
gauge No. 2. Where a mercury manometer was used at one or both
of the gauges the equivalent water column for each reading of the
mercury column was computed. The mean of the elevations of the
tops of the equivalent water columns was accepted as the elevation
for that gauge. The loss of head was then computed as before.
Standard methods were employed in computing current meter data
or weir discharge. Where color was used in timing the velocity of
the water the time was computed as from the instant of injection to
the mean between first sight and last appearance of the color at the
outlet.

ELEMENTS OF FIELD TESTS TO DETERMINE FRICTION LOSSES AND
COMPARISON OF OBSERVED VELOCITIES WITH VELOCITIES COM-
PUTED FROM VARIOUS FORMULAS.

In the following pages two tables are arranged (Tables 2 and 3).
Table 2 gives the elements of nearly all known observations on wood
pipes, either round or square. The various series are arranged in
ascending sizes of pipe and within one series the observations are
arranged in ascending order of velocities.

The tests of one experimenter are omitted from these tables as
extraordinary friction values were found. The writer made an inde-
pendent set of tests upon some of the same pipes and found them so
choked with ravelings from the rock cuts above the siphons that erro-
neous values were obtained. In the omitted tests the error lay in
making current meter measurements for Q and then accepting

Q

aR where A was taken as the nominal area of the pipe when as a

matter of fact the true value of A was about 90 per cent of the nominal
A; therefore the true velocity was much higher than that found by
the erroneous assumption of A.

EXPLANATORY NOTES ON TABLE 2.

Column 1 gives the consecutive numbers of the pipes as followed in column 1, Table
3, also in the discussions in the following pages and in the appendix. The small letter
a after the numbers refers to discussion in the appendix. Experiments conducted by
this department are discussed in the text while the essential data secured from other
sources are abstracted in the appendix.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 97

Column 2 gives a consecutive reference number to each observation.

Column 3 shows the authority (see also column 3, Table 3), the series number where
such was carried, together with the date of the test.

HS refers to Hamilton Smith.

EM refers to E. A. Moritz, engineer of the United States Reclamation Service.

C refers to J. L. Campbell.

A refers to the late A. L. Adams.

DB refers to Darcy and Bazin.

H refers to D. C. Henny.

JDS refers to the late J. D. Schuyler.

JM refers to J. S. Moore, assistant engineer, United States Reclamation Service.

N refers to T. A. Noble.

MWH refers to Professors Marx, Wing, and Hoskins, of Leland Stanford, Junior,
University.

KC refers to E. C. Clarke.

S refers to the writer, Fred. C. Scobey, irrigation engineer, in charge of experiments
on the flow of water in channels and pipes.

Column 4 gives the observation number as carried by the experimenter.

Column 10 shows the value of m as computed from the observation.

Column 11 shows the value of n for a normal ptpe of the same size at the observed
velocity. This value is taken by inspection of the » curves in Plate VIII. The
writer has termed this the normal value of n.

Columns 14 to 18, inclusive, show the velocities for the same size of pipe with the
given loss of head (column 9) when computed by the various formulas.

Columns 19 to 23, inclusive, show the percentage comparison of observed velocities
(column 8) to computed velocities (columns 14 to 18). This comparison is explained
on page 55, in connection with the information in Plate VII. The grand algebraic
meaus of all observations in the respective columns are given at the foot of the columns
on page 37. These means are graphed in Plate VII and shown also on page 14. The
other columns are self-explanatory.

EXPLANATORY NOTES ON TABLE 3.

Column 1 gives the same consecutive numbers of pipes as column 1, Table 2. See
discussion after ‘‘Column 1”’ on page 26.

Column 2 gives the inclusive reference numbers of observations on that particular
pipe, which are the same as those in column 2, Table 2.

Columns 10 to 14, inclusive, give the weights assigned to the determination of the
general value of the exponent of V in formula 12, page 7. The method of finding
these weights is explained on page 52.

Column 15 gives the weights assigned the various series in determining the general
equation for the intercept curve shown in figure 4.

Column 16 gives the revised values of the intercepts for individual pipes as explained
on page 53. Note that these may be quite different from the value representing the
intercept in the equations shown in column 17.

Column 17 gives the formulas of flow, as shown by the observations, for the individual’
pipes. Their derivation is explained on page 53.

Columns 18 to 22, inclusive, have the same general significance as columns 19 to 23,
Table 2, respectively. For the series the figures given are the algebraic means of the
percentages for the observations. The grand algebraic means for all pipes are shown
at the foot of the columns on page 39. These means are graphed in Plate VII, and
are also given on page 14.

The other colum”s are considered self-explanatory.

BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

28

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32

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40 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DESCRIPTION OF PIPES.

The descriptions in the following pages are to be taken as sup-
plementing Tables 2 and 3. The methods of determining the
hydraulic elements necessary for each observation are described.
The descriptions of pipes upon which previous experimenters have
made observations are given in the appendix. .

No. 13, Expt. S-12, 8-inch Machine-Banded Douglas Fir Pipe, French
Brothers’ Orchard, North Yakima, Wash.—From the lower end of the 10-inch
pipe discussed as No. 14a reach 1,751.5 feet long of 8-inch machine-banded pipe affords
exceptional opportunity for investigation. This pipe conveys water to a high point
in the orchard, from which it is distributed in open ditches. There are two taps in
the line within the reach between the gauges. First is a 14-inch tap for lawn sprink-
ling; second, a 4-inch valve for irrigation purposes. These were closed tightly
throughout the tests. Gauge No. 1, a mercury manometer, was placed 219 feet from
the inlet valve. Gauge No. 2 was located 1,503 feet from gauge No.1. For runs 1,
6, and 7 a water column was used. For runs 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8 a mercury manometer
was used. An 8-inch control valve is located 17.5 feet downstream from gauge No. 2.
A vertical iron pipe the same size as the wood pipe rises above the ground surface at
this valve and discharges into a wooden division box. All but one ditch leading
from this box were plugged with earth so that all the water was discharged at one end
of the division box. This was equipped with a well-made Cipolletti weir 1.05 feet
long. After run 3 this weir was removed and a rectangular weir, with end contrac-
tions suppressed, was built in its place. This weir was 2.84 feet long. Both weirs
had clean-cut, sharp crests of galvanized iron. The change in weirs was necessary
for the reason that it was desirable to run more water than could be accommodated
through the Cipolletti weir and still maintain so-called standard conditions. The
weirs were about 7 feet from the point where the water was turbulently discharged
from the 8-inch pipe. From the place of impact to within about 2 feet of the weirs
the box was filled with fresh-cut cottonwood branches and leaves. This mass formed
an excellent screen from which the water emerged in good condition for weir measure-
ment. A hook-gauge reading to thousandths of a foot was placed in the box above the
weir. This permitted a direct comparison between the velocity in the pipe as deter-
mined with fluorescein and the velocity as determined by dividing the weir dis-
charge by the nominal area of the pipe section. This comparison is shown in Table 1.
The reach of pipe tested was without vertical curvature and had but one bend ofabout
20° about midway in its length. According to the best information available this
pipe is about 7 years old and is used about 7 months of the year. It is buried about
3 feet below the surface and shows no signs of decay. The pipe capacity was approxi-
mately 8 per cent less than the discharge computed by the new formula.

No. 14, Expt. S-11, 10-inch Jointed Machine-Banded Douglas Fir Pipe,
Congdon Orchards, North Yakima, Wash.—lIrrigation water for the Congdon
Orchards is conveyed from the main canal of the Yakima Valley Canal Co. in a
14-inch pipe (No. 19). From the lower end of this pipe a 10-inch pipe extends about
one-half mile with a right angle bend about midway. A reach 1,297.4 feet long and
without vertical or horizontal curvature was chosen at the lower end of the pipe,
which was 7 years old at time of test and appeared to be free from leakage. The
nominal size of the pipe was accepted as correct. Velocity was measured with
fluorescein, the mean velocity shown by four batches of color for each run being
accepted. The appearance of the color was awaited at a 6-inch hydrant 55 feet
downstream from gauge No. 2. The color was injected at gauge No.1. As the intake
of this pipe line from the open canal is several miles from the river and the velocity
in the pipe is rather high, it is improbable that there was any silt in the reach tested,

Bul. 376, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTe |.

Fic. 1.—TYPICAL CIPOLLETTI WEIR, WITH HOOK GAUGE IN STILLING Box.
Note brush screen in foreground to reduce velocity of approach.

Fic. 2.—WEIR AT OUTLET OF PIPE No. 30, NORFOLK COUNTY WATER Co., VIRGINIA.

The immediate bottom contraction similar tothat shown at side, although water above weir
wall is several feet deep.

Fic. 3.—TANK OF BUTLER (PA.) WATER Co. USED IN MEASURING DISCHARGE OF PIPE
No. 29.

Bul. 376, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE II.

Fic. 1.—THUMB POINTS TO TOP OF PIEZOMETER COLUMN (GAUGE 2) SHOWING NEAR
APPROACH_OF PIPE LINE TO HYDRAULIC GRADIENT. (PIPE No. 31.)

FiG. 2.—OUTLET STRUCTURE, PUMPING LINE OF PASCO RECLAMATION Co., WASHINGTON.
(No. 38.) Discharge measured by rod floats in this concrete section.

Fic. 3.—ALIGNMENT AND PROFILE OF SIPHON, BURBANK Co., WASHINGTON. (No. 39.)

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. Al

although the observations show that the capacity of the pipe is 10 per cent below
the discharge computed by the new formula.

No. 19, Expt. S-10, 14-inch Jointed Machine-Banded Douglas Fir Pipe,
Congdon Orchards, North Yakima, Wash.—About 1 mile of 14-inch pipe con-
veys water from the Yakima Valley Canal to the Congdon Orchards. A reach
1,251.7 feet long was chosen near the lower end. A mercury manometer was used
as gauge No. 1 and a water column as gauge No. 2. The velocity was determined
with fluorescein. The color was injected at gauge No. 1 and appeared at a 4-inch
hydrant about 100 feet below gauge No. 2. The capacity of this pipe is about 4 per
cent less than as computed by the new formula.

No. 26, Expt. S-18, 18-inch Continuous-Stave Redwood Siphon Pipe,
Yakima Valley Canal Co., Washington.—lrrigation water is conveyed across two
depressions between open reaches of canal by means of a redwood siphon of the con-
tinuous-stave type, built in the winter of 1913-14. Thus the pipe had been in use
but a few months at the time of the test. It is buried about 3 feet in sandy and
gravelly soil. Blow-off valves are located at the low points, while a valve allows
the escape of air at the one summit on the line. Gauge No. 1, a mercury manometer,
was located 279.3 feet from the inlet. Gauge No. 2, a water column, was located
1,787.5 feet from gauge No. 1 and 19.7 feet from the outlet. The nominal size of the
pipe was accepted. The velocity within the pipe was determined with fluorescein.
It was not practicable to vary the velocities through the pipe, but so far as two
observations can be accepted the capacity of the pipe is 18 per cent greater than the
discharge computed by the new formula. Some excess is to be expected, as newly
planed redwood is very smooth and the pipe was so new that material deposits of
silt were unlikely.

No. 27, Expt. S—7, 18-inch Jointed Machine-Banded Douglas Fir Siphon
Pipe, Burbank Co., Washington.—Irrigation water from Snake River is carried
over a swale between open sections of a small ditch by means of an inverted siphon.
This pipe was laid during February, 1913. The top of the pipe is about 18 inches
below the surface of very gravelly, open soil. However, the pipe surface is protected
with a heavy coating of asphalt, so that the wood appears to be perfectly sound. The
maximum head is only about 14 feet. Water columns were used at both ends of the
reach tested. Gauge No. 1 was located 67.1 feet from the inlet while gauge No. 2 was
located 1,479.1 feet from gauge No. 1 and 7.6 feet from the outlet. The nominal size
of the pipe was accepted as correct. For each run the velocity within the pipe was
determined through fluorescein tests by taking the mean velocity of five batches of
color. The pipe is straight in horizontal alignment and has no summits in the ver-
tical plane. For all practical purposes it may be considered straight from the fact that
the low pointis but 14 feet below the hydraulic gradient, in a total distance of 1,553.8
feet. At no point was there any indication of leakage, but there was no way of deter-
mining the interior condition of the pipe. It is used for irrigation about seven months
of the year, but is kept full all winter. This probably accounts for the absence of
leakage. The water as pumped from Snake River contains some sand, but all of the
heavier particles have settled to the bottom of the canal before reaching the siphon,
which is some distance from the stream. For this reason there is small likelihood of
a deposit at the low point of the siphon, although the two observations taken indicate
that the capacity is 6 per cent below the discharge computed by the new formula.

No. 29, Expt. S-2, 24-inch Jointed Machine-Banded White Pine Pipe,
Butler Water Co., Butler, Pa.—Municipal water for Butler, Pa., reaches a pumping
plant near the city by gravity flow through a 24-inch pipe line laid in 1907. This
pipe is 5 milos long from Boyds Town Reservoir to a settling tank. The maximum
static head is about 67 feet. The last half mile is a cast-iron pipe, while the rest is
a white pine machine-banded wood pipe. As there was considerable leakage through-
out most of the wood pipe a straight reach of the latter 1,357.7 feet long was chosen

49, BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURR.

well toward the juncture with the cast-iron pipe, which was considered tight. This
fact permitted a close determination of the pipe’s discharge by the rise of water in
the settling tank (PI. I, fig. 3), which is 50 feet in diameter, with vertical sides. Cor-
rections were made for baffle walls and other displacement. The surface of the water
in the tank was taken at 1-minute intervals with a plumb bob and steel tape. Mer-
cury manometers were used at both ends of the reach. During any one run of water
the mercury columns fluctuated but a few thousandths of a foot. The pipe is buried
about 2 feet deep and is slightly elliptical. The mean of the areas of 10 pieces of pipe
remaining from construction was taken as the area of the water section. Nothing is
known regarding the interior of this pipe, but the observations indicate that the
capacity is 5 per cent less than the discharge computed by the new formula.

No. 30, Expt. S-1, 24-inch Jointed Machine-Banded White Pine Pipe,
Norfolk County Water Co., Va.—Water for domestic use in the territory in
Norfolk County, Va., is pumped through 9 miles of 24-inch Canadian white pine
machine-banded pipe from the Cadillac Pumping Plant to the plant in Princess Anne
County. The pipe was laid during 1912 in lengths of from 3 to 12 feet. It is buried
from 18 inches to 4 feet in sandy soil. The wood where bored for the manometers was
sound, but the superintendent of the plant stated that there were several leaks in the
line. This pipe is in use throughout the year. The reach tested is free from either
horizontal or vertical curvature. It is 1,077.5 feet long, beginning about 100 feet
below a gentle curve and extending to a point near the second pumping plant, where
the pipe discharges over arectangular weir into a concrete reservoir. The absence of
moist ground indicated that there were no leaks on the reach tested, but the interior
of the pipe was partly choked by a spongy growth. The velocity of water in the
pipe was found by fluorescein tests. The discharge was determined by hook gauge
readings for head on the weir shown in Plate I, figure 2._ No correction is necessary
for velocity of approach toward the weir, but the conditions of contraction are not
quite standard. Mechanically the weir is well constructed and the discharge was not
more than 2 per cent in error, in the estimation of the writer. The mean cross-sec-
tional area of the interior of the pipe was determined by dividing the discharge as found
above by the velocity as shown by the color. This area was 2.831 square feet, while
the nominal area of a 24-inch pipe is 3.142 square feet. Loss of area was for the most
part caused by the dense blanket of spongy growth adhering to the lower third of the
circumference. As near as the writer could determine from the outlet end of the
pipe, the rest of the perimeter of the pipe was smooth. With the above assumptions
as to the true area of the pipe, the capacity is Indicated by the observations to be 7
per cent greater than the discharge computed by the new formula, but if the presence
of the growth were not known and the nominal size of the pipe accepted as the true
size, then the capacity would be considered equal to the discharge computed by the
- new formula.

No. 31, Expt. S-15, 24-inch Continuous-Stave Redwood Pipe, Ogden,
Utah.—Water for municipal uses is conveyed through Ogden Canyon to a reservoir
near the city in a 24-inch redwood pipe, originally laid in 1890. The use to which
this pipe is subjected, of course, requires it to be wet throughout the year, which is
a more favorable condition than that usually encountered in irrigation practice, where
a pipe is used but six to eight months. On the other hand this pipe practically
reaches the hydraulic grade line at some of the summits. (During tests by the writer
the water column at gauge No. 2 extended but 1 foot above the top of the pipe.) Thus
there is not sufficient head for thorough saturation, yet the pipe appears to be in fairly
good condition. The very rugged topography of this canyon precludes the use of
long tangents in either horizontal or vertical alignment. The reach chosen for test
commenced at the pipe bridge over Ogden River near “‘The Hermitage,’’ where a
mercury manometer was located as gauge No. 1. Gauge No. 2, a water column (PI.
II, fig. 1), was placed 2,240.7 feet from gauge No.1. Douglas fir staves had been used

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 43

in replacing some deteriorated redwood staves, and both gauges had been attached
to the pipe through these because the harder fir appeared to give a tighter repair when
plugs were inserted in the tap holes after the gauges had been removed. However,
according to the superintendent of the line, that part of the pipe between the gauges
was of redwood. The nominal size of the pipe was accepted as correct. The velocity
was determined by injecting fluorescein at gauge No. 1 and timing its travel to an aux-
iliary tap on the same circumferential ring with gauge No. 2. Although the pipe was
24 years old the two observations at commercial velocities indicate its capacity to be
3 per cent greater than that computed by the new formula.

No. 37, Expt. S-4, 36-inch Continuous-Stave Douglas Fir Pipe Line, Pasco
Reclamation Co., Washington.—The rolling ground in the vicinity of Pasco,
Wash., does not furnish adequate support for an open canal. For this reason, and
because of the sandy nature of the soil, water for irrigation is conveyed in pipes after
settling in a reach of open canal where it has a very low velocity. Tests for loss of
head were made on the 36-inch pipe shown in Plate IV, figure 2. Gauge No. 1 was
placed about 800 feet from the intake and gauge No. 2 was located 2,516 feet farther
on. The line abounds in gentle curves, both horizontal and vertical. Mercury
manometers were used for both gauges. The nominal diameter of the pipe was ac-
cepted ascorrect. Asall the water flowing in the canal entered this pipe, it was only
necessary to measure this flow for discharge. This was done by weighted rod floats
of such lengths that any one float just cleared the bottom throughout the reach on
which it was used. This pipe was laid in the winter of 1909 and 1910. For the most
part it is buried from 1 to 3 feet in light sandy soil. Nxterior decay cf the pipe indi-
cated that it would have been better to place the pipe on the surface of the ground.
The two observations taken at commercial velocities indicate that the capacity of this
pipe is 15 per cent less than that computed by the new formula. The writer can not
account for this. Velocities are so low in the feed canal that all sediment should
precipitate before reaching the pipe.

No. 38, Expt. S—5, 36-inch Continuous-Stave Douglas Fir Discharge Pipe,
Pasco Reclamation Co., Washington.—Water for domestic and irrigation use is
lifted 107.2 feet vertically from Snake River to the canal-reservoir shown in Plate II,
figure 2. All of the pumps feed one continuous-stave wood pipe 36 inches in diam-
eter. This pipe, 893 feet in length, was built in 1909. Though at a rather sharp
incline, the pipe is practically straight. Gauge No. 1, a mercury manometer, was
located 335 feet from the pumps, while gauge No. 2, a water column, was located but
20 feet from the outlet shown in the plate and 538.1 feet from gauge No.1. The pulsa-
tion due to the pumps was evident in the mercury columns, but at gauge No. 2 their
effect was hardly noticeable, even in the water column. The nominal diameter of
the pipe was accepted as correct. The discharge was measured with weighted rod
floats in the concrete section of open canal shown in the plate. These were of such
length that they barely cleared the bottom of the channel. It was not practicable
to vary the discharges through this pipe. The two observations taken at the com-
mercial velocities indicate that the capacity of this pipe is about 13 per cent below
the discharge computed by the new formula.

No. 39, Expt. S-8, 38.13-inch Continuous-Stave Douglas Fir Siphon Pipe,
Burbank Co., Washington.—lrigation water from the Snake River is conveyed
across a wide swale in section 16, township 8 north, range 31 east, by means of a con-
tinuous-stave siphon 6,170.4 feet long, built in February, 1913 (Pl. II, fig. 3). This
pipe is 38.13 inches in diameter, as determined by measurements of outer circum-
ference throughout its length and by measurements of stave thickness. It is sup-
ported on cradles on the surface of the ground and appears to be in perfect condition.
During the colder months water is withdrawn and the ends are plugged. Irrigation
continues about seven months each year. The pipe is straight in horizontal align-
ment. while the vertical curves are so gentle that for all practical purposes they are

44 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

straight. There is one summit, as shown by the view. The maximum head is 74
feet. Water columns were used for both gauges. Gauge No. 1 was located 88.8 feet
from the inlet. Gauge No. 2 was located 5,965.9 feet from gauge No. 1 and 115.7 feet
from the outlet. Velocity within the pipe was determined by fluorescein tests, the
mean time of travel of five batches of color being accepted. Levels were determined
by static head; that is, on one visit to the pipe it happened that no water was running,
so simultaneous readings at both gauges, taken 10 seconds apart for 1 minute, gave a
true water level, The extremely slow fall of the water surface throughout these
readings indicated that the leakage was negligible, which fact was also apparent to
the eye. As well as an examination of the pipe outlet would disclose, the pipe was
clean and smooth on the interior, though an examination of the long, low stretch
across the marshy bottom of the swale might have shown deposits. The writer does
not believe this likely, however, for the reason that the water flows for about 6 miles
in open channels at comparatively low velocities before reaching the intake, and in
these channels the heavier sand would have precipitated, leaving the water little
more than clouded. The one observation at the commercial velocity indicates the
capacity of this pipe to be about 10 per cent greater than that computed by the new
formula.

No. 40, Expt. S-6, 40-inch Continuous-Stave Douglas Fir Siphon Pipe,
Burbank Co., Washington.—Irrigation water is conveyed across a depression
between two sections of open channel by a continuous-stave siphon, built in Decem-
ber, 1912, along the west side of section 6, township 8 north, range 31 east. This pipe
was constructed on the surface of the ground and supported on cradles. At the time
of these experiments, therefore, it was in its second irrigation season. As shown by
the profile in Plate III, figure 1, there is one summit on the reach tested, but as this
is protected by a standpipe, there was probably no air accumulation at the summit
at the time of this test. Although the pipe is about 2,900 feet long, a reach 927.4 feet
long was chosen near the outlet end for the reason that there is a diversion from the
lowest point of the pipe. Gauge No. 1, a mercury manometer, was located 1,049.6
feet above the outlet and gauge No. 2, a water column, was located 122.2 feet above
the outlet. The water divided in the outlet structure, flowing in two directions, one
stream continuing in an earth channel and the other in a concrete-lined channel.
The discharge in the pipe was determined by the sum of the flows in these two chan-
nels, as measured by current meter. The nominal area of the pipe was accepted as
correct. At velocities exceeding 2 feet per second, it was noticeable that sections of
the pipe immediately following the sharpest vertical curves vibrate about 1 inch,
vertically, upon the cradles. This emphasizes the necessity for securing anchorage
at bends. The two observations taken at commercial velocities indicate the capacity
of this pipe to be about 3 per cent greater than that computed by the new formula.

No. 42, Expt. S—-9, 48-inch Continuous-Stave Redwood Siphon Pipe,
Cowiche Siphon, Yakima Valley Canal Co., Washington.—Water for irrigation
is conveyed across Cowiche Canyon, about 4 miles from North Yakima, Wash., in a
redwood siphon built in January, 1914. (PI. IV, fig. 1.) Gauge No. 1, a mercury
manometer, was located 67.3 feet from the inlet (PI. III, fig. 2), while gauge No. 2, a
water column, was located but 7.6 feet from the outlet. The inlet to the pipe is at
the bottom of a concrete well about 10 feet deep. Subsequent tests to determine entry
losses showed that much air was entrained and carried into the pipe, but no influence
of air was apparent at gauge No. 1, which was attached to the pipe at the mid-point
of its left side. From the intake to gauge No. 1 the pipe is straight. This is likewise
true of the pipe for about 100 feet before gauge No. 2 isreached. For the balance of
the distance between gauges the pipe is virtually one long vertical curve, as it is under
a maximum head of about 100 feet and the total length is but 962.3 feet. The pipe
has but one gentle bend in horizontal alignment. For each of the several runs made
with different velocities in this pipe fluorescein was timed from inlet to outlet, the

Bul. 376, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

Fic. 1.—ALIGNMENT AND PROFILE OF SIPHON, BURBANK Co., WASHINGTON. (No. 40.)

Fic. 2.—MERCURY MANOMETER (GAUGE 1) ATTACHED TO SIDEOF COWICHE SIPHON
(No.42), YAKIMA VALLEY CANAL, WASHINGTON.

See note on figure 1, Plate IV.

Fia. 3.—CURRENT METER STATION BELOW OUTLET TO PIPE No. 42.
A concrete slab, marked every 0.5 foot.

Bul. 376, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fic. 1.—COWICHE SIPHON (No. 42), YAKIMA Fic. 2.—MAIN LINE, PASCO RECLAMA-
VALLEY CANAL Co., WASHINGTON. TION Co., WASHINGTON (No. 37),
TYPICAL ALIGNMENT AND PROFILE.

Fila. 3.—TRUNK LINE, MOHAWK HybrRo-ELecTric, Co., NEW YorK (No. 50). TYPICAL
ALIGNMENT AND PROFILE.

Bul. 376, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

Fia. 1.—TRUNK LINE, SALMON RIVER POWER Co., NEW YORK. TAKEN ON REACH TESTED.
Typical alignment. Straightin profile. (No. 51.) See figure 2.

Fic. 2.—SUBMERGED WEIR BELOW POWER HOUSE, SALMON RIVER POWER Co. NEW YORK.
Discharge measured by calibrating weir. (No. 51.) See figure 1.

Fia. 3.—MERCURY MANOMETER AND FLUORESCEIN GUN (GAUGE 1) ON 1314-FooT PIPE
OF NORTHWESTERN ELECTRIC Co., WASHINGTON. (No. 52.)

n ny

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 45

mean velocity of four or five batches of color being accepted as the mean velocity of
the water within the pipe for that particular run. Many of these color tests were
checked by current meter measurements made by the two-tenths and eight-tenths
depth method at the meter station shown in Plate III, figure 3. This station is in
the concrete flume about 70 feet below the cutlet from the siphon. The agreement
between the two methods is shown in Table 1. As this pipe had been in use but a
few months the interior was probably in excellent condition. The maximum dis-
charge of the pipe necessitates a mean velocity of about 5.5 feet per second, so that it
is probably scoured quite clean and smooth at all times. The capacity of the pipe
was about 15 per cent greater than that computed by the new formula.

No. 50, Expt. S-16, 78-inch Continuous-Stave Douglas Fir Pipe, Mohawk
Hydro-Electric Co., Ephratah, N. Y.—The power house of the Mohawk Hydro-
Electric Co., near Ephratah, is supplied with water by a trunk line of about 24 miles
of 78-inch stave pipe from the reservoir, Peck Lake, to the surge tank. (PI. IV, fig. 3.)
. From the tank a stave pipe 96 inches in diameter extends to a point 1,460 feet distant,
where the pressure head is 160 feet. It here joins a steel pipe of the same diameter,
which completes the additional distance of a few hundred feet to the turbines. The
writer conducted a series of tests on a reach of the 78-inch pipe 2,650 feet long. The
lower end of this reach was about 1,000 feet above the surge tank. The whole line
abounds in gentle curves, both horizontal and vertical. The pipe, built in 1910, was5
years old at time of test. It is full of water throughout the year and is not protected
against freezing, being so placed that some portions are completely buried and some
completely exposed. Although extremely cold weather is experienced in this part
of New York, the wood appears to furnish sufficient insulation. The peak load
demands a velocity in this 78-inch pipe of less than 7 feet per second. This velocity
and the fact that water comes from a reservoir that should act as a settling basin prob-
ably guarantees a pipe free from sediment. Several minor leaks were found on the
reach tested. These are mostly at ends of staves where no additional bands were
placed, and the pressure has bent outward the end of the stave farthest from the sup-
port of a band, the bend, of course, occurring under the last band. Whether the
elastic limit of the wood had been exceeded and the fiber torn could not be ascer-
tained, but the condition was such as to emphasize the desirability of confining all
the joints in a stave pipe to a zone a few feet in length and placing extra bands through-
out this zone. This of course does not apply to pipes under light pressures, say,
30 or 40 foot heads. Velocities within the pipes were determined directly with
fluorescein for observations 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, and indirectly by comparison with the
rating curve of the concrete channel forming the tailrace, for observations 5 and 6.
The tailrace was calibrated by means of six careful current-meter gaugings, and a
rating curve was plotted showing the comparison between gauge heights in the tail-
race and velocities in the 78-inch pipe. The comparison between color tests and
meter tests is shown in Table 1. The agreement between the two methods is closer
than is usually expected by experienced hydrographers. Mercury manometers were
used at both gauges. Some trouble was experienced from freezing temperatures
(tests were made the first week in April, 1915), but no trouble occurred from air in
the pipe, as the intake is deeply submerged. The color was injected at gauge No. 1
and observed at a secondary tap in the pipe 1 foot downstream from gauge No. 2, the
water flowing into a white-lined pan which reflected greenish color. The same
general procedure was followed here as on the Altmar tests (No. 51). That is, simul-
taneous readings were made over a long period of time, on both manometers and on a
hook gauge in the tailrace. When the records were brought together, periods of slight
fluctuation might be selected and each of these called an observation. Some such
method as this must be chosen when a power plant in commercial operation is tested,
as no one knows just when the changes in load, and consequent changes in velocity

1 Engin. Rec., Vol. 64, No. 22, Nov. 25, 1911, p. 627.

46 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

within the pipe, are to occur. The capacity of this pipe was 9 per cent less than the
discharge computed by the new formula. From the fact that the inlet is from a
reservoir, and because the curves are very gentle, experience indicates that this
pipe should have a greater capacity for a given loss of head than the new formula
would indicate, although it is true that the interior condition uf the pipe was not
known. Two air valves at summits and one blow-off at a low point occur within the
reach tested. The air valves are boxed to prevent freezing.

No. 51, Expt. S-3, 144-inch Continous-Stave Douglas Fir Power Pipe
Line,' Salmon River Power Co., New York.—About 4 miles from Altmar, N. Y.,
on the bank of the Salmon River, is located an hydroelectric plant, constructed in
1913 and 1914 to carry a portion of the load formerly served by one of the big plants
at Niagara Falls. Stillwater Reservoir is formed by a dam across the main channel
of Salmon River about 2 miles above the power plant. A tunnel 600 feet long con-
veys water from the reservoir to the upper end of a continuous-stave Douglas fir pipe
line 144 inches (12 feet) in diameter. (PI. V, fig. 1.) At the end of 3,450 feet a taper
transition section about 50 feet long leads into a similar pipe 132 inches (11 feet) in
diameter. Tests were made on the 12-foot pipe. The portion of the pipe tested is
without vertical curves, being laid on an even gradient Practically the lower third
of the pipe is buried. No leaks worthy of notice occurred throughout the pipe.
The line had been in operation but a few months, and since the velocities were high
(up to more than 8 feet per second), it probably was in perfect condition on the inside,
although it was not feasible to ascertain this. The staves are 4inches thick. Taps
for the nipples were made by a 74-inch wood bit until the tip of the bit punctured the
inside surface of the pipe. The nominal area of the pipe was accepted as its true area.
After making-these tests the writer made careful measurements of a still larger pipe
built by the same company and found the true area extremely close to nominal area.
The discharge of the pipe, from which the velocity within the pipe was obtained,
was determined in the following manner: As*shown in Plate V, figure 2, after the
water passes through the turbines it falls over a submerged weir into a tail-race
channel which in turn discharges into Salmon River about a quarter of a mile
below the power house. A good meter rating could be obtained, as the mean velocity
for the greatest discharge was but 3.25 feet per second. This velocity did not cause
a turbulent condition in the channel, since the latter had a hard, flat rock bottom.
The form of the weir and the conditions of velocity of approach are such that the
writer did not feel justified in accepting the discharge as computed from any known
weir formula. The velocity of approach, in particular, is an uncertain quantity,
since the bottom of the channel slopes up from 20 feet deep at the power house to a
mean of but 1.234 feet deep immediately above the weir crest, within a horizontal
distance of 220 feet. The weir is 79.6 feet long with end contractions approximately
suppressed. It is a concrete wall 18 inches thick, rounded over on top. It is not
designed as a measuring weir but for the sole purpose of drowning the draft tubes
for all discharges. This weir was calibrated by making four careful current-meter
measurements with as many discharges from a bridge across the tailrace below the
weir; and meanwhile reading a hook gauge in a stilling box 8 feet above the weir and
a tape gauge 3 feet below the weir. The latter gauge reading had no bearing on the
calibration but was taken for the purpose of securing more information concerning
submerged weirs. The results of these measurements follow. The elevations are
based on a bench mark with an assumed elevation of 10.000 feet.

————s

- 1Eng. Rec., vol. 69, No. 24, June 13, 1914, p. 671.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 47

TaBLe 4.—Simultaneous discharge, elevation of water surface above weir, elevation of water
surface below weir, and head on weir.

P Elevation | Elevation | Head on
No. Discharge. above weir.| below weir. weir.
Second-feet. Feet. Feet. Feet.
fle oie adil Sete MEA eE ea casita al a ati: VA ach pa ea ie I 106.6 8. 752 Fe ttl 0.515
FAS eceiin GRRE EIB a ARE I RS Da eS 446.1 9. 539 |(not taken) 1.302
Bec SOC Nb Sac SPS ete rte PARSE Pe pec UR Es gE 724.9 10. 123 9.62 1. 888
hols Sea GS DATO Li SSRI NBII Ra AS Mayra eR Se ae OER 749.6 10. 172 9. 62 1. 937

The mean elevation of the weir crest, 8.237 feet, was based on readings with level
and rod taken every 5 feet throughout its length. During measurement No. 1 the
hook gauge remained constant. During No. 2 water rose 0.142 feet on the weir.
During No. 3 water fell 0.020 feet on the weir. During No. 4 water fell 0.049 feet
on the weir. The mean gauge reading was accepted were fluctuation occurred.
Current-meter measurements were made by the two and eight-tenths depth
method. As the load carried (and consequently the discharge of water at a
power house) varies throughout the day, and since the discharge is controlled
by the load (by means of governors), the following method of testing the 12-foot
pipe for loss of head was adopted: The mercury manometers and the hook and tape
gauges were read continuously throughout the morning and afternoon. A synchronous
profile was then platted showing all gauge readings. From this profile periods of
comparatively uniform flow were chosen and each of these periods was designated as
an observation. These would necessarily vary in length of time. From the calibra-
tion curve of the weir the discharge for each reading of the hook gauge was taken
and the mean of these discharges was assumed as the discharge which held throughout
the observation. The capacity of this pipe was 2.4 per cent less than that computed
by the new formula. Since the pipe was new, joints smooth, and the curvature
gentle, the writer would estimate the capacity of this pipe to be greater than that
computed by the new formula. Tests by all experimenters show similar cases where
the observations indicate far different results than the conditions appear to warrant.

No. 52, Expt. S-14, 162-inch Continuous-Stave Douglas Fir Power Line,
Northwestern Electric Co., Condit Plant! on White Salmon River, Wash-
ington.—About 2 miles above the mouth of White Salmon River is located the
Condit Plant of the Northwestern Electric Co. Some 6,000 feet upstream a high
diversion dam raises the water above the intake to the supply pipe line. This, said to
be the largest wood-stave pipe in the world, 162 inches or 134 feet in diameter, is used
to convey the waters of White Salmon River from the diversion dam to the surge tank,
adistance of 1 mile. Within the surge tank is a structure that divides the water from
the 134-foot pipe between two 9-foot pipes with very little loss of head. Each of the
9-foot pipes serves 1 electrical unit in the power house. (Pl. XI, fig.1.) About mid-
way of the large pipe, upon which tests were made, is a bend of 83° with a radius of but
40 feet (less than 3 diameters). In the opinion of the writer, such a bend would cause
an appreciable loss of head independent of the friction loss, and for this reason a
reach of pipe was chosen between this bend and the surge tank. Mercury manometers
were used for both gauges, the equivalent water column being just too high to be
feasible. (Pl. V, fig. 3.) Gauge No. 1 was located on the zone of neutral velocities
209.9 feet from the bend. Gauge No. 2 was located 2,378.9 feet from gauge No. 1 and
about 40 feet above the dividing tongue in the surge tank. During all of the runs the
load carried by the unit served by the right-hand 9-foot pipe was held constant, all the
fluctuation being thrown to the other 9-foot pipe. The time necessary for fluroescein
to travel from gauge No. 2 through the constant-velocity pipe was determined by

1 Eng. Rec., Oct. 11, 1913; Eng. News., vol, 70, No. 15, p. 685.

48 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

accepting the mean time of four batches of color traveling from that gauge to the outlet
of this particular pipe in the tailrace at the power house. For each of the tests for loss
of head for differing velocities, color was injected at gauge No. 1 and timed to the outlet
of the constant-velocity 9-foot pipe. To determine the time necessary for the color to
travel between gauges for any particular run the time it spent in the 9-foot pipe
was deducted from the total. For each run of water two batches of color were timed
immediately before and after the gauge readings, and the mean time obtained was
accepted.

A NEW SET OF FORMULAS FOR THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE
PIPE.

So far as the writer has been able to ascertain, there have been two
suggested modifications of existing formulas and three sets of formulas
which were intended solely for use in the design of wood-stave pipes.

With the experiments before them, which have been underscored in
Plate VII, Williams and Hazen in 1903 suggested the coefficient 120
in their general formula‘ given on page 6.

In 1915 Andrew Swickard,? after writing, ‘It is quite apparent
that n [in Kutter’s formula] is not a constant for wooden pipe but a
variable that varies directly with the size of the pipe,” offered the
following formula representing this variation of n,

d
= 35 999 + 0.0105 - (15)-
This formula ascribes all variation in n to the change in diameter of
the pipe, while the present paper shows quite clearly in column 10 of
Table 2 and in Plate VI that this variation is also a function of the
velocity. This latter fact has also been noted by Moritz and by
Williams.

The first formula proposed for sole use in design of wood-stave pipe
(see p. 6) was offered by C. H. Tutton ? in 1899. Although not given
wide publicity in this country and apparently not used to any extent
here, Parker regards it with much favor, stating * in regard to gen-
eral formulas for the flow of water in pipes that “the most useful
formula seems to be the one given by Tutton.”

In this work Parker unfortunately misquotes Tutton’s data from
that journal, giving as Tutton’s formula for flow in wood pipes, V =
1A0MnP2s2 3s instemdson Vi— 129 Tsao os ee p..6.)

In October, 1910, T. A. Noble published his own formula,*®

Q= 1.28 D258 H?58 (16)

which may be compared with formulas 11 and 14, pages6 and 7. This
formula was not given the publicity it deserved and does not appear

1 Hydraulic Tables, Williams and Hazen, New York, 2d ed., 1909, p. 8.

2 The Design of Wooden Stave Pipe, Engin. and Contracting, Vol. XLIII, No. 1, p. 10.
3 Journal Assoc. Engin. Socs., 23 (1899), p. 151. :
4 The Control of Water, P. 4 M. Parker, New York, 1913, p. 427.

5 Wood Pipe, T. A. Noble, Pro. Pac. Northwest Soc. Engin., Vol. IX, No. 1, Oct., 1910.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 49

to have been used to any great extent, probably for the reason that it
ne based on tests covering only a few pipes, namely, a 4-inch pipe
tested by Noble and Harris, Adams’s 14-inch and 18-inch pipes,
Noble’s 44 and 54-inch pipes, and the Ogden tests of 1899 on the
72-inch pipe (Nos. 20, 23, 41, 44, and 48, Tables 2 and 3, and Pl. VII).

In 1911 E. A. Moritz proposed the fourth set of formulas! (see
p. 6) with the following qualification: “This formula is not recom-
mended for adoption until more data are available and some of the
uncertain points have been cleared up.”

A fifth set of formulas is now offered by the writer, who has fully
appreciated the inadvisability of extending the number of formulas
already existing except as must be required by continued investigation.
Hilis own experiments, especially those on large pipes, when studied in
coninection with all previous data, would seem to supply convincing
proof that a new formula is needed.

With the exception of formula 15 all of the formulas referred to
are of the exponential type; that is, they are based on the fact that
fer any particular series of observations, if losses of head are plotted
logarithmically as one set of ordinates and velocities as the other,
the resulting points will lie more or less along a straight line. Such
‘a straight line on logarithmic paper represents an equation of the

form
H=myV2 (17)

which, expressed for logarithmic study, may be stated
log H=log m+z log V (18)

where m is the intercept on the axis of H, for V=1 foot per second
and z measures the inclination of the line, being the tangent of the
angle which it makes with the axis of V. |
For a series of pipes of the same general characteristics but of
varying diameters the values of m follow the general equation

fol == KC GE (19)
Substituting in formula (17)
Kd Vz (20)
This expressed logarithmically becomes
log H=log K+x log d+zlog V (21)

Smith’s tests (No. 1) were made on a pipe too small for any irri-
gation usage and the graphic representation of the results, while

1 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 74 (1911), p. 442.
42463°—Bull. 376—16——4

50 ‘BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

adding no significant information, would have required a far larger
diagram than that presented here. With the exception of these
tests, therefore, data were plotted for all known observations where
records were sufficiently complete. The writer agrees with J. S.
Moore! that—

In preparing a tentative formula for general use all complete data, which can be
accepted as criteria for the loss of head in wood pipe, should be recognized in arriving
at a conclusion.

However, in deriving the new formula, tests made on round wood-
stave pipe only were considered, in view of the proposed use of such
a formula. The comparatively close agreement between results
by use of the new formula and by the Tutton formula, as shown by
Tables 2 and 3, indicates that had the excluded tests been used they
would not have materially changed the new formula, inasmuch as
Tutton used only four series, all of which were excluded |\y ‘he
writer because they were on other than wood-stave pipes. ‘The
close application of Tutton’s formula to stave pipe, as shown by the
consistent agreement in pipes all the way from 4 inches to 144 inches
in diameter, is a remarkable coincidence, since his base data included
no stave pipes whatever and but one round pipe.

In deriving the new formula the following methods were used:
After the observations had been plotted the diagram was used
merely as a sketch, all slopes and intercepts being determined analytic-
ally. Where the test on any one reach of pipe included several
observations the procedure observed was that used in the following
example:

Take the writer’s series 3 (Nos. 272-281, inclusive) on the 144-inch
Altmar pipe. The center of gravity of all the points was first deter-
mined. The antilogarithm of the mean value of the logarithms of
the respective velocities gave the velocity ordinate of the center of
gravity. The slope ordinate of the center of gravity was found
similarly. This point, c, shown by a dot within two circles (Pl. VI),
divides all the plotted observations into two parts. The center of
gravity of each of these parts was found by using only the observa-
tions within the zone of the part. These points, a and b, are shown
by dots within single circles. Thus three points are found, all of
which lie on the straight line Teenie the equation for that
particular reach of pipe.

Let c=center of gravity of whole group; a=center of gravity of the
part of the group above c; b = center of gravity of the part of the group
below c; and let c,, ay, by, and cy, ay, bg, be, respectively, the V
and H coordinates of the above centers of gravity.:

1 Trans, Amer. Soc. Ciy. Engin., 74 (1911), p. 470,

Pate VI.

D IN WooD |

|

Bul. 376, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

ny PLaTe VI.
H= Slope or Loss of Head = 1000 h, in feet.
‘S) S S OF (2h VOLO
> oy Koy) ~ S LS 2
MoFitz%d. in.

A

x
Qs

R L in. (190.

: = ‘ iY ELE SI ie 2)
SURG F [N./O%S %

7 Cy

>
sc ; . 8
= oe MOTION
Ss

a—k “o-

-- 45; Scobey 18 in.
)

ul ‘Soljloolen
>
S 2

2.62%/1.64

@
ew

d
QD

J

o
Q 02 _Marx= Wing-Hoskins 72 In.

3 FAC g
“Boe
it

0.

LOGARITHMIC DIAGRAM SHOWING OBSERVATIONS FOR LOSS OF HEAD IN Woop Pipes. NUMBERS CORRESPOND WITH COLUMN 2, TABLE 2.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 51

No. V H log V log H
272 5.942 0.5144 0. 7739 9.7133
273 6.127 .6426 .7873] (Sum=4. 7756 9. 8079} (Sum=58. 8637
274 6.190 .6154 .7917||Mean=.7959=b, 9. 7892| | Mean= 9. 8106=by
275 6.312 .6938 .8001/)Anti-log mean 9.8412/) Anti-log mean
276 6.486 .7237 .8086 =6. 250 9. 8595 =0. 6466
277 6.516. .7155. .8140 9. 8546
278 6.693 .7700 .8256) (Sum=3. 4915 9. 8865) (Sum=39. 8249
279 6.852 .7490 .8358|)Mean= .8729=ay 9.8745||Mean= 9. 9562=aq
280 8.222 1.061 .9150/)Anti-log mean 10. 0257 (| Anti-log mean
281 8.223 1.092 .9151 =7. 463 10. 0382 =0. 9040
Sum=8. 2671 Sum=98. 6886
Mean= .8267=cy Mean= 9.8689=cy
Anti-log mean=6. 710 Anti-log mean=0. 7393

The center of gravity of the whole series thus comes at such a point
that there are 4 points below and 6 points above c. Then

ay —Cy = .0462, and ag —Cy=.0873;

Cy — by = .0308, and Cy — De = .0583 ;
whence:

0.0462 0.0873 6
0.0308 0.0583

|

When the above ratios are in inverse proportion to the number of
observations in the respective zones the three points found lie in the
same straight line and approve the mathematical operations.

The exponent of V in formula 17 is the inclination of the line acb
and is equal to the tangent of the angle formed by the curve and the
axisof V. Thus

= —br_ .1456
=by 0770

= 1.89iioe. (See No. 51, column 17, Table 3.)

The intercept m is found as follows: Since log m=log H—z log V
(from formula 18, p. 49), by using the coordinates of the center of
gravity ¢

log m=9.8689 —1.891 xX 0.8267
log m=8.3056, therefore m =0.02021

In the same manner the exponent of V for each of the pipes
underscored in Plate VII was determined, being found to vary from
1.53 for No. 36 to 2.31 for No. 42. Any general law of variation in
this exponent was not considered in their formulas by Moritz, Wil-
liams and Hazen, or the writer, although Hazen sees a tendency for
the exponent to increase with the size of the pipe,! while Williams
later offered the deductions mentioned on page 11. Simultaneous
values of diameter and exponent were plotted on logarithmic paper.

1 Trans. Amer. Soc, Ciy. Engin., 51 (1903), p. 320.

52 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

As the exponent did not appear to vary in accordance with any
particular law, but depended upon each individual pipe, the writer
followed the authorities name above and derived one general value
for this exponent. The method employed was as follows:

Obviously one observation on a particular pipe gave no data of
value in determining the slope of a line. Two observations at about
the same velocity contributed little more, but two observations at
widely separated velocities gave enough information to indicate at
least a tendency. Ten observations: over a very short range of
velocities did not give results as dependable as the same number over
a greater range. Likewise ten observations, eight of which were
close together and the other two well apart, did not contribute as
- much as the same number of observations evenly distributed through-
out the range of velocities. With these general arguments and Plate
VI as a basis, three men outlined a system for weighting the various
exponents in the individual pipe formulas.

Four factors entered into this process: First, the number of obser-
vations; second, the distribution of the observations as shown by
the distance between the centers of gravity of the upper and lower
zones of observations; third, the extreme range of the observations
on the chart; fourth, the actual range of the velocities. Usually
the weight factor for the number of observations equaled the total
number of observations, but some of the series showed an excessive
evidence in restricted zones with fewer data in other zones. As an
example of this, see No. 41. One observation within each half-
second of velocity range received full weight. Each additional
observation within the same half-second of range received an addi-
tional weight of half a unit. Thus the 11 observations in this series
received a total rating of 8 for the number of observations. (See
column 10, Table 3.)

The study of the data was made on 10-inch base logarithmic paper.
Each inch of distance between centers of gravity of the upper and
lower zones received a weight of 1 in the second factor. Thus, No.
41 was rated 1.6 in this factor. (See column 11, Table 3.)

Each inch of distance between the extreme observations also
received a weight of 1 in the third factor. Thus, No. 41 was rated
2.8 in this factor. (See column 12, Table 3.)

Each one-half foot per second of velocity between the extreme
observations also received a weight of 1 in the fourth factor. Thus
No. 41 was rated 3 in this factor as the range of velocities extended
from 3.5 to 4.8 feet per second, a difference of approximately 1.5 feet
or the equivalent of 3x 0.5 feet per second. The total weight for this
pipe was the product of these four factors, the equivalent of

8X1.6X2.8X3.5=125. (See column 14, Table 3.)

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 53

No pipe was permitted a greater weight than 1,000 in determining
the exponent of V. If the product of the four factors exceeded
1,000 no additional weight over the 1,000 was assigned.

The writer is aware of the arbitrary character of this method of
determining the exponent, but it was obvious that some system of
rating must be assigned and the one used appears to give about
the right weight to the various pipes when Plate VI is studied. The
proof of the relative accuracy of this method is shown in Tables 2
and 3 where the mean of all observations entering into the derivation
of the general value of the exponent agrees with the formula to
within —0.33 per cent. (See foot of column 19, Table 2). The
mean value for all the pipes entering into the derivation of the
exponent agrees with the formula to within +0.66 per cent. (See
foot of column 18, Table 3.)

Letting W,, W,, W;, etc., be the weights for Nos. 2, 4, 5, etc., in
column 14, Table 3, and E,, E,, E;, etc., be the exponents of V in
formulas for Nos. 2, 4, 5, etc. (column 17, Table 3), then

W,E, aE W,E, rh WE, nr os ae Woks —

= 1.803
Weenie, ee We e -

In deriving the values of the coefficient K and the exponent x,
the writer has not pursued the usual practice. This is to plot and
study logarithmically the various values of m (found in a similar
manner to m on p. 51) and corresponding values of d as ordinates
and abscissas, respectively.

The exponents of V in column 17, Table 3, vary within rather wide
limits. The new general formula accepts a weighted mean value
of this exponent, 1.803. Instead of using the values for m as taken
from column 17, Table 3, the writer drew lines at the constant inclina-
tion 1.803 from the center of gravity of all the points in one series
to the line where V equals 1 foot per second (the line for pipe No.
51 being shown in dot-dash in Pl. VI). This revised value of m for
each series shown in Plate VI is found by the equation

log m’ =log H—1.803 log V (22)

(substituting 1.803 for z and transposing equation 18).
Again, taking No. 51 as an example: ‘

log m’ = 9.8689 — 1.803 x 0.8267
log m’ =8.3784
m’ =0.0239

By the method usually employed the value of m (0.0202) shown
in the formula for No. 51, column 17, Table 3, would have been

54 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

used as derived on page 51. The reasoning which recommended
revising the usual method follows:

In Plate VI the curves for the pipes of small diameters intersect
the V=1 line. These intercepts give the values of m. Likewise,
the lines drawn from the centers of gravity for these curves at the
constant slope 1.803 give intercepts m’ not far, as a rule, from m.
Thus not very much difference appears for the smaller pipes; but
out in the zones of curves for the larger pipes the average velocities
are so much higher, and consequently the centers of gravity are so
far from V=1, that the difference between m and m’ is very marked.
The revised method places all curves on the same footing; that, is,
the intercepts for the large pipes will have no more influence on
the general formula than the intercepts for the small pipes. Using
this method a line at the constant inclination 1.803 may be drawn
through the poimt representing but one observation and a value
of m’ found that is of weight im determining the general formula,
whereas this same point contributes nothing toward the determina-
tion of the exponent 1.803.

The values of m’ for the various series are shown in column 16,
Table 3. In order to derive the term Kd* (formula 19), figure 4
was platted logarithmically with values of m’ as ordinates and of
d as abscissas.

The center of gravity of all the points is shown by the dot within
two circles while the centers of gravity of the zones above and below
this point are shown as dots within single circles. These three
dots lie in the same straight line represented by the equation

Mm 7,68 pecs — OPA TOD aa a (23)

where 7.68 is the intercept on the hne d=1 and —1.17 is the inclina-
tion of the curve to the horizontal axis.

Substituting in the general formula (20, p. 49), the general equation
is now evolved for wood-stave pipes, either jointed or of continuous-
stave construction, based on the weighted average condition of all
round stave pipe upon which accepted experiments have been made.
This formula is

H=7.68 d™7 V18=0.419 D--7 V8
becoming
pe 08 Nie: OAL NES

PLT Re 1.17
d D!

(12)

which is shown, with the related formulas, on page 7.

Bul. 376, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.

Be eeeuten year and reference numbers.
[Scobey | —__Mority sa [Moritz [Sey Merits | Scobey T

higea tae r ai ing . i mans.

raeslubieacals[eandle [sidl 888 Tea 26} 1910 | | 1210 | sip iare aE Saag i STS ecs ieor g { ROR SR OCIS RR EXE
las X~ 9 NOS MYR! snOn $09 O[Nq IN AN oN 3 Sg SARS ERS OG NNOR DS
VNR] Ras 9] S$sH] 85 SVVg] 38 fereal Sass] agaal a |SSssie} & RAXfel Ras RSIS SSS 218 NN INNA Ny B8sss NAA

Eee (Oc
Seco aoe e a cee ae cae
itl

a EH it

iFormula Sians and Formulas.

HTT seobey xev= peop *S5He555 ETE
UeSIAOOTHANNONNTENGNTNTGGUAITVNSIAN| sae Mucha rr
Ca i ie D rT Hal 1 mean Wms: Hazeno Ve120 Rs Kool 204 TTT {20
a Hi Morits fea |

I CE nn pa w ve s
HN TAATEAPRES AUTO MTL
WIKI tt Tin il

HT ut tl
A UTVONUNOHUNROUUIE?3

HH HH HEH ba HONOAUOROONONOOE oc
(ee | Hi ni iE
SHULL HL NONE

AURAL HHH AC AECREA HEMI a i TE ae HH TT tt ttt
HT | coe ae ena ati
AUOOUOHOE STE T Co

Ole TTP LTT Tay AUTH AESEGHUU HEE SGETAT J +4 Ey tt

f
I

unt

Ht Git ea ce it att

i” I amauc

S555: 2
(ee

L
a on MIN te THLE
NUDE OOMONTOOUUOOEOUONIE eT TTT ual He RUT eT AAT MEH Hin Mt THI HTT
MHL TAETLTTETLELLG It] HETUECTHRECEH TEE tlk il hi FALSSTITTMHTTITHTT TAHITI TH i uit

ANVOODNHNERNGAONNGNN GN OTVOOQONONNOQINGHI It THe ba adNGc MENON OURAN OUD a OEBE SGD ER4 HUD UUSRUDOT MOND OD OT ARADO ina
ST TTT ETT Tt : aaa ‘i Cee ITCH
osLUTTTTTT aS RTT TTT Ce Ae eT
TTT ST et ee TT th HHL HONEY ftir Hh ind eT TTT
HULANADOODODAANN GRE SANCESSPAPSTESONOLCUIST “eH LY HHATMEE AOA LT eT CTT
IVOAHARSSRCOH GSS ONPSAQUNNENODONGQOOUONEOHONOWIG HEPSHARR OOO UEHMOOMMAN ERPS Mb Adam HH DGAPSAO TP Hel ba HNAGATE
pag tt elie ecly eT TT HESH IAEVTATLATAEUTTAG DOADIRAIUNE AOU AUADOR GMa PAR
PUTT acs Se TPS met ttt 1 if itt ttt
HAST TTT eet COT Hat
He Hal l
SRNL ANE CPE TTT TTT eT
TSS TTS TTT er TPT Te seer Ten TTT] OMHTUet
TT HUTT HT CAT IC PRUENDAS ANE TUUNUORDOOONESAbANOOE + Hf UH
I HH dat ara El TST

Ee

SEE TE
UAT TT UT MARES
HHI MTA sce I TH rT TTT

zit

i

{ai

I

Han

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4

l

l it
POUNUOESAMSUR UMA ANDAR AURORE OOOO 4 HK HURAMEAE AARNE
TTP TTT aa TTT Te PTT
Hl aE TT elses TTT TTT ee PEER bi ol¥ |
a9

i att
ia

l

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il

puted
i= 2SeSSss
SESE

ae |
=]

|

i

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:

PRO TTDAANND ARAMA GSH k
HO TERAENADMEOOOE OREO I
AUUOOOUOAE HAUEORNG OHNO ONOODONY H
aT |

i

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rs)

o
==
=|
—
==)
=

Il IME ONAN ONUGONOUGQHONNOHIPNN HOPS AANA
| Ee HUESMNOUELG CPT PTT
TTT TTT er Teeter eT Tesco [aT itd RTT TH
CUT eee one a fr FUT TTT
CUT HATCH a ina
HUTA rte Lael lat] LITT 2a AH
ATT Ha HARee rT TI mah ONAN TANNA LARSON EA in
mR THT bet Ht Peer TTT Pre

li IMT TTT Te
DEUAOGOCT AADAC Tea Pre TT
TT Tet 90

—
— I Bs
= as =
J [J]
iS SS eS ea
5!

et
eESeS ==
m= a |
===

I
~— Es
{I rt
en ae oe

|_»! SS ws

HOMAOOHINA
rT fee HH
rin eH Onn
WMG IevHGTEUTL
SEN CALLIN
HUNG Winn
Hate eh
UUATESA ESAT HH
ee A Hath HH
Tan fe Pibanih

at PAP

ime
t

—) LE ES eS GS GS eS ea es
Tp!
a) |
= [Fy
ESS

=
3°
o
n
—
==
iS)
=
[5]
=
=
=

ceils

|
CT i
TT i
HY mtn
ll BIO NGATNAVAUUAVNOEZ 0
TTT Te
I
i
I
i
L

I

I
HEEEEEEC EERE HEHE
HT £

l

l

l

I

CTT Pet PUTT REUTER
il MTL NAMIE ptt LL Ht HOUND NAGA ba
TAICTE CELLET EEE HEE
TITeeCH DODD AUANDOUNORDDELORUMMESMOOMORONE ION
Linn
Rar a bd UCY GAO ATONOHD

UH iMG HTT Teese TT

aS CSS Gad) Gd ed) Ge de ee ed
SS SS SN SS PN
—i———t

GE Ge Ge a Be
J = =
ae 7 i
ro | ta} ae ==]
|
WSS SS SS SS SS SS eS

HORHEE l HAH

ll l CT Hutt
in | ‘ee
ia MOUNT ee eh WOONONA

ct ==
4 =a
Reaaaaors====scerSSe=
=

mparison of observed velocities W

E asi IW UT PACUOO ANAT HORAAN ROOM HEH

nat

_ mu
| 14 | 16 | ec[2z|_28 | 29

Pl amen ieee Pana BE

i

HOUEOOONL
LI
[epee

—

BE

ttn
sal kaed
fea st ee

i

FC. Scobey.

CHART SHOWING DEGREE OF CONFORMITY OF OBSERVED VELOCITIES OF WATER IN WooD-STAVE PIPES TO CALCULATED VELOCITIES FOR GIVEN Loss OF HEAD, BY SCOBEY, WyiLIAMS-HAZEN (Cw=120), Moritz, TUTTON, AND WEISBACH FORMULAS.

Wi

ty

AO AAAS QMO A TRAD) es Meson uu

H

von Yo rge 2.4 te ug

Woe Went y
u wr iE rf
; my eee
Line ats ¢ Fs
teat
:

Nema aanrKD

is

F

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 55

COMPARISON OF THE VARIOUS FORMULAS.

The comparison of the various formulas is shown in columns 19 to
23 and 18 to 22, inclusive, Tables 2 and 3, respectively, and graphically
in Plate VII, which presents the following information:

First, a comparison in per cent of observed velocities to velocities
computed by the Williams-Hazen formula (with C,=120), the
Moritz, Tutton, Weisbach, and the new formulas, for all accepted
experiments on wood-stave pipes known to the writer where sufficient
data are given.

Second, the mean of the various percentages, awarding each
observation the same weight; also the mean of the various percentages,
awarding the average percentage for each reach of pipe the same
weight. These items correspond with the footings under columns
19 to 23, inclusive, Table 2, and columns 18 to 22, Table 3.

Third, lines underscoring the observations used in deriving their
formulas by Moritz and Scobey, and the observations leading Williams
and Hazen to recommend a value of 120 as the coefficient to be used
jn their formula in the design of wood-stave pipe. (The Weisbach
formula was derived from tests on metal pipes.)

Tutton apparently assigned the same weight to each series of tests,
although he had but one observation on the Moon Island Conduit
(No. 49) against five for No. 1, and eight for each of the other two
(Nos. 22 to 33).

For the new formula double lines are used, the upper line denoting
the observations used and the weight assigned (1, 2, or 3) in determin-
ing the general equation for m’, and the lower line denoting the
observations used and the weights assigned in determining the
exponent of V. (These lines correspond to the figures in columns
15 and 14, respectively, Table 3.)

As an example of the use of this chart, take observation No. 274
(run 9 on pipe No. 51). Near the top of the plate above the figures
274 (the reference number), Scobey is given for the experimenter and
1914 as the year. Under 274 it will be noted (as indicated by the
cross) that the observed velocity (column 8, Table 2, 6.19 feet per
second), is 0.1 per cent less (column 19, Table 2) than the velocity
(6.20 feet per second, column 14, Table 2), as computed by the new
formula for the same sized pipe with the same loss of head. Similarly
the open circle shows that it is 5.9 per cent more than the velocity
(5.83 feet per second) as computed by the Williams-Hazen formula
(column 20, Table 2); the black dot shows it to be 17.2 per cent less
than the velocity (7.48 feet. per second) computed by the Moritz
formula (column 21, Table 2); the winged circle shows it to be 0.8
per cent more than the velocity (6.14 feet per second) computed by
the Tutton formula (column 22, Table 2); the fact that there are no

56 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

triangles (see other observations on Pl. VII) shows that listed tables
of fin the Weisbach formula do not extend
to 144-inch pipes; hence comparison was
not made with the Weisbach formula
(column 23, Table 2).

At the bottom of the chart the reason
for the blank opposite ‘‘Moritz”’ is quite
obvious, since this observation was made
subsequent to his own tests. Opposite
Scobey’s name the heavy upper line
indicates that all the observations in this
series received a weight of 3 in determin-
ing the general value of the intercept
equation (fig. 4). The light line under
the heavy one indicates that these obser-
vations did not receive much weight in
determining the general value of the
exponent of V (see p. 51, and column 14
Table 3).

At the extreme right of the chart the
same symbols are used to show the relative
positions of the mean of all observation
percentages (see foot of columns 19 to 23,
inclusive, Table 2) and also the means of
the average percentages by pipes (see foot
of columns 18 to 22, inclusive, Table 3).

The new formulas and the Moritz form-
ulas agree for a 4-inch pipe, diverging as
the diameters increase exactly as do the
curves in figure 4. Thus by the time a
pipe 144 inches in diameter is reached the
Moritz formula shows 20 per cent greater
capacity than that shown by the new
formulas while a glance at the larger
sizes of pipes (Pl. VII) shows that even
the new formulas give a greater carrying
capacity than observations on most pipes
larger than 24 inches would promise.

>

“
x
®
i
°
cS)
€
©
2
2}
is
vo
a
ae
2)
Zz
CX
So)
£
a
ie
2

0. 36.0

d= diameter ininches.

Values of m’, (See Col.

QZ

n =1.17
monege:!
Lk Vie
m=: 8.3 d-
* (Moore)

Fig. 4.—Logarithmic diagram developing curve for equation m’=7.68 d -1.17. Small circles show values of m before revising to m’.

KUTTER’S FORMULA AS APPLIED TO
WOOD-STAVE PIPE.

In discussing the Moritz experiments
with reference to the value of n in Kutter’s
formula, Hering states that he “‘recog-

1 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 74 (J911), p. 459.

Bul. 376, U. S. Dept. of AEH e

Q=Quantity, in Second fet
ga YOM ~~ Noy Ss a
V=Velocities, ih feet per ‘second.

PLATE VIII.

AN

ZEEE.
Za

DO
CEE
SLILLLE
DOD

LOL
ON

BoM NY
NA
KW \\\

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BG
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Such BOG
OO

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ks

LADS
can

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ses Sf
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Bean

19"

RK
SANG
a

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Bee ae
PSHSISSBS Sy aah

tl.

nn LD iN AN ‘Ne
su

a re

Sa
a
wae

\
AN

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z= SSS OE x
ee Se ee ae ee ee

NY
ui
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mint

So =10-
Ks)

i

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AN

ca
an
wy

a
a
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ans {

a

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Ny

Sees

a a a

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KY
b
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ANS

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erate

AW
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t Ky \\W

SRD Ni we

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oO Oe © N
n feet per second.
No us

Q= Quantity, in second-feet.

Be

|

ANN

NK
AW

oe N
ay

ok

oe ~ |
lociti Si Me o 8

~ s

Vay ~

LOGARITHMIC DIAGRAM FOR FLOW CF WATER IN WooD-STAVE PIPE, BASED ON FORMULA

V=1.62D° Ho,

FOR COMPARISON.

SIMULTANEOUS VALUES OF 2 IN THE KUTTER FORMULA ARE GIVEN

re

Rs,

Patt
fetta sty:

REESE:
Sig tn Te,

cen

hh
We

iy.
al,

fi
A

SHAW SD WOLTER Waite
MOBMATAUMIE: |

;

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD:STAVE PIPE. 57

nized as well as did Mr. Kutter himself, almost at the outset, that n
was not to be considered a precise and unvarying constant, although
it was more nearly so than any other constant before proposed.”’ !

The fact that n does vary has been understood by hydraulicians
specializing in work involving the Kutter formula, but notwithstand-
ing this the tables and charts which have been accepted as standard
have assigned values of n to certain degrees of roughness without
reference to other conditions. The usual understanding regarding
variation occurring in the value for n has been that n is less in large
channels than in small ones, although the writer has not been able to
show from a study of all available data that this variation is as great
as suggested by Johnston and Goodrich’.

Tn the case of wood-stave pipes an opposite effect is noted; that is,
the value of n becomes greater as the value of R (which is directly
proportional to the diameter) becomes greater. Referring to Plate
VIII it will be noted that all of the straight lines are based on the new
formula (13), page 7, while the n curves are determined in the fol-
lowing manner: To determine the curve for n=0.012, the inter-
sections of the n curve with the diameter curves for various pipes are
found and these give the locus for all pipes and velocities with
n=0.012.

Each intersection is found by solving formulas 5 and 13 (pp. 6 and
7) as simultaneous equations, eliminating V, substituting a known

value for D (from which the known value of R is found, as R =7)

and solving for H, which is equal to 1000s in the Kutter formula.
Note that the value of n increases for a given velocity as the size .
of pipe increases and that the value of n decreases for a given size
of pipe as the velocity increases. These last two statements are
borne out by a glance at the general trend of column 10, Table 2.
Assume that Plate VIII, which is a graph of formula 13, page 7,
correctly represents the flow of water in an average wood-stave pipe.
This assumption is supported by the figures at the foot of columns
19 and 18 in Tables 2 and 3 respectively. Assume also that the n
curves represent the simultaneous values of n for any position on the
graph. Then the variations in the proper value of n to assume
in the design of wood-stave pipe become so complicated that the
Kutter formula had better be abandoned in favor of the exponential
type of formula. This would leave the Kutter formula for its
originally intended purpose, that of design of open channels, for
which it is eminently fitted.

1E. Ganguillet and W. R. Kutter, translated by Rudolph Hering and John C. Trautwine, jr. A General
Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in Rivers and other Channels, New York, 1907, 2d ed.

2C. T. Johnston and R. D. Goodrich. A Formula and Diagram for Determining the Velocity of Flow

in Ditches and Canals. Eng. Rec., 64 (1911), No. 19, p. 542.
3 The Flow of Water in Irrigation Channels. Fred. C. Scobey, U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 194, p. 60.

58 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

EFFECT OF AGE UPON THE CARRYING CAPACITY OF WOOD-STAVE PIPE.

Some manufacturers and hydraulicians have contended that wood-
stave pipe becomes smoother with length of use, and that therefore
the capacity of the pipe increases with its age.

Tn order to study this question the writer prepared figure 5. This
chart shows that, judging by available experimental data, there is
no definite law between age and change in capacity, but unfor-
tunately the results of but one test are accessible on any pipe older
than 7 years. That pipe (No. 31, Ogden, Utah), although 24 years

repecit, per cent

--——- eae average —--—3 |

mung oa averag 3

w

Ee a lt al a cM
aa a | 8 (|e aa a A a |
ei TST] ae STE Ta ee a
Lf} |} —--
* | ee a ea Es a De

malian
mii
vu LLL
0 es es
ori le
as ial
olin ae
= (Lee
oo
oe a
ot oe
se) (olen |
(es oa
aa
joel li aaa

Fig. 5.—Diagram showing lack of relationship between age and carrying capacity. Numbers correspond
with those in column 1, Tables 2and 3. Ages taken from column 4, Table 3. Relative capacities taken
from column 18, Table 3.

old at time of test, shows a capacity only about 3 per cent greater

than the discharge computed by the new formula.

CAPACITY OF WOOD-STAVE PIPES.

In the following pages the design of wood-stave pipes is con-
sidered with reference to carrying capacityalone. Such structural
features as thickness of staves, banding, cradles, etc., do not come
within the scope of this paper.

The total loss of head necessary in the conveyance of a given
quantity of water will be the sum of the velocity head, h,; the entry
head, h,; and the friction head, hr, or its equivalent per unit length;

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 59

less any velocity head, h,’, that may be recovered as the water
approaches the pipe outlet at a velocity relatively high compared
with the velocity in the open water below the outlet chamber. This
total may be expressed by the formula

He=h, +h, + hr—hy’ (21)

where Hg has the significance shown in figure 1 and hy, h,, hr, and
h,’ have the significance defined on page 3. The influence of
gentle curves was included in the data upon which the formulas were
based, so that an additional loss for shght bends or curves need not
be considered in the design of the usual pipe on irrigation systems.
If sharp bends can not be avoided then an additional loss of head
must be anticipated. The results of such tests as have been made
on bends in pipes are given in standard works on hydraulics.

VELOCITY AND ENTRY LOSSES.

In designing pipes of small diameter and great length, the losses
due to velocity and entry heads, h, and h,, are so small compared
with the friction loss that they may be neglected. Otherwise they
should be included in the allowance for total lost head.

As a rule a wood-stave pipe line begins under one of four general
conditions:

1. Intake chamber located in a reservoir, where the velocity of the
water is practically zero. No taper or transition section between
intake and pipe.

2. Intake chamber located on an open channel where there is an
appreciable velocity toward the structure but where this velocity
is not available because a bend or well at the intake practically
dissipates the velocity head.

3. Intake chamber followed by a transition section in which the
velocity is increased over that existing in the leading channel or
reservoir. ‘The outlet end of a pipe beginning under this condition
is usually provided with a similar transition section.

4. The wood pipe but a continuation of another pipe of the same
size but of concrete, steel, or other material. In this case there is
little or no loss due to entry or velocity, the only factor introduced
being the change in friction head due to change of material.

In conditions 1 and 2 it is best to consider the water above the
intake as at rest. From this state of rest velocity must be created and
increased to the mean velocity, V, existing in the pipe. The head,
h,, necessary to create a given velocity is shown in column 2, Table 5.
The entry loss will be from 0.5 h, where the pipe of standard size
begins at a headwall and is without bell or taper mouth, to about
0.25 h, for a rounded intake, and 0.05 h, for a bell-mouth intake.
Many of the structures built by the United States Reclamation

60 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Service were designed with the entry loss taken as half the velocity
head, even though there were more or less rounding and taper in the
intake structures. In Table 5, column 3, is shown the amount of
entry loss when taken as half the velocity head (column 2); and the
sum of the entry and velocity losses is shown in column 4.

TABLE 5.— Mean velocity in pipe, V, in feet per second; and head of elevation lost creating
this velocity and overcoming entrance conditions, hy+he, in feet.

1 2 1

Vv hy he hy+he. Vv hy he hy+he
Fi.persec.| Feet. Feet. Feet. ||Ft.persec.| Feet. Feet. Feet.

1.0 0.016 0. 008 0. 024 5.0 0. 389 0.195 0. 584
2 022 - O11 - 033 2 - 210 630
4 030 -015 045 4 453 227 680
.6 040 - 020 060 -6 488 . 244 732
8 050 - 025 075 -8 523 . 262 785
2.0 062 . 031 093 6.0 560 . 280 840
2 075 - 037 112 .2 598 . 299 897
A 090 - 045 135 A 637 -3l9 956
-6 105 - 053 158 6 677 - 339 1.016
-8 122 - 061 183 8 719 «309 1.078
3.0 140 070 210 7.0 762 381 1.143
2 159 - 080 239 2 806 - 403 1. 209
4 180 . 090 270 4 851 . 426 1.277
-6 202 - 101 303 -6 898 - 449 1.347
.8 224 -112 336 -8 946 - 473 1.419
"4.0 249 - 125 374 8.0 995 - 498 1. 493
2 274 - 137 411 2 1. 045 - 523 1. 568
4 301 . 151 452 4 1. 097 - 549 1. 646
-6 329 - 165 494 -6 1.150 -575 1.725
8 358 - 179 537 -8 1. 204 . 602 1. 806

Where the usual types of inlet and outlet structures are employed,
with but little construction and consequent expense incurred for con-
servation of entry and velocity heads it is recommended that the
figures in Table 5 be used. In that case any influence on the total
loss of head, derived from the rate of flow toward the intake as in
condition 2, where water enters the pipe from an open channel, will
introduce a small factor of safety for conservative construction.
The same may be said of any slight recovered velocity head where
the pipe discharges into an open channel.

In figure 1, Plate XII, probably the most common form of con-
struction for both inlet and outlet of a wood-stave siphon is shown.
In some cases taper staves are used in both inlet and outlet, so that
the velocity is gradually increased in entering the pipe, thus reduc-
ing the entry loss. This construction classes the pipe under
condition 3. The velocity is gradually decreased at the outlet,
preserving the velocity head. The usual practice in this type of con-
struction is to place the center of the pipe opening for the inlet cham-
ber at or below the bottom of the leading canal. The pipe at the
outlet is usually placed so that the top of the opening is slightly
below the high-water line at full capacity.

PLATE IX.

Bul. 376, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

&
6
©
S
ny)
i")

E Section of G.

ECScobey.

Scale of BCDE.

SUGGESTIVE INLET AND OUTLET STRUCTURES FOR INVERTED SIPHONS.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 61

The type of construction with a well having a rounded intake is

shown in C, Plate IX. This type is generally used where the hillside
is very steep just at the pipe intake or where a drop in grade line is
included in the well structure.
' In D, Plate IX, is shown a type of entrance structure for both
round and square pipes quite frequently used by the United States
Reclamation Service where moderate velocities (5 or 6 feet per sec-
ond) only are to be considered.

The west Okanogan irrigation district (Washington) uses a general
type like E, Plate IX, for both inlet and outlet structures. In the
inlet structure shown the concrete rounds into the pipe opening, the
center of which is level with the bottom of the canal.

The forms, reinforcement, and final entrance of a large siphon in
Wyoming are shown in Plate XIII.

A pipe with both inlet and outlet tapering, such as condition 3,
will have the maximum efficiency as it approaches a ‘“ Venturi tube
with elongated throat,’’ as described to the writer by D.C. Henny.
Such a structure would have the sides of the inlet converge at the
rate of about 1 in 5, while the transition section at the outlet would
diverge at the rate of about 1 in 24. On such a pipe less than 5 per
cent of the velocity head will be unrecovered, charging all losses
other than friction to entry head.

The transition section usually includes part of the intake or out-
let structure proper and also a short length of the wood pipe. On
the Arkansas Valley conduit of the Colorado Fuel & Iron Co. there
are 25 siphons of wood, incased in concrete.t The intake ends of
these siphons taper at the rate of 1 inch per foot of pipe until the
diameter at the opening is 1 foot greater than that of the main pipe:
The inlet to one of these siphons is shown in figure 3, Plate XII.

This argument regarding conservation of velocity head and reduc-
tion of entry head is exemplified in the recently completed designs
for a large siphon carrying water at a very high velocity at the Sun
River crossing on the Sun River project of the United States Recla-
mation Service. The outlet structure is shown as A in Plate IX.

The water section in the leading canal has an area of 928 square feet
with a velocity of 1.08 feet per second. By tapering wing walls and
concrete intake structure the area at the upper end of the wood-stave
pipe has been reduced to 50.3 square feet (96-inch pipe) and the
velocity increased to 19.9 feet per second. By this time 6.14 feet of
head of elevation has been devoted to. building up a high velocity.
Of course it is important that as much as possible of this velocity
head be recovered at the outlet end.

1 Frictional Resistance in Artificial Waterways. V.M, Cone, R. E, Trimble, and P,S, Jones, Colorado
Sta, Bul, 194 (1914),

62 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Throughout approximately the last 100 feet of wood pipe ending at
a, Plate IX, tapering staves are inserted in the pipe until an elliptical
section 12 feet wide and 9 feet high isreached ata. The area has been
increased so gradually up to 84.82 square feet that, it is computed,
3.99 feet of velocity head have been recovered, the velocity meanwhile
being reduced to 11.8 feet persecond. Between b and c the transition
section changes from an elliptical to a rectangular shape 132 feet wide
by 10.6 feet high, with an area of 153.12 square feet. In this transi-
tion section the vertical walls and flat floor and roof begin at b with |
zero width, increasing to full width at c, the corners being rounded
out in the concrete. The velocity is further diminished to 6.54 feet
per second and the computations show an additional velocity head
of 1.51 feet recovered. At the upper end of the canal leading from
the structure the velocity is further reduced to 2.10 feet per second by
enlarging the section, the additional recovered velocity head being
computed as 0.59 feet. Thus of the 6.14 feet devoted at the inlet end
to increasing the velocity, the computations show the recovery of all
but the 0.05 foot, which is due to the difference in velocities in the
channels above and below the structure. However, even with care-
fully designed transition sections the computations show an aggregate
of 1.80 feet devoted to ‘‘entry head”’ at the various changes in cross
section.

The outlet structure of the Similkameen Siphon of the West Okano-
gan Irrigation District, Washington, is also designed with a view to
conservation of velocity head. This structure (B, Pl. TX) consists
of a 46-inch stave pipe tapered in a length of 12 feet to a diameter of
57.5 inches, the pipe then discharging into a wooden flume. The
most noticeable feature of the structure is the use of guide wings
extending into the flume. These prevent a sudden enlargement of
the cross section at the end of the pipe and tend to recover the veloc-
ity head. The floor of the flume is extended into the pipe to the point
where the taper section begins, thus preventing contraction and con-
sequent loss of head due to extension of the segment of the pipe below
the floor line at the bulkhead. No attempt is made to secure water-
tightness in these guide wings, but the water is allowed to enter
between the wings and the flume proper so that no pressure may be
brought against the light wings. All tightness is secured at the bulk-
head and in the flume proper.

Where a change is made in the size of pipe a long taper transition
section is usually installed. In the Altmar pipe (No. 51) the diameter
is changed from 12 to 11 feet. This change is so gradual that it can
hardly be detected by the eye. In asimilar way the Mabton pressure
pipe (Nos. 43, 45, and 46) is reduced from 552 inches to 48? inches.
Where changes in sectional area are made in this manner probably

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 63

the loss of head due to such change is negligible, the change in velocity
head alone being appreciable.

Unless a tapered outlet structure is installed it will be best to
consider all of the velocity head within the pipe as dissipated in impact
and eddies due to the sudden enlargement of the sectional area in the
outlet chamber. That is, for purposes of design recovered velocity
head should not be counted upon.

During the season of 1915 the writer endeavored to secure informa-
tion as to the amount of head lost between the surface of the water
at the intake and a point 3 diameters down the pipe, charging such
loss of head to velocity and entry losses jointly. Some of the pipes
tested were of concrete and some of wood, but this difference did not
alter the value of the information secured. The latter was meager,
however, for the reason that designers have been ultraconservative
in allowing for friction losses of head in the pipe; consequently the
entrance in most cases is not submerged. The water from the canal
rushes down the first reaches of pipe and in a very turbulent and air-
charged condition finally fills the pipe.

Table 6 shows the results of such tests as could be made. These
were incident to those made for the determination of friction losses
jn the pipe.

TaBLeE 6.— Tests for loss of head at inlet of wood and concrete pipes.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Mean | Loss of} Loss of} Length} Total | Loss v=

veloc- | head, | head |of pipe, loss be- veloc- | he=
Test Diam- | ityin | intake | perfoot}] 3D to | from | tween ity entry |}, ih
ae eter. pipe to of pipe,| gauge | 8D to | intake | head | head vt De
per_ | gauge | gauge 2 gence and | for V, |=#hy.
il :

second. 1-2. 3D col. 3

Inches.| Feet. Foot. Foot. Feet. Foot Foot. Foot Foot. | Foot.
i. Ste bhRS coop Rene 8 3.51 0. 039 |0. 0108 3.8 0.041 |—0.002 | 0.191 0. 095 0. 286
TGR Shee Se ae ee 8 3. 56 -014 | .01 3.8 - 041 |— .027 197 . 09 294
3. so: ha eee 12 1. 60 - 021 | . 00126 7.0 -009 |+ .012 040 . 020 0
Choices, Sai i i ea ian 12 1. 60 . 047 | .00146 7.0 -010 |+ .037 040 . 020 060
Feb at esc aneeae 60 3. 08 . 125 65. 0 035 |+ .090 150 . 075 225
QI Ce8 Ber abe Re aeeaee 60 3.03 . 098 00056 65. 0 - 036 |+ .062 144 . 072 216
Um cise bon Eee 54 4.03 -498 | .0015 12.8 -019 |+ .479 . 254 m2 381
Oke RaOnee Cer Cea 54 4.02 -431 0016 12.8 .021 |+ .410 252 . 126 378

It is appreciated that this table is of but little assistance in the
design of intakes, but it is offered as a start toward the collection of
information on this subject. Except in the case of tests 1 and 2 the
velocity of approach was indeterminate, due to changes in channel
section and to eddying conditions. It will have served its purpose
if it brings out the fact that close computations on entry and velocity
head losses can be but approximate.

A hook gauge in a stilling box in the intake gave the water surface
at that point, while the elevation of the top of the equivalent water
column (see p. 22) at gauge No. 1, deducted from the elevation of

64 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the water surface at the intake, gave the loss of head between the
intake and gauge No. 1. These losses are shown in column 4.
Column 7 gives the friction loss between a point 3 diameters down
the pipe from the intake and gauge No. 1. This column is based
upon the friction loss per foot within the pipe (column 5) multiplied
by the number of feet (column 6) back from gauge No. 1 to the
3-diameter point. Column 4 less column 7 gives the computed loss -
of head (column 8) due to velocity and entry heads combined be-
tween the intake and the 3-diameter pomt. Theoretically column 8
should approximate column 11, which is the sum of columns 9 and
10, but in most cases the velocity of approach was sufficient to make
the entries in column 8 much smaller than those in column 11.

Referring to these two columns: Tests 1 and 2 were conducted on
a concrete pipe where the water entered a 16-inch standpipe from an
8-inch pipe and left the opposite side in an 8-inch pipe. The obser-
vations show that no head was lost within the standpipe. Tests 3
and 4 were on pipes in an installation similar except that the water
left the standpipe in a 12-inch pipe at right angles to an 8-inch pipe
through which it entered. Tests 5 and 6 were on the pipe shown in
Plate XII, figure 3. Here the velocity of approach in the canal
acted directly on the intake opening, greatly reducing the loss of
head. Tests 7 and 8 were on a similar pipe, but in this instance the
canal turned an abrupt right angle just before entering the pipe,
causing a violently turbulent condition which probably introduced a
large error in the observed head at the intake.

AIR IN PIPE.

In speaking of a pipe that did not show sufficient carrying capacity
Moritz states: 1

Examination showed that air imprisoned in the pipe was causing the difficulty.
This was overcome by inserting a 4-inch wrought-iron standpipe in the top of the pipe
about 15 feet below the intake. In this way the air was, to all appearances, entirely
removed, and the carrying capacity was raised to 1.54 cubic feet per second, an
increase of about 60 per cent.

Pipes taking water directly from reservoirs are, of course, not sub-
ject to these troubles, the depth above the intake being, as a rule,
sufficient to insure filling of the pipe with water alone.

Siphon pipes and, in even greater degree, pipe chutes are often
reduced in carrying capacity by entrained air. In his investigations
on wood-stave pipes the writer has observed that air troubles are
minimized under the following conditions: (2) Low velocity in
channel approaching inlet; (6) inlet end set well below the hy-
draulic gradient, as a rule with top of pipe at about same elevation
as bottom of the canal above the inlet; (c) intake chamber designed
to minimize eddies.

1 Trans, Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 74 (1911), p. 435,

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 65

Moritz suggests the extensive use of air valves in some form. The
best air outlet is probably a “chimney”’ rising above the hydraulic
gradient. There should be several connections to the siphon, either
normal to the pipe or, better, pointing slightly upstream. These
may be independent of each other or all may connect to a common
pipe extending along the top of the siphon, the upper end passing
through the head wall of the intake chamber so that any water that
blows out with the air will fall back into the pipe. The last connec-
tion should be at a lower elevation than the water surface in the out-
let chamber so that, with a small discharge, the air entrained will be
collected and passed off. As a rule low discharges entrain more air
than does a full discharge, since the water rushes down the initial
reaches of pipe in a turbulent condition. On the other hand, the
upper air vents are necessary to care for air entrained and compressed
during discharges approaching maximum capacity. These vents
may be from 1 to 12 inches in diameter, depending on the size of the
wood pipe, and should be so assembled that they may be taken
apart, as débris collects in such vents and must be periodically
removed. If excessive air troubles are present, a collecting chamber
may be attached to the siphon at each vent, the air pipe being at-
tached to the top of the chamber rather than directly to the siphon

ae FRICTION LOSSES.

The loss of head necessary to overcome internal resistances within
the pipe is proportional to the length of the pipe but is independent
of the static pressure in the pipe. That is, the loss necessary in the
conveyance of a given quantity of water through a siphon pipe will
be the same whether the low point is, say, 10 feet or 150 feet, below
the hydraulic grade line, the other factors remaining unchanged. The
influence of temperature upon the frictional resistances was found
by Saph and Schoder to be considerable in small brass pipes but has
not been studied in connection with tests on large wood pipes. It is
doubtful whether the influence of temperature could be differen-
tiated from that of friction alone in tests on large pipes in commercial
Service.

In order to determine the size of pipe and the loss of head neces-
sary to overcome the frictional resistances in the conveyance of a
given quantity of water, two estimate diagrams and a table have
been prepared. Two examples of typical pipe problems are given.
In these the use of the diagrams only is explained, as the table is
considered self-explanatory. The factors of safety given below
should be considered in each problem, as a study of Plate VII shows
that an averaging formula, accepted literally, can hot assure the
desired discharge for a given loss of head.

42463°—Bull. 376—16——5

66 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
FACTORS OF SAFETY.

A study of Plate VII shows that a general formula may be often
10 per cent, sometimes as much as 15 per cent, and in isolated cases
25 per cent, at variance with observed capacities for given losses of
head. Likewise a study of the conditions holding in various pipes
fails to disclose just when high or low relative carrying capacities are
to be expected. However, the following factors of safety appear to
be warranted:

Five per cent when only a rough approximation to the actual needs
of the pipe is possible; when water enters the pipe from a settling
reservoir and velocities in the pipe are so high that a clean-scoured
condition will always be present inside the pipe; and also where con-
ditions of operation are such that no penalties are attached to a
slight insufficiency of carrying capacity.

Ten per cent when the above conditions for a very clean pipe are
assured, but where penalties are attached to lack of capacity; or
where no direct penalties are attached but silted waters and low
velocities may permit deposits and growths of Spongilla or other
vegetable life.

Fifteen per cent where rock ravelings may reduce the interior area
of the pipe, or when penalties are attached and silted water or vege-
table growth are likely to cause excess retardation of flow.

The designer may safely assume that the capacity of wood pipe will
not change unless the pipe is subject to silting, ravelings, or vegetable
erowth. (See fig. 5, p. 58.)

ESTIMATE DIAGRAMS AND TABLE; SOLUTIONS FOR TYPICAL PIPE
PROBLEMS.

1. An inverted siphon is required to convey 60 second-feet of
water a length of 2,800 feet with an allowable total loss of head of
1.8 feet. Water has settled in a reservoir before entering the canal.
No direct penalty has been attached for lack of capacity. Required,
diameter of the pipe.

Allowing a 5 per cent overload as a factor of safety, the rated
capacity will be 60+3=63 second-feet. Since the velocity is not
known, the entry and velocity head combined can not be determined
at present. For preliminary figures, 2,800 feet=2.8x1,000 feet;

therefore +5 0.642—H. Referring to Plate X,! enter diagram at

63 second-feet. Intersection of Q=63 with H=0.642 is about on
the diameter line for 58 inches and at a velocity point of about 3.6
feet per second. Referring to Table 5, opposite V =3.6 the combined

1 Plate X was prepared by the writer from the new formula (No. 14, p. 7) in a manner similar to that
first used by Schoder in Engineering Record, Sept. 3, 1904.

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Bul. 376, U.S. Dopt, of Agriculture,

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25.

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H; and velocity, V- For problems inyolying velocities

d, see Plate VIL.

er 1,000 feet.
et per second

fe

STAVE PIPE. BASED ON FORMULA: Q=

more than 9.0

Q; diameter of pipe, D; loss of head

LogaritHmic DIAGRAM FOR USE IN Desianina Woop-

Any point on the diagram giyes simultaneous yalues of quantity,

r<
Ph:
‘ee
ae
So

sat
ee
Be ON Ve See
= Bes ON
: x x

wy

Ce x ap a.
‘}

ay f\
Lo ow:

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i Al ha a LIT ee Aas Hh OR eS ati o Tne Gosetet ee
Pe | ; ! ;

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a 2 ei: - o.. oe

p

lc Nh el

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 67

velocity and entry head is found to be 0.303 feet. Therefore, the final
figures are is = 0.536 =H.

Again, referring to Plate X, at the intersection of Q=63 and
H=0.536 the diameter of the required pipe is found to be 60 inches
and the peak-load velocity to be 3.3 feet per second. The difference
between the preliminary figure for combined velocity and entry heads
and the final figure is not sufficient to warrant more trials.

2. A power trunk line from a reservoir to a surge tank to convey
a peak load of 700 second-feet is required. The length of pipe will
be 11.3 miles, the total loss of head under peak load shall not exceed
20 feet, and the value of head shall be sufficient to warrant a factor
of safety of 15 per cent in designing. Required for comparison, the
size of pipe for both a single and a double pipe line with the same loss
of head.

The length of pipe is so great that velocity and entry head may be
ignored.

One hundred and fifteen per cent of 700 =805 second-feet.

Eleven and three-tenths miles=11.3 x 5,280 =59.664 x 1,000 feet.

209 = 0.335 feet per 1,000 feet =H.

Enter Plate X at Q=805. Intersection of Q=805 with H=0.335
is at D=14.5 feet and at V=5 feet per second. Thus a single pipe
line 14.5 feet in diameter will convey the peak load at a velocity of
about 5 feet per second.

To study the possibilities of a double pipe line, turn to figure 6.
Enter at intersection of diameter 14.5 feet and relative capacity 1.
From this pomt the left slanting line intersects relative capacity
line } on diameter line 135 inches or diameter line 11.25 feet. Thus
twin lines each i114 feet in diameter will convey the given quantity
of water with the same loss of head as will a single line 14% feet in
diameter.

Pipe problems involving velocities less than 0.7 foot per second or
more than 9 feet per second may be solved by the use of Plate VIII.
With a straightedge join the two discharge scales at the given dis-
charge. All points on the straightedge will now give simultaneous
values of diameter, loss of head, and velocity. For instance, the
dash-dot line representing 100 second-feet intersects the 84-inch pipe
line on the H-line of 0.237 foot per 1,000 feet and on the V-line of
2.58 feet per second. Thus an 84-inch pipe will convey 100 second-
feet of water at a velocity of 2.58 feet per second with a loss of head
of 0.237 foot per thousand feet of pipe.

BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

68

Relative capaciti

D=Diameter,- fe

0 .

LERUNWUORINTNUANIVAN NOANVANTAN TACHA RTA TTT
x LAAT ARAN AAA VAM ANN KIA LN NON AN CHL
INARA, EAN AVANT GH NN y VTL
SARC E ORG HAN
ARAN ARRAY TARAS AOTC

XP
earnianaranuienaiiuianinn unui NOR OU BUVAN
OPO TORN a FALLS URCSURIAUN GOL CTT a
PRRE MANNA rin a ea Hn
UR CBR XM TN Ne HH ae Ht OA Rn
ON vi i i Es pe NIN

AIAN Ni Mu ae COUR RMT

NK 2
IN aAU Ia SAX VIAL nm

IMAI
NN UA RK ANOARYUL
eae ayeee NN KAA DYCK ZAZA VEX VAL AAM FZ
ARN YY nurs ACT OANNANOU MOCOALIAMNUNGGY

\

et.
0
N

AVA
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SS bn Ss SSE SS

aed

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a iat ae

FC.Scobey.

lants.

pete Capacities for righ s

Fic. 6.—Logarithmic diagram showing relative capacities of wood-stave pipe of various diameters for

For instance, an 8-inch pipe will carry one-third as much as a 12-inch

, and an 18-inch pipe will carry three times as much as a 12-inch pipe.
the diagram at the bottom (as noted) on the left slanting line leading from 12inches asa base. Theinter-

any given hydraulic gradient.

For the first problem, enter

pipe

section of this slant with the verticalline above 8 is approximately on the horizontal line representing 1/8,
as shown by figures at left of diagram. Similarly for the second problem follow the right slant from 12

as a base to the intersection of this sl

This intersection is approxi-

8

ant with the vertical line from 1

mately on the horizontal line representing 3 as shown by figures at right of diagram.

Bul. 376, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI.

FiG. 1.—PIPES FROM SURGE TANK TO POWER HOUuSE.
Right-hand pipe held at constant velocity. 133-foot pipe in distance. (No. 52.)

Fia. 2.—AN EXAMPLE OF TWIN LINE CCNSTRUCTION.

Fia. 3.—WINTER FLOW IS RETARDED BY SLUSH ICE.
Note rings for grating removed to prevent ice accumulation.

Bul. 376, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIl.

Fic. 1.—TYPICAL OUTLET STRUCTURE. WILL PARTIALLY RECOVER VELOCITY HEAD.
Pipe is one-half diameter too high forinlet structure. Too much air would enter.

Fic. 2.—VIEW TAKEN FROM STRUCTURE IN FIQURE 3.
Hillside cut ravelings enter pipe and reduce capacity. A condition to be avoided.

Fic. 3.—ENTRANCE WELL SUBMERGED, REDUCING AMOUNT OF AIR CARRIED INTO PIPE.

Bul. 376, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII.

Fic. 1.—SIPHON UNDER UNION PaciFic RAILROAD, ROCK CREEK CONSERVATION Co.,
WYOoMING.

Form for inlet bowl to rcduce entry loss. ee under construction in distance. See figures
2 and 3.

Fi@. 2.—FORM FOR BOWL, FLooR REINFORCEMENT, AND CAST-IRON PIPE FOR INLET SECTION
FOR STRUCTURE IN FIGURES 1 AND 3.

Fia, 3.—SIPHON INLET MADE FROM FORM SHOWN IN FIGURES 1 AND 2. ENTRANCE WELL
SUBMERGED, PREVENTING AIR BEING CARRIED INTO PIPE.

Bul. 376, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIV.

Fla. 1.—EVEN WITH 27 CaAsT-IRON BENDS LIKE THIS THE ASTORIA, WASH., PIPE SHOWS
A Capacity 17 PER CENT MORE THAN THE AVERAGE. (No. 23.) z

Fic. 2.—PIPE FOR BUTTE, MONT., MUNICIPAL SUPPLY. (NO. 32.) SPRINGING INA BUCKLE
JOINT.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE.

69

TABLE 7.—Velocity V in feet per second and loss of head H in feet per thousand feet of
pipe, necessary to the conveyance of a given quantity of water, Q, in second-feet and in
millions of U.S. gallons per day through wood-stave pipe, based. on formula H=

7.68 Vi8

qi-l7 i

8.58 feet per second with a loss of head of 2.98 feet per thousand feet of pipe.

For instance, 5 second-feet will be carried by a 16-inch pipe at a velocity of

Inside diameter, in inches, and corresponding area, A, in square feet.

Quan-

tity,

10 mil-

A=0.4418.) A=0.5454.] lions

per

Ver Ee | ove |) ees ay,

Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Gals.
Siete etal fees sya aie [aeons reetl [ere oaece 0.129
0.90} 0.49) 0.73] 0.29) .259
1.36) 1.02} 1.10} .60) .388
1.81} 1.71) 1.47) 1.02 517
2.26) 2.56) 1.83] 1.52 646
2.72) 3.55} 2.20) 2.10) .776
3.17) 4.68) 2.57) 2.78) .905
3.62} 5.95} 2.93) 3.54! 1.034
4.07| 7.35] 3.30} 4.37} 1.163
4.53} 8.89] 3.67] 5.28] 1.293
5. 66] 13.6 | 4.58) 7.89} 1.616
6.79] 18.9 | 5.50) 11.0 | 1.939
7.02} 25.2 6. 42] 14.5 | 2.262
9.05] 31.9 | 7.33] 18.6 | 2.585
10.2 | 39.4] 8.25] 22.7 | 2.908
11.3 | 47.7} 9.17] 27.5 | 3.232
12.4 | 56.6 | 10.1 | 32.6 | 3.555
13.6 | 65.4 | 11.0 | 38.2 | 3.878
14.7 | 76.5 | 11.9 | 44.1 | 4.201
15.8 | 87.3 | 12.8 | 50.3 | 4.524

Quan-
tity. 4 5 6 7 8
A=0.0873. | A=0.1364. | A=0.1963. | A=0.2673. | A=0.3491.
Q Vv H Vv H V H Vv H Vv H
Sec.-ft. | Feet.| Feet.| Feet.) Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Keet.| Feet.| Feet.
0.2} 2.29) 6.7) 1.47) 2.33) 1.02) 0.98] 0.75} 0.4] 0.57) 0.25
-4| 4.58) 23.4) 2.93) 8.10) 2.04) 3.40) 1.50) 1.63] 1.15) .86
6| 6.87) 48.7) 4.40) 16.8] 3.06) 7.05) 2.24) 3.38) 1.72] 1.79
8} 9.16} 81.7} 5.86) 28.2) 4.08) 11.8] 2.99) 5.67) 2.29) 3.00
1.0} 11.4 | 121 7.33] 40.6) 5.10) 17.7 | 3.74) 8.47] 2.87] 4.42
1.2) 13.7 | 169 8.80} 58.5] 6.11) 24.6} 4.49] 11.7] 3.44) 6.22
1.4] 16.0 | 224° | 10.3) 77.1) 7.13) 32.4) 5.24) 15.5] 4.01) 8.21
1.6) 18.3 | 285 | 11.7 | 110 8.15) 41.3 | 5.99) 19.7] 4.58) 10.4
1.8} 20.6 | 352 | 13.2 | 121 9.17} 51.0 | 6.73) 24.4] 5.16) 12.9
CHO SHAY 34) Rae eee 14.7 | 147 | 10.2 | 61.6] 7.48) 29.5] 5.72) 15.6
P28) | ear Dae 18.3 | 219 | 12.7] 92.1] 9.35) 44.1] 7.16) 23.3
ne eae es 22.0 | 304 | 15.3 |128 11.2 | 61.2} 8.60) 32.4
* STEN fe cel A 2 ale pela gO 17.8 |169 13.1 | 80.6 | 10.0 | 42.7
ARC) epee, (vas ee raed LOS NS eM 20.4 |215 15.0 |103 11.5 | 53.7
Aes erpe ete eral tS ie Sc = cee hs Sate hers teeta |itie < rele 16.8 |127 12.9 | 67.1
Ge 8 ao epee Gee ae ee ees les cee ea 18.7 |155 14.3 | 81.2
28] 26.44 4) speed PSeaos Haeeoe Iecenes Eeeeen 20.6 |182 15.8 | 96.4
oO ees eee rary neers tee tea et LRN Sy TE Se ae 17.2 |113
Bee 5S 6h pAb lel cl REISE Apa hae) AE Pade acre sl tle aa 18.6 |130
7c hese tea) Getic les gene oes EE) ey ied lene tel ea Ted ee 20.1 |149
12 14
A=0.7854. | A=1.069
® Vv H Vv
1.0} 1.27) 0.65) 0.94)
1.2) 1.53] .90) 1.12
1.4 1.78) 1.19) 1.31
1.6) 2.04] 1.51) 1.50
1.8} 2.29] 1.87) 1.68
2.0) 2.55) 2.26) 1.87 : : ‘ 6
2.5] 3.18) 3.37] 2.34) 1. 3 : ‘ 6 5
3.0} 3.82) 4.67} 2.81) 2. b : c 5 5 C 5
3.5] 4.46) 6.17] 3.27) 2. Z : 4 5 6 1. a
4.0) 5.09} 7.86) 3.74) 3.76) 2.87) 1.99] 2.23) 1.14) 1.83) .69 44) 1.27) .29
4.5| 5.73) 9.69] 4.21) 4.65] 3.22) 2.46} 2.55) 1.40] 2.06] .85 -04) 1.43) .36
5.0} 6.37] 11.7 | 4.68] 5.63] 3.58] 2.98) 2.83) 1.70) 2.29) 1.03 - 65) 1.59) 48
5.5} 7.00) 13.9 | 5.15] 6.67) 3.94) 3.49) 3.11] 2.02) 2.52) 1.22) - 78} 1.75] = .51
6.0) 7.64/ 16.3} 5.61] 7.80} 4.30) 4.13] 3.40) 2.32) 2.75) 1.42 -90) 1.91) .60
6.5] 8.27) 18.8} 6.08] 9.02} 4.66) 4.77| 3.68) 2.72) 2.98) 1.65 1.04) 2.07) .69
7.0) 8.91) 21.5] 6.55) 10.3 | 5.01) 5.45) 3.96) 3.11) 3.21] 1.88 1.19) 2.28) .79
7.5) 9.55) 24.4} 7.02! 11.7] 5.37) 6.16] 4.24) 3.52) 3.44) 2.13 1.35} 2.39) .89
8.0) 10.2 | 27.3 | 7.48) 13.1] 5.73) 6.94) 4.53) 3.96) 3.67} 2.39 1.52) 2.55) 1.00
8.5} 10.8 | 30.5} 7.95) 14.6) 6.09) 7.73) 4.81! 4.41) 3.90) 2.67 1.69) 2.71) 1.12
9.0) 11.5 | 33.7 | 8.42) 16.4] 6.45) 8.40} 5.10) 4.89) 4.12) 2.96 1.87; 2.86) 1.24
9.5) 12.1 | 37.2 | 8.89] 17.9} 6.80] 9.45] 5.38) 5.39) 4.35] 3.27 2.06) 3.02] 1.37
10 | 12.7 { 40.8) 9.35) 19.6 | 7.16) 10.4} 5.66) 5.91) 4.58) 3.59 2.27} 3.18) 1.49
11 | 14.0} 48.5 | 10.3 | 23.2) 7.88) 12.3} 6.22) 7.01} 5.04) 4.28 2.68} 3.50} 1.78
12 | 15.3} 56.8 | 11.2 | 27.3 | 8.60) 14.4] 6.79) 8.21} 5.50) 4.97 3.16] 3.82] 2.08
13 | 16.6 | 65.6 | 12.2 | 31.4) 9.31) 16.6} 7.36) 9.48) 5.96) 5.74 3.63) 4.14) 2.41
14 | 17.8} 74.8 | 13.1 | 35.9 } 10.0} 19.0 | 7.92) 10.8] 6.42) 6.55 4.15} 4.46} 2.74
15 | 19.1 | 84.7] 14.0 | 40.8 | 10.7 | 21.5 | 8.49) 12.3} 6.87) 7.43 4.70} 4.77) 3.11
16 | 20.4} 95.2 | 15.0 | 45.7 | 11.5 | 24.2] 9.06) 13.8] 7.33) 8.33 5.28] 5.09} 3.49
172 3) Sees [ae oe 15.9 | 51.0 | 12.2 | 27.0 | 9.62} 15.4] 7.79) 9.30 5.74} 5.41] 3.90
hc ae ote 16.8 | 56.6 | 12.9 | 29.8 | 10.2 | 17.0 | 8.25} 10.3 6.54) 5.73] 4.31
5 ae ae Re 17.8 | 62.2 | 13.6 | 32.9 | 10.7] 18.8] 8.71) 11.4 7.20] 6.05] 4.76
21 ioe eee 18.7 | 68.1 | 14.3 | 36.1 | 11.3 | 20.6] 9.17) 12.4 7.90). 6.37] 5.22
POT oh See al fea 19.6 | 74.5 | 15.0 | 39.4 | 11.9 | 22.5) 9.62) 13.6 8. 63} 6.68] 5.70
274) | tl See See 20.6 | 81.1 | 15.8 | 42.9 | 12.4 |) 24.4) 10.1 | 14.8 9.37] 7.00} 6.19
28" 1198 SEPP) fed See esl ee a 16.5 | 46.4 | 13.0 | 26.5 | 10.5 | 16.0 10.2] 7.32) 6.71
2, juan Bel ear RR el 17.2 | 50.1 | 13.6 | 28.5 | 11.0 | 17.3 11.0] 7.64) 7.25
OTM TEL) si ate yar| Mosh pat ai 17.9 | 54.0 | 14.1 | 30.9 | 11.5 | 18.6 11.8] 7.96) 7.79
PAG). || beets Best Keke lan lb 18.6 | 57.9 | 14.7 | 33.0 | 11.9 | 19.9 12.7] 8.27) 8.37
Pi til | aes ited | ag ee tahoe ale He Une 19.3 | 61.9 | 15.3 | 35.3 | 12.4 | 21.3 13.6} 8.59) 8.95
Pe) | eaves lepesaees eka a eal Dna 20.1 | 66.1 | 15.8 | 37.7 | 12.8 | 22.8 14.5} 8.91) 9.56

70

BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 7 (Continued).— Velocity V in feet per second and loss of head H in feet per thou-
sand feet of pipe, necessary to the conveyance of a given quantity of water, Q, in second-

Jeet and in millions of U.S. gallons per day through wood-stave pipe.

For instance,

160 second-feet will be carried by a 42-inch pipe at a velocity of 16.6 feet per second with
a loss of head of 15.8 feet per thousand feet of pipe.

Inside diameter, in inches and corresponding area, A, in square feet.

Quan-
tity. 26 28 30
A=3.687. A=4.276. A=4.909.
Q Vv H W H V H
Sec.-ft. | Feet.| Feet.| Feet. | Feet.| Feet. | Feet.
8} 2.17) 0.68) 1.87 1.63) 0.34

0. 48)

IR WoO RROOrF

ive)
woe
fon)

32

Vv

Feet.
1.43

A=5.585.

H

Feet.
0. 25)

34 36 38
A=6.305. | A=7.069. | A=7.876.
V H V H Vv H
Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Feet. | Feet. | Feet
1.27) 0.19) 1.13] 0.14) 1.02) 0.11
1.43 . 23) 1.27 18}. 1.14) 14
1.59 .28) 1.41 622) P27) 217
1.75} .34| 1.56) .26) 1.40) .929
1.90} .39) 1.70) .30} 1.52) .93
2.06] . .46) 1.84) .35) 1.65) .97
2.22) .52) 1.98) .40) 1.78) .37
2.54, .67, 2.26} .50) 2.03! 39
2.86] .82) 2.55} .62| 2.29) | 48
3.17) .99) 2.83) .75) 2.54) (58
3.49] 1.18) 3.11} .90) 2.79! | 69
3.81) 1.38) 3.40) 1.05) 3.05} _ 97
4.12} 1.59} 3.68} 1.21; 3.30] (93
4.44] 1.82] 3.96] 1.38] 3.56] 1°07
4.76] 2.05) 4.24) 1.56) 3.81) 4.97
5.08) 2.29} 4.53) 1.76) 4.06) 7 36
5.71] 2.85) 5.09} 2.17) 4.57] 4. 67
6.34) 3.45) 5.66) 2.62) 5.08) 9 g4
7.14) 4.27) 6.37) 3.25) 5.71) 9 57
7.93! 5.16} 7.07! 3.92) 6.35! 3 4
8.72) 6.11) 7.78) 4.66) 6.98) 3 59
9.52) 7.16) 8.49) 5.44] 7.62) 4 97
10.3 | 8.27| 9.20) 6.29) 8.25) 4° 97
11.1} 9.44) 9.90) 7.19) 8.89) 5 55
11.9 | 10.7 | 10.6 | 8.13) 9.52) 6 99
12.7 | 12.0] 11.4 | 9.13] 10.2 | 7 97
13.5 | 13.4 | 12.0 | 10.2 | 10.8 | 7 gv
14.3 | 14.8 | 12.7 | 11.3 | 11.4 | 9°73
15.1 | 16.4 | 13.4 | 12.5 | 12.1 9.61
15.9 | 17.9 | 14.2 | 18.7 | 12.7 |19 6

60
19.64
H
0.14
18
23
28
34
41
- 48
ps3)
- 63
378}
- 80
- 89
-99
1.09
1.19
1. 42
1.65
1.91
2.19
2.48
2.78
3.12
3. 43
3. 79
4.16
4, 54
4.94
5.34
5.78
6. 22

Quan-
fae
lions

Gals.
5.171
5.817
6. 463
7.109
7.756

8.402
9.048
10.341
11. 634
12.926

14.219
15.512
16. 804
18. 097
19.389

20. 682
23. 267
25. 853
29. 084
32.316

35.547
38.779
42.010
45,242
48.474

51. 705
54. 937
58. 168
61.400
64. 632

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE.

ie

Tas_E 7 (Continued).— Velocity V in feet per second and less of head H in feet per
thousand feet of pipe, necessary to the conveyance of a given quantity of water, Q, in

second-feet and in millions of U. S. gallons per day through wood-stave pipe.

For in-

stance, 550 second-feet will be carried by a 120-inch pipe at a velocity of 7 feet per second
with a loss of head of 0.94 foot per thousand feet of pipe.

Inside diameter, in inches and corresponding area, A, in square feet.

90
A= 44,18

4.30

02 G0

Re eet
PONE OS GWONN AO CrSuh

TAOAOW RSRSR SRRSR S

Feet.
0.07

96
A= 650.26

Feet.
1.19

Feet.

mS SOOM ANNA nowpmw wow
PONIES AUaao aerate Reams

wv

Quan-
tity. 66 72 78 84
A= 23.76 A= 28.27 A=33.18 A=38.48
Q V H V H V H V H
Sec.-ft. | Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Feet.
60} 2.53) 0.30) 2.12} 0.20) 1.81) 0.14) 1.56; 0.10
70| 2.95} .40) 2.48) .26; 2.11) .18) 1.82 318}
80] 3.37} .51) 2.83) .33) 2.41) .23) 2.08) .16
90} 3.79} .63) 3.18} .41) 2.71) .28) 2.34) .20
100} 4.21) .76)- 3.54) .50) 3.01) .34 2.60) .24
110} 4.63) .90) 3.89} .59} 3.32 -41) 2.86) .28
120) 5.05) 1.05] 4.25) .69/ 3.62 -47| 3512). 233
130} 5.47) 1.21) 4.60} .80} 3.92) .55) 3.38) .38
140} 5.89) 1.39) 4.95) .91) 4.22) .63) 3.64) .44
150) 6.31) 1.57) 5.31) 1.04) 4.52 -71) 3.90) .50
160| 6.73) 1.77) 5.66) 1.17) 4.82) .80) 4.16) .56
170| 7.16) 1.97} 6.01) 1.30) 5.12) .89) 4.42) .62
180} 7.58) 2.18) 6.37| 1.44) 5.48 .99| 4.68) .69
190} 8.00} 2.41) 6.72) 1.59} 5.73} 1.08) 4.94) .76
200| 8.42) 2.64) 7.08) 1.74) 6.03} 1.19) 5.20) .84
220) 9.26) 3.14) 7.78} 2.06) 6.63) 1.41) 5.72 -99
240| 10.1] 3.67| 8.49) 2.42) 7.23) 1.65) 6.24) 1.16
260} 10.9) 4.23) 9.20) 2.79} 7.84; 1.91) 6.76) 1.34
280} 11.8 | 4.86} 9.90) 3.20) 8.44) 2.18) 7.28] 1.53
300} 12.6 | 5.48! 10.6] 3.61) 9.04) 2.47) 7.80} 1.74
320} 13.5} 6.17) 11.3] 4.06] 9.64) 2.78) 8.32] 1.95
340] 14.3] 6.86] 12.0] 4.53} 10.3] 3.09) 8.84) 2.17
360) 15.2} 7.60] 12.7] 5.01) 10.9] 3.48) 9.36) 2.41
380] 16.0 | 8.39] 18.4] 5.53] 11.5] 3.78) 9.88) 2.66
400} 16.8] 9.19] 14.2] 6.05) 12.1} 4.14) 10.4] 2.91
450} 18.9 | 11.4 | 15.9] 7.52] 13.6] 5.12} 11.7] 3.60
500} 21.0 | 13.7 | 17.7 | 9.06) 15.1 | 6.20) 13.0] 4.35
GT Be Ree eReee 19.5} 10.8 | 16.6] 7.37) 14.3] 5.17
GOO sees 8 21.2 | 12.6} 18.1] 8.59) 15.6] 6.03
RUBE S66cl Se SS Seeee eee 19.6 | 9.90) 16.9] 6.98
108 114 120 132
A= 63.62 A=70.88 A=78.54 A=95.03
Vi H V H V H V H
200} 3.14) 0.25} 2.82) 0.19) 2.55) 0.15) 2.10) 0.10
PO SOS SS onan see ras tS} colina. Galen 1.14:
300) 4.72 -92) 4:23 -40} 3.82 .32| 3.16 -20
350} 5.50} .68} 4.94) .53) 4.46] .42; 3.68] .26
400} 6.29} .88} 5.64) .67; 5.09) .53) 4.21) .34
450| 7.07| 1.09} 6.35) .83) 5.73] .66) 4.74) .42
500} 7.86) 1.31) 7.05) 1.01) 6.37) .79| 5.26) .50
550) 8.65] 1.56) 7.76) 1.21) 7.00} .94) 5.79] .60
600} 9.43) 1.82; 8.46] 1.42) 7.64) 1.10! 6.31] .70
650} 10.2 | 2.11) 9.17) 1.63) 8.28] 1.27) 6.84) .81
700) 11.0 | 2.40) 9.88) 1.86) 8.91) 1.45) 7.37 -92
750} 11.8] 2.72; 10.6] 2.11) 9.55} 1.65) 7.89) 1.04
800) 12.6 | 3.04) 11.3 | 2.37) 10.2] 1.85) 8.42) 1.17
850) 13.4) 3.41) 12.0] 2.65) 10.8] 2.06) 8.94) 1.31
900} 14.2 | 3.79) 12.7 | 2.94) 11.5] 2.29) 9.47] 1.45
950} 14.9 | 4.17) 18.4] 3.23] 12.1} 2.52) 10.0] 1.60
1,000) 15.7 | 4.57) 14.1] 3.54) 12.7] 2.76) 10.5] 1.75
1,050) 16.5 5.00) 14.8] 3.86] 13.4] 3.02) 11.1] 1.91
1,100} 17.3] 5.42) 15.5] 4.20) 14.0] 3.28) 11.6] 2.08
1,150} 18.1 | 5.88) 16.2! 4.55) 14.6! 3.55) 12.1] 2.25
1,200) 18.9 | 6.34) 16.9 | 4.90) 15.4] 3.84) 12.6] 2.43
1,250) 19.7 | 6.83) 17.6] 5.30) 15.9] 4.13) 13.1] 2.62
1,300] 20.4 | 7.32) 18.3 | 5.70) 16.6 | 4.43) 13.7} 2.81
i 6.50} 17.8} 5.06; 14.7] 3.21
7.34, 19.1] 5.73) 15.8] 3.66
Mastecacsecesocaee 20.4| 6.44) 16.8} 4.09
Fe C GORI RB ACEa bp OSn ce Remar GEeseE 17.9} 4.56
Booed BESSee| RASSAal eesece pra ess 18.9] 5.05
FES EAE CAR c Doacae Neeeor ems 20.0} 5.57
ye Seas late eva te | sratayatetal [steve Sista sine e 21.1} 6.11

Quan-

tity,

102 mil-
A=56.74 | lions

er

V H ay.
Feet.| Feet.| Gals.
1.05) 0.04) 38.78
1.23) .05) 45.24
1.41) .06} 51.70
1.59} .08) 58.17
1.76} .09) 64.63
1.94) .11) 71.09
Po UW Ga BY» via bia)
2.29) .15) 84.02
2.47| .17| 90.48
2.64) .20) 96.95
2.82) .22) 103.41
3.00) .25! 109. 87
3.17) .27| 116.34
3.35) .30} 122.80
3.53] .33) 129.26
3.88] .39] 142.19
4.23) .46) 155.12
4.58) .53)] 168.04
4.94) .61) 180.97
5.29} .69] 193.89
5.64! .77| 206. 82
5.99] . 86] 219.75
6.35) .95) 232.67
6.70) 1.05] 245.60
7.05] 1.15} 258.53
7.93] 1.42} 290. 84
8.81) 1.72) 323.16
9.69] 2.04] 355.47
10.6 | 2.39] 387.79
11.5 | 2.76) 420.10

168
A= 153.94
V H

1.30] 0.03] 129.26
1.62} .05} 161.58
1.95} .06] 193.89
2.27) 208} 226.21
2.60} .11) 258.53
2.92) .13) 290.84
3.25) .16] 323.16
3.57| .19) 355.47
3.90} .22] 387.79
4.22) .26| 420.10
4.55) .29) 452.42
4.87| .33] 484.74
5.20) .37) 517.05
5.52) .41) 549.37
5.85] .45) 581.68
6.17] .51) 614.00
6.50} .56) 646.31
6.82] .61] 678.63
7.15] .66) 710.95
7.47) .71) 748. 26
7.80) .77| 775.58
8.12} .83] 807.90
8.45] .89) 840.21
9.09} 1.02) 904. 84
9.74) 1,15} 969. 47
10.4 | 1.29/1,034.1
11.0 | 1.44/1,0€8.7
11.7 | 1.58)1,163.4
12.3 | 1.76}1,228.0
13.0 | 1.93}1,292.6

42 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CAPACITY OF WOOD-STAVE PIPE COMPARED WITH THAT OF CAST-
IRON AND RIVETED STEEL.

Table 8 gives the relative carrying capacities of wood, steel, and
cast-iron pipes. The table is based on velocities of about 1, 3, and 7
feet per second in the steel and cast-iron pipes of diameters ranging
from 4 to 144 inches. For a given velocity the loss of head for new
cast-iron, new riveted steel, 10-year-old cast-iron, 20-year-old cast-
iron, and 10-year-old-riveted steel is based on values of Cy, in the
Williams-Hazen formula (No. 8, p. 6) of 130, 110, 110, 100 and 100,
respectively, these conservative values being recommended by
Williams and Hazen. (See Mr. Williams’s discussion, p. 82.)

-TaBLe 8.—Relative capacity, in per cent, of wood-stave pipe, compared with new cast
iron, new riveted, 10-year-old cast tron, 20-year-old cast iron, and 10-year-old riveted
steel or iron pipe; based on Williams and Hazen recommendation for values of C, in
their formula, of 130 for new cast iron, 110 for new riveted and 10-year-old cast iron,
and 100 for 20-year-old cast iron and 10-year-old riveted steel or iron pipe.

Cast-iron and riveted pipes. ood-stave pipes.
ast-iron and riveted pipes W 0o0d-stave pipes Dip mui ee
ae SSS Ea wood pipe over abet
iam- . in metal pipe (column
eter. | Velocity Loss of head for velocity. (H) | Velocities correspond-| 9), Ae eine
oo) |e oe nee am col columns 6, 7, 8, re-
5 5 :
second. | ¢,139,| Cy=110.| Cy=100.| tively.’ pperiyely,
Inches.| Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. | Feet. | Feet.
4 1.02 L380) [eee se sb 2.230 O: 94015. 52 & 1.24] —7.8]........ +22
4 3.06 LOF500)| Reese eae 17. 100 290s | Baer ae 3.90 | —5.2|......-- +26
4 6. 64 44.000 |........-- 72.000 62.50) |e. 22228 SON — 2 bl eee +31
12 -99 360 0. 480 - 580 -92 1.08 1.25} —7.1}4+ 9.1] +21
12 2.96 2.730 3.710 4. 430 2.83 3.33 3.70 —4.4 |] 412.0] +25
12 6.89 13. 200 17.900 21.300 6.80 8.00 8.80 | —1.3 | +16.0] +28
36 1.09 121 . 164 - 196 1.02 1.25 1.34} —6.4] +15.0] +23
36 3.06 810 1.110 1.320 2.90 3.50 3.80} —5.2| +14.0| +24
36 7.00 3.740 5.100 6.100 6.90 8.10 9.00} —1.4] +16.0} +29
72 -98 044 - 060 - 072 - 92 1.10 1.20) —6.4] +12.0] +22
72 3.01 349 -476 - 9570 2.90 3. 50 3.80 | —3.6] +16.0] +24
72 7.11 1.720 2.340 2.790 7.00 8.30 9.10} —1.4] +17.0| +28
108 1.10 034 - 046 - 055 1.00 1.20 1.35 | —8.0} 411.0] +23
108 3.14 237 .321 - 382 3.00 3. 60 4.00) —4.5] +15.0] +27
108 6. 92 1.020 1.380 1. 650 6.90 8.00 9.00; — .3] +16.0] +30
144 1.06 023 - 031 - 037 1.00 1.20 1.35} —5.7 | +13.0}) +21
144 3.01 156 211 - 252 2.90 3.40 3.80} —3.7}] +13.0] +26
144 7.07 760 1.030 1.230 7.00 8.30 9.10} —1.0| +17.0| +29

For the: same sized pipe and the various losses of head the corre-
sponding velocities in wood-stave pipe (as shown by the new formula)
are compared with the velocities in the metal pipes. This comparison
is on a percentage basis, with the velocity of the metal pipe as the
base. As an example: The loss of head in a new cast-iron pipe
(Cy =130), 12 inches in diameter, for a velocity of 2.96 feet per
second, is 2.73 feet per 1,000 feet of pipe. For the same velocity in
new riveted steel or 10-year-old cast iron (C,=110) the loss of head
in a 12-inch pipe is 3.71 feet. For the same velocity in 10-year-old
riveted steel or 20-year-old cast iron (Cy=100) the loss of head is
4,43 feet.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 73

The velocity in a 12-inch wood-stave pipe for a loss of head of 2.73
feet per 1,000 feet of pipe is 2.83 feet per second or 4.4 per cent less
than that in a new cast-iron pipe for the same loss of head.

The velocity in a 12-inch wood-stave pipe for a loss of head of 3.71
feet per 1,000 feet is 3.33 feet per second or 12.5 per cent more than
that in a new riveted steel or 10-year-old cast-iron pipe for the same
loss of head.

The velocity in a 12-inch wood-stave pipe for a loss of head of 4.43
feet per 1,000 feet is 3.7 feet per second, or 25 per cent more than that
in a 10-year-old riveted steel or 20-year-old cast-iron pipe, for the
same loss of head.

As shown by the table, the relative capacities change for various
sizes of pipe and various velocities, but, speaking broadly, it is also
shown that the capacity of wood-stave pipe is about 5 per cent less
than that of new cast iron, 15 per cent more than that of new riveted
steel or 10-year-old cast iron, and 25 per cent more than that of 10-
year-old riveted steel or 20-year-old cast-iron pipe.

CONCLUSIONS.

A study of the previous pages appears to warrant the following
general conclusions concerning the capacity of wood-stave pipes:

1. That the new formula herein offered is the best now available
for use in the design of wood-stave pipes, as its application meets
(within 1 per cent) the mean of all observations and the mean capacity
of all wood pipes upon which experiments have been made.

2. That a very conservative factor of safety should be used where
a guaranteed capacity is to be attained.

3. That the Kutter modification of the Chezy formula is not well
adapted to the design of wood-stave pipes.

4, That the data now existing do not show that the capacity of
wood-stave pipe either increases or decreases with age. This state-
ment, of course, does not consider sedimentation, a purely mechanical
process.

5. That if silted waters are to be conveyed the pipe should be
designed for a working velocity of from 5 to 10 feet per second.

6. That if sand is present in the water, the design should be for a
velocity of about 5 feet per second, which will be high enough to
carry out a large part of the sand and at the same time not so high as
to seriously erode the pipe. The better method, of course, is to
remove the sand by sumps or other means.

7. That air should be removed from the intake end of every pipe
line, especially when the capacity load is approached.

8. That wood pipe will convey about 15 per cent more water than
a 10-year-old cast-iron pipe or a new riveted pipe, and about 25 per
cent more than a cast-iron pipe 20 years old or a riveted pipe 10
years old.

74 BULLETIN 376, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The writer desires to acknowledge indebtedness to the various
engineers and managers of irrigation, municipal, and power systems
who permitted and aided in tests upon the pipes in their charge.
Acknowledgment is also,made to the engineers of the United States
Reclamation Service for suggestions and drawings. Where data
have been secured from other sources footnotes give the necessary
references.

APPENDIX.

The following pages are devoted to abstracts of descriptions of
experiments made by agencies other than the division of Irrigation
Investigations, Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering. The
number before each description refers to the corresponding numbers
in columns 1, Tables 2 and 3.

No. 1. Expt. HS—X, 14-inch Jointed (Bored) Redwood Pipe,! New Almaden,
Cal.—In 1877 Hamilton Smith, jr., made tests for loss of head in a straight pipe of
eight joints, made of heart redwood, bored by a pipe auger. The pipes were new and
uncoated. Connections were made by driving one joint into another, an outer iron
band preventing splitting during this process. The area of the pipe was determined
by weighing the water contained in each joint. The total loss of head was determined
from the difference in elevation of the water surface over the inlet and at the mid-
point of outlet (discharge being into open air). To ascertain friction head the velocity
and entry heads were deducted from the effective head. The discharge was meas-
ured accurately in a rectangular wooden tank having a total capacity of 15.2 cubic
feet. In this series of tests the pipe and water discharges were so small that labora-
tory accuracy was practicable. This series was used by Tutton but not by Williams-
Hazen, Moritz, nor the writer in derivation of formulas. The line is not a stave pipe.

Nos. 2-8. 4-inch Jointed (Machine-Banded) Wood-Stave Pipe, Sunnyside
Project, U. S. Reclamation Service, Washington.?—This pipe had been used for
three years for irrigation purposes when tested by Moritz. It is straight in horizontal
alignment, on a continuous down grade. Discharge was measured over a 12-inch
Cipolletti weir. A fungous growth was noted at the inlet, being from one-eighth to
three-sixteenthsinch thick. The condition of the interior of the pipe was not known.
The short reach (No. 2) was included in the longer reach (No. 3). The capacity of
this pipe is12 per cent less than the discharge computed by the new formula, prob-
ably due to the fungous growth. This conclusion is reached by taking the mean of
observations on reaches 2 and 3 together.

No. 4. 5-inch Jointed (Machine-Banded) Wood-Stave Pipe, Sunnyside
Project, U. S. Reclamation Service, Washington.—This line had been used for
about two years at the time of the tests, for conveying irrigation water across a wide,
shallow depression. Horizontal alignment was straight. Discharge was measured
over an 8-inch sharp-crested Cipolletti weir. Water columns were used for gauge
No. 1 for all runs except 3 and 4, and for gauge No. 2. For runs 3 and 4 a mercury
manometer was used at gauge No. 1. Some trouble with air in the pipe was experi-
enced in these tests. The capacity of the pipe was about 5 per cent less than the
discharge computed by the new formula.

1 Hydraulics. Hamilton Smith, jr., John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. (1886), p. 297.
2 All tests made on the Sunnyside project were by E. A. Moritz and associates. Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ.
Engin., 74 (1911), p. 411.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 75

No. 5. 6-inch Jointed (Machine-Banded) Wood-Stave Pipe, Sunnyside
Project, U. S. Reclamation Service, Washington.—This pipe was built for
irrigation purposes about five months before the tests. It is practically straight in
both horizontal and vertical planes. Water columns were used for both gauges.
Discharge was measured over a 12-inch Cipolletti weir. The capacity of this pipe
was about 44 per cent greater than the discharge computed by the new formula.

Nos. 6, 7, 8. 6-inch Jointed (Machine-Banded) Wood-Stave Pipe, Sunny-
side Project, U. S. Reclamation Service, Washington.—This new pipe had
been, used for irrigation purposes about four months at the time of tests. Alignment
and profile were as described for the 8-inch pipe in abstracts for Nos. 9, 10, 11, and
12. Water columns were used at both gauges. Discharge was measured over a 12-
inch Cipolletti weir. Usual velocity was about 3 feet per second. Three reaches on
the one pipe were tested. The capacity appeared to be about that computed by
the new formula.

Nos. 9, 10, 11, 12. 8-inch Jointed (Machine-Banded) Wood-Stave Siphon
Pipe, Sunnyside Project, U. S. Reclamation Service, Washington.—This
pipe, built for irrigation purposes, had been in use about five months at the time of
tests in 1909. Approximately the same reaches were again tested in 1910. Nos. 9
and 11 consist of two tangents intersecting at an angle of 16° 40’ made by a gentle bend
with short lengths of pipe. They include the dip in the profile, No. 11 is 120 feet
longer than No. 9. Reach No. 12 includes No. 11 with an additional 540 feet of
straight pipe on the upstream end. Reach No. 10 is the final 2,002 feet of Nos. 9, 11,
and 12, is straight in horizontal alignment, but includes the dip. A remarkable con-
trast appearsin these tests. In 1909 the capacity was about7 per cent less than that com-

puted by the new formula. In1910 the testson the same pipe indicated an apparent
increase in capacity to about 20 per cent more than the discharge computed by the
new formula, when reach 11 was considered; but reach 12 (which includes No. lland is
but 15 per cent longer) showed the capacity to have increased to but 5 per cent more than
the average. It should be noted that velocities in No. 11 were far greater than those
in No. 12. A study of figure 5 fails to show a general tendency toward increase in
capacity with age of pipe. The tests on reach No. 11 plot (see Pl. VI) in the zone
normally occupied by those on a 10-inch pipe.

No. 15. 10.12-inch Jointed (Machine-Banded) White Pine Pipe,'. Bonito
Pipe Line, El Paso & Southwestern Railway, New Mexico.—This pipe line,
part of which is 10-inch and part 16-inch, is more than 100 miles in length and is used in
connection with a railway water-supply project. In 1908, 1909, and 1911, J. L.
Campbell made tests on both sections. The larger pipe joins the lower end of the
smaller pipe at an open standpipe. In measuring velocities the experimenter
used bran and colors, accepting the first appearance of the bran or color in
computing the period elapsed between the time of their injection and their
later appearance. The fact is well known that the velocities near the center of
the pipe are higher than those near the perimeter, and thus higher than the mean
velocity. Hence if the first appearance of the color is accepted then a velocity in
excess of the mean is indicated. In the opinion of the writer this fact accounts for
the low friction factor found, and for this reason he did not use these tests in the deriva-
tion of the new formula. For additional discussion of these tests see page 11. Had
the elapsed time been considered as from the moment of color injection to the mean
of its first and last. appearance at the outlet, a highly satisfactory series of tests would
have resulted. The latter method was employed by the writer and is mentioned by
Roy Taylor in connection with tests on the Altmar pipe,? No. 51.

No. 16. 12-inch Jointed (Machine-Banded) Wood-Stave Pipe, Sunnyside
Project, U. S. Reclamation Service, Washington.—This pipe was built for

1 Engin. News, 60 (1908), p. 225; Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 70 (1910), p. 178; 74 (1911), p. 455.
2 Engin. News, Sept. 23, 1915.

76 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

irrigation purposes in 1910 and had been in use but three months at the time of tests.
The line supplements and parallels the pipe described as No. 28. However, the
vertical curve at the low point is not so sharp as In the 22-inch pipe. A water column
was used for gauge No. 1 and a mercury manometer for gauge No. 2. The diameter was
measured at the intake and found to average 12 inches. Discharge was taken over a
Cipolletti weir at the intake. The loss of head was abnormally great, capacity being
about 15 per cent below the discharge computed by the new formula. Moritz suggeste
the possible presence of silt in the lower portions of the pipe, as the normal velocity is
but 0.8 foot per second and the water is silt-laden.

Nos. 17, 18. 14-inch Jointed (Machine-Banded) Wood-Stave Pipe, Sunny-
side Project, U. S. Reclamation Service, Washington.—This pipe for carrying
irrigation water had been in use five consecutive seasons when tested in 1909. The
reach included in the tests consists of two tangents intersecting at an angle of 32° 12’,
whereagentle bend of short lengthsof pipeismade. Thesamereach was tested in both
1909 and 1910. Loss of head appeared less in 1910 than in 1909. This may have been
partially due to less friction in the pipe at the later date and partially to mere difference
in experimental results. Mercury manometers were used for both gauges. Ata place
where a stave blew out opportunity was afforded for an examination of the interior of
the pipe and for measurement for area in addition to inlet and outlet. At this hole the
softer portions of the fir wood had worn away, leaving longitudinal ridges of harder
wood. The frictional influence of this condition was problematical. Discharge
measurements in 1909 were made over a round-crested weir; those in 1910 were made
over sharp-crested weir. In general the 1910 tests should be given more weight than
those of 1909. The profile of the line is wavy but without pronounced vertical curve
or bends. Three summits are indicated by a ground line profile, but their actual
existence in the pipe is questionable. The capacity of the pipe in 1909 was about 9
per cent greater than the discharge computed by the new formula, while in 1910 it was
less than 3 per cent greater than that discharge.

No. 20. 14-inch Redwood Stave Pipe, West Los Angeles Water Co., Cali-
fornia.'—Arthur L. Adams conducted a series of seven tests upon reaches of various
lengths of a 14-inch redwood pipe supplying the Pacific Branch of National Soldiers’
Home, in California. Throughout the length of the pipe line vertical curves were
quite numerous, but all were made without the use of ‘‘specials” and with radii of not
less than approximately 40 feet. Horizontal curves were few, and 286 feet was the
minimum radius. The size of the pipe was determined by numerous measurements
of external circumference, the thickness of the staves being known to be constant.
The discharge was measured with a 4-foot weir whose coefficient was determined by a -
volumetric measurement. The head on the weir was read on a hook gauge. The loss
of head was observed in open standpipes and other designated structures. Points of
observation were connected by wye levels. Taking the mean of all the observations
on this pipe, the capacity is shown to be about 9 per cent less than as computed by
the new formula. This series was used by Williams and Hazen in determining their
suggested coefficient of 120. It was also used by the writer in deriving his formulas
but was rejected by Moritz.

No. 21. Bonito Pipe Line, New Mexico.—This series is discussed under No. 15
on page 75. ‘

No. 22. Rectangular Unplaned Poplar Pipe.—Tests on an experimental pipe
1.574 feet wide and 0.984 foot deep were made in France in 1859 by Darcy and Bazin.?
The discharge was determined by weir measurement and the loss of head by piezo-
meters. This series was used by Tutton in deriving his formula, but was rejected by
Moritz and the writer, both of whom considered only round-stave pipes in deriving
their formulas.

1 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 40 (1898), p. 542.
2 Recherches Hydrauliques, Henry Darcy and H. Bazin, Paris, 1865.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. vir

No. 28. 18-inch Yellow Fir Continuous-Stave Pipe, Astoria Waterworks,

Oregon.'—A. L. Adams made two tests on long reaches of new yellow (Douglas) fir
continuous-stave pipe. The gravity line supplying Astoria consists of 74 miles of 18-
inch wood-stave, 3 miles of 16-inch and 1 mile of 14-inch steel pipe. The maximum
head on the stave pipe is 172 feet. The pipe is buried from 4 to 22 feet deep. Loss of
head was observed at standpipes, when the pipe line was carrying maximum ca-
pacity. Discharge was measured by the rise of water in a concrete reservoir. Leak-
age was tested and found to be negligible. The low friction factor found in this test is
the more remarkable in view of the fact that there are ‘‘in addition to a succession of
sweeping horizontal and vertical curves, 27 cast-iron bends, with a radius of curvature
of 5 feet, and with an average central angle of about 31°.” (Pl. XIV, fig.1.) If but .
two tests at the same velocity are to be accepted as a criterion for the capacity, then
the pipe will carry about 17 per cent more than as computed by the new formula.
According to Henny this pipe was replaced with redwood in 1911. It had lasted 16
years.
_ Nos. 24-25. 18-inch Jointed (Machine-Banded) Wood-Stave Pipe, Sunny-
side Project, U. S. Reclamation Service, Washington.—This pipe was built in
1908 for conveyance of irrigation water. The reach tested is straight except for one
gentle curve through an angle of about 18°. In profile the pipe dips between gauges
1 and 2 about 20 feet in the reach 2,803 feet long. There are three minor summits in
the reach. Water columns were used at both gauges. Air pulsations made tests
difficult and but one measurement for internal area was possible, this being at the
outlet where a distortion of about one-half inch was noted. Discharge was measured
over a 6-foot Cipolletti weir and was corrected for leakage through another gate in the
outlet structure. The two reaches cover approximately the same stretch of pipe.
The capacity of the pipe was about 11 per cent greater than the discharge computed
by the new formula.

No. 28. 22-inch Jointed (Machine-Banded) Wood-Stave Pipe, Sunnyside
Project, U. S. Reclamation Service, Washington.—This pipe, built in 1906 to
convey water for irrigation, had been used four seasons of seven months each at the
time of tests. The horizontal alignment consists of two tangents intersecting at an
angle of about 5°. The low point of the pipe is about 75 feet below the hydraulic
gradient. There are probably no summits. The circumference of the pipe appears
to be distorted about 1 inch. Water columns were used for both gauges. Measure-
ments of diameter made at inlet and outlet gave a mean of 22 inches. Discharge was
measured for runs 1 and 2 over an 8-foot round-crested weir. The discharge for re-
maining runs was taken over a 4-foot sharp-crested weir. Seven small leaks were
measured volumetrically. Four irrigation hydrants are attached to this pipe. Re-
ferring to Plate VI it is seen that some unusual condition must be present in this pipe.
Although the mean of all the observations indicates that the capacity is 3 per cent
greater than that computed by the new formula, the individual observations indicate
that the lowest velocity is 25 per cent greater than the discharge computed by formula,
while the highest velocity is 12 per cent less than that discharge, for their respective
losses of head. The intermediate velocities show the same trend through the above
range. This series was rejected by Moritz, because of the unusual exponent of V.
As no really definite reason was given for the rejection, and since other series of various
experimenters show nearly as great peculiarities, the writer has retained the series.

No. 32. Experiment H, 24-inch Continuous-Stave Redwood Pipe, Butte
City, Mont.—Water for the city of Butte, Mont., is conveyed from a reservoir about
9 miles distant in a redwood pipe laid in 1892 (Pl. XIV, fig. 2), which was designed
as a, low-pressure line following just under the hydraulic grade line as nearly as topog-
raphy would permit. However, insome places a head of 200 feet is developed and a
great deal of curvature, both horizontal and vertical, occurs throughout the length of

1 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 36 (1896), p. 26.

78 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the line. Henny states ! that too much reliance should not be placed on this test as
“‘ the only method at hand to determine the flow was from frequent determination of
velocity by means of vertical floats in a semicircular flume at the upper end of the
pipe.’’ This test was not used by Williams-Hazen, Moritz, or the writer in the deriva-
tion of their formulas. The friction factor found indicates a capacity greater than the
average. According to Henny’s report in the Reclamation Record for August, 1915,
this pipe is still sound ‘‘except some deterioration where covered with loose rock only.”

No. 33. Rectangular Unplaned Poplar Pipe.—Tests on an experimental pipe
2.624 feet wide and 1.64 feet deep were made in France by Darcy and Bazin. As the
pipe is similar to that described as No. 22 the same discussion applies to both. (See
page 76.)

No. 35. 31-inch Continuous-Stave Douglas Fir Siphon Pipe, Prosser Pipe
Line, Sunnyside Project, U. S. Reclamation Service, Washington.—In the
discussion of the Moritz tests J. S. Moore gives the details of experiments conducted
by him on the Prosser pressure pipe. Irrigation water is conveyed across the Yakima
Valley over the Yakima River in a pressure pipe of combination type. A concrete
pipe 304 inches in diameter is used until the head reaches about 45 feet, at which
point the line is changed to a 31-inch stave pipe. The reach tested has but one 5-
degree curve, for about 19 degrees of central angle, located near the outlet end. At
the river the maximum head is about 105 feet. The tests were conducted in August
and October of the first irrigation season after the pipe was finished, the highest
velocity being obtained onlyin August. Before backfilling, but following recinching
of bands, external diameters were measured every 50 feet. The discharge was ob-
tained from the rating curve of a 6-foot Cipolletti weir, the curve having been ob-
tained by calibrating the weir against current-meter measurements from a meter sta-
tion near the weir. The capacity of this pipe was about 6 per cent less than the dis
charge computed by the new formula. From the fact that the feed canal is down a
very steep grade in a natural channel for part of the distance it appears to the writer
that the pipe might very easily contain sufficient débris to account for any deficiency
- in capacity.

No. 36.—This is another reach of the same pipe as that last described. These
tests covered a shorter piece, included in the long reach tested as No. 35. The two
runs made at the highest velocity, in August, showed the same loss of head per unit of
length in both reaches of pipe, but the other runs, made in October, gave divergent
results, as shown on Plate VI. Mr. Moore states that he is not prepared to explain
this divergence. This series of tests indicate that the capacity is 10 per cent less than
the discharge computed by the new formula. (See discussion of No. 35.)

No. 41. 444-inch Continuous-Stave Douglas Fir Pipe, Municipal Water
Supply, Seattle, Wash.’—T. A. Noble conducted a series of tests on a 44-inch pipe
at the time the tests on the 54-inch pipe (discussed as No. 44, p. 79) were carried on.
With the exceptions noted below the same general methods were used on both pipes.
The horizontal curves in the 44-inch pipe were so flat that for all practical purposes
the pipe may be considered straight. For about one half the total reach the pipe
follows an even gradient. For the other half it crosses a depression about 10 feet in
maximum depth in a distance of about 2,000 feet. Thus, practically, the pipe is with-
out curvature in either plane. After passing through the reach of 54-inch pipe dis-
cussed as No. 44 the water enters a settling basin. From this basin it is conveyed in
the 44-inch pipe now under discussion. Water columns were used for both gauges.
Gauge No. 1 was located 150.6 feet downstream from the inside wall of the basin.
Gauge No. 2 was located 4,041 feet farther down the pipe line. No growth appeared
within the 44-inch pipe; according to Noble the higher velocities in the 44-inch pipe

1 Journal Assoc. Engin. Socs., 21 (1898), p. 250.
2 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 49 (1902), p. 113.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 79

prevent the attachment of growths. The capacity of this pipe was about 11 per cent
less than the discharge computed by the new formula.

No. 43. 483-inch Continuous-Stave Douglas Fir Siphon Pipe, Mabton
Pressure Pipe, Sunnyside Project, U. S. Reclamation Service, Washington.—
Under and adjacent to the Yakima River the Mabton pressure pipe is reduced in size
from the 553-inch pipe tested by Moritz and described as Nos. 45 and 46, page 79, toa
483-inch pipe of similar construction. At the time of the test the pipe had been in
operation two and one-half irrigation seasons. During this time the mean velocity
had been about 5.4 feet per second. The discharge was measured during the tests in
the same way as that used for Nos. 45 and 46. Several diameters were measured at
the time similar measurements were made on the 553-inch pipe. Mercury manometers
were used for both gauges. The mean of these three observations indicates that the
capacity of this pipe was about 20 per cent greater than the discharge computed by
the new formula. This same excess of capacity is shown in the other portions of this
siphon, discussed as Nos. 45 and 46. Subsequent to the tests described by Moritz,
J. S. Moore experimented upon the portion of the Mabton pressure pipe below the point
where the reduction from 553 inches to 48? inches in diameter was made. These tests
are all described in the same publication. (See footnote under Nos. 2-3.)

No. 44. 54,3,-inch Continuous-Stave Douglas Fir Pipe, Municipal Water
Supply, Seattle, Wash.'—T. A. Noble conducted a series of tests for loss of head by
friction in the reach of 54-inch pipe between the intake at the dam and the settling
basin. As the line follows the sinuosities of Cedar River, it consists of gentle curves
joined by short tangents. The minimum radius of curvature is 289 feet. From the
appearance of the profile the pipe is laid on an even gradient, with the exception of
_ one slight depression, where a blow-off is located. As a summit is reached after this
depression, a 3-inch standpipe is carried above the hydraulic gradient. Holes for
the attachment of the piezometers were made by boring with an ordinary wood bit
until the tip of the bit pierced the inside of the pipe, making a hole about three-six-
teenths inch in diameter. This method was afterwards adopted by Moritz for his
experiments. The pipe had been in use about 10 months at the time of test. Gauge
No. 1, a water column, was located 232 feet from the intake, while gauge No. 2 was a
hook gauge in a well at the outlet of the pipe near the settling basin, 2,446.7 feet below
gauge No.1. The zero points of the various gauges were connected by lines of levels
run by three different observers, the mean of the two nearest together being accepted
as correct. Noble states that the probable error does not exceed 0.007 foot. The
discharge was very carefully measured by an elaborate series of current-meter tests.
For this purpose the area of the pipe was divided into four concentric zones, and each
zone was covered with a sufficient number of meter readings to develop fully the mean
velocity within that zone. In all, the meter was held at 50 points. The interior size
of the pipe was carefully measured some two months after the tests, Vertical and
horizontal diameters were taken every 100 feet. The resulting figures indicate that
the pipe was badly distorted in several places. Growths of Spongilla in scattered
bunches, each about one-fourth square inch in area and projecting about three-six-
teenths inch, were distributed over the inside of the pipe, except along the bottom.
The capacity of this pipe was about 2 per cent less than average, probably accounted
for by the growth within the pipe; but the 44-inch pipe downstream from this one
lacked an average capacity by 11 per cent, with no growth inside.

Nos. 45 and 46. 5534-inch Continuous-Stave Douglas Fir Siphon Pipe,
Mabton Pressure Pipe, Sunnyside Project, U. S. Reclamation Service, Wash-
ington.—Irrigation water is conveyed across the valley of the Yakima River by a
siphon pipe carried under the river. At the intake end water in an open channel
passes over an 18-foot rectangular weir into a 54-inch reinforced-concrete pipe. At

1 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 49 (1902), p. 112.

80 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the end of about 3,000 feet a head of nearly 60 feet is attained and the pipe changed
to a 55}-inch continuous-stave pipe of Douglas fir. A reach of this pipe 2,848.2 feet
long was tested in 1909 and again in 1910. At the time of the first series of tests the
pipe had been in operation about five months. It was new, well rounded, and con-
tained but minor distortions. There was no deposit or growth inside. Cross-sec-
tional areas of pipe interior were determined by taking four diameters every 200 feet
throughout the reach tested. Velocity in the pipe was determined by dividing the
discharge, as found by the 18-foot weir, by the mean inside cross-sectional area of the
pipe. Mercury manometers were used at both ends of the reach. A comparison of
the capacities of this pipe and nearly all other large pipes shows that this siphon is
remarkably smooth. This fact is also borne out by the tests on the 482-inch pipe dis-
cussed as No. 48, which is part of thissame siphon. This fact is also clearly shown by
the relative positions of the points for this pipe in Plate VI. The two series of tests
on this pipe were the only ones on any pipe of greater diameter than 18 inches not
rejected by Moritz in deriving his formula. This accounts for the difference between
the Moritz formula and those of Williams-Hazen, Tutton, and the writer. Giving all
weight for large pipes to these two series develops a formula indicating a far greater
capacity for large wood-stave pipes than a study of all available tests on such pipes
will warrant. If the new formula represents the flow in an average pipe, shown in
Tables 2 and 3 to be true, then this pipe will carry more than 18 per cent more water
than the average pipe. While conducting tests for the Department of Agriculture the
writer visited this pipe after a lapse of four years with a view to securing additional
information, but the pipe leaked so badly that tests were not feasible. The pipe was
rebuilt in the winter of 1914-15.

No. 49. Moon Island Conduit, Boston, Mass.'—In October, 1884, E. C. Clarke
made one test on a rectangular conduit, flowing full; that is, asa pipe. This conduit
is a tight wooden flume 6 by 6 feet, made of planed plank, laid lengthwise. The ex-
perimental section was straight, 2,486.5 feet in length. During this test the flow con-
sisted of about one-fourth sewage and about three-fourths salt water. The sides of
the conduit were covered with from one-eighth to one-fourth inch of slime below the
ordinary flow line. Above this line, on the sides and top, there was some slime but
not so much as below the line. Discharge was measured with approximate accuracy
by the strokes of the pump pistons. This test was used by Tutton in deriving his
formula but rejected by other authorities as the conditions did not parallel those for
which the usual pipe is designed.

Nos. 47-48. 7214-inch Continuous-Stave Douglas Fir Power Trunk Line,
Pioneer Electric Power Co., Ogden, Utah.?—Soon after the construction of the
Ogden Canyon pipe line supplying the Pioneer Electric Power Co. plant, near Ogden,
Utah, tests were made by Profs. Marx, Wing, and Hoskins, of Leland Stanford
Junior University. These tests covered loss of head in the 6-foot wood-stave pipe
and the riveted-steel pipe leading from the stave pipe to the power house. Experi-
ments were first made in 1897 * but were supplemented by a second series of tests in
1899.4 In both series the discharge was measured through the Venturi meter installed
at the plant. The loss of head was measured by the mercury manometers afterwards
used by Moritz in the Sunnyside experiments. The relative elevations of the gauges
were determined by the static head in the piezometers with the valves closed so that
there was no velocity in the pipe. A constant reduction factor was used in converting
the mercury column to the equivalent water column. These experiments have been
criticized for this reason, but the writer is of the opinion that no error of moment was
thus introduced since, in the tests conducted by him, hydrometer readings were taken

~ 1E.C.Clarke. Main Drainage Works of the City of Boston, Mass., 2d ed., 1886.
2 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 38 (1897), p. 246,
3Td., 40 (1898), p. 471.
4 Td.. 44 (1900), p. 34.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 81

in all the waters tested, and the variation in specific gravity from that of distilled
water was found to be very slight. As it was not practicable to make an examination
of the interior of this pipe the nominal size was accepted as correct. It conveys water
for several miles down the very rugged canyon spoken of in the discussion of pipe No.
31. Both vertical ‘and horizontal curves are numerous but not excessively sharp.
These tests excited much comment at the time for the reason that they were the first
to show that a value of about 0.010 for n in the Kutter formula would not apply to all
sizes of pipe under all velocities. When compared with all other tests on large pipe,
with the exception of Nos. 45 and 46, the capacity of this pipe is shown to be about
equal to the discharge computed by formula. Compared to the new formula the
capacity is from 5 to 8 per cent less than average. For further discussion of results on
this pipe see page 9.

DISCUSSION OF “FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE.” !

By Garpner S. Wiis, Consulting Engineer, Ann Arbor, Mich.; THeron A. NOBLE,
Consulting Engineer, North Yakima, Wash.; D. C. Henny, Consulting Engineer,
U. §. Reclamation Service, Portland, Oreg.; E. A. Moritz, Engineer, U. 8S.
Reclamation Service, Denver, Colo.; E. W. Scuoprer, Professor in Charge of
Hydraulic Laboratory, Cornell University; L. M. Hosxins, Professor in Charge of
Depariment of Applied Mathematics, Leland Stanford Junior University.

Mr. Williams: It may be interesting in connection with the Moritz formula as
expressed by the author [formula 9, p. 6]

0.38 VES
“pis

to call attention to the fact that from the experiments of A. V. Saph and E. W.
Schoder, published in the Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
vol. 51, the writer derived from the form given at the bottom of page 308 a formula
for general use with all kinds of pipe,

R=

0.38 V1-87
“pias

which, it will be seen, is almost identical with the author’s form of the Moritz for-
mula and has been taught to the students of the University of Michigan since 1904.

From the standpoint of exact experimentation slight errors may be expected in
the author’s results from the method of determining diameters of his pipe. The
effect of swelling of the wood in the staves, where they are restrained by the hoops,
may very probably change the diameter after they have become saturated from
what it was when they were dry.

There is also some question as to the uniformity of the diameters of the glass tubing
and the author’s practice of reading but one tube of his gauge (as indicated on p. 22)
may very likely involve a small error in the head, as in the writer’s experience upon
careful examination he has never yet been able to find two pieces of tubing that were
exactly of the same internal diameter.

13/—

1 Appreciating that the present knowledge of the flow of water in wood-staves pipe is due to careful ex
perimentation and subsequent discussion, carried over a period of 20 years, the original manuscripi ot the
preceding paper was submitted to the above-named men, each of whom has been closely in touch with the
development of this knowledge. They were asked for criticism and comment. Acknowledgment is now
made of the time and labor expended gratuitously by these authorities in preparing their comments which
comprise the discussion given here. Many of the changes suggested by them have been made and to avoid
confusion their papers have been therefore edited to conform to such changes.

Throughout this discussion ‘‘the writer’’ will refer to the name heading that particular part of the
discussion and ‘‘the author”’ will refer to the author of the paper.

42463°—Bull. 376—16——6

82 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The reference of the author (p. 25) to the watches being exactly set together leads
one to infer that a comparison was made at the conclusion of the experiment to deter-
mine how closely they had continued to run together. If this was not done there ig
a possibility of a small error in time due to the varying rate of the watches. It is not
an uncommon thing to find two watches to run several seconds apart in the course
an hour, although in the course of a day the difference may be inappreciable.

It would add materially to the value of the paper as a record of experimentation if
the author would give some details as to the general measurement of the water and
also a sketch of the weir used, showing the method of attachment and location of the
stilling box. The measurement of the quantity of water is fully as important as the
measurement of the loss of head, and it depends upon the precision of the measure-
ment of the head, and upon the accuracy with which the weir is constructed in con-
formity with previously used experimental examples.

With the information as it stands in the paper it is impossible for one to determine
whether the weir measurements are to be relied upon within 2 per cent or within 10
per cent.

The rating of the submerged weir by means of a current meter in a tailrace is per-
haps the least accurate experimentation recorded in the paper. The use of a current
meter in a tailrace is very unsatisfactory and its indications are liable to be in error
anywhere from 10 to 20 per cent. If the wheels in question were reaction turbines it
would be possible to get a considerably more accurate determination of the flow by
reference to the gate openings and head on the wheels during the test in question.
If this were compared with Holyoke tests on similar wheels a determination of the
water could probably be arrived at within 3 or 4 per cent.

The investigation of inlet losses described by the author (p. 63) may be subject to
error because the distance from the inlet to the place of measuring the head is prob-
ably too short.’ Had the measurement of head been taken 4 or 5 diameters down the
pipe it is quite probable that the apparent loss would have been less than that shown
at the point where the author observed, by reason of the fact that a contraction of the
stream is formed at the entrance which causes an eddy to lie along the wall and this
in experiments by the writer was found to extend for some 12 to 15 diameters down-
stream. The distance to which this might extend, in a large pipe is probably less
than that in a smaller one, but it seems questionable if the length of 3 diameters was
sufficient to eliminate it even in the large pipes considered.

A statement is made (p. 65) that low discharges entrain more air. This statement
is apparently in error. The lower discharges release more air from the water which is
flowing through the pipe and hence more air is apparent along the top of the stream
and at places where it may accumulate, but rapidly flowing water will absorb and carry
with it more air than the more slowly flowing, and this is the reason that the air does
not appear at high discharges.

As to the author’s comparisons of carrying capacity of wooden-stave and cast-iron
pipe it is to be said that the values of the coefficient recommended for different ages
in the Williams and Hazen formula are believed by its authors to be very conservative.
With the modern coated cast-iron pipe, if well laid, it is doubtful if a coefficient less
than 115 will be found at any age unless the coating has been damaged.

In closing it gives the writer pleasure to express his appreciation for the very work-
manlike manner in which the observations reported by the author have been
conducted.

Mr. Noble: Page 58, line 16, and page 60, line 17. The velocity head and the
entry head at the entrance may or may not be lost head, depending upon the shape of
the approach to and the exit from the pipe line. This loss may be entirely eliminated
by making the first section and the last section of the pipe funnel-shaped, the small
end being joined to the pipe in each case. The large end must be sufficiently large
that the velocity at the entrance will produce a negligible velocity head (see Francis’,

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 83

Lowell Hydraulic Experiments, and Clemens Herschel on Venturi Water Meter, pub-
lished in Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., vol. 26, p. 452). This form of entrance and
exit also has the advantage of furnishing an accurate and convenient means of meas-
uring the quantity of flow and of keeping track of the gauge height which will not be
affected by the condition of the ditch.

Page 5, line 15. In small pipe, from 4 to 12 inches, used for irrigation and water-
works purposes, valves are always used at least in one place, and often a large number
of fittings and valves whose effect on the flow is similar to the ordinary gate valve.

In such tests as the writer has made he has found no appreciable loss in any single
valve or fitting, but where there are many, as in waterworks systems, the loss on this
account is a matter for serious consideration. There does not seem to be much infor-
mation published that would throw light on this subject.

Page 3, line 5, and page 48, line 35. Attention is directed to the fact that the
writer in 1909 first devised this type of formula from suggestions of Messrs. Saph and
Schoder. This formula is as follows [Formula 16, p. 48]:

Q— 28D 2 252s

Since that date he has been using this in all his calculations as to the flow in wood
pipe. Itis in the same form as the one devised by Mr. Moritz and the author. This
formula gives results from 0 to 15 per cent less than the author’s formula, being about
the same for smaller sizes of pipe and 15 per cent less discharge for the larger sizes of
pipe. It was the writer’s intention in devising this formula to so select the coeffi-
cients of D and H that the calculated flow would more nearly approach the quantities
of flow determined from tests that were lowest instead of those that were the average.

Page 15, line 27. Itis not atall impossible thatin a number of the tests on which
the formula is based the real average diameter is different from the nominal diameter
assumed, due to the following causes:

, (a) Swelling of the wood by saturation. .

(6) Distortion due to imperfect backfilling or settlement where the pipe may have
been laid on more or less of a fill, or where there has been more or less leakage.

(c) Inaceuracy of manufacture. The writer in his examination of a 54-inch pipe
found an average of one-half inch larger than the nominal diameter, making
a difference of 1.8 per cent increase in the area. This pipe was measured every
100 feet throughout its entire length, from one manometer to the other. In
making these measurements considerable distortion was found to exist, and the
writer is not certain that these measurements revealed the exact diameter.

Page 46, line 42. It is the experience of most engineers who have had much to do
with current-meter measurements that they can not be depended upon to give
satisfactory results where the water is at all turbulent or where the cross section of any
stretch of the channel is uneven, thus causing considerable turbulence. The greatest
care in rating a meter will not help this very large source of error. The error due to
turbulence is greater with the Price meter than with the Haskell meter, which latter
was used in the writer’s experiments on the 54-inch and 44-inch pipe-line tests. The
measurements were taken by inserting the meter into the exit end of the 54-inch
pipe, being held in exact position by a templet and a pin fastened through the upper
end of the meter rod.

Page 47, line 37. The line of maximum velocity within the pipe would be shifted
from the center of the pipe to a line close to that portion of the outside of the pipe on
which the convex side of the curve occurs. This line of maximum velocity would
retain its position for a long distance from the curve and would occur within the
length of the pipe tested.

The writer doubts if this abnormal condition would affect the results, particularly
if the manometers were attached in the neutral zone of velocity, as the author states
was done,

84 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Page 79, line 27. The writer would here call attention to the importance of deter-
mining accurately the average diameter at each point of manometer attachment. A
very slight difference between the areas at the two points will make a very considera-
ble difference in the results, particularly if the total difference in head between the
two points is relatively small. An examination of the data relating to the test of the
54-inch pipe, No. 44 (Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., vol. 49, 1902) will show a very
considerable change in area throughout the length of the pipe. It was found that the
velocity head at any point was exactly proportional to the calculated velocity head.

Page 64, line 40. Same reference is made as for page 60, line 17, as the best
means of preventing loss at the entrance and exit. This funnel-shaped entrance pre-
vents the trapping of air at the entrance caused by excessive suction and cross cur-
rents, but does not prevent the minute particles of air flowing with the water, or the
air that is absorbed by the water, and does not leave it until under a greater pressure
from entering the pipe line. Accumulation of air from these causes must be taken
care of either by standpipes or automatic relief valves. To leave it in the pipe when
there are high points in the pipe line and low velocities is to seriously diminish the
flow. It is the writer’s opinion that many of the inconsistent results from various
tests are due to this cause.

Page 73, line 35. In the case of pipe used for irrigation purposes where the entrance
is direct from a ditch, with no adequate settling basin, a considerable quantity of silt,
moss, and other débris traveling along the bottom of the ditch finds its way into the
pipe line and accumulates in the low points of the pipe, even at velocities higher
than 5 feet per second. It becomes settled and packed and slimed over at times
when the velocity in the pipe is low. The moss and other vegetable matter tend to
bind the silt together into a solid mass, which is not washed out by the higher veloc-
ity. This is probably what happened to the pipe line in question. :

Page 79, line 31. There were three gauges used in these experiments:

(a) A hook gauge located at the settling basin or discharge end of the pipe.

(6) A water manometer attached to the top of the pipe about 150 feet upstream from
the outlet end. Sufficient readings were taken at manometer B to make a check
on accuracy of using the hook gauge.

(c) A water manometer located 232 feet downstream from the intake. The area of
the pipe at the exit was slightly larger than at manometer B. The head of
water at manometer B, less the friction in the pipe line between manometer B
and the settling basin, less the difference in velocity head, equaled the head
at the settling basin or exit end within the limits of possible error from other
causes.

Page 79, line 36. The velocity measurements at the exit of the 54-inch pipe revealed
some interesting facts regarding the flow in pipe lines as follows:

First. That the line of maximum flow of water in a pipe line beyond a bend is not
in the center of the pipe, but near the outer circumference, and on the same side as
the convex side of the curve in the pipe. This would seem to be due to the action
of centrifugal force of the water in going around the curve, tending to crowd the max-
imum velocity toward the outer edge of the curved portion of the pipe.

Second. The average velocity as determined from a number of points distributed
systematically throughout the area of the circle of the pipe is the same as the average
velocity along either the vertical or horizontal diameter.

Third. The curve of velocity, as near as the writer could determine, is an ellipse
where the maximum velocity is in the center of the pipe.

Mr. Henny: The results of the experiments on flow in wood pipe made by the
author, under the direction of Mr. Fortier,! constitute much needed addition to the

1 Author’s footnote—Samuel Fortier, Chief of Irrigation Investigations, Office of Public Roads and Rural
Engineering, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 85

knowledge on this subject. They are digested and presented alongside of previous
experiments in a manner which renders ready comparison possible on whatever basis
is most suited to the mental habit as to use of formulas which the reader may have
acquired.

The Kutter formula is not adapted to wood-stave pipe, as has been clearly shown
by the present as well as by previous authors on this subject. Nevertheless it is
used by many engineers and its use is aided to so great an extent by existing tables
and diagrams as to leave its intricacy a matter of relative indifference.

The mind, having become used to dealing with it, and its value n, desires naturally
to know how the new work now presented, if expressed in the above value, compares
with previous conceptions. Moreover, if by means of tabulations it would be possible
for any given diameter of pipe and velocity to select the required value of n, the
results would conform to the best information available.

The author has developed a new formula, the use of which is sufficiently easy,
with the aid of diagrams furnished by him, for practical use. If this were the final
word on the subject, it might be convenient and best to discard all other formulas in
dealing with wood pipe. In the past, however, various experimenters have been
inclined each in turn to work out a formula according to his interpretation of known
data, and the future is likely to produce similar results.

If any new formula could be made up which would correctly present the facts, the
objection to a possible confusion would not be serious. To what extent the author
has succeeded in this regard can be easily judged from his valuable presentation of
the case in Plate VIT.

This plate shows at a glance the deviation of the results of past experiments from
that which would be obtained through the Scobey formula. Its exponential value
and constant were determined with a view to minimizing the average of the deviations.
Consequently the formula will give results which are as likely to be too large as too
small. As will be noted from this plate, the extent of the overestimating of capacity,
which its use may involve, frequently exceeds 10 per cent and sometimes reaches 15
per cent (12-inch pipe, experiment 16).

Thus the formula proposed does not give safe results. The extent of its possible
error on the side of danger has been increased by the unexpectedly low friction found
in the experiments on the White Salmon pipe in the State of Washington (13.5-foot
pipe). Expressing the matter in the somewhat more readily understood value of
Kutter’s n, there appeared in previous experiments a decided tendency to higher
values for n with increase of pipe diameter running for 4-foot velocity from 0.010 for
4-inch pipe to 0.0113 for 14-inch, 0.0128 for 36-inch to 0.0133 for 72.5-inch pipe. This
tendency is confirmed for lower velocities in experiments with 78-inch pipe. Yet
for both the 144-inch and the 162-inch pipe values are now found below 0.012.

It is evident that with further increase of our knowledge on this subject the average
must change and that the new average can only be expressed in a new formula in
which possibly the exponential value of H may remain close to 0.555, but in which
that of D may change as well as the general constant.

The possible error in the direction of overestimating is proposed by the author to
be covered by some general factor of safety to be applied in aceordance with the injury
which may follow from a capacity overestimate. There is excellent merit in this
proposition but it, as well as Plate VII, shows the lack of consistency which appears
in the nature of the case to attach to the results of various experiments.

Since, therefore, no definite capacity results can be predicted within 15 per cent
degree of accuracy, it is somewhat doubtful whether any real advantage can be gained
by the construction of a different formula with each addition to our available data.

To the practicing engineer Table 9, showing values of n in Kutter’s formula, inter-
polated from found values for the nearest velocities, may be of use.

86

BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 87

The causes of the large deviations in the constants of any formula so far proposed
have been the subject of frequent discussion. The varying amount of curvature is
undoubtedly one of these causes, and its separate effect upon resistance may well
engage the attention of experimenters. Age appears generally to have little effect
on carrying capacity of wood pipe. Errors in the experiments themselves are becom-
ing smaller with greater refinement and the use of coloring matter in determining
the velocity directly may be considered as a distinct advance. The main reason for
the apparently arbitrary variations probably lies in the difference in smoothness of
the interior surface, which may be due to vegetable growth, effect of wear, variability
of the wood, and in some measure to workmanship. So long as it is not practicable
to specify and insure a known degree of smoothness, so long will the application of
judgment be necessary in the use of any formula.

Entry head is due to eddy currents above and below the point of entry. The loss
due to eddy currents in the intake basin is very variable, depending upon the lines
of approach which at times favor the formation of whirls and vortexes. This item of
loss is, however, relatively small and may generally be neglected. The loss below
the point of entry is due to an uneven distribution of velocity throughout the section
immediately below the point of entrance.

The area so far as it is occupied by rapidly forward-moving water is contracted as in
the case of open-air discharge, although under conditions of counterpressure probably
to a smaller extent. The area between the contracted section and the pipe shell
is a cavitation space which may be filled with eddying water or may become under
high-velocity discharge a complete vacuum. ‘The energy of the moving water in the.
contracted area is greater, due to higher average velocity, than in the moving water
farther down the pipe, the difference being destroyed by internal friction and con-
stituting the principal part of entry head.

Where the assumption is made by the author that h,=4 h,, it is equivalent to assign-
ing a constant value of 0.82 to the coefficient of contraction. While this assumption
is not unusual it must be evident that this coefficient must be largely affected by con-
ditions of velocity, depth of pipe entrance below water surface, shape of intake basin
and elevation of floor with reference to pipe invert.

Table 6, presented by the author on this subject, yields no positive information.
The influence of velocity of approach is neglected, which may be permissible in
cases such as tests 7 and 8 where the outlet is at right angles to the direction of approach,
but is not correct in tests 5 and 6 where the flow is straight toward the entrance. The
table gives results which are erratic, as might be expected. For tests 7 and 8 it indi-
cates that the entry head equaled 0.89 h, and 0.63 h,, respectively, instead of 0.50 h,,
equivalent to coefficients of contraction 0.73 and 0.78, respectively, instead of 0.82,

The usual assumption of 0.82 as the coefficient of contraction, or 4 h, as the entry
head, may be justified in some cases, but will at times lead to serious error. (See
also, Merriman’s Hydraulics, 9th ed., p. 214.)

Mr. Moritz: It will generally be conceded on the basis of the showing made in
this paper that the new formulas proposed fit all observations so far made on wood-
stave pipe better than any other formula heretofore offered. The problem is, how-
ever, not susceptible of cold-blooded scientific analysis and the personal equation of
the analyst must necessarily affect the ultimate result. The present paper can not
be considered as the final answer to the problem of flow of water in wood-stave pipes
and in view of the close agreement between the author’s formula and others that have
been used, the writer is not satisfied that there is sufficient justification for a radical
departure from formula constants that have been well established and accepted. The
writer has in mind especially the exponent of d which for upward of 10 years or more
has stood unchallenged at 1.25 and this figure has been accepted by such well-known
hydraulicians and experimenters as Dr. E. W. Schoder, of Cornell University, and

88 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Gardner S. Williams, formerly of Cornell and Michigan Universities, as representing
the best average value. They inclined rather toward varying the exponent of V within
the range of about 1.75 to 1.95 and they also varied the coefficient m for different kinds
and conditions of pipes from about 0.30 to 0.50.

The exponent 1.25 was determined by Schoder from a plotting of all known observa-
tions on pipes covering the entire field from very small drawn-brass pipes to very
large tuberculated riveted-steel pipes, and is therefore not based on estimate nor
opinion, but on actual facts.’ The writer’s observations on wood-stave pipes developed
a value of 1.26, which he has since reduced in the formula for practice to 1.25 to con-
form to the generally accepted figure.

In the matter of proposing a new formula, the writer lives in a glass house and can
therefore not afford to throw stones. However, there were extenuating circumstances
in this case, which need not be discussed here, that ultimately led to a rather wide
acceptance of the writer’s formula, although he originally offered it with reservations
because there were a number of points not satisfactorily explained, and experiments
on very large pipes were notably lacking. Thanks to the author’s careful experiments
the deficiency has now been supplied to a considerable extent and we are closer to the
ultimate solution.

It is interesting to note that the author has arrived at the same figure for exponent of
V, namely 1.8, that developed from the writer’s experiments. Unfortunately, he
had not time to check the author’s analysis on this point, nor to make an independent
analysis of the data in this paper, but the evidence in support of this average figure
may now be fairly considered as having been greatly extended. The evidence in
support of 1.25 as the exponent of d is in the writer’s opinion equally as good if not
better, since its derivation was based on observations on all kinds and sizesof pipes.}
If we could, therefore, now agree on these two figures and throw the variation in
formula for different classes of pipe into the factor m, a much longer step will have been
made toward the general acceptance by engineers and courts of an exponential formula
for flow of water in pipes.

It must be conceded that additional experiments that may be made in the future,
especially in the field of diameters between 60 and 160, may have a marked effect on
the exponent of d and we will then no doubt be confronted by another formula. More-
over, as has already been pointed out, the personal equation of the analyst, especially
in the application of weights and methods of reasoning, must be taken into account
and another person with the same data as a basis would no doubt arrive at somewhat
different conclusions than those given in the present paper. No doubt this factor has
been eliminated to the greatest possible degree in the present paper, but complete

1 Author’s footnote (the italics are his).—A study of original sources does not bear out this statement. In
Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., vol. 51, Messrs. Saph and Schoder, on page 305, state: ‘First of all, the line
best fitting the points for the writers’ brass pipes has been drawn,” which line, as they say on page 306,
“forms the lower limit of the zone in which all the plotted points lie. This is another way of stating that
these pipes represent the extreme of smoothness and ideal conditions.’? The exponent of d for this line
was found to be 1.25. (Thisline is A, fig. 7.) The values of m for all kinds of pipes were then platted and
Saph and Schoder state (id., p. 308): ‘‘It will be seen that a line parallel to the one already drawn will
represent fairly the other limit” ofthe zone. (Thislineisshown as B, fig. 7.) Thusit will beseen that this
exponent was derived from a study of smooth brass pipes and then applied to all kinds of pipes by drawing a
line parallel, i. e., with the same slope, hence indicating the same exponent ofd, or 1.25. In discussing the
exponent as derived by Saph and Schoder, Mr. Allen Hazen states (id., p. 321), ‘‘It is, unfortunately, a
fact that probably none of the large pipe has as smooth surfaces as the brass pipe used by the authors (Saph
and Schoder) and some allowances must be made for this fact in the comparisons, and, while theline drawn
as a general average would be a matter of individual judgment, the writer (Hazen) would hardly give it
an inclination greater than that corresponding to an exponent of 1.2C. If the matter were carried further the
exponent would probably be lower.”’ It is interesting to again note that the exponent of d is 1.17 in the
formula derived from a study of these same pipes of all kinds by Williams and Hazen, and that this is the
same exponent found in this study of the flow in wood-stave pipes. (Line EH, fig. 7. This question is
further discussed on page 94.)

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPER. 89

elimination of the same is impossible, and this fact should be taken into full account
when the proposition of offering a new formula is considered.

With the above ideas in mind, the writer has examined figure 4, from which the
exponent of d and the coefficient of m have been developed. He assumes the point
in the center of the diagram with the two concentric rings represents the center of
gravity of all the points, taking into account the assumed weights, and that the points
on either side of the center with one concentric ring represent the center of gravity of
all the points on the respective sides. He has drawn a line (A, fig. 4) through the
central point on a slope of 1.25, which gives an intercept of 0.43. Ifthis be accepted,

— 1.8
the formula becomes 2 gives velocities and consequently discharges

— 1.8
that are about 7.6 per cent smaller than those given by the writer’s formula ye
Tf the figures in column 20 of Table 3 are now corrected by the addition of 7.6, the
‘“srand average per cent’’ of deviation of the observed velocities from those calculated
from the above formula becomes 0.04. On its face this would seem to indicate that
this formula is more accurate than the Scobey formula, which is not necessarily true,
and this leads the writer to remark that the deductions at the foot of this table are
misleading... The same remark applies to Table 2. However this may be viewed,
he thinks a better comparison of the formulas could be presented by grouping the ob-
servations or pipes by percentage deviation from each formula, somewhat as follows:

TaB LE 10.—Comparison of observed velocities to velocities computed by various formulas.

Number of observations differing by given per cent.

Author of formula.

HESS | +5 to | +10t0]+15t0| +20to| More | Tess poss

feet |e ntO! |e Yommlmer 20) Meo ART | ce a
Salar alee ek Saale eal 30 24 19 20 8 5 54 73
Williams-Hazen.................. 44 30 24 16 14 8 74 98
Line. ae 43 12 5 6 1 0 55 60
TH Haa i oe a 42 39 36 20 4 ul 81 117
Wig brcinls 2 eee 37 20 6 4 5 1 57 63

Less More Less Less

Author of formula. Guerak |fmACA| or eam Oar 20 tO ethan! than! |) shan

SF : . : Sao, | Ges 245
levis ee 46 48 39 12 1 2 92 131
Wathiams-Hazen se. 22222: sas. 49 40 16 9 1 2 89 105
Mien es RCT 29 18 42 49 41 8 47 89
Tal, | a ey 46 40 13 ret 1 5 86 99
nine 29 36 30 39 14 il 65 95

The writer is convinced that his formula should be modified to the extent of increas-
ing the coefficient m from 0.38 to 0.43, which will reduce the calculated carrying
capacities by 7.6 per cent. He is not convinced that the exponent of d should be

1 Author’s note.—The line A (fig. 5) or any other line drawn through the center of gravity willgive a formula
in which the “‘grand average per cent’’ will be very close to zeroas the moments of the various individual
points neutralize each other, the percentages for all pipes on one side of the center of gravity being too low
and for those on the other side too high. The heavy line in figure 5, representing the author’s formula, is
the only line that satisfies not only the ‘‘grand average per cent’’ but also satisfies similar comparisons for
only those pipes above the center of gravity or those below the center of gravity. This is true because this
lineis the only one that can and does pass through the center of gravity of all points and likewise through
thecenters of gravity of the points in the two zones into which the main center of gravity divides all points.
Viewed in this light the deductions at the foot of the columns mentioned are not misleading.

90 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

reduced from 1. 25to1.17 until the field of larger pipes has been more fully covered.
— 1.8

The formula ye gives practically as correct results as the author’s formula

and conforms much better with the results developed by previous experimenters.

It is conceded that the arguments presented herein are rather unscientific, but we
are dealing with a problem that is more practical than scientific, and expediency
should be given as much weight therein as science. The engineer should not strive
for an impossible accuracy or an artificial consistency in his essentially practical
operations. The writer feels that the author would be doing the engineering profession
a greater good if he would depart to a smaller extent in his formula from the factors
that have been developed by other experimenters before him.

Dr. Schoder: After the first reading of the paper the writer is inclined toward a
somewhat detailed discussion of numerous points that seem open to reasonable differ-
ences of opinion. However, after again reading the paper, most of these points seem
to be aside from the main argument that is advanced somewhat directly and some-
what by implication in the paper. Consequently the writer’s comments will deal
rather with the question it seems proper to ask: ‘‘ Does the paper sufficiently empha-
size the relations of the facts therein established for wood-stave pipes to the facts for
pipes of all materials?”

This suggests the query: ‘‘Is a special formula for wood-stave or any other particular
material proper or practically desirable in the light of information now before the engi-
neering public?” The author’s paper is a very important contribution toward such
information. It remains to make the general examination and comparison suggested.

Concerning the new data gathered by the author, the writer would sum up his esti-
mate and appreciation: (1) The field difficulties were many and serious. (2) The
Measurements, in the main, appear to be reliable. :

Comparison of the data on wood-stave pipes with the data on pipes of all materials.
The author states (p. 51) that the exponent of the velocity ranges from 1.56 to 2.31
and that he is unable to find any law for this variation for the wood stave pipe data.
It is interesting to examine these exponents as given in the nicely arranged Table 3.

M10” 12'’-24"" 30’’-162”’

1, 895 1. 730 1. 67
1. 808 1.870 1.70
1.877 1. 703 2.31
1. 847 2.176 1.719
1.724 1. 696
1.590 1. 747
1. 766 1. 618
1.875 1.973

1. 690

1.891

2.143

It seems to the writer that ‘‘confusion*will be worse confounded” by the apparent
sanction of a United States governmental department to a formula and diagrams or
tables based thereon, particularly applicable to wood-stave pipes, when the data,
according to the author’s own statements of factors of safety on page 66, and particularly
in column 19 of Table 2, show such large departures from the results by the formula,
and when there is nothing in the data on wood-stave pipes that distinguishes such
pipes from the data on iron, steel, brick, concrete, or other pipes.

In other words, if all the data presented on wood-stave pipes are plotted on Plate
XI, Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., vol. 51, or on figure 2, Cornell Civil Engineer,
May, 1910, or even if the data for all steel and iron pipes be added to the author’s
figure 4, the conclusion seems to be irresistible that the pipes used in engineering
practice for the conveyance of water can not be segregated, as to hydraulic resistance

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. QO]

to flow, into the particular materials of which the pipes are constructed, except in
sharply limited cases where the material is a meas-
ure of the roughness.

The writer considers the author’s formula as good
and as safe as any, if its limitations as shown by
column 19, Table 2, be taken into account and if
the velocity in the pipe under design is not much
greater than in the data presented in Table 2.

This suggests the difficulty in getting the engineer-
ing public to recognize the average quality of an
averaging formula. Thus the significance of the
formulas on page 309, Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin.,
vol. 51 (1903), is very liable to be overlooked when
presented in the form given on page 281, Eng. Rec.,
September 3, 1904.

Unless these general interrelations of all pipe flow
data are specifically emphasized, it seems that a
good opportunity will be lost. The author states
on page 50, “However, in deriving the new for-
mula, tests made on round, wood-stave pipe only
were considered, in view of the proposed use of such
a formula.” The inference that data on other pipes
are not relevant will be drawn from this by the
great body of readers. Thus the error so long per-
petuated by hydraulic texts will be given apparent
sanction.

From a purely selfish viewpoint the writer would
not be eager to see the author’s paper broadened as
suggested. It furnishes data to drive home matters
about which there have been great uncertainty in
the minds of a few, and general ignorance in the
minds of the many who place a halo about text-
book formulas. If the author does not, others will
do it.

The value of the paper as it stands isgreat. Itis
in the hope that the author may be persuaded to
make the shift in viewpoint necessary to add much
to the permanent value of his deductions that the
writer ventures these comments.

In The Cornell Civil Engineer of December, 1911,
page 127, there are some data that may be found of
interest in connection with the author’s method of
finding velocities by injecting a colored solution into
the pipes and timing the interval from the instant
of injection to midway between the first and last
appearances of color downstream.

, Shown by circles (also see fig. 4). Dotted lines suggested

xe
, for which values of m are shown as dots.

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by Saph and Schoder for many kinds of pipes

Prof. Hoskins: The experimental work described
in ‘The Flow of Water in Wood-Stave Pipe” isa
valuable addition to knowledge on the subject, and
the author’s summary of conclusions appears to
merit confidence as embodying present knowledge
on the hydraulics of wood-stave pipe. The expo-
nential formula adopted as the result of the discussion is probably as reliable a

Fic. 7.—Comparison of curves for exponent of d. Line E based on values of m’ for experiments on wood pipe

92 BULLETIN 876, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

guide as the present state of knowledge makes possible. The writer thinks all
who have been concerned in experimental work of this character must recognize
that a close approach to exact agreement among results is not to be expected. The
author’s analysis of the conditions affecting the reliability of the experiments is very
thorough and his work seems to merit acceptance equally with the best previous
results. Nothing occurs to the writer by way of criticism or discussion worthy of
publication.

Author’s closure.—The apparent lack of conformity in results of hydraulic
experiments has discouraged many observers. It would appear that carefully con-
ducted experiments, made with the best of apparatus, should give results of extreme
consistency. It is more than likely that results that should be consistent are so and
that variations are due to influences that can not be seen or guarded against. The
best that may be done is to anticipate all known abnormal conditions and either elimi-
nate them or make corrections for them.

Discussions of some experiments mentioned appreciated field difficulties. There
is a vast difference between testing small pipes, weirs, or other devices in a hydraulic
laboratory, where all of the factors are assuredly in the control of the observer, and
testing large commercial structures in the field under varying weathér conditions with
unavoidable fluctuation in discharge of water and other difficulties that may or may
not come to the knowledge of the experimenter during the tests. Seldom it is that a
field layout approaches ideal conditions for experimentation. Except in rare cases
tests of commercial plants must be foregone if laboratory conditions are to be met.
When apparatus is set up for test in a laboratory, minute measurements of diameters,
water volumes, and other factors may be made. Both interior and exterior may be
examined with microscopic care. In field tests of pipes, on the other hand, it is not
often that water may be withdrawn for sufficient time to enable the experimenter to
fully acquaint himself with conditions that are ordinarily hidden.

Probably the most accurate series of tests of record are those conducted by Saph and
Schoder on brass pipes. The largest of these was slightly more than 2 inches in diam-
eter. With all the accuracy the experimenters could bring to bear upon these tests in
a hydraulic laboratory, the results were such that they qualified their derived formula
with a factor of +7 per cent.!

When the above qualification is necessary for a formula based on laboratory tests on
pipes having uniform structural characteristics which have never been subjected to
deposits, growths, or tuberculations, what is to be expected of a formula for use in the
design of wood-stave pipes based on pipes taken as they come in the field? Cansucha
formula show more than the new formula shows in Table 2 and on Plate VII? Except
in isolated cases this agrees within +15 per cent with more than 250 observations on
52 pipes from 1 to 162 inches in diameter. Furthermore, more than half of these pipes
are siphons on irrigation projects; that is, pipes inserted between open sections of canal
from which all manner of trash, silt, and rock ravelings may enter the pipe and retard
the flow. These are unavoidable conditions in the operation of such pipes, and the
author would not confine his tests to pipes under more nearly ideal conditions, even
if such might be chosen. These conditions must be anticipated by the designer and
some suitable factor of safety introduced as is suggested on page 66.

The above is not offered by way of apology for the new formula but to make clear
the fact that the actual discharges from pipes designed on the basis of the new formula
are not to be expected to agree with the formula values exactly but only to a reasonable
degree.

The author agrees with Mr. Williams and Mr. Noble that experimental errors, due
to erroneous assumptions of pipe diameter, may creep into the results. These errors

1 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., vol. 51 (1903), p. 306.

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 93

may involve a change in velocity head or be due to an incorrect mean area of the pipe
being taken, and consequently an incorrect velocity used in a given test, if the indirect
method of measuring the velocity is employed. The fact that the interior of most
pipes tested in commercial service can not be examined means that the nominal
diameter of a pipe must in many cases be accepted or that no experiments be made.
The reverse of this problem confronts the designer. He must make computations on
the basis of a given size of pipe, whereas the pipe when actually built may vary slightly
from the designed size.

No appreciable error was introduced by reading but one gauge glass of a U-tube
manometer at atime. It must be remembered that before reading the pressure was so
throttled that the mercury was barely ‘‘alive.” This means that in either gauge glass
the ‘‘breathing” of the mercury did not extend over more than two or three thou-
sandths of afoot. Any error of reading due to a difference in the size of the tubing, as
questioned by Mr. Williams, would be so small a part of these two or three thousandths
of a foot as to be negligible. Reading alternate legs of the manometer and computing
the leg not read would tend to neutralize any error that did exist, remembering, of
course, that both legs were ‘‘dead” columns of mercury, at intervals of approximately
10 minutes.

In answer to Mr. Williams’s question as to comparing watches after the tests, the
author would say that this was done and any necessary corrections of a few seconds
was immediately noted in the field notes. Many experimenters are very careful to
conduct all work with a stop watch. These watches may be read to a nicety but can
still be inaccurate unless most carefully adjusted with a chronometer. This is quite
evident if several of them be started together and compared at the end of an hour.

Additional information on the weirs used has been written into the original text or
shown in the views in conformity to Mr. Williams’s suggestion.

The accuracy of the meter calibration of the Altmar weir in connection with the
tests on pipe No. 51 is questioned by both Mr. Noble and Mr. Williams, for the reason
that the meter measurements must be made in the tailrace. As shown by figure 2,
Plate V, the water downstream from the weir was not turbulent. When the gaging
bridge was reached several hundred feet downstream from the weir, the water was
flowing evenly and smoothly. The channel is excavated in flat, rather level strata
of rock, and the four meter gaugings conform so closely with an even curve that the
author does not believe any undue error was made. The verticals in which the meter
was held were sufficient in number so that the section was well covered. The mean
velocity of the channel was but 3.25 feet per second for the greatest discharge meas-
ured. Such a velocity in a relatively smooth channel will not produce turbulence.

Regarding the experiments on loss of head at entrance to pipes, Mr. Williams appar-
ently misunderstands the author. The loss of head was not observed at a point three
diameters down the pipe but at a point several diameters down the pipe, and the loss
between the inlet and the 3-diameter point was computed by deducting the friction
loss per foot for the number of feet back from the point of observation to the 3-diameter
point; thus finally the net loss from the intake to the end of a short tube 3 diameters
long was deduced.

Regarding the entrainment of air: A large proportion of the wood pipes used in
irrigation practice are on inverted siphons between sections of open channel. When
such a pipe is running at full capacity the inlet is usually well submerged and but a
moderate amount of air is caught and carried into the pipe. When the pipe is carry-
ing but asmall part of its capacity the water rushes down the intake end and generates
a violently turbulent condition just where the pipe is filled. The impact of the
water rushing down the intake at high velocity causes many air bubbles to be carried
into the pipe. Obviously, as suggested by Mr. Williams, a pipe at full capacity

94 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

would carry more air were the same opportunity offered at the intake for its entrain-
Inent.

Concerning the various factors of the new formula: From the discussion it appears
to be granted that this formula fits the basic observations better than any other for-
mula. It should, of course, do this as it is an averaging formula based on all known
observations. Two questions now arise: Should an average formula be used and should
factors in new formulas be allowed to digress from time-honored factors in accepted
formulas? If we do not accept an average formula we must do one of two things. The
first is to accept a formula that will give the most conservative results. Such a for-
mula for wood-stave pipe would be probably 25 per cent more conservative than the
new formula or 40 per cent more than the Moritz formula, if all observations on wood-
stave pipe are to be included. If we exclude any tests as abnormal we find it hard
to draw the line—hard to find any tenable intermediate ground between the aver-
age and the extreme. The other method that may be pursued is to follow Schoder!
and Moore,? and give the bounding limits for any particular factor, stating these
limits as a variable feature of the formula.

Unfortunately the practice of the average engineer is so general that he does not
become qualified, nor has he the time, to properly choose the correct figure between
the varying limits. He would rather that the one most familiar with the variables
give him one formula without varying coefficients or exponents and with a statement
as to its approximate accuracy. This was recognized by Moritz.2 In the opinion
of the author the averaging formula appeared best when used in connection with the
suggested factors of safety. (See p. 66.)

Mr. Moritz’s suggestion that the exponent of d or D in the new formula violates
accepted exponents in parallel formulas does not appear to the author to be well
taken when studied in connection with figure 7, which shows the same plotted points
for wood pipe experiments as figure 4, and which in addition shows by small round
dots the values of m for all the experiments given on Plate XI, Trans. Amer. Soc.
_ Civ. Engin., vol. 51, ‘‘The Flow of Water in Pipes,’’ by Saph and Schoder. These
additional experiments are on various kinds of pipe, including brass, galvanized-
iron, wrought, sheet, and cast-iron, brick, glass, lead, and riveted pipes. In figure 7,
line A, is Saph and Schoder’s limiting line for ‘‘very straight and very smooth pipes’’

with the equation me Line B is their limiting line for tuberculated pipes, with

: 0.687 : é : 2
the equation m= 775° These writers then state that most pipes in commercial use

: : ; A
will plot between lines A and C, the equation of the latter being me As the
values of the exponent of V vary from 1.74 to 2.00 the general equation showing the

i 0.296 to 0.469
variation between the lines A and C becomes oe NE us

1,87
Note that equation qe mentioned near the beginning of Mr. William’s

discussion on page 81 takes the average of these variants, m=line D, figure 7, while
Dr. Schoder* in 1904 suggested exactly the same formula except that the exponent
of V was given as 1.86 instead of 1.87. (See column 6, Table 10.)

0.419 7.68

Again referring to figure 7, line E shows the author’s curve, m/ =p quar’

Note how closely this line on a slope of —1.17 conforms to the plotted points for all

1 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 51 (1903), p. 308.
27Td., 74 (1911), p. 471.

3Id., p. 478.

4 Eng. Rec., Sept. 3, 1904, p. 281,

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE. 95

kinds of pipe, and note also that Williams and Hazen found this slope for all kinds of
pipe to be —1.167 (practically —1.17) as shown in formula 8a, page 6. Furthermore,
by reference to pages 4 to 7 of their tables + and to the plotted points in figure 7, or
to Plate XI in volume 51 of the Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engi-
neers, it will be seen that Williams and Hazen found this exponent of d and D to
be 1.167 from exactly the same experiments, except for a few additions, as those that
were included in a zone bounded by two lines (A and B, fig. 7) at a slope of, and indi-
cating an exponent of, 1.25 by Messrs. Saph and Schoder, while the author found
a value of 1.17 when experiments on circular wood pipe alone were considered. As
shown in the author’s note on page 88, the exponent of 1.25 was determined from a
study of smooth brass pipes.

Summing up, it does not appear from the above study that a value of 1.17 for this
exponent of the pipe diameter based on a line plotted through the centers of gravity
for all values of m’ in wood-stave pipe experiments is at variance with accepted
values of this exponent for flow in all kinds of pipe, as typified by the Williams-
Hazen general formula.

Dr. Schoder suggests that this paper be broadened to compare ‘‘the facts herein
established for wood pipes to the facts for pipes of all materials.’’

In the author’s opinion, however, the structural characteristics and the methods of
making joints in pipes of the various materials are so different that it will be extraor-
dinary indeed if any one formula can be found to even approximately fit all kinds
of pipes. The author believes that such a comparison and conclusions therefrom
would be premature at this time, especially in view of the meager information now
available concerning the flow in pipes of cement and concrete materials, which are
being used more and more for permanent pipe construction.

In order that a final comparison may be made of various formulas, as suggested in
the discussion, the writer has prepared Table 11, which shows the computed veloci-
ties by various formulas for given sizes of pipe and given losses of head. The general
deduction may be made from a study of this table that it makes little difference
which of these formulas is used in the design of pipes up to 12 inches in diameter,
with velocities up to 4 feet per second. As larger pipes and higher velocities are
involved, the divergence’ between velocities as computed by various formulas becomes
greater and greater. For instance, a loss of head of 1 foot per 1,000 feet of 12-foot
pipe will generate a velocity of 9.74 feet per second, according to the Moritz formula,
or 50 per cent more than the velocity computed by the Swickard formula, although
the latter was developed for the most part from a study of the Moritz data.

1 Hydraulic Tables. Williams and Hazen. New York, 1909.

96 BULLETIN 376, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste 11—Comparison of velocities, in feet pee as computed by various formu-
las, for given sizes of pipe with given friction heads.

Velocity per second by formulas.

Diame- | Friction }-

eae eee HL Williams-| 574 Swick-
Scobey. Gen, Moritz. | Schoder. rd Noble.

Inches. Feet. Feet. Feet Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet.
6 2.0 1.52 1.48 1.58 1.54 1. 49 1. 63
6 5.0 2.52 2.45 2. 60 2. 52 2.35 2. 80
6 9.0 3.50 3.39 3.57 3.46 3.20 3.97
12 1.0 1. 62 1.60 1.72 1. 67 1.65 1. 63
12 5.0 3.95 3.78 4.20 3.98 3. 85 4.19
12 9.0 5. 48 5.16 5. 82 5.50 5.10 5. 90
36 -2 1.35 1.32 1.52 1. 48 1.50 1. 20
36 1.0 3.30 3.15 3.71 3.50 3.45 3.06
36 5.0 8.05 7.50 9. 06 8.30 7. 80 7.90
72 .2 2.12 2.06 2. 46 2.34 2.25 1.79
72 1.0 5.18 4.89 6.02 5.55 5.00 4.62
72 2.0 7. 60 7.14 8. 85 8.00 7.20 6. 91
96 -2 2.56 2.46 3.02 2. 86 2.55 2.13
96 6 4.70 4.46 5. 55 5.15 4.45 4.04
96 1.0 6. 25 5. 82 7.37 6. 70 5. 60 5. 44
120 2 2.96 2. 84 3.53 3.30 2.80 2.42
120 -6 5. 44 5.14 6. 49 6. 00 4.85 4.60
120 1.0 7.25 6.73 8. 62 7.90 6.00 6. 20
144 o2 3.32 3.18 3.97 3.75 2.95 2. 69
144 6 6.10 5.75 7.35 6. 70 5.10 5.10
144 1.0 8.15 7.58 9.74 8.95 6. 40 6.89

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Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology
L. O. HOWARD, Chief

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER August 18, 1916

THE ARGENTINE ANT:' DISTRIBUTION AND CON-
TROL IN THE UNITED STATES.

By Ernest R. Barser, Scientific Assistant, Southern Field Crop Insect Investi-

gations.
CONTENTS.

i Page. Page.
Present known distribution in the RESTreaID Syosset Ne alae TN ke 6
DOULNEEMESLALCS == =n ee 2. {ESTEE PTT SCO Taye 2 a isk ae 7

J DEISFOG SAU ope 3. (MeNam ural (Control) se 2 ae ee 9
Economic importance —__~__________ 5 GRepressio mas aye eo SC PS pe ee 10

INTRODUCTION.

The Argentine ant? is one of the most serious of household pests.
Any exposed food or food refuse in the infested sections attracts the
workers of this species in abundance, and residents and keepers of
grocery stores, meat markets, confectioneries, etc., must either suffer
considerably or almost constantly use poison or barriers of various
kinds. If its activities were confined to the household only, the prob-
lem of controlling the Argentine ant would be sufficiently difficult,
but in common with some other ants it has the habit of protecting
mealybugs and aphids and thus indirectly becomes a pest of crops.

The problem is more serious from the fact that the species is
steadily spreading in all directions throughout the Southern States.
It is practically certain that it was introduced into this country at
New Orleans, in ships which brought coffee from ports in Brazil,
although the exact date of this introduction will always remain
in doubt.

The Argentine ant was first observed in New Orleans in 1801 by
Mr. Edward Foster. At that time he records it in small numbers:

1 The work of the Bureau of Entomology on the Argentine ant is divided into two parts:
One part deals with the ant as a general pest, its distribution, and relation to the cultiva-
tion of sugar cane. The other part relates to the special problem of control in citrus
groves. This phase will be treated in another publication. The work reported in this,
paper does not include reference to conditions in California, parts of which State are alsa
infested by the Argentine ant.

2Tridomyrmex humilis Mayr.

%Woster, H. The introduction of Jridomyrmex humilis (Mayr) into New Orleans, Jour.
Econ, Ent., v. 1, no. 5, p. 289-293. 1908.

41860°—Bull. 377—16——1

vy) BULLETIN 3877, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
(eae

nine blocks east of the wharves\at' which'the coffee ships usually dis-
charged their cargoes. It may'be/surmised, from the Inowledge we
have since gained from studying the natural dispersion of this insect,
that it has been in the country for about 45 years. During that period
it has expanded from the original colony to myriads of colonies,
extending its area of distribution into nine Southern States, the
many infestations covering a total area of considerably more than a
thousand square miles.

PRESENT KNOWN DISTRIBUTION IN THE SOUTHERN STATES.
Newell and Barber,’ writing in 1918, recorded the known distri-
bution in the Southern States as confined to Louisiana, Mississippi,

Po ENING
aire

)
Y

e

Fic. 1.—Map showing the distribution of the Argentine ant in 1913 (inner line of small
dashes) and at the end of 1915 (outer line of longer dashes). (Original.) The outer
line has been drawn merely to connect the outlying points. It incloses some territory in
which the ant is not known to occur, as, for instance, western Florida.

and Alabama, and established the limits of this dispersion from

Montgomery, Ala., on the east, to Lake Charles, La., on the west, a

distance of 380 miles, and from Delta, La., on the north, to the

mouth of the Mississippi River, a distance of 250 miles. At the
present time the limits of the distribution are from Houston, Tex.,
on the west, to Wilmington, N. C., on the east, and from Nashville,

Tenn., to the mouth of the Mississippi River, a distance of 1,100 miles

east and west and 500 miles north and south (map, fig. 1). Among

the cities known to be infested are Houston, Tex., Shreveport, La.,

1 Newell, Wilmon, and Barber, T. C. ‘The Argentine Ant. U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Bur, Ent,
Bul. 122, p. 14. 1918.

Reis Ee kay
seer.

THE ARGENTINE ANT:) DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROL. 3
a
Texarkana, Ark.. Nashvillé,'Tenn., Memphis, Tenn., Augusta, Ga.,
Atlanta, Ga., Charleston, S..C.; and Wilmington, N. C.

DISPERSION.

Under natural conditions the Argentine ant spreads very slowly, and
this spread is controlled to a large degree by the available food supply.
Like most other species of ants, the Argentine ant is a very indus-
trious forager, and a shortage of food tends to hasten its dispersion.
In October, 1914, a small infestation covering the most of two city
blocks was found in Memphis, Tenn. The ant numbers could not
have increased to any appreciable extent during the rather long
and cold winter of 1914-15, and yet in the early part of the following
June the infestation was found to involve nearly the whole of five
blocks. In October, 1915, it developed that the boundaries had not
been extended, though the ant numbers had greatly increased. The
food supply must have increased as fast as did the numbers of ants.

In several instances frequent observations made at points on the
frontier of the infestation developed the fact that the normal ad-
vance will average from 300 to 400 feet a year. The abundance of
native ants has some influence on this advance, since the Argentine
ant will not tolerate any of the native species, and in consequence a
continuous fight is waged all along the frontier.

Heavy, flooding rains are undoubtedly a factor in the natural dis-
tribution of this ant, and in the vast region drained by the Mississippi
River and its tributaries it will be remembered that there are at least
two dangerous flood seasons and sometimes more, which contribute to
and accelerate the distribution of this species. Lumber, rotting trees,
uprooted shrubs, cane growth, fruit, vegetables, and all manner of
refuse contribute to the mass of matter borne on the crest of flood
water, and in this the ants seek refuge and are involuntarily trans-
ported. Nature has endowed this species with a remarkable habit of
self-preservation from drowning in times of floods, for when rising
water floods their nests and no other means of escape are presented
they cluster together and form a compact ball. The immature stages
form the center of this ball, with the queens and workers as the outer
portion. As the ball enlarges from the addition of other workers
which had-been struggling alone in the water it gradually revolves.
It is kept revolving slowly by the outside workers continually striv-
ing to reach the top. of the ball, thus permitting air to reach the
interior. The writer has had only one opportunity of witnessing the
formation of a ball of this kind. After a 5-inch rainfall several
balls, none more than 2 inches in diameter, were observed. According
to reliable authorities, such balls have been observed on many oc-
casions, some of them from 6 to 8 inches in diameter. The ants in

4 BULLETIN 377, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

these balls disperse when they come into contact with a secure resting
place, such as a floating piece of timber or land, but they have been
seen to float around for hours on still water. Mr. Smith, at Daisy,
La., states that he destroyed a large number of these balls by pouring
some coal oil on the water. The balls quickly broke up when in con-
tact with the oil and the ants died in a very short time.

Driftwood is another important carrier of this pest. A fallen
decayed log is an ideal nesting place. Such a log will usually decay
from the underside upward, the upperside or top making a roof for
the nest, with the rotted wood below drawing and retaining ample
moisture, thus affording excellent material in which to make galleries.
Logs of this kind are light and easily floated and are important
factors in spreading infestations. Especially is this the case in those
parts of the country where heavy, flooding rains occur. In this
manner practically all the land along the Mississippi River below
New Orleans has been infested.

However, it is to the vehicles of man that the greatest atuivmnan
must be credited. The most important are steamboats and rail-
roads. Commodities are carried from infested territory to uninfested
places and ant colonies are often to be found in shipping boxes, feed-
ing on sugar and other grocery supplies. Practically every one of
nearly a hundred steamboats landing between New Orleans and
Baton Rouge is infested with the Argentine ant. Further, it seems
likely that this ant was carried by boat from Charleston, S. C., to
Wilmington, N. C., as the ant is to be found around the wharves and
shipping in both places. So gross is the infestation in both these
cities that it is possible that the species may have been introduced
into Charleston many years ago on coffee ships, as it is supposed to
have been introduced into New Orleans, the slightly colder winters
holding it more in check.

When inspecting cities far removed from New Orleans it has been
found that in the great majority of instances the infestations start
immediately around the wholesale-grocery and commission-merchant
establishments. This indicates that when carried long distances the
ants are more likely to be taken through in solid carload lots of mer-
chandise which are rushed to their destination than in smaller con-
-signments. This is especially the case with perishable goods such
as fruit and vegetables. Cars containing broken shipments are side-
tracked at the first town to which goods are consigned, and the ants
present are likely to leave the car at the first or second stop, which
fact is verified in that nearly all the small towns for a distance of
150 miles from New Orleans are infested. A serious feature of the
infestation of inland cities such as Texarkana, Memphis, Atlanta,
and others, is that the ants, having become established in the whole-
sale district, are readily distributed to surrounding smaller towns

THE ARGENTINE ANT: DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROL. 5

which are tributary to these centers. A point where such a distribu-
tion has occurred is Summerville, a little town 24 miles north of
Charleston, S. C., which has become infested, presumably, from the
latter place.

In a complete colony in the spring of the year three distinct forms
of adults are to be found—queens, males (drones), and workers, the
workers greatly outnumbering both the queens and the males. The
workers, foragers of the colony, are imperfect females with no re-
productive functions. The queens, which are the reproducing fe-
males, remain within the nest nearly all the time, and are fed and
tended by the workers. The males have apparently but one func-
tion—that of fertilizing the queens. It will be readily understood
that, as in the social economy of ant communities of other species,
it is absolutely necessary that a fertilized queen be taken along with
a number of workers before a new colony can be started. It is quite
possible that almost every town and city in the Southern States has
had a number of workers introduced at one time or another, but
owing to the absence of a queen a noticeable infestation has not
become established. Workers alone carried in this manner would die
out. Such may be the case at Nashville, Tenn., where only a few
workers have been found. Later observations will be necessary to
_ decide this question.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.

As a pest in cities the Argentine ant has no equal. Owing to its
small size and unobtrusive color, it is able to invade practically every
part of ordinary dwellings, stores, etc. It is almost omnivorous,
eating most cooked foods and a considerable percentage of the raw
foods that are to be found in the average pantry. It exhibits a
marked preference for some foods, such as sugar, sirup, honey, jams,
cakes, candies, pies, fruit, and meats of all kinds. The temperature
of refrigerators or ice boxes seems to have no deterrent effect, and
ants will readily invade them.

It is a common cccurrence for Argentine ants to invade bed-
chambers, and while they do not possess a sting, they can cause
considerable pain with their mandibles. There have been many
reports of babies being attacked by them in such numbers as to
cause serious results, and several of these reports have been verified.
In August, 1915, the writer located such a case in Augusta, Ga.
A reputable citizen of that city, residing in a heavy infestation of |
the Argentine ants, gave the following account of such an attack on
his 4-weeks-old baby: ;

We were awakened in the night by a weak cry from the baby, and when

the light was turned on the baby’s face was black with ants. They were in the
baby’s nose, ears, and mouth. We hurriedly carried the baby to the bathtub

™

6 BULLETIN 377, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

and started to wash off the ants. It took us nearly an hour and a half to get
the last ant off the baby. I feel sure that if we had not heard the cry, in a few
hours the child would have perished.

With conditions made almost intolerable in badly infested places,
it is not uncommon to find empty, unrentable houses. Realty values
accordingly drop.

The nurseryman ana truck grower are greatly molested by this
pest, owing to the ant’s fondness for the honeydew of aphids and
scale insects. The ants take the best possible care of these honey-
yielding species, and protect them from their natural enemies, fre-
quently building mud shelters over them, and as the host plants
grow, carry the young scales and aphids and place them on the
young tender growth, where they may more easily sap the juices
of the plants.

Newell and Barber give a very graphic account of the manner
in which the Argentine ant has invaded, the orange orchards of
Louisiana.

In corn, cotton, and sugar-cane fields the Argentine ant when
present is constantly attending the aphids and mealy bugs, increasing
the numbers of these species to an alarming degree, much to the
detriment of the plants. The writer has determined that a consider-
able loss of sugar results from the attendance of the Argentine ant
on the sugar-cane mealy bug.

HABITS.

Argentine ants are extremely social among their own kind, the
individuals never having been observed to quarrel with one another,
nor one colony with another. Workers may be carried for miles and
placed with others of their kind and no apparent demonstrations
of like or dislhke are exhibited. The newcomers appear to enter
into the colony spirit and are soon lost to the view of an observer.
Any small nest will contain several queens which live together
amicably.

The summer nest may be located anywhere—under sidewalks,
under the sills of houses, in brick piles, stone piles, under a piece of —
board or a piece of tin, in an old tin can—in fact, in any place con-
venient to the food supply. In the winter months there is a tendency
to concentrate into larger colonies, and they seek warm, dry, secure
nesting places in which to hibernate. These desirable places are not
plentiful, and where one is located the ants from some distance will
seek its shelter. The winter is the most hazardous period of the year,
for should a nest by any chance be flooded during a cold spell, when
the ants are dormant, the chances of survival of the colony would be
extremely slight. Usually throughout the latter part of December,

1 Op. cit., p. 24.

THE ARGENTINE ANT: DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROL. 7

January, and February (at New Orleans) these large colonies are
found. They sometimes reach very extensive proportions and may
contain several hundred queens and countless workers and immature
stages. ‘These colonies are usually located at the base of large trees
en high, well-drained spots of ground, in manure piles, or in any other
piles of decomposing rubbish where heat is generated. A warm day
will make them particularly active, and they will form trails in all
directions from these winter nests to food supplies. They may be
observed traversing the trunks of trees every warm winter day, and
from the trees trails are made to nearby houses, where they cause
considerable annoyance.

With the advent of warm spring weather the breaking up of the
large colonies occurs. This is the time of the year that food is very
scarce, and at this season the ants are particularly aggressive and
troublesome in the houses. This és the best time to use poisoned sirup,
which will be described later, for controlling this pest.

LIFE HISTORY.

There are three adult forms to be found within a complete nest in
the spring months of the year—the queen, the male, and the worker.
A colony may be complete, however, with a queen and workers.
Three immature forms are also present—the egg, larva, and pupa.

EGG.

In an artificial formicary a fertilized queen lays from 3 to 30 eggs
per day when ample food is supplied. It is very probable that under
natural conditions the egg production is considerably more. Only a
few seconds are occupied for the laying of each egg. A worker,
apparently awaiting the arrival of the egg, picks it up and transfers
it to a pile of eggs already in the nest. The surface of the egg is
somewhat mucilaginous and readily sticks to other eggs. This per-
mits the workers to handle the eggs en masse and also permits of
their being deposited in desirable locations on the walls and ceilings
of the galleries.

The egg when first laid is about 0.3 mm. long and 0.2 mm. wide.
It is elliptical, pearly white, lustrous, and without markings. As the
time for hatching approaches the luster disappears. It is extremely
difficult to detect the exact time of hatching. The average summer
incubation period is about 15 days, but this, of course, is subject to
the variations of temperature and humidity during this period.

LARVA.

The larva, when first hatched, is creamy white. Its body is very
curved, but it gradually straightens as the larval growth continues.
It is entirely helpless and is practically motionless.

8 BULLETIN 877, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

The workers feed and cleanse the larve, moving them about with
the fluctuations of temperature and humidity to the most desirable
places within the nest. The full-grown worker larva is about 1.5
mm. long by 0.65 mm. wide. The average larval period throughout
the summer months under normal conditions is about 13 days.

PUPA.

When the pupal stage is reached the sex of the individual is
readily distinguishable. The pupa is white, with the exception of
two distinct black eyespots on the sides of the head. The worker
pupa is about 2 mm. long, the head and thorax being the larger part
of it. The male pupa is about 50 per cent larger than the worker
pupa, and the queen is still larger. The two latter forms may be
readily distinguished from the worker pupa. The male pupa has
a very large thorax and a small, closely coupled abdomen, while the
queen pupa is much more symmetrical, the thorax is not so large,
and the abdomen much larger than that of the male. The pedicel
between the thorax and abdomen of the queen pupa is more con-
stricted and elongated than in the male pupa.

After the first few days the color of the pupa gradually changes
to creamy yellow and continues to darken until a light-brown color’ is
reached just previous to emergence.

The duration of the pupal stage of the worker throughout the
summer months averages about 13 days, while that of the male is
about 22 days. No records have been established of the duration of
the pupal period of the queen.

The pupe of all the stages are aided in transformation by the work-
ers. Upon first emerging the adult is of a light-brown color which
gradually grows darker until the second day, when it becomes indis-
tinguishable from other adults.

DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD.

By compounding the average periods of development of the egg,
larva, and pupa, a general average of 40 days results, which repre-
sents the complete development from egg to adult in the case of
the worker and a somewhat longer period for the males and queens.

ADULT FORMS.

The worker is about 2.5 mm. in length and of a dark-brown color,
and there is only one caste. The workers forage for food, attend the
queen and the young, and fight to protect the colony. A large per-
centage of the workers stay within the nest at all times and are
always ready for any emergency, whether it be to fight invaders or
to hurriedly seize the immature stages and retreat to securer locations
upon the slightest indications of rain or flood.

THE ARGENTINE ANT: DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROL. 9

The workers are able to carry considerable liquid food in their
abdomens, which become distended and transparent. This food is
regurgitated when the nest is reached, and fed to the immature forms
and other workers and queens in the nest. They are quite long lived
and have been kept in artificial formicaries for many months at a
time. It is quite possible that they may live a year under natural
conditions.

The male is always winged. It is readily distinguished by its mas-
sive thorax, small head, and abdomen. It is about 3 mm. in length,
and the body color is of a dark brown, the same shade as the worker.
Males appear in the nest in the spring months of the year and
gradually lessen in numbers as the summer advances.

When the queen first emerges she is winged, but at the time of
copulation, or about that time, she loses her wings, and her activities
from that time are devoted to egg producing. The deilated queen
is about 6 mm. long and of the same color as males and workers. It
is seldom that the queens leave the nest unless disturbed, but occa-
sionally they may be seen crawling along an ant trail in company
with the workers. At rare intervals they travel alone and may be
observed wandering about aimlessly.

The queens have frequently been kept within artificial formicaries
for more than a year, and it is reasonable to suppose that they will
live much longer.

NATURAL CONTROL.

It would appear that heavy rains and resulting flood are the only
factors of natural control of any great importance. They are espe-
cially effective if occurring during cold weather, for at this time the
ants are sluggish and unable to exert themselves. Moderately cold
weather does not appear to check their activities.

On November 18, 1911, a heavy infestation of this ant was discov-
ered at Kosciusko, Miss., about half the town being infested. Resi-
dents stated that they had been troubled for about 7 years; several
of them, owing to the great annoyance, had moved to parts of the
town which were not then infested. On revisiting Kosciusko in
April, 1912, the infestation had decreased to such an extent that it
was quite difficult to find any of the ants. The meteorological
records of the winter months revealed the following striking facts:

’ The mean average temperature of the 6 months from November to

April, inclusive, was 49.5°, but the rainfall for this period was exces-

sive, reaching the total of 41.1 inches, whereas the average 10 years’

precipitation for these months had been only 27 inches. This con-

trol was, however, only temporary. In June, 1915, Kosciusko was

again visited and the ants were found to be very numerous and

causing great annoyance to residents. The infestation had spread
41860°—Bull. 377--16——2

10 BULLETIN 377, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

over practically the whole town, as well as near-by corn and cotton
fields.

During the same winter (1911-12) similar conditions were expe-
rienced at New Orleans, the winter months being accompanied by a
rainfall of 41.56 inches, as compared to the 10-year average of but
26.1 inches. The numbers of ants were greatly reduced, the mortality
probably being at least 70 per cent. The ability cf this species to
overcome such a catastrophe was well illustrated, for by September,
1912, the ants had apparently reached their maximum numbers.

REPRESSION.
OUTDOOR BARRIERS.

A number of experiments have been conducted to discover, if
possible, an efficient outdoor barrier.

The sticky substance which is used in coating flypaper and is also
sold in bulk for banding trees was effective for only a few days. The
ants would carry particles of dirt and build a bridge over it. This
substance, made much thinner than usual, as suggested by Mr. D. M.
Rogers for use in the gipsy-moth work, was tried and with more
successful results. Heavy bands 4 inches wide spread on two mag-
nolia trees were effective for two months in the summer without
having to be replenished or combed.* ,

In the cooler parts of the year these bands require frequent atten-
tion on account of the growth of mold on the surface. During wet
weather in the winter in Louisiana this mold will form in a very
few days, and the efficiency of the sticky band will be entirely
destroyed.

It was found that 5 per cent of a carbolized oil added to the thinner
preparation increased the effectiveness of the bands considerably
and entirely prevented the growth of mold. The bands were also
rendered more repellent and more resistant to winter conditions. A
thin crust forms over the surface of the bands in the winter, but this
is readily combed into the band in the spring and the band is as
effective as ever. The crust on bands of the thinner preparation
without the carbolized oil becomes too hard during the winter, and
it is necessary to use fresh material in the spring. These bands
were used on fig, magnolia, pecan, and orange trees and no injury to
the trees was apparent. There is a possibility that the substance
may be harmful to trees with a more tender bark, however.

To the thinner preparation were added in different tests 1 per
cent of bichlorid of mercury, 2 per cent of nicotine sulphate, 10 per

1A wooden comb is supplied by the manufacturers for the purpose of combing the bands
when a coating of dirt, insects, or any other foreign matter collects on the band. This

foreign material is mixed in with a clean sticky substance, immediately under the surface
of the band, and the band is as efficient as ever.

ees

THE ARGENTINE ANT: DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROL. it

cent of naphthalene, and several other repellents. While bands con-
taining bichlorid of mercury and nicotine sulphate were effective
for slightly longer periods than the sticky substance alone, their use
is hardly to be recommended.

INDOOR BARRIERS.

Perhaps the most effective and durable barrier which can be used
indoors is a bichlorid-of-mercury tape or band. Tape is soaked in a
saturated solution of bichlorid of mercury and then hung up to dry.
Tt is then placed around the legs of tables, safes, etc., and if it is kept
dry will last from six months to a year. Common lampwick one-half
an inch wide is ideal for this purpose. After it has been treated in a
saturated solution of bichlorid of mercury and dried, pieces are
wrapped around the leg of the piece of furniture to be isolated and
ends lapped over tightly and pinned. The tape can be readily re-
newed by another soaking in bichlorid of mercury and repinned in
place.

Twenty-five per cent of bichlorid of mercury mixed in shellac may
be painted around the legs of furniture, and when dry it will be quite
as satisfactory as the tape.

Extreme caution is advised in handling bichlorid of mercury, as
there is always an element of danger in using this poison. In recent
years the sale of this drug to the layman has been practically dis-
continued.

A simple and efficient, though perhaps unsightly, barrier may be
made by placing the legs of furniture in saucers and putting a gen-
erous supply of moth balls in each saucer. The moth balls will
slowly volatilize, and it is necessary to add more from time to time,
but the ants will not cross the barrier thus formed.

Coal oil placed in saucers in which the legs of furniture rest will
repel the ant; but the odor of the oil is disagreeable to most persons.

ANT POISONS.

Many and varied experiments have proved that it is futile to try
to exterminate Argentine ants with a poison which kills rapidly. A
few workers may be killed, but the masses of ants will quickly recog-
nize the source of fatality and avoid the “ doctored” food. The few
workers killed in this way will have no effect in reducing the numbers.
None of this poison will reach the queens in the nest, and it has been
found that it is essential to kill off the queens in order to prevent
further multiplication of the pest.

Soon after the writer took up the work on the Argentine ant Mr.
L. J. Nickels: published an article on the control of the Argentine
ant in California, in which a rather successful poisoned sirup was
described. It was decided to give this poisoned sirup a thorough trial

1 Nickels, L. J. Field Work in the Control of the Argentine Ant. Jour. Econ. Ent.,
y. 4, no. 4, pp. 353-358. 1911. ;

12 BULLETIN 377, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

in the Southern States. The following experiment is based on Mr.
_Nickels’s recommendations :

EXPERIMENT AT HATTIESBURG, MISS.

At Hattiesburg, Miss., an infestation of 8 blocks was found to be
an ideal place for this experiment.

The following buildings were located within the infestation:
Thirty-eight residences, 7 stores, 2 meat markets, 2 small hotels, 2
restaurants, 2 bottling establishments (which will be designated here-
after as establishment A and establishment B), a laundry, a marble
factory, a sawmill and office, and a church.

Thirty dozen 1-pint fruit jars were prepared in the manner out-
lined by Mr. Nickels. The porcelain was broken out of the metal
tops and five holes about three-eighths inch in diameter were punched
near the center of each top. Sponges were cut up into pieces and a
piece inserted in each jar. The piece of sponge filled about a third of
the space in the jar.

A gill of the poisoned sirup was put into each jar. On each jar
was pasted a poison label.

On September 28, 25 dozen of these jars were distributed—about
six jars placed in each house and store. Two vacant blocks were
not covered at this time, but on November 16, 3 dozen jars were dis-
tributed on these blocks. As the jars had to be placed outdoors, they
were laid on one side to prevent rain from entering. The residents
of the other blocks were questioned as to results, and they reported
very favorably. In most cases the ants had become much less abun-
dant. The two meat markets had fewer ants than before, but the
sirup rooms of both bottling establishments were as badly infested as
ever, the ants evidently preferring the flavored sirups to the poisoned
sirup. é
In the latter part of April, 1912, the infestation was again deter-
mined. This was immediately after the winter previously referred ta,
when the infestation had been so reduced at Kosciusko and New
Orleans. Though the numbers of ants had certainly been reduced in
Hattiesburg, they were still present in proportionately greater num-
bers than in New Orleans. It is likely that the better wintering
facilities at Hattiesburg were due particularly to excellent drainage
and the presence of numerous trees.

On June 18 another inspection was made. The numbers of ants
were at this time about 60 per cent of what they were during the
previous November. The eastern line of infestation had not been
extended and the ants were giving little trouble in the houses, though
they had apparently concentrated around the sirup rooms of both
bottling establishments. The stores and meat markets had not been
troubled to any extent, but there were many trails of ants on the
trees. Many of the jars were examined, and it was found that a de-

THE ARGENTINE ANT: DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROL. 13

composition had taken place in the sirup in the jars, a very disagree-
able odor being given off. As many of the jars as could be found were
collected. These were thoroughly cleaned, especially the sponges,
which were washed in boiling water. Fresh sirup was prepared and
the jars recharged and again distributed.

The jars were again recharged in October. At this time, though
the infestation had not spread, the ants were more numerous. They
were very numerous in the sirup rooms of both bottling establish-
ments, and in both meat markets.

Observations were made in December, and at this time conditions
were fairly satisfactory. Ants had troubled only two of the houses,
in each instance only for a day or so, and had then left. The bottling
establishments were closed for the winter. The intention was to
recharge the jars at this time, but the status was so satisfactory that
it was decided to leave them until the following spring.

In the beginning of April the ants were not very plentiful. Only
three houses had been invaded during the winter. The sirup rooms
of both bottling works were again besieged.

By the latter part of May the ants were more numerous all over
- the infested area, though none of the residents or storekeepers had
so far been troubled. The proprietor of bottling establishment A
now had his sirups isolated and the ants were noticeably fewer
around this building, but they were in increased numbers around the
other plant. The ants were now very numerous on one block, and as
the jars had not been satisfactory outdoors, special paraflin-covered
rainproof paper bags were prepared to place on the trees near the
houses and along the streets throughout the infested area. The
experiment had been conducted for 20 months and the results had
not been entirely satisfactory. The ants had been almost completely
kept out of the houses and stores, except the sirup rooms of the
bottling works, but large numbers were still present outdoors.

Tt is fairly conclusive that the sirup within the houses repelled the
ants, for even in the spring the ants gave little trouble to the resi-
dents.

On July 9, 50 paper bags containing this sirup were placed on
trees throughout the infested area. About half of these bags were
placed on trees in one block. All the bags were tacked about 15 feet
above the ground to keep them out of reach of children and to arrest
evaporation as much as possible, bags at this height being in the
shade.

On August 13 a status inspection was made, and very remarkable
results were observed. There were not at this time more than 20
per cent of the ants on the trees as compared with July, and all of
the houses without exception situated anywhere near the trees had

14 description of the preparation of this bag is given on pages 20 and 21.

14 BULLETIN 377, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

been invaded. None of the stores along Bay Street, near which were
no trees, had been bothered by the ants. AIl the jars were recharged.

In November conditions were very satisfactory. Comparatively
few ants were to be seen, and these were mostly on the trees. No
ants were to be found in the sirup room of bottling establishment A,
and there were very few in the vicinity of the building. There were
very few ants on the trees in one block. By far the largest number
of ants were to be found around the building in which bottling estab-
lishment B had been located. People in the house next to this build-
ing were being considerably troubled.

In January, 1914, all the jars were recharged and 150 paper bags
containing the poisoned sirup were distributed over the infested area.

On April 7 a thorough inspection was made, and the numbers of
ants were found to be greatly reduced. Nowhere had the ants caused
any annoyance. There were very few ants on any of the trees. In
several places native ants had again taken up their abode within the
infested area, indicating that the Argentine species was dying out.

In the latter part of May the jars were recharged and 300 poison
bags placed in suitable locations. An inspection at that date proved
that the experiment was continuing very satisfactorily.

Native ant nests could be found dotted over the whole area. The
largest number of Argentine ants was found around the abandoned
building of bottling establishment B; in fact, this was the only place
where the ant could be found in ned seieecs,

An inspection on June 29 indicated that the experiment was pro-
gressing favorably. The numbers of Argentine ants around bot-
tling establishment B had greatly decreased, it being actually diffi-
cult to find them on these premises. Not a vestige of the infestation
could be found on three of the blocks.

In mid-September the territory was again inspected. The condi-
tions were found to be excellent. Scarcely an Argentine ant could
be seen in any part of the once-infested territory.

Everyone living in the formerly infested area was of the opinion
that the Argentine ants had been completely eradicated, but the
writer found a few workers. However, he decided to consider the
experiment concluded, for the time at least. It was possible that
the queens were all destroyed and that just a few workers remained.
There was also the possibility of the native ants finally extendas
the Argentine species.

The poisoned sirup had finally proved efficient, though it must be
stated that it was necessary to expose it both indoors and out.

IMPROVEMENT OF THE NICKELS SIRUP.

In the tests with the Nickels sirup a number of objectionable
features were encountered which finally led to the preparation of a

1
THE ARGENTINE ANT: DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROL. 15

- greatly modified sirup. In all the experiments the sirup proved very
. attractive and palatable to the ants at first, but their visits gradually

decreased until the sirup was avoided, although in some instances the
trails continued to pass by the poison jars. The period of attendance
at the sirup varied somewhat with the seasons, being longer in winter.
Even in the winter, however, a repellent action was apparent. In
preparing the solution it had been noticed that the sirup turned
brown, becoming darker the longer it was boiled, although it was
made in a pail which in turn was placed in a bath to prevent burning.

Another objection was the crystallization of the sirup to a greater
or less extent upon cooling. On the advice of a sugar chemist the
proportion of water was increased to make a saturated sugar solu-
tion ; 10 pounds of water to 20 pounds of sugar and 1 ounce of sodium
arsenite were used. The Nickels sirup contained one-fourth per cent
arsenic, while this more dilute sirup contained one-fifth per cent,
but the dilute sirup was quite effective. With the exception of the

- first application, the dilute sirup was used throughout the length

of the Hattiesburg experiment. Crystallization of from 5 to 15
per cent of the weight of sirup still occurred in short periods, but
as high as 50 per cent when the sirup had been in the jars for several
months. This of course had the effect of proportionally increasing
the percentage of poison in the liquid and consequently its repellent
power. Newly made sirup appeared to be less repellent than that
which had stood for several weeks.

The repellent action of the sirup is illustrated by an experiment
conducted in a private residence, which was badly overrun with ants.
The ants were abundant in the refrigerator, safe, and sink, and literally
covered the floors. Six fruit jars containing the Nickels sirup and
sponges were placed in different rooms in the house, and 6 paraffined
paper bags containing the same sirup and a sponge were placed
around the house outdoors on trees, fence, and back porch. The
sirup was about a month old. The experiment was begun at 1 p. m.
At 5 p. m. hardly an ant was to be seen in the house, although a few
were to be found at each jar and many were visiting the bags. Two
days later not an ant could be found in the house and only three of

the bags were attended by ants. As it seemed impossible that the

colonies could have been exterminated so quickly, the adjacent vacant
lot was inspected. This lot was overgrown with weeds, and in a
corner near the house there was a pile of old lumber. Ants were
found in abundance nesting in the lumber, and many were present
wherever they could find dry quarters in the lot. It was quite evident
that the ants had been repelled by the poison.

A series of experiments to obtain definite data on the repellent
properties of the sirup were conducted in the Horticultural Hall,

16 BULLETIN 377, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Audubon Park, New Orleans, with the Nickels sirup in the strength
as recommended originally, and also double, half, and quarter
strengths. One gill of sirup was used to a jar, each jar being
placed on its side to give free access to the ants, to prevent the
entrance of water, and to prevent mold. The “Hall” furnished
ideal conditions for the experiment, the temperature throughout the
year being kept high and uniform. The abundance of various
species of scale insects and aphids attracted the ants in great num-
bers at all seasons, but especially in cold and wet weather. Three
jars of each strength were used and observations were made fre-
quently for a period of 32 days. At the time of this experiment
the ants were very numerous, due to the extremely wet summer of
1912. The rate of attendance and relative repellent value of the
four strengths of the poison are shown graphically in the first part of
Table I.

TABLE I.—Haperiments with sodium arsenite (NaAsO,) added (in four strengths‘)
to sugar sirup solution, 1912.

[Symbols: A=Heavily visited by ants. B—=Only attended by afew ants. C—Not attended by ants]
FIRST TEST, IN HORTICULTURAL HALL.

Double strength. | Nickels solution. Half strength. Quarter strength
A A A A A A A A A A A A
A B A B A A A A A A A A
B B B B A A A A A A A A
A B A A A A A A A B A A
B Cc B B A A A A B A A A
B Cc A A A A A A A A A A
B A A A A A A B A Cc A A
A B B A A A A A A A A A
B B A A A A A A A A A A
B A A (Q A A A | A A A A A
A Cc B B Cc Cc A A Cc Cc A A
Cc Cc A Cc A B A Cc A Cc A A
B A B C A Cc A Cc A C A A
@ B Cc Cc A Cc A A C Cc A B
Cc B Cc Cc Cc A A B A Cc A A
© Cc Cc Cc Cc A A A Cc Cc A A
Ceri Cc Cc @ A A B A A Cc A

DUPLICATE EXPERIMENT, USING PAPER-BAG SIRUP CONTAINERS TACKED ON FIG
TREES (OUTDOORS).

; |

Tpalyp265 sissies to seni A Cc A A B A A A A Cc A
TL yP28 ae een ec ceteis= oats B C B B B A A B A A A
July 202s oot en. fees A B B A A A A A A A A
Ttly BOM eee ae B | C CHA AG IA AU AC ES Be ONO SAU A
TralyBlses obs. soc eos B Cc B A B A A A A A A
Aesth eo eee A Cc B B A A A A A A A
August2:. obo2s.562 Cc C C B A A A A A A A
Mgust's. 22S 25 C Oba) Buy ee hl Ro RO AN tl ZN
August 5......-..-.- A C A B B A B A A A A
August 12............. A C A A A A A A A B | A
ANT SUISH LA ee. ctjcente ate B C A A A A A A A A A
ANI pTISh IGS meres. soeeeemeee C A A A B A A A A A A
VANE ISTO Cater ioe eee on B C A B B A A A A A A
MUTSTISt 2InEaee ckee ee C B B A Cc A A B AM AR A
AlISTISt. 23. aeuee aes Jeune! C Cc A A B A B A A B A
IAT STISHIZE RNA eee ee einn cae Cc B A A A A B A A A A
PAT SUIST ZO ses ccneials ene B 0! A B Cc A A B A A A
JSC AVISU BIE Seienaapinn SaOaeeL A Cc A B B A B A A A A
1 Double strength____.._____ 10 pounds granulated sugar +5 pounds H,0+ 1 ounce NaAsOs.

Nickels solution__________ 10 pounds grarulated sugar +5 pounds H20+ 4 ounce NaAsOz.

Haltistrength. 222 eos 10 pounds granulated sugar+5 pounds H20+ +4 ounce NaAsOzs.

Quarter strength___.-_____ 10 pounds granulated sugar +5 pounds H2O0+ 4 ounce NaAsOz.

. THE ARGENTINE ANT: DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROL. 7

The experiment was duplicated, except that the sirups were placed
in waxed paper bags tacked on fig trees. These bags each held a
gill of sirup, and sponges were placed in the sirup to allow easy
access of the ants. At the time of conducting the experiment the
figs were ripening and the ants were visiting the trees in immense
numbers. It will be seen from the second part of Table I that the
results were substantially the same as in the indoor experiments.
The two experiments may be summarized as follows:

The most concentrated sirup (2 ounces sodium arsenite) at-
tracted great numbers of ants in only 32 counts, few ants in 34
counts, and no ants whatever in 39 counts.

The standard Nickels sirup (1 ounce sodium arsenite) attracted
great numbers in 62 counts, few ants in 25 counts, and no ants in
18 counts.

The half-strength solution (4 ounce sodium arsenite) attracted
great numbers in 88 counts, few ants in 12 counts, and no ants in 5
counts.

The quarter-strength solution (4+ ounce sodium arsenite) attracted
great numbers in 92 counts, few ants in 4 counts, and no ants in 9
counts.

The experiments prove, therefore, that the excessive quantities of
the arsenic in a sirup will cause it to become repellent. The observa-
tions also indicate that the sirup decomposed more rapidly as the
amount of the sodium arsenite increased.

Dr. W. E. Cross, research chemist of the sugar experiment station
at Audubon Park, was consulted with regard to the various defects
in the Nickels sirup. His explanations and suggestions, which were
of great importance in the further conduct of the investigations, are
given below.

When granulated sugar (or sucrose) is heated, it is partially
changed to invert sugar (or glucose), and if to this is added sodium
arsenite, which has an alkaline reaction, chemical decomposition
takes place. When heated this reaction is hastened and the com-
pound becomes darker and darker. On account of the instability of
the sirup, it will further decompose on standing and the final prod-
uct will be a substance with an unpleasant odor and taste. The
addition of a small quantity of tartaric acid to the sugar sirup
before adding the sodium arsenite will produce a greater inversion
of the sucrose, thus lessening the danger of crystallization, and will
neutralize the alkalinity of the sodium arsenite, preventing decom-
position. If a slight acid reaction is obtained the sirup will keep
indefinitely. The inversion of the sucrose reduces the sweetness of
the sirup, and to balance this 7 per cent of pure honey is added.

18 BULLETIN 377, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The preparation finally proposed by Dr. Cross is made as follows:

4

Prepare a sirup:

Gram Ul ace Sw Sa ee NN se ny ieee SEM OUMadSs zeal
SSA T acy aml mere ES LP NSARM he ay pe a Pa ee oc Ne PINS yas
Tartaric acid (crystallized )*______ mbes NOL ees as PUN Gh Yer ae re
Boil for 30 minutes. Allow to cool.

Dissolve sodium arsenite (C. P.)___--_______ ss ounce__ #
LPG) VTOVOL EU fe Wifey LULL Gae Sg el Rl A Se Jee a a Ae Dea Dina Al

Cool.2? Add poison solution to sirup and stir well. Add to the
poisoned sirup: of

HERON 2 aL ae an ES A I eV oe Boul ak hai pounds__ 14

Mix thoroughly.

On April 23, 1914, Dr. Cross and the writer prepared two sirups of
the above formula (exclusive of the honey, which only makes the
sirup more palatable), except that one lacked the tartaric acid. After
cooling, they were tested in a refractometer, with the following
results:

Sirup with tartaric acid, specific gravity 1.339, Brix (sugar content) 68.8.
Sirup without tartartic acid (Nickels sirup), specific gravity 1.343, Brix 68.95.

The Nickels sirup had lost 0.75 per cent of its sugar content and
was of a very dark brown color. The new sirup was bright yellow
(amber color), clear, and transparent. Equal samples of each were
placed in quart exhibit jars with ground-glass stoppers, labeled, and
set aside. A second reading was made on June 20, 1914, as follows:
Sirup with tartaric acid, specific gravity 1.340, Brix 68.40.

Nickels sirup, specific gravity 1.8821, Brix 67.01.

The new sirup had lost 0.4 per cent of its total solids and had not
noticeably changed in color or sweetness. The Nickels sirup had lost
1.04 per cent of its total solids, was nearly black, partly crystallized,
and had lost much of its sweetness. In the beginning of August the
_ stoppers were removed and cheesecloth tied over the mouths of both
jars, to find how evaporation would affect these sirups. The jars
were placed on a shelf in the laboratory. In the beginning of
January, five months after the jars were first left open, they were
examined. Figure 2 shows the conditions. The difference in the
quantity of the sirups, in color, and in the crystallization that had
taken place within the jar containing the Nickels sirup may readily
be noted. A reading was taken of these sirups, as follows:

Sirup with tartaric acid, specific gravity 1.885, Brix 75.48.
Nickels sirup, 1.367, Brix 72.68.

1In the first experiments one-half ounce of tartaric acid was used, but this is found
unnecessary.

2In earlier experiments the sirup was boiled 30 minutes after addition of the poison,
but boiling will raise the “‘ Brix” (total solids), which is to the disadvantage of the sirup
as an ant bait. i

THE ARGENTINE ANT: DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROL. 19

The Nickels sirup: was then drained from: its jar and was found
to weigh 160 grams. The jar and crystals were then weighed, the
erystals dissolved out of the jar, and the weight of the jar subtracted
from the total weight of the jar and crystals. It was found that 333
grams of sugar crystals were present.

Grams

Vers hoi SIMD Wheniirs bimad eae we ee eee 660. 23
Weight of sirup remaining + sugar crystals__________ 493. 00
Water passed off by evaporation____________—_____=_ 167. 23

The 660.23 grams of sirup contained 1.883 grams of sodium arsenite with a
poison content of 0.202 per cent.

The 160 grams of sirup remaining contained 1.383 grams of sodium arsenite.
The poison content was now 0.836 per cent.

The sirup with tartaric acid had a small precipitation. As the
Brix had been raised 7.4 per cent through evaporation, the poison
content was very slightly
raised. ‘This sirup now
weighed 643.35 grams, the
color and sweetness being still
quite stable.

Immediately after prepar-
ing these two sirups, April
23, 1914, 2 fruit jars of each,
containing 14 gills of sirup
apiece (without honey), were
set out along heavy ant trails
in the Horticultural Hall.
Absolutely clean and odorless
sponges were used.

/¥or the first 4 days the ants
showed a preference for the
old type of sirup (without
the tartaric acid) but for the : ; :

Fic. 2.—Comparison of the improved sirup (right)
next 21 days they showed no with the Nickels sirup (left), showing the amount
preference. Then one jar of of sing left in each and the amount of sugar in
the old sirup was abandoned. Pe me ee Aerie
This proved to be partially decomposed. On moving to another spot
it was attended for 10 days more, then abandoned completely. Thus
for a total of 35 days this jar attracted the ants. Seven days later
the other jar of this sirup was abandoned and no matter where placed
neither jar had any attraction for the ants.

“

i

1FWigure 3 shows the small quantity of sirup that still remained, as well as the large
bulk of sugar crystals which had formed in the jar. The jar containing the acidified
sirup is placed at the side for comparison.

20 BULLETIN 377, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The jars with the new type of sirup were visited constantly for
62 days, or to the conclusion of the experiment. The small amount
of sirup left was still clean and as sweet as at first.

Tests of the poisonous qualities of both liquids were made with
colonies in Janet cages, under control as to food. There was prac-
tically no difference in toxicity. Workers in
both cages began to die in 4 days, the queens
stopped ovipositing in 14 days, and winged
males died very quickly, the queens in 17 days,
and the whole colony in each case was extermi-
nated on the thirty-second day.

PRACTICAL TESTS OF THE IMPROVED SIRUP.

The new sirup, made exactly as in the for-
mula given above, is very palatable to the ants
at any season of the year. It was found that
containers charged with it placed at selected
points outside a residence would attract the
ants and they would cease to invade the house.
A private residence in a large plot of ground
on a street corner with a row of large oak trees
along each street was heavily infested with
ants, which were to be found in the sink, the
refrigerator, all over the floors, etc. On June
18, 6 cans each containing this sirup and a

Fic. 3.—Comparison of the
improved sirup (left)
with the Nickels sirup

(right) after five monthy’
evaporation. The im-
proved sirup is still
clear and sweet, while
the Nickels sirup is
dark and full of crys-

sponge were hung on the brick pillars which
supported the house. The following morning
there was scarcely an ant to be seen in the
house and the ants were attending the sirup

in large numbers. The same conditions existed
_ throughout the length of the experiment, which
was terminated on August 10. Many such small experiments have
been conducted, the results being equally successful.

tals and decayed mat-
ter. (Original.)

APPLICATION OF THE SIRUP.

The paraflin-covered paper bag+ shown in figure 4 is undoubtedly the
cheapest container. It can be made in large quantities at a cost of about
$5 per thousand. Small 1-pound bags used in grocery stores are ob-
tained, and two or three holes about one-fourth inch in diameter are cut
through each folded bag with a leather-punch or similar instrument.
This provides each bag with two holes on each side for the entrance
of the ants. Being opened, the bags are dipped in a pan of molten

1 The writer is indebted to Mr. R. W. Moreland, Bureau of Entomology, for his sugges-
tions in the preparation of this waterproof container.

THE ARGENTINE ANT: DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROL. 21

paraffin and set aside todry. The paraffin, forming a waterproof sur-
face, materially lengthens the life of the bag, which is protected from

the entrance of water through the holes
by part of another (2-pound) paraflined
bag which covers the first one like a can-
opy- Inuse, each bag is provided witha
small quantity of poisoned sirup and a
piece of sponge, the protecting outer
piece of bag is drawn up over it, and
the ends of both are folded over at the
top and tacked to a tree. On account
of the bag coming together at the top
it is very narrow at the point where
the entrance holes are made; conse-
quently very small pieces of sponge are
required. The bags have been known iy hy,
to last for long periods, but the larger Py) a in) Wi
percentage of them last only about 2 or IM UNL,
3 months. They can not be recharged. ric. 4.—Paraffined ‘paper bags ar-
The tin can ranged as a container for ant
poison sirup. The apron has been
shown in figure cut away to show the ant en-
ix is the most trance holes. Such bags are nailed
to trees, (Original.)
satisfactory
container. Any sized can may be used, but
the handiest size is the one-half pound bak-
ing-powder can. The can must have a fric-
) tion cover, and of course it must hold water.
If the can is indented deeply on the two op-
posite sides (as illustrated in the drawing,
fig. 5) and the cover replaced, it will be ob-
servable that there is ample space between
the top of the can and the cover for the en-
trance of the ants, and the can, if kept in an
upright position, will be weatherproof.
About a gill of the sirup will be sufficient for
several months, but in heavy infestations it is
better to put 2 gills in each can. It is very
advisable to place a fairly large piece of
for alt-poison sirups used SPOnge in the can. The sponge will float on
in outdoor experiments. the sirup and allow the ants to feed in large
ie numbers. A piece of wire about 6 inches
long may be bent for a handle, a hook inward at each end being made.
‘The hooks may be attached under the lid of the can where it projects
over the part that has been indented. This forms a handle by which

WS

\

~
«

ZB,

Fic. 5.—Tin can container

22 BULLETIN 377, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. -

the cans may be hung on trees, fences, walls of houses, etc. The ants
prefer to climb for their food, and it is well to hang the cans near ant
trails going up trees, walls, etc. It is advisable to hang the cans in
the shade to prevent the evaporation of the sirup, for though it has
been proved that evaporation does not affect this sirup to a marked
extent, it is well to avoid raising the solid contents of the liquid.
Eight to ten of these cans should be sufficient to place around an
ordinary city house and lot. If the grounds are large and if many
trees are present, more cans should be placed out.

From the results so far obtained, the careful preparation of the
poisoned sirup can not be too highly emphasized. Very accurate
balances are necessary for the weighing out of the poison and the
tartaric acid. This is especially true when small quantities of the
sirup are prepared.

PLANS FOR MUNICIPAL CONTROL WORK.

In effecting control in towns and cities it is first necessary to ascer-
tain the extent of the infestation. This should be mapped out so that
workmen in distributing the cans will be able to refer to the map to
insure the covering of the entire territory. Cans may be obtained at
wholesale at about $16 per thousand. About 10 pounds of “ grass”
sponges will be required per 1,000 cans. These will cost about 75
cents per pound. Thesponges should be thoroughly washed and dried
before use. When wet they may easily be torn into pieces about
2 by 2 inches. Using 1 gill of sirup per can, 200 pounds of granu-
lated sugar will be required per 1,000 cans. The cost of the sodium
arsenite is about 80 cents per pound, and 1 pound will be sufficient
for 1,500 cans. Tartaric acid (crystallized) costs about 70 cents a
pound, which will be enough for 4,500 cans. From 60 to 100 cans
will be required per block, depending on the size of the block. The
late fall, winter, and spring are the most desirable times in which to
do this work, as in these seasons the natural food is least plentiful
and the ants most hungry. Two men should be able to prepare the
‘sirup, wash and tear up the sponges, and charge about 2,000 cans per
day and distribute about 1,000 cans per day.

TRAPPING ANTS.

By taking advantage of their winter colonizing habit the ants may
be attracted in large numbers to specially prepared trap boxes, which
may be fumigated when large numbers have gathered in these boxes
for winter nesting. Newell and Barber, who originated this method
of control, describe in Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 122 some very
interesting and successful trap-box experiments. The boxes were
filled with decaying vegetation, the heat generated making them very
attractive as hibernating quarters. Carbon bisulphid was found to

THE ARGENTINE ANT: DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROL. 23

_ be the best and most economical fumigant for use in the trap boxes.
It is hardly necessary to state that this method of control is not ap-
plicable to city conditions, where dry nesting quarters are very
plentiful and the ants do not colonize to any great extent.

SUMMARY OF CONTROL MEASURES.

ANT BARRIERS.

In grossly infested houses much relief may be secured by isolating
_ tables, refrigerators, safes, beds, etc., with bichlorid-of-mercury tape,
or by placing the legs of articles of furniture in saucers filled with
- moth balls or coal oil. Trees, beehive stands, and other outdoor ob-
jects may be isolated with the sticky substance used on fly paper but
made thinner than usual. If 5 per cent of carbolized oil be added,
the durability of the bands will be considerably increased.

REPELLENT ANT POISONS.

Repellents are much used to keep the ants from buildings. Strong
antimony or arsenical sirups, a number of which are sold by drug-
gists in infested territory, are used for this purpose. They give
quick relief for short periods, but they are not a factor in the reduc-
tion of the infestation.

ATTRACTIVE ANT POISONS.

The only effective poisons yet known for permanent control are
poisoned ‘sirups. The improved arsenical sirup recommended O%
page 18 will not spoil and is superior to any other formula yet tested
on account of its stability at high temperatures, freedom from cr rYyS-
tallization, and continued attractiveness.

TRAPPING ANTS.

Trapping ants may be accomplished im rural locations by provid-
ing boxes of decaying vegetation in the winter. The colonies will
move into these boxes and the ants may they he killed’ with carbon
bisulphid.

4 4 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1916

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D.C.

AT

5 CENTS PER COPY

Joint Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry,
CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief, and the
Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. MELVIN, Chief

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER August 22, 1916

FISH MEAL: IFS USE AS A STOCK AND POULTRY
FOOD.

By F. C. WEBER,

Chemist in Charge, Animal Physiological Chemical Laboratory,
Bureau of Chemistry.

CONTENTS.

Page. Page:
iamodvenion! ee ee aoa 1 | Opinions of the trade in regard to
Review of literature_____---~~----~ 3 feeding fish meal_______________ 18
Composition and qualities of fish Raw material available for fish

TEANGA 9 15H (ey 7 Wey SAL AU Pee MM Sh Nec ee ES ht ot ly 19
Feeding experiments_____________- 11)\| Generals conclusions 232-222 2a ee 20
General methods for the manufac-

hirevarelsh (/meal= silos a 16

INTRODUCTION.

The use of fish meal in this country at the present time for feeding
purposes is so limited that it may be said that in commercial quan-
tities it-has scarcely begun to be marketed. The Connecticut Agri-
cultural Experiment Station?‘ in its report on feeding stuffs for the
year 1914 gives the results of examination of one commercial brand
sold by an eastern firm. Fish meal is used by another eastern firm as
the protein basis of a poultry food. It has been prepared for some
time on the Pacific coast, and there are several brands already on the
market from that region. One of these products is made of a mixture
of fish meal and meat meal. As commercial by-products fish and the
waste residue from fish have always in this country been converted
into so-called “scrap” or “pomace” for use as a fertilizer ingre-
dient. An entire industry, the fish-scrap fertilizer industry along the
Atlantic coast, has grown up, in which a single species of fish. the
menhaden, is used as a source of raw material. In the early days

1 Conn. Agr, Exp. Sta. Rpt. 1914, pt. 4, p. 221.
Norre.—The object of this publication is to set forth the value of fish meal as a food
for domestic animals, in order to stimulate its more genera] use aS a supplementary
stock food and to encourage its manufacture for that purpose.

42864°—16——-_1

2 BULLETIN 378, U. S. DEERE OF AGRICULTURE.

of this industry the oil ‘Was ‘the, principal material sought; the —

“scrap” was considered waste and was not generally used as a
fertilizer.

It is indeed surprising that in the matter of furthering economy
the use as a stock food of fish meal prepared from undecomposed
raw material has not been fostered in this country. This is partic-
ularly striking in view of the fact that attention was called to the
possibilities of fish meal as a feeding stuff a number of years ago,
both in this country and abroad. In 1877 Dr. W. O. Atwater? re-
viewed the manufacture and use of fish manures and at that time
urged the use of the fish scrap from the menhaden as a source of
protein for stock foods. Such use of this material would have made
possible the utilization of its high feeding value and at the same
time would not have impaired, but to a great extent would have
enhanced, its fertilizing value. The fertilizing constituents would
be more available after digestion, and manure from animals so fed
would contain the plant food material derived from the fish in a more
readily assimilable form.

The experimental work on the use of fish meal as food for stock
dates back to the time when similar work was conducted in connec-
tion with the use of meat meal and tankage for this purpose. In
fact, in this country even before the attention of feeders was called
to these latter foodstuffs as supplementary stock foods, reports of
experiments directed attention to the use of fish as food for domestic
animals. Dr. Atwater? in his report records the year 1835 as the

earliest in which there appears any account o the use of fish as food

for domestic animals.

As early as 1864 fish “ pomace” or “ chum ” (the residue left from
herring or other small fish after removal of the greater _part of
the oil by pressing) was spoken of in high terms as furnishing a
valuable feed for sheep, swine, and fowls, all of which ate it greedily.
No doubt use was made of fish in this form, in isolated instances,
by farmers living near the coasts who had access to this material in
its fresh condition. The writer has been informed of its use in
' Maine in the early days of the sardine industry, when the residue
from the packing of sardines after removal of part of the oil by
pressing was fed to sheep with excellent results as to fattening and
wool production.

Shortly after the time the earlier experimental work and feeding
tests were made to ascertain the value of waste residues of animal

1 See his special report on “‘ Menhaden and other Fish and Their Products as Related
to Agriculture” to Goode, ‘‘ History of the American Menhaden,” U.S. Fish Comm. Rept.,
1877, pp. 194-267.

2 Goode, Atwater, loc. cit., p. 258.

3 William D. Dana, in a report of the Maine Board of Agriculture. See Agriculture of
Maine, 1864, p. 43.

*

to Fe be Aa ey,
FISH MEAL AS A STOCK; AND POULTRY FOOD. 3

i % VIVES Neo Ntksa ear :
origin and of fish meal for feeding purposes, it appears that prefer-
ence was given to such material as meat meal and tankage, and that

in after years fish meal was forgotten. It was also generally assumed
that feeding domestic animals fish would result in imparting a char-
acteristic taint to the food products from the animals. This impres-
sion was undoubtedly obtained as a result of allowing animals to
eat too freely of fish wastes, particularly that which was in an ad-
vanced stage of spoilage. The present time—feeding stuffs of high
protein content being so much in demand—would seem to be a fit-
ting and proper one in which to call upon this reserve supply of
protein so abundantly supplied by waste fish and by the waste of
fish-canning industries.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE.

The literature on the use of fish meal for feeding purposes was
found to be more extensive than casual inspection had shown. The
greater part of the experimental work on this subject has been con-
ducted in Germany, as a result of which the use of this material for
feeding purposes in that country is now on a firm basis. The more
important articles are cited here in chronological order and fairly
full abstracts are given of some, in order that the accumulation of
evidence may allay any prejudice that may exist against the use of
fish meal as a foodstuff for domestic animals.

In 1869 M. L. Wilder,* of Pembroke, Me., a member of the board of agri-
culture of that State, presented his experience in the use of fish “ offal” as a
feed for sheep. He believed “fish offal to be not only cheaper but much
superior to any other kind of provender he had ever used” for this purpose.
The “ offal” referred to was made from herring, which were salted the same
as for smoking, cooked, and the oil pressed out. It is stated that the sheep
ate of this more eagerly than of grain. Experiments similar to the above were
made by other persons in later years.”

In 1875 Farrington* conducted feeding experiments with sheep at the
Maine Agricultural College, comparing the value of equal quantities of corn
and of fish “ pomace” made from herring. Two flocks of 5 lambs each were
fed about 2 ounces per head per day, the lambs in each group being allowed
all the hay they would eat. During the 16 weeks of the experiment the corn-
fed flock gained 48 pounds, or 15.13 per cent, and the lot fed on fish 474
pounds, or 15.01 per cent.

Henry, in Feeds and Feeding, reports statements from several authors to
the effect that it has been determined that no bad infliience on the milk is
found when dried fish are fed in reasonable quantities to dairy cows, and that
it has been found that 100 parts of linseed cake can be replaced in the ration
for cows by 80 parts of herring cake. In one test milk and butter of normal
quality were produced when 2.3 pounds of fat-free fish meal per day were
fed with a variety of other feed. The statement is made by this authority that
the better grades of fish meal should be used for feeding.

1 Agriculture of Maine, 1869, p. 60.
2 Agriculture of Maine, 1874-75, p. 1.
3 Cited by Atwater in Goode, U. S. Fish Comm. Rpt., 1877, p. 260.

LR Ze Oi a SB De OR a Beh

4 BULLETIN 318, (Of s. a RRA OF AGRICULTURE.

In 1908 Lindsey * reported that in are a great variety of meat and fsa

meals had been offered for sale as stock foods as early as 1872. A review of

a number of experiments with horses, cattle, sheep, and swine established the
fact that these materials, when properly prepared, are excellent foods for stock
and poultry, and that they are highly digestible.

Notwithstanding the favorable reports recorded on the use of fish
meal it was ignored at this time, preference being given to dried
blood and tankage. This was in part due, no doubt, to the fact
that the industries producing these were more highly organized and
their selling arrangements proportionately greater.

Turrentine* calls attention to the use of fish scraps as a feeding stuff for
poultry and stock and gives extended quotations from the report by Goode,
cited above. From his review of the early feeding of fish in this country he
concludes that “the universally affirmative results of all the recorded experi-
ments with fish scrap as a cattle feed leave little room for doubt as to its
efficiency.” He remarks further: “It is indeed surprising that its use as a
feed has not been more generally introduced. * * * It would be fitting,
indeed, that even a small part of the millions of pounds of combined nitrogen
earried seaward annually by the rivers should be returned and after a short
cycle again should be rendered suitable for man’s consumption.”

According to Kellner*® milch cows may be fed as high as 2 pounds per day
with no objectionable taste or flavor resulting in the milk or butter. Feeding
to sheep “or horses is best accomplished by mixing it with other feeds. It is
recommended that one-half pound per day be given. ;

F. Lehmann * ranks fish meal next to meat meal in its content of nourishing
material. Laboratory experiments showed that 98.6 per cent of, the protein
was digested with pepsin and pancreatic extract. It is also pointed out that
fish meal, on account of the length of time required to render the nitrogen and
phosphates available for plant assimilation, is not a very good fertilizer; but
that it is a very good feeding stuff and when so used its fertilizing value is
enhanced, since the fertilizing ingredients reappear in the manure in forms
more easily used by plants.

Kiihn-Cornieten* conducted a practical test with six cows, comparing the
yield and quality of milk and butter when the cows were fed a ration containing
no fish meal with the results obtained when fish meal was substituted for dried
malt husks and sunflower meal in the basal ration. From 14 to 24 pounds (Ger-
man) fish meal were fed per head per day in the different trials. The milk
produced during the experiment was analyzed. The yield of milk was fairly well
maintained during the time fish meal was given, while the percentage of fat in
the milk was increased. The butter did not have a jshy odor or taste and was
declared to be about the same in quality as that produced on oil cakes. Since
the quantity of milk was about the same, the percentage of fat higher, and the
feed cheaper, it was concluded that fish meal was a valuable feeding stuff.

Fink* fattened steers with a ration including fish meal at the rate of 3
pounds per head per day. A gain of 303 pounds in 90 days was made. Nothing
is stated :n regard to the flavor of the meat.

1 Mass. Sta. Rpt., 1908, pt. 2, p. 149.

2«'The fish-scrap fertilizer industry of the Atlantic coast’’; Bul. No. 2, U. S. Depart-
mnent of Agriculture.

$ Die Ernihrung d-landw. Nutzthiere, pp. 369-371.

¢Landw. Wochenbl. f. Schleswig. Holstein, 1892, No. 28; pp. 200-201,

5 Molkerei Zeitung, 1894, 8 (44), p. 675.

6 Deut. Landw. Presse, 1896, 23 (17) 1, p. 145.

FISH MEAL AS A STOCK AND POULTRY FOOD. 5

Hals and Kayli* report analyses of fish meal made from slightly salted herring
and from the waste of heavily salted herring. The composition of the former
was: Water, 11.11 per cent; protein, 61.11 per cent; fat, 14.06 per cent; and ash,
11.79 per cent. Of the latter, the composition was: Water, 10.81 per cent;
. protein, 42.29 per cent; fat, 13.17 per cent; and ash, 23.06 per cent. Digestion
experiments showed that 12.7 pounds of digestible fat and 56.8 pounds of
digestible protein were obtained from 100 pounds of the meal made from
whole herring, while the meal made from the waste of salted herring gave
11.9 and 42.6 pounds, respectively.

In 1903 V. Schenke,? as a part of an extensive investigation of commercial
feeding stuffs conducted by the German experiment stations, made an exhaus-
tive examination of the subject of fish meal or fish guano, looking toward its
use as a stock food. In this report it is stated that up to the middle of the
last century fish meal or fish guano was used only for fertilizer purposes,
and that it was not until about 1860 that any work of a scientific nature
was done with the idea of using such meal as a foodstuff for animals. Atten-
tion is called to the fact that the protein consists mainly of meat fibrin,
albumen, and gelatinous substances, the latter in larger proportion than in the
fiesh of fresh fish because the fish meal is prepared without removing the fish
bones. It is also.stated that the fat which remains after the pressing is easily
digestible. The ash consists largely of sodium, potassium, and calcium phos-
phates, and sodium, potassium, and magnesium chlorids. Experiments con-
ducted and literature cited in regard to the digestibility of fish meal showed
that the coefficients of digestibility of the chief constituents are high.

According to V. Schenke the first feeding tests with fish meal were made in
1873 and 1874 by Weiske* and were reported in 1875 and 1876 by Kellner,
Schrodt, and Wimmer ;* the test animals were sheep. The investigators con-
cluded that the protein of fish meal was digested by herbivorous animals as
well as, or better than, the protein from vegetable sources. From 77 to 83
per cent of the protein was found to have been digested. Kellner in a later
experiment,’ found that sheep digested as much as 90 per cent of the protein,
76.4 per cent of the fat, and 15 per cent of the ash.

Reports of the work of a number of other investigators, extending from this
year (1877) to 1902, are cited by V. Schenke, in which studies of the feeding
of fish meal to dairy cows, oxen, hogs, sheep, and poultry are recorded. The
results were universally favorable in all particulars as to economy in pro-
ducing gains in weight, and as to lack of taint or odor of fish in the marketable
products from these animals.

In conclusion this author states that fish meal is a valuable supplementary
food for animals, when it is fed with other foods low in protein; that its most
important feature is the high digestibility of the protein and fat and that,
further, it imparted no objectionable flavor to milk and butter when used
supplementally in rations for dairy cows.

In a feeding experiment on young pigs, comparing the growth obtained by
feeding both milk and fish meal with the growth obtained by feeding milk only,
Klein * found that smaller quantities of milk with the addition of fish meal gave
as good a gain per head as was obtained by feeding larger quantities of milk
alone.

1 Norsk. Landmandsblad, 1903, 22 (3) 38-41.

2Landw. Vers. Stat., 1903, 58, 55-64. For full report of this investigation see Die
Futtermittel des Handels. P. Paray, Berlin.

3 Wochenbl. d. landw. Ver. i- Grossherzogtum Baden, 1874, p. 318.

4 Journ. f. Landw., 1876, p. 265.

SZLandw. Vers. Stat., 1877, 20, p. 423.

Deut. Landw. Presse, 1907, 34 (67), 542.

6 BULLETIN 378, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The comparative value of meat meal and fish meal as supplementary foods
for swine was studied by A. Kleeman,* who conducted his experiments on 3
groups of 8 hogs each, using two grades of fish meal (one containing 2.10 per
cent of fat and 48.90 per cent of protein; the other 4.80 per cent of fat and
51.50 per cent of protein) and a higher-grade meat meal, containing 80 per
cent of protein. The ration, in addition to the high protein-bearing foods
used, was composed of corn, steamed potatoes, potato chips, and potato flakes.
Starch was used in addition to balance the ration composed of the fish meal low
in fat. The deficiency of meat meal in phosphate of lime was made up by
adding precipitated lime phosphate to this ration.

The pigs fed on meat meal were off their feed during the latter part of the
experiment, while the lots fed the fish meal appeared to have sharpened
appetites and ate the ration well throughout.

There was no difference in the Reichert-Meissl numbers of the fat of the hogs
fed on meat meal and those fed on fish meal, but the iodin number of the fat
was found to be slightly higher in the case of the hogs fed ‘on fish meal. The
quality of the meat and fat as regards taste, odor, and flavor was not affected by
feeding fish meal. The author states that meat meal and fish meal are good
fattening feeds for Swine, and concludes, from his experiment, that, as food for
hogs, meat meal and fish meal gave practically similar increases in weight, but
that meat meal on account of the higher percentage of protein was from 60 to
80 per cent cheaper than fish meal.

This conclusion is based on the fact that in this experiment the fish meal
cost a little more than meat meal.

Honcamp, Gschwender, and Engberding? report the results of experiments
on sheep which were fed herring meal and whale-flesh meal, as supplementary
feeds to clover hay. The herring meal used by them contained 58.30 per cent
of crude protein, 56.28 per cent of “pure” protein, 38.98 per cent of nitrogen
free extract, 13.57 per cent fat, and 23.65 per cent of ash. Digestion experi-
ments conducted on sheep with this meal showed a utilization of 93.7 per cent
of the organic substances, 87.7 per cent of the crude protein, 49.2 per cent of
the nitrogen free extract, and 97.4 per cent of the fat.

Tt was noted in these tests that the animals digested the organic material of
the ration as well as the crude fiber of the basal ration (clover hay) to better
advantage during the period in which fish meal was fed than in the period
in which no fish meal was given, a fact which has been observed before under
conditions where high protein rations have been used.

In a report*® (on Fish Guano and Its Use as Food) by Consul General Robert
P. Skinner, Hamburg, Germany, it is stated that this material is used with
great success in Germany as a supplementary stock food. Large quantities of
it are exported to the United States, but it is all utilized for fertilizer pur-
poses. In Norway codling and herring are the chief varieties of fish from
which this material is made, while in Hngland and Scotland the waste from
all varieties of fish is used. f

Herring meal, when made from fresh fish, has a protein content of from 60
to 70 per cent and a fat content of from 10 to 12 per cent, but when made from
salt herring, the protein content is only about 50:per cent and the fat content
7 or 8 per cent.

The English fish meal is pressed while being kept hot with steam and hag
a fat content of only 3.6 per cent. Hogs are said to eat this fish meal eagerly,

1Landw. Vers. Stat., 1910, 78 (1 & 3) 187-219.

2Landw. Vers. Stat., 1911, 75, 161-184.

8 Daily Trade and Consular Report, 1911-14, No. 103, p. 512. See also American Fer-
tilizer, May 6, 1911, p. 32 H.

FISH MEAL AS A STOCK AND POULTRY FOOD. q

‘put it must be fed with care since an excessive quantity in the ration may
affect the quality of the pork. Moderate quantities contribute to the animal’s
general health. The use of fish meal for feeding to swine is increasing in Ger-

; many from year to year.

In 1914 Klein’ conducted feeding experiments on pigs older than those used

in previous experiments but which were still growing, comparing skim milk
with fat-free fish meal and dry fermentation residues. By substituting equiv-

alent quantities of fish meal and of the dry residues for skim milk in the
' rations, the assimilation of these two food stuffs was observed as compared

with skim milk. The results obtained show that fish meal and fermentation
residues are well adapted as substitutes for skim milk. There was no marked
difference in the character or flavor of the meat after slaughter.

E. Haselhoff,? in an article which includes the results of examination of 23
brands of fish meal found on the German market, points out that since this
material has come to be quite extensively used in Germany as a feeding stuff
its quality in many instances has greatly deteriorated. Fish meal prepared
frem strongly salted and from decomposed fish is condemned. One very repre-
hensible practice of adulteration has been the admixture of ‘ cadaver” meal
with the fish meal, to which serious outbreaks of disease (particularly anthrax)
among stock have been traced. Such outbreaks result from the insufficient
sterilization of the product prepared from animals dying of disease.

The composition of the different brands examined varied greatly. It was
the opinion of the author that a fish meal deserving to be classed as a high-
grade product should have a fat content of from 2 to 4 per cent, depending on
the quantity to be used in the ration, and that the meal should not contain over
3 per cent of common salt. He recommends the following amounts of a high-
grade meal in feeding rations:

Cattle, 2 pounds per 1,000 pounds, live weight.
Hogs, one-fourth to one-half pound per head, according to weight.
Sheep, one-fourth to one-half pound per 260 pounds, live weight.

The statement is made that the quality of the meat and lard is not injured
by feeding hogs a little over one-half pound of fish meal-per head per day.

In a special article * the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries of England called
attention to the manufacture of fish meal and its value and use as a stock food.
After the closing of the German market for this product, which consumed
practically the entire amount (over 18,000 tons), the English farmer was urged
to adopt its use.

In support of the use of fish meal for feeding purposes experiments are cited
where a meal containing 3.5 per cent of fat and 55 per cent of protein material
was fed to pigs for four months at the rate of 1 pound per head per day without
any harmful effect on the flavor of the meat. In another feeding experiment
cited, cows were fed very large amounts of a herring meal containing 20 per
cent of oil without the flavor of the milk being affected. In a more recent feed-
ing experiment quoted in this article the feeding of English fish meal to pigs in
the proportion of from 15 to 380 per cent of the other foods given led to a marked
increase in the weight of the pigs so fed compared with those fed on a ration
containing no fish meal. The substitution of fish meal for a definite proportion
of the various foods in the ration gave increased profits, amounting in one series
to 42 per cent and in another to 94 per cent per pig, notwithstanding that the
actual cost of feeding was higher.

1 Milchwirtsch. Zentr., 1914, 43, 452, 458.
2¥Fiihling’s Landw. Zeit., Feb., 1914, 63 (4) 187.
3 Jour. Board of Agric., Noy., 1914, 21, 688.

8 BULLETIN 378, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The following quantities to be given daily, evidently taken in part from the
German article quoted above, are suggested:
Cattle, 2 pounds per 1,000 pounds, live weight.
Pigs, + to 4 pound, according to weight.
Sheep, 1/10 to 1/5 pound per 100 pounds, live weight.
Poultry (adult fowls) not more than 10 per cent, and chickens not
more than 5 per cent of the entire ration.

In an extensive article* on the “ Utilization of fish and marine animals as
sources of oil and manure,” attention is drawn to the use of fish meal as a
eattle food. It is stated that this product has been used with success as a
supplementary food for stock. According to this notice there are various
grades of meal now on the English market, which are made from the waste of
herring, cod, and other fish.

It is stated” that the horned dogfish, Squalus acanthias, is sometimes dried
and used for feeding purposes in Scotland, Ireland, Norway, and elsewhere.
It is stated also that cod meal may be made by simply drying and grinding
the fish, but that in the case of herring it is necessary to remove most of the
oil by the usual process of cooking, pressing, and drying. It is further stated
that a good fish meal for feeding purposes should contain not less than 8.2 per
cent of nitrogen and not over 5 per cent of oil.

In a study comparing the relative feeding value of fish and meat meals for
fattening pigs, G. Martinoli* concluded that in fattening pigs from the earliest
age fish meal proved of value in developing the skeleton and in stimulating
the appetite and processes of assimilation. The animals fed on fish meal
_ grew more rapidly than those fed on meat meal, and they were of superior
quality. Neither the fish nor the meat meal imparted any particular smell or
taste to the flesh of the animals.

In a bulletin from the Agricultural Hxperiment Station, Purdue University,
A. G. Philips* gives the results of four experiments, each extending for
one year, in which the value of meat scrap, fish scrap, and skim milk in
rations for laying pullets was compared.

The summary of the results of this work shows that the pullets in the pens
fed on a ration containing meat scrap averaged 135 eggs per pullet on a food
consumption of 70.29 pounds per bird, at a cost of 98.4 cents per bird. For the
fish-scrap pens the average number of eggs was 128 per pullet on a consump-
tion of 74.18 pounds of food, at a cost of 99.5 cents per bird. The pullets in the
pens fed on a ration including skim milk, produced an average of 135.4 eggs
on 157.61 pounds of food consumed, costing $1.10 per bird.

It was determined that the amount of dry matter in the food required to
produce one pound of eggs was 3.7 pounds in the meat-scrap pens, 4.02 pounds
in the fish-scrap pens, 3.7 pounds in the skim-milk pens, and in the control
pens, receiving none of the above materials, 13.58 pounds.

The average cost of producing one dozen eggs was 8.5 cents for the pullets
fed on meat scrap, 9.7 cents for those fed on fish scrap, and 9.7 cents for those
fed on skim milk. The profit per bird, over the cost of feed, was $1.55 for the
pullets fed meat scrap, $1.56 for those fed fish eres and $1.62 for those fed
skim milk.

1 Bulletin Imp. Ins., 1914, 12, 429, 442.

2 Bulletin Imp. Ins., July—Sept., 1914, 12, No. 3.

= Rey. Centro. Estud. Agron. y Vet., 1914, 7, No. 72, pp. 258-270; abstracts in: Internat.
Inst. Agr. (Rome) ; Mo. Bul. Agr. Intel. and Plant Diseases, 1915, 6, No. 3, pp. 445-446,
and Exp. Sta. Record 33, No. 6, p. 571.

* Agricultural Experiment Station, Purdue University, Bulletin 182, 18, Nov., 1915.

“ Poultry Investigations: I, The value of meat scrap, fish scrap and skim milk in
rations for laying pullets.”

, m FISH MEAL AS A STOCK AND POULTRY FOOD. 9
‘i

‘
;

COMPOSITION AND QUALITIES OF FISH MEAL.

Tn the earlier experiments in this country, which have been re-
viewed, the material referred to is the undried cakes as they came
from the presses. Since the advent of drying this residue has been
converted into the fish scrap cf the fish fertilizer industry. With
preper attention, however, to sanitary considerations in the processes,
it may be made into fish meal for feeding purposes.

The preparation of the material in this form makes it at once a
commercial proposition, so far as shipping and ready use in com-
pounding stock food rations are concerned. The meal containing
less than 10 per cent of moisture will keep a very long time without
decomposition or apparent chemical change. Portions of the ex-
perimental lots of fish meals made from sardine waste have been
stored for over a year now, with apparently no change taking place.
The product is usually shipped in 80 or 100 pound bags and will
probably receive the same classification as fish fertilizer scrap, which
at present is classified as 6th class in carlead lots, or as 4th in less
than carload lots (official classification); western classification: L.
C. L., 8d; C. L., C.; southern classification: L. C. L., not taken;
C. L., at fertilizer rates. .

During the season of 1913-14 the Bureau of Chemistry made an
extensive study of the sardine industry on the coast of Maine. It
was during these investigations that attention was drawn to the

large amount of waste in the packing of the fish as sardines, par-

ticularly at times when the fish were of large size. The possibility
of utilizing this material as a stock food was considered and an
investigation of the preparation and yield of material for this pur-
pose was instituted during the season of 1914.

The question of the utilization of the fish waste on the Pacific
coast has been extensively investigated by J. W. Turrentine? of the
Bureau of Soils of this department as a part of the investigation of
the fertilizer resources of the United States. The report of this
work, which covers all phases of the subject, contains the analyses
of five samples of dried “scrap” which were prepared at as many
different factories from the waste in the canning of salmon. As
the analysis indicates, they were well dried products, the water con-
tent ranging from 3.91 per cent to 5.36 per cent. The protein con-
tent ranged from 47.69 per cent to 59.31 per cent. It can be seen,
therefore, that a product from this source has considerable value
as a high-protein material, and it is said to be of very high quality.

‘Attention is also directed in this report to the use of the higher-
grade “scrap” or meal as a stock and poultry food.

1U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 150.
42864°—16——2

10 BULLETIN 378, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The waste in the sardine industry affords excellent material for
the preparation of a high-grade fish meal. As it comes from the
packing table it has been steam cooked and partially dried in the
process of preparing the fish for packing, and can be taken after
collection from the packing tables directly to a plant equipped for
pressing and drying. During the season of 1914 a quantity of
fish meal was made in the course of experiments looking toward
the utilization of this waste material as a stock food. A part of
this waste is now utilized by converting it into “ pomace” or “scrap ”
for use as a fertilizer. A number of experiments were made, using
raw material varying in fat content and employing different meth-
ods of treatment preparatory to pressing and drying. The plant
used for the experimental work was equipped with an iron cooker
heated directly by steam, a rack and cloth screw press capable of
yielding a pressure of 120 tons, and an ordinary type of rotary fer-
tilizer drier. With this equipment a yield of from 27 to 33 per cent
of-meal was obtained from the fish residue; and from raw material
containing from 12 to 17 per cent of oil, over one-half of the oil
was removed by pressing. The oil obtained was bright, clear, and
of very high quality. The fish meal from these excessively fat fish
contained-17.51 per cent of oil. After pressing and drying raw
material which contained from 8 to 9.5 per cent oil, a dried meal
was obtained containing from 9 to 12 per cent of fat. The average
composition of meal obtained in six different experiments was as
follows:

: ; Per cent.
YAGER Aa SSeS NG a yO eee Red el 7.71
URES YEE 2 SS NT ee ce RR Re ea EMS ae ep TY, 15.19
PA DYON ara Ln OU ek ORES 0 ep ee aT NP el VEEN SU RAC NO ie 9. 39
TEAC HENLOW (asf IAA) Yee RS ANSE ES RSS ES ae EZ 58. 70
SNCS) aE cgap TL ES OSE Ga ipl a ES A SE EL ES Oe LP en eae aL Ape ee nD Psy epee ee a UL 15.18

This meal was stored in a barn at Eastport, Me., for a period of two
or three months and was then shipped to Washington for use in
feeding experiments after again being stored for about two months.
The entire quantity, about 1 ton of meal comprising four of the
experimental lots, was thoroughly mixed and was used for feeding
experiments in cooperation with the Animal Husbandry and Dairy
Divisions of the Bureau of Animal Industry of this department, using
growing pigs, poultry, and dairy cows. The analysis of this meal
and the composition of the fish are given on page 11.* It will be

noted that there was a loss of 3 per cent of ote during the time of
storage and shipping.

1 The analysis of the meal was made by H. W. Houghton ; of the ash by’J. B. Wilson,
both of the Animal Physiological Chemiedl Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry.

The nitrogen determinations were all made by the Nitrogen Laboratory of the same
bureau.

FISH MEAL AS A STOCK AND POULTRY FOOD. 1L

Analysis of Meal.

Per cent,

© UE Beis UD i eM RR, BL em UD i atl 4.74
PUT a NSS TR 0 8 Sk AMEN SN ee ie an Ls 16. 68
ERY AEB, CENT ET ae 28 aE SE AS PIN I eR 10S PRR ps lf OR EVAL 9. 68

| REE YG AS TUTTN 7 (Cl sel O92) ) ONE Sr Fe SY I NB 60. 50
LER Le Se a EEE SS 2 98 A ae ES ee A 14. 56
CREEIGISS TY NS Is TPR e188 a ae AS a sep! 0. 61
Selle (CASTE GHD) j BSS UIE TRE EDN OES) SRI SiC at OIA Un Sece/ae a 5. 78

Analysis of Ash.

SISTED PRN Comics rt aM eI SE yi Fahy dae OP ca | RR Rea hd cee GUS ghee la fain Da RUE hy 0. 50
Eronmanduabhunarmim (NesOs, Als@s) oo Saeed PE Su a NG ai OO
ESOS DN OT Graciela (es @) 5) ce Fee ae RE CE ee Le ooNee
Calera: ORK OY st Bic SRR ANS eta aR es eS) YAM i a en Da Pca on ert eMs cA LA GY Co LG)
See (CIN OU ee TE a rm pM 8 SEN Sc ts Co UN le eI st AL ena 25. 83
DTH een eS HUIEI a Fy (CLML CG) yee ST Le wee SN A 23 Si NPR I RN i ae OU 34 115)

FEEDING EXPERIMENTS.*

DAIRY COWS.

The results obtained by the Dairy Division of the Bureau of Animal
Industry by feeding the fish meal describec. above to dairy cows,
were sufficiently satisfactory to warrant a more extended study of its
value as a dairy feed. This work is to be undertaken during the
coming winter. The preliminary experiments showed that the cows
fed on a ration containing fish meal gave a greater yield of milk than
cows fed on a similar basal ration containing no fish meal, but con-
taining cottonseed meal. The milk from the cows which were fed
fish meal contained a lower percentage of butter fat, but the total
yield of fat obtained was approximately the same for the two groups.
There was some variation in the readiness with which the animals ate
the ration containing the fish meal. As a rule cows which have not
been highly fed on feeds for which they have a fondness, will eat a
fish-meal ration readily and are eager for it. In these tests the feed-
ing of fish meal had no detrimental effect on either the milk or

butter.
POULTRY.

The feeding experiments with poultry and with growing and fat-
tening pigs were conducted by the Animal Husbandry Division of
_ the Bureau of Animal Industry.

In the test with poultry a pen of laying hens fed a ration contain-
ing the fish meal was compared with a pen of the same breed fed
a ration which was the same, except that in it meat meal was sub-

1To Mr. George M. Rommel, Chief of the Animal Husbandry Division, and Mr. B. H.
Rawl, Chief of the Dairy Division, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, acknowledgment
is made for their cooperation and interest in the feeding experiments with the fish meal
prepared from the waste in the packing of sardines.

12 BULLETIN 378, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

stituted for fish meal. The results of the experiment, which is de-
signed to run for one year, are reported by Mr. Alfred R. Lee for a
period of 32 weeks, as follows:

The mash fed consisted of one part each of bran, middlings, and fish meal
and two parts of corn meal. In the check ration the fish meal was replaced by
beef scrap. In addition, in each case a grain ration of equal parts of corn,
wheat, and oats was fed. The beef scrap cost $53 per ton and was guaranteed
to contain from 50 to 55 per cent of protein. The price for fish meal used in
the calculation of the comparative costs was $46 per ton, a price recently quoted
for a commercial article.

The yield of eggs from the pen fed on the ration containing fish meal averaged
113.1 per hen, at a cost of 7.1 cents per dozen and with a food consumption of
44.1 pounds per hen. The average number of eggs per hen in the pen fed on
the beef-scrap ration was 128.4, at a cost of 7.8 cents per dozen and with 55.7
pounds of food eaten. Wstimating the value of the eggs at 30 cents per dozen,
the profit from the pen fed on beef scrap would exceed that of the pen on fish
meal by $2.48, or about 14 cents per hen, on account of the greater production
in the former pen. At a price slightly under that quoted, fish meal would have
been as profitable as beef scrap.

At the present time the hens have eaten the beef scrap a little more freely
and have given a slightly greater egg yield. No differences were noted in regard ~
to size or flavor of the eggs or the health and weight of the fowls.

Similar results in regard to freedom from taint of fish in eggs were
obtained by a manufacturer of poultry feeds who tested one of the
experimental lots of meal prepared from the sardine waste. This
particular lot of meal contained 17.51 per cent of fat and had no
deleterious effect on the quality of the eggs.

PIGS.

A portion of the meal as used for feeding to cows and in com-
pounding the ration fed to the poultry, was compared with tankage
as a supplementary feeding stuff for growing and fattening pigs.
This experiment was conducted by Mr. F. G. Ashbrook of the
Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, who
makes the following report of the work:

The experiment was conducted to determine the comparative values of fish
meal and tankage as supplements in a ration for growing and fattening pigs.

The pigs used in this work were grade Berkshires, averaging 52.3 pounds
per head when the experiment started. They were as uniform in size, age,
and breeding as it was possible to obtain.

For purposes of calculation the feeds used were estimated to cost as follows:

Corn, 70 cents per bushel, plus $2 per ton for grinding, making $27
per ton.

White middlings, $80 per ton.

Digester tankage (60 per cent protein), $50 per ton.

Fish meat, $35 per ton.

It should not be assumed that this price is to establish arbitrarily a price
for fish meal. As dried fish products have so largely been sold as fertilizers,
it was thought that the price would to some extent be governed by the condition
of the fertilizer market.

4

FISH MEAL AS A STOCK AND POULTRY FOOD. 13

-The guaranteed analysis of the tankage was:

Per cent.

“ESE ARS LA) SN RN RS SR SS “SNe a NAIA Ym OIC 60
J BY RCRA 0A UU Ne Un RR 8

© TE TRV GSO OETR 125 Cg EM Sa hy il Mn cea aT Ea Ca Ue bs Ue oy oa Ge ARE 8
TTY SYS oO IRA a ee ee een pe 3

The feeding period was divided into two parts. First, a growing period of ©
112 days from weaning up to a fattening age, starting January 19, 1915, and
ending May 11, 1915. Second, a fattening period of about one month, starting
May 11, 1915, and ending June 8, 1915. The pigs at this date averaged a little
better than 250 pounds and had to be sold.

Procedure.—The 12 pigs for the first period were divided into two lots. Lot
No. 1, check lot, was composed of 8 pigs; lot No. 2 was composed of 4 pigs.
During the first period, the pigs were fed as indicated below.

RESULTS DURING THE GROWING PERIOD.

The pigs, which were all in good, thrifty, growing condition, were about 3
months of age at the beginning of the experiment, and in order to accustom
them to their surroundings they were fed in dry lot from the time they were
weaned until the experiment was begun. The pigs in both lots were so fed
that all the feed, which was in the form of a thin slop, was cleaned up at
each feeding, thereby insuring a sharp appetite at the next feeding time.
There was no trouble whatever in getting the pigs to eat the ration containing
fish meal.

Growing period: Jan. 19, 1915, to May 11, 1915 (112 days). .
Lot 1. Ration: 4 parts corn meal, 4 parts middlings, 1 part tankage:
Muniwonvonex periment.) / 22/05... Jsdiec SHS Se i ee Bee days... 112
TERS LENS 87 a PPA PN I PO a ge number. . 8
PCTS CES WCNC An oti Sis ayaa: oie « Sais Sion clayey aedipey sleet pounds. . bom
PCT EDEMA WHT ONG Pe aise cles wie «Mateos cima sims aoa ene doe se aol 0
PeMeteeroalm PET PLE ei, coe Me 2. . ei le NN) re ai doyjoo A40n ds
JD UasAler (egy Torey ay Oy Fe aman ype aS eR OUR) IIRL GONE a dosee: 1. 25
eRoyirallnonepinly he Cs) 8s Aes ah Chapa sg NL MU a sg ee do.... 4,060.5
Averve eran eaten per ploidaily....02. . ee sees done cee eee dou 252 4.53
ereimepery lOO POURGS CAINE: Hoc)... crete cise nie xin alaieieennvere oi cre toe doves 362
Cost omlNOnpounds. calms. 5... oat eis oi acinar lay dollars. . 5. 58
Lot 2. Ration: 4 parts corn meal, 4 parts middlings, 1 part fish meal:
rs IM ORE KO CTELMIVE TNL NL. ae eR I A ease as days... 112
Tas. Pia a eae See eas OES a 2 AEE RE ee ae ae number... 4
Aeragerhiratnwielolntss sci ke syee Mica SRE Nie eS cs eee Uebel as pounds. . 54, 25
Awerscerhmal weight es. ee cle... BE ees eS a do..-. 201.50
CRA Se YOANN WCE MOL! Loc.) kee, URN eee aay sree ees doz. 2.) (1425
Wearkeqaamnyperplge a ws ALE en Se ie atee a eocccoge= doves 1 Sik
Tese@il Goeztraye vers est sO Wis 2 A ini IS CO ah id en a dosed 2 as
Mweraceiorainieatem per, pig dally... seen t Susu eee ele iia doneee 4,80
Gaper 100 pounds eaameco oo. . aoe See Se cee dows. 365
GespatdGOspounmds) cama. Se Mee af al ares ais al dollars. . 5. 22

During the growing period the lot fed corn meal, middlings, and fish meal
made a greater daily gain and a cheaper gain than the lot receiving the tankage
supplement. The lot receiving the fish-meal supplement consumed 122.8 pounds
more feed, gained a total of 28.5 pounds more, and cost 36 <ents‘less per 100
pounds of gain, than did the lot to which tankage was fed. At the close of the

14 BULLETIN 378, U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

growing pericd the average weight of the pigs fed fish meal was 201.5 vounds,
while that for the pigs getting the tankage supplement was 191.5 pounds, a
difference of 10 pounds. From observation there could be neted no difference
between the two lots with respect to growth in the way of general development,
which would indicate that one ration was not particularly superior to the other
in meeting requirements for growth in pigs.

These same 12 pigs were used for the second period and were divided into
Jots and fed as follows:

Lot No. 8, composed of the same four pigs as lot No. 2 ia the growing
period), was continued on the same ration, which consisted of: 4 parts of
corn meal, 4 parts of middlings, 1 part of fish meal.

Lot No. 4, composed of four pigs from lot No. 1. was fec a ration of: 9 parts
of corn meal, 1 part of fish meal.

Lot No. 5, composed of four pigs from lot No. 1, was fed a ration of: 9 parts
of corn meal, 1 part of tankage.

RESULTS DURING THE FINISHING PERIOD.

At the close of the 16 weeks’ growing period the hogs: were divided into
different lots in order to have them as uniform as possible for the finishing
period. Lot 2 in the growing period was lot 3 in the fattening period. This
lot was fed the same ration as in the growing period—4 parts corn meal, 4 parts
middlings, 1 part fish meal. There are many farmers who feed the same ration
. both for the growing and fattening periods, and it was the intention to carry
out such a scheme with this lot of hogs in order to determine the advisability
of such a practice.

Fattening period: May 11, 1915, to June 8, 1916 (28 days).

Lot 3.—Ration: 4 parts corn meal, 4 parts middlings, | part fish meal:

Duration Orvexpertmenti. cue yc Wks Da Ni Nest emit te i days... 28
PEAT eae AMET iN eS MS aS Sa Se ash Mtn ls Abra ah RP So) 2 number... 4
ACVETAGE Tans VOWEL tis eke bales oe apete ea a taye Sys alle clas uiclcle tale nee pounds. . 201.5
Perenacer imal wweLgirt oe iy2ses sak Neca WEN een eins SIewOs Nlnee. dose as 255. 25
PARVCT AICTE DOE POUR aula: BL ale ia ty Se wlan sie coat eS Ae Coss: 53. 75
ADD) aril ae IANA CL AEC 3 ay 4 yo) way Sad owe tile) lc 2 ele ocean aperaal a ee does: 1.91
PE GuaCOT ANIMALS Es aha eee A eae Sis Sin Sion eer e wis aha aera eis male ale aratele doses S03 ie
Average erain eaten’ per-pig daily.) ....2200 202 oen. 22 eee doles 8. 06
Groimeper tO pounds game. .6 25. Ue. . she oo.) Re ee doneen 421
Cost ior HOO pounds Gala rs ole e dele eae ok dollars. . 6. 04
Lot 4.—Ration: 9 parts corn meal, 1 part fish meal:
Diration,oPexpertmenty weiss. 0205. eb. oo) s oS Cee eee days. . 28
SEB OGS is Ate eee gee Bean PT SO Meas Te ib CT number. . 4
AWCLaCe MTSU TWELE DLS eA sauce deed oe ible hee em meses Se pounds. . 191.5
mevetaceninal- weighty: 222 llc. dees e. ueejes sceloge ede Mele mee don ay 251.75
Average gain per Pte rek ees tienes ies Sa ee oe Piney donee 60. 25
WDethva era per pig aaa CEC NOL Swine Sul Si ee eee dowace 2.16
Motalleenamimntedss ques Uns REO We sc os mei ee eu eR donee 956
Average grain eaten per pig daily........-.------------------ donee 8. 54
Gram per 00:;pounds carne ieee Ce Ce eras Se ee) dome 393
Costor MOO woumed seats e ys Nell Riles occur ks dollars. . 5. 35
Lot 5.—Ration: 9 parts corn meal, 1 part tankage:
DMPATIONEON exaperUMeTiE Cries ay ee oie SU ee sralele Cah ee Um ea days. . 28
SELON er ret ae sonia iss RH 3x AAMna C2 MC ATS URN number. . +
PN renaiee Mims peti E Mai Les dca BASEN ho AM) 2a pounds. . 192.0
HAV -OYACE Mn Al Wiev inte cai a apse ls wr eeN |MeManen ls (eas Cay aes ede Es does 248. 00

INGOT ASO ATTN DOL POLO Nt aisle SelM UAR UBM 220 os) a ee due Ne Ci dosans 5-4. 00

FISH MEAL AS A STOCK AND POULTRY FOOD. 15

Lot 5.—Ration: 9 parts corn meal, 1 part tankaze—Continued.

Daily gain SY EV Ty OME gM YAR RA a SE age dollars. . 2. 00
Percionamn Lod me Pears i Te SA Oa SO Sis doses 910
Weerace eraimieaten penpig daily... bosses 2st c cee eet! doz. 4: 8.13
Grainiper lO): pounds caine: . 20) is se ee ee do.... +462
PosimamlOO pounds.caini. .. eo). ee is dollars. . 6. 76

The lot fed corn meal, middlings, and fish meal during the finishing period
did not consume as much feed as the lot fed corn and fish meal or the lot fed
corn meal and tankage. The cost of producing 100 pounds grain in the lot fed
corn meal, middlings, and fish meal was 72 cents less than in the case of the lot
fed corn meal and tankage; both lots, however, were about equal with respect
to the average gain per pig during this period. The lot fed 9 parts of corn
meal and 1 part of fish meal made a better showing than either of the other
lots in the rate of gain, pounds of feed fed per 100 pounds gain, and the cost
of 100 pounds gain.

CONCLUSIONS.

From this experiment the conclusion is justified that fish meal is a very
effective supplement to a grain ration for pigs. Hogs relish it and are extremely
fond of it, principally because, like tankage, it is a flesh product.

In this experiment fish meal was superior to tankage in all comparisons,
although the average daily gains and rate of gains in all three lots used in
the experiment were exceptionally good.

Where fish meal can be obtained conveniently at a reasonable price and in
suitable quantity it has a very considerable value in hog feeding.-

The results of these feeding tests, which were highly satisfactory
in all respects, indicate the value of fish meal as a supplementary
feed.

The pigs which were fed fish meal received it during the growing

_ period at the rate of 0.5 pound per head per day, and during the fat-

tening period they received this meal at the rate of 0.85. pound per
head per day. They made greater gains and at a less cost than those fed
a ration containing tankage as a supplement. The animals relished
the fish meal and maintained a thrifty growth, and were never off
their feed during the entire time of the test period.

The pen of hens was fed on fish meal in the proportion of 20 per
cent of the weight of the mash. During the period of the experiment,
which was not completed at the time this was reported, there was a
slight advantage in the actual yield of eggs in favor of the meat
meal. No taint or flavor of fish was at any time detected i in the eggs
from the hens fed on fish meal.

Dairy cows fed on a ration containing fish meal, compared with
cows fed on a similar ration in which fish meal was replaced by
cottonseed meal, gave a greater yield of milk, but it contained a
lower percentage of butter fat. However, the total amount of fat
obtained was approximately the same in both cases. There was no
detrimental effect on either the milk or the butter from feeding the
fish meal.

16 BULLETIN 378, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
GENERAL METHODS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF FISH MEAL.

Fish meal may be made by the same general methods that are now
employed in the preparation of fish scrap for fertilizer purposes; —
that ts, by steam cooking of the raw material, pressing, and drying. ©
The chief difference, which should be constantly borne in mind, is —
that the meal is to be used as a stock food and should therefore be
prepared from raw material in a perfectly fresh state and under
clean, sanitary surroundings.

A steam-jacketed retort cooker, or one in which the material is
heated directly by steam, may be employed. There is also an auto-
matic continuous cooker which serves very well for cooking the raw
material.

Pressing of the material may be accomplished by means of the
hydraulic press, the rack and cloth type of press, or by the automatic
continuous screw press. The material should be pressed while hot,
thus insuring the removal of the maximum quantity of oil.

There are several types of dryers suitable for drying the material,
among which are the rotary dryers using direct heat or steam heat,
and the stationary steam-jacketed dryers provided with a rotating
shaft and blades for stirring the material. In the latter type prefer-
ence should be given to the dryer providing for evaporation under
vacuum. In the former type, the final dried product is in a granular
form, which is very desirable when it is to be used as a poultry food.
_ For use in other stock-food mixtures it would be preferable to have
it finely ground. The revolving blades in the latter type grind the
material during the drying process to a fairly fine meal, and for all
ordinary purposes it should not require further grinding. In some
cases where large fish are used, further grinding may be neces-
sary to remove the eye balls and large bones. No attempt is made
to recommend any particular type or kind of cooker, press, or
dryer. These should be selected according to individual require-
ments, depending on the character and the quantity of the waste to
be converted into meal. The prospective manufacturer of fish meal .
should thoroughly study all the different forms of apparatus men-
tioned above and select the type best suited to his particular needs.
The more modern and later methods of manufacture should also be
investigated.

A prominent feature in connection with the preparation of fish
and fishery wastes into material for feeding purposes is the produc-
tion of a very superior grade of fish oil. The oil rendered from raw
material which of necessity must be in a perfectly fresh state of
preservation for making into meal for stock food, cannot be com-
pared with fish oil obtained from material in any stage of decompo-
sition. The former oil would require but little refining, for in the

FISH MEAL AS A STOCK AND POULTRY FOOD. 17

crude condition it has a bright, clear appearance, has very little fishy
odor, and is free from rancidity. Its keeping qualities are excellent.
Samples of large size obtained from the pressing of sardine waste
have kept for over a year in as good condition, apparently, as when
first prepared.

There is every reason for believing that the fish oil produced in
the manufacture of fish meal is destined to become a valuable article,
due to its far superior quality. At its present price the oil obtained
at certain times of the season is sufficient to defray the cost of manu-
facture of the dried meal.

‘In the German market a fish meal containing a low percentage of
oil (from 2 to 4 per cent) is considered the best grade of meal. On
the Pacific coast the extraction of the oil by means of gasoline is
being considered in the manufacture of fish meal in that locality.
With a lower fat content a higher protein content is obtained, which
is, of course, desirable. On the other hand, the fat, which is highly
digestible, has a definite food value, and since it has been shown by
experiment that high-grade fish meals of high fat content have been
fed with no apparent taint being imparted to the final product, it is
believed that the extraction of a fish meal to a fat content lower than
that which could ordinarily be obtained by thorough and efficient
pressing would be unnecessary. . This is particularly apparent when
it is considered that fish meal is to be used in relatively small quan-
tities as a source of protein in balancing the rations of stock and in
preparing the finished commercial stock feeds.

Further, it is believed that any trouble that may have been
attributed to a high fat content in the meal probably was due to rank,
rancid oil, developed in decomposing raw material. Such oil is not
present in meal prepared from fresh, undecomposed fish and fish
wastes. Certainly a fat content of 14.56 per cent in a meal of this
character, as in that made from the waste in the packing of sardines,
would appear to be satisfactory, since no flavor or taint of fish was
imparted to eggs, milk, or butter in the experiments which were
conducted with it.

Care on the part of the producer and purchaser should. be exercised
to make sure that the meal is of good quality, such as can only be
obtained by preparation from wholesome, undecomposed raw ma-
terial. A fish meal should not be manufactured from the waste and
residues of salt fish. The excessive quantity of salt in such a meal
may, when it is used for feeding purposes, result in harmful effects;
and as a large amount of the protein compounds have been extracted
by the salt, the resulting meal would be low in food value. With
care and attention to sanitary features in its production, fish meal

can be made one of the best and cleanest of feeding materials,

18 BULLETIN 378, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Conditions which obtain in plants where fish scrap for fertilizer
is made, and the use of decomposed and putrid raw material, must
not be permitted in the preparation of fish meal for feeding pur-
poses. It is believed that fish meal, properly prepared, can be
developed into one of the greatest sources of supply of high-protein
stock feeds, and great care should be exercised not to ruin the possi-
bilities at the very beginning of the enterprise by preparing and
marketing an article unfit for feeding purposes.

It is suggested that the trade names, fish “scrap,” fish “ pomace,”
or fish “ guano,” be retained and be specifically applied to the product
which is to be used as a fertilizer and which has been prepared with
no great care in regard to factory cleanliness or to the degree of
spoilage of the raw material, and that the name “fish meal” be ap-
plied to the product specifically prepared for feeding purposes.

OPINIONS OF THE TRADE IN REGARD TO FEEDING FISH MEAL.

The question of the use of fish meal by the trade was touched upon
by correspondence with a number of the leading stock-food manu-
facturers at the time the experimental lots of meal were being pre-
pared at Eastport, Me., during the sardine season of 1914. Samples
of the meal and the analyses were submitted and the manufac-
turers were asked to express their opinion of it, and to state whether
they had had any experience with the use of fish meal and whether
they could use it in the preparation of a stock or poultry food.

Only two of the manufacturers had ever used fish meal and this
was in compounding poultry mashes. One firm which used it for
this purpose stated they would be able to handle the entire output
from the sardine industry. Several of the firms stated that in their
opinion it would be valuable material for poultry feeds, while others
were quite willing to try it for the manufacture of hog feed, stating
that it should be able to replace tankage to good advantage, par-
ticularly if a more favorable price could be obtained.

Some doubted whether it could be used for a dairy feed on account
of the fishy odor which might prevent the animals from eating it
and because of the possibility of tainting the products. If it could
be used for this purpose, it was the opinion of some that it would
be a very valuable substance in preparing dairy feeds and a great
boon to the dairy industry.

While only two of the firms had ever had any experience with the
use of this material for feeding, they were all very much interested
and made inquiries as to the amount of the material available,
shipping classifications, and price. From this interest displayed
and the favorable results obtained by its use, it would seem that a
market should be assured for a good, well-prepared article.

FISH MEAL AS A STOCK AND POULTRY FOOD. 19

RAW MATERIAL AVAILABLE FOR FISH MEAL.

There is already at hand a large amount of dried-fish product
called fish “ scrap ” or “ pomace” now used for fertilizer purposes, the
marketing channel of which—or part of it, at least—could be turned
in the direction of the stock-food manufacturing industry instead
of into the fertilizer industry. This, however, can not be done until
the product is prepared under conditions which would insure its
safe use for feeding purposes. As previously pointed out, the value
of this material as a fertilizer is not reduced by feeding it.

The menhaden fish “scrap ” industry and the salmon, sardine, and
tuna canning industries offer at the present time a large source of
supply of fish meal, approximating 120,000 tons annually. é

In 1912, 50,885 tons of dry fish fertilizer “scrap ” and 37,536 tons
of acidulated! “scrap” were produced in the menhaden fish-scrap
industry.2, The amount that could be obtained from the waste in
the sardine industry will vary somewhat in different seasons. Assum-
ing that the entire waste material would be converted into fish meal,
_ it is estimated that from 2,000 to 4,000 tons per season could be pre-
pared.

Thirty-five thousand to forty thousand tons per year of dry meal
could be obtained from the utilization of the waste of the Pacific
coast salmon canneries.*

Since the amount of waste in the salmon-canning industry that
could be made into fish meal for feeding purposes is, at the present
time, so far in excess of that of any other available supply, fish meal
from this industry should soon become of importance in supplying
the large western and middle-western area with this material. As
before mentioned, fish meal for stock-feeding purposes is now pre-
pared in limited quantities from the salmon-cannery waste.

No figures are at hand for estimating the amount which could be
obtained from the tuna-canning industry or from the individual can-
neries of various fish products scattered throughout the country.

In addition to the amount that may be obtained from these sources
a considerable quantity may be obtained from other fish not consid-
ered sufficiently good for food purposes, particularly the dogfish.
This fish, the destruction of which is so much desired by all classes

iThis acidulated fish “‘scrap’”’ is prepared by adding sulphuric acid to the fresh
stock. It seems hardly necessary to state that a meal prepared from material so treated
should never be used for feeding animals. The prospective user should insist on a guar-
anty that sulphuric acid was not used in the preparation of meal or should haye its
absence established before using the meal for feeding purposes.

2Greer, ‘The Menhaden Industry of the Atlantic Coast,’ Bureau of Fisheries Docu-
ment No. 811, p. 21.

3Turrentine (U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 150, ‘‘ Utilization of the fish waste of the Pacific
Coast for the manufacture of fertilzer”’) estimates the total waste as 140,210 tons of

Taw material. By calculating on the basis of a 25 or 30 per cent yield of dry meal, the
above figures were obtained.

20 BULLETIN 3878, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of fishermen, could well be handled at small by-product plants at-
tached to canneries, at the time of the preparation of meal from the
waste, or in larger factories devoted entirely to the manufacture of
meal. It would seem that in this new field for the use of fish meal
for feeding purposes an outlet may have been found for the use of
this outcast of the fish tribe and that it can at last be turned into
material having a commercial and economic value.

The addition of this fish in liberal quantities to waste material
from canneries, comprising heads, tails, fins, and only a small pro-
portion of the meat portion of the fish, would greatly increase the
feeding value of the resulting meal.

Attention should be called to the difference in composition—par-
ticularly of the protein material—of fish meal made from whole fish
or from waste containing a large portion of the edible part of the
fish, and of a fish meal prepared from waste composed entirely of the
heads, tails, and fins. In the latter case gelatin or glue derived from
the collogen of the cartilage, bones, and fins, will predominate as the
protein constituent, and a meal thus prepared will not have so high
a feeding value as one in which the protein derived from the meat or °
‘flesh of the fish predominates.

In instances where waste deficient in the protein constituents of
whole fish is available, the dogfish will serve to good advantage as
a means of supplying this deficiency and will increase the content
of essential tissue-building material.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

The universally favorable results obtained in the feeding of fish
meal appear to warrant its extended use as a supplementary feeding
stuff.

Laboratory tests have shown that the coefficients of digestibility
of the principal constituents of fish meal—the protein and fat—are
high, and the feeding experiments have all shown it to be as valuable
as many other high-protein concentrates with which it has been
compared.

From the feeding experiments it appears that there has not been
just cause for the assumption that the feeding of fish meal of good
quality imparts a fishy taint to such products as milk, butter, eggs,
and meat. When the meal is fed in proper quantities, as a supple-
mentary feed with other feeds, apparently no deleterious effects are
noticeable in regard to taint or flavor of fish. There is a possibility
that it may impart its flavor to the products of animals or fowls
when it is fed to them in too large quantities. Even under these
circumstances its use would be warranted, as the feeding of the meal
can be discontinued a sufficient length of time during the final fatten-
ing period to eliminate any objectionable taint.

| FISH MEAL AS A STOCK AND POULTRY FOOD. yb
in

An enormous field is opened up to the various fishing industries for
the preparation of a valuable material either from waste residues or
from whole fish and for the utilization of this material to better
advantage than heretofore. Likewise for the farmer, stock raiser,
and poultry man, a hitherto neglected source of supply of a high-
protein feeding stuff is available.

In the light of the recorded experiments on the use of this material
for feeding purposes and the feeding tests with the herring meal
prepared from the sardine waste, conducted in this department, it is
believed that all doubts as to the feasibility of using fish meal as a
feeding stuff may be dispelled, and it is confidently expected that in
time it will take its place as one of the leading protein concentrates
used as a supplementary stock food.

As a final conclusion in regard to the subject of fish meal as a
stock food it can be said to those who may be interested in pro-
ducing this material that there is a great need and a splendid oppor-
tunity in the market for it.

To those who may be interested in using the product it can be
said that fish meal is as valuable as other widely used high-protein
feeding stuffs, and in some instances has been proved more valuable
than these; that it does not impart its flavor to animal products if
fed in reasonable amounts in conjunction with other foods; and,
finally, that it should be given consideration whenever a high-protein
foodstuff is required.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
RELATING TO FEED FOR FARM ANIMALS.

AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT.

Poultry Management. (Farmers’ Bulletin 287.)

Hints to Poultry Raisers. (Farmers’ Bulletin 528.)

Cottonseed Meal for Feeding Beef Cattle. (Farmers’ Bulletin 655.)
Uses of Sorghum Grain. (Farmers’ Bulletin 686.)

Feeding of Grain Sorghums to Live Stock. (Farmers’ Bulletin 724.)
The Feeding of Dairy Cows. (Farmers’ Bulletin 743.)

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING
OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C.

Feeding of Farm Animals. (Farmers’ Bulletin 22.) Price, 5 cents.

Computation of Rations for Farm Animals by the Use of Hnergy Values.
(Farmers’ Bulletin 346.) Price, 5 cents.

Making and Feeding of Silage. (Farmers’ Bulletin 556.) Price 5 cents.

Commercial Fattening of Poultry. (Department Bulletin 21.) Price, 10 cents.

Commercial Feeding Stuffs of the United States; Their Chemical and Micro-
scopical Examination. (Chemistry Bulletin 108.) Price, 25 cents.

Summary of Recent American Work on Feeding Stuffs. (Office of Experiment
Station Document 672.) Price, 5 cents,

23

ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
"THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS _
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
- WASHINGTON, D. C.
5CENTS PER COPY

Bui. 379, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.

Fia. 1.—SmutT-DustT EXPLOSION IN THRESHING MACHINE IN EASTERN WASHINGTON.
PHOTOGRAPH WAS TAKEN AT TIME EXPLOSION AND FIRE OCCURRED.

Fia. 2.—ENGINE PULLING A MACHINE AWAY FROM STRAW STACK AFTER EXPLOSION
AND FIRE.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BULLETIN No. 379

Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry
CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief, and the
Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering

_ LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director

Washington, D. C. vV August 4, 1916

DUST EXPLOSIONS AND FIRES IN GRAIN SEPA-
RATORS IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST.

By Davin J. Pricr, Hngineer in Charge of Grain Dust Explosion Investigations,
Bureau of Chemistry, and E. B. McCormick, Chief, Division of Rural Engi-
neering, Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering.

CONTENTS.
Page. Page
MMAGroduetion: = 2 seo 1 | Experimental field and laboratory
Plan of investigation______________ 2 WO Tyee eee ee AN Pe 11
Classification of explosions_________ i 3 | Nature of dust explosions_________ 17
Results of field investigation_______ 6 | Methods developed for preventing ex-
Static electricity as a cause of ex- plosions or extinguishing fires__-_ 19
MIOSIONSaese = see a ee 9 | Special acknowledgments __________ 22
INTRODUCTION.

The large number of fires and explosions in grain separators
during the threshing process has awakened unusual interest in the
Pacific Northwest during the last two seasons. These fires and ex-
plosions were most frequent in the wheat-growing territory in east-
ern Washington and northern Idaho, although occasional occurrences
were reported in adjoining territory in northeastern Oregon. From
reports received from various sources it is apparent that similar
explosions and fires have occurred in scattered localities throughout
the territory west of the Mississippi River.

The Department of Agriculture had for some time been conducting
studies relative to the causes and prevention of dust explosions in
grain mills, elevators, and similar plants. The close relation of
thresher explosions to the general study of grain-dust explosions led
to the inauguration of a special study of this allied problem in the
northwestern field during the 1915 season. As a result of this study
166 occurrences were investigated and reported. It is probable that
many other explosions and fires took place which were not brought
to the attention of the department.

43454°—Bull, 379—16-——_1

9. BULLETIN 379, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The results of the investigation indicate that the wheat crop
contained a large percentage of smut and that the explosions and
fires in many cases were due to the formation of an explosive mix-
ture of smut dust and air and the ignition of this mixture by static
electricity during the threshing operations. This report briefly
summarizes the results of the field work relative to the causes of
ignition and describes the various preventive devices developed as a
result of the investigation.

PLAN OF INVESTIGATION.
ORGANIZATION.

The field work was conducted under a cooperative arrangement
between the Bureau of Chemistry, where the general study of grain-
dust explosions is being carried on, and the Office of Public Roads
and Rural Engineering. Investigators were assigned to the various
parts of the territory affected and a central office was opened in the
Federal building at Spokane, Wash. J. E. Young, assistant agri-
cultural engineer, conducted field investigations in the vicinity of
Walla Walla and Rosalia, Wash., and J. C. Woodson, assistant agri-
cultural engineer, in the territory adjacent to Moscow, Idaho. H. H.
Brown, assistant chemist, was assigned to investigations in the
vicinity of Colfax, Wash. The organization and direction of the
field work and the conduct of the investigation were in charge of
David J. Price, engineer, of the Bureau of Chemistry, and E. B. Mc-
Cormick, mechanical engineer, of the Office of Public Roads and
Rural Engineering.

COOPERATION WITH THE UNIVERSITY OF IDAHO.

The investigations in northern Idaho were conducted in coopera-
tion with the University of Idaho at Moscow, represented by Prof. —
N.S. Robb, of the Department of Farm Crops. Office room, labora-
tories, and electrical apparatus were placed at the disposal of the
- Investigators and experimental work was conducted in conjunction
with Prof. Angell, of the Department of Physics. The staff was
much interested in the explosion problem in its territory and ren-
dered valuable assistance during the conduct of the investigations.

'' CONFERENCES WITH THE STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON.

Conferences were held at the beginning of the investigations with
Dr. Ira D. Cardiff, director of the experiment station, State College
of Washington, Pullman, Wash., and members of the staff. This
problem had been studied by the station staff in 1914 and the results
published in bulletin form.t During the conduct of the field work

1 Washington Station Bulletin No. 117, Nov. 3, 1914. Report on Fires Occurring in
Threshing Separators in Eastern Washington during the Summer of 1914.

j DUST EXPLOSIONS IN GRAIN SEPARATORS. =

--yarious phases of the problem were considered with the State College

staff.
CONDUCT OF INVESTIGATIONS.

Although investigations by the Department of Agriculture were
not conducted in the field during the 1914 threshing season, samples
of wheat smut dust from the Pacific Northwest were obtained at the
close of the season. Experiments at that time indicated that the
material was highly inflammable and might be associated with the
frequent fires and explosions in grain separators. 5

The entire season extending from the first week in July to the
middle of September, 1915, was spent in field work in the territory.
Effort was made to visit the scene of each explosion or fire as soon
as possible after it had taken place and obtain all the available in-
formation pertaining to the occurrence. Arrangements previously
had been made so that prompt reports could be received at the Spo-
kane office, through various channels, and also by the men in the
field, so that no time would be lost in reaching the scene of the
explosion. In nearly 150 cases the investigator was on the ground
either immediately or within a few hours after the occurrence. In
many instances the explosions were so sudden and violent that the
crew could give very little information, but it was possible in the
majority of cases to make valuable deductions. A large percentage
of the thresher owners would not advance an opinion, but many of
them believed that matches or explosives had been placed in the
bundles. In many cases, however, this was mere conjecture and not |
supported by evidence.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIONS.

TERRITORY AFFECTED.

The largest number of the 166 explosions reported occurred in the
counties of Whitman and Spokane in eastern Washington, and the
counties of Latah, Lewis, Kootenai, and Nez Perce, in northern
Idaho. EKighty-three per cent of the total number of explosions and
fires reported occurred in this district. Of these 70 per cent occurred
in Washington and 13 per cent in Idaho. About 11 per cent of the
total number reported occurred in the Big Bend section in the Co-
lumbia River Valley in Washington, comprising the counties of
Adams, Lincoln, Grant, and Douglas. The remaining explosions
occurred in Walla Walla, Garfield, Yakima, and Klickitat Counties.
The field investigations, however, generally were confined to the
Palouse country in eastern Washington and the northern Idaho ter-
ritory.

FREQUENCY OF EXPLOSIONS.

The explosions began with the opening of the season in the Big

Bend country about the middle of July and continued until the

4 BULLETIN 379, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

middle of September. They increased in frequency as the season
progressed until it was not unusual to have from 6 to 10 a day. On
both August 11 and August 16 there were 11 explosions and fires
reported, and the total for the week from August 9 to 14 reached 46,
an average of between 6 and 7 a day. The explosions were classified
by days and weeks as follows:

chil eal ea lacel ate ryred” kiech lL WSE@pE 2D Re 1 A ve wie ie ae 1
Jarty 19294 ese. IS Ow ee 3 i oa
Faly 26-31-22 ih acy OR es BY 166
Aug. OF Cel aes oe ne ee a BU ay July mina eT ae tes Nace ee Ab eee 10
Aug. 9-14 ______ ately iN 46 August CE eR: mt _ 149
Aug. 1621__ —--—--—— —- ---— 33 September INNS Les aaa ea uy 7
Aug. 22-28____ ox oa Fm = 29 Maximum, one week es ee Say Ne So 46
Aug. 30-Sept. 4-_______________- 13 | Maximum, one day, Aug. 10,16___ 11
SCD tz Gay 2k be oe eee 2

CLASSIFICATION BY TIME OF DAY.

The explosions and fires occurred at all times during the day. The
following tabulation shows the time of 128 occurrences:

DEtoy Gra: pmeas = a, JON Yeh Ay ME SY heap IOFAST] Oy eI IEMs Mn sae es CEN TES Ce ERS 14
GRE rs cee let ee ee ee EIN DilkeetOr4 Di gile <tc eee iwe el ee 13
UOMO Dente chs Weta ba DRS 1 cS Jat| bcs al KO a Ya OM Ot ease eames eee Ms. Gite) aed 12
Sto, 9a. ms.” sieaepels hago s SM Sul sO (Grip) mae Subse Be ele eee alr
Ost (eens TEN et ee eS er Oi stOrs aos pI ss Se hin. aes 2 ieee eee 17
1D) (oy) AGING) see es Se os Suk. AS eG O VOn Ds ein 2pciek aa Sa ae 5
11 to 12 noon_______ # meee - oei1'() ———
a2 mcO mss: Wyse = oe 3 128
tL (0). 74° 105 an Sere AS

From this it will be noted that the greatest number of explosions
occurred between the hours of 1 and 7 p. m.

MAKE OF MACHINES.

The explosions were generally distributed among all types of
separators operated in the territory and were not confined to any one
make or type. It was thought that possibly the explosions and fires
were confined to stationary machines, but investigators learned that
there were at least three occurrences in the “ combine” type.

The investigation shows that the explosions occurred in both steel
and wooden separators. In view of the fact that data are not avail-
able to determine the number of machines of each type in the terri-
tory, it is impossible to state the percentage of each affected.

DUST EXPLOSIONS IN GRAIN SEPARATORS, 5

NATURE OF EXPLOSIONS.

The nature of the explosions and fires in 117 cases can be sum-
marized as follows:

Laplosions. Pires.

VG i ee 68 | Without explosions______________ 21
JOY GVO = eee 8 | Nature not determined___________ ‘A
ARE CGWIL 17 5 Gi ON oI oN 10 ———
SUSRimexplOsion= 282-5 2 2 22
MEMUCOPANG (QUick.. =... 22 -.. 5
Flame followed by explosion____. 1
Detonation report-_------------~ 1

95

This table indicates that at least 95 of the occurrences, or 81 per
cent, were dust explosions. In the remaining cases where there was
sufficient flame to damage the machine the fire was not accompanied
by as loud reports as in the other instances. The ignition was not
so rapid and the rate of burning accordingly slower.

POINT OF ORIGIN OF EXPLOSIONS.

Special efforts were made by the investigators to locate the point
of origin of the explosions and fires. The results in 108 cases can be
summarized as follows:

Back of cylinder or near this GUALIRD A ee ier eat ee, eee, 1

[O/C pt a eS oe ae oe 2. | Strawarsiaeies see vo oe ue ee 1
oiicumMachines.-26 =) 22h 9 |) Back of@machines 4 2s itt
Bening ienives! 20-2 2 ee OU Rien haan ee Sends re athe or od! 1
LG? 5 ee eee 4 ee
Center of machine_______________ 2 108

>
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=]
o>
i)
-
=
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=
c
|

I

|

|

l

|

i

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1

1

!

:
wo

At least 82 of these occurrences, or 76 per cent, originated back of
the cylinder or very near this point, indicating that the source of
ignition in a large majority of cases was near this part of the
separator.

LOCAL OPINION AS TO CAUSES.

During the preliminary field investigations an effort was made to
interview the thresher agents of the various companies in the vicinity
of Spokane and other interested parties with a view to obtaining
information pertaining to the local opinion regarding causes of pre-
vious explosions and fires. Prior to 1914 occasional occurrences of
this nature had taken place throughout the Pacific Northwest, but
until 1914 general interest was not awakened. During that year,
owing to the frequency of the explosions and fires, local interest was
greatly increased.

6 BULLETIN 379, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Early results prior to the opening of the threshing season indicated
that opinion as to the cause of explosions and fires of this nature was
divided between natural causes and incendiarism. The principal
reason advanced for this latter conclusion was that prior to the 1914
season explosions were not very frequent. This led to the conclusion
that means were being taken maliciously to destroy the separators by
introducing matches and explosives into the grain bundles.

The following summary indicates the local opinion advanced as to
the causes of 121 explosions personally investigated during the 1915
season:

Matches, incendiary, and acci- . Crowding machine —~22-- = = i
(1S) a] G62) Neh OS ial geo oe tele eee 60
Not given, and indefinite_________ 14 sf Dat
Foreign material, sparks from
SAIN Go eye ei pale mabe ieran (246 Per
; cent.
Smut explosion 14 Believed to be incendiary________ 49
Static electricity____ ene eal () aeweien cineca TE ee
Powder or explosives____________ 4 Smut explosion...) 11
DMEUNG GIMIERS apo ea | nile Gleaming
Bent spikes______ OPENER al Not given______ pie ie ee 11
Hot boxes ee il

Tn connection with obtaining the opinions of the local thresher men
and the grain owners, a special effort also was made to secure any
evidence sustaining the conclusions advanced. In the great majority
of cases there was no definite reason for supporting the conclusion
which was based frequently on current rumors. In some cases, how-
ever, matches were found in the grain pan, but it was impossible to
determine whether they had fallen into the machines accidentally
or had been introduced intentionally.

RESULTS OF FIELD INVESTIGATION.
SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATORS’ OPINIONS.

In each explosion and fire the investigator summarized the evi-
dence obtainable, and after careful consideration of all information
available assigned the cause most probable in his opinion. The
following summary shows the conclusions reached in 94 special cases
investigated :

SEEICMEle CEI: Clity= ae ee eens AHS) | MA COMel any oles eat ee ES Ee 1
PSION ED ONKOISIKO NAA. es 25 | Beater striking conveyor_________ al
Friction sparks___________ a0). WING elu ecatt estas eB ea Leek a a 1
IVP tHe Sie ers Sei loles (sue Ee Se fs oy cheb oh 5 —.
SU) cou Ree pt ea a eg 5 94
LA NeX Sy ORNS] 19 NN ce 0 exaea ee BA rE 1

About 75 per cent of the occurrences were assigned to the presence
of static electricity and to smut explosions. The percentage assigned

DUST EXPLOSIONS IN GRAIN SEPARATORS. “i

by the investigators as indicating incendiary origin was very small
as compared with that advanced by local men.

PERCENTAGE OF SMUTTED HEADS.

The percentage of smut present in the wheat: crop was determined
in each case by taking a sample of a known number of heads and
separating it into two parts, oné part consisting of those heads
which were not affected by smut, the other part of those heads which
were affected. The proportion of smutted heads to the whole number
of heads in the sample gave the percentage of smutted heads present
in the crop.

Of 112 explosions nearly all occurred during the threshing of
grain which contained from 1 to 35 per cent of smutted heads; the
average percentage in 108 explosions was 15. There were only three
explosions in fields reported to contain no smut.

Percentage of No. of ex- Percentage of No. of ex-

smutted heads. plosions. smutted heads. plosions.
UNG SUA Fa ee By) i} 1la) iia) 2X0) Gorse Geos
Less than 1 per cent_____---___- tn E22 wtOR2n) Del CCN: eames aoe te NS
Oma er CONts 8 ses aS) |) 245) io) BIN) FOP Cea fal
HeLOMLOBDerNCeNta a= os. se PACA) BX0) (KO) Bia) [OIE (Gevalia 5
NORtOmlonper Cenie esas els TNE) INO te ka O Wane ee ie Leta 4

SIZE OF MACHINE.

The results of the investigation in relation to the size of machines
affected indicate that explosions occurred in all kinds and types of
machines, irrespective of size.

SPEED OF CYLINDER.

The fact that many explosions occurred while the separator was
‘being operated at the cylinder speed recommended by the manufac-
turers indicates that operation of the machine at excessive speed is
not essential to produce an explosion.

POWER USED.

The kind of power used in operating the machine was of special
-Importance, since one of the early suggestions as to cause was that
engine sparks were responsible. It was found that explosions and
fires took place in gasoline-driven as well as in steam-driven outfits,
and that the cause of ignition was within the machine itself and not
external. In 113 machines investigated the power used was as
follows:

CVS ON TNS EA AL Nal gaat US DUEC HAE TORO iL
SMSC a a oa 930) MAOrses = aan ashi all

As the largest number of machines in the territory were operated
by steam power the figures just given do not indicate that steam-
driven outfits are more subject to explosions than are other types.
They do, however, discount the theory that explosions occurred only
in machines operated by steam power.

8 BULLETIN 379, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
HOT BOXES.

The frequent occurrence of hot boxes around the machine also was
assigned as a cause for many of the explosions. It was asserted that
the boxes were allowed to become hot and helped to set fire to the
machine.

The investigators endeavored to obtain information relative to
the presence of hot boxes, but the difficulties encountered along this °
line were increased by the fact that the average operator was not
willing to admit that hot boxes occurred frequently in his machine.
At the time of the investigation it was difficult to determine definitely
whether a boxing had been melted by the fire or had been heated to
the melting point before the fire started. During the conduct of the
field investigations personal observation of machines while running
indicated that a large number of boxings run hot all the time. In
some cases the “ oiler” could be seen carrying water from the engine
and pouring it on the boxes. The results of 113 investigations based
on statements of separator men can be summarized as follows:

INO hot--boxes2ue2 420 seis Sa 72 | One to three each day___________ 2
Occasion alesse AGE ONY Pe 4 33 | One to two each day_____________ 1
One -eachyday 222225222 eee 5

Although difficulty was encountered in obtaining data which were
considered authentic, the investigations show conclusively that the
presence of a hot box is not essential in order that an explosion may
take place. This does not mean that a hot box may not be a con-
tributory cause to an explosion if the heat generated is of sufficient
intensity and so located as to cause ignition.

DAMAGE TO SEPARATOR.

The damage to the separators varied from very slight damage to
total destruction. In cases where fire-fighting equipment had been
provided the damage was much smaller than in the machines where
no precautions had been taken. In 146 explosions and fires the
results can be summarized as follows:

No. cases. Per cent. No. cases. Per cent.
Complete loss __________ AO 27.4. | Slight damage _________ 20 13. 7
Partial loss —_2 2. 49 33.6 | No damage ____________ 37 25.3

The total damage reported for all machines was about $60,000. In
many cases after complete loss the owner was compelled to dis-
continue threshing for the season, and a serious situation was threat-
ened unless some remedy was found.

DAMAGE TO GRAIN.

Tn almost all cases the flame from the explosion and fire was blown
into the straw pile, and in many instances spread to the stacked
grain and also to the unthreshed grain in the field. As a result sev-

Bul. 379, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.

Fia. 1.—THRESHING WHEAT NEAR Moscow, IDAHO, WITH 8 PER CENT SmuT (ESTI-
MATED) IN CROP.

Fic. 2.—SaME MACHINE THRESHING WITH 14 PER CENT SMUT (ESTIMATED) IN CROP,
SHOWING BLACKER SmuT-DuST CLOUD COMING FROM BLOWER PIPE.

Bul. 379, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

Fia. 1.—BLAcK SmuT-DUST CLOUD COMING OUT OF BLOWER PIPE DURING THRESHING
OF SMUTTY WHEAT IN EASTERN WASHINGTON.

Fia. 2.—STEEL MACHINE BADLY DAMAGED BY SMUT EXPLOSION AND FIRE IN EASTERN
WASHINGTON.

Fia. 3.—WooDEN MACHINE COMPLETELY DESTROYED BY SMUT EXPLOSION AND FIRE

PLATE IV

Iture.

icu

. Dept. of Agri

Ss)

U

. 379,

Bul

Fic. 1.—WoOODEN MACHINE, AFTER EXPLOSION AND FIRE.

Fic. 2.—ANOTHER VIEW OF SAME MACHINE, SHOWING EXTENT OF DAMAGE.

PLATE V.

. of Agriculture.

Dept

Bul. 379, U.S

“ANIHOVIN TaSLS WOud ALIOINLOATA
DILVLS 4O SADYVHOSIG DNINNSVAI| SYHOLVDILSAAN|—"S “Ol4

NUSHLUON NI GSHSSHH | LVSHM 4O (S1SHsNg 000

6

‘LaMUVIA) YO4 ASNOH
-JYVM NIVYS) OL GaINVH NSHL GNV G1aI4 SHL NI Gaqid 3Yv SHOVS SHL ‘OHVG|

€) SHOVS 0Go‘| 40 31ld—"} “DI4

DUST EXPLOSIONS IN GRAIN SEPARATORS. 9

eral hundred acres of grain were destroyed. The grain loss in the
fires investigated reached about $50,000.

MACHINES WITH FIRE-FIGHTING EQUIPMENT.

A large number of the machines in which fires occurred were
provided with some fire-fighting equipment, as is shown in the fol-
lowing summary :

No. cases. Per cent. No. cases. Per cent.

No fire-fighting equip- Chemical extinguish-
PINCH Geteeee eased ae Let 0. 28 24.8 (VRS fs ceeme Sent Se 29 25.6
Water, steam, etc_____ 3 38.1 | Water tanks__________ 13 iil,

From this summary it will be seen that less than 25 per cent of the
machines were not equipped with fire-fighting apparatus. Since
the percentage of machines that suffered a total loss (27.4 per cent)
is in about the same proportion, it 1s reasonable to conclude that the
fire-fighting equipment was effective, especially so since in the ma-
jority of cases where the machines were totally destroyed no pre-
ventive means had been installed to check the progress of the fire and
explosion.

STATIC ELECTRICITY AS A CAUSE OF EXPLOSIONS.

THRESHING-MACHINE EXPLOSIONS.

It was evident from the beginning of the investigation that a
large quantity of static electricity was generated during the opera-
tion of the separator. Workmen admitted that on certain days static
electricity was noticeably present around the machines.

One case in which the owner thought the presence of static elec-
tricity was responsible occurred in Latah County, Idaho. This
machine was new, having been operated but part of a day. It was
completely destroyed as a result of the explosion. As the outfit was
located 15 miles from a railroad and 4 miles from the county road
there was no reason to suspect incendiarism. The crew was com-
posed of neighbors, or men known to be reliable. There was 19
per cent smut (estimated by counting the smutted heads) in the
crop. The weather was very hot and dry. After summarizing the
evidence, the investigator concluded that it was clearly a case of
smut explosion by electrostatic ignition.

A similar case occurred in Whitman County, Wash. The owner
had experienced two fires, one in the evening and the other the
following morning, neither of them causing much damage to the
separator but destroying the surrounding grain in the field and the
threshed grain in sacks. At the time of the occurrence the machine
was threshing wheat with 31 per cent smut and was located 21
miles from the railroad and several miles from the county road.

43454°—Bull. 379—16——2

10 BULLETIN 379, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The evidence available convinced the investigator that the explosion
was due to ignition of smut dust by static electricity.

In another case the owner of a machine which was destroyed stated
that he was standing at the engine and was looking directly at the
cylinder at the time of the explosion. He could see the cylinder
itself, as the feeding had stopped momentarily. He observed a long
blue spark coincident with the explosion. In other investigations
the men in charge of the machines stated that there were large
quantities of static electricity present around the machine preceding
the explosions. .

In one case the owner of the machine stated that his machine
was very heavily charged with static electricity on the morning of
the explosion, to such an extent that it was not possible to touch
any metal part without getting a shock. This condition had never
been noticed on this particular machine before. The explosion was
violent in nature and totaily destroyed the machine.

MILL EXPLOSIONS.

Previous investigations relative to the causes of explosions in grain
mills and elevators and similar plants indicated that static electricity-
was a possible factor in the production of dust explosions.

In September, 1913, at the time investigations were being con-
ducted in cooperation with the Millers’ Committee of Buffalo, N. Y.,
two slight explosions occurred on a dry, frosty morning in early fall,
in two separate plants in western New York, at a time when the feed
had been shut off from certain grinding machines. Both occurrences
took place a considerable time after the stream of grain had stopped
entering the machines. The possibility of static electricity being
generated by the operation of the revolving plates of the machine
suggested itself in a very preliminary way at the time of these explo-
sions, and a confidential report was prepared and presented at the
time to the Millers’ Committee. Although up to that time no record
could be found that experiments had been conducted to determine
whether cereal dusts could be ignited in this manner, it was found
by experiment that sufficient static electricity could be generated by
the friction of a very small pulley and belt to ignite natural gas
readily. It was learned at this time that a milling company in the
South, engaged in grinding cottonseed cake into meal, after ex-
periencing a series of explosions, had prevented a repetition of these
occurrences by grounding the machine by means of a wire connected
to a rod driven into the ground near by.‘ This seemed to confirm

1 Preliminary Report on the Explosibility of Grain Dusts. Cooperative Investigation by
Millers’ Committee, Buffalo, N. Y., under the direction of Dr. George A. Hulett, Chief

Chemist, U. 8. Bureau of Mines. By David J. Price and Harold H. Brown. Pittsburgh,
1914, :

|
f
}
3

Poe

DUST EXPLOSIONS IN GRAIN SEPARATORS. 11

the original theory and indicated the value of a grounding device
of this kind.

The possibility of static electricity as a source of cereal dust igni-
tion was very clearly established by an explosion in the dextrine de-
partment of a starch factory in one of the Eastern States (in Sep-
tember, 1914). The origin of this explosion was traced to the genera-
tion of static electricity by friction of particles of dextrine on an
80-mesh brass gauze surrounding a revolving reel. This reel was
revolving at the rate of only 16 revolutions per minute when the
explosion occurred. .

At the time of the explosion this reel was grounded to an over-
head sprinkling system. During the investigation which followed,
however, 1t was found that the connection was made from the journal
box, and that a heavy film of fresh oil surrounded the shaft. This
was thought to have served to insulate the shaft and allow the static
electricity to accumulate within the reel until there was suflicient
charge to ignite the dust.

An English scientist has determined that if a cloud of dust is
blown against an insulated conductor (a wire, for instance) the wire
becomes charged with electricity, and under certain conditions may
become so highly charged as to give off sparks.t

EXPERIMENTAL FIELD AND LABORATORY WORK.
METHODS OF GROUNDING MACHINES IN EXPERIMENTAL WORK.

From results that had previously been obtained by grounding
machines effectively in various branches of the milling industry and
also by some machine operators in the Northwest, it was decided to
conduct experimental work along this line with the grain separators,
in an attempt to carry off any static electricity that might be gen-
erated during the operation of the machine.

The experimental work in developing a satisfactory grounding
device was conducted along three distinct lines, as follows:

1. Separately grounding each part, either directly or through its

bearing.

2. Connecting wires from all moving parts to one wire and ground-
ing that wire.

3. Wiring all moving parts to some metallic portion of the sepa-
rator of sufficient magnitude to act as a ground.

DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS METHODS.

First method.—The first method was perhaps the most common
among the thresher men who were inclined to accept the theory that

1 Philosophical Magazine, London, 6 (1913), p. 481-494. ‘On the Electrification Asso-
ciated with Dust Clouds,” by W. A. Douglass Rudge, Professor of Physics, University Col-
lege, Bloemfontein.

12 BULLETIN 379, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

static electricity was responsible for the smut dust ignition. The
method usually adopted was to connect a No. 12 or 14 weatherproof
copper wire to the journal box of the cylinder shaft and to an iron
rod driven into the ground, and to make similar connection with the
bearing of the stacker fan.

The arrangement was identical with the grounding device installed
in connection with the dextrine reel (already referred to on p. 11)
in an eastern plant where an explosion occurred. The film of oil
existing between a shaft and its bearing may, and in the opinion of
many does, act as ah insulation, and thus render the method just
described inefficient. When this was explained to the men in the field,
many of them decided not to depend upon grounding from the bear-
ings but to install a properly grounded direct copper brush contact
to each shaft as recommended by the investigators.

In a number of cases the owners were desirous of having the
investigators equip their machines to conform to the ideas ad-
vanced, and about 15 machines were so wired. It is of interest to
note that no explosion or fire occurred in any machine grounded in
this manner, while in one case an outfit not so equipped had two fires.

Second method.—The second method was the one which the inves-
tigators generally advocated, and was readily accepted by the me-
chanics and experienced thresher men, for it provides a double
security. All moving parts were connected with each other and to a
common wire, thereby destroying any difference of potential existing
within the machine. This common wire was thoroughly grounded
to relieve the machine of any surplus charge that might accumulate
init. About 10 machines were wired in this manner, consisting of a
direct brush contact to the revolving shafts by means of a stiff strip
or bar of copper. These machines, although located in parts of the
territory where explosions and fires were most frequent, had neither
an explosion nor a fire after being so equipped.

Third method—The third method, that of grounding the moving
parts on some heavy metallic part of the frame, was based on the
theory that if the difference of potential between parts could be
destroyed there would be no tendency for sparking between moving
shafts and other metal parts. Several machines were wired in this
manner during the season and all finished threshing without ex-
periencing any fires or explosions. Field tests with electrical meas-
uring instruments, however, did not show the complete absence of
electricity in these cases, as was found in the other systems of wiring.

BLOWER SYSTEMS.

The possibility of removing the dust from the vicinity of the
cylinder by means of a fan or blower located on top of the separator

DUST EXPLOSIONS IN GRAIN SEPARATORS. 13

suggested itself at the beginning of the study. The department,
early in 1915, took this matter up with various representative manu-
facturers with a view to observing the efficiency of such an installa-
tion on threshing machines during operating conditions. ‘The in-
vestigators collected information pertaining to the efficiency of such
installations of this nature as were working in the field.

~In one case a machine equipped with a blower system of this kind
threshed 27 days in 1914 and 20 days in 1915. During this time only
one flash occurred in the dust pipe, but this did not cause a fire.

The blower system consisted of two 15-inch fans mounted on the
frame of the separator below the cylinder and a 20-inch suction fan
mounted on the top of the separator. These fans were so arranged
that the draft passed up and around the cylinder in the direction of
the travel of the grain and straw. The opening to the suction fan
' was 4 inches in width and extended across the separator. In addi-
tion to preventing the formation of an explosive mixture of dust and
air, this arrangement had an additional value, according to the
owner, in that it cleaned the grain during the threshing to such an
extent that he was enabled to get a better price for it. The dust
collected by this system was blown through a special 10-inch pipe to
the straw stack.

In another case a single suction fan was located beyond the cylin-
der on the opposite side from the main drive belt. In two cases
where fire occurred the fan drew the fire out of the machine before
any damage was done. The discharge was so located that the fire
did not reach the straw pile or the standing grain.

One of the machines operating in a section of the territory where
explosions were very frequent had two fans drawing dust from the
ends and above the cylinder. In this machine, however, the arrange-
ment was such that there was in the system a large square corner
where smut, chaff, and dirt collected, thus defeating the true purpose
of the fans.

SPRINKLER SYSTEMS.

In addition to developing an efficient grounding system to remove
the static electricity generated during the operation of the machines,
and in addition to conducting experiments with blower systems, the
investigators endeavored to determine the relative efficiency of types
of sprinkler systems and fire extinguishers in use. It was found
that there were many different types and patterns of sprinkler sys-
tems in general use throughout the territory, but they were all
included practically in three different classes:

1. The chemical fire extinguisher.

2. Water with (a) air pressure, (>) steam pump compression.

3. Hose from boiler to separator.

14 BULLETIN 379, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
CHEMICAL FIRE EXTINGUISHERS.

The chemical extinguishers in use were arranged to be tripped by
hand. They consisted of a tank containing water charged with
bicarbonate of soda and a bottle containing sulphuric acid. The
tripping device either upset the bottle or liberated a hammer that
broke it. The extinguishers in use in the field worked with varying
degrees of success.

WATER UNDER PRESSURE.

A number of separators were equipped with water tanks that could
be pumped to 100 pounds pressure by a special air pump and were
provided with a system of piping from the tank to the separator
much the same as was the chemical extinguisher. The results ob-
tained did not appear to be satisfactory, possibly due to the fact
that as soon as some of the water had sprayed out the pressure
dropped so rapidly that there was not sufficient pressure remaining
to be effective. However, a number of machines were saved from
total destruction by using this type of extinguisher.

One machine was equipped with a 40-gallon water tank on top of
the separator connected to the engine pump which maintained a
pressure of 70 pounds. In ease of fire, by the pulling of a wire, the -
pipes from the tank were opened and the water carried to per-
forated pipes in the separator. As no fires occurred in this machine
the tank did not receive a thorough trial.

STEAM LINE FROM BOILER TO SEPARATOR.

Steam or water hose from the engine boiler to the separator was
used in many cases with satisfactory results. Its popularity was due
to the comparative cheapness of the system (about $50 to $75) and
also to the success attributed to it by the men who had used it. Best
results were obtained when regular steam hose was connected to a
point on the boiler below the water line. When a valve was opened
at the boiler a pressure of steam and water was obtained which
usually was successful in extinguishing the fire.

Where it was difficult to secure steam hose and it was not consid-
ered safe to use ordinary rubber hose the line was composed of
steam pipe. This made a much more clumsy installation, but it
worked successfully when necessary swinging joints were properly
installed.

FURTHER EXPERIMENTAL WORK.

In addition to the investigations made in the field based on actual
explosions and fires an attempt was made to study in the field or in
the laboratory the following:

DUST EXPLOSIONS IN GRAIN SEPARATORS, 15

1. Prevalence and distribution of static electricity in and about
the separator.

2. Inflammability of smut dust.

3. Effect of introducing foreign material, accidentally or mali-
ciously, into the separator.

MEASUREMENT OF DISCHARGES OF STATIC ELECTRICITY.

Both steel and wooden separators were tested while threshing both
smutty and smut-free wheat and also oats. The common plan of pro-
cedure was to establish a good reliable “ ground ” by driving an iron
rod deep into the earth, pouring water around it, and connecting
one lead from a galvanometer to this rod. The other lead from the
galvanometer was loose and was touched in turn to cylinder shaft,
frame, blower, and all moving parts.

On ail machines tested strong discharges were obtained from
almost every part of the machine to the ground, but in many cases
the strongest appeared to be from the front wheels to the ground.
Strong discharges were also obtained between the cylinder shaft and
concaves, and slight ones between a moving and a stationary metallic
part, and between any two moving parts. The galvanometer used
in the tests was the ordinary two-coil instrument showing deflection
and direction but not magnitude of the current.

FIELD EXPERIMENTS.

At the close of the threshing season three day tests were run on
a donated separator in the field in northern Idaho, under as nearly
actual threshing conditions as could be secured at that time. As it
was impossible to obtain unthreshed smutty wheat, it was necessary
to make use of straw mixed with loose smut secured from a local mill.
At the time of the tests the temperature was at least 50 degrees below
that prevailing during the threshing season, and the weather was
unusually damp. Because of the conditions existing, the results of
these tests can not be considered conclusive, but they tend to confirm
the deductions made from the investigations in the field during the
threshing season.

STATIC ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRIFICATION OF SMUT DUST.

The experimental work carried on during the investigations proved
conclusively that, under favorable atmospheric conditions, static
electricity is present on all types of machines. In the Pacific North-
west humidity conditions during the entire threshing season are
favorable for the production of static electricity. The air as a rule
is very hot and dry, with the humidity on certain days as low as 7
per cent, the average being about 17 per cent for the middle of
the day.

16 BULLETIN 379, U.S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Tt appears that the largest discharges of static electricity were
obtained from the steel machines. Larger deflections were also ob-
tained in threshing wheat than in threshing oats. The fires and
explosions occur as a rule while fall wheat is being threshed and
very rarely occur during the threshing of spring wheat. The dis-
charge from the machines while smutty wheat is being threshed is
more noticeable than when clean wheat is going through the ma-
chine. Fall wheat as a rule contains much more smut than does
spring wheat. The theory that the small particles of smut easily
become electrified when the kernels afte broken up by the cylinder
teeth and that each particle becomes charged with static electricity
has been advanced as a possible explanation of the fact that the
largest discharges seem to occur when smutty wheat is being
threshed. The theory is tentative and can be proved only by ex-
perimental work to determine in what manner the static electricity
is generated.

INFLAMMABILITY OF SMUT DUST.

In addition to the experimental work carried on in the field dur-
ing the progress of the investigations, a series of laboratory experi-
ments to determine the infammability of smut dust was conducted
by J. C. Woodson, assistant agricultural engineer, at the University
of Idaho. This work was done in the laboratories of the Depart-
ment of Physics, and advice and assistance were obtained from
Prof. Angell.

The laboratory experiments were by no means conclusive and not
so extensive as work already planned for the future, but were merely
preliminary in nature. However, they were sufficient to indicate that
smut dust is highly inflammable and can be ignited by an electro-
static spark.

FOREIGN MATERIAL ENTERING MACHINE.

In many cases the investigations indicate that foreign material
consisting of gravel, flint, metal, etc., entering the machines and the
rubbing and friction of cylinder teeth produced sparks which may
possibly have ignited the dust. In one case both cylinder and con-
cave teeth were found bent forward after the explosion and showed
signs of rubbing. :

In some cases the explosions occurred during the clean-up, which
suggested to the owner the possibility of sparks being produced by
foreign material entering the machine. This matter can be decided
only by experimental work to establish clearly the relation between
the suspended dust cloud and sparks produced in this manner. This
cause has been assigned to dust explosions in grain mills and in-
dustrial plants, and is at the present time receiving attention.

Bui. 379, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.

Fia. 1.—COMBINE MACHINE AFTER SMUT EXPLOSION AND FIRE, IN EASTERN
WASHINGTON.

Fic. 2.—ANOTHER VIEW OF SAME MACHINE.

Bul. 379, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.

Fic. 1.—REMAINS OF THRESHING OUTFIT AFTER SMUT EXPLOSION AND FIRE, NEAR
PULLMAN, WASH.

Fic. 2.—PILE OF 750 Sacks (1,875 BUSHELS) OF WHEAT DESTROYED BY FIRE FROM
EXPLOSION IN ABOVE MACHINE.

DUST EXPLOSIONS IN GRAIN SEPARATORS. 17

EXPERIMENTS WITH MATCHES AND ACIDS.

Experiments also were conducted to determine the resulting action
of various acids on matches. A current opinion existed that many
grain fires in the fields were caused in this manner. Matches were
tied about the neck of a small vial containing sulphuric acid and also
one containing nitric acid. A cork about one-eighth of an inch thick
was placed in the mouth, and the bottles were inverted, allowing the
acids to eat through the corks and come in contact with the match
heads. These acids were tried with eight different varieties of
matches, but failed to ignite the matches in a single case. The acids
experienced no difficulty in eating out the corks, the nitric acid doing
so in 40 to 60 minutes and the sulphuric acid requiring 6 to 10 hours.

NATURE OF DUST EXPLOSIONS.

THEORY OF DUST EXPLOSIONS.

The theory of dust explosions, although not entirely new, has not
been understood clearly by a number of people, who are, therefore,
at a loss to know in what manner these explosions originate and the
circumstances necessary for their occurrence. That dust itself can
be made to explode without the presence of inflammable gases has
seemed incredible.

Experimental work has shown that the dust produced during the
handling of grain can be ignited under certain conditions, and will
propagate a flame with explosive violence. It must not be concluded
that grain dusts will ignite spontaneously. On the contrary there
must be some outside source of heat. This source may be very small,
as a heated coil of wire or an electric spark as used in the experi-
mental work, or it may be larger, as a flame which may have a. lower
temperature but a larger heating surface.

The following illustration may simplify the explanation of the
nature of dust explosions. We might try for some time to burn
a block of wood with a lighted match. If we take a knife and chip
the block the shavings will ignite more quickly. We might make
excelsior and find it would ignite still more rapidly, and then con-
tinue by gradual reduction to a degree of fineness until dust is pro-
duced, when it is found that the mass will burn rapidly when in
suspension and diffused in the air. The rate of burning is so rapid
that a violent explosion may result.

Many theories have been advanced as to the conditions under which
dust explosions are produced and the amount of dust in suspension
necessary to propagate the explosion. The predominating factors
which determine the inflammability of a dust and the action of a
dust explosion have not ‘been definitely determined. It is generally

18 BULLETIN 379, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

agreed, however, that the dust must be fine and dry and in a state
of suspension in the atmosphere, so that upon being brought in con-
tact with sufficient heat or flame an ignition is caused. It generally
is conceded that there must be a proper proportion in diffusion in
order for the explosive mixture of dust and air to ignite with sufhi-
cient force to propagate an explosion.

The conditions under which these thresher fires and explosions
occur appear somewhat similar to those with other cereal dusts.
During the threshing process the smut, which is a form of very
fine, dry dust, is thrown into suspension in the air and forms a
dangerously explosive mixture, which readily would produce an ex-
plosion or fire if ignited. The mixture of smut dust and air may
have limits of explosibility, and it is quite possible at times to have
too much dust present, and at other times not sufficient, for an igni-
tion. For this reason explosions may occur at a given time and under
certain conditions and not occur at other times or under different
conditions.

AMOUNT OF DUST REQUIRED FOR EXPLOSION.

Explosions have been produced at the Pittsburgh Testing Station
of the United States Bureau of Mines when there was only 0.032
ounce of coal dust suspended in each cubic foot of air, or 1 pound
in 500 cubic feet. In order to produce complete combustion it takes
all of the oxygen in 1 cubic foot of air to burn completely 0.12 ounce
of the coal dust used.t Preliminary experiments have shown that
smut dust is highly inflammable, and also that many of the cereal
dusts have relatively a lower ignition temperature and produce
higher pressures than coal dusts. It might be concluded that the
explosive limits of cereal dusts would be lower than those of the
coal dusts.

In some of the thresher explosions at least two distinct reports
were heard; the first being sharp and quick and the second resem-
bling a loud roar and lasting longer than the first and accompanied
by more flame. An explosive mixture consisting of sufficient quan-
tity of smut dust in suspension, ignited by sufficient source, would no
doubt cause the sharp report usually heard first. This original igni-
tion, possibly only an inflammation, might produce sufficient concus-
sion to shake the dust that had settled on various parts of the sepa-
rator into suspension in the air, thus forming an additional explosive
mixture. The heat or flame from the first small puff or inflammation
would cause an ignition of this newly formed mixture, and the
explosion would propagate through the entire dust zone. This may
serve to explain the loud rumbling sound sometimes heard, accom-
panied by a large body of flame causing extensive damage.

1U. 8. Dept. Interior, Bureau of Mines. Miners’ Circular No. 5, Coal-Dust Explosions,
(1911), p. 7. Geo. 8. Rice.

DUST EXPLOSIONS IN GRAIN SEPARATORS. 19

METHODS DEVELOPED FOR PREVENTING EXPLOSIONS OR
EXTINGUISHING FIRES.

GROUNDING THE SEPARATOR.

As a result of the investigations carried on by the department
during the past season, it is believed that a complete system of elec-
trical connection from all of the moving parts to a common wire, and
a thorough grounding of this common wire, will prevent a large
percentage of the fires that are due to the presence of static elec-
tricity and an explosive mixture of smut dust and air. There are,
of course, several ways in which this wiring may be installed, and
the system will vary somewhat with the type of machine.

One arrangement that is considered by the engineers of the depart-
ment to provide as nearly complete protection from ignition by static
electricity as any other is illustrated in Plate VIII. An inspec-
tion of this illustration will show that the common wire or conductor,
A, is grounded through a rod, B, which should be driven at least 3
feet into the ground and kept well moistened. There is a connection,
C, to this conductor from the shaft of the cylinder through the
copper brush D. This brush is in contact with the shaft itself and
not with the bearing. This construction is used to avoid any possi-
bility of insulation due to the film of oil between the shaft and the
bearing. The shakers are connected to the lead E. The lead F,
which extends over the entire sieve, connects that piece to the com-
mon wire. The lead G connects the metal casing of the stacker fan
to the wire A. The investigations in the field indicate that the mov-
ing parts just described are the ones on which static electricity is
likely to be generated. These investigations also show that there
were occasional collections of static electricity on the metal casing.
For this reason that connection has been made. The common lead
and its main branches are of No. 14 bare copper wire. The connec-
tions, particularly to the moving points, should be of flexible insu-
lated wire coiled a sufficient number of turns to permit full flexi-
bility. The wires should be attached to the framework of wooden
machines by staples, which should be of the insulated type, or there
should be a cushion of rubber or other material between the staple
and the wire, as otherwise the wire is likely to snap at that point and
break the circuit.

SUCTION FAN.

As it is necessary, in order for an explosion to occur, to have
present in the separator an explosive mixture of dust and air, the
arrangement illustrated in Plate IX is suggested as a means for pre-
venting the formation of such an explosive mixture. The arrange-
ment consists of attaching to the top of the separator, and near the
cylinder,.a suction fan, A.. This fan exhausts from above the cylin-

20 BULLETIN 379, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

der as shown at B, and also from beneath the fan as shown at C, there
being another connection on the opposite side of the fan from C.

The method of installing the fan necessarily will vary with the
type of separator. The object is to remove the dust from near the
cylinder. The fan should be arranged to accomplish this.

There is no way of demonstrating by experiment that either of
these methods actually prevents explosions, but the fact that no
such occurrences took place in the case of separators properly
equipped with either one of these devices, while explosions and fires
were constantly occurring in machines located near them and not
so equipped, warrants the belief that the devices proved effective in
preventing explosions and consequent fires.

AUTOMATIC FIRE EXTINGUISHER.

Experiments conducted in the field during the threshing season,
and since that time on the Arlington Experimental Farm at Ar-
lington, Va., show that, under ordinary conditions, it is very difh-
cult to seme a fire in a separator by the peredcaan of matches
or other foreign materials. This has been particularly the case
in experiments conducted on the Arlington Experimental Farm, in
which, owing to the lack of smut dust and proper atmospheric con-
ditions, it was impossible to secure an explosive mixture in the
separator. In order to set fire to the separator in these experiments,
it was necessary to introduce a flame and, to secure positive results,
use was made of waste and rags soaked in gasoline and ignited by a
flame from the outside. Bundles of matches fed in with the straw
did not cause a fire.

However, since there is a possibility that fire will be caused under
certain conditions by the entrance into the separator of foreign ma-
terials, and since it was impossible to prove positively that either
grounding the separator or the use of the suction fan was a sure
preventive of fires, it was decided to design an automatic fire extin-
guisher that would afford protection irrespective of the cause of the
fire or explosion. Such a device is shown in Plates X and XI. It
consists of the following parts: Tank A mounted on top of the sepa-
rator; within the tank a bottle, C, containing sulphuric acid; a dis-
charge pipe, H; a tripping mechanism composed of operating levers
G and main tripping lever L; a trigger, N; discharge nozzles, I; and
fuses, F, mounted in a wire line. In the ieee ge line between the
tank and the separator may be mounted a three-way valve, P, from
which there may be led, as at R, a hose connection for extinguishing
outside fires. The tank is filled with water containing soda. The
operation of the device is as follows:

The presence of sufficient heat within the separator will melt one of
the fuses F. This breaks the wire line, releasing the trigger which

DUST EXPLOSIONS IN GRAIN SEPARATORS. 21

frees the tripping mechanism, causing a hammer within the tank to
strike a blow sufficient to break the bottle. The discharge of the
sulphuric acid into the water containing soda causes the formation
of carbon dioxide, which generates sufficient pressure to force the
water through the discharge pipe and the nozzles to all the crevices
of the separator.

This extinguisher was designed in the Office of Public Roads and
Rural Engineering, after the completion of the work in the field,
by Elmer Johnson, assistant mechanical engineer, and J. C. Wood-
son, assistant agricultural engineer. A full-sized working model was
constructed and has been tried out in the explosion galleries of the
Bureau of Mines at Pittsburgh, Pa., and since that time on four
different types of separators at the Arlington Experimental Farm.
A total of 27 tests with this extinguisher have been made, and in no
case did it fail to operate automatically and properly and to ex-
tinguish the fire before any damage was done.

The locations of the fuses F shown in the sketch are those suitable
for the particular machine shown in the drawing. The locations,
however, will vary with each machine, and must be selected so that
the fuses are sure to be reached by the flame or the heat, but not so
placed that the wire connecting them is likely to be broken by the
straw or by the moving parts of the separator.

The location of the nozzles depends upon the construction of the
machine, but the following points should be observed:

Locate one nozzle directly above the cylinder, if possible; if not,
place it so that the beater will help diffuse the spray from that
nozzle,

Run the pipe line along underneath the roof of the separator, with
the nozzles pointing downward.

Install a sufficient number of nozzles along this line, and so locate
them that every chamber in the separator is thoroughly served by a
~ nozzle. }

Particular pains should be taken to serve dead air spaces, as it is
in these that dust is likely to accumulate. |

As the stacker end of the machine is less likely to contain any
closed chambers, it is probable that, in most types of machines, the
nozzles at this end may be 30 inches or more apart.

The last nozzle along the pipe line and within the separator should
be just above the end of the shakers.

One nozzle may be located in the wind stacker by means of a flexi-
ble connection from the pipe line.

The tripping mechanism of this extinguisher is so arranged that
it may be released by hand, and also arranged so that it can be
locked while on the road. Two pounds pull is sufficient to release
it, but it has proved to be sufficiently rigid to withstand the jar and

22 BULLETIN 379, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

vibration due to the threshing. In no case has it released itself
prematurely.

Jt has been suggested that, when not in use on the separator, this
device can be mounted on running gears and used for general fire
protection about the farm.

A special nozzle was designed for use with this extinguisher. It
is shown in detail in figures 2, Plate XI.

Large-scale drawings of these three devices are on file in the
Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, and may be secured
on application by manufacturers, owners, or operators of threshing
outfits who seriously contemplate the installation of one or more of

them.
SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

In connection with carrying on the work described in this bulletin,
special acknowledgment is due to Dr. H. H. Brown, assistant chem-
ist, Bureau of Chemistry, and Elmer Johnson, assistant mechanical
engineer, Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, for assist-
ance rendered in conducting experiments in the laboratory to deter-
mine the inflammability of smut dust, in designing the apparatus
described herein, and in conducting tests at the Bureau of Mines’
galleries at Pittsburgh, Pa., and with grain separators at Arlington
Experimental Farm.

Acknowledgment is also due to the Grain Standardization Labora-
tory, Portland, Oreg., for assistance in investigations and in collec-
tion of grain samples; to the Bureau of Plant Industry for assist-
ance in experimental work at the Arlington Farm; and to the Bureau
of Mines for use of the explosion galleries and laboratories at
Pittsburgh, Pa.

ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C
AT

10 CENTS PER COPY
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PLATE XI.

Bul. 379, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 15, 1917

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES.

By C. L. SHear, Pathologist, and Netz BH. Stevens,’ Pathologist, Fruit-Disease
Investigations, and Rusy J. Titer, Scientific Assistant, Office of Investiga-
tions in Forest Pathology.

CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
RAK ONOMY ees soe eleaseie sein = cies sieiseie eisisye/o s cin 1 | Physiology—Continued.
linn login ea seneocereessasas Scena ore 1 Distribution of the species of Endothia. - 48
The genus Endothia.............-.------ 3 Discovery of Endothia parasitica in
The species of Endothia...........--.-.- 13 (Olatibats est 55 see Se eae eel es Ale Se 54
Morphology and development. -........-..--. 22 Discovery of Endothia parasiticain Japan 58
NAVeBbtae Se SeoneseqoceEbeee ae eoeaBoeeee 22 Present distribution of Endothia para-
SONIC). midiga uae Ge see EE as Saeco ecaemre 23 SiticaaneAmericays =. 5522 eee eases eee 59
Spore measurements......-...---.------- 30 Host relations of the species of Endothia. 59
NBA SIOLO RY Sree see ainielntelsinicis sia/nae elec cincin == 36) |W Sumimanyereremecm ac saaeemaceicc mecca ee 74
Ciltural studies 2.) . <2 -n00-n2 os - =<: 36M |, aiberatunercitede ss eese ncaa ces seem eee = 77
TAXONOMY.
INTRODUCTION.

The discovery of a serious canker of the chestnut in the New York
Zoological Park in 1904, by Merkel (49),? first attracted the atten-
tion of pathologists and foresters to what has proved to be one of
the most serious epidemics of a plant disease ever known in this
country.

The fungus which was found associated with these cankers (PI.
I and Pl. II, fig. 1) and soon demonstrated experimentally to be
their cause was described by Murrill (57) in 1906 as a new species
of Diaporthe (D. parasitica). Search for the fungus in other places
in New York and vicinity soon showed that it was already estab-
lished and apparently rapidly spreading. Investigations which
have been continued and extended from year to year have shown

1 Formerly Pathologist, Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology.

2 Serial numbers in parentheses refer to “ Literature cited,’ at the end of the bulletin.

Note.—This bulletin is of value to botanists, especially plant pathologists and mycolo-
gists, and to all persons who are interested in the study of chestnut blight.

43737°—Bull. 380—17, i

2 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

conclusively that the disease is spreading very rapidly, especially
west and south from New York and also north and east.

The exact identity and relationships of the fungus causing the
disease and the origin of the epidemic soon became the subject of
study by various mycologists and pathologists. Different explana-
tions were offered for the sudden appearance and behavior of the
disease, one view being that the fungus was probably a foreign
parasite which had been introduced; another, that the organism was
probably a native species which had recently attracted attention,
chiefly by reason of the weakened condition of the chestnut trees
due to abnormal climatic or other conditions.

In attacking the problem of the origin of the parasite and its pos-
sible control, it was evidently necessary to secure all the information
possible in regard to its life history, identity, distribution, and re-
lationships. The senior writer in an unpublished paper prepared in
1908 pointed out the close relationship and possible identity of
Diaporthe parasitica with certain species of Endothia. Clinton (16)
and Farlow (28) soon after also made the same suggestion. Two
species of Endothia had already been described from this country
by Schweinitz (74) under the old generic name, Sphaeria. These,
however, had in recent years been regarded as a single species and
referred to Yndothia gyrosa (Schw.). Owing to a lack of knowledge
of the types of these two species and for want of good specimens
showing ascospores, it was difficult to determine what species of
Endothia were indigenous in the eastern United States. Since it
had been suggested that Diaporthe parasitica was either identical
with one of Schweinitz’s species or a mere variety of it, the present
writers undertook a thorough study of the genus Endothia in its taxo-
nomic, ecological, and pathological relations. It was first necessary
to determine the identity of the two species already described by
Schweinitz from America and also to learn their distribution and
host relations. As one or both of Schweinitz’s species were reported
to occur in southern Europe on chestnut, it was important to obtain
exact knowledge in regard to the identity and relationships of the
European species. The senior writer spent several months in Eu-
rope collecting material of Endothia in the field and studying her-
barium specimens of types and authentic collections of Schweinitz
and other authors. Material was also acquired by collection and
exchange with pathologists and mycologists in nearly every region
of the world in which Endothia was known to occur. Comparative
cultural studies were made of all the living material secured, as well
as inoculation experiments on various hosts. The recent discovery of
the typical chestnut-blight parasite, Hndothia parasitica, by Meyer
(27, 76, 78), in China and Japan and the failure to find in Europe or
America any native form which would produce the disease appear
to settle beyond question its foreign origin.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 3}

The present paper presents the results of several years’ field and
laboratory study of the species of Endothia. This includes the study
of practically all the herbarium material of this genus preserved in
the principal herbaria of Europe and America; also field and lab-
oratory studies of over 600 new collections from various localities
and hosts in America, Europe, and Asia. Over 4,000 cultures have
been studied and about the same number of inoculations made.
These studies include the systematic relations of the species of
Endothia and their physiological behavior on various culture media
and under various conditions of light, moisture, and temperature;
also inoculation experiments with the various species on various hosts.

The writers wish to record here their grateful acknowledgment
and thanks for opportunities to examine specimens and for assistance
rendered by various mycologists and pathologists and directors and
curators of botanical gardens and museums, especially the following:
Prof. O. Comes, Naples; Prof. Romualdo Pirotta, Prof. Giuseppi
Cuboni, and Drs. E. Pantanelli and L. Petri, Rome; Prof. P. Bac-
carini, Florence; Prof. P. A. Saccardo, Padua; Dr. G. Briosi, Pavia;
Dr. J. Briquet, Delessert Herbarium, Geneva; M. G. Beauverd,
Boissier Herbarium, Geneva; Prof. L. Jost, Strasburg; Prof. W.
Pfeffer, Leipzig; Dr. G. Lindau, Berlin; Dr. J. W. C. Goethart,
Leiden; Prof. H. O. Juel, Upsala; Dr. P. Hariot, Paris; Sir David
Prain, Kew; Dr. A. B. Rendle, British Museum; Prof. I. B. Balfour,
Edinburgh; Prof. T. Petch, Peredeniya, Ceylon; Dr. C. Spegazzini,
La Plata, Argentina; Dr. W. G. Farlow, Harvard University; Dr.
W. A. Murrill, New York Botanical Garden; Mr. Stewardson Brown,
Philadelphia Academy of Science; Dr. G. T. Moore, St. Louis
Botanical Garden; Prof. E. Bethel, Denver, and Drs. G. P. Clinton,
P. J. Anderson, and F. D. Heald. The writers have also received
specimens and cultures from numerous other colleagues which have
been of great assistance and are duly appreciated.

THE GENUS ENDOTHIA.

The genus Endothia was established by Elias Fries in 1849 (33,
pp. 385-386), as follows:

(X. Endothia. Fr.*)

*Colore rubro fulvove, habitu Tuberculariae, peritheciis cellulosis difformi-
bus pallidis, ascis diffluentibus, facile distinctum genus, nobis exoticum, sed
jam in Europa australi obvium v. c. Sph. gyrosa Schw.—et subgenus, tuber-
culo uniloculari, sistit S. Tubercularia Dee. Omnium horum generum char-
acteres proxime plenius exhibeamus, examinatis multis speciebus exoticis.

The description of the genus transcribed here was published as
a footnote in the work cited and was evidently based on the specimens
contained in Fries’s herbarium at the time the book was written.

4 BULLETIN 380, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Fries (31, p. 73) had at that time, according to his own statement,
authentic specimens of Sphaeria gyrosa sent him by Schweinitz and
also the specimens collected by Guepin and Levieux in France,
which he identified as this species. In Fries’s herbarium at Upsala
at present are found specimens of true S. gyrosa Schw. with
Schweinitz’s autograph label, but no specimens of S. gyrosa could
be found attributed to Guepin or Levieux. There is a small packet
marked “Sph. gyrosa,’ apparently in Fries’s handwriting, but
there seems to have been some confusion in the labeling or mounting
of this specimen, as a small stroma of Zypoxylon annulatum which
does not look at all like Endothia is included. The other piece
consists of an irregular pycnidial stroma which may be the southern
European specimens referred to in the description quoted. Fries’s
identification of this European material as Z’. gyrosa was apparently
based chiefiy upon its superficial resemblance to the pycnidial
stromata of Schweinitz’s American specimens. The senior writer has
seen and made a careful microscopic examination of a specimen col-
lected by Guepin in France and preserved in De Notaris’s herbarium
at Rome. It is labeled “Sphaeria gyrosa Fries, Guepin, Angers.”
The specific name “gyrosa” has been crossed out by De Notaris
and “radicalis Schw.” written above it and the date “ April, 1845,”
added. This appears to be a part of the same collection that
Guepin sent to Fries, as the specimen agrees well with Fries’s
description and consists chiefly of pycnidial stromata which are
rather larger than is usual for Sphaeria radicalis and show con-
siderable superficial resemblance to the stromata of Sphaeria gyrosa
Schw. A thorough examination of this specimen, however, reveals
a few perithecia and ascospores, which leave no doubt that it is
S. radicalis of Schweinitz, as indicated by De Notaris on the label.
What the plant sent Fries by Levieux was is unknown, as no speci-
men so labeled could be found in Fries’s herbarium. It appears
from all the evidence at hand that Fries was mistaken in his identi-
fication of the material from Levieux and Guepin, as no specimens
of the true Sphaeria gyrosa Schw. have yet been seen from Europe.

There seems to be no doubt, however, that Fries intended the true
Sphaeria gyrosa Schw. to represent the type of his genus Endothia,
as he had a part of Schweinitz’s original collection at the time and
never definitely placed any other species in the genus; hence,
Sphaeria gyrosa Schw. should be adopted as the nomenclatorial
type of the genus. It is clear from Fries’s writings and specimens
that he knew Sphaeria radicalis Schw., as he had American speci-
mens from Schweinitz as well as European collections at the time
he founded this genus. He did not, however, apparently regard it
as congeneric with S. gyrosa. His specimens of S. radicalis show

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 5

the typical perithecia with necks, whereas no perithecia have been
found in any of Schweinitz’s specimens of S. gyrosa examined by
the writers. Fries, in common with Schweinitz, regarded the pyc-
nidial cavities of S. gyrosa as perithecia. When the pycnidia of S.
gyrosa are mistaken for perithecia and compared with the real
perithecia of S. radicalis the differences appear marked. It was
therefore quite as natural for Fries to place the two species in
different genera as it had been for Schweinitz to place them in dif-
ferent tribes of the genus Sphaeria. Fries’s mistake in describing
as perithecia the pycnidial cavities in the stroma of S. gyrosa ex-
plains his reference to the asci as “ascis diffluentibus.” Believing
that he had perithecia but finding no asci, he interpreted this as
indicating that they had disappeared.

According to the plan of accepting only names originally applied
to the ascospore stage, this name would be invalid, as proposed by
Fries, and would be attributed to De Notaris, who placed the peri-
thecial form of Sphaeria radicalis Schw. in the genus and described
the ascospores. There is not the slightest question, however, in
regard to the identity of the different stages of this fungus and
their genetic connection, and the name Endothia has been almost
invariably applhed to these two species in both stages.

SYNONYMY.

There are only two true generic synonyms of Endothia: En-
dothiella Saccardo, 1906 (71, p. 278) and Calopactis H. and P.
Sydow, 1913 (81, p. 82). Endothiella was based on Hndothiella
gyrosa Sace., which, according to authentic specimens from Saccardo,
is undoubtedly the pycnidial form of Hndothia flwens as found in
Italy. Calopactis was based on C. singularis, the pycnidial condi-
tion of Hndothia singularis (H. and P. Syd.) S. and 8S. Ascospore
cultures of this have not yet produced any pycnidia, but the proof
of the genetic connection of the two stages appears rather con-
clusive from the occurrence of pycnidia and perithecia in the same
stroma, as shown in Plate XII. Perithecial stromata and ascospores
were also found in the specimen of the Sydow exsiccati in the Patho-
logical and Mycological Collections of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

Von HGhnel (48, p. 1479-1481) considers Cryphonectria Sacc. as a
synonym of Endothia, taking C. gyrosa (B. and Br.) as the type of
that genus because it is the first species listed by Saccardo in con-
nection with his description of the genus. Saccardo, however, had
previously established Cryphonectria as a subgenus, with C’. abscon-
dita as the type, which is not an Endothia. Valsonectria is also con-
sidered by Von Héhnel a synonym of Endothia, but apparently he had
not compared specimens of Spegazzini’s fungus, which is found upon
examination of the type species to be separate from Endothia. The

6 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Tulasnes (83, p. 87-89) do not appear to have regarded Endothia as
distinct from Melogramma, to which they referred /. gyrosa. The
type of Melogramma, however, is I/. melogramma. (Bull.), which has
a somewhat similar stroma, but the ascospores are 3-septate and dark
colored and the perithecia not separable from the stroma, while the
pycnospores are long, slender, and curved.

STUDY OF EARLY COLLECTIONS AND TYPES.

There has always been more or less uncertainty in regard to the
identity of the older species of this genus of fungi. In order to get
more light on this subject, a thorough study of all the available ma-
terial in the way of literature, type specimens, and manuscripts was
made. The first species to be described in this country was Sphaeria
gyrosa Schw. This was collected by Schweinitz at Salem, N. C., and
published in 1822 (72, p. 3).1. Two hosts were given in the original
description, Fagus and Juglans.

As Schweinitz’s description was prepared before the advent of
careful microscopical studies and spore measurements, it is impossible
to identify the organism satisfactorily from the original description.
It was, therefore, important, if possible, to locate the type specimens
upon which the description was based. Schweinitz’s herbarium was
left at his death, in 1834, to the Philadelphia Academy of Science.
His specimens of fungi at the time they were transferred to the acad-
emy were contained in small, folded paper packets, as shown in Plates
V and VI. These packets were then inclosed in other heavy paper
wrappers, folded to small quarto size, and three or four of these large
packets, each bearing a manuscript list of the species contained, were
then inclosed in quarto pasteboard covers, tied with tape. The in-
dividual species packets were labeled in Schweinitz’s handwriting,
with the name of the species and the locality of the collection, as
shown in Plate V, figure 2.

These species packets frequently bore the names of several locali-
ties, but usually two, Salem [N. C.] and Bethlehem [ Pa.], as most of
his collecting was done at these places. This fact, in addition to the
evidence afforded by the specimens in the packets, clearly indicates
Schweinitz’s method of handling his specimens.

Frequently some of the specimens in a packet show the remains of
a gummed strip. This will be noticed in Plate III, which indicates

124, Sphaeria gyrosa Sz.

S. subperipherica minor gregaria subconfluens aurantio miniata, sphaerulis gyrosis farc-
tis demum prominulis pulverulentis, stromate lutescenta.

In cortice nondum corrupto etiam vivo Fagorum et Iuglandum. Junior planiuscula, ubi
adolevit sistit corpus subrotundum, tuberculis minimis et magoribus asperum et gyrosum.
Sphaerulae farctae, teretes, supra gyrosae, paucae, radiatim divergentes a superficie ad
centrum fere stromatis continuantur, primum sublantes, demum prominulae, cortice pul-

verulento; ipsum tamen centrum farinacea carne componitur. Gelatina asciphora albet.
Ostiola indistincta.—Transitum facit ad Sphaerias septimae divisionis.

°

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 7

that at one time the specimen was apparently attached to a sheet
by a gummed paper strip. This seems to have been the way in which
Schweinitz originally mounted his specimens, but later, apparently,
he changed to the plan of putting them in paper packets and removed
those which had been attached to sheets. It is clear from an examina-
tion of the specimens still found in some of the original packets
that two or more different hosts were sometimes included. In some
cases as many as four or five different collections appear to have been
placed in the same packet and each new locality added on the out-
side. This method of keeping specimens makes it rather difficult in
some cases to determine which belongs to the first collection. In the
case of Sphaeria gyrosa but two localities are indicated on the packet,
Salem and New England. (See Pl. VI, fig. 2.)

The difficulties in determining the true type specimen of any
species would have been sufficiently great if the collection had been
preserved as it was left by Schweinitz. The matter is, however,
further complicated by the later handling and rearrangement of the
collection. Some time after Schweinitz’s death (the exact date the
writers have been unable to determine) his collection of fungi was
more or less completely rearranged and mounted. The greater part
of this work was evidently done by Dr. Ezra Michener. Dr. Mich-
ener was a lifelong resident of Chester County, Pa. He early be-
came interested in botany, and in 1840 was elected a correspondent
of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science. He paid special
attention to the collection and study of fungi and corresponded and
exchanged with various mycologists, especially Curtis and Ravenel.
He left a large collection of fungi, which the writers have recently
had the privilege of examining. Among his specimens are found
many labeled “ Ex. Herb. Schw.”, which are undoubtedly part of
Schweinitz’s original collections at the Philadelphia Academy.
These specimens, as well as all of Michener’s fungi, are mounted in
exactly the same manner as the mounted portion of Schweinitz’s col-
lection at the Philadelphia Academy. The mounting paper, the
specimen slips, the arrangement, manner of attachment, and the
handwriting on the labels are identical, as will be readily perceived
by comparing the illustrations from photographs of sheets from
both herbaria. It is, therefore, clear that the mounted collection
of Schweinitz’s herbarium was prepared by Dr. Michener. He evi-
dently took from Schweinitz’s original paper packets what appeared
to him to be the best or most typical specimen of the species in the
packet and attached it with glue to a square slip of paper, as shown
in Plate III. Where there was but little material in the original
packet it was all mounted in this manner. In case there were several
pieces in the original packet he used his own discretion in making
the selection of the part to be mounted and the part to be left.

8 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

When there were included in the original packet specimens from
different hosts or different localities, in some cases representing dif-
ferent species, it would have been difficult, if not impossible, to de-
termine which was the original material from which Schweinitz’s
description was made. At the same time, Dr. Michener, in case the
specimen was not too scanty, evidently took a small portion of it
for his own herbarium. Michener’s catalogue of his herbarium lists
Sphaeria gyrosa Schw. Consulting his collection it is found that
No. 1431, the number of Schweinitz’s specimen, is missing. Pin
holes in the mounting sheet, however, show that the specimen which
was once there has been removed. As perhaps throwing some light
on the possible location of this specimen, it may be said that a speci-
men apparently typical S. gyrosa, pycnidial form on beech, labeled
by Dr. William Trelease as Sphaeria gyrosa from Pennsylvania, was
seen in the Boissier Herbarium, Geneva. Dr. Trelease tells the
writers that this specimen probably came from Dr. Michener, and
as there is no evidence that Dr. Michener or any one else has col-
lected #. gyrosa in Pennsylvania there is considerable probability
that this specimen represents a portion of Schweinitz’s original col-
lection.

In most cases all of the material in Schweinitz’s original species
packets was removed and either mounted or distributed. This was
the case with Sphaeria gyrosa. The original packet of Schweinitz,
which was fortunately preserved with all the others, is empty and.
apparently a part at least of the specimen which it contained is
found in the mounted collection as prepared by Michener. This
consists of a single piece of bark shown in Plate VI, figure 1. From
the evidence the writers have been able to gather from Schweinitz’s
manuscripts and correspondence, as well as from studies of his writ-
ings and specimens in other herbaria, it appears that this specimen
is the one indicated on the original packet and also by Schweinitz
(74, p. 206) as having been collected in New England and sent to
him by Torrey. This, as shown by his correspondence, was after he
had left North Carolina. The bark upon which the fungus grew is
clearly not Fagus, Juglans, or Quercus, the hosts originally given for
S. gyrosa, but apparently Acer. It is therefore not a part of the
original specimens from Salem, N. C., upon which his description
was based, and in reality is not Sphaeria gyrosa, but a species of
Nectria, which Schweinitz incorrectly identified as S. gyrosa. Por-
tions of this same specimen are found in Berkeley’s herbarium at
Kew and in the Curtis herbarium at Harvard. They are clearly the
Nectria referred to above from Torrey. In this connection, it may
be noted that E. Hitchcock in 1829 (42, p. 63) reports Sphaeria
gyrosa Schw. from Amherst, Mass., and states in the preface to his
list that Dr. Torrey assisted in the determination of the cryptogams.

PLATE I.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

x

CANKERS” CAUSED BY ENDOTHIA PARASITICA ON CASTANEA DENTATA.

“c

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.

VpLt KLL2g
Fe GTB PR

Pe,

AA te

HERB.

/ Pa
ee Cares VY VELA

ee

‘MUS. PARIS.

la lft.

Co Met Live. ede fet gig LE 5:
7 goon LF = fs CLEC (2227,

; Cee 0) Ge fr#h) ALO :
( ( Ex. herb. Ad. Brongniart. Anno 1843 )._

Fic. 1.—PERITHECIA AND PYCNIDIAL STROMATA OF ENDOTHIA PARASITICA WITH CANKERS
ON CASTANEA DENTATA. FIG. 2.—COTYPE OF SPHAERIA GYROSA SCHW. ON FAGUS.

Specimen now in the Paris Museum sent to Brongniart by Schweinitz, showing Tulasne’s label
“Melogramma gyrosum” and Schweinitz’s autograph label.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ; PLATE III.

443 f —2 ES

| De eee
of Upp frarcea Ltte 2 3
Se Cetcsl. — Selec i ee @ ee cl lk cere, Sofecs,
Some Fe

“7p
ee ae Cac. Feszetrs.

: : Bye Calycretlhee Sei ite
jo he wret Cees (0726 Sethi, a a eee

Sac lear ~ 70 Gtl7eu,

Ceeeclercce —Jroires,
SA A NR NR SETA PAN TD ENT

{YEE S287 SY7t- Fay.

% Yo. 2774 ae Fens Me
CRI
/ i | - y,
a f y,
Vag y la pf, Lele lb
Sys feu eee GY LE Ee Se fee 4 Spapeesice Gli ¢
Sr alesse Sicse, a

TIGA nT TORE

At OF <A L TCE

wa

.; ,

oy oanic be CPES LOI OS

A SHEET FROM THE MOUNTED PORTION OF SCHWEINITZ’S HERBARIUM AT THE
PHILADELPHIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, SHOWING SPECIMENS AS PREPARED AND
LABELED BY MICHENER.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Se a RE

SttCI eG,

+,

Fe tee Le teh ea @
fDi PL AMET HE
CLOEE CAL aS EE y

A GOA COOPE, “Li

A SHEET FROM MICHENER’S HERBARIUM, SHOWING A PART OF SCHWEINITZ’S TYPE
OF PEZIZA CINNABARINA (UPPER RIGHT HAND CORNER); ALSO SHOWING CLEARLY
THAT THE MOUNTING AND LABELING OF THIS AND SCHWEINITZ’S COLLECTION WERE
DONE BY THE SAME PERSON.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 9

This seems to explain the origin of the specimen which Schweinitz
received from Dr. Torrey. The writers have searched in vain for
Endothia gyrosa in Amherst and vicinity and they know of no col-
lections of the fungus from Massachusetts. No specimens upon
which Hitchcock’s list was based have been located.

Since it can be clearly shown that little or none of the original
type collection of this species is in the Philadelphia Academy col-
lection it must be looked for elsewhere. It is found by reference to
Schweinitz’s correspondence and manuscripts, which have been care-
fully examined by the writers through the courtesy of the Phila-
delphia Academy and the descendants of Schweinitz, and also by
studies in foreign herbaria that he divided his specimens with many
of his European and American correspondents. As he does not ap-
pear to have kept any duplicates separate from his regular collection
it seems probable that the specimens he distributed were taken from
the original packets. Thus in some cases, apparently all of a type
specimen was removed from the original packet. In fact, in one
instance (73, p. 5) he states that he sent his only specimen of a
species of Hypoxylon to Dr. Schwaegrichen, of Leipzig.

Tt seems rather certain from statements made by Schwaegrichen
in his introduction to Schweinitz’s paper on the fungi of North
Carolina (72) that specimens of a large number, if not all, of the
species represented in that work were sent to him. The types or
parts of the types should therefore be found in Schwaegrichen’s
herbarium. In spite of all their efforts, however, through correspond-
ence and personal search in Europe, the writers have been unable
to locate Schwaegrichen’s collection of fungi. They found, however,
in the herbarium of the University of Leipzig a small bit of a speci-
men labeled “Sphaeria gyrosa Schwein. Juglans Fagus Carolina
D. Schwaegrich. dd 5-21 K. Z.” This specimen is evidently a part
of the original collection of Schweinitz which was sent to Schwaeg-
richen and given by him to Dr. Kunze. The host is apparently
neither Juglans nor Fagus, but seems to be Quercus. It may be
noted in this connection that in spite of diligent search by the
writers and various other collectors no specimen of Endothia has
yet been found on Juglans in this country. Neither have the writers
been able to find any specimen in the various*herbaria examined.
They have concluded, as a result of their studies, that the mention
of Juglans by Schweinitz was an error in the identification of the
host, which it is believed was really Quercus, the host upon which
EL’. gyrosa is most frequently found in the South, and especially in the
vicinity of Salem. According to the American Code,' however, the
specimen which should be taken as the type in this case is the one on

1 American Code of Botanical Nomenclature. Canon 14, b. Bulletin, Torrey Botanical
Club, vol. 34, p. 172. 1907.

10 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Fagus, as this is the first-mentioned host in the original description.
No specimen of this species on Fagus from Schweinitz was found in
Kunze’s collection. However, authentic specimens from Schweinitz
on Fagus have been found in Fries’s herbarium at Upsala, in
Hooker’s herbarium at Kew, and in Brongniart’s herbarium in the
Paris Museum. The last, which is the largest and best specimen,
is shown in Plate I, figure 2. Microscopic studies of the specimens
at Paris and Kew show only pycnidia with pycnospores. The writers
were unable to examine microscopically the specimen in Fries’s herba-
rium, but it agreed in all macroscopic respects and also, so far as
could be determined with a hand lens, with the Paris and Kew speci-
mens. These specimens agree with all the material collected on Fagus
from various localities in the South. Studies of numerous collec-
tions of /. gyrosa have shown that the pycnidial form can be dis-
tinguished with certainty from any of the other species of Endothia
at present known. The connection between this pycnidial form and
the perithecial form as described has been demonstrated by pure
cultures from ascospores and also by the association of typical
pycnidia and pycnospores with perithecia and ascospores in the
same stroma. There appears to be no reasonable doubt, therefore,
that the specimens collected by Schweinitz on Fagus were the
pycnidial form of Hndothia gyrosa, and the specimen in the Paris
Museum which was sent by Schweinitz to Brongniart about 1825
may properly be considered a cotype of Schweinitz’s species. The
specimen from Schweinitz in Kunze’s herbarium at Leipzig also
proves on microscopic examination to be the pycnidia! form of the
same fungus. It is probable from the evidence at hand that
Schweinitz did not collect any specimen showing ascospores of this
fungus. However, the specimen in Kunze’s herbarium shows some
perithecia evidently immature and without spores. A part of the
specimen from Schweinitz in Fries’s herbarium shows stromata on a
piece of bark, evidently not Fagus, but probably Quercus. This
also appears to be pycnidia only.

The specimen referred to by Clinton (18), which was found in
the original packet of Schweinitz at Philadelphia with Sphaeria
enteromela, is also undoubtedly the pyenidial form of Z. gyrosa,
which closely resembles some early stages in the development of
species of Hypoxylon, especially H. enteromela. ‘These species
may be easily confused with each other, and this would seem to be a
probable explanation of the accidental presence of this specimen in
this packet. Another point of interest in this connection is the fact
that in spite of diligent search on the part of the writers and many
other collectors and an examination of numerous specimens of En-
dothia on Fagus in all stages of development and from different
localities only Endothia gyrosa has been found on this host. Of

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 11

course, it can not be positively stated that /’. fluens does not occur
on Fagus in this country, but if it does it must be rare. In this con-
nection, it is also perhaps worthy of note that, notwithstanding the
mention of Fagus as a host in Europe, the writers have never seen
any European specimens of Endothia on this host. The specimens
so named by Roumeguere and distributed as No. 989 Fun. Gal. on
beech are, according to several specimens examined, evidently a
young condition of some Hypoxylon, probably H. coccinewm, which
in this state bears a superficial resemblance in form and color to the
stromata of Endothia, but can be easily distinguished by the dark-
brown or blackish color of the interior of the stroma. The identity
of Schweinitz’s Sphaeria gyrosa with the long ascospore form of
Endothia shown on Plate VII is based on careful microscopic
study of the stromata and measurement of the pycnospores from
four specimens of the original collections of Schweinitz in North
Carolina, three on Fagus and one labeled Juglans. The three on
Fagus show the typical pycnidial stromata and pycnospores of the
species, either of which is sufficient for positive identification when
thoroughly known. The specimen referred to by Schweinitz as on
Juglans also shows typical pycnospores of /’. gyrosa. The evidence,
as stated above, leaves no reasonable doubt as to the identity of the
fungus which Schweinitz described as Sphaeria gyrosa.

According to a specimen which is probably a portion of Schwei-
nitz’s type found in Michener’s herbarium, Peziza cinnabarina
Schw. is the pycnidial form of Z. gyrosa (Schw.) (See Pl. IV.)
Tt is the form with small pycnidia on bare wood of Liquidambar.
This was first reported by Schweinitz as “ Peziza flammea A. and S.”
and later changed as above. Later Saccardo (69, vol. 8, p. 399),
thinking that this was a Discomycete, transferred it to the genus
Lachnella.

The other American species of Endothia which was described by
Schweinitz as Sphaeria radicalis and first published by Fries in 1828
(31, p. 73) has also until recently been more or less misunderstood.
The only specimens of this species found at present in Schweinitz’s
mounted collection at the Philadelphia Academy of Science is a
small piece of bark of an oak root bearing a few pyenidial stromata.
No host was given in Fries, but Schweinitz in 1832 (74 p. 197) gives
Fagus as the host. That this was an error and that the host was
really Quercus and not Fagus is clearly indicated by ail of Schwei-
nitz’s specimens’ examined, not only those in the Philadelphia
Academy but those found in several herbaria in Europe and one in
Curtis’s herbarium at Harvard, and also in Schweinitz’s autograph
label on the original packet in his herbarium. A photograph of this
packet is shown in Plate VI.

The description of this species was first published by Fries in
1828 (31, p. 73). Schweinitz’s snecimen at the Philadelphia Academy

12 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

shows only pycnidia. (See Pl. V, fig. 2.) His description, how-
ever, as well as his unpublished illustrations preserved in the library
of the Academy, show clearly that perithecia were present in the
material from which the description was made. This is also con-
clusively shown by authentic specimens from Schweinitz in at least
two European collections, those of Fries at Upsala and Hooker at
Kew. A microscopic examination of these specimens shows good
perithecia and mature ascospores having the characters and meas-
urements given elsewhere in this paper for /ndothia fluens (Sow.).
(See Pl. XVII, fig. 9.) As there is no indication in Schweinitz’s
writings or in his manuscript notes and records that he made more —
than one collection of this species, there is no reason to doubt that
the material at Upsala and Kew is a part of that upon which he
based his description of Sphaeria radicalis Schw. The true type
specimen of the species is that in Fries’s herbarium upon which he
based his description, which was added to the diagnosis sent by
Schweinitz.

One year after the description of this species from America it
was reported from Italy by Rudolph, in 1829 (66, p. 393), and in
1830 Fries (32, p. 541) himself reports the fungus from France.
This species had, however, been collected and described before
in its pyenidial condition in 1814 by Sowerby (79, pl. 488) under
the name of Sphaeria fluens. This was reported in 1836 by Berkeley
(8, p. 254) as Sphaeria gyrosa Schw. A microscopic study of the
original material of this species, which was collected by Charles
Lyell on chestnut in the New Forest in southern England and is
now preserved in the Kew Herbarium, leaves no doubt that it is
the pyenidial form of Endothia radicalis (Schw.). Plate XVII, fig-
ure 3, shows pycnospores from Sowerby’s specimen at Kew. This
specimen agrees with Sowerby’s illustration and is apparently the
one from which this figure was made. The pycnospore masses
are somewhat larger than usual; otherwise it is typical of /. radi-
calis Schw.

At first it did not seem possible to distinguish the species of
Endothia in their pyenidial condition, but thorough microscopic
studies of large quantities of material in the field and laboratory in
both America and Europe have shown that the two sections of the
genus and some of the species can usually be separated with cer-
tainty in this stage of their development, as indicated by the tables
of measurements and in the photographs of pycnospores, and es-
pecially by the stromata of the different species.

The first description of the ascospores of /’. radicalis was given
in 1858 by Currey (21, p. 272), who examined the specimens from
Schweinitz in Hooker’s herbarium at Kew. Currey figured what
he believed to be four ascospores. Two are apparently typical /.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 13

fiuens; the other two are more than 1-septate and belong to some
other organism. Cesati and De Notaris, in 1863 (11), first definitely
referred Sphaeria radicalis Schw. to Endothia. Up to this time
Sphaeria gyrosa and Sphaeria radicalis were generally regarded by
mycologists as separate species and were placed by Schweinitz and
Fries in different groups of the genus Sphaeria, though they both
mention a similarity in external appearances.

In 1863 the Tulasnes, in their epoch-making work on the fungi
(83, pp. 87-89), made a careful microscopic study of the specimens
from Schweinitz preserved in the Paris Museum and also specimens
received from De Notaris, Berkeley, and other collectors. At that
time no ascospores of Sphaeria gyrosa had apparently been described
by mycologists. The material of S. gyrosa from Schweinitz which
the Tulasnes found in the Paris Museum included the specimen on
Fagus which had been sent by Schweinitz to Brongniart. There
seems to be no evidence that the Tulasnes examined other specimens
from Schweinitz or that they examined any specimens showing asco-
spores of the true Sphaeria gyrosa. This is indicated by their de-
scription and measurements of the ascospores. From their studies of
Schweinitz’s specimens and from other Carolina specimens sent them
by Berkeley they concluded that Sphaeria gyrosa and Sphaeria radt-
calis are the same species and called it Welogramma gyrosum.

Fries (33, pp. 885-386) had earlier (1849) reported Sphaeria gyrosa
as occurring in southern Kurope. This report was apparently based
upon specimens of pycnidial stromata of HL. fluens, somewhat larger
and more irregular in shape than usual, collected in western France
by Guepin and Levieux and already referred to.

The statement of the Tulasnes (83, pp. 84-89) in regard to the
identity of these species was accepted by practically all mycologists
down to 1912, when the discussion in regard to the origin and
relationships of Hndothia parasitica commenced. Ellis and Ever-
hart in 1892 (26, p. 552) apparently figured the true £. gyrosa Schw.
but cited exsiccati of both /. gyrosa and EF. fluens and gave the
ascospore characters and measurements of #. flwens, apparently
copied from Winter (85, p. 803), as the spores figured do not agree
with the description. ,

THE SPECIES OF ENDOTHIA.

ENDOTHIA Fries, 1849, Sum. Veg. Scand., p. 385.1

SYNONYMS:
Endothiella Sace., 1906, in Ann. Mycol., v. 4, no. 3, p. 278. Type species,
H. gyrosa@ Sace., 1 ¢. :
Calopactis H. and P. Syd., 1912, in Ann. Mycol., v. 10, no. 1, p. 82. Type
species, C. singuiaris, 1 e. :

1 All references to literature in synonymy are given in full in “ Literature cited,” p. 77.

14 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Stromata subcorticular in origin, variable in size and shape,
pustular to subspherical, subcoriaceous to friable, sometimes con-
fluent, surface hght auburn?* or chestnut to mahogany red, capucine
vellow or cadmium orange to scarlet within; pycnidial and peri-
thecial stromata the same or similar; pycnidia few to numerous, con-
sisting of simple cavities or complex and irregular chambers;
pyenospores minute, simple, bacilliform to oblong, yellowish to
reddish in mass; perithecia deeply immersed, in one or more irregu-
lar layers, usually black when mature, with long necks, black
within, colored like the stroma without; asci clavate to cblong fusoid,
8-spored, usually without paraphyses; ascospores oblong fusoid or
subellipsoid to cylindric or allantoid cylindric, uniseptate or non-
septate, hyaline to pale yellowish.

Section 1.—Ascospores short cylindric to allantoid, continuous or
pseudoseptate.

ENDOTHIA GYROSA (Schw.) Fries, 1849, Sum. Veg. Scand., p. 385. p. p.

SYNONYMS:
Pyenidia: Sphaeria gyrosa Schw., 1822, Syn. Fung. Car. Sup., p. 29, no. 24.
Peziza flammea Schw. (not. Alb. and Schw.), 1822, Syn. Fung. Car. Sup.,
p. 93, no. 41, p. p. ad Liquidambar.
Sphaeria gyrosa Fries, 1822, Syst. Myecol., v. 2, p. 419.
Peziza gyrosa Spreng., 1827, Syst. Veg., v. 4, pars. 1, p. 515.
Peziza cinnabarina Schw., 1832, Syn. Fung. Am. Bor., p. 173.
Melogramma gyrosum, L. R. and C. Tul., 1868, Selecta Fung. Carpol., t. 2,
p. 87. p. p. min.
Melogramma gyrosum M. A. Curtis, 1867, Cat. Indig. Nat. Plants, p. 143:
Endothia gyrosum (Tul.) Fekl., 1869, Symb. Mycol., p. 226,
Melogramma gyrosum Tul., Rav., 1879, Fung. Amer. EXxs., no. 352.
Lachnella cinnabarina Sace., 1889, Syll. Fung., v. 8, p. 399.
Perithecia: Sphaeria gyrosa Schw., Rav., 1852, Fung. Car. Exs., no. 49.
Melogramma gyrosum Tul., Cooke, 1878, in Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., v. 1, no.
5/6, p. 185.
Endothia gyrosa Fckl., Sace., 1882, Syll. Fung., v. 1, p. 601. p. p. min.
Endothia gyrosa Schw., Hil. and Ev., 1887, No. Amer. Fung. EXxs., no. 1956.
Endothia gyrosa (Schw.) Ell. and Hy., 1892, No. Amer. Pyren., p. 552, p. p.
Endothia radicalis (Schw. ) Farl., Clint., 1912, in Science, n. s., v. 36, no.
939, p. 908.
Endothia radicalis (Schw.) Shear, 1912, in Phytopathology, v. 2, no. 5, p.
Palla.
Hndothia radicalis (Schw.) Fries, P. J. and H. W. And., 1912, in Phyto-
pathology, v. 2, no. 5, p. 210.
TYPE SPECIMEN.—The type in Herb. Schw. is pee ree A cotype is in Herb.
Museum of Paris.
Pycnip1A.—Stromata corticular or subeorticular, pulvinate to tubercular,
rugulose, scattered or gregarious, occasionally confluent, 1.5 to 3 mm. in diame-
ter by 1.5 to 2 mm. high, orange chrome when young to chestnut when mature,

1JIn the following descriptions of cultures and elsewhere throughout this paper, the
names of colors are taken from Ridgway’s recent work on color nomenclature (64).

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 15

becoming almost black when old and weathered, cadmium orange within;
pycnidia consisting of numerous irregular labyrinthiform chambers in the
stroma, separated by walls of varying thickness and opening by irregular pores
in the surface of the stroma; sporophores cylindric or slightly tapering toward
the apex, 6 to 9 w long; pycnospores oblong, straight or sometimes slightly
eurved, appearing hyaline when separate, warm buff to ochraceous buff or
darker, according to mass and moisture content, 3 to 4 by 1.5 to 2 mu.

PERITHECIA.—Stromata the Same or similar to those producing pycnidia;
perithecia dark, membranous, few to many, mostly 25 to 50, usually arising
in the lower portion of the stroma, 150 to 800 w in diameter, very irregularly
arranged in one to several layers, prolonged into slender necks which penetrate
the stroma above and sometimes protrude somewhat, terminating in a short
eonical ostiole; asci oblong fusoid or subclavate, very short stipitate, 25 to 30
by 6 to 7 w; ascospores irregularly biseriate, cylindric to allantoid, 7 to 11 by
2 to 3 uw, mostly 7.5 to 10 by 2 to 2.5 uw, hyaline when separate, slightly yellowish
in mass, with a very thin gelantinous envelope when mature.

CULTURAL CHARACTERS.—Cultures one month old on white corn meal show an
sabundant thick growth of mycelium producing irregular tubercular masses
resembling pycnidial stromata, but without spores. The surface color is
eapucine buff. The medium usually changes to perilla purple. It is distin-
guished from H. singularis, its nearest relative, by its more rapid growth and
the formation of the large tubercular masses.

Hosts.—Exposed roots and branches: Quercus alba, Q. coccinea, Q. falcata, Q.
georgiana, Q. ilicifolia, Q. imbricaria, Q. marylandica, Q. nigra, Q. phellos, Q.
prinus, Q. rubra, Q. velutina, Q. virginiana, Liquidambar styracifilua, Fagus
americana and F. sylvatica cult. vars., Castanea dentata and cult. vars., and
Vitis sp. (25).

A specimen of this species coilected by Ravenel has the host given as maple
(Acer), but microscopic examination shows it to be Liquidambar.

TYPE LOCALITY.—Salem, N. C.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—Southwestern Connecticut to central Michigan,
southward to Florida and Texas; also Kansas and California.

ILLUSTRATIONS.—HIl. and Hy., 1892, No. Amer. Pyren., pl. 36, fig. 68; Clint.
1913, in Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rpt., 1911, 1912, pl. 28, fig. a, d, and g.

Exsiccati.—Pycnidia: Baker, Pl. Pac. slope, 722, on Quercus agrifolia; Rav.
Fung. Amer., 352, on Quercus. Perithecia: Hil. and Ev. No. Amer. Fung., 1956,
on Quercus; Rav. Fung. Car., 49, on Quercus and Liquidambar.

ENDOTHIA SINGULARIS (H. and P. Syd.) S. and S. nov. comb.

SYNONYMS:
Pyenidia: Calopactis singularis H. and P. Syd., 1912, in Ann. Mycol., vol. 10,
no. 1, p. 82.
Findothia gyrosa Ell. and Ev., in Herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.
Endothia gyrosa (Schw.) Fekl. Hohnel, 19138, in Sitzber, K. Akad. Wiss.
[Vienna], Math. Naturw. K1., Abt. 1, Bd. 122, Heft 2, p. 298.
TYPE SPECIMEN.—H. and P. Syd., Fung. Exot, no. 88, on Q. gambellii.
Pycnip1a.—Stromata corticular, erumpent, depressed globose, sometimes ir-
regular, scattered, or gregarious, 3 to 5 mm. wide by 2 to 4 mm. high, outer wall
thick, coriaceous, becoming brittle, mahogany red without, scarlet within; pyc-
nidia consisting of innumerable nearly spherical cavities throughout the stroma,
25 to 35 mw in diameter, the walls disintegrating into a powdery mass and the
whole set free by the irregular rupture of the stroma wall, usually leaving a cup-
like basal portion attached to the bark; sporophores, according to the Sydows,

16 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

short, hyaline, subulate, 6 to 8 by 1 »; pycnospores ovoid oblong, hyaline, the
contents of each pycnidial cavity adhering in a globular mass, when set free,
& to 4 by 1 to 1.5 up.

PERITHECIA.—Stromata the same or similar to those producing pycnidia;
perithecia membranous, few to many, usually 100 or more, 200 to 3850 » in
diameter, irregularly arranged in several series, prolonged into slender necks
which sometimes protrude from the stroma; ostioles depressed conical; asci,
oblong cylindric or subclavate to fusoid, substipitate, 25 to 35 by 4.5 to 5.5 uw;
ascospores irregularly biseriate, cylindric to allantoid, with a thin gelatinous
envelope, hyaline when separate, slightly yellowish in mass, 7 to 11 by 1.5 to
3 4; mostly 7.5.to 10 by 2 to 2.5 u.

CULTURAL CHARACTERS.—Cultures one month old on white corn meal have a
cadmium and orange to capucine buff mycelium. It is distinguished from
#H. gyrosa by its slower growth and brighter color and the want of tubercular,
stromalike masses. No spores of this species have been produced in any of
the writers’ cultures. ;

Hosts.—Quercus gambellii, Q. leptophylla, Q. nitescens, Q. utahensis. Bethel
also reports it on Q. pungens.

TYPE LOCALITY.—Palmer Lake, Colo.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—Colorado and New Mexico.

ILLUSTRATIONS.—Pycnidia: H. and P. See 1912, in Ann. Mycol., vol. 10, no. 1,
p. 82, figs. 1-5.

ExsiccaTi.—Pyecnidia and perithecia: H. and P. Syd., Fung. Exot., 88, on
Quercus. “Pycnidia: Bart. Fung. Col., 4002, on Quercus utahensis.

In shape and size of pycnospores and ascospores this species closely
resembles #’. gyrosa, but is easily separated by the much greater size
of its stromata, its brighter color and very numerous, small, regular
pycnidial cavities and more numerous perithecia, as well as its geo-
graphical distribution.

The specimens of the Sydow exsiccati, No. 88, in the Pathological
and Mycological Collections of the Bureau of Plant Industry show
both pycnidia and perithecia.

Section 2.—Ascospores oblong fusiform to oblong ellipsoid, uni-
septate when mature.

ENDOTHIA FLUENS (Sow.) S. and S. nov. comb.

SYNONYMS:
Pyenidia: Sphaeria fluens Sow., 1814, Col. Fig. Engl. Fungi, Sup. pl. 438,
HRS ale 2

Sphaeria gyrosa Berk., 1836, Brit. Fungi, p. 254. Not Schw.

Endothia gyrosa Fries, 1849, Sum. Veg. Seand., p. 385. p. p. Europ.

Sphaeria radicalis Fckl., 1861, Enum. Fung. Nass., p. 76, no. 640.

Endothia gyrosum Fckl., 1869, Symb. Mycol., p. 226. p. p. spec. cit.

Endothia gyrosa (Schw.) Fckl., forma castaneae vescae Sacc., 1876, Mycol.

Ven. Exs., no. 929.

Endothiella gyrosa Sace., 1906, in Ann. Mycol., v. 4, no. 3, p. 273.
Perithecia: Sphaeria radicalis Schw., Fries, 1828, Elenchus Fung., v. 2, p. 73.

Sphaeria radicalis Schw., Rudolphi, 1829, in Linnaea, Bd. 4, Heft 3, p. 393.

Sphaeria radicalis Schw., Fries, 1830, in Linnaea, Bd. 5, Heft 4, p. 541.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

PLATE V.

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settee? Y,

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Sjefocccee PLL LLC ee tes aS SCALE:

Secleez :

Fia. 1.—PHOTOGRAPH OF SCHWEINITZ’S MANUSCRIPT NOTES, WITH His DESCRIPTION
OF SPHAERIA RADICALIS.' FIG. 2.—SPECIMEN OF S. RADICALIS

IN THE MOUNTED
COLLECTION OF SCHWEINITZ, AS PREPARED BY MICHENER; ALSO ORIGINAL PACKET
WITH SCHWEINITZ’S AUTOGRAPH LABEL.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.

ae rh a a i lil

VET Sy fo CE ya a

Sr
-

sy :
Spt heerice 24 CAC’ — Stfetw:

Fic. 1.—PHOTOGRAPH OF THE SPECIMEN IN SCHWEINITZ’S HERBARIUM MOUNTED BY
MICHENER. NOT TRUE ENDOTHIA GYROSA BUT A NECTRIA. FIG. 2.—ORIGINAL
PAPER PACKET IN WHICH SCHWEINITZ’S TYPE MATERIAL OF E. GYROSA WAS PRE-
SERVED, WITH HIS AUTOGRAPH LABEL.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE VII.

ENDOTHIA GYROSA GROWING ON THE RECENTLY CUT END OF A LIVING BRANCH OF
Faaus sp. NATURAL SIZE.

PLATE VIII.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

lest
(

*

;

2
as

MYCELIAL FANS OF ENDOTHIA PARASITICA UNDER THE BARK OF CASTANEA DENTATA.

Illustration from Heald (39), by courtesy of I. C. Williams, Pennsylvania State Forestry
Department.

bn

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. Li

SynonyMs—Continued.
Perithecia—Continued.

Sphaeria radicalis Schw., 1832, Fun. Am. Bor., p. 197.

Sphaeria radicalis Schw., Mont., 1834, in Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., s. 2, t. 1,
p. 295.

Sphaeria (Diatrype) radicalis Fries, Currey, 1858, in Trans. Linn. Soe.
London, v. 22, pt. 3, p. 272, pl. 47, fig. 89. p. p.

Valsa radicalis Ces. and De Not., 1863, in Comm. Soc. Crittog. Ital., v. 1,
p. 207.

Endothia radicalis (Schw.) Ces. and De Not., 1863, in Comm. Soe. Crittog.
Ital., v. 1, opp. p. 240.

Melogramma gyrosum L. R. and C. Tul., 1863, Selecta Fung. Carpol., t. 2,
p. 87. p. p. max.

Sphaeria (Diatrype) radicalis Schw., Currey, 1865, i Trans. Linn. Soe.
London, v. 25, pt. 2, p. 244.

Findothia gyrosa (Schw.) Fekl, Sacc., 1882, Syll. Fung., v. 1, p. 601. p. p.

Findothia gyrosa var. rostellata Sace., 1882, Syll. Fung., v. 1, p. 602.

Endothia radicalis (Schw.) Wint., 1887, Pilze, p. 803.

Endothia gyrosa Schw., Ell. and Ev., 1892, No. Amer. Pyren., p. 552. p. p.

Endothia virginiana P. J. and H. W. And., 1912, in Phytopathology, vy. 2,
no. 6, p. 261.

Endothia gyrosa (Schw.) Fries, Clint., 1918, in Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rpt.,
1911-12, p. 425.

Endothia pseudoradicalis Petri, 1913, in Atti R. Accad. Lincei Rend. Cl.
Sci. Fis., Mat. e Nat., s. 5, v. 22, sem. 1, fase. 9, p. 654.

Endothia gyrosa (Schw.) Fckl., Hohnel, 1913, in Sitzber. Kk. Akad. Wiss.
[Vienna], Math. Naturw. K1., Abt. 1, Bd. 122, Heft 2, p. 298.

TYPE SPECIMEN.—Sowerby in Herb. Kew. on Castanea sativa, New Forest,
England. Coll. C. Lyell, Apr. 15, 1809.

Pycnip1a.—Stromata corticular or subcorticular, truncate conical to pulvi-
nate, usually separate and gregarious, but frequently confluent, 0.75 to 3 mm.
in diameter by 0.5 to 2.5 mm. high, compact, varying from light auburn to
chestnut on the surface and capucine yellow to cadmium orange within;
pycnidia consisting of simple or more or less complex and irregular chambers
in the stroma, opening by an irregular pore or slit at the apex of the stroma;
sporophores usually simple, sometimes branched near the base, cylindric to
subclavate, 10 to 18 uw long, sometimes 24 to 30; pycnospores oblong to red-
like, pale yellowish in mass, 3 to 5 by 1.5 to.2 uw, mostly 3.5 to 4 by 2 u.

PERITHECTIA.—Stromata the same or similar to those producing pycnidia;
perithecia membranous, few to many, mostly 15 to 25, 300 to 400 uw in diameter,
usually arising in the lower portion of the stroma, irregularly arranged in one
to three layers, prolonged into slender necks which penetrate the stroma above
and protrude usually from 300 to 600 yw, terminating in conical ostioles ; asci
oblong fusoid or subclavate, very short stipitate, 30 to 40 by 6 to 8 uw, mostly
30 to 35 by 7 uw, ascospores irregularly biseriate, oblong fusoid or subellipsoid,
not constricted at the septum, hyaliie with a thin gelatinous envelope, 6 to 10
by 3 to 4.5 uw, mostly 6.5 to 9 by 8 to 4 uz.

CULTURAL CHARACTERS.—Cultures one month old on white corn meal show a
compact growth with a nearly smooth surface. The color ranges from light
cadmium to empire yellow, and the medium becomes perilla purple. Pyecnidia
and spores usually appear a little later, forming large erumpent stromata
which extrude thick masses of pycnospores. The light mycelium with large

43737 °—Bull. 3880—17——2

18 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

pycnidial stromata and spore masses are distinguishing characters on this
medium.

Hosts.—America: Exposed roots and branches of Q. alba, Q. coccinea, Q.
marylandica, Q. prinus, Q. rubra, Q. velutina, and Castanea dentata. Europe:
Specimens examined, Quercus pedunculata, Castanea sativa, Alnus glutinosa,
Ulmus campestris, Carpinus betula, and Corylus sp. Japan: Castanea sp. and
Pasania sp. It is also reported on Aesculus, Fagus, and Juglans by Traverso.

TYPE LOCALITY.—New Forest, England.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—America: Southern Pennsylvania and Ohio to
South Carolina and northern Mississippi. Europe: Southern England, France,
South Germany, and Switzerland to southern Italy and Transcaucasia. Asia:
Japan.

ILLUSTRATIONS.—Sowerby, 1814, Col. Fig. Engl. Fungi, Sup., pl. 488; Currey,
1858, in Trans. Linn. Soc. London, v. 22, pt. 3, pl. 47, fig. 89 (2 upper spores) ;
Ces. and De Not., 1863, in Comm. Soc. Crittog. Ital., pl. 3; Sacc., 1873, in Atti
Soe. Veneto-Trentina Sci. Nat. Padova, v. 2, fase. 1, pl. 14, fig. 68-65; Sacc., 1883,
Gen. Pyren., pl. 6, fig. 6; Ruhl., 1900, in Hedwigia, Bd. 39, pl. 2, fig. 10; Trav.,
1906, in Soc. Bot. Ital. Fl. Ital. Cript., pars 1, v. 2, fase. 1, p. 180, fig. 34; P. J.
and H. W. And., 1918, in Penn. Chestnut Tree Blight Com. Bul. 4, p. 22, fig. 2,
A and ©; Clint., 1918, in Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rpt., 1911-12, pl. 28, fig. b, e,
h, and j; Petri, 1918, in Atti R. Accad. Lincei Rend. Cl. Sci. Fis., Mat. e Nat.,
v. 22, sem. 1, fase. 9, p. 656, fig. 1-3.

Exsiccati.—Pycnidia: Thiim. Myce. Univ., 769, on Castanea; Sace. Myc. Ven.,
670, on Carpinus betula; Sacc. Myc. Ven., 929, on Castanea. Perithecia: Fckl.
Fun. Nass., 640, on Ulmus campestris; Erb. Critt. Ital., 986, on Castanea; Rab.
Herb. Viv. Mye., 254, on Castanea.

Roum. Fun. Sel. Gal., 989, labeled Hndothia gyrosa Schw. on beech is appar- -

ently young Hypozylon coccineum.

The most important synonyms given here have already been dis-
cussed. Of the others the writers have examined the types or col-
lections upon which the identifications were based. All the material
of Endothia in the herbaria of Cesati, De Notaris, Fuckel, and
Berkeley, as well as other smaller collections, has been carefully
studied. . virginiana And. and And. has been studied in cultures,
as well as typical specimens from the authors of the species, and
agrees in every particular with /’. fluens.

Through the kindness of Dr. Petri a part of the type of his
E’. pseudoradicalis has been examined, but unfortunately no cultures
could be obtained from the specimen. The writers have been unable
to distinguish his specimen from forms of /. flwens which appear to
show all the intermediate conditions of variation connecting it with
typical #. fluens. The ascospores of /’. fluens are more variable in
size and shape than those of any other species of Endothia studied.
After examining many specimens of this species from Europe, it
does not seem possible at present to separate any of them. The case
of EL. pseudoradicalis can not perhaps be regarded as closed until
more material of it has been collected and compared in culture. In
fact, the slide from the type of Sphaerta radicalis Schw. shows
ascospores of both the narrow and broad form. The photomicro-

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 19

graph, Plate XVII, fig. 9, shows an ascospore which agrees with
Petri’s description and figures.

ENDOTHIA FLUENS MISSISSIPPIENSIS S. and.S. nov. comb.

SYNONYM:
Endothia radicalis mississippiensis Shear and Stevens in U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Bur. Plant Indus. Cir. 131, p. 4. 1918.

TYPE SPECIMEN.—No. 1782, on Castanea dentata, Blue Mountain, Miss., N. E.
Stevens, Feb. 13, 1913. Deposited in Pathological and Mycological Collec-
tions, Bureau of Plant Industry.

CULTURAL CHARACTERS.—Cultures one month old on white corn meal show a
compact, rather uniform surface, the color of the mycelium varying from cad-
mium orange to xanthine orange. This variety is distinguished from the species
by the color of its mycelium, by the numerous small pycnidia thickly seattered
over the surface of the culture, and by the lack of any purple color in the
medium.

Hosts.—Castanea dentata, Quercus alba, and Q. velutina.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—Northern Mississippi, Kentucky, Tennessee.

COLLECTIONS EXAMINED.—On Castanea dentata: No. 1706 A. pyenidia, Corinth,
Miss., T. EH. Snyder; no. 708, pyenidia, Dumas, Miss., T. E. S.; no. 1782,
ascospores, Blue Mountain, Miss., N. E. 8.; no. 1806, ascospores, Blue Moun-
tain, Miss., N. EH. S. On Quercus: No. 1989, pycnidia, Danville, Ky., N. E. S.;
no. 1995, pycnidia, Danville, Ky., N. EH. 8.; no. 2032, pycnidia, Lexington, Tenn.,
N. E. §.; no. 2255, pyenidia, Sardis, Miss., S. and S.

No morphological characters have yet been found to distinguish this variety.
It is therefore separated on its cultural characters, which are marked and
eonstant. The plant was first collected by T. E. Snyder, of the Bureau of Ento-
mology.

ENDOTHIA LONGIROSTRIS Earle, 1900, in Muhlenbergia, v. 1, no. 1, p. 14.

SYNONYM:
Perithecia: Diatrype radicalis (Schw.) Fries, Mont., 1855, in Ann. Sci. Nat.
Bot. 4, t. 3, p. 128. Not Schw.

TYPE SPECIMEN.—No. 43840. <A. A. Heller, Plants of Porto Rico. In Herb.
N. Y. Bot. Garden.

Pycnip1A.—Stromata corticular, erumpent, gregarious, sometimes confluent,
1 to 3 mm. in diameter, subcoriaceous, surface orange rufous to chestnut, in-
terior zine orange; pycnidia consisting of irregular labyrinthiform cavities open-
ing by a Single large pore or irregular rupture at the apex of the stroma;
sporophores slender, somewhat tapering upward, mostly 8 to 10 uw long; pycno-
spores oblong elliptic, hyaline or yellowish in mass, when expelled forming a
stout spore horn or tendril, colored like the stroma “on the outside, 2 to 4
by 1 to 1.5 wu.

PERITHECIA.—Stromata the same as those producing pycnidia, but larger and
frequently confluent, forming linear series in crevices in the bark; perithecia
arising usually at the base of the pycnidial stroma, mostly 3 to 10 in the sepa-
rate stromata, membranous, 300 to 400 u in diameter, mostly in a single irregu-
lar series, prolonged into long necks, 1.5 to nearly 1 em. long, sec. Earle, inter-
nally black, externally same color and structure as the stroma; ostiole acute;
asci oblong cylindric to fusiform, 25 to 35 by 5 to 7 w, mostly 30 by 6 mw; asco-
spores overlapping uniseriate to irregularly biseriate, hyaline, ovoid to ovoid
elliptical, 6 to 8.5 by 3 to 4 uw, mostly 7 to 7.5 by 3 to 3.5 wu.

20 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CULTURAL CHARACTERS.—Cultures one month old on white corn meal have a
uniform cadmium orange to xanthine orange color. The entire surface is covered
with a compact growth, irregularly ridged. Tiny mars orange spore masses are
scattered irregularly over the surface. Cultures of this species closely resemble
H. fluens mississippiensis on this medium, being distinguished by the smaller and
much less numerous spore masses. The medium is changed to amber brown
just below the mycelium, shading into mars yellow; whereas, in the case of
H. fluens mississippiensis the color of the medium is very little changed.

TYPE LOCALITY.—‘ Caleareous hills east of Santurce, Porto Rico, altitude
10 ft.”

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—Porto Rico and French Guiana.
Exsiccatr.—Pycnidia and perithecia: Heller, Plants of Porto Rico, no. 4340.

This species, which appears to be subtropical or tropical in its
range, is known at present from only three collections, the type col-
lection from Porto Rico, a collection by Prof. N. Wille, No. 816,
Porto Rico, distributed by the New York Botanical Garden, from
which the cultures were obtained ; and one made by Leprieur, No. 392,
in French Guiana, and determined by Montagne as Diatrype radicalis
(Schw.). A specimen of this collection apparently labeled by Mon-
tagne and preserved in the Delessert Herbarium at Geneva has been
examined and found to agree with the type material of 1. longiros-
tris. It is readily distinguished from /. tropicalis by its smaller asco-
spores and pycnospores, and from /. fluens by its narrower and
more acute ascospores and the long, slender necks of the perithecia.

ENDOTHIA TROPICALIS Shear and Stevens sp. nov.

SYNONYMS:
Diatrype gyrosa Berk. and Broome, 1875, in Jour. Linn. Soc. [London],
v. 14, p. 124.
Nectria gyrosa Berk. and Broome, 1877, in Jour. Linn. Soe. [London],
v. 15, p. 86.

Cryphonectria gyrosa (Berk. and Broome) Sace., in Syll. Fung., v. 17,
p. 784. 1905.

Hndothia gyrosa (Schw.) Wckl., Hohnel, 1909, in Sitzber. K. Akad. Wiss.
[ Vienna], Math. Naturw. K1., Abt. 1, Bd. 118, Heft 9, p. 1480.

TYPE SPECIMEN.—No. 2807 S. and S., on Hlaecocarpus glandulifer, Hakgala,
Ceylon, Coll. T. Petch, August, 1918.

Pycnip1A.—Stromata corticular, pustular to pulvinate, usually gregarious or
scattered, rarely confluent, 1 to 5 mm. in diameter, early becoming friable,
orange chrome when fresh to sanford brown when old and weathered ; pycnidia
consisting of numerous irregular cavities in the stroma; sporophores mostly
simple, clavate, tapering above, 6 to 10 uw long.; pyenospores continuous, oblong
to cylindric, very variable in size and shape, pale yellowish in mass, 3.5 to
7 by 1.5 to 2.5 pu.

PERITHECIA.—Stromata the same er similar to those bearing pyenidia; peri-
thecia black, membranous, collapsing when dry, 5 to 50 or more in a stroma;
250 to 500 w diameter, irregularly arranged in one to three layers, bearing
slender necks which penetrate the stroma and project 0.25 to 1 mm., termi-
nating in acute ostioles; asci oblong or subclavate, nearly sessile, 40 to 50 by
7 w; ascospores irregularly biseriate, subelliptical, obtuse, not constricted at

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 21

the septum, hyaline with a gelatinous envelope, 7.5 to 10.5 by 3.5 to 5 uw, mostly
8 to 10 by 4 to 4.5 wu.

CULTURAL CHARACTERS.—Cultures one month old on white corn meal show
small numerous, thickly scattered pycnidia and spore masses very Similar to H.
parasitica. 'The mycelium is orange buff to apricot orange. This species differs
from J#. parasitica in culture, chiefly in the brighter color of its mycelium.

Host.—Rotten logs and stumps of Hlaeocarpus glandulifer.

TYPE LOCALITY.—Hakgala, Ceylon.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—Only known from Ceylon at present. One
other collection of this species, No. 290 G. H. K. T. [Thwaite], N. Eliya,
Ceylon, 6,000 feet, has been examined in the Kew Herbarium.

Through the kindness of Mr. T. Petch, of Peredeniya, the writers
have received two large collections of this fungus. Some of the
material was in a living condition and enabled the writers to obtain
pure cultures for comparison with the other species of Endothia.
This species is closely related to . parasitica, but is readily sepa-
rated by its larger ascospores and larger and more variable pycno-
spores and its nonparasitic habit.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA (Murr.) P. J. and H. W. And., 1912, in Phytopathology, v. 2, no. 6, p. 262

SYNONYMS:

Diaporthe parasitica Murrill, 1906, in Torreya, v. 6, no. 9, p. 189.

Valsonectria parasitica Rehm, 1907, Asc. Exs., no. 1710.

Valsonectria parasitica Rehm, 1907, in Ann. Mycol., v. 5, no. 3, p. 210.

EHndothia gyrosa var. parasitica Clint. 1912, in Science, n. s., v. 36, no. 939,
p. 913.

Endothia gyrosa (Schw.) Fekl. Héhnel, 1909, in Sitzber. Kk. Akad. Wiss.
[Vienna], Math. Naturw. K1., Abt. 1, Bd. 118, Heft 9, p. 1480.

TYPE SPECIMEN.—Herbarium N. Y. Bot. Garden, on Castanea dentata, Bronx
Park, New York City, Nov. 26, 1905, Coll. W. A. Murrill.

Pycnip1A.—sStromata corticular, slightly erumpent to truncate conical, usually
separate and gregarious, frequently confluent in more or less linear series
especially in old rimose bark, 9.75 to 3 mm. in diameter by 0.5 to 2.5 mm.
high, varying from capucine yellow when young to auburn when old and
weathered ; pycnidia consisting of irregular cavities in the stroma, 100 to 300
p in diameter ; sporophores mostly simple, subclavate, acute at the apex, usually
12 to 20 by 1.5 uw, more elongated filaments sometimes reaching 50 mw or more
being frequently found among the normal sporophores; pycnospores, oblong to
eylindric, rounded at the ends, 8 to 5 by 1.5 to 2, mostly 3.5 to 4.5 by 1.5 to
2 u, pale yellowish in mass under the microscope; old spere tendrils coral red.

PERITHECIA.—Stromata the same or similar to the pycnidial stromata; peri-
thecia dark, membranous, globose to flask shaped, collapsing when dry, 5 to 50
or sometimes more in a stroma, 300 to 400 w in diameter, irregularly arranged
in one to three layers and bearing slender necks projecting above the stroma,
300 to 600 uw, colored like the stroma on the outside and terminating in acute
_ostioles; asci oblong elliptical to subclavate, nearly sessile, 30 to 60 by 7 to 9 u,
mostly 40 to 50 by 8 #; ascospores irregularly biseriate, ellipsoid, obtuse, some-
times constricted at the septum, hyaline, with a gelatinous envelope, 7 to 11
by 3.5 to 5 w, mostly 8 to 9 by 4 to 4.5 pu.

CULTURAL CHARACTERS.—Cultures one month old on white corn meal have a
white to pale orange yellow surface mycelium and produce numerous minute

22 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

pycnidia and pale yellow spore masses. It is distinguished from its nearest
relative, #. tropicalis, by the lighter color of the mycelium.

Hosts.—Castanea dentata, C. sativa and cult. vars., C. pumila, Castanea mol-
lissima from China and Castanea japonica from Japan, Quercus alba, Q. prinus,
Q. velutina, Acer sp.

It is also reported on Rhus typhina and Carya ovata by Anderson and
Rankin.

TYPE LOCALITY.—Bronx Park, New York City.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—Southern Maine to Ohio and southward to
North Carolina; also Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, British Columbia, China,
and Japan.

ILLUSTRATIONS.—Murrill, 1908, i Torreya, v. 8, no. 5, p. 111, fig. 2; Petri,
19138, in Atti R. Accad. Lincei, Rend. Cl. Sci. Fis., Mat. e Nat., s. 5, v. 22; sem. 1,
fasc. 9. p. 656, fig. 4; Heald, 1913, in Penn. Chestnut Tree Blight Com. Bul. 5,
pl. 13; Clint. 1913, in Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rpt., 1911/12, pl. 28, fig. e, f, i,
and k; P. J. and H. W. And., 1913, in Penn. Chestnut Tree Blight Com. Bul.
4, p. 22, fig. 2, B and D; P. J. And. and Rank., 1914, in N. Y. Cornell Agr.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 347, p. 562, fig. 89.

HWxsiccati.—Pyecnidia and perithecia: Rehm, Asc., 1710; Wilson and Seaver,
Ase. and Low. Fun., 3; Bart. Fun. Col., 2926; all on Castanea dentata.

This species is closely related in its morphological characters to
all the species of section 2 of the genus. It is most likely to be
confused with /. fluens, but shows constant differences, though slight,
in size and shape of ascospores. They are predominantly broader
and more uniform in shape, as shown by the table of measurements
on page 35. In its active parasitic condition on Castanea it can
always be distinguished by the presence of the mycelial “fans”
in the inner bark, as shown in Plate VIII. It has been confused
with /. gyrosa through an erroneous identification of that species.

MORPHOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT.
MYCELIUM.

By far the most striking mycelial character is the production by
E. parasitica of yellow or buff fan-shaped formations of mycelium
in the cambium and bark of the host. These “fans” vary from 1
mm. to 1 cm. or more in width, and are composed of radiating
hyphe closely pressed together to form a continuous layer. (PI.
VIII.) So constant are these mycelial fans in their occurrence and
so characteristic in their appearance that they furnish the most re-
liable field character for distinguishing /. parasitica from related
species and may quite properly be regarded as a specific character
when the fungus is growing in living trees.

Anderson and Anderson (2, p. 204) first called attention to the
tact that these fan-shaped formations of mycelium are absent from
FE. fluens. Rankin (62, p. 248) states that when the fungus grows
saprophytically or while the tree is dormant these fans are not pro-
duced. Anderson and Rankin (6, p. 565) report that in inoculations

as ae

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. Ze

on Quercus alba and QY. prinus, L’. parasitica produced the typical
mycelial fans.

Anderson (1, p. 14) considers that the occurrence of these fans
is associated with the parasitic habit of the fungus. In his opinion
single hyphe do not possess the power of penetrating the living cells,
but the fungus grows on the injured and dead cells about a wound
until a quantity of mycelium is accumulated, when it “en masse
pushes through the living tissues of the bark.” This view is also
held by Keefer (45, p. 193), who adds that “the action of the ad-
vancing mycelial mats seems to be physical rather than chemical,
and the cells are mechanically broken to pieces.”

Rankin, however, states (62, p. 248) that “The host cells, just
jn advance of the edges of the fan, are disintegrated and form a
distinct gelatinous band, which can be seen with the naked eye.”
This observation suggests to the writers that some toxic or enzymatic
action upon the cells of the host probably occurs before the cells
are actually invaded by the fungus hyphe. Careful investigation
of this point should go far toward determining the causes of the
parasitism of this fungus. Whatever the cause or function of these
fans, they are very characteristic, and the writers have found them
invariably in diseased material of Castanea in America, as well as
in that from China and in two specimens of /’. parasitica on Quercus.

A similar mycelial formation, fanlike in form,’ is produced by
Armillaria mellea in the bark of roots attacked by this fungus. Ex-
cellent specimens of the Armillaria mycelial fans have been pre-
sented to the writers by Prof. Wm. T. Horne, of the University of
California.

STROMATA.

Under the name Melogramma gyrosum, in which they included
specimens of both Hndothia gyrosa and LF. fiuens, the Tulasnes (83,
pp. 87-89) described the structure of Endothia in some detail. Their
description was based chiefly on abundant local material of . fluens
collected on Carpinus betulus L. during several years, but they also
used material sent by Guepin from western France, pycnidial ma-
terial on chestnut from Italy, American materia] sent by Schweinitz
to Brongniart and preserved in the Paris Museum, and specimens
from Carolina sent by Berkeley. According to the Tulasnes (83,
p. 87)? the stromata are “developed singly and emerge gradually
as so many scattered points with fibers radiating in all directions,
soon swell into a yellowish cone, rupture the epidermis above them,

1 Since this manuscript was completed a very similar mycelial formation has come to
the writers’ attention. As figured by Nowell (50), pl. 1, Rosellinia pepo, when growing

under the bark of lime trees, forms mycelial fans resembling those of Endothia parasitica.
2 The portions in quotations are rather free translations of the authors’ Latin.

24 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and put forth a very blunt apex. All are composed of a corky,
parenchymatous, very dense, soft yellow material. The mature
ones attain a diameter of 3 to 4 millimeters and a height of 1 to 2
millimeters, and on the somewhat reddish, and finally rusty red to
yellow top, they are marked by black points, the ostioles.” The
Tulasnes observed that before the stromata reached their full size
the pyenidial cavities were formed within them, sometimes “ widely
open,” sometimes “narrow labyrinthine,” and that through one or
many openings in the top of the pycnidia, the long, twisted, orange
tendrils, composed of mucus, and innumerable thin linear spores
were expelled. ‘ Perithecia are developed chiefly in stromata des-
titute of spermogonia, or more often with onlyafew * * * they
arise very abundantly and irregularly, some barely buried in the
yellow corklike substance, others lower down and seemingly located
in the bark of the host itself.”

Although the Tulasnes included all their material under a single
species, they noted that the pycnidial stromata of the American
specimens (really Endothia gyrosa) differed considerably from the
European {#. fluens). In describing the former, they say (83, p.
88) “The American fungus is said to grow in the bark of Fagus
and Juglans * * ™* asa whole it abounds with numerous, very
small spermatia. Wherefore if it is very thinly sectioned, the pieces,
examined with a compound microscope, show cavities just as if you
had before your eyes the smallest Gautieria or Balsamia.” The
Tulasnes do not try to distinguish definitely between stroma and
mycelium, but merely state that the stromata develop within the
mycelium.

Ruhland (67), who was the next writer to discuss the morphology
of a species of Endothia, defines the various portions of the fungus
body in detail. According to his definition (p. 16) a “stroma (in
distinction from mycelium) is the sum total of that part of the
vegetative portion of the fungus body, which, without serving ex-
clusively for absorption, takes part in the formation of the fruit
body.” He sets aside Fuisting’s (36, p. 185) division of the fungus
body into an epistroma and a hypostroma, as essentially nothing but
the distinction of “ conidial layers” and “ perithecial stroma.”

Ruhland divides the fungus body into an ectostroma and an ento-
stroma. The ectostroma grows “on the upper surface of the paren-
chyma of the bark, between it and the periderm, and is composed of
a generally wide-lumened plectenchyma which does not possess the
power of absorption.” This portion has the following functions:
“The formation of the conidia, the opening and breaking off of the
periderm, and the stimulation of the development of the entostroma.”
The entostroma, on the other hand, according to Ruhland, “ lives in
the parenchyma of the bark, and while young is in a high degree

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. : PLATE |X.

ENDOTHIA GYROSA. VERTICAL SECTIONS OF STROMATA ON
BEECH: X32:

Fie. 1.—SHOWING NUMEROUS PYCNIDIAL CAVITIES ANDTWO MATURE PERITHECIA.
Fic. 2.—SHOWING MATURE PYCNIDIA AND PERITHECIA SIDE BY SIDE.

Except where otherwise indicated, the photomicrographs of stromata are from unstained
sections cut with a freezing microtome.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

PLATE X.

Fic. 1.—ENDOTHIA FLUENS. VERTICAL SECTION OF A STROMA FROM ITALY, SHOWING
YOUNG PERITHECIA INASINGLE LAYER. X49. FIG. 2.—ENDOTHIA @YROSA. VER-
TICAL SECTION OF A STROMA ON BEECH, SHOWING MaTuRE PYCNIDIA WITH MATURE
PERITHECIA BELOW THEM. X 32. FIG. 3.—ENDOTHIA GYROSA. VERTICAL SECTION

OF A PORTION OF A LARGE STROMA, SHOWING PERITHECIA IRREQGULARLY ARRANGED
IN SEVERAL LAYERS.

PLATE Xi.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

"OE X

UMOIC YOIVUSIG YIM POUIeIS UOT}OeS UIBRIvg

"AINO VIOSHLINAd SNIMOHS ‘VWWOULS V JO NOILOSS IVOILYSA "SINVINONIS VIHLOGNA

PLATE XII.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

"6S X

“UMOIG YOIVUISTY YYTAL Poureys WOT}OeS URI

‘VIOSHLINSd GNV VIGINDAd HLOG DNIMOHS ‘VNOULS V 4O NOILOSS IVOILYaA

“SIUVINONIS VIHLOGNA

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 25

capable of absorption, a power which it retains relatively perma-
nently.” In addition to its absorptive function the entostroma forms
the pseudoparenchymatic cover for the perithecial walls.

Ruhland studied herbarium material from the Royal Botanic Mu-
seum of Berlin and specimens from Saccardo and Cesati, and de-
scribed it under the name of E’ndothia radicalis (Schw.) Fr. (£2.
fluens of the present writers). He distinguishes an ectostroma,
shaped like a truncated cone, consisting of fine, thin-walled hyphae,
so closely interwoven that the whole structure has a comparatively
firm quality. Among these hyphe are crystals of calcium oxalate.
As soon as this ectostroma breaks through the bark there is formed
near the middle a short-lived 1-chambered pycnidium. Below this
ectostroma (height 0.5 to 0.6 mm., diameter 0.7 to 1 mm.) the ento-
stroma grows out as a mycelium through the upper portion of the
bark. Ruhland says, “The entostroma with us does not produce per-
ithecia, but remains wholly mycelial.” He studied the perithecial
stage in Cesati’s specimens, however, and concludes that the perti-
thecia originate without much change in the size of the entostroma
and at a considerable distance, about 1 mm., below the ectostroma.
The long necks then penetrate through the overlying entostroma
and into the ectostroma to the base of the now functionless pycnidia.
The upper portion of the ectostroma is then quickly killed and
thrown off. ;

Pantanelli briefly described the stromata of the genus Endothia,
and pointed out several morphological characters which he considers
distinctive of /. parasitica in contrast to ’. fluens. Aside from spore
characters, which will be discussed later, Pantanelli (60, p. 870) con-
siders that 1’. parasitica is characterized by numerous stromata, at
first embedded in the bark, finally free; by pycnidial cavities numer-
ous and irregularly arranged in various planes in the stromata deep
in the bark; pycnidial stromata 1.1 to 1.2 mm. in height and 2.1 to 2.2
mm. in diameter; ascogenous stromata, height 1.8 to 2 mm., length
9.5 to 3.4; width, 3 to 3.2 mm.; perithecia arranged in two or three
layers; necks of perithecia averaging 1.25 mm., with inconspicuous
ostioles; walls of the perithecia uncolored or light brown.

Endothia fluens, on the other hand, has isolated stromata, chiefly
outside the bark; pycnidia aggregated, regularly arranged in asingle
superficial series; pycnidial stromata, height 0.4 to 0.5 mm., diameter
1.1 to 1.8 mm.; ascogenous stromata, height 1.1 to 1.4 mm., length
2.5 to 3.2 mm., width 1.2 mm.; perithecia arranged in a single row;
necks of perithecia averaging 0.45 mm.; ostioles prominent; walls
of the perithecia black.

Anderson (1, pp. 17-24) described the development of the fructifi-
cations of E'ndothia parasitica in detail. He studied the growth of

26 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the pyenidia in pure culture and made sections of ee stro-
mata growing on bark.

According to Anderson, the pycnidium originates as a mass of
densely intertwined peinge, | in the center of which numerous pycno-
spores are cut off. The crowding of these spores increases the size
of the pycnidial cavity and crowds the outer hyphe together to form
a sort of wall. The ostiole is formed in the top by the loosening of
the hyphe. The stroma always starts as a loose growth of hyphe
around the pyecnidium. It does not precede, but follows the first
stages in the development of that organ. A fluffy growth of light-
yellow mycelium surrounds the pycnidium and covers it over. If
these are embedded and sectioned, they will be found to contain a
loose tangle of undifferentiated hyphe surrounding a central pyc-
nidium. But as soon as the cork layer is broken the stroma under-
goes achange. There is a rapid increase in size and at the same time
a differentiation of the cells at the tips of those branches which
reach the exposed surface. These cells now become shorter and
thicker, acquire heavier walls, and are densely crowded together, so
that in cross section they appear as a pseudoparenchymatous tissue.
The layer thus formed covers all the exposed surface of the stroma
and also grows up around the necks of the perithecia. The stroma
increases very rapidly in size and a mass of stromatic tissue is
formed beneath the pycnidia, which are thus pushed out through
the cork layer into the periphery. The primordia of the perithecia
are formed usually in the tissues of the bark below the base of the
original pycnidium, but at times are formed well up in the stroma.
Usually 15 to 30 perithecia mature in a stroma.

According to the writers’ observations, the Tulasnes’ description
(83, pp. 87-89) is substantially correct so far as it goes. They, of
course, placed pyenidial material of E'ndothia gyrosa in the same
species with 7. fluens, but, as already noted, they observed the dif-
ference in the structure of the stromata and aptly compared the
pycnidial stroma of /. gyrosa, as seen in section, to a Gautieria.

The division of the stroma into ectostroma and entostroma made
by Ruhland (67, p. 16) has, at least in the species of Endothia,
no validity whatever. While it is true that pycnidia usually occur
in the portion of the stroma first developed and perithecia often
develop below them, this is by no means an invariable rule; and
while stromata are developed which contain only pycnidia, other
stromata apparently produce only perithecia or no spores whatever.
Certainly no portion of the stroma can be distinguished which in-
variably produces only perithecia or only pycnidia. On the con-
trary, there is great variation in the relative position and time of
appearance of the two types of fruiting structures. Also, while

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. OY.

the pyecnidial cavity is sometimes small and simple, as described by
Ruhland, it is more often large and much convoluted. (See Pls.
XV and XVI.)

While the writers, of course, agree with Pantanelli (60) that
Endothia parasitica and EF’. fluens are distinct species, many of the
stromatic characters which he describes are so variable as to be
unreliable. In an examination of a large number of specimens the
writers have been unable to find any constant difference in the ar-
rangement or structure of the pycnidial stromata. This seems to
depend chiefly in both species on the character of the bark and the
moisture conditions. As to size, while the stromata of /. parasitica
examined average somewhat larger than those of /. fluens, the range
of the pycnidial stromata is about the same in the two species, vary-
ing from 0.4 to 2 mm. in height and from 0.2 to 3 mm. in length.

The ascogenous stromata are also very variable in size. Those
measured by the writers varied in height from 0.5 to 2 mm. in /'n-
dothia parasitica and from 0.5 to 2.3 mm. in #. fluens. In width the
perithecial stromata were from 1 to 2.5 mm. in both species, while
there is apparently no method for determining their length, since on
thick-barked trees continuous narrow masses of perithecial stromata
are often formed in the crevices of the bark. These stromatal masses
frequently extend from 5 to 10 cm., and while they are in all prob-
ability formed by the fusion of several stromata there is no way of
determining how far each extends.

The arrangement of the perithecia mentioned by Pantanelli (60)
as a specific character seems to depend on the nature of the bark of
the host. When the bark is thin and easily ruptured the stromata
tend to spread out so that the perithecia occur in a single layer,
while if the bark is thick and deeply ridged the stromata are thicker
and the perithecia occur in two or more layers. That this is not a
specific character is clearly shown by Plate XVI. Figures 1 and 3
of this plate show a stroma of /’. parasitica and of FE’. fluens, respec-
tively, both with three layers of perithecia, while Plate XVI, figure 2,
and Plate X, figure 1, show stromata of both species with perithecia
arranged in a single layer.

Although, as already indicated, the stromata‘ of each species are
very variable, they are sufficiently distinct so that the native American
species may readily be distinguished in the field.

The stromatic characters of Endothia gyrosa and E. singularis
are much more distinct than those of the other species. The stromata
of EL. gyrosa are erumpent, irregularly subglobose, with a rather
roughened surface. They are usually from 1.5 to 2 mm. in height
and vary from 1.5 to3 mm. in width. The stromata of Z. singularis
are much larger than those of any other species of Endothia, being

28 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

usually from 2 to 4 mm. in length and 3 to 5 mm. or more in diameter.
They are decidedly erumpent, rather regular, and subglobose in out-
line. The contents of the stromata are brick red in color and are very
powdery when old.

The stromata of Y’ndothia fluens, L’. fluens mississippiensis, and
Z’. parasitica resemble each other so closely that the species are prac-
tically indistinguishable on this basis. All these species are char-
acterized by partially embedded, confluent stromata which vary
greatly in outline, depending on the nature of the bark of the host.
As already stated, they vary from 0.4 to 2 mm. in height and from
0.7 to 5 mm. or more in length where confluent. /. tropicalis and
LE, longirostris resemble this group in their stromatic characters.

Pycnidia.—The pyenidia of Endothia gyrosa and FL. singularis are
very distinctive also. The pyenidial cavities of /’. gyrosa are narrow
and so irregularly convoluted that in a section of -the stroma the
cavities vary in width from 0.03 to 0.3 mm., averaging about 0.15
mm. On the whole, however, they are much narrower than those
of L’. fluens or E-. parasitica. A section of a pyenidial stroma of F.
gyrosa shows numerous irregular, rounded to elongate chambers
separated by narrow walls. The pyenidial cavities of 1. singularis -
(Pl. XIII) are minute, 0.03 mm. in diameter, nearly spherical,
evenly distributed through the stroma and separated at first by com-
paratively thick walls, which disintegrate and become powdery when
the stroma is old.

So far as the writers have been able to determine, the “ tendrils”
of pyenospores so characteristic of Xndothia fluens and FE. parasitica
are not formed in either /. gyrosa or EF’. singularis. Mature pyenidial
stromata of H.gyrosa when placed in a moist chamber exude nu-
merous droplets containing spores and scattered well over the surface
of the stromata. The writers have been unable to produce any such
change by placing the pycnidial stromata of /. singularis in moist
chambers, and it seems probable that the pycnospores of /’. singularis
are set free by the breaking down of the outer walls of the stromata.
As already mentioned, the inner partitions are friable, so the spores
are readily scattered by the wind.

The pyenidial cavities of Endothia fluens and F’. parasitica, and
apparently all the other species of this section of the genus, vary
from 0.2 to 0.8 mm. or more in diameter and may consist of a
single chamber rather regular in outline (Pl. XIV, fig. 1) or of an
irregular cavity consisting of many chambers (Pl. XV, fig. 3) more
or less completely separated from one another. These species differ
from /’. gyrosa in that the pycnospores are usually discharged through
a single opening near the top of the stroma and emerge in a single
twisted tendril.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 29

Development of the stromata—tThe writers have not followed the
development of the stromata in culture, but an examination of nu-

‘merous sections of Endothia singularis, E.gyrosa, EL. fluens, and E.

parasitica and a study of the three latter species under field condi-
tions on various hosts shows that their development is by no means
as uniform as indicated in Anderson’s description (1).

According to Anderson, the pycnidium develops first, and about
the young pycnidium the stroma is quickly formed, while the
perithecia arise later, usually in the lower portion of the stroma.
This may perhaps be considered the typical course of development,
and pycnidia are often found above the perithecia, but all variations
occur. A large stroma may be developed without a sign of a pyc-
nidium (Pl. XV, fig. 2). In some cases there is a considerable por-
tion of the stroma above the pyenidial cavity (Pl. XIV, fig. 2), or
the pycnidial cavities may be surrounded by a thick stroma (PI.
XIV, fig. 4, and Pl. XV, fig. 1). Sometimes, on the other hand,
they are large and irregular, with little stroma (Pl. XV, fig. 3).

The perithecia by no means uniformly arise below the pyenidia,
but the two often occur side by side in the same stroma (PI. IX,
io eel NEV. fie. 3: and Pl Xo) Sometimes, ‘even, the
perithecia are above the pyenidia (Pl. XIV, fig. 2). There seems
to be no constant relation either as to the relative number of pyc-
nidia or of perithecia in a single stroma. Sometimes the pycnidial
portion is much larger (Pl. IX, fig. 1); sometimes the perithecia
predominate (Pl. X, fig. 2); and sometimes the two portions are
practically equal (Pl. XIT).

A like variability apparently occurs in the sequence of the fruit-
ing bodies. As the figures show, the pycnidia sometimes develop
after the perithecia; the reverse order is frequent; while in several
sections (Pl. XII, and Pl. XIV, fig. 3) the two types of fruiting
bodies were side by side and were producing mature spores abun-
dantly at the same time. Just what factors determine the produc-
tion of each type of spore or prevent or delay spore production is
unknown. It seems probable, however, that climatic influences may
prevent the development of ascospores in many cases. The action
of climate may be very indirect, however, for no ascospores of any
species have yet been obtained in artificial cultures, though /n-
dothia fluens, E.. fluens mississippiensis, E.. tropicalis, and E. para-
sitica produce pycnospores abundantly on a variety of media. Cer-
tainly, climatic factors would not account satisfactorily for the fact
that pycnidia and perithecia are produced. at the same time in ad-
jacent stromata, or even in different parts of the same stroma.

The size of the perithecia is rather uniform in the various species
(Pl. X, fig. 83, and Pls. XI and XVI), being about 0.35 mm. in diame-
ter. They are typically globose to pyriform, but are usually more or

30 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

less irregular on account of crowding. This pressure may be so
great as to produce almost any shape, and such perithecia some-
times measure 0.5 mm. in the greatest diameter and 0.1 mm. in the
shortest.

SPORE MEASUREMENTS.

The spore measurements recorded here were made by Miss Tiller.
In the case of dried specimens, the spores were first soaked for three
hours in lukewarm water and then mounted in the potassium-
glycerine-copper medium, prepared according to the following
formula:

1 part 2 per cent potassium acetate in water.
1 part 40 per cent glycerine in alcohol.
Copper acetate sufficient to color.

In the case of fresh specimens they were mounted directly in the
same medium. ‘The measurements were made with a Zeiss filar
eyepiece micrometer and a Zeiss 3 mm. 1.40 N. Ap. oil-immersion
objective. Only approximate accuracy is claimed for these results,
on account of the difficulty of overcoming the motion of the spores
in a fluid-medium. The results are, however, believed to be fairly
comparable, as practically all were measured under the same condi-
tions and treatment, and the margin of error is presumably rather
uniform. The differences in size of pycnospores do not appear to
be sufficient, however, to furnish diagnostic character for most of
the species.

The number of measurements of ascospores of H'ndothia fluens and
E. parasitica is much larger than of the other species, as special
attention was first given to these two species on account of their great
similarity. In order to make the measurements of these species
comparable to the others, the total number of spores of each length
has been calculated in the percentage of the total number of spores

measured.
METHOD OF TABULATION.

For better comparison, the spore measurements have been tabu-
lated by half microns, all the spores in each specimen coming within
0.2 of a micron of each unit or half being grouped together; e. g.,
all the spores having a length of 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, and 7.7 microns
are included under the heading 7.5. The tables thus show at a
glance the number of spores of a given length per specimen. The
widths have been tabulated in the same way.

For a better comparison of the shapes of the ascospores of
Endothia parasitica and FE. fluens, the relative ratios of length to
width in each spore have been calculated, the width being considered
unity. The ratios of length to width were then tabulated by tenths;
that is, all the spores in each specimen having a ratio of length to

nod

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES.

ol

width from 1.76 to 1.85 microns are included under 1.8. The rela-
tive shapes of the spores in each specimen are thus clearly shown.

TABLE I—Weasurements of pycnospores and asci of Endothia.

PYCNOSPORE MEASUREMENTS.

Number per specimen having the given length or width.
; ue F Widths (mi-
Specimens. Lengths (microns). crons). Total.
2 /2.5) 3 13.5] 4 14.5) 5 |5.5)] 6 16.5] 7 1 /1.5) 2 | 2.5
S|, | Ss ———— ] —— | ——
Sphaeria osa Schw., Herb.

MMus., Paris...--.--.. ceed vill tes Gel Pisces g|1s| 2|....| 2
S. gyrosaSchw.,Herb.Schwaeg.|----}----| 5] 9} 3 |.-.-|----)----|---- 5} 11) 1). 17
Endothia gyrosa on beech, Al- :

corn, Miss., No. 1796...-.----- MO AWE BO abos| seas lsaceliaaae 5|/18] 1]. 24
E. singularis, No. 1939 ....-.--- oealoces|| <2) Ol 48 lecsafesscliicddlsece Soha Sana elle 14
E. fluens, Sowerby. ---.--------- Sscmcceaiooes) 8 || WU @ Jossclesodiecss 8 | 17]. 25
E. fluens on chestnut, Fort

payne wAlaeeeccason-cesss ss: seefocea, Hh GPU | GIP) MW icsccosse 6 | 19 ]- 25
E. fluens, Lugano, Switzerland.|--..{--.-| 1} 3] 5) 2) 1/|.-.--]..-. 8| 4]. 12
E. fluens mississippiensis, No.

IQs bees Seb Baec se eocsuse seclecsel Bu Gy oS al ecs eee eee Soalsessllon delay: lsese 16
E. longirostris. -. AWB ee ee Woe oclaces cosalleose soeal|) <@i||» ts) Saad locas 14
E. tropicalis.......--.--.------ saslootelasoo| 2 O81 Ol Bh BS) Bs 4/....| 3/19) 3 25
E. parasitica, No. 1696......--- Hy Oy awh |. Gi. Wesedeese seule 12) 13) \--2- 25

LENGTHS OF ASCI (MICRONS).

Number per specimen having the given length.
Specimens. No. Total.

25 30 30 40 45 50 55 60
Endothia fluens on Castanea.--.-...--.- 1702 2 8 11 I (esac fea ese |S eet aes 22
A) Qe eee esos eevee secnciciaenee = WB leneoss 1 14 ATID | estarecee reso Pies ate ane eats 26
AD) OS ctanin eae ces Jesus cme (A ere ase 5 (17 Fe ssc al epee oe Ua a fa 11
DD) OME eeceeeeee seslsc\sinisicicic' aie Se 129) | See 4 16 Gyr [es rer a sl are Le ei oP ee 26
KE. fluens on dead Castanea...-...-.----- 1715 |..---- 7| 16 Bee. sleacdseleesessllesoces 26
E. fluens on Castanea, Stresa, Italy...--- 1656 |....-- 6 16 1 1 fe peered es (seers vaNele 25
E. fluens on Quercus. --.-.--------------- 1711 2 16 CE Nope eis erence cre erate el SMO ae ayes 25
ID) SoS Uae us ee eee eee ease emaan 1927 2 10 OPES |e ole mana Fer (Se 2 a 24

E. fluens mississippiensis, Blue Moun-

Geb MISS ep ees ec tase ie apclofeloieie ion > 1806 5 14 3 22

E. parasitica on Castanea..-.--...--.----- 4

IDO suS 4 dbda adeeb poseopeceesedqeusess 26
E. parasitica, China.........----.------- 97
E. gyrosa on Quercus...---------------- 1 8
E. gyrosa on Liquidambar 9 25
E. singularis, Palmer Lake, Colo 4) 15 Oi eeey sate |erciaas or fe eis etal | al ate ae ee 24
E. longirostris, Porto Rico.-...---.----- 6 13 3 Oh Pesduel based yoseen orcas 25
E. longirostris, French Guiana........-.|------ 6} 10 Ui laSeoodleecess|SSs554|ssscee lsocone 17
1B, (RO OMORMLIS. 55-55 e oscsnsssessosadessos|scosca|esocss|esecce|soccos|loodase 6 5 3 2 16

WIDTHS OF ASCI (MICRONS). bd
Number per specimen having the given width.
Specimens. Total.
4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Wndothia gyrosa.....-..-.-----------|--.-----|-.------ 8 DU Genesee creel | Melerestersi= 10
ASIN PUIATISS «2 iia aleleciess sss 2 aioe 1 8 Pa A Sees | SSSI eRe ee He ace 11
13), 1H SINS, 1D(bTK0) 0: Se Meee see oeoeos sabes |sseeceed scosders 2 6 AN | eisce rte eerie 12
He uenss Americaes 2. s22 522s... 2 s|atient sete |o= 422 1 6 PN Ber es oe Eeaae cee 11
E. fluens mississippiensis. -....-..-.--|--------|-------- 2 6 Zl Ecaa ster bases 10
E. longirostris, Porto Rico.-......-.-.|-------- 2 7 AN eels Che eae crepe arte [ener se ee 11
HE. longirostris, French Guiana.-..-....|-.------|-------- 3 3 Bi | searchers (Se ceceg t 9
15), (ROOICAUIRE Sheaterece nee ee So oead Ian COSe Eten EEeernes Meares 2 6 Pal sess ae 10
1D, AMDSHEE), (mine. jeecssasaesseses|seeeounel seeacess osecoces 1 7 7}. SaaS Soe 10
BBD ALASILIC A PATMELICA so eee oa eie a | ele = ee cio eee oe a [eee en eicl|eeer aslo 6 A Sse sacte.s 10

32 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
PYCNOSPORES.

The pycnospores of all the species are oblong elliptic to cylindric
in shape and so small as to make accurate measurement very difficult.
Slight but apparently constant differences in their size in certain
groups of species may, however, be traced. These differences are’
clearly shown in Table I.

Endothia gyrosa, EL. singularis, and EF. longirostris have smaller
pycnospores than the other species, the most frequent lengths being
3 and 3.5 yp. The pycnospores of /. singularis are slightly broader
than those of /. gyrosa and FL. longirostris, being 1.5 to 2 p, as
against 1 to 1.5 pw in the last two species.

Endothia fluens, I’. fluens mississippiensis, and E. parasitica are
even more closely similar in the size of their pycnospores than in that
of their ascospores, the most frequent size being 4 by 2 p. The
pycnospores of /. tropicalis are much larger and more variable in
size and shape than those of other species. They range from 3.5
to 7 win length and from 1.5 to 2.5 w in width.

ASCI.

The writers have not attempted a study of the origin and early
development of perithecia or asci in any of the species of Endothia.
Work on this subject has been published by Anderson and Rankin
(6), for Lndothia parasitica, but the nuclear phenomena and origin
and development of the ascogenous hyphe are not yet entirely clear.
The part termed a trichogyne by these authors seems more likely to
be the initial stage in the development of the neck of the perithecium
than the relic of an organ of fertilization.

The asci appear almost or quite sessile in most species, and
though varying considerably in size and shape, as indicated in Table
I, are usually oblong elliptic or subclavate, having a sort of inner
membrane inclosing the ascospores and some thin granular matter
extending to the apex of the ascus, where a slight thickening appears,
as described and illustrated by Anderson for H'ndothia parasitica.
A similar condition is found in various species of Pyrenomycetes and
probably functions in some way in connection with the discharge of
the ascospores. The asci are generally wider and slightly longer in
FE. parasitica than in EF’. fluens and other members of section 2. The
asci of #. gyrosa are shorter than those of any other species. JZ.
tropicalis has the longest asci. The asci of none of the species show
a very wide range of variation, as Table I also indicates..

PARAPHYSES.

Most students of Endothia have reported paraphyses wanting in
this genus. Anderson (1, p. 33, fig. 32) and Anderson and Rankin
(6, p. 579, fig. 83) report paraphyses present and figure what they

PLATE XIII.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

VERTICAL SECTION OF THE MAJOR PART OF A PYCNIDIAL

ENDOTHIA SINQULARIS.

X 32.

Paraffin section stained with Bismarck brown.

STROMA

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIV.

ENDOTHIA FLUENS. VERTICAL SECTIONS. X 49.

FIG. 1.—SIMPLE PYCNIDIUM WITH VERY LITTLE STROMA, FROM ITALY. FIG. 2.—STROMA
FROM ITALY, SHOWING A PERITHECIUM ABOVE A PYCNIDIUM. FIG. 3.—STROMA FROM
AMERICA, SHOWING A MATURE PYGCNIDIUM AND PERITHECIA SIDE BY SIDE. FIG. 4.—
STROMA, SHOWING A SINGLE PYCNIDIUM AND FUNDAMENTS OF PERITHECIA BELOW.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA. VERTICAL SECTIONS OF STROMATA. xX 49.

Fic. 1.—SHOWING A YOUNG, SIMPLE PYGCNIDIAL CAVITY AT THE BASE. FIG. 2.—IN WHICH
NEITHER PYCNIDIA Nor PERITHECIA HAVE BEGUN TO DEVELOP. Fic. 3.—WITH
IRREGULAR CHAMBERED PYCNIDIA.

All the above are about the same age—four months after inoculation.

Il pe aH ath Neat SA)

PLATE XVI.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND E. FLUENS. VERTICAL SECTIONS OF
STROMATA. xX 20.

Fic. 1.—E. PARASITICA. SHOWING PERITHECIA ARRANGED IN SEVERAL IRREGULAR
LAYERS. Fic. 2.—E. PARASITICA, SHOWING PERITHECIA ARRANGED IN A SINGLE
LAYER. Fia. 3.—E. FLUENS, FROM ITALY, SHOWING PERITHECIA ARRANGED IN

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. _ 33

regard as an early stage of their development. They describe them
as branching frequently and very crooked, extending around the
perithecium as well as upward. The writers have searched in all the
species studied for evidence of the presence of paraphyses, but have
never seen anything resembling paraphyses as they occur in closely
related Pyrenomycetes. If they occur, they would seem to be of an
unusual character and difficult to recognize or else are evanescent,
disappearing before the asci are mature.

ASCOSPORES.

The ascospores furnish one of the most marked characters for the
separation of the genus into sections (Plate XVII). In section 1
they are more or less cylindric and sometimes curved. In section
2 they are more or less elliptic, being broadest in H’ndothia para-
sitica and narrowest in L. fluens and LE. longirostris. The greatest
variation in size and shape of ascospores occurs in /. fluens, as in-
dicated by the measurements given in Table II. Anderson (1), Clin-
ton (18), and Heald (39) describe and figure the ascospores of £.
parasitica as very obtuse and constricted at the septum. The writers
have but rarely seen spores of this form. This may perhaps be due
in part to different methods of treatment or to the age and condition
of the material. Most of the ascospores studied by the writers have
been mounted in the fluid medium described on page 30. Fresh
specimens have also been studied in water mounts, but with the
same general result. The writers are of the opinion, therefore,
that the figures of the authors cited above do not represent the most
common and characteristic form of ascospores of this species. (Com-
pare Plate XVII, figs. 7 to 15.)

43737°—Bull. 380—17——3

34

BULLETIN 380, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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36 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

PHYSIOLOGY.
CULTURAL STUDIES.!

During the past three years the writers have had under observation
more than 4,000 cultures of the several species of Endothia on more
than a dozen artificial media, as well as on sterilized twigs of many
kinds. Throughout this work the writers have been impressed with
the uniformity of the behavior of the organism in culture and the
certainty with which the various species could be distinguished on
any of the media used.

Cultures of Endothia parasitica, for instance, from specimens sent
from China or British Columbia were absolutely indistinguishable
from cultures made on the same medium from local material. -
Transfers made from stock cultures which had been kept on artifi-
cial media for two years were identical with transfers from freshly
collected material. The same remarkable constancy held for the
other species. Cultures from material collected in different localities
or from different hosts were identical, not only in appearance but, so
far as the writers were able to determine, in temperature and moisture
relations also. As previously noted, this is in marked contrast to the
senior writer’s experience with the species of Glomerella and it is
believed differs from the experience of many investigators of fungi.

No less striking is the certainty with which the several species may
be distinguished on any medium tried. “ndothia parasitica, E.
tropicalis, and H. fluens and its variety mississippiensis are very
closely related morphologically. Moreover all except 4. parasitica
have, as near as could be determined, much the same relation to their
hosts. Yet each species has distinctly and readily recognized charac-
ters on culture media.

It should not be imagined, however, that the differences are
recognizable at once as clearly distinctive characters. The differences
at first glance might readily be considered fiuctuating variations.
But the fact that the characters remain constant through hundreds
of generations and have never varied toward one another makes
them worthy of recognition as specific characters.

In a previous paper (77) the writers described their results with
cultures of E'ndothia parasitica, EF. fluens, EF. fluens mississip piensis,
and /. gyrosa on a number of culture media. At that time the work
of other investigators was reviewed and the methods of preparing
the various culture media and making the cultures described. Since
the publication of that paper, however, cultures of two more species,
E. tropicalis and FE. singularis, have been secured and about 2,000
additional cultures of the various species made. In addition to the
culture media mentioned in the previous paper (77, p. 10), the writers

1 The cultures described were all grown at ordinary laboratory temperatures in the
winter, about 20° to 24° C.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 37

have grown the organisms on sterile twigs of many species and on
liquid media.

As stated above, the various species of Endothia are distinguish-
able on any medium tested. White corn meal in flasks has, however,
been most used by the writers in identification work and for keeping
stock cultures. All the species grow readily on this medium and may
be determined with certainty within 10 days under ordinary con-
ditions of growth. In addition, the medium is cheap, easily pre-
pared, and does not dry out so quickly as agar media in tubes, so
cultures may be kept alive much longer without transfers. Almost
equally good for purposes of identification are rice and oatmeal in
flasks, corn-meal agar, and potato agar.

The distinguishing characteristics of the various species in culture
have been described rather fully in the previous publication and may
be briefly summarized, as follows:

CULTURES ON CORN-MEAL AGAR (UNSLANTED TUBES).

Corn-meal agar proved the best agar medium for the production
of pyecnospores and showed constant differences in the cultural
characters of the various species. The most characteristic differences
appeared in cultures from six to eight weeks old on unslanted
tubes. (See Pl. X XI, figs. 2 to 7.)

Hndothia gyrosa at this age showed a rather abundant, felty white myce-
lium, flecked with capucine buff, but there were no pyenidia. In older cul-
tures small pycnospore threads were sometimes produced. Usually before the
eultures were 10 days old the medium was changed to a delicate lavender
just below the mycelium, and below this to a light olive green. A few days
later the lavender disappeared and the green deepened to olive green.

Endothia singularis grew more slowly than any other species. Within
three weeks, however, the mycelium covered the entire surface. It was
smoother than E#. gyrosa and nearly white, with raw umber spots where the
mycelium touched the glass. The medium was changed to a light hellebore
green one-half inch below the top.

Endothia fluens, as pointed out in the previous paper, produced an abundant
deep-chrome mycelium, with usually one or two rather small pycnidial pus-
tules.

FEndothia fluens mississippiensis produced a scant surface growth of my-
celium, between cadmium yellow and raw sienna in color. The upper one-half
centimeter of the agar became reddish orange. The pycnidial pustules were
more numerous than those of H. fluens, but smaller and more scattered than
those of H. parasitica.

Endothia longirostris at the end of six weeks had a scant, webby, orange,
aerial mycelium growing against the glass. Mycelium on the surface of the
medium was very scant, orange to cadmium yellow in color, with scattered tiny
xanthine orange to orange spore masses. The color of the agar changed to
medal bronze just beneath the mycelium, shading into orange citrine below.

Endothia tropicalis at the end of six weeks showed a thinly felted mycelium,
white to capucine orange, with numerous small, scattered pycnidial pustules.
The ring of mycelium against the glass was light orange yellow, as contrasted
with white in H#. parasitica.

88 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Endothia parasitica gave a scanty white growth of surface mycelium, with
several prominent pycnidial pustules clustered near the center and of a slightly
darker shade than the “raw sienna” of Ridgway.’

CULTURES ON POTATO AGAR (SLANTED TUBES).

Potato agar was used by the Andersons (3) to distinguish E’ndo-
thia parasitica from FE’. fluens. The writers have used it extensively
and found it a very useful medium for distinguishing the species.
As stated in the previous paper (77, p. 11), however, unless this
medium was very carefully prepared it varied greatly in acidity
and probably in other respects, with resultant variations in the
behavior of the organisms. Spore production was not so abundant
on this medium as on many others. The preparation of this and
other media is described in the paper cited.

Hndothia gyrosa.—This species developed rather slowly, producing a fairly
abundant aerial growth, which was felty rather than fluffy. The color was
white, flecked with capucine buff, and no spore masses were produced.

Hndothia singiularis—This species grew even more slowly than #. gyrosa.
On cultures made from conidia, growth was hardly perceptible at the end
of three days. Mycelial cultures at the end of one week showed less growth
than #. gyroesa, but did not differ greatly from it in either color or texture.
At the end of one month the mycelium was slightly more fluffy and decidedly
less in amount than that of H. gyrosa. Most of the surface was a very light
buff color, with sometimes a few spots of capucine orange to English red.

EHndothia fluens.—Pyenospore streak cultures of this species varied some-
what as to the amount and time of appearance of color, probably due to the
variations in the acidity of the medium referred to above. Many tubes
showed an orange color in one week, while others produced no orange what-
ever. In no case did cultures of H. fluens produce the “brassy ” metallic sur-
face appearance so characteristic of H. parasitica. Pycnidia were few and more
seattered than in H. parasitica and did not begin to appear until the third or
fourth week. A slight amount of warbler-green color sometimes appeared in the
medium at this age, but never so conspicuously as in H. parasitica.

Endothia fluens mississippicnsis This produced a less fluffy aerial mycelium
along the spore streak than H. parasitica. After five or six days the fungus
showed an orange color by transmitted light, and was indistinguishable in
this respect from H. parasitica. 'The character of the surface was somewhat
different, however, and by reflected light appeared xanthine orange. When
two weeks old this form differed still more markedly from JH. parasitica in
color, being grenadine red by transmitted light and showing no spore masses.

#. longirostris—At the end of one week this produced a white, fluffy growth
seattered in small patches over the surface of *he medium. This later became
rather close in texture, especially near the base of the agar slant. No spores
were produced on this medium.

Endothia tropicalis —At the end of one week this showed less growth than
H. fluens, covering about a third of the surface of the medium, while the
other covered nearly the entire surface. The mycelium was closely matted
and a very pale buff (paler than any in Ridgway). At the end of one month

1Jn the descriptions of cultures comparisons were necessarily made with cultures in
flasks or tubes. This of course made comparison more difficult and somewhat less accurate
than if the material had been removed from the container.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 89

#. tropicalis covered the entire surface with a thin layer of surface mycelium,
considerably darker in color than when one week old.

Endothia parasitica.—At the end of three or four days at room temperature
this showed a short, fluffy, white, aerial growth along the streak. The surface
of the mycelium was orange by transmitted light, while by reflected light it was
between raw sienna and antique brown at the sides. Within six days the
mycelium, especially at the base of the agar slant, took on a peculiar metallic
“brassy ” appearance, due apparently in part to the character of the mycelium
and in part to the minute water drops scattered over the surface. ‘This
portion of the culture was light orange yellow by reflected light and orange
by transmitted light. This metallic appearance has been found to be the
most constant and reliable distinguishing character of H. parasitica on potato
agar. In 12 to 14 days small pycnidial pustules appeared in the upper portion
of the tubes, and the agar just below the mycelium became warbler-green,
~ changing later to olive green.

CULTURES ON CORN MEAL (IN 100 C. C. ERLENMEYER FLASKS).

Endothia gyrosa.—Mycelial cultures one week old showed a growth of rather
compact mycelium covering nearly one-half the surface of the medium. The
mycelium was ochraceous buff near the point of inoculation, shading into
white at the margin. There was no discoloration of the medium and no spore
masses were seen.

Cultures of the same kind one month old showed an abundant, rather thick
growth, having the surface mostly covered with somewhat irregular tubercular
masses, Suggesting immature pyenidial stromata similar to those found in
EH. radicalis, but smaller and producing no spores. The surface of the culture
was capucine buff, that of the tubercles honey yellow to Isabella. The dark
color was apparently due in part to numerous superficial water drops. <A por-
tion of the medium was changed to perilla purple.

FEindothia singularis.—Mycelial cultures one week old covered only one-third
of the surface. The growth was mostly white and fluffy, with ochraceous buff
near the center.

At the end of one month the growth had entirely covered the surface. The
mycelium varied in color from cadmium orange to capucine buff, the color being
distributed over the surface in patches. The corn meal was changed to perilla
purple near the center. No spores were produced.

H. singularis was readily distinguishable from H. gyrosa, which it resembled
more closely in cuiture than any of the other species, by the rate of growth and
the color and nature of the surface of the mycelium. JH. singularis grew more
slowly than #. gyrosa, was rather brighter in color (cadmium orange), and
the surface of the mycelium was decidedly more even, lacking the tubercular
masses characteristic of #. gyrosa. ;

Endothia flwens.—Cultures at the age of one weeky showed a growth of
loose, fluffy mycelium covering one-half of the surface of the medium. The
mycelium was deep chrome to light orange yellow at the point of inoculation,
passing through periilla purple and light pinkish lilac and fading into white at
the margin. Occasionally the medium was changed to perilla purple near the
center. No spores were present.

Cultures one month old showed a compact growth, with a nearly smooth
surface. The color ranged from light cadmium to empire yellow. The whole
mass of the medium was perilla purple. Spore masses were rarely present at
this stage, but shortly afterwards a few large erumpent stromata were formed,
which extruded spores in thick masses.

40 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Endothia fluens mississipptensis—Cultures one week old showed an orange-
chrome growth a little more than half covering the surface of the medium.
The superficial growth was very similar to that of H. parasitica. There was no
discoloration of the medium and no spore masses were found.

The same organism one month old produced a growth with a compact, rather
uniform surface, the superficial portion having a coarse, matted, webby appear-
ance, which was most noticeable about the margin. The color of the mycelium
was cadmium orange to xanthine orange, while that of the medium was un-
changed. Spore masses were much more numerous than in H. fluens, but
smaller and less numerous though very similar to those of H. parasitica.

#. longirostris—Cultures one week old covered about one-third of the sur-
face of the medium. The mycelium was short, fluffy, white, with only a tiny
spot of cadmium orange near the point of inoculation. At the end of six weeks
the entire surface was covered with a compact growth rather uniform in tex-
ture, cadmium orange to xanthine orange in color. The surface was irregularly
ridged, giving it a wrinkled appearance, with tiny mars orange spore masses
irregularly scattered over the surface. This species closely resembles H. flwens
mississippiensis on this medium, being distinguished from that variety by the
smaller and much less numerous spore masses. The medium is changed to
amber brown just below the mycelium, shading into mars yellow in the lower.
portions.

Eindothia tropicalis ——At the end of one week this showed less growth than
either H. parasitica or H. fluens, covering about a third of the surface. The
mycelium was matted close to the surface and was a very pale buff (paler
than any of the buffs shown in Ridgway). No pycnidia were present.

At the end of one month’s growth the surface was entirely covered with
a closely felted mycelium and small, numerous, thickly scattered spore masses,
more closely resembling those of Endothia parasitica than any other species.
The mycelium was orange buff to apricot orange, and orange chrome against
the glass. The color of the medium was unchanged.

Endothia parasitica.—In cultures one week old the growth on corn meal
covered about one-half of the surface of the medium. The outer margin was
pure white, the remainder buff yellow below, with a superficial white growth
above. A few small pustules with spore masses occurred near the point of
inoculation. The medium was uncolored.

Cultures one month old showed a compact growth, nearly smooth on the
surface. The superficial mycelium was pale orange yellow. The pale yellow-
ocher spore masses were minute, very numerous, and nearly covered the sur-
face. The medium was slightly greenish about the sides of the flask just
beneath the mycelium.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF THE VARIOUS SPECIES ON CORN MEAL IN FLASKS.

The color reactions of the various species on corn meal are very
striking. Hndothia fluens (Pl. XXI, fig. 16), as noted above,
changes the whole mass of the medium to perilla purple in less than
amonth. #. gyrosa and LF. singularis also produce this color change,
but somewhat more slowly. . fluens mississippiensis, E.. tropicalis,
and F. parasitica, on the other hand, in hundreds of cultures have
wholly failed to produce any purple color. This furnishes an easy
and reliable method of distinguishing /. parasitica from EF. fluens

Bul. 380, U. S..Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVII.

PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF PYCNOSPORES AND’ ASCOSPORES OF
ENDOTHIA.

Fics. 1 TO 6.—PYCNosPorREs: 1, ENDOTHIAGYROSA; 2, E. SINQULARIS; 3, E. FLUENS;
4, E. LONGIROSTRIS; 5, E. PARASITICA (AMERICAN); 6, E. PARASITICA (CHINESE).
Flas. 7 T015.—Ascospores: 7, E. GYROSA; 8, E. SINGULARIS; 9, SPHAERIA RADICALIS,
FROM SCHWEINITZ’S SPECIMEN IN FRIES’S HERBARIUM; 10, ENDOTHIA PSEUDORAD-
ICALIS; 11, E. FLUENS; 12, E. FLUENS MISSISSIPPIENSIS; 13, E, LONGIROSTRIS;
14, E. TROPICALIS; 15, E. PARASITICA.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVIII.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA ON PLATE CULTURES OF CORN-MEAL AGAR 4 WEEKS OLD.
THE UPPER PLATE Was KEPT IN TOTAL DARKNESS; THE LOWER PLATE IN THE
DiRECT LIGHT OF A NORTH WINDowW.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIX.

“bas

ENDOTHIA SPECIES ON WHITE CORN MEAL (10 GRAMS OF CORN
MEAL TO 20 C. C. OF WATER). CULTURES 2 MONTHS OLD.

Fia. 1.—ENDOTHIA GYROSA; FIG. 2.—E. SINGULARIS; FIG 3.—E. FLUENS; FIG. 4.—
E. FLUENS MISSISSIPPIENSIS.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XX.

—

ENDOTHIA SPECIES ON WHITE CORN MEAL (10 GRAMS OF CORN
MEAL TO 20 C. C. OF WATER). CULTURES 2 MONTHS OLD.

Fic. 1.—ENDOTHIA TROPICALIS; FIG. 2.—E. PARASITICA; Fila. 3.—E. LONGIROSTRIS.,

Bul. 380, U. S$. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXI.

= 6

M.S-Hattley
CULTURES OF ENDOTHIA SPECIES

Fic. 1.—q, Corn meal afier 1 month’s growth of Endotma parasitica; 6, corn meal after 1

month’s growth of EF, fluens.
Typical cultures on upright tubes of corn-meal agar6 weeks old. FIG. 2.—F. gyrosd,

Fic, 3.—E. singularvis. Fic. 4.—. fluens. Fic. 5.—HB. fluens mississippiensis. Fic, 6—E#.
tropicalis. Fic. 7.—E. parasziica.

¥: a

_ ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 4l

(Pl. XXI, fig. 1) in field work when fructifications of the species
are wanting or doubtful.

Aside from the differences in color, the most conspicuous and
important characteristic of these fungi in corn-meal cultures is
found in the fructification. Clinton (18, pl. 26) has already men-
tioned and illustrated similar differences in cultures of these organ-
isms on agar in Petri dishes. In Hndothia parasitica the pycnidia
and spore masses are small, numerous, thickly scattered, and em-
bedded in the mycelium. £. flwens, on the other hand, forms few,
large, erumpent stromata, with spores extruding in thick, elongated
masses. £’. tropicalis closely resembles F’. parasitica im number, size,
and arrangement of pycnidia and spore masses, but differs in color
of mycelium. £. fluens mississippiensis appears somewhat inter-
mediate between L. parasitica and L. fluens in regard to the character
and abundance of the pycnidia and in color of the growth. These
peculiarities have been very uniform and constant in all the cultures
on this medium and if they could be coordinated with regular mor-
phological differences in nature would justify the separation of this
form as a species. (See Pls. XIX and XX.)

CULTURES ON LIQUID MEDIA (IN 100 C. C. FLASKS).

Some difficulty was experienced at first in growing the species of
Endothia satisfactorily on a liquid medium. Abundant growth was
obtained on a medium suggested by Dr. Mel. T. Cook. This is a
modification of the liquid medium No. II as given by him (19).

Cook’s liquid medium, No. II, is prepared as follows:

Into 500 ¢c. c. of distilled water put 15 grams of glucose and 20 grams of
peptone steamed at 100° C. for three-fourths hour; into another 500 c. c. of
distilled water put 0.25 gram of dipotassium phosphate and 0.25 gram of
magnesium sulphate, steamed for 20 minutes; filter both 500 ¢. c. into same
receptacle, steam 10 minutes, put into flasks, about 30 c. c. in each flask, and
autoclave.

All species grew readily on this medium, /'ndothia parasitica even
producing pycnospores. At the end of one month’s growth the sev-
eral species were readily distinglished on this medium and may be
briefly described as follows: %

Findothia gyrosa.—Growth scanty; did not form a continuous mat, but re-
mained in small bunches, giving an almost flocculent appearance. The mycelium
appeared white when removed from the culture solution, but the solution itself
was honey yellow.

Endothia singularis—Growth even less abundant than H. gyrosa; formed
small brown knots against the glass. Mycelium buff, and the medium was
changed to honey yellow.

Endothia fluens—Growth somewhat more abundant and less closely matted
than #H. parasitica, entirely submerged; mycelium white; liquid unchanged in
color.

42 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Endothia fluens mississippiensis—Growth slightly less abundant than in
E. parasitica; submerged except at the very edges; much lighter in color, being
reddish brown.

Endothia tropicalis—This differed markedly from either EH. parasitica or
#H. fluens. The mycelium formed a thin felt over the surface, white to salmon
orange in color, with no change in the medium.

Endothia parasitica.—Mycelial growth very abundant, closely matted, chiefly
submerged, but slightly arborescent in one or two small areas, which remained
above the surface. Color, dark greenish brown.

CULTURES ON STERILIZED TWIGS (IN TUBES).

Early in this work it was noted that all the species of Endothia
grew readily on sterilized chestnut twigs in test tubes. Later, tests
were made with twigs from a number of common, woody plants.
Twigs of Acer saccharum, Alnus rugosa, Betula papyrifera and B.
lenta, Carpinus caroliniana, Cornus florida, Fagus grandifolia,
Fraxinus americana, Ostrya virginiana, Populus grandidentata,
Prunus serotina, Rhus glabra, Tilia americana, and Tsuga canadensis
were collected in New York State early in June, placed in test tubes
with a few cubic centimeters of distilled water and sterilized in an
autoclave. All the species of Endothia were tested, and all grew on
every species of twig except Tsuga. The difficulty of completely de-
scribing this series may readily be seen from the fact that each species
of Endothia had a different appearance on every kind of wood.

In general it may be stated that H'ndothia gyrosa and EF. singularis
grew more slowly than the other species and produced no spores,
while all the other species produced spores on most hosts. The
mycelium of 2’. parasitica was usually white, especially on the bark.
EL. gyrosa and F singularis produced various shades of buff, while
E. fluens, FE. fluens mississippiensis, and FE’. tropicalis developed a
much more brightly colored mycelium, usually showing yellow or
orange shades.

MOISTURE RELATIONS.

In an earlier paper (77, p. 7) the writers reported tests with
Endothia fluens and I’. parasitica on media containing various per-
centages of water. It was observed that pycnospore production
began earliest and was most abundant on the media containing the
least moisture.

Aside from this the writers have thus far been unable to make
definite tests as to the moisture relations of these fungi. However,
incidental observations in connection with the light tests (p. 48) and
temperature tests (p. 45), as well as results of field experiments,
particularly those at Woodstock, N. Y., make it apparent that the
amount of available moisture is a very important factor in the
fructification of the fungus.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 43
LIGHT RELATIONS.

The relation of light to pycnospore production in E'ndothia para-
sitica was first discussed by Anderson (1, p. 20). He says—

When plate cultures are grown in total darkness on chestnut-bark agar, no
pycnidia are developed, while on plates made at the same time and grown
in the light, the usual rings of pycnidia appear (fig. 57). Hxperiments were
also tried in which the plate was left in darkness until about half covered
with mycelium and then brought into the light. Circles of pycnidia were
developed, beginning with the ring which marked the outermost limit of the
colony when removed from the dark chamber. The concentric rings which
always appear on agar cultures are due to the alternation of night and day.

Later, in a bulletin by Anderson and Rankin (6, p. 592), the same
results are attributed to D. C. Babcock.

Up to the time the above-mentioned work was published the
writers had grown about 3,000 cultures of the several species of
Endothia on various media in flasks and tubes. Practically all of
these cultures had been kept in dark cases and E'ndothia parasitica
had produced pycnidia abundantly on most of the media used. It
seemed desirable, therefore, to determine whether wholly different
light relations existed when the fungus was grown on plates. The
following series of tests was accordingly made, using 2. parasitica
only.

LIGHT TESTS OF CULTURES ON PLATES.

In experimenting with plate cultures in order to check up the
results reported by Anderson and Rankin (6, p. 592) it was noted
that there was great variation in the rate at which the cultures
dried out. ‘There was considerable variation in this respect in dif-
ferent plates kept side by side, apparently due to differences in the
Petri dishes, and a marked difference between cultures kept in
light and those kept in darkness. Since a causal relation between
lack of moisture and abundant spore production had already been
shown, it seemed probable that this might influence the results of
the light tests in plate cultures. In fact, in a few cases the cultures
kept in the light did produce spores earlier than those kept in dark-
ness. Accordingly, in order to eliminate at least in part this fact
which seemed to obscure the possible effect of light, a method was
sought of equalizing the loss of moisture. In the following series
half the plates were placed under a plain bell jar and the other half
under a bell jar of equal size but darkened by being covered inside
and out with heavy black paper, such as is used to wrap photographic
plates. The two bell jars were then set side by side in front of a
north window. By this means the conditions were made much more
uniform as to temperature and moisture. There was still a slight
difference in the rate of drying and undoubtedly at times a difference

44 BULLETIN 380, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in the temperature of the light and dark plates, but probably not
sufficient to interfere seriously with the experiments.

Series 1. On corn-meal agar plates under bell jars.—In nine days
there was no distinguishable difference between the plates in light and
darkness, a few spore masses occurring near the middle of each.

In 18 days most of the light plates showed a central ring of spore
masses and a zone of scattered spore masses near the edge. The dark
plates showed a few small spore masses near the center, and scat-
tered about the outer portion were the small masses of mycelium
which usually constitute the early stages of pycnidial formation.

In 80 days the number of spore masses had increased somewhat in
both sets of plates, but more in the darkened plates, so that the
number of spore masses was about equal in all the plates. The two
sets of plates were fairly uniform as to the arrangement of the spore
masses. Plate XVIII shows a typical example.

Series 2. On chestnut-twig agar plates under bell jars.—After nine
days the cultures in ight and darkness were alike. No spores had yet
appeared in either set.

In 30 days there were a _ few spore masses on nearly all of the
_ plates, there being no difference between those in light and those in
darkness either in number or distribution.

Series 3. On corn-meal agar and chestnut-twig agar under bell
jars.—Iin this test the plates were piled alternately, first a corn-meal
and then a chestnut-twig agar plate, so that the two media would be
under conditions as nearly identical as possible. The plates were
inoculated as before and left untouched for 18 days and after that
were examined daily. After 18 days all the corn-meal plates showed
spore masses in practically equal numbers, while the chestnut-twig
agar plates showed no spore masses whatever. There was no ap-
par ent difference in the growth on either medium between the plates
in light and those in darkness.

At the end of 25 days the cultures on chestnut-twig agar plates
showed numerous small masses of mycelium, indicating the forma-
tion of pycnidia. No difference was perceptible between the dark
and light plates.

In 28 days, from 100 to 150 of these pycnidia in each plate were
extruding spore masses. The light plates showed in general a larger
mass of spores than the dark plates, but this was not marked, cer-
tainly no greater than was accounted for by the unavoidable dif-
ference in radiation and the consequent difference in moisture. This
difference in the moisture of the medium was clearly shown each
morning by the greater amount of moisture condensed on the covers
of the darkened Petri dishes.

At this time (after 28 days) four corn-meal agar plates which had
been wrapped in four layers of heavy black photographic paper and

}

on

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 45

placed on a window sill were opened and examined. In spite of the
cold weather prevailing during this test and the consequent low tem-
perature of the room at night, these plates contained an average of
nearly 200 well-developed spore masses.

At the end of 35 days the chestnut-twig agar plates which had
been kept in the light showed an average of 160 spore masses, while
those kept in darkness showed an average of 130 spore pustules, a
comparatively small difference in favor of the light plates. There
was, however, a wide difference between the various plates in each
series, and it was impossible in most cases to distinguish cultures
grown in the light from those grown in darkness either by the num-
ber, size, or arrangement of the pycnidia and spore masses.

From these experiments it is evident that pycnidia are produced
abundantly in total darkness on chestnut-twig agar as well as on
other favorable media. There is no perceptible difference in the
amount of spore production or in the arrangement of pycnidia be-
tween cultures kept in total darkness and those kept in the light
during the day if the temperature and evaporation remain the same
in both. Continued observation of numerous cultures grown both
in daylight and in darkness has convinced the writers that light has
no perceptible effect on mycelial growth either in amount, nature, or
color production. It seems evident, therefore, that light is a neg-
ligible factor in the growth and fructification of these fungi.

TEMPERATURE RELATIONS.

In an earlier paper (77, p. 9) the writers published the results of

three series of tests made to determine the temperature relations of

three species of Endothia. Since the publication of that paper cul-
tures of other species and additional material of some of the species
from widely separated localities have been secured. Four series of
temperature tests including this new material were made on solid
media.

TESTS ON SOLID MEDIA.

In these tests cultures of H'ndothia gyrosa, EF. singularis, FE. fluens,
E. fluens mississippiensis, and I’. parasitica were tried on corn-meal
agar in slanted tubes, oatmeal in flasks, and petato agar in slanted
tubes. The cultures tested were from specimens chosen from the
extremes of the known ranges of the fungi and from their different
hosts. No difference could be detected in the various cultures of the
same species, even in those from widely separated localities and from
different hosts. Cultures appeared to have the same temperature
relations whether made from spores or mycelium. The results may
be briefly summarized as follows:

At 41° and 39° CGC. there was no growth in any species. Cultures removed
from the incubator at the end of 11 days and kept at room temperature showed
no growth.

46 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

At 35° C., Endothia gyrosa, E. singularis, and E. parasitica showed a slight
development within 2 days, but at the end of 11 days it was still slight and
abnormal in appearance. WH. fluens and H. fluens mississippiensis showed no
growth at this temperature.

At 81° C., Endothia gyrosa, E. singularis, and EB. parasitica appeared about
the same as at room temperature for the first four days. At the end of six
days these species showed somewhat less growth than at room temperature,
while at the end of two weeks the growth was less in extent and markedly
less freshly colored than that at room temperature. #H. fluens and EL. fluens
mississippiensis Showed somewhat less growth than at room temperature even
in 4 days, and markedly less at the end of 2 weeks.

At room temperature (which at this time varied from 20° to 24° C.) the
growth was much as described in the previous paper. Within 11 days growth
was practically complete and in 14 days there was abundant spore production
in Hndothia parasitica.

At 18° and 16° C., all species showed considerably less growth than at room
temperature, but there seems to be little difference in the comparative growth
of the various species at these temperatures. At 13° the growth was decidedly
less than at 16° C. but was fairly normal in appearance in all the species except
that HEndothia fluens mississippiensis failed to produce the characteristie color
at this temperature.

AO an there was a very slight growth in all species.

At 7°, 5°, and 2° C. there was no growth whatever. Cultures removed to
room temperature at the end of 11 days developed normally and at about the
same rate as in newly made cultures.

These additional tests seemed to confirm the results already pub-
lished (77, p. 27) ; that is, growth was best in all species at ordinary
room temperature, about 20° to 24° C. The minimum temperature
for all was about 9°, and all failed to grow at 7° C. The maximum
temperature for Endothia gyrosa, E. singularis, and FE’. parasitica |
appeared to be about 35°, while the maximum for /. fluens and its
variety 1’. fluens mississtppiensis was apparently about 32° C. At
-all the temperatures tried /. stngularts grew much more slowly than
any of the other species.

It was noted that cultures kept at 7°, 5°, and 2° C. showed no
growth, but when removed to room temperature developed normally,
while cultures kept at 41° and 39° C. failed to grow when removed to
room temperature. This seemed to indicate that the fungi are more
susceptible to heat than to cold, and such is perhaps the case. There
was, however, the additional factor of moisture involved, for while
the agar of the cultures kept at 7° and lower was in apparently the
same condition at the end of 11 days as when first inoculated, the
agar of the cultures kept at 41° to 39° C. was considerably dried.
This raised the question as to whether the drying out of the agar had
not affected the growth of the fungi in those cultures kept above room
temperature as much as the higher temperatures themselves.

The same idea was suggested by the fact that several of the species
grew for a few days at 31° C. as well as they did at room temperature,
and then fell behind. It seemed possible that this falling off in the

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 47

rate of growth might be due, at least partly, to more rapid drying of
the agar at 31° C., or possibly to the more rapid development
of some toxin, as was suggested by Balls (7) to explain a similar
observation on the “soreshin” fungus. These observations threw
doubt upon the accuracy of the writers’ previous conclusions, and
made it seem possible that the optimum temperature of the species
of Endothia might be well above room temperature. This could only
be determined accurately by some method which would control tem-
perature without altering the supply of moisture. Some months
after the above tests were concluded it was discovered that the various
species of Endothia would grow readily on several liquid media.
Consequently, several series of tests on liquid media were run parallel
to those described above, except that the tests were continued for
only four days. Experiment showed that at the higher temperatures
the medium became considerably reduced by evaporation if left for
a longer period.
TESTS ON LIQUID MEDIA.

In the series of tests on liquid media, all the species of which cul-
tures had been obtained were grown on Cook’s medium (see. p. 41)
both in tubes and in flasks, using ten tubes and six flasks at each
temperature. The cultures of Hndothia gyrosa and EF. singularis
were made with bits of mycelium from pure cultures. The other
species were grown from conidia and the cultures were kept for two
days at room temperature, in order to allow the conidia to germinate
before being placed in the temperatures to be tested.

The following temperatures were used for making the tests: 40°,
37.5°, 35°, 29°, and 27°, and room temperature which was fairly
constant at about 22°, 17°, 12°, 9°, 7°, 8°, and 2° C. There was some
variation in the temperature of the incubators and refrigerators
used, but in most cases they did not vary more than 1 degree above
or below the temperature indicated. At 40° there were occasional
traces of growth, especially in Endothia parasitica, but this may have
occurred when the incubator dropped to 39° C. There is no regular
and continued growth at this temperature.

At 37.5° C. there was perceptible growth in all the species. This
is in striking contrast to the results on solid media, as no species
grew at a temperature above 35° C. on solid media.

At 35° C. Endothia parasitica showed practically the same amount
of growth as at 27° and 29° C. for the first three days, but fell behind
after that. L. fluens showed less growth at 35° than at the lower
temperatures. These two species were the only ones tested at 35° C.

At 27° and 29° C. growth was markedly more abundant than at
37.5°, and in most of the species was more abundant than at room
temperature. In E'ndothia gyrosa and EL. fluens mississtppiensis the

48 BULLETIN 380, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

growth at 27° C. was apparently equal to that at room temperature.
At 22° C. (room temperature) all species developed much more rap-
idly than at the lower temperatures. At 17°, 12°, and 9° C. there
was progressively less and less growth. At 7° C. and lower there
was no growth whatever.

While these tests are not wholly satisfactory and must be regarded
only as approximations, they are of some interest. Below 7° C. there
is no growth in any species.

It is evident that there is a considerable range of temperature,
from below 20° to well above 30° C., within which the species of En-
dothia grow readily. Within this range there may be a definite
optimum for each species, but this has not yet been determined. For
Endothia parasitica the optimum appears to be at 27° C. or above,
and the same may be true of the other species.

_At 40° C. or above no growth occurs. There is considerable evi-
dence, however, that “'ndothia fluens is less resistant to the higher
temperatures than either /’. parasitica or EL’. gyrosa. After several
of the tests the flasks were kept at room temperature for some days.
It was found that all developed normally except those which had
been kept at 40° and 37.5° C. These developed more slowly than
those which had been kept at lower temperatures. It was particu-
larly noticeable also that /. parasitica and E’. gyrosa developed prac-
tically as well after being kept at 40° as at 37.5° C., while cultures
of 1’. fluens which had been in 37.5° developed fairly well; but if
kept at 40° for three days they entirely failed to develop.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE SPECIES OF ENDOTHIA.

During the past two years the writers have studied over 600 speci-
mens of Endothia from various parts of the world. The greater
number of these specimens have naturally come from the United
States. The maps (figs. 14) show the known ranges of the various
species in this country. Each dot on a map represents a locality
from which the species has been collected. Frequently, of course,
many specimens have come from a single locality; hence the number
of dots by no means represents the number of collections.

In the case of Endothia parasitica, the dark portion represents
the area over which the blight is practically continuous; that is,
practically all the stands of chestnut are either diseased or dead.
The dots represent known isolated infections and the solid line marks
the botanical limit of the chestnut.

Endothia gyrosa is known only from the United States, but has a-

range in this country wider than that of any other species. As
shown in figure 1, it has been found as far north as central Michigan,
east to Connecticut, on the Pacific coast near San Francisco, and on

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES.

the Gulf of Mexico. There is, however, a very great difference in
the abundance of this species at different points. In the southeastern
United States—that is, the region south of central Indiana and
southern Virginia and east of central Arkansas and Louisiana—this
species occurs in great abundance wherever its hosts are found.
Broken branch stubs and exposed roots of Liquidambar, Fagus,
and Quercus are covered with fructifications of this fungus. This is
especially true of roots exposed by erosion or excavation which have
suffered mechanical injury through the tramping of men or cattle.
Farther north in Maryland, New Jersey, and Connecticut only an
occasional specimen is found. Three days’ search in southern Con-

Fic. 1.—Quitline map of the United States, showing the distribution of Hndothia gyrosa.

necticut, for example, yielded only two specimens, both on Liquidam-
bar, showing pycnidia only.

Endothia singularis is known at present only on oaks in the dry
foothill regions of Colorado and New Mexico. Bethel, in a letter,
states that it is very abundant in certain localities in Colorado.

Endothia fluens has long been known to occur in both Europe and
America. Recently, through the kindness of Dr. Y. Kozai, director
of the Central Agricultural Experiment Station, Nishigahara, Tokio,
Japan, the writers received four specimens of fungi on chestnut.
One of these, collected by S. Tsuruta on October 14, 1914, in the
Province of Totomi, was the pyenidial stage of an Endothia, which
when cultured proved to be £Z. fluens. Ascospore material of this
species has since been collected by Meyer at Nikko, Japan, on the
bark of Pasania sp.

43737 °—Bull. 380—17—4

50 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Endothia fluens, while common to Europe, Asia, and America, has
a much more limited range in the United States than /. gyrosa. It
is fairly common on Castanea and Quercus from southern Pennsy]l-
vania and Ohio to northern Mississippi and Alabama. In south-
eastern Pennsylvania it has been found so far only on roots of
Quercus, and in northern Mississippi and Alabama only on Castanea
dentata.

Endothia fluens mississtp piensis was first sent to the writers from
Corinth, Miss., by Mr. T. E. Snyder, of the Bureau of Entomology,
and has since been collected in only four other localities, three near
the northeastern corner of Mississippi and one in central Kentucky.

Fic. 2.—Outline map of the United States, showing the distribution of Hndothia fluens.

As both HYndothia gyrosa and EF. fluens were collected in this
country nearly a century ago by Schweinitz, it seems altogether
probable that they are indigenous species which may have already
reached the limits of their natural ranges in this country.

While the maps (figs. 1-4) do not give by any means every locality
where Endothia is to be found and specimens are likely to be col-
lected at many points outside the present known range, the writers
feel justified in assuming that these maps represent the limits of
the territory where “'ndothia gyrosa and LE. fluens may commonly be
found. This is especially true in the eastern portion, where the field
has been rather thoroughly worked. It is unlikely, for instance,
that /. fluens occurs abundantly in southern Alabama and Georgia,
where /. gyrosa was found so commonly. Southeastern Pennsyl-
vania must be somewhere near the northern limit for /. fluens, for
the writers’ four collections in that region are the result of six days’

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 51

search. At the northeastern limit of Z. gyrosa, Clinton (15, p. 79)
found only a single specimen after two years’ search, and the writers
have looked for it in all the other New England States without find-
ing a single specimen. The report of /. gyrosa from Massachusetts
by Hitchcock (42, p. 63) has already been shown to be a probable
error in identification.

FACTORS INFLUENCING DISTRIBUTION.
HOST RELATIONS.

Just what determines the present ranges of the species can not, of
course, be positively decided, but some relation to certain external
factors may be traced. Neither species has the same distribution as

Fic. 3.—Outline map of the United States, showing the distribution of Hndothia fluens
nuississippiensis and #. singularis. The dots indicate collections of £. fluens mississippi-
ensis and crosses indicate collections of H. singularis.

its hosts. Quercus and Fagus are both abundant farther north than
Endothia gyrosa has yet been found, while Quercus is abundant
north and south of the known range of /. fluens. It may be worthy
of note, however, that /. gyrosa extends north as far as Liquidambar
is found. Perhaps more significant is the relation of the range of
E. fluens to that of the chestnut. As will be seen from a comparison
of the maps (figs. 2-4), #. fluens is not found abundantly at any point
outside the natural range of the chestnut. Especially interesting is
the fact that the southeastern limits of H. fluens and Castanea den-
tata are practically coincident, for in this region Endothia fluens
was found only on Castanea, never on Quercus. This suggests the
possibility that Castanea may be the original and favorite host of
Endothia fluens.

52 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SOIL CONDITIONS.

Greater opportunity for infection seems to be an important factor
in the greater abundance of Endothia in the South. By far the most
favorable places of infection, especially for Hndothia gyrosa, are
bruised or broken but still living roots. Soil, cultural, and climatic
conditions combine to make these many times more abundant in
the Southern States than elsewhere. The more sandy and easily
eroded soil, usually without turf, subject throughout the winter to
the action of wind and rain, leaves innumerable oak roots exposed,
which are readily injured by vehicles and the tramping of horses and
cattle, leaving wounds suitable for the entrance of Endothia. In the

Fig. 4.—Map of the United States, showing the distribution of Hndothia parasitica in
December, 1915. The solid portion shows the area in which #. parasitica is generally
present. The dots indicate scattered infections. The heavy line shows the limits of
the range of Castanea dentata.

North, the more rocky soil, frequently covered with sod, protected
through much of the winter by snow, makes exposed roots much less
common, and the roots so exposed are rather less subject to mechani-
cal injury. In the writer’s experience the most favorable localities
for collecting /’. gyrosa are the unfenced public squares of Southern
towns, where partial grading, erosion, and constant traffic have left
hundreds of oak roots exposed, and the pastures of southwestern In-
diana, where the roots of Fagus are often found injured by cattle.

COMPETITION AMONG FUNGI.

The writers’ extensive field studies and observations have con-
vinced them that competition among fungi must be considered as a

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 53

factor in determining their distribution. As already stated, while
Endothia fluens occurs on Quercus, it has been found toward the
southwestern limit of its range (northern Mississippi and Alabama)
only on Castanea, and in Tennessee the writers have sixteen collec-
tions of this species on Castanea and only three on Quercus. In
this same region, /’. gyrosa is everywhere abundant on Quercus. In
numerous inoculations with /. gyrosa and F. fluens on oak it has
been found that /. gyrosa is more generally successful than 2. fluens.
Moreover, /. gyrosa occurs abundantly on Liquidambar and Fagus
in this region, thus providing more numerous sources of infection
for this species than for /. fluens. It seems highly probable, there-
fore, that /. gyrosa, with its greater affinity for oak and greater
opportunity for infection, may occupy the available oak roots to
the exclusion of /’. fluens, even though climatic conditions are favor-
able for the growth of the latter species. Castanea rarely serves as
a host for #. gyrosa; consequently, on this host Z’. fluens meets with
little competition and is very abundant.

In the northeastern limit of its range, Yndothia fluens has been
found only on oak roots. Whether it grows naturally on chestnut
in this region can not well be determined, since practically all the
chestnut trees here are dead or badly diseased with EZ. parasitica.
E.. gyrosa is rare in this region, but /’. fluens here evidently comes
into competition with Valsa frustum-cont (Schw.) Curtis, which is
common on exposed roots of various species of Quercus.

CLIMATE,

Since none of the species of Endothia in America extends to the
limits of its host species, climate probably has an important part in
determining their present ranges.

In this connection it is of interest to compare several life zone and
climatic maps which have been published with the range maps of
the various species of Endothia. The map entitled “ Life zones of
the United States,” by C. Hart Merriam (50, pl. 14), is based largely
on a study of animal life. Merriam deduces from his studies the
conclusion that the northward distribution of animals and plants is
determined by the total quantity of heat and their southern dis-
tribution by the mean temperature of the hottest part of the year.
The life zones which he outlines show, however, a striking relation
with the known ranges of Endothia in America. With the exception
of a single locality for Endothia gyrosa in Michigan, all the known
localities for #.gyrosa and LE’. fluens fall within the Upper Austral
and Lower Austral zones. All the known localities for Z. fluens and
all the region where #. gyrosa has been found abundantly fall within
the humid divisions of these zones. The northeastern limits of the
Upper Austral coincide very closely with those of #. gyrosa, its

54 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

limits in Pennsylvania include the northern localities known for
E. fluens, while the southern limits of this zone coincide closely with
the southern limit of /. fluens. ;

The Livingstons (47) have published maps based on temperature
summations and temperature efficiencies, as well as maps in which
isochmatic lines of temperature are combined with precipitation
indices and evaporation indices for the mean frostless season.

While no very definite relations between these maps and the ranges
of Endothia can be traced it is noteworthy that the localities where
Endothia gyrosa is known to be abundant are all south of or near
the 600 line of temperature efficiency, and only one collection of
E. gyrosa has been made north of the 400 line. LZ. stngularis, on the
other hand, has thus far been found only north of the 400 line.

Zon’s map (86) of vegetal regions of the United States is based on
periods of growth and rest. The regions where Endothia gyrosa
and Z’. fluens are abundant are all south of the line which marks the
northern limit of seven months’ vegetation. In fact this coincides
very closely with the northern limit of #. fluens, and no specimen of
FE. gyrosa showing ascospores has been found farther north.

The relations pointed out above strongly suggest the possibility of
some causal connection between climatic conditions and the present
ranges of Endothia species, but just what factors may limit the
spread of the species is not yet determined. The temperature tests
recorded on pages 45 to 48 throw little ight on this problem, for the
maximum and minimum temperatures are about the same in the vari-
ous species. Hndothia fluens seems to be less resistant to the effects of
high temperature (40° C.), but it is difficult to see that this fact alone
has any direct bearing on the question of distribution.

DISCOVERY OF ENDOTHIA PARASITICA IN CHINA.

For eight years after its discovery in the New York Zoological
Park in the summer of 1904, Endothia parasitica was known only
from eastern North America. During this time two quite different
opinions as to the origin of the fungus were advanced. Some in-
vestigators maintained that /. parasitica was an indigenous fungus
(15); others that it had been imported from some foreign coun-
try, probably oriental (51, 52.) In the fall of 1912, however, pyc-
nospore material was sent from Agassiz, B. C., by H. F. Giissow,
Dominion Botanist of Canada. Cultures made from this material
were identical with Z. parasitica, and a series of inoculations on
Castanea dentata produced typical cankers. Later, a large quantity
of material collected at Agassiz by Dr. James R. Weir was received,
which included a few ascospores. These proved to be typical
EL. parasitica.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 55

A brief description of the identification of other specimens of
E. parasitica from Agassiz is given by Faull and Graham (29).
These writers report that in the material sent them in the summer
of 1913 there were no perithecia, but that the pycospores were typical
EL. parasitica and the characteristic. mycelial fans were present in
the bark. Cultures of the fungus proved it to be identical with
E’. parasitica, ‘They also state (p. 203) that the chestnuts grown
at Agassiz “are of oriental, European, and American origin. The
stock was purchased from nursery firms located in New Jersey,
Ohio, and California. One of these at least ‘was a heavy importer
of oriental trees and shrubs’.” They suggest that it “is significant
that a connection with the Orient exists.”

In support of this view, the statement of Mr. Sharpe, who had
charge of planting the nut orchard at Agassiz, may be given. Dr.
Weir visited Mr. Sharpe at Salmon Arm, B. C., and Mr. Sharpe
stated definitely to him that he would be willing to furnish affidavit
to the effect that in the main or entirely the chestnut trees in the
nut orchard were originally imported from the Orient; in fact, a
part of the trees, according to Mr. Sharpe, undoubtedly came from
Japan or China and were shipped to Agassiz in the original wrap-
pings, which consisted of the peculiar mats and casings of those
countries.

In a letter accompanying the specimens from British Columbia
Giissow states that “these trees may be regarded as absolutely iso-
lated. There is no other chestnut tree anywhere round it for 500
miles and more.” It seems highly probable therefore that 1. para-
_ sitica was carried to this locality on nursery stock, perhaps as sug-
gested by Faull and Graham and by Weir by importation from the
Orient.

The following spring (1913) Mr. Frank N. Meyer, agricultural
explorer, discovered this fungus in Chihli Province, China, under
such conditions as could leave no doubt that it is indigenous there.
The account of this discovery and its corroboration in this country
was published by Fairchild (27), and also by the writers (76).

As outlined by Fairchild (27), Meyer first found the diseased
chestnuts near Santunying, a small town 14 days journey by cart from
a railroad, northeast of Peking in Chihli Province, between Tsunhua-
tcho and Yehol. ;

A small specimen of diseased chestnut bark from this region was
inclosed in a letter from Mr. Meyer which was received by Mr. Fair-
child on June 28, 1913. From this specimen, which showed only
pycnospores, cultures were obtained, which proved it to be true £.
parasitica. On July 23 more Chinese specimens were received from
the same locality, as well as from Scha Ho in the same Province.
These included a large canker on a chestnut branch about 6 cm. in

56 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

diameter, which agreed in every respect with cankers produred on
varieties of Japanese chestnuts in this country (Pl. XXII).

Other specimens in this collection showed well-developed perithecia
and ascospores. The ascospore measurements made at the time, as
well as the cultures of the Chinese fungus and the inoculation experi-
ments on C’. dentata, are described in the previous paper by the
writers (76, p. 296).

Shortly after this first series of inoculations was made subcul-
tures of the Chinese material were sent to several investigators who
had been studying the chestnut-bark disease, in order that the
Endothia from China might be tested as soon as possible under
American conditions by inoculations at various points throughout
the known range of the disease.

A series of inoculations was made by Prof. J. Franklin Collins at
Martic Forge, Pa., on July 14, 1913, using American and grafted
Paragon and grafted Japanese chestnut trees. Another series of
inoculations, 56 in number, was made at the same locality Septem-
ber 10, 1913, by Dr. Caroline Rumbold on grafted Paragon chest-
nuts. Twenty inoculations were made on native chestnuts at Ander-
son, Pa., October 2, 1913, by Dr. F. D. Heald and R. A. Studhalter.
Inoculations with the Chinese Endothia were made at Leesburg, Va.,
on both Castanea dentata and C’. pumila by G. Flippo Gravatt and
J.T. Rogers, August 16, 1913.

All these investigators made duplicate inoculations with American
material, and all agreed that the Chinese fungus was identical in its
effects on the host with the American chestnut-bliight fungus. Dur-
ing the season of 1914 numerous inoculations with material from
China were made by the writers at various points in New Hamp-
shire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Delaware, and Mary-
land, while others have been made in Rhode Island by Prof. Collins
with the same results.

ADDITIONAL CHINESE SPECIMENS.

Since the publication of the previous paper (76) additional speci-
mens of /. parasitica from China have been received from Meyer;
one collected at Changli, Chihli Province, China, October 13, 1918,
by Mrs. Mary S. Clemens; a quantity of material collected by Meyer
himself in the village of Tachingko, near Taianfu, Shantung, China,
March 21, 1914; and another collected by him at Yatyeko, Shensi,
China, September 2, 1914. A few cankers have also been sent by
Meyer, collected by him at Shihbonshan, near Hangchow, Chekiang
Province, China, June 26, 1915. The label on this specimen bears
the further comment, “very destructive in this locality.” Cultures
have been made from all these specimens and have invariably proved
to be identical with cultures of 2. parasitica found in this country.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXII.

AN OLD CANKER CAUSED BY ENDOTHIA PARASITICA ON A BRANCH OF CASTANEA
: MOLLISSIMA.

Collected by Frank N. Meyer, May 31, 1913, near Santunying, Chihli Province, China.

Bul. 380, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIll.

Fia. 1.—JAPANESE CHESTNUT AT NIKKO, JAPAN, FROM WHICH THE CHESTNUT
BLIGHT FUNGUS (ENDOTHIA PARASITICA) WAS COLLECTED BY F. N. MEYER, ON
SEPTEMBER 17, 1915.

Fic. 2.—Two BRANCHES OF A JAPANESE CHESTNUT. THE LARGER (TO THE LEFT)
Was BROUGHT TO THIS COUNTRY BY F. N. MEYER, AND FROM IT ENDOTHIA
PARASITICA WAS ISOLATED.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 57

As Tachingko is 300 miles south of Changh, where /. parasitica was
first collected by Meyer, and Yatyeko is 500 miles west of Tachingko,
it seems highly probable from the collections that /’. parasitica is
widely distributed in China (fig. 5). :

Meyer, writing from Hangchow, July 1, 1915, refers as follows to
the condition of the chestnuts in that locality:

Well, I have a few interesting discoveries to report. First, there are many
specimens of Castanea mollissima scattered at the bases and on the lower
slopes of the hills around here, and these chestnuts are seriously attacked
by the bark fungus, and in my estimation are going to succumb to it these
coming years. The chinguapins (Castanea spp.), however, which are very
abundant on the higher and more Sterile hill slopes, seem to be immune;

Fic. 5.—Outline map of China and Japan, showing the localities in which Endothia
parasitica has been found.

at least I did not see any evidences of damage or even of attacks. This
brings another interesting point to my mind. I was told in Nanking that
various missionaries at Kuling, the great summer resort in central China
’ for missionaries, were cutting down their chestnuts,,;as the tops were all
dying, due to borers working underneath the bark.

Meyer has since stated to the writers that he believes the de-
struction of the chestnut at Kuling is due to Endothia parasitica
rather than to borers.

In the writers’ earlier publication the following statement was
made (76, p. 297):

The Chinese organism has thus been shown to be practically identical with

the American in all its morphological and physiological characters and in
the production of the typical chestnut blight and the pyenidial fructifications

58 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of the fungus. There is apparently but one other requirement that could be
made according to the strictest pathological canons to perfect the proof in
this case, and that is the production of typical ascospores of H. parasitica
on the lesions produced by the inoculations,

The last requirement*has now been fulfilled. Specimens collected
February 15, 1915, from inoculations made September 20, 1913, on
chestnuts in Virginia, near Point of Rocks, Md., with Chinese ma-
terial, show perithecial stromata with typical ascospores of /. par-
asitica, thus completing the evidence.

DISCOVERY OF ENDOTHIA PARASITICA IN JAPAN.

More than two years after his original discovery of Hndothia
parasitica in China (June 38, 1913), Meyer also discovered the fungus
in Japan. A brief account of his discovery has already been pub-
lished by the writers (78). It may be sufficient here to state that fol-
lowing the discovery of Hndothia parasitica in China the writers
endeavored by correspondence to obtain the fungus from Japan.
While not successful in obtaining L’ndothia parasitica, the writers
did receive several specimens of fungi, including species of Endothia
on species of Castanea. These, together with several specimens of.
fungi found on chestnut nursery stock from Japan, make it clear
that there are in that country several Pyrenomycetes other than
Endothia parasitica more or less parasitic on Castanea.

Meyer first discovered the chestnut-bight fungus in Japan at
Nikko, September 17, 1915, on wild trees of Castanea crenata Sieb.
and Zuce. A photograph of the trees from which he collected speci-
mens of Yndothia parasitica is shown in Plate XXIII, figure 1, and
a branch from which the diseased material brought to the United
Sates was taken is shown in Plate XXIII, figure 2.

Shortly after Meyer’s arrival in Washington in December, 1915,
the specimens collected at Nikko were turned over to the writers for
study. Examination at once showed cankers and mycelial fans
typical of Endothia parasitica. The material also contained typical
pycnospores and ascospores of the fungus. Cultures made from
single ascospores on various culture media proved to be identical
with those of /ndothia parasitica found in this country and in China,
thus establishing beyond question the identity of the fungus.

Meyer’s observations as to the resistance of the Japanese chestnuts
to this disease are of great interest. He states that the trees vary
considerably as regards their power of resistance, but that in general
the Japanese chestnut is even more resistant to X'ndothia parasitica
than is the Chinese chestnut (Castanea mollissima).

As announced in the same publication (78), Endothia parasitica
was collected by Dr. Gentaro Yamada at Morioka, northern Japan.
These specimens, which show typical cankers as well as ascospores of
the fungus, were received by the writers on January 8, 1916.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 59
PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF ENDOTHIA PARASITICA IN AMERICA.

The present range of Endothia parasitica in America, as shown by
the map (fig. 4), is probably merely the extent to which it has been
able to spread in the time since it was first introduced.

Whether Hndothia parasitica was introduced inte one locality or
several is uncertain, but the studies of Heald (40, 41) and others have
shown clearly that the spores of /’. parasitica are carried by the wind,
by insects and birds, and on nursery stock, which would account
for its wide distribution and for its occurrence in isolated localities,
long distances away from the main body of the disease. It also makes
it seem probable that the fungus will continue to spread with some
rapidity.

Certainly, there is no evidence that any factor, climatic or other-
wise, is likely to prevent the spread of this fungus into the large area
of chestnut south of its present range. On the contrary, the duplicate
inoculations made by the writers show clearly that the fungus grows
more rapidly at the southern limit of its present range than farther
north, where it is much mere common. The longer growing season
in the South is also no doubt an important factor.

In this connection, it may be noted that Koppen (46), in his map
of the vegetation regions of the earth, places the portion of China
where H'ndothea parasitica has been found indigenous in the same
climatic region as that portion of the United States where it is now
doing such destructive work. He designates this region as the
“ Hickory ” division of the mesotherms.

HOST RELATIONS OF THE SPECIES OF ENDOTHIA.

ENDOTHIA GYROSA.

Endothia gyrosa occurs commonly on Liquidambar, Fagus, and
Quercus, occasionally on Castanea, and has been found on Vitis in
Alabama, but the writers were unable to obtain fresh material from
this host.

While Fagus and Quercus are, of course, closely related, it seems
remarkable that a fungus should be abundant gn hosts so different
as Liquidambar and Quercus, yet so rare on any other host as to be
only once reported. It seemed possible, indeed, that the fungus on
Liquidambar, while morphologically and culturally identical with
that on the various other hosts, might prove to be physiologically dif-
ferent. In order to obtain more definite information on this point,
several series of cross inoculations were made.

It had been observed that Hndothia gyrosa was found most fre-
quently on the cut or broken ends of branches or on exposed, bruised,
or broken roots. In making inoculations, therefore, a small branch,

00

BULLETIN 380, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

1 inch or less in diameter, was cut off about 6 inches from the
main trunk. Mycelium from corn meal in flasks was placed on the
cut end of the stub and covered with wet cotton, over which oiled
paper was tied. In about two weeks the paper and cotton were re-

moved.
as checks.

In all cases. branches similar to those inoculated were cut

TABLE II1.—/noculations with Endothia gyrosa.

Source of fungus and Host inocu-
date. lated.
Fagus:

May 8, 1913........] Castanea......

May 29, 1913....... Wa oS seeee eee

Sept. 15, 1913.......| Liquidambar -

DOS oscars ie Quercus...-...-

Apr. 2, 1914.......- Wags eeeceee

Dossier sae Quercus.---..-

DOs eee tescee Castanea... ..-

May2235 1914 erase} asece Gorseesens

Donsiseveesesae Liquidambar -

ID@scos. so5sc5ce Quercus!.....

IDO satocomeanoe ‘agus.....--..
Quercus:

Majiya29 51913 eye es |e doze. se. 5

DOr ceeeee Liquidambar .

NeptsglonkOtses senseless doses ahs

DOSS secce esac Castanea ..-.--

Apres 2 114 ee cee lNeYeb Re oce aces

DO Lehessesssas Quercus!.....

Doves ecckssee Castanea ...---

May 23,1914. ......|..-.- Gonwsecea:

Wor ssaasseeee Liquidambar -

Doseeselceecen Quercus!.....

WOr se ek seaceee ASUS sae
Castanea:

Maye2o1 918 9am eee doe ee

DO css eee S Liquidambar .

Apr. 2, 1914......-- WAS =e eee

IB Base saeeeeccs Quercus!.....

Dossesieoesses: Castanea.....-

May 23, 1914.......1..... donee

Dots ers hsteae Liquidambar .

Do Quercus!.....

Ba SuSs-Aoeae se

-| Liquidambar .

A OUIS Ss cece

Castanea ..----

=|\R@uercuss---a.-

all TReKY IR a sececs

-| Quercus!.....

Castanea... -.-

Bites CW)aeerans

-| Liquidambar .

Quercus!.....

Wagus:..ss22-1

Number | Number

of inocu-
lations.

He GO a ad ee ie C= on wo

OW PRR - BRB WOO

a or) [o>) 00 GOO ee rs Cs He ie

SuCCeSS-

ful

ww WOoOOr, NOS YW WY Www

ww woo roo NO

oornooooco NY UAWwo co fF WwW FOS

Remarks.

Pycnospores first observed on Oct. 16.

Pycnospores first observed on Aug. 29 for
two and on Oct. 10 for the third.

No growth until the spring of 1914; pyc-
nidia scattered and small on Oct. 13.

No growth until spring; well developed on
Oct. 13, 1914.

Pycnidial stromata well developed on Oct.
Bae:
0.

Do.

Pyenospores first observed on Aug. 29, 1913.

Very slight indications of growth on Aug.

Beles a few pycnidia with spores on
ct. 16.

Large well-developed pycnidia on Oct. 13,
1914.

Targeabundant pycnidial stromata on Oct.

13, ;

Abundant well-developed pycnidial stro-
mata on Oct. 13, 1914.

Pycnospores first observed on Aug. 29, 1913.

Slight indications of pyenidial formation on
Aug. 29, 1913; pycnospores on all on Nov.
17, 1913.

Large well-developed pycnidial stromata
on Oct. 13, 1914.

Scattered, fairly well-developed pycnidia
on Oct. 13, 1914.

Abundant well-developed pycnidia on Oct.
13, 1914.

Pycnospores first observed on Aug. 29.

No evidence of growth until the spring of
1914; pycnidia few and small on Oct. i5.

No growth until the spring of 1914; pyc-
nidia small on Oct. 13.

Abundant pycnidia on Oct. 13, 1914.

1 The species used in this case was Quercus prinus, which proved to be an exceedingly unfavorable host

for Endothia gyrosa.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 61

Inoculations with Hndothia gyrosa were also made on numerous
hosts from which it had never been reported. Six or more inocu-

_ lations were made on each host, in the manner described above, ex-

cept that a part of each series was left unwrapped. The following
inoculations showed no growth whatever: Those made in Virginia,
April 4, 1914, on Cornus florida, Fraxinus americana, Juglans cinerea,
Llex opaca, Sassafras varitfolium,; in Maryland, April 17 and 22,
1914, on Carya glabra, Cornus florida, Lirtodendron tulipifera, Nyssa
sylvatica, Sassafras varifolium, and Quercus alba; and in New
York, July 11, 1914, on Betula alba, Prunus serotina, Populus trem-
uloides, Rhus glabra, Salix sp., and Sassafras varuifolium. On Acer
pennsylvanicum and Carya two out of the six inoculations developed
a few stromata. These were found only on the tissue injured by
the cut and there was no evidence of parasitism.

On Castanea, Fagus, Quercus, and Liquidambar, however, a branch
inoculated as described above dies back rather faster than the checks.
This would indicate, as suggested by Clinton (18, p. 419), that
E.. gyrosa is a weak parasite; that is, that it is able to invade injured
and dying tissue.

Tt is evident from Table III that Yndothia gyrosa coming from
any of the four hosts named will, under favorable circumstances,
grow on any of the others. Several other interesting facts are
brought out by the table. Inoculations made with material from
Liquidambar grew in general more rapidly on Liquidambar than
on any of the other hosts. In many cases, material from, Liquidam-
bar failed to grow on Castanea, Fagus, and Quercus, and even when
inoculations were successful growth was somewhat slower and pyc-
nidial production less abundant.

On the other hand, inoculations from Fagus, Quercus, and
Castanea usually grew less rapidly on Liquidambar than on any
of the other three hosts. This is, of course, what would be expected
from the systematic relationships of the host species, and while the
inoculations made are too few to permit any definite conclusions
they are nevertheless suggestive. As shown by Table III, Quercus
prinus proved a very unfavorable host for Endothia gyrosa.

In all cases inoculations made in the fall (Sept. 15) failed
to show any growth until the following spring. This corresponds
with the results in inoculations of E'ndothia parasitica, but it is, of
course, impossible to determine whether this failure to grow is due
to the dormant condition of the host or to unfavorable weather con-
ditions. Perhaps correlated with the results just noted are the

- unusually poor results obtained from inoculations made in the early

spring. It will be noted that inoculations made on April 2, 1914,
were in general much less successful than those made on May 23,

_ 1914, in exactly the same locality and in many cases on the same

: hosts.

62 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ENDOTHIA SINGULARIS.

The material of /ndothia singularis distributed by Sydow as Calo-
pactis singularis was on Quercus gambellii Nutt. The writers have
seen abundant material on this species as well as specimens on Q.
utahensis (A. DC.) Rydb., @. leptophylla Rydb., and Q. nitescens
Rydb. Specimens on the latter two hosts were sent by Bethel, who,
in a letter, reports finding this species also on Q. pungens Liebm.

All of these species except Quercus leptophylla are chaparral-
forming shrubs growing at an elevation of 4,000 feet or more.
There is at present no evidence that the fungus is parasitic on any
of the species.

TInoculations with the mycelium of Hndothia singularis were made
on Fagus and on Quercus alba, Q. velutina, Q. rubra, and Q. palustris,
as well as on Q. dicifolia on Overlook Mountain in the Catskills.
No growth has, however, been noted in any case.

ENDOTHIA FLUENS.

When these investigations were commenced, the writers thought
that the’ Endothia found in Europe might be the same as Yndothia
parasitica found in America. Inoculations were accordingly made
in Maryland during October, 1912, with cultures from material col-
lected on the chestnut by the senior writer at Stresa, Italy, and
Etrembieres, Switzerland, using material of /’. fluens sent by P. J.
Anderson from Pennsylvania; also material of that species and of
LE. parasitica collected in Virginia as checks. In this case, as in all
others where no special mention is made of the method, inoculations
were made by cutting through the bark to the wood with a sharp
knife. The inoculating material was then inserted with a freshly cut
twig and the wound tied up either with cord or rubber bands. If
cord was used it was cut away within two to four weeks. The rub-
ber bands became loosened by exposure to the weather within about
the same time.

Inoculations were made with all the above material on sprouts of
Castanea dentata and Quercus prinus. The results are summarized
in Table IV.

TABLE LV.—Jnoculations of Endothia in Maryland in October, 1912.

Number | Number
Fungus. Host.inoculated. ofinocu- | showing
lations. growth.

Bnd othiawparasitica ce sae ss eereeee see aan eere era Castanea dentata...........- ~ 32 28

IDO SSS SraREnecoenceaotadaocdnd ss ScapSHOrEeeS Sears Quercus prinus......-...--.- 6 0
E. fluens: -

BIO p Gallet i ae ee ae Cp eee TN Castanea dentata...........- 14 14

PACT OLICAM ee ie ese eis ae et vias a a eter en aye lniccnese Oe ao Santee a eeeec eee 26 23

ss

- ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 63

The inoculations were examined every 10 days until December 1
and monthly thereafter throughout the winter. There was no per-
ceptible growth until the last of April, when several of the inocula-
tions of Hndothia parasitica showed slight sunken areas. By May
20 all inoculations checked as showing growth (last column of table)
showed the slight yellowish elevations of the bark which indicate
the beginnings of pycnidia. On August 30 all the inoculations of
E. parasitica checked as showing growth had spread rapidly and
attacked the living tissues of the host, producing typical cankers with
mycelial fans and abundant pycnidia. :

No signs of growth were noted in the inoculations of Hndothia
fluens until about the middle of May, 1913, when most of them
showed signs of pycnidium formation. By August 30 all those
marked as showing growth had produced characteristic pycnidia
with spores, which when cultured proved to be typical L. fluens. In
no case, however, did this fungus spread for any appreciable distance
beyond the injured portion or show signs of active parasitism. These
results agree with those given by Anderson and Anderson (2, p. 206)
with American material of HZ. fluens, and have since been fully con-
firmed by further observation.

During the summer of 1914 about 1,100 inoculations of Endothia
fluens from both European and American sources and of Z. fluens
mississippiensis were made on Castanea sprouts. In no case was
there any evidence of active parasitism, as in /’. parasitica.

Although Endothia fluens has been found in Europe on a con-
siderable number of deciduous host plants (as recorded on p. 18),
the writers have thus far failed to find it in this country on any
except Castanea and Quercus. It seemed possible that the European
strain of the fungus might be somewhat more plurivorous? in its
habits than the American. In order to throw some light on this

point, the following inoculations were made:

On March 31, 1914, 10 inoculations were made, half of European and half
of American material, at Francis, Md., on the following hosts: Alnus rugosa,
Betula nigra, Carpinus caroliniana, Carya glabra, Fagus grandifolia, Lirio-
dendron tulipifera, and Liquidambar styraciflua. Pyenidia appeared only on
Carya glabra and Carpinus caroliniana. Of the inoculations which actually
produced pycnidia, four on Carpinus and three on Carya, one of each was the
Kuropean strain. z

On April 22 inoculations were made with American material of H. fluens at
Kensington, Md., on Acer rubrum, Carya glabra, Cornus florida, Fagus grandi-
folia, Prunus serotina, Quercus prinus, Sassafras variifolium, Vaccinium sp.,

1 This term is proposed to apply to fungi occurring on two or more hosts or substrata
and may be applied to all fungi except true parasites. It is derived from plus (plur-),
more, and vorare, to devour. Compare omnivorous already in use for fungi.

The term pleioxonous might be derived from De Bary’s proposed word pleioxony and
applied to true parasites having the power to invade more than one species of host plant,
and the term plurivorous restricted to nonparasitic organisms.

64 BULLETIN 380, U. S$. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and Vitis sp. Of these, Acer rubrum and Carya glabra gave numerous small
pycnidia. :

On July 10 the following hosts were inoculated at Woodstock, N. Y., with
H. fluens from Europe: Acer rubrum, A. pennsylwanicum, Carya ovata, Corylus
americana, Frazrinus americana, Hamamelis virginiana, Kalmia latifolia, Popu-
lus grandidentata, Prunus serotina, Rhus glabra, Salix sp., Sassafras variifo-
lium, and Syringa vulgaris. Fach host was inoculated in six or seven places,
but all failed to develop except two inoculations on Acer pennsylwanicum and
one on Corylus americana.

The results cited above are so largely negative that they prove very

little except that the European strain shows no special affinity for
these hosts in America. —

ENDOTHIA FLUENS MISSISSIPPIENSIS.

Only five collections of Endothia fluens mississippiensis have thus
far been made, three on Castanea dentata and two on Quercus sp.
From the results of the inoculations its host relations appear very
similar to those of . fluens. The results are: shown in Table V.

TABLE V.—Inoculations with Endotiia fluens mississippiensis on Castanea and
Quercus.

”

Number | Number
Source of culture. Host inoculated. Date. of inocu- | showing
lations. | pycnidia.

Castanea ize seek een eo See Castanea. east he see nee Jan. 20,1912 8 8
DOR OSs oes eae ew clon Ss aoa aa igeeer Gone eRe aoe aiceeeee May 8,1913 4 4
TD Sees or SOB GUAHeBe: REE S See Ponee CONS is Seascapes seen al bate do eteee 4 4
DO see aeaecisiee eee osccleten tee aee Quercus;pnindsseeeeeee eee ase | seer Gossscesee 9 7
WO Settee sees ote eek Castanea. . eikm.-aeaceseee Apr. 18,1914 12 10
COUCH CI seas Uta e ree be erent hae WO ee east one Sac eee soeet lees Goteeaaae 12 10

The inoculations of January 20, 1912, showed no signs of growth
until early in May, when the first signs of pycnidium formation were
observed. The inoculations with Endothia fluens mississippiensis
made May 8, 1913, showed within three weeks discolored areas near
the cut which were larger than those about the check cuts. On July~
25, 1913, all of the inoculations of /’. fluens mississippiensis marked
“successful” showed the beginnings of pycnidium formation. By
August 30, 1913, they were producing pycnospores, which when cul-
tured proved to be /. fluens mississippiensis.

Inoculations were made in April, 1914, for the purpose of com-
paring the material collected on oak with that collected on chest-
nut. No difference was detected, and there was no indication of active
parasitism. This form behaved in this respect exactly as did the Z.
fluens from Virginia both on Castanea dentata and Quercus prinus.

A series of inoculations parallel to that made with Z. fluens was
made with 2. fluens mississippiensis. The same hosts were used,
and in most cases the dates and places of the inoculation were the
same. The results of all that showed any growth are given in
Table VI.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 65

Tarte Vi.—Inoculations with Endothia fluens mississippiensis on Acer and
. Caryd.

. Number | Number
Location. Host. ofinocu-| showing
| lations. | pycnidia.

| WACAUSIEG Balls ae eee eee Smee ees ACEP TIDEUM siete ais aero 6 3

Ome ate hese naan a2) stints oases olsen emiee Canyalglabras sepia sse 6 2
LOPES. 116 la oe ep SI AR eae a ee ee penne OMS meen tacoma caer me 6 1
Heusineion, Mid mre rae ia yee oS wee Sot cee ee SACD TULUM econ aoa 1 4

Ureocstcsetskebeos ant edaq en eeaed Semeancsuscmaaae | Canyalabra_-.--.---2------

As in Endothia fluens the growth was confined to the injured tis-
sues, and there was no evidence of parasitism.

ENDOTHIA TROPICALIS.

The material of Lndothia tropicalis from which the writers se-
cured their cultures, was collected by T. Petch in Ceylon. As the
species of Endothia in the Northern Hemisphere are chiefly on
members of the Fagacez, Petch’s statements with regard to hosts
are of considerable interest. In a letter of March 6, 1914, he writes:

We have no Fagacez native in the island. We have introduced various
species of Quercus and Castanea, but subsequent to Thwaite’s discovery of

_ this fungus. I do not think there can be any doubt that the fungus is native
to Ceylon * * *

Of the speciments now sent * * * those in the packet * * * are
from a tree which was producing shoots from the base. This tree is Hlaeocar-
pus glandulifer Mast. From the bark and habit, I believe that all my “ finds”
of Endothia have been on this species.

In the accounts of the American chestnut disease, I notice that several
authors speak of “ cankers,” and give their rate of growth. I never see
“cankers” (Krebs) on the Ceylon trees. The bark appears to die regu-
larly ana smoothly from above downward, and is quite unbroken except for
the minute cracks through which the stromata emerge.

Inoculations—As already noted, ascospores of Hndothia tropi-
calis resemble those of #. parasitica even more closely than do those
ot L. fluens. This fact, together with its similarity on culture media
and its oriental origin, led the writers to fear possible parasitic
tendencies. :

Inoculation experiments were accordingly made,only on the chest-
nut and under carefully guarded conditions. In all, about 30
inoculations were made on 2-inch chestnut sprouts, using the methods
described for other species.

Of 25 inoculations made in May and June, practically all had de-
veloped a few pycnidial stromata by October 20. These stromata
were 2 somewhat brighter orange than those of Z’. fluens or EL. fluens
mississippiensis, and the spores when cultured produced typical 2’.
tropicalis. In no case, however, was there any evidence of parasitism.

43787°—Bull. 3880—17——5

66 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ENDOTHIA PARASITICA ON HOSTS OTHER THAN CASTANEA.

The first collection of L'ndothia parasitica on a host other than
Castanea of which the writers have any knowledge is that made by
J. Franklin Collins at Martic Forge, Pa., June 30, 1909. As an-
nounced by Dr. Metcalf at the Boston (December, 1909) meeting
of the American Phytopathological Society, the specimen consisted
of a small dead branch of Quercus velutina with several spore
tendrils typical of 2. parasitica. This material, which consisted of
a terminal branch with leaves still retained, was at once sent to the
laboratory at Washington, and cultures obtained from it were sub-
sequently used in making numerous inoculations on Castanea dentata
on Long Island, N. Y., in July, 1909. On November 17 of the same
year, Metcalf reported that the inoculations were entirely successful
and had produced typical lesions, thus establishing without question
the identity of the fungus.

Fulton (37, p. 53) reports 2. parasitica on the dead bark of Quer-
cus alba and Quercus velutina, but found no evidence that the fungus
produces in any sense a disease of such trees. Clinton (18, p. 428)
mentions “eultures from three different species of Quercus and (p.
376) reports specimens on Quercus alba, Q. rubra, and Q. velutina.

Anderson and Babcock, as quoted by Anderson and Rankin (6, p.
564), found Hndothia parasitica on Quercus velutina, Q. alba, Q.
prinus, Rhus typhina, Acer rubrum, and Carya ovata, but it seemed
parasitic only on Quercus alba. They made inoculations with mate-
rials isolated from Castanea on Quercus prinus, Q. velutina, Q. alba,
Q. coccinea, Rhus typhina, Acer rubrum, Liriodendron tulipifera, and
Carya ovata. Two trees of Rhus were girdled and killed by the
growth of the fungus. On Quercus alba the fungus seemed slightly
parasitic, but none of the trees were killed. The fungus grew and
produced spore horns on the wounded tissue near the point of inocu-
lation on all the hosts except Acer and Liriodendron.

Rankin (62, p. 238) also made inoculations with E'ndothia para-
sitica from Castanea on Quercus prinus, Q. rubra, Q. alba, and Q.
coccinea. We found that the mycelium advanced into the living
tissues for a short distance in a few cases, but that in no case were
typical cankers formed. Pycnidia were produced abundantly on the
injured tissues of all the hosts.

During the course of this work only four specimens of /'ndothia
parasitica on hosts other than Castanea have come to the writers.
One was on chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) collected by F. W. Besley,
at Towson, Md., December 26, 1911; one from Quercus velutina, at
Germantown, Pa., as well as one from white oak (Quercus alba), at
Kennett Square, Pa., were collected by S. B. Detwiler; and one
from dead maple, Acer sp., at Florence, Mass., by Roy G. Pierce.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 67

The specimen collected by Besley on Quercus prinus showed the fan-
shaped mats of mycelium typical of #. parasitica on Castanea spe-
cies. The fungus had apparently girdled the tree. The specimen on
Quercus alba, collected by Detwiler, was similar to one on Quercus
prinus in appearance and came from a dead tree which had appar-
ently been killed by the growth of the fungus. The specimens on
Acer sp. and on Quercus alba were received in the spring of 1914,
and cultures isolated from them were used in making inoculations
for the purpose of determining whether the fungus had either lost
or gained in virulence by passing through other hosts.

INOCULATION EXPERIMENTS.

The cultures secured from Acer and Quercus, together with one
made from Castanea at about the same time, were inoculated into
three separate sprouts of Acer rubrum, Castanea dentata, and Quer-
cus prinus. The sprouts chosen were of nearly the same size, 2
inches in diameter, and similarly situated, and each was inoculated
in five places, with two check cuts above. The inoculations were
made the usual way on March 31, 1914, and were examined at least
once a month during the summer.

_None of the inoculations on Quercus produced any growth what-
ever. On Acer the inoculations with the culture from Quercus all
failed to develop; one of the inoculations with the culture from
Acer showed a few pycnidia, while four of the inoculations with
material from the chestnut developed a few pycnidia. On Castanea
the three series of inoculations were almost identical, every inocula-
tion producing a typical canker.

Of course, these inoculations are too few to be conclusive, but it
is evident that there was no decrease in virulence on the chestnut
in passing through Acer or Quercus and that no particular affinity
for either Acer or Quercus was gained. On the maple, in fact, the
culture direct from chestnut produced the most growth.

In addition to those listed above, numerous inoculations were made
in order to determine whether H’ndothia parasitica had any parasitic
tendencies on other deciduous hosts. é

These inoculations were all made during the spring of 1914 by
the usual method of cutting well through the bark and inserting
mycelium and spores from a pure culture, usually on corn meal.
The wounds were then wet, some bound with wet cotton, others with
paraflin paper, and about half were left unwrapped.

Seven or more inoculations were made on April 4 in Maryland on
Alnus rugosa, Betula nigra, Carpinus caroliniana, Fagus grandifolia,
Kalmia latifolia, Liriodendron tulipifera, and Liguidambar styraci-
flwa, none of which developed. Inoculations were also made on April

68 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

22 in this locality on Acer rubrum, Carya glabra, Cornus florida,
Fagus grandifolia, Liriodendron tulipifera, Quercus prinus, Sas-
safras variifolium, Vaccinium sp., and Vitis sp. without success.
On April 18, the following hosts were inoculated in Virginia: Acer
rubrum, Betula ngra, Benzoin aestivale, Carpinus caroliniana, Carya
glabra, Cornus florida, Fagus grandifolia, Liriodendron tulipifera,
Prunus serotina, Quercus alba, Ulmus americana, and Vitis sp.
Each host was inoculated in from four to six places. Of these,
pycnidia were produced only on Acer rubrum, Carpinus, and Lirio-
dendron. A similar series was made on the same hosts in the same
place on May 27. Inoculations on one tree of Quercus alba showed
undoubted evidence of parasitism and is described below.

On July 9 and 11 from five to fourteen inoculations were made
on each of the following hosts at Woodstock, N. Y.: Acer rubrum,
Betula alba, Carya ovata, Fagus grandifolia, Fraxinus americana,
Hamamelis virginiana, Juglans cinerea, Kalmia latifolia, Nyssa syl-
vatica, Ostrya virginiana, Populus grandidentata, Prunus serotina,
Rhus typhina, Quercus rubra, Salix sp., Sambucus canadensis, and.
Sassafras variifolium. Pycnidia appeared on Acer rubrum and
Ostrya only. The fungus made considerable growth on two plants
of Rhus typhina, partly girdling branches one-half inch in diameter
and producing distinct fans. The fans were, however, much smaller
than those usually found in Castanea. Inoculations were made at
Avon, Conn., July 15, on Acer saccharum, Betula alba, Carya glabra,
Cornus florida, and Ostrya virginiana. Pyenidia developed only
on Ostrya. The successful inoculations with H’ndothia parasitica
are shown in Table VII.

TaBLeE VIT.—Successful inoculations in 1914 with Endothia parasitica on hosts
other than Castanea.

: Number | Number
Locality. Date. Host. ofinocu- | success-
lations. ful.

ADSI Are sapere eter Ash lessens Apr. 1 87) cA cer rubrum eas etna eae ee cree 9 1
IDYO)S -sacqéonnesesdneoonuae cnelshoe esac Carpmuscaroliniana: 22... 2.-22-22--5----- 6 2
D\ncdasshqnsepaassqusese ---d0.....| Liriodendron tulipifera............------- 6 1
MOR oreo cae caee se sees May. 27 Querciisalbaeeseen ener ne aser eee er ePr ee 4 4
ING Wik MOLK Sep ees ct seniaei= July 11 | Acer pennsylvanicum=.-2-2--------------- 14 4
IDO seeacosoassaceseosascs a2 Oso OStryaiteintian a ese eee eere eee creer 6 2
Connechicuites-s pes ee-eeeeeee Ulivaeton | aeerers GOs So aeibecemcet cree seme cme caceemecic 15 4

1 Inoculations producing pycnidia are classed as successful.

It must be noted that while pycnidia were produced in the cases
listed as successful, there was no indication of parasitism, nor did
the growth extend beyond the tissue injured by the cut except in
Quercus and Rhus.

Out of about 400 inoculations with Hndothia parasitica on hosts
other than Castanea, about 70 of which were made on different

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 69

species of Quercus, chiefly Y. prinus and Q. alba, only one case has
been noted in which the fungus assumed a typically parasitic réle.
The data in this case may be summed up as follows: Four inocula-
tions were made May 27, 1914, on a small tree of Quercus alba. This
tree was suppressed, and although when cut down it showed about
30 annual rings it was only 16 feet high and about 2 inches in diam-
eter. It was in a moist, shady locality close beside a stream, and in
spite of its small size was apparently healthy. The inoculations
were made in the usual way from a culture of /. parasitica on corn
meal. On August 1 it was noted that all four inoculations were pro-
ducing pycnidia, and in at least one case typical fans had been
developed. On October 15 all four cankers had more than half
girdled the seedling. No observations were made during the winter,
but at the time the leaves had reached half the normal size, in the
spring of 1915, the tree was completely girdled. On July 1 this tree
presented an appearance closely similar to that of a small chestnut
tree girdled by EL'ndothia parasitica. All the leaves above the point
of inoculation were dead and remained attached to the branches.
Below the girdled portion, water sprouts had developed, as has been
frequently described for chestnut trees affected with ZL’. parasitica.
Cultures made from this tree showed the fungus to be typical of
E.. parasitica. Whether this case of parasitism was due to unusual
virulence on the part of the fungus or to unusual susceptibility on
the part of the host is, of course, merely a matter of conjecture; the
latter alternative seems, however, somewhat more probable, as other
inoculations with this strain of the fungus on Q. prinus and Q. alba
failed to show similar results.

In addition to the above, a somewhat similar observation has been
made by the writers near Amherst, Mass. In connection with other
work, a sprout of Quercus prinus about an inch in diameter was
inoculated with Endothia gyrosa on July 15,1914. When this inocu-
lation was made the tree was partly (about one-fourth) girdled.
E. gyrosa developed normally and by October 1, 1914, had produced
several pycnidial stromata. No change was apparent when the inocu-
lations were examined in May, 1915. ‘

E. parasitica was abundant in the region, however, and apparently
gained entrance through the cuts originally made, for when the plat
was next visited, August 17, 1915, the sprout appeared quite dead,
though still retaining its full-sized dead leaves. Further examina-
tion showed numerous pycnidia of /. parasitica in addition to those
of #. gyrosa near the region of the original inoculation. The pycnidia
of L’. parasitica were on all sides of the stem, while those of #. gyrosa
were confined to the portion above the cuts made in inoculating. The
mycelial fans typical of /. parasitica were abundant also. These

70 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

observations leave no doubt that the tree was girdled and killed by
E. parasitica.

Endothia parasitica in exceptional cases undoubtedly attacks other
hosts than Castanea, producing cankers and sometimes causing the
death of the host. The results of the inoculations just recorded
appear to indicate that some unusual conditions of host or parasite
must obtain in such cases. Whether such a combination of conditions
or factors will ever become sufficiently frequent to lead to serious
destruction of Quercus or other forest trees remains to be determined.

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA ON CASTANEA SPP.

Although found occasionally on species of other genera, ndothia
parasitica is dangerously pathogenic only on members of the genus
Castanea. The parasitism of this fungus on the American chestnut
(Castanea dentata) was first proved by Murrill (57) and has since
been demonstrated by numerous investigators.

When Endothia parasitica was discovered in the United States it
was considered by some investigators to be a native fungus which
had suddenly become parasitic, and various theories were advanced
to account for the supposed unusual susceptibility of the host. As
enumerated by Clinton (18, p. 391), the factors suggested include
winter injury, drought injury, fire injury, weakened condition due
to continued coppicing, and reduced amounts of tannic acid due
perhaps to weather conditions.

Continued study by many investigators in different localities has,
however, fully confirmed the observation originally made by Met-
calf and Collins in 1910 (53) that “a debilitated tree is no more
subject to attack than a healthy one” and that EL’ndothia parasitica
is actively parasitic on the healthiest specimen of Castanea dentata
in case there is opportunity for wound infection. The writers have
personally made over 1,200 inoculations of 2’. parasitica on Castanea
dentata without finding a single individual that showed any re-

sistance.
CASTANEA ON LIMESTONE SOILS.

Not only are all trees susceptible, but so far as is known no con-
dition of soil, altitude, or moisture renders them more resistant to
the disease. The idea has been held by some writers that chestnuts
grown on limestone soils were immune to the disease, and the plant-
ing of chestnut orchards on such soils was advocated. This view
is held by Gulliver (38, p. 53), who sums up his observations in two
regions in Pennsylvania as follows:

In every series of tracts taken from limestone to overlying shale soils, the
percentage of blight is least at a comparatively short distance * * * from

the edge of the limestone. Tracts on soils derived from limestone which
show the highest percentage of blight seem to be those where the soil has

—

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 71

become acid from underground drainage. Chestnut trees on soils derived
from other alkaline rocks show less blight than is found in the trees on shale
soils with limestone underneath.

On the other hand, Detwiler (24, p. 67) reports observations in
the Lizard Creek valley which seem to show that these relations do
not always occur. He says—

A belt of limestone borders Lizard Creek valley on the south, and the per
cent of infection is as high in that region as elsewhere. Infection centers

have been found near limestone quarries, where the roots of the chestnut pene-
trated to bedrock.

Actual proof or disproof of the truth of this idea was peculiarly
difficult, since chestnut is but rarely found growing naturally on
calcareous soils. During the summer of 1914, however, a careful
study of the chestnut on certain portions of limestone areas in west-
ern Maryland and western Connecticut was made. These localities
were chosen because they were convenient in connection with other
work, the blight had been present fer several years in both States,
and thorough State geological surveys made the location of the lime-
stone areas very easy. ‘The two States also are sufficiently far apart
to eliminate sources of error that might arise from local weather
conditions.

In western Connecticut chestnut was abundant on glacial till over
the Stockbridge limestone of this region. Chestnut was also grow-
ing directly over limestone at various points near Danbury, Twin
Lakes, Chapinville, and Lakeville. Several localities near the latter
place were kindly pointed out by Dr. George E. Nichols. Near Dan-
bury every tree examined showed the blight in a more or less ad-
vanced stage, while near the other towns, all in the northwest corner
of the State, nearly 50 per cent of the trees were blighted. About
30 inoculations were made on sprouts in this region, and all
except two developed cankers quite as rapidly as did check inocula-
tions made on the trap ridge west of Hartford.

Chestnut is very rare on the Shenandoah limestone in the Hagers-
town and [Trederick valleys of western Maryland. A number of
chestnut trees were, however, located growing on limestone soil near
Frederick Junction and Adamstown in the Frederick valley. The
disease was already established west of Adamstown, where 20 per
cent of the chestnuts were either diseased or dead. Twenty-two in-
oculations were made on nine chestnut sprouts in these two regions,
and all developed typical cankers quite as rapidly as the checks made
in similar sprouts growing over Baltimore gneiss 50 miles east.

RECESSION OF THE CHESTNUT IN THE SOUTHERN STATES.

While it has been definitely proved that Hndothia parasitica is
pathogenic on healthy chestnut trees, one of the points brought for-

72 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ward by the advocates of the “ weakened host” theory seems to be
fully established; that is, that the chestnut trees have suffered se-
verely in the southern Appalachian regions previous to the present
epidemic, in some cases being practically exterminated, so that the
range is now considerably less than formerly. The evidence on this
point has been summarized by Clinton (18, pp. 408-413). Various
writers quoted by him cite fire injury and bowers and other insects
as causes for this recession.

Long (48, p. 8) considers a root rot due to Arméllaria mellea as
“very probably an important factor in the gradual recession of the
chestnut” in North Carolina. It seems probable that all of the
above-mentioned factors, and perhaps others, have played a part in
the destruction of the chestnut in this region.

RELATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SPECIES OF CASTANEA.

The importance of Castanea dentata as a timber and nut tree and
its abundance in eastern North America, where the blight is preva-
lent, has made the chestnut blight an object of much investigation.
Descriptions of the nature and importance of the disease, the rate
of its spread, methods of distribution, and attempted methods of
control have been given in detail by Anderson (1-5), Clinton (12-15),
Heald (39-41), Metcalf (51 and 52), Metcalf and Collins (53), Ran-
kin (62), and others. It may be sufficient here to state that the
fungus enters the host through a wound in the bark, probably never
or very rarely through lenticels or natural cracks, grows chiefly in
the cambium, penetrating for only short distances into the wood,
and kills the tree or branch by girdling. Once a tree is attacked,
it is only a question of time till it succumbs.

The chinquapin (Castanea pumila) was found by Murrill (58) in
1908 to be attacked by Hndothia parasitica. Rogers and Gravatt
(65) in 1915 made inoculations of #. parasitica on C. pumila and
found that the parasite grew as rapidly on this host as on (’. dentata.
They attribute the apparent resistance of the chinquapin to its com-
parative freedom from bark injury, a view also held by other writers.
Pantanelli (60) and Metcalf (52) have proved that the European
chestnut is readily susceptible to the disease.

The only chestnuts thus far observed which show any resistance
to Endothia parasitica are those of oriental origin. Metcalf (51)
first pointed out the resistance of the Japanese chestnut. This
observation has since been confirmed by Clinton (18, p. 375), who
“ failed to produce the disease in a Japanese variety in the [Conn.}
station yard, although the bark was inoculated in 16 different places.”

Van Fleet (84), in describing the spread of the chestnut blight in
his breeding plats at Washington, D. C., says (p. 21): “ The Asiatic
chestnuts and the chinquapin-Asiatic olan are plainly highly
resistant.”

a

4

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 13

Morris (56) sums up eight years’ observation of the effect of the
chestnut blight on 26 species and varieties of chestnuts at Stamford,
Conn., as follows:

Every one of the 5,000 American chestnut trees became blighted * * *
None of [the grafted varieties or seedlings of European and Asiatic varieties
appear] to be as vulnerable as the American chestnut, but most of mine are
now dead. Korean chestnuts and chestnuts from the Aomori regions in
Japan resisted the blight until six years of age. Since that time they
have shown a marked tendency to blight, but resist it better than does

the American chestnut * * * None of the American species of chinquapin

* * * has blighted with the exception of two limbs * * * None of the
specimens of Castanea ainifolia [or] * * * of- Castanea mollissima has
blighted, but these latter include only five trees.

These observations as to the resistance of the oriental varieties of
chestnut when grown in America are of particular interest in con-
nection with the observations of Meyer in the region where he dis-
covered E'ndothia parasitica native. In his letter to Fairchild, writ-
ten from Santunying, China, June 4, 1913, Meyer makes the following
notes with reference to the effect of the blight in that region:

This blight does not by far do as much damage to Chinese chestnut trees as
to the American ones * * *

Not a single tree could be found which had been killed entirely by this
disease, although there might have been such trees which had been removed
by the ever-active and economic Chinese farmers * * *

Dead limbs, however, were often seen and many a saw wound showed where
limbs had been removed * * *

The wounds on the majority of the trees were in the process of healing
OVE en ct a *

Old wounds are to be observed here and there on ancient trees.

Meyer’s photographs taken near Santunying substantiate his state-
ments. Certainly no specimens of C. dentata in a blight-infested
region. in this country could survive to the age of the Chinese chest
nuts shown in his photographs.

That the Chinese chestnuts are by no means uniformly resistant,
however, is clearly shown by Meyer’s later notes. On the label of a
package of Endothia parasitica collected on chestnut at Tachingko,
Shantung, China, March 21, 1914, he writes, “Trees very severely
attacked, many dying off,” and in a letter written from the same
place he says, “‘ A serious canker; many of the trees here were killed
by it.”

Further evidence that the virulence of Hndothia parasitica on Chi-

nese chestnut differs in different parts of China is found in subse-

quent communications from Meyer. From a point near Chingtsai,
Chekiang, China, on July 15, 1915, he writes: “ All around Hang-
chow and west of it one finds the chestnut trees seriously attacked by
this destructive bark fungus.”

On July 11, 1915, near Changhua, Chekiang, China, he com-

; ments, “ With Ge sean of near Tenant Shag chestnuts

74 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

are much more severely attacked in the Chekiang Province than
either in Chihli, Shansi, or Shensi. Could the greater humidity of
central China be of assistance to a more vigorous development of
this destructive fungus?”

COMPARISON OCF HOST RELATIONS.

It will be seen from the above description of the host relations of
the various species that while some other members of the genus
(2. gyrosa, e. g.) may have slight parasitic tendencies, L'ndothia
parasitica, alone is an active parasite. The contrast is still more
striking in the section of the genus to which /. parasitica belongs,
for #. filuens and L’. fluens mississippiensis, which resemble L’. para-
sitica so closely in their morphological characters, and to a less
degree on culture media, and are common on Castanea, are almost
purely saprophytic. This fact is established by the work of Ander-
son (2), Clinton (18), and others, and by two years’ field observa-
tions and several thousand inoculations made by the writers and
their colleagues.

The host relations of the parasite are equally striking. Although
Endothia parasitica is so pathogenic on Castanea dentata that this
tree has been practically exterminated over several hundred square
miles of its natural range and its extinction is threatened, the fungus
has been only occasionally found as even a weak parasite on the
closely related genus Quercus, and never, to the writers’ knowledge,
on Fagus.

During the course of this work the writers have been continually
impressed with the possibilities of a physiological study of 7. para-
sitica and one or more closely related species which might throw
some light on the fundamental question of the nature and cause of
parasitism. No other case is known to the writers of a virulently
parasitic fungus and a closely related purely saprophytic one which
will grow readily and fruit on a large variety of artificial media,
which are readily distinguishable on those media, and remain con-
stant for hundreds of generations.

SUMMARY.

The pathological and economic importance of this group of fungi
was first recognized when the chestnut-blight fungus was discov-
ered in New York in 1904.

This organism was first referred to the genus Diaporthe, but
was later shown to belong to the genus Endothia.

The specific identity, relationships, and native home of this para-
site were at first uncertain. Some pathologists considered it a native
organism which was attracting attention and causing injury chiefly

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 15

by reason of the weakened condition of the chestnut trees. Others
believed it to be of foreign origin. Its recent discovery in China
and Japan has settled this question.

To determine positively the identity of the organism, a thorough
study was made of the types or authentic specimens of all the species
of Endothia obtainable. Asa result of this work a revision of avail-
able species of the genus is presented. This is based upon the field
and laboratory study of over 600 collections. Over 4,000 cultures
have also been studied.

Endothia gyrosa (Schw.) Fr. is the type of the genus, which is
naturally divided into two sections, chiefly by the character of the
ascospores. In section 1 they are short, cylindric to allantoid, and
continuous or only pseudoseptate. This section contains two species,
EB. gyrosa and EF. singularis.

Section 2 has oblong-fusiform to oblong-ellipsoid uniseptate as-
cospores. This contains four species and one variety, Hndothia
fluens, EL. fluens mississippiensis, FE’. longirostris, E. tropicalis, and
EL. parasitica. FE. tropicalis is a hitherto unrecognized species.

Radiating layers of yellowish or buff mycelium situated in the
bark and cambium of the host are found to be constant and dis-
tinctive characteristics of Endothia parasitica. None of the other
species studied shows this character.

All species of the genus possess a stroma having a distinctive
yellow to reddish color.

There is no division of stroma into distinct layers, as described by
some authors. Pycnidia or perithecia may arise in any portion of
the stroma. Most commonly where pycnidia and perithecia are both
present the pycnidia are above the perithecia, though the reverse
arrangement is sometimes observed and all intermediate conditions
frequently occur.

The stromata of the species of section 1 are larger, more erumpent,
and contain more numerous pycnidia than those of section 2. E’'n-
dothia singularis is especially striking in this respect. The stromata
of section 2 are smaller and very similar in all the species.

The pycnidia consist of more or less irregular chambers or locules
in the stroma.

The pyenospores are small in most species and furnish no very
distinctive specific characters. The pycnospores of H’ndothia trop-
icalis are, however, constantly larger and more variable in size than
those of the other species.

Paraphyses have been described by some authors, but have never
been observed by the writers.

The ascospores in the species of section 1 are very similar in size
and shape. Those in section 2, though similar, have been found by
thorough study and careful measurement to show constant though

76 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

slight differences, as indicated in the tables of measurements and
ratios.

Numerous cultures of all the species on a variety of media show
that each species has constant and distinctive characters of growth
and color.

All the species grew equally well in light or darkness, and no de-
cided differences in temperature relations have been demonstrated.

The species appear to have well-defined geographic limits of
distribution, which have been approximately determined for the
American species. The distribution of the species does not coincide
with that of the hosts, but seems to be determined in part by soil
and climatic conditions.

Endothia fluens has the widest distribution, being frequent and
widely distributed in Europe and the eastern United States, and also
occurring in Asia.

Endothia parasitica is evidently of oriental origin. Specimens
have been received from five rather widely separated localities in
China and from two localities in Japan. In the eastern United
States it Is now abundant from Maine to North Carolina and is
rapidly spreading south and west. It has already destroyed most
of the chestnut trees within a radius of 100 miles of New York City.

The species have rather definite host relations.

Endothia gyrosa has been found on five genera of plants, viz, Cas-
tanea, Fagus, Liquidambar, Quercus, and Vitis.

Endothia singularis occurs, so far as known, only on Quercus
species.

Endothia fluens has been found in America only on Castanea and
Quercus, but in Europe it occurs on Alnus, Carpinus, Castanea,
Corylus, Quercus, and Ulmus, and has been reported on Aesculus,
Fagus, and Juglans.

Endothia fluens mississip piensis has been found only on Castanea
and Quercus.

Endothia tropicalis is known only on Elaeocarpus.

Endothta parasitica has been found on Acer, Carya, Castanea,
Quercus, and Rhus, but at present is only known as a serious para-
site on Castanea.

Upon the American species of Castanea it is actively parasitic
under all the conditions of soil and climate observed. Oriental
species of chestnut are more or less resistant to. the disease both in
America and their native homes.

None of the species except H'ndothia parasitica has thus far been
found to be actively parasitic.

LITERATURE CITED.

(1) ANpDERSoN, P. J.

1914. Morphology and life history of the chestnut blight fungus. Com.
Invest. and Control Chestnut Tree Blight Disease in Penn. Bul.
7, 44 p., 17 pl. 19138.
and ANDERSON, H. W.

1912. The chestnut blight fungus and a related saprophyte. Jn Phyto-

pathology, v. 2, no. 5, p. 204-210.

. (8) 1912. Endothia virginiana. In Phytopathology, v. 2, no. 6, p. 261-262.
(4) 1918. The chestnut blight fungus and a related saprophyte. Penn.
Chestnut Tree Blight Com. Bul. 4, 26 p., 6 fig.

and Bascock, D. C.

1913. Field studies on the dissemination and growth of the chestnut
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and RANKIN, W. H.

1914. Endothia canker of chestnut. N. Y. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul.

347, p. 5381-618, fig. 77-101, pl. 86-40 (1 col.). Bibliography, p.
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(2)

(5)

(6)

(9)

17

78 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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ENDOTHTA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 19

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(48) Lone, W. H.
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(49) MrrKet, H. W.
1906. A deadly fungus on the American chestnut. Jn 10th Ann. Rpt.
N. Y. Zool. Soc. 1905, p. 97-103, illus.

80 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(50) Merriam, C. H.
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(51) Mercarr, HAVEN.
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(52) 1912. Diseases of the chestnut and other trees. Jn Trans. Mass. Hort.
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and CoLiins, J. F.
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(55) 1855. Cryptogamia Guyanensis ... Jn Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. s. 4, t. 3, p.
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(53)

(59) NowELt, WILLIAM.
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(62) RANKIN, W. H.
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(63) Rerum, HEINRICH. :
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(65) Rogers, J. T., and Gravatt, G. F.
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ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND RELATED SPECIES. 81

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(67) RUHLAND, WILLY.
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(72) ScHWEINITz, L. D. von.

[1822]. Synopsis Fungorum Carolinae Superioris ...105 p., 2 col. pl.

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(75) SHEAR, C. L.
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(76)

and STEVENS, Nein E.
1913. The chestnut-blight parasite (Hndothia parasitica) from China.
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(77) 1913. Cultural characters of the chestnut-blight fungus and its near rela-
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(78) 1916. The discovery of the chestnut-blight parasite (Hndothia parasitica)
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(79) SowERBy, JAMES.
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v

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1863. Selecta Fungorum Carpologia... t.2. Parisiis.

43737 °—Bull. 3830—17——6

82 BULLETIN 380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(84) VAN FLEET, WALTER.
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(85) WINTER, GEORG.
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(86) Zon, RAPHAEL =
1914. Meteorological observations in connection with botanical geography,
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217-2238, 1 fig.

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Bul. 381, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

"3ZUOLS SIHL JO SSHOONS AHL OL ATIVIYALVIN SALNAINLNOD 30IddO LNAIOISSF NV

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BULLETIN No. 381

a

Contribution from Office of Markets and Rural Organization
CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief

Washington, D. C. Vv September 29, 1916

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR
COOPERATIVE STORES.

By J. A. Bexett, Dean, School of Commerce, Oregon Agricultural College, Collaborator,
Office of Markets and Rural Organization; and W. H. Kerr, Investigator in Market
Business Practice, Office of Markets and Rural Organization, U. S. Depariment of
Agriculture.

CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
MTATTOGUCTION Gea gecloi souls os acicislecicele wee becce 1 | Operating records—Continued.
Wonponatemeconds!) = 5 cces<.. oc ceoctm cece s 3 Strictly cash business—C ontinued.
JDO RENAE) oe A ee 3 Cash payment book—Continued.
Subscription agreement.......--.------- 5 Balancing the cash book.......-- 30
Corbiticatenbookss/sta ss 5228232 sc-nc0=8 & Reconciling the bank account -.. 31
Stock certificate register.......-...--..-- 7 Cashisummanyenenr ee encee eee 31
Dividend register: <2... 225.2 02-.52-%- 7 Coupon and scrip system.......-..-- 31
Membership ledger........-.------------ 7 DOURN a eee eeciee ke bce seared oe 33
Interest and dividend account..........- 10 Generaliled verti sa- cick see ene 36
Statements and reports. --.-...- 7s Ra eR see 14 Explanation of general accounts . 36
Mana rerSireport sas. 52228 .-teccc ees ccee 15 Trial halance soe esas ste Se see esse 40
MMV EMtOMy eee aa se See) iscsi clases 15 @losineitheledsersecn-sseaeeeeee eee 40
ANITA ERS I) 010) a heres SO ie ee 16 Both cash and credit business.........-. 41
iPresident:STeporb- 28-262 2220 seb set 16 Accounts receivable.....:.-..------- 47
Operating recordss.— 6222. 2225... l 3: 26 IBIS RECON Dec seu seécosdadocheasee 47
Strictly cash business..............--.-- 26 Goodsireturned2 =. 22. 5-2 2222 522-26-- 47
Washereceipts ses. 2s bs ee 26 Producewe sau ease ke ee wee 48
Use of the cash register.....-......-- 26 Accounts payable...............-... 48
Cash register ticket .......2222--22.2. 26 Account file system........-..-.--.- 49
BanleG@eposits: 25 2232222 Leek o. 27 Departmental cost accounts......... 50
Washpaoke ees asso ees i PIAS ATO UT Wo Yeg te ts aes all aa Nt yn oat a 50
Explanation of column captions. 27 Audit of resources and liabilities.......- =) Gl
Cash payments......--.--------- 28)) MO iicerequipmenteesceessers-eaee scene 53
Orders and remittances........- 29 SumMMmManyersce sasee cee ececee tne emcee eres 55
Cash payment book........-..-..---- 290 Blo Lio grap tye eso ees Sees Sai: Sen 56
Explanation of column captions. 29 | Index of records andiaccounting forms.....-. 56
INTRODUCTION.

The purpose of this bulletin is to outline a simple and adequate
system of records for cooperative retail stores, and to point out such
fundamental business methods as must be observed to insure suc-
cess. It is not a treatise on the principles of bookkeeping, but merely
an outline of a special system adapted to a cooperative business. It

NovtEe.—This bulletin should be of interest to all cooperative stores and members of such stores. It should
be of interest to retail grocery and general merchandise stores throughout the country.

44371°—Bull. 381—16——1

BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. |

is assumed that no corporation will engage in business without em-
ploying a competent bookkeeper.

In a large percentage of business failures the cause can be traced
directly to defective methods of analyzing the business through the
absence of carefully kept records.1_ No business can hope to succeed
unless its condition is kept constantly before the management in the
form of comparative statistics upon which future operations may be
based.

It is important that the system of accounts be adapted to the busi-
ness in hand. It should be as simple as circumstances permit, but
it must be adequate for the analysis of every phase of the business;
the results must be capable of proof by means of double entries, and
the facts must be available at all times to the management.

The form of accounting records depends largely upon the informa-
tion desired and the character of the business they serve. It is poor
economy to sacrifice completeness and real usefulness for simplicity.
Under no circumstances should a system of accounts be adopted
until it is certain to meet every demand for information that may be
made on it.

It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of selecting a proper
system of accounts. By ‘“‘system” is meant, not a disconnected
mass of notes and memoranda, but a scientific analysis of the busi-
ness. Nor should the value of standardization of accounts be over-
looked. One of the greatest arguments in favor of adopting a uni-
form system of accounts is to enable managers to draw comparisons
between theirs and other stores and groups of stores.

The only essential difference between accounting for cooperative
and other retail stores hes in the fact that the former are semipublic
institutions, while the latter are private enterprises. In the cooper-
ative store the working capital is contributed by a large number of
persons, who are entitled to regular reports. The business is man-
aged by a board of directors, which requires constant information
concerning the conduct of the business. The law creating the asso-
ciation prescribes certain methods of publicity. Moreover, the
accounting for cooperative associations is complicated by the fact
that the net earnings are usually distributed to patrons, frequently
to both members and nonmembers, in proportion to their purchases
from the store.

In every corporation organized for profit there are two distinct
classes of records: First, those pertaining to its corporate existence,
including its articles of association, by-laws, and the minutes, the
capital contributions of its me embers, the distribution of dividends,
and the like; and, second, the recor ds of operation, or trade, and the
relation of the business to the public.

1Kerr, W. H., and Nahstoll, G. A. Cooperative organization business methods. U.S. Dept. of Agr.
Bul. 178. 1915. ;

a ee Oe ee ES Bry

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. . 3

CORPORATE RECORDS.

MINUTES.

The minutes should constitute a faithful record of all important
documents, such as the articles of association and by-laws, as well as,

a complete record of every meeting of the association.

They should

be kept in perfect chronological order, every record properly dated
and indexed. Nothing should be entered on the minutes until it is
properly acted upon by the association, and, as evidence of such
action, in every case the minutes should be countersigned by the

president. Form 1 will be found convenient.
Form 1.—MINUTES.
June 1, 1915.
Minutes of a preliminary meeting of citizens of —— interested in

the organization of a cooperative store.

The following members of Union No. — met in
June 1, 1915, at 3 o’clock.

oh

There were present A, B, C, D, etc.

Mr. John Doe was elected chairman and Mr. James Smith secre-
tary.

After considerable informal discussion, the following resolutions
were unanimously adopted:

(1) That it is the sense of the meeting that a cooperative associ-
ation should be organized for the purpose of conducting a retail
store of general merchandise.

(2) That a committee of three be appointed to make a prelimi-
nary canvass for membership, and to report at the next meeting.

(3) That a committee of three be appointed to take the neces-
sary preliminary steps toward organization, and to report at the
next meeting.

(4) That the committee on organization be authorized td employ
legal counsel in drafting the articles of association and by-laws
and in perfecting the organization.

The meeting adjourned at 5 o’clock, to meet at the same place at
3 o’clock, June 8, 1915.

Approved: Attest:
John Doe, James Smith,
Chairman. Secretary.

Preliminary
meeting.

Place.
Time.

Attendance.

Officers.

Resolutions.

Cooperative
store to be
started.

Membership
committee.

Committee on
constitution
and by-laws.

Legal counsel

for organizing.

4. BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

June 8, 1915.

Pursuant to adjournment at the preliminary meeting held June
1, a meeting of persons interested in the establishment of a coopera-

tive store, was held in , ——, at 3 o’clock.

The meeting was called to order by Mr. Doe. Mr. Smith acted

as secretary.
The minutes of the meeting of June 1 were read and approved.

The committee on membership reported that 60 persons had
subscribed to a total of 75 shares or $1,875. The report was adopted
and ordered placed on file. [Here follows a copy of the report, in-
cluding the subscription list. |

The committee on organization submitted its report, and after
due deliberation the following Articles of Association were adopted
and ordered filed with the proper authorities. [Here follows a

copy of the document as adopted. ]

The organization committee was directed to act with the legal
counsel in securing the incorporation certificate.

The meeting adjourned to meet at the same place at 3 o’clock
June 22, 1915.

Attest:
James Smith,

Approved:
John Doe,

Chairman. Secretary.

Officers.

Report of mem-
bership com-
mittee.

Report of com-
mittee on or-
ganization.

Constitution.

Organization
committee to -
cooperate
with counsel.

Adjournment.

The minutes of the board meetings should have the same general

form, and should be a faithful record of every important act of that
body.

The reader should observe the marginal notations. ‘They are the
important points to be indexed. A good alphabetical index should
accompany the minutes, which should note such items as are likely
to be referred to frequently.

I ee tah eS Ee ee ae

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 5

Form 2.—SUBSCRIPTION AGREEMENT.

We, the undersigned, do hereby subscribe, each respectively, for the number of
shares of the Capital Stock of the Farmers’ Cooperative Association set opposite our
respective names, and do agree to pay for such shares the par value thereof, to wit:
Twenty-five Dollars ($25) for each share of stock so subscribed, at such time and in
such manner as may hereinafter be directed by the Board of Directors of the said

Farmers’ Cooperative Association.

And we do hereby fix the 8th day of June, A. D. 1915, at the hour of 3 o’clock in the
afternoon of said day, as the time, and the office of ...... as the place for holding the
meeting of subscribers to the Capital Stock of the company, and do hereby waive
statutory or other notice of time, place, and purpose of said meeting, and do hereby

consent to any and all business which may be

transacted thereat.

No. Name. Address. Shares. | Amount.
in EGIL ED) Obey scone at oe apnea 2 aa a 162 Tif CTSOT ers seraeis Ase Saja oe een | 2 $50.00
3 lec nie eee BoA ED UR a ee ee

Dypaeivichand ROC.) «<2 sues. see .s-+--+- 2531 Monnoe= 22 eee ee ee eee: 1 25.00

Taal, 4 Ue NRG Cae ee eseeeeeee rb ocstbscttbbe <i ct eSr otro tee ee 6, 000. 00
Form 3.—STOCK NOTE.!
No. 376. FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATION.
$25.00 [Place] June 10, 1915.
Aunts In consideration of the Certificate of Membership in the
Farmers’ Cooperative Association, the receipt of which is
Date. |Amount.| hereby acknowedged, I agree to pay the said association
| within one year after date at their office in ...... , or to its
Gye, Aha 10'00 order, the sum of Twenty-five no/100 .............- Dollars,
Jom.) & ae with interest thereon at the rate of six per cent per annum
May | 1 sea from date of issue until paid.
Due June 10, 1916. i B.S. Brown
Address: kh. Hs Di iNos 4.
Itis understood and agreed that Stock Certificate No. .-...
BUA COVETING Gis iri02 <i2)= 5 see shares is held by the Association as
Total

collateral for this note, pending payment in full.

1Jn this system of accounts provision is made for recording stock notes because a large number of
associations have accepted such notes as temporary settlement for stock. The practice is not recom-
mended, however, since there seems to be no good reason why cash payment should not be required.
Where notes are accepted the corresponding stock certificate must be held as collateral, as shown in

Form 3.

BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. -

Form 4.—STOCK CERTIFICATE,

No. 458 . Incorporated Under
the Laws of the
Shares 2 State of ——

FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATION.

[Place]

This Certifies that /. R. Jones is the owner of Two Shares of Capital of the par
value of Twenty-five Dollars ($25.00) each, of the

FarMERS’ COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATION,

transferable only on the books of the Association by the holder in

person, or by attorney, upon the surrender of this Certificate properly
endorsed.

In witness whereof, the said Association has caused this Certificate

te be signed and sealed by its duly authorized officers this 2 day of
January, A. D. 1916.

[SEAL. ] James Smith, John Doe,
Secretary. President.

Form 5.—STOCK CERTIFICATE REGISTER.

Cont: i Date Name. Address. LF. |Shares.| Amount.
458 ue GOW ORT RS AIOE SabanecesuoussouHS Rs ADs Seas 2 50
915
459 DOE LO GRECM. sc 5 2 sone serie 830 Monroe Street .... 2 50
ens in ( cule cdl Md Aula cousin WED TOI is on ac hceamimme | nT | 238 | 6,000|
Totalifor: year ye SAYS SAS sR ELS SAE Sees ateetes aero
Left side.
FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATION.
ae Original Original Number
Original Transferred from— certificate | number | of shares Remarks.
ate. No. of shares. | transferred.
AOU. |} \ JES IDS Siridieoskosdobesksdosoos 827 2 fs Neeser eae eens RE msec

oT ea»

Se TN

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 7

It will be assumed that the organization is now completed; that
the capital is fixed at $10,000; that 60 per cent of the capital is
issued, 25 per cent paid in, and the balance, $3,500, is covered by
bankable stock notes. The total of the subscription agreement
(Form 2) is then $6,000, and the total of the stock certificate register
(Form 5) $6,000. The manager’s first entry in the Journal is shown
in Form 19 and the notes are listed in the Stock Notes Register
(Form 24).

According to the subscription agreement there were 145 signatures;
90 had subscribed for 1 share each, 25 for 2, 20 for 3, and 10 for 4
shares each. Thirty-five hundred dollars of the subscriptions are yet
unpaid, but are in the form of bankable notes (Form 3), and they
are entered in the Stock Notes Register (Form 24).

CERTIFICATE BOOK.

The Certificate Book is merely a number of stock certificates and
their stubs bound together. The secretary issues the certificates,
fills in the stubs, and secures the member’s receipt when the certifi-
cate is delivered (Form 4). Of course the certificate is signed and
sealed as required by law. If for any reason a certificate is canceled,
or, if transferred, the secretary requires the return of the certificate,
cancels it, and pastes it to its stub.

STOCK CERTIFICATE REGISTER.

The Stock Certificate Register is merely a numerical list of the cer-
tificates issued, where all the essential facts noted on the certificate
are recorded in logical order. Care should be taken tosee that all the
certificates are accounted for. The right-hand page is devoted to a
record of the facts regarding transfer. Form 5 will be found
convenient.

DIVIDEND REGISTER.

After the amount and contents of each envelope (Form 11) have
been checked, the total is entered in the proper space in the Trading
Summary and Dividend Register (Form 12), and the total from this
summary is posted to the Membership Ledger account (Form 6).

The Dividend Register can be arranged in book form, as shown, or
in the form of a card file. The book has the advantage of showing
a large number of facts on a page, while the cards are more conven-
ient for reference.

MEMBERSHIP LEDGER.

It will be noticed that the Membership Ledger (Form 6) is really
two books in one. Each account contains a record of the paid-up
stock and transfers, and, finally, the interest and dividend account,
the latter being of value chiefly for statistical purposes and in the
adjustment of dividends. The amount of the customer’s purchase
is taken from the ‘‘total’’ column of the Trading Summary and

BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES.

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10 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Dividend Register (Form 12). The Membership Ledger is a classi-
fication of the information found in the Certificate Register under
the several membership accounts. The ordinary form of- Stock
Ledger on the market is not convenient because of the trade-dividend
feature noted above; hence the special form shown in Form 6 is

recommended.
INTEREST AND DIVIDEND ACCOUNT.

Most cooperative stores pay interest on their share capital, and
their aim is to pay dividends on the purchases. After the total
interest or dividends has been ascertained and declared by the board
of directors a check for the amount is drawn and recorded in the
Cash Book. This check should be deposited to the credit of a special
Dividend Account. Dividend checks are drawn for the amounts due
members and listed in the Trading Summary and Dividend Register.

Form 7.—MANAGER’S REPORT.
December 31, 1915.
PART J.—BALANCE SHEET.

RESOURCES: Exhibit. |
11 | Cash on Hand A 150,00
2 | Cash in Bank A 2, 240 00 2, 390 00
3 | Aecounts Receivable B de 50000
4 | Less Reserve for Bad Debts 350 00 7, 150 00
5 | Bills Receivable C 2,300.00 |
6 | Stock Notes Receivable D 3, 240 00 5, 540 00
7 | Accrued Interest Cc er 3100
8 | Merchandise Inventory E 14, 900 00
9 | Office Supplies F 20 00
10 | Furniture & Fixtures G 1,560.00 ||
il | Less Reserve for Depreciation 285,00 1, 275,00
12 TOTAL RESOURCES || 31,30600
LIABILITIES:
13 | Accounts Payable H 1, 600 00
i4 | Bills Payable I il. sooloo
15 | Accrued Interest I 21/00
16 | Coupons Outstanding 150/00
17 | Capital Stock 15, 350)00
18 | Surplus Jan. 1, 1915 9, 055)00
19 | Net Profit for Year 6, 032,00
20 | Less Interest on Stock 657.00 st li
21 | Less Dividends Paid 2,145.00 2, 802/00
22 | Surplus December 31, 1915 "|| 12, 285/00
23 TOTAL LIABILITIES 31, 306/00

1 For expianation of the item, see the corresponding numbers beginning on p. 36.

ee

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 11

SALES.

24
25
26

Form 7.—MANAGER’S REPORT—Continued.
PART ITI.~—-INCOME SHEET.

A.—Traping STATEMENT.

Gross Sales
Less Returns & Allowances on Sales
Net Sales

COST OF MERCHANDISE SOLD:

27
28

29
30
31
32

33
34
35
36

Inventory Jan. 1, 1915

Merchandise Purchases
(Exclusive of Discount)

Produce

Accounts Payable Dec. 31, 1915
Freight, Express & Cartage
Gross Merchandise Cost

Deduct:

Inventory Dee. 31, 1915
Accounts Payable Jan. 1, 1915
Net Cost of Merchandise Sold (turnover)
Gross Trading Profit

Notes:

Average Inventory (26) and (31)

10, 300. 00
60, 100. 00

7,200.00 67,300.00

1, 600. 00
600. 00

14, 900. 00
2, 100. 00

Stock Turns (33) divided by average inventory 5.0 times

Cost equals 82.7% of Sales
Gross Trading Profit equals 17.3% of Sales.

76, 130
200

79, 810

00

| 13,130 00

75, 930.00

62, 800 00

1 The two statements included in this part are shown in detail for the purpose of indicating the method
ot obtaining the desired information. It is often more satisfactory to present the income sheet to the mem-
bership in a more condensed form.

12 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

PART II.—INCOME SHEET—Continued.
Forn 7.—MANAGER’S REPORT—Continued.

B.—Prorit AND Loss STATEMENT.

|
PROFITS:

37 | Gross Trading Profit 13, 130)00

38 | Merchandise Discount 790|00

39 | Interest Received 187)00

40 | Unclassified Income 175/00 14, 282 00
LOSSES:

Buying and Selling Expense:

41 | Salaries & Wages 4,110.00 |

42 | Advertising & Wages 150. 00 |
43 | Delivery 135. 00 |
44 | Miscellaneous 60. 00 4, 455 00

Management Expense:

45 | Management & Office Salaries 1, 440. 00
46 | Office Expense 147. 00
47 | Premiums on Surety Bonds 50. 00 1, 637|00

Fixed Charges and Upkeep:

48 | Rent, Insurance & Taxes 4 1, 290. 00
49 | Light, Heat, Water & Power 173. 00
50 | Depreciation on Furniture & Fixtures 155. 00
51 | Repairs 160. 00 |
52 | Telephone 50. 00 1, 828)00
tera|
Miscellaneous Expense:
53 | Interest on Notes 90. 00 |
54 | Bad Debts 200. 00 290/00
55 | Total Operating Expense 8, 210,00
56 | Unclassified Losses 40)00
57 | Total Losses ea 8, 250,00
58 | Net Profit for the year, carried to Surplus 6, 032, 00
Notes:
Buying & Selling Expense 5.9% of Sales
Management Expense 2.2% of Sales
Fixed Charges & Upkeep 2.4% of Sales
Miscellaneous Expense 4% of Sales
Total Expenses 10.9% of Sales

ow

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 13

Form 7.—MANAGER’S REPORT—Continued.

PART IJI—EXHIBITS.

Exutsit A.—CasH STATEMENT.

CASH RECEIPTS:

Cash on Hand January 1, 1915
Cash in Bank January 1, 1915
Coupons Issued

Merchandise Sales

Accounts Receivable

Bills Receivable

Bills Payable

Interest Received

Capital Stock

Stock Notes Receivable
Unclassified—Furniture & Fixtures (Safe)

Commission on Machinery Sales

Returns & Allowances
Coupons Redeemed

Total Cash Receipts
CASH PAYMENTS:

Merchandise Purchases

Produce Purchases

Returns & Allowances

Freight, Express, & Cartage

Salary & Labor

Advertising & Delivery

Miscellaneous Buying & Selling Expense

Office Expense

Rent, Insurance, & Taxes

Light, Heat, Water, & Power

Interest on Stock

Interest on Notes Payable

Telephone & Telegraph

Bills Payable

Furniture & Fixtures

Unclassified—Dividends Members
Dividends Nonmembers

Manager’s Bond
Repairs

Merchandise Discounts
Coupons Issued

Cash on Hand December 31, 1915
Cash in Bank December 31, 1915

1,760.00 |
385.00 |

100 00
2,48000 || 2,580.00
| || 12,390'00
| 34, 900.00
35, 475100
4, 560100
13, 000/00
180|00
2, 050/00
3, 400/00
125100
17800 303 00
~~ | 1408, 88:00
3000
19, paar 19, 630 00
| || 89,20800
60, 100,00 -
7, 200.00
90.00
600.00
5, 550 00
285 00
60.00
150.00
1,290.00
173 00
657 00
98,00 755.00
Reetal 50.00
15, 800 00
350.00
2, 145|00
50/00
160/00 2, 355 00
94, 808 00
790,00
7, 200.00 7,990 00
| || 86,81800
100.00
| 2,290.00 2, 390 00
pea |Race 208 00

14 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Form 7.—MANAGER’S REPORT—Continued.
Part II11.—EXHIBITS—Continued.

Accounts Receivabls

Bills Receivable and Accrued Interest

Stock Notes Receivable and Accrued Interest
Merchandise Inventory

Office Supplies Inventory

Furniture & Fixtures Inventory

Accounts Payable

I Bills Payable and Accrued Interest

J Capital Stock

daktHv¥ow

Form 8.—COMPARATIVE STATEMENT.

Per cent
Per cent | Per cent | Average
Per cent | salary - Stock Per cent
Year. Sales. net gross inven- Surplus. | 4.—-
expense. ; oud profit. profit. tory. turns. dividend.
1910 67, 074 1252 7.8 4.0 16.2 16, 060 3.5 2,010 2
1911 70, 300 12.1 7.5 4.9 17.0 15,350 3.8 4,800 2
1912 79, 509 11.4 7.2 6.5 17.9 15, 940 4.1 8,300 3
1913 101, 600 11.3 6.9 8.1 19.4 18, 630 4.4 13, 400 5
1914 96, 300 12.3 8.0 8.0 20.3 17,870 4.3 18, 200 5
1915 111, 200 u. 9 7.4 10.1 22.0 17,190 5.1 24, 900 6
Form 9.—_INVENTORY.
Sheet No. 15. Date Dec. 31, 1914. Folio 29.
Called by W. J. DepartmenteGroceries. Priced by L. D.
Entered by J. A. F Extended by W. J.
Examined by B. W.
Quantity. Item. Price. Extension.
DOG hs caceose ZILA SEB C8b 3 te ora eeisisievem ose ee eee USO We naaasoa|seacsese BO Nosescese

STATEMENTS AND REPORTS.

The by-laws of cooperative associations usually specify a number
of reports to be submitted at stated intervals by the officers to the
board or to the association. Nothing will establish a greater degree
of confidence than full, accurate, and regular publicity. The rec-
ords outlined in the following pages satisfy all these requirements,
if properly kept up. They enable the manager to furnish information
at a moment’s notice on every phase of the business; they contain
double-entry checks sufficient to insure protection against errors and
negligence; and, if the instructions are faithfully carried out, there
is no reason why any reasonable demand on the bookkeeper for infor-

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 15

mation should not be met promptly. The reports usually required
are: (1) The Manager’s Financial Report; (2) the Auditor’s Report,
and (8) the President’s Report.

MANAGER’S REPORT.

The Manager’s Report is the foundation of the operating record.
It should constitute a complete summary of the financial operations
of the past year, month, or other period, as the case may require.
Once its form is determined and what information it is to contain,
the records must be shaped so‘as to yield the information with the
least labor and liability of error. It should be based entirely on the
permanent and balanced records, and on the actual inventory, or on
the estimated inventory based on known percentages as explained
below under ‘‘Inventory.”’

This implies that the manager must not undertake to prepare his
report until the books are completely balanced. It behooves the
board, therefore, to allow a sufficient time between the close of the
fiscal period and the meeting of the board or members to enable the
bookkeeper, the manager, and the auditor to fulfill these conditions.
Two weeks will not be found excessive.

The form of the report is very important, since upon this to a large
extent depends its value to the directors and stockholders. Form 7
will be found satisfactory. It consists of three parts, viz:

Part I. The Balance Sheet, showing the Resources and Liabilities.
Part II. The Income Sheet, showing:
(a) The Trading Statement, and

(6) the General Losses and Gains.
Part III. The Supporting Exhibits, showing the details of the itemsin I and IT.

INVENTORY.

At this point it seems fitting to add a word of caution regarding
the inventory. Once or, if time permits, twice a year stock should
be taken and the actual market value of the merchandise and the
replacement value of the fixtures ascertamed. The utmost care
should be exercised in taking the inventory, since a difference of sev-
eral hundred dollars may be found in the Income Sheet by careless-
ness in Measures, prices, and extensions. There are several excellent
stock forms of inventory blanks on the market. A conservative
allowance for depreciation of goods, due to age or changes in style,
price, etc., should be made, so that the inventory stands for the actual
market value of the stock. Form 9 will be found satisfactory.

If an audit is made monthly or at any other time between the actual
inventories, an approximate value of the goods may be found by the
following formula: The last actualinventory (27) ,’ plus the merchandise
cost (32), minus the net cost of the sales (35). The latter is found

1 Numbers refer to same items in Manager’s Report, page 10.

16 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

by subtracting the percentage of gain, based on the last accurate
rate of profit (58), from the net sales. Thus, if the net sales were
$20,000 for the three months after the last statement, and the net
purchases $15,000, the approximate inventory, based on the last
gross trading profit (17.3 per cent), would be $14,900 plus $15,000,
or $29,900—less 82.7 per cent of $20,000, or $16, lean the inven-
tory would be $13,360.
AUDITOR’S REPORT.

The importance of the Auditor’s Report is often overlooked. _—_ It
should be directed to the stockholders and contain (1) a certificate
of the condition of the books and office methods, whether or not they
agree with the report, and (2) recommendations for improvement in
any phase of the business. It should be read by the auditor himself,
or by the secretary, immediately after the Manager’s Report, and
should be adopted and spread on the minutes. If the Manager’s
Report is printed for distribution among the members, the Auditor’s
Report should be published also. It is quite impracticable to give
even a general form of an Auditor’s Report, since this will vary
ereatly sono to circumstances. Frequently the auditor analyzes
the Manager’s Report by means of comparative summaries and
graphs (Form 8).

The percentages shown in the merchandise and expense statements
may be truly called the barometers of the business. They should be
the object of constant study by the management. Not only should
the current figures be studied, but they should be compared month
by month and yearby year. Thisis accomplished by the Comparative
Statement (Form 8). A graphic representation of the various sets
- of figures may be very profitable. Regarding the duties of the

auditor and methods, see page 50.
PRESIDENT’S REPORT.

Tt is an excellent practice to require an annual written report from
the president as a part of the permanent record of the association.
This requirement will often stimulate greater activity in the board
at a corresponding profit to the association. The report should con-
tain (1) a review of the activities of the board and actions at previous
meetings; (2) a recapitulation of the financial operations of the year;
(3) a tentative budget for next year’s operations; (4) recommendations
respecting the policy of the association; and (5) any other matter
which, in the opinion of the president, should come before the annual
meeting. The summary of last year’s business and the budget, of
course, should be based on the manager’s and auditor’s reports.
Hence, the audited report should be in the hands of the president
before his report is prepared. The president or the secretary should
read the report to the stockholders, by whom it should be approved
and ordered filed or spread on the minutes. The stockholders then |
proceed to act on the suggestions.

;
i

Bes i STORER PRPS SA Ee

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. We

Form 10.—CASH REGISTER TICKET.

Sale No. 5632
Date, Jan. 2, 715

Amount, 1.00

Subject to Dividend.

Name, James Green.

No. 58

Front.

Farmers’ Cooperative

Association

Trade with Yourself.

Return this ticket
before the tenth day
of next month as a
claim for dividends.

Back.

Form 11._ENVELOPE SHOWING MONTHLY RETURN OF CASH TICKETS.

Name, James Green No. 58

Month, January, 1915.

Secure a cash register ticket for each purchase, including purchases in exchange for produce on
coupons. List the tickets in the columns below. Extend the total and return the envelope

= containing the ticket not later than the tenth of each month. List each month on a separate
= | envelope.
i ~ ~ i Ws) % iS) a css} Ls
~ — Co Ww o> Ss ~ Co = — pS) iss} al
S a S S S S oa or S S S oa S
g |
S ~ ie
el Smasiustn Suite &
Form 12.—TRADING SUMMARY AND DIVIDEND REGISTER.
|
| Dividena
No. Name. | Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. Total. 5 per
v cent.
ES lhe, CHOAD EE Sees SEBO ee aerate te ares | 80.00 | 25.00 | 27.00 | 34.00 350.00 17.50
|
HG |) 17>) UOTE Se eee eee ae | rapmeiecre RID aes 32.00 | 40.00 586.00 19. 30
ON ble: PSHICTH Dee eS Ae ee See 15.00 | 18.00 | 24.00 | 14.00 240.00 12.00
{
| | |
me oo cel ets nee aioe See ees § Siem res at Fe [Seeatra ase ek eee ape |e Ne eS Neier) aperell eae ae, 8 Ga icra
Ma tales cr ees eae te: | ee Bee — | Cietone [eeiee sues |5, 000.00 2, 500. 00
|

44371°—Bull. 381—16——3 °

18 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Form 13.—DAILY SUMMARY OF RECEIPTS.

No. 376 DATE January 2, 1916
ACCOUNTS. REMARKS. | AMOUNT.
Debit:
(4) 1 Total Cash Received As per register 435)30

2 Returns & Allowances

3 Coupons Redeemed 38,00
TOTAL 473/20

Credits: TRE OF
4 Coupons Sold aslo
5 Merchandise Sales e365

6 Accounts Receivable John Jones 6.70; Sam Hill 6.80

R. S. White 8.30 21/80
7 Bills Receivable R. K. Wright 100/00
8 Bills Payable
9 Interest Received 2/00

10 Capital Stock
11 Stock Notes

12 to 17 [Insert titles if the |columns are needed]

18 Unclassified Safe sold 125. 00
Stamps sold 50 125,50
TOTAL | azalgo

Register Reading $435. 82 ==

Cash Short $ .52 Approved:

Cash Long 3
Number of Customers 236
Coupons issued for J. B. Doe

Produce $ Manager

Prepared in duplicate.
1 These numbers correspond to those of the cash-receipt column.

19

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES.

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Form 16.—REMITTANCE BLANK.

FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATION

[Place] Aug. 14, 1915.
M. Field & Co.,

Omaha.
GENTLEMEN:
Enclosed please find our check No. 642 in payment of invoices as follows:

Date of Inv. No. -Deductions. Face... Net.

Aug 5 AHS SIC UA Sheena So keacsAbancos|leeEeoeeose Dall eseSesence Gace | Messccaceallenes
ey te |S sills eieim stalls = Dis6 eps ne nee wc eae eee 1/— 50| 40 49
Seno Rae 8 (EEDA DE ORS WI RE Ree soenech aocaoallbacoseceas) (iD 75 7425
eee [ic cierto so Seeleicis wae loadeccesRe abode nobadeseocdes Kono Gocese sesc |Hasecsdecd Hoedlssoaem ance
e Net remittance 123) 25)

Yours truly,
: Farmers’ Coop. Assn.,

| By J. B. Doe,

Mngr.

Prepare in duplicate if voucher check is not used.

BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

22

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26 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

OPERATING RECORDS.

A.—STRICTLY CASH BUSINESS.

The operating records of a store doing an exclusive cash business
are extremely simple, consisting of but three books—the cashbook,
the journal, and the ledger. In fact, the cashbook alone is in current
use, since only the totals from the cashbook are journalized and posted
into the ledger at regular intervals—monthly, quarterly, semiannu-
ally, or only annually, as may be desirable in different stores.

CasH RECEIPTS.

In a cash business the original entry of receipts is made in the cash
register, or on counterfoil sales books passed to a cashier, if an over-
head carrier system is used. The cash register is usually provided with
a convenient form for analyzing and proving the daily cash receipts,
but this should be used only as a memorandum of original entry, and
should not displace any of the records suggested. The Daily Sum- |
mary of Receipts (Form 13), page 18, may be used if the stock form
is not adopted. It should have the same general titles as the cash -
receipts book, and should constitute the original for the ae entry
in the cash receipts book.

UsE oF THE CasH REGISTER.

In a moderate-sized business it is recommended that a good type of
register with departmental keys adapted to the nature of the busi-
ness and a grand total for the use of the auditor be used. The regis-
ter should furnish a ticket for every sale. On one side should be
printed the card of the store and some attractive advertisement or
statement; on the other side, the sales number, date, and amount
(Form 10).

CasH REGISTER TICKET.

Dividends are based exclusively on the cash register tickets, but
care must be exercised that the customers understand definitely the
method of handling them. Either they must be given definite
instructions that they are to return the tickets, properly listed on an
envelope at the end of each month or other regular period, and that
no dividends are allowed unless the tickets are returned within the
time specified; or the store must provide some regular method of
taking care of the tickets. The latter plan is often more satisfac-
tory, because many customers object to being required to take care
of the tickets. If the store keeps the tickets, great care must be
exercised that the name appears on every ticket, and that the cus-
tomer drops them in a suitable receptacle; for instance, one resem-
bling a ballot box. At stated intervals the tickets are taken out of

fe ase aoe

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. Dh

the box and are sorted under the different customers’ names. This
latter method is more satisfactory from the customer’s point of view,
but it throws great responsibility on the store and often leads to dis-
agreements as to the credit to which the customer is entitled. Whether
one form or the other is used, the tickets should be listed on the face
of an envelope, as shown in Form 11, and properly filed until the

dividend is declared.
Bank DEPosIts.

A fixed amount—say $100—should be set aside for change and for
petty expenses, after which all receipts should be deposited. It will
be found a good practice and of great convenience to the auditor if
the exact amount of each day’s receipts is deposited. If deposits
are not made daily, the exact amount of the last two or three days
should be deposited. If the receipts of a certain day are $210.40, the
deposit should be exactly that amount, and not, for example, $200.
The duplicating deposit tickets should be used, so that a record is
kept of every deposit.

CASHBOOK.

The Cashbook is divided into two parts—the record of cash re-
ceipts and of cash payments. Because the entries of cash payments
are greatly in excess of the items of receipts, and because the classi-
fication titles of payments are much more numerous than those of the
receipts, it is recommended that the latter be kept in one book and the
payments in another. Or if a loose-leaf book is used, the receipts
sheets may be placed in front of the book and the payments in the
back part. A convenient number of special columns in each section
are recommended. Many arguments may be cited in favor of the
special-column cashbook, chief of which are: Ready reference, facility
of proving the results, and economy of time in keeping the books.
Six, 12, 18, and 24 column books are on the market at very low cost.

EXPLANATION OF THE COLUMN CAPTIONS.

The numbers in parentheses correspond to the numbers of the
general accounts, pages 36 to 39. It will be foted that this form of
cashbook contains the special balancing features; columns 1, 2, and
3 being the debit columns, and 4 to 18 the credit columns. All
entries in the Cash Receipts Book (Form 14) are made from the
Daily Summary of Receipts (Form 13); hence, no details are entered
in this book.

1. Yotal.—This column contains the net cash received, including
the balance at the beginning of the period. (1) and (2)

2. Returns and allowances.—This column is used only when a credit
business is done. It contains discounts and deductions on accounts
and bills receivable. (25)

98 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

3. Coupons redeemed.—This column is used only in case the coupon
system is used, in which case the coupons received during the day
are entered in this column through the Daily Summary. (16)

4. Coupons issued.—In this column are entered amounts received
for coupons sold, cash being debited and coupons credited. Until
they are paid they stand as a liability. (16)

5. Cash sales.—Receipts for sale of merchandise and produce are
entered in this column. (24)

6. Accounts recewvable.—Used only in a credit business. In it are
entered only amounts to be credited to the customers’ accounts. It
is the controlling account of the credit side of the Customers’ Ledger.
or Account File. (3)

7. Bills recewable-—Used only in a credit business. In it are
entered only receipts from signed obligations due the business.
Great care should be taken not to confuse columns 6 and 7. (5)

8. Bills payable.—In this column are entered all amounts bor-
rowed from the bank or other parties. The difference between this
column and column 16 in the Cash Payments must at all times
represent the amount of bills outstanding against the business. (14) ~

9. Interest recewed.—In this column are entered amounts of
interest received on stock notes and bills receivable. This column
is used only where a credit business is done, or where the stock is not
fully paidup. (39)

10. Camtal stock.—Receipts for capital stock which have not been
entered previously as Stock Notes Receivable. In the latter case,
the entry is made in number 11. (17)

11. Stock notes recevable-—In this column are entered amounts
received on stock notes as explained under (6).

12. Unclassified.r~Amounts which can not be classified properly
under any of the other headings. The title of the accounts should
be written clearly in the space provided, and each entry must be
posted to the proper account in the General Ledger when the sum-
mary is made at the end of the year. These are the only items which
are so posted, since the totals of the other columns are carried for-
ward to the Summary, and from there posted once a year to the

General Ledger.
CASH PAYMENTS.

All payments, except petty items, are made by check on properly
approved vouchers. <A part of the change fund referred to on page
27 should be handed to the cashier or bookkeeper for petty expenses,
freight, and- the lke, and at stated intervals the items should be
billed, properly classified, approved, and a check drawn for the bill
in favor of the bookkeeper or cashier. This obviates the necessity
of entering a large number of petty items in the general cashbook,

f

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 29

and it gives to the manager an a) to approve the petty
ues bills before they are entered.

ORDERS AND REMITTANCES.

Since no ledger accounts are kept with the creditors, it is important
to adopt a system of orders and remittances which insures a com-
plete record and enables the creditor to balance his account readily.
Every order for merchandise should be reduced to writing. Aside
from its value to the office it is practically impossible for the auditor
to verify the amount due creditors without this record. Salesmen
should be required to use the regular form, and if orders are placed
orally or by wire in every case they should be confirmed in writing.
Form 25 will be found convenient. When the invoice is checked it
should be entered in the Invoice Register (Form 26). The most
satisfactory voucher is a check with the remittance form attached
(Form 15). These checks should be made in duplicate, the carbon copy
being retained as the original entry of the payment. Both the
original and the duplicate should be numbered consecutively, and
the latter should be filed with the invoice or voucher. Then the
vouchers should be placed in consecutive order on an arch file until
audited. Should it be desired to use the nonduplicating checks,
usually furnished by the bank, the remittance notice may be used
separately, but the duplicate should be handled in the same manner
as above indicated.

So far as practicable, part payment of bills should be avoided.
Checking accounts and filing will be facilitated if the exact amount
of bills and any reduction or adjustment is noted on the Remittance
Blank (Form 16).

CasH PAYMENT Book.

Like the Cash Receipts Book, the Payments Book is only a tabu-
lation of the vouchers, since no payment is made without a proper
voucher. The date, payee, number, total, and distribution are
entered, each payment requiring but one line. The form is shown
on pages 22-23. ‘

EXPLANATION OF COLUMN CAPTIONS.

1. Yotal.—Contains all the net cash amounts paid. Corresponds
to the face of the checks issued. (11 and 12)

2. Merchandise discount.—In this column are entered all amounts
deducted from the face of the bills in consideration of payments before
the bills are due. (38)

3. Coupons issued.—In this column is entered the amount of
coupons issued for produce. The total is posted at the end of the

1 For a further explanation of petty cash see Bulletin 178, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Cooperative Organization
Business Methods.

30 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

year to the credit of coupons and remains a liability until re-
deemed. (16)

4. Merchandise purchases.—The total amount of the invoices of
payments for merchandise. (28)

5. Produce purchased.—The total value of the produce paid for in
coupons or cash. It is important that all the produce purchased for
coupons or cash be entered in this column, so that reliable statistics
may be had on this branch of the business. In a credit business it is
sometimes found convenient to credit the customer’s account with
the produce bought. In that case a special produce register is kept,
upon which are recorded all items of produce for merchandise with-
out the use of coupons. However, all such exchanges should be prop-
erly recorded on the produce register, so that a complete account is
kept of all produce purchased. (29)

6. Returns and allowances.—In this are entered cash refunds for
goods returned by customers. (25)

7. Freight, express, and cartage.—In this are entered all payments
for transportation on inward goods. (31)

8. Salaries and labor.—All salaries and wages are entered in this _
column. Later they are subdivided under accounts. (41) and (45)

9. Advertising and delwery. (42) and (43)

10. Miscellaneous buying and selling expense. (44)

11. Office expense. (46)

12. Rent, insurance, and taxes. (48)

13. Light, heat, water, power. (49)

14. Interest. (53)

15. Telephone and telegraph. (52)

16. Bills payable. (14)

17. Furniture and fixtures.—In this column are entered all pay-
ments for additions to furniture and fixtures, but must not contain
anything for merchandise or renewals and repairs. (10)

18. Unclassified—In this column are entered all items which can
not properly be included under any of the preceding headings. The
account titles are indicated in the space provided, and each item is
posted to the proper account in the General Ledger as explained on
page 36.

BALANCING THE CASHBOOK.

As already stated, the sum of columns 1, 2, and 3 equals the sum
of the totals in the distribution columns. This must be proved before
any totals are forwarded from page to page. The cash balance should
be noted in the Receipts Book ‘‘items’”’ column from time to time.
(See Form 14.) But this is only amemorandum. The totals should
be carried forward until the end of each month, when the totals are
entered in the Summary (Form 18).

- BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 31
RECONCILING THE BANK ACCOUNT.

Usually the bank returns the canceled checks at the end of each
month with a statement of the balance. It should be the first duty
of the bookkeeper to arrange the checks numerically and reconcile
the bank balance with that shown by the otal This is done
by the following formula:

SSUOURES Oye Ew VSN tea a a ERIS Tels ns a ee $742. 37
nda owttstanding cheeks oss SY IONS eee Ee, 65. 40
Wy aia kes yal air CO a te es a a ein ay SES Sec 807.77

CasH SUMMARY.

The cash summary is merely a recapitulation of the totals of the
receipts and payments. The same form-is used and no change what-
ever is made in the classification. The cash statement (Form 7) is
the total of this summary (Form 18).

CouPON AND Scrip SYSTEM.

One of the most serious objections to strictly cash business is the
inconvenience to the customer in handling change. The percentage
of customers who carry a bank account and prefer to pay monthly
by check is growing year by year. The convenience of ordering by
telephone and having goods delivered in the absence of the house-
keeper is recognized by all. To overcome these objections coupons
are often sold in convenient books of $5, $10, or $25. Many stores
find this system so valuable that they offer a small discount for such
advances. So long as the store has no surplus capital, such discount
should be more than offset by the trade discount obtained from
dealers for prompt payment. As the coupons are sold for cash only,
the sale is entered from the Daily Summary into the Receipts Book.
The total coupons sold, less the coupons returned, represents a
liability, and must be so entered in the Balance Sheet (16). It is
not necessary to provide the cash register with a separate key for
the coupons, because they should be counted im as cash in the daily
balance. Every coupon book should be numbered and a proper
receipt should be taken for every book issued. The books should be
issued in numerical sequence, and the auditor should require a strict
accounting of the books on hand at each audit. A typical book has
the following instructions on the cover:

1. Under no circumstances will these coupons be received in payment for goods
purchased prior to the sale of this book.

2. The unused portion of this book may be redeemed at the face value of the returned
coupons, less 3 per cent, provided the book is presented within one year from date of
sale indicated by punch mark in margin of cover.

3. Detached coupons will not be redeemed nor accepted in payment for merchan-
dise. When the coupons have been exhausted, PRESERVE THIS COVER as a receipt for

32 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

money paid by you to the store, and when a dividend is announced YOU WILL RECEIVE
REBATE based upon the amount paid for this book.

4, If this book is lost or stolen, report the fact at once, giving the number of the book.
It is not transferable and will not be honored if presented by another than yourself
or one authorized by you. These conditions are necessary in order to protect the
purchaser.

I agree to the above conditions:

2 Saint Sn A RR gop Ree , Purchaser.
Mateloiusal eee sseseeee Qs.

Many of the most successful stores use scrip or metallic tickets,
preferably aluminum, for the payment of produce. The tickets are
made in the same denominations as coins, except that the penny is
seldom used. This seems to be a good practice for stores which do
only a limited buying of produce and where there is no good reason
for paying cash. Where large purchases are made of eggs, butter,
wool, and the like, and it becomes necessary to pay cash, a check
should be drawn in the usual manner. Coupons paid for produce
must be counted as a liability until redeemed. It is entered on the
Daily Summary and in the Cash Payments as shown in Forms 17
and 18.

"BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 33

Form 19.—JOURNAL.
SAMPLE ENTRIES.
June 15, 1915.

dye) She Dr Cr:
‘ Pursuant to Articles of Association and Minutes of June Ist,
r and 8th, the Farmers’ Cooperative Association began business
a with the following resources and liabilities:
7 C. B. | Cash 2, 500)00
. 7 | Stock Notes 3, 500/00
: 1 Capital Stock 6, 000/00
j Being 60% of the authorized capital stock, as per stock sub-
; scription agreements 1-145
j 4 | Accounts Receivable Ee rae 2, 600/00 ie
. 3 Merchandise Sales 2, 600/00
Credit sales for J anuary. For details see J. 30.
January 31, 1915.
3 | Merchandise Sales " 6,00
4 Accounts Receivable 6,00
Returns and Allowances for January. For details, see J. 40. |
December 31, 19165. |
2 | Cash 86, 628/00
3 | Merchandise Sales 30/00
6 | Coupons (Redeemed) 19, 600/00
6 Coupons (Issued) 12,399.00
2 Merchandise Sales 34, aoule
4 Accounts Receivable 35, ot ;
5 Bills Receivable 4, Pale
8 Bills Payable 13, weales
9 Interest ‘ inalio
1 Capital Stock 2; fale
7 Stock Notes sed oh
10 Furniture & Fixtures ‘pale
11 Commission ale

Cash Receipts for the year, as per Summary C. B. 16.

Posting authorized,
J. B. Doe,
Manager.
JOURNAL.

The use of the Journal is very restricted in modern bookkeeping.
It is confined practically to four classes of entries—opening entries,
correction ov adjusting entries, periodical summary entries, and
closing entries. These several entries are made in the Journal, with
suitable explanations, with a view to finally posting them into the
General Ledger. An illustration of opening entries is the first above.

34 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The advantages of first journalizing the items to be posted are
(1) that the entries may be checked and approved by the proper
authority before posting; (2) it facilitates the preparation of the trial
balance and statement, and (3) it is a very great assistance to the
auditor. The trial balances and statements should also be copied in
the Journal. Form 19 illustrates the use of the Journal.

During the progress of the business, certain adjustments and cor-
rections must be made which can not properly be made through the
Cashbook. Such entries are made in the Journal. For example, if it
is found advisable to exchange a surplus of coal which previously was
charged to expense, an entry is made in the Journal with suitable
explanations and detail. A temporary settlement for a bill of mer-
chandise by a customer may be made by a note. At the end of the
year the totals for the different columns in the Cash Receipts Sum-
mary are journalized, the items in the ‘‘unclassified” column being
segregated and posted to the proper accounts. A similar entry is
made for the cash payments.

At the end’of the year, in order to find the progress of the business,
the books are closed. According to the Manager’s Report (Form 7), -
the inventory of merchandise is $14,900; accrued interest on bills
receivable, $31; office supphes, $20; and two lability inventories—
accounts payable, $1,600, and accrued interest on bills payable, $21.
The proper entries are made in the Journal and posted as follows:

UMVETILORY Aa eres Goes ree ee ai eae eS $14, 951. 00
Merchandise. siya eae eae a cela ain Rotate na $14, 900. 00
TING eTeS Gees! ede aye eso Ma eee nes in era NET Mais 21 tral 31.00
1 Ep -<) OCC Nae Aun a eee pee paW en gs AL ee ee EY cll 20. 00

MerchanGise say init musi yc Use mince mmm ses 1, 600. 00

UEyahy Ey a e¥e) eee eles oe a ead ee Ure LON Oa 21.00
NOMS TULOT Yeeeah lees cass ee ae, Sine re eA tere Te are cea 1, 621. 00

In order to find the profit on Trading, this account is opened and
charged with the different items of cost and credited with the sales.
The charges and credits are identical with, the items in Form 7, II A.
In fact, the Trading Account contains the same facts as the state-
ment, but in ledger form.

Journal entries are then made to transfer the Net Profit from the
Trading Account and the different profit and loss accounts to the
Profit and Loss account. This is identical in content with Form 7,
II B.
A Balance Sheet is now taken from the ledger, which is practically
identical with Part I of the Manager’s Report.

In order to open the books for the next year’s business, the net
profit is transferred to the Surplus account by means of a journal
entry. The Inventory account is closed by a journal entry, which is
tne reverse of the closing inventory entry above.

ee an ee ATT Ne aan

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 35
Form 20.—GENERAL LEDGER.
CAPITAL STOCK. (1)
1915 1915 |
Dec 31 | Balance 15, 350/00 J me 1 | Balance 9, 950,00
: Dee 31 | Cash 26 2; aso
31 | Stock Notes 27 3,350 00
eT Ria, as nn Pee ese lees
Jan. 1 | Balance 15, ane
CASH. (2)
1915 1915
Jan- 1 | Balance 2, 580,00 Dec 31 | Payments 27 85, 818,00
Dec. 31 Receipts 26 86, 628 00 | i 31 Balance gee! 3, sod 00
1916
Jan. 1 | Balance " 3, 390,00 |
MERCHANDISE SALES. (3)
1915 1915
Jan. 31 | Ret. & Allow. 26 6/00 Jan. 31 | Sold on ace. 26 2, 600,00
Dec Sl es a 26 30,00 i) Dec. | 31} Cash Sales 26 34, 900,00
o| Westby Gs se 27 90,00 {) Feb. to | Dee. Sold onacc. | 27 38, 630 00
Feb. | to | Dec. Ret. & Allow.| 27} 74100
Dec 31 | To Trading Acc. 27 75, 930,00
== — Sl —| =
ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE. (4)
1915 1915
Jan. 1 | Balance 6, 885,00 || Jan. 31 | Ret. & Allow. 26 6\00
31 | Sold on acc. 26 2s Ane ; Dec. 31 | Cash 26 30% tale
Feb. to | Dee. Sold onace. | 27 38, eal Feb. | to} Dec. Ret. & Allow.| 27 ae
Jan to | Dec. Bills Rec. 27 ay, al
Dec. | 31] Balance Up 50000
“a6 | esl eA, Sad Sei pre ie
Jan. 1 | Balance _ 7,500 ie |
BILLS RECEIVABLE. (5)
1915 1915
Jan. 1 | Balance 1, 800/00 Dec. | 31 | Cash 26 4, 560,00
Jan. to | Dec. on ace. 27 5, 060)00 31 | Balance 2, 300/00
DICT LL Real conch aa tae
Jan. 1 | Balance 2, 300/60

36 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Form 20.—-GENERAL LEDGER—Continued.

COUPONS. (6)

1915 | | | 1 1015 |
Dee. | 31 | Redeemed 26 ane | Jan. | 1] Balance 160,00
31 | Balance | 15000] Dec. | 31 | Issued 26 || 12,390.00

| si] « 27 || alin
a ee et i916 | ‘cual ke
| Jan. | 1| Balance | sue

GENERAL LEDGER.

The General Ledger contains the accounts of the business as a
whole. It contains in summarized form the accounts showing the
resources, liabilities, losses and gains, and the administrative accounts.
In a corporation all the general ledger accounts are impersonal, even
when a credit business is done either with creditors or customers, or
both. A convenient type of ledger is shown in Form 20.

It is very desirable from every standpoint that the accounts of
similar businesses be standardized so that one business may profit
by the experience of the rest. The Harvard Classification! of
retail accounts has therefore been adopted to a considerable extent
as the ledger accounts. They are equally adapted to large or small
businesses. The titles and their explanation are as follows:

EXPLANATION CF THE GENERAL ACCOUNTS.

There are only two classes of accounts in the General Ledger,
namely, accounts with property and nominal accounts. The accounts
with property represent, not only accounts with physical property,
but also property belonging to the business in other people’s posses-
sion, such as accounts receivable, commission due, interest, and so on.
The nominal accounts are those showing losses or gains, or the results

f the business, such as interest, taxes, surance, salaries, general
expenses, etc. in so far as property accounts show appreciation or
depreciation, and also if the property has been sold for more than its
cost, such accounts represent also losses or gains. This is true of
merchandise accounts, real estate, and furniture and fixtures.

The titles of the accounts and their contents are as follows:

1 and 2.2 Cash.—This balance includes (1) the amount set aside for
a revolving fund and for petty expenses, as explained on page 29, and
(2) the balance due from the bank er banks. This part of the cash
account should agree exactly with the bank statement, due regard
being taken for the outstanding checks.

1 Harvard University—Bureau cf Business Research. Builetin No.3. Harvard System of Accounts for
Retail Grozers. 1914.
2 The numbers correspond to the items in the Manager’s Report, Form 7.

ae ee ae ee ee

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 37 -

3. Accounts receivable——This account is used as a controlling
account if a credit business is done. It shows a debit balance, if any,
which equals the amounts due from customers as shown under the
several accounts in the customers’ ledger, or in the account file. It
should be watched very closely, and under no circumstances should
the manager allow any deviation from an exact balance between that
account and the special accounts in the file.

4. Reserve for bad debts——A close check should be had upon the
losses due to credit, and a definite rate established. When this is
found, the amount should be deducted from the net profit, and
credited to this account. Should this rate be found to be too large,
the rate should be decreased ; if too small, the rate should be increased
from time to time. Credits to this account are offset by corresponding
debits to the Loss and Gain account. Sometimes it is well to charge
the entire balance of any account to Loss and Gain, and then if an
amount is collected enter it as a gain.

5. Bills receivable-—This account shows a debit balance, if any,
and represents signed obligations due the business, including notes,
mortgages, drafts, and other negotiable papers. This account is used
only where a credit business is done.

6. Stock notes receivable —This account shows a debit balance, if
any, and represents the amount of stock notes due the business. The
balance should be kept as low as possible, and care be taken to collect
interest on every note.

10. Furniture and fixtures —This account represents the inventory
value of the furniture and fixtures at the beginning of the period,
together with all additions,. but not renewals and repairs. Nothing
intended for sale should be included in this account.

14. Bills payable——This account shows a credit balance, rep-
resenting the amount of signed obligations due others at the end of
the period.

16. Coupons outstanding.—This account shows a credit balance and
represents the amount of coupons outstanding, or the difference
between the amount sold and redeemed. Only one entry a year need
be made in this account, at the end of the period.

17. Capital stock.—This account shows a credit balance, and rep-
resents the amount of stock outstanding. It is the controlling
account of the Membership Ledger, and the balance must equal the
amount of cash received for stock and stock notes, together with the
stock notes on hand.

18. Surplus.—This account shows a credit balance and represents
the undivided profits of a concern. The net gain at the end of the’
year is entered in this account.

21. Diwidends paid.—When trade dividends are declared by the
directors a journal entry is made, debiting Surplus, and crediting

33 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Dividends Declared. When the latter are paid, Dividends Declared
are debited, and Cash credited, through the Cash Payment Book
(ig). This account should balance at the end of the year, since
no unpaid dividends should be reported.

24. Gross sales—This account represents the gross sales of mer-
chandise, and contains only credit items. At the end of the period
this amount is credited to the trading account, which contains exactly
the same items, in account form, as the Trading Statement.

25. Returns and allowances on sales.—This account represents the
returned goods and allowances on merchandise sold. It may be kept
also on the debit side of the Sales account. If a separate account is
kept, it will contain only debit entries until the end of the year.

28. Merchandise purchases.—This account is charged with all cash
purchases of both merchandise and produce, as shown in columns
4 and 5 of the Cash Payments, which should be entered only once a
year. At the end of the year the unpaid bills are also charged to this
account. Merchandise returned may be entered either under a
separate heading, or it may be entered on the credit side of Mer-
chandise Purchases Account. ;

30. Accounts payable.—This account is not used at all unless
regular creditors’ accounts are kept as stated on page 48. In that
case, only one entry need be made at the end of the year, showing
the unpaid bills. This balance should be checked with the creditors’
statements. (See Auditing, p. 50.)

31. Freight, express, and cartage.—All charges for freight, express,
and cartage on incoming goods intended for sale are entered in this
account. At the end of the period they are charged to the Trading
Account. .

35. Turnover, or net cost of merchandise sold.—This is defined as the
prime cost of sales. It may be estimated at any time by subtracting
the given percentage of gross profit from the gross sales. Thus, if the
sales are $12,000 and the average rate of gross profits is 20 per cent,
the turnover is $12,000 less $2,400, or $9,600. |

38. Merchandise discount.—The discounts taken on merchandise
are accumulated in column 2 in the Cash Payments, and are entered
in this account only once a year. It represents a credit balance.

39. Interest—This account shows a debit or credit balance,
according as more interest has been received or paid, and it shows
the amount of interest received on notes due the business and inter- ~
est paid on notes due others. Only one entry for the period is made
for the year on each side of this account, being the totals of column 9
in the Cash Receipts and column 14 in the Cash Payments.

41. Salaries and labor—The salaries and wages are entered in
column 8 in the Cash Payments Book as payments are made, and the

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 39

total is entered on the debit side, at. the end of the year, as explained
on page 30.

42. Advertising.—This is treated the same as 41.

43. Delivery—Same as 41.

44. Miscellaneous buying and selling expense.—This account con-
tains such items as order and requisition blanks, sales books, twine,
wrapping paper, containers, and the like.

45. Management and office salaries.—These salaries are a part of the
total of column 8 in the Cash Payments. The manager’s salary in
proportion to the time spent in management; the salaries of the
bookkeeper, auditors and secretary, and directors’ fees are included.

46. Office expense.—This item includes office books and stationery,
stamps, ink, pencils, and other office supplies, but not permanent
fixtures, such as office desks, typewriters, and adding machines; in
short, anything which is consumable and which is used in the office.
Sales books, however, should be charged to the selling expense,
order and requisition blanks to purchasing expense, etc.

48. Rent, insurance, and taxes.—The contents of this account are
self-explanatory. In the statement it should be subdivided under
the three headings.

49. Inght, heat, water, and power.—These titles are all self-
explanatory. The charges are collected in one column in the Cash-
book and later subdivided. ©

50. Depreciation on furniture and fixtures.—Rates of depreciation
should be established, and a Reserve for Depreciation of Furniture
and Fixtures set up and accumulated every year, to make up for
the loss to this property in the same manner as No. (4).

51. Repairs.—This account contains charges for expenditures for
the general upkeep of the property, such as painting, repairs to fix-
tures, and glazing. It is accumulated in column 18 of Cash Pay-
ments during the year, and from there entered in the General Ledger
at the end of the year.

52. Telephone and telegraph.—The contents of this account are self-
explanatory.

The trading account.—This is a summary of accounts and items 24
to 36, inserted in the Ledger as a permanent record of the Trading
5 iene It corresponds exactly to the statement, except that it
is in the form of a ledger account.

Stock turns.—This is the approximate number of times the stock is
sold, and is found by dividing the turnover (35) by the average
inventory (27 and 33). Thus, if the turnover is $30,000 and the
inventories are $8,000 and $4,000 at the beginning and end of the
year, respectively, the number of stock turns is 5.

40 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Form 21.—CONTINUOUS TRIAL BALANCE, 1915.

October. | November. | December.
Ace.
Account. NG l
Dr. Cr. Dr Cr. Dr | Cr
Capital Stock....| f |Jac.-.2.-|e-2- 155 010| pees | Ses eera |e 159225 \e-hal|- ee eee rk 15, 350\_...-
COs pot 2 70, 360\80 69, aac 80, 369\25 72, 894'20 89, 208|....| 85,818)...
| i | :
Mains ses oye ee '| 120, Bg 120, bate | 131, 240\60 | 131, adh | 142, 10 142, 18020

TRIAL BALANCE.

As is evident from an examination of Form 19, debits are equal to
the credits, hence a balance should exist between the two sides of the
Ledger when the posting is completed. (See Form 21.) This may
be taken monthly, or as often as desired. Since there are only a few
fixed accounts, this should be a very easy matter if the work is done
correctly. it is suggested that the totals of each side of the
account be used rather than the balances, since experience has proved
that this method obviates many chances for mistakes. The Trial
Balance of the totals is also a convenient summary of the business for
the year.

CLOSING THE LEDGER.

The expression “‘ closing the ledger’’ is used because of time-honored
custom, though it is really a misnomer. The process consists merely
of transferrmg the balances of accounts showing losses or gains to a
summary Loss and Gain account which will then show either a net
gain or loss. The net gain is reported to the board of directors, which.
orders its distribution into Dividend, Reserves, Surplus, ete. The
loss and gain accounts will then balance, and only resources and
liabilities will be shown in the ledger, including, of course, the liabili-
ties to the stockholders; that is, Capital Stock, Dividends, Reserves,
and Surplus. In other words, each fiscal period will start without
any open loss and gain accounts, which have served their purpose
at the end of each period in showing the sources of profits or losses.
It is assumed that the bookkeeper is familiar with the method of
closing the ledger.

Before the ledger can be closed, however, certain adjustments must
be made in the loss and gain accounts. Acceunts representing
property must be credited with the value of the stock in hand, and
accounts showing rates and allowances must be adjusted for un-
settled claims. All such lists of property or claims are called inven-
tories. The customary loose method of making these adjustments
in red ink directly into the ledger is not recommended. very change
of whatever nature in the general ledger should first be entered in the

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 41]

journal with suitable explanations, and should be approved by the
manager before they are posted. (See page33.) In this way the auditor
will know at a glance just what has been entered in the ledger, and
the taking of a trial balance will be greatly facilitated.

B.—BOTH CASH AND CREDIT BUSINESS.

A system of accounts which contains a complete analysis of a cash
business is given in the preceding pages. But, unfortunately, few
stores are able to confine themselves to this simple method of doing
business. It is therefore necessary to outline the additional records
required where credit is extended to customers, and where it is im-
practicable to discount all bills. It should be emphasized that all the
preceding records are necessary and that the following are merely
_ additional credit records. They are (1) accounts with customers,
kept either (a) in a separate ledger or (6) in an account file; and (2)
accounts with creditors, kept likewise in a separate ledger or file.
Four additional accounts are kept in the general ledger, viz: A con-
trolling, or summary, account. of Accounts Receivable; and another
with Accounts Payable; sometimes settlements will be made tem-
porarily by notes, and occasionally money will be borrowed. Hence
accounts with Bills Receivable and Bills Payable must be kept. The
method of keeping these accounts will be discussed in the above order.

42, BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Form 22.—SALES SLIP.

Aect.
No. 32

FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATION.
[Place] Jan. 15, 1915.
EH. K. Jones.

Dent.|
EK. Sold by J. G. Jannen.

Checked by Got by
EWE

Items. Totals.

ec YN TOOVAO OFOVERU sh sauce d\adagoad sSc\lbooe 1 9640

IarllSuesoossE ssa ao aseassaccdisoseacocse B55

1 This amount is not forwarded unless a slip file is used.
Written in in triplicate.

43

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCUUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES.

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BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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“HMLSIOGa ATAVAIHORS STE 172 W0F

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 45

Form 25.-ORDER FOR MERCHANDISE.

FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATION.
Order No. 52. [Place], January 2, 1915.

M Wholesale Grocery Co.,
Chicago, Illinois.
Please enter our order for the following goods to be shipped via C. P. R. Q. Ry.
Terms: 2/10; n/30.

Lot. | Quantity. Description. Price.
1 Xj UGC ASESPEXONOXS LP OTK GiB CLS he Ae eee eR ere eee oe oon eee 90
(Do| sae Sy aes On| KEGSES! SRG OT COTM > Le eee eae ero eeicioe aes ce eaae ee 92
20 | a | Oey | ee chee eg co os es an Dh
Note: Please send invoice and bill of lading promptly.

Please send invoice and

Yours, trul
bill of lading promptly. py p
Bea iee numiberiin FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATION,

billing, correspondence, etc. By J. B. Doe, Mer.

In duplicate on triplicate.

BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

46

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WALSIOTU ZOIOANI—9Z U0 7

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 47

Accounts RECEIVABLE.

The original entries of all time sales are made by the salesmen on
triplicating sales slips (Form 22). One copy is given to the cus-
tomer, and two are retained by the salesman, and rung up on the cash
register under Credit Sales. The time sales are carefully listed and
checked by each salesman at the end of the day, each ticket being
accounted for. When thus checked and proved, they are handed to
the bookkeeper, who arranges the slips in alphabetical order, binds
each day’s slips together, and lists them, preferably on an adding
machine. The daily total is entered on a special page in the journal
under the general heading—

CREDIT SALES FOR JUNE, 1915.

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Oy do Wat: Dane Ld te OUR eae SERRE A ORAS CCR Sd fee abe es ek 92. 80

* * * * * * *
Otel aes 0s 5 tad kin ee eR yer ree Nc 2, 600. 00

At the end of the month a journal entry is made for the total of
the month’s sales. .

The individual charges are posted daily as debits under the indi-
vidual accounts in the Customers’ Ledger (Form 23). The duplicat-
ing statement ledger is used, and entries are made with a sharp indel-
ible pencil over a pencil carbon. The original of the ledger account
is sent to the customer as a statement at the end of each month, or
as often as desired, the duplicate being retained as the permanent record.

Bitts RECEIVABLE.

Occasionally, in a credit business, accounts are settled temporarily
by note, time draft, or other signed obligation. Such papers are
listed on Form 24, and at the end of the month a journal entry is made
and posted into the General Ledger as follows:

IB SireCelLvab les erage ce sees ne ee eat $500. 00
Aceoumusimecelva blenes ee. j.5 2 eae eee sesiaes to a ie $500. 00

The individual notes are credited to the several accounts in the

Customers’ Ledger.
Goops RETURNED.

Goods returned are entered on a credit memorandum, which is
printed on a slip the same size as the sales ticket, but usually in red.
The best practice is to use but one book of credit memoranda, to be
kept in the office; but if the memorandum is written by the sales-
person the slips must be rung up on the cash register in the same man-
ner as the sales slips, except that instead of being a Credit Sale it
would be entered as a Returned Sale. The goods returned memoranda
arethen listed on aseparate page under an appropriate heading thesame
as the sales, and at the end of the month posted through the Journal.

48 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
PRODUCE.

Most cooperative stores buy produce in limited quantities from
farmers. It is almost the unanimous opinion of retail stores that
produce is unprofitable. For this reason, and for statistical purposes,
a separate account should be kept of this branch of the business. The
original entry may be made either on the regular credit memoran-
dum, or, preferably, on a special slip for this purpose. These slips
may be totaled at any time to ascertain the volume of produce bought.
If the produce is left by the customer for credit, all the credit slips
must be posted to the respective accounts, and the total produce
entered in the Journal in the same manner as sales.

If the produce business is very large, a special book may be used as
a Produce Register, having the same form as the Journal. Coupons
may be used to advantage in handling produce, as explained under
Cash Payments.

AccouNTS PAYABLE.

Accounts. Payable are amounts due others from the association.
If possible such accounts should be avoided entirely and every bill
discounted, in which case no creditor’s ledger is required, the orders
and remittances being handled as illustrated on page 29. Where
accounts payable records are kept, the original entry is the creditor’s
invoice. As the invoices come in they are checked, entered in the
Invoice Register (Form 26), and filed in the tickler numbered 1 to
31, corresponding to the days of the month. An account is kept
with each creditor in a special ledger, the items being posted to the ©
credit of the respective accounts from the Invoice Register. At the
end of the month or as often as desired the register is totaled and
the amount entered in the Journal as follows:

Mier ela Gi sen iene siecle ie ses Hn 1 Nc gaat np are $2, 000. 00
Accounts! Pavabless sac nc Nes Seeieres ae ens wre clay arere areas $2, 000. 00
Purchases as per Invoice Register, Numbers 150 to 195. :

When payment is made on account of creditors, the invoices are
listed on a voucher check (Form 15) or on a remittance blank (Form
16). A record is made in the cash payments, and the amount is
entered in the total and accounts payable column (Form 17). The
items appearing in this column are posted to the debit of the various
accounts in the Creditors’ Ledger, and Accounts Payable is debited
from the annual summary entry in the Journal. The total of the
balances in the Creditors’ Ledger equals the net balance of the con-
trolling account in the General Ledger, if the work is correct. In
auditing this account great care must be exercised to check the bal-
ances with the creditors’ monthly statements.

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 49
Account FILE SYSTEM.

Because of the extensive introduction of the duplicating and tripli-
cating sales slips into the retail business, various account files have
become very popular. They will be found entirely satisfactory only
if used as a part of the system of general accounts, just outlined, and
not as a substitute for it.

Of course the account file is used for personal accounts only—for
customers and, sometimes, creditors. The triplicating sales slip is
recommended. One slip is given to the customer and two filed—one
in the register, and the third in a special checking file, after having
passed through the cash register. The essential difference between
this system and the ledger system just described lies in the fact that
the balance due is forwarded from slip to slip, the last one being
exposed, showing the balance due. Also credits of whatever nature
are entered on this same style of slip, deducted from the last balance,
and the resulting net balance forwarded as before. (See Form 22.)

In order to prove the accuracy of the register, the total of the last
charge is listed from the triplicate Gn the cash register) and a jour-
nal entry made exactly as before (Form 19). Likewise, the pay-
ments are listed and entered in the cash receipts, crediting the
customers in the proper column (Form 14). Credits of produce are
also listed on a register and journalized. The only difference lies in
the fact that no posting to a customer’s ledger is necessary, since
the account file constitutes the customer’s ledger.

When the controlling entries are posted, the total of the Daletees
in the register will equal the net balance of the Accounts Receivable
in the General Ledger, if the work is correct. Care must be taken
not to allow the daily checking to lapse, because an error dating
back several days 1 is extremely difficult to find.

If the system is used also with the creditors’ accounts, a special
slip is used on which to forward the balances. A commeolne account
is kept in the General Ledger in the same manner as the customers’
controlling account, and a journal entry is made of the total as
often as desired. In this case, a special column would be neces-
sary in the Cash Payments book with the heading “Accounts Pay-
able,’ in which all payments to creditors would be entered. The
individual items would be posted to the debit of the creditors’
accounts, and the total posted to Accounts Payable at the end of
the year in the same manner as the totals of the other columns.
When this is done, the total balance in the register should equal the
net balance in the controlling account.

50 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DEPARTMENTAL Cost Accounts.

For the purpose of determining the results of the various depart-
ments of the business and of setting up a satisfactory trading account,
cost records should be kept with the different departments when-
ever practicable. Usually this record consists of only ‘a few sub-
divisions of the Merchandise Account, such as Groceries, Dry Goods,
Hardware and Implements. Entire bills are charged to the several
accounts, so far as practicable, and bills which contain different
classes of items must be segregated before they are paid and filed.
The total of each division is then charged at convenient intervals
to the departmental accounts. In a similar manner the sales are
distributed and credited to the accounts. The triplicate copy of
the sales slip will be found a convenient basis for the classification
of credit sales. Either a cash register in each department or one
register containing a departmental totaling device must be used in
classifying cash sales.

The result, after taking into account the inventories at the be-
ginning and end of the period, and after charging each department
with its proportion of the overhead expenses, usually based on the
turnover, shows the gain or loss of each department. A complete
analysis of the gross cost, net cost, and general profits and losses
of the business as a whole are found in the Manager’s Report. The
cost accounts are independent of the general accounts, and can be
subdivided and modified at pleasure. However, they should check
with the general trading account as prepared from the General
Ledger (Form 7, II A). The usual stock ledger will be found a
convenient form for the cost accounts.

AUDITING.

The object of the audit is threefold: (1) To serve as a check on the
bookkeeper, so that a system of accounts, once established, be
adhered to without deviation; (2) to serve as a reliable source of infor-
mation to the stockholders as to the conduct and condition of the
business, and accuracy of reports; and (3) the auditor should act as

_a counselor respecting business methods, especially pertaining to the
office practice. The importance of the audit is often overlooked.
No single factor will contribute more to the success of any corporate
enterprise than a strict audit. It must not be forgotten that the
auditor is primarily the servant of the stockholders, and not of the
directors.

Many a cooperative enterprise has been wrecked because there has
been no unity of policy respecting the methods of accounting and
office practice. An unsatisfactory system of accounts is often better
in the hands of an accountant who constantly keeps it up to date
than the most perfect system in the hands of an inefficient book-
keeper. :

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 51

A most important rule for the auditor to follow is to allow no
changes in the system of accounts, once established, except upon the
written recommendation of the auditor, confirmed by the board of directors.
What appears to the bookkeeper or manager as an insignificant change
may be of vital importance to the business.

A very erroneous opinion often exists regarding the duties and re-
sponsibility of an auditor. The auditor’s principal duties are: (1) To
check and verify the manager’s and other officers’ reports; to ascertain
whether or not the reports are based on and agree with the permanent
records of the business; (2) to verify assets and labilities—first as to
their existence, and, second, as to their value; and (3) to report on
the system of accounts and the manner in which they are kept up.

It is not his duty to balance the books, nor to assist in preparing
reports, nor is he responsible for bad accounting unless in his report
to the membership he fails to call attention to the defects. Another
important rule for the auditor to observe is to require the complete
balance sheet from the bookkeeper before he begins the audit.

The best result will be obtained if the audits are neither too numer-
ous nor too few. Perhaps a partial audit by a committee every
three months will be sufficient, while a complete audit should be
made once a year by an expert accountant or auditor.

It is very important that the auditor follow a definite routine in
his work. Generally this should be as follows: (1) See that the
reports are complete, in proper form, and in balance; (2) investigate
any unusual item which may appear in the report; (3) check the report
with the general ledger, and ascertain that the latter is in balance;
(4) check the inventories and other schedules of accounts with the
reports; (5) see that the valuation of both assets and liabilities is
correct; (6) check the cash receipts (a) with the cash register,
(b) with the origmal daily summary, (c) with the bank deposits
(the total receipts must equal the deposits plus the change fund;
the auditor should adopt a private mark, and check every item);
(7) check the cash payments (a) with the original vouchers, (b) with
the canceled checks, (c) as to distribution, (d) as to totals and bal-
ance; (8) check the journalizing and posting; (9) check the time
sales and customers’ ledger, if any, (a) with the original sales slips,
(b) with the controlling account in the general ledger; (10) check the
creditors’ accounts in the same manner; (11) check the secretary’s
stock records; and (12) check the minutes, and see to it that nothing
has been entered which is in conflict with them.

A complete audit consists of three parts: (1) Audit of the resources
and liabilities; (2) the cash audit, and (3) audit of revenue. Whether
or not it is possible for the auditor to complete such an audit satis-
factorily depends on the condition of the books and reports when he
takes them, and the time given to the work.

Be BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
AUDIT OF RESOURCES AND LIABILITIES.

Because the solvency or insolvency of any business depends on the
relation between the resources and liabilities, it is of the utmost
importance that the truth of the Balance Sheet be shown. The
method of determining this can be stated best by an example. Sup-
pose the balance sheet of a cooperative store is as follows:

RESOURCES. LIABILITIES.
AGaisineers 5202 SK) Stes 2S ks iia ne $100.00 Capital Stock......... ea $10, 000. 00
MerenWandise 215.1303 2 5-2 8,000.00 Bills Payable..............-- 1, 000. 00
Accounts Receivable. ....----. 3,000.00 Accounts Payable..-.-.-.-.-. 2, 000. 00
Bills Receivable. .....-- 5S al, /O00F00 1 Surplussieene 2a a eee 2, 000. 00
dvealebistaitemas 226-14. 428 hse 1, 400. 00
Subscribed Stock = ---22-s-—- 1, 000. 00

15, 000. 00 - 15,000.00

It is evident that if the resources are understated or the labilities
overstated, or both, the surplus is larger than $2,000; and the reverse
is true if there are more liabilities and less resources than appear on
the statement. .

The auditor must constantly take into account the weakness of
human nature in the manager’s disposition to show the business in
the brightest light, and he must use every means at his disposal to
verify the Balance Sheet. If satisfactory evidence of the statement
does not exist, he should say so frankly in his report. The following
are the several items of the Balance Sheet in their order:

Cash.—The method of verifying the cash has been given (page 51).

Merchandise——It is usually impracticable for the auditor to
examine every entry and every total of the ventory, but he should
require that a proper classification be made under the various accounts
found in the ledger, and he should appoint a responsible stockholder
or assistant to be present at stocktaking who should also review
prices, extensions, footings, etc. Every schedule should bear the
O. K. of this assistant.

Accounts recewable.—The balance of the Customers’ Ledger or
Account File with the controllmg account in the General Ledger is
only partial evidence of the correctness of these accounts. Errors in
prices, omissions of charges, and the like are not shown by this
balance. The only satisfactory method of checking against such
errors is a regular review of the triplicates by the bookkeeper, and
also a check by the auditor of several sales slips of each day, week,
or month, taken at random. If mistakes are very infrequent, and
the total of the Customers’ Ledger equals the controlling account,
the Balance Sheet may be regarded as reasonably correct.

Bills receivable-—The balance shown in the General Ledger must
equal the total of notes on hand. This should also be verified by

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 53

checking the notes on hand at the last audit and those received and
paid during the period.

Real estate-—The real estate should be valued at the conservative
market value, and sometimes it is advisable to examine deeds, mort-
gages, letters, etc.

Capital stock.—The capital stock must balance with the credit
side of the Capital Stock Account in the Membership Ledger.

Bills payable.—A register is kept of Bills Payable if the business is
extensive enough to warrant it (Form 24), and no entry is permitted
in this book without the approval of the manager. The amounts
not marked ‘‘Paid’’ must equal the total shown in the General
Ledger.

Accounts payable.—The fact that the total balances in the Creditors’
Ledger equals the controlling account balance in the General Ledger
is generally taken as evidence of the correctness of the items. That
this is not sufficient is evident from the fact that if a deferred item
were either intentionally or accidentally omitted from the books
or schedules, the amount would be a hability still, but the account
would be short by that amount. The only satisfactory method of
proving creditors’ balances is by the creditors’ own monthly statements.
This is a precaution which is too often overlooked.

Surplus.—The surplus is made up of the several entries from
the Journal at the close of each balance period.

There is a difference of opinion as to whether a single auditor or a
committee should be employed. In most cases it is found that a sin-
gle auditor is more satisfactory. In the average community, really
competent accountants are scarce, and the greatest care must be-
exercised to avoid careless and perfunctory audits. It will be impos-
sible to retain competent auditors without fair compensation; and
the resources of the average cooperative association are such that
the expense of an auditor will not be excessive. If the business war-
rants it, a certified public accountant should be employed. Gen-
erally, it should be a matter of indifference whether or not the audi-
tor is a member of the association. Im most cases, however, it is
better if he is a nonmember. Perhaps the best‘results are obtained
if the membership elect an auditing committee at the annual meet-
ing, with the understanding that this committee employ a competent
auditor.

OFFICE EQUIPMENT.

Too much attention can not be given to proper office equipment.
Nothing discredits the store more quickly in the opinion of dis-
criminating trade than slovenly appearance of the premises, and
particularly an office littered with alli kinds of rubbish, devoid of every
convenience and comfort. Too often the opinion exists that a farm-

54 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ers’ store, in order to attract country people and make them feel
at home, must avoid unnecessary decoration and the up-to-dateness
which characterize the successful city retail store. On the contrary,
the cooperative store should lead in everything which makes for
ereater comfort, refinement, and economy in business. Thus it can
become a powerful educational influence in the community.

It should be emphasized that no great amount of money is required
to keep the litter off the desk and counters and the cobwebs off the
shelves. Many valuable conveniences can be improvised by the pro-
gressive bookkeeper and manager, and a duster costs practically
nothing.

The first step in organizing any office, simple or complex, is to get
things off the desks and counters completely at least onceaday. This
means filing; it means keeping things moving—papers, documents,
books; it means continually applying the old adage, ‘‘A place for
everything and everything in tts place.” Everything considered, the
alphabetical vertical file will be found most satisfactory; one section
for letters, another for invoices, a third for catalogues, a fourth for
storing, etc.

Failure to index papers and material which are frequently referred
to causes an enormous waste of time. This is due, generally, not to
ignorance of proper method but to a lack of the application of common
sense. Anybody can use a dictionary or a telephone index. There
are no better models of good indexing. If drawers become numerous,
number them and index the contents, thus saving the time and
annoyance of frequent hunting for misplaced things.

Space does not permit more than a list of the desirable office con-
veniences which should be in every store. The cash register is an
indispensable aid toward good business methods if used absolutely
according to the manufacturer’s and auditor’s directions. Rather
have no cash register at all than not to use properly the checks for
accuracy which were the very origin of this valuable device. The
register can be dispensed with when the business warrants the in-
stallation of an overhead carrier system. This system is often found
to be one of the best investments in the store. Not only does it save
a large share of the salesmen’s time, but it makes for greater accu-
racy and general improvement in the office methods.

Tf properly used as an auxiliary to a system of records, the account
file, referred to on page 48, is a great convenience. But it must never
be forgotten that the account file is not a system of accounts; it must
not replace the permanent consecutive records described in the pre-
ceding pages. As a file for short-account slips of 30, or at the most
60, days, properly safeguarded, it is a great labor-saving device.

A store can not long afford to do without a suitable adding machine.
For listing sales slips, invoices, and countless items of computation

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS FOR COOPERATIVE STORES. 55

in a busy store it is indispensable. Only the listing machine is really
serviceable. The smaller types, however, answer quite as well as the
larger ones.

A typewriter is a great convenience. Duplicates of correspondence,
orders, invoices, and other papers should be retained for reference,
and this can be done best by means of the typewriter.

SUMMARY.

1. An adequate set of records is indispensable to any business.

2. The records must be comprehensive enough to analyze every
important phase of the business; must be accurate and capable of
proof, and must be kept up at all times.

3. An unsatisfactory system properly kept up is often more satis-
factory than a perfect system improperly kept.

4, Records of like businesses should be standardized so that one
business may profit by the experience of the others.

5. A system of accounts once adopted should not be changed with-
out authority from the auditor and board of directors.

6. The financial statement is the foundation of any system of
accounts.

7. Great care should be taken to decide on a correct classification
of accounts before the system is adopted.

8. Sales, expenses, salaries, and other important facts should be
reduced to percentages and studied closely by the management.

9. The cash should be checked daily from the cash register by the
bookeeper and monthly by the auditors.

10. Credit accounts, both for purchases and sales, should be avoided
whenever possible.

11. All bills should be discounted, even if it becomes necessary to
borrow money.

12. All cash receipts should be deposited.

13. All except petty payments should be made by check.

14. A good filing system is indispensable.

15. All time sales should be recorded on triplicating sales slips.

16. Dividends should be paid on cash business or accounts settled
within 30 days either in cash or produce.

17. The president, manager, and auditor should each be required
to submit an annual written report.

18. The audit should be regular, comprehensive, and thorough.

19. The auditor should refuse to enter upon the audit until the
balance sheet is submitted by the bookkeeper.

20. Special diligence should be exercised by the auditor to discover
resources and liabilities not properly included in the statement.

21. Whenever possible a certified public accountant should be
secured to make the annual audit.

56 BULLETIN 381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

BENTLEY, Harry ©. The science of accounts. New York. Ronald Press.

Bexet, J. A.; Macpuerson, H., and Kerr, W.H. A survey of typical cooperative
stores. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Bulletin No. 394.

Harvarp University, Bureau or Business RESEARCH. allen No. 3.. Harvard
System of accounts for retail grocers.

Humpurey, Joun R., and Kerr, W. H. Patronage dividends in cooperative grain
companies. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bulletin 371.

Kerster, D. A. Corporation accounting and auditing. Cleveland. Burrows Co.

Kerr, W. H., and Naustrott, G. A. Cooperative organization business methods,
U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bulletin 178.

Neysrrom, Paut H. Retail selling and store management. New York. Appleton
& Co.

Scuuuze, J. Wirtram. The American office; its organization, management, and
records. New York. Key Publishing Co.

Trrrany, H.S. Digest of depreciations. Chicago. H.S8. Tiffany Co.

Twyrorp, H. B. Purchasing; its economic aspects and proper methods. New
York. D. Van Nostrand.

Woop, Atrrep. The cooperative secretary. Manchester, Eng. The Cooperative
Union, Ltd.

Woop, Atrrep. A manual of audit. Manchester, Eng. The Cooperative Union,
Ltd. :

INDEX OF RECORDS AND ACCOUNTING FORMS.

Form No.— Page. | Form No.— Page.
Test Rab StS Co eae tel ape ar 3 13. Daily Receipts Summary ..-..--.----- 18
2. Subscription Agreement......------- 5 14. Cash Receipts Book.......-2.-------- 19
SEIS TOCIGAN Obey say. ee) ah ae ar seat ae 5 15. Voucher CheCk-2. cas aie eee ee 20
AMS LOC ka COLUIMICALE see ae eer eee 6 16. Remittance Blank =---_-2-= 222-2 21
5. Stock Certificate Register...........- 6 17. Cash Payments Bool:..---.-.:..-2--- 22
6. Membership Ledger_.....2----:-----: 8 1S CashtS Gina tye. passer ee eee 24
ap Miana sens eve WOGbs I sete se eee 10 NO JOUrMAN. Bocuse Serease eee ae Somers 33°
8. Comparative Statement.........__.-.- 14 20: edger. acids Pe ses eeeee 35
OB Minaer Go my ses ee ys epee iepete fy ae 14 21a Trial Balances :ser ee eae Ae 40

LOM CashiReoister Micketueesss4--6 22 5-- o> 17 DOE SOIOS SLD soca eee oor eer eee 42
11. Envelope Showing Monthly Sum- 23. Customers? ed vers tosase 2 == ee 25-2 43
mary of Cash Tickets...........-.- 17 24, Bills Receivable Register...........- 44
12. Trading Summary and Dividend 25. Order for Merchandise.......-.--.--- 45
Registerca5aceoeintaeseeces sgaoe sees Uf \'e9) 20. TnvoicemRegisters--o:2-e5s--2545>-26 46

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A

- UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

: 5 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology
SCS. L. O. HOWARD, Chief

Washington, D. C. A July 8, 1916

COTTON BOLL-WEEVIL CONTROL IN THE MISSISSIPPI
DELTA, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SQUARE PICK-
ING AND WEEVIL PICKING.

By B. BR. Coan,
Entomological Assistant, Southern Field Crop Insect Investigations.

INTRODUCTION.

In devising measures for the control of the boll weevil the experi-
ence of the Bureau of Entomology has shown that those which are
practicable in one region do not necessarily apply in another. The
conditions vary according to climate, topography, and systems of
agriculture. Each locality offers peculiar conditions, but striking
differences occur between the cotton regions of Texas and of the delta
of Louisiana and Mississippi. These varying conditions have led
to the development of rather distinct methods of control of the
weevil, as applied to these two regions.

During the progress of the Mexican cotton boll weevil northward
and eastward across the State of Texas, a combination of control
measures which was reasonably effective in limiting the damage to
the cotton crop was devised and adopted. These measures were
largely of a more or less indirect nature, such as planting early
maturing varieties, frequent shallow cultivation, wide spacing of the
plants to allow the suushine to reach the fallen squares, etc. Largely
owing to the comparatively dry climate and the exceedingly high
mortality of the weevil stages in the fallen forms, produced by the
hot sunshine, these measures generally sufficed for that region. When
the weevils invaded the Delta region of the Mississippi River, in the
States of Louisiana and Mississippi, however, it was found that
weevil control was complicated by new conditions. The extremely
heavy rainfall and high humidity prevailing in the Delta region,
together with the rank vegetative growth typical of the cotton plants
there, combined to reduce greatly the most important factor in the

Norse.—This bulletin is intended to give practical advice to the cotton raisers of the
Mississippi Delta on the subject of controlling the boll weevil.

44011°—Bull. 382—16

2 BULLETIN 382, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF, AGRICULTURE.

natural control of the weevil, namely, the mortality produced by
heat in these fallen forms. The ground remained so moist between
the rows in many fields for considerable periods that the weevils were
able to mature under the most favorable conditions and consequently
to multiply prolifically.

To meet these new conditions various direct control measures have
been devised and practiced. The most popular of these consisted
of the collection of the overwintered weevils from the plants in the
spring and the gathering and destruction of the fallen infested forms
from the ground. These operations are commonly termed “ weevil
picking” and “square picking,” respectively. They are based on
the fact that the most critical period in the yearly cycle of the weevil
and the time at which its numbers reach the lowest ebb is in the
spring when the comparatively few survivors of the winter are
emerging. In an average season these overwintered weevils are
relatively scarce, and it is not until their progeny begin to mature
and multiply that the actual severe damage to the cotton is produced.
Owing to the very high fecundity of the individual females, each
overwintered weevil destroyed early in the spring means the elimi-~
nation of an enormous number of potential progeny in the later
generations, and, in the same way, the collection of the immature
stages of the weevils of the first-bred generation in the fallen forms
not only reduces the weevil abundance by the actual number col-
lected but also retards further multiplication. Because of these
facts a number of cotton planters have considered it a paying proposi-
tion to incur a considerable expense per acre to destroy these early
weevils. It was found, however, that the results secured by the
different planters practicing these control measures varied widely
and their conclusions as to the actual benefit derived were equally
diverse. Many claimed very positive gains while many of their
neighbors operating under much the same conditions could see no
benefit from the measures and considered the expense thus incurred
an absolute loss.

Another factor enters into the problem and further complicates
matters. This is the question of labor supply. Under the conditions
at present prevailing in the Delta the available labor, during the
months of May and June, is always more or less short of the labor
needed. In addition to this, one very important effect of the weevil
on the economic system of this region has been the forcing of diversi-
fied farming instead of the old one-crop system. The new crops most
generally adopted were corn and oats. As a result the labor crisis
during the spring period has become even more acute. Not only does
the cotton require cultivating and hoeing, but it is also necessary to
cultivate and hoe the corn and cut, shock, haul, and thrash the oats

COTTON BOLL-WEEVIL CONTROL IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA. 3

during this same period. None of these operations could be neglected
without a serious loss to the plantation. As these all fall at the time
when it is necessary to perform the weevil-picking or square-picking
operations it has become more and more necessary to determine the
actual benefit derived from these control measures and to ascertain
to what extent it would be profitable to slight the other operations
in their favor. A series of studies was, therefore, inaugurated at the
Delta Laboratory located at Tallulah, La., in the effort to secure
definite information on these points. These studies were largely con-
ducted on an experimental basis, but their results were checked by
observations on the plantation use of the different control measures.
The following is a brief consideration of the points brought out by
these studies.

SQUARE PICKING.

The first of the studies consisted of plat tests on the effect of pick-
ing only the fallen forms during the spring. ‘The first picking was
made as soon as the fallen forms had reached a considerable number
and still before the weevils had started to emerge from them. As
the emergence of the weevil from hibernation was exceedingly late
during the season when this test was conducted (1915), it did not
prove necessary to conduct this first picking until June 16. Of
course this date of picking would vary widely with the season, and
in a year of normal emergence it would undoubtedly be much earlier.
Following this the plat was carefully picked over every 7 days
until July 14, a total of five pickings, extending over a period of 28
days. During this time 42,672 forms per acre were collected. In
actual bulk this equaled about 42 gallons per acre. The method of
picking used was the simplest possible. Mixed negro laborers were
provided with sacks for holding the forms and were sent down the
rows to gather all forms from the ground by hand. The picking
was carefully supervised in order to make sure that the collections
were thorough.

The weevil infestation in these plats wasy followed carefully -
throughout the season and it was soon found that the infestation in
the picked plat was showing a very decided effect from the operation.
For example, on July 6, 18 per cent of the squares in the picked plat
were infested, while 44 per cent were infested in the untreated check
plat. On July 13, the percentages were 37 and 63, respectively. In
fact all observations consistently demonstrated that the square col-
lection was reducing the weevil infestation within the treated plat.
Of course the final criterion determining the effect of the operation
was the production, and it was found that the picked plat produced
23 per cent more seed cotton per acre than the check. However, this

4 BULLETIN 382, U. S. DEPARTMENT |OF AGRICULTURE.

gain in yield must not be considered as being net profit, since there
are certain expenses to be charged against the value of this increased
production. These are the actual labor involved in the control op-
eration and the effect of diverting the labor from the usual opera-
tions to those of weevil control.

Careful studies were made on the labor involved in these square
pickings and the figures secured from the experimental tests were
also checked under conditions more closely approximating those of
plantations. From these studies it was found that the average labor
per acre involved in the pickings ranged from about 4 hours for the
first to about 24 hours for the fifth. The general average of all the
pickings was slightly over 11 hours per acre per picking. As the
labor day in the Delta section is usually of about 12 hours during
the spring, this indicates that the pickings would average about 1
day’s labor per acre, or a total of 5 days for the five pickings. As
the greater part of the picking is done by women and children, this
labor probably has a value of not more than 50 cents per day on the
average. This would make the five pickings cost about $2.50 per
acre on a wage basis. Of course this labor will vary greatly with the
locality, field, and seasonal conditions, as these factors will determine
the number of fallen forms present to be picked. Heavy infesta-
tion, producing a large number of fallen infested forms, will, of
course, require much more labor per acre to control, while a lighter
infestation, particularly on thin, sandy land, where the square for-
mation is not so profuse, will result in comparatively few forms to
be collected, and the labor required will be lessened. Under certain
conditions of soil and climate there is frequently a very heavy shed-
ding of uninjured forms. Of course these can not be distinguished
from the infested forms when on the ground, and must be gathered.
This condition occasionally becomes so pronounced that it greatly
increases the labor involved in picking.

The time interval between pickings in this test (7 days) was
selected arbitrarily, but it is probably about the most satisfactory
period. This gives an interval sufficiently short to prevent any con-
siderable weevil emergence from the fallen forms between pickings
and is still about as long as can be safely allowed. The number of
pickings must depend entirely on the conditions prevailing. The
object of the number utilized in this test was to cover the period
from the first falling of squares in considerable numbers to the time
when the work becomes too bulky to handle. As previously men-
tioned, in an ordinary year the operation would probably start
earlier than was necessary in 1915, but, owing to the rapid increase
in the labor required during the later pickings, it would probably
not be profitable to give more than four pickings under ordinary

COTTON BOLL-WEEVIL CONTROL INTHE MISSISSIPPI DELTA. 5

conditions. If any benefit is going to be derived, it should be secured
during this period, and the cost of the operation will be sufficiently
low to allow a reasonable margin for profit. It seems hopeless to
expect to prevent all weevil multiplication in the field, regardless of
how thoroughly the picking operations are conducted, and the best
that can be hoped for is to retard the time when the practically com-
plete infestation of squares is reached, thus allowing a slightly
longer period for the formation of fruit and the safe maturing of
the bolls which have already been set.

The disposal of these infested forms is an important item. Based
on the conditions which prevailed in the more western territory,
_where the parasitic control of the weevil is a considerable item and
where smaller amounts of forms are collected, it was recommended
that they be placed in screen cages, instead of actually destroying
them, thus allowing the emergence and escape of the weevil para-
sites in these forms and still retaming for later destruction the
weevils maturing from them. In the Delta, however, the conditions
are so different that this recommendation is not advisable. Parasitic
control of the weevil in the Delta is generally so low that it is of
little importance, and therefore comparatively few parasites would
be saved by this means. In fact, unless rather elaborate and expen-
sive precautions were taken to prevent the weevils’ escape from
these cages it seems probable that a sufficient number of weevils
would be released to more than offset the parasites saved. This
consideration is further emphasized by the carelessness of the negro
laborer. In addition, the quantity of forms handled in the Delta is
so great that the expense of providing cages for their disposal is
practically prohibitive. It has already been shown that in the plat
tests of 1915 an average of 42 gallons of forms were collected per
acre. When it is considered that many of the Delta planters reckon
their cotton acres by the hundreds and even by the thousands, it is
easy to see what an enormous task it would be to provide screen
cages for these forms. In view of these facts it seems advisable to
dispose of these forms in the quickest and most effective manner
possible. This may be done quite easily by burning or burying them.

WEEVIL PICKING.

There are a number of different methods of collecting the adult
weevils from the cotton, but it is probably best to consider only those
most prevalent in the Delta. In earlier years practically the only
method practiced was what is now termed “hand picking.” In fol- _
lowing this method the laborers were each given a box or a bottle and
they depended entirely upon being able to see and capture the adult

Ce te
6 BULLETIN 382, U. S. DEPAREMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

weevils on the plants. This method was exceedingly slow and labori-
ous and, owing to the large number of weevils actually overlooked,
and the additional number escaping by “ possuming” and falling to
the ground upon the first disturbance of the plant, this method was
not very effectual. Within the last few years, however, a semime-
chanical method of collection has been devised by some of the Delta
planters and its use has spread rapidly. This is what is commonly
termed the “ bag-and-hoop,” or “ hoop-and-sack” method of collee-
tion. It consists of shaking the plants into a sack, the mouth of which
is held open by a barrel hoop. This method proved to be much more
effective and less expensive than hand picking.

To determine the relative efficiency of these two methods of weevil
collection a number of comparative tests were conducted. These
show the hand picking to require four times as long as the bag-and-
hoop, while the latter collected more than twice as many weevils as
the hand picking from the same area. In addition to this, in the
course of the weevil collection with the bag-and-hoop a large number
of infested-forms are gathered, thus making the operation in reality
a combination of weevil picking and square picking. Thus it can
readily be seen that there is no question of the great superiority of
the bag-and-hoop method over hand picking.

The apparatus required for the bag-and-hoop collections is the
sunplest possible. A burlap seed sack with a barrel hoop some 24
inches in diameter sewn into its mouth is all that is necessary. A tub
or barrel of water with a small amount of kerosene on its surface
may be placed on the turnrow and the bags emptied into it about
every second row.

It was found that there was considerable difference in the results
secured from the different methods of handling this bag-and-hoop.
Comparative observations have shown the following to yield the
best results: The bag should be placed against the base of the cot-
ton stalk with as little disturbance as possible. Then the plant
should be gently bent well into the mouth of the bag and shaken
several times rather sharply from side to side, that is, at right
angles to the length of the bag instead of back and forth into its
mouth. It was found that there was considerable difference in the
weevils collected when these two methods of shaking the plant were
compared. As a result of shaking the plant lengthwise of the bag
a number of weevils are evidently thrown away from the bag in-
stead of into it, while other weevils actually thrown into the bag
strike against the hanging back and bounce out again. On the other

“hand, when the plant is shaken across the sack, all weevils falling
from it are retained.

More elaborate devices resembling the bag-and-hoop in principle
were tested, but it was found that none of these was as efficient as

COTTON BOLL-WEEVIL CONTROL IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA. 7

the simple form just described and that all possessed the additional
disadvantage of being more expensive to make.

- Observations were made to determine the time required per acre
for the operation of the bag-and-hoop, and it was found to vary
widely with the individual laborer, but the general range was found
to be from 1 to 2 acres per hand per day. Of course the operation
would be more rapid during the early pickings when the plants are
small and weevils are rather scarce. The figures secured, however,
seem to indicate that from 1 to 14 acres per laborer per day is the
best average that can be expected throughout the picking season.
On a day-wage basis this would mean an average expenditure of some
40 to 60 cents per acre for each picking, and if the pickings were
continued very late into the season this expense would be considerably
increased.

The time interval between pickings which will yield the best results
is still open to question, but it seems advisable to make it shorter than
that between square pickings in order to reduce the time for square
puncturing allowed the weevils, and also to reduce the number of
infested forms falling to the ground between pickings, thus secur-
ing the benefit of both square picking and weevil picking. The
studies to date seem to indicate that better results will be secured
from several pickings given early in the season with a short time
interval than where the same number of pickings are extended over
a longer period by making the time interval a week or more. In
fact, when the labor supply is not sufficient to allow this intensive
treatment of all of the cotton it seems probable that better net
results would be secured by concentrating the labor on only a por-
tion of the crop and allowing the remainder to go untreated. In
the case of cotton worked by wage labor the control measures could
be concentrated on certain cuts, while in a case of tenant cotton the
thorough and consistent picking of a portion of a cut would probably
be more profitable than scattering the same amount of labor over the
entire cut, in a series of more or less irregular and haphazard
pickings. This concentration of effort, however, would not apply
in a season of exceedingly heavy weevil infestation when the avail-
able food supply on the near-by untreated cotton would soon be
exhausted and the weevils would migrate into the picked cotton in
search of food. Except under these conditions, however, the early
season interfield movement of weevils is apparently sufficiently slight
to allow their control within a comparatively small area.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

The foregoing discussion has been devoted to the consideration of
the best methods of picking weevils and squares, and the figures have
been based on a day wage scale. There now remains to be considered

8 BULLETIN 382, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the application of these facts and figures to plantation conditions.
in the first place there is little or no picking on a day wage basis, but
it is practiced under the tenant system where no actual cash outlay
is required and the only expense of the operations is that incurred by
the detrimental effect produced on either the cotton or some other
crop because of taking the labor from its care and utilizing it in
these weevil control measures. Consequently, the question is just how
much the planter can afford to slight the other operations in order
to pick his squares or weevils. Studies on the increased yields
produced by these control measures have shown that there is a
very definite advantage. However, very little neglect of the cultural
operations may produce a loss amply sufficient to more than offset
any benefit derived from the reduction of the weevil infestation. For
this reason it seems generally inadvisable to practice these control
measures except in the presence of an abundance of labor.

Because of this complication with the labor supply the greatest
desideratum at present is the perfection of a mechanical means of
weevil picking which will be as effective as the bag-and-hoop method
and still will allow the handling of a considerable number of acres
per day per hand. Several mechanical devices were tested in com-
parison with the bag-and-hoop and, while none of them was as
efficient as the latter method, one or two gave some promise of satis-
factory results with further improvements in their construction. It
should be stated that there are a number of serious problems to be
met by a mechanical picker, which make it still doubtful as to whether
a satisfactory one can be devised. In the first place the question of
interruption of operations by rainy weather is a serious problem.
A number of successive rainy days resulting in continually muddy
fields produces the best possible conditions for weevil multiplication
and thus necessitates even more strenuous efforts for control, but
the same conditions make it difficult to operate mechanical pickers
in the field. Such weather conditions are met with practically
every spring in the Delta. The necessity for drainage in this region
causes the cotton to be planted and worked on “ridges.” This rais-
ing of the plants above the middle of the rows interferes seriously
with the operation of many mechanical pickers. In addition to
this, as long as the present system of laying off and planting rows is
followed there will always be more or less crooked rows and the dis-
tances between the rows will vary considerably. This condition
presents another obstacle to mechanical pickers, particularly those
taking two rows at a turn. Still another obstacle is the difficulty
in operating many of these machines in irregular, stumpy land such
‘as is found on some parts of almost every plantation in the Delta.
These fields are the ones which have been cleared only recently and

COTTON BOLL-WEEVIL CONTROL IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA. 9

with proper protection from the weevils would make far better cot-
ton crops than the land which has been in cultivation for a longer
period. Considering these obstacles to be overcome and the degree
of efficiency in weevil collection which must be developed by a me-
chanical picker, it is easy to see that there will be great difficulty in
developing a satisfactory one.

One factor in the relation of these weevil-picking measures to the
plantation complex is the effect upon the labor itself. On many
plantations it is desirable to have the laborers conduct some direct
control measures in order to encourage them to work the crop thor-
oughly. In such cases the bag-and-hoop method seems to satisfy the
needs very well. The laborers can capture a considerable number
of weevils and the fact that they are actually destroying these weevils
often seems to encourage them greatly. In fact, a number of planters
who practice this control measure state that they do not consider
that they are deriving any direct benefit from the reduction in weevil
infestation, but that the operation is worth while because of its bene-
ficial effect upon the morale of their labor.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

Plat tests of five square pickings at seven-day time intervals gave
an increased yield of 23 per cent over the check.

Tests of seven weevil pickings with the bag-and-hoop indicated
similar results.

The seasonal conditions obtaining during the course of the experi-
ments described in this bulletin have been referred to; it is possible
that different seasonal conditions might yield different results.

Comparative observations on different methods of collecting
weevils demonstrated the great superiority of the bag-and-hoop over
hand picking so definitely that there should be no question as to
which method to follow.

The margin of profit to be derived from these two control measures
seems to be too slight to allow their operation on a wage basis. For
this reason the only condition under which they ‘should be attempted
is on tenant cotton where the work can be performed without any
direct outlay for labor.

Owing to the shortage of labor in the Delta these operations are
very likely to interfere seriously with the regular plantation work
and thus cause a loss more than sufficient to offset any benefit derived
from them. In such cases it is not advisable to attempt to pick
either squares or weevils.

In case it is necessary to choose between a cultivation and a wee-
vil or square picking, cultivate.

10 BULLETIN 382, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

If, after considering the foregoing points, it seems advisable to
practice either of these control measures, the following seem to be
the best methods:

Square picking—A time interval of about seven days between
square pickings seems advisable. ;

The first picking should be made within a week of the time when
the squares start to fall in considerable numbers.

It is not likely to prove profitable to pick squares more than four
or five times.

The squares should be disposed of as soon as possible after collec-
tion by burning or burying.

Weevil picking —The most satisfactory method of weevil picking
now known is the bag-and-hoop.

The first picking should be made as soon as the weevils are suffi-
ciently abundant to make the operation worth while. This is likely
to be about the time the plants start squaring or soon thereafter,
although in exceptional cases it 1s not necessary to pick until con-
siderably later.

Following this the pickings should be made as frequently as possi-~
ble—twice a week, if practicable.

It is not likely to prove profitable to make more than four to six
pickings at the most.

Of these two measures the bag-and-hoop is likely to prove the more
profitable under usual conditions and is really the easiest and simplest
method to practice.

PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING
TO THE BOLL WEEVIL.

AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION.

Cotton Improvement Under Weevil Conditions. (Farmers’ Bulletin 501.)

The Boll Weevil Problem. (Farmers’ Bulletins 512.)

Recent Studies of the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. (Department Bulletin
231.)

Relation of the Wild Cotton Weevil to Cotton Planting in the Arid West.
(Department Bulletin 233.)

Studies on the Biology of the Arizona Wild Cotton Weevil. (Department Bul-
letin 344.)

Studies of the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil in the Mississippi Valley. (De-
partment Bulletin 358.)

Most Important Step in Control of Boll Weevil. (Entomology Circular 95.)

Hibernation and Development of Cotton Boll Weevil. (Entomology Bulletin
63; Pt. I.)

FOR SALE BY SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS.

Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. (Entomology Circular 6, English Edition.)
Price, 5 cents.
El Picudo 6 Gorgojo Mexicano de la Capsula del Algod6én [Mexican Cotton
Boll Weevil]. (Mntomology Circular 6, Spanish Edition.) Price, 5 cents.
Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. (Entomology Circular 14, English Edition.)
Price, 5 cents.

Same, Spanish Edition. Price, 5 cents.

Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. (Hntomology Circular 18.) Price, 5 cents.

Most Important Step in Cultural System of Controlling Boll Weevil. (Ento-
mology Circular 56.) Price, 5 cents.

What Can Be Done in Destroying Cotton Boll Weevil During Winter. (Ento-
mology Circular 107.) Price, 5 cents.

Status of Cotton Boll Weevil in 1909. (Entomology Circular 122.) Price, 5
cents.

Annotated Bibliography of Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. (Entomology Cir-
cular 140.) Price, 5 cents. ¥

Movement of Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil in 1911. (Entomology Circular
146.) Price, 5 cents.

Movement of Cotton Boll Weevil in 1912. (Entomology Circular 167.) Price,
5 cents.

Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. (Hntomology Bulletin 45.) Price, 25 cents.

Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil, Revision and Amplification of Bulletin 45, to
Include Important Observations Made in 1904. (Hitomology Bulletin 51.)
Price, 15 cents.

Proliferation as Factor in Natural Control of Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil.
(Entomology Bulletin 59.) Price, 15 cents.

Papers on Cotton Boll Weevil and Related and Associated Insects. (Ento-
mology Bulletin 63, 7 pts.) Price, 15 cents.

Tal

12 BULLETIN 382, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Notes on Biology of Certain Weevils Related to Cotton Boll Weevil. (Ento-
mology Bulletin 63, Pt. Il.) Price, 5 cents.

Ant Enemy of Cotton Boll Weevil. (Entomology Bulletin 63, Pt. III.) Price,
5 cents.

Vredatory Bug Reported as Enemy of Cotton Boll Weevil. (Entomology Bul-
letin 63, Pt. IV.) Price, 5 cents.

Studies of Parasites of Cotton Boll Weevil. (Hntomology Bulletin 73.) Price,
10 cents.

Some Factors in Natural Control of Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. (Hnto-
mology Bulletin 74.) Price, 15 cents.

Hibernation of Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil... (Entomology Bulletin 77.)
Price, 25 cents.

Insect Enemies of Cotton Boll Weevil. (Entomology Bulletin 100.) Price, 15
cents.

Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant. (Farmers’ Bulletin 47.) Price, 5 cents.

Information Concerning the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. (Farmers’ Bulletin
189.) Price, 5 cents.

Controlling the Boll Weevil in Cotton Seed and at Ginneries. (Farmers’ Bul-
letin 209.) Price, 5 cents.

The Use of Paris Green in Controlling the Cotton Boll Weevil. (FWarmers’
Bulletin 211.) Price, 5 cents.

The Control of the Cotton Boll Weevil. (Farmers’ Bulletin 500.) Price, 5
cents.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH: 1916

Maxics:

; BULLETIN No. 383 3

‘N

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief.

Washington, D. C. A August 15, 1916

NEW SORGHUM VARIETIES FOR THE CENTRAL
AND SOUTHERN GREAT PLAINS.

By H. N. ViNALL, Agronomist, and R. W. Epwarps, Scientific Assistant, Office
of Forage-Crop Investigations.

CONTENTS.

Page. Page.

MGR Ce HOM aeons as ee eee eisiic Scie see 1 | Comparison of the field records of the new sor-
Description and adaptation of the new vari- ah WIMVATIObIOS! eet ase aslceee ca ee keels 8

GinesrOlsoL eum see. = cee inst coc ss ce - 2 | Value of the varieties in different portions of
Wryanieheranl tee. sob b eae scale heels 3 (Hae) Cuneekn del bilo 6 Cees eossosedesadocobeabe 10
larnpnrowvedstetenitas 2-22... sc<ceseacccece = 4 Region adjacent to Chillicothe, Tex...--- 10
Dy AO LOLUA sea = phsiis)s = oe cesar ames a5 4 Region adjacent to Amarillo, Tex.....-.- 12
Vili ml OOS Saas ae noes aor ene nes sce eee 6 Region adjacent to Hays, Kans...._...-- 12
SCHR kw atin ewes Ret oe easy cee Searem Si = 7 A AGeleraliconclusionSseses ee eeeeereerseeer rere 13

INTRODUCTION.

New varieties of sorghum are constantly appearing, and nearly
every year one or more are exploited. In many instances these are
well-known forms masquerading under new names, but there are
also a large number which are truly different from those in common
cultivation. One prolific source of these new sorghums is the cross-
pollination which takes place naturally between different varieties.
The sorghums being open fertilized and the pollen readily carried
by the wind, there is abundant crossing between varieties whenever
two kinds which are being grown in adjoining fields come into bloom
at the same time. Occasionally, also, new strains are brought over
from foreign countries by friends or relatives of residents of the
United States. In addition to the varieties which arise in a more
or less spontaneous manner, a large number have been introduced
for trial through the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction,
and many are created in the breeding work of the United States
Department of Agriculture and the State agricultural experiment
stations.

Among the resultant host of new forms, remarkably few are found

of sufficient value to compete successfully with the best. standard
44370°—16

hind
y) BULLETIN 383, U. $/\ DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

varieties, such as Blackhull kafir, Dwarf milo, Orange sorgo, and
Sumac sorgo.

Farmers should be slow to discard the standard varieties for new
ones. A small acreage of the less known variety should be grown
first for comparison, or the recommendations of the State agricultural
experiment stations or of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture, should be followed in the matter of adopting the newer sorts.
In order to be in a position to advise farmers in regard to these new
varieties the experiment stations conduct extensive variety tests.

Breeding work with the sorghums is a complex process, owing
to the freedom with which they cross-pollinate and the resulting
difficulty of establishing a stable variety. A farmer can rarely afford
to engage in creative plant-breeding work; that is, the production
of new varieties by cross-pollination. This assertion is based on
several reasons: (1) The percentage of success 1s very small, that
is, the breeder must expect to discard numberless forms before one
is found that will be of sufficient value to replace the varieties now
being grown; (2) the development of a variety yields little profit
to the originator, because he can control neither its propagation nor
its distribution; (8) the farmer is working at a disadvantage when
compared with experiment stations, because in most cases he lacks
a knowledge of the range of existing forms available as a basis for
his breeding work; (4) extreme care and patience are necessary in
plant breeding, and if the farmer devotes to it the required time his
general crops are likely to be neglected and financial loss ensue.

The devotion of a farmer’s time to creative plant breeding can
be justified, therefore, only from an altruistic standpoint. Unless
his income is assured from outside sources, it 1s unwise for him to
engage in plant breeding except in the improvement of the standard
varieties by consistent seed selection. This phase of crop improve:
ment is well worth his time and effort.

DESCRIPTION AND ADAPTATION OF THE NEW VARIETIES OF
SORGHUM.

Most of the new varieties of sorghum described in this bulletin were
obtained by selection from importations made by the United States
Department of Agriculture, but others have been picked up among
farmers, and their exact origin is obscure. All of these have given
very satisfactory results in experimental trials, and a few of them are
already grown locally by farmers. In view of these facts they are
deemed worthy of wide distribution, so that they may be tried under
field conditions in competition with the varieties usually grown.

Typical plants of Dwarf hegari, Improved feterita, and Schrock
kafir are shown in figure 1, and figure 2 shows the comparative sizes
and shapes of the heads of all the varieties.

SORGHUM VARIETIES FOR THE GREAT PLAINS. 3

DWARF HEGARI.

Dwarf hegari is a selection (F. C. I. No. 4201) from 8S. P. I. No.
22326, which sorghum was obtained from the agricultural inspector
at Khartum, Sudan, Africa, under the native name of Hegari.
Dwarf hegari is a short, leafy strain chosen from the above number
at the Forage-Crop Field Station, Chillicothe, Tex., in Novemter,
1910.

Description.—Stems stout, five-eighths to three-fourths of an inch in diameter,
4 to 5 feet tall, medium juicy, slightly sweet, usually with but few tillers and
only occasional branches; leaves 12 to 14, averaging about 3 inches broad and
24 inches long; head cylindrical to ellipsoidal, erect, medium compact, 3
inches in diameter, 7 to 8 inches long, usually well filled, exserted 2 inches

Vie. 1.—Typical plants, showing the character of the stem, leaf, and seed head: 1, Dwarf
hegari; 2, Improved feterita; 3, Schrock kafir.

above the upper sheath; seeds spherical, medium sized, white, marked with a
few red and brown spots, the upper two-thirds exposed from the glume, shatter-
ing moderately ; glumes ovate, black, slightly pubescent, not awned.

In general appearance Dwarf hegari resembles Dwarf Blackhull
kafir very closely (fig. 1), but is nearly intermediate between it and
feterita in the compactness of the panicle or head, in the size and
markings of the seed, and in germinating power. It stands up
well in storms, lodging very little. The growing season averages 96
to 100 days under normal conditions on the Great Plains.

This variety has become well known in the vicinity of Chillicothe,
Tex., and the acreage has increased rapidly in the past two years.
Many farmers prefer it to Dwarf milo on account of its higher forage
value and the greater ease of harvesting due to the erect heads. Its
early maturity has caused it to be looked upon favorably as far north
as central Nebraska.

+ BULLETIN 383, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

IMPROVED FETERITA.

Improved feterita (S. P. I. No. 22329) was obtained from the
Sudan region of Africa in 1908, two years after the first successful
importation of this sorghum. Since its introduction it has been
improved by selection, and in field trials has shown a consistently
higher yielding power and more uniform growth than the earlier
importation (S. P. I. No. 19517), from which most of the feterita
now being grown in the United States has come.

Description.—Stems medium to stout, five-eighths to three-fourths of an inch
in diameter, 5 to 6 feet tall, with little or no juice, only slightly sweet, and
having few tillers and only occasional branches; leaves 10 to 12, averaging 24
to 3 inches broad and 20 to 22 inches long; head ovoid to ellipsoidal, erect,

g

a | LL |

&

&

3
.
a

é 2

ditto,

re

Fic, 2.—Seed heads of the new varieties of sorghum, showing their size, shape, and color.
The measure (at the left) is graduated to inches and fractions thereof. From left to
right: White milo, Dwarf hegari, Improved feterita, Dwarf feterita, and Schrock kafir.

medium compact, 3 to 34 inches in diameter, 7 to 74 inches long, usually well
filled, exserted 2 to 3 inches above the upper leaf sheath; seeds circular in out-
line, slightly flattened, large, white, the upper two-thirds exposed from the glume,
shattering rather easily ; glumes ovate, black, slightly pubescent, not awned.

Improved feterita, except for its greater uniformity and conse-
quent shorter growing season, averaging about 90 to 100 days, does
not differ from the ordinary feterita now so widely grown through-
out the Great Plains (fig. 1). Compared with Dwarf feterita, this
selection has a somewhat heavier stalk and appears to be more leafy,
giving it a higher forage value than Dwarf feterita under most con-
ditions (fig. 3).

DWARF FETERITA.

Dwarf feterita is a selection (F. C. I. No. 811) from S. P. I. No.

99329. The plant selected in 1909 by the senior writer at San An-

SORGHUM VARIETIES FOR THE GREAT PLAINS. 5

tonio, Tex., was only 22 feet high and was fully mature two weeks
in advance of the general crop of feterita. It has not fully retained
either its dwarfness or its earliness, but seems each succeeding year to
be nearer the type of ordinary feterita, so that rigid selection appears
necessary to maintain its distinctiveness.

Description.Stems medium to slender, one-half to five-eighths of an inch in
diameter, 44 to 54 feet tall, slightly sweet, scarcely juicy, usually with but
few tillers, and only occasional branches; leaves 9 to 10, averaging 2 to 2%
inches broad and 18 to 20 inches long; head ovoid to ellipsoidal, erect,
medium compact, 3 inches in diameter, 6 to 7 inches long, usually well filled,
exserted 4 inches above the upper leaf sheath ; seeds circular in outline, slightly
flattened, large, white, the upper two-thirds exposed from the glume, shatter-
ing rather easily ; glumes ovate, black, slightly pubescent, not awned.

Fic. 3.—The first cutting of the two new varieties of feterita at Chillicothe, Tex., in
1914. Dwarf feterita (at the left) and Improved feterita (at the right). Plats
planted on April 21. Photographed July 20.

Dwarf feterita in its present form has a rather more slender stalk
than ordinary feterita, and the head is a trifle,smaller. It ripens
about 4 days earlier, the growing season averaging 88 to 96
days, but except for the size of the plant, the length of the growing
season, and its greater uniformity there is no difference between it
and ordinary feterita. As is also the case with Dwarf hegari, two
seed crops of Dwarf feterita can sometimes be harvested in one season
(fig. 4). This variety of feterita would seem to be of value as an
imsurance against drought. At Amarillo, Tex., in 1913, when prac-
tically all the kafirs and milos were failures, this variety headed out
at a height of 24 to 3 feet and made a grain yield of 15 bushels per
acre when ordinary Blackhull kafir under exactly similar conditions
produced hardly a head (fig. 5).

6 BULLETIN 383, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

WHITE MILO.

The exact origin of White milo is in doubt, but it seems probable
that the variety as it is now being grown in the United States origi-
nated from certain importations of sorghums from India. Several
sorghums very similar in character to the common White milo were
included in a shipment received by the United States Department
of Agriculture in 1903, and it is easy to believe that such differences
as exist in the two forms may have come about through a process of
seed selection carried on by farmers.

Fic. 4.—Second cutting of the two:new varieties: of feterita at Chillicothe, Tex., in 1914.
Dwarf feterita (at the left) and Improved feterita (at the right). The first cutting
was removed on July 25. Photographed October 15.

In the early history of sorghums in this country the name White
milo, or more often “ White milo maize,” was associated with “ Rural
Branching sorghum.” This sorghum, however, from descriptions
and specimens preserved, proves to be a kafir rather than a milo. The
present strain, on the contrary, is a true milo, having the transverse
corrugations on the glume and other distinctive marks of the milo
group. True White milo appears to have been grown locally in
northern Texas for several years, but its history in this locality is
vague. Seed of what appeared to be a dwarf strain of this true
White milo was obtained in 1911 by Mr. G. E. Thompson, at that
time superintendent of the Forage-Crop Field Station at Chillicothe,
Tex. This strain (F. C. I, No. 5886) has been grown at that sta-
tion with good results since that time, but like the Dwarf feterita it
does not appear to maintain its dwarf characteristics without con-
tinued selection.

SORGHUM VARIETIES FOR THE GREAT PLAINS. fi

Description.—Stems medium to siender, one-half to five-eighths of an inch
in diameter, 43 to 5% feet tall, lacking both juice and sweetness, having no
branches and but few tillers; leaves 12 to 18, about 24 inches broad and 22 to 26
inches long; head ovoid, mostly erect, sometimes recurved, compact, 3 to 4
inches in diameter, 5 to 6 inches long, usually well filled, exserted 4 to 6 inches
above the upper leaf sheath; seeds slightly flattened, medium to large, white,
the upper three-fifths exposed from the glumes, shattering little; glumes broadly
ovate to orbicular, red-brown to greenish gray, slightly pubescent, awned.

White milo is taller and rather more slender than ordinary Dwarf
milo, and only about 20 per cent of the seed heads are recurved in
ordinary plantings.. The seed except for its white color resembles
that of ordinary Dwarf milo very closely, but it is usually mature a

Fic. 5.—Ordinary Blackhull kafir (at the left) and Dwarf feterita (at the right), show-
ing the superior abiiity of the feterita to make a seed crop under conditions of extreme
drought. Amarillo, Tex., 1913.

few days earlier, the average growing season for the crop being 88
to 96 days. White milo seems to share with feterita the ability to
make a seed crop under deficient moisture conditions.

SCHROCK KAFIR. v

The Schrock variety of kafir, which is difficult to classify on ac-
count of its rather peculiar combination of characters, was discovered
by Roy Schrock, a mail carrier at Enid, Okla., in 1912. Seeing
a vigorous and very heavily seeded plant growing in a field along
his route, he gathered the seed and took it home to plant the follow-
ing year. In 1913 Mr. Schrock grew a row of it in his garden and
sent a sample to the United States Department of Agriculture for
identification. It appears to be a hybrid between some kafir and a
sweet sorghum, very likely Black Amber.

Description.—Stems stout, three-fourths to 1 inch in diameter, 44 to 5 feet
tall, medium juicy, rather sweet, with only occasional branches and few tillers;

8 BULLETIN 3838, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

leaves 12 to 14, averaging 3 to 34 inches broad and 24 to 28 inches long; head
club shaped, erect, medium compact, 3 to 34+ inches in diameter, 7 to 8 inches
long, usually well filled, the base of the head sometimes inclosed by the boot;
seeds ovoid, slightly flattened, medium sized, brown, the upper one-third or one-
fourth exposed from the glume, shattering very little; glumes ovate, black or
dark red-brown, glabrous or slightly pubescent, not awned.

Schrock kafir has leaves as broad and somewhat longer than those
of Blackhull kafir, so that the plant presents an exceedingly leafy
appearance (fig. 1). The head is about the same size, but not so
compact as that of the ordinary kafir. The seeds are pointed
at the tip, like those of the sweet sorghums, and are lke them also
in that they contain a noticeable percentage of tannin. The stem
and leaves remain green until the seed is ripe, and even the tillers
will mature before the main stalk shatters its seed. It requires from
100 to 120 days to mature fully, which will prevent the successful
production of this variety north of Kansas. Schrock kafir has been
tested with the idea that it might be found valuable for both grain
and fodder, but the tannin in the seed lessens its value as a grain
crop. :

Figure 2 shows typical heads of all five of the varieties described
in this bulletin and gives an idea of their size, shape, and color.

COMPARISON OF THE FIELD RECORDS OF THE NEW SORGHUM
VARIETIES.

For the past three or four years Dwarf hegari, Dwarf feterita,
Improved feterita, and White milo have been grown at three field
stations in the Great Plains region in comparison with standard va-
rieties of kafir, milo, and sorgo. As a result of these trials the new
varieties are being distributed to farmers in order to obtain their
judgment on the usefulness of these sorghums. The figures on yields
of forage and seed, with statements regarding stands, height of
plants, and length of the growing season, for Chillicothe, Tex., Ama-
rillo, Tex., and Hays, Kans., respectively, are given in Table I. The
size of the plats used in obtaining these data is stated in connection
with the table. The yields of fodder are given in terms of field-cured
material in all cases except at Hays, Kans., in 1915, where the
moisture content in the fodder was corrected to a uniform basis by
means of air-dried samples.

SORGHUM VARIETIES FOR THE GREAT PLAINS. 8)

TasLeE I.—Comparative growth and yield of the new and of standard varieties
of sorghum at two stations in Texas and one station in Kansas in 1913, 1914,

and 1915.

Place, year, and variety.

AT CHILLICOTHE, TEX.

1913 (very dry season):
ywarnvhegartes =. 2-2 cesses
Dwarf feterita.....--.------
Improved feterita........--

1914 (medium season):
Dwarhheparis. 2222-22222. 5.
Dwarf feterita 3._......-.-...
Improved feterita 3......-.-.-
Standard feterita 3..........
WWintitemilos< 252 222552522552
ID en nt) Coe ee
IDR ni rT ee

1915 (very wet season):
IDwarthegari: : 2. <s26.225:
Dwarf feterita.........-...-
Improved feterita
White milo........-
Dwarhmiilos 52).

IDs WaT Les a ee ea
Blackhull Kkafir............-
NCHTOGKskatine ences S- 2s

Average, 1913 to 1915: 4
Dwarkhegart (5) 352.2.
Dwarifeterita...-..-.....
Improved feterita..........-
Standard feterita ®_.........
AN STG Et See ee

AT AMARILLO, TEX.

1913 (extremely dry season): 6
IDwantWegari. 5.55.22 240.
Dwarf feterita..............
Improved feterita...........
Standard feterita..........-.
Dwarf milo

1914 (medium season): 7_
Miwantheraries. 9) 2. sll
Dwariteterita/. 22. ..0..5..--
Improved feterita...........
Standard feterita.........-.
White milo.....
Dwarf milo..._.

1915 (very wet season): 8
Dwarthegarts 225.252.2222
Dwariieterita. 2.5 2.2..25..
Improved feterita...........
Dwantmiloe-t2 3522522. oa

1 The term fodder includes the entire plant before the seed head is removed.

Serial
No.

Season.

Row space.

Plant. Stalk.

=
BS
ow
QiekwOonr00 OF

SEN os CES TEES ST RO COTRO RO FEO NSIIND ISDS SCO} COURS,
WWE WED

Acre yield.
Height.
Fodder.!| Grain.
Inches. Tons. | Bushels.
43 1. 04 2)
48 .97 10. 71
50 . 80 8.03
55 1.04 10.71
44 1.10 Wa 5)
33 i 11.9
43 1.05 (7)
33 -95 (2)
48 6.10 56.6
54 4.95 G84, 83)
57 6.05 51.5
68 5.85 40.8
60 3.06 21.3
42 4.83 41.1
42 2.60 13.1
48 3.85 1192.55
58 4.54 38.4
54 2552, 28
ENC 2.47 27.3
58 8% 32.5
50 3.60 36.8
51 3.20 28.6
63 4.27 39. 82
58 3. 87 46
49 3.89 31.7
52 2.81 30.7
55 3.11 28.9
61 3.44 PAB TL
54 2.18 23.8
42 3.18 29.9
45 2.28 13.9
48 3.02 17.4
20 . 50 0
34 1.10 14. 70
46 1. 20 24.10
36 1. 28 13.10
24 1.03 2.07
28 ~ 45 0
34 1B 0
43 3.18 25
55 2.87 28.5
55 2.09 14.1
54 2.16 13.8
52 1.93 20. 4
Ld 36 2.08 18.6
45 2.42 20.1
46 2.90 2.4
52.5 3. 25 43. 66
66 3. 52 51.55
65 4.53 52.93
46.5 4.37 52. 60
60. 5 5. 00 65. 99
72 5. 66 58. 83
66 7.30 55. 83

The yields were all optained

from duplicate twentieth-acre plats except that of Improved feterita in 1913, which was from one row 8

tods long.
2 Few heads.

3 Yields of these varieties are the total from two cuttings.
4 The average for the growing season is based on results obtained in 1914 and 1915 except in the case of

feterita No. 19517.

® The results of two years, 1913 and 1914.
6 The yields for 1913 were all obtained from 0.03-acre plats except that of Improved feterita, which was

grown in only one 8-rod row.

7 Bhe yields for 1914 were all obtained from duplicate fiftieth-acre plats.
® The yields for 1915 were all obtained from duplicate twentieth-acre plats.

10 BULLETIN 383, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE I.—Comparative growth and yield of the new and of standard varieties
of sorghum at two stations in Texas, ete.—Continued.

Row space. Acre yield.
Place, year, and variety. Ber Be SEEcoay || ———$$— + ———} 1 erat,
Plant. Stalk. Fodder. | Grain.
AT AMARILLO, TEX.—Contd.

Average, 1913 to 1915: Days. Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Tons. | Bushels.
Mywanthevanie esses eee sce 4201 | 96 9.16 3. 89 38.5 2.64 22. 89
Wiwarhieteritasss-s-ss=- aoe 811 93 11. 21 3. 97 ol. 7 2.50 31. 58
Improved feterita........-.- 22329 94 11. 63 4. 03 55.3 2.94 30. 38
Dwarhimil oe isoo sae ee eek 18684 102 10. 52 3. 81 3D. 9 2.49 24. 42
Danika aaee se essere 24983, 111 9.68 5.16 44.5 2.62 28. 70
Blackhull kafir............- 17569 123 lee 4.02 50. 7 3. 30 20. 41

AT Hays, KANS.

1914 (medium to poor season): 1
Diwrantehe saris see sa ee 4201 102 8.6 4.6 53 3. 14 11.2
Standard feterita........... 19517 93 12.3 7 71 2. 44 25.7
White pm Oe asss= ssa eeeae 5886 90 7.6 4.3 60 2.51 31.9
Diwan ope eee eee eee 18684 102 Wee. 3.8 46 2.44 14,2
Dwantka rea 24983 102 9.3 en 52 3.16 30.6
Blackhullkatin’ see ee ne seer 17569 102 3.5 2.9 54 3.55 9
SCHTOCK Rane e aeons eeee 1481 102 11 763 47 2. 26 fae

1915 (very wet and cold sea-

son): 2
Dwarf hegarie.-..-.......-- 4201 107 Vapi | lboasoerEe 66 3. 54 40.7
Dwarf feterita- 2.22 2-2--2.- 811 107 633) so |Biseeeseee 80 3.46 23.8
Improved feterita.........-.. 22329 107 DOr Rees ncaser 84 3. OL Pk <
Wihitelmmlosss sa aee Se ee 5886 100 SION eee = 84 4.34 42.1
Dywyartenntl Oe seeaesseso sees 18684 112 ASG as a ierse2 ee 70 4,89 40.9
ID Wwariekarit. Sos 582 bese 24983 115 (ie Neeseessacs 72 3. 41 24.7
Blackhuliigatine sess snes oe 17569 115 GN2 i |e eee 80 4.15 2a
Schrockdleahiaee a. sees oe 1481 115 O54) ee Rae 70 3.44 8.5
Average, 1914 and 1915:

Diwanthesanias sa eeeseeeeeee 4201 105 Cie ee merin 60 3. 34 26

HM eberiba sae. aes ee I ee ee al 100 BE9h | laseeiscceee Mile d 2.98 26.4
Wihttemmitoe se eee ea 5886 95 VAL | Rivera ls Oe 72 3.48 37

Dy ar hermiloe es 5 e8 | ak ef 18684 107 G22) Re Lee ae 58 3.67 27.6
Diwariieatir soe. ae See 24983 109 Heat el EGueesare 62 3. 29 27.7
Blackhullieafirs sas ees 17569 109 AO) Neo e Saas 67 3. 85 10.7

1 The yields given are from duplicate twentieth-acre plats.

2 The yields given are from duplicate 3/200-acre plats.

3 The results for feterita include those for S. P. I. No. 19517 in 1914 and for S. P. I. No. 22329 in 1915.

The results shown in Table I represent fairly accurately, it is
believed, the value of these varieties in the localities named. It is
fortunate that the period covered by this work includes a wet year,
a dry year, and one of average weather conditions.

VALUE OF THE VARIETIES IN DIFFERENT PORTIONS OF THE
GREAT PLAINS.

REGION ADJACENT TO CHILLICOTHE, TEX.

In 1914 a wet fall followed a rather dry but not especially unfa-
vorable summer, and this abundance of moisture in the fall enabled
the early-maturing varieties, like feterita and Dwarf hegari, to
produce second crops of grain as well as fodder. This resulted in
greatly augmented yields of the three varieties of feterita, of Dwarf
hegari, and also of Dwarf milo. The yield from the first cutting,
which was harvested in the ordinary way with a row binder, was
as follows: Dwarf hegari, 17; Dwarf feterita, 24.9; Improved feterita,

‘ \

SORGHUM VARIETIES FOR THE GREAT PLAINS. Jel

23.8; Standard feterita, 23.4; and Dwarf milo, 22.3 bushels per acre.
The second cutting, produced from tillers starting at the base of
the stubble, was more uniform than the first cutting, and in the
Dwarf hegari and the Dwarf and Improved varieties of feterita the
yield of grain was greater than that from the first cutting (fig. 4).
In fields of these crops where the first crop of grain had been
gathered by heading, the second crop was much less uniform and
was inferior in every respect to that produced where the first cutting
was made with a row binder and the plants were cut off near the
ground. Additional expense is entailed, of course, in the harvesting
of two crops, but the potential value of a variety must be determined
from its actual production of forage and grain, together with the
feeding value of the product.

It appears from the results obtained at Chillicothe that the
feteritas and White milo are of most value in dry seasons and
that the feterita and Dwarf hegari will under favorable conditions
produce two crops in one season, while ordinary Blackhull kafir will
make only one crop and in.very dry seasons does not even head out.
Both the new varieties of feterita, F. C. I. No. 811 and S. P. I. No.
22329, are superior to the strain now being generally grown and
should be widely utilized as soon as an adequate supply of seed is
available.

During the period represented by this test, Dwarf hegari ranks
first, with an average yield of 31.7 bushels of grain and 3.89 tons
of fodder per acre. In quality the fodder is not quite equal to that
of the Blackhull kafir, but it is superior both to feterita and to milo
fodder.

The White milo, although maturing quite early, lacks the required
vitality or the tendency to produce tillers which is necessary for a
second growth. This failure to produce two seed crops in 1914 low-
ered the rank of this variety in the averages. It is somewhat taller
and not so leafy as the ordinary Dwarf milo, and without further
improvement can hardly be expected to replace this well-known sort
in the region surrounding Chillicothe. There is evidence, however,
that it is capable of decided improvement by selection, both in regard
to its leafiness and its dwarfness. A field of White milo much im-
proved in both of these characters was found on the farm of Mr.
W. W. Cole, near Chilliccthe. This field is illustrated in figure 6.
It was quite uniform in height, and in shape and size of the head
resembled the ordinary Dwarf milo very closely. If it behaves simi-
larly in future plantings, a variety of Dwarf White milo will be
available similar to the Dwarf Yellow milo in everything but color
of seed.

12 BULLETIN 383, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

REGION ADJACENT TO AMARILLO, TEX.

Climatic conditions are more severe at Amarillo than at Chilli-
cothe, Tex., the normal rainfall and temperature both being lower.
However, the unusually good season of 1915, with its high yields,
raised the averages for the period to a figure practically equaling
the yields at Chillicothe. At Amarillo, feterita, besides showing
an ability to make crops under extremely adverse conditions (fig. 5),
also stands first in the averages for the three years.

It is very probable that feterita will continue to be grown quite
extensively on the high plains of northwestern Texas, although its
tendency to shatter the seed when not harvested promptly and the
evident low vitality of the seed when planted in cold soil will no
doubt cause most farmers to depend on ordinary Dwarf milo for
their grain crop. Both the Dwarf and the Improved feterita proved

Fig. 6.—A field of Dwarf White milo on the farm of Mr. W. W. Cole, Chillicothe, Tex.
Photographed July 24, 1914.

consistently superior to the common strain of feterita at Amarillo,
as well as at Chillicothe.

Failure to include White milo in the 1913 and 1915 plantings pre-
vents any fair comparison of it with the feterita or Dwarf milo
under Amarillo conditions, but judging from the record of White
milo at Havs, Kans., it may be expected to produce a good grain yield
at Amarillo also.

Dwarf hegari appears to be less promising on the high plains about
Amarilio than at Chillicothe, and, judging from the results obtained,
it is not likely to become as popular there as near the latter point,
where a considerable number of farmers are already growing it in
preference to feterita, Dwarf milo, and Blackhull kafir.

REGION ADJACENT TO HAYS, KANS.

The season of 1913 was so severe at Hays that all the crops were
practically failures. No seed yields were obtained from any of the

SORGHUM VARIETIES FOR THE GREAT PLAINS. 13

varieties, although Dwarf hegari and feterita made small yields of
forage, as did also the Dwarf kafir. Insects completely destroyed
the plantings of Dwarf milo, this variety appearing especially sus-
ceptible to the attacks of both chinch bugs and grasshoppers.

In 1914, which was an average season but with several periods of
rather acute drought, feterita, White milo, and Dwarf kafir made
especially good yields of grain and fair yields of fodder. The high
grain yields of feterita and Dwarf kafir may have been partly due
te the thin stands of these two strains, but this can not be offered
as a reason for the good showing of the White milo. Dwarf hegari
produced a good yield of fodder, but the seed yield was rather low.

In the season of 1915, which was very cold and wet during the
spring and early summer, all the sorghums started poorly and had
to be replanted. The cold weather was disastrous to feterita and
retarded the growth of the kafirs to such an extent that they failed
to mature fully before frost, Blackhull kafir and Schrock kafir
being in the milk stage and Dwarf kafir in the soft-dough stage when
frost came. Dwarf hegari, White milo, and Dwarf miio made almost
equally good yields of grain, but the milos both outyielded Dwarf
hegari in fodder. The quality of Dwarf hegari fodder, however, is
considerably better than that of the milo, so that the advantage of
the milos in this feature is more apparent than real. In the averages
for the two years, White milo appears to be much the best from a
grain standpoint, while Dwarf hegari, feterita, Dwarf milo, and
Dwarf kafir, averaging about 10 bushels less in grain yield than
the White milo, are approximately equal to it and to each other in
forage yield. From these results one must conclude that the best
general-purpose sorghum for this region is Dwarf kafir, since the
fodder is much superior to that of the milos or feterita (fig. 7).
For a purely grain sorghum, White milo deserves a more extensive
trial, especially in the northwestern part of Kansas, southwestern
Nebraska, and eastern Colorado. Ordinary Blackhull kafir and
Schrock kafir, although more leafy and perhaps producing a better
quality of fodder than Dwarf kafir, are not early enough in maturing
to warrant their growth in western Kansas.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

Schrock kafir has been introduced in the tabulation (Table I)
merely because of the interest which has been aroused in it and to
provide data to answer questions regarding its comparative value.
It will be seen that its long growing season prevents it from being a
success at Hays, Kans. Farther south, however, at both Chillicothe
and Amarillo, Tex., it made good yields, and in 1915 it was the
highest yielding sorghum at Woodward, Okla. Even with such results

14 BULLETIN 383, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

it can not be recommended as the ideal dual-purpose sorghum; that is,
one that will furnish high yields and a good quality of both forage
and grain, because the seeds have an appreciable amount of tannin
4m them, and this lowers its feeding value. The presence of this
tannin also adds to the evidence supporting the theory that Schrock
kafir is in reality a hybrid of kafir and some sorgo, since all the
sorgos, so far as at present known, have tannin in the seed. While
Schrock kafir may be found to possess considerable merit as a silage
sorghum, it is not likely that any variety will be generally grown
because it has superior value for silage alone.

No general recommendation for all these varieties covering the
whole region of the Great Plains can be made. It is quite likely
that each locality will in time come to favor some particular variety

Tic. 7.—Dwarf Blackhull kafir (at the left) and Dwarf milo (at the right) at Hays,
Kans., in 1915. i

of sorghum, much as is now the case with corn. Dwarf hegari,
Dwarf feterita, and Improved feterita have all been brought to their
present standard of excellence by continued selection. Whether all
or any of them will in time become established varieties in any com-
munity will depend on the impression they create on the farmers after
they have been grown under actual field conditions for several years.
The present publication is prepared, not for the purpose of urging
their general adoption in preference to present well-known varieties,
but to provide a source of information in regard to them at a time
when they are being sent out for trial among farmers.

Dwarf hegari has become quite popular around Chillicothe, Tex.,
and can be highly recommended for the whole sorghum region in

SORGHUM VARIETIES FOR THE GREAT PLAINS. 15

| Texas which lies south and east of the Panhandle. It also deserves

a more extended trial in New Mexico, Arizona, and southern Cali-
fornia, and through central Oklahoma and western Kansas. Several
enthusiastic reports concerning Dwarf hegari have been received from
southwestern Nebraska. The Nebraska branch experiment station
at Curtis rates it above feterita for their conditions.

Dwarf feterita and Improved feterita should be substituted for
ordinary feterita where the latter is now being grown. Feterita has
shown an ability to produce crops under very low moisture condi-
tions, and through a long series of years these two selected strains
will very likely make a larger grain yield than either Dwarf milo
or Dwarf kafir on the high plains of northwestern Texas, western
Kansas, and eastern Colorado. The most grievous fault of feterita,
that of poor germination, can perhaps be remedied by selective
breeding.

White milo has made an enviable record in the matter of seed pro-
duction at all of the field stations concerned in these reports. When

’ exhibited at State and county fairs in the sorghum region it has often

taken first premium in competition with the ordinary milo. The
quality of fodder produced is rather inferior, but from the stand-
point of grain production alone it is worthy of a much more extended
planting in northwestern Texas, western Oklahoma, western Kansas,
eastern Colorado, and western Nebraska.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRI-
CULTURE RELATING TO SORGHUMS.

AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION.

Sorghum Sirup Manufacture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 477.)

Kafir as a Grain Crop. (Farmers’ Bulletin 552.)

Use of Corn, Kafir, and Cowpeas in the Home. (Farmers’ Bulletin 559.)
The Making and Feeding of Silage. (Farmers’ Bulletin 578.)

Uses of Sorghum Grain. (Farmers’ Bulletin 686.)

The Feeding of Grain Sorghums to Live Stock. (KFarmers’ Bulletin 724.)

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING
OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C.

Saccharine Sorghums for Forage. (KFarmers’ Bulletin 246.) Price, 5 cents.
Milo as a Dry-Land Grain Crop. (Farmers’ Bulletin 322.) Price, 5 cents.
Forage Crops for Hogs in Kansas and Oklahoma. (Farmers’ Bulletin 331.)
Price, 5 cents.
Better Grain-Sorghum Crops. (Farmers’ Bulletin 448.) Price, 5 cents.
The Best Two Sweet Sorghums for Forage. (Harmers’ Bulletin 458.) Price,
5 cents.
The Nonsaccharine Sorghums. (Farmers’ Bulletin 288.) Price, 5 cents. -
The History and Distribution of Sorghum. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin
175.) Price, 10 cents.
The Importance and Improvement of the Grain Sorghums. (Bureau of Plant
Industry Bulletin 203.) Price, 10 cents.
Grain-Sorghum Production in the San Antonio Region of Texas. (Bureau of
Plant Industry Bulletin 237.) Price, 5 cents.
The Kaoliangs: A New Group of Grain Sorghums. (Bureau of Plant Industry
Bulletin 253.) Price, 15 cents.
Cereal Experiments in the Texas Panhandle. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bul-
_letin 288.) Price, 10 cents.
Feterita, a New Variety of Sorghum. (Bureau of Plant Industry Circular
122-C.) Price, 5 cents. i
The Feeding Value of Cereals, as Calculated from Chemical Analyses. (Bureau
of Chemistry Bulletin 120.) Price, 10 cents. i
The Importance of Thick Seeding in the Production of Milo in the San Antonio
Region. (U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 188.) Price, 5 cents.
Corn, Milo, and Kafir in the Southern Great Plains Area: Relation of Cultural
Methods to Production. (U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 242.)
Price, 5 cents. ;
Breeding Millet and Sorgo for Drought Adaptation. (U.S. Department of Agri-
eulture Bulletin 291.) Price, 5 cents.

16

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, DC.

AT

5 CENTS PER COPY
V

=, BULLETIN No. 384 ¥@

if” Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural ‘x « Ce
Organization,
CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief

Washington, D.C. Vv July 31, 1916

COSTS AND SOURCES OF FARM-MORTGAGE LOANS
IN THE UNITED STATES.

By C. W. THompson,
Specialist in Rural Organization.

CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
Costs for interest and commission...........- 1 | The need for improved facilities ......... Bowens ole!
Sources of capital for farm-mortgage loans.... 9 | Desirability of State and Federal legislation.. 15
Factors which influence the terms on farm- WONCIUSION = oc waisesssiscts misc eeee eem ws eee 16
PROREPASOLOLUS te een! uence cs 13

COSTS FOR INTEREST AND COMMISSION.

The average costs for interest and commission on farm-mortgage
loans are given in Table 1. The same information is shown graphic-
-ally in Diagram A. The commission figures which have been used
in making up this table represent the average annual commission,
or where a single advance commission is paid on a long-term loan,
the equivalent annual commission. It will be seen that, in general,
the average costs for interest and commission together are highest
in the Southern and Rocky Mountain States, and that the lowest
figures appear in the New England and Middle Atlantic States and
the more highly developed agricultural sections of the corn belt.
The average commissions are shown to be especially high in certain
States, notably North Dakota, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and Mon-
tana.

Note.—The aim of this bulletin is to indicate briefly some of the results obtained from astudy bearing

on interest rates and commissions on farm-mortgage loans and the sources of such loans in the United
States.

45830°—Bull. 384—16

2 BULLETIN 384, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste 1.—Farm-mortgage loans—Average rates for interest and commission.

Lora | ise |) cae Av or arene |

Geographic division and eo annual) plus Geographic division and | . ope annual! plus
State. Bee com- com- State. te il com- | com-

sane mis- mis- ner mis- mis-

sion.! | sion. Tate. | sion.1 f sion.

New England: South Atlantic—Contd.

Maines se c= a8 ae 6.1 0.1 6.2 West Virginia.......-. 6. 2 0.2 6.4

New Hampshire... .- 5.3 (2) 5.3 North Carolina....-..- 6.3 1.4 7.7

Vermontis- =. ./... 22-2 5.6 (2) 5.6 South Carolina....-.- 7.8 -6 8.4

Massachusetts... ...--. 5.6 () 5.6 Cue ep poscomaoe oe 7.6 a 8.7

Rhode Island......-- Band 37) 5.9 MNOTIC’ 2 al eee 9.0 -6 9.6
_ Connecticut.-.-.....- 57 (?) 5.7 || East South Central:

Middle Atlantic: Kentick-y eee eee 6.7 4 ook
iNew ones ahs es 5.5 ail 5.6 MPennesseo: 2: wes: 7.3 -6 7.9
New Jersey.---.----- BaD) 58) 5.8 Nlabama ea sees se 8.7 ad, 9.4
Pennsylvania. ......- 5.5 -3 5.8 Mississippi ----------- 8.0 3h 8.5

East North Central West South Central:

DIO aoe chs 3 5.9 .2 6.1 AT consSas eee. ase. - 9.0 -6 9.6
Indianazeress ss s-- 450 5.8 A 6.2 Mowisianan cs. - 22 eee 8.2 4 8.6
UNTO LS eee eee ee Bend -3 6.0 Oklahoma.....---.--- 6.6 1.8 8.4
Michicanwen sere: 6.3 -3 6.6 MOKAS 2 s28 Seer 8.4 -6 9.0
WaSconsineasee ene SU oil 5.8 || Mountain

West North Central Montanaee-seeree eee 8.4 1.6 10.0
IMinnesofatsneseeeasee 6.3 35) 6.8 dahon seen eeeeee. 8.2 AU 8.9
LO Waiseeeactesasecse = 5.6 aS 5.9 Wyoming. -=-.-.--.-- 9.2 -8 10.0
INFISSOMGIaaes eee Sa 6.2 -6 6.8 Colorado seess ese 8.3 -6 8.9
North Dakota....---- 6.9 1.8 8.7 New Mexico....------ 9.7 -8 10.5
South Dakota... ----- 7.0 1.0 8.0 ATiZ0naeee eee eee 9.1 3 9.4
INebrasikaeee ao5- 522 6.3 .8 751 Wit any Sse se seems 8.6 4 9.0
Rasa Sete <n Sis 22 6.1 -8 6.9 || Pacific: =

South Atlantic: Washington... 7.9 -8 8.7
Delaware...--- 5.6 (2) 5.6 Oregon ot 38 8.0
Maryland..--. aah 4 6.1 California 7.4 5H 7.6
Watney oe ace 6.1 3 tf 6.8

1 Where the report shows a commission paid once for allin advance on a loan running more than one
year, the equivalent annual commission is used.
2 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.

Where commission is charged, it is collected either as a cash pay-
ment in advance (that is, it is taken out of the amount represented
by the face of the loan) or ina number of installments. installment
commission usually is collected annually or semiannually, with the
interest, but frequently arrangements are made for the payment of
the whole commission on a 5-year loan, say, in two or three annual
installments.

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT RATES OF INTEREST.

Averages such as those shown in Table 1 do not indicate the range
of figures which go to make up the averages. Another table (Table 2)
is presented, therefore, which indicates the relative importance of
different rates reported for interest plus commission in each State.
This is also shown graphically in Diagram B. It will be seen that
those rates which figure most prominently in the New England and
_corn-belt States practically disappear as one enters the cotton belt or
the Rocky Mountain States.

In order to indicate still further the relative importance of the dif-
ferent rates reported, the data have been assembled by districts within
States, following the plan of subdivision used by the Bureau of Crop
Estimates as shown by the map (Plate V). Under this arrangement
each State is usually divided into nine districts. Table 3 shows

FARM-MORTGAGE LOANS; IN THE UNITED STATES. 3

the averages for interest, annual commission, and interest plus com-
mission, by districts. It will be noted that there is considerable vari-
ation in these district averages within certain States, such as Kansas,
Nebraska, Minnesota, and the Dakotas, but that there is a fair
degree of uniformity in such averages in other States, for example,
New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Iowa. The causes of variation will be
discussed later.

TaBLE 2.—-Farm-mortgage loans—Per cent distribution of replies received according to
rate reported for interest plus commission.

Percentage of total number of replies showing, for interest plus
commission, a rato! of—

Geographic division and State.
re 12 per
5per | 6per | 7per | Sper | 9per | 10 per } 11 per
cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. el ok
New England:
IME 2. WSS JS eee eens 4.2 Tia 12.5 Ga 2h eee ae cee ere | ees, ta hee eee
Newstamipshing 22-25. 225552352 75.0 74!) |!2 2 Scoetid lsecenoec||souee= se looacuensleseoenerl see oee se
VCMT OT bee les tee cise siovats Stace 26.1 TOMO Beretta Spee cts re o e e da ee
RWESSAGHISCLES: een jen ses a Soe = 34.6 Goaa reenter [erate aici] Siete fe) | cece ae sais, eat ee ee
fhodepsland 22. t eosin 4- o.oo 33.3 50.0 TIGA da Va creer ea teecke ae lctorse.e.= olf ere cess ce [tape es
SEQRHECIICUG 3 bie Sie aac soe 26.3 (Sig ese ae [eee Oe elkce oe ae e|tete seas «(5 -cb sce luna owes
Middle Atlantic:
MESON Keoss 2) aby See aio Lae 37.9 57.6 4.0 Ua Feet ses SS el ses SES (ie, Hee AL SN
ING WAICESCY oi. teeete sae wicicitss cee 33.3 56.7 6.7 BO al ee eae Mee eat (ee een busine eR:
Renwsyivatlia ec eos also 32. 1 BYE?) 8.9 BL SOE ese Gece sets 0.6 0.6
East North Central:
AVE?» 2 SANS Na oS a ra alae eam 8.4 74.7 15.3 SPT ae cs esa se Les tees even (amnesia (i ale
TRE UGUIG SES. Sy ARRON tas aS eet PE 77.8 15.5 3.6 COST bl es oer uee Paieares bie pore (ENON 2 Be
RET QISSpIe Ss Seer ae 2 ues SMT ABI 52.8 21.2 27 Gy ee ee (OSH Sere se eel ae ee cas
JAE eH Oriya et SD Dee aca 4.0 49.6 34.8 8.0 1.8 9 4 4
BVASCOMS nas 22 i EEE oa ST ON 34. 0 51.0 12.9 75 A ste Sera aie (ea rs eee bape ae ety eG yl
West North Central
MENTIESOL Aes ot nett mecca actos 4.8 46.2 26.9 14.4 1.4 pe MAAS Ache 1.0
PRE ree el eA YS ge 13.2 76.9 9.4 bs All | re cre ceric Boome tere ciai|ix eee eee ail mechan oe
IN TISS(OTETAN ae G0 5 OR TE NR RC Pe 10D, 45.2 30.4 16.9 4.2 1.8 Sn eee lanes
Nim ko hae se eh 3 Na Se AER 2.1 16.9 28.3 19.8 27.0 Pat} 3.4
SOugheMakotaehoee ccs ue eee 2.0 20.2 25.3 18.2 9.1 14.1 4.5 6.6
EIGHT Dre RS Tey a 4.7 41.6 19.7 13.6 9.0 10.4 ste .4
TES TARR GRE SIDR ES re 1.1 43.8 36.9 10.9 2.9 3.7 Chel es Sees
South Atlantic:
MG aw anes sce moe el cece a He SIS 37.5 ODE Om [eee etree Noe os] crsteereetel inva ceecre clare oemteial eters, ce
Mauvlameya sees ees Ura sae 8.6 74.3 14.3 PO sel a seis rene Avra Rega ge te a Ke eelana
WANDER a el es UI de ed, 52.6 29.3 124 Qi EAE ae 1s i?/
VRE Wiper aso a ea OE 79.6 8.2 TCSP 40 etehe aeate PABLO (Ee ses pe Ngan I
Morrie arolinia soo 8 = es yeaa 40.3 22.4 Ge 6.0 6.7 2.9 6.0
NOMRC ALON 2a) Ske yaaa eel eres | 3 ee 6.2 63.9 20.6 5.2 AIL 2.0
GHGS ar Be RE a a NN | a 1.5 8.3 42.8 27.1 15.0 2.2 3.0
TELCO ee el el a | le 23.9 13.0 52.2 6.5 4.4
East South Central:
REI C Kaye ee oe Sceee ee -6 45.4 17.2 23.9 4.9 BON eran as | eer
BESTETIGSS CG see ee re ey RP Re NAS 18.5 20. 4 32.5 8.9 18.5 -6 .6
LAGE DITI I regs NN LAIR SE Se A ee Wi, 2.1 32.6 16.3 31.9 ee 10.6
IVETE ISSIR ToT eens oes rere ee eR Bice 8.4 7.8 45.5 13.6 20.8 1.3 2.6
West South Central:
DATES TAGE SNE eS pS SB a 2.2 13.0 17.9 59.8 2.7 4.4
LEAD UTES Wa Ae A a 2 a 255 1.3 58.2 13.9 13.9 5.1 eal
CIR ITO ITT oR SO SAEs ee hei oe i ae 2.6 14.2 43.9 15.1 22.4 9 9
NBR ss Col al SE Ae ne ee 1.8 6.6 34.2 18.0 29.8 6.1 3.5
Mountain: ;
ING URGEEITE IE sae ins IL Ai 28 i ee IP} 9.8 15.9 52.4 6.1 14.6
CIEE ay I I Ce dl ee 4.1 35.6 34. 2 19.2 55 1.4
SWWAY.G TTI Se ae ere eet MN ES OS Se 2.0 17.6 11.8 49.0 9.8 9.8
| SH SAVOLEEKOKO gees ne Seine S ECS Da iG ea Ae ea 3.9 14.7 Ds 65 21.6 15.7 9.8 8.8
DEF VIG aT (a ae I Ea cig 0 AY a 7.0 18.6 32.6 14.0 27.9
PATTIZ OMe es erence aera T TS) er 36.4 9.1 AGN AM | ae eS 9.1
Wi Zep REBAR Se CEA Ne LE es eee Mee IT oe oe 33.3 26.7 AQ ON ree ee ae sno
Pacific:
VSI PONS oo eto Mee neta smo ig 1.2 9.9 39.5 30.9 11.1 By. 4.9
(ONHGIE OT esterase miss ee ee A I | 6.3 16.4 SB. 12.7 8.9 1.3 1.3
WAPTOEIIAME Jeet ae ee eee ye a ee NaS 7.9 36.8 42.8 5.9 Tenens a,

1 Rates are approximated to the nearest unit; that is, rates from 5.50 per cent to 6.49 per cent are counted
as 6 per cent, etc.

4 BULLETIN 384, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 3.—Farm-mortgage loans—Average rates for interest and commission, by States and
districts.

Geographic divi- | Average Average | tierest Geographic divi- | Average Average Interest

sion, State, and | interest | 282™@l |pIuscom-|| sion, State, and | interest va. [clus com-
district. Tate. Cee mission. district. rate. Pea mission.
NEW ENGLAND. EAST NORTH CEN-
TRAL—contd.
WENT Aesooaossqded 6.1 0.1 6.2
New Hampshire. .- 5.3 C 5.3 || Wisconsin........- 5.7 0.1 5.8
Vermont ----4---< 5.6 2 5.6 District 1.24. -- 6.3 a2, 6.5
Massachusetts... - 5.6 @ 5.6 District 2..-..- 6.1 2 6.3
Rhode Island..-..- Dad 2 5.9 MiSpactioseeeee 6.3 2 6.5
Connecticut........ Devt (2) ods District 4...-.- 5.8 ail 5.9
District 5.....-. 5.7 oil 5.8
MIDDLE ATLANTIC. District 6.....- 5.0 ail 5.1
. WDISHICH diese cee 7 (2) 5.7
New York....-..-- Dap mil 5.6 Disinich:Seseces 5.4 (2) 5.4
‘Districti2= === 5.4 mail 5.5 DIStrICh sce see 5.0 (2) 5.0
Districts. s- == 5.9 al: 6.0
District 4..-..- 5.4 2 5.6 WEST NORTH
District 5..-.-..- no) oul 5.6 CENTRAL.
DIsticyO.- 2. - 5.6 oil Bail
IDAStHIChiMe=-o- =~ bao ol 5.6 || Minnesota......--- 6.3 Ot 6.8
Districts... - oe oil! 5.6 District lees. 6.7 -8 165)
District 9- - << .- avd sil 5.8 Disizict 2-.--.- 8.6 P52 3.8
New Jersey..------ i) 33 5.8 District 3------ Bi -8 759i
Pennsylvania.....- 5.5 3 5.8 District 4.....- 6.0 5 6.5
District ls. .% 5.9 ae 6.2 MIStrict Dasseee 6.2 Aa 6.5
Districh2== 4s. 7 $3 6.0 DASHHICHOse- o- 6.7 .8 7.5
WMisiichos 2-5. 57 (2) 3 Misinich deeeee- ae .6 6.3
Disinich a4 = 6.0 es 6.2 DISHMICL Seas oe ae 32 5.9
DISHICHOE = 4-2 583 4 5.7 istri 5.8 (2) 5.8
DistrichiG=---=- 5.4 ot 5.6 5.6 .3 5.9
PISiICh ase 5.8 4 6.2 5.5 .3 5.8
District 8-..-.... 5.2 a5 Det 5.4 ae} See
District 9...-.- os2, Sal 533 5.7 1 5.8
5 Bas .4 5.9
EAST NORTH CEN- S57 3 6.0
TRAL. 5.9 2 6.1
5.5 Ars) 6.0
Ohio s1=a1 5.9 «2 6.1 District 8...-... ah 7 a8 6.0
Wistrichle=] -.- 7 A 6.1 IDIsiMict 9-2 - =. 5.8 2% 6.0
Disinieh 2h -- = 5.9 ail 6.075) eMaSSolind = sclee Sao 6.2 6 6.8
Disiicho= ===. 5.9 ae 6.1 DIStrich Ll ser\-1='- 5.8 35) 6.3
DWISHICHA 2-1 5.8 =33 6.1 DISHICh Zee eae 5.8 6 6.4
District5------ 5.8 4 6.2 District 3...-.- 5.9 .5 6.4
DisMiewG!~ a .-- 74 ais 5.8 Districh Ase ecee 5.9 -5 6.4
Mishieh vec - 6.0 “2 6.3 WIStEICh Oe eee 6.5 .6 wal
District 8..--.-- 6.1 me, 6.3 Disinicti6os5..-- 6.6 =a 6.9
DISHICEO)= <4 6.0 (2) 6.0 DASGCE dic. sn 6.3 .8 eek
ibioleil San eseeenboe 5.8 4 6.2 Mistrict Seccse- dea a) 8.0
ibe Gs We Seige i is 4 5.9 Dasinicti 9s sees. 6.6 -6 G2
Districh2-. 52. 6.0 ai 6.4 || North Dakota.....- 6.9 1.8 8.7
District 3. .---- 5.7 4 6.1 Misiich teeeeee 6.8 22 9.0
District 4..-.--.- 5.8 4 6.2 IDASiNICE 22 = see 6.7 1.9 8.6
District 5. -.-.--.- 5.8 513) 6.3 eect Beieess 6.3 1583 7.6
IDIStHehO-- 2-1 Bh 4 6.1 Us 7 2.4 10.1
DiSHRICh eee 6.0 33) 6.3 6.8 1.4 8.2
Districhs=ss--- 6.3 ait 6.4 6.4 1.0 7.4
DisiichiO= =. -- - 5.8 =3) 6.1 7633 2.8 10.1
PULIN O1S-Pse See a= d 5.7 53) 6.0 7.8 1.8 9.6
District I=. -5- 5.6 2 5.8 6.5 1.2 7.7
Disthichossees- 553} a, 5.5 7.0 1.0 8.0
District4...-. - Sy) a2 5.9 9.0 1.8 10.8
District 4a. --.- 5.8 52 6.0 WDistrict:2es. eee 6.5 .9 7.4
DIsinieha. sees. ns 7/ 333 6.0 Misinictgeee see 6.3 att 7.0
Districhi6. = 4-5. 5.4 -3} 7 District 4.6). os 8.3 1.4 9.7
District 6a..... 5.9 ai) 6.4 MISiHICE Meee eS 6.5 os) 7.4
IDisiniChieo ese: 6.1 38 6.4 District 6...... 5.8 5h 6.3
IDistehoS = 5s 6.4 =) 6.9 WDISHICE: do = nieve 5) 1.9 9.4
Michigans-=- =. 6.3 ao 6.6 District 8...... ee 1.4 8.6
District ‘ee eree 6.9 -8 Test IDiisynalan a aaeca 6.0 -6 6.6
District 2.25522 6.7 .6 723 || Nebraskans cncos ce. 6.3 8 7.1
Disthichon. ase" 6.9 1.4 8.3 Disiniet Wes ses. 7.8 1.0 8.8
District 4... 5... 6.7 =} Mee District Bas cimee 6.8 1.2 8.0
IDisiiCwoecme es. 6.6 4 7.0 IDISTTICL aes ene 5.6 6 6.2
DishichiGss sees 6.5 32 6.7 District 4s 8 (hr 1.6 8.7
District 7—. ...: 6.2 AB 6.4 District 5.....- 5.9 Al 6.6
District 8... =. 5.9 Sil 6.0 Wistrict 62c-cee 5.6 ae 6.1
Districts. 4.-) 5.8 ul 5.9 PMStPICh Fame ce 7.4 1.3 8.7

1 Where the report shows a commission paid once for all in advance on a loan running more than
one year, the equivalent annual commission is used.
2 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.

)
;

RS ee

ss. Yt oe

=O Te

FARM-MORTGAGE LOANS IN THE UNITED STATES.

5

TasLe 3.—Farm-mortgage loans—Average rates for interest and commission, by States and
districts—Continued.

Geographic divi-
sion, State, and
district.

WEST NORTH CEN-
TRAL—continued.

Nebraska—Contd.
DAStrich\S.. =...
Disirict 9)).'-\...-

ansas
District L.. oo<.
District 2......
DIStLICE S522 5 -
District 4......
Distriei 5... 5...
District 6.....-
DISiICE 1s. 25 ==
DISHMIGH Sass0 se
District 9......

SOUTH ATLANTIC.

Delaware.....-...-
Maryland.-.........
District 1......
District 2......
IDSA ee eaae
District 5......
District 6......

District 5..
District 6......
Disthieh fe s.sic<
District 8...-...
Disinmeh Ws--
West Virginia.....-.
District L-: 2...
District 22... ..
Disirich see. .<-
District 4.....-
DIStACh 5 .-\.0=<
District 6.....-
District 8......
North Carolina. ....
Piste Moa. ss.
DASHICE.2: =. - ==
District 3-.-....-
District 4.....-
DASiniehoasce =.
IDISHHICH OS aoace
District 7.-.-.--

District 9...-..-
South Carolina... --
District 1
District 2
District 3

District. 62>
District 4......
WISHICT Oc. ---
District 6......
DASHICE. (=.=
Disirich 85... 2:-
District 9......
Hploridas ene 28203!

District 3.....-.
District 5......
District 8......

1 Where the report shows a commission paid once for all in advance on a lo
one year, the equivalent annual commission is used.

Average
interest

rat

e.

Average
ual

commis-
sion.?

Tnterest
plus com-
mission.

Geographic divi-
sion, State, and
district.

Average
interest
rate.

Average
annual

Interest

_ eee fe ee

GUD ANH OAH AID on
Or WTOONO ME AT

NAN NAA PPAPDARAMAAAHAAAHARHAAMAAAA AMAA A grrr

a2 ORD Sebo Sa I Set Set a

POINTS ORAWOMMUMPRAWRO OMIDOMDPHOONWOKOOHRWHOWMOORNURHE HE NOWOHO OMD-~1-1m

“sake

—
~1 00 01 00 ~1 00 > Si F CO Or

=>
ie)
Vv
_
TT c.00

m=
re
Vw

isc . .

=
i}
vw

SP er Bro tee:

lon
3
er

5 Cea Oe Saat STAT eo ake eee siareelh Sr ame 0) facie Orci
WOWABDAWHRWHOMIE HE COUT ROD ROOHROURINOREN NRE EN WRWOIAOAW WoWoUR

_
tele ese

2 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.
8 Data at hand not sufficient to warrant the showing of a district average.

o
0
ww

=
i)
WS

PDO TOD OHH
O16 00 O12 GO GW “100 bOI

$020 9 90 G0 IID OD AINAID AMAIA AA AAA HAAAAMAARHAAH BAAR HN

© © © 9 © G9 00 <0 90 00 G0 G0 G0 20 G0 G0

BOUOMIANRBOMNWOOEMOTWO PROWWRWOHEATOURONANN NWP ED ROOROUMNPOW NWWONMHao

EAST SOUTH CEN-
TRAL.

Kentucky..........
District 1.......
District Zee acs.
DIStrIChSss--5--
MIstrict 5325 --2
District 6.......
District Tessasce
PISHHICh Wan see
District 8.......

Pe DISELICh Deco n-

Tennessee. - - -
Distictwessss a!
District 2.......
DISHHICtSe secon
District 4.....--
WMistict pee. cee

District ls 222252
IDASURICE Ae 5-2
DIStricti3se-. =.
Misinict 4425-25:
Districtios =
District 6.....-.
IDIStriCty(a-s-eee
DISiMICh Sises2--
District 9......-
Mississippi........-
District 1.....--
MDISHICh 2esccce
MASTLICHS.csece.
Districti4- 2-22.
District 5-.-.-..
District 6.......
Districts ses:
District 8.......
District 9.......

WEST SOUTH CEN-
TRAL.

District 3.2. - 222
District 422225.
DISHICH OD: -e2e 5:
District 6......-
DISHLICUN(acneeee
District 8-......
District 9..--. ¥
alvouisiana. 252052)

District 422-225.
District 5222.2.
DISCO esse.
iD shy bele Ry eae
DAISTACTSeeen 4.
Wistricet.9.-2. 522
OKahoma >... 12s

District 3.......
District 4.22222
District 5.......
DISHICUIOL se oee
District 7 2.2

CSG STC SG ce He OMe ICN IMS I Ne cl Ne ole = Keaton Merion le “rc ips (ontop (ae ents pos eLkor)
MWNASWOWNRONOWFENWONS WUIWORWORWHOW FP OIDOONR ON

_

PINUS? SPA G21O> S/N N190 0090100 1150 190\00'00 | 90 G0! 1c 90! 190 <O.
WNAMANDBARM®ONWEWONWNHMODDNUHONRO

e+ ee © emlesne)

oe 6 e we wo . eee . .
CUO? OV ON OTD HE BO 09 O10 09 CO HO OT CO 09 STR OD OVD OC OO OD > OT DO

.

eo 8 © © ©

DW UANATMONM DOW POW EHOW Pay NCOs MDM

m=
ei
Ve

oe 0

Caan Danie Sram cao

Se NG ee Me Ne Ne) SITE) I OES IES ISO) Sigs Ile Mere ESI SCOR ICUS OEE
DONS OUR SR OOO 0 Ht OO CR CO RB IR DD OO CONICET O COOH OR WS O10

Re

TI SO 0 90s ~1 90 G0 1 90 {G0 G0 99 905 MHI SS OOO 1900
Cee NONNHOOFONMOOHOADNO-W=700 FP ORO

an Tunning more than

6 BULLETIN 384, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBle 3.—Farm-mortgage loans—Average rates for interest and commission, by States and
districts—Continued.

Geographic divi- Average pees Interest || Geographic divi- | Average Average Interest

Fi . i 3 . annual
sion, State, and | interest | 227U2" | plus com- sion, State, and | interest lus com-
district. rate. Baa | mission. district. Tate. | Coc as iecianl
sion.
WEST SOUTH CEN- MOUNTAIN—Ccontd.
TRAL—continued.
Colorado s.-- ee ece 8.3 0.6 8.9
Oklahoma—Contd. DISiTich Ie sees 8.0 “6 8.5
IDI HAG ESRe Saree 6.6 De 8.7 IDISCTICH 22 scene tod 4 7.6
District 9-520 2. Teal 2.8 9.6 DISitich ope ees 8.4 ad! 9.1
PREX ASS Meese oasis 8.4 -6 9:0 District 4...... 8.0 58 8.5
DiStHCiEe sae 8.6 9 9.5 IDISELICH OE seer 7.8 -6 8.4
DISERICH 2 seo 8.2 6 8.8 District h=seeee 9.5 8 10.3
IDIStnIGions see 9.6 58) 9.9 DAStrIich i. - cee 8.8 aS 9.3
DistnichAse ee (?) (2) (2) IDISETICHIO oo eee 8.0 9 8.9
District 4a_...- 8.3 oe) 8.8 District 92~ 253 7.9 cS 8.4
DISENICTD =~ oo. 7.9 -6 8.5 || New Mexico......- 9.7 -8 10.5
DISiichoOee ene 9.0 9 O59) PABIZ0NS = 4 -e-i</-<12 9.1 a2 9.4
IDIStEICH San hse 8.2 8 9503} | MUA. 22S sees = <c)- 8.6 4 9.0
IDISETICHOS. =. 5) 8.4 -6 9.0
PACIFIC.
MOUNTAIN.
: : Washington.......- 7.9 -8 8.7
INKnGUBIOEY —- Boooesoe 8.4 1.6 10.0 District i=... -- 7.9 “5 8.4
Disimctele esas 8.1 1.9 10.0 IDISiniCt2 = sone 9.1 eg) 10.8
Wistuich les ao. 8.7 1.8 10.5 IDIStiICtio ao eeee 8.9 -6 9.5
District 3....-- 8.5 ils 7 10. 2 District. 22223 7.9 9 8.8
Districts. 22s (2) (?) (?) DisirichiDHeeeee 8.3 8 9.1
IDIStTICH OMe ae ae 8. 2 1 9.7 Districh. Gs sac 8 au) 7.8
DISiRICH Oma oe 8.5 2.4 10.9 DIStrich<—- = Usd 9 8.6
IDTSARGE 7 eeeee (2) (2) (2) Districh 8. -- 2. 7.8 8 8.6
District 8...... 8.1 1.1 9.2 District 9...... 7.6 56) 7.9
District 9... =... 8.7 11583 LOO; 8Oreconse =n eee 7.7 a8 8.0
Tah Ore yes accel = 8.2 atl 8.9 DISthICtMiee aeee Ces .3 7.8
Distress 7.9 25 8.4 IDIStHICh 22222 oe 7.8 38 8.1
DISiMIChA Sse () (2) (?) District 3: —- = 2: (ot ne 8.0
Districk4 ss... 8.5 Ac) 9.0 District 4...... 7.4 4 7.8
Disihichop ele 8.0 9 8.9 IDISTHICH Oe eee 8.1 a5 8.6
IDS 7A Saee 8.3 .6 8.9 DISiICh eee 7.9 o2 8.1
DIStMCh Cees oe 8.5 -6 9.1 IDISHGICHS aa saee (2) (2) (2)
Mistrich9o 2. 8.3 9 9.2 IDISHNICH OS =~ - (@) (?) (2)
AVWay QUIT Oe eae eae 9.2 -8 10.0 || California. --.- Soae5 7.4 +2 7.6
Wisimichns=- = 9.4 mh 10.1 District 12s 2 = 6.4 52 6.5
Mistriets2 2. 2 22 9.8 as 10.1 DIG Reh OS oe 8.2 a2 8.4
IDNA Bo seaoe 10.1 1.5 11.6 IDISHMO BS s5oorc 7.4 (3) 7.4
District 4...... 9.3 Ad 10.0 District 4s se 7.2 a aes
DISGLICHORSe eee 8.8 aD 9.3 DASTLICH ON = 122 7.0 2 7.2
IDisirichiOe- 40: 8.7 ie 10.0 Disinichoaa--oe Tet aD 8.0
WISTHICT Annee (2) (2) (2) DISTLICH 6) ses. 7.8 at 7.9
IDIStHICh Sen. see (2) (2) (2) District 6a... .-. be AD 7.9
DisiTiehoe =e 8.5 9 9.4 DIstrict So... - 185 4 7.9

1 Where the report shows a commission paid once for all in advance on a loan running more than
one year, the equivalent annual commission is used.

2 Data at hand not sufficient to warrant the showing of a district average.

2 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.

PERCENTAGE OF BUSINESS ON WHICH COMMISSION IS PAID.

Table 4 and Diagram C reflect the relative importance of farm-
mortgage loans with no commission, advance commission, and annual
commission in each State, as indicated by these studies. It will be
noticed that in those States where the margin charged for commis-
sion is relatively high—for example, North Dakota, Oklahoma, and
Montana—the percentage of loans on which commission is charged
is also relatively high. Obviously, the general average for commis-
sion is affected both by the amount of the commission where this is
charged, as well as by the relative number of loans which pay com-
mission.

FARM-MORTGAGE LOANS IN THE UNITED STATES. vf

There is a fairly definite relation between the proportion of thefarm-
mortgage loans in a given State which are made with commission
and without commission, and the important sources from which funds
are obtained for such loans. Broadly speaking, the no-commission
loans represent that part of the farm-mortgage loans made from local
capital. To the extent therefore that the farm-mortgage loans made
by banks indicate the relative amount of local capital thus invested
one may expect to find some degree of correlation between the pro-
portion of no-commission loans and the proportion of the total amount
of farm mortgages held by the local banks. In Arkansas, for example,
where the figures show that more than one-fourth of the total farm-
mortgage loans are made by banks, 67 per cent of the farm-mortgage
business is done without commission, while in Oklahoma, where the
farm mortgages held by local banks represent only 3 per cent of the
estimated total outstanding, less than 9 per cent of the business is
done without commission.

Taste 4.—Percentage of farm-mortgage business on which commission is paid.

Percentage with commis-

A sion.
Percent-
age :
Geographic division and State. without With With
commis- commis- | commis-

sion. | Total.} sion |sion paid
paid in | in install-
advance.| ments.

New England:

Sid, ean Lee Re ere Be ceeen CeCe Se SARE: © oe be cece Bee 91.1 8.9 5.0 3.9
INWEy) ( ISTO SL Gee Sheet eno hoe oe aE onc 96.6 3.4 Ber Sl Bama eae ne
WierIMmOn tri jeeees aie jai eee eee ~~ - - a eeeee 94.1 5.9 4.8 real
WWASSHAe USC DS ease = oe cee ne semen cee sen. > - - =. eee 97.2 2.8 2.7 ail
UH OMe US an dene Soh Se eee ocean se. - - - > eee cee 78.3 21.7 bee 10.0
CORRECHIGUG saree mien cteeeeee esos -.- - aaa 98.7 1.3 dae $e eee tee 5
Middle Atlantic:
INO WAOLK esis. 5c SO See ae eee. oS... eS 86.6 13.4 9.6 3.8
ING WRLCISC Viste epics oe emsae ore a aaricyahay~\c'- < - <= =: Aes 72.3 27.7 18.7 9.0
TPGUVES I AVSION = ooo sb onscccoose ssc oeeeeee see ssossesssbeee 81.4 18.6 10.1 8.5
East North Central:
MOTO resins cece =i ests == =|.) - <>< ee 73.7 26.3 17.9 8.4
Ani ge eae eee Tociee sce elece eee 2s... ees ten 54.5 45.5 36. 2 9.3
UTE OR eee ne CBG R USOC DEBE e nas CONC SSC o REEMA -'scccccscatic 52.7 47.3 39.1 8.2
SIT Gee ee eee eee - - = -- 76.8 23.2 18.0 59)
IWWHSCGHSIIS Sees iimice Lok ca Seat ce ack. Jo... eee 85.1 14.9 10.4 4.5
West North Central
IVEENTIOSO Leste sonia e warn oleae eiciacinai= =< + =~ 5 Ieee 52.3 47.7 20.0 lek
Rowareeyyo0 234 36.0 64.0 N83 12.7
Missouri... 45.1 54.9 28.0 26.9
North Dakota 20.2 79.8 17.0 62.8
South Dakota 31.8 68. 2 45.5 22.7
Nebraska 30.7 69.3 53.5 15.8
Kansas... _. BVA 67.8 30.6 Byer
South Atlantic:
Delaware 98.1 1.9 TEQele sae. ee
64.3 35.7 28.5 7.2
65.9 34.1 26.2 7.9
88.9 11.41 8.8 238
59.1 40.9 27.5 13.4
64.7 35.3 26.0 9.3
33.9 66.1 54.1 12.0
SENG ai Gh ae hea ath eI ES | Ea cok Se eats aS 70.2 29.8 18.6 11.2
East South Central:
Een GH Ckayne se soos eae sees LL See eee 76.7 23.3 14.2 9.1
PREM ESSEOL eee ae ee eC. | | Re eeeeeemee ele 64.6 35.4 23.9 11.5
BAST Exh Len pe an ed ey Ns Wc a ses dL) fs De a 62.8 37.2 Dee, 12.0
MEISSISSID Ie eee OL. __ e 2 eet TD 74.51 95.5 15.7 9.8

8 BULLETIN 384, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLe 4.—Percentage of farm-mortgage; ee on which commission is paid—

Continued.
Percentage with commis-
sion.
Percent-
age
Geographic division and State. without With With
4 comimis- commis- | commis-

sion. Total. sion |sion paid
paid in |in install-
advance.| ments.

West South Central:

FATIICATISAS Ate aa gooey ee Be Ae Lo tooo See oe 66.9 33.1 18.6 14.5
PE OUISIaM aes see. WEE eh Ne Soe eee et ee 76.8 23.2 16.3 6.9
OlMaOM a es eg ee seks wise te ceases «'<c0 cle Qe ea oe 8.4 91.6 36.7 54.9
PRGA Soe ee eel See ee eo Su icles ayeie Sic ee eee eles 57.0 43.0 ak 15.9
Mountain

MEOW ERT Her sche ie ene fee cece st bobs sane see eee eee 31.1 68.9 28.4 40.5
I Ce Oe cae ee rE oe 3 cob ee ea ee 35.8 64.2 45.6 18.6
Woy OLHin OF ere ee SE ext ose oeese se soa0 26 See eee oes 59. 9 40.1 28.1 12.0

41.7 58.3 47.0 11.3

59.0 41.0 32.8 8.2

80.5 19.5 9.5 10.0
l 67.0 33.0 18.3 14.7
Seeteneon WEYR eres esis einioe Ges Jee Rie seine 6 ein aaa ee eee 41.8 58. 2 46.4 11.8
OTeROMRR es secia Soa slne secs see sige eis cscs ssc) eee ere 68. 4 31.6 23.6 8.0
Cafiormiait sooo mare oe s/racee ca see sewee SAGs 4- See soe 81.0 19.0 15.1 3.9

Again, it is found that the States deriving a large percentage of
their farm-mortgage funds from insurance companies are among those
where commission is paid on a relatively large proportion of the farm-
mortgage loans. This condition follows naturally from the fact that
wherever capital for mortgage loans is obtained from outside sources,
especially from distant sources, it generally passes through the hands
of one or more middlemen, to whom commissions must be paid. In-
surance companies, of course, represent. only one of several outside
sources from which capital for farm-mortgage loans is secured, but
they are of sufficient importance in a number of States to make it of
interest to compare the proportion of the total farm-mortgage capital
which they furnish with the proportion of f arm-mortgage business on
which commission is charged. For example, in Georgia, Nebraska,
Oklahoma, Kansas, South Dakota, and Iowa, which are among the
States obtaining the largest proportion of their farm=-mortgage capi-
tal from insurance companies, the percentage of farm-mortgage busi-
ness on which commission is charged ranges from 64 (in Iowa) to 92
Gm Oklahoma). On the other hand, in States like Michigan and Wis-
consin, where farm mortgages held by insurance companies represent
less than 2 per cent of the estimated total farm-mortgage debt, the pro-
portion of the farm-mortgage business on which commission is paid
is much less, and those Eastern States where the insurance. companies
do practically no farm-mortgage business are among those having
the lowest percentage of commission loans.

It may be concluded, therefore, that the practice of Heese com-
mission is most wis current in States where it is necessary to

Diacram A. FARM MORTGAGE LOANS
AVERAGE RATES FOR INTEREST AND COMMISSION

GE sterest [] Annuat Commission
RATE_PER CENT

DEL.
Mb.
VA.
W.VA.
N.C.
SiG:
GA.
FLa.

Ky ——————_

TENN. Lee BS) ee ee eee)
ALA.

Miss. ee Le er
Ark. Enon

ie ee eg i =
Ass ~ = z a
Oxua. eS es |
TEX.

Mont

———————— ae
Wyo. pS -
Ni Se

za
CALIF. As a

Bul. 384, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.

Dincram B. FARM MORTGAGE LOANS
RATES REPORTED FOR INTEREST PLUS COMMISSION

[15% © 36% ZA7% MN S8% Bo% RH10% P7Ii% Bi2%a2
(ar CaO NUE ORES Ee
[CEN OMEE OE SOF 40. SOMO N ileay/One 1 GO mn OO meee

reiesenile 20 30 40 50 60 70 OE ee 202
a Lee ee

ZZ CLA ZA

ME.

NH.

Vt.

Mass. an BN Fe Be
R.1. eZ RTE 5.9
Conn. ; 1 Ds 7/
N.Y. 5.6

N. J. Za 5.8
PR. EEE (5.8
OHI0 I #59500 OGG ROHS POSSESS NESEIR POSORAIONS OUORDSS IER 7727/7772 6.1
EEE SEES (ey ME od Go | are] SS a
IND. i SEE SETS HEROES NORDSEEDE SSDS ODT SOOO poe WA 6.2
It. a 225508 0005 SOLD UII ORIOUR ORR A 72 ZZ 6.0
Mites, |e e/a Ee
Wis.” (EEE Een ZA
MInn. ZZ ZLLATELLA 7A MTT Ee 6.8
lowA PES EZ WN eo)
Mo. USS SENS RE SRO OOOG A //A OLLLIL AEA 6.8
N.D. ZAZA Tuasegeeeeeseeeaeseeeiecs 4 OMT
Sep! I SS SORES A CLL OL. HUHUAUUUVANUTUA AUNT ey. rn 8.0
Nesp. oA te CANT seaeesedy Val
EXE ESE
Ae ES eee RZ oe
DEL. (ace (ae eS ees ee psoeaineses Baseeeoae 5.6
Mb. se cee es eee 6.1
VA oan — LLL 6.8
See WH 6.4
Tall
8.4
8.7
; RZ 9.6
Ky. val
TENN. 7.9
ALA. SRT 9.4
Miss. EZZ RHR 3.5
Arn. TEES REE ees 9.6
La. 8.6
OKLA. 8.4
TEX. 9.0:
Mont, AEH 10.0:
IDAHO f s YZ 8.9
Wyo. sosevoceevencs MMMA 10.0:
Coto. ER HH HY 272 | 3 2
N.M. =
Ariz. 9.4
UTAH 9.0:
Wash. HZ 8.7
ORE. RS 8.0:
Cur, EEE Ve ATT THE 7.6

Bul. 384, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.

Dinckam C. FARM MOKTGAGE LOANS
PERCENTAGE OF BUSINESS ON WHICH COMMISSION IS PAID

QHREB instarement Commission BSS Apvance Commission No Commission

sen pemmmnesd sasninannanena a =o =

384, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

Diacram D. FARM MORTGAGES HELD
BY LIFE INSURANCE COMPANIES AND BANKS AND
TOTAL FARM MORTGAGE DEBT

ZZ/7A Hep By. |NsURANCE COMPANIES MMMM oHevp py Banus in State
(71) Tota Farm Mortcace Dest

MILLIONS OF DOLLARS

Me. =

NH. {E

War, |= ss

Mass. |=

RL ff

mae | |

NY ‘i

NJ. =

A ——
el]
IND. So

‘Is =a
Wi Ss. = eco
= =o
ae = Za ba po yes a.
a sere
Mo. Sle ee ee ee Re
=
NED a ==
pze | |
S20 Son
LIAL
a ee

Negr. ‘~—
Kans. {E=

Bul. 384, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Diacram ’D, ContINUED

150

Bul. 384, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

MILLIONS OF DOLLARS
200 250 300

350 400 450 500

PLATE IV, CONTINUED.

Roy E
i

Io

4 wy,

he

Ui

'S

bet

Ms AK
ese

{

rT

»

as

w

eS

2:
ray
LES)
a

i
s3

Os
G)
NI Cot vey

fr)

TN
WP Sy

'

RR
em,

oy
Weer:
hii

eT,

am

PLATE V.

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Bul. 384

———- ee

FARM-MORTGAGE LOANS IN THE UNITED STATES. 9

draw on outside capital for considerable amounts; and that, on the
other hand, in States where local capital is in the main sufficient for
farm-mortgage loans, a large proportion of the loans are made with-
out the payment of any commission.

SOURCES OF CAPITAL FOR FARM-MORTGAGE LOANS.
BANKS.

The sources of capital available for farm-mortgage loans in the
various States have been studied carefully. Banks appear to furnish
from their own funds approximately $740,000,000, or more than
one-fifth of the total amount invested in farm mortgages in the
United States. Table 5 and Diagram D show the relative importance
of the farm mortgages held by banks in each State. In California
the farm mortgages held by banks represent 45 per cent of the
estimated total farm-mortgage debt; in Louisiana, 45 per cent; in
Indiana and Michigan, nearly 40 per cent; and in Mississippi and
South Carolina, more than 36 per cent.

So far as the bank funds in any State invested in farm mortgages
represent local capital, there is the advantage of first-hand contact
with borrowers, enabling the investor to see that the security 1s
properly cared for during the term of the loan. In certain sections,
such as the New England and the Middle Atlantic States, where
it is customary for banks to place loans in other States, the banks
do not have this advantage, but must operate through other agencies
in placing their loans.

TaBLE 5.—Quantitative data relative to farm-mortgage loans.
[Figures for amounts represent thousands of dollars.]

Farm mortgages held

by lifeinsurance | F@t™ mortgages held
ane ae by banks.3
F panies. Farm
Estimated ina
i oak ei: total farm- ee ST gages
Geographic division and State. REE han-
waee ‘a 2 cent Fer cent ae by
g of esti- of esti- s.4
Amount arittadi Amount. minted
total. total.
Nmatadus tatessas. s+" -- oc sess 3, 598, 985 693, 940 19.3 739, 500 20.6 486, 580
= SS | SS SS SS SSS. SSS SS
Geographic divisions:
INewaelmoland’! 222 oetee sence. nce 80, 544 106 0.1 84, 900 105.4 10
Middle Atlantic. -.. BA 7313; 150 556 2 30, 900 9.9 2,040
East North Central. 944, 436 121, 075 12.8 220, 000 23.3 | 123,360
West North Central 1,375, 903 426, 960 31.0 216, 400 15.7 | 282,710
South Atlantic. .-.. 153, 155 22, 930 15.0 40, 800 26. 6 19, 920
East South Central. 127, 135 22, 871 18.0 33, 600 26.4 4,710
West South Central 299, 614 72, 685 24.3 27, 900 9.3 18, 750
Mountain SEAS aes 101, 285 12, 532 12.4 19, 800 19.5 17, 300
PAGIG ME eee ence ee ee oe 203, 757 | 14, 225 7.0 65, 200 32.0 17, 780

1 Estimate based on Thirteenth Census figures, assuming that the ratio between the mortgage debt on farms
operated by their owners and the total value of all such farms holds good for tenant farms also. It is pos-
sible that this ratio may be too high for the tenant farms in some of the States, in which case the estimates
will be too large; but even if this is the case, the figures presented have considerable value as representing
the maximum amount of farm mortgages probably outstanding im the census-year.

2 Based on reports received (in October, 1915) from 220 insurance companies, comprising five-sixths of
the total number in the United States and having more than 99 per cent of the total admitted assets.

3 Estimate based on reports received from banks in the spring of 1914.

4 Farm mortgages negotiated by banks or bank officials as agents or correspondents for otherinvestors.
Estimates based on reports received from banks in the spring of 1914.

10

BULLETIN 384, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TasLe 5.—Quantitative data relative to farm-mortgage loans—Continued.

[Figures for amounts represent thousands of dollars.]

petinated
= divicl total farm-
Geographic division and State. mortgage
debt.!
New England:
PH..= soc odsansoossoosog Ise 5s 13, 727
New Hampshire............---- 6, 100
WOM. 14455 sosssbensceasees 17, 113
Massachiisettssssson-eaecens ee 24,077
Ehodetsland ss secs 22-52 -= a2e- 2,514
Connechicnit ses: ate meh asses ssa 17, 013
Middle Atlantic:
Newsy Onkee2 a eSe ee. ase bas dete 168, 234
INOW JeISOyane coat nee oases 35, 610
Pennsylvaliae oe h | oe seeec ns oe 109, 312
East North Central:
Oboe ee ae eke ae ae 130, 678
indiana cee peee teceemaeeaeels 132, 325
JOBE AYOy Se ys 5 ai NR ee A ea 305, 802
MI ChIoa Melee 2 Weer Phe eee 118, 950
Wisconsini-< Sass sso ss eos 206, 681
West North Central:
IMM eS Ota eee aes eee oe ee. 145, 181
OWA emcee ee Sonne Sees 469, 063
MSS OUI SE Ae apt ee eek Ba 223, 107
INOKth Dakobasenncercceeesceee ns 100, 364
SOMIIN IDEIKO a sess aoteende s— 92, 467
IN@braskae keene SAL eos oe tee gee 165, 015
[Sansasierece mee =) ey pb su ey b kod 8 180, 706
South Atlantic:
Dela Ware ee ree # iis. Meee det es 6, 857
Momylandeten sas Joo bach als shits | 32, 393
Wittuileies 228 8 Wa ae eee Sees hee 25, 007
VVOSTAVAT eae mynse ey SRS OE ae 8, 725
INonthi@arolinae 2a sae ae eee 21, 005
SOUL Carolina se. 2 s-88— ee eee een 24, 967
Georsiaen sess cnn cece ae cee eS 29, 711
HMlorida sy. k3 Vek Ae ee 4, 490
East South Central:
Kentitickwyeeeery pare ee Sets eetsee 41, 305
Mennesseewawieot herp eetiosesee + 25, 468
PAV ames pee. ee ee 25, 943
INMEISSISSID Ieee ae ae eae ie 34, 419
West South Central:
PATIKATISAS sas eile p= ee eee 21, 023
24, 141
73, 129
184, 321
17,111
Lao Ree Sey ee 21, 566
AV arorandhnes 8 SORA Ge sence cese cage 7, 148
Colordd Ones essa. eececeecee ne 36, 767
INewaMe@xicon shay ae Sees 4, 585
ARIZ OTE Aes ce Si cere ate ae 4,161
(ONG. 2 i nt Se ange 6, 818
INeivadameriec cu Hae ee = aS 3, 129
Pacific:
WViashine tones apis sea SL Ue 2 43, 470
Oreronee meee se ete ee 35, 535
Califormia weap. sabes Serie at 3 124, 752

Farm mortgages held
by life insurance | "atm mortgages held
companies.? y C arm
mortgages
“han-
EGE cent Ee cent eet by
of esti- of esti- anks.4
Amount. minted Amount rantodl
total. total,
15 0.1 6, 000 CENT EE |e a 8
BE S008 s SO Meae 12, 500 20429) | eae eee
13 1 46, 700 PLD) | io ede abe
9 (6) 8, 700 36. 2 10
DE PRR EOE Rad 6, 000 BBBu7 NEEL E:
69 4 5, 000 DON AU hE We Se
128 sil 18, 200 10.8 1,150
222 .6 2, 600 7.3 30
206 aha 10, 100 9.2 860
17, 073 13.1 26, 200 20.1 1, 360
48, 789 36.9 52, 000 39.3 14, 590
51, 046 14.3 56, 200 15.8 87, 530
1, 706 1.4 44, 900 37.8 6, 640
2, 461 1.2 40, 700 19.7 13, 240
35, 577 24.5 43, 600 30. 0 43, 020°
150, 150 32.0 104, 800 22.3 70, 230
59, 699 26.8 34, 900 15.6 31, 170
19, 423 19.4 5, 000 5.0 42,370
31, 024 33. 6 6, 200 6.7 43,190
66, 614 40. 4 10, 400 6.3 19, 580
64, 473 35071 11, 500 6.4 33, 150
46 6th 1,600 PANS SoCo SS
492, eo 6, 000 18.5 310
670 200 5, 000 20. 0 570
23 583 1, 700 19.5 30
2, 267 10.8 6, 900 32.9 2, 200
3, 884 15.6 9, 000 36.1 3, 180
15, 479 GP Tf 8, 000 26.9 12, 280
69 1.5 2, 600 57.9 1, 350
7,170 17.4 13, 300 32.2 2, 580
10, 674 41.9 4, 000 15.7 840
1,771 6.8 3, 700 14.3 750
3, 256 9.5 12, 600 36. 6 540
4, 259 20.3 5, 700 27.1 1, 250
1, 500 7b 9, 000 42.6 2; 610
29, 065 39.7 2,100 2.9 6, 550
37, 861 20.5 11, 100 6.0 8, 340
3, 518 20. 6 5, 200 30. 4 7, 850
2, 948 Ishii 2, 200 10. 2 4, 980
487 6.8 1, 200 16.8 830
3, 135 8.5 2, 100 5.7 1, 740
1,191 26.0 400 8.7 390
376 9.0 1,600 38.5 1,070
862 12.6 6, 000 88. 0 340
15 5 1, 100 35.2 100
3, 087 Teak 5, 000 Ib 11, 110
1, 091 3.1 4, 100 11.5 2,910
10, 047 8.1 56, 100 45.0 3, 760

1 See footnote 1 on page 9.
2 See footnote 2 on page 9.
3 See footnote 3 on page 9.

4 See footnote 4 on page 9.
5 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.

The relative importance of farm-mortgage loans from different

classes of banks may also be noted.

In Iowa, where 56 per cent of

the total number of stock savings banks of the United States are
located, banks of this class supply more than two-thirds of the

FARM-MORTGAGE LOANS IN THE UNITED STATES. 183

total capital from all banks in the State. Likewise in California the
savings banks furnish even a larger proportion of the total capital in-
vested in farm mortgages by all banks. On the other hand, in Minne-
sota, where there are few savings banks, the farm-mortgage loans held
by State and private banks and trust companies constitute about 95
per cent of the total amount of such loans held by all banks in that
State.
LIFE INSURANCE COMPANIES.

The importance of life insurance companies as sources of capital
for farm-mortgage loans in the various States is also shown in Table
5 and in Diagram D. It is seen that these insurance companies
supply approximately $700,000,000 for farm-mortgage loans, or
about one-fifth of the total farm-mortgage capital of the United
States. Practically one-half of the insurance money is invested in
the four States of Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska. .lowa
alone holds nearly 22 per cent of the total amount of insurance money
invested in farm mortgages. In few of the Southern or Rocky
Mountain States do the insurance funds invested in farm mortgages
represent more than one-half of 1 per cent of the total farm-mortgage
capital obtaimed from this source.

The life insurance companies either have their own farm-mortgage
departments, through which they receive and pass on applications
for loans, or they purchase farm mortgages outright in the commer-
cial market. The latter practice generally is limited to the smaller
insurance companies, the volume of whose business in this field is
not sufficient to warrant their establishing separate machinery for
the selection of farm-mortgage securities.

On the other hand, the larger imsurance companies, which invest
considerable amounts in farm mortgages, have very well-organized
departments, through which they carry on a regular farm-mortgage
loan business. They usually limit their loans to territory such as
they can approve for this purpose, and hire salaried appraisers, whose
inspection of any given individual loan is required before the loan is
finally accepted. Ordinarily these companies receive applications
through local agencies or correspondents, usually local banks. The
application blanks and legal papers used by these insurance compa-
nies, including mortgages and notes, have been carefully standard-
ized and adapted to the conditions in the various States where loans
are made. While some of the companies show a tendency to make
loans at relatively high rates, insurance companies more often repre-
sent a highly conservative class of investors in the farm-mortgage
business. Their advent into any given State for investment pur-
poses usually leads to a lowering of charges on farm mortgages.
Loé¢al investors often are governed in their charges by the practices
of competing insurance companies.

12 BULLETIN 384, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
MORTGAGE COMPANIES.

Figures are not at hand to show the amount of capital invested in
farm-mortgage loans by mortgage companies. These companies
figure prominently in the farm-mortgage business in all parts of the
country, however, and include a number of foreign companies which
have invested heavily in farm mortgages in the West South Central,
Rocky Mountain, and Pacific States.

There are a number of domestic mortgage companies which have
confined their attention to a conservative loan business and have
established a reputation for a relatively safe class of investment
loans. This has enabled them to build up a clientele of investors,
with connections of long standing. Other mortgage companies pre-
fer to handle mortgage loans commanding relatively high rates and
commissions. Among the latter are those mortgage companies which
limit their business to second mortgages, and receive the extreme
figures for both commission and interest.

Mortgage companies may be classified also with reference to the
extent of the territory in which they do business. Thus there are
those ‘that. cover a relatively large territory, including many States,
while other companies limit their busmess to a more restricted area,
often a single State or a part of a State. Most of the loans made
by either class are placed through local agents or correspondents,
although many of the smaller companies also make loans direct to
farmers. A mortgage company may buy the mortgage and reassign
it to another purchaser, or it may have the paper made out to
itself in the first instance, to be resold later. In either case, the
mortgage company collects a commission in addition to that received
by the local agent or correspondent. )

SCHOOL OR LAND-GRANT FUNDS.

In addition to the funds supplied for farm-mortgage loans by
insurance companies, banks, and mortgage companies, approximately
$25,000,000 is being loaned from school or land-grant funds directly
to farmers in certain States, such as Indiana, Iowa, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Oklahoma, Idaho, Utah, and Oregon. The interest
charge on these loans is usually 5 or 6 per cent, though in Idaho the
rate is 7 per cent. These loans are handled directly from the State
departments in North and South Dakota, Oklahoma, Idaho, Utah,
and Oregon; in Indiana and Iowa, however, the loans are handled
through the counties, which are held responsible for all losses on
account of insufficient security or through defalcations by county
officers.

FARM-MORTGAGE LOANS IN THE UNITED STATES. 13
PRIVATE INVESTORS.

No figures are available to show the amount of farm-mortgage
capital supplied by private investors. It is clear, however, that in
certain States, such as New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and
Wisconsin, the amount of capital supplied by private imvestors is
relatively large. :
LOANS HANDLED BY BANKS.

Besides furnishing capital for farm-mortgage loans from their own
funds, banks and mortgage companies act as intermediaries or mid-
dlemen, purchasing or negotiating large amounts of farm mortgages
for msurance companies and other outside investors. The estimated
amount of such business handled by banks is shown in the last column
of Table 5. In North Dakota the banks negotiate about $40,000,000
a year in loans for other investors, whereas the amount invested in
farm mortgages from their own funds is only one-eighth of this sum.
Similarly, in Nebraska the amount handled by banks is more than
three times the amount of bank capital invested in farm mortgages.
In most of the States west of the Mississippi River, the banks engage
rather extensively in the business of handling farm mortgages for
other investors.

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE TERMS ON FARM-MORTGAGE LOANS.

No factor is given greater consideration by farm-mortgage in-
vestors, in determining their attitude toward loans in a given area,
than the prevailing method of farming. The careful mvestor in
farm mortgages considers all the known factors affecting the income of
the farm offered as a security. He studies the relation of the farm
income to the price of the land to determine whether the farm value is
on a speculative or an investment basis. He is interested in the degree
of regularity in income from year to year, and therefore tries to ascer-
tain what crops or products are raised and how far these are adapted
to the given conditions. He knows the extra hazards involved in
one-crop farming, and therefore inquires about tendencies in the di-
rection of diversified agriculture. He even inquires into the business
habits of the farm owners and the kind of care given to the farm
products. It is necessary, in general, to understand the importance
of differences along all these lines in order to explain the variation in
the costs of farm-mortgage loans to borrowers.

Climatic conditions are important because of their effect on the
value of the farm security. ‘The semiarid regions of the Western
States do not attract capital as freely as the farming sections farther
east, where rain is relatively abundant. Important sources of capital,
including insurance companies and savings banks, often refuse to loan
money on farm-mortgage security where the average rainfall is below

14 BULLETIN 384, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

acertain figure. It is still uncertain how far the results of dry-farming
methods will be able to overcome the diffidence of conservative
investors with reference to loans in semiarid territory.

The character of the sou and the general contour of the country are
also important. Capital does not flow as freely to southern Illinois
as to other parts of that State, partly because of differences in soil
conditions. Similarly, the Red River Valley, in the northern part
of Minnesota and North Dakota, attracts capital relatively more
freely than north-central Minnesota, largely because of differences in
natural conditions. Illustrations of the effect of soil, contour, and
climate on the flow of farm-mortgage capital could also be given
from other parts of the country.

The distance from financial centers is an important factor. In
studying the average interest rates for the different States, a gradual
rise in costs is noted as one moves outward from the leading financial
centers.

The character of the financial agencies through which farm-mort-
gage capital reaches the farmer is also of great importance. One
needs to consider the part played by agencies that render local
savings available for this purpose as well as the kind of facilities
through which outside capital reaches the farmers of any given
locality. Where local savings institutions have been well developed,
as in Iowa or California, the effect on available local capital for farm-
loan purposes is readily discerned. On the other hand, the result of a
general lack of suitable local savings institutions, as shown especially in
many regions of the South and West, is likewise apparent.

THE NEED FOR IMPROVED FACILITIES.

The practice of drawing on outside capital for farm-mortgage loans
is found, as has been stated, both in the most highly developed
agricultural sections of the corn belt and in the relatively less
developed agricultural regions of the South and West. The general
need for suitable facilities through which outside capital may reach
the farmers in different parts of the country is therefore clear. In
the United States it is a fairly well established practice for country
banks or real estate firms to act as local agents or correspondents for
outside or distant investors, either direct or through other middle-
men. It is also the usual practice to market the farmer’s mortgage
note in its original form. ‘This makes it necessary to find a purchaser
who wants a mortgage of a given amount, running for a given time,
and with given terms. Obviously, paper of this character will not
sell as readily in the open market as standardized securities. Dis-
tant investors are not generally in a position to have first-hand
knowledge of the farm security underlying a given mortgage note.

;
§
3
4
Y
;

FARM-MORTGAGE LAWS IN THE UNITED STATES. 15

Moreover, they often prefer securities running in even amounts for
uniform periods of time and with a convenient means of collecting
the interest. Many investors prefer to be relieved of all concern as
to the keeping up of the underlying security.

All these advantages are secured where the mortgage notes, in-
stead of being marketed direct, are held as a collateral trust fund,
and bond issues based thereon are placed on the market. To meet
these requirements, institutions are needed, both to fix reliable and
suitable standards for farm-mortgage loans, and to market them in
the form of bonds. Such institutions can not be properly established
without suitable safeguards. It is necessary to profit by the lessons
of past American experience, and avoid the mistakes made by the
debenture institutions in this country in the eighties and early nine-
ties. The almost complete failure of the farm-mortgage debenture
business in 1893 affords ample warning. There is need to take stock
cf all the factors that contributed to that failure. The granting of
loans out of proportion to protection funds, the failure to build up
adequate reserves, the basing of loans on boom estimates of land
values, the extension of loans on lands of uncertain returns, the sub-
stitution of inferior for standard collateral securities, the utter lack
of inspection and supervision under State or Federal law—these
practices quite naturally led to disaster. As a result there was an
almost complete collapse of these early debenture companies.

DESIRABILITY OF STATE AND FEDERAL LEGISLATION.

In order to establish institutions through which farm mortgages
may be properly selected, according to reliable and suitable standards,
and through which such mortgage loansmay be converted into accept-
able securities for the open market, it is clearly necessary to have
legislation, both by the individual States and by the Federal Congress.
The mortgage paper of any State can not be properly standardized
without suitable State legislation governing the validity of land
titles and the method of foreclosure. Farm-mortgage capital will
not flow into a State whose taxation laws render the investment of
farm-mortgage capital in other regions more profitable. Every State
needs to husband carefully its resources of investment capital by pro-
viding suitable legislation for the creation of local savings institutions,
as well as associations among borrowers for credit improvement.

At the same time it seems clear that, if the farmers are to obtain
adequate connections with the outside capital of the open investment
market—connections often involving wide areas, reaching across
many States—the problem involved is one too large to be solved
entirely by legislation on the part of any individual State. More-
over, a degree of uniformity in supervision and control is needed

16 BULLETIN 384, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

which it is doubtful whether State legislation would supply. So
far, therefore, as the problem is one of legislation to provide suit-
able institutions to connect the farmer with the open investment
market, Federal legislation seems clearly necessary.1

CONCLUSION.

Being given a properly organized credit system, it is believed that
the farmer who adopts business methods in his farming and thus
shows himself worthy of credit will have adequate opportunity to
secure it on reasonable terms. The farmers’ need in connection with
mortgage credit is to obtain investment capital for relatively long
periods of time, on suitable terms of repayment, and at the lowest
cost consistent with business policy. A properly organized system
should supply this need, and, under suitable Federal regulation and
control, should protect the farmer against the unreasonable charges
now prevailing in many localities.

1 This bulletin was written before the Federal farm-loan act of July 17, 1916, was passed
by Congress. £

ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
10 CENTS PER COPY

A

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BULLETIN No. 385 Yay

Contribution from the States Relations Service
A. C. TRUE, Director

Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER July 25, 1916

SCHOOL CREDIT FOR HOME PRACTICE IN AGRI-
CULTURE.’

By F. E. Heat,
Specialist in Agricultural Education, States Relations Service.

CONTENTS.
Page Page.
Rae OMey pee fas 52 rere Ses - oe cdsee ose. Ve [ (Summa See ne aie's » «<i oe ecbiereceiaele 20
Methods for the teacher’s use..-.---.-------- 2 | Supplementary tables of labor requirements. il
School administration basis of credit.......-. 13 | Selected club records...................----- 26
Farm management basis of school credit... 17
INTRODUCTION.

A new problem has arisen in the administration of rural schools
due to the advent of home projects in agriculture and other subjects
in which the home becomes the laboratory of the school. To the
teacher falls the task of giving a rank for such home work and ap-
plying that rank with proper weight to the general scholarship aver-
age of the individual.

To the superintendent of schools and other officials falls the duty
of determining how much credit shall be allowed; whether there
shall be prescribed or optional home work; what shall be the ratio
between recitation hours and hours of field work; also the ratio of
“boy hours” of labor to ‘“‘man hours.” From farm-management
studies acceptable records of labor requirements are to be obtained
and these are to be translated into terms of usual school rank and
eredit. No form of school credit or rank for home work is sure to
arouse permanent interest in such work unless related to the credit
system used for other school subjects.

This bulletin is intended to assist the rural teacher in her part of
this problem and to discuss the basis of such credit for the benefit

1 Prepared under the direction of C. H. Lane, Chief Specialist in Agricultural Education.

Note.—This bulletin is intended to assist superintendents and teachers of rural schools who desire
to use home practice in agriculture as an educational feature, giving proper rank and credit on the school
Tecords.

45785°—Bull. 385—16——1

i Leg

2 . BULLETIN 385, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
(i Wan

of school officials who may ‘desire! to install such a plan. Several
farm-management studies are utilized which may assist both the
teacher and the officials.

METHODS FOR THE TEACHER’S USE.

It is here assumed that the school officials have settled upon the
ratio between study and field work, and have also tabulated a more
or less elastic statement of the time allowance for different projects.
In case this is left to the teacher, it will be necessary for him to
study the problems considered in the latter part of this publication.

The home project has been defined by this office as follows: ‘The
term ‘home project’ applied to instruction in elementary and sec-
ondary agriculture includes each of the following requisites: (1)
There must be a plan for work at home covering a season or a more
or less extended period of time; (2) it must be a part of the instruc-
tion in agriculture of the school; (3) there must be a problem more
or less new to the pupil; (4) the parents and pupil should agree with
the teacher upon the plan; (5) some competent person must super-
vise the home work; (6) detailed records of time, method, cost, and
income must be honestly kept; and (7) a written report based on
the record must be submitted to the teacher. This report may be
in the form of a booklet.”’ Vacation work will be necessary in many
projects.

Since the project is of a longer duration than the practicum else-
where considered, and since it resembles the more important phases
of farm work, the plan of procedure becomes very important; cost,
income, and profit are factors which may help to rate the work.
Examples of such projects would include the following:

Growing 1 acre or less of corn.

Growing one-eighth acre or more of potatoes.

Growing an acre of peanuts or cotton.

Raising a flock of poultry.

Managing a home garden of not less than one-tenth acre.
Raising one-tenth acre of tomatoes and canning the surplus.
Keeping dairy records, including milk tests.

Raising a litter of pigs.

Raising baby beef.

Picking, packing, and marketing fruit.

Orchard management, pruning, spraying, etc.

The teacher’s problems are here considered under several cases,
each dependent on the status of agriculture as a school study.

CASE 1. HOME WORK PRESCRIBED.

There should be an assigned value for each subject in the course,
and in the case of agriculture a definite part of this value should

CREDIT FOR HOME’ PRACTICE IN AGRICULTURE. 3

be apportioned to the recitation work and the home work separately.
The application of a rank then becomes a simple matter, supposing
that each home project has been approved at the outset as satis-
fying the time demands. The teacher will then rank each project,
with such advice from experts as may be needed, in view of the
evidence available and the reports rendered. This rank is averaged
with other school ranks in accordance with the local system of per-
centages or other forms.

To make this concrete, suppose arithmetic recitations with extra
study or preparation periods occur five days in a week and are
granted five credits or points in the general average of the term or
year. Then agriculture with prepared recitations five times each
week would receive five credits. If instead of five recitations it is
decided to have three each week and require home practice equiva-
lent to the other two, then home practice would count two-fifths in
making up the rank in agriculture. If, however, the practical work
is to be rated as though it were a separate academic subject, the
authorities would decide as to whether it should be the equivalent
of a five-hour course or less.

Whenever this relative weight is fixed, each project should receive
its rank in the same way recitation work is ranked and the average
will be determined as is customary. This makes real school
credit. To illustrate this: In the case where the project is to count
as two-fifths of the agriculture, suppose the recitation course is ranked
at 85 and the project 90 on the scale of 100.

Rank. Hours.
85X3=255 Recitation total.
90 2=180 Project total.
5)435
} Total rank for agriculture= 87 on basis of 5 credits.

This rank of 87 per cent for agriculture would be averaged as a
five-hour credit with other school branches in obtaining the general
average rank. In a case where the two periods of practical work
are in addition to the five periods of recitation, the total will be
seven and the method of averaging will be as in the first case.

It may be the teacher’s duty to approve the project and to decide
as to how much weight it may have or as to how large a project it
must be to equal the requirement for practical work. The school
authorities having decided on the ratio as before referred to, it is
necessary also to have a ruling as to how many hours of practical
work shali equal one prepared recitation. This is usually set for not
less than two hours of practical or laboratory work to one recitation
period.

Under such circumstances two days of agricultural practice per
week would call for not less than 4 hours of home work which, in a

4 BULLETIN 385, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

school year of 36 weeks, ould sito to 144 hours as a minimum.
The total assigned aati of the different projects allowed for one
year should be not less than 144 hours if the work counts for 2 hours
of class work or two-fifths of a full course. It would not be wise to
encourage the pupil to carry much more than this unless it is evident
that his other school work will not suffer from neglect because of
this.

On the bas.s of 144 hours required, an acre of corn would require
about half of this time in sections where the average labor records
are above 60 hours per acre. Instead of allowing the pupil to grow
2 acres of corn, in which case the educational value is not increased,
it is better to fill the other half of the required 144 hours with some
animal project, as poultry keeping. The major part of the work
with poultry is not done during the season when corn is grown, and
there is a further advantage in applying the lessons on both plant
and animal life. If the teacher has a competent advisory committee,
it would be feasible to modify the requirements to meet local and
individual conditions as in the following study adapted from records
in the Office of Farm Management of the United States Department
of Agriculture.

On a farm in Or_eans County, N. Y., where approximately 20 acres
of potatoes are raised as a main crop and approved methods are
employed, the following variations are found in three successive
years: *

Variation of hours of labor required to raise an acre of potatoes during different years.

1911 1912 1913

Waelder acrei(oushels) . oS eeeesee eee rissa ee eee eee eee ec Seer 207.79 208. 50 173. 21

Motaliman-hours (per acre) saeeae a]. 2 = eee ee eee eee ee eet eee 89.13 69. 70 72.09
Variations for different operations:

(PIOWIN Gece = ae ss -\n is ERE eae ene eietcie ae ee EE eee see ae in| eee 7.54 4.98 7.05

Cullavating Sos cucS0dun => > sos stcesstossesuessecassoussesessssSsenseoc2 7.85 9. 82 8.12

IBIG Cia ES Bo ODS AASREeE o)- = 550+ ces eu Bees Onna a5n Sass Se oaeessgosaepass 9. 38 1.00 4.48

Sion an = ASS aesanerpe - 275 ob cos SoaesebEa soeeecaons ss5008SbeRsebcon 7.21 5. 06 2.51

TPG atoe hs a5 eee 5 oso acne coves sae se Sonos lcesesodesamsosEsocS 22. 00 14.30 14. 46

Such evidence as this tends to prove that it is not possible to
assign a definite number of hours to the raising of a potato crop even
with uniform methods, and where the credits granted are in terms
of hours of work performed, it would be desirable to use the boy’s
time record within certain stated limits. In view of the records
given above it might be decided that a boy on this farm should
put in work equivalent to not less than 70 man-hours in raising an
acre of potatoes and that his record for work would be accepted
(under inspection) not to exceed 90 man-hours of necessary work.
In view of the comparative difficulty of some of this labor for a boy

1 Part of a record in the Office of Farm Management.

CREDIT FOR HOME PRACTICE IN AGRICULTURE. ey

the figures might need revision. The boy might not be allowed to
use more than two horses where the father would use four, and some
of the manual labor would be heavier for him. In any case the
raising of a single acre on this farm would require more than one-half
of the 144 hours, assigned to project work.

Again, if the boy is to raise from one-eighth to one-half acre of
potatoes only, almost every phase of the work will take more time
relatively than it takes on larger fields. Planting, spraying, digging,
and even hoeing may be done by hand and a reasonable time allow-
ance is to be made. Such a study of the labor involved will assist
in deciding how large a project the pupil should be encouraged to
take. Too much project work may detract from the time needed
for study; too little may not be worth considering for credit. The
extent to which this work is new, and therefore educational, may be
a factor in giving different credit for the same number of man-hours
labor. |

The first thing to be decided is whether the potato project is a
suitable application of the agriculture taught. Then in view of the
ratio established between textbooks and practice on the one hand
and the estimated man-hours of labor in raising an acre of potatoes
on the other, determine the question as to whether one-half acre or
one-fourth acre or more is sufficient to satisfy the demands.

In ease the pupil carries both a crop and an animal project, each
may be determined in the same way for the proportionate time
allowed. There is a manifest advantage in having both summer and
winter projects.

Whenever projects have been carried out and reports rendered by
pupils, the itemized records of time should be kept on file at the
school to be used in considering future projects. The age and ma-
turity of each pupil should be recorded with each report. These
records may in time be of greater value in crediting projects than are
the adult labor records which are at present the only available basis.

CASE Il. HOME PRACTICE OPTIONAL.

In some cases where the study of agriculture is’ prescribed for the
upper grades, it is not feasible to require any home work. It will
then be best to offer added credit for home project work and average
the rank on the project with the recitation rank in agriculture as in
the former case. The ratio between the two should be fixed upon a
fair basis and the same methods for obtaming the cooperation of the
parents should be used as in other cases.

Tf the recitation course runs for three or four periods a week the,
home work should count for about two-fifths or two-sixths. When
there are five recitations in agriculture it may be wise to count home
work as three, unless it seems that the pupils ought not to carry that

6 BULLETIN 385, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

much outside work. This would give a value of three-eighths to the
practical work. Wherever the recitation course is optional, the
home work should be a part of that course to be necessary for all who
elect the course. In all such cases the methods of applymg rank
and credit are explained in the first case.

CASE Ill. NO COURSE IN AGRICULTURE.

In many rural communities where no course in agriculture has
been introduced there is already more or less organized project work,
which may be utilized by the schools. In some cases this is organized
club work and in others it results from the interest and activity of
the teachers. Where such conditions exist it is possible to use one
of the two methods which have proven successful in some sections of
the country.

Correlation method.—The teacher may plan to utilize the home work
for the vitalizing of other school subjects. While this should be done,
whether there is a course in agriculture or not, it provides a means
for linking the school to the home in the absence of such courses.1

The teacher may have plans drawn, sketches made, problems solved,
reports written, and, letters prepared as a part of the home project,
but credit each on the school rank in drawing, arithmetic, language,
and other school branches. While this work is both project work and
school work the rank is strictly school rank, and while the pupil is
forwarding his project work he is getting toad school credit for the
educational phase.

Extra subject method.—Other school authorities have decided that
home work should be ranked as an extra school subject, carrying
weight im proportion to the work done, not. to exceed one 5-hour
subject. This limit might be made less than five units if desired.
Where home work counts as a separate subject we might have the
following conditions, based on three hours’ credit per week:

Rank. Credit. Total.

Acti Thimleineen 2 ks pes eee BOX aoe 400
Ranguagewee 2.0.2. See SOX a 340
Historyeets oer eee oie eae 99 X 56 = 450
Geograpiygees ss) ) eee SPX 261
Eom eypRojectss.: 2-2 ae 80> xX a8 270
2 ye dea

Generalayeraze: sei yee cee ee 85

Variations of this plan may be easily made to fit any local system
of credits.

Es

1 This subject has been developed in recent bulletins issued by this department as U.S. Dept. Agr. Buls.
182 (1915), Correlating Agriculture with Public School Subjects in the Southern States, and 281 Saye
Correlating Agriculture with Public School Subjects in the Northern States.

CREDIT FOR HOME PRACTICE IN AGRICULTURE. q

To decide how much work is necessary to deserve such credits,
proceed as in previous cases. In a 36-week ‘year each recitation period
per week calls for 2 hours of home work, which is equivalent to 72
hours of unprepared work, and a 5-hour recitation credit would be
the equivalent of 360 hours of home work on the same basis. This
appears very large and might be more than the authorities would
care to recognize, lest it should tend to weaken the other school
work. Two or three fifths of this will usually be considered high
enough. .

There will rarely be found cases where the parents will not be
interested in having the pupils take up home projects, but it needs a
prearranged plan to insure the kind of cooperation which carries the
project to a helpful and successful conclusion. The parents should
make an agreement with the teacher before the work begins. It
would be best to make a written agreement in which the project is to
be outlined and in which the parents agree to certain essentials of
cooperation which follow. Oral agreements are less satisfactory.

ESSENTIALS OF COOPERATION.

The parent should agree: (1) To permit the pupil to use specified
Jand, animals, and equipment, either as a temporary owner or as a
tenant so far as the needs of the project are concerned; (2) to grant
the pupil the time needed for the work and to verify and vouch for
the time record; (3) to mstruct the pupil im the necessary manipu-
lation so far as practicable; (4) to allow the pupil the profits derived
from his own labor and management. The last point is not always
feasible, particularly where the pupil takes up one phase of the main
business of the farm, such as the weighing and testing of milk for
a dairy herd.

The parent must at least give an unbiased voucher of the time
and expense record, and a statement that the project work was all
done by the pupil. In the absence of an advisory committee or an
inspector, the parent is the judge as to when the pupil has accom-
plished a task successfully.

Where the pupil’s time is much needed by the parent in regular
home duties it may be well to advise that the pupil take over some
part of that home work as a project. This will insure the cooperation
of the parents, although the ‘‘managerial’’? income may not come
to the pupil.

The school should not only give credit for work for which the pupil
receives pay, but should consider the relative income or profit as one
important factor in determining the school rank given on the project.

To insure success, it will be very desirable to have a memorandum
of agreement signed by all parties before the project begins; a report
in full from the pupil, and a voucher from the parent at the end.

8 BULLETIN 385,U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A memorandum of agreement might be similar to the following

form:
Project agreement.

ibe amen! /.). "ae ey fy EAE Lagreesmopermit Hig)! S: Soe eatin Ae eee
(Name.) (Son or daughter.)
pels wale elem =~ «. - ERS = , to carry out at homegne projecty@l -.. 2. 2222. Scere anne
(Name.)
according to the plan submitted, to encourage the pupil and to furnish -..........-..-

(Specify land,

Baus). SYS. . . Bee in addition to the time required; to allow him all
animals, equipment, etc.)

actual profits from his project; also to check up the time records and vouch for the
same.

Wie Goupil ss... Se ee , agrees to carry out all the details of the
project as agreed upon, to record, and report truthfully upon all items of labor, cost,
and income, and to write a full report of all methods to be returned to the teacher.

It is estimated that the labor involved will be between ..-.-. EYLOVG ies os man-hours.
ithe teg@her, .. WORRER co 2 osc tee , agrees to assist the pupil in obtaining
(Name.)
information needed and to secure all possible supervision; to accept the work when
the project is acceptably completed as equivalent to ...-...--...---- of school
(Amount.)

work and to enter the rank for the work and report as a part of the scholarship rank
ORAL STUER ELSA O" 0) RS 5 pe aera tee B= = eR Ee oc Ma cc a2

ee

= RSME iat pe A mene KE BRE S'S , Pupil.
oC ne eae ie Ye 2," aac a , Teacher.
Be EME. SUA 8 LINE) SERS RES Ske , Superintendent of Schools.

This should be accompanied by a carefully written plan of work,

or printed directions where such projects are organized under State
or county leadership.

Parent’s voucher on pupil’s project.
Name oipupil:.... Seem 5. oe eee 2 ai erecta Ce eS EN. i dy

iRestdeneee a... . . aaememeeremine = <2). fa SURI 5 2 > | ISRO Se eee See

ATEN SAM EC. ... «CAMPER GLI a ks he AAEM fee) UUM gen 2 aap ees Se Ae ge

21RD) (LENE es aM 5 Se a AM oS he Se MIEN hc and eed ee All a SR oo

Dates sol. | RRA 12D. 3 RS ETS RE = meta Ske . dale aE CA
bgherebyr certify <thaie 4242 2-22 . 2s eee has carried out the project in

(Name of pupil.)

eee. oe nok on 3. er in the manner described in his report; that he did

all the work, with such exceptions as are noted in his report. 1! His own labor neces-

sary to the success of his project was ...... hours; hired-man labor, ------ hours;

horse labor, ..-.-.-- hours.

SHisiexpense, not. includime his\labor, wassqees.--m. --aesoee- eee $

2 Ehismcome from-alliqaurees=..<.... 5.2 eee... See eee
His\proft, disrerardingghis own time. |. eseeeee ss. -. aa ee
His labor, ....-. hourswaite 2-2. per Houneerbse 2508: . eee Ree TEENS

(Samples, animals, etc.)
from his own project, and it is fair to rank him on this basis.

1Ttemized accounts to be given in written report.

CREDIT FOR HOME PRACTICE IN AGRICULTURE. 9

UEMATIZS o oe LN... RRS ee | a
Siete Gere aa: 2. ae ee ore
elapiaushttp 2-2)... geeeese. gee. ce

INCOS 0120 DE, i <a .

2 ues ete oe . 2 , Teacher.
oben een oe , Inspector.
. Ieee es 6 eee - oe ...-, Superintendent of Schools.
Credit allowed... .--. 2... Rank onyprojeci=esa4=$ s..... Pes

22:0 PS eee Kimalirank 1 ‘sulbjectsaesees seen oo = HPs oc pcan a cain
CREDIT FOR HOME PRACTICUMS.

Contrasted with the larger projects are minor processes called
practicums in which the element of skill becomes relatively large
and there is less management and study required. Such processes
as plowing a field, testing seed corn, transplanting tomatoes, or
running a separator may be practicums.

If school credit is to be given for doing these things, it seems wise
to require a minimum amount of practice and after that have the
pupil tested to demonstrate his ability. If his skill is acceptable,
give him the credit and rank but once instead of continuing the
credits for further practice.

Some processes might be made cube crries for certain projects, the
credit for the project including that for the brief practicums involved.
On the other hand, younger pupils might be encouraged to acquire
the skill before the years when agriculture is studied as class work.

To make this concrete, consider the case of a boy with an acre of
corn for his project. Before he can plow with a pair of horses he
should have learned to harness the horses and drive them. Harness-
ing a pair of horses might then be a practicum for any boy strong
enough to handle the heavy harness and previous to that he might
have learned to put a light harness on the horse and hitch it toa buggy.

It would be well to allow a limited number of credits each year
previous to the seventh grade and to keep a record from year to year
of each boy’s accomplishments. In some cases it will be possible
to hold a public contest in which the pupils will be examined and
ranked on their skill in their respective practice. In many cases
the voucher of the parent alone will be sufficient. Another plan
similar to the Boy Scout classes might be used in which a pupil would
qualify for one class by performing a given number of specified tasks
and receive a credit at the end of a year or aterm. A competition
day should be set. When desirable the public may be invited.

Relatively more credit should be given a lower grade pupil for
success in one of these accomplishments, such as milking a cow prop-
erly or driving a pair of horses. If learning to milk is rated the same
as one week’s work in any subject for a seventh grade pupil, it may
be wise to give twice that credit to a fifth grade pupil for the same
work. (Age is perhaps a better basis than grade.)

45785°—Bull. 385—16——2

10 BULLETIN 385, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Skilled workman credits. Agriculture.
Namie ‘oivpupil . . eee os i. a ct Mo Rae ue a
Wate olspirth. ... AaB. oo. Js Se Mocs see eae eG le Se
esidemee:...... SMe ss tap) oa Bess Elome equipment: 2 = see eee eee

Credit and rank only after reasonable practice and skill accepted by judge.

‘ Judge
: Began Home Date .
Practicum. practice. | practice. | of test. Rank. | Age. | Grade. | Credit. on

Sanitanyamilking:. ...... yeteee a ci1| Pe et See See SN eRe Ee. eee Le eee oo sachs Geel acto etal e steeleieinis
Jgyblaumutake Se) OP MERO Regge o> 3 odd oaedl bases see oa|lyss5556050)(5>55cqsqlsouedneal|>soceens||>as0qecq|23590505|2so0n 555
Anes HtiNS Sol COMMS Soe eens= soaseedfoassccesanlosssoSesce|s5925¢03]saseqeae|=s295gna|ecaoeced|sezosac|sse0n726
TENA? NAL a Oe Nees Ss SG ee seg AR el a TE i IS | me | oN ae i ae Poo ike ee ose
Binttoriattesting:... = . ee seca lee RO. ASR See eS ears oa | eek reroll ever erete [et Oaths eae
MransplamcinerCOMaAtOeSMere ere e)-ceiie ec ee ese eae eee (ica 6 5 opal eye eias oc ee tetas | grerees ce seta cesta leh
Moniiarm KNOG... .:.'-\ eee emaston| as sacl sachs oss. . ta oo eee (eer oy Salcrine « sl selee eee) sapere «steer ey
ANGIOL OIC 6 CECB SEEOE E55 4K545 Mesesecsuclagsececses|ce- soho] |Hsameeee | SHaBauosSesgososlssoncouelocoousag

Extend this list as local conditions may warrant.

Give to each practicum the number of credits which fairly represent
the number of prepared recitation periods needed to accomplish the
skillful performance. Bear in mind the time used on arithmetic or
other subjects in acquiring skill.

At the end of a term or a year, add all the credits and average the
rank for the practical work. ‘This rank should then average with
other school subjects, bearing such weight as the ratio of these credit
hours bears to the total number of hours for a subject which occurs
each school day. If this sum of credits were 45 and the school year
is 36 peas or 180 days, then the practical work would be the equiva-
lent of 345; or one-fourth of a full five-period course, and the rank
should affect the general average with that weight.

If the pupil is studying agriculture, the rank on the practice should
affect the rank in that subject first. In lower grades it is often
simpler to apply this credit as though it were a separate subject
rather than applying it to correlated subjects.

A blank to be filled and signed by the parent might be in some
such form as the following:

Credit for skill in agriculture gained by home practice.

> tees mee iges 5) epi School.
igherebys certify thameyes it 00) | AN ee es continued home practice in
(Name. )
PSS ck SS ea OS beginmimeyeeescs 2%: AR ee 2k eee kee ey ondsen de
(Process.) (Date.)
Tee 3 Bis id er RS Oc 6 ict Sree and has spent at this work not less than........-.
(Date.)

hours.

I consider that he is now skillful in the accomplishment of this process.

Sige ee AARNE ees cn Bn eh Fe Pie aan (fae
Relationship aes oe fe a de Soe Be eae aoe

Coumtersieniedis:,. .:. WB. oS) ee , Leacher.

Sm 2)" A Sete , Referee.
Credits 08 o.0)) ae Ria > [eee JRereorue Saale ayy ead 8
(Speed, etc.) -

CREDIT FOR HOME PRACTICE IN AGRICULTURE. 11

The chief problem is to provide such records and such tests or exam-
inations that the credit may not become perfunctory, thus making
the plan a farce.

These practicums should no more be a “‘snap”’ for securing school
credit easily than should other school work; neither should school
credit replace other motives, such as filial respect, willingness to aid
others, or loyalty to home and school.

To illustrate concretely how to give credit for practicums, con-
sider that a pupil during the winter term of 12 weeks learns to run a
separator and also to test seed corn. Suppose that the separator
practicum is considered the equivalent of 5 recitations and the seed
testing as 10 recitations and that a rank of 100 is given for the first
and 85 for the second. The rank for seed testing counts as two-thirds
of the total rank for practicums; hence

Seed testing=2x 85= 170
Separator =1x<100= 100

Total to be divided by 3.. 270
Average rank for practicums, 90 per cent.

If the pupil is studying agriculture and has 45 recitations during
the term with a rank of 80, the rank for the practicums would average
45+15=60 total periods.

Recitation rank 80X%3= 240 or 43
Practicum rank 90X1= 90 or 42

Total to divide by 4.. 330
Average rank in agriculture=82.5.

In the absence of agriculture as a course, average as follows:

Recitation periods in term 240+15=255.
Practicums equal 4%, or +, of credit.
Recitation work counts +$ or average rank.

All the exercises recognized should be adapted to local conditions.
The school officials and competent farmers should be asked to check
up the list and settle upon the credits due for each. Record of prac-
tice should be submitted.

SAMPLES OF BRIEF EXERCISES.

Hoeing corn, practice until skill is acquired and a test on 50 hills for a rank.

Hoeing potatoes, similar to corn.

Transplanting tomatoes or other plants, the test to be the doing of the work under
observation.

Turning crank of milk tester within five revolutions per minute of the required
number without a watch. Three consecutive trials.

Running the milk separator.

Milking a cow skillfully and in an approved sanitary way.

Putting light harness on a horse and hitching to a buggy without assistance.

Putting heavy harness on a team and hitching to wagon.

Driving from the seat and turning around where backing is necessary.

12 BULLETIN 385, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Driving a pair of work horses hitched to some farm vehicle or machine.
Driving four horses.

Doing various farm chores.

Feeding a dairy herd according to an established ration.

Tying skillfully 10 farm knots.

Stringing seed corn.

Husking 50 ears of corn in a specified time.

Weeding out garden rows sown in drills without disturbing plants unnecessarily.
Testing hens’ eggs for market or during incubation.

Preparing Bordeaux mixture or other spray material.

Learning to sharpen a saw, an ax, shears, or mower knives.

Shocking grain; stacking hay or bundles of grain.

Properly tying a well-filled bag of grain or potatoes.

Properly sewing sacks of onions or other produce.

Cleaning cows or grooming horses.

Cleaning stables.

SAMPLES OF LONGER PRACTICUMS.

This group requires more planning and calls for some conclusions
or computations. A reasonable time should be granted, after which
the pupil should be required to demonstrate his ability to do the work
and to make the proper interpretations of the result.

Testing milk and computing butter fat.
Testing seed corn.

Scoring and grading seed corn and other grains.
Running an incubator.

Sorting, grading and packing fruit.

Planting shade or fruit trees.

Keeping farm accounts from home data
Running mower or other farm machine.
Plowing and harrowing.

Running the corn planter.

Home mixing of fertilizer.

Making a chicken house.

Using tools to construct or repair pens, houses, etc.
Repairing machines or harness.

Setting a shoe on a horse.

Removing a calf{’s horns.

Shearing sheep.

Pruning or spraying apple trees.

Running a corn binder.

Breaking a colt.

In these practicums the practice may be discontinued at about
the time that the pupil has gained enough skill to make the work
profitable.

Further practice will be vocationally desirable but from the school
point of view credit should cease except as this practice figures in a
project along the same lines, which will occur frequently.

CREDIT FOR HOME PRACTICE IN AGRICULTURE. 13

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION BASIS OF CREDIT.

The following questions arise wherever school authorities may
consider this matter:

1. What is the status of agriculture in the rural school law of the
State? Prescribed, permitted, or ignored ?

2. What bearmg have the statutes of the State on prescribing
home work or study ?

3. What is the attitude of the community in question on these
subjects and how far will the local officials support the teacher and
superintendent in progressive movements ?

4. Is the present home work of the pupils sufficient and may the
school work be correlated with it? Or will there be an advantage to
the homes as well as the school if credit is given for organized and
supervised school work, and will the parents welcome this plan ?

5. May it be advisable to assign definite numerical credits for each
subject in the grades as is usually done in the high school? What
complications would be added if home work in certain lines were
given a similar credit? Would such credit be of any real value unless
its possession would assist in gaining promotion or graduation ?

So far as possible the superintendent of schools (with the local
school committee, if they are interested) should agree upon the basis
of school credit for home work in agriculture, leaving to the teacher
only the individual application and ranking. These officials should
first appreciate why school credit is to be given and should decide
upon the amount of home work to be recognized, its character, its
ratio to school work and the general method of applyimg the credit.
The assignment of values to various projects will be necessarily based
on farm management studies. Some suggestions along this line
follow this section.

Why give school credit?—Without practice at home or elsewhere the
textbook course in agriculture would appear to have but little value.
In the secondary schools it is customary to require in all branches
so much work of the pupils that some of it must be done at home. In
some elementary schools a similar requirement is made but this will
not be tolerated in some sections as prescribed work.

Wherever such a requirement is common it would seem desirable
that the pupil should take home for study or practice such subjects
as may arouse home interest and cooperation and detract as little as
possible from the family life. Required study of agriculture and
home economics, rural-survey work, and correlations of such work
with other branches would seem to meet these demands. Home
practice in the garden or with the flock would seem even better than
home study.

In such cases the school should require home projects in connection
with the school course in agriculture and give a rank on the practical

14 BULLETIN 385, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

work as well as on the study. Such a rank might average with the
recitation rank on the basis of from one-fourth to one-half, according
to circumstances as previously explained.

In communities where no home study may be demanded it is
probable that most parents would encourage home project work so
closely allied to family interests. In this case the required course in
agriculture might, if required, be given additional weight for such
home work. If five credits are given for the recitation course then
seven or more might be allowed when the project work is completed
in a satisfactory way. This method dignifies such work and gives
it the rating of real school work.

What kind of credit?—In the secondary schools each subject has
assigned a numerical value based upon the amount of work or the
number of hours of recitation each week. A minimum requirement
is made of the total hours of work necessary for promotion or gradu-
ation, and a pupil who elects to pursue a given subject knows how
much it counts toward this mmimum.

In the administration of rural schools it is unusual to find such an
arrangement of credits with a minimum for promotion, so there is
no obvious advantage to the boy who gets extra credits, so far as
school advancement is concerned.

Any scheme of holidays, prizes, or other perquisites is evidently not
school credit in the sense in which we deal with arithmetic and
language. Hither the rank given for home work must be applied
to the correlated study in school or the units of credit given for
home work must be based on units of credit in academic subjects
and so arranged that these credits advance him toward a school
goal,

Where the home project is a required part of the study of agri-
culture this is of less importance, since the rank in agriculture in-
cludes the practical work. Whenever this may be optional, there is
an obvious advantage in giving credit that means something in
terms of school work.

The school authorities may find it desirable to assign numerical
values to all school subjects and place home projects in the list.
It is possible to fix a minimum for promotion and to promote by
subjects rather than by grades in the rural school.

In some cases other methods have been used, but the relation to
academic credit is not as clear. Among these might be mentioned
the following: (1) Holidays given for a given number of credits;
(2) promotion at a lower grade; (3) automatic and arbitrary raising
--of lower grades without reference to their relation to the project;
(4) honors or “‘cum laude’’ promotions, and (5) prizes and other
rewards. Since these credits bear little relation to the work done,

CREDIT FOR HOME PRACTICE IN AGRICULTURE. 15

such methods should be adopted only with caution and when it is
impracticable to give real academic credit.

What ratio. for practice?—School courses which have included
laboratory work are often arranged for three recitation days and
two laboratory days in each week. On the laboratory days two or
more recitation periods are considered the equivalent of one pre-
pared recitation, and the ratio of recitation to laboratory is then
computed as 3 to 2. The school officials or whoever lays out the
course should first decide on what this ratio shall be. The next
pomt is as to how many hours of home work, not constantly under
supervision, is the equivalent of one prepared recitation. Possibly
an hour’s work in the field is not the equivalent of an hour in the
laboratory where the work is under the direction of a teacher. Since
the class period in the grades is less than an hour, it may be fair
to consider two hours of home work the equivalent of one prepared
recitation period.

How much credit’—According to the plan mentioned, 72 boy-hours
of work during the year will be necessary for each credit to be granted
not to exceed five credits. Farm management studies and the analy-
sis of farm records have given certain averages which may be taken
as a guide under average conditions and may be modified to meet
exceptional conditions. Such modifications should be made by a
committee which might include, besides the teacher, the local superi-
tendent of schools, the county agent, and one or more representative
farmers.

It is obviously an advantage to avoid disagreement at the end
of the project by settling at the outset how much credit wiil be granted
for a given amount of work. If the amount of labor usually re-
required for a given work is known or can be estimated in “‘man-
hours,” then a decision that a prepared recitation is the equivalent
of two man-hours (or more or less) will fix the credit value of the
project.

On the basis of a year of 36 weeks, 5 recitations a week or 180 per
year would be the equivalent of 360 man-hours per year in home
project work. This ratio needs revision whenever the discrepancy
between ‘‘man-hours’’ and “boy-hours”’ of labor becomes large. In
some types of work a boy is capable of greater progress than is a
man, while in other work the boy would make relatively slow prog-
ress. The boy should not be encouraged to do too heavy work on
his project, and where there are several new processes to be learned
it may be wise to count the boy’s time at full value. Future records
of boys’ labor on these different home projects will enable teachers
and superintendents to rate these projects more accurately, but very
many records will be needed in view of the diversity of boys’ work.

16 BULLETIN 3885, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A method less frequently used which appears quite practical is as
follows: During the last two years of the elementary grades a pupil
may obtain credits for home work which may equal not more than one
5-hour course of prepared school work. This divided between the
two grades would make 24 hours per week of academic credit, or on
the basis of our previous discussion, 5 hours or more of home work
per week for two school years. If this is not required, it should at
least be elective, with some weight as an alternative. Such a method
would equal approximately the amount of credit given when two
days of practical work were credited each week under other methods.

In the secondary school, where there is usually an established
system of credits, the application of these principles should be a
simple matter, especially where the home project is a required part
of the course in agriculture.

Whenever it is practicable, the supermtendent should provide the
teachers with lists of projects which may be used in the district and
the usual labor ranges reduced to a basis of schoolboys’ work. Such
a form as the following might be used based on local records:

Home projects for the .....- School. Grades 7 and 8.
- Maximum | Minimum B
Project. Unit qime! an Desirable range.
GrowanelConneeecea-.-- - eee eeeee == acre o-= 86 hours_-..} 70 hours.-.]} {acre to 1 acre.
Care of laying hens..........-.-.-- 3455 SS aee 25 hens; 1 | 140 hours..} 100 hours_.| 6 to 50 hens; 6 months
: year. to 1 year.

Extend the list to cover all ordinary projects.

Whenever credit is given for home practicums a similar guide
should be prepared for the teacher.

Home practicums for the ....-- School. Grades 5 to 7.
: Equivalent
Practicum. Mirimum practice, to recita- Required test.
tions.
Running separator....-......202-------- 3 consecutive weeks.-.-....----- 5 | 3times; speed with-
z in 5 revolutions.
POE 9 COLNE eee - ee eee A acre <2 Hea ences oe 6 | 50 hills observed.
FReSLINe Seed COM na. :-.... ceeeeee eee oe 2 separate tests. 50 ears. 10 | Demonstration to
Records. teacher.

Supervision of projects.—In the estimation of many educators, the
success of the whole project and credit plan depends on supervision,
especially during the vacation months. The frequent visits of an
inspector who will check up the work done and advise on the im-
pending needs stimulate the pupil during those weeks when neglect
is most probable. Usually pupils beg with much enthusiasm but
have too little persistency to stick to a monotonous task alone

CREDIT FOR HOME PRACTICE IN AGRICULTURE. 17)

without some encouragement. Furthermore, the problems which
arise during the vacation weeks are often critical and the pupil needs
help.

Among the different methods of providing this supervision a few
arenamed. In each case the supervisor must be capable and willing.
Perfunctory supervision soon fails to accomplish the desired end.

1. High-school instructor of agriculture employed during the
summer months to supervise all projects.

2. A local committee cooperating with the county agent, the latter
to advise regularly and visit projects at least once during the summer.

3. A committee of the ‘“parent-teachers association.” With
changing teachers this is valuable.

4, The local club leader cooperating with the extension service of
the State agricultural college, with or without a local committee.

5. Local experts in plant or animal production might well be paid
for a few such rounds of visits.

6. Resident teachers sometimes qualify as supervisors.

FARM MANAGEMENT BASIS OF SCHOOL CREDIT.

If the exact amount of labor for growmg each crop and the ratio
between projects could be definitely stated, this problem would be
greatly simplified. It happens, however, that variations in the labor
required for any project due to factors not entirely within control
would not allow the use of averages in all cases. A study of the
tables appended to this study (see pp. 21 to 27) will show that
the labor on any given project varies much in different localities and
under different conditions.

In Table 1, page 21, are shown the number of man-hours and
horse-hours of labor in certain farm activities in a few States. It is
evident that the averages often fail to apply to any one State. These
figures, which are taken from unfinished studies in the Office of Farm
Management, are to be weighed by further records but are sufficient
for all purposes of this bulletin.

The succeeding tables show the variations in Jabor requirements
and tend to prove that it is difficult to apply any average figures
even for one State. They also suggest some of the factors that may
vary the labor requirements of any project in a given community.
The available studies are more detailed for some crops than for others
and there is less information which will apply to animal projects.

The following method is suggested for any district in which there
are no records to use as a basis for credit. From the figures quoted
in the tables select those which apparently apply most nearly to the
given locality. Determine upon a range of variation which will be
allowed in giving the credit and ask the pupils to keep accurate rec-
ords for the labor on their projects. It would be desirable also for

18 BULLETIN 385, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the pupils to keep labor records on different crops on their parents’
farms, these to be used in arithmetic class problems and then com-
piled for the purpose of fixing a local basis for giving credit.

Factors causing variations.—Aside from the question of proper
management and steady work there are several factors which very
evidently affect the labor requirements of any project. In Tables
2, 3, and 4, adapted from Bulletin 266 of the Ohio Experiment Sta-
tion, it is shown that the harvesting method, the size of the field,
and the shape of the field each influences the labor requirements,
Without doubt a small field will usually be used by the pupil.

In case any insect pest or disease comes upon the crop, the expe-
rience of fighting these doubtless has an educational value and de-
serves credit even if the extra labor diminishes the profit. This is
quite different from extra labor due to poor methods or mismanage-
ment.

It is also true that the character of the soil, the slope of the land,
and local climatic variations will all influence the labor requirement
and if some competent referee considers the records in view of ees
factors he may properly rate each project.

Labor in garden projects—Because of the great variation in the
crops raised in a garden and the local factors involved, only a few
general suggestions may be given.

Family gardens of from one-twelfth to one-eighth acre would appear
suited to pupils of the upper grades. This estimate will not fit all
cases. Gardens comprising largely such crops as corn and potatoes
demand relatively less time. Gardens having a large variety of
vegetables, so planted as to need intensive cultivation, take more
time and provide more education in the single project. The use of
cold frames or a hotbed, growing succession crops, and either market-
ing or canning the surplus vegetables deserves added credit. After
such projects have been carried out and itemized, if records are filed,
the teacher and his advisers will be able to estimate in advance for
future cases. The main issue is to map out a reasonable amount of
work in view of the course and the credit given, and then require
excellence in the work. Good practice and fair crops are as much an
evidence of what the pupil has learned about gardening as any text-
book recitations and examinations could be. Where one crop is
raised, as tomatoes for canning, less experience may be gained in the
season’s work. If the pupil does the canning, however, this phase of
the work deserves credit.

Where an animal project, particular:y poultry, is carried at the
same time, the results are better from an educational point of view
than where a larger crop project is carried alone. Garden waste, as
green food for the hens and hen manure for the garden, are examples

CREDIT FOR HOME PRACTICE IN AGRICULTURE. 19

of the interlocking of two projects. Furthermore, they will illustrate
more fully the school lessons in agriculture.

Small-fruit projects could rarely be considered complete in one
season and the practice is quite different the second season. In some
localities it might be wise to take up such a project with a two years’
plan mapped out. Such a fruit garden would be from one-fourth to
one-tenth acre, depending on the crop. (See Tables 10 and 18.)

PROJECTS WITH ANIMALS.

Nearly all the statistics available concerning labor in the care of
animals refer to conditions quite unlike those existing in most project
work. These figures have some value, however, as a starting point.

Poultry —tThe table of labor requirements on page 21 gives 226.6
man-hours and 19 horse-hours required for 100 hens in New York or
128.5 man-hours and 16 horse-hours on an average of all studies. It
may be evident that this ratio of 1.28 hours labor per hen would not
hold for small flocks. It is more probable that with ordinary facili-
ties it might take the boy as many hours to care for a flock of a dozen
or 25 hens as the poultry man needs for 100.

A boy reported on his poultry project with 12 hens as taking one-
fourth hour of work each day and three-fourths hour once each week
for mixing feed, cleaning, and other extra work. This would amount
to 130 boy-hours per year, not allowing for building, repairs, incuba-
tion, or care of chicks.

The work done by the pupil in caring for a small flock of poultry
may bring educational returns commensurate with time spent up to
a certain degree. Time spent in weighing feed, trap nesting, and
making detailed records is worthy of credit and until enough local
records have been compiled it may be wise to depend on the boy’s
corrected time sheet. Inspection of his work should help to make
this record dependable. He should be advised not to charge the time
spent in petting the animals or other ways which are not to be counted
as productive labor.

Other animals.—Projects with other animals will vary much. The
work which is repeated daily, like all farm chores, is educational for a
while or until proficiency is attained. Ability to continue at the same
task in a monotonous way until an end has been gained is a desirable
farm habit. On the other hand, it is better to introduce feeding
records, production tests, and other problems and to have the projects
so laid out as to include a variety of experiences. Some of the pro-
cesses may bestandardized. As anexample, let a boy feed, milk, and
otherwise care for two cows for the winter season. Have him weigh
the milk each day and twice each month test the milk for butter fat.

In a New Hampshire study it was found that a man would average
to milk properly about seven cows in an hour, weighing and recording

AO) BULLETIN 385, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the milk. The handling of the milk and cleaning utensils twice a day
was figured at one hour a day for a small herd, while the care of the
cow, feeding, preparing feed, cleaning cow and barn averaged about
20 minutes each day per cow.

If the cost accounts, labor, milk records, and butter fat computa-
tions are used in school problems, there would seem to be reason to
give full credit for the time spent even in routine work. It would
obviously not be desirable to give the same credit for a second season

on such a project.
SUMMARY.

1. The home farm may be the logical laboratory for practical work
connected with rural school agriculture. Home work carried on for
this purpose may properly be given school credit just as home study
of arithmetic gains credit.

2. The relative importance of a project from the school point of
view depends upon its relation to school study; the amount of edu-
cation involved; the improvement of the pupil in skill, method, or
knowledge; the results or relative success measured partly by crops
or profits; and the reports, essays, exhibits, and other evidence given
at school.

3. The weight given should recognize, besides the educational fac-
tors, the period covered by the project; the hours of labor involved
and the relative difficulty; the evidence of good management; the
emergencies met and pests combated; and the success of adults in
the same line of work during the same season.

4. The rank should depend on evidences of honest endeavor and
thoughtful application of instructions.

5. Both weight and rank should be based upon the usual methods
of ranking ual crediting school subjects. Manual practice should
not receive too much or too little relative recognition.

6. Until local records are compiled and analyzed from boys’ and
girls’ projects, it will be best to use the most available records of man
labor, modified as to relative difficulty, number of new operations
involved, and other factors. These estimates may be gradually
modified as experience is gained. The educational feature should
always be kept in mind.

SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES OF LABOR REQUIREMENTS.

The following tables are selected with a view to assisting the school officials and
In the first place, they tend to verify the statement that

teachers in three ways.

uniform records are not obtainable and that this problem is more or less local.
also hoped that they give evidence of some of the factors which need consideration.
Finally, it is probable that the selection and adoption of units and ratios from these
tables may prove a good starting point in any community, these figures to be modified
as local records are compiled.

TaBLe 1.—Labor requirements for different crops.

It is

[Average number of hours by sections, and the average of all the sections; also man and horse labor rates.]!

Corn (grain), per acre

Tilinois
average.

New

York

average.

Man. |} Horse. | Man.

Silage, per acre.-.-.-].....-.-|....----
Potatoes, DOWACKO Rss Paean of secs sere

Alfalfa (harvesting) -
peuple (bearing), per

esis per ton.....
Oats, per acre.....-.
Wheat eines per

per acre......-----
Wheat (complete),

DEE ACTOME setae

Beef cattle, per ani-
mal unit
Sheep, per animal

Pears (bearing), per
acre

Timothy hay, per
ac

Clover hay, per acre.
Mixed hay, per acre.
Labor rate, per hour -

1 Adapted from unfinished studies of the Office of Farm Management, U.S. Ue of Agriculture.

2 North Carolina.

20.6| 45.2
14.0 | 15.0
79.1] 9.0
126.2] 16.8
ie8}|. 355
11.4] 21.9
W0\|-» 2teg
140] 17.2
“$0. 164 | $0. 105,

Hae

(3 cutti

118.7
153.4

19.7
10.6
9.9

$0. 155

Horse.

°
a

Pennsylvania
average.
Man. | Horse.
67.6 42.5
58.3 50.9
122.9 95. 8
34.4 19.6
15155) || See
175. 8 17.5
12.1 | oNe)
12.3 27.7
25.1 23. 4

2 $0. 091

Total
average

Man. | Horse.
47.8 51.9
43.9 57.1
87.6 85. 6
20. 6 22.1
162.3 53. 4
101.8 7.1
142.0 12.3
128.5 16.0
1.5) 2.4
15.7 PAST!
9.0 22.6
12.3 11.5
20.9 31.0
27.7 15.5
33.9 6.7
90.5 33.8
116.7 45.1
10. 2 9.1
8.7 9.2
12.3 12.2
9.1
$0. 129

9.6
280, 072 | $0. 154

21

22

BULLETIN 385, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

An illustration of these variations and the factors involved is given in a study of the
labor cost in producing corn in the State of Ohio.!

TaBLE 2.— Variation in labor cost of producing corn in Ohio.

Man-hours of labor per
acre.

Methods used or factors
involved.
Maxi- | Mini-
mum. | mum.

Harvesting method:
1. Grain harvested .
2. Hogged off....--
Si SHEEOs 2 a See

97. 60

Southwesteer-----2/seeeeece |= 2 cisie=
Size of fields:
1. Less than 24

ee eee er

Average.

1 Note the relatively large amount of labor on the fields of less than 23 acres.

still greater on fields of 1 acre or less.
2 Rectangular.
3 Irregular.

Man-hours of labor per
acre.
Methods used or factors
involved.
Maxi- | Mini-

mum. | mum. Average.

Size of fields—Con.

3. From 5 to 10
BCLS) 25 cee «ace eelsetedas 62. 03
4. From 10 to 15
ae@nesis 2 RARE ce Saelee eee 56. 63
5. From 15 to 20
acres (2 SE Set ee 50. 76
6. From 20 to 25
ACTOS o.0.c/c ee oo saissalememnene 36. 20
Shape of field:
_ 1. Less than 24%
acres... .t-2252 2 83.58 | 3 87.47 84.79
2. 20 to 25 acres... .| 222.91 | 342.48 36. 20

This difference would be

TaBLE 3.—Average amount of labor for different parts of the work on corn in Ohio.

[Adapted from Ohio Station Bulletin 266.]

Groups of items. aes ae
Preparation of seed

Coes 45 4aee eee .92 | 20.58
lan pings peeeees =.= - 1.78 2.02
Cultivating.......... 9.89 | 13.16
Harvesting.......... 20.98 | 12.40

Approxi-
mate per
cent of total
labor cost.

re Approxi-
. an- | Horse-} mate per
Groups of items. | yours. | hours. |cent of total
labor cost.
Mertilizine: s¢ 3. sh seetlse donc alas eee il
Overheadilabor eee siesee eee |noeeeeee 4
Carejof'seed 2b: .) 25548)|....0. 5|Seeen eee 1
Miscellaneous........|........|-------- 1

The more detailed analysis indicates the relative value to be credited for various

operations.

Where an operation like harrowing or cultivation is repeated the num-

ber of man-hours would be increased accordingly. The following table covers nearly

all combinations:

1 Adapted from Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station Bul. 266 (1913).

CREDIT FOR HOME PRACTICE IN AGRICULTURE. 23

TasBLe 4.—Labor requirements for corn per acre once over in Ohio.
[Adapted from Ohio Station Bulletin 266.]

Hours per acre. Hours per acre.
Operation. Operation. a ae
Man. Horse. f[ Man. Horse.
Manure 11.79 17.65 || Cultivating—Continued.
Care of seed -81 - 08 Cultivating, 2 horses. --...- 1.68 3. 36
Preparation of seed bed: HFIOSIN ere R cccciee ces scce T2AI3 ale eee ease
NOWANSSa@ ss enceeetete~ 5. 44 13.16 || Harvesting:
Harrowing (spike).-.....-. .99 2.68 Cutting by hand...-....... 9::068| 2254252228
DISK oe oot eet oe 1.02 2. 96 Cutting by machine. ....- 2. 53 3. 86
Blame sae ee eee 5 se 93 2.51 Cutting silage corn by
ER OUI OMe a sees ncia ==: - 76 1.61 IMACHINGe ees see's) oe 2. 59 5. 00
Planting: Shockam ee eer sacs sete adr aa
Marking out, 1 horse...... 1.58 1.58 Picking up ear corn after
Marking out, 2 horses.-... -76 - 1.52 indenseecerwsiss 6 2s 5223 1. 61 2. 23
Planting by hand.....-..- 2). 813) BERae eee Milling sWowes eo ss... cop 23. 23 19. 50
Ibjai line Sh ee 1.50 1. 82 Husking by hand....-... JAAN STILE es
Planting, 2 horses.......- -93 1.86 Eamlin gone e225. a8 3.90 6.45
Replantin geo ee see es iL 2535 BEA Reise Hauling fodder?.......... 2.45 3.34
Replanting part area... .. TE ly 6 eee se Snapping, jerking, and
Cultivating: husking from stalk. .... 10.77 13. 80
Harrowing after planting. eal 1. 64 Husking and shredding... 12.73 12. 02
Rolling after planting..... -70 1.40 Shreddinawt sso 28 4.95 4.33
Using weeder.........-.- 74 .74 Hauling shock corn..-.-_-.- 7.15 9. 05

1 Includes the time for cutting the corn in the field. 2 After corn has been husked from shock in field.

The following data were obtained in a southern area studied by the Office of Farm
Management of the U. S. Department of Agriculture:

TABLE 5.—Labor on corn, Coastal Plain, central Georgia.

(77 records, average yield 24.5 bushels per acre.]

: Man- Mule- : y
Operation. fia. || Eames Operation. gee. | tame
Cut stalks, plow and harrow-. 7.5 9) 4a | Ef aIayeS Gin bee io scissor aa 7.0 3h i)
Lay off, bed, ete-.....-.---.- 2.5 3.6 oes
Plant, fertilize, cultivate... ..- 13.1 13.7 Noy eal > aoe sere et 40. 4 30.2
Pull fodder (295 pounds per
GEN) -SeseeseSsarorceseosese HORSE see vee Sate

1 Note the relatively small amount of mule labor.

These conditions are average rather than ideal, as the yield of 24.5 bushels testifies,
but it is not evident to what extent the figures would be modified by improved prac-
tice. Factors which are found in intermediate States are illustrated in the following
list of operations. Not all of the operations were used on any one field.

TABLE 6.—Labor on corn, Warren County, Ky.

- Man- Horse- A Man- Horse-

ene hours. | hours. Operation. hours.’ | hours
WManriringtie esp os... 10.0 2050))|| Ebi eee eee es = eee PAV ac useeeee
BTedkineteee se ess fe seo. 4.0 12.0 || Cultivating, 44 times........- 6.0 12.0
We DreaIN Pepe fsen oe sehen 4.0 12.0 || Cutting and shocking..-....-.. OOo debe Be
Disking, bwice-----.-..-..--.. 2.6 10%45 || PPulltnplearsseeee= seas =. eee nf heal ee esos
Harrowing, twice.......-.---- 2.2 Ay at |\’Cribpintce en eeen een! 2 aaa 2.0 2.0
IDR a. 555 heen oe eee ae 1.1 2.2 || Hauling fodder 34.63 6.6
Rolling and laying off......... 1.4 1.4 || Shredding “ 13.4 155
‘LAST ETT iy = J peepee ag a ana si 1545/5 SLO see ne ene SS s/s) Ee 20.0 23.0

IATEOWANC So cee e ee ee 2.2 4.9 r
TABLE 7.—Labor on eight farms in Arkansas.

Man- Horse-

Crop. hours. hours.
2 OTL oo ee ae oc =o Sec ieee = = ooo se ee ISS Ho/N 8 } 41.75 44. 28
CCT OM 5 se Se eet BER Re Cem e rors oe SS aoe Ree So coca ete eee | 69. 40 36. 50

DW ECEOLALOCS ss urse ee Sess tik) - A MMMaMR ES cee 3 22) eS a ES Seren os. ek } 104.30 64. 30

24 BULLETIN 3885, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE 8.—Labor on cotton, Coastal Plain region, Georgia.

[85 records, average yield 0.63 bale per acre.)

: : fule- | : :
Operation. Seis, |) ferns, Operation. feel aes

Cut stalks, plow, harrow...... 8.3 17.6 || Haul to gin (average haul 2.5

Lay off bed, ObC... - -- eee 4.2 4.8 miles), 225 bales per day...- 2.8 5.6
Plant, for rtilize, and cultivate... 18.1 18.8 Marketing Mint: . .ceeeee a] 226 1.9 3.8
Chop andshoae:. .... ees TBH eae Se
Picking (average 150 pounds Motels: 2. .2 ieee. = =n'2e 111.8 50.6

perday) cee... -.-. Sees G3204/22eS Bese 4

The number of man-hours may be reduced by using more mules and the yield may
be increased by better practice. The increased yield would require more picking
and possibly leave the total man-hours much the same. Pupils’ records on cotton
projects should prove helpful.

Man-hours of labor on potato crop.—A few districts selected from those covered by
farm management studies will demonstrate the variations in the amount of labor
required to raise an acre of potatoes in different parts of the country. A large number
of farms were averaged in each section and in each case there was much variation
even in the same county. These statistics are based on areas large enough to lead us
to expect efficient use of labor. The number of horses used may account for some
variations, soil conditions and methods for others. In some cases the picking up
was done by contract labor but this is not averaged in with the other fields. Where
contract labor is used the figures would be of little value for school estimates.

The following districts were selected as showing enough variation and 2 sufficient
number of farms to be representative: Districts—1, Aroostook County, Me.;2, Steuben
and Schuyler Counties, N. Y.; 3, Waushare, Portage, and Waupaca Counties, Wis.;
4, Clay County, Minn.; 5, Monmouth County, N. J. (cover crop); 6, Charleston County,
S. C.; 7, St. Johns County, Fla.; 8 Montrose County, Colo. (irrigated). The labor
variations in these districts were as follows:

TABLE 9.— Variations in amount of labor required for different operations in raising
an acre of potatoes.

Man-hours per acre by districts.

Processes.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Cieaminng 1biaG | aes sebephesoso sé o5csaad bosegoce|sesces-cclbsesecsq|>-c5ees6 1.5 2.9 350 lsaseeeas
Plowing eso eee... . / Te 5.3 5.3 3.6 2.6 3.2 5.4 4.2 5.2
Preparing seed hed: .. . .< teecacease- 5.3 7.4 2.1 1.0 3.7 4.7 6.6 1.5
Haulineviertilizer=...-2coseesscee eee 3.4 (Ws hesaicces| SSSEEeer 1.8 4.0 G20) |=seeeeee
Preparation of seed ....- 6.6 4.3 sh 74 3.7 6525/2235 7.0 4.3
eAipplyane fentilizen= ./- SSeaeeeree eee es|oacan sl 11500) |} 8 68a hs acaserlloccesce= 2.0 PAY I eaceeasc
Planting, machine..... 2.9 CAN 2 oe 1.6 DAG Ei coeees 3.7
iPlantine Shands. 52. seseeemescee scl since B55) OFZ Ese so cc]| Mabees es 6.7 AOFO}|Seeenons z
Harrowing, after planting............}.--.--.- 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.4 1.4 1.0 6.
Cultivating =o... Soe ee nee i835 7/ 17.3 9.8 6.8 14.2 26.0 10.9 10.2
Spraying, machine................... 3.6. |aseecber 1.6 8 1.0 3.2 2.2 1.0
SDrAYADE, hand's... .. SSE s.r [pee ee acs ccacleeeee ee. 4. AS Se aic al semen eee

Digging, machine.........-...-.----- 4.3 2.5 2.3 1.9 2.6 BUD al Bases 2.2
IDYfate (oy BIG eo ose esooccc scosSsece| poseaaae 1 | be eodded SSRAmese oe sease 18.7 PoE aes
Bickine.up;by-hand .....-gesgeseee eee 16.4 13.5 Le eS eee 20.0 Abas DAD eee soue
Hauling and marketing.............- 12.4 15.0 18.0 17.8 8.3 6.4 8.8 21.9
Irrigatings: 2225... 5 ee es te Se | ee a es ee a oe eas seen ce 5.5

Contract labor not included above.

Total labor, maximum, 125 hours; minimum, 29 Home!

Average for Aroostook County, Me. , 67.5 hours.

Variations in Minnesota district, 29 to 80 hours.

Variations in Wisconsin district, 36 to 109 hours.

Other potato data will be found in the body of the text on page 4.

CREDIT FOR HOME PRACTICE IN AGRICULTURE. 25

Tasie 10.—Labor required per acre for strawberries, Bowling Green, Ky.1

2 Man- Horse- Man- Horse-

First year. hours hours Second year. hours. hours.
MANN Osseo nese asec einen 5 20.0 40: [| MGleh eats seu eeceaee ed 22 10.0 10
(Preakane Sees 2 = eer 2-2 - 4.0 1122; || SBIGke eRe eerste sed saraco sis 5 320:0t) . semen
Rebreaking...---------------- 4.0 11.2 || Pack andograde:-...-=-.-.-..- 32:0: Beee as eee
TD Siete eS eee 2.5 TID) | SNe DORESI-2 heehee = oe 16; Ose eBee
Harrowing twice. --..---....-- 2.0 6:03|| Hanlin gees sesso a ae eee 17.0 35
Lay off twice.-...-.-.-----.-- 2.0 6.0 |! Bar off { 3.3 33
TLE ae... cso co pce ceeeseee ae 3) icoeeesas = atles seco pa pei i & se

. Be) 49. TOSS MAMEOW Er aoe <n 2 = one “

Cultivate 10-20............... i 24.0 ASE Ol ete eae 50.0 50
TG. cohaaeee TOON eee BUEN Gi acece sho Sa2p Shee ag ee: 25.0 50
| Haulineeeereeenas === s-- 22s A Qiiecoesetee

1 Two and three horse teams were used except in some of the cultivating.

Since the picking and marketing is so large a part of the labor and must vary with
the crop, totals would be of comparatively little value here. These items will serve
as a guide in inspecting a record, however.

TABLE 11.—Selected miscellaneous estimates.
[Adapted from studies in New York State.]

= Man- Horse- - Man- Horse-
Project. hours. | hours. Project. hours. | hours.
Hay and alfalfa, each cutting. . 10.0 10:0)i|;Sheepmeaehes e252 ees eae 5.0 0.3
Corn, al] kinds, per acre..-.... 60.0 70.0 |} Brood sow and pigs until
Beaus, per'acte..-..--=-2--<-- 50.0 50.0 Weaed ras: Stee se ooees - oc 30.0 5.0
Potatoes, per acre.....-...---- 120.0 100.0 |) Other hogs, each....-.-------- 5.0 1.0
Root crops, per acre....--..-- 150.0 120.0 || Poultry, per head-..........--- 1-5) ~2
Truck crops, per acre.....-...- 150.0 150.0 |) Pullets, per head...........-- 1.5 2
Truck crops (per $5 received) - 10.0 10.0 || Bees, per Swarm........-..... 3.0 -6
COWS CACH onan cine aia a. o == 150.0 20.0 || Retail milk, per cow....-.-.-- 150.0 150.0

The following table copied from Farmers’ Bulletin 661, Method of Analyzing the
Farm Business, gives standards which may be modified as local experience may render
advisable:

TaBLE 12.—Approximate work units needed for the production of crops and in caring for
live stock, etc., a work unit being a 10-hour day of man or horse labor.

Work units (10-hour
Operation. gaye):
Man. Horse.
Production of crops (per acre):
Timothy, alfalfa, and clover hay, per cutting.......-.-...-----.--.---------- 1 1
Oats, wheat, barley, rye, buckwheat, and miller........................----- 2 3
Corn husked from standing stalks, corn-belt States......-------...---------- 2ato'-3 5
BOnmMUSKEG MEOH SNOCK: aos 2 eeee teens = ss 5—- 24 oa ee ioe ee oe 6 6
DUD GDP SD we sge see sda. Beebe sec Oe 565. SeeE BE BEaacos Se o6r 546- eee nee toc 4 to 6 5to7
Corabusked> Southern States. - 2-2 se =<) =. os bee dee eee 2- = 2 3 to 4 3to4
IPB UD otagcc on gecderte pabopues Sass Besdass Beer Eeees 22-6 5225 cee ae ea 8 to12 10
SOR - etek Sede cab abaaeeten see esa ee meneeenseeece= 222-2252 see seee eee 8 to12 4to6
DU Pan COlS em aioe a= a= oe fon = enemas se ote 2s 2 2 on ae ae Ree ins © see eke ai 7
NGI OHS mee sees see: ase 25a eS te Ba ee ce oc OSE ee 4 2
CORSE EGS ee ee se ee aE a oo, ACRE SS nc, me | Se ee 13 12
BES PEER Seer et rae ee heln cake es ace oh. ed a a 3 1
DOLchum, sowm broadcast, cut fonhay - 2:2. --- 2-2-2. = eee eee: =a ee 4 4
PRO AC CO ne aan eee eer a atc ete pide Sy 2 ale aE | 20 7
HIpIGED CANIS eer caesarean ao. =e eee - . Si oo ae i on 5 5
ANB OS.. -dblsce ob sopcce ae coe enRes <a> Here ee nSoeMetawene.s 20-5255 -60 cae mee 15 5
Caring for live stock (per year):

EIGESES A COLM-DOLESUALCS ata seer ene <n S)- - 2. - ee eee Se Sr 2 8 4
IEIGES PS UASLELTE ShALGS meee are = meee eae = = 22 2 2 es lon 12 3
IDBTINY GDWGh node sescecnd 6 epee sos 22 Secs edee aeeeeseses2 222252 aes see gear 15 to 20 1to2
Morn cistock, cauvle) COlis |@LC.\sasees-o-= =~ -=-- - == -- - --- ee = 2k to 3 ae
RomHOSS, (COM-Delb SlALeS--a- = eae tas =~ 2 =< = 10
MGMRHOPS; HASLER OLALeS=n. -. = -\s mente sate <== 2S -— + ne eS eee 20 2
Ten brood sows and raising pigs to weaning --------------------------------- 30 5
TO GNC Sn coon COC OBE O RIC = BOBREE 2-020 LAE Be GEE oe 2 5: hone eee 50 5
LOT chickens (wellicared*for)!:-.- Bass... -20- 21 2-22 ee st | 15 to 25 1

26 BULLETIN 385, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SELECTED CLUB RECORDS OF BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ WORK.

Up to the time this list is compiled, club work has varied much in the several
States and labor records have not as yet formed a basis for estimates of credit. Some
records are available in detail and others as summaries; some were based upon one
conception of labor units and some on another idea. Yet the figures which follow
should give some assistance in making estimates until such a time as the local records
become a satisfactory basis of credit. If boys and girls are led to take an interest in
getting these accurate records rather than to subordinate everything to winning prizes,
the value of their records will be considerable.

TaBueE 13.—Specimen labor records of corn-club boys in Northern States.

Prepara- .
3 Plant- Culti- . Gather- rs
State. ian of ing. vating. Hoeing. ing. Total. Yield. Cost.
4 Fa " Bushels
ae 21 24 4 874 61 | $26.40
New York.......... {i 10 17 14 53 110 194 40 31.30
New Jersey.--------- 8 IGS LORE ee 20 393 102 21.05
; 8 1 Datdl Vanda lar 50 61 94 51.25
Pennsylvania. ...... { 45 3 rhb lc eae 32 95 93 28. 75
6! 14 6 i2 9 35 84 11.45
Towa..-.------.----- 104 1 4} i 30 47h 120 16.13
esd 1 6 10 10 31 88 10.90
Mlinois.........----- { 10 3 iat. (rotons 8 24 48 10.58

TaBLE 14.—Georgia corn-club labor records.

Prepara- | Cultiva- | Harvest- Total Vaaid Cost

tion. tion. ing.
Bushels
IB Olypiliseeee tee. sc noe er eer ae 13 9 6 28 50 $12. 50
IB OW OR ese b ccm. Scheme ene tic 18 7 15 40 59 33. 62
IBOVAS Cee cas | ae eee ee aan 16 26 64 96 103 37.72
BOWE en see cies ores: sepia beeeaes ater, Be, fy. 9 30 15 54 57h 25.16
TEX ON Gi cay eM ec 2 i Ne ae 16 16 30 62 147 33.70

TasBLEe 15.—West Virginia corn-club labor records.

Era a- aes BS ae Total. | Yield. | Cost.
Bushels
Bo vile A tMeer er 14 19 30 604 150 | $23.50
TROT Desk see RM 5. ccs coe aa 15 314 30 764 55 | 19.90
TEDW Dons feo SMES. soa be Seen 31 15 50 96 60 | 14.30
BiNy Guage 1: eM 6. 5 Soscaet Maem 13 55 35 103 433 | 18.45
TROY Boca oce R505 eee 33 45 35 113 49 | 24.00
ISON) Oana 2 SNAPE G05 cea 14 174 35 663 831 | 29.59

The average of 12 West Virginia boys, who raised 100 bushels or more of corn, was
103 hours of labor per acre.

TABLE 16.—Arkansas corn-club labor records.

Prepara- | Cultiva- | Harvest- Total Yield

tion. tion. ing.
Bushels.
IN ebraboatbOdnl eS cae eee. GS 5 oS OS ee set cre mre 36 48 26 92 142
WY (iol ba bh onl 3a) s SRE cA ete, 4 5 6 17 32
INVOTAZ OR SS... Ue eae eet 2k LT ee 15 20 14 483 75

Maximum labor record gave minimum yield.
Men’s average for the same section, 47.8 hours.

CREDIT FOR HOME PRACTICE IN AGRICULTURE. Pall

TABLE 17.—Selected corn-club records from Mississippi.

‘

Prepara- | Cultiva- | Harvest-| mots | Yield. | Cost.

tion. tion. ing.
Bushels
IO yale ese say Sec: . Jeeemeeicia ste e.s 16 10 10 36 54 $26. 50
TOR, eds Soe a cae eae a URE oo ce eee 37 32 16. 85 55 24.45
LXOiY 3) so c Ba cSeSe SES Heme eer ae sc a aaa 18 30 16 64 74 27.90
BS Oat een ie sno gee esec ce ee 7 204 15 424 524 19.62

PAS CLAS Osos ae occ cae ee = a slain 8 18.6 32.4 12.6 62.6 56 24.38

Ten boys with average yield same as average corn yield for the State.

TABLE 18.—Selected Texas corn-club records from average conditions.

Prepara-| Cultiva- | Harvest- Total. Yau. || Cast

tion. tion. ing.
Bushels
I OV AIR seine soo Se selec cess ouee ste necees 13 12 14 39 904} $12.15
IB Oye eM eea ei san a= Sein = ees mes oe 11 12 8 31 434 17.71
LOK? 8)5- <6 aoc se Gece ae Ce BRE SEeeeE aon eBeee apse 7 16 4 27 30 8. 80
BES Og eee lala ae ics sien pwisie s ein)binle n nciaisicinie 93 20 10 394 19 12.95
IB OVO meee mete =o cases oconcceeebe ce nase 7 13 6 27 32 20.50

TasBLeE 19.—WNorth Carolina corn-club records 1914.1

Prepara-}| Cultiva- | Harvest- .
ar aoa ing. Total. Yield. Cost.
Bushels.
18 16 20 54 56 $17. 40
224 254 8 56 594 26. 23
19 263 30 75s 80 40.37
94 15 294 74 22.53
10 10 20 40 674 15.00
35 39 16 90 67 32.10
25 24 40 89 97 30. 25
38 66 40 105 97 54.15
7h 5 8 294 43 15.00
18 24 16 58 70 34.00

1 Fields producing over 100 bushels not included in thislist. Seven representativerecords were selected
from 32 typical projects. :

In Alabama 200 reports for the season of 1914 show an average of 63.9 hours of boy
labor producing an average crop of 60 bushels.

Records of Oklahoma members show for 10 cotton records an average of 97 hours
labor per acre; highest, 116 hours; lowest, 76 hours; for 9 corn records, average 42
hours; maximum, 58 hours, minimum, 26 hours; for 5 Kafir records, average 30 hours;
maximum, 42 hours; minimum, 19 hours.

Louisiana averages for 10 corn-club members show, hours, 52.5; yield, 91.9; cost,
$24.60; age, 16.1; for 10 canning-club members, hours 58.3; yield, 78.60; cost, $22.47;
age, 17.

TABLE 20.—Garden-club records from Texas.

Prepara- A Gather- A Yield of

Ae Growing. ing. Canning.| Total. |; omatoes.

Pounds.
Gin pees ie cee ise = apticlsieie ss Soe eee 33 23 23 10 594 2,324
GiiH D=. 22 SRA ee Te ae 3h 21 5 15 444 1, 246
(CHES 5 A Sareea rae ee es Sanne = ee 3 4% 93 104 274 1, 700

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BULLETIN No. 386 4g

Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural
Engineering
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director

Washington, D. C. Vv September 11, 1916

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN THE
MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES, 1914.

A Compilation Showing Mileage of Improved and Unimproved Roads; Sources and

Amounts of Road Revenues; Bonds Issued and Outstanding; and a Description

of the Systems of Road Administration and Fiscal Management, and of other
Factors Affecting Road Improvement in Each State.

Prepared Jointly by the Division of Road Economics and the State Collaborators of
the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering.

CONTENTS.

Page. | Page.
Mnpnad WehObyee cok eecicttsses -ess -2 Sceees Se 1 | Development of new types of highway....... 5
Working plan and sources of information. .-. 2 | Detailed information by States.............. 6
Road administration in the Middle Atlantic INGWidelSCyssietc oo esas see eres 6
SiateSeem Ae Rema cahe tase cots et ieiaiciee Sst 3 ING WSViOnKs. 5. 2h pcide heels ees 22 ee Se 14
Public road revenues.........-.------------- 3 iPennsyilvaniaesss- ek sce seen eee omnes 21

Road mileage, 1914...............-...------- 4

INTRODUCTORY.

Beginning with 1904, the policy was adopted by the Office of
Public Roads of conducting investigations at five-year intervals to
determine the mileage of improved and unimproved roads, the -
revenues for road purposes, and other related data. In accordance
with that policy, Bulletin No. 32 was issued, giving such information
as was obtainable for the calendar year 1904, and Bulletin No. 41
was issued, giving such information as was available for the calendar
year 1909. The investigation made for the year 1914 followed some-
what different lines, since a closer cooperation with State highway
departments had been established, and wherever practicable the
information was directly collected by collaborators named by the
respective State highway departments and acting under specific
instructions from this office. This policy was not practicable in con-
nection with the earlier bulletins, owing to tne fact that many of the
States have only recently established highway departments.

Nott.—This bulletin is of interest to all users of public roads and those who are concerned with road
Maintenance. :

45963°—Bull. 386—16——1

2 BULLETIN 386, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

For convenient reference the information obtained from the Middle
Atlantic States of New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania is pub-
lished in this bulletin, leaving the remaining States to be dealt with
by groups in subsequent similar publications. These groups have
been selected according to their administrative organization for
road purposes and according to other conditions affecting road man-
agement.

In order that the statistics may be useful in the highest degree, an
explanatory text has been prepared for each State. In connection -
with the explanation of these statistical tables, the systems of admin-
istration, the methods of financing road work, the physical condi-
tions influencing road improvement, and the progress made in recent —
years in the construction of roads and bridges, are set forth in the
explanatory chapters.

WORKING PLAN AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION.

The method of procedure followed in obtaining the information
contained in this bulletin was as follows:

A series of card-inquiry forms, designated A, B, C, and D, cover-
ing respectively mileage, taxation and revenues, administrative
organization, and bond issues, was prepared and submitted to the
various State highway departments for suggestion and approval.
After changes were made to meet conditions found to be peculiar to the
individual States, supplies of the card forms, with necessary sta-
tionery, were sent to each State collaborator, and correspondence
was then conducted under Government frank with the respective
county and township officials by the collaborators. In many in-
stances it was impossible for the collaborators to obtain replies from
all local officials, and accordingly letters and forms were sent directly
from this office to such local officials. During the course of the
investigation it was found necessary to enlist the aid of local and
State road associations, chambers of commerce, automobile clubs,
postmasters, and private individuals in order to obtam adequate
information.. On account of the absence of detailed records in
many of the towns and counties, extreme accuracy is impossible,
and because of the large amount of correspondence necessary to
conduct the investigation, considerable delay in the issuance of the
bulletins has been unavoidable. The data on mileage and revenues
should therefore be considered as approximate only.

A summary sheet for each of the forms A, B, C, and D was prepared
for each State at the outset of the investigation, and as the card
forms were received from local officials or from the State collabora-
tors, the information was entered on the summary sheets under appro-
priate headings. These summaries, when completed, were forwarded

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914. a.

to the respective State collaborators or to the heads of the State
highway departments, who thereupon prepared a text explanatory
of the statistical tables and of the administrative systems in effect
in their respective States, or approved a text prepared in this office.

ROAD ADMINISTRATION IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.

All of the Middle Atlantic States have highway departments and
apply State funds to the aid of road improvement. This policy was
inaugurated in New Jersey in 1892, in New York in 1898, and in
Pennsylvania in 1903. In New York and Pennsylvania the construc-
tion and maintenance of all roads is in a measure under State control.
New York has developed a rather highly centralized highway depart-
ment, and, like Pennsylvania and New Jersey, has a comprehensive
system of State highways, for the construction and maintenance of
which State funds are appropriated.

PUBLIC ROAD REVENUES.

State road funds in New York were at first provided by direct appro-
priations and at the beginning of 1906 amounted to $25,000,000.
During that year, a $50,000,000 State bond issue was authorized,
and a second issue of $50,000,000 in 1912. Of the total bonds au-
thorized, $65,000,000 were issued on authority of the legislature to
the close of the year 1914. In New Jersey and Pennsylvania State
funds are provided by direct appropriations from the State treasury.
Aside from the State-aid funds a considerable portion of the revenues
for roads is provided by taxes, levied by the towns in New York State,
by counties and townships in New Jersey, and by townships in Penn-
sylyania. Approximately one-third of all expenditures are provided
by local units in New York and about one-half in New Jersey and
Pennsylvania.

Table 1 presents in condensed form the information assembled
concerning road expenditures and road bonds for New York. New
Jersey, and Pennsylvania:

TABLE 1.—Road expenditures and road bonds, 1914.

Road bonds voted or out-

standing to December 31, 1914.
: Total expen-
State. ditures, 1914, |
ounty, town
and township. State.
UNG Wp OUR i a fu. sepia eats geek oa eee elo ania osiseebis $23, 231, 964 $11, 822,088 | 1$100,000, 000
IN Gi IGIEE i caoue ss ces Saba an 3 Sa aE eens Ue aes Ree 7, 208, 287 TAC OMIE SS bse aea cece eeeee
Rennsyavari ass.) Nosh eh eh Fe cep bee skeet 10, 424, 580 Qa BATA GSO WS— Say et oe ge
Titi ae eee beans ep 0 EIR YER 40, 864, 831 53,381,084 | 100, 000,000

1 Of which $65,000,000 was issued to Dec. 31, 1914.

4 BULLETIN 386, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

An interesting comparison showing the average expenditure for
roads and bridges in these three States per mile of road, per square
mile of area, per 1,000 population, and per $100 of assessed valuation
for the years 1904 and 1914 is presented in Table 2. This average
does not indicate the distribution of expenditures, as it includes both
construction and maintenance. Accordingly there may be many
miles on which little or nothing was expended. The average, how-
ever, indicates the comparative financial burden proportionate to

mileage.
TABLE 2.—Analysis of expenditures on various bases.

= Per square mile Per 1,000 of Per $100 assessed
Per mile of road. of area. population. valuation.
State. A ee eee
1904 1914 1904 1914 1904 1914 1994 1914
New Jersey...------- $220.64 | $486.49 | $435.00 | $959.00 |$1, 730.00 |$2, 833.00 $0. 34 $0. 289
INGuY SOAK Ss scedease 77. 05 292. 60 114.00 467.00 790.00 | 2,549.00 . 095 . 208
Pennsylvania. -.....-- 48. 98 113. 86 109. 00 232.00 770.00 | 1,360.00 - 124 - 205

ROAD MILEAGE, 1914.

The total road mileage in the Middle Atlantic States to January 1,
1915, was 185,770.84, of which 31,516.23 miles, or 16.9: per cent of
the total, weresurfaced. This does not include streets in incorporated
cities and towns, except a few miles in New York and Pennsylvania
where the State roads pass through the small towns and boroughs.
By comparing these figures with former investigations in the same
States, it appears that between 1909 and 1914, 11,942.80 miles, or
6.4 per cent of the total, were surfaced. Table 3 summarizes all of
the available information concerning road mileage for the three

States.
TABLE 3.—Road mileage, 1909 and 1914.

Miles sur- |Percentage surfaced.

State Total road Miles faced from , Tnerease

; mileage. surfaced. 1909 to over 1909.
1914, 1909 1914
Per cent.
ING WaOrker i se ole eet ee eC 79,398.00 | 15,635.90 2,848.9 16.13 19.6 3.

ING WHIGESCYE clos: oculscs cememeeeneae 14, 817. 00 5, 897. 45 2,475.9 22. 76 39.8 17.0
Pennsylvania....-....- ae rey ete 91, 555. 84 9, 982. 88 6, 618. 0 ~ 5.84 10.9 7.0
PR Ota sreieciee <2 os ee eee Coes 185, 770. 84 31, 516. 23 11, 942.8 14.91 16.9 6.4

A diagram (fig. 1) shows the percentage of surfaced roads for these
States at the close of the years 1904, 1909, and 1914. This diagram
shows in a striking manner the strides which have been made during
the past 10 years in road construction in these States.

The total mileage of roads and the surfaced mileage in relation to
the square mile of area and 1,000 population for the years 1904,
1909, and 1914 are shown in Table 4.

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914. 5

TaBLE 4.—Analysis of mileage on various bases.

Total mileage. Surfaced mileage.
State Per square mile Per 1,000 rural Per square mile Per 1,000 rural
eats area. population. area. population.

1904 | 1909 | 1914 | 1904 | 1909 | 1914 | 1904 | 1909 | 1914 | 1904 | 1909 | 1914

ING WiCISCVis 2552- sstsece 1.97} 1.97] 1.97) 26.74) 23.6) 23.5 | 0.32 | 0.45 | 0.784) 4.4] 5.4] 9.4
ING WAYOLKA SS Sa. oe 1.54) 1.67) 1.66) 37.44) 41.1) 41.2] .12) .268) .328) 2.98) 6.6 1
Pennsylvania.........-..-- 2.21) 1.95} 2.22) 34.9 | 28.8} 30.17) .048) .075} .22 76) 1.11) 3.29

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW TYPES OF HIGHWAY.

On account of the rapid increase in motor-vehicle traffic and the
fact that more study is being devoted to the selection of types best
adapted to traffic needs, the types of road surfaces have undergone
considerable changes during the past 10 years. To illustrate this

@ 10 9 20 7 30 7% 40 7 596 Jo

NEW YORK 1909

NEW JERSEY 1909
1914

|
1904
PENNSYLVANA| 1909

1 ak
; iaiie isi

Fig. 1.—Percentage of surfaced roads in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania for the years 1904,
1909, and 1914.

point it may be stated that of the 10,485 miles of surfaced roads in
the Middle Atlantic States in 1904, approximately 60 per cent was
plain macadam and 40 per cent was gravel. In 1909, of the 19,532
miles of surfaced road, 51 per cent was macadam, 47 per cent gravel,
1 per cent bituminous macadam, and 1 per cent other materials. In
1914, however, of a surfaced mileage of 24,482, 39.3 per cent was
_macadam, 36.3 per cent gravel, 15.4 per cent bituminous macadam,
3.8 per cent brick and concrete, and 5.2 per cent of other materials.
It should be stated, however, in this connection that the 24,482 miles
do not represent the total mileage of surfaced roads in 1914, as in
the case of Pennsylvania it was impossible to secure detailed inform-
ation regarding the type of surfaced roads in second-class townships.
The decrease in the percentage of macadam roads from 51 per cent

6 BULLETIN 386, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

in 1909 to 39.3 per cent in 1914 was due to the fact that many of
these roads have been surface-treated and are now classed as bitumi-
nous macadam or bituminous-treated roads.

Of the 11,942.8 miles surfaced from the close of 1909 to the close
of 1914, 9,629.82, which excludes second-class township roads in
Pennsylvania, are classified as follows: 3,539.15, or 37 per cent, were
treated with bitumen in some form; 1,992.75, or 20.5 per cent, were
plain macadam; 2,501.32, or 26 per cent, were plain gravel; 485.95,
or 5 per cent, were brick or concrete; and 1,110.65, or 11.5 per cent,
were of other materials. This indicates conclusively that in the sec-
tions of country where heavy automobile traffic prevails, the old
standard type of waterbound macadam has had its day.

Detailed information on the mileage of improved surfaces, by years
and States, is shown in Table 5.

TaBLE 5.—Percentage by types of surfaced-road mileage.

a Mac- . Bitumi- roe “Other
State. Year. aalevin. Gravel. AGS. Brick. |Concrete. aS IS:
INE COR e Bae mere RUE es ee eRe 1904 37.2 6258: | Beso iee So SE | ee
1909 36. 1 V3 }6, ed, epee ii csi <a Sar oh tae
1914 38. 0 37.1 20.0 1.0 1.6 2.2
woeNewalersey ces sci 4. be eee 1904 78. 4 An eee EE Soc) cee ccc La gece te
1909 76.8 17.0 [Capea IR pe le ee [ote ee aie A SER lier
1914 30. 7 48.5 ROMS 3 re 53 2 4.3 925
Teeialaishy| AyGhal 5s OS see Soe ac 1904 MEO 222 scoascaiesssen02+ 7 \2eeee seees| o22-csese soceecss°=
1909 82.1 HIBS (OG eae eee) RS Se, ae Dee ere US 4.9
1914 1 63.9 WA) OTS PoC AO) | reer. 212.4

1State highways only. 2 Concrete, stone block, flint, and stone.

DETAILED INFORMATION BY STATES.

Detailed information regarding sources and amounts of revenues,
bonds issued and outstanding, mileage of improved and unimproved
roads, systems of administration, and other factors affecting road
improvement are presented in the following chapters for New York, |
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, respectively.

NEW JERSEY.
By E. M. Vai, U. S. Collaborator.

New Jersey is one of the most thickly populated States in the
Union and consequently has more wealth and more miles of roads —
to the square mile of area than most of the other States where towns
and cities and their connecting highways are of more recent con-
struction.

The first roads of New Jersey were merely bridle paths or Indian
trails. These were crooked and circuitous, and as the years passed
they were widened with the increasing westward trend of settlement —

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914. ts

and became in the end the foundation of the present-day system of
highways. It was not until 1676 that any attention was given to
the proper construction and maintenance of roads. As the State was
all apportioned when the Government took up the town, township,
and section method of laying out public lands, nothing was done in
this line in New Jersey. In the early days private companies built
turnpikes, many of which were laid straight without regard to grade.
Consequently, the rebuilding of these roads in recent years so that
they will be wide and straight, with good grades, has been a heavy
expense.

The first public work on roads appears to have been conducted
by local committees and gave rise to the general practice of working
out the poll tax. This system of working out poll tax, however, has
been abandoned during recent years.

Tn the county of Essex a small amount of county road work appears
to have been done about 1868 to 1870. Nevertheless, the inhabitants
of New Jersey traveled mostly on township roads until a general move-
ment for county roads began in Union County in 1888.

New Jersey holds the distinction of being the first State to adopt
the policy of State aid. The first State-aid work was done in 1892,
and the first appropriation for State aid was, $75,000. At first the
State paid 334 per cent of the cost of State-aid roads, but at present
it pays 40 per cent. Up to July 1, 1914, the total outlay by the
State aggregated $5,800,000 and 1,833 miles of State-aid roads had
been completed.

The collection of road mileage statistics and its division into
classes was made under the direction of the division highway engi-
neer, acting as United States collaborator, who was assisted in his
work by other employees of the department of public roads of New
Jersey and by county engineers and other county officials. The
data upon which the expenditure and bonding tables were com-
piled were furnished by the office of the comptroller of the treasury
of New Jersey, and the tables were made up from these data by
employees of the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering.

Maps were obtained of all sections of the State ‘and the length of
the roads scaled by the State collaborator. Where these lengths
were later checked by actual measurement, the results were very
close. From most of the counties the engineers furnished accurate
information of the work under their charge. In a few cases the
townships had these data, but in most cases the best posted citizens
indicated on the roads of their districts the general class and quality
of pavement, if any, upon which the estimates for each township
were based. Jn a few townships, however, the classes of roads had

to be averaged with the classes of the adjoining townships. In
order to complete the total mileage figures of roads and streets,
45963°—16——2

8 BULLETIN 386, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

similar information was also obtained from the cities, boroughs, and
other municipalities. This shows a total mileage of 20,445.

New Jersey has an area of 7,414 square miles of land and 710
square miles of water, making an average of 2.72 miles of roads per
square mile of area. The State is divided into three belts—the
northwestern or hilly country, from which trainloads of dairy prod-
ucts enter the large cities each day; the central, or marl belt, from
which comes the name ‘‘Garden State’’; and the southern, the flat
sandy region formerly considered the pine barrens, though by the
introduction of drainage and overhead irrigation in late years it has
become a rich farming and trucking region. As this section is near
the large cities of New York and Philadelphia, it has excellent
markets.

Few people not residing close to the large cities will realize the
additional cost, not only of construction but of maintenance, which
is required to keep in repair roads carrying a traffic of, say, 2,000
vehicles or 6,000 tons daily. They wonder that a State as small as
New Jersey should have so large a mileage of roads, constructed and
maintained at so great an expense. This is explained by the fact
that it lies between New York and Philadelphia, the two largest
cities on the Atlantic seaboard, and is composed largely of suburban
homes and manufacturing districts contiguous to these cities. New
Jersey itself contains several large manufacturing cities.

In 1914, according to State registration, there was an average of 1
automobile for every 40 population and 6 automobiles for every
mile of road. This heavy traffic is a severe tax on the roads, and it
will, therefore, be seen that the cost of maintenance is necessarily
large. Also, there are a number of motor-vehicle manufacturing
concerns in New Jersey. When it is taken into consideration that
every new vehicle must be tried out on the roads, it will be seen that
this is an additional tax on their ability to sustain the traffic. This
is especially true of the heavy motor trucks.

Some of the manufacturing cities of North Jersey are connected by
roads constructed over the tide marshes. These roads have been
under construction for a period of 100 years or more. The first step
was to form corduroy out of the logs and branches of trees. Later
planking was resorted to, and in recent years from 4 to 6 feet of
earth and cinders have been filled in on top. Owing to the fact that
these are practically pontoon roads, much of the material smks below
the surface of the water, or shoves out to the sides, so that perhaps 3
yards must be furnished for an apparent gain of 1 yard of fill. Upon
this fill are constructed the most expensive types of pavement.
Some of these roads are now so solid that they are carrying two lines
of street cars, wide carriageways, and sidewalks.

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, i914. 9

The East Jersey coast forms an almost contimuous chain of resi-
dential sections and pleasure resorts. This vast playground is fast
becoming an all-year-round resort. As the surf bathing is one of the
chief attractions, many cities are built on the low bars of sand which
have been thrown up by the violence of the sea. Behind these bars
are swampy sections and inlets. Roads across these sections are
frequently built on fills many feet in depth, composed of material
dredged from nearby streams and waterways. In order to form a
solid roadway the original work is quite wide and the amount of
material required to fill one of these roads is a mere conjecture.
The slopes are frequently protected by sod or are planted with tufts
of coarse grass.

What are known as sand-clay roads in New Jersey are constructed
of second-quality gravel, engine cinders, or some other local product
not listed in the standard specifications. These roads cost about
$1,000 a mile for grading and another $1,000 for surfacing, or about
$2,000 per mile. Many of these roads are only paved for a width of
12 feet. Gravel roads, however, are from 14 to 40 feet in width and
cost from $2,500 to $10,000 per mile.

Macadam roads in New Jersey are seldom less than 12 feet in width
and 3 or 4 inches deep. In the wealthier districts they are 18 and |
20 feet in width and from 8 to 12 inches deep, with 30 to 40 feet
graded carriageways. They cost from $5,000 to $20,000 a mile,
depending on the amount of grading and the depth of the pavement.

Asphalt macadam is seldom less than 16 feet in width, and in some
cases it is as much as 60 feet in width. These roads cost from $18,000
to $125,000 per mile.

Block and brick roads in New Jersey are practically all laid on con-
crete foundations, and as they are almost always constructed where
they are subject to the heaviest traffic, this class of road may be
figured to cost not less than from $40,000 to $50,000-per mile.

While it is impossible to estimate exactly the cost of roads in New
Jersey, the cost, based on the above figures, has, however, been
roughly figured at a total of $140,000,000.

EXPENDITURES.

The total expenditure for road and bridge construction and main-
_tenance, and for interest and redemption of road and bridge bonds,
for the year 1914 amounted to $7,208,287. Of this amount $3,542,572
was expended on State-aid roads for construction and maintenance,
of which the State’s share was $1,306,596 and the share paid by the
local units was $2,235,976. State money available for expenditure
during 1915 for construction and maintenance of State-aid roads
amounted to $1,360,000. From 1891 to January 1, 1915, the total

~

10 BULLETIN 386, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, -

expenditure by the State for State-aid road construction and main-
tenance amounted to $7,192,268. In 1904 the total expenditure for
public roads amounted to $3,274,811, of which the State’s share was
$250,000. ‘Thus in 1914 the total expenditures had increased 120
per cent as compared with 1904 and the State’s share toward con-
struction and maintenance increased 422 per cent. Information
regarding expenditures is shown in detail by counties in Table 6.

TABLE 6.—Ezpenditures on roads and bridges in New Jersey, 1914.

[From townships report compiled from figures in annual report of comptroller of the treasury, 1914.
Checked by New Jersey collaborator.]

Expenditures on roads and bridges, 1914. | Thterest and

redemption
County. on road and Potalexpend:
: Road main- | Road con- Disiiless bridge bonds *
tenance. struction. BCS: and notes.

IAtlaniiGe-m os ssose seo oer een eee $109, 760. 32 $15, 611.35 $41, 541.91 $40, 030. 00 $206, 943. 58
TST c 7 pe ei ol 138,846.44 | 366,159.01] 144,748.40} — 89,200.00| — 738,953.85
Birrlitieton oe sso. jee ee 10,378.63 | 82,282.94| 60,743.78 | 35,199.43] 188,604.78
Candee eee 29,979.94} 80,101.07| 65,576.53 | 44,935.11] 220,592.65
Cape May lsiccgte. ssc 30,050.16 | 87,706.27 | 19,402.23] 17,631.45] 154,790.11
Cumberland........-.-.--.------ 2,190.25] 48,255.84 | 33,165.63| 15,717.50 99, 329. 22
ISSO Xa eer Set aicls censor 210, 941. 16 393, 571. 70 186, 143. 66 658, 984. 97 1, 449, 641. 49
Gioucesters 26. cha ere 20,747.17 | 105,062.92 | 53,577.61| 32,156.51] 211,544.21
Hduerdonc: 4.01.8) eee 16,844.04] 176,538.21 | 32,025.50 8,317.00 | 2337724. 75
TE Es1a ror a aaa SC os 229,472.76 | 94,844.36] 47,501.39 | 648,055.01 | 1,019,963, 52
Mercerieens aeiias oc ae eee 86, 448. 16 156, 590. 21 51, 563.35 48, 387. 25 342, 988. 97
Middlesex... 2222 gc scecccecciot 86, 097. O01 93, 347. 97 60,813. 57 90, 149. 68 330, 408. 23
IMonmouthie =: o--he- sents ee ee 111, 055. 88 139, 271. 12 116, 767. 54 7,395. 66 374, 490. 20
IMOETIS pen tenn one nee eee CEE 133, 171.08 105, 225. 63 30, 856. 40 12, 000. 00 281, 253. 11
cian Pere) Ree 6,141.79 | 9,069.04 | 23,461.68 | 10,126.18 | 128,798.69
IPASCRIC Se sean ss fein caememiemecicee 133, 455. 37 193, 675. 62 40,020. 04 58, 640. 48 425,791. 51
SETS, ya A S228 7,500,00| 47,175.44| 53,813.55 7,000.00} 115,488.99
Suriercette rt <n eee 21,782.92} 847537.08| 427319.53 37712. 50 | 1527352. 03
STR oe PE 6,263.04] 105,868.44 9, 138, 48 7004.00 | 1287273. 96
Winton re one 2.2 teens 34, 546. 81 97, 154. 13 57, 531. 74 81, 522. 18 270, 754. 86
Wirroh es. oe eeu 29,568.26 | 77,177.17 | 23,668.82 3,184.12 | 133/598.37
Motalestc ot eee 1, 455, 241. 19 | 2,639, 225.52 | 1,194,471.34 | 1,919,749.03 | 7,208, 287. 08

According to the report of the comptroller of the treasury of New
Jersey, the total county and township road and bridge bonds out-
standing on November 30, 1914, amounted to $14,011,337. Most of
the bonds are deferred serial in character and the interest rates vary
from 4 per cent to 5 percent. Information showing the total bonds
outstanding by counties and townships, with interest rates and the
term of the bonds, is presented in Table 7. .

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914.

1B

TaBLEe 7.—Outstanding road and bridge bonds, New Jersey, Nov. 30, 1914.

County.

Cumberland....-..--

HISSOK Es sce ecinic Aes
Gloucester....--..-

Union

Township.

Bonds out-
standing.

Township of Over-
peck and Ridge-
field Park Vil-
lage.

Franklin.---..---.

Midland =~ <= == -—- -
Oise. 2 scceusose

Chesteres=ese2 == 22
Lumberton. ..-.--
New Hanover. .---
North Hanover --.
Pemberton..-.-...--
Southampton. ..--
Willingboro. ..-.-.-.

Bethlehem..-.....-
Kingwood......--
West Amwell...-.

Knowlton.....-.--
Mansfield ..-...-.-

-| 1 $402, 000. 00

1, 679, 000. 00
25, 000. 00

5, 500.00
42,500. 00
9,000. 00
6,000. 00
28,500. 00
75, 000.00
42° 500.00
12,000. 00

74, 322.76
20, 000. 00
| 9,000.00
| 27; 000.00
14,000. 00

29, 000. 00
11, 500. 00

3, 500. 00
464) 100.00
2,000. 00

1, 200. 00
2,590. 00
355, 500. 00
1,500.00

1 204; 000. 00
5, 000. 00

2, 202; 000. 00
253, 400. 00
2, 600. 00

4, 261; 672. 00
318, 000. 00
2, 492. 58

6, 800. 00

2, 600. 00
555, 150. 00
774, 800. 00
17, 000. 00
280, 000. 00
36, 000. 00

8, 000. 00
879, 500. 00
30, 000. 00
1,700. 00
196, 100. 00
600, 000. 00
4, 100. 00

6, 000. 00
10,000. 00

5, 000. 00

2; 300. 00

5, 000. 00

14, 011, 337. 34

Rate of
interest.

Per cent.
44 tod
34 to 5

Ge CARS he SS Cn Cann

NPN RSH

4 to

rs
co
°

wie

nag
hie
ot
°
OU Hr OH Or OT OT OT OT HEB HR

Fall due.

Various years up to 1957.
Various dates.

Do.
Do.

Do.
$1,000 each year.
Do.

A portion every 5 years.
1920.
1934-35.
Various dates up to 1934.
Various dates.
Various dates after 1916.
Various dates.

Do.

Do.

Do.
1 to 15 years.
20, 25, and 30 years.
Various years.
Various dates.
1920.
Various dates.
1915.
Various dates after 1915.
1924.

1915 to 1939.

1915 and 1916.

Various dates to 1964.

30 years from date ofissue.
1920.

1917 to 1923.

1916 to 1923.

1916 to 1944.

1915 to 1949.

1920.

1933.

1922.

1914 to 1981.
Various dates.
1915.

1938 to 1944.
Sinking fund.
Various dates.
1915 to 1920.
Various dates.
1915 to 1919.
Call.

1 Partly for county buildings.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 New Jersey had a total of 14,817.19 miles
of public road, of which 5,897.45 miles, or 39.8 per cent, were surfaced.
Of the surfaced roads 1,809.24 miles were plain macadam, 417.63
miles bituminous macadam, 2,858.52 miles gravel, 561.40 miles
sand-clay, and 250.67 miles ance! with other material, such as
brick, concrete, asphalt concrete, stone, and asphalt block.

12 _BULLETIN 386, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

In 1904 New Jersey had 2,422.3 miles, or 16.32 per cent, of her
total mileage surfaced. In 1909 she had 3,377 miles, or 22.75 per cent,
of surfaced roads, while in 1914 she reports 5,897.45 miles, or 37.8 per
cent of the total miles surfaced, thus showing that during the 5-year
period 1909 to 1914, 2,475.99 miles of road, or 17 per cent of the total
mileage, were surfaced. Information showing the total road mileage
and mileage improved in the various counties is contained in Table 8,
which does not include city streets. These are included in Table 9,
which is supplementary and is given because New Jersey is, to a very
ereat extent, urban in character, and the street and country-road
problems are closely interwoven. Table 9 is copied from the Twenty-
second Annual Report of the Commissioner of Public Roads, 1915.

13

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14 BULLETIN 386, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLe 9.— Mileage of public roads, including city streets in New Jersey, in 1914.

Roads. City streets.
Name of county.
County |Township) Borough} Town | Village} City Toll |Estimated
roads. roads. roads. roads. | streets.| streets. | roads. | mileage.
ANGHEN aM FLO Aa iain eh eos 153. 86 653 30. 25 TRO eee eee PANS (a) 55555555 1, 253. 76
Bergenkes asics ee 45. 95 389. 50 Chipeta Seana 37. 40 49. 70 5 1, 304. 36
BURline tone sss sees ene oee 215.90 | 1,152. 45 a Biv (3) | eee ae ie eee AL) a Eee oe 1, 424. 10
Wand ones Nie es ee 97. 56 449 LOZ. 200 |e was ree Ie ae ee SY aie flee hess - 998. 21
(Ching MlbNyckacuackucodesse 106 253 1085208 Seen {selene THEIR | oe 581. 84
@umiberland.-2-22..2222-2 29 512 SON2aN ESE AS SESS aoneete> 136. 85 12 720. 10
I SISTER a eT eo 160. 69 119. 80 39. 90 349. 44 52 Bdd=0/ 0) eee 1, 077. 53
Glomcestene eee eee nee 94. 74 741 OT MTON Ie esta ener eo eae 21.63 | 11 996. 12
HEETTO SOM ete te Sewn come 42. 80 31. 63 9. 10 126534) ee ees 287. 67 4 501. 54
EGIATeL One Hee eree eee 61. 90 928. 10 44. 60 2 ality ee tty iL Uy ee 3 ee ae 1, 049. 60
WIGIRCS1 Es Se ee ee 150. 72 323. 50 BRAS pe Veen eee 9 1365205) Sen see 643. 45
Mi didilesex 222 2U iss 5 a85 ~ 238. 04 439. 35 2600/8 | ep trise oral teres SONATE esec ae 934. 46
IMonmT Oph eee eee ee 220. 89 | 1, 050. 20 221. 70 LONER sceeee UCD asesese 1, 606. 09
IMIOE TAS See sa See 152. 08 864 79. 70 66645) 2 koe dlse sons. bales oe cee 1, 162. 42
OccaTiet i ean See athe 103.50 | 1,173 OZ (ON Vee sb Ne Tae | mee De as TE 1, 336. 90
PASSAIC yee sey aie 203. 14 260. 64 Tes) Os i eee La 82 al Meese 751. 61
Salers ee WL eee Cee ae 68. 01 591. 55 DESO) ay estar ae Pee 16. 20 6. 40 700. 82
Somensetsenepe ses ees ae 113. 50 612. 10 68. 44 (hate aed 2" Beane Sasmea) eeceacer 801. 04
SISSON eee ote sere ae 39. 83 936. 80 BA S| ese a Re in 5) 0s rear tas a Soe es yak 1, 010. 63
Uni Onre)ee e 67. 66 217. 43 120. 42 68225) Senne BOSW/Ziikeneeere 782. 48
BVVARRO Me <2 hee oe or ees 66. 18 687. 20 17 BSS ARAKI Pepe 7s a rercbaerpal |, CAB car 808. 38
Motaleesenis snc psscee 2, 431.95 |12, 385. 25 | 2,138. 86 852.77 | 89.40 | 2,508.81 | 38.40 | 20, 445. 44
Miles.

ANG ei Lilo ese or\0 Gene Ua AAAS oes SSeS eGR men hab oB am Sen tear SABES sah cim aa pmiea a aseeisa GoSGaR oA 14, 817. 19
ANG ANI) PHOS Se See ean eh ode Coe Seep BU aesnesh Sogkobs dsadace apoeesmeseceHecdsmeendsSenassoo 5, 628, 24
Gigznavel WON Seas adsadccosn son nasgsgsusoaussoodsda acme nsecsouseosoones as caasccassSoqossaC 20, 445. 44

NEW YORK.!

New York, with a land area of 47,654 square miles, has 1.66 miles
of road per square mile of area. According to the 1910 census
4,766,883 out of a total population of 9,113,614, or 52.3 per cent,
lived in the city of New York, and the urban and rural population
was, respectively, 7,185,494 and 1,928,120, or 78.8 per cent and
21.2 per cent, thus indicating the predominance of urban interests
in the working out of the highway problem. There are 62 counties,
varying in size from St. Lawrence, the largest, with an area of 2,880
square miles, to Schenectady, the smallest, with an area of 221 square
miles. The counties of Bronx, Kings, New York, Queens, and
Richmond are not considered in this report, as they are included
within the city limits of New York City.

The topography of the State is varied and ranges from sand plains
to low-lying granite mountains.

The good-roads movement in the State of New York dates back to
1898, when the Higbie-Armstrong law was passed. Under this law
50 per cent of the cost of highways was to be borne by the State, 35
per cent by the county, and 15 per cent by the towns through which
the road passed. After completion, the roads were maintained

1S. D. Gilbert, auditor, and other members of the State highway department, rendered valuable assist-
ance in the work for this State. The figures were checked by the United States collaborator at Albany,
J. Burr Ryder.

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914. 15

under the supervision of the State engineer and surveyor at the
expense of the towns. This method proved a failure, as the mainte-
nance of various sections of a road depended on the wealth of the
towns in which they were located and also on the efficiency of the
respective town officials.

By the laws of 1913 the highway department was reorganized
under a single head in lieu of the commission which had included
other State officers as members. The State commissioner of high-
ways is appointed by the governor, by and with the advice and con-
sent of the senate, for a term of 5 years. He has general supervision
of all highways and bridges which are constructed, improved, or
maintained in whole or in part by State money. His salary is fixed
by the governor at not to exceed $10,000 per annum. He appoints
three deputies, a secretary, nine division engineers, and all necessary
assistant engineers and clerks.

The organization of the department is as follows: Commissioner,
first deputy commissioner, second deputy commissioner, and third
deputy commissioner, secretary, and auditor.

The law makes the commissioner responsible for all expenditures
of the department and the proper execution of each contract. The
State is divided into nine divisions, each under a division engineer in
charge of the construction and maintenance of such road work as
comes under the supervision of the State highway department. The
highway department has under its supervision over 79,000 miles of
road. .

The highway improvement bonds were authorized in two amounts
of $50,000,000 each in 1906 and 1912, respectively. The term of
these bonds is 50 years. Of the $100,000,000 authorized, $65,000,000
have been sold. The amount derived from the sale of State bonds
is fixed by the legislature. For the year 1914, $10,000,000 worth of
State bonds were sold.

There are two classes of funds used for highway work. One is de-
posited with the State treasurer and is subject to the comptroller’s
check; the other is deposited with the county treasurer. The former,
known as the highway improvement fund, is obtained from the sale
of highway improvement bonds and the latter, called the general
fund, is appropriated from the revenues of the State.

The highways of New York State are grouped in four classes, as
follows: State highways, county highways, county roads, and town high-
ways. The State and county highways together constitute the State
system, and the town highways belong to the class of local roads which
are aided and supervised by the State. The State has no supervision
over county roads. State highways are those built at the sole
expense of the State. They consist of about 3,800 miles of road on
45 routes prescribed by the legislature: The construction of these—

16 BULLETIN 386, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

highways is paid for from the proceeds of the sale of the State high-
way bonds. The maintenance is under the highway department, but
is paid for by both the State and the towns through which they pass.

County highways are those built at the expense of both the State
and county. These serve as the principal market routes within the
counties. The State highway commissioner has designated 8,380
miles of these roads for the State. The total amount of State and
county highways is nearly 12,000 miles. The State’s share of the
construction cost of county highways is paid from the appropriation
made by the legislature from the fund derived from the sale of State
highway bonds. The counties pay variable proportions of the cost
of these roads and the balance is paid by the State. County high-
ways are maintained in the same manner as State highways.

County roads are built at the sole expense of the county and are
subject to the jurisdiction of the county officials. Inasmuch as the
State grants aid tor the maintenance of these roads, they are to a
certain extent subject to the regulations of the State highway depart-
ment. These roads are maintained from funds appropriated for this
purpose, aided by a grant from the State’s general fund amounting to
50 per cent of the county appropriation of the previous year for this
purpose. However, no county receives from the State forthis purpose
in any one year an amount to exceed one-tenth of 1 per cent of the total
taxable property in the county. Town highways are all roads out-
side of the limits of incorporated villages and cities which do not
belong to the State and county system or to the couaty road
systems. They are maintained and constructed by a joint State and
town fund. When a town desires to secure State aid, it levies a
money road tax for such amount that when it is added to the con-
tribution made by the State it will equal not less than $30 per mile
for all roads outside the limits of incorporated villages and cities.
For towns haying a valuation of less than $3,750 per mile there is a
lower requirement, which is $4 per thousand of assessed value. The
amount which a town may receive from the State is regulated both
by the appropriation of the town and its wealth per mile of road.

The bureau of town highways, which is under the third deputy
commissioner, Supervises the maintenance and construction of all
town highways and bridges, and audits the road accounts in every
town which receives State aid. At present it has 73,000 miles of
road under its supervision. Of these roads 9,000 miles are of heavy
gravel or macadam, and construction of these types is progressing
at the rate of about 800 miles a year. Seven-tenths of the agricul-
tural products of the State are moved over the town highways.
This bureau also does educational work through annual meetings
held in each county.

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914. 17

A county superintendent is elected in each county by the county
board of supervisors. His term of office is for 4 years and his salary
and expenses are paid from county funds. If the county fails to
act, the State highway commissioner may make the appointment and
have the expenses paid by the State in the first instance and reim-
bursed by the county. The county superintendent is appointed from
a civil service list of eligibles and may be removed by the State high-
way commissioner for a specific cause. He has charge of all road
and bridge work in the county, subject to the general control of the
State highway department, and is required to furnish the town super-
intendents with such plans or other aid as they may require. He
inspects all roads once a year.

The office of town superintendent is established in every town.
The town superintendent may be elected either by the town or he
may be appomted by the town board. The only qualification re-
quired of him is that he be a resident of the town. The term of
his office is 2 years. He is in direct charge of the maintenance and
construction of all town roads and bridges subject to rules and regu-
lations of the State highway department.

The State highway department has a bureau of research for the
testing of all road-building materials. The laboratories are well.
equipped and a large amount of work is done by this bureau. Stone
tests conducted by the bureau of research totaled 909 during the
calendar year 1914; of gravel and sand 956 tests were made. The
bureau tested 1,238 samples of cement and 416 samples of brick.
Tests of bituminous materials amounted to 1,330, and of cubes of
concrete to 1,506.

EXPENDITURES, 1914.

The total expenditure in 1914 for construction and maintenance
of all roads and bridges amounted to $23,231,964 and included the ©
following items: Expenditures by the State for construction of State
and county highways, $8,363,049; by the counties for construction,
$1,364,934; by the villages for construction of State and county
highways, $1,185,248; by the State for maintenance of State and
county highways, $3,837,727; by the State and towns for town
roads, $8,113,303; by the State for the maintenance of county roads,
$117,700; and by counties for maintenance of county roads, $250,000.
The expenditures are shown in detail by counties in Table 10.

In 1904 the total expenditure for roads and bridges amounted to
$5,692,514, including $1,056,460 contributed by the State. During
the 10-year period, therefore, from 1904 to 1914 the SS
increased 308 per cent.

18

BULLETIN 386, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

TaBLE 10.—Hxpenditures on roads and bridges for New York, 1914.

Total
t amount
Total Expended by|Expended by|Expended by|Expended by| received
expendi- State for county for village for State for for all
tures. construction. | construction. | construction. | maintenance. town
highway
purposes.!
INDE IN 6 SdonSodadeas $457, 571. 14 $97, 737. 48 $34, 708. 88 $8, 697.73 | $207,618.05 , $108, 795. 00
Allegany........---- 558, 101. 92 266, 386. 74 23, 736. 94 40, 823.99 41 308.62 | 185, 845.63
Broome........----- 339, 610. 40 148, 608. 21 6, 286. 06 1, 808. 15 66, 445.15 | 116, 462. 83
Cattaraugus......-.- 392, 363. 29 166, 724. 87 1, 626. 77 29, 482. 76 18,795.78 | 175,733.11
Cayuga......---.---- 387, 209. 08 85, 209. 02 » 41, 949, 16 1,390. 39 72,137.56 | 186,522.95
Chautauqua......--- 374, 068. 02 132, 226. 82 30, 723. 58 10, 975. 64 11, 724.14 188, 418. 34
Chemung.......---- 349, 845.98 | 136, 302. 87 30, 652. 97 77, 070. 84 34,164.32 | 71, 654.98
Chenango......----- 326, 190. 92 111, 191. 66 2, 616. 71 24, 343. 03 73, 865.08 | 114,174.44
Clintoneseeer ease 251, 836. 14 88, 708. 90 3, 600. 00 10, 636. 47 64, 236. 51 84, 654. 26
Columbia. ......-.-- 277, 530. 73 68, 360. 15 SO, CW PP) ee osoccegccuse 45,127.31 | 127,121.05
Contiande ee ceeeee 190, 206. 39 87, Sl4e (eal chance ee 6, 308. 82 34, 985. 87 61, 036. 96
Delaware.........--- 562, 432. 43 364, 390. 44 4,615. 27 1, 411. 34 21,580.82 | 170,434.56
Dutchess..........-- 396, 862. 43 80, 185. 09 18, 000. 00 26, 838. 75 95,514.02 | 176,324.57
MOH ee oh see 1, 006, 126.-26 364, 753. 04 78, 708. 12 53, 131. 13 262, 620.04 | 246, 913.93
HHI SSO Ke a sere eee 397, 318. 08 167, 897. 28 415700. 0022 22222 2k: 46,349.43 | 141,371.37
Hranidin. 2522-22222. 2 461, 428. 90 170, 080. 82 GB ellos) le oonsscoossces 60,103.60 | 169, 902. 70
Hulton 222 -2o 2. 181, 409. 38 17, 916. 00 11, 685. 91 37, 821. 73 62, 160. 80 51, 824. 94
Genesee......------- 270, 859. 57 GsheRio OY |lssoscssscccae 68, 279. 41 23,844.02 | 110,399.05
Greene. .. - 234, 846. 87 92,305. 27 9, 681. 45 2,825.95 35, 041. 64 94, 992. 56
Hamilton... 154, 258. 49 58, 937. 71 7%, MOWbOO|cssecoscesasss 33, 766. 29 59, 454. 49
Herkimer 369,914.15 | 105,564. 60 12, 088. 26 9,459.45 | 108,015.63 | 134,786.21
Jefferson ..........-- 1, 106, 124. 48 559, 100. 95 167, 982. 33 46, 551. 02 132, 126.90 | 200,363. 28
WMGWASso+ 5: Sense 237, 184. 53 56, 647. 20 4, 063. 05 3, 470.37 34,468.12 | 138, 535. 79
Livingston.....-..-. 393, 737. 80 WERE TEAS) ose osacascsaus 40, 996. 91 30,935.71 | 168,071.70
Madison...........-- 243, 057. 75 102, 789. 49 By EO op eecen sous ce 14,163.37 | 122,975.99
Monroe............-- 615, 824. 41 157, 748. 89 65, 047. 64 19, 391.10 175, 261.81 | 198,374.97
Montgomery........ 248, 257.97 41, 048. 97 20, 468. 85 58, 651. 57 46, 624. 83 81, 468. 75
INGRSOA6 5 sc scg ska oe 3 560, 270. 88 1, 778.38 5024087, |i aeeeael Sea 48, 356.12 | 181,911.43
INGaC andeesa-cienee 542, 677. 16 275, 706. 65 76, 389. 57 30, 390. 85 56, 450. 43 103, 739. 66
Qneidar.-- 322525 890, 249. 72 462, 923. 68 53, 773. 66 33, 684. 78 146, 369.20 | 193,498.40
Onondaga........--- 542,675.42 | 147,378. 64 60, 216. 38 8,572.83 | 153,147.01 | 173,360.56
Ontario 353, 026. 42 92, 245. 88 11, 948. 36 12, 335. 93 95, 961. 08 140, 535. 17
Orange...... 497, 473. 75 57, 593. 79 TSR OASEF75| ne eee ee 174,409.77 | 179,526.44
Orleans 393, 022. 50 PAR RC oy ber Besos ceases 39, 074. 59 44, 289. 60 90, 183. 13
Oswego 397, 280. 64 145, 148. 18 23, 145. 61 26, 704. 49 75, 089. 37 127, 192.99
Otsecon eee ane 397, 156.23 | 173, 306. 23 6, 346. 34 2,998. 44 81,809.09 | 132, 695. 13
IPN 5. ssboceodee 4 105, 631. 58 34; S80 SDR Ma ecmeeetne sae cee ee een Se 21, 004. 30 48, 596. 93
Rensselaer.........- 576, 134. 13 202, 333. 79 84, 773. 45 64, 372. 70 136, 384. 82 88, 269. 37
Rocwdandiss = 242 5 178, 565. 45 49, 387 O0R eee ae ee eee eee 38, 150. 83 68, 527. 62
St. Lawrence........ 959,139.98 | 412,973.21 92, 173. 65 58, 126. 59 83,969.75 ! 311,896. 78
Saratoga.......-..-. 390,216.76 | 41, 748. 29 11, 105. 77 8, 185.39 97,285.54 | 231,891.77
Schenectady ...-..-- 258, 251.30 | 112,244.11 13, 395. 70 21, 763. 08 65, 318. 73 45, 529. 68
Schoharie.....-..... 252, 467. 80 TEBE BPRE UY dee ccc osacconse 9, 728. 01 9,937.19 99, 474. 43
Schuyler ue 56, 706. 67 5, 917. 82 7, 617. 91 8,772.23 | 44,094.70
Garecameen ye tannin 137, 005. 69 3,221.51 6, 208. 76 14,497.62 | 59, 230.51
Steuben 387, 783. 43 29, 848. 64 23, 804. 95 86, 968.59 | 236,576.19
Suffolk 161, 168. 13 7, 200. 00 2,618. 47 70,160.79 | 531,007.19
Sullivan G-G3OOB | scssccescsess 21, 436. 07 23,060.52 | 144,325. 70
Tioga 1264981495 nee 5, 032. 89 17,342.12 | 77, 759.24
Tompkins 129, 751. 60 30, 216. 90 5, 770. 00 62, 887.27 | 83,098.25
Wistar seamen ee 387, 031.30 61, 732. 38 43, 074. 26 17,271.34 | 103,065.00 | 161, 888.32
Warren ss... sac065 26 179, 819. 29 51, 333. 62 16,300. 00 |.-...--------- 35, 125. 58 77, 060. 09
Washington........- 297, 704. 50 85, 848. 61 13, 643. 09 53, 028. 38 23, 857. 79 121, 326. 63
NWisenymemeee sees 284, 890. 63 95, 325. 99 17, 623.11 2, 868. 98 25, 859.38 | 143,213.17
Westchester........- 990, 557. 27 332, 069. 98 34, 777. 59 105, 425. 51 169,181.52 | 349, 102. 67
Wyoming........... 306, 533.56 | 123, 314. 70 13, 444. 88 37, 861. 21 8,521.85 | 123,390.92
Watessts ern 107, 865. 45 40, 071. 15 NOS(10) |sace2saass05ee 7,509.44 | 57, 784. 86
Total.... -|23, 231, 964.02 | 8,363, 049. 19 14, 364, 934. 76 | 1, 185, 248. 70 | 3,837, 727.95 |8, 113, 303.34

1 Includes balance from previous year; amount collected and a eTed for roads by towns; amount
received from State aid; amount collected and appropriated for bridges; purchase, repair, and storage of
machinery and tools; removal of snow; and miscellaneous purposes.

2 Includes $11,000 appropriated by county and $6,500 appropriated by State for county roads, 1914.

3 Includes $223,000 appropriated by county and $103,200.08 appropriated by State for county roads, 1914.

4 Includes $1, 000 appropriated by county and $500 appropriated by State for county roads, 1914.

5 Includes $15, 000 appropriated by county and $7,500 appropriated by State for county roads, 1914.

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914. 19
ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

On January 1, 1914, according to Bulletin 136, United States
Department of Agriculture, the various counties and towns of New
York had voted $11,729,088 road and bridge bonds, of which
$9,097,923 were county bonds and $2,631,165 were town bonds.
According to reports filed in the office of the State comptroller,
$93,000 of bonds were voted during the year 1914, $33,000 in Albany
County, and $60,000 in Oswego County. The total county and town
bonds voted to the close of 1914 appears, therefore, to be $11,822,088.
_ Of the authorized State bonds about $10,000,000 are issued annually,
and the money is used for the construction of State and county
highways.

ROAD MILEAGE, 1914.

At the close of the year 1914, New York State had 79,398 miles of
public roads. Of this mileage, 11,986.47 are classed as State and
county highways. Of the State and county highways, 6,338.9 had
been surfaced as follows: Bituminous macadam, 3,168.63; plain
macadam, 2,354.97; gravel, 372.97; brick, 148.53; concrete, 244.19;
and other materials, 49.61. In addition to this, 500 miles are classed
as county roads, all of which were surfaced with macadam, bituminous
macadam, and brick. Of the 72,555 miles of town roads, 3,363 were
surfaced with macadam and 5,430 with gravel. Thus it appears that
15,635.9 miles, or 19.6 per cent of the total, were surfaced at the
close of the year 1914.

In 1904 only 5,876 miles, or 7.96 per cent of the total, were surfaced,
while in 1909, 12,787 miles, or 16.13 per cent of the total, were sur-
faced. Comparing the latter figures with those obtained for 1914, it
appears that during the period 1909 to 1914 the State added to its
surfaced roads 2,848.9 miles, or 3.5 per cent of the total.

Detailed information showing the total mileage of public roads
and the mileage improved in the various counties is contained in
Table 11.

20

BULLETIN 386, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

TaBLE 11.— Mileage of public roads, State of New York, 1914.

County.

Cayuga........---
Chautauqua. -....-

Chemung

Chenango...-.---- |

Clinton

Madison....-..----
Monroe

INASSSIP eee eee

Ontario

Rensselaer
Rockland
St. Lawrence....--
Saratoga

Schoharie
Schuyler

SiH gee eds eudeR

Motal ereeae=

State and county highways.

Bitu- *
minous Plain
mac-
mac- | adam
adam 2
58.00 | 121. 24
48. 06 4. 68
68. 845) 61. 887
48.57 | 11.52
55.07 | 45.67
17.76 4.104
25.15 | 33,228
45. 67 52. 364
68.78 | 70.94
56.75 | 24.29
24,54 50.17
100.33 | 14.70
71, 69 52. 361
37.01 | 147.88
108. 83 28.77
61. 82 14,92
36.33 | 25.05
20.79 14, 35
69. 96 4.48
35.74 | 14.18
31.85 | 74.22
114, 95 98. 411
56. 57 4.58
56.45 | 31.18
41.87 34. 31
74.11 | 162.66
40.26 | 56.61
28.745, 14.99
46.20 | 21.47
93.70 | 112.86
132.21 | 46.22
42. 40 80. 13
58.79 | 80.87
24,92.) 23.12
76.65 | 21.86
55. 95 69. 80
45.41 5.9
75.09 | 80.19
19. 37 16.18
174. 90 16. 50
57.76 41. 82
31.56 24,91
14.81 18. 68
22. 62 1.11
94.48 | 42.79
36. 59 6.75
83. 92 11.77
45.98 16. 07
35. 74 | - 13.53
47. 60 44.98
46.90 | 106.09
53. 97 37. 63
48. 35 19, 23
36. 94 15.11
104.22 | 92.67
OZNOO) lee eee
24, 22 12.99

79, 398)3,168.63 |2,354.97

Gravel.| Brick.

Con- Other
2 mate-
crete sil

- 40

Paes) |S)

372.97} 148. 53

244,19) 49.61

6,338.90

County} Town
roads.!

Toads.

504/72, 555. 095

1 Constant progressis being made in the matter of permanently improving town highways.

At theclose

ofthe year 1914 there had been constructed a total of 3,363 miles of town macadam and 5,430 miles of gravel.
All town roads, with the exception of about 2 per cent, have been improved in some manner.

2 Slag.
3 Macadam.

4 Brick, bituminous macadam, and macadam.

5 Shale.
6 Karth.
7 Granite.

\

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914. 21
PENNSYLVANIA.!

Pennsylvania, with an area of 44,832 square miles, has 2.22 miles of
road per square mile of area, and a population, according to the
census of 1910, of 7,665,111, which makes her the second largest State
in the Union in point of population, while there are 33 other States
having larger areas. It has 67 counties, varying in size from Center,
the largest, with an area of 1,146 square miles, to Montour, the
-smallest, with an area of 130 square miles. Pennsylvania’s topogra-
phy is quite diversified, about one-fourth of the area being covered by
hills and mountains. It has a number of large rivers, among which
are the Schuylkill, the Susquehanna, the Monongahela, and the
Allegheny.

Pennsylvania has a highly organized highway department, with
offices located in the State capitol at Harrisburg. The organization
of the department is as follows: Commissioner, first deputy, second
deputy, chief engineer, construction engineer, auditor, statistician,
automobile division registrar, chief clerk, engineer of tests, engineer
of bridges, and chief draftsman. There are 15 assistant engineers in
charge of the 15 districts into which the State is divided.

The State highway department is at present operating under what
is known as the “Sproul Act.”’ Under this act, 375 routes, containing
approximately 10,200 miles, are designated as State highways. Toll
roads included in State highways are purchased by the State. Con-
tracts are awarded by the State highway department on plans and
specifications prepared by the department. All State highways are
improved to a width of 12 feet. The maintenance of the roads
improved as State highways is taken care of by the State highway
department, except that under certain conditions boroughs and in-
corporated towns through which State highways lie pay 50 per cent
of the cost of maintenance. ~

Railways, railway crossings, gas or water pipes, and electric con-
duits are not allowed to be laid on State highways without permits.
Neither may telegraph, telephone, electric light, or power poles be
erected on such highways without special permission from the State’
highway department. .

The department also is required to give aid in the improvement of
certain roads which are not included in the State highway system.
Under this provision of the law, counties and townships, by applica-
tion, may receive from the State not to exceed 50 per cent of the cost
of improvement of roads within the limits of such counties or town-
ships, and for maintenance of such roads thereafter. The basis of
apportionment of State aid to counties and townships is the mileage

1W. R. D. Hall, the statistician of the Pennsylvania highway department, rendered valuable
assistance in this connection.

pay BULLETIN 386, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

of highways in such units. These State-aid highways are maintained
by the State highway department, and 50 per cent of the cost of such
maintenance is repaid by the townships or counties in which the roads
are situated.

In 1911, $3,000,000 was appropriated under the Sproul Act for the
maintenance, repair, and construction of State highways, and for the
State’s share of maintenance of State-aid highways. One million
dollars was appropriated for the improvement of roads designated as _
State-aid highways.

The legislature of 1915 appropriated $8,300,000 to the State high-
way department for the two years ending June 1, 1917. Of this
appropriation $6,000,000 is for the construction and maintenance of
State highways; $250,000 is for the purchase or condemnation of
turnpikes which are included in the State highway system; $500,000
is for the State’s share in the construction and maintenance of State-
aid highways; $50,000 is for the repair and maintenance of the Old
Cumberland Road, and $1,500,000 is to cover a portion of the defi-
ciency on the repayment of a cash-tax bonus to the townships for
previous years. This repayment of the cash-tax bonus is a function.
of the bureau of township highways. The State highway depart-
ment’s care of this fund is merely custodial. Previously, money
derived from motor-vehicle licenses had been given to the State
highway department, in addition to the money appropriated by the
legislature; but in the latter act of the legislature the following
proviso is found:

Provided, That the appropriation made by this act shall include and not be in addi-
tion to the amounts received by the Commonwealth during the two fiscal years begin-
ning June 1, 1915, for tke licensing of motor vehicles and drivers, under the act of
July 7, 1913.

Therefore, the money derived from motor-vehicle licenses is included
in the appropriation of $8,300,000, and is not in addition thereto.

In 1913 a bureau of township highways was established in the
highway department, under supervision of one of the deputies, and
has general supet vision over all township and highway bridges on
which State-aid money has been expended. The bureau also has
charge of the administration of township highways through the various
division engineers. The township supervisors report annually to the
bureau of township highways relative to the number of miles of town-
ship roads and the money derived for road purposes through taxation.
The bureau then grants each township 50 per cent of the total amount
of road tax collected in the township, provided that no township
shall receive in any one year to exceed $20 per mile of township road.
Work done in the townships under this law is in accordance with
regulations prescribed by the State highway department.

ee

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914. 23

There are 45 “first-class” townships which do not come within the
jurisdiction of the bureau of township highways. A first-class town-
ship is one having a population of more than 300 to the square mile.
Road work in these townships is under the supervision of boards of
township commissioners, who have absolute control over all road
work and the collection and expenditure of road funds within their
respective townships. The majority of these townships are included
within the limits of incorporated cities and boroughs, and conse-
quently have no country roads.

A few of the counties also have what are known as county roads,
which are improved and maintained solely at the expense of the coun-
ties in which they are located.

Bonds may be issued by counties or townships to secure funds for
road improvement or maintenance. At present bond issues for road
improvement can not be made by the State, but for some time efforts

have been made to amend the constitution in this connection.

In 1911, and again in 1913, the legislature passed an amendment
to the constitution permitting the State to issue $50,000,000 in bonds
for road improvement. The amendment was then brought before
the people for ratification at the election in November of that year
and was defeated by a majority of 40,000. Again, in 1915, the legis-
lature passed an amendment and, as before, this will be passed upon
by the next legislature, and if so passed it will be submitted to the
people at the fall election in 1918. This procedure is in accordance
with constitutional provisions.

EXPENDITURES, 1914.

It was impracticable to secure complete information regarding
taxation aid revenues from the various counties and townships in
Pennsylvania. Asummary of expenditures for the State as a whole,
including expenditures in first-class townships, was, however, ob-
tained from the State highway department and is as follows:

Expenditures by second-class townships............-.-.---.----2------ $5, 500, 091
Joint funds, State, counties, and townships. ...............-..-.--.-.-- 2, 634, 205
Road work done solely at State expense. ...---..----.----. S operates 2, 290, 284

Total expenditures by State, counties, and townships........----- 10, 424, 580

In 1904 the total expenditures for public roads by the State,
counties, and townships aggregated $4,887,266, and the increase in
1914 as compared with 1904 was, therefore, 113.2 per cent.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

On January 1, 1914, the various counties and townships had voted
$27,172,659 of road and bridge bonds, of which $24,839,050 were
county bonds and $2,333,609 were township bonds. For the year

=

94. BULLETIN 386, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

1914, reports were received from only one township and two counties,
showing additional bonds voted. These were as follows:

Allorhenyv Coeunty,.shalen Township. =: .o.1sees oo eee nee ene ee $25, 000
Thackawanmna Cowmbysy 2 so ois. DON) CUES Seen Li. ee ee ee 100, 000
Westmoreland Coumiyesey : 93241) 23 2". See 2k. eee ee rieeyrag) err 250, 000

DOA eins wep erie a ic epee ee eee a Ae eee i ee 375, 000

By adding these three issues to the total given above it appears
that the total bonds voted up to and including the year 1914 agere-
gate $27,547,659. Owing to the incomplete returns from counties
and townships for 1914, it is impossible to say whether this includes
all bonds voted.

ROAD MILEAGE, 1914.

In Table 12 it will be seen that at the close of 1914, Pennsylvania had
91,555.84 miles of public roads. Of this total, 10,235.5 miles were
classed as State roads, 80,376.31 as second-class township roads, 583.87
as county roads not on the State highway system, and 164.08 as first-
class township roads. The county roads and the first-class township
roads are not included in the table, except in the total mileage column.

The portions of State highways passing through boroughs have
been included in the table and are shown separately from other
roads. While these highways lie within incorporated limits of
boroughs, their construction and maintenance is by the State high-
way department, since they are the connecting links of these State
highway routes which pass through the boroughs.

Of the State highways, 2,942.26 miles, or 28 per cent, were surfaced
as follows: 1,881.8 plain macadam, 198.33 bituminous macadam,
269.33 brick, 235.19 gravel, and 367.6 with other materials, such
as concrete, stone block, flint, and stone. Of the county roads,
all were surfaced, making a total mileage of 583.87 not included
among State highways. These are not shown in the table, but are
distributed as follows: 485.72 miles in Allegheny County; 32 miles in
Cumberland County; 26.8 miles in Lackawanna County; 2.12 miles in
Lehigh County; 4 miles in McKean County; and 13.23 miles in West-
moreland County. Of the roads in first-class townships, not on State
highways and not shown in the table, 46.75 miles are distributed as
follows: 21.75 miles in Allegheny County and 21 miles in Montgomery
County. Of the second-class township roads, it is estimated that
about 8 per cent, or 6,430 miles, was surfaced withsome kind of hard
material. It thus appears that of the total mileage of all roads,
9,982.88 miles, or 10.9 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

In 1904 only 2,160.8 miles, or 2.17 per cent, of the total mileage,
were reported as surfaced, while in 1909, 3,364.76 miles, or 3.84 per
cent, were surfaced. It appears, therefore, from these comparisons
that during the 5-year period 1909-1914, 6,618 miles, or about 7 per
cent of the total mileage, were surfaced.

o

25

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914.

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PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELAT-
ING TO PUBLIC ROADS.

AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT.

Progress Reports of Experiments in Dust Prevention and Road Preservation, 1913.
(Department Bulletin 105.)

Road Models. (Department Bulletin 220.)

Portland Cement Concrete Pavement. for Country Roads. (Department Bulletin 249.)

Methods for the Examination of Bituminous Road Materials. (Department Bulletin
314.) ; ;

Methods for the Determination of Physical Properties of Road-building Rock. (De-
partment Bulletin 347.)

Macadam Roads. (Farmers’ Bulletin 338.)

Benefits of Improved Roads. (Farmers’ Bulletin 505.)

Road Drag and How Used. (Farmers’ Bulletin 597.)

Repair and Maintenance of Highways. (Roads Bulletin 48.)

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,
WASHINGTON, D. C.

Highway Bends: A Compilation of Data and an Analysis of Economic Features A ffect-
ing Construction and Maintenance of Highways Financed by Bond Issues, and the
Theory of Highway Bond Calculations. (Department Bulletin 136.) Price, 25
cents.

Vitrified Brick Pavement for Country Roads. (Department Bulletin 246.) Price, 10
cents.

Construction and Maintenance of Roads and Bridges from July 1, 1913, to December 31,
1914. (Department Bulletin 284.) Price, 10 cents.

Relation of Mineral Composition and Rock Structure to the Physical Properties of
Road Materials. (Department Bulletin 348.) Price, 10 cents.

Construction of Macadam Roads. (Roads Bulletin 29.) Price, 10 cents.

Road Materials of Southern and Eastern Maine. (Roads Bulletin 33.) Price, 20
cents.

Dust Preventives. (Roads Bulletin 34.) Price, 15 cents.

Examination and Classification of Rocks for Road Building, Including Physical Prop-
erties of Rocks with Reference to Their Mineral Composition and Structure. (Roads
Bulletin 37.) Price, 15 cents.

Road Material Resources of Minnesota. (Roads Bulletin 40.) Price, 10 cents.

Physical Testing of Rock for Road Building, Including Methods Used and Results
Obtained. (Roads Bulletin 44.) Price, 15 cents. :

Descriptive Catalogue of Road Models of Office of Public Roads. (Roads Bulletin 47.)
Price, 15 cents.

Bitumens and Their Essential Constituents for Road Construction and Maintenance.
(Roads Circular 93.) Price, 5 cents.

Special Road Problems in Southern States. (Roads Circular 95.) Price, 5 cents.

Progress Report of Experiments in Dust Prevention and Road Preservation, 1912.

- (Roads Circular 99.) Price, 5 cents.
Use of Split-log Drag on Earth Roads. (Farmers’ Bulletin 321.) Price, 5 cents.

(28)

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

§, BULLETIN No. 387

wae
Contribution from Office of Public Roads and Rural pare € :
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director.

Washington, D. C. Vv February 20, 1917

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN THE
SOUTHERN STATES, 1914.

A Compilation Showing Mileage of Improved and Unimproved Roads,
Sources and amounts of Road Revenues, Bonds Issued and Out-
standing, and a description of the Systems of Road Administration,
Fiscal Management and other Factors affecting Road Improve-
ment in Each State. |

Prepared Jointly by the Division of Road Economics of the Office of Public Roads
and Rural Engineering, and State Collaborators.

CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
Introductory: | CEOWHE oc nc seapceonpandcancooacosseéneetans 18
Working plan and sources of information . Deen tuclkeyparenee Sacco Sor aoe ee eer eee 20
Road administration in the Southern | IUOWUSE NE o-oo sect rencacatecossaeseecesane 23
SHO ROSS Gob fees soes see e eee eee 31S Mianylandeesee es Sl a 3.40 Sue Swarr S 26
Public road revenues....-.--.----------- 3 | @MssiSsip plete nea se See eee eee 29
County and district road and bridge bond Nort Carolina s..c2 2. edceuiscmseseeccine oe 32
ISSUCSU apes ye py Be os Sab ASE 2 vee 5 2Oklahomaens tr. joss an lhe ae See eee 35
Hdadmmileacosss26 steve toe ee os 5: | Southy@arolinays oe oss s seme eae enact 37
Types of surfaced roads.............-.--- 7, EOL eSSeO MPEG SERUM Aaa Meee Ue 40
INE SRN So eee Gee red 5 ee 8) Mexasmasrep erie sia: Sy dete ae es ae 43
ATCAMSASER Eee bs a Sek a ekeR clo cincciteceee sce Ai” | AVA oar ee mee ee eis eae ce ae eee a os 45
OLA WAL ONE ree. ania orinc he owelceeisacces coe 15: | SWieS ANAT OUMIa ee ope seat sega sere ee 49
onic ase bek hid ga sede Seeelesindgh 23 16) Asppenditxeae (9552 22S te ei Ree ete eke I-LXXI

INTRODUCTORY.

In 1904 the Office of Public Roads adopted the policy of conducting
an investigation every five years to determine the mileage of improved
and unimproved roads, the revenues for road purposes, and other
related data. In accordance with this policy Public Roads Bulletin
No. 32 was issued, giving such information as was obtainable for the
calendar year 1904, then Public Roads Bulletin No. 41, giving such
information as was available for the calendar year 1909. The inves-
tigation made for the year 1914 followed somewhat different lines, as a

61726°—Bull. 38717 —1

2 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

closer cooperation was maintained with State highway departments,
and wherever practicable the information was collected directly by
collaborators named by the respective State highway departments
and acting under specific instructions from this office. This policy
was not practicable in connection with earlier bulletins owing to the
fact that many of the States then had no organized highway
departments.

For convenient reference and to avoid delay in publication, the
information obtained from the Southern States is published in this
bulletin. Bulletins on this subject covering the Middle Atlantic
States and the New England States have been issued, and the
Middle Western and Western States will be dealt with in a subse-
quent publication.

WORKING PLAN AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION.

The method of procedure followed in obtaining the information
contained in this bulletin was as follows:

A series.of card inquiry forms, designated A, B, C, and D, covering,
respectively, mileage, taxation and revenues, administrative organi-
zation, and bond issues, was prepared and submitted to the various
State highway departments for suggestion and approval. After
changes were made to meet conditions peculiar to individual States,
supplies of the card forms, with necessary stationery, were sent to
each State collaborator, and correspondence then was conducted by
the collaborators under Government frank with the respective county
and township officials.

In many instances 1t was impossible for the collaborators to obtain
replies from all local officials, and accordingly letters and forms were
sent directly from this office to such local officials. In the course of
the investigation it was found necessary to enlist the aid of local
and State road associations, chambers of commerce, automobile
clubs, postmasters, and private individuals in order to obtain ade-
quate information. On account of the absence of detailed records
in many of the towns and counties utmost accuracy is impossible, and
because of the large amount of correspondence necessary to conduct
the investigation, considerable delay in the issuance of the bulletins
has been unavoidable. The data on mileage and revenues should,
therefore, be considered as approximate only.

A summary sheet for each of the forms A, B, C, and D was pre-
pared for each State at the outset of the investigation, and as the
card forms were received from local officials or from the State col-
laborators the information was entered on the summary sheets under
appropriate headings. These summaries, when completed, were
forwarded to the respective State collaborators or to the heads of the
State highway departments, who thereupon prepared a text explana-
tory of the statistical tables and of the administrative system in effect

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 3

in their respective States, or approved a text prepared in this Office.
The bulletin is issued, therefore, in the form of a series of chapters,
each under the authorship or approval of the State official who has
cooperated with this Office in assembling the data.

ROAD ADMINISTRATION IN THE SOUTHERN STATES.

In 1914 four of the Southern States, namely, Alabama, Louisiana,
Maryland, and Viginia, maintained State highway departments and
appled State funds to road improvement. Delaware provided a
State highway commissioner for New Castle County and appro-
priated $10,000 to each county as State aid. Maryland has devel-
oped a rather highly centralized highway department, and not only
aids the counties in road construction but also has spent considerable
money in the construction of State roads, for which State bonds have
been issued. In five of the Southern States, namely, Arkansas,
Kentucky, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and West Virginia, State
highway departments were in operation, but the work of the State
highway departments related entirely to educational, advisory, and
engineering assistance, except in the State of Arkansas, where $75,000
was provided by the State for the purchase of’a crushing plant to be
operated by State prisoners. In North Carolina the educational and
advisory work was carried on under the direction of the North Caro-
lina Geological and Economic Survey. Georgia had no State highway
department, but furnished State convicts for the purpose of building
county roads. In five of the Southern States, namely, Florida,
Mississippi, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas, no State highway
departments had been organized and no contributions were made by
the States toward local roads.

Since 1914, however, Florida, Mississippi, and Tennessee have es-
tablished highway departments and Kentucky and Oklahoma have
enlarged their highway departments and made provision for granting
State aid to the counties. The legislature of Virginia in the early
part of 1916 provided for the maintenance of all State roads under
the direction of the State highway department. In most of the
Southern States the great bulk of road work still is done under the
direction of county authorities.

Detailed information as to the administration of public roads in
each of the Southern States is given in the chapters which relate
respectively to each State.

PUBLIC ROAD REVENUES.

The total revenues applied to roads and bridges in the Southern
States in 1914 amounted to $52,516,559.73, including State appro-
priations, amounts derived from local taxation, and expenditures
from bond issues, both State and local. In 1904 the total revenues
apphed to this purpose amounted to $21,590,682.29, thus showing

4 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

that during the 10-year period 1905 to 1914, inclusive, the revenues
increased $30,925,877.44 or 143.2 per cent. Table 1 presents in
condensed form the information assembled concerning revenues for
the Southern States for the year 1914, with comparative information
for the year 1904.

TABLE 1.—Revenues applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

Total revenues applied to Increase in revenues
roads and bridges. over 1904.
States. (le ees oe 5
ercent-
1914 1904 Total. age,

JN Bop nib he aap Bee Oe bs SS o> Sac oo See BEES nee $3, 949,019.00 | $1,576, 434.27 | $2,372, 584.73 150.5
WArkeansag ts A 22) 235 2p EROS | Ed ee 1, 522,696.20 | 1,395,342. 80 127, 353. 40 9.1
IBGE Ade eee non Get SS Can eee oe eee ne 511, 628. 00 $0, 802. 88 420. 825.12 463.4
Florida.......... 2, 280, 255.09 577,577.10 | 1, 702,677.99 294.7
Georgia.....- | 3,688, 172.25} 2,080,872.33-| 1,607, 299.92 17.2
Kentucky | 2,474,621.00 | 2,148, 689.03 325, 931.97 15.1
Louisiana 1, 777, 572.12 951, 872. 86 $25, 699. 26 86.7
Maryland | 6,000, 652. 03 873,470.50 | 5,127, 181.53 586.9
IMASSISSID lee ee ete Osteen 5 ete 2 Saks Oe | 3,960,377.00 | 1,675,485.45 | 2,284, 891.55 136.3
INORGHS Carolina as tae Fe ype ne nen ye kr. soe eee | 5,215,490.78 | 1,358,687.00 | 3,856, 803.78 283.8
(Opteab orice oe a ae a ea ee fe ee ONTO GR" 80 774,775.59 | 1,337,905. 21 172.6
South Carolinaya. sae ee eee ee eee | 1,024, 486.37 745, 701. 50 278, 778.87 37.4
TREMTIOSSEG she tae hse eeeee Pua teed Bait paw ete eile | 2,370,560.16 | 1,621,777.15 748, 783.01 46.1
Mexasis s.222 Regal Hn, | GE SE eee oh) NE | 9,920,079.11 4,138, 157. 49 5, 781, 921. 62 139.7
VAT pina tS ee eee iia, ee e485 28 82, 687,751.06 | 2,536,777. 76 368.8
VVESEEVIr Sing SS Fete eae ere rs semen 2, 483, 747.00 893,285.28 | 1,590, 461.72 | 178.0
2

Potalse se et MBE aL aly CRU | 52, 516, 559. 73 | 21, 590, 682.29 | 30,925,877.44| «143.

An interesting comparison showing the average revenues for roads
and bridges in the Southern States per mile of road, per square mile
of area, per 1,000 of rural population, and per $100 of assessed valu-
ation for the years 1904 and 1914 is presented in Table 2. This
average does not indicate, however, the distribution of expenditures,
as between construction and maintenance.

TaBLE 2.—Relation of public road and bridge revenues to mileage, area, population, and
assessed valuation, 1904 and 1914.

Revenues.
Per mile of Per square Mile : 2 _Per $100 of as-
SIENES: road. of area. Per capita. | <¢ssed valuation.

1904 | 1914 | 1904 | 1914 | 19041 | 19142 | 19048 | 1914 4

PAM a paitiaeer ee erent ose eee ee eee $31.47 | $71.22 | $30.74 | $77.01 | $0.86 | $1.84 | $0.53 | $0.69

INT KANSAS See ss ceee eee ee eee 38.28 | 30.00] 26.56] 28.99 1.06 - 96 - 62 -36
ID GLA WAT Ose pie sys eee eee ea te 30.26 | 139.25 | 46.21 | 260.37 -49 | 2.52 -13 545

HLOTIG A Gaciae cet eee eee Lae 33.24 | 126.71 | 10.52} 41.56 1.09 | 3.02 -56 1.07
GEOTSIa eet aS oC een ees aie 36.37 | 45.72 | 35.43] 62.80 -93 | 1.41 .44 437
Kenta ckyit ae! = oes a eee ea ee a 37.60 | 42.52] 53.47) 61.58 1.00) 1.068 -30 239
MUOUISIANA ess ser eee yee nene Se ea 38.23 | 72.37) 20.96} 39.10 -68 | 1.073 -30 322
Marylandlse ee sent nee Beep sane | 52.07 | 364.60 | 87.86 | 603.62 -73 | 4.63 -12 485
IMUSSISSID Dimes eie ses eae at es 43.29 | 86.51} 36.13 | 85.42 1.08 | 2.20 -77 962
iINorthiCarolinase sae eee eee 27.30 | 102.75 | 27.87 | 107.00 71 | 2.36 -39 697

Oka OM a Rew ees ae ae ee Rae ne 17.79 | 19.57] 11.16] 30.45 1.94 | 1.274 - 87 1769

Soyo Chinglihney.. ooo sancesocasansoee 17.82 | 24.26] 24.45) 33.59 55 - 67 -38 351
Denn esse@s eke aaee sea ee ee 33.10 | 51.48} 38.90} 56.86 80} 1.08 -39 378
eas PRRs: Eee a ee 34.08 | 76.92] 15.77 | 37.80] 1.35] 2.54 | .40 391
VAT OUTS eh lagi rer St a ein Sali 13.27 | 60.39 17.08 | 80.08 -37 1.506 -14 372
Wiest: Virginia =! olen Seek ee eRe 34.12 | 77.55 | 37.18 } 103.39 -93 | 2.03 -39 212

Weighted averages........._._. 31.51 | 64.47] 24.58 | 59.7 89 | 1.81 36 41

1 Based on the 1900 United States Census. 3 Based on the 1962 United States Census.

2 Based on the 1910 United States Census. 4 Based on the 1912 United States Census.

5

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914.
COUNTY AND DISTRICT ROAD AND BRIDGE BOND ISSUES.

The total county and district road and bridge bonds outstanding on
January 1, 1915, in the Southern States amounted to $64,639,060.83.
In the year 1914 there was expended from local bond issues $13,206,
275.71; there was retired, $1,017,164.34; there was voted $14,165,-
201.60, and there was sold $12,738,016.60. In addition to the county
and district bonds the State of Maryland had outstanding on January
1, 1915, $12,410,000 of road and bridge bonds. These bonds were
issued for the purpose of building a system of State roads. This
makes a total of road and bridge bonds outstanding on January 1,
1915, State and local, of $77,049,060.83.

Information in regard to bond issues by States is presented in
Table 3, and detailed information, showing bond issues by counties,
is shown in the State chapters.

TaBLE 3.—County and district road and bridge bond issues.

Expended
Total out- F | F «
3 from bond | Retized | Voted during | Sold durin:
States. Sea au issues during 1914.| 1914. 1914.
2 ; during 1914,

ENTE OS NgT VEE ee is em Fo 18 OOOF OOM PL, O13) 210500) | Baeemeece sere escee se ae el eeeice seca oie
PRR ATISAS eee te ee ens asa eee A675 60500) | 2 == se eee eee nnas icaia $1, 191, 426.00 | $1, 191, 426. 00
MplawWaALe ein. bssees 6 se see 1, 280, 000. 00 362; Q00500) | SSeene see = 150, 000. 00 150, 000. 00
LOVIG Aen ee a ek el ae 5, 959, 199. 22 765, 051. 77 $18, 500. 00 800,000.00 | 1,505, 000. 00
Geieti oe ZOOS O08 |S -- 2 ees 2, 050. 00 GONOOOS OO) Resear ee ee
GHG UCKay mere pae =e 705, 000. 00 19; O00N000 Hee meaner. 150, 000. 00 125, 000. 00
AGOMISERE Spas seer ihe ote 1, 588, 835. 26 486, 388. 69 24,500.00 | 1, 732,000.00 | 1,161, 000.00
Many land eee 2-2 Sn - 443,700. 00 114, 542. 36 26, 500. 00 26, 000. 00 26, 000. 00
INISSISSI PDUs se wiessoiasaisicis i < 8, 327,172.00 | 2,051, 452.71 40,000.00 | 1,225,500.00 | 1, 778,500.00
INoRin Carolina Ss so%. 5. - 2-5 8, 955, 300.00 | 2, 430,000.00 |------.--..-.. 1,119,500.00 | 2,709,000. 00
Okianomateesso= 6 2 oas2 2 <5 Ie EDO OU Boesecae=2-- 2 <lo-=>5cd5seee5ne Roopa oases sao jousebosseeacrs
NOMPMCALOMMN AS e/== = o25 5 —-= 460, 000. 00 34; 000) 00)|ceceaesee- ce = - 75, 000. 00 75, 000. 00
ANTNTGSSCOs. Se ose ee 6, 898, 276. 89 778, 306. 52 128, 421.11 486, 500. 00 445, 000. 00
ARGWAS HS eset oe Ss c, .| 14, 615,016.53 | 4,152, 456. 72 266,255.00 | 6, 783,275.60 | 3,119, 990. 60
WATE: Ses Goa .-| 5,650, 994. 93 - 999, 866. 94 510, 938. 23 366, 000. 00 452, 100. 00
West Virginia "| 11; 303; 000. 00 @ (2) (2) (2)

ANGE Ls ae 64, 639, 060.83 | 13, 206,275.71 | 1,017, 164.34 | 14, 165,201.60 | 12, 738, 016. 60

1July 1, 1915.

2 Unable to ascertain amounts.

ROAD MILEAGE.

The total road mileage in the Southern States as of January 1,

1915, was 814,565, of which 73,594.78 miles, or 9:03 per cent, were
surfaced. This does not include streets in incorporated cities and
towns. By comparing these figures with former investigations in the
same States it appears that between December 31, 1909, and Decem-
ber 31, 1914, 30,018.60 miles were surfaced. The total road mileage
and the mileage surfaced as of 1914, and comparative mileage for
1909, are shown for the Southern States in Table 4. Detailed infor-
mation on this subject is presented by counties in the State chapters.

~

6 BULLETIN 387, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 4.—Road mileage.

; Percentage
Total road | aries sur- | Miles sur- surfaced.
States mileage | faced close | ced 1910
BEE close of of 1914 _to 1914,
1914. inclusive. 1909 1914
PN a Da 8 sci sa ide eee eons hes clan meee 55, 446 4, 988. 5 1, 724.57 6. 58 8.99
ATKANSAS Bui She ee Reese encase eee ee ees 50, 743 1,097.5 11.75 2.97 2516
Dela warescr- ss. e Seances ee eae 3, 674 243.5 57. 10 6. 22 6. 62
Blovid ay. 43 SS Oee eR Re esis So eae eh! eae te 17,995 2,830. 47 1, 078.12 9.97 15. 72
(Chto) date ee eee ACU hoa Ameo eae Eee mo 80,669 | 12,342.12 6, 364. 12 Ts il 15. 30
Kentucky ssi be boggy seers ei eae Oe 57,916 | 12, 403.28 2, 288.33 | 18.82 21. 40
IBC WI Phi ee Onen as mean ase pap ooaaeeMeaceoer ooneae 24, 563 2, 067. 62 1, 796. 12 iL BY) 8. 42
Maryam Sis22 is | Susy yaa ec Sei: Seas 16, 458 2, 489. 26 346.96 | 12.77 15.15
IMUSSISSI PIS ae ele ee eeeiyeiciatsee cise atelier cls 45,779 2, 133.35 1,791.10 . 86 4. 66
INOGin Carolinas a0 he eeeee ene econ see eee 50, 758 6, 003. 75 3, 690. 75 4.79 11. 82
OkIAhoMa eS oes dee eGs eo siesneceaemee 107, 916 121.6 1 239. 40 50 11
SouthiG@arolina ass. fe peewee se: ee eases 42, 226 3, 270.5 1264.25 | 11.02 7. 74
Monnessee. 5.22 nesses seseoes ajo cepepaie eaeaene Sete tees 46, 050 8, 102.0 2,748.50 | 11.66 17.59
MOXAS SaaS es hh eet ae eevee s) Mile eer 128,960 | 10,526.79 5, 640. 79 3. 80 8.16
Virginia.......... 53,388 3,909. 57 2,006. 82 4.38 7.32
West Virginia 32, 024 1, 064. 97 473.57 1.84 3.32
Motaliandlaverageneseeceesse eso cesar 814,565 | 73,594.78 | 30,018.60 6. 08 9. 03
1 Decrease.

The relation of total mileage and surfaced mileage to area and
rural population in the Southern States for the years 1904, 1909, and
1914 is presented in Table 5.

TABLE 5.—Relation of total mileage and surfaced mileage to area and rural population.

1914

Total mileage. Surfaced mileage.
States Per square mile Per 1,000 rural Per square mile of Per 1,000 rural popula-
: of area. population. area. tion.
1904 | 1909 | 1914 | 19041] 19092|19142| 1904 | 1909 | 1914 | 19041 | 19092
Alabama.......- 0.97 | 0.96 | 1.08 | 31.5 | 28.0 | 31.3 | 0.033 | 0.063 | 0.097 | 1.06 1. 84
Arkansas......- 67 - 69 -96 | 30.3 | 26.5 | 36.9 - 004 - 02 - 02 - 196 .79
Delaware....... 1.53 | 1.53 | 1.86 | 30.3 | 28.5 | 34.9] .03 -095 | 1.24 -667 | 1.77
Florida........-. -3l | .382) .33]) 41.2) 32.9 | 33.6) .016 - 032 -052 | 2.09 3. 28
Georgia........- .96 | 1.40 | 1.37 | 30.5 | 39.7 | 38.9) .028 - 101 - 210 -873 | 2.88
Kentucky....-... 1.42 | 1.33 | 1.44 | 34.0 | 30.9 | 33.4 . 236 - 251 308 | 5.64 5. 83
Louisiana ....... . 54 Br}3) -54 | 24.5 | 21.5 | 21.1 - 0007 - 007 - 05 - 0334 - 0284
Maryland....... 1.68 | 1.68 | 1.65 | 28.1 | 26.3 | 25.8] .15 ~22 -25 2. 63 3.36
Mississippi... --- . 83 - 85 -99 | 27.0 | 24.9 | 28.8] .003 - 007 - 046 . 104 . 215
North Carolina.-.| 1.00 -99 | 1.04 | 29.1 | 25.5 | 26.8] .025 -047 123 087 | 1.22
Oklahoma...... 1.10 | 1.02 | 1.55 | 59.5 | 538.3 | 80.7] .000 . 0052 0017 | .000 . 27
South Carolina--| 1.30 | 1.05 | 1.38 | 35.7 | 24.8} 32.7] .061 411i ~ 107 | 1.60 2.74
Tennessee. ..-... 1.17 | 1.10 | 1.10 | 28.9 | 26.3 | 26.4] .102 - 128 194 | 2.52 3.07
MOKaSe ees oe -46| .49 -49 | 48.0 | 43.6 |] 48.6] .081 . 186 401 841 | 1.65
Virginia........- 1.29 | 1.07 | 1.32 | 34.2 | 27.3 | 33.7] .039 - 047 097 | 1.05 1.20
West Virginia. ..| 1.06 | 1.33 | 1.33 | 31.4 | 32.3 | 32.3] .001 . 002 044 saul . 095
Average ...... -73| .83 | .92 | 34.0] 31.9 | 35.7) .031 - 050 -083 | 1.35 1.93

1 Based on the United States census for 1900.

2 Based on the United States cansus for 1910.

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914, 7

A diagram, Fig. 1, shows the percentage of surfaced roads for
the Southern States at the close of the years 1904, 1909, and 1914.

107% 207% 30%

ALABAMA Fe = MississiPPt{
ie EGE
ARKANSAS sos 90 N.CAROLINA
19
DELAWARE {0s 1909 OKLAHOMA
19148
FLORIDA so S.CAROLINA
Ba
GEORGIA {09 TENNESSEE
wenTucny {9 1909 ; TEXAS
oar EE
LOUISIANA {15098 = VIRGINIA
a
jl
Bf sansesneed 904
MARYLAND i 1909 Sea W.VIRGINIA

1914 I
Fig. 1.—Percentage of surfaced roads in Southern States 1904, 1909, and 1914.

This diagram also shows in a striking manner the strides which have
been made in road improvement in the South during the past 10
years.

TYPES OF SURFACED ROADS.

Of the 73,594.78 miles of surfaced roads in the Southern States
at the close of 1914, 29,287.88 miles, or 39.80 per cent, were sand
clay; 21,377.37 miles, or 29.05 per cent, were macadam; 17,440.02
miles, or 23.7 per cent, were gravel; 1,994.36 miles, or 2.71 per
cent, were bituminous macadam; 1,924.68 miles, or 2.61 per cent,
were shell; 379.81 miles, or 0.51 per cent, were brick; 273.24 miles,
or 0.37 per cent, were concrete; and 917.42 miles, or 1.25 per cent,
were surfaced with other materials. The distribution of types of
surfaced roads as of January 1, 1915, is shown by States in Table 6.

8 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 6.—Distribution of types of surfaced roads, 1914.

Types.
States. “7 Bitumi- a E seereet Total.
ac- nous an . on- iscel-
adam. mac- Gravel. clay. Shell. | Brick. crete. | laneous.
adam
Alabama.......-- 431.00 31.00 | 2,589.50 | 1,916.00 20.00 |.-.----- TOONS a2 seas 4, 988. 50
Arkansus....----- 362. 50 4.00 535. 00 WHO) ||-Sacesaaa|ssocenne ZF OOM Soon ener 1, 097. 50
Delaware.......-- 161. 50 35. 50 21500) )|Soseeeeee 25550) fee ee oo eee AIS oe oe 243. 50
Mlonidaseeesce ee eee 829. 16 42. 80 42.50 | 1,163.00. 362.77 | 256.24} 12.00 |1122.00 | 2,830.47
Georgia......-.-- 234.00 87.00 | 1,073.00 |10,778.00°| 45.00 1.72 -40 | 123.00 | 12,342.12
Kentucky .....--- 10, 628. 00 RUB USAR 0) Ne oe coosse||Sasscegss i
Mouwisianay a. Pe) Mea he eweleeee sc ase 430.00 | 1,448.00 | 107.50 |..
Maryland.....--.- 488.70 |1, 042.31 243.95 69.00} 455.96 |-.
Mississippi-....-- 86.00} 29.50] 1,281.10] 604.25] 114.00
North Carolina. --| 1,111.00 9.00 by). (00) | 2 aulsy Bio saoten-
Oklahoma......-. 6.70 3.00 6. 90 LOS 008|eeeee see ag
South Carolina. .. 27.50 3.50 85.00 | 3,101.00 53. 50 |--
Tennessee.......- 4,550.50 | 148.00 | 2,788.00 QIELOONGssctoues 2
Moxas niagaa ss 511.00 | 181.00 | 5,258.98 | 3,490.48} 740.45 |..-..-.- 11.25 | 333.63 | 10,526.79
Wareinia es asseae 1,177.89 | 255.77 8225098) AOU Gon | Zee = nee | eee | epee 2142.17 | 3,909.57
West Virginia... -. 771.92 62. 95 20250 ses 52 eee | ee ee ee 121.10 | 18.50] 270.00} 1,064.97
Motaleaasee 21,377.37 |1,994.36 |17, 440.02 |29, 287.88 |1,924.68 | 379.81 | 273.24 | 917.42 | 73,594.78

Per cent of total

Surfaced .....--- 29.05 2.71 23.70 39. 80 2.61 -51 37 1225 100. 00

1 Principally sand asphalt. 2 Principally shell. 3 Shale.

Detailed information regarding sources and amounts of revenues, °
bonds issued and outstanding, total mileage of roads, mileage sur-
faced, systems of administration, and other factors affecting road
improvement is presented in the following chapters for the South-

ern States. .
ALABAMA.

Alabama has a land area of 51,279 square miles, a total road mile-
age of 55,446, and a population, according to the 1910 Census, of
2,138,093. The State has a population of 41.7 per square mile of
area and 38.56 per mile of road, with 1.08 miles of road per square
mile of area. Of the population in 1910, 82.7 per cent, or 1,767,662,
was rural, thus indicating a rural population of 31.9 per mile of road.

In 1911 the legislature enacted a law creating a State highway
department, which is composed of a State highway commission and
a State highway engineer. The State highway commission consists
of a professor of civil engineering from the Alabama Polytechnic
Institute, the State geologist, and three other members appointed
by the governor.

The State highway engineer is elected by the State highway com-
mission and holds office subject to the pleasure of the commission.
The State highway engineer, with the consent and advice of the
State highway commission, may employ such assistant engineers
and clerical help as may be necessary. He is vested with authority
to determine the character and have general supervision of the con-
struction and repair of all State-aid roads, and may be consulted by

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 9

local road authorities concerning any question that involves highways
and bridges under their control. He may in like manner call on such
local authorities for any information or assistance they may be able
to render with reference to the highways under their control.

The act creating the State highway department required the State
highway engineer to prepare a map of such of the main highways of
the State as in his judgment were of sufficient importance to be des-
ignated as a system of trunk or State roads, to be improved by the
State and counties jointly, and to report same to the State highway
commission for submission to the legislature. Such report was sub-
mitted to the legislature and, by an act approved September 10, 1915,
a system of State trunk roads was designated for improvement and
maintenance in accordance with standards established by the State
highway department. It was made unlawful to spend any money
appropriated by the State on any other roads than those comprised
in said designated system until after their improvement. The State
will pay one-half the cost of constructing the trunk line roads. An
annual appropriation of $154,000 is made from the net revenue de-
rived from the convict fund for the support of the State highway
department and for State aid in road work.

It is the duty of the State highway commission to prescribe rules
and reeulations under which the State highway engineer shall require
roads constructed or improved in any county with State aid to be
kept in proper repair, and should any county fail or refuse to carry
out any reasonable recommendations of the State highway engineer
relating to the repair of such roads, the work may be done by the
State and the expense therefor shall be paid by the county or may
be paid out of any money that may be due or that may become due
such county from the State-aid appropriation.

The courts of county commissioners, boards of revenue, or other
like governing bodies in the several counties, are vested with the
general supervision of the public roads, bridges, and ferries in their re-
spective counties. They may establish, promulgate, and enforce
rules and regulations and make and enter into such contracts as they
may deem necessary for the construction and maintenance of a good
system of public roads, bridges and ferries, and regulate the use
thereof.

All able-bodied males between 18 and 45 years of age are liable to
work on the roads in their respective counties not more than 10 days
each year or to pay such amount in heu thereof, not exceeding $5, as
may be determined by the court of county commissioners, board of
revenue, or other like governing body. The amount of money paid
in lieu of said road work shall go into the county road fund. No
person shall be liable to road duty in any county having an assessed
property valuation of $100,000,000.

10 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The courts of county commissioners, boards of revenue, or other
like governing bodies, may, for the purpose of maintaining roads,
bridges or ferries, impose upon the owners of vehicles used upon the
public roads of the county such license taxes as they may deem advis-
able. On vote of a majority of the qualified electors of a county
voting at an election held for that purpose, bonds may be issued for
public improvements or to pay debts created for such improvements,
including the building of roads and bridges, but the aggregate amount
of indebtedness that may thus be created shall not exceed 3 per cent
of the assessed value of the property in such county. Said courts,
or boards, may levy and collect such special taxes as they may deem
necessary, not to exceed one-fourth of 1 per cent of the assessed value
of property in the county, for the purpose of paying any debt or lia-
bility created, or that may be created, for erecting public buildings or
constructing roads and bridges.

Convicts of a county may be worked on its roads, bridges or ferries,
or in the preparation of road materials, or said convicts may be hired
to or from another county or from the State.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES IN 1914.

It was impossible to secure complete information on taxation and
revenues from every county in the State, but from the reports
received it appears that $2,488,805.51 was received from taxation
and applied to roads in 1914. Of this amount $612,095.02 was
obtained from the regular levy, $103,822 from statute labor tax
paid in cash, $91,237.59 from general funds and applied to imterest
and principal on road bonds, and $1,681,650.90 from general and
special funds.

Fifteen out of the 67 counties in the State report that they are
still making use of the statute labor tax. A total of 47,600 men is
reported as having worked the roads from 34 to 10 days each. The
cash value of this labor at the prevailing rate of wages amounted to
$302,025.

By adding $302,025, the cash value of the labor tax, and $1,013,210,
the amount obtained from bond issues and expended on roads in
1914, and $144,978, the State-aid appropriation for 1914, to the totals
above, it appears that the aggregate expenditure for roads in
1914 amounted to $3,949,019. This includes $91,237.59 paid out by
counties for interest and principal on road bonds. It was impracti-
cable to separate this item from the total. In 1904 the total prop-
erty and labor tax amounted to $1,576,434.27, thus showing that
during the past 10 years the road revenues increased $2,372,584.73,
or 150.5 per cent.

The use of the statute labor tax appears to have declined steadily
since 1904, for during that year 153,419 men were reported as having

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. Hel

_worked the roads, and the value of such labor amounted to $1,198,394.
The principal increases in revenues are, therefore, property taxes
paid in cash, which accounts for the steady imcrease in the surfaced
road mileage of the State.

The county tax rates for roads, the total receipts from taxation
and the statute labor road tax are shown by counties in Table 7.1

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

On January 1, 1915, a total of $5,418,000 of county road and
bridge bonds was outstanding. This includes $372,000 of road
warrants. During the year 1914, $1,013,210 was expended from
road bonds. The total bonds and warrants outstanding and the
amounts expended from bond issues in 1914 are shown by counties
in Table No. 23.

ROAD MILEAGE.

In 1904 Alabama reported 50,089 miles of puble roads, in 1909,
49 639 miles, and in 1914, 55,446 miles. The surfaced roads of the
State reported were 1,720 miles for 1904, 3,263.93 miles in 1909,
and 4,988.5 miles in 1914. The percentage of all roads surfaced was
therefore 3.43 per cent in 1904, 6.58 per cent in 1909, and 8.99 per
cent in 1914, Of the latter 431 miles were macadam, 2,589.5 gravel,
1,916 sand clay, 31 bitumimous macadam, 20 shell, and 1 concrete.
In addition to the surfaced roads, 2,023.5 miles were reported as
graded and drained earth roads. While some of the counties
reported a smaller mileage of surfaced roads in 1914 than in 1909, it
appears that if the State is taken as a whole a total of 1,724.57 miles
of roads were surfaced during the five-year period, January 1, 1910,
to December 31, 1914.

The total mileage of roads, the miles surfaced, the percentage
surfaced, and the mileage of graded and drained earth roads are
shown by counties in Table 37.

ARKANSAS.

Arkansas has a land area of 52,525 square miles, a total road mile-
age of 50,743, and a population, according to the 1910 census, of
1,574,449. The State, therefore, has a population of 29.97 per
square mile of area and 31.02 per mile of road, with 0.96 mile of road
' per square mile of area. Of the population in 1910, 87.1 per cent,
or 1,371,768, was rural, thus indicating a rural population of 27.03
per mile of road.

In the legislative session of 1913 there was established the depart-
ment of State lands, highways and improvements, the executive
head of which is the Commissioner of State lands, highways and
improvements. There also was created a State highway commission

1 All tables referred to in the text under the respective States will be found in the appendix.

12 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to consist, ex officio, of the commissioner of State lands, highways
and improvements, as chairman, and two other members to be ap-
pointed by the governor to serve for terms of two years each. Sub-
ject to the approval of the State highway commission, the commis-
sioner of State lands, highways and improvements appoints a State
highway engineer. Thé head professor of civil engineering in the
State university is ex officio consulting engineer of the department
of State lands, highways and improvements. There is a highway
improvement fund which consists of all fees accrumg in the office
of State lands, highways and improvements, and the proceeds from
the registration and licensing of motor vehicles. The work of the
State highway department embraces the educational, advisory, and
constructive phases of road work as follows:

(1) The holding of road institutes m each county every year
and the issuance of bulletins pertaming to road work.

(2) Consultation relative to and investigation of all road and
bridge matters upon request.

(3) Making prelimimary surveys, plans, estimates, and specifi-
cations of all road work contemplated under the general road
district law and the working of all available State convicts on
the public roads or in the preparation of road materials.

The constitution gives the county courts exclusive original juris-
diction over all matters relating to roads, bridges and ferries. The
county courts, with approval of the quorum court, may appoint a
commissioner of roads, highways and bridges for their respective
counties, to have charge of the building and repairing of roads and
bridges under the direction of the county judge. Said court shall
divide the county into convenient road districts and appoint an over-
seer for each such district. In six counties a county highway engineer:
may be appointed by the county courts for a term of one year.
Where a county highway engineer is appointed he shall have super-
vision over all road work and shall direct the overseers in the per-
formance of their duties. In counties having the county engineer
system, all work may be done by contract, the county engineer to pre-
pare plans, estimates and specifications and let the work to the lowest
responsible bidder, the funds for paying same to be derived from the
general 24 or 3 mill road tax. An optional system for working roads
is provided, subject to adoption by the county court, whereby each
political township is made a road district and a township road over-
seer is to be elected at each general election.

Road improvement districts may be created by the county court
when petitioned for by a majority in land value, acreage, or number
of land owners within the proposed district and after the required
public notice and hearing.

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 13

An appeal from the order of the county court creating a road
district may be taken at any time within 30 days. The county court
at the same time that it orders the creation of a road improvement
district shall appoint three owners of real estate in the district to
act as the board of commissioners for such district. The board
of commissioners may appoint an engineer or have the work done
under direct supervision of the State highway department. The
cost of the proposed improvement shall be paid by a tax levy on
real property in proportion to the benefits that will accrue thereto
and the amount of such benefits shall be determined by a board of
assessors to be appointed for that purpose, but not more than 20
per cent of such tax may be required to be paid in any one year.

Numerous special laws have been enacted under which road and
bridge work in many of the counties is done. These special laws
vary the system of administration slightly from that provided by
the general law and in many of the counties create road officials
under designations or titles different from those authorized by the
general law.

The county court, with approval of the quorum court, may levy
annually for road purposes not less than 24 mills nor more than 3
mills on each $1 of taxable property in the county. Various pro-
visions exist whereby road bonds may be issued and limiting the
amount of such bonds that may be issued, the maximum limit being
prescribed for road improvement districts which are authorized to
issue bonds in such amounts, exciusive of interest, as will not exceed
30 per cent of the total assessed value of the real property located
within the district.

Male persons between the ages of 18 and 45, not exempt by law,
may be required to work not exceeding 10 days annually on the
public highways, or to pay in lieu thereof the sum of $1 for each
day of work so required. However, most counties require only
four days. Provision is made for the working of county convicts
on the public highways.

REVENUE APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES DURING 1914.

In 1914 the total receipts from taxation applied to roads and
bridges amounted to $1,522,696.20, of which $1,259,242.20 was
obtained from general county taxes, $103,454 was the cash value of
the statute labor tax, $45,000 was obtained from bond issues, and
$115,000 appropriated by the State, of which $25,000 was for engi-
neering and inspection, $15,000 for administration of the State high-
way department and $75,000 for the purchase of a crushing plant -
to be used by State prisoners.

In 1904 the total expenditures for public roads im Arkansas
amounted to $!,395,342.80, of which $681,933.80 was obtained from

14 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

property taxes paid in cash, while $713,409 represented the cash
value of the statute labor tax. It thus appears that the total
receipts from taxation, including the State appropriation, applied
to roads increased durmg the 10-year period $127,353.40, or 9.1 per
cent. The receipts from the property tax alone during this period
increased 84.6 per cent, while the receipts from the statute labor
tax were nearly seven times as great in 1904 asin 1914. It is quite
likely, however, that complete information on the statute labor tax
was not obtained for the year 1914.

The information showing the revenue applied to roads and bridges
for the year 1914 is contained in Table 8.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS AND SCRIP.

The total road and bridge bonds and scrip outstanding on January
1, 1915, amounted to $1,467,066, comprising $1,249,926 in bonds
and $217,140 in scrip. The scrip consisted of noninterest-bearing
short-time loans or warrants issued to meet current expenses. Dur-
ing the year 1914 a total of $1,191,426 road and bridge bonds were
voted and sold. These bonds run from 12 to 20 years and bear 6
per cent interest. They were sold at from 98 to 101 cents on the
dollar.

Detailed information showing bonds and scrip by counties is
contained in Table 24.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914, Arkansas reported 50,743 miles of public road,
of which 1,097 miles, or 2.16 per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced
roads 362.5 miles were plain macadam, 535 miles gravel, 175 sand clay,
21 concrete, and 4 miles bituminous macadam. ‘There were also
16,305 miles of earth road reported as graded and drained. Pulaski
County reported 198.5 miles, or 39 per cent, of surfaced roads. This
is the only county in the State that reported more than 100 miles
of surfaced road. There are 39 counties in the State which reported
no surfaced roads. Quite a number of counties reported a smaller
mileage of surfaced roads than was reported for 1909. Several
counties also reported large increases in total road mileage, with the
result that the total mileage of all roads reported increased from
36,445 miles in 1909 to 50,743 miles in 1914, and that the percentage
of surfaced roads shows a decrease on this account from 2.97 in 1909
to 2.16 in 1914. In other words, if the figures reported are correct,
Arkansas only had 11.75 more miles of improved roads in 1914 than
- m1909. Mileage of surfaced roads outside of incorporated cities is
shown in Table 38.

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 15

DELAWARE.

Delaware has an area of 1,965 square miles. It has only three
counties, of which Sussex is the largest, having an area of 913 square
miles, and New Castle is the smallest, having an area of 435 square
miles. In 1910 tho State had a total population of 202,322, of which
87,411 were in tho city of Wilmington.

Each county in Delaware conducts its highway work as a distinct
unit. In New Castle County there is a State highway commissioner
appointed by the governor for the one county, and a county road
engineer appointed by the levy court, but the same man may hold
both offices. In the other counties the levy court is the governing
body, and a county engineer is appointed by the court. The legis-
lature each year appropriates $30,000 for highway purposes, each
county receiving $10,000 as its share.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

In 1914 a total of $511,628 was applied to road and bridge work in
Delaware. Of this amount, $118,628-was derived from county taxa-
tion, $31,000 from State-aid appropriations and $362,000 from bond
issues. In 1904 the total revenues applied to roads and bridges
amounted to $90,803, thus showing that during the 10-year period,
1904 to 1914, the expenditures increased $420,825, or 463 per cent.
Table 9 shows the rates of taxation, the amounts derived from taxa-
tion and the amounts received from the State and applied to roads

in 1914,
ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

On January 1, 1915, the total road and bridge bonds outstanding
amounted to $1,280,000 for Kent and New Castle Counties only. In
1914 New Castle voted and sold $150,000 of bridge bonds. During
1914, $362,000 were expended by the counties from road and bridge
bonds issued that year and previously. The total bonds outstand-
ing on January 1, 1915, the bonds issued in 1914, and the expenditures
from bond funds in 1914 are shown by counties in Table 25.

ROAD MILEAGE. ij

At the close of 1914 Delaware had 3,674 miles of public road, of
which 243.5 miles, or 6.62 per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced
roads 161.5 miles were macadam, 35.5 bituminous macadam, 21
gravel, and 25.5 shell. In addition to the surfaced roads, 270 miles
were graded and drained earth roads. The mileage figures for Dela-
ware are shown in Table 39.

Comparing the mileage figures of 1914 with similar data collected
for 1909 shows that the mileage of surfaced roads increased 57.1 miles
in the five-year period. The percentage of roads surfaced in 1909
was 6.22.

16 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

FLORIDA.

By J. P. Cuarxson, Collaborator United States Office of Public Roads and Rural En-
gineering.

Florida has a land area of 54,861 square miles, a total road mileage
of 17,995, and a population, according to the 1910 Census, of 752,619.
The State, therefore, has a population of 13.71 per square mile of
area and 41.82 per mile of road, with 0.33 mile of road per square
mile of area. Of the population in 1910, 70.9 per cent, or 533,539, was
rural, a rural population of 29.65 per mile of road.

A State road department to consist of five persons, one
from each congressional district, appointed by the governor, subject
to confirmation by the State senate, was created in 1915. The mem-
bers of the department elect annually from their membership a
chairman and a secretary. The department is required to employ
some person well versed in road building to be State road commis-
sioner, and may employ also necessary clerical and engineering assist-
ants. Fifteen per cent of all county motor vehicle licenses is paid
into the State treasury for the maintenance of the State road depart-
ment. The work of the department is mostly of an advisory nature.

General jurisdiction over roads and bridges in the several counties
vests in the boards of county commissioners, composed of one com-
missioner elected from each of the five districts into which each
county is divided. Hach county commissioner’s district constitutes
aroad district, and it is the duty of the county board of commis-
sioners at its January meeting each year to appoimt three commis-
sioners for roads and bridges in each district. ‘The road commissioners
lay off the roads in their respective districts into subdivisions of con-
venient length and appoint an overseer for each subdivision. Hach
board of commissioners is authorized to employ a county engineer,
who, subject to the orders of said board, has general supervision and
control of all road and bridge work of the county. On petition of
25 per cent of the duly registered voters who are freeholders residing
within territory which it is desired to have constituted a ‘‘special
road and bridge district,’ the board of county commissioners shall
call an election to determine whether such district shall be created
and whether funds for improving the roads thereim shall be raised
by a special tax or by a bond issue. All work im ‘‘special road and
bridge districts” is under the supervision and control of the board of
county commissioners. Special tax road districts are created by a
majority vote at an election called for that purpose on petition of
one-fourth of the qualified electors who pay taxes on real and per-
sonal property and reside in the district. In addition, a number of
special road laws have been enacted and are in force in many counties.

Boards of county commissioners are authorized to levy a general
road tax of not to exceed 8 mills on each $1 of real and personal prop-

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 17

erty in their respective counties. Said boards also may levy a special
road and bridge tax of not to exceed 5 mills on the $1 of all real and
personal property in the county, one-half of the amount derived
therefrom in incorporated cities to be turned over to the municipal
authorities thereof for use on roads and streets. There may be
Jevied in ‘‘special tax road districts” not to exceed 5 mills on the $1.
The boards of county commissioners are authorized to levy annually
on all taxable property in “‘special road and bridge districts” a tax
of not exceeding 10 mills on the $1 for the repair and maintenance of
the roads and bridges therein and not exceeding 20 mills on the $1
to pay for the improvements voted at the special election at which
such ‘‘special road and bridge district’? was created. Road bonds
may be issued when authorized by a majority vote of the registered
voters in the respective counties.

Every able-bodied male person, not exempt by law, over 21 and
under 45 years of age, is liable to not more than 6 days’ labor on the
roads and bridges or to pay $3 in leu thereof.

The working of both State and county convicts on the public roads
is authorized by law.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES IN 1914.

The total revenues applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted
to $2,280,255.09 and comprised the following items: Receipts from
general county taxes, $969,825.36; receipts from auto licenses, convicts
hired out, special taxes, labor taxes, and other sources, $545,377.96;
and expenditures from bond issues, $765,051.77.

In 1904 the total expenditures for this purpose amounted to
$577,577.10, showing an increase in the 10-year period of $1,702,677.99,
or 294.7 per cent. The cash value of the statute labor tax amounted
to $140,393 in 1904, but in 1914 this amounted to only $18,069.09,
which shows that the statute labor tax has almost disappeared in
Florida.

The receipts from taxation and the tax rates for general county road
purposes are shown by counties in Table 10.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total amount of road and bridge bonds outstanding on January
1, 1915, amounted to $5,959,199.22. This included $48,000 of road
warrants. The total expenditure from bonds during the year 1914
amounted to $765,051.77, a total of $800,000 of bonds was voted,
$1,505,000 sold and $18,500 retired.

Detailed information regarding the Florida road bonds is given by
counties in Table 26.

61726°—Bull 387—17——2

18 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ROAD MILEAGE.

The total mileage of public roads at the close of the year 1914
amounted to 17,995, of which 2,830.47 miles, or 15.73 per cent, were
surfaced. Of the surfaced roads 829.16 miles were plain macadam,
42.80 bituminous macadam, 362.77 shell, 1,163 sand-clay, 256.24
brick, 42.5 gravel, 12 concrete, and 122 other materials, principally
sand-asphalt. The State has 3,686 miles of graded and drained
earth roads.

In mileage of surfaced roads, Marion County stands first, with 200
miles, or 22.22 per cent; Gadsden County second, with 185 miles, or
46.25 per cent; Palm Beach County third, with 160 miles, or 44.44
per cent; Orange County fourth, with 157 miles, or 48.3 per cent; Lake
County fifth, with 150 miles, or 46.15 per cent; and Duval County
sixth, with 144 miles, or 56.47 per cent. Six other counties have more
than 100 miles surfaced and 10 counties report none.

In 1909 the surfaced roads amounted to 1,752 miles, or 9.97 per cent,
of the total, thus showing that during the 5-year period 1,078 miles
were surfaced.

The mileage statistics for the various counties are shown in Table 40.

GEORGIA.!
By 8. W. McCattts, State Geologist.

Georgia has a land area of 58,725 square miles, a total road mileage
of 80,669, and a population, according to the 1910 census, of 2,609,121.
The State therefore has a population of 44.42 per square mile of
area and 32.34 per mile of road, with 1.37 miles of road per square
mile of area. Of the population in 1910, 79.4 per cent, or 2,070,471,
was rural, thus indicating a rural population of 25.66 per mile of
road.

The surface configurations of Georgia vary from a low, level, almost
featureless plain only a few feet above sea level to high rugged
mountains attaining an altitude of more than 4,000 feet. The State
is naturally divided into five physiographic divisions: The Coastal
Plain, the Piedmont Plateau, the Appalachian Mountains, the Appa-
lachian Valley and the Cumberland Plateau.

The board of county commissioners, in counties where such boards
have been created, or the commissioners of roads and revenues, or
the ordinary of each county, has jurisdiction over the roads therein.
These officials, in many cases, appoint three district road commis-
sioners for each road district in the county and the district road
commissioners appoint one or more road overseers for their respec-

1 The information contained in the tables [see Appendix] concerning the public roads of Georgia was
collected by the State geological survey, in cooperation with the United States Office of Public Roads

and Rural Engineering, largely by correspondence, but in some instances personal visits were mee
The work was begun about the ist of March, 1915, and completed in December, 1915,

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 19

tive districts, the latter having immediate charge of road work.
The commissioners of roads and revenues, the ordinary, or such
other officers as have charge of county matters in any county, may
appoint a ‘‘superintendent of public roads.’’ In counties of more
than 15,000 and not more than 85,000 population the commissioners
of roads and revenues, upon the recommendation of the grand
jury, may employ one or more persons as ‘‘inspector of roads and
bridges.”

The commissioners of roads and revenues are authorized to levy
a tax of not more than four-tenths of 1 per cent on all taxable prop-
erty for a ‘‘public road fund.” They are also authorized to levy
a general road tax of from 1 to 24 mills on the dollar. In addition
to the general road taxes authorized by law many counties operate
under special laws and are authorized to make special levies in excess
of or in lieu of the general levy. Any county or subdivision thereof
may issue road bonds in an amount not exceeding 7 per cent of
the assessed value of all taxable property therein, when authorized
by a two-third vote of the qualified voters of the county. Bonds
may be issued without being submitted to a vote of the people in
an amount not exceeding one-fifth of 1 per cent of the assessed
value of all taxable property in the county.

All male persons between the ages of 21 and 50 years, not exempt
by law, are liable to work not exceeding 10 days each year on the
roads or commute for same by paying from $2 to $5 in cash, the
requirements varying in the different counties. State and county
convicts may be worked on the roads.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES IN 1914.

The total revenues applied to roads and bridges in 1914
amounted to $3,688,172.25 and comprised the following items:
County road and bridge tax, $2,827,352; amount obtained from
automobile licenses, $92,739; amount obtained from commutation
tax, $708,285; and cash value of statute labor tax, $59,796.25.

In 1904 the total revenues applied to roads and _ bridges
amounted to $2,080,872.33. In the 10-year period revenues
for this purpose increased $1,607,299.92, or 77.2 per cent.

Information in regard to the tax rates and the receipts from
taxation of the various counties is shown in Table 11.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

According to the reports received, $127,500 of road and bridge
bonds were outstanding on January -1, 1915, as follows: Ben Hill
County, $8,000; Bleckley County, $8,000; Clarke County, $76,500;
and Hancock County, $35,000. In 1914 Dade County voted $60,000
of 5 percent 20-year road and bridge bonds, which were sold during

20 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

1915 at 984 cents on the dollar. Road bonds were retired as follows:
Ben Hill County, $350; Towns County, $700 and Turner County,
$1,000.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of the year 1914, according to reports received,
Georgia had 80,669 miles of public road, of which 12,342.12, or 15.3
per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads, 10,778 miles were
sand clay, 1,073 miles gravel, 234 miles macadam, 87 miles bitumin-
ous macadam, 45 miles shell, 1.7 miles brick, 0.4 mile concrete, and
123 miles not classified as to type.

In mileage of surfaced roads, Emanuel County stands first with
500 miles, or 68.8 per cent; Decatur County, second, with 500 miles,
or 67 per cent; Richmond County, third, with 405 miles, or 81
per cent; Bulloch County, fourth, with 400 miles, or 53.4 per cent.
There are 6 counties having between 300 and 400 miles surfaced, 14
counties having between 200 and 300, 29 counties having between
100 and 200, and 52 counties that reported nosurfaced roads. There
are 30,554 miles of roads reported as graded and drained earth.

In 1909 there were 5,978 miles, or 7.27 per cent, reported as sur-
faced, thus indicating that during the 5-year period 6,364 miles
were surfaced. Information showing the total mileage of all roads
and the miles surfaced in the various counties is contained in Table 41.

KENTUCKY.

By R. C. Terreti, State Commissioner of Public Roads and Collaborator United
States Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering.

Kentucky has an area of 40,181 square miles, a total road mile-
age of 57,916, and a population, according to the 1910 census, of
2,289,905. The State, therefore, has a population of 56.9 per square
mile of area and 39.5 per mile of road, with 1.44 miles of road per
square mile of area. Of the population in 1910, 75.7 per cent, or
1,734,463 was rural, making a rural population of 29.94 per mile of
road.

In 1912 the legislature enacted a law creating a department of
public roads, the chief officer of which is the commissioner of public
roads, who is appointed by the governor for a term of four years
and is required to be a graduate of civil engineermg from some
reputable university or technical school.

The commissioner of public roads had no authority over county
roads, other than in an advisory capacity, and the expenditures of
the department of public roads were not to exceed $25,000 annually,
to be~paid from the State road fund which was composed of the
proceeds of the license tax on motor vehicles. In 1914 a new law
was enacted enlarging the powers of the State commissioner of
public roads and levying a State tax of 5 cents on each $100 valu-

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 21

ation of all property not exempt from taxation, the proceeds to be
credited to the State road fund and apportioned among the several
counties of the State in proportion to the road taxes collected therein,
no county to receive in any one year more than 2 per cent of the
amount collected for the State road fund. Under this new law, a
system of public State highways was created to consist of roads
connecting the county seats of the various counties of the State,
which roads are to be the first to receive State aid.

The commissioner of public roads has general supervision over
all public roads and bridges being constructed, improved or main-
tained in whole or in part by the aid of State money, and he pre-
seribes rules and regulations fixing the duties of county road en-
gineers and their employees in respect to the roads and bridges
composing the system of public State highways and determines
the method of construction. One-half of the cost of State-aid road
work is to be paid by the State and the counties, respectively. The
fiscal court has the plans, specifications, and estimates prepared
and submits them to the commissioner of public roads for his ap-
proval. After such approval the fiscal court may let the work to
contract, after due advertisement, the contract to be approved by
the commissioner. After the contract is awarded, the commis-
sioner of public roads appoints an inspector to inspect the work re-
quired to be done thereunder. The salary of the inspector is paid
out of the sum apportioned to the county from the State road fund.

The fiscal or county courts are vested with the general charge and
supervision of the public roads and bridges in their respective coun-
ties. The county judge, by and with the consent and approval
of the fiscal court, is authorized to appoint a county road engineer
who shall be either a reputable civil engineer or have had two years
practical experience as a road builder and shall have passed a cred-
itable examination by the State commissioner of public roads. The
judge of each county court may divide the county into road precincts
and appoint an overseer for each precinct.

The taxes for ordinary road and bridge purposes are imposed by
the fiscal courts of the counties under a constitutional limit of 50
cents on the $100 for all purposes other than schools. All able-
bodied male citizens over 18 and under 50 years of age, not exempt
by law, may be required to work on the public roads, either in
person or by able-bodied substitute, not exceeding six days each
year. An annual poll tax of $1.50 may be levied and the proceeds
applied to the maintenance of the public roads of the respective
counties. Bonds may be issued for road and bridge purposes by
the fiscal court when so authorized by a majority vote at an election
called for that purpose by the county court upen petition of 150
legal voters who are freeholders of the county. The amount of such

22 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

bonds that may be issued shall not exceed 5 per cent of the value
of the taxable property therein or shall not require a tax levy for
interest and sinking fund in excess of 20 cents on the $100 of assessed
valuation of the county. County prisoners may be worked on the
public highways and bridges.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES IN 1914.

The total revenue applied to roads during 1914 amounted to
$2,474,621, of which $2,180,997 was derived from property taxes,
$201,027 representing the cash value of the statute labor tax, $55,597
poll taxes and donations, $19,000 expenditures from bond issues, and
$18,000 expended from automobile licenses for the maintenance of
the State highway department. A property tax, paid in cash, was
levied in 101 of the 120 counties. The rate varied from a minimum
of 5 cents to a maximum of 40 cents, and averaged for the State 23.1
cents on the $100. In 1904 the total revenue applied to roads,
including cash value of statute labor taxes, amounted to $2,148,689.03
thus showing that during the 10-year period expenditures increased
$325,931.97, or 15.1 per cent. The use of the statute labor tax has
declined steadily during the past 10 years. In 1904 there were 93
counties in which the statute labor tax was in use and the cash value
of the labor performed amounted to over $1,000,000, but in 1914
there were only 29 counties using this form of taxation and the cash
value of the labor performed amounted to only $201,027.

Information regarding taxation and revenues as applied to roads
is shown by counties in Table 12.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915, according to the
reports received, amounted to $705,000. Lewis County voted
$150,000, in 1914, of which $125,000 was sold and $19,000 expended.
The Lewis County bonds run for 30 years and bear 5 per cent inter-
est. The bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915, are shown by coun-
ties in Table 27.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of the year 1914 Kentucky had 57,916 miles of public
road, of which 12,403.28 miles, or 21.4 per cent, were reported as
surfaced. Of the surfaced roads, 10,628 miles were macadam, 59.03
bituminous macadam, 1,713.5 gravel, 2.5 concrete, and 0.25 brick.

In surfaced road mileage, Jefferson County stood first, with
779.75 miles, or 85.89 per cent; Grant County second, with 490
miles, or 90.74 per cent; Shelby County third, with 402 miles, or
57.26 per cent; Owen County fourth, with 400 miles, or 66.66 per
cent; Warren County also has 400 miles, or 40 per cent, surfaced.
Ten counties reported between 300 and 400 miles surfaced; 16 coun-

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. er

ties reported between 200 and 300 miles; 14 counties reported from
100 to 200 miles; while 40 counties reported no surfaced roads.
Twenty-six counties reported a smaller mileage of surfaced roads for
1914 than was reported by them in 1909. In spite of this decrease,
however, the complete returns show that during the 5-year period
1909-1914, 2,288.33 miles of road were surfaced and that the per-
centage of surfaced roads increased from 18.82 in 1909 to 21.4 in
1914. Mileage statistics for the various counties for the year 1914

are Shown in Table 42. ~
LOUISIANA.

Louisiana has a land area of 45,409 square miles, a total road
mileage of 24,563, and a population, according to the 1910 census,
of 1,656,388. The State, therefore, has a population of 36.47 per
square mile of area and 67.43 per mile of road, with 0.54 mile of
road per square mile of area. Of the population in 1910, 70 per cent,
or 1,159,872 was rural, thus indicating a rural population of 47.22
per mile of road.

The State board of engineers is required to appoit a State high-
way engineer and such assistant engineers and other help as may be
necessary to the proper conduct of the work of establishing, con-
structing, maintaining and repairing public highways with bridges,
culverts, drains, and other appurtenances and accessories incident
thereto. When requested so to do by the police jury of a parish or
the municipal authorities of any city, town or village, the State
board of engineers is required to furnish such parish, city, town or
village with plans and specifications and with such advice and assist-
ance as will tend to create a uniform system of public roads through-
out the State.

The State highway engineer, subject to the approval of the State
board of engineers, is given authority to determine the character,
select the materials and have general supervision of the construction
and repair of all highways in the improvement of which State aid
may begiven. Written application for State aid must be made to the
State highway engineer by the police juries of parishes and by the
mayors or other governing authorities of cities, towns or villages.
Upon receipt of such application the State highway engineer is re-
quired to send to such authorities blank forms eliciting such informa-
tion as he may desire concerning the proposed improvement, and he
may, subject to the approval of the State board of engineers, approve
the same and have plans, specifications and estimates of cost there-
for prepared.

Where the cost of the improvement will exceed $2,000, it shall be
done by contract, but where such cost will be less than $2,000 it shall
be discretionary with the State highway engineer, subject to the
approval of the State board of engineers, to let the work to contract

24 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

or to have it done by free labor. Of the total cost of all State-aid
road work, the State pays one-half, if the funds available are suffi-
cient, and the parish, city, town or village wherein such work of
improvement is located is required to pay the remaining portion. The
State highway engineer is required to maintain all roads improved
with the aid of the State, and the cost of such maintenance is borne
one-half by the State and one-half by the parish, city, town or village
in which such road may be located. A State highway fund is created
to consist of the State road tax levy of one-fourth mill on each $1 of
the assessed value of all property assessed for State taxation.

Jurisdiction over all road matters in the various parishes of the
State is vested in the police juries, which are authorized to pass all
such ordinances as they may deem necessary relative to roads, bridges
and ditches, and to impose fines and penalties for failure to observe
their orders. They are required to divide parishes into as many dis=
tricts as they may think proper for the appoimtment of overseers of
roads and shall appoint one overseer for each such district. -

The police juries are authorized to have the work of opening and
repairing roads and building and repairing bridges done by contract:
They may, and on petition of not less than 25 per cent of the property
owners, resident and nonresident, shall divide their parishes into one
or more road districts. When petitioned by 50 per cent of the land
owners, resident and nonresident, they may divide road districts into
subroad districts. On request of 50 per cent or more of the property
owners, resident and nonresident, in a road district, the police jury
is required to appoint for such district a supervising board of five
property owners, to have charge and supervision over the road im-
provement work to be undertaken therein. Otherwise, the police
jury is the board of administration or the governing body for the road
districts and subroad districts in their respective parishes. Whenever
any road construction exceeds $2,000, the plans and specifications
shall be prepared and submitted for approval to the State board of
engineers.

Of the tax levy of 10 mills on the $1 authorized by the constitution
for all county purposes, the police juries may set aside at least 1 mill
per annum for the purpose of constructing, maintaining, and repair-
ing the public roads and bridges of their respective parishes. For a
like purpose they may impose a per capita tax of $1 upon each able-
bodied male between 18 and 55 years of age, and may levy an annual
eraduated license tax of not less than 25 cents nor more than $1 upon
each vehicle, including bicycles, kept within the parish or municipal-
ity thereof and used on the public roads.

Parishes and road districts, through the police juries, may issue
road bonds not to exceed in the aggregate 10 per cent of the assessed
property valuation of the parish or road district, when authorized by

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 25

a majority vote of the qualified electors voting at an election held for
that purpose provided that the annual tax required to meet the
bond issue, added to all other special taxes imposed to extinguish
bonds issued for similar purposes, shall not exceed 10 mills on the $1.
A special tax for road purposes may be voted in similar manner, if
such special tax added to the taxes otherwise levied will not exceed
the constitutional limit of 10 mills.

All male persons between 18 and 50 years of age, not exempt he
law, may be required to work on the public roads not exceeding 12
days each year or to pay in lieu thereof $1 for each day. repartee
also is made for the working of both State and parish convicts on the
public roads.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenues applied to roads in 1914 amounted to
$1,777,572.12, as follows: general road tax, $533,294.10; capitation,
vehicle, and special taxes, $250,648.60; cash value of statute labor
tax, $45,735; expended by State on State highways, $461,505.73;
and expenditures from bond issues, $486,388.69.

The total expenditures in 1904 amounted to $951,872.86, thus
showing that durmg the 10-year period expenditures increased
$825,699.26, or 86.7 per cent. The cash value of the statute labor
tax decreased from $606,421 in 1904 to $45,735 in 1914.

Information regarding taxation and revenues for 1914 is shown by
parishes in Table 13.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

On January 1, 1915, according to the reports received from the
various parishes, the total road and bridge bonds outstanding
amounted to $1,588,835.26. During the year 1914 there was ex-
pended from bond issues $486,388.69; there was voted $1,732,000;
there was retired $24,500, and there was sold $1,161,000 of road and
bridge bonds. Detailed information in regard to bond issues in the
various parishes is presented in Table 28.

ROAD MILEAGE. ?

At the close of the year 1914, Louisiana had 24,563 miles of public
road, of which 2,067.6 miles, or 8.42 per cent, were surfaced. Of the
surfaced roads 430 miles were gravel, 1,448 sand clay, 107.5 shell,
and 82.1 miles of other materials. There were also 7,453 miles of
graded and drained earth roads.

In mileage of surfaced road, Rapides Parish stood first with 709
miles, or 54.16 per cent; Ouachita, second with 308 miles, or 50.65
per cent; Washington, third with 183 miles, or 33.27 per cent; Bos-
sier, fourth with 170 miles, or 40.86 per cent; and De Soto fifth
with 100 miles, or 25 per cent. There were 38 parishes which re-
ported no surfaced roads. During the five-year period, from the

26 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

close of 1909 to the close of 1914, 1,796.1 miles were surfaced. The
per cent of surfaced roads increased, therefore, from 1.32 in 1909 to
8.42 in 1914. Detailed information in regard to Louisiana road mile-
age is shown in Table 43.

MARYLAND.

By H. C. McAvoy, United States Collaborator.

Maryland has a land area of 9,941 square miles, a total road mileage
of 16,458, and a population, according to the 1910 census, of 1,295,346.
The State, therefore, has a population of 130.3 per square mile of
area and 78.7 per mile of road, with 1.65 miles of road per square
mile of area. Of the population in 1910, 49.2 per cent, or 637,154,
was rural, thus indicating a rural population of 38.71 per mile of
road.

By an act of the legislature of 1908, as amended, the State roads
commission was created and consists of the governor, ex officio, and
five members appointed by the governor. The chairman is desig-
nated by.the governor. The commission elects a secretary and
employs a chief engineer, assistant engineers, and other necessary
help. The commission must select, construct, improve, and main-
tain a general system of State roads in and through all of the counties
of the State. It is authorized, in carrying out its duties, to take over,
by purchase or condemnation, turnpikes forming a section of a main
road to be improved by it. The construction and improvement of
all State roads or parts thereof are required to be done under the
supervision and subject to the approval of the commission, and in
accordance with plans and specifications prepared by the chief
engineer and approved by the commission. Where the cost of any
work on a State road will exceed $500, it shall be let under contract
by the commission.

The commission is authorized to contract with the board of com-
missioners of any county to grade, maintain, and repair, and to more
fully construct, the State roads within the borders of such county.
The commission is authorized to establish stone-crushing plants,
located at such points as to secure most economical water or other
transportation, and to work State convicts in operating the same.
The use of State convicts in road and bridge construction and main-
tenance work is also authorized. The commission is empowered to
make such regulations and orders as it may deem necessary for the
preservation of State roads and to regulate the use of same by traction
engines and such other vehicles or conveyances as produce more than
ordinary wear thereon.

The State road system, which includes State roads paid for entirely
by the State, State-aid roads paid for by the State and counties
jointly, and turnpikes purchased by the State, comprises 1,178.22

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. Pah

miles. All funds for the building of State roads:are provided by
State bond issues. The State roads commission is required to main-
tain all State roads and is authorized to adopt such method therefor
as it may deem best, and to employ necessary engineers, assistants,
and other employees. A State tax of 1 cent on each $100 of taxable
property is levied to provide a fund for the maintenance and repair
of State roads. This fund is supplemented by 80 per cent of the net
revenues derived from the registration and licensing of motor vehicles.

Provision is made for the granting of State aid to counties. Appli-
cation for State aid in the improvement of any roads in a county
shall be made by the county board of commissioners to the State
roads commission. ‘The commission shall cause necessary surveys,
plans, and specifications to be made when such State aid work is
approved and undertaken. ‘The work is done by contract let by the
county board of commissioners after due advertisement, subject to
the approval of the State roads commission. The commission has
immediate supervision of work done under contracts. Roads so
improved are thereafter county roads and the county is required to
maintain them to the satisfaction of the State roads commission,
and any county failing to so maintain such roads shall not thereafter
receive any State aid. In case of neglect on the part of the county
to so maintain such roads, five taxpayers may apply to the circuit
court for a writ of mandamus to compel the county commissioners
to maintain the road.

Where State-aid work is undertaken, one-half of the cost thereof
is to be paid by the State and one-half by the county, but no county
shall receive in any year a larger proportion of the total amount
appropriated for State aid that year than the proportion which the
then existing miles of public roads in said county bears to the then
existing total mileage of public roads in all counties of the State
applying for State aid, unless an unallotted balance remains, in which
event, said balance shall be apportioned in the same manner as the
original appropriation among the counties which have not received
the full amount of State aid for which application has been made.
State-aid funds are provided by direct appropriations from the State
treasury.

Jurisdiction over all county road and bridge matters is vested in
the respective boards of county commissioners, who appoint road
supervisors in those counties having road supervisors and may, when
they shall deem it to the public interest, appoint an engineer to
supervise and direct all road and bridge construction and repair work.
All applications for opening, altermg, or closing public roads are
required to be by petition to the county board of commissioners.

No general road or bridge tax levy is provided in any of the counties,
the levy varying in each county as determined by the county board

28 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of commissioners and as fixed by the legislature at each session.
There is no general road-bonding law in Maryland, road bonds issued
in the several counties being under special authorization of the
legislature and generally after an election thereon. Most of the
counties work their convicts on the public roads.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

In 1914 the total revenues applied to roads and bridges amounted
to $6,000,652.03, comprising the following items: general county
road tax, $1,047,043.99; miscellaneous revenues, $816,282.68; expend-
itures from State appropriations and State bond issues applied to
State roads, $3,713,279; contributions by counties spent under State
supervision on State-aid roads, $309,504; expenditures from county
bond issues, $114,542.36.

In 1904 the total revenues applied to roads amounted to $873,470.50,
thus showing that in the 10-year period revenues for this purpose
increased $5,127,181.53, or 586.9 per cent. This is the largest
increase in- revenue reported for any Southern State. Detailed
information showing tax rates and receipts from taxation for the
various counties is shown in Table 14.

BOND ISSUES.

On January i, 1915, the total county bonds outstanding
amounted to $443,700. During the year 1914, $114,542.36 was ex-
pended from bond funds and $26,500 of road bonds were retired.
Information showing bond issues by counties is presented in Table 29.

On January 1, 1915, State bond issues amounting to $12,410,000
were outstanding. These bonds were issued for the purpose of
building a system of State roads. The amount of State bonds out-
standing, the interest rate on each group of bonds issued, the date of
maturity, and the character of the bonds is presented in Table 29a.

" ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of the year 1914 there were 16,458 miles of public
road in the State, of which 2,489.26 miles, or 15.1 per cent, were
surfaced. Of the surfaced roads, 488.70 were macadam, 1,042.31
bituminous macadam, 189.34 concrete, 243.95 gravel, 455.96 shell,
and 69 sand clay.

In mileage of surfaced roads, Baltimore County stands first with
574 miles, or 47 per cent; Dorchester County second, with 215.43
miles, or 30.4 per cent; Montgomery County third, with 197.04 miles,
or 23.8 per cent; Anne Arundel County fourth, with 181 miles, or
33.2 per cent; and Washington County fifth, with 152 miles, or 21.5
per cent. Every county in the State reported some surfaced roads.

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 29

At the close of 1909 Maryland had 2,142.30 miles, or 12.77 per
cent, of surfaced roads, thus indicating that in the 5-year period
346.96 miles were surfaced. Information showing the total mileage
and the mileage of surfaced roads in the various counties is con-
tained in Table 44.

MISSISSIPPI.

Mississippi has a land area of 46,362 square miles, a total road
mileage of 45,779, and a population, according to the 1910 census,
of 1,797,114. The State, therefore, has a population of 38.76 per
square mile of area and 39.25 per mile of road, with 0.99 miles of road
per square mile of area. Of the population in 1910, 88.5 per cent,
or 1,589,803, was rural, thus indicating a rural population of 34.72
per mile of road.

In 1916 a State highway commission was created to consist of
three members, one from each supreme court district, appointed by
the Governor with the advice and consent of the State senate. Each
member of the commission is to serve for a term of six years. The
State highway commission elects a State highway engineer, who is
required to be a competent civil engineer, experienced and skilled
in highway construction and maintenance. The State highway
engineer is authorized to appoint, subject to the approval of the
commission, necessary clerical and engineering assistants. The
work of the commission is‘mostly of an educational and advisory
nature.

The board of supervisors in each county has jurisdiction over the
roads, bridges, and ferries therein. It is required to divide the public
roads into convenient links and annually appoint one overseer for
each link. It is the duty of the overseer to keep in good repair the
roads under his charge and to erect such necessary bridges thereon
as may be built and kept in repair conveniently by the labor of the
hands assigned to him. The supervisor of each district in the several
counties has, and is required to exercise, general supervision over the
public roads of his district. The board of supervisors in each county
may employ a competent person to serve as road and bridge commis-
sioner.

Various provisions of law exist authorizing the building and main-
taining of roads by contract to be let by the board of supervisors.
Special road districts may be created by the boards of supervisors on
petition of a majority of the property owners, or the owners of a
majority of the property, in the territory te be embraced therein,
and an engineer appointed to have charge of the road improvements
therein, the cost of which improvements shall be met by benefit
assessments on all real property in the district. Various other
methods exist under the law for creating road districts, for raising

30 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

road funds therein, either by a tax levy or a bond issue, and for ap-
pointing officials, under different designations or titles, to have
charge of road improvements to be made therein. The boards of
supervisors may require adjoiming road districts to connect their
improved roads, one with the other, and may apportion the cost
equitably between the districts. If a road district shall have im-
proved its roads it may turn such improved roads over to the county
and they shall be maintained thereafter by the board of supervisors.

The authorities of any city, town, or village may, if they deem it
necessary or to the interest of such city, town or village, extend aid
in the improvement of any road leading thereto and as far therefrom
as may be deemed proper. A bridge over a stream which divides one
county from another shall be constructed jointly by the boards of
supervisors of such counties, and any municipality which will be
benefited by the building of such bridge may join the counties in its
construction.

The board of supervisors may levy an annual road tax of not
exceeding 1 mill on all taxable property in the county, but the
taxes so levied and collected in any municipality which maintains its
own streets shall be divided equally between the county road fund
and the municipal street fund. Where the roads of a county, or
any portion thereof, are worked under contract, an ad valorem tax
of not to exceed 3 mills on $1 may be levied on all taxable prop-
erty in the county or such portion thereof. The board of supervisors
may impose a tax on property contiguous to a shell, macadam, or
gravel road, in addition to the other road taxes, for the purpose of
constructing or maintaining such roads, when such property will be
materially enhanced in value by such improvement.

Where county bonds are issued for the purpose of building a sys-
tem of intercounty highways, the board of supervisors shall appoint
a ‘county highway commissioner,’ who shall, subject to the ap-
proval of the board, employ a civil engineer and lay out, let to con-
tract, and supervise the construction and maintenance of the roads
to be improved with the proceeds of such bond issue. A number of
provisions are made for the appoimtment of special commissioners,
highway commissioners, or officers under other designations or titles
where road bonds are issued or funds are provided otherwise for
road improvements.

Road bonds may be issued by any county in an amount which will
not make its indebtedness exceed 10 per cent of the assessed value
of taxable property therem. Before bonds are issued, however, the
board of supervisors shall give three weeks’ notice of intention to
issue such bonds and that a meeting will be held for that purpose,
and if on or before such meeting there should be filed with the clerk
of such board a petition signed by 20 per cent of the qualified electors

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 31

of the county against the issuance of said bonds, the proposition
shall then be submitted to an election, and a majority vote of those
voting shall be necessary to authorize such bond issue. Bonds of
any road district may be issued in the same manner.

_ Where county or district road bonds are issued, it is required
that a tax shall be levied adequate for the purpose of maintaining
the roads constructed with the proceeds of the bonds issued.

All male persons between 18 and 50 years of age, not exempt by
law, are liable to work on the roads not exceeding eight days, or to pay
in lieu thereof the sum of $3. The working of county convicts on
public highways is authorized by law. Also, to a limited extent,
State convicts may be so worked.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

There are 18 counties in Mississippi from which it was impos-
sible to obtain information on the subject of road taxation and
revenues. The total receipts in the 62 counties furnishing
complete information amounted to $1,479,417.01, of which
$1,086,564.10 was obtained from general taxation in counties,
beats and districts, $31,405.55 from automobile registration
fees, $321,947.36 from per capita taxation, while $39,500 rep-
resented the cash value of the statute labor tax.

Based on reports received, the total receipts from taxation
for the whole State should be approximately $1,908,925. The
expenditures from bond issues during 1914 amounted to
$2,051,452.71, which makes a grand total received from taxa-
tion and bond issues and applied to roads during the year of
approximately, $3,960,377.

In 1904 the total expenditures for this purpose amounted to
$1,675,485.45, thus showing an increase during the 10-year
period of $2,284,891.55, or 136.3 per cent. Information show-
ing receipts from taxation for counties which furnished reports
is contained in Table 15.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS. I

The total road and bridge bonds issued by counties, beats
and districts, outstanding on January 1, 1915, amounted to
$8,327,172, the expenditures from bond funds during 1914
amounting to $2,051,452.71. In 1914 a total of $40,000 of
bonds previously issued were retired, $1,225,500 were voted,
and $1,778,500 were sold. The bonds sold during 1914 bear
from 5 to 6 per cent interest and run from 10 to 30 years. De-
tailed information in regard to bond issues by counties, districts
and beats is contained in Table 30.

32 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of the year 1914, Mississippi had 45,779 miles of public
roads, of which 2,133.35 miles, or 4.66 per cent, were surfaced. Of
the surfaced roads, 1,281.10 miles were surfaced with gravel, 604.25
with sand-clay, 114 with shell, 86 with macadam, 29.5 with bitu-
minous macadam, 14 with concrete, 4 with slag, and 0.5 with burnt
clay.

In mileage af surfaced roads Lowndes County stood first, with 223
miles, or 54.65 per cent; Lee County, second, with 157 miles, or
50.32 per cent; Monroe County, third, with 150 miles, or 23.07 per
cent; Lauderdale County, fourth, with 146.75 miles, or 18.37 per
cent; and Hinds County, fifth, with 110 miles, or 12.79 per cent.
Noxubee County had 103 miles and Copiah County 100 miles of
surfaced roads, while 38 counties reported no surfaced roads. The
surfaced and drained earth roads amounted to 13,686 miles.

In 1909 Mississippi reported 39,619 miles of public roads, of which
342.25, or 0.86 per cent, were surfaced. It thus appears that in the
5-year period 1,791.1 miles of road have been surfaced. Detailed
information in speaccl to road mileage in the various counties is

contained in Table 45.
NORTH CAROLINA.

By JoserH Hypr Pratt, State Geologist and Secretary North Carolina Highway Com-
mission, and Collaborator United States Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineer-
ing.

North Carolina has a land area of 48,740 square miles, a population,
according to the 1910 Census, of 2,206,287, and a total road mileage
of 50,758. The State, therefore, has a population of 45.3 per square
mile of area and 43.5 per mile of road, with 1.04 miles of road per
square mile of area. Of the population in 1910, 85.6 per cent, or
1,887,813, was rural, thus indicating a rural population of 37.19 per
mile of road.

From the coast lowlands westward to the mountains for a distance
of over 500 miles there is great variation in topography. The con-
ditions make for complex problems, so that each section has its own,
especially with regard to location and surfacing materials. Thus it
is found advisable to use macadam, gravel, sand-clay, or topsoil.
Material for making sand-clay + road is abundant, and such roads
meet the traffic requirements over a large portion of the State.

All the road work in North Carolina is directed by county or town-
ship officials. Until recent years all road-tax levies were made by
the county commissioners and the funds were spent under their
direction. Within the past three years, however, especially where
road bonds have been issued, special road commissions have been

1 Sand-clay includes gravel and topsoil,

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 303

appointed. During 1914 the road funds of the State were accord-
ingly administered by the county commissioners, county road com-
missioners, township road commissioners or trustees, or other local
officials.

No work has been done directly under the State, except such
educational work and engineering assistance as could be rendered by
the small annual appropriation of $5,000 allotted for that purpose to
the highway department of the North Carolina Geological and Kco-
nomic Survey. The supervision of the construction of the Hickory
Nut Gap Road and of a section of the Central Highway in Madison
County was assigned to this department by the legislature of 1913..
The use of State convicts for road work also was authorized by act
of October 13, 1913.

A State highway commission was created by act of March 5, 1915,
to consist of three citizens of the State to be appointed by the goy-
ernor, the State geologist, and a professor of civil engineering each
from the University of North Carolina and from the North Carolina
Agricultural and Mechanical College. The commission is required
to appoint a State highway engineer. An annual appropriation of
$10,000 is made to enable the commission to give engineering advice
and assistance to the various counties.

The Mecklenburg law of 1879, which was repealed in 1881, has
been reenacted and can be adopted now as the road law of any
county by a vote of the county commissioners, on petition signed by
a number of the freeholders in the county. It provides for working
the public roads partly by the old labor system and partly by taxa-
tion. Counties may also work their convicts on their public roads.
Prior to the passage of that law all road work was done by the free-
labor system, which is still in vogue in a number of counties..

The general assembly of 1913 passed many acts relating to the
issuing of road bonds by counties and townships. There was a wide
variation in the methods authorized for issuing bonds. It can be
done by election on a set date, by election on petition to the county
commissioners, or directly by the county commissioners without
vote or petition. One general law authorizes any township, except
in certain counties, upon petition of one-fourth of the qualified
voters of the township, to vote road bonds not exceeding $50,000.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES IN 1914.

The total revenues applied to roads and bridges during the calen-
dar year 1914 amounted to $5,215,490.78 and comprised the follow-
ing items: receipts from regular county and township taxes,
$1,808,679.85; automobile and dog taxes and private subscriptions,
$272,155.43; bridge tax, $89,525.50; cash value of statute labor tax,
$610,130; appropriation by the legislature for road investigations

61726°—Bull. 387—17——3

34 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and educational work by the geological and ecomonic survey, $5,000;
and estimated expenditure of $2,430,000! from county and township
road and bridge bonds issued and sold during the years 1913 and
1914. iz

The total expenditure for public roads and bridges from taxation
and bond issues during the year 1904 amounted to $1,358,687, thus
showing that expenditures increased $3,856,803.78, or 283.8 per
cent, in the 10-year period.

The total receipts from taxation applied to roads and bridges are
shown by counties and townships in Table 16.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total county and township road and bridge bonds outstanding
on January 1, 1915, amounted to $8,955,300. In 1914 a total of
$1,119,500 bonds were voted and $2,709,000 sold.

No exact information is available to show how much was expended
from bond issues in 1914, but the North Carolina Geological and
Economic Survey estimates that this amounted to $2,430,000.° This
expenditure was from bonds authorized and sold during the years
1913 and 1914.

The total amounts of road and bridge bonds outstanding on Jan-
uary 1,1915, and the amounts voted and sold during 1914 are shown

in Table 31.
ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 North Carolina had 50,758 miles of public roads
of which 6,003.75 miles, or 11.82 per cent, were surfaced. Of the
surfaced roads 1,111 miles were macadam, 529 gravel, 4,313.5 sand-
clay, 9 bituminous macadam, 1.25 concrete, and 40 miles not classified.

In mileage of surfaced roads Mecklenburg County stood first with
385 miles, or 38.5 per cent; Iredell second, with 265 miles, or 37.85
per cent; Richmond third, with 250 miles, or 41.66 per cent; Moore
fourth, with 230 miles, or 38.33 per cent; Guilford fifth, with 220
miles, or 22 per cent; Franklin County has 210 miles, or 42 per cent;
Wake County had 202.25 miles, or 16.85 per cent, and Wayne
County has 210 miles, or 21 per cent. Twenty counties reported
no surfaced roads. The total of graded and drained earth roads
reported amounted to 4,181 miles. In 1909, 2,313 miles, or 4.79
per cent, were surfaced. In the 5-year period, 1909-1914, 3,690.75
miles were surfaced.

The mileage figures for the various counties are presented in

Table 46.

1 Information as to expenditure from bond issues was taken from Circular No, 105, issued July 5, 1915,
by the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey.

-

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 30

OKLAHOMA.

Oklahoma has a land area of 69,414 square miles, a total road
mileage of 107,916 miles, and a population, according to the 1910
Census, of 1,657,155. The State, therefore, has a population of
23.87 per square mile of area and 15.36 per mile of road, with 1.55
miles of road per square mile of area. Of the population in 1910,
80.7 per cent, or 1,337,000, was rural, thus indicating a rural popu-
lation of 12.38 per mile of road.

In 1911, the legislature passed an act creating a State highway
department and provided for its maintenance by a registration fee
of $1 imposed upon each automobile in the State. A law was enacted
in 1915 which created a new department of highways with enlarged
powers and more adequate funds. This new law became effective
July 1, 1915.

Owing to the reorganization of the State highway department, it
it was not practicable to obtain road mileage and revenue statistics
for the year 1914. It, therefore, was found necessary to wait until
the new department was organized and could undertake the work of
gathering the necessary information. For that reason the data con-
tained in this bulletin relating to Oklahoma are for the year 1915,
and were collected by W. P. Danford, assistant State engineer and
collaborator for this office.

One commissioner, appointed by the governor, by and with the
advice and consent of the senate, and known as the commissioner of
highways, is in charge of the department of highways. The com-
missioner of highways is vested with the power of general super-
vision over all matters relating to State highways, including the
preparation of plans, specifications, and estimates, establishing
standards for the construction of roads and bridges, giving engi-
neering advice to local road officials, and collecting and compiling
statistics relative to the roads and bridges throughout the State.
He is authorized, with the consent of the governor, to appoint a
State engineer, who is required to be a civil engineer of established
reputation and qualified in road and bridge construction. The com-
missioner may also appoint, with the consent of the governor,
necessary assistant engineers and clerical help.

The law provides for the appointment of a county engineer by the
board of commissioners of each county. Such engineer is required
to pass an examination held by the department of highways. He is
required to report to the State engineer upon all matters relating to
highways and bridges in his county. His salary is paid from the
State road construction fund and the road and bridge fund.

Where township organization is retained, the township board of
each township is required to select, annually, the roads to be dragged,

36 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

known as draggable roads. Each township shall employ a superin-
tendent of its road system. He has general supervision of all drag-
ging and repair work. A drag tax of not more than 2 mills is author-
ized, and dragging may be let to contract.

It is required by law that not less than 10 per cent nor more than
15 per cent of the total mileage of main traveled roads in the State
shall be designated by the boards of county commissioners, subject
to approval by the department of highways, as a State road system.
The board of county commissioners and the county engineer are
charged with the duty of repairing and dragging the State road
system.

An ad valorem tax of one-fourth of 1 mill is collected in the State
and credited to the State highway construction fund. Each county
retains its own share in thisfund. Counties which make the required
levy and otherwise comply with the law by having the plans and
specifications approved by the department of highways, shall be
entitled to receive all moneys to their credit in the State highway
construction fund. The county excise board in each county is
empowered to levy a tax of one-fourth of 1 mill on all property sub-
ject to an ad valorem tax in the county, the proceeds of which con-
stitutes the county road construction fund, which is used in the
construction and maintenance of county highways.

The fees required for the registration and licensing of motor ve-
hicles are collected by the department of highways. Ten per cent
of the proceeds of such fees is paid into the general fund of the State
and 90 per cent is paid to the treasurers of the respective counties
on the basis of the amounts collected therein. The county treasurer
is required to pay to the treasurer of any city of the first class or
operating under a charter form of government in such county 25 per
cent of all fees originally paid by residents of any such city. The
residue shall be placed to the credit of the county road maintenance
fund. .

All able-bodied males between the ages of 21 and 50 years are
required to work four days on the roads annually or to pay $5. The
law also provides for the working of State and county convicts on
the public roads.

The various townships are authorized to issue highway and bridge
bonds, provided that the aggregate amount of indebtedness thus
created shall not exceed 5 per cent of the taxable property in the
township. Counties are also authorized to issue bridge bonds.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenues applied to roads and bridges during the calendar
year 1915 amounted to $2,112,680.80. These revenues included the
following items: general county and township tax, $1,859,572.09;

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. om

cash value of statute labor tax, $95,288; other revenues applied to
roads, $147,820.71; funds derived from automobile-registration fees,
$1 per car, and used for the support of the State highway department,
$10,000. It was impossible to secure complete information from the
various counties in regard to the statute labor tax, and the amount
given under that heading probably is much less than actually was
realized. i

In 1904 the total revenues applied to roads amounted to $774,775.59
which comprised $447,319.59 derived from property taxes and saloon
licenses, and $327,456 from statute labor tax. It will thus be seen
that the revenues for roads increased during the 11-year period
$1,337,905.21, or 172.6 per cent.

The receipts from taxation for road and bridge purposes are shown
in Table 17.

BOND ISSUES.

It was not practicable to obtai statistics regarding bond issues
for the year 1914. At the close of the calendar year 1913 there was
a total outstanding road and bridge bond indebtedness amounting
to $1,440,000.

ROAD MILEAGE.

The total of all public roads in Oklahoma at the close of 1915
amounted to 107,916 miles, of which 121.6 miles, or 0.11 per cent,
were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads, 6.7 miles were macadam, 3
miles bituminous macadam, 6.9 miles gravel, and 105 miles sand
clay. Most of the counties reported a smaller mileage of sur-
faced roads for 1915 than for 1909, the total decrease for the State
for the 6-year period being 239.4 miles. This is due to the fact that
a number of the counties reported surfaced roads in 1909 which were
not actually surfaced.

The mileage statistics are shown by counties in Table 47.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

South Carolina has a land area of 30,495 square miles, a total road
mileage of 42,226, and a population according to the 1910 census of
1,515,400. The State has a population of 49.7 per square mile of
area and 35.9 per mile of road, with 1.38 miles of road per square mile
of area. Of the population in 1910, 85.2 per cent, or 1,290,568, was
rural, thus indicating a rural population of 30.6 per mile of road.

The collection of road statistics was begun early in 1915 by the
commissioner of agriculture, commerce, and industries, who acted as
collaborator for this office. The data was reported to him by the
county officials and checked and then rechecked in this Office, so as
to secure as high a degree of accuracy as possible.

South Carolina has no State-highway department. The depart-
ment of agriculture, commerce, and industries, however, has from

38 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

time to time collected information relating to the public roads of
the State and has issued road maps, route books and charts, and has
had signposts erected along some of the main traveled roads.

The control of the public roads, bridges, and ferries of the several
counties is vested by general law in a county supervisor and a county
board of commissioners. The county supervisors are elected for four
years with a few exceptions where a shorter term is provided by
special law. The county board of commissioners consists of the
county supervisor, as chairman, and two commissioners, appointed
by the governor upon the recommendation of the county delegation
to the general assembly. In a few counties exceptions to the gen-
eral law provide for more than two commissioners.

A number of counties operate under special laws. For instance,
Aiken County is administered by a chief commissioner and advisory
board, known as the county board of commissioners and composed
of one district commissioner from each of four districts into which
the county is divided. The chief commissioner is required to inspect
the public roads of the county and consult and advise with each dis-
trict commissioner as to their improvement and maintenance. The
chief commissioner and advisory board apportion the county road

fund among the various townships of the county in proportion to the

number of miles of public road in each township, the amount so
apportioned to be expended by the district commissioners, respec-
tively. A number of counties have their roads and bridges under
the jurisdiction and management of a highway commission, and a
few counties are authorized to employ a county road engineer.

County boards of commissioners are authorized to adopt the con-
tract system of working roads and to let contracts to the lowest
responsible bidders. If the county board of commissioners conclude
to work the roads by the labor of those hable to road duty, they
appoint overseers in each township. In counties where township
board of commissioners exist overseers are appointed by the town-
ship board. In counties where the public roads are worked by those
liable to road duty, or in which the roads in any highway district are
so worked, the county supervisor and the board of county commis-
sioners divide the highways into suitable sections of not less than 2
nor more than 5 miles each, and where not worked by contract ap-
point an overseer for each section. In counties where township
board of commissioners exist they shall, subject to the approval of
the county board of commissioners or the county supervisor, divide
their respective townships into suitable districts and elect, at their
annual meeting, from the qualified electors of the township one over-
seer for each district. District overseers, when required by the
county board of commissioners, call out the hands assigned to their
respective sections for the purpose of working the roads and bridges,

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 39

and they may require each hand to bring with him Deco ary imple-
ments for doing such work.

All male persons are required to perform work on the roads each
year or pay a commutation tax in lieu thereof. The age limit within
which persons are liable to this road duty in the different counties
varies from between 18 and 21 to 50 and 55 years and the number of
days work required each year varies from 2 to 12. The rate of com-
mutation varies from $1 to $3 per day. Where road work is let to
contract and persons liable to road duty are assigned by the county
supervisor or the county board of commissioners to work under such
contract, the contractor shall receive such persons and utilize their
labor and allow to the county board of commissioners such per diem
therefor as may be agreed upon. The per diem so allowed shall be
credited on the amount due such contractor by the county.

The county board of commissioners is authorized to levy annually
not to exceed 1 mill on all taxable property of the county to consti-
tute a part of the county road fund. The county boards also are
authorized, when so requested by written petition of two-thirds of
the freeholders of a township, to levy not to exceed 1 mill on all tax-
able property in the township for road purposes. It also is provided
by law that the board of county commissioners, when petitioned in
writing by one-fourth of the resident electors of a township and a
like proportion of the resident freeholders thereof over 21 years of
age, may order the township board of assessors to hold an election
at which only such electors as return real and personal property for
taxation may vote, to determine whether or not an additional levy
of not to exceed 2 mills may be made in such township. A majority
vote of those voting is necessary to authorize such additional levy,
and when so authorized the said board of county commissioners shall
levy same for 2 years, and the proceeds thereof shall be used for
road purposes.

It is also provided that any person, firm or corporation cutting or
severing from the soil standing timber, for sale or manufacture within
or without the State, shall return the value of all such timber cut
during any calendar year for taxation during the succeeding year as
other personal property, and one-half the revenue derived therefrom
shall go to the public road fund.

There is no general law authorizing the issuance of road and
bridge bonds. Such bonds when authorized are by special acts of
the legislature.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges for the year 1914
amounted to $1,024,480.37 and comprised the following items:
general county road and bridge tax, $717,843.07; commutation

40 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tax and miscellaneous revenues, $214,512.30; cash value of statute
labor tax, $58,125; expended from bond issues, $34,000.

The total expenditures for roads and bridges for the year 1904
amounted to $745,701.50, thus showing that during this 10-year
period the revenues increased $278,778.87, or 37.4 per cent. Infor-
mation showing tax rates and receipts from taxation for the various
counties is contained in Table 18.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915,
amounted to $460,000, of which $75,000 were voted and sold during
the year 1914. The expenditures from bond issues during the year
1914 amounted to $34,000. Information regarding the South Caro-
lina bond issues is presented by counties and townships in Table
a ROAD MILEAGE.

According to the reports received, South Carolina had, at the close
of 1914, 42,226 miles of public road of which 3,270.5 miles, or 7.74
per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads, 3,101 miles were —
sand-clay, 85 miles gravel, 53.5 miles shell, 27.5 miles macadam,
and 3.5 miles bituminous macadam.

In mileage of surfaced roads the reports indicate that Anderson
County stands first, with 500 miles, or 41.39 per cent; Aiken County
second, with 350 miles, or 27.40 per cent; Florence County third,
with 225 miles, or 19.56 per cent; Richland County fourth, with 202
miles, or 26.86 per cent; and Darlington County fifth, with 200 miles,
or 20 per cent. Hight other counties reported 100 miles or over of
surfaced road and 7 counties reported no surfaced roads.

In 1909 South Carolina reported 32,075 miles of public road of
which 3,534.75 miles, or 11.02 per cent, were reported as having been
surfaced. ‘The 1914 figures were secured and checked by the Com-
missioner of Agriculture of South Carolina, and it is believed that they
are as accurate as it is possible to obtain at present. Information
showing the total mileage and mileage surfaced in the various coun-
ties is contained in Table 48.

TENNESSEE.

Tennessee has a land area of 41,687 square miles, a total road mile-
age of 46,050, and a population, according to the 1910 census, of
2,184,789. The State, therefore, has a population of 52.4 per square
mile of area and 47.44 per mile of road, with 1.10 miles of road per
square mile of area. Of the population in 1910, 79.8 per cent, or
1,743,744, was rural, thus indicating a rural population of 37.86 per
mile of road.

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 4]

A State highway commission and a State highway department were
created by the legislature in 1915. The State highway commission
consists of six members, three of whom are appointed by the gov-
emor, and ‘the other three are ex officio members—the State geolo-
gist, the dean of engineering of the University of Tennessee, and the
governor. The State highway commission is required to elect one of
its members chairman and appoint a secretary who must be experi-
enced in road buildmg and maintenance. The State highway depart-
ment is required to designate a system of roads connecting the county
seats of the several counties in the State and expend the State-aid
fund, but otherwise its work is of an educational and advisory
nature. Ten per cent of the net revenues from the registration and
licensing of motor vehicles is applied to the maintenance of the State
highway department; the remaining 90 per cent is used by the depart-
ment in maintaining State highways.

The county courts of the several counties have jurisdiction over all
matters pertaining to roads and bridges. The constitution provides
that the different counties shall be laid off, as the general assembly
may direct, into districts of convenient size so that the whole num-
ber mn each county shall not be more than 25, or 4 for each 100 square
miles of area. Two justices of the peace are elected in each district
by the qualified electors. The county court is composed of the jus-
tices of the peace and the county judge as chairman. The county
court is divided into a quarterly and a monthly court.

The county court, at its January term every odd year, is required
to divide the county into one or more road districts and elect. a road
commissioner for each district. Hach road commissioner has control
of the highways and bridges and of the overseers or contractors in
his district, and directs all road work done therein. The road
commissioners appoint the road overseers. Each overseer has
‘charge of not less than one nor more than 5 miles of road. Any
county court, a majority of the justices of the peace assenting, may
appoint three commissioners authorized to employ engineers and
other necessary help to survey, inspect, classify, lay off for improve-
ment, and prepare plans, specifications and estimates for such roads
in the county as it is desired to have improved, and report thereon
with recommendations to the county court. The quarterly court of
any county may employ a competent person to superimtend the con-
struction and repair of county buildings, bridges, levees, etc. The
quarterly court also is authorized to let any road or section of road
to contract, in which event the laws applicable to overseers in working
the hands assigned to such roads shall apply to the contractors.

County and municipal corporations may unite in the building and
regulation of bridges over any stream running by or through such
municipality. The county courts are required at their January term

49 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

each year to appoint three superintendents of turnpikes whose duty
shall be to inspect turnpikes and toll bridges and see that they are
kept in repair. The county judge also is made ex officio superin-
tendent of turnpikes.

Under the general law authorizing counties to issue road bonds the
county court may divide the county into not less than three nor more
than eight road districts and appoint one road commissioner for each
district; but the county court may appoint instead three road com-
missioners from the county at large. In either event the road com-
missioners so appointed shall be the road commissioners of the county
and shall have supervision of the construction of the roads provided
for by the county court, with authority to employ a competent high-
Way engineer and, if necessary, an assistant engineer. Numerous
special road laws have been enacted and are in force in many counties.
These special laws vary the method of road administration somewhat
from that provided by the general law.

The county courts are authorized to impose a eta tax of not
less than 5 nor more than 25 cents on each $100 of assessed valuation
of the county and on privileges not more than one-fourth of the assess-
ment for county purposes. Two-thirds of the property tax may be
worked out if the county court shall so decide. County courts of the
various counties may issue road bonds in an amount with existing
indebtedness not to exceed 10 per cent of the taxable valuation of the
county when authorized by a majority vote, and in an amount, with
existing indebtedness, not to exceed 15 per cent of the taxable valua-
tion of the county when authorized by a two-thirds vote of those
voting at an election held thereon. When bonds are voted, a tax
necessary for interest and for retiring the bonds at maturity shall be
levied and also a tax to create an annual maintenance and repair fund
equal to 2 per cent of the amount of the bonds issued.

The county courts shall impose a highway labor tax of not less than
four nor more than eight days each year on all males between 18 and
45 years of age not exempt by law. The highway labor tax so
imposed may be commuted by paying 75 cents for each day of work
so required. There is provision of law for the working of county and
State convicts upon the public roads.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

In 1914 the total receipts from taxation and bond issues applied to
roads and bridges amounted to $2,370,560.16, comprising the follow-
ing items: general county tax, $977,564.09; labor tax paid in money.
$18,133.63; cash value of statute labor tax, $350,960; bridge tax and
other revenues, $245,595.92; and expenditures from bond issues,
$778,306.52. The total expenditures for these purposes in 1904

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 48

amounted to $1,621,777.15, showing that in the 10-year period
expenditures increased $748,783.01, or 46.1 per cent.

Information showing receipts from taxation by counties for the
year 1914 is contained in Table 19.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915,
amounted to $6,898,276.89. In 1914 there was expended from bond
issues $778,306.52, retired $128,421.11, voted $486,500, and sold
$445,000 of road bonds.

Detailed information showing the bond issues by counties is con-

tained in Table 33.
ROAD MILEAGE.

According to the reports received, Tennessee had at the close of
1914, 46,050 miles of public roads of which 8,102 miles, or 17.59 per
cent, were surfaced as follows: 4,550.5 miles macadam, 2,788 gravel,
613 sand-clay, 148 miles bituminous macadam and _ bituminous-
treated gravel, 2 miles concrete, and one-half mile brick.

In mileage of surfaced roads Shelby County stands first with 752
miles, or 55.62 per cent; Rutherford County, second, with 700 miles,
or 63.63 per cent; Maury County, third, with 625 miles, or 55.55 per
cent; Smith County, fourth, with 410 miles, or 91.11 per cent; David-
son County, fifth, with 375 miles, or 62.5 per cent; and Knox County,
sixth, with 375 miles, or 37.5 per cent. There are 15 other counties
which reported more than 100 miles of surfaced roads and there are 27
counties that reported no surfaced roads.

In 1909 Tennessee reported 5,353.5 miles, or 11.66 per cent of sur-
faced roads. A comparison of these figures will show that in the 5-
year period, 1910-1914, inclusive, 2,748.5 miles were surfaced. In-
formation showing the total mileage and mileage of surfaced roads by
counties is contained in Table 49.

TEXAS. !

Texas has a land area of 262,398 square miles, a total road mile-
age of 128,960 and a population, according to the 1910 census, of
3,896,542. The State has a population of 14.8 per square mile of
area and 30.21 per mile of road, with 0.49 mile of road per square
mile of area. Of the population in 1910, 75.9 per cent, or 2,958,438,
was rural, thus indicating a rural population of 22.94 per mile of
road.

1 The collection of road statistics was begun early in 1915 by Dr. William B. Phillips, collaborator for
this Office, and director of the bureau of economic geology and technology of the University of Texas.
Subsequently, however, Dr. Phillips resigned his position at the university to take up work in another
State. Mr. J. A. Udden, of the university, was then appointed collaborator, and the work was continued
by him. A cooperative arrangement was also made whereby the assistance of Prof. R. L. Morrison, of
the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, was secured. In addition, extensive correspondence

was conducted directly with various county officials, commercial organizations, and good-roads associa-
tions. Valuable assistance was rendered by Mr. D. E. Colp, secretary of the Texas Good Roads Association.

44 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Texas has no State highway organization. Each county is di-
vided into four precincts from each of which a commissioner is
elected, with a term of two years, which commissioners, with the
county judge, constitute the commissioners’ court. The commis-
sioners’ court has general control and supervision over all roads,
bridges and ferries in the county, and is authorized to appoint one
road superintendent for the county or one for each commissioners’
precinct, as it may determine. The road superintendent so ap-
pointed, subject to the direction of the court, shall have general
supervision over all road and bridge work in the county or precinct,
as the case may be. The commissioners’ court of the several coun-
ties 1s required to divide the county into convenient road precincts
and appoint a road overseer and apportion the road hands for each
precinct. Each road overseer is required to work the roads in his
precinct twice each year. The court also may employ not exceed-
ing four road commissioners and define and fix the districts which
each shall control. Each road commissioner, when employed, shall
have control over all the overseers, road machinery, tools, pies
ments and labor in his district.

The commissioners’ court is authorized to levy annually a road
and bridge tax of 15 cents on each $100 of assessed property valua-
tion. An additional levy of 15 cents on each $100 may be made
by the court when authorized by vote of a majority of the qualified
property taxpaying voters of the county. Road and bridge bonds
may be issued by any county or political subdivision or defined
district thereof in an amount not to exceed one-fourth of the
assessed value of the real property therein, when authorized by the
vote of a two-thirds majority of the resident property taxpayers
voting at an election called for that purpose.

All male persons between 21 and 45 years of age may be required
to work on the roads not exceeding five days each year or to pay
$1 for each day of such work required of them. The law also
authorizes the working of county convicts on the roads.

REVENUES AND BOND ISSUES.

In 1914 the total revenue and bond issue money applied to roads
and bridges amounted to $9,920,079.11, comprising the following
items: county road and bridge tax, $4,064,165.98; special taxes and
miscellaneous revenues, $678,582.38; cash value of statute labor
tax, $321,771.50; cash in lieu of labor, $36,724; estimated expendi-
tures for 29 counties not reporting, $666,378.53; expenditures from
bond issues, $4,152,456.72.

The total revenue devoted to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted
to $4,138,157.49. Thus it appears that in the 10-year period the

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 45

revenues for these purposes increased $5,781,921.62, or 139.7 per
cent.

The revenues and tax rates for 1914 are shown by counties in
Table 20.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

On January 1, 1915, the total road and bridge bonds outstanding
for various counties In Texas amounted to $14,615,016.53. In 1914
there was expended on roads and bridges from bond issues $4,152,-
456.72, there was retired $266,255, voted $6,783,275.60, and sold
$3,119,990.60. Many of the bonds sold in 1914 bear 5 per cent
interest, run for 40 years, and brought par or par and accrued
interest. Detailed information showing the bond issues by counties
is contained in Table 34.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914, according to the reports received, Texas had
128,960 miles of public roads, of which 10,526.79 miles, or 8.16 per
cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads, 511 miles were maca-
dam, 5,258.98 miles were gravel, 3,490.48 sand-clay, and 1,265.33
miles were surfaced with other materials, including shell, bituminous
macadam, concrete, and hard roads not classified as to type. This
latter figure includes 181 miles of bituminous macadam, 740.45 miles
of shell, and 11.25 miles concrete.

In the mileage of surfaced roads, Tarrant County stands first with
586.5 miles, or 53.98 per cent; Dallas County, second, with 522 miles,
or 40.15 per cent; Bexar County, third, with 414.26 miles, or 40.15
per cent; Archer County, fourth, with 400 miles, or 26.66 per cent;
and Ellis County, fifth, with 400 miles, or 20 per cent. There are
28 other counties having more than 100 miles of surfaced roads,
and there are 129 counties which reported no surfaced roads.

At the close of 1909 Texas had 4,896 miles, or 3.80 per cent, of
surfaced roads, which indicates that in the 5-year period, 1910-1914,
inclusive, 5,640.79 miles were surfaced.

Information showing total mileage and mileage of surfaced roads
in the various counties is contained in Table 50.

VIRGINIA.
By G. P. Coteman, State Highway Commissioner.

Virginia has a land area of 40,262 square miles, a total road mile-
age of 53,388 and a population, according to the 1910 census, of
2,061,612. The State has a population of 51.2 per square mile of area
and 38.6 per mile of road, with 1.32 miles of road per square mile of
area; of the 1910 population 1,585,083, or 76.8 per cent, was rural,
thus indicating a rural population of 29.7 per mile of road. The
eastern half of the State is broken up by the Chesapeake Bay and

46 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

its large tributary tidewater rivers and bays. Three large moun-
tain ranges traverse the western section of the State from northeast
to. southwest. These natural subdivisions have presented many
varying problems in road construction and maintenance.

In the extreme eastern sections sand and clay are the only local
materials available for construction. In the middle eastern section
there are large deposits of gravel and some small ledges of suitable
stone. However, when it is necessary to build stone roads in either
of these sections it is found advisable to ship in stone from Mary-
land, New York or the western sections of Virginia. In the middle
sections—that is, east of the Blue Ridge Mountains—there are large
gravel and soil deposits and varying quantities of suitable stone for
macadam, concrete and bituminous roads. From the Blue Ridge
west the majority of the roads constructed have, up to the present
time, been water-bound macadam with some surface treatment.

HIGHWAY DEPARTMENT.

In 1906 the State highway department and State convict road_
force were established. Under this law the convicts and jail prisoners
are furnished to the counties free of cost; that is, the State feeds,
clothes and otherwise takes care of the men. ‘They are placed on the
road each day, and the county furnishes the necessary tools, teams
and free labor to carry on the work systematically and economically.
This divides the cost of construction about equally between the State
and the county. At the present time there are 34 camps established
in the State, employing from 1,800 to 1,900 men.

In addition to this, the State has appropriated from year to year
about $200,000 to be expended in counties in which convict labor is
not being used. This fund is distributed to the counties according
to the taxes paid into the State treasury and the counties have to
meet it with an equal amount.

Under these two laws the State has assisted the counties in con-
structing approximately 3,600 miles of road in the past nine years,
and between 300 and 400 bridges of varying length have been built.
These roads, after construction, have been turned over to the counties
and the districts of the counties for maintenance and in many in-
stances they have been neglected entirely. All State money aid
and convict labor work is done under the supervision and according
to the specifications of the State highway department.

The legislature, at its last session, set aside the licenses received
from automobiles for the maintenance of the roads which have been
constructed with State aid, convict labor or county bond issues.
This fund is to be met by a like amount to be appropriated from
the county funds. Heretofore these funds have been used by the
State in construction work.

ee A ee

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 47
COUNTY AND DISTRICT ORGANIZATIONS.

In the majority of the counties of the State the road work is done
directly under the board of supervisors, elected by the people, one
from each district. The number of districts in a county vary from
three to nine. The supervisor of a district generally looks after the
road and bridge work of his particular district. In some instances,
however, the counties have special laws creating county road boards.
These boards take over the road authority which the general law vests
in the board of supervisors, and appoint either a county road superin-
tendent or district road superintendent to supervise the construction
of the roads and the bridges of the county as a whole, or of the al
vidual district.

Another plan followed in some of the counties under special law is
the formation of district road boards. These have control of the con-
struction and maintenance of the roads in the several districts of the
counties. These boards usually are composed of three citizens, as fol-
lows: A duly elected member of the board of supervisors, who acts as
chairman; a road commissioner, and aclerk. The road commissioner
takes the place of the district supermtendent and has actual charge
of the road force.

The board of supervisors of the county lays all levies for road and
bridge purposes for both the county and the districts. These amounts,
as collected by the treasurer, are credited either to the general county
road or bridge fund, or to the district road or the district bridge fund,
and can be expended only for purposes for which they were collected.
From these funds the county takes the money with which to meet the
State money aid or to supply the teams, tools, etc., to be used in con-
nection with the convict labor.

In addition to the regular levy, the counties or districts are allowed
to vote bonds for road and bridge improvement. ‘These funds must
be expended under the supervision of an engineer designated by the
State highway department. The funds derived from general county
or district levies remaining in the county or the district road and
bridge fund, after setting aside the amount to meet the State money or
convict aid, are used for the maintenance and upkeep of the road.

The information contained in these reports has been obtained by
letters to the various county clerks and treasurers, supplemented by
visits of the men connected with the State highway department to
these counties, who got the information from members of the boards
of supervisors, members of the county road boards and district road
boards. The tables are checked finally by members of the depart-
ment with reports of the county treasurers to the auditor of public
accounts of the State. Much difficulty has been experienced, how-
ever, in getting accurate information as to the amount of money
derived from road and bridge taxes on account of the change in the

48 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

State system of taxation which was put into effect in the early part
of 1914. This has brought about a great deal of confusion and the
figures given are not as satisfactory as it was hoped to have them.

The road mileage has been taken from the records in the county
clerk’s offices and obtained from road superintendents, commission-
ers, and members of the boards of supervisors. Figures relative to
permanent work have been taken largely from reports of the high-
way department. A better and more satisfactory return as to the
amount of finances possibly could be obtained from the reports of
1915 to the State auditor.

FUNDS FOR STATE ROAD PURPOSES.

There is no special State tax for road purposes. For the calendar
year 1914 the State money aid, amounting to $185,000, was appro-
priated from the general funds of the State to meet a like amount
appropriated from the county revenues. The appropriation of
$160,000 for the maintenance of the State convict road forces was
taken from the same source. This, together with the fees taken
from the general fund for the maintenance of jail prisoners, amount-
ing to $49,066.83, makes a total of $209,066.83 for this purpose.
The automobile fund, which goes into the State-aid fund, amounted
to $116,188.65. These funds, together with an appropriation of
$26,500 for the maintenance of this department, make up the total
appropriations for road purposes made by the State, amounting to
$536,755.88. In addition to this there was expended under the
supervision of this department in road and bridge work, derived
from county sources, $1,404,349.81, thus making a total from all
sources expended under the State highway department of $1,941,-

105.69.
REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue available for expenditure im 1914 amounted
to $3,224,528.82, of which $1,687,906 was derived from general
county and district road taxes, $999,866.94 from county and dis-
trict bond issues, and $536,755.88 from State appropriations.

The total expenditures for road and bridge purposes in 1904
amounted to $687,751.06, thus showing in the 10-year period that
expenditures increased $2,536,777.76, or 368.8 per cent.

The tax rates for county and district roads and the amounts
derived therefrom during 1914 are shown in Table 21.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915,
amounted to $5,650,994.93. In the year 1914 a total of $999,866.94
was expended from bond issues, and $510,938.23 previously issued
were retired. In the same year a total of $366,000 new bonds was

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. AQ

authorized and $452,100 were sold. Detailed information showing
total bonds outstanding, expenditures from bond funds during 1914,
bonds voted and sold in 1914, interest rate, term, and purchase price
is shown by counties and districts in Table 35.

ROAD MILEAGE.

The total mileage of public roads in Virginia at the close of 1914
was 53,388, of which 3,909.57 miles, or 7.32 per cent of the total,
were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads 1,177.89 miles were macadam,
255.77 bituminous macadam, 822.09 gravel, 1,511.65 sand-clay and
topsoil, and 142.17 miles were surfaced with other materials, princi-
pally shell.

In mileage of surfaced roads Mecklenburg County stands first, with
315 miles, or 39.52 per cent; Chesterfield County second, with 202.5
miles, or 33.75 per cent; Rockingham County third, with 137 miles,
or 8.32 per cent; Dinwiddie County fourth, with 124 miles, or 20.66
per cent; and Henrico County fifth, with 120.45 miles, or 13.38 per
cent. Charlotte County has 106 miles, or 11.77 per cent, surfaced,
and Greenesville 100 miles, or 58.82 per cent. There are 21 counties
in the State having not less than 50 nor more than 99 miles of sur-
faced road. Sixteen counties report no surfaced roads, but in 1904
there were 70 counties which reported no surfaced roads.

Fifteen counties reported a smaller mileage of surfaced roads for
1914 than for 1909. In spite of this decrease the reports show that
in the 5-year period 2,006.82 miles of road have been surfaced. In
1909 the mileage surfaced amounted to 1,902.75, which represented
4.38 per cent of the total, thus indicating that the surfaced road
mileage more than doubled in the 5-year period, 1909 to 1914.

Details showing the total mileage of all roads, the mileage surfaced,
the per cent of the total surfaced, the increase in surfaced mileage
over 1909, and the mileage of graded and drained earth roads in the
various counties are presented in Table 51.

WEST VIRGINIA.

By A. Dennis Witutams, Chief Engineer State Road Bureau and Collaborator United
States Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering.

West Virginia has a land area of 24,022 square miles, a total road
mileage of 32,024 and a population, according to the 1910 Census,
of 1,221,119. The State, therefore, has a population of 50.8 per
square mile of area and 38.1 per mile of road, with 1.33 miles of road
pér square mile of area. Of the population in 1910 81.3 per cent, or
992,877, was rural, thus indicating a rural population of 31 per mile
of road.

The first road laws of the State were enacted in 1872 and revised
in 1881. The legislature of 1907 provided for the office of State

61726°—Bull, 387—17—4

50 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

highway inspector, whose duty it was to study the road conditions
of the State and report to the governor. Prior to the meeting of
the legislature in 1909 the governor appointed a commission to re-
write the road laws, and at the legislative session of that year an act
was passed establishing a department of the State government to
be known as the office of public roads, and creating the office of
State commissioner of public roads, all of which, however, was abol-
ished in 1911.

In the legislative session of 1913 a law was enacted establishing
the State road bureau, which consists of the professor in charge of
the railroad and highway department of the State university, who
is the chief road engineer and the chairman, the director of the ex-
periment station at the State university, and two additional mem-
bers appointed by the governor. The chief road engineer, with the
approval of the State road bureau, is authorized to select such cleri-
cal and engineering help as may be necessary. Salaries and expenses
in connection with the State road bureau are paid from the univer-
sity funds, and from appropriations by the legislature. :

The State road bureau has general supervision of the location,
construction, and maintenance of all public roads in the State so far
as may be consistent with the authority over said roads otherwise
conferred by the constitution or statutes. It prescribes rules and
regulations not inconsistent with law concerning the duties of
road engineers and their employees, and aids county road engineers
and their employees by giving advice and preparing plans and speci-
fications for road and bridge work. A school of instruction for county
road engineers is required to be held for at least 10 days each year
by the State road bureau, and the county road engineers are required
to attend and are authorized to receive from their respective counties
the actual expenses incurred thereby.

The State road bureau is authorized to establish and maintain stone
quarries, crushers, and brick kilns, and may employ the State convict
road force in the preparation of road materials. The State convict
road force also may be worked on the public roads.

County courts have jurisdiction over all matters pertaining to
the public roads and bridges in their respective counties. The
county court of each county may appoint some practical road
builder or civil engineer as county road engineer. In the event
the county court shall not appoint a county road engineer, it may
appoint a competent man as road supervisor for each magisterial
district. Upon petition of 50 legal voters of the county who are
freeholders, the county court shall cause a vote to be taken upon
the question as to whether there shall be appointed a county road
engineer or one road supervisor for each magisterial district of
the county. Each magisterial district is divided by the county

FS SE ee ee ee ee ee i alata a

ROAD MILEAGE, REVENUES, SOUTHERN STATES, 1914. 51

court into two or more road precincts, and the county road en-
gineer, by and with the advice and consent of the county court,
shall employ such agent or agents in these precincts as may be
deemed necessary.

It shall be the duty of the county road engineer to divide, or
cause to be divided, all of the county roads in the respective road
precincts into sections not exceeding 2 miles in length, and let
the same to contract. Each road supervisor shall divide his district
into convenient road precincts, not exceeding 10 miles in length, and,
after two weeks’ advertisement, let the construction and repair of
said roads by contract to the lowest responsible bidder for such
time as the county court may direct.

The present law permits a maximum levy of 30 cents on the $100
for county and district road purposes. A special bridge tax of 20

cents on the $100 may be levied in counties that do not have a bonded

indebtedness. In addition, there may be levied 5 cents on the $100
of all taxable property in the county, or in lieu thereof 10 cents on
each $100 of taxable property in any magisterial district. Any
county or magisterial district may issue bonds for road purposes
when authorized by a three-fifths vote of those voting at an election
called for that purpose, but the bonded indebtedness that may be
created by any county or magisterial district shall not exceed 5 per
cent on the value of the taxable property therein. The county court
also may levy, for road purposes, a poll tax of $1 on every male citi-
zen over 21 and under 50 years of age. The working of county
convicts on the public roads also is authorized.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The totalrevenues applied to roads and bridges in the fiscal year
ended July 1, 1915, amounted to $2,483,747, and comprised the fol-
lowing items: permanent road tax, $656,594; bridge tax, $463,487;
general road tax, $1,249,505; capitation tax, $110,395; and appro-
priation for the maintenance of the State road bureau, $3,766.

The total expenditures for the year 1904 amounted to $893,285,
thus showing that expenditures in a little over 10 years increased
$1,590,462, or 178 per cent.

In 1904 the statute labor tax still was in use, and of the total
expenditure for that year for all road and bridge purposes, $305,415
represented the cash value of this tax. In 1909 this tax was abol-
ished. The receipts from taxation and the tax rates for permanent
roads and general road purposes are shown by counties in Table 22.

52 BULLETIN 387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

It was impossible to secure information in regard to bonds out-
standing January 1, 1915, or bond funds expended in 1914. From
reports received it appears that the various counties and districts
voted $5,354,000 road and bridge bonds up to July 1, 1915. The
bonds outstanding on that date, so far as could be ascertained,
amounted to $1,303,000.

The amount of bonds outstanding and the amount voted in each
county up to July 1, 1915, are shown in Table 36.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of the fiscal year 1914-15, West Virginia had 32,024
miles of public roads, of which 1,064.97 miles, or 3.3 per cent, were
surfaced. Of the surfaced roads, 771.92 miles were macadam, 62.95
miles bituminous macadam, 121.1 miles brick, 18.5 miles concrete, .
20.5 miles gravel, and 70 miles shale.

In surfaced road mileage Jefferson County stands first, with 280
miles, or 82.4 per cent; Ohio County second, with 204 miles, or 80
per cent; Berkeley County third, with 145 miles, or 31.8 per cent;
Brooke County fourth, with 52 miles, or 29.2 per cent; and Mercer
County fifth, with 42 miles, or 10.4 per cent. Twenty-eight counties
had less than 10 per cent of the roads surfaced, and 22 counties had
no surfaced roads. In 1904 there were 44 counties that reported
no surfaced roads.

In 1909, 591.4, or 1.84 per cent, of the total were surfaced. It
would seem therefore that in the period 1909 to 1914-15 a total of
473.6 miles were surfaced. The 1914-15 mileage statistics for the
various counties are presented in Table 52.

APPENDIX.

TABLES SHOWING ROAD REVENUES AND EXPENDITURES.

Following are the tabular arrangements of the revenues applied to roads and bridges

referred t

o in the foregoing text:

ALABAMA.
TABLE 7.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914.

JARED, See Bee eee a oe ae

Baldwin.

Woman Shona ase = See sick eos se
(CHET RINE GaSS GEES en ae eee een

IDTROW Obs. Aaa BeBe aaa sae eee

County
road tax
rate
in cents

County.

EAT OTe ee tele sn wees ShaeEL Solas
LRG GIRO GIG eS ae en ee eee - 10
ILEIIGINGD) Sous See BEES bees aera ee meee 5 5)

per $100.

Taxation and revenues,

Total
revenue
applied to
roads and
bridges.

$11, 600. 00

18, 000. 00
39, 279. 00
18, 000. 00
97, 000. 00
237, 000. 00
42, 500. 00
61, 102. 41
18, 340. 00
9, 905. 25
12; 000. 00
9,500. 00
8, 200. 00
9, 700. 00
3, 524. 94
20; 000. 00
15, 000. 00
18, 100. 00

8, 328. 15
6, 600. 00
15, 976. 00
65, 100. 00
13, 248. 04
24, 286. 02
24; 000. 00
112, 600. 00

15, 150. 00
33), 755. 00
9, 812. 82
31, 650. 55
6, 083. 30
20, 596. 02
23, 000. 00
22; 400. 00
15, 740. 00

44, 829. 24 |.
28,000. 00 |.

2, 488, 805. 51

Statute labor road tax, 1914.

Number
of men
who
worked.

47, 600

1 Includes 25 cents for road and bridge bonds.

Average
Average :
number | daily f
of days Meee q
worked. help.
$1. 00
here aT.
et 1.00.
Reni 1.00,
AGees TO) AP a
pee Silvie son

$12, 000

Cash
value of
labor
tax.

302, 025

il APPENDIX. 2

ARKANSAS.
TABLE 8.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

Statute labor tax.

Total amount
revenue obtaine Number | Average | Average
County. applied | from general) of men | number | wage cea
to roads county tax who of for value
and of3 mills | worked | days hired labor
bridges. per $1. roads. | worked. | help. tax.
$25, 249. 00 $205,249 O0n Eeerie niieets Re eee aac | CaEE CEE EE lat eee eee
17, 000. 00 PE UUUEC) See reseeee test aoreccllbeoseosmeg |zcsoscosce
6, 000. 00 (5 (0,010 (010) eee eae ee one SEASEe re Hel naan sa ae
21, 000. 00 EAOOO MOO dicnsE etc Nephi ota aL ee
11, 309. 00 L309. 00s oss s cases cones ssseleeaaecher 4 eeetesee ae
12, 600. 00 ADRGOO TOO oes ah he Aegis ORME cae ais ee
9, 000. 00 CSC ei aeeneroe eae eso oro a een eoactgo se
11, 233.00 A 233800 M Bese acne case nomen sees Somes suse
16, 092. 00 TGKODOROON| RA See ee al eae ea Sea eae eae
28, 871.00 DSERTINOON Sco: ae eestor hae ea [een
19, 000. 00 TO KOOONOO: | is ese ie as eae Yl De eee eee |e Lie
7, 640. 00 PE GAOSOO:| es ease dt eae S Bell le eee eee
7, 999. 00 CABO) Re Seeetod leeman eee saosoesaoulaskesoce =
13, 100. 00 13, 100.00 |....... rol) Peo ee eres mya en pres ted as
12, 000. 00 AZ OOOLOUA ioe ce UA] SRG ne Ses UE aa aeiabe Nee
28, 000. 00 SBN OOONOON| itis e 2ca ule eh wees ulCee Ta ck. | Paes
18, 000. 00 18s OOONOON Sie: Re ween eos. Allied eos al eeeanees
36, 000. 00 30, 0€0. 00 1,000 3 $2. 00 $6, 000
24,000.00 | 119, 000. 00 1,000 4 1.25 5, 000
11, 899. 90 TDA SSOROO | ese Cea dat) aie | eee gs
14, 040. 91 TEE) Oe eaemsaoac olladaaasconellangciesodad|soacdaass<
12, 000. 00 T2AOOOSO0,| “Seite ARRAN ce cll ie a area reat
19, 000. 00 11, 000. 00 2, 000 4 1.00 8, 000
oranmlcd ames wc ee ae ee 14, 000. 00 T4ASOOONOO HBR a Same | Se 3) eas | Ns err ec pee
UL TOMAE ase ae ene asa. S 6, 360. 99 GESGON99 st Cae aaous sr3 e TWO ||-o se asce- 2
Garlands pees a SOs 29, 000. 00 PA UU UO eee een area) carol lec mn reine
(CiBIT cade ausSbekesASapekeomeuenoe 7, 000. 00 TROOOS OOF Se ome ee Ess Seo "lhe ovina cers an eee
Greenelere ness neh ih: fie rnnes 19, 948. 68 AORG4SS6Ss HERE: aS ae ose ee ee te a Eee
Hempstead 20, 000. 00 PO SOOOF OOH: Ske eeereler ewe Sos aleac reece | eam
Hot Spring 12, 000. 00 MDS ODS Ss = eee ss 0 Ll aes
(owand tess eo hese sek 4, 946. 00 AO4G 5009) Uae oueae a Soe ssascce Bae Fosaded Haadessese
Independence: =2=-=5---22-----2--- 11, 812. 00 (DI si O00 eters Koneat en oe tess aeoct Shosec ace
lizard bee ema Sane me vaee 7, 086. 00 YAO TGR Y veraein as ne Soen see |susessocra bb oaseobes
Jacksont seins Soest ts st 21, 500. 00 DIBA OOLOO Mie SAUCE eA a Soe CEC ee sean
OMOTSO Mes awe eee ate eae ne 68; S00! 00M er 2IGSHO00K 00) |e ees NEE RSS Sse Ree ee ae Pee ae
JOMNSONES oie) es eee ees ee nee 10, 000. 00 LQSOOOS COS | EASE = oe | MASS aes ee eee ae eee
Wafayettoren sis soe ola vkenideees 10, 000. 00 LOSOOOHOO!| Ste Wake PERS eos eee ee ene
awrencos2 5: sssee ee sne ss Se 16, 000. 00 TG6SO000NO03 | Lees | Sie Bees eee eran ances
iD 34,750.00 | 316,000.00 2, 500 7 1.00 18, 750
8,514. 00 SUSIANOO 2s se) eae ese sos| See ae: eee ee
14, 000. 00 TA ODO KOO! |i. e see Ue ay | ee eet eee
22, 966. 99 15, 758. 99 1, 802 4 1.00 7, 208
5, 000. 00 B00. OO Nec sssssscs||Sesoosaced||esoseocecd||s2s5esse5¢
9, 000. 00 9#0005001| sf.25 2: ere 2 i
8, 000. 00 SOO 00 [ii. ba hen Mal Ae o Sh als os ie en eee
14, 011.00 12, 011.00 1, 000 2 1.00 2, 000
24, 000. 00 DAK 00000!) : 3 ai SAS oolong cee Rae
5, 822. 00 BA SI9> OO ese eae is esacs Seek ae ee eer sates
5, 707. 00 By 707 O05. 3.2 be ka aera A 2 aE
10, 605.00 10, 605. OOM Oe) DEE ey oes al <1 oe i al eae ee
Sy Meh EB) | oo seatisel|saseenossc|eccancossc|loosossscac
4, BUST Pans ap | Bl alee ial oo eS
3, 000. 00 Sh OUOLCO Wess ateecullecsceasnadlacoassbacu|skaaseoece
9, 000. 00 GOOO! O0'| =< ot lee SAD sre Sealeee sce ee eae
28, 000. 00 DS“ OOONOO! pri lat -oeeu Celis it eae: Sag eae
8, 925.00 BG 95.00'| 2 ace ae earl ees Sa |e ee eke serra
19, 813. 00 1G" 813200: [User ieee slg ai na al ieee ce ce | a een eee
16, 903. 86 13, 407. 86 874 4 1.00 3, 496
12, 000. 00 12 COOOD |lncncsseoselsosscessea||ooncenseed|oessocs25-
15, 000. 00 HSROOO! 00° S325 2 BA cal accep eae weeks ole eee
PUI bella 2 allt eee ae re ets Bll 207, 000.00 | 4 162, 000. 00 7, 500 4 1.50 45, 000
Rando lpaeaes renewal SS 19, 000. 00 11, 000. 00 2,000 4 1.00}. — 8,000
Stiitran cise eae oo ee ea 10, 500. 00
Salinere ease Sheet eases 13, 000. 00
SCO tts baa Spee ay Fe 6, 731. 00
Dearcy seas ites eee ean ld 9, 500. 00
Hebastianwysecosasee eee ess! 51, 000. 00
Sevier. 12, 900. 00
7, 000. 00
3, 874. 00
14, 493. 00
26, 152.38
16, 674. 00
16, 084. 62
14, 000. 00
15, 750. 00
1, 362, 696. 20 | 1, 259, 242. 20
1 Includes $4,000 per capita tax. 3 Ts commutation tax.

2 Includes $20,000, county general fund. 4 Includes $7,000, auto tax; and $20,000, general fund.

;
:
j

APPENDIX. Til

DELAWARE.

TABLE 9.—County revenue appliec to roads and bridges in 1914.

County | Amount .
County. Total. faadeatonlontaineds State aid
: Mills.
IXGI 8 S SoCo SNe Saga e a aeeaa IED BEER COREE eres sa sc 2e $20, 000 0.17 | $10,000 $10, 000
IC CAST EY coe gees Ee eI ea a EE 103, 000 (1) 92, 000 11, 000
BSEISSC oe fie aac ear Manta USE CI Sicis ecig mans y MeN 26, 628 1.5 16, 628 10, 000
sR Oba ee ee ar ee RE eS ee Ak ee 1498628) ee eee 118, 628 31, 000

1 Appropriation.

In addition to the above a 2-mill tax was levied in Sussex County for road and bridge bonds, from
which $27,713.73 was derived.
FLORIDA.

TABLE 10.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914.

Total General county tax. Receipts from other sources.
revenue
applied to :
DET. roads Rate, Total
and mills | Receipts. Source. Rate. | Receipts. na o ee
bridges. | per $1. SHDES
Alachua........ $33, 093. 02 3 | $23,275.56 \ $9,817.46
Bakers .....--- 7, 488. 39 5 2 AS839 :| Simaenee rater ele 2 |e VR IRAE cee ot
iin sseasceueeee 4, 998. 86 2 4:998::86' 45s ceea eae see re Re Sa a Se a Rm Reena
Bradford Bese 13, 316. 58 34 9, 983. 26 3, 333. 32
Special, district 1.-|........ 10, 957.34 21. 190. 70
IBTOVATG 2 neo. = 47, 029. 73 6 25, 839. 03 Special, GIStRICI ARS | See see 9,329. 86 cher
aes (ices See ye eae a A 903. 50 a
A E ADOMbARe eases -|aanee ee 000. 00 000. 00
Calhoun.......- 13; 650. 00 3s 6, 650. 00 Gonvictse ee ee 3, 000. 00 Y
(Onis Saes seemed 26, 698. 71 53 | 12,555.66 | Special, districts1-5]........]..---------- 14, 143. 05
Clavnantesesc. == 15, 858. 24 42 | 10,031.94 | Special, district - - ep aac eee 5, 826. 30
Columbia..-..-- 13, 826. 71 4 12, 130.35 Statutelabortax..|........|...2....... 1, 696. 36
iia eae 68, 500. 00 ESN OS:: 5003 00's | Be Sree eevee sak OLSON Ne as omen ons
De Soto.......- 59, 847. 22 5k || 47,047.22 | Special district 5..|.---2-.:|2-2-22-2.--- 12, 800. 00
Durvaly-e ese. USO OCW 0 | sa seesellscnssasaceee eneral fuTid ees ea] ek Ud Sees ee 150, 000. 00
Escambia....... 18, 438. 60 Idle dene eke @W): Iocan =ccnneueKeceead| bana sod saseonoseane Sodsdsesoeac
ranidinee sss 4,476.08 2 2°28: 608 | GMIMeS eae am ee ae A le al ae 1, 747. 48
Gadsden...._..- 17, 646. 44 5 11, 646. 44 | Statute TE) oGIP Hebel Csebanbaleecobbuscsee 6, 000. 00
Hamilton... ...- 9, 339. 66 2 4, 937. 58 Pe eC a eet ac 5 a I6 4, 402. 08
4 er revenues....|...----- :
Hernando...... Gy 4001 OOS ing 24 |yr> 3, S51: 0001 enemies le et Oo B50. 00 |y 2748-10
Hillsboro.....-. 9,392. 27 2 4,173.89 | Special road tax... 2 | ee re re 5, 217.38
Holmes......... 6, 995. 06 4 65755506) AtitOMaCenSekase sen |p ssa nena lee ees sere 240. 00
Jackson......... 5, 984. 55 14 DOSS SOLS ct aerate ree rela LE BR mete eee
Jefferson......-- 12,774.75 3 53025168) Othermsounces=-- 4|e =e oes |eeeee ee een 5, 472.07
Lafayette.....-.- 11, 568. 75 4 IDL iss UH) |eono= sc cetksoocanaedleeoseose||oooscondeoco|sancacuasace
ake seas seks 21, 430. 85 4 18293085) || Conwicilabot= a ests oece as |peeeee seen 2,500. 00
IS ose eee 45, 867. 68 6 42, 867.68 | Road district No.1|..-...-..|.----------- 3, 000. 00
Auto license...........---. 371. 00
WOON sto ooo! 22, 899. 92 7 21,418.00 |Special tax........).--.---- 64. 00 11, 482. 92
Salevohiollses sees |s seen 309. 00 :
MOV. ses sede 11, 618. 29 1 3, 246.60 | Road districts 1-5.|........|.-..-------- 8,371. 69
Liberty.......-- 3, 383. 36 24 35383. 30h| scene eee cee alecce Senaleeet misc ke cma et tne sansmers
Madison......-. 15,311. 40 4 15 S11! 540 | seers (SSG ee ee eR ona e eee eesti
Manatee......-- 28, 950. 25 5 26;,925./25)| -Autoicenser =o -- (pasos eral eecea sce cccie 2,025. 00
Convict labor.....|.-.-.-.- 1, 636. 14
Marion.......-. 36, 553. 49 4% | 26,953. 62 {kaon EDS Ses Seay ene ane ae 6,372. 73 9, 599, 87
Auto license.......|.---.--- 1,591. 00
Monroe......--- 634. 00 54 634500: peter tec ale ee SESE St ee aa aria
Nassau.....---- 10, 070. 49 1 , 270.
Orange.......-- 34, 786. 32 5
Osceola......--- 26,304. 55 5 , 304. :
Palm Beach....} 165, 446.65 1 65, 867. 25 Special road dis- 99, 579. 40
rict.
Convict labor.....|........
ASCOL foo c 33, 900. 00 3 | 8,800.00 ee districts 1, |-.-.-.-. 25, 100.00
Auto receipts......!...-...-

1 Includes $737.92 received from hire of convicts.

Iv APPENDIX.
FLORIDA—Continued.
TABLE 10.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914—Continued.
Total "General county tax. Receipts from other sources.
zevenue
applied to
County. roads Rate, Total
and ' mills | Receipts. Source. Rate. | Receipts. receipts
bridges. | per $1. Dis:
; Mills.
Pinellas........ $44, 330. 00 5 | $35,830.00 | Auto registration..|........|..-.-.------ $8, 500. 00
Leto) Oe eee 93, 932. 16 (He CER Ch y Pals | EGS obbascdadbadeas ad coodased|besaesaucase SoAdeo sender
Putnamesssese- 23, 831. 70 4d 23-830 e Os Semen tame cess nice SaSee mee |seenceee meee || see eee
St. Johns......- 38, 705. 22 4 16 020/00 ee eeerineees-ceeeecclsecionsnchareeeeecene, 22, 685. 22
St. Lucie....... 60, 354. 03 53 | 35,325. 08 Special IRORYGL GUIS | 4555 5556|soannc5scecd 25, 028. 95
(rict.
Santa Rosa..... 40, 419. 26 5 22,300.00 | Other sources. - ..- 18,119. 26
Seminole......- 47, 270. 09 7 26, 747. 00 Bey road dis- 20, 523. 09
- _ trict.
SWAMP cooseoe 10, 480. 40 5 9, 480. 40 convict labore sees | Jesse a aise han econ 1, 000. 00
pecial warrants..|......-- $15, 673. 57
Suwanee...... 23, 610.74 30| 7, 622,07 pec reer sl aeeatcae 1273 29 |\ 15,988. 07
Mavlonass2 ence 9, 757. 06 3 URIBYGWUG is con conuodocossdaned sues ogcs|heasssauaecal panssoassec6
WMolUSia=eeeeeee 65, 711. 53 6 GY TOS) 58) || Lb OIE NES 5 6 5ocllssscesecllscacecosccse 8, 002. 00
Wakulla........ 2,385. 50 3 2,385. 50 ee ea re
UNO UE eee neo telpaoesaes 500. 00
Wraltonsyeso se. 29, 484. 86 5 21, 620.39 Special road dis-|....... 7,364.47 \ 7, 864. 47
Unietans )
Washington....} - 10,449.90 24} 4,762.50 | Other sources.....|.......- 5, 687. 40 5, 687. 40
Total... .- 1,515,;,203..32) |2-.----- 969 38255364 Nesom tics eee cache ae eer seit clseanes 545,377.96 —~
GEORGIA.
TABLE 11.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914.
County road and
pridge tax. Statute labor tax.
Total Amounts} Amounts |
revenue obtained | obtained | Num-
County. applied to from au- |fromcom-| ber | Num- |} Aver- | Cash
roads and | Rate, seaanent tomobile | mutation} of ber age | value of
bridges. mills Obtained licenses. tax. men of wage of} labor
per $1 i who days | hired per-
worked|worked.| help. | formed
roads.
|
Appling......-- $12,943.00 |.......- $10,000.00 | $943.00 |$2,000.00 |........|.......-|-.-....-|---------
Bakersees. 2.20 20,472.00 |......-- ASSO) | § ATPRGT) |) ACCUM) Wits ll eal lj aseoubeeeenoulesslcones
Baldwin... 15,896.00 |.......- 10,000.00 | 396.00 | 5,500.00 |........]........]...-----|---------
Banksieeeeneeee 12,675.00} 4 TODS | FAOO || BBO ois l2cei5 oo sscecleecaseolescance se
Bartow...... sso\| 23, G23, C0 Weeossso- TEAC COC) |] tt 00) || 5 OOOO) ese ssc osoascos|seacboccllesosessac
Ben Hill........| 14),827.00 5 14,478.00 349. 00
5 11.5 10, 983. 00
Berrien......... 32, 804.00 i 9 14. 644.00 \1,17, 00
IBID bese seneease 51,871.00.) 1.56} 51,402.00] 469.00
Bleckley... 7,356. 00 3.3 5, 000. 00 356.00 | 2,000.
Brooks. . . 21,373.00 2 13, 750. 00 887. 00 i
iBiyallevens sce UN GREEGO | 555 8,000. 00 334. 00 !
Bulloch....... 33, 210. 00 3 24,000.00 | 1,210.00) |) 8,000. 00 |..-.--.-)_.-..---|_---.--.|.-----+--
Burkeseceees see 32,932.00 }........ 20, 000. 00 S32500 81250008 00: |e eee ie ees | Cees Seen ere
Buttsoe es 12,048.00} 4 ORCL |) EDOM | CUED Wt eee ea ea
Calhoun......--. 31,442.00 |........ 23, 999. 00 AVEO AU Unt Os eate se alsa 5raseal Manasosalloeassess=
Camden........ 9, 553. 00 nD 6, 265. 00 196.00 | 1,997. 00 146 | 5 | $1.50 '$1, 095.00
Campbell. ...... TOD |p Ea EAN) |) BCD | CSCO) eos sole soeeekellsoccceaclbe=cossae
Candler......... 2ESOOHO0 Roe | eck eo yh a eee 27500: .00))! 32 e5 8 Re eae Rae oe |e eee
Carroll ee 22, 959. 00 2 14,654.00 | 1,525.00 | 6,500. 00 40 7 1.00 280. 00
Catoosa........- 9,134.00 |........ 5, 827. 00 UV600) \lo-seecsnee 600 4 1.25 | 3,000.00
Charlton... 5,920. 00 2 4,000. 00 120. 00 | 1,500. 00 100 3 1.00 300. 00
Chatham....... 50,176.00 }...-.--. 50, 000. 00 U7 GTOO HN eRe NE Sc evs |inoes sens aoe anaes
Chattahoochee..}| 9,498.00 |.......- 6, 000. 00 SPE (D Post Gs(00" Bees sacl Ssececeal Secsaceel Sdesaeornc
Chattooga...... 13, 612. 00 2 7, 000. 00 612. 00 | 3,000. 00 500 4 1.50 | 3,000. 00
Cherokee... ..... 24,362.00} 4 UEEESEOD || OF9C0 || SCUD CO Eee coscclboncecso besee sed||eeocoen
Clarke... 2225 552% 36, 082. 00 5 32, 764. 00 SUED es CUCU ee scacsel sasancaallsomocsms|icosueaas
Clays ee 11,531.00} 4 CUACO |) > 29,00) | BAIL bas ceans| Rasosccc|sossconc|seoncceas
Clayton....-....| 12,725.00 4 8,712.00 AGSHOO MNS ODO NOON one cee ele nes erm clemeeteniael csasteeets
1 Bridges. ; 2 Roads

APPENDIX. V
GEORGIA—Continued.
TaBLE 11.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914—Continued.
County road and
prideerrsac! Statute labor tax.
Total Amounts} Amounts
revenue obtained | obtained | Num-
County. applied to from au- {from com-| ber | Num-| Aver- | Cash
; roads and | Rate, enount tomobile | mutation) of ber age | value of
bridges. mills Annes licenses. tax. men of wage of| labor
per $1. 2 who | days | hired per-
worked|worked.| help. | formed.
roads
@linehe ea. - $6, 527.00 2.3 CEP CO | EPA OO FR CUS C) | ocbceractecscecodleeesoeselbocesecaa
OM NOL Ssseseeees 43,751.00 4 ROO OD )) Wee ON || G20 C0) eso cesas|lesucccan|-esosecellscneanens
Coffees 22.5. ==: 15, 247. 00 2 10, 340. 00 907.00 | 4,000.00 |.....--- 4S S100) | Meee eae
Colquitt.......- Ai) OL, 7 neces aes 36, 838. 00 847.00 | 7,689.00 15 5 1.25 $93. 75
Columbia....--- Zeiten WU eee SoBBenesoace 378.00 | 2,000.00 |.-...---|---.---- P00.) eos
53, 622. 00 4 42,697.00 | 1,179.00 | 8,996.00 125 8 75 750. 00
19,476.00 |.-.....- 12,500. 00 476.00 | 3,500.00 375 8 1.00 | 3,000. 00
23, 534. 00 4 20, 000. 00 REED |B, C00} CD slasaesens| sonsecseseeconac lekeceeon
3, 382. 00 1.5 3, 253. 00 L295 00 Reaee eels Se ee nett sere sae ECO ssa eseoes
13, 565. 00 2.5 2,374. 00 191.00 | 3,000. 00 1,000 8 1.00 | 8,000. 00
38, 654. 00 4 30, 000. 00 954.00 | 7,500. 00 40 ti) 1.00 200. 00
Dekalb.....-.-- 45, 899. 00 4 40, 000. 00 749.00 | 5,000. 00 30 5 1.00 150. 00
Dodge.......-.- 28, 905. 00 4 23, 006. 00 899.00 | 5,000.00 |...-.... Oiler eee
IDOolWesceseases 25,066.00 |.-...... 12,170.00 eee 0) Ee COO WO) eee ccsllbsecaduel bedoouselessecesae
Dougherty....-.. Pe A (U0) loaeesece 21, 147. 00 Set OD |} 4 OU C0 | Peace cWeaacsueleegsasen ecosoucne
Douglas. ....... 13,383.00] 3.5 7,700.00} 583.00 | 3,500. 00 200 8 | 1.00 | 1,600.00
5 25, 000. 00 COLZOOR LOKOOOS OOM eee oe rere etn era | ese
SA meets ore 133. 00 SQOK00) |e sen eal pees ne sel eee ane
15, 000. 00 489.00 | 1,000. 00 500 5 - 90 } 2, 250. 00
ets e S85H0OR ROR SOO SOO | Ree sees eerste | cis ees eae pet
TE OOS CO eras (lo) |) @COMs CY) ace seeoc||aseceubolecacesas|teosoaace
PIS 0 Ye aa NOS Dg | kM (CT Ge ae ere IB cea a
6,478.00 | 465.00 | 4,193.00 |........|...-..2- Ed eceeeeee
: G5xO00400! |= 996500) i GOOKOOS | Hess es NEEM ene ois ele esa aa
, 181. S500 400 |iakiGS la OU yl uepeeene ane ee tsa oma Gea rem ce cee ps
: 19, 000. 00 994.00 | 7,000. 00 300 4 1.00 | 1,200.00
Gone eee see 424, 254.00 3.2 | 423,800. 00 ADA OOM Emer oe ae nae clses hole esee eel eeneeere
Gilmer cee NOON cee 2,000.00 TAO Oe Pe eee eee er oS | re oi Secllta a sate oral Mt aarap eee
Glascock...... 4 2,677.00 260.00 | 1,600.00 |.....-.. SU Ses tere machete
(Riso let 1.3 8, 753. 00 QOLOONPTSOONOOM Eee ees eaere |e ee OR YW
Gordon......... 2 8, 500. 00 SIH OD |) 7 CRNSO0 Wee conacdlasecedcdlusssoscdleaoecseae
Gradye se ele. 4 14, 000. 00 894.00 |10, 000. 00 10 10 1.00 100. 00
Greene......-..| 30,012.00 |..._...- 23,030. 00 ROD |) G22 BUA cbeaecolsoaseaasllemaabesabeseescse
Gwinnett.......| 51,375.00 |......-- Sy OU OO |) Uevi CO MORO) Nese ceceolloosseensllegoeoasdlacseosaoc
Habersham.....| 10,783.00 |.......- 4,090. 00 etn O10! || ees pane eeusllecouasaallsaacassalseasneeae
Allee eee = |(5164°388:.00) |e ce 29,720.00 968.00 |13, 700.00 | 2,500 8 1.00 |20, 000. 00
Hancock........| 13,607.00 |....-..- 7, 000. 00 COCO |) Gs COO OD lecebocbalbosesces|Socaceadeedeonden
Haralson.......| 8,712.00 |.....--- 5, 600. 00 MUZIOO MP 2EAOON OOD | oe eh a Ne een ee Sa ea aa
fEarnbise serena one 2.5 UGS SOOSO) | IE BIE CO) 1) (OOOO |lescosecclboccosaullesacacndoscenaec
fanGien sae 4.5 9,356.00 UOBEOD |) COOCD lode ckcnalceecosusiiecssodclecescases
ELC aT deanna 916500) tee oes 1,200. 00 TAGOO |) G OOO, OD scacescol cessdco|acnacbdleecckenss
Henry.......... 42,929.00 |{ 33 13 200,00 |}, 929-00 | 6,000.00 | 2, 000 6] .75 | 9,000.00
Houston...... 23, 321.00 4 18, 396. 00 2A OD) |! 4 C0500 |sascsaec|sessecacllbaueussaleocesssuc
WA ees ee ae 10,783.00 }......-- 5, 585. 00 BE OD || 4 SOO COW ees ee oe eee ee eee oes
Jackson...... 27, 283.00 7.5, 205,000.00!) 1,283500)| Gy000500 22. 2 2a Pe ee
NaS Perse tess 24, 592. 00 4 16, 905. 00 exo) 4! GE O0s Oi aoe ee olgenauaue beeen (Gesececse
Jeff Davis 6, 030. 00 2 4,500.00 ASO0 |) 280.00 Wocccson se esocsselesseccus|eencencee
17,969.00 | 2 $50972005| 91> 1035 00818S+y769%00))| ue a el tenn | ee one Sei
12, 913. 00 4 8, 250. 00 4635008 /2452005 00) Mee sce al eee seen shee eee
9,291.00 | 10 4,725.00 GOO | 4h Ose’ OO looebsascllesecoscelicceacusileuees lees
10,096.00 |........ 5, 000. 00 OL OO || 5 G00 CO occcecadlesasécaclleacsasecllbsseasces
57, 832. 00 6.9 CUP en en || Eerie W0 || GCC) |escceocalbooseoas| tesseuna|leeosceoes
18,905.00 |...-.... 15, 000. 00 A003 500.00 |eesdceesiescontaellosesssgcllesesecsed
1 .-| 19,217.00 6 17, 543. 00 ATES OO MES 200M OO a ees ee aS eae aee NIRS Oe ais | CR ak
Lincoln.........| 10,315.00 4 4,777.00 CUO) & WD OO Gedevasciocose sesaseasecclbocooseas
Lowndes....... 22,019.00 |........ WS FOO OO |) Ol OO) 2 600.00 |loceas ceeeses see lh soeccualleseeouese
Lumpkin... 8,015.00 | 2.5 ST SeyOO || SESOD |) G00 WO eocacassllscec coed luecece clautocoooe
McDuffie. ...._. 10,180.00] 4 OOO) | SAO | TSO OO Nocasenalbecceseclccedecedlloceoesccs
MeIntosh....... 8, 260. 00 4 5,560.00 |..--..----- AOD AO, Oi Sie Se NEN NIOSH om TRS ees
Macon SHR See 29, 612. 00 7.6 24, 830. 00 02s OOM 25050 Op ee seers |e | ar en Ee
Madison........ 13,293.00 }........ 3, 000. 00 SSEOO | ©2800) lasanconcllesdacsecllococeoculecdcesace
Marion......... TP PUNY |ecasccee OCO.O0 |) G2AL00 | 80000 |ooocevcclecccescelscoacccclocescocnce
pretwctaer NOt: 63, 763. 00 2 55,000.00 | 1,163.00 | 7,000.00 100 8 75 600. 00
iller y ; , 000.

VI

APPENDIX.

GEORGIA—Continued.

TABLE 11.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914—Continued.

County road and
bridge tax.

Total Amounts} Amounts
revenue obtained | obtained
County. applied to from au- |from com-
roads and | Rate, Nenotnt tomobile | mutation
bridges. mills AienaEl licenses. tax.
, per $1. é
Montgomery....| $46,313.00} 1.65 | $43,514.00 | $549.00 /$2, 250. 00
Maar #57630.00| 5 >| 10714800 482.00 | 5000.00
UIT AY eee eitarie by ) D 7 Lb
Muscogee......- 103, 437.00 4 98,994.00 | 443.00 | 4,000.00
Newton........ 23, 412. 00 fan 12’ 508 oy \f 667.00 | 7, 000.00
Oconee......... 8,922:00] 2 3,975.00] 447.00 | 4,500.00
Oglethorpe..... 93° 103/00 |........ 15,000.00 | 903.00 | 7,200.00
Paulding....._. 19; 294000) loess 12) 13,500.00 | 734.00 | 5,000.00
Pickens....-....| 11,981.00 |........ 5,698.00 | 432.00 | 5,851.00
Bieroais 000 2h 14,404.00] 3 11,877.00 | 527.00 | 22000.C0
Boe 32,660.00 | 8.5" | 257000.00| 669,00 | 7200.00
Pulaski.........| 22/622.00| 6.25 | 20,199.00] 423.00 | 2,000.00
Sa Saute > 16, 561. 00 3 9, 287.00 483. 00 6,841.00
uitman....... BOO eS eccmer . 00 OOS Se ee ae
Rabunsee we 9,239.00] 4 7,077.00 | 162.00 | 2,000.00
Randolph...... 23'873.00| 4 15,200.00 | 923.00 | 7,750.00
Richmond......| 64,242.00 |.......- 63,790.00 | 452.00 |......--.-
Rockdale : 12,000.00 | 293.00 | 3,485.00
Schley.........- ; 9,000.00 | 269.00 | 3,000. 00
Screven... 417. 6, 558. 00 859.00 | 6,000. 00
Spalding... 003. 12,266.00 | 487.00 | 4,250.00
Stephens nop 10,000.00} 387.00 | 3,000.00
Stewart... i 12,000.00} 556.00 | 6,000.00
Sumter......... ; 42,000.00 | $79.00 | 6,500.00
Talbot..........| 14)535.00 8,613.00 | 707.00 | 5,215.00
Taliaferro.......| - 6,726.00 |.....--- 4,000.00} 280.00 | 2446.00
apie 33°706,00| 4 | 2800000 | 816.00 | 5°930-00
Telfair.......-.- 19,533.00] 4 15,517.00 | 516.00 | 3,500. 00
Terrell.........- 15,296.00 |.....--- 7,000,00 | 796.00 | 7,500.00
Thomas.......- 38,933.00 | 7 27,975.00 | 1,114.00 | 9,844.00
Thirteen 10,228.50) 2 7, 539.00 | “552.00 | 1, 800. 00
Toombs........ 26,808.00 {25° | 49°s45'00 [+ 499-00 | 3,500.00
Mowns........-- 107.00 |.....--).... Zt Geis TOTAOO) elena
: :
Troup.....-.--. 53, 899.00 {24 3) cow on |} 899-00 | 6, 000.00
Murners..-<2--- 19,071.00] 4 11,000.00 | 481.00 | 7,590.00
wigs ince ees ea inane Ul 10, 000. 00 BN 2, 400.00
MON sso 542 ROOM ears ee lie econ arp ne aes 00.00 |....------
UWpsonec! ss... 19,655.00 |........ 11,500.00 | 619.00 | 7,536. 00
Walker........- 19, 817.00 12/000.00 | 917.00 | 6,900.00
Walton Cae 5 39,000.00 983.00 | 5,500. 00
Aronia e cs 250.00 i
Warren......... 18,000.00 ;
Washington. at 15, 000. 00
Sy Toa 15,500. 00
Webster 2,199. 00
COleneeemerelin, LaoaoNOON Mase ccloces coe BBA
WIMG. goo occan 1,300.00 5985.
Whitfield 20,000. 00 :
Wilcox . 8, 400. 00 , 100.
Wilkes......... 13, 000. 00 5
Wilkinson 10,000.00] 645.00 | 5,000.00
Worth.......... 10,000.00 | 1,010.00 | 7,000.00

1 Bridges.

2 Roads.-

3 Men work roads.

Statute labor tax .

Num-
ber
of
men
who

Cash
value of
labor
per-
formed.

Aver-
age
of wage of
days } hired
worked.| help.

Num-
ber

10) |h's15005 seen
an rad 3| 1.00] $840.00
ABTS: 1500) |= eae
He 2111 00; | Sect
6| 1.25| 337.50
6: |socd. eo peteeseee

SoonSscnclScdscsnds||Ssoosoob0d0

4 New law.

APPENDIX,

KENTUCKY.

TasiE 12.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

Vit

Property tax.

Statute labor tax.

Total
revenue
County. applied to) Rate Receipts
roads and] in cents from
bridges. per property
$100. tax.

Ballard. -.-.---------- 19, 668 25 19, 668

Breathittis sess -.2---- 400 |...-- Boge Wie NM
Breckinridge... ------ 23, 669 =20 13, 669
Bullitt 11) 233 125 11, 233

Calloway.------------
Campbell
Garlisle®--22----5--:
(Chane ss ocasdescecus

ISIGIAYS Socoeaneadcoss

Hopkins
Jackson ...-..--------

Wawisteee 2d. 255: 19, 336 sity 9; 961
Lincoln .....-........ 29,750 . 25 23, 750

1 Poll tax. 2 Franchise and poll tax.

Number | Average | Average
ofmen | number | daily
worked | of days wage
out worked for
labor, per hired
1914, man. help.

Cash
value of
statute
labor tax.

Other
revenues
applied
to
roads.

$18, 000

2, 500 3 1.25
2;,000 3 1.00

8 Private subscriptions.

4 Special

tax.

VIiil APPENDIX.
KENTUCKY—Continued.
TABLE 12.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914—Continued.
Property tax. Statute labor tax.
Total Other
revenue Number | Average | Average revenues
County. applied to} Rate | Receipts} of men | number | daily Cash applied
roads and} in cents from worked | of days wage | value of to
bridges, per property out worked for statute | roads,
$100. tax. labor, per hired labor tax.
1914 man. help
Livingston.-.-....----- $12, 100 0. 20 $6, 100 1,000 6 $1. 00 $6; 00032 - eee
Mogan es ee eee 28, 952 . 25 DSiQ5 2 jlemprom nyt eat ay pect a lpaep ciate < Nell eo eye |e
yon eset asa. ae UU Seoceeaeae 5,972 1, 000 2 1.00 250004) eaaeameee
McCracken. ...--..---- 37, 418 . 20 By blew Paso cobsobsposdcssdl Masecdop se bocuneemed Ssoeaccans
McCreary .----------- 3, 742 -10 Dy CA2 | eer ers | sete raielaelllele Si ees | Baie oteseiste cts aoe eee
MeWeanten sacar eee: 17, 054 . 225 6,344 2, 400 3 1.25 9,000 | 1$1, 710
iMedisontes et eno aes 34, 421 25 34, 40 It |eqansemeta| kere. Silene sec ane Re 7 Gh eae ae
Mir ofinee = eee IS SY) | Se Seieesone 3, 750 2, 000 6 1.00 125000) |p eeeeeemee
Marioneeem ace see eee 16, 000 525) SOO pe aaae bona lk cacesneae Seer aeacae| BApeeiouan estate sa
Marshallese: cee mee 15, 000 aps) T5000 "| seis eei salaries Se lees See os eel Be abe
Martine; 22 22 eccticne Une |lneecaguaes 775 800 6 1.50 0, 200))| See eee
IM SOneese te see acco 37, 831 25 BY G25 SAC aR eeaS os cena ase Sonae ered Bae ssaemee beast esc
Meader ens aesher cone 7, 769 25 15 109 | See esos eae o- cites lee seb oss | nee tecses beeeseeya ee
Menifeest ane eo a sae 2, 725 . 20 220) ee ae aa ao S enc ER Sas oe no aol eee see ee
iWerceneet sen ee 26,511 25 24,111 1, 200 2 1.00 2° 40015 eee
Metealies sais. 22 =-e5- 4,000 25 CATON Se Seobcae] Beene Sena Steer Sars Meraraseaa tsa aeeee tie
Monroe....-------- Cool) MOO Kod aaaeeee Chai l tal os OU aa be aesocone |b sauenoscelposeseags. 21,700
Montgomery. ......-- 25, 973 25 PAPO) |lbaactiae nel bao oSaseee||paSsbeassurl bsecseoneaissocesoae
MIORERINS sseecosasanos|4scccoss5e 420 9 Soma eacccn| eee ee Ss | see se see cs| See Shae an| eae c= 55] Scere neee
Muhlenberg-..-.--..-.- 18, 708 -20 IRF Oss | be Ses osacs peecsssece > aseesqnq5 5005 |baseeemaee
ING). ~ 5S s5s5s6e5se ;
Nicholas
Ohione seers set ae
Oldham
OWeneee ease sce oe
Owsley.
Pendleton
POLY): poles on eos ce [Soecereae | eee ee oe leeeac ates sell Speers | Kceeteee ae
IRIKOWA tee eieens anne ;
owells se sosesccses ae x
Pulaski 3
Robertson...........- 6, 250 25 (HRN Rees Sha555| hoseecseed seaaseuscal === - ee Baer en
Rockeastle-.-.-....-- 6, 283 39 PES Been Meoceel Hoscorease Sane eorel Seeaaatetalsseescsnes
FOU ||-oscsanace ACU Dal |e 3 Siegel ese eat eee peat il ReReme a eR [ELE Na oe
4,159 - 20 PY) Bae ache |b Seoceostal saseesaase 15200) eet eeaeee
24,352 525 DA QO De yaa ek ear aye nedacs o> )arciatal ae = ete Se ae ene hee see a
38, 907 25 RIS RO UY /s) Ba See ol SooeaeHaeee Sanco aneee Soaks ssa aeacse soc.
22295 OR Eee 18, 000 500 3 1.50 2, 250 22,700
CSO) aenaseses A500) Sareea ee ee eens = eect ieee oo Se ciieteeall eeeeerne
6, 820 -15 4,720 700 4 75 2) LOOM ea eeaeees
17, 893 30 14, (893) | Saeketemsa|e oo cies cmuel teense ue sa eseee cceee 2 3,000
Sioa a Meee S20 40 ORR a AE 2 Sees ences | See ne eee a
9, 750 -30 6, 000 500 6 1.25 33 (00h eee eee
28, 798 5) DSTO Re SIS eyelet eeeir re bell aera en | eae eee
39, 462 -20 397 4620) Sens eee eons conc eae cecise eel we Smeceset | Se aeeeee
12, 500 25 42; SOON eee selec eels el Beer nea ence neem See eens
28, 900 - 25 6, 400 3, 000 6 1.25 225000! |eaeaeeceee
16, 585 22 16 5S ul enmeen et al nee Ga ean cs Pema ene Sonn | Se ae eee
17, 654 . 25 UE Gad EAS e Se SAC SREB RCs se Shee” Semele emmeseadl te Ses ac
35, 501 . 25 BG UTM xe rent epee ee laces SAR Cl ee ae [eee eese- op
PERV (PM | acanasoee 2EV80190 74 Meant Se ar eee ere IE Mer meets 201, 027 55, 597
1 Poll tax, 2 Private subscription.

APPENDIX.

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@

XII APPENDIX.
MARYLAND.
TABLE 14.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914.
Total General county road Other revenue applied to roads and
. revenue tax. bridges.
applied
County. fr fare
and Rate,per | Amount S Amount
bridges. $100. obtained. RING? obtained.
General levy, roads and
bridges and State-aid roads. |$65, 000. 00
Allegany: 22525. 2acect He CaSO Veceeoscosecc|>socusoonace Specialappropriation.._...._. 10, 000. 00
Motor license and miscella- 4) 833. 51
neous.
Anne Arundel.......-.-- 96, 570. 90 |'$0.35-$0.79 | $94, 631.10 | Special district levies........-- 1, 939. 80
iBailtmore sees eee 559, 175. 38 -40 | 551,320.80 | Donations, autotax,etc..... .-| 7,854.58
Caliventest {5250 eee sees: 410, OSD |easoseccocedlestsscssocds erate tad Tout: knee ae 40, 800. 00
; ROOD ats oy pee ee | ea a eneral levy.....-.-.......-.- 21, 000. 00
Caroline 2-222 c-2n-2-- H0,ENUIOD tixtra levy se nn 19, 000. 00
snus Wiese . : : ounty assessment............] 22,500.00
Canrolleeeseese: 205, 250. 00 68 | 158, 000. 00 SEte ane ad ee a 24° 750.00
Cecile whee oe ter ANOOON OO | i ye arco ye ee eenenal ley fetes eet eee eee ee ee a ore: UB
Beery Bene rt eae 1
GEERIBS 20002208220 02002 TSM ORY Be aaceteso-e| Roe eecas {Hern} bond act,special_....... 28, 097. 55
Dorchester.....-.-------- 103, 461.80 |--...---.---|......-....- County levy,roadsand bridges| 49,892. 76
state reed loan ies Sas sore e 25, 471. 49
ew roads and bridges lev 4. 437. 89
Wired eri chs teresa =e 57, 162.99 |... -.-------|-0 2 -------- {Generales Sirsa ; era ae ei ...| 20, 000. 00
" xtra, miscellaneous, ete...-.- 32) 725.10
Garretts: :22s.acc-socns-2 494, OO,08) aseocoagesc 42,992.09 |-------------------------+---+---|--------—
erignde es heen ae ees SQUSOOKOOH| se sc ce ape eae aeci Genenalilevy as eeeee eee ee nee 38, 500. 00
TIOWORG os hoscsessacdse5- 22,000. 00 1.00 | 21,000.00 | County aid.................... 1,000. 00
Rent eee ein tee wee ee 21, 600.00 20 | 21,600.00 |-------------------------+----00)--- +2222
eee Sip tetas ae 35, 480. 00
Montgomery....--------- 64, 480.00 }.-..-....---|------------ Special levy, roads and bridges 29, 000. 00
Prince Georges. ...-.---- 48, 000. 00 .22 | 43,000.00 |Portion of liquor license. ...--- 5,000. 00
Queen Annes..-.--..---- 22, 500. 00 20 22) 500.00 |---------------------------+----|----------
Silks MBIAVEL gob secccoob sce BEOOONOO); |e <2 327 ne eee eee 5,000. 00
Somersétine-ceocesceaeee 20, 000. 00 20} 20,000.00 |--------------------------------]----------
Malo teen eee ee 224OOONOOH Sash eu eee 22,000. 00
Washington.....-.---..- 56, 000. 00 153] 56,000.00 |-------------------------+-+----]----------
P 100, 600. 00
Wicomico.....-.....---- 250,000.00 |...----.----]------------ {Special appropriation........ 149, 400. 00
Worcester...-....-.----- 16, 000. 00 1G) |} WEL CCU ecocs copbadabcosecsuSscoccoo0sao||leseoces065
ER Ota aie Sera a CGB SEMB? \scosscosonss ADA WBL OB) loo ceScconosscosbosaeosouonobeKS 816, 282. 68
Approximate amount
obtained from State
appropriations and
State bond issues and
applied to State and
State-aidroads...-....-. 3,713,279.00
Contributions by coun-
ties spent under State
supervision..........-- 309, 504.00
Expended from county-
bond issues during
MOT4 eee ase boas ot 114, 542. 36
Grand total.....--- 6,000,652.03

1 District.

> t+ re

eS

ee en ee Pe

Fo ok APPENDIX. XIII
. MISSISSIPPI.
TABLE 15.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges during 1914.
Other revenues
General eu and beat | applied to roads Statute labor tax.
HORN UB RS and bridges.
Total ae
revenue
applied Aver-
toroads | County} Beat age | Cash
and rate, |rate,| amount | Auto ) daily | value
bridges. | mills | mills} jpiained mobile | capita men wage of
per per % tax. tax who days | for labor
$1. $1. worked.|worked.| hired} tax.
COREA ea ote el laeete| eee nee eeeE
7, 950. 00 1p ees $6, 700. 00
18, 573. 35 3 4| 18,573.35
5, 200. 00 8 | serene 3, 400. 00
97, 253. 00 | ase 163,787.00
36, 757. 30) Ue Soa8 26, 195. 00
14, 928. 43 1 1 7, 162.18
Choctaw..--| 10,624.09 Salpee ee 10, 624. 09
Claiborne. - - 7,000. 00 ie lee oe 4,000. 00
lays -o--- = PART CU Sos2beeeleenoee 21, 810. 00
Ola emer | eee cee = (pee coe sale eres sec scsccace ss
Coahoma..-. 73, 656. 22 Dieses 73,656, 22
Waplahteter.|o.ccs-5-5> =~ 3 (34 GeceeBenaeae
Covington... 5, 512. 57 11S Sees ee 3, 015. 89 $1.50] $150.00
De Soto....- 28, 537.33 Beebe cccc|) AURIS CN Se cond ecooned bodes peecccead
OBL Useccccadl! 6 P24) 2 SG RIE anos o od| We Gaye ea tees AE ee Ea Ns ep bgade
OMT ISDS lowe eerd li reste E525 160:,10| (= eae [RG MOB SETS Ihe ca SSE eee OME 2B
2G 7330 | Meee pee [eterna [iba 218..2'780075 sre Sleep ORR oni inl Em eon sealing Sak limes at ee
TOEAVER OY) = SSR ileocese| UasteP-A LOO CSAC Ue se enooolloecocoro|lococad|cecasodn
18, 303. 74 Aielledesacoc ||. Tals) Bogessedlbaccesne lbensor cpeeonoss
49, 000. 00 , 000. L ; 1. 50) 7,500. 00
40, 935. 00 , 9, 650. 00
40, 813. 00 , 430. 16, 383. 00
Issaquera .- - 3, 678. 93 35018..93) = aaseaes lace seece 1.00} 300.00
Ttawamba..-| 18,850.00 (lel eerie 35.800; 00) see ae ees se 1. 00/15, 050. 00
Jackson...-. 2,048. 13 Sills Sarees U5748.13) a0 eae | Soeoesee- 1.25} 300.00
aS ere te 18208 00le- a= scloees se 1500.00 |Fgs8 20800 | Memeo | ara ec mne on hein le ea
Jefferson. --- 14, 712. 75 Oilleaecse ErIPE i oocecsocd) HAIL CY Gecesesalecceocus| boncaalloonascdoc
Jefferson
Davis...-.. 14, 090. 98 Dee a ae Aol oe cGsoccell ER EEBE ON) soaconclloasconcd bcecod| aocannode
JONCS econ.) US teat eee saad aera SMO Ca eo oe eee aa belloocuancalsouned leconeoooc
Kemper.-.--| 20,081.00 Dias fe a yen ll en ooGod| UGB BH OW haadacoe loodaoc cs loporad eessconos
Lafayette...) 24,000.00).....---|.....- 247000; 00) = Fetes | Bremerton exe aretatey call esteem [ects iste iaetaiseisisinle
Lamar..---- 18, 000. 00 DO resise “LS OCS: (O00 | eae a | pte teri eel ec ye oe epee TE nee Vavgte atelereicrs
Lauderdale - 29, 299. 11 11) eee 205 O95 5111! |E Sees EG) 2045 OO | aemcec lace ese = | aicielsee ane steicinreis
Lawrence. - - LOF403 561 Pe eee oclenee ee (Rese ebeade cod!) Syaeroes eceoooas|Huscopedconcoclecoosdenes
eakemeeaser| == =< eee eee sme ere eae al saw as -c e-ceie | oats ee epee cae I aeasics ee ueee na neauonlewapeesse
NEC Omens Meee reso saat oe | a smeire lee cass eal ee RoR Rear oas| Saceeee S| eet egerc|c ste cagllweicciomcle
Leflore. ...-- CURB E ite! | eeseee lSeeesees 19149048) 0 ee 1 AES se eeepSe socieacca paacee eDucacddS
Lincoln...-- 19, 008. 05 eae 11,055. 05)........- TEMEREC Soseeealleeooosod scosee| bvocoucoo
Lowndes...-] 10,642.00 | eee 10, 642. 00
Madison..... 10, 500. 00 Bileeosee 10, 500. 00}. .
Marion.....- 13, 000. 00 desk 13, 000. 00) .
Marshall. . 23, 686. 00) Bhi lean 23, 686. 00].
MOonnOere een |paoas-fnmealaeeticcaelsaaccdleseeaescsse
Montgomery| 20,440. 46 3 3 14,309. 41
Neshoba. - 12, 196. 00 Ld SAUEUU 3 eB OU) SAU Ue sseonos|leoccncpalloasooc
Newton..... ARE I0)| SEO Ba IEGAR Ma) B60-Call : SGU icc osecallcenecendloonace
Noxubee...-| 12,721. 43].-...... G5 OMA AWa pesos cet: IpteeStla sec geeclaeacsoned bosuee
GIRS IGG). Jee Gono osbbe anne bed SSeser MEccee Beet ccc Gemcine eee ee ieee ee pt a ete
eanOlto nase betas 2 ene ale = 7 Bee ESRC aS BASSES occ Inoc ae ane BRemesee Boob erie Sem eiae
Pearl River-| 25,500.00 Sa lbeioee 23% O00S00| Esc scenes | ate 500K 00 |e a[ ec. 2c | aceeaa|tecnse oe
PE oce-cde al aoe IB EIG RII IA| EERE tes a en mpeaee es | fh 8 pen bP a Epa ee Pagel A eee
IRIKG eee: - 18, 933. 00 Ohl ee as 1650335002 5S(08 (| Rees | ee race | eee wes | Sal ae
IPEGITUUBS 3 ceallb Se Seeds cel eee te ase SE caravans Page (PR 2 ras be | Oe ee (Se eee
Pontotoc. 18, 101.35 Ba eee ae RST O1S 352s SN | Meagher ea 2
BACT TTT E TE 3 lai lI I | (SR ae em Pate aT) 1 Uap ae noel en (ape a Se
Senge rs SILSSRNOAL aaoe Gee 21-3 | 516,488. 60 800 4} 1.00} 3, 200.00
COtizere nano ec bales aan leaue aes|scc eae sec iiie acicice | acre tonereee (empamerenieine| mantic re Alar areca eu ison id cists
Sharkey..... 6, 440. 85 One iaites Budde gi ocean Miers a 1.00} 1,000. 00
Smith... TRG TESD eee eee 5 T6785: 57h oe epee ee eS a Nox tes Tir | Ns eerie [ante yet raiadr a

1 Tneludes $24,952 property tax.
2 Includes $3,145.09 property tax.

4 Includes $4,851.52 special tax.
5 Includes $7,772.99 from general funds.

3 Includes $72 special tax and $573 from general funds.

61726°—Bull. 387—17 5

XIV

APPENDIX,

MISSISSIPPI—Continued.

TaBLeE 15.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges during 1914—Continued.

General county and beat

road tax.
Total
PevSUue
applie
County. fpepads County} Beat
and rate, |rate, Auto-
bridges. | mill$ {mils} A™MOUnt | mobile
per per z tax.
$1. $1.
SIM PSOWe ace |sj2-e2 esses
Sunflower
Tallahatchie] $51,779.00
ates pessc 20, 500. 00 il eee 12000 300/faeee-see
Tippah...--. 10, 137.19 Spleen IM TBV6I) bsseesues
Tishomingo.| 20,893.00 1-2 | 14-2 7,725.00} 131.00
Auanicaseeeee Boy OloslBlenaseeenee ssn 2153942 Ol Beer eee
(Winioneseseee IEF EY6e Wisoeoocss Sosose HWS Wl emnoasecse
Walthall... IDC ROS 0 oeicesnclsasore 11, 000. 00)......-.-
Warren.-... IEE EOL eee ene llacseeee 1 166, 102. 39} 3, 201. 06
Washington. 22° WO1300|Seeaneeelescc-s|soseaceneens 3, 000. 00
iWiaiydle See a] ae Rare Re Vee ila ck ale a a |
IGLOS Roser] SABBeoeaHods| Beso soe Honea Same eeccsd acceresoes
Wilkinson..| 16,400.26 3h) sores 928320 Hee seeeee
Winston....| 13,000.00 PA ete gear 6,000. 00}-----.---
Wealopushams | 225358159 |seeeneee eee oe 227308: 09| ee see eee =
S27 00s eeeee A0S184500|seeeeeer |=-eee- 20, 532. 00) 1,319. 00
DOD OSE Ol ecsobacdlooscod 1, 086, 564. 10 31, 405. 55

Other revenues
applied to roads
and bridges.

Statute labor tax.

Num- | Num-
Per berof| ber
capita men of
tax. who days
worked. |worked.

Aver-
age Cash
daily} value
wage of
for labor
hired| tax.
help.

$25, 041. 00].
8, 500. 00). -

1 Appropriated from general funds.

APPENDIX.

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APPENDIX. xXIxX

OKLAHOMA.
TaBLE 17.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1915.

General county and

township tax Statute labor tax.

Total Other
revenue revenues | Number
County. applied to applied | ofmen | Average | Average Cash
roadsand | Rate, to worked | number | daily | valueof
bridges. mills Receipts. roads. |outlabor| of days | wagefor | statute
per $1.1 taxlast | worked | hired labor
fiscal | perman.| help. tax.
year.

| a eee ee I] DEE Sc
JAGEM PSE Sacoeeaee $14, 550. 62 0.10 $5,120.79 | $429. 83 1, 800 4 $1. 25 $9, 000
JUG ARES eaaeee 60, 943. 00 - 76 60, 143. 00 SOOROOS Mees oe Pere space eee Ss Te ea ic ee
JER ee ease 26, 923. 02 1.50 Abe Ravel HGy/l G4) oem ouooad |aceacosca Taseeasaen Sse cocaece
Beaver_....------ 19,941. 46 . 90 GE EYGWOANEE IRE) TID; 2odecen ae aceesoscae||seccemcess lide csescae
Beckham.....-.--. 26, 482. 55 1.38 26, 296. 46 NU SGHO9H Bae ce etoe lars Meee cas cleece cones = ee
isiBites oes cecser 37, 725. 95 1. 25 SPECTR SIO e EGG: 7) |2o ees ous tke eran cel eeecac aes [Bes stein
Bryan.....- .| 29,116.02 Sr ille 269 71602 254 CONG) eeteae eee |e mn eeue | ele MR ary aes a @
Caddo ss: 1. 28 49,523. 50 | 5,374. 26 2,000 4 2.00 16, 000

Canadian.... 1.10 Po US Hiay ll PREM (Biss | beau eae seccece ee emesis serena
Carter_..... AUB Male rAVGU OG G0d: CO boddccauaalectonst sed s#cenoesecd nasomerass
Cherokee. 1.00 14, 144. 83 25. 00 2,000 4 125 10, 000
Choctaw - 96 PSS 5GONG 7 AO 2s SOG Nae cesses varieties | eg cael edge hE
Cimarron.......-- O23NL Oi asses By Awa ieee nos Salsoeoe HU haere a es [RAL ance argent RES a a
Ea velo econ Sais 1,100 4 2.00 8, 800
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28, 304. 00 SDONOON Reese xe eee ee call. ae arale MIN es ae
D008.) 24 | |se eee 1, 200 3 1.50 5, 400
11,770. 00 | 1,800. 00 1, 000 2 2.00 4,000
CES Abney TU 725s, ls Seauacuod|erccosoddc |doooedassellacasacsaos
44, 840. 72 CSTONC OY SG Rn Tete cae US eaam soso rec ae na eae se see

31, 009. 54 | 6,671.50
27, 523.05 | 1,744.70 +

, 887. 17, 887. 10

Pottawatomie....| 46,894.11 ik, POO Ll. | A OOONOOM Samet selene [eee ee cere | atc eset
Roger Mills. ..... 12, 968. 03 TA OO Neo 2968: OS) Ss eemtine Maratea nC a RE CRTC A CUR IN TERNS
MVOPCUS)s2 25 25<-- = 27, 521. 68 0.56 27, 221. 68 SOOR OO eee SENS SRE rs ia aie is wie eh aes ee a
Seminole......... SOOO NTN hea: 8, 960. 7 SA ESE IN ON PENIS DION ea

4 i b

Sequoyah........ Cea tal| | ee SOu ane tsrso]| aCe eI ee.
Stephens. --2--- =. 19, 657. 54 1.08 19, 457. 54 PURO ses seegelucsceeoecolsoeenesae aaa sess

1 This is the rate for general county road purposes. The township rate varies in different townships,
but averages about 1.5 mills per$1. Where the township rate is not given in the table the receipts derived
therefrom are included.

xX

APPENDIX.

OKLAHOMA—Continued.

TABLE 17.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1915—Continued.

Total
revenue
County. applied to
roads and
bridges.

-| $18, 763. 15
‘| 23,475.38
107, 013. 38

General county and
township tax.

Receipts.

$18, 463. 15
23) 475. 38
98, 662. 44
30, 555. 18
76, 447. 61

{is 810. 89
18, 939. 94
18, 173. 54

1,859,572.09

Other
revenues
applied
to

roads.

Number
of men
worked

out labor
tax last

fiscal
year.

Statute labor tax.

Average
number
of days
worked

per man.

$300. 00

147,820.71

Average
daily
wage for
hired
help.

Cash
value of
statute

labor

tax.

XXI

APPENDIX.

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XXII

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APPENDIX.

XXIV

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XXV

APPENDIX,

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GP 186 8 GP ‘186
00 "000 ‘ST GST 00 ‘00S ‘ST
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Pee

XXXIT APPENDIX.
VIRGINIA.

TABLE 21.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges during 1914.

{
Total Tax rate, cents Total Tax rate, cents
revenue per $100. : revenue per $100.
applied to applied to
County. nae County. nas
and Coun- | Dis- and Coun- | Dis-
bridges. ty. trict. bridges. ty. trict.
ACCOMBACERE Sees eee $20, 671.49 |... __... 25-35
Albemarle.......-.-.- Bs O21 60) sees oe 20
Aloxandniase ese aee PA AYR etes lee 50
Adleghanyece-s eee a= 16, 054. 03 35: loan
AgHlinea ice tes fey a tae \ 35 | 1045
, 165.
iAmbhersteccsesns lose 13, 549. 78 10 20-25 5
Appomattox........- Ug 22500 ene eos 30 || Mecklenburg.-.-..-.--
INU ETS IE ao Seg acsers 176,713. 81 25 20 || Middlesex............
Bathe eset eseseless 13, 000. 00 40 chi | See Montgomery.........
iIBediondsasss a. secre 30, 149. 99 15 | Varies. |) Nansemond....._..--
Bande seer Sat. hese 7, 734. 76 20 MOyli@Nelsonee ses =e ee ee
IBOLOLOURiAe2- = 4-5-2 2 34, 600. 00 (aie | hoi bia New Kent. .........- 3,500. 00 10 20,30
Brunswick.......--.- 21, 860. 14 20 RO INOLIOlkeres ste eee 127, 799. 59 20 = |S eee
Behance yeas 18,507. 08 20 90 || Northampton......_. 10,529. 15
Buckingham......... 6,598. 66 | eee Northumberland..... 7, 595. 12
Campbellae sess so see ay Cua}e} 783i lee 30-35 || Nottoway........-.-- 11,065. 25
Caroline essa sec eo TAR002520))| Eee eee Srl} Orange) bbs asosoonce 10, 549. 06
Carroll eases oe 418,783. 68 50. aera IPA OSE sey yen 11,065. 38
Charles City----.----- 3, 598. 87 15 Gi) |p. deeinTEl ies ee osee 6,125. 00
Charlottes te = 525 8, 000. 00 ‘50: jae Ritisylyaniane eee 40, 112. 34
Chesterfield........-- 5 33, 000. 00 Dome teas so ee Powhatan............} 2,800.00
Clarker ies foes 13, 592. 44 5 30 || Prince Edward....... 15 16, 483. 00
Craioetes Botesaeeicese 5, 700. 00 10 30 || Prince George.......- 16 15,579. 02
Culpeper] s-2--see pds (OH, AB fe 20-40 || Prince William...._._}!7 25, 135.95
Cumberland........-. 7,092. 61 20 15 || Princess Anne. .- -}}8 10, 035. 31
IDieckensone esse sesso 7, 683. 36 20 Opi) |i) ieilbeaty Rese ..-}| 20,219.00
Mimwiad dies. =. -os-ee 13, 000. 00 0 pn sae Rappahannock.......} 3,766.32
Elizabeth City......-. 5. ATO. CO We essense 15 || Richmond......._.-. 3, 278. 49
HSSORE aaah Ua eee 3, 805. 99 OAS ies RO2nOKO eos sn- eee 33,901. 07
HMainfaxie nes) at eee OPS LO) | |e ee 25 || Rockbridge.-...._..- 27, 037. 31
WENGER ces Soe55se 25, 000. 00 D0 aes ee Rockingham ......... 52, 000. 00
Mloydse.2245 23222256 10, 861. 13 OSS eee VUssell tees cee ee ee 16,312. 56
MLGVanNn ae ce sees se ne 4,000. 00 20) Al eee Scott. saan ce ts fe a
14 10 Shenandoah........-. 897.
Brandi 9a eee 17, 106.44 { Pil 25-40. We cpeertmcs ove rae Saas
Rrederick=.-22--2-5- 15, 400. 00 D8 ellie a ae: Southampton.....__. 30, 000. 00
Giles? Riess ee ashen 10, 000. 00 Psy ela Spotsylvania......... 4,745. 84
Gloucester-=--------- 9, 435. 99" 35 8-10 || Stafford 11,076. 54
Gecchland Sieessecees . eet: 00 10 Oy SUnBYaecee Se seee eee
DBYSOMS-esosse 2 snes 71 15 BBP wee ee
Gieonge eee!) ei 82/498, 88 Beare, SusseX.-.-.---------.
Greenesville.........- 17, 773. 89 10 40 || Tazewell
Palit Res soe Senet 29, 262. 35 15 25=30)l Neen eee eee
Han OVels sess see sce: 9 32, 581. 37 15 25-30 || Warwick...
FF GnICD Seer soa 47, 922. 69 20 20 || Washington
LE GH ee aseemeetse 130003001 | Beeeee = | sparen Westmoreland
Highland. --.-. .-| 4,898.19 TE | eee Wise: 22.22
Isle of Wight... SA LOMOSD 70220) eee 15-20 || Wythe..... Bet
JamesiCityae- see eee 11 4, 832.95 QO eee eae SY ON Kec eeepc: ance ee
King and Queen... ... 5,500. 00 15 25 ——
King George.......-- 3,486. 87 (en) ee erie Total........-.-|1,687,906.00
King William....-..- 4,039. 00 10 15-20

1 Includes $1,425 private subscriptions.

2 Includes $7,500 private subscriptions.

3 Includes $5,000 from general county fund.

4 Includes $3,232.06 from general county fund. : ce

5 Includes $10,000 from general county fund and $1,000 private subscription.
6 Includes $7,447.85 special tax.

7 Includes $10,546 property tax worked out and $2,387.15 from general county fund.
8 Includes $200 property tax worked out.

9 Includes $7,392.09 donations. cn

10 Includes $1,300 commutation tax and $2,250 private subscriptions.

11 Includes $1,500 from general county fund.

2 Bridge.

13 Tneludes $441.80 dog tax.

14 Includes $9,000 from county fund.

15 Tneludes $6,483 from dispensary.

16 Includes $3,981.80 county tax on railroads and steamboats.

17 Includes $6,000 joint funds.

18 Includes $1,500 from general county fund.

19 County bridge.

Te eT a ee ee ee |

APPENDIX.

WEST VIRGINIA.

XXXTIT

TABLE 22.—County revenue applied to roads and bridges for fiscal year 1914-15.

Permanent road

General road tax,

Total tax. Capita-

revenue - tion tax
County. applied to Bridge rate -

oads and | Rate, Ey Rate, $1 per

bridges. mills | Receipts. mills | Receipts.| capita.

per $1. per $1.

ER SS 3 Aa oe a ia $34, 886 0.5 $8,754 | $17,496 0.5 $7,039 $1, 597
18, 424 £5 10.508) Eeeeeeeuee 5 6,537 1, 084
19:.931 |... 4. 2 | eee 7,005 1.0} 11,054 4,872
12,296 33 ABIGSH ee ee 5 5, 622 2,476
38,426 | 1.0 12,005 8, 213 1.8] 17,448 760
31, 756 5 SSC SA Ga Re oe 1.0 7, 759 651
16, 980 5 2,171 9,417 1.0 4,340 1,052
6, 566 1.0 GR GE: ee eeecsene eal 550 502
385760) iis ta 1 alls eae Meee E 2.0 | 37,374 1,386
91,353 | 2.0 23) SLM rerio == 1.0 33, 081 9, 360
20;.088) |5 52225 | Some 4,792 1.6 14,122 1,174
20; 300) 2:22 | Cana 11,155 1.4 8, 009 1, 136
TECHDIICE I soo. nee ais oaet os oe ates 58,263 | 1.0 14, 748 18, 967 155 22,121 2,427
LEAT OSI 2 ee ee eee ee 22, 588 - 06 446 10, 704 1.2 10, 140 1,298
BTC OC Ke ee este sec e hee e. 3167340153 DONS I es ae 1.0 9,376 1, 877
TEDW RE, ooo Souls ie oe 16,637 | 1.0 5, 59 3,916 1.2 4,742 2) 386
Pr cisuriee eee es eee as 235,637 | 1.0 81,664 | 25,598 2D) |) Tee Bake 5, 997
‘EELLECSTOT A 5 Ss oe 34,478 5 5,226 | 14,630 1.5 | 13,553 1, 069
MeHEnSOMaere seer ierh «ai 2e a s- cinco 18,313 1.0 UL BRO j|-nosecbucs A) 5, 684 1, 263
EG Oy ee P1490" 165). 2225520 | Sees eye see oes ee ISTAQELGby | meneame
TANS. Sees Sao ee 60,378) |)... . 22/2 24,027 1.6| 33,886 2, 465
Timeolne= 2... =< wHpodedeccoocsaese 48, 439 30 6, 694 26, 771 1.0 13, 045 1,930
Lai oae asc esc a teEe ee eee 11,379 | 1.0 il Cay) Seer A 6,599 2, 928
LETS GT? - =e Cee oe Se CSS Sees 117, 589 -6 GUSOD TY | Bones ae = 1.4 51, 954 3, 684
Worrall es eee aie te woe ose BH eile Beeeescn Pisce) eee ene 16 35, 086 1, 259
TESTE ra che ey a 46, 217 5 6,699 | 20,085 1.8] 18,166 1, 267
WLERCDE: 2 ccna ee 61,754] 1.2 ABE OE East by asi. 1.0} 16,058 2/194
Rliziorileae te ee FPR LS ee 35, 521 25 7,878 | 12,605 1.5] 14,115 923
NIETIAD.ccan ne cee eae ae eee 12,593 @ BAGGa Men stent ee ES 4,503 2,127
Mononealiag ss: cic. 22 s22es esl s: 57,596 Bt) 26s 040) ese ei =~ 8 29,244 2,312
GTEC rc Ie Fe | | 24, 252 4 3,532 | 11,785 ea 7, 799 1, 136
i ORR epee ee ee eee 18,885 1.0 Teele Geeceoneee 1.0 9, 498 1, 496
.9 6 10, 591
5 1.0 2,105
1,180
322
3,012
2,529
526
5,303
2,751
1, 868
5 2,154
Sail GHB |Loadscdede 1,313
5) 925
25 2, 415
.0 3 1, 007
.09 SRI7 3H beeen. eee 11,318 1,297
5 25 9,769 | 37,782 15,792 2,310
| AQUSO7 Ihe. 22 | eee $, 476 9,967 1,384
91,735 4 14,810 | 17,034 58, 142 1,749
7,542 | 1.0 LECT oan osane 2,113 |. 825
115, 751 .9 47,565 | 45,810 21,217 1,159
10,977 -3 AUB) | eee oaee 4,802 582
PYATOVOB Tyee ae 656,594 | 463,487 |........ 1, 249, 505 | 110, 395

1 Unable to secure report from Kanawha County for 1914-15.

Figures given are for 1913 and comprised

the following items: Permanent road tax, $19,479: appropriation from general county fund, $125,000; and

corporation tax, $4,686.
2

Jnable to secure report from Ohio County for 1914-15. Figures given are for year 1913, and money
was all appropriated from general county fund.

XXXIV APPENDIX.

TABLES SHOWING ROAD AND BRIDGE BOND ISSUES.

The following tabulated arrangement of the road and bridge bond issues is referred
to under the text of the respective States:

ALABAMA.
TABLE 23.—Road and bridge bonds and script, 1914.

Amount Total of Amount Total of

of bond allroad of bond allroad
money and bridge money _ | and bridge

County. expended | bonds out- County. expended | bonds out-
during 1914} standing during 1914] standing
from all Jan. 1, from all Jan. 1,
issues. 1915. issues. 1915.

UNTUGY EEE Se nes ese eet ere $155, 000 || Limestone $135, 000
IBD Qe eee me et eras | ae ea 100, 000 || Madison 250, 000
150, 000 || Marion 100, 000
60,000 || Marshall 130, 000
30008! | @MOpilokssee ns ase oe eee 500, 000
200,000 |} Montgomery. 825, 000
ie eae Morgans tcc = assoc lateceosseece 24, 000
75, 110, 000
200,000 ||| FeFTY---------=---2---2---|----2------- { 16, 000
60;;0007) | MBIke see a2 ees ice cia een Pee PE moe 192, 000
350;(COON| MER USSe1 Ieee hm alee eee | een see 100, 000
| 3830009] | Motes Claires =e ees seis Men eeecereee 85, 000
HPO Wal eo se ene eee ee es eee ae ZOO OOOH ashe lye sense sseeeeee sees 240, 000 1 240, 000
Wayette-ci sa. s- que esc essneooncse 13250004] SUliter= eee ee aes sease Sep asanscuos 120, 000
15 2) eee sees Sees cascee Reece acre (oO, 0008||MEuScaloosa ee eee sane eee pees reer aee 65, 000
BACKSOU MEE een ae case ere lerocsosesebs ZoOKOUOs Valence eee sae asa 100, 000 130, 000
Wammayet= is escent | GS- (OW) isoGoaacoocos SSE
[a wroncos ene nis Sarees 24, 500 123, 000 Motals--ssaausssce ste 1, 013, 210 5, 418, 000

1 Warrants.
ARKANSAS.
TABLE 24.—Road and bridge bonds and script, 1914.

Total road Bonds sold during 1914.1
and bridge
bonds and Bonds
County. SaeG out- | voted dur- i ; Purchase
standing, | ing 1914. nteres price
Jan. 1, Amount. | “rate. Term. | ‘cents
1915. per $1.
Per cent.
INU GREG Sea gouussoanesospeossedeee $20 000) As aaee sets lone oni crete [enema
layer: 5 Sched 5 Se Ses Sees
Clevelands see: 2225 ese at ck Se
Oraiphea de eae eso nsasecinoem ace oesne
Ganlan dees: Sei eee eae cece cence
Ot Springess sas ooo Se se ee eee
Imdepend GNCSsie ee sae ee eee sete
TAR tC meter teed pa eeknee Set Rg ies ate
WOILETSOM) pie cote ome amie ye sare eaters
VOHNSOR 4s he eee mee ee ene
Aya WreN COs semen eee ce ee sed
WiGO sae eb ee ee eater ere Sal
incoln = Heese tee seee cee cwiseewas See F
ONOK OR Geno Some CeCe ee en ee ee 506, 500 506, 500 506, 500 6 20 98
MAN GP tee ac eae ee see eee mee C72) Geiser aes CRenaeeeoiaaa) Resare coe at immo paeonen ses
IMISSISSID Plewen nes = See eee eee D000} eee heeene S| base sone sel Soeelsoneie Aci onniccee al bemeemeree
MOnroen sc. e 22 eee ee eee 12000) Beene eset. ioc al emote ese eee nes leaeeee aoe
Montgomery ese see see eee eee ee DOUG ae estes sete rele stele | eee rem bre ae seen | er ene
Ouschitaeee ee seers hee eee eeiae ESO 0,0) lees serets es ers] | eget s Seer | [NC ey ere eR ee | as oe
Bard = AG fare ore Ps seo Sas (AIRY AY BSSeneaoee oa Caoeeoneen oe
RSS ARE Asan SSA aero 52, 000 50, 000 2 50, 000
oe ee ee eae eee 101, 500 45, 000 45, 000
oes Oe ore nc Ne Si etree ton 300) eee eces eae = clwsiieee te
Re Soins RR a ak pt SO Rees Pee Se aha swe cee
NS tee a Alt Saat 500) Reset eal teatemisicceios
BORE Sey er se sa EIS 2/0004 ea aes io See eas
wee e einen ele ese enter 1, 467,066 | 1,191,426 | 1,191, 426

1 All bonds sold during 1914 were serial in character.
2 Of this amount $45,000 was expended during 1914.

eat Ty.

=

APPENDIX. XXXV
DELAWARE.
<2 TaBLE 25.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
: Bonds voted during
Total 1914 and sold. Expended
P from bond
Count outstanding ReneS
‘ 9t5. Interest uring
E eres
Total oer 1914.
(Sil fecicets {So ee eae CORD Ee eee eee ea eas S000) | beateeebace Beeeeeeean se $22, 000
[NGA C acter meen e um un Nc INET a 1,250,000] $150,000 4 340, 000
REISS Oe er eae ars eis Sect Soni cinte wag Se bvein| | here ere Petia ues alae me cameltoe soci
Tiel. sctee occ seee ee eee ne 1, 280, 000 1505000! | ae eso ee one 362, 000
FLORIDA.
TABLE 26.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
Total road Total Bonds sold during 1914.
E and bridge jexpenditure} Bonds
Gant bonds from bond | voted Bonds
y- outstanding | issues during Titerest Rate of |. F414
Jan. 1, during 1914. | Amount. sae Term. | purchase
1915 1914. - price.
Percent.| Years.
PUR CHTA es setae ok S20 4000500! ($67 500500) |) 5 << \- ae meee | seine cee| sew oenes| scenic coe $6, 500
Brevard: :
District 1....... EVADE 69) 22 350098" | cs casa al seems Samael eos see [since cacecc|oceecasnos
District 4.....-. pt Gia ihen| BEG C he ont te See ReEerod Beae S Gacecl COOCOrSE Seco raed CSE eCeoEed Deccoupaee
adoeeaee: eee 507, 001.00 | 125,000.00 | $125,000 | $125,000 5 20 Ogys ee eae ths
Diivaliens seen see CoD CNC) | Somes-nancol basceceenn lsarcsoscaod lb conbosd losdesead pooceeseed Oopacessac
Franklin..........- SD KOGO! OO ee OOO 00: | acai | is een ei | pean are | ys ye er ga tcar 9, 000
Gadsden sea— ss. SOOS008 | SL7; 963285 || so-56.o sete sateen leicias ames a sa acicn nous same lacomciecae
EMTS bOrO-220 - <=. = U4 CUD C0 lene neeos esse loneccasced |cacencecse|ooucaoed |aneesacd Ecmoccoted|socmeodade
Holmes. 2 2225.2. . Sa OOD s COs ess OOO OO) |E = as tarsal epempenema eietetnetate ole cin steterars | nite clalercieres | siataieis erarelare
1024) 5 SACS 3s ae TOROOOS OOK Post Seek as -|bes 5 scene 5 | eee eee eee stese lee tote cel cceeecsiccs| omeccenase
Manatee..........- ZOO NOOR OO GE Sere escrerote cia | ac ci ert eee | eto | eieciete cite oaminuee ated Magers cme
Marion canons CSA U ATE) ne iene eee) GEeARrCraa [ics oascaSo oncesed eeapodad OceChoacen seccmeamac
INASSATIOE cine nee 180,000.00 | 90,000.00 |-........- 180, 000 54 30 OSB Leo ssse ses
Orangerer nc. 22555 D2 TXOOOAOON | Hee esas: < |aso.e aoe 525, 000 De laces sels osanescarleseecens Se
arr eachme meetin (0080005 001115246" 900: 00! 122.6. 5 0e| Semel Mamie IE es oot IE ee oo os 3, 000
IPAS COM Sey yce ee 150 OOONOOH USO 0005 O0)} 35 Sc | eee lerereteretaialls seicrsisins| Ceieleisibicca| = screeners
Pinellas. 2 2.2.) BLO OOOS OD FE eee ie |lrs,o S o cia SP ea te Leas eel Sse ea Ear th |e ee eS
MiadONNSPe scan sce ey aoe Seems ese as 650,000 | 650, 000 54 30 (CD ia Bomanecsbic
Siqbucie. 23 2.2; { 2 95°00, 00 |y 25:000-00 | 25,000 | 25,000 6 25 Crp amet a ree
Seminole........... 2005 B002 007 8 200K000L00 5 |e = siare are) 3] seers eee ere ael erercterere AC bboecGo sac lscesonese0
Suwanee........... B23 40002 00F Ea tess) cccl. 2-5 '- Geen o| Soe teen sae wad lsasoceoelaciessccmaclesemeamacte
Total.........| 5,959, 199.22 | 765,051.77 | 800,000 |1, 505,000 |........|........|-.sseee00. 18, 500
1 Par and interest. 2 Warrants.
v
KENTUCKY.
TABLE 27.—Toial of all road and bridge bonds outstanding Jan. 1, 1915.
County. Amount County. Amount
LEO OL SS SGU ee EE ey $15. 000)||SMontgomenyeererenssseceeeeceneeee ee $29, 000
ten gue he oases: Meese cele. $2;,000))|| (Nelsonkasteeeees sees s220. see se conse: 34, 000
CIS Sse Deee ee en ee oe 2021000) || Nicholase sepeemeryn see pone eee a james 12, 000
SUSI 5S) Sa Re ene ers ane eee 17, 000 WOME eee ie Sle ann tener 140, 000
TX GInTG Ti as dae pan Bes aoe ae tees gece 167, 000
ie wyismeemers gba. Vidi ane paste nee 25, 000 Rota serene ne sac ne ones rakes 705, 000
WWERMIS@II eee oa ears eehine Saati la 32, 000

XXXVI APPENDIX.
LOUISIANA.
TABLE 28.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
Total road | Amount Bonds sold during 1914.
and bridge| of bond Bonds . Bonds
Parish.1 bonds out-| money retired voted
standing | expended jduring 1914.during 1914.) Amount erm Purchase
Jan. 1, 1915.|during 1914. sold. i price.
Years.
Neagdias hace wasces es S15DRCOOSOO | Pete nso. cae |seeeimer ence $170,000.00 | $170,000.00 1-10 | Par.
UAV erick se ea ee 28,000.00 | $15,000.00 |.........--- SOX000S 00 [Een seas eeen nee Meme
Ascension. ........- 58,000.00 | 62,000.00 |.......-...- 35, 000. 00 35, 000. 00 20 | Par.
Assumption.......- 29,000.00 | 19,000.00 |...-.-...... 48, 000. 00 48,000.00 |-------- Par.
ISORSIE SE Se oadsaonealin’ scccb 7556S SesmonEedorelaocouesasces 175, we: a 175, oO, HY elena S
44,000. 44,000. 1-4 | Par.
Caddoe eee ae seers 44,000.00 | 11,000.00 | reece reeeeee { 37, 000. 00 37,000. 00 20 | Par.
East Baton Rouge..} 36,000.00 | 37,000.00 | $1,000.00 | 186,000.00 |.....-...-.---|--------
Chines he ee BAS 5OORO0) 1110; 000% 00); 54.75 500500) sceer: -unme (EMRE net hee oalars
ihenvillesse essen oe 2, 335. 26 5 988:09 eee ees es | eeemec ne wall mies Me cee ror | eaten
Jefferson............ DOO AGO0" O02 4000-00") aereernae eel: Seis nee ie eae Seni
Matavettomc i ese Meters. 10500000) Pemem eens OA (CL INCI GBeceeesa sede Wesetene
WaAOuUTCHe eee cs coee| Sees eee eS eeicins en cea emcee sae OS TOOL CD leseaseaseseqes|isooséass
; 128, 000. 00
Rapides: wuss er /000) OD \ 30) 000.008 AI, OOOKODE |e sues el nese eta) dec | OAR
Sabie ees ee BEYOOOLODWA-aeeee =. e/a ne Hepienaten \ 16,000.00} 4,9
St. Charles.........- 205,000.00 | 95,000.00 |..........-. {ii0" poo) \ 95,000. 00 30
St. Landry 22.1... LOOVOONSOOI|Eace hy <2 eel oe eens 100,000.00 | 100,000. 00 10
Sis Dammiariy semen || TOKOOD SOO) ens sees een annum! 180,000.00 | 180,000. 00 20
angipahoa=sesseer oe Las QU000) bac neec a2 eel eee eeeeiaeee 50, 000. 00 50, 000. 00 10 | Par and in-
terest. -
Vermilion.......... a 000 00 1\ 28; 000.0011. se8eeee 72,000.00} 72,000.00 10
Washington.......- 113,000.00 | 139,000.00 |............ 139,000.00} 139,000.00 | 10
West Baton Rouge.|...-.....-..|..- easeosead||soaeaes5a00¢ TEVUUOSED) locescacaseecce |z-------
Total eee een 1,588,835.26 | 486,388.69 | 24,500.00 |1,732,000.00 /2 1,161, 000.00 lseenaee
i
1 Corresponds with county in other States. 2 All bonds sold during 1914 bear 5 per cent interest.
MARYLAND.
TaBLE 29.—County road and bridge bonds, 1914.
Expended
Total out- | from bond | Retired
County. standing issues durin
Jan. 1, 1915.) during 1914.
1914
|
INTULSEA ARC f SRI Pee A SS A a ad a es a $30,000.00 |.-----.----- $30, 000. 00
PATIO VAT) eerste ete sears 5 yrds Pace oer aS Sea ee a $6, 000. 00 24, 000. 00
Dorchester: Ase tees eran): ened Y Raehemean geo uee = 35,000.00 | 9,400.00 { $7,000.00
Monteomenry e222 G28 ee epee ere SN) DES RoR aes epee eee bh 26, 000. 00 7,100.00 | 141,700.00
(ibe nPAGITIGS Gn es mos NN SN eyes Macnee ea 16,542.36 | 4,000.00 { Siero
000.
NAO ESS FE) IS IE Ss oA ee NE eh a om eu 70005 00) Seer a= { oO heen
Motels, Sa Rls ae nee ae 2" 1: a a Se 114,542.36 | 26,500.00 | 443, 700.00

Norte.—During the year 1914 Montgomery County voted and sold road bonds amounting to $26,000.

These bonds bear 5 per cent interest and run from 11 to 15 years.

TABLE 29a.—State road and bridge bonds, 1914.

Amounts | Interest
Character. outstanding Tate,
Jan. 1, 1915. | per cent.
Sinking fundiessesacisseawquemene! 30 ene SU Eo eae Ure ten $4, 990, 000 3.5
AD open eee Gre Ge cede aes rd) Er et) td 2 OU | 1,000, 000 4
IO 5 Sis eet nett A Oo, RC I eS ee | 3,170, 000 4
DElerregiSerial ee ea eee eae EE Oe eee See | 3,250, 000 4
tall Moe 3h 2. Shoe eameemerete Oo Svea Lege LM | 12; 410,000 |...-.-----

Maturity.

1923-1928
1926-1929
1927-1928
1917-1930

XXXVII

APPENDIX.

2 @ “JWI lad

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APPENDIX.

XXXVIIt

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APPENDIX. P XXXTX
: NORTH CAROLINA.
: TaBLe 51.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
Total road
aud DriGee Boas Bonds
A onds out- vote: sold
County. Township. standing during during
on Jan. 1, 1914, 1914,
1915.
ALHTTSTIRT: coger Bee e OSS EE OS CERI OE Bee Ce ae aera miemnrerers ic Uh =e re ELON Be Seerocdeed BacRcasone
PAUIGPRANY See ne eos te beset One}townshiple= ee Peeeene= = DO; 0003 eee nce =F paren eee
ANID 58 2 ee Wadesboro:. 2:2 SOF 0004 | Bee eee ete eee
ISOs. 5-535 48 eee ee ee Horse Creek. 5 see DS S00 emacs eee scout ae
TSUN E. co eee eaten sack US pea S SSE] | seca ae ana 5 3 eS SILT UD | ecocoscases $50, 000
FES Oi Oeepe pe ce ears ieee cee cc One township:--2-5232------ DROOON Ese ceases | Saeeeeee ne
TDD nene2 sete wdeoce GaSe ue GS oe ee ee! Sees ee aremeememniars 73 2S 20: O00" eee a pele
TEE Gils oe Sea ae ee ee Carvers: Creek. 222 see) eee LOKOOOM Ee Sates | Seen
PROSE oe ke Seis a nee doostoae i - Brow) Marsh: 20) ee seeeeee= 1OKO00; jess S225 3- Se Eee
CNS WIC Kone aes oss sseeec ete sce ccees Loeckwoods Folly.......--.---- LOS O00} Ses Sees ee eee nets
ILO soc cca see en oe RE See eee Shallotters.2 2c: Geese eee 105000) Ese Sasa sees | see eeeenne
I Dsa7 s- essere ee ee ae Town Creek. 5... esas eee ee SOON | See ee ee
EVO eee olen ash oseeccsee: Smithville. 3.25. eee SO 000) | eae cee ee eee
ONE See on ale oak Northwest.<.3.2-G2ee eee ae 15,000 | $15,000 15,000
7

D
CADRE TET 2h oo os Sane ee ee en ee Matthews and Oakland......- 20, 000 20, 000 20, 000
WHOLOKGR Sct ee one teal eae cod Murphy.-22 263-5 soe seer. TSO} O00 Ff seseeess se 30, 000
IDO 54.5 Ske S See e ee eee ene Marble Districtes-esseeeseeeee GSROO0 a | seraeis eee ae | eee es
IDO). a8 nap su CCORR BEE EEE renee Malley: Lownl:222 eee 47E O00) |S e eee s saeeee e a
Cleveland Nosh Zand 62222 ee ee oeeer eee UVP Di emeeemerican teaee ur
D INOS 3540, a0 Gao eee ener TO UU pennen oaaeenl bGoeascmor
INOS 45165) 7, and See=aneeer see 185, 000 185, 000 185, 000
Lexan elON2.- see te :
Tsland! Creek 2 225-eeeeeeee eee
Rocky Mountain.
Road district...--
Branklin ton --ee ses seeeeae
Louisburg. -. 5-2 sseeesseeeere=
aaa (6 (1 ee eR Scare mere
Sounes ville: sess seers
Holy.Grove. fee eee
Cheoah::.. 2... eae
} Bullhead-. 2085. ceceeeereree 205000) Eee eee 20, 000
SUSPR aa. se eee OF000) |Besaesnseee 10, 000
JASOW. 52205 cece eee peer e ee OU0D) eae eee 10,000
Olds. 23-2. Ae See 205000) Saree ae 20,000
jpgetandsyille cise bina eS areas? COON Sasette castes 20, 000
Secale sae Bd COE ee TOSCUD pecweeenaeae 10,000
"Snow PLS = hehe ZION ec eecoseoce 20, 000
ete = See oa ne ae asa |Hokieseees Sacn nena Se eee 300; O00# | 535 see aos se sees
PETS L Tre 5 oe a i eed a ert | | Enfield Eee son coonaoee AQ OQ0AIES sa eee a eseis 40, 000
alifax 2552. 3c saeco ae 60, 000 60, 000 60, 000
Bat DCCUC!-ce--- eee eee eee 10,000 10,000 10,000
Blackg Rivers. see eee eee 2,500 2,500 2,500
Hectors Creek. - cS 15, 000 15, 000 15,000
Hillington se. = 20, 000 20, 000 20, 000
Upper Little River... 20, 000 20,000 20, 000
Basti orkso. 32 12a aeeeen ie 100, 000 100, 000 100, 000
Wiaynesville:s-- 2: eee SONOOOE IS seas oe leis eater ete
A Ajoiein ce aod ae DC et BeBe eS 25, 000 25,000 25,000
Bdneyville. 2) eee eer ees 12,000 12,000 12,000
Hendersonville.........-.-.-.- 50, 000 50,000 50, 000
Hoopers Creek - 2.2 -2222--22- 20, 000 20, 000 20, 000
eli oerajnemert on esa cae ee eee SOC) losacseusscad bAncssesoc
Pees ta no oaniais see eee eee AAV IE(UUD) | Scecoodences| Seooobbece
Cullowhee.... 3-6.-c.seecnee ese S0SO00 | Fees 15,000
MiISHOTO 22. soe eee TSS OOO sce ncensc 15,000

XL

NORTH CAROLINA—Continued.

APPENDIX.

Tasie 31.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914—Continued.

County.

Township.

Sylvate cian tes Sees ecracmre
.-| Beulah.
-| Ingram...

Meadows.
Sanford eee eae ys en ee
Marione:: Soares Tae
ING bowees aaa een eee:
Old hort aa eee
A Diehal:dhiclee eur Gee a aa
Mans deni os 1 ae ee ees
Robertsville..........-..--..--
Williamstown...........-.----
Mecklen burger cian a Basie Sco os | obs ce bigi ae = sete ote aise esis aie
MitChell ee Gee OE Sc ok ak Re eee GrassyaCretketes eee meee see
panitaee USS Fae ea Eh
Deep eeinee PEAS ae aeete
Greenwood eee eee
..-| Mineral Springs..............-
Dal IMI GIN GLE iretgeier ioe eons a eRe
ee dr Pa ele a = To een
Rocky Mountain district. .....
North Whitakers............--
ID) Oe eek re eee el Coopers Creek........-...--.-.
IDO SBR dss assedbosossonaosdoubeose iD rvalWellsteeeepee meee see cesar =
ID XO Oh Aas Se aie ean, ea oS os Ger TAT eC Ua ae e229 2
ID) Saar Seen Maminiin os see eae ie ne 2
De eh ees areca Cee ro cae South Whitaicers REND yee rate oh
New EB NON EE es eR 2 8 LOE ie | Ae LT Oe ee cee eee
Northaiipton ee en ee eas Shae Jackson se eee ee eRe
Rich SGuareeese eee eee
Jacksonvalllonsseeeanee eee see
TEM NNR)conceonossss-ssooseae
Greenvallessaa see peas
TY OTe re EL Be
ibeaverdam === seen roe
Blackjack: ces saan ee
oa Marks) Creek: tease teres
.| Mineral Springs............---.
ROCkineha meses eee ee ease
Steeles seas eees See henna
PTVECo) Lig ena ngny Se on ook Me ona an
TRY ove eat ates ee as Vee ee meet 8) TP Slip bal a oe a oN ie 2 ee
TBO Wel oCe5 C0) 6 hs ANSI et CR es UP Vaan Te eee eam on UC ALA c/o ee
PSE: C81) O}3{09 4 es siege gre tp tat RR ag gS eyo OT ae en
SGOtTaT ieee Sia ase rape SCION Le Ware lei] eae we eee SD ae
AD OE Sees Ace eee a Ee oe Sora et pa ohoooogscdes
nD Yo ei See eeasypere Be ems aie im eee eee a Senate Py sets 2 a ete
1 DX 0 rete ye A AS eh ee ea \Winilbbragoynn os soabsaseacbos
Stokes ee ees eee ees. @ Dan bDunye vee eee Sao
LD YO MERE ceet aah a Laie | Se Saas Meadows: iece sae eee
DD) OS, 3 EOE, DRM SEY UR ESM i Sauratowneeeass eee eeeee eee
SULTS as ae Se eR ee Mount FAULy eee aeons eee
WACO tee eee ae ee Rd ear el IRM ae at Se
IWIATTOTN ou O02 a ee eS Ee ee OE 2 Wiarrentonsassesteeceee eee cee
IWiaymier.S) ARS Ea te Oks Apeyae Nar oe Brogden Bese ese eeeser on coe
DOSER Be AE Sie Se RN I SD Goldsboros=he sees eee eee
DO! Sacer eOe MOounTIOLVesaaseeeee eee
SWillsome se eee ee a ei NA WAISON soy. ac eraeeete Cai ca.
IVANCEY aos Sees Hee REE Meee ace ScocnnSppScabtcs=ssesse5anscqau6
Rotel get aes ae See a cteve eiate eS cc's cere See Eee Soeie at cise

Total road
and bridge Bonds Bonds
bonds out- voted sold
rT during during
on Jan. 1914 1914
1915.
930000) Sarena neers $30, 000
40, 000 $40, 000 40, 000

100) 000) (sees sae | eee
TSOSODO Meee e es 150, 000
8,955,300 | 1,119,500 | 2,709, 000

re

APPENDIX. XLI
SOUTH CAROLINA.
TABLE 32.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
Total road | Expendi- Bonds sold during 1914.
and bridge | tures from Bonds
County. ponds : ponds during aa A
outstanding} issued dur- eres urchase
Jan.1,1915.| ing i914, | 194. |Amount.| “jie | Term. |” orice.
Chesterfield: i Per cent.| Years.
Be a Bator Township....- $39), 000) Be ceec eres = $35,000 | $85,000 6 40 | Par.
Geo soscaecccoessoocuoon|| . WOON taGEOI Ds pase cocsadlbocescseccl Honcadodad bocacounuellaetenaads 5
Jasper - - 40, 000 40,000 |.... 40 | Do.
Kershaw

Laurens

Richland: :
Columbia Township...
NTARION Mean oe esse sacs
Spine ee oe ea enemeaneee
Ro fal sess ses =e -\sie ai
1 Bridge bonds only.
TENNESSEE.
TABLE 33.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
Totalroad | Expendi- Bonds monde Bonds sold in 1914.
and bridge | tures from eared orad
County. bonds _|bondissues| qurine during
outstanding during 1914 = 1914 Amount |Interest/Term in
Jan 1, 1915. 1914. : s sold. rate. | years.
$57,000.00 | $57 it ge
am a oe ta E 000. 00 5
PAmdersOM sas =n iets ciel == 1 $382, 000. 00 | $10,000.00 | $25, 000. 00 { 50, 000. 00 50, 000. 00 5 } 20-30
Bradley eee ascites = 226; 00000) |, 105000500) |---=2=-52--- 50,000.00 | 50,000. 00 5 30
Cantera ieee sees GOKOOOR OO! | Pare es rs3 she sie SH See | eee ee Nee aoe Sel tear Lae ee iM Pe aS (a
@laiborme..+-=.2-.---<-: QU, GUS (09 eee eeeadadea| esaeoccdceoss| Hotsasdadeacldeoonedouenc eoocoscs|soocoodse
(Cred eaves See a DOO OOOH OO} Se says Se Se ee Sra tere epee a | rete eet I pare eek | rc ce tet
IDERWOROI EL Soaesacaeaae IE (EOS) Teeseaoeaaeee 50; COOROOH|PAteeeeeteealpoecictes seal see coe mei ueacioe
Grainger oo... c neces: C0; 0050.0" eeaaaeaeccos aeaeaacncdctallcdume dovosac |daceeacdased tosaaces| merareee
(GnECITOR BE eae ener 800, 00050055 2383;(000: 00) |: =2eeeeealeeeceeeetinenc|tisics-sascse lees aseegllerece ene
Hani plems senses sce.. = Z te se a So OES SEES Hugecodosouc Sucodtoaaess 35,000) 00) |222<cinalseneeene
laWiilis4 oi. .es.cc-2- hPa eun | osereeeeeet 5, 000) OO ap 2as004 00815. 22 ay* EIB Lire: 63
RHIC KIMNAN a Sees Seas 31, 000. 00 SR OOON OO): se See errs mers oes ree ee ea Ro eR
MOUGCON sent ee ceca cox: 300, 000. 00 | 185,011.53 |...-.-.---.- 50,000.00 | 50,000. 00 5 30
McMi { 300, 000. 00
SAM coc ascounscconoe D5SOOONOOA ieee ae soos TTR Tera a Ren Reo S Sees | Tesee Srs alse ores alae ces
WikhaGils ees ecemsescocte 125, 000. a Joddoodasads LESCE Oe ccsescrsesa| GaedeenToose) eanceada aaccece
1, 000. 0
Meigs.-.------.-----..-- { 2, 500. 00 \ DSS Rtn SG DESC SSS So SSeS obi Gotta toon
MONT ORME. Shiites oe. SOO OOOK OOH Bere sa Deo] ose Se eis ea ee aia SI ST ee 2 ei cs) os cet
Montgomery.......-.... 357, 500.00 | 80,000.00 |..--.--.----- 100, 000. 00 | 100,000. 00 5 30
Morgane se tales assis 5 aE COUUCO |oesescoasous 25 OOO OO) eee eae aa aie ke a ise SH Se eae
PRTMAWicos sooo gcecss ogc |bessccesceeensllocaseuasddss|escoucoceade AY O00 CD ocssscescccd|escocess|konacsce
PELGMAIN Se vetetereteaisioe ici: 2505000500) | esses Salt cece eee eee eee ee oll eeicleresiciclsiciec | sleleieleiersiel| mete teretetete
Than, Aue ae { Trace \i03, 920.48) uae 110,000. 00 | 110,000. 00 5 30
2 oe a
423, 000. 00
Robertson.....-..-++--. { 38’ S00, 00 fica, 4g: 82) |) Ve do ioel ee nee Oe ee tense eee Secor aes
. 222, 000. 00
C2 Eacaccs Seen toast | 54,945.69 | 7,000.00 |...-..eeneee]ecsertevenesleseeceeefesereces
MUTANS a ae /ioricie se os'- = IOC CO CONS) Bassssoodudcllsoncdedocacn bodooacuacne oocdcond epecadas
Bie EGT cea as: 25,000.00 | 5,000.00 |..........-- 25,000.00 | 25,000. 00 5 25
WATE MECN =\.52- 502522 -5 ioe Boe: 00 ee Veta es wal vem cea tI See ee atetere ioe el] @ tsisseicioizieie te cil srsisiaie oeteif erste sleisters
(00.
WWATTCM ees. =e ce 5 oneal { 8 000. 00 \ eats satel scales 105000500) Beas secs ole wiseiscsc selene sieea| ata sais ste
- 0, 000. 01
VNC OS oe Nea eee { 2 5, 000. 00 \ were eee eee eee eel eee ee eee eee el -- eee ee mmc cc lsc cece er loreeecee
Motal sy esote see 6, 898, 276. 89 | 778,306. 52 | 128,421.11 | 486,500.00 | 445,000.00 |........].-..----

XLII APPENDIX,
TEXAS.
TaBLe 34.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
Expendi- Bonds sold during 1914.
tures
wae (Total | from | jetired | voted :
ounty. outstanding on : i n-
c| Jan. 1, 1915. issues cane one, Amount | ter- |ip Rate of
uring 4 sold. est |~ ef] purchase
1914. rate. price.
P.ct.| Y7rs.
PATANISAS Bre rsretetatols| nlcislnisletalelateletatotal| eiateetetsta=iat=yete'| mtetateteterstateretate $25, 000.00 |...-......-- Ssileeeeee
Austin......... $175, 7000. ODT ES 24 B93 4st see eS oeean aeemcine cis celeriac see seemcalemecee
BESO) o5cg06d|scosesonocoacclbcscacchased|eoosde Bi Serie ORNS O) eessoseoooss Dl sree
Baylor........- 1067503300 F 255670 /O UG Gee e nee cee lect Scie sina a | Herston errors lleteere ere | seeieee
PCIe eee |i meanmn amet ey Falies sien T61S9O0S 00H Eco. 55st: aie eet
IB@Xale ec. ce seaeie TSA, SO0TOOM POSU ATS TIS 2: |Peeemaweae | sericea cies |etieieis reeset | deren [eee
ZAOOONOON| ces se Pee EN Oe ial ena abies Pda dear Clee kl eNO
sl B7O80S 00 pl eaectacres a: $1 <GOOSOOM Meets cock gets [ona ce| saa
i es BOT OOS OOM ase s shee Bailes.
“| 34;000.00 “34,000. 00 | $34,000.00! 5 | 40 | Cash.
a cieusiee| esis a aanvao? 205000500) | Raesececeeee yes Sscsee
as son Soa Sain | RE se [ree oe a PI SEOO0"00 | ars ease
ay bat me ane 25, 000.00 | 25,000. 00 5 40 | Par.
OREO) | ARENA GS EU OMOD iecce 4 caneedidoasoeesden| beeen bones
ME etoecicomt slo si narse ee clears 63,975.00 |..-----.----] 865,000.00 | 865, 000. 00 5 40 Do.
59, 300. 00 29, 300. 00 15, 000. 00 29, 300. 00 29, 300. 00 6 |138-15 =
124, 000. 00 70,000.00 | 1,000.00 | 17,000.00 | 173000.00| 5 |...-.. Do.
OT GOOLOO RK eee 0) eee (ah Gcaioe Hite eile ae hl 0A lees
40,000.00 | 15,000.00 |......-.--.- 40,000.00 | 15,000.00| 5 | 40] Do.
ae en ae Ferrara aeeeeeeeel eeeneeeeee 1254000: 008 eee eee Bel Ra
REA sl deca a Senay BOS. OAs bel ee a mei wl bee ccs A. ous Bteacell| 0 ee Enea
DOE NO ('0) ea aararhel Mieco 5 250,000.00 | 250,000.00} 5 | 40] Parandin-
terest.
21, 899. 00
13,000. 00
456,000.00 | 134,955. 29
50,000. 00
84; 000. 00

178, 000. 00
100, 000. 00
20, 000. 00

56, 200. 00
5,500. 00

Lampassas..... 32, 500. 00
La Salle...

McLennen
Matagorda
Maverick.......

42, 602. 00
73, 000. 00
48, 000. 00

300, 000. 00
150, 000. 00
250, 000. 00

70, 000. 00

20, 000. 00
10, 000. 00

Ce en iy

Se ir

1,075,000.00
495, 000. 00

2,800.00 | 3,000. 00 | 2 25, 000. 00

Hi, 00:00! | Lean SaeaINO Eee esse 2
Rew 124) eee NT00/000. 00!
Boe 1b ce Caen 1000000, 00:

1 Voted in 1911 and sold in 1914.

wee een eee ee] DO fewccee
Se ees nied ie i iy
we cceeweenes| OD lewccece
wecncccceces| DF lecccce
weccceceeees| DF lseeccae
Se ne iid ie

See ees ees ee
ns nd ey
Se es ees ery
Se a Od ee a)

2 Sold early in 1915.

APPENDIX.

TEXAS—Continued.

TABLE 34.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914—Continued.

Expendi-
tures
Total from
County. outstanding bond
Jan. 1, 1915. issues
during
1914.
Navyarro.....-.-| $175,000.00 |$300, 000. 00
Nolan. --...-.-- 1005000500" |2 3-25. 5--22-
INTMCCES Hai. cc a3: 110, 590. 60 | 110, 590. 60
@rancve’= 6... 226, 995. 00 | 170,000. 00
Palo Pinto-.--.-. 172, 000. 00
anOlee sane oe 2, 400. 00
Parker... 25, 000. 00
PGGOSS 5 Hoek Sen Bee secee seed Se aeeaesaees
Potter... 27, 000. 00
Reeves. - - 112, 000. 00
Refugio........ 80,000.00 | 40,000. 00
Robertson....-.| 462,829.93 2, 695. 30
ROckwallepsen| tens suck aco eclsassowee.
Runnels....-.-- 32, 594. 00 1, 000. 00
San Patricio....| 118,000.00 |--.-.----.--
SGUELYie cess -6 15,000.00 | 40,000.00
Schackelford - -- EPR OS() secocescocse
Mths sees 290, 000. 00 | 150, 000. 00
Stephens. .....- 205,000: 00))|2-2---—2---|
Sterling........ HOS OCONO) lence oeececee
Stonewall...... DOS ONON G0) 2222 522--2-|
Tarrant........ 1,600. 000.00 |--..--------
143,000.00 |..----------
1,000. 00 1,000. 00
50} OOOKOO! |S saccsecence
160, 000.00 | 135,000. 00
ZO O0.@0) |lEseonsacocer
387, 200. 00
150, 000. 00
67, 000. 00
400, 000. 00
15, 000. 00
287, 000. 00
150, 000. 00
65, 000. 00
Total....- 14, 615, 016. 53 |4,152,456.72 |

266, 255. 00

Bonds

retired

during
1914.

2,500. 00
10, 000. 00

8 4,000. 00

2,500. 00
“"10, 000.00.
50, 000. 00

171, 995. 00
4150, 000. 00
10, 000. 00
100, 000. 00

20, 000. 00

6,783,275.60

XLII
Bonds sold during 1914.
Tn-
Rate of
Amount | ter- |rerm|} purchase
sold. est F
rate. eke
IPA SiGe
$110,590.60| 5 | 40 | Par
ON ASS Hes rt ae
Pe101A00I 00; [Ea ae isl
50, 000. 00 byw lasectoe Do.
“25,000.00! 5 | 40) Parandin-
terest.
ia occa anita el oeee
170,000.00} 5 | 40 | Do.
150, 000. 00 5 {10-40 Do.
Do.
Sut 91990160) |e be eee

1 Not sold but contracted for.
2 Sold early in 1915.

8 Warrants, not bonds.
4 Balance sold early in 1915.

od tg 00008 ‘ee yo Ssigme te. S\N 00 ‘000 ‘8 00 ‘008 ‘ seis sae ricl-inelsi.si2'*)° st OSTOATM Ie
‘od 1G 00 00g ‘ge |-7> >” Rete sip ames ae 00 000‘8 raaieee peigeannc os Br aooniso SRG ITh
Bey Bl pS oectone va * (nny |---cr rete wee nee eee eee . G =<: - - WoL
EE Res Ero | ODF O00 007 ae eli een ce | C0 OUT | 0oko00 001 “1 IAT
Ee 2 (ee aes ae ¢ 00 °000 6FL bee See PCOMOTISUO oe gre aR CaN eS SRN al ind
BRS eer ees oe EE. sence |e Grae 00 000 ‘9 OS MLOOROGI | NOON OOO Cian eters tne aisinninieie cin aienns Spake noes Maes owe, don SS ~~ **TTessn.
eg TOTS wt 0) a a 000 (06 ----yaUyBUEIOO%
y T 0 000 SF ooumeyedde
00 ‘OL ‘*F@ | 00 ‘000 ‘0Sz = Sea ane
ee wal, 19 76¢8/92_ | 00 000001 ee ee
opis -°"""998
POnVes Of wl LOO SECO: leap te ae es ee gies oe ee 9A De gE oe eee Ea Besiseis “iene
007000 OT _ 00 ‘000 (OOT “moj dmey}JI0N
Ay Ah ol hod nnn ale 00 7000 Se. bt Sale eee een tUOSTON!
oes --- ATOMS MOP,
BG cen See ee ae
--- SIMQuUETAVOTL
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ieee tate Bi Semana aca al ates ce ny eRe lve coon Oe a “77 OFSTMO'T Sate SO
OOTONES OE OO UOT 0 Pee eb | ONO ---qqnourdA, 20h
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bd Sate. =e Ga alle cP a aac Pa toi : SHOR OR AO CEO Po a sa SUAS OTES
= ‘Ge
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Z SEO MO Aa RG aa eee | 00 000. 088i), ee, AURUODOC Ea ee oes mone Eno SNe
pt eae he Megane G | Essie Eaneebe Det eceee ae aiael Oh ae iene een tet 005. RUA RARE oe SE ieee eee ~~ or ppraurd
Per ecioruepuciensinrer en =| cs ual aml-e-tso ‘ 99 969 ‘% 00 ‘000 eG \ Fates eee
> ME tech (10) Torofa) kB Pea Fo "260 ‘TL @ | 00006 er J PS OTNGNR OLS) NSBR) CUB YRARE PSs Po sees ons Sasa reese nooo oe rededing
Boe pare NG ete Pon eet ee ars Sopris
A cof Ef: | | eS or occ a BE Ss chy a| Pag a NEI se oe ee ate LL ~**9970,.1eq)
peea een rs ciate | eee a A 00 000 ‘€ -- - wBysuryong
an 00 000 “GZT 00 ‘000 ‘TF ae ‘ae a Boe aaa ae ce naeeeear o oe yoOrMsunig
Sal ereye sie ee Peeves te Cees ee eo ren sec g ¢ th |---+---+--+-+---|-----------J/ UU UUU OL U-------------------- 2 ee ee eee] - ------ -- - ee ee ee eee ee ee wee
Oey |e ese OOO Tes eae as in { 00 "000 ‘2 } TOA SRO SE:
precuerel ei oeigateee dies bee Peers Ae eo NO OOOO Oe SECs erage ea sear TS TL anyy
Be gee SalI oe sea eageec | Eom Seer | er lesa te OL 9 LT » | 86. OO G ESOS LAE Neosat ea uit oes ers at | eck Sea a ae Maer ~"4s1eq uy
“SDI A ET ih alt Gee ae ae abe ees yo) ace so STR OS eee Miler
“goad eseuain D “O81 *pr[os “poqoa “FI6T UL “PI6L surm iG ue
: MN WEEN) 4se10}Uy, qyunowy jyunowmy |pe1rjz01 pons ta aaee suet ree
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-e1d spuog | puog jo pue peor :
LPI6I SULINP Ponsst 10 poyoA jo Junowy | JUNOUYy 1230\L
> ; ¢ b 5
2 YI6E ‘spuog abpiig pun pooy—'cg aTaVv
= iL
A “"VINIDUIA

XLV

APPENDIX.

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XLVI APPENDIX.
WEST VIRGINIA.
TABLE 36.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
Bonds Bonds Bonds Bonds
out- voted out- voted
County. standing} up to County. standing | up to
July 1, July 1, July 1, | July 1,
1915. 1915. 1915. 1915.
IBanboursa-seee ssisccincss -casecelenssneccne 1:$4050004||ereston:-as2_ assent = ce sseeee (2) $440, 000
Cabelleease sas os sess ceeeeee $280, 000 S0OF00DE | PEleasantsies sme seereeeeeeeeeis (2) 1 60, 000
Han cocks. csc cae sos sc ease eee (2) 1 350,000 || Summers...........-..------- (2) 230, 000
EEATE SOT eens ese ee 1:1 OOOO) ett O8 COOM|| pele y:Ter Sea ee = oe mene (2) 1325, 000
Kana whee setae ec ence (2 37. 0008 | SU pShure ss sseee see eeeeeeee ee (2) 181, 000
OSA cee er wh tes e eS (2) AGOLOOD |) WiGiaGIL sdoos cece secosasceee (2) 150, 000
MARION ee ao cea are eect BO0S0005| 5700} 0007 || Wi0od seen ase eee eee ne 110,000 | 1180,000
Marshal [trae Sa oe Sa ae (2) 11 SOR OOO MVVAY ORL 21s een eee eee (2) 550, 000
WIGhKE® He ale eee ect ener ee 500, 000 850, 000 SSeS SSS
Mononcaliaae arene csee nese (2) 300, 000 Totalescascas-sescecuees |1, 303,000 | 5,354,000
IMONTOOSss Sac sene eee eee 3, 000 3, 000

1 See Bulletin 136, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
2 Unable to ascertain date of bond sales in these counties.

MILES OF PUBLIC ROAD, STATE AND LOCAL, OUTSIDE INCORPORATED
CITIES.

>

The following tables, referred to under the respective States, show the miles of

public roads, State and local, outside of incorporated cities.

ALABAMA.

TABLE 37.— Miles of all public roads, State and local, outside of incorporated cities, 1914.

County.

INOUE M5 pociecuosee
Baldwin. .-

Coosa Saeco eee
Covanetontes eee eneee
Crenshaw......-.----

Escambia...
Etowah. .
Fayette.
Franklin. .
Geneva. ..

Surfaced roads.

Macadam.| Gravel.

|--ee---eee

es Berean
ota age 0

Sandclay. surfaced. | allroads

surfaced.

100 100 18.1

3 4 a)

165 165 IBS

HSCS 9 1.8

Weare ues 40.5 4.0

150 155 15.5

50 50 11.1

Bees 20 458

10 10 Ail

Be eee ae 60 8.6

18 18 11%

50°} 50 10.0

eSecce ace 130 23.6

180 | 180 36.0

16) 16 8.0

125 | 125 20.8

97 97 9.2

Boe eceicies 41 4.1

20 20 2.6

12 | 137 12.4

6 | 31 2.0

30 92 15.3

22 22 4.1

126 11.4

5 4

22.5 5.6

65 8.1

10 2.5

Increase Grated
In drained
surfaced
od earth.
mileage
over 1909.
80) al Satinsemene
— 74 40
Ca ER eosecion
—46 7
3320 40
110 150
Niel Besscoaamc
8 20
10 75
—290 20
13; |e eroceeae
eee ee 20
Seen asoee 2
ocomas tee DD
50 50
Bean eee ese
O4 <0 2 -eeeeeeS
Kian Se Sosa
125 in| Seen
yee ae Sen
41 25
— 46 60
105 25
AO ede wteeeic es
92 60
22 38
— 29 10
ooedengees 20
22.5 2
SY bell Gacenater
=) 4D ibe chew see

APPENDIX. XLVII

ALABAMA—Continued.
TaBLeE 37.— Miles of all publicroads, State and local, outside of incorporated cities, 1914—
Continued.
Surfaced roads.
Total | Graded
mileage | Increase and
County. } Percent- in F
of all Total age of | surfaced | drained
roads. |Macadam.| Gravel. Sand clay. SiMieREL || ill ARS rand earth.
| surfaced.| mileage
over 1909.
Evin POPU Gee 5 25 30 13.3 29 50
[elerny eee ceo se =e SOO) Eee sae Beso ee 7 7 .8 Uf Got eset oat a
PIOHStON Se a2 sean. - SOOUIRE Aether eel enet= 30 30 3.7 25 50
MACKSOM e252 <1 ==) 500 | 150 2002 | Eee ce eee | 170 34.0 50 10
Wetierson=- == 222-5: - =: 1,975 115 38D) 07|-Seeeeeeee 400 20.3 150 250
ILA Tel: eee eee ISD tec aces 40) <> |. 40 2.6 5 45
Lauderdale....-.----- 70,1) ei eee 60) 2222e eee 60 12.0 20 60
Lawrence.......----- 800 | Oe (ere } 2 Rest eee 44 5) 44 40
LGD hee ae ee LOOM erik es jl aeeaecae 10 10 1.4 10 20
i ENO Poeacecesee TO) sees sees Oss 22.0 50 25
400) te Sececes AAs Rae 44 11.0 34 30
AGO erte: 10 25 35 BT pfiyete bunts ae
600 | 50 300) tio geeee 350 58. 3 145 50
WLU Hema Zi: ae i 7 .6 7 60
AN recess toe 28 72 100 ial LOO a Ee = SRO
1,000 8 15) S| Sees 23 23 13 45
2,350 237 100 200 337 14.3 Olena se caeeee
TTECUA |e 2 Sep eat [eR Ue SE I RS A Rie Te an = 8 20
FS S59 lay eset nee 650, 50 700 79. 6 387. 07 25
600. 7A))a| BES e ae asa ca oc iA 11.6 10 12
G80) |ESee ees | 18 22 40 5.8 40's) 6 [te aes
SO |e seccsccee| 4 7 11 1B) 11 18
OU Peesee anos | eoeeiersietoes 228 228 24.7 3) desi: as Sees
fo) [ees Se creN een betes 4 ae ere 2) = ee ie Ss Cees 2 eres 7
6008 Sao eeci-s- 2 75 77 12.8 lke eo a eee
SOON ees 2 2 100) 3 || see See 100 12.5 20 100
S51b sae es a8 28 il 39 4.6 | 39 12
LOOM a= 2 Se 3 20 23 3.3 | — 77 20
SZ Seas 25): Coe ee eee 25 3.0 | — 25 100
Tallapoosa.......---- G50 Pisa meee cs Sane BS rare senna a epee ee el (ee ay ee 50
Muscaloosa.=-22-=-+-- S80) eee 50:0) See eee 56.5 6.6 | —161.5 45
AV eai Wet rice ae oes ONES 9 |e ah bap) Cesare ee er oc | bee toceeel ate Hope ee Haeeee acs 110
Washington.....----- G50) | Sassn see [Soo snce 2s Saas ee eee [Ee ee EIE coe eeleeers 100
Wiilee meee ss soo oS. -, 800 | eee ape ese c en. - 1 1h | eal aie | eaten ee
WWetSLON at 52 She = 000i. s4see ec 6 14 | 20 2.0 20 uy [See
UNO) CR ees 55, 446 | 483 2,589. 5 | 1,916 4,988.5 8.9 | 1, 724.57 2,023.5

1 Bituminous macadam,
2 Comprising 16 miles of bituminous macadam and 1 mile of concrete and 20 miles of shell.

Notre.—This summary was made up from cards received from county officials, and has been revised
pus checked by Mr. R. P. Boyd, United States collaborator and assistant State highway engineer of
abama.

APPENDIX.

ARKANSAS.

TABLE 38.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.

XLVIII
Total
County maileage
roads.

Craighead 1....._.....
Crawiord 1... 22. ...-

IDIRENES Ss CH apen neces

willow 5 oon Sees sao

Greene ne See eek
Hempstead....-...--
Hot Springs!........
BIO WIA coc oagesoouee
Independence !.......
zante eee Soe eee

Watayeute a. e
WanvwitenCee eee eae aee

IMOnTOCS asec emer eee

Nevadat............-

REED Vpercctas see eee

DIKE Bors soeosceee tent

SearGye nee cise ence eae

Surfaced roads.

Macadam.

Gravel.

Total
surfaced.

Percent-
age of
total
surfaced.

Increase
in
surfaced.
mileage
over 1909.

1 Summary sheet was compiled from report of the Arkansas State Highway Department; otherwise
it was prepared from reports secured from county officials.
2 Bituminous macadam.

2 Includes 21 miles of concrete.

4 Includes 1 mile of bituminous macadam and 35.5 of macadam with Telford base.

APPENDIX.

ARKANSAS—Continued.

XLIX

TaBLE 38.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

An otal
mileage
County. afiall
roads
SHAnD yeast akc rece a= BB esoos
Shityaye ys. ape eee ee ee 400 |.....
WWiniontere sees estes 20 2a ae
Van Buren........... GUY), [Sooo
Washington.......-..- 1,710
Wale ee ee 800)/22 222
Woodruft...........- 800
BY(C Cen GHGS |i ee
Mapalsis =. 50, 743 |

\Macadam.| Gravel.

Surfaced roads.

1) een
STON ies COE
ae: 35
387 535

Sand-
clay.

Graded
an
sce Hencets mrleneass drained
ota age 0 earth
surfaced.| total surfaced roads.
surfaced. | Mulease
“| over 1909.
fo Career eee | para e A aye Sms, ET MILS SYS | tans See ays eee 92
ae eee reyes | mmr Sees Sarl Fahne yah ae Ape 50
Be SSS Sor a| SESE Eel Seer cee Eee eee 200
eae ee « OAp Weer cea I eke te alae)
BRN as all Sore ape nd [ee rae = § 100
12 1.50 12 30
35 ASD | eee esr ae eee ee
1,097 | | 2.16 11.75 16, 305

1 Summary sheet was compiled from report of the Arkansas State Highway Department; otherwise
it was prepared from reports secured from county officials.

DELAWARE.
TaBLE 39.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.
Surfaced roads.
Total In- | Graded
mile- ; Per- | crease | and
County. age, Bitu- Total | cent-_ | in sur- drained
all Mac- |minous Ghamcl.| Sail Sire age of | faced | earth
roads. | adam. | mac- : ~ || Beeeal total | road | roads
adam. * | sur- | mileage
faced. | over
1909.
KONG Re ene eccrine cca weiss 1,600 4.5 Go) 1 10.5 19.5 1. 21 19.5 20
INewsCastletes. 22.22.2222 522 939 157 BAe ieee eal Ee ERS 189 20. 12 86.6 250
USSOXeeer mee son eh ace te eos TGs 15) ill Sore eee epee 20 15 35 3.08 | —49.0 |......-.
PROTA emtee ee ss 3, 674 161.5 35. 5 21 25.9 243. 5 6. 62 Olen 270

L APPENDIX.
FLORIDA.
TaBLE 40.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.
Surfaced roads.
Total
mile-
age Other
County. of Siena: hard
all Shell. ain Brick. | sur-
roads. y- faced | furced.
Plain. roads.
Alachua .......-.
Baker.........-
Bin Sse Eee oa
Bradford. .....-
iBLeVvand een ens
Calhoun .......-
Citnus seen eee
Clay seas Beene
Columbia.....-.
EXG (Reape
IDS SWWOS oosesss
Drill eee
Hscambia.......
Franklin. ....--

Motaleesee 17,995

362. 77)1, 205. 50) 268. 24

1 Sand-asphalt,.
2 Clay soil.

3 Includes 12.5 miles of gravel.
4 Includes 12 miles of concrete.

5 Includes 30 miles of gravel.

APPENDIX. LI
GEORGIA.
Tas eE 41.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.
Surfaced roads.
Total Graded
County. iuileare Percent- pndrease drained
roads.! |Macadam.| Gravel. ae eee eat sao gern
i . mileage
surfaced. over 1909.
PAST) Mia Caeser a elie SOOM ys te real 22a a Se ee ea oo = 15 160
spot Booocssscessoos| | WW |e cosssonee||sandonnecdeoussass-cllesccesebe slososoceaseesoanedons 75
IBOTEG op sundaskoseooed|| et eel ese soeeescl baeueroeas|(thessonsce|essancsmoR Ssacessece — 35 200
Balti. ocoossepsean)| LoS bce saenaaa eeceaeeer Meaesnoss4lasSoccasee Sanemecrer ts — 50 304
Bantkceeneee reese ers |e x LOOM lomiaoeeanie|ie- sais nese ces nese eeeiane sek foe ete hoe —= 3th 200
IBAMOW) 226 = oes 2225 Bee |lsenoeneaac|peqserogclbea sa ccos-llacsoud anoullaensoneecelecusaooeud 100
IBanlOW ese ase os 57 Se 591 2 12 15 29 4.9 29 400
Benelli meee a SOG eae ee ea SA 220 220 73.3 170 80
IBGnbiens s+. ace 228 2h 22 GOBK eee ese seal lscoisstsacen 150 150 24.8 50 400
IBibDessosceseece ssc 2 BHI). Se Saaeesd Mes eeese se 115 115 32.9 15 234
iBleckidleys 2 2sc-22-=2- TiS She erase ener ae 200 200 25. 6 200 60
IBTOOKS ee eee eae. 526 5 200
Ty aM eee sh his - 50
Bmllochwe eee == 86 = 200
PBUIT KOs eee 2s es 200
IE iSeeas cee sino 250
@alhoune rece cae: sais 165
Wamdensas sa steek 2 100
Camp belle ese. 22s: 2 200
Gander ves -e ese: -k 16.0 120
@arrolleassj522 255 2: 1.79 50
(CEN OOS ee ees vee 31.9 50
@hanltonmes te. ae SDT tte ee ses 25 10 35 15.4 35 120
Ghathamesseees) DIOR Rese ae 100))|'s25 see 100 45.6|— 8 50
Chattahoochie........ 740) eet ciate ROE eae eee Seer ars || acon ance | Sameteoe rice Acs eeey se 15
Ohathoosass-ees2. 22.2 G4GE eee 100) ee 100 15.4 75 100
@henokeess ois. AG A eel el Dee meal [Seen ey alo KS casi mel | arate ese — 113} 100
32 65
— 40 200
70 200
— 10 300
cy A RNs Reba Puyo fo eae
— 50 500
265 300
10 300
—140' 300
37 500
— 50 225
epapaiereraraneta AID sepia Megs — 25 100
15 5.1 15 100
500 67.0 400 246
41 2.8 13 550
80 5.6 55 500
IDO ein sclera Gores Ss aa ee Chel | cars es eas Me Safe ay | rk a ee oe gee —150 700
Dougherty -..-..----- 156 50.0 | — 66 150
100 24.8 100 125
125 25.3 25 100
Seca eies owls messi ss sors Be Ste 92
84 25.0 84 78
BEE EBC AHS SEE el Scae aesE oS 3
500 68.8 AND) (ike asses
Ree eat Eis see ete Saf iccio soe Wise 100
Bewelamaeran (hy. a Pe ete fot | tetas 75
SPAR RS Cl he Se a a Ge ace CS 250
153 13.9 8 182
RYE epstes alaoiate stoctetavel Pcs eerseioe 300
100 18.7 100 200
200. 12 63.5 | —104.88 |.........-
1s re SRN nce tA al CS 200
es Ss yra b ge uel ad a — 35 100
43 26.5 | —110 100
Se See cial (Reenter eae NS aie ee | 200
50 10.2 50 300
17 250 6 536
100 12.8 100 400
12 2.9 11 100
77 5.5 69 75
200 25.2 185 550
FE LerirallS Onmeneee see nese (aa LRT AC) Mae i ERO [Baebes hc a kG agin Dieters ( el bese eae [AG kbs ae 350
PETERS SSR eo 5k 44 6.3 44 75

1 Total mileage taken from report of secretary of state and represents 1915 mileage.
2 New county.

8 Shell.

4 Brick, 0.72 mile; concrete, 0.40 mile; bituminous macadam, 75 miles.
5 Bituminous macadam.
6 Seventy-three miles not classified.

Lit

APPENDIX.

GEORGIA—Continued.
TABLE 41.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Gravel.

Total
County. arse Ne
of all

roads. Macadam.

IG Waa neal ee

6123 Hee eee

A ACO Meese soe

147 | te

7:0) Vl eee ee ee

AD. Sede Gees

p OAR mes els see

Jen ‘Davis: --252.24 22 280 Ree aes

Jefferson..........--- H20)|esenes see
JeniksinSsepeeeees aes
NOHNSONees eee eee
TONES Hse eysins eee e es
IPOH peeapooo ase
iG en eee eres
Mibertya 425-2 s-sees
incon eee eee
MownGesseeseea seen
umplan\ sss -eee
McD ithe ssse-eseee
MeIntosh@ees-s2seee
Maconae 2). tee ees
Madisonet-s...2:...254
Manioneeeanss fees fea
Meriwether..........-
Millers hs = ae ees
Milton sees sisce ee

Oglethorpe. ......-..--
Paulding eeeeeesee

Randoliphiteessesseoe

1 Shell.
2 Surfaced mileage computed by allowing 10 per cent increase over the 1909 surfaced mileage.
3 Brick.

4 Filty miles not classified.

Surfaced roads.

5 Graded
Percent. | Inerease | _ an
Sand- Total age of ae a drained
clay. |suriaced.| total | Thileage Bs ae
surfaced. | ver 1909
Ropscesbod paandososd |cosdaonescloseconcene 200
10 10 1.6 2 180
50 50 3.5 50 400
250 250 20.0 200 500
200 200 49.8 120 100
Meee aces cisions sicieie| a eieiaeiaalciets | semiacemeee 262
150 159 27.0 150 300
10 10 3.5 10 40
75 75 14.2 25 40

Bee Se ae 85 85 43.3 85 100
se sssdsacelfecoscnacoclosasoosesd|ssonosssesfesscsss25= 200
Seueatiohe 300 300 53.1 194 250
405 81.0 239) «il eeeiscecceer
soscocsasd|sanncessodllssscesesa¢ — 7.5 50

121 25.1 pO eeaeccces 3

55 22. 2 5 100

12 1.5] — 18.5 450
sonnacossdllasccascose|[esssessese — 14 230

82 18. 4 AG. \icmemase is

350 26.6 280 448

12 2.9 12 230
Soonancozdloscosesosdllocescsssae|[oss5so5e¢ 150

150 37.0 95 200

10 2.6 5 25

82 13.7 32 300
ssoonocodlloosoonssos|isonecoses¢ —125 300

50 G59) |beassssose 350

100 41.4 11 100

100 38.9 100 75

200 28.5 175 200

200 25.0 100 205

100 25.0 100 300
sSosscsate|boosessase|[ssossz2ccd[eosssesc0- 400

160 26.6 | — 74 25

30 4.9 30 170

26 8.6 22 115

25 8.5 25 164

250 33.9 50 200

APPENDIX.. LIit

GEORGIA—Continued.
TaBLeE 41.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.

Total Graged
= an
County. quiere Percent- Increase drained

Sand- Total age of earth
roads. |Macadam.| Gravel. clay. |surfaced.| total surfaced | J oads.

surfaced. Over 1909.

Way Hess = 5 oS ecs-5 BiOy|Seeeseess | LeSesoetes 25 25 3 17 275
Websters 3 ee oo cs. 2663 SsGe: coche becccs Sous 35 35 13.1 30 190
Wheeler 1_.........-- DDE |e ae coh a\| aietsia ic rele bie eee ae eles oe flaeteveinine swe lnieiejeejeiseiate 100
Wes 8 See a ck (Un Be SOs are RSReE rise lcccanso ce MeSSOGEeoe BAMOreer IG MEMnmr serie mrt esis:
Wihitheld’..2. =..-:...- OTE mesa cesses SOG aes 50 9.8 hey eae 5S
WiHleoxss ooo occ. seus WON Weoeise seh loesk onsets 50 50 6.4 45 100
WANK OSS es se sae secne Ab Sul essmecct as |siscise sos ne 100 100 22. 0 75 150
Wilkerson.........-.- TE IOON Re oo sek a |Seee-ccaee 100 100 9.0 100 600
\GHiDS a ee eee Do sapere ams a ciseceis eee 150 150 23.7 150 600

Motale sos... <= 41/80; 669 491.12 1,073 10,778 |12, 342. 12 15.3 | 6,364. 12 30, 554

1 New county.

KENTUCKY.
TABLE 42.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.

Surfaced roads.
oe Graded
2 an
County. mileage | Macadam. Per- | Increase | drained
ona Total | centage in earth
roads. Gravel. eee of surfaced | soads.
Plain Bitumi- ‘| total mileage
nous. surfaced. |over 1909.
NG Altera tescla is 5 300 10% = |e settec tee eeeeeene 10 S8Od'| ha= lO) he || eee
AN Gea 45 er Aloe concer sssee ce enis 50 50 11.76 43 25
AMGerSON= 2. saa. -2 << 208 ae soe | soe en ncee=|oeteee eee acme eee al cae cee see == 200)" | Ss eee
Ballardets ow. <ce ADD Pes mrcoe talscoces nee 24 24 5. 64 DAS od | a eee
IBAITOM -sscccecek<s--- 1, 100 GOO Sse c Ss eeee 50 110 10 56 300
Bathe tess cnise scene 450 D0 Wocccacseee 12 212 47.11 2 gata (ee 5 21
TSS hs 5 apa eS 150 QU) We! sa.s aise sf oeeee ee 2.5 U6 Gn — ae hs | tee
IB OOHO!= eS scenes: -< 375 AZO Wace sicens 5 135 36 37.25 115
ROME DONE ee seen ne oes 320 300) 4. |bencss tes |e sees 300 93.75 300! tn saa aeaee
IB OY Gir mecosche sas cne 207 Cyeeel EPaBe esa Bacssecs se 6.7 3.24] — 9 50
BoriG ee aeaee eee 250 OMS he Sane see 30 140 56 —135 10
IBTACKEN es. ees <n 2 450 300 17, | Se eee 300 66. 66 P20 ie SS eee eee
Breathitt.: —.-..---.- (CDS ihc ese Meee a8 5, Sal ed eae ar ees a ei eenti ROM ae 9D 8
Breckinridge.......-- 1, 200 VOM bees cscee 4 14 1.16 14 50
Aplin cee ee 348 VAT Peal Ye ears oe 13 57 16. 09 Dede Seanetats DAT te
Bntlen ssennccee es = eld 475 iain Deaeemerseael (eke erie oe 5 1.05 5 70
Caldwell 430 ZU an er i 21 4. 88 1 279
Calloway OOO) Eee cots eam cise ei 100 100 16. 94 55 190
Campbell 300 200 a | sos Seiz Sots | See 203 67. 33 ACT adlen) (eae en
Carlisle... -.-. ADS cece ceae| |. sees cece 3 3 74 Be aed Seren st pee
Carroll... 300 175 3 25 200 66. 66 39 100
Carlerces |. - AO Saeoc eects] ow oclcna me] > seecesisers [seen ces | eae seccaslss sa aatese 40
Casey.../...-- O75)| sete sesa| niece cscs 75 15 ¢ Ue l LO i gerceey:
Christian 1, 200 250 Wooden oe ea eoeenee eee 250 20. 83 | — 10 600
(GA ik. 2 5 eee 360 2AO San is cease 10 250 69. 44 (Pe ae Se
(ENG Suey SSeeaseaee O00; eee sees | coe cc a cake |S Gases | eeeeeee es aoemecer o|bscceemae.s [a Binet ieee
Clinfoneee se oa DOO Fee ee eels | aia. oc wis cree | Se srerereremne | Seat eae | Becrarsriace ral botiare sissies fe cs eee
Crittenden. .......... 500 Sinn Renee ea fees ras once ae 3 - 60 By Gill Been Anaa ye
Cumberland.........- 300 OTF Us seals ate okra) e beeeinerrs 3 1 Diyos Sele Deine Ss
Waviessee. ses soae 732 Ne Ee eee eceaesosae 46 6. 28 1 296
Edmonson..........- 200 Diet Wisse once Sl eee eee 5 ZOOL heh Opals § | Sete tare oe
IDs os ee DOAN eee s)ciais lee scans ace eee eee | tees eee Sess ok: ace [Smee oon. [aon eee
IBIS Gilet Boe Bn = CeO Gael Per eeieead aoe da cccec SSa mee Sel A oereee ee ere amare 8
HAVOLLOGs 2 sz oe ule2 386 BY Ua at ase eee 2 2 382 98. 96 awe ls secs eee
RIOMIN Gace k 645 Dd tats, | hss Saris ore 40 275 42.63 SO 52 eee
GY Gee he mice ota ADDS saeeee ate 1 Aa | ec os SI ee aie be ee ae Le aC aoe aN 1
Hranklne =: : acces < B00: ch |eses-onh |e seeeeee 300 75 71. 50 100
IEON Pees Se OAD epee | oe oo eins | See ee | EERE cee eee | semi Do 201.5
Gallatim=: 22 22 se IBD) <3 tel Se semsat 25 155 55.35 | — 16 25
(ranrard2 ooo ie dere 226 P26 os eoces penis saa 126 DOC (C—O) ae eater Sees
(GH O D es ae a a ee 540 ASDF eo |e vseraze ee |Wase ee eee 490 90. 74 TUT nes Bias cee
Graves: 2 52c2 cee ccaes MOOR Pesce acc c|Scice cesses 200 200 14. 81 188 200
GrAYSOU =o -eace eases 6 HSU te eam ct kL ee 84 Dao 35.5
Green act. crc ete goles (ALD Be Soe cose] Bea Seeee Sacacoc oan Haan Sa aee = tae eiseemee RSI Pe Fl ae ees
GreOnups-s22 seseeecs 500} | eeaeecesccltcasccecce 2 2 40 Oia leassessinec
iiancocke =o 222 e esas AAD eraeps teeter |eiacis nial oiials | Seep | Heese esos aeieece ial seice horse 400

LIV

APPENDIX.

KENTUCK Y—Continued.
TABLE 42.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

County.

Te ei pcs Geena aoa

Leslie

ivinestone ssn eee
OPA Ea 2 Ces

Total
mileage
ofall
roads.

Surfaced roads.

Macadam. Per- Increase
centage in
Gravel. Jota of surfaced
Plain, | Bitumi- suriacec.| total | mileage
; nous. surfaced. jover 1909.
BSH: [Bee cao eee alegrS50m0 (nee (Uae all eee Nae 8
90). Wika os cc S| eae esate 90 14.75 22
0!» Yl ssascacatie 70 11.02 | — 36
210i Sees ee eee 270 64. 28 20
207549751108) 010) 20 eee 5c elle 779.75 | 85.89 | 2527.75 | 120
252) | Nesctse eee ees asset 252 75. 90 49
SOUS someee as eee Gi. HacSAasenoe — .d0
3230 OSes es 237 72. 92 18
Pg25:.. Jf ceae ane sare LOR gh ee 86° sale gi a ieee iil
MO) hoe oie eeeceee 10 1 6
rai retina Fhe a ea Fes een, Ga ris eee Pa Say
60 sBoacesses 86 146 22.60 | —136.5
520) Deal peeae ie ptael ran Shee oe 995 Wa 21.95 | 135
2 : 2

Mar Ginette ee

Montgomery .-..------
Morgane setae
Muhlenberg..-..-----
Nel SOMME ees Jenaaae te
Nicholaswe 2 as-522
Ohio ese ae eee

OWSsl6yeeces an sasee

Pulaski...
Robertson....-.-.---
Rjockeastlessssaeesen.

Wit yne ia eyes rarseiels

59. 03

1,713.50 |12, 403. 28

21.4

2, 288. 33

% Includes 2 miles of concrete.

2 Increase over 1904. No report for 1909.

Parish.

Assumption...---.
Avoyelles_2.). 2.2.
Beauregard. -...----
Bienville.....-----
IBOSSICI Eee ces nse

APPENDIX. LV
LOUISIANA.
TaBLE 43.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.
Surfaced roads.

Graded

Per- |Increase| and
Tota] | Centage| in sur- | drained

Gravel.| 5224- | she, | Other hard sur- | “7 of faced | earth

‘| clay. : faced roads. Faced total | mileage} roads.

; * | sur- over
faced. | 1909.
sodonsce|lecbnobaalbosesas||sosaoscdoocnbossséd bos So5|boosedballsseaocud 450
Ely, No neces EA 5 | een meta COL EY || el Pee 220
AO dle ce ee eee se 30. 76 40 90
So SCEEE erie Peas By soe eae al he 75
Soe nie 100) ae eels macadam.....|/ 170 FA0086) 1701 in 60
4 macadam......
(E'SGy abensas| beseeeae [ps bituminous er 16. 03 7 :
macadam.

40 |-------- 6:59 bionic kee eee 61.5 | 12.30 59.5 200

IDASOKNE Sse aeeanas
East Baton Rouge.
East Carroll. -...-.-

rami We. te

Lafayette... .-
Lafourche. ...

Livingston ....-..-.
Madisone 220.22...

Plaquemines .-...--
Pointe Coupee. .---
RA DIGS Heeeeces es
Red:River_.-....:-

St. John the Baptist
sire Ibe hain eC paeeaas
Sire Wea ate ae soe.
Sia Ma Tay sea
St. Tammany...--
Tangipahoa......--
MeTISAS eee sa. 2 =.
Terrebonne. ..--..--
Windom 58:

West Baton Rouge.
West Carroll...-.-.
West Feliciana....

1 Allineiuded in city of New Orleans.

LVI APPENDIX.

MARYLAND.

TABLE 44.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.

Surfaced roads.

Total
mile- Macadam. Per- Tn- guided
County. GUE) EL Hee eae ou cent- | crease | _ 20
u of Gon. Sanq- | Total | age | in sur- | drained
all -Gravel.| Shell. | ‘23 sur- of | faced | earth
roads. Pla Bitu= | Creve. ~ | CY. | faced. | total {mileage| roads.
* |minous- sur- over
faced. | 1909.
Allegany. .-.. 568 12.92 45. 40 OE 24a reel QOS estes arcles sister 79.61 14 j— 0.39 29
Anne Arundel 545 . 70) . 25.42) 217.82) 369.40) 62.66 5) 181 33.2 23.5 350
Baltimore..-.| 1,178) 20 4477 7 (aoa ates ea ee al Bee ses 574 47 |\— 39 200
Calvert....... BOO | Mares ms alerts cots [tet ete 34.75 A hs eee eee 35. 75 10.6|/— 29.25]........
Carroll.......-. Uh) Seaepoe 40 TD Fat pea See | eee oe el Pees ae 50 6.5 Sys
Caroline. ..... TAU) Fi el Pe (Be ne ed pea ek LO) bale ees a2 23 “eel NBS sae coil oe | eae
Cecil spas Gd8ieneee see 42.05 21.98 WES 5s eee eee 65.38) 10.2) 38. 88].......-
Charles......- 529 26 12 4 SOM ad mie Real eeee ee 122 23.1 35 407
Dorchester.... 100 |2esaeees SOs 03lse eon | Heese 160. 80)......-- 215. 43 30.4} 170.43 180
Fredreick..... TR O00I Gea Se tassic| om een tent (RRR I Rt AR airs 16 1.3/— 96 1,184
Garrettieeeeeee 940)........ 48.93 PG ete Al eee Se | Nee og gee 51. 66 52.5|0 22 24; 16f eee eas
Harford. ...-- SPP ee adoor HS! BEL | emer reer (sete earl [eerie se cl Se eae ees 59.99 (aa|—230- 012552 a5- =
Howard.....-. 405] 6 100.5 Be 6 sll see eer ences tell ibs oe aye 148.5 36.8] 89 75
Kente se eee 425 2, 14 Din HW REESE 15 4 40 QU Al Sle dO asses
Montgomery..| 830) 175.74| ~15.30}...-.--- ii Sees eases 197.04 23.8] 154.04}........
PrinceGeorges} “892].....--- 17.61; 19.14 O25|24 sa seaaleeSe sous 46 5.2)— 24 J.-.....-
Queen Annes.| 839]........ 29.75 O20 Peeters 20 3] 58 6.9} 45 205
St. Marys..... COZ Fees 8. 82 5.12 cit es 1 jester ae Gl eacaeact sees 44.09 Uo 14,09) eet osns ee
Somerset. .... 700 1.01 8.01 10. 06).-...... 20 51 90.08 12.8} 57.08 122
Malboti=s-seee OCP) Reema 12 Oe eaters sees GOr Mee eases 82 17 31 100
wes een 750} 104 Ch iees | Saronic Onaea cool cacseeee eacasoce 152 21.5)— 12 100
Wicomico. -. 798 Petey. CPS AY © We Wsoseose 55 3} 98.23 12.3} 29.23 200
Worcester...-| 800) 15 25 Nad ee eee sc 1.5 3] 59.5 7.4) 37.5 15
Total...|16, 458] 488. 70/1,042.31] 189.34] 243.95] 455.96 69|2, 489.26] 15.1) 346.96] 2, 760
1 Includes 5 miles of chert. 5 Includes 3 miles of brick.
2 Includes 0.32 mile of brick. 6 Includes 93.5 miles which are not classified.
3 Includes 9 miles of slag. 7 Includes 0.40 mile of sand oil.
4 Includes 5 miles of bituminous concrete.
MISSISSIPPI.
TABLE 45.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.
Surfaced roads.
Total Graded
mileage Other Per- Increase ae
Eounty. of all Sang. | hard Total | centage in drained
roads Gravel. Ts sur- sur- of surfaced. roads
WEN faced faced. total | mileage
roads. surfaced. jover 1909.
Adamssie cess seeses
PAT COTINSie Seng ar ane
INSTAR eee aes abet Be
Aa ates a se bear
IBentoneeese eee eee cee
IBOlivier:ceie se se ee
Calhoun eee eee
Carrollnis ea oe
Chickasaw
Choctaw............-
Claiborne. .......--.--
Clarkeseos o.eaneee
Clay shi. a
Coahoma...........--
Copiah ei ie snceees
Covington
IDeiSotoreeemeeseneeae

APPENDIX.

MISSISSIPPI—Continued.

LVIil

TasiE 45.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

County.

Issaquena.....-.-----
Itawamba.........-.--

Jeflerson..........-.-

pe
Walayettes 2.25 ==
Hama sacs se 5e5- 22

Surfaced roads.

Total

sur-
faced.

Per-
conte

(0)
total

surfaced.

Increase

mileage

Motalesee seas se 1, 281. 10 604. 25 248 2,133. 35 4.66 | 1,791.10
1 Shell. 2 Slag. 3 Concrete. 4 Macadam. 5 Bituminous macadam.

13, 686

6 Burnt clay.

APPENDIX.
ra

NORTH CAROLINA.

TABLE 46.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.

Surfaced roads.

total

surfaced. |over 1909.

Increase
in
surfaced
mileage

Graded
and
drained
earth
roads,

LVIII
Eorel
County. eho
roads
Atamancel.. 222.0...
Aiexander- 225.)
Alle giiiniyeese seen eee
PATISOM ete eee oe oe
EAS HIGH tee Sg TEL Ot.
EA Oly econ aes eee

Chowan

IDEs eee inet Lee

Davictee wrath nd
IDaplins yea ed
Durham

Greene ese so a2

Halifax

IElayawiood see geen ane
Henderson
Hertford

Mecklenburg.._......
Mitchell seats ss aay

Northampton....._..
Onslowsry-saeeee eee.

Sand- otal
clay. faced
8 58
32 113
4 4
20 20
6 6
48 48
48 123
10 10
45 67
6 9
20 20
SssetGeeseleeseeneeee il
100 100
32 45
80 105
35 37
4 4
105 105
3 3
10 13
57 57
66 66
15 118
20 20
50 129
205 210
40 150
3

135 135
40 40
100 220
80 100
40 40
Saseeeeeed 22
60 60
75 75
240 265
200 200
4 4
32 68
65 65
100 100
36 44
5 9
10 10
65 65
30 385.
37 67
230 230
115 126
5 54
Dwele acts 12
5 5
69 81

1 Classification not given.
2 Of which 4 miles were treated with bituminous material.
3 Bituminous macadam. i
4 Includes 35 miles for which no classification was given,

BOOS eso SS Gps eioeeooD) SURO OO eed porssriacoo Sogn Ooo Soo sOoMooO ore Soccoogo so

APPENDIX.

NORTH CAROLINA—Continued.

LIX

TaBLE 46.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

County.

Randolph............
Richmond ss 22555 s 22
RODeSOMere ets os cee
Rockingham.........
ROW saa8s ues saNeaae
Rutherford.-.........
DAI SOM Se eee eae nee
Scotland

Washington
Wiataugas-o5255..22. -

Per-
centage
of
total
surfaced.

Surfaced roads.
Total
mileage
of all Sieradh Total
roads. |Macadam.| Gravel. ais x sur-
y: faced
PANO) 4 eae eas 2 Spee lees atic si IA ae eae
OOH | Rrra mites | alsa etal ey Sane ee [ere eye
SOOM eae ase eles cee ae 18 18
SHO) Seer cea See ee al es cess al | Se aa
SOO) Bee cen aie es 5 5
SUOUDY I Soest ie Meee 50 50
300 SHOr Geen nen al 10 18.5
900 Reese eee = LOM eee aera 110
GO) eecabocese 50 200 250
SOO Ree Secs al rae hese 100 100
600 Wp ore Niltererayes cic <2 | tae ee 13
500 Owen | eee ere 65 140
SOOM Meee se eelu eS oe 14 14
FTE TOTN) es a a a Vag ea 165 165
SOOM aaereere eas Siase nce ere 175 175
DOOM ES ereere salle ctor yaw 5 5
AGO | Paececineal Seesmcieeee 75 75
ODO Piss craeteee |e see 80 80
BOOB Race eee Sect aes 5 5
PTSD) <I A Ue Sol |e pee eae 5 5
PAGO) tes Si ete bee BY IE Ss EI eR Ts chee aN aed
900 CA al eae I oS 4
SUS Gees aasucelloneeeeos 125 125
1, 200 12.25 100 100 202. 25
ODOM Reeve e eee Pee cree ae 1585 15.5
S00) | SSees coe a eae 28 28
CoO) ee ele aS a Rea eon AS 2 Sse ale ey Laces
US WWO Nescososouc 10 200 210
1,000 Toi eneetpe lire oan: 1
800 24 1 35 60
SOM S Spare ese ects che | Ee | rete ot RN Seg
SOM Seo Mae leat on = oie 3 3
50, 758 | 1,121.25 564 | 4,318.50 | 6,003.75

1 Includes 1.25 miles of concrete.

Gaadeg
an
Tareas drained
surfaced | ©att
mileage roads.
over 1909.
pees coat eh 5
HS er ME eal aa
Lae nies 50
pave error ee
CCT AMEN esol Ce tk
15 65
106 10
129 10
50 10
4 300
51 20
14 300
LAS say ol a ORS Re
120 10
5 12
75 10
80 15
5 5
5 5
Testy) Tinie 6
— 36 100
SOUS Ts | arenes
22.25 400
at 2A Opi is aeee mete
26 50
— 10 10
180 300
1 150
30 40
3 17
3, 690. 75 4,181
/

LX APPENDIX.

OKLAHOMA.
TaBLeE 47.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1915.

Surfaced roads.

Total Graded

mileage Bes - Increase | , 224
ota er- in

Sand- sur- | centage | surfaced

faced. | surfaced.| mileage

over 1909.

County. ofall

roads. |Macadam.| Gravel. clay.

Choctaweer ee eeeerene
Cimarron ase
Cleveland........--.-

Kayser ence
Kingfisher. . .-
IKGiowars--eee=-

MeImtoshaeseseeseeee
Mal OM eeeee se coca nsee

Okfuskee...-.-----.-- S00R| fe 2csesideu|ee- Chases lsoreaee e+ -|tee Seeeceensoeeeeees | Cseeece sme 90
Oklahomarse eee D500 i Soe see escemeeese 10 10 166 10 20
Okmulgee serene 11700) eee tees se) eer la base a mck ee Se eres [ars a Prey bets Aerie 100
Osacese i foseke sean

Sequoyah
Stephens: 2. . 2222-22
Meas oe. s Tess oueeces

WDinlsaye secon cece
Waconerses 222555228] Seon Be es 2 Se eee |e eee | ware eae ese era cicse ate Chace os

1 Noreport. 2 Includes 3 miles of bituminous macadam,

APPENDIX.

OKLAHOMA—Continued.

LXI

TABLE 47.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.

Total ==
eage ne F
County. “ofall gana. | Total | Per- ao dined
roads. |Macadam| Gravel. | "Gi, sur- | centage | surfaced | d
Y- faced. |surfaced.| mileage | 1°4¢S-
over 1909.
Washington.....-...- 43) | cocococodleosdooscod |sosscosscqlaceosesenslacoctoncedlissoncnodee 23
Wastes Sesseeogene UG) ||sscoscecceacacconsod|osoceoscodlsatsoceccdllsosoosacsalocs cencosdlaccosancee
RWWiGOUS S925 s sass’ c~s 2 25 GUD) |oscascsendllosscossosa|osoossc oad losacasesco|iscasesocod[sccasecccalsoseauscos
Woodward........-... DRO 2G nl ee mete) sho atetelajaratee 50 50 1.97 SORE ete ae
Ropalets-2=-25-|5 107,916 9. 70 6.9 105 121.6 -11 | —239.4 3, 106
SOUTH CAROLINA.
Taste 48.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.
Surfaced roads.
ae Oth P I wand
mileage ther er- nerease F
County. ofa Sang. | bard Total | centage in drained
roads Sa sur- sur- of surfaced | © d
y- faced | faced. | total | mileage | TS:
roads surfaced. | over 1909.
PAG Vilekes ete ielse cia ccece~ ne s- 1, 200 15: |saectensees 75 6.25 | —226 500
PAW OT Cciho wits Sain a ote cio wicie soc 1, 280 300): Setrec eres 350 27.40 100 300
PANN EESOMMe emis oe since wicisie's ka S 1], 208 500)|22.8e5eee 500 41.39 ROTA fram a eee
LSC Pea See eee ee eeaee 400 126 |S -sseaece 125 SLE 20) Ste eccecs|seisceteeee
IB aim WiellBeeee nsec caeiseecince oes 1,000 1507-2 150 15 — 35 350
ICAI OL Uee meet ak ewinicsdceces- ASO) | ee erecta 240 40 8.33 QB Paeeseeeee
IBOLKelOyep ie aestoe Semicnce esa IBGUO Ne Sondesse4| sscosaccodlocdonseecdlmasesnoned — 10 225
CalthouMeeeccessscnccsenssceees= 300 100:)|2s252e5ee4 100 CE Sc hol basececora Coneeecona
entlecton 288k. io 500 ao *33 i} 2 15.60] 64 122
@herokee-=<-2-- 5+. 02. LADD aiSicie ania = Se lace eee | cleioeteeoeic | iatera aio eids 8) 300
@hester- sass. 5.2 cce% =< - 680 50 415 65 9.55 45 100
Chesterfield 11,200 36:\|oeeeeaeee 36 3 26 137
Wlanend omer ees. cess. oes 800 OO; aeeee ae 50 6.25 50 350
WONCTOM Me aaa s 2c ccc. foe aiciac 1,005 66: | se eeeeas 66 6. 56 66 139
Darlington estes She ese. 1,000 200: {he ae 200 20 —150 550
APO e er sss aches secs 625 20) pe esmeeenee 25 4 25 100
Worchestere.o.s222-42-s52-<hesac S800) 5. Seco c noel Seca neniceeee cell thcccneeds —200 300
TDG C1016) (0 Es ee 835 VOR) eee ase 15 1.79 15 150
REDD (2) (6 Oe ee ee eae 650 503) sceeeenee 50 7.69 50 300
IN GCS Base ena ee eee Ad 1,150 200 3 25 225 19. 56 193 650
GeGreovOWwl snes s<s2—3 sess 2 =. 479 60 25.5 65.5 13. 68 8.5 150
Connie ee Pa OOdn eae snes {ee ele es 22 |= 2.5 200
GreenwO0dsesccnse.6 seescces ts: 23 OOO! B25 2c ac eee eee | See esas eae ce see SOS i asem ese
ELAM LOWS foes seciccs sats scce 1, 202 yl (Rete 2 -16 | —248 700
LOM eer cece cel ccduis ees 2,000 10! 22a 10 90 6 150
HAS DOnM ee sais ccm eccnisieciesci= 25: MOD) ete eio, saeicisia | octet ee ae eetere oeetere | eieiessis ieratall ioe eiseacisie 50
Hersh wetness janes tee cee ees 650 137 318 155 ¥ 23. 84 32 160
Wan CaStLOlesceimces sesnces Soe esa 600 3015 30 — 6 125
EATINO MS eee so ce soa ne cols. 1,470 2052. cee 20 1.36 | — 69 350
ee ohn ohne ake eo 400 100:| 2a 100 25 69 150
Lexington 1,555 105 Seca 105 6. 75 15 350
rion 480 80 eces eee 85 17. 70 85 35
Marlboro 580 305) e.be ees 30 5.17 | — 32 100
Newberry 1,000 36 312 48 4. 80 27 200
Oconee AOD Wejae a erScie cel Setrce een | Perera oes | iseieaeecis lac cisco a: lesiseeeeces
Orangeburg... 1,600 BM enasscecne 50 3.12 | —325 550
Pickens GOOs| Bee ecene 41 1 ei Beeeee sess Hespecaees
Richland 752 200 62 202 26.86 | —248.5 400
Saluda. 614 14. Sse eee 14 2. 28 4 250
Spartanburg 1 17(0 hl Reese eaecocsaacl|sosoceseee 5.88 | — 14 1,000
Sumter 525 OO" Sass eees 100 19. 05 25 285
Union 565 5 68.5 13.5 2. 38 5 250
Williamsburg... 22-2222 .225..-- 1, 455 25 ac seme 25 TS 7A) 0G) 1, 086
POD ocmenis hocas se seencenecack 860 60") Ses Sees 60 6.97 | — 78.75 500
MOtalessaseee eee aece 42, 226 3,101 169.50 | 3,270.5 7.74 | —264. 25 11,614
i Scaled from soil survey map. 3 Gravel. 5 Bituminous macadam,
2 Shell. 4 Macadam, 6 Poor macadam.

61726°—Bull, 387—17-—8

Lxif APPENDIX.

TENNESSEE.

TaBLeE 49.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.

Surfaced roads.

Total Graded
: an
Counties. me e ae mee Percent- Tnetease drained
1 sand- ota age O eart
roads. |Macadam.| Gravel. clay. |surfaced.| total | SUtfaced| soos
- pauiiced mileage
“| over 1909

Davidson........---- 600 275 LOO eee s eee a7 62. 2 133 125

Humphreys........--
Jackson . i Sansaciversls

Montgomery .........
Moore s32) 2S eeenetoer

11909 total.

2 Tncludes 5 miles of bituminous macadam, 2 miles of concrete, and 3 mile of brick,
8 Includes 75 miles of bituminous macadam. ;

4 Includes 66 miles of gravel treated with bituminous materia],

APPENDIX. LXIII

TENNESSEE—Continued.

TABLE 49.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.
Total Graded
Counties. miles Y Percent- pos drained
roads. |Macadam.| Gravel. oe eee ase of surfaced orn
surfaced. | Mileage
* | over 1909.

RETRY ee: cai. sais oe oe GOR es ecesce 50) |seccaee se 50 8.31 50 50
IRICKe tiaeese seas ek 174) Seco decane leaceoasadd lecascsocad lost sousad boStopnesellecondaaacdlecocossaad
(Oe Ase are a 320 Poe Uy Maecenas ity 20 6.25 20 100

EVIE See es cio dice, - 340 70 1 Seco 80 23.52 2 60
Ue aero Se Se 342 5 0D Ue Bes secon 16 ASOT eitaod Sinan ae see ae
oanet se isl. 550 45 ol Sooo on 53 QU GS | eee RINE Wye cy ene
iRobertsone-<- ee s- osc 630 124 20) poe esse 144 22. 85 P44 | Sree sah
Rutherford........... 1,100 (AUD eS eee pee tec caccaod 700 63. 63 250) acca os
OU ee ee caine (CARRS eSAnon pesiercisos ecccsoacc econcsecoe Sacereeres — 9 50
Sequatchie.........-. LD Bee sceacHe ACoe cone sacEascood sécccucesd pEeoosnece — 12 12
WAGE we ee See ae 600 BO) Be saeeraad sscesecccs 30 — il 50
Hel Dyee mee nee cc s=is,s 1,352 1 652 100: |e aeaacee 752 55. 62 152 550
Since 2aoe eee 450 15 OU secsorcos 410 91.11 220 40
STEUEIH) Soe S eens ee 550 2 3) |sce-aeeene 5 9 — 21 5
Suillive ines a soca eee 650 1p ARES psosnebos 125 19, 23 50 25
SEMANIORE spe inle ices = 750 70 50! |. oe cee eee 120 16 —230 200
PI DEOMER eee ots ats TOO) | Bate rcistite aN oie cjacie ae al ici Seat omeletecice |ssmreem ace ciateseice ss 500
iMrousdayes- venus. ne 30 CUR eae isc 70 42. 42 SU) ah) laa a eS
Diltceeics cael S ejaws catan'c| Sees meee pide eioaieisc lessee cae alive shcc nacelle ose oes ee.
235 orl Sesecejoccls eee eee 35 TASS eo ee ee ele pa
250 GHGs cele scis| Some 16 6.4 16 234
385 60) seas ste pal seco sealers 60 15.58 — 12 325
500 GUY Ses seecene Paebececas 50 10 47 200
aera 50 10 60 14. 28 44 10
68) BCS SEE Ree SAR ee Erbe ieee se ee) |scosencecc Smoeen aoe SaSeteaeae 200
210 (Un eereerpess esas sesse 70 33. 33 — 50 70
630 100 125 100 325 51.58 210 5
550 SOO ease eae ee a eee 300 54.54 LG6OP I Seen ceases
46, 050 4,701 2, 788 613 8, 102 17.59 | 2,748.5 | 8,160.5 -

1 Includes 2 miles of bituminous concrete.

Note.—The above information was compiled partly from cards received from county road officials and
pare from asummary sheet furnished by Mr. J. J. Murray, secretary of the State road commission and
nited States collaborator.

LXIV APPENDIX,

TEXAS.

TaBLeE 50.— Miles of public roads outside o f incor porated cities, 1914.

Surfaced roads. - |
Graded
an
Counties. cana. | Otner | moter | Percent Increase | drained
roads, |Macadam.| Gravel. oe hard 2) age Of | surfaced | ©arth
: clay. Snitacedl surfaced. d on mileage roads,

over 1909.

Collingsworth | 620 |.....-..-- 250 in tae| eae eae 285 45.96 | 285 85
Colorado...---- Bea oaise 10 10 |---------- 20 Th 7/ 20 50

Recmmcicio| = Sui UU Fle seca 6 7-40 (EO SSeS OCC

1 Bituminous gravel. 2 Shell. 3 Cinder. 4 Concrete. 5 Bituminous macadam,

APPENDIX. LXV

TEXAS—Continued.

TaBLE 50.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.

Total Graded
Counties. | Mileage Percent. | Merease | grained
of all Sand- | Other | otal | age of oe t
roads. |Macadam.| Gravel. | * hard 8 surfaced | earth
clay. surfaced. total = roads,
surfaced. surfaced, | Mileage
| over 1909.
El Paso. .....- 310 70 OV 4= BP lboanamaene|aoso~scces 102 32.9 A3 Syaleenn ae
liRiNA “Ae aeeae 1, 200 - 50 50 100 130 131 10. 91 70 100
Hallseeeeeoc. 2. SP ee Sabesace 6 6. es 12 3. 84 | — 38 200
iD ee aeeee A SOON Peas estee el os sacs cc] occas 3c 2 5| Cees | terete ines sceiarmts eens [eres crocs eicill rere
Fayette.....-- LOR) |eeadessoae 90 20)" S eeeeeeee 110 10. 47 10 150
Fisher......--- SOON Peace eeale sicicis. cnt sole cis ese sree e| Peeeene ieen ere Seer stapatare Seana eta ace a 20
oy, diety-s.- == i WD Jjoceccacoteleesonsedss|posatesesellesecscscsclosccocosndanceceeseallaateeacces 500
Foard...-...-- IG ec eetheso S| jEsoseeeaes MUSHY sllecsossedas 1.5 1. 28 il, 5) 40
Fort Bend...-.- BU lesescqesrss Bie | eS eee 5 217 52 10.4 29 348
Franklin...... Bh) |sacessonoe Pia SSE eEaere cases case 35 7 35 40

Guadalupe..-.
Halevs. 5.22.2.

Jackson..--....
Daspeteseense =
Jeff Davis. -...

Jefferson.......

Jim Hogg......
Jim Wells.....

1 Not classified as to type. 2 Shell. 3 Bituminous macadam. 4 Concrete.

-

LXVI APPENDIX.

TEXAS—Continued.

TABLE 50.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.

Tolalweniga ana! Gradd
A x an
Counties. eee SA other | rotat Percent Tnclense Grsinted
and- ota, age 0. ear
roads. |Macadam.} Gravel. clay. hard | surfaced.| total | SUtfaced | ,oads.
surfaced. surfaced mileage
“| over 1909.
(20) nt ees eee
99.5 300
EI: NE) aR esas, TERS i STALE eee. 15
—104 200

ot FAS | es ee
eco Sass ed) SSeS ee Sean See aan aos Beeeececscloccacdodcd beauocasaE lOaacescaaa bacasoceas| |soccocos
Live Oak...... 5 50
Liano..-....... ASB Ue are hae geal iayercievelssctetoll cysts carsiovete | ersietetolete aroicllteseseics ie: Sccasi as sickesste eyererall ere eee icnets | Meee eetete
Loopy ANAC Si aia Reese Sic [payer en ee |e een cher i al een oh cel aaa aaa acer Secel Soman Hoe toc shee
Lubbock...... Pate Ye as SS | Wa Pe a ag ers cpl Le pe Fa She Bee
yrineeep eae SES Oa ess rel UR pa eae nee | GR Se alana Pare caps iea| Pipa ena gute | ee eel le cl IRS
McCulloch..... PS YaA OH] ck Oa ES vO eae a Rana Mts De Aol LAP 8 os Pe era I aM eel TSF
McLennan..... 1, 576
MeMullen. .... Fa SUS URE Ue pV sa A Dr I at LA el haar re
Madison....... et a 1 BN PS Et UE | A i bea co td) LA nt Est Uh Nr Ey
Marion........ 300
Martinesc25 222. 75
Mason........- 292
Matagorda..... 355
Maverick...... 195

Montague...... 900
Montgomery... 900

Moore.......-- Ba UY AAA I Ta TEE NV ES Le eden FN SC HG A eo es
Morris......... CBG) | Seng NTIS NN Se NS a [chy a Pe yee ena (AU TT ee
Motley........ IU || A Pa a SE IE I EA rit st Lac ease dalla Gs} dicts Ea tall Jaca MaTSL Arial [Se se
Nacogdoches. - 902
Navarro....... 2, 000
Newton. ...... SOO bu BaP 3 ee sc See AN hans GE area nate Pee ne eae a ee ee en
Nolan........- 533
Nueces........ 560
Ochiltree... ... MUA Eye | Raspes tea | his Maho co MUS rec AN TORN eo aeect soc 212 oy ad ORG | RP 2a | em es
Oldham....... SAUD hea ee Sel i Ae ot A aA Ae || EE A aT A ate ar lees a te
Orange......-- ZOO I eR ld cage care | eyes oe ee ad | Pn MNES esses Mace ey on ear HLD Spf [ae ed) ae | epee eee
Palo Pinto..... 288
anlar B00, 8) es eae te Ee Se ny FU | | Let ea Her ene A a
Parker...... 1, 800
Parmer.......-. 255
Pecos.........- 750
POs oe 600
Potters eee 300
Presidio. 215
Raines 285
Randall 450
Reagan 165

(2) Re entire 125
Red River.. 950
Reeves......-- 190

*Refugio.......- 200
Roberts. ...... 70

Robertson..... 450

Rockwall. ..... DANDY A TERA HIT RR eR HME IGT SP Bay RT fa | eT et ae
Runnels......- CPSP aS HO A Be yD) A NDS WU eae A a De Pe a al ears le
IRUSkes Ser he oan 950

San Augustine. 550
San Jacinto... 330
San Patricio... 136
San Saba...... 745

1 Shell.

2 No report for this county in 1904, 1909, or 1914, as it is but sparsely settled.
3 Concrete.

4 Bituminous macadam.

5 Not classified as to type.

6 Cinder.

APPENDIX. LXVII

TEXAS—Continued.

TABLE 50.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.

TOtala et aes |e T [es | | So oa | eR eer Ta Graded
\ an
Counties. nae ae other | rotat Percent- tnosease drained
roads. |Macadam.| Gravel. Bite hard Oue age Ol | surfaced | SF
clay. | surfaced. surfaced.| total mileage roads

surfaced. over 1909,

Washington... COTO) Ges ee a (A RT A DT et OL gy) Mr 300
Wiebbeweas ss S00) Se ae 50 25 0 ee ee 5 25 — 50 35
Wharton.....- SOGc is Raw Cia BRRBABrcoS sconotece 6 74 5 800
Wheeler....... T1753 | So SG | ee EE a oo odallaouaepon so Sea Ses ssan Re ee ne See Sees
Wichita....... Cr SS |e EN Oo) em TOR ieee SC 8 Sl cae ore = 8 355
Wilbarger....-. SOOF aera ny Naa Sie oe 10° eee 70 8.75 66 200
Willacy........ PA avec L WR |e eS eae 9:52] Soars 9.5 13. 28 Cail estan ay SOs
Williamson....| 1,505 |.......... QOD Ales oes ees 255 16.94 192 1, 050
TISON Pea tne OOS aoe eee SUN Pe he Se ce 4100 100 10 MOOI eee sess
Winkler....... PG I Ea Fae ee ee el SSB Bcco MOC e eae BBSeEercon Decrceee
IWASOs o22- Shee USO) Papeeadaes BL eae BePmnriel icioroccaoc 35 PAS) 1) a UG) ES Geass
Wiood ses. sos GUO RS es eassso Scocsesear 150. see ee 150 142 300
Yoakum....... TAB Ss Se LS Tat REN) Pe per 416 16 21.91 16 17
Youngs) 22)! SES (Oy UG stave eC) a Se Ae Pee ese Le So ee Sa Gael oceceeetes —156 215
Zapata........ (GO) Se I aT Ne | | GK) SA YASIR PAE | A ea
Zavallaeneasnne P71 D) | kate ea | ee tear) a EN Le ak US Oe RE — 1 20
Total..../128,960 | 511.00 | 5,258.98 | 3,490.48 | 1, 265.33 |10, 526.79 8.16 | 5,640.79 | 29, 866

1 Bituminous macadam. 2 Shell. 3 Concrete. 4 Not classified as to type.

APPENDIX.

LXVIIT

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APPENDIX.

WEST VIRGINIA.

LXxI

TABLE 52.— Miles of all public roads, State and local, outside of incorporated cities, 1914.

County.

Greenbrier. .........
Hampshire.......-.-
iEtanGocks2 222-62

Monongahela... -..--
Monroe.........-.---

Surfaced roads.

Total In- | Graded
mile- Per- | crease a and F
age, itu- cent- | in sur- |draine
all flag minous| Brick, | Con- | Gravel otal age of | faced | earth
roads 1 a 21 mac- | paved.| crete. iltrrced total | road | roads.
Pp adam. sur- |mileage
faced. | over
1909.
G24 eee tclneaeemes Cee SSacccael tosses 4 6 4 130
AS OR lel Oia es ecetars, <0 nslareinteisialreetaeeiete 148 145 31.8 80 110
BiG) eo seek ool aaSosessl asso teca socecod 4 booecona aesEnacs sacsauer|lsoscemse 45
(BOE Serer avalos =| coe ce cic | ee erate | eiemisiois + | are reie cee [eis eka crel| Se eee 80
OW te OO, pm lero ciara Di Sil] aeeeversye repel |lbeetsrerater= 52 29. 2 36 100
AQOS | Bees crear 1 a eel eS scccrc PS Senner 19 4.75 | 16.5 100
0) beeeeo ae baocobde eoasesol ltacecood loacouccd| AScEeana |ssousscs sacssans 50
PATO S| |e ee ar a al eee mine Ea ace ol ssi ser Mesa el faye meer CRI ese ta Tes ei
BOO Geel le cis cicle cial es ceisels al Seleiyatnrall ere sreteloserailie oicrecins chide es alnees 100
933 9 oss Gaaaeass jSoonos5 cel lonecsone 15 1.6 12.5 53
650 61) See eeeae Seem eMnel neha s se aleepoeor .12 - 018/—13 50
BE eiGcaces We eoeoS Seoseeer locke roel toe cades Bescsocd Hberesas| sc sscocac 50
827 eho). | aetoma sa lasenooccladceascalloamacuad 8 - 96 8 60
OBOE see sal sels nie se ell nw 21S Sisto leee eres ere ee eros liaise ere evra Mie ye isa eis cee eave lemee cies
184 ste\l)"| bineaaeae Gyan Soo 554 SS aenete 15.8 7.6 15.8 68
2.9 10. 75 250
eer Neyer wists seen 450
82.4 | 112 40
. 36 1 100
. 26 2 100
-6 4 61
2 4 46
2.2 3 35
4.7 28. 2 275
8.7 |—12 250
Be ccH ee asoes 100
10. 4 39.6 260
Pee ereienie eee eas 50
3 6 42
800 1 1 110) [seeR Beale ee 3.1 -38 |—36.9 209
600 Sa a ea eae es eile ae 8 1.8 8 100
325 1 Bera borate ee aes eS nee DA ose ore ts) et ee 1 - 03 Desa eerste ses
DLO 2O., iM eps oes | wee Se cle ol] aeeeterepeie | beraysrnis ele 25 4.8 PAR erat Bis seer
ae 177 7 20 AN See eee eee or 204 80.0 49 76
HOS aoeSce HeSeeree Beeeseed osc cccal Sacraets| Rater Premera Ieee asset (errors eras
290M ee eye alee el eee tals 5. 50 - 50 6 2.07 6 30
HOON aa eae els. 8 alee ee 230 44 8.8 40 95
P2003: seoee sales aac 2) UE Be ete 2 .16 2 400

32, 024

771.92 | 62.95

1 Includes 40 miles of shale.

121.10 | 18.50] 90.50 |1,064.97

2 Shale.

5,705

473. 57

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
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AT
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se fel let ee i

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and
Rural Engineering

LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director

Washington, D. C. Vv January 8, 1917

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN THE
NEW ENGLAND STATES, 1914.

A Compilation Showing Mileage of Improved and Unimproved Roads, Sources and
Amounts of Road Revenues, Bonds Issued and Outstanding, and a Description of
the Systems of Road Administration, Fiscal Management, and Other Factors
Affecting Road Improvement in Each State.

Prepared Jointly by the Division of Road Economics, of the Office of Public Roads and
Rural Engineering, and State Collaborators.

CONTENTS.
Page. | Page.
minoductorys. s2- 2 no-no st Ps eS. 3: i. |) Massachusetts: <0) tos. 20 sjacceeccee sce 15
WVETTHG Bere Feces iy tS eS Guia uhodeyisland 23a 55: hrs nee: aaa Ao actae eee 19
I iGyier LEU IU OS) 60 92 aes ae ee eam 9/| (Conneeticttsan: s - 5 seca ccsceeewoess sees 21
Wenmmontrpees ssi tt 24S. Pere ares at 123 |A*ppendisn sche ee je. Lee eee ae 25
INTRODUCTORY.

Beginning with 1904, the policy of conducting at five-year intervals
an investigation to determine the mileage of improved and unim-
proved roads, the revenues for road purposes, and related data, was
adopted by the Office of Public Roads. In accordance with that
policy Bulletin No. 32 was issued, giving such information as was
obtainable for the calendar year 1904, and Bulletin No. 41 was issued,
giving such information as was available for the calendar year 1909.
The investigation made for the year 1914 followed somewhat different
lines, as a closer cooperation with State highway departments was
maintained, and wherever practicable the information was collected
directly by collaborators named by the respective State highway
departments and acting under specific instruction from this office,
This policy was not practicable in connection with earlier bulletins,
owing to the fact that many of the States have only recently estab-
lished highway departments. The collaborators for the New England

61725°—Bull, 388—17——1

2 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

States, who furnished valuable assistance in compiling the infor-
mation for this bulletin, are as follows: For Maine, Lucius D. Bar-
rows; for New Hampshire, Frank W. Brown; for Vermont, M. E.
Shedd; for Rhode Island, Peter J. Lannon; for Connecticut, C. G.
Nichols; and for Massachusetts, W. D. Sohier and T. N. Waddell.
Similar bulletins have been prepared for publication for the Middle
Atlantic States, the Southern States, and for the Middle Western and
Western States.

WORKING PLAN AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION.

The method pursued in obtaining the information contained in this
bulletin was as follows:

A series of card inquiry forms covering conditions in each State
and designated A, B, C, and D, covering, respectively, mileage, taxa-
tion and revenues, administrative organization, and bond issues, was
furnished to each State collaborator, and correspondence was then
conducted by the collaborators under Government frank with the
respective county and town officials. On account of the absence
of detailed records in many of the towns, extreme accuracy is impos-
sible, and because of the large amount of correspondence necessary
to conduct the investigation considerable delay in the issuance of this
bulletin has been unavoidable. The data on mileage and revenues
should, therefore, be considered as approximate only. A summary
sheet of each of the forms A, B, C, and D was prepared for each State
as fast as the card forms were received from the State collaborators.
These summaries, when completed, were forwarded to the respective
State collaborators and to the heads of the State highway depart-
ments, who then prepared texts explanatory of the statistical tables
and of the administrative systems in effect in their respective States,
or approved the texts prepared in this office. The bulletin is issued,
therefore, in the form of a series of chapters, each under the author-
ship or approval of the State official who has cooperated with this
office in assembling the data.

ROAD ADMINISTRATION IN THE NEW ENGLAND STATES.

All of the New England States have highway departments and apply
State funds to the aid of road improvement. This policy was inau-
gurated in Massachusetts in 1892, Connecticut in 1895, Vermont in
1898, Maine in 1901, Rhode Island in 1902, and New Hampshire in
1903. In Vermont the State aid law was enacted in 1898, but the
State highway department was not established until 1906. Maine,
Rhode Island, and Connecticut have trunk-line systems of roads built
entirely at the expense of the State. Massachusetts, New Hamp-
shire, and Vermont have trunk-line systems of roads built by the
State, but the towns contribute toward the cost of their construction
and maintenance.

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES.IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 3

Local road and bridge work, exclusive of State and State-aid work,
is done by the towns through the town boards of selectmen in all of
the New England States, the towns being political subdivisions of the
counties. In a few cases, however, where the towns fail to construct
or maintain the roads properly, the work is done by the county
officials.

Detailed information as to the administration of public roads in
each of the New England States is given in the chapters which relate
respectively to the several States.

PUBLIC ROAD REVENUES.

The total revenues applied to roads and bridges in the New Eng-
land States in 1914 amounted to $15,435,746.01, including State
appropriations, amounts derived from local taxation, and expendi-
tures from bond issues, both State and local. In 1904 the total reve-
nues applied to this purpose amounted to $7,383,755.70, showing an
increase in the 10-year period, 1905-1914, inclusive, of $8,051,990.31,
or 104.6 per cent. Table 1 presents in condensed form the informa-
tion assembled concerning revenues for the New England States for
the year 1914, with comparative information for the year 1904.

TasBLe 1.—Revenues applied to roads and bridges, 1914 and 1904.

Total revenues applied to Tnerease in revenues over
roads and bridges. 1904.

State.

Percentage
1914 1904 Total increase. of
increase.
IEEE) ie AOC ORE Re ee ee ea oR eas $2, 642,006.79 | $1,472,393.70 | $1,169,613. 09 79. 43
New Hampshire BPricytrckaaisyaii yas adus tees 1,590, 464. 11 872, 606. 35 717, 857. 76 82. 2
WERIMOM eens es oce teen ce se seu las sae 1,023, 941. 01 567, 397.33 456, 543. 68 80. 46
Maceaautisetts Bec roratelayayateraieiele err secs 2 Sais 6, 091, 875. 30 2,871, 222. 47 3, 220, 652. 83 112.2
Mod enslan Geert ier hecceee eacune Sasser 446, 496. 05 405, 010. 85 41, 485. 20 10.2
Wonnechicniieessm eters cee see ce cees 3, 640, 962. 75 1,195, 125. 00 2, 445, 837. 75 204.6
MRO paleeser sein See a A oe 15, 435, 746. 01 7,383, 755. 70 8,051, 990. 31 104.6

A comparison showing the average revenues for roads and bridges
in the New England States per mile of road, per square mile of area,
per capita, and per $100 of assessed valuation for the years 1904 and
1914 is presented in Table 2. This average does not indicate, how-
ever, the distribution of expenditures as between construction and
maintenance.

4 BULLETIN 3388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE 2.—Relation of public road and bridge revenues to mileage, area, population,
and assessed valuation, 1914 and 1904.

Revenues.
Per mile of | Persquare mile any Per $100 of as- -
State. road. of land area. Per capita. sessed value.

1914 1904 1914 1904 1914 1904 1914 1904

| ee fe a |

(Maine Sasa meae ee ere: comer eranaae ($112. 25 | $57.68 | $88.37 | $49.29 | $3.55 | $2.12 | $0.633 | $0.418
INewsEampshire=sss-e eee sseeeeeeeeeee 113.44 | 57.72 | 176.11 | 96.62 3. 69 2.12 - 362 - 427
WMermontenne wee sscteoaeeeaeen esses 71.86 | 39.07 | 112.22 | 62.19 | ° 2.87 1.65 - 462 - 348
Massachusetts.......-..-.-.--.----... 326.08 | 167,99 } 758.00 | 357. 40 1.81 1.02 -127 - 092
Rhode Islands 2. 22sec eee eee 205. 76 | 171.54 | 418.50 | 379. 70 - 82 95 - 072 - 096
Connecticut se: 2 oe sasssesee see 258.99 | 84.84 | 755.50 | 248.10 3. 26 1.32 - 300 - 180

Weighted average..=..-....-..- 177.99 | 83.24 | 249.06 | 119.10 2.39 1.32 204 - 150

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total town and State highway road and bridge bonds outstand-
ing on January 1, 1915, in the New England States, amounted to
$20,565,522.82. ‘Town bonds were issued in Massachusetts only and
amounted to $1,606,022.82. Information in regard to bond issues by
States is presented in Table 3. Detailed information showing bonds
issued by towns in Massachusetts is shown in the chapter for that

State.
“ TaBLE 3.—Road and bridge bonds outstanding.

: Town bonds Bieter aay
State. outstanding :

Jartsiigibs |e seanuunes

2 Jan. 1, 1915.
WIGIING LSS Fe ooa os pee Ue soot Oe Coan DEERE en TeUEe Bobb Sone EnoS aoaouo posted peansousocepasbe $785, 000. 00
INewsHampshineeertrm tec. cocrseero a spends ss See Se REET Ree chats wee sie inie leaks etsio sicletsiterereiees 675, 000. 00
Vermont.....-. BE Bba cao oond od owas nee RabeSecos oop se 52 quadenoocoodue bode Suge odonogEoSNG boas esasobeceos
Massachusetts ee ice cee tele oeet eye =) ee eee eee ee om lel eistare eaiatals oar $1, 606, 022. 82 8, 699, 500. 00
un ode sistem diy ers VER ee eG NS ase eh a Ca As a a oS oie oe eee ecimaneias 3 1, 800, 000. 00
(Ole aviavstela (ADRs eG Pes Na eat aes dra eR er An CN pn ae Ree Me nie ms| late Beene arte 7, 000, 000. 00
AWS EN ENO eee SMe Henn Mee ete et i, .o Sere CUM UR aaa 1, 606, 022. 82 18, 959, 500. 00

ROAD MILEAGE.

The total mileage in the New England States, as of January 1, 1915,
was shown by the detailed investigations to be 86,718, excluding
streets in cities. Of this total, 18,038.78 miles, or 20.8 per cent, were
reported as surfaced. This surfaced mileage is less than the surfaced
mileage reported for 1909, but the returns are much more accurate
than it was possible to obtain in 1909, and the difference should not
be considered to indicate any neglect of the roads in the New England
States, but rather to show that road statistics are now reaching the
bed rock of exact record as a development from the method of
approximation upon which we have had to rely in the past. Further-
more, streets in incorporated cities have been excluded more rigidly
in the 1914 investigation than in that of 1909, and a higher standard

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 5

was maintained in the 1914 classification of surfaced roads than in
the 1909 classification. Table 4 shows total and surfaced mileage
for 1914, and the percentage of mileage surfaced in 1914, and 1909,
respectively.

TaBLE 4.—Road mileage.

Totalroad | Milessur- | Percentagesurfaced.

mileage faced at ‘

SUENES at close close of |

of 1914. 1914. 1914 | 1909

Maines io ck 23, 537 2,762. 36 11.74 10. 10
New Hampshire. 14, 020 1, 659. 63 11. 83 9. 58
Vermont.......- 14, 249 1, 442. 03 10.12 18. 40
Massachusetts. - . oe 18, 681 8, 505. 89 45. 53 49. 00
TRLOVOOVD) LIS) WoC USS Ge Se a ae 2,170 693. 42 31.95 49.14
Worm CC hiGuits reece eset een ea cisetiats aye cle cis sinjuiiae side « cere 14, 061 2,975. 45 21.16 21.09
Motaliandiaverace: 2fe2. 3. ged tens cians scutes oa e ee 86,718 | 18,038.78 20. 80 22. 22

The relation of total mileage and surfaced mileage to area and
rural population for the years 1914, 1909, and 1904 is presented in
Table 5.

TaBLE 5.—Relation of total mileage and surfaced mileage to area and rural population,

Total mileage. Surfaced mileage.
State Per square mile Per 1,000 Per square mile Per 1,000

; ofland area. rural population. of land area. rural population.

1914 | 1909 | 1904 | 1914 | 1909 1904 1914 | 1909 | 1904 | 1914 | 1909 | 1904
Main OW iiss nic n= Seno sinters 0.79 | 0.85 | 0 85 | 65.3 | 70.7 | 71.5 {0.092 0.090 |0.078 | 7.65 | 7.49) 6.51
New Hampshire. .......... 1.55 | 1.67 | 1.67 | 79.9) 86.2 | 81.5] .184 | .160 | .143 | 9.47 | 8.25 | 6.98
Wermontetse ej. eS 1.56 | 1.58 | 1.59 | 76.2 | 77.0} 71.0 | .158 | .291 | .214 | 7.71 |14.17 | 9.55
Massachusetts.......-.----- 2.32 | 2.15 | 2.13 | 77.5 | 71.6 | 71.7 |1.058 |1.053 | .976 |35. 29 |35. 11 | 32.92
Rhode Island........-..... 2.03 | 1.99 | 2.21 |120.8 |118.1 |112.9 | .649 | .977 | .957 |38. 59 |58.03 | 48. 83
Connecticut.......-.-.----- 2.92 | 2.61 | 2.92 |122.3 |109.5 121.7 | .617 | .629 | .490 |25. 89 |26.39 | 20.39
erage marty css 1.40 | 1.40 | 1.43 | 80.3 | 79.3 | 79.1 | .291 | .312 | .271-|16. 44 |17.63 | 14.97

TYPES OF SURFACED ROADS.

Of the 18,038.78 miles of surfaced roads in the, New England States
at the close of 1914, 10,896.08 miles, or 60.40 per cent, were gravel;
2,229.81 miles, or 12.36 per cent, macadam; 1,771.20 miles, or 9.83
per cent, bituminous macadam, including roads built by the mixing
and penetration methods and surface treated; 1,113.43 miles, or
6.17 per cent, sand-clay; 41.80 miles, or 0.23 per cent, concrete; 1.38
miles, or 0.01 per cent, brick, and 1,985.08 miles, or 11 per cent,
surfaced with other materials of which the classification was not
given. The distribution of types of surfaced roads, as of January 1,:
1915, is shown by States in Table 6.

6 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 6.— Types of surfaced roads.

Bitumi- :
State. Macadam.| nous | Gravel. ae Brick. | Concrete. Misoel ee Total.
macadam. c 7

Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. | Miles.| Miles. Miles. Miles.
2.26 0.05 10.5

Maing oe ior eee seca 55. 36 43.93 | 1,139.36 2 1 | 1,510.89 | 2,762.36
New Soames daogaes 61.87 154.26 | 1,013.70 270.90 |...-.-.- 7.97 151.83 | 1,659.63
Vermont........-..-.-- UCM Beeaaenesac WER} || sescacsd lescossod|eacosscese 1274.67 | 1,442.03
Massachusetts......---.- 834.30 | 1,337.33 | 6,289.57 |........--].--.---.|---------- 44.69 | 8,505.89
Rhode Island. .-....-.- 352. 92 107.4 250 OR Beerer eines | seseeine | eatieeeaeee 3.00 693.42
Connecticut .......-.--- 923.42 128.28 | 1,057.93 840. 27 1.33 Pte PPA |locoonaesac 2, 975.45

Totaleeahasconce 2. 229.81 | 1,771.20 |10, 896.08 | 1,113.43 1.38 41.80 | 1,985.08 | 18, 038.78

Per cent of total
surfaced..--...- 12.36 9.83 60. 40 6.17 -O1 23 11.00 100.00

1 Gravel telford.

The detailed tables, reference to which is made in the chapters
devoted to the several States, will be found in the Appendix.

MAINE.

By Lucius D. Barrows, Collaborator.

Maine has a land area of 29,895 square miles, a total road mileage
of 23,536.91, and a population, according to the 1910 census, of
742,371. The State, therefore, has a population of 24.83 per square
mile of area and 31.53 per mile of road, with 0.79 mile of road per
square mile of area. Of the total population in 1910, 48.6 percent, or
360,928, was rural, an average of 15.33 per mile of road.

The northeastern part of Maine, especially the eastern part of
Aroostook County, is devoted almost entirely to farming. The
western part of Aroostook County and the northern parts of Penob-
scot, Piscataquis, Somerset, Franklin, and Oxford Counties are
largely wild lands. In these sections lumbering is the principal
industry, and there are very few roads. A great many summer
resorts are located along the Atlantic coast line from Kittery to East-
port, while many summer camps, sporting camps, and summer hotels
are found along the rivers and on the inland lakes. Many people now
come to Maine in the summer by automobile. This summer tourist
travel and the great increase in the number of automobiles owned in
the State, together with the need for good roads on the part of the
farming districts, have given a great impetus to road building in
Maine.

The State has many rivers and streams, and the construction and
maintenance of bridges is no small problem. From an investigation
made in 1907, it was learned that there are more than 6,800 bridges
in the State. Many of the larger bridges have been constructed
under special legislative appropriations.

State and State-aid highways and the maintenance of the same
are under the direction of the State highway commission, consisting

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. “

of three members appointed by the governor with the advice and
consent of the council. A chief engineer, who is required to be a
civil engineer having experience in and knowledge of highway con-
struction, is appointed by the commission with the approval of the
governor and council. The chief engineer, under the direction and
control of the commission, has general charge of all construction and
maintenance work to which financial aid is extended by the State,
and may, with the approval of the commission, employ necessary
engineering and clerical assistance. State highways are constructed
at the expense of the State from the proceeds of a bond issue of
$2,000,000, authorized by the legislature of 1913. State-aid high-
ways are constructed at the joint expense of the State and town.
The amount of State aid apportioned to each town depends on the
amount raised by the town, and is also limited by the valuation of
the town.

State and State-aid highways are maintained at the joint expense of |
the State and town. The amount appropriated depends on the mileage
and a rate per mile for State and State-aid highways as determined
by the State highway law. Up to 1913 there was no systematic
method for maintaining State and State-aid highways. A department
of maintenance was organized by the State highway commission in
1913, which now looks after the maintenance of these roads. An effort
will be made to increase the scope of this department so as to include
a part of the town roads under its supervision at the joint expense
of the State and town.

Maine now appropriates $300,000 annually for the construction of
State-aid roads and $50,000 for the administration of the office of
the State highway commission. Any surplus from the latter amount
may be used for maintenance. The revenue received from the
licensing and registration of automobiles is used to take care of the
bond issue of $2,000,000, and any surplus not needed for this purpose
may be used for maintenance.

In this State the town is the governmental unit in the local admin-
istration of road and bridge construction and maintenance. Appro-
priations for roads and bridges are made by vote of the people at
each annual town meeting. These appropriations are expended
under the general direction of a board of selectmen, consisting of
three members, and under the immediate direction of a road commis-
sioner appointed by the selectmen. The labor tax has been abolished.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted
to $2,642,006.79. Of this amount $978,786.57 was expended by the
towns on town roads and bridges, and $1,663,220.22 was expended
by the State highway commission from State aid, automobile funds,

8 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

special appropriations, State highway loan funds, and local funds,
The amounts expended under the direction of the State highway
commission are shown in the report of the commission for the year
1914, as follows:

State. Local.
Joint fund for construction of State-aid roads.............-.-..----------=--- $410, 781. 28 $338, 051. 48
State highway construction from State highway loan fund..........-..-...- 7163: 143500) tea eee te
State-nidimaimbemamee aoe spate mel mala alin ine alee alle 59, 949. 50 31, 667. 17
State malin anCe areas 2 eee ee ea eerste ee 12, 858. 34 4,120. 40

Total for construction and maintenance of State and State-aid roads...| 1, 246, 732. 21 373, 839. 05

Amount paid by the pinto: BE OHOC CEeRE OARS SEnAade tide See Se SSSR s Resear 455865 54amche 1, 246, 732. 21
Amount paid by the towms..........-.------------- eee sissies see jeSee |eouccee cece “SUBY 839. 05
Administration of State aiahetay Gepartmiontss ssh eRe: FS ae as Se ogee |e ee eee 42, 648. 96

Grand total expended under State highway department..............--|.-.----------- 1, 663, 220. 22

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted
to $1,472,393.70, thus indicating an mcrease in the 10-year period of
$1,169,613.09, or 79.43 per cent. Information regarding rates of
taxation and amounts obtained from town taxes for town roads and_
bridges during 1914 is shown in Table 7

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The towns of Maine have no road and bridge bonds outstanding.
On September 1, 1913, the State issued $300,000 of State highway
bonds and on July 1, 1914, additional State highway bonds amount-
ing to $492,500 were issued, making a total of $792,500. One bond
of $7,500 was paid on September 1, 1914, which left a total outstand-
ing on January 1, 1915, of $785,000. These bonds bear 4 per cent
interest and are to be retired by the serial plan. The bonds issued
September 1, 1913, are to be retired at the rate of $7,500 annually
between September 1, 1914, and September 1, 1953. The issue of
July 1, 1914, falls due annually in equal amounts of $11,500 between
July 1, 1915, and July 1, 1954. The State law provides that the
interest and the bonds are to be paid from automobile registration
fees and that not more than $500,000 may be issued in any one year,
provided that the total amount outstanding never shall exceed
$2,000,000.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of the year 1914, Maine had 23,536.91 miles of public
road, of which 2,762.36 miles, or 11.74 per cent, were surfaced. Of
the surfaced roads, 43.93 miles were bituminous macadam, 55.36
miles macadam, 1,139.36 miles gravel, and 1,523.71 miles of other
materials, of which the classification was not given, except as follows:
brick, 0.05 mile; concrete, 10.51 miles; sand-clay, 2.26 miles.

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 9

In 1909 Maine had 2,592.09 miles, or 10.1 per cent, of roads sur-
faced, thus indicating an increase in the five-year period, 1909-1914,
of 170.27, miles, or 1.64 per cent.

The mileage figures for 1914 are presented by counties and towns

in Table 16.
NEW HAMPSHIRE.

New Hampshire has a land area of 9,031 square miles, a total road
mileage of 14,020.10, and a population, according to the 1910 census,
of 430,572. The State, therefore, has a population of 47.67 per
square mile of area and 30.71 per mile of road, with 1.55 miles of road
per square mile of area. Of the population in 1910, 40.8 per cent, or
175,473, was rural, an average of 12.51 per mile of road.

In 1905 the governor and council were authorized by law to appoint
a State engineer and such other engineers as might be deemed neces-
sary for the purpose of carrying on road work undertaken by the
State. In 1915 a new act was passed empowering the governor and
council to appoint a highway commissioner skilled in the construc-
-tion and maintenance of highways. The highway commissioner
exercises general supervision, control, and direction, on behalf of the
State, over all matters pertaining to the location, construction, and
maintenance of highways now or hereafter built or maintained,
either in whole or in part, with money appropriated from the State
treasury. He is vested with power to fix or decide all matters per-
taining to the location and route of any such highways, methods of
construction, materials, manner in which such highways shall be
maintained, and all other matters pertaining thereto, including award
of contracts. Appeals may be taken from his decision to the governor
and council. The highway commissioner was authorized to desig-
nate a system of cross-State highways for improvement, the cost to
be borne one-half by the State and one-half by the town, city, or
place within which such road is located, provided that where the town
is financially unable to pay one-half of such cost, the State may pay
such further sums in addition to its one-half as the State highway
commissioner may deem equitable. Any cross-State highway may
be improved by the city, town, or place within which it is located at
the expense of the city, town, or place, and to the satisfaction of the
State highway commissioner. in which event the State shall reimburse
such city, town, or place.

Under an act passed in 1913, a system of trunk-line highways was
designated for improvement by the governor and council and an
issue of State bonds was authorized to meet the cost, but cities and
towns through which such highways passed were to pay one-half the
cost, less such portion thereof as the governor and council might
deem equitable in towns unable to pay their share. By an act of
1903 a system of State highways was outlined for improvement and

10) BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

maintenance at the sole expense of the State, and appropriations
were made therefor.

Each town is required to set apart for the permanent improvement
of its main highways, to be done under the advice of the State high-
way commissioner, and to which the State is to contribute aid, an
amount varying from $1 on each $1,000 of assessed valuation where
the valuation is less than $2,000,000, to 25 cents on each $1,000 of
assessed valuation where the valuation is $15,000,000 and upward.
The amount appropriated by the State for State aid is required to be
apportioned by the governor and council to each city, town, and
unincorporated town or place which has applied for State aid in
proportion to the amount locally set aside in accordance with the
above provisions. The apportionment varies according to assessed
valuation from $3 for each $1 so set apart, where the valuation is less
than $100,000, to 20 cents for each $1 so set apart, where the assessed
valuation is $3,000,000 and upward. Applications for State aid
each year are required to be made on or before May 1. Money locally
so raised, together with the amount apportioned by the governor and
council, constitutes a jomt fund for the permanent improvement of
such main highway in accordance with plans and specifications pre-
pared by the highway commissioner. Where the joint fund exceeds
$1,000, the work shall be done by contract.

The boards of selectmen of the several towns have general charge
and supervision of all matters pertaining to roads and bridges in their
respective towns. Under certain conditions, a petition for laying out
or altermg a road may be filed in the office of the clerk of the supreme
court and the court may refer such petitions to the county board of
commissioners for investigation and report. The county board of
commissioners has jurisdiction over roads and bridges in wunincorpo-
rated towns and places. At the annual election each town shall elect
one or more, not exceeding three, highway agents, or may instruct its
selectmen to appoint a highway agent, who, under the direction of
the selectmen, shall have charge of the construction and repair of all
highways and bridges within the town.

Towns may authorize the selectmen to contract for keepmg their
highways and bridges, or any part thereof, in repair for a term of not
exceeding five years. Each town is made to constitute a highway
district, but may be divided into smaller districts in charge of a
surveyor of highways.

Each town shall, at its annual meeting, raise and appropriate for
the repair of highways and bridges a sum not less than one-fourth
of 1 per cent of the valuation of the polls and ratable estate on which
other taxes are assessed by the towns and as much more as the town
may deem necessary, but no town shall be required to raise more than
$50 per mile for the repair of roads and bridges. The supreme court,

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 11

on petition and notice to the county commissioners, may order any
part of the expense of repairing a highway paid by the county when
the whole would be burdensome to the town or when the county
convention has recommended such order. When the expense of
rebuilding or repairing a highway is excessively burdensome to the
town in which it is situated, the supreme court, upon petition and
proceedings thereon, as in the case of laying out a highway, may
order a portion of such expense paid by the other towns that will be
benefited thereby.

All the moneys obtained from automobile licenses are awarded by
the highway commissioner to the respective towns for the purpose of
maintaining the roads previously built under the State-aid law, or
built under trunk-line appropriations. This money is divided 65
per cent to trunk lies and 35 per cent to State aid. The highway
commissioner notifies each town of the amount estimated as neces-
sary to maintain its State-aid and trunk-line roads for the coming
season, and adds to this apportionment certain sums, provided the
town raise a fixed sum. This fund is expended under the direction
of the State highway commissioner.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES, 1914.

The total revenues applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted
to $1,590,464.11, comprising the following items: Town appropria-
tions for town roads, $788,291.11; contributions by towns to State-
aid roads, $301,288; State contributions to State-aid roads, $491,520;
and expenditures by State for work done solely at State expense,
$9,365. Of the $491,520 contributed by the State for State-aid work,
$271,767 was for construction, $157,155 was for maintenance,
$11,995 for administration, and $50,603 for miscellaneous equipment.
Of the $301,288 contributed by the towns, $225,000 was for construc-
tion and $76,288 was for maintenance.

The total revenues applied to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted
to $872,606.35, of which the State contributions were $44,000. It
thus appears that the revenues applied to this purpose increased in
1914 over 1904 $717,857.76, or 82.2 per cent.

The amounts appropriated by towns for town roads are shown by
counties and towns in Table 8.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

According to the report of the State auditor, there was outstanding,
September 1, 1914, a total of $675,000 of State highway bonds. These
bonds are deferred serial in character, payable between 1915 and 1924,
and bear 3 to 34 per cent interest.

i BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ROAD MILEAGE, 1914,

According to the reports from the towns, New Hampshire had, at
the close of the year 1914, a total of 14,020.10 miles of public road, of
which 1,659.63, or 11.83 per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced
roads 1,013.7 miles were gravel, 270.9 miles sand-clay, 154.26 miles
bituminous macadam, 61.87 miles macadam, 7.07 miles concrete, and
151.83 miles of materials not classified as to type.

In 1909, New Hampshire reported a total of 1,448.48 miles, or 9.58
per cent, of surfaced roads, thus-indicating an increase in the 5-year
period of 211.15 miles.

The mileage figures for the year 1914 are presented by counties and

towns in Table 17
VERMONT.

Vermont has a land area of 9,124 square miles, a total road mileage
of 14,248.66, and a population, according to the 1910 census, of
355,956. The State, therefore, has a population of 39.01 per square
mile of area and 24.98 per mile of road, with 1.55 miles of road per
square mile of area. Of the population in 1910, 52.5 per cent, or
187,013, was rural, an average of 13.12 per mile of road.

A State highway commissioner is appointed biennially by the gov-
ernor, with the advice and consent of the senate. He controls and
directs the expenditure of all moneys appropriated by the State or
apportioned to towns or incorporated villages for highway improve-
ment. He appomts annually, with the advice and consent of the
governor, a supervisor for each county, who, under his direction and
control, assists in supervising the expenditure of State road funds
and in the construction and inspection of roads that have been or may
be built with State money.

All money appropriated by the State is required to be expended
for improving permanently that main thoroughfare in each town
selected by the selectmen and town road commissioners, subject to
the approval of the State highway commissioner. Such roads are
known as State roads and are required to be selected with a view to
securing trunk lines of improved highways. The location of each
year’s work, plans and specifications therefor, and the appointment
of foremen to have charge of the work, are determined by the State
highway commissioner after consultimg selectmen and road commis-
sioners. The State highway commissioner has the same powers in all
matters pertainmg to highways and bridges in unorganized towns
and gores as have selectmen and road commissioners in organized
towns.

Appropriations are made by the legislature for apportionment by
the State highway commissioner to cities and towns, excluding incor-
porated villages, the basis of apportionment being that the State shall

es.

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 13

duplicate such amount as may be voted by the town in excess of the
amount otherwise required by law to be raised, provided the town so
raises not less than $100 nor more than $1,000. An appropriation
is made annually as a “‘bridge fund”’ to enable the State highway
commissioner to furnish engineering assistance to the town selectmen
in building, rebuilding, or repairmg bridges on selected or State
roads. A State highway tax of 5 cents on the dollar is assessed
annually upon the ‘‘grand list,” which is arrived at by taking 1 per
cent of the assessed valuation. The revenues derived therefrom are
apportioned to the towns and incorporated villages by the State
treasurer in the ratio of the highway mileage of such town or incor-
porated village to the total road mileage of the State.

The net revenues from automobile registrations and licenses are set
apart as a maintenance fund to be expended only for repair and
maintenance of main thoroughfares and State roads. Towns are
required to appropriate annually a sum not less than one-fifth of their
grand lists to keep highways in repair. No part of the funds raised
from town or State highway taxes or appropriated by the State for
highway improvements shall be used in repairing, building, or rebuild-
ing bridges or culverts, or the approaches thereto, which exceed 4
feet span. These shall be under the exclusive control of the select-
men, who shall repair and rebuild them when necessary with funds
to be raised in the general town tax.

Selectmen have jurisdiction over the laying out, alteration, discon-
tinuance, and working of roads and bridges in their respective towns.
A town road commissioner is elected by the town for the purpose
of superintending the expenditure of the highway tax and having
charge of keeping in repair the highways of the town. A town may
elect two road commissioners, in which event the selectmen shall
divide the town into two highway districts, one in charge of each
commissioner. The county court in each county appoints annually
three county road commissioners. If a highway or bridge be out
of repair or unsafe, any three citizens or taxpayers of a town may
give notice thereof to a selectman, and if the necessary repairs are
not then made, complaint may be filed with one of the county road
commissioners, who may order the necessary repairs made at the
expense of a town within a specified time if the selectmen, after
notice, neglect to do so.

If a town in which the tax for town purposes, except for schools,
together with the money expended on its highways in the preceding
5 years, has averaged at least $1.50 on the dollar of its grand list,
believes it is excessively burdened by being required to build, rebuild,
or repair a highway or bridge wholly in such town, and other town
or towns would be especially benefited by the use of such highway,
the town so burdened may petition the county court for commissioners

14 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to hold hearings, and, if justified, assess not exceeding one-half of
the cost to the State and the balance to the petitioning town. The ~
commissioners shall report their findings to the county court and the
court shall render judgment thereon.

The working of county prisoners on the public highways is author-
ized by law.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

All funds applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to
$1,023,941.01, of which the towns raised $617,327.79 and the State
aontatienied fom appropnenens and automobile revenues a total of
$406,613.22.

Of the amount raised by the towns, $388,542.63 was for construc-
tion and maintenance of town roads, $16,346.42 for resurfacing of
town roads, $96,754.36 was raised under the 5 per cent State road
tax, and $115,684.38 was contributed by the towns for State-aid
roads. These items do not include expenditures for the construction
and maintenance of culverts and bridges over 4-foot span, or for
snow removal, or for winter roads. Appropriations for these pur-
poses are made from town funds, and no records of the amounts
expended are available.

The amounts contributed by the State are for the fiscal year ended
June 30, 1914, and are shown in the State auditor’s report for 1914,
as follows:

Salary and expenses of State highway commissioner............-.....--- $7, 153. 59
Salary and expenses of county supervisors. .......-.-.----.----+-+-+++--- 19, 347. 60
Sia bevald {bOuLO WANS ecu te se ates alae tam Se Rae een gs Sg Oy SN Seas 10, 000. 00
inenmanent nehway work (appropriation) =. 252298 2-562. Sele. ye 272, 847. 04
Automobile maintenance fund (paid to towns)...............---------- 70, 852. 12
Statejtundslexpendedion bridge work. =: 2251975 ae re 5, 360. 87
Elimination of grade crossings (State’s share)... ..-.------------------- 21, 052. 00

NO tall oak NEN MOOR 2 8S SERS BPRS, ERAS SAR re Cade Se Sec dee 406, 613. 22

The total revenue applied to roads in 1904 amounted to
$567,397.33, of which the towns raised $440,016.12 and the State
appropriated $127,381.21. Thus revenues for roads and_ bridges
increased $456,543.68, or 80.4 per cent. No bonds were reported
as issued or outstanding.

Information regarding receipts from town taxes for town and
State-aid roads is presented in Table 9.

ROAD MILEAGE.

According to reports collected from the towns by the collaborator,
Vermont had at the close of 1914, 14,248.66 miles of public road, of
which 1,442.03 miles, or 10.12 per cent, were surfaced. Of the
surfaced roads 1,165.42 miles were gravel, 274.67 miles gravel-telford,
and 1.94 miles of macadam. According to the 1909 report, Vermont

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 15

had 14,406 miles of public road, of which 2,650.63 miles, or 18.40
per cent, were reported as surfaced, thus indicating a loss in surfaced
mileage for the 5-year period of 1,208.6 miles. The 1914 information
was obtained from town officials by the collaborator, and it is believed
that it is much more reliable than the figures furnished for 1909, and
the difference should therefore not be attributed to any failure on
the part of the State or the towns to give adequate attention to the
roads. No reports were obtained as to the mileage of graded and
drained roads.

Information showing the total mileage and the mileage surfaced
for each town in the State is presented in Table 18.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Massachusetts has a land area of 8,039 square miles and a popula-
tion, according to the 1910 census of 3,366,416. The total mileage
of roads outside of cities in 1914 was reported as 18,681.40. The
State has a population of 418.8 per square mile of area and 180.2
per mile of road, with 2.32 miles of road per square mile of area.
Of the population in 1910, only 7.2 per cent, or 241,049, was rural,
thus indicating a rural population of 12.90 per mile of road. There
are 36 cities, 14 counties, and 317 towns in the State, the towns being
political subdivisions of the counties.

HIGHWAY LAWS.

There is practically no unincorporated land in Massachusetts.
Many of the towns were organized before the State and the repre-
sentatives of the towns met and adopted a form of constitution.
There were no cities until 1820, when a constitutional amendment
was passed authorizing the legislature to give a city charter to towns
of more than 12,000 inhabitants.

All of the highways within the limits of a city or town were orig-
inally under the jurisdiction of the city or town, and had to be built
and maintained by them. fs

In general, the highways in Massachusetts are divided into three
classes, as follows: State highways, county highways, and city or
town ways. The county, city, or town ways are cared for by the
municipal authorities, viz, superintendents of streets, road com-
missioners, and highway surveyors. The provisions in cities vary,
the jurisdiction being sometimes placed in boards of commissioners
and sometimes in boards of aldermen. The appropriations for
either improvements or repairs are made by the city government or
at a town meeting.

County commissioners, upon proper petition and after due hearing,
have authority to lay out new ways or to widen and improve existing
ways and order specific repairs, or may make such repairs themselves

16 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and determine what part of the cost thereof shall be paid by the city
or town benefited. The county assesses a tax on the municipalities,
and this tax, as well as the State tax, is collected by the towns and
cities in connection with the municipal tax.

Cities and towns acting through their proper authorities also
have authority to lay out and construct new ways and to widen and
improve existing ways, and naturally can direct their improvement
and appropriate money therefor.

HIGHWAY COMMISSION.

The Massachusetts highway commission was established in 1893.
It consists of three members appointed by the governor with the
advice and consent of the council, to serve for a term of three years,
one term expiring each year. Its duties in relation to highways are
twofold; first the collection and collation of statistics as to road
materials, etc., the making of maps, designation of highways, and
the giving of advice on road matters to the various authorities
throughout the Commonwealth who have charge of road building or
road maintenance; and, second, the laying out and construction of
State highways and the improvement of certain town roads.

STATE HIGHWAYS.

Since 1894 appropriations have been made by the legislature for
- the construction of what are known as State highways. The total
length of State highways at the end of 1914 amounted to 1,039.07
miles. The money is raised by a bond issue, usually authorized in
5-year periods. The highway commission may lay out as a State
highway a new or existing way in any city or town upon petition of
the city government, board of selectmen, or the county commissioners.
When so laid out it is maintained by the commission and the commis-
sion has entire jurisdiction over it, even to the extent of determining
the location of water and gas mains, poles, and other structures.
A road becomes a State highway when copies of the petition, layout
plan, and adjudication are filed in the offices of the clerk of the county
commissioners and the clerk of the city or town.

When a State highway is laid out and constructed by the commis-
sion, the county in which it is located repays to the Commonwealth,
within 6 years, 25 per cent of the cost of construction, and the towns
and cities repay to the Commonwealth from $50 to $500 a mile a year
on account of maintenance, according to valuation, provided twice as
much is spent.

SMALL-TOWN ROADS.

The commission may spend 15 per cent of the amount appropriated
for State highway construction under the so-called small-town act
asfollows: Five per centin towns of less than $1,000,000 valuation upon,

=

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 17

petition, the towns making no contribution; 5 per cent in towns of
less than $1,000,000 valuation upon petition, the town contributing
an equal amount; and 5 per cent in towns of more than $1,000,000
valuation upon petition, the town contributing an equal amount.
These roads remaim town ways, and the towns are responsible for
their maintenance and for any accident which may happen thereon.
The commission has authority, however, to repair such roads and to
charge back to the towns in which they are located the cost of the
repairs, not to exceed $50 a mile a year.

EXPENDITURES FOR STATE HIGHWAYS AND SMALL TOWN ROADS.

From the time improvement of highways was started under the
highway commission up to November 30, 1915, the Commonwealth
has expended $12,167,800 in the construction of State highways and
work under the small-town act, including the planting of trees. There
were 1,039 miles of State highway November 30, 1914, and 1,101
miles April, 1916, located in 329 cities and towns. About 482 miles
of road have been improved under the small-town act, and 265 miles
under the motor-vehicle fees fund act.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS.

In 1914 the towns expended $3,839,094.23 for highway construction
and maintenance. The State highway commission expended for
repair, maintenance, and construction of highways in towns, exclusive
of the cost of administration of the State automobile department,
$2,252,781.07, making a total of $6,091,875.30. The appropriations
by towns comprised the following items: for highway construction,
$1,295,198.40; highway repairs, $2,182,104.25; for bridge construc-
tion, $135,983.05; bridge repairs, $61,182.77; amount paid State
for State highways covering towns’ share of cost, $126,759.43 ; amount
paid by towns to counties for county highways, $37,866.33. The
expenditures by the State highway commission for State highways in
towns and exclusive of cities comprised the following items: for con-
struction, $878,235.16; for construction under small-town act,
$114,689.61; for road repair and maintenance, $314,489.41; for
repair and maintenance of town and county ways under motor-
vehicle fees fund, $167,614.74; repair and maintenance of State high-
ways under motor-vehicle fees fund, $426,299.30; for general expenses
of the highway commission, $71,322.37; expenditures under special
acts, $280,130.48.

The State highway commission also spent in 1914, for construction,
repair, and maintenance in cities, $212,837.76, and the cities them-
selves spent a total of $6,693,206.83, making a grand total for high-
ways and city streets of $12,997,919.89.

61725°—Bull. 388—17——2

18 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In 1904 the total revenues applied to roads outside of cities
amounted to $2,871,222.47, of which $2,295,616.48 was spent by the
towns and $575,605.99 by the State, thus showing an increase in this
10-year period of $3,220,652.83, or 112.2 per cent. The town reve-
nues applied to roads and bridges, outside of cities, in 1914, are shown
by counties and towns in Table 10. City revenues applied to city
streets, in 1914, are shown in Table 11.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds and notes outstanding cn January
1, 1915, amounted to $10,305,522.82, of which $8,699,500 were issued
by the State and $1,606,022.82 by the towns. State bonds issued
between 1894 and 1904 were sinking-fund bonds maturing 26 to 30
years from date of issue. All State bonds issued since 1904 are
deferred serial, with the first payment falling due from 3 to 11 years
from date of issue, and the last payment from 9 to 30 years from date
of issue. All State bonds bear from 3 to 34 per cent interest.

Of the money derived from town bonds and notes, there was ~
expended in 1914 a total of $440,639.50, and notes amounting to
$328,999.33 were retired by the towns in the same year. New notes
were issued by the towns to the amount of $511,437.25. Most of
these are serial in character and are paid off in equal annual amounts
between the first and fifth years from date of issue, although some
are to be paid in less than a year, while the last payment on others
extends to the twentieth and thirtieth years. ‘Town bonds issued in
1914 bear from 3 to 6 per cent interest, depending upon date of
maturity.

Information in regard to State highway bonds is presented in
Table 14. Town road and bridge bond information is contained in
Table 15.

ROAD MILEAGE.

Information furnished by the Massachusetts highway commission
indicates that at the close of the year 1914 Massachusetts had, out-
side of incorporated cities, 18,681.4 miles of public road, of which
8,505.89 miles, or 45.53 per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced
roads, 834.30 miles were macadam, 1,337.33 bituminous macadam,
6,289.57 gravel, and 44.69 of various types. The cities had 4,349.44
miles of streets, of which 3,812.26 miles, or 86.76 per cent, were sur-
faced as follows: 1,464.61 miles gravel, 1,183.85 plain macadam, 430.06
bituminous macadam, and 404.25 of various classes.

According to the information furnished for 1909, Massachusetts
had 17,272 miles of public roads outside of cities, of which 8,463.18
miles, or 49 per cent, were surfaced, thus indicating a gain in the
5-year period of only 45.53 miles in surfaced road. This small
gain probably is due to the fact that im some cases improved or

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 19

surfaced city streets may have been included as county roads in 1909
and that city streets were, in some cases, excluded from the total
mileage.

Information showing the total mileage and the mileage of surfaced
roads outside of cities at the close of 1914 is shown by counties and

towns in Table 19.
RHODE ISLAND.

By Peter J. Lannon, Collaborator.

Rhode Island is the smallest and one of the most densely populated
States in the Union. It has a land area of 1,067 square miles, a total
road mileage of 2,169.70, and a population, according to the 1910
census, of 542,610. The State, therefore, has a population of 508.5
per square mile of area and 250 per mile of road, with 2.03 miles of
road per square mile of area. Of the 1910 population, 3.3 per cent
or 17,956 was rural, thus indicating a rural population of 8.28 per
mile of road. The State is not well provided with good road materials.
A magnetic iron ore ranks as the best and granitic rock and trap are
next in value. Puddingstone and conglomerate and gravel form a
fair material for road use.

THE STATE ROAD SYSTEM.

The present board of public roads created in 1902 was the out-
growth of the joint committee appointed in 1892 and the highway
commissioner appointed in 1896 and abolished in 1902. The board
consists of 5 members appointed by the governor and serving 5 years
each. They have charge of the construction and maintenance of all
State roads and of the bridges on these roads. Seven hundred miles
have been selected as the State roads, but only 325 miles are legally
under State control. The roads become State roads only when they
have been improved or reconstructed by the State board. The State
bridges are repaired and reconstructed by the board and the cost
paid by them in the first place and then a proportion of the cost
charged against the cities or towns in which the bridge lies, but the
State is obliged to pay 50 per cent of this cost. Public utility com-
panies using the bridges also are assessed for a portion of the cost.

In addition to the 325 miles of State road there are 1,844 miles of
local roads. Of the State roads, 89 miles are bituminous macadam
and the rest surface-treated waterbound macadam.

All construction is done by contract and the State maintains water-
bound macadam by the patrol system and a yearly oiling. Bitumi-
nous macadam is maintained by section gangs. Convicts are not
used.

The State board derives its revenue from appropriations, bond
issues, and the automobile fines and fees, From 1903 to 1914 there

20 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

was expended under the State board of public roads a total of
$3,641,032.83 for construction, repair, and maintenance of State and
State-aid roads. There is no direct tax for State roads.

STATE AID.

Whenever a town makes an appropriation equal to or more than
20 cents on the $100 valuation and directs that the money shall be
spent under the direction of the State board, it shall be entitled,
according to the law of 1910, to State money aid equal to one-fifth
of the money appropriated by the town.

THE LOCAL ADMINISTRATION.

The administration of local roads, other than State roads, is vested
in the towns or cities themselves. There is no county administration.
There is no direct tax. The money for roads and bridges is spent
from the general fund. The taxpayers make an appropriation for
roads and bridges and this is spent by the road commissioner or
highway committees, either elected by the people or appointed by -
the town council, or the towns are divided into road districts and a
commissioner is appointed for each district by the town council. In
some towns the members of the town council are the highway com-
missioners and take care of their own districts.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES, 1914.

In 1914 the total revenues applied to roads and bridges amounted
to $446,496.05, of which the State funds amounted to $202,496.05,
and the town funds $244,000. Of the State funds, $5,000 was for
office and traveling expenses of the State board of public roads,
$168,981.56 derived from automobile registrations and other sources
was for the mamtenance and repair of State roads, $4,920.71, balance
on hand, expended for construction of State highways, and $23,593.79
for bridge construction and repair.

The total revenues applied to roads in 1904 amounted to $405,010.85,
thus showing an increase for the 10-year period of $41,485.20, or
10.2 per cent. Of the total revenues applied to roads in 1904 the
town revenues amounted to $297,414.71 and the State revenues to
$107,596.14.

Information in regard to town revenues devoted to roads and
bridges in 1914 is shown in Table 12.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

No bonds have been issued by counties or towns, but the State has
issued $1,800,000 of bonds for the purpose of building State roads,
$600,000 having been authorized in each of the years 1906, 1909, and
1912. These are sinking-fund bonds issued for 30 years and bear
interest at the rate of 3, 34, and 4 per cent, respectively.

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN. NEW ENGLAND STATES. 21
ROAD MILEAGE, 1914.

According to reports received from the towns, Rhode Island, at
the close of 1914, had 2,169.70 miles of public road, of which 693.42
miles, or 31.95 per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads 352.92
miles were macadam, 107.40 bituminous macadam, 230.10 gravel,
and 3 miles granite block. According to the 1909 report, the State
had 2,120.75 miles of public roads, of which 1,042.07 miles, or 49.14
per cent were surfaced, a decrease in surfaced mileage for the 5-year
period of 348.65 miles. This apparent decrease probably is due to
overestimates in 1909.

Information in regard to road mileage for each town in the State
is shown in Table 20.

_ CONNECTICUT.
By ©. G. Nicuous, Collaborator and Chief Clerk, Connecticut Highway Department.

Connecticut has a land area of 4,820 square miles, a total road
mileage of 14,060.82, and a population, according to the 1910 census,
of 1,114,756. Thereis a population of 231.3 per square mile of area,
and 79.28 per mile of road, with 2.92 miles of road per square mile of
area. Of the population in 1910, 10.3 per cent, or 114,917, was rural,
or 8.17 per mile of road. ‘

The State has 8 counties, 157 towns (or townships), 10 cities, and 1
borough. Within the boundaries of 33 of the towns there are 9
additional cities and 24 boroughs. In these latter cases, however,
the city or borough and the town lines are not coincident, but are
really incorporated communities separate and distinct from the town
government. From this system of creating such communities
within towns comes the expression ‘‘ New England’s borough system,”
which affords certain complications in the apportioning of money for
road and bridge purposes. The plan adopted generally in these cases
is for the town, through its proper officials, to apportion to the city or
borough a certain sum for construction and maintenance of roads
within the borough limits.

ROAD ADMINISTRATION.

There are three county commissioners in each county. If any
town neglects or refuses to maintain roads properly, petition may be
filed with the county commissioners, who, after a hearing, may order
the town to make necessary repairs. The town failing, the com-
missioners may have the work done and charge the expense to the
town. All road matters in towns are under the jurisdiction of the
board of selectmen, usually three in number, unless the town has
placed the control of highways in the hands of a superintendent of
streets, a highway commissioner, or similar official. The larger towns
are gradually adopting the “‘centralized authority” feature of road

92 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

work, with the result that in several instances road matters have been
removed from the hands of the selectmen.

Generally the towns do not levy a special road tax. At the town
meeting, in most cases held the first Monday in October each year,
a budget tax for all town purposes is levied. Part of the income
from this tax is applied to roads. In a few of the larger towns there
are boards of finance, the members of which attend to all matters of
taxation, the apportioning of money, etc.

Until 1895 the State made no definite effort to control or assist in
the work of road construction or maintenance. The General Assem-
bly of 1895 created a highway commission of three members, and
enacted the first State-aid law. The first appropriation by the
State was $75,000. This law provided that the cost of improvement
of roads should be on the basis of one-third each by State, county,
and town. The legislature of 1897 abolished the triple-headed
commission and created the office of State highway commissioner.
The counties were removed as a contributing factor, and the cost of
improvements was to be paid one-half each by town and State.
From year to year changes were made in the law and at present the
basis of payment is as follows: In towns having a grand list of
$1,250,000 or more the State contributes three-fourths of the cost;
in towns having a grand list of less than $1,250,000, the State’s pro
rata is seven-eighths. The maximum amount allotted to any town
in any one year, under the law has been $15,000. The grand list is
the total assessed valuation as fixed by the State board of equaliza-
tion.

The first appropriation for the improvement of trunk-line high-
ways was made in 1905. The trunk-line highways always have been
built and maintained exclusively by State funds. To assist the
highway department in this work, all money received from the regis-
tration of motor vehicles, fines, etc., is placed to the credit of the
department; and, in addition, a specific appropriation for this pur-
pose has been made by each legislature.

Prior to 1907, the State had no jurisdiction over the maintenance
or repair of roads constructed under State aid. That year, however,
full jurisdiction was given to the State highway department. The
law provided that, irrespective of the amount of grand list, all towns
should pay one-fourth of the cost of maintenance of State-aid roads
within their limits.

The practice of “‘working out taxes” is virtually obsolete. In
some of the very small towns the system is followed, but the aggre-
gate amount of this item is so small as to be practically negligible.
Poll taxes, now known in this State as the personal tax, are payable
in cash.

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 23

The maintenance of all roads constructed by the State, both on
trunk-line and State-aid highways, is in direct charge ofthe State
highway commission. The actual work is looked after by a super-
intendent of repairs. The State is divided into nine districts for the
purpose of maintenance, each of which is in charge of a supervisor of
repairs. All of the State roads are under the “patrol system,” the
various workmen being under foremen, who report directly to the
supervisors. The supervisors, the foremen, and a sufficient num-
ber of workmen to maintain the roads properly are employed during
the entire year, constant attention being given to the roads at all
seasons.

The State highway department purchases its own equipment, and
during the past year has installed an automobile brigade. This has
been a direct advantage both in cost of maintenance of roads and
ability to cover a much larger area, as compared with horse-drawn
vehicles. In the maintenance of their own roads, the selectmen of
towns purchase their own equipment without siemens to the State
highway department.

By an act of the legislature in 1915, all bridges having a span of
25 feet or greater, on the trunk-line highways (with the exception
hereinafter noted), were placed under the jurisdiction of the State
highway department. Bridges over railroad or street-railway lines
and bridges in towns having a population of 10,000 or more are not
included; nor are bridges built or maintained under a special act
of the legislature. Where any such bridge hes in a town, the cost
is borne half each by the State and such town; where the bridge is
between two towns or counties, the State pays one-half and the
towns or counties one-fourth each. If there is a street railway line
across such bridge, the town, towns, or counties pay one-third, the
State one-third, and the street-railway company one-third. Much
work already has been done under this law.

While the legislature from year to year has authorized bond
issues, and these bonds have been sold, the revenue therefrom has
been placed in the general account and has not been set apart dis-
tinctively as road-improvement funds. These bonds, therefore, can
not be denominated road bonds. Money authorized for road con-
struction and maintenance is placed to the credit of the State high-
way department from money not otherwise appropriated.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS, FISCAL YEAR 1914-15.

The total revenues applied to roads in the fiscal year ended Sep-
tember 30, 1915, amounted to $3,640,962.75, and comprised the fol-
lowing items: for construction of 84.91 miles of trunk-line roads,
paid entirely by the State, $869,627.40; for 78.16 miles of State-aid
road, for which the State paid three-fourths to seven-eighths of the

24 BULLETIN 388, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cost, $635,384.57; for maintenance of 895.7 miles of trunk-line roads,
$584,762.73; for maintenance of 490.37 miles of State-aid roads,
$166,150.67; for engineering and inspection on trunk-line and State-
aid roads, $94,065.93; overhead expenses for maintenance, $78,190.87;
for construction and maintenance of town roads, $1,059,511.05; for
construction and maintenance of town bridges, $153,269.53. The
last two items were for the calendar year 1914.

In 1904 there was expended for roads and bridges $1,195,125, of
which $975,960 was expended by the towns on town roads and
$219,165 by the State on State-aid roads. It thus appears that from
1905 to 1914, the revenues applied to roads increased $2,445,837.75,
or 204.6 per cent. The revenues applied to town roads and bridges
in the fiscal year 1914-15 are shown in Table 13.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

No town bonds have been issued for road purposes, but the State
issued, between 1907 and 1913, inclusive, $7,000,000 of State bonds,
a large portion of which were used for paying the State’s share of
the cost’of constructing. State highways. These bonds bear 34 to 4 —
per cent interest and are retired by appropriation from the general
State funds under the deferred serial plan, at the rate of from $120,000
to $205,000 annually. The last payment must be made by 1925, but
the State treasurer is authorized to redeem them whenever and in
such a manner as he deems to be for the best interest of the State.

ROAD MILEAGE OUTSIDE OF CITIES, 1914.

At the close of 1914 Connecticut had, according to reports re-
ceived from the towns, 14,060.82 miles of public roads, of which
2,975.45 miles, or 21.16 per cent, were surfaced. Or the surfaced
roads, 923.42 miles were macadam, 128.28 miles bituminous macadam,
1,057.93 miles gravel, 840.27 miles sand-clay, 1.33 miles brick, and
24.22 miles concrete. There were also 2,219.23 miles of earth roads
reported as graded and drained.

The reports for 1909 indicate that there were 12,583 miles of public
road, of which 2,654.27 miles, or 21.09 per cent, were surfaced, a gain
for the 5-year period of 321.18 miles» The small increase in percent-
age of surfaced roads is due to the fact that the total mileage re-
ported for 1914 exceeds the total reported for 1909 by 1,477.82
miles. ,

Information regarding road mileage is presented by counties and
towns in Table 21.

APPENDIX A.

TABLES SHOWING ROAD AND BRIDGE REVENUES.

Following are the tables showing the local road revenues expended in the respec-
tive States comprising the New England group, referred to in the foregoing text:

MAINE.

TABLE 7.—Town revenues applied to town roads and bridges, 1914.

+ Taxrate| Amounts || 2 Tax rate | Amounts
County and town. per $l. | obtained. | County and town. per $1. | obtained.
1 elas
|
Androscoggin: | Aroostook—Continued.
Durham.....---...--..-) 30.0057 $2, 250. 00 | Mernillialicess22) <= 22. $0. 0069 $1, 000. 00
East Livermore.........| .0022 4,000. 00 Molumkuiseee as 355-225 e= . 0048 565. 92
(GinSCG io Sees cicneasoesee . 0078 3, 050. 00 Monticello.......-.-.--- - 0057 2,700. 00
Weld Sy wees ja) sasiee once . 0044 1,500. 00 MOLO)y2 cososs552-'2---s - 0149 1,100. 00
MEISHOME eset eee ee . 0015 4,000. 00 Nashville Place......... - 006 598. 49
Livermore.....--.---.--- - 0055 2, 500. 00 New Canada Place.....- 014 1,000. 00
Mechanic Falls......... . 0018 1, 500. 00 New Limerick.......--- - 0048 800. 00
MOOT Socrates dose) . 0047 1,800. 00 New Sweden........--- . 0049 2,000. 00
RONG esse sete = sae 0033, 3, 400. 00 Oakiield epee esac se . 0093 1, 500. 00
PRUITTCT Etat (ores lee sae oe 0052 5, 000. 00 Orient eae scess- 5-8 -O111 1,000. 00
Winlesis eeisscce tokens. 0045 1,150. 00 Oxbow Place.....--.--- . 0052 521. 43
KViebStenpene-suaen nou. o 0045 2,700. 00 Perham see as 2.2 - 0057 1, 600. 00
Portage Lake Place.... . 00226 400. 00
Rovaloeereee ae se sac! 3e eset 32, 850. 00 Presque Isle..-... oeieen . 0049 13, 500. 00
= Reed Place....-.-.---.- . 00453 618. 70
Aroostook: Sippagatharss= 42-2 955-- 0124 2,030. 00
JUDE ES (a appear eeee | 0046 1, 225. 00 St. Francis Place..-..---. . 00405 1, 000. 00
PASTING yee iia 2s cies . 0102 1, 000. 00 Siewonn Places. ==. - 5 =- «00257 200. 00
PAS angie ose 2 . 0049 3,300. 00 Shermanisestes-2- 522255 . 0078 3, 500. 00
IBANGrOIt ee 2 ee st . 0975 500. 00 Silver Ridge Place...... 00726 300. 00
Bennedicta........----- . 0069 709. 00 Sihy RNa peso es se - 007 1, 600. 00
AIO Pepi aes. = Pe sx 0056 2,040. 00 Stockholm Place......-- - 00217 1,075. 00
Bridgewater........---- - 00507 2,500. 00 Van Buren-......-.---- . 00357 3, 500. 00
Caribou. set - 0034 10, 000. 00 Wade Place........-.-- - 00524 900. 00
Plantation -......- - 019 800. 00 Wallagrass Place....-.- - 0139 1,509. 00
astlepEnle es. ose... 4: . 0095 1, 500. 00 Washburn:232..--.-2:-- - 0063 3, 000. 00
Caswell Place.....-...-- . 0075 500. 00 Wiestiielditins 20222. .5 . 00758 2,650. 00
Chapmianiiee -- 2 cee . 099 1, 150, 00 Westmanland Place....} .0037 452. 80
Connor Place.......-..- 0135 1,150, 00 Wieston==aperss 80 jcc 2 0233 2,000. 00
@nystaleeeaee nes hos: 0044 800. 00 Winterville Place....-... 0056 433. 62
Cyt Places... 2 ee O11 900. 00 Woodland..........--.- 0056 2,000. 00
Dyer Brook.....-..---- 0067 1, 000. 00 Wettenwsne ey ee eet 0047 274.50
HMBIACOU SE eee oe cic ence 00479 365. 81 No. 1—R. 4..._..---.-.- 0051 400. 00
Eagle Lake Place. ...-..-. 0044 1, 200. 00 Now Ris bemees ioe 0052 677.40
Sion a 0029 1, 808. 00 INDY (ls Os eee aeaaeene 0037 457. 46
Forkstown....-.---.-.- . 0026 302. 36 No. 8—R. 5.-....---.--- . 0041 576. 92
Fort Fairfield..........:| 0032 10, 000. 00 NONSR Spee ena .O111 1,160. 51
UNG Gil ie CopEeeeee aes - 0064» 4,000.00 || * No.11—R.4.-...-. eeee - 0038 405. 78
Frenchville..........--- 0078 1,500. 00 |! No. 17—R.. 50... 2-222 4 0063 435. 26
Garfield Place........-.- 0027 325. 88 || No? 14-168. 2 2 55-- 0044 440. 80
Glenwood Place.....-.- 0045 400. 00 Now 15 IRE 65-252. - 22 0027 302. 56
Grand Isle..........--.-- . 007 1,300. 00 Now 16—R. 42... 2222.25: . 0045 504. 94
Heuilin ae eee | ae O0a04 500. a0 No. 17—R. 4-.....-.-.-- ~ . 0038 278. 96
ammon ACC ere - 00313 414, 88 SS
Eiaynesville Be ee cies: | .0092 i Go. 00 INOiMlon c2sceeesebeasee Paeasesoee 149, 452. 98
OESOVge iat es Ses necee . 0093 . 00

lod sdomeen.-2 = --2 2s... . 0087 3,000.00 |) Cumberland:
owl toneepes-- 0 Sac5 |; .0035 13, 000. 00 Baldwin.22.. 2-2 -.----- . 0034 1, 200. 00
Island Falls............ 002 900. 00 Bridgtoneaes == --5----- - 003 5, 000. 00
Limestone............-- . 0039 3, 250. 00 Brunswick......-.-.--- - 002 11, 000. 00
Winnewsmsees |. 2. oo... . 0069 2, 000. 00 Cape Elizabeth........- . 0045 7, 400. 00
MeapbletOMMe - s a. 0052 2,500. 00 WaSCORs api. sence 0037 1,100. 00
ISG Opes eon ee oaaeee . 0109 1, 400. 00 Cumberland...........- . 0022 2, 500. 00
Macwahoce Place........ . 00456 300, 00 Halmouth) =. --2-- 22) - . 0021 3, 700. 00
Madawaska...........-- . 0033 1, 400. 00 Freeport...............- - 002 3, 000. 00
Mapleton.............-. 0059 2,500. 00 Gorham ges.) -2-sce ee 0035 7, 500. 00
Wensishi) Ease ee ae 0063 5, 000. 00 Gi aye ee ee 0042 2,300. 00
iNarsad issue iene ee 1 0049 1,000. 00 Harpswell teres ae 0042 4, 200. 00

25

26

BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

MAINE—Continued.

TABLE 7.—Town revenues applied to town roads and bridges, 1914—Continued.

Tax rate| Amounts | Tax rate | Amounts
County and town. per $1. obtained. | County and town. per $1. | obtained.
|
Cumberland—Continued. Hancock—Continued.
IELATTGISONSee eee eee $0. 9045 $2, 440. 00 Sullivaneee seen sees $0. 0033 $1, 300.00
INaplesic = Shieeeee ere: . 0058 1, 750.00 STAY Spas Stas seen ece sae - 0042 800. 00
New Gloucester.......-- . 0027 3, 000. 00 Swans Island........--. - 0053 900.00
North Yarmouth....--- . 0034 1, 100.00 Tremont. 22. teee see - 0036 1, 050. 00
Otisfieldo see see 0045 1, 250. 00 Prentone = a -pees- ese eee - 0049 700. 00
OWA se nemee Meee . 0034 900. 00 Nero): 222 ee see ence . 0097 700. 00
Ravin onde meee ae . 0071 1, 900.00 Waltham ..............- - 0064 520.00
Scar borOles seas eee ae . 0032 5, 500. 00 Winter Harbor...-....- - 0019 1, 000. 00
Sebago . 0065 1, 800. 00 No. 4 (middle division)
Standish - 0026 3, 300. 00 Place ees efyhie Cea eS See cl eemsaciee oes
Windham 0035 4, 550. 00 No. 7 (south division). . 0014 64.59
Yarmouth . 0014 2. 250.00 No. 8 (south division)
Place a= tes ease eee - 0042 102.47
otal se Py ee eso Sele ae ae 78, 640. 00 : > 116.40
313.82
Franklin 125.00
AVON Aas peepee. . 0046 900. 00 154.37
Coplin Place.....-.-..--. 0054 600. 00 88.16
Carthage ee ease - 0065 1, 150.00 50.00
Crockerton....-.....--- . 0093 904.00
Chester ville.........---- . 0096 2, 200. 00 61, 689.81
. 00302 300. 00
- 003 1, 100. 00
- 0034 207.50 - 0038 1, 500. 00
- 0039 8, 000. 00 . 008 3, 200. 00
- 9094 1, 200.00 3 2, 500. 00
- 0115 1, 500.00 0 1, 700. 00
. 0028 6. 000. 00 . 007: 4,500.00
0122 1, 049.30 : 2, 000. 00
iain fel cle 0019 800.00 Farminegdale...........- 0031 2, 100.00
Lang Place..........--- .0018 200. 00 Hayettessnwocss-ccesicce . 0053 1, 200.00
Madrid ere seas acsen: 0104 1,300.00 Litchfield {2222-25 *- . 0031 1, 200.00
New Sharon...........- - 0049 2, 000. 00 Manchester........----- . 0040 1, 200.00
New Vinevard........-- . 0094 2, 000. 00 Monmouth..-...--....-- 0045 3,500.00
let pianbeen ee peo aeoeSer .017 344.00 Mount Vernon.......--- . 0052 1, 750.90
loiquillteesssooeadacueces . 0037 2, 700. 00 Op denael,ococscassooae- . 003 3, 500. 00
Rangeley 2! 22555. 32.2! . 60202 2.300. 00 Pittston ees eee ae se 0081 3, 500. 00
Rangeley Place.....--.. . 0018 700. 00 Randolphieseses eee 004 1, 250. 00
Salome: ae oo ee - 00637 450.00 Readfield........-.-...- . 0034 1, 800.00
Sandy River Place. . 0065 1, 100. 00 ROMO foes Aone se 0043 800.00
SUrOn ps ese ete . 00607 2, 000. 00 Sidney. saPee Ata Se. - 0048 2, 100. 00
Memp lessee ede Nee 00656 1, 000. 00 Unity Places... 32-4---- . 0056 125.00
Washington...........- 0184 114.60 Vassalboro.......-.--.- - 0033 4, 000. 00
IVC Ls Ss he Soe - 0076 2,090.00 WAT cliG epee ogee Ss ae ee . 0070 1, 000.00
Wal: GoM ees es . 0054 §, 000. 00 Wayne ee see eee eel - 0051 1, 300.09
Wiymall see - 0103 641.00 West Gardiner......_._- . 0028 1. 000. 00
No. 6 (north of Weld). - - 006 550. 00 WAIN dS Or sh ose ee cee . 0073 2,000. 00
IWains lO WaPeee eee eee . 0024 6, 000. 00
Mo tales eee asc eons 51,310.40 Wanthropeeeseeepeeeree . 0036 5, 500. 00
Hancock: Total yes ee hecins| Pee oeee ee 60, 225. 00
Amherst eeeeee eee oscee - 0042 350.00
Aurora.....-..-.- gos05¢ - 0056 300.00 || Knox:
Isher ow ook dacosose - 0044 3, 000. 00 Appletoneases- see ener 0114 2, 900. 00
Brookins eee eee - 0043 1, 000. 00 amden woe eas . 0023 6, 250. 00
Brooksville - 0039 1, 200. 00 Criehaven Place........ | pedis ee S| dee
Bucksport --| . 0061 5, 500. 00 Cushing? eee eee ee . 0051 700. 00
Castinesssserereeeeeeeee -0016 1, 000. 00 Friendship........--.-- . 0034 1,000. 00
Cranberry Isles......-.- - 0022 500. 00 HOp6. 352 39b ons one . 0023 500. 00
Dedham se eeeee eens .007 800.00 Hurricane Isle! esse oe ee sees nee
Deer Isle geese 8 ss. . 0033 1, 500. 00 Matinicus Place. ....... lace Gee bral ae eee
Eastbrook.............- -0040 300. 00 North Haven........-.- . 0018 800. 00
TOs Wee Moaeey senate 0025 18, 250.00 | IRG@UGNOAE-coscasscocnae . 0022 3, 000. 90
Hranklimiee net eecciecce 0053 1. 800. 00 St. George..-........-.- . 0043 2,177. 00
Gouldsboro....-......-.- 0051 2, 250. 00 South Thomaston... .... . 0038 1, 800. 00
ian cockseeseee ee eee - 0056 2,000. 00 Thomaston............- | . 0023 2, 800. 00
Isle Au Haut ......-.-.. - 005 600. 00 Winion\- pee eoe. Seema se . 0072 4, 000. 00
Wamoiness eee sence ee - 0029 550. 00 | Wanalhaventesese eee - 0028 2,500. 00
WMongulsland pila ceser ee. eases |e eee eee Warren. Aenea: eeeeae: | 0042 3, 600. 00
Mania oper eee eeeeeeee - 009 600. 00 Washington. .........-. 0059 1, 600. 00
Mount Desert........... . 0022 5, 000. 00
Onland eee eee eee 0051 1, 500. 00 Totals Ret shes sess Rees eee 33, 627. 00
OMS teste cate . 0039 200.00 —
Penobscot .......-- - 006 1, 500.00 || Lincoln:
Sed swickseeee nce seen 0051 1, 205.00 ONT Ne Ba Seiercicie . 0055 1, 000. 00
HOLLEN TOS seer eeeee eee 0042 800. 00 Boothbay. ..........--- . 005 3, 800. 00
Southwest Harbor...... -0021 1, 000. 00 Boothbay Harbor. ....- - 0028 3, 500. 00
Stoningtom. ...-22222.- - 0017 1, 000.00 ! IBYEMON'-\\e sce e eee - 0062 965. 00

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 27

MAINE—Continued.

.

TABLE 7.—Town revenues applied to town roads and bridges, 1914—Continued.

Tax rate | Amounts Tax rate | Amounts
County anditown. per $1. | obtained. County and town. per $1. | obtained.
Lincoln—Continued. Penobscot—Continued.
IBSTISLO eS. ois acinar in = $0. 0034 $04, 000. 00 ! $7, 500. 00
Damariscotta.....-...-- - 0039 1, 980. 00 ‘ 2,350. 00
Mresdenlssss- 25552 se 05- - 0051 1, 750. 00 500. 00
Edgecomb.......--.---- - 0057 1, 200. 00 | East Millinocket........ . 0029 2,000. 00
Wetersones tess acence - 0030 1, 350. 00 Edinbury....----.-.-.--- . 0032 150. 00
Monhegan Place.....---. . 0012 100. 00 Eddington.............. . 00612 1, 200. 00
Neweastle........--.--- - 0041 2, 800. 00 ndfield eee aes . 0042 1, 500. 00
Nobleboro........------ - 0049 1,300. 00 ID Hae ea ae ees 0086 1, 300. 00
Somerville...........--- - 0125 800. 00 BIRO LET ceeeieseyare wie cao 0046 1, 500. 00
Southport.....-.--....- - 0027 1, 500. 005 Garland) 2.22. %..-/2--- 00825 2, 500. 00
Waldoboro.......------ . 0046 5, 200. 00 Glenburn............-.-- . 0027 500. 00
IWieStDODG ee ee os25 22 <i: - 0045 650. 00 Grand Falls Place. ...-. . 003 268. 31
Whitefield............-- . 0041 1,900. 00 Greenbush.........----- . 00729 800. 00
Wiscasset....-...------- - 0031 2,050. 00 Greenfield ..........-.- . 0074 400. 00
rie alec . 00434 3, 500. 00
MM Ota er esi eas sasiaie =| ao see minty 35, 845. 00 | 0052 2, 450. 00
| 0049 900. 00
Oxford 00407 1, 200. 00
PAN Danly ase == Se . 0091 1, 500. 00 0038 3, 500. 00
BANG OWEN =e res cisiaiee Se . 0034 1, 200. 00 . 0064 850. 00
Andover— Kenduskeag......-...-- . 0052 1,000. 00
North surplus...... . 0059 554. 88 Kin oman ee eee eee . 00218 350. 00
West surplus. ...-.-. - 0045 176. 45 Raprange oa. se-. hts. < . 0025 800. 00
Bethel....-.-. Soesosaee se - 0048 5, 000. 00 Lakeville Place...-..... . 0026 400. 00
Brownfield 0041 1, 500. 00 16) ee Cape erias Deeiee 0071 1,000. 00
Buckfield 0031 1, 500. 00 Hee viant Memes oe Oe 0079 2,000. 00
Byron 0091 1, 100. 00 HnCO lM Nea ah 2 0029 2, 500. 00
Letter C 0022 951. 83 MEOW CIE oe Be eee . 003) 400. 00
C surplus . 0003 50. 00 Mattamiscontis.......-- . 006 169. 60
Canton . 0058 2,000. 00 Mattawamkeag........- . 004 650. 00
Denmark. - . 0035 1, 500. 00 Maxfield yay se ase . 0074 300. 00
Dixfield . 0043 2, 500. 00 Medway... . 0095 1, 000. 00
Fryeburg. - 0026 2, 500. 00 Milford ees 5. oe . 00209 2,000. 00
Gilead 0036 500. 00 ||” Millinockett 00222 3, 500. 00
Grafton 0058 1, 000. 00 Mount Chase......-.-.- 024 2,000. 03
Greenwood 0072 1, 500. 00 New burgess.) Teese: 00425 1, 200. 00
Hanover . 0031 300. 00 Oxon eee Ae send 00159 2,100. 00
Hartford - 0073 2,000. 00 Oxringtoneee ease eeeeee . 0055 2, 500. 00
Hebron . 0047 1, 200. 00 Passadumkeag.........- . 00357 400. 00
Hiram 0034 1, 500. 00 Patten seas eS. . 00349 2,500. 00
Lincoln Place 0011 500. 00 ply outheesse-aeeeee ee . 0083 1, 700. 00
Lovell - 0056 2, 900. 00 IPPOMTASS ass ose eee . 00713 900. 00
Magalloway Place....-- - 0054 1, 500. 00 Seboeis Place...--...... . 0017 171. 44
WESU Is oo coo en eae ee - 0034 300. 00 Springfield. ........-.-. . 0053 900. 00
IMexICOs ss) S280 5-2 . 0031 2, 200. 00 Stacyville Place........ . 008 1,000. 00
Milton Place..........-- . 0066 500. 00 Stetson . 00758 1, 500. 00
INGWibYe sees sce sins. S - 0028 800. 00 Summit. .’. . 0035 272. 59
ING WEN oc OoeEeonne see . 0028 4,000. 00 \WGRYATENEs Bad ae Seen eee . 0023 775. 00
Oxford pease ose . 0045 2, 500. 00 Webster . 006 250. 00
IPATIS eee erajauews ee’ ier . 0025 4, 000. 00 \Niabob ee oe ae eee . 00303 600. 00
TESA 27 as eee - 0095 2,800. 00 Woodville.............. . 0069 600. 00
POMnber ask asso S222 == - 0038 1,000. 00 ILHIGIPUNG IR Use sceroaee . 0028 264. 37
LO ac Oo Bee ceReeeE . 0009 157. 40 INOW Ritie se aise ese . 0016 213. 66
FUOK DULY eee cee a2 - 0057 1,000. 00 INO 2— RAG ie ie eles 8 oe . 007 115. 41
IRipoTbiOKl cesecccoseuos . 0021 10, 000. 00 INOH O18 (wae a eee 0008 118. 08
Stoneham. .-.-2--:.--.- . 0035 400. 00 <
OWner eee sais ee . 0046 600. 00 HNO he saa a epee ae cece ae ae 84, 895. 46
SUMMe reese see . 0087 2, 800. 00
PAWCOIG EE AOE Gaeae cee ee . 0033 550. 00 || Piscataquis:
Wiptonssencisssetisi sc e- 0055 850. 00 || Abbott . 0055 1, 200. 00
Waterford..........-.-- 0068 2,500. 00 || Atkinson . 0099 1, 750. 00
Woodstock........--.--- 0061 1, 800. 00 || Barnard . 00576 294. 51
Blanchard . 00355 400. 00
HOI occas ees cess tas Beaaeneea se 73, 690. 56 Bowerbank Place . 00132 150. 00
— Brownville . 00416 2, 450. 00
Penobscot: Dover . 00452 5, 000. 00
PATCOM Se Seist S225 2555.- - 00547 500. 00 Elliotsville Place. ...... . 0028 399. 70
PAT DOES wee Seen ee . 00442 300. 00 Hoxeroft*eses- case sccce . 0051 5, 250. 00
Bradford.....-..------- . 00418 1, 200. 00 Greenville.............. - 00234 1, 500. 00
iBU oc Goose see oeeese 0011 250. 00 Guilford eens oe | 00253 2,000. 00
Burlington....---.----- . 0019 350. 00 Kingsbury Place. ..-.-.| 0125 1, 200. 00
. 00378 1, 200. 00 Lake View Place....... | 0006 114. 26
- 0069 1, 000. 00 Lily Bay Place......... | .0025 450. 00
- 0086 2, 700. 00 Medford...............- | .00587 800. 00
. 0061 500. 00 it] OW See RS See ae - 0029 3, 850. 09
. 0062 400. 00 iMonsonietfeeee sen soles . 00568 2, 000. 00
. 0067 3, 477. 00 Qrneville...-........... . 00555 700. 00
. 00405 2,000. 00 Parkman............... - 00856 2, 000. 00

28

BULLETIN 388, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

MAINE—Continued.

TABLE 7.—Town revenues applied to town roads and bridges, 1914—C ontinued.

County and town. nee ae eumicunts County and town.
Piscataquis—Continucd. Waldo—Continucd.
Sangerville...--......-- $0. 00535 $3, 000. 00 Islesboro......-..-------
Sehecs ewes sec. ces . 007 1, 500. 00 Jacksons? ee Teak:
Shirleysteee. - 262.255: | 00806 1, 000. 00 Gay eye Bo a5 a ee ae
Wellington. ...........- 0136 2,000. 00 Api Wert va ee oe
Williamsburg........-.-. . 00702 400. 00 Lincolnville............ |
Willimantic......-...-- - 0056 550. 00 OUROO seen arne ss eee
——— Montville...........-.--
ANG fell eR) hcl canal Peep ee: 39, 958. 47 Morrill 2h 219) 2
d = Palermo seer eens sea |
Sagadahoc: : ¢ Northporte: 2222222422 -
ATTOWSI CHEE ee ana | .0045 275. 00 IBTOSPECUS eee ee ene eee
iBowdoineeeae sere . 006- 1, 980. 00 Searsmont...:....-.----
Bowdoinham...-.-...-- . 00232 1,300. 00 Searsporta sees: sees
Georgetown. .........-- . 00292 950. 00 Stockton Springs. -....-.
Perkins3= S324 seo 2 | . 0014 50. 00 Swanville..............-
Phippsburg.............| .00592 2, 600. 00 Thorndike............--
Richmond.....__.....-- . 00225 2, 300. 00 TR Ov eet aes
Topsham. 724:-..-.:--.- . 0051 8, 000. 00 Unity eee nec ees
Wiest Bathe ae 4-255 . 0067 1, 400. 00 Wield ORE iReseastens 2
NWhoolwacheece.--2--5-6 - 0053 1, 800. 00 Winterport.............
Totals aes 3 Soe aes we ae ee 20, 655. 00 Motalsawes: cies ees
Somerset: Washington:
UATISON Se pa seen ane . 00369 3, 000. 00 PAC GLIS Oat ae eee
HN) OXS) OS 54 Ue es Oe Ae . 00622 2,000. 00 Alexander............--
Bald Mountain........- . 0007 110. 01 Baileyville..........-.--
Bigelow MiGs ee eae . 00614 479. 36 Boring..... pen UN a eR
(Bin hana sae . 00409 2,000. 00 Beddington...........--
Brighton........-...--- . 0158 1, 600. 00 Brookton...........----
Cambridge... . 0088 T, 200. 00 Centerville..........-..-
Canaan eee ee . 0046 1,500. 00 || Charloticn = =
Carratunk . 00536 700. 00 || Cherryfield...........-.
Carrying Place.........- . 00125 154.10 || Codyville Place...-.....
Concord: 2 a ae - 00936 900. 00 Columbia... ......-....-
Cornnyllleser eee ese . 00429 1, 400. 00 |; Columbia Falls.........
Dead River Place.....-- . 00504 500. 00 || Coopert ee eet
Dennistown..........-. . 0036 478. 00 || Crawiordee ee s-
DEStLOit sees sae ene - 00488 800. 00 |) Cutlens-e pene eee
IppiM NON oooscooseaoe . 0069 2,000. 00 |) Dantoriheeee eee nee
IDB ITHONG osccossscece . 00273 5,000. 00 |} Deb lOIsse en ee ee
IN GMB ok oo ke kn . 00488 440. 00 |) Dennysville..........--
Han onyeeeee eee . 0077 2, 150. 00 || East Machias .........-
latailbinGl oe cesocosance, . 00406 2, 200. 00 || IDelan@MGl 4 522-c5sc55
Highland Place.......-- | .00605 600. 00 || HorestCityeeea_ eee ee
Jackman eeee eee - 0054 1, 200. 00 Grand Lake Stream
Johnson Mountain...... . 0081 653. 84 |) PlacenMer seco
Lexington Place........) .00705 700. 00 Elannin ones
Madison. ...-.. Bate eel . 00303 7,000. 00 Jonesbora:.)22 222122222.
Mayfield....-........... . 00734 | 771. 54 JOnespOnieeeeeeeee aes
Maxie Gore............. . 00367 856. 12 SOSSUL eee eee anes
Mercer. cee . 0098 1, 700. 00 Lamber Lake.........-.
Moose River Place...... . 00218 400. 00 Diakes (hs eee eaten
MOSCOW ee so aa . 00714 1,300. 00 Machiase eee seers
New Portland.........- . 00644 1, 800. 00 Machiasport......-.-.--
Norridgewock.......... - 00698 5, 135. 00 Marion.) ahem sone an
Dlmnyra es ae eee - 0115 4, 200. 00 Manshfie] diese een
Parlin epee eos ctscc . 00316 | 420. 00 Meddybemps Spe Sarat
Bittshelde oss) 2a . 00209 3, 500. 00 Milbridge..............-
Pleasant Ridge Place...| .0109 586. 46 Northfield io) 2
Ape yeasne eee . 00921 1, 500. 00 Pembroke
Sandy Bay . 0068 701. 84 |) ROLE Vine Aes cena
St. Allbansse | eee - 0076 3, 250. 00 IPTInce One ne eee ec
Skowhegan............. - 00256 10, 500. 00 Robbinston
Smuphheldee pease eeeee - 00555 1, 000. 00 Roque Bluffs.....-..- Soe
Solons Se ee eee . 0047 2, 000. 00 Steuben==-- eo see
Starke ieee eee ees . 0097 1, 925. 00 RalmMapeitene snc. See
The Forks Place........ . 00847 841.00 Lopsfield 2 er ee
West Forks Place.... . 0058 790. 41 WErescott Aes 4. ceecewe ee
Vanceboro.........-----
TS GAYS tee ete oe ete rete 81, 942. 68 AWealteiyn 3 PatisS Cs vi eee
Wesley, Sees Ine hee
Waldo: Wihiting fee. ore
Belmonte ee see eeee ee 00736 800. 00 Whitneyville.........-..
Brooks. 52255 sea. cick 00517 1, 600. 00 INO: 8 Roe ee
Burrhamee 2s 2.5252: 0028 700. 00 No. 8 —Re4eags eos:
Frankfort....-- .-.| .0048 1,500. 00 No. 10—R. 3....-
Freedom. .............. 0056 1, 000. 00 INO), 14 Placeess esas. - =

Tax rate

Amounts
per $1. | obtained.
|
| $0. 002 $2, 000. 00
01 1, 500. 00
. 0061 1, 200. 00
. 0095 2, 000. 00
. 009 2, 950. 00
. 0093 2, 500. 00
. 0082 2, 500. 00
. 0078 1, 000. 00
| .0071 1, 600. 00
|. 0038 1, 500. 00
. 0104 1, 800. 00
| .0072 2, 500. 00
| .0031 2, 500. 00
. 0024 1, 200. 00
. 0089 1, 500. 00
. 0052 1, 200. 00
. 0075 2, 000. 00
. 0066 2,500. 00
. 0055 800. 00
. 0043 2, 500. 00
loueRoeoses 42, 850. 00
- 0046 1, 000. 00
- 0143 1, 000. 00
. 00228 3, 500. 00
- 00428 450. 00
. 0073 225. 00
- 00426 310. 00
- 00452 325. 00
. 00735 650. 00
. 00524 2, 500. 00
| .00619 524. 23
. 006 800. 00
. 0037 600. 00
| .00911 £00. 00
. 0058 400. 00
| .0088 1, 000. 00
. 0052 2, 500. 00
. 0042 100. 00
. 00246 350. 00
| .0038 1, 500. 00
0089 775. 00
- 003 50. 00
- 00336 400. 00
. 00566 1, 400. 00
. 00536 600. 00
. 0018 1, 000. 00
. 00474 576. 00
. 0074 693. 00
. 0019 400. 00
. 0036 3, 000. 00
- 0051 1, 000. 60
. 0079 400. 00
. 0073 450. 00
. 00442 150. 00
. 0033 1, 500. 00
. 0055 300. 00
. 00314 1, 000. 00
. 0059 1, 250. 00
. 0043 1, 350. 00
. 00332 500. 00
. 0066 200. 00
. 0071 1, 500. 00
- 0095 500. 00
| 011 1, 400. 00
. 0098 650. 00
. 00201 400. 00
. 0063 300. 00
. 00468 300. 00
. 0065 700. 00
- 0065 445. 00
. 00259 250. 00
00779 400. 00
00534 436. 38
. 0054 300. 00

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES.

MAINE—Continued.

29

Taste 7.—Town revenues applied to town roads and bridges, 1914—Continued.

S88S8SSsSSSsSssssss

Tax rate | Amounts Tax rate | Amounts
County and town. per $l. | obtained. County and town. per $1. | obtained.
Washington—Continued. York—Continued.
No. 18, easiern division.| $0. 00875 $386. 40 Kennebunk. .....-..-.-. $0. 00301 $7, 509.
No. 19, eastern division.| .00416 276. 00 Kennebunkport ....-..- - 003 5, 000.
Ws ALTAR secooccasta RaGssan aes Re reASee eee Kattenyencsocc tasooe ees 005 4,000.
No. 24, middle division.| .00664 330. 00 Ibebanonee sss: ase secns - 0063 3, 100.
No. 26, eastern division.| .00083 54. 40 imeni¢k:. 3 2-2-2 ase ss - 0029 1, 500.
No. 27, eastern division.| .0031 233. 00 iM SLOMe ssa eee . 0075 3, 000.
No. 29, middle division.| .00664 440. 00 Jai ona eee sae . 0026 1, 000.
No. 30, middle division.| .0031 200. 40 Newiield: 232 oes. - 0051 1, 200.
No. 31, middle division.| .00316 220. 40 North Berwick...-..--- - 0042 3, 400.
Old Orchard..........-- - 0031 4, 000.
Motalesraee seca. 2 seals o. feck 44, 950. 21 Parsonsfield........-.-- - 0060 3, 000.
Sanfordes 5.9 24-222 22 . 0021 9, 550.
York: | Shapleigh®.°-2.2:262-.2- . 0037 1,000.
ANG KO US SEs See ere - 0038 1, 000. 00 | South Berwick..-.-....-- - 0025 3, 000.
JANG GS 35 ee a avers - 0038 1, 500. 00 | Wraterboroi2-- 25 -t5—-- 0052 2, 500.
Bpiwackeree ee = a-tsseie ee - 0037 3, 800. 00 WiellSts eas peed ease 0026 3, 500.
Bitoni aisiae + 00313 3, 700. 00 | Workee iad a Aker 0034 10, 954. 00
Claraniisins5 St ee ae . 0038 1, 500. 00 _
IDE NOt Snes oemenaeeetee - 0065 1, 500. 00 (otal 2! Geese «(See Sine 86, 204. 00
IDO Sean ae eee - 00138 2, 000. 00
EVO ISe eee nh ss. semi as - 0041 4,000. 00 | Granditotalee2= meee | oem. cee 978, 786. 57
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Taste 8.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.
Amount Amount Amount
County and town. | appropri- County and town. | appropri-|| County and town. |appropri-
ated. | ated. ated.
H
Belknap: Cheshire—Continued. Grafton:
PitOne seen. oes $8, 185. 44 Marlboro........-- $2, 500. 00 Alexandria........| $2,446.17
Barnstead...-..-.-| 9,997.50 Marlow....-....-- 1, 420. 82 | Ashland... .....: 2,800. 00
Belmont == 2222 4, 0C0. 00 Nelsons 22 Seee 2-2 1, £00. 00 Baths 2322 2a ae 3, 000. 00
Center Harbor....| 3,100.00 Richmond........ 2, 735. 84 Bentonees=- sesso" 745. 00
Gilford es 25-2... 3, 957.00 Rindge... 4,100. 00 Bethlehem...--..-. 6, 000. 00
Gilmanton........ 3, 409. & Roxbury...- 1,126.00 Bridgewater... .-- 1, 641. 00
Meredith=2*—- 2.2. - 2, 444.00 Stoddard... 1,475.00 Bristolesee-22ss5- = 6, 399. 00
New Hampion....| 3,484.00 Sulliyan=] =e 1, 200. 00 Campton.......---| 3,000.00
Sanbornton......- 3, 600. 00 SULLY aes. hese 1, 100. 00 Canganhale acess. 5, 000. 00
eM GOKes eee eee cee) Os 024..50 Swanzey.......--- 6, 648. 6 Dorchester....-..- 1,500. 00
TOV te ae 3, 000. 00 aSTOUs shee eee 452. 62
HNO) Ea Is ee 48, 201.94 Walpole ........--| 5,000.00 Ellsworth......... 600. 00
Carroll: Westmoreland. .../ 4,120.16 GiGlo. -Soose- 5,000. 00
Aan 1.800. 00 Winchester... .... 4, 846. 08 Franconia. -.-..--- 3, 767.15
Bartlett ......2.2.] 4,300.00 ¥ Grafton..2........ 2, £00. 00
EnGniniciGl eae ee 765.00 otal....--.-.-- 90, 823. 68 Grotoneeseeeeee 1, 500. 00
SHajinenn. 0. 952. 00 Hanover Village. -} 6,200.19
C Coos: Haverhill......... 10, 000. 00
OWWAYessses- 45. - 6, 681. 36 C 1 z
Mahone. 1) 456.50 arroll.....------- 7 Hanover.......-.- 9, 053. 00
Effingham....... 1” 800. 00 Clarksville. ...... F Hebron. .........-. 800. 00
recoil & |. 77000. 00 Colebrook.......-- : Holderness... 6, 875. 00
Papicaneatitiilies! 97100°00 Columbia. ....-.-- : Wand atieeee eee 1,132.91
Madison. i..! 1650.00 Dalton.-........-- L Lebanon.......... 9, 000. 00
IMiGHINGHGRaL nn. 6 482.00 Dummer......---- . 00 Lincoln..........- 1, 500. 00
RSID. Ln 5 000.00 ION G e ne necoesene , 237. 00 Iisbons se 10, 000. 00
SaniGhRdi lle 3” 000. 00 Gorham.........--| 8,200.00 Littleton....-...-.- 4, 200. 00
DeaearorGa 3” 000. 00 Jeliersonss 22. - ==" 12, 272. 32 iymiane eee eeee 1, 500. 00
Tuftonboro.......| 2,427.00 Lancaster.....---- 9, 677. 62 Inteecoodesoecces 3, 000. 00
Wieieanel 4’ 800.00 Milani so. i22. 9322 3, 100. 00 IMonT0eseeesneeeee 1, 273. 55
Woaolfaborol......:.| 12,194.67 Northumberland..| 3, 200.00 Orange... 600. 00
--------| 12,194. Pittsburg. eens 3; B00: 09 reid DA een eee 2,637. 50
andolph....-...-- , 086. ermont.....--.- 3, 025. 00
coe + ae ela peas Shelburne.........; 1,000.00 Plymouth........- 9,909. 50
Cheshire: Starke eso. 5. oe 2, 000. 00 sepEUUIMNG Yee ce oe 1, 506. 22
JN UGE 6 eee 2, 600. 00 Stewartstown..... 3, 277.71 Thornton. .......- 2,361.10
Chesterfield ....... 4, 553. & Stratford.......... 3, 235. 00 Warren........... 2, 300. 00
alin eres 11, 650. 00 Wentworth Loca- Waterville. .....-. 1, 000. 00
Fitzwilliam -...... 4, 500.00 MONE sas se oe 1, 060. 00 Wentworth...-..-. 1,336. 07
Gilsum ...........| 1,000.00 Whitefield........ 4, 390. 00 Woodstock......--] 3,000.
Harrisville........ 3, 550. 00 os
Hinsdale.......... 14, 462. 00 Motales 22.222 mes ozoqa2 Motaligeneen saa: 138, 560. 98
AHTO Ven cjecme cee 7, 735. 78 SS]

30

NEW HAMPSHIRE—Continued.

BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 8.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914—Continued.

Amount Amount Amount
County and town. | appropri- County and town. | appropri- County and town. |appropri-
: ated. ated. ated.
Hillsborough: Merrimack—Contd. Rockingham—Contd.
Amberst....--.-.. $3, 200. 00 Hopkinton.....-..- $5, 389. 51 Salem...........-- $9, 125. 00
Atitrimpeee sees *...| 4,000. 00 Loudon.......---- 5,144. 37 Sandown......---- 1, 000. 00
Bedford.......-..-.- 2,584. 31 Newbury...-.-.-- 3, 800. 00 Seabrook........-- 1, 380. 45
Bennington: .-..... 1,956. 00 New London......} 3,150.00 South Hampton. - 743.77
Brookline........- 1, 233. 76 Northfield. ....-.- 3, 900. 81 Stratham......... 3, 200. 00
Deering....--.---- 1,700. 00 Pembroke....-...-- 2, 493. 75 Windham... 3, 000. 00
Francestown. ..-.- 1, 800. 00 Pittsfield......-. 4, 687. 00
Greenfield.........| 2,100.00 Salisbury .-.....-. 2, 492. 00 Total\/s.2 ese: 111, 850. 64
Goffstown.....----| 4,400.00 Sutton.....-...-.- 3, 700. 00
Greenville....-....| 2,099.50 Warner....---.--- 2,500. 00 || Strafford:
Hancock.....----- 1, 850. 00 Webster.....----- 1, 894. 50 Barrington..-..-.- 3, 000. 00
Hillsboro... 7,674. 12 Wilmot....-...--- 3, 161. 83 Durham.......---. 2, 500. 00
Hollis 322 eeeeee- 2,175. 92 ——-—— Farmington..-...-. 10, 503. 43
Hudson....-.-- 3, 683. 40 Totaleeeeeeeeaee 77, 709. 91 L 956. 85
Litchfield... - 977.14 ——— Madbury 5 672. 00
Lyndeboro.....-..-. 2,977.50 |} Rockingham: Middleton 583. 36
ASONe sss sees 1, 478. 5 Atkinson.....-.---]. 910.16 Mal cones 7, 871. 24
Merrimack....--.. 4,300. 00 Auburn.....------ 3, 000. 00 New Durham..... 1, 768. 50
Milford...........-| 10,200.00 Brentwood... .-- 3, 000. 00 Rollinsford......-.} 2,700.00
Mont Vernon ....- 1, 443. 94 andia.a2s2- 522% 1,539. 71 Strafford.....-..-- 3, 774. 00
New Bostom...--. 3, 900. 00 Chesterz2s----2- 2, 300. 00
New Ipswich......| 2,944.12 Danivalleseeese=as 1,770. 00 Motaliin-s2 6 sae 34, 329. 38
Pelham........--. 2, 300. 00 Deerfield.........- 2, 200. 00
Peterboro......-.- 14, 500. 00 IDOIryin Nees == 11,000.00 |} Sullivan:
Sharoneeeeesacece. 1, 849. 00 East Kingston. . 701. 00 Acworth.......... 2,500. 00
Temple....-.--.-.- 1, 585. 00 Epping......-.-.-. 4,500. 00 Charlestown. --..- 4,727.03
Wieares a5 322G) 2. se 4,500. 00 XOlene yess = 10, 133. 36 Claremont....-..- 9,557. 00
Waltonee see ee. 5, 279. 89 Fremont.....-.--- 1,700. 00 Cornish.......---- 2, 739. 08
Windsor.....--.--- 292. 00 Greenland. ......- 2,050. 00 Croydon.........- 1, 200. 00
Hampstead ....-.-. 3, 912. 29 Goshen 1, 662. 50
Mota. oH ss 98, 984. 10 Hampton.....--.- 5, 387. 00 Grantham. ....... 1, 725. 00
Hampton Falls...) 1,862.00 Hancdontesss eee 590. 00
Merrimack: Kensington....-.-. 742. 54 Lempster...-.....- 1, 342. 95
Allenstown....-.--. 1, 759. 00 Kingston.....--.-- 1,573. 94 Newport.....-..-- 8, 700. 00
Andover...---..-- 2,197.79 Londonderry....--| 4,000.00 Plainfield .......-. 2,303. 26
Boscawen. -.------| 2, 725. 00 New Castle......-- 3, 196. 83 Springfield. .....-. 2, 800. 00
OW eee neessoeeeal 3, 046. 50 Newfields......... 549. 38 Sunapee. ....-.-.- 7, 058. 61
Bradford.....-..-- 3,611. 50 Newington.......- 1, 783. 50 Umity. ee 1, 393. 00
Canterbury.....-- 3, 347. 00 New Market ....-- 4,360. 00 Washington.......} 1,500.00
Chichester. .-.--.- 2,500. 00 Newton.........-- 1, 480. 30
Danbury.....--.--| 2,000.00 North Hampton. .| 3,470.00 Notalizc 52558 49, 798. 43
Dunbarton........| 1,600.00 Northwood......- 3, 100. 00
iBpSOMEee esses eee 3, 000. 00 Nottingham.......| 1,766.16 Grand total for
enniker........- 4,109. 35 Plaistow...-..---- 3, 7138. 25 State.........- 788, 291. 11
iS ---| 1,500. 00 Raymond......--. 3,500. 00
Hookset..........-| 4,000.00 INYO. ese eee 4, 200. 00
VERMONT.

TaBLE 9.—Town revenues applied to town and State aid roads and bridges, 1914.

County and town.

Cornwall

Goshen? . 225575 as ee ae

Hancock

incon: Saaey ce ease

Total Town tax for town | Amounts | -
town roads. raised | Amaqunts |Resurfacing
revenues from 5 raised by | of town
applied to per cent | towns for roads,
town, and Anaya State State-aid | amount
State-aid | Rate.! ebiained road roads. raised.
Toads. 5 tax.
20 | $1,624.36 $418.78 | $1,000.00 |.....-....-.
20 1,647.15 411.79 WO05003| Se eenceeaace
20 2,473. 58 644. 16 1,000.00 |.......-..--
20 1, 158. 99 299. 74 500.00 |.......-----
20 2,217.14 546. 79 RIED |losasassoé5ec
45 452. 64 50. 29 100.00 |.....-.-----
20 504. 95 114.15 10005000 Eee eeaeenee=
25 489. 54 97. 91 20000) |aeseeet aes.
40 1, 028. 00 256. 26 300. 00 $140. 00
1,104.03 20 881. 51 22 2N 02) lteter nace ee

1 The rate is expressed in per cent of the grand list, which is found by taking 1 per cent of the assessed
valuation of all taxable property.

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 31

VERMONT—Continued.

TABLE 9.—Town revenues applied to town and State aid roads and bridges, 1914—Contd.

Total | Town tax fortown| Amounts

town roads. raised | Amounts |Resurfacing
revenues from 5 raised by of town
County and town. applied to per cent | towns for roads,
town and ewacywartt State State-aid amount
State-aid | Rate. Snir road roads. raised.
roads. : tax.
Addison—Continued.
Middlebury «..--...2+2++-+++: $5,139.43] 32 | $2,420.59) $1,212.84) $1,500.00 |............
ONKLOR ees ees e oicc ea : E OA lence eee [en Seem c ee oer
NewpEaventaes. 262 18 shy 3, 096. 67 25| 2,210.06 443. 48 AG PSIRN Nu Saiaa ae
Omyoiie ete 2 IAT. 8, 459. 46 50| 5,041.98 672.69 | 1,000.00] $1,744. 79
ame bod SE Se CUE SE BEES E ene 1, 658. it 20 : aoe ee 768. HA ey iO 80. 18
MO FOM ee eee eae ciaios acsisie 1, 084. 20 . b (HUW) |sccescccasss
Salis buUbyiere coc ecccesec else < 2; 095. 69 20 1,309. 84 285. 85 AUIS | sosecsonsec
Shorcuniem sy eee 3, 047. 16 20 | 1,641.37 SAU ACV DOD esas cane
SteriSyeLO soocesseeeczocsuscec 2,371. i 20 Bee po 528. 54 out HS 469.17
Wilt me re he ccisosatee 3 693. 20 5 112,12 OOOO) eee eeeeeeee
\Wioyibrld ve. -=-- 2. -s55-+2222 +25 1, 451. 09 20 847. 69 203. 40 400300 eee se.c6 cece
WWI Pete esisee oot cinco. 1,075. 23 20 452. 24 122.99 O003008 Steet eeeeeee
Ota Meee wee seer EEE ee 52-391 28elee ee. 29,904.49 | 7,609.47] 12, 443.13 2, 434.14
Bennington:
See Bb Oo. Span E Ae EOE SS Ee iL. oe ae 20 1, 234. 71 oe 68 300 500s Eemeaae
ennington....-..- 3, 790. 4 2002. sneer 2,790. 49 0003005 | Feeeeeeesse=
Dorsetes a. 552... 2) 493. 10 20| 1,557.66 | ~ '365.44 500800 |e nate hele
GlasteuDury. pal 2 au oe = 23. as EEO soetouedace
an STOVES: see -/----------=-- . D UbPD AM Nooospesconscllocnaqabsocse
etn; aeeecocnosseccoseusesee L oe ne 50 ; cee a 91.74 ANDO || ceesocesode
OMAR eee a- caetiea= é 20 E 487. 58 RUOO essccoccecee
Hieadsporomees.. 265.25. 8ue. 4,503. 49 50 | 3,191.92 S115 7A peel OG0XO0N| eee seme =
ape Bee obra si jsee acts <= 3, oor eB 0 25 Fa e8 400. 41 609. 78 240. 00
BICC ERR coo sete sasadocessoce z b ILO) Josososshagsnasessooccsse
Saige wes oo ae Seb eesoumnde 963. 51 70 639. 96 49. 28 PAE (a Wis eset eet ee
ShaliSpwnyee ee 22-5 2-as- - 2,712. 40 30 2,254. 63 357. 77 10. OD |lscacosedsose
LAI ONGseere eee sar-15-r-1=- <isiel< 1,391.83 20 800. 09 141.83 390. 00 100. 00
punderand cc ecoacecescotessee 1,138. 62 20 Be 77 183. 85 USE CO le ceacesseecc
yay yee ees iaye see ers iorecie is in)oe 1,186.18 30 59. 58 126. 60 300300) Baseeeeeeeee
Myoodiordmesiit en. 1) 490. 00 50 900. 00 90. 00 ENR UDA aes ge
RObaleee ee cose suse ee ss 304802238) | seeeee 18,271.05 | 5,987.38 | 6, 203. 95 340. 00
Caledonia:
Barrel sacoresosesosescescasace 6, aon ap 33 4,746. 26 678. 04 1, oe Hy Ste a cites
TUR Obese ees wale er ace 45. (Ua Ber Gea ooss 345. 11 PU Seapeacseenes
MD anivAllOeme ree se ses cose. == = 4, 693. 89 40 3, 727.91 465. 98 BUIBOY | |Sobaccacesse
one ieee eae oF 40 2,144, 62 268. 07 ; 9500500) eee eee
AT GWAC kegs eee ooo). 2s 2c kml 8995 300 eso] == cee ets 859. 30 (WU) ocsosossosas
TCT Co. Soe ee 1) 465. 49 50 | 1,105, 49 HLON00; [far 29250800) | ogra ae
Lynden SHoonne SeOSD ES Ee SeseroG 4 He ne 3 3, rae 44 696. 72 1,000. 00 210.00
GWE eS 335 eto see eseenaess b 4,11 12-73 8h) |logocssqacssolineensecsocca
geachanmeereey fe, 3,622. 81 50 | 2,838.92 233. 89 BOO s00R | Sees an
ID @EONE 5 aceon ae 4,083. 32 25| 2,658.84 424.48 | 1,000.00 |...........-
Shoe fiie Guyana isn. esac 2, 358. 87 65 2,005. 55 153. 32 2008008 | Bee eeeee
SLANT Ge seh Ll oes 746.95 60 502. 80 144.15 UTM OD lecactsescace
UIE POMP ase as ane ote tae 1, 983. 58 20 754. 50 584. 6! 300. 00 344. 48
ae | | ee ge) ee
iWihteolock i. 6612 2i5.112,| 1es2ii9 | 40 | 1,241.37) 40.82 AVOGO oogocsecsces
TG tale meme eeN eet! cts 41,495.57 |......-- 27,370.78 | 5,620.31 | 7,950.00 554. 48
_ Chittenden: |
- een Spree tots ese iste tart ey see s at 5 are 00 117: 00 BESO) |oozccoscsesc
ALIOULCE See ees oes ee : 046. 79 WBSO |lecasseonsesa|escosssccsse
Colchester x 20 iL, 382. 28 1, 400. 70 O00 OD |lsscescasscec
HISSGXE eee ee $ 20 1, 363. 32 - 678.60 1000500) | Beceeserera-
Hinesburg 20 1, 502. 69 A051 8n | 000200) | Seeeee ee
Huntington . & 25 1, 065. 18 DASE RW Appoeeeaan ss 257. 64
UENGAOsoobodsesosecscaudesesss . 661. 20} 1,929.10 432. 27 250400) | Paeeee eae ee
ION) 3 be eeeabedapeoossenhe sae : 20} 1,927.11 466. 23 J OOCKOO) Beeeeeesee se
aaa au 1, ar a er a TOOL 0D |leoecoscsccee
St. George : ; SOD rN eget < jee aa eee Ss
Shelburne 2, 927. 29 20 2, 086. 97 320. 33 300. 00 219.99
South Burlington...-......... 2, 736. 34 20 1, 389. 02 347. 32 i 00S OO |lssocaccccece
Rencderhills tee. 1, 882. 56 20] 1,266.05 316. 51 [3007 00k Nena uaiee
BIVESHIOR Eee ee See eee ae 1, 624. 18 20 | 1,062.97 261. 21 300100)|ssemeee to:
WWallistombecs a= = 3: sace ens ewack 2, 531. 34 20 1, 625. 07 406. 27 E00; CD) Wecebbeacsase
Motale es egee waa hase eee 35, 880. 43 |..-.---- 21, 303. 44 _6, 465. 36 7, 634. 90 477. 63

»

=

VERMONT—Continued.
TaBLE 9.—Town revenues applied to town and State aid roads and bridges, 1914—Contd.

BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Town tax for town | Amounts

County and town.

Essex:

Bloomfield...-...-.-----------

Granb

Memington ss sao5 iss. ceases
Ibyphalsal py ee SS eee Se z
Maidstonessese-n. saree sees

Notaliseree tc. . 25 eee

Franklin:

iBakershel dis shee a ae
IBELKSHITO tgans sec ose eee eee
INOS DULSae aces eee Caen
Mainiaxses ee ass Le een eas
Fairfield
Hletcher.2 hesse2 e-ses 5
Franklin
Georgians sess sce eoneee es
igh gates eee she eee
Montgomery; sa--2222---------
Richforde wae ok aS eee
SteyAllbans ss ia gape eee eA
Sheldon!) 23 see eee

PAU UT teem nee ne) ae er eaeresa

Lamoille:

Belvidere: as a5 sh cse ese ee
Cambridgeietece. 22-928 ote8
1X6 (ia eae ee PS oases A

Johnsoneene peee ee a -e eee

Orange:

Randolphesssssssssssec eee
Strafford sees os. ee ae
Mhetford act ees suece eet ene
Mopsham): S2.ce ss ake coe ee
Mun HLid eas asss ss eee eos
WORSE). sos oansaacaceoessoore

Total
town roads. raised Amounts |Resurfacing
revenues from 5 raised by of town
applied to per cent | towns for roads,
town and ener State State-aid amount
State-aid | Rate oniaed road roads. raised.
roads. ; tax.
$1, 955. 55 26 | $1,011.11 $194. 44 $750;(00)) |S see eee soe
3, 618. 50 8 2, 026. 10 506. 52 400. 00 $685. 88
885. 21 20 314. 86 70. 35 5005008) == 262 sasaee-
1, 729. 79 20 1, 143. 83 285,96 seeeeee nee 300. 00
4, 164. 34 60 3, 124. 20 520. 07 5205 0%) eS eae ee
438.90 20 345, 75 8a 6 Been sedoaa pAareateccas
639. 71 30 440. 67 74. 04 1253 008s assess
1, 197.37 20 562. 23 135. 14 CONGO! | Passa ee
904. 44 25 336. 22 68. 22 DO0NO03| eee ae
4,704.00 43 2,000. 00 504.00 1, 000. 09 1, 290. 00
1, 657. 21 20 808. 98 148. 23 700" COM perpen eseree
1, 680, 62 20 523. 27 110. $1 dD 046,54) | 52-25 -ee oe
407. 70 25 339. 96 CY E( 3 Paaeeneseee sl Sees csokAssc
23,983.34 |....-.-- 12,977.18 2, 778. 67 6,041. 61 2,185. 88
2, 032. 48 20 953. 64 247. 49 750. 00 81.35
2, 785. 30 20 1, 591. 60 397. 90 795.'80))| Jess cee see
2,911. 72 20 1, 251. 42 660. 30 1 OOOH 00.) FS2 eee
2,974. 42 20 1, 591. 77 632. 65 1005008 Eee seeer =e
3, 539. 21 20 2,019. 61 519. 60 1000!,00)| Seen oe eeee
638. 05 25 465. 05 1735003 | cerneeeceee | teseeee eee
2, 236. 14 25 1, 750. 79 345. 29 1405.06" | yee =e
2, 542.11 20 1, 241. 49 600. 62 500. 00 200. 00
2,097. 27 20 1, 677. 82 CU by Seo aeaaacd Sapeaeectane
3, 627.90 30 2, 470. 20 407. 70 750 OOR/ RSs t eens
3, 899. 06 25 1, 953.33 745. 73 1, 000. 00 200. 00
3, 964. 79 20 1, 759. 73 486. 28 1,000. 00 718. 78
3, 388. 32 20 1, 750. 66 437. 66 1, 000. 00 200. 00
3, 592. 41 20 2,021. 53 820. 88 7500! 00) | Pee oe
_ 40, 22918 ee Se. 22, 498. 64 6, 894. 55 9, 435. 86 i, 460. 13
1, 775. 73 20 1, 424.13 BAG): Cakeeseee sae |Scososscasec
1, 324. 10 20 817. 84 206. 26 300.00 |-.----------
896. 90 20 399. 26 97. 64 400500))|(2 5. 2c eee
964. 58 20 541. 52 138. 36 100.00 | 184. 70
1, 368. 24 20 |. 694. 59 173. 65 50000) 32s seeeaeene
Gy329555 Ween coe. - 3, 877. 34 | 967. 51 1, 300. 00 184. 70
1, 022. 38 20 790..20 107.18 12550032 5he see
4,344. 00 25 2,791.00 553. 00 1000500} See aera
1, 713. 52 35 1, 236. 83 176. 69 8005002) 2 4eea Ss cae s
1, 089. 41 35 953. 24 IGS a Reems sed eaacesn 52 he
3, 520. 27 25 2,516. 89 503. 38 500500) |S22%scee2 ee
2,011. 00 20 1, 608. 80 402520) | cncienee eos ee ore eee
. 35 2, 043. 56 2, 043. 56 1000500) | aeseeeee nee
30 2, 100. 00 544. 78 500800: | see aeeesee
20 447, 54 LIBS 88 a)a35 cesses s|Seeeeeeees
25 1, 347. 83 544. 56 269. 57 569. 57
ore | 15,835.89 | 5,125.40 | 3,604.57 569.57
20 1, 600. 00 502. 93 71002007 | Eee eee
25 980. 43 196. 08
25 1, 601. 62 273. 73
20 1, 027. 66 520. 48
30 1, 305.15 217. 52
20 800. 93 209. 29
A 40 4, 000. 00 787. 58
: 50 1, 764. 89 174.75
4, 223. 85 20 1,991.07 1, 232. 78
1,924. 04 30 1, 211.98 212. 06
3, 294. 81 30 1, 760. 00 784. 81
1,057. 20 20 845.15 212.05
2, 457.17 30| 1,634.72 272. 45
1,917. 55 35 781. 89 772.01
1, 909.18 25 1,061. 57 209. 40
845. 07 25 468. 58 176. 49
5, 224, 25 20 1, 788. 32 500. 00
43,320.13 |.....-.- 24, 633. 96 7, 254. 41

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 33

VERMONT—Continued.

TABLE 9.—Town revenues applied to town and State aid roaas anu vridges, 1914—Contd.

_ Total

town
revenues
County and town. applied to
town and
State-aid

roads.

Orleans
IM paniyee oscar onc <i sa $1, 827. 26
anuOler sense 2a oe 6, 000. 72
IBLOWRINCLON = 52-52 522 - 1, 509. 74
Gharlestones ses oye =e 2, 535. 19
@OVeNtlye es se ons= oe ee eee a 2,199. 25
CratisbuLyee.-sesecse sass ees = = 2, 244. 59
IDG) as ee oee cane Bees ene 3, 640. 04
(HOWE SSeS see eee ee coes sed 10, 002. 54
Greenispolos 225-6 - 2-5-2 =a 2,904. 21
Ollan GM se. ease =: 1, 532. 25
WAS DIES Ses see ose Sec e ds: 3, 239. 25
ay pee creat shat... est thoes 655. 79
owe leeeses soe) Sse ease ee 3, 027. 27
MOLoAnMe es see Se SR Ses. 1, 262. 61
IN@WDORL= a2 sse-- = seme saeco 5, 615. 02
PNG y Reece eee f= see eee 3, 038. 24
Wiestheldiaae 288: —. ..- 4-85-5222. 1, 031. 39
Westmlores= 425... 2 22.85.24 886. 86
TO ee eee ane e ase 53, 152. 22
Rutland

IB etisOieee ees eee tease se aeae 2,447.17
TG Gi os oa eee weer eee 5, 303. 09
CASHObON oe sass Sorin se 3,321.65
Chittenden st eee eee 1,747.30
(Gi) bes ETC (ss ee ee eas 2,048. 21
IDR) 0/7. eh see See 2,568. 05
HAVEN seems ce 4,311.13
Et pPantOnessa ss <ossec-- aoe 1, 047. 24
ee aan Sek 2 783. 08
Mend Oneee 2s sie ors he ee ra 1, 132.99
Middletown Springs........--- 1,416. 12
MOM GPELO VAS ees. < ee ones 1, 726. 47
Monitvhaboreta. 5555052 5s. 471. 33

Town tax for town | Amounts

i 3, 548. 57
lainheldseet ba ca he. 1,431. 56
PROX DULY 25 -* 5220 f sacened ee ae 2,059. 87
WWiaitstield === 25 sa ee see 1, 652. 06
VET 00 3 a a Be Se 1,624. 01
WWistenDURyes ose. 252 ceases ce 4, 839. 44
\WOMtI Din fesceenecraspeseeenes 2, 148. 25
NYIOLCOSLOL eee eee cosa sacs 1,354. 47

ROGAI esate ane. foe. ue 47, 158. 32

61725°—Bull. 3888—17——3

: raised Amounts |Resurfacin;
toad from 5 raised by | of town :
ee ent towes oe EoBOS,
ate tate-ai amoun
Rate seu oad roads. raised.
20 | $1,044.15 $261. 05 $5922506" Bones nem
45 3, 600. 00 1, 078. 22 1, 000. 00 $322. 50
20 864. 00 345. 74 300500) |= oe
30 1, 748. 91 286. 28 500) 003] Best ees
35 1, 486. 99 212. 26 5005 002)32 Sees
20 1, 296. 12 324. 04 518. 44 105. 99
20 1, 400. 00 1, 240. 04 10005000 Ses eee so:
25 9, 339. 33 263. 21 400; 00:.| 28242 S22 53.
20 | 1,287.58 616463) [ie 51000" 00) | eee eine =
30 | 1,141.03 191. 22 2005005 |e eeamene
30 1,919. 35 319. 90 1000300), | ease eee
30 557. 96 7 83ers oa nee | ees Se
40 | 2,205.48 270. 42 551s 37, eee!
30 841. 74 140. 29 2805583] Peers ote ee
30 3, 300. 00 1,315. 02 10005005 | sansa = ae
30 1, 520. 28 472.49 800. 00 245. 47
35 902. 03 P20 NS Gi ery os poeta te eens
25 586. 78 100. 08 GAISOUS Seewechceeee
Sos eas 35, 041. 73 7, 664. 08 9, 772. 45 673. 96
20} 1,700.28 296. 89 300. 00 150. 00
20| 3,842.47 960. 62 SOO" OO) |e sce
20 1, 857. 32 464. 33 500. 00 500. 00
30 1,023. 98 323. 32 AND LO0) | |SSe ee eaebeon
20| 1,229.64 318. 57 500!\00; |: soglhescl:
25 1,812. 18 378. 07 BY ists! Ui see ee ere oS
20 3, 000. 00 811.13 5005 00s | Ssteeensecee
20 472. 59 118.15 300. 00 156. 50
25 643. 68 SOFA ON haan eases 50. 00
20 584. 53 256. 26 292:20)\| Fesnesastoe =
20 983. 49 232. 63 2008003 S=saasncce se
25 1, 166. 53 233-00 O205 G8 [aseeaasee ce
25 394. 34 COs OO ee OI OS A see teeta Sate
2, 169. 15 531. 64 KN) Sooo cole oe
654. 00 168. 17 1505008 Sa sese cee s~
3, 229. 02 908. 75 1,000. 00 285. 00
3, 047. 65 707843) “1593406 lace terenne
PIQMGT || 11-3195 13) |n 1-000 00l eee nee
1, 683. 73 264. 27 1,000. 00 265. 65
518. 32 115. 02 IBY See Be sacooa
408. 34 GOSS Sait are hous PE ee see ie at oe
1,062. 14 296. 30 200. 00 228. 00
670. 98 134. 20 200500" eeteesece = ste
4,114.08 528. 52 fh O00S00|Seesae-eere-
795.19 205. 09 5003008 Beeeeee res
694. 10 280. 29 200. 00 234.18
| peers CO Aalst = 9 ev oi
37,987.40 | 11,632.85 | 11,600.59 1, 869. 33
4,200. 00 656. 00 1,000. 00 1, 406. 00
2,324. 74 BOL AGIs eo e ee Se eeeeceses
2,113. 44 313.21 SOOKOO0M Ease eases
1, 808. 00 258. 28 545. 43 288. 42
= eee eee 215. 52 500300) Stee see ee
3,519. 50 616. 63 1,000. 00 110. 30
932. 49 160. 26 AYOOED)|Ipbeeeusoouda
2,291. 43 254. 60 3005008 Pee esas eens
1,519.35 264. 80 450008 Post aeeee ace
Be 0) Oe SCC ee GUD eee Ba segeaos
2, 400. 00 898. 57 250800 sess eee es
25 1,192. 97 PA yeah Met Ge sme te Sea e ee eee
40 1,475. 44 184. 43 AQ0S 003 Se seas
20 1,001. 65 250. 41 400: 00) | 222 2s: axe
30 1, 182. 08 191. 93 250500 ee see eae
20 3,271. 55 817. 89 CEOS) oeeinbetecece
40 1, 458. 36 189. 89 Us OU Sodscccondas
25 846. 54 169. 31 aster (IY) loa. bocecocec
iis 31,537.54] 6,032.01| 7,784.05 1, 804. 72

34 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

VERMONT—Continued.

TABLE 9.— Town revenues applied to town and State aid roads and bridges, 1914—Contd.

Total Town tax for town| Amounts

town roads. raised | Amounts |Resurfacing
revenues from 5 raised by of town
County and town. applied to per cent | towns for roads,
town and GH OUTE State State-aid amount
State-aid | Rate. antainied road roads. raised.
roads. : tax.
Windham:
ATHENS Fe eet niniee intone cisie $546. 43 25 $250. 25 $176. 18
Brattleboro...............---- 23, 631. 02 25) 18,942.12] 3,688.90
Brookline..................--- 429. 12 25 201. 09 152. 16
DOVER eee ee ene eae eee 1,308. 88 45 1, 169. 10 139. 78
Dummerston............------ 1,315. 11 25 1, 094. 62 220. 49
Grafton eee ee ese eee. 1, 274. 87 30 1,092. 75 182. 12
Guilford’ Assess. 2 eassee aon 1, 814. 53 30 1, 209. 35 201. 56
alifaxcs fave is ke CSET h 2 1, 589. 35 50 1, 256. 33 133. 02
Jamaicass ws a Sa 1,781. 67 40| 1,361.49 170.18
Londonderry..........-----.-- 2, 891. 84 30 1,618. 56 273. 28
Marlboror 32 eee oh ea 1,210. 70 40 898. 40 112. 30
Newiane a See et 2, 842. 20 45 2,107. 98 234, 22
Pittiey. yet ees ea 2,305. 54 25| 1,506.58 298. 96
Rockingham.........--------- 5, 968. 74 20| 2,000.00] 2,968.74
Somerset...............-..---- 1,007. 08 50 743. 62 113. 46
Stratton ase kes ea Ae 885. 60 40 696. 78 88. 82
Townshend...............-..- 2,362. 68 30 1,389. 38 223.30
Vernon...... Se se a EI 1, 625. 21 25 941.75 183. 46
Wardsboro. .2............-...- 1, 616. 10 55 1, 295. 70 120. 40
Westminster...........-.....- 2, 950. 02 25 2, 204. 87 445.15
Whitingham.................. 3, 007. 68 40 1, 784. 74 222. 94
Wilmington..............--.-- 3,305. 15 25| 2,337.63 467. 52
\yiainalonnins. cnosodocosoceeesoos 1, 130. 79 40 737. 88 92. 91
Ota leer hme union dau eenaa 66, 800.31 |_....... 46, 840.97 | 10,909. 85
‘Windsor
ANG OV ORS tere acne case 1, 214. 11 _ 50 909. 00 105. 11
Baltimore.................--.. 19. 70 DONS te sees os 19. 70
Barnard: sence aces cece eee 1, 803. 78 35 1, 290. 59 213. 19
Bethel eee ns a ne eee, 4, 688. 79 20 | 3,074.00 614. 79
Bridgewater................... 2,031. 34 25 1, 279. 57 251.77
Cavendish..................... 2,345. 05 20 1, 876. 00 469. 05
Chester: ss es a 4,150. 02 25 3, 041. 68 608. 34
Hartford eee a a 20, 732. 69 45 | 17,765.12 1, 967. 57
Hartland ee ie 3, 446. 82 25 2,039. 02 407. 80
Tudlow:. ee ee es 3,981. 14 20 2,384. 91 596. 23
Norwich...-.... cpeieoear es Cabana 2,976. 82 30 1, 908. 70 318. 12 75000) He eneene nae
PLY MOULD i Oe 1, 048. 63 20 598. 90 HAGE 7S eel 300. 00
Pomirettee es sees eee 1, 789. 05 25 1, 242. 57 246. 48 300. 00 |-.---------.
Reading elena May 1, 613. 94 40 | 1,256. 80 157. 14 200800) | ae
Rochester..........-.222222--- 4, 460. 46 35| 3,027.90 432.56 | 1,000.00 ]....-...----
Royalton she rie 5, 273. 64 |_.-.-... 2,741. 47 437. 37 500. 00 1,594. 80
Sharon Reise sie ee iaiees Sen etee 1, 692. 24 20 953. 79 238. 45 EWO5 CD |Seccsagsiaaso
Springtieldteesys eats 5, 118. 39 20} 1,800.00] 2,318.39] 1,000.00 ]|.......--..-
Stockbridge..................- 2,362.69 |_....... 1, 867. 61 195. 08 300500) ae
Weathersfield................. 2, 629. 56 20] 1,303.65 325.91] 1,000.00 |............
WISSEL OnE eerie gene oa eee 1, 201. 47 35 1, 040. 43 AOU O4R Ek SU sree NL ae Sines
West Windsor. ............... 1,393. 93 30 990. 78 153.15 HO) (TD lsbdoodeosoos
Windsor. estes seco enon oe 3, 128.19 20 1, 487. 46 640. 73 1,000. 00 |.-----------
Woodstock..............22.... 8, 367. 08 20 6, 582. 27 784. 81 TECCS OO |scostesocnce
Totals see ieee ey Ree 87,469.53 |......-- 60, 462.22 | 11,812.51 | 13,300.00 1, 894. 80
Grand total for State........ 617,327.79 |....-.-- 388, 542.63 | 96,754.36 | 115,684.38] 16,346. 42

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES.

395

TasBlEe 10.—Town revenues applied to roads and bridges outside of incorporated cities

County and town.

Barnstable:

Barnstable. ...---
Bourne....-
Brewster...

Harwich..........

Mashpee.....---..!

Orleans...........
Provincetown... ..
Sandwich.........
ADT UTOS eee ke

Clarksburg... .-.-
Daltoneesee aes.

Great Barrington.
Hancock.......---

Monterey......---
Mount Washington
New Ashford

Stockbridge......
Tyringham......-.
Washington. ..-...
West Stockbridge
Williamstown. ...

Berkley

Norton.....-..-..
Raynham........
Rehoboth....-...
Seekonk....-...--

Total town
revenues
applied to
roads and
bridges.

$21, 272. 93
41, 452. 94

7,790. 24

23, 080. 19
1, 006.31

24, 057. 56

1 Private subscription.
2 Received from State.
8 $54.35 received from State for this account.
4 $30 received from State for this account.

5 $1,000 received from State for this account.
6 $2, 151.67 received from State for this account.
7 $3, 000 received from State for this account.
8 Besides this general appropriation ef $1,500 there was $300 for tarring road and $2,700 for the purchase

of a portable crusher.

Bridge
construc-
tion.

Amounts paid.

State on
State high-

ways cover-

ing town’s
share of
cost.

$800. 00

MASSACHUSETTS.
1914.
Amounts appropriated for—

Highway Huehwayg Bridge

repairs. ean repair.
$19, 300.00 |...-.-.--.-- $800. 00
10,314.16 | $30,872.82 |.......-.-
1, 500. 00 6,500.00 |.---------
1O;800300M soe. 2) eee eS
3, 780. 00 150. 00 200. 00
175.00 500. 00 50. 00

18, 200. 00 5, 500.00 | 1, 200. 00
2,425.00 3, 500. 00 200. 00
SOLO) Woceosceasocs 40.00

4, 000. 00 4, 000. 00 100. 00
Gy SSONCO |B. oo ee eee
SA745 88a Nun 705450 | Eee
1, 800. 00 2,000.00 |.---------
1200400) fa 0 ee
3,100.00} 1,000.00 |........-.
16,746.87 | 4,156.29 | 2,004.55
606. 31 200.00 |--..------

ib 500. 00

6, 000. 00
37, 893. 43

1,194.91
21, 026. 67

OAL 537.02
4, 000. 00

6 2,970. 00

County
on
county
highways.

4, 000. 00
2, 986. 58

36

BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

MASSACHUSETTS—Continued.

TaBLE 10.—Town revenues applied to roads and bridges outside of incorporated cities,
1914—Continued.

County and town.

MASDULYi..< <> -5-=2+
West Tisbury...-

Essex:

MA
North Andover...

West Newbury...

in:
Ashfield .........-

Montague.........
New Salem......-
Northfield........

Shutesbury...-...
Sunderland.......
Warwick. .......-

East Longmeadow
Granville.........

Total town
revenues
applied to
roads and
bridges.

$811.90
3,559.95

Amounts appropriated for—

Amounts paid.

ene! on x
: tate high-} Count
Highway Hienway Bridge pBTOee: ways cover- on y
repairs aD repair. OE ing town’s | county
z : share of |highways.
cost.
$811-90! oss oe eek ssae| see eee] ons eee ecees aes 522 Saeed | eae ese
1,800.00 | $1,500.00 | $250.00 |.-.....-.--- $9295 5 eens
200800) |, eee Ee ol OE | Ea ecto ae | See
2,000. 00 150. 00 SOO 00% Sse eeaeee ae 0345:)| Sse oe ee
4, 885. 66 SSO0OR OG |r tert 1 UE. (or o/b ene one oa | Seen ee
B9DE3D) || Geena eee Be Be ae 258i | Bee ae
, 207.
; 800.
, 029.
, 000.
20,018.78 | 16,084.63
45 Q00300! sees e oa | eee an aa
2, 250.00) |ae----------|---2------
4,000.00} 1,500.00
12 QO0800:|aseinecers-| sts e cee
19,953.37 | 60, 434. 96
1OSTS1 59) |Seee acces ce lee scenes
2,500.00} 1,547.46
500. 00 2,000. 00
2,000. 00 1, 000. 00
AHN Sida © werd STR fe
255005001 | eeees aeee
DEH 2A N02 | Res 2 AL eee 3
2,500.00} 1,175.00
3,300. 00 700. 00
2,701.32 1,991.31
1400500) |Beehecesosc lees ccna
1, 000. 00 350. 00
205000%001| Baaeeen tease
1, 700. 00 100. 00
130000 |/Peeetee aes o-| ee sea- see
169150500) Reeeees onc 5| See 8
1000300! |Reease 2 aces ers wees
1,375. 05 220. 85
8,851.94] 3,072.13 | 3,710.79 | 1,834.79 372.36 | $9,224. 04
1, 400. 00 OOROO! | eek tte oe ch apse ee Sa | ater oad | Slr
34000500; |Eeeeeee enc TITAQASh|_ 1 Seek SIE|. SSE E eae AS
6000:005| CBee e ae = 3) ae EN a Rep oe a al eee
160000): | pepente Ue ca see lee cra |e ee Beeectoacets| bsnssaccae
4,200. 00 500300!) 222 soe. o4- I Q003000 | 2222 case | Seana ee
1:200:00)\| ememe neh [EEE 2 Se AN SR UAE oe oe ae a oe
600: 00)) Sees 5.3. 150. 00 6, 000. 00 83. OOF |Hereesee se
2:000= 00 | eeaeent we. oc) OR PS SP Se eee e ds eee oe
1520000! Meee sS00%00!| See tee SR ee ee |e teense eka eine
1, 500. 00 2, 500. 00 NOS) |b SaeSescca5e 25500500) Sse ss oca3
5, 000. 00 MES08 539) Paeeias == 54 Seesene cscs 44888) ro eo. woes sie
3, 653.83 | 18,600. 00 TOO 483 Cask cones. | sows seal wea een ae
1,525. 46 500. 00 40000))|ssae. esse iP AGYy f eesee tse c
14800100) | Meee ENON CO)| emer 380509) | seen ewes
1,500. 00 HSS UOSUD |SeSeSsekos|e sososseses< 8000) |2 sso eens
2,000. 00 DOOKOO Ecc ese BPC) besccsssocslheessssce:

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES.

County and town.

Hampden—Contd.

dlowe sse-2 = 1:

IRalimnien sess aate

West Springfield. .
Wilbraham......-

Hampshire:

aambherstasse= 25
Belchertown..-..-
Chesterfield... --.--
Cummington...--

Enfield

Granby. ----------

Huntington. ....-
Middlefield... .....

Prescott .-.--.----
South Hadley...
Soulamptou-- ee
IWiarenee fee se secre
qeleman, ae
Williamsburg... .-

Concord). - 2.22.

Grotonse =e Ss:

Hopkinton...-..-
EUS OME yee

Maynard........-
INatiCki =i Ys
North Reading...
Peppe
R

1 Railings.
2 Received f rom State $1,500 and from county $1,000 on this account.

MASSACHUSETTS—Continued.

Amounts appropriated for—

37

TaBLeE 10.—Town revenues applied to roads and bridges outside of incorporated cities,

Amounts paid.

Bridge
repair.

2,000. 00

1914—Continued.
Total town
See aati
applied to F Highway
roads and nea construc-
bridges. tion.
#1, 300.00 $1, 100.00 $100. 00
~00 BWW eee sakosessc
5,700.00 } 3,500.00 2, 200. 00
16,700.00 | 9,000.00} 7,700.00
8,499.86 | 6,240.29} 2)959.57
548. 19 AGN 62) leek soa
13,631.13 | 9,500.00 700. 00
GESS=NO) |e 48000800 | sce eee
5,750.00} 2,000.00 1,800.00
1,650.00] 1,450.00 |...........-
821. 48 B00) 00)| Sat. ae
46,215.76 | 20,400.00 | 6,000.00
40,959.04 | 11,785.09 | 27/612. 06
Acre Say lh) 48000800) |b. ee eae
27,000.00 | 9,000.00} 6,000.00
3,117.50} 2,500.00 500. 00
DAT OOS GON | eet» TOOSO0) ee. ee
1,823.75 | 1,440.00 383. 75
24) 654.57 | 9,500.00 | 14,987.00
AASOONOUN | Te SC0NOON liens s ale
1, 400. 00 800. 00 300. 00
4,300.00} 1,800.00} 1,500.00
1, 200. 00 700. 00 500. 00
16,374.41 | 2,424.95 | 13,253. 79
9,850.00} 3,000.00 | — 6,600. 00
5,757.24 | 2)474.09| 2;147.90
1, 357. 80 626. 90 569. 05
3,400.00} 1,400.00] 1,500.00
900. 00 800. 00 100. 00
1,200.00 | 1,200.00 |........-.=
7,754.32 | 6,920. 01 40. 06
2,500.00 | 2,000.00 500. 00
H340G9U 97) lanI 24629072) |e ee
1; 200. 00
9,559. 40
2” 500. 00
5, 745. 34 }
71,170. 94 L
3) 754. 52 ,
6, 456. 41 i
5,014. 00 5
15, 216. 31 ;
25, 000. 00 i
17, 912. 73 My
1,365. 51 i
4,890. 00 ,
1, 242. 10 ;
11, 684. 83 i
25, 000. 00 ,
18, 086. 20 .
828. 00 :
56, 060. 76 ,
6,000. 00 i
5, 835. 00 i
10, 000. 00 ;
13, 725.39 i
30; 6O1G 491308227500) |i 1a
12,000.00 | 12;000.00 |.........---
10,500.00 | 4,000.00 |........-..-
26,972.55 | 26,226.99 |............
8,150.00 | 1,000.00} 7,000.00
5,554.00} 2,850.00 | 1, 140. 00
23,179.65 | 19,900.65 | 2,950.00
6,050.00 | 5,250. 00 800. 00
25600100) ie el 00500)!" os. ae

Bridge
construc-
tion.

{ 1200. 00

1,350. 00

State on
State high-

ways cover-

County
on

ing town’s} county
share of |highways.

cost.

"373, 92

38

MASSACHUSETTS—Continued.

BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLeE 10.—Town revenues applied to roads and bridges outside of incorporated cities,
1914—Continued.

Amounts appropriated for—

Total town
revenues
County and town. | applied to
roads and | Highway
bridges. repairs.
Middlesex—Contd.
Stoneham.......- $17, 030. 14 | $11, 903. 82
SUON/ooceosspeons> 5, 100. 00 2, 700. 00
Tewksbury..-.---- 8, 750. 00 750. 00
Townsend.....--- 2, 687. 59 1, 800. 00
Tyngsboro....--.- 538. 50 200. 00
Wakefield. .....-- 44,812.19 | 14,989.95
Watertown..-..-. 38,179.88 | 15,792. 00
Wayland......--- 14, 333. 66 3, 504. 54
Westone see eeee. 19, 932. 16 1, 932. 16
Wilmington...... 3,514. 92 1,800. 00
Winchester... .-.-- 66, 000.00 | 51,000. 00
Westford......--- 5, 014. 23 4,000. 00
Nantucket:
Nantuckete.......] 19,720.82 9, 000. 00
Norfolk:
PAS OI a ess sesete 7, 000. 00 1, 000. 00
Bellingham... 7, 446. 65 2, 843. 43
Braintree.......-- 21, 918.56 | 21,918.56
Brookline......--- 134, 533.07 | 78,200. 00
Canton...-.------ 20, 386. 07 16, 277. 47
Cohasset...--.---- 27,020. 00 20, 000. 00
Dedham......-.-- 52, 504. 81 28, 626. 22
8, 201. 11 ae 409. 34
4,845.79 4,255. 79
9,589. 84 9, 238. 35
2, 200. 00 1,300.00
6, 700. 00 6, 000. 00
4,554. 65 3,316.98
ili: 2) 700. 00 2,700. 00
Mil tonbeeneeeee se Wt, 720.65 | 27,301.47
Needham........-. 22; 219.13 | 13,108.51
Norfolk......-..-- 2) 093. 88 2,000. 00
Norwood.....-.-- 33,511.16 | 12,076.98
Plainville...-..-.- - 1,628. 68 1, 400. 00
Randolph. ..-..-. 7, 497. 00 7, 497.00
sharonseeeeeeeec 8, 650. 00 6, 200. 00
Walpole.......--- 10, 589. 26 7,875. 00
Wellesley....-.--- 28,841.21 | 20,124.00
Weymouth.....-- 28,818.00 | 22,625.00
Westwood......-- 7 550. 00 7, 550. 00
Wrentham. .....- 5, 000. 00 2, 500. 00
Plymouth:
Abington........- 5,173. 96 4,150. 00
Bridgewater... .-. 9,353. 92 5,000. 00
Carvers 5c ieee 8, 250. 00 .
Duxbury...--..--- 24° 002. 17 :
East Bridgewater. 8, 648. 38 b
Haifaxceees yee a 800. 00 b
Hanover. Ae 3: 250. 00 L
Hanson 13, 350. 00 :
Hingham. Sa65 O77. 983. 27 , 096.
1S Nd Ee esate ara 36, 381.09 | 13,899.49
Kingston......... 6,030. 83 3, 866. 80
‘Uae lie sasetene 5, 796. 25 5, 629. 32
Marion.......-.-- 19) 261.72 5, 500. 09
Marshfield. ....... 12) 746.70 | 10,009.00
Mattapoisett... -.- 6, 593. 63 6, 500. 00
Middleboro....... 26,584. 56 12, 500. 00
Norwell. ......... 4,990. 00 1,000. 09
Pembroke......-. 5, 757. 29 3, 500. 00
Plymouth........ 41 023.30 | 25, 228.52
Plympton.......- 2, 385. 21 1, 065. 61
Rochester. ...-..- 2) 510. 65 2, 450. 00
Rockland......... 19,012.66 | 18,908.12
Scituate.......... 28, 311. 24 5,000. 00
Wareham.......-- 36,014.77 | 16,914.11
Whitman...._.... 18, 018. 00 9,518. 00
West Bridgewater; 5,012.78 2; 000. 00

1 $500 received from State for this expense.

Highway
construc-
tion.

$4, 876. 75

3,249. 21

97029. 02

2, 450. 00

863. 00
8, 600. 00
5, 993.00

22) 481. 60

1 300. 00

z 478. 41

Amounts paid.

State on
State high-
Ways cover- on

ing town’s| county
share of |highways.
cost.

County

. Bridge
Bridge . construc-
ropa een

$400.00) 2h eee
Hale50.100) | aate teres ie
558100: wa geen cneaay
ee Steg ahanoxeo)
$2 10005003 |e ayaterese
Siena ns 770. 00

2ONOOK Ener
Eee pe 14, 602. 61

PERI ess cconeane
SSE 590. 00
200/008 |e 500.00

143025; [See eee
D650: ae

TEU | sAsesoeacoee
TE 750NO0! [Sete ee
F200" Ons aaa

300500) Baeeeeee eee

2

REALS SaecOvOo!
pe CEDIA Seeders odie
PASO Ell gee ea gue:
Saha als eevee,
45771 soe aee

239. 56

86. 31

3 $700 received from State for this expense.

2 $1,582.50 received from State for this expense.

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 39

MASSACHUSETTS—Continued.

TaBLE 10.—Town revenues applied to roads and bridges outside of incorporated cities,
1914—Continued.

Amounts appropriated for— Amounts paid.

Totaltown
revenues State on
County and town. | applied to State high-| County

Fi Highway = Bridge
roadsand | Highway Bridge ways Cover- on
bridges. | repairs. are repair. ae ae town’s| county
E = share of |highways.
cost
Suffolk
I@VeLe: = =-------- $41,800.00 | $25,000.00 | $16,400.00 | $400.00 |............)........----|----------
Winthrop. ....... 31.510; 00: |? 875500: 00. |! 14, 10X00 Reet: Ses! 38 2 ek os eee
Worcester:
Ashburnham...-. 3, 035. 85 25700: 00) |- 2:22 2se58 300200) | Paes ase eis $35585) | Bane eee
IATHOeee sae S558 U1 645. 37 i eee af sesemogesss2|occooseescllpascecsceoddpsoosessceedlsccoacoses
057. 26 057. 2
Auburn. ........- 3°374.02| 3,000.00 \ Sos Gee 2aces /ps2ceasiea| bes socecace SEB | ocenoccsee
Barrette si sce 7,475.50 | 5,300.00 | 2,000.00 |......----|-.---------+ 175550) | eee
Berbin Sees. 2520 dA; OO) Hany Ga | yee <a ee tee 400.00 |...-.-----
Blackstone. .....- 51350100: |, 3,000.00: | > 1: 500\O0MImSoOSU0I|e-22-2..5-5-1925. 8 oe eons ae
IBOltOnEt 2225: 5. =: 2,000. 00 1,000. 00 D OOOX OO} EE eemases leases ene nas | seamen oe ts | cas seme es
Boylston........- 2, 593. 7 1,920. 57 2597. 71 P7505 10) Dein ne es, ene nia eee es
Brookfield.....-.-- 2,517. 87 : TE IBS) le sscoopabas P2083 | ppeemoremeae 327496 essse ee ce
Charlton { ona \ ee... 700.00 | $1, 200.00 ESiue | heen nee
075.
pinion = nee 15, ya 32 9, 156. 74 AGING Th Perecens se es Seen oc aie ae re
BNA etc Soci sci 00. 00
Mowelas. 3.2 55.5. 2,353. 66
Dudley... 2,500. 00
Gardner 27,000. 00
Grafton... 7, 877. 84
Hardwick 4,500. 00
Harvard 4,850. 00
Molden!) =. =< == } 3,000. 00
Hopedale. .......- 25,500.00 | 25,500.00
Hubbardston.-...| 5,767.99 3, 138. 03
Lancaster...--...- 9,000. 00 9,000. 00
Leicester. .-....-. 8,000. 00 3,000. 00
Leominster.* -..-- 51,491.05 | 42, 219. 64
Lunenburg....... aes 36 aa ano)
. 80 - 80
GECIOL: coeeeiee 2,000.00 | _ 2,000.00
Milford 3e5 25 == -5- 16,277.02 | 13,000.00
Millbury..........| 7,716.07] 4,000.00
New Braintree....| 2,400.00 1, 400. 00
North Brookfield.| 3,000.00 3,000. 00
Northboro......-. 4,570.32 3,855. 11
Northbridge. ____- 18,285.29 | 9,942.09
Oakhamsr ss 2). 1, 400. 00 1, 400. 00
Oxfords 22325 4.- 4,775. 42 4,426. 42
1b: 1(0)1 ee 1, 280. 00 600. 00
Petersham........ 3,800. 00 2,800. 00
Phillipston.......| 1,500.00 1,500. 00
Princeton... 9, 222. 70 5,000. 00
oyalston - 2,800. 00 2,000. 00 600.
Rutland.........- 9,541.49 | 2,448.61 | 46,518.98 58.
Shrewsbury. ..... 5,938.06 | 3,405.87] 1,635.44] 350.00 |........-.-- BAGH T54| mts
Southboro.......- 8,790. 42 6, 200. 00 2, 236: 1G ae eee |e Od SHAD IGN esse eee es
Southbridge..._.. 2659905001 (9213550020051) TL 050: 00n R25 O0O% 00) | Reese ae |aan ice aaeee sleemee Shee
Spencer...........| 7,900.00 5,000. 00 2, 500. 00 AOOR OO Recto tse see el See eens coe eoeom ane
Sterling..........- 38,032.97 | _ 3,089. 13 |» 34,582.59 |---| osteo S615) |e ee
Sturbridge........ 8, 083. 94 { Se 500; OOM etl: | eg 167.16 | $1,007. 00
Sutton............| 17,500.00 | 6,000.00 | 5,000.00 |.......... 500.00 | 5,000.00} 1,000.00
Templeton... .... 4,153.05 | 2,500.00} 1,000.00] 250.00 |...........- TBI lnpeoaeebee
Wiptonse oes. 3.22 2, 500. 00 7BG LIU) Be Asapespcs | lsocosscosn Ssuosbooseser boseedsosceed nasassen65
Uxbridge....-.-.. 5, 672. 00 45000500) S222 2-82 1,500.00 |.-....--.--. YP Bee Sabb bse
Warren........... 7,000.00 | 3,000.00} 3,000.00 | "500.00 500: OO eae ieee: | aetna
Webster.......... 14,948.07] 9,300.00] 4,700.00] 200.00 |.........-.. PARE OT| | eens
Westboro......... 5, 268. 35 Boel ee EE 2 (o ocoto aoe] ABs Teen Eee Aae Sees rcp aes
RifosteBoylstoniee|\) 25596507. [025 500/00) <1. 5s | angen on | REI 96.07 |......----
West Brookfield. . 4,858. 50 1, 700. 00 2; 200,00 | Peeeenee = 825. 00 133. 50 |-.....-.--
Rest instore" (123 OOS OO at (00s O0i!| Sass =< <i | Rename fap ees Comes eee ee
Winchendon......| 18,700.00 | 12,700.00| 4,000.00 | 1,000.00 | 1,000.00 |............|......----
Totalzeeeees es 3,839,094.23 |2,182,104.25 |1,295,198.40 |61, 182. 77 | 135,983.05 | 126, 759. 43 | 37,866. 33
1 Excise. | 4 $2,470.57 received from State for this expense.
23600 received from State for this expense. 5 $32,808.11 received from State for this expense.

3 $1,500 received from State for this expense. 6 State and county tax.

40

BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

MASSACHUSETTS—Continued.

TaBLE 11.—Expenditures for highway purposes by cities—not including sidewalks and
street lighting.

City. Total.
Attleboro.....-..-- $25, 500. 00
Beverly: = 22-0 Je - 71, 629. 35
Boston.-s22 222255: 3, 204, 226, 11
Brockton. .-.-..----- 93, 084. 89
Cambridge.-..-.---- 202, 450. 00
Chelsea. ....------- 59, 169. 93
Chicopee. .-..------ 45,149. 08
Hiverettze---s---- 29,513. 31
Fall River.....--.- 107, 102. 29
Witchburges sss -e-- 203, 967. 96
Gloucester. -.-.-.--.-- 47, 234. 58
Haverhill.......... 89, 348. 91
Holyoke? ==. --22--- 163, 232. 30

City. Total. City _ Total.
Lawrence....-..--- $239, 375.11 |) Quincy.....-.-.-.- $72, 002. 37
Wowell ee epee 199080 4D) |PRCVCTCs oo acca ee 21, 721. 72
VM. o = Ss sseeecee 125,908. 90 |} Salem.............- 62, 003. 74
Maldene sso 2neeenae 116, 137. 00 |} Somerville. .......- 62, 336. 61
Marlborough....-.- 52,677. 01 |} Springfield......... 410, 574. 30
Medford == =areeenee 53, 492. 44 || Taunton.....-....- 83, 967. 15
Melrose heen seen 40,187.76 || Waltham.........- 40,258, 99
New Bedford. ..-.-- 203,105. 62 |) Woburn. ...-...... 37, 292. 14
Newburyport....-- 18, 295. 75 || Worcester.........- 161) 888. 59
Newton! 22: 32222 90, 100. 00 oo
North Adams. .-.-. 27, 890. 26 Total. .......] 6,693, 206. 83
Northampton...-.-. 22,118. 95
Pittsfield........... 211; 183. 29 ||

RHODE ISLAND.

TaBLE 12.—Revenues appropriated by towns from general funds for town roads and
bridges, 1914.

County and town. | Amount.

Bristol:

Barrington $7,000

Bristol-....- wate 7, 000

Warren pees seee 6,300
Kent:

Coventry......---- 7,500

East Greenwich... 3,000

Warwick.......-.- 2,500

West Greenwich. - 3, 000

West Warwick...-- 12,000
Newport:

Jamestown....-.-.- 8,000

Little Compton. -- 1,500

Middletown....-.- 7, 000

|
|

County and town. Amount. || County and town. Amount

Newport—Cont’d. || Providence—Cont’d.

New Shoreham. -. $1, 500 Scituate--22222 222: $4, 000
Portsmouth...-.-- 8,500 Smithfield.......- 4,000
ivertonesseseeeee 4,500 || Washington:

Providence: Charleston. ......- 1,800
Burrellville......- 9,000 TDD Paes cigedookee 1,500
Cumberland.....-} 156,000 Hopkinton......-- 2,500
East Providence. - 2, 200 Narragansett... .-- Ts, 000
Hosters meeesocei 2,200 North Kingston... 6, 000
Gloucester. ...---- 2,000 Richmond. .....-- 3,000
Johnston.....-..-- 5, 000 South aneebonl as 9,000
income eee ae 3,000 Wiesterlys-80 eases 27,500
North Providence. 5, 000
North Smithfield... 8,000 | Dotaleaaseesaee 244, 000

1Includes $40,000 for bridges.

CONNECTICUT.

TABLE 13.—Town revenue applied to roads and bridges, fiscal year 1914-15.

County and town.

Fairfield:

Green wicheee aoe e ee ee Sa ea Seen ae eee
PEL FIN BLOM eee ee seen one aya a ae Ie eee |
IMONTOG 32220 one eon ton cee nce ace ein aca gece ee nee buen
BN Gwar ary Sosa eee LS seth Cea ee ny ae rh
ING walter fel dee eo cee caer ar. yee: epee es ae ere

Newtown
Reddin

Henares eee
Lamond: s22 sees se

Strationd Ges os eee eee
Trumbull

AW IES GOT ae re sree eis cio ter Nada Iie ree oie ce EEE eee ohare
Wiest pontatesiacncigeecmeelseacie sade cx case icine cere eeee
Waltons. crseiapke eres ssieicise sein cite icet Siac iu tis ops ee ee wie siete os

Appropriated by towns for—

Total.
Town Town
roads. bridges.

$4, 439.15 S448 0 nha Gamer eee
3,417.51 3,111.30 $306. 21
25, 154. 07 21, 787.11 3, 366. 96
11, 415. 43 rINIerAst15 7490 | eee
3, 099. 13 2,863.95 935.18
17, 103. 02 13, $57. 90 3, 245. 12
113, 508. 33 iG}, GSB lo sascksssccss-
8, 887. 24 eee ul heme ee
2, 147.19 2, 092. 85 64. 34
16, 102.79 13, 405. 87 2, 696. 92
1, 875.92 1, 548. 00 327. 92
13, 198. 94 9,517.64 3, 681.30
5, 488. 82 4, 274. 49 1, 214.33
11, 820.34 10, 720. 49 1, 099. 85
2, 028. 15 1, 690. 14 338. 01
28, 606. 88 26, 083. 78 2, 523.10
13, 778. 68 13, 009. 83 768. 85
1, 819. 24 1, 665. 04 154. 20
1) 679. 86 i679 5808 Meee eee
29, 809. 62 19, 742. 48 10, 067. 14
5,151.55 | 2, 893.24 2) 958. 31

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 41

CONNECTICUT—Continued.

TaBLE 13.—Town revenue applied to roads and bridges, fiscal year 1914-15—Continued.

Appropriated by towns for—

County and town. Total.
Town Town
roads. bridges.
Hartford:
$1, 620. 20
5, 863. 19
10, 408. 13
8, 752. 80
3, 010. 37
22, 678. 53
9, 839.97
28, 245. 16
8, 121.35
17, 246. 56
3, 232. 76
1, 579.12
32, 603. 85
1, 103. 94
2,151.52
5, 039. 87
1, 433. 98
15, 990. 43
STEAMING OW --seesec dade se sedeuassoeeecusoeee ae Eee see so7= 9,694. 15
DOHCUBWNOSOGS nae ae seeeee ee stan ooo = swam oes 15, 299. 26
STG) Ge Laan e eae ee eee eee See Sasa ene 14, 801. 46
WIESTSHIAR ORG! nose sn oeae seen =e a cew 22 2 es on mise 24, 266. 20
Wiethersncld tas ene settee names oss emess eee 3, 763.01
WAH CSOD re erect te occa cmasacen+ scat Sees 13, 148. 40
Wid Sonmockswe ee ee sces pane. scunss e222 sn 222-2-— enemys 4,302. 67
Litchfield:
Be blenenteemme reece ee ee S52 ic nonce sae. = 2 1 cee 1, 750. 36
Bridgewater 1,781.14
anaan.......- 1, 879. 16
Woleprookseees t= sees ee 6, 709. 10
Walla eee tm sce Sakon 6, 009. 89
GASNGiE.. 2255552 4e5Lesedeedebsseapeasssener sueeaeeecosoc 4,317.71
HIPPO oo coseecsecs cosonsaredsce seecmcseaesseaseasoce 2,973. 54
IRB. oon cose ésace desea ee E Baa EO se SB esse sepeeoesemees scr 5 , 850.95
LNG AIE GL «Sean ceed aeep eb eheEneoas a se BEaeeaneesEps=<cc 12, 123. 67
IMGEIIS Sees area ecee oon cam as oa ccien sem - aise aos = eee 1,182. 61
ING WRELAR MOTO seas a coe nee ses so Se ese ae oe eee 7, 524. 66
Ne waMnliord tent ASce ease ease dee vette 2 ssc 18,374. 45
IN OnIO License eee ae niente = cri => 2 - = see 10, 337. 36
INGA CHB oe onetone cepeacoe Hobe BuO S CBU BEEDEEESeEECSos 5, 432. 78
RIVIMOMUM Pees tence \Sce= ese o52csce sesso s oo - see 3,394. 98
OR DUI Ree eee eres dee een noe bates 2's sae ee See 2,345. 50
DANSUURVErre mC rere ais fone eee Ses aay Sea S22 - eee 6,376.09
ISLIGSIOLS Ou Son Oe SABI OSI nea a eee a 10, 020. 82
PRHOMIASTONES se eee ese ee sence ie seen anes otee 2s eee 5, 914.18
PRODEIME LOW eee eee ion ye aan es ssc eens ees eee 20,173. 47
BECHER ens aL Mee AcE ean el i 1, 552. 32
SWIASHING LONE Meee 2.2 e a se see ease Sestice = 2. esis sae 6, 757. 69
SWiatertowmeeame nen. <2 yaa eie oo i.e 10, 563. 34
IWRTICHESTO Tee ema not teen cine emde ees os cee 32, 233. 58
PiCod biinyaesene ee i. Fea Met ee AO. woh ee 4,817.99
Middlesex: id
6, 067. 31
4, 295.36
2,597.29 :
1, 468. 98 1,189.65 279.33
2,409.03 1, 336. 31 1,072. 72
5, 136. 21 GS Bay Pee Apso aeaea
1, 735. 71 E76 (Ald Sececococorce
3, 409. 49 35400849) eae we coerce.
Kenn gw Onthees tenons se sea saeses sce 222-222 ce- sees 2,216. 92 1,979. 61 237.31
ad dleticl dies sae i eee ee ose se = cc 3, 596. 00 2,000. 7 1,595.30
MICO rated our aEe eos SoS us esaReeee were emmeemercs o\a 16, 604. 22 13, 588. 72 3,015.50
OidiSayDrookseeee tes eee ree seiac ise enc s eset eee 1, 268. 78 749. 62 519.16
PROnnand eye eens here ee hc eco ces see. sce sen eels fi aeeee 2, 858. 02 2, 504. 62 353. 40
SH CRW) pe ence Ses on See ean aie ae eee cn 2,132.34 PIB Y) ex ee eae Scene
BVIESEDTOO Korey ae eee eee se eee ee hc 1, 888. 65 1,812.35 76. 30
New Haven:
Beacon alls sfese see ces seca ss aoe acs e222 2 al eee 1,019. 87 634. 33 385. 54
TEGIR TNT scaeeococanecaaoeacsou seHecceeeEERonenepeEdeaas ec 2,978. 23 PUTER OS). | Eoaaenaaeeiseer
RAMOT nese se se eee een see te soos eee see oa 2 aan ee 6,084. 72 GlOS84 72 Shs see scee
CHGSING) 5-6 Baca manencsocoge suena suanods Son seBBOSeEEe Os occ 3,173.77 SIV BM Boss soee sarees
HAS HH AV CM aa saeeeer= eeisesaeeae anes ses sos = = Scene 1, 558. 39 1,514.50 43. 89
CUOMO oo sonscosenbononoLaee nner cnn paHeeaeoneRaceEocon’ 4,557. 03 4,058.95 498. 08

42 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CONNECTICUT—Continued.

TABLE 13.— Town revenue applied to roads and bridges, fiscal year 1914-15—Continued.

Appropriated by towns for—

County and town. Total.
Town Town
roads. bridges.

New Haven—Continued

IMaAGisone re eee noses cee ses sce bes cncekne ae acme $4, 580. 06 $3, 944. 77

Moric Omsts 3 See eh Se ere ae an rcans aeeeeen arenas 24. 902. 38 24, 902. 38

Midd Terry eee bo Regie MERI BEN nt eas ee Ma sae naan 2,443.57 2,030. 21

PMT POT ey oe OE ial he rede pee eee a cera tters 14, 043. 42 13, 390. 48

North) Brantorde ee oe sen esac soe soem seieereeie yarecee 1,894. 68 1, 471.56

NODE Eta vera seis OE Sie ING RS 1G NA ayers a) Seep panes ae a 4,037. 79 3, 748. 03

Orange ee ee Re One Sse le Nar ee a sre amrent ere See tare 16, 525. 79 13, 057. 05

(OS Soo re Reha y er Ree Rat oe Eis en eS BE eS nee 2, 665. 53 2, 665. 53

IProspec tee ee et asec eee eee eee eo cee ee meeieme eels 1,181.60 1,181. 60

Seyan our so caer ee ee ea che UN ee Se 9,515. 84 6, 900. 88

Southbury ree ewer sess Sa, Sees el sa an aye seve ieee eke n= 4,873.74 4,873.74

ANE NULIEROROe Scene acscbososes sesso osssoscusosasncob0u0s 6, 121.07 4, 294.34

IWWIOICO LEU See eee recs are nae ee yeti spears oer bere are pertetase 1, 911. 26 1,911. 26

WiOOd bridges. jacr crise he) se es Su SEEN rape eres ravalorel 3, 613. 58 3,347.01
New London:

SB Yay Arp? 4 eset Seen ege rey oe te ee a SNS ee cM eet r 1,501.34 951. 66

@olechesten ee oom nae eee sae eens eiayer = 3, 608. 29 3, 608. 29

TOPNS Ba Dara nals) sev ase ret NO DAE Del can eer aya Ailes AL leek aan 8, 841.17 8, 841.17

DOpaeal edb hanew Mee eben Lier Ihe aoe eN ous alate 1,479.81 1,479. 81

Gino. sosassbcosaccesebeedsousaeocancecescsoeooreconuc 3, 893. 30 3,321.77

(CHO) IO bee sear it tae ROS Re lta Te ta 5 oy NE es SE a 10, 861. 65 10, 861. 65

Lebanon 4,071.76 4,071.76

Ledyard.. 3,319. 44 3,319. 44

MEISWOMS soos ace ae ee ee eee 477.14 428. 22

1 Dhan dl GUM Ne etnies Kean SRR eae ia 1, 250. 02 1, 033. 06

Montville 5,185. 23 3, 855. 07

North Stonington...........---- SBE Era Bob nuE boGaBEogBeHeoS 3, 463. 28 3, 463. 28

INOPWMO Ne So sasegssasnsasetoscsspeccasodeoumscssossuesgcads 43,901.17 41,537.40

CO) GLI Bais rape neater Aces NeNe Ne CAGES 7 Gan Sacer er 1,374.35 1,374. 35

IPTES TOMS eee eye ee ee neat eee ele Siero Se areolar ete Soot at cie oat 3, 483. 69 3, 483. 69

(Sy orn: Veq0 ey SNe st Wen ae Brie Sertich Leas Smee ereneae 16, 199. 90 2,938. 24 13, 261. 66

SUCHIN Neds seus Ucar sobtnansn ses ons onoAscaocuosesdsood 18, 200. 12 16, 963. 76 1, 236. 36

MolUum tone ene eye Sam cists reise nook ee ee ee sae asia staieie 896. 77 CORI eon eease cesar

Wie terior ieee es ape nae Rae eed RUE SMe scare ety si ax 8, 489. 28 ae RD as ON Ole Gases
Tolland:

RTC OV ET Sete iney cae ya eicae ere ee Sep cre ereieiste ste se sinc 752. 40 641.32 111.08

1510) [hla pasiees abo SBan Snare AACOEE BOSE Sama aeetas oS Se Be SaerEeeS 1, 247. 10 L247 10 nis yoedeneyee

Columbia sense a foes acsis rere cele see eee Sees anieiee 970. 75 888. 81 81.94

COVentry See ess seis sees aye ee see eee ee oiccre 4, 289. 63 2,951. 36 1, 338. 27

GTB GON ea rete sos Stora otepedfo mss Tae eee estes arene 4,911.01 4;911 Ol lee eos eeeae

MELE DIONE. Sere a cto ee tees eee nee ieee asisaes 1, 182. 76 151825760 | Seeeeee SAAR

IMAMSHEV Ge ae Selene ates Salers eye ciate Me ys ee etal retentions 9, 139. 22 7, 907. 20 1, 232. 02

SOTMCTS Eee eer rete ems nae aes Nemec le as A IM aya icc 4,174. 88 40174. 88). eae oe

F}LH2 50) 0 Ls esas aa ae re Deg ae RN aR EN 2151 (ee a 3, 937. 03 3,092. 11 844.92

AMO) 0X0 eS eee re ey ae ere ee Sr ea ee 3, 704. 06 3, 704.06 |.......-.-----

Union 995.15 Cees by | eSccosscsonée

Vernon... 10, 129. 35 9,614.95 514. 40

Willington 6, 248. 83 2, 443. 82 3, 805. 01
Windham:

IBTOOKIY MAE SAGs Ss aac heen eaten ihe tts Neer oefae 2,161.81 DAGT Sia senee see =

Cantenbunyeaeecmente reece era sence eee eeeerr eee eer 2,310. 88 911.50 1,399. 38

(Chie) ob eR ee Scee aE ot crea ent as OS eaa 879. 73 821.03 58.70

LOE GIO) ROMA Ae aM Gece Sn ae e eet OAM = Nels OF SDAP ames TOG Oasis cenesecee 166. 71

18 BY 10) 0) 20 es Sa NB ORCA SME eos rep nee aoe a meen 1, 404.59 1, 270. 63 133. 96

INIA eae aces seeedabeusoseSeanessuEaen ae sacopsenasas 4,991. 65 3, 768. 41 1, 223. 24

TEAE boy ATS) Ee SE vee a Oe See een see Seen 6, 032. 39 5, 120.37 912. 02

Exo yaa as) Ges ase aN a en Oye Il eA eS. 5) ches a eS 11, 479. 52 9,941.19 1, 588. 33

IPUITMA IIIS yates clicks sears Ric lanier cis ee eevee 4,607.90 1, 203. 20 3, 404. 70

Scoble ree se Nee AEN Ae ee iy ec oe einer delat isos 1, 279. 40 1279-40) Saree se

Stern sare eis eRe IER ON SS TER aaa aee Te SSI 3,053. 21 1, 770. 06 1, 283. 15

PhHOMPSOMse se soe ce Meee ee ese else ia See cee eee 7, 954. 86 7, 582. 08 372. 78

AVI essa ss tere aes geo al is a eee 15, 860. 42 7, 970. 80 7, 889. 62

WiOOGSTOC Kas See chee rte Me 2 eh eens eee cialern ioe 7,924.92 6, 109. 19 1, 815. 73

Ca Fa asad SES SA ia i Aisa A IME St ae 1, 212, 780.58 | 1,059,511.05| 153.269. 53

APPENDIX B.
TABLES OF BOND ISSUES.

» Massachusetts is the only State of the New England group in which the towns have
issued road-improvement bonds.
are hereby presented in tabulated form.

MASSACHUSETTS.

TaBLE 14.— Massachusetts State highway bonds.

The State issues, together with those of the towns,

Date | Amount . Interest |} Date | Amount 5 Interest
issued. | issued. Dale oumaunliy. rate. issued. | issued. Date of maturity. rate.
Per ct. Per ct.
3.5 || 1910..-.] $52,500 | Oct. 1, 1915, to Oct. 1, 3.5
3. 5: 1919; $10,500 each
3.5 year.
3.5 || 1910...-| 180,000 Odt. 1, 1920, to Oct. 1, 3.5
3.5 1939? $9, 000 each
3 year.
3 1911...-| 66,000 | Oct. 1, 1915, to Oct. 1, 3.5
3 1920; $11,000 each
3 year.
b 3.5 || 1911...-| 200,000 | Oct. 1, 1921, to Oct. 1, 3.5
L 3.5 1940; $10,000 each
b o ib. 3.5 year.
1905....| 160,000 |} Apr. 1, 1915, to Apr. 1, 3.5 || 1912....} 122,500 Oet. 1, 1915, to Oct. 1, 3.5
1930; $10,000 each 1921: $17, 500 each
year. year.
1906....| 220,000 | Apr. 1, 1915, to Apr. 1, 3.5 || 1912....| 85,000 | Oct. 1, 1922, to Oct. 1, 3.5
1936; $10,000 each 1926; $17,000 each
year. year.
1907....| 276, 000 ees 1, 1915, to Apr. 1, 3.5 || 1912....] 120,000 | Oct. 1, 1927, to Oct. 1, 3.5
1937; $12, 000 each 1936; $12,000 each
year. year.
1908. 396, 000 | Apr. 1, 1915, to Apr. 1, 3.5 || 1912....] 55, 000 Ot. 1, 1937, to Oct. 1, 3.5
ee $16,500 each 1941: $11, 000 each
yea year.
1909. ... 1,000 | Oct. 1. AQT ceeeen 3 1913....| 648,000 | Oct. 1, 1915, to Oct. 1, 3.5
1909... 40,000 | Oct. L 1915, to Oct. 1, 3 1922; $81,000 each
1919: $8, 000 each year.
year. 1913....] 300,000 | Oct. 1, 1923, to Oct. 1, 3.5
1909....) 120,000 | Oct. 1, 1920, to Oct. 1, 3 1927; $60,000 each
nee $6,000 each year.
: 1914....| 697,500 | Oct. 1, 1915, to Oct. 1, 3.5
1909....} 40,000 Get. iL "1915, to Oct. 1, 3.5 1923; $77,500 each
ou $8, 000 each year.
1914....| 295, 000 OnE 1, 1924, to Oct. 1, 3.5
1909....] 100,000 Oat. se 1920, to Oct. 1, 3.5 1928: $59, 000 each
1939: $5, 000 each H—————|__ year.
year. Total |8, 699, 500
TaBLE 15.—Town road and bridge bonds and notes.
Total ‘NeaotinE Amount Amount sold during 1914.
County and town. outstanding | expended | retired |—~—— ati
bonds to during during Mermbinnlsiaterest
Jan. 1, 1915. 1914. 1914. Amount. years. rate
Barnstable: Per cent.
Barnstable...........--.--.- $41 500500852 ok = etd eerste eisisneiceciciclticar esis ce cl scisoceecine
OURO sanas ee cece eek 40,300. 00 | $16,491.33 | $7,100.00 |............|.........-|_..-------
IBTeWSteiss-s-2< sc sasess eee 13,800. 00 3, 460. 00 2,400.00 | $4,000.00 4 4
Dennis. oe 7, 652. 34 3, 356. 02 3, 750. 00 3, 356.02] 1to 5 4
Eastham 2,020.00 |.....------. SROROQH Breweries nc cpneeeaa tea een eeOR AS
Falmouth 23, 500. 00 9,455.15 5, 500. 00 3,500.00 |Demand 5
Harwich 12, 590. 00 4° 101. 71 1 709. 50 8, 100. 00 1to 5 43 to 54
Mashpee 2,400. 00 300: OOF RRR ERR sss Ceceic tsi asics cs eee eee ee
ORIGANIS Hea eee eee meee se PUATODSW: | co oesennsoc|eecussoocose ito 4 3.6
Sandwich 8,000.00 |...-.-..---. DSO00S00W iste ee alee he se
ONTUIT Ose Sates oe ee 2,000. 00 2,000.00 |..........-. 2,000.00 5 4
Sarmouthes .eeseeeee eee 10, 356. 23 4,356. 23 3, 250. 00 4,356. 23 1to 3 4
Mo tals aces Vetiy eens i 164,118.57 | 63,520.44 | 25,289.50} 25,312.25 |..........|........--

44

BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

MASSACHUSETTS—Continued.

Taste 15.—Town road and bridge bonds and notes—Continued.

County and town.

Berkshire:

Monterey
Richmond sees ee see eee eee
Sandisfield..........---.----
DSViOVee ne en oon
Stockbridge............-.---
‘Windsor

Swansea. aes o. 2 ees
Westport..2.......0..2------

Dukes:

Essex:

Amesbury
Groveland
Tpswichee ew iee tae sonee nse
Manchester..........--..--.-
Marblehead
Nanaia. Sees. MaMa Sis
Salisbury snass se eee
Swampscott..........-....--

Franklin:

‘Buekland yee ceo. see eee oe
Charlemont
Deerfield................-

Montaciereres eee etre eeee
Northfield..............--.--
Sunderland

Hampden:

East Longmeadow
Longmeadow. ..........----
IAIN Ores ey eee ule en Ee

Hampshire:

Belchertown........---.----
Blandford.................--

shea osssecansancace
South Hadley.............--

A t sol i eas
otal Amount | Amount Amount sold during 1914
ouisiending expended eres
Oa Ae) pats HEIs Termin | Interest
Jan. 1, 1915. 1914. 1914. Amount. years. patel
Per cent.
$41,000.00 |.--..-..--.- $6;900..00 | .2seccescde nooo teseeeecs
2,500.00 |. ..2.2.-5--- 2 BOOMOON Gre Re say ill arene geen ie
700. 00 $700.00 |.:..-------- $700. 00 4 6
000/005)" ¥53.000%000)) | 400005002 =< 5-02. se|n ee 5
TS OOOO eae eens ec tals ee a RE ia a
3,000.00] 1,500.00 |...........- 3,000.00 | 5t010| 42and 5
5,000.00 |..--.------- 5POOO KOO Saas) ee nee ce | eee eae
ap soe Bam ig A Ua IA eb ea ca 1,000. 00 Gil es gebie
54, 200. 00 7, 200.00 | 18, 400.00 A TOOROO NS o Rea Eee | eo ea
13, 600. 00 4,600. 00 3, 500. 00 4,600. 00 ito 4] 4and6
15, 500. 00 8, 000. 00 2,000. 00 8,600. 00 4) 4and5
59,450.00 | 6,850.00 | 4,664.00] 6,850.00] 1to 5 43
12,000.00 |.---.------- 4,000.00 |.-..-- BIBS) Becsncesral baceoEccee
6,100.00 |...-.--.---- TS OCON00>|bacnw Sats. 530 Ole: aaie |e eee
7,500.00 | 2,462.67| 1,000.00] 3,500.00! 1to 5 4
F000N0O TRS det onal: Siniscc stemware ak iets (OEE El nn
27,800.00 | 14,000.00 | 7,000.00 | 16,500.00] 1to 5 4h
143,950.00 | 35,912.67 | 24,064.00 | 39,450.00 |..........|..--.---..
TOOL icon nosereee B75 00's gee ee a ee chy a ai
5-500) 00)) \inva5009 00). eat oe 1,500. 00 10 4h
2,500. 00 1, 500. 00 675. 00 DL SOOROO Heats os oe alee sarete ores
134000800) | Seeee eee 3 Q00%00 |e cis. teeta es Une bel
S LURECES ON GR |bs sles Ones OOO 40051 ae cee A es eh
SAOOOs OO ee Er ALY, Meier Se NB SBCA aie ORL | eae
300COKO0N |me26"402527H | nieeunl eee 60,000.00 | 1to 3 4
30,000.00 |.........--- BB OOOO [RY 8 1 1eO8 eae ote |e epee
TNO) ||,-cossesodes 5 00000 eee hS AOR Pee es eee
SOOO NOON Goo Reale ee CeCe a RE ee vs
83,840.00 | 59,621.96 |...........- 77, 600. 00 1 to 20 4
194,840.00 | 86,024.23 | 64,000.00 | 137,600.00 |.........-]-------...

8,000. 00

250.00 |...-.--.----
8,000.00 | 1,000.00
eA SL NPON Mec Se era 30, 000. 00 3h
5,500.00 | 6, 250.00 250.00 | 6,000.00] ito 5 5
21,750.00 | 12,020.99| 4,000.00 | 36,000.00 |..........|.-.-.-.---
1,250.00 | 1,250.00} 1,000.09 | 1,250.00 1 5
394500800) Hames 6, OCOMOD seks cotie Oe Ra aan Cee eae
eg SU SAN RE BOOOROO SE ss aed see be Sey: | peeemnagas
10,000.00 |.......-..-. TGOON OOS boc: See | ee EO aes ie
17AOOON COM Mp ee ae 1000/04] se bc so aN ae 1 Se
60,750.00 | 1,250.00 | 15,500.00] 1,250.00 |..........]..........
AAS) Sa SAB BOLOO MIE LAU Hei Weis. aaa) am eel pea ae
5,600.00 | 2)600.00} 1,000.00} 2, 600.00 5 4h
OE teal ie FORTEC) | Cs, BOING Gace ae ome Lc. oma
6,000.00 | 6,600.00 |....2....... 6,600.00 | 1to 3 4h
4.500: CONEMEE EES. EAOORGTO) | ey ee RON tee EEE ls 8 Vat
12735" 86) eee anes AV ISOSOON sees sao eee eS | Re oe
31,100,000 Seen gts TUSCEON TT) asia ann nee Gintedi| |) Th nei:
2500.00 | 2,500.00 |....2....... 2,500.00} 1to 10 5
62,435.86 | 17,759.29 | 14,100.00] 11,700.00 |..........|--.--.---

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES.

MASSACHUSETTS—Continued.

45

TaBLE 15.—Town road and bridge bonds and notes—Continued.

County and town.

Middlesex:
Are TOMS ee ace <i so 2-6 ee
JAG) a Bia 2 eee eae

HOpkantones ss s.s- sce ces
MOWKSDULY: = 2222-cc--cec- 5-2
MEVMESOLO.s< --\'s0--- cc e se
Wakenoldtss 222) = 52 25. 22222
DVAteRLOWNee sce cece ese -
Wraylan@ere seo. ocs sen

Nantucket: Nantucket....--.--.

Norfolk:
Bolingham=eeeer ee aes eee
Sirol) oaesosecusuceuoud

Wiallpoletee asso bese

Plymouth:
IDGBs) QTY oecHemaesseosseccee
East Bridgewater.-.....----
Hingham
fe TR ales hei 2 ahs

Py MOUUD Ses snes co ssine
Wianeham ssa ee orcas
\iiuiniitin oo 56eu5uesdecuoes

Northbridge -e--essssee ee
iprineetoneeer.. 2s] sce ce
Rutland
Southbridge...........-.....
NPENCOL sae 2h hee os
bOuL IM pee Ree ee us
Templeton........--...-----
Wixnid rosea reese ee
West Brookfield...........--

Amount sold during 1914.

Total Amount Amount
cupseaning expended routed
ones ie0 during uring Term in | Interest
Jan. 1, 1915. 1914. 1914. Amount. years. nara
Per cent.
$18, 700.00 | $9,227.79 | $6,000.00 | $8,700.00 1to10 | 4and 4%
QESOONOO I ss2)s «nee eee | Meets eerie 2,500. 00 Ito oulesc eee
4,000.00 |...--.-.---- 500. 00 5, 000. 00 1to 10 4
3, 000. 00 2,000. 00 1,000. 00 2,000.00 | land 2 3
IBY UO, C0 |Scacosoncce= 2,000.00 | 13,000. 00 lto 6 42
50,500.00 | 15,836.58 | 21,000.00 5,000. 00 lto 5 4.
IEC WO Se saeeesseec BMS CO Denesescncos boostecconsscoorades
COO) lssoseococsac 1,000.00 5,000. 00 ais) Kemeboadas
Ui acetate Site 5 OOO: 00 eps separa eh [etc eo SBA Wee ate aI Sat
PCS || PWV |o22ceascoce 2,000.00 |....-....- 42
350.00 127. 50 TOUS eee cepa Ie setae cieen neice See
30,000.00 | 23,700.00 6,000.00 | 18,000. 00 1to 3 4
111, 000. 00 6,516.11 | 11,000.00 8,000.00 | 3and 5 1
8,000. 00 6, 000. 00 500. 00 §, 000. 00 1lto 3| 4hand5
258,050.00 | 70,407.98 | 51,127.50} 85,200.00 |.....-....]-...-.-.--
435 500X008 Meeeneeee ae @G10.0.(0))| senaeeeeeees||bsebese ses seeacbocee
1, 600. 00 1,600. 00 1,000. 00 1,600. 00 1 4
276,750.00 | 18,454.21 | 57,050.00} 40,000.00 1to 8 4
32,740.00 | 21, 425. 61 5,500.00 | 25,000.00 1 to 20 4
1,000. 00 2,500. 00
, 458.
: L
5 5 1,000. 00 2,900. 00
ama Ae AR em Ses teas ote SOIRU0S aacueepoeace ssocceearel aeccaresos
SUMOLM) oaassasoness iL O0US CD) eo ceceeoscon loeashoncsa oeauabnees
323,948.69] 44,379.82 | 71,150.00 | 69,500.00 |.......-..]..---...--
22,000.00 | 15,487.37 |....-.....-- 22,000. 00 lto 5 44
SBS OD|\caacaconce=< PROOOROOG easciccnen sts |itosc essen leseeaclaea
IB} BY25 AD Nscosbdcodacc ©), SUDS(00:agsecseneessleaauaeananaepoooseear
89,675.00 | 19,954.78 |......-..-.- 17,000.00 | 1to 10 4
TL VO,OD |acoeceecesse 1,500.00 |......... Eee SAS aa
2,200.00 | 2,200.00 |.....-....-- 2, 200.0 1 6
3, 200. 00 45300500) Beeeeeeeeeae 3,200.00 | land 2 44
LS S5OONOOs | Sess 4 oc. 2:. 08 | peepee nreies iene era as oI eet eae hem Sere
13,920.00 | 13,500. 00. 1,710.00 | 13,500.00 |..........]-....-..--
SKOOOKOON|; 814308S 551 MumalOOORO0N| eee ieee aun heed nena ee
163,867.20 | 57,250.70 | 11,210.00 | 57,900.00 |......---.|..--------
11, 470. 00 2,485. 46 1,100.00 3000. 00 6 4
14,500. 00 UW ANOS CD looscecosoree 14,500.00 |..-...-..- 4
2,500.00 |...-.-.----- TROOOS OOS eee SEE eh LRGs Soa A ste aee
LOO O0) |opedecepoeso|lbososecccoos 1,950. 00 lto 2| 4and5
500. 00 ENIEOD loncscsancose 500. 00 1to 5 5
ese eet GN a atest 11,050. 00 3,683.33 | 11,050.00 3 4
SA litt al etal hee ween PROS ON OO eee ese ee | eat tes ea ee a
é-(00@) |lecooucansone TOU) | ceeeseseseca oseostcocs| Cussoseeas
2,000.00 |...--....--- DEOOOKOO Soo ese LOC
0 NOS, Ue ee eneeeees tal ldoudcdcescac 5,000. 00 5 44
825. 00 B12) 154 eee eae 825.00 | land 2 6
112,112.50 | 43,413.38 | 22,983.33 Coser 4). OD) eaeeasonselloesbonss6e
1, 606, 022. 82 | 440,639. 50 | 328,999.33 | 511, 487.25 |.....--.-.|-...------

APPENDIX C.

ROAD MILEAGE TABLES.

Tables referred to in the text, showing the miles of public roads in the respective
States, outside of the incorporated cities.

MAINE.

TABLE 16.—WMiles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.

County and town.

Androscoggin:
Durham......--

Greene.........

Aroostook:

Dyer Brook....
E. Plantation...
Eagle Lake....-
Easton ...------
Forkstown.....
Fort Fairfield -.
Fort Kent......
Frenchville. ....
Garfield........
Glenwood......
Grand Isle.....-
Hamlin
Hammond.....-
Haynesville....
Hersey ....-..--
Hodgdon.......
Houlton. .-....-
Island Falls....
Limestone.....-.
Linneus.......-.

46

Total
mileage,
all
roads.

Surfaced roads.

Graded
Macadam Increase| _ 2nd
Olas se Per- in Greed
ar otal | centage | surfaced
Teelareern Gravel. | surfaced |surfaced.| of total | mileage | Toads.
Plain. magna roads.! sutfaeed.| over
1909.
eee | mai aes 475 SSececeee BC fel beeen tere 0 es ea 0. 26
0.73 0. 46 Ol5G7 |e azisceee ASLO) | ectroe aa oe | Reo
SO Secisc) ome mnece SnO0) |Scemecee. SOON eine ee eal ere eee -78
fea co cael ota ea Sh SEQ0 tI Sees BH20! Sas See ns | Se ae Se ee
Seren ~12 2.39 10.00 0B id eee ee Pere ele is = m8
OO Wise ts a NS48) | cease Wi5aa| Breen nes oe eee aero
Re Eee Scare oe DEQ0 i Rees 2520! |e oc cene Sel soe as one eee
Ueigee eee alee eet ERO. loshasaeee Bie dll aoa Bam seas Se ll
Sse reso (EOC ease GE27e Meee oe er canoe 577
Be Mois Uiee aman BEI’ | OSOOM iy 1 Sah | ee eet ce | Sanat eal alee
bois RES SEL 1 Loneseaoe ee Cy eae a eae 26
Sele ile ii ja ea QDHO No.2 obsoe PRY A Ie Seka ese ee ae ese le crepes ci
.79 -58 29.79 20. 00 51.16 5.33 |—157. 52 1.63
2 11.
Se eas | ee TGS Beer see
ys eee P| aor Ae TAD Sec meeoe
SLE E ae ocd | ely Nahe ra 1 Leta) Hel Besar
See eae eee yeaa Se PAY Ail ep egactes
ata Rt aa Ie ea oe 2856) We as cee
Ae oh tea ee ae HA0OF Sees ose
eae ce ae ae ae ea DEON |Saeaesos

1 Classification not given except as indicated in footnote.

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES.

MAINE—Continued.

47

TaBLE 16.—WMiles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

County and town.

Aroostook —Contd.
Littleton.-....--

Macwahoc....--
Madawaska...--

Molunkus....-.

New Limerick. .
New Sweden...

Perham ss s----
Portage Lake. ..
Presque Isle...-

Sherman....-..-
Silver Ridge...
Smyrma.-..-.-.--

Woodland....--

* Cumberland....
Falmouth......
Freeport.....--.
Gorham......--

Naples..........
New Gloucester.

Raymond......
Scarboro....--..

Windham......

Total

mnileage,
all

roads.

Macadam
. Bitumi-
Plain ance

Surfaced roads.
Graded
Increase} _ 2nd
Other Per- in ained
Gravel hard Total | centage |surfaced| earth
vel. | surfaced |surfaced.| of total | mileage | roads.

roads.

surfaced.| over

1909.

OLOO) enact ss alees Geese 1.417 | 0.093 TE SLON ree eles. Saale aiat/
A AOROO! Bee ceeeralee emer 4° 604 |. eee 42600 Moose cal ee cue 2.89
200. 00 871 3. 959 1.534 |----.-.-- GG) oc aséccddaeasasace -019

30400) | see eee Ipsweestice E324 | GLOOM ee 115 3240) Eras eee 5 eee a Ree een ee

GMD) |ootossede Vee esd 7e142))| 20K OOM | RE 2iep 42) | Baemee es Sena . 699

WPHCD Wo Sasoaged | 3.16 2534)" || (SCHOO: | rai BONN Ee Sees sah ees ee . 081

56.00 |.-------- 4.054 1.929 | 28.00 Osh U)sa) le cebaones seeesebas |lsasceuass
260. 00 F227 Ea Tnod 2,346 |---...... NDSICE)s Beas eeeee anmere - 606
300400) |Peeeeeee- [Peers PNGS)|| SOOO. || S.C) |esco lve Genebsens .414

CBE(Uel boacraues| Boeeenece (oP) Wemoscescc (BGP) [bo ce coced Pa ee ers Aner

HOOD |sscacese [eee 2.994 |... 22550) NOG AG yin pe S| A es ria ee ae

60.00 |.....---- Bbeeeaeee GHIBE becsoccee SEATS Bee ee ena na . 756

GO ROO!) EE oe stee es 31296) | eae SE DOCU Magee se] fe cue DON Ieee
TIS), |e dseqceae|eeaeeane 3.062 | 25.00 | 28.062 |........-]....2.... - 431

AB OO) See 2am eal are ye oe 1978 | eae USCA CMe ees ee - 045

(PAU OSHS Shee seneeoeae PHU \lescoorscc PBN Ne se era 317

BONOO) | Sees sale oes 2d 1.549 |........- SEP) BeBe Seas eae enae .114

GOKOO) RB SSE K cease 2645 | eee eeeee GAS Niece =< 5 URE oes 1.97
ONO! eeeaect - cIyee oe ce 3 45266) || 50500 )an lie 54s 206) le Gee eee RASS Nee eae

5 ONOO | eee evens ae 7590) cae SLT) il ae cesar Ieee ean EAE eee
100. 00 ZO Sees ee 1.239 | .148 2hO8S) Sees eee Le: . 129
TOON OO! | sess ea eee 5: 034 |. “aes BOBS MERLE [eet case . 057

AQN 00) | ewer 3. 47 POU eboonaoo- SECT a ha oeae) GS mean aE eae

2,133.00 | 1.799 | 22.213 | 65.506 | 199.241 | 288.759 | 13.86 |—178.471] 9.098

48

MAINE—Continued.

BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE 16.—Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.

Total Macadam imcrease Baath
County and town. antenee: Other nace Per. in drained
g. ar otal | centage |surfaced T
oad easyer Gravel. | surfaced |surfaced.| of total | mileage | roads.
Plain. ACTS roads. surfaced.| over
H 1909.
Franklin
INOS ga eS DOSOOU Peas aah ahce ween NEGO Eee eee D695] She ee Sal ee cece 0.18
@anthagess-ceeea) 40500) |eet eee. eee ee eee 2.67 0. 75 Be Ale Seen oe alee eee .18
Chesterville... GONO0 0 Re ae Ale ee ae PEOG Gla crmtere Serete VOGH Shs See ce [pera 63
Coplin.........- ISO Pe eoeaseslaadosaoss ANGO) |i etree Ai BO | MPa ae elle yer See ete ae eer
Crockertown. SOOM eee ceeleee aes $20 Nee catiee en 2G RD ANE Se A ermine 81
Dallasteeee eae TPE OO eee Mi ere 16), |e eee a Oke AE ie eae eee esis Ut ls Me
Farmington 80. 00 OBGB) eseconces WOT Neceeeceee be Foes Mas aries Neel Neri esa bets 8
Freeman. ...... ASHOO | CES Oe ce ce MSbAW eS cee MDA Ae ess lee ech cll pee ee ee
HTIStIS =e eee e eee 1DROOM EERE eee eae cael DESMA emcee a Qe BT | AE? lela al eee ee eh pet
Industry ...-..- 3000 ESE eo. | eseeeeeere 12 88 [Ee leeten iste suoosecelleoopsaaes . 76
A ees ees 127. 00 Hetilgaceeaea Saye Sessa sacs D250 | alee So. s eee .10
Jerusalem. ..... 12500. |e soles See ee PODiles tem ace re SOD) | led Te eee ee su
Kinefield....... PEO Gas se eee eas QUE SH eee cee nee QE GR: ARR |S epee eet
Lang..... Agee SNOOn Cee cle eee 2.02 8. 00 Os O2h ABs sere aicel ieee hee wee ee
Madrid ......... SONOOR | Bae ess Sess see ee 2.73 20. 00 D2 (d| soe se Base eco See eee eee
New Sharon. . HolO0k| eee Ute eae 1296: (2. ceases POG he Sess 3 Pee eee si
a ey Vineyard. i eo BRS Seana: ae 1.35 10. 00 1/30" sce Sa aleneweecee =08
erkins......... ROOM ake oles ss See Asin ecisasoes OSH Selah Guellinceeercere . 04
eae PSs al OOOOH |e eee ce 3. 96 25.00 285 960 Aaah eee eases .92
angeley....-.- OTA noaeatar seceeae ce ILD |lpssosease L860 | 5. oat eet - 90
Rangeley ae :
tation)... SOO ree Sse eee SOG ee teeeake OGMISNS eed eee -48
Salem 2 == 22: 205008 h aes aceleenccee ee 387 nekeceaex Ode ere ses ae emereeee .66
sandy. RAVCE=2-<) 2 LOSOOK eee he eee ee WSS) see Reese PS QTS | AOS sees ellie cee ees | Ren cene ss
Stroneee oe HOLOOW ines aloe ee EOP) Ioccanenae AS 09) UR as ML eee il
emp. : 0 oe Real Sacks oil 1.46 30.00 31. ae JESS eee ci se -07
ashing on. DAL ea cemaerea| aerator ay) Joaasscooe Bt ea shoSasos| aeeendooo) Sascecae
Weld........... GOHOOS|a eases eee eee RO |lbagooocce 5¥ 045) Sas Bae lec eed -08
Matton eee Sek GEXOOT|E- Ss elev as ce AMO eee een cee 4:19) | soos hole ae be 16
yman........ ASQOM eee ee ae cs eee 57408 Soadcedos 326: ee tees eee eee oe ee aoe
N 0. 6 (Berlin)
Township...-. 2:00:|)) 224 Soe e|besskecee 223) |seeeseeec 673) Sasesecsa|boscodans -11
Motales2e2 <2 2 1,124.00 1R53e See eee 65. 54 88.75 | 155.82 13. 86 47.32 7.76
Hancock:
ea eae 202001 Pah eee eas ae b MLB ke mee ceme i plea ee eee haere ctceil basis 5, lien
ULOLASe ee eee: : LOnlsaemerene a) by aerate emer sacs| pts.
Blue SoEemeae : er 06 10.00 i (hel esigaaseoalloSaacceealuocatoeun 5
rooklin........ E FOGS ae eaten £O4 (RAN cereal meet cece 11
Brooksville... -. : SOPs eanaaoss 3202 hese eee ese sili
Cases coe lecs0. isa |) i.00'|. a7e9 es ck scl 3
astine......... : i 5 Ae [eerste eee ee meee 2
Cranberry Isles. Shui) leaseucuen|lseneacsos RL) oe seye ce ahe SQ) | RIES oN Us ee ed EOE
DWedhamees= 255 |p =20500) bes setae |eeee ee ee £06: |eeeee ee 396) | Sees speek sire -33
Deer Isle. ...--- SOKO esas oe Oe aa 2EOO Neaweecene 2300) | Sarees 2 a Ee 23
East Brook....- GEO eaeacoen sees coc 1333) lecaeereee EGR WbSsSoeond||soscos wiz l>Soeeee ae
SU eperericte 130. 00 7.29 TAG een oe 15.00 235788] Vase Sol eeotee | Mane ae
Iga see seal oP S00) |aaseeoaasl Bocdesace 1.03 10.00 TOSS ese eee 14
Gouldsboroz.-=:|" 35500) |-222222--|2-2-2 ae: 6 7as| eae W267) | Sees a leeches -25
Hancock... BD OO || eae. Se ee 1.74 4.00 GAC al ee eee sel laSeicectet tol sa SeToare
Isle au Haut... G500F |e ees da ene BOY fe eaeecaee OW |ISteoosesallesscooses|oacemoosc
Lamoine.. 3 5 5
Long Island...
Mariaville......
Mount Desert. -
Orland....--.-.-
Opis ees ie 8 2252
Penobscot... -.-
Sedgwick..._---
Sorrento.......-
Southwest Har-
DOR ee aces rss
Stonnington...
Sullivan.......-
SUL Ape eee eee
Swans Island...
Tremont.......-
rentoneeeeeses
Verona.......--

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. AQ

-

MAINE—Continued.

TABLE 16.—Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.

Total Graded
mileage Macadam. Increase and
County and town. mile Other Per- in | drained
road Gravel. |_ bard _| Total | centage |surfaced| earth
ESinral - | surfaced |surfaced.| of total | mileage | Toads.
Plain a roads. surfaced.| over
nous. 1909.
Bomieyae Coe
Waltham....--- 1.79 | 5eeeeee AIO ome ciel ess csmatal Sacsesien
Winter Harbor. 1.03 6.00 THOS Pac sacealssceorect 0. 26
INOS UGaeuseeeaee OB sasecicrs AOSW Soarecatn lemaccece serie eee
No. 8, southern
division. ..... 25003 | Rat eeenen | sscteeee = 027|Seenereee AQ DY ene s-hiel'seiscee ears ees cae
One ke Se(10) | Pasa oo oe eeeeseace 07: Seeee ete OTM eases cee Sl teceaneea| Semesccas
INOS Ob sscas cae GROOM eases esse cane OL, ease (iW i eteme sal Goreoeccs sao caeece
ING) PALE aes DOOM Bassas spececitace 1062 |Seeeeeee IA eb eaaeees Seaseceee nosecspac
INOH22 220s - 225 HUOh | Beetececclsgacecant 1. || coe iba ees ecoal Baasorere soooagens
INGLY Oo ieeeeeeee EON | ees era eye 15.4] ceases 11532 See Peace saecesae
INORSSeeme io: sek SOOM ae cel See eked GH |loccscoss BAU Eas SSE ME ie Mecard| ceeeeweis
Motaleess. 2-5 1, 264.00 8. 22 1.49 64. 62 81.16 | 155.49 12.30 34. 87 4.67
Kennebec:
Albion ceee ee, (SO.00N 352 = eee 5.46) Seen SAG Bestar ee | = se siege eeaene se
Beleradere-.see a) uos00M eae 2c =.: eaeeeede 32.96. || Sesaeeere BUIGW Waste] seeeeeeealaee ae nce
Benton: -. 2.2 = EEOU) I seueeeesel bercoenoe 4016) |Paaeeon CBG) eetess.se| Seoeeebee oll
Chelsea.......-- SSO WA See as ael Wee escees 2:87. anaes Boh PAB Y fll Mateenpr are Sele ates ee dataal Peer ema
hinges. ss. O2200R Reese se see eece 4508))| Sees ZO |b oooseaoldassoaess 1.50
Glin tone ecee lin S000) | acre cor: I eeseve rare Ts Soh! pees AGS et CAs eee men 28
Farmingdale....| 26.00 AON eee oece 6:27) |S eee GeO T ee Se Le NR lie
Fayette......--- V9 4 | re = PQA ee Sahota ieee Gl
Litchfield......- 4.13 AMR aoe alles cis ioe -96
Manchester. . -62 SO2n be serce ae S| Sascmacae 1.16
Monmouth ; 4.28 |. Gti} | SEae eee sel boue sors .36
Mountavernon--|\5 72:00) |o2222225 5\sscece2- 2.63 |. 2568) eae ek allenenie see 97
Oakland.....-.- 200 eee eee -08 2.02 DIS | Aer seeee aelace cea - 63
Rittstones e-o ZONOON| PAR eres Ceeiee ena 2.33 20.00 D233 a Rees eal seats ts SAS ces
Randolph.....- SiOOR erasers -02 1.50 4.00 BSE) (aoe eee Sel Beato col ioe ener
Readfield.....-- GOSO) |e sboasee Sesedaoce SPB ac Goose GHQS a eNe aloo es eat .49
ROMOn eee cee =< So OOS Serene sale messes 1. 80:3 3eeeeee- UBIO) aae Gees Geemarc -59
Sldneyeee - 22-2 (ECU F Seeesecse| Feaoocece a PPA Ee acesacce PSO iso esalbacesecoa| bso eeee
Witting soeeeesoe CW Ree eras. saecessar AG MES oedoose 5a |Seoeone tel Baesescse -28
Vassalboro-...--- LOOXOOK PER |seece sere 142, eee CSTE Rees Ss BOSSES Gl OASuE secs
Naga ao eeae SANOOR Rebs Selec aeeices 2:13 |e QE aeehe etielee es cesee 2.23
Wiayne..-.----- ASS OOS SEE 22/3 eee ht | aes SL. Nona asee Se Boeeoaace .37
West Gardniee SOS O0M te Roce | teneeets 1526: ||-ae eee 1530) Sas ees ool spasecsae 08
Windsor....-..- SCD ate ks Ballegaeccese 3.49 15.00 HSEAO FRG Soe le a cis ale eae ones
Winslow......-- 80.00 of BY lease one -84 | 140.05 APSE aS As Bots er cerca toes 359)
Winthrop. ..-.-- G2ROOMIE Se sees setecntes 33095 | Sees ECO Gee HeeAea Bead osees .34
Motaleessesces 1, 562.00 1.83 -10 85.38 79.05 | 166.36 10. 65 31.36 10.76
Knox:
Appleton....... GS(0)) Hon seseber |Gaceeraee 2.27
Camden......-.- 50.00 a5 -13 1.89
Cushing ........ PAU) ihe Se eeesa semsaasae 1.86
Friendship -..-- 26008 Reese a| soc teemce 4.14
HOP! ss = 52: - AQNOOW aesera saeee amc EDGY) |\--
Hurricane Isle. - ROO Baer eeee ie |e SR. 2 oe
Matinicus Isle. . SAUD): |B Beeches Cris be i | | ee an E
Northeeaven=sal), °25.00))|52- 5 252s|h.oo.2 22 - 83
Rockport.....-- CGY CO Weegeneose 4.47 155 '7:s| ais OOr i Os ON eee ey ae see alerts cere
St. George....-- ROO: Secepeoedisesaseere Bee Oi Sono casc | comene lil aoocsecbe tescemose
South Thomas-
tomssee ese. 40500} | eae see cl sisessceiel: G25) Sepaeeyaasl Meee ios a eeeeet hot at eal CCN Uo
Thomaston....-. 30. 00 DO Vices Cera oe « 6:08 | Sea Wee Osa Taleeee eae lees eee
Wmiones 3252255. TED 010 Sk eoseaed seeeeaeae Asti he LO OO || se, CSIs NET BER RS iy |e een
Vinal Haven 50. 00 esa mele pets GO. STE essoe (baer On che Eee ON) oleae
Warren......-.-- TLOONOOW eee cee eaecsa soe e021, REE eA Eran rfl OD al eter eros ralincinioe ee Pasian ss oie
Washington. - MOSOOR | aes aeenic oo eects Pe Oe ar Ric eee. oe ed Ll al beam epee Ia ee
Motaleeseassse 776. 00 78 4. 60 51. 33 12. 47 29. 27 3.92

1 Includes 0.05 mile of brick.
61725°—Bull. 388—17——4

50 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

*.

MAINE—Continued.
TaBLE 16.—Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.
Graded
Total
* Macadam. Increas and
County and town. mene, Other Pare in | drained

hard | Total | centage |surfaced| earth
pads: Binnie Gravel. | ..rfaced |surfaced.| of total mileage | Toads.
roads. surfaced.| over

OEE: 1909.

Diese pessoas he AEN ON becodsone bepsepeacl i: cOUResooqebsc es 2p Keosssstsd oascoecdc -38
EERE aac! SObMDNiccccsocublbspeceses|! JOH |ennsecan) Mol |lecossoess|oecsascodisasscorsa
VORersOn se cecsal| OOOO esc cscecie| otseceses| Pe ONGL | 22esase-2), LOSGR ese ee ean ae ecel eaters
WMG ee sacal | Tee dsctocod beccsescelloccsncdsdle=sossacd|onscseced|bsosoossd|lonso- aenehicteciecee
ING WCastle nese liil 752,00 oocccie ese soe ccs ae |r neon d i) semcece ce | mtoto tl: | eeeerie atte seme ere here ee emer ame
INGDICDOFOE Soo telin S4OKOON S cee cts ce |ine are crcl pee mee || Sere cette init or wooo | Ex eyecare faecal spent acre
Somerville ) ; LON Sees ates eect ee 51883
Southport.....-| 20.00 |.-....-.-|--------- ILCOs eoscoedse GUD) sesasaese) besadscee 1.51
Waldoboro..... 120. 00 -41 - 08 GY necesonnoc TOU Sie teegee es Mactan a laseecsoac
Westport.....-- 30K004/2 esse |Se2s2seee sha Sassen ES eee aeeied| esses see ascae os
Whitefield... .... TSU Basaseeca Goeeeeao: (Sul sae ecnee PAZ BN Beko. Ses ode eee 44
Wiscasset.....-. SoNOOH Pee ccesele sein sees GY56q| shen sane GSSB NE sts. ok Pe aa ee -11

Total......... 885. 75 2. 49 -21 EOD Bs Besse 55. 56 6. 26 29. 06 5.16

Oxford

Albany. ....-..-- OMOOW sees scl scaccecee BA Le eeeeneaa ifs ee oe eee -16
ANDOVER 5255-21). 250L00N e226. - 2 2.|2ee-55ce5 2.47 10.00 T2472 ooh c.o4| Reeee ale eee ee
Andover (north

surplus) ...-.-- GSO0!| Soe os ealioesosesee 304 Jececcsses oO4 NS de oe aera Seetieee | Meee cee
Budover (west

Milton.........- PANDO cee cce (ice =: Rohl oe ie He 3a Ue gece (pra ewe i (eg

173.58 | 263.36 11.43 57. 36 Sh TL

1 Includes 0.58 mile of sand-clay.

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES.

MAINE—Continued.

51

TaBLE 16.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

County and town.

Drew.
East Millinocket
Eddington.....-
Edinburg......-
1D OS segeces

Grand Falls....
Greenbush.....-
Greenfield
Hampden

Orrington
Passadunkeag . -
Patten. -.....-..

Surfaced roads.
Graded
Lees Macadam. Increaso| _ 2nd
a eee | etteeal | dontes faced an
ar otal | centage | surface
zoe Psa Gravel. | surfaced | surfaced.| of total mileage | Toads.
Plain ai roads. surfaced.| over
= 1909.
20S OOF Paes eecise|pomeace tc 5
A ORCOR Peele anes :
@USQ 0H Setaee soe seeeeeeoe :
1D | Sees oe Soe ee .
PPR DH eseeinc del aerate
CONOON Pee eee ei S i
2ONOOME se Sete lececec ces 1.
6272000 Reese aos eeencects = if
ZOROOH Beers Sates seis.asi=i 3 il.
ZOO ee ects eke dare =1-8 1. 04
(E80) joe See ae SeSseee ae oe
WAU) lleseeeecor | SaseeeoaS S
60. 00 OU Nese see eae Fy
(BUY |e aeeecer Seceaemie 2
TUE) oseeaces baceeeres ite
eA) [Be eeeoor Beeoeeaee 2:
31.00 2EOAN Be aie 2
(HE), (Sena Ss eee 13
Sos) | Seeceodee \Gesssecne :
40) OOW Sassss se e|lscemescloe 4,
LOOXOOM eeeeeriae| sac senses 5
GUS) || SS aeeo ee lpscenaeac C
aN) [doesesces meena il:
2:
2s
5.5
at
2:
1.
ik
ie
ifs

19. 47 51. 78 28. 69

52 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

MAINE—Continued.

TABLE 16.—WMiles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.

Total Graded

F Macadam. Increase} _ and
County and town. mulleage, Other Per- in drained
hard Total | centage |surfaced| ©!
oads. Ss
roads el pie Gravel. | surfaced |surfaced.| of total | mileage | Toads.
Plain. awk roads. surfaced.| over
P 909.
Piscataquis:
INDY ssaoeadoce
Atkinson.......
Barnard........
Blanchard......
Bowerbank.. -
Brownville....-
Dover....---2--
Elliotsville- .---
Foxcroft........ :
Greenville....-- -
Guilford......-- - 3
Medford........ 0 B
OSSeaasecieee . 3
Monson....... : i
Orneville.-...-. : -
Parkman......- } ° 2 5é
Sangerville..... COED) eseossecslisassccece ~ 44 3.00 BAA Wet ese saereeeee . 83
Sebec.........-- 448 (UD) ||sasossssellsosccess 6 (05) lSemcoccos 05}. lpooabcocalsoocoseae 1.30
Shirley.......-- IWAN ||Gossosdaq|bonesouc: cA! | ckeeeene JAQUES easa = esl eoeeeen ee 2.47
Wellington. .... CS (Nt) |Isasanacse|odacsecos SOSi|heeseemce HOSS SA cses| esos sees 1. 85
Williamsburg...| 12.00 |-----....|--------- ADH Reece 949} |locdndesaslooossasac 1.10
Walliamanticeec|pss25.00) sees eee sea eee U6I} | Saeccsaas IGN Bi||Soesosesellocososses 31
Kangsburyee--ee|) @ 20500) ene ee|o-- =e 518 oaeoccos- 611}! poe osonea loasems5cm - 16
Lakeview.....-.- IL GD lescodsecalloasancicse|(socsnsgodlocsssscadlsdsu cen sullancodsacalsocacssod|ecossosce
Lilly Bay.... CRON Goces ses. HEBearcas bcsecadad saaeacsaac lsscmeace de ssccotaoe||ssecnqe scl aasonesS
Motalesenaee ee 908. 00 1.09 42 29. 19 19. 00 49.70 5. 47 18. 30 20. 51
Sagadahoc:
Arrowsic......- IVECO A eeesessaa eee ADO eee De rl EEE) nea ers ate lagrd cases
Bath Besse seecee 30. 00 1. 65 Phe) | ses eee 30 DRDa Me aesanscla| ste seat hal ee eee
Bowdoin....... (Ee SU) bessasees peuacoces 2270 laocesocos PAHs \GoncOee se lo coneadec|lqeaccueo.
Bowdoinham... 80.00 |.-----. ere | Seo cveceete VS66)| edeeeese TE We Headonnadloooeaseed)|-casaacoc
Georgetown...-| 47.00 |..-------|--------- 574) SaanboooT B25) eesececee| essen. -78
Perkins........- G5 (00) Bea eee as Beescen a SSencceer rererorea porecsHee Saeseoe so occdscod esmsShoce
EP pSEUrE Swale ifs (00): netodesal eneeeon se 1.95 10. 00 MEOH HGR eS cvseye | Stasis =| ee eee
Richmond...... W600 Isassoascc o 15 21S essere P57 Aa a pseCoees CoDaoUoS ssh ssaacs
Topsham......- 75. 00 1. 64 -10 DEY) | Bae an be AS OG IG SOs alee eis Rea
West Bath..... M1 B00) hose eeace peeieres c LAO Neseteaae 1G Kb) Bes sooeed lcoscasceellssesGeaoh
Woolwich....-.. (S00) Weseosase ssepaas ce 6. 90 4.00 HORS eawesesocladoosasse 63
TOtalees sees 548. 00 3. 29 53 20. 66 14. 30 38. 78 7.07 16. 94 1.41
Somerset:
Amson........-. TE Gy so aeeatsaens
IAG NeNSeeeeee eee Ef dlacceouGes
Bingham....... DASH anaes ts
Bald Mountain . a(t mecmoseae
Bigelow...-.-.-. loa eeeeeeeee
Brighton....... etl) |aosesscoe
Cambridge...... Odd wesceacas
Canganeteaee BAGH Cet ree al
Caratunk....... i GElingeesdosas
Carrying Place... PAW) | Sostseesal San sossaa anh Saeeeaese
Concord........ SSO) lesososcad nagenosce 1.02 15. 00
Cornville....... CS) Be See ene ISeeecae G- a ae ee
Dead River...-- SOON ee sacle ce eee Ga Bee cts
Dennistown... CHOON Sate ass Ele see 16@3 |leoasassoe
DWotroluee eee ZO NOO} | Meee eee oe Po |S Seeger.
Embden......-. DOROO Me seca sone cette 20. 00
Fairfield.......- TOONOOT Beene: 05 Cha) see ea a
Flagstaff. ... 10S (0 baeeocked BaSseenos OFUEE Ace ere
Harmony... SONOOH| Memes cero srs samen Tbs 18) see neers
Hartland ......- 50. 00 SOt | ba omiseoee 1K) ees
Highland....... 12,00) | mance eee ae 683 |Reeeee se
Jackman....... TEE) ESR SES eee AS 22059 | Ace bose
Johnson Moun-
TAM) io oeee GOON Peer eel eisecco gee SOOM esezesae S
Lexington...... 725010)" ee Ae neet REEeeBE oS SOON eh cece
Madison........ 100. 00 -18 -3l SD ase caucac

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES.

MAINE—Continued.

53

TaBLE 16.—WMiles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.
Graded
Total
F Macadam. TIncrease| _ and
County and town. meee Other Pes ir ained
roads. Gravel.|_hard_| Total | centage |surfaced} earth
eel patent surfaced |surfaced.| of total | mileage | roads.
Plain a ane roads surfaced.| over
1909.
Somerset—Contd.
Mayfield........ KOO: || Cb ee se Ss ES Reeeee 106) eee eees BOG eee seek lh ola esha 28
Mercer.......-.- ADROOM Eee sce cceee cee 1.405 | eeeetaece AON See aet al Sones 0.11
Moose River. ... GROOS | Raseaasea| ect eoee Ds 74 || rears PCN Ee lie aie scree, hae ee aR
Parlin Pond.... OS008| Beta see seoseso- Re Yh lasonoocue SOU) |lsceessecdladdaecsas -41
SaimceAdpansesa |e OXON oes ce ce ele acnssae. 1.793) eS TIS 7AS) | pete ast ie Pee Ar Ta . 68
Sandy Bay..... G50) | Paes ce es Se ae 66) aeeceenee SOON | Seater | case eran 5 ilf/
Skowhegan..... 175. 00 O68): ||-eceasese . 63 | 141.68 AQIS AAP eieiese) 8 2) ema aone es 72
MICSCONSoscchecd |! SECGUD | Seaee neces Sea seceeeee |e eae se 8.00 SAOON | eee eee ft eats -07
Wewalontiand =|) 780: 00)/S25. 222. 625-5222 2: 65) || Seasons Das (aay | et aoa, soy IE Geers ah S82
Norridgewock..} 100.00 SAAN Al aaseeeeas 6248) Saieeeene (aS oS) || ss ee 35
Palmyra...-.--- 710500) Baceaesce baeeoeeos 1.38] eee POSH les cal ero obese 503
Pittsfield. ...... 75. 00 OG NEAR see -65 | 250.14 HESS Mees ates | oectare guess 2.38
Pleasant Ridge. IB SCD Seasnasesl pessoas 213! | poeeeeees HG}! aaa eeEdel Ese ones AS hCe Ene
TRIDENT AC see eee | eeXOS OTe [Serene ieee eae 246) eaeeee BAGH|ER Ses 4: easier 1.06
Smithfield...... SPO Sao Seerise | Meee 172) See P| aos preset eens 50
SOLO Sees Eh COSODd atnesetiel ae eeeeaee 1091, o eae POOM ass sare | es. eae - 85
Starksee yet ss) SOSOO Meme seee eee: Ae BsSaccece oOo rset a ops | seers -18
The Forks. ..... DNOOu| eases | Sears oss o AT lea eae BCL (91 | apes aaa tel (ee SL a aN [ee ee
West Forks... CHUN lp eameeecclesmecreer «(D4 || oer cs Gti or es ay Ae ed ne ye el lise oc ees
Motaleees sos. 1,930. 50 1.57 0. 36 58.34] 1384.82} 195.09 10. 10 29. 15 17. 79
Waldo:
Belmont........ 29004 eens alee aecoccioa PAU ocnaaos
ISTOOKS= ee. one ARTO) Paros ora yeaa B20 G | eee
Burnham.,..... 415s, OD: |pooaese ule te saaees 3545) | Sess
Frankfort....... 35. 00 oil Goh ee cee 25:96) Scenes
Freedom....... Gass es peecel eoesOnaces 1.41 5. 00
ISIES DONO Meee mE DONOO| Ma jecneseloccgescce 1573 la eee
WACK OMmeme een eta 5HOOG| ten eee seal tenennece 2: 26) \Seeeeeee
ORS Sa eiewicc see 64500) Pate nese Base asec 388 ||| Sees
Piberty eee ZIGSI(WY0)! | so areal ge a ev aE 1:06. Saas
Gancolnyvalloeyen|) 2.70200) |e e sere ae 1.58: eee
Montoes-c- see. SOSOO!| Ae es eee as 2: 02;:|\saeeee
Montville....... SOROO |eeaeee cl emeeosee 380) | Seeeeeee
MOTT ere es D5 SOO yaweese bose sec 1:79 | Sase see.
Northport...... GOO sab seboduleceecocue AWA Sascococs
Palermo........ GONOOR | eens seer see Ti? pceeeenrs
IETOSHEC Lessee eee | 40 On eee see necmesase 22,73 | seeeeeeee
Searsmont...... ZOS00 7 | eae eee een 20 | eee
Searsport....... BO SOO} | eee eee ee 35.52))| See
StocktonSprings| 45.00 ].......-.|.......-- 2045. | eee
Syativalle meena SOLOOUMAS Ce es eee 2. 82 10. 00
Mhorndikess 250200) |e e te see| oo es aoe 2: ae ase eepers
TO): Se ageeeee
2509: | 2s
4.94 17.00
59.43 32.00
Addison: =. 2... - 5S OOM teeee ees | Scenery 3. 42)| seen ADH | epi tpeen| see ere arse eeniccate tate
Alexander...... SEE (1): sae asepceloaeueaaee BY llececocsoe 1 Rea eshosoeod basctoccrtacrecaae
Baileyville...... AO snaccaocl|ooccodsos 25,001 seen QOS eee tele | See ceace ees seicers
Baring.........- 350.0) ean tne ei 2.04 3.00 ESN ees UO ee nee ee
Beddington..... CROUy Eabosenee Seoesenee 390: |5aneees SLO eel a elt ee ae - 26
Brockton....... TOROO Rs eeecnts (kw Bae fa 389 | sce BOQ erie) A eee ee eek ated
Centerville...... GS EVH ASS cegeoclscosoones 1.48 2.87 (DERN toes aie (eaealaeeredes 1.15
Charlotte.....-- SOOO eae ara ravers oe L385: || seeeee 1 Lies faid sees ee ea ae ae
Cherryfield..... AO SOO eee oie ke ae P..62))|-aaeeeeee AMPEG hr a ay Setar a eres i
Codyville....... GEO O He eee ae Ss | a ae ao ete | a eats | ae ia al ccieeataiatate
Columbia....... Ste Wil ease neneic Hobcaose 3.79 8.00 TAL ESTAU ES Rises aes [eres eras Pe SES rea
Columbia Falls. 7455 (CO Ae Rene cont apres 1.92 4.00 GLU Lae Ganab pooeoedse eoosoene
Cooper.......... SOD lS sedeossleesassobe 1519: | Sees I USA KEY Ve ae ah Sete eee Re 8 23
Crawford....... TAR OO Pee SoS eee MU eoaoocese Tn ay Ae ee ete ces 34
Cutlery es BOMOOG| Meee abs aa ers 2 22) || eee Deas estes eal Beate ae seinicetoiniate
Danforth. ...._- PAU I aes Bee es eer eee 2.56 8. 00 OF 56a ee eee er Re oreo ee ele
Deblois.......-.. GOO gee ee eres 190 eee Bole Sra aoe eatarereuenrars sisisvetele

1 Includes 1.68 miles of sand-clay. 2 Includes 0.14 mile of concrete.

54

MAINE—Continued.

BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE 16.—WMiles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

County and town.

Total
mileage,
all

roads.

Surfaced roads.

Macadam.
Other
3 Gravel. hard
. itumi-
Plain eae roads.

Washington—Con.
Dennysville- . ..
East Machias...
Edmunds
Forest City.-.-..-.
Grand Lakes

Stream
Harrington.....
Jonesboro.......
Jonesport.......
Kossuth........

mubecwe esses

Machiasport....
Marion.........

Meddybemps...
Milbridge.......
Northfield......
Pembroke......
IROIryied Joo eas
Princeton.......

Roque Blufis. ..
Steuben........
Talmage...
Topsfield . .
Trescott...

Whitneyville...
INONT4 eee eae

No. 19, eastern
division -

division. .....
No. 31, middle
division. .....

Kennebunkport
Kennebunk. ...
Kittery.........
Lebanon........

Total

iP}
centage | surfaced

surfaced |surfaced.| of total | mileage

surfaced.| over

1909.

Graded

roads.

AS NOON ee heel lise tem sae 4.76 35: 00
BONO ee erase licker 3.30 15. 00
SOROON | Pee e ie llsrcacteciae 1.90 14. 00
US NOO We yey ercrae listers seoraetae 54 4.00
PSSOOH Se) Sears sel coca 1.12 10. 00
HL OROO Di Re secs lerancicee GCP) |Seeceocoo
OSODs eae ee leaceecteee 2855) lessstasiciste rs
G00) Reeser oe eerercioeee ZLB |leseecceoe
SOOO) eeevees caer ares es AIUD) | eee eeraictele
GONOO eee eee yc see OBE eeentcicle
24. 00 (p14 Ne seaecacic AD lsat
PUD) |aoasonse clbrsoodoas 3. 56 7.00
A 2 NOOB Eye Sa el yaya 2.01 6.00
6b200i |e Resse sla cicsinoeeae DAES ererefecciciae
BUN ostaon scl AEaeer ear ol) |leocesdooc
20.00 Ree. So aslaccsaees PAO) |Roeacenee
2800N Me seNsads|Seseeeees 1.16 25.00
IPE CON Beecoseee eseesees. UGGS) lecécescos
CEUs auedeanes aemaacccs Ail racers
TEU desoeaneleesecrce « AQ Hj ecoaee
CLUS ODM se eeereers memento 3 MOSES Necscecose
DOO eerste chal eyeictere eee 91 10.00
IEA Sdaspeeed Sereesacc 2 eases
DOOM ee eres iatoels|[eeraic cere Beetle se eeiaereees
SOD i ys steers re rasel cioreraveroetes OA a yewreretatars
OOS oes he lho yait ees LEN cemaiacere
SOO petereey sere [aici cleloeteye jl aalesease ace
GLO PS Reka eac eee BU Gosnoace
CSUN Seoadoaealssseeoces ool Gileeiiceists
G30) saadeane slaaeaanoes oe} S55 Sh0c0e
Ia. UY Sapasgoss accaobd jscusezecd bouacoaes
GHOOK Sees |) ac Ste ee eters ee ce cloeel=
C50) a eee Ue gel 5 oes Dee am ae
Se UU reece 4 Aeeeeern alc cosotaaalmewancedea a
1, 258. 50 (lentes 91.50 | 179.87
GUSH Sebeeeaaesaaesessc Us Sacacoese
MOROOH Ree ercicer| sees eee 1.44 20.00
125. 00 GRO asecaos PRM Wee Gecase
PES DN Semcocsee aeeectoe RA Tel ee cere
SALOON PM ees-oal'= Ge cues EGO ee eee secs
DOOM ee Meceee| sees aceae SIGON eee wate
COE (OL) sl ese A Seer aera 2.91 20. 00
NO (ON asesacoralosecesees 1.41 30. 00
130.00 |.......-. 1.00 3.41 11.33
30. 00 13 -31 Chord |SSadecune
60. 00 1.96 2.77 SOY isaseaband
T2500 Scemacs este scene Wass Us Secoooed

1 Concrete.

21.57

eee ceesee ces seeene

25. 49

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 55
MAINE—Continued.

TABLE 16.--WMiles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.
Graded
Total
: Macadam Increase} , and
County and town. puilesee, Other Ber in | drained

hard | Total | centage |surfaced| earth
roads: Gravel. | surfaced| surfaced.| of total | mileage | Toads.

* Bitumi-
Plain roads. surfaced.| over
nous. 1909.
York—Continued.
Limerick .....-- GONOON SNS ee ccc)» OG eee | ee AOE oe am cse canara tas | siowetaciclss
Limington... SONOOE A eases .|bcessecce|) | UL2N eee eel CEQ ee Lalo ossaes |Saele = sjisse
yan S20 25-4 SOEOO) eee ee eee oes | SG ae OOsOOMewvol somes coe weer eeu ace cars
Newfield. -...-- BH HOO slaedooceaaleiise cacac| a) ue OOH Sea e ee bee LOO) te Rert ese ana te 0.19
North Berwick .| 100.00 OS8Sa ease ots sr 4 OU eerste | ara com Mevba evan =< <n, = | a ei enn Re
Old Orchard...-. Pa OO | Beet eee | Sees ciea||t) «SDSS EOS OOM | Mery nea ests See (to fc) paella Lie
PE AESONSHCIO Hae | pel OOS OOM [ee sae ae (Occccce=|-. 1725 eae E25 |e ao 50e | aceccieac 5183
Sanford......... 135. 00 BOL ea emeins |) 022283 0 Soe SGA 5h) oats voc cliocscemeeeltsseccc ces
Shapleigh.......} 75.00 |.....-. See) jet eenrsriemee MEME Eats | coe GU ie a Layo | een a RR .41
South Berwick.| 140.00 ODE eh LOSOO eee ORO) sso eo sec ote erie ee
\Watiaml onde seeee| || BNSC) ae = eee! (ee ee
Wells. 120. 00 2.08
YORK EE eect 150. 00 6.90
Rotaleeeccs sa 2,194.00 6. 26 13.06 32.64 1.02
Grand total...|23,536.91 55.36 43.93 |1, 139.36 |1, 523.71 |2, 762.36 11.74 | 170.27 174.68

1 Includes 5.53 miles of concrete. 2 Concrete.

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

TABLE 17.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.

Surfaced roads.
Total
mile- Macadam Per- Tn- piaded
County and town. | 28° Other cent- | crease | _ a0
Santy aud t of Sanq- | hard- | Total | age | in sur- ained
all Gravel.| ‘Gia sur- sur- of faced | earth.
roads. Pla Bitu- Y- | faced | faced. | total | mileage
* |minous. roads. sur- over
faced. | 1909.
Belknap
GON eas. ce TORO hearin oe Ssa- aan Sepseeae Beabacc.<lsooccooc Shoteooad orenceaa peSmaacs 1.63
Barnstead.....-. IDOE Cc peessod Eeeseess 1.37: noses aasen cee leet one tledccescal coated. 108. 63
Belmont....... O3200H | Sacscee < 0. 50 (Fah ariG cd jase Fcecd SS BHeses CO SReceae Sep nBtiss asercear
Center Harbor nes] Pe ert 1.49 7237 1 eee cl eee Odd On teeBEl Oar c eG ponies. eencears
Gilford......... Vise a Bee aences seceeeis 130) eo) ee ae ce ea cae ie [eect alle snkiees 5.00
Gilmanton ....-. G2 Reh faeeee ellosteciee too. sees Poe Bese GEE EAC El RoE era EmREserc prance
Laconia City... S86 7a |nooe ee DE 67))|/-- 2500) | ae a ea ae ia |e ee Wee SE Eee
Meredith....... LOOM ease ee eden iccal Sess shes ke ce Dee D700 Soc esos ohn ae se ....| 83.00
Newatampton=|) 100) \|S2s55522|2ace--ce 3.30) aaa ea ea Cad Seale I soe ee aie See
Panbormtons =a] 100) os \oa-ssces looses ces 5:00) TOROS ase eae | Das Boi teen cm nage 50. 00
PUtOnee sess = 27 3.00 | 10.00 2..00°). 222855 Za OO Faso eve etal es 5.00
Total.:....-:-| 827.67 3.00 | 13.66] 24.85} 12.40 8.00} 61.91 7.48 |—28.09 |.-.--.---
Carroll:
Albany....-....
Bartlett........
Brookfield
Chatham.
Conway...-----
Matones-. = 50 4-
Effingham .....
Freedom.......
Jacksonesenas.c
Madison........ :
Moultonboro...
Ossipee.....-.- 1.00

1 Includes 0.20 mile of concrete. 2 Concrete.

56

NEW HAMPSHIRE—Continued.

BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 17.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Lancaster...-.. 100. 00
Milan een sere 70. 00
Northum ber-

land eee se 30. 00
Pittsburg. ....- 75. 00
Randolph......| 12.00
Shelburne......| 14.00
Starkayeecne se 25. 00
Stewartstown..| 65.00
Stratford......- 24.00
Wentworths lo-

cation.......-. 4.
Whitefield. ...- 58. 00

Total........-| 918.50

Grafton:

Alexandria.....| 60.00
Ashland........ 31. 50
Bath..........-| 99.00
Benton.....-.- 27.00
Bethlehem. ...- 82. 25

1 Concrete.

Total
mile- Macadam.
County and town. ae
:
Toads Bitu-
Plain. |minous
Carroll—Continued.
Sandwich.....-. ES OU ESeaease seeesens
Tamworth. .... UOC) leceseussllosscacen
Tuftonboro-.-.. CSOD) |seesssos beeeocee
Wakefield......| 98.00 |.....--. 6.00
Wolfeboro......} 110.00 1.00 3.00
Total........-{1, 167.00 2.00 9.00
Cheshire:
Alstead.....--- CUO Bacehadel Sseeeece
Chesterfield...-} 105.00 |...---..|.......-
‘up linesseeeeee 80. 00 MOO See sees
Fitzwilliam...-!| 80.00 1.30
(Grigbi asesscsl) GBEED llccassadallbsosecoc
Harrisville. -.-- GUS C0 eS eae Seeeseecse
Hinsdale ¥
Jafirey ;
Marlboro ;
Marlow. ...---- F
Nelson ..-..--.- b
Richmond.. - -- SINOOME eeincisc|S seca
RIGS oe ssoee| THOOLO0) eedsaosallscsedooe
IRGRI NAV asocood| Z2ACD |sobtesce||baocaces
Stoddard..-...- ATEOO}| BSR R a aleeeas eae
Sullivan.......- 26500) |eeecses sete see
SUrbyeeEe eee SOC Secteca Basssaas
Swanzey .-.-.--- ESOD Nse555565 2.50
PLTOVE easter ac PAB) losaoceae 4.00
Walpole.-....---| 106.00 |--...-..- - 50
Westmoreland. SOOO Hee oe Sees ce
Winchester-.... UGS OO essesace 6.00
Total.....-..-|1, 485.03 6. 83 20. 25
Coos:

Surfaced roads.

Per- In- | Graded
Other cent- | crease} and
Sanq- | bard- | Total | age | in sur- | drained
elt sur- sur- of faced | earth.
Y- | faced | faced. | total mileage
Toads sur- over
faced. | 1909.
WTA O0)i| S82 |e reer he We Feels) spe a om
B Se eee Pe tee otic a fl tres ese Pers asics 5 2.80
CREO OY Rea es Spry | Veen fe A hee es Sc pe
Prepeieieronsis ALOOMscctetaleascecss|Seeeeece 50. 00
26.00 4.00 | 126.15 10.80 |—21.45 |.....-..
BAA ees) eer Sarcasm ees ee 65. 50
SR aie Bers CST AE ane Gr og 2 8 oe el ap Re
SHOOK |Rsceoaales Seenec lee etc ee ence 50. 00
Ba ONE oll BAB IG eB yall ober Sas eres gcll 1.00
ph in Rens ae se eee ne ellgucaes tl TING
BS ORCS) BES eE Se Saeco Eases anesesscc 26.00
sees Neee ees pee Water er lie ase TGC
Bre Se OOK OOLag3cceel Saas ccealeeecees 11.00
Bae Reese! ceterssall Aa EABeers eeecoce 15.90
6.00 | 90.00 | 220.60 | 14.85] 80.60 }......--

BORO ice «che meee eta SLO USO ena eae |e ee [ene eae 26. 00
Svane a ee aaa (ECCT es Mae oman Klean ee (Pe eee ST LN
RETR Aen: 4 TCO eae acy enue Mente eel Seca ds AeA IR
eee mete E09 [eg ok eA i WA ole a ate YE NCN
eae rene dee 7 3 ZAC eee ee a a ue UAE A EE ne ASE Ty)
apiilras ra ES eC eee Saeed atnen” Nk omap MAR ViMade, IF TNT
ee eae ee E015 | Sea em la ROME (Gt PUN ie oe MP th |v
Ca a ESR a LORD eee tec 2 Comer: meats | eee | eee ee
i er (Gee TORSION Bee eee we So NBM an |G ig (oh ee
det jel | Mie as TN | eens |e ee ened | eae |S 0)
GSUaeen 1.00 | se sOOp |e Sc ote | age onl | eae ep

6.50] 1.00 | 151.37 | 8.50| 11.62] 178.99| 19.48| 78.99 |.......-
aif le aes BR GON RE te ioe lt ec | eR a pee | oan pares
ns nel Ee ALG ESN. 2 51's EO | Meme ence Siren ta eee ame
AEN) os Caray || Sep eaaaeam agreement g e Nee PRON Sr)
RANA Bu OY See eal = oe ns |e aatiee ees | HORN LION
iat ae DIOR | UMNO Me as ear |e 2 eane email Dies wipe | erueaee at] pera ORO

2 Clay and gravel. 3 State road.

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 57

NEW HAMPSHIRE—Coutinued.

Taste 17.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

County and town.

Grafton—Contd.

Bridgewater...-
IBRIStOleeee se. a=
Campton......-
Dorchester... - --

Enfield.--...--.

Hanover......-

(Fepronys- = === =

Plymouth....-.
Rumney.....--

Warren .5.225-

Woodstock.....

Total.........|2,063.75 | 6.75

Hillsborough:
Ambherst......-

Lyndeborough.
Mason laos 22!

Mont Vernon..
New Boston....
New Ipswich...
Pelham... 52

mile- Macadam.

Surfaced roads.
Other Ae
ard- ota.
ceed sur- sur-

faced | faced.

In- | Gradea

crease | and
in sur- | drained
faced | earth.
mileage

over
1909.

1 Concrete.

2 Oil and gravel.

58 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

NEW HAMPSHIRE—Continued.

TaBLE 17.—WMiles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.
Total
mile- Macadam. on Per- In- | Graded
age er cent- | crease | and
County and town. of Sand- | hard- | Total | age | in sur- | drained
all Gravel. ala sur- sur- (0) faced | earth
roads. Bitu- Y- | faced | faced. | total | mileage
Plain. |minous. roads. Sur- over
faced. | 1909.
Merrimack:
Allenstown..... 33. 62
Andover....... 20. 00
Boscawen....-- 25. 00
IBOWee tes esteee|) OOL00N |). Ue50") ssi 5 55 | onOON | eee ai aicte ace iors eee Sly fae | ere or | eee
IBTAGTORG see eeele AOOSOON Costes fret DQ] ees Ml (al sete repne | (elses oe eee eae eyo See eee ee ere
Canterbury.... 40. 00
Chichester... .. - 50
MAaNDULY ace TSOLOO Sek sect es = SaaS | MD ae HSE ge So Shier N [rec | ate ne a | a
Dunbarton... -- 56.17
Epson....------ 6. 00
Henniker.....- 75. 00
PEL Sora ci PA BOOM | Se seat ko |oisratel nN MAGES eS a AN Pa ARs es [pe apa (Re Fr a ee
Hooksett_...... 10. 00
Hopkintony.... 8.00
Loudon......-- 125. 00
INCH Sea aeeaoe pe lOO NNER Scoban Meeseeaulpi ado 720) ance sa|sce se coolsaGesasel mass esaalGeetos<<llesoooe ae
New London... 70. 25
IN@a NOL a LOCO | BSG esacceeq)) 4550) 2hC0 |essescsse sass sssilcascnac! aca csaalecoosces
Pembroke...... 2.00
ee 93
alisbury...... S
Sittonee. ee 3.00
Warner.......-. .50
‘Webster........ 10. 00
BWLLTMOGE acest SSD HOO || So seisiorny | sroera wre al eee OO orecte Gy Sts | mim telara =a 05) rents Brora Scie etey eel eae Bene [eee
Total.........]1,908.05 | 15.60] 21.30]- 71.11} 63.50 9.83 | 181.34 9.50 | 31.59 |..---.-.
Rockingham:
Atkinson.......
Auburn........
Brentwood....-
Candia........-
Chester.......-
Danville.......
Deerfield.......
CEL sais satya
East Kingston.
pping....-..-
Exeter.........
Fremont.......
Greenland......
Hampstead....
Hampton.....-.
Hampton Falls.
Kensington. ...
Kingston.....--
Londonderry...
Newcastle.....-
Newfields.....-
Newington. ....
Newmarket....
Newton......-. 26. 00 5
North Hampton} 33.00 ].-..-..-- PALA PPO ieeeacocel |assccsdel saecoutellacddccocleaseusoc 9. 00
Northwood..... AQNOOH See SE ee clos ule ATA ese paral) (ens abs 2 2 ys a [on ren aya 20. 00
Nottingham....| 100.00 |......-..).--.--.- 7560) eee sae Read ase Mens nels See Aa eeee tag ion asaaae
Plaistow ....... ADNOOH Eee eee So EOYs [Sea eae o scuba tar ie «5.4 Ren eer aaa ae 15. 00
Raymond.....-. SONOON| Bere eke cack Gi Se sacesn denconed Sesssocclissooseue eet ceae 35. 90
Vos hone AND Neos eubos 2100 | NRA ROO eters re eee | Sera Msp diee: 22. 50
Salem: ...-....- 75.00 |....---- 12.00) | ee a ae Bo ak ein Ss seeeeen [Merce | iS pempet AEE rapa
Sandown......- 63} (ON aaoacoee Geaeosee 5. 00 IE(COnIBRBcoea4 sac seceellanee anos [esaiee 27.00
Seabrook....... SSNO0K Heese Selb seem SHOON See a cle canes | eee eeioulbeeeeee [etree 30. 00
South Hampton} 22.00 |........|-......- 1 50 BSB eonOe Besnard tesco a s5 || Seem ecte Roacaeeenlasiacece
Stratham...... BONOOM eee Sones ROOU| Coctes sees =a ele Seta esitoeeiod | Seereers Hee ease 20. 00
Windham...... 100. 00 |..-....- 2.00 AX OOR| a CONGO) | fama ars |e seoel ee ee ee eee tye 5. 00
Total_.........|1, 677.10 4.58} 36.07 | 182.46} 77.00 2.70 | 302.81 18.05 | 77.25 |-.------

1 Hardpan. 2 Hardpan surface. 3 Concrete. 4 Gravel, bituminous.

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 59

NEW HAMPSHIRE—Continued.

TaBLE 17.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.
Total
mile- Macadam Per- Tn- Graded
age Other cent- | crease | _ a0
paueey and:bawn:. |) of Sand- | hard- | Total | age | insur- | drained
all Gravel.| ‘Cj sur- sur- of faced | earth.
Toads. | piain, | Bitu- aY- | faced | faced. | total | mileage
minous Toads. sur- over
faced. | 1909.
Strafford:
Barrington..... 10000) = 5 sae ciec|s2cis2 5 == 2.53) sae eerialenceaosa| sisic Sele sol ete mieico se oeremaiaste 50. 00
Durham......- DAIOO mE Ane ealeas A ceise 500} 5500 en 20800 |B -)-1slemece se clee neers 4.00
Farmington. - 80. 00 2. 50 100) e555 5 52] eee TIN OO PS Sceaces|Saecae se see saees 5.00
Gale 42 Ssueesoe SOKO ses cee | Sse sem. 1.75 PAOO Beas ese setecl esse seen aimee soe 10. 00
Madbury....--- 2650 eee eee ain 6. 00 G15 0 C5 Seales Ce eeap See lente eaniene |a a ae 8. 00
Middleton....-- 1.0 poesia Mecteeee 1250) Jaane eee ane see eaoe bene a heensel se 8.00
Milton.....-.-- 50. 00 3. 00 9:00) Saco 5 | as es | a es | eas eee ect
New Durham.. SON OO Necaese see cee ce 2.20) |. 5 eee ete ook Se toe oc Soe ook heeeece 47.80
Rollinsford....- 40. 00) 2500 leas cece 3.00 NG Us saetoedl bereecon Goeeecoe tecereee 31.00
Strafford....-.-. 85400 |eereeeeleneee ss 35150 |S poem | Mere [esse ste lie sic es [Sete tse RE wide ee
Motaley = 5s. 591. 50 7.50 10. 00 25. 48 24.00 21.00 87.98 14. 87 PAE Boece
Sullivan:
Acworth.....-- 140<00|S Ssh e52 ele sens 8. 40)
Charleston ..... SO500 Rees aces |pace ecu 6. 00
Claremont... 120. 00 POO eee oe on 8. 60)
Cornish ........ LOOKOO Baas esse cess 1. 33)
) 3. 00)
4.32)
7.40
3. 50)
10. 00
10. 00
5. 00!
- 50
iain ae te De as 6.00
6. 00
Total.........| 1,161.50 1.00 1.50 86. 05) 15. 00 3.00) 106. 55 9.17 16. 55| acy sere ae
Grand total. .|14,020.10| 61.87} 154. 26/1,013. 70} 270. 90| 158. Bier 63 11. 83} 211. 1533, 868. 76
1 Concrete. 2 Hardpan surface.
VERMONT.

TABLE 18.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.

Surfaced roads.
SSS ee eee
County and t Tee Per-
ounty and town. mileage,
all sere, Mac- | Grave, | Gravel etal eenteee
adam. telford. raced total
surfaced.
2.47 IBPOT lee erasnoa
4.13 (er ae es aes
-58 GSE) Ln ES Shes ee
3.63 eey/lkaceetoeses
1.49 DOTS BL eee ee
-05 Gat eaeeinsce se
-60 6516) bes5e-22-
85) OAT) eee meres
1.59 SUSU seen ease
- 28 CCV Al aRpeee se
2.17 468s ale
3.52 HOGiSsa5 ce os
1.55 AIS OR eS 23
1.07 SED 7s RS eee
ROL G48 sees ees
-18 DEVON ros ss Sets
1.49 G50 eeeresesate 5

60

BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

VERMONT—Continued.

TABLE 18.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

County and town.

Addison—Continued.

Waltham) 2-00. sce seenecee Senetsc
EWIGY Did PO ls Sees ene Ree ge ek
Whitin eee) eee ea eae eine lice

Glastenbunyepteeen eee oo enee meee
yanderoNe

Winhall...

UVC Pa tOL see nee eee Me oece
Shefiield se sore ae eee seat eee

Richmond Basses sss cecoe eae aee sae
SEG eon gestae sae eee sone
Shelburne see ee nsec on
SogcvhsBurlingtoneeere ess oe eae eee
ROriderkil kere See us a aere es
iWiestior dass en eee ea es

Essex:

Total
mileage,
all roads.

Surfaced roads.
otal Mapes
% ota: centage
glee. Gravel. pies) sur- 0
3 faced. total
surfaced.
Sees tee eo '1/3 2.88 53639) eee ae
Lee De cae 2.39 1.22 OeOle Sees penis
EP hein seater 3.98 - 76 A (4 S| ae eee
Mes Savas 2.85 1.64 ge er 12) | Neate Se
ee set 1.53 1.65 PENSE Ase SaaS
0.36 95.81 33.21 129.38 11.57
esac sosoe 2.91 1.29 4° 20! arore aera store
pinta moe 2.79 3.06 tet) PES aR elecae
Sos asigcatis 6.40 -59 6599) oon ene
Oa tao 2 MAilis | Roe ere Pe ale Arak
1. 46 -68 DNA ee cere arr
8.65 222 O38 laceeeeeee
3.46 1.90 5.36
3.65 -93 4.58
3.09 1.90 4.99
1.49 1.00 2.49
-98 all 1.09
3.87 1.17 5.04 |.
3.58 . 74 AV By) || -
2.16 .29 2.45 |.
4.45 gill 4.56
3.44 41 BKCHNISaeoAaS oes.
SS aE ese 54.79 14.40 69.19 10.08
Bee eae aee 6.00 axle) 65/75 u| Seen
Seas esesion 7.60 - 60 8520) Peeeeeeeee
aE CEE 5.51 5 62230 Fesecseene
Somatic 3.86 .44 4.303) Secee cers
we anite cit 6.57 1.44 82015 seeeseeaee
Breer terinniae 3.09 -24 SO Solimeseee cece
Boone sane 9.18 515 OB Sh eeeeapose
Ue us ateae 5.29 .84 6513 3| eee secs
SO OSS EORE 3.32 1.51 CES eee oo
Eetieieme ae 3.57 1.85 14.2) aes
erator raratare a 3.10 -23 Seco) |acnseueee
73 - 26 BL! Yel ea
6.85 1.21 S06) seer cee
3.98 -10 AOS i Soack scene
4.99 -05 52041 ey pee eee
5.06 -50 Seo eaessecos
78.70 10.89 89.59 8.43
6.72 .28 7.00
2.38 1.02 3.40 |.
7.48 1.94 9.42
5.47 2.24 od
4.82 2.49 7.31
6. 73 - 56 7.29
7.61 -30 7.91
10. 40 2.12 12.52
Ble ee sees 6. 53 1.12 7.65
ethecishee - 46 = 745) ei:
Bees 1.34 1.14 2.48
HSS apeeeine 37 3.91 4.28
Bee 21S Baw -41 7.76
REFS 552) 2.62 1.63 4.25
Sa eee 3.22 1.24 4.46
SaoCSSooRs 73.50 20.65 94.15
aMaecaicts as 5.02 1.39 G5 4s | a re
Dee Sc od 4.69 -40 5097 Ae Beane
EEN Se bat 3.92 -64 4°56) | Sone case
BS eee 3.34 3.04 G38) |Steeccae oe
eee acc. 5.71 2.56 Siddileeacenaase

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 61

VERMONT—Continued.

TABLE 18.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.

County and t ieee Per-
ounty and town. mileage,
all roads. | Mac- Gag! | EOE) || Ceuta
adam |/CT@vel | telford. | SU of
: f faced. total
surfaced.
Essex—Continued.
lDOPSiE BR SGllsaaesadseaeeeceuesseesseee MORO ee scasoes 0.48 0.73 2 Le |e Seas 2
Grammer sche actos cane sice sacinise 13500) | eeeeeecee 1.01 - 63 PRGA ROE Jeu
Gel ae oe eee LR IEC ssosesecce 2.34 1.35 DE OO eee see
Wemlantecolmea st sras: Seco ease ene ares 17200) aera B36 4 -31 AS Sti esa ee
IDET GTE Sb eee ae oe herrea as 63300) Seaeesenee 2.48 4.77 C2 Ait eer seeae eee
MardsSton@tecr nce 2 ts feces decsss USE esccccaos 2.35 -21 2 5 Gil eee
INGEEO Rene: ey a eT | 195 00; | a ama 3.56 eT GREE Les eee
WAGCLODYR eer eect) Sr acisnsc acc ch es oe | 30500) 2=eeeeee 1.39 34 112763) Seecesagee
“INGE ce ORCAS SSS AE EEE ORE | 422200) | Saas 40.01 18.14 58.15 13.77
Franklin:
Bakenstiel dives eee cee ceases 66500) | basa 5.00 1.51 G25 15 Peso asa
LBA SIG Quo es BAe ane e Cee eee 68200) 52 2seeeeee 137 4.77 Gees ae eae
SENOS DULL ee ee. ecco elnee | i001 beeen eee 1.06 4.02 bLUbiliecssessees
LGB. geese ae aCe S CESSES EE 19°00) | ane 2.89 2.64 668) lp -oesdscce
TOTO ee ee | PLS500)|Saeeeeeeee 1.50 5.59 OO) | ReE ees ee
UIELCH CIEE ae foto eeee net osces 54300"||2esaeeee 2.62 2.72 DSO 4g |Maee a seaee
1 Dye ra dl TT sp ae A ot 61200) 223525eee 2.20 Py. 233) (EO Sete ae eres
CGUitSh). Stele pes SSeen See SeEeEeaer aes 1400) | eee 4.39 3.58 Ty eee aene
Bia Hort owesy aera oa clase tase aise hd 95.00 3.52 2.88 6340) sie eee
Montgomery 69.00 3.09 2.31 SAO Ree ses
IC HLOURP Ra yas koe Se 53500) | eee 4.77 -36 1S ee eee
St. Albans... 63.00 |... 3.51 3.73 BZ
Sheldonees2-2 22250225. 63.00 |}_. 8.67 3.05
SWANLOM EEE Saree hacinl] oo snse eae asic 79.00 6.44 7.32
ROTA EEN ese Sei ce eet e eens 1029500) 51.03 46.81
Grand Isle: |
PAU NAT Oe ree Saya a AS ee ee hi | 61:00) |He see 3.25 -80 4°05) | Rees aes
(GuranGhlslom restos sek nere en 42500). {a eee 4.89 -65 Sa eae eae
ASIOp ap MOULe es seecs iss lt eee Sue 9200) bes age 2.87 2.89 3240 0) | Meee
INORUHMERCTOS ssa oe eee oe | 200) |e Sheen 6.68 07 Os ZN lessesSsccee
SOUTHPELOTO ee = se oss eee aioe 2100) See 3.33 1.05 438) | eae aes
RO Laleee Na aoe ee ea stone shal WTAN00) Eos eee 21.02 5. 46 26.48 15. 21
Lamoille:
elvadenoemec sess noes cesiceaeeee nce AVVO secotcess 5S Tal heesceees Hail eecese ace
Oa pnid eek ss ee eee | 86500) 2. eeseeee 8. 08 47 aby hosaconsee
IDG Nd Be ie eee eee ee ee Aa 5500) aeee ae 2.90 2.90 Pets) she seeenas
15) Wen 01)s eh Soe eee eee ae 61500) So eae ~42 1.68 ZOOM Es oes een
JE RVG le 12d ee Ses So eee ees 79:,00))|5. 2922s 3.79 3. 31 TSW Nass déseose
AGS ONS Se eee ea THEO) oesossscce 6. 28 . 69 6297s) Sales Seca
IMOUTISLOWI Mee Hees soc chen aeces) 945 00:|>. 4esseeee 8. 54 .38 SEO eters
StWONO yap Seo GRACE eee Serene ODO lsscodcocse 6. 43 .24 iyallaseasaeeas
Wiatenvalleves fa seh ee se cee ceite ese AUD ocsescecce 1.86 53 QUSON apse sie
WViKOlCO Lianne ses se eee cacus 68500) Sess 2eeeee 3.90 |. 1.38 BH yd paeeaEsek os
Tete PGs See eee geet Iferenvenscc0)| Sao 48.07 | 11.58 || 59.65 9. 10
Orange:
ACTOR G Ge ona e eee = sete asec se HOYT ISS OBOACORC oe
ISTAIMLNCR See Sore ae ease sa ek eee cece 5.61 81 6. 42 |-
IBTOOKMEIGME Shot sant aa seic ss 7.07 2.85 9. 92
(ita: 3 Gaeeet Rose Eee 6. 07 14 6.21
OTT Meee Soe ec aacce Paces eae 8. 84 -05 SS9il ecceccen
Hainlcesee Bo NE Sosa BEL SK. 4.90 .07 ArOTA Eset sacs
ING WOU ae aceite e eee) Sede ssc 6. 09 1.62 ey) | eee a
Oran get ans. os aee en aise stocks owe 2.98 Stl aR (Gillenseacuaac
PRATT CLONE ci fe ON eee E 2 6. 83 2.53 QeSG il eee eee
SUDA OTC eee SENS HONS alc ree 80/001) Jaane 15.97 -40 TGES TA Rees cee
PRS Gion dey eee Se es ey ek Se 98:00 '|\. eee 12.26 . 26 AAG) aes cece,
PROpSHaMee eee eee eee eh. Se TSO0assessses- 4.89 Ubi (G0 eocsdoseos
MG Tal) ovr Co kere) eee es eaT ee 100200) 2 eaeeeeee 9.34 .24 GUSSE| esata aie
IViershinet sae aes cenicoce eects cs GEO esesesecac 3.91 1.00 AO | is. ates
Wiashinconmesterrpee es. mnt oo ae 90:10). sSeeeeae 8. 86 36 ODT eee a aaoee
Wiest sbairleey see es es Ne Sk 41003)02 238 eeeee CSAIL eases eae Ae Oia | Ree ase
IWaAllIamMStOwileeseree noe seen sce. 100%003|22=neeeeee 6.58 2.18 CUB eseeseone

62 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

VERMONT— Continued.

TaBLE 18.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

County and town.

Orleans:
IN OBI. spagceooasasasdbo5Dscboco0eGE
Barton Town.........-------- Pests
BLOWIN eo LOMeea seer ee eeeeeeee es
Charleston 2 ates sees eee eee ee
WOVEN EE Yas setae ns se ececeeae merece
Craftsbunyeenceerece see eee ee
DerbytOwileacsosseen oc eeteee eats
GOVel Bae teem bee cece seen e

Middletown Springs........-.-..----
Mount Hollyee ee ae
Mount Tabor nee

Va SI OUI a soogcueouososoedossEee
SUGHUByE eee eactiecs su sncehe oes
Hinmouth ess Sos see So ee ee

East Montpelier
Fayston..... ONG Aaes

IROXDUTYs ere cee set ckice cis ceiecinc ssc

\WiaTreni sR eM ee cee adidas cot
IWiACOL DULY A Sieeis Sela semis ciesicteciccis=
Woodbury eo ss se eececece seem.
IWiOTCeSTOre ae nnecentes scleneeecrinise

PO CALS P ewe sisite ase isie-e wisi siele ssc:

Surfaced roads.

Total x Per-
mileage, otal centage
all roads. een Gravel. ‘caue jue “ie
: ace total
surfaced.
T4500 sce eee 5.51 0.75 6. 26
b2n00U Bees ericine 7. 36 13 7.49
GEO) ocoanascoe 4.18 - 82 5. 00
70.00 |..----.--. 5.39 1.40 6.79
3.0 |oscstoocos 3.73 19 3. 92
FEN 00 |lessdasccoo 5. 56 . 60 6.16
96.00 |....-...-. 7.75 19 7.94
(BS U0 ooacopeede 5. 69 . 34 6. 03
Cie) Seeacoccss 6. 68 1.25 7.93
KOO0 llesoacoscee 1.29 45 1.74
G2N00 | eeeee- cee 4.99 . 66 5. 65
S800 Seaceacccs 5590) | asienvoece 5.90
80.00 |..---..-.- TOS) omenenece 7.38 |.
S800 hie Ae! 1.98 -35 2.33
GSAOO0F EAE eee eae 5. 49 51 6.00 |.
YOU loacaccacoo 5. 34 12 5. 46
S500 |oscosccena 2.11 .10 2.21
59.00 |..-.------ 7. 36 . 20 7. 56
IHL OO) fos snoccse 93. 69 8. 06 101.75
OECD ccasaacese 12. 42 .23 12. 65
TA OOM ee Be eae 3.73 4,59 8.32
66.00 |..--..--.- 3. 82 2.71 6. 53
4000) ee eee 1.61 1.23 2. 84
56500) ee se 5. 34 93 6.27
100.00 |_......... 4. 82 1.33 6.15
DEY ee ene eae 2.78 3. 06 5. 84
G3 (0,05) ane eee 2.78 1.05 3. 83
D100) eee ese . 53 1.07 1.60
6Y,(00 I eseicances 4.08 47 4.55
BOO ee Ieee oe 2.76 . 65 3. 41
7.33 1.87 9.20
1.97 .16 2.13
4.77 1.71 6. 48 |.
1.51 .97 2. 48 |-
1.61 2.01 3. 91
9. 63 95 10. 58
2. 23 1.23 3.55
4.10 2.24 6. 34
5. 39 .93 6.32
1.77 1.61 3. 38
3. 04 .99 4.03
2. 56 1.51 4.07
9. 20 1.62 10. 82
4,99 1.91 6. 90
8.07 1.15 9. 22
1.37 - 56 1.93
1,319. 00 . 38 114, 21 38. 74 153. 33
4.15 1.96 6.11
5. 54 2.44 7.98
3. 89 2.93 6. 82
4.34 1.23 5. 57
5.73 73 6. 46
2.73 2.97 5. 93
3.18 .14 3. 32
1.88 1.90 3.78
6. 05 1.09 7.14 |.
6. 68 1.13 7.81
5. 22 . 87 6. 09
1.65 1.01 ARH Noecoe cease
3. 23 1.23 4546) | beanie ee
4.32 - 30 4G 2aeeeteee eee
4.98 - 50 ES coopasec
4.73 1.34 652 nse see
5.21 55 Gy Race oseeeee
2.65 59 Soe ieee erecies
76. 16 22.91 99.35 8. 34

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 63

- VERMONT—Continued.

TABLE 18.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.
County and t nee Per-
ounty and town. mileage,
all roads. | Mac- | Grove, | Gravel Total | centage
adam. * | teltords |) 22: ot
. faced. total
surfaced.
22:00))|: saseeeee 1.96 0. 67 2. 63
95. 00 0. 40 6.18 1.25 7. 83
19:00) | 22-2 eee 2.00 . 06 2.06
51500) |S. -aeeee ee 7. 26 Sd 8. 03
73. 00:52 sche 5. 63 . 20 5. 83
615,00) 2S. oe 2.36 .74 SON Pees nee ee
88500) |e eeeeeee 5. 42 . 80 Gx2oH| Bee
82500} E2 aces 6. 06 . 36 G42 | eer ee
S610) Bs 2eeeeee GHSON See GRSON Meese es
MONCONGCLGY 22.03) = 5 so dss cee sees/e 9. (BUD esocoasccs 6. 81 1.96 CHIE be Soceaone
IN PATH OXO 0) eee ence Se ee A eee 80200) Pe eeeeeee 7.79 . 54 SE BoN eos ee
ING wilaneke ce nos S22) dielaee Gene ek 82200) | eee GHO2N Sate GRO2N Seen eee
UI MOV eee see as eacaicce ue eae 64. 00 .13 4.60 . 60 BeSonic wen e
VOC KANG MATIN! 2 ea aiavepe sia seca ers 79. 00 .39 6. 88 -98 BEDOK |e eee
OMOTSOl Ma asso eens deociseeceine NOS) NWesocesasee hCG Rape Seeee TE yl Sa ee
Rtn LOMMeser eects Seo ence ese te 24°00 he eee 4.09 -10 AAO Prime ame Sse
Mownshend ees 22. S22 5s ceheceee sss ee 79:,003)| 23. asa 6. 89 1.07 Te ON bose
WiCIEMOM Ewen aU. Soe meee ee ad 29:00) ||'"32 2s 4. 45 02 BOAT A Be Ron 24
Wiad sborose essa ee ee aesehes Ses 68100) ae 3. 23 .14 BEST eee sane
WVESHTINS TERA oe seit kes tees aes = 80500))|o tse 7.19 . 02 (PANS Sasa
Vain HIS (E10 Bose See See aesee ae eOe see 91500 || See 6. 52 . 88 AON es a
WalmIne tones eee cea. cles eS G1 00)|2 58a 6. 35 -61 GROG eet See
AWWA eee ee peck eee ek sels = AG: 002 Seer 5. 84 1.79 COom| Meee oer os
PRO Calenese ees ccs aaa Scie oce ct 1, 457. 00 . 92 122.18 13. 56 136. 66 9. 37
Windsor:
PATIC OMOIy erento leleocleseiais'a arccjsie ails
ES GIT OO Mee ose ee Sole s.cr ia taycie =
IBanNaAnGeeee secre s. see nc sce /sctieciow =
IS OL ele eee ee ince cis ee cisciccice = =
IBTIGReWateleas soos -cncess-ceseeecaes
Wavendisherse ec eee se =e Seis ise
(Whestereeee cee soos s seated sels ce
TE PAVPEIRO NICO | Bea) 5 ye terete pee
PLA GAM Ge Ae eee e ye se nce
UML O Were snes e seh en cece ls heer d =
INonwachee ses cee eee cs et eckie semen
Ply MOU eee See Bee ea
FROTMIT Cte fae occ se eas clases
RVC GTI Cpe ya nee Ls sda eee
NVOGHESTER Asoo eae ode lateteicels
EVO VW ANbOMe soe Se eeiee okie le c/s Sees ee ae
Re OHAT OMe ee es) s oj) one ci Mra ees els
CS yorerna Feat) (6 es Senay see ere es
LOCKE SOs \s)s2 3) Sake sce e eee Ss
Weathersfield
Weston..........--
West Windsor.
SWAN SOL a seo eS eats 2
ERO Getler sree aay Was NO Ee 1,781.00 |.....----- 173. 82 15. 21 189. 03 10. 61
Grandstotale ees else. eee 14, 248. 66 1.94 | 1,165. 42 274. 67 | 1, 442. 03 10.12

64 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

MASSACHUSETTS.

TaBLE 19.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.

Surfaced roads.

Graded
Total
: Macadam. Increase] _ and
County and town. mileage, Per- |'in sur- | drained
all = |———_______ Pave- | Total | centage) “y.0eq | earth
roads. Gravel.| ~2V2" | sur- | oftotal| 72 roads
Plain, Bitumi- ment.! | faced. | sur- mileeee =
nous. faced. 1909.
Barnstable:
Barnstables=s--2-ee ees 190.00} 30.00) 24.00 4200 ioe Ae eco ce ee ccal Sees 82.00
IBOUTMe SAREE re eee eee 106. 50 2.00 5 O| @20500|382-Aonalseeoce ete cece eo seee eee 52.00
BIW Poa cocuenacsecs 57.00 12.00 8.00 1300) Seek Gee Secd Sal eis secon | teeeeeeleeeeese
Chathameer eereeee rer 50. 00 1.50 HAOO |: Ria Sos esisete eines te | See pee eee 29.50
= Denniches sesso seer 65.00 1.00 1G 6\0) Beeman Seeccacal aaa oca bosseorc a aoaecas 33.50
Basthameess- eee eee 45800 |Peeeeeee Gob) Becca eel Baeaoe ss Meee oeea Beeeaene semana cc 32. 50
almouth essere UGC assesses SSH00 |e H94 400). aaa cs th oseis| Meese |beaeenee 28.00
IElanwichesersse- ease 80.00 Be Oi 50) ee eee Ree sec Meese errs eee ee 13.00
INSIQOEG aeacceonsbeose AO Baeae ena looceaaae (Bi) Benoa ss Meaeoree Hearne pesca 42.50
Orleans? hee.) eee BBL OO ssscesc O00 Basaeeea Eaaeence| beceaene lewacreal taste ace 6. 00
Provincetown. ...--..- 12.00 3.00 S100 || Bere BGA ee | See ee eS se SSC a eee 6.00
Sein Clive Cheeses eee OUO es5555- RO) TELCO Eee seocibe ee ofa et oe eal a es 49.50
RTUTOU Fe soso sees TOCO|ssscc-4 7.00 8200 | Ses ces|Soee cee alee sees | Meee 40.00
IWellice fase nee 42.50 1.50 8.00 bp. Pease ace becscses| Sassen Sseacsao 8.00
Warmouthsse--- eee 69. 00 1001S aS 500 A See |e ee ERI BEE a eee Saco ee eee 20.00
Mo tals esan nace P5500] 55850)" aie 50) s162250\s2 se 389.50) 34.90) 91.26) 442.50
Berkshire: SS hae al ee
PN GaImMSee eee Seo
ONT TOT GES ins eae
IBECKE tae yo ates
Wheshires eee eee eee
Clarksburg...........-.
Daltomaieeas eee
HeTemMonts eee eee eee
MOM ase se ema eters
Great Barrington... -.
eancCock ase eae
FLinsd a1 ene see eee
aneshorosee- eee
eS = oc Naniey Mena Japa
ILE aeons aaa
Monterey........._.-.-
Mount Washington... -
New Ashford. ..._..._.
New Marlboro........-
Osbis Rens ho Pe
IR Crake Mestre
Richmond esses eee
Sandisfield...........-
SENN AIS ae Gea Aa are
Sheftiel desea eee
Stockbridge._.........
oii eo hare ee eae
Washington..........-
West Stockbridge...._.
Williamstown.......-.
Wand Sorte s22 oe ess
Motaleazescless eee
Bristol:
AGUS MID a5 oa5eco5cusse 4. 3
iBerkleyre essen ee 1
Dari mMoutheee sae , 4
IDightoneeepeer eee 9
Has tone aac ee i :
Hainhavenke sass ee nen : 1
Bree tower eene 8. 4 b
Mansfield.............- 65.00 1.50 QESO | toasO0 see ee eed Feces Bete Soe eee eee 17.00
North Attleboro.....-- 91.70 15.00 12. 00 15.00 65 [Nek oes Reece ac Seteeress 29. 05
Norton esse ceeceeenes @5, CDs socses- TO) |) aay) peeeanta Seeeeeee loseeease Ensctsac -50
Raymh ame sees onan ae 50.00 1.50 SHOOK 40) 50sec eels eae | eee en Geese seeecteee
Rehoboth sess eae 107. 50 2.50 6.50 (iene) BeMeSee| Boceaosel jo Samos eccoosc Sseee ae
Seekonkas see 52. 00 6.00 550 (G 482000 ease ae se Gee Se cee toons ceeeee 5.00
SOMECISS eee eee ene 27.00} 10.00 Ole A GA50 |e sale Ces emcee be Oe ee oer Sle nee
DUEUTIS CB eee es ee 49.50 1.50 QRZ 5 eee 20 | ee EA See cereal Nae ere | epee 9.00
IWIeStpOrt sees sae eee 110.00] 35.00|....-.-- TOS OO | Sesser ae eee eee 51.75
aD Ota soe sions crseeee 1, 023. 70 163.05) 71.20) 459.00 5.15} 698. 40 68. 20, —165.04} 236.30

1 Report says pavement; classification not given,

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES. 65

MASSACHUSETTS—Continued.

Taste 19.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated

cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.

aa
gS

PA,
SSSuss

Sod

pets
SSSEORSRRSSSSS

i

°

GE

eed ees

for)
—

59.85) 36.70 8.79) 56.

Per- |. a
Total | centage Weeds drained
sur- | oftotal|_12¢ earth
faced. | sur- |Mileage| roads.

over
faced. 1909.

S

nas

ees ee ees eee ee ee ey

ees eee eed ees Cte ar

Shutesbury............
Sunderland............

943.20) 76.50) 77.48} 147.75

otal 2580s | 1,507.05] 24.85 64.96

381.74) 25.30) 215.72) 758.75

61725°—Bull. 3888—17—_5

66 BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

MASSACHUSETTS—Continued.
TABLE 19.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.

Total Maencdear Increase Graded
mileage EAlisiine |) ee
County and town. , Total | centage drained
all Pave- faced
roads Gravel ae sur- | of total Prise eart
_ espera faced. | sur- 8° roads
Plain nous face over
1909,
Hampden
ENC AW alee eseeciccae oe NBO s5500ce 11. 50 26800 sae celles eet en'| ses wee e el leisiocsciere 20.00
Blandford .........-.--- OSh 00 eee ee se ARO) Sct siceets ed oso pate all Be ievene cera Ehore ofc i Reza arenes 44.50
Brimieldeeesseeesecee 66. 00 4.00)....---- 4500) eos stash aloes satelea |e soe cceel less eeeee 57.00
Whesber=nes een scaee S0300|2eeeeeee 7.00 So OO! maken alos emene | seceiean lnesteetaee 50.00
East Longmeadow..... 39. 50 4.50)...-..-- ANOO| Racer nasser eeeecee [aise 31.00
Granvillew c.f. 2 -senn S0500|2 2 252252 so eee (1) ee Se ee eeeca pease seooosae 70. 00
Hampden..........-.. OYA Beeeooseleceaccas MUU Seacoase seccons pesesacal boaacone 17.00
Holland eee peee ee aeeee BO%00 2 [Sees |h Seeeeale «seers loee ett: Ise ose sta seeoeere aeeeeeee 3.00
Longmeadow.........- 34. 50 45 2.20) 11.25 1s UD) eee ee OS See os argos
MG WdlOWe sess neccasciecne 70. 00 PN eseose 2200 sos meealadescieeis | siooncee | meee 59. 80
Monson..............-- 127.50 5. 00 1.50 BON Ese aes alisecoocaulasaasacn pooascas 100. 00
Montgomery.........-- UN Resecdodloosasca- GEO) Raaanoue| Sseneae| aasescan ocnooacs 17.00
ALIN OM sss eterejetocieisisies 95.00 3.50 2.25} 20.00 77) Dep eae nereeorc aadccocs 67.00
IRUSSOL: Shes esinscnniose PW basoscoc 2. 66 9.34
Southwick............. GON00| SoS aseeeleceeneee 49.00
“ANGLE Ys Ya ER EES Bae ee ene, 41.00 TRO0|S.2.2eee2 26. 00
WWialesty eee eee cee 29:00). .3 eee Becieee 18.00
West Springfield....... 97.00 5.00} 30.00 40.00
Westfield.............- 102.00 9.37 5.83 42.00
Wilbraham............ ATOOasceerose 5. 00 26. 60
MNotalen so Seacincsecee 1, 243.00) 33.02) 72.44) 180.05 3.35] 288.86] 23.20) —11.44| 746.64
Hampshire:
ANI OTS tees e esis 75. 00 3. 50 2.75| 62.75
Belchertown......-...- 140. 00 3a20| snc see 3.00}
Chesterfield............ DHOSOO| 2 7s SIN ee 3.00
Cummington.........-. UR) Beeeeeea Gero sca- 5. 00
Easthampton.......-.. 56. 00 8.00 2.11 - 40
Enfield 4000 es,23 254 ao neene 5. 50
Goshen SZAO0 |S = Asses 2. 50 2.00
Granby 55. 25 5p. 75|eameiseaeieeeesces
Greenwich A250 (ao see eee seae 1. 50}
Hadley 62.00 2. 50 5.00 3. 00)
Hatfield 56. 50 6.00 4.00) 4.50)
Huntington..-......--- 50. 00). .----.- 2.50 7.50,
Middlefield........---- S58 00st oceecleeeoeees 5.00
QIN 5.05se555n008ee CTY) ame a 2. 50!
lainfieldiee sia Sass AD IDOI eee ee 2100 eee
Prescoulsseenae oe cesee 44300 |2e 5222 snleseeeee 4.00:
South Hadley ........- 50. 00 7.00 7.50) 27.00,
Southampton..-.......- 75.00 Bi (2) es ocees 2D
WOR NS oe cnc escycrels 92.00 5.80 1.00; 40.00
Westhampton.......-- 492 00|h-. <,Sealbeeseeee 5.00
Williamsburg......-..- 43.00 4300 | Seeceeel 3.00
Worthington.........- (OS UURS ae eopolcasscaoe | 2.00
= }
Motaleeessesccee suas 1, 268. 25 46.55 28.35) 193.90
Middlesex:
PAC LOM se as pee eae 76. 00 5.00 dayw/(O10] Myo? 0) (010) ee ren ee mre es 45.00
Arlington...-....------ 69.50} 13.60 9.00) 23.40 LO Wea Satine eects Gell cee okies 15. 40
IASH Dy ee sede cee eS 70. 00 1.53 SROO EES rahe |e easel Me eases Seo eee see 54.91
JAG M biG Ree ea secenenace 46. 25 - 50 2Nio| he 42500| ese oe Saal Saale eee etl ee
SAV OL ae oe ea einse iene 30. 00}...-.-.- 1.00! O00 ee aa et se oe sae | Sanne 10. 00
‘Bodfordis22 82.2235: 29.70 9.00 GO ee 70a Seas ee a Ree eens Soe epee 3.90
IBelmOnt=Ss are eee 30. 20 5.80 48501 DSi Ole as alee se sicisicl| Seiacsees |e sise oars Sees
Billericasssoeee eee eee 66. 00 3.00 72 ey iy | eee or |S Semaeee Scereeee lariaceeec osccaS os
IBOXDOnOMe see ae eee 29. 25 2.00 Pe25 | S400). ease somal ne anscel|-isceeeee 7.00
Burlington...-.......- 41, 25 2.75 5AOO| 28e50|'s eo ee cl ee ccm aalaeemecne | oeeemer al Seer
Warlisley seas ey bes : GOOG) S228 sl Rees TSSOO Et Sac se cca eneeeacs be smemee 12.00
Chelmsford.........-..- 792800 |Ree eee SUIS ISB 2b i See cae ee ase cacy eere cee | ere rere ee eee
Concordia: eee (Meee poesue. 12. 50 60. 00 be) eee sad neresees poameran 5.00
IDracuili yes sceecee eee oe 65. 00 4.00 4. 50 SG) nee ee| Seeeneine enor roc mesnocos 22.00
Dns tab leweaaseeee eee 0500 |e ae peel eee A400 has Sere cia nal teem | emer 12.00
Framington......-...- 100:00}.......- AOD! SOOO So syle ds nega| See meee lectecmes 30. 00
Grotonessesos0ee cee 71.00 3.00 WeS0)) ~ BELA cessceseliscsotosd|batsacsalbsconsad|boossese
TEINS RON Soo ssoonoass 54. 00) parece 5.00 BUY Resseecs| eseesete beagacce Meacasos 35.00
Hopkinton.......-.--- 69.00) 2:00 |Seseee Bh HULU Resets SaesenEs bessaaes emorcco 24.00
1s MORONS Saonbedaosese 43.00) 1.00 2A00|F 30100 |S oe seek eles cocsic| sacice ose oaecis Seal eters cents
ILD AINA poneoseaade 80.00 18.00 T2ROO Me S500) essere all sauce cee | sere stoe ers | erect
TeINCON eee ee ee ee eee 43. 00) 5.00 3.00 SOO| = ccccivsetl wictsinats all otek cise eieeiereetele 10.00
IHS Ae cnccoscass 46.00) 1.25 BGO AO O0| a= cise | ere micas, ol Serer ete ere nners | vee
Maynard@eereseee ase VW VON Bea caaae 5.00 14°00). oo ctelteneece | Sass wel eeeeeene 1.00
INAtICK 5 ates ese Sache 102. 00 4.75 Seo OO SOO a)sicsse cre | Meee cell peters rere eraser ore 8.00
North Reading........ BEN oA I ee TPeDS ITS OO! cca susie era ie # cell eam 7.00

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES.

MASSACHUSETTS—Continued.

67

TaBLeE 19.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

County and town.

Middlesex—Continued.

Pepperell
Readin:

Wayland
Westford

Nantucket: Nantucket....
Norfolk:

Weymouth.........-.-

Plymouth:

JN Ona KO hesanooaeBueee
Bridgewater....-.-...-
WBiveree aoemecsce scene
East Bridgewater.....-
ERaiaxe east se sc.
AN OVersstsoae oes se

Kingston.
Lakeville...
Marion

Mattapoisett......-.-..-
Middleboro...........-.
Norwell
Pembroke
Emouth

ympten
ochesters a .s5- ces

Surfaced roads.

Total
- Ti
TLE 2, Macadam P Increase Graded
road Total Esaeee in sur- | drained
: Gravel ore sur- | of total danced earth
Plain, |Bitumi- ment. | faced. | sur- | 788° roads.
ain. |" ‘nous. aced. | 7099,
: ‘ 67.75
b 5 11.50
: 5 7.00
: 28. 50
c 3 16. 50
E : 18. 00
GOR00) Fos =s--1- SOO 4 QhOO ees Be e552 ia aro cin steicie oes ei 15. 00
65. 00 1.00 HUY ieee OE ee Ssaeeq| peeeeron Seacecser Semrcsorl secoasoc
80.00]..-.--.- 6.00 CEUU bGacocke steueete Geronosealmerecrce 58.00
41.00 @sO0l eee se IPS bso osecs| Bobcares CEcessoe Geeeepos 11.00
48.00 9. 20 4.50} 34.00 SOU eee Oaede Hecrsenal becessarcial bsoncsen
56. 25 18.50 17.50} 20.10 eel ea eesrsea|| eis eicictatels)| aiayel sm ate ell eee
52. 00)...----- 250] eSONOO Breese eerie eel em ereieciois| steletcijeist 8.50
CUO 0 bonaeeaa leases CUCU cevadogs|seeecada Bansacae Sbcacoods| |econoaas
49.00 2.00 USL) |e GLb a) on gacoun||couauned poasecea baacecadlodoogoac
52200|E oe sec = 4350!) YASH OO Seer Se icrcja ates clavaiessis all rote aston eietmoierere
43.00).---..-- 25360)! 22590 | een ee ecerce lic asia cai] eeieeioeinl steterctelenie
2,431.48} 128.17) 206. 16/1, 350.33 88/1, 685.54] 69.30/—193. 43] 438.41
ELON goascoce 1.50) 2 seal reeeee 7. 50) 6.60/— 7.98} 29.00
10. 00 - 50 - 50 5
44.00 - 82 3.18 ,
O0300| eee sees 17.50 :
71.09 13.35) 46.43 S
40500|5 522 se5~ 3. 25 5
7d WN emadone 11. 65 :
55.50} 20.00 7.00 :
3O719 | Seeerene 2.19 5
52. 00 3.50 3.50 5
76.00 1.00 5.77) A
20500| Reece 1.75) :
AQKOO aes eee Bee b
40.00).....-..- 3.00:
34500) --easealisceeea= 3
55.00) 15.00} 16.00 :
45800 |eaeeo ss. 17.00 i
4G. 45) 25 saare 1.45) :
40.00 2.50 4500|) 32500 |Ree reer lisesi os cee ote eiel| sors terete 1.50
35.00 - 10 pS) Beets” 5 c|Gaeance clceueeoel Gaereane| Creaccas 27.60
30.75 25 2550|%" 2asO0|Bereaees tee a hale So cc esecwiee olereeneiere
68. 67 alti Seannese SOR OO Reyerstesists | ever) 215 oi lfeerelerel=) sii] exe eteteretets 28. 00
56. 50).---.--- SROO 1 LOROO ee esters exe eee acre cists ie apatites 40.00
655,00 |/Reeeeeee GON) WLC scoscoddllbcsocacclanocaaoe|educoosc|lsooacage
SPECT! TORCH) = WSO SECU ls sescsoslledococcdlsoccocos|beceeace 5.00
erPrMecoseaas PANU ME-TiAOU Sseseocc GoseeeoE GBoee ea poceseoallooecHarc
75. 00 3.00 emUU ai BN hee soo daltossodaal aeneconoleeeesonliaaconeda
63500 |/Peeeenee 600 Ge Ras Ee sic Meroe eres eee 54.00
1, 264.26) 70.69) 185.47) 682.26 1.76} 940.18} 74.40/— 98.14] 260.08
58: OO! re 2 areca GAH Mie 0S O05 bese coal copesaead Seassece Sereoces 13.00
70. 69 5.00: G25), “AZk00 Remewrale= se. stralicieesa sof semriccce 15.75
67.00 13500) Seen 24500 ere cteellSaeceiace oases |eecs cee 10. 00
90200|2 2 -- = =- (RO) POLO sate socllaceuosea eaeeoeos lasaueace 23.50
49.50 SH oosoace 44ND eee sesle Seice |Sosacaeia lees aeicietsl| Sees
32.25 Pa nee UGE esses decd asaeonce chbeesaol neeacses 15.00
: 2.50 i
5 0. 25 5
5 1.50) b Lb
33.00 3.25 PEM 21/5795) socoacca|sososeos|boondacnosessocc|pocssoas
196. 00 4.00 8.40) 78. 60, Bee tere ete eles ale 2 iasil Se ste orale [ieiateimsetare 54. 00
50. 60).-...--- -33 ASG Ulead | sacs cio eae | Nei siete nia listaticioee 44.60
57.00 1.50 Bed) pe iG) ee eS cealbcoetees feecesod EeneoaoS 5. 50
208.00 3.51 EU) etUbEI 4S 550550|pe5edeod pou seaos|ascedscs 45.00
345.00 |eseeeisiers! were aiz~i= UGE (Uc ouseeoalbebec seo Gebeease ascece ae 15.00
SU) SCT aeRO) flO? Gc coded Reseaned Meearene Gocaemte 30. 00

68

MASSACHUSETTS—Continued.
TABLE 19.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914—Continued.

Surfaced roads.

BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Graded

Macadam. Per. |Mmerease Pes
— Total | centage) 12 SUr- | drained

Gravel. Pane sur- | of total tered 4 ee

Plain, Bitumi- ~ | faced sur- Bas TES

nous. faced. 1909.

4.75| 3.10] 25.65|..-....- [ieee olsen = dle) ee a eee

Je sates 13.00 CER eoseaeca manasa as Ssseascel ecesconos| Seseness
6.00 18.00} 25.00 OFSO eas S es Ses haem Sowerreer 20.00
vaso AO 4000) Ss2 cea ee aaa e ace al cee ceees been ere
3.00 5. 00) OEN74) Kanoosas besaasca teocousallososoecce 2.00

Total
County and town. patlease

roads.

Plymouth—Continued.

Rockland seaeceiceceeete 36. 50
Settmatetsesescescseoue 56. 00
Wareham......--.-.... 135. 00
West Bridgewater....- 44.00
Whitman.......-...--- 34.75
Total Sac see cciagemesssee 1, 731. 68

ee eee eee ee ee

Boyistones ey ea
Brookfield

Hopedale........2....-

Oakham

Petersham.............
Phillipston
IPFinCeLOHe eee soe ene
Royalston
Rutland
Shrewsbury
Southboro

Sturbridge..........---
Sutton

West Boylston. ....---
West Brookfield
Westboro
Westminster..........-
Winchendon

3,956. 52
18, 681. 40

Ae Sa 1.12
Sh 5.00
3.00| 3.69
1.00| 1.50
1.60/ 5.40
bade BE 8.35
CE aleeale 4.00
1.50] 2.25
2.00/ 6.50
1.00] 4.75
eee 8.00
3.50} 10.50
5.00| 3.00
MiP ateg 4.00
1.00 25
Eo Nees 5.25
1:'70| soe
107.06} 174.34|1,113,46| 4. 20/1, 399.06
8, 505. 89

834. 30|1, 337. 33/6, 289. 57) 44.69

35. 40
45. 53

536. 38/1, 811. 46
| 42.716, 453. 92

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES.

TABLE 20.— Miles of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1914.

RHODE ISLAND.

Surfaced roads.

stlncee Macadam.
County and town. u H Per-
as, Gravel otal centage
Bitumi- Mi Aas of total
Plain. | nous. surfaced.
Bristol: -
Barmnetonies! 262.525. 22. 28. 60 3.53 5.37 | 19.70] 28.60 |
TBTRISTHO GS crs eens ayy 37. 00 4.63 5. 33 5.00 | -14.96 63.35
Wiarren see ee nl to es: 25.25 5.16 2.84 6.00 | 14.00
Kent:
Woventryene tens sass. 126.00 | 18.45 2.51 | 10.00} 30.96
Fast Greenwich.......... 65. 00 2.00 -50 | 138.00] 15.50
Wiamwieke ct 285 gk os 96. 00 7.50 13. 51 10.00 | 31.01 25.50
West Greenwich........- 94. 00 SAS Cal eee 3. 00 8.37
West Warwick..........- 34. 00 SOO ooasass 12.00] 20.00
Newport: |
Jamestown: .2...25.-.-.-: 18. 00 5.00 1.00; 12.00] 18.00
Little Compton........-- 47.00 6.59 PHP YA ayes 7 8. 86
Middletown..... a ees Petes 36.00 | 10.00 2.00 4.00 | 16.00 39.78
New Shoreham........... 31. 00 5. 00 1002/2 aeaeee 6. 00 5
IRortsMnrowuth se ee SLAOOn Pel 25 00 Ess see 5.50 | 17.50
MIiVeLbOne tt 5825. ba: 55.00 | 16.15 4231 Seen 20. 38
Providence:
Burrillvalley se 323) 120. 00 17.00 3.63 6.00 | 26.63
Cumberland.............- 90.00 | 18.00 7.00 2.00 | 27.00
East Providence......... 60.65 | 17.00 |111.65 5.00 | 33.65
IR OSUCTER Mek ce cance wa S 108. 00 3.98 2. 44 4.00 10. 42
Gloucestersenen. fass5- 26. 104. 50 7.01 8509") cues 15.10
PORMSTONE Se see ee Gon 55.00 | 18.01 4.71 | 12.00 | 34.72 29.37
GIT COME ee tke ey 2 51.00 5.78 -48 20.50 | 26.76
North Providence 21.50 7.48 IBY ¢ 8.00 | 17.05
North Smithfield 54. 50 7.60 4. 82 6. 00 18. 42
Smithfield.......... nat 70. 00 SEN) leoogasue 12.00 |} 20.00
South Scituate........... 118.50 | 10.97 |.......-. 10.00 | 20.97
Washington:
Charleston..............- 55.00 | 11.07 1.08: Saree 12.15
ERKOLET Ee cee sencmccse se 102. 00 710) aera 5.00 | 14.76
Hopkinton............... RY6C0 | IBACOVecosoouslledossace 12. 00
Narragansett............. 30. 00 8.26 | 10.44 6.00 | 24.70 39.51
North Kingston.......... 77.00 | 17.23 4.27} 10.00] 31.50
Richmond............... GS 50) el 4s25) | 502 = S e eeers 14. 25
South Kingston.......... 97.00 | 21.14 7.66 | 10.50] 39.30
Westerly. 2. ccc 22h 22 67.70 | 29.00 2.00 | 12.90] 43.90
ROL alee eee! ei ce on 2,169.70 | 352.92 | 110.40 | 230.10 | 693. 42 31.65

1 Includes 3 miles of granite block.

Increase
in sur-
faced
mileage
over
1909.

5.96.

36. 54

10. 84

—261. 08

—140. 91

—348. 65

69

17.00

396. 40

BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

10

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71

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES.

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BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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13

ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN NEW ENGLAND STATES.

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BULLETIN 388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

74

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ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D.C.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Washington, D. C. V May 10, 1917

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN THE
CENTRAL, MOUNTAIN, AND PACIFIC STATES, 1914.

‘A Compilation Showing Mileage of Improved and Unimproved Roads; Sources and Amounts of Road
Revenues; Bonds Issued and Outstanding; a Description of the Systems of Road Administration,
Fiscal Management, and Other Factors Affecting Road Improvement in Each State.

Prepared jointly by the Division of Road Economics of the Office of Public Roads
and Rural Engineering, and State Collaborators.

CONTENTS.

Page. Page.
INtEGMUCHION-)-)0scc eo. e este ss ceeccet sci sss os Die]? ING@Viad aeeeaeerit ee eee alata: yee eee nes Ra 36
JNIVADIE oc accdacencbopeeeUeruaneCeSaeneBenee W\" NewaMiexd consented sects sae e a ecas ata ee 38
Wahtionniarsset eee sees eee abodes ss 9). NortheDakotaresetse sG5 0. veri ih) Vie ee 40
(WOlOEAG Oxeaee rset el tenia en tae mie a ie hicare Qe be 12: | QHiG sera Nene aaa ees vals Le Niles 41
IGBOO Le ot LEGS Same eae eee a ae VAY | ORC TOMERNS eee ee eee ie oars piy ee fe Gey 44
EIT OIS merase is se sane Senveoeaeceme esd oly 16%) ‘Southppakota gs mese secs saya em Ine 45
JIG TESTE /otisds don con S ORCC N ER Sareea eee AQ) |. TWitabipb sea relia at Se bs eh ane Sees 47
TGWiciebisBerd aU Sate ae ee ae eae a 21'-|* Wrashine tomes agser ss Seb dae nee Wis Meee Ue 49
ATISASS Pee baa Sas eel aah Gal 24). WASCOMSImS pe ay eo hk Rey pata ek OI 51
Mi chigarraserie abet cissa Sse oh aie luk 25°), NNayOmmin peers aucts veers ka terete au ena 54
IMEMTMESOC AM Bee es ete SO SS cet 28) | AD PENG eRBAG sia ae cays sce Sela ees ae eae I
IMISSOUTISE eer ears iia ono ce ec ebae se caleehas BO)” | Ap Perr cH Vee eae aes eerste cle ee RE OKG RORE
IMOmtanaaeemese ss cac cee oso ect aaee 32) | Appendix @ssaes se sccnestncienseseee sense LXIV
INGDEASK Oe a eecte nce. sacle cee su ose cede s 34

INTRODUCTORY.

In 1904 the policy of conducting an investigation at five-year intervals to ascertain
the mileage of improved and unimproved roads, the revenues for road purposes, and
other related data was adopted. A bulletin embodying data for the calendar year
1904 was published.! A similar investigation was conducted for the calendar year
1909 and the data issued as Bulletin No. 41. The investigation made for the calendar
year 1914, which forms the basis for this bulletin, differed somewhat from the preceding
investigations, as a greater number of State highway departments were in operation
and more adequate facilities were possessed by them. Wherever it was practicable
to do so, information was obtained directly by collaborators designated by the State
highway departments and acting under specific instructions from this office.

In many instances it was impossible for the collaborators to obtain replies from all
local officials, and accordingly letters and forms were sent directly from this office to
such local officials. In the course of the investigation it was found necessary to enlist

1U.S. Dept. Agr., Office of Public Roads Bul. No. 32.
Nore.—This bulletin will be ofinterest to officials engaged in the building and maintenance ofroads.
72690°—Bull. 389—17——1

tJ
2 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

- the aid of local and State road associations, chambers of commerce, automobile clubs,
postmasters, and private individuals in order to obtain adequate information. On
account of the absence of detailed records in many of the towns and counties extreme
accuracy isimpossible. The data on mileage and revenues should therefore be con-
sidered as approximate only. Because of the large amount of correspondence neces-
sary to conduct the investigation, considerable delay in the issuance of the data has
been unavoidable.

Bulletins already have been issued for the Middle Atlantic States, the New England
States, and the Southern States, respectively. These, together with this bulletin,
which contains data for the Central, Mountain, and Pacific States, form a complete
series embracing all of the 48 States. A convenient reference summary of all of the
States also is issued coincident with this bulletin.

ROAD’ ADMINISTRATION IN THE CENTRAL, MOUNTAIN, AND PACIFIC STATES.

The greater part of all road and bridge work in the States comprised im this group
is done under the supervision of county, township, or district authorities. There is,
however, anincreasing tendency toward State participation and management. Laws
have been enacted creating or designating State highway departments or commissions
in the States of California, Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, lowa, Michigan, Minnesota,
Missouri, Montana, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah,
Washington, and Wisconsin. Duties somewhat similar to those exercised by State
highway departments or commissions are imposed upon the State engineer in the
States of Kansas, Nebraska, Nevada, and Wyoming; and all the functions of a State
highway department or commission are exercised by the State engineer and the State
board of control in the State of Arizona. An outline of the system of road adminis-
tration in force in each State is given under the respective State headings.

PUBLIC ROAD REVENUES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in the Central, Mountain, and Pacific
States in the year 1914 amounted to $131,446,647.62, including State appropriations,
motor-vehicle registration and license fees, amounts derived from local taxation, and
expenditures from bond issues, both State and local. In 1904 the total revenue
applied to this purpose amounted to $36,794,586.67. The increase in 1914 as com-
pared with 1904 was, therefore, $94,652,060.95, or 257.24 per cent. Table 1 presentsin
condensed form the information assembled concerning revenues for this group of
States for the year 1914, with comparative information for the year 1904.

TaBLE 1.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges.

Total revenue applied to roads | Increase in revenue over
1904.

and bridges.
State.
Percent-
1904 1914 Total increase. | age of

increase.
OAT IZ OTA ROP Es coe elas Seas NAM teat uz, Ue ORL $109, 309. 43 $982, 721. 22 $878, 411. 79 799
Cahora ee yah Ne ese a Se 2,157, 396.36 | 19,171,984.66 | 17,014, 588. 30 786.6
(fay Fosets Xo Vo Wes Apple SN a ei ee yi eg 707, 223. 63 1, 937, 546. 23 1, 230, 322. 60 173.96
IGEN Yop eiosteeaises A ys ORAL a ae Cees Rn 311,588.00] 1,371,468.59| 1,059, 880. 59 340
IB UER aoe UAE mie es act cea i MOA at ig 4, 210,950.32} 8, 784,712.77] 4,523, 762.45 107. 42
Tha(bbevat ret eehinis lA orien e) Mae anaa Ea 4, 335, 108.00 | 14, 233, 985. 93 9, 898, 877. 93 228. 34
TRO WV ai a HE ZA IS eR es a 3, 106, 607.50 | 10, 187, 507. 32 7, 080, 899. 82 227. 92
FERGATI SAS UNESP Lea Ske a SE aoe geo MecteI A ( ta 1, 232, 817. 45 5, 544, 048. 00 4,311, 230.55 | ~ 349.7
VETO Brean Rays RS Bie es) CR es 3,179, 787. 88 9, 261, 998. 00 6, 082, 210. 12 191. 27
MANN ESOLAL SSeS tee eaee essen yes tee tee sae el 1, 961, 629. 24 6, 458, 940. 07 4, 497, 310. 83 229. 26
IMUSSOUTT Ue eran nee O See MN To ee ea 2, 368, 972.79 | 5, 513,048.71 | 3, 144, 075. 92 132. 72
Montana meer et sie ecece saan shar seis ae ie ee 404, 097. 81 2, 888, 400. 61 2, 484, 302. 80 614.77

ING EAS havea eed cons eg hein Cas a 878, 547.40 | 1, 796, 277. 69 917,730.29 | 104.4

ay,
ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL ‘AND WESTERN STATES.

(a)

TaBLE 1.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges—Continued.

;

Total revenue applied to roads | Increase in revenue over
and bridges. 4.

State.

Percent-
1904 1914 Totalinerease.| age of
increase.

346, 875. 85 1 $245, 013. 65 $198, 137. 80 422. 68

165, 651. 56 556, 398. 82 390, 747. 26 235. 88
North Dakota 550, 340. 72 2, 402, 383. 52 1, 852, 042. 80 436. 52
QING Sais d SRS RAGE Se IB I ee nl een 5, 706, 083. 61 14, 334, 245. 98 8, 628, 162. 37 151. 23
Wresoubee ie awd e OSL OA Se saa Oboe 796, 375. 97 5, 310, 466. 76 4, 514, 090. 79 566. 84
SOE, IDB TRO Ses eee leet oe Se nie ae en 383, 283. 07 1, 217, 809. 42 834, 526. 35 217. 73
TOT ko Le ee a ae ee eae a 218, 675. 78 803, 070. 63 584, 394. 85 267. 24
Washinotonmis oO Fis ae Whale sobs: 1, 436, 070.19 7, 944, 717.38 6, 508, 647. 19 453. 22
RANMA SCOMSITM Reaeeeyrie toa ee ai Sa oe alco ns 2, 181, 262. 38 9, 880, 240. 50 7, 698, 978. 12 352. 26
DWayORaaTI NEF CINE Sea Se RS ce ee 345, 931. 73 669, 661. 16 323, 729. 43 93. 58
IO fehl mene RS Sate Le tele 36, 794, 586.67 | 131, 446, 647.62 | 94,652, 060.95 257. 24

1 For 1915.

A comparison showing the average revenues for roads and bridges in the Central,
Mountain, and Pacific States per mile of road, per square mile of area, per thousand of
rural population, and per $100 of assessed valuation for the years 1904 and 1914 is pre-
sented in Table 2. This average does not indicate, however, the proportion of ex-
penditures for construction and maintenance, respectively.

TABLE 2.—Revenue according to mileage, area, population, and valuation.

Road revenues.

Per $100 of as-

State. t Fer mule OF ees square smile Per capita. sessed valua-
ion.
1904 1914 1904 1914 19041 19142 19048 19144
LNEWADISD, SOA fee ae ee Se Sm $18.25 | $81.38 | $0.96 | $8.63} $0.89 | $4.81 $0. 27 $0. 70
Walon eee eee es ER -| 46.24 | 314.09 | 13.82 ) 123.17 1.45 8.06 Sali . 66
48. 70 6. 82 18. 69 e3l 2.42 . 20 - 46
56. 22 3.73 16.45 1,92 4.21 Rou . 82
91.32 | 75.19 | 155. 85 87 1.54 41 37
194.06 | 120.80 | 394. 89 1.72 5.27 Fol -75
97.88 | 55.89 | 183. 27 1.39 4.58 54 1.13
49.92 | 15.07] 67.79 3 3. 28 34 20
i 124. 84 55. 32 | 161.13 1.31 3. 29 22 40
IVETTINIES O Lae ee ete Soe oe Sues 8 24.72 | 69.06 | 24.26) 79.88 1.12 3.11 . 26 44
TN LISSO TUE Lees Ie ee Ag 21.90 | 57.40} 34.47] 80.22 76 1. 67 .19 .30
MOniiemeaymere eee tee Le ea 18. 02 73. 67 2.76 19. 75 1. 66 7.68 . 22 . 83
IN CWRASKAzeietecct ce oso bles Se ts oe 11.05 | 22.37) 11.43} 23.38 82 1. 51 49 39
TNIGHEXOE AS 515 IN rs 2 ee a ae 3.72 | 20.11 42 2. 23 1.10 2. 99 16 24
Ne we IT exiICOs sera hes we Sle 10.80 | 46.86 1.35 4, 54 84 1.69 43 77
INORIAUDAKOLAS2 joss oe oe LS 9.28 | 34.92 7.84 | 34.23 1. 72 4.16 41 . 68
I OSes eee css sete ius 2. zeke 82.17 | 165.99 | 140.06 | 351. 84 1.37 3.00 .29 - 22
MER OMPAM ee ese cin to's Saisie cine Me une e 23. 24 | 144. 23 8.33 | 55.54 1.92 7. 89 54 59
South Dakotas 224s 8 ose Leos le 6.46 | 12.64 4.98} 15.84 95 2.08 20 34
(UIE i Bs ieee ss ee a 30. 84 | 91.15 2. 66 9.77 79 2.15 18 40
IWMSHINGLOME sj Nose c ens sacsee- 44,88 | 187.25 | 21.48 | 118. 87 Ph Hel 6. 95 . 50 si)
RW ISCOMSIM eset co oe otc ase eis ce ieee 34.30 | 130.50 | 39.47 | 178.81 1.05 4, 23 .14 40
RVVAYOUIEER Dowel erase cient cco e\seiat us oy 9.45 | 45.25 8. 54 6. 86 1. 04 4.59 .79 37
Weighted average....-......... 30.94 | 96.74 | 19.03] 67.98 1. 21 3.58 27 44
1 Based on the 1900 United States census. 3 Based on the 1910 United States census.

2 Based on the 1902 United States census. # Based on the 1912 United States census.

BULLETIN 389, U. S. DERARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total State, county, township, and district road and bridge bonds outstanding
on January 1, 1915, in the Central, Pacific, and Mountain States, amounted to $128,-
767,414.57. In 1914 the expenditures from bond issues amounted to $28,949,759.48;
bonds were retired to the amount of $9,214,166.62; bonds voted $24,960, 869.20; and
bonds sold $25,611, 229.42. .

State bonds have been issued in California, Idaho, Utah, and Washington. In Cali-
fornia the bond issue for the construction of a system of State highways amounted to
$18,000,000. Some district road bonds have been issued in Kansas, but it was im-
possible to ascertain the amounts. No State, county, or township road and bridge
bonds were reported for Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, or Wyoming. All
of the other States in this group, however, have outstanding local bonds.

Information in regard to bond issues is presented by States in Table 3, and detailed
information, showing bond issues by counties, is given under the State headings.

TaBLE 3.—Road and bridge bonds.

Expended
eae Total out- |from bondis-| _ Retired | Voted during Sold during
: Jem hi sues uring during 1914. 1914. 1914,
.1, 1915.

INTAZ OTA eee Roesch cae $295, 000. 00 $8, 780. 59 (Q) $275,000.00 | $275,000. 00
California RSA ORS Is a NL #32, 27, 000.00 8,886, 192.56 | $271,000.00 | 2, 712,000.00 | 2,712,000. 00

OlLOLAG Ones eee tic eieeeceie scat 500. 00 1, 234. 50 1 1 ~ 0
Teo ARENDT NCA iy 3 1,339,000.00 | 226,000. 00 (Q) 425, 000. 00 375,000.00 .
Oise CN NEEM ma 798,761.55 | 208,855.41 | 161, 914.34 | 3,656, 500. 00 199, 350. 00
nidiana soe eae ee 42, 095,357.34 | 9,396, 186.98 | 5,957,266. 47 | 4,538,221.31 | 8,619,005. 53
Jowa WEG RUN ra Ne Ma il, oe 780. 00 @ a a se 00 376, 828. 00

HHRD Sod csobbo cee neeoseredun 1 1 1 1
Michigan meee meee elise 10,389, 029. 43 | 1,524,557.49 |_.......--.... 2,080, 742.43 | 2,080, 742. 43
Niinmiecotaee fees ele Se 1,411, 889.00 | 429, 800. 00 49, 842. 00 62, 000. 00 358, 000. 00
IMTS SOLI Ieee ale 522, 500. 00 55, 000. 00 37,500. 00 75, 000. 00 75, 000. 00
Montana BRAD AS EU et ae 2, 224, 050. 72 a a 00 - ~ 00 — on 00 ey 00

EDEASK ae ses Soeie ae owicis Goes 1 1 1 1
INGvadasee nein NTS USEING ONS 38,000.00 | 317,256.79 3, 000. 00 25, 000. 00 25, 000. 00
New Meats Palit OU ON SO RE Ret ee 00 a ee 00 a 50, ie 00 an 000. 00

or AI OCA ee slate ee ee ee 1 1 1) G 1

Va Yay kaa UNEAR Se e 31,175, 968.53 | 6,384,355. 74 | 2,684,593. 81 | 8,702,303. 46 | 8,593,303. 46
Oregon... Rp OR CRR WAiGh cit 1,615, 000.00 | 1,122) 817.65 ( 1, 365, 000. 00 trae Out

ou C(O) ees eee He ARIS 1 1 1 1
LOT SS NS Sas are 2 541, 500. 00 6, 899. 27 ti 10, 500. 00. 10, 500. 00
Washington se: 24s i) 0k 21,555,000.00} 509,146. 50 0) 133; 274. 00 35, 000. 00
WWASCOMSIM Soc cec eee ese 281, 078. 00 40, 201. 00 16, 050. 00 21, 500. 00 21, 500. 00
SVV/sy QUOT Boer -feleeteleie sees eee @) Q) @) Q) ()

Motel vere Sane ean 128, 767, 414. 57 |28, 949, 759. 48 | 9,214, 166. 62 |24, 960, 869. 20 | 25,611,229. 42

1 None reported.

2 Including State bonds.

3 Expended in early part of 1915.

The total road mileage in the Central, Mountain, and Pacific States as of January 1,

1915, exclusive of streets in incorporated cities and towns, was 1,358,706, of which
134,141.74 miles, or 9.87 per cent were surfaced The total road mileage and the
mileage surfaced to the close of 1914, and percentage of surfaced roads for 1909 and
1914 are shown for this group of States in Table 4. Detailed information on this sub-
ject is presented by counties under the State headings. The percentage of roads sur-
faced for the years 1904, 1909, and 1914 for these States is shown in figure 1.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES.

TABLE 4.—Road mileage.
Surfaced Percentage
’ Total road road surfaced.
State mileage, mileage,
end of 1914.|end of 1914.
1909. 1914.
PRGA GTI, Sis Ge le tae Ia TE 12,075 253. 43 4.56 12.09
AU AITORTIAR eee es BL DAT Se Aa 61,039 | 10,279.73 | 17.87] 116.84
CONGRATS CESS SOUR Ie Sees Oe crea ee aN ee ee, 39, 780 1,193. 87 1.08 3
TG ELON A eee A eR ree a i 24, 396 679 2.77 2.78
TO Seen etn aa SATO NG La oe 6, ae 95,647 | 11,606. 31 9. 47 12. 02
Img RST.) Ako AM RR Be SCS Be an ea Poe I 73,347 | 30,962. 4 36. 7 42.2
HOW Bhaig cs pa RSE eae RSE US Fp a ae SR SUE 104, 074 614. 57 2.45 0. 59
PRGROGES. 5 GSE RES IS REI Ec a ee el ee a 2 oA 111, 052 1,148. 85 0.38 1.03
WATE METAL a AG ey ee SA Re Re 74, 190 7,828.51 } 10.01 10. 55
VIMISS Glaser eee eS en eC. ee 93,517 3, 967. 83 6. 83 14,24
MISSDUTEe eee eer AT Ae eC LEO) | aaa 96, 041 6, 712. 57 4.4 6. 98
IM LGV aM RSW EEE 5 5 SiS eR a a en en cr 39, 204 609. 25 0. 41 1.55
BING Larisa gen aga NS ee Te A 80, 272 1, 204. 54 0.31 1g
SING Lela mee ee oy id Sneha RI MeY SANE ie Ee eS RRR 12,182 262 0. 36 2.14
ING Wg VEC KACO a am se eases elise RUM Li oer eRe. ieee 11, 873 261.5 0. 61 252
SSNUEUDE: TD ead (ay SE hE SG SS 68, 796 955 0. 23 1.38
ED oo AcE SC et EES A SO I 1 ea a A See 86,354 | 30,569.17 | 27.13 35. 16
CONTA = a a Oe eee AEE LU ge eGR API a Oh a 36,819} 4,726.4 9.49} 12.83
Sigutn Dakota 96, 306 363 0.5 0.37
HE Dn soe yee a MR SAS UES RAS ea aera MRT 8,810] 1,153.75 | 12.23] 13.09
Washington 42,428 4,922.09 | 13.19] 111.61
Wasconsimict oF os. 75,707 | 13,399.47 | 16.64 17.6
DYVSVOMIMI OREO a iice ton Ee Eee: Eee Se So 2 Ses 14,797 468. 5 3. 94 13.16
FRotalaveracenns ets e eo eee lo, | eee 1,358, 706 | 134,141. 74 8.91 9. 87

1 Decrease in surfaced mileage reported does not mean retrogression, but is accounted for by higher
standard requirements and greater accuracy of reports in 1914 as compared with previous reports.

The relation of total mileage and surfaced mileage to area and rural population in
Central, Pacific, and Mountain States, for the years 1904, 1909, and 1914, is presented

in Table 5.

TABLE 5.—Relation of total mileage and surfaced mileage to area and rural population.

Total mileage. Surfaced mileage.
Per square mile Per 1,000 of Per square mile Per 1,000 of
State. aired rural Gt area rural
% population. ‘ population.
1904 1914 1904 1914 1904 | 1914

BATEIZ OTIS eRe eee ret oe SN AR el UN an 0. 05 0. 11 58.1 85.5 | 0.002 0. 002 2.10 1.79

Californias een Sita wet aU Ne 29 -39 65. 9 67.2 | .056 -066 | 12.45 11. 32

WOlOrad OM en ee LR LEG Beene ai ilies - 30 -38 108. 3 100.9} .062 - O11 . 64 3. 02

- 20 -29} 119.6 95.4] .002 - 008 1.39 2. 65

.6 1.71 42.6 44,2] .141 - 207 3. 59 5. 37

9 2. 03 41.3 47.1 | .662 -858 | 14.44 19. 88

. 84 1.87 61.7 67.3 | .029 - 001 1 39

EQe 1.35 88. 8 92.7 | .003 - 014 . 24 96

~2 1. 29 47.2 50 . 122 - 136 4.78 5. 28

1.15 68. 7 76.3 | .077 - 036 5. 42 2.42

1.39 54. 6 50.6] .039 - 097 1.38 3. 54

-27| 141.2] 161.5] .0004 - 004 -41 2.51

1. 04 97.6 91 - 0003 - 001. - 03 1.36

-11| 358.1] 177.8] .0006 - 002 1. 82 3. 82

- 09 91.3 42.3 0002 - 002 -O1 - 93

5 -98 | 200.6] 133.8] .003 - 013 71 1. 86

Orel oS SOA OS EG SC Be See ent eae ea 1.79 2.12 32.1 41 05 -750 | 10. 86 14. 54

io Bi Eee ES ae ay aE saa a Se ch . 36 38} 122.2} 100.6| .027 - 049 9. 23 12. 89

South PD AKOL Awe Han SaialR Te 7 1.25 | 164.4] 189.8] .002 - 004 .42 nies

is AREAS ce UAE POR ETN AG aN -08 Salil 41.3 43.9] .007 - 014 3.55 5. 76
Washinaton eae ete ae eC RU LL hy - 48 -63 | 104.3 vi) - 029 - 073 6, 44 9. 17"

BWASCOTSITI Nt EAT Oe ea ae 1.17 130 49.7 56.9 | .192 - 242 8.31 10. 08

RWay Onin ose es SU rea) Ty oil -15] 158.5] 144.8] .0015 005 2.32 4. 56

Total average...............--- . 61 - 70 63. 9 68.2] .051 - 069 5. 33 6. 74

ron one
if

BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

PER CENT

°
1904 [aim
ete A il
1914 a | |
904 ae i ee
CALIFORNIA------ : =
COLORADO------
IDAHO----------
ILLINOIS--------4
1
INDIANA--------- 1
lOWA------------ { |
KANSAS--------
MICHIGAN-------
1914
(1904
MINNESOTA-----+ (309 Sanne
1914 jee
1904 [aE
MISSOURI-------- 1909 jae
1914 ie
904
MONTANA------- { 1909
1914
904
NEBRASKA------ 1909
1914
1904
NEVADA--------- , feast
1914 jag
1904
N. MEXICO----- -| 1909
1914 fi
1904 |
N. DAKOTA------ { 1909 }
1914 |
OHIO----------- | La Rae “mil
1904 fame =
OREGON-------- 1209)
oh
1904 fajehnataba [ =|
914 fie —
904 du 4 . i
9 2 3 | LLLELEE stacks 4

Fig. 1.—Percentage of surfaced roads in th respective States.

- ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. %

Of the 134,141.74 miles of surfaced roads, at the close of 1914, in the Central, Pacific,
and Mountain States, 78,825.34 miles, or 58.77 per cent, were of gravel; 31,882.24
miles, or 23.77 per cent, macadam; 13,192.02 miles, or 9.84 per cent, sand-clay;
2,949.64 miles, or 2.20 per cent, bituminous macadam; 1,789.20 miles, or 1.33 per cent,
concrete; 794.82 miles, or 0.59 per cent, brick; and 4,708.47 miles, or 3.5 per cent, sur-
faced with other materials. The distribution of types of surfaced roads as of January 1,
1915, is shown by States in Table 6.!

TABLE 6.—Distribution of types of surfaced road, 1914.

Type.
State. Bitumi- :
Macadam. nous: mac- Gravel. rane Brick. |Concrete. ee Total.
PATIZOM AMG oe te ee oie 11. 23 13.5 125.7 ZAG SING ie AE 58 253. 43
Califormias 2... .2-- 837. 4 877.9 | 3,563. 59 582520) le soe one 929.19 ja3,489.4 | 10,279. 73
Coloradopes. 222220 s 22. Dvds PaaS Ee 574. 25 450.12 |........ 2. 25 164.25 | 1,193.87
12 168 AZO SG Ne oe ae 4.5 3 679
121.53 | 7,052.3 2, 467. 95 82. 92 148.8 57.7 11, 606. 31
168. 35 !20, 264. 59 150. 25 34. 75 EIS Tg eRe ae Na ti 30, 962. 4
hsp fea pee e ees 413 23 Eee el al 5.77 is 5 614. 57
Be Cia 151. 85 758. 5 4.1 1.35 38. 75 1, 148. 85,
94.5 | 5,230.25 | 1,375.27 |......-- TOTS yaar me ane 7, 828. 51
19 2,825.25 | 985.33 5 TS ee PRE 3,967. 83
59 3,671.5 | 1,442.25} 1 id 5 6,712. 57
MOntan ater. soe cess Oo el ase oe 514. 25 1 aaa. TS ia Si ae ea nt 3 609. 25
INDO as ee 39. 21 13 21 1,131.1 2.4 (58533 2 1, 204. 54
ING EXG OS Oi ee SOND) pay eed eo 193 GRR eee letsrecivoe clsilit ata a Bele 262
INewi Mexican saree eee ee 5 184 ODE aan] Pa ete Ree frre Seed NS ALY SRI 261.5
INonuhebakotase else ue Noe Miss be keys 53), SERN RU S| SURE Teele ae ai EN 955
Oni NAO Sela ey ae 12, 903. 87 | 1,066. 29 |15,385.93 | 211 640.41] 315. 67 46 30, 569. 17
Oregon ee Sus 1, 000. 72 137. 25 | 3,060. 15 SOO MA | aes eae. 28.41 199.87 | 4,726.4
Bowe Dakotas ye ee ae) 10 212 TPAD) C0 (ea | EAS a a 12 363
LUSTRE ap i Ta A 49 15. 5 685. 75 AOI a Newco ahh 2 hice | es EN rs S 1,153. 75
Washington............ 502. 82 165. 52 | 3,924.48 83. 50 26.35 79. 42 140 4,922. 09
Wisconsin.............- 1,408 183 9, 597 2,054 2.4 83. 07 72 13,399. 47
RV Vay Laminin eee a ak Ce IST Le! Bl a Oat 26) 5) | Nes enero ated Ni 416 468.5
Mopalesaee 2 31, 882. 24 | 2,949. 64 |78, 825. 34 |13, 192. 02 | 794. 82 | 1,789.20 | 4,708. 47 |134, 141. 74
er Cente sone s eck 2 23.77 2.2, 58. 77 9. 84 - 59 1.33 Bb} 100

a Oiled earth.

Detailed information regarding sources and amounts of revenues, bonds issued and
outstanding, total mileage of roads, and mileage surfaced, systems of administration,
and other factors affecting road improvement, is presented under the respective State
headings.

ARIZONA.?

Arizona has a land area of 113,810 square miles, a total read mileage of 12,075,
of which 253.43 miles, or 2.09 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

The State engineer is appointed by the governor, by and with the consent of the
senate. He is required to be a practical and competent civil engineer, and serves
for a term of two years. His duties are to aid the State board of control and the
boards of supervisors of the several counties in the selection and designation of State
highways and bridges, which are defined to be all highways and parts of highways
and bridges heretofore constructed by the Territory or State of Arizona or that may
be built hereafter by the State. The boards of supervisors are required to act with
the State engineer in the selection of the highways and bridges to be constructed

1 The tables referred to hereafter in the text will bé found in the appendices: Those referring to road
mileage are grouped in Appendix A, those referring to revenues expended in Appendix B, and those refer-
ring to bond issues in Appendix C.

2Tn collecting the information for Arizona assistance was rendered by Lamar Cobb, State engineer, and
collaborator of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

8 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in their respective counties, and the State engineer, on request of the State board
of control or the board of supervisors of any county, is required to 40: plat, and
furnish estimates of the cost of construction of any such highway.

Allimproved State highways and bridges are maintained at the expense of the county
wherein located out of the State road tax fund apportioned to such county, under
the joint direction of the State engineer and the board of supervisors. An annual
State tax of $250,000 is levied for the State road tax fund. Twenty-five per-cent
of this fund is expended wholly in the discretion of the State board of control and
75 per cent is apportioned among the several counties in proportion to the amount
collected in each and expended by the board of supervisors and the State engineer.
The proceeds from the registration and licensing of motor vehicles also are applied
to the State road tax fund.

Jurisdiction over roads and bridges in the several counties is vested in the respective
boards of supervisors. Each board is authorized to appoint a county engineer, who
must be a competent civil engineer and road builder, and serves during the pleasure
of the board. The county engineer, under the direction of the board of supervisors,
has charge of all highway and bridge work and other engineering construction work
undertaken by the county and is required to make all surveys, maps, plans, and
specifications required therefor. He may, with the approval of the board of super-
wisors, appoint necessary assistants.

Special road districts, not exceeding 10 miles in length and 1 mile in width, may
be formed upon petition of 25 taxpayers therein to the board of supervisors. The
board is required to call an election thereon and a two-thirds vote is necessary to
authorize the establishment of such a district. When a special road district is formed
a board of three trustees is required to be elected for three years with exclusive charge
and control of road work undertaken by the district and of the management and
expenditure of its road funds. The district trustees must, on or before July 1 each
year, certify to the board of supervisors the amount of money required for road pur-
poses for the ensuing year, and the board of supervisors must levy a land tax in the
district sufficient to produce such amount, provided the tax so levied shall not
exceed 75 cents on each $100. If the trustees deem it advisable to spend a larger
sum than can be made available within the above limitation, for a period not exceed-
ing five years, they must call a special election thereon, and if two-thirds of those
voting favor such larger amount the board of supervisors must levy annually for
such period upon all taxable lands in the district such a tax as will produce the
amount voted; or, in lieu of such additional tax, the trustees may submit the propo-
sition of issuing bonds of the district, which may be done if authorized by a favorable
vote of two-thirds of those voting.

The levy and collection of the road taxes within the district shall not exempt
the property within such district from the levy and collection of the general county
tax by the board of supervisors, provided that the board of supervisors shall appro-
priate annually to the use of the special road districts such amount as in their judg-
ment is equitable and just, which amount shall in no case be less than 40 per cent
nor more than 65 per cent of the amount of road tax levied and collected within said
special road district.

The board of county supervisors may levy a property road tax of not to exceed
25 cents on each $100 of real and personal property in the county. In counties
having road-fund warrants outstanding and unpaid, such levy may be not to exceed
60 cents on each $100 valuation of real and personal property in the county, one-half
of the proceeds to be applied to a fund to be known as the ‘“‘road warrant redemption
fund,’’ and the other half to the general road fund of the county.

No person not a citizen or ward of the United States, or who has not declared his
intention to become a citizen, shall be employed upon or in connection with any
State, county, or municipal work or employment.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 9

Every able-bodied male over 21 and under 60 years of age residing outside incor-
porated cities and towns, and not exempt by law, is required to pay a road tax of
$2 a year.

Provision is made for the working of State convicts in the construction and main-
tenance of State highways and bridges under the control and supervision of the
board of control and the State engineer. Funds to meet the cost of so working pris-
oners are provided out of the prison-maintenance fund and the State road-tax fund.
Counties receiving the labor of State convicts shall not, during the same fiscal year,
be entitled to receive any portion of the State road-tax fund under the board of con-
trol, except such as would be a proper engineering charge.

ROAD MILEAGE.

According to the reports received, Arizona had on January 1, 1914, a total of 12,075
miles of public roads, of which 253.43 miles, or 2.09 per cent were surfaced. Of the
surfaced roads 11.23 miles were macadam, 13.50 miles were bituminous macadam,
125.7 miles were gravel, 45 miles were sand-clay, 50 miles were cinders, 7 miles were
oiled gravel, and 1 mile was oiled caliche or gravel. There were also reported 2,695.96
miles of graded and drained earth roads. The total of all public roads reported for
1909 was 5,987 miles, of which 273 miles, or 4.56 per cent, were surfaced, thus indi-
cating that the total mileage increased considerably, while the surfaced mileage is
about the same as that reported for 1909. Detailed information in regard to road
mileage in Arizona at the close of 1914 is shown by counties in Table 7.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $982,721.22, of
which $523,114.44 was derived from general county road and bridge taxes, $94,930
from per capita and other taxes, $8,780.59 from county bond issue funds, and $355,896.19
from State appropriations, motor vehicle tax, and State road tax. In 1904 Arizona
- applied $109,309.43 to road and bridge work. The gain in 1914 over 1904 was
$873,411.79, or 799 per cent. Revenues applied to roads and bridges are shown in
Table 30.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total county road and bridge bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915, amounted
to $295,000. In 1914, $275,000 road and bridge bonds were voted and sold, and $5,000
retired. Only $8,780.59 was expended from bond funds during 1914. The bond
transactions are-shown in Table 53.

CALIFORNIA.!

_ California has a land area of 155,652 square miles, a total road mileage of 61,039, of
which 10,279.73 miles, or 16.84 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

There is a department of engineering, which consists of an advisory board, composed
of the governor, as ex officio member and chairman, the State engineer, the general
superintendent of State hospitals, the chairman of the State board of harbor commis-
sioners of San Francisco, and three other members. The State engineer and three
members are appointed by the governor, and serve during his pleasure. The depart-
ment of engineering, by and through the chairman of the advisory board, is authorized
to appoint a State highway engineer, skilled and experienced in highway construction.
' The department also is authorized to appoint assistant engineers and other assistants
as needed. All State highway work is under the direction and supervision of the
department of engineering, which is charged by the legislature with the duty of
acquiring, constructing, and maintaining a system of State highways, for which an
issue of $18,000,000 of State bonds has been authorized. This duty is exercised by

1Tn collecting the information for California assistance was rendered by A. B. Fletcher, State highway
engineer, and collaborator of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

10 BULLETIN 389, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

this department through its three appointed members, who are desingated as the
California Highway Commission. The State highway engineer, subject to the direc-
tion of the commission, has immediate charge of constructing the system of State
highways. A statute also exists authorizing the State to aid counties to the extent of
paying one-third of the cost of certain roads, but the legislature has failed to appro-
priate the funds necessary to make this statute operative.

General jurisdiction and control of county roads and bridges vests in boards of
supervisors. These boards divide their respective counties into road districts, and
each supervisor is ex officio road commissioner in his supervisor district, in charge of
the highways and bridges under the direction and orders of the board of supervisors.

Boards of supervisors may establish road improvement districts on declaration of
intention so to do and hearing thereon. If a majority of the landowners within the
proposed district protest in writing against the ordering of the proposed work as an
entirety the board can not proceed further for a period of one year. Improvements
made in road-improvement districts are paid for by bonds which are redeemed, both
interest and principal, from a special fund constituted partly by transfer from the
county road funds and partly by levy of special assessment taxes upon all land in the
district. A superintendent of work is appointed by the board of supervisors, which
also may appoint an engineer, to be designated ‘‘engineer of work.”’

A board of supervisors, on receiving a petition signed by freeholder electors equal
in number to 10 per cent of the vote cast for governor in said county at the last election,
praying that the matter of issuing bonds of the county for highway purposes be sub-
mitted to the electors of the county, may appoint as a highway commission three
residents and freeholders especially qualified to have charge of the improvement of
highways and to serve for a term of two years. This commission shall investigate
immediately the main public highways of the county and their connections and
ascertain which should be improved by the issuance of bonds, the kind of improvement
that should be made and the probable cost. With the consent of the board of super-
visors, the commission may employ a competent engineer and other necessary assist-
ants. The commission then must report to the supervisors the highways proposed to
be improved and the amount that should be raised by the issuance of bonds. If
the board of supervisors approve and adopt the report, the proposition of issuing bonds
shall be submitted to an election. After such roads are improved the board of super-
visors may appoint a superintendent or inspector to have charge of the work of main-
taining and repairing them.

Boulevard districts may be formed by the board of supervisors of any county when
petitioned by not less than 25 freeholders in the proposed district, and after hearing
and submitting the proposition to an election. A majority vote is necessary to
authorize the formation of such a district. At such election three persons shall be
- elected to constitute a boulevard commission. Each boulevard district may lay out,
establish, construct, acquire, and maintain one or more boulevards. The boulevard
commission may call an election on the question of issuing bonds of the district to
pay forsuchimprovements. A two-thirds vote of those voting is required to authorize
the issue of such bonds. The boulevard commission is required each year to furnish
the board of supervisors with an estimate of the amount of money that will be needed
the ensuing fiscal year, and the supervisors must levy a tax on the assessed value of
the real property of the district sufficient to raise the amount. A boulevard district
may be dissolved at any time on a vote of two-thirds of the qualified electors residing
therein.

Permanent road divisions may be formed by the board of supervisors on petition
signed by a majority of the landowners residing in the proposed division and after
hearing thereon. Special taxes may be levied or bonds issued in such divisions, if
authorized at an election held thereon, a majority vote of those voting being necessary
to authorize the tax and a two-thirds vote in the case of bonds.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. let

The board of supervisors may establish a general road fund and order apportioned
thereto an amount not exceeding 35 per cent of the aggregate road taxes collected
from all sources. The general road fund is applied in the following manner: First,
in the payment of the cost of general county road improvements; second, in assisting
weak and impoverished districts; and third, in payment of such demands as are
payable by law out of the general road fund.

Boards of supervisors may levy an annual property road tax of not to exceed 40
cents on each $100 of assessed valuation of the county, and also a road poll tax of $3
on every male over 21 and under 55 years of age not exempt by law. Thirty-five per
cent of the proceeds of each levy goes into the general road fund. Boards of super-
visors may levy aspecial road fund tax of not to exceed 2 mills‘on each dollar of assessed
valuation of the county, outside of incorporated towns or cities, which shall be
expended in the several districts in proportion to the amounts collected in each dis-
trict. In addition, on petition of a majority of the property owners of any road dis-
trict, a special road tax of not to exceed 2 mills on each dollar of assessed valuation
in the district may be levied by the board. One-half of the net receipts from the
registration and licensing of motor vehicles is paid to the counties from which collected,
to be used for road and bridge purposes, and the other half is used by the department
of engineering for the maintenance and improvement of State highways.

Bonds may be issued for road purposes by boards of supervisors, after having sub-
mitted the question to a vote of the people and having received a favorable vote of two-
thirds of those voting. The bonded indebtedness of a county at no time shall exceed
5 per cent of its taxable property valuation. Whenever any county highway is im-
proved under a county bond issue, which issue covers all property of the county, the
board of supervisors shall provide a continuous system for the maintenance of such
highways and may levy annually for that purpose a tax of not to exceed 7 cents on
each $100 valuation of the county for each 100 miles of such improved highways
therein.

No person not a native-born or naturalized citizen of the United States can be
employed in any department of the State, county, or city governments.

Provision is made for utilizing the labor of both State and county convicts in
highway work.

ROAD MILEAGE.

According to the reports received, California had at the close of 1914 a total of
61,039 miles of public roads, of which 10,279.73 miles, or 16.84 per cent, were surfaced.
Of the surfaced roads 929.19 miles were concrete, 837.4 macadam, 877.9 bituminous
macadam, 3,563.59 gravel, 582.25, sand-clay, and 3,489.4 oiled earth. There was also
reported 18,389 miles of graded and drained earth roads. In 1909 California reported
48,069 miles of public roads, of which 8,587 miles, or 17.87 per cent, were surfaced,
thus indicating a gain in surfaced roads for the five-year period of 1,691.98 miles in
spite of the fact that several counties reported a larger mileage of surfaced roads in
1909 than was reported for 1914. This is shown in Table 8.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in the fiscal year ended June 30,
1915, amounted to $19,171,984.66, exclusive of San Francisco County, which is coex-
tensive with the city of San Francisco. It was impossible to secure this infornation
for the calendar year 1914. Of this amount, the counties expended from revenues
derived from taxation and bond issues, $9,790,238.42 for highways and $2,531,148.63
for bridges, and the State expended $6,850,597.61, of which $6,488,217.13 was for the
construction of State highways and $362,380.38 was for the construction and mainte-
nance of. State roads. The funds used in the construction of State highways was
derived from the $18,000,000 State bond issue. Of the funds used in the construction

12 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and maintenance of State roads $307,398.71 was derived from automobile license fees

and $54,981.77 from special appropriations by the State legislature. The total revenue

applied to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted to $2,157,396.36, an increase in the

10-year period of $17,014,588.30, or 786.6 per cent. Detailed information on this

subject is presented in Table 31. :
ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds outstanding in the early part of 1915 amounted to
$32,277,000, of which the counties had issued $14,277,000 and the State $18,000,000.
In 1914 the counties expended from bond funds a total of $2,397,975.43, and the State
expended from State bonds $6,488,217.13. In the same year there was voted and
sold by the counties $2,712,000, and there was retired $271,000 road and bridge bonds.
The term of State bonds is 50 years, and rate of interest 4 per cent. They are to be
paid off in annual installments of $400,000 after July 1, 1917. Details of county bond
issues are presented in Table 54.

COLORADO.!

Colorado has a land area of 103,658 square miles, a total road mileage of 39,780, of
which 1,193.87 miles, or 3 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914. ~

The State_highway commissioner is appointed by the governor for a term of four
years. The governor also appoints an advisory board of five members, one from each
of five districts of the State and one of whom is retired each year. The State highway
commissioner and the advisory board appoint a secretary who must be a civil engineer,
and other necessary help. It is the duty of the State highway commissioner and his
assistants to give such advice, assistance, and supervision regarding road construction,
improvement, and maintenance throughout the State as time and conditions may
permit. The board of commissioners of each county is required to prepare and
forward to the State highway commissioner a map showing all roads of the county and
indicating those of sufficient importance to receive State aid. The State highway
commissioner is required on or before January 1 of each year to have on file in his
office a map showing all the roads in each county, and in color those he deems to be of
sufficient importance to receive State aid and which, when completed, will provide
an adequate system of State roads. Such roads may be divided into two classes:
First, those of primary importance, and, second, those of secondary importance.
Unless otherwise directed roads of primary importance shall be improved first. On
the Ist day of March each year the State highway commissioner and the advisory
board apportion the State road fund among the different counties of the State and
notify the board of commissioners of each county of the amount apportioned thereto.
In making the apportionment, population, area, amount expended by each county on
roads, and the difficulty of road construction in each county are considered. The
boards of county commissioners make all surveys, plans, specifications, and estimates
for all work on State roads in their respective counties, in accordance with rules and
regulations prescribed by the-State highway commissioner and the advisory board,
and all work on such roads in the several counties is under the county board. The
county boards of the respective counties are authorized to employ a county engineer
to have charge of all such work under their direction.

Jurisdiction over roads and bridges in the several counties is exercised by the
boards of county commissioners, who may divide their counties into suitable road
districts and appoint a road overseer for each district. A county road supervisor may
be elected by the county board of commissioners of each county, except in counties
whose boundaries coincide with the boundaries of a city and counties in which
revenues for road purposes are less than $12,000. The supervisor so elected must be a

1Tn collecting the information for Colorado assistance was rendered by J. E. Maloney, State highway
engineer, and collaborator of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND: WESTERN STATES. 13

practical road builder and shall have charge of all matters pertaining to roads in the
- county, subject to the county board, and shall have power to form road-dragging
districts.

Counties may be organized into corporate road’ districts by the boards of county
commissioners on petition signed by a majority of the qualified voters of the county.
Tn counties so organized into road districts, the office of road overseer is abolished,
and the county commissioners appoint a superintendent of roads and bridges. There
is elected in each such road district a board of directors, consisting of three members,
to have complete control of all public roads and bridges within the district, except as
limited by law. A special property road tax is levied by the board of county com- .
missioners in such district in such amount as requested in writing by the board of
directors, but not to exceed 50 cents on each $100 of taxable valuation. Also, all able-
bodied men over 21 and under 50 years of age in each such district are required to
pay an annual road tax of $3 or work two days on the public roads.

Public improvement districts may be formed in a county when authorized by a
special election of property owners called for that purpose by the county board of
commissioners. A majority vote of those voting at such election is necessary to
authorize the formation of such districts. Such districts may issue bonds, but the
amount to be issued must have been specified in the call for the election.

Any city or incorporated town may aid in the construction and repair of any high-
way leading thereto by appropriating therefor not exceeding 50 per cent of the
highway tax belonging to said city or incorporated town. Such aid shall not be
extended beyond 2 miles from the corporate limits, and then only on petition to the
council or trustees and after having received the favorable vote of a majority of those
voting at an election held thereon. ;

A State levy of one-half mill is made annually upon all taxable property in the
State and the proceeds applied to the State road fund. Also, all money accruing to
the internal improvement permanent fund and the internal improvement income fund
is applied to the State road fund. Fifty per cent of the revenue collected from the
registration of motor vehicles is paid to the several counties in proportion to the
amounts collected therein, and the other 50 per cent is applied to the State road fund.

The boards of county commissioners may levy a property road tax in their respective
counties of not to exceed $1 on every $100 of taxable valuation. County boards of
commissioners may issue road bonds when authorized by a majority of those voting
at an election called thereon, but the amount of such bonds, including the existing
indebtedness, shall not exceed $6 on each $1,000 in counties where the taxable
valuation exceeds $5,000,000, and $12 on each $1,000 in counties where the taxable
valuation is less than $5,000,000 and more than $1,000,000.

Except in corporate road districts, every able-bodied man between the ages of 21
and 45 years, not exempt by law, is required to pay to the road overseer of his district
$2 or perform two days’ work on the public roads of his district.

Provision is made for the working of both State and county convicts on public
highways.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 Colorado had, according to reports received, 39,780 miles of
public road, of which 1,193.87, or 3 per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads
574.25 miles were gravel, 450.12 miles sand-clay, 2.25 miles concrete, 3 miles macadam,
and 164.25 miles were surfaced with other materials. There were also reported
12,104.85 miles of graded and drained earth road.

Reports received from the various counties in 1909 indicated that Colorado at that
time had 320.5 miles of surfaced road, indicating a gain from 1909 to 1914 of 873.37
miles of surfaced road. Information regarding the road mileage for 1914 is presented
in Table 9.

14 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $1,937,546.23,
of which $1,553,655.91 was derived from the general county road and bridge tax;
$25,040.36 was received by counties from motor-vehicle licenses; $56,340.85 was
received by counties from the forest-reserve fund ; $285,851.61 was received by counties
from the State fund; $15,423 was appropriated by the State for the administration of
the State highway department; and $1,234.50 was expended from the bond-issue fund
in Garfield County. The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted
to $707,223.63, a gain within the 10-year period of $1,230,322.60, or 173.96 per cent.
Detailed information in regard to revenue applied to roads and bridges is shown by

counties in Table 32.
ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915, amounted to
$90,500, of which $55,500 was for Garfield County and $35,000 for San Miguel County.
Bonds in both counties bear 6 per cent and the Garfield County bonds run for 20
years. There was expended during the year 1914, $1,234.50 from the bond-issue
funds in Garfield County. No State road and bridge bonds have been issued.

IDAHO. !

Idaho has a land area of 83,354 square miles, and a total road mileage of 24,396, of
which 679 miles, or 2.78 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

The State highway commission consists of the secretary of state, who is ex officio
a member and secretary, and two other members appointed by the governor for terms
of three years. The commission appoints a State highway engineer, who is the execu-
tive officer of the commission and may be removed by it. The State highway com-
mission, acting through its executive officer, has general powers and jurisdiction over
the laying out, constructing, improving, and maintaining of a system of State high-
ways and bridges and the expenditure of State highway: funds. The commission is
authorized to appoint such assistant engineers and other assistants as may be necessary
and also to advise, assist, and cooperate with local road officials in all matters per-
taining to highway and bridge construction and maintenance.

A system of State highways, to consist of main trunk lines connecting the larger
centers of population, was to be selected by the State highway commission and plans
prepared therefor. All highways constructed by the State or by the aid of the State
are State highways and shall be maintained at the sole expense of the State. Where
highways are built by the State in cooperation with a county or a highway district
or a good-road district in any county, the county must pay, if the cooperation is with
a county, not less than two-thirds of the cost, and the district must pay, if the coop-
eration is with a district, not less than one-half the cost, if the taxable valuation of
the district is $1,000,000 and less, and not less than two-thirds of the cost if the tax-

able valuation of the district is more than $1,000,000. State bonds are authorized to
pay a portion of the cost of constructing the system of State highways. A State
highway fund is created for a like purpose.

The board of county commissioners in each county is vested with jurisdiction in
all matters pertaining to roads and bridges therein. Boards of county commissioners
may divide their respective counties into suitable and convenient road districts and
appoint one road overseer for each district. The road overseers are subject to removal
by the board of county commissioners. A board of county commissioners may appoint
a road supervisor for the county who shall have immediate control of all road and
bridge work in the county under the board of county commissioners.

‘1In collecting the information for Idaho assistance was rendered by E. M. Booth, State highway engineer,
and collaborator of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES.’ 15

Highway districts may be formed in any county when petitioned for by 50 or more
holders of title or evidence of title to lands wholly within the limits of a single county
and aggregating not less than 20,000 acres of contiguous territory and at least one-
tenth of the total acreage of the proposed district. An election and a favorable vote
of a majority of those voting is necessary before a highway district may be formed.
Three highway commissioners shall be elected in each district for terms of four years
each. The highway commissioners of each district constitute the highway board
and have full power and authority to construct, maintain, repair, and improve all
highways within the district. As soon as possible after the organization of the high-
way district, the highway board appoints a director of highways, skilled by experience
in road construction and maintenance, who serves for a term of four years and has
immediate control of all highways within the district.

The highway board may levy a property road and bridge tax which shall not exceed
25 cents for roads and 10 cents for bridges on each $100 taxable property in the dis-
trict, but the levy for roads shall not, when added to the amount of levy made by
the county commissioners for road purposes that year, exceed 40 cents on the $100.
The highway board may, however, by resolution, levy a special property road tax
of not to exceed 25 cents on each $100 of all taxable property in the district outside
the limits of any municipality; or, if not on all taxable property of the district, on
petition. of a majority of the resident taxpayers of any division of the district, such
special tax may be levied in an amount not to exceed 25 cents on the $100 of taxable
property in such division, provided that no levy shall be made which, with the
amount of any special levy made by the board of county commissioners for that year,
will exceed 25 centson the $100. Bondsin an amount not to exceed 10 per cent of the
assessed valuation may be issued and outstanding at any one time, if authorized by a
two-thirds majority at an election thereon; and, if stated in the order of election,
part of the taxes necessary to pay the interest and principal of such bonds may be
levied on lands abutting the roads improved from the proceeds thereof.

A special good-road district may be created in any county for the purpose of improvy-
ing any or all of the public roads therein on petition to the county board of com-
missioners, signed by a majority of all the freeholders residing within the proposed
district. After a hearing an election is held to determine if such district shall be
formed and to elect three good-road commissioners. A majority vote is required to
authorize the formation of such district. The board of good-road commissioners
shall have authority, by and with the consent of a two-thirds majority at an election
called thereon, to issue bonds for improving the roads of such district, in an amount
not to exceed 25 per cent of the assessed value of real property in the district.

From the road taxes collected from all sources, the board of county commissioners
may set apart annually not to exceed 25 per cent of the aggregate for general county
road purposes. ;

The board of county commissioners may levy an annual property road tax of not less
than 10 nor more than 100 cents on each $100 of taxable valuation of the county. If
the road fund or the bridge fund of the county becomes unreasonably burdened by
the expense of constructing, maintaining, or repairing any road or bridge, a special
tax may be levied not to exceed one-half of 1 per cent on the taxable property of the
county.

‘The board of county commissioners in any county may levy a special property high-
way tax of not to exceed 100 cents on each $100 of assessed property valuation outside
the limits of incorporated towns or villages. In the event that said board deems it
inadvisable to levy such a tax on the county, the levy may be made by the board in
any road district or districts, if petitioned for by a majority of the resident taxpayers
thereof, the amount of taxes that may be thus levied to be as set forth in the petition,
but not to exceed 100 cents on each $100. The proceeds of such levy, when made

16 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

within a district, shall be expended only within the district, and if a majority of
the resident taxpayers so petition may be paid in labor.

The board of county commissioners levies a road poll tax of not to exceed $4 upon
each able-bodied male from 21 to 50 years of age within the county, including those
residing in incorporated cities, towns, and villages. Of such taxes collected within
any incorporated city, town, or village, 75 per cent shall be paid to such munici-
pality for the benefit of its road fund.

County boards of commissioners may issue bonds for road purposes when authorized
by a two-thirds majority vote at an election called thereon.

Authority is granted for the working of both State and county prisoners on the
public highways.
ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 Idaho had a total of 24,396 miles of public roads, of which
679 miles, or 2.78 per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced mileage 42.5 miles were
macadam, 168 gravel, 449 sand-clay, 12 bituminous macadam, 4.5 concrete, and 3 miles
cinders. There were also reported 4,399 miles of graded and drained earth road. The
total of all public roads for the year 1909 amounted to 18,403, of which 510.5 miles, or
.77 per cent, were surfaced, showing an increase in surfaced mileage in the five-
year period of 168.5 miles. Detailed information regarding road mileage for 1914 is
presented by counties in Table 10.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $1,371,468.59.
Of this amount $776,600.87 was derived from the regular county road and bridge
tax, $319,055.60 from special taxes and other sources, $226,000 from county and dis-
trict road and bridge bond funds, and $49,812.12 from State appropriations expended
under the direction of the State highway department for State-aid roads. Of the
latter amount $21,733.21 was for construction, $21,713.44 for engineering, and $6,365.47
for administration. The engineering expenses were incurred in laying out a system
of State highways on which future appropriations are to be applied. In 1904 the total
revenue applied to roads amounted to $311,588, showing an increase for the 10-year
period of $1,059,880.59, or 340 per cent. Detailed information showing the revenues
applied to roads,and bridges during 1914 is presented by counties in Table 33.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total State, county, and district road and bridge bonds outstanding on Janu-
ary 1, 1915, amounted to $1,339,000, of which counties and districts issued $834,000
and the State $505,000. The State bonds were issued between 1905 and 1913, and
bear from 4 to 5 per cent interest. They are all sinking fund bonds with call pro-
visions and terms extending from 5 to 30 years. In 1914 there was expended from
local bond funds $226,000, there was voted $425,000, and there was sold $375,000.
The terms of the bondssold during 1914 were from 10 to 20 years and the interest rate
varied from 5 to 6 per cent. No State road and bridge bonds were issued in 1914.
Detailed information regarding road and bridge bonds is shown by counties in
Table 55.

ILLINOIS.!

Illinois has a land area of 56,043 square miles, a total road mileage of 95,647, of
which 11,606.31 miles, or 12.02 per cent were surfaced at the close of 1914.

The governor, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, appoints the State
highway commission of three members, who serve six years each. One member

1Jn collecting the information for Illinois assistance was rendered by Wm. M. Marr, State highway
engineer, and collaborator of the United States Department of Agriculture.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 17

shall be designated as president of the commission. The governor also appoints a
chief State highway engineer and an assistant State highway engineer. The State
highway commission has general supervision of highways and bridges constructed,
improved, and maintained in whole or in part by aid of State moneys; aids local
road officials by giving advice and causing to be prepared plans, specifications, and
estimates for highway and bridge work; lets all contracts for the construction or
improvement of State-aid roads, and prescribes a uniform system of auditing and
accounting for all road and bridge moneys. The chief State highway engineer and
the assistant State highway engineer are the administrative and technical agents of
the State highway commission. All subordinate appointments in the State highway
department are subject to the State civil-service laws.

Public highways, or sections thereof, including bridges, may be laid out, improved,
or constructed at the joint expense of the State and any county, the State contrib-
uting one-half the expense and the county or counties through which the highway
or a portion thereof passes, one-half. The boards of the several counties designate
and indicate oa a map public highways within their respective counties of sufficient
importance to receive State aid; but the total mileage of highways so designated in
any county may not exceed 15 per cent of the total road mileage in counties of the
first class; 20 per cent in counties of the second class, and 25 per cent in counties of
the third class. The board of supervisors or county commissioners, as the case may
be, specify the type of improvement to be made, which is final and not subject to
change by the State highway commission; but decision as to type shall not be made
until the board has secured from the commission detailed estimates of the cost of
the several types of road. If earth roads are specified and built, the county pays
all maintenance cost; but if gravel or macadam is specified and constructed the State
pays one-half of the maintenance cost.

Appropriations made by the general assembly for State aid are apportioned by the
State highway commission to the several counties in the ratio that the total amount
levied and collected for roads and bridges in each county bears to the total amount
so levied in the State for roads and bridges. The amounts so apportioned are dupli-
cated by the counties and used in constructing State-aid roads. If a county desires
to improve its State-aid roads more rapidly than can be done with its annual appor-
tionment, it does so by advancing the necessary funds out of any county funds avail-
~ able, or by issuing county bonds. Before bonds are issued, however, an election
must be called thereon, and a majority of those voting must favor the proposition.
Counties so expediting the improvement of their State-aid roads are entitled there-
alter to receive their apportionment of State aid until the State has contributed its
. portion of the cost thereof. Improvements are initiated by the county boards by
passing a resolution requesting State aid. The State highway commission causes
necessary surveys, plans, specifications, and estimates to be made.

In each county of the State there is a county superintendent of highways, appointed
in the manner following: The county board of each county submits to the State
highway commission a list of from three to five persons, residents of the county. The
State highway commission, by competitive examination, selects from among the
names submitted those best fitted for said office and so certifies to the county board
submitting the list, which appoints from the number found eligible one superin-
tendent of highways for a term of six years and subject to removal.

The county superintendent of highways is required, subject to the rules and regu-
lations of the State highway commission, to prepare plans, specifications, and esti-
mates for all bridges to be built by the county, to be approved by the State highway
commission before adoption; to act for the county in all road and bridge matters
and advise town and district highway commissioners in regard to highway and bridge
work; to supervise the repair and maintenance of all State-aid roads within the

*72690°— Bull. 389—17——2

18 BULLETIN 389, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

county, subject to the direction of the State highway commission; and to perform
such other duties as may be prescribed by law, the rules and regulations of the State
highway commission, or the direction of the State highway engineer.

The powers of the county as a body corporate and politic, in counties not under
township organization, are exercised by tle board of county commissioners, and, in
counties under township organization, by the board of supervisors, which is composed
of the town and such other supervisors as are or may be elected.

For all purposes relating to the construction, repair, maintenance, and supervision
of roads and bridges, the several towns in countiés under township organization and
road districts in counties not under township organization are, as near as may be,
regarded as analogous in corporate authority, and the powers and duties of their
highway officers are similar in extent and effect. Counties not under township
organization are divided into road districts by the county boards. In each town-
ship and in each road district there is elected, for terms of three years each, a hoard
of three highway commissioners. These boards have charge of all road and bridge
matters in their respective towns and road districts, and are required each year to

certify to the county board the taxes necessary to be levied on the property therein ©

for road and bridge purposes; but such tax must-not exceed 61 cents on each $100
of assessed valuation, and one-half of the amount collected in any incorporated city,
town, or village improving and maintaining its own streets is paid to such munici-
pality and applied to its road fund.

On petition of not less than 25 legal voters of any township or road district, addressed
to the town or district clerk, a special election may be called on the question of having
a sinele highway commissioner in suck township or road district. A favorable vote
of a majority of those voting is required.

On petition of 25 per cent of the landowners who are legal voters in any township
or road district to the town or district clerk an election may be called on the question
of levying a tax of not to exceed $1 on each $100 of assessed valuation on all property
in the town or district for the purpose of constructing and maintaining gravel, mac-
adam, or other hard-surfaced roads, and on petition of the highway commissioners,
officially, and of 100 freeholders of any town or district the question of issuing bonds
for that purpose may be submitted to an election, a majority vote of those voting
being required.

County boards are vested with powers similar to those conferred on boards of high-
way commissioners with reference to the construction, repair, and maintenence of
gravel, macadam, and other hard-surfaced roads in their county, and may assist
towus or road districts in the construction of such roads to the extent of 25 per cent
of the cost; but the question of a special permanent road tax or of issuing bonds for
that purpose must be submitted first to a vote, on petition of 100 landowners who
are legal voters of the county.

If the highway commissioners of any township or road district desire to expend
on any bridge or approaches thereto a greater sum than is available otherwise, an
election may be called and the question of issuing bonds submitted. A favorable
vote of a majority of those voting is required.

Not less than $3 nor more than $5 per mile of road is appropriated each year from
the road and bridge fund of each township or road district to be known as a “‘road
drag fund” and to be used for dragging earth roads.

In each town or road district a road poll tax of from $1 to $3, payable in cash, may
may be imposed on each able-bodied male between 21 and 50 years of age, not exempt
by law. One-half of the proceeds of this poll tax collected in any incorporated city,
town, or village which improves and maintains its own streets is paid to such munic-
ipality and applied to its road fund. The road poll tax, however, may be abolished
by a favorable vote of a majority of those voting at an election thereon.

The proceeds from the licensing and registration of motor vehicles is applied to .

the State road fund.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 19

The constitution limits the amount of indebtedness which may be incurred or
outstanding at any one time by any county, township, or other municipal corpo-
ration, to not more than 5 per cent of the value of the taxable property therein.

Authorization is given for the working of State convicts in the preparation of road
materials and on the public highways.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 Illinois had 95,647 miles of public road, of which 11,606.31
miles, or 12.02 per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads, 1,675.11 miles were
macadam, 7,052.30 miles gravel, 2,467.95 miles sand-clay, 148.80 miles concrete,
121.53 miles bituminous macadam, 82.92 miles brick, and 57.7 miles surfaced with
other material. There were also reported 41,143.31 miles of graded and drained
earth road. At the close of 1909 Illinois reported 94,141 miles of public road, of which
8,914 miles, or 9.47 per cent, were surfaced, thus indicating an increase in surfaced
road mileage in the 5-year period of 2,692.31 miles. Detailed information in regard
to road mileage in 1914 is presented in Table 11.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $8,734,712.77,
of which $7,451,353.18 was received from general county and township taxation;
$968,217.18 from State aid, poll tax, special hard - road tax, and other sources;
$208,855.41 from bond-issue funds expended by local authorities, and $106,287
expended from State appropriation and automobile revenues for administration,
engineering, and miscellaneous equipment by the State highway department. Of
the latter sum, $51,735 was expended for administration and engineering and $54,552
for miscellaneous equipment. The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in
1904 amounted to $4,210,950.23, showing an increase in revenue applied to roads
and bridges for the 10-year period of $4,523,762.54, or 107.42 per cent. Detailed
information showing the receipts from taxation is presented by counties in Table 34.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

According to reports received, the total bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915, ©
amounted to $798,761.55; these were issued principally by townships. In 1914
there were voted $3,656,500 road and bridge bonds, which included $2,000,000
for Cook County and $1,500,000 for Vermilion County, which latter were not sold
on account of a suit against the county. In 1914 there were sold $199,350 road and
bridge bonds and $161,914.34 were retired. Bond-issue funds expended in 1914
amounted to $208,855.41. Detailed information in regard to bond issues is presented
_by counties and townships in Table 56.

INDIANA.!

Indiana has a land area of 36,045 square miles, a total road mileage of 73,347, of
which 30,962.4 miles, or 42.2 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

In every county maintaining free gravel or macadam roads the board of county
commissioners appoints a county highway superintendent who has general super-
vision of the maintenance and repair of all highways, bridges, or culverts of the county
maintained or repaired from the gravel road repair fund of the county. His term
of office is two years but he may be removed by the board of county commissioners.
- In counties having less than 200 miles of free gravel or macadam roads the county
surveyor may act as county highway superintendent.

The board of county commissioners of each county has power to lay out, construct,
or improve any public highway or part thereof within such county upon the presen-

1 Tn collecting the information for Indiana assistance was rendered by Edward Barrett, State geologist,
and collaborator of the United States Department of Agriculture,

AO) BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tation of a petition signed by a majority of the resident landowners of the county
whose lands lie within 1 mile of the proposed improvement and will be benefited
thereby. If the board, after investigation, decides to make such improvements,
the cost is assessed against the lands within 2 miles of the improvement, in proportion
to the benefits accruing. Such assessments are payable in installments of not to
exceed 10 per cent per month, but such of the landowners as may prefer may petition
that road bonds be issued to cover such portion of the cost as would he assessed against
the lands owned by them.

The county board of commissioners of any county, when petitioned by 50 freeholders,
voters of any township or townships contiguous to each other, may submit to the
voters of such township or townships the question of building the roads described
in the petition, by graveling or macadamizing, under the free gravel-road law. A
majority vote is necessary to authorize the undertaking of such work. If the work is
authorized, the commissioners may issue bonds of the county to pay therefor, the tax
necessary to meet the interest and sinking-fund charges on the bonds to be levied
upon the taxable property located within the township or townships in which the
improvements are made. ;

Each township trustee is required to divide his township into any suitable number
of road districts, not to exceed four, except townships exceeding 36 square miles in
area, which may be divided into not exceeding six road districts. Every two years
each road district elects a supervisor. In any township in which the township roads
do not exceec 10 miles in length, the township trustee is ex officio road supervisor.
The road supervisor, subject to the direction and control of the township trustee,
has charge of keeping the roads of his district in good repair.

The county board of commissioners of counties maintaining free gravel and mac-
adam roads may levy a tax of not to exceed 1 cent on each $100 of assessed property
valuation for every 10 miles of free gravel and macadam roads in the county, to be
used only for the maintenance and repair of such roads. The net proceeds from the
registration and licensing of motor vehicles are apportioned to the several counties
for road purposes in the following manner: One-third is divided equally among
the several counties; one-third is returned to the several counties on the basis of
the amount collected in each county, and one-third is apportioned to the several
counties in the proportion which the number of miles of free gravel or macadam roads
in the county bears to the whole number of such roads in the State.

The township advisory board, on an estimate made by the township trustee, is
required to levy annually a road tax of not to exceed 30 cents on each $100 of taxable
property in the township outside the limits of incorporated cities and towns. The
amount of such tax assessed to any individual on real estate, up to $20, may be worked
out as far as practicable in the road district in which such real estate lies, and the
amount of such taxes assessed on personal property, up to $20, may be worked out
in the district where the owner resides, at the rate of $1.50 a day for each man, pro-
vided that the township trustee may, with the consent of the township advisory
board, levy an additional tax of not to exceed 10 cents on each $100 of taxable prop-
erty, to be expended by the township trustee for the construction and repair of
bridges and culverts, and for other road purposes.

Each able-bodied male resident of each road district, over 21 and under 50 years
of age, not exempt by law, is required fo work annually from two to four days on the
roads, either in person or by able-bodied substitute, or in lieu thereof to pay $1.50
for each day’s labor so required.

There are other special and contingent tax levies and benefit assessments for road
and bridge purposes authorized under the law in addition to those mentioned. Vari-
ous provisions exist under which road bonds may be issued, but the law restricts
the amount of such bonds that may be issued, including those outstanding or author-
ized for issue, to not more than 4 per cent of the total taxable value of the property
of the township, townships, or county for whose account the bonds are issued, The

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 21

law provides that all road bonds shall be sold by the county treasurer to the highest
bidder, but for not less than par.

County prisoners may be worked on the public roads of the county. State con-
victs may be worked on the public highways of counties upon agreement between
the county board of commissioners and the board of trustees of the Indiana reforma-
tory and the board of control of the Indiana State prison.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 Indiana had 73,347 miles of public road, of which 30,962.40
miles, or 42.2 per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads, 10,291.29 miles were
macadam, 20,264.59 miles gravel, 168.35 miles bituminous macadam, 53.17 miles con-
crete, 34.75 miles brick, and 150.25 miles sand-clay. There were also reported 17,509.78
miles of graded and drained earth roads. For 1909 Indiana reported 67,996 miles
of public road, of which 24,955.75 miles, or 36.7 per cent, were surfaced, indicating
a gain in surfaced roads in the five-year period of 6,006.65 miles. Detailed informa-
tion in regard to road mileage for 1914 is presented in Table 12.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $14,233,985.93,
as follows: General county tax for road repairs, $2,022,117.24; township tax,
$1,018,639.26; additional road tax, $446,975.58; revenues derived from automobile
license fees, $462,811.08; cash value of statute labor tax, $887,255.79; expended from
township bond funds, $8,989,570.98; expended from county bond funds, principally
for bridge construction and repairs, $406,616. In 1904 there was applied to roads
and bridges, $4,335,108, an increase in the 10-year period of $9,898,877.93, or 228.34
per cent. Detailed information as to taxation and revenue is presented by counties
in Table 35.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915, amounted to $42,-

095,357.34, of which $36,957,686.22 were issued by townships and $5,137,671.12 by

counties.
TOWNSHIP BONDS.

Of the township bonds, $3,893,221.31 were voted in 1914, and $7,841,711.53 were
sold the same year. The interest rate on the bonds voted and sold in 1914 was 44
per cent and the term from one to 20 years, the average term being from 10 to 20 years.
In 1914 there was expended from township bonds $8,989,570.98, and $5,719,416.47
was retired. Detailed information in regard to township bonds is presented in
Table 57.

COUNTY ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

ad

The county bonds were issued principally for the construction and repair of bridges,
although some have been issued for the purchase of toll roads and for repairs due to
floods. In 1914 there were voted $635,000 and there were sold $777,294. In the
same year $406,616 was expended and $237,850 retired.

Information in regard to county bonds was furnished by the State auditor of Indiana,
who stated that the information was incomplete.

Details regarding county bonds are given in Table 57A.

IOWA.!

Towa has a land area of 55,586 square miles and a total road mileage of 104,074, of
which 614.57 miles, or 0.59 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

There is a State highway commission composed cf three members, one of whom is
the dean of engineering of the State college of agriculture and mechanic arts and two

1 The information relative to the State of Iowa was collected, under the direction of this office, by J. H.
Ames, State highway engineer, and collaborator of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

*

22 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of whom are appointed by the governor from different political parties for terms of
four years each. The duties of the State highway commission are to devise, adopt,
and furnish standard plans and specifications for highway construction and mainte-
nance; to collect and disseminate information and give instruction and advice to
local highway officials; to appoint such assistants as may be necessary and to have
general supervision of the county and township road officials of the State. Standard
specifications for all bridges and culverts, railroad overhead crossings or subways,
must be furnished by the State highway commission to the counties or railroad com-
panies without cost, and all work on such bridges must be done in accordance there-
with. .

A law of 1913 provides that the board of supervisors of each county employ an
engineer or engineers and select and designate from the highways of their respective
counties not less than 10 or more than 15 per cent of the main traveled roads of the
county, connecting the principal market places of the county and with the county
roads in adioining counties, to be known as the county road system. It is also re-
quired that the roads so designated be plainly marked on a map to be furnished by
the State highway commission, which finally is forwarded to the State highway com-
mission for consideration and modification or approval. Other roads in the county
are to be known as the township road system. If any county fails so to designate the
county road system, the State highway commission does so and charges the cost
thereof to the county. All surveys, plans, and specifications for the improvement
of the roads embraced in the county road system are subject to approval by the State
highway commission.

The board of supervisors of each county has general supervision of its roads, with
power to establish, vacate, or change them and to see that the laws in relation thereto
are carried out. The board of supervisors of any county may establish a permanent
road improvement district or districts and cause the highways therein to be improved
by grading, draining, paving, or macadamizing and assess not less than 50 per cent of
the cost on abutting or adjacent property and may levy a tax not to exceed 2 mills on
each dollar of taxable property in the county, including incorporated cities and towns.

Road districts in townships having created such districts are consolidated into
one township road district, and all township road funds belonging to these districts
are made a general township road fund. The township trustees in all such townships
are required to employ a superintendent of the township road system.

Each year the township trustees of each township select from its township road
system the roads to be dragged for the year, to be known as ‘‘ drageable”’ roads, which
shall include all roads in consolidated school districts and all main routes. The town-
ship trustees employ a superintendent or superintendents, not exceeding four, who
have general supervision of all dragging and repair work on the township road system
and make contracts for the dragging of roads. For these purposes there is expended
under the direction of the township trustees through the road superintendent not less
than the 1-mill drag tax.

Two days’ labor on the roads may be required of each able-bodied male between
21 and 45 years of age, not exempt by law, and a penalty of $3 for each day so required
is provided for failure to perform such labor either in person or by able-bodied sub-
stitute.

The boards of supervisors of the respective counties levy a tax of 2 mills on the
dollar on all taxable property outside the limits of incorporated towns or cities, the
proceeds from which constitute the county road-building fund, to be used for the
purpose of grading and building roads outside the limits of incorporated cities and
towns. The boards of supervisors also levy not more than 1 mill on each dollar of
taxable property in their respective counties, including municipalities, for the county-
road fund; and on petition of a majority of the electors who are freeholders in any
township in the county the board may levy 1 mill additional on property of the

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 23

township, to be expended by the board on the roads in such townships; and the boards
of supervisors may levy 1 mill additional on all taxable property, including municipa]-
ities, for the county-drainage fund, to be used by the board for the drainage of high-
ways and the payment of drainage assessments levied for highway drainage work.
One-half of the county road fund arising from the levy on property within any muni-
cipality is paid to the treasurer of such municipality, to be used for road uae street
improvements therein.

The boards of supervisors of the several counties are authorized to make appropria-
tions for bridges as follows: In counties having more than 10,000 and not over 15,000
population, not to exceed $15,000; in counties having over 15,000 population, not to
exceed $25,000.

Of the proceeds arising from the registration and licensing of motor vehicles, 90 per
cent is apportioned to the respective counties in the ratio that the number of town-
ships therein bears to the total number of townships in the State, and 5 per cent is
applied for the maintenance and support of the State highway commission.

The township trustees determine each year the rate of property tax to be levied in
their respective townships for road and bridge purposes, but the amount of such tax
shall not exceed 4 mills on the dollar. The levy of the township road tax is made in
the same manner that the other taxes are levied and collected.

’ Bonds may be issued by counties for bridges across border streams of the State, upon
a favorable vote of a majority of those voting at an election called thereon.

Provision is made for working convicts on the roads and in preparation of road mate-

rial, but no convict who objects shall be so worked.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 Iowa had 104,074 miles of public road, of which 614.57 miles, or
0. 59 per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads 413 miles were gravel, 171.3 miles
macadam, 23 miles sand-clay, 5.77 miles concrete, and 1.5 miles shell. According to
the reports received in 1909 Iowa had 102,427 miles of road, of which 2,505.1 were
reported as surfaced, thus indicating that the mileage of surfaced roads reported for
_ 1909 exceeds the mileage reported for 1914 by 1,890.53. The figures for 1914 were
obtained by the Iowa State Highway Department, and it is believed, therefore, that
they are much more accurate than those furnished for 1909. Information in regard
to road mileage for the year 1914 is presented in Table 13.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $10,187,507.32,
exclusive of road bonds and warrants, of which $3,843,294.94 was derived from a gep-
eral county and township bridge tax; $4,128,493.90 from a general county and town-
ship road tax; $896,248.60 from the township drag tax; $801,258.24 from the motor
vehicle tax; $255,821.64 from the poll tax; $188,390, the cash value of the statute
labor tax, and $74,000 was appropriated by the State for educational and supervisory
work by the State highway commission. Of the latter sum, $50,000 was for engin-
cering and inspection, $10,000 for administration, and $14,000 for miscellaneous equip-
ment, etc. None of these amounts include funds derived from bond issues and road
warrants. It was impossible to ascertain the amounts expended from such sources
in 1914. In 1904 the total revenue applied to roads and bridges amounted to $3,106,-
607.50, thus indicating an increase in the 10-year period of $7,080,899.82, or 227.92 per
cent.

Detailed information in regard 10 revenue applied to roads and bridges during 1914

is presented in Table 36.
ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

On January 1, 1915, the total road and bridge bonds outstanding amounted to
$1,960,780, of which $376,828 were voted and sold in 1914. These bonds bear interest
at the rate of from 4 to 5 percent. It wasimpossible to ascertain the amount expended
from these sources in 1914. Information as to bond issues is contained in Table 58.

24 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

KANSAS.!

Kansas has a land area’ of 81,774 square miles, and a total road mileage of 111,052,
of which 1,148.85 miles, or 1.03 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

The State engineer at the State agricultural college is required to give advice and
information on road matters, free of charge, when requested by the county engineer or
the board of county commissioners of any county.

The roads of the State are classified as ‘‘State roads,’’ which include all roads laid
out and defined by the State; ‘“‘county roads,”’ which include all roads designated as
such by the board of county commissioners, and are required, as near as practicable,
to connect cities and market centers; ‘‘mail routes,’’ which include all free delivery
routes; and ‘‘township roads,’’ which include all other public highways within the
township. The county and State roads are maintained at the expense of the county,
and mail routes and township roads, not coinciding with county or State roads, are
maintained by the township.

Boards of county commissioners are vested with jurisdiction and general super-
vision over road and bridge matters in their respective counties. The county board
of commissioners of each county is authorized to appoint a county engineer. The
county surveyor may be appointed county engineer if the board deems him compe-
tent. The county engineer has general supervision of all State and county roads ~
under the authority of the board of county commissioners and of all mail routes and
township roads under the direction of the township trustee and highway commis--
sioners. Me

When 60 per cent of the landowners along any regularly laid out road, who own at
least 50 per cent of the land proposed to be taxed, petition the board of county com-
missioners to improve such road and to assess the cost in not to exceed 10 annual
assessments upon the lands lying within the limits stated in the petition, the commis-
sioners cause such improvement to be made and may issue special improvement bonds
to pay therefor. If such improvements are made three-fourths of the cost shall be
apportioned and assessed against the lands within the limits prescribed in the petition
and one-fourth against the township or townships. The board of county commission-
ers May appoint a superintendent to have charge of such work.

Whenever the board of county commissioners of any county determines that it is
necessary to repair or build a bridge or bridges in the county it may appropriate not
to exceed $5,000 for each bridge. If the cost of any bridge exceeds $5,000 and the
assessed valuation of the county is $15,000,000 or more, additional amounts may be
appropriated, graduated according to the assessed valuation.

The board of county commissioners of any county may issue bonds in the county
for the building or purchase of a new bridge on petition, signed by not less than 50
voters, requesting the submission of the question to a vote, and the favorable vote of
a majority of those voting thereon.

The township trustee, clerk, and treasurer of each township in the State constitute
a board of highway commissioners and a township auditing board for their respective
townships. All mail routes and township roads are under the supervision and control
of the board of highway commissioners, and the board appoints one or more road over-
seers for all such roads in the township. In order to promote efficiency the board of
highway commissioners may employ a superintendent to have charge of all road work
under their direction, or may let work to contract.

The board of commissioners of any county may levy for county and State roads and
bridges a tax of not more than 1 mill on each dollar of taxable valuation, and, if author-
ized by a majority vote of those voting at an election thereon, may levy not to exceed
3 mills on each dollar.

1 In collecting the information for Kansas assistance was rendered by W. S. Gearheart, State engineer,
and A. R. Losh, assistant State engineer, and collaborator of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 25

The board of highway commissioners in each township shall recommend to the
county board of commissioners each year a levy for highway purposes, which shall
not exceed 3 mills on each dollar of taxable property in the township.

All males between 21 and 50 years of age are liable to an annual road poll tax of $3
which may be discharged by the performance of two days’ labor on the public roads.
The amount of such road poll taxes collected within any city is paid to the city
treasurer.

Bonds for bridge purposes may be issued by any county, township, or city in an
amount not to exceed, including existing indebtedness, 1 per cent of the taxable
property therein, if authorized by a three-fifths vote at an election called thereon.

Authority is given for the working of both State and county convicts on the public
highways.

ROAD MILEAGE.

According to reports received, Kansas had at the close of the year 1914, 111,052
miles of public road, of which 1,148.85 miles, or 1.03 per cent, were surfaced. Of
the surfaced roads 194.3 miles were macadam, 151.85 miles gravel, 758.5 sand-clay,
30.5 oiled earth, 4.1 brick, 7 shale, 1.35 concrete, and 1.25 cinders. At the close of
1909 Kansas had 98,302 miles of public road, of which 374.71 miles, or .38 per cent
were surfaced, thus indicating a gain in surfaced roads of 774.14 miles in the five-year
period. Detailed information in regard to road mileage for the year 1914 is presented
in Table 14. :

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $5,544,048,
of which $4,847,055 was derived from the general road and bridge tax, $159,902 from
automobile registration fees, $528,011 from poll tax, and $9,080 used by the State
agricultural college for educational and advisory work in connection with roads and
bridges, this latter fund being a part of the appropriation made by the State for the
maintenance of the State agricultural college. In 1904 the total revenue applied
to roads and bridges amounted to $1,232,817.45, thus indicating a gain in the 10-year
period of $4,311,230.55, or 349.7 per cent. Detailed information in regard to revenue
applied to roads and bridges during 1914 is presented in Table 37.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The only bonds issued in the State of Kansas for road and bridge work were in
five or six counties where the work was done under the district road law. It was
impossible, however, to secure any information as to the districts which had issued
bonds and the amounts that had been issued.

MICHIGAN.!

Michigan has a land area of 57,480 square miles and a total road milegae of 74,190,
of which 7,828.51 miles or 10.55 per cent were surfaced at the close of 1914.

There is a State highway department, which is charged with the duty of giving
advice relative to road and bridge construction and maintenance, collecting informa-
tion and reports from local road officials, and distributing State reward, authorized
and appropriated by the legislature for improving the public roads and bridges in
the State. The chief officer is the State highway commissioner, who is elected every
four years. Whenever any township board, good roads district, or county road com-
missioner makes application for State reward on any road and requests general plans
and specifications, it is the duty of the State highway commissioner to furnish the
general plans and specifications requested. When the completed road has been

1Tn collecting the information for Michigan assistance was rendered by Leroy C. Smith, deputy State
engineer, and collaborator of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

26 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

passed upon by the State highway commissioner he certifies the fact to the auditor
general of the State, who draws a warrant on the State treasurer, payable to the proper
authorities in the township, good road district, or county for the amount of State
reward due. This varies according to type and width of road, from $250 to $1,000
per mile. No State reward is allowed for more than 4 miles in any one township
in any one year, but a township or county may improve additional miles of road
in a manner to merit State reward and receive the reward each year until the
full amount is paid. The State highway commissioner may refuse to grant further
reward to any township, good roads district, or county which does not keep its State-
reward roads in proper repair. :

A system of State reward trunk-line highways has been designated by the legis-
lature. Double State reward is paid for the improvement of the State reward trunk-
line highways. The State highway commissioner may refuse further reward where
trunk line rewarded roads are not kept in proper repair.

Under the county road law, which may be adopted by a majority vote of those
voting at an election thereon, there is elected in each county a board of not more
than three county road commissioners. This board is authorized to make any im-
provement on any road under its control and to employ a county highway engineer,
who is required to make all surveys, plans, specifications, and estimates and exercise
general supervision over all construction work. Two or more adjoining counties
may ‘employ the same engineer. If State reward is to be applied for, the board of
county road commissioners is required to file with the State highway commissioner
a map of the county showing the location of the proposed system of county roads,
which system may be extended, if approved by the State highway commissioner.
All State reward roads composing a part of the county road system must be taken
over as county roads by the board of county road commissioners. Before October 1
of each year the board of county road commissioners must have preliminary surveys,
general plans, specifications, and estimates of roads, bridges, and culverts made by
the county highway engineer. From the estimates the board determines the amount
of tax to be raised in the county for such year, specifying all the roads upon which
the money is to be expended and the amount to be spent on each road, but such tax
may not exceed $3 on each $1,000 valuation where the valuation does not exceed
$40,000,000; $2 on the $1,000 where the valuation exceeds $40,000,000 but not
$75,000,000; $1 on the $1,000 where the valuation exceeds $75,000,000 but not
$100,000,000; and 50 cents on the $1,000 if the valuation exceeds $100,000,000. The
board of supervisors levies the tax.

It is made the duty of the board of supervisors to raise a sufficient tax to keep
county roads or bridges already built in reasonable repair. Whenever the board of
supervisors resolves to issue bonds to raise money for the construction and mainte-
nance of county roads the question may be submitted to an election in which a
majority vote is required.

Tf the owners of a majority of the frontage of lands abutting upon any highway or
portion thereof not less than 2 miles in length desire to improve such highway, they
may file application to the county road commissioners, who, upon making the im-
provements, assess from 25 to 75 per cent of the cost on such abutting land according
to the benefits accruing, the remainder being assessed to the county and township.
All such assessments made in an assessment district may be paid in 10 annual install-
ments and bonds may be issued in anticipation thereof.

By a majority vote at an election for the purpose any combination of townships,
villages, or cities lying contiguous in any county may be organized into a good roads
district. In each such township, village, or city there shall be elected one good
roads commissioner, and these, constituting the board of good road commissioners
for the district, have duties in the district like those of the board of county road
commissioners in a county under the county road law. The board of good road com-

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. BT.

missioners each year determines the amount of taxes to be levied in the district,
which shall not exceed $3 on each $1,000 of assessed valuation. Bonds may be issued
upon a majority vote at an election.

All public roads in townships, except county roads, are township roads and are
under the care and supervision of the township board and a highway commissioner
who is elected in each township. The township may be divided into one or more
road districts and a road overseer elected in each district.

Highways in every organized township are laid out, improved and maintained by
two money taxes. One is known as the road repair tax and shall not exceed 50 cents
on each $100 assessed valuation on all property, outside of incorporated villages, ex-
cept in townships having an assessed value less than $200,000, in which the tax may
not exceed $1 on the $100. The other tax is known as the highway improvement tax
and shall not exceed 50 cents on the $100, including incorporated villages, and may
be not to exceed $1 on the $100 if the taxable valuation is less than $200,000. A labor
tax of not to exceed one day’s labor for each $100 assessed valuation may be assessed
in townships electing to assess such tax. Such labor tax may be discharged by paying
$1.50 for each day assessed.

The township board of any organized township, upon petition signed by not less
than 25 freeholders of the township and a favorable majority vote at an election held
therefor, may issue bonds in an amount not exceeding 5 per cent of the assessed
valuation. '

The net fees from the licensing and registration of motor vehicles are applied, 50 per
cent to the State highway fund and 50 per cent to the several counties in proportion
to the amounts collected therein.

On or before December 1 of each year there is set aside a portion of the appropria-
tion for State highway purposes equal to 2 per cent of the total State rewards that have
been paid at that time, which is credited to a repair fund to be paid out after Decem-
ber 1 each year on State-rewarded roads in the same manner as State rewards are
paid; but not more than 2 per cent of the total State reward, exclusive of the then
current year, paid to any township or county, is paid to such township or county from
the repair fund in any one year, provided that all repairs made on such roads shall be
in accordance with specifications prepared by or approved by the State highway
commissioner.

Authority is given for the working of both State and county convicts on the public
highways and in the preparation of road materials.

ROAD MILEAGE.

The total mileage of public roads in Michigan at the close of 1914 amounted to 74,190,
of which 7,828.51 miles or 10.55 per cent were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads
1,021.19 miles were macadam, 5,230.25 miles gravel, 1,375.27 miles sand-clay, 107.3
miles concrete, and 94.5 miles bituminous macadam. There were also reported 1,523

‘miles of graded and drained earth roads. In 1909 there were 86,906 miles of public

road, with 6,900.54 miles, or 10.01 per cent, surfaced, an increase of 927.97 miles.
Detailed information as to road mileage at the close of 1914 is presented in Table 15.
REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.:

In 1914 there was applied to roads and bridges in the State of Michigan $9,261,998,
of which $7,080,177 was received from general county and township taxation; $1,524,557
from local bond funds, and $657,264 from State funds applied to county and township
roads under the State reward system. Of the latter sum $590,716 was expended for
construction of roads and bridges, $13,035 for maintenance, $36,167 for engineering
and inspection, $11,808 for administration, and $5,538 for miscellaneous equipment.
In 1904 the total revenue applied to roads and bridges amounted to $3,179,787.88, an
increase in the 10-year period of $6,082,210.12 or 191.27 per cent. Detailed information
on road and bridge revenue for 1914 is presented in Table 38.

28 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds voted and sold in 1914 amounted to $2,080,742.43.
The State highway department estimates that $1,524,557.49 was expended from bond
funds by the various counties and townships. It was impossible to ascertain the
amount of county and township bonds outstanding at the close of 1914, but according
to Bulletin 136 of the United States Department of Agriculture, the total county and
township bonds voted to January 1, 1914, amounted to $8,308,287. If to this is added
the bonds issued by counties and townships in 1914, and if all of the bonds voted up to
January 1, 1914, actually were sold, the total outstanding bonds at the close of the
year 1914 amounted to $10,389,029.43. Detailed information as to county and town-
ship bonds voted and sold in 1914 and the amounts expended therefrom, also interest
rates and terms, is presented in Table 59.

MINNESOTA.!

Minnesota has a land area of 80,858 square miles and a total road mileage of 93,517,
of which 3,967.83 miles, or 4.24 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

There is a State highway commission of three members, appointed by the governor.
The commission appoints a secretary, who must be a civil engineer and practical road
builder, and is known as State engineer. He serves during the pleasure of the com-
mission. A deputy and assistant engineers may be employed. The State engineer
and his deputy and assistants are required to give engineering advice and assistance
to local road officials, to make all necessary surveys, establish grades, and prepare
plans and specifications for all State roads. Any county board, subject to the approval
of the State highway commission, may designate as a State road any established road
or portion thereof outside the corporate limits of a city, village, or borough, and con-
struct or improve it in accordance with the regulations of the State highway
commission.

A State tax of 1 mill is levied annually, the money from which, together with all the
money accruing from investments in the internal improvement land fund, and all
accruing to any State road and bridge fund, however provided, constitutes a general
State road and bridge fund, which is apportioned by the State highway commission
to the counties so that no county receives less than 1 or more than 3 per cent
thereof. The State road and bridge fund is expended only on State roads. The
portion which is paid by the State out of the allotment to any county as State aid in
the construction of any road or bridge varies from not less than 80 or more than 90
per cent in counties having an assessed valuation of less than $5,000,000 to not less
than 50 or more than 75 per cent in counties having an assessed valuation exceeding
$15,000,000. ‘Twenty per cent of the apportionment to any county is used exclusively
for the maintenance of State roads and bridges, the State to pay the same proportion
of such maintenance cost as it pays for construction or improvement of State roads.
Actual maintenance work is done by the board of county commissioners, in accordance
with rules and regulations prescribed by the State highway commission.

The county board of commissioners of each county has jurisdiction and control over
county road matters. They may constitute and declare any public highway or road
in such county outside of an incorporated city or village a county road and direct
and supervise its construction and maintenance.

The town board of each town has general care and supervision of all town roads.
Each town constitutes a road district and the town board appoints a competent road
overseer who, under its supervision, has charge of the construction and maintenance
of all town and county roads therein. The town through which any county road
passes maintains and keeps it in repair.

1In collecting the information for Minnesota assistance was rendered by George W. Cooley, State
highway engineer, and collaborator of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 29

The county boards in counties in which there may be territory not organized for
township purposes may levy a tax of not to exceed 15 mills on each dollar of assessed
value of real and personal property in such unorganized territory for road and bridge
purposes. Such levy is made in addition to the levy for county road and bridge
purposes and is expended under the direction of the county board. The board of
each county may levy not to exceed 3 mills on each dollar of taxable property in the
county for the construction and maintenance of State and county roads and bridges.
The proceeds of such tax levy is placed in a fund known as the “county road and
bridge fund.’’ From this the county appropriates to any town in the county such
sums as it deems advisable to aid such town in the construction and maintenance of
roads.

The council of any village borough, or city of the fourth class, or the town board
of any town may appropriate and expend reasonable sums to assist in the improve-
ment and maintenance of roads lying beyond its boundaries and leading toit. There
may be levied in each town a tax of not to exceed 1 mill on each $1 of taxable property
therein, outside the corporate limits of any borough, city, or village, for a separate
fund to be known as the “dragging fund”’ and to be used for dragging the roads of the
town.

The electors of each town at their annual town meeting determine the amount to
be raised by taxation for road and bridge purposes in the town, not exceeding 15
mills on each dollar of taxable property. In case of emergency, after the annual
town meeting, the town board may levy a tax of not to exceed 5 mills for road and
bridge purposes.

Counties and towns may issue bonds for road and bridge purposes when authorized
by a majority of those voting at an election thereon.

State convicts may be used in the preparation of road materials and county convicts
may be used in performing labor on the public highways.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 Minnesota had 93,517 miles of public road, of which 3,967.83
miles, or 4.24 per cent, were surfaced as follows: macadam 120.25 miles, bituminous
macadam 19 miles, gravel 2,825.25 miles, sand-clay 985.33 miles, brick 0.5 mile, and
concrete 17.5 miles. A total of 15,377.5 miles of graded and drained earth roads was
reported for 1914. At the close of 1909 Minnesota had 79,323 miles of public road,
of which 5,416.85 miles, or 6.83 per cent were reported as surfaced, indicating a loss
in surfaced roads of 1,449.02 miles. This apparent loss probably is due to over-
estimates of surfaced roads made by the various counties in 1909. The 1914 figures
were checked by the State highway department and probably are more accurate than
those secured in 1909. Detailed information in regard to road mileage at the close of
1914 is presented in Table 16.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $6,458,940.07,
of which $4,388,254.15 was derived from general county and township taxation;
$1,400,000 received from the State by the counties as State aid; $97,100.92 received
- from various other sources; $143,785 appropriated for the maintenance of the State
highway department, and $429,800 expended by counties and townships from local
bond funds. The State-aid fund is derived from a 1-mill tax and the amount
received from this tax is shown in the last column of Table 39. The total revenue
applied to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted to $1,961,629.24, an increase for the
10-year period of $4,497,310.83 or 229.26 per cent. Detailed information showing the
revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 is presented by counties in Table 39.

30 BULLETIN 389, UD. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds outstanding at the close of 1914 amounted to
$1,411,889, of which $62,000 were voted and $358,000 were sold in 1914. Expenditure
from bond funds in 1914 amounted to $429,800. There was retired $49,842. Detailed
information in regard to road and bridge bonds is presented by counties in Table 60.

MISSOURI.!

Missouri has a land area of 68,727 square miles and a total road mileage of 96,041, of
which 6,712.57 miles or 6.98 per cent were surfaced at the close of 1914. The roads
of the State are classified as follows: class A, intercounty-seat highways, which,
when selected and recorded, are known as ‘‘State roads;’’ class B, county public
roads, rural route mail roads, or roads that are important laterals to class A roads, and
leading to or connecting populous centers; and class C, township roads or roads in
the nature of neighborhood roads and not connecting populous centers.

A State highway department exists for the purpose of affording instruction, assist-
ance, and cooperation between the State and counties in the construction, improve-
ment, maintenance, and repair of the public highways. ‘The governor appoints a
State highway commissioner for a term of four years. The commissioner, with ap-
proval of the governor, appoints ene deputy highway commissioner, who is required
to be a competent civil or highway engineer. The State highway commissioner,
on application cf the county court of any county is required to make, or cause to be
made, the necessary investigation for the selection and estabiishment of intercounty
highways which become ‘“‘State roads.”’

A fund known as ‘‘The general State road fund,”’ is created in the State treasury,
and all money accruing to the State from any general or special levy of taxes for road
purposes, or from any other source whatever, or derived in any way for the construc-
tion and improvement of public roads, is credited to such fund, which is apportioned
annually to the several counties, districts, and the city of St. Louis, in proportion
to the assessed property valuation therein, but no county, district, or city shall receive
more than 3 per cent thereof. An equal amount must be raised by such county,
district, or city and all expended for the construction or improvement of roads, the
plans and specifications for which, if the cost exceed $1,000 per mile of road or $500
for a culvert, must be submitted to the State highway commissioner for his approval.

The county courts are vested with jurisdiction and control of all matters relating
to public roads, culverts, or bridges, and expenditures therefor. The county court
in all counties, except those under township organization, is required to divide the
county into suitable and convenient road districts and appoint a road overseer for
each district. The court also appoints a county highway engineer annually who may
be the county surveyor. The county highway engineer has direct supervision over
the public roads of the county and over the road overseers, and the expenditure of
all county or district funds by the road overseer. The office of county highway
engineer may be abolished on vote of a majority of those voting at an election called
thereon.

The county court of counties not under township organization, and township boards
in counties under township organization, may divide the territory of their respective
counties or townships into special road districts when petitioned to do so by the
owners of a majority of the acres of land within the proposed district and after notice
and hearing thereon. A board of three commissioners is elected in each such dis-
trict to serve for a term of three years. This board may levy a general tax for road
and bridge purposes on all property in the district, and may issue road and bridge
bonds of the district if authorized by a two-thirds vote at an election thereon, the

1 Jn collecting the information for Missouri, assistance was rendered by E. W. Sheets, deputy State
highway commissioner, and collaborator of the U..S. Department of Agriculture.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. bl

amount of such bonds not to exceed, with existing indebtedness, 5 per cent of the
assessed valuation. On petition of the owners of a majority in acres of land within
one-half mile of a public road or part thereof in such district, praying for the improve-
ment of such road and the assessment of the cost thereof on all lands in the district,
payable in not to exceed 15 installments if a county, and not to exceed 20 if a town-
ship, the board of commissioners shall have prepared a map of the district and of
the proposed road, with plans, specifications and estimates, and shall submit the same
to the State highway commissioner for his approval, after which approval the im-
provements may be made and the cost assessed on the lands. Special assessment
bonds may be issued in anticipation of the payment of the assessments so made on
the lands.

In counties under township organization the township board is required annually
to divide the township into convenient road districts and appoint a road overseer for
each district.

A county license tax on dramshops is assessed in amounts of ‘not less than $250 or
more than $400 each six months, the proceeds of which are set aside as a special road
fund in such county and divided among the road districts of the county in proportion
to the mileage of public roads in each district.

A stamp tax of 25 cents is imposed on each broker’s sale of stocks and bonds of any
corporation, or of cotton, petroleum, grain, or other commodities, on a margin or other-
wise, and all revenues derived therefrom are set apart for road purposes and dis-
tributed among the counties in the same proportion as the school funds.

The county court of all counties, except those under township organization, is
required to levy an annual road poll tax of from $2 to $6 on each able-bodied male
over 21 years and under 50, outside the limits of incorporated cities, towns, or vii-
lages, and determine if such tax shall be paid in labor or cash. The court also is
required to levy upon all taxable property, real and personal, outside incorporated
towns, cities, or villages, a tax of not less than 10 cents nor more than 20 cents on
each $100, which is placed to the credit of the road district from which collected.
In addition, the county court, in counties not under township organization, may
levy not to exceed 25 cents on each $100 valuation, the proceeds to go into a special
road and bridge fund of the county or township.

The township board, in counties under township organization, annually assesses a
road and bridge tax of not to exceed 25 cents on each $100 assessed property valuation,
and credits the proceeds to the district in which collected. The board may levy a
poll tax on all able-bodied males over 21 and under 50 years of age residing outside of
incorporated cities, towns, or villages, of not less than $3 nor more than $6, which
may be worked out or paid in cash at the option of the person assessed.

County courts may issue bonds for and on behalf of the townships of their counties
in amounts not exceeding, with existing indebtedness, 5 per cent of the assessed
valuation of the township for which issued, if authorized by a two-thirds vote of those
voting at an election thereon. Also, on petition of 100 tax-paying citizens of a county,
the county court may submit the question of issuing bonds of the county for the per-
manent improvement of roads, bridges, and culverts therein, and may issue such
bonds if authorized by two-thirds of those voting.

The net proceeds from the registration and licensing of motor vehicles is paid into
the State road and bridge fund.

Authorization is given for the working of county convicts on roads and in the

preparation of road materials.
ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 Missouri had, according to reports received, 96,041 miles of
public road, of which 6,712.57 miles, or 6.98 per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced
roads, 3,671.5 miles were gravel, 1,442.25 sand-clay, 1,531.05 macadam, 59 bituminous

32 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

macadam, 5 cinders, 2.77 concrete, and 1 brick. Missouri also reported 34,706 miles
of graded and drained earth road. In 1909 Missouri reported 107,923 miles of public
road, of which 4,755.5 miles, ‘or 4.4 per cent, were surfaced, a gain during the 5-year
period of 1,957.07 miles of surfaced road. Detailed information regarding road mileage
for 1914 is presented in Table 17.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 was $5,513,048.71, of which
$3,508,219.39 was derived from the general road and bridge tax; $518,416.46 from
dramshops; $23,083.19 from option stamps; $93,783.58 from automobile revenue;
$175,101.17 from general State funds; $626,460.27 from special funds, including poll
tax, township tax, special taxes, and donations; $505,418.65 cash value of statute
labor tax; $55,000 from local bond funds, and $7,566 from State appropriations for the
administration of the State highway department.

There are several counties in Missouri under township organization and several in
which road work is done by special road districts. An effort was made to secure
information as to the amount of revenue applied to roads in such townships and road
districts, but with very poor results. The township tax, so far as obtained, is included
in the column headed “‘special funds.’’ It is impossible to estimate the amount of
money that was expended for roads and bridges in the townships and road districts
from which no reports were obtained. It is obvious, therefore, that Missouri spent
more for roads and bridges in 1914 than the above figures indicate.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted to $2,368,972.79,
an increase in the 10-year period of $3,144,075.92, or 132.72 per cent.
~ Detailed information as to revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 is presented

in Table 40.
ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915, amounted to
$522,500, of which $75,000 was voted and sold in 1914. Expenditures from bond
issues in 1914 amounted to $55,000, and there was $37,500 retired. These are prin-
cipally district and township bonds. No State road and bridge bonds have been
issued. Information regarding bond issues is presented in Table 61.

MONTANA.?

Montana has a land area of 146,201 square miles and a total road mileage of 39,204,
of which 609.25 miles or 1.55 per cent were surfaced at the close of 1914.

There is a State highway commission of three members who are the professor of
civil engineering of the Montana State school of agriculture and mechanic arts, ex
officio; the State engineer, ex officio; and a civil engineer appointed by the governor
and acting as secretary to the commission. The commission and its assistants are
charged with the duty of giving such advice and assistance regarding road construc-
tion, improvement, maintenance, and supervision throughout the State as time and
conditions will permit. It keeps on file a map showing all public roads in each county
of the State, and in color all roads and proposed roads which it deems of sufficient
public importance to receive State aid, and which, when completed, will provide
an adequate system of State roads, leading to or connecting the main market and
business centers of the State. The commission, acting with the boards of commis-
sioners of the respective counties, classifies such roads into those of primary and of
secondary importance, and, unless otherwise ordered, those of primary importance
are constructed or improved first. All roads constructed or improved by the aid of

1 Tn collecting the information for Montana assistance was rendered by George R. Metlen, secretary of
the State highway commission, and collaborator of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 33

the State are thereafter known and designated as State roads, and surveys, plans,
specifications, and estimates for all work on such roads in the respective counties
are required to be made by the board of county commissioners, in accordance with
rules and regulations prescribed by the State highway commission and subject to
approval by the commission.

Contracts for work on State roads are let by the board of county commissioners,
and the work is done under the direction of that board through a competent engineer
employed by it and subject to supervision and approval by the State highway com-
mission. The county commissioners report each year to the State highway commis-
sion all expenditures on State and county roads and recommend roads for improve-
ment in the succeeding year. The State highway commission makes a biennial
report to the governor.

There is a State highway fund from which is deducted each year the sum deemed
necessary for the support of the State highway commission, and the balance is appor-
tioned by the commission among the several counties, taking into account the area
of each county, the amount expended on its roads, and the extraordinary expenses
incident to developing new territory, but none of the fund is expended in the cor-
porate limits of any city or town or in any county which does not provide an equal
amount. The net proceeds from the licensing and registering of motor vehicles are
applied to the State highway fund.

Boards of commissioners of the several counties have general supervision over the
highways and must keep the county divided into suitable road districts and appoint
a competent road supervisor for each district. The board also may employ a com-
petent road builder for the county.

The boards of county commissioners may levy in their respective counties a special
tax of not to exceed 2 mills on the dollar ofall taxable property therein forthe purpose
of constructing, maintaining, and repairing free public bridges. The boards also
levy annually in each county a general tax of not less than 2 or more than 5 millson
the dollar of all taxable property. In addition a general road poll tax of $2 per annum _
is levied on each male over 21 years and under 60. All moneys derived from each
of the above taxes are credited to the general road fund of the county. Neither of
the above taxes applies in an incorporated city or town which levies like taxes for
its roads, streets, and alleys.

The county board of commissioners may issue bonds of the county for the construc-
tion of highways and bridges in an amount not to exceed, including existing indebt-
edness, 5 per cent of the value of all taxable property in the county; but no county
shall incur indebtedness in excess of $10,000 for any single purpose unless authorized
by a majority of the electors voting in an election thereon. Of the forest reserve
moneys received by the State from the United States, 662 per cent is apportioned to
the counties entitled to share in the apportionment of the fund in proportion to the
acreage of forest reserves in eachsuchcounty. The amountso apportioned is applied
to the general road fund of the county.

Provision is made for the working of county prisoners upon the highways.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914, Montana had 39,204 miles of public road, of which 609.25
miles, or 1.55 per cent were surfaced as follows: Macadam, 78 miles, gravel 514.25, sand-
clay 14, and shale 3. There were reported also 6,528.05 miles of graded and drained
earth road. At the close of 1909 the State had 23,319 miles of road, of which 95 miles
were surfaced, a gain for the 5-year period of 514.25 miles. The mileage data for 1914
is shown in Table 18.

72690°—Bull. 389—17——3

34 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads in 1914 amounted to $2,888,400.61, exclusive
of Phillips County, from which no report was received. Of this amount $1,764,957.88 |
was received from the general county road and bridge tax, $1,007,452.02 from county
funds left over from 1913 and special funds, $102,475 from county bond issues, and
$13,515.71 from State motor vehicle fund.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted to $404,097.81, a
gain in the 10-year period of $2,484,302.80, or 614.77 per cent. Detailed informa-
tion regarding road and bridge taxation and revenues for 1914 is given in Table 41.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915, amounted to
$2,224,050.72, of which $462,000 were voted in 1914 and $440,000 sold the same year.
There was expended from bond funds a total of $102,475 and there was retired $33,000.
All bonds issued in 1914 bear from 5 to 54 per cent interest and run for 20 years.
Detailed information on this subject is presented in Table 62.

NEBRASKA.!

Nebraska has a land area of 76,808 square miles, a total road mileage of 80,272, of
which 1,204.54 miles, or 1.5 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

There is a State board of irrigation, highways, and drainage, composed of the —
governor, the attorney general, and the commissioner of public lands and buildings.
The board elects a secretary, who must be a civil engineer and is known as the State
engineer. The board advises with and aids the county boards in the preparation of
plans and estimates and in the supervision of highway work. This is done through
an advisory board of three men well versed in road building, together with a secretary
who must be a civil engineer and practical road builder and is known as the State
highway engineer. These are appointed by the State board, are removable by it,
and serve without compensation. Whenever any funds are provided by the State
for the construction of roads and bridges, the work is carried on under the direct su-
pervision of the State board of irrigation, highways, and drainage. The advisory
board is required to make a biennial report to the governor.

The State board of irrigation is made a State board of supervision for bridges to be
located and constructed or purchased under State aid. A tax of one-fifth of 1 mill
is levied annually on each dollar of the grand assessment roll of the State for the State-
aid bridge fund, to be appropriated by the legislature to aid in the building of bridges
across rivers of a width of 175 feet or more, the cost to be paid one-half by the State
and one-half by the county. Application for such aid must be made to the State
board of irrigation by the county boards. After such bridges are constructed the duty
of maintaining them devolves upon the county, unless maintenance cost exceeds
$100, in which event the State pays one-half.

Counties under township organization are divided by the county board of commis-
sioners into seven supervisor districts. Each district elects a supervisor, the seven
constituting the county board of supervisors, which divides the county into town-
ships. The town clerk, assessor, and justice of the peace constitute the town board
in each township. Each supervisor has charge of the expenditure of funds appro-
priated by the board out of the county treasury for the roads and bridges within his
district. Counties under township organization may vote to have township super-
visors, in which event one supervisor is elected from each township and the super-
visors thus elected constitute the county board of supervisors. Township boards

=)
1 The information relative to the State of Nebraska was collected, under the direction of this office, by
George E. Johnson, State engineer, and collaborator of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 35

each year select one of their number as township highway superintendent to have
charge of road and bridge work.

Each county not under township organization is divided into from three to five
districts, and one commissioner is nominated by each district but is elected by the
qualified electors of the entire county. The commissioners so elected constitute
the county board of commissioners. This board has general supervision over the roads
of the county, with power to establish and maintain them and to see that the laws in
relation thereto are carried into effect. The section lines are made public roads.
Each county board divides the county into as many road districts as may be neces-
sary. One overseer of highways is elected in each road district. County boards may
appoint a county highway commissioner, who must be a practical and experienced
road builder, and who, with the county board, shall have exclusive control and super-
vision ofall the public roadsinthe county. Road overseers in counties where a county
highway commissioner is appointed perform their duties under his direction. The
county board is required to divide the public roads of each township or precinct into
permanent road-dragging districts and appoint a superintendent of dragging in each
township or precinct, who shall cause to be dragged all roads the county board may
direct.

Able-bodied males under 50 years of age may be called upon to make emergency
repairs on roads and bridges or to clear a mail route of snow. Each person so called
upon may be required to furnish a team or tools and implements and is paid for his
labor.

All road and labor tax is paid in cash. One-half of all money collected as road tax
constitutes a county road fund, which is divided equally among the several commis-
sioner districts for the general benefit of the roads therein, and the other half of such
road tax and all labor tax collected constitutes a district road fund and is expended
under the direction of the road overseer in the district in which it was collected.
The same rate of road taxes may be levied in cities and villages as in the several road
districts, but one-half of the proceeds of such taxes so levied and collected in cities
and villages shall be paid to the city or village from which collected.

In counties under township organization, the township road tax and the county
road tax are paid in cash. All moneys paid into the town treasury from the several
districts in discharge of road tax and labor tax constitute a town road fund to be used
for the benefit of the road districts of the town, but one-half of the money so collected

constitutes a district road fund for use under “ine direction of the town board in the
districts from which collected.

The board of county commissioners, or board of supervisors in counties under
township organization, may levy not to exceed 1 mill on each dollar of taxable valua-
tion to be known as the special emergency bridge levy. The county’s general tax
levy for roads shall not exceed 5 mills on the dollar and for the county bridge fund
the levy shall not exceed 4 mills on the dollar. A tax is imposed on inheritances
and the proceeds in each county applied to the improvement of its roads. The net
proceeds from the registration and licensing of motor vehicles are paid into the county
treasury and applied to road construction, dragging, and repair work. One-fifth of
the whole amount of the forest reserve fund annually paid to the State by the United
States Government is apportioned to the road funds of the counties entitled to share
in the apportionment of the funds.

On petition of a majority of the resident freeholders of any road district, precinct,
or township, the county board shall levy not less than 5 nor more than 25 mills upon
each dollar of taxable property therein, the proceeds of which become a part of the
road fund of such district, precinct, or township.

Towns are authorized to purchase toll bridges and, if other funds are insufficient,
to issue bonds to an amount not exceeding 10 per cent of the assessed value of all tax-

36 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

able property therein to pay for them. The bond issue must receive the favorable
vote of two-thirds of those voting at an election called thereon.

Any county, township, precinct, city, or village, when authorized by three-fifths
of those voting at an election thereon, may issue bonds in an amount not exceeding
10 per cent of the taxable value of all property therein for the purpose of building
bridges across any boundary river.

Townships, precincts, cities, or villages, respectively, may issue bonds in amounts
not to exceed 10 per cent of their taxable valuation for roads and bridges, when author-
ized by a vote of two-thirds of those voting at an election called thereon.

Provision is made for the improvement of roads in counties of more than 20,000
population on petition to the county boards, signed by the owners of a majority of
the frontage of lands abutting on such roads, and for the payment of the cost of such
improvement by the issuance of county bonds, the interest and principal of such
bonds to be paid by special benefit assessments on lands lying within 2 miles of the
road or roads improved.

State prisoners work on the roads, streets, or alleys.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 Nebraska had 80,272 miles of public road, of which 1,204.54
miles or 1.5 per.cent were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads 1,131.1 miles were sand-
clay, 39.21 miles macadam, 21 miles gravel, 7.53 miles concrete, 2.4 miles brick,
1.3 miles bituminous macadam, and 2 miles gypsum. There was also reported
27,540.90 miles of graded and drained earth road.

In 1909 Nebraska reported 80,338 miles of public road, of which 248.55, or .31 per
cent were surfaced, a gain in surfaced roads in the 10-year period of 955.99 miles.

Detailed information as to road mileage for 1914 is presented in Table 19.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $1,796,277.69,
of which $1,454,680.65 was derived from general county and township taxes, $85,399.77
from poll taxes, $114,724.44 from inheritance taxes and other special taxes, $47,086
from the automobile fund, and $94,386.83 from the State-aid bridge fund. The total
revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted to $878,547.40, a gain in the
10-year period of $917,730.29, or 104.4 per cent. Information regarding road and
bridge revenue and taxation for these purposes is presented by counties in Table 42.

BONDS.

No State bonds have been issued for roads and bridges and so far as can be ascer-
tained, no bonds have been issued for these purposes by counties or townships.

NEVADA.!

Nevada has a land area of 109,821 square miles, a total road mileage of 12,182, of
which 262 miles or 2.14 per cent were surfaced at ine close of 1915.

By a law enacted in 1913, a board of county highway commissioners was prened
in each county to be anneal of the regularly elected board of county commissioners,
the county assessor, and the district attorney. The board is vested with exclusive
control of all matters pertaining to the construction, repair, and maintenance of
public highways, roads, and bridges within the county, and may appoint a county
road supervisor, who, under the direction of the board, has charge of all county roads,
and supervises and directs construction, repair, and maintenance. If the county
board of highway commissioners decides not to appoint a county road supervisor, it

1Tn collecting the information for Nevada assistance was rendered by Parvin P. Jones, collaborator’
ofthe U. S. Department of Agriculture.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 37

may appoint a board of from one to three road commissioners for each district to have
like duties as those prescribed for the supervisor. The respective boards of county
highway commissioners were required by law to lay out and designate, on or before
September 1, 1913, the roadsin the county which accommodated the greatest amount
of travel and were of most importance to the people generally. Such roads were to
be designated as main county roads. The board also was required to designate the
other roads in the county accommodating general public travel, and these roads were
- to be designated as general county roads. Where the cost of any work of improvement
exceeds $500, it is the duty of the board of county highway commissioners to have
plans and specifications prepared therefor, and to let the same to contract to the lowest
responsible bidder.

For the purpose of creating a fund to be known as the county road and bridge fund,
to be used in the construction, repair, and maintenance of county roads and bridges,
and the purchase of necessary machinery and equipment, the county boards of com-
missioners are authorized to issue bonds of their respective counties in an amount
not to exceed 3 per cent of the total assessed value of real and personal property
therein, after having submitted the proposition for a majority vote of the qualified
electors.

The boards of county commissioners are authorized, on petition of a majority of
the taxpayers of any township, or townships, to divide such township or townships
into a road district or road districts. Road districts so created shall be disorganized
by the board of county commissioners upon petition of a majority of the taxpayers.
Road funds for such districts are obtained by applying thereto the net proceeds of
the county’s proportion of all poll taxes collected from citizens residing within such
road district, and also the proceeds of the one-fourth of one per cent county road
taxes levied and collected within such district; and, when a majority of the property
holders of the district shall petition the county commissioners so to do, an additional
special tax may be levied in an amount not to exceed $3 on each $1,000 valuation;
provided, that persons liable to such special tax may pay a part or all of it in labor
on the roads at the rate of $3 for each full day’s work with tools and implements,
$4 for each team of two animals and $1 for each additional animal.

The legislature has passed at different times laws designating certain roads to be
State highways and imposing upon the respective boards of county commissioners
the duty of constructing and maintaining such highways.

A general county road tax of not to exceed one-fourth of one per cent upon the
taxable property of the county is authorized to be levied by the board of county
commissioners and the proceeds expended in each district in proportion to the amount
collected therein. The net proceeds from the registration and licensing of motor
vehicles is applied to the maintenance of roads in the several counties, each county
being entitled to such proportion of the fund as was collected therein.

Provision is made for the working of both county and State convicts upon the
highways. Such detail, however, is voluntary on the part of the convict. An
appropriation has been made to create a general road fund from which to pay the
expenses incident to the working of State convicts on the roads.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1915 Nevada had 12,182 miles of public road, of which 262 miles,
or 2.14 per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads 193 miles were gravel, 67
miles sand-clay, and 2 miles macadam. There were also reported 1,080 miles of
graded and drained earth road. In 1909 Nevada reported 12,751 miles of public roads,
of which only 46 miles, or 0.36 per cent, were surfaced, a gain in surfaced mileage the
6-year period of 216 miles. Detailed information regarding road mileage in 1914 is
presented by counties in Table 20.

38 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES. —

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1915 amounted to $245,015.65,
of which $173,730.86 was derived from the general county taxes, $54,026 from poll
taxes, and $17,256.79 from county bond issue. It was impossible to secure this
information for the year 1914. No funds were devoted to road improvement by the
State during the years 1914 or 1915. In 1904 the revenues applied to roads and bridges
amounted to $46,875.85, a gain for the 11-year period of $198,137.80, or 422.68 per
cent. Detailed rertenion showing the revenues applied to roads and bridges in
1915 is seen es | in Table 43.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds outstanding January 1, 1915, amounted to $38,000,
of which $25,000 were voted and sold in 1914. In the early part of 1915 there was
expended from bond funds $17,256.79. Road bonds amounting to $3,000 were retired
in 1914. No State road and bridge bonds have been issued. Detailed information on
this subject is presented in Table 63.

NEW MEXICO.!

New Mexico has a land area of 122,503 square miles, and a total road mileage of
11,873, of which 261.5 miles or 2.2 per cent were surfaced at the close of 1914.

There is a State highway commission consisting of the governor, the commissioner -
of public lands, and the State engineer. The governor is chairman, the commissioner
of public lands is secretary, and the State engineer is engineer of the commission.
The commission has charge of the expenditure of the State road fund, is authorized to
employ, remove, and fix the salaries of assistant engineers and other necessary help,
is empowered to make rules and regulations governing the method of construction,
improvement and maintenance of such highways and bridges as may receive aid from
the State and to compel compliance therewith, and, when requested, is required to
advise towns, villages, and counties regarding the construction and maintenance of
any road or bridge therein. It also is made the duty of the commission to investigate
the needs of the various localities of the State and to determine what roads shall be
constructed or repaired, and cooperate with the boards of commissioners of the various
counties in the construction of such roads. It is further required of the commission
that it construct, repair, and maintain at the expense of the State, either wholly or
in part, such highways as in its judgment will best subserve the interest of the general
public and result in the ultimate development of a complete system of highways in
the State.

At various times the legislature has designated specific roads as State highways and
provided for their improvement either by cooperation with the counties through
which they pass, by an appropriation from the State treasury, or by the labor of State
convicts. Where such’ highways are provided, the counties are required to provide
the necessary rights of way; and in the case of the ‘‘ El Camino Real” the boards of
commissioners of the counties through which it passes are authorized and required to
levy a special tax of not to exceed 2 mills on the dollar on all taxable property in their
respective counties to be used for the construction of bridges within such counties.

There is in each county a county road board composed of three qualified electors
and taxpayers, appointed by the State highway commission for a period of three years.
The members serve without compensation and are subject to removal by the State
highway commission. The county road board has authority to construct or improve,
or to aid in constructing or improving, any road or bridge within the county and to
maintain and repair the same, and is required to select and lay out, in cooperation

1In collecting the information for New Mexico assistance was rendered by James A. French, State en:
gineer, and collaborator of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 39

with the State highway commission a system of prospective county highways to
include the main traveled roads of the county, together with those leading to the
county seat and to such other towns, settlements, and railroad stations as may be
deemed advisable. Each such board is directed to employ a surveyor to prepare, in
accordance with instructions of the State highway commission, a map showing the
system of prospective county highways which must meet at the county lines so as to
make continuous and direct lines of travel between the counties.

A State tax of 1 mill is levied each year and the proceeds are paid into the State
treasury to the credit of the State road fund. Also, one-half of the net proceeds from
licensing and registering motor vehicles is applied to the State road fund. In addition
a State tax of one-fourth mill is authorized to be levied and the proceeds used in
carrying out the provisions of the acts providing for constructing the highway known
as the ‘‘E] Camino Real.’’

The board of county commissioners of each county is authorized to levy a general
road tax of not to exceed 3 mills on each dollar of assessed valuation.

At the general election in 1912, a State bond issue of $500,000 was authorized, to be
sold as needed by the State highway commission for the construction of the State
system of highways.

All able-bodied males between 21 and 60 years of age are required to pay an annual
road tax of $3, or in lieu thereof to work three days on the roads.

On petition of 100 legal voters and taxpayers, the board of county commissioners
may levy a special tax of not to exceed 13 mills for the purpose of creating a county
road fund. Also, one-half of the net proceeds from licensing and registering motor
vehicles is apportioned to the several counties in proportion to the amounts collected
in each, and applied to the county road fund.

On petition for the building of a public bridge signed by taxpayers to the number
of 400 in class A counties, 200 in class B counties, and 100 in class C counties, the
county board of commissioners may levy to pay therefor taxes limited in amounts,
according to the classification of the several counties, as follows: $25,000 in class A
counties, $10,000 in class B counties, and $3,500 in class C counties.

Bonds for road and bridge purposes may be issued by the board of county commis-
sioners of any county in an amount not to exceed 4 per cent of the assessed value of
all property therein, if authorized by a majority vote at an election thereon.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 New Mexico had, according to the reports received, 11,873
miles of public road, of which 261.5 miles, or 2.2 per cent, were surfaced. Of the
surfaced roads 184 miles were gravel, 72.5 miles sand-clay, and 5 miles bituminous
macadam. There also was reported 1,906.5 miles of graded and drained earth road. _
At the close of 1909 New Mexico had 16,920 miles of public road, of which 104 miles,
or 0.61 per cent, were surfaced, an increase of 157.5 miles of surfaced roads. Detailed
information as to road mileage in each county at the close of 1914 is presented in
Table 21.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

In 1914 there was applied to roads and bridges a total of $556,398.82, of which
$357,955.15 was derived from the general State and county road and bridge tax;
$16,871.69 from the forest reserve fund; $63,320.46 from special bridge levies; $42,280.64
from a $3 personal tax; $29,970.88 from county levies for special roads; $30,000 from
bond issue funds in Dona Ana County; and $16,000 from automobile licenses, expended
by the State. The forest reserve fund is applied to roads and schools, but it was
impossible to ascertain how much of the amount given above was expended for schools.
The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted to $165,651.56, an
increase in the 10-year period of $390,747.26, or 235.88 per cent. Information as to
revenue applied to roads during 1914 is presented by counties in Table 44.

40 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915, amounted to
$157,000, of which $50,000 was voted and sold in 1914. There was expended in 1914
in Dona Ana County $30,000. In 1913 the State authorized the issuance of $500,000

_ State bonds for road and bridge purposes, but the funds derived from this issue did

e

not become available until September 1, 1915. These bonds are issued in denomi-
nations of $1,000 each, numbered from 1 to 500, the first 20 of which are payable on
January 1, 1915, and 20 bonds in consecutive order on July 1, annually, thereafter.
The proceeds are to be expended for the construction and maintenance of a system
of State highways.

Detailed information on this subject is presented in Table 64.

NORTH DAKOTA.

North Dakota has a land area of 70,183 square miles and a total road mileage of
68,796, of which 955 miles, or 1.38 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

There is a State highway commission composed of the governor, the State engineer,
and one other member appointed by the governor. The State engineer, as secretary,
is required to keep all records of the commission, to give such advice, assistance, and
supervision in respect to road construction as time and conditions will permit, and to
prepare plans and specifications for and superintend the construction of any road,
under the direction of the State highway commission, when requested so to do by ~
the board having jurisdiction over such road. The State highway commission re-
quires the State engineer to prepare a map of each county showing the roads and the
location of all bridges and culverts, and also the roads on which it is proposed to
utilize State funds when such funds may be made available. When requested by
any board of county commissioners, or by any board of township supervisors, the
State engineer is required to prepare plans for the construction of any bridge or cul-
vert or to examine and report on any existing bridge or culvert, and cooperate as far
as possible with the county surveyor or county superintendent of highways.

The construction and maintenance of roads and bridges in the several counties is
vested in the county board of commissioners. Such jurisdiction in civil townships is
vested in the township board of supervisors. The board of county commissioners in
any county not formed into townships is required to apportion the county annually
into one or more road districts and appoint a road supervisor for each district. The
boards of county commissioners of the several counties may appoint biennially a
competent engineer or practical road builder, who may be the county surveyor, to
be county superintendent of highways, and to have charge of the road work within
the county.

By an act passed in 1915 there is in each county a board of highway improvements,
consisting of one member from each road district in the county. It is the duty of
this board to formulate plans and methods for the uniform working of highways
within the county, and such method as it may adopt shall be followed in each district
of the county. 5

The township board of supervisors is required to appoint annually one township
overseer of highways, who must be a practical road builder. He has charge of the
construction and maintenance of all highways and township bridges in the township.

In unorganized territory in counties where no county superintendent of highways

has been appointed, the board of county commissioners shall appoint a district over-
seer of highways, whose powers and duties shall be the same as in the organized
townships.

‘1 In collecting the information for North Dakota assistance was rendered by Jay W. Bliss, State engineer,
and collaborator of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. Al

A tax not to exceed 5 mills on the dollar for road purposes and 4 mills on the dollar
for bridge purposes may be levied in each county. A road poll tax of $1.50, or one
day’s labor, upon all male persons between 21 and 50 years of age not exempt by law
also may be levied.

In each county having a population of 2,000 or more, according to the latest Federal
census, there shall be levied and collected a tax of not less than one-fourth mill or
more than 4 mills on the dollar, the proceeds to go into a county road fund, to be
used only for grading, ditching and surfacing the principal thoroughfares of the
county.

Township supervisors may levy for road and bridge purposes a tax of not to exceed $1
on each $100 of assessed valuation.

The net proceeds from licensing and registering motor vehicles are returned to the
counties from which collected for the purpose of maintaining the main-traveled roads.

Authority is given for working State convicts upon the public highways.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 North Dakota had. according to the reports received, a total of
68,796 miles of public road, of which 955 miles or 1.38 per cent were surfaced with
gravel. There was also reported 25,306 miles of graded and drained earth roads. At
the close of 1909 North Dakota had 61,593 miles of public road, of which 140 miles or
0.23 per cent were surfaced; a gain of 815 miles of surfaced road in the 5-year period.
Information showing mileage of roads at the close of 1914 is presented in Table 22.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $2,402,383.52,
of which $2,016,419.64 was received from the general county and township tax;
$44,900.60 from automobile licenses; $84,092.95 from poll taxes paid in cash;
$214,283.58 from special road and bridge funds and other sources, and $42,686.75 which
represented the cash value of the property poll tax worked out upon the public roads.
The total revenue applied to roads in 1904 amounted to $550,340.72, a gain in the 10-
year period of $1,852,042.80 or 436.52 per cent. Information showing the revenues
applied to roads and bridges during the year 1914 is presented in Table 45.

No road and bridge bonds have been issued by the State, counties or townships
in North Dakota.

OHIO.

Ohio has a land area of 40,740 square miles, a total road mileage of 86,354, of which
30,569.17 miles or 35.16 per cent were surfaced at the close of 1914.

The governor appoints a State highway commissioner for four years unless sooner
removed by the governor. The State highway commissioner appoints three deputy
commissioners, each of whom must be a competent civil engineer. One is designated
chief highway engineer. One of the deputy commissioners has supervision of all road
construction work, another of all road maintenance and repair work and the third of
all bridge and culvert construction, maintenance, and repair work. Necessary
division engineers may be appointed by the State highway commissioner. The State
highway commissioner is vested with general supervision of the construction, im-
provement, maintenance, and repair of all intercounty highways and main market
roads, and the bridges and culverts. Upon the request of county or township road
officials, he gives engineering advice and assistance and causes surveys, plans, speci-
fications, and estimates to be prepared for the construction, maintenance and repair
of roads, bridges or culverts.

The State highway commissioner was required by the legislature to designate and
report to the governor a system of intercounty highways; and the legislature has
designated a system of main market roads, which follow along and upon the route

42 BULLETIN 389, J. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

or portions of the system of intercounty highways. The State highway commissioner
may designate additional intercounty highways and main market roads, or change
existing ones.

A State tax of three-tenths of 1 mill on all taxable property in the State is levied
annually, and the proceeds constitute a State highway improvement fund. Of this
fund 75 per cent is used for the maintenance of the State highway department and for
apportionment equally among the several counties to aid in the construction, main-
tenance and repair of the intercounty highways, and 25 per cent is used to ald in the
construction, maintenance and repair of the main market roads. The county com-
missioners are required to make application to the State highway commissioner for
State aid before January 1 of the year for which the funds are available and if they do
not make application by such date the township trustees may do so. The county or
township, and the State each pay one-half of the cost of improvements made with the
aid of State funds unless the county or township agrees to pay a larger portion; and of
the county’s portion the county pays, except as otherwise provided, 50 per cent, the
township 30 per cent, and abutting property 20 per cent.

The county commissioners of the several counties are vested with general juris-
diction over the roads in their respective counties. Applications to locate, alter,
vacate, or otherwise affecting a public road, are made by petition to the county com-
missioners. The county surveyor is made the county highway superintendent, who
may be desigtiated by the State highway commissioner to have charge of the highways,
bridges and culverts in the county under thé control of the State, in which event
one-fifth of his salary is paid by the State. Ifthe State highway commissioner deems
the county highway superintendent of any county improperly qualified and so states
in writing to the county commissioners, he may then designate an engineer to have
charge of the construction, improvement and repair of all bridges and highways
within such county. On or before April 1 each year, the county highway superin-
tendent reports to the county commissioners an estimate of the probable amount
required within the year for the construction, maintenance and repair of bridges,
culverts and roads, and also makes an annual estimate to the township trustees of the
funds needed for the construction, maintenance and repair of bridges, culverts, and
roads in the township.

The board of county commissioners of any county m4y construct a new road or
improve any existing road when requested by a petition signed by at least 51 per cent
of the land or lot owners, residents of the county, who will be specially taxed or assessed
for such improvements. Of the cost of such improvements, a part or all may be
assessed against abutting real estate and the balance, if any, shall be paid by the
county and township, or townships, as determined by the board of county commis-
-sioners. In order to meet the county’s portion of the cost, the county commissioners
are authorized to levy a tax of not exceeding 2 mills on the dollar of taxable property
in the county; and in order to provide funds with which to meet the township’s portion
the county commissioners may levy a tax of not exceeding 3 mills on the taxable
property of such township or townships. Bonds of the county may be issued in antici-
pation of the collection of such taxes and assessments.

Toll roads may be purchased by the boards of county commissioners in their re-
spective counties, when authorized by a majority of those voting at an election thereon.
Bonds may be issued for toll roads so purchased.

Three township trustees are elected biennially in each township, which is divided
into not less than one or more than four road districts, and the trustees appoint for each
road district a superintendent, who is known as township highway superintendent
and has control of the roads of his district. The township highway superintendent
is under the control and direction of the township trustees and may be removed for
incompetence or neglect of duty. He divides the gravel and unimproved public
roads into road dragging districts of not more than 6 miles of road each, and contracts
for dragging.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 43

The public highways of the State are divided into three classes, State roads, county
roads, and township roads. State roads include intercounty highways and main
market roads improved or taken over by the State, and are maintained by the State
highway department. County roads are such as are improved, or that may hereafter
be improved, by the county, or heretofore built by the State and not a part of the
«system of intercounty highways and main market roads, together with such roads as
are, or may be constructed by the township trustees to conform to the standard for
county roads as fixed by the county commissioners, and all such roads are maintained
by the county commissioners. Township roads include all other public highways,
and are maintained by the township trustees, but the county commissioners may
assist in maintaining such roads.

To provide funds to enable counties and townships to pay their portion of the cost
of roads built with State aid, the county boards of commissioners may levy a tax of
not to exceed 1 mill on all taxable property in the county and township trustees may
levy not to exceed 2 mills on all taxable property in the township. The county com-
missioners may issue bonds of the county in anticipation of the taxes which may be
levied, the amount not to exceed the sum of the county, township and land assess-
ment portions of the cost of State-aid highways.

After the annual estimate for the county has been filed with the county commis-
sioners by the county highway superintendent, as required by law, the county com-
missioners, after having made such changes or modifications as they deem desirable,
may levy for the purposes set forth in the estimate a tax of not to exceed 2 mills upon
each dollar of taxable property in the county; and after the annual estimate for each
township has been filed with the trustees of the township, they may levy a tax of not
to exceed 2 mills upon each dollar of taxable property in the township outside the
limits of incorporated villages or cities.

The trustees of any township may levy and assess upon each dollar of taxable prop-
erty therein a tax of not exceeding 3 mills for the purpose of improving, dragging
repairing, or maintaining any public road, or roads, or parts thereof. The trustees
designate the roads within the township to be improved, and direct the county highway
superintendent to make necessary surveys, plans, specifications, and estimates.
Ti the funds raised by the levy be insufficient, the trustees may issue bonds of the
township if authorized by a favorable vote of a majority of the qualified electors of the
township who participated in the last preceding election for governor. The trustees
may assess all or any part of the cost of making such improvement against the land
not more than 1 mile from either side or terminus of the road or roads improved.

The owners of real estate in any township may petition the township trustees for
_ the construction, reconstruction, or improvement of any public road, or part thereof,
in such township, and for the assessment, according to the benefits, of from 25 to 50
per cent of the cost thereof on the real estate within 1 mile, or within one-half mile,
on either side or terminus of such road or part thereof.

The funds derived from the registration and licensing of motor vehicles is applied
to the maintenance and repair of the intercounty highways and the main market
roads of the State.

Authority is granted for the working of State prisoners on the intercounty highways
and main market roads. They may be worked also on the county roads, and county
and municipal convicts may be worked upon the public roads and streets.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 Ohio had 86,354 miles of public road, of which 30,569.17 miles
or 35.16 per cent were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads 12,903.87 miles were macadam,
1,066.29 bituminous macadam, 15,385.93 gravel, 640.41 brick, 315.67 concrete, 211
sand-clay, and 46 miscellaneous. In addition, there were reported 15,280 miles of
graded and drained earth roads. At the close of 1909 Ohio had. according to reports

44 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

received, 88,861 miles of public road, of which 24,106 miles or 27.13 per cent were
surfaced, an increase in surfaced road mileage in the five-year period of 6,463.17 miles.
Detailed information on this subject is presented in Table 23.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $14,334,245.98,
of which $5,266,081.98 was derived. from the general county and township tax;
$796,476.72 from the State-aid fund disbursed to counties; $1,072,413.95 expended
by State highway department in addition to disbursements to counties; $6,384,355.74
expended from county and township bond issues; and $814,917.59 from other sources.
The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted to $5,706,083.61,
an increase in the 10-year period of $8,628,162.37, or 151.2 per cent. Detailed infor-
mation on this subject is presented in Table 46.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds outstanding in 1914 amounted to $31,175,968.53.
These were county and township bonds. There was expended from county and
township bonds in 1914, $6,384,355.74; there was retired $2,684,593.81. In the
same year $8,702,303.46 was voted and $8,593,303.46 sold. Detailed information on
this subject is presented in Table 65.

; OREGON. ‘

Oregon has a land area of 95,607 square miles and a total road mileage of 36,819,
of which 4,726.4 miles, or 12.81 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

There is a State highway commission composed of the governor, as chairman, the
secretary of state and the State treasurer. Until 1915 the commission appointed a
State highway engineer. In that year the legislature abolished that office, creating the
elective one of State engineer, who supervises and directs all State road work, advises
and assists the county courts when so requested in all road and bridge matters, and
selects trunk or State roads leading to the chief market centers, and so far as possible
connecting with the principal county roads of the State, to be submitted to the State
highway commission as a suggested system to be improved at State expense. The
State highway commission appoints a chief deputy to the State engineer, to have
immediate charge of highway work. A State tax of one-fourth of a mill is levied on
all property in the State and the proceeds constitute the State road fund, which is
expended under the direction of the State highway commission.

The county court has jurisdiction over all county road matters, divides the county
into suitable and convenient road districts annually, and appoints a road supervisor
for each. The county surveyor, who is elected, surveys and lays out roads under the
direction of the county court. A board of viewers recommends action on such roads
to the court. A county road master, who has general supervision of all road matters
under the direction of the county court, may be appointed each year by the court.

A tax of not to exceed 10 mills on the dollar on all taxable property in the county,
the proceeds of which shall be set aside as a general road fund to be used in the
improvement and construction of county roads or bridges on county roads, may be
levied by the county court. Seventy-five per cent of the funds thus derived are
apportioned to the several road districts in the county in proportion to the taxable
valuation of each district. The resident taxpayers of any road district in a county
may vote an additional tax for road purposes. District road meetings legally called
have power to determine what, if any, county roads or portions thereof in the road
district are to be improved in any special manner and to levy a special tax of not to
exceed 10 mills on the dollar on all taxable property in the district to pay for them.
Improvements so made are under the control of the county court.

1 Tn collecting the information for Oregon, assistance was rendered by G. Ed Ross, collaborator of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture.

;

’ ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 45

‘Bonds may be issued by any county for road construction when authorized by the
favorable vote of a majority of those voting at an election thereon. Such bonds are
limited in amount not to exceed 2 per cent of the assessed valuation of the county.

The net proceeds from the licensing and registration of motor vehicles is returned
to the several counties in proportion to the amount collected in each county and
applied to road purposes.

Both State and county convicts may be used on the public roads.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 Oregon had a total of 36,819 miles of public roads, of which
4,716.40 miles, or 12.81 per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads 1,000.72 miles
were macadam, 137.25 miles bituminous macadam, 3,060.15 miles gravel, 179.50 plank,
300 sand-clay, 28.41 concrete, 10 volcanic cinders, and 0.37 wood block. There were
also reported 4,718.75 miles of graded and drained earth road. The total of all public
roads in 1909 was 29,475 miles, of which 2,799.25 miles, or 9.49 per cent, were surfaced,
an increase in surfaced mileage in the five-year period of 1,917.85 miles. Detailed
information regarding road mileage for 1914 is presented by counties in Table 24.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $5,310,466.76.
Of this $3,259,245.59 was derived from the general county tax, $679,832.92 from other
sources, $1,122,817.65 was expended from county bond issue funds, $238,570.60 was
obtained from the State road tax, and $10,000 was appropriated by the State for salary,
office and field expenses of the State engineer. Of the amount obtained from other
sources $59,761.18 was derived from motor license fees and applied to county roads.
The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted to $796,375.97, an
increase for the 10-year period of $4,514,090. 79, or 566.84 per cent. Detailed infor-
mation on this subject is presented by counties in Table 47.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total county road and bridge bonds outstanding January 1, 1915, amounted to
$1,615,000, of which $1,122,817.65 was expended in 1914. In thesame year $1,365,000
was voted and sold. No State road bonds have been issued. Information regarding
road and bridge bonds is presented by counties in Table 66.

SOUTH DAKOTA.!

South Dakota has a land area of 76,868 aquare miles, and a total road mileage of
96,306, of which 363 miles, or 0.37 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

There is a State highway commission composed of three members, one from each
congressional district, appointed by the governor. The work of the commission is
of an advisory nature. Any county board may designate:any established road or
specified portion in its county as a State road, subject to the approval of the commis-
sion, and may construct or improve it in accordance with the regulations of the
commission.

Each organized county of the State has a board of county commissioners. In
counties not formed into townships, the board of county commissioners is required
to divide the county annually into one or more road districts and appoint a road
supervisor for each district. Each road supervisor has charge of highway and bridge
work in his district, subject to the supervision and direction of the county commis-
sioners.

Every road located by State or county authorities is a county road. The county
commissioners have general supervision of county roads and have power to appro-

‘1In collecting the information for South Dakota, assistance was rendered by Homer M. Derr, State
engineer, and collaborator of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

46 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

priate such sums from the county treasury as they think advisable for improving
them; but these appropriations shall not be greater in any one year than the ratio of
$1,000 to each $500,000 of assessed valuation of real estate in the county. Additional
sums may be appropriated to assist in building bridges and for opening and repairing
county roads when authorized by the people. The towns through which any county
road passes are required to keep the road in repair.

In counties having township organization one supervisor is elected each year at
the annual town meeting. The supervisors constitute the board of supervisors and
have charge of the roads and bridges in the townships. They divide their respective
townships into as many road districts as they may deem convenient and appoint a
road overseer for each district.

On petition of 5 per cent of the resident freeholders of any township, the question
of abolishing the highway labor tax and the requirements relating thereto may be
submitted to a vote. A majority of those voting shall determine such election. If
the highway labor tax is abolished, all road taxes, poll and property, must be paid
in cash. A township may, by like proceedings, return to the labor system.

All road taxes collected as personal taxes from residents of any incorporated city or
town, and all road taxes collected on real or personal property in such city or town, ,
shall be paid to the treasurer and be used in improving its streets or bridges, or roads
leading thereto.

Whenever one-third of the resident taxpayers of any county petition the board of
county commissioners for an appropriation to build a bridge across any navigable
river on the line of said county, the board publishes a notice and holds a hearing.
It may thereupon appropriate not to exceed one-half of the cost of the bridge.

The proceeds derived from the national forests in the State are apportioned to the
counties in which national forests are located in proportion to the area of the forests
in each county, and 50 per cent of the amount so apportioned is applied to road
purposes.

The county board of commissioners may submit to a general or special election
the question of raising a sum greater in amount than can be raised by the annual tax
levy authorized for constructing any road or bridge. A favorable vote of a majority
of the voters of the county is required to authorize such levy, which shall not exceed
1 mill on the dollar of assessed valuation.

The county commissioners annually levy, in addition to the road taxes levied by
the several townships, a road tax of not to exceed 5 mills on the dollar, and, if au-
thorized by a majority of the electors of the county, such levy may be not to exceed10
mills; but in 1915 a law was passed changing the levy not to exceed 2 mills, and not
to exceed 5 mills when authorized by a majority of the electors of the county. The
county commissioners may levy in unorganized townships in their respective counties
not to exceed 8 mills on each dollar of assessed valuation, the proceeds to be ex-
pended within the unorganized district.

Upon petition of two-thirds of the residents of a county owning two-thirds of the acre-
age abutting on any earth road, the county commissioners may improve the road by
macadamizing, oiling, or graveling. The cost is assessed on the abutting lands to
the extent of the benefits accruing to such lands, and the balance of the cost is paid
by the county. Where such work is done, the county commissioners are authorized
to employ the county surveyor or a competent engineer to do the necessary survey-
ing and prepare plans, specifications, and estimates.

The county commissioners levy yearly for county roads not exceeding 2 mills on
the dollar on all property, not including that within the limits of any organized town-
ship or of any organized city or town. For county bridges the levy does not exceed
14 mills, except that in counties where only part of the county is organized into civil
townships the levy shall not be greater than 14 mills in the organized townships.
Also, in all counties not wholly organized into civil townships, the county commis-

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 47

sioners shall levy on each male between 21 and 50 years of age not exempt by law a
road poll tax of $1.50, which may be paid in cash or by one day’s labor.
. Of the fees received for licensing and registering motor vehicles 85 per cent are
placed in the county motor-vehicle fund to be expended for highway and culvert
purposes outside the limits of cities and towns.
_ The electors of each township, at the annual March town meeting, vote to raise
such sums for constructing bridges and for highway labor and road taxes as they may
deem expedient and the township supervisors must levy the taxes so authorized;
but such road tax shall not exceed 50 cents on each $100 of assessed valuation. There
may be assessed annually against each male, not exempt by law, between 21 and 50
years of age a road poll tax of $1.50 or one day’s labor. Any road tax levied by the
beard of county commissioners in addition to the poll tax may be worked out at $1.50
a day in the road district in which the person assessed resides, if a personal tax or a
tax on personal property, and in the road district where the real property is situated
if a tax on real property. Township taxes, poll and property, are payable in cash,
unless a majority of the electors at a town meeting vote that such taxes may be paid
in labor.

When a petition is presented to the board of supervisors of any organized town,
signed by two-thirds of the legal voters thereof, praying for a certain amount of money
to be raised for the construction of any road or roads, ditch or ditches, or similar work,
the supervisors issue and sell bonds for the amount specified, but not in excess of 5
per cent of the taxable valuation of the town nor in any case more than $5,000.

Provision is made for working county convicts on the public roads.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 South Dakota had, according to the reports received, 96,306
miles of public road, of which 363 miles, or 0.37 per cent, were surfaced. Of the sur-
faced roads 212 miles were gravel, 129 sand-clay, 10 bituminous macadam, and 12
surfaced with other materials. There were reported also 17,071.5 miles of graded and
drained earth road.

In 1909 South Dakota reported 56,354 miles of public road, of which 286 miles, or
_ 0.5 per cent, were surfaced, a gain in surfaced roads of 77 miles. Information regard-

ing road mileage is presented by counties in Table 25.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue from all sources applied to roads and bridges in 1914 by the
various counties and townships in South Dakota amounted to $1,217,809.42. This
does not include Clark, Edmunds, and Haakon Counties, from which it was impossible
to obtain information. The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1904
amounted to $383,283.07, a gain for the 10-year period of $834,526.35, or 217.73 per
cent. Information in regard to revenue applied to roads and bridges in the year 1914
is presented by counties in Table 48.

No State, county or township road and bridge bonds are outstanding at present in
South Dakota.

UTAH.!

Utah has a land area of 82,184 square miles and a total road mileage of 8,810, of which
1,153.75, or 13.09 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

The State road commission consists of the governor, the State engineer, the State
treasurer, one member of the faculty of the agricultural college of Utah and one mem-
ber of the faculty of the University of Utah, all serving without compensation. The
State road commission designates a system of State roads, has charge of the expendi-
tures of the State road fund, aids the boards of county commissioners by furnishing

1 In collecting the information for Utah, assistance was rendered by E. R. Morgan, State road engineer,
and collaborator of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

48 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

plans, specifications and estimates for culverts and bridges, and road construction
work, tests road materials, conducts experiments, keeps all records, maps, profiles,
and papers, and submits a biennial report to the governor.

On or before June 1 each year the State road commission gives notice to the county
board of commissioners of any county of its intention to engage in State road con-
struction work in that county. Within 30 days the county commissioners notify the
commission whether or not they will comply with the requirements of the notice.
Should they fail to comply with the requirements in the time specified, with further
time of 30 days, the county forfeits its right to its portion of the State road fund for
that year. The State road commission makes all plans, specifications and estimates
for the improvement of any State road, and may have such work done by contract.
County commissioners are required to secure the right of way for any State road located
within their respective counties.

The legislature makes an annual appropriation for the State road fund, which is
made available by law for the construction and maintenance of State roads in each
county in equal proportions, the counties being required to duplicate from one-fourth
to the full amount of their apportionment, depending upon the class of the county-
The net revenues derived from the registration and licensing of motor vehicles is also
applied to the State road fund. The county board of commissioners of each county
is authorized to appropriate funds or to levy a special road tax on all assessable prop-
erty in the county sufficient to duplicate its apportionment of the State road fund,
and in like manner to raise additional funds for the purpose of expediting the construc- -
tion and maintenance of the State roads therein, such additional funds to be expended
under the direction of the State road commission; but the total levy that may thus
be made in any county shall not exceed 5 mills in any one year.

The board of county commissioners has power to lay out, maintain, control, erect
and manage the public roads and bridges within the county, outside of incorporated
cities. The board enacts all laws, ordinances, and regulations not in conflict with
the law of the State, for the control, construction, alteration, repair and use of all
such public roads and highways; grants licenses and franchises for constructing and
keeping in repair roads, bridges and ferries, and for the taking of tolls thereon.

The county commissioners are authorized to appoint biennially a county road com-
missioner, who has charge of the public roads of the county, submits to the board of
county commissioners plans, specifications, and estimates for the improvement of
county roads within the county and has charge of the execution of such work, and
assists in supervising and constructing State roads urider the direction of the State
road commission. He also is required to keep free from obstructions and in good repair
all public roads in the county and to collect the road poll tax.

In 1909 a law was passed to establish a standard system of construction of public
highways.. Under it there was adopted and designed a profile of cross sections for
4-rod, 5-rod, 6-rod, 7-rod and 8-rod highways to be observed and conformed to in all
work upon public roads in the State. Where physical conditions would not permit
such construction, the State engineer was required to prepare plans and specifications
to meet the conditions.

The county board of commissioners may divide the county into special road dis-
tricts for the purpose of graveling, macadamizing or paving any State or county road.
The cost of such work is assessed at so much per acre, or fraction thereof, upon the lots
and lands abutting upon the roads improved, but the assessment shall not be made
until notice shall have been given, and, if desired, opportunity for hearing granted.

A road poll tax of $2 is assessed annually upon each man over 21 and under 50 years
of age, not physically incapacitated or exempt by law. The funds thus derived are
expended by the county board of commissioners in the improvement of the roads of
the county. The road poll tax may be collected in incorporated cities or towns and
expended on their roads and streets. ,

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 49

The county board of commissioners of each county is authorized to levy taxes upon
the taxable property of the county for all county purposes within the limitations
prescribed by statute, and upon the taxable property within any district for the con-
struction of roads and highways and for other purposes, but no such district tax shall
be levied except upon a favorable vote at an election in which a majority of the
qualified electors of the district who paid a property tax the next preceding year vote.

Where the streets of any city are or may become a part of the system of State roads,
such city may levy a special tax of not to exceed 2 mills, to be expended in connection
with the State road fund under the direction of the State road commission.

County boards of commissioners may contract bonded indebtedness after submitting
the proposition at a general or special election. Four weeks’ notice of such election
must be given, and the favorable vote of a majority of those voting is required. No
county, however, shall becomeindebted in an amount, including existing indebted-
ness, exceeding 2 per cent of the value of the taxable property therein.

Prisoners in the county jail may be required to work on the county roads, and con-
victs in the State prison may be required to work on State roads.

ROAD MILEAGE.

According to the reports received, Utah had at the close of 1914 a total of 8,810
miles of public road, of which 1,153.75 miles, or 13.09 per cent, were surfaced. Ofthe
surfaced roads, 685.75 miles were gravel, 401 miles sand-clay, 49 miles macadam, 15,5
miles bituminous macadam, and 2.5 miles concrete. Reports also showed 2,403.11
miles of graded and drained earth roads. In 1909 Utah had 8,320 miles of road, of
which 1,018 miles; or 12.23 per cent, were reported as surfaced, an increase in surfaced
mileage in the five-year period of 135.75 miles. Detailed information regarding road
mileage in 1914 is given in Table 26.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $803,070.63, of which
$263,561.23 was derived from the general county tax, $374,878.13 from general county
funds, poll taxes, and other sources, $157,732 from State appropriations, and
$6,899.27 from county bond-issue funds. This does not include the revenue applied
to roads and bridges in Carbon and Utah counties, from which it was impossible to
obtain reports. The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted
to $218,675.78, an increase for the 10-year period of $584,394.85, or 267.24 per cent.
Information regarding revenue applied to roads in 1914 is presented by counties in
Table 49.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total road and bridge bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915, amounted to
$541,500, of which $281,500 were county bonds and $260,000 State bonds. In 1914
there was expended from county bond issues $6,899.27, and there was voted and sold
$10,500. The State bonds were issued in 1911. They bear 4 per cent interest and
are to be paid off by the deferred serial method between 1922 and 1934. Detailed
information regarding county bond issues is presented in Table 67.

WASHINGTON.!

Washington has a land area of 66,836 square miles, and a total road mileage of 42,428
of which 4,922.09 miles, or 11.61 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

There is a State highway commissioner, appointed by the governor for a term of
four years. There also is a State highway board, composed of the governor, the State
highway commissioner, the State auditor, the State treasurer, and a member of the

1 The information for Washington was collected under the direction of this office by W. R. Roy, State
highway commissioner, and collaborator of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

72690°—Bull. 389 —17——4

50 BULLETIN 389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

‘public service commission, appointed by the governor. The construction and main-
tenance of State highways is under the jurisdiction of the State highway board, of
which the State highway commissioner is secretary and executive officer. The State
highway commissioner may employ such engineering and other assistants as may be
necessary in the prosecution of State road work and in the performance of other duties
imposed by law upon his office. He is required to advise local road officials in all
road and bridge matters.

State highways are divided into two classes: Primary and secondary, in the order
of their importance. The general route of these roads is established by the legislature,
which also makes specific appropriations for their improvement from the funds derived
from taxes. Primary roads are constructed and maintained by the State, while sec-
ondary roads are constructed by the State and maintained by the counties.

Permanent highways are defined to mean improved public roads constructed
along a main line of travel, either beginning at some trade center or an extension of
an existing road beginning at some trade center. The individual owners of two-
thirds of the linear feet of land fronting on any public highway or section thereof may
petition the board of county commissioners for the improvement of the road. After
submission by the board of county commissioners of a resolution for the improvement
the State highway commissioner passes upon it, and the county engineer makes
surveys, plans, specifications, and estimates. Fifteen per cent of the cost of the
improvements, or as much more as may be stated in the petition of land owners, is
assessed against the land lying within not less than 660 feet and not more than 3 miles —
on each side of the center line of the highway, which assessment may be discharged
in one payment, or in 10 annual imstallments, and bonds issued in anticipation of
the payment. A State tax of 14 mills on the dollar is levied, and the proceeds credited
to the permanent highway fund, which is used for the construction and maintenance
of permanent highways in the several counties in proportion to the amount of such
fund collected in each county.

The boards of county commissioners of the several counties have general super-
vision over the roads in their respective counties. They divide the county, or any
part thereof, into suitable and convenient road districts, and appoint a road supervisor
for each district. Hach county commissioner is ex officio road commissioner on the
several road districts in his commissioner district, and must see that all orders of the
board of county commissioners with reference to roads in his district are carried out.
The road supervisor, under the direction of the board of county commissioners, is
required to keep all roads and bridges of his district free from obstructions and in as
good repair as the available funds will permit.

The county engineer is elected for a term of two years, and is required to be a com-
petent civil engineer and surveyor. He makes surveys and prepares plans, specifi-
cations and estimates of all roads ordered to be improved, and recommends to the
board of county commissioners road and bridge improvements to be made, together
with the estimated cost.

On petition of the owners of two-thirds of the linear feet frontage on any county
road, the county board of commissioners may cause such road to be improved and
assess the cost on the lands especially benefited thereby.

A State tax of 1 mill is levied annually, and the proceeds placed in the public
highway fund. Of the taxes so levied and collected, 74 per cent are set aside an-
nually by the State treasurer to be used exclusively under the direction of the State
highway commissioner for the repair and maintenance of roads already established
and constructed.

All net proceeds from the licensing and registration of motor vehicles are credited
to the permanent highway fund and distributed to the several counties in proportion
to the amounts paid by each into said fund, to be used for the maintenance and repair
of permanent highways. ;

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 51

For the purpose of raising revenue for the construction, maintenance, and repair
of county roads, bridges, and wharves, the board of county commissioners annually
levies a tax of not to exceed 4 mills on all taxable property in the county, the proceeds
going into the general road and bridge fund. There also is levied a tax of not to
exceed 10 mills on the taxable property in each road district to constitute a district
road fund.

County boards of commissioners may issue bonds for road purposes in an amount
not to exceed 5 per cent of the taxable valuation of all property in their respective
counties, when authorized by a three-fifths vote of those voting at an election thereon.

County and State convicts may be worked upon the public highways, and State
convicts may also be worked in the preparation of road material. The legislature
makes appropriations to defray the expenses of equipping and operating quarries for
the purpose of preparing road materials by convict labor.

ROAD MILEAGE.

Washington had, at the close of 1914, 42,428 miles of public roads, of which 4,922.09
miles, or 11.61 per cent, were surfaced. Of the surfaced roads 502.82 miles were
macadam, 165.52 miles bituminous macadam, 3,924.48 miles gravel, 83.50 miles sand-
clay, 26.35 miles brick, 79.42 miles concrete, and 140 miles surfaced with other ma-
terials. There were also reported 9,450.76 miles of graded and drained earth road.

The total of public roads reported for 1909 was 34,284 miles, of which 4,520.68 miles,
or 13.19 per cent, were surfaced, an increase in surfaced roads of 401.41 miles. Infor-
mation regarding the total and surfaced mileage of roads in each county for the year
1914 is shown in Table 27.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads in 1914 amounted to $7,944,717.38. Of this
$7,128,934.47 was derived from the general tax for State, county, township, and district
roads, $509,146.50 from county and district road bonds, $261,636.41 from other sources,
and $45,000 from State appropriations for the maintenance of the State highway depart-.
ment. The above items do not include expenditures for the maintenance of State
quarries for which the legislature in 1913 appropriated a revolving fund of $200,000.
Receipts from the licensing and registration of automobiles were not applied to roads
in 1914.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted to $1,436,070.19,
an increase for the 10-year period of $6,508,647.19, or 453.22 per cent. The amounts
received from general taxation for State, county, and township roads and bridges, and
other revenue applied to this purpose in 1914 are shown by counties in Table 50.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total county and district road and bridge bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915,
amounted to $1,555,000, of which $509,146.50 was expended in 1914. In that year
there was voted $133,274.27 and $35,000 of road and bridge bonds sold. No State
road bonds have been issued, but $190,000 State bonds were issued in 1911 for the
construction of a bridge across the Columbia River at Wenatchee. Information
regarding road and bridge bonds is shown by counties in Table 68.

WISCONSIN.!

Wisconsin has a land area of 55,256 square miles, and a total road mileage of 75,707
of which 13,399.47 miles, or 17.6 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

There is a State highway commission which consists, ex officio, of the State geologist
and the dean of the engineering college of the State university, and of three other

1 The information for Wisconsin was collected under the direction of this office by A. R. Hirst, State
highway engineer, and collaborator of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture.

52 BULLETIN 389, J. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

members appointed by the governor for six years each. The commission has charge
of all matters pertaining to the expenditure of State funds in the improvement of
public roads and bridges, advises towns, villages, and counties in the construction of
roads or bridges, makes regulations for surveying, planning, constructing, and inspect-
ing all roads constructed under the State-aid law, which regulations must be observed
by counties in order to render them eligible to receive State aid, reviews the prospec-
tive State highways selected by the county boards and may alter them to make the
systems of adjoining counties connect into continuous and direct routes, and, on
request of the county board of any county, takes direct charge of the construction and
maintenance of State-aid roads and bridges in such county.

The county board of each county not having already done so is required to select
a system of prospective county highways to be known as the county system of pros-
pective State highways and to embrace, at first, not to exceed 15 per cent of the road
mileage of the county and include the main-traveled roads leading into each town in
the county. The county and towns together pay not less than 662 per cent of the cost
of improvement and the State pays the balance. If the county system of prospective
State highways is constructed by the county and State alone, the county pays 60 per
cent and the State 40 per cent of the cost.

All State highways shall be maintained at the expense of the county in which they
are located, except that such portions as pass through or lie within incorporated vil-
lages shall be maintained by such villages. The legislature appropriates funds for
the support of the State highway commission and for State aid, and requires such State ~
tax to be levied as is necessary to raise the sums appropriated. The appropriation for
State aid is apportioned among the counties of the State in proportion to the ratio
* which the assessed valuation of each county bears to the total assessed valuation of .
the State and is used for the purpose of improving the county system of prospective
State highways.

By an act passed in 1915, there is appointed by the railroad commission of Wisconsin,
subject to approval by the governor, a State chief engineer who is required to have a
general knowledge of the subject and profession of engineering and may be removed
by the governor for cause after hearing. The chief engineer has charge of and super-
vision over all engineering or architectural work performed by or for the State or by
or for any of the departments, boards, or commissions of the State, and is required
to furnish engineering and architectural services to any branch or department of the
State government upon request.

Each county board annually elects a committee of not less than three nor more than
five members, to be known as the county State road and bridge committee. Such
committee is authorized to purchase and sell county-road machinery, as authorized
by the county board, to determine whether each piece of State road and bridge con-
struction in the county shall be let by contract or done by day labor and to enter into
such contracts, to direct the expenditure of all maintenance funds, to audit all claims
in connection with the construction of State-aid roads and bridges, to assist in the
letting and to approve all contracts for county-aid bridges costing over $500.

The county board of each county selects a county highway commissioner, who must
pass examination by the State highway commission. The county highway commis-
sioner has charge, under the direction of the county committee, of the’ construction of
all highways built with State or county aid and of the maintenance of all State high-
ways. Heis required to make an annual report to the State highway commission and
to the county board.

Whenever any highway, road or street passes through or connects two or more towns,
cities, villages or parts thereof, the county board may adopt the same as a trunk road
for the purpose of improving it. In order to improve such road an assessment district
may be formed which may include property not abutting upon such highway, road,
or street, but tributary thereto and benefited thereby. One-third of the cost of im-

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 53

proving such highway, road or street may be assessed against the property in such
assessment district in proportion to the benefits accruing.

The annual town meeting in each town elects three supervisors, who constitute the
town board of supervisors and have the care and supervision of all highways therein,
except as otherwise provided by law. The town board divides the town into districts
and appoints a superintendent of highways for each district. The superintendent of
highways, under the direction of the town board, has charge of the construction and
repair of highways and bridges in the town.

The annual town meeting determines by vote if highway taxes shall be paid in
money or in labor. Unless the town has voted in favor of paying the highway taxes
in labor, it may direct that the money derived from such taxes be expended under the
direction of the town board, or by three highway commissioners to be elected for that
purpose. The supervisors of each town in which the highway taxes are payable in
labor may appoint a suitable person to oversee and direct the road work and exercise
supervision over all superintendents of highways therein.

The county board shall levy each year a tax of not over 2 mills on all taxable property
in the county to maintain the county road and bridge fund, which tax shall be in addi-
tion to all other highway taxes, and the proceeds shall be'‘expended in building the
prospective system of State highways. The county board may raise money for the
original improvement of any portion or portions of the system of prospective State
highways by issuing bonds of the county in such amount, including existing indebted-
ness, as will not exceed the constitutional limit; provided that the amount of bonds
that may be issued shall not exceed one-fifth of 1 per cent of the total assessed valuation
of the county, unless authorized by a majority of the electors voting at an election
thereon.

The qualified electors of each town have power at any annual town meeting to raise
money for the construction and repair of roads and bridges and for other charges and

‘expenses of the town, but the total taxes levied in any town for any one year for all
town purposes, exclusive of schools, shall not exceed 1 per cent of the total assessed
valuation of such town, unless a larger sum is needed for building and repairing high-
ways and bridges, in which case the electors may vote and the proper authorities may
levy not to exceed one-fourth of 1 per cent in addition to the 1 per cent.

When the amount of highway taxes assessed by the supervisors shall be deemed
insufficient to keep the highways in repair, it shall be lawful for them, upon written
application of the superintendents of highways, to assess an additional tax of not to
exceed 7 mills on each dollar of the assessed valuation of the town. The supervisors
may also levy a tax on all taxable property in the town for the purpose of opening or
repairing highways, but such tax shall not exceed $600 in any year.

Highway taxes of not less than 1 nor more than 7 mills on the dollar shall be levied on
the real and personal property of each superintendent district, provided that there
may be levied any additional amount which may be authorized by the last preceding
annual town meeting, not exceeding 10 mills in all.

Every able-bodied male between 21 and 50 years of age, not exempt by law, may te
assessed by the town board of supervisors to pay a road poll tax of $1.50.

Every superintendent of highways shall call out as many taxpayers as may be neces-
sary to clear highways blocked by snow, and the taxpayers shall be credited against
highway taxes for the work so performed. If taxpayers perform labor exceeding in
value the highway taxes assessed against them for the year they are compensated for
their work.

The town board, upon favorable vote at the annual town meeting, designates roads
to be known as ‘‘drag roads,’’ divides them into sections, and appoints a dragman for
each section. The board levies a tax of not exceeding 1 mill to pay forsuch dragging.

Owners of land abutting on any prospective State highway or section thereof, 1 mile
or more in length and extending back on either side one-fourth of a mile or less, who

54 BULLETIN 389, J. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

desire that such highway or section thereof be improved, may, as an inducement,
provide for paying part of the town’s portion of the cost by agreeing to have such land
specially served taxed for not exceeding five years at a rate not to exceed $10 for each
80 rods of the respective frontages. If the improvements are made special bonds may
be issued for the amount of the assessments on the lands and shall be a tax lien on all the
lands.

Of the net proceeds from registering and licensing motor vehicles, 25 per cent is
applied to the State highway fund and 75 per cent to county-road work.

County bonds to aid the county road and bridge fund may be issuéd to an amount,
including existing indebtedness, not exceeding 1 per cent. of the total assessed valua-
tion of the county.

Any town, if a majority of the electors thereof shall so authorize at an election
thereon, may issue bonds in any amount not exceeding the constitutional limit for the
original improvement of any portion or portions of the system of the prospective State
highways. :

State convicts may be worked on the public highways and county convicts may be
worked in preparing road materials.

ROAD MILEAGE.

According to reports received, Wisconsin had, at the close of 1914, 75,707 miles of
public road, of which 13,399.47 miles, or 17.6 per cent were surfaced. Of the sur-
faced roads 9,597 miles were gravel, 2,054 miles sand-clay, 1,408 miles macadam, 183
miles bituminous macadam, 83.07 miles concrete, 2.4 miles brick, and 72 miles were
surfaced with other materials. Wisconsin also reported 30,927 miles of graded and
drained earth roads. In 1909 Wisconsin reported 61,090 miles of public road, of which
10,167.33, or 16.64 per cent, were surfaced, an increase from 1909 to 1914 of 3,232.14
miles of surfaced road. Detailed information regarding road mileage is presented by
counties in Table 28.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $9,880,240.50, of
which $7,882,838 was received from general county and township taxes; $1,454,704
from the general State tax apportioned to counties; $95,497.50 was the cash value of
the poll and labor taxes; $87,000 was appropriated from the general State funds for
administration and engineering work done by the State highway commission; $320,000
was received from local funds left over from 1913, and $40,201 was expended from
local bond issue funds. In 1904 there was expended on roads and bridges $2,181,262.38
an increase for the 10-year period of $7,698,978.12, or 352.26 per cent. Information
showing receipts from taxation for road and bridge purposes during the year 1914 is

presented in Table 51.
ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

The total county and township road bonds outstanding on January 1, 1915, amounted
to $281,078, of which $21,500 was voted and sold in 1914. Bonds amounting to $16,050
were retired, and there was expended from bond funds $40,201. No State bonds have
been issued for road and bridge purposes. Information regarding local bond issues
is presented in Table 69.

WYOMING.!

Wyoming has a land area of 97,594 square miles, and a total road mileage of 14,797,
of which 468.50 miles, or 3.1 per cent, were surfaced at the close of 1914.

By certain acts the legislature designated and established a State system of public
highways to be constructed, repaired and maintained by the labor of convicts in

1 Tn collecting the information for Wyoming assistance was rendered by C. D. Shawver, deputy State
engineer and collaborator of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

ROAD MILEAGE, CENTRAL AND WESTERN STATES. 55

the State penitentiary, under the State commission on prison labor. It was made
the duty of the commission ‘to use all such convicts as it might deem practicable for
that purpose. The work was to be done under the supervision of competent persons
selected by the commission. The roads constituting the State system of public high-
ways were to be located and surveyed under the direction of the State engineer,
appointed by the governor. It also was made the duty of the State engineer to cause
plans and specifications for their construction, repair and maintenance to be pre-
pared, to select the materials of which such roads should be constructed, and to fur-
nish a deputy engineer, whose salary and legitimate expenses should be paid by the
respective counties in which work might be done. The State engineer certifies to the
State commission on prison labor each month the expense rendered and incurred in
respect to said highways during the preceding month in each county through which the
same may pass, and the boards of county commissioners pay to the State engineer the
amount due for the work done in their respective counties out of the road fund or
general fund of the county. Boards of county commissioners secure the right of way
for such highways and construct necessary bridges, in accordance with the plans of the
State engineer; provided that, as far as practicable, bridges across small streams shall
be constructed by the use of convict labor. ‘

The board of county commissioners of each county is vested with power and juris-
diction over the laying out, alteration or discontinuance of public highways therein.
The boards also have jurisdiction over the granting of licenses for keeping ferries,
toll bridges, and toll gates. The boards divide their respective counties into road
districts and when the county is so divided a district road supervisor is elected for
each district. Ifthe county be not divided into road districts a county road supervisor
is elected.

Bridges between counties may be constructed by the counties interested, each
county to pay one-half, or other pro rata share, of the cost. If such cost will burden
the road and bridge fund unreasonably, or if it will exceed $5,000, the board of county
commissioners may cause a portion to be paid out of theroad and bridge fund of the
county and may levy a special tax, not exceeding 2 mills on each dollar of taxable
property in the county, to raise the balance.

An inheritance tax is provided, the proceeds of which in each county are to be
expended for the permanent improvement of the county roads outside the limits of
incorporated cities and villages. The county boards are authorized to levy a tax of
not to exceed 3 mills on each dollar of taxable property in the county, the proceeds
of which constitute a general county road fund. At the time of making the annual
levies for county purposes the county board may levy upon each able-bodied man
between 21 and 50 years of age, not exempt by law, a special poll or road tax of $2,
which may be paid in cash or by one day’s labor on the roads. If the funds thus
derived be insufficient for the work in any road district, the county board may appro-
priate necessary additional funds from the general road fund. The proceeds of the
special poll or road tax, collected from persons residing within incorporated cities or
towns of the State, are paid into the treasury of such cities or towns.

The net proceeds from the registration and licensing of motor vehicles is paid to the
county from which collected, to be expended for the temporary improvement of the
county roads outside of the limits of incorporated towns or cities.

The county boards of commissioners are authorized to work prisoners confined in
any county jail upon the public highways of the county.

ROAD MILEAGE.

At the close of 1914 Wyoming had, according to reports received, a total of 14,381
miles of public road, of which 52.5 miles, or 0.36 per cent, were surfaced with gravel.
There were also reported 1,672 miles of graded and drained earth roads. In the
Yellowstone Park, which is located in the northwest corner of the State, there are 416

56 BULLETIN 389, J. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

miles of Government roads, practically all of which are surfaced with gravel or stone.
If this mileage is included, the total mileage for the State at the close of 1914 amounted
to 14,797, of which 468.5 miles, or 3.1 per cent, were surfaced. In 1909 Wyoming had
10,569 miles of road, of which only 416 miles in the Yellowstone were surfaced, thus
indicating a gain in surfaced mileage during the five-year period of 52.5 miles. De-
tailed information regarding road mileage for 1914 is given in Table 29.

REVENUES APPLIED TO ROADS AND BRIDGES.

The total revenue applied to roads and bridges in 1914 amounted to $669,661.16, of
which $423,215.31 was derived from county funds, $6,237 from a State appropriation
for the equipment of State convict road camps, and $240,208.85 from United States
Government appropriations for repair and betterment of roads in the Yellowstone
National Park. The latter sum was expended under the direction of the Corps of
Engineers of the United States Army. The county revenues were obtained princi-
pally from general county funds, automobile licenses, and poll taxes. The total
amount applied to roads and bridges in 1904 amounted to $345,931.73, an increase for
the 10-year period of $323,729.43, or 93.58 per cent. Information regarding revenue
applied to roads and bridges during 1914 is presented in Table 52.

No county or State bonds have been issued in Wyoming for road and bridge purposes.

APPENDIX A.

The following are the tables referred to in the foregoing text giving information as

to road mileage in the States discussed.

ARIZONA.

TaBLE 7.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

Surfaced roads.
Total Per- | Increase | Gtaded
County. | milexe | pitum. paee teen een (in| ate
roads. | Mac- | nous | grave,|S20d-) sur | sur- | 2800) surfaced | orth
adam. | mac clay. Faced ltaoad roads | mileage ‘
adam roads. | roads sur- over
faced 1909.

Apache.......-- Bt Ort eo Hea Fe pees 20 SOs ouciee ss 50 Te SDS a eae ee 100
Cochise. .......- TIMEX UNY [a emnae 3.5 Pg (eee Aas 7.5 .43 | — 14.5 58
Coconino.......- Ae Re eek bea Be booodes 40) sees 150] 90 5.82 83 295
Calan eS DAGID MSE sce slecescc ss 6.5) [5s aa Pees oes 6.5 1.18 6.5 40
Graham........-. Cae ede 12 pet elt ee in) eee (eg 2) 1s ts St [Ee — 3 23
Greenlee........ AVS A esecosolboeosaoge 40) >) [Sse Se eee 40 20 40 60
Maricopa........ OS OTA Neel (oe Bas ae Ty] a ME 2g | 18 .79 | — 16 1,140
Mohave........-. 550 Wrelescte Savsiacete ce BESO eS al GeO oeie 1 18 1 80
Navajo.......... GOO wii ee esses eases nS ents 505) it a 1 -16| — 11 30

(Pima) hae 1,550 (Gi Ee se aS 14.2 [2 ee eee» 14.93 96 14.93 23.96
Bites gee ie BOOP Nereisvec eal wistaers eles fcisierccciny eyecare | eemrerepere | LRT ra ee ee ae 200
Santa Cruz....-. 200 Ep Eh ae a pemeget ey egy cI Maga 5 2.50 5 11
avapai.......- GET ARISE eS ESM pers Rae iPreea ris Uae eI [cr nie eae pg aw ULE gaia — 20 135
DY AULIT aie ph he 1,319.5 EES Ea ae 7 Ya ne 1 GT See seeeens 19.5 1.47 | —105.5 500

Total. ....| 12,075 23) 13.5 | 125.7 45 58 | 253. 43 2.09 | — 19.57 | 2,695.96

1 Cinders.

CALIFORNIA.

2 1 mile, concrete; 7 miles, oil and caliche (gravel).

TaBLE 8.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

3 Surfaced roads.

a)

Do.

2 : :

County. OR Ze : He

| zg : i) q — c= avg

= & i} g S o Ms am

3 5) = Lo} 3 3

5 g 3 |8 s | =| 6

a 1) 2 |a io) RD is) a
ATamodaseie. a. se: Daa Hooton O2ng|elta33|) 12 lon09| means eee 328. 91
AIDING Sees cose ees PUN esSsaq Bacobd baubles Goecolsc||tacndelébosacea bBaccdece
ona OT ee ne (et Aes S80] HOGES4 CHEE BBR caclcicl jaccooclScaSaonG Boanorese
Ub ia ee eae 1, 200} 12.8 yl (oe 400 ROSA Pees pe 417.8
Calaveras.............-- (i700 Eee peel (ac em ah) lee) eed (As ee
Colusa ee iin eee Tae a Bo eoaael Geaeees LOT Wil eiSesHe sea ale 567
Contra Costa........... SSeS ew O Ml CEN Beeooe ce bk oarollbadonose 335. 4
DeluNortee se ee 110) RES S| Bat CNR PS 05 | eo eta
El Dorado. .......-..--- 900)" Gx Ese 2. Hi EERE one osuoo meseouee 12
PETOSHO Meo ea) Ei ae 3,800) 27 14 5 Neagle ST nce 1,080 1,122
Glenn es ei ae PSUS 2Maonasasee Bt Me) | eooot lEeooress 423
Humboldt............-.- 1,348)...... VW eas eS S1ON | LIOR eases. 435
Imperiale. 3.2 si eo 005. eT AN? he seulleageoa|eassocc 6 Git oee sted 17.7

WiOierersles ule vie tsiuatuieieisielate 8 Lee UME LSI Ly uP Dee Li URI eect Sea eet avai is a2) are Men ereretratans

3
q
3
S3/3% | 2
o|/ 56 G
es| 72 | ge
rola trea | =
24/400 | 8
£8 vor Lo}
of S86 S
a |S Oo
61.75|— 96.09] 84.65
Biaoe OT scape
SANS Tie tong) | eae aa
Aaa — 45 40
48.5 | 265 563
52.78] 185.4 100
PN — 42.5} . 94
1833 | aied 300
29.521 952 1,960
30.92] 285 188
32.27] 20 30
3 17.7 | 345
300

1 Concrete mileage reported by State geologist, balance 1909 figures.

TI APPENDIX.

CALIFORNIA—Continued.

TABLE 8.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914—Con.

c Surfaced roads. z
6 us mo om >) &
© ee =)
Sa : e le8l22 | oe
: ban} Ls! ~
oa as , | 2d | 2 | Bg |g8|S8g| 88
A’) 3 | 8 |as| . |B] & | 28 ladlece
: ty 2 | 0 |aa] a ? 2 <* 1842/2345 | 3
3 S) gS 5 = ue} 3 3 SAS |) eS |b gs!
S g 3 = 8 g = 5 oS gs i) g
a iS) =| [ze id) DR fo} B ae) ie)
Kenmore nsec ce cetine TA0O GIES Co ces- tose se teens Sia] Seeeee 500 561.8 |40.12} 459.8 | 200
Kenge here ees OOOO eas Shee sie eee ee Cae 92 101 20.2 Of Eee eee
TGAkOe yb sheocomeeicicae ae OO ae S ess Salle vote BQ | ra Ce a 50 7.14|—110 150
Wasson see ae UCU pe Ba 2 ea PE Hs A es — 50 700
Los Angeles......------ 3,500} 50.8 |....-- AOD i (iG odes A fll Sad ate 459.8 |13.13)—625. 2 |.._.....
Maderae2 te oe ee ee 1, 250} 17. 34 5 58.1 | 4.64) 28.1] 940
Marry 2 see a S240 ie Fe geen | 1 ea 2 | aU RA Se aes) es el Bee eel WIR Cee
TM VOY OSES TE Tar ON ct [led est IS Se BS eae aG) CSCO Soe es eevee Bis are aE Fee OSE 55| PSO Rocke nan teres aur
Mendocino i 11.7 | 1.46) 11.7 50
Merced .....--- 318, 25/26. 12} 181.25} 600
Modoc. .-... 0 3 — 10 300
Mono.......-. 2 3) eRe Lee sary |S ee ges Lae HO) Le en el SAO Bae a a de abel a
Monterey. - 70.7 | 6.48|— 29.3 | 467
Napanee see : : 459.5 |82. 05 Hay Biges ayae
Nevada........., Rane 25 3.12)— 5 150
Oranges: )20 5-0 452 |73.49) 422 50
Placer. 362.022). 2222822 b ‘ 15.1 | 1.25 8.1 50
Plumas2 10 PBS ccna sosscene
Riversides-ce.- sees. - IP ASN} leocace SAME clevero bere] He 18.3 | 1.06)— 35.7 | 112
Sacramento.........--- 1,636] 29.7 21 82090) LO) | esos 50 173. 37/10. 59} 67.37] 500
San Benito..........--- 468) 4.7 8 6.9 50s 400 ose 209. 6 }44.78/—100.4 | 160
San Bernardino......--| 700) 75 |.....- 50 DOO viento 300 625 |89.28) 625 |........
San Diego........-..--- 5,000) 42.8 |...... PAG ).| ISAACS) ARCSeO EtserorE 45.1] .9 |—404.9 /1, 743
San Joaquin..........-. LS 5O ee eRe oe BA EPs aes es se| eek Sac 384 2.51|\— 3 294
San Luis Obispo. ....--} 1,353] 39.9 |...---|...---]....----|--.--. 3 42.9 | 3.08]|—120.1 | 750
Neen swciaeemicts 120 = |42. 25;—108 134
Santa Barbara. y 61.1] 5.34/— 4.9 23.75
Santa Clara.......-...-- ; 429.1 |63. 57|—396. 9 75
ievowe dewsie's 63 14 12.75} 291
65 3.61/—171 26. 4
5 1.31 5 50

pdotdtod| odeossodl|asdse = 248
1,018.7 |28.15} 953.7 {1,600
20 = 123. 25)— 47 740
34.6 | 6.25/— 65.4 24.5
500 {62.5} 107.5} 200
26.6 | 4.43] 11.6 10

929. 19) 837. 4|877.9 |3, 563. 59|582. 25/3, 489. 40/10, 279. 73/16. 84/1, 691. 98/18, 389. 3

1 Concrete mileage reported by State geologist, balance 1909 figures. 2 Noreport; 1909 mileage.

APPENDIX.

COLORADO.

Tit

TaBLE 9.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

|

Total mile-
County. age of
all roads.

Gravel.

Surfaced roads.

Other

Totals, 39, 779. 97
1 All within city limits.

2 Concrete.

574. 25

450.12} . 169.50

Total of
surfaced
roads.

1, 193. 87

Percent-
age of

~ roads

surfaced.

3 Plain macadam.
4 Concrete, 1.25 miles; plain macadam, 1 mile.

Increase and
in sur- | drained
faced earth.
mileage
over 1909.

873.37 | 12, 104. 85

IV APPENDIX.

IDAHO.

TABLE 10.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

Surfaced roads.
. ote
County. mane Other Percent-
of all Total of
Mac- Sand- | hard sur- age of
roads. adam. Gravel. clay. faced urlaced roads
roads. - | surfaced.

13.5 miles macadam with bitumen; 4.5 miles concrete. 2 Cinders. ’ Bituminous macadam.

APPENDIX.

ILLINOIS.

TABLE 11.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

County.

Total mileage of all
roads.

AdamMs22. 2 =! 3
Alexander...

1,
Livingston. -.| 2,016

Logan.......-

1 Includes all classifications of surfaced roads; 1909 report included stone and gravel only.

cHenry ...-.| 1,002
McLean.....-. 2,115
Macon......-. 41,025
Macoupin 1,451.
Madison.._.--| 1,500
Marion: ...... 1,173
Marshall... .- 604
Mason... 760
Massac......- 411

2 Oiled roads.
3 Cinders.

927.

ro)
3
=
Sie
& iS)
jaa) iS)
2

41909 mileage report.

feo

3 2
si 15
PE rgt5:
Bain lee 16.75

Surfaced roads.1

n 1 Ko} Set a)
2 Shales os) se
ag o3| 3 2] 23
as Z . Cs au Om cas
Bronce RP se) ag |FH/ 78s
E 3 Le @ ‘“o| 6S 192] 207
8 "S ro) HO a of Sos
+5 B = ssl 3 23| 885
oe 3 g | oe ° 55 S86
ea b= S) a oO a a |
Tatas 20 79 65 5 171

515. 62/48. 23 .
308. 93/27. 02/—509. 07
150. 2 |18. 75

80. 32
460.5 |31.58| 303.5
263. 27/49. 76/— 7.73
1.25) .09)— 1.75
336.9 |46.22) 25.5

679.5 |33.67| 166.5
64.62 9.4] 37.62
220. 46/17.56| 68.46

79 3.91 2
22.75) 2.45} 16.75
1.5} .13)— .5
902. 75|90.09| 122. 75

60 2.83)— 56
468 6363) 2= =e
3.5] .24 3.9
36. 75] 2.45|— 9.25
1.5] .12\— .5
162. 75|26.94] 112.75

47 111.431— 2

Graded and drained
earth

VI APPENDIX.

ILLINOIS—Continued.

TaBLE 11.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cites and towns, 1914—Con.

c Surfaced roads.1 3
3 E
2 TG ae Paes
SA Bt 23| 8 2/28 | ve
cours ee ee » (es| Bo |ge|sag| 23
=i g 3 q Y eo |g a3 |s 5/57 J m
a j x a g S o 7 ae LS g a ay w &
3 CU IESE) E Bes 8 Mes ie gee ia
io) or Lal an iS) o sae
= conan aco s G wa) 1) ves ae | 9 iS)
Menard...... Alte Eco ae CORT SG ABS aencschs| SS acres mln eens iss 0.5 | 0.12 (Gy Borsecees
Mercer....-.- (i's TG ba seat cl Clee ra) MAIR ape eee earring hy A Nene 55 7) as 493
Monroe....--. Paes XU Ts scope eset | Rea BYP Seo Sone Sta) hil are 121 {22.83} 100 409
Montgomery -| 1,250) 2.222 2|-2-.2-|------ DROS tale see ee Qe OMe 28 — ee ON eeeeeeee
Morgan.....- 1,001.33). ..--- 1 Baya 31 He Ua] eS || en eee an ei 16.33] 1.63] 16.33) 489
Moultrie... .. Gfe2 OLS enecolsseoas 1 SON ee sos 121 ysee 122.5 17.92) 122.5 558
Ogle... 2... +. 1,337 DENN ie 4 175 Coedaleeaceses a6ee 257. 75/19. 27) 62.75) 711
Peoria........| 1,188.85}...--- 225112) Mees asies 123 ON |e ese see lee 127. 75)11. 21|— 98.25) 265.55
eITY..--.--- (CRO BANE Ea 24 Ae ELE RR eT ka 350
Piatt ele: ESC ain [oot bia) UE | bree ony Fs a ee ee ey 1 .13 1 600
PAke pen isos a US eee tea ene billets 6 26 308.2 |..--| 341.77/22.17| 290.77|..-.-.--.
Popes. 2.2.2 BSI Sf a OE ane Ae eae tT A cine ee CU al 278
Pulaski.....-. 295 43 |14.57| 39 142
Putnam...... 310 60 |19.35} 23 200
Randolph. . 809 5.5 | .68)— 19.5 75
Richland.....| 257 S2 a t2545 | eo 100
Rock Island... 630 1625|/5.19|— S75 |e eee
St. Clair...... 1,020 31 3.03 PHB ao Shes Bes
Saline. ....... 8. 75) 1.49 (ini) Aeesenes
Sangamon....| 1,500 5.72| .38| 2.72) 1,200
Schuyler ..... 772 1.28) .16|— 2.72) 236
SCOtieeeee eee CUS OEAT |ISt Stara SSR | ec bee Se Gage 2 | ents ed (eee Ree (ele el Lye ee 375
Shelby..-.... 1,500 1.21) .08 -21; 500
Starkeee ee CKD) PS ses Soya tes ngs Rees at CP ak tL OL) TT | ee nA 2 Ti — 2 290
Stephenson. .} 1,090 70.12) 6.43!— 32.88) 285
Tazewell . .- -- 1,071 71.5 | 6.67) 18.5 841.5
Wnionee ee 642 49.5 | 7.71} 24.5 280
Vermilion. .-.} 1,560 186 1922 21 iy al paereeeeye
Wabash.....- 500 24 4.8 DAG Neeson
Warren....--| 1,010 : 18. 25} 1.8 8.25] 575
SWiashim'e tome IR S42 a ie eC TEN Se sc Sia a an Jodsalemeas cept a8 — 2 218
Wayne....... aD CRs ett bec sal SE eee be | oc en gm Pee aa OP TARE a pga (Ue 903
White........ eolgte wth Pyaediae cored aeneas 9 ad eilcraoesereise ies 31 3.56) 23 752. 25
Whiteside....| 1,189.5 | 2.3] 2.85)...... 44.5 | 170.4 27 ee 247.05]21.68) 47.05) 391
AWAD eee) Thr Gy a See oe 4.5 | 17.75} 163.75) 399 |........ 32 587 = (382. 43] 177 1, 200
Williamson. . 644. 75]... .-- 1.19) 1.5 LE 2D leiaeteinrs eail cies tel orcas 3.94) .61 Set | eS
Winnebago. - OSE i leeecee 2.78) 5 PXEIS\ TEYGGY |\Soeecodulleese 167.6618 |—235. 34) 50 ©
Woodford. ... 960% 22822 119) (eens (ees eee Ma Mee Se ae 15. 25) 1.58 3.25) 850
Total. . .|95, 647.29) 82. 92/148. 8 |121. 53/1, 675, 11/7, 052.3 |2,467. 95/57. 7/11, 606. 31/12. 02)2, 692. 31/41, 143.31

1 Includes all classifications of surfaced roads; 1909 report included stone and gravel only.
: oud roads,
e.

APPENDIX.

INDIANA.

Vit

TABLE 12.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

¥

County.

Benton..-.-------

Huntington.....--.
Jackson.....---.--

Montgomery......
Morgan.........-.
Newton

Surfaced roads.

Total mileage of ail roads.
Bituminous mac-
adam

Concrete.

cee ee
S) S) 3 os
wee) | ss
2 2 a A sz 3 ay
Aw an ro) aod
M ot io} o8 ae
: ea) sé |e) 2s
3 & aa A ee 3| $&
a Ce) we ee ye Qs
8 e S) 3 cS) os
a g eS 6 5 Sid
(=|
=| S (e) a (al 4
390 pe | Seree 502 64.8 | 247
290 100 405 45 |—286.5
65 385 450 47.1 85
150 260 410 45.5 | 154.5
275.5 | 58.6} 175.5
557 68.2 |—178.5
33 9. 4 23
395 37.8 80
452 34.7 74.5
217.5 | 31.3 | 121.5
346 55. 2 33. 25
760. 16} 80.8 | 260.16
70 16.6 44
300 34.8 | 136
85.14) 19.5 |— 45.11
345. 75] 57.6 | 161.75
27 3 |—252
430. 50} 51.8 |—195
85 11.3 36.5
29 5.2 |—266
280.3 | 70.07 9. 55
47. 25] 15.7 |— 71.75
321. 62) 26.8 |— 52.38
178.5 | 17.85) 61.5
85 12.4 |— 8.5
273 20.2} 148
836 89.3 | 380.5
454.5 47.6 | 172.75
701 70.1} 301
540 77.1} 114
143 13.5 73.5
330 36.6 |— 23.5
452.75) 62. 02/—106. 25
‘ 517 83.9 | 230
50 324, 25). ..... 375.5 | 42.2 |— 86.5
29.5 A ee paras 577 71.05) 57.5
175 Shy ligase 210 25.9 |— 3.25
80 SOOM UR Eases 436 65. 6 55
191. 65 Ey Nal eyes 196. 65) 24.6 |—- 1.85
PAN lel oes oecocllaacaes 251 38.5 7
5 PRY eseaue 300 37.8 | 145
G0) Weesece 601 55.5 | 206.5
LGM Ae see 16 1.2 |—388. 75
Scan | Peary [ia emo abana eel a —130
376 CUR Sel dene a 450 42.8 | 334.5
258. 77 DIB Sees ¥ 262.5 | 21.8} 152
304. 5 168. 75)... ... 473.25] 57.1 | 145.75
SOO ian eects 804.5 | 89.3 | 382.5
433) 2s pees eee 433 49.1 |— 92
20.5 eh) eeeese 82.5} 9.3 |— 83
100 ¢ 2). soa Sees 100 27.02} 64
6. 45 338. 75]... 2... 345. 2 | 35.5 25. 2
326). |S Ss Seeee eee 326 37.6 | 115
30 AB rae ers 500 58.8 |—117. 75
274 40.59) 23.5
302 43.7 | 147
600 70.5 | 380
42 18.5 |— 23
300 42.8 58.5
238 39.9 |—332
698.1 | 90.3 | 120.1
18.5 | 2.3 18.5
80 10 44
DTS AL | 2 eae ee ee 273. 41) 27.34] 109.16
40 Tey) Ua eee 212 32.02! 63.75
1 Brick,

Graded and drained earth.

APPENDIX.

INDIANA—Continued.

TABLE 12.— Mileage of public roads outside of ineerDeTRleaNe cities and towns, 1914—

Continued.

‘Surfaced roads.

g 4
3 m
S S
= : Le) oS a) ce) us)
a 3 | 8 8 Bec less q
8 | a g eS | 8&8 2
County. ©, 2 E e,| 8, |3se| 2s 3
& Meta hl) te Pea WS eos has aoe
; o |v | ao ES) 3 o 3s
q ye 3 x a £5] 3& =
= 2 uo) o be Cl 8 na aa oD
3 3 2 s i 2 3 i) Qe io)
Ss q a a 3) aq 4 o O° s
iS ms = = = ae us
a So |A = o ro a ow pS ie)
IPulaskie sea S6Fe eae eas 317.5 | 36.7 | 224.75 546. 5
IPutmame se -c-2- D200) 25 |ee a2: 4 850 HOPSa 282i peace
Randolph......... 14070; eee 2 524 | 48.9] 17.5 400
Ripleyeteesseeeene da Ge | aoe BS ee 302 68.09} 160 140
Rushes 2 S252 see Oey lessee 2.5 390 40 91 225
St. Joseph...--..-- 499 IPAS) | Sonne 193 38. 7 77 75
Scott 300. 6 O()| ersoaes 150.6 | 50.09} 100.1 100
Shelby 837 oan Be ase 315.5 | 37.6 38.5 197
Spencer Dotan beeen |eeeere 51.3 | 5.3 21.3 300
Starke. -- 650 303 46.6 | 180 428
Steuben 960 25 Pa Gye es Asacnas
Sullivan 974 470.09) 48. 2 Bi 09(2eeeneeees
Switzerland.....-. AAR meee Vee ee ee 158 35.3 36 200
Tippecanoe. -....- 1033) \eeeeoe 3 583.39 56.4 | 161.14 200
Aapton!') Ue ne G5Grr | Ses 1.25 650 99.08) 228 6. 75
Wnion22 ste 742 aS Senos sae 120 42.8 10 100
Vanderburg..--.-- 722 1 sce 202 27.9 50 520
Vermilion......... 800 Sih | eter: 407 DOSS stata ion | Peeesee ees
WAS ORE ee Sua eee 886 Qi Neeser 402 45.3 eS a RES
Miabashen sar eres CHP ADEM hia Sa) SS 425 49. 8 97 427
Warren 242.32 GLOR Wee ee Eee ee 376. 72) 61.7 73. 72 165. 38
Warrick......-..-. ATO ee eel eeeriets 70 14.8 40) |S eae
Washington.....-. 1 OP eA se nel esas 225 15.2395) Wa se-e eee
Wayne ls.. 2s. 753 S82 eer (CBA) abu) Bile oes ese
Wells 2/222 ys SOSA eas 740 91.5] 189 68
Wihites sR: D/O ee Bae Ree eee 370 Sebi |) Oi wn lpsotesande
Wihitleyasche canes (89 opti | ro) aa ean 504 Che ae: a I aS OS De es
E | Re se eke
Total........| 73,347. 20| 53.17|168.35| 10,291.29] 20, 264.593187 | 30,962. 40| 42.2 |6,006. 65] 17,509. 78
1 Brick. 2 Sand-clay. 3 Comprising 34.75 miles brick and 150.25 miles sand clay.

APPENDIX.

IOWA.

TaBLE 13.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

Surfacéd roads.

Total

County. anes 8 a Beall Navel Percent- Unerease
ac- and-} Con- | of sur-| age of
roads. | adam. | ST@Vél-| clay. |crete.| faced | roads eae
roads. | surfaced. over 1909.
} $$$

LTV. Ua Sse 8 GSB NEE AR Ne SEisaesee] [elatiin iyg (6) Te emeeese Ppa ll PSSA De UA erat [etapa anaes se) cL UL
PNG ATES ee eee le icis wisisicisimielsieas| fin 1 4D) Sas beeen |S aleeene | See eelssiemtbicis lscoccsicln [Ss else bee o[Eececeeeee
Allamakee 2 -19 — 3.5
APERTODST eS. coc bedtoacodeconcsoseunl| = 7H E eee eel eos seoll-cosdal ssocod| sodeaacs seceEcecud|losceoconas
PACELCL TE OTI ey terete ears = Sk So OOD 2 2]. Lee Re ee er Te ee ee eae

Montgomery .
Muscatine...

72690°—Bull. 3889 —17——5

x APPENDIX.

1OWA—Continued.

TABLE 13.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914—Contd.

Surfaced roads.

Total
County. muileate 0, pi | Total Econ ues
ac- and-| Con- | of-sur-| ageo

Toads. | aqam. | CT@Vel-| clay. |crete.| faced | roads ones
. Toads. | surfaced. over 1909.

Osceola se Ge Me eis am ited 856) Seneaee GA atid Mas 6 st 2
| ES Te Spe eps A a A a Ata CN SS agp Sn SOE AE aT RP | oe eee a Kk as Abe
PPALOSAI EO BU ThN SN eed WE Ee Ne ol UO eo oode Ea Yet dl ie pment [a heer 5 ~49 2.75
IPL ymo bhai ne Se Pie een lk LCG Fay PO SER RR Ace gate y ES Ta EIS RY Nope A Seis es eek

Recebontes Ee ae ade Oe RI

SPUN) es) ites Sane psn eae a 112, 496
City streets een oot Se ee Pe 8, 422
Countryproad sees Rae na us 104,074 | 171.3 |1 414.5 23 | 5.77 | 614. 57 -59 |—1, 890. 53

1 Includes 1.5 miles of shell, of which 0.5 of a mile isin Clinton County and 1 mile in Muscatine County.

APPENDIX. XI

KANSAS.

Taste 14.—Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

Surfaced roads.

Total

b y Increase
County. mileage of Other | motay of | Percent- ieee
allroads.| Ma- Gravel Sand- hard- surfaced | 28¢ of fared
cadam clay. | surfaced onde roads Tail
roads. * | surfaced CaEe
* | over 1909.
PAVE TIRE eee eb S 22.75
Amderson see ee ce bs oo 2.5
PMECHISON eae ee eae —4,5
TBEWF SIPs oe obo 6 SOC TSCA PU iE anaes EAU ones et tae Fr Set eR Reg ONIN Ne eos AES eo ear era ier ey
IB ANDOMe se et cieccecies oo < 10
cuEbeD BER eee eae NS 10. 25
FRONT 2.56 Cac SE SENS EES TESS MBER ac UC) (OR ea Marae L005 i 1 A ev Ea SO Dt A
UT ceils So a SSR TE IDNA oC CHO ue eg et RU ae eR er 2 LE ar eel OURS ada ea Darel oa MOI
Chase.........
Chautauqua.

Cherokee. .....

Grier Bn SAE IS Mea NO cee es

Hodgeman. oc Gb Re aes
PACKSOME Pe Ee aces ceisice a

Maricclree ean Gh 6

MOTT ISS asa eee:

1 Concrete. 2 Shale. 3 Brick. 4 Oiled earth.

XII

APPENDIX.

KANSAS—Continued.

TABLE 14.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914—Contd.

Total

County. mileage of

all roads.

OSa Pere etec ciescminsicene 1, 368
OSbHOrne saat sete essen sieiel 1, 650
QOjbtawere ue es Ro ee 1, 304
IPAWMEO Me Saas Mel se eee 1, 424
TRlon bey Aa ee eee yee oe 1, 823
Pottawatomie..........---- 1, 600
ra tissese nec jecr ene eeme 1, 000
IRawilinsescee ee ue eae 270
REN OM ease aan eaieeee eae 2,404
Republics nao: eee ees 700
TR CO sae 5 ce 1, 350
Riley 1, 100

Surfaced roads.

Other Percent-
Total of

Ma- Sand- | hard- age of
cadam,| °7@Vel.| “lay. | surfaced eurleced roads
roads, * | surfaced.
FRE Hi eae MOI Is ERE ee Bealiteat 0.303
SS TA TGS ape a 50 NES as ies 50 3. 83
Sh Oyu Es RANA A 10 Ws Lee Be 2 10 SU
Se GL PURE: 1 AI RE Se LN TS wt oa
BUA eae eS AR Rss a GR a BG se 5.19
Re he | gS 2 ly EEN 2 . 28
eee as | SII ete 100 12 102 7. 55
6 1. 25 2.6 2.45 ae

RTC LOM a etins wales lose cieierese 1 PSC 0) Da a a 2 ee hears ar [ane RL) [ES el oes er PSE ea eS
WiabaunSeesasan- eases ee 1, 500 1 -5 HG) | Baaaaeaece 2 -13
EWialllace yee oes 2 5 te ue OBR eecie SARE SN Re eee ace | a seltoanen
Washington......--..------ 1 RSL OL Oa ee eameee ans Pele cs eat ene Mee Nae A 2 Saat Mine ae eee
AWHLCH IGS ee ee oe a ase GOB) secede HINO aS Noel a es SR es aE coe Aistrorctnetas
Willson See ase ee Se MSS 10007 aes Wd alate 8 oe ates Re 3 3
SWiOOUSOn Renee see COA [cee 18 | ee eh NS SN a eee Saale tore ey tente ats
Wiyand obtes ss. s5422 es ce5 PANS |. BERS) eck ssescllcccoadas 1] 56.3 21.16
111,052 | 194.3 | 151.85 | 758.5 44.2 | 1,148.85 1.03
1 Oiled earth. 2 Concrete. 3 Cinders, 1.25; brick, 0.6; oiled earth, 3.4.

Tnerease
1n sur-
faced
mileage
over 1909.

774. 14

APPENDIX.

MICHIGAN.

XUT

TaBLE 15.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

J

Surfaced roads.

Total
County. Bere Bitu-
" of au Con- }minous| Mac-
Toaes. | crete.| mac- | adam.
adam.
AQHY SH | balnaial | eames sR eats
SOM eens leaner 11.05
TL RGSS en Te 4.61
Ee} /s Sask a ae 110
SOHO | eres lesa 5. 29
CoO) bic ot eS PE A A
SSSEG) Rae sees Sees ee
TET AID Gee EE aa nD
972.2) 2.16 10 151.2
Ly 010771 De Ere he (eee ote 75
1,198.1 89} 30 35. 43
QO BRON Rees el | seers 1
1 233.0N eee 2 11. 25
KO aye Ek SP a eR | (ae
GhSmeaeeeeee 2 8.8
SLE ON ee Wes 15.16
QVSIG wi aan ae ate 4
ROD DIES hi a Pa | ey
SI AUTS) 331 [0p WN aS
ASO SRlee er | ee etn 1
SPADA hol | ce Pa ea 52. 22
416i ese 2 15. 57
TSAO) is 2 bi A Aaa te a
TAD PB) ES ea A aa 12. 25
Tl OER ES Nay gee Mea 23.5
GOSS | See eee ais LL eh
GOrebicre. {22 A: DARE BSA ie aie ae haa aT eal 3. 06
- 81
9. 73
18. 21
33. 68
2
5. 36
7. 06
4.5
17. 64
8. 73)
3
5
4
2
7
1
2
2 Bh ars
3 5. 34
4 14. 47
Mason yes chetees 684 ec npeey 3 14, 47
Mecosta oie ees! DO eee eee ce ley ais ower
Menominee.......... ESS fi hrs Renae 2 8.4
Midlands) oii ss) eB HI0| Na Sp ee 5. 98}
Missaukee...-....... ANG era se come| seca cae 1. 06
Monroe zee sei eee: 5 Lal he) Peas 3 38. 44
Montcalm............ TL GVOs6)4 6 se odalesacaosd 2
MOrimMOrency sere ese Ton alle oielsicceoctlingewescs
Muskegon. ..... Se AOSD em eee ae 4 43.18
Newaygo............ TL aay Aa 1 Be ay eed a 8. 74
Oskland Lys oe sas 1,676 4 2 4.11
Oceana see ese COS re [pin Menara BIS 51. 42
Ogemaw 22522205222 GOS Kay Ae ae [ss esis | Sows cas
Ontonagon..........- CAO Deg aaa 7. 56
Osceola Ce rs Cat ARIES Ae 5. 47
Oscoda a6 oe ie PAO al Fac | eG ee Ee
Ope sO ee ee ATT deh] ype er | Soe

In-
Per-
we| Crease
cone in sur
‘ace
noads mileage
faced iene
8.01; 14
22.3 39.32
6. 37|— 250. 34
29. 26|— 22.5
12.9 54,16
5. 65 29. 03
19. 55 7.75
34.25) 361.9
20.83} 29.56
20.12} - 75
12.32)/— 1.04
9.84) 70.5
12.54) 140.9
9.39} 40.89,
11. 65 Bb
13.91 15. 86
71. 82!—136. 75
4.77 33.5
5. 71 abewl
6.7 24.71
18.31) 26.97
20. 32) 25, 21
11.83) 95
9. 51 22. 81
16.38) 156. 64
4.96\— 6.5
32.07 6. 63
9.57) 22.48
14.97) 10.14
6.16|/— 13.75
30. 52)— 23.18
7.4 104. 93
4.52)— 20. 47
10.55} 53.52
4.16) 17.86
21. 86 14, 96
8.53} 60.8
5. 35 12.57
11.75 60. 75
10. 16 25. 04
16. 68) 72.17
64.75| 72.5
9.12} 46.37
8.16) 82. 24
10. 61 2. 25
5. 47|— 30.97
14.96} 92.76
16. 06/— 20.5
7. 42|—178. 65
6.93} 12.64
14. 69 7. 26
11.36 2.14
15. 25 58. 82
10. 94 95. 32)
13. 52/— 99.01
9. 49 43. 43
20. 4 62. 09
4.5 39. 84
7.29|— 35. 87
5. 86/— 11
8.27)\— 7.33
6.83] 44.17
6. 14/— 33.93
11.16 51. 58)
7. 65 27. 55
4, 02|—256. 94
9.5 13. 93
10. 73 ato
7.6 5. 75
4.97'— 29)

XIV APPENDIX.

MICHIGAN—Continued.

TABLE 15.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914—
Continued.

Surfaced roads.

vote Per- In- Graded
County. eit Bitu- Total | centage] (7C@S0 | an
y of al Con- | minous| Mac- | g,sy91} Sand-| ofsur-| of eur, drattted
Toads. | crete.| mac- .| adam. ‘| clay. | faced | roads | aro.) Cavum:
adam. roads. | sur- ape
faced. | Over
1909.

Presque Isle........-. DSO liens els Sc wer calleme sees 22. 89 6 28. 89 4,.98/— 26.11 10
Roscommon.....-.-- QAO ia eee aid ie eS / 2 25. 5 9 36.5 15. 2 S15 |peeeeeee
Sarinaweoe se woos Eyl On anes 3 129.6 38. 84) 12.03) 183.47) 11.65/— 30.03 40
Sanit {Caen hanes IC (ete PGS NP 10 41. 43 9 60. 43 4.17) 16.43 34
Schooleraft........... QO Taihn) laeisterara nicotine ate 12 15 3 30 3 |— 71.75 13
Shiawassee..........- LSS iW lasecie laisse wets 3 75. 95 3.4 82.35 4.6 |— 4.15 15
Saint Claireeee eee 307 Oo 3 21. 69) 20: 75 7 52.94, 17.24) 37.94 17
Saint Joseph......... 987 2 2 37.15 3. 76/— 38. 85)........
AMISGES - co ocasascocee 1,745 10 118 6. 76 6. 75) 31 |
Van Buren.... --| 1,297 2.04) 53.09 4, 09|—368. 66]........
‘Washtenaw......---- 1, 286 29 61. 55 4.78)— 69. 45)........
Wayne cone hic aNn 1,385 2 140.03} 10.11] 93.53 15
Wrexfordaeateeseeecee 903 4 106.97} 11.84) 16.97).......-

Notaleeoee eae 74, 189. 85)107. 3 94.5 |1,021. 19,5, 230. 25/1, 375. 27|7, 828. 51 10.55} 927.97) 1,523

1 This includes one-half mile of brick-paved road.

MINNESOTA.

TABLE 16.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

Surfaced roads.

otal ; Graded.
County. mileage ° Percent- | Increasein| , 204
ofall | - wfrac- Sana- | Total of ageof | surfaced | ‘rained
roads salen Gravel clay pureed roads mileage earth.
roads.

surfaced. | over 1909.

Bigstone.....) 22.2...
Blue Earth
BLOW Apes ee ene e

puepela Sa
Chisagonswsy een ey ee
Cha ya eee ea ae

Crow Wing
Dakotar we see

Faribault.
Fillmore. .

1 From 1909 report. 3 Includes 0.75 of a mile of concrete.
2 Includes 0.5 of a mile of concrete. 4 Includes 6 miles of bituminous macadam.

APPENDIX. XV

MINNESOTA—Continued.

TasLE 16.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914—Contd.

Surfaced roads.

poe Graded
County. Sab? Percent- | Increase in and
adam * |) clayeaa eneaas roads | mileage | ©
: ~ |surfaced.| over 1909.
Kana D6Ces 22.553 2 33 2 18
Kandiyohi........... 180 14. 87 — 34 300
AGITESOR Pe otis esse. 50 3.47 50 300
Koochiching......... 1010] BRE Ie Sere ERE Golo SoCo CECE CI SSR AEE Eel En mere 180
Lac qui Parle........ 12 82 ==no4) 30
IDENECD a AS a ea aa ee a 56 16 36 200
MeiSveuIreee: ba! 16 2.19 — 20 50
incon ees Noes 25 2. 54 20 42
LAGI en Ss kai e eee PR ed Cao 2 Ul ieee ltesa een DSP emert se aie ieee (|e AL eno ee na — 51 75
CEG ee 150 18. 89 —250 463.5
SIVEEDEVER ERT CTD a SPAN DAA tase at NN ola Sacre ol] ies ace | Pe eee [iver spas ae [LeU ECG 33
Miers til pene OS DOO) ee che a |i wate 2) i a eR | eS ae — 94 120
JM Ta oe See ea ee 60 4,65 — 40 30
Meeker ea ih oi 301.5 25.12 285. 5 200
Mille Lacs........... 48 a Ds a et a 138
Morrisons... 8 os 12.75 .79 —448 200
IMOWEE2 Sens se ck oe 40 2.77 33 100
MITER) 6 oes GEE Ae tale 0 On eo B oe eee Oe Seeec se EM eeprc OSSebHaaac aaucata tee — 15 40
Nicollet esses ss. 0% 178 28. 89 73 330
INGITESE ees ee 2 .14 2 18
Norma ie 22) 25 1.53 > 5) 15@
Olmsted ey ek 38 3. 48 — 262 150
Ottermail a.) Me. ss 20 . 66 —118 100
Pennington.......... 23 2.07 23 7
1Paa a2) ee OR Fe 3.5 «20 — 6.5 22
Pipestone. oL ayn. 1 ple — 10 32
Polk 33 1.14 —200 1, 200
11 . 95 — 14 11
149.5 70. 85 95.9 17
6.5 . 89 — 53.5 13
60 3. 75 — 44 100
38 2.30 — 59 520
270 21.09 136 30
13 1.39 DG Sa an as ees
3 15 — 48 839
400 13. 33 275 2,309
29 5.17 9 12
72 9. 60 61 300
70 9. 52 30.5 60
100 5 49.5 125
155. 25 21. 83 25. 25 100
ree We al yh ee Be nena a ae — 10 50
35 4.37 — 43 100
20.5 1.51 — .50 150
7 At 7 60
25 2.95 — 5 225
1 eRL Aj eee alsa Ok 100
WASCCA LS coos cee. 25 3. 51 4 52
Washington.........-. 66 9549 65 8
Watonwan..........- 7 1.16 — 53 40
NW ar'T Kesh nr gemrece poten gates SOT TL BG) [ire es Sal aoe win lee epciasl os SUS PETeredl rele eee a oreo | ces cictis eehans siete ieveriones 36 87
WMOnAU ene 35.5 3.55 3.5 200
IWitieiG se Obs kos 4 105 9. 50 — 35 200
Yellow Medicine..... 24 1.37 — 58 16
PRO EAE Ee pee 93,517 | 5157.25 | 2,825. 25 | 985. 33 | 3, 967. 83 4,24 | —1, 449.02 15, 377.5

1 From 1909 report.

2 Includes 13 miles of bituminous macadam.

3 Includes 0.25 of a mile of concrete. t

4 Includes 16 miles of concrete and 0.5 of a mile of brick. i :

6 Includes 17.5 miles of concrete, 19 miles bituminous macadam and 0.5 of a mile of brick

_ XVI

APPENDIX.

MISSOURI.

TABLE 17.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

Surfaced roads.

Carroll

eeees sees

Cooper...

Grundy.......
Harrison.......

Jasper.........
Jefferson.......

Lafayette......
Lawrence......
Lewis.........
Lincoln Bees hee

Livingston...
MecDonald.....

Mississippi.....
Moniteau......
Monroe........

Sand-
clay.

Graded

Per- | Increase and

Total of | centage] insur- | drained

surfaced | ofroads} faced earth.
roads. sur- | mileage

faced. | over 1909.

Pebgaeeecu|aosaeces = » 100
20.75 1.99 20.75 | 1,018
532 24. 49 474 1,350
30 Boole eeerccemes 200
167.5 13.74 UCBs Besesousce
SHoa Gos eUp bass seoelkeaoosoEsalsbes 700
BAER e Sue Mogmacas —) 2 243.2
40 2.97 a 100
10 NO Rare mcosellacoesenont
100 10 LOOS Ma OS eee
125 15.62 | —110 275
50 2. 63 50 275
1.25 34 ~ 25 200
50 TESOL SH) eco gseho0a
50 5 —120 700

11 mile brick and 2 miles concrete.

‘APPENDIX. XVII

MISSOURI—Continued.

TaBLE 17.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914—
Continued.

Surfaced roads.

insta! | Oe CE ‘| Graded

Inileage |. 4 Per- | Increase and
County. of all Sean Ape Sand- | Total of | centage] in sur- | drained
roads a = Gravel a surfaced | ofroads| faced earth.

roads. sur- | mileage
faced. | over 1909.

a aaa Ke

Naw Madrid.
Newton.......

My
a ot
StClain2e. -.-
Ste. Genevieve.
St. Francois. .

Schuyler.......
Scotland.......

Shelby......-.
Stoddard......

THIS IERIT et iaae gM ty date a Me De 50, Ve ee 50 sie hs) |e ais 100
Wayne.......- SLO Ra casas lnatcasioioeis 20) 0) | Sea aa 20 DA eee aN Lt ee

Total... .|96,040.77 | 59 1, 531.05 | 3,679.50 | 1,443.02 | 6,712.57 | 6.98 | 1,957.07 | 34,706.04

1 Concrete, 0.77 mile. 2 Cinders, 5 miles.

XVIII APPENDIX.

MONTANA.

TaBLE 18.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

Surfaced roads.
Bore i Graded
mileage ncerease an
County. of all Maeaa ee Total of Eps a insur- | drained
roads aah Gravel esridieenyil surfaced ea s faced earth.
; roads roads. | surfaced. | Mileage
"| over 1909.
Beaverhead ...--...-- 100
Big Orne es as sesh 171
Blaine. ..-.....---.-- 220
Broadwater...----..- 80
Carbomisescsneteacece 110
Cascade....-.---.---- 54
Chouteau.-.-.--.--.-- 400
Custer sees eee 490
Dawson..-.--..------ 100
Deer Lodge.....----- 100
Walloniss es tees ee 300
275
224
375. 55
50
125
157
250
200 -
250
60
85
305
60
125
147.5
24
80
is
Rosebud .--..-.------ 250
Sanders sees 995,
Sheridan.....-.---... 50
Silver Bow...-------- 70
Stillwater.......--.-. 25
Sweet Grass....------ 100
Teton..--..---------- 125
Mooleso juss sea 200
Woallleys shone seams 20
Wibaux......-.-....- 5
Yellowstone.........- 300
Totals esky. 17 609. 25 1.55 514. 25 6, 528. 05

1Sand-clay. d 2 Shale.

APPENDIX. ; XIX

NEBRASKA.

TaBLE 19.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

Surfaced roads.

Total Graded
County. mules is Other | Total | Percent- Tncrease gone a
aad Sand- hard- | ofsur- | ageof faa pea
¥ clay. surfaced | faced roads mileage i
roads. roads. | surfaced. over 1909.
PANG ATTA teats uh DOB ek syne oss lal| Se ape See Papert pve lt | LB al UP
PALOIOD OM ete eter eleoce seca wan se 1,025 25-15 Sea ee 25 2. 43 25 100
ATH AUTTR > BP i aa ee en ne SOO iS eas 5 ial = SRR | meee A ee Ure irate [AST (Ce | Ue
TBITED TGS, Soh aN a Ae ee eacoSc| 5 eckson ka IL BARC ne CEST Mapa
Es oinie ka ey Oe a Potala 1 Ua 0 ae (DL 0 cL iS ie Br a ea gH Sy aici NER et Al EN EeS Cu SNE
PE GOONG eee ren iets oe 2 E510 Us PR ete ae) el) Eee A ee Ae 200

ohmsone eae wep oS ake TOO hen ee ie ee A cdet el REOPEN erat | Up be ee Me MOLE 700

ereammeyen ie we ek eke 1,012 | rooascoose BS ee Eee oe eerereapr 670
LTA es ee ie ee 400} ers ea ces ie eFC SSee eee

1 Gravel.

2 Macadam.

30.5 mile concrete: 1.5 miles gravel. z hi

4 Concrete, 3.53; macadam, 35.65; brick, 1.9; bituminous macadam, 0.8.
5 Concrete.

6 Gypsum.

70.5 mile brick; 0.5 mile bituminous macadam.

xX

APPENDIX.

NEBRASKA—Continucd.

TaBLE 19.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914—Con.

Surfaced roads.

Total Graded
County. piled 5 Other Total | Percent- Tneuease Sea
rade Sand- hard- of sur- age of evar feitin
clay. surfaced faced roads aa eare) z
roads. roads. .| surfaced. anGr agg
Opoe natn sees: Cease
iPAWMEEC Ses se es ae yee neers
Rerkimsrec sh Wis ee ea
Phelpsrsseu ss sot Gee ae eS
IB ICT COs eee ee tien eee eA
EET UT EC eter stats te A a
PROM Ke eee a One ewan aia
Redwillowere ss. plone
Raichardsones ss soe see een ee
FROCK Garey el ESN AE a8 Ne A
Saame ye aa Seas Oi pe te
Sarpy....... IRD a by Satay ae Gs
Saunders
Seotts Bluff
Seward...
Sheridan.
Sherman.
Sigw See ae ay aah
Stanbo ne Se aie el eae ae
MINNA CT AS EOE lee sey eons ho
PRVOMIAS eyes ce sie secre onic = aoe
AS HUTSGOM oe NEES Sy ae Say
NGG WANE: Besescbonet cose le Henne
Washing pone ens ee aes
AUG Nida eRe ane Ce a eae ae Dene
WiC DSteT ys oa ae a en ORs
IWihtecleras ete seins eid eee
OV GCOTA IS Aner (ea 2 a ae eae a
DS Ota eS ee ian 80, 272 1,131.1 73.44 | 1,204. 54 1.5 955. 99 27, 540.9
1 Concrete. 2 Macadam. 3 Gravel.
NEVADA.
TABLE 20.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities, 1915.
Surfaced roads.
uote) ce Guaed
mileage crease an
County. of all Srna Total of percent in sur- | drained
roads. | Gravel. | “G1, surfaced aes ds faced earth
y roads. | .ittaced, | Mileage
ee | over 1909.
Churchill eee. eee ee 766 11 5 6 0.77 Gs RN Peas:
CON ea Ne a NS gmp Pe Us 17 (0) Pee aes SLE Eo staal Sg eae ll | Gee em et Renate Bye Sb
Mouplas eee Hee ee 143 HOU ees sos 51 35. 66 48 92
LED UT oy ea esp aR er TESST S| AE ST RSL Ss SIRS HN A toed th [AVE Tp | aD 300
Hsmeralda. 2 bite .o2 shes ase BaD eva es 20 20 5. 87 20 80
LO BUSY ge estes ee et NU ci eee ce il cre eet ce an eae ge Uae ae ae] eee ON ee eos
em boldtssien eee ene ese eee BD AOD errs) Reg S Ie hee TRey B ery aaeet| A Oe De a e
anderecee eo ee le 7G Se ae aeRO rs ed ie | eS MOODY re Hes ape eens ING ower IE oS
Isha Velo) bole aes ar ea ey G9G i SES Oe OR 8 Oe eee he eG we Sea le i Tea
VOTE Paes ioe eee eee AP Al Ms eee ae Ty Se fe RU ee UES FARA an eat WW eee M A
MIN era ys its as teecse steiaeisee AD NBA ects eB sci MA OUI SOE ll le Ue eae Soe eee eal ee ate
INGVele see nates uli Sem eds as BL | egg Sas pea SAU el 2 SI ER ay bole ete a ee
ORms byes) ee BOLE Se 50 3 2 5 10 —7 15
SLOT YS sso eee ee ee ae LOY Raemere cries ee Stee ore Beardie cay teipe aay naee —20 25
Wishoee st sone noe eel 1, 148 140 40 180 15. 67 170 568
WihitesPine: 25. eee eee TASC O ee ateeee FSS | gap YO eg Waa | RR Se |oaocsssee:
Ro tall Ss 238 yea eRe lam 12, 182 195 67 262 2.14 216 1,080

1 Crushed rock.

APPENDIX.

NEW MEXICO.

XXI

TABLE 21.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

Surfaced roads.
otal : Gieded
mileage nerease an
SOE ofa Sand- | Totalof | eres insur- | drained
roads. Gravel. surfaced | 28 faced. earth.
clay. roads F
roads. mileage
surfaced. over 1909
240 20) |) aes 20 8.33 20 40
543 2 10 12 2.2 12 75
cA) a AY ie a BR a ES areal baa te 200
DOTS oes As erates 15 15 6. 75 15 35
432 195 10 105 24.3 105 130
BES" | senate. ia ee NE OE at Ae | a haat 100
poe EOS CRUG i 12° I SR pe | a ES CF a ie aN 150
ES sc eeu een I S88 NN a a este aoe IE ae 60
468 4: || ee 4 -85 4 75
348 5 25 30 8. 62 27 60
LP Ss aap a ret A 2 Roa eor beeeoeoee 50
326 Bia Me oeeice aoe De 9.2 3 45
338 20 Nc Sees 20 ay il | —ai 60
ASO! | eee SO bo Mea I RM rie re IA US i [eerie es ors 50
EONS Ta esc age Pele iLO I ae ah a oe | —50 30
B2G ee GS bs ee eee ep aes eet Meese io ae Ae eee aoe 50
= ee 10 4 14 3.84 | 14 35
Shia dGcin, So ee eee eines OD a aos <= | at |e meters ella ih See taiara ALM add 60
ManMaIciTely-- 82 ea De AGO eer es 53] ae pein | iy cae, NET ae beets 8 [Paes eke 125
Seraiseey IGS Sek eetam many sf Manna BOO eee 2h | pm Ran a A ae [hie Wei a 50
SIGE? 2d Soe See ee ere ener, 8 446 12) tae eee 12 2. 69 | 12 75
DOCOMO aE Corse ss emeee eee 1,092 153 eee 15 1.37 | 15 100
SRAOS Ree eee anne ae aeinees Mercer P74 030 [Sea Pd > 2 | rate mg See LC ee A een 50
SROTTANCe Eee. 5 Soa eee: ced coe SOO) Bee ees a2) oe ee ee wee = ulcer eet peace | yt ee) AS 25
(Dita voyri to) Se eae ep ae eee 8003 Hee ase PSG) 1.5 -18 | 1.5 118.5
NUISTICI ates ork on Daa a Oe 528 3 7 10 1.89 | 10 58
PRO Lab ape eee. ae 11,873 1189 72.5 261.5 222 | 157.5 1,906.5
|
1 Includes 5 miles bituminous macadam.
NORTH DAKOTA.
ABLE 22.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns i
AL 22 Mil g P bl ds outsid porat d cit dt , 1914
Surfaced roads.
ieee ny : Graded
ileage otal o nerease and
County. ofall | surfaced seer 4 in drained
roads roads ofr ae surfaced | earth.
(all Sikes mileage
gravel). *1 over 1909.
INGAATH Seer oe eins nie ce gnite See se comet cece wk OOO | ae ter Sate lei cies ssrcia| Cer ees 200
IBATROS 3 55 c5 COON bE GOCE EEE O TEE SUES ee See eae Eee 2, 506 6.5 0. 25 — 3.5 1,000
[SEES OM Meee Ree eee shacewaemaceeeee bees seca ccs 1,247 Ae 3. 76 42 400
EVIE Seem nen i eh a MRO es Me ola oe EO) ae ae eee ees — 8 500
OMe Veer eee ie oe ae RUN oe cut 1,620 20 1. 23 15 400
TBYO yea OE 2 BO ae ECOG Rees MORI See ns lcoussecode 360
BATES. oon SS SS Se a en oe Re eee ec 1,131 31 2.74 | 31 400
IB OHH eran Ue) 8 8, Be eS re eae 1, 162 2 UT aan ee 210
SASS NEE ene ee ON VRE RY ee ace cicnc cece SEZOO! Pec see eS Oe kaa ae oe Nees 2, 500
SRSPTIEED == jake a at Lee a 1, 934 4.5 23 1.5 1, 260
TDI GLRERT . o GEE BOS eic a SANS re EL Mo eat noi er eget 1,072 32 2. 98 30 400
Divide:......-. TE QOOU Be cette Gaee Ue ea ra ON 2 ce Ue ys 600
Dare TROOO GMs sey ceileers arcsec Jnsozencoss 350
TAC eae re eee MAI ges aS becca dees 315 15 4. 76 13 ee
IB GAIT OTIS wpa ee pet tun Nt seme deo SCO VAD IO LS ea eee asl Mera eens ots Pen ee 0
LPO REI EU i OO Se eae ee 1,305 5 -38 3 200
Golan Wey Sea Bee Pe SG ieee BUOY te ee ae et ee eet hed eye 49
Grandihlonkces er swmim numa s nye rs el 2, 890 160 6. 63 150 1, 650
CCE See ce ate Mee gue erg CEE it RO celal 550 90 16. 36 85 260
Eee anger, Zola SAO ok ee a Ce 1, Be BS ore eI cal ence alll yates Soetetefate ne
BCE Eee aa eM eat Sak (iy RE is ee ES] pee ala Wa pi |e eae ae 85
GAIN OUTC Seca ee sete lane etl oon 1,605 5 -3l 2 600
EO ANE ee Me ee une SL Mee el Sl NEL SQ Ele sce Se eva a oka nen a =22: 150
MICEVG Tir ya eae ee IN ee Ue Oude areitie aie 2,050 50 2. 43 45 800
NEC IST FOStiben pau teepInNn C ua RM AI i dd SOBs |aseenmasn Ain Mead = % 66

XXII

APPENDIX.

NORTH DAKOTA—Continued.

TABLE 22.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914-—

County.

Continued.

Surfaced roads.
Total Graded
mileage | Total of Per- | Increase | and
ofall |surfaced apiene in drained
roads. roads of tis surfaced.
(all Sunfaced mileage
gravel) *| over 1909.

2, 200
DAT LOD Gi yas on sete eae sewer cuisines sae pace eae WAG) Waeacdesoda| bocaccosacdlocnossoode 800
Sheridan eG eae ee i OS sees See ZOU |loccoseoasd bocosccecdlocsoncosee 100
SIOUX eee = SPL ee ela ites Bile EIN aun SAVE ZAGD | Beesaonoed Bacsaooods bacskecsod Sencssbaas
ES) Koyo Pee Es SI et eS ea aae OaEL ae gC I GOO! Pee ee Dek a sees ceace 160
IS Bearer a es ese ceed Ns ae Wi ee ao Ee Sal OM i 953 3 -31 —2 200 ~
SUSE) (eh eS ate ee ees A UR IR EE GS) 1,015 15 1. 47 12 400
CSRS DU SS Wea We Se a ae Rs 2, 150 50 2. 32 50 600
ALR 1a a Cy aay a ON aes ee CHAS Rae Sod Beano rena —5 420
Traill..... STIS Bia HS ate ery AR eee aN MYC 1,710 10 58 5 1,600
SVT ST ARO eC 2 OAS UR IU 1900) | eo ne Ree —5 1, 200
SVU ee Aa CANS ies ing Liesl ea be ER 902 2 22. —8 100
WOU EAB RS SAG Ban ta ASM aon io eames gery ole, 1 S00) Nesescoaocd boooseaoce —5 500
IWATA TIS oe ete Ne GU ae OU Oa Vy 72 29 3. 97 29 300
HA Wa) er LES VS USS est Oe ena UU 68, 796 955 1.38 815 25, 306
y OHIO.
TABLE 23.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.
a re
LE) Surfaced roads. 2
g a
q by
= Bo} eB 30 ®
& a So slsealnee: A=
© A Peles ett ase es ee =
County. Be ma | 3 3 3 o5 BS =
fs | hs! s || 32 |#8| Be 8
g oI 338 . we | es B |Ss| & to ro
= us) q ad q ? = @2| Sa 2
£ Si = ace eee eater as etel liars
(=) — [2 —_ to} (3 = fot
eB = fa ee Shears} psi edie lpepelis &
Adams.......... 915 QASIM ear eieee sit tak OO Maa sete) ra ll aretas at 186 46.88) 120 146
Allen ea 934 748.7 6.5 10.25) 4.2 |..... 799. 65)85. 49) 279.65}..---...-
Ashland......... 955. 24 50 14. 25 | GA oB eacse 79.37) 8.3 61.37|...----.-
Ashtabula....... 1, 261 36. 86)...-.--- 5.25] 6.11)..... 53.22) 4.22} 17.22).......--
Athens.......... 1,005 OFeeien learn ews i Wleve crete atete 116 «= {11.53;— 12s |.......
Auglaize......... 850 15 Td eG Beans |Salad a ct 690 |81.17) 306 100
Belmont......... PL SOO Sree ceserct GUL EN Bok cones aSeluilie 2 te |Sawee 125. 05) 9.6 S05|(seeeeeays
Brown.......... 864 QOS MESES sein NDA Na Peer Te er cas ieee 317 = (36.68) 11 547
BULLET eee S14 ok: 143.8 558.60) 5.5 |....../..... 707.9 |86.9 |—163.1 |......--.
Carroll........... POOL 5) REA SS SUSE ee Ss 8h |]aads5o|boaee 3.5 | .34 Bn) esos sbse
Champaign...... 802 15 eS NR ER he OF isa Ba WS ||| Oe
Clarkses Shesnons 862 50 OAM NAOeH me leeeoepecslt (crate. at eretetona 837 |97.09)\— 25 |..---..--
Clermont........ 987 BOO MOR ia sete ncie elses ain eerie eee 300.5 |380. 44/—134.5 |........-
Clinton.......... 835 150 Slee AT eee cle ce ewiel eee 633 |75.8 |— 46 42
Columbiana. .... 1, 333.5 1.5 21g See ee SON Pee eka 33.5] 2.51). | 15.5). -2 22.52
Coshocton....... 1,143 PRA Pa oua ay PAB) | PBS) ages 117. ——(*|10.23) +3948 300
Crawford........ 870.25) 330 2.5 Ordon atel Seon 370. 25) 42. 5 80.25) 500
Cuyahoga TYTN NSEC SI OS 1 Retinal Bahay tbs tu TAS, AS Se MR 129 |22.5 |— 24 4.5
arke...........} 1,290.8 51 3. | 1,023.8 |---.-- CAN See 1,084.8 |84.04) 324.8 206
Defiance......... 855 SO ee etercte | deo ie erates oS} Nace 464.3 |54.3 GF83 ego seqns
Delaware........ 828. 4 OaO! Ale steieie dele Ce a age ege een 555. 4 |67.04) 82.4 50
TiO soos eee 460 165 OD SM 2S elmore 15 3 28 245 °53.26|/— 37 45
2Worn macadam, 277. 8 Slate.

1 Sand-clay.

APPENDIX.

-

OH10O—Continued.

XXTI

TABLE 23.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914—Con.

Surfaced roads.

a
oS
ao
z
= ' Lio} n
e : le
& A Blas Shi
Oo les! C=
2 : 63 é 2 ‘2 bo.
i 8 ad o a 8 as
eI 3 ‘a8 a Behl ppesl | fess em lod
— KS) | ve aya <I i) _ a na
a 3) 5 be i) 5 9 Ss iS)
6 3 =| a ie) fle iS) 5
a =| fe oS fQ S |e a am
Fairfield.......-- 1, 100 QOS aoa ele vapelsists 325 SANA ie epee elle 2 553 50. 27
Fayette. ........ 643 143 3 350 Giga ee SMR el 502 78. 07
Franklin. ....... 1,001.4 354 34.8 301.8 | 6.8) 2.3 ]..... 699.7 |69. 87
Fulton.......... 934 136 i SOOMnlsseeee |------|----- 503 53. 85
Gallia ees 992 12674) Ses ees 50 Seo) |S See 179. 22/18. 06
Geauga: 780 TU aa ees Aio see 15 3 Gy noes 34 4.35
Greene.......... 750 CD allocaeetods GE DU Bae seaalloodecolaceae 670 =‘ |89. 33
Guernsey........ 1, 135 15. 2& PEM e ose saoou 16 Th |osses 34. 43) 3.03
Hamilton........ 725 197 256 150 Peed | Ades) seat Ne 605 83. 44
Hancock....- 1, 225 {00s eoodotee TAD WosSecc|/sca-salloacke 720 = -|58. 77
tardiness 939 230) eae ey 201) Se aes ee 431 |45.9
Harrison 940 AGN Or ecmaeal ssa ceo e 1.35} 4. 88)..... 82. 23) 8.74
ROM Eee sos Se 875 PAO) a eeecace 0 SR Beeerl aco sor bocee 455 |52
Highland........ 1, 028 BE eoecados BYP) © Ieosoeclecccas 18 364 = =|30. 4
Hocking 45 5. 43
Holmes..... 8.56). 83
aasiayets 241 24.94
176. 66|23. 7
169.2 |20.4
136. 4 |12.06
72.5 |16.97
262. 25/33. 87
290. 65/20. 75
500 |56.3
220.3 |24.1
223. 58/29. 07
709 =|98. 338
218 |23.64
392 49. 68)
193, 95) 22. 75)
10.5 | 1.04
570 43.18
724. 97|83. 38
1, 262 10 79
Montgomery..... 1, 064 69.35 10. 65 824 IS |e ees | oe 911 85. 62)
Morgan......-..- 1, 025.3 MOT! Silo as 10 PDett le ssepalosene 119.3 |11. 63
Morrow.........- 950. 62 125 00) Fa besa ae earned Fess fio O2|s ees 135. 62/14. 26
Muskingum. --.. 1, 561 Aer nesee ale liezatnierste ores 16 15 25 40 2. 56
Noble. .......... 1,004 40 TO 4 eee LO eee ee eee 51.04} 5.08)
Ottawa.........- 595 219 7 Fei SSE Ene le seas Ha oe 247 =(|41.5
Paulding......-.. 1,017.5 bY Vases 22) Oe ee ga) llaoaee 547.5 153.8
ROTH Eee cee es 1, 000 28 10) esbesscics WO Weccrecliodaue 48 4.8
Pickaway......- 803 Lleida) | ase 63800 Pee eee G48} Iles sos 650. 55/81. 01
cetera eae 875 LOR eens 155i) Sees OES eee 166 18.97
Portage.......-.-.] 1,000 6 13ieN 20 24.2 Oey! 72.2 | 7.22)
ETE Desa eee seco d 917.5 }95. 82
Putnam......... 679 56. 63)
Richland... ¥ 239. 75/17. 83
Ross........ 479.7. |43.6.
Sandusky 487. 55|49. 7
SElOtOee ast. 349 40. 44
Seneca........... 416.5 |35.5
Shelby 222722): 502 {50.7
Stamken eis ne oe | 203.7 |18.37
Summit......... 000 0 b 55 6.5
Trumbull........| 1,178 240 25 80 29 SRM earn 379 — |32.17
Tuscarawas...... 1, 486.5 : a ¢ 36.5 | 2. 46
Miomew ss Wats 900 708 ~~ |78.66
Van Wert....... 1,306 IRs 633 |48. 46
Vinton .......... 879 $ 33) 16.2 | 1.84
Warren.........- 861 ZOU n|(srsleiatele l= 438.3 |...-<- eS erecieie 676.1 |78.5
Washington ..... 1, 430 PA eeeise 35 Be Wa® flascos 68.2 | 4.76
UNINC Pf ee Sr 1, 270 1 eee 1 Prayer a al lle Cl AS TEN 27 2.12
Williams........ 931.12 43.8 APA ORERG oeacel|oceeoclleoace 303. 72/32. 6
Wood...... .-| 1,446 845 OM eres ON ot On eee 900 62. 24
Wyandot........ 822 300 5 81 PMs esos PN 388 |47.2
86, 353. 55!12, 903. 87/1, 066. 29 15, 385. 93/640. 41/315. 67; 3257/30, 569. 17/35. 16

1 Marl.
2 Sand-clay.

8 Jncludes sand-clay, 211; slate, 28; marl, 8; and miscellaneous, 10.

Increase in surfaced
Mileage over 1909.

Graded and drained earth.

6, 463.17

15, 280. 05

XXIV

APPENDIX.

OREGON.

TABLE 24.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1514.

Surfaced roads.

Graded
and
drained
earth.

4, 718. 75

Total
mileage « . Other Per- | Increase
CORR: of all Mac- Bi hard- oleh centage| in sur-
roads Gravel. sur- of roads] faced
adam mac- iaoanl faced .
adam ed | roads. | ,SUF; | mileage
: roads faced. jover 1909.
LEY: heey Dap ae a LC ae ZL OO Ri I eas ches | ae OA ies | cme venea 30 1.42 25
IBbentOnes ae ees ee 566 25s Gol) eae AED Ag dite sty prea 166 29. 32 166
@lickamasy. 3 eae 1,316 103 7 162 191 363 27.58 83
@latsope esa eee 250 62 2 9 24 77 30.8 2
Columbia...........- 355. 75 39. 75 5 (3357/5) bbe saaee 113.5 31.9 | — 36.5
Coase ssa a Ree 695 GQ os iia eer 30 455 145 20. 86 60
Croo ke eee: BERY Obey 2 NL OO a ctu eee es cei cos| ei 50 3 260 310 14. 76 300
Curnye een es Sep erae Fey ibaa | estes ey See (cee ea 36 450 86 55. 45 70
Douglas............. 1,800 20 NE eats 25 Ogle 270 15 193
Gilliam..........-..- EARL) tie, Naeem il bey A A ees ne 4 77 4
Gra Se ee ne hae CAs) jl SSReeaeecals sees oe TUG Risa hare ie 11 1.32 10
Harney ee osteo eh eae 2,000 LUO as pe ae AA | plese 8 .4 | —107
Hood River......... 270 20250) | See TES Bort ih Ey 32.5 17503) |
Jackson.............. 800 30 5 100 212 147 18.37 | — 10
Josephine...........- 418 Sahay rx aii | AON Miler 48 11.48 36
elainda hie see yee ee 850 Raina lS wate LOM ee eacoe 12 eA ee
LOE NC Sd el LARUE) ay ERR ATE Ure SOHN a 50 6.66 | — 30
Mane. ecw. awe te 1, 567. 37 133.47 |......-- 402.4 | 527.5 563. 37 35. 94 54.37
ATCO ee eae 400 (Taal te Pa nub ests OS see ee ee 16 4 16
Aria ee Sis ee 1,860 GO eee GOO ie | ees nee 660 41. 25 350
iMallhe urease see DE GOOK 1 0\| bees sail Meare Bilaieeeergee 5 31 5
Marion se o2ui je. Usa! 3, 002 80 2 BOM aa | hence 162 5.39 82
MOTROWase- een seciee oe 950 OUST PARC 1 A SP AU 13 1.36 13
Multnomah.......... 510. 73 96 63 105 610.03 | 274.03 | 53.79 44.73
TeX DE RRS Re Ue ee 1,118 10 8 B90) Ae ees 408 36. 49 284
shermanyeeeeeeeeeoe GOO Pils] Beeee cece ers Qeaiigalee sade 2 5383} 2
Tillamook........... 310. 33 50 25 125 78.75 | 184 59. 29 61
Wimallae eee 3 O00 mia: eee 30 aD aay ayiy epee a a 42 1.2 41
Unione. 800 rae cc Dot nm allart yao oe 28 3.5 8.75
Wallowa....-.......- QO ae Ee Seafarer |S aa OP tet eR 10 1.05) — 5
HWiaSCO NERS Nida ie 1,000 25 15 OO Bese 140 14 128
Washington......... 1,077 1003; pelea SON Mil cise eye 130 12. 07 7
Wheeler.......-....- AOS SSN Nb | SE Tea (fede ti (ate ae 6 DDI ieee ate
Samnhill Pee aes eee re 1,300 DOM howe ee BHO! i Mise ees 200 EEGs Sees =
36, 819. 18 | 1,000.72 | 137.25 | 3,060.15 | 518.28 | 4,716.4] 12.81 | 1,917.85
1 Plank. 5 Plank corduroy.
2 Concrete. 6.37 miles wood block; 9.66 miles concrete.

3 250 miles sand-clay; 10 miles volcanic cinders.

4 Sand-clay.

7 2.75 miles concrete;

6 miles plank.

APPENDIX. XKV

SOUTH DAKOTA.

TasLe 25.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

Surfaced roads.

pola ; Graded
mileage € nerease and
Gaunty- of all sata Oe Total of pence: in sur- | drained
roads. | Gravel. | "22G- |_ ~, | surfaced |. 28° 0 faced | earth.
clay. surfaced TORE Toads i
roads. - | surfaced. | Meage.
over 1909.

PAIROLAS = side oe ss 1, 440
IGRI Pach osposbeee 1,470
Bomneuigyaeneee ene. Me Los ele eee see |
Bonhomme......---- 1,077
Brookings.......--.-- 1,584
Brown
Brule...
Buffalo.
LBD oor ecco eeeee eee
Campbell. -...-..---- 75
Charles Mix......-.-- 1, 300
Clarke le 1, 946
(CHER Css See eae 798
Codington........-.-- 1,110
CORSON een esos. - 227.5
(CSIC Sas Seas ela 500
DawaSOness...--. hs. - 450

PWocoscassecsesgoace 2, 000
Det ee ea es. 1, 260
WOWO Veet e ee eee ce 2,500
Wouplas. fase) 3. 25. 1, 016
Mdmunds.......-..-- 2,304
TREN ROhyG Pa Mee nBeee 370
1b yl Diep ee 2,012
Cheri ee Oe a oe 1,564
Gregorye 222.14. 1, 200
Haalcone ) 54. 31). 5-4- 3, 600
efarmilinieeseee ee ees. 650
and eee 2 GO Beis. - 2, 876
IANSOMe eae a. ee 912
FEV an Ging eee o eh wl.) - 5, 000
mghess 25 eee: 1, 000
Hutchinson ......---- 1,652

WO so ons ceooeecaere 1, 741
ena eee eis aoe. 486
Kingsbury .....-.---- 864

OMe ee aces 600
Lawrence......-.---- 800
INCOME Meee e ee seo se 1,500
Hymamie esses ee sock 2: 33,000
McCook ee. os. 22, 1, 000
McPherson......-.---- 1, 500
Marshall.........-.-- 1, 440
Mendeseae ee oe) 2. 2,595
Melletter e252... 2. 200
IMimer seeps ae icc 22 1,172
Minnehaha.......-.-- 1, 632
Moody 2 tee genes: 1, 060
Pennington ....-..--- 5, 548
OTANI sees els ate ste -1 5, 766
Rotter esse cee l = 5s 1,500
Roberts...........--- 31,162
Sanbormsesss o25 =. 880
Shannon...........-. 31,000
Syovtalies eae een 3, 000
Stanleyaaoe soos. = 3 2,000
SUllVaeeeeoee nines == 55 2, 160
PROC Ce eee Sa kee
FREI Dieeceineciiee ses 31, 400
MTMer ese se t=2 = 620
Wattom se 2 sais os 936
Walworth... .222.-2 585
Washabaugh......... 3 400
Washington........-. (4)
pygaboml sce oe 1,500
Hiepache syle ee 700
INGEN eee ame ssaae 96, 306. 5

1 New county. 2 Macadam with bitumen. _3 Mileage report for 1909. 4 No report received.

72690°—Bull. 3889 —17—6

XXVI

APPENDIX.

UTAH.

TABLE 26.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

County.

Surfaced roads.

Other | Total of

clay. | surfaced
roads.

surfaced
roads.

1 Concrete, 2; bituminous macadam, 3. 5 Concrete.
6 Total mileage from 1909 report.
7 Macadam, 23; bituminous macadam, 11.5.

2 Mileage report for 1909.
3 Macadam.

4 Macadam, 8; bituminous macadam, 1.

1,153. 75

: Graded
nerease an
Tee in sur- | drained
manda faced earth.
2 mileage
surfaced. over 1909.
54. 54 10244) See
31. 66 475 725
8575. lee cee cons |e eee
be pe —125 61
ces oe: — 74 50
25:62)| e202 a2 Her | soem
2 10 27
7.33 11 20
Kae a tre — 3 97
30 53 140
15 15 14
40 95055 |e ss es
14. 85 12 11
26. 6 2D il eae
9.09 | — 15 50
33.5 | — 74.5 100
Des ese — 18 167
SoCs Eps Ree ee 400
10.05 | —180.5 6h
7.38 10.5 42
1.02 6. 25 10. 61
© etree) tae oe — 13 237
125. se eee a ears eee
ae ieteois tere — 22 55
oem ees ee eerste 55
2. 37 a 32
15.17 | — 19.5 43.5

APPENDIX. XXVII

WASHINGTON.

TABLE 27.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

| c Surfaced roads. Fs
3 5
ee Lo} hed es en) io}
Oo. n <2) ° = op
Be ele 3 4) 8 8 aS oS
County. 23 og PaaS ised Wenecet lavish) tlie
b= io) = aa Bb ES 30 Siar -=esS Oa
ae S| =o IB a cs ag as ae tic o
a | 28 25 a SSW restr StS yl) all eater re cc
a) Ks} 3 o 7 es |) =H a | Sok 2
=] 3 =) > io) = ° oo $3 | 252 So
3 $12) 2 | & | 2] 8 |se| 8 |83/8s5| @
a Sy) S nD ea) S |\6 5 ae 1S &
IGAMS. oes. 25: 2318. 80] 50 2c. (sits 5) ellis br erin Tae al ea Ae ey 23.85) 1.02) 23. 85/1, 200
SObING fees oe 450.6 | 1.5 qual CT Reed seer cacti 6.6 | 1.46 6.6 20
Benton.....--.- 975.4 | 12 10. 4 PSTaael ero ees ls sy sellin es 47.4 | 4.85) 42.65) 100
@helan = 2.52 52-- BOA ees Se QT Nc Boe OE Aaa ae 27 3.69] 25.67] 52
Clallam .......-. PENA I ocsocelgacabe GP-S Cee Pens lle Leesa) ny aes 152.5 | 66.16] 62.5 20
Clarke.......--.| 1,300 90 22 NO sho soSlaen= 3 By aga are 265 20. 38 52 75
Columbia 480 1124 Sasi ea 14 TO) jets 1h. se ee een oO 166) 34.5 10
Cowlitz 598. 75| 35 2.5 PUR Sacco ee. c, & 1.25| 140 98. 75| 16. 49 69. 75] 100
Douglas 7) BP eente) |) WAPI oe 1636) | 22S 38 |. Gas | oe ate 28.8 1. 23) —305. 2 500
Ferry 77 Eta RSVeN ate fea eae ah epee Ua Rs Sets ON I SA 3 38 3 20
Franklin 1, 400 ISP a2 aL 5 |e ever seers DANY eee 7.5 BOS 7.5 | 400
Garfield. . 501.6 DSCs) Meese eas 2 (eect Py | (aa 1.6 sol 1.6 30
Grant 2,308 DOM eee LO) esa = es ees eae |e re 33 1. 42 29 150
Grays Harbor 2. 494. 21).__... PATIOS QB2, 0 Pe eae eee 4,74| 380) 367.21) 74.3 94.21; 39
Island.......--- DOANTA Eee unre GUESS eo D5 | eee ee aie Be es 63. 09) 28. 14 O02 53. 68
Jefferson ....... QAO NE eeeraeys [aati OTM eases Roses Sessa eases 56 23.33) 56 60
ioe ane ae 1, 589. 03]... .-- DASA WORE) |e sene 23.4 Gkoo eae! 1, 112. 93} 70.03} 499.8 276.1
IKGtSAp..... cs. TRAE RES Sa Bene OLA Gils Geese See ss-elede sas 151 | 19.9] 151 211
Kathitas. 22.520: 643.4: ieee 2,2 AD ais accee D154 H Et cies) eae 43.4 | 6.74] 43.15) 200
Klickitat.....:-. 1,675.3 | 5.6 | 10.2 9 Oe |. tesa aeeperae | eercie 25.3 1.51 25.3 | 550
Mews. cosas | als 100 80 WADA OWN ili (na ee [hc oaee IPAE anaes 137. 96] 12.54] 34.46) 300
incon. 5.22 = SEOs |) BY) eksese Oh) BeSaee asses 5) Pa areees 79.5 | 2.82) 79.5} 800
Mason........-- Ab OW 20 | peer bee 2745) eer roa als. 2 Os le eae 83. 25) 18.48]— 96.75} 114
Okanogan.....- CSO I OA Neg seoe 1 AG | 2 2 252 || ps2 ee eels 38. 66) 2.08 38. 66 15
IPacifies:: 25-22 SMa FORM Co ee PAU WHO mace ea se oy) eke 771. 75) 32. 7 19.55) 102
Pend Oreille... SOS MMU Hee eteal= RoR EP Nee eI ected fea ees 8 ils sd 8 100
PICICOL. 22 3 ae 973. 87| 7.76] 10.14) 354. 22)__._-. Go| p20e O21 Eyes se 400. 89] 41. 78)— 44.26) 200. 48
San Juan...-.-. 200. 45 (B\lecumas DSF] LS. | reese pre De 19.5 | 9.72|— 64.75) 35
Skagit........-- (ash Cal Ge SNE eee Sf0)) eeaeoulessces Giifa| aes 390. 75} 51.16] 14.75] 273
Skamania...-... 152 2aO)|| Stes 1 Rat pope ceases eure lle ie 17.5 | 11.51) 13.5] 109
Snohomish... -- ULE) IGG Nes bSee AGN OM yaaa: 1 Saleb as 435. 55) 56. 96/—390. 45) 329
Spokane......-. 2, 399. 78} 35.12) 34 1B Gs SAA Meber cl Aeoeallsemads 83. 78} 3.49] 14.28) 60
Stevens........ 2.014524) 7.09/02. . == (a15| Bake ee all seal eed 14.24, £70) 12.24) 120
Thurston.....-- 776 (PG OSE RCO AREe BemrEan mmeie 2) (Ono dsell aeons 7 - 90) —148 223
Wahkiakum... 109 sti) shllaseeees Cran Ota Rees BRE Sllaencec 42) 29 26.6 |— 4 50
Walla Walla...| 1,435.06} 30 5 EXD) AR eeee be oe 3 MOG |e 85.06) 5.92) 79. 93!1, 000
Whatcom....-. COONAN eee |p loe Ws eede se ee cic (S15), | ane 269.5 | 35. 93|/—258 100
Whitman.....-. 2,700 HH Pan nee seae Oem es ese [os Sh eee Ae 43.5 | 1.61) 34.85)1,328.5
Yakima......--. 2,125.77) 10 IM HCA ey Mody ae ere ee, lie ST ea 150.77} 7.09} 127.82) 125
Total..... 42, 428. 15 502. 82\165. 52 3, 924. 48] 83.5 | 26.35] 79.42! 1404,922.09| 11.61] 401. 419, 450. 76
115 miles plank; 25 miles corduroy. 364 miles plank; 16 miles corduroy.

2This was Chehalis County in 1909. 4 Plank.

XXVIII

APPENDIX.

i WISCONSIN.
TaBLE 28.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

Surfaced roads.
Total ie Olen oe || Graded
mileage itu- centage] . an
County. of all Mac- | minous' Grivel Sand-| Con- Herd cuolel of of a Be drained
roads. | adam. | mac- "| clay. |erete faced roads roads aaril earth.
adam l sur- SEIS
roads. ‘faced Over
1909.
Adams.....- 1,111 1 AY ANS os PA a1 | RES Se oes 28 2.52 | 22 184
Ashland. .... 513 OU I eee 44 a eae 8 75 14.6 53 226
Barron...... MOOT aM Ree eas ae 2 AO acing el isiseees 42 2.63 | 29 846
Bayfield... .. 837 Wea Sa Mees a te Maal Sete 3 5 - 59 |—45 473
Brown. ....- 1,064 112 HP AAW TB kseeee 331.5 | 31.1 | 18.5 399
Buffalo. ..... LOO Tih Lele a 6 2 BY}. ee elt SN ev 41 3. 73 7 279
Burnett...-. SLU i ids eevee ie weal sists cisions 50 HL) '] Ae aa oh 60 5.11 | 32 276
Calumet....- 637 4 1 381 OH Rae olan eee ee 399 62.6 |—24 111
Chippewa. ..| 1,273 CU lee ae TOWN aes OF oo eee Bene 219 17.2 | 187 538
Clark........ 1,621 Ih focesese= BO) B48 |oseesc|sconacos 86 5.3 | 51 1,045
Columbia... .| 1,334.07 40 19 141 26 .07 3 229. 07 17.17 | 45.07 570
Crawiord 32S) 10860) ese se alten 22s 10 Gi | Pe nea 16 1.47 0 100
Dane........ 2, 248 74 45 231 26 1.5 379.5 16.8 60. 5 920
Dodge....-.-- 1,591 34 13 467 31 SOA ae ere 545. 5 34. 2 96, 5 518
Door........ 980 4 Wonk eRe 182 DA She Me Gees 281 28. 6 82 384
Douglas..... 999 DU eases 34 OAC ah a emer ase 52. 4 5. 24 38. 4 356
Dunn. -.....| 1,480 nse 3 34 QO Ss ce Rota ee 125 8.44 | 78.67 511
Eau Claire... 993 Oye ae HOY alG4 |e ss OS ee 232 23.3 | 136 424
Florence... .. , 221 6 3 20 Oils an 16 54 24.4 28 82
Fond du Lac.| 1, 296 28 3 449 43 lire Ol ease res 524.5 40.4 66.5 429
Forest. .....- 299 yy Fane Sag we le tetr e Le oa 1 .33 |—22 110
Grantee 2,070 EY fillsenicecee 126 B37 | Welens 2, 252 12.17 | 137 859
Green....... 1,070 Brees eae 96 16 QM Se eee 200. 9 18.77 | 137.9 362
Green Lake .| 568 7 4 Ui Bao emcee [amnenaeresee 119 20. 9 45 922
OW ain ca -ecee 1,142 Hay repent Peete ay cae 20 PA) | eure ee 25. 6 2.24 |—35.4 524
AO Osa) ae Sa 196 Die oe a Rear ev ce 116.4 23.4 11.9 10.4 108
MACKS OT sae aie] rA 74 aol | Bayne Aaa a Gleb Dt eee SI Ce 138 9.36 | 48 498
Jefferson.....| 907 24 13 172 EAI SLE. On La i Nr 260 28.6 |—18 330
Juneau...... 1, 227 DIS sa teva 3 22 LH Ns 2s licens 37.1 3. 02 6.1 441
Kenosha... . 486 TPA ei apc o 161 17 Ta eae 201 41.3 83 162
Kewaunee. - - 724 ALD pi ee AC ole 280 Re Sioa i hte aa 300 41.4 71 236
La Crosse...-| 719 34 23 Bt sae al aemeol Pose aste 92 12.7 |—17 291
Lafayette...) 1,142 11 3 15 3 OU Meteora 32.5 2.84 |—28.5 584
qeancladeves| cg Oren te |eeeeres 13 SPAR pear A Aa eR 34 4.78 9 394
AE Sua) Hae se P a SCA hel ess, eee a eto 33 Sein eas ae 71 9.63 | 18 364
Manitowoc. .| 1,274 Otel eee stots 699 |...... 1 Beech | Coes 723 56.7 | 346 296
Marathon....| 2,218 QO rae 86 CAN eters ye hea nest Mie 140 6.31} 54 1, 269
Marinette....| 1,245 PAV eee 114 THY eo sees 4 153 12. 28 66 545
Marquette...| 750 TOBE te cissee 51 CNN Nears ene Ae 105 14 83 248
Milwaukee. . 513 41 3 264 |...... 51.6 | 211 370. 6 a2, 138. 6 92
Monroe...... 1,302 30 10 19 35 Bp ella are = ese 95 7.29 | 34 524
Oconto EEA 1,040 1 ee oor 164 ON MLR ee epee 210 20. 19 43 397
Oneida...... BOSH sect fattest OA eesti eh 5 TUS} ees a Fas Bt 23 3.24 |. 23 374
Outagamie. -.| 1,147 38 2 240 Sy) seis 9 324 28. 2 65 469
Ozaukee. .... 496 aI Oley caseeneses Ss Se Seen mac a, 386 81.45 | 61 54
Pepin....... ANT Cesare | Rereravee shoe eaten ike ee 5 PA) ReR eae beoeoos 34 8.15 17 176
Pierce....... 1, 232 eres sae 57 PAS) acess ade pe 87 7.06 |—56 487
Polke iene TAG oe he kate 45 DAS) arial SIE Uae 74 4.58 | 39 857
Portage......! 1,364 30 4 29 DA eee SANE SIRS 87 6.37 1 594
Price........ COAT A AES Oe SES DSS GBS SSH aeeoeeers 9 1.13 |—32 493
Racine. ..... 606 18 4 214 ee ANN GA ee 300 49.5 56 195
Richland....| 1,191.2 ION eR sanese 18 18 Ayal ewes 55. 2 4.63 |— 5.8 513
ROCK eeenee 1, 296 AG) Bee 467 B10) aaa eee Nee 573 44.21 | 251 407
inp. obo. SOS sees sine eal eee mess 19 LUN SA ali ee 23 2. 84 1 491
St. Croix..... TO sont ie eae SCS 187 ALOU Se cial ene Wea alte 197 14.09 | 87 776
Shite eas 1,502 TO Saas 66 64 PRT ome me a 243.3 16.19 | 178.3 586
Sawyer...... OWA e ys | eles Sages | eae aeN SPL Ob hr Seca aaa etal 10 1.77 4 274
Shawano....| 1,411 Silke cheals 164 CBC RR Se 229 16.2 | 119 700
Sheboygan. .| 1,130.2 LOU ee 439 24 Oran eee ee 476. 2 42.1 |—173.8 392
Maylore.. SOL o aa Meee ns ye owes 36 ISAs os a a aaa 64 7.38 6 529
Trempealeau | 1,239 11 6 29 OD ee eae een ele 105 8.47 | 21 735
Vernon...... 1, 554 BS a[ eye eee 12 C1 patricia RHE 24 1.54 |—28 843
Walaseaae ae ALO Hh sees ee a ie 10 HT OSes | Oe et 20 4.87 | 20 237
Walworth. ..| 1,076 34 4 423 OU Poses ee [OS A ofctiaes 498 46. 2 140 341
ANVER oN iT ORAL eee ea onal bsautaas Bg | ear sail asin peek a 5 48 |—29 506
Washington. 946 he AR SS 531 Tayi RISE Bs a ea 553 58. 4 18 254
Waukesha. ..| 1,120 (Als Pee ee ESA TES eon | es cacsienal Reta ay ae 643 57.4 67 268
Waupaca....| 1,487 TIN eee eae 203 SOn soso aes 305 20.5 162 578
Waushara...| 1,319 25 6 76 CS HOR a eee Se 181 13.7 112 465
Winnebago 848. 2 13 8 491 25 MDH [ices ee 538. 2 63.4 |—46.8 161
Wood. ...... 1,182 TG No Somes 5 CAI ee es SI 23 1.94 |—16 645
Total. .|75, 706. 67 1, 408 183 | 9,597 |2,054 |83. 07 74, 4 113,399. 47 17.6 |3,232.14 | 30,927

1 Includes .4 mile surfaced with brick.

2 Includes 2 miles surfaced with brick.

APPENDIX. i XXTX

WYOMING.

TABLE 29.— Mileage of public roads outside of incorporated cities and towns, 1914.

| Surfaced roads.

Fou . Graded
= mileage _ | Increase and
County. ofall | Total of Berea in sur- | drained
roads. | surfaced 2 aa faced earth.
roads.1 pantieerd mileage
*| over 1909.

PIR Uae ge eae he NS Me ete ge alloys 14, 381 02,0 -36 52.5 | 1,672
Meliow;sconemNanlonal markers. 3055) 5s 2s. 416 415 IGLOS Yep | ee seep a sey eee
Gran Gabo bales Sey ne. ise ee oi ioe Nee Qeei- oe 2s 14, 797 4G8. 5 3.1 52.5 | 1,672

1 All gravel.

APPENDIX B.

The following are the tables referred to in the foregoing text giving information
as to revenues applied to roads in the States discussed:

ARIZONA.

TABLE 30.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

General county road : -
Total and bridge t me Other revenue applied to roads.
revenue
County. applied to’
roads and Rate,
bridges. cents Amount. | Amount. Source.
per $100.
| E a te $2,000.00 | Forest-reserve fund.
Apache.....-- «-.| $12,212.00 15 $9, 354. 00 2 858.00 | Per capita tax.
@ochisex2p-e-- 4-5 107, 024.16 10 93,744.87 | 13,279.29 ae 0. rs c
- : 35, 955. 00 alance from 1914.
Coconino........ 48, 861. 06 7 | 12,036.06 { 370 00 Ber erica
Gila see ae 48, 369. 81 10.7 | 38,815.81 9, 554. 00 Do.
: 1,859.99 | Forest appropriation and miscellaneous
Grahame -- 12, 467.99 9.6 | 10,000.00 receipts.
608.00 | Per capita tax.
Greenlee...-..--- 66, 362. 51 19 58, 754. 51 7, 608. 00 Do.
Maricopa.....--- 106, 592. 98 13.5 | 102,920.98 3, 672. 00 Do.
Mohave........-.| 22,313.49 13 19,873.49 | 2,440.00 Do.
INGEN Osbeccceace 17, 759. 63 23 17, 371. 63 388. 00 " Do.
: : f 498. 27 orest receipts.
Bamana) ee) 5 36, 614. 13 14 | 35,837.86 { Be Goll Pen capia tee
(Pinale ae ee 49, 574. 30 14.3 | 34,806.80 7, 767. 50 “ Do. ie
x 1, 155. 95 orest-reserve fund.
Santa Cruz....-- 9, 205. 93 11 7,011.98 1,038.00 | Per capita tax.
Yavapai........- 67, 228. 58 14.5] 63,038.53] 4,190.00 Do.
Vain TT eu eens sel 20, 457.92 14.2] 19,547.92 910. 00 Do.
Rotaleeeese= 618, 044.44 |_22..-2--- 523,114.44 | 94,930.00
1355, 896. 19
2 8,780. 59
Grand total | 982,721.22

1 Expenditures from State fund for fiscal year ended June 30, 1914, including motor-vehicle revenue.
2 Expenditures from county bond issue funds.

XXX

APPENDIX.

CALIFORNIA.

TABLE 31.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1915.

County. Total.
LNT M ie 2 gs See eae ees alin Oe RDS eo 25S $319, 532. 48
JMSTRIG) 2-2 chdassabasb once’ Bees ese e Cue SBASeee EEE EeeBEeaeroclse 504. 22
ASE TTP BSE ASS ARES SoS Ee eee as a ahen 24, 349. 47
(phoma eee eee 2 eee Lo aie a feb eee es ois t ua ee 207, 839. 07
IA VCLAS eee ee ee nae sees | aisle y yenitiolee so ma aisle Bree 34, 990. 07
CONSE Ae 2 Bie Cee oe ie ae See se ean eB 261, 897. 44
PMLA OS Tae Heer acs Saas Saeed aces see See Ses See 201, 562. 27
MVCIBNVOMLG sete ee ae nek aoe foe eS oe vend oe oases So eee 41, 184. 94
El Dorado 37, 207. 12
Fresno 441, 853. 92
Glenn 170, 850. 20
Humboldt 356, 024. 67
Imperial 181, 471. 43
Tiry DUPE Mees of he. oe So ea 2 a 29, 551. 48
Kern 470, 628. 04
Kings....... 68, 633. 63
Lake 38, 199. 14
Lassen 39, 577. 52
Los Angeles ’ 2, 004, 577. 94
Madera 137, 516. 57
Marin 96, 665. 14
WVBR I OS ree ei ca oe leat SUS Aa Yo os cases Wa et aes 2d eee 27, 385. 10
IMHO OCIN Ob Ais 2 53 Sie sees Sha. one geen ee onka este wa cee see 188, 790. 86
Mercedmes me. me ies. oo Seed Joe eee Jin Ls. eee 200, 060. 72
25, 741. 83
7, 132. 73
247, 382. 97
112, 566. 22
33, 838. 02
911, 725. 44
64, 285.15
39, 894. 09
414, 801.96
344, 175. 48
74, 474. 89
275, 756. 94
254, 358. 76
273, 054. 89
233, 236. 89
945, 991.39
SAMuAPD AD ALAS pe ere te Soo aout tethers Shins s See eee 267, 360. 35
SannOlara Mente is. =cisee Sees o.ocal eee oe elo dts tee eeeee 341, 462. 20
Sai, GH. dno nsseseecsusies sabbee-b see seeeeneeBeasae ees Se] TOG
BYERS eerie reer ic a aak AE OE hoe oo oe. 97
SOT eee eS tees ccc hen M ae SCR EEE Cee wen icies apni eames 49.13
Siskiyou . 03
DOlARO Me een. 08
Sonoma - 10
Stanislaus 5 14
SILLLO TRE eee os sca te UE Uk ae Yee. 3. Se a 5 .48
Tehama . 82
pRrrtitnyee mer rte este Ue ses te eke pea. concede eee - 93
Mit aromas ae = eee see othe ele here) 252 bi edeemene .37
Tuolumne 5.14
Ventura 97
B60 Oe eae es oe es ee ohio 0 at). A 175, 235.55
BY een ened ce tee Lee ek eee bolo. oo ste neee 85, 092. 49
TUTE 8 4 Gee a Eee eee see aoe noes MERE Se 2 12, 321, 387. 05
Expenditures for State roads and State highways.-..--.--..... 6, 850, 597. 61
Grandatobalesccuee te celts ais ae esis eee 2 Po ee 119,171,984. 66

County ex- | County ex-
penditures penditures
onhighways.| on bridges.

$263, 106. 33 $56, 426. 15
EAN OD sia Bue ee

20, 342. 74 4, 006. 73
99, 707. 86 108, 131.21

94” 550. 04 167, 347.40

187, 960. 37 13, 601.90
25, 886. 78 15, 298. 16
24, 088. 71 13, 168. 41

391, 909. 46 49, 944. 46
117, 805. 86 53, 044.34
199, 498. 79 156, 525. 88
160, 555. 84 20, 915. 59
22, 806. 84 6, 744. 64
464, 242. 24 6, 385. 80
68, 439. 23 194. 40
24, 598. 99 13, 600. 15
SGP 57752) |e ate sane
1, 771, 504. 08 233, 073. 86
45, 370. 57 92, 146. 00
63, 246. 14 33, 419. 00
16, 584. 58 10, 801.12
126, 350. 52 62, 440. 34
141, 576. 86 58, 483. 86
24, 941. 83 800. 00

5, 582. 73 2, 150. 00
141, 608. 75 105, 774. 22
83, 944. 39 28, 621. 83
28) 383. 13 5, 454. 89
855, 707. 33 56, 018. 11
41, 829. 36 22, 455. 79
24; 479. 14 15, 414.95
401, 605. 89 13, 196. 07
174) 471.11 169, 704.37
40, 963. 91 33, 510. 98
260, 761. 59 14, 995.35
233, 048. 20 21, 310. 56
259, 824. 09 13, 230. 80
86, 358. 04 146, 878. 85
909, 092. 87 36, 898. 52
188, 486. 02 78, 874. 33
327, 686. 20 13, 776. 00
95, 349. 96 29, 760. 65
54) 678. 46 44; 332. 51
22 808. 02 5, 841.11
25, 491. 53 10, 521.50
68, 430. 17 16, 711.91
163, 956. 13 40, 426.97
98, 020. 00 53, 504. 14
42) 480. 88 83, 023. 60
92, 778. 15 45, 823. 67
24, 426. 12 5, 861. 81
262, 496. 45 34, 888. 92
61, 524. 65 18, 990. 49
131, 127. 10 79, 009. 87
109, 168. $2 66, 066. 73
43, 472. 76 41,619.73

1 Exclusive of San Francisco County which is coextensive with the city of San Francisco.

XXXII

APPENDIX.

COLORADO.

TABLE 32.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

County.

Jackson...........-
Jefferson
Kiowa

Lincoln

NALUACH Es aH eae saeco

Grand total

1, 920, 888. 73 |

1, 937, 546. 23

Total
pplied t
applied to
roads and
bridges.

$42, 005. 03
11, 778. 95
26, 378. 05
16, 892. 18

2,939. 40
18, 443. 28
78, 859. 59
20, 500. 57

4,923.79
14, 597. 84
11, 759. 06
15, 597. 26
12,944. 16

8,303. 43
33, 058. 02

6, 750. 20
43) 036. 27
23,642. 20
20, 135. 60
74) 145. 19
60, 892. 30
71, 687. 97
11, 143. 03
13, 499. 90
39,720. 93

6, 158. 20

6, 648. 72
13, 254, 44
54, 006. 75

5, 136. 37
11, 182. 37
15, 706. 38
47, 779. 18

111, 085. 29
47, 818. 67
15, 206. 61
39, 671. 65
49, 707. 86

7,925. 24
17, 554.35
23, 825. 03
50, 345. 48
53, 381. 64
74,590. 87
17, 279. 16
23, 989. 13

5, 987. 76
20, 065. 24
37, 671. 03

102, 697. 12
23, 270. 77
38, 097. 29
40, 335. 47
37, 063. 95
11, 204. 67
39, 350. 39
14 006. 10
20, 763. 51
22, 612. 58
11, 694, 03

108, 854. 91
11, 326. 32

215, 423. 00
31, 234. 50

General county road and

" Received Received
eR from State from
anor expeud: forest
- vehicle iture reserve
ae uals Amount. licenses. fund.
158) $33, 451. 69 $423.90 | $8,129.44 |............
1.5 10, 055. 13 244. 38 DS A79 84405 Caer eae
1.25 20, 737.74 AOD AO) || GPIOYZAL | 5 sy yuo
3 13, 103. 06 47.64 1, 000. 00 $2, 741. 48
. 40 947.71 58. 38 ERS ESO oouoddooues
1. 34 15, 092. 65 365. 66 259845075 Cseet eee
1.64 65,666.40 | 1,604.79 | 11,348. 50 239. 90
1. 26 14, 701. 74 372. 84 3, 828. 25 1, 597. 74
. 50 3, 861. 80 61.99 1000500) | #2 4ase et eee
2 10, 538. 60 110. 84 3, 558. 18 390. 22
1.19 9, 768. 14 148. 55 468. 37 1,374. 00
2.45 13, 404. 56 87. 43 2, 054. 57 50. 70
1.30 10, 851. 34 201. 96 1,890. 86 |...-..-.-...
2.50 6, 457. 45 60.21} 1,463.97 321. 80
2 30, 232. 67 400. 91 1, 500. 00 924, 44
2.4 3,619. 77 1.00 1, 031. 95 2,097. 48
1.8 17, 270. 28 139. 11 25, 212. 27 414, 61
1.8 11, 710. 28 86. 45 &, 057. 71 3, 787. 76
17 17, 621. 73 (ORS | SLGERL GR Mo -5- a
9 62, 474. 43 3, 343. 95 8, 000. 00 326. 81
2 40, 221. 67 769. 61 19, 783. 02 118. 00
3.4 63, oa 31 301. ‘A 5, 500. 00 2, 220. 52
3 ‘ . 11, 036. 51 PLUS al Pa ey 102. 43
1.75 8, 937. 45 63. 96 1,418. 47 3, 080. 02
223 33, 646. 77 165. 90 2,500. 00 3, 408. 26
3 2,730. 93 4.61] 1,000.00 2, 422. 66
.5 6, 118. 44 229: BBN scene ee 300. 40
2 7, 898. 03 43. 72 2, 884. 64 2, 428. 05
2. 25 46, 207. 23 455. 62 7, 100. 00 243. 90
55 3, 901. 32 106402) | oreo 129N03i| eee eee
9 9 023.13 159. 24 25000500) |S ees eee
. 48 6, 569. 22 167. 50 8, 433. 40 536. 26
205) 38, 627. 33 262. 97 7, 214. 56 1, 674. 32
2.55 87, 922. 49 2, 164. 93 20, 026. 90 970. 97
1 39, 493. 96 649. 62 7, 631. 29 43. 80
1.2 11, 975. 41 HESS || LOEB |e oo
Die 37, 217. 43 658. 42 10955801 | Sete ee
1.53 43, 161. 32 698. 97 3.500. 00 2,347. 57
1.9 3,267 O1 16. 69 2,004. 41 2,537.13
2 8, 323. 00 68. 23 8, 838. 13 324. 99
3 18, 787. 47 124.31; 3,223.03 1, 690. 22
3.1 45, 112. 69 353. 76 3, 500. 00 1,379. 03
2.9 48, 860. 99 575. 52 S945 oS) | Saseeee eee
PY bts) 71 155. 27 944. 45 2) 49D 15) (no See
2.5 14, 326. 19 63. 48 2, 290. 98 598. 51
2 18, 003. 29 125. 87 3, 885. 04 1, 974. 93
AG 5, 158. 22 295. 72 GPR} 3 leooosoc pepe
1 6, 912. 52 30.61 | 11,010. 38 2,111.73
1.8 33 748. 84 422.19 3) O00S008 Weeee aes
1.4 92, 078. 47 23122. 26 8, 424. 86 71.53
2. 66 12, 859. 96 65. 81 8, 861. 45 1, 483. 55
2 20, 925. 16 367. 71 15, 650. 77 1, 153. 65
2. 69 33, 532. 52 89. 60 3, 941. 62 2,771.73
2.8 32, 519. 12 224. 09 1, 750. 82 2, 569. 92
2 2 ae 15 5.51 ite nae 606. 10.
4 37, 236. 48 48. 96 861. 75
zs 1 eee 39 172. a 1, 500. 00
17, 457. 68 22. 38 2, 000. 00
1.34 21, 527. 23 496. 52 271.75
1 10, 840. 74 190. 95 662. 34
1.3 99, 327. 55 2,441. 18 7, 086.18 |...
1 9, 948. 85 377.47 | 1,000. 00
Bee Sve 1, 553, 655. 91 25, 040. 36 | 285, 851. 61

1 Exclusive of Denver County, which is coextensive with the city of Denver.

3 Expen

2 State ep prophation for administration of State highway department.
ed from bond-issue fund in Garfield County.

County.

Bannock

Latah

Lincoln.......

Madison.......
Minidoka... ..

Oneida

{win Falls. ...
Washington. ..

Total. ...

frand total..

APPENDIX.

IDAHO.

XXXTIT

TABLE 33.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

Total revenue

General county road
and bridge tax.

Other revenue applied to roads and bridges.

3 226, 000. 00
449,812.12

1, 371, 468. 59

1 No report.
? Includes poll tax.

applied to
roads and f f
bridges. eee Se Amount. | Amount. Source.
; $6,973.00 | Auto license.
$41, 664. 95 7 | $29,685.78 |) "5’ 056.17 | Special highway tax.
49, 071.03 1.5 37,301.51 | 11,769.52 | Road poll tax.
12, 626. 03 8 11, 251. 03 1,375. of Pea rcuses:
2,871.5 oad poll tax:
SERRA Berea ee 22; 300-21 { 1,172.00 ; Miscellaneous revenue.
26, 134. 00 -6 265134500) oo seeeeeet
ZB (5 GE eee eanece PAY MPR OY) |Soosesc ecco *
12, con oo plorest depart tinea lumber sale.
1, 000. uto licenses.
98, 094. 02 3 78,600.00 }) “494,02 | Special highway tax.
6,000. 00 | Saloon licenses.
7, 400. 00 2.5 W400" 00) 2s eee ee ‘
58, 539. 48 1 24,222.76 | 34,316.72 } Special road levy.
16, 647. 43 2.5 16, 647. 43 CREE ES Bae, 5
eye , 065. pecial highway tax.
26, 365. 35 2.5 || 22,500: 00 { 1,370.00 | Special road tax.
16, 421. 51 soo) |) 21) 721-87 3,329. 64 | Forest-reserve apportionments.
15, 461. 89 -23 | 15,461.89) |-----. 2222.
698.52 | IForest-reserve apportionments.
19, 154. 90 2.5 | 216,552.13 |)- 1,802.25 | Motor vehicle tax.
102.00 | Miscellaneous revenue.
15, 944. 03 ott 15,944.03 |... 232.2222
34, 220. 43 6 21,783.60 | 12,436.83 | Special highway tax.
58, 816. 31 1 11,600.01 | 47,216.30 | Special district levies.
5, 257. 00 5 3, 250. 00 1,806.00 | Road poll tax.
101, 419. 56 3.5 86,970.95 | 14,448.61 | Special highway tax.
62, 174. 68 1.6 33,363.40 | 28,811.28 | Special road tax.
2,051. 80 | Forest-reserve apportionments,
21, 840. 37 -3 15, 278. 32 1,416.00 | Road poll tax.
3,094. 25 | Unredeemed warrants.
22,339. 50 1.8 7, 339. 50 | Special highway tax.
37. 160.42 15,000.00 |f 15,514. 82 Do.
Seeeiummeme |Meaernayas th rE 21,021. 60 624.00 | Road poll tax.
4, 000. 00 3 3, 000. 00 1, 000. 00 Do.
11, 500. 00 oll 4,000. 00 7,500. 00 | Miscellaneous revenue.
53, 633. 72 2 32,757.00 | 20,876.72 | Special highway tax.
13, 700. 00 .3 | 12,500.00] 1,200.00 | Auto licenses. . .
24, 300. 00 3 24°300:00))|2= eee ;
12, 888. 45 Head poll tax. ;
5, 064. 00 ate and county licenses.
75,037. 50 2 38,477.11 5,021.08 | Forest-reserve apportionments.
13,586. 86 | Miscellaneous revenue.
4,594. 80 | Auto licenses.
60, 992. 75 225 39, 216. 62 2,766. 79 | Road poll tax.
eee 54 Special hehway. tax.
: 1,977. 00 oad poll tax.
35, 528, 28 31 82,541- 00 { 1,010. 28 |} Special highway tax.
1,095, 656. 47 |..-.-------- 776, 600. 87 | 319, 055. 60

3 County and district road and bridge bonds.
¢ State expenditures on highways.

XXXIV

APPENDIX.

ILLINOIS.

TaBLE 34.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

County.

Champaign.....
Christan RS sae ae

Kanes). 52028
Kankakee.....

Mee erate seeee

Macoupin......
Madison---- Bago

Total revenue
applied to
roads and

bridges.

$113, 985. 05
80,314. 07

45, 000. 00
160, 000. 00
107, 426. 89

94) 945. 11

29, 969. 00

33, 768. 84
72, 257. 72

418, 194. 00

110, 887. 00
32, 669. 61
130, 851. 00
58,385. 05
100,030. 89
100, 161. 40

205, 458. 11

12, 000. 00
36, 743. 40

28, 587. 91

70, 099. 50
47, 899. 52
101, 681. 66
17, 523. 23
48) 178. 33
55,275. 00
24) 637. 00
85, 683. 98
4, 283, 50
39, 451. 26
100, 680. 30
177, 689. 58
50, 202. 76
33, 831. 84
39, 606. 02
25, 490. 43

66, 876. 47

15, 532. 00
120, 514. 97

122, 409. 34

52, 521. 29

86, 494. 44
152, 221.73
2417 864. 00

111, 150. 71

89, 357. 00
138, 959. 00
(0, 886. 62
65, 651. 00
122, 607. 33
212} 330. 66
128; 939. 83
89, 600. 70
167,710. 66

61, 810. 43

49, 495. 00
44’ 148. 00
26, 224. 12

Amounts Other revenue applied to roads.
obtained from
general :
county an
t araeti a Amount. Source.
$75, 985. 05 | $38,000.00 | State and county appropriation.
SONIA 07h ee eee
33%403 4by | eae wee
50, 127. 00 10, 000. 00 } County board appropriation.
23° 000.100) |Beeaseen ese
114, 000. 00 3,700. 50 | Special township tax.
14,000.00 | 1,117.00 | State aid.
GON ON05" | Bae teem
AS O005 00 eee cree
160, O00S00n Beeson ee
107, 4265.89) | eae renee: 28
43° 340. 23 oy ae Re ploed ond levies. “
; - 00 an appropriation.
23,926.00 }) 5319.00 | Cash poll tax,
33 7685840 aman wih
PAPAS | ode cbonse
134, 000. 00 | State aid.
200, 000. 00 | 79,194.00 | Special hard-road tax.
5,000. 00 } County fund for highway superintendents.
54,130.60 | 56,756.40 | Hard-road tax.
29, 570. 61 3,099. 00 | State aid.
113, 900. 00 16, 951. 00.| Special taxes and damages.
58,385.05 |......-.---.
65,953.96 | 34,076.93 | Special township tax for hard roads.
91, 888. 54 8, 272. 86 | Special township hard-road tax.
85.797. 20 oe 660. 91 | Hard-road tax.
ny 3,000. 00 | County bridge money.
1250005009222 ee eeeeee
36, 743. 40 it span ee
, 700. 00 ate aid.
13, 187. 91 7,700. 00 | County appropriation. <
65, 300. 00 4,799. 50 | Special gravel tax.
ATE 800952 hee enn
100, 221. 66 1,460.00 | Poll tax from townships. ,
523025) | ee eee
46, O57. 33 2,121.00 | County appropriation to three townships.
BBS 275500) eee meen
21, 637. 00 3,000. 00 | Cash poll tax.
S5GS3598)|ee eee eee
4,120. 44 163. 06 | County dog-tax appropriation.
38, 779. 41 671. 85 | Cash poll tax.
1005680530) |Seee eee eee
164,345.52] 13,344.06 | Hard-road tax.
43,327.76 6,875. 00 | Special levy fund.
SSNSBI NR Ilka smaniee was i
395606202 Paes eee rs
24) 362. 86 1,127.57 | Road and ditch damages.
63. 656.00 ; 1,613.49 | Road and bridge drainage rates.
herire 1,606. 98 | Road and bridge special tax.
IGS ESY4 (0) |Ssonedesosor
118, 000. 72 2,514. 25 | Special hard-road tax.
77.319. 15 32, 983. 31 ard-road tax.
20t4- “9 |) 12, 106. 88 peeue einer -bond tax.
if 11,479. 46 ecial gravel tax.
37, 042. 02 3 499. 81 Ree road damages and poll tax
84, 371. 49 2,122.95 | Road and ditch damages.
112,343.63 | 39,878.10°| Special township gravel tax.
208,974.00 | 32,890. 00 ard-road township tax.
57.611. 00 6, 600. 00 | State aid.
BiaNss 46, 939. 71 Special road tax.
CEL SHO) |esdceesseace
1385959: 00) Seseseee see
QOSS86562) | aan
65465 1600)| ae eee '
95,607.33 | 27,000.00 | State aid.
PARL SRD, GS {le b04 5 Gedee
PIBKO391 33 meen
895600::70) | aaa eee
126,026.96 | 41,683.70 | Special township tax levy.
44. 873. 88 | Us 084. 00 | State aid. é
goes?!) 9,852. 55 | County appropriation.
AQVA95.(00)|| Seen
4414800): ae es
265224012) Aer

APPENDIX. XXXV

ILLINOIS—Continued.

TABLE 34.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914—Continued.

41,779. 12 41,779. 12
125,630.00} 125,630. 00
168,054.60 | 168,054.60 |...

37,906. 40 37,906. 40 |_

62) 805. 63 62, 805.

57,875. 80 57, 875.

14 565. 00 11, 025. 00 3, 540. 00 Poll tax.
1

ORL Pecania be ae Other revenue applied to roads.
: applied to eo Ors
County. aAGdis ctl general 4
bridges. bonne tae Amount. Source.
Menard.......- $32, 653. 60 $29,016.60 | $3,637.00 | State aid.
IMETKCOn. (22. 4/-'-,- 64, 389. 43 64, 389. 43
Poll tax.

Monroe.........| 28,331.61 | 24,660.00 { ESE GEA IWS cOiuity:
Montgomery... 84, 337. 59 84, 337. 59
Morgan....-.... 77, 980. 26 77, 980. 26

12, 883. 00 9, 642. 00 , 241.00 | Special hard-road tax,
19, 981. 93 LOR OS TOR bee sie Cee
Randolph...... 45, 238. 90 Abe Zs OAS el ere sieeee sane
Richland ?...... 25, 788. 92 25, 788. 92 om peri || Gy.
oe , 854. ailway tax.
Rock Island....| 47,100.41 | 38,147.55 { 2 oN manil/ EMEA Lard roed tow:
2,770.00 | Special township taxes.

00 | State aid.
County appropriation.

County appropriation for bridges.
Township hard roads.

Poll tax.
Special hard-road tax,

Williamson. Da 42, 048.
Winnebago..... 137, 741.
Woodford...... 54, 642.
Total.....| 8,419,570.36 | 7,451,353.18 | 968, 217.18
2 106, 287. 00
3 208, 855. 41

Grand total.| 8,734,712. 77

1 For 1913; information not available for 1914.

2 Expended from State appropriation for administration, REET and miscellaneous equipment by
State highway department. .

3 Expended from local bond funds.

XXXVI APPENDIX,
INDIANA.
TABLE 35.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.
General county tax
for road repairs.
Receipts
Total reve- was
. Additional | from motor
County. EG applied Rate, Road tax.) | road tax. oH
2 cents icenses.
per Amount.
$100.

Adams.......... $52, 237.95 | .199 $32, 251. 96 $3,271.35 | $7,725.42 | $5,816.10
PA Me mess SEU 8 134, 601.05 | .06 38, 092. 49 27,866.38 | 25,671.26 | 10,341.45
Bartholomew 62,363.61 | .15 30, 167.19 1243639. |Pec = Seats 5,373. 27
Benton.......... 56,113.68 | .10 20, 675. 70 Wf OY) oS aodooeucee 6,310. 12
Blackford....... 36,989.22 | .20 20, 309. 38 Sh f0): GP Steen aeons 3, 850. 92
Boone.........-. 90,703.06 | .16 49, 517.76 TOMMODIZ8 ee a onenee 6, 714. 09
Brown.........- 9,693.49 | .03 691. 82 1, 503. 49 1, 975. 22 1, 859. 73
Carroll.......... 52,998.59 | .159 22,754. 18 11,756.45 |............ 5, 473. 27
Cassese nes 75,917.95 | .14 29, 148. 53 12,522.57 | 10,261.04 7, 189. 94
Clara 38,490.97 | .12 17, 041. 23 6, 558. 71 6, 293. 43 3, 113. 03
Cla yea eee 33,986.56 | .12 19,171. 61 VR ES boocessanosc 4,572. 74
Chintonsee ae TS RG7SR AOR el Ol | eee ee 3) TOONOS EES. eee 9, 406. 30
Crawford.......- 9,919.13 | .07 1, 862. 71 1, 657. 63 967. 92 1,999. 64
Maviessse ese 44,096.23 | .20 28, 692. 81 SIO WAG sl Been ee 3, 194. 04
Dearborn........ 31,945.92 | .059 6, 000. 24 11, 654. 44 422. 02 2,657. 06
Decatur........- 59,716.59 | .204 33, 847. 97 11, 642. 87 |.....---.--- 4, 661. 52
Dekalb.......... DOF AOR D Ey el ears eae ae 18, 631.06 | 11, 609. 57 3, 689. 95
Delaware........ "75,789.99 | .069 22, 145. 30. Ades Hl eoesaneooc 6, 820. 48
Dubois.......... 20,038.33 | .079 6, 972. 93 (CBE ER len cosoncucne 2, 466. 09
Mikharteeneelee BOR TATE 4 i anca ay SO a gue en 14,554.36 | 11,891.01 | 5,954.14
Fayette......... 29,916.42 | .005 621. 93 TOA) OWL Ione eeesossss 3, 032. 79
INOW So sosseaose 11, 819. 83 02 2, 437. 16 4,060.78 |.........--- 2,360. 54
Fountain......-. 64,510.63 | ~.15 22, 827.18 7,551.91 | 11,108.26 | 4,911.49
Franklin... ..._- 41,136.91 | .135 12, 646. 85 3,042.26] 6,571.58 | ° 3,265.26
Fulton.......... 49,651.15 | .059 7, 757. 84 P40) SBV5GR) |S ooocasscans 3,523.75
Gibson.......... 48,146.28 | .10 18, 660. 78 11,307.98 | 10,187.95 3, 716. 54
Grant 20s s5 os) 112,948.02] .30 91, 404.13 6, 248.00 |--..-------- 9,093. 55
Greene.........- 72, 205. 91 . 309 47, 285. 08 4,144.08.] 11,135.99 5,197. 82
Hamilton. ...... $2,313.08 | .25 51, 239. 41 4,796.92 | 12,955.03 | 7,244.35
Hancock........ 70,003.30 | .129 24, 609. 83 DAT BO2A9) ee eee 4,480. 92
Harrison......_- 25,167.55 | .14 8,944. 31 3,446.41 | 3,930.36 | 2,724.96
Hendricks......- 68,115.09 | .08 15, 606. 59 12,441.73 | 14,799.76 4,314. 34
lel anos 5 sohossse 83,703.65 | .11 27, 359. 64 PBI) EY lapse scsesasc 5,377. 43
Howard......... 45,933.18 | .099 22, 672. 27 W)Ufeios GP) ||5-noosooacce 7, 301. 95
Huntington. .... 78, 833.34 | .159 34, 400. 71 19,388.20 |.........--- 6, 526. 82
Jackson 42,926.13 . 20 30, 511. 30 AV OOMATS | ion eae rete 5, 647. 39
Uasperseeee aes 51,292.75 | .125 15,775. 16 10,102.76 | 9,408.01 | 4,019.35
Vayeeaeeeooinio ss 68,128.52 | .13 22, 085. 78 13, 430.46] 12,419.46 5, 488. 75
Jefferson.......- 31,722.26 | .16 14, 876. 57 2,569.46 | 3,495.67 | 3,041.25
Jennings........ 28, 920. 21 . 159 10, 192. 38 4, 867. 84 4,127.08 3, 340. 80
Johnson......... 57,912.00 | .149 27, 511. 97 4, 287. 55 8, 816. 70 4,493.73
Km Oma seas 58, 407.24 | .15 39, 038. 75 939.06 | 11,750.89 6, 431.19
Kosciusko......- 65,199.99 | .01 2,370. 42 17,134.72 | 12,038.99 3, 859. 38
Lagrange. ....... SISOS RSET eel eins Be ae a 6,860.66; 9,539.04 | 3,234. 69
Taken ee ec ees 128, 883. 51 -10 72, 583. 47 47,054.41 |.....-------| 9, 295. 63
Laporte......... 74, 881.34 | .10 35, 518. 52 16, 847.75 10, 785. 06 5, 442. 21
Lawrence....... 46,384.45 | .25 35, 098. 59 5, 162. 56 581. 56 5, 292. 05
Madison......... 77, 237.69 | .10 36, 661. 67 HOS 269M 024 Ree seen 9, 849. 28
Manione te sauae 182,201.20] .044 115, 346. 59 11,843.62 | 22,768.08 | 22,138.91
Marshall coo Me 44,131.03 -O1 1, 867.02 12, 574. 24 9, 420. 27 3, 679.17
17,578.60 | .10 4,433. 42 A749 08) eee eee 2,271. 40
58,845.14 | .10 19, 254. 38 11, 349. 03 10, 190. 96 5, 657. 71
[ 38, 298.97 | .25 26,491.19 3,441. 27 684. 07 4,191.79
Montgomery.....| 50,074.14 | .1075 |.............. HE Tas Gk No Coo ononsos 7, 190. 94
Morgan.......... 47,526.85 | .11 14, 637. 34 28,890.04 |i. 22222222. 3, 999. 47
55,191.21] .20 27, 103. 28 TL PEL AG: ||Loacsscssous 4, 845. 98
ASAOO paul emerciac los ae ose 16, 296. 17 10, 765. 62 3, 447. 84
14,441.64] .40 8, 023. 31 389.27 | 1,339.70 | 2,105.77
33, 683.84 | .27 17,191. 47 OE OS ll oooeacososse 3, 655. 89
32,105.28 | .23 15, 455. 61 “ERA EP) ede onccosoue 3, 296. 31
53,104.07 | .25 36, 811. 05 GR 288 a2 erent 6, 542. 98
12,057.52 | .02 803. 86 3, 460. 56 387. 98 1, 828. 42
21,775.90 | .07 5, 012. 25 3, 268. 25 5, 669. 58 2,387. 89
72,517.14 | .20 44,193. 50 6, 732.46 } 15, 507.17 4,617.72
39, 682.80 | .12 18, 478. 76 4,665.78 | 10,362.15 | 3,514.87
38,011.40 | .109 10, 292. 11 7, 190. 2 7,789.21 | 4,094.90
62, 332. 93 2465 43, 658. 08 3,971.79 2, 308. 94 7,347. 27
81, 803. 51 -15 34, 920. 07 7, 387. 27 17, 572. 86 6, 390. 55
39,909.49! .20 15, 480. 90 9; OLS S27 lene seers 3, 718. 78

Statute
labor, cash
value.

$3, 173. 12

11, 212. 16
9) 564. 23
21; 560. 64
19, 983. 94

3, 664. 48 _

20, 348. 34
14, 320.79

11, 457. 02
10, 104. 00
16, 590. 33
5, 119. 70
12, 393. 06
3, 490. 65
18, 124. 72
9, 012. 46
18, 187. 63

11, 191. ‘54

1 This includes township tax, road tax, and work road tax which is-paid in cash; the township tax rate
varies in every county and in every township in the county.

APPENDIX.

INDIANA—Continued.

XXXVII

TABLE 35.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914—Continued.

‘ General county tax
for road repairs.

& Total nee Renaiees
ounty. nue applie oad tax.
to roads. Bate,
per Amount
$100.

RUSH ER ee tae o's c $78, 274.68 | .12 $25, 084. 19 $25, 056. 62
St. Joseph .......| 54,411.67 | .02 9, 982. 52 17,716. 27
DSCObte esos seins 17,344.03 | .14 5, 353. 03 2,821.78
Shelbys e2f.8 =. 72, 562.50 | .09 21,310. 96 6, 920. 03
Spencer-- -j-...-- BALO28R OG lence 13, 542. 54 10, 393. 92
tankers cess: 52, 599.36 | .30 24, 556. 45 13, 686. 05
Steuben..-....... SER HS AS OMA eet ite Pee NS LSS cea 17, 800. 58
Sullivan........-. 72, 497. 40 . 20 38, 640. 03 5, 215. 69
Switzerland..... 14,341.09 | .125 4,184, 93 4,118. 66
Tippecanoe...... 67,308.60 | .089 32, 252. 80 5, 777. 29
RID HOMES ee ee! 30, 106. 15 -16 23, 422. 31 - 36
Union wos. 2. 28,992.13 | .10 6, 651. 43 4,142. 60
Vanderburg..... 52,451. 48 - 055 27, 633. 26 5, 855. 76
Vermilion....... 45,972.53 | .2215 31, 625. 76 9, 349. 63
VE OU Ei hoa 63, 633.68 | .06 32, 224. 28 20, 340. 02
WMabashes 222. 68, 430. 50 - 129 27,175. 21 21, 565. 09
Warren......... 47,121.30 | .15 20, 008. 55 13, 641. 48
Warnick 202. 20,674.72 | .02 1,702.19 2, 892. 66
Washington..... 41,018.01 | .20 16, 704.56 6, 276. 45
WWEYTIO = osc cine 80,485.74 | .07 24, 408. 41 28, 394. 79
RVMOUI Siete cteertants 51,149.60} .24 42,221.14 258. 38
Wihite ease se: 59,492.64 | .15 22,511. 74 31, 555. 93
Whitley ......... 53,688.12] .01 1,475.16 13, 665. 25

Motalee.o.- 4, 887,798.95 |......-- 2,022, 117. 24 | 1,018, 639. 26

: 2 8,989,570.98
3 406,616.00

Grand total] 14, 233,985.93

Receipts
Additional] | from motor
road tax. vehicle
licenses.
SA $5, 078. 78

$9,827.31 | 6,982.73
2,235.76 | 2,633.74

5 235.
14,868.57 | 5,079.48
sihet ea eas 2; 060. 01
6,840.77 | 3,914.50
aerdet lee 3,174.81
19,866.21 | 5,461.35
Ee ee: 2, 672. 94
9,978.33 | 8,799. 23
.62| 6,682.86
947.

9,743.76 | 5,592. 63
25.51 | 4,868.88
sprint 7, 140. 98
1.00 5, 986. 26
OE a 4,742. 12

183.
3,531.86, 3,459.31
si ae Tae 6, 387. 25
1,289.55 | 7,380. 53
Pe) mote 5, 424. 97

446,975.58 | 462,811.08

Statute
labor, cash
value.

$23, 055. 09
9,902. 84
4,299.72

24,383. 46
8,031. 90
3, 601. 59

10, 559. 52

- 3,314.12
3, 364. 56

10, 500. 95

———

1 This includes township tax, road tax, and work road tax which is paid in cash; the township tax rate

varies in every county and in every township in the county.
2 Expended from township bonds.
3 Expended from county bonds.

APPENDIX.

XXXVIIT

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XXXIX

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APPENDIX.

XL

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APPENDIX. xXLI

KANSAS.

TABLE 37.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

Combined county and | Other revenue a

Total township road and plied to roads
Caan eat bridge tax. and bridges.
township fe,
County. revenue i
applied to ource.
roads and | _verage

: te, cents

bridges. | T2t®, Amount.
$100.

DEE Auto fees.| Poll tax.

LNG. SoC 4S CAs Sao a OBE e Be EEE See ae a ae ee ed $73, 178 24 $64, 346 $1, 587 $7, 245
ASRIGREON = 5536 He FOSS RAE Se See Ae eet 46, 668 15 38, 057 64 7,971
PML GHISOM eee Bee als isis Secie acne se aistecie odes ei 93, 552 19 83, 751 2,116 7, 685
IB AEB Te eet ecee sistas ce Sands ese eeibes eae 50, 215 22 45, 239 1,316 3, 660
PEP OMU Eee tees la cic Socio ae ee eo craicle 44,796 9 36, 231 2,915 5, 650
IBONTD OMe ere nasa qe 2 sae ness adenosine seges 76, 666 22 68, 230 1, 166 7, 270
LEOVT 5 J oy eoe See hae ae ot ae 119, 813 26 108, 876 3,217 7, 720
PUD e seep oe tena anceectiwems vemoeiste 90, 694 13 78, 486 2,373 9, 835
CHODSO) =. 5 Sai a re ee a a 51,073 23.9 46, 553 1,085 3, 435
(CEPTS ETO LEY se ae er Oe eR poe eteaia oe ass gre 49, 343 29 43, 775 968 4,600
(CEG REES G5 SaaS es he ee En aR arog tree 70, 361 22 60, 185 1,316 8, 860
WHC NETN eRe sre e oe > cei sis s see sane Sean cee cae 10, 600 13 8, 674 366 1, 560
CHET SU TE er SA a ea a 13, 922 9 11, 366 491 2, 065
CIES dc oH HE Se ae en eae ite es EO OL a era 75, 688 21.8 66, 813 2, 280 6, 595
(CHGTIG! = 5 ot dis Seip are ee nee ie OR 95,655 23.9 85, 333 3, 532 6, 790
Cottey 52s a eS NN 76, 193 28 68, 361 1,147 6, 685
UTEASE CLG ye AO a ON ER AT Mes a 18, 059 14 15, 373 651 2,035
(CLONE NY SERS is ee ac en PH MT coe aCe era ac 109, 864 19 98, 135 2, 699 9, 030
WrerwlOr dee ee i eee eee edhe a ot eae 104, 564 20 88, 461 2, 423 13, 680
19, 485 15 15, 723 412 3, 350
85, 651 17 74, 393 3, 393 7, 865
64, 464 22 55, 993 1,596 6, 875
51, 602 12.3 44, 939 1, 298 5, 365
22, 357 12 17,776 1, 466 3, 115
36, 391 21 30, 886 515 4,990
44,715 21.9 40, 881 679 3, 155
40, 497 14 35, 639 1, 808 3, 050
12, 136 8 9, 419 2,075
43,532 16.8 37, 257 1,500 4,775
83, 741 22. 2 74, 517 1, 839 7,385
44, 226 24.4 41,739 1, 282 1, 205.
5, 421 4 3, 269 177 1,975
29, 253 25 25, 686 402 3, 165
1,006 2 441 50 515
10, 878 10.6 9, 295 293 1, 290
785 6 202 73 510
76, 517 9.6 68, 467 1, 260 6, 790
6, 909 19 5, 819 185 905
40, 722 11.7 33, 973 1,774 4,975
61, 930 15 54, 949 2, 086 4, 895
4, 062 9.7 3, 419 93 550
13, 855 16 11, 990 255 1,610
TECH OT S oe UE BEAD wt a ie 75, 082 22.2 66, 154 1, 453 7,475
eHeNSOMemen er eee se cts GL lok Sak versions 100, 603 29 91, 450 1, 363 7, 790
AIL 3 Ss Sie A a eg 120, 796 28 108, 400 3, 034 9, 362
HORTSOME Mee ee em ea nas NUE cals 110, 556 15.1 101, 317 1, 584 7,655
IKGanne pees eens ie oe hae eos ieee | 9, 672 14.9 8, 282 155 1, 235
[TTP RT COS Pe ee SS aie aE la eae ae 53, 318 15.4 46, 136 1, 742 5, 440
HOI Bind Sud Sas BES OBS CREE ae ee enna 24, 840 13.6 21, 674 896 2,270
UES SUID ih a es eer tel 70, 115 11.4 60, 683 1, 807 7,625
TUETAG LS Scie et RS ee ey Pa 2, 767 2.1 1,305 242 1, 220
TL GERa ERODE ee 93, 558 2 84, 387 1,701 7,470
TATOO) ER 2 Se pe re 44, 547 17.2 37, 887 2, 025 4,635
LUN 2 Sede HOUR HORE Ree aoe eee eee 64, 425 28. 4 57, 028 837 6, 560
ERAT eee eet tee ok UU ES cs 14, 918 17 12, 898 220 1, 800
TUSTEID - ceie bicieas 4 Rae ee Ot 97, 503 21 87, 129 1, 924 8, 450
MECIRMETSOME Ra emis so Soe meN Ok Ree ate! 62, 036 il 50, 771 3, 435 7, 830
INEATI OTOP ies AOR TNL Ue SIN ose Seacee 63, 195 13.2 52, 965 2, 815 7, 415
90, 408 16 78, 362 2, 241 9, 805
25, 914 23 23, 417 552 1,945
83, 004 23.5 73, 051 1, 418 8, 535
64, 599 18.7 55, 649 2, 950 6, 000
98, 984 14 85, 498 3, 336 10, 150
55, 051 22.3 48, 525 1,136 5, 390
G5 Si | riety auwe is [wile migra anne 140 815
102, 529 26 92, 470 2,074 7, 985
54, 705 15. 4 46, 325 1, 980 6, 400
10, 863 7.6 7, 790 2, 630
31, 739 16.8 26, 595 724 4, 420

100, 292 27.8 90, 673 1, 289 8,

1 No report.

72690°—Bull. 389 —17——7

XLII APPENDIX.
KANSAS—Continued.
TABLE 37.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914—Continued.
Combined county and | Other revenue ap-
- Total township road and plied to roads
county and bridge tax. and bridges.
township
County. Raven Z
applied to ource.
eoeastand ance Bor
bridges. | 7? be <100 S| Amount
P HieKs Auto fees.| Poll tax
RO SIORIIG Sees Seek nas ene Dr aR ES elk $48, 713 16.7 $42, 272 $1, 821 $4, 620
CoE eR SA aE 46, 050 14.2 38, 594 2,221 5, 235
LEPE SAY U ey eytt Nel) Sen ep an a ca CS a 33, 194 11.2 28, 012 1,637 3,545
TEXETILOTY CHG NE cy for a UME EN CORON Soap 70, 211 29.1 62, 283 1, 468 6, 460
LELOVT ira} HOLE OWS) IN GeV ati te ae 87, 846 25.7 78, 646 1,650 7, 550
Tee SN See UU a UL ae ee ane Oa! 3 31, 702 9.4 25, 588 2, 204 3,910
Rawlins 9, 216 8 6,174 427 2,615
PUOIIG MAT CURBERA che cee oo Be NE Elba ah 106, 121 11.6 89, 938 6, 268 9,915
Republic 82, 927 18.3 72, 326 2, 601 8, 000
PUTED Be Ric etre cera ome e cette eee asus Sats Got ae el 42, 529 9.7 33, 980 2,984 5, 565
Rile 63, 515 19.1 55, 563 2, 407 5, 545
Rooks 51, 451 23.9 45, 661 1,525 4, 265
TRACE BECO cra I ha Ie een eas ULE 8 19, 497 9.2 14, 895 1, 052 3, 550
Russell 51, 622 18.3 45, 472 1, 480 4,670
Saline 48, 882 9 39, 312 3, 235 6,335
"S00 5 ROR ary ae 2,103 1.8 930 233 940
Sedgwick 99, 497 7.7 88, 726 2, 788 7, 983
Seward 5, 939 5.9 4,088 296 1, 555
Shawnee 134, 401 13.7 119, 941 6, 020 8, 440
Sheridan 8, 391 7a 6, 024 212 2, 155
Sherman 15, 488 15.6 13, 751 422 1,315
Smith 71, 023 22.2 60, 781 2, 587 7, 655
Stafford 39, 432 12.9 32, 873 2,374 4,185
Stanton 2,891 14 2, 231 70 590
Stevens... 1,729 LEED 328 131 1,270
Sumner. 64, 945 9.4 51, 180 3, 525 10, 240
Thomas. . 9, 450 6.9 7, 633. 337 1, 480
Trego 11, 082 ea Hi) 8, 582 385 2,115
Wabaunsee 79, 532 30.9 73, 953 259 5, 320
Wallace 1,742 12 590 152 1,000
Washington 87, 524 19.5 79, 095 2,389 6, 040
Wichita 1,789 2.9 969 120 700
Wilson 53, 510 13.7 45, 422 1, 358 6, 730
Woodson 48, 225 29.7 43, 474 641 4,110
Wyandotte 204, 786 40. 2 198, 030 3,741 3,015
5, 534, 968 |.....------- 4,847,055 | 159, 902 528, 011
19, 080.
Granditotalses ie wy Uw ie Qe aia sag 5, 544, 048

1 Educational and advisory work carried on

by State agricultural college.

APPENDIX.

XLII

MICHIGAN.

TABLE 38.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

Receipts
from gen-
County. eral county
and town-
ship tax.
$21, 156. 53
41, 253. 15
145, 873.10
74, 770. 62
43, 556. 14
28, 385. 78
51, 595. 62
59, 891. 71
211, 354. 62
23, 759. 66
188, 769. 30
62, 751. 58
65, 086. 38
f 72, 348. 18
CHEATS Na Ds SNS ES ae 58, 294. 88
ISHOMOY CAMS sca 52 ccs lec eetie see! 63, 308. 25
MMP POW aes fo oa/5oco2< 555 Secwesect & 70, 733. 72
CBT 3) a eee a 35, 555. 76
(CDF 2 8 a A oe eae Ne eae 96, 026. 84
WTA WHORGs See Ss. oe onaas sete ee a2 17, 963. 24
ICUS = ance eee eee eae 58, 329. 52
PTE RATISONE 2 2722 cepa cmon aes 58, 107. 81
DEO. Se AE ee ane me costes 99, 884. 62
DTIC SASS Boone Bee ee aC Hee e Eenasee 56, 641. 32
EE GSHOS se Se bee uerssaeeeenneuceoeene 233, 447. 49
ENG hth es Rs a ee ee 39, 525. 30
(CORGIIICSS 2 oe See eS aS ae eG 199, 460. 60
Granduhraverse sb 2.6 sa. sec ee yee 57, 567. 57
GETOIS Se GOSS aee ee ae eae een 92, 716. 40
EUS aleuem ee Sere ie ee ek 102, 780. 59
Houghton
WINE - = doscéecbendadeddssoossoeeaess
LEDGE TES Sarre era estate ae
LTS 66 eee BEE eee

Tosco...

Isabella.

ATOR 2 2

USC ESOT 55 Sieh eee a Eve ee ee

ealamMaZ00e Saw aasesa seen. Se: 0s. 117, 254. 80

LEP UIT 8 es el ge ree 34, 075. 66

EGE CTIA Me teats cin = 2 ns 2 = sce aoe sie ae 37, 875.61
CMe Nee ee ee ene ten ce ace Some ee 236, 150. 97

Ke eee eee le odes eco o's 20, 028. 73

RACE Rete Ae oe cen welt 69, 052. 93

NCC ANAM eer ae eee oe achlore Se asec. 26, 080. 78

Receipts

from gen-
County. eral county

and town-

ship tax.

$117, 367.84
67, 605. 70
20, 633.08
28, 371.67
126, 874. 70
62, 629. 66
Marquette sere so yan ss ee eee 177, 409. 84
Masoneiarectecan se soiccen cae ckince 59, 707. 66
IMeCostal se wasretaite sano @shemnncaegecme 59, 189. 61
Menomineesyn ao. ihe eae eee 88, 395. 05
Mv etc A EA eA SAE 40, 130. 95
Missaulkee meee sees ee A oe snae 39, 033. 12
Monroe seein es etwas ed oan caer 101, 411.34
Montcalm eet) ese ee seo kee 79, 803. 54
Montmorencyeer ess. 6a someon 16, 289. 86
Muskegonsereee es eee ee 5 i 97, 597.77
ING Way POR eee eia noes cio cicinetie e oecielate 65, 174.14
Oakklaridee gyre So sles Ui 1 Le 242, 797.18
Oceana Varese BOO hone Uae 50, 552. 06
Operia wee een see eye Oe ook 23, 893. 42
Qritonacone ed pesca e.ceee yo eee 122, 534. 06
Osceola ara st es eee only 49, 625. 42
Oscoda ie sa Sie ak yy Le BA oll 7,577.00
Otsevor eee out ate tae See ee 18, 933. 54
Otbawaweet 5. ae ee ah 125, 584. 37
Presquepislere) aa ae senate eke 25, 259. 71
TROSCOmIOTM ep 2S Be Nese as ek ae 12, 776. 48
Saginaw lee 4. oe SEWER po 249, 934. 09
SATA ee ES Se le UAE OU 109, 414. 72
Schoolers it ae Suk eee aN ear Se 28,112.11
SHTAWASSCOE Ic Ye Pee a ee a 123, 750. 62
SHC bare Pe ye, ee eee ed 157, 613. 73
St. Joseph 66, 812. 01
"PASC OTA ES Rf GPa VLU Sabah etek ary eee a 128, 362. 27
Van Buren 81, 809. 05
Washtenaw . 75, 203. 26
Wayne...- 169, 627. 51
Wie SOr Sacer NN es 49, 580. 09
oN) 2 eae ee at a Bee 7, 080, 177. 00
1 657, 264. 00
21,524,557.00
Grand ptotalles soe 2 5) as See 9, 261, 998. 00

1 State reward fund.

2 Estimated expenditures from local bond funds.

XLIV

APPENDIX.

MINNESOTA.

TABLE 39.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

County.

Big Stone-.-....-
Blue Earth

Cottonwood..--
Crow Wing.....
Wakotaessssees-

Faribault-....-.
Fillmore......-.
Freeborn.....--
Goodhue. .-----..

Jackson...-..--.

Kanabec....--.-.
-Kandiyohi-...-
Kittson.....-..
Koochiching....
Lac qui Parle...

Mahnomen.....

Martinaensnssee
Meeker..--..--.--
Mille Lacs......
Morrison....-..
Mower....-..-..
Murray.-..-..-.--

General county and
township tax.

Total revenue
applied to
roads and

bridges. Rate,
mills
per $1.
$70,717.42 | 13.35
55,072.56] 6.58
36, 548. 16 4.67
66,430.13 | 10.51
39,321.02 | 8.09
32,075. 95 4.30
58,213.40] 2.09
55,724.59 | 5.48
49, 129. 89 7.48
55, 056. 88 4.05
64, 403.53 | 10.11
54,115. 70 3.33
39, 116.59 5.15
49, 692. 87 4.95
29, 230. 45 7.28
° 39,871.70 | 10.28
59, 553. 78 3.88
50, 499. 55 4.85
69, 082. 72 3.76
37, 629. 56 5.72
40,971.86 | 3.95
62,272.42 | 3.54
74, 959. 41 4.68
84,304.91 | 4.92
107,455.11] 5.21
31, 417.37 4.57
76, 277.91 2.15
50, 872. 56 6.34
42,605.32 | 8.74
41,715.87 8.83
232, 014.12 6. 63
83, 078. 08 5.38
32,340.95 | 9.85
74,612.38 | 5.42
49,953.88 | 6.21
69,018.36 | 10.79
78, 751. 60 2.98
58,250.47 | 11.11
48,089.56] 3.54
52, 665. 99 5. 23
76, 775. 01 6.35
71, 352. 44 3.86
26, 725.39 9.05
55,342.82 | 7.06
75, 756. 71 5.89
78,289.29 | 5.83
56,791.83 | 9.05
56,063.88 | 5.72
79, 188. 55 4.37
49, 284.75 3.97
58,240.84 | 4.09
42, 750. 85 3.32
40, 785. 93 5.41
75, 639. 96 5.15
97, 298.36 5.99
27, 293. 69 5.73
65,647.91 | 10.42
32, 208. 51 Bala
80,354. 76 6. 70
31, 452. 57 4.88
156, 072. 34 -88
29, 038. 39 7.43
47, 748. 88 3.53
68, 912. 29 4.48
74, 076. 41 3.69

Receipts.

$54, 217. 42
39, 572. 56
22, 548.16
49, 430. 13
23, 821. 02
16,575.95
39, 213. 40
41, 724.59
32, 629. 89
39, 256. 88

49, 403. 53
40, 115.70
24, 616. 59
35, 692. 87
15, 230. 45
24,371. 70
45,553. 78
35, 999. 55
50, 082. 72
23, 629.56
26,971. 86
46,772. 42
58,959. 41
68, 804. 91
89, 955.11
17, 417.37
41,277.91
35, 872. 56
28, 605.32
27,215. 87

152, 797.47

62, 463. 08

18, 340. 95
58,612. 38
35, 953. 88
50, 018. 36
53, 720.33

44,250. 47
32, 089. 56
38, 665. 99
62, 775.01
57, 352. 44
12, 725.39
40, 342. 82
60, 756. 71
62, 289. 29
28, 791.83
41, 563. 88
64, 188.55
35, 284.75
19, 217. 84

28, 750. 85

fe 57

52,912. 29
58,576.41

Other revenue applied, to roads.

State aid

to.
counties.

Miscellaneous revenue.

Amount. Source.

$16, 500

City and town
donations.

Transfer of funds
5, 000. 00 [rato appropri-

ation.
Liquor licenses.

tax.

23, 028.00 | City, village, and
township levy.

State tax
for roads
and bridges
(1 mill).

$5,316. 05
4, 987. 83
7,371.28
6, 823. 39
4, 133.21

25; 714. 50
3 10, 222. 74

2, 426. 75
9, 473. 48
5, 983. 22
6, 924.03
9, 688. 45

4,268.75
8, 280. 06
6,174. 40

10, 205. 73
9, 368. 26
2) 110.41
8, 097. 96

11,453.49
8,415.17
3, 336. 12
7, 552. 45

12) 622. 87
9, 154.15
7, 033. 26

11,324.61

APPENDIX. XLV
MINNESOTA—Continued.
TABLE 39.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges—Continued.
See cinuaie Other revenue applied to roads.
Total voverue plate tax
applie or roads
County. roads and i Miscellaneous revenue. |and bridges
bridges. | Rate, ‘ State aid (1 mill).
mills Receipts. to_
per $1. counties. ‘Amount. Source.
$53, 735.85 4.65 $39, 735. 85 $8, 581. 52
42,020.80 | 9.63 28, 020. 80 4,281.98
923, 177. 63 2.91 888,177. 63 5, 000 314, 817. 26
33,977.96 | 5.15 15, 877.96 ety 000 |$2, 100.00 | City and town 6,211.27
donations.
37, 266. 47 6.18 20, 766. 47 TER SOO Tero al Sea PN ee aaa 3, 083. 47
66, 789. 23 4.44 52, 789. 23 TES OOO ees oe eae ced sca eelee cies 8, 780. 60
74,017.43 | 5.55 BSsOLe Asi, RO DOOO | MN Mie CRs fa LAL SLES 18, 144.91
41,983.31 | 3.67 26 483.30) 54500) | Meal OnE A es Seno oa 7, 821.56
45,032.45 | 5.45 Fei NCAT Wey TURRIRO TY IE 1 OI ON Dea NE TV 2 5, 651.60
45,667.89 | 4.13 BUSTA O eed Meanh Ten tt) || is Rs A Vs ey 7, 707.94
58, 169. 12 5.13 44,169.12 4S OOO eee seer | Recic cise cicincises ccs 7,373.50
33,294.19 | 3.75 TONGA TO; Med A O00) eae ANGE LE cea We 5, 947.30
41,405.31 | 4.22 GORE NOY lh TUS G0) | eS 8, 292. 84
30,994.65 | 6.44 TGSO942655| 745000) eae | eNOS NNR RS 2,799. 74
43,458.43 | 5.03 DON ABR 4 sil eed OC ee nye NNN cA OF MASE As ay 6, 883. 49
Washington. ... 47, 273.46 4.23 30, 773. 46 TOBE) | beeen Ieee Sees ene 10, 363.85
Watonwan..... 42,052. 53 4.03 28, 052. 53 TY SLU) | Geneon tere eben wom eres Aa 6, 886.05
ilican so 29,323.41 | 6.63 14,833.41} 14,000] 490.00 | Liquor licenses 6,575.30
Winona........ 79, 181. 23 2.97 49,181.23 OS OODR Beree = S8 3 res ne 15, 052. 78
Wright ......... 95,133.76 | 5.72 7959193764 uy GN OOOS mee ee rk NEON LS ON ses 10, 487. 68
Yellow Medicine 65, 193. 02 3.96 51, 193. 02 14% OOOR Paseo Ja | ow isnte stsciisislewelecie 9, 481.59
Totals. 22 5, 885,355.07 |.....--- 4,388, 254.15 |1,400, 000 |97, 100. 92 1, 369, 969. 95
1 143, 785.00
2 499, 800. 00
Grand
total....| 6,458, 940.07

1 Maintenance State highway department, 1914. 2 Local bond expenditure,

APPENDIX.

XLVI

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L APPENDIX.

MONTANA.

TABLE 41.—Revenue for roads and bridges, 1914.

General county road | other revenue applied to roads and bridges.

and bridge tax.
Total ae a
nue applie
County. to roads and
bridges eee
7 mul per| Amount. Amount. Source.
Beaverhead....--- $51, 188. 62 5 $39, 744. 10 hy ca BB Belencg from 1913.
: , 724. 0.
Big Horn. --------- 22,778. 80 Feb USE { 1,014.05 | From State highway fund.
Blaine ee eee = 28,034. 61 1 9, 602. 25 18, 432.36 | Balance from 1913.
Broadwater...---- 31, 359. 33 3.5 13, 330. 00 18, 029. 33 Do.
Carbon eee. essa. 87, 830. 05 5 51, 350. 21 36,497.84 | ~ Do.
Cascade.....------ 113, 573. 59 3 58, 845. 18 54, 728. 41 Do.
Chouteau..-....-.-- 60, 447. 91 4 35, 061. 75 25, 386. 16 Do.
Custere es 224,811. 45 4.5 | 162,140.78 62, 670. 67 Do.
Dawson...-------- 72, 926. 35 5 54,877.30] ~- 18,049.05 Do.
Deerlodge..------- 36, 542. 03 3 18, 982. 45 17, 559. 58 7 Do.
Mallonyaeee esse eos 29, 105. 83 5 ZO TOG So eee eee a 5
79,971. 79 0. :
Fergus wiepmie miata ii) 179, 744. 32 5 99, 388. 53 { 384. 00 Lewiston special fund.
Flathead ....------ 109, 942. 59 5 56, 805. 57 58, 137.02 | Balance from 1913.
Gallatiney esse: 65, 875. 46 5 59, 651. 88 6, 223. 58 |” Do.
Granite....---.---- 27, 308. 82 4 13, 865. 97 13, 442. 85 Do.
apt a se ee = 82, 223. 90 5 . 46,390. 75 35, 833.15 Do.
Jetiersone: = 222 ae 35, 362. 53 2.5 24, 430. 77 10, 931. 75 Do.
Lewis and Clark. - 44, 060.37 3 32, 849. 83 11, 210. 54 Do.
Wincolnseee ee so) --| 128,329. 29 5 99, 678. 30 28, 650. 99 ae ra ees
A 7,178.11 istrict road fund.
Madison......-...- ae : BML { 29,406.77 | Balance from 1913.
Meagher...-- osbo50 59, 708. 46 3.5 32, 509. 56 27,198. 90 Do.
Wine ua canabasoe 9, 524. 15 2.5 QURAN Me oA ey
Missoula......-.-.- 81,970. 71 2.5 77, 319. 34 4,651.37 Do.
Musselshell......-- 56, 802. 39 2, 25, 733. 52 31, 068. 87 Do.
Parkes Crecens As 61, 206. 64 5 60, 633. 46 573.18 Do.
es ad UG fh 24) Sais | (ERIE Sp ae SUS J eM ed Lae Oates al [eer ee A
Powelleseieesace ae 65, 999. 38 5 39, 678. 92 26, 320. 46 Do.
IPTAIRIE So ss eee eee 16, 009. 00 3 16;009)00)) 2242 2 Se ee
Ravalliges ees om 45, 798. 40 3 23, 605. 62 22, 192. 78 Do.
Richlandmencs see 19, 843. 12 5 PONSA VLD eee uN ia
Rosebud.........-- 109, 968. 55 5 64, 328. 23 45, 640. 32 Do.
anderses aaa ae 82,617.75 3 66, 036. 11 16, 581. 64 Do.
Sheridan. ........-. 83, 678. 71 3 63, 482. 20 20,196. 51 Do.
Silverbow......... 81, 566. 37 2 59, 809. 10 21,757. 27 Do.
Stillwater......... 65, 766. 24 5 47, 115. 04 18, 651. 20 Do.
Sweet Grass....... 31, 657. 59 325) 16, 313. 99 15, 343. 60 Do.
Teton... 197, 297. 27 3 70,400.11 |f 31,080.81 De.
Sincere peers inc aa ise 95,816.35 | Road ang bridge fund and
awards.
oolesz ve. e eee 10, 750. 21 3 8, 882. 21 1, 868.00 | Special road fund.
Malleyetsss..22ee eh 78, 023. 42 3 42,740. 00 35, 283.42 | Balance from 1913.
Wb ai eee 11, 624. 55 5 (UNG PCG Ee ee ee
Yellowstone... ..- 104, 524. 67 5 61,186.15 43, 338. 52 Do.
Total nanan DCP AUENOD | bases seals: 1, 764, 957. 88 | 1,007, 452. 02
213,515.71
3 102, 475.00

Grand total. .| 2,888, 400. 61

1 No report.
2 Expenditure by State highway commission from motor-vehicle fund.
3 Expenditure from county bond issues.

APPENDIX.

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LIV APPENDIX.
NEVADA.
TABLE 43.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1915.
General county General county
Total ae Total ae
revenue revenue
= Poll : Poll
County. applied to County. applied to
roads and Hate, tax. roads and Hae tax.
bridges. per Amount. bridges. per Amount.
$100. $100.
Churchill... ... $3, 875.00 |.....- $3,075.00 | $800 || Mineral........ $9,600.00 | 18 | $7,200.00 |$2, 400
Clarke tes Sete 19, 000. 00 20 | 14,800.00 | 4, 200 BOs tee 19, 000. 00 10 | 11,000. 00 |_8,000
Douglas......- 2,750.00 | 38] 1,250.00 | 1,500 || Ormsby....... 5,000.00} 29] 4,500.00] 500
Bilkowgl ees 75,000.00 | 21 | 72,600.00 | 2,400 || Storey:....._.. A OOOROD|Seeae =| eeeee ae 1,000
Esmeralda.....| 6,600.00 | 04 3,000.00 | 3,600 || Washoe. . -...-| 30,000.00 |...--. 21,000. 00 | 9,000
A Dj0t:).¢: ae 4, 800. 00 07 | 3,600.00 | 1,200 |) White Pine..--.| 14,900. 00 35 | 4,900.00 |10, 000
Humboldt... 4, GSO) |ebosodlanosccccess 4,500 Total 7756.86) Tal raniaaaiaell Fi
10 otal......- OOn eee se 1 . 86 |54, 026
Lander.......- 8, 231. 86 { na } 7,805.86 | 426 tty ne , ,
Lincoln... . DEF OOVOOM Renee eee eaeee 2,500 pee —
AON sdnowosnen 21,000.00 | 27 | 19,000.00 | 2,000 Grand total. 245, 013. 65
1 Expended from county bond issue.
NEW MEXICO.
TaBLE 44,—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914. =
General State and
county tax, roads | Other revenue applied to roads and bridges.
and bridges.!
Total
y revenue
ounty. applied to any
Gee rate, State’ Forest Special Personal leva tee
Santee Amount. easaa bridge tax.| tax ($3). | special
$1. ; roads.
Bernalillo. ......... $28, 859. 07 4 | $24, 739. 73 $111. 35 $200.99 | $3,807.00 |.......-..
Chaves! ee 25, 166. 63 4| 24,862.18 71.10 PERT ayn erate Mee ae Pap Oe
Colfascse2 = ae ana 50, 621. 58 4] 22, 406. 23 24.20} 12,720.00] 10,114.65 | 5,356.50
Curry ees. 4,926.74 Ail PABA RS OG IED sti. SO ea eas el SUG 379550) aaa
Dona Ana.......... 68,343. 55 AN G5, 62700 seca 440.:00'|..-.----2-5- 2, 276. 48
IDG (ah Neier ene 12, 291. 88 4| 6,824.64 22.35 | 4,648.76 TOG 13 eeeeeen ney
Grant eee 45, 527.97 4| 33,306.24] 2,236.96 |............ 9498477) ||. 5 eae
Guadalupe. -.-..-.- 8, 520. 12 4 SOQ Qe cease NCS Sk Se ts OMe Se Cee meee
neolneeeasten ee 13, 724. 20 4| 12,161.18 HGAS OTe eens O98N75) [bac meen eee
ina ena | 15, 832. 13 A] MeTAVOSRNGS) | eee eee al hallarey tree he 15430745 ee oeeenee
McKinley.......... 27, 204. 48 AA SAG) eye O83 Easy as CASTE 6571000) Se anes
Mora to ceeee 17, 618. 39 4} 15,020.72 PA ALY Gl easecee ric aces seas 2,320. 00
Otero....- 15, 973. 31 4 12,610.12 i
Quayeeeee 5, 227. 41 4| 5,224.41
Rio Arriba. _. 10, 826. 97 4| 6,801. 42
Roosevelt ........-- 5, 114. 88 4 4,970. 88
Sandoval..........- 4,361.99 |. 4 3, 981. 89
SanjJuamsuccaacss 7,500. 97 Bale avn AGon ken wallets NSN | Mend sscseea Saesussone
San Miguel....._... 39, 300. 17 4| 16,316.39] 1,168.70| 21,126.08 684. 00 5.00
Santa Fe........... 12, 255. 76 4 8, 018. 38 431. 69 3, 452. 69 133. 00 220. 00
Sierra oe See eae 7, 754. 29 4 6, 276. 44 6315757 | Pee bees oe 846.10 |...-----.-
SOCOLEO see = eee ee 27, 934. 26 4 9, 988. 31 3, 994. 54 8, 085. 94 3,761.90 | 2,103.57
Manse soya pessoas 6, 069. 75 4 4,967. 71 De WOZROA SR CER ee eee ye ie So Ss Se Seale teh ee
Torrance. 22) 22. 222. 5, 493. 52 4 5, 140. 53 SA8nO0 ue) eA 95003225 ee
Winton OSes scobees 7, 872. 64 4 Cots (Ie PA esa ear ey nares 24300) |o- ee eee
Valencia............ 36, 076. 16 4 9, 806. 05 606. 28 9, 423. 60 565.05 | 15,675.18
Mopaleesesuan 510, 398. 82 |..........-- 357,955.15 | 16,871.69 | 63,320.46 | 42,280.64 | 29,970.88
3 16, 000. 00
430, 000. 00
Grand total...| 556,398. 82

2 The ‘‘forest reserve fund” is applied to roads and schools, but there is no way of dividing the amounts.

3 Expended by Statefrom automobile licenses.

4Expended from bond-issue funds in Dona Ana County.

APPENDIX.

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Par Tee wpe | beam Seceetacee || Jayco oct || oa ee oe ia apa elem eS punj ospliq pues peo peroodg , F . *aoos zoo! seecescccs
og ‘sez ‘58 | 00'es | FF Tieden seco, “+++ =puny uoneuoo pure Aouedioenss | oo-gTg J| 00°0968 | oF-60zs | oo-ssa‘oes | 06 zee ‘x28 surepy
*xO} ‘938M. pes *poxIoM anit
IOQ®] sAep Jo oumM 3 A bie}s10 (319) 0 | 3 *SOSPI
jo onyea elle roqumu | uoeurjo \ CEUINOEMS) UCC) IA I USOE LG yuNoUV’ | X80 | ony Bann pute spror
yseg V | osesoay | soquinn puesjunoo | O}perdde “Ayu
B10U04) OnUdADI
I 18101,
*X®B] 10GB] *sodplIq pus Spvol 07 por{dde sonuosCI 10|3.O
- “PI6L ‘sebprwig puv spvo. 07 payddn onuarasy— Gh ATAVY,

‘VLOMVG HLUON

APPENDIX.

LVI

“AyUNOD SSUI[[Ig Ul pepnyout st ‘aosvos oures 94} 10; ‘AyUNOD sdorg {AyuNOD WOZIOT UL popNyour st “PI6T 10; o[qelIeAe vyep oyeredes Ou 4AM ‘pozrues10 ATMou ‘AjyUN0D xnNoIS—aALON,

c) *989 ‘Ch SS (eee (Ce
00802‘ | oct g gor {
96 °669°S | ALT | ones als SUS ee
SO eel 66. Ae
oo9te‘2 | 00°F g a |
OS TST ‘T | G2°T i2 46 {
oo's's |oo'e | 8 ee
“xt : “poyiom | -pexz0M
JOqey pees skepjo | oa
Jo on[ea osteo gequmu | wow jo
ysté9 A esBIOAYV | JOQUINN
x8} JOGeT

Be See pt eee as eg ieee ee a og hY =the 89 °E8S “FIZ | $6260 ‘FS 09006 ‘FF| F9 6TF ‘9TO'S | Zo E88 ‘COPS |" ~- THIOL

Bee ee Pe'T Yoo 009‘ | 03286 | 00°966‘22 | 0c "e6u‘@8 |-------" SUIRITIT AA
ee seers eae Se eat en aey na TS op--"*"| 00°000‘9 | 00" | OF FFO‘T | ET 620 ‘FF EOOTE TS Wess STON
Soe oe Soar puny espriq pue peor etoadg | 00'910'% | 00000 '€ | 00°09 'T | 00 :000 ‘08 OO"TéS 98 =|" "777" PIM
Bee ee ee ete eee me ee eee Senco ean eee eee Inns Sek 00 008 ‘% | 09 “PLS T | F812 ‘T9 COREOGE CO = | eens USTe AA
ee ee en ear Op" **" "| 00000‘ | 00°009'T | 08 ‘ZS9°T | 00 “00T ‘92 O8'SE (Ef eA,
eS See ae a asa ae Soe ae ag en Op"-"""| @8"Par‘S | 00°00E ‘I | 00°66 _ | 22 °LE9 ‘OF fOI9T 8h = |" 77777 TOUMOL,
eee ae ey strrssrsttsst ts sops "=" "| 007000 “0T | 00000 | 0¢ ‘OFF ‘T | 00 "000 “62 0G OP ‘86 = [7777 WBNS {N}S
Bo eae ee eee eta ee ae ec ees **--0p""="| 00°000'8 | 00°000‘T | 08 ‘218 | 00 008 ‘OT O08 CIT ‘06 =|" " "7 =" “90038
Re eee Se econ eer eee punj espliq pues peor yetoodg | 69°280'ZT | 00°00L T | 08862 | 69868 ‘OF 80°SL6°FG fo areas
Be hd eae Ge SN a (ee Becht ee wal Tan ee REY [a es oe mae GZ "669 Z sreesress = 9dolg
oe S pelea er ger ner eee ae punj espliq pue peor peroodg | 00169 00002 ‘T | 02°96 | 00008 ‘Tz 0286'S =| Wepre
See ert ee ca gee ae eed | Meee os ceel | eee a ORGS SSS ae ees OFS BE oa | Sena **"xnolg
PROS Re aieeege aus punj espriq pue peoryperoods | 00°09G‘T | 0000F‘T | 00°6S6 | 00 “cee ‘es OO '@FT ‘8 |" 7 7777 = = “quads
Se ea ag Pa ne ars oe Oe eee | rare V9 62S T | 09 68E 00 “000 ‘0z ¥6 C19 1% oreo 094910
BR oe eee ce eee THOT EHO pInia Aorentonre linorene © flee 288. | OBCBET c)| OOLGy ge Gi TO GOT Ig === --casDUEInOra
BoE Sata Saale sae ape pei eee CRS | PEER ee ag 00°002‘T | O8"IS¢ | 006zT ‘ze 08 08s ‘eg = f"7 77777 OTTATIOT
ere Coe oC a a age oe Re geen oun oe neuen 2 os oe ie 00 ‘00% ‘T | OF TS8 | 00 000 ‘Ez OF ISS SG J * "°°" tosuey
ee ee SOE ere arte lee 00°000‘8 || 00°000% | OF TLT‘T | 00°000 ‘FF OTL GG 55352 ~--Aosurey
ae eae a apt Coe ne Rael ea. aes J q ¢ Q q 5 secccessece,

ee ee ee puny uorjeiop pure Aouad Lough ory f] 00°008'T | OF'sTs | covets te ‘| 06 ‘Ber ‘ee oor
COE HORDE Y GE ee 7 0 Cree Satpal tan eeeraane op" *-*"| 000006 — | 00000 @ | 09°202 ‘T | 00 ‘000 ‘er 09°20 ‘8h = 777777" BUTQMIET
PBR EN SLw ee Bae ee aa puny espliq pus proryeloedg | 00 6cr 00°00L | 00°66 | $9882 ‘81 99 OTS 61 enemas... 4 (0)
Bee re Oe Oy ae ee AS a ear 00°009 T | 00620 T | 82 °8ch SE 8L°L01-8§ = J UOSTON,
Ree er ee ST CGTERD UMD RSADTORIORE eto ez, ¥ 1) 00000 | os‘s6e | oovezo‘9e | og zze ‘8h «= f+" TreaguMOyT
snes evs SS usrGsenynenaee esas pun} espriq pue peor peroodg | 00°000‘Fr | 0000S ‘e | 09690‘ | 00"000 ‘Sr 09°699 ‘G6 |" """WOYIOTT

: : : “esuiadIT : “sospriq
90INOS SNOOUBI[IOSTIL qunomy | xe} [[0d omy d en pue speor
TY 0} perdde “kyuM09
pue Ayun0d |“ onuaaes
$ [e10ue4y 18104,
*SesPlIq pus SpvOl 04 porjdde sonueAel 10430
‘ponuyu0j—#767 ‘sabpisg pun spoo. 07 paddy anuaray—'Gp ATAV,

‘penulju0)—V.LOMVG HLUON

APPENDIX.

OHIO.

LVII

TABLE 46.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges outside of incorporated cities, 1914.

County.

Coshocton......-.

Delaware.......-

Geauga
Greene..........

Guernsey......--

Hamilton........
Hancock......-..
Hardin

Henr

Jackson.........
Jefferson.........
NOR a. ob sees

Pickaway.......
IREERVe eee = wees s
Pikes MSs weiss

1 Expenditures for the year 1913, taken from Bulletin No. 23, State Highway Department.

Total reve-
nue applied
to roads and

bridges.

Other revenue.

Amount.

127, 246. 29

2
1, 120,911. 00
14, 361. 69
21, 289. 92
45,942. 45
33, 693. 76
50, 908. 91
18,638.27

105,010. 32
90, 311. 83

290, 429. 36
107, 369. 19
55, 433. 81
50, 384. 78
21,916. 28
26, 321. 03
14, 781. 98

8, 159. 24
69, 805.33
11; 044. 40
124) 739, 71
37, 740. 34

77, 653. 33

74, 655. 83

73, 151. 68
52,381. 51

89, 467. 65
219, 576. 00

65, 364. 39

3, 704. 01
12) 547. 60

380, 072. 12

15, 767. 95
124, 660. 22
9, 529. 60
2; 982. 00
102) 272. 16

62, 912. 87

2 Township.
3 Incorporated township.

72690°—Bull. 3889 —17——8

15, 863. 08

“16, 000. 00 State highway.

7, 513. 07

Special tax.

16, 601. 61

30, 000. 00 Do.
2; 500.00 | Automobile tax.
1, 350. 00 Special road tax.

see erccccccs

Other sources.

General :
counLy pa Sead
ae P | counties.
$13, 748.41 | $6,686. 34
112,008. 46 | 15,237.83
8,436.05 | 1,233.04
35, 095. 28 613.43
27,062.50 | 9,433.16
27, 119. 70
1 49933.00 | 58,467.32
15,310.98 | 1,405.91
11, 940. 69 316. 60
25, 257. 45 86. 37
19,830.00 | 10,380. 26
64,702.61 | 4,390.38
162; 708.00 | 1,146. 46
24, 795.00
12,000.00} 5,102. 41
11,918. 41 14. 40
17) 449, 49 986. 46
1 1,120,886.00 25. 00
14, 237. 19 124. 50
14,371.60] 5,218.32
45, 000. 00 942. 45
23,500.00 | 10,193. 76
50, 908. 91
; 10, 400. 00 8,238.27
7386.
{ Seen eet } 11, 623. 68
172/553.00 | 1,895. 75
6,681.00 | 2,882.64
35,000.00 | 4,898.04
185, 434. 00 9, 606. 91
’ 000. 00
{ 29,270. 43 |f 4604. 22
287,042.00 | 3,387.36
106,000.00 | 1,369.19
150,494.00 | 4,939.8
20, 100.00 | 14, 284. 78
21, 301. 94 614.34
24,204.00 | 2,117.0
5,228.18} 2,040.73
8,090. 69 68. 55
24; 189.43 | 45,615. 90
10, 562. 00 482, 40
1123/324.00| 1,415. 71
» 37,728.34 12.00
26, 431. 16
{ Pie } 26, 000. 00
40,000.00} 2,155.83
21, 850.00 | 49, 951. 68
52, 198. 87 182. 64
23) 752. 55
49, 505. 78 \ 36, 209. 32
1219, 534, 00 42.00
8 48, 138, 93
284,196.02 | 2,806. 99
20, 017.76 935.4
221, 870.00
537500. 00 |} 19,994.39
3, 497. 12 206. 89
2; 659.20 | 9,888. 40
44,000. 00 72.12
15, 689. 11 78, 84
79,535.50 | 42,455.72
9,294. 27 235.33
2; 964.00 18. 00
157,594.00 | 44,678. 16
16,811.93 | 1,545.67
7,568.63 | 12,408. 78
15, 200. 00 410. 85
23; 751.88 | 14,139. 40
136, 763. 00 52.95
4,425.49 | 7,452. 64
98,514.80 | 21,161. 43
57, 450.00 | 2, 962.87

6, 000. 00
320; 000. 00

General.

2,500.00 | Repair fund.

Source.

Special assessment.

Emergency bridge funds.

LVIII

APPENDIX.

OHIO— Continued.
TABLE 46.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges outside of incor porated cities, 1914—

Continued.
Total reve- General 4 Other revenue.
Count nue applied | county and Siete me
Me toroadsand | township | oounties
bridges. _ tax. - | Amount. Source.

$108, 965. 10

$98, 313.00 | $10, 652. 10

42,890.46 | 38,000. 00
41,507.58 | 30,390.00 i
33,765.07 | 21,103.95 | 12,661.12
178,306.13} 55,500.00 | 11/806. 13 |$ii1, 000. 00
35,191.65 | 34, 463.59 TORI0B I Sige
33,886.00 | 33, 868.00 TIEN (oo
292, 942.22 | 1292; 172. 00 TIO" 22) (wie ule By |
104,638.22 | 27)210.00| 45,435.39 | 31,992. 83
111,191.83 | 29,218.00 | 81,973.83 |
147,605.17 | 137,240.00 | 8, 137.17 | 2, 228.00
51,717.00 | 51,693.00 DANOO! el 5.4
3, 783. 75 3, 479. 00 Creel a aeer VE
26,649.19 | 120,292.00| 6,357.19 |...........-
6,518.00 | 6,500.00 18. 00! |: eset
* 000.
60, 090. 50 { 50’ 504. 46 |¥ 10,496.04 |.-----------
141,887.27 | 112,000.00 | 29,887.97 |........----
12; 699. 29 B/O1G104 | araasahas | ca pla iu)
110, 321.22] 250,000.00 321. 22 | 60,000.00
187,088. 45 | 1185,485.00| 1,603.45 |........----
Total...... 6,877, 476. 29 | 5,266,081. 98 | 796,476. 72 | 814, 917.59

3] 072, 413°95
4 6, 384, 300.74

Grand total |14, 334, 245.98

BS iol iii eines Iie iii inn

Special road tax.

Special assessments.

Collected from property owners.

Road repair.

1 Expenditures for the year 1913, taken from Bulletin No. 23, State Highway Department.

2 Township.

3 Expenditures by State highway department in addition to disbursements to aommets,

4 Bond money spent 1914.

OREGON.

TABLE 47.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

Total
revenue
County. applied to Rate,
roads and mills Amount. Amount.
bridges. per $1.
$48, 938. 49
Bakor 20.5002 S51 GO GON st le ec th a a 870. 38
2,093. 03
Benton.........- 70, 287. 44 5 $44,000.00 | 1.26, 287. 44
Clackamas....... 368, 214. 85 8 240, 000.00 | 1 128; 214. 85
Clatsop.......... 100,000.00 |........-- TOO; 0G0"00) | 4.82 sue ed
Columbia........ 175, 500. 00 G55) 2 tr Se5cOvO0 face ean
Coos tak es 220,205.21 |.......2-- 2220, 205.21 |..... «aaa"a6
+930.
Crop ee ue eat 128, 732. 46 3.5| 24,385.01 { 196.5
2; 200. 00
Cumy eee 38,613.62) oasssoes 22, 638. 40 { 143°778, 2
Douglas........- 168, 500. 00 5 167, 000. 00 { Be
200.
Gilliam.........- 55,000.00 |......---- 30,000.00 | 25,000. 00
Grant ees 27, 639. 88 4 93,512.19 | 14,127.69
841. 09
Harney.......--- 23, 535. 48 3 21, 752. 92 477. 61
463. 86
Hood River.....| 81,343.38 5 42,400.00 | 138,943. 38
Jackson....-.... ribose Me eg mAOseeaI |. is aaa
Josephine........ 40,000. 00 |.-.--.-.-- 000.00 |...-..-.------
Klamath. ....... 62,550. 00 4 60, 000. 00 2, 550. 00
1,951.44
ake sae ea 33, 800. 64 2.1] 17,541.45 hati
"13,688. 46
21, 655.4
Mane.) hs. Meas 159/482,09) 100 teak, 25,000. 00 {1 112° 896. 64
Lincoln.......... 71,795. 58 7 TAMTOS GRY Aus abs
Dann Reve 152806080 | ocee 2150 Sou S0 isis) enn?

General county tax.

1 Oregon road expenditure report.

Other revenue applied to roads.

Source.

General fund.
United States forest rentals.
Motor licenses.
Busca labels sources.
0.

General levy.
Miscellaneous sources.
United States forest fund.
Miscellaneous sources.
United States forest fund.
Motor licenses.

Motor licenses.
Miscellaneous sources.
United States forest rentals.
Land sales.

Motor licenses.
Miscellaneous sources.

United States forest rentals.
United States forest rentals and
land sales.
Motor licenses.
Miscellaneous sources.
Special road tax. ~
iscellaneous sources.

2 Includes miscellaneous revenue.

APPENDIX.

OREGON—Continued.

TABLE 47.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914—Continued.

LIX

Total General county tax. Other revenue appliod to roads.
revenve
County. applied to Rate
roads and mills Amount. Amount. Source,
bridges. per $1.
1,000.00 | Motor licenses.
22 Les Bees pita el lgels = sip lols 1 3, 063.99 | Miscellaneous sources.
IMaTIOMe seo. tie QELS AS! Gees aetee 2615115513) |/>. Saeke
IMOTrOWs cas one ce 28, 500. 00 2a0 27, 000. 00 1, 500. 00 qonations:
27, 217. 06 otor licenses.
Multnomah......| 639,335.07 1.8| 600,172.45 { 185, 5 Sale of rock and gravel,
4, 500. pecial road tax.
Polk....---.---+- 103, 593.62 |.......--- 85, 000. 00 { 1 147093. 62 | Miscellaneous sources.
Sherman.......- 31, 684. 25 3 25, 685. 95 15,998. 30 Do.
Tillamook Bee coi 188, 539. 65 9.8 188° 539.65) oo aeee ean
Umatilla........ 119, 556. 47 2.5 100, 000. 00 119, 556. 47 Do.
Ohare ks Sa aa 46, 236. 23 2 30, 000. 00 1 16, 236. 23 _ De ee .
3, 000. 00 nited States forest rentals.
Wallowa...-.... 40,005.91 |..-....-.. 30; 000. 00 { 1 fie 005. 91 | Miscellaneous sources.
WIASCONSee 2k c. 54, 090. 65 3 42, 964. 08 1 11, 126. 57 Do.
Washington....- 1955236983 Ieee ee 2/195; 936) 83) | see eee
Wheeler..-.....- 20, 116. 16 5 205116:16 | eee “a ne - ,
« 4 43. 53 nited States forest rentals.
Yambill......... 64, 729. 68 a 62, 512. 24 { 2,173.91 | Motor licenses.
Potalee-— 3} SB Ure Noe eeecaees 3, 259, 245. 59 679, 832. 92
31,122, 817.65
4 248, 570. 60

Grand total..| 5,310, 466. 76

1 Oregon road expenditure report.
2 Includes miscellaneous revenue.

3 Expended in 1914 from county bond issue funds.
4 Revenue from State tax applied to roads, 1914. Includes a State appropriation of $10,000 for salary,
office and fixed expenses of the State Highway Engineer.

SOUTH DAKOTA.

TaBLE 48.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

Total county Total county

and town- oad and town- Hoed
ship expend-} j idee ship expend-| j\iqce
County. itures from ee 8 County. itures from | Joy 8
all sources mane all sources ae
for roads and er $1 forroadsand| |. $1
bridges. Pp bridges. P
IMUINOTA ea ee ee see 82 28 $13, 249. 90 -6 b 05
Beadleamass es ehebesen 20, 166. 85 4u BQO scosonesse
IBENNet bee eee. == 5+. 181. 85 6 b ts)
Bonhomme:. 222-225... ..- 42, 486. 79 1.5 bE jal
IBTOOKINOS Se 5es 32h 2222. 37,060. 77 1.16 : 4
BBTOWMssnceces oct cciee esse 45, 272. 79 -6 2 3
Briley sec e se ae 5,570. 47 -32 ; 1.25
iriAlome ye wee, 3, 398. 88 1.5 : 3.5
HS HGLC ew ss anes se ye Sn 50, 090. 06 4.12 CWOOk see ee eee eee 9, 227. 97 ad
Campbells ay re: 22s) 3: 12, 869. 43 1 McBhersoneeeeseeeee saan 6, 963. 83 .9
@harlesiMix it yo Dale 62, 889. 96 75) Marshal eee eee eee 3,501. 31 oil
Terk EAN LN SOWIE oe ooo see bbsoceeee 19, 434. 32 1.5
Clay eee sere See i 11, 455.10 15h) ||) Mellette esate me mano 3, 508. 39 1174
Cadaeon eats AUN FAB) 7,027. 64 . 6° |) Miners Seaepes ae Sh gare 19, 908. 67 .58
WOTSONS eee Phe 20, 476. 28 3 Minnehahiaeeeees sae seeee 60, 995. 17 1.32
Crster ee use a8 5, 688. 82 ots) [Il dui ehy osc cecoseccuconde 19, 140. 42 a8)
Davison .....------------- 23, 520. 62 1.6 || Pennington...-....----..- 45,141.93 |....----.-
BY pee cee tenis cs leceie < 12, 481. 68 of) ||| least, .- oc osbsecosccosce 679. 62 .8
Meelis see esos sak. 12, 339. 28 516) | eR Ob tense aeeeee ease satel 2,301. 75 25
MeeVee a. 4,098. 15 149), ||Roberts meee eens os 16,019. 38 6
Wourlase ssi el! 10, 652. 62 EO || Seal onin, jo 5odbcausobobee 30, 495. 79 1.3
101d UZH 528 GS ct ae a SL Spink eae ae 26,174. 63 .8
TOPIUL T2371 ae 24, 856. 64 3 Stanley Sees] | AKERS 2.7
SIELG See aS e 5,054. 30 25), || (Still yet saat me CIC: 1; 774033) ons ee
GTA emis oe ce SMa PEPE \Gasaeeoeaoe TRIPP eeectee seca ee a 18, 470.18 1.2
19, 896.19 2 FIN aT TST een woes CA) 29,114. 64 1
A RR SSE S| ea ie Sie no Ate ee eae Umm ee ee Peet tas 21, 246. 62 TSS
11,112. 98 250 || iWialyonthe seas neue 13, 156. 64 1.25
25, 567. 65 560)||) Manktonmeeeeesee encase WES TOSS TA sae aoe --
23, 091. 34 1169) |W) ZAGER. 5 ccc aboonosues 2, 669. 55 1.7
12, 785. 11 1.5
6,510. 90 15 Totals uereeqecike 1, 217, 809. 42
29, 662. 09 1

LX APPENDIX.
UTAH. d
TABLE 49.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.
Total General county tax. Other revenue applied to roads and bridges.
revenue
County. applied to| pate
I
iy peOs aug mills | Amount. | Amount. Source.
10ges- | per $1:
$642.00 | Poll tax.
POL eae $9, 932. 00 2 23,8000) 5,400. 00 | State and county appropriation.
Boxelder1......- 26,777.93 1 12,307.26 | 14,470.67 | General fund.
@achereeeaccenss TBSVAH INO ae vo nsieece ose eee 38, 262.07 | From all sources.
(Chie ofa) a COR Sescgraecdl in Wale etn ial Veh BY Bea ey Ge ol saa aaeraad
i 59, 257. 32 5 33, 297.00 | 25,960.32 | General county levy.
11, 216. 84 3 10, 171. 75 1,045.09 | Forest reserve fund.
17,094.60 |....------ 14,594.60 | 2,500.00 Do.
6, 484. 13 5. 4,612. 00 1,872.13 | Special road tax, 1 mill.
3, 968. 86 2 8, 968. 86 }......-.----
5, 316. 93 1 EAE CS) | SL ae
3, 270. 91 5 3497080 1s ne eeen ee
18, 000. 00 6 18,000.00 |........-.--
4,617.13 DO: Sil AnaMO lc sa| een wen oee
23523.,00) |-=---- <= -- 2, 433. 00 pee op Poll ae.
q 16. 0.
Rich.....--------| 7, 469.09 5 6, 253. 09 { 1,000.00 | General county fund.
Salt Lake....-..-| 182, 238,25 |-...-.----]..---------- 182, 238. 25 Approbaation from the general county
L ax fund.
San Juan......-- 5,378. 97 5 4,196. 05 1,182.92 | Forest reserve fund.
Sanpete.....---- 33, 336.65 |--.-.--.-- 26, 475. 44 6, 861. 21 | General fund.
Sevieheeeees sss 13683938) |eeeeee see 11, 883. 38 1, 800. 00 | County appropriation.
Summit !......-- SU S00) ||scooseaces 19,021.94 | 12,298.12 | General fund.
Tooele.....------ BOX GBS IC Pacbessuod Bedeasocecea 24, Bie Me etn all sources.
a 175. oll tax.
oe ete TEDEHLD AD |emoosesue 10,812.53 }) 3 383,47 | General county fund.
LORAIN GH SS Se ect) Paneer es a he ee eee A | ooo aemonod
150.00 | Poll tax.
Wasatch.....-.-- 15, 897.90 |..-.------ 5, 702. 08 1, 187. 26 | Forest reserve fund.
8, 858.56 | State and county appropriation.
Washington 6, 480. 36 45) Segusmlinuy sce, oo) En ta
ore a i crete Ry peak ANA fetta: 251.29 | Forest reserve fund.
Wayne..-.------ 4, 870. 26 3 4) S70N26) [Meee coe ie
Weber.....-...-- 92, 498. 45 5 52, 498.45 | 40,000.00 | County appropriation.
Total...-... 638, 439. 36 |..-.------ 263, 561. 23 | 374,878.13
5 6, 899. 27
6 157,732.00

Grand total] 803, 070. 63

1 1915 report; no report available for 1914. 4 Includes appropriation from “ General fund.’’
2 Spent from all sources; no division of expenditures. 5 Expended from county bond issues.

3 No revenue report received. 6 State funds applied to roads.
Nortre.—Duchesne County not created in time for 1914 road report .

APPENDIX.

LXt

WASHINGTON.

TaBLE 50.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

Total

| |]

revenue
County. applied to
Toads and
bridges.
$112, 046. 29
37, 500. 72
64, 850. 36
133, 900. 74
134, 729. 60
156, 061. 77
96, 041. 75
131, 503. 34
79, 495. 08
39, 621. 71
77, 558. 39
59, 624. 50
102, 976. 49
Grays Harbor..-- 371, 598. 00
Sarid ee oh ek 31, 068. 61
Jefferson ......--- 81, 075. 34
Kempe see. Sf ko. 1, 214, 372. 56
Kitsap: feted... < 62, 834. 38
NG bItAS ese oo 120, 759. 57
Klickitat......--- 115, 286. 02
ILGy ah as a Se 293, 984. 10
incon. 2.44.5." 180, 941. 94
MESSONE- soe sce-- <i 79, 175. 09
Okanogan......-- 88, 567. 13
RaCHHCR eanoee = <[- 190, 818. 25
Pend Oreille. ..-. 66, 599. 81
IBIGECO Se K BIS: 560, 469. 67
San Juan.....-..-- 7 051. 83
Skamits20. ho. 4.2 216, 233. 06
Skamania 59, 535. 60
Snohomish 445, 648. 81
Spokane 538, 049. 48
Stevens.......-.-. 97, 870. 34
Thurston.......-- 141) 684. 83
Wahkiakum....- 28, 485. 36
Walla Walla...-. 132, 247. 63
Whatcom......-- 4 427, 043. 38
Whitman......-. 278, 152. 51
Miakamae ee. 325, 106. 84
Total.....-.| 7,390, 570. 88
1 509, 146. 50
2 45, 000. 00
Grand total} 7, 944, 717.38

7, 128, 934. 47

General
State,
county, and
township

Agee Amount.

$106, 945.23 | $5,101.06
37,500. 72

533, 478. 22

97, 870. 34
141, 684. 83

28, 485. 36
132, 247. 63
228) 143.57
271, 923. 19
325, 106. 84

6, 229. 32

261, 636. 41

Other revenue applied to roads.
Source.

Petition assessment.

Donations.

Sale of forest reserve timber.

Miscellaneous receipts.

Kaniksu national forest appropriation.
Donations to county.

Miscellaneous sources.

Permanent highway contracts paid RY abut-
ting PROpEE LY) Owners.

Miscellaneous sources.
Assessments of abutting property.

1 County and district road bond expenditures, 1914.
2 State AUST for maintenance of State highway department.

WISCONSIN.

APPENDIX.

TABLE 51.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

Kewaunee
La Crosse
Lafayette
Langlade
Lincoln

Marquette
Milwaukee

Washington
Waukesha

Total revenue
applied to
roads and

bridges.

$45, 876. 00
74 739.00
103, 416. 00
130, 445. 00
184, 491. 50
103, 078. 00
53,576. 50
85, 968. 00
151, 026. 00
150, 228. 00
156, 257. 00
75, 591. 00
346, 787. 00
197, 257. 00
72,014. 00
172, 922. 00
125, 956. 00
66,543. 00
26, 118. 00
174, 882. 00
65,776. 00
228, 095. 00
201, 193. 00
58, 800. 00
130, 560. 00
51, 686. 00
95, 120. 50
147, 092. 00
87, 600. 00
134, 411.00
84.996. 00
172, 456.00
1217 492. 00
81, 412. 00
78, 294. 00
211, 867.00
203, 437. 00
100, 450. 00
35, 124. 50
914, 261.00

_ 171, 999. 50

106, 539. 50
79, 324. 00
197, 325. 50
58, 924. 50
44, 369. 00
119, 135. 50
102, 711. 00
92, 236. 50
84, 365. 50
173, 874. 00
134, 349. 00
199, 385. 00
84, 936. 00
105, 753. 50
233, 102. 50
58, 612. 00
142, 630. 00
228, 322. 00
99, 913. 50
151, 145.00
140, 454. 00
36. 695. 00
136, 150. 50
60, 416. 00
95, 757. 50
135, 940. 00
137, 266. 00
58, 898. 50

General
county ana
township
tax.

$40, 435. 00
66, 500. 00
88, 845..00

123, 067. 00

154, 190.00
91, 396. 00
48, 053. 00
70, 241.00

134, 440. 00

132, 885. 00

131, 341. 00
66, 357. 00

270, 471.00

153 266. 00
61, 040. 00

147, 190. 00

110, 912. 00
51,274. 00
23, 814. 00

135, 661. 00
60, 730. 00

195, 923. 00

77, 878. 00
110, 650. 00
72, 593. 00
150, 219. 00
99, 740. 00
70,916. 00
68, 720. 00
179, 698. 00
177,012. 00
88, 056. 00
27, 249. 00
636.504. 00
155, 004. 00
94,570. 00
73, 860. 00
167, 882. 00
46, 618. 00
39, 210. 00
105, 649. 00
88, 658. 00
77, 056. 00
77, 940. 00
133, 979. 00
119, 584. 00
156, 454. 00
78, 941. 00
89, 068. 00
207, 014. 00
54, 540. 00
123, 937. 00
189, 664. 00
92, 849. 00
135, 875. 00
121, 892. 00
33, 695. 00
106, 218. 00
55, 499. 00
74, 462. 00
106, 709. 00
117, 685. 00
47,522. 00

General
State tax
appor-
tioned to
counties.

Number | Cash

of men value
who | from poll
worked | taxlabor

out poll evy

tax. ($1.50).
1,008 | $1,512.00
974 | 1,461.00
1,745 | 2,617.50
964 1, 446. 00
1,293 | 1,939.50
978 | 1,467.00
650 975. 00
1,404 | 2,106.00
846 | 1,269.00
1,196 |. 1,794.00
1,719 | 2,578.00
1,834 | 2,751.00
1,294 | 1,941.00
30 45.00
1,178 | 1,767.00
436 654. 00
1,892 | 2,838.00
1,088 | 1,632.00
727 | 1,090.50
500 750. 00
858 | 1,287.00
731 | 1,096.50
1,186 | 1,779.00
1,090 | 1,635.00
1,430 | 2,145.00
626 939.00
1,032 | 1,548.00
1,052 | 1,578.00
416 624. 00
2,002 | 3,003.00
674 | 1,011.00
1,315 | 1,972.50
2,039 ; 3,058. 50
1,213 | 1,819.50
1,191 | 1,786.50
509 763. 50
876 | 1,314.00
1,223 | 1,834.50
1,690 | 2,535.00
1,377 | 2,065. 50
261 391. 50
200 300. 00
804 | 1,206.00
148 212. 00
1,179 | 1,768.50
1,375 | 2,062.50
2,986 | 4,479.00
2,750 | 4,125.00
221 331.50
1,756 | 2,634.00
1,898 | 2,847.00
145 217. 50
698 | 1,047.00
1,715 | 2,572.50
256 384. 00
992 | 1,488.00

APPENDIX. LXIIt
WISCONSIN—Continued.
TABLE 51.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914—Continued.
Number]! Cash
Total revenue] General geoueral of men value
Count applied to | county and arava who from poll
y- Toads and ‘orm ti aes Fe alee tax labor
ridges. ax. F out po evy
counties. ral ($1.50).
AWE Darou ssa ee Ieh seeks 3s Ue OR Ni ye $159, 345. 50 |$123,047.00 | $34, 938. 00 907 | $1,360.50
WHO | SU EI IRR SS a RE a A a 101, 869.00 | 86,330.00 | 15,173.00 244 366. 00
NDTIS er ee Te CEES AN en ie 9, 433, 039. 50 |7,882,838.00 |1,454,704.00 |.......... 95, 497. 56
1 87,000. 00
2 320, 000. 00
3 40, 201. 00
Granderotale ees eee ek 9, 880, 240. 50

1 Appropriated from State general fund for support of State highway commission.
2 Local funds left over from 1913 and spent on roads in 1914.
3 Bond-money expenditures.

WYOMING.

TABLE 52.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges, 1914.

Crook

Goshen

Grand total

County.

Total revenue applied to roads and bridges.

Amount. Source.

$620. 00
39, 562. 00
1; 686. 60
503. 02
13, 046. 61
9, 385. 89
39, 089. 82
8,924. 65
22), 266. 76
19, 705. 79
3, 603. 90
6,865. 59
25, 036. 27
11, 184. 12
39, 150. 49
26, 186. 98
525. 00
2,000. 00
2; 500. 00
1,907. 34
17, 692. 56
1,043. 76
412.00
11, 991. 60
30, 000. 00
3,900. 00
1,284. 00
705. 00

Auto licenses.
General county fund.
Inheritance tax.
National forest fund.
General county fund.

|

Do.
Auto licenses.
Poll tax.
General county fund.
Auto and road licenses.
General county fund.
One-half forest reserve fund.
Auto licenses.
General county fund and auto tax.
General county fund.
County road poll tax.
Awito licenses.
State forest reserve.
Inheritance tax.
General county fund.

0.

State allotment.

County road tax.

Forest reserve and poll tax.
General county fund.

423, 215.31
16, 237. 00
2240, 208. 85

669, 661. 16

1State BpDT ODEON for equipment of State convict camps. : i
2 Espen ed by United States Government for repair and betterments of roads in Yellowstone National
Park during fiscal year 1914-15.

APPENDIX C,

The following are tables referred to in the foregoing text giving information as to
road bond issues in the States discussed:

ARIZONA.

TABLE 53.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.

Total road
and bridge} Bonds Bonds Interest | Lerm of Bonds
County. bonds out- | voted in| sold in mate bonds |retiredin
standing 1914. 1914. 2 sold. 1914.
Jan. 1, 1915.
Per cent Years.
Aachen encase nh Sei $145,000 | $125,000 | $125,000 5 30 $5, 000
Greenlee se see ee Ue es DN 150,000 | 150,000 | 150,000 |..-.....--|...-......|.--.----..
NTA Sa ET A a 295,000 | 275,000 | 275,000 |..........|.......... 5,000 -
CALIFORNIA.
TABLE 54.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
ai ae Bond T f | Bonds
and bridge onds erm 0 onds re-
County. bonds out-| voted in Bonds sold paterest bonds | tired in
standing 1914. : 5 sold. 1914,
Jan. 1, 1915.
Per cent.| Years.
Colusa..... BRA SO ND $392,000 | $392,000] $392,000
Glare eee SE Be 369 OOO Re eee RY ee
AERC) ga SU ea ee es eRe OB ata O74 O02 | aes es eee RES RNS
osvAngeless e225 sh ee ee OOO OOO sya eree ek a |e as
IMONTENGY,=/2'2oe: os aces se ceeeee scte 1 §70, 000 570,000 | 1570,000
Onan 28 oe Se ee ee aie 1, 285, StS a cect Be ese

Grand total

14, 277, 000
418, 000,000

32, 277, 000

1 Sold Jan. 5, 1915.
LXIV

2 Sold Feb. 8, 1915.

Exclusive of State bonds.

4 State road bonds.

APPENDIX. LXV
IDAHO.
TaBLE 55.—County and district road and bridge bonds, 1914.
Total road
and bridge} Bonds Bonds mnfeconn Term of
County. bonds out- | voted in} soldin | “Tt°S' | bonds
standing | 1914. 1914. 2 sold.
Jan. 1, 1915.
Per cent Years
TEGSP ILRI RRS seam Ree CE BOC eae HOE eee eT ear aeaiiere eps tess 2) ps CUD eerie) eee sea ricjeiel Me iaseabel ie dae
Gooding !.. SU54s OOO) aires eee | Ne | bes sean aes Sees
Jefferson !.. sD ZO SOOT ener ies | SS adh Gee Ne eo eR
Lincoln !. 180,000 | 100,000 | $100,000 6 20
W411 BISCO OA Ae it ane a SP 50, 000 50, 000 50, 5k 10-20
LS, TEAS) CDSE ES een St a Re eae 100,000 |} 100,000 | 100,000 5 20
OTIETO Eee ele ois ee each s we seisise cose dae SPO ee ees Pas Em a BS a) he dS I
RG ET ee ee en ee aT eles 125,000 | 125,000} 125,000 6 20
NTT) A ed a a a eer eee ae TU ee Oe ened RGSS Ress SOE sae Hive) bseeh rece
GR OIG a ee as Sak ae a A ae ta ae ea 834,000 | 425,000 | 375,000 |..........]..........
2 505, 000
Grandi rotalssese nese ole = St Oe epee a 1, 339, 000
1 District bonds. 2 State bonds.
ILLINOIS.
TaBLE 56.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
; Total bonds Bonds Bonds re-
County and township. | outstanding Ronee voted sold in ee Term ofbondssold.| tired in
Jan. 1, 1915. ¢ 1914. 5 1914.
Per cent. Years
Christian, Johnson -..-|.--.--.--.---- SEH175 OOO? OO) S 2 cites crt Asa epaperate fp a eyt a eNO |/ SS tae
Clay, Hartee..----.---- OCH COC see oS soa sa seq seoecodos|tocesootes Hanes saoeeesakeseses $200. 00
CTU eae ae DE eee OCC 000! 00 "se em I She at (2 EA a Ra 1)
Douglas, Sargent. ----- OPA T ULI USER ee he eSenclbse Soe nce |saceenease | Haompodedcanedaossed 6, 000. 00
gar: q
Embarass..-.------ SDA F SOON OO | 5 cps a sper het aX is SEMI (gees Sn aes eee EY Se Bee 4, 500. 00
TEC oa Bee eee 3'E30 30005 OQ a aes 22s ee | Nat ampere rena ea ante (Ee) Ace PAINS Re ape 20, 000. 00
Dees FCCC) Va caneae a aaoe 450,000. 00|.......--- LMU TRG NG RIC eg aN te ec ey
ose re SH QA000%00| een ee ee 440,000. 00/.......--- SUGEEST 2, 700. 00
rod neld 00
ClO One ass 3 7, 400.
Belmont......---- \ oO OOD OO a face { 5, 000.00
Henry, Atkinson... --- 215 9002 OO) ere era niente ote = = ae rete Meee react le estes ely I 1, 000. 00
Jackson, Carbondale. - 330X000! OO Ss SoU ys oe) 2 Ss Bea eae ee ee ee [Seana
Jefferson, Mount Ver- 340, 000. 00 40, 000. 00} 40, 000. 00 Bl lease PRS alee ae MF
non.
Lawrence:
Vega Ae Aree ai al ett naira 00, USC.) legen ele a SPER nt Ya cn SS Deans al A dE a 2 8
DW emisOneee ease =--|| oO) 000: OO" ns rao, 000s 00/2 eorasmiaees Nima alee ca esas ceeiaaceeue | Lo ame
Lawrence...-..---- 12,000. 00
Lee:
EP ATIN ON esie = hai 135 000s OO} 2a 31000! 00! 3 5O008 OOF tin we Gillies eas ereta eee eee re tenee
BASING EOV Gee eee iting) 1 DO0= OOTY aur hg) BOOS O07 pA SOOS OO ie iaiien any Gx [Ged ee ee Deo eS ee
WaGlaseen ses see te 2 LONOO0}00|" 25) 510).000: 00[ 10 (OOO O0 Ne iin inacGy vse ne) oo seve ceil ek esen eae
Madison, St. Jacobs. 1, 000. 00
Marshall Hopewell: =-2f) )-.)2'25 500: 00/22 222-2 22.----| 25,500,001) ©). .5:|1, 253) 4 and) 5.2222 ee
Ogle:
Dement. -.----.:-- 3, 000. 00
FETNOD Rave m apse Ian ele cosas eal isa ws aceiclst o- |) ee BOOS OO mime OH coe omek le coe ss en oe errs baa OLE
Eagle Point. .--.-- 3, 591. 88
recone see, OOOO OD) 770.7), 6000! 00) GF OG0S OO levi M saya hcl s Sl eI ais a eee ae
Rockvale.....---- 3, 000. 00
Woosung...-..--- { 6 20, 556. 75
1) ee ae ee Se USCC Ue rd ee as ee Ns Ble GES Sate tye eps aes atta oui See Ui a
Sela oe es. be IRS Oe eas sh 2 SSI Le a teen 2a nda be VD a SL SR RN re Sara
Stephenson, Loren.-.- - 28,000. 00 8,000.00) 5,000. 00 ROTLOM TO See oe eee ee 250. 00
MEEMINONE =e 35-oeas es cls somo 71,500, 000. 00)...-...... (2) oi peat BS soe Saeewe nat
Blount 25.25 ee ses: BIS KOOOK00| omen ens 42,500. 00 C5) aerate NO yeh tA OG
Manville) 2022523 BRO CUOLGG aoe Bis! = st ee Neen CsI ter ieee Caw O eS 37, 000. 00
Granta ENE Mma ees PS ETN Ce EG AIL 3, 099. 10
Jamaica.....--.--. 3119000) 00) esse set tcs =< 25) aera alee aaa ae Me mie Caen 6, 333. 00
1 Voted 1914, but not sold. 5 Road and bridge.

2 Bridge.

3 Road.
4 Voted 1913 and sold 1914.

6 Combined township bond expenditure and bond retirement.
7 Sale postponed by suit against county.

8 20-year serial.

LXVI APPENDIX. 5

ILLINOIS—Continued.

TaBLE 56.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914—Continued.

Total bonds Bonds Bonds re-
County and township.| outstanding Bonde Clee sold in uuperest Termofbondssold.| tired in
Jan. 1, 1915. 1914. Mae 1914.
Wayne: Per cent Years
ASSO eaeae cele ZEOL LUA TD Beeeebacetsoccllsoosecdasmclensseoason|ssascosaasssaaononeolbosbscosaaae
Big Mound... 2K) We CU Se eheateacaacellansadsysacaeosoasosa|e cos coescngsonedsdenllesnecnses sce
Meech eres cece BANCO base cend souobllenoséoebboleeiassesbbalbepsassosacusaseanes $2, 283. 61
PWahifene ee aay AAD SOO. OO ||. oe nam ece ment: | meme smc eR Rs LATimes Ge tea , 000.
Whiteside:
1D a (Ses Cee 37,000. 00 1 $2,000. 00/....-.----
a veLane CaeseaBeese 2183), CODCO|ssseccscossopdlléacsacssic
i
Custer eo esecce en 212 (00000 | 2 2. eset Se oe eee
Crete amie ey inl 3354000500 | 1254 eer eee eae ees
Washington....... 3 35, 000. 00 35, 000. 00|$35, 000. 00
Rotaliy ae ee eis. 798, 761. 55| 3, 656, 500. 00/199, 350. 00
1 Voted 1914, but not sold. 2 Bridge. 3 Road. 4 Road and bridge.
INDIANA.

TaBLE 57.—Township road and bridge bonds, 1914.

County.

Clinton

Daviess

Mekal ess oaasesee ewe se

Hancock
Harrison

Jackson

Total bonds
outstanding
Jan. 1, 1915.

$612, 259.46
700, 847. 00
282, 165.25
710, 354.00
366, 648. 46
232, 024.00

450, 283.00
683, 743.29
329, 730. 00
415, 604.37
708, 203.05

68, 759.20
497, 389. 24
264, 365. 12
564, 847.60

743, 435.00
194, 734.95
268, 000. 00
81, 060. 67
160, 440. 00
527, 443.50
227, 159.00
86, 739. 20
557, 358. 00
857, 583. 06
408, 450. 50
410, 776.31
196, 378.30
232, 252.00
390, 863.91
86, 978. 00
862, 745.50
456, 774.42
204; 572. 83
248, 410. 00
359, 033. 94
221, 193.30
156, 319. 64
187, 834.30
838, 040. 83
12, 728. 00

3, 055, 536. 81
967, 290. 10

Bonds voted | Bonds sold | Interest

in 1914.

$60, 163.17

90, 118. 46
108) 696.59
17, 194.00
57, 600. 00
98, 160. 00
17, 820. 00

27, 880. 00
10, 720. 00
172; 635.15

241, 180.00

111, 408.00
325, 869. 56

149, 600. 00

in 1914.

$108, 984. 91
527, 653.96
78,777.54
152) 177.56
127, 401.98
89,970. 10

40, 351.68
108, 696. 59
17, 194.00
57,995.34
98, 160.00
17, 820. 00
123) 136.26
138, 844. 16
71, 457.13

rate.

Per cent.
4

146, 662. 50
12, 356.00
95, 154.91
29) 936.51
68, 602. 51

189,314.50
18,354.15

5, 360. 00
52, 355. 00

272, 104. 64
24,348.30
69, 486. 56
56, 907.24
21, 471.40
67, 963. 61
54, 952. 89

341, 650. 81

204, 730. 18
31,961.13
91,749.52
49, 191.13
60, 345.94
49, 944.85
74, 466.79
94) 330. 00

4, 034.50

553, 868. 50
154, 267.52

Term of
bonds
sold.

10
10 and 20

Bonds retired
in 1914.

$127, 612.06
25, 100.02
66, 372. 83

130, 000. 00
53, 888. 65
30, 334.15
80, 389.91

120, 000.00
52, 645.24
86, 487.28

122; 048.89
14,229.80
88, 010.15
23, 900. 84
82, 816.45

142, 451.07
23, 361.32
16,136.51

8, 808.33
5, 166.75
64, 821.15

27, 400.37
76, 876.81

164, 007.56
72, 968.79
91, 527.03
34,945.42
26, 627.97
62, 309. 20

7,010.81

119) 386. 10
76, 505. 85
47,561.41
34, 608. 71
59, 646.33
21, 873.40
33) 153.52
21, 320.14

257, 506.53

1, 152.40

358, 514.42

117, 674. 04

APPENDIX.

INDIANA—Continued.

TaBLE 57.— Township road and bridge bonds, 1914—Continued.

County.

MIPPCEANOS 2-2 2-2 -
Tipton
ONG eke we ale)

Vermilion. -.---.-----.....

Total bonds
outstanding
Jan. 1, 1915.

Bonds voted
in 1914.

Bonds sold
in 1914.

—.—— ee |—quowoo—Krl—ooqoq—|——q— | uc" )|uxxcqxr

646, 126.00

621, 221.16
266, 639. 00

714, 681.36.

134, 546. 80
767, 826.78

$8, 000.00

193, 488. 40
4, 200. 00
115, 360. 00

8, 400. 00

41, 000.00
71, 480. 00
155, 676.04

152, 386. 43
8,297.14
92, 679. 16
7, 836. 00
177, 635.70
35, 891.65
62, 676.53
12, 036.27

155, 676. 04

148, 300.61
46, 651. 25
34,599.11
90, 611.80
25, 440.00
91,778.74

95, 622.90
18, 560. 00
72, 372.31
44, 443. 23
157, 492.47
91, 756. 09
138, 353. 10

101, 743.75
83, 083. 41
78, 689. 03

174, 280.78

3, 893, 221.31

7, 841, 711.53

LXVII
Interest pe 4 f Bonds retired
rate sold in 1914.
Per cent.| Years
43 5 $65, 689. 83
4h 10 152, 440.95
44 10 82,515.17
43 20 10, 169. 24
Agi as eee 17, 035. 70
4h 10 86, 004.19
4k 10 67, 826.58
43 10 148, 229.60
43 10 52, 760. 65
4h 10-20 64, 046. 60
42 iN eater cue.
Soule aN Sex igen eps 4,279.45
SAGE ARCA PLP auSEe 45, 000.00
1 SRSA aE AO aed Bea 31, 804.50
4h 20 79, 826.48
44 20, |Past reais
43 20 19, 623.82
44 10 104, 918.99
gOS [ean tees 60, 807.85
4h 20 42, 468.15
44 10, 20, 102, 425.09
and 40
44 10- 105, 559.67 -
43 10 54,397.58
44 10 99, 726. 04
43 10 11, 179.43
ie eee ek ae 22, 728.42
44 10 19,741.17
ieee, aaa aon ase 3 14, 885.97
43 10 53, 741.87
4h 10 101, 614.78
Sateen ae 10 10, 875.32
eel WANT Ss 70, 000. 00
43 10 116, 403.59
gets econ eerie aR 9 926. 81
44 | 10and 20 39, 663.04
43 10 93, 597.22
43 10 79,949. 95
43 10 118, 903.47
sre pe ad 10 72, 886. 46
ae hairs era Ss rater 5, 451.03
4h 10 52, 456.13
4h 10 43, 449. 80
43 10 124, 172.70
x 10 81, 740. 00
4 10 1, 333.97

5, 719, 416. 47

LXViilI APPENDIX.

INDIANA—Continued.
TABLE 57a.—County road and bridge bonds, 1914.

Total. Bonds | Bonds | qteres¢ | Term | Retired
County. outstanding | voted in| sold in rate of bonds} during
Jan. 1, 1915. 1914. 1914. ; sold. 1914.
Per cent.) Years.
Cass cle es RRNA SN tea ee aia $130, COON OO) sees baie | ace) ce Binme| meeritt eee | ope ee Nee ee ne
CIRO DELETES ale Bea Oe Rag 217: 3708 Oh | Mere ee se |e craic cc bee ea | Dose $2, 625
weit 2,600
4,075
ion 1, 250
5, 000
81, 500
11, 000
ae 1,000
5, 000
13, 000
SN a A Nee Sa IAS 4,000
2, 500
ok es ae 2,000
5, 000
10, 700
41, 600
1,000
PO a 25, 000
10, 000
20, 000
PROLA Dees eee ye ad 5 21 5, 137,671.12 | 635,000 | 777,294 |.......---|.--..---.- 237, 850
1 Bridge bonds. 2 Issued for the purchase of toll roads. 3 Road and bridge bonds.
IOWA.
TasBLE 58.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
° Total road
and bridge} Bonds | Bonds | pate of | Term
County. bonds out-| voted in| sold in SRRATeST of bonds
standing 1914. 1914. E sold
Jan. 1, 1915. ;

Per cent.| Years.

\

APPENDIX, : LxXIxX

MICHIGAN.
TABLE 59.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.

Bonds voted Thterost Term of

County and township. and sold in bonds
4 re . 1914. Sue. sold.
Alger: Per cent.| Years.

TESTO TU Ee Ss GE SL eee ee URS gee SY ust) a $10, 000. 00 4-5 20

HT ESLONG sees seine cee ee at Sd cs S25 A ee ee 12, 000. 00 4-5 20

ROCK PIV Ghee le Si ieee ee oud Shee c's oapeinte a a aes oe eee ees oe 12, 000. 00 4-5 20
Arenac:

TET RS Sees a a ae = a re rs 15, 000. 00 45 20
TE SU eras So A UR et ee re ae ea ea ee s.|, OF Be 130, 000. 00 4 15-20

Sito USE Nas CRS ee Se ee eee ae Pm ee edécchredeecs= 45, 000. 00 4-5 20

nicola sae es eee seee te SE Ss 20, 000. 00 4-5 20

EGY ALOIS Pesce iene ce aes Lea's LIE Sars Be eR oe 30, 000. 00 4-5 20
Se Here aR erate ate sare taal ae areote fac a2 a ras Hoe Ree eer 37, 684. 34 4 15-20
Dickinson:

BELT CE Paes tee eS te yn eee SS a EE ER oe ae 10, 000. 00 4-5 20
BH ESE RM ies a See ens toe Soe ninco b sock oie ec enema Meee 111, 670. 89 4 15-20
SUG STID 2 ei eek 5 Re ten oe oe Er Ose RENE ke ht Ue 2k ao 77, 120. 00 4 15-20
Grand Traverse:

Greenmlakesnecsse8 soso. o4-. = 18, 000. 00 4-5 20

Paradise. . 27, 000. 00 4-5 20

Long Lake. - 6, 000. 00 4-5 20

Whitewater 10, 000. 00 4-5 20
Houghton:

Pepa cee tee poe cn ste SSS ee ae SOs tk Sees ee 20, 000. 00 4-5 20

TH. - ceed SE ee ee eee Sib ia aS tLe Pa Siew a eons 50000500) (5a =c5e5" shen cee

1 SEUSS ETG UD Le em es CeO GA nl dh ores lt les 30, 000. 00 4-5 20
Kalkaska:

GAR WA LON ee ee soso s bt eckls ASS Sie See eis kee ae ic ren een 6, 000. 00 45 20

WOlGESPrineS ess 222. - 22 be ok ese aoa a et eS ae oe eee 5, 000. 00 4-5 20

EATON pee ecco nis bine oes Be soeGaec set os SS ee 3,000. 00 45 20

SIGS Sc ES ae ear age ae cA aS GUN TAT NR Oe So 100, 000. 00 4 15-20
Lake: Ss

IW CELLET eS anc (Soa ane eee nee Soo. is EE nL 3, 000. 00 45 20

ES CASATEIRE LAINIS 8s PAR es ae teen a 2 ea ee ae EN 3, 000. 00 4-5 20
Lapeer:

IMT GT: Gn op Renae ee Re SI ae ot ie) SOPRA sci be I RVD 60, 000. 00 4-5 20
Lenawee:

MO er ieetet tise aie 26, Soh Be erat eee hs mae cco alias ote aoe eS et 30, 000. 00 45 20
Macomb:

\ RET 2 32.5 ERS ae ne Boar eae eet eee APNE Lae ts See 35, 000. 00 45 20

TUTE. Sash ee eee ee ae es CIEL eee MaM Rae USE ae 57,000. 00 4-5 20
Mason:

Riverton 2,000. 00 45 20

AGERUG? St GER LUR Se ea eer Ee mH nea ee iitaee mm ys: 6) SER 2,000. 00 4-5 20

Freesoil 1, 000. 00 45 20
Menominee 30, 000. 00 4 15-20
Midland:

RSEISOL ee aoa eae ee See ER = | eae Or ae 40, 000. 00 45 20

INVORHIDSET AG yer 9. Naot ss/ea sack kee 2 LI. fee a co 16, 800. 00 4-5 20

URED ES Se A ee a eae raese tee len Ree LS. kl | ee 6, 000. 00 4-5 20
Monroe:

IBGETORG ie see ee Sew R ek ee oe Seis a8 EN Meena a 39, 000. 00 4-5 20

WVITECIORG Sos emer ete toh oe SAEED) 28% Ue eee apy 60, 000. 00 4-5 20

IGE)... Seog SSR O EES eae Rae R AREER He Sere Mmm A ee DRL eS 30, 000. 00 45 20

RPHIENTORN GIG pore cece oe oem oe oid oe oie /2 a de ec 35, 000. 00 4-5 20
Newaygo:

\ WAI - SEE SEE BOSS Se Se ope EE er aes Mn fenced het lt il 8,000. 00 45 20

(GUMS a ees aoe Jee SAR es onc eae se sero emer eeene tere stcce lu} 20, 000. 00 4-5 20
Ontonagon:

WeatCIy O00 Sane menses c rs cnc eee ado Lae a ee 10, 000. 00 45 20

WEEM TIBVE LD ceo J Sedamep doe nee sped aoe eae SO een ene Gs cde one an oe 9, 200. 00 4-5 20

Spartan eee ee aan hope EU) ok. oe, 10,000. 00 4-5 20

EHC OTIORA eee eee seh ce 2 Swan See een 10, 000. 00 45 20

poe lant ss ween eee oa Ceca li 22 Ea pie i 28, 000. 00 4-5 20

MAGI BIAKGse eer cary rae Sams eet aac baie ne wn os ce See ee 20, 00C. 00 4-5
SRT Elec 22a ete pese sececee eeu ee see: Mee ene Eee eS yas ead 133, 506. 00 4 15-20
Saginaw:

IB HENARWISbaSs emer a a oe eee cts.) L oe ee nea 20, 000. 00 4-5 20

ISBIN GIG Les oe Ae H see ee Reee EME Eee n Ee eemma = S805. ahi e e 4,000. 00 45 20

rankenlist:. 25552 -222-o 2c seaecsesae 40, 000. 00 4-5 20

Birch Run__-----------------..-...- 20, 000. 00 45 20

Ss W.----------------------- 10,000. 00 4-5 20

Thomastown 7, 500. 00 45 20
Schoolcraft:

Ie TEST EN ATES Go obscod su ope sbot bao eR OSE BEE eeBEEE ES sock eotuinsccenee 4,000. 00 45 20
Shiawassee: -

\ GHGs. -cocsc soc one9 seeds 2 Soo ssen cod sano oreescosasousesonsetseseee 30, 000. 00 4-5 20
Tuscola

IRIAN ccobecenaaacosoobscaccs see cbopeeeeraaossost seScnccege He 12, 361. 20 4-5 20

Grint lo Sescanc see bere caso ese aac e Ore ESE ROE CERES SAN aH cise cum be Ml 16,900. 00 45 20
WANED sce cc sod se cse ce seedocones acc eoopseecorennesecseoasshssceones 432, 000. 00 4 15-20

eR OA ere eater ee asec eee ue Ss cata cs os 2 a eee 2, 080, 742. 43

LXX APPENDIX.
MINNESOTA.
TABLE 60.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
Total out-
standing
road and | Bonds Bonds Interest Term of | Bonds
County. bridge _voted sold seis bonds retired
bonds in 1914. | in 1914. , sold. in 1914,
Blue Earth
Carlton...--
Cass.-
Cook....-..
Hennepin...
18 fbi] OY O24 x00 | AGES a es ae eae en
TES ee Sea saedee Hucte Sane cee eens
eanlia bees terre ccen ath cae Suisse ace se ssce
Koochiching
ANI COMO rose eee eae Meeoete ee cece se
WWODIGS tea cee eens ae ees otis Sass [cls oe cee
Wad eOnaee sine cee osscceacceeaciasse oc Se
WINONA SaSee ees eat adactsersss esc |
Total eee Me eee ete Sen a7 1,411,889 | 62,000} 358,000 |..........|....2..... 49, 842
MISSOURI.
TABLE 61.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
Total
bonds out-| Bonds Bonds eras? Term of | Bonds
County. standing voted sold aie bonds retired
January 1,} in 1914. | in 1914. oe sold. in 1914
1915.
Per cent Years
Callaway ......-. meee eeheecee vociesee sec $825 O00] Boeke em ot o| a ciicaee os lee Uosenes. | seme neeee $6, 000
Wed ars oaee see ce aren eos ee secccoc ee TESA LO Seseeaes Ae oaSeese SESGeaeese aabaae ce = 500
(Clinton ee ae asc ee ni sos eeeeeGa- ne sees S000 Cresco. cee |b ise cele ee cece |e e eee sl ans ceeacee
TD EVOL ey SSN 9e as au ren BA C100 | keresee ats [pgs i ON ART en 3, 000
GTOONO Dope ce naaee aoe P Ae Gee ae Sate PAUL! bemtsnsons Saeesaaane Wake asad beneacacs = 1,500
Grund yesson ae eee eee een ses eles le GRID so aeueneee| Goeenberas 6 10 500
POW ON oe ooo ane ieee BEBO SS cto nee eee DO OOOH Eres varsie |e restrn iets il BSCR eee ete ha s555
TEENS aE SS UNE a RS Se re eee 25,000 | $25,000 | $25,000 6 2= 140 Seqeneaial
WA WTONCO tatoo. cocaine aan ek cee 49/000) 22 Se aes ee |S ce eee eee ac el Sees Sees 1 000
INGWEOREE Pisce con cacmeeeemecsencct eco. 30; OOO S| Se ee Be] ore wiser sera [eels sie eters | erecta lageiorsl ee eee
NodaWay ieee dapcee een. Fook 65,000} 50,000} 50,000 5 5-15 15, 000
ettis...... BORED SRee So Oe sono: conepen aes 1695 G00 SES ares eek erie. tl eee eile cee ac Ree 10,000
Tataleeeee ee ate bac sell 522,500 | 75,000! 75,000 | Lee | ae ae 37, 500

APPENDIX. LXxtI
MONTANA.
TABLE 62.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
Total road
and bridge | Bonds Bonds Tnterest Term Bonds
County. bonds out- | votedin | sold in of bonds | retired
standing 1914, 1914. sold. in 1914
Jan. 1, 1915.
Per cent.| Years
EAT O epee me peat sees wale ais = Sica $40 000! 00) SSeS ess ete Ee ae ea [Oso aie eI 8 ee ee
BOAO WALOne econ) = seme a een cee Jae | eit eck wees 1 $22,000 |---------- 53 20) eepgeenanse
CET Dt Hee eer en BOeee seer e See aee Be 274, 000. 00), | jaz eee | Se ES oe sles eee a eek es
CASRN ApS a ee oie se ee 45 000: 00's sceera 4 See eee eel ee scne Ser meen ae ee teats
WESECH Pee eer eee ans seams 220,000: OO} | S28. Samer s ee eg eee Sa io Senne oa 8S ches oer
Daw sOWsen 6-2 ssc-0'- Sethe oso 4100;,000: 00] 22 stacey sa |S a\ oe See ee Sic ne Ce cece ope
PCCEPEOULC ee. cnc bee ee eee se vate 1D. O50: 72) Ss Sao a ee ele Ee stir eS ors eee eee
HER RHSE eee eae sae one ana e oaee tea al 225,000.00 | 225,000 | $225, 000 5 20 $33, 000
Eee eee sak we ees wees aiesicns 100,000.00 | 100,000 | 100,000 5 2O)i| es Sess
awisiand Glarkss suk. 3 etoce sede: 105; 000: 00) 2s s2 ssa Ss Sete oe ae AE Seer [ie 2 Sareea
HA FCOMN Se noe eons Sassen sete V25 5 000:'00! fers eins errata Supe tetas SII eo RES 2 eli Ay net UW las et ae
Nasco lshellees 20 2 Glen iare | Lt 2 Tews 30): OOO: (00) 5 is aes ae ae es sorts SEO oly Se eal iar a
Rosebud .....- Se I Be A 117; 000: OOH sa AeA eS Che et aoe SUING as ee
SHi2G CS SUE RB t ee a eSe esa eee ene 159, 000. 00 38, 000 38, 000 5 20) Reser
SHAM WALeM eta -nse keto ue be ace se 270; 000: 00/2252 625 5 Ree eee tes 2h Ss soe lk ce Ssbo 2 ale ceoeae
DAVEOUGEASSsa) hel ee tees ho Vee Bed OOO! Seat Se RI SINE ics Oy ae eee la Se ee ees
“IVE. 2 526 3 Bde ea See Ace eae Es E00: 000: GOA) S22 eee ee crete in ype pee te ale | eee Seve a
WDLLGW - Soc Sng CEE Gee Eee aenee eee e 65; OOO! CO | = ae re ee sees a Se eS pa eek
Yellowstone... - - TRS ERE RS SEE ere 112, 000. 00 77, 000 77, 000 5 20) ee
EO) 32 (esis ae eee arate 2, 224,050.72 | 462,000 |; 440,000 |....-.--..|---.-.---- 33, 000
1 Sold early in 1915.
NEVADA.
TABLE 63.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
; Total road |
and bridge | Bonds Bonds liens Bonds Term
County. bonds out- | voted in| sold in NID retired | of bonds
standing 1914. 1914. q in 1914. sold.
Jan. 1, 1915.
; Per cent. Years
Waonslastee es. oscioseo-mipese4-eu ll Se $9; O00) |e eats ae ates eal as Ss S05 000) 24eeescee
HW SIneIal detec cos a2 a) manos eeece lees sce ec oe $25,000 | $25,000 6) eee eee 2 to 6
“OPETTS Occ ce ap cRer eae e Saat He eeme eee 293 O00! Seca teen | Me Hy ER ODES Gn |e aS Fah 2) 000i |Beeaeoose =
TIS See eee ees 38, 000 | 25, 000 | 25, 000 | 5 ey eee 35 000-0. Sah oes
NEW MEXICO.
TABLE 64.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
Lotae road =
; and bridge | Bonds Bonds erm
County. bonds out- | voted in | sold in Eietest of bonds
standing 1914. 1914. : sold.
Jan. 1, 1915.
Per cent.| Years.
OH APAM A Sys ee eee ha os sae eek pe cases ae $150,000 | $50,000 | $50,000 5 | 20to30
IDGKE A =e hese see note ele re aU IRN & er alia aA ZS OOO ee oe eee [esis = tell Dir i 2 | eae ae
TRENT on ees 2 ee Oe en Ra a EE OED |)" SLCLDN)) GOTRD lean cteseee||eoesoscoce

LXXII APPENDIX.
OHIO.
TABLE 65.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
aia fovea | Bona Bond Term of
aly Oownsdip onds onds erm 0
County and township. bonds retired in voted in Bond oe qnlerest bonds
outstanding 1914. 1914. - 2 . sold.
Jan. 1, 1915.
Per cent.| Years
PAST or Me MU ILENE ae
Ashland): ee eee) see : $60, 000. 00
Aewtabula: 20h 2. ks oie leeks 180,000.00 | 71,000.00 5 10
PMpheris ts seo hevectn ede 7200, 000.00 | 100,000.00 |---| nna aag cas ceeeeneafesseeeeees
SUED Boc pe cuzano abecsct { 3187'000.00 |} 17,000.00 { 56°000:00 | 50,000.00 |} 8. [--------=-
ielaiGnhe (ae te 3405; 000.005 |, (:;45sdoo soma lmmes mae ONS CeCe a ON eile syne
BLOW see bee ee senses BQ 500! OO. eee eee ae OR EID 2 iy aU iieth Ss ELDe h ae i Sec a
2
puflerie eal 4 os { 2319”500.00 |} 22,500.00 | 500,000.00 | 500, 000.00 ANE Bede
Carroll See eon os 2105000) 00)|: ss aes ers 10, ute ue 10, 000. 00 5 10
230, 000.00 30, 000. 30, 000.00
SESS ae ore ae { $7, 500.00 } 12,500.00 jf 42,000.00 | 42,000.00 ee eo
2.50, 000. 1 50, 000. 50, 000.00 5
CISA Denar ase { 2135;000:00 |f 12,500.00 1 .25"o00:00 | 25/000.00 3 |} 110
Whiston te ee ee ee eo ee ee ee ee
Columbiana.............. 331,250.00 |\ 49,500.00 | 121,750.00 | 121,750.00 5 10
3.60, 000. 00
Coshocton......-.-7------l{ «4067977.48 |} 10,000.00 | 114,700.00 | 14, 700.00 5 1}
Crawiorde es. oeoe eol ee 250,000.00 |__..........-. 50, 000. 00 50, 000. 00 EEA tape ts tats
AS ae at J 22538 ooo 3335, 000.00 | 650,000.00 | 650, 000. 00 5 1-10
JEN SEocacisocsccccacce 35,010,000.00 | 2263, 000.00 | 391,000.00] 391,000.00 5 1-30
2
Mofeicsssess esse Ly Fe eons oo. 1 (Sp cOGONOUY Meeeeeec yt SIE (aes tuie | DaN ic ena anes
* 000.
Delaware....-.----------. 3 310,000.00 |f--e--222--=- { 100%000.00 | 10000000 5 |} 10
sBiriceme eyes ono 333, 500.00 3,000.00} 40.000.00} — 40,000.00 6 23
Mratichin es 201. peregrina 394,000.00 | 394, 000.00 5 1-10
mutants 231,140.00 | 52,540.00 | 143,000.00] 143, 000.00 5 (5)
ree {25 0 es Meer Se CU
Geauga lores nol { aaa \ A AO NOMA SE ee spend eMart cal eee lees Gls whl rep en ats i aN ae
’ 400.
6, 000.00 6, 000. 00 5} 8
GGrernseye et 22/0 O00 Ngee aos: 8, 000. 00 8, 000. 00 5 8
ol 300,000.00 | 300, 000.00 5 10
een eon 2 iN Ye ‘1, 982,138.13 | 325,000.00 | 800,000.00 |’ 800, 000.00 43 30
Ly 85,000.00 | 5,000.00 5
eR aoa F000 25, 000. 00 { 97,000.00} 97,000.00 A ost
Harmison ice 204 80500000) |) mula mae 30,000.00 | 30,000.00 5 1-10
iEtrie a) Be teal eae { Ban pou og \ ONES) aA 159,050.00 | 159, 050.00 5 (8)
A ? =
VOCKING eet se hans ersccies 2 25, 000. 00 SOOOLOO Naa etasemsalseemcc at cece tee a ayo |e eevee
Egtinas se sages ies co 39? DOO. OD: (pf) SHOOQsOOs MeasE ot earl ca cera Pee 2 ec eee eee
” 000.
ELUTE sete a 8 ANisece3 oun Obs iee eee 68,000.00] — 68,000.00 5 1-10
Hackson esl ek 3240; 000. 00 "|" 20; OOOOH ete cet | Oke acre cee |v conn lire | Neen
[eeites 3 AGEN ARI OO 398,000.00 | 18,000.00} 80,000.00 | 80, 000.00 5 10
Maken ee ee sve { Ta eae \ 10,000.00 | 1118,000.00 | 118, 000.00 43 1-20
ecay et YI eat 2)75000500) |. seeks ieee 7,000.00 7, 000.00 Bisse
Madison................ 21361000100) 5230p nae 36, 000. 00 36, 000. 00 @ |sossecsecs
Painesville see seen nes 3118 /000300)|) serene 18, 000. 00 18, 000. 00 5 2-114
Willoughby............ 239, 000. 00 As OOO SOO ES ee EI a aa es ce [eel | Svcs ee
Wawrenee--2:.2..--..4.. * 770" 000.00 | 15,000.00 | 100,000.00 | 100, 000. 00 5 20
BaiGkane shee AOU 2250, 000.00 |f 136,853.00 | 95,000.00 | 95, 000.00 5 10
? <. .
; 2173, 000.00 136,000.00 | 136,000.00 43 8
HORE co ace octae ee { 315,000. 00 \ Spraeeesease= 37,000.00 | 37,000.00 5 8
IBIS HTON GE cee ile cis ole SLD OOO MOO calcd eect Sete Ree AR A ee i de eA NL | a
Colmmbia ones ess 65, 850. 00 1 450/000 ORE e rae ee Onn ee Mee aaa ek eee neon
SIE} U0) OS erate ae 35605100000»: )sijasshs Se aN UN ee ee ee ec eniete

1 Issued by county commissioners without vote of people.

2 Road.
8 Bridge.

5 Various.

4 Road and bridge.

APPENDIX.

OHIO—Continued.

TaBLE 65.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914—Continued.

County and township.

Madison....-..--.--------
Mahoning

eee ee es

Ross

Total county

1Tssued by county commissioners without vote of people.

2 Road.
3 Bridge.

72690°—Bull.

389—17

9

4 Road and bridge.
5 Road, including township.

6 Township.

LXXIIf-

Term of
bonds
sold.

Senn

and township Bonds Bonds
bonds retired in voted in ponds sald interest
outstanding 1914. 1914, i
Jan. 1, 1915.
Per cent.
2$1,277,102.15 \ $406, 905.05 | $406, 905. 05 5
8 382,414.00 |f--e-c2t eer 181,394.00 | + 181,394.00 5
git; 900.00 |=... 71,000.00 | 71,000.00 5
2974 000.00 22,000.00 | 22,000.00 44
{ 3.293, 000. 00 } $87, 500. 00 { 18,000.00}. 18,000.00 4h
2.99, 000. 00
8 79, 500. 00 46, 696. 81 teow ewe tence ose else e eee ee esaesslecceescecnitecesscese
290, 500.00 GN GOO! OOM lepencungtera mas DSI M ea io ileaeeee Jae
_ 2,10, 000. 00 EMO CANO OM dijo sec. 3 cI Loe ee BS Le a Pe A
56s C00: OD: (pe wos OG O04 eimaae Mme LT WE see
266,500.00 | 231,000.00 | 300,000.00 | 300, 000.00 5
3 485,000.00 | 210,000.00| 61,500.00} 61,500.00 5
2 102,000.00 ) 339 009,00 |{ 92,100-00] 92, 100.00 5
+300, 000.00 | °332.000-00 |) 15,000.00 | 15, 000.00 5
8 140, 000.00 » 000. 15,000.00 | 15,000.00 5
2 47,500. 00 20,000.00 | 20,000.00 5
{ 8 180, 000, 00 |} 383; 400.00 { 35, 000.00-| 35, 000.00. Re.
2 159,000.00] 42,000.00} 159,000.00 | 159, 000.00 5
5 46, 000. 00 PROM GA) ils See gos Ui, Al ee Ue
8°35; COOMUO' 119.5 4<OOO OOM ese awe NN GOLEM SSIES Ga)
219, 000.00
9; ESPON WOTTON ipl ane a RM
{ 327, 300. 00 \ 400.00 |.-------2-2-2-)-2- +e esses sees] eee eens
4550,000.00 | 125,000.00} 125,000.00} 125, 000.00 5
262,275.00.) 49 4x99 [f 2 26;500-00 | 26, 500.00 5.
8 360, 000. 00 » 450. 23,300.00 | 23,300.00 5
SUMO VN 2 27: 000: 00): ip meaeneaie Merc eal NNDNG howe eh
2 195,500.00 |...... uN ae 32,500.00 | 32, 500.00 5
2640, 000.00 |. 45,000.00 | 640,000.00} 640,000.00 5
220,000.00 | 16,500.00 | 120,000.00}. 20,000.00 5
3.280, 000.00 AVOOOLO0 nee UI CULT anise,
2.45, 393.34 |).
399,500.00 | 39>625-00 | 182,000.00 | 32, 000.00 5
2440, 000.00
3 25, 000.00 \ 5,000.00 |....- pogoegese|= 25h asso5 2094) oocoqanc
B1GOKOOOWOOWee =) Mes 1100,000.00 | 100, 000.00 5
212) 250.00 .
{ 3. 85,000.00 \ 10,750.00 |---.----..----|-- + 2-2-2025 --|- ness noe
| 42,312.58 | 42,312.58 | 5
2 467, 118.08 || 49,063.00 | 49,063.00 5
{ 3 101, 000.00 \ 65,375.00 }) 46'978.63 | 46, 978.63 5
42,817.20] 42, 817.20 5
26,600.00 | 26, 600. 00 5
£343, 600.00 |..--.-.------- { 317,000.00 | 317, 000. 00 5
'f 2133, 000.00 \ ay, pete 4) 300.00 4) 300. 00 5
- 8 32, 000.00 880. 0 11/300,00 | — 11,300.00 5
3130+ O00! O0\-1K 1) 10% O00! 00s Vee Suma ea ary RCL cL ONIN PSE
- 8 310,000.00 8.000: 00: rancor ee ee
aN WOO O00" OUR aie. Loe 1 102, 000.00 | 102, 600.00 5
316, 000. 00 3 COO SOU ese nS REN WC tla Ae lief ae
+ 50, 000.00) "50, 000.00 | 5
t 200,000.00 | 200, 000.0 5
{ | oe on i} 200,000.00 2 180,000.00} 480, 000.00 5
eae | 24; 833.00} 24,833.00 5
16,000.00 |. 16,000.00 5.
31, 175, 968.53 | 2,684, 593.81 | 8, 702,303.46 | 8,593, 303.46

LXXIV APPENDIX.
OREGON.
TasLe 66.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
Total road
and bridge Bonds Bonds Tenas? Term
County. bonds out-| voted in sold in ate of bonds
standing 1914. 1914. ; sold.
Jan. 1, 1915.
Per cent.| Years.
(VER Gy ae eae alle UTED ag ee idee $400,000 | $400,000} $400,000 5 20
@olum bias’ 26h esc ees ie sk best eee 360, 000 360, 000 360, 000 5 20
THOOGUR AV Ere oe acts Cee it ec eee LENS 3 75, 000 75, 000 75, 000 5 20
Jackson\ 23002 2c 5 = sere ae aes soa 500, 000 500, 000 500, 000 5 10 to 30
Mate tin akan SNe Re nine COL) RL Ta Sas 30, 000 30, 000 30, 6 20
Multnomain fea oe seared. ie AE ke W2HOKOOOR senor ste ep eae Gees Oe 5 30
Total la pots NOSE eRe Le Uap Aa AL 1,615,000 | 1,365,000 | 1,365,000 |..........|....--.-.-
1 Bridge bonds only.
UTAH.
TABLE 67.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
“a Total road
and bridge Bonds Bonds Tnterest Term
County. bonds out-| voted in sold in ate of bonds
standing 1914. 1914 sold.
Jan. 1, 1915.
Per cent.| Years
IBOXOl MOI tes sesh ey Se Ni ras Beeb Pane S753 O00) ch see ssee lees site wise lees aeeeee | Seeiseee
Carbone bse 22 2 Fay aE ails age BOROOON cose SEES Stas Cee iso. cb ooce gecmee ace aeesete
ISIMOT Yeeeah eels c eo Re ES ed SAOOOF| ace see ewe |e ee ol es oe
(Giga LS STC pore Re A Bar NF RI 19, 000 $10, 500 $10, 500 5 20
SaniJuane esis aren. len abe clea alah TAS SOOM | apse eee CA ores een
Uinta.......- Ease oss ae oe oe oa be bem nnieta re AMAA! CHO Na ase a ae inl ake Muyo SS moored oobac dace
PTS Ge pte tests en Ah Ca ae Sy 281, 500 10, 500 10; 500 gs 2222222 oosa Ge
TOGO A000) Itei2 x nears alba s ede sR a oe any ge Re eal
Grand:totals.e/2:552fass22s0 bicecek en BAI GOON ic ces sen owl nn wate |e eee ce ewe leet LAO
1 State bond issue for construction of State roads and bridges.
WASHINGTON.
TABLE 68.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.
eB thee Bond Bond T
and bridge onds onds erm
County. bonds voted in | soldin interest of bonds
outstanding 1914. 1914. ; sold.
Jan. 1, 1915.
Per cent.| Years
MUSTO) EY 1 Pa GR $75, 000. 00 | $35, 000. 00 |$35,000.00 5
SPAM Ta Sey spe Oe eee oI Rt NU Celi S210), O00 OD ps oeSetoosou|seoossocos|aroosdecedazcnasscee
Cees sa hicers SE ASO AS 5 H8 ASU Ce EE Secs SOOHOOONOOR Sesion essere eect aie | selene soe ere eta
CUS IGM A an See ee tae bee ae oo ee BaSeee abba MeATengossoce WORE OTEE PL | oe se State en seen s Wess oosee
Pacific SAAS Beh aos os cillsso536sso4he aS ueuReeaes LOOFOOON 00% | Sees eee eee pee eee eee ee ee eee ens
NUEVOS EET wa SES Ns EEN gD 5 Ry I RRO CN a ine bee SL Coat Taos 000500) eee ee | Sheen nas seme eererss
Raye WSR ese ML Ey SAN 0 a 1, 365, 000. 00 | 133, 274. 27 135,000.00 |.........-|..--------
25LOOMOOON OOM hie sbak Sere betse cisceiees [eee ae ecto ereeiaeeetae
Granditotal cic oe sustenance aN WBS MOOON OOH [Lc Rie ueeyetoe ota a ke peal | PRE Se ta em

1 Not sold until 1915.

2 State bonds issued in 1911 for bridge across Columbia River at Wenatchee.

‘APPENDIX.

WISCONSIN.

TaBLE 69.—Road and bridge bonds, 1914.

Lincoln

County.

Total
road and
bridge
bonds
out-
standing
Jan. 1,
1915.

$42, 500

7, 500

281,078

Bonds Bonds

voted in} sold in
1914. 1914.
““"gi,500 | $1,500.

Per cent.

LXXV

Bond
money | Bends
expended] ; 1
tigi, |) =o
sono) Mine $1, 000
1, 501 2, 250

21, 500

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‘UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGEN IL

BULLETIN No. 390

yey, The

Boy

Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural a h
Engineering, LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director

Washington, D. C. v January 12, 1917

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN THE
UNITED STATES, 1914. A SUMMARY.

(Based upon Bulletins 386, 387, 388, and 389)

Showing for Each State Total and Surfaced Mileage of Public Roads at the close
of 1914, Revenues for Roads and Bridges in 1914, State and Local Road and
Bridge Bonds Outstanding on January 1, 1915, and Other Related Data.

PREPARED JOINTLY BY THE DIVISION OF ROAD ECONOMICS OF THE OFFICE OF PUBLIO
Roaps AND RURAL ENGINEERING AND STATE COLLABORATORS.

INTRODUCTORY.

In 1904 the Office of Public Roads adopted the policy of con-
ducting at five-year intervals an investigation to determine the
mileage of improved and unimproved roads, the revenues for road
purposes, and other related data. In accordance with that policy,
Bulletin No. 32 of the Office of Public Roads was issued for the
calendar year 1904, and Bulletin No. 41 for the calendar year 1909.
Both bulletins-were based largely on data obtained by correspond-
ence. The investigation made for the year 1914 followed somewhat
different lines. A closer cooperation with State highway depart-
ments was maintained, and wherever practicable the information
was Collected directly by collaborators named by the respective State
highway departments and acting under specific instructions from
this: office. This policy was not practicable in connection with
- earlier bulletins owing to the fact that most of the States then had
no established highway departments.

In several of the States, either because no highway departments
existed in 1914 or for other reasons, information was collected by
this office directly from local authorities. In the course of the
investigation it was found necessary to enlist the aid of local and
State road associations, chambers of commerce, automobile clubs,
postmasters, and private individuals in order to obtain even reason-
ably complete information. Highway accounting systems and

66074°—Bull. 390—17

2 BULLETIN 390, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

methods, especially in the local subdivisions of States, are, in gen-
eral, far from satisfactory. In many places the records were found
to be so indefinite or so incomplete that the most careful investiga-
tion failed to determine even the bare total of what funds had been
expended on roads and bridges during the previous years. At times
the memory of some official or employee seemed a better guide than
the permanent existing records.

Lack of definite data and records by the local subdivisions is even
more pronounced as to road mileage. Hundreds of instances were
discovered where the local officials could give no more than a rough
estimate, as maps had not been prepared or measurement of the roads
been made. This lack of definite information in some of the States
accounts for the fact that the total mileage of roads reported in 1914
was considerably greater than in 1909, while the mileage of surfaced
roads reported in 1914 was less than the mileage reported for 1909.
The data on mileage and revenues from some of the States should,
therefore, of necessity, be considered as approximate. ‘The statistics
for each State have been checked, as far as practicable, by the col-
laborators or by the State highway departments, and it is believed —
that the 1914 investigation is more complete and accurate than
either of the former investigations.

For convenient reference and to avoid delay in publication, the
information obtained has been prepared for publication in a series
of four bulletins, as follows: Middle Atlantic States, Bulletin 386;
Southern States, Bulletin 387; New England States, Bulletin 388;
and the Central, Mountain, and Pacific States, Bulletin 389.

In this publication the information contained im the foregoing

- bulletins is summarized and presented in a series of tables, as follows:

- GENERAL SUMMARY.

TaBLE 1.—Mileage and revenues and the relation of these to area,
population, rural population, and assessed valuation, for the United
~ States as a whole.

PUBLIC ROAD REVENUES.

TaBLE 2.—Revenues applied to roads and bridges in the various
States in 1914, with comparative information for the year 1904. It
will be seen from this table that the total revenue applied to roads and
bridges in the United States in 1914 amounted to $240,263,784.
This includes State appropriations, motor vehicle registration and
license fees, amounts derived from local taxation, and expenditures
from State and local bond issues. In 1904 the total revenue applied
to this purpose amounted to $79,623,616, thus showing an increase
for the 10-year period of $160,640,168, or 201.75 per cent.

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914. 3
ANALYSIS OF REVENUES ON VARIOUS BASES.

- Tasie 3.—The relation of road and bridge revenue to mileage, area,
population, and assessed valuation, 1914 and 1904.

A study of this table will show that, while the revenue available
for road purposes increased from $37.01 per mile in 1904 to $98.22
per mile in 1914—an increase of 165 per cent—the actual financial
burden upon. the taxpayers did not increase in the same ratio. This
was due to the fact that property values mcreased during the same
period to such an extent that whereas the average tax burden per
$100 of assessed property value was 23 cents in 1904, it had increased
to only 35 cents in 1914, an increase of 52 per cent, or less than one-
third the rate of increase in the road fund.

ROAD AND BRIDGE BONDS.

Taste 4.—State and local road and bridge bonds outstanding
January 1, 1915.

These amounted to $344,763,082, comprising $115,324,500 of State
bonds and $229,438,582 of local bonds. State bonds have been
issued in California, Connecticut, Idaho, Maine, Maryland, Massa-
chusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, Utah, and
Washington, and were authorized in New Mexico in 1912, but not
sold until 1915. The constitutions of Kansas, South Dakota, and
Wyoming prohibit these States from participating in works of internal
improvement, and consequently, from issuing State bonds.

ROAD MILEAGE.

TaBie 5.—Total and surfaced mileage ofroads in the various States,
as of January 1, 1915, with comparative information for 1904 sae
1909.

Tt will be seen from this table that on J anuary 1, 1915, there was
in the United States a total of 2,445,761 miles of rade of which
257,291.54 miles, or 10.52 per cent, were surfaced. This does not
include the streets in incorporated cities and, towns. By comparing
these figures with those obtained im former imvestigations, it
appears that between 1909 and 1914, 66,824 miles of road were
surfaced. (Fig. 1.)

ANALYSIS OF MILEAGE ON VARIOUS BASES.

TaBLE 6 shows the relation of total mileage and surfaced mileage
to area and rural population for the years 1904, 1909, and 1914.

U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BULLETIN 390,

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- PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914. 5

TYPES OF SURFACED ROADS.

TABLE 7 shows the distribution of types of surfaced roads in the
various States on January 1, 1915. Of the 257,291.54 miles of sur-
faced roads in the United States on January 1, 1915, 116,058.12
miles, or 45.11 per cent, were gravel; 64,898.43 miles, or 25.22 per
cent, were macadam; 44,154.73 miles, or 17.16 per cent, were sand
clay; 10,499.79 miles, or 4.08 per cent, were bituminous macadam;
2,348.43 miles, or 0.91 per cent, were concrete; 1,593.88 miles, or
0.62 per cent, were brick, and 17,738.16 miles, or 6.90 per cent, were
surfaced with various materials.

TasBLE 1.—Road mileage, revenue, and other related data for the United States, 1914,

1909, 1904.1
1914 1909 1904
Ropalrordumileagez.s5 93 5-dacheac se Oa~ ce cece ee cae 2,445, 761 2,199, 645 2,151, 379
DUGOUT ORMO. oos= 2. Sa hehe bade h acne nee coe 257, 291. 54 190, 476. 32 153, 530. 4
ereconiace SUnacede. = 2 sus ee oso lle. tee 10.5 8. 66 7.14
PROTA EVOEMAT Cs ale icnit< ago seetoes shes esc enoewe ne oe $240, 263, 784. 46 (?) $79, 623, 616. 56
State and local road and bridge bonds outstanding
Merreplenl Oly stash ns ee Se ee Ee $344, 763, 082. 32 (2) (2)

Land area (Gauareiiles) 5s es see- sone tae 3 2,973, 830 3 2,973, 830 42,974,099
OPE ANON seer Atte coe Sate elnets cs creda - ole ae | 3 91, 641, 197 391, 641, 197 4 75, 715, 857
Binalpopulation aa... o5 gs se koeace cock ccs eae 3 49, 348, 883 3 49, 348, 883 4 45, 197, 390
PAISSESSOOMVALUATION® so ..- 1. So nsiqtisaemesitic ace ccs ecie'cl ate 5 $69, 093, 003, 851 | 5 $69, 093, 003, 851 | 6835, 114, 924° 911
Miles of road per square mile of area...............- 0. 82 0. 74 0. 72
Miles of road per 1,000 of rural population.........-. 49. 5 44.6 47.6
Surfaced mileage per square mile of area..-......--. 0. 086 0. 064 0. 052
Surfaced mileage per 1,000 of rural population......- 5. 21 3. 86 3, 39
Road and bridge revenue per mile of road........... $98. 22 C > $37. O01
Road and bridge revenue per square mile of area.... $80. 79 2 $26. 77
Road and bridge revenue per capita...-..:---..-..- $2. 62 2 $1. 05
Road and bridge revenue per $100 assessed value.... $0. 35 2 $0. 23

1 Exclusive of District of Columbia, Alaska, and island possessions. 2 No information obtained.
3 1910. 41900. 6 6 1902.

Miles of road surfaced between 1909 and 1914, 66,815. 22.

6 _ BULLETIN 390, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TasLE 2.—Revenue applied to roads and bridges.

Total revenue applied to roads

and b

States.
1914
SAW HANES essen ee nee eRe ya ee Secon ae $3, 949,019. 00
BAST IZ OM Dia See ie wep Cats ae ae Re PE Sok ates 982, 721. 22
PATICATISAS ED Setar eee Tee eas oe eee ace oe 1, 522, 696. 20
(CAliOMIa oes tesan sees see Se Be oes oy 19, 171, 984. 66
ROOHOTA CO OE es eae are a eee ee sae 1, 937, 546. 23
COTTE C TG Se sees shea seer yam ae ee ea 3, 640, 962. 75
MSA WAT OES oe SUL Ey eas MEU ae 511, 628. 00
RENT Ted pee ey ONAN Mare ero a rebee mere ¢ 2,280, 255. 09
(GIS CTART AD Aine RE eas aetna ee ey eee 3, 688, 172. 25
siihio Lense SEE Sieh OE GOT Ie 1, 371, 468. 59
AUT Gis SR Se rae es i ote Pees ome ee 8, 734, 712. 77
Taeb blab ae seperated eee as aaa eerste 14, 233, 985. 93 |
STO WEE Oa a Saree see ra a LS coe 10, 187, 507. 32
IATA seep sre, Se Syn eet Cay fas Aiea a a 5, 544, 048. 00
ienpucka een 2oeee este hose Ba ee, 2,474, 621. 00
TE(OYDURTEN a epee ee Ne aa aoe eee OES ERB 1,777, 572. 12
IIB Tay Bae 2s oe eae es ey ie ee Cad ee 2, 642, 006. 79
oN IeWevy SN cKO Pees So Os odes amnees aR aStE s og 6, 000, 652. 03
Massachusetisste esc cs not eee See eee eee 6, 091, 875. 30
MTChI gan eae see ees ce so ene eee eee 9, 261, 998. 00
Minnesota......-..- eae > lptene eet ALE er ee 6, 458, 940. 07
MOSSISSID Dales eee ee oes els ted Be ee ua 3, 960, 377. 00
Missouri........ 5, 513, 048. 71
Montana......-. 2, 888, 400. 61
Nebraska....-- 1, 796, 277. 69
acl heh Frey Sees ee ay > Me 2 eC 245, 013. 65
New Hampshire....- BAe Caen i eee ee 1, 590, 464. 11
ENGI AUT SO Wiersma ine cao une gees araee 7, 208, 287. 08
iNipwMexicos- stp) shen ao i ee Es 2 ees 556, 398. 82
BNIB WA YOT Kas ae ee reps a ot Ns Sh RE fh 23, 231, 964. 02
Noria Carolina pee seas ene LEE y aw: 5, 215, 490. 78
NGM DA OTa ses Se Sete ee ene ecw ieee 2, 402, 383. 52
OOS Se ee eee ee eee el memes hy eae ais 14, 334, 245. 98
Eda mae hes Ne OE ye eae Se a ed ve 2, 112, 680. 80
POTerONe sess Race Shs Sa Pee ate Samee ena see 5, 310, 466. 76
Ronn sSylvamiiasneew essence eens eee 10, 424, 580. 00
Rhode Island...-.-. BO eee ee eae eee 446, 496. 05
South Carolina--.-.-.-.-.-- Bes 2 ARSE IO 1, 024, 480. 37
SOtH ED ako tate sip eee Se hee oe eas 1, 217, 809. 42
Tennessee i ie ey a ee SoA MESS Aes 2,370, 560. 16
PRO SENS ra Sanyo Ve Na ne Se eB IU Lt Nora 9, 920,079. 11
TOT a A ee Sey a 803, 070. 63
VICTIM OTA Petree foe e te en eee, me 1, 023, 941. O01
SUF treg ali sl SSI a a a aE 3, 224, 528, 82
Washing tones ace ceaen este oo sab mene sacar 7, 944, 717. 38
AWiestaVaroin as sen mnaens Ste ee ate cael 2, 483, 747. 00
WIS OUTS ao aooasanatcsasasseossssss55q50e5¢ 9, 880, 240. 50
VAIO GS edge bs Ades ee eas ue ee ane men eee crn 669, 661. 16
MG talisawsieeses eos wanes ken eed aes e cas 240, 263, 784. 46

dges.

1904

$1, 576, 434. 27

109; 309. 43
1, 395, 342. 80
2; 157, 396. 36

4, 335, 108. 00
3, 106, 607. 50
1, 232) 817. 45
2, 148, 689. 03
951, 872. 86
1, 472, 393. 70
873, 470. 50
2,871, 222. 47
3, 179, 787. 88
1, 961, 629. 24
1, 675, 485. 45
2,368, 972. 79
404, 097. 81
878, 547. 40
46, 875. 85
872, 606. 35
3, 274, 811. 25
165, 651. 56
5, 692, 514. 82
1,358, 687. 00
550, 340. 72
5, 706, 083. 61
774, 775. 59
796, 375. 97
4, 887, 265. 68
405, 010. 85
745, 701. 50
383, 283. 07
1, 621, 77. 15
4) 138, 157. 49
218, 675. 78
567, 397. 33
687, 751. 06
1, 436, 070. 19
893, 285. 28
2, 181, 262. 38
345, 931. 73

79, 623, 616. 33

Increase in revenue over
1904.

Total increase.

$2, 372, 584. 73
873, 411. 79
127, 353. 40

17, 014, 588. 30

1, 230, 322. 60

2; 445, 837. 74

420, 825. 12
1, 702, 677. 99
1, 607, 299. 92
1, 059, 880. 59
4, 523, 762. 54
9, 898, 877. 93
7,080, 899. 82
4) 311, 230. 55

325, 931. 97

825, 699. 26
1, 169, 613. 09
5, 127, 181.53
3. 220, 652. 83
6, 082, 210. 12
4, 497, 310. 83
2, 284, 891. 55
3,144,075. 92
2, 484, 302. 80

917, 730. 29

198, 137. 80

717, 857. 76
3, 933, 475. 83

390, 747. 26

17, 539, 449. 20

3, 856, 803. 78
1, 852, 042. 80
8, 628, 162. 37
1,337, 905. 21
4,514, 090. 79
5, 537, 314. 32

41, 485. 20

278, 778. 87

834, 526. 35

748, 783. O1
5, 781, 921. 62

584, 394. 85

456, 543. 68
2, 536, 777. 76
6, 508, 647. 19
1, 590, 461. 72
7, 698, 978. 12

323, 729. 43

160, 640, 168. 13

Pereent-
age of
increase.

150. 50
799. 00

9.10
786. 60
173. 96
204. 60
463. 40
294. 70
77,20
340. 00
107. 42
228. 34
227. 92
349. 70
15. 10
86. 70
79. 43
586. 90
112. 20
191. 27
229. 26
136. 30
132. 72
614. 77
104. 40
422. 68
82. 20
120. 00
935. 88
308. 00
283. 80
436. 52
151. 23
172. 60
566. 84
113. 20
10. 20
37. 40
217. 73
46, 10
139. 70
267. 24
80. 46
368. 80
453, 22
178. 00
352. 26
93. 58

201. 75

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914. 7

TABLE 3.—Relation of public road and bridge revenues to mileage, area, population, and
assessed valuation, 1914 and 1904.

Revenues.
F Per $100 of as-
States. Per mile of road.| Pe? Bees mile} per capita. sessed valu-
7 ; ation.
|
1914 1904 1914 1904 19141 | 19042 | 19143 | 19044

LS TIES OSE SHEE LS Te me $71.22 | $31.47 | $77.01 | $30.74 | $1.840 | $0.86 |$0.6900 | $0.530

I STVAT Toe ae a ee eo ee 81.38 | 18.25 8. 63 -96 | 4.810 -89 } .7000 . 270

38.28 | 28.99] 26.56 . 960 1.06 | .3600 _. 620

46. 24 | 123.17 13. 82 8. 060 1.45 - 6600 -170

23. 40 18. 69 6. 82 2, 420 1.31 - 4600 - 200

84.84 | 755.50 | 248.10 3. 260 1.32 - 3900 . 180

30. 26 | 260. 37 46, 21 2. 520 49 - 5450 - 131

33. 24 41. 56 10. 52 3. 020 1.09 | 1.0700 - 560

36. 37 62. 80 35. 43 1. 410 - 93 - 4370 - 440

17.15 16. 45 3,78) 4.210 1.92 . 8200 -510

44.73 | 155.85 75.19 1.540 . 87 . 3700 - 410

63. 46 | 394.89 | 120. 80 5. 270 1.72 . 7500 - 310

30.32 | 183. 27 55. 89 4. 580 1.39 | 1.1300 - 540

12.18 | 67.79 | 15.07 | 3.280 - 83 | .2000 . 340

37.60 | 61.58 | 53.47 1.080 1.00 | .2390 . 300

38.23 | 39.10] 20.96} 1.073 -68 | .3220 - 300

4 57.68 | 88.37) 49.29 | 3.550 2.12 | .6330 . 418

Maryland 52.07 | 603.62 | 87.86 | 4.630 -73 | . 4850 . 120

Massachusetts 167.99 | 758.00 | 357.40 | 1.810 1.02} .1270 . 092

Michieane 2s co 5. cce. 45.88 | 161.13 | 55.32 | 3.290 1.31 | .4000 . 220

Minnesota 24.72 79. 88 24. 26 3.110 1.12 - 4400 - 260

Mississippi 43. 29 85. 42 36. 13 2. 200 1. 08 - 9620 .770

IMNISSOUMIPe Sears seicie namo eee tee se ass ¥ 21.90 | 80.22] 34.47] 1.670 -76 | .3000 . 190

0 Oya FRN CE), 3 Ne re re a eer 18.02 | 19.75 2.76 | 7.680 1.66 | .8300 . 220

Nebraska i TW |) PS vety 4h Tig28) GR) .82 |} .3900 . 490

INCVAGE A ee see ae ee ae eee mete } 3. 72 PPB) . 42 2. 990 1.10 . 2400 . 160
NewstHampshire =. 2. - 22. sete eel lke 113.44 | 57.72 | 176.11 | 96.62] 3.690 2.12 | .3620 ~ 427 .

INGWINETSC Yard ce cces oes cee enn. Seen 486. 49 | 220.64 | 959.00 | 435.00 | 2.830 1.73 | .2890 . 340

Wawa Mie COm= oy Ge eis ei Soe 46.86 | 10.80 4,54 Sb 690s 284 27700 . 480

INE WIBVIOU Ke er ee San sels tkik es aai-/s de oe 292. 60 77.05 | 467.00 | 114.00 2. 540 .79 . 2080 . 095

Nortau@anolimaes = 5252s 5e0 cre sajek can 102.75 | 27.30 | 107.00 | 27.87 | 2.360 fil.) 6 O30) . 390

Oni DakObaee joes see es ee 34. 92 9.28 | 34.23 7.84 | 4.160 1.72 | .6800 . 410

OTT ORE ee Wye see Sa ee ta 165.99 | 82.17 | 351.84 | 140.06 | 3.000 1.37 | .2200 . 290

Oklahoma -52 2 4)26- B 17. 79 30. 45 11.16 1. 274 1,94 . 1769 . 870

Oresoneser sea. 22 cc's - 23. 24 55. 54 8.33 7. 890 1.92 - 5900 . 540

Pennsylvania 48.98 | 232.00 | 109.00 | 1.360 Sul | sO) . 124

Rhode Island 171.54 | 418.50 | 379.70 . 820 - 95 - 0720 . 096

South Carolina 17.82 | 33.59 | 24.45 . 670 -55 | .3510 . 380

South Dakota A 6.46 | 15.84 4.98 | 2.080 -95 | .3400 . 200

BN ETIMICSSCC Mey nye ac Nate yaa ecules sjaic 33.10 | 56.86 | 38.90} 1.080 -80 | .3780 . 390

ANEES 2G USS Se eye eae 34.08 | 37.80 | 15.77 | 2.540 1.35 | .3910 - 400

Wrahee ere aeer ees eee EE os SL Ae 30. 84 9.77 2. 66 2.150 79 - 4000 . 180

MCTITOM Genco ws cretion ee eis aver ucla 4 39.07 | 112. 22 62.19 2. 870 1. 65 - 4620 348

WIS TA) = 2 Go Cee SSE ee L 13. 27 80. 08 17. 08 1. 560 Brod - 3120 . 146

WWASOIMNSTOME See ee occas casi: d 44.85 | 118.87 | 21.48 | 6.950 2.77.| .7900 . 550

West Virginia. -.-.- A toh han Wo aed eee Cae 77.55 | 34.12 | 103.39 | 37.18 | 2.030 93 | .2120 . 350

VIS CONST Heme ys eet Wee RUE Bai is daly 130. 50 34.30 | 178. 81 39. 47 4, 230 1.05 - 4000 - 140

IVVAY. OTTERS eG aecterars hie sts doula ds 44.06 9. 45 6. 86 3.54 | 4.590 1.04 | .3700 . 790

| [eh Se a be tee AE GRE [ee ene 2

Weighted averages............- 98.22 | 37.01 | 80.79 | 26.77 | 2.620 1.05 | .3500 . 230

1 Based on the 1910 United States Census. 3 Based on the 1912 United States Census.

2 Based on the 1900 United States Census. 4 Based on the 1902 United States Census.

8 BULLETIN 390, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLeE 4.—Road and bridge bonds outstanding January 1, 1915.

Total State
State. and local State bonds. | Local bonds.
bonds.

CAMPS I UINN GY eyes ee ar reas peep hee nic nested SSNS AB CN NE aoe aaa ee UE UCU NO ape aaaonqes—a5- $5, 418, 000. 00
PATI ZON Ae edie: eet ere See a tne Se tee aici eae cjaiere ats 29D OOO 100) Eememeeisisetee a= 295, 000. 00
UNDIES 45 seis ec Sacre ae Mien ee AN gerrmcte sete: AO), OGDs00)| Pama seem 1, 467, 066. 00
California Aaa sccoseltes Seessokss sea 32, 277, 000. 00 $18, 000, 000 14, 277, 000. 00
(CONCH). so botomenose noo sedeoceD roost snassons=s2g5s050° OOe 06 @D |oasscsesesecsne: 90, 500. 00
(COE.S ANGUS b Bh atadatn deo eaoeavaonddyes tssosueec ones = 7, 000, 000. 00 7, 000, 000 1
TOY BEEBE Gora ser Ged stents hele mnie ale Meriepo: 1, 280, 000. 00 |.------ cee Ssaes 1, 280, 000. 00
TORIC) Saher EMG nase Henne Ler ae ek eeem Nit aire SOR EOD ene 5 aSba5Shse55 5, 959, 199. 00
Ge ORri ey Seed Ae ae ea a bet MES AT ie bs We 9 127,500.00) 3|- +2 2-2 2-o-c ee eee 127, 500. 00
LICE MO ee) 4 -USSISEIE IS. aaa Get RE REA tea SoD 1, 339, 000. 00 505, 000 834, 000. 00
MUIR OSE AEE SSN EE ek NE an oe ENE wc a 798, (GL Soule ae-2e ep eeeer 798, 761. 55
Hera GLa UT a, NE AS eee Be UE ae OES Se es eee ae AQ095 300.84 ja 2 2 = ceeean see 42, 095, 357. 34
Towa...- HMOGO (SO:00 4 ps2 = seca ee ae 1, 960, 780. 00
Kansas... 1 (2) 1
Kentucky - USUU OS UMN haeas ancocossacde 705, 000. 00
Louisiana Hig 9 OG, 800500) || acs ae ot atareseme ter | 1, 588, 835. 00
Marmen Nan. 2 Ae) 8 EIB NAR LBRO AN ty ORME 735, 000. 00 785, 000. 00 1
Maryland 12, 853, 700. 00 12, 410, 000 443, 700. 00
IMaSSAaCHUSEMUS-)scema asm ere nee ae eobmcl nr See echt tates 10, 305, 522. 82 8, 699, 500 1, 606, 022. 82
LETC OUTS a ASE eile Se Moe ope RA a te Pp kD pS AOPS89029. 43. fo. eee heels 10, 389, 029. 43
NIMC SO fale aN ae See aS Ge Rie cee Eee eee WAAL AS88000) eee ee eee ee 1, 411, 889. 00
AMETSSTSS TT OMe esse eats ae eee esas RN errs eee ea a S20 h2. 00! |. eee ocean 8, 327, 172.00
INTE SS OLLIE eis oie So eye Ve tes hie Eas 922,(000:.00) 2 tee. aee eee 522, 500. 00
Montana eater sates oe eee Ie See 2 EE es D224 OOO ie: s|- tame e-eeee acne 2, 224, 050. 72
Nebraska....------- se agaelas sis2s0¢er2Fascesee25725¢25502 De BN eoodeacssodsoaas E
Np ad ae sey ea ate ee Roe Ie ESN 38,000.00) 1.22 oa seeecse kee 38, 000. 00
NG WEL am yISIDUT eho Bee Se Ue One Ra ee Ae re 675, 000. 00 | - 675, 000 es
ING Wi TOTSO Wee aise Bede SE EAS PR ee Oe eR eS OIA SOLA S30. 00) 422 tee eee eee et 14, 011, 337. 00
ING VIC RCO HS he Ra ke Shh he aE Se a a ee 157, 000. 00 (3) 157, 000. 00
INO WANGOLES ER EO eRe ae MEE ae Ee ee ee aa ae 76, 822, 088. 00 65,000,000 | 11, 822, 088. 00
North Carolama ss eer os Aes SR Ee Se Es a 8999, S000! | Se esq cee eee 8, 955, 300. 00
Nor Une Dakota seer No. ccusk aye dpe) wes ae ee Merge yet I) Mas agdeee tere seeenees 1
ONION eee etc Gann beceetts eB cots cha AR Oe 31, 175, 968. 53 (2) | 31,175, 968. 53
Okdahomdaras: 2) ese s So Bese Bi Se ey eee UEA4ONO0OL OO S22 Ses ee eee mee 1, 440, 000. 00
CON RSYSTON a be esicee peeeS SIENS Da w a aeons aera a ae A SION USGTSAGODS 00) We ees): 5 sercteceys ore 1, 615, 000. 00
Bentisiyl yamiarece es ses oe ee ce Sek ares ae DOA OOO OO ila = a275/5 az tel yer 27, 547, 659. 00
RYH OMe yUS Leura okey h ess Pe pe Re Dees | oleae 1, 800, 000. 00 1, 800, 000 1
SonGh Canoes: 3 Sees See ee ea ee oe SGO( 0002001 ss cacee2 se see e se 460, 000. 00
SoOwTheWakotea sss ste 22 2 eee el ae NE Arenas (2) (2) 1)
*RennessGemeee ose deme eetts sed aoeea eee oe GABOR 2700 ie nemce nem secs 6, 898, 277. 00
MORASS aster see cers HANG15 OL 7500) I 2 hos5 a2 ce ses. 14, 615, 017. 00
(Wiahee ees 541, 500. 00 260, 000 281, 500. 00
Vermont....-.-- : (CUA eee ee eatin ht @)
Waneinia Saeeee es eee DHOOOKG9AL OS) 12 nee eae See sen 5, 650, 994. 93
Wieshinetiomeren sie: cas eee sas Skis eee eh) a RM Eee 1, 555, 000. 00 190, 000 1, 365, 000. 00 |
West Virhinia 4 43034000! OO inchs sae ea 1, 303, 000. 00
ANP SOOO 0c se btessoaeascehs se saeestouseaces ac asoeeene- DSWiO78 00 Ge sees eee e ee 281, 078. 00
Wy SOMOS = 55 seco conddatec eae soeoSsossaese toe seasesnee Q) (2) @)

MObalenys a -yseie nisi AREER cle Soe ae wie tes Ses See 344, 763, 082. 32 115, 324,500 | 229, 438, 582.32

1 No bonds reported.

2 Constitution prohibits the State participating in works of internal improvement.
2 In 1912 legislature authorized $500,000 State bonds, but none sold- until 1915.
4Up to July 1, 1915.

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914. . 9

TaBLE 5.—Road mileage.

F F Percentage
Totalroad mileage. Miles surfaced. suniacad: Tnerease
REN ea feet erie as no CRCASO UN
States. ; { miles
surfaced,
1914 1909 1904 1914 1909 1904 1914 | 1909 | 1904 | 1909to

Ala..->----| 55,446.00} 49,639.00) 50,089) 4,988.50} 3,263.93} 1,720.00] 8.99} 6.58) 38.43] 1,724.57
WAnizee--2--| 12,075.00) 5,987.60 5, 987 253. 43 273.00 217.00} 2.09) 4.56] 3.62 —19.57
IADKS sion se 50, 743.00} 36,445.00} 36,445) 1,097.50) 1,085.25 236.00) 2.16) 2.97 . 64 AAD
Cal....-----| 61,039.00) 48,069.00) 46,653] 10,279.73 8,587.75) 8,803.00) 16.84) 17.87] 18.87] 1,691.98
Golo.2. 5 - 39, 780.00} 29,693.00) 30,214) 1,193.87 320.50 178.00} 3.00) 1.08 . 59 873. 37
Conn..-----| 14,061.00) 12,583.00} 14,088) 2,975.45} 3,030.54] 2,360.10] 21.16) 24.08] 16.75 —55. 09

3,000.00] 3,000! °243.50| 186.44 66.00] 6.62} 6.22] 2.20 57.06
17,579.00] 17,374| 2,830.47] 1,752.35] 885.50] 15.72] 9.97| 5.10] 1,078.12
82,230.00) 57,203] 12,342.12] 5,978.00] 1,634.00] 15.30| 7.27| 2.86] 6,364.12
18,403.00] 18,163} 679.00] 510.50] 212.00] 2.78| 2.77] 1.16] 168.50
94,141.00] 94,141] 11,606.31] 8,914.00] 7,924.00] 12.02] 9.47] 8.42] 2,692.31
67,996.00] _ 68,306] 30,962. 40] 24,955. 75| 23,877.00] 42. 20| 36.70] 34.96 6, 006. 65
102,427.00] 102,448) 614.57) 2/505.10| 1,664.00] .59| 2.45/ 1.62|—1,890.53
98,302.00} 101,196] 1,148.85] 7374.71] 273.20] 1.03) .38| .27| 774.14
53,744.00] ~ 57,137| 12, 403. 28] 10,114.95| 9,486.00 21.40] 18.82] 16.60] 2,288.33
24’ 962.00} 24/897] 2°067.62| 329.50 34.00] 8.42) 1.32] .14] 1,738.12
25,528.00| 25,528} 2)762.36| 2,703.06| 2,323. 50| 11.74] 10.59] 9.10 59. 30
16,773.00] 16,773\ 2,489.26] 2'142.30| 1,570.00] 15.10] 12.77| 9.36] 346.96
17,272.00| 17,092) 8505.89] 8, 463.18| 7,843. 80| 45.53] 49.00| 45. 89 42.71
68,906.00] 69;296| 7,828.51] 6,900.54] 7,025.50} 10.55] 10.01) 10.14) 927.97
79,323.00] 79,324| 3,967.83] 5,416.85] 6,247.50] 4.24) 6.83] 7.87|—1,449. 02
39,619.00] 38,698} 2)133.35| 342.25] 149.00] 4.66] .86| .31| 1,791.10
107,923.00] 108, 133 6, 712.57| 4,755.50| 2,733.00] 6.98] 4.40| 2.53] 1,957.07
-00| 22)419] 609. 25 95.00 65.00] 1.55| .41| .28| 514.95
80,338.00] 79,462] 1,204.54 248.55 93.00] .1.50/ .31] .03/- 955.99
12,751.00] 12/585] 262.00 46.00 64.00] 2.14) .36| .51| 216.00
15,116.00] 15,116] 1,659.63] 1,448.48} 1,293.00] 11.83] 9.58] 8.55| 211.15
14,842.00] 14/842] 5,897.46] 3,377.86] 2,422.30] 39.80] 22.76] 16.32] 2,519.60
16,920.00] 15,326] 261.50] 104.00 2.00] 2.201 .61] .01| 157.50
79, 279.00| "73, 798| 15, 635.90] 12,787.36 5,876.00] 19.60] 16.13] 7.96] 2,848.54
48, 285.00| 49,763] 6,003.75] 2.313.00| 1,259.00] 11.82] 4.79] 2.53) 3,690.75
61,593.00] 59/332} 955.00] 140.00 212.00] 1.38) .23| .36| 815. 00
88,861.00] 69, 439] 30,569.17] 24,106.00] 23, 460.00] 35.16] 27.13] 33.79| 6,463.17
7916.00! 71,325.00! 43,554 7121.60| 361.00).......... stl 50) -2e0e — 239. 40
Oreg.....5.- 36, 819.00| 29,475.00! 34/258] 4,726.40] 2,799.25] 2,589.00] 12.831 9.49] 7.56] 1,927.15
87,386.79| 99,777| 9,982.88| 3,364.76] 2,160.80] 10.90] 3.84| 2.17] 6,618.12

2) 120.75 2)361| 693.42] 1,042.07] 1,021.50} 31.95| 49.14] 43.27/ —348. 65
32,075.00| 41,830| 3,270.50] 3,534.75| 1,878.00] 7.74] 11.02] 4.49) —264.25
56,354.00, 59,295] 363.00 286.00] 151.00} .37] .50| .25 77.00
45,913.00, 48,989| 8,102.00] 5,353.50| 4,285.00] 17.59] 11.66} 8.75| 2,748.50
128,971.00] 121, 409| 10,526.79] 4,896.00] 2,128.00] 8.16] 3.80| 1.75| 5,640.00
8,320.00] 7,090] 1,153.75] 1,018.00] 608.00] 13.09| 12.23) 8.57| 135.75
14, 406.00| 14,521} 1,442.03] 2,650.63] 1,953. 50| 10.12| 18. 40] 13. 45|—1, 208. 60
43,399.00| 51,812} 3,909.57| 1,902.75] 1,600.00) 7.32) 4.38] 3.09] 2,006.82
34, 283.60| 31,998) 4,922.09] 4,520.68] 1,976.50] 11.61] 13.19| 6.17] 401.41
32,109.00! 26,178] 1,064.97] 591.40] 7254.50] 3.30| 1.841 .97| 473.57
61,090.00] 63,593] 13,399.47] 10, 167.33] 10,633.20] 17.60] 16. 64| 16.72] 3,232.14
10, 569.00| 10,447| 468.50| 416.00/ 153.00] 3.10] 3.94] 1.46] | 52.50

Total...l2, 2,445,760.84|2,199,645.14/2, 151, 379/257, 291. ae 476. eaeae 530. 40] 10.52} 8.66] 7.14] 66,823.93

10

BULLETIN 390, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE 6.—Relation of total mileage and surfaced mileage to area and rural population.

States.

Arkansas
California ........
Colorado....--..--
Connecticut...-..
Delaware.....----
Florida

Kentucky.....-.-
Louisiana.......--
Maine.. alls
Maryland... Saecesae

Mississippi... .-.-
Missouri.......--
Montana......._-
Nevada ......-..-
New Hampshire.
New Jersey.-...-
New Mexico...--
New York.....---
North Carolina. -

North Dakota... -
OHIORe eee ae

Oregon
Pennsylvania....
Rhode Island..-.
South Carolina. -.
South Dakota...

Washineton.....-
West Virginia. .
Wisconsin.......-

Weighted av-
erages.-..-.

Per square mile
of area.

1914

1909

Boe eo eb

_ ee rm bo

loll el oll

Total mileage.

Per 1,000 rural

Surfaced mileage.

Per square mile of

Per 1,000 rural

population. area. population.
1904 | 19141| 19091] 19042) 1914 | 1909 | 1904 | 19141 19091 | 19042
0.97 | 31.3 | 28.0 | 31.5 |0.097 |0.063 {0.033 2.82 1.84 | 1.06
.05 | 85.5 | 42.4 | 58.1 | .002 | .002 | .002 1.79 1.93 | 2.10
.67 | 36.9 | 26.5 | 30.3 | .02 .02 . 004 . 80 -79 - 196
.29 | 67.2 | 52.9 | 65.9 | .066 | .055 | .056 | 11.32 9.46 |12.45
.30 |100.9 | 75.3 |108.3 | .011 | .003 | .002 3.02 81 -64
2.92 |122.3 |109.5 121.7 | .617 | .629 | .490 | 25.89 26.39 |20.39
1.53 |! 34.9 | 28.5 | 30.3 1.24 -095 | .03 2.32 IL 7h . 667
.dl | 33.6 | 32.9 | 41.2 | .052 | .032 | .016 5, 29 3.28 | 2.09
.96 | 38.9 | 39.7 | 30.5 | .210 | .101 | .028 5.96 2.88 - 873
-20 | 95.4 | 71.9 |119.6 | .008 | .006 | .002 2.65 1.99 | 1.39
1.60 | 44.2 | 43.5 | 42.6 | .207 | .159 | .141 5.37 4,12 | 3.59
1.90 | 47.1 | 48.6 | 41.3 | .858 | .692 | .662 | 19.88 16.02 {14.44
1.84 | 67.3 | 66.3 | 61.7 | .001 | .045 | .029 -39 1.62 | 1.00
1.20 | 92.7 | 82.1 | 88.8] .014 | .004 | .003 - 96 sail . 24
1.42 | 33.4 | 30.9 | 34.0 | .308 oo . 236 7.15 5. 83 5. 64
.54 | 21.1 | 21.5 | 24.5 | .05 .007 | .0007}] 1.78 .0284| .0334
.85 | 65.3 | 70.7 | 71.5 | .092 | .090 | .078 7.65 7.49 | 6.51
1.68 | 25.8 | 26.3 | 28.1 | .25 422 15 3.90 3.36 | 2.63
2.13 | 77.5 | 71.6 | 71.7 11.058 {1.053 | .976 | 35.29 35.11 |382.92
1.20 | 50.0 | 46.4 | 47.2 | .136 . 120 ~ 122 5. 28 4.65 4.78
1.00 | 76.3 | 64.7 ; 68.7 | .036 | .066 | .077 2. 42 4.42 | 5.42 -
.83 | 28.8 | 24.9 | 27.0 | .046 | .007 | .003 1.34 -215 | .104
1.50 | 50.6 | 56.9 | 54.6 | .097 | .069 | .039 3.54 7465) ik 833
.15 |161.5 | 96.1 }141.2 | .004 | .0006 |} .0004 | 2.51 .39 41
1.00 | 91.0 | 91.1 | 97.6 | .001 | .003 | .0003 | 1.36 . 28 - 03
.11 |177.8 |186.1 |358.1 | .002 | .0004 | .0006|] 3.82 -67 | 1.82
1.67 | 79.9 | 86.2 | 81.5 |) .184 | .160 | .148 9. 47 8.25 | 6.98
1.97 | 23.5 | 23.6 | 26.7 | .784 | .45 sO2 9.4 5.4 4.4
.12 | 42.3 | 60.3 | 91.3 | .002 | .0008 | .0002 93 37 OL
1.54 | 41.2 | 41.1 | 37.4 | .328 | .268 | .12 8.1 6.6 2.98
1.00 | 26.8 | 25.5 | 29.1 | .123 | .047 | .025 3.18 122 . 087
. 84 |133.8 |119.8 |200.6 | .013 | .002 | .003 1.86 27 oth
1.79 | 41.0 | 42.2 | 32.1] .750 | .591 | .575 | 14.54 11.47 {10.86
1.10 | 80.7 | 53.3 | 59.5 | .0017 | .0052 | .000 . 0912 A, - 000
.36 |100.6 | 80.5 122.2 | .049 | .029 | .027 | 12.89 @265 -|/9523
2.21 | 30.2 | 28.8 | 34.9 | .22 .075 | .048 3. 29 1.11 - 16
2.21 |120.8 |118.1 |112.9 | .649 -977 957 38. 59 58.03 [48.83
1530))) 8257 02458) | Boadale LOT | olls el) S061 2.53 2.74 | 1.60
.70 |189.8 }111.1 |164.4 | .004 | .003 | .002 12 - 56 42
1.17 | 26.4 | 26.3 | 28.9 | .194 | .128 | .102 4,64 3.07 | 2.52
-46 | 43.6 | 43.6 | 48.0 | .401 | .186 | .081 3.56 1.65. . 841
.08 | 43.9 | 41.5 | 41.3] .014 | .012 | .007 5. 76 5.08 | 3.55
1.59 | 76.2} 77.0 | 71.0 | .158 | .291 | .214 Us te 14.17 | 9.55
129 | 8340 20.8) sees 08s | 047. a1 039 2. 46 1.20 | 1.05,
-48 | 79.0 | 63.9 |104.3 | .073 | .067 | .029 9.17 8.43 | 6.44
1.06 | 32.3 | 32.3 | 31.4 | .044 | .002 | .001 1.07 7995 |) ook
1.17 | 56.9 | 45.9 | 49.7 | .242 | .184 | .192 | 10.08 7.64 | 8.3L
10 |147.9 |102.8 |158.5 | .005 | .004 | .0015] 4.56 4.05 | 2.32
.72 | 49.5 | 44.6 | 47.6 | .086 | .064 | .052 5. 21 3%6 | 3.39

1 Based on the 1910 U. §. Census.
2 Based on the 1900 U. S. Census.

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES, 1914. aan (a |

TaBLe 7.—Types of surfaced roads, 1914.

Bitumi- i
. Con- | Miscella-| Total
State. Macadam. a oa Gravel. a Brick. Geis, neous. | surfaced.

Miles. | Miles. Miles. | Miles. | Miles. || Miles. | Mites.

WNiabama .s<s22/2<5-- é 31.00 |} 2,589.50} 1,916.00 |......... 1.00 20.00 | 4,988.50
PATAZ OM deacons = es cicarse 13.50 125. 70 SOS OUN |e aere ears si| isis oie 58. 00 253. 43
Arkarisas .2 25.5 2)-2---- 4.00 535. 00 beats Ot ee ee Bile OHS ee 1,097.50
Californias. 22-12-25. - 877.90 | 3,563.59 Liv AV 4s) | a esooace 929.19 | 3,489.40 | 10, 279.73
Coloradomesces-2 25-5: OOS ems e cee 574. 25 ADO eters aren 2.25 164.25 | 1,193.87
Connecticut
Delaware........-----
Il OniGdaeseeme na soes-he
Georges = Soa:
“TCE Oy De MES SS eae
NOISE Gres oes - S-<
PHOS AS esas = a2 esses 2
Mewes ee see ss
MMS ASE ae elacrocis cas
WMentuGkynescss2- 2552:
Mowmisianass. 26552254
TOM eo trals = == =/5
Maryland .....-
Massachusetts
Michigan...
Minnesota...
Mississippi : a : rn
Missouri ....2--- >....| 1,531.05 59.00 | 3,671.50 | 1,442. 25 1.00 Gy 5.00 | 6,712.57
MOTH soe es icine 718200) ha coceenee 514. 25 WAS OOH | oa cc eiare [aoe eens 3.00 609. 25
Nebraska ...........-- 39. 21 1.30 21.00 | 1,131.10 2.40 7.53 2.00 | 1,204.54
NIBVAGR Scores ook =! a UO esse es 193. 00 BiSO0 Ee Seam [Seems Lessee 262.00
New Hampshire....-. 61. 87 154.26 | 1,013.70 AMO SOO eiccaeee 7.07 151. 83 1, 659. 63
New Jersey.........-- TST 2) Zab GBS | Paces el BNA) oo ou secaellacocooee 250.67 | 5,897.46
New MCxIGD.. 2 2. in 20 oss 205 2 cick 5.00 184. 00 (2-55, 08 bes cen (eis eee eee I eter ace 261. 50
RNEW A YON soe ee 525 BD TAT.97 | o,200.08 1 0,602.01 leaeneeeeee 148.53 | 244.19 553.61 | 15,635.90
North Carolina ....... 1,111.00 9.00 529.00 | 4,313.50 |----....- 4,25 40.00 | 6,003.75
INO ND IDB eee oes Rae ea sel mee aoe CEBU fsoskhotvclcadseosdiosseasee abo seetetee 955. 00
inner -aalk Yess oe: 12,903.87 | 1,066.29 ! 15,385.93 | 241.00; 640.41] 315.67 46.00 | 30,569.17
WkdIahOMales.- 52sec: == . 70 3.00 b “Da OCY leis See Al ee SS ee en 121.60
ORG as eee eee 1,000. 72 137.25 | 3,060.15 OOO 00! | aaa see 28. 41 199.87 | 4,726.40
Pennsylvania........- 11,881.80 | 1198.33 1235. 1G oleae Po 1269.33 |. 222-8 - 7, 398. 23 982. 88
Rhode Island......... 352. 92 107. 40 DOE OD ae ea ea eo ey Ee ee LS 3.00 693. 42
South Carolina......-.- 27.50 3.50 85. 00 os MOE SOO Ee See ee eee oe 53.50 | 3,270.50
Nout Dakotarcc. a. -)o fice. 5 ee 10. 00 212. 00 29S OD alten ee aaNoaee 12.00 363. 00
Tennessee. ......-.---. 4,550. 50 148. 00.
ORAGES So ciseisinieia is sais os 511. 00 181.00
Withee ee ae ce sas8 49.00 15. 50
ETI OM bie eres ais. ons SOA ess
Weimid oo). 2-2 Se 1,177.89 255. 77 h wee ° ;
Washington .....--.-- 502. 82 165. 52 - 83. b b 4,922.09
West Virginia aioe. 771. 92 62.95 20:50 ease eee 121.10 18. 50 70.00 | 1,064.97
1, 408. 00 183.00 | 9,597.00 | 2,054.00 2.40 83. 07 72.00 | 13,399. 47
REN Ree Sete |---------- eee cia | Py acters oc [heres cheer toys 416. 00 468. 50
- -|64, 898.43 |10, 499.79 |116, 058.12 |44, 154.73 |1, 593.88 |2,348. 43 |17, 738.16 |257, 291. 54
Percent. - 2 322: - 25. 22 4.08 45.11 17.16 . 62 .91 6.90 100. 00

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry
CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief

Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER December 10, 1918

ACCURACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF
OPENED EGGS.

By M. K. Jenkins, Assistant Bacteriologist, and Norman HENDRICKSON, Assvistant
Chemist, Food Research Laboratory.

CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
AI MPOMMCLIONS sees cakie asec seas sees ss = seesae 1 | Descriptions and bacterial counts of eggs
Purpose, plan, and extent of investigation. . - 2 graded out-of the shell--.----------2------- 14
History and bacterial content of samples-..--- 4 | Effect of contaminated eggs upon composite
Effect of condition of shell on bacterial con- DLOMUCtSE seams ee eae ee eee ee cease 18
LembOher cess ae eee or ee se oulec es hs 6 | Eggs rejected during grading..........-...-- 21
Relation between number of bacteria and Sumim anges seeecisenciomee secre siceeiems 25
physical condition of the egg contents..... 11
INTRODUCTION.

The quality of liquid egg used in making frozen or dried egg
products depends upon two factors: First, the character of the eggs
entering the product; and, second, the cleanliness of preparation.
Eggs, good and bad, as they appear before the candle and out of the
shell, with their respective chemical and bacterial characteristics,
have been discussed in Bulletin 51.1 The precautions necessary to
insure cleanliness when opening the eggs and collecting their con-
tents to be frozen or dried have been discussed in Bulletin 224,? in
which publication much attention is directed also to the character
of the eggs used. During the progress of the work the question of
the accuracy of grading eggs by sight, smell, and taste frequently
arose. It was observed that samples made from comparatively
high-grade stock sometimes had a higher bacterial content than
could be accounted for on the basis of faulty manipulation. They
seldom showed chemical evidence of decomposition. It was ob-

1 A Bacteriological and Chemical Study of Commercial Eggs in the Producing Districts of the Central
West. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 51, 77 p., 8 pl., 2 fig., July 20, 1914.
2A Study of the Preparation of Frozen and Dried Eggs in the Producing Section. U.S. Dept. Agr.
Bul. 224, 99 p., 17 pl., 7 fig., Apr. 28, 1916.
§2492°—Bull. 391—18——1

2 BULLETIN 391, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

served, also, that the lower the grade of the breaking-stock, eggs
and the more numerous the discards in the breaking room, the higher
was the average bacterial count, even though every care was used by
the breaker to eliminate unfit eggs. Apparently, then, there are some
infected eggs among the cracked eggs, dirty eggs, and stale seconds,
which so often go to the egg-breaking plant, which it is either quite
impossible or very difficult to detect when grading out of the shell
by ordinary means. The questions now to be considered are: What
is the character of these eggs, how many bacteria do they contain,
and how frequently do they occur ?+

PURPOSE, PLAN, AND EXTENT OF INVESTIGATION.

PURPOSE.

The purpose of the investigation was fourfold:

1. To obtain additional information regarding the bacteriology of
individual eggs used in the preparation of frozen and dried eggs.

2. To determine the accuracy of the Bee methods of grading
individual eggs.

3. To find the number and kinds of eggs containing bacteria aoe
detected by the usual grading.

4. To determine the effect of eggs containing bacteria upon com-
posite products as: evidenced by the bacterial content and the
amount of ammoniacal nitrogen present in the finished product.

PLAN.

The material for study consisted of breaking stock—that is, odd-
sized eggs, dirty eggs, cracked eggs, shrunken eggs, and heated eggs.
The samples were made up of approximately six dozen eggs each and
were purchased in all but a few instances from commission houses
located in a large eastern consuming center.

All of the eggs for the experiments were commercially candled
by the regular candlers of the commission house, who aimed to
reject as unfit. for food purposes all eggs containing blood, either in
the form of clots or blood rings, all eggs with either broken or ad-
herent yolks, and all addled eggs, and to retain eggs with whole yolks
freely moving in the white. Eggs showing signs of incubation prior
to the appearance of the blood ring were not discarded.

On receipt at the laboratory each egg in the sample was numbered
and described fully. The color, cleanliness, and soundness of the
shell were noted. The eggs were recandled and the condition of
the white and yolk observed. They were then opened aseptically
and placed individually into sterile glass custard cups similar to

1 The work discussed in this bulletin was done under the direction of Dr. M. E. Pennington, to whom
thanks are due for many valuable suggestions. A large part of the routine bacteriological work was done
by Dr. E. Q. St. John and Dr. E. Witmer, and the chemical work was performed by E. L. Connolly.

ACCURACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF OPENED EGGS. 3

those used in the cooperating egg-breaking plants for holding the
eggs during grading. The cups were kept covered to prevent con-
tamination from the air.

In order that the grading might be uniform throughout the investi-
gation and parallel the method followed in the cooperating egg- -
breaking plants, all of it was done by the same person, who was familiar
with commercial procedures. Each egg was graded as good or bad,
according to appearance and odor, and in case of doubt was graded
also according to taste.

After each egg was graded, a portion was removed to be examined
for the number of bacteria and for the presence or absence of mem-
bers of the B. colt group.t All of the eggs graded as good were then
mixed to form a composite sample, which was examined for the total
number of bacteria, the number of organisms producing gas in lactose
bile, the percentage of moisture, and the amount of ammoniacal
nitrogen as determined by the Folin titration method.

After the egg had been thoroughly mixed, one cubic centimeter
was withdrawn.? With this portion dilutions of 1 to 10, 1 to 100,:
and 1 to 1,000 were made with physiological salt solution. From
the three dilutions plates were made with nutrient agar as the
medium. One cc of the first dilution was transferred to a fermenta-
tion tube containing lactose bile. The plates were incubated at
room temperature for 5 days and the fermentation tubes at 37° C.
for 2 days. This procedure was followed in the examination of the
individual egg. The composite samples were examined according
to the methods described in Department Bulletin 51 (pp. 74 to 77).
The number of bacteria in the individual eggs is expressed on the cubic-
centimeter basis. As an egg which has been frozen for any length of
time becomes so thick that it is not possible to deliver definite quan-
tities accurately from a pipette, the portion of frozen egg to be exam-
ined was weighed and the results expressed on the gram basis. The
two bases are comparable because the specific gravity of the egg after
the white and yolk are mixed is practically unity.

EXTENT.

During the course of tke study 2,052 individual breaking-stock
eggs, representing 29 samples, which “uted + in size from 66 to 72 eggs,
were studied according to the plan just outlined. The samples were
procured at fairly regular intervals between May 23 and October 27,
1913, a period which covered the greater part of the egg-breaking
season in the consuming center from which the eggs were chosen.

1The terms B. coli, B.coli group, and organisms or bacteria producing gas in lactose bile are used
synonymously in this publication.
2 For the purpose of this report, eggs which did not show the presence of bacteria in 1 cc have been

considered sterile, since a smaller number of bacteria is negligible from the viewpoint of Possible i food
contamination.

4 BULLETIN 391, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

HISTORY AND BACTERIAL CONTENT OF SAMPLES.

HISTORY OF SAMPLES.

Most of the samples of breaking-stock eggs used for the investiga-
tion were procured from the current receipts of commission noress
located in an eastern consuming center. In a few instances in the
beginning of the season samples were purchased from grocery stores.
Late in the season the samples consisted of breaking-stock eggs
sorted from eggs coming from storage. The firms from whom most
of the samples were obtained operated ege-breaking plants in addi-
tion to their wholesale business. Most of the eggs were produced
either in the Middle Western States or in Virginia, and were shipped
to the consuming center; after the weather had become warm, in
refrigerator cars. The time occupied in making the haul varied on
3 to 12 days. The history of each sample is given in Table I.

TasBLe I.—Mistory of samples.

Date es
Sam- ceived at
. Date : In stor- | Outof | Date ex- .
ple Shipped from— shipped. ea an S| age. storage. | amined. Kind of eggs.
house.
1913. 1913. 1913. 1913. 1913.
41142 | Edinburg, Va. Wk iy |) Wika? Opec oososolleccooccuos May 23 | Cracked eggs.
41143 | Moorestown,N. Th eee ees Wie C7 Ml Ree sacs seellacacsoedoe May 27 | Fresh brown-shelled eggs.
41144 | Edinburg, Va. A Wey? 22) | Wipe Py ecepsecoucllessosocees May 29 | Dirty eggs.
CHES osgaen RU SRO (SI | A te Soa a UES June 3 | Seconds.
APALTAG IAS HS Stee eh ake a) Senco ete | Some eae ee ct aan Aleem cee aan June 10 Do.
CTU) Eas aero eae eee nae || ees bene aes e See ol ce ca seeaas June 12} Grocery eggs.
AIUAR ali govs ice = He SE ots Sabo aac oe Rome aera |e Beis Sas ell are eer June 17 Do.
41149 | Woodbine, Iowa.| June 10 | June 18 |..........|.....--.-- June 19 | Cracked eges.
41161 | Edinburg, jas 5 1| Tuned 2 Trane 16 Bene lnaees Gael g Ns June 20 | Seconds and cracked eggs.
41164 Woodbine, Tiowas| ime 16" Ines 234 1s samen een nee June 24 | Cracked eggs.
41167 Mount J ackson, dione) IKE |) debate, PE le Soacececllbcsooccous June 26 | Seconds.
a
41169 | New Albany, Ind| June 12 | June 21 |..........|.......... June 27 Do.
41175 | New York, N.Y.| July 7/| July 9 |..........|-...-.:--- July 10 | Seconds and cracked eggs.
41178 | Edinburg, Va... .| July 8 Do. !
41180 | Logan, Iowa.....| July 7 Do.
-do Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Woodbine, Iowa. ‘ Do.
41435 Edinburg, Va...| Sept. 4 Do.
41438 Owatonna, Peataeees Do.
Minn.
UAVS OS tierce s eee Seek scacllnectacs anc] aeasctee eeeeeeoe Sept. 19 | Seconds, cracked, and dirty
eggs.
41506 | Edinburg, Va-..| Sept. 20 | Sept. 22 |..........|.........- Sept. 25 | Dirty and cracked eggs.
41509 | Decatur, aol (ses ee: [eae or July 21 | Sept. 24 | Sept. 26 Do.
and Manito-
woe, Wis.
41551 Bluffton, iail5555|) dobby TG) || aod? 2B) || ahh 98) ||os-osAaae Oct. 3 | Seconds, cracked, and dirty
eggs.
41645 | Harrisonburg, Vaj May 5|May 7{| May 7] Oct. 14 | Oct. 15 ao.
Ue WIS: ere Sangean abe Seacc oR oabeecen | teeeaesa ee Apr. 13 | Oct. 13 | Oct. 17 Do.
41645 | Michigan......_- ANOS STS esadassas Apr. 22} Oct. 25 | Oct. 27 Do.
i
1 Purchased at commission house; further history unknown. «

NUMBER OF EGGS CONTAINING BACTERIA.

Only a few of the individual egos examined contained appre-
ciable numbers of bacteria. Two lots, Nos. 41192 and 41645,
were exceptional in that nearly all the eggs comprising them har-

ACCURACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF OPENED EGGS. 5

bored bacteria. Of the 2,052 eggs included in the 29 samples, 13.5
per cent, as computed from Table II, were found to contain more
than 100 organisms per cc. The remaining 86.5 per cent contamed
less than 100 organisms per cc, that is, they were practically sterile.
Only 3.3 per cent contained over 500,000 organisms per cc. The
percentage of eggs containing B. coli (2.8 per cent) was considerably
less than the total percentage of the eggs containing bacteria.

A very large percentage of the eggs comprising sample No. 41192
had both dirty and cracked shells. These eggs were laid in July
when the weather was very hot. It is highly probable that bacterial
penetration and development took place between the time of first
assortment in the producing section and final receipt in the con-
suming center, as an interval of 10 days occurred between the date
of shipping and that of grading in the commission house, during
a portion of which period the eggs were without refrigeration. Had
these eggs been utilized promptly in the first concentrating center,
there is httle doubt that only a few of them would have been found
to contain bacteria. The results obtained in the case of these eggs
show the importance of having eggs with defective shells opened
as near the source of production as possible.

TasiE II.— Variation in bacterial content of samples of individual eggs candled as good.

Number of bacteria per cc.

Num- 1,001 to 10,001 to | 50,001 to | 100,001 to Over
Sam- | Date of | per | 90100. {101 to 1,000.) “¥ O00. | 50,000. | 100,000. | 500,000. | 500,000.
ple exami- of : ,
No. | nation. eges.
No. No. No. No. No. No. No.
of |P.ct.] of |P.ct.] of |P.ct.| of |P.ct.} of |P.ct.| of |P.ct.| of |P.ct.
eggs eggs eggs eggs. eggs eggs eggs

41175 | July 10| 70| 61 | 87 3| 4.
41178 | July 16| 69| 66 | 95 tpl ste
41180 | July 21} 70| 57| 81 Fi || 30)
41182 | July 22} 70| 64 | 91 Sule
41185 | July 23] 71] 67 | 94 2 | 2:
41189 | July 25] 72| 66 | 91 Theale
Agg7|-July) 29 | .66)|".-<.-|-. 2... AW Bs
Atiey) Avie. 18 |) 701))163,)1190.01| 3... 4.
41435 | Sept.10| 70] 62|88.6| 1] 1.
41438 | Sept.11| 71| 64/90.1]) 2] 2.
41505 | Sept.19| 72] 63] 87.5] 1] 1.
41506 | Sept.25| 72] 64/ 88.9] 1] 1.
41509 | Sept.26| 71] 66|93.0] 2] 2.
41551 | Oct. 3] 72] 63 | 87.5| 7| 9.
41594 Oct. 15| 71] 63/|88.7| 4] 5.
41598 | Oct. 17] 72| 56|77.8| 13] 18.
41645 | Oct. 27] 70| 14 | 20.0] 11] 15.
i ee 2,052 |1,774 | 86.5| 76| 3

6 BULLETIN 391, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The eges composing sample No. 41645 were low-grade seconds
and cracked eggs sorted from April storage packed eggs. Although
the bacterial findings in these eggs are extreme, they afford a good
example of what happens when undergrade stock, particularly
cracked eggs, is held in storage for several months. Other investi-
gations confirm the bacterial findings in these grades of eggs.

While the actual number of eggs in these two samples is small,
they represent grades of eggs which come with more or less frequency
to all ege-breaking plants. It is evident that it is not possible to
prepare from them a uniformly high-grade product.

The results obtained from the examination of these eggs, as pic-
tured graphically in figure 1, show the condition in which the eggs
under observation, which had been candled as fit for food purposes,

: would have reached
2052 TOTAL NWUIYBER OF EGGS EXA/7/NED the consumer had

they been sold in the

86.5 PLE CENT, PRACTICALLY STEFULE shell. In other words
they show the limita--

13.5 PEP CEN7, CONTAINING BACTERIA tions of candling as

the only method for

2.8 PLP CENT, CONTAINING 8. COL/. determining the con-

dition of market eggs.

Fie .1.—Results of bacteriological examination of candled breaking It will appear subse-
stock.

quently to what ex-
tent the grading of eggs out of the shell is of assistance in the separa-
tion of sterile eggs from nonsterile eggs.

EFFECT OF CONDITION OF SHELL UPON BACTERIAL CONTENT OF EGG.
DESCRIPTION OF THE EGG SHELL.

The contents of an egg is protected by a shell and two membranes.
The shell, which is composed largely of lime salts, is porous and is
coated with a mucilaginous material which gives the bloom charac-
teristic of newly laid eggs. The two elastic membranes which line
the shell consist of microscopic fibers very closely interlaced. The
outer tissue is much heavier than the inner. The two separate at, the
large end of the egg and form the upper and lower walls of the air
cell. Nature has thus provided a protective porous covering through
which the respiration of the chick, during its embryonic develop-
ment, may proceed. If the shell is not cracked it offers a very
effective barrier against mold and bacterial penetration. If it is
cracked, however, bacteria can more readily penetrate the two mem-
branes. Egg handlers are familiar with the growth of mold in the
crevices of a cracked shell.2 In a large number of examinations ®
of eggs containing molds, bacteria were found to be present in almost
all instances, usually in large numbers. The contents of leaking eggs,

1 Unpublished results. 2U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 51. pl. VI. 3U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 51. pp. 33-48.

ACCURACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF OPENED EGGS. a

that is, eggs in which the shell and both membranes are broken, may
become contaminated directly.

It has been stated by Kossowicz! that the shells of stale eggs offer
less resistance to bacterial and mold invasion than do those of fresh
eges. Even the shells of clean eggs frequently harbor many bac-
teria and also B. colt.”

_ Experiments have shown that bacteria and molds can penetrate an
unbroken shell if it is in a moist condition. Water removes the
mucilaginous coating naturally present on the shells and renders the
fibrous membrane pervious to organisms. Hen feces and the con-
tents of broken eggs when damp attach themselves to the shell.
The dirt then becomes the carrier of the bacteria and the moisture
presents the mechanical means necessary for their penetration.

In the second report ? of this series, a general survey of the litera-
ture on bacteria in perfectly fresh eggs was given. Since this bulletin
was published, Rettger* has discussed the results of the bacterio-
logical examination of 20,000 newly laid eggs. His findings corrob-
orate those of previous investigators, namely, that, with but few
exceptions, strictly fresh eggs are sterile; and those which do con-
tain bacteria have them only in small numbers. These bacteria are
too few to affect the use of fresh eggs for food, but their presence or
absence determines the ideal for eggs. The maintenance of low bac-
terial contents in eggs and egg products, therefore, is one index of the
efficiency of ege-handling operations.

Many examples of eggs with high bacterial content are given in
Department Bulletin 51. It is interesting to-note that in those eggs
in which both the white and yolk were examined, the number of bac-
teria was markedly greater in the white than in the yolk, a condition
indicative of bacterial penetration from the exterior.

EGGS WITH SOUND, CRACKED, AND LEAKING SHELLS.

As a large percentage of the breaking stock of the cooperating egg-
breaking plants consisted of eggs with defective shells, a detailed de-
scription was made of the condition of the shell of each egg in the 29
experimental samples examined in ordet to determine the effect of a
dirty or damaged shell upon the condition of the contents. The re-
sults of this study are given in Table III and in figure 2.

The possibility of bacterial penetration increases with the amount
of damage to the shell. The percentage of eggs containing bacteria
was as follows: 8.7 per cent of eggs with sound shells, 18.6 per cent of
egos with cracked shells, and 30.7 per cent of eggs with leaking shells.
(Table III, Part I.) The percentage of eggs containing B. colt was
found also to be dependent upon the condition of the shell (Table ITI,
Rart Vil).

1 Kossowicz, Alexander. Die Zersetzung und Haltbarmachung der Hier, pp. 42-54. Wiesbaden, 1913.
2 Bacteriological Studies on Eggs. Kansas State Agr. Col. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180. 1911.

3U.§. Dept. Agr. Bul. 51, pp. 3, 4. 1914.
4 Centbl. Bakt., [etc.] 2 Abt., 39 (1914), 611-624.

BULLETIN 391, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The number of bacteria in the eggs which contaimed organisms
varied widely for the three groups, as can be seen from Part II of
Table III. This is what would be expected, because after bacteria
have once entered an egg the number present depends upon condi-
tions favoring growth, such as warm temperatures. :

These data substantiate the popular belief that organisms may
penetrate eggs with sound shells if unfavorable conditions, such as
filth, moisture, and high temperatures, are incurred during marketing,
but not to such an extent as they penetrate cracked shells. The
chance of contamination is greater in the case of leaking eggs, owing
to exposure of the contents.

WHOLE

CKACKED |

LLAKING® JO7%

Fic. 2.—Relation of bacteria to soundness of shell. Total bar = per cent containing
bactefia. Black portion of bar = per cent containing organisms fermenting lactose
bile. ; =
TasLeE III.—Relation of bacteria in eggs to soundness of shell.

I. EGGS CONTAINING BACTERIA.

Number

a Number Per cent
Description of shell. examined.| positive. | positive.
A\ATANYO) Coys AE A RR ek Aiea he be Sele aA ee ON SA ASG hen I 11,167 101 8.7
(CURA KGGls SGU lees Boe SMe ae ae ions Ne men nmin eae ae Se aoe * 784 146 18.6
BHO SUG VTN eee te ee aN Ne NS PMR pole RCE) AE Oe Be Sats eh, SAR eee saat cua 101 31 30. 7
TRO Garr eae se AR bee Lae ce kaen CI Gh epi een Re Rae RL 2, 052 278 13.5

1 29 blind checks, 2 of which (6.9 per cent) contained bacteria, are included in this number.

Il. VARIATION IN BACTERIAL CONTENT OF EGGS CONTAINING BACTERIA.

Number of bacteria per cc.
to1to1.000.| 1010 | 10,001t0 | 50,0010 | 100,001t0 | Over | 70tal
Description of shell. owes 10,000. - 50,000. 100,000. 500,000. 500,000. iyeean
: eggs.
Num- Per Num; Per |NU2-| per Num- Per Num- Per [NUM] per
ber | cent. | Pet | cent. | Pet |cent.| P&T | cent. | Pe |cent.| PEF | cent
eggs.| ~~ | eggs. “| eggs. “| eggs. *leggs "| eggs. =
Wrholé.2 0252 5.2.0e255 33 | 32.7 15 | 14.8 8 7.9 9] 8.9 7| 6.9 29 | 28.7 101
Cracked oasis 35 | 24.0 24 | 16.3 25 117.1 10} 6.8 20 | 13.7 32 | 21.9 146
ean gee lee cawinaes 8 | 25.8 6 | 19.4 3 9.7 1 oe 5 | 16.1 8 | 25.8 31
Totalken Woves 76 | 27.4 45 | 16.2 36 | 12.9 20 Hee Sey |p thik &) 69 | 24.8 278
Ill. EGGS CONTAINING ORGANISMS FERMENTING LACTOSE BILE.
dine Number Number Per cent
Description of shell. examined. | positive. | positive.
Wholexssess 23 SERA SOUS SSE aS SS ERO er ts oc Seat e 1132 6 1.4
Cracked ae os 2 05 isis vee epee een NEUE Suse Ai Ui eee ae 751 32 4.3
A ESE W cr ad aN el ole et aay Sey Dam OR ne eR Re ata aise Ca Ps set Se 97 8 8.2
PRO GA Seu S20 S oN alle oe oe cI ee A oe em apa Se 1, 980 56 2.8

ACCURACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF OPENED EGGS. 9

: ‘CLEANLINESS AND SOUNDNESS OF SHELL.

As would be expected, the percentage of eggs containing bacteria
is less in eggs with clean shells than in those with dirty shells, and the
percentage of eggs with bacteria becomes greater as the damage to the
shell increases. The percentage of the eggs which contained bacteria,
as shown by Table IV, Part I, and by figure 3, was as follows: 7.5
per cent for clean whole eggs, 10.8 per cent for dirty whole eggs, 17.2
per cent for clean cracked eggs, 23.2 per cent for dirty cracked eggs,
28.2 per cent for clean leakers, and 39.1 per cent for dirty leaking
eggs.

The number of eggs harboring B. coli was also affected by the con-
dition of the shell. Inasmuch as the number of leaking eggs exam-
ined for B. colt was too few to warrant conclusions, the few results
obtained from them are grouped with the cracked eggs. Table IV,
Part III, shows that 0.3 per cent (no more than the probable chance of
experimental error) of the clean whole eggs, 3.4 per cent of the dirty

Fic. 3.—Relation of bacteria to soundness and cleanliness of shell.

whole eggs, 3.7 per cent of the clean, cracked, and leaking eggs, and
7.8 per cent of the dirty, cracked, and leaking eggs, contained these
gas-producing bacteria.

It can be seen from Table IV that the percentage of eggs containing
B. coli is practically the same for the clean, cracked, and leaking eggs
as for the dirty eggs with whole shells. This is explained by the
large number of these organisms in the hen feces, the most prevalent
form of filth on hen’s eggs.

The marked contrast between the bacterial content of eggs with
clean sound shells and those with cracked or dirty shells, or both,
emphasizes the care which farmers and carriers should exercise to
prevent the soiling and damaging of shells.

The methods followed at present by the more progressive and care-
ful egg handlers show that considerable care is berng taken in the
handling of eggs. When eggs are being prepared for cold storage,
packers aim to remove by inspection and by clicking all cracked and

62492°—Bull: 391—18——2

10 BULLETIN 391, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

leaking eggs, because it has been observed that such eggs become
moldy or otherwise deteriorate much more quickly than eggs with
sound shells. For the same reason dirty eggs are not held in storage
in very large quantities, nor for a very long ‘period, although the
deterioration of such eggs is not so rapid as is the case with cracked
and leaking eggs. The observations of practical egg handlers, as well
as laboratory results, show clearly the necessity for breaking dirty
and cracked eggs as promptly as possible and preserving them in
a frozen or dried form.

Taste IV.—Kelation of bacteria in eggs to cleanliness and soundness of shell.

I. EGGS CONTAINING BACTERIA.

Cleanliness} Number | Number | Fer cent

Soundness of shell. ofshell. | examined. | positive. | positive.
RWInGIGE RS oTE eo Pea in eiames, Saree me Clean... -- 760 57 7.5
IDG ia 1S oh Oe FO 6 Fe Sie eee Se oe Dirty... -=- 407 44 10.8
Cracked.......-- 2 SeBaSpodeaelosa lose mane soaUsoSoboseaos Clean... .. 599 103 17.2
1D YO ot ee teh Se eee eae eu Sn han aN! a Dirty ..... 185 43 23. 2
IGRI... oo se cade sseaassosssesasssossoscosenses=5Se- Clean... -. 78 22 28.2

ONR Ret oan ce is ated (ee oa ecm Seema nee ears Dirty... 23 9 Sonar

PRG mare yet taps 5, 5025 beset Se apart eee peal | ete a 2, 052 278 13.5

Il. VARIATION IN BACTERIAL COUNT OF EGGS CONTAINING BACTERIA.

Number of bacteria per cc.

Total
1,001 to 10,001 to 50,001 to 100,001 to Over
Description of shell. | 101 #0 1,000. | 40 000. 50,000. 100,000. | 500,000. 500,000, | Hum
of
Num-| pe, |Num-) pe, (Num) pe |Num-| pe, |Num-| po, See “oe
berof| cont. | Pet Of] cent, [PEF] cont. | Per fl cent. | Pet fl cent. | berof pate
eggs. ‘| eggs. ‘| eggs. -leges. ‘| eggs. -legegs. 2
Whole and clean..... 22 | 38.8 10 | 17.5 3| 5.2 3 i) 4 7.0 15 | 26.3 57
Whole and dirty....- 11 |} 25.0 5} 11.4 5 | 11.4 6 | 13.6 2 6.8 14 | 31.8 44
Cracked and clean... 24 | 23.3 21 | 20.4 19 | 18.4 4 3.8 PSH L256 DPA rd It 103
Cracked and dirty... AG 2526 3 6.9 6 | 13.9 6 | 13.9 7 | 16.3 10 | 23.3 43
Leaking and clean... 6 | 27.3 5 | 22.7 2) 9.1 1) 4.5 3 | 13.6 5 | 22.7 22
Leaking and dirty... D222 ie} ah a Lp Ae see cess wees 2 2253. 3 | 33.3 9
Rotals2c2 Li. Ouse sae AA c eee 36H Ses 2) seer cca Bal eee Git) I eee 278

Ill. EGGS CONTAINING ORGANISMS FERMENTING LACTOSE BILE.

Cleanliness} Number Number Per cent

Soundness of shell. ofshell. | examined.| positive. | positive.
NAVLNO eS SES eee crete ok Wa Re ner ce 2 1) Clean..... 727 2 0.3
TOO os Does Megan aT acer PROMISE RES Eb 26 3 36 Dirty..... 405 14 3.4
Crackedtand#leaking 22> irr eS ecbi sh Oh eee Clean _.... 645 24 3.7
IDYO 5 Ses Gas 5 SY ES ga oe ap Mp Cretioar Dirty... 203 16 7.8
STiogfct Bes oc Wee ge A AS ick UR a i980) | eno 2.8

ACCURACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF OPENED EGGS. It

RELATION BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF BACTERIA AND THE PHYSICAL
CONDITION OF THE EGG CONTENTS.

CONDITION OF YOLK.

The physical condition of an egg indicates to a large extent its
state of preservation. The white of a strictly fresh egg is stiff and
the yolk stands up firmly, as can be seen very clearly from Plate I.
As the egg ages, the white becomes thinner, the yolk flatter, and
the vitellne membrane weaker. When a stale egg is opened, the
viteline membrane frequently is ruptured and the contents of
the yolk flows into and through the white, as illustrated in Plate
Ill? This type of egg is commonly called a ‘‘weak egg” or a “soft
egg,’ and occurs most frequently in summer weather. Fertile eggs
showing advanced hatch spots almost invariably contain weak yolks.

Eggs produced in the spring of the year generally have a firm
consistency; that is, both white and yolk have the viscosity of the
fresh egg. Occasionally it happens that a portion of the contents of
the yolk has seeped through the vitelline membrane into the white
in sufficient amount to give it a yellowish tinge. (See Plate IJ.)
Although this condition HTL pens the egg is opened, it is rarely
eed by candling.

Because of their = eeieall condition neither ‘‘soft eggs” nor eggs
with incipient seeping yolks can be separated satisfactorily into white
and yolk. These eggs appear to have whole yolks before the candle.
Jf, on breaking, their odor is normal and the white not green, they
may be considered suitable for baking and cooking. When the seep-
age of the yolk is so advanced that it extends entirely through the
white, the egg should be discarded. Such an egg has the appearance
of a ed rot before the candle.*

Further deterioration in the shell of a “weak egg”’ or “soft ege”
results in the final rupture of the vitellme membrane and a partial
mixing of white and yolk. This egg, which is one type of a mixed
rot, is illustrated in Plate IV. The physical mixing of the white and
yolk progresses until the egg becomes what is .known as an addled
egg or a white rot. Frequently, eggs containing blood rings or adher-
ent yolks pass through the different stages of deterioration until
they become addled eggs.

It was found that the percentage of eggs with bacteria increased
with the physical breaking down of the yolk, as shown by Table V.
The percentage of eggs containing bacteria was as follows: 10.6 for
eggs with whole yolks, 22.7 for soft eggs, and 43.5 for eggs with
partially addled contents or with yolks adherent to the shell.
The results of the examination of eggs with partially or entirely

1 Reprint from U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 51, pl. I, and U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 224, pl. XVII.
2 Reprint from U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 224,pl. XIV. -
3U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 224, pl. XVI.

12 BULLETIN 391, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

deteriorated yolks harmonize with those obtained in’ previous in-
vestigations.*

These findings also show that a very large percentage of ‘soft
eges’ consisted of sterile eggs. Consequently, the first stages of
deterioration in the yolks of such eggs in most instances can not
be ascribed to bacteria.

Deterioration in eggs that is not due to the presence of bacteria
may be the result either of the action of native enzyms? or of
osmosis® of water from the white to the yolk, thereby causing the
vitellnme membrane to stretch and become weakened. It was the
aim of the candlers at the commission houses to exclude eggs with
adherent yolks or addled contents, but through error in candling a
few of such eggs were present in ibe samples.

Part III of Table V shows that a larger proportion of the eggs
with broken yolks contained bacteria than did those with whole
yolks.

Taste V.—Relation of bacteria in eggs to condition of yolk.
I. EGGS CONTAINING BACTERIA. Z

Number Number Per cent

DESOTO: OU CLE, examined. | positive. | positive.
Wuhtoles: tisti sxSse oace coos enmecl seca iesetes sec meade hoa ae 1,588 168 10.6
BROKEN sae eck oe oc nis ee: Stee ace e Bee jae c acc eisai eee 441 100 22.7
Adherent or addled....-- Zibb tig Rate) Ne Da ee OL SERA Re Bs Se oe 23 10 43.5
CO bal Seis east ok oe ene ct ere Sea oie ome Te erat 2, 052 278 13.5

II. VARIATION IN BACTERIAL CONTENT OF EGGS CONTAINING BACTERIA.

Number of bacteria per cc.

101to | 1,001to0 | 10,001t0 | 50,001 to | 100,001to | _Over | Total
ibyesrttoane evans fs L000 10,000. | 80,000. } 100,000.) 500,000. | 500,000. | num.
eggs.
Num-| 5... |Num- Num- Num- Num- Num

ber off Ee [ber off LCT [ber off (Ect fber off Le |ber off 4° [ber off Pet

eggs. *| eggs. *| eggs. *| eggs. "| eggs. "| eggs. :
Wiholele a= 27 54] 32.1] 28] 16.7] 20/119] 11] 6.5| 19] 11.3] 36] 21.4] 168
Broken. 6s 60) a1] 21.0] 15|/15.0| 16/160) 8| 80| 12]120] 28] 28.0] 100
Adherent or addied | “1] 10.0] 2] 20.0]......)-....- 1] 10.0) 1/100] 5] 50.0] 10
AM Eine se sence Took toa Jo hae 20) |e By cs: Go) eee 278

Ill. EGGS CONTAINING ORGANISMS FERMENTING LACTOSE BILE.

Description of yolk. Number Number Per cent

examined.| positive. | positive.
AWWA G1 O's aye era aera e ee Sets anos pee EEE ee ntinie em ee bemees cease 1,527 30 2.0
BROKEME ete a Ree ae te he Reem men os ae een eb Seee eee be endeer 431 21 4.9
PACHEren tora Ged sere eee toe. w eeicina si cama See Hetiaee Cote encericmicves 22 5 22.8
LUO) Eh eee one me Ei tn Ue een Per oe ae Soy aoe aaees 1,980 56 2.8

1U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 51, pp. 29, 30, 53, 54.
2U.S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Chemistry Cir., 104, pp. 4, 5.
3U.S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Chemistry Cir., 83, p. 3.

ACCURACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF OPENED EGGS. 13
POSITION OF YOLK.

When viewed before the candle the yolk of a perfectly fresh egg
is found to be located slightly above the meridian and is symmetrical
with the long axis of the egg. It is indistinct in outline and moves
very sluggishly as the egg is turned. As the egg ages the yolk appar-
ently becomes more opaque and may settle against the lowest part
of the shell.

Of all the eggs studied 1,795, or 87.5 per cent, were eggs with free
yolks; 248, or 12.1 per cent, eggs with yolks settled close to the shell,
but not adhering; and 9, or 0.4 per cent, eggs in which the yolks
were either addled or adherent to the shell. Fewer eggs with adher-
ent yolks or addled contents are listed in Table VI, which gives the
results of examination of eggs graded by the candling method, than
are listed in Table V, where the eggs were graded out of the shell.
The reason for this is that eggs with slightly adherent yolks are often
difficult to detect by candling, especially if the shell is brown.

These results confirm earlier studies + of similar eggs, in that they
show that a settled yolk is not in itself an indication that the egg
contains bacteria.

Tas eE.VI.—Relation of bacteria in eggs to position of yolk.

I. EGGS CONTAINING BACTERIA.

Num N (as Per

anc 3 er | cent

Position of yolk. . oe posi- | posi-

ifnegl. tive. | tive.
LING® TIO anes eet cee aoe ee sa SSE MAE een ae bene oes See ae A Abe eoAe es 1,795 | 241] 13.4
CLG ED Se 5 Sie oe Be aI R In choic lee inion ore Sz ee RSE Re ReAae Tes ao asee sone 248 32] 12.9
PROMICOSOIMAGHELCIES <2 a2 sees be ons oie oe Saeco een eae ee peseae ae eae 9 5 | 55.5
ARO Ua Wee eee ioe coe S 8G otk tik ob ee cle da as nae oete bee ae see eater Sao eae 2,052} 278] 13.5

II. VARIATION IN BACTERIAL CONTENT OF EGGS CONTAINING BACTERIA.

Number of bacteria per cc.
101 to 1.000 1,001 to 10,001 to 50,001 to ; 100,001 to Over Total
Position of yolk. 2 10,000. 50,000. 100,000. 500,000. 500,000. nu
aaah ae eggs
Num- Num- Num- Num- Num- Num-
ber of ease ber of en ber of een ber of geet ber of her ber of ace
eggs. "| eggs. "| eggs. *| eggs. *| eggs. *| eggs. A
Free moving.......- 65 | 27.0 44 | 18.3 31 | 12.9 19| 7.8 29 | 12.0 53 | 22.0 241
Seitleda-ve sae Os)! SilGW | semeal|Saseoc 5 | 15.6 iL) -eyil = Bf e ee! 13 | 40.6 32
Addled or adherent... 1 | 20.0 DL E2020) [tie SSS see reece earns eee 3 | 60.0 5
otal s: 2322 Use qeeee AD |nccc es 36) Reese ZOR ators BY oosues 69) /2s-322 278

1U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 51, pp. 12, 30, 31.

14 BULLETIN 391, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE VI.—Relation of bacteria in eggs to position of yolk—Continued.

Ill. EGGS CONTAINING ORGANISMS FERMENTING LACTOSE BILE.

Number Number Per cent

Position of yolk. examined. | positive. | positive.

Free moving. .-..-.----------- Seo ge Hs Ses eee 1,735 48 2.76

Settled see we heh oes Parse he sede ss eee aoe ee neo See LR ee cee 236 7 2.97
Nddlediomadheorent:<<)-c sesso stociou oa kee ce aaa eee eeeniee 9 1 11.11
PO tid ys eee afore eecci as ala ae Sicleraye cemeis tage SIE ee teeter hero 1, 980 56 7

DESCRIPTIONS AND BACTERIAL COUNTS OF EGGS GRADED OUT OF
THE SHELL.

The fitness for food purposes of eggs sold in the shell is determined
in the industry principally by candling. In addition to this exami-
nation, the progressive concerns which are preparing frozen and desic-
cated eggs grade each egg very carefully out of the shell according
‘toits odor and appearance. Practically all of the cooperating houses
used clear,.uncolored glass cups in examining the eggs to facilitate
grading, as the physical condition of an egg is seen more easily in
a transparent than in an opaque container. Many eggs with lght
green whites are not detected in a metal cup Because the container
_ masks the color.

The system of grading worked out in the cooperating sine was
used for the grading of the eggs when removed from the shell. An
egg in which the yolk was whole, the albumen clear, and the odor
normal was graded as good. If the yolk appeared whole before the
candle but broke when dropped into the cup and the odor was good,
the ege was graded:as fit for food purposes. Any egg in which the
yolk had so deteriorated that it was materially mixed with the white
was discarded, even though there was no odor, as were also all addled
egos, the adaimeel stage of this type of egg. Eggs with heavily
mottled yolks were aaned as bad. (See Plate II.) All eggs in which
the yolk clung to the shell, even to a slight degree, all eggs with green
whites, and eggs containing diffuse blood or embryos showing blood
rings were rejected. Eggs with an unpleasant odor, for example,
musty eggs, sour eggs, and very strong eggs—eges in which the
natural odor of the egg is increased—were classed as bad. The
descriptions and bacterial findings in the case of a typical lot of
individual eggs are given in Table VII.

Of the eggs in the experimental samples which had been passed by
the candlers as edible, 171, or 8.3 per cent; were classed as bad when
graded out of the shell by appearance or odor. Had these inedible
eggs been sold in the shell their condition would not have been seen
until they were broken by the consumer. They would be eliminated
by the tramed breaker from frozen products.

15

ACCURACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF OPENED EGGS.

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ACCURACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF OPENED EGGS.

1

TasLtE VIII.—Bacterial findings in eggs graded out of the shell.
I. EGGS CONTAINING BACTERIA.

Grad Number Number Per cent
ee: examined. | positive. | positive.
GOCE os LeU SRS bad Gee BBE Soe en spor DoS OE SSnos RO GSeboaOne 36 1,881 225 12.0
DEG| So Suna Gane ene SE ne COS erOr See cee a mnpe rt a Na Man a anat 171 > &B} 31.0
TReatelle Seis Se Man ee ot nee Re RM MS el Ace ere 2, 052 278 13.5
Il. EGGS CONTAINING ORGANISMS FERMENTING LACTOSE BILE.
GaOGl.. scscge Sede he Bude see peeen ee Gap peBCaee Bapadecsases ss 2ca0Uacdr 1,809 40 252,
TREG) eo docneds He BE OnS] BUSS AOE Pr BOS Rose SRE SraMmne rr aaee oar moss 6S 171 16 9.4
Sahat i a a SAT ear eee. pt 8s oer 1, 980 56 | 2.8
Taste 1X.—£oggs containing bacteria and graded out of the shell as good.
Number of bacteria per cc.
ce 101 to 1,001 to 10,001 to 50,001 to 100,001 to Over
1,000. 10,000. 50,000. 100,000. 500,000. 500,000. Total
Sample No. number
of eggs.
Num- Num- Num- Num- Num- Num-
ber | Per | ber | Per | ber | Per | ber | Per | ber | Per | ber | Per
™ of | cent of | cent of | cent of | cent of | cent of | cent.
eggs eggs eggs eggs eggs eggs
CO. a Adadoael eee Boobies Beaters meres) lBearaaeae! teristic sin iota garter |------|2-----|------ 0
QS) oo. Soa RSE Seen eee So eere Bet ome BABB e eee al see alicocecs losee Hsstsvseeeye mek GER S| hae te, 0
ASTM a A cap ei es ae a ee 1 |100.0 Beso es pee as pease b> s5—4)|-eeees| be oes seeene|seeea= if
TG os ee ed eS ON iO nea en Fee KO SF et Ua | a ee aes 0
ATUL Ger pep 1 | 50.0 A 5ORO). R= oe Sela eel erase | seer Tecpel rent = eens (er aper 2
AAT pales sie see TLOOS ON eaee ae Bere rammere ere icee ls areal eats neous Ne 9-4 are a 1
ASI SUMMER |e Nome eel cc crete cars tole al] n shz'= a eenceieiaral Bema eRe seh pais oes [arm 1 |100.0 1
ATMA OU ease cee 6 | 35.7 D Hillel i he a eye (eset eee NS os Ov 3 | 21.4 4 | 28.6 14
ANGLE E re eaters esi ster ie eee SS Aen eee cel Meme aa ash tase a clos Oo el ee ESS Spel ae oene aoees 0
ANG A Sra eco patel oh | BORO Pye Vee Se AU ese ae eae ot rar 1 | 50.0 2
AT NOH Sc Se Ha See ERE ORE ee ees (eine es Vat aR) bene 3] RTT eee ae 1 |100.0 1
ANG Oe eae ar Se bot teller | ee ee |) i hen [ata a aR Fa Ve Ae ee 3 {100.0 3
ATV cicero <6 3 | 37.5 YT) 12.5 DA 20s Og Weep yes | eerie (ole ees bays Shae 2 | 25.0 8
CANIN cos eis eee i DO OHO oe | See Aye eos S| eee ae ee | ere Neel oarcieaes 1 | 50.0 2
AUTRO Mo Se esas se CAO leat asa loooese DU Foe CYS sae i es i 2) 20.0 10
A eeepc mises 3 | 50.0 1 | 16.7 1 | 16.7 iM | AG AG) |e sees SIE ee epee ee ee ee 6
AAR 5 ies cee oe ot = 7h CG) Syst 5 | ae ee | arma UMN ce TA 72 ees ora ee eine il |) e8e33 3
ALISO AE ooo 1 ee sob See aaa eee Bee ace (oe ag alin. 54a Pan be lores 2| 66.7 3
ANNO Ds eres cic 4 Too 11 | 20:0 14 | 25.4 8} 14.6 13 | 23.6 5 9.1 55
AVSIG eyo ae occas 3 | 60.0 SNS ae C0 pa oe Pa ae SN ol lees ee Ne eed 1} 20.0 5
AVA eee te ee = ce 1} 20.0 1 | 20.0 Tae VBA D)8 (0) Fa ea a Ne ee 2} 40.0 5
AIARS Ga Chey use: TE BOPAO SO). eae as] [is at al ead eee AH es ee ea 1 | 20.0 3 | 60.0 5
AUG By oes 3 anes ences AG eZONON eee (woe. L|°2050 1S S2ONOM Beene Sees 2 2 | 40.0 5
AT SOG) acts er oh 1| 16.7 1] 16.7 P| ABI 8 TY NG) 72 Necie ao |lemoone 1 | 16.6 6
CUTS ees Wee aang 5a | ce C54 | eae ete fas eel bas 2 | ee oes Oe ea | gee | em | ae Soe ny 2 | 50.0 4
Ao DN See a ses GN eS PAR wn erie siete Sele ne alle el Loe gal Ne Pa ge |e a er a 9
AV 504 no Se sae A Wendie len| ere sea eae Se cle ces |e eee TST a 3 a ee 2 | 28.6 7
41598). 2 sss... 12 | 80.0 1 6.7 1 C27 SERS eee 1 ONGOl eee |e eee 15
ANGI reese sos ie 1) 21.2 19 | 36.5 10 | 19.2 6] 11.5 all G7 Bi) BG) 52
Hotalee sss. 12 | 32.0 42 | 18.6 33 | 14.7 18 8.0 22) 9.8 38 | 16.9 225

A bacteriological examination of the eggs graded out of the shell
as edible showed that 12 per cent contained bacteria and 2.2 per

cent B. coli.

(See Table VIII.) The bacterial content of the great

majority of the individual eggs included in the edible group,
however, was low, as may be seen from Table IX. The variation
in the counts of the eggs containing bacteria was as follows: 65.3.
per cent were under 50,000; 16.9 per cent were over 500,000; and
the remainder were between these two limits.

18 BULLETIN 391, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Of the total number of eggs which had been graded by the candle
as edible, 69, or 3.4 per cent, were found to contaim over 500,000
organisms per gram. (See Table II.) Nearly half, or 44.9 per cent, of
these eggs, as computed from Tables II, IX, and XIII, were detected
when graded out of the shell and eliminated from the composite
samples. The remaining 55.1 per cent did not show either by appear-
ance or odor that they were infected, and would have been used by
egg breakers. A record of the appearance of each of these infected
eggs is given in Table X.

EFFECT OF CONTAMINATED EGGS UPON COMPOSITE PRODUCTS.

The bacterial contents of the composite samples prepared from the
eggs graded as good were in proportion to the degree of contamination
of the eggs constituting them. The percentage of eggs containing
bacteria in liquid mixtures composed of 69 to 72 eggs varied from 0 to
21.1 per cent, except in two samples which showed 73.2 per cent and
100 per cent. These samples represent lots 41192 and 41645 already
discussed as exceptions on pages 4 and 5. The bacterial counts of the
composite samples varied from 0, where all eggs were sterile, to 14,000,
000, where the percentage of eggs with bacteria reached 81.3 per cent.
(See Table XI.)

The percentage of eggs containing B. colt varied from 0 to 41.8
per cent in the different composite samples. The number of B. colt
contributed to the composite product by the individual eggs varied
from 0 to 500,000 per gram.

The percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen in the 29 lots of eggs was
practically the same as that found in the commercial samples of
frozen eggs. (Tables XI and XIL.)

A survey of the bacterial counts given in Table XI shows decided
similarity to those obtained in samples from the plants which have
been cooperating in this investigation (see Table XII), and which
have put into practical application the information obtained in the
laboratory. Apparently certain eggs the condition of which can not
now be detected by the senses are carriers of bacteria. However, it is
very seldom that such eggs cause in the composite sample a bacterial
count of more than a few millions. There is an agreement, also,
between the number of B. coli in the commercial samples of well-
handled eggs and the number found in the samples reported in this
investigation.

In the cooperating plants the eggs were handled in refrigerated
rooms, broken according to a routine involving strict cleanliness,
and graded in accordance with the best available information.
Faulty grading of the breaking stock either during candling or
breaking may result in serious bacterial contamination of the product,

19

.
%

ACCURACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF OPENED EGGS

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20 BULLETIN 391, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Contamination of the product during manufacture was minimized.
The rooms in which the eggs were broken were lined with concrete,
the walls were enameled in white, and all the windows were kept
closed so that dust could not enter. As an additional precaution the
windows were at least triple paned for insulation. All utensils were
frequently washed and sterilized and clean apparatus was substituted
during breaking whenever any utensil was contaminated by a bad
egg. The two principal extraneous sources of bacteria which could
not be controlled entirely were the shells of the eggs and the fingers
of the breaker. By washing the hands after breaking a bad egg, and
by frequently drying the fingers on tissue paper, the number of
bacteria derived from these sources was greatly minimized.

The presence of bacteria in commercial frozen and desiccated eggs
is due to two causes, namely, contamination during preparation and
the quality of the raw material used. In Department Bulletin 224 it
was shown that improperly cleaned utensils and faulty manipulation
of the egg diring breaking contributed many bacteria to the product
during the process of preparation. In Department Bulletins 51 and
224, and in the present paper, it has been shown that the bacterial
count of the finished proene decreases in proportion to the quality
of the eggs used.

TasLE XI.—Laboratory findings in composite samples of individual eggs graded as good.

1 The bacterial counts of these eggs are given in Table IX.

Num-
ee Bacteria per gram on plain agar Eggs Ammoniacal
| Num- | eggs in incubated at— Gas-producing |C02%#!N-| nitrogen.
San ber of |sample bacteria per [78 82S Mois-
Re | ceesin | com. graminiae- | aft ture
°- | sample.| tribut- tose bile. Bach aS

ing bac- 20° C 37°C Tia Wet Dry

teria.} = E * ‘| basis. | basis.
IDG | Io Oy IP o ee
41142 69 0 Less than 100 | - Less than 100} Less than 100 OR HORCOROH Beeeoeer | eee
41143 72 0 Less than 10 Less than 10 0 0 0013 | 0.0048 | 72.87
41144 68 1 190 Less than 10 0 1 0015 } .0055 | 72.96
41145 67 0 650 550 100 0 0024 . 0087 | 72.45
41146 68 2 600. Less than 100 | Less than 100 ik 0018 . 0067 } 72.96
41147 39 1 Less than 100 Less than 100 0 0 0015 0057 | 73.21
41148 72 1 600, 000 490, 000 0 0 0022) S eee eae
41149 67 14 13, 000, 000 10, 000, 000 1, 000 7 0018 . 0066 | 72. 64
41161 66 0 130, 000 98 O00 nee sera ce een 0 0018 0074 | 75.59
41164 68 2 410 340 0 1 Fe arterereens| cons Sr 73. 34
41167 64 1 55, 000 37, 000 0 Qu i ven eee 8 eae
41169 65 3 7,500, 000 8, 100, 000 10, 000 1 . 0011 . 0040 | 72.34
41175 58 8 19, 000 19, 000 1, 000 1 - 0021 .0076 | 72. 22
41178 65 2 65, 000 58, 000 0 1 . 0018 - 0065 | 72.34
41180 63 10 3, 200, 000 350, 000 0 3 - 0021 -0076 | 72.28
41182 59 6 1, 200, 000 13, 000 0 0 . 0024 . 0089 | 73.11
41185 69 3 1, 700 1, 000 100 Ae OO22 4] Meenas meee oe
41189 — 68 33 40, 000 50,000 | Less than 100 }...-.-.-.-- - 0018 . 0067 | 73.25
41192 55 De eA aie ete sae siel siete lisse eee eee eae eye eee Sa 23 | .0020! .0076 | 73.69
41316 60 5 | Less than 1,000.| Less than 1, 000 10 1 . 0015 . 0055 | 72. 70
41435 62 5 52, 000 53, 000 10, 000 3 . 0022 - 0081 | 72.82
41438 60 5 2, 400, 000 2, 200, 000 “500, 000 4 . 0022 - 0080 | 72.38
41505 65 5 410, 000 430, 000 0 Di ACO, Neos wel ane
41506 69 6 3, 500 1, 000 1, 000 i en OLA . 0063 | 73.17
41509 69 4 140, 000 170, 000 0 il 0020 | .0074 | 72.85
41551 70 9 1, 100 1, 100 0 0| .0014 . 0052 | 73.13

41594 69 7 3, 100, 000 550 0 OMe cee ESR See =

41598 71 15 17, 000 400 0 0 . 0021 . 0074 | 71.69
_ 41645 64 52 14, 000, 000 10, 000, 000 0 0 - 0015 . 0054 | 72.05

Oe

ACCURACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF OPENED EGGS.

21:

Other conditions being equal, eggs with cracked and leaking shells
give a product with a higher bacterial count than do eggs with
shells that are sound, even though dirty. Frozen or dried eggs made
from summer and fall breaking stock have fewer bacteria than similar
products made from spring breaking stock. The breaking of eggs
as near the source of production as possible results in the presence
of fewer bacteria in products prepared during the warm portion of

the season.

Taste XII.—General summary of laboratory results on commercial samples of frozen
egg taken in three houses during 1912.3

I. BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS.

Description of sample.

Liquid eggs:
Whites
Yolks
Whole eggs
Mixed eggs from D house
Mixed eggs from F house
Leaking eggs
Soft eggs

Percentage| Number of organisms per gram.
of samples
N es with |
counts over
samples 5,000,000 Average. | Minimum, | Maximum.
per gram. :
|
39 2.6 2350, 000 100 7, 500, 000
54 5.56 3 530, 000 200 7, 500, 000
47 21.28 | 2,700,000 340,000 | 11,000,000
Speen A We seasocsacca| UE WOO OOD) 5, 100 3, 300, 000
eet ae 12 8.33 | 1,700,000 470, 000 6, 800, 000
53 5.88 | 1,300,000 500 6, 000, 000
13 46.14 | 20,000, 000 130,000 |. 80,000, 000

Il. CHEMICAL RESULTS.

4
Percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen.
Num- Percentage of moisture.
Description of ber of Wet basis. Dry basis.
sample. sam-
ples. :
Aver-,| Mini- | Maxi- | Aver- | Mini- | Maxi- | Aver- | Mini- | Maxi-
age. |mum./mum./ age. | mMum./mum.| age. | mum |} mum.
Wihtitestess a2 3. 13 | 0.0004 | 0.0002 | 0.0006 | 0.0031 | 0.0016 | 0.0049 | 87.37] 86.96 88.31
VOI Se ee eee 23 . 0032 . 0024 - 0045 . 0076 . 0054 -0103 | 57.88 | 53.64 64.06
Whole eggs. ......-- 43 . 0021 - 0016 0024 | .0074] .0054 .0087 | 72.33 70. 23 74.17
Mixed eggs from D
MOUSER AES. Sok. 3 34 | .0020 | .0014|] .0025 |] .0067] .0046] .0082| 68.88] 68.33 71.43
Mixed eggs from F
house sites 32-5). 10} .0023 | .0017] .0027} .0071 | .0053 | .0082] 68.06] 67.00 70. 81
Leaking eggs......-. 37 . 0020 . 0013 - 0028 . 0065 - 0047 -0080 | 69.63 | 64.12 72. 83
Soft eggs.......:..-. 11 . 0023 . 0018 - 0031 . 0080 . 0066 PS 0098 | 71.24] 67.04 72. 99

1U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 224, p. 20.
2 One sample with an exceptionally high count not included in this average.
3 Three samples with exceptionally high counts not included in this average.

EGGS REJECTED DURING GRADING.

EGGS WITH UNDESIRABLE ODOR.

The important part which the sense of smell plays in the grading of
breaking stock is shown by the fact that 90 or 52.6 per cent of the
rejected eggs, as computed from Table XIII, were eliminated because
of an abnormal odor. One-half of the eggs discarded because of odor
were musty, and the other half had bad odors of various kinds.

The eggs are classified in Table XIV according to odor.
group consists of 16 eggs with a bad odor.

The first

The laboratory examina-

pas BULLETIN 391, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tions showed that 11 contained bacteria, and 7 of these eggs were
heavily contaminated. It is probable that absorption from sur-
rounding materials accounts for the abnormal odor in the other 4
eggs. Operators of cold-storage warehouses have found that eggs
stored in the same room with fruits, such as oranges or lemons, absorb
the odors of such fruits. When eggs are opened in the break-
ing plants many varieties of absorbed odors are encountered.
Eggs with the odor of kerosene or moth balls are not uncommon.
Both materials are used in hen houses to inhibit the development of
vermin; one as a spray and the other as a nest egg.

Mold infection very frequently is associated with the presence of
both bacteria and molds.t It isnot unexpected, therefore, to find that
fully two-thirds of the eggs with a moldy odor contained bacteria.

-It has been found that sour eggs are very heavily contaminated
with organisms of the B. colt group and that they often contain
bacteria in numbers equal to those found in black rots.2_ Only 5 sour
eges were present in the 29 samples. In two instances the egg was
graded as a ‘‘doubtful sour,” as it was not always possible to deter-
mine conclusively the dividing line between a sour egg and one that
was not sour. This accounts for the sterility of two of the eggs in
which it was not certain that the odor was sour.

Considerable care is exercised in the cooperating plants in the
grading of eggs with abnormal odors. All eggs, even if they ap-
pear sound, are smelled carefully, and if there is any doubt as to
whether the odor is due to absorption or spoilage, the questionable
egg is discarded.

The musty egg has a peculiarly characteristic odor and taste. In
some cases its odor resembles that of old fillers and flats, in others
that of certain kinds of weeds or of spoiling hay or chaff, and in
still others the odor of sprouting potatoes. As its condition can not
be seen by the candle, a musty egg must be detected by its odor
out of the shell. Its odor can not always be expelled by cooking.
The possible presence of such an egg in breaking stock and the un-
fortunate results which are likely to occur if it is present in cake or
cookie dough made egg breakers realize that eggs must be graded
out of the shell as well as by the candle.

Ege handlers frequently do not distinguish between moldy and
musty eggs, although the two are distinctly different. The moldy
egg is caused by the growth of molds in the egg substance and has
an odor characteristic of damp cellars. The musty egg usually is
normal in appearance, in fact it frequently resembles a perfectly fresh
egg. Occasionally, however, a musty egg with a green white is
encountered.

1U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 51, pp. 33-38, 46. 2U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 51, pp. 61-64.

ACCURACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF OPENED EGGS. 2a

A striking feature of the bacteriological study of musty eggs, ex-
cluding those with green whites, is their sterility. Of the 45 musty
eggs examined, only three, as shown in Table XIII, contained
bacteria. One had 350 organisms, and the other two had 200,000
and 150,000, respectively. The latter two eggs were from sample
41,192, which consisted entirely of eggs showing bacteria. The
ammoniacal nitrogen found in musty eggs is not excessive.

Most of the musty eggs were from samples procured in the spring.
Sample 41147, which contained a large number of musty eggs, was
purchased from a grocery store located in one of the poorer sections
of a large city. The eggs had clean brown shells and showed prac-
tically no shrinkage on candling. The shells, however, did not have
the bloom characteristic of fresh eggs, but had rather the appearance
of having been washed.

The most rational theory advanced by the trade regarding the
cause of musty eggs is that it may be due to absorption from sur-
rounding materials. If the musty odor is the result of such absorp-
tion, it is difficult to explam why it does not become weaker as the
"egg ages in the shell or in the frozen state; also why the odor in
cake or confectionery does not always disappear in baking. Other
types of odors do not remain with such persistence. The cause of
musty eggs is still unknown.

SOFT EGGS.

Soft eggs represent a transition stage between edible and inedible
eggs. If the yolk breaks or is found to be broken when the egg is
opened, it is necessary to determine whether or not the egg is fit | for
food. An egg with simply. a ruptured vitelline membrane is not
rejected, but if other signs of deterioration, such as whitish streaks
in the yolk or a muddy white, are present, it is not considered
edible. (See Plate IV.) Sometimes it is found that the yolk of an
egg appears very weak before the candle and, on breaking, its outline
is practically lost because the yolk material has so quickly inter-
mingled with the white. This type of egg, shown in Plate V, is
called by the industry a “‘runny egg” and is discarded. The soft
eggs with the whitish streaks in the yolk and the “runny eggs”
very closeiy approximate the degree of physical deterioration found
in mixed rots. Soft eggs sometimes have a sour odor, in which
case they are heavily infected with bacteria.?

There were 447 soft eggs in the eggs under observation. Of these,
0.7 per cent were found to be sufficiently deteriorated to warrant
their exclusion from food products. About 20 per cent of these
rejected eggs showed infection.

1 Unpublished results. 2U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 51, p. 61.

24 BULLETIN 391, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Soft eggs found when commercially separating eggs into white and
yolk usually contain more bacteria and more ammoniacal nitrogen
than do edible frozen whole eggs, as may be seen from Table XII,
which summarizes the laboratory findings in commercial products.

The guiding principle to be followed in the grading of soft eggs
is to reject every egg that has an odor or a yolk which shows any
siens of deterioration other than the rupture of the vitelline
membrane.

EGGS WITH GREEN WHITES.

Eggs with green whites constituted 10.5 per cent of the rejected
egos, and 66.6 per cent of these were seriously contaminated. These
results are in agreement with those obtained in a more exhaustive
study af this type of egg.t. The six sterile eggs in the table were
eggs in which the opalescence characteristic of fresh whites was
confused with the ‘“‘beginning green” of a green white egg.

WHITE AND MIXED ROTS.

White and mixed rots, or eggs with the yolk partially or entirely
mixed with the white, are advanced forms of the soft egg. These
eges are generally recognizable before the candle. Only 19 passed
the candlers at the commission house into the experimental samples.
They showed much more infection than did the soft eggs.?

TaBLe XIII.—Eoggqs rejected during grading.

I. VARIATION IN BACTERIAL CONTENT.

Number of bacteria per cc.

&
o
0 to 100 101 to 1,001 to | 10,001 to | 50,001 to | 100,001 to Over S
Description of 1,000 10,000 50,000 100,000 500,000 500,000 B
sample. z
D3 = 8 n = 8 n = 3 n = 5 n =| 8 n = 8 n = =
20! © |/2&%!} © |} 2) ® | Oe] oO |}2sto/ © | 2a] o | 2%} o
Sealers afew iso) [Eels Pe slei elas |S
Sloe ove ios ial Sica i} SIces || iy ice Ih ist ll Sice ay | Sies tay |) iss
Z| A |4°1 % 14°) & 14S] & 14S] & 14°] & 14aec] & is
Eggs with abnormal
odor, not musty. -.-- POU A Alo eB il) 2,24 2) 4.4 il) 2A 7| 15.6) 13) 28.9) 45
Musty eggs......---.-- 2) 93.3 pee} Mears Se ey ae ea acolo oe 2 lee sales 45
Solhieros sae: see cee. 26) 81.3 2 650 | Seen eee TAI So ae Si bes Ser Fa el ee 3] 9.4) 32
Eggs with green whites. Geet el Meee Baeee Bm el See oe||-.54 54) aera eee boos Lecealsaa ss 12) 66.7} 18
Mixedirots® 2225 5-5-22- CRG Geen ole 1 iar besa ets 1] 9.1 1} 9.1 ieee al sah
Wihiterotss-3es3.- 6) 5S O Ser ee | eee S| pe ee | eee | es | ee | oa ee 2) 25.0 8
Eggs with adherent
OlKSs243 752 ease 2) 66.7 Dy) 335.3) 25.063) See] Se Ss a ee |e eel Se eat eee eee 3
Miscellaneous....-..--- QLOOLO|E S 5 srs... S| Sys | Re | Pe | | |p| eg 9
MNotal wees .ee se 118) 69.0 4) 2.3 3) 1.8 3} 1.8 2 \enled 10) 5.8 31) 18.1) 171

1U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 51, pp. 57-61.

2 The results of other examinations of white and mixed rots are given in U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 51, pp.
29, 30, 53, 54.

ACCURACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING OF OPENED EGGS. 95

TaBLE XII1.—Egqgs rejected during grading—Continued.

Il. PERCENTAGE OF EGGS CONTAINING GAS-PRODUCING BACTERIA.

Amber | | Percentage
Nima of eggs of discards
Bee Total contain- contain-
Description of sample. canis cea ing gas- ing gas-
producing | producing
} bacteria. | bacteria.
Eggs with abrormal odcr, not musty..........--.-.------- 45 42 6 14.3
JTS? SESS. 22222 scene sce sb coectebenscesceonece see seeseaees 45 45 0 0
S00) SEES - -- 2 secor sees eeessasesccesacec ses sccosorsasecess: 32 32 (0) (0)
Eggs with green OES mee ta pe et ray Te EE arn aN Ss 18 18 4 22.2
Mixed aos (Ses chedeee. seoAd SoaeRe ape Ge Sean eons Seen ese Sse 11 10 2 20.0
MEIC Moises paaaose eae ns eiola once sack - Se pegsce 8 8 2 25.0
Eggs with BaheRentayOlssi- Hees: Se Goss Sa ens Se ae 3 3 0 0
MaSCeMANOOUSe Mees Sarena eh eas ran Samar dotnerct se sts 9 9 0 | 0
LIB Linc 2a eR A al ac 171 167 | 14 8.4

Taste XIV.—Summary of bacterial findings in eggs with abnormal odors.

Number | Per cent

Number | 3, i §
ws Number | Per cent | with over with over
Kind of odor- amined, | Positive. | positive.| 500,000 | 500,000
bacteria. | bacteria.
petplnemtipdlibad ooo... so sc tee 16 Tipe 6868 7 43.8
foldy RMR GE os ees. soe 6 4 66.7 3 50.0
oo See CHC SOE CUBE O Eee Oe OE ae eee 5 3 60. 0 2 40.0
Very eee » GOS Se SSeS ee ES See eee ee 17 6 35.3 1 5.9
ee Ie oS sees Same eae we aste nsec 45 3) 6.7 0 0
Coal, = Re ee Nee si eos asi es ee cibs | 1 0 0 0 0
SUMMARY.

1. Despite careful candling a small number of breaking-stock eggs
contain bacteria, particularly during the summer and fall months.
The percentage of eggs containing B. coli is markedly lower than the
total percentage of eggs harboring bacteria.

2. There is a progressive rise in the percentage of bacterial con-
tamination through the following series: Clean whole eggs, dirty
whole eggs, clean cracked eggs, dirty cracked eggs, clean leaking
eggs, and dirty leaking eggs.

3. Eggs with weak yolks show a greater degree of bacterial con-
tamination than do eggs with firm yolks.

4. A settled yolk is not per se an evidence of the presence of
bacteria.

5. Eggs with adherent yolks and eggs with addled contents are
not only abnormal in appearance, but, in many instances, are har-
borers of bacteria. They should not be included in food products.

6. Some eggs containing bacteria can not be recognized by their
appearance or odor. A very large percentage of eggs containing
bacteria, particularly those with high bacterial content, can, how-
ever, be recognized by the senses.

26 BULLETIN 391, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

7. Despite careful grading out of the shell, the percentage of eggs
containing bacteria in mixtures prepared for freezing or drying may
average 12 per cent of the eggs used.

8. The number of bacteria per gram in composite products pre-
pared for freezing or drying, due to unrecognized infected eggs, may

vary from a few hundred to several million. Some but not all the °

B. coli in the composite mixtures prepared commercially are derived
from the raw material.

9. A “weak ege”’ which has decomposed to such an extent that
it has a muddy white or a whitish streak in the yolk should be dis-
carded as unfit for food purposes, even though it may show no bacteria,
as the absence of bacteria does not in itself signify that an egg is edible.

10. The musty egg does not usually contain bacteria, neither is
it decomposed as judged by the appearance or the quantity of loosely
bound nitrogen present. The cause of the musty egg is not known.

11. The production of frozen and dried egg products of good
quality requires, first of all, good raw material, and, subsequently,
care in grading the eggs both before the candle and out of the shell.

cc) a a

PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING
TO THE HANDLING OF EGGS.

AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION.

Study of Preparation of Frozen and Dried Eggs in Producing Sections. (Department
Bulletin 224.)

~ Accuracy in Commercial Grading of Opened Eggs. (Department Bulletin 391.)

How to Candle Eggs. (Department Bulletin 565.)

Natural and Artificial Incubation of Hens’ Eggs. (Farmers’ Bulletin 585.)

Community Egg Circle. (Farmers’ Bulletin 656.)

Marketing Eggs, by Parcel Post. (Farmers’ Bulletin 830.)

Practical Suggestions for Preparation of Frozen and Dried Eggs, Statement Based on
Investigation made in Producing Section During Summer of 1911. (Bureau of
Chemistry Circular 98.)

Effect of Present Method of Handling Eggs on Industry and Product. (Separate 552
from Year Book, 1910.)

How the Produce Dealer may Improve the Quality of Poultry and Eggs. (Separate
596 from Year Book, 1912.)

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING
‘ OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C.

Bacteriological and Chemical Study of Commercial Eggs in Producing Districts of
Central West. (Department Bulletin 51.) Price, 40 cents.

Eggs, and Their Value as Food. (Department Bulletin 471.) Price, 5 cents.

Shipping Eggs by Parcel Post. (Farmers’ Bulletin 594.) Price, 5 cents.

Biometrical Study of Egg Production in Domestic Fowl. (Bureau of Animal Industry
Bulletin 110.) Price, 15 cents.

Care of Farm Egg. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 160.) Price, 15 cents.

Winter Egg Production. (Secretary’s Circular 71.) Price, 5 cents.

_ Preliminary Study of Effects of Cold Storage on Eggs, Quail. and Chickens. (Bureau
of Chemistry Bulletin 115.) Price, 40 cents.

Bacteriological Study of Shell, Frozen, and Desiccated Eggs, Made Under Laboratory
Conditions At Washington, D. C. (Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin 158.) Price, 10
cents.

Deterioration of Eggs as Shown by Changes in Moisture Content. (Bureau of Chemis-
try Circular 83.) Price, 5 cents.

Study of Enzymes of Egg of Common Fowl. (Bureau of Chemistry Circular 104.)
Price, 5 cents. snes

27

ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT

15 CENTS PER COPY
V

igs ee ; ae s
: ihe.

Pr

A : prs ‘ o— :
i sitte Tt

eT

Bul, 391, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. PLATE |

A FRESH EGG BEFORE THE CANDLE AND Out OF THE SHELL

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Pasi
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it

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nl

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in.

SS ee ee a

ul. 391, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture

EGG OUT OF THE SHELL, SHOWING YOLK SEEPING INTO THICK WHITE

PLATE 11

2 NG

Bul. 391, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE {Il

EGG WITH SOFT YOLK. BEFORE THE CANDLE AND OUT OF THE SHELL

te F = : a Bes |
i ; j aS hw 3 Z
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U.S. Dept. of Agriculture : PLATE IV

SOFT EGG OuT OF THE SHELL, SHOWING WHITE STREAKS IN YOLK

§

\\\

1. 391, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture ed PLATE V

SOFT EGG OUT OF THE SHELL, SHOWING SPREADING YOLK

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Contribution from the States Relations Service
A. C. TRUE, Director

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER August 23, 1916

LESSONS ON TOMATOES FOR RURAL SCHOOLS.!

By E. A. Musee, Specialist in Agricultural Education.

CONTENTS.

Page Page.
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TLGSSOI (Ti ECU Ae ABER n Sees aoa eee 9: | MCommunityexbibitshes se pase eee eee eee 17
UOSGOMIS Dstt elt aets 2 sia acicc is aiwisiainreere buen Sic 9

INTRODUCTION.

Importance.—The tomato has come to be looked upon as one of
the most important truck crops. Its value as an article of food and
the wide range in which it may be grown have made it both a com-
mercial and a home garden crop of high rank.

Educational value-——The many phases involved in growing, har-
vesting, and marketing the crop give it value as an educational sub-
ject. This has been demonstrated in recent years by its utilization
as a club project activity by young people. It is with a view of
introducing into the schools in a definite way the study of this
important plant that these lessons are outlined. Hach lesson topic
affords ample work for one or more recitation periods, and should be
taught at the season of year indicated.

Practical exercises—The principles set forth in each lesson should
be emphasized and demonstrated by the pupils in the growing of
tomatoes for profit under proper supervision. This ‘is dealt with in
more detail elsewhere.

References—The publications referred to may be had from the
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., so long as avail-
able. Teachers and pupils should write to the State college of agri-
culture for publications on the subject. Let it be remembered that
the classroom work can be made most effective only when a liberal
use is made of supplementary literature. At the very beginning of
the school year the teacher and pupils should secure all the available
reference literature on the subject.

1 Prepared under the direction of C. H. Lane, Chief Specialist in Agricultural Education.
-Norre.—This bulletin is of interest to teachers of southern rural schools.
47093°—Bull. 392—16——1

2 BULLETIN 392, U..S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Correlations.—In connection with each lesson topic some sugges-
tions are made as to the utilization of the subject in vitalizing the
other subjects in the school curriculum. These suggestions are not
intended as a part of each lesson, but should be worked out in con-
nection with the recitations in the other school subjects. It is hoped
that the teachers will take advantage of these suggestions and elabo-
rate them to meet local needs.

Note to the teacher—To make the teaching of the lesson topics of
this publication effective, three pomts must be kept im mind: (1) A
monthly or seasonal sequence plan should be followed in the pre-
sentation of topics; (2) simple classroom exercises should be per-
formed to illustrate and emphasize the principles contained in the
lesson topics; (3) members of the class in agriculture should carry on
home work or club work with tomatoes for profit. To have educa-
tional value this home work or club work should meet the following
requirements: ! (1) The work of growing tomatoes should be a part
of the instruction in agriculture; (2) a definite plan should be fol-
lowed in the growing of tomatoes; (3) the parents should agree to
and approve the home work of the pupils; (4) the work should be
carefully supervised by some competent person; and (5) detailed
records of labor, methods, expenditures, yields, and incomes should
be kept and reported upon in writing by the pupils.

LESSON ONE.

TOPIC: HISTORY AND IMPORTANCE.

MONTH: SEPTEMBER.

Lesson outline.’—History: The tomato is native to South America,
having been grown by the original inhabitants. It belongs to the
nightshade family, and for that reason was long thought to be poison-
ous. It is only in the last hundred years that it has come into gen-
eral use. It is adapted to a wide range of climatic and soil condi-
tions, but flourishes best in a mild climate and on a well-drained rich
loam soil with a clay subsoil.

The tomato belongs to the same order of plants as do peppers and
eggplants. While the real kinship of the tomato to these plants is
not very close, botanically speaking, yet apparently they are quite
closely related and might be classed as cousins. They require much
the same cultivation and they are subject to some of the same pests.
The same general instructions with reference to starting in hotbeds,
hardening off in cold frames, transplanting and cultivating for toma-
toes, are applicable to peppers and eggplants.

Importance: Great quantities of tomatoes are grown for home use
and to be sold on the American markets. Thousands of acres are

1 The term “home project,’’ as used by school officers in certain sections of the United States, involves

the same requirements as enumerated in this connection.
2 Thestatements given in each lesson outline are based largely upon Farmers’ Bulletins Nos. 220 and 642.

————————————

LESSONS ON TOMATOES FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 3:

planted annually for canning, for soup, and for catsup. The home
garden always contains a few tomato plants. The fruit is now so
popular that hundreds of greenhouses are devoted to its culture to
supply the trade during the winter or cooler seasons of the year. The
census of 1910 shows the value of the tomato crop to be $13,707,929.

Study questions: In what respects are tomato plants, eggplants,
and pepper plants alike? In whatrespects unlike? In what respects
are the fruits of these plants alike? Unlike? Compare the seeds of
each. For what purposes are tomatoes grown in the community—
market, canning factories, home use? In what forms do canning-club
members dispose of their products ?

References —Farmers’ Bul. 220.

Practical exercises—Make a study of the types and varieties of
tomatoes grown in the community. For this purpose use tables
similar to the following:

Community survey of tomatoes, peppers, and eggplants.

Raber |
1x7. <.¢. |. Of homes
Variety. | 3 which

grown.

Special

ene Early. Late.

|

TOMATO. | |

4 BULLETIN 392, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Correlations.—Require the pupils to prepare tables similar to the
foregoing to be used in making the community survey.

Arithmetic: Develop problems on the quantity and value of each
of these crops.

History: It is thought that the tomato was carried from Peru to
Europe. Locate Peru on the map and compare the climatic condi-
tions of Peru with the Southern States; with the Mediterranean
countries.

LESSON TWO.
TOPIC: VARIETIES.

MONTH: SEPTEMBER.

Lesson outline.—There has been developed a wide range of yarietal
forms (fig. 1) which may be grouped: (1) Commercial, of which

e Xt yy W Y 5
Be 9 \C 3} 6.
\ : 2 Walls - thin
PES Le y “4. Currant Core -larq
= Fruit - globular. 2Of- ;

ore e-
Celfs - large , reqular-

Fruit long, oblate. ell ft
Stylar scar - fang. Cavity - shallow.
Basin- shallow.

vi
/

Cells - small, irregular.
Core -not defined.

4 :
I
eee | { Wee £0.
tv NOS he Sy Biter smooth, aval. 2a || 4&3 Walls - thick.
DS fruit ribbed Hol. : PISS circular

Cavity -large, deep. eS GO S206 Ee

Fig. 1.—Tllustrating varieties of tomatoes.

there are many sorts, varying as to habit of growth and the character:

of vine and fruit. Generally the vines are compact, or even decidedly
dwarf in habit, fairly productive, and the fruits, though varying as
to size and form, are generally of good size, attractive form and color,
and well suited for culinary use. (2) Preserving, in which the vines
are vigorous and produce a great number of comparatively small
fruits very uniformly shaped like cherry, pear, or plum and especially
suited for preserving. (3) Currant or grape, in which the vines are
more rampant growers, but with smaller stems and leaves and fruit,
the latter borne on long stems like those of currants which often
carry brillant, red ripe fruit at the base and are still in blossom at
the end.

Varieties well adapted to garden conditions and for canning are
Harliana, Favorite, Beauty, Bonny Best, Chalks Jewel, Greater Bal-
timore, Globe, Stone, and Red Rock, the first four being especially.

Oe heat

LESSONS ON TOMATOES FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 5

suited for the home garden, while the others are of good quality and
are especially suited for canning.

Study questions: What varieties of the commercial group are
grown? Which have been most successful? What variety is oTrown
by the canning-club members? Have at hand a few specimens of
each variety found in the community. Compare them as to size,
shape, color. Record answers in a notebook.

References.—Farmers’ Buls. 220, pp. 5, 6, 15, 18; and 642, p. 11.

Practical exercises—Have each member of the class bring a few
specimens of each variety of tomatoes grown in the community.
These should be used in connection with the study questions. Re-
quire the pupils to practice until they are able to recognize each
variety at sight.

Correlations.—Language: Have members of the class describe the
fruits of the different varieties of tomatoes found in the community.

Drawing: Require the pupils to make drawings of the tomatoes
brought to class for study.

LESSON THREE.
TOPIC: HARVESTING.

MONTH: SEPTEMBER.

Lesson outline.—Condition of fruit: If intended for home use,
local market, or canning the fruit should be allowed to fully mature
on the vine; if for distant market, the fruit should be picked as soon
as it begins to turn red.

Picking: Exercise care in handling to avoid bruising or otherwise
injuring the fruit. Remove stems to avoid puncturing the ripe fruit.

Packing: Rough, cracked, and deformed fruits should be separated
from those intended for market. The best prices are received for
those most nearly uniform in size, shape, and color. For a fancy
product wrap each fruit in thin paper and pack in half-peck peach or
tomato baskets. Fruit for canning should be thoroughly ripe but
not soft. Underripe tomatoes give a straw-colored product. Over-
ripe give a mushy product.

For seed, carefully select those plants on which the largest propor-
tion of the crop is of desirable form and color, and save the best fruit
from each plant separately. Such seed will give much better results
than that from superior individual fruits from plants on which much
of the fruit was inferior. Let the fruit get fully ripe, quite past con-
dition for table use. Squeeze out the pulp and seed, throwing away
the skins and flesh. Allow the seed to stand in a warm place for 1 to 3
days, according to the weather conditions, then add four or five times its
bulk of water. Stir vigorously, allow it to settle, then carefully pour
off the water carrying what pulp it will, and repeat until the seed is

6 BULLETIN 392, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

clean. Spread out not over three seeds deep to dry, stirring repeat-
edly until dry.

Study questions: For what purposes are tomatoes grown by the
pupils and by the community? For local market? For distant
market? For canning? What receptacles are used in picking?
What care is exercised in preparing tomatoes for the market? What
kinds of packages are used for shipping? Do club members and
people of the community select their own seed or buy seed in the
market? Describe the local method of selecting and saving tomato
seed. Record all answers in a notebook.

References.—Farmers’ Buls. 220, pp. 13, 14; and 642, pp. 10, 11.

Practical exercises.—(1) The club members’ and pupils with home
work with tomatoes should be busy pickmg, marketing, and canning

tomatoes. Market and can the select fruits and convert the rough,-

cracked, and uneven fruits into other products. (2) Select and store
choice tomato seed from thrifty, productive, healthy plants.

Correlations.—Language: Written work is provided in connection
with the study questions.

Drawing: Make sketches of choice tomato plants, of select fruits,
and of shipping packages.

Geography: Locate on the map canneries in the community,
county, orsection. In what distant markets are tomatoes and canned
products of club members sold? Over what railroads are they
shipped? Locate these on the map.

Arithmetic: Develop problems on the cost, value, and profit or
loss of the experiences of club members. Base the exercises on the
yearly reports.
LESSON FOUR.
TOPIC: JUDGING.

MONTH: SEPTEMBER.

Lesson outline.—The plant: The “form” of the plant has reference
to the habit of growth. Standard varieties differ from dwarf varie-
ties in this respect. In judging the form of a given plant it should be
compared with an ideal plant in habit of growth. ‘Vigor’ is the
ability of a plant to thrive under suitable conditions. Thriftiness is
indicated by the appearance of the plant and the fruit it bears. The
“foliage”? should be heavy to be able to resist the hot sun of mid-
summer days, and diseases. ‘‘Productiveness’’ needs no explana-

tion. Great stress should be laid on this quality. Some sorts of |

tomatoes are more subject to “disease” than others. Hence a place
is given in the judging record to this pomt. Both the plant and its
. fruit should be examined carefully in this connection.

The fruit: The ‘‘shape”’ of the fruit should be ideal for the variety.
‘‘Smoothness”’ is an important quality. The condition (fig. 2) of the

a a

LESSONS ON TOMATOES FOR RURAL SCHOOLS, |

blossom and the stem ends should be included when considering
smoothness. The shade of ‘‘color’’ should be uniform and true to
the variety. A poor color and an inferior skin are serious objections.
The ‘‘flesh”’ should be solid, uniform in color, and should compose
a relatively large proportion of the tomato. In other words, the
amount of pulp and seed should be relatively small. Each fruit
should be evenly ‘‘ripe.” The ‘‘sample’”’ should be uniform as to
size, Shape, and color.

Sade questions: What is the object of judging tomatoes? What
is meant by form? Vigor? Shape? Flesh? Pulp? Uniformity

INCHES 9

‘| Hi Plies ney op J
i Pi Li) Jind dinti hth adie hihi

Fic. 2.—Tomatoes having desirable blossom ends and stem ends; also proper proportion of meat and
pulp. The range of sizes is desirable.

Fd i

of color? Why are grooves objectionable? Why is smoothness of
surface desirable ? ‘

References.—U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 132, p. 37.

Practical exercises.—(1) Go with the members of the class to a
near-by tomato plat and score some select plants. If this is im-
practicable, have each member of the class brmg to school a choice
plant to be judged. (2) Have each member of the class bring to
school five choice tomato fruits to be judged. Each tomato of the
group of five should be examined carefully and judged separately.
Then the group as a whole should be judged. Pupils should be re-
quired to judge and grade miscellaneous lots of tomatoes. Canned
tomatoes either in glass or tin should be brought to school and
judged. ‘This practice is very important, as it enables the pupils to
become familiar with standard or first-class product. The pupils

8 BULLETIN 392, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

should provide themselves with score cards similar to the following
and use them in judging both the plants and the fruits:

SCORE CARD FOR TOMATO PLANT.

Wimetny nite wets ae ct SC ee eR ch) I Sag See ah vas, a che ct eR ae
Beis Perfect Student’s | Corrected
Points score. score. score.
MHOMIN ree sfeyae ieee cise aioe wise neo essieid okie Serene cee EIS © ose eye UO) | eine cits se einel| eee ease eee
DVL Oe eee DEE NS US ein cy. NAR. SN Se rome Dirilinehe de Reece [ice ee oe
LOCO) Ut) EO Se Se ee Se SE ie ee ese eS AS TES LOB eee eee | 2 be ence
Product (quantity and qualiby)=-s---222-2ossc226- sees - = 2sse eee ee SON ieee (setae
Diseasel(plantiand product) = -\- = --seee = oe sees Sees 20 Nekacic snes aes esate ee
otal ees sae He nce, Scrat Le cg at RRM reer Oe LOO Ree eect [be Rone aes
TRY SLT OVE TE IS a Gee Ca Se eer Rha cee neat te eM Ae Sei Oe MAP aE rears Too oe
Nemerotppila e228 oe ao ee ee Bee ID Ne eM AEer ati backeat os 3.
SCORE CARD FOR TOMATOES—PLATE.
Ware byes eto ios so ~ ccs 2 eee eee ee kee . Sans See eee ce eee
: Perfect "Student’s Corrected
< ont score. score. score.
Shape (should be ideal for variety).-.........---------------------- U5 cae ee eco wesenoceee
Buow or blossom end (small scar on smooth)....---..--------------- TCO) Bees Gaeoseoclbeeadcoscase
Stem end (small, slight depression).......-.--/..------------------- OMe se acess soeeeoeeeene
Color (uniform and ideal for variety).........-----.--.------------- 15} llooeacand minss|lsodemassoods
BMOSH (GOW y)) Seena- ses cie ss sae ees = Sa eee eae Eee ee cee eeeee ID) | bsasosconsde| SaaSaasceods
awleShi(CMifORMYCOlON) aoe seeeissia= = hisec sone eee ae eee Soe eae IO) petesecenee neces teeeens
Even ripening for individual fruits................--.-------------- 15a) ace es once eee eee eee
Wriformibyiotsample i. s cctecec ac anc ae See ei yee eee 1G} ee sbanease| Ss aeeeeree Se
VUNG) es i ete ea ae ade eee ae i al ee gets alee ea LOOM se See eee Ne eee
| BENT HY el FE NARS Pe Nat A i DU eh te SR oA NN oe a toe
Nametoh pupil ce asa = oa. ere en ee Daitercre sae Ave en San ee
SCORE CARD FOR TOMATOES—CANNED.
\ VEN ETE 7A ag OE PR RS Se eace NL ARR oe AER UN anny en OME pela! Spas 2 se
Soe Perfect Student’s | Corrected
Points score. score. score.
Solids:
ITU G eT 0 steeoce te Ses aie tia eee sel SA ee See ee ee ee eee
ATCit wa ole oninlare|pleces esq. -es ese eee see eee
Fruit, uniform in quality and type......-...-...-.-..----------
Meat, solid and free from green or defects. - bate
Mav OL MaAburalese saat ce -aiceeee seen
Colorsnaturale sess seecascascers : Soe
iIPealing-an GicOrin ge Aaas= cokes hasse te eee ee EC EEE ee ere
Wieleht,22ouncestiniNO.)3 Gane. Sar ce5 Sere eee ers ee eer ees
Liquid: ;
INSMTANCONSISTENCY sn taetsa oon wie ces See eye Re aE ee eee
Wielsht.1 ounces imyNO. 3 Cans. o ene seo sere eee eae
Container:
Hiree irom TuUShOrcleans ace. oe [oes eae sae oe eee eee
iresinomidents on blemishes =; -2 2... 4--5-o-see eee eee eee ee
Wabelcleam=2 Sac: seiscn wn aienie cee cincceicces oe Sees a eeeeeeen eae
Ota eee ses se Pie Pes aon ca doe Seis aaa Sees See See Eee oe
IVETINATK Saces enter ie paeane eS SF ye lel a i a Be ay ga er et
INGO IDI ce eh. se oe ol kt. eee Mateo. oo accent eee

Correlations.—Written work is provided in preparing score cards.
Practice in preparing sheets for the tabulation of facts is an impor-
tant exercise.

LESSONS ON TOMATOES FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 9

LESSON FIVE.
TOPIC: PLACE OF TOMATOES IN THE ROTATION.
MONTH: SEPTEMBER OR OCTOBER.

Lesson outline.—Tomatoes should not be grown on the same land
year after year, as some diseases live over winter in the soil and
injure the new crop. The soil should be kept in good condition by
including in the rotation leguminous crops. Potatoes, eggplants, and
peppers should not follow tomatoes, as some of the same diseases
affect all these plants. A cover crop of crimson clover, rye, or oats
and vetch should follow the tomato crop. A crop of beans, peas,
cabbage, or corn should precede tomatoes.

Study questions.—Why should tomatoes not be grown on the same
land year after year? What insect pests and diseases of tomatoes
are found in the community? What place does the tomato occupy
in the rotation practiced in the community. Name a good rotation
course including tomatoes for a garden or a small plat; for field
crops.

References.—Farmers’ Bul. 642, p.8. Write to the State college of
agriculture for suggestions as to a rotation including tomatoes.

Practical exercises —Club members and pupils with home work
should plant on their plats a cover crop of crimson clover, rye, or
oats and vetch.

Correlations —Written work is provided in preparing statements of
rotation courses.

Drawing. —Have members of the class draw to scale an outline of a
plat of ground containing three-tenths of an acre. Make three divi-
sions of this and indicate on the divisions the crops of a three-year
rotation including tomatoes.

Arithmetic: If the plat containing three-tenths of an acre is 36
yards wide, how long is it? How many square feet in a tenth of an
acre? If a tenth of an acre is 33 feet wide, what is its length?

LESSON SIX.
TOPIC: HOTBED AND COLD FRAME.
MONTH: JANUARY OR FEBRUARY.

Lesson outline—Hotbed: The advantages of the hotbed are: (1)
Tender plants may be started early; (2) tender plants started in the
hotbed have the start of weeds when transplanted; (3) early vege-
tables are made possible; and (4) plants grown to considerable size in
hotbed are not so subject to attacks of insects and diseases.

The points to be observed in locating the hotbed are (1) nearness
to the water supply, (2) convenience to garden and farm buildings,
(3) protection from cold winds by buildings, fences, or hedges,
and (4) good drainage with southern or southeastern exposure.

The materials used in making a hotbed are (1) manure, a good pro-
portion of which should be fresh and so thoroughly mixed as to be

47093°—Bull. 392—16 2

18) BULLETIN 392, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

uniform in composition, density, and in the amount of heat produced;
(2) a frame with the rear board 4 to 6 inches higher than the front
board, and (8) glass or cloth covers for the frame. For a permanent
hotbed an excavation or pit 24 to 30 inches deep should be made.

Sowing seed: Sow the seeds in rows 3 to 4 inches apart, one-fourth
to one-half inch apart in the row, and cover about one-half inch
deep. Water the surface of the soil with a sprinkling can. Keep the
hotbed covered with sash or cloth. Raise the sash during the heat
of the day for ventilation. Water the bed in the morning on bright
days.

Cold frame: (1) The uses of the cold frame are (a) the growing of
vegetables for winter use, (b) the hardening off of the more delicate
plants in early spring, and (c) starting semihardy plants, as cabbages,
cauliflower, etc. (2) The points determining the location of the cold
frame are (a) protection from north wind such as the south side of a
building, fence, or hedge, (b) nearness to ample water supply, and

(c) southern or southeastern exposure. (3) Materials for making a

cold frame are (a) a frame with a board 12 to 16 inches high on the -

north side and 6 to 10 inches high on the south side, (6) glass, canvas,
or cloth covers, and (c) very rich, thoroughly pulverized soil.

Study questions: What are the advantages of hotbeds? How are
they made? What is the difference between a temporary and a
permanent hotbed? Which kind is most commonly used in the com;
munity? What plants other than tomatoes are started in hotbeds ?
Is glass or cloth used for covers? What is the difference between a
hotbed and a cold frame? For what are cold frames used? To what
extent are cold frames and hotbeds used in the community? Are
cold frames used to harden off tomato plants? What other plants are
grown in cold frames ? .

References.—Farmers’ Buls. 642, pp. 1-3, pp. 12-15; and 460.

Practical exercises.—(1) Club members and pupils with home work
should prepare a compost heap under cover and thoroughly rot the
manure to be used in preparing soil for the hotbed. Manure for
furnishing heat for hotbed should be fresh, as well-rotted manure
does not give off heat. (2) Make frames for the hotbed and for the
cold frame. (3) Make the hotbed and prepare to sow tomato seed.

Correlations.—Have the members of the class describe the hotbed
used in starting their tomato plants.

Drawing: Draw the frame to scale.

Arithmetic: If tomatoes are planted in rows 4 feet apart and stand
3 feet apart in the row how many plants are required to set one-tenth
of an acre? If each plant occupies 2 square inches in the hotbed
what should be the area of a hotbed sufficiently large to produce

plants to set one-tenth of an acre? Find the cost of material including

the cover to make such a frame.

ee

LESSONS ON TOMATOES FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 11

LESSON SEVEN.
TOPIC: SOIL—KIND, PREPARATION, FERTILIZATION.

MONTH: JANUARY OR FEBRUARY.

Lesson outline.—Soil: Select level, well-drained, rich, sandy, or
sandy loam soil. Avoid land that has produced diseased tomatoes,
cotton, or other crops affected with root knot.

Plow the land to a good depth and pulverize thoroughly by disking,
harrowing, dragging, or rolling.

Broadcast barnyard manure before plowing at the rate of 20 tons
or more an acre. If well-rotted manure is used it may be applied
after plowing, but it should be thoroughly harrowed into the soil.
In addition to the barnyard manure apply per acre the following
just before setting the tomatoes: 100 to 150 pounds sodium nitrate,
500 to 1,000 pounds of 16 per cent acid phosphate, and 150 to 300
pounds of muriate of potash per acre. Where manure is not used
apply 400 to 800 pounds of cottonseed meal per acre in addition to
other fertilizers. Broadcast large amounts of fertilizers; drill small
amounts. A good formula for tomatoes is 8:2:6 (8 per cent phos-
phoric acid, 2 per cent ammonia, and 6 per cent potash).

Study questions: What are the principal types of soil found in
the community? Which type is used in growing tomatoes and other
truck crops? What is the practice as to the preparation of soil for
tomatoes? Other vegetable crops? What fertilizers are used for
tomatoes? What value has barnyard manure other than furnishing
plant food? Why should barnyard manure be plowed into the soil
some months before planting time? What are the three essential
elements in fertilizers? Name the source of each in the materials
suggested in the lesson outline.

References.—Farmers’ Buls. 220, pp. 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 28, 29, 30;
642, pp. 5, 6; 255 and 647.

eau oa exercises.—The members of ae ses that have decided
upon growing tomatoes as club work or home work should select the
plat, broadcast manure, and plow the land to a good depth. Harrow
the land thoroughly. Secure commercial fertilizers. Have every-
thing ready when the time comes to set the plants.

Correlations.—Copy in the class notebook all answers to ‘“‘study
questions.”’ Draw to scale the plat to be used for growing tomatoes.

Arithmetic: Find the cost of barnyard manure used on the plat.

If sodium nitrate contains 16 per cent nitrogen, acid phosphate 16
per cent phosphoric acid, and muriate of potash 50 per cent potash,
how many pounds of each in 150 pounds of sodium nitrate, 1,000
pounds of acid phosphate, and 300 pounds muriate of potash? Find
the cost of the materials if a pound of nitrogen is worth 17 cents a
pound, a pound of phosphoric acid 5 cents, and a pound of potash
5 cents.

12 BULLETIN 392, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

LESSON EIGHT.
TOPICS: HARDENING OFF PLANTS; PREPARING LAND AND TRANSPLANTING.

MONTHS: MARCH TO MAY.

Lesson outline—Hardening off plants. Where plants are grown in
a hotbed they should be hardened before being set in the open. This
can be done by transferring the plants from the hotbed to the cold
frame or by removing the hotbed sash during the day. As the plants
become hardened the cover may be kept off at night when there is no
danger of frost. Boxes and tin cans may be used for developing the
plants.

Preparing land and transplanting: Thoroughly harrow the soil.
Mark off the rows about 4 feet apart for horse cultivation; 3 feet apart
for hand cultivation. If plants are to be pruned to one or two stems
and tied to stakes or trellises, set them 2 to 3 feet apart. If the plants
are not to be pruned and staked, set them 3 to 4 feet apart. Before
removing plants from the hotbed or cold frame, thoroughly soak the
bed in ordér that considerable soil will adhere to the roots of the
plants. Take up plants with trowel or spade and pack in boxes to
carry to the field or plat. Set plants in the furrow and pack the soil
around them. Finish filling the furrow with a turn plow or hoe.

Study questions: What methods are used to harden plants? Why
should plants be hardened before setting in the open? What is the
distance between rows? Between plants? Why should the soil of
the hotbed or cold frame be thoroughly moistened before plants are
removed? Should the soil be moistened around the plants where set
in the field? Why should dry soil be spread over the moistened area ?

References.—Farmers’ Buls. 220, pp. 9, 16; 642, pp. 6, 7; 255, and
647.

Practical exercises —The members of the class who are growing
tomatoes should harden their plants and get them in condition to set
in the open. By removing the plants from hotbeds to cold frames
(tin cans or boxes), they may be given greater distance and encour-
aged to grow more rapidly. Asa rule the plants should not be set in
the open before May. However, in the far South they may be set as
early as March or April. In southern Florida planting in the fall is
practiced. .

Correlations.—Copy in the class notebook answers to ‘‘study
questions.” Develop further problems on the cost of fertilizers and
the number of plants required to set given areas. An accurate record,
of labor, cost of fertilizers, seed, and the like, should be kept in a
bound book.

LESSONS ON TOMATOES FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 13

LESSON NINE.
TOPICS: TRAINING, PRUNING, AND CULTIVATING.

MONTH: MAY.

Lesson outline.—Traming: Immediately after the plants are set a
stake (fig. 3) should be driven down securely by each one of them.
For this purpose use saplings, mill edgings, or inch strips. As the

Fic. 3.—Tomato plants properly trained by use of posts and twine.

plants grow tie them to the stake with soft twine. This is accom-
plished by looping the string around the stake and tying the tomato
plant loosely so as not to interfere with its growth. Frames may be
used instead of stakes, but they are much more expensive and no
more satisfactory. Frames should be about 18 inches square at the
base and 24 inches square at the top. Set the frames before the plants
begin to spread.

14 BULLETIN 392, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Pruning: Prune the plants to one or two main stems. Remove
all shoots that grow in the axils of the leaves; that is, between the
leaves and main stems. To keep the shoots pinched off, go over the
plat once every week or 10 days.

Cultivating: Give the tomato plants frequent shallow cultivation
to keep down weeds and maintain a soil mulch to prevent evapora-
tion. Cultivate as soon as the soil is sufficiently dry after each rain.
Do not allow a crust to form. A small-tooth cultivator is suitable
for tomato cultivation. By the use of the hand hoe keep the soil
loose and the weeds between the plants down.

Study questions: What materials are used for stakes? Are frames
used? How are they made? What points are to be gamed by
pruning plants to one or two stems and supporting them to stakes?
Does the fruit mature earlier? Is the fruit larger? Are the piants
and fruits as subject to disease when trained in this way? What
are the shoots that develop in the axils of the leaves? When do the
fruit stems develop? What is a ‘“mulch?’? What is a “soil mulch?”
How produced ? ;

References.—Farmers’: Buls. 220, pp. 8, 9, 16; 642, pp. 7,8; 255
and 647.

Practical exercises——Preparing stakes, making frames, setting
stakes or frames, pruning plants and cultivating the plat provide
work for the sienna of the class with tomato plats as home or
club work.

Correlations. —Written work is provided by copyimg in the note-
book answers to “study questions.”

Drawing: Make sketches of a frame; a Properly pruned and staked
tomato fem

Arithmetic: Find the cost of material and labor in staking a tenth
of an acre of tomatoes. Find the cost of material and labor in
making frames for 200 tomato plants.

LESSON TEN.
TOPIC: PESTS—DISEASES AND INSECTS.
MONTH: MAY.

Lesson outline.—Diseases: Among the principal diseases of toma-
toes are blossom-end rot, ieaf spot (leaf mold), fruit rot, wilt, and
root-knot. To prevent diseases practice a rotation course extending
through three or four years and not including tomatoes, eggplants,
and peppers more than once in this period. Fertilize and cultivate
the plants well to keep them in a thrifty condition. Avoid the use
of fresh manure. Pull up and burn all diseased plants when disease
first appears. Begin spraying the plants with Bordeaux mixture as
soon as they are set out and keep this up at intervals of 10 days for
five or six applications. Fruit rot is combated by pruning and
training, together with the destruction of diseased fruits. Rotation

LESSONS ON TOMATOES FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 15

prevents root rot. Rotation and spraying with Bordeaux are neces-
sary to combat wilt. As a special treatment for blossom-end rot
conserve the moisture supply and irrigate if found necessary.

Insects: Among the insects to be combated in growing tomatoes
are cutworms, flea-beetle, tomato hornworm, and tomato “fruit
worm.” Cutworms cut down the young plants as soon as set out.
A good remedy is to use poisoned bait before the plants are set out.
Dip some green plants such as collard or cabbage leaves, bunches of
clover or weeds into a solution of one spoonful of Paris green to a
bucketful of water. Scatter these over the plat for two or three days
before transplanting. A mash of bran or cottonseed meal may be
used for the same purpose. The flea-beetle is a tiny black, jumping
beetle which feeds upon the tissue of the leaf either in the cold frame
or after transplanting. To combat this insect add to the Bordeaux
mixture Paris green or arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 ounces of Paris
green or 10 ounces of arsenate of lead to each 10 gallons of Bordeaux.
The tomato hornworm is a large green caterpillar, the larva of one of
the sphinx moths. Hand picking and killing is the best way to get
rid of it. The “fruit worm”’ in its different generations is the same
thing as the cotton bollworm and the bud worm of corn. It likes
these plants better than tomatoes. Tomatoes planted near corn or
cotton may suffer from this worm. Corn planted in tomatoes will
protect the tomatoes, as the worms like the corn better than toma-
toes. It injures the tomato by boring into the fruit. Pick off and
destroy the worms as well as the infected tomatoes. Spray with
arsenate of lead three weeks or more before the fruit ripens and again
about a week before ripening spray with Paris green.

Study questions: What tomato diseases are found in the com-
munity? How serious has been the damage from diseases? What
methods have been employed successfully in combating diseases?
What insects found in the community attack tomatoes? To what
extent have insects proved injurious? What methods have been
employed to successfully combat them? Estimate the damage done
to the tomato crop of the community by diseases and insects.

References.—Farmers’ Buls. 220, pp. 31, 32; 642, pp. 9, 10.

Practical exercises —Club members should prepare and have ready
stock solutions of lime and of bluestone to be mixed and used to pre-
vent diseases of plants. See Farmers’ Bul. 642, p..10. Spraying
- should be done before diseases appear. If insects appear, arsenate of
lead may be added to the Bordeaux mixture.

Correlations—Copy in the notebooks replies to the
tions.”

Drawing: Require the pupils to sketch parts of plants and fruits

affected by diseases.
Arithmetic: From the estimated damage to the tomato crop by
diseases and insects develop problems as to the financial loss due to

“study ques-

16 BULLETIN 392, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

damage. Problems relating to losses by club members should be
given special attention.

CLUB ORGANIZATION.'

Rules for beginning work.—(1) Secure a tenth acre of ground. This
may be 132 feet long and 33 feet wide, or any other convenient
dimensions, provided 4,356 square feet are included. (2) Keep a
complete record of the date and the kind of work done and the time
used. (3) Keep a record of expenses, charging 10 cents an hour for
the club member’s work, 5 cents an hour for the work of the horse,
and actual cost for all hired work and supplies. Estimate the value
of stable manure at $2 a ton or two-horse wagon load. Charge $1
for the rent of the tenth acre of land.

Business showing from tenth acre.—In addition to the detailed
report contained in the Daily Record Book each club member must
submit the following summary of the year’s work:

1. Cost of production:
(@) (Remit of Wands oie se Shape peas ee efi ee $1. 00 -
(}) pPreparationvoigent nacre sess == ae ae eee ereneee
(¢c). Cost ot seedsiand pplamitsyeene. 3-2 se een ae
(@) Cost of manuresandatertiliviens one eho. nee eae ne ee
(e) Cost of cultivation, staking, and pruning.-.........--. Mae
(F) sCost' of basketstand! cratessaen ses 0 2 ae ene ian
2. Cost of canning:
(@) ‘Cost. of cathentmoshnuite: sees ee Sees ee
(©) ‘Cost-otcams jarssldibel sWencers esse. =o eo mene Sues ae
(c) Cost of canning, pickling, preserving, etc..-.....-.---- aoe
(@) Cost of crates and "baskets. 25: 2255-5) eee ere sare eae

3. Garden receipts:
(a) Receipts trom fresh vecetables: 2-25-55. .-- 8o-- 2-8 cee
(6) Estimated value of canned vegetables..........---.--. spe
(cp Estimated value of vegetables for home use.-..--..---- wolet
(d) Value of other products of the tenth acre. ..........-- eee

Total yalwevot prowuciste 2 -5--os-6 Vase nee
Expensesdeductedsses tesa eh Sate vs nee

Net ‘profitdor years. saees | akee ees be ee aya es
Total yield of tomatoes from tenth acre, pounds... ..--
Number of pounds, other vegetables. .....-...--

| | | |
No. 10. No. 3. No.2. | Jars. | Bottles.
| |

INOs CHING (HOWANI = os oseacslbaodseasacellasecasacacle See eRe al ence Hence ences

Otherproducts! ey. eee c/s | ease ee tee en eel geen pes esee8

1 Information under this heading was furnished by the Office of Extension Work in the South States
Relations Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. For further information on organization of clubs
write to the same office or the State college of agriculture.

LESSONS ON TOMATOES FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 17

Canning-club score—The score for judging the work of club mem-
bers is as follows:

Points
epi siess SHOWIN: tO UNCIUMC2e. 2. ayes ges eh ae ee oy es 30
MEST ISeMTCINEIOlM CLOPS....- 42: .. Jee ee OUI 10
TIGL. s seh 8 a a See, MeL ee 10
TALC oe jee Rl SO Cee Ue at 10
Peery seen pee cee i LPS ee ie ee 30
Oi @xUi Oise oe ream = Sie ns eet) i Ae 15
SOO HMETIDEOOIICUS oS nas. . RRR UR en ket) 15
peeeires Walinnkvecord: Books). 2 2.2... 28. eke be Le 20
Ee ee bstory Of the season’s work. -.. 222.22... oS 20

(This should be in the form of a pretty booklet made by the girl herself to tell the

story of her work.)
COMMUNITY EXHIBITS.

Importance.—Every community should have its fair day. The
logical place to hold such a fair is at the school building. The school

ae"

Fic. 4.—Individual canning club exhibit—1,730 cans.

should be represented. No part of the community fair can be made
more instructive and attractive than the canning-club exhibit. The
green and canned products of the garden lend themselves to the most
striking and artistic arrangements. Looking forward to an exhibit
of products and work will prove a great incentive to the pupils.
Selecting and arranging the individual exhibits—(1) Select a plate
of five tomatoes uniform in size, shape, color, and stage of ripeness.
‘The fruits should be thoroughly ripe but not overripe. Also select
a half-peck basket of tomatoes of the same kind. (2) Select and
arrange a sufficient number of tins, glass cans, bottles, and jars of
canned tomatoes and other tomato products to make an attractive
display (fig. 4). If other vegetables have been put up, choice
specimens of these products should be displayed. e

18 BULLETIN 392, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

While each member of the canning club should have an individual
exhibit, all the members of the club should group (fig. 5) their exhibits

Fic. 5.—A county canning club exhibit showing tomato fruit and canned products artistically arranged.

for the general effect produced. For the group exhibit select a corner
or section of the building to be used and arrange the individual
exhibits so as to produce the best effect.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1916

if a GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. c.

ne PR

5 CENTS PER copy

THE: SUP: RINTENDENT oF DOCUMENTS |

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Washington, D. C. 4 October 23, 1916

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY
IMPROVEMENT.

A Compilation and Analysis of Data in Eight Selected Counties, Showing
Comparative Financial Burdens and Economic Benefits Resulting
from Highway Improvement During a Period of Years.

By J. E. Pennyspacker, Chief of Road Economics, and M. QO. Expripcz,
Assistant in Road Economics.

CONTENTS.
Page Page

EERGOUC HOW moa ae Seas eis scence es esi a = Ie Wase CountyewWiascc--cs-c\s2e2 see oescse ece 44
Comparative analysis of economic effects of Hrankdlim @ounhy. Ne aosseee aaa 52

TOAG MMIPLOVEMENG 4/2 Sacejs cee SL =e be 2) le Dallas Coun type Altecne ns eae eee 62
Spotsylvania County, Va.....-.--------------- 10 | Lauderdale County, Miss..--..---------------- 68
inwiddieCountya Vias.c22) 55225... 200222228 28 | Manatee County, Fla..........---2----0+---++- 79
La) CN TERY ANG lee ie a et Se 36 |

INTRODUCTION.

In order to obtain direct information as to the benefits and burdens
imposed upon communities through the construction of systems of
improved roads, it was decided in 1909 by the Office of Public Roads to
make a series of exhaustive studies in selected counties. Thesestudies
were designed to cover a period of approximately5 years, or a sufficient
period to show the road improvement from its inception until such
time as the full measure of its usefulness could be demonstrated.
The counties selected were Spotsylvania, Dinwiddie, Lee, and Wise
in Virginia, Franklin in New York, Dallas in Alabama, Lauderdale
in Mississippi, and Manatee in Florida, as in those counties bonds
had been recently voted for the construction of improved roads and
it therefore was possible to make a series of studies to cover the road
improvement from the outset to completion.

The information which has been assembled during the years 1910
to 1915, inclusive, comprises general descriptions of the character

47234°—Bull. 393—16—1

2 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and resources of the counties studied; the character, extent, and
cost of the road.improvement; the effect of the improvement on
assessed valuation of property; the financial burden as indicated by
tax rates; and the general prosperity and welfare of the respective
_ counties as shown by output of local products, the character and
amount of traffic, the saving in hauling costs, the Incoming and
outgoing shipments of freight by rail and water, the values of lands
contiguous to the roads improved, the attendance at public schools,
the character of school buildings, the number and distribution of
population, and other related information. ‘These studies were made
at one-year intervals and, as nearly as possible, exactly comparable
information was obtained on each inspection. To reenforce these
records a number of representative points were selected and pho-
tographs taken each year of these same locations, thus securing a
pictorial record of the changes evolved from year to year.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF ROAD
IMPROVEMENT.

Many claims and counterclaims are made as to the propriety of
expending large sums of money for public-road construction in local
communities. One set of extremists ascribe to good roads nearly all
the benefits and blessings which fall to the lot of humanity, while
another set sees in large outlays for road construction only the
specter of debt and ruimous taxation. Somewhere between these
two extremes must be placed the actual result produced.

The economic studies in the eight selected counties have brought
out a number of features which can not fail to prove helpful examples
to other counties which contemplate large outlays for road con-
struction. A comparative analysis of the most striking data obtained
in the respective studies is therefore presented under appropriate
headings.

CHARACTER OF BONDS ISSUED. .

In some of the counties comprised in the economic studies bonds
were issued on the sinking-fund plan, and in others the serial method
was followed. Analysis of the methods followed in each case brings
out some interesting points. Spottsylvania County, Va., issued
$173,000 of 4.5 and 5 per cent bonds payable in 30 years, and callable
after 5 years. It is impossible to estimate the total cost of retirement
owing to the element of variability in the rate of retirement under
this arrangement. In Dallas County, Ala., the bonds amounted
to $350,000, payable in 30 years at 5 per cent. Assuming the sink-
ing fund to bear 3 per cent interest, as set forth in the chapter on
Dallas County, the total financial burden to the county for interest
and the liquidation of the bonds during the 30-year period will be

i

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 3

$745,702. That the method of financing the road improvement
chosen by Dallas County is not.as economical as might have been
selected is indicated by the fact that an equal amount of bonds at
the same rate of interest, if issued under the deferred serial bond
method, with the first bonds payable 6 years from the date of issuance
and an equal amount payable each year thereafter for 24 years,
would cost the county at the end of the 30 years $665,000, or a
difference, as compared with the sinking-fund method, of $80,702.
If 4 per cent could be realized on the sinking fund instead of 3 per
cent, the saving for the deferred serial plan over the sinking-fund
plan would still be $47,216.

In the case of Manatee County, Fla., the bond issues aggregate
$250,000 and run 30 years at 5 per cent. As in this case the sinking
fund also yields 5 per cent interest, the method of bonding is reason-
ably economical on the present basis. It is doubtful, however, if the
sinking fund will continue to bring such an unusual return, and as
soon as a lesser rate of interest is obtained or any of the smking fund
is not promptly invested, the sinking-fund method will become
more costly than the serial method which might have been adopted.

Lee County, Va., adopted the deferred serial method, and had its
bonds run from the fifth year to the twenty-sixth year. This is the
only one among the entire eight which appears to have adopted the
most prudent and economical method of handling the bond issue.

In Wise County the $960,000 of 5 per cent bonds were issued for
-30 years, with a 20-year redemption clause. Assuming that the
bonds are retired the twenty-fifth year on the sinking-fund plan,
with interest on sinking fund bearing 3 per cent, the total outlay
would be $1,858,269. If Wise County had adopted the serial method
with its serial payments beginning with the sixth year and ending
the twenty-fifth year, the total cost would be $1,704,000, a saving
for the serial plan over the sinking-fund plan of $154, 269. If 4 per
cent could be realized on the sinking fund, the saving would still be
$72,288.

Dinwiddie County, Va., issued $105,000 of 5-and 6 per cent bonds,
payable in 30 years, but the bonds are callable after 20 years.
Assuming that they will be retired at the end of 25 years on the sink-
ing-fund plan, with interest on sinking fund at 4 per cent, the total
cost would be $218,031, whereas if they had adopted the 6-25 year
serial method the cost would be $201,100, or a difference of $16,931.
_ Franklin County, N. Y., is operating at a disadvantage, as its first
serial payment is not made until the tenth year. This county also
has followed the rather dangerous method of extending its date of
payment over a long period of years, with the result that the
indebtedness long outlives the estimated life of the improvements

x

4 BULLETIN 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

made. The bonds, amounting to $500,000 at 5 per cent, run from
10 to 50 years under the deferred serial method.

Lauderdale County, -Miss., which issued $500,000 of 5 and 54
per cent bonds, adopted the deferred serial-bond method, with the
first payment coming 11 years from the date of issue and the last
payment 25 years. If the county had issued the bonds on the 6-25
year basis the cost would have been $906,875, as compared with the
cost on the basis adopted of $972,232, or a difference of $65,367.

It would seem that the most economical form of bond to issue is
the deferred serial with the first payment at the end of the sixth
year and the payments then extending to a final term varying in
length according to local conditions, but never exceeding 30 years.
By having the first payment deferred to the sixth year the county
has an opportunity to complete its road system and enjoy the
benefits before beginning payment, but if the deferred period is much
greater all of the evils of the smking-fund plan with no corresponding
merits are adopted. If local communities throughout the United

States could profit by these examples the result would be the saving

of many millions of dollars.

In one of the counties it was found that an amount probably
ageregating as much as $5,000 had been lost to the county through
a premature sale of the bonds; that is, in sellmg the bonds before the
funds actually were needed. This resulted in the payment of interest
much in excess of that which could be obtained upon cash balances
in bank. Counties should pay due regard to this feature of road
finance, even though the necessary precautions would save only a
small amount.

MANAGEMENT OF THE IMPROVEMENTS.

In the eight counties selected several forms of management were
in effect and a noticeable tendency was demonstrated on the part
of county authorities to select and designate for improvement a larger
mileage of roads than the funds contemplated were adequate to con-
struct. This was especially true in those counties where a consider-
able amount of grading was involved and where comparatively ex-
pensive types of construction were contemplated. Naturally these
faulty estimates resulted in dissatisfaction and distrust among the
taxpayers and to require either additional heavy outlays or the
leaving of the project in a partially completed state. Judging from
these examples, it is quite obviously essential that where any county
contemplates comprehensive improvements involving large outlays
and expensive types of construction, the detailed advice and esti-
mate of a competent highway engineer be secured before the people
are asked to approve the bond issue. In the case of the four Virginia
counties the actual work of constructing the roads after the bonds

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 5

were voted was under the control of the State highway department,
and it appears that excellent results were obtained commensurate with
the outlay of funds; but the Virginia law was evidently defective in
that no provision was made for a competent authority to make esti-
mates and to give advice preliminary to the issuance of bonds. The
Virginia Legislature has since, at its 1916 session, enacted legislation
covering this pomt. The experience of the counties covered by these
studies indicates the wisdom of a statute in each State requiring a
reliable estimate upon which bond elections should be based.

The road construction in these counties would seem to bear out
the assertion which has often been made that from 20 to 25 per cent
of the total road mileage of a county, if wisely distributed, will
serve traffic needs to the extent of at least 80 or 85 per cent of the
total. In one of the counties included in these studies it will be
noted that the mileage is excessively large in comparison with the
ton-mileage hauled over the improved roads. In this case it would
seem that the county has overbuilt its improved-road system and
that a lesser mileage would have served its traffic needs.

A question partly of management and partly of finance is involved
~ in the experience of the eight counties in regard to road maintenance.
It is a well-known fact that the general tendency throughout the
United States is to neglect the maintenance of roads which have, in
many cases, been built at great expense. In the study of these eight
counties it was found that Franklin County, N. Y., and Lauderdale
County, Miss., were most effectively meeting the problem of main-
tenance. In the case of Franklin County the State was directly
concerned in the maintenance of the roads and had complete
control over such work on some of the roads and an indirect con-
trol over other roads, thus applying to the task a skilled manage-
ment, the details of which are explained in the chapter on Franklin
County. In Lauderdale County, Miss., the work is conducted under
an excellent provision of law which specifies that an amount of not
less than 1 mill on the dollar shall be levied to provide a mamtenance
fund for all of the roads constructed by means of bond issues, and
this fund is to be kept separate from all other county funds and can
_ beused only for maintenance. Asa result of this law the Lauderdale
County roads are not only in as good condition to-day as when com-
pleted, but have been actually improved. Thus the county’s invest-
ment in good roads has not been allowed to deteriorate in the slightest
degree.

The 1916 Virginia Legislature has met the maintenance situation
by providing that an annual tax of not less than 3 per cent of the
amount of bonds issued shall be levied to provide a maintenance
fund. A conspicuous example of an emergency situation with ref-
erence to road maintenance is afforded by Spotsylvania County, where

.6 BULLETIN 393, U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

no provision was made for maintenance of the bond-built roads. It
was found that rapid deterioration was taking place and that in-
sufficient funds existed with which to meet the situation. Accord-
ingly toll gates were established on the principal roads and a sufficient
revenue was derived from this source, not only to maintain the roads
but to actually extend the construction a short distance. This re-
version to a system long since abolished by most countries is partly
due to the Virginia administrative and fiscal organization, under which
the cities of the State are not taxed for county purposes (although
they may aid in the improvement of roads for a distance of 10 miles
from the city limits if the city council so elects). Thus it came about
that while the city of Fredericksburg, in Spotsylvania County, con-
tributed no part of the financial burden of maintaining the roads, it
was, because of the heavy automobile traffic emanating from that
point, a very destructive element to the county road system. In
view of the very rapid development of motor vehicles during the
past decade and the prospects of much more widespread use of this
means of transportation in the future, the desirability of making |
provisions so that the cities may aid in the construction and main-
tenance of roads in the surrounding territory.

As to the quality of supervision, it would seem that there is little -
room for criticism in any of the eight counties. The work in the four
Virginia counties was directed by a resident engineer from the State
highway department, while the work in Dallas, Lauderdale, and
Manatee Counties was all directed by special highway commissions,
who, without exception, selected competent engineers and accom-
plished most commendable results. Franklin County, N. Y., was
fortunate in having for the direction of its work a competent county
superintendent, who possessed all of the practical and technical quali-
fications for the successful management of the work.

ECONOMIC BENEFITS TO THE RESPECTIVE COUNTIES.

Tn arriving at an estimate of the benefits which a county receives
through the improvement of its public roads, certain factors must
be taken into account more as the media by which the benefits
may be measured than as the actual benefits themselves. While
it is realized that the increase in the value of land must not be
added to the saving in hauling costs, the convenience and access
to schools, markets, churches, etc., but is rather the effect pro-
duced by those causes, it is perhaps the best index which can be ~
obtained as to the economic value of the roads to the community. .
A study of the increase in the values of farm lands in the eight
counties reveals the rather interesting fact that following the improve-
ment of the main market roads the increase in the selling price of
tillable farm lands served by the roads has amounted to from one

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. ui

to three times the total cost of the improvements. The increase in
_ values in those instances which were recorded ranged from 63 per
cent to 80 per cent in Spotsylvania, from 68 to 194 in Dinwiddie,
70 to 80 in Lee, 25 to 100 in Wise, 9 to 114 in Franklin, 50 to 100 in
Dallas, 25 to 50 in Lauderdale, and from 50 to 100 in Manatee. It
will be found upon reading the chapters on the individual counties
that the estimates of increase were based for the most part upon the
territory within a distance of one mile on each side of the roads
improved. ‘These estimates are not claimed to be mathematically
exact, but itis believed that they will give a fairly accurate indication
of the results which may be expected under similar conditions.

In dealing with the effect of road improvement upon the hauling
of commodities, the method has been adopted of ascertaining the
traffic area served by each road much in the same manner as the
drainage area of a stream is ascertained. After determining such
areas the character and amount of production is ascertained and
an estimate is made as to the proportion of the tonnage produced
which is hauled upon the roads. A further investigation is made as
to shipments by rail in and out of the county and information is
obtained from United States census reports and from merchants
and producers to verify the results obtained from the traffic-area
calculation and the freight-tonnage inquiry. In some cases an
actual traffic count or census is taken to determine the tonnage
hauled upon the roads. From these various sources it is pos-
sible to arrive at a reasonably accurate estimate of the tonnage
hauled over the improved roads. It is a comparatively easy matter
to determine the average length of haul in each’ case and the pre-
vailing rate of wages for men and teams. With these factors the
total tonnage, the total ton-mileage, and the cost per ton-mile
before and after the improvement of the roads are computed. The
saving to traffic represented by the road improvement is thus ex-
pressed in doliars. It is of course realized that the figures given
do not represent an actual “dollars and cents” saving, as many of
the men and teams figured in on a wage basis might have been idle
if they had not been engaged in hauling the products of farm and
forest. But they at least indicate the saving in time and energy,
and these have a monetary value. Therefore the saving to traffic
in each county is stated for the purpose of indicating to the readers
of this bulletin a relative figure by which they can determine the
waste due to a system of poor roads. Considering the eight coun-
ties in the aggregate, the gross annual saving in hauling costs
_ due to their good-roads systems affords the rather impressive total
of $627,409 for a traffic of 3,489,652 ton-miles. The average gross
saving per ton-mile for. the eight counties is 17.8 cents, this being

8 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

indicated by an average rate of 33.5 cents before the roads were
improved, as compared with 15.7 cents after the roads were improved.

In order to determine the net saving on a ton-mileage basis, it is
necessary to deduct from the gross saving the estimated annual outlay
for interest and retirement of the bonds and for interest on the value
of aid received from the State or from any source other than the bond
issue. Table 1 gives not only the gross saving per ton-mile, but also
the net saving after taking into account the cost of the improvements
on this basis. It should be borne in mind that the estimated annual
outlay for interest and retirement of principal may not conform
strictly to the practice which may be followed in the respective
counties, as instead of levying the amount which would be mathe-
matically correct for the purpose, they may raise an unnecessarily
large amount or an utterly inadequate amount from year to year.
The table is based upon the amounts they should levy each year to
retire the bonds under the plan by which the bonds were issued.
The annual cost of maintenance should be considered as a partial
offset to the saving in hauling costs if the outlay for maintenance is
greater after the roads are improved than before improvement.
That the cost 1s greater after improvement can scarcely be doubted,
as real maintenance was scarcely in effect at all before the roads were
improved. Definite cost data on maintenance of a comparative
value for all the counties are lacking, and are, therefore, not taken
into account in the table.

TasLE 1.—Approximate saving in hauling costs on present tonnage basis after deducting
annual cost of improvements during period covered by bonds.

[Averages are weighted.]

Annu- | Hauling cost
al cost | per ton-mile.

Estimated Or ert SSR eas OS per ton- .

Value of | annual le
State-aid | outlay for} Annual oes wea Gross |, tter de-

Salaetad countics Bonds | contribu- | interest ton- and saving | duct-
Cue ae "| issued. | tions in |and retire-| miles of |,.oio4.| Before | After er ling cost
convict ment of | traffic. [Vopr | im- im- ae: of inter-

labor. princi- gid per | Prove: | prove- est and

pal.} ton: ment. | ment. princi-

mile of pal.

traffic.

Spotsylvania, Va-.|2$140,000 [$11,856.41 |$10, 533.00 | 921,521 80.0114 $0.300 | $0.137 | $0.163 } $0. 149
5 5 : 300

Dinwiddie, Va...-. 105,000 | 37,038.32 | 10, 573. 65 833, 136 012 : . 150 - 150 . 137
een Vae.2 kes 2 455,000 | 21,175.48 | 27,967.34 | 297,180 | .0941 . 400 . 200 . 200 - 106
IWASOVasn oe cee 960, 000 200, 000 3716 . 570 230 340 | —.032
Franklin, N. Y...-} 500,000 242, 145 0897 . 303 096 207 117
Dallas, Ala........ 350,000 |... 610,000 | .0407 | .300 150 150 109
Lauderdale, Miss. -| 500,000 |... 255, 378 1310 .370 3 170 - 039
Manatee, Fla.....- 250, 000 130, 292 . 1247 - 450 - 200 . 250 - 125
Total and ay-
erage.......- 3,260,000 | 70,070. 21 | 219,720.26 | 3,489,652 | .0629 -335 . 157 .179 -116
a

1 Plus interest at 5 per cent on value of State-aid contributions of convict labor.
2 Exclusive of $33,000 voted but not yet issued for Livingston and Berkley districts.

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT, 9

A comparison of the effect of the road improvement upon country
schools affords probably a more complete vindication of the outlay
than even the material features which have been presented. Com-
bining the results obtained in all of the eight counties, it appears that
before the roads were improved the average school attendance was 66
pupils of each 100 enrolled, as compared with 76 after the roads were
improved. A consideration of this showing must reveal the fact that
the good roads have been materially responsible for the education
of 10 children out of each hundred. As the struggle for existence
becomes keener in the years that are yet before us, the educational
training which the children receive in the country schools will make
itself felt more and more in the material and moral success of the man
and woman. Not only have the roads contributed toward a larger
school attendance, but they have been quite instrumental in lifting
- the standard of instruction by making easier the consolidation of little
one-room schools into graded schools. In Dinwiddie County the sys-
tem of taking the children to and from school by means of wagons
has been adopted since the roads were improved. (See Pl. XI, fig. 2.)

Taking it from all of these angles, the experience of the eight coun-
ties has demonstrated that the beneficial effects of the road improve-
ment justified the outlay, and that while more efficiency and economy
might have been obtaimed in some cases, the loss was not such as to
make the citizens of any of the counties feel that the move for better
roads. had been an unwise one. (See Tables 2 and 3.)

TaBLE 2.—Road mileage.

Surfaced.
ee padtpe: 0 Graded Total
otal o under grade
State and county. all roads. Se aA Under bond or sur-
Fie bond Total. issue. faced.
: issue.
}
Virginia: t Miles Miles Miles. Miles
Spotsylvania eeiatslata COED OD GORI rae 400 0.97 176.73 82.73 73
SPR TENW AG IO Meee senate ees acces Je Sepeels 524 1.01 291.3 101. 06 0 101. 06
EEO pyeeete a eee ok ee eid 3 450 1.00 139. 26. 44, 86 160.19 105. 05
VASG eee eh ies acti alt che 2c Sa ie ees 300 hal 78.47 83. 07 62.75 145. 82
NemnOn Ke H Lan Ki 5). 45 55s26 Sonn Sen =o 1,370 . 82 124.0 386. 8 0 368. 8
JN BUTE TTE Oe DE |e ee ee ee ee 1,000 1. 04 101. 75 217.9 0 217.9
Mississippi: Lauderdale............-...--- 800 1.16 96. 75 146. 75 0 146. 75
MIGHO A MANALCE. 5.5 once eccce cscs ls. +6 575 43 57. 25 57. 25 6.4 63. 65

1 Built partly with State convicts. 2 Built entirely with State convicts.

10

Taste 2.—Road mileage—Continued.

BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

State and county.

Road mileage
(per cent of grand total).

Character of surface.

Surfaced | Graded| Graded
only. only. | or sur-
faced.
Virginia:
Spotsylvania.............- 20.6 0} 20.6 NG
Miniwad diester re. 2 cee sae 19.3 0 19.3
Tha Rn a pence LOO lah Sal 2a aaa:
Wise wae eae EN 27.7| 20.9| 48.6 fegee
ment
New York: Franklin......-.-- 28. 2 0 28. 2 Macadand
Alabama; Dallas.........-.--- 21.7 0 21.7 }) Sand-cla
Mississippi: Lauderdale. .....- 18.3 0} 18.3 |\Gand-clay
Florida: Manatee.-.......--.-- 9.9 Ath 11.0
7 Ll

(Grave leper ee eee eee Be
Grayel, sand-clay, top-soil -

Bituminous surface treat-

Gravel-macadam

Marl-rock macadam.-....-
Flint-rock macadam......
Sheliscc 222s. 5s. enia easmiane

Cost per mile.

wo
S
ie
DOH Co DO DF OO HE bO

Ferre

SS SS SS

SSSSESS8S SSssSess

TaBLe 3.—Road bonds and taxation data.

Bonded debt incurred

for roads.
Term of
State and county. Per | bonds in
$100 | -years.
Totalto| po, as-_
1915, capita sessed
inclusive.| ©?P?- |valua-
tion
(1915)
Virginia:
Spotsylvania...............- 1$173,000 | $10.93 |$4. 97 2 5-30
DiNwWid dieks 2) = aoc. keke 105, 000 2.66 | 1.75 4 20-30
ECO esac eee clini sinc s sate’ 455,000 | 19.08 | 9.15 5 5-26
IWHSO Er mates. detec cass 960,000 | 28.10 | 7.04 4 20-30
New York: Franklin.....-...... 500,000 | 10.92 | 3.66 5 10-50
MiabamaeDalasee ese ecc -<e 350, 000 6.57 | 2.48 7 30
Mississippi: Lauderdale-.....-.-.- 500.000 | 10.65 | 3.08 5 10-25
Florida; Manatee......-.-..-.--- 250,000 | 26.17 | 3.09 730
1 Amount authorized but only $140,000 sold. 7 Sinking fund.

2 Callable after 5 years.

3 Average for two districts only.
4 Deferred serial with sinking-fund provision.

5 Deferred serial.
6 Taxes levied by towns and

8 No special levy mai

: years.
vary in each.

Average rate of tax
per $100 of assessed

valuation.
Interest ;
All pur- Road
aoe ae poses. bonds.
1910 | 1915 | 1910 | 1915
Per ct
41-5 1/$1.20 |$1.70 |880.45 |$0. 625
5-6 | 1.20 | 1.20 0 . 10
411.40 | 1.96 On tenon
5 | 1.40 | 1.762} 0.30 . 562
445 | 6) | @ | © | ©
Delle sal els40 0 | 8.176
5-53 | 1.54 | 1.66 0 .16
5 | 2.65 | 2.60 -70 | .30

SPOTSYLVANIA COUNTY, VA.

de for road bonds, but an average
rate of 17.6 cents on the $100 will pay interest and
create sinking fund with which to retire bonds in 30

Two districts in Spotsylvania County, Va., on November 2, 1909,
voted an aggregate of $100,000 in bonds for the construction of
improved roads. For 44 years following the close of the Civil War
the farm land in the county had been allowed gradually to revert
into a wilderness of second-growth timber, and it was not uncom-
mon to see great stretches of woodland with traces of ancient
Lands were held at from $5 to $15 per acre,

furrows still visible.

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 11]

with few buyers even at those figures. Most of the agricultural
products which the farms in the county were capable of producing
were brought in by rail from the outside, and thus steadily the bal-
ance of trade was rising against the county. Its greatest source of
wealth—namely, timber and crossties—could not be utilized to the
best advantage because the roads for many months in the year were
almost impassable. The economic studies to ascertain the relative
benefits and burdens of the road improvement in the county were
begun in 1910 and continued annually thereafter up through 1915.
A significant incident on the first inspection trip, March, 1910, occurred
-within a half mile of Fredericksburg, when the horses broke a sin-
gletree in their attempt to pull the light surrey, with its two passen-
gers and driver through the deep, heavy, clay mud. (See PI. III,
fig.).)

While it seemed apparent at the outset that the building of a sys-
tem of improved roads would be highly beneficial to the county, it
remained to be seen whether the financial outlay involved would be
heavier than the corresponding benefits received and whether good
management and sound economy would be practiced, so as to get
the greatest possible results for the outlay of funds. Only by deter-
mination of these questions could the example of Spotsylvania
County be made useful to other communities which should find it
necessary to deal with the subject of road improvement. As the
investigations were begun before any initial steps were taken in the
matter of management or construction, it was practicable to record
year by year the story of Spotsylvania’s good-roads progress and
the economic results of the project.

It might be well to mention that Spotsylvania County is located
about 45 miles north of Richmond and has an area of 401 square
miles. The principal products are timber and crossties, although
the farms produce some bright tobacco, hay, potatoes, truck, small
fruits, etc., and since the roads have been improved there has been
some development of the dairy and poultry industries. There are
no large manufacturing industries and no cities,except Fredericks-
burg, which had a population in 1910 of 5,874 out of a total popula-
tion for the county of 15,809. Primarily the problem was to provide
a system of roads which, while used for hauling the forest products,
eradually would develop the agricultural resources of the county.

HOW THE IMPROVEMENT WAS FINANCED.

Owing to the fact that under the Virginia law cities are not taxable
for county purposes, Fredericksburg, the only city in Spotsylvania
County, could not be reached for a proportionate share of the pro-
posed outlay. There were four districts in the county, but only
two, namely, Courtland and Chancellor, actively took up the move-

12 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ment. In consequence the financial burden rested at the outset
entirely upon the two districts named, although traffic from the other
two districts passed over the roads of these two m goimg to and
from Fredericksburg. In spite of these drawbacks, Courtland dis-
trict voted $60,000 and Chancellor district $40,000, and the bonds
were sold at intervals between February 8, 1910, and September
17, 1912. The first $18,700 issued carried 44 per cent interest
and the remainder carried 5 per cent imterest, payable semi-
annually. All of the bonds were to run 30 years, but. were callable
after 5 years. In ail cases the bonds brought par and accrued
interest. Callable bonds ordinarily do not bring as high a price in
the bond market as noncallable bonds which are payable at definite
periods. This indicates that the bonds were marketed shrewdly and
intelligently. Arrangements were made to secure 3 per cent interest
from the banks on sinking funds. Even then marketing of the bonds
would not have been accomplished except for the loyal support
given by local investors. Furthermore, as pointed out in the pre-
ceding chapter of this bulletin, the combination of long-term and a
call provision leaves so much to the discretion of the local authorities
from year to year as to inject an element of uncertainty into the
matter of bond retirement and tax levies. It might readily occur
that when officials are in authority who are actuated by an eagerness
to get the district out of debt, an excessive tax rate would be levied
and the bonds called in at an unnecessarily rapid rate; or the reverse
might be true if negligent officials, or those who, for any reason,
might desire to hold the tax rate down to a minimum, should neglect
to call in bonds. The district then would carry the burden repre-
sented by the difference between the 3 per cent obtained on sinking
fund and the 5 per cent carried by the bonds. It would have been
better if a 5-30 year deferred serial bond had been adopted, as the
annual retirement then would have been fixed and the tax rate
subject to no wide fluctuation. —

Our subsequent investigations enabled us to see just what financial
steps were taken in connection with the bond issues. As the bonds
were not callable until after 5 years, it followed that the first call
year was 1915. If it were intended that the payment on the debt
should begin in 1915 and extend to the thirtieth year the logical
plan for Courtland and Chancellor districts would be to pay off
$4,000 of the principal each year, from the sixth to the thirtieth year.
For the two districts for 1915 this would require an average rate
of 32.7 cents on each hundred dollars of taxable valuation for interest
and principal for the 30-year period. Of course this rate would
decrease as the assessment increased at 5-year intervals.

The plan actually followed in Courtland district was to levy 40 cents
on the hundred dollars for 1910 and 1911; for 1912, 45 cents; for 1918, .

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 13

70 cents; for 1914, 35 cents; thus producing a total of $25,243.49,

to which should be added whatever was obtained from the 3 per
cent allowed by the banks on sinking-fund deposits. Inasmuch as
the interest for the first 5 years amounted to only $14,517.50, this
left $11,725.99 plus the interest on the sinking fund. With this

amount, $11,000 of the bonds had been retired at the beginning of

1915. A levy of 65 cents on the hundred dollars was made in 1915,
from which $9,917.50 was obtained, and on December 13, 1915, the
bonded debt was further reduced to the extent of $2,000. At the
rate of payment and taxation thus far adopted, the district will be
out of debt long before the expiration of the 30-year term; but
whether this rapid payment is desirable under all existing conditions
must remain a matter of judgment.

An inspection of tax rates shows that in 1910 the taxpayers of
Courtland district paid, exclusive of the 40 cents levied for road
bonds, a total of 95 cents on the hundred dollars, or a total for all
purposes, including State, county, and road-bond taxes, of $1.35,
of which the bond taxes formed 29.6 per cent. The levying of a
65-cent tax rate in 1915 made the total tax for that year $1.70 on
the hundred dollars. Thus the road bonds in 1915 formed 38.2 per
cent of all taxes paid in Courtland district. In both years the
general road and bridge tax was 15 cents on the hundred dollars.

To see how this would affect the individual taxpayer, let us assume
that a man owns a $5,000 farm, which is assessed at $3,000, or a little
more than the usual basis of assessment in the county. He will
pay taxes for all purposes in 1915 at $1.70, a total of $51, of which
$19.48 will represent his share of the tax for the improved roads.
This 65-cent rate is higher than the average, however, and it would
seem more equitable to estimate his tax burden at 40 cents on the
hundred doilars, as was levied in 1910. This would make his annual
outlay for the improved roads $12. Against this cost he must place
the saving in wear and tear of his teams and wagons, the opportunity
which he has gained of hauling larger loads, of doing his hauling at
all seasons of the year, and of saving time in making his trips to
market. It is safe to say that the average possessor of a $5,000
farm would gladly pay such. a tax per year in return for a guarantee
of these benefits.

Chancellor district, which voted $40,000 in bonds, levied a still
higher rate of tax for bond purposes than Courtland, as the rate was
50 cents for 1910 and 1911, 55 cents for 1912, and 65 cents for 1913,
1914, and 1915. The total tax rate for 1910 was $1.40 for all pur-
poses, State, county, and bonds, and in 1915 was $1.85. Thus the

-bond-issue tax comprised 35.7 per cent of the total in 1910 and 35.1

per cent of the total in 1915. During the 5-year period from 1910

to 1914, the district raised $15,865 to apply to the bonds, of which

14 BULLETIN 3938, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

about $9,500 was needed for interest, leaving about $6,360, plus
~ interest obtained on sinking fund, to apply on the principal. From
this sum $4,000 of the bonds were retired by 1915, and after the
1915 levy was obtained, which yielded $4,838, a further $2.500 of
bonds were retired. ;

While more than ample provision was made for rapidly paying off
the bonds, no steps were taken in either district properly to maintain
the roads after the completion of the system. It was soon found that
if the roads were to be prevented from going to destruction and the
investment thus dissipated, it was necessary that funds be provided
for maintenance. As the tax rates were already high, the situation
was met by the establishment of toll gates. The operation of the
toll system, described elsewhere in this chapter, produced an amount
equivalent to that which would be obtained by a tax levy of 31 cents
on the hundred dollars of the 1915 assessed valuation, if levied against
the whole county, or 50 cents if levied against Courtland and Chancel-
lor districts alone. After deducting that portion of the toll funds
which was applied to new construction, the funds actually applied
to maintenance were still sufficient in amount to be equivalent to a
sum which could be raised by a tax rate of 17.4 cents on the hundred-
dollar valuation, for the whole county, or 28.1 cents for these two
districts alone. Possibly a lower rate for the bond retirement and
the application of the saving thus made to the maintenance of the
roads might have been desirable rather than the establishment of
the toll system, but the existence of other factors, however, bearing
upon the subject of tolls in Spotsylvania County complicate the
question so that it can be dealt with by the local community only as a

special problem.
OTHER DISTRICTS VOTE BONDS.

Stirred by the example of Courtland and Chancellor districts, the
two other districts in the county, namely, Berkley and Livingston,
voted $40,000 and $33,000 respectively in 1913.

COUNTY VALUATIONS AND REVENUES SHOW LARGE INCREASE.

In 1910 the tax rates for all purposes, including State tax of 35
cents, were respectively, $1.35 for Courtland, $1.40 for Chancellor,
$1 for Livingston, and $1.05 for Berkley, or an average of $1.20 for.
the county, with a total revenue production of $31,571. The rates
had increased in 1915 to $1.70 in Courtland, $1.75 in Chaneellor,
$1.45 in Livingston, and $1.90 in Berkley, or an average of $1.70,
with a total revenue produced of approximately $59,100. It is
interesting to note, therefore, that while the tax rate increased 41.6
per cent in the period from 1910 to 1915, the revenue increased 87.2 —
percent. This is due to the very large increase in the assessed valua-
tion of property since the road-building program was begun, and

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 15

shows that wnile the people “re paying taxes at a higher rate, they
are obtaining far more in the form of revenue for public purposes
than the increase in the tax rate ordinarily would have yielded. As
an index to the prosperity of the county since the completion of the
road system, it might be pointed out that the taxable valuation in
1905 was $1,738,727; in 1910, $2,120,753; and in 1915, $3,478,373.
The increase in the five-year period from 1905 to 1910, the year road
improvement was begun, was only 21.9 per cent, the increase in the
corresponding period from 1910 to 1915 was 63.9 per cent. Probably
a better conception of this increase can be gained through the state-
-ment that the aggregate of the bond issues for the four districts, com-
prising the sum of $173,000, is less than one-eighth the increase in
valuation with a considerable portion of these bond issues yet to be
expended.
HOW THE WORK WAS MANAGED.

The funds derived from the bond issues in Chancellor and Court-

land districts were expended under the direction of the special board
of public roads of Spotsylvania County, and a resident engineer, at
$1,200 per annum, who was appointed by the State highway com-
missioner for the period of construction only. The board consisted
of four members appointed by the judge of the circuit court for a
term of three years. Each member was paid $100 a year, except the
secretary-treasurer, who was paid $125. Orders for expenditures
originated with the engineer in charge and were approved by the
board. A similar board has charge of the work in Livingston and
Berkley districts.
_ The roads to be improved were designated by the judge of the
circuit court in the order of election. When the improvement is
completed and accepted by the State highway department and
county road board, the roads are turned over for maintenance to the
county board of supervisors, composed of one supervisor from each
magisterial district, elected for a term of 4 years, and receiving a
compensation of $4 per day for time actually employed.

Under the Virginia law all roads built by means of bond issues are
under the direction of the State highway department as to surveys,
plans, specifications, and supervision of construction. The State
also grants aid in the form of cash or convict labor to the extent of
one-half the cost of the roads, but as the amount of cash annually
available from the State is small, it will probably require a number
of years to reimburse this county to the extent of one-half the total
outlay. The State money aid was not expended on the bond-issue
roads, but on other roads, and is only mentioned to make clear the
relation between the bond-issue funds and the State-aid allotments.
From 1909 to 1915 a total of $8,212.01 in money aid and automobile
licenses has been received by the county.

16 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The regular road work of the county%s carried on under the direc-
tion of a superintendent appointed by the board of supervisors and
recelying a salary of $1,200 per annum, house rent free, and trans-
portation. The superintendent hires all labor and teams and pur-
chases machinery, equipment, and materials on the approval of the
board of supervisors.

Three main highways radiating from hides cine and aggre-
gating, with their branches, 39.5 miles, were selected for improve-
ment and the actual routes were set forth in the order of election.
These roads, located in Courtland and Chancellor districts, were
improved from funds derived from the $100,000 bond issuesfor those
districts, the amounts apportioned to each district being in accord-
ance with the proportionate mileage in each. The first contract was
awarded in July, 1910, and the last mile of road was completed in
these two districts in September, 1913. By actual measurement
the roads improved aggregated 40.89 miles, or 1.39 miles more than
originally contemplated. This, of itself, was an unusual showing,
but an even more striking evidence of the economy exercised was
the fact that enough money remained of the original $100,000 issued
to construct an additional gravel road between Spotsylvania Court-
house and the southern boundary of Courtland district, a distance of
2.3 miles. This was completed in August, 1913, making a total
mileage of roads completed under the bond issue in Courtland and
Chancellor districts of 43.19 miles, or a little over 10 per cent of the
total of 400 miles of road in the county.

The average cost per mile, including culverts and bridges, was
$2,319.21. As an example of the great improvement in bridges, see
Plate TV. The roads were all constructed of gravel, except 1.7 miles
of water-bound macadam, which was surfaced with gneiss of a very
poor quality. This section has worn badly and most of it has since
been resurfaced with gravel. The gravel used on the improved road
system was composed of quartz pebbles, quartz sand, and clay of
fairly good wearing quality. Table 4 is a detailed report on dimen-
sions and costs and was supplied by the State highway commissioner
of Virginia. .

TABLE 4.— Mileage and cost of roads built.

CHANCELLOR DISTRICT.

Length | Width of| Width of] Expended Bale per
mile.

oe ead ofroad. roadway.| gravel. on road.

Miles. Feet. Feet.

JIB Nal cess 5 OSes cet Oh oy A ee ee eS 5. 200 | 20 14} $8,410.91 $1, 602. 08
IEaIcG emery ee escent Sa WERE RPE ae Ti Bh eet jeunes 7172 20 14 9, 224. 05 1, 932. 95
Gord One meee er etl erase eee cee eee 3.9 20 14 9, 272. 38 2,377. 53
Caphanpine ssa: veadcon Sse ow cess ee Sues ee 4.29 20 14 | 10, 953. 87 2,553.35

18. 212 | 20 14 | 37,861.21 2, 080. 27

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. aE

TasLe 4.— Mileage and cost of roads built—Continued.

COURTLAND DISTRICT.

Rate per

; Expend- | 240 P

Lengih| Width | Width | Wit"? | Expend-| ed on | He, in-

Name of road. ofrond, oftoad-| of Jets edon | culverts chun’
5 "| way. | gravel.) 37 road. and culverts
bridges bridges.

Miles. | Feet. Feet. Feet.
20 14 1

Blanks. 2 o<3 eHenSaSS Stee 2 Gena aaa eee 3. 039 20 |$4, 968.45 |$1,173.19 | $2,020.94
Spel yivania Courthouse to Gayles

DIG 0. 2 ecebe SESE ee eeeeBeeOeaBe sane 7, 20-24 |........ 214 12,441.00 |........._. 7; 318. 23
LEV OP - 22> See SoBe Eee eee ae eee 3. 106 20 1G ees 6, 250. 89 640.40 | 2,218.70

IEG\TEO Sc Seas eee ae ee 10.05 20. 14 seeesais 19, 538. 21 208.00 | 1,964.80
Telegraph Road from Fredericksburg;

Courthouse Road to Massaponax. ...- 4.55 20 GLa ii ee! 10, 886. 55 688.27 | 2,543.92
Hazel Run-Plank tea ate oe etcicig eee S - 223 20 1 ee ae 21 Se 20) | ae eee 5, 440. 36
Spotsylvania Courthouse-Snell’s Bridge} 2.310 20 AH Boru BaL PA) on de nc eeae 1, 860.38

PANGS (Sa. 2 lee | Bey As 59,595.79 | 2,709.86 | 2,494.40
1 For 424 feet. 2 Wor 8,525 feet.

ee atlas 2,206.6 convict-labor days. Convict camp maintained at a cost of $1,272.41, which is included

In Berkley district 25.54 miles of gravel road were constructed
with the proceeds of the $40,000 bond issue, supplemented by con-
vict labor furnished by the State. The convict labor aggregated
15,242.5 labor days. The district paid the actual cost of 7,425. con-
-vict days at 55 cents, or a total of $4,083.75, while the State paid
the actual cost of 7,817.5 convict days at 55 cents, or a total of
$4,299.62. These roads therefore cost an average of $1,119.43 per
mile, including cash and actual cost of maintaining the convicts.

Livingston district has under construction 34 miles of soil roads,
which, on the basis of 8 miles already completed, are costing
$1,155.88 per mile.

SUMMARY OF MILEAGE.

Thus far 76.73 miles of road have been improved in the four dis-
tricts at an average cost, including cash outlay by all the districts
and convict labor furnished two districts by the State at actual
cost, of $1,944.52 per mile, while the total outlay on this basis has
reached $149,198.80, of which the State’s share in convict labor
amounted to $6,889.15 on basis of actual cost. When the road
improvement has been completed in Livingston district the county
will have 102.73 miles of improved roads, or about 25 per cent of
the total mileage. (See PI. IT.)

TOLL SYSTEM OF MAINTENANCE ADOPTED.

The first year after the roads were improved the surfaces were
rather sticky and muddy in wet weather, but this condition almost
entirely disappeared after the second year, when the surplus clay
had leached out. The roads are now generally in good condition.

47234°—Bull. 393—16——2

18 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Very little was done in the way of maintenance until 1914, on account
of lack of funds. Because of opposition to a special levy for main-
tenance, the board of supervisors determined to raise the necessary
maintenance fund by means of tolls, for which authority was
secured from the General Assembly of Virginia.

On August 10, 1914, three toll gates were established, one on the
Courthouse Road, one on the River Road, and one on the Chan-
cellorsville Road, for which toll rates for round trips were fixed as
follows: Single horse and vehicle, 5 cents; 2 horses and buggy, 10
cents; 2 horses and wagon, 15 cents; 4 horses and wagon, 25 cents;
Ford automobiles, 20 cents; other automobiles, 25 cents to 35 cents.
During the week of August 10-16, 1914, $258.77 was collected in
tolls, and on September 1 the toll rates on the Chancellorsville and
River Roads were reduced one-half. The gross total collected in
tolls during the first year of operation amounted to $10,800, of
which $2,599.30, or 24 per cent, was received from automobiles.
In order t9 raise this amount of money by direct tax it would be
necessary to assess an additional tax on all of the taxable property
of about 30 cents on the hundred dollars. As the total length of
road on which tolls were collected was 43.2 miles in Courtland and
Chancellor districts, this gave an annual gross amount per mile of
$250. From the gross amount of $10,800 must be deducted $1,740
for collection and overhead, leaving $210 per mile for actual main-
tenance.

The total expenses of collection and overhead amounted to $145
per month, as follows: Two collectors at $45 per month each and
one collector at $40 per month; oil, tickets, fuel, etc., $5 per month
for each of the three gates. There is no overhead charge for super-
vision, as the gatekeepers report to the county superintendent of
roads, whose salary is paid from the regular county funds. Out of
the tollgate receipts the River Road was extended 3 miles at a
cost of about $1,200, and 3 additional miles were built in different
parts of Chancellor and Courtland districts, at a cost of $1,800,
leaving $6,060, which was used in resurfacing the Courthouse Road
11.75 miles, at an average cost of $515 per mile.

The maintenance forces of the county under which this work was
done consisted of two gangs with a foreman in charge of each gang.
Both gangs used on the average 10 teams, four of which were owned
by the county, one 10-ton roller, owned by the county and paid for
out of the county funds, and from 14 to 15 men. ‘The foremen of
the gangs received $2 and $2.50 per day, respectively, and laborers
were paid $1 per day and board, or $1.25 without board. Team
hire was $3 per day without driver, and the cost of maintenance of
county-owned teams averaged about $1 per day.

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 19

This maintenance situation emphasizes the disinclination on the
part of local communities to submit to taxation for the purpose of
keeping up their roads after they have gone to considerable expense
to build them. The toll system appeals to them as a simple way
out of the difficulty and furthermore as-a means of reaching the
lumber dealers and automobilists who come from other districts,
counties and States.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON LAND VALUES.

To ascertain as nearly as possible the effect of the road improve-
ment on land values, a careful record was made in 1910 of the actual
market value of 35 farms located on the roads selected for improve-
ment. The total number of acres in these 35 farms was 5,518 and
the total market value at that time was $77,950, or $14.13 per acre,
including buildings. In the same year the average value of all
land in the county, including buildings, was reported by the United
States census to be $13 per acre, thus indicating the accuracy of
the data obtained by our investigation. As the road improvement
had not been completed in 1911, no inquiry was made in that year
as to land values, but in subsequent years careful investigation was
made as to the values of the 35 farms recorded in our 1910 inves-
tigation. It was found that in 1912, 7 of the 35 farms had been
sold and that an offer had been made and refused for another one
of the original number. How the values had increased in the brief
period of about 2 years may best be indicated by the history of
these 7 cases.

A farm 3 miles from Fredericksburg, containing 139 acres and
valued at $3,500 in 1909, was sold in 1912 for $5,000, an increase
over the 1910 valuation of 43 per cent.

A farm 10 milesfrom Fredericksburg, containing 420 acres, listed
at $6,000 in 1910, sold for $8,250 in 1912, an increase of 37 per cent
over the 1910 valuation.

A farm 11 miles from Fredericksburg, containing 110 acres, valued
at $1,500 in 1910, brought in 1912 $2,000 for 80 acres and $500 for
timber, an increase of 60 per cent without counting the value of the
remaining 30 acres, or about 116 per cent, counting this acreage at
its 1912 sale value. :

A farm 2 miles from Fredericksburg, containing 101 acres, valued
at $3,000 in 1910, sold for $3,750 in 1912, an increase of 25 per
cent.

Forafarm 6 miles from Fredericksburg, containing 475 acres, valued
at $5,000 in 1910, $12,500 was refused during the latter part of 1911,
an increase of 150 per cent.

The five farms above referred to are located on the Fredericksburg-
Spotsylvania Court House Road

20 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

A farm 4 miles from Fredericksburg, on the Massaponax Road,
containing 357 acres, valued at $2,800 in 1910, was sold at forced
public sale in 1912 for $4,400, an increase of 76 per cent.

A farm 3 miles from Fredericksburg, on the Plank Road, containing
133 acres, valued at $7,000 in 1910, sold for $10,000 in 1912, an
increase of 43 per cent.

Another farm, 3 miles from Fredericksburg, on the Plank Road,
containing 100 acres, valued at $3,000 in 1910, was sold for $4,750.
in 1912, an increase of 58 per cent.

It is thus evident that in this little-group of sales the increase in
value according to the actual record obtained was $20,100, or 63.2
per cent, over the 1910 value. The average value, after the roads
were improved, was $28.26 per acre, as compared with $17.31 pre-
vious to the improvement.

A confirmation of the 1912 data on land values was obtained in
1913, at which time it was found that four transfers of farm land,
which took place in that year on improved roads from 5 to 10 miles
from Fredericksburg, were on the basis of $30.11 per acre, whereas
they were listed in 1910 at $13.89 per acre. It was learned in 1913
that some of the farms which had been practically abandoned by ©
their owners as places of residence had been reoccupied. One farm
owner moved to New England and rented his farm on the Chancel-
lorsville Road. Returning in 1913 to make some repairs, he found
the farm so conveniently located on the improved road that he
moved back from New England.

In February, 1914, another inspection of the roads was made and
a further confirmation of the effect of-the improvement on land
values was obtained. ‘This 1914 record was as follows:

A farm containing 136 acres, valued at $6,000 before the roads
were improved, was sold after ee roads were improved for $12,000,
an increase of 100 per cent. .

For a farm containing 133 acres, valued at $7,000 before the
roads were improved, an offer of $10,500 was made and refused after
the road was improved, an increase of 50 per cent.

A farm on the River Road, containing 312 acres, which sold in
1908 for $4,500, was again sold for $10,500 in 1913, an increase of 133
per cent.

A farm on the River Road, containing 870 acres, sold for $18,000
shortly before the road was improved and was sold again for $31,000
in 1914, an increase of 72 per cent.

It appears that the 1,451 acres increased in value $28,500, or 80
per cent, or from $24. 46 to $44.10 per acre, and it is believed that
this Snoreee was caused very largely by the opel roads.

Taking the two groups of sales and combining acreage and value,
we get a total of 3,286 acres, with a total original value of $67,300

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 21

and a total sale value after the roads were improved of $115,900,
showing an average value per acre before improvement of $20.48 and
an average value after improvement of $35.27, or a general average -
of 70.2 per cent increase in value.

In order to ascertain whether or not the increase in land values
was general throughout the county, or whether it was confined to the
improved roads, we obtained in the fall of 1915 values of three
typical farms on unimproved roads where the land was comparable in
agricultural fertility with land on the improved roads.

A farm in Livingston district, containing 1,000 acres, 12 miles
from an improved road, was sold at $7 per acre in 1914.

Another farm in Livingston district, 10 miles from the improved
road, containing 148 acres, was sold in 1915 for $9.45 per acre.

A farm in Berkley district, 12 miles from the improved road, con-
taining 190 acres, was sold in 1915 for $4.73 per acre.

These three farms were stated by competent authorities to be
typical of values on the unimproved roads, and if the average of $6.89
per acre for the three farms is compared with the average of $35.27
per acre for the sales on the improved roads, it seems reasonably con-
clusive evidence that the roads have been a most important factor
in the increase of farm values. |

On the whole, it appears that the land along the improved roads
increased in value an average of about 70 per cent, due far more to.
the road improvement than to any other cause.

Again, it was acertained from the dealers in real estate that very
few farms had been sold in the county except those located on or
near the improved roads and that the increase in land values was
confined almost entirely to the improved road sections. Real estate
dealers in Fredericksburg asserted that they had sold more farms
on the improved roads during the single year 1911-12 than in all the
rest of the county combined during the preceding five years. They
stated further that prospective buyers had, in many cases, refused to
look at farms located on unimproved roads. Considerable areas of
farming land along the improved roads are now being cultivated for
the first time since the Civil War. Several tracts of land which were
covered with forest growth or brush when the first inspection was
made in 1910 have since been cleared and are now being cultivated.
A series of photographs, taken of the same location each year since
1910, illustrates this fact. (PI. I, figs. 1-4.)

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON TRAFFIC DEVELOPMENT.

To obtain basic data covering the development of the agricultural
and forest resources of the county and to aid in determining the effect
of the road improvement on such development, a careful record of
incoming and outgoing shipments of farm and forest products at

ae BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Fredericksburg, the principal market and shipping poimt, was obtained
for the years 1909 and 1913, these being the years, respectively, before
the improvement was begun and after it had been fairly well com-
pleted. The 1909 record showed a total of incoming farm products
of 10,520.1 tons, while the outgoing farm products amounted to only-
7,255.1 tons, the balance of trade being, therefore, against .the county
to the extent of 3,265 tons. The 1913 inquiry indicated that up to
that year there had been no favorable change in the ratio of incoming
to outgoing shipments, as the total incoming amounted to 15,169.8
tons, an increase over the 1909 figures of 44.2 per cent, while the out-
going amounted to only 7,869 tons, an increase over the 1909 figures
of 8.4 per cent. The explanation of this continued lethargy in the
matter of agricultural development is found in a reference to the
shipments -of forest products. In 1909 the total forest products
shipped out by rail and water at Fredericksburg was 71,915.2 tons,
while in 1913 the total had increased to 128,219.2 tons, an increase of
56,304 tons or 78.2 per cent. It is evident that the people are devot-
ing their first attention to realizing upon their great wealth of forest
products, leaving the agricultural development to come later. It is
worthy of mention, however, that the 1913 record as compared with
1909 shows an increase in the outgoing egg shipments of 77.3 per »
cent, and in the dairy products an increase of 110 per cent. Most of
the farm products which are bought outside the county can be pro-
duced on the home farms, and it is quite probable that with the
excellent transportation system afforded by the improved roads
farming gradually will be developed and the balance of trade ulti-
- mately be in favor of the county instead of against it.

Considering the data of freight shipments as an index to determine
the increase in traffic hauled on the country roads, it would indicate
that this increase between 1909 and 1913 has approximated 70 per
cent. To ascertain, however, the volume of traffic before and after
improvement of the roads and the effect of the road improvement on
the cost of hauling, records were made of the traffic encountered on the
roads at each of the annual inspections, extending from 1910 to 1915.
The following record (Table 5) of traffic encountered on the roads in -
March, 1910, indicates strikingly the poor condition of the roads and
the excessive burden imposed upon traffic in delivering even small
quantities of products at markets: 3

TABLE 5.—Approximate weight of traffic encountered on roads in Spotsylvania County,
Va., in March, 1910.

; Pounds
Jehorsewacon loaded with 2) cross-ties 2 jsel.ce aed eae ete ee eee 400
ihorseavacon) loadeduwith 4. cross-tless 2.22.0 ej. ee ee 800
1-horse wagon loaded with 4 cross-ties........-.---- Hip SNOT eins Sha il es et 800
2-horse wagon loaded with 2 crates of chickens...........-...-.-.--.--------- 150

2-horse wagon loaded with 5 cases of eggs. ....--------- eee eee eee eee eee eee -- 500

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 23

: Pounds

2-horse wagon loaded with 4 cord of stove wood.........-.....-.----.-.2--.-- 500
Panorme waron loaded with’ 3 CrOss-tles. 07. LS Soret te 2 ek 600
whore waeon loaded with barbed wire..... 525.022 2-22.22 120 2-e2. eet ae ce 800
2-horse-wagon loaded with 4 cord of stove wood.........:-...--.----------.-- 1, 000
2-horse wagon loaded with 4 cord of stove wood..-......-- SH Sage Sh te eee eee 1, 000
2-horse wagon loaded with } cord of stove wood........--.....-------------:- 1, 000
2-horse wagon loaded with 6 cross-ties........- sei rie Sa NR 1, 200
Z-norme wagon loaded with merchandise--. 2.2 2-22... -.5--- 2-22-22 eee ne 1, 400
2-horse wagon loaded with pine lumber, 500 feet...........-.-.-.--------+--- 2, 000
3-horse wagon loaded with 12 cross-ties.........-.-.---------------------+--- 2, 400
3-norse wagon loaded with 15 cross-ties.........-.+--------------+-++---- = 33, 000

mere wcichiuor loads... tI i... CL ee ee eh ee 1, 097

An analysis of four of these cases gives gee following ‘interesting
details:

a_hatsewacon loaded with 4 cross-ties.. .-..242- 5-2-1. sf -,-- F-20200 eens ee - 800
(8-mile haul, 1 day to make trip, 3.2 ton-miles, estimated cost per ton-mile,
$0.625.) ;
Snore wacon loaded with 15 cross-ties..-22. 22. c2 80.5228 lesl lesb esi. 3, 000
(13-mile haul, 1 day for trip, 19.5 ton- miles, estimated cost per ton-mile,
$0.205.)
3-horse wagon loaded STL La) enaie sn es enemies merece). © DEE apap rane eine an 2, 400
(10-mile haul, 1 day for trip, 12 ton-miles, estimated cost per ton-mile,
$0.33.)
2—horse wagon loaded with pine lumber, 500 feet...........-...-.--22..------ 2, 000
(10-mile haul, time from 7a. m. to 3 p. m., 10 ton-miles, cost per ton-mile,
$0.30.)

On the basis of $2 per day for single teams, $3 per day for double
teams, and $4 a day for three-horse teams, for the four cases in which
complete information was secured, the average cost for the 44.7 ton-
- miles moved was 29 cents per ton-mile. For the entire 16 cases
referred to the cost per ton-mile would be much higher, as most
‘of them represented only partial loads. (See Pl. V, fig. 1.)

In the winter and spring months the average weight of load for a
two-horse team was about 20 bushels of grain, or about 1,200 pounds.
When the roads were dry, 40 bushels of grain, or 2,400 Dede made
an average load. On the basis of a 10-mile haul, and $3 per day for
man and team, the cost would be 25 cents per ton-mile on the roads
when dry, 50 cents when the roads are wet and muddy, and at least
30 cents for the year around.

The 1912 inspection was made March 19, 20, and 21, after the road
from Fredericksburg to Spotsylvania Court House, 11? miles, had
been completed. The average load for a two-horse team on this road
was now found to be 1,000 feet of lumber, or about 4,000 pounds.
On the basis of a Soennie haul, and $3 per the for man and team, the
cost was 15 cents per doaauele.

24 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It was noticed that many teamsters were accustomed to loading
1,000 feet or more of lumber on narrow-tired wagons, which resulted
in considerable damage to the roads, especially in wet weather. .To
prevent this damage the county supervisors passed an ordinance
limiting loads of lumber to 1,000 feet, or 4,000 pounds, on wide-tired
vehicles, and to 600 feet on narrow-tired wagons. As a result of this
ordinance most of the teamsters have provided themselves with wide-
tired vehicles, 3-inch tires for 2-horse vehicles and 4 to 6 inch tires
for 4-horse vehicles. Since the roads have been improved drivers
frequently hitch two wagons together and use 4-horse teams, hauling
1,000 feet on each wagon if equipped with wide tires, or 600 feet on
each wagon if equipped with narrow tires. On account of the ordi-
nance limiting the weight of loads, it was difficult to secure from the
drivers exact information on this subject. As a matter of fact, many
of the teamsters hauled more than the law allows, and several of
them have been indicted for violating the ordinance.

It was found that on the improved roads some wagons carried
manure, hay, or merchandise on the return trip. For instance, on
this inspection trip it was observed that one lumber team, on return-
ing home 34 miles, carried 14 tons of manure. Another 2-horse lum-
ber team returned with a 2,300-pound load, 34 miles. Still another
team was seen making the 12-mile home trip with 1 ton of hay.
Heavy hauling is now done on these roads all the year round, but
before the roads were improved it was impossible to do heavy haul-
ing at all at certain seasons of the year; the roads were simply impass-
able, except for light vehicles and those who traveled on horseback.
Where teams are enabled to travel both ways loaded the cost, per
ton-mile is lowered about one-half.

The inspection made between April 2 and 12, 1913, showed that
traffic conditions had further improved, and instances were repeatedly
met with showing that the improved roads had materially bettered
marketing conditions.

The character of products hauled, weight of loads, distance hauled,
and cost per ton-mile of a portion of the traffic noted during the 1913
inspection is shown in Table 6. .

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 25

Taste 6.—Hauling data for loads met on roads, Apr. 2 to 12, 19138.

ie a Distance} Ton- | Cost for | Cost per
Vehicle and load. Weight. | hauled. | miles. trip. | ton-mile.
Double Heer Tons. Miles. | Cents.
BATES 4 6 Lp Behe ieee SE cee a ie ae ee 2.00 8 16.0 $2.00 12.5
1,000 feet [Riiin db \e Mas USeeas atone Saar Ne series 2.00 8 16.0 2.00 12.5
Dilintecoake tiesto dee eae a 2.10 11 23.1 3.00 13.0
Mmoodteet limber: o2- 22sec ae = 2.00 6 12.0 1.50 12.5
ils PunisenluMherie. save oS te IO 2.60 11 28.6 3.00 10.5
20 Ite-ORk Giese out oS ee od oe DHOOUSE arias Ee De 2 ee Se ee
HOMTfeShlUMbehsacee ase eo Mee eS AS 1.80 7 12.6 1.50 11.9
1,500 feet lumber 3.00 il 33.0 3.00 9.1
1, 100 feet lumber... - 2.20 8 17.6 2.00 11.3
ae *000 feet lumber... ZOOS cheats te te ec ese iol | ee ase | le es
Dore seen Sie Je PAA 0s) Ralees SN) San) oe Sere Bel ee ee eee |e See re
Hi) Meme ie ev Wee ne pags sR oS tee 2 2.00 15 30.0 3.50 111.7
DUCES SE ae I Pee ei eae ee TALON Sete oe SERA ee Bae soso see ee ae
% GOING! WG eta pecan anesoonaeSehe ao sgeeaeeasse 11520) eee el ae: see Sel Is ets te bam leh Si ne ere
13 tie HOGee ee ee Seeds ee Eas eh ga ad be Rie eats te 1.20 12 15.6 3.00 19.2
HeOCO teeth lumber see esse e Pa ee. ee 2.00 12 24.0 2.50 210.4
4horse team:
Ph Oiree plumbers Gas o<52 scene esses oe fessecsce SAOOM RE Sees sei | ee ese Hehe eu rere OC aes as ae aaa
2, Suites (LIM pera aaa Soe As Se cls cine Saice =e AS OOD Ess cnce coals camel mis eet eerie
TDS 28 iS SS ee at Se ee eS 4.00 10 40.0 3.00 87.5
Single team:
ep ORE RCCOC So COOREEC CSCS eee errr OS0N | essevecesslbeeese seve nsdeee ese lee eee!
(BITES. Ge BSB b ee oe USO OS ee Ene OSES Rae Sear ars ONGOM Sater 3 Eos See es ee yl | a i open
ae tence ose ES se iste mains aes Does OREO Mae ss ee cis eeie mie se alemleee ae eres eee eee
cp LOD INSET RAAT 0) =) GA eae sea ea es Ra ete i ONSOe See eae | Piae ae ae: ates kon [Roe
END DI (eye% 5d RU 6 0s) Peo Ae ey fe Ae a LN ct 1.00 6 6.0 1.50 25.0
PAV OLA CLOL a LOAGS erate ss coecina nies <\son = = 2.15 9.6 20.6 25493 |. 11.76

1 Teamsters get $3.50 per 1,000 feet for this haul and make 1 trip a day.
2 Teamsters get $2.50 per 1,000 feet and make 1 trip a day.
3 On basis of 14 trips per day; round trips made in 7 hours.

Of the 13 cases for which complete information was obtained it
appears that the average load for a 1-horse team was 1,400 pounds,
for a 2-horse team 3,950 pounds, and for a 4-horse team 7,333 pounds;
the average distance hauled was 9.6 miles, thus making the average
cost 11.7 cents per ton-mile.

The 1914 study made on February 9 and 10 showed that the
improvement of the road from Partlows to Spotsylvania Court House
had opened up a large territory from which lumber and ties could be
profitably hauled through to Fredericksburg. In 1913 large quan-
tities of ties and lumber were brought to Spotsylvania Court House
from the surrounding country and there reloaded in bigger loads,
from which point they were hauled to Fredericksburg with 2-horse
teams. In 1914 this point of transfer was moved farther out on
account of the improved road, which will increase the average haul

for such products and reduce the cost of marketing.

The traffic encountered between 8.15 a. m. and 11 a. m. on Feb-
ruary 10, 1914, on a trip from Fredericksburg to Spotsylvania Court
House comprised 62 vehicles, 44 of which were loaded with lumber,
ties, etc.; gong to Fredericksburg. For 6 cases on which pandlees
aaron was obtained the average load was 2.38 tons, the average
distance was 12 miles, the average ton-miles for each team per day
was 28.5, and the average cost per trip about $3.50, making the
average cost about $0.12 per ton-mile. (See Pl. V. fig. 2.)

26 BULLETIN 393, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Trarric CENSUS.

In order to verify and complete data as to the volume of traffic
and the cost per ton-mile on the different roads, three traffic takers for
Spotsylvania County were appointed in the early part of 1914. The
- census covered one week in March and July, respectively, including
Sundays, two weeks in December, 1914, excluding Sundays, and one
week in April, 1915, including Sunday.

The traffic area served by these roads covers practically the whole
county, which contains 360,680 acres. There is some traffic from
Caroline County, but this does not sensibly affect the total.

The results of these censuses are shown in Table 7, in which atten-
tion is called to the fact that the average haul includes the distance
on both the improved and unimproved roads.

TABLE 7.—Traffic census on three improved roads in Spotsylvania County, Va.

Aver- xs Aver-
age ene ypuage age tons| Aver- | Annual | Average tees
Road. teams | foams | hauled |Dauled| age : ton- | cost per | Vanicles
tees per day. | per day1 ae haul. miles. | ton-mile. per day.-
Miles. Cents.
Courthouse Sic teens 217 79 190.4 | 59,460 | 13.42) 804,564 U8} 26
eA bei allbee ae NO Bae ee eee ee 155 45 103.4 | 32, 266 8.5 281,796 |- 15 16
Partlows, Mount Pleasant to
Spotsylvania C. H......... 73 27 49.3 | 15,397 9. 49 158, 472 14 13

1 Based on three 6-day censuses and one 12-day census.
2 Distance includes both improved and unimproved roads.

Practically all tonnage shown for the Mount Pleasant Road also
passes over the Courthouse Road on its way to the market or shipping
point at Fredericksburg. From Table 7 it will be seen that the total
annual traffic over the Courthouse and Plank Roads amounts to
91,726 tons net. It is estimated that the total traffic on the River
Road is about one-fourth of the total tonnage on the other two roads,
or 22,930 tons annually, which makes a total traffic passing over the
bond-built roads of the county of 114,656 tons net.

In ascertaining the tonnage and the ton-mileage passing over the
roads no computation was made of the motor-vehicle traffic, except
a count of the number of motor cars, but it is worth while to mention
that on a tonnage basis and at an average weight of 1.45 tons for a
total of 18,980 cars passing over the roads in the year, with an average
distance traveled of 9.8 miles, the automobile traffic represented
27,521 tons, or 271,511 ton-miles, a traffic equivalent to 29 per cent
of the net ton-mileage of products hauled. Thus in a strictly rural
county the motor traffic has already assumed striking proportions.

The total net ton-mileage on the bond-built roads, exclusive of
automobile traffic, the approximate cost of moving this tonnage before

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 27

and after the roads were improved, and the estimated annual saving,
are shown in Table 8.

TABLE 8.—Annual ton mileage and total saving on basis of tonnage hauled after road
improvement, for roads improved under the bond issue.

Average cost Total cost of
Esti- per ton-mile. hauling...
Tons mated | Average Estimated
Bond hauled | average | annual gross
Gens per | haulon ton- | Before| After | potore After annual
annum. |improved| miles. im- MES |e acre |Snapopie|| SEUabals
road. prove- | prove- eae ahaa
ment. | ment.
Miles. Cents. | Cents.
Courthouse.---.....-.- 59, 460 10.00} 594,600) 30 13 |$178, 380. 00|$77, 298. 00)$101, 082. 00
Pipi jo Ae eRe 32, 266 8.00] 258, 128 30| 15 | 77,438.40] 38,719.20] 38,719. 20
HAI Ole eee ace cceicnie ae 22, 931 3.00 68, 793 30 15 20, 637.90] 10,318.95} 10,318.95
Total and average. . 114, 657 18.03 921, 521 30} 113.7) 276, 456. 3013, 336. 15} 150, 120.15

1 Weighted average.

The total tonnage figures for the Courthouse and Plank Roads are
the same as those given in the traflic census table (Table 7), but the
average haul given is for the improved roads only.

The saving in hauling costs appears to be about 16.3 cents per ton-
mile, or a total of $150,120.15 annually. If from this is deducted
$7,800, the present cost of maintenance, and $8,650, the annual
interest charges on the total bond issue, this would still leave a total
annual saving of $130,670.15, or an average net saving of 14.2 cents
per ton-mile.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON SCHOOLS.

The superintendent of schools reports a distinct increase in average
attendance where the schools are located on improved roads. The
percentage of attendance for certain schools located on road improved
since 1910 is shown in Table 9.

TABLE 9.—Percentage of attendance based upon total enrollment of rural schools in
Spotsylvania County located on roads improved since 1910.

ie
School term. Percentage

of increase

Name of school. 1909=10 to

1909-10 1913-14 1913-14.
- Per cent. | Per cent.

GC as eel pee meyspaee Ts ot A bie ea W ee, CADRE MAWES eed Be Re VEE 50 82 64
BPE An UL ase et ee as Mra sie ea ra) ae mt ean NC at <V L aaases eee 30 Ra 74 81 9
RC VUE EVOL See a see role a are eS pee Ee SR Ld I ere Sete LB eS 67 7a 12
IWS BYORI eS RS OLE HUSA lay ea ete EI en SU eae 57 71 24
SUG UIP re Rees ee See min ane ta aS DN the A Se ke, 64 80 25
ISOLOREGISCHO Ole eee ers ere Rico Pa ose cae ie ie re oe Se came 41 67 63
Grange Hall, now Chancellor graded school !.........-....-.--..-------- 47 81 72
DALY OL ADO eee RR age eS Aaa aS Se 2 ORS SN ena Slr s 57 77 38

1 This school, with two others, was consolidated into a modern 4-room building i in 1912, and the figures

above for 1913-14 are given for the Chancellor graded school at the Grange Hall site.

28 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The figures given for the school term 1909-10 represent the per-
centage of attendance before the roads were improved and for
1913-14, since the roads were improved. The percentage of increase
ranges from 9 to 72, and averages 38. The average attendance before
the roads were improved was 57 per cent and in 1913-14, 77 per cent.

A consolidated school has also been established at Spotsylvania
Court House, to take the place of the old school building located at
that place (see Pl. VI). In 1912 there was a consolidation of several
small one-room schools into one graded schocl on the Finchville road.
It is evident that the improved roads have largely influenced the
increased school attendance and the better educational facilities now
offered to the country boys and girls of Spotsylvania County.

DINWIDDIE COUNTY.

Road improvement was begun in Dinwiddie County in 1908-9
through the construction of 9? miles of gravel road under the direc-
tion of the State highway department. On this road the county
spent $12,606.76 and the State furnished convicts to the extent of-
7,919 convict days at an actual cost to the State of 72 cents per
convict day. This improvement caused the people to realize the vast
difference between a good road and a bad road, and as a result an
election was held in 1909 and the four districts of the county were
bonded to the amount of $105,000.

In order to trace the results obtained through the expenditure of
the bond issue, our economic investigations were begun in March,
1910, and subsequent studies were made in March, 1911, March, 1912,
April, 1913, and February, 1914.

Dinwiddie County, it might be mentioned, is situated at the head
of tidewater between the Appomattox and Nottoway Rivers, 22 miles
south of Richmond, and has an area of 521 square miles, with a sur-
face varying from gently rolling to level. Of the total area 79.8 per
cent was in farms in 1910, but only 37.6 per cent of the farm area was
improved. The principal crops are tobacco, peanuts, hay, grain, and
vegetables. There are several large tracts of first and second growth
timber and several sawmills are in operation.

:
HOW THE IMPROVEMENT WAS FINANCED.

Of the $105,000 of bonds voted, $30,000 was charged to Namozine
District, $22,500 to Rowanty District, $27,500 to Darvills District,
and $25,000 to Sapony District, and these amounts were expended
accordingly in the respective districts. 'The bonds all run 80 years,
but are redeemable in 20 years. Of the first bonds sold in June,1909,
$10,000 bear 5 per cent interest and $30,000 6 per cent interest, the
latter selling at a premium of $3 on the hundred. The remaining
$65,000 were disposed of in 1910 and bear 6 per cent interest. If the

_

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 29

deferred serial method, with the first bonds falling due 6 years from
date of issue and the last bonds 25 years from date of issue, had been
adopted, the average annual outlay for interest and retirement of
bonds would be $8,044. Under the arrangement actually adopted it
is planned that the sinking fund is to bear 4 per cent interest and the
annual outlay, if adequate provision is made for sinking fund and
interest to retire the bonds at the end of the twenty-fifth year, would
be $8,721.26. Thus the difference in favor of the serial method would
be $677.24 per annum, or a total of $16,931, and the debt would
be liquidated within the same period of years under either plan.

The total expenditure from the bond fund to September 30, 1915,
was $86,203.41, leaving a balance in the bond fund of $18,296.59,
which was deposited in banks at an interest rate of 4 per cent. It
seems that the county sold most of the bonds before the money was
actually needed, and accordingly the unexpended balance cost the
taxpayers nearly 2 per cent interest over and above the rate allowed
by the banks. If the bonds had been sold as needed, a saving of some
thousands of dollars possibly might have been effected.

As indicating the relation which the tax burden for roads and for
the bond issues bears to the taxes for other purposes, the details are
given in Table 10.

TABLE 10.—Detail of tax rates, 1910 and 1915.

Rates in cents

per $100.
Purpose.
1910 1915
SUSIE UES cae DS See aes Soe ee es oe ee, pe Senet aes rare 8 ae a! 35 10
BeHCERCOLEEAVEDUBDOSCS een aa ie sec c ne oe eee aoe apie oe eee ee aoe sanne eeeeaae nae tee cues 20 30
WOOEHEVESEHOOLSt EE S-f-t5 0b S8 oe An cn ec See aL owe nana Sede feos e noon came Se hey 29 25
County roads....... {SERS Ee eon gee ae U se ces Aesop eee B oo B aie oH eeE Sao SE eee UEE ee tes en seas aree 20 20
EGACUHG Steen 2 aL pists: Shs. pe Sak pes piss Nees he we eae eS ol ihe ls 2 10
LD UST HELGIE STAT Ss Sek A eR ie i NS a A ME a aah A 20 20
SWPEGG) TCE Se Se CBOE BBC Eee ae CORE ee ae soe ee es Ege a Ca aan eee aM Re neers 5 5
UN fl ys ee eens 68 neg Or eee ie of eee et an mea ae eR f. POE are, Ee Oe ey am tae 120 120

From this levy there was obtained in 1910 from the assessed
valuation of $4,428,584 a total revenue of about $53,143, of which
about $8,857, or 16.6 per cent, was for county roads. No tax was
levied in that year for the road bonds. The 1915 levy on the taxable
valuation of $5,985,140 produced $71,861.28 for all purposes, of which
$11,970.28, or 16.6 per cent, was for county roads and $5,985.14, or
8.3 per cent, was for interest and sinking fund on road bonds. This
amount was insufficient to pay the interest on the road bonds, amount-
ing to $6,200, but the difference was made up by the 4 per cent
obtained from the banks on cash balances of bonds sold. No pro-
vision has yet been made for the establishment of a sinking fund, and
it must be evident that if the bonds are to be paid at maturity, such

30 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

provision should soon be made or else some relatively heavy taxes
must be levied at no very distant date. If the necessary tax were
levied from the outset only 15 cents on the hundred dollars would
be required, but the longer this is delayed the greater the burden
ultimately. While this county may make adequate provision in good
time to care for its bonded indebtedness, the fact must not be over-
looked that the sinking-fund method offers a temptation to keep put-
ting off the day of reckoning, thus making necessary either the leyy-
ing of heavy taxes at a time when the people have become accustomed
to improved roads and a low rate, or, if the heavy taxes are not levied,
the county must then face the necessity for refunding bonds. In this
particular county the tax rate for the bonds was 15 cents on the
hundred dollars in 1911, and the rate was reduced in 1912 to 10 cents
and has remained at that figure since. The rate was cut down in
order to provide revenue for a. jail and for a steel index file without
materially increasing the total rate for the county.

In connection with funds provided from the bond issues aid has
been granted by the State in the form of convict labor, the State
paying for guarding, clothing, feeding, and housing the convicts,
while the county pays for their medical attention. One reason for
the seemingly slow rate of expenditure of the bond issues by the
county is the fact that all of the construction work is performed by
the convict force, and the mileage completed each year is therefore
limited by the constructive capacity of that force. From June, 1909,
to September 30, 1915, the State’ had furnished 67,736.5 convite
labor days, which had cost the State an average of $0.5468 per day,
or about $37,038.32. No money aid was granted by the State, as
the State does not grant both convict and money aid to the same
county during the same year. In measuring the results obtained for
the given outlay it must be borne in mind that these results were not
obtaimed by the bond issue alone, but that on the final showing the
State will have paid nearly one-third of the cost, and, considering
further that the convict labor is relatively cheaper-than free labor,
much of the credit for low cost of construction must go to the conyvict-
labor plan rather than to other phases of the financing or manage-
ment of the work.

HOW THE WORK WAS MANAGED.

The roads were built according to plans and specifications furnished
by the State highway department and under the immediate direction
of a superintendent selected by the State highway department and
paid by the county from the bond-issue funds. ‘The superintendent
received a salary of from $75 to $100 per month, and reported both
to the county road board, which has charge of all road work in the
county, and to the State highway department. The rozd board con-

iii tsa os

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 31

sists of 5 members, 1 from each district and 1 from the county at large.
Previous to 1912 the members of this board were designated by the
circuit court judge. Since that time the positions have been elective.
The salary of the members is $40 per annum each, except the secre-
tary, who receives $65 per annum. In addition to the salary mem-
bers recetve $2 per day for inspection, not to exceed $10 per annum
for each district. The total salaries and expenses of the board are
therefore about $265 per annum.

There were 102.5 miles of road designated for improvement in the
order of election issued by the judge of the circuit court. Namozine
district was to have 30 miles; Rowanty district, 22.5 miles; Sapony
district, 23 miles; and Darvills-district, 27 miles. The work was
begun on June 16, 1909, and is still in progress. The county has 524
miles of public road, of which 91.31 miles have been surfaced from
the bond-issue funds, which, added to the 9.75 miles previously con-
structed, make 101.06 miles, or 19.3 per cent of the total mileage
surfaced. (Pl. VIII.) Of the 91.31 miles, 81.1 miles were con-
structed with the aid of State convicts and 10.2 miles without convicts.
The 81.1 miles cost $68,490.72 in cash and 67,736.5 convict days.
The cost of guarding, clothing, and food for convicts was paid by the
State at an average of $0.5468 per convict working day, or a total of
$37,038.32. The actual cost to the county was therefore $844 per
mile, and, including convict labor, the average cost was $1,301.22
per mile. The total cost of the 10.2 miles built without convicts was
$17,712.69, or an average of $1,736.53 per mile.
~ The roads were graded to an average width of 20 feet and were,
for the most part, surfaced to a width of from 12 to 14 feet with
top-soil, selected from near-by fields. The top-soil, which is a kind
of natural sand-clay or gravel-clay mixture, consisted for the most
part of clay naturally mixed with coarse sand or fine angular pebbles
of disintegrated granite. This material is fairly well distributed
throughout the county and in some cases was contributed free by
abutting property owners. In other cases, however, it was pur-
chased at 3 cents per cubic yard. Several sandy- roads were treated
with clay and several clay roads were treated with sand.

The county now has two surfaced roads radiating from Petersburg,
extending entirely across the county. The Boydton Plank Road
(Pl. VII, fig. 2, and Pl. X, fig. 2), 26.25 miles long, extends through
the center of the county in a southwesterly direction along the Sea-
board Air Line Railroad to the Brunswick County lme. The Cox
Road (Pl. IX, fig. 2), 32 miles long, extends through the northern
part of the county in a westerly direction along the Norfolk & Western
Railroad to the Nottoway County line. The Halifax Road has been
improved for 3 miles south of Petersburg. The Stage Road has been
improved for about 8 miles from the Nottoway River in a north-

32 - BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

easterly direction. The White Oak Road, about 15 miles of which
has been improved, opens up the territory lymg between the Cox
Road and the Boydton Plank Road. This road is to be finished
to the county line on the Nottoway River.

HOW THE ROADS ARE MAINTAINED.

The roads have not been systematically maintained, and while
many sections are in excellent condition, other sections showed signs
of wear and disintegration at the time of the 1915 inspection.

The condition of some of the roads before and after improvement
is shown by the accompanying photographs. (Pls. VII and IX.)
When the first inspection was made, during the latter part of March,
1910, the roads were practically impassable. The first year after
construction the roads were more or less soft, but after the surplus
clay had been leached out they became fairly hard and firm, even in
wet weather.

The county road fund amounted to about $12,000 in 1915, of which
one-half is devoted to permanent work and one-half to maimtenance.
Six thousand dollars spread out over the whole mileage of the county
amounts to only about $11 per mile for maintenance, which is entirely
inadequate. This work is carried on under the general direction of
the county road board and under the immediate direction of the
county superintendent of roads. The maintenance work is done by
three small gangs of 5 or 6 men each, and a total of 6 mules for the
three gangs. These gangs are principally engaged in cleaning out
ditches, dragging, and patch work.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON LAND VALUES.

The following table shows the assessed valuation of real and per-
sonal property and public service corporations for 1905, 1910, and
1915, exclusive of Petersburg, which is not assessed for improve-
ments outside of its corporate limits. Property is assessed at about
one-third of its cash value. According to law it should be assessed
at its ‘‘fair market value.”

TABLE 11.—Detail of assessed valuation 1905, 1910, and 1915.

yeas 1|u ‘ Public

ee ea. Persona inera. service

pear. estate. property. lands. corpora- Toul:
tions.

Wo Hos 52 SAGE Cee Rc eSE tess wae apn eis $1, 652, 881 $484, 829 |..-...-.-- $1,091,523 | $3, 229, 233

TO SRS SSB Manes EEE BE aera ere N ae ere iene 2,071, 249 757,955 | $39,160 | 1,560, 220 4, 428, 584

HAG EAS Sa a ec as 2S a EE 2,855, 343 | 11,068, 820 |..-.-...-- 2,065, 977 5, 985, 140

1 Including tangible and intangible personal property and money as assessed under new tax law.

~

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 33

It will be-seen from Table 11 that while the assessed values of real
estate increased 25.3 per cent from 1905 to 1910, before the roads were
improved, it increased 37.8 per cent from 1910 to 1915, the period
which covers the improvement of the roads. In making the assess-
ments for 1915 the assessors established a general rule of assessing
all lands on the improved roads at a higher rate than those farther
back; in fact, three zones were established on which land assess-
ments were based. The first zone included all land abutting on or
immediately contiguous to the improved roads; the second zone
included all lands within easy hauling distance of the improved roads;
-. and the third zone included all other land. The lands in the first
zone were assessed at the highest rate, those in the second zone at
about one-third less, and those in the third zone at about one-half
of the first zone. By this arrangement those who own land on or
near the improved roads and who receive the greatest benefit from
them pay relatively more taxes than those who live on the unim-
proved roads.

That the increase in assessed value does not constitute a fictitious
value, but an actual increase in value, is borne out by the records
of sales. The actual value or selling price of land has greatly
increased since 1909. This is attributed largely to the saving in
cost of haulmg and to the easier access of farms to markets and
shipping points. The average value of 43 farms sold or offered for
sale from 1909 to 1914 ranged from $8.38 to $43.74 per acre before
the roads were built and from $24.70 to $73.60 per acre after the
roads were improved. Our investigations brought out the fact
that the farther away from town on the improved roads the land les
the greater the percentage of increase in value. Within 5 miles the
percentage of increase was only 68.3; from 5 to 10 miles out the per-
centage of increase was 96.7, and from 10 to 24 miles out of Peters-
burg the percentage -of increase averaged 194.9. Details regarding
the 43 tracts above referred to are given in Table 12.

TABLE 12.—Increase in land values. ,

+ Number y
eee ot miles Old value | New value| Increase rer cent
F om. per acre. per acre. per acre. | of increase.
considered. Petersburg.
iz 5 | 5 and less. $43. 74 $73. 60 $29. 86 SERS
22 5 to 10 15. 25 30. 00 14.75 96.7
16 10 to 24 8:38 24.70 16. 32 194.9

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON TRAFFIC.

The dairy and truck industries were profitably carried on before

the roads were improved for a distance of only about 3 miles out

_ from Petersburg, the principal market town. Petersburg is located
47234°— Bull. 393—16——3

-

34 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in the northeastern corner of the county, and considering it as the
center of a traffic area, bounded by a circle with a radius of approxi-
mately 3 miles and a total area of approximately 28 miles, the
portion of the area in Dinwiddie County, comprising one-fourth of
the total, would be about 7 square miles. After the roads were
improved it was practicable to conduct dairy and truck industries
for a distance of 6 or 7 miles from Petersburg, and thus the radius
was lengthened to 7 miles and that portion of the traffic area located
in Dinwiddie County was increased to a total of 38.4 square miles,
or an increase over the original traffic area of 31.4 square miles.

In arriving at the total tonnage hauled on the improved roads, it
was ascertained that about 232,000 bushels of peanuts are produced
annually in the county, and about 70 per cent of the crop is hauled
to Petersburg by wagon, an average distance of about 10 miles.
There are also produced in the county about 3,368,000 pounds of
tobacco a year, of which about 80 per cent is hauled to Petersburg
by wagon, an average distance of about 15 miles. These two crops
require considerable fertilizer, which is hauled from Petersburg to
the farm. As an indication of the volume of traffic it may be men-
tioned that the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad at Petersburg handled
outgoing shipments in 1911 amounting to 25,364 tons, and it is esti-
mated that this railroad carried about one-third of the incoming and
outgoing shipments at Petersburg. Not more than one-half of the
incoming and outgoing shipments at this point, however, pass over
the improved roads of Dinwiddie County, as the other half originates
in or is consigned to Petersburg and to the adjacent counties of Ches-
terfield and Prince George. It is estimated that in addition to the
traffic centering at Petersburg, about 60,000 tons of miscellaneous
and forest products are hauled to way stations over the improved
roads for an average distance of about 5 miles.

In order to obtain further data on which to estimate the total
annual traffic passing over the bond-built roads to the market or
shipping point at Petersburg, four traffic censuses were taken on
the Halifax and Cox Roads, covering a period of one year. Practi-
cally all the hauling from Dinwiddie County to Petersburg concen-
trates on these two roads within 2 miles from town. The census
on the Cox Road was obtained about 12 miles from Petersburg and
on the Halifax road about 1 mile from Petersburg. The census
periods included a week in March, a week in July, two weeks in
December, 1914, and a week in April, 1915. The weekly census
included Sundays, and the two weeks’ census excluded Sundays.
Table 13 is based on the results of these censuses.

ti,

- ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 385

TABLE 13.— Traffic census.

Average
Average | Average | Average | Average
Re icine Poni number | number | _ tons tons Seles Annual a au
Z ofteams | ofloads | hauled | hauled | 9¢p 5-71 ton-miles. | O00,
daily. | daily. | per day. | per year. : Mere ee
3 aily.
ieterinimmaneny 82 2 2 eet ORE 148 70 48.14 | 15, 002.6 210 150, 026 70
Coxpeeereeae se led e. uae. 240 Uisi7/ 156.46 | 48, 813.4 218.3 895, 343 72
Totalsfor Cox and Hali-
faxs OAS ao 52 2 2c\o5. 388 207 204.6 | 63, 815.0 216.4 | 1,045, 369 142
1 Average haul includes unimproved roads. 2 Weighted average.

From Table 13 it will be seen that the total traffic on the Cox and
Halifax Roads is estimated at 63,815 tons, that the average haul for
the two roads is 16.4 miles, and that the average annual ton-miles
is 1,045,369. With the 60,000 tons of miscellaneous and forest
“alas hauled to way stations over bond-built roads an average
distance of about 5 miles, or a total of 300,000 ton-miles, the esti-
mated total traffic for ae county is 1,345,369 ton-miles per annum.
The traffic area for the improved roads includes about 80 per cent
of the land area of the county, or about 266,752 acres. The tonnage
produced and hauled over the roads, therefore, amounts to a little
over one-fourth of a ton to the acre.

The average haul on the bond-built portion of the Halifax Road is
3 miles, which for 15,002 tons makes 45,006 ton-miles, and on the
Cox Road about 10 miles, which for 48,813 tons makes 488,130 ton-
miles. By adding the 300,000 ton-miles of forest and miscellaneous
products hauled over the bond-built roads to local shipping stations,
a grand total traffic for the bond-built roads of 833,136 ton-miles is -.
secured.

In ascertaining the tonnage and ton-mileage for the improved
roads, no computation was made of the motor traffic, except to count
the number of motor vehicles, which averaged 142 per day, but it may
be of interest to note in this connection that on a tonnage ‘basis,
assuming an average weight of 1.45 tons, and an average number of
51,830 motor vehicles passing over the roads in a year an average
distance of 6.2 miles, the automobile traffic represents 75,155 tons,
or 465,952 ton-miles, while in number of vehicles it would represent
27 per cent of the annual total of all vehicles.

ESTIMATED ANNUAL SAVING ON HAULING COST.

The average load for a double team on the old roads was about
2,000 pounds, and on the new roads about 3,200 pounds, although
much larger loads wefe by no means uncommon. (PI. X, fig. 1.)
The average haul for a double team on the old roads was about 10
miles, and on the new roads about 12.5 miles. The average cost of

36 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

team and driver was about $3 per day. On this basis the cost of
hauling per ton-mile on the old roads was approximately $0.30 and
on the new roads $0.15. A saving of $0.15 per ton-mile on 833,136
annual ton-miles amounts to $124,970, which would be more than
sufficient to retire the bonds in one year.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON SCHOOLS.

One of the most important results attendant upon the improve-
ment of the public roads in Dinwiddie County was the increase in
attendance at the schools located on the improved roads. It was
ascertained that during the school year 1912-13 the average attend-
ance at 13 schools on the improved roads was 63.4 per cent of the total
enrollment, and that the average attendance at all other rural schools
in the county for the same year was 56 per cent. If the improved
roads serve no other purpose than to equip with an adequate primary
education 7- or 8 additional children each year out of each 100 enrolled
the building of the roads would be justified.

Not onty was the county school system affected through increased
attendance, but also through the erection of larger school buildings
(see Pl. XI, fig. 1) and the consolidation of small schools, while a
particularly striking feature of the present school system is the trans-
portation of the children to and from school. In 1914 several school
wagons were in use, at an expense of about $306 per annum for the
operation of each wagon with a capacity of 20 passengers. (See PI.
XI, fig. 2.) About one-eighth of the children who attend school at
Petersburg live in the surrounding country districts, some of them

as far as 6 or 8 miles from town.

LEE COUNTY, VA.

Road improvement began in Lee County in 1908 through the con-
struction of a road between Jonesville and Ben Hur, a distance of 5.6
miles. This, the first improved road in the county, was completed in
1910. The work was carried on under the direction of a resident
engineer from the State highway department, labor was performed
by State convicts, and the funds were raised by private subscription.
The average cost of the road was $4,203.68 per mile. Convict labor
was furnished by the State to the extent of 10,035 convict working
days, at a cost of 67 cents per day. The road was graded to a width
of 30 feet, surfaced with macadam to a width of 12 feet, and a thick-
ness of 6 to 7 inches consolidated. :

The road served as a most successful object lesson to the people of
the county, and the result was the voting of $364,000 of bonds on
November 29, 1910, for the purpose of improving approximately
165.5 miles of road.

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 37

The county is located in the extreme southwestern corner of the
State, at the eastern base of the Cumberland Mountains, and has an
area of 433 square miles. The topography varies from gently rolling
to mountainous. The county is well watered by mountain streams
and the soil is very fertile. About half of the area of the county is in
cultivation and produces good crops of wheat, oats, corn, rye, pota-
toes, sorghum cane, hay, fruits, ete. Much of the land formerly
devoted to the production of grain has, in recent years, been converted
into grazing land, and cattle are now fattened for export on the blue-
grass pastures without grain feeding. There are several tracts of
standing timber.

The population in 1910 was 23,840. There are no cities or large
towns in the county, and the county seat, Jonesville, is 5.6 miles from
Ben Hur, the nearest railroad station.

As the bonds were voted late in 1910, the economic studies were
begun in March, 1911, and continued in March, 1912, May, 1913,
and May, 1914.

HOW THE IMPROVEMENT WAS FINANCED.

The bonds were issued by districts as follows:

Rasephinl: disthet 4-4-he -= Sa deameen nares Sackee sn wo Hap $65, 000
area MU AES Ghd Oa, fe ee ee ae oe RS ah ee 89, 000
emp aS ONE, OUSRIN baie os rac oe asm mw w= Sate mows = epee oan oie 100, 000
Pema taro isttiCh sts. htc eee ate se lea heen pene 110, 000

ANG 1 eet a Ne ae anion La Ue LS aeenay Soo A ae oe 364, 000

As the bond election failed to carry in White Shoals district, no
bonds were chargeable to that district. 'Thebondswere dated January
2, 1911, carried 54 per cent interest, and were sold at a premium of
2 per cent, which amounted to $7,280. The deferred serial method
was followed, and the bonds were made payable as follows: January
1, 1916, $14,000; January 1, 1917, and thereafter to January 1, 1930,
$15,000; January 1, 1931, to January 1, 1937, $20,000. An annual
tax levy to pay interest on the bonds and retire $14,000 on January
1, 1916, should raise $114,100 during 1911 to 1915, inclusive, or an
average of $22,820 per annum. Thereafter to pay interest and
$15,000 each year there would be required an average of $28,887.50
per annum to January 1, 1930, and an average of $24,460 per annum
after that date for seven annual payments of $20,000 each and
interest. An examination of the steps already taken for the pay-
ment of interest and principal shows that the $14,000 due January
1, 1916, has been paid and that the present rate of taxation appears
to be sufficient to pay imterest and the annual payments on prin-
cipal as they become due. In 1913. the rates for these purposes
were 65 cents in Rose Hill, Rocky Station, and Yokum Station dis-
tricts, and 75 cents in Jonesville district, and produced about $28,200.

=

38 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In 1915 the rates were 75 cents in Rose Hill, 90 cents in Jonesville,
80 cents in Rocky Station, and 60 cents in Yokum Station, and pro-
duced about $37,000. This is about $10,000 per annum more than is
needed for the first issue of $364,000, but will be required to pay
interest and create a a fund for the $91,000 smking-fund bonds
subsequently issued.

While it is true, therefore, that the county adopted the most ap-
proved method of fuemerne its road improvement so far as the first
issue is concerned, it seems that it will have to carry a rather heavy
tax burden. Applying this, however, to an individual case, it may
be stated that a man owning a $5,000 farm assessed at $2,000, a fair
example of the prevailing practice, would pay, on the basis of the
1915 rate of $1.96 for all purposes, State, county, and road bonds, a
total of $39.20, of which 61 cents of the rate, or $12.20 total, would
apply to the road bonds.

In 1913 additional 5 per cent bonds, to the extent of $60,000 for
Rocky Station District and $16,000 for Rose Hill District, were
issued on the sinking-fund basis, bearing interest at 5 per cent. In
the fall of 1915 Rose Hill District issued $15,000 additional bonds.
The sinking-fund method, as has been pointed out elsewhere in this
bulletin, invariably proves more expensive than the serial method,
except in those very rare cases where the sinking fund yields as large
interest return as the interest payable on the bonds. The total of
all bonds issued by the county was $455,000, which, with premiums,
yielded a total of $464,560. This is the only bonded indebtedness of
the county except $11,000 of short-term bonds for two high schools.
A striking illustration of the disadvantage incident to the issuance of
bonds by districts rather than by counties is brought out by the
experience of Lee County. White Shoals District, in which no bonds
were issued (see Pl. XIII), extends entirely across the county, separat-
ing the improved roads of Rose Hill District, located in the south-
west: corner of the county, from the improved roads in the other
parts of the county, thus imposing considerable inconvenience on
other neighborhoods of the county, whereas if the county as a whole
were handling the project the improvement could be systematically
conducted. It is explained that the opposition in White Shoals
District to the voting of bonds is due to the fact that convicts are
not yet available for work in that district and that as soon as such
aid is available the district will probably take up the work.

A comparison of taxation between the years 1910 and 1915 reveals
the fact that while the total tax rate for all county purposes in 1910
averaged $1.05, or, including the State tax, $1.40, the rate had
increased in 1915 to an average of $1.86 for all county purposes and
$1.96 for all county and State purposes, a total tax-rate increase of
40 per cent, while the 61-cent average for road bonds was an entirely

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 39

new item in 1915. The county roads, the district roads, and the
road bonds jointly required $1.11, or 59.7 per cent of the county rate,
or 56.6 per cent of the total for all purposes. This average rate for
road bonds is somewhat misleading, as the individual rates range
from a minimum of 60 cents in Yokum District to a maximum of
90 cents for Jonesville District. It may convey a more accurate con-
ception of the situation, therefore, if the statement is made that the
taxpayer in Jonesville District pays a total of $2.25 on the hundred
dollars of valuation for all purposes, of which 40 per cent is for the
road bonds, this being the highest tax rate in the county. The re-
duction in the State tax for 1915 to 10 cents is partially offset by
other forms of State tax on railroads, on cash in banks, on notes,
bonds, and certain other intangible property. There was obtained
from the assessed valuation of $4,689,205 in 1910 about $65,600, while
from the assessed valuation of $4,973,457 in 1915 there was obtained
about $97,500. Thus in spite of the improvement in the roads very
‘little increase in the assessed valuation took place, and only by a
marked increase of the tax rate was it possible to produce adequate
revenue. This county, therefore, affords a striking exception to the
general rule that improved roads bring about increase in assessed

valuations.
} HOW THE WORK WAS MANAGED.

The routes were selected and the number of miles to be improved —
and the amount to be expended determined without first obtaiming
engineering inspection and advice. This may account for the fact
that the mileage of roads set forth in the order of election was greater
than could be improved with the funds derived from the bond issue.
This discrepancy between promise and fulfillment caused a consid-
erable amount of dissatisfaction, and the experience of this county
demonstrates the necessity for obtaining competent engineering
advice before launching upon extensive road improvement. As
pomted out elsewhere in this bulletin, legislation has recently been
enacted in Virginia requiring inspection and preliminary estimates
by the State highway department before bond élections can be held.

The general scheme of improvement was to construct two main
roads extending through the county, with branch roads from the
farming communities, ae as White Shoals District failed to vote in
favor of the bonds it was not possible to carry out the plan for two
main roads. Less than 60 per cent of the roads originally provided
for in the order of election have been improved. One road 20 miles
in length, from Rose Hill to Cumberland Gap, and another road 8 .
miles in length, from Ben Hur to St. Charles, have been graded and
macadamized. Three other roads, aggregating 224 miles in length,
have been graded. A number of short sections in various parts of

40 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. -

the county have been improved by grading or have been graded and
macadamized. Several of these short sections do not connect with
other improved roads, and this fact, together with the failure of
White Shoals District to vote the bonds, gives the county a rather
disconnected system of roads, as shown by the map (Pl. XID.
Examples of contrasts on the Powells Valley roads are shown in
Plate XV.

The roads were constructed according to plans and specifications
furnished by the State highway dee ee ty. and this work, as well
as the supervision and inspection of construction, was poriomabd by
a county engineer selected by the State highway department. His
salary of $2,000, however, was paid by the county out of the funds
derived from the bond issues. All contracts were let by the State
highway department and the county board. ee supervisors, acting
jointly.

The board of supervisors consists of five members—one for each
district. They are selected by the people for terms of 4 years, and
receive $4 per diem for time actually employed, not to exceed 20

days per annum. ‘There is one road superintendent in each district,

appointed by the board of county supervisors. The road superin-
tendents have charge of repairs and maintenance, and receive about
$100 per annum each. Im the case of new construction, special
‘ superintendents are appointed, and receive from $2.50 to $3 per day.

According to information obtained from the State highway depart-
ment, it is Peed that there are about 450 miles of road in the
county, of which 39.26 miles, or 8.7 per cent, were graded and mac-
adamized under the bond issue to: October 1, 1915. In addition to
this there were 60.19 miles graded but not macadamized, making
a total of 99.45 miles, or about 22 per cent, graded and partly
macadamized under the bond issue, with State aid in certain cases in
the form of convict labor. Of the total mileage improved, 69.70
miles were constructed entirely out of bond-issue funds, but under
the plan of State aid in effect in Virginia the county will ultimately
be reimbursed to the extent of one-half of the cost of these roads.
In building 29.75 miles, a total of 39,953.75 convict-labor days were
contributed by the State at an average cost of 53 cents per day, or a
total of $21,175.48. The ‘cash expenditure by the county on these
roads was $75,149.24, thus making the average cost of the convict-
built roads $3,237.79 per mile. Of the roads built with free labor,
16.63 miles were macadamized, and of the roads built with convict
labor 22.63 miles were macadamized, but unfortunately no segrega-
tion is available of detailed cost of the macadamized roads and those
which were merely graded. However, as an indication of these
relative costs, it was ascertained that 10.5 miles graded and mac-

— - ="

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 41

adamized under the money-aid plan cost an average of $6,303.52
per mile, and that 47.25 miles graded but not macadamized cost
$3,248.83 per mile. On this basis the grading cost about 52 per
cent and the macadam about 48 per cent. The transformation
wrought by the new construction is strikingly shown in Plates XII
and XIV.
HOW THE ROADS ARE MAINTAINED.

The improved roads of Lee County are not systematically main-
tained, and:they are beginning to show signs of wear. A little
work is done now and then in cleaning out ditches and opening up
culverts under the direction of the district road superintendents.
A 3-mile section of the road from Ben Hur to Jonesville was resur-
faced in 1914 at a cost of $2,500, paid from the bond-issue fund.
This road was scarified and resurfaced with No. 2 stone and screen-
ings, sprinkled and rolled down, and is now in very good condition.
The balance of the road is badly worn and should be resurfaced as
soon as possible. This is the only extensive repair work that has
been done.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON LAND VALUES.

Since changes in assessed valuation between 1910 and 1915, as
pointed out elsewhere in this chapter, have been comparatively slight,
it would appear, if such a standard indication were accepted, that
the improved roads have not produced greater property values in
the county. Personal inspection and inquiry in 1911, however, relat-
ing to 32 distinct farms, indicated an average value on the roads
selected for improvement of $40 per acre, while the lands along the
cross-country roads averaged about $25 per acre. Lands along the
Ben Hur-Jonesville road, the only one improved up to that time,
averaged about $100 per acre, and it was ascertained that the average
before the improvement was about $25 to $35 per acre.

In the 1913 study it was found that the average value of seven
tracts of land selected at random on the improved roads, containing
a total of 1,289 acres, was $75 per acre, showing an increase in the
two years preceding of about 80 per cent. One case deserves special
mention as illustrating the effect of road improvement on land values.
A tract containing 109 acres on the road between Ben Hur and
Jonesville was sold before that road was improved for $4,500, but the
purchaser failed to take the land, claiming that the price was exor-
bitant. This same land sold in 1911, after the road was finished, for
$9,000, a gain of 100 per cent over the supposed exorbitant price.

42 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE 14.— Values or sale price per acre.

1911, before] 1912, after || 1911, peters 1912, after
improve- improve- improve- improve-
ment. ment. ment. ment.
$50 $80 $30 $40

80 40
20 42 40 75
30 50

Table 14 shows the approximate land values of eight tracts in the
Powell Valley along the roads before and after improvement and
that these properties increased about $23 per acre, or about 70 per
cent. If all of the improved farm land in the county within one-half
mile of the improved roads increased in value at the same rate as the
Powell Valley lands above referred to, the total increase would
amount to $860,940.

The foregoing examples, showing that there has been a decided
increase in.the value of lands along the improved roads, are in
conflict with the record of assessed valuation.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON TRAFFIC.

This county has an excellent home market at the various mining
camps in the northern section of the county and in the adjacent
county of Wise, but does not begin to supply the demands of those
markets.

The traffic on the road connecting Jonesville, the county seat, with
Ben Hur, its railroad point, is about the heaviest in the county, and
represents about nine-tenths of the total freight receipts for shipment
over the Louisville & Nashville Railroad at Ben Hur. It consists
principally of coal and supplies hauled from the railroad station,
and timber and other forest products hauled to the station for
shipment.

The Tri-State Road, which extends from Cumberland Gap toward
Jonesville through Rose Hill, also has considerable traffic. The
hauling consists principally of foodstuffs from farms in the fertile
Powell Valley to the market in Cumberland Gap and Middlesboro,
Ky. The macadamizing of this road has opened up a large area
of the Powell Valley to the market in Middlesboro. Since this
road was completed there has been an increase of 25 per cent in the
number of buggies sold by the wagon factory in Cumberland Gap and
automobiles are being introduced into this section, which shows
that the people are finding the improved roads of social as well
as commercial benefit.

The road which connects Pennington Gap, the principal town
of the county, with the mining section at St. Charles is another
one of the principally traveled roads. Since the improvement several

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 43

hucksters in the county have established regular routes through the
farming sections and buy up chickens, eggs, butter, and other
products. These products are sold in the mining camps or hauled
to the railroad stations. In this way the farmers receive cash for
many perishable products which would otherwise be a total loss.

The improvement of the roads has brought about the shipment
of large quantities of tanbark, extract wood, and pulp wood hitherto
unprofitable. The teamsters in hauling lumber to Jonesville over
4 and 5 miles of earth roads, then on to Ben Hur over the macadam
road, can only haul a small load into Jonesville, return for a second
load, to which the first is added on reaching Jonesville, and then
haul both in one load over the improved road to Ben Hur. In
hauling coal from Ben Hur, two wagons are fastened together and
drawn by one team to the end of the improved road, then uncoupled
and hauled separately to their destination over the earth, roads.

There are 97 miles of railroad in the county, and as a basis tor
ascertaining the tonnage hauled over the public roads, the freight
shipments on the Louisville & Nashville Railroad at 11 stations
in the county were ascertained in 1914 to be 49,733.23 tons of out-
going freight and 16,211.37 tons of incoming freight, exclusive of
coal and iron ore, which do not pass over the public roads. From the
data thus obtained and from a study of the traffic areas served by the
roads, supplemented by actual observations of traffic, it has been
estimated that the annual traffic, not including live stock, on the
roads of the county in 1914 was as shown in Table 15.

TABLE 15.
Tons.
SE ePLGRUS DUOC TICES epee RS ECS PR Men ESTES RE ee re 28, 000
Farm and miscellaneous products hauled to the railroad station and mining
GIST GUS S at ie eee ou eg a Se Sr a aa aia oa eG eh mee 25, 565
Feed, fertilizer, coal, groceries, and miscellaneous products............---- 20, 630
"UNREAL Se a PRP Ng i cg i a ae pV Oe a aR A 74, 295

Of the total tonnage it is estimated that approximately 80 per
cent, or 59,436 tons, are hauled over the improved roads an average
distance of 5 miles, thus making the total annual ton-mileage on
the improved road system 297,180 ton-miles.

From numerous observations made in 1911, it was found that
the average load for a two-horse team before the roads were im-
proved was about 2,000 pounds in the summer and fall and about
800 to 1,000 pounds during the winter and spring, with an average
throughout the year of about 1,500 pounds. Most of the hauling
was done in the fall, so as to avoid bad roads during the winter and
spring.

As compared with the average load on the old road of 1,500 pounds,
the average on the improved road is about 4,000 pounds. The value

44 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of a two-horse team and driver has increased from $3 to $3.50 per
day in the past few years, due to the increased cost of feed.

Lumber is hauled into Pennington Gap 7 miles along the Dryden
Road, 700 feet b. m. to the load. This road is now graded and about
1 mile macadamized. ‘Two trips a day are now made by teamsters,
who receive $3 per 1,000 feet b. m., which is at the rate of 17 cents
per ton-mile.

Hauling costs on the old roads varied all the way from 40 to 80
cents per ton-mile. The ‘average cost per ton-mile for the cases
under observation was 25 cents on macadam, 40 cents on graded
roads, and 55 cents on the old roads. The saving is 30 cents on
macadam and 15 cents on graded roads, and an average of about
20 cents per ton-mile. The total annual saving by reason of the
improved roads would, therefore, be about $59,400.

An implement dealer at Jonesville reports that he gave $400
toward the building of the Ben Hur-Jonesville road four years ago
and that he is now saving that amount each year by the reduced
cost of hauling freight from Ben Hur. He paid for hauling freight
from 15 to 20 cents per hundredweight for a 5-mile haul over the old
road, which equals from 60 to 80 cents per ton-mile; on the improved
road, from 8 to 10 cents per hundredweight for a 5-mile haul, which
equals from 32 to 40 cents per ton-mile. For hauling coal,-10 cents
per bushel of 80 pounds for a 5-mile haul on the old road, which
equals 50 cents per ton-mile; on the improved road he paid 5 cents
per bushel of 80 pounds for a 5-mile haul, which equals 25 cents per
ton-mile

WISE COUNTY, VA.

Road improvement in Wise County was begun in 1910 through the
construction of 4.6 miles of macadam road under the supervision
the State highway department. As was the case in other counties,
the first example of good-road construction served as an object lesson
and created a strong sentiment for comprehensive road improvement
throughout the county. On November 22, 1910, a county bond issue
of $700,000 for grading and macadamizing 110 miles of road was
carried by a vote of 2,156 for the bonds to 176 against them. Unfortu-
nately, no preliminary surveys or engineering advice were obtained
upon which to base the program of construction outlined in the order
of election, and in consequence it was found, after the bonds had been
voted and surveys for actual construction made, that the routes set
forth in the order of election aggregated 125 miles instead of 110
miles, and that the cost of grading and macadamizing this mileage
would amount to more than $1,000,000 instead of the $700,000 which
the people had voted. This naturally caused some dissatisfaction
and required a change in policy. It was, therefore, decided to grade
the whole mileage and build permanent drainage structures, utilizing

pe ee ee See ee eS ae ree |

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 45

what was left of the bond issue to macadamize the most important
roads,

Following the first bond issue, two of the districts, Gladesville and
Richmond, voted $130,000 each in order to macadamize the roads
which had been graded and to build a few additional miles.

The economic conditions in Wise County are rather exceptional,
as the chief industry is coal mining; and the mineral lands, coal and
iron, constitute about half of the assessed valuation of the county.
' There are 34 coal-mining plants, employing in the ageregate about
9,000 men. Aégriculture is not extensively practiced, and the prod-
ucts, which are principally corn, oats, hay, potatoes, and sorghum
cane, are small in volume. Some orchard fruits are produced, and
dairying and poultry raising are engaged in on a small scale. The
county is well supplied with railroads, and as its principal output is
from the mines, comparatively little tonnage is hauled over the public
roads. The county, which has an area of 420 square miles, is quite
mountainous, and the soil is not productive, except at the bottom of
the narrow valleys along the streams. This rough topography causes
road construction to be very expensive, on account of heavy grading.
(See Pl. XVIII.) Moreover, a large portion of the surfacing material
must be transported by rail or by long wagon haul. The mining
interests are paying the larger part of the costs of the road system,
and in judging of the returns to the county from an economic stand-
point it-should be borne in mind that while the value of the road
system. to agriculture is slight, the corresponding burden upon agri-
cultural property, by reason of the help of the mining interests, is also
comparatively light.

The economic studies in Wise County were made during the months
of March, 1911, March, 1912, May, 1913, May, 1914, and a short study
in October, 1915.

HOW THE IMPROVEMENT WAS FINANCED.

The issue of county bonds dated February 1, 1911, brought a
premium of 2 per cent, while the two district bond issues dated March
1, 1913, were sold at par. Thus the total amount realized from the
hoses issues was $974,000.

All the bonds bear interest at the rate of 5 per cent, and are issued
for 30 years with options to retire at the end of 20 years. The law
provides that a levy of not to exceed 90 cents on the hundred dollars
shall be assessed for the purpose of paying interest and creating a
sinking fund to retire the bonds. The present tax for this purpose
is 45 cents for the $700,000 county bond issue and 20 and 25 cents,
respectively, for the district bonds in od and Gladesville
districts.

46 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ©

The board of county supervisors is authorized to create a sinking
fund and to apply any part or all to the purchase of any of the bonds
at any time. The county board is further authorized to lend upon
real estate security, the loan not to exceed 50 per cent of the assessed
value of such real estate, or deposit in bank at interest all accumu-
lations of money to the credit of the sinking fund. No sinking
funds have been so invested, as it is difficult to lend money on real
estate on a 50 per cent assessment basis, and for that reason the
board of supervisors expect to purchase and retire the bonds as fast
as money accumulates in the sinking fund, provided the bonds are on
the market at a price which would be advantageous to the county.
_ This method would be somewhat similar to the deferred serial method.

It must be borne in mind, however, that the holders of the bonds
might, up to the twentieth year, refuse to surrender them, and would
thus force the smking-fund method upon the county. This element
of uncertainty is the weakness of the retirement method as contrasted
with a regular deferred serial method.

On the basis of the 1915 assessment of $13,500,000, the $700,000 of
county bonds could be paid off in 25 years by an average tax rate of
36.7 cents per hundred dollars to be devoted to payment of interest
and retiring the bonds annually, and the total amount paid out would
be about $1,241,500 if $35,000 of the bonds are purchased at par each
year after the fifth year instead of establishing a sinking fund. Under
the sinking-fund plan, with sinking fund bearing 3 per cent and run-
ning 25 years, the total cost would be $1,354,988, or an average of
$54,199 per annum for interest and retirement. The total saving
by paying off the bonds instead of accumulating sinking fund would be
$113,488. The tax rate for the smking-fund plan would be 40 cents
on the present valuation as compared with 35.7 cents for the deferred
serial plan, or for buying up the bonds at par.

If the total bond issue of $960,000 were retired the twenty-fifth
year on the sinking-fund plan, with interest on sinking fund at 3 per
cent, the total cost would be $1,858,269. If the serial plan were
adopted with the first payment, beginning on the sixth year, and the
last payment the twenty-fifth year, the total cost would be $1,704,000,
thus showing a total saving by the deferred serial plan of $154,269,
as compared with the sinking-fund plan. Even if 4 per cent could be
realized on the sinking fund, there would still be a saving of $72,288.

The tax levies are fixed annually by the county board of super-
visors, and in order to provide for the county bond issue the board
levied a tax of 30 cents on the hundred dollars in 1910, but even
with this: additional burden the tax rate for local purposes was only
10 cents higher in 1910 than in 1905, as there was a reduction of 5
cents in the tax for general county purposes and a total elimimation
of the tax of 15 cents for district roads. Thus the total tax burdens

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 47

were $1.30 in 1905 and $1.40 in 1910. In 1915, however, the tax
rate had risen very materially, as the total tax averaged $1.65, in
addition to which a district tax was levied in Richmond and Glades-
ville districts of 20 and 25 cents, respectively, for road bonds, so
that in those two districts taxpayers were paying a total rate for
all purposes, State, county, and district, of $1.80 and $1.90, respec-
tively, of which the road bonds, the county roads, the district roads,
and the district road bonds taxes formed 55.5 and 57.8 per cent,
respectively. It is thus evident that the good roads carried with
them a material tax burden. Although about 65 per cent of the
taxes are paid by the public service and mining corporations, these
organizations were in favor of the bond issues for road improvement.
Itseems quite probable that the highest point of taxation has, however,
already been reached and that a slight reduction may be expected in
the future. The 10-cent special county road levy for 1915 was to
apply to the payment of an excess of about $57,000 in the cost of
the roads over and above the amount obtained from the bond issue.
A 20-cent tax was levied for this purpose in 1914, and it is expected
that this 1915 levy will be sufficient to retire all of the floating debts.
Averaging the rates for all purposes over the entire county, it appears
that while the average rate increased 25.7 per cent from 1910 to
1915 the receipts from taxation increased 55.3 per cent, or from a
total of about $154,600 in 1910 to a total of about $240,100 in 1915.
The road bonds required 33.8 per cent of all the receipts for local
purposes in 1915.

AID GRANTED BY STATE.

Under the Virginia law the State pays one-half of the cost of all
State-aid roads and provides that if the county issues bonds and
pays more than 50 per cent of the cost it shall be entitled to receive
an annual apportionment until the receipts from the State shall equal
50 per cent of the cost of improvements. Wise County is, therefore,
entitled to receive from the State one-half of the money expended
on this work, which half amounts to $515,789. , From 1910 to 1915,
inclusive, the county received from the State $40,904.

The State money aid is derived from an annual appropriation made
by the General Assembly of Virginia and apportioned among the
various counties on the basis of taxes paid by the counties to the
State. The automobile-license money is derived from the State
automobile-license fund and is apportioned among the various coun-
ties in the same manner as the State-aid money.!

The funds derived from these sources may be used toward paying
interest or retiring the bonds, for maintenance, or for construction

1 An act passed in 1916 by the legislature provides for the use of the automobile funds for maintenance
of State-aid roads.
a

48 _ BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of new roads. It is the present practice and intention of the county
authorities to use it for the building of new roads and in the main-
tenance of roads already constructed.

HOW THE WORK WAS MANAGED.

From July, 1911, when the first contracts were let, to September
30, 1915, a total of $1,031,578.54 was expended in the construction
of the improved roads. With this amount 144.52 miles of road were
graded, of which 78.47 miles were macadamized. Of the macadam
roads, 24.34 miles were surfaced with bituminous material. There
were also constructed 30 steel bridges and 95 concrete culverts. Of
the first bond issue of $700,000, about 76 per cent was spent for
orading, 3 per cent for bridges, and 21 per cent for macadamizing.
Nearly all of the two district bond issues, aggregating $260,000, was
spent for macadamizing roads previously graded. The cost of sur-
face treatment of 24.34 miles of macadam roads amounted to
$9,758.82, or $400.93 per mile. The roads were graded to a width
of from 16 to 18 feet, while the macadam surface varied from 9 to

12 feet. A good contrast between the old and the new roads is.

shown in Plate XVI.

It is estimated that there are about 300 miles of public road in
the county, of which 83.07 miles, or 27.6 per cent, have been macad-
amized. (See Plate XVII.) This includes 4.6 miles of State-aid
macadam. In addition to this, 66.05 miles have been graded under
the bond issue and 1.3 miles with local funds, making a total of 150.42
miles, or 48.6 per cent of the total, partially or wholly improved.

The State highway department furnished plans, specifications,
and estimates for the roads and supervised the actual construction,
but, as has been pointed out in connection with other county studies,
the State highway department was not called in to make any exam-
ination and estimate before the bonds were voted, and this absence
of competent advice was decidedly injurious to the county. The
immediate supervision of the work was intrusted to a county engineer
appointed by the board of supervisors with the approval of the State
highway department. His salary of $175 to $200 per month was
paid by the county out of the bond-issue funds.

The roads were built by contract awarded by the State pian
commission and the county board of supervisors under the unit-price
system, with the exception of some macadam surfacing under the
district bond issues where the work was done by force account.

The regular road work of the county is carried on by the district
road superintendents, under the general direction of the county
board of supervisors. The board consists of four members—one
_ for each district. They are elected by the people for 4-year terms

and receive $4 per day for time actually employed, not to exceed ~

:

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT... 49

30 days per annum. The district road superintendents, one for each
district, are appointed by the board of county supervisors for terms
of 2 years and receive $3.50 per day for time actually employed.
There are no toll roads.

HOW THE ROADS ARE MAINTAINED.

Very little has been done previous to the present season toward
the maintenance of the roads improved, except to keep ditches and
culverts open. The roads were beginning to show signs of wear and,
in 1915, 24 miles were surface-treated with bituminous material and
stone chips at a cost of about $400 per mile, paid from bond-issue
funds. About one-half gallon of bituminous material and 21 pounds
of screenings were used to the square yard. The roads which were
treated are the most heavily traveled roads of the county. This work
was done by the district superintendents under the general direc-
tion of the board of county supervisors.

The use of bond issue funds for maintenance is exceedingly unwise
as the debt outlives the temporary improvement by many years.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON LAND VALUES.

A comparison of assessed valuations brings out the fact that in
1910, the year in which the bonds were voted, the assessed valua-
tion was $11,011,788 and that in 1915 it had increased to $13,629,383,
a gain of $2,617,595, or 23.7 per cent. The mineral lands, which
formed 43.6 per cent of the total value of all property in 1915, showed
a decrease of 4 per cent in value, as some lands which were assessed
as mineral lands in 1910 were assessed as nonmineral lands in 1915,
and furthermore, the building of the improved roads would naturally
have a comparatively slight effect upon the value of mineral lands,
as the operation of the mines depends more upon railroad than pub-
lic-road facilities. The nonmineral lands, however, increased nearly
31 per cent from 1910 to 1915. It is difficult to gauge the increase
in actual values by assessed valuation figures, as the relation between
assessed value and actual value varies from 20 to 90 per cent, and
probably averages about 60 per cent of the actual value.

Personal investigation, however, as to sale values brought out
some convincing evidence as to the effect of the improved roads upon
sale values. Of the large number of individual cases considered,
eight, selected as fairly representative, are presented in this chapter.
The value of these eight farms located on improved roads in various
parts of the county increased 61.9 per cent, or from an average of
$49.06 per acre before the roads were improved to $79.44 after the
roads were improved, and it is commonly accepted in the county
that the increased value was due almost entirely to the road im-
provement.

47234°—Bull, 393—16——4

50 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A farm near Big Stone Gap, containing 100 acres, was valued in
1910 at $70 an acre and in 1913 at $100 per acre.

A farm 1 mile east of Coeburn, containing 100 acres, was valued
at $60 per acre in 1910, before the road was improved, and in 1913
at $90 per acre.

A portion of a farm between Big Stone Gap and Minton, contain-
ing 30 acres, was sold in 1914, after the road was tec onede for $50
per acre. This whole farm was purchased in 1908 for $10 per acre.

A tract between Coeburn and Norton, containing 12 acres, was
purchased in 1910 for $33 per acre, and was sold by the purchaser
in 1914 for $150 per acre.

A portion of a farm on the road from Wise to the Dickenson County
line originally contained 80 acres, valued in 1911 at $30 per acre, and
was sold in 1912 for $50 per acre.

On the same road, 35 of the 160 acres of a farm, valued at $30
per acre in 1911, sold in 1912 for $40 per acre.

A farm between Norton and Wise, containing 30 acres, was valued
at $25 per acre in 1911, and was él in 1914 for $33 per acre.

Another tract located on an improved road, and containing 100:
acres, one-half of which is cultivated in grain ad fruit, was ilned
at $60 per acre in 1910, and had increased in value to $100 per acre
in 1913.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON TRAFFIC.

As the principal exports of the county are coal and coke, for the
transportation of which there is an exceptionally large railroad
mileage in the county, the traffic conditions from the public-roads
standpoint are not especially striking. The county does not raise
enough vegetables for its own consumption, and probably 75 per
cent of ail the green truck used in the towns and mining camps is
shipped in from outside the county. Not over 60,000 acres in the
entire county are devoted to agricultural purposes. As nearly as
can be ascertained, the tonnage onled over the improved | roads in
1915 was as shown in Table 16.

TABLE 16.
Tons
Bains prodinetetcn i127 2h. 3. NaN ae peta ats alae ecb ane en 10, 000
HOLES MOTOOUICISe iNj cee ee <2 ok BS EON) eee Bes nos Sree we 32, 000
EUW) Lee iN i ee Ape, et Sera oe es ey ee Ba 4,000
iMertilizerst;CTOCerles ete. tie eee eee EE ak ees 4, 000
MMe eH ES 90 9 ie a Ore hes Cie ytd Sam eget eet ah meas eee Es 50, 000

The tonnage of farm products amounts te about 0.16 ton per acre
for the 60,000 acres devoted to agriculture.

Based upon information sours from drivers of teams, it was
found that the average load on the roads before improvement was

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 51]

1,500 pounds, with an average haul of 4 miles. Estimating cost of
driver and 2-horse team at $3.50 per day, and that two trips were
made per day, it follows that the cost per ton-mile was 57 cents.
After the roads were improved, the average load for the whole im-
proved road system, comprising not only macadam roads, but graded
earth roads as well, was 2,500, pounds. ° This increase in load serves
to decrease the hauling cost to 35 cents per ton-mile, but on the
improved roads it is possible for a 2-horse team to make three trips
of 4 miles each per day, which still further reduces the cost to
about 23 cents per ton mile, a saving of 34 cents per ton mile, which,
applied to the entire 200,000 ton-miles, would aggregate $68,000 per
annum. This computation is not intended to represent an actual
saving of that amount of money to the people of the county, but is
rather intended to afford a basis for estimating the loss. of time and
energy on the old roads. As indicating the individual benefits of
Jowered hauling costs, one teamster found that he would save $1,500
in hauling 800,000 feet of lumber, as he would be able to haul 1,200
feet with each two-horse team on the new roads as compared with
800 feet on the old roads.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON SCHOOLS AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS.

_ The principal advantage of the improved roads has so far been to
facilitate travel from point to point and to better school and social
conditions. (See Pl. XIX.) The postmaster at Big Stone Gap is
authority for the statement that every family on his rural delivery
routes has either built a new home or improved the old one since the
roads were finished. The sanitary conditions in the country districts
have improved, and many conveniences and comforts are now pro-
vided in farm homes which would have been considered luxuries
when these homes were partly isolated by the bad roads.

The ‘following information showing the relation of improved roads
to the schools was furnished by James N. Hillman, the superintendent
of schools of Wise County: .

At least 40 per cent of the school population is in what is classed as strictly rural
communities. Here the average daily attendance, as well as the enrollment, has
increased by leaps and-bounds since the building of our roads. For example, the
enrollment for the year ending June 30, 1915, was more than 1,000 increase for the year
over any preceding year. The average daily attendance increased 700, the greatest
in the history of the county.

The past month (September, 1915), we enrolled in round numbers 9,000 pupils, out
of a total school population of 11,000, and had an average daily attendance of more
than 8,000, or about 90 per cent. This is the greatest in the history of the county, as
the yearly average attendance heretofore has been between 60 and 70 per cent. I
might add that we have a form of compulsory attendance in effect this year, which, no
doubt, is responsible for some of the unusual increase in daily attendance.

We confidently expect our enrollment to reach 10,000 during the year. We also
expect to see the average attendance close to 8,000,

52 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Schools that had td close by reason of failure in attendance previous to the build-
ing of good roads now assist in supporting good consolidated schools, at which the
attendance is splendid.

The 4-room school known as Maple Grove, in the Hurricane District, is one of these.
It supplants three 1:room schools, each of which, without exception almost, failed
every year to keep up its average. At present there are but two teachers in the con-
solidated school, but they have an enrollment of 64, with an attendance last month
(September, 1915), of 59.

The Duncan Gap School, a 2-room building, supplanting two 1-room schools, is
doing well, and would not have been possible but for good roads, in my opinion.

The above schools are in the heart of the country.

The percentage of population enrolled has increased from about 70 per cent during
our bad roads to at least 90 per cent for the last year, before compulsory attendance
was enforced, and will be better than that this year, I have no doubt.

It might be well to add, also, that a number of parents who own automobiles and
who live in the country districts are now bringing their children into larger towns,
that they may have the benefit of a strictly graded, well-manned high school. Before
our good roads this was, of course, absolutely impossible.

FRANKLIN COUNTY, N. Y. cs

In 1910 Franklin County authorized the issue of $500,000 in bonds
with which to improve certain important roads designated as county
roads. The county is located in the northeastern part of the State,
extending from the St. Lawrence River to well within the Adirondack
Mountains and comprising a land area of 1,678 square miles, or
1,073,920 acres, of which, in 1910, 18.6 percent, or 199,824 acres,
was improved farm land. The topography varies from compara-
tively level in the north to rolling in the central portion and moun-
tainous in the south, with an average elevation above sea level of 155
feet in the north, 800 feet in the central portion, and 1,600 feet in the .
southern portion. Small rivers and creeks are numerous. The soil
varies from dark vegetable clay loam to light sandy loam. During
the winter snow generally covers the ground for a period of 3 to 4
months. The snow roads, when rolled or packed down, are very
good, and loads weighing 2 tons or more are readily drawn with 2
horses. A large proportion of the forest products which pass over
the public roads are hauled on sleds during the winter months.

The county is well provided with road-building material. There
are numerous outcroppings of Adirondack gneiss in the southern
part, of granite and sandstone in the central, and of dolomite and
limestone in the northern part. Glacial deposits of granite and
sandstone bowlders and gravel are everywhere abundant and of
excellent quality for road-building purposes.

There are no large cities within the county or in the immediate
environment. Malone, the county seat and principal town, had a
population i in 1910 of 6,447. The bepuesiin of the entire county was
45,717 in 1910,

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 53

The principal industries are dairying and lumbering. The chief
crops are potatoes, hay, hops, barley, and corn fodder for silage. A
considerable amount of maple sugar is also produced. Most of the
milk and cream in Franklin Can 1S pate from the farms by the
_ dairy companies.

SUMMER RESORTS AND TOURIST TRAVEL.

The southern half of Franklin County is in the heart of the Adi-
rondacks and there are hundreds of beautiful lakes surrounded by
camps, cottages, villas, and hotels. During the calendar year 1912
there were 371 automobiles registered in the county, of which 11 were
commercial vehicles. During 1914 the registrations had increased
to 823 pleasure cars and 30 commercial vehicles. This does not,
however, represent the total number of motor vehicles using the roads
of Franklin County, as the Adirondacks region is visited every summer
and fall by thousands of tourists from all parts of the country.

The various hotels and summer resorts afford excellent markets
for fruits, vegetables, poultry, and dairy products. There are no
canning factories in the county, and as the soil and climatic conditions
are well adapted to the growth of fruits and vegetables, it is believed
that when all the main roads are improved there will be a good oppor-
tunity for developing this industry.

Three inspection trips were made through the county on the fol-
lowing dates: May, 1912, May, 1913, and May—June, 1914.

HIGHWAY CLASSIFICATION AND MAINTENANCE.

The roads selected for improvement under the bond issue by the
county board of supervisors have an aggregate length of 135 miles,
and in connection with the State and county oe will form a
system connecting the principal towns, market centers, and summer
resorts of the county. The total public-road mileage of the county
aggregates 1,370 miles, of which 145 miles, designated as State and
county highways, are being improved under the supervision of the
State highway department. About 212 miles of town roads have
been surfaced, so that when the contemplated work is completed the
surfaced roads of the county will comprise 492 miles, or about 36 per
cent of the total mileage. (See Pl. XXII.)

The roads, as planned at the time of the last inspection, are divided
into four classes, and are paid for and maintained as follows:

State highways.—Seventy-five miles. Paid for wholly by the State
from the $100,000,000 bond issue. Maintained by State, under
patrol-and-gang system, but towns contribute $50 per mile per
annum. Patrolmen receive $3 per day and furnish their own teams.

County highways.—Seventy miles. Paid for partly by the State,
partly by the county. The amount paid by the county is deter-

54 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

mined by taking 2 per cent of each thousand dollars of assessed
valuation per mile of public road. The, county’s share shall in no
case exceed 35 per cent of the cost of the improvement. County
highways are maintained by the State in same manner as State high-
ways, the towns paying $50 per mile per annum.

County roads.—One hundred and thirty-four and six-tenths miles.
Paid for entirely by the county, exclusive of the towns. The county
roads are the ones which are built from the county bond issue.
They are maintained by county, by day labor under patrol-and-gang
system (see Pl. XXIV) the State paying 50 per cent.

Town highways.—One thousand and ninety and four-tenths (1,090.4)
miles. Paid for partly by the State and partly by the towns under
what is known as ‘‘the money system.’”’ The amount received from
the State varies with the amount of taxes levied per mile of road,
as follows: Where the assessed valuation of property, exclusive of
cities and villages, is less than $5,000 per mile of road, the town
receives $1 from the State for every $1 locally raised. Where
the assessment is over $5,000 and less than $7,000, the State pays:
an amount equal to 90 per cent of the taxes so raised; over $7,000
and less than $9,000, the State pays 80 per cent; over $9,000 and
less than $11,000, 70 per cent; over $11,000 and less than $13,000,
60 per cent; and when the assessment exceeds $13,000, the State pays
50 per cent. Town highways are maintained by towns. The cost
of maintenance is borne in the same manner as for construction.

HOW THE IMPROVEMENT WAS FINANCED.

The $500,000 bond issue was authorized by the board of county
supervisors in 1910, and the enabling act was passed by the legisla-
ture in 1911. The bonds are issued at the discretion of the county
highway commission. One hundred thousand dollars of bonds Were
issued in 1911, and $300,000 in 1912 in two lots, $100,000 in the first
lot and $200,000 in the second lot. In August, 1913, the last $100,000
worth of bonds were issued. All bonds were issued in denominations
of $1,000 each, numbered from 1 to 500, inclusive, and are divided
into five series, A, B, C, D, and E, respectively. The bonds are
dated on March 1 of the year of issue, and are payable in install-
ments of 10 bonds each, as consecutively numbered. Except for
the last issue, 10 bonds become due 10 years after issuance and 10
bonds each year thereafter until the whole issue has been fully paid.
The last issue is payable 10 bonds each year from 1915 to 1924.
The interest is paid semiannually. The first $400,000 issue bears
interest at the rate of 44 per cent and the last $100,000 at the rate
of 5 per cent.

The first issue sold for $104.01, the second for $105.53, the third
for $105.5187, and the last for $100.537. No sinking fund is provided,

- ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 55

as the bonds are serial in character. The principal and interest are
to be paid out of the tax levied especially for that purpose. This
tax is assessed against all of the property in the county, including
incorporated villages.

During the year 1911 the county issued $33,000 of bonds with
which to pay the county’s share of the cost of county highways,
amounting to 20 per cent of the total cost, thus making the total
bond issues $533,000.

In order to meet the interest charges and take up the bonds as
they mature, the average annual outlay, covering the 50-year period
from 1912 to 1961, inclusive, will be $21,735. The county will then
have paid out a total of $1,068,500, of which $500,000 is the original
principal and $568,500 the total interest charges. If the sinking-
fund plan had been, adopted instead of the deferred serial method,
and 3 per cent could have been realized on the sinking fund, the
average annual outlay for interest and sinking fund would have
been $27,432.74, or a total for the 50-year period of $1,371,637,
thus showing a total saving by the adopted plan of $285,137 over the
sinking-fund plan. It is probable that the county would have found
it more economical, however, to begin payments the fifth year
instead of the tenth year, and to distribute the payments over 25
years instead of 50 years, as the life of the bonds would then more
nearly approximate the duration of the improvements. Under such
plan the average annual outlay would have amounted to $34,660, or
a total for the 25-year period of $866,500. The average annual pay-
ments would have been $12,936 more than under the plan adopted,
but the total amount paid out would have been $220,000 less than
under the plan adopted, and the roads would have been paid for by
the generation which receives the greatest benefit from them. To
raise the $21,730, which will be the average amount required for
interest and principal under the plan adopted, will require an annual
levy of 1.72 mills on each dollar of the 1915 valuation, but if the
bonds had been paid for by the 5-25 year serial plan the rate would
have been 2.74 mills on the dollar. Furthermore, the 1.72 mills, or
its equivalent, must be levied for 50 years, whereas the 2.74 mills
' would have been levied only 25 years. All highway taxes are levied
of town valuations, and the rates vary in each on account of the
variation in assessed values. In 1911 the rate varied from 4.95
mills to 19.1 mills, an average for the whole county of 8.37 mills.
In 1913 the rates varied from 4.26 mills to 16.49 mills, an average
of 9.39 mills.

ASSESSED VALUATION.

The equalized assessed valuation of property subject to taxation
for road purposes in 1910, not including bank stocks, was $12,338,080,
‘and in 1915, $13,201,055.. The assessed value of real estate in 1910

56 BULLETIN 393, U. S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

was $11,741,490 and in 1915, $12,633,266, an increase of 7.6 per cent
from 1910 to 1915, the period covered by the improvement of the
roads. All property in the county is assessed at about 90 per cent
of its real value. The bond issue represents about 3.8 per cent of
the assessed value.

RECEIPTS FROM TAXATION FOR ROADS.

In 1910 the various towns raised $76,489.98 for roads. In 1915
there was raised by taxation $181,988.15, of which $88,934.83 was
for town highways, $25,625 for State and county highways, $4,178.32
for interest on State and county highway bonds, $31,000 for main-
tenance of county roads, $22,250 for interest on county road bonds,
and $10,000 for retiring county road bonds.

MANAGEMENT, PERSONNEL, AND COMPENSATION.

All State and county highways are built by contract let by the
State highway department, which supervises the construction of such
highways. County roads are built by day labor under the supervi-
sion of the county superintendent and the county highway commis-
sion, while the county superintendent and the respective town
superintendents supervise the construction of town roads.

The State highways are designated by act of ‘the legislature, but
the choice between two or more routes is made by the State highway
department. The board of supervisors designates county highways
and county roads; and the town superintendents and town boards
designate town roads for improvement.

The method of construction to be followed on State and county
highways is determined by the State highway department, with the
approval of the county superintendent. The improvements on town
highways are designated by the county superintendent of highways.

The body in charge of the bond-built county roads is designated
as the Franklin County Road Commission and consists of a presi-
dent, secretary, and county superintendent of town roads, and
two other members. Three members of this commission are ap-
pointed by the board of supervisors and are members of that board.’
The county superintendent occupies a position on the commission
by virtue of his office. The fifth member of the commission is ap-
pointed by the otherfour. This commission acts for the county board
of supervisors. The compensation of members of the commission
is $4 per day for time actually employed, and expenses. The total
salary and expenses of the commission for 1911 to 1913, imclusive,
amounted to $5,596, exclusive of the salary of the county superin-
tendent, which amounts to $2,000 per annum. An auditor is em-
ployed at $4 per day, a bookkeeper at $4 per day, and a stenographer

- ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 57

at $12 per week. These report to the county superintendent, who
is supplied with an automobile furnished by the county board of
‘supervisors, and eanCODLY. supervises all engineering, construction,
and maintenance work on county roads.

CONSTRUCTION COSTS.

Previous to 1910, all State and county highways in Franklin
County were constructed of plain water-bound macadam. In1910-11
the bituminous-macadam penetration method was used on State and
county highways. The width between ditch lines on State highways
is 82 feet, the road surface is 16 feet, and the depth of material is
6 inches. County highways are 26 to 28 feet between ditches, with
the macadam 14 feet wide and 6 inches thick.

The stone-surfaced county roads built from bond-issue funds were
surfaced to a width of 10 feet and to a depth of -6 inches, and the
gravel roads to 12 feet in width and 7 inches in depth. The average
width of county roads between ditch lines is 22 feet.

The town highways are usually surfaced with gravel to a width of
9 or 10 feet. The average cost per mile of the various classes of roads
is shown in Table 17.

TaBLeE 17.

State highways (bituminous macadam)...........-...2./....-- $12, 000
County highways (bituminous macadam).............-.------- 11, 000
County roads:

Whaenidbinic: tre 215 cialis eee to. delice xo. ee: 85000 104,000

SiirinOle rs beeeeh tea. Mes ops cei 3th e e Brees 1, 900 to 2, 500
Town highways:

IG eat annie ceeeents eee ies ee ae va nee Oe ce aie 1, 800 to 4, 000

Reach nena a ees Ae ee Cee Oe eat Ae ae 1, 500

‘The above costs include bridges and culverts under 5-foot span.
All culverts under 5-foot span are built by the towns, counties, or
State, as the case may be, but ail bridges over 5-foot span are built
-by the towns.

An examination of the bridge and culvert situation shows that
from 1911 to 1913 the number of wooden bridges decreased from
407 to 355. Stone bridges decreased during that same period from
27 to 6. The number of concrete bridges increased from 62 to 112,
and iron bridges from 179 to 192. Concrete culverts increased from
166 in 1911 to 816 in 1913. (See Plate X XI.)

The condition of some of the county roads before and after im-.
provement is shown by Plate XX.

During the construction period common labor cost $1.75 per day;
teams with driver, $4.25; foremen in charge of sections, $3.50;
subforemen, $2.50 to $3; roller operators, $2.50 to $3; transit men,
$3 and expenses; chain men and helpers, $1.50.

58 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

During the year 1911 the average cost of engmeering on county
- roads in Franklin County was $17 per mile of road surveyed. During
the year 1912 this-had been reduced to $14.82 per mile for the total
of 134.6 miles of road surveyed. As the county does no road work
by contract; the quantities are not estimated in advance, and the
cross sections are therefore not measured. This fact is largely
responsible for the low cost of the surveys.

Most of the stone and gravel was donated. Many of the ete
are built of crushed bowlders which have been taken off the fields
and piled up at the roadside as fences. In some cases the county
has paid for stone, the average being about 5 cents per cubic yard
in the field. Where the stone was hauled to the crusher, the farmers
were paid about 30 cents per cubic yard for delivering the same.

SURFACE TREATMENT.

Ccntracts were let during 1914 for the resurfacing of many of the
State and county highways. About 45 miles of county gravel and
macadam roads were treated with bituminous applications during
1913, at a cost of $0.011 per square yard. This work was continued
during 1914 and a distributer has been purchased for this purpose.
The soads are treated to a width of 7 to 10 feet.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON LAND VALUES.

It is estimated that about 75 per cent of the land outside of the
State forest reserves is tillable. The other 25 per cent is either cov-
ered with stone or so rough that it can not be used except ae forest
production. or grazing.

The average farm contains 116 acres, and the average value of
land per acre, including buildings, according to the United States
census, was $32.40 in 1910. The value of good land in the county
avecages from $45 to $50 per acre. A study made in 1912 indicates

that farms for sale on macadam roads were more valuable than those

located on earth roads. Eleven farms containing 2,046 acres and
located on earth roads were offered at an average of $23.48 per acre,
while three farms located on macadam roads were offered at an aver-
age of $106.69 per acre for 239 acres.

Since the improvement of the road between Chateaugay and
Chateaugay Lake, about 64 miles, the value of adjacent land in-
creased from about $50 to $60 an acre.. The total cost of this road
was about $22,750, while the increased value of three-fourths of the
land within a half mile of the road on either side, according to the
above figures, amounts to $31,200. It is estimated that about three-
fourths of the land in that part of the county is either under cultiva-
tion or is tillable.

;
;
:

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 59

A few specific instances showing the increased value of land on
roads which have been recently improved are presented in Table 18.
The increased value does not include the increases due to the con-
struction of buildings or other improvements. These farms are lo-
cated in various parts of the county, and were selected at random,
though it is believed that they are fairly representative.

TasLe 18.—Jncreased values of certain farms located on roads recently improved,

Value per acre
f, =
Type of road before and after improvement. DEtanen prove Bop eet Miles to
Size of | +53 vearsafter.| L2crease | ~ orin. | Bearest
farm. Qe | per acre. | Crease shipping
fas ANS ES oe * | station.
Before. After. Before.} After.
Acres
Earth, sandy ..--.------ Bituminous macadam. 84 $95 $119 $24. 00 783 3.0
Part sandy..-......----|-.--- GOS A ee ee eed 50 40 60 20. 00 50. 0 38
ipandky Goo ESSA eee Se eee COS eee Se 50 35 50. 15. 00 42.8 9.0
Loam, steep grade. --.-- Macadam: 2.2222 25223- 275 14 30} 16.00 114.1 7.0
Earth and sand.........|....- GORE es eee 120 40 50 10. 00 25.0 1,8)
Earth, sandy ....-.----.- Bituminous macadam. 77 52 64 12. 00 23.1 1.0
St ee ee ee 2 ee AO Shee ez cioo 53 77 84 7. 00 9.1 2.0
Earth, part sandy .-.-.-|..--- GOL er se ete. 125 46 52 6. 00 13.0 2.5
Earth, very bad. -...-.. Macadam........-...-. 390 40 50 10. 00 25. 0 4.0
Weighted average..|.........2.222.222202-2- 136 | 40.70| 53.20] 12.50 30.7 3.7

If it is assumed that farm values have increased at the rate of $10
per acre on all of the 492 miles of roads improved in the county,
and that this increase affects only 40 per cent of the land lying within
one-half mile of the roads on both sides, the total increase for the
whole county would be $1,259,520. On the same basis this increase
in valuation would amount to $345,600 for the 135 miles of bond-
built county roads. ;

SOME EXAMPLES SHOWING SAVING IN HAULING COSTS.

Information covering a period of 3 years was obtained: from 12
farmers and dairymen, and on this information estimates of hauling
costs before and after the roads were improved are based. It was
found that the average haul was 5.73 miles, the average cost of man
and team $4 per day, the number of trips per day 1.92 and 2.63,
respectively, before and after the roads were improved. The average
load on the old roads was 2,392 pounds and on the new roads 5,557
pounds for a two-horse team. Using these figures as a basis a two-
horse outfit would haul about 13.2 ton-miles per day on the old roads
and about 41.8 on the new roads at an estimated cost of $0.303 and
50.096 per ton-mile, respectively, or at an estimated saving by im-
proved roads of $0.207 per ton-mile.

Hauling costs furnished by a farmer and dairyman who owns a
milk condensery at Fort Covington and a creamery at North Ban-
gor deserves special mention. He stated that the cost for hauling

60 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

milk from Fort Covington to North Bangor over the old road, a dis-
tance of 15 miles, was about 20 cents per can (120 pounds), or about
$0.22 per ton-mile, hauling 25 cans at a load. After the roads were
improved he was able to increase the load to 40 cans for a two-horse
outfit on the macadam and gravel roads. This is at the rate of $0.125
per ton-mile for a 15-mile haul, assuming the cost of team and driver
to be $4.50 per day, which is slightly above the average for the
county. (See Pl. XXIII, fig. 2.)

In May, 1914, this man purchased an automobile truck with which
to do his hauling. The truck cost $1,750, and it is now doing the
work formerly done by three 2-horse outfits. (See Pl. XXIII, fig. 3.)
It makes two trips a day from North Bangor to Fort Covington and
return, and also one trip a day to Westville, distance 74 miles; total
distance traveled, 75 miles per day; distance loaded, 37.5 miles.
The load consists of 50 cans of milk (120 pounds each), a total net
load of 3 tons, or 112.5 ton-miles per day. The weight of the truck
empty is 4,800 pounds. The estimated cost of operating this truck
_ for 200 working days when roads are not covered with snow is given |
in Table 19.

TABLE 19. —
Pipirat COsteyaetOm trie le ns se sak Sk ae SI Re Set OS es ad pene $1, 750. 00
Fixed charges:

Inierest a ae sr a hee ie tone alle hie USA AE Ca ARE hg Se $87. 50
TMS AICE. Bese cto a he See cite cota as ASS Se MR ICIEEE SR 85. 0C
UVC Sey ny ee Soe ee Ay Oe 1 aR eaten ol neue PO ee Coes 500. 00
RranamerceS ees tec VEE SR a ne Re eae RIA EN! 50. 00

722.50

Operating charges:

Mepreciatlony: ee. suas Oe Ble Sha eae ence emia ete ee rey DOS DO
GasOlnes nese 2G ce he es oe ES, DROITS EE poet oe pe 250. 00
“TWH SI Cts ean een Re eR POE lesa Os gee Aen AL Ta aR ee 400. 00
IVFANIAG EMA CG se 22 aides Spee Pee oe Oe ge ee Sea Re As 175. 00
Oiandioteases ss! is sheesh, A Ce ee Rae eens 50. 00

A 1, 187.50

PR Ota esiege aise ie Lik se go Cen ee eee ea ae aa eer el tne 1, 860. 00

The present cost per day, then, is $9.30, which for 112.5 ton-miles
per day, or 22,500 ton miles in 200 days, makes the cost per ton-mile
$0.0825. ‘This man’s hauling costs would therefore appear to have
been reduced by improved roads and the automobile truck as shown .
in Table 20.

TABLE 20.

Horsesiand wagon:on old roads: -..2....... ua Ga oe eee oe oe $0. 22
ELOTSes ANG Was OMNOM NEW LOAGS-,“>- ce on ee = eee eee . 125
PAlioMoOpUe taiGkyOnMeW TOAdS: <5: oo). 2 we ee ee eee ee ee . 0825

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 61
APPROXIMATE TONNAGE HAULED TO MARKET OR SHIPPING POINT.

Table 21 gives the approximate tonnage of farm and forest products
hauled to market over the county roads. This table is based on the
production for 1910, as shown by the United States census upon the
record of incoming and outgoing rail shipments, and upon informa-
tion received from merchants and others in the county.

TABLE 21.
Annual | Annual
Product. tons hauled. EeOaN CE: tonshauled.
TELS noose an A Rae eA ee ASCOOOMM srt seo ch Ne ray Oa 500
IE Seti tela Be Aen Uae os ae meh ream 25,000 || Poultry products.-.............-...... 250
Milk, cream, butter, etc.........--...: 32,000 |} Animal products. ....-. SEER OCB oR ae 1,500
Miscellaneous grains i Oe al ree 660 |} Forest pradeieeek including cord wood. . 15, 000
HO PSeeeeene see toe Saeki ose ete 237 _—_________
Maple products... SeneGence 200 ANG 2) Retard Gn RSE ae eM 90, 287

APPROXIMATE TONNAGE HAULED TO FARMS.

The estimated annual tonnage hauled over the roads from railroad
stations to farms is shown in Table 22. It will be seen that the
estimated total annual traffic hauled over the country roads amounts
to 145,287 tons. The traffic area for the county is estimated at
330,400 acres. The total tonnage hauled, therefore, amounts to 0.4
of a ton per acre. The average distance hauled is about 5.5 miles,
which makes a total traffic for the county of about 799,078 ton-miles.
The average cost of hauling over the old roads, based on the ob-
servations previously referred to, amounted to $0.303 per ton-mile,
and on the new roads to $0.096 per ton-mile, making a saving of
about $0.207 per ton-mile, or a total annual saving for the county of —
approximately $150,372. It is estimated that about one-third of
this traffic passes over the bond-built roads, and, therefore, only
about one-third of this saving, or $50,124, should be credited to these
‘Toads.

TABLE 22. ¥
4 5 Annual . Annual
Material hauled. eRe iea: Material hauled. ranaty rr ei
LMA Tae) odes Se GS a a a ea We eS BUOOOEH! Reeditiisi te sir euy Wate SU ot 15, 000
Manure Boeke GESEE Ae ee aaa es 10 a Freight direct from railroad ..........- 5, 000
Baan aad building supplies....... 5, 000 Tp tales is siest Ve Cities i aig 55, 000

During the spring of 1914, as a direct result of road improvement,
two automobile bus lines were established—one between Malone and
St. Regis Falls, 26 miles one way, and one between Malone and Fort
Covington, 16 miles one way. The St. Regis line makes one trip a
day, with rates of $1 for one way, or $1.60 for the round trip. The

62 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Fort Covington line makes two trips a day and charges $1 for the
round trip. They have a regular schedule as to time of arrival and
departure from terminals and intermediate points, and a schedule of
rates for intermediate points.

DALLAS COUNTY, ALA.

An object-lesson road constructed in 1909 under the direction of
the Office of Public Roads of the United States Department of
Agriculture started the movement for better roads in Dallas County,
and in May, 1910, an election was carried for the issuance of $250,000
in county bonds. Thissum was supplemented by an additional bond

issue of $100,000 in July, 1912. The economic studies were made

in March, 1911, April, 1912, April, 1913, April, 1914, and a short
study in October, 1915.

The county is in the central part of the State and has an area of
940 square miles, or about 612,480 acres, of which about 256,000
acres constitute improved farm land. The principal product of the

county is cotton, but about 40,000 acres are in corn, hay, and forage.-

Most of the county is level or gently rolling, and a small portion is
hilly. The soil in the eastern part of the county is a sandy loam,
while the western part is in the prairie section or Black Belt, which
takes its name from the fact that the soil is very dark. The popula-
tion of the county in 1910 was 53,401, of which 13,649 were comprised
in the population of Selma, the county seat and principal city.
There are about 1,000 miles of public road in the county, of which
217.9 miles, or 21.7 per cent, have been improved up to the year
1915. (See Pl. XXVI.)

HOW THE IMPROVEMENT WAS FINANCED.

The first $250,000 of bonds voted were sold in two lots of $100,000
and $150,000, respectively, on November 9, 1910, and July 3, 1911.
The first issue brought a premium of $4,847.20 and the second issue
$7,875. The $100,000 of bonds voted in 1912 were sold July 8, 1912,
for a premium of $4,255. Thus the county had a total to apply to
its road system of $366,977.20. The bonds all carry 5 per cent
interest and run for a term of 30 years under the smking-fund method.
As no provision had been made to the close of 1915 for a sinking fund
it is difficult to forecast just what the tax burdens will be to meet
the indebtedness. It is understood that the county commissioners
plan to buy up the bonds as fast as a surplus accumulates in the
county treasury rather than maintain a smking fund. This method
would be far preferable to the mamtenance of a sinking fund, pro-

vided the holders of the bonds are willing to surrender them at the |

amount of the original purchasing price, but this is an uncertainty,
since it does not appear that the bonds have been issued subject to

\
See

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 63

eall. If the bonds are retired on a straight smking-fund basis and
it is assumed that 3 per cent is realized from the sinking fund, the
annual amount necessary to be raised would be $7,356 for sinking fund
and $17,500 for interest, or a total average annual outlay of $24,856,
and the total cost to the county for principal and interest would be
$745,700. If 4 per cent is realized on the sinking fund the annual
amount necessary to be raised would be $6,240 for sinking fund and
$17,500 for interest, a total average annual cost for principal and
interest of $23,740, or a grand total for the 30-year period of $712,200.
Contrasted with this method, it may be pointed out that if the bonds
were issued on a 5-30 year deferred serial method the annual cost
would be $22,166 and the total cost $665,000, or a saving as compared -
with the smking-fund method of $80,702 where only 3 per cent is
realized on the sinking fund, or $47,216 if 4 per cent is realized. It
therefore follows that if the commissioners take up the bonds only
as they find it practicable, the relative economy as compared with the
other two methods can not be determined until it is known what
success they meet with in redeeming the bonds. The deferred serial
method would have been free from this element of uncertainty, and
the necessary tax rate could have been ascertained definitely.
There is no special tax levy to provide funds for the road bonds,
as all the payments for interest and sinking fund are taken from the
general county levy. In 1910 the general levy for county purposes
was 5 mills on the dollar, in addition to which there was a levy of 2
mills for bridges and 6.5 mills for State purposes, or a total of 13.5
mills. In 1915 the tax rate had increased to 7 mills for county pur-
poses, the bridge tax had decreased to 0.5 mill, and the State tax
remained at 6.5 mills, making a total of 14 mills, or an increase over
the 1910 rate of only 0.5 mill. There is also a statute labor or head tax
of 10 days, which may be paid in cash at the rate of 50 cents per day.
The poll tax, from which $1,519 was derived in 1915, is applied to
schools. Just what the tax burden for the road bonds should be
under the various possible plans may be indicated as follows: The
assessed valuation for 1915 was $14,068,610. It would therefore be
necessary to levy on such a valuation a rate of 1.76 mills on the dollar
to produce the $24,856 annually to retire the bonds on the 3 per cent
sinkine-fund plan, or 1.68 mills to provide the $23,740 annually
necessary if 4 per cent is obtained on the sinking fund. If the 5-30
year serial method had been adopted,the $22,166 annually required
would be obtained by a levy of 1.56 mills on the dollar on the basis
of the 1915 valuation. Therefore the construction of the improved
roads under the bond issue represents an annual outlay constituting
about 12.6 per cent of the total -tax burden of the county. This
should not prove oppressive, as it is probable that property values
will increase and that the rate will correspondingly decrease. Even

64 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

on the present basis, however, a $5,000 farm, assessed at $3,000,
which is about the average, would pay for the improved roads from
$4 to $5 annually, according to the method which is adopted for
payment of the indebtedness.

No aid was granted by the State toward the roads built under
the bond issue, but an apportionment of $2,000 for each of the years
1911, 1912, and 1913 and $3,271.13 for 1914, or a total of $9,271.13,
was granted\by the State toward the cost of other roads whose con-
struction was directed by the State highway department under a plan
whereby the State and county paid, respectively, 50 per cent of the
cost. Beginning with 1916, State aid must be applied to a trunk-
line system designated by the State legislature. The average cost
of the 9 miles of gravel road built with the aid of the State was
$1,997.85.

HOW THE ROAD WORK WAS MANAGED. :

The roads to be improved were selected by the county board of
commissioners, which consists of the judge of probate, who is ex-officio
president, and four members. The four commissioners are elected
from the four districts of the county for a term of four years and
receive $4 per day for time actually employed, or an average of from
$600 to $800 per annum each. The commissioners have charge of
the roads in their respective districts and employ overseers at $2
per day for time actually employed. These overseers have charge
of the statute labor. The probate judge is elected for a 6-year term
from the county at large and his compensation is based on the fee
system. There are no other administrative road officials. An en-
gineer was employed by the county board in 1911 at asalary of $3,000
per annum. His successor received $2,500 per annum, and the
present engineer in charge of road work receives $150 per month
_ and necessary expenses.

A superintendent of convict forces is employed at $95 per month,
a bridge superintendent at $100 per month, and a superintendent of
maintenance at $75 per month. ‘These three officials report to the ©
respective commissioners according to the district in which the work
is conducted. Most of the construction under the bond issue was
by contract either on the basis of a fixed charge per hour for labor
and teams or on the unit-cost basis.

Gravel roads aggregating 78.45 miles and sand-clay roads 23.30
miles, or a total of 101.75 miles, were constructed with the bond-issue
funds. The county is well supplied with clay gravel and with natural
sand-clay. Where the wagon haul was excessive the materials were
shipped by rail from the county gravel pit to the siding nearest the
proposed improvement. ‘This pit-is located on a railroad siding and
the material is excavated by steam shovel. The pit has a 28-foot

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 65

face, an area of 6 acres, and cost the county $100 per acre. The
Maximum output is 30 cars per day and the cost of operation about
$300 per month. The plant handled enough material in a day to
supply the railroad with sufficient ballast at 10 cents per cubic yard
in addition to the gravel needed for the roads, to pay for the trans-
portation of the road material.

The roads were graded 24 feet wide on embankments and 30 feet
wide in cuts. The subgrade was prepared with road machines to an
average width of 16 feet. The material, which was hauled in slat-
bottom wagons and dumped three loads abreast (for a width of 16
feet), was spread and shaped with a road machine. No roller was
used, and the material was consolidated by hauling over each pre-
vious day’s work. The surface was shaped with a grader to a crown
of about three-fourths inch to the foot. The depth of consoli-
dated surface averaged from 7 to 9 inches. Private or farm roads
entering on improved roads were surfaced for a distance of about
100 feet, in order to prevent tracking mud upon the gravel surface.
Striking contrasts between the old and the new roads are shown in
Plates XXV and X XVII.

Owing to the numerous small streams and creeks with large drain-
_age areas emptying into the Alabama River, the cost of the highway
system was exceptionally heavy. It has been the policy of the
commissioners to bridge these’ streams with permanent structures
of steel and concrete, and, while the bridges and culverts have been
economically designed and erected, the number which had to be
constructed caused the total cost to form a rather large percentage
of the total expenditure for the road system. From the report of
the county engineer on March 1, 1912, it is found that out of a total
of $345,293.19 the expenditure for bridges was $83,192. Out of
$252,924 expended from bond funds in 1912, a total of $32,570 was
expended for 46 steel and concrete bridges, 11 concrete culverts, and
19 steel bridges paid for but not erected. The average cost of the
roads constructed with bond-issue funds, including the outlay for
bridges, was $3,606.66 per mile.

Aside from the bond-built roads and the State-aid road, the county
had improved, up to the year 1915, 69.65 miles of gravel and 37.5 -
miles of sand-clay road. These were built by contract and by the
‘convict forces. On April 1, 1912, the county owned 93 mules and
considerable equipment, the whole valued at $27,922.

An average of from 20 to 60 convicts are regularly employed on
road work, and these are worked in one gang. In 1913 the cost of
operating the camp, including feed for four mules, was estimated at
50 cents per day per convict. Information furnished by the county
officials in 1913 indicates that the average cost of building gravel

47234°—Bull. 393—16——5

66 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

roads with this gang was $3,000 per mile, and of sand-clay roads
from $1,500 to $1,800 per mile.» The Sel roads were surfaecd 16
feet wide and 9 inches deep on road beds varying in width from
24 to 30 feet.

HOW THE ROADS ARE MAINTAINED.

The improved roads in the outlying districts are in excellent con-
dition, but for a mile or two out of Selma some of the roads built in
1911 are rough and need to be resurfaced. The heavy repair and
maintenance work is done by a gang employed continuously through-
out the year, and composed of a foreman, 8 or 10 men, 10 mules, 2
road machines, 5 wagons, 2 drag scrapers, and some drags. The
foreman is paid $75 per month, labor $1 per day. No information
was obtainable as to mileage maintained and cost per mile. Some
small repairs are looked after by the man-and-cart patrol system.
Each outfit costs about $32 per month—$20 for the man and $12 for
the mule. There are no toll roads in the county.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON LAND VALUES.

As the road improvement was begun in 1910 the taxable valuations
for that year and for 1915 have been compared to ascertain whether
there has been an appreciable increase since the roads were improved.
The total valuation in 1910 was $12,692,800, and in 1915 it was
$14,068,610. As the effect of the road improvement would only be
reflected in the real estate values, it was ascertained that real estate
in 1910 was assessed at $7,604,440 and in 1915 at $8,534,445, an in-
crease of 12.2 per cent in 5 years. This is not a radical increase, but
is sufficient to indicate a normal, healthy development.

Personal investigation of sale values along the improved roads
brought out the fact that the road improvement had added at least
$5 to the value of each acre of land within one-half mile of the roads.
On this basis the aggregate increases due to the road improvement
would be $325,600. Of many specific cases recorded, it might be
mentioned that one farm of 100 acres, assessed before theroad improve-
ment at $6 per acre, sold in 1914 at $48 per acre. The increase
was entirely attributed to the road improvement. Another farm
which was on the market at $10 per acre before the roads were
improved was recently sold at $50 per acre. Tracts of land on an-
other improved road which sold for $8 to $10 per acre before the road
was improved, were recently sold again at from $20 to $25 per acre.
Quite a number of instances were recorded of increases of from 50 to
150 per cent in value.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON TRAFFIC.

The county is self-supporting from an agricultural point of view,
and its outgoing shipments of general farm crops far exceed its in-
coming shipments, as indicated by the fact that in 1912 the outgoing

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 67

shipments of farm products at Selma alone amounted to 9,452.8 tons,

-as compared with only 569.9 tons incoming shipments of farm prod-
ucts, both exclusive of cotton. The farmers in this section are no
longer relying solely upon cotton, but are devoting themselves more
and more to general farm cropsand to the raising of live stock and
poultry. (See Pl. XXVIII.)

An indication of this change in agricultural methods is shown by
the facts that there were 12 silos built in the county in 1914 and 42 in
1915, and that a creamery was built in Selma in 1915. This creamery
now produces 1 ton of butter each week, requiring about 3 tons of
cream, which is hauled in over country roads an average distance
of about 44 miles.

Nearly all products, except sndk as are consumed on the planta-
tions, are hauled over the public roads to Selma. Comparatively
little shipping is done from local stations. There is some shipping
from Marion Junction, the radius for which is about 5 miles. The
total rail shipments from Marion Junction in 1913 included 5,100
tons of hay, 2,500 bales of cotton, and 26 carloads of live stock.

The average load on the old roads was about 1,500 pounds, and on
the new roads is at least 2,500 pounds, although much larger loads
are frequent. On one of the improved roads about 10,000 pounds of
bridge steel were hauled with 4 mules. From 8 to 10 bales of cotton
or from 2 to 24 tons are frequently hauled over the improved roads
with 2 mules. ;

In 1915 there were 305 automobiles registered in the county, and
it is estimated that at least one-half of the traveling salesmen who
operate out of Selma use motor vehicles. _One refining concern sends
its motor truck all over the county. Three bottling works operate
5 motor trucks on country roads. Motor trucks also operate between
Selma and Marion Junction, 14 miles, and Selma and Orrville, 16
miles, carrying supplies for merchants. The cost of operating these
trucks per month is about as shown in Table 23.

TABLE 23.—Cost of motor truck operdtion.

Selma to
Selma to F
Marion,
4 Cue Junction, Pee to Selmg vo
Ttem. PS, | 42 trips, Ttem. e
average a eae J Were
eel average ( es).|( 14 miles).
2 tons load;
: 14 tons
isimances 2 22 2222 ce $14. 17 $14.17 || Depreciation. 22-525 2 -2es-- 2 $30. 00 2 $42. 00
pmiygerese Youle 25 aoe 112. 50 IDZESO}|| Pepalns-22 ees! yas eek hee eae 18.00 1 10.00
ID TRIN S1R so ee ee ea Ce Oe 30. 00 302005] Munberestasse aa seeps ees ea 12.00 18. 50
eigers eho io 8 a 15.00 15. 00 SSS
CES IME op eceperoeeeeedae 25. 00 58. 64 NOE ee eae eee ae 159.17 210. 28
PILE Se ioe ee et oe eS - 112.50 110. 00

1 Estimated. 2 Equivalent to 20 per cent,

68 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The Orrville truck cost $1,800 and the Marion Junction truck

$2,500. Assuming that they are loaded each way, the former will »

haul 1,600 ton-miles per month, at a cost of 9.9 cents per ton-mile,
and the latter 1,764 ton-miles a month, at a cost of 11.9 cents per
ton-mile.

The cotton crop which is produced on 160,000 acres constitutes
the bulk of hauling. Each bale represents 500 pounds of lint and
1,000 pounds of seed. The average annual crop for the county does
not amount to more than 37,500 tons, including seed.. Practically
all of this is hauled for some distance over the improved roads.
General farm crops produced on about 40,000 acres amounted to
about 30,000 tons in 1910, and this has materially increased since
that time. Approximately 18,000 tons (or 900 pounds to the acre)
-are hauled over the roads. It is estimated that about 20,000 tons
of fertilizer and about 10,000 tons of miscellaneous products and
supplies are hauled over country roads from Selma and other dis-
tributing pemts to plantations in Dallas and adjacent counties.

This makes a grand total tonnage hauled over country roads, as shown -

in Table 24:
TABLE 24.
Tons
Cottonvand cotton. seed -.ka2s4 3 Sere eee ot See ee ae 37, 500
General farm products= 222255 ae a Sigy eae gegen 18, 000
Rergulizere’: 258 ai. hl ce Seek Rime a erage ar Ne es is ape ne fea 20, 000
Mascellameoris ./(°. ute. eae ket PNA AM As Siege wee Be OE 10, 000
Potala sy. Sela hip ei eee pened ere NG ee Ee eee 85, 500

The whole county constitutes the traffic area for the improved
roads, but there are only 200,000 acres in crops. The total tonnage
therefore represents about. 0.11 ton per traffic acre or 0.43 ton for
each acre in crops. The maximum haul for the county is about 28
miles, and the average haul from 8 to 10 miles. The average haul
on the bond-built roads is about 8.4 miles. The total hauling over
the bond-built roads is probably about 610,000 ton-miles, or about
84 per cent of the total. On the old roads the cost of hauling aver-
aged about 30 cents per ton-mile, and on the new roads about 15
cents. The total annual saving, therefore, might be estimated at
about $90,000.

LAUDERDALE COUNTY, MISS.

Road improvement was agitated in Lauderdale County in 1910,
and after a brief educational campaign, bonds were issued by the
county board of supervisors upon petitions submitted by taxpayers.
The first bonds were issued September 1, 1910, and at various times
thereafter to March 1, 1915, until they aggregated $500,000. They
were not issued as county liabilities, but were chargeable to the
respective beats, which correspond to townships in other States.
The work of construction was begun during the spring of 1911 and the

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 69

last of the improvements contemplated in the first $450,000 of bonds
issued were completed in the spring of 1915.

The county is somewhat larger than the average and has an area
of 770 square miles or 448,000 acres. Less than one-fourth of the
land is actually under cultivation. The population of the county
in 1910 was 46,919, of which Meridian, the county seat and principal
city, comprised 23,285. The products of the county are quite varied,
as indicated by the fact that in 1910, 19,257 bales of cotton, 265,291
bushels of corn, 44,372 bushels of oats, 18,000 bushels of dry peas,
and 121,000 bushels of potatoes were produced, and there were from
30,000,000 to 40,000,000 feet of yellow-pine lumber cut for shipment.
Stock raising is also becoming an important industry.

The topography of the county is for the most part hilly, with small
areas of rolling land and level creek bottoms. The soil varies from
sandy loam to bright-red clay. During certain seasons the natural-
soil roads are impassable for loaded vehicles, and therefore improved
roads mean a great deal to the rural population.

The economic studies were made in March, 1911, and in April of
1912, 1913, 1914, with a short study in November, 1915.

HOW THE IMPROVEMENT WAS FINANCED.

Between September 1, 1910, and March 1, 1915, Beat 1, which
includes the city of Meridian, issued $450,000 and Beat 5 issued
$50,000 of road-improvement bonds. The total of all outstanding
bonds must not, by the State law, exceed 10 per cent of the assessed
valuation of all the taxable property in the county.

The bonds were issued by the county board of supervisors in
accordance with the general law of the State. This law, adopted in
1910, provides that any county or district thereof may issue bonds
on petition of 20 per cent of the qualified electors,- provided the
‘issuance of such bonds is not petitioned against by an equal number
of qualified electors. If 20 per cent of the qualified electors peti-
tion against the issue of the bonds, then an election must be held, at
which a majority vote decides the question for or against the issue.
The bonds were issued without resorting to an election, except the
last issue of $50,000. Table 25 shows the amount of bonds issued,
dates of issuance, selling price, and interest. ;

TABLE 25.—Road-improvement bonds issued by Lauderdale County.

Date sold. Amount. are AL Interest. aoe

y Per cent.
Sept. Tg SY oO Nes Sea nee es Ae ac aie eR Beene kame est Se OR $50,000 | $50,050 54 1
ED) eee see cL aetna noe Ueril P utente (ea vena 150,000 | 150,275 1
(ives tl, TGV Ss Peas ea ane pr sean Bt Oe aaa Gleam SIE UE 100,000 | 100,110 5 1
HORT pt 91 Lomein NEN Ne eye on a ee ne er eee 100,000 | 100,000 5k 1
MKrin ale QU TE EE eae Nery es dy epee mye N hy oo 3s EO aS 50, 000 51, 041 53 1
NE) Fay pep LO Lary ya weap GCs om er cen ALO PENS oo ey eee seer ater 50, 000 51,950 54 r)

|

FTTH tea ae Neale tint gag re tn i eg 500,000 | 502,526 |.....-2--- | Sones

70 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The issues of 1910 to 1914, inclusive, have been spent in building
roads in Beats 1 and 5, but no roads were improved with this money
inside the city of Meridian. About one-half of the $50,000 issue of
March 1, 1915, will be spent inside the city limits in connecting up
the REDE with the county roads.

The general law of Mississipi requires that all ide are antl
bonds must be paid off within 25 years, and in annual installments
after 10 years from the date of issue, and that they shall bear not to
exceed 6 per cent interest, payable annually or semiannually. The
bonds were issued in blocks of $500 each.

The first issue for Beat 1 of $50,000, bearing 54 per cent interest
and dated September 1, 1910, is payable as follows: 28 bonds of $500
each, payable each year on September 1, 1922 to 1924, inclusive,
and 16 bonds on September 1, 1926.

The second issue for Beat 1 of $150,000, bearing 5 per cent interest
and dated September 1, 1910, is payable as follows: 28 bonds of $500
each, due September 1 each year from 1925 to 1934, inclusive, except
‘in 1926, when 12 bonds become due; in 1935, 36 bonds become due. —

The third issue for Beat 1 of $100,000, bearing 5 per cent interest,
and dated March 1, 1913, is payable as follows: 13 bonds of $500
each, due each year on eeciamiben 1, 1923 to 1987, inclusive, and 5
tends on September 1, 1938.

The fourth issue for Bet 1 of $100,000, bearmg 54 per cent interest
and dated March 1, 1914, is payable as follows: 13 bonds of $500
each, due each year on September 1, 1924 to 1938, inclusive, and 5
bonds on September 1, 1939.

The fifth issue for Beat 1 of $50,000, bearing interest at the rate of _
54 per cent and dated March 1, 1915, is payable as follows: 6 bonds
of $500 each, due each year on March 1, 1926 to 1935, inclusive, and
8 bonds of $500 each, due each year on March 1, 1936 to 1940, inclu-
sive.

The issue for Beat 5 of $50,000, bearing 54 per cent interest,
and dated April 5, 1912, is payable as follows: 6 bonds of $500 each,
due each year on September 1, 1923 to 1927, inclusive, and 7 bonds
of $500 each, due each year on September 1, 1928 to 1937, imclusive.

The amount of interest which must be paid before the $500,000 of
bonds are retired according to the plan above outlined will amount
to about $472,232.

While the deferred serial method adopted by Lauderdale County
is recognized generally as providing greater security and economy
than the sinking-fund method, it would not seem wise to defer the
beginning of the bond retirement to the tenth year. If a portion of
the principal is paid between the fifth and tenth years, the burden of
taxation is lightened by reason of being spread out over a longer
period of time. If this is not done, the taxpayers will have expe-

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 71

rienced the benefit of the roads for 10 years at a low financial outlay,
represented by payments of interest, and then when the great con-
trast between the old conditions and as new will have passed out of
their minds they will suddenly be called upon to assume an in-
creased financial burden in order to provide funds for the retirement
of the principal.

The actual tax rate levied for interest on bonds in 1914 in Beat 1,
which includes Meridian, was 1.5 mills and in Beat 5, 2.9 mills. In
1915 these rates had increased to 1.8 mills for Beat 1 and 3.4 mills for
Beat 5, based upon the 1915 valuation of $12,874,856 in Beat 1 and
$864,010 in Beat 5. If the bonds had been issued so as to have the
payments begin the sixth year and continue to the twenty-fifth year,
inclusive, the rate necessary to meet both interest and principal of
$450,000 in Beat 1 would have been 2.53 mills, based on the 1915
_yaluation, or 0.88 mill more than the average of the rates actually
levied for those two years. In Beat 5 the rate necessary to retire
the bond issue on the same terms would average 4.28 mills, or 1.18
mills higher than the rate actually levied in 1915. Thus it appears
that with tax rates almost as great as would be necessary under the
5-25 year plan the county is only succeeding in meeting interest
charges.

It would be well if counties could so arrange their financial meas-
ures and so time the meeting of their obligations as to make the bur-
den comparatively light at the very outset, thus giving the people a
chance to develop their resources through the improvement of the
roads. Todo this the cost burden should be distributed so equitably
over a period of years that it will avoid the two extremes of excessive
tax levies on the one hand to pay off the debt too quickly, and the
extension on the other hand of the debt beyond the life of the utility
in order to obtain a low tax rate. An examination of the bond
issue indicates that if the county had adopted the 5—25 year deferred
serial nfethod the total payments would be $65,357 less than they
will be under the method actually adopted, if no smking fund is
established. As against this large difference it should be stated that
the taxpayers are having the use of the money which they would
have paid out if they had elected to retire the bonds more expedi-
tiously. It is therefore a question as to whether this convenience is
worth the price.

Taxation in the county does not differ materially from the rates in
other localities, as in 1911 the total for all purposes, including the
State tax, was 15.4 mills on the dollar. In addition to this property
tax there is a commutation tax of $2 for road purposes and a poll tax
of $2 for schools. In 1915 the average levy was 16.6 mills, of which
the road-bonds tax comprised an average of about 1.6 mills and pro-
duced about 9.4 per cent of the revenue; the tax for maintenance

12 BULLETIN 893, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of the bond-built roads comprised 1 mill and produced about 4.9 per
cent of the revenue; and thé general road tax was 1 mill and
produced about 6 per cent of the revenue, thus showing that the
public-road revenue of the county comprised about 20 per cent of the
total revenue of approximately $269,500.

The county road tax is levied against all taxable property im Merid-
ian, but about one-half of the proceeds is used for streets inside the
corporate limits. Simce 1911 the tax rate for the city of Meridian has
increased only 0.4 mill, in spite of the fact that it is paying 2.8 mills
for interest and maintenance of bond-built roads. The rate for
Beat 1, outside of the city, increased 3.4 mills during the same period,
and the rate for Beat 5 increased 7.5 mills. The rate in Beats 2,3,and
4 increased 0.6 mill, but none of the bond-built roads are located in
those beats.

The general bonding law of the State requires that the tax for
payment of interest and principal on the bonds be a special tax
instead of having any of the expenditure paid out of other funds.

HOW THE WORK WAS MANAGED.

The roads constructed from the proceeds of bond issues were built
by contract under the general direction of a county highway com-
mission, consisting of three members appointed by the county board
of supervisors for a term of 4 years. All important actions of the.
commission, such as letting contracts and paying out money, are
approved by the county board of supervisors. The commission em-
ployed an engineer, and all work was done under his immediate direc-
tion. He made the surveys and prepared the plans, specifications,
and estimates, which were approved by the commission and the
board of supervisors before the contracts were let. All bills were
checked by the engineer, approved by the commission, and paid on
the order of the board of supervisors.

Positions on the road commission were honorary, and the commis-
sioners acted without salary, but received $50 per annum for ex-
penses. The commission went into office when the first bonds were
issued, and has continued in officé up to the present time with some
changes in personnel. The engineer to the commission received a
salary of $250 per month and the use of an automobile. He con-
tiued in office from the time the work started until the work was
finished, about April 30, 1915. During the construction period an
assistant engineer was employed by the commission at a salary of $90
per month. A new engineer was employed on May 1, 1915, to com-
plete the work under the $50,000 bond issue of March 1, 1915. His
salary is $135 per month, but is partly paid by the county board of
supervisors for services rendered in connection with laying out roads
for the county convict road forces. Before the bonds were issued

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 73

the county convict forces built roads without engineering advice or
assistance, but the benefits resulting from the employment of a com-
petent engineer have become so apparent in the county that no
work is now done by the convict forces without first calling upon the
engineer to survey and lay out the work to be done.

Ten main market roads radiating from Meridian like the spokes
from the hub of a wheel (see Pl. XX XI) and one branch to a main
road, aggregating 512 miles, were macadamized, and in Beat 1 the
distances from the ends of the macadam portions to the beat line
were surfaced with sand-clay, the total of this latter type in Beats 1
and 5 aggregating 45 miles. The improved roads, therefore, comprise
a total of 96.75 miles, or about 12 per cent of the total of 800 miles in
the county. The arate were graded 22 to 24 feet wide in fills and
28 to 30 feet wide in cuts, with 4-foot shoulders and 3-foot ditches.
The macadam surfaces were from 14 to 16 feet wide and 6 inches
thick consolidated. The sand-clay treatment usually extended from
ditch to ditch. Natural sand-clay mixtures were principally used
for this construction. The material for the macadam construction
consisted of novaculite imported by rail from Tamms, IIl., a distance
of 300 miles. The stone cost $1.10 per ton of 2,160 pounds, f..0. b.
Meridian. The gravel used was shipped in by rail from Iuka, Miss., and
cost $1 per ton f. o. b. Meridian, of which 30 cents was for material
and 70 cents for freight. The weight was from 2,700 to 3,000 pounds
per cubic yard. The average cost of constructing the roads, exclu-
sive of bridges, was about $6,500 per mile for macadam and $2,000
per mile for sand-clay. The general average for the entire mileage
was about $4,666 per mile. Most of the bridges were built of wood
at a cost of about $3 per running foot.

For the ordinary road work of the county the convicts, averaging
from 65 to 70, are regularly employed. These are divided into three
camps and are used for grading and the building of sand-clay roads
in the outlying districts, and for general maintenance work on all
county roads. The cost of feeding, clothing, guarding, and medical
attention, and the cost of teams and equipment, are paid eut of the
general funds of the county. The total cost of maintaining the three
camps is about $38,600 per annum, and during the past 5 years they
have constructed about 50 miles of sand-clay roads. This work was
principally that of extension from bond-built roads to the county line.
All road and bridge work in this county, amounting to more than $50,
except that which is done by the convicts, must be done by contract.
Very little work has been done, however, except by convicts and
under the bond issues. The remarkable difference between a good
and bad road is shown in Plate XXXII.

74. - BULLETIN 393, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
HOW THE ROADS ARE MAINTAINED.

An excellent provision in the general law of the State requires that
a special tax of not less than 1 mill shall be levied for the maintenance
of all roads constructed by means of bond issues. This fund is kept
separate from all other funds and can be used only for maintenance.
The result of this provision is that instead of deteriorating the roads
have actually improved from year to year, and were in excellent con-
dition at the time of our inspection in November, 1915. About a
year after the gravel-macadam roads had been built, they were sur-
face-treated with bituminous material, one-half to three-fourths
gallon per square yard, and sand or slag screenings, at a total cost of
about 7.3 cents per square yard. The roads are not considered fin-
ished until they have received this surface treatment. The width
treated varies from 12 to 14 feet. All macadam roads in the county
are now surface-treated, except 7 miles on the Russell Road and
2-or 3 miles on the Marion and Eighth Street Roads, which will be
treated in the spring of 1916. The machinery, which was furnished
by the contractor, consisted of rotary sweepers, compressed-air ma-_
chine and tank, pressure distributers, and tank wagons for hauling
heated material. Taking two of the principal roads, the following
data show the cost of this work and afford a basis for estimating the
cost for the whole county:

ASYLUM ROAD.

40,815 square yards; for purchase of material and its application at 54 cents

TOYS Sa [ETL E NA eT GAMER eae oes I SI ral am ed La See SU SA abe $2, 244. 83
Additional expenses:
Tannin eet ais onal tyes yee 2 ye eae eens EN ree ee ae $103. 60
Tes bey aul aki syety 00 Wren ny etree aly Cs RT St Sg ee Po 251. 50
Traction-engine engineer, fireman, coal, etc.........-...-: 125.77
Spreadine sandeep Hie" 2 ayh ei eee top apea an Pee ee 179. 80
TSU SP Me OTe Ys) 0) ave ie perms leans acannon eA 80. 00
Imerdentals (shovels; repairs; etc!) 222. Sees Sees wee 10. 94
JPEGs) cit VE ANT hie ae Neither an i aye eames iyi A ae ane CU nae 106. 30
Hanlinoywaterntonitra ctionsencine=. = 256 ses ss eee ee 25.00
AO tall nee cote hye epg Oop Aa Ae aes NS Mp emcee pe DR ASE 882. 91
Gramdstotall 22 Sie ee Th OUT, ADEE Ee CARE hE eiey JES 3, 127.74
Wweracel cost per mile (forthe Si miles)is2- 22 ols e. ae ee $625. 54
mAVeTareieost pen squaresyard | .c)52)02 2. fs cia epee ee ayes pee . 0766

POPLAR SPRINGS AND MARION ROADS.

84,257 square yards; for purchase of material and its application at 5 cents

CLEMO UATE pyar Geta 2 arate es) By Mee aR eee Se cree eae eee eae $4, 212. 85
Additional expenses:
Haulinevhotasphalt.-.-.. 2. >..-k 2 we eee eee $252. 40
Tan aibin ose dee etsy tore Set NR OES EN i cag ey tac 791. 62

Traction-engine engineer, fireman, coal, etc..........------- 284.45

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 175

Additional expenses—Continued.

SURE TELS RTL G ey Saree 5 SON acts ma eeeaen etre facie ae eae $285. 85
Plerigte rea G steer ee ee en Ae 130.00
incidentals (shovels, repairs, etc.)¢..--..- 22-27 2. 21.87
_P 4 iNG DITE ee soy a ORE a Aig cere Bee SIRS Oe ee 64. 35
Hauling water for traction engine.............-------------- 11. 25
“CE SIIGILLE S Be epee a eo, Soe ee SAE RO, 2s 2s Ep ee eh ter es $1, 841.79
Germeataialse ee! iG mee Aree Ee eS en hee 6, 054. 64
myerare cost, per mile (for the 10 miles) :..22 2.22225. 22 vase eee enh ee: $605. 46
Average cost perisquare yard...........-..--..-- PEE Sa oc ee eee ee a Oe $0. 072
Total number of square yards treated up to April, 1914_._................ 125, 072
Sie Mage Ee Nae ieee ae en en eines oe ee a ee $9, 182. 38
Average cost per mile over entire 15 miles... .... eb AES A eee iaS2 34 $612. 16
Merits Cosi persguare yards io). 02. 2. 2s. 2 Je ee $0. 073

The material was purchased and applied by contract at a fixed
charge per square yard. The cost of this treatment and all addi-
tional expenses shown above were paid by the county from the bond-
issue funds.

When roads begin to show signs of wear they are patched and
re-treated. About one-fourth gallon of the material per square yard
is used in the second treatment and the cost averages about $400 per
mile, which includes $20 to $25 per mile for patching. The second
treatment and all subsequent repairs are paid for out of the main-
tenance funds.

For keeping ditches open and for taking care of other small repairs,
one man is constantly employed in Beat 1. He furnishes a horse,
wagon, and small tools and is paid $80 per month. Extra labor is
employed to assist him when necessary.

The sand-clay roads are worked over with road machines and
dragged with split-log drags as often as necessary. The bond-built
roads are maintained under the direction of the county highway
commission, with the approval of the county board of supervisors.

There are no toll roads in the county.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON LAND VALUES.

The taxable valuation in Lauderdale County in 1911 was
$15,839,185, mcluding the city of Meridian and the railroad property,
and had increased in 1914 to $20,095,110.50. As the road improve-
ment would have no direct bearing upon the assessed valuations of
city and railroad property, a comparison of real-estate values outside
the city of Meridian would afford more illuminating information in
this connection. Such comparison shows that in 1911 the total
assessed valuation of real property outside of the city was $2,757,546
and that it had increased in 1914 to $3,183,809, an increase during
this period of road improvement of 15.4 per cent. A rather striking

76 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

fact in connection with the road improvement was that about 83
per cent of the tax for the payment of interest on bonds in Beat No. 1
is paid by the city of Meridian, although none of the roads are located
within the corporate limits.

Personal investigation as to the effect of the road improvement on
land values brought out many specific incidents of increases in values
from 50 to 500 per cent coincident with the improvement of the roads.
Lands 5 miles out from Meridian that were held at from $15 to $20
per acre before the roads were improved sold after the roads were
improved for $50 per acre. For the purpose of illustrating more
specifically the remarkable effect of the road improvement on property
values, the following examples were selected on a single road leading
out from Meridian:

A tract 44 miles from Meridian, contaming 40 acres, cost $1,000
in 1911, and in March, 1912, was sold for $1,900.

A tract containing 13 acres cost $1,000 in February, 1911, and
was sold in the same year, after the road work had begun, for $2,000.

A tract containing 20 acres, 4 miles from Meridian, cost $500 in
1907; 13 acres sold in 1912 for $1,500.

An estate 4 miles from Meridian, containing 40 acres, was pur-
chased in 1908 for $400. It was sold in 1911 for $1,700 after con-
struction started, and was estimated to have been worth $2,500 in
Tou:

A farm 5 miles from Meridian, containing 120 acres, was bought in
1907 for $900, and was sold in 1912 for $4,200.

A farm 44 miles from Meridian, containing 200 acres, was esti-
mated to have been worth $5,000 in 1911, but after the road was
completed the owner refused an offer of $9,500.

A farm 4 miles from Meridian, containing 40 acres, was sold in
1910 for $2,500; in 1912 the owner refused $4,500.

The total of 473 acres in these tracts before the roads were im-
proved was $11,300, or an average of $23.89 per acre, while after
the roads were improved the total value was $26,100, or $55.18 per
acre, an average Increase of $31.29 per acre, or 131 per cent. Many
small tracts of land, 2 or 3 miles from Meridian on the Poplar
Springs Road, have sold, since the road was improved, for from $100
to $3,000 per acre. This property was all in farms before the road
was improved and could have been bought for from $20 to $50 per
acre. For 3 miles out this road is now lined with magnificent sub-
urban homes.

Hstimates of local men versed in real-estate values give the increase
im land value, on account of improved roads, at from 25 to 50 per
-cent. According to the United States census of 1910, the average
value of all farm land in Lauderdale County was about $10 per acre.

,
’

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 77
EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON TRAFFIC.

There are five railroads in the county which converge at Meridian.
These have a total of about 92.5 miles of road and 23 railroad stations.
At Meridian alone 60,000 cars of freight, including- 15,000 cars of
lumber, are handled annually.

The traffic over some of the roads averages from 25 to 200 loaded
vehicles per day at certain seasons of the year, with some of the
wagons carrying from 2 to 3 tons. Practical examples of the small
tractive resistance on the improved roads were demonstrated by
drivers of freight wagons, who unhitched 2 or 3 yoke of oxen when
macadam roads were reached and proceeded the remainder of the
distance with a single yoke.

_ The total production of corn, oats, peanuts, peas, potatoes, hay,
and forage in 1910 amounted to 17,212 tons, and of cotton and cotton
seed 14,442 tons. The production of cotton has been reduced mate-
rially since 1910 on account of the boll weevil, but the production of
general farm crops has increased probably in about the same propor-
tion. Of these products it is estimated that 20,627 tons were hauled

over the country roads to market or shipping point. There is prac-

tically no hay or forage hauled out of the county, but more hay is
being grown in the county than ever before. In addition to this it is
estimated that 4,500 tons of fertilizer and 60,000 tons of lumber are
hauled over country roads, making a total of 85,127 tons. It is esti-
mated that about one-half of this, or 42,563 tons, is hauled over the

improved roads an average distance of 6 miles, equivalent to 255,378

ton-miles. This tonnage has not materially increased since the

roads were improved. ‘The traffic area for these roads embraces about

192,000 acres. The hauling over the improved roads, therefore,

amounts to about 0.22 ton per acre for the traffic area.

The average load on the old roads for a two-horse team was 1,500
to 2,500 pounds, and on the new roads from 2,500 to 3,500 pounds.
On the basis of an 8-mile haul as a day’s work, with an average load
of 1 ton and an average wage of $3 per day for man and team, the
average cost per ton-mile over the old roads was $0.37. Based on a
ten-mile haul, an average load of 14 tons and an average wage of $3
for man and team, the hauling costs on the new roads average about
20 cents per ton-mile, a saving of 17 cents, or a total annual saving of
about $43,400. If this saving could be applied to the payment of
interest and principal, it would be sufficient to retire the $450,000
bond issue in about 17 years.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON SCHOOLS.

Outside of Meridian there are 78 white and 53 colored schools. In
Beat 1, where most of the road improvement has taken place, the
average attendance in 1912 was 72 per cent, and in 1913, 81 per cent.

78 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Two schools in Beat 1 were consolidated by reason of the better roads |
and one school was discontinued, as the children are now able to
attend school in Meridian. These two changes have resulted in a
net saving to the county of $100 per month for teachers’ salaries.

VALUE OF THE ROADS TO THE COMMUNITY.

In order to bring out an expression of opinion as to the value of
road improvement, an inquiry was addressed by a local paper to
prominent citizens living on the improved roads. From the replies
received, the following quotations are made:

(1) It is impossible to enumerate the advantages of such a road as this; it is the
only time in my life that I have ever realized any direct benefits from taxation, but
paying taxes for road improvement with me after seeing and realizing what it means
to the whole country is a pleasure; and I don’t think you can burden a man with
taxation when he gets results like this from it.

(2) I have heard compulsory education agitated, but if I was a member of the
legislature I would offer a resolution advocating compulsory road construction, for
a man that is opposed to it is either ignorant of what it means to him or is a fool, and
I think the State ought to look after such people. I get pay over and over every
week of my life for what it costs me by watching the school children pass my house
to and from school, perfectly comfortable regardless of weather conditions. I am
one of the trustees of our school and just a day or two ago I signed the school report,
showing a total enrollment of 130 and an average attendance during the month of
December of 109. As you know, December was one of the worst months we ever
experienced in this county.

(3) I have never made an investment for which I have gotton as much financial
returns and satisfaction as I have out of this road. The advancement in property
alone has been sufficient to four or five times pay the whole cost of construction, and
I don’t think the county could, make any investment that would bring in as much
returns as to build a network of them all over it. It is such a good thing that T want
every man in the county to have one just like it, and I am willing to pay my part
of the taxes to help him get it.

(4) I live 4 miles from the city and 2 miles from the school. This has been the worst
winter that I have ever seen, but there hasn’t been a single day that my children
haven’t walked to school and not a single day have they come home with wet feet;
and to think they walked down the middle of the road. Not one of them has been
sick with a cold even, while heretofore my doctor bills have been more than my
road tax. Talk to me about paying taxes to build roads! I am willing to pay taxes
on my pack of fox hounds, my bird dog, my chickens, my horses, and if necessary
my wife and children, if they will use it in extending roads like this all over the
county. I would rather have my house and 10 acres of land on this road like it is
now than have my whole farm on the old road like it was before improvement.

(5) The good roads have made it possible for me to live at my country home and
still attend to my business affairs in Meridian, just as easily as though I lived in town.
The benefit that strikes me as being most practical and far-reaching is the tremendous
increase in real-estate values of country property located on the good roads. I have
been especially interested in this feature and have found that in every instance into
which I have inquired farms located on the good road have been enhanced in value
from 50 per cent to 100 per cent as a result of the building of the good roads. I am
heartily in favor of good roads and firmly believe that everybody would be so if they
had the opportunity of using one for a short time.

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 79

In contrast to the above, the following is quoted from the reply
received from a farmer and merchant living on the Bonita Road, which
has since been improved (see Pls. XXIX, XXX, and XXXIII):

(6) There hasn’t been a time since the 1st of December that I have been able to
get anything hauled to my-place from Meridian, just 4 miles, for less than 25 cents
per hundred; in the majority of instances it has cost me as high as 50 cents, and a
good many times it has been impossible to get it at any price; the people in my com-
munity have actually had to go without oil for their lamps for a week at the time
because they couldn’t get it; if these conditions are not a heavier tax on the people
than paying for the construction of roads, then I am a bad judge and a bad mathe-
matician. Fd

MANATEE COUNTY, FLA.

The movement to improve the more important roads of the county
was begun in 1909 and was due to the fact that fruits.and vegetables,
for which the climate and soil were particularly favorable, could not
be hauled over the sandy roads except at prohibitive cost. (See

-Plate XXXIV, fig. 1.) Furthermore, the county could not hope to

attract tourist travel unless an adequate system of roads was pro-
vided. As a result of the movement, $250,000 of road bonds were
voted on September 1, 1909, but on account of injunction proceed-
ings to prevent the issuance of the bonds, work was not begun until
the spring of 1911.

The county is located on the west coast just below the lower end of
Tampa Bay and has a land area of 1,337 square miles, or 855,680
acres, of which in 1910 only 14,173 acres, or 1.7 per cent of the total,
were in improved farms. It is thus evident that the county had
scarcely begun to develop its resources at the time the road building
was begun. The population was 9,550 in 1910, and several towns
in the county were, at that time, rapidly assuming importance as
winter resorts. The surface is practically flat and most of it only a
few feet above sea level, and the soil varies from light gray sand to
fine sandy loam. The principal products are grapefruit, oranges,
and other semitropical products, small fruits, and vegetables, which
are mostly shipped to northern markets during, the winter months.

The economic studies were made in April, 1911, May, 1912, April,
1913, April, 1914, and February, 1915.

HOW THE IMPROVEMENT WAS FINANCED.

The bonds which were issued February 24, 1911, as of September
1, 1909, are 30-year sinking-fund bonds, bearing interest at 5 per
cent. A premium of 1 per cent was obtained, making a total avail-
able for road improvement of $252,500. Owing to the fact that 5

_ per cent is obtained on the sinking fund, the financial burden upon

the county is very little more than it would be if the deferred serial
method had been adopted. In explanation of how the county was
able to secure 5 per cent on the sinking fund, it may be stated that

2

80 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

this fund is deposited with fhe bond trustees of the county, con-
sisting of three bankers, and by them imvested in securities which
must be equally as good as the bonds. The trustees are planning
to buy up the road bonds whenever their funds are sufficient to do
so and the bonds are available for purchase. . It is planned to retire
$3,000 of the bonds during 1916. The weakness of the plan adopted
lies in the extreme improbability that 5 per cent will continue to
be obtained on the sinking fund. If the county succeeds in obtain-
ing over the entire period an average of more than 4 per cent on its
sinking fund, it will have accomplished more than could reasonably
be expected.

As an indication of how the sinking-fund method compares with
the deferred serial method, it might be pointed out that the annual
outlay for interest and retirement of the $250,000 bond issue under
the former, with interest on the sinking fund at 4 per cent, would be
$16,957.53, and under the deferred serial method, with the bonds
running 5-30 years, the annual outlay would be $15,833.33- If the
county, however, succeeds in obtaining 5 per cent on the sinking”
fund throughout the entire period the annual outlay will be
$16,262.85. .

It would, therefore, appear that if the deferred serial plan had
been adopted instead of the sinking-fund plan, with interest on
sinking fund producing 4 per cent, a total saving of $33,725.75 could
be realized, but if the smking fund produced 5 per cent the saving
would be only $12,855.50. This latter sum is, however, equivalent
to about 5 per cent of the total bond issue and would have been
sufficient to pay for all engineering expenses.

To provide an annual outlay of $16,262.85, a levy of about 2 mills
on each dollar of assessed valuation will be required on the basis of
the present assessment, but naturally this rate will decrease as the
assessed values increase.

The tax levy for the road bonds in 1910 amounted to 7 mills and
in 1915 to 3 mills. The sinking fund contained $47,396.98 on
December 1, 1915, which indicates that the rate of accumulation is
greater than necessary to retire the bonds in 30 years.

A comparison of tax rates for the years 1905, 1910, and 1915
reveals the fact that there has not been a very great increase in the
rate on account of the road improvement, as the total rates were 24
mills in 1905, 264 mills in 1910, and 26 mills in 1915, and that while
the 24-mill rate produced only $49,472.86 in 1905, the 26-mill rate
produced $178,420.89 in 1915. In other words, while the tax rate
increased during that period only 10 per cent, the receipts increased
260 per cent, indicating a remarkable increase in taxable wealth.
. While there was a levy of 3 mills in 1915 for road bonds, as compared
with no levy for that purpose in 1905, the levy for general county

| ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 81

purposes decreased 14 mills; the levy for outstanding road warrants,
which was only 1 mill in 1905, had been eliminated in 1915; the levy
for school indebtedness, which amounted to 3 mills in 1905, was
absent in 1915; and the levy of 1 mill for county clerk’s office
indebtedness in 1905 had been eliminated in 1915; so that these
savings more than compensated for the increase due to the road
bonds, and made it possible to increase the general levy for roads
and bridges of 3 mills in 1905 to 5 mills in 1915, and to make a 34-mill
levy in 1915 for county buildings. As compared with 1910, it will be
noted that the tax rate for 1915 was one-half mill less and that in
spite of this reduction the receipts from taxation increased 140 per
cent. A further rather interesting comparison is shown by the fact
that while in 1905 the roads required 25 per cent of the taxes, they
required, including bond taxes in 1915, 33.2 per cent of the taxes.

The road and bridge taxes and the road-bond taxes are levied on
all property in the county, including incorporated cities, but one-half
of all road and bridge taxes collected from cities are returned to them -
for the improvement of streets within corporate limits. In addition
to the regular road tax there is a statute labor tax of 3 days or $3
for all residents of rural districts who are non-freeholders. The -
amount of work accomplished and the receipts from this source,
however, are inconsiderable.

On January 18, 1910, Englewood district voted $75,000 worth of
road and bridge bonds, but they have not yet been issued. With
this money 26 miles of road are to be graded and a portion of the
road surfaced with sand-asphalt.

On January 11, 1916, the Sarasota-Venice district voted $250,000
worth of road and bridge bonds. Of this amount $210,000 will be
expended for roads and $40,000 for bridges.. With the $210,000 it is
proposed to build 34 miles of sand-asphalt roads and grade 14 addi-
tional miles. The deferred serial type of bonds will be issued in both
of these special districts. They will bear 6 per cent interest and will
be retired in 5, 10, 15, and 20 years.

Manatee circ is wecde See the issuance of $239,000 of road
and bridge bonds.

The county has $97,445 of outstanding warrants which were issued
for the purpose of building a court house. These bear 6 per cent
interest and are to be paid off in five annual installments, covering
the period 1913 to 1917, inclusive. There are also $285,000 of school
warrants outstanding. These bear 6 per cent interest and must be
paid in 20 years.

From the above it will ee seen that the total debt of the county is
$957,445, which represents 11-8 per cent of the 1915 assessed valua-
tion.

47234°—Bull. 393—16—6

82 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

HOW THE WORK WAS MANAGED.

The board of county commissioners has sole jurisdiction over the
construction and maintenance of public roads, including those built
under the bond issues, and consists of five members, of whom one is
elected for each of the five districts. They are elected for 2-year terms
and receive $4 per day for time actually employed, not to exceed
$200 per annum. ‘They are allowed mileage extra.

The clerk of the circuit court acts as clerk and accountant to the
board of supervisors. The clerk’s compensation is derived from fees
and he receives no extra compensation from the board.

An engineer was employed by the county commissioners, under>
whose immediate supervision all bond-built roads were constructed.
The engineer received $10 per day for time actually employed, and
expenses. During the construction period he received approxi-
mately $5,000, not including transportation.

The county engineer now employed by the county commissioners
for general road and bridge work receives a salary of $150 per month
and the use of an automobile. For the Venice-Sarasota district an
engineering firm has been employed to do all engineering work.
Compensation will be 4 per cent of the total expenditure of $250,000.

The roads to be improved were selected by the board of county
commissioners prior to the bond election. The bond issue called for
the construction of 64.4 miles of road, which was done under contract
let by the board. The total mileage constructed was 63.65 or 11 per
cent of the total of 575 miles in the county. The accompanying map
(Pl. XX XV) shows the roads constructed under the first bond issue
and those proposed for construction with bond funds subsequently
provided.

The mileage and character of surface constructed under the
original bond issue were as follows: Marl and rock, 15.187; marl
rock with bituminous binder, 17.050; marl and shell, 9.850; shell,
14.171; brick, 1.00; graded, 6.40; making a total of 63.658 miles
constructed. (See Pl. XXXVI, figs. 2 and 3.)

These roads were completed during 1913. The local materials
available for road work are soft limestone and flint rock, marl, and
shells. The shells are obtained from mounds in various parts of the
county, and the other materials are fairly well distributed. These
materials are suitable for roads of light traffic, but considerable
expense will be entailed in keeping the roads in good condition
because of the automobile traffic and the heavy tonnage of fruits
and vegetables which pass over them. The expense of shipping in
more durable materials led the county authorities to build the roads
of local materials and to depend upon bituminous applications to
preserve their surfaces.

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 83

The marl-rock and limestone roads were surfaced to a width of
9 to 12 feet and were built in two courses. The first course was 6
inches in depth loose and the second course 3 inches loose. The
shell roads were surfaced to a width of 9 feet and to a depth of 12
inches loose. All rights of way were cleared to a width of 30 feet.

The average cost of the 63.658 miles built, including culverts and
bridges, was $3,966.50 per mile. The average cost per mile of the
shell road was $2,400; marl-rock macadam, $3,800; and flint-rock
macadam, $4,700 per mile. A contract let on April 21, 1911, con-
tains the following unit prices: Clearing and grubbing, $40 per acre;
grading, $0.10 per square yard; filling, $0.20 per cubic yard; marl in
place, $0.75 per cubic yard; stone in place, $3.25 per cubic yard;
screenings, $2.75 per cubic yard; sewer pipe in place, $0.70 per
linear foot; and concrete in place, $6 per cubic yard. .

HOW THE ROADS ARE MAINTAINED.

The improved roads have not been systematically maintained.
The shells and marl rock of which most of the roads were built are
soft, and these materials have not stood up well. The finer materials
have worn and blown away and many of the roads are full of ruts and
depressions. Some of the worst places have been patched. About
17 miles of rock roads were surface treated with bituminous material
when they were constructed, but this treatment has not been renewed,
and practically all of the original surface has disappeared.

The road from Manatee to Sarasota, about 10 miles, was resurfaced
in February, 1916, and treated with bituminous material. The
surface was scarified and shaped, after which a 2-inch layer of lime
rock was applied and rolled. By means of a pressure distributor
from 0.5 to 0.6 gallon per square yard of bituminous materials was
then applied and sanded. After about 10 days a second application ©
of bituminous material consisting of from 0.2 to 0.3 gallon per square
yard was applied and sanded. ‘The road was treated to a width of 10
feet and the work done by contract at a cost of 39 cents per square
yard, or a total cost of $2,288 per mile. This, as with all other main-
tenance work of the county, was paid for out of the regular road funds.

The repair and maintenance work is done under the general direc-
tion of the county engineer and under the immediate direction of road
overseers. There are 13 road overseers in the county, whose pay is
$3 per day for time actually employed. Laborers employed. for
patch and repair work receive $1.50 per day. For use in this work
the county owns a caterpillar tractor, 3 road graders, and 2 teams.

EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON LAND VALUES.
It is difficult to determine what effect the road improvement has

had upon the increase in assessed valuation of property in the county,
but it might be well to compare the increase in valuation during the

84 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

period 1905 to 1910 and between the latter date and 1915, thus obtain-
ing a 5-year period between which no roads were improved and a

5-year period during which the improved road system of the county
was constructed. In 1905 the assessed valuation of all taxable prop-
erty was $2,074,016, while in 1910 it had increased to $2,821,813, or
36 per cent. The assessed valuation in 1915 was $8,085,100, a total
increase of 180.5 per cent, so that the rate of increase was nearly six
times as great as during the preceding 5 years. Comparing real estate
only, it is shown that the assessed valuation was $1,798,936 in 1905,
$2,492,232 in 1910, and $7,338,050 in 1915. The increase was there-
fore 38.5 per cent from 1905 to 1910, and 194 per cent between 1910
amd 1915. It is estimated that property is assessed at about one-
third of its true cash value. The large 1915 assessment is due partly
to the fact that until a few years ago property was assessed at only
about 20 per cent of its value. A new railroad has been built in the
county, and this, together with the improved highways, has resulted
in bringing under cultivation large tracts of land which were formerly
nonproductive. ;

A personal inspection to determine the effect of the road improve-
ment on land values brought out the fact that there is a wide varia-
tion in land values, due partially to the relative fertility of the soil and
partially to the transportation facilities. For example, the orange and
grapefruit orchards, located on fertile “‘hammock” lands within easy
hauling distance of the railroads or steamboat landings, are valued
at from $400 to $600 per acre, while unimproved sandy pine lands
within 3 miles of Manatee sell at from $35 to $40 per acre. Some of
the low-priced lands had increased $25 per acre, while uncleared pine
land, which had sold during the preceding year. at $40 per ‘acre, had
increased in value to $60 adjacent to the road and $50 a mile from
the road. As examples of values, it may be stated that a tract of 40
acres of land sold in 1911 for $10 per acre was resold in 1912 for $37.50
per acre. For another tract, which could have been bought in 1910
for $20 per acre, $100 per acre was refused in 1912. A tract of 1,000
acres 6 miles south of Manatee was purchased before the roads were
improved at $10 per acre, and where this land abutted on the im-
proved roads it sold during 1913 for $75 per acre, and for $55 to $60
per acre within one-half mile of the improved road.

A member of a real-estate firm of Bradentown stated that land
which sold at $20 per acre before the road improvement sold at $50
per acre since the roads were constructed, and that lands were sold
after the road construction which could not have been sold at any
price before. Other examples illustrating the effect of the improved
roads on land values are given, as halle:

A prominent citizen of in asota bought a tract of 29 acres about a
year ago for $10,000, or $344 per acre, and resold April, 1914, for

_ ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT. 85

$15,000, or about $517 per acre. A brick road is to be built by this
place.

A tract of 40 acres one-fourth mile off Manatee-Sarasota Road (see
Pl. XXXIV, fig. 2), 6 miles north of Sarasota, which was unsalable
before the roads were improved, recently sold for $2,600, or $65 per
acre.

Between Sarasota and Fruitville, along the improved road, a 10-
acre tract was being held for $2,500, or $250 per acre.

On Manatee-Sarasota Road, about 2 miles south of Nenies 15
acres of uncleared land was Se in 1913 for $2,500, or $166 per
acre.

Another tract of 55 acres, 44 miles out of Bradentown, on the
Palma Sola Road, which sold at the time of completion of the road
for $20 per acre, was again sold 2 years later without additional
improvements for $50 per acre. On the Palma Sola Road, about 54
miles from Bradentown, a tract containing 160 acres was originally
set to grapefruit. When the road was improved the owner sold 40
acres for $1,000, and this has since been subdivided and resold for
over $6,000.

A tract of a little more than 400 acres along the road from Ellenton
to Parrish, about 2 miles above Ellenton and 14 miles off the road,
recently sold for $20 per acre. The same land was offered 2 years ago
for $10 per acre, but a purchaser could not be found.

Additional examples of the increased land values might be given,
but the foregoing statements are sufficient to show that the increases
have been remarkable and that the improvement of the roads has
‘probably done more to bring this about than any other factor.
From all of the information available it appears that there have been
_ added from 50 to 100 per cent or at least $15 per acre to the selling
price of all lands within one-half mile of the new roads, a total of
approximately $611,000, which is more than twice the ae of the
bonds issued.

v
EFFECT OF ROAD IMPROVEMENT ON TRAFFIC.

To ascertain the volume of traffic on the improved roads and the
relative cost of hauiing before and after the roads were improved,
information was obtained as to the farm production during the years
1912 and 1913. It was found that in 1912, 3,720 acres of land were
devoted to the raising of vegetables and 4,950 acres were devoted to
eroves of citrus fruit in bearing. In 1913, while there had been no
_material increase in the citrus-fruit acreage, the area devoted to
vegetables had increased to 5,195 acres. The yield of tomatoes alone
during the season of 1913-14 was 450,000 crates or 11,250 tons.
The yield of cabbage was 128,000 crates or 6,400 tons. Celery
comprised 336,000 crates or 13,440 tons, and citrus fruits yielded a

86 BULLETIN 393, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

total e 1,000,000 crates or 40,000 tons. These four crops—tomatoes,
cabbage, celery, and citrus fruits—for the season of 1913 comprised
about 71,090 tons, to which miscellaneous vegetables and fruits
added approximately 10,000 tons, making 81,090 tons of outgoing
farm products. The average load on the old sandy roads was about
750 pounds for a one-horse team and about 1,500 pounds for a two-
horse team, and the rate of wages was about $4.50 to $5 for a two-
horse team and driver for a 10-hour day. The average haul over the
old roads was approximately 24 miles, with a maximum of five trips
per day, or about 10 ton-miles per day for each two-horse team,
which made the cost of hauling approximately 45 cents per ton-mile.
It was found that 4,800 pounds could easily be drawn by a 2-horse
team after the roads were improved. In order to be entirely con-
servative, however, the average load on the improved roads is esti-
mated at 3,500 pounds, the number of trips per day 5, the same as
before the roads were improved, and the cost per day for team and
driver $4.50, the same as on the unimproved roads; the average haul ;
24 miles, the same as on the unimproved roads; and with these factors
the average cost of hauling by a 2-horse team is about 20 cents per
ton-mile, or a saving of approximately 25 cents per fomsaale as
ee i with the hauling cost on the old roads.

Based upon information secured from railroad officials, local
business men, and fruit and vegetable growers, it is estimated that
about 334 per cent of the outgoing rail shipments, 85 per cent of the
outgoing shipments by water, and 20 per cent of the incoming ship-
ments pass over the improved roads. On this basis the annual traffic
on the improved roads for 1915 was estimated to be 52,117 tons, or
130,292 ton-miles. If the saving of 25 cents per ton mile is applied
to this amount it indicates an annual saving of $32,573. As the
tonnage increases from year to year the benefit of the improved roads
in the way of reducing hauling costs will be more and more apparent,
and there can hardly be a doubt that the investment will prove a
profitable one.

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Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.

ost Oak)

[wymans Stores

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PPE WANOVER CO.
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Roads improved —
Roads to be improved em ms
Other ‘roads —_—_—

MAP OF SPOTSYLVANIA COUNTY, VA., SHOWING ROADS IMPROVED AND TO BE IMPROVED.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III

OPRRE 3538
Fic. 1.—COURTHOUSE ROAD, Marcu, 1910. BEFORE IMPROVEMENT.

Zs ‘

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BZ

OPRRE 9221

Fi@. 2.—COURTHOUSE ROAD, APRIL, 1913. GRAVEL, AFTER IMPROVEMENT.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

OPRRE 6795

Fie. 1.—WooODEN BRIDGE FAILURE ON CHANCELLORSVILLE ROAD, Marcu, 1910,
SPOTSYLVANIA COUNTY, VA.

OPRRE 6795

Fia. 2.—SAFE AND LASTING CONCRETE BRIDGE ON GRAVEL ROAD, SPOTSYLVANIA
COUNTY, VA.

Same location as above, April, 1913.

Bul]. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

OPRRE 3526

Fi@. 1.—TRAFFIC ON COURTHOUSE ROAD, MARCH, 1910, SPOTSYLVANIA COUNTY, VA.
Load for 1 horse, 4 cross ties or 800 pounds.

OPRRE 10538
FIG. 2.—TRAFFIC ON COURTHOUSE ROAD, FEBRUARY, 1914, SPOTSYLVANIA COUNTY, VA.
Load for each horse about 2,000 pounds,

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTe VI.

OPRRE 3536

Fig. 1.—SCHOOL BUILDING AT SPOTSYLVANIA COURTHOUSE, MARCH, 1910, SPOTSYLVANIA
CounTy, VA.

OPRRE 11809

Fia. 2.—THE OLD AND NEW SCHOOL BUILDINGS AT SPOTSYLVANIA COURTHOUSE, 1914,
SPOTSYLVANIA COUNTY, VA.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.

a
OPRRE 3571

Fic. 1.—WHAT WAS CALLED BOYDTON PLANK ROAD IN MARCH, 1910, DINWIDDIE
COUNTY, VA.

Se
Fic. 2.—SAME SECTION AS ABOVE AFTER IMPROVEMENT, MARCH, 1912, DINWIDDIE
CounTy, VA.

PLATE VIII.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Map OF DINWIDDIE COUNTY, VA., SHOWING IMPROVED ROADS, 1915.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX.

OPRRE 3587

Fla. 1.—A POORLY DRAINED SECTION OF THE COX Roap, MARCH, 1910, DINWIDDIE
CouNTY, VA.

OPRRE 6011

Fic. 2.—Cox ROAD, SAME LOCATION AS ABOVE, MARCH, 1911. TOP SOIL, DINWIDDIE
COUNTY, VA.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X.

OPRRE 4976

Fic. 1.-—TRAFFIC ON BOYDTON PLANK ROAD, MARCH, 1911, DINWIDDIE COUNTY, VA.
Load, 2 tons on each wagon.

OPRRE 7482

Fic. 2.—TYPE OF NEW STEEL BRIDGE ON BOYDTON PLANK ROAD, MARCH, 1912,
DINWIDDIE COUNTY, VA.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI.

OPRRE 4992

Fig. 1.—CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS, DINWIDDIE COURTHOUSE, DINWIDDIE COUNTY, VA.

Six rooms and auditorium. Cost $6,000. Built since roads were improved.

OPRRE 7314

Fia. 2.—SCHOOL WAGON WHICH CARRIES 20 CHILDREN FROM DEWITT TO DINWIDDIE
COURTHOUSE, 6 MILES, MARCH, 1912, DINWIDDIE, VA.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII.

OPRRE 6165

Fig. 1.—ROAD NEAR OLINGER, MARCH, 1911, LEE COUNTY, VA.

OPRRE 9825

Fic. 2.—ROAD NEAR OLINGER, MARCH, 1912, LEE CounTy, VA.
Macadam. New schoolhouse in distance on left.

PLATE XIII.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Bees
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Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIV.

OPRRE 11208

Fic. 1.—THE HuB-DEEP BLACKWATER ROAD IN MARCH, 1911, LEE CounTy, VA.

OPRRE 9793

Fig. 2.—THE BLACKWATER ROAD IN MAy, 1913. GRADED EARTH, LEE COUNTY, VA.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV.

OPRRE 4800

Fia. 1.—ROAD IN WHITE SHOALS DISTRICT, POWELLS VALLEY, LEE COUNTY, VA.

This county did not vote for a bond issue.

OPRRE 9812

Fic. 2.—MACADAM RoabD IN Rose HILL District, POWELLS VALLEY, LEE COUNTY, VA.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVI.

OPRRE 5153

Fic. 1.—Bia STONE GaP TO LEE CouNTY LINE. OLD LOCATION, MARCH, 1911, WISE
County, VA.

OPRRE 9828

Fic. 2.—BIG STONE GaP TO LEE County LINE. NEW LOcATION, May, 1913, WISE
COUNTY, VA.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVII.

LEGEND

‘Road macadamized with bond funds...
Road graded with bond funds. ........
Road improved with state and

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Map oF WISE COUNTY, VA., SHOWING IMPROVED ROADS, 1915.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVIII.

OPRRE 11246

Fia. 1.—STATE-AID ROAD BETWEEN BIG STONE GAP AND APPALACHIA,
WIsE COUNTY, VA.

OPRRE SOI2

Fic. 2.—NEW ROAD BETWEEN WISE AND CoEBURN, MAy, 1913, WISE COUNTY, VA.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIX.

OPRRE 14426

OPRRE 14423

OPRRE 14424

Fia. 3.—THE HURRICANE AND POUND CONSOLIDATION INTO THE NEW HUTCHINSON
Mpancn Crunni Wier Cormnty Va

PLATE XX.

Bul. 393, U.S, Dept. of Agriculture.

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OPRRE 9663

Fia. 1.—COUNTY ROAD, TOWN OF SANTA CLARA, IN THE ADIRONDACKS, MAY, 1913,
FRANKLIN CounrTy, N. Y.

OPRRE 10998

Fig. 2.—COUNTY ROAD, MACADAM, SAME LOCATION AS ABOVE, MAY, 1914, FRANKLIN
County, N. Y.

But. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXI.

OPRRE 7667

Fic. 1.—CouNTYy ROAD, EARTH, TOWN OF BANGOR, MAY, 1912, FRANKLIN COUNTY, N. Y.

OPRRE 11015

Fic. 2.—CounTy ROAD, MACADAM, SAME LocaTION AS ABOVE, May, 1913, FRANKLIN
CounTY, N. Y.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIl.

———_—_—<

is

10] - (2001

MAP OF FRANKLIN County, N. Y., SHOWING STATE AND COUNTY HIGHWAYS AND
COUNTY ROADS.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIII.

OPRRE 7692

Fic. 1.—TRAFFIC ON COUNTY ROAD BEFORE IMPROVEMENT, FRANKLIN CouNTY, N. Y.
Average load 10 cans of milk, 1,020 pounds.

OPRBE 10993

Fila. 2.—TRAFFIC ON TOWN ROAD AFTER IMPROVEMENT, FRANKLIN COUNTY, N. Y-.
Maximum net load for four horses, 6,300 pounds.

OPRRE 11014

Fia. 3.—AUTOMOBILE TRUCK TRAFFIC ON COUNTY ROAD AFTER IMPROVEMENT,
FRANKLIN COUNTY, N. Y.

Maximum net load 50 cans of milk, 6,000 pounds.

PLATE XXIV.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

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Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXV.

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RINE:
OPRRE 10860

Fic. 1.—SUMMERFIELD ROAD, 814 MILES FROM SELMA, DALLAS COUNTY, ALA.
General condition of entire road before improvement.

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OPRRE 10887

Fic. 2,—SUMMERFIELD ROAD AFTER IMPROVEMENT WITH GRAVEL, DALLAS COUNTY, ALA.

XXVI.

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Bul. 393,

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Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXVII.

OPRRE 4912

Fia. 1.—BURNSVILLE Rc >, OLD LocaTION, DALLAS CounTY, ALA.

OPRRE 9345

Fig. 2.—BURNSVILLE ROAD, NEW LOCATION, SURFACED WITH GRAVEL, DALLAS
CounTY, ALA.

PLATE XXVIII.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

9lig 3uYHdO

"vay ‘ALNNOO SVTIVq] ‘dVOY NOILONAP NOINVI, SHL NO AULSNGN| MAN V

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIX.

OPRRE 7046
Fia. 1.—BONITA ROAD, FEBRUARY, 1912, LAUDERDALE CouNTY, Miss.

OPRRE 875|
Fig. 2.—BONITA ROAD, MARCH, 1913, GRAVEL-MACADAM, LAUDERDALE County, Miss

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXX.

OPRRE 7044

Fic. 1.—BONITA ROAD, FEBRUARY, 1912, LAUDERDALE CounrTy, Miss.

OPRRE 8752

Fia. 2.—BONITA ROAD, MARCH, 1913, GRAVEL-MACADAM, LAUDERDALE COUNTY, Miss.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXI.

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Ay

MAP OF PART OF LAUDERDALE COUNTY, MISS., SHOWING IMPROVED Roabs, 1915.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXII.

ia i whe toes

\ OPRRE 7042

Fic. 1.—CAUSEYVILLE ROAD, FEBRUARY, 1912, LAUDERDALE CouNTY, Miss.

OPRRE 8736

FIG. 2.—CAUSEYVILLE ROAD. SAME LOCATION AS ABOVE, GRAVEL-MACADAM SURFACE,
FEBRUARY, 1913, LAUDERDALE CouNTY, MISS.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXIII.

OPRRE 7043
Fic. 1.—BoONITA ROAD, FEBRUARY, 1912, LAUDERDALE CounrTy, Miss.

A merchant paid $25 per 100 pounds for 4-mile haul, or $1.25 per ton-mile, and postoffice authorities
paid $12.50 per day per 1 day’s mail delivery a few days before this photograph was taken.

OPRRE 8754

Fic. 2.—BONITA ROAD, GRAVEL-MacADAmM. SAME LOCATION AS ABOVE, MARCH, 1913,
LAUDERDALE COUNTY, Miss.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXIV.

OPRRE 5120

Fia. 1.—MANATEE-SARASOTA ROAD, MANATEE COUNTY, FLA., IN 1911.

OPRRE 8415

Fig. 2.—MANATEE-SARASOTA ROAD IN 1912.

OPRRE 65119

FIG. 3.—TRAFFIC FROM MANATEE-SARASOTA ROAD. NET LoAD 45 CRATES OF CELERY,

lay PAYTAWAY layne

PLATE XXXV.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

TAMPA DAY

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LEGEND
GEES (MPROVED ROADS UNDER BOND ISSUE

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COUNTY ROADS

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MAP SHOWING THE MARKET ROAD SYSTEM, MANATEE COUNTY, FLA.

Bul. 393, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXVI.

OPRRE 6103

OPRRE 8443

OPRRE 8224

BULLETIN No. 394 ¢

onsvibsaien from Office of Markets and Rural ee
CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief

Washington, D. C. November 3, 1916

A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES IN
- THE UNITED STATES.

By J. A. Brxett, Dean, School of Commerce, Oregon Agricultural College;
Hector MAacpHerson, Direcior, Bureau of Markets, Oregon Agricultural Col-
lege; and W. H. Kerk, Investigator in Market Business Practice, Office of
Markets and Rural Organization, United States Department of Agriculture.

CONTENTS.

Page Page
Purpose; scope, and method of the survey... SUS (=) DG Wah a oie earn eS en Mean IG en SU Dre 14
OxrisinionthestOres jo. 2.2.5 se = one enn ne = 3 | Accounting, reports, and auditing .......... 16
General organization....... Ee ane aseeseaesace i} |p DVO go seabed gee ode Sheers saoncate 20
Operating organization SEBO Sue uel a Aer ee 8} Phe balanee;siheot i. so. seek ase ace cess 20
BATA COR re Poe wrare caceia imate ee wie in's = cscie' o)miAn'a\a =o 9 | Operating expenses.....--..-.----- eesaeccas 21
CUPS CGT) 2 a SS ie eo eo oe a Ba 12 | Observations and conclusions.......-..-..... 26
LING De - Seee Ce sor auras sono ecriee ESSA ie/ Ni 9) 0121440 0b, gre SRaday Mtv Amr Pyaar eta sme siee Aone 30

THE PURPOSE, SCOPE, AND METHOD OF THE SURVEY.

The financial success of the Rochdale Cooperative Store in Great
Britain, as well as in several other European countries, notably
Denmark and Switzerland, has aroused a widespread interest in that
type of cooperation in the United States. This interest has resulted
in the establishment of stores in all parts of the country, until it is
estimated that there are now approximately 400 in the United States,
distributed mainly in the North Central States and on the Pacific
coast.

The movement has probably been stimulated by investigations
carried on by the governments of various cities and States which
have emphasized the cost of distribution as the chief factor in the
high cost of living. The Department of Agriculture, as well as the
various universities, agricultural colleges, and departments of state
have received appeals for information regarding the feasibility of

- the cooperative store as a remedy for the great expense of distribution

and the resulting high cost of living.
With a view to obtaining some definite information on this subject,
the Office of Markets and Rural Organization, in cooperation with

_ the School of Commerce of the Oregon Agricultural College, during

Nory.—This bulletin should be- of interest to cooperative stores and to producers and
consumers generally.

47614°—Bull. 394—16——_1

3 _ BULLETIN 394, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the summer of 1915, undertook to make aisurvey of a number of typi-
cal cooperative stores. The sole purpose of the survey was that some.
disinterested agency might be informed as accurately as possible
regarding the subject of cooperative stores, and that some measure
-of guidance might be extended to stores which are now operating and
to those which may be formed in the.future.

No attempt was made to visit or question all the cooperative
stores in any State visited. The investigation was confined to a
number of representative stores which were chosen after a study
of all available information. Care was taken to include as nearly
as possible representatives of all existing types. Among them are
found some of the most successful concerns, as well as others which,
at the time of the survey, had already gone into the hands of re-
ceivers. A study of the tables makes clear the great range of stores
investigated. The stores selected were in 10 different States: Michi-
gan, Llinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, lowa, Kansas,
California, Oregon, and Washington. :

A list of questions, arranged in groups, was drawn up as shown ©
on page 3. The investigator made a personal visit to each store,
went over the entire list of questions with the manager, and supple-
mented the questionnaire by notes on points which could not be
covered in this categorical form.

The present bulletin covers the material collected from 60 stores,
but almost half of these were unable to supply sufficiently accurate
data to be included in Table X. For the most part, the tables are
allowed to speak for themselves. The supplementary reading matter
is intended merely to bring out facts which either can not be included
in the tables or which might escape the attention of the student if
specific reference were not made to them. In the questionnaire (p. 3)
the figures represent averages for the stores answering the question,
which number is indicated in parentheses. The results may be studied
to better advantage by reference to the different tables.

At the outset it must be made clear that neither the tables nor
the observations make any pretense of finality. At the same time,
it is believed that they are sufficiently reliable to offer timely sug-
gestions to all who are interested in the cooperative-store movement.
The investigator used as much precaution to obtain accurate data as
the limitations of the survey would permit. Nearly all of the results
are based on certified reports. In a few instances careful estimates
were accepted: but these, it is believed, in no case materially affect

Norn.—For further discussion of cooperative purchasing of farm supplies see Carver,

T. N.: The Organization of a Rural Community, Department of Agriculture Yearbook, 1914 .

(separate 682), and Bassett, C. E.: The Cooperative Purchase of Farm Supplies, Depart-
ment of Agriculture Yearbook, 1915 (separate 658).

athe OE REA ING PEAY

-.A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES. — 3

_the results. Where such estimates appear doubtful they have been —
eliminated. This accounts in part for the varying number of asso-
ciations answering the different questions.

_ For obvious reasons care has been taken to conceal both the identity
and locality of the stores investigated. The numbers in Table 10 bear
no relation to the order in which the stores were visited nor to the
numbers on the questionnaires. Stores which had been recently estab-
lished and which had as yet little or no experience of value were
usually omitted. Almost without exception the investigator found
the store managers willing to cooperate in attaining the object of the
survey and glad to furnish all the information in their possession.

See oe See ESN ee AMIN eae eae

ORIGIN OF THE STORES.

Inquiry into the origin of the stores investigated revealed a variety
of causes. In some cases the stores were started as a protest against
real or fancied abuses. In others the association was organized on
the initiative of outside promoters who make a business of organizing
cooperative stores. In still other cases there is reason to believe the
stores were established on the initiative of individuals who expected
to obtain permanent employment in the store.

As will be noticed by the answers to questions 6 and 7, there were
20 cases in which an established business was purchased. A great
deal has been said in favor of this practice. It has certain advan-
tages, to be sure, but from the cases examined in the present survey
the advantages of the established business appear to have been ofiset
by serious disadvantages. In some instances failing concerns suc-
ceeded in unloading stocks of goods upon the cooperative association
at excessively high prices and with liberal allowances for good will
thrown in. In other cases the association found itself with a large
proportion of the purchased stock either shelf worn or poorly adapted
to the needs of the community.

by
iY

ih Be es Se nS
=

QUESTIONNAIRE ON THE BUSINESS PRACTICE OF” COOPERATIVE STORES.*

Report No. 1D Fey ey eae Ss Brea AC AREER Aad alge croc , 1915
Information obtained by —-__--. Information SVEN a yg ee
TI, General:

ieeNamecess 2s City.) eo eS. Street and Nor 2222 <"42 County 22 24
5. State: _.___; 6. Was new business started: (20) Yes; 7. Hstab-
lished business purchased; (20) Yes; 8. Principal line: ____;
9. Secondary lines: ____; 10. Principal industry in locality: (31)
Farming; 11. Is location desirable: (37) Good; 12. Present -mana-
ger: ____; 13. His experience: ____.

1 Numbers in parentheses are stores reporting. In most cases the difference between
age the number given and 60, the total number surveyed. were either answered in the oppo-
site or not at all. Where not qualified figures represent averages.

{ ACW echt)
BULLETIN 394, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Mae aa ta LA
Tl. Hzternal or corporate \organieation:
14. Organized under cooperative law: (82) Yes; 15. Corporation law:
(10) Yes; 16. Number of members (48) 228; 17. Condition of mem-
bership: ____; Vote: (40) One per member; 19. Principal nationality
of members (49) American born; 20. President; (46) Yes; 21. Vice
president: (85) Yes; 22. Secretary: (88) Yes; 23. Treasurer: (34)
Yes; 24. Auditors (24) Yes; 25. Other officers: ____; 26. Directors:
(48) 5; 27. Term of office: (84) One year; 28: Committees and duties:
_.._; 29. Branches: (5) Yes; 30. Controlled by grange: (2) Yes; 31.
Controlled by farmers’ union: (1) Yes.
Ill. Imiernal or operating organization:
32. General manager: (47) Yes; 33. Sales manager: (7) Yes; 34.
Buyer: (4) Yes; 35. Cashier: (10) Yes; 36. Bookkeepers: (31) Yes;
37. Salesmen: (44) 5; 38. Saleswomen: (28) 3; 39. Stehographers: ,
(3) Yes; 40. Departments: (49) 2; 41. Is responsibility definite: } |
(27) No. + |
IV. Finance: i
42. Capital authorized: (82) $45,487; 43. Subscribed: (41) $20,143;
44. Paid in: (50) $16,627; 45. Par value of shares: (44) $53; 46.
How transferable: ____; 47. Amount may be held by member: (81)-
High $8,000, low $10, average $1,200; 48. Interest paid on stock: (37)
Yes; 49. Paid annually: (84) Yes; 50. Semiannually: (40) No; 51.
Dividends to members: (85) Yes; 52. Dividends to nonmembers:
(18) Yes; 58. Dividends paid annually: (80) Yes; 54. Semiannually:
(89) No; 55. Dividends paid in cash: (27) Yes; 56. Dividends in mer-
chandise: (29) No; 57. Dividends in stock: (35) No. f
V. Credit:

58. Do you borrow money: (40) Yes; 59. Rate of interest: (87) 7 per
cent; 60. Are bills discounted regularly: (18) Yes; 61. Hstimated
saving: (24),$997; 62. Is credit difficult to obtain: (33) No; 63.
Security offered: (26) None; 64. Credit extended to customers: (45) |
Yes; 65. For how long: (27) Two months; 66. Losses due to credit:
(15) $664; 67. Are accounts paid promptly: (25) Yes; 68. Advan-
tages of credit: ____; 69. Disadvantages: ____. (Kor per cent credit
sales, see question 86.) 4
VI. Purchasing: ;

- 5
—— eS eS er ees

. 4

70. Principal market: ____; 71. From salesmen: (48) Yes; 72. From ;

eatalogue houses: (21) No; 738. From manufacturers: (24) Yes;
74, Are lowest prices obtained: (27) Yes; 75. Estimated produce

bought from farmers: (22) $12,126; 76. Are all orders reduced to ’

writing: (30) No; 77. Invoices checked systematically: (89) Yes;
4S.) Oriheultiesh S022! .
VII. Selling: 4
79. Per cent country trade: (43) 638; 80. Per cent town trade: (48) ;
87; 81. Per cent membership trade (42) 60; 82. Nonmembership
trade: (42) 40; 88. Per cent active members (387) 80; 84. Nonac-
tive: (387) 20: 85. Per cent cash sales: (86) 50; 86. Per cent credit
sales: (86) 50; 87. Advertising methods: (23) None; 88. Delivery
system: (82) Yes; 89. Total annual sales by departments: (45)
$87,781; 90. Rate of profit on sales by departments: (386) 20 per
cent;* 91. Store opens: (37) 7 a. m.; 92. Closes: (37) 7 p. m.;
Saturdays 9 to 10. ,

17This is the estimate made by managers (see also Table 10).

A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES. ~ 5
VIII. Accounting and business methods:

98. When was system adopted: ____; 94. Satisfactory: (20) Yes; 95.
Defects: ____; 96, Double entry: (86) Yes; 97. How often is trial
balance taken: (386) Monthly; 98. Is total cash deposited daily:
(28) No; 99. Sales slips used: (42) Yes; 100. Are trading coupons
used: (27) No; 101. Is duplicating billing ledger used: (82) No; 102.
Are cost accounts kept by departments: (34) No; 103: System of
filing sales slips: _-_-.

IX. Reporis and auditing:

104. Manager’s report: (20) Monthly; 105. Contents: ____; 106. Form:
____; 107. When is report presented: ____; 108. Are audits made reg-
ularly: (84) Yes; 109. How often: (11) Monthly; 110. By com-
mittee: (21) Yes; 111. Cost: ____; 112. By professional auditor:
(26) No; 118. Cost: (15) $56; 114. Auditor’s report includes: —___;
115. Are members competent: (27) No.

XK. Mechanical equipment:

116. Cash register: (39) Yes; 117. Customers’ account file: (23) No—
(20) Yes; 118. Typewriter (25) Yes; 119. Adding machine: (24)
Yes; 120. Filing equipment: (29) Yes; 121. Overhead carrier; (34)
No; 122. Check protector: (26) No; 123. Mimeograph: (39) No;
124. Addressograph: (41) No; 125. Other equipment: ____.

XI, Business forms:

126. Constitution and by-laws: ~--_; 127. Annual report: ____; 128.
Stock certificate: ____; 129. Membership Cerbifiicate 8) 1350-
Membership register: ____; 131. Stock ledger: ____; 132. Purchase
requisition: ____; 133. Order for goods: ____; 184. Settlement memo-
randum: ____; 185. Duplicating sales slip; ____; 136. Triplicating
sales slip: ____; 187. Customers’ ledger: ____; 138. Billing ledger:
_.__; 189. Credit memorandum; _-__; 140. Credit rating blank:
_.._; 141. Cash sales ticket: _.___; 142. Business summary: ____;
143. Cash receipts distribution: ____; 144. Cash payments distribu-
tion; ____; 145. Check, ordinary form: ____; 146. Voucher check:
____; 147. Double entry ledger: ____; 148. Journal: ____; 149. Pur-
chase register: ____; 150. Sales register: —__-_.

XII. Comments on accounting system:

XIII. Resources:

151. Cash: (46) $2,074.78; 152. Merchandise inventories: (46)
$18,049.41; 1538. Equipment: (46) $1,640.21; 154. Accounts receiv-
able: (46) $7,386.05; 155. Bills receivable: (46) $2,070.76; 156.
Real estate: (46) $3,550.54; 157. Miscellaneous! (46) $2,092.58;
158. Total: (46) $26,864.38.

XIV. Liabilties:

159. Capital stock: (46) $15,947.67; 160. Accounts payable: (46)
$5,056.09; 161. Bills payable: (46) $5,151.87; 162. Surplus: (46)
$4,353.10; 163. Undivided profits: (46) $5,182.74; 164. Unpaid divi-
dends: (46) $192.28; Miscellaneous :1 (46) $980.58; 166. Total: (46)
$36,864.33.

1 Miscellaneous includes such items as interest, prepaid insurance, prepaid rent, and
unpaid labor.

6 BULLETIN 394, .U. &. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ~

XV. Summary of overhead expenses:

167. Salaries and labor: (31) $4,695.93; 168. Rent: (23) $881.51; 169.
Light and heat: (16) $137.14; 170. Insurance: (30) $301.81; 171.
Taxes: (21) $283.69; 172. Telephone and telegraph: (8) $48.44;
173. Interest: (25) $587.83; 174. Postage and stationery: (5)
$174.89; 175. Miscellaneous (36) $5,417.29; Total: (41) $9,609.27;
177. Net profit for last year: (31) $5,749.33; 178. Net per cent profit :
__._; 179. Per cent on capital, including surplus and undivided
Drohtse eae

XVI. ae salaries:

180. President: ____; 181. Secretary: ~-__; 182. Treasurer: ____; 188.
Manager: (42) $106; 184. Bookkeeper: (27) $68.87; 185. Cashier:
____; 186. Head salesman: (81) $74.18; 187. Other salesmen: (31)
$49.95; 188. Saleswomen: (26) $32.10; 189. Extra labor: ____; 190.
Totals, oe

XVII. Comments:

191. Is the business in satisfactory condition: (82) Yes. 192. Has the
business been reorganized: (37) No; 1938. Why: ----; 194, Ex-
pansion planned: (30) No; 195. Educational propaganda: (30) No;
196. Probable future: (20) Bright*; 197. Effect on service to the
patrons: ____; 198. Effect on local commodity prices: ---_; 199.
Effect on the community: ~-__; 200. Cooperation with other mer-
chants: (33) No; 201. How do expenses compare with private busi-
ness in town: (12) Same; 202. Are employees members: (24) No;
203. Do they share in profits: __.=; 204. Which employees are
‘bonded: ___-_.

GENERAL ORGANIZATION.

Owing to the fact that the enactment of cooperative laws in the
different States is a comparatively recent movement, a large propor-
tion of the stores examined were originally established under the
ordinary corporation laws. Most of them, however, are now organ-
ized under cooperative laws. At the time of this survey such laws
had been enacted by 30 States, including all of the States covered by
this study. Thirty-two out of 42 of the stores reporting on questions
14 and 15 were then organized under special cooperative laws. ‘Those
which still retained the corporate form of organization adhered to
certain cooperative principles which were made a matter of agree-
ment between the members through their constitution and by-laws.
For example, 40 of the stores had adopted the principle of 1 man,
1 vote; while 5 of them adhered to the plan of voting according to
investment. It was noticed, however, that in the older associations
established under the corporate law there was a tendency for the
stock to pass into a few hands, and in several of these cases the store
was cooperative only in name.

An attempt was made to compile a table showing the size and
financial success of stores on the basis of nationality, occupation, and

17This is the opinion of the managers.

/

A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES. 7

_ religion of those participating. Although the figures were not con-
clusive, nor sufficient for tabular presentation, they seemed to bear
out the opinion of many of the managers that a cooperative store is
apt to be more successful in a community which is made up of people
of one nationality. Similarly, in industrial communities, it was
found that stores are more successful where a large percentage of
the membership is of the same occupation; and at least one case was
observed in which common church affiliation is the basis of successful
cooperation.

The membership ranges from 1,600 to 30, while the average for all
the stores surveyed was 228. Although there were some notable
exceptions, as a general rule it was found that the success of the
stores was almost in direct proportion to the membership. This may
be due to the fact that the well-managed store usually has little diffi-
culty in increasing its membership, while the poorly managed store
soon loses the support of the members with which it begins operation.

It was surprising to find so small a proportion of the stores con-
trolled by farmers’ organizations, such as the Grange and the
Farmers’ Union. As a matter of fact, the farmers’ organizations
have taken the initiative in starting many stores, but not finding
themselves strong enough to support the business out of their own

- membership, they have thrown the conditions of membership open.
Even where such stores have been’ successful, they have frequently
had a bad effect upon the farmers’ organization. In some cases the
farmers, expecting great things from their store, have allowed the
local farmers’ organization to fall into decay, claiming that the store
was all the organization they required. In other cases, where the
store fathered by a farmers’ organization has been a failure, the effect
has been even more disastrous to the association.

The survey brought out the fact that the location has a great deal
to do with the success of the store. The best location, however, is
not always synonymous with the most expensive or most central loca-
tion. Much depends upon the type of trade.« In the case of stores
dependent largely upon country trade the proximity of horse sheds
and hitching facilities is an advantage. Such conveniences usually
can not be had in an expensive central location. On the other hand,
there are instances which tend to show that the store should not be
located too far from the points where country roads converge.

_ Five of the stores studied had undertaken the establishment of
branches in outlying districts. Almost without exception, the policy
of establishing such branch stores was found to be unsatisfactory.

_ Inall cases the branches were found to be a heavy drain on the work-
ing capital of the parent store. It was also found that the members
in the branch district were inclined to rely for success upon the

_ parent association, thus weakening the branch. It appeared, too,

“

8 BULLETIN 394, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

that the average manager secured by cooperative stores lacks the
business ability necessary for the management of more than one store.
Hence, although the policy of establishing branches is right in prin-
ciple, as shown in numerous cases under private and corporate man-
agement, notably the well-known chain stores, the results of this
survey. would indicate that a cooperative store should consider the
matter with the greatest care before undertaking the establishment
of branches.

Jt will be noticed that most of the stores fae the usual officers
and board of directors. The most common number of directors is 5
and the usual term of office is 1 year. Questions directed upon this
~policy seem to indicate that the 1-year term does not give sufficient
stability of policy. Of course, it. frequently happens that old direc-
tors are reelected; but in many instances new directors are elected
at the end of each year, and it is stated that by the time they leave
oflice they are just beginning to gain the experience necessary in order

to be of real value to the association. In the case of one of the most _

successful stores many of the officers and directors had served for
over 20 years, and the by-laws provided that only one-third of the
directors should be elected annually. Even if new directors were
elected, which did not often happen, at least two-thirds of the board

were always made up of experienced men. It was found that in some -
associations the president was elected directly by the members and.

was ex officio member of the board of directors. In the majority of
cases, however, he was elected by the members of the board from
among their number. It would appear that on the whole the latter
plan makes for greater efficiency.

Tt is a common practice for the by-laws to provide an auditing com-
mittee of two or three, to be elected from among the membership at
its annual meeting. More rarely the auditors are appointed by the
board of directors. The experience gained by those making the sur-
vey leads to the conclusion that the auditing committee should act
as a connecting link between the membership and the management,
keeping check at all times upon the business practice of the associa-
tion and counseling the directors whenever the condition of the busi-
ness appears to demand special attention. This would indicate that
the auditing committee should be elected by the members at their
annual meeting and be made directly responsible to them.

As will be more fully discussed in a later section, the results of the —

survey bring out very clearly that one of the greatest weaknesses of
cooperative stores lies in the lack of thoroughness in their audits.

OPERATING ORGANIZATION.

The business organization of a cooperative store does not differ:
inaterially from that of any other retail store. The business is usually

en ee ee ee ee eee

~¥
“ Ame 1 ea ie aoc
Oe s-taty eee! ves

_ A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES. 9

too small to admit of the type of efficiency which can be secured only
by having specialists charged with definite responsibility for certain
divisions of the work. In most cases the manager himself is com-
pelled to be a sort of business jack-of-all-trades. He is usually the
responsible head of the store, and at the same time must act as buyer,
head salesman, and bookkeeper. The man who combines efficiency in
all of these kinds of work is rarely found, and is usually in business
for himself. It is unusual for cooperative associations to be willing
or able to pay the salary which will secure a man of this type. The
salaries paid to the managers in the stores under consideration varied.
from $45 to $250 per month, making an average of $106 a month for
the 42 stores for which figures were obtained. This fact alone is suffi-
cient to explain why the majority of the stores were not more success-
ful than the tables indicate.

From the tabulated results of the questionnaire on page 4 it will
be noted that only 7 stores report the employment of a man whose
specialty is to act as sales manager, 4 report a special buyer, 10 a
cashier, and 3 a stenographer. Thirty-one stores report the employ-
ment of a bookkeeper. Careful inquiry, however, leads to the con-
viction that all but a small proportion of these men are not capable
of keeping a satisfactory set of accounting records. It is the almost
unanimous verdict of the store managers that greater attention must
be given to the office end of the business, and that the auditing must
be more efficiently performed.

FINANCE.

The points covered in the section of finance bring out the essential
differences between the corporate and cooperative type of organiza-
tion. In general, it may be said that with the cooperative type the
shares of stock are smaller; that. these shares do not determine the
voting power of the member; that paid-in capital stock usually bears
a fixed rate of interest, while dividends are based upon the business
and not upon holdings of stock; and that gertain restrictions are
placed upon stock transfer. The laws of most States require that a
definite authorized capital be fixed in the charter or articles of asso-
ciation, while in others the amount of stock need not be fixed. The
latter practice corresponds with the cooperative laws of several
European countries and aims to permit an indefinite growth in the
membership and capital stock.

For the 32 stores reporting the authorized capital, the average was
$45,487, while 41 stores giving the amount of capital subscribed
average $20,143, and 50 stores giving their paid-in capital average
$16,627. The shares of stock, as given in Table I, vary from $1 to
$100, with an average par value of $53. When questioned as to the

47614°—Bull. 394—16——2

10 BULLETIN 394, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

best size for a share of stock, most managers expressed themselves
as in favor of the share of large denomination. It seemed to be the
consensus of opinion that the share should not be smaller than $25,
but an examination of Table I indicates that much depends upon con-
ditions. The character and density of population, the kind of busi-
ness conducted, nearness to wholesalers, and many other features
have a bearing on the best size for a share of stock. Well-capitalized
stores were found with shares of small denomination, while other °
stores are very insufficiently capitalized on the basis of $100 shares.
In general it is considered inadvisable for any store in the United
States to begin operations with a share of less than $10, although
here again there are exceptions.

TABLE I.—The capitalization of typical stores.

' Petey Total. High. Low. | Average.
PEG HOTAZOG ae ea she Sree nein atic ce Secies 32 | $1, 454,000 | $200,000 | $16,000 $45,437 _
PURDS CMC as eR SOL cla Ne pak SS a a Sr 40 825, 898 | 106, 200 305 20, 647
ESRC ATTTO Rete a eee ese es ora ayalcta ss Boh ec opetmiimeiete 50 831,377 | 106, 200 267 16, 627
EES DCE TD seen Sage ep hee PSE a a ea eS Bae estes 100 1

PR ANOUID se tees teesie ctefan nc leatas ae eee Seta on Geena 40 CASye LO hel Ua ee ap | el ae 19, 100
Vote: Forty stores allow 1 vote to each member; 5 stores allow 1 vote to each share of stock.
1These are the 40 storesreporting subscribed capital, and are given separately for the sake of comparison.

Most of the stores allow members the privilege of paying for stock
in installments. Others, again, sell their stock and receive some
form of note or agreement to pay for it at a specified time. Both
of these practices appear to have been greatly abused. The former
accounts to a large degree for the discrepancy between the paid-up
and subscribed capital as given in Table I, and the result of the latter
has been that many associations have accepted poorly drawn notes
which are not bankable, and which merely burden the books of the
association with fictitious assets.

The following abstract from an auditor’s report is illustrative of
an abuse which has weakened many of the cooperative stores:

In view of the fact that a majority of your members have not liquidated their
note obligation in payment for shares, I recommend that no patronage dividend
be declared or paid covering the year 1914, and that the amount be carried as
surplus. * * * Permit me, in conclusion, to express the hope that the mem-
bers will pay their notes and thereby place the company where it rightfully
belongs, and furnish the opportunity for it to grow large and successful.

A feature which probably has a greater infiuence on the successful
capitalization of a store than the size of the share of stock is the
amount of capital which one member may hold. Some of the earlier
cooperative laws fixed the upper limit which one member could hold,

A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES. ll

at a figure which has since been recognized as too low. In the stores
under discussion the upper limit varied from $10 to $8,000, with
some stores placing no limit. It is difficult to say where the line
should be drawn. With voting power restricted to 1 vote, with
interest on capital stock limited to not more than current interest
rates, and with the cooperative policy of distributing profits in pro-
portion to the amount of business transacted by each member, it is
difficult to see how serious injustice can result from the concentration
of the bulk of the capital stock in the hands of a few members.

Of those stores reporting, 37 stated that interest was paid on the
capital stock; the maximum given was 8 per cent, the minimum 5,
and the average 7 per cent. These figures do not indicate any great
advantage to the holders of capital stock. (See Table IT.)

Tapie I11.—Practice as to the payment of interest and dividends on stock.

Stores Stores
Question. reporting | reporting
yes. no.

Average

rate. Remarks.

Per cent. :
PTeNeShOUSLOC Keen pln cae <=innsinamacisa w= mim 37 8 7 | 3, 7 per cent; 2, 5 per cent; 12,
: y 8 per cent; 11, 6 per cent.
interest paid annually... o- 2.6. - cen s wees
Interest paid semiannually........-.......-
Trade dividends paid to Members.-.-.......
Trade dividends paid to nonmembers......

; Usually half rate paid mem-
bers.

Dividends paid annually-.......-.......... 30 Ty eee ee ae 2 pay by means of a monthly
discount.

Dividends paid semiannually........-..-:.- 3 BO) lerseael ater

Dividends usually paid in cash......-..-..- 27 Miidecradacsa

Dividends usually paid in merchandise. ... 7 CUE Se Saenee

Dividends usually paid in stock........-... 3 Ba Gee Annee

The manifest purpose of the cooperative store is to make savings
for its members in the purchase of household and other supplies.
Patrons are charged the customary retail prices for the locality in
which the store operates. Then, at the end of the specified period,
the accumulated surplus is distributed in proportion to the purchases
which each patron has made during the dividend period. Following
the Rochdale plan, nonmembers are frequently allowed half the rate
of dividends on purchases allowed members.

The figures given in answers to questions 51 and 57 of the question-
naire do not indicate the degree to which the cooperative stores are
attaining their chief object—making savings for patrons. They in-
dicate, rather, the provisions in the by-laws as to distribution of
dividends and not the actual practice. While the information given
was not satisfactory upon this point, it is believed that the vast ma-
jority of the cooperative stores have been a disappointment in the
' savings effected for members and patrons.1

1 See appendix, p. 30. Notes on the payment of trade dividends.

12 BULLETIN 394, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
CREDIT.

Practically all of the stores required, at times, more capital than
was provided by the sale of capital stock and accumulated surplus.
The interest paid averaged 7 per cent, which can not be regarded as
excessive (see Table III). As in the case of any other business, the
ease with which a store is able to borrow depends upon its commercial
rating. When a store is successful and has a high rating, it can secure
all the capital it needs upon the note of the association. For many
struggling stores, however, the only way in which credit could be
‘ obtained was by having those who were most interested indorse a
bankable note in favor of the association. In many cases, especially
where the borrowing has been done to bolster up a poorly managed
and failing business, the practice of indorsing the notes of the as-
sociation has been responsible for serious losses to members.

j
Taste II1.—Practice as to credit.

|
Number
Question. report- Low. High. } Average.} Yes. | No.
ing.
DOV OUIDOLro WwW MIONGY<42-5 sos <2 saeeeet= ean eee eee soseeies Bee eee ay eae ene 40 7
Maveominerest.-\ so. 22. cee cet soncnecceseeceseec es Sfp Gipet. |) LO\p: ete ied pete ames aeeeees
Ts credit depcule (O)(O) Of fe Bag seey i rea el nee io are eed ee (PRM ES hee] Seal ie Opa 6 33
Secukiiyre quired sac sacs we ssa r eee swe soos sen oue Sawa ee | ier iy SENN E Lod nen eco | Se lead 16 26
Ateipilismiscountedirermlarlys pe staecswatsees once lee ae cee eee mer ameaae eee Senn eee 18 15
Estimated annual discount......-..-----..---.--- 24 $150 $6, 949 $997) )2- Sees aan
PreditiextendedtmeCustoMerss. hcg osheeaeeonss oe sos soae alee ee oan cl sas Soe. Eo ees 45 2
HOSSOS MHOILO(CLOGIS....» sc sece sees sedans bowen ee 15 $25 $4, 231 S660 | eu Sees
Aecountsipaid promptly. <cs.tnet seed elo o Gras guns ow cben | Sees ee cee ceueee 25 5

—

Tt was found that some stores systematically used their credit at
the bank in order to discount their bills, saving a profit to the store
by this method. That this is not common, however, is indicated by
the fact that only 18 stores reported the uniform practice of taking
advantage of discount, while 15 never discounted their bills. Among
those reporting the practice of discounting their bills, the saving
ranged from a minimum of $150 to a maximum of $7,000 a year,
with an average of $1,673 for the 18 stores taking regular discounts.
The figures indicate that not enough attention is given to this
source of profit. It was found that among the most successful
stores following the practice, the cash discount. paid a considerable
proportion of the operating expense. In addition to the saving
effected, the practice of taking discounts has an important effect
upon the wholesale houses and the buying efficiency of the store.

Of 50 stores, only 2 were found to be doing a strictly cash business. ©
Most of the managers claimed that the extension of credit to cus-
tomers was absolutely necessary. The time for which credit was
allowed varied from 1 to 6 months, the average credit eee given,
_for 27 stores being 2 months.

oa

al + | sa ae -

A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES. 13

_ The practice is unfair in that the man who pays cash usually
secures goods at practically the same price as the man who uses 6
months’ credit. This unfairness has led to the practice among a
few of the most successful stores of charging interest on all bills
running over 30 days. In many cases it was found that inexperienced
managers, in their enthusiasm to expand the business, had involved
the association in serious difficulty by a too wide and promiscuous
granting of credit to customers. In some instances it was found that
the accounts receivable amounted to more than the entire subscribed
capital stock.

On the other hand, one of the advantages claimed for the coopera-
tive farmers’ store is that it serves as a credit institution, tiding

the members over until harvest or until “pay day.” Indeed, one of

the most successful stores preferred to do a credit business, and
reported that 98 per cent of its trade was on this basis. The reasons
given for its preference were greater simplicity and uniformity in
its accounting system and the larger volume of trade resulting from
the credit business. The reports of 36 stores showed that, on the
average, half of the sales were on credit and the other half cash.
For 24 stores the average annual loss due to the granting of credit
is 1.17 per cent. This is much higher than the average for stores
under private management, as indicated by the results of the Harvard
survey, which found the common loss for bad debts to be one-half

‘of 1 per cent.1 Moreover, there is reason ‘to believe that this does

not tell the whole story. Asa matter of fact, the estimate placed by
the manager of an unsuccessful cooperative store upon the uncollec-
tible proportion of the accounts and bills receivable, which he is
carrying upon his books, is very unreliable. In one case, which is
probably typical of many others, the amount was estimated at $145
for the year, when, in reality, the amount which was afterwards
found to be uncollectible was nearer $2,000. This loss, of course,
falls upon all who pay for their goods.

Entirely apart from the loss involved, the, credit system is unjust.
Hither those enjoying credit should pay interest, or customers pay-
ing cash should receive a cash discount. The reports of those who
have tried to do business on a cash basis indicate that the credit sys-
tem has become so rooted in American business as to be practically
ineradicable. Many of those questioned characterized it as “a neces-
sary evil.” :

PURCHASING.

Table IV, showing the practice regarding purchasing, is largely
self-explanatory. One important fact, however, is not brought out

1 Harvard University. Bureau of Business Research, Bul. 5: Expenses in Operating
Retail Grocery Stores. 1915. Sup. 7.

14 BULLETIN 394, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

by the table—a fact which many merchants overlook. The most, suc-
cessful stores confine their purchases to a few reliable firms, rather
than scatter their orders among too many wholesale houses. In fact,
one store on the verge of bankruptcy ascribed its failure in large part
to this practice, since, in time of difficulty, it could claim but little
support from its numerous creditors. Among the many objections
to scattered buying are: (1) Greatly increased and useless office work;
(2) divided support of the wholesalers; (3) excessive buying and
danger of overexpansion; (4) too great diversity of stock; and (5)
loss of advertising opportunity afforded by standard lines.

TABLE TV.—Practice in purchasing.

Question. eee Low. | High. en Yes. | No.
Panep lag mom Salesman cytes ek byw en MN 2 Ufc a ek ae CO eee ee
MILOMNCALAIOP TO MHOUSOSE series cag acme te Ecce ce see vc tame eee Sener wee tLe eee oan e 19 21
PROMI ATA CTUNEIS ae a. cine. ae false setae oe alae ee nn eed ee cel ante eee I en ee 24 19
Arallowestiprices obtained s2 50252): Sse Fool, Ie Pe HAR Ee Ee ee 27 il
iprpdiicedromdanmersh 25223006 hota Ree eae 22 | $1,500 |$35,000 |$12,126 |........]...---.. z
pilljordersreduced! topwra pies. cee ences Sacro cl. maleated cae een cei tees. 2nat tee aerate, 1

0
Invoices checked systematically......-.....: NSS we lll a OU Sl ae oe eae 39

It is interesting to note that only 27 stores believed that they
bought at the lowest price, while 11 said positively that they bought
at a disadvantage. The reasons given were: (1) Inability to take
advantage of discounts, and (2) in a few cases, discrimination on
the part of wholesale houses against the cooperative store. The
former handicap. is to be traced generally to such causes as insuffi-
cient original capital, tying up of capital in accounts receivable, over-
investment in slow-moving or dead stock, loss. of capital through
bad management, etc. On the latter point a few stores asserted that
they were sometimes discriminated against in the prices they were
compelled to pay; that they were not given equal credit privileges
with private and corporate enterprises; and that they were refused
certain lines of goods at any price. Credit men say that this obtains
only when the store has unsatisfactory credit rating or record and
when cut prices and discounts are allowed on fixed-price goods.

SELLING.

As shown in Tables V and X, the annual sales of the stores under
consideration ranged from $7,500 to $623,703, with an average ap-
proximating $88,000. Table X includes only 35 out of the 60 stores
visited during the survey, and it will be neticed that of these 5 were
unable to give sufficiently complete data for a statistical estimate
of their financial success.

Ee Le: ee ee Fl ee ee,

OR ee ee ee ee ks

Sie eet ua de

A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES. 15

-

TABLE V.—Practice as to selling. =

. Stores re- | 2
Z Question. porting. Low. High. | Average.
orca COUtMiny TLACOe- pi kone Aes onic ccietics wae neceeveacse ss 43 0 95 63
TPES CEPl PGs 22 aD 9 se ne ee eos Ser ee a a 43 5 100 37
enmcont, MOMPELSHIp Wade! Js. nro- ace cece cee cee en ences 42 10 983 60
Pericen, MOnmOoMm bership trade. u =.= 2.6 2-2 ee acne esac ees ce sece 42 i 90 40
PACU IAC HIV OTIGII DCIS eso) oa an5 2 22 eile wh ooo wn lon cee see : 37 25 100 80
IPGrCeaT TDHACULVO TUOIM DELS o/5/--- os o's on otc ene en noe = in on wines 37 0 75 20
eEBOUCASHISAOS = ose are Jase roca Cos cea cocenenceeccdessece 36 2 85 50
ip dv (LEDI, Gd ASR RS Oe ee eapacaeeecns aeeecmaioe see cae 36 15 98 50
LET LL SSUES ag Sp ee ee ee ea Oe 45 | $7,500 |$623, 703 $87, 781
ere DUOMO SACS te ona ten ic ewe na ale le aA alain alae <a 36 | 12 p.ct. | 30p.ct. | 20p. ct.

1 This is the estimate made by managers (see Table X).

The percentage of expense to sales indicates a wide variation,
ranging from 7 to 17 per cent. Even more surprising is the range in
the percentage of gross profit made on the business, ranging from
10.5 per cent to 24.5 per cent. In accounting for this range one ele-
ment is the kind of business. The higher figures are for businesses
having a large trade in dry goods, shoes, and men’s furnishings,
while the lower rates were made in stores handling groceries and a
few farm staples. The percentage of net profits to sales shows the
variation one would expect.

Almost all of the stores under survey were located in country
towns, with the majority of the membership drawn from the farms.
Hence there is an average of 63 per cent of farmers’ patronage for the
43 stores reporting, with a range of from 4 per cent to 95 per cent of
country trade.

Most of the stores reported a large percentage of nonmembership
trade, the range being from 14 per cent to 90 per cent, with an average
for the 42 stores reporting of 40 per cent of the trade from non-
members.

This nonmembership patronage is due to several factors. Eighteen
of the stores hold out the prospect of some dividends on purchases
to nonmembers, thus securing trade. Again, many persons are in
sympathy with the cooperative movement“and expect to become
members if the store succeeds, and in the meanwhile they give it a
share of their trade. Finally, a great deal of the nonmembership
trade which falls to cooperative stores is more or less accidental and
due to the fact that many Americans give little thought to their
choice of a place to trade. This indifference also helps to some extent
to account for the fact that 34 stores reported an average of 20 per
cent of their members as “ nonactive,” showing little interest in the
store and giving it practically none of their trade.

It was found that success, loyalty of members, and nonmember-
ship trade hang very closely together. Let a store fall behind and
fail to pay dividends and it soon loses the support of both members

16 BULLETIN 394, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and nonmembers. The opposite case is illustrated by the experience
of one of the most successful stores, which in 26 years has missed
paying a dividend but once. It reported 100 per cent active mem-
bers and a large nonmembership trade.

It must be admitted that in general the results in net profits are
somewhat discouraging. Only 11 stores out of 60, or 184 per cent,
were able to show a net profit of 5 per cent or over.

If we conclude, as we are forced to do, by the supplementary notes
found in the questionnaires, that the 30 stores for which the net
profits could not be calculated would make a still poorer showing,
we are convinced that much greater caution should be exercised
before starting cooperative stores.

ACCOUNTING, REPORTS, AND AUDITING.

One of the principal objects ofthis survey was to ascertain the
business practice of existing cooperative stores and to study their sys-

tems of accolnting and auditing. Questions 93 to 150 in the ques- _

tionnaire show the different points which were studied with great
care. In addition to recording the answers to these questions, the
investigator aimed to see as much of the accounting and office system
as time and conditions would permit. As has been stated, the survey
made evident that the business practice, including the system of
records, is probably the weakest point in the management of coop-
erative stores. Investigations by the Office of Markets and Rural
Organization have shown this to be true of nearly all other coopera-
tive enterprises.

This weakness is due to lack of training on the part of the managers
themselves, to inability to pay the salary required by trained ac-
countants, and to the general failure on the part of the membership
of cooperative associations to realize the importance of a clear. and
constant record of the state of their business.

To the question, “Is the accounting system satisfactory?” 20
managers answered in the affirmative, 16 answered “Fair,” 9 an-
swered in the negative. The investigator’s “ remarks” show that the
closer examination which he made of the systems led him to believe
that a very small proportion of the stores visited had what could
reasonably be called a satisfactory system of accounting. In fact, in
almost 50 per cent of the cases, the results of the attempts to get
answers to questions relating to the status of the business showed
that the managers themselves had no definite records from which
they were able to give a satisfactory statement of the condition of
the business.

Ss

1 Bassett, C. H., Moomaw, Clarence W., and Kerr, W. H., Cooperative Marketing, and _

Financing of Marketing Associations. In U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Yearbook 1914, pp.
185-210. Kerr, W. H., and Nahstoll, G. A., Cooperative Organization Business Methods,
U. S. Dept. of Agr. Bulletin 178, 1915, p. 20.

;
|
|
|

[ae ee et

ee

A&A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES. | i

TABLE VI.—Showing business practice, accounting, and auditing.

5 Month-| Quar- |Semian-; Annu- Sag
Question. Yes. | No. ly. terly. | nually.| ally. Remarks.
pope eS Se ef
Satisfactory system............... 20 2 sere etn i BS a | are 15 fair.
LUGi i 4) GACTEN Ta (ela Se nara eg a 36 alate as cteho| ate tees eee jnctoreee
Total cash deposited daily........ 9 PA PSY Fees oe feat ee 6. | RM eae Va ae eo
SELES SI Uh TIS USTs (pee eee | eas roe rl jie eee ae mun al a Cotes
Cash coupons used....-..-4..---- 12 D7 ies Se | ee aU eal
iBMiimeiledrer used... = 5.5.22... 25 10 PSTN ie eae a Jn A ae
Cost accounts kept by depart- 10 BAe Soe, oes Re ee eee ete sak ees
ments.
Manager reports regularly .......- 40 9 20 i is 9 | 8 report both monthly
and annually.
Are audits made regularly ........ 34 8 11 2 3 10 | 3 weekly; 3 bimonthly. -
By committee of members........ 21 PPh CARAS AA SSO SAAS) OBOE och] DORE SESE
By professional auditor. .......... 17 Oy | ee eRe eal ates Sera Bees
Are members competent........-. 8 DT cee poeae leeteanes |eomeemcalsces cece
DSHE 7a SERS ea en Pe TR (Wg PD et lepetiase: High, $300; low, $30;
average, $56.
Cash register used ...........----- 39 Gaps ee seat al ee Ce
Customers account file............ 20 PN (een oN SB | a (a spe ib je ceesigee
APU POIVTLLGD: <2) oss. ok ets alee fs hme Cl Naa we eel SA Baye a Resin ie
PNG WACNING 2.2... 20 feces ae 24 AV | bs ee [Bo bie ate 8 fenced ar
Satisfactory filing equipment.....| 29 Ey Sree eee lO NR Seeeg] WEE N s | el, ee
Overhead Carrier. .....2.-2---.--< 10 SANT escanorlae tee e a nemo ee ae aiictns

Check protector...........2.....- Pie 2G7| see Meee |es--222+ Be ea

One thing that impressed the investigator was the lack of uniform-
ity of systems, forms, and equipment. This lack made it very diffi-
cult to secure statistics which would give a comparative estimate of
the success of the stores. The investigation conducted by Harvard
University in its attempt to bring about standardization of accounts
and office methods disclosed the same lack in practically all other
retail stores.

Among cooperative stores, a beginning in the right direction has
been made by two or three promoters who are attempting to install
uniform systems of accounting and auditing for the stores they
organize. An examination of the work of these promoters, however,
tends to show that the good they are accomplishing is largely offset
by the fact that they have started many stores for which there was
not sufficient demand in the locality, and which were therefore
doomed to failure from the start. Moreover, they have frequently
advised an association to purchase an old, and sometimes failing
business, and in many of these instances the cooperative association
found itself in possession of a large stock of shopworn goods and a
tradition for inefficiency in the store which was hard to live down,
although it had been paid for as “ good will.”

No less than 36 of the stores reported that their books were kept

by double entry; but where it was possible to get at the facts, it was

found that the systems were very imperfect, and that in many cases
it would have been difficult to secure a trial balance from the records.

It is probable, however, that the fundamental weakness is in the

bookkeepers rather than in the systems of accounting. This is shown
in a number of instances where systems of accounting, installed by
experts, have become entirely disorganized through the inefficiency

Y -

18 BULLETIN 394, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of the bookkeepers. On the other hand, one of the most successful
stores studied in the survey had an accounting system which was
crude and out of date. Although the system was kept in a set of
old-style books, which necessitated a great waste of energy, the work
was done so thoroughly that the records were up to date at all times,
and at a moment’s notice the management could find out the exact
state of the business. ;

One good feature in the systems of records is the almost universal
use of the duplicating or triplicating sales slips. In those cases where
’ the triplicating sales slip was used systematically, and the triplicates
carefully checked at the close of each day, the office system was found
to be securing fairly accurate results.

The cash coupon seems to have gone out of favor; only 12 reported
using it and 27 answered in the negative. Among the 12, several
forms were found. The most common was the book form with cou-
pons of different denominations perforated for ready detachment.
Another type resembled the mileage book commonly used on rail-
roads, with cents represented instead of miles. Various forms of
tickets and metal checks were used in paying for produce. Like the
coupons, these were redeemable in goods.

The billing ledger was reported as being used in 10 stores, while
32 answered in the negative. When it is not used, amounts of sales
are either posted from the sales slips to an ordinary ledger, from
which statements are rendered at the end of each month, or the sales
slips are filed in the short-account filing cabinet as customers’ ledger
accounts.

Ten stores reported that they were keeping cost accounts by de-
partments, while 34 reported in the negative. Further examination,
however, showed clearly that not over 1 or 2 stores out of the 60
actually kept accounts by departments in such a way as to show the
cost of operation and profits for each department of the business.
Closer questioning revealed the fact that the stores recognized the
advantage of having departmental accounts, and intended to or-
ganize their bookkeeping system on that plan; but for various rea-
sons, usually because of the lack of a sufficiently trained bookkeeper,
they had not yet put their plans into operation.

The by-laws of practically all of the stores examined require that
the manager shall make reports at stated intervals. This provision
seems to be adhered to with more or less regularity. Twenty of the
stores required the manager to report monthly, 18 semiannually, 9
annually, 1 quarterly, and 1 daily. Eight of those requiring an
annual report were included among those requiring a monthly report.

Defective as are the bookkeeping systems of cooperative stores,
their auditing i is still more unsatisfactory, although 32 reported thaw ;

tee

tan? Cea eh. ly.
i eee aes

rae % eA >
ale ;

A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES. ~ cop OR

a regular audit is made. Of these, 13 required that the audit be made
weekly, 11 monthly, 3 bimonthly, 2 quarterly, 3 semiannually, and
10 annually. In addition to these, several others stated that they had
an audit at more or less irregular intervals. When questioned as to
the auditors, 21 stated that the auditing was done by a committee
elected from the membership, while 17 reported that the services of
a professional auditor were secured. When further questioned as to
the cost per year of the auditing, only 15 stores reported a regular
outlay for this purpose. Of these, the highest gave an annual cost
of $300, while the lowest was $30, the average for the 15 stores being

$56 each.

The results of this survey demonstrate that the precariousness of
the cooperative mercantile business is due to inefficient accounting and
auditing more than to any other singlecause. Wherecomplete records
are kept of the business, and where these are used as the basis of a
regular monthly financial report, there is furnished a continuous
barometer by which a board of directors can take warning at the first
signs of mismanagement or failmg business. In addition to this, at
the end of each fiscal year some competent outsider, preferably a cer-
tified public accountant, should be hired to audit the records for the
year.

Of course it must be recognized that efficient bookkeeping and ex-
pert auditing cost more than the small cooperative business can
afford. Much progress toward efficiency, however, may be secured by
the adoption of some simple standardized system of bookkeeping and
business practice that will give complete and accurate records which
can be easily interpreted. To meet this need the United States
Department of Agriculture has devised a system which is described
in Department Bulletin No. 381, entitled “Business Practice and

- Accounts for Cooperative Stores.”

The auditing committee elected by the members should not ander
take to do the annual auditing itself, unless it enjoysthe rare advantage
of having a certified public accountant in its membership. The mem-
bers of the committee should know enough of bookkeeping to appre-
ciate the necessity of accuracy. They should see to it that this is

accomplished, and the association should make puerta for the

necessary expense.

These conclusions have been borne out by the long experience of
the Rochdale stores in England. Their experience is summarized in
the preface to “A Manual of Auditing,” published by the Coopera-
tive Union (Ltd.), with headquarters at Manchester, England, for
the guidance of the societies: The author says:

Tt is essential to the interest of members of societies generally that great
attention be paid to the importance of strict audit, first, for self-protection ;

/

20 BULLETIN 394, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

second, in the interest of the societies generally; third, for the protection of
the creditors with whom the society may do business; fourth, for the main-
tenance of the reputation of the cooperative movement. The true end and aim
of every system of audit being supervision, external check, and testimony,
experience proves the necessity of the officers of cooperative societies under-
standing the principles of bookkeeping, followed up by an efficient and strict
audit of accounts. With this end in view, we propose to lay down a treatise,
arranged in systematic order, placing fully before those who may consult these
pages a safe mode for auditing the transactions of societies.

z EQUIPMENT.

The answers to the questions on mechanical equipment which are
summarized in Table VI are self-explanatory. They indicate that the
average cooperative store is about as well equipped as the average
store under private or corporate management. There was a wide
variation in the stores studied, however. The equipment ranged from
small, poorly hghted, and insanitary stores, without cash registers,
filing equipment, or any other mechanical convenience, to one or two-
of the most modern stores to be found in the United States (see Pl. I).

It was found that most of the managers appreciate the economy of
many of the devices entering into modern store equipment, and their
absence in a store is usually due to a lack of funds. There is also
a general demand among patrons of all classes for a store that is
up to date in its equipment and appearance. (See Pl. II.) To some
extent this demand would seem to be part and parcel of the modern
efficiency movement, which is reaching a considerable proportion of
farm homes in the form of modern household conveniences and farm
appliances.

THE BALANCE SHEET.

Table VIII and Sections XIII and XIV of the questionnaire pre-
sent a summary of the resources and liabilities for 46 stores. The
most interesting figures are those showing the surplus, undivided
profits, and unpaid dividends, amounting to a total of close to
$460,000, or an average of almost $10,000 per store. From these fig-
ures it would appear that the stores are in a very prosperous condi-
tion. Only 4 stores out of 46 show a deficit aggregating $9,214.
Moreover, if to the amount of average surplus, undivided profits,
and unpaid dividends, the capital stock of $15,948 is added, the
total average resources will exceed the average liabilities by $25,676.

If the stores are in such splendid financial condition, why is it
that most of them are not paying regular dividends? The fact is
that for the majority of the stores this prosperity is more apparent
than real. In the first place, the stock carried is too large and the
average number of stock turns a year too low. Many of the stores
are carrying a lot of stock which is dead for the greater part of the

PLATE I.

Iture.

Icu

394, U.S. Dept. of Agr

Bul.

sera AOE

“LAMYVIA) GNV AYSOOUS) SAILVYSdOOD NYSAGOP| V JO MSIA HOINSLXA

mere

PLaTE II.

of Agriculture.

Dept.

S:

U

Bul, 394

Be=18

"LAMYVIAN GNV AYSOOUS) SAILVYSdOOD NYACO|W V JO MSIA YOINSLN]

BT

A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES. 91
year, and are listing at full value goods which are shopworn:and
upon which it will never be possible to realize in full. Then, too,
the accounts receivable, bills receivable, and miscellaneous assets, with
a total of ever $700,000, an average of $15,000 per store, contain
many items which can never be collected and should be dropped,
as they only becloud the financial condition of the store. As an
illustration, one small store has been carrying $1,200 worth of notes
taken for shares of stock, although they are all past due; and the
same association has on its books over $2,000 in accounts which might
almost as well be wiped out and charged off to loss and gain. This
large proportion of more or less fixed and doubtful assets probably
goes far toward explaining the reason why divideads can not be paid.

Taste VII.—The balance sheet.

[46 stores. ]

Total. High.t Low.1 Average.
Resources:
Fee Rn md Nc ARs Up patie MNP Ne $95, 439.97 | $20,997. 40 $28.15 | $2,074.78
WIG EHANGISD Ss Cisse eds cine ROSE be oem cine cia ute 830,272.96 | 98,460.12 800. 00 18,049.41
“DLT 07 CT rp A RA AS RE eat 75,449.40 | 10,195.88 23. 00 1,640.21
AeoeuMisreceivable. 0. {25.22 Slee ss eee 339, 758,05 ) 48,549.71 ]-..-.-2...2- 7, 386. 05
PPILESTOEOIVADIOL 2.) rs Se scsi = ociscnec ace ce ese s- Ghee DON LON mele AD oe iial nee eee 2,070.76
NVHSCOMAMCOMS. A Cec sc ie cistigme nce’ Cela ee clewace 259, 583-69-} “28, 502. 83" |.5..22..-222 5,643.12
"Tala 2A ee ee era eee gs 1,695, 759.17 | 201,091.24]. 1,113.00} 36,864.38
Liabilities:
ROU TDN SUUE Ke enact eee ren el ie Sus ieee 733, 592.74 | 106,200.00 267.00 15, 947. 67
TE TTUICSPY O}zini7ce] ) Us ee ee eg NS Pm Pt 236,986.04 | 22,000.00 |..-...--..... 5, 151. 87
RomqmmtrsmetyallOs. -- hoc 2snnnnes-ace ounce DIOP S(OtOS | ak Gbaaes ech ue 5, 056. 00
erp lts | SEAS SUES AR SPER OS CERO Erbe astee Seer See 200,242.68 | 33,318.14 6.02 4,353. 10
(GU sa Lea 020) A Sse a aN es ae 238,406.18 | 13,750. 60 5. 57 5, 182. 74
Simp Gai VIdeNGsS os oS sec5: Sees jee eel eb &, 844. 96 Bose Gel saceee eee 192.28
MIS ON AN EOTIS hte m in tare Aes eee GL 2 CT ae 45, 106. 64 19, 200. 00 30.00 980. 58
AUGTEAL AE Ne oR pe at SUES ea oa gel ae UO a ep 1, 695,759.17 | 201,091.24 1,113.00 36, 864. 33
BROUAITOSOUITCOS Se eye es ce el Ua oie omnis TG0R (D0 secs sosenec seceeeeeooae 36, 864. 33
Total liabilities, exclusive of capital stock, surplus,
undivided profits, and unpaid dividends.........-. SIA SG 727 ON leas eee eae cee coe 11, 188.54
MotalMetWOELH cae Seo ses ade aee ee anak seve EST OSG2 O00 | seat cee epee leaner = ele 25,675.79

1 Figures in these columns are independent of each other, and the totals represent high and low totals
not totals of the other figures given.

OPERATING EXPENSES.

Table VIII shows the annual operating expenses of 41 stores.
This table shows salaries and labor, which appear separately in
Table IX. The comparative statement of expenses in relation to
net sales is found in Table X, which should be studied carefully in
this connection. The number of stores reporting each of the various
items in Table VIII indicates how difficult it was to get satisfactory
figures under the different subheads in the questionnaire. In fact,
it was found to be impossible to make a segregation of the expenses
on account of the difference in classification used by the stores. Many

92 BULLETIN 394, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of them did not segregate their expense accounts at all, but included.
everything under the one title of “ General expense.”

TasLe VIII.—Annual operating expense.

Number .
nestorese Total. Beh: Low. | Average.
Salanyand labors <i. docsccemere selec oe peice 31 | $145,553.98 | $12,021.95 | $720.00 | $4,695. 93
A RCE Ta oe ge I a ay a a 23 20, 279. 76 1, 800: 00 84. 00 881. 51
PAPAPANO MN OAG Ae Woe hee ce Ses ca 16 2,194.18 250. 00 24. 00 137.14
ANISUTAN CRBs ie ow seis cnyeue i= eee ticins jcecinteceaae 30 9,054. 41 1, 905. 44 22. 00 301. 81
ARES ES Si eee em ea keg se a 21 5, 957. 55 1, 259. 22 25. 00 283. 69
Telephone-and telegraph........---.---2---.-- 8 347. 50 56. 00 25. 00 43. 44
HMEOLCS bon hisses es cee esa mmaceraals os sop aes “ste 25 14, 695. 68 2, 300. 00 37. 00 587. 83
Postage and stationery.....-......--------5.-- 5 874. 44 644. 32 25. 00 174. 89
INSCOMANGOUS <2 oe /sek oho docpe sec eee stems 36 195,022.36 | 83,623.79 7.10 | 5,417. 29
Total expense !...-. coeces sees ee eee ee eee 41 393,979.86 | 86,553. 74 946.00 | 9,609. 27
Profit lOReyOate se cis sean se = cin seeeee ace es seas 31 78220 53k 3 secre eet ee Pnce as eae 5, 749. 33
HU OSSHOIMY CAT eee ae oe Son oemeiee tastes ona 2 DADS. SS; Vactekc ae oos| meee ewes 1, 226. 69

A The giherens columns willnot balance since the answers are given in each case for the number of stores
indicated.

2

TABLE IX.—Jonthly salaries and labor.

Number Hich
gn.

Question. Low. | Average.

of stores.
Man nrere ie se sick cccmen saan te cease nee eee wc cehinaelncmen aoe 42 | $250.00 $45. 00 $106. 00
IBookkeenersge iter = ct es sue etches ee geen ed ae Seenceees 27 125. 00 10. 00 68. 87
ieadisalesmamissn = 00 Sa eek oe eae de ML a yealeameede 31 150. 00 45. 00 74.13 _
Ophenalosmenee 2.225 oo dete eee aminct te Sule atu oes ate fem aie 31 90. 00 35. 00 49. 95
Saleswomen a aeos 2s sss caine See ae es He eins er A ap 26 55. 00 16. 00 32.10

Officers and directors usually receive the: nominal sum of $1.50 per meeting, except where they are
actively engaged in the business, when they are paid a salary for managerial or accounting services.

It is believed that the salary and rent items for 32 and 23 stores, —
respectively, are fairly trustworthy, the average salary roll being
about $400, and the average rental about $75 per month. Even these
items are not typical of the stores covered by the survey, on account
of the small proportion included.

The percentage of expense to net sales is not excessively high. It
ranges from 7 to 17, with an average of 11.7. This percentage is
for 33 of the stores, and is probably a much better showing than
would have been made had all the stores been able to contribute to
the data from which this percentage was calculated. In view of
the fact that some of the managers stated it as their belief that it
cost somewhat more to run a cooperative than a privately owned
business, this percentage is surprisingly low. The Harvard investi-
gation of grocery stores found the lowest cost of operation to be
10.4 per cent of sales, the highest 25.2 per cent, and the common
percentage 16.5, as against the cooperative averages just quoted.

In considering this showing for the expense of operation, there
must be taken into account the average gross profit of 21 per cent for

A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES. ae

the stores studied by Harvard as against 17.7 per cent for the 30
cooperative stores for which the gross profit could be calculated.
The circumstances under which this investigation was made did not
permit the investigator to go back of the accounting system in every
case to see whether the data upon which gross profits could be
estimated were sufiiciently reliable.

For some of the stores not included in this percentage column

of gross profit, it was quite certain that the manager was working
“in the dark, and did not actually know the amount of his gross

profit. For example, in several cases a manager who handled prin-
cipally groceries and farm produce said that his gross profit was
about 21 per cent. Upon analyzing the statements, however, the
amount was found to be very much below what he estimated. This
was due to the fact that certain commodities, such as butter, eggs, .
sugar, flour, and practically all farm produce was handled upon a
very close margin, and sometimes at an actual loss. These items
bulked much more largely in the total business than the manager
realized. One store, for example, went bankrupt within a period
of 10 months because its manager thought he was running upon an
average of 20 per cent gross profit, while in reality he was running
at a net loss of 7 per cent on sales, and his gross profit was only a
little over 10 per cent.

Referring once more to Table X, we find that the average cost of
all salaries and labor amounted to a total of 6.4 per cent of the net
sales as compared with 11.7 per cent for the total expense. That is,
the salaries and labor form 54.7 per cent of the total expense of
running the business. This surely is not excessive. The Harvard
survey of grocery stores disclosed the fact that the salaries in the
average retail grocery under private management were 60.6 per
cent of the total expense, or almost 6 per cent higher. This is borne
out by Table TX, which summarizes the results of the investigation
of wages paid. For 42 stores the average salary: paid the manager
was $106 per month. But if 6 of the stores which pay their manager
$150 per month or over are eliminated, the average for the other 36
amounts to only $79.50. The average salary for the bookeeper was
also too low to secure efficiency. The 10 States in which these stores
are located have average wages considerably higher than the average
would be for the country as a whole; from this it is seen that the
wages paid by the cooperative stores are very low.

In addition to the regular salaries and wages indicated in Table X
there are insignificant outlays for officers and directors, and often for
an occasional helper. The most common policy is for associations
to pay their directors $1.50 for each meeting attended, except where
they occupy a position in the business on regular salary. Occasional
help costs the daily wage of from $1 to $2.50 a day, with an average

24 BULLETIN 394, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. |

of about $2 per day. The proportion which these items bear to the
total wages paid is not very significant and has been included in the
labor percentage column in Table X.

In addition to their regular wages, the cooperative laws of some
States stipulate that employees shall receive dividends on the amount
they receive as wages, just as members receive dividends on purchases,
Asa matter of fact, however, this principle of dividends and bonuses
to employees is generally ignored, and some stores even go so far
as to stipulate in their by-laws that no employee shall receive any
reduction on purchases. Employees in such stores must become mem-
bers in order to participate in dividends. Among the stores visited
during the survey only 2 were found which actually had distributed
dividends on wages.

TABLE X.—Important percentages based on sales.

> Salary Per Stock

Stora NO Sales Ex- Per and Per Net Per cent | Inven- } turns

Cre NS: * | pense. | cent. | p45, | cent. | profit. | cent. | gross | tory. per

profit, year,
Nese 2 $623, 7030 G800554 41 13.8 [eons eens te $66,282 | 10.6] 24.4 | $98,460 6.3
Ba Sai -..| 232,000] 16,221 7.0} $11,261 '5.0} 10,050 4.3 11.3] 80,477 7.3
Sea eee 200,000} 24,915 0 et ees Be| e Seoens crs 6,375 3.1 15.5} 51,952 3.8
Pacts eye eral 177,546 | 24,904 Tee ee a Stee Mae Se 8, 712 4.9 18.9 67, 588 2.5
een. a 174,997 | 23,037} 13.1] 12,022 TON (45377 2.5} 15.6] 24,104 7.3
(Gah sah ee 168,546 | 16,115 9.6] 10,193 5.5| 17,192] 10.2] 19.6] 42.660 3.8
Heats Serene 2 143,000 | 11,522 8.01 9,000 6.3} 9,927 6.9 | 14.9] 40,007 3.5
Sathana eas 129, 395 14,941 11.5 7,801 6.0 9,313 led 18.7 | 30,781 4.2
eee re aie 96,000 | 12,558 13.0 6, 472 6.8 5,170 5.4 18.4; 11,169 8.6
LOM Ce aes 95,916 | 13,325] 13.9] 6,440 GOT RETRE Goi) Cu BLO need, ee yee
sina RENTS ais 87,009 | 7,285 SUSUR eee te le iene 9,763| 11.2| 184) 9,924 8.8
IRS eee sea 69, 000 6, 840 9.9 4,980 7.2 648 9 10.8 | 31,071 2.2
Gia NEN ts 68,000} 10,114] 14.9] 6,075 9.0 1753] 11.1] 13.8] 11,850 5.7
Te 67,074| 8,164] 12.2} 4,909 73 ilh) 2.686 4.0.| 16.2| 19,075 3.5
1 oe 65,768 | 6,445 Oil eee ae ea hea) ea 4,424 6.7} 14.9} 4,066 16.1
GS Meenas wees 65, 152 6,719 10.2 3,982 6.1 8,775 5.8 16.0} 18,413 3.5
LPPA, pars eee 63,978 6,938 10.8 4,359 6.9 1,453 2.2 13.0} 19,141 3.3
eek nee 60,000} 5,404 9.0| 2,685 4.5 928 1.5) 10/5) 14,593 41
60,000 5,037 8.3 3,800 6.3 2,774 4.6 12.9 18, 161 3.3
56,000} 5,512 9.8} 3,563 6.4] 4,032 2 WON t6ni22 3.4
44,000 5, 3382 12e 2,858 6.3 3,279 7.4 19.5 15, 587 2.8
44,000 4,964 ill 3 3,080 7.0 536 1.2 12.5 8, 799 5.0
42,000 6, 097 14.5 3,960 9.4 1,310 3.1 17.6 18,278 2.3
41,000 4,167 10.1 3,015 7.4 1,245 3.0 118301 11, 004 Sal
40,000 4,620 11.5 3, 300 8.2 783 2.0 13.5 7,249 5.5
40,000 | , 5,169 12.9 3, 246 8.0 400 1.0 13.9 9, 300 4.3
ADSG00)| 430004) atOl Oly acs eOel coe 1,701 Aeon 1489) hoarse ae
3.9
4.7
33
2.4
2.3
2h
4.4
AVOLA POU esi wise Whee cides D7 N ae Ree Gotu eran 6.0 IAS ane ce 4.4

1 Loss.

The directors of one of the most progressive of the stores have
made the provision that when profits reach a certain figure em-
ployees are made participants in the increase. This is in the form
of a bonus, the payment and amount of which is left to the discre-.
tion of the board of directors.

A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATEVE STORES. 25

As Jhas already been noted in the introductory section, the results
summarized in Table X can not be considered conclusive. In the
first place, the number of stores having accurate records is too small.
Again, the great variety of method in keeping the records makes it
impossible to classify the data accurately. Finally, although most of
the 30 stores from which the best records were obtained are of the
general-merchandise type, the number of departments and _ the
amount of business done in"each varies greatly throughout the list.
The rate of profit as well as the expense of handling varies for each
kind of goods, such as groceries and provisions, ae goods, boots
and shoes, drugs, hardware, and implements. Accurate comparison
of operating expenses would necessitate separate sets of records for
each of these different lines, but since expenses are not segregated, it
follows that a comparison of operating expenses does not give an
accurate index of the efficiency of the management.

However, the table does indicate that it is possible to make a say-
ing through cooperative stores. It indicates also, to some extent,
the conditions under which a saving is possible. There are two fac-
tors entering into the determination of the net profit. The first is
the percentage of gross profit made on sales and the second is the
percentage which the expense bears to sales. The table indicates
the relationship which must exist between these percentages if a
saving is to be made which will justify the existence of a cooperative
store. The careful manager should never delude himself by vague
generalities, but must take into account every single factor in his
business bearing on both the gross profit and the expense. Only
by constant checking on both of these factors can he be certain of
permanent success.

TABLE XI.—Summary of preceding tabies.

Average number of members (43 stores ) pis Rt netstat WOES BBA aI Eh 228
a PAAESUUNCES (C46 StOLES \i. oa ete 2 ley TENN Eee Cae ea $1, 695, 759. 17
Total liabilities (46 stores)____-__--__--- tbs eee Se oo Saal Gneeales
Moatalapard-up capital! (50) Stores] 292 es fe a a $831, 377. 98
paverase. resources (46 stores). ——2 2 $36, 854. 33
Average liabilities (46 stores) __________ Sie Nee PANS Ne SCN A ee $11, 188. 54
Average paid-up capital (50 stores) _—~_-___-_-__-_______-______ $16, 627. 56
Menace mep worth (C46 \StORCS) 22 Sek ae $25, 675. 79
Average surplus, undivided profits, and unpaid dividends (46
URDU) VA SU Re UR Ue eC ee ce $9, 728: 12
Average per cent membership trade (42 stores) ________ per cent__ 60
Average per cent credit sales (36 stores) —-______________ doze 50
Average rate of interest paid on borrowed capital (387 stores)
OCONEE GEN ek REN ee, A Sc ON ASSEN ela sal 7
- Average per cent active members (37 stores)________ per cent__ ; 80
Anwerace mmmial Sales u(45) Stones) 2 ya Lee a $87, 781. 91

Average gross profit on sales (29 stores) _-___-_____ per cent__ AEE

26 BULLETIN 394, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Average rate of operating expenses on sales (338 stores) __per cent__ i ba TB ¢
Average produce bought (estimated) (22 stores)______________ $12, 126. 08
Average annual cost of audit (15 stores) -~-2-2 0 ee $56. 00>
Manager’s average monthly salary (42 stores)_________________ $106. 00
Salesmen’s average monthly salary (31 stores)__________=____ $50. 00
Saleswomen’s average monthly salary (26 stores)________ $32. 00

OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS.

The figures collected in this survey bring the conclusion that the
majority of the cooperative stores established are unsuccessful in
achieving their main object—saving on purchases to members and
a reduction of the high cost: of living. This conclusion is borne out
by the supplementary notes collected from managers who could not
apply statistics, and by notes on interviews with leaders who are
acquainted with the store movement in whole sections which could
not be covered in-detail. But that there is one real service which
the cooperative stores have performed seems to have been demon-
strated again and again. Even in cases where stores have failed
absolutely and gone into bankruptcy, they have frequently been
responsible for the introduction of improved business methods in
the towns where they were established. They have had the effect
of stimulating competition. In cases where the merchants have
competed keenly against the cooperative store, they have been com-
pelled to adopt more efficient business methods. This has resulted
in lower prices to every consumer in the locality and frequently in
better prices to farmers on produce.

In the case of one particular farmers’ store, it was estimated that
the farmers of the locality received an increase on their butter, eggs,
and poultry in one year which would have amounted to more than
the entire paid-in capital stock of the cooperative store. This gain
went to every farmer in the community regardless of whether or
not he was a member of the cooperative association.

TaBLE XII.—General comments,

_Is the business in satisfactory con-

dition (manager’s opinion) _________ 82 yes; 15 fair; 1 no.
Has the business been reorganized____6 yes; 37 no. ‘
ERAS ON pl ANMeC esse ee 12 yes; 30 no.
Educational propaganda_____________ 12 yes; 30 no.

Probable future (manager’s opinion)-_.Bright, 20; good, 11; fair, 3; doubtful,
, 12; not good, 3.
Cooperation with other merchants____ 8 yes; 33 no.
Are employees members? ____________ 9 yes; 24 no.
How do expenses compare with private
DUSLBESS in tOWM 2222 ee 4 higher; 12 same; 11 lower.

pala

A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES. 27

_. The manager of one of the most successful of the stores included in
the survey expressed the conviction that the cooperative store is to.
the business community what the governors are to the steam engine,
and that on account of its regulative influence there ought to be a
cooperative store in every town. The same manager was of the
opinion that it would be an equally undesirable condition to elimi-
nate privately owned business from any town.

In addition to whatever salutary influence the cooperative store
may have upon the business community, the survey shows that there
are possibilities in the cooperative store, if properly organized and
managed, for the accomplishment of important savings to members,
thus opening the way for a reduction of the high cost of living. This
leads to a summary of the conditions of success and the causes of
failure.

Briefly stated, the conditions of success may be summarized under
the headings’: (1) Leadership; (2) capable management; (3) favor-
able environment; (4) adequate legal safeguards.

(1) Leadership.—In every case where a store was found to be a
conspicuous success, that success could be traced to the infiuence of
some conspicuous leader. The part which leadership plays in hold-
ing the membership of the association loyal to their store is not con-
fined to the organizer. The outstanding leader who has the ability
to round up the community must be supported by others who have
some talent for leadership. The manager himself must be “a good
mixer.” In fact, in the most successful stores every clerk has been
chosen with a view to adding more enthusiasm and support to the
business. Leadership, to be permanently successful, must build up
an organization which will be self-supporting and self-perpetuating.
A mistake frequently made by the leader responsible for the estab-
lishment of a successful association is that he does not provide the
necessary organization which will enable it to perpetuate itself after
he has severed his connection. Where such is the case, the society is
foredoomed to go to pieces as soon as the strong leader is removed.
Cohesion must ultimately rest on education, on loyalty to an institu-
tion, and on principle rather than on the blind following of a leader.

(2) Capable management.—A fter all that has been said, little need
be added in support of capable management as an essential condition
for the success of the cooperative store. It should always be remem-
bered that business efficiency is as essential in the cooperative as in
any other type of business organization. Unfortunately for the
movement, the average enthusiast who feels a call to promote the
cooperative movement has in the past laid more stress on sentiment

1 Compare with the rules adopted by the Rochdale pioneers in 1844 and the causes of
failure of cooperative stores as given in: Wisconsin State Board of Public Affairs. Report
upon Cooperation and Marketing, 1912, pp. 29, 34.

a

28 BULLETIN 394, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

than on business efficiency. This type of promotion is usually fol-
lowed by a policy which soon brings the business to a disastrous end.

(3) Favorable environment.—In several communities in which
successful, cooperative stores were found, investigation revealed that
there had previously existed some natural bond of union, which in
itself was an important factor in determining the welfare of the
business. Of these may be mentioned predominating nationality,
common occupation, church affihation, and fraternal organization.
The existence of such communities may be taken as a good omen
for the success of any kind of business organization on the coopera-
tive plan.

(4) Adequate legal safeguards.—A cooperative association, even
more than a corporation, requires a legal standing which will secure
safety. Every cooperative association is intended to be a sort of
public-service institution, and, as such, it should have the legal safe-
guards which some States have provided by recently passed cooper-

ative laws. In one of these laws, a survey of the locality is strongly

recommended before an organization is effected. The same law re-
quires financial statements to be sent twice a year to an official
charged with the duty of protecting members of cooperative asso-
ciations.

The causes of failure, it is evident, are largely the opposite of those
conditions which make for success. The converse of the foregoing
four conditions of success would be: (1) Lack of leadership; (2)
poor management; (3) unfavorable environment; and (4) lack of
proper legal safeguards.

(1) Lack of leadership.—Frequently an outside leader comes into
the community and through his enthusiasm arouses the people to
a condition in which they are ready to enter upon the establishment
of a cooperative store. Then, after seeing the enterprise started,
he goes to other communities and leaves the association to work out
its own salvation. In many such communities the organization dies
from lack of interest as soon as the promoting spirit is gone. In
other cases, the leadership in a community may be of such an un-
practical character as to lead the association into attempting some-
thing which is actually impossible of realization. In such cases, also,
disaster is sure to follow.

(2) Poor management.—Let the management be ever so efficient,
an association may still fall short of success if unpractical leaders
force it into attempting the impossible. But even if it be presup-
posed that the business is adapted to the needs of the community,
and every other condition favorable, it may still fail entirely through
bad management. Among the outstanding shortcomings of the in-
efficient manager have been noticed reckless buying, excessive exten-

A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES. 29

‘sion of credit, too great overhead expense, overexpansion, failure to
provide a surplus, no allowance for depreciation, inefficient. business
practice and accounting methods, lack of proper auditing, and failure
‘to secure the support of wholesale houses because of scattered buying.

(8) Unfavorable environment.—Where a cooperative association
has been thrust into a community which is naturally divided against
itself through racial prejudice, interdenominational strife, excessive
individualism, or where there is insufficient business to pay the ex-
penses of a store, there can be little hope of success for the associa-
tion. :

(4) Lack of proper legal safeguards—One cause of the failure
of many different types of cooperative associations is the lack of
proper legislation. Some of the stores organized in the early days
under corporation laws have had their stock centered in the hands
of a small body of members who have controlled the association in
their own interests, and have distributed among themselves whatever
surplus accrued as dividends upon capital stock. This means the
entire failure of the association from the cooperative standpoint.
On the other hand, cooperative laws have been passed by many States
that offer no adequate safeguards in the form of preliminary inves-
tigation and subsequent inspection. On account of the semipublic
nature of the cooperative business, it 1s believed that both of these
safeguards are essential to success.

~

APPENDIX.

NoTES ON THE PAYMENT OF TRADE DIVIDENDS.

I. Stores having paid dividends regularly out of profits (17):

Organized 1905. Had missed paying trade dividend only once in

Organized 1908. 1909, 21 per cent; 1910, 16 per cent; 1911, 10 per

cent; 1912, 10 per cent; 1913, 8 per cent; 1914, doubtful. One of ~

the mistakes of the first years was the payment of too large

. Organized 1912. Interest on stock has been paid regularly. Divi-

dends: 1911, 10 per cent; 1912, 6 per cent; 1913, 14 per cent; 1914,

. Organized 1911. Seven per cent interest paid regularly. Dividends:

1911, $1,734.30; 1912, $8,140.52; 1913, $9,170.59; 1914, $9,914.30.

. Organized 1912. Made large profit every year, and paid interest and
. Organized 1904. Stock now worth $140. Has paid interest and divi-

. Organized 1908. Dividends: 1911, 2 per cent; 1912, 23 per cent; 1913,

3 per cent ; 1914, 3 per cent. Surplus, $4,339.

. Organized 1890. Interest and dividends paid regularly for 25 years.

Total, $1,277,865.94. Range from 9 to 13 per cent on purchases, to

. Organized 1889. Forty-nine semiannual dividends in 25 years; 3

per cent purchase dividend to all. Regular stock dividends to

Organized 1893. Twenty-two years old. Trade dividend every year
from 3 to 5 per cent, members only ; $G,600 surplus and undivided

. Had paid dividends regularly ; 1913, 5 per cent; 1914, 6 per cent.

. Organized 1912. Paid $2,300 dividend 1913; making good profit.

. Organized 1897. Paid 12 per cent dividends and 6 per cent interest
. Organized 1890. Except first year had paid dividends ranging from
. Organized 19138. Claims regular payment; business seems prosperous 3

\
. Paid 5 to 15 per cent dividend every year for 6 years; had large

. Organized 1906. Trade dividends have been paid every year until

last year, 3 to 5 per cent. Had a very small:surplus.

1 The numbers are not the same as in Table X.

ee sil:
10 years.
B
dividends.
3
12 per cent.
4
5
trade dividends regularly.
6.
dends regularly.
7
8
members only.
9
members only.
10.
profits.
11
ab)
13
in 1914; very successful.
14
6 to 10 per cent.
15
no specific figures.
16
Surplus.
17
30

‘
ORES, TE

7

i
Y
-
z

ss A SURVEY OF TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES. 31

IT. Stores having paid dividends irregularly out of profits (3):
18. Paid dividends 1903, 1904, 1905; surplus, $33,000.
nN 19. Organized 1912. Auditor in 1914 advised not paying dividends be-
cause of large amount of subscribed capital unpaid, although profit
was made.
20. Organized 1876. Originally paid dividends, but not since 1912,
IlI. Stores paying trade discount instead of dividends (8) :

21. Organized 1912. Discount of 5 per cent if account is paid in full
within 30 days.

22. Organized 1911. Discount of 5 per cent if account is paid in full
within 30 days.

23. Discount of 5 per cent to members if account is paid in full within
30 days.

IV. Stores having paid dividends out of capital (7):

24. Organized 1913. Paid 5 per cent in 1915 out of capital. Report shows
that in reality there was a deficit.

25. Organized 1910. Only one dividend has been paid, in 1911. Deficit,
$1,200, in 1914.

26. Organized 19138. Paid first year only. Sutfered from overexpansion,
but is now in fair way to succeed.

27. Organized 1912. Dividends paid first two years out of capital; deficit,
$5,000.

28. Organized 1912. Paid 6 per cent first year only ; present deficit, $5,000.

29. Organized 1903. Paid several large dividends out of capital; now in

hands of receiver.

30. Organized 1908. Paid dividends regularly 1906 to 1912 out of capi-
tal. Failed to take into consideration bad debts and depreciation,
with resuitant false showing. ‘“‘ One of the great mistakes of the
store.” Surplus, $800.

VY. Stores paying only stock dividends (3) :

31. Organized 1876. Average 70 to 10 per cent ae te on stock.

32. Average for last five years is 10 per cent to members. None to non-
members. Now a regular stock company, but said to retain “ the
cooperative spirit.”

338. Organized 1889. Now a regular stock company. Had failed to make
profit only one year. Stock now worth 500 per cent, because the
profits of five years were allowed to remain in the business.
Twenty yearly dividends on stock only have been paid, ranging
from 6 to 50 per cent.

YI. Storés having paid no dividends (14):

34. Organized 1918. No dividends paid “on account of disloyalty of
members.” :

35. Organized 1910. No dividends have been paid. In 1914 had a $4,000
deficit.

36. Organized 1910. Neither interest nor dividends have been paid; plan-
ning to reorganize as stock company.

87. Organized 1912. On verge of bankruptcy.

388. Organized 1914. Hopes to pay 6 per cent to members and 38 per cent
to nonmembers; very conservative management.

39. Organized 1912. No dividends paid, ‘due to excessive credit.” Hx-
pect to pay one in the near future; 6 per cent interest paid on
capital. :

¥

32 BULLETIN 394, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

VI. Stores having paid no dividends—Continued.

40. Organized 1911. No dividend paid. “ Victim of early mismanage-
ment,” but now said to be on road to success.

41. Organized 1912. No dividends paid. Has a considerable deficit.

42. Organized 1877. No dividends or interest paid; bad management.

- 48. Organized 1909. Failed twice, due to mismanagement. No dividends

have been paid. ~

44, Organized 1912. No dividends; business in unsatisfactory condition.

45. Organized 1903. No dividends paid, due to excessive credit and loss
by fire.

46. Six years ago had large deficit. No dividends. Is building up sur-
plus now, and appears to be in prosperous condition.

47. Organized 1912. No reliable information, but appears to be in very
unsatisfactory condition.

O

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OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
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Vv

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. January 18, 1917

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL."

By G. W. Kerrr,

Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin; formerly Scientific
Assistant, Fruit-Disease Investigations.

CONTENTS.
Page. | Page.
inimoduenion ae A < 23 seSKeiic-d- amstlee ieee 1 | Life history, ete—Continued.

Tne GUSGESO. sub c EBB eacoaene enn eEneesaae 3 Dissemination of conidia................ 36
Geographic distribution...........-..--- 3 Method of infection.....................- 40
Economic importance.........-..--.---- 4 Period of incubation. ............:...2-- 41
ID ESCEIP WOM ae eae see a ise Seen se 6 Time of natural infection.............--. 42
Pathological histology........-.--------- 8 Sources of natural infection.............- 42

MHolcausal organism -/. 2... =./4-525-s----22--5 i Overwintering of the fungus............- 43
Ne SEOMOWINY. 6d se dde cbsobeseeseesoceescan i Climate in relation to the disease....-..- 44
WUOHPS NOG. 555cet ooh cdce sess scecsccosse 12 Varieties in relation to the disease.....-. 44
IPERS) OAc ce ocse sees sesceasecdssecesae te Controlaneasuness= se aaee eee eee 46
Ait OP AMICI Yee 2 rs a2 «ea ates -scls eraintns eieaie 21 Sprayinoe cesar eee er ee eae fey haat 46

Life history of the causal organism in relation Orchard sanitation...................... 60

to pathogenesis.....-.--.------------------ 32 Resistant varieries!=sssee =e eee 60
Seasonal development of the disease... -. SPP AMES Tibeaboaeeniny7e ose yea wena as) oe ar ee eal 61 -
Broduchionyofconidiae =. 2esce..-- = 4. 33" |) Witeratlre: Cited <u s =. cess oe See eee 64
Viability and longevity of conidia....... 35

INTRODUCTION.

Peach scab (Cladosporium carpophilum Thiim.) is a parasitic
disease which affects the fruit, twigs, and leaves of the host (Amygdalus
persica). It manifests itself on the fruit as small, circular, olivaceous
to black spots, which frequently become confluent over considerable
areas and seriously detract from the appearance, quality, and value
of the marketable product. On the twigs and leaves it occasions less
damage, producing small superficial mjuries, which are described in
detail later. In the United States, east of the Rocky Mountains, it
occurs generally, and unless controlled it may cause serious financial

1 The laboratory studies upon which this paper is based were conducted in field laboratories at Hart,
Mich., in the season of 1911, at Cornelia, Ga.,in the seasons of 1912 and 1913, and in the laboratory of plant
pathology of the University of Wisconsin in the winters of 1911 to 1914 and the summer of 1914. The

field work was carried on in cooperation with growers in commercial orchards at Hart, Mich., in 1911, and
at Cornelia, Ga., in 1910, 1912, and 1913.

48408°—Bull. 395—17——_1

2 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

losses in practically all of the important peach-producing districts 1 in
this area.

The disease was first reported from Klosterneuberg, Austria, by
Von Thiimen (1877),' who observed its occurrence upon the fruit of
the peach and briefly described the associated fungus as Cladosporium
carpophilum sp. nov. The same author (1879, p. 13-15) emended
his original description of the fungus and published notes concerning
the occurrence, description, and economic importance of the malady.
The disease received little further attention until its occurrence in
America was reported by Arthur (1889, p. 5-8), who noted its
prevalence in Indiana and described the fruit lesions and the asso-
ciated fungus, citing the work of Von Thiitmen. Peach scab, how-
ever, was not unknown to American mycologists prior to this time,
since the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden and the
Pathological Collections? of the Bureau of Plant Industry contain
specimens collected by F. 8S. Earle, Cobden, Ill., 1881 * (on fruit) and
1887 ** (on leaves), and by A. B. Langlois, Mississippi, 1886 ** (on
fruit). Pammel (1892, p. 100) reported that Galloway, in unpub-
lished notes, had recorded the occurrence of the ‘‘peach fungus”
(Cladosporium carpophilum) on peach. leaves. Halsted (1895, p.
329-330) described what he considered to be scab injury upon peach
leaves. A study of his description and illustrations, however, makes
it appear conclusive that he failed to differentiate true scab injury
from other foliage troubles. Taft (1894, p. 57) reported the scab
fungus as attacking fruits, leaves, and tender shoots of the peach.
He gave no details, however, concerning the injury on twigs and leaves.
Sturgis (1897) noted a fungus, which he reported as conforming
morphologically to the description of C. carpophilum, associated with
twig injuries of the peach, almond, and apricot. He concluded that
the fungus was C. carpophilum smd] that it was the causal agent of
the auouible He reported, however, no cultural studies or infection
experiments. Clinton (1904, p. 340-341) briefly described scab
injuries on peach fruit, twigs, and leaves.

Selby (1898 and 1904), beginning in 1895, conducted an extensive
series of peach-spraying experiments, from which he concluded that
scab may be controlled by the use of Bordeaux mixture. A large
number of similar tests have been made with Bordeaux mixture of
various formulas and methods of preparation, but the toxicity of this
fungicide to the foliage has prevented its coming into general use in
_ the United States as a summer spray for peaches. Scott (1907 and

1 Bibliographic notations in parentheses refer to ‘Literature cited,’’ pp. 64-66.

2 The writer wishes to express his indebtedness to the curators of these herbaria for their kindness in
making these records available and in sending him material which enabled him to verify the identification
of each of these collections.

§ In the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, New York.

4In the Pathological Collections of the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of
Agriculture.

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 3

1908) obtained promising results from the use of self-boiled lime-
sulphur for peach-scab control. The same author (1909) reported
that this fungicide satisfactorily controlled the disease without objec-
tionable foliage injury and recommended its use in commercial
orchards. These results have been confirmed by Scott and Ayres
(1910), Scott and Quaintance (1911), and other investigators.

Thus, while peach scab has received a considerable amount of
attention from botanists and plant pathologists, the status of knowl-
edge of the disease has remained fragmentary and incomplete. No
attempt at a thoroughgoing study of the malady appears to have
been undertaken, previous work having been confined chiefly to
descriptions of Cladosporvum carpophilum and of the injuries which
it induces, to field observations, and to the empirical development
of control measures. Consequently, the etiology of the disease has
not been scientifically determined and the detailed life history of
the causal organism in relation to pathogenesis and to control meas-
sures has remained obscure.

The purpose of the investigations reported in this bulletin has been
to further the understanding of the nature, cause, development, and
control of peach scab. Accordingly, the effort has been directed
along four correlated major lines of study, viz, (1)-the disease, (2) the
causal organism, (3) the detailed life history of the causal organism
in relation to pathogenesis, and (4) control measures.

Studies of the relationships of peach scab to similar diseases of
other stone fruits have not been included in this problem, though
such investigations are now under way. Consequently, only peach
scab will be considered in this bulletin.

THE DISEASE.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

In order to supplement the available published data concerning
the geographic distribution of peach scab in the United States, a
brief questionnaire was recently sent to the authérities! of each State
agricultural experiment station. The disease was reported from the
following States: Alabama, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Con-
necticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa,
‘Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan,
Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New
York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island,
South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia.

In foreign countries, scab appears to occur practically wherever
the peach is grown intensively under normal conditions. However,
since peach production abroad is relatively of much less importance

1 The writer wishes to make grateful acknowledgment of his indebtedness to all who cooperated in
compiling these data.

4. BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

than in the United States, the disease has received only minor atten-
tion from foreign writers. Von Thitmen (1877) reported its occur-
rence in Austria; Cobb (1894, p. 385-386), in Australia; Craig (1898,
p. 40), in Canada; Oudemans (1901, p. 388), in Holland; Sorauer
(1908, p. 252), in southern Europe; and Evans (1911, p. 696), in South
Africa.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.!

Badly scabbed fruit is seriously reduced in market value (1) by
its unsightly appearance (PI. I, figs. 1 and 2); (2) by its lack of uni-
formity in size, shape, and evenness of ripening; (3) by the cracking
of individual or of confluent lesions (Pl. I, fig. 1, and Pl. II) and the
consequent increment in destructive fungal and bacterial invasions—
notably brown-rot (Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Schrét.) (Pl. Il, upper
figure); and (4), in severe cases, by its impaired flavor. Further loss
may be occasioned by the premature shedding or shriveling of fruits
which are badly scabbed about the attachment of the peduncle.

Many writers have reported severe economic losses from peach scab.
Selby (1904, p. 63) recorded heavy losses in Ohio. Rolfs (1909, p. 66)
states—

At least 60 per cent of the Elberta fruit on the station ground during the season
of 1906 was ruined by this organism [Cladosporium carpophilum]. The loss was even
greater on a number of other varieties.

Scott and Ayres (1910, p. 14) write—

The damage done by this disease is apparently not fully realized by peach growers.
Scab spots are so common on the peach that most of the eastern growers have come to
take the disease as a matter of course and scarcely realize that their fruit is bringing
25 per cent less in the market than the same fruit free from scab would bring. * * *
In many localities it practically prohibits the growing of certain varieties * * *
and the growers have been obliged to confine their plantings of such late varieties as
Bilyeu and Salway to the high ridges in order to avoid scab.

Scott and Quaintance (1911, p. 10-11) say—

Tf the loss in the orchard and the reduction in market value are both considered, it
seems evident that a loss of 10 per cent of the total value of the peach crop in the eastern
United States is caused by peach scab.

In order to supplement the data from published records and per-
sonal observations, an inquiry concerning the economic importance
of the disease in the various States was included in the questionnaire
referred to on the preceding page. The answers showed a consensus
of opinion that, unless controlled, the disease may occasion serious
losses in practically every important peach-producing State east of
the Rocky Mountains.

In formulating a more concrete conception of the economic impor-
tance of the disease, it is of interest to refer to the estimates of the
latest census report ? from which the data in Table I are taken.

1 See estimates and notes by Mr. M. B. Waite, p. 45-46.
2 Thirteenth Census of the United States . . . v. 5, Agriculture, 1909-10, p. 711, tab, 133. 1918.

Bul. 395, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE |

art otions?

We iat
<4

a

FeO = oe

A Hoen& Co. Baltimore.

PEACH FRUITS, TWIGS, AND LEAF ATTACKED BY CLADOSPORIUM CARPOPHILUM.

Fies. 1 and 2.—Badly diseased Elberta fruits from Chevy Chase, Md., August 6, 1915 (about a week
before harvest). 1G. 1.—Cracking of the diseased area. Fre. 2.—Close proximity of twig lesions
to the infected area of the fruit. H1e@s. 3 and 4.—Early stages of infection on twigs of 1-year-old
Early Crawford trees from inoculation experiments at Madison, Wis., August 6, 1915. Painted 40
days after inoculation. Fie. 5.—Typical natural infection on an Elberta twig from Chevy Chase,
Md., September 16, 1915. F1e@, 6.—Well-developed lesions on an Elberta twig in the spring follow-

ing infection. H1G. 7.—Badly diseased leaf of a Heath tree from Chevy Chase, Md., September
1¢@ 1015

Bul. 395, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.

ELBERTA PEACHES BADLY ATTACKED BY CLADOSPORIUM CARPOPHILUM.

The upper figure shows brown-rot following scab. From Chevy Chase, Md., August 6, 1915, about
a week before harvest. (Natural size.)

Bul. 395, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

CLADOSPORIUM CARPOPHILUM ON PEACH FRUIT AND LEAF AND IN CULTURE.
Fie. 1.—Badly diseased Elberta fruit, showing typical distribution of infection: a, Surface most

exposed to wetting, abundantly infected; b, surface least subject to wetting, no disease evident.
From Chevy Chase, Md., August 6, 1915. (Natural size.) Fic. 2.—Distal portion of a badly dis-
eased Heath leaf, showing typical distribution of the infection: a, Lower surface, abundantly
infected; b, upper surface, no infection evident. From Chevy Chase, Md., October 5, 1915.
(Nearly naturalsize.) Fic.3.—Cultures: a, Onsteamed bean pod; b, on steamed potato cylinder.

Photographed when cultures were 30 days old. (Natural size.)

- PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 5

TaBLE 1.—Peaches and nectarines—trees, production, and value in the United States.

1910 1909 1899

Geographic division. Trees of | Trees not

bearing | of bearing
age. age.

Produc-
tion.

Produc-

se, Value.

‘

Number. Number. Bushels. Dollars. Bushels.

Univad Sigies oso eee eee am eens 94,506, 657 | 42, 266, 243 | 35,470,276 | 28,781,078 | 15, 432, 603

Groups of States:
New #mpland’. .c2c<csic sesso eeetec.2 20 723, 810 572, 237 406, 903 632, 411 104, 737
Minor M(lamticn << 3) ose s eos s se 6,056,690 | 5,759,925 | 3,201,493 | 4,018,034] 1,231,242
Eastern North Central...............- 11,035,119 | 6,972,375 | 5,120,841 | 5,172, 957 716, 670
Western North Central...............- 13, 265,526 | 2,582,028 | 1,643,257 | 1,250,944 212, 932
South Atlantic 20,583,445 | 6,137,901 | 5,571,628 | 4,888,459] 1,412) 471
Eastern South Central 10,312,768 | 3,865,232 | 5,775,799 | 4,098, 776 549, 226
Western South Central 22,284,966 | 8,734,552 | 3,279,545 | 2,761,044] 2,192,353
Monutaines 2... e- 1, 605,285 | 1,696, 111 940,168 | 1,071,446 267, 365
ARINC MAN. Gui jd ence. eee cae 8,639,048 | 5,945,882 | 9,530,642 | 4,887,007 | 8,745, 607

Though the nectarine is represented in these figures, it is relatively
so unimportant that for purposes of rough estimation it may be left
out of consideration. According to these estimates, in 1910 there were
in the United States 94,506,657 bearing peach and nectarine trees,
which, during the preceding year, yielded a crop valued at $28,781,078.
The greater portion of the trees in the South Atlantic, eastern South
Central, western South Central, eastern North Central, and Middle
Atlantic States, estimated at 70,272,988, are in sections subject to
serious losses from scab. Those of the New England and western
North Central States, numbering 13,989,336, with the exception of
those in the more southern areas, as Missouri (6,588,034) and Kansas
(4,394,894), are generally distinctly less seriously affected, while the
10,244,333 trees of the Mountain and Pacific States, only 10.8 per
cent of the total number, may be classified as free from economic
injury by scab. :

Inasmuch as any accurate computation of the losses occasioned
yearly by the disease would of necessity be based upon such unde-
terminable factors as actual losses and expenditures for preven-
tive treatments, a concrete estimate is scarcely profitable. The
experience of the years immediately preceding the development of
control measures, however, emphasizes the potential damage of the
disease. During this period, owing to the combined ravages of
brown-rot and scab, commercial peach growing in the southern por-
tions of the United States suffered a severe check, while even in the
eastern and central sections plantings of certain varieties had to be
discontinued or confined to the higher altitudes in order to escape
scab. With the improved standards of excellence which successful
summer spraying has instituted and with the cumulative develop-
ment of the disease in unsprayed orchards, it is evident that if no
scab control were available the disease would be a serious menace to
successful commercial peach culture in many sections of the southern,
eastern, and central United States.

~

6 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DESCRIPTION.

On fruit.—The earliest macroscopic evidences of infection upon the
green surfaces of the fruit appear as imperfectly defined, greenish to
olivaceous, circular areas, usually less than half a millimeter in diam-
eter. This effect is due to the appearance of the olivaceous conid-
iophores and conidia of the fungus among the hairs of the fruit.
Upon blush surfaces, the early development of olivaceous color may
be accompanied or preceded by the disappearance of the normal pink
from the invaded areas, which remain much paler than normal until
masked by the development of the fungus. In such cases a narrow
peripheral zone of pale or yellowish green may mark the advance of
each diseased area. The developing lesions gradually become larger,
darker, and more clearly defined, owing to the death and disappear-
ance of many of the obscuring hairs of the fruit and to growth and
pigmentation of the fungus. When fully developed they are fairly
well defined, circular, olivaceous to black areas with an average diam-
eter of 2 to 3 millimeters, though under very favorable conditions
they may attain a diameter of 4 or 5 millimeters (PI. I, figs. 1 and 2,
and Pl. Il). The direct injury is superficial, ye me at most only
a few layers of cells, which typically become separated from the adja-
cent normal tissues by the formation of cork. The infections occur
practically exclusively upon the areas which are subject to thorough
wetting. The lesions are, thus, generally most abundant about the
peduncle and upon the upper portion of the wettable‘ surface (PI.
III, fig. 1, a). They may be more or less uniformly scattered over
the entire wettable surface, or they may be so abundant as to become
confluent over large patches, frequently covering practically one-half
of the surface of the fruit. The protected surfaces of even the most
severely attacked: fruits are usually free from infection (PI. III, fig.
1,6). As the peaches grow rapidly just prior to maturity, the corked
areas can not expand so readily as the normal tissues. This condi-
tion may result in mere inequalities of deyelopment between badly
diseased and normal areas, but more commonly the growth stresses
occasion the cracking of the cork layers. These cracks may appear
upon individual lesions as small rifts extending slightly into the flesh,
but upon very badly affected specimens they may extend the length
of the fruit and penetrate to the pit (Pl. I, fig. 1). Badly scabbed
fruits do not ripen evenly and are frequently inferior in flavor. Those
which are severely scabbed about the attachment of the peduncle
may be shed prematurely.
erowth and weathering, however, that portion which is exposed to the action of falling meteoric water
becomes more easily wettable, while the area protected from such action, usually the opposite side of the
fruit, remains difficultly wettable throughout the important period of scab infection. For the sake of

convenience, these areas subsequently will be referred to as ‘‘wettable” and ‘‘protected,” though it should
be realized, of course, that these terms are relative, not absolute.

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. q

On twigs—On tender young green twigs, the first macroscopic
evidences of infection, typically, are barely visible, more or less im-
perfectly defined, very slightly raised, irregularly circular to oval
areas, almost indistinguishable in color from the surrounding normal
surfaces. As the lesions develop, their central areas become light
brown, and later darker brown, and each is bordered by a slightly
raised peripheral zone, usually about half a millimeter wide and of
approximately the normal green color. The-coloration and zonation,
however, may vary considerably with such factors as the age and
character of the twig, seasonal conditions, and the stage of develop-
ment of the disease. At the end of the growing season, well-developed
lesions appear as smooth, irregularly oval, light-brown to dark-brown
areas of normal elevation, with slightly raised purplish to dark-brown
borders, which usually vary from one-half to 1 millimeter in width
and shade off peripherally into the color of the surrounding normal
surface (Pl. I, figs. 3 to 5, and Pl. IV, fig. 2). Such lesions usually
measure 3 to 5 by 5 to 8 millimeters, the greater development being
parallel to the axes of the twigs. The injury is superficial, mvolving
only a few layers of the cells, the diseased areas becoming separated
from the adjacent normal tissues by the formation of cork layers.
Under favorable conditions, conidiophores, which bear typical conidia,
may be produced upon the surfaces of the infected areas at any time
after the lesions become macroscopic. During the summer and fall
following the infection, the conidiophores are ordinarily produced
singly, and seldom in such quantity as to be macroscopically evident.
In the following sprig, however, they are produced abundantly in
olivaceous tufts. These sporiferous tufts may develop over the entire
surfaces of the lesions, or they may be confined to peripheral zones,
usually 1 to 2 millimeters in width, leaving the grayish brown central
areas bare (PI. I, fig. 6, and Pl. IV, fig. 3). Such lesions may enlarge
slightly during the spring and early summer of the second season. As
the summer progresses and the bark is differentiated, however, they
gradually begin to lose their identity. By the:third summer, they
usually become indistinguishable, while the fungus rarely survives
the second winter. Lesions on water sprouts or very rapidly growing
twigs may lose their identity with the rapid cork formation of the
first summer. Twig infections are miscellaneously distributed upon
the wood of the current year’s growth. They may be sufficiently
numerous to become confluent and form irregularly shaped lesions,
which may attain a length of several centimeters. On account of
their superficial nature, however, they rarely cause appreciable injury
to the twigs.

On leaves.—The first macroscopic evidences of infection appear upon
the lower surfaces of the leaves as indistinct, imperfectly defined, some-
what angular to circular discolored areas, usually one-half to 1 milli-

~

8 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

meter in diameter. The color of the affected surface may be a pale
green, almost indistinguishable from the normal, or it may vary to
light brown or pinkish purple. The true color, however, is frequently
modified or masked by an abundant development of olivaceous conidi-
ophores and conidia. These are usually present in greater or less num-
bers when the infection first becomes macroscopic. When conditions
especially favor their development, they may be borne in sufficient
quantities to give a dark-green color to the lesions and to constitute
their most conspicuous character. On the leaf lamina the fully
developed lesions are somewhat angular to irregularly circular. Their
average diameter is 1 to 2 millimeters, though in rare cases they may
attain a diameter of 5 or 6 millimeters (PI. I, fig. 7, and Pl. IV, fig. 1).
On the petioles and midribs they are usually much longer and nar-
rower, generally measuring 3 to 8 by one-half to 1 millimeters. The
color of the blotch proper may vary from light brown to dark brown,
or it may be pmkish purple. The demarcation remains indistinct
and the elevation is usually unchanged, except in extreme cases,
when the lamina above the larger lesions may become convex below
and correspondingly concave above. When the lesions first appear,
no evidence of disease is visible upon the upper surfaces of the leaves.
In later stages, however, the tissues above and immediately around
the affected areas may lose some or all of their green color and become
pale yellow or purplish. In extreme cases such areas may die, but
ordinarily no definite leaf spottmg is mduced. The lesions may occur
miscellaneously scattered over the lower surfaces of the leaves and
upon the petioles, or they may develop in such abundance as to
become confluent and form irregular patches (Pl. III, fig. 2). The
infection appears to occur with equal readiness on the petioles,
midribs, veins, and leaf lamima. It was demonstrated in the inocula-
tion experiments that badly diseased leaves may turn yellow and fall,
but the writer has rarely observed this condition as the result of
natural scab infection.
PATHOLOGICAL HISTOLOGY.

Histological technique.—In kilting material for histological work,
several standard fixing agents were employed, viz, Flemming’s weak,
medium, and strong fluids, picro-formal, and chrom-acetic. The
stains used were Flemming’s triple, Haidenhain’s iron alum-
haematoxylin, Durand’s haematoxylin-eosin, gentian violet, and
safranin.

For most purposes, Flemming’s medium fluid and the triple stain
gave the best results. This combination not only stained the fungus
well, but gave an excellent differentiation of fungus and host in twig
and fruit lesions. The cuticle of the host remained practically
colorless, while the dead epidermal and subepidermal cells took little
stain, being yellowish green in the finished preparation. In sharp

Bul. 395, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

PLATE IV.

PEACH LEAF AND TWIGS ATTACKED BY CLADOSPORIUM CARPOPHILUM.

Fig. 1.—Lower surface of badly diseased Heath leaf, showing abundant infection. From Chevy
Chase, Md., October5, 1915. (Naturalsize.) Fiac.2.—Badly diseased Elberta twigs. From Chevy
Chase, Md., August 6, 1915.

N (Natural size.) Fic. 3.—Elberta twigs, showing lesions as they
appear in the spring following infection, with abundant production of conidial tufts: a and 6,

Small lesions, evidently the result of late infection; c and d fully developed lesions. From
Cornelia, Ga., May 31, 1912. (Magnified, X 2.)

mar ivi

ce

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 9

contrast, the fungal tissue took up the red and orange quite freely,
while the dividing cells of the cork-forming layers stained a striking

blue and the normal host cells below a bright
red.

Fruit lesions.—In the early stages of fruit
infection the slender, branching, hyaline,

septate hyphe of the fungus are found closely »

appressed to the inner walls of the irregular
surface cells of the host. This early develop-
ment is most abundant in the minute depres-
sions about the bases of the hairs, where
conditions seem to be particularly favorable
for the development of the parasite (fig. 1).
As the fungus becomes firmly established,
conidiophores are produced, while the vege-
tative hyphe branch and thicken until they
may entirely cover the area of infection.
The individual cells thicken and darken,
while transverse and longitudinal divisions
take place, often resulting in the formation
of irregular fungal masses five or six cells in
depth (fig. 2, a). This later development,
too, is particularly abundant in the depres-
sions about the bases of hairs.

Asthefungus develops generally over the sur-
face of the infected areas, the superficial host
cells die and the lesions may be cut off from the

¥1G. 2.—Sections of lesions from Elberta peach fruits: a, Shortly before

Fic. 1.—Section of a lesion from
an Elberta peach fruit, showing
the early development of the
parasite about the base of a
hair, in close contact with the
inner walls of adjacent surface
cells of the host. Camera-lucida
drawing. (Magnified 465 times.)

sound tissues below by the formation of pro-
tective layers of cork (fig. 2,b). These layers
are formed as the result of tangential divi-

sions of the subepi-
dermal cells. Less
‘frequently, trans-
verse divisions oc-
eur. Cork forma-
tion is usually most
vigorous inthe third
or fourth subepi-
dermal layers and
ordinarily extends

cork formation; 6, soon after cork formation. At the right the section slightly above and
extends nearly to the edge ofthe corky layer. Camera-lucida drawings. elow this actively

(Magnified 310 times.)

dividing region.

In the case of early varieties of peaches, the fruits usually mature
before cork formation occurs. Upon later varieties, however, the

48408°-_Baull. 395—-17—_——2

10 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cork layers may be formed before the final rapid swelling of the fruit
prior to its maturity. In such cases stresses are set up and cracks of
varying sizes result. In many cases such openings are scarcely
macroscopic, but on badly diseased fruits, where the spots have
become confluent, the cracks may ex-
tend across an entire side of the peach
and reach inward to the pit.

Twig lesions.—In the early stages
of twig infection, slender, branching,
hyaline, septate hyphe of the fungus
are found penetrating the subcuticu-
lar areas immediately exterior to the
cellulose walls of the epidermal cells
Fic. 3.—Longitudinal section of a lesion from (fig. 3). As the fungus develops, its

oo Smee ace aes ramifications become more general,
velopment of the fungus and a veryearly its individual cells thicken, the un-
fete CAEP unet othe) ibline derlying epidermal cells of the twig
die, and the diseased areas are effec-
tively cut off from the sound cortical tissues below by layers of
cork cells. These corky layers are formed by means of tangential
divisions of the subepidermal cells. It is not unusual, however, for
the first division to be transverse, the daughter cells dividing tangen-
tially. The two or three actively
concerned hypodermal layers are,
in each case, rapidly converted
into a fairly uniform barrier of
thin corky cells of meager proto-
plasmic content. As the lesions
age and the epidermal cells be-
come more and more disorganized,
the outer layers of subepidermal
cells die and turn brown.

After the advent of the dormant se
period of the host, the fungus COn- Fic. 4.—Longitudinal section of a lesion from an
tinues to develop throughout the Set» pac ‘wie of the presetng yur
fall, mild periods of the winter, and velopment ofthe fungus and the vigorous pro-
th e sprin g. The subcuticular h ve duction of conidiophores in the spring following

E s , infection. The host cells, which were badly
phe Inerease 1n diameter and in disorganized, are semidiagrammatically repre-

number until they form stromate- a0) Cemeraiuca crowing. (eee
oid layers which may extend over
the entire lesions. While these structures may consist merely of
single layers of cells, they are usually thicker, often developing into
pseudoparenchymatous masses, six or eight cells deep (fig. 4).

With the vigorous subcuticular development of the fungus, the
cuticle is often slightly raised and at times broken, while the remains

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 11

of the dead epidermal cells are compressed inward in extreme cases
until their identity is almost lost. In such cases the fungus often
grows down between the epidermal cells, and occasionally hyphee
penetrate the intercellular areas of the first subepidermal layer.

After the protective corky layers are fully formed, no further
pathological anatomical changes occur. As the bark forms and
roughens with the second year’s growth of the twigs, the cuticle of
the diseased areas partially sloughs off; and, as the bark thickens
with subsequent development, the lesions gradually lose their
identity.

Leaf lesions.—In the early stages of leaf infection, the slender
hyphe of the fungus are found between the cuticle and the cellulose
walls of the epidermal cells of the lower (dorsal) surface. As the
fungus develops, its ramifications become more abundant, and
under favorable conditions conidiophores and conidia are produced.
Its ultimate development, however, is much less vigorous than upon
twigs or fruit, no pseudoparenchyma having been observed on the
leaf lamina. The invasion appears to be merely subcuticular and
the fungus is very inconspicuous, even in well-stained preparations.
The chlorophyll usually disappears from the mesophyll cells imme-
diately adjacent to the invaded areas, while in extreme cases this
abnormality extends into the leaf lamina to such an extent that the
areas above the lesions appear distinctly yellow or purplish when
viewed from the upper (ventral) surface.

When infection occurs upon the petioles or larger veins, corky
layers similar to those described for fruit and twig lesions are formed.
In such cases the development of the fungus is distinctly more vig-
orous than on the leaf lamina, but much less so than on fruits and
twigs.

THE CAUSAL ORGANISM.
TAXONOMY.

Von Thiimen (1877), at Klosterneuberg, Austria, first described
the peach-scab fungus, naming it Cladosporium carpophilum. Two
_years later the same author (1879, p. 13) emended his original de-
scription. Saccardo (1886, p. 353) gives Von Thiimen’s emended
description in slightly abbreviated form. Arthur (1889, p. 7) reviews
the references cited above and gives a translation of Von Thiimen’s
emended description. Oudemans (1901, p. 388) describes as Fusi-
cladium carpophilum Oud. a fungus growing on fallen young peaches.
He lists as a synonym Cladosporium carpophilum Thiim., but neither
gives Von Thiimen credit as authority for the specific name nor
states reasons for transferring the fungus to the genus Fusicladium.
Aderhold (1900, p. 541-549; 1901, p. 656-657), after extensive
investigations, concluded that Fusicladium cerasi (Rbh.) Sace.
should be referred to the genus Cladosporium. On comparing this

12 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

fungus with Cladosporium carpophilum Thiim. from peach fruit from
America, he found only minor morphological differences, but obtained
inconclusive results from cross-inoculation experiments. Though
he does not formally conclude that these organisms are specifically
identical, he expresses the personal conviction (1901, p. 657) that they
are ‘ein und denselben Pilz” and calls attention to the fact that
Pammel (1895, p. 207) and Selby (1897, p. 118) considered Clado-
sporiums associated with cherry and plum scab in America to be
Cladosporvum carpophilum Thiim. If Aderhold were correct in his
belief, it would follow that Cladosporvum carpophilum Thim. should
become a synonym of Cladosporwum cerasi (Rbh.) Aderh., which in
turn the same investigator (1900, p. 544) considers to be the im-
perfect stage of Venturia cerasi Aderh. The data which have been
presented, however, fail to convince the writer that the organisms
in question are identical. Therefore, until further evidence is
adduced, he accepts the name Cladosporvum carpophilum Thim.
for the peach-scab parasite.

While the contributions which have been made to the aemieden
of Cladosporium carpophilum since Von Thiimen’s (1879) description
make desirable certain further emendations, it is the belief of the
writer that, in order to avoid unnecessary taxonomic complications,
these should not be made until the relationships of the Cladosporiums
on the stone fruits have been further determined. Meanwhile, Von
Thiimen’s (1879, p. 13) description, which is quoted below, is in most
essentials clear-cut and accurate.

Cl. maculas orbiculares, saepe confluentes, viridi-nigricantes, annulatas formans;
hyphis brevibus, erectis, flexuosulis, continuis vel interdum septatis, subramosis,
tenuibus, 4 mm. crassis, fuscis; sporis fusoideo-ovatis, utrinque obtusiusculis vel raro
vertice subacutatis, rectis, non vel obscure uniseptatis, diaphanis, 20 mm. long., 5-6
mm. crass., dilute fuscescentibus.—Thiimen. |. c. emend.

In Persicae vulgaris Mill. fructibus maturis, epidemice.—A ustria inferior (Thiimen).

MORPHOLOGY.

Myceluum.—The morphological characters of the mycelium vary
much with conditions. The very young hyphe are delicate, hyaline,
branched, and septate. As the fungus develops, however, the
diameter of individual cells normally increases, transverse and, more
rarely, longitudinal divisions occur, and the walls of the more ex-
posed cells thicken and become olivaceous. On the fruit lesions this
growth may give rise to pseudoparenchymatous fungal masses, while
a like development may occur beneath the cuticle of the twigs (figs.
2 and 4). In culture, stromateoid masses develop (PI. III, fig. 3),
the individual cells becoming much enlarged and often rounded,
giving an irregularly moniliform appearance to the mycelial threads.
In old cultures the mycelium tends to break up into its component
cells, which under favorable conditions are capable of putting out
virvorous hvnhs Tn all of thece stramatenid strictures the walle of

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. he

the more exposed cells thicken and darken and the individual cells may
assume the characters of chlamydospores (fig.5, d ande). On old cul-
tures on steamed peach twigs or certain agar preparations, small, irreg-
ularly rounded to stints elongated, olivaceous, sclerotioid masses,
usually less than one-third of a milli-

meter in diameter, may be found. The

outer cells of these bodies are thick

ah
walled and olivaceous and frequently ioe (
bear conidiophores. The inner cells are
thin walled and colorless, with an 5
abundant content of oily material. a b c Va

Conidiophores—The conidiophores — F1.5.—Cladosporium carpophilum: a, Con-
Biss But, 5, and. c), are, chorb; erect, Peuieant ait ton nl ns
more or. less flexuous, one to several __ lesions; c, conidiophore from leaf lesion;
septate, rarely branched, olivaceous Sy25 becaanvoultare,shoning develor
hyphe, distinetly enlarged at the base ment ofchlamydospores. Camera-lucida
and often tapering irregularly toward “77S Maenified 485 times.)
the apex. Their dimensions vary with conditions, though in nature
they are fairly uniform during the early stages of sporulation. The
conidia are produced acrogenously, beginning usually when the spo-
rophores are about 30 to 35 yw long. The conidiophores elongate
apically as conidia are developed, the places of attachment of de-
tached spores being marked ordinarily by small wartlike processes
“or by geniculations on the sporophores. The extent of this type of
elongation, which is quite variable, determines the ultimate length of
theconidiophores. On the overwintered twig lesions theconidiophores
borne from the subcuticular stromateoid fungal masses occur typically
in tufts (fig. 4), and tend to be somewhat shorter and thicker than
those occurring elsewhere in nature. On the fruit they grow much
longer, often attaming a length of 90 to 100 w. On leaf infections
and twig lesions of the current year they tend to be somewhat more
erect and less flexuous than on fruit or overwintered twigs. In cul-
ture there is much greater variation, the sporophores ranging from
undifferentiated hyphe to abnormally long, slender filaments. Meas-
urements of conidiophores are summarized in Table II.

Tasie [i.— Measurements of conidiophores of Cladosporium carpophilum.

Average measure- Average measure-
ments (microns). ments (microns).
Number Number
Source. EEG . Source. paeisnneds
readth Breadth
Length. | 5+ middle. Length. |,+ middle.
Fruit.... 10 63.5 4.6 || Twig of current
WOSs seo se ese 10 65. 0 4.2 years se so: 10 48.5 4.7
OSS! an Set Pe 10 73.0 4:2) neaiee sean ee anes 10 57.9 4.6
Overwintered twig 20 42.1 5.5 DO ek 10 60. 8 4.6
08s sone eee 10 42.7 | 5.0 Dose eraes ht. 10 57.0 4.8

1 Conidiophores in early stage of sporulation; consequently, relatively short.

14 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Conidia.—The conidia (fig. 5, a and b) are borne acrogenously,
either singly or in short chains which may be branched when con-
ditions especially favor sporulation. The spores appear first as small,
rounded, hyaline projections from the apices of the conidiophores.
These bodies rapidly enlarge, assume the ellipsoidal shape of the
immature spore, and become abjointed by septa from their sporo-
phores. The mature conida are very well described by Von Thitmen
(1879, p. 13). |

* * ¥* sporis fusoideo-ovatis, utrinque obtusiusculis vel raro vertice subacutatis,
rectis, non vel obscure uniseptatis, diaphanis, 20 mm. long., 5-6 mm. crags., dilute
fuscescentibus.

- If divided, the spores tend to be slightly constricted in the middle.
The cells are very similar in size and shape, except that the basal ones.
tend to be slightly thicker and the apical less obtuse. In nature,
normal mature conidia are fairly uniform in size. When they are
produced in chains, the mature apical spores are indistinguishable in
size and shape from the basal. The results of the measurements of
240 conidia from various sources are summarized in Table III.
These measurements agree closely with those of Von Thitmen (1879)
except that the spores average 4.3 » shorter.

Tass IIT.— Measurements of conidia of Cladosporium carpophilum.

Average measure- Average measure-
Number ments (microns). Namber ments (microns).
Source. messuredl Source. Tease
Length. | Breadth. Length. | Breadth.
BTUIts cc ses tees seice 10 16.7 5.0 || Leaf lamina........ 20 16.6 4,9
Moses sels. 50 14.4 5.2 Oss So cee eeee 20 16. 2 4.7
Overwintered twig DOs ee oe 20 15.6 4.8
lesions........-.. 50 SRO) 5. 2 Dow oot 20 16.5 5.1
Twig of current Leaf midribs......- 10 17.2 4.5
YOO ices cee csicte 20 16.8 4.8
MD) OR eta seteioce 20 14.9 4.2 Average of 240.. aps 15.7 4.9
PHYSIOLOGY.

The objects of the physiological studies were (1) to gain a clearer
comprehension of the responses of the fungus to its environment
under controlled conditions, in order better to understand its behavior
in nature, and (2) to furnish a further basis for the identification of
the organism by other investigators.

CULTURAL STUDIES.

By means of the poured-plate method the fungus was readily
isolated from freshly produced conidia from fruit, twig, or leaf
lesions. At first, considerable difficulty was encountered, because
the scab fungus developed so slowly that it became overrun by sapro-
phytes. It was possible, however, to minimize the contamination by

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 15

collecting the spores in a platinum loop of water touched to the ends
of sporulating hyphe. In cases where other measures were neces-
sary, individual spores were isolated by a method which the writer
(1915) has described elsewhere. By the use of this method all the
cultures reported upon in this bulletin were isolated from single
spores.

The organism was also isolated from leaf and twig lesions by
sterilizing the surfaces with mercuric chlorid in the usual fashion
and plating fragments in agar preparations. This method, however,
was rendered unsatisfactory (1) by the superficial nature and slow
growth of the fungus and (2) by the prevalence of a species of
Dematium which agrees morphologically with the description of
Dematium pullulans De By. ‘This organism grows very rapidly in
culture and forms myriads of spores, from which it is very difficult
to isolate the slow-growing Cladosporium.

In connection with these isolations, observations were made to
ascertain what organisms are commonly associated with seab lesions.
Hundreds of plates were made from scrapings from scab infections
on fruits, twigs, and leaves. The media most commonly used were
agar in water, with prune decoction added, Lima-bean agar, and
Thaxter’s potato hard agar. Cladosporium carpophilum developed
uniformly when the plates contained freshly produced normal spores,
but it frequently failed to appear if the lesions had passed through
adverse conditions, such as exposure to excessive heat or drought.
The following organisms appeared frequently: Dematium sp., Hor-
modendron sp., and two undetermined imperfect fungi, hereafter
designated for convenience as undetermined fungi A and B. While
these four organisms appeared frequently and abundantly, only
the Dematium developed constantly. All occurred superficially,
and all were readily isolated from apparently normal surfaces of
fruits, twigs, and leaves, as well as from scab lesions. The Dematium
and the Hormodendron were especially abundant on dead tissues.
While there was little reason to suspect that any,of these superficial
fungi bore a causal relationship in the production of scab, they were
all isolated in single-spore cultures and tested for pathogenicity.
The results, which were uniformly negative, are discussed later.

CULTURAL CHARACTERS,

Strains of the fungus isolated from (qa) fruit, (6) twig, and (c) leaf
lesions, respectively, were grown comparatively in triplicate cultures
on 31 media. No marked differences occurred in the behavior
of strains from the different organs of the host, the variations being
no greater than those observed in strains isolated from the same
organ. The fungus grew well on this wide range of media, and

16 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

showed only minor variations upon the different substrata. The
more important features of this work are outlined as follows:

LTima-bean agar plates—In diffuse light in the laboratory, at 18° to 25° C., the
conidium puts out one or more colorless septate germ tubes, each of which in two days
may attain a length of about eight to twelve times that of the spore. The cells of these
hyphe then thicken, develop numerous lateral branches, and become olivaceous.
The younger hyphe behave in like fashion. Thus small, compact colonies develop,
their central areas being composed of dense, pseudoparenchymatous masses of heavy,
often swollen and moniliform, thick-walled, olivaceous cells from which radiate
numerous branched hyphe. The colonies usually become macroscopic within three
to five days and attain their full development within two to four weeks. When fully
developed they may be irregularly spherical to lens shaped or irregular and more or
less submerged, depending upon the position of the parent spore. The exposed por-
tion of the stromateoid mass is masked by an olive-green covering of conidiophores,
conidia, and rather sparse, slender, olivaceous, aerial hyphe. The submerged parts
are dense and black, except at the periphery, where the young hyphe are colorless.
While the size of the colonies varies much with conditions, the surface diameter
averages about 1 to 4 mm.

Lima-bean, agar slants—The early development of the fungus parallels that on
plates. The subsequent growth, however, is much more vigorous and continues for
a longer period. In a culture seeded with a small droplet of sporiferous suspension
on the middle of the slanted surface and incubated at 18° to 25° C. under conditions
which retard rapid evaporation, the colony may eventually occupy practically the entire
slant, gradual growth continuing for more than three months. At the end of four
months the exposed portion consists of a black, irregularly circular, stromateoid mass
about 1 to 14 cm. in diameter, somewhat raised and slightly convoluted, masked by
an. olivaceous covering of conidiophores, conidia, and slender, aerial hyphe. From
this central mass heavy, branched, olivaceous to black hyphe penetrate the slant
practically to the wall of the tube.

Beerwort agar slants.—The early development closely parallels that on the Lima-
bean agar, except that it is somewhat more rapid and the growth above the surface of
the medium is markedly more abundant. The latter difference becomes very striking
in later stages, when the much-folded and convoluted mycelial masses of the cultures
on beerwort agar extend several millimeters above the original surfaces of the slants,
sometimes reaching the opposite walls of the tubes. The subsurface development
extends through the slants to the walls of the tubes. In the later stages the raised,
stromateoid masses become studded with microsclerotia.

Other agar slants.—Strains of the fungus isolated from (a) fruit, (b) twig, and (c) leaf
lesions were studied comparatively on 16 agar preparations, viz, infusions of peach
fruit, peach leaf, peach twig, prune (pitted, 2 per cent and 5 per cent), Lima bean,
potato, corn meal, oat meal, and string bean; standard beerwort, malt soup, synthetic,
Thaxter’s potato hard (3 per cent agar), beef-extract agar; and agar alone (1.5 per
cent) in water. These media were prepared with the aim of securing as much uniform-
ity as feasible in matters common to all, as periods of cooking and sterilization, per-
centage of agar used (1.5 per cent, unless otherwise noted), and technique of manipu-
lations. For the standard media standard methods were followed throughout. All
the media were titrated, but it was not considered desirable to readjust the reactions,
previous tests having shown no noticeable effect of reaction in a range more extensive
than that occurring in these cultures. The cultures were made in triplicate, incu-
bated in darkness at 20° to 22° C., and examined frequently during their development.

While the development of the fungus varied considerably with the different media,
these variations did not appear to be of a nature to justify detailed descriptions. The
chief differences were (1) the amount of growth above the surface of the slant, (2) the

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 17

production of microsclerotia, and (3) the depth of growth below the surface of the
medium. The most conspicuous development above the surface of the substratum
occurred on beerwort and synthetic agars. A greater or less development of this type
and the production of abundant microsclerotia occurred on all the sugary media used.
Little of the elevated stromateoid growth occurred upon starchy media, nor were
microsclerotia observed in such cultures. The subsurface development on the
starchy media, however, was very vigorous. On agar in water the fungus developed
slowly until the colonies were about 14 cm. in diameter, though they were considera-
bly less dense than on the more nutritive substrata, and their development above the
surface of the slant was very limited. The variations in strains from different organs
of the host were very minor, being no greater than have been observed in strains
isolated from the same organ.

Prune gelatin slants —The early development of the fungus parallels that on prune
agar. The subsurface growth, however, soon becomes considerably more rapid on
the gelatin cultures. While no marked liquefaction is apparent, there is some evi-
dence of the softening of the medium immediately adjacent to the advancing hyphe.
It is quite possible that liquefaction occurs very gradually, the liquefied areas being
occupied by the fungus as rapidly as the medium becomes softened. The fully
developed colonies occupy the entire slanted sections and extend somewhat into the
medium below.

Inima-bean agar shake cultwres.—The fungus develops quite vigorously and typically
upon the surface of the medium, and good growth occurs to a depth of lto2mm. At
greater depths colonies develop at various points throughout the culture, but they
grow very sparsely and barely become visible macroscopically.

Other media.—The same strains of the fungus used for the agar slant cultures were
grown comparatively, at the same time and under like conditions, upon the following
media: Prune decoction (2 per cent) in (1) tubes, (2) elder pith, (3) plaster-of-Paris
blocks, and (4) filter paper; peach fruit and leaf decoctions in filter paper; steamed
bean pods; sweet-clover stems; peach twigs; peach leaves; potato plugs; rice;
corn meal; and sterile raw potato plugs. The developments were not sufficiently
distinctive to justify detailed descriptions. In the prune decoction the fungus
developed abundantly at the surface of the liquid and formed fairly vigorous colonies
along the walls of the tubes to the bottom. Good growth occurred on all the other
media, though the development on raw potato was quite sparse while the plugs were
fresh. Later, the growth was very good. The most striking feature of these cultures
was the conspicuous development of microsclerotia upon the peach twigs. The
differences among the strains were no more marked than in the agar slant cultures.

RELATIONS OF MOISTURE. i

The cultural studies reported above showed that the fungus may
grow vigorously on or in a suitable nutrient solution or saturated
substratum. If the substratum was gradually dried, however, the
cell walls of the fungus thickened and became olivaceous, and chlamy-
dospores were developed in great abundance. In this condition the
organism was found to be highly resistant to desiccation. This was
strikingly shown in the case of Lima-bean agar slant cultures, which
were made on December 8, 1911, and kept in the laboratory, where
they dried gradually and became very hard and brittle. On April
15, 1915, mycelial fragments from one of these cultures were plated.
Good growth and sporulation resulted.

48408°—Bull. 395—17——3

18 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
RELATIONS OF TEMPERATURE.

Several series of cultures were incubated in darkness at carefully
controlled temperatures ranging from 2° to 40°C. The media used
were Lima-bean and beerwort agars and steamed string-bean pods.
At 2° C. the growth was very gradual, becoming barely macroscopic
in about a month. At 4° and 6° C. the development was slightly
more rapid, while at 9° and 12°, respectively, it was conspicuously
accelerated. The rapidity of growth increased steadily up to 20° C.,
while at 24° a slight increase over 20° could be observed. At 27° C.
the development closely paralleled that at 24°, being, perhaps, slightly
less rapid. At 30° to 32° C. the fungus rarely became macroscopic,
while no growth occurred at 35°. Cultures incubated for three weeks
at 35° C. developed vigorously, however, when the temperature was
decreased to 24°.

It appears, therefore, that the minimal temperature for growth of
the fungus on favorable substrata is less than 2° C.; the optimal,
between 20° and 27°—about 25°; and the maximal, about 32°.

RELATIONS OF LIGHT.

Numerous cultures on Lima-bean and beerwort agar slants and
steamed string-bean pods were incubated comparatively side by side
in strong diffuse light and in darkness, at temperatures ranging from
20° to 25° C. Excellent development resulted in all cases, the cul-
tures of the two series being practically indistinguishable, except for
the fact that sporulation was uniformly distinctly more abundant
in the case of those grown in light. Good sporulation, however,
occurred in the cultures grown in darkness.

In certain cases, in January and February, parallel cultures were
incubated for several weeks in a south window, where they were
exposed to direct sunlight for several hours of each clear day. Inas-
much as no effort was made to segregate the effects of light and
temperature, these experiments merely showed that cultures which
had been frequently exposed to direct sunlight under these conditions
appeared to suffer no permanent injury, their ultimate development
being good.

It appears, therefore, that strong diffuse light exerts no marked
influence on the vegetative development of the fungus, but dis-
tinctly favors sporulation.

SPORE-GERMINATION STUDIES.

More than a thousand germination tests were made-with conidia
from various sources under varied conditions. Only certain general
aspects of the results will be considered here. Data regarding via-
bility are given in another connection (p. 35).

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 19

The spores were placed in drops of sterile distilled water, meteoric
water, and nutritive solutions, respectively, on glass slides in moist
chambers; in liquid and solid media in Van Tieghem cells; and in
plate cultures of agar infusions. The cultures were incubated under
various regulated conditions. The glassware was cleaned in the
standard manner for physiological experiments, and distilled water
was redistilled from Jena glass. For most purposes, the open drop
cultures on glass slides in Petri dishes were most convenient and
satisfactory.

GERMINATION IN WATER.

In diffuse light or in darkness, at 18° to 27° C., the first evidences
of the germination of conidia in sterile distilled water appear, after
about 8 to 12 hours, as small, highly refractive, hyaline protuberances
of the inner walls of the spores. These gradually develop into delicate,
hyaline, septate germ tubes, 2 to 4 » in diameter, which usually
attain a length of about 10 to 20 » within 24 hours after the beginning
of the experiment. Little growth occurs after the second day, when
the tubes are usually 30 to 60 » long. They rarely become longer
than 75 » unless suitable nutritive material is added. The germ tubes
may extend from any part of the surface of the spore, but ordinarily
they are developed at or near the ends. If only one is produced, it is
generally borne at or near the basal end. Frequently a tube is
developed from each end, but rarely are more than two produced
from a single spore in pure water.

In parallel experiments with sterile distilled water and meteoric
water no noteworthy differences in results were observed.

GERMINATION IN NUTRIENT MEDIA.

In drops of 1 per cent prune or raisin decoction, or a variety of
other similar nutrient solutions, the early development of germination
is practically indistinguishable from that in water, the effects of the
nutrient media being manifested chiefly m the rapidity and vigor
of development. In such solutions, under the conditions already
mentioned, early stages of germination may be observed within
4to8hours. After 12 hours the germ tubes usually measure about
3 to 4 by 15 to 25 w. Within two days they frequently attain a
length of 150 to 250 » and become considerably thickened, branched,
and septate.

In sap expressed from green Elberta peaches germination is practi-
cally indistinguishable from that in 1 per cent prune decoction.

In plates of 1 per cent prune agar, or a variety of similar agar
infusions, germination closely parallels that in drops of prune decoc-
tion.

In Van Tieghem cells the spores germinate normally in various
liquid and solid media, |

20 BULLETIN 395. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
RELATIONS OF MOISTURE.

While no attempt was made to determine whether or not the
conidia will germinate in a highly humid atmosphere in the absence
of water, no evidence of this type of development was observed. On
the contrary, cumulative observational data strongly indicate that
at least a film of water is essential to germination. Continuous
wetting, however, is unnecessary, as was shown in the following
experiment:

Experiment 1.—Spores were placed in drops of sterile distilled water and 1 per cent
prune decoction, respectively, on slides in moist chambers and incubated in diffuse
light in the laboratory at 15° to 25° C. In one series the drops were not allowed to
evaporate. In two others the spores were kept alternately wet and air dry for 24-hour
periods, one series being wet during the first period and the other dry. The experi-
ment was continued for six days and noted daily. The spores which were kept con-
tinuously moist germinated normally and at the end of the experiment showed some-
what better growth than the others. Those which were alternately wet and dry
showed little if any injury from the treatment. They ceased to develop when dry,
and resumed their activities when wet. At the end of the experiment these two series
were indistinguishable in their development. Other similar tests in which the periods
of wetting and drying were varied gave confirmatory results, no serious injury being
observed unless the changes were very frequent in the earlier stages of germination.

RELATIONS OF TEMPERATURE.

Several series of germination experiments were conducted in drops
of sterile distilled water and 1 per cent prune decoction, compara-
tively, on glass slides in moist chambers in darkness at carefully
controlled temperatures ranging from 2° to 35° C. The spores were
taken from vigorous Lima-bean agar cultures 2 to 4 weeks old. At
2° C. germination in sterile distilled water was practically nil, only
occasional tubes, with a maximal length of about 20 u, being observed
at the end of 15 days. In the parallel cultures in prune decoction,
early evidences of germination were visible after three days. Within
four days numerous tubes 5 to 10 » long were evident, while at the
end of 15 days most of the spores had germinated, their tubes averag-
ing more than 100 nin length. At 4° and 6° C., respectively, the rate
of development was slightly increased. At 9° and 12° C. it was in
each case materially accelerated, and up to 20° it increased steadily.
The cultures at 24° C. were slightly more advanced than at 20° and
almost indistinguishable from those at 27°, though apparently very
slightly more vigorous. At 30° to 32° C. the spores germinated but
sparsely. The tubes in the prune decoction rarely exceeded 60 u
in length and failed to develop into mycelia or to produce spores.
At 35° C. no germination was observed.

It appears, therefore, that the thermal relations of germination
closely parallel those of subsequent growth, the minimal tempera-
ture for germination in water or in favorable nutritive solutions

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. ot

being less than 2° C.; the optimal, between 20° and 27°—about 25°;
and the maximal, slightly above 32°.

RELATIONS OF LIGHT.

Numerous drop cultures of the type just mentioned were incu-
bated comparatively in strong diffuse light and in darkness at
temperatures ranging from 20° to 25° C. Normal development
resulted in all cases, the differences in illumination appearing to have
no marked influence on germination.

PATHOGENICITY.

Relative to an inoculation experiment with Cladosporium car-
pophilum from culture, Chester (1897, p. 63) makes the following
statement:

Sown on the uninjured surface of green peaches, a slight growth resulted, in only
a few cases simulating the natural infection; it was evident, however, that the peaches
were at that stage of their development not in condition for the best development of

the fungus on their surface. When the inoculation of the peach was accompanied
by a puncture, the fungus developed and produced spots like those seen in nature.

Thus, no definite data are given concerning the source of inocula-
tion, the method of experiment, or the results obtained, and no
mention is made of controls. Furthermore, the writer’s experi-
ments, reported below, show that punctures are not essential to
abundant infection, and that the utmost care is necessary for the
attamment of reliable results from fruit moculation with Cladosporium
carpophilum in sections where scab occurs abundantly. This experi-
ment, therefore, does not justify conclusions.

Aderhold (1901, p. 657) conducted a cross-inoculation experiment
with Cladosporium cerasi and C. carpophilum. The results, however,
were admittedly inconclusive.

The writer (1914a, 1914b) reported, in a preliminary way, positive
results from inoculating peach fruits, twigs, and leaves with Cladospo-
rium carpophilum from various sources. The results of these and
further experiments are given more completely below. They com-
prise, so far as the writer has been able to ascertain, the only authentic
_records of positive results from imoculation experiments with this

fungus.
Fruit INOCULATIONS.

Preliminary experiments and observations of two seasons showed
clearly that under field conditions where the disease occurs abun-
dantly, successful fruit moculations with peach scab must be planned
to overcome the following difficulties: (1) The abundance of natural
infection, rendered especially bafflmg by the long period of incuba-
tion of the fungus, and (2) the difficulty of obtaining at will condi-

22, BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tions suitable for infection. These conditions led to the development
of a special technique, of which the following is a brief outline:

In order to overcome the first of these difficulties the fruits used for the inoculations
were bagged as soon as practicable after the shedding of the calyces, and were kept |
protected in this manner throughout the course of the experiments; the number of
controls was made as large as circumstances permitted; and the inoculations were
made in numerous corroborative series upon areas least subject to natural infection,
about one-half of the total number being made upon the protected equatorial sur-
faces, which are normally free from natu-
ral infection, even under the most severe
conditions (Pl. IIT, fig. 1).

The bags used were made to order from
athin, translucent, partially waterproofed -
(glassine) paper. They were 11 inches
wide and 14 inches long, but 12 by 16
inches proved later to be a more con-
venient size.

In order to secure at will favorable
conditions for infection it became neces-
sary to devise a method for the satisfac-
tory regulation of moisture. In continu-
ation of preliminary experiments made
in 1912 a very simple and satisfactory
contrivance was developed. It was even
better adapted to twig than to fruit inocu-
lations and should be capable of general
adaptation in inoculation work of this
type, where moisture is a limiting factor
and where it is impracticable to conduct
the experiments in moist compartments.
Fia. 6.—Device for supplying moisture for outdoor The apparatus, which works by capil-

inoculations: A, Wick of absorbent cotton; B, arity, is readily understood by reference
‘cork; C, water container; D, attachment to host; io firure GUO nelendtotetericiletirer

E, enlargement of B. (A to D are about one- 5

half natural size.) absorbent cotton (A) is appressed to the

area to be moistened, while the other end
extends through a small orifice in a cork (B) into a water container (C), which is
attached by means of a soft tape (D) to some convenient part of the host. The size
and shape of the container may be adapted to suit the convenience of the operator.
Lipped test tubes, 18 by 150 mm., were used in the earlier experiments, because they
were the only suitable apparatus available at the time. They were quite satisfac-
tory, but small, light, lipped flasks later proved more desirable, as they are more
capacious and render the device more compact.

With the apparatus used it was found practicable to keep twig inoculations thor-
oughly moistened for two weeks without refilling, while a moist zone three-fourths of
an inch wide could be maintained about a peach 14 inches in diameter for four days.
The container is refilled easily by removing the cork, without disturbing the arrange-
ment of the upper portion of the wick. For convenience of attachment it is distinctly
advantageous to allow the wick to enter the container from one side of the cork |
rather than from the center, while corks cut as shown in figure 6 (£) are easily
manipulated and are unlikely to abrade the adjacent tissues of the fruit. If the wick
fits loosely in the orifice or if the cork is lightly inserted in the flask, no strain is
exerted upon the fruit by the swaying of the water container by the wind. Any such
lateral motion is readily taken up by. the short section of the wick which extends

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 23

from the mouth of the flask to the surface of the fruit. In many cases fruits can be
found so situated that the neck of the flask may be firmly attached to the twig and
swaying rendered impossible.

METHOD OF INOCULATION.

The method employed in the fruit-inoculation experiments of 1913,
in all essentials applicable to all the fruit-inoculation work, is briefly
described as follows:

All inoculation work of the season of 1913 was conducted in the orchard of Mr. I. C.
Wade, Cornelia, Ga. The trees used were 8-year-old Elbertas, located on a sandy
clay soil, with good air and surface drainage and a western exposure. On account of
the freeze of March 29 the crop was very short. This part of the orchard was, conse-
quently, unsprayed.

The experimental fruits were carefully selected and bagged on May 8, about three
weeks aiter the falling of the calyces. The bags were of heavy manila paper, but they
were replaced after a few days by the glassine bags, which had been delayed in ship-
ment. The bagging was planned for an earlier date, but was delayed, pending the
arrival of the glassine bags, as long as outdoor conditions seemed to render protection
from natural infection unnecessary. The three weeks preceding May 8 were unu-
sually favorable in this respect, comprising a period of unbroken drought except for a
very slight shower on April 26 and another on April 27, both of which were followed by
brisk winds which rapidly dried the trees. Furthermore, microscopic examinations
of scab lesions on twigs from the field showed practically no production of conidia dur-
ing this period. Thus any considerable natural infection of the experimental fruits
prior to bagging was not considered feasible. The correctness of this assumption was
clearly demonstrated in the course of the experiments, as will be set forth later.

The inoculations were made on noted oval areas about 3 cm. horizontally by 2 cm.
vertically on the exposed and on the protected equatorial surfaces of the fruits. The
spores were applied in suspension in sterile water or in nutrient solutions by means
of sterile De Vilbiss atomizers. The surfaces inoculated, being highly resistant to
wetting, were gently tapped with a finger, in order to facilitate the penetration of the
spore-bearing liquid through the thatch of hairs to the epidermal cells. The hands
were washed and rinsed in sterile distilled water prior to the application of each spo-
riferous suspension, and due precautions were, of course, observed throughout the
operations to prevent mixing the sources of inoculation. As soon as each inoculation
was made, a moisture apparatus of the type previously described was attached in such
fashion as to maintain a moist zone approximately 2 cm. wide about the equatorial
region of the peach. The bag was then replaced.

All apparatus used was thoroughly clean, and all glassware and metal ware was
sterilized. 4

The watering apparatus, which functioned for about four days after filling, was
refilled at noted intervals, which varied with the different series.

Throughout the season the inoculations were noted at intervals of about one week.

In certain cases bags were torn. The facts were noted and new bags were put on.
There was no evidence of the entrance of infection in any such case. In the light of
life-history studies outlined later, this is not surprising, since the rents always occurred
in such position that an unbroken thatch covered the fruit and prevented access
of water-borne spores.

All inoculations were made in triplicate unless otherwise noted, and germination
tests were made with drops of each sporiferous suspension used.

REPORT OF A TYPICAL EXPERIMENT.

As illustrative of the fruit-inoculation experiments, one typical
series planned for securing final evidence regarding the pathogenicity

24 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to peach fruits of the organisms concerned is reported in some detail,
as follows:

Sources of inoculation.—The sources of inoculation were 11-day-old Lima-bean agar
cultures of single-spore strains of Cladosporium carpophilum, undetermined fungus A,
undetermined fungus B, and Dematium sp., all of which had been isolated from peach
twigs. Sporiferous suspensions were obtained by introducing a few cubic centimeters
of sterile distilled water into each culture tube, scraping the surface of the fungal
growth lightly with a sterile platinum needle, and shaking.

Germination tests were made on sterile glass slides in moist chambers with drops
of the sporiferous suspensions used for the inoculations. The results are shown in
Table IV.

TaBLe LV.—Summary of a germination test of the spores used in a typical frwit-inocula-
tion experiment, Cornelia, Ga., 1913.

Estimated germi-
nation in 3 days
(per cent). :

Organism.

Sterile Prune

~ distilled | decoc-
water. tion. _
Cladosporiumycarpoplil am 7s sp See ee aye Ree eee aera sR 80 99
Undetermined fungusKA. Soo en SEB oe tae ais ee eed ey eho ne ae 99 99
Undetermined funetis *Be poe ore oan aon ccc ee ose oon eee Aas b saeeiee cine selma 90 90
Dematium’ sp} (oudding) er i Wes ss he Eee Se eee Te Sse Sees esetee 99 99

Methods.—On June 6, fruits bagged on May 8 were inoculated, the technique above
described being followed in every respect except that in one-half of the series 0.09 per
cent prune decoction was substituted for distilled water in the sporiferous suspensions
and in the moisture apparatus. The moisture devices were refilled with sterile dis-
tilled water on June 11, June 20, July 17, and July 23.

Results—The detailed results of these inoculations are summarized in Table V.

On the 16 control areas, Nos. 421 to 424 and 437 to 440, not a single infection occurred.
The results of Nos. 425 to 427, inoculated with Cladosporium carpophilum, are par-
ticularly striking and confirm beyond question those of preceding parallel experi-
ments. On the six inoculated areas 406 infections developed, while on the uninocu-
lated areas of the three fruits only one infection occurred. The results from the six
similar inoculations, Nos. 441 to 443, in which prune decoction was substituted for dis-
tilled water, furnish still further confirmation of those of the preceding experiments,
127 infections occurring upon the areas inoculated. Only in the case of No. 441 did
any infection appear upon uninoculated surfaces of these fruits, 12 lesions developing
within a few millimeters of the peduncle. This case stands alone among the fruits
bagged on May 8 and apparently represents an unusual instance of early infection
about the peduncle prior to bagging. This infection, however, should not be allowed
to lessen confidence in the results of the inoculation. That the infections upon the
inoculated areas resulted from the inoculation and not from natural infection is con-
clusive, because (1) on 100 control areas in this and the three other series of similar
experiments not one infection occurred; (2) the disease appeared upon the inoculated
areas at the same time that it became evident upon each of the other similarly inocu-
lated areas of this series; (3) the lesions about the peduncle were separated from those
upon the areas of inoculation by a zone of clean surface three-fourths of an inch wide;
and (4)in no case has natural infection been observed to occur abundantly about the stem
cavity, over the equatorial wettable surface, and over the equatorial protected surface

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 95

of one fruit, even under the most severe conditions of natural infection (PI. III, fig. 1).
Nos. 428 to 436 and 444 to 452, inoculated with Dematiwm sp. and with the undeter-
mined fungi A and B, developing no disease upon the areas of inoculation, confirm the
negative results of preceding parallel experiments and may be considered as supple-
mentary controls.

In this series, including 32 fruits, 15 scattered infections, which have not been dis-
cussed, occurred upon uninoculated areas. These evidently resulted from occasional
chance infections, which obviously can not be entirely precluded in work of this type.
Their number, however, is so small in comparison with the number of infections
resulting from inoculations that they are clearly negligible. Furthermore, the areas of
inoculation were so chosen with reference to the parts of the fruit subject to natural
infection that even this minimal amount of chance infection appears to have been
escaped, as is witnessed by the freedom from disease of all the 100 control areas.

Taste V.—Summarized results from a typical fruit-inoculation experiment, Cornelia, Ga.,
i WQS).

Number of infections after stated number of days (28, 42, 52, or 60)

had elapsed.
Inoculation.
On inoculated areas. On uninoculated areas. Total infections.
| Wettable surface.
| Wet- PS | OI Onin- | On unin-
table tected |Abovein-|Below in-| tected | oculated | oculated
‘ Seria]| Surface. | surface. | oculated | oculated | surface. areas. areas.
Source and medium. No area. area.
28|42|52'60)28 42152) 60 |28' 42) 52 60128 142152160128|49 sale 28)42) 52 | 60 |28)42/52) 60:
heal ele Er (pees feed eed —— pera Pe es (MG Fe
Distilled water: ee
Controls. ==--------- | 421) 0} 0} 0; 0) 0; 0} 0} 0} O} O} O} O} Oj O} Oj O| O} O| O, 0} OF OF OF OF O00] O
422) 0} 0} 0} 0} 0) 0} 0} O} O} 0} O} O} O} O} 1) 1) 0] O| O 1) 0, OF OF OF OV G 1 2
423| 0| 0| 0| 0| 0, 0} 0| 0} 0| 0; 0} 0} 0 0, Of | 0 0.0, 0, oO} | of ojolo} Oo
424! 0} 0} O}--| 0} 0} O}--.} 0} 0} O}--| 0] O} 1}..| 0} O| Oj--| O} O} OJ...) O} O| 1)--.
425] 0} 5/45/63) 0} 0/55)128} 0| 0) 0] 0) 0} 0| 0} 0} 0} 0) 0 0} O} 5} 10)191) Oo} 0] 0 0
426) 0} 6/41/48) 0) 6/24) 35) 0) 0) 0} 0) 0) 0; 0} 0} 0} 0} 0} 0} 0/12) 65) 83] 0} 0] O| O
427| 0| 8/42/66! 0/10/61) 70 0} 0, Of 1) 0; O OF 0; O} O| OF} OF 0/18)103)136) 0} O| 0 1
28! ol ol ol of ol of 0 0} 0 0 9} Of 0 0 | 1,00 0. O O}0! | Of of of of 1
429| 0} 0| 0). .| 0} O| O}--.| O| 0; O}--| O| O| O-.) O| O| Of--| Oj O| O)--.) 0} O| O1(>)
436] 0} 0} 0} 0; 0} 0; 0; 0} 0 O O} 0} 0} O; O} O| O| O| Oj O| 0} O} O; Oj Oj Oj Oj 2O
431) 0} 0} 0} 0) 0; O| 0} 0) O 0) O} Oj 0; 0} 0} O| 0) O Oj O OO} O O} 0} O Oj @O
432) 0} 0} 0} 0} 0} 0} 0} 0) 0 O Oj 0} 0; 0; 0] O| OO} 0} 0 0 0} OF OO} Oj OF} O} 20
433] 0) 0} O!..| 0} O| O}-..) 0, 0) 3}.-| 0} 0) O}..| 0 0) O).-) 0, 0} O}--.) 0} O| 3\@)
434] 0| 0} O!--| 0} 0] O|--.| 0) 0) 1|..| 0| 0 o|..| 0} 0| o|..| 0] o| Oj--.| 0] 0} 1102)
435) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0} 0) 0} 0} 0; O, O| 0} Oj | 0} O; 0 O O} O Oj} O| O} O} 0} O| O} ZO
436) 0) 0) O}--| 0) 0) O)--.) 0 O| O}--| 0) 0} 1)--) 0; O| O}--| 0} O| O}--.| 0} O| 1/(%)
| 7 | |
per cent): | liee| |
Control.......------- 437| 0} 0} Oj--| O} 0} O}---| 0} 0; O}.-; Oj 0} O}--| 0} O} O}--| 0) O| O}--.| 0] 0} OV...
DOcocodensoseose 438] 0} 0} 0| 0} 0} 0; 0 0| 0} 0} 0} 0} 0} 0} O| 0} 0] O| 0} 0 0} 0} | 0} 0/0, 0} O
a es Aes: 439] 0| 0} O|--| 0} 0} O|--.| 0} 0} 1]-.| 0} 0| O}..| 0} O| O|..| 0] OF O}-..| Of O| 1)...
DOs oseasccssades 440 0) 0} 0} 0; 0) 0} 0} 0} 0 0; O} O} O| 0} O| 1) O O| 0} O OO} O| 0 0/0 0) 3
C. carpophilum...... 441) 0} 0/20'23) 0! 0/25) 35) 0; 0} 0/12} 0, 0} 0! 0} 0; 0; 0} 0} O} O} 45! 58) O 0) 0'¢12
MaSaccosessnecs 442] 0| 0} 4] 4} 0] 0/10} 15} 0} 0} 0} 0} 0} 0} 0) 0}-0} 0} 0} 0} O} O} 14] 19] O| 0! 0} O
a 443) Q) 0} 8) 8) 0) 0)24) 42) 0} 0) 0} 0} 0} 0} 0} O} 0} 9; O} 0} O} 0} 32) 50) 0} OO} O
ndetermined fun- | |
BuscAMe ctioesseec: AOA eee lel leq loeljsel[oe|[acc|loa|ee) cel eal oelicalleellactesllealle-\lacladliec|inac SSO)
ID) A Soaneeenecene 445) 0) 0) 0). 0} 0} Oj--.| 0} O} 1)--} 0} O} O}--} 0) O; O}--| 0} O} O}---] O} O} 1)(4)
WOsesaesesees sc 446] 0) 0} 0/.-| 0} 0; Oj...) | 0} O--| 0} 0} O}.-| 0} O| O}-.) O| O} Oj...) 0) 0 O)()
Dematium sp.....-.. 447| 0! 0} 0} 0) 0; 0 O 0} 0} 0} 0} 0} 0} O} O} O} O| O| O| O| O| OF O| O| O O| O| a
Oem soit oes ae 448] 0| 0| O|..| 0 0 O|-..) 0} O| O)--| 0} O| 2/..) 0) O| OF.) | Of O}--.| O} 0) 21(2)
eee socdes re 449} 0| 0} O}--| 0) 0 O}--.} O} O} O}--| 0} O} O}--] 0 O} O}--| O| O a bag PA Ee
ndetermined fun-
GUS Bi eeeer secs = 450] 0} 0}--|--} 0] 0 --}--. 0} O}.-}.-| 0 0. 0} 0}--}--| 0} O)--.]---] 0} 0). -|(@)
DO, .22 52-2 | 451} 0] 0}.-|.-| 0] 0--}.-. O| O--|--| 0] O--|--] 0} O}--]-.} 0} Of.-.]-..) 0} 0}. .|(@)
IDS qacodense ber 4521 0) o| | | 0 o---} Of Of O1.-| 0] 0 |.) 0] of Gf. | of 0 0 ete
a Considered as supplementary controls. ¢ See discussion of results on p. 24. 3
b Considered as supplementary controls; no records @ Fruit shed before results were conclusive.

were made for these fruits on these days.

48408°—Bull. 395—17-4

26 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SUMMARIZED REPORT OF ELBERTA INOCULATIONS,

A brief summarized report of the Elberta fruit inoculations is given
below (PI. V, figs. 1 to 5).

Sources of inoculation.—Cladosporium carpophilum from cultures and directly from
abundantly sporulating lesions on peach twigs, and undetermined fungus A, unde-
termined fungus B, and Dematiwm sp. from cultures. Only young, vigorously sporu-
lating Lima-bean agar slant cultures of single-spore strains isolated from peach twigs
were used.

Methods.—Fruits bagged on May 8 were inoculated by the methods previously
described in four series on May 16, May 20, May 27, and June 6, respectively, and the
inoculated areas kept intermittently moist until maturity.

Results —In a few cases the experimental fruits were shed or were lost by accidental
mechanical injury, while in a few of the earlier direct inoculations the spores used
failed to germinate. These inoculations are not included in this summary.

On 16 areas inoculated with undetermined fungus A, 16 with undetermined fungus
B, and 16 with Dematium sp. no infection resulted. Consequently, these inoculations
may be considered as supplementary controls.

On the 100 control areas of the four series, including as controls the 48 inoculations
with the superficial fungi mentioned in the preceding paragraph, not one scab infec-
tion developed. Upon the entire protected surfaces of the 50 fruits in question only
one lesion appeared, this being in all probability the result of a chance infection
subsequent to the time of inoculation. Upon these 50 fruits the total number of
infections was only 21, while 35 matured without showing any evidence of the disease.

On the 18 areas inoculated with Cladosporium carpophilum from pure cultures, 707
typical infections appeared, an average of 39 lesions on each inoculated area. Only
one of the 18 inoculations failed to result in definite and satisfactory infection, this
being undoubtedly due to some local imperfection in the conditions of the experiment.
In only two cases did the disease develop on uninoculated areas, sparse infection
occurring in both instances near the peduncles, well away from the inoculated surfaces.

On the six areas directly inoculated with Cladosporium carpophilum trom twig
lesions, 63 typical lesions developed, every inoculation producing decisive infection,
Only one lesion appeared upon the uninoculated areas of the four peaches in question.
As these inoculations were made in two corroborative series and as four of them were
situated upon the protected equatorial surfaces of the fruits, they were doubly guarded
against natural infection and thoroughly justify positive conclusions.

CONFIRMATORY EXPERIMENTS OF 1914.

Experiments conducted at Madison, Wis., in 1914 were planned (1)
to confirm the results of the preceding season in a locality where peach
scab has not been observed to occur naturally and (2) to determine
whether infection may occur during the early stages of development
of the fruit. The report of these experiments is summarized as
follows:

Sources of inoculation.—Abundantly sporulating young Lima-bean agar cultures of
single-spore strains of Cladosporium carpophilum isolated from scab lesions of (a) fruit,
(b) twig, and (c) leaf of the peach.

Methods.—On May 29, about a week after the shedding of the calyces, young Carman
fruits about 8 mm. in diameter were inoculated, the methods of the Elberta inocula-
tions of the preceding season being used throughout. The areas of inoculation and
control were kept intermittently moist until June 23, when the bags and the moisture
apparatus were removed and the fruits left free. Four fruits were inoculated from

Bul. 395, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

ELBERTA PEACHES FROM INOCULATION EXPERIMENTS WITH CLADOSPORIUM
F : CARPOPHILUM, CORNELIA, GA., 1913.

Fic. 1.—Control, no infection. Photographed August 4, 76 days after the beginning of the ex-
periment. (Reduced, X 4/5.) Fias. 2, 3, 4, and 5.—Inoculated with sporiferous suspensions
from twig strains on noted areas of equatorial surfaces: 2, Inoculated May 20 and photographed
76 days later; 3 and 4, inoculated June 6 and photographed 59 days later; 5, inoculated May 27

and photographed 69 days later. All abundantly infected on inoculated areas. Photographed
August 4. (Reduced, X 4/5.)

Bul. 395, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.

PEACH LEAVES AND TWIGS FROM INOCULATION EXPERIMENTS WITH CLADOSPORIUM
CARPOPHILUM, MADISON, WiIs., 1914.

Fig. 1.—Lower surfaces of Chili leaves: a, Control, no infection; b, inoculated by spraying with
sporiferous suspension from fruitstrain, badly diseased. Photographed 51 days after inoculation.
(Magnified, X 11,.) Fie. 2.—Lower surface of Chili leaf 93 days after spraying with sporiferous
suspension from fruit strain, showing sparse primary infection and abundant secondary infec-
tion in early macroscopic stages. (Natural size.) Fic. 3.—Elberta twigs: a, Control, no infec-
tion; b, inoculated by spraying with sporiferous suspension from twig strain. Photographed 62
days after inoculation. (Magnified, x 1%/;.) Fra. 4.—Diseased Chili twig 128 days after spraying
with sporiferous suspension from fruit strain, showing abundant primary and secondary infec-
tion. (Reduced, X 4/5.) Fie. 5.—Chili twig from control paralleling the inoculation shown in

figure 4; no infection. Photographed 128 days after the beginning of the experiment. (Re-
duced, X 4/5.)

~

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. On

each source of infection, while six, similarly treated but not inoculated served as
controls. On June 6 this experiment was duplicated.

Results from series inoculated on May 29.—Two fruits inoculated with the fruit strain
of Cladosporium carpophilum, two inoculated with the twig strain, and one control fell
prematurely. On Sunday, August 2, before final results were available, the remaining
fruits of this and the succeeding series, in spite of notices and experimental labels, fell
victims to the gastronomic proclivities of trespassers. The earlier results, however,
were sufficient to be of material value.

On one of the fruits inoculated with the twig strain of the fungus, eight scab lesions
were barely visible on August 1, though no macroscopic infection could be observed ~
on July 25.

On one of the fruits inoculated with the fruit strain, very early macroscopic stages of
infection were observed on July 25, while 16 definite lesions were evident on August 1.

The remaining inoculated areas bore no definite macroscopic lesions on August 1,
though their appearance strongly suggested the presence of abundant infection in
incipient stages.

No evidence of the disease was observed upon any controls or uninoculated fruits,
lesions appearing only on inoculated areas.

Results from series inoculated on June 6.—On July 25 no infection was evident. On
August 1 scab lesions were discernible on one of the fruits inoculated with the twig
strain of the fungus, while the appearance of the inoculated areas generally suggested
the presence of incipient infection. The controls showed no evidence of infection.

REISOLATION OF THE FUNGUS.

Thorough microscopic examinations showed that Cladosporium
carpophilum was uniformly associated with the lesions induced by
inoculation. The fungus was reisolated by the poured-plate method
and found to possess the typical morphological and cultural characters
of C. carpophilum.

CONCLUSIONS.

These experiments show (1) that Cladosporium carpophilum from
pure cultures of single-spore strains isolated from scab lesions on
peach twigs or fruit is capable of causing typical and abundant
infection upon peach fruit; (2) that, in like manner, this fungus taken
directly from twig lesions is capable of producing the disease upon
the fruit; (3) that the period of incubation of the fungus upon the
fruit may vary from 42 to 77 days, very early macroscopic evidences
of the disease sometimes appearing within a slightly shorter period;
(4) that the presence of the nutritive solution used apparently
hindered infection; and (5) that, under the conditions of these experi-
ments, the three superficial fungi tested are not pathogenic to peach
fruit.

Twic AND Lear INOCULATIONS.

Preliminary experiments made in 1913 showed clearly that under
field conditions where the disease is prevalent, the chief difficulties
attending twig and leaf as well as fruit inoculations are (1) the abun-
dance of natural infection and (2) the difficulty of securing at will
conditions favorable for infection. These obstacles were satisfac-

28 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

torily overcome (1) by conducting the experiments upon clean young
trees and nursery stock in a section (Madison, Wis.) in which peach
scab has not been observed to occur naturally, and (2) by using potted
trees which could be placed at will under controlled conditions and
by constructing moist compartments about young trees in the field.

METHOD OF INOCULATION.

The inoculations, unless otherwise stated, were made upon potted
1-year-old nursery trees which had been cut back to whips, from
which vigorous young branches developed in the normal fashion in
the spring. The sources of inoculation were 10-day-old to 20-day-
old Lima-bean agar cultures of single-spore strains of Cladosporium
carpophilum isolated, respectively, from the fruit, twigs, and leaves of
the peach. In each experiment, parallel germination tests demon-
strated the viability of the spores used. The sporiferous suspensions
_ were prepared with sterile distilled water, as in the case of the fruit
inoculations, and were applied either as spray by means of sterile
De Vilbiss atomizers or by means of clean new camel’s-hair brushes.
Each series was adequately controlled by plants treated in every
way like those inoculated except that sterile distilled water was
substituted for the sporiferous suspensions. Just after inoculation
the experimental plants were placed in a practically saturated atmos-
phere in a specially constructed moist compartment in the green-
house, and 2 to 10 days later they were transferred to the pathological
garden, where the pots were sunk to the level of the soil. In order
to obtain data regarding the spread of the disease in the field, the
plants were arranged in line, according to the sequence of their
experimental numbers, being placed far enough apart to avoid con-
tact. They were carefully cultivated and noted at frequent inter-
vals throughout the season. The results are briefly outlined below
(Pl. VI, figs. 1 to 5).

EXPERIMENT 1, MAy 22, 1914.1

Sources of inoculation.—Cladosporium carpophilum: (a) Fruit strain, (b) twig strain;
both from 13-day-old cultures.

Methods.—This experiment was conducted in the pathological garden on 3-year-
old Elberta trees, numbered 851 to 854, which had been cut back to whips and had
put out numerous vigorous shoots, averaging about 6 inches in length. The inocu-
lations, except No. 854, were made by spray. The treatments were: No. 851, control;
No. 852, twig strain; No. 853, fruit strain; No. 854, twig strain. On three branches
of No. 854 only the upper surfaces of the leaves were inoculated, and on three others
only the lower surfaces, the sporiferous suspension being applied with a clean new
camel’s-hair brush. The twigs bearing these leaves were also inoculated. Each
experimental tree was covered by a large bell jar or a specially constructed glass box.
These devices were lined with wet filter paper and blocked up on temporary platforms.
In each of these moist compartments a jar of water maintained a high humidity.
On the afternoons of May 23 and May 24 the trees were sprayed lightly with sterile |

1 For further details of each experiment, see the methods of inoculation previously described.

«

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 29

distilled water, care being taken to allow no dripping. On May 29 the glass con-
trivances were removed.

Results —On June 20, 29 days after inoculation, abundant infections were barely
macroscopic on the twigs and on the under surfaces of the leaves of Nos. 852, 853,
and 854, with the exception of those leaves of No. 854 which were inoculated only
upon their upper surfaces. These and the control plant, No. 851, developed no signs
of infection during the entire season, the last observation being made on October 18.
The progress of the disease is best followed in a typical example, as No. 854b. On
the inoculated twig surface on June 20 occasional infections were barely visible.
On July 1 about 20 infections less than 1 millimeter in diameter were observed. On
July 10 over 30 lesions were definitely visible, their diameters varying from one-half
to 2 millimeters. On July 17, 46 lesions were counted, the maximal diameter being
3 millimeters. During this period and subsequently the twig grew very rapidly,
and bark formation began early. Consequently, the lesions developed but little
further and gradually lost their identity as the season progressed. Normally, how-
ever, it should be remembered, peach twigs of older trees do not cork over during
their first season’s development, and on such wood the scab lesions may continue to
enlarge during the following season. The progress of the disease on the leaves closely
paralleled that on the twigs, except that the lesions were considerably more numer-
ous, over a hundred frequently developing upon a single leaf.

EXPERIMENT 2, JUNE 6, 1914.

Sources of inoculation.—Cladosporium carpophilum: (a) Fruit strain, (b) twig strain,
(c) leaf strain; all from 20-day-old cultures.

Methods.—Three potted 1-year-old Elberta trees of the type previously described
were thoroughly sprayed, respectively, with the three sporiferous suspensions. Two
others were inoculated with the fruit strain upon (a) the upper and (b) the lower leaf
surfaces, respectively, the sporiferous suspension being applied by means of a camel’s-
hair brush. Two controls were sprayed with sterile distilled water. The experiment
was duplicated on Chili trees of the same type. Immediately after treatment the
trees were placed in the moist compartment in the greenhouse. After three days
they were sprayed lightly with sterile distilled water, and five days les they were
removed to the field.

Results.—On the twigs and on the lower surfaces of the leaves of the trees sprayed
with the fruit and twig strains of the fungus, abundant infection was noted on July 10,
34 days after inoculation. The infections had probably been visible for several days.
The lesions increased rapidly in number throughout July. The twig lesions developed
slowly throughout the season, attaining a maximal diameter of 6 mm. by October 18.
In September and October scattered secondary infections appeared upon the younger
wood. ‘The leaf infections typically developed as mere superficial flecks, averaging
1 to 2 mm. in diameter. In many cases, however, the leaf lamina above these flecks
became yellowed, and the most severely affected leaves fell in August and September.
In September and October scattered secondary infections developed, both on old
leaves and on foliage which was produced after the inoculations were made.

On the trees inoculated with the leaf strain of the fungus no disease was observed
until July 24, when occasional lesions were noted on the twigs and on the lower sur-
faces of the leaves. Little further evidence of disease developed until the latter part
of the season, when a limited amount of secondary infection of the type above described
appeared. The sparseness of infection from this source is attributed to the fact that
this strain of the fungus sporulates much less vigorously than the others used. The
spores in the suspension with which these inoculations were made were observed to
be relatively sparse and to germinate with less than normal vigor. Since these char-
acteristics are hot common to all strains of Cladosporium carpophilum isolated from
peach leaves, it is unfortunate that only this strain was available for these experi-

30 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ments. However, the pathogenicity of other leaf strains was clearly proved in sub-
sequent experiments.

On the leaves inoculated only on their upper surfaces no primary infection de-
veloped, with the exception of four lesions which appeared, closely grouped, at the
margin of one leaf. This infection clearly occurred on the lower surface, and was
probably due to chance inoculation, such as might occur should a drop of the sporif-
erous suspension accumulate at the margin of the leaf and extend over the edge.
While great care was taken to avoid mischance of this kind, as is attested by the
fact that only one other such case was observed throughout the season’s work, it is
obviously impracticable to secure uniformly perfect results from extensive series of
experiments of this type. In September and October occasional secondary infections
appeared upon the under surfaces of the leaves of these plants.

Abundant disease developed on the lower surfaces of the leaves which were inocu-
lated on these surfaces only. Its development paralleled that on the corresponding
sprayed plants.

On the four controls no disease developed, with the exception of occasional late
secondary infections upon the leaves and young wood of the plant which was placed
about a foot from one of the most severely infected trees of the series. This infection
did not become evident until October. The fact that the next control plant, about
a foot farther from the source of infection, developed no disease is of significance in
relation to methods of spore dissemination, which will be discussed later.

EXPERIMENT 3, JUNE 22, 1914.

Source of inoculation.—Cladosporium carpophilum: Twig strain, from a 14-day-old
culture.

Methods —The inoculations were made upon potted Chili trees of the type pre-
viously described. Only the upper surfaces of the leaves of one tree were inoculated
by spray, while only the lower surfaces of the leaves of another were similarly treated.
A third plant was sprayed with sterile distilled water as a control. The subsequent
treatment of the experimental plants paralleled that of the preceding series,

Results —The leaves inoculated upon their upper surfaces developed no infection,
with the exception of several closely aggregated lesions on the lower surface near the
margin of one leaf. This infection clearly occurred upon the lower surface and was
doubtless of similar origin to the parallel case discussed under experiment 2. On
the leaves inoculated upon their lower surfaces, abundant infection was noted on
July 17, 25 days after inoculation. The lesions had probably been visible several
days. On July 24 the lesions had increased materially in number and size, scores
of infections frequently occurring on individual leaves. By the end of September
most of the worst affected leaves had fallen. No infection had become visible upon
the control plant when it was last examined on October 18.

EXPERIMENT 4, JULY 2, 1914.

Sources of inoculation.—Cladosporium carpophilum: (a) Twig strain, (b) leaf strain;
both from 10-day-old cultures.

Methods.—These inoculations were made upon potted Chili trees of the type used
in the preceding experiment. One tree was inoculated only upon the upper leaf
surfaces with the twig strain of the fungus, another was similarly treated only upon
the lower leaf surfaces, and a third on both surfaces of the leaves. Very young and
mature leaves were separately marked and noted. Another plant was inoculated
with spray from the leaf strain of the organism, while two others were sprayed with
sterile distilled water as controls. The experimental plants were subsequently
accorded treatment similar to that of the preceding series.

Results—When the last notes were made on October 18, no infection had become
visible upon the leaves inoculated only upon their upper soc. Those inoculated
upon the lower surfaces or upon both surfaces developed abundant infection of the

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. Bel

usual type, always on the lower surfaces. No marked difference was observed in
the results from inoculations upon the very young and the mature leaves. Sparse
infection developed upon the leaves of the tree inoculated with the leaf strain of
the fungus, though none was found upon the twigs. No disease developed upon the
controls.

EXPERIMENT 5, JULY 11, 1914.

Sources of inoculation.—Cladosporium carpophilum: (a) Fruit strain (isolated from
an overwintered scabbed peach at Madison, Wis., May 11, 1914); (b) twig strain;
(c) leaf strain; all from 17-day-old cultures.

Methods —The experimental trees were potted Chili. One was inoculated by
spray with the fruit strain and one with the twig strain, while two were similarly ~
treated with the leaf strain. Three other plants were inoculated upon marked areas
with the twig strain, one upon the upper surfaces, one upon the lower surfaces, and
one upon both surfaces of the leaves. The areas to be inoculated were surrounded
by circles of india ink, and the sporiferous suspension was applied in small drops
by means of a camel’s-hair brush. The ink was allowed to dry before the inocula-
tions were made. Two plants were sprayed with sterile distilled water as controls.

Results —On the trees inoculated by spray with the fruit, twig, and leaf strains,
the disease developed typically and abundantly upon the lower surfaces of the leaves
and rather sparsely upon the twigs. The leaf strain occasioned slightly less infection
than the others, but materially more than in similar preceding tests. This increase was
probably due to the fact that special care was taken to have an abundance of spores
in the suspension used for this inoculation. On September 29 the tree inoculated
only upon the upper surfaces of the leaves showed no infection. On the tree inocu-
lated only upon the lower leaf surfaces, 14 of 29 inoculated areas showed infection,
On the remaining inoculated plant, 66 of 98 inoculated areas on the lower surfaces
of the leaves showed infection, while no disease was evident upon 93 similarly treated
areas upon the upper surfaces. No infection was observed except on inoculated
areas. The control plant developed no evidence of infection.

REISOLATION OF THE FUNGUS.

Numerous microscopic examinations showed that Cladosporium
carpophilum was uniformly associated with the lesions produced by
inoculation. The fungus was reisolated from twig and leaf infections
induced by the fruit, twig, and leaf strains, respectively. The
morphological and cultural characters of the reisolated strains were
typical of C. carpophilum.

CONCLUSIONS.

These experiments show (1) that Cladosporwum carpophilum from
cultures of single-spore strains isolated from scab lesions on (a)
fruit, (6) twigs, or (c) leaves of the peach is capable of producing
abundant typical infection upon peach twigs and leaves; (2) that
natural infection of the leaves occurs chiefly, and apparently exclu-
sively, upon the lower (dorsal) surfaces; (3) that young or mature
leaves may be abundantly infected; (4) that the period of incubation
for leaf infection may vary from 25 to 45 days, and probably more,
depending upon conditions; (5) that the period of incubation for
twig infection approximates that for leaf infection; and (6) that
under favorable conditions secondary twig and leaf infections may
appear in the latter part of the summer.

32 BULLETIN 395, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

LIFE HISTORY OF THE CAUSAL ORGANISM IN RELATION TO PATHO-
GENESIS.

In order to trace clearly the detailed life history of the parasite in
relation to pathogenesis, it is necessary first to follow carefully the
seasonal development of the disease under field conditions. This
will now be briefly outlined.

SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISEASE.

ON FRUIT.

The first fruit infections of the season usually become evident
shortly prior to the ripening period of such early varieties as the
Carman. The early varieties usually show the first general infection,
while the late-maturing fruits, which are usually subject to severe
attacks of scab, frequently show little macroscopic evidence of the
disease until several weeks later. This is probably due, in large
measure at least, to the fact that mfection is first mechanically
hindered and later masked by the hairy thatch of the young peach,
becoming visible on early varieties rather suddenly with the lighten-
ing of this covering as the fruit rapidly expands prior to maturity.
The records upon which this statement is based are outlined as follows:

Supporting records.—At Cornelia, Ga., in 1912 and 1913, the peach trees were in
full bloom during the last days of March. The Carmans were harvested during the
first week of July, while the Elbertas ripened about a month later.

In 1912 the first scattered fruit infections were noted on unsprayed Carmans,
Belles, and Elbertas on June 15, though the lesions had probably been visible for
several days. On June 17,19, and 25 the disease was increasingly evident, especially
upon the rapidly maturing unsprayed Carmans, where it was quite conspicuous by
July 4. As was emphasized in examining over 20,000 Carman fruits in taking results
on spraying experiments, this early infection occurred almost exclusively about the
depressions surrounding the peduncles and upon the closely adjacent wettable sur-
faces. On later varieties the disease became increasingly conspicuous until the
maturity of the fruit, the lesions frequently becoming confluent over large patches.

In 1918 the course of the disease was somewhat modified by a severe spring drought,
which occurred in April and early May. Scattered lesions were observed upon
Carmans and Belles on June 14, while the first infections on Elbertas were noted on
June 25. Only occasional infections were observed until July 1, when the disease
was conspicuous upon unsprayed Carmans. On Elbertas little infection was evident
until the middle of July, after which the disease became increasingly abundant.

ON TWIGS.

Scattered twig lesions usually become evident at about the time
the disease appears upon the fruit. Generally, however, they do
not appear abundantly until late summer and fall. They pass the
winter in various stages and complete their development during the
second season.

Supporting records.—In Georgia, in 1912, the first scattered twig infection was

noted on unsprayed Elbertas at Fort Valley on June 12. At Cornelia it was not
observed until July 4, though it probably had been visible for more than a week.

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 33

~ Twig lesions remained quite scarce, however, throughout July, but began to appear
in greater numbers during early August. On August 13 they were fairly abundant
upon unsprayed trees in low places. On August 20 a dozen twigs were tagged and
noted as to scab development. On September 10 numerous additional infections
were evident on these twigs, while the older lesions had enlarged perceptibly.

In 1913 sparse twig infection was observed at Cornelia on July 14. In early August
these lesions became much more abundant, and the subsequent development of the
twig disease closely paralleled that of the preceding season.

Tt was planned to obtain exact data concerning the development of twig lesions
during their second season by following closely the development of the disease on
the twigs tagged and noted on August 20, 1912. Unfortunately, however, the experi-
mental trees were ‘‘dehorned” before the writer returned to Georgia in 1913. Never-
theless, field observations in 1912 and 1913 showed beyond question that lesions may
pass the winter in any macroscopic stage of development and continue their develop-
ment during the next season. It was evident, further, that many late infections do
not become visible until the following spring.

In the springs of 1912 and 1913 twig lesions occurred generally and abun-
dantly. It was difficult to find a Summerour twig which was free from infection,
while, in many instances, the lesions were so abundant as to become confluent.

ON LEAVES.

Owing to the inconspicuous nature of the leaf disease as it occurred
under field conditions in Georgia and to its wide variance in appear-
ance from previously published descriptions, the leaf lesions were
not identified until 1913. Therefore, the writer has not had the most
favorable opportunity of following closely their seasonal development
under natural orchard conditions. Inoculation experiments have
shown, however, that young or mature leaves may readily be infected
and that the period of incubation on the leaf closely approximates
that on the twig. It is evident, therefore, that the occurrence of
the leaf disease should parallel that on the twigs. Such field observa-
tions as are available accord with this view.

Supporting records.—Leaf infections were first observed at Cornelia on August 21,
1913, though they evidently had been visible for some time. The lesions were not
very abundant, but increased in number as the season progressed. In late September
and October they were quite abundant, though ad upon the under
surfaces of unsprayed Summerour leaves.

On August 6, 1915, abundant infection was observed wept the lower surfaces of

Elberta leaves at Chery Chase, Md. The appearance of the lesions indicated that
they had been visible for at least three or four weeks.

PRODUCTION OF CONIDIA.

Throughout the seasons of 1912 and 1913 the occurrence of conidia
was closely followed by means of frequent examinations of scab
lesions (a) directly from the field and (6) from moist chambers.

ON FRUIT.

Conidia are usually borne upon the fruit in the earliest macroscopic
stages of infection and may be produced under favorable conditions
48408°—Bull. 395—17——5

34 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

throughout the development of the lesions. Sporulation upon the
fruit, therefore, may be very abundant, but its duration is relatively
brief, especially in the case of early varieties.

Supporting records.—In Georgia in 1912 and 1913, conidia were usually found in
greater or less abundance upon fruit lesions as soon as the infections became macro-
scopic, and under favorable conditions spore production occurred abundantly through-
out the earlier stages of development of the spots. With the advent of the heat and
drought of midsummer and late summer, however, sporulation upon the older lesions,
especially those in which the diseased areas had been cut off from the surrounding
normal tissues by cork layers, became practically or entirely nil.

ON TWIGS.

Conidia may be produced upon twig lesions, under favorable con-
ditions, as soon as infection becomes visible. Usually they are borne
only sparsely during the season in which the infection occurs. In
the following spring, under favorable conditions, spores ordinarily
appear in abundance upon overwintered twig lesions soon after the
blossoming period of the peach. Subsequently, during moist periods
throughout the spring and early summer they are borne profusely -
from this source. Usually, however, under the conditions of north-
ern Georgia, sporulation from these lesions diminishes rapidly in mid-
summer and becomes practically nil in late summer. Spores may
- thus be produced in considerable abundance upon twig lesions at any
time during the growing period of the host.

Supporting records.—Under field conditions, during their first season’s development,
twig lesions uniformly produced conidia very sparingly. In some cases spores were
sparsely evident microscopically in the earliest macroscopic stages of infection; in
others, the lesions produced only occasional conidiophores and conidia in the course
of the summer. In practically all such cases observed, the conidiophores were pro-
duced singly, and only rarely were they abundant in the field. In moist chambers,
however, spores were borne abundantly upon such lesions, though the conidio-
phores were not borne in tufts. :

With the advent of spring, conidiophores appeared in abundant macroscopic olive-
green tufts upon overwintered lesions. In 1913 these were first observed on April 1,
when the trees were in full bloom. Careful microscopic examinations, however,
revealed no conidia. Occasional conidia were found upon such hyphe on April 11,
while on April 15 and 18 they were observed in slightly increased numbers. On
account of phenomenally dry weather, spore production was very sparse throughout
the spring; but the fact that it would have been more abundant under favorable con-
ditions was demonstrated by the abundant sporulation which occurred when twig
lesions were held over night in a moist chamber. After the rains of early summer,
spores were observed in abundance. inmidsummer and late summer, however, they
became more and more sparse on the overwintered lesions and more numerous on the
current year’s infections. As late as August 21 conidia were observed in fair abun-
dance upon lesions on the old wood.

ON LEAVES.

Conidia may occur upon the leaves as soon as the infection is evi-
dent, and sporulation may contiue under favorable conditions
throughout the development of the lesions. Inasmuch as most

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 35

abundant leaf infection appears late in the season, conidia from
leaf lesions are most plentiful in late summer and fall. In the cases
observed by the writer, the aggregate sporulation from lesions on the
leaf appeared to be much less than that from twig or fruit infections.

Supporting records—From August 21, 1913, when leaf lesions were first observed
in Georgia, until the end of the season, they bore spores in greater or less abundance.
Tn the inoculation experiments at Madison, Wis., conidia were usually present when

the lesions became macroscopic. Theamountof sporulation and its period of duration
upon the individual lesion appear to vary greatly with conditions.

VIABILITY AND LONGEVITY OF CONIDIA.

Hundreds of germination tests conducted during the seasons of
1912, 1913, and 1914 showed that freshly produced, normal conidia
from fruit, twig, or leaf lesions are capable of germinating in sterile
distilled water, rain water, or a large variety of nutrient solutions.
The frequent paucity of germination from miscellaneously collected
field material indicated, further, that under unfavorable conditions
the viability of spores may diminish rather rapidly with age. This,
however, seems to be of relatively little practical significance, since
fresh conidia may be produced with the advent of conditions favor-
able for infection. The summarized results of a few typical germina-
tion tests are given in Table VI.

TaBLe V1i.—Summarized results of typical germination experiments with conidia of

Cladosporium carpophilum from field material at Cornelia, Ga., in 1913 and at
Madison, Wis., in 1914.1

} i Estimated germi-
nation in 3 days
} (per cent).

Serial No. Date. Variety. Siew. ———$——————
Sterile | 1 percent
distilled | prune de-

water. | coction.
July, 3171913) | Belles25 es Write eae ee 50 90
July 22,1913 | Blberta..-----}_-..- (0 Lo terse tee 10 15
July 24,1913 |....-. GOSS aeons |eeoe donee 25. 30 eee scteeee
July 26,1918 |....- doses eee es dOos2342 See 5222 20 90
Aug 221 OtS Oke ere eee eeae Costes ose 0 0
Apr. 13,1913 | Elberta.-.._-- Overwintered twig 80 99
JUNG) Vf, 913i | belles sare ase ssa (0 (0 hae eee 95 99
June}! 2151913") Elbertass-----|-- --- Ora sa croreteniate * 50 70
al etilyseed pt OlS 5 aaa (0 (oe ee Pee ae donee. ee Os 10 10
July 27,1913 |....- Os PA [Nd ONZE patty: 30 30
Oct. 7,1913 | Summerour.--.| Current year’s twig 50 95
Oct. 49,1913 |22--- ote ess aa Goes eee aeese 40 95
Now. 151914-|(Cnilisss-- 2-22 2|-0 Oeste eee 95 99
Oct. 7,1913 | Summerour.-.-} Leaf lamina 2...... 60 95
Och 9 10138 | eae Cowes | Petioletee ees. 40 95
Oct.) 2351913525. GO arte ES Gosia ive 60 60
Oct AO t9ISE eae GOl=ee-4 4 eaflaminas. = - 95 99

1 These germination tests were made in open drops upon clean sterile glass slides in moist chambers and
incubated in diffuse light in the laboratory. Unless otherwise stated the spores were secured from fresh
field material.

2 Spores secured from material which had been held in moist chamber 2 to 4 days.

A longevity experiment is briefly reported below.

Experiment 1.—On April 16, 1915, abundantly sporulating 17-day-old cultures of a
twig strain of the fungus on steamed bean pods were removed from the culture tubes

36 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and placed in dry cloth-covered jelly glasses (a) in the laboratory, where the tempera-
ture ranged from 18° to 25° C., and (b) in the pathological garden in a covered, latticed
compartment of the type commonly used for housing meteorological instruments. The
cultures rapidly became air dry. The conditions precluded the further growth or
sporulation of the fungus. Germination tests were made at intervals. The results,
which are summarized in Table VII, show that in each series a considerable percent-
age of spores remained viable for more than three months. Had the spores been ex-
posed to wetting, however, it must be remembered that they would have germinated
with the advent of favorable conditions. Thus, it is not to be expected that conidia
ordinarily retain their viability for long periods.

Taste VII.—Summarized results of a longevity test of conidia of Cladosporium car-
pophilum from cultures, Madison, Wis., April 16 to October 25, 1915.

Kstimated germi-
nation in 3 days

(per cent).
; Place of storage of
Serial No. Date of test. euliunel
Sterile |1 per cent
distilled | prune

water. |decoction.
TG as Go OA Oe tee SD Sa aes ae ara Apr. 16,1915...... Laboratory......- 99 99
UM sckdas ods socue EES ago Do OR SoU se beaeeneE aoe Wacno Conte Garden......--.-- 99 99 ~
SOL ee ee create eer maine touimee is canso aaa June 3,1915.....-. Laboratory.....-. 50 90
BG DE RE etre eric «bits Seek als Pe, Me Me Oe De Gardenteeeee eee 60 90
CN tai 5 Saat ers ns ep al re te Oceans July 23,1915...... Laboratory......- 15 90
Cee Sed LO oe ae weber ta ies eae as ages Saar SNE cane CNG senneea ces Garden........-.- 10 90
TIO Os Sete en is hat AS Se RO iene Pe ee Oct. 25, 1915.....-. Laboratory..... 0 0

DISSEMINATION OF CONIDIA.

Studies planned to give insight into (1) the conditions under which
conidia of Cladosporium carpophilum are detached from the parent
fungus and (2) the more important methods by which they are dis-
seminated are briefly outlined as follows:

EXPERIMENTAL WORK :

Experiment 1,—Colonies of the fungus were grown in tubes on steamed bean pods
over a bean decoction in such position that spores which might be abstricted or ab-
jected would fall into the liquid below and germinate. The experiment was run in
quadruplicate and continued for six weeks. The colonies developed vigorously and
sporulated profusely, but the decoction below remained sterile. After six weeks one
of the cultures was shaken so that the liquid came in contact with the colony. Within

‘three days the decoction was conspicuously clouded and darkened by the develop-
ment from myriads of spores which had been detached.

This experiment was repeated with like results, while similar tests were made witha
variety of other media. The results were uniformly confirmatory.

Experiment 2.—On April 19, 1915, severely infected peach twigs were placed in
moist chambers. On April 23 a number of these twigs bearing abundantly sporu-
lating lesions were placed (a) in moist chambers and (6) in dry chambers | cm. above
glass slides smeared with glycerin. These slides were examined microscopically at
intervals for two days. No spores were found.

Experiment 3.—Sections of lesions were placed under the low power of the micro-
scope in such position that tufts of spores could be observed. Currents of air were
passed over this material by means of an aspirator. The conidiophores in certain cases

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. By

could be seen to sway, but the spores remained in place. When a drop of water was
brought in contact with the spores, however, they quickly became detached.

Experiment 4.—An abundantly sporulating culture on a section of a steamed bean
pod was placed in a glass tube, 2 cm. in diameter and 30 cm. long, about 2 cm. from the
distal end, in such fashion that no part of the colony touched the glass. A glass slide
smeared with glycerin was placed about 1 cm. from the opening of the distal end of
the tube in position to catch particles which might be blown through. For about 30
seconds a strong current of air was aspirated into the proximal end of the tube by
means of a hand bellows. While no attempt was made to measure the velocity of the
air current, it was strong enough to move the section of wet bean pod several milli-
meters. It was thought to be at least the equivalent of the strongest wind ordinarily
affecting an orchard. Subsequent careful microscopic examination of the slide showed
that only occasional spores were present. In most of these cases the conidiophores,
rather than the spores, had been detached.

Experiment 5.—The culture used in the preceding experiment was gently sprayed
with distilled water by means of an atomizer,in such fashion that only the finest par-
ticles of spray fell upon it. When a drop of water accumulated at the bottom of the
pod it was examined microscopically and found to contain myriads of conidia.

Experiments 6 and’7.—Experiments 4 and 5 were repeated, with confirmatory results.

Experiment 8.—On April 23, 1915, a peach twig about 10 cm. long, similar to those

used in experiment 2 and bearing more than 30 abundantly sporulating scab lesions,
was clamped about the base by a cork which was inserted in a bottle of water. Thus,
the twig was kept fresh and turgid, with about 7 cm. of its length exposed. In this
condition it was placed out of doors in a brisk wind for two hours. A glass slide
smeared with glycerin was placed 1 cm. away from the twig upon the leeward side,
in position to catch spores which might be blown off. At the end of the experiment
a careful microscopic examination of the slide revealed only occasional spores of
Cladosporium carpophilum.
_ Experiment 9.—The twig used in the preceding experiment was placed in the aspi-
rating apparatus employed in experiment 4, in such position that it did not touch the
surface of the tube. The aspirator was operated asin experiment 4. Only occasional
spores could be found upon the glycerined slide, though they were slightly more
abundant than in the preceding test.

Experiment 10.—The twig used in the preceding test was sprayed in the manner
described in experiment 5. The drops of water which accumulated contained myri-
ads of conidia.

Experiment 11.—The twig used in the preceding test was allowed to dry over night
in the laboratory. The next day it was put in the aspirating apparatus and treated as
in experiment 9. The results were not materially different from those of experiment
9, though the number of conidia caught was very slightly increased.

Experiments 12 to 15.—Experiments 8 to 11 were repeated, with confirmatory results.

The results of these and of other similar experiments show: (1)
That the dry conidia of Cladosporium carpophilum are not normally
abscised or abjected; (2) that in a dry or humid atmosphere they
remain persistently attached to the parent fungus; (3) that in con-
tact with water they promptly become detached; (4) that even after
spores have been detached by wetting the twigs they are not readily
disseminated by wind after a period of drying. Thus, the evidence
strongly indicates that under orchard conditions wind may be ex-
pected to play only a minor réle in the dissemination of conidia, while

©

38 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

meteoric water appears to be peculiarly well adapted to the perform-

ance of this function.
OBSERVATIONAL DATA.

Careful field observations extending through several seasons yielded
results which accord thoroughly with those of the preceding experi-
ments. Examinations of large numbers of typically affected fruits,
usually upon midseason and late varieties where the disease had
reached its full development, showed two distinct types of infection,
viz, (1) abundant infection extending from the depressions about the
peduncles well over the wettable surfaces of the fruits and (2) sparse,
scattered infections rather uniformly distributed over the wettable
surfaces. In the former type, the lesions, numbering usually about
200 to 300, were uniformly most abundant about the attachment of
the peduncles and over the proximal portions of the wettable sur-
faces of the fruits, frequently becoming confluent over considerable
areas, but normally occurring less abundantly toward the distal por-
tions. In the latter type the lesions usually numbered less than 50,
while their position showed no relationship to the peduncles. Fruits
of the former type were, almost without exception, borne in close
proximity to twig lesions, in such position that spores could be washed
down the twigs to the peduncles and thence over the wettable sur-
faces of the fruits. Those of the latter type were as uniformly borne
in positions which precluded this method of dissemination. When
infection is very severe, as upon badly diseased late varieties, these
types have been observed to merge into each other.

In order to secure definite data, observations were made at Cor-
nelia, Ga., on July 23, 1913, upon 50 fruits selected at random from a
large number of trees in a badly diseased unsprayed Elberta orchard.
Notes were made concerning the approximate number of infections,
the areas upon which they occurred, the areas upon which no infec-
tion occurred, the proximity of lesions upon the subtending twigs,
and the facility with which spores from the twig lesions might be
transferred to the fruits by means of meteoric water. The results
are summarized in Table VIII.

Certain striking relationships which can not be brought out in the
table are here set forth:

Notes supplementing Table VIII.—No. 34 was borne in a horizontal position upon
a short spur, with no chance of infection by means of water-borne spores from the
subtending twig. About 5 cm. above the wettable surface of the fruit, however,
numerous lesions occurred upon a horizontal twig. Thus, it is obvious that the abun-
dant iniection was induced by water-borne spores from this source.

Nos. 38, 37, 36, and 35 occurred, in the order here given, almost in contact (peduncles
at intervals of about 10 cm.) upon a single twig which sloped at an angle of about 15°,

with the distal end lower. The striking differences in infection are worthy of special
emphasis. In the case of No. 38, the fruit nearest the base of the twig with no chance

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 39

of infection by water-borne spores from lesions upon the subtending twig, only about
25 uniformly scattered infections occurred. In striking contrast, the three fruits
immediately adjacent, with excellent conditions for infection of this type, developed
about 225 lesions each. Instead of being uniformly scattered over the wettable sur-
faces of the fruits, as would be expected had they resulted from wind-blown spores,
these lesions were massed about the peduncles and over the proximal portions of the
wettable surfaces, gradually becoming less abundant toward the apices. Again, had
the infecting spores been wind blown, the infection should have been practically
equally prevalent and similarly situated upon the four fruits in question.

Tasie VIII.—Summary of observations concerning the occurrence and location of scab
lesions on unsprayed Elberta fruits and twigs in relation to spore dissemination,
Cornelia, Ga., July 23, 1913.

[The observed infections were on the wettable surfaces of the fruits, while the protected surfaces were not

infected.]
| |
Distance | Facilities | ; Distance | Facilities
Esti- LOU Ue | for nee Esti- ponte for Oe
+4| ma- nore - uncle to | tion by | -.| ma- ate . uncle to tion by
epi ted pete bution nearest | water-borne eu *! ted sea nearest |water-borne
>| Je- estons- | lesion on | spores from |) **° | le * | lesion on | spores from
sions subtending) subtending || sions. subtending | subtending
twig. | twig. | } twig. twig.
| é
Num- yum-;
ber. Cm. ber. Cm.
V7-| 200 meereented - | 0.5 | Excellent.-.|| 26...| 25 | Scattered... 16 Poor.
Dee oe ae = G0. . = 2a | Belen dOnse nase || 27...| 250 | Aggregated - 3 Excellent.
Be 52|) 320 Setiad: eel (4) None....-.- || 28. . 10 | Scattered... 20 Poor.
4...| 225 | Aggregated - Excellent..|| 29...) 250 | Aggregated - -5 | Excellent.
Dene e220) [bess dor. 2 = -5 |-.-do.....-.-|}| 303..| 12 | Scattered... () None.
Gee 250' |es-52 dOz2 555. (Pe dostaeere || 31...| 250 | Aggregated . p Excellent.
7.--| 12 | Scattered. -| @) None... .-- 32...) 40] Scattered... 4 Poor.
8...| 250 | Aggregated - -5 | Excellent --|| 33-.-} 60 |--.-- douse (@) None.
9_..| 12| Scattered... (4) None....-- SES] 2200) 225-2. dosenss @) Do.
10...| 250 | Aggregated... .5 | Excellent. .|| 35...| 225 | Aggregated... 1 Excellent
Ti el eZ) Bee Goatees Biel eea dot 222 365 25 | 22257 | eae doses: 1 Do.
122._| 20 | Scattered... 2 None.....- Bie | 225; eee doseszn- 1 Do.
13...| 225! Aggregated... -5 | Excellent..}| 383. 25 | Scattered... 4 None.
Tiber Goi 2225 Ruy sect ee Seese 39...| 250 | Aggregated... .25 | Excellent.
ibe el ee)" ee dow si2 abil pace Sa seose 403_.| 20] Scattered... (4) None.
16...| 20] Scattered... 4 None....-.-. AV 22s 25) ee dot. tec. () Do.
17 a7) eee -5 | Excellent..|| 42...) 250 | Aggregated... -5 | Excellent.
TSE) 200) (22 dO- 2.1 5 5ik||=sG0s22e- 22 43 2__ 10 | Scattered... () None.
10)) Sa eae Eee Ae ee -5 |.--do......-|| 44..-| 100 | Aggregated... 1 Excellent.
202.:| 25 | Scattered... 6 None.......|| 45-.-} 250 |...-- doxas-: 25 Do.
Pali s 2\ Wie 2D aeteaee doses e- 6 Poors 22222. 463..| 12 | Scattered... @) None.
22_..| 250 Aggregated. -5 | Excellent ..|| 47-.- 250 | Aggregated... 1 Excellent.
Pee oly 200. |=. -- COG 2252 sO) ae GOen as seis 48 2. 25 | Scattered... (@) None.
Pai tes a (es 1 ae Goes | 1 Le doses 49._.| 225 | Aggregated... -5 | Excellent.
252..| 12] Scattered... -| SGm a None == =s= 50. - 30 | Scattered... (4) Do.

1 No lesion on subtending twig.
2 Fruit, apex up, borne upon a short spur
3 Fruit in favorable position for infection by water-borne spores from lesions on subtending twig, but not

Vv

such lesion present.

These data show (1) that every badly diseased fruit observed
developed under excellent conditions for infection by means of
conidia from twig lesions; (2) that in all cases where conditions were
favorable for the passage of water-borne spores from lesions on the
subtending twigs down the peduncles and over the wettable surfaces
of the fruits severe infection resulted, the disease uniformly appearing
most abundantly on the areas obviously most subject to this type of
dissemination; (3) that in all cases where conditions precluded this
type of dissemination only sparse infection occurred, the lesions being
miscellaneously scattered over the wettable surfaces of the fruits in a

40 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

manner suggesting infection from rain-beaten or wind-blown spores;
and (4) that even under these severe conditions no infection occurred
upon the protected surfaces of the fruits, doubtless due to the fact
that these areas are rarely, if ever, thoroughly wet during the more
important periods of fruit infection, and consequently both the trans-
fer of spores to such areas and the subsequent development of the
fungus are practically precluded.

CONCLUSIONS.

From the evidence presented, it appears to be conclusive that a
large majority of fruit infections result from water-borne spores from
lesions on the subtending twigs. Considerable dissemination must
obviously be accomplished by meteoric water which drips or spatters
from spore-bearing areas. Wind dissemination evidently occurs to a
limited degree, especially in cases where spores are detached from the
parent fungus by chance mechanical agencies, as by the rubbing
together of organs of the host plant or by the impact of wind-blown
sand particles. It is altogether probable that other general agencies
of spore dissemination, such as insects and birds, may play some part
in spreading the disease, but no evidence of this has been observed.
If it occurs, it is certainly of very minor importance, except, possibly,
as a means of transferrmg spores over relatively long distances.

METHOD OF INFECTION.

The exact method by which the fungus penetrates the cuticle of
the various affected organs of the host has not been conclusively
determined. While the solution of this problem is necessary to a full
knowledge of pathogenesis, the attendant difficulties are such that this
would have required the expenditure of more time than would be
justified by its importance to this paper. Certain observations and
experiments in this connection, however, seem to be worthy of record.

The abundance of naturally and artificially induced infection shows
conclusively that the penetration of the fungus is independent of
wounds. Consequently, it must normally occur through natural
openings, directly through the cuticle, or in both of these ways. Since
the problem is presented in its simplest aspect in leaf infection,
certain studies of leaf penetration were made, as follows:

Experiment 1.—On July 15, 1915, a potted 2-year-old Early Crawford tree bearing
abundant foliage in various stages of development was inoculated by spraying with
a water suspension of spores from a 15-day-old Lima-bean agar culture of a twig strain
of the fungus. The plant was kept in a moist compartment and sprayed daily with
sterile distilled water. Marked inoculated leaves in various stages of development
were collected daily and placed in stoppered test tubes in a solution prepared by
mixing glacial acetic acid and 95 per cent ethyl alcohol in equal parts. After the

leaves were thoroughly bleached, their under (dorsal) surfaces were carefully studied
microscopically, previous inoculation experiments having shown that the upper

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. Al

(ventral) surfaces are not infected. The development of the fungus was easily traced.
Material collected 48 hours after inoculation showed abundant germination, the tubes
averaging 40 to 60 » in length. No evidence of penetration, however, was observed
at this stage. In subsequent collections, which extended over six days, a slow devel-
opment of the fungus could be traced, but this appeared to be almost entirely super-
ficial. Frequently germ tubes were traced over stomata, but in no case were they
observed to enter them. In certain cases, in material collected on the third day and
subsequently, slender colorless hyphz were observed in such positions as strongly to
indicate direct penetration of the cuticle, the apical portions being in a slightly lower
focal plane than the spores from which they originated. However, the thinness and
the delicacy of the cuticle, which on the lower surface of the leaf is usually less than
14 « thick, and the fact that the fungus does not penetrate farther into the leaf tissues
made it impossible to draw final conclusions from the material at hand. There was no
opportunity of extending these studies. These data, however, in conjunction with
the fact that penetration through stomata could not put the fungus in its characteristic
subcuticular position, leave no reasonable doubt that leaf infection occurs by means
of direct penetration of the cuticle.

No special studies of twig and fruit infection have been under-
taken. However, since the nature of the surfaces of the very young
twigs is so similar to that of the lower surfaces of the leaves, it is
to be expected that leaf and twig penetration are of the same type.

In the earliest stages of fruit infection observed in histological
preparations, the fungus was found closely appressed to the host
cells in the minute depressions surrounding the bases of hairs. These
cavities obviously offer exceptionally favorable conditions for infection
courts, and it is entirely probable that most fruit infection occurs
in this fashion, the development of the fungus being chiefly super-
ficial, in close contact with the cells of the host.

PERIOD OF INCUBATION.

On fruits—The time which elapses between infection and the
macroscopic appearance of fruit lesions has been shown to vary, not
only with environmental conditions, but also with the nature and
stage of development of the fruit. In the imoculation experiments
this period was observed to vary between 42 and 77 days. In
nature, with more extreme conditions, it is highly probable that the
variations are even greater.

On leaves.—In leaf infection similar variations occur, but they are
less marked, since the complicatmg factor of masking by hairs is
eliminated. In the moculation experiments it was shown that the
period of incubation for leaf lesions might vary between 25 and
45 days, and probably more. Under the more extreme conditions
of the field, it is likely that the variations are greater.

On twigs.—In the inoculation experiments the period of incubation
for twig infections of the early summer closely approximated that of
leaf infection. It is evident, however, that great variations in this
regard may occur in the case of late twig infections, many of which
do not become macroscopic until the following spring.

42 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TIME OF NATURAL INFECTION.

Of fruit—The inoculation experiments previously reported show
that infection may occur from spores applied 10 days after the calyces
are shed, but it should be remembered that special precautions were
taken to insure the passage of these spores through the difficultly
wettable hairy thatch of the fruit. It is evident, however, that such
early infection is rare in nature, since (1) the disease may be com-
mercially controlled when the first application of spray is made one
month after the petals fall and (2) the interim between this time and
the general macroscopic appearance of the disease coincides satisfac-
torily with the period of incubation of the fungus, as worked out in
the inoculation experiments. The chief reasons for this delay appear
to be (1) the hindrance of access of spores to the surface of the fruit,
due to the difficultly wettable hairy thatch of the peach and (2) the
diminution of infection by means of water-borne spores from sub-
tending twigs, due to the upturned position of many fruits during the
earlier stages of their development. As the fruits increase in size, the
hairy covering becomes thinner and more easily wettable, while, with
increased weight, the peaches generally turn downward and become
more subject to inoculation by sporiferous meteoric water from infected
subtending twigs. Abundant infection usually begins to occur about
five to seven weeks after the petals fall and may continue until the
fruit matures, but on account of the long period of incubation of the
fungus the later infections do not become macroscopically evident.

Of twigs and leaves.—From the results of the inoculation work it is
evident that twig and leaf infection may occur whenever viable spores
come in contact with tender young twigs or the under surfaces of
leaves under conditions favorable for the development of the fungus.
Under field conditions in Georgia, however, as is shown by the data
given concerning the seasonal development and the period of incuba-
tion of the fungus, very little infection occurs on twigs and leaves
until several weeks after the petals fall. Subsequently, such infec-
tions occur abundantly, with favorable conditions, throughout the
season. Important reasons for the fact that the bulk of the twig and
leaf infection occurs relatively late are (1) that in the South much of
the new wood of the peach tree is formed relatively late and (2) that
the conidia borne upon fruit lesions may constitute an important
source for infections which, on account of the long period of incubation
of the fungus, do not become visible until late in the season.

SOURCES OF NATURAL INFECTION.

Primary.—From the data presented in the preceding topics it is
apparent that primary infection results from conidia from over-
wintered twig lesions. Practically all the fruit infections, especially
in the case of early and midseason varieties, come from this source, as

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 43

do the earlier infections of twigs and leaves. No other source of
infection is known to be available until sporulation occurs on lesions
of the current year’s production. In northern Georgia this does not
usually take place to any considerable degree until early June.

Secondary.—Conidia from lesions of the current year’s production
constitute the source of secondary infection. On account of the
long period of incubation of the fungus, lesions resulting from this
type of infection rarely become injurious on the fruit, except, perhaps,
on late varieties. On the twigs and leaves, however, as was demon-
strated in the inoculation experiments, secondary infections may be
very abundant. Under orchard conditions such infections un-
doubtedly account for a large percentage of the twig and leaf lesions
which appear throughout the late summer and fall.

OVERWINTERING OF THE FUNGUS.

In considering the problem of how the fungus passes the winter,
three major possibilities demand attention, viz, (1) the overwintering
of conidia, (2) the overwintering of the mycelium in dead infected
parts, and (3) the overwintering of the mycelium in lesions upon the
living host.

Careful studies of infected fruits, twigs, and leaves in late winter
uniformly failed to reveal the presence of viable conidia. Further-
more, the evidence furnished by the germination tests previously
reported shows conclusively that when exposed under orchard con-
ditions these conidia would not remain dormant and viable over
winter. Even if they did pass the winter in minimal numbers, the
conditions of infection, as set forth above, would make them a neg-
ligible factor in the life history of the fungus.

In the fall of 1913, portions of diseased fruits, twigs, and leaves from
Cornelia, Ga., were exposed in the university orchard at Madison,
Wis., and allowed to pass the winter. In the following spring conidia
were produced in considerable numbers upon the fruit and twig frag-
ments, and the fungus was readily isolated from each of these sources.
The leaves, however, were badly decomposed, and the fungus was not
identified upon them.

At Cornelia, Ga., during the springs of 1912 and 1913, many over-
wintered fruits and leaves from trees and from the ground were
examined microscopically. The fungus was not definitely identified
from any of these sources. It is quite probable, however, that under
favorable circumstances the mycelium may survive the winter under
orchard conditions upon fallen fruits, twigs, or leaves; but the
evidence previously cited seems to prove conclusively that this type
of overwintering is of no practical significance in the life history of
the fungus.

44 BULLETIN 3895, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In connection with this work, careful watch was kept for a possible
ascigerous stage of the fungus, but no positive results were secured.
As has been shown in preceding topics, the primarily important
overwintering of the fungus is accomplished by the mycelium in lesions
on livmg twigs. Here the organism passes the winter safely, and
with the advent of favorable conditions in spring it produces conidia

abundantly.
CLIMATE IN RELATION TO THE DISEASE.

Published records from the more important peach-producing dis-
tricts of the world indicate that scab occurs at its worst in temperate
sections where the spring and early summer are moist and the growing
season is long, while it is much less prevalent in dry sections or in high
altitudes, where the opposite conditions obtain. Likewise, in regions
where the disease is abundant it is more prevalent in moist than in
dry seasons and on low than on high ground.

In the light of the foregoing life-history studies, the reasons under-
lying these conditions are evident. Abundant moisture is necessary
for spore production, spore dissemination, and infection, while the
long growing season increases the period during which these processes

may occur.
VARIETIES IN RELATION TO THE DISEASE.

Among writers on this aspect of peach scab, there appears to be a
consensus of opinion that varieties differ markedly in the degree in
whick they are subject to the disease. Selby (1898, p. 221) writes—

Certain varieties of peaches appear more susceptible to scab than others, just as
certain varieties of apples suffer more than others from the apple scab.

Scott and Quamtance (1911, p. 11-12) state—

In general, the late varieties are much more susceptible than the early varieties.
This is due, in part at least, to the fact that the fruit of the late-maturing varieties is
exposed to infection over a longer period and the opportunity for the development of
the disease is greater. i

While the writer has made no detailed study of these varietal
differences, field observations and the life-history work previously
reported accord well with the views of Scott and Quaimtance. In
general, the fruit of the earlier varieties, such as the Greensboro,
Carman, and Hiley, is relatively lightly attacked. The midseason
varieties, such as the Belle and Elberta, may be moderately or severely
diseased, depending upon conditions. Late varieties, such as the
Heath, Salway, and Bilyeu, are the most severely attacked.

These conditions are partly explained in the light of the life-history
studies. The lateness of infection and the long period of mcubation
ordinarily preclude very seriously injurious development of the

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 45

disease before early varieties are harvested. On midseason varieties
under conditions favoring the development of the disease, there is
time for very serious injury to result. On late varieties the great
increase in opportunities for infection and incubation are attended
by consequent increment in the severity of the disease. The earlier
varieties as a group are thus more properly designated as disease-
escaping than as resistant, since they may be quite seriously scabbed
when conditions unusually favor the early development of the disease.

While the period of exposure of the fruit to the attack of the
Tungus appears to be a major factor in these varietal differences, it
is evident that other causes are involved. It has been noted that
certain varieties growing in adjacent rows and ripening at about
the same time have been attacked by scab in very different degrees
and that certain of the earlier varieties are commonly more seriously
affected than some of those which ripen later (Table IX). It is also
a matter of common observation that seedlings are often especially
severely attacked. No attempt has been made to investigate the
further causes underlying these variations.

At the writer’s request Mr. M. B. Waite, Pathologist in Charge of
Fruit-Disease Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, has prepared
a list of important commercial varieties of peaches grown in the Mid-
dle States, with estimates concerning the degrees in which they are
subject to scab injury in this territory. These estimates, which are
based upon more than 25 years of experience and observations
extending over all the important peach-producing districts of the
area, in question, are incorporated in Table IX.

TaBLE IX.—List of important commercial peach varieties, with estimates of the compara-
tive degrees in which they are subject to unjury by Cladosporium carpophilum im the
Middle States.

Estimated decrease Estimated decrease
in market value in market value
of unsprayed of unsprayed
crop due to ae crop due to scab

5 inj er cent). " in er cent
Variety. jury (p ) Variety. jury (p ).

In aver- In bad In aver- In bad
age age

seasons. | Seasons. seasons, | S@Sons.

PMIGKANC CI ecceccescs=sscckes- 25 50!) || Oldimixonie ress ss serse a. 40 80
DIN ET Sooo ne Se cccs te sacess 40 80" || “Bilbertia se Soe ceaene see noaeee Soe 35 70
PAIS SBIABL yoo! Soo s ioe ce deo cos, 15 30] (Chairs toe e nee sane see nemacen | 35 70
Waddell 30 60 || Late Crawford Beach an ae 25 50
Carmane sso 30 60 25 50
Peeves Rose. 40 80 30 60

cc SRE GRE Cee 15 30 25 50
St. Sons. Ree Si ee M2 10 20 40 70
Champione yee sob 30 60 50 90
Harty eeniad Boa 5 Soe eee 15 30 60 90

“655 SSDBOS SAn Oe eee 25 50 70 95
re Saha) SP ts Sin ee omnes mae 35 70 75 100

46 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Supplementary notes by Mr. Waite follow.

Notes supplementing Table [X.—This list gives most of the commonly grown com.
mercial peach varieties of the Middle States in their order of ripening, and compara-
tive estimates of scab injury to unsprayed fruit, in percentage of the value of the
crop, in average localities from southern Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia west
to Missouri and Arkansas. North of this section, and particularly along the northern
limit of peach culture, from New England and New York to Michigan, there is con-
siderable reduction in the severity of the disease. The damage is distinctly less on
light, sandy soils than on heavy soils or even on sandy loams. It is greatly reduced
at high altitudes. For example, Bilyeu, before the advent of spraying, was consid-
ered wholly unfit for commercial planting below 1,500 feet altitude in the Appalachian
’ Mountain belt, on account of its susceptibility to scab, but could be grown successfully
at high altitudes. The disease is somewhat more destructive in the Southern States
than in the Middle States, and is generally aggravated in moist localities. I arid
regions it disappears.

A peach half covered with confluent scab spots, particularly if cracked open, may
be considered as without commercial value. A peach badly spotted, with only
one-fourth of its area covered, may be considered as of only 50 per cent commercial
value in comparison with perfectly smooth fruit. Fruit with even less scab in a sea-
son of low prices may be rendered unfit for marketing. With unsprayed trees_of
Heath, Salway, Bilyeu, Tennessee, and certain seedlings in lower aititudes in the
Middle and Southern States it is not rare to have the entire crop rendered commer-
cially worthless by scab.

CONTROL MEASURES.

SPRAYING.

Since the serious economic aspects of peach scab began to be Tecog-

nized during the early period in the development of Bordeaux mix-
ture, when this newly discovered fungicide was being applied with
such marked success in the control of many of the most destructive
plant diseases, it is not surprising that the earliest efforts to control
this malady consisted almost entirely of spraying experiments with
Bordeaux mixture of various formulas. Cobb (1894, p.386) and Stur-
gis (1897, p. 271), apparently on a priori grounds, suggested treat-
ments with this fungicide, while Price (1896, p. 840-841) reported
decidedly favorable results from three applications of Bordeaux
mixture (4—5-50) upon Early China and Mamie Ross. Selby (1898,
p- 237-260), in 1895 and 1896, carried out the first extensive spraying
experiments, reporting favorable results from the use of Bordeaux
mixture. Five years later the same author (1904, p. 67), as the
result of seven years’ study, states—
_ For scab prevention, in addition to one spraying before blossoming with some
effective fungicide, recent observations indicate the need of two applications of weak
Bordeaux mixture [2-2-50] upon trees in foliage; the earlier of these to be made in
northern Ohio about June 15; the second, three to four weeks later.

Although this treatment was efficacious and proved satisfactory in
certain sections and under certain conditions, so much host injury
resulted that Bordeaux mixture never came into general use through-
out the United States as a summer spray for the peach.

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 47

While many other spraying experiments were reported during this
period and subsequently, no material advance was made until Scott
(1907 and 1908), realizing that the copper sprays in their present
state of development are too toxic for general application upon peach
foliage, sought to develop an efficient fungicide which would be appli-
cable to tender-foliaged plants without serious host injury. He con-
ducted preliminary experiments with self-boiled lime-sulphur and
reported very promising results in the control of peachscab. The
same author (1909, p. 7-12) carried out further similar experiments
and recommended (p. 11-12) self-boiled lime-sulphur treatments for
the control of this malady. Scott and Ayres (1910) and Scott and
Quaintance (1911) confirmed these results by extensive spraying
experiments and gave detailed recommendations for the self-boiled
lime-sulphur treatments.

Lewis (1910) conducted peach-spraying experiments in which he
used, comparatively, self-boiled lime-sulphur, home-boiled lime-
sulphur, Bordeaux mixture, and certain proprietary fungicides, each
preparation being applied alone and in combination with arsenate
of lead. He reports self-boiled lime-sulphur as giving the most
favorable results, his recommendations (p. 47) paralleling those of
Scott and Ayres (1910).

Clinton and Britton (1911, p. 604-618) sprayed peaches with self-
boiled lime-sulphur, potassium sulphid, and certain proprietary
sprays. In certain applications, insecticides were added to the fungi-
cides. These authors report most satistactory results from the self-
boiled lime-sulphur and recommend its use.

Blake and Farley (1911, p. 11-30), in an extensive series of peach-
spraying experiments, made comparative tests of home-boiled lime-
sulphur, self-boiled lime-sulphur, and certain proprietary fungicides.
They regarded all the preparations used except self-boiled lime-
sulphur and a sulphur paste as too toxic to be applied with safety to
peach foliage unless made too dilute to be efficient. ‘They recommend
the use of self-boiled lime-sulphur, which they state (p. 26) ‘‘is the
best fungicide known at the present time for the control of peach scab
and brown-rot.”’

Norton and Symons (1912, p. 266-268), in continuation of pre-
vious experiments, tested self-boiled lime-sulphur and various pro-
prietary preparations in peach-scab control. They reported that
self-boiled lime-sulphur gave the most favorable results.

These and like experiments appear to show (1) that Bordeaux mix-
ture and various other copper sprays, lime-sulphur, and liver of sul-
phur, in combination with arsenate of lead, in concentrations suffi-
ciently strong to control scab, are too toxic to be applied generally as
summer sprays for the peach; (2) that peach scab may be controlled
by spraying with self-boiled lime-sulphur, alone or mixed with arse-

a

48 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

nate of lead, without serious injury to the host; and (3) that sulphur
paste may sactval this disease.

The purposes of the writer’s experiments were (1) to test further, in
relation to locality, season, and variety, the excellent spray schedules
worked out by Scott and others; (2) to test the efficiency and desir-
ability of a sulphur spray in comparison with self-boiled lime-sulphur;
and (3) to correlate with control measures a clearer understanding of
the nature, cause, and development of the disease.

The spraying experiments ' were conducted in commercial orchards
at Cornelia, Ga., in 1910, 1912, and 1913, and at Hart, Mich., in 1911.
More than 150 plats, containing over 10,000 trees, were sprayed,
while parallel observations were made upon commercial orchards
containing in the aggregate many hundred thousand trees.

In the experiments of 1911, 1912, and 1913, the spray was applied
by means of a gasoline power sprayer, double “Friend” nozzles being
used. At Cornelia, in 1910, good barrel outfits were employed.

Careful field observations of each plat were recorded throughout
the season. At harvest time, in as many cases as was feasible, the
fruit from a number of typical trees of each plat, usually 10 to 12, was
picked, critically examined, and classified according to the occurrence
and abundance of scab, the occurrence of brown-rot, and the salability
of the fruit. By carefully noting many thousands of fruits in this
fashion and tabulating the resulting data, it was possible to arrive
at strikingly accurate and concrete comparisons of the efficiency of
the different treatments.

EXPERIMENTS IN 1910 anp 1911.2

The season of 1910 in northern Georgia was very favorable for the
development of scab and brown-rot and offered a severe test of the
efficiency of the various treatments used. The results were eminently
satisfactory, but since they have been reported in brief by Scott and
Quaintance (1911, p. 23-26), they will not be considered further here.

In 1911 extensive experiments were conducted at Hart, Mich.,
on 10 of the more important commercial varieties of that section.
Owing to an unusually dry spring and summer, so little scab occurred,
even upon unsprayed trees, that little differentiation of results of the
various treatments was feasible. Even under these conditions, how-
ever, the sprayed fruit appeared to be sufficiently superior to that of
the control plats to justify the expense of the treatments. These
results will not be considered further in this connection.

1 Grateful acknowledgments are made to Messrs. A. M. Kitchen, Cornelia, Ga. (1910), H. W. Gebhart
and F. Brooker, Hart, Mich. (1911), A. B. Veeder, S. R. Christie, and Laing & Segers, Cornelia, Ga. (1912),
and W. B. Hunter, Cornelia, Ga. (1913), for their cordial cooperation.

2 These experiments were conducted under the direction of Mr. W. M. Scott, formerly Pathologist, Office
of Fruit-Disease Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 49
EXPERIMENTS IN 1912.
TREATMENT.

A summary of the treatments of the individual plats and results
therefrom is given in Table X. No plat contained less than 40 trees.

TABLE X.—Summary of treatments and results in spraying experiments, Cornelia, Ga.,

1912.
Treatments. Results.
Spray used.! Seabbed—3
Variety z 5 z 4 = 3
as] ce — ¢ i =
and plat. g 2 =a Daag $| 4 = 2
Qs =e as application.2|} = | 3 . | =
ae 2 Sey a SHI Ete tesa eta les
ae BS ES SIs /S 1/2 /S/s121 s
2 z Baer Sey anne ya 1s
fe D a S| a pa he pe |e Se | eS
Carman: Pic.) P.c.| B.c:| P.c.| Puc.) Pye.
0h Se eee Alélime...| AléSp...-| Sp...... (1) Apr 30 10/5, 598} 7.3} 0.2) 0 7.5) 5.5) 94.5
Oa a ae doe AlaS-bIss. S-bIs... Ife 10|7,941] 8.2) .4/0 8.6] 4.2! 95.8
"ler 9255 Se pepe Coleen a a (2) May ISA eal (eee Ra leie SL In a Tara
Asean do.....--| Al&S-b I-s.|........-. : Beedle eera ses | pees tey | eater | ee em nasi aes | eee eae
wetigr entrants as eerie 13 (3) June 1) “j0l7, 659] 51.41°35.3| .9 | 87.3] 22.7] 77.3
erta:
2. an Alalime... AlaSp.... Sp. Bete 10/2, 396] 39.7] 3.4/0 | 43.1) 2.5] 97.5
bee alh we Queer done snes eed ores. sade Seni lbs | hse eel aS sor
GBe stat. do ens|eee (Oy Scoaellaor do.4... Res Al sepees slstg Seal S Saye ol eeatanars [ie cise meee ets
Qa 2858 Bee Chere seale ne eee em BD sera (1) Apr. 23-24}| 10/5, 791) 45.1) 52.2) .5 | 97.8] 5.0} 95.0
1 Ae Pe SS Oe eee, SOPeae ale sedOesese PR esceticy ere baae| oorne iene Poeea coosas
TIP og 95 || aR Se Al&S-b I-s.| S-b1-s...|}(2) May 15-16}; 6/3, 294) 65.4) 6.2! .03] 71.6] 7.6) 92.4
ieee ay IAN SIMS ss) ses. 55 Ss so inebse 10/5, 937) 47.4) 49.2) 1.2 | 97.8} 8.3) 91.7
va Ease ey ae ce oS gb US eee d0 Ue (3) July 2!| 10/7, 620] 63.3} 5.5} .05)] 68.8) 2.8) 97.2
PARA Supe Ble Ove EGO as cee EdoPas=r a lh eacas a cep araHl ves ons | Prayarat| Nave ee eine elects
i aye res Seno rSeatis| HRA alg eR LEU Rate aay 11/4, 400] 32.7) 63.1] 3.1 | 98.9; 31.6] 68.4
AGRE 2o oe (Ben AC Acacia Niort ra ERISE A EOn cl GRAel Giese mre mere kiciteess
Belle:
Ws Bae eee eee Al1&S-b I-s.| S-b 1-s...| Pe Ve en) [ASP eae eee seer ee ofa] a ak
aa yee Ala&lime...|... eee eae ower | (1) Apr 23 7\2, 015} 35.9) 60.0) 3.3 | 99.2) 5.9} 94.1
Jaldcel Mae De eee &Sp....| Sp...... : EUPIA (Sl an (ca ee
Oe PAW SIMO! alee oeeee ee 55c6s550e (2) Ma 14)) e-s)e-25-|e eo cleoscefeo cnc [tsec cece clones
PAS Seren eae Cae SE: Se y 7/3, 239) 68.5| 7.2) .2 | 75.9) 2.8) 97.2
20Ae oi). 2 5 OL sndasal deed Wesnqgoal| is) Dedoeias ail Perce al eter lacey emis stersee etsiee cll eieee Sa
i ele Gig cli Alle Spe sa uacoueet (3) June 18)! ""715" 4991 60.2| 6.1) 03 66.3} 3.7| 96.3
Dorn: (Comtroltess | Paaee ee oe Seeeeaace 7\2,077| 24.6] 71.2] 3.3 | 99.1) 9.3) 90.7

1 Abbreviations for sprays used: Al=Arsenate of lead paste (diplumbic), 14 pounds in 50 gallons.
Lime=Stone lime, 3 pounds in 50 gallons. Sp=A proprietary sulphur paste, 5 pounds in 50 gallons (except
on plat 9B) a preparation consisting of finely divided sulphur (45 to 55 per cent sulphur guaranteed) witha
small sehane of organic adhesive material in suspension in water. S—b I-s=Self-boiled lime-sulphur, 8
pounds of lime and 8 pounds of sulphur in 50 gallons.

2 The treatments were made, as nearly as feasible, (1) 10 days aiter the petals fell, (2) one month after the
petals fell, and (3) one month before the fruit ripened.

3 Slightly scabbed fruits included those bearing from one to a few scattered, inconspicuous spots; com-
mercially scabbed, those sufficiently marred to detract from their market value but not to render them
pamercnantable; and badly scabbed, those rendered nearly or wholly unmerchantable by excessive scab
infection.

4 Sulphur paste, 8 pounds in 50 gallons.

The condition of the experimental plats is briefly described as fol-
lows:

Plats 1-6.—Kight-year-old Carman trees, well grown, but badly neglected and
suffering from lack of pruning, cultivation, and fertilization. Fertile clay-loam soil.
Orchard elevated and slightly rolling, with excellent air and surface drainage. Had

received an imperfect winter application of lime-sulphur. Fairly well pruned in
early spring and cultivated throughout the season. Crop good.

50 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

This orchard, which had been practically abandoned, had just been bought for
planting to apples. It was chosen as offering most adverse conditions for the produc-
tion of good fruit and a most severe test of the efficacy of the treatments used.

Plats 9-15.—Vigorous, well-grown, well-kept, 8-year-old Elberta trees. Orchard
elevated and slightly rolling, with excellent air and surface drainage. Sandy clay
soil. Had received a winter application of lime-sulphur. Well pruned, cultivated,
and fertilized. Crop good.

Plats 16-22.—Vigorous, 8-year-old Belle trees, well ea but slightly under size.
Sandy clay soil. Orchard elevated and slightly rolling, with good air and surface
drainage. Had received the winter application of ees Well pruned, cul-
tivated, and fertilized. Crop good.

RESULTS ON FOLIAGE,

Observations made at frequent intervals throughout the season
showed no evidence of spray injury upon any of the plats treated
with self-boiled lime-sulphur. In plats 9, 9A, 9B, and 11, however,
sprayed with the sulphur paste and arsenate of lead, a considerable
amount of “shot-holing”’ and yellowing of the foliage began to appear
about the middle of July. This was followed by some defoliation
throughout late July and early August. The fruit of these plats was
very highly colored but not injured. The foliage of the parallel
self-boiled lime-sulphur plats (12, 13, and 14) was not injured, being
quite vigorous, well colored, and free from disease except for a limited
amount of leaf injury which possessed the typical characteristics of
peach bacteriosis (Bacterium pruni Smith). The foliage of the con-
trol plat, though less vigorous than that of plats 12, 13, and 14 and
not so well colored, showed very little yellowing and defoliation.
These facts strongly suggested that the trouble in plats 9, 9A, 9B,
and 11 was some type of spray injury.

Inasmuch as each of the earlier treatments had been omitted from
one or another of plats 9 to 15, conclusive data appear to be available.
The key to the situation seems to lie in plat 10, which was treated
in the same manner as the adjacent plats, 9 and 9A, except that the
second application was omitted. On this plat, directly adjacent to
plat 9, the foliage went through the season in excellent condition,
closely approaching that of the self-boiled hme-sulphur plats in vigor
and color. Thus, all plats (9, 9A, 9B, and 11) which received the
sulphur paste and arsenate of lead im the second application were
generally affected, while none of the remaining plats showed any
evidence of spray injury. Therefore, it seems conclusive that the
injury must have resulted from this treatment.

No experiments were made to test separately and comparatively
the action of the sulphur paste and of arsenate of lead. However,
since sulphur alone has proved to be one of the safest fungicides
known and since the sulphur paste caused no injury when applied
alone in the third treatment on plat 10, it seems evident that the

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 51

injury resulted from the arsenate of lead. Inasmuch as the second
application, being the primarily important scab treatment, was quite
heavy, this result is not surprising. The fact that no such deleterious
results attended the use of arsenate of lead in combination with the
self-boiled lime-sulphur indicates strongly that the addition of lime,
as in the first application, would have prevented or minimized the
injury. If the lime is necessary as a precautionary measure in the
first application it would seem equally so in connection with the sul-
phur paste in the second.

Though, unfortunately, no plats in which lime was added to the
arsenate of lead and sulphur paste in the second application were
included in these experiments, the practicability of its satisfactory
addition was shown clearly in an adjoining orchard. At the writer’s
suggestion, the addition of lime, at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons,
was made in the second application on the 30,000-tree orchard of
the Habersham Orchard Co. In all other respects this orchard was
treated similarly to plat 9. The foliage went through the season in
excellent condition and the control of diseases was eminently satis-
factory. However, the work was, of course, not experimental.

These observations on foliage injury are presented merely as field
notes upon what appeared to be a clear case of arsenical injury.
They are not set forth as warranting generalizations, but merely as a
further warning that, as would be expected, very considerable injury
may result under certain conditions from heavy applications of
arsenate of lead (diplumbic) with sulphur paste. It should be clearly
borne in mind, however, that there was no evidence to indicate that
the injury was any greater than it would have been had the arsenate
of lead been applied alone. ;

RESULTS ON FRUIT.
PLatTs 1-6: CARMAN.

Results were taken at harvest time in the manner previously
described, upon representative trees of plats 1,2, and 6. In all cases
the count trees were selected as typical of the plats which they
represent. As it reached the proper stage for shipping, the fruit was
gathered in successive pickings by the regular orchard employees,
being thus harvested in the same manner and at as nearly as possible
the same stage as the rest of the fruit of the commercial orchards.
The fruit from each tree was picked separately and promptly turned
over to the writer for examination. The records for each tree at
each picking were thus kept separately throughout. The summarized
results of this count work appear in Table X, while certain facts
which can not be shown in tabular form are stated as follows:

Supplementary notes.—Under the conditions of these experiments, inasmuch as the
plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst.) injury, scab, and rot were considerably

52 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

less severe than usual, all the sprayed plats gave a commercially satisfactory control
of these troubles. Plats 1 and 2, however, gave markedly superior results, yielding a
quantity and quality of fruit which scarcely would have been credited as possible
when the work was begun in the spring.

On plat 3, as would be expected, the insect injury was somewhat worse than on plats
1 and 2, while the scab on plat 4 was materially more apparent than on plats 1 and 2,
though not quite so conspicuous as on the control.

On plat 5 scab and curculio were well controlled. Consequently, rot was not very
abundant, though it developed to a rather serious extent during the severe conditions
which obtained throughout the latter part of the harvest period, when daily rains
occurred. The amount of rot which thus appeared was ample to justify the third
application, as in the case of plats 1 and 2.

Striking though they are, the tabulated figures do not give a full conception of the
real contrast between the sprayed and unsprayed fruit. The former was firm, uniform,
and highly colored, passing excellently through the severe conditions of the picking
season and carrying to market in good condition. The latter was much inferior in
color, uniformity, and texture, ripening rapidly and unevenly, and becoming too
soft for shipment unless picked green. The close picking of the control trees lessened
the percentage of rot and culls, as the brown-rot fungus attacks the peach most severely
after the fruit has entered well into the ripening stages.

These results show (1) that the sulphur paste and self-boiled lime-
sulphur, respectively, controlled scab and brown-rot in a highly
satisfactory manner, the fruit of plats treated with the two fungicides
being of remarkably similar quality, agreemg almost to a per cent m
each classification (plats 1 and 2); (2) that in northern Georgia at
least two, and preferably three, applications are necessary for the
satisfactory commercial spraying of the Carman and similar early
varieties; (3) that the timing of the application on plats 1 and 2 was
satisfactory; and (4) that the second application was primarily
responsible for scab control.

PLATS 9-15: ELBERTA.

The summarized results from the more important Elberta plats
appear in Table X. Certain data which can not be included in the
table are as follows:

Supplementary notes.—The fruit of plats 9A and 9B was so similar to that of plat 9
and the results on plat 11 were so similar to those on plat 12 that no counts were made
from plats 9A, 9B, and 11.

As in the case of the Carman results, the tabulated figures fail to give an adequate
conception of the superiority of the sprayed over the unsprayed fruit. At first
glance, it would seem, for instance, that a very considerable amount of scab infection
had taken place on the sprayed fruit. Such, however, was not the case, the great
majority of sprayed fruits classified ‘‘slightly scabbed” bearing only one to several
small, inconspicuous infections which could be detected only by critical expert
examination. Thus, a single scab spot of this type frequently served to classify an
otherwise perfect fruit as ‘‘slightly scabbed.’’ On the other hand, in the case of the
unsprayed fruit, the “‘slightly scabbed” specimens usually bordered very closely
upon the ‘“‘commercially scabbed” class. Therefore, it is important to note clearly
that the scab infection on the fruit of all plats which received the second application
was commercially negligible.

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 53

These results show (1) that the sulphur paste and self-boiled lime-
sulphur, respectively, controlled scab in a highly satisfactory manner
and with remarkably similar results (plats 9, 14, and 15); (2) that the
omission of the first application materially increased the amount of
insect injury and diminished the amount of merchantable fruit (plats
11 and 12); (8) that the second application was, as indicated by pre-
vious field experiments and subsequent laboratory studies, primarily
responsible for scab control (plats 9, 10, 13, 14, and 15); (4) that in
northern Georgia three applications of spray are necessary for the
satisfactory commercial control of scab, rot, and the curculio upon the
Elberta and similar midseason varieties; (5) that the sulphur paste
at the rate of 5 pounds in 50 gallons was in sufficiently strong dosage,
giving apparently as good results as 8 pounds in 50 gallons used
comparatively (plats 9 and 9B); and (6) that the timing of applica-
tions on plats 9 and 14 was satisfactory.

PLATS 16-22: BELLE.

The summarized results from the more important Belle plats are
given in Table X. Certain data which can not be incorporated in the
table are as follows:

Supplementary notes.—Plats 16 and 18 when carefully noted at harvest time were
indistinguishable in their results from plats 20 and 21, respectively, except for the
prevalence of a considerable amount of superficial insect injury. Owing to the
unusually light attack of the curculio, the omission of the first application was thus
attended by very little loss. This condition, however, appears to be quite unusual
for the section, and these results do not justify the risk of omitting this treatment in
commercial orchards.

The results of plats 17 and 19 were so similar at harvest time that counts were made
from plat 17 only. A like similarity occurred in the cases of plats 20, 20A, and 21,
results being taken from 21 only.

These results show (1) that the sulphur paste and self-boiled lime-
sulphur, respectively, controlled scab in a highly efficient degree and
with remarkably similar results (plats 20 and 21) ; (2) that the omission
of any one of these three applications would have.been unwise (plats
16, 17, 18, and 19); (8) that the second application was primarily
responsible for scab control (plats 17, 19, 20, 21, and 22); (4) that in
northern Georgia three applications of spray are necessary for satis-
factory commercial results on the Belle and similar midseason varie-
ties; and (5) that the substitution of the sulphur paste for self-boiled
lime-sulphur in the third treatment on plat 20A in nowise lessened
the efficiency of the schedule, the substitution having the advantage
of precluding the possibility of spray-stained fruit at harvest time.

Tur SPRAY SCHEDULE.

While this discussion is concerned primarily with peach-scab con-
trol, it must consider incidentally the control of brown-rot and the

f

54 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

plum curculio, since in the more important peach-producing sections
of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains any commercially
successful scab treatment must combine satisfactorily and econom-
ically with control measures for these associated troubles.

THE TIME AND NUMBER OF APPLICATIONS FOR MIDSEASON VARIETIES.

Treatment before the blossoming period—Numerous writers have
recommended as the first spray for scab a treatment just before the
blossoming period. Sturgis (1897, p. 271), apparently on a priori
grounds, suggested this treatment, while Selby (1904, p. 66) includes
it in his recommendations. His tabulated results (1898, p. 251-252),
however, show no decisive benefit resulting from this application,
while, on the other hand, his best control in certain cases occurred on
plats which did not receive this treatment. Evans (1911) and others
make hike recommendations. Scott (1907, 1908, and 1909), Scott and
Ayres (1910), Scott and Quaintance (1911), and others showed that
scab can be successfully controlled when this winter application is
omitted. Clinton and Britton (1911, p. 614; 1912, p. 374) concluded
from comparative experiments that this treatment had little or no
effect upon scab or rot. They (1912, p. 374) state—

In 1910, all of the trees having this winter treatment gave just as high a percentage
ofscab * * * asdid those not having it, neither lot having any summer treatment.
In 1911, all the trees having this winter treatment and three summer treatments did
not give any lower percentage either of scab or rot than those that received only the
three summer treatments.

Furthermore, the writer’s life-history studies previously reported
show that at the time of the winter treatment the fungus is so well
protected by the cuticle of the host that 1t would not be feasible to
combat it efficiently with any standard fungicide. It appears con-
clusive, therefore, that a winter application is not necessary for
efficient scab control.

Treatment as calyces shed.—Clinton and Britton (1911, p. 614, 617)
recommend the application of a suitable fungicide at about the time
the calyces are shed. Their data (p. 614), however, do not show any
better results from this application in conjunction with two later
treatments than from the later treatments alone, and these authors
(1912, p. 395) suggest that if any of these applications must be
omitted it should be the first. Blake and Farley (1911, p. 19)
reported that scab development was considerably checked, though
by no means controlled, by a single application of a suitable fungicide
when the calyces were being shed. They recommended (p. 26)
this treatment in conjunction with two later applications. They did
not, however, give a thorough test to the two later treatments alone,
using self-boiled lime-sulphur or a sulphur spray. Selby’s (1898, p.
251) tabulated data, on the other hand, show no benefit from this

‘PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 55

treatment. Selby (1904), Scott (1909), Scott and Ayres (1910),
Scott and Quaintance (1911), and others showed conclusively that
scab may be controlled to a degree which is entirely satisfactory
commercially when the first fungicidal treatment is made about one
month after the petals fall. The results of the writer, previously
reported, offer further confirmation of this work. When the applica-
tion is delayed so long as this, slight scab infection is to be expected,
but it is usually confined to scattered, inconspicuous lesions about
the peduncles. It appears conclusive, therefore, that the application
of a fungicide at the time of the shedding of the calyces is not neces-
sary to commercially satisfactory scab control, except possibly under
very extreme conditions, though at times it may be of some value,
and is relatively inexpensive when an application of arsenate of lead °
is made for the plum curculio at this time.

. Treatment about one month after petals fall—The results of Selby
(1898 and 1904), Scott (1908 and 1909), Scott and Ayres (1910),
Clinton and Britton (1911), Scott and Quaintance (1911), Blake and
Farley (1911), and others indicate the importance of the application
of a suitable fungicide about one month after the petals fall. The
results of the writer (plats 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, and 22)
further confirm this work, showing clearly that for midseason varie-
ties this is the primarily important treatment for scab.

Treatment three to four weeks before the fruit 1s harvested.—The work
cited in the preceding paragraph indicates the desirability of a further
fungicidal treatment. If scab. only were considered this would be
made about two or three weeks after the preceding application, since
previously reported life-history studies have shown that infections
which occur later than six weeks before the fruit is harvested are not
likely to become injurious. However, the fact that this treatment
must, for the sake of economy, serve also as the final spray for brown-
rot makes it necessary to delay it until three weeks or a month before
the fruit is picked.

VARIATION OF SCHEDULE FOR EARLY VARIETIES.

The results of Scott and Ayres (1910), Scott and Quaintance (1911),
the writer (plats 1, 2, 5, and 6), and others show that on early varie-
ties commercially satisfactory scab control may be effected by a single
thorough fungicidal treatment about one month after the petals fall
and that under certain circumstances the later treatment may be
omitted without serious loss of efficiency. In such cases the first
and second treatments, as recommended for midseason varieties, will
suffice. In cases where there is danger of serious outbreaks of brown-
rot, however, the omission of the third application seems unwise. In
such cases the three applications, as recommended for midseason
varieties, should be made.

56 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

VARIATION OF SCHEDULE FOR LATE VARIETIES.

Scott and Quaintance (1911) showed clearly that while the treat-
ment recommended for midseason varieties will go far toward con-
trolling scab on highly susceptible late varieties, the addition of an
application of the fungicide alone four or five weeks after the second
regular treatment, or about eight or nine weeks after the petals fall,
may materially increase the efficiency of scab control and thoroughly
justify itself economically.

THE FUNGICIDE TO USE.

The first and most difficult requisite of a satisfactory fungicide for

the summer spraying of peaches is that it must not be seriously
" injurious to the host, whether applied alone or in conjunction with a
satisfactory internal poison for insects. Furthermore, of course, the
spray must be efficient, cheap, and reasonably easy to prepare and
apply, and it must not leave seriously objectionable residues upon
the fruit at harvest time. From the work of Sturgis (1901), Bain
(1902), Scott (1907 and 1908), Lewis (1910), Clinton and Britton
(1911 and 1912), Blake and Farley (1911), Norton and Symons (1912),
and others, it is clear that Bordeaux mixture, soda Bordeaux, ammoni-
acal copper carbonate, copper subacetate, potassium sulphid, home-
boiled lime-sulphur, and various proprietary preparations of copper,
sulphur, and lme-sulphur, in concentrations to be economically
efficient, have failed to meet the first of these requirements and are
not to be recommended, save possibly under very exceptional con-
ditions, for the summer spraying of peaches. The work of Scott
(1907, 1908, and 1909), Scott and Ayres (1910), Lewis (1910), Clinton
and Britton (1911 and 1912), Scott and Quaintance (1911), Blake
and Farley (1911), Norton and Symons (1912), the writer (plats 2, 6,
14, 15, 20, and 22), and others shows conclusively that self-boiled
lime-sulphur, properly prepared and applied, will meet all of the
requirements mentioned above and will satisfactorily control peach
scab. Clinton and Britton (1912, p. 373-375) report that in their ex-
periments a proprietary sulphur paste controlled peach scab as well
as did self-boiled lime-sulphur, but that in certain cases when it was
applied with arsenate of lead serious foliage injury resulted. They
were inclined to believe, however, that this injury resulted from the
insecticide. Blake and Farley (1911, p. 22) reported promising
results from the use of the same sulphur paste in combating peach
scab, but their experiments were not sufficiently extensive to justify
conclusions. Norton and Symons (1912) sprayed peaches with this
fungicide, but reported (p. 268) that the results obtained were too
variable to be conclusive. The writer’s results (plats 1, 2, 6, 9, 14,
15, 20, 21, and 22) indicate that sulphur paste, properly applied, will
control peach scab as efficiently as will self-boiled lime-sulphur and

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. ail

may be used with safety as a summer spray for peaches either alone or
with arsenate of lead. In the latter case, however, the same pre-
cautions should be taken against arsenical injury that are observed
when the lead arsenate is applied alone. It. is altogether probable
that thorough applications of finely divided sulphur of any type will
control peach scab.

From this evidence, the writer recommends for peach-scab control
(a) self-boiled lime-sulphur (8—8—50) and (6) finely divided wettable
sulphur. With the paste (approximately 50 per cent sulphur) used
in the experiments previously reported, 5 pounds in 50 gallons is a
satisfactory dosage. These sprays appear to be equally efficient. Self-
boiled lime-sulphur is in most sections the cheaper, while wettable
sulphur is somewhat easier to apply and leaves a less conspicuous
residue upon the fruit. The cheapness of self-boiled lime-sulphur
and its efficacy in preventing or diminishing injury from arsenate of
lead make it very satisfactory for the first fungicidal application,
while the fact that the wettable sulphur leaves little stain upon the
fruit makes that the more desirable for the final treatment. While
for many cases this combination of the two sprays appears to be the
most desirable, the final choice should be made by the individual
grower in the light of these facts and of his own needs and preferences.

Cost or TREATMENT.

Selby (1898, p. 260), working in Ohio, estimated that the cost of
spraying peach trees was less than 14 cents per tree for each appli-
cation in foliage. Scott and Ayres (1910, p. 21) reported that with a
power outfit in Georgia they were able to make four applications of
summer spray, two containing arsenate of lead (2-50) and three
containing self-boiled lime-sulphur (8-8-50) for 53 cents per tree.
The trees were medium-sized 7-year-old Elbertas. These authors
considered that under southern conditions three applications should
be made for 44 cents per tree. Blake and Farley (1912, p. 70-71),
working in New Jersey with a hand outfit, reported making four
summer applications, two containing arsenate of lead (2-50) and three
containing self-boiled lime-sulphur (8-8-50) on 5-year-old Elbertas
for 5.59 cents per tree. The writer, working under the direction of
Mr. W. M: Scott at Cornelia, Ga., in 1910, kept accurate records of the
cost of spraying with a hand outfit. These data, which are reported
more in detail by Scott and Quaintance (1911, p. 38), show that the
cost of three applications, two containing arsenate of lead (2-50) and
two containing self-boiled lime-sulphur (8-8-50), on 7-year-old trees
was 2.76 cents per tree. The conditions for this work, however,
were unusually favorable. At Fort Valley, Ga., where a power
outfit was used, but where other conditions were less favorable than
at Cornelia, the cost of similar treatments, as reported by the same

58 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

authors, was 3.2 cents per tree. These writers state (p. 38) that for
these three treatments the cost will range from 3 to 5 cents per tree,
depending upon the labor conditions, the size of the trees, the con-
venience of the water supply, and the equipment used. While in
certain sections where labor is exceptionally expensive the cost may
somewhat exceed these figures, this estimate appears to be sound.

PROFIT FROM TREATMENT.

The profit from spraying appears in the increased amount, the
superior quality, the better keeping and carrying properties, and
the enhanced market value of merchantable fruit. Scott and Ayres
(1910, p. 19-20), working in Georgia, report that from Elbertas which
were sprayed four times the yield of merchantable fruit was ten times
that from similar unsprayed trees. By marketing tests they showed,
further, that the sprayed fruit from this block sold for 50 cents per
crate more than the fruit from the unsprayed trees. Scott and
Quaintance (1911, p. 31) report further shipping tests in which
sprayed Elbertas sold for 75 cents a crate more than similar unsprayed
fruit of the same variety shipped in the same car. Blake and Farley
(1911, p. 30) state that the profit secured by spraying at Vineland
during the season of 1910 was more than $1.50 per tree, while the
cost of applying the most expensive treatment did not exceed 5
cents per tree. In the experiments conducted by the writer at Cor-
nelia, Ga., in 1910 and reported in part by Scott and Quaintance
(1911, p. 23-26), 70 Elbertas (p. 24) which had received three appli-
cations of spray, as recommended later, yielded 97.04 per cent of
merchantable fruit, while on 70 parallel unsprayed trees only 54.11
per cent of the crop was merchantable. The yield of similarly treated
‘Summerours (p. 25) was 85 per cent merchantable, as compared
with 6.49 per cent from the similar unsprayed trees. An additional
application on this variety, as recommended later, would have been
necessary for a more thorough control of scab and rot. The actual
yields in merchantable fruit from 70 representative trees from each
of these plats were 113 bushels from sprayed Elbertas, 31.2 bushels
from unsprayed Elbertas, 115 bushels from sprayed Summerours,
and 3.5 bushels from unsprayed Summerours.

The previously reported results obtained by the writer at Cornelia,
Ga., in 1912 show that even in a season when fungal and insect inju-
ries were less serious than usual, the standard spray treatments, as
recommended later, creased the percentage yield of salable sprayed
fruit, as compared with unsprayed, 17.2 to 18.5 per cent in the case
of the Carman, 28.8 to 29.1 per cent in the case of the Elberta, and
6.5 per cent in the case of the Belle, which escaped disease in an
unusual degree. ;

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 7 59

These results show that where brown-rot, scab, and the curculio
are serious factors, spraying is not only highly profitable, but that
it is indispensable to commercial success.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SPRAYING.

SCAB ONLY.

Early varieties.—Spray with self-boiled lime-sulphur, 8-8-50, or
wettable sulphur, 5 pounds in 50 gallons in the case of the paste
(approximately 50 per cent sulphur) used in the foregoing experi-
ments, about one month after the petals fall.

Midseason varieties.—Spray as for early varieties, adding a similar
application about three weeks later.

Late varveties—Spray as for midseason varieties, adding a third
application about one month after the second.

SCAB, BROWN-ROT, AND THE PLUM CURCULIO.

In practice it is rarely desirable to spray for scab alone, since in
most sections where scab is seriously injurious brown-rot and the
plum curculio must also be combated. In order to secure the most
profitable combination treatment, therefore, certain deviations must
be made from the ideal individual schedules, while modifications
must be made to meet the needs of sections, seasons, and varieties.
Recommendations for the control of brown-rot and the curculio are,
consequently, inseparable from those for scab, and, though incidental
to-this paper, must be included. The recommendations for brown-
rot are based upon the results of Scott (1907, 1908, and 1909), Scott
and Ayres (1910), Scott and Quaintance (1911), and others, and upon
unpublished results of the writer. That part of the schedule which
relates to insect control has been kindly supplied by Mr. A. L. Quaint-
ance, of the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of
Agriculture.

While for obvious reasons ironclad recommendations are not
attempted, the following schedule, subject to intelligent modifica-
tion,' should be applicable in most commercial peach sections of the
United States where scab is a serious factor.

Early varieties —The early varieties, such as the Greensboro, Car-
man, Hiley, and those with similar ripening periods should be sprayed
as follows:

(1) With arsenate of lead and lime about ten days after the petals fall. This appli-
cation may be omitted in sections where the curculio is not a serious factor.

(2) With arsenate of lead and seli-boiled lime-sulphur or finely divided wettable
sulphur about a month after the petals fall. If the latter type of fungicide is used,
the addition of lime, as in the first treatment, may be a desirable precaution against
arsenical injury.

1 For suggested modifications, see Scott and Quaintance (1911, p. 38-40).

60 - BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(3) With finely divided wettable sulphur or self-boiled lime-sulphur three to four
weeks before the fruit ripens, but not less than four weeks before harvest if self-boiled
lime-sulphur is used. This application may be omitted in sections where brown-rot
is not seriously injurious.

Midseason varieties.—The treatment recommended for early peaches
is applicable, hkewise, to midseason varieties, such as the Reeves,
Belle, Early Crawford, Elberta, Late Crawford, and Fox. For such
varieties, however, the third application is very essential and should
not be omitted where brown-rot or scab injury is serious.

Late varieties—The Salway, Heath, Bilyeu, and varieties with
similar ripening periods should be treated as midseason varieties,
with the addition of an application of the fungicide alone about a
month after the second treatment.

The following concentrations of spray preparations are recom-
mended: Arsenate of lead paste, 14 pounds (powder, three-fourths
pound) in 50 gallons; stone lime, 2 to 3 pounds in 50 gallons; self-
boiled lime-sulphur, 8 pounds of lime and 8 pounds of flour of sulphur
in 50 gallons; and finely divided wettable sulphur, 5 pounds in 50
gallons in the case of the paste (approximately 50 per cent sulphur)
used in the foregoing experiments. Directions concerning the prep-
aration and use of these sprays are given by Scott and Quaintance

(1911, p. 33-35).
ORCHARD SANITATION.

While the disposal of orchard refuse is a highly commendable
practice and thoroughly justifiable from the standpoint of the
control of other diseases, it appears to be of relatively slight import-
ance in peach-scab control, since the lesions on the living twigs con-
stitute the chief source of infectious material. Though it has been
recommended that the diseased twigs be pruned out and destroyed,
this procedure is manifestly impracticable in view of (1) the great
numbers and inconspicuous appearance of the lesions and (2) their
occurrence on the fruiting wood. Furthermore, such drastic meas-
ures are unnecessary, since the disease is readily and inexpensively
controlled by spraying, and little or no injury is done to the affected
twigs. Less directly, however, sanitation may be practiced with
profit in pruning and growing the trees in such fashion as to facilitate
the free access of air and sunlight and in providing for as good air
and surface drainage of the orchard as is feasible.

RESISTANT VARIETIES.

Since the severity of scab injury varies materially with varieties, it
should be remembered that the disease may be in some degree
avoided by growing those varieties which are less severely attacked.
However, inasmuch as these are chiefly the earlier peaches, it is not
feasible to accomplish very much with this method in practice.

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 61

Furthermore, since even on the worst affected varieties the disease
may be efficiently and economically controlled by spraying, the use
of varieties which are in some degree disease escaping or resistant
is unnecessary, though advisable when other factors are equal.

SUMMARY.

Peach scab (Cladosporium carpophilum Thim.) manifests itself in
serious spotting and cracking of the fruit and superficial injuries on
twigs and leaves.

In the United States the disease has been reported from 34 States,
which include practically every important peach-producing district
east of-the Rocky Mountains. Its occurrence has also been recorded
in Austria, Canada, Holland, Australia, southern Europe, and South
Africa.

Among the fungous diseases of the peach in the United States east
of the Rocky Mountains, scab ranks next to brown-rot in economic
importance. In many sections, before satisfactory control measures
were developed it rendered unprofitable the growing of certain valu-
able commercial varieties. Unless controlled, it would be a serious
menace to successful commercial peach culture in many of the most
important peach-producing districts of the Southern, Eastern, and
Central States.

The peach-scab fungus was first described by Von Thiimen (1877),
who assigned it the binomial Cladosporium carpophilum. Oudemans
(1901) described as Fusicladium carpophilum Oud. a fungus growing
on fallen young peaches. He lists as a synonym Cladosporium carpo-
philum Thiim., but neither gives Von Thiimen credit for the specific
name nor states his reasons for transferring the fungus to the genus
Fusicladium. Aderhold (1901) expressed the belief that C. carpo-
philum Thiim. and C. cerasi (Rbh.) Aderh. are identical, but he
admittedly failed to adduce sufficient evidence to justify this con-
clusion. Until further evidence is presented, the writer accepts the
name Cladosporium carpophilum Thim. for the peach-scab parasite.

The primarily important diagnostic characters of the fungus are
the short, erect, more or less flexuous, one to several septate, rarely
branched, olivaceous conidiophores and the ovate-fusiform, obtuse to
apically subacute, continuous or 1-septate, light fuscous conidia,
which are borne acrogenously, singly or in simple or branched chains.

The fungus was isolated from peach fruit, twigs, and leaves, respec-
tively, in single-spore strains, which were grown comparatively upon
more than 30 media. The cultural differences between strains from
different organs of the host were no greater than those observed in
strains from the same organ. The fungus grew well upon this wide
range of media and showed only minor variations upon the different
substrata.

62 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Moisture favors growth. Desiccation checks growth and favors
the formation of chlamydospores.

The minimal temperature for growth on favorable nutrient sub-
strata is less than 2°; the optimal, between 20° and 27°; and the
maximal, about 32° C.

Strong diffuse light favors sporulation.

Normal spores germinate readily in sterile distilled water, rain
water, and a large variety of nutrient solutions and agar preparations.
The alternate wetting and drying of germinating spores do not
appear to be seriously injurious unless the changes are very frequent
during the early stages of germination.

The minimal temperature for germination in water or in a favorable
nutrient solution is less than 2°; the optimal, between 20° and 27°;
and the maximal, slightly above 32° C.

Peach fruit, twigs, and leaves were inoculated with single-spore
strains of Cladosporium carpophilum from peach fruit, twigs, and
leaves, respectively. Each strain produced typical infection upon
fruit, twigs, and leaves, with the exception of the leaf strain upon
the fruit. In this case the experimental fruits were destroyed by
trespassers before the results were available. Each strain of the
fungus was repeatedly reisolated and was found to possess the typical
morphological and cultural characters of C. carpophilum. Fruit
infection was induced by direct inoculation with scrapings from
abundantly sporulating twig lesions. Conclusive positive results from
imoculations with C. carpophilum have not been previously reported.

Scab infection ordinarily appears shortly prior to the ripening -
period of early varieties and may continue throughout the season.

Spore production from fruit, twig, and leaf lesions may begin as
soon as infection becomes macroscopic and may continue throughout
the development of the lesions. The most abundant sporulation
occurs on overwintered twig lesions during the spring and early sum-
mer following infection.

Freshly produced, normal conidia from fruit, twig, or leaf lesions
are capable of germinating in sterile distilled water, rain water, or a
variety of nutrient media.

When dry the conidia persist tenaciously upon their sporophores.
In water, however, they quickly become detached. Meteoric water
appears to be the most important agent in their liberation and
dissemination.

In the inoculation experiments the period of incubation of the
fungus upon the fruit was observed to vary from 42 to 77 days. Upon
twigs and leaves it varied from 25 to 45 days. In nature the varia-
tions are undoubtedly even greater.

Little natural infection occurs until four to six weeks after the
petals fall. Subsequently, under favorable conditions it rapidly
becomes more abundant and mav continue throughout the season.

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 63

Primary infection results from conidia from overwintered twig
lesions. Spores from lesions of the current year’s production may
induce secondary infection.

The fungus overwinters in the mycelial stage in the lesions on living
twigs. There is no evidence that any other type of overwintering is
of any practical importance in the life history of the parasite, although
it has been shown that the mycelium may survive the winter on fallen
fruit and twigs.

Peach scab occurs at its worst in temperate sections where the
spring and early summer are moist and the growing season is long.
It is much less prevalent in dry sections and in high altitudes where
the opposite conditions obtain.

Varieties vary markedly in the degree to which they are subject
to scab injury. In general, early varieties are not very seriously
affected. Midseason varieties may be moderately or severely at-
tacked. Late varieties are usually the most severely affected. The
period of exposure of the fruit to the attack of the fungus is a major
factor in these differences. There are, however, varietal differences
which are independent of the ripening period of the fruit. These
have not been explained.

It has been shown conclusively that the disease may be controlled
in a highly satisfactory manner by spraying with self-boiled lime-
sulphur or with finely divided wettable sulphur and that the scab
treatment may be satisfactorily combined with the control of brown-
rot and the plum curculio. (For summarized recommendations,
see pp. 59-60.)

Under average conditions, the cost of spraying 7-year-old to 10-
year-old peach trees for scab, brown-rot, and the plum curculio
(three treatments, as recommended on pp. 59-60) should not exceed
5 cents a tree.

In the writer’s experience, the merchantable fruit from. trees
properly sprayed in accordance with the foregoing recommenda-
tions has rarely amounted to less than 95 per cenit of the total yield,
even under severe conditions, while its quality has uniformly been
much superior to that of the unsprayed product.

LITERATURE CITED.

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64

PEACH SCAB AND ITS CONTROL. 65

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1886. Sylloge Fungorum ... v.4. Patavil.
Scott, W. M.
[1907.] A promising treatment for brown rot and other peach diseases. Jn Proc.
30th Sess. Amer. Pomol. Soc. 1907, p. 39-45. Discussion, p. 45-48.
1908. Self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture as a promising fungicide. U.S. Dept.
Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cir. 1, 18 p., 2 fig.
1909. Lime-sulphur mixtures for the summer spraying of orchards. U.S. Dept.
Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cir. 27, 17 p., 2 fig.
and Ayrss, T. W.
1910. The control of peach brown-rot and scab. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant-
Indus. Bul. 174, 31 p., 1 fig., 4 pl.
and QUAINTANCE, A. L.
1911. Spraying peaches for the control of brown-rot, scab, and curculio. U. S.
Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 440, 40 p., 14 fig.
SetBy, A. D.
1897. Some diseases of orchard and garden fruits. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 79,
p. 97-141, 10 fig., 9 pl.
1898. Preliminary report upon diseases of the peach. Experiments in spraying
peach trees. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 92, p. 179-268, 12 fig., 12 pl.
1904. Peach diseases. III. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 148, p. 55-67, 7 pl.
SoRAUER, Paut.
1908. Handbuch der Pflanzenkrankheiten. Aufl. 3, Bd. 2. Berlin.
Stureis, W: C.
1897. On the probable winter condition of the fungus of peach-scab (Cladosporium
earpophilum). Jn 20th Ann. Rpt. Conn, Agr. Exp. Sta. 1896, p. 269-271.
48408°—Bull. 395—16——5

66 BULLETIN 395, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Sturais, W. C. .
1901. Peach-foliage and fungicides. Jn 24th Ann. Rpt. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta.
[1899]/1900, p. 219-254, pl. 3-5.

Tarr ih. Re
1894. Peach and plum culture in Michigan. Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 103,
62 p., 9 fig.
THUMEN, FELIX VON.
1877. Fungi nonnulli novi austriaci. Jn Oesterr. Bot. Ztschr., Jahrg. 27, p. 12.

* 1879. Fungi Pomicoli . . . 148 p.,3 pl. Wien.

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V

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey
HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief.

Washington, D. C. Vv October 23, 1916

SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF BIRD COUNTS IN
THE UNITED STATES, WITH DISCUSSION OF RE-

By WELLS W. Cooke, Assistant Biologist2

CONTENTS.

Page. Page.
Introduction =e isos a 1 | Some notable reports_-___-______-_-_ 13
Plans for the 1915 counts_________ 4 | Variations in bird life from year to
Results in the Northeastern States__ 4 AGEN Ls Ree aR Meee DE WS Oe a et 15
Results in other sections__________ 7 | The possibilities from bird protec-
The number of birds can be in- HSL Tae ee SE Dye 17

creased tet et ue. Ses OS) Sana ye ee ee 20
The Berwyn, Pa., bird count_____-~ 1, ||
INTRODUCTION.

A preliminary enumeration of the birds on many farms of the
United States, made during the summer of 1914, was so satisfactory
and the information obtained so important that it was decided to

repeat the work in 1915. In the second effort it was planned to
cover as many different kinds of country as possible and particu-
larly to secure more records and more reliable data concerning birds
in the Gulf States and in the region from the Plains westward.

The returns from the 1915 bird count were on the whole very satis-
factory. As in 1914, the largest number of reports from any single
section came from the Northeastern States—that is, the States north
of North Carolina and east of Kansas—but they are particularly
gratifying because of their close agreement with returns of 1914
from the same section. When an enumeration of birds was first
suggested the project was the subject of much good-natured banter
and some criticism from those who declared the scheme utterly
visionary.

1 Shortly after writing this report, and following a very brief illness, Professor Cooke

died, March 30, 1916. He was a prominent ornithologist and the foremost American
authority on the migration of birds.—WHp1Tor.

Norr.—This second report on the number and relative abundance of wild birds (see
Dept. Bull. 187, issued Feb. 11, 1915) is for the information of workers and others inter-
ested in the protection and increase of birds.

47849°—Bull. 396—16——1

2, BULLETIN 396, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The reports of 1914 from farms of the Northeastern States agreed
so well among themselves and with results obtained by other persons
in previous years that they seemed to warrant the belief that their
average closely approximated the actual facts. The counts of 1915
from the same region serve to strengthen this belief and to make it
practically certain that the conclusions drawn as to the number of —
birds on these farms is very nearly accurate.

A word of explanation may be offered as to just what results were
expected from the work, and also as to what phases of the bird popu-
lation question are not covered by these first two years of bird
counting.

The most important factor of bird life concerns its relation to
human beings and has to do with its influence for good in helping
the farmer destroy the foes of his crops. Hence to ascertain the
numbers of birds in the trees and shrubbery on the acres actually
devoted to crops and immediately contiguous thereto is more im-
portant economically than on other lands, and these numbers have
been most in mind in the work thus far conducted. The principal
question of these two years has been, therefore, What kinds of
birds and how many pairs of each kind nest on the farms in the area
surveyed and remain on or near them during the middle of the
summer, when crops grow fastest and also suffer most from insect
enemies?

So far as the farms of the Northeastern States are concerned, the
average of the 1914 counts was about one pair of birds to the acre,
and as this number is so nearly the same as presented by the addi-
tional work of 1915, it may be said with reasonable assurance that
this is the average bird population of that part of the Northeastern
States actually devoted to agriculture.

The work has not yet reached the stage where the general average
found—in the Northeastern States of nearly 800 pairs of birds to the
square mile—may be subdivided and an estimate made of the num-
ber of pairs of each kind. For some of the commonest and most
widely distributed species, like the robin and English sparrow, how-
ever, the reports are probably sufficiently numerous to permit an
approximate estimate.

The different kinds of birds on a farm are so much more variable
than the average number of birds per acre that it will require many
more counts to serve as reliable bases for formulating averages of
species. Two contiguous farms of 100 acres each may each support
100 pairs of nesting birds, yet the kinds of birds on the two farms
may vary widely, according as one farm is upland, and the other
lowland; one devoted to grain raising, and the other, in perma-
nent pastures, to dairying; one supporting a growth of hardwood
trees, the other showing nothing but evergreens,

SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF BIRD COUNTS IN THE U. S. 3

Many phases of bird population have scarcely been touched by the
two years’ work. How many birds to the acre inhabit permanent
marshes? What effect on the number of birds has the presence of a
stream, a river, a pond, or a lake? What is the average effect of alti-
tude or latitude on bird life? These and many other questions are
interesting and important, but may not yet be answered.

Another important question concerning bird population, which is
partially covered by the counts of 1914 and 1915, relates to the num-
bers of birds inhabiting those areas near large centers of human
population which are not devoted strictly to agricultural purposes, as
city lots, parks, cemeteries, etc. It is, of course, desirable to have the
greatest possible numbers of native birds in all such places, and some
of the returns show in a very striking manner how quickly and
abundantly the birds respond to efforts to make these sections better
adapted to a large bird population.

A brief explanation should be made regarding the qualifications
needful in an observer to result in a satisfactory enumeration.
The Biological Survey has for many years had several hundred mi-
gration observers throughout the country reporting bird arrivals and
departures. If a person is familiar with only half a dozen of the
commonest birds and is well situated to note the earliest arrivals
among these species, his notes on the birds he knows are just as
valuable, so far as they go, as those of one who has a wider bird ac-
quaintance. But in counting birds such partial knowledge is worse
than useless. Ifa bird count is to have value, it must be true not only
as far as it goes, but it must tell the whole truth. This requires that
the enumerator be able to identify with certainty all the birds nesting
on the area he covers, or be able to give a recognizable description of
those he is unable to name. Lack of such knowledge has made un-,
usable some reports which were undoubtedly correct as to the species
listed, but which showed their incompleteness by absence of records
for the smaller and less conspicuous birds.

Letters of criticism of the method used for counting the pairs of
birds have been received. Of course if one is living on the area on
which he reports and has the time and inclination to go over the
ground repeatedly, day after day, until each nest has been actually
located, his report would be more accurate and valuable than one
made by ear by the method outlined in the circular of instructions.
But this would require twenty to fifty times as many hours’ observa-
tion, and hardly more than one person in a hundred would feel in-
clined or be able to devote so much additional time to the work. Some
six years of such work done by the writer convinced him that a person
who knows the birds by their songs can use the method advocated
and obtain, with the expenditure of a minimum of time and effort, a
count that will compare favorably in accuracy with the most pains-

4 BULLETIN 396, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

taking and exhaustive hunting out of the nests themselves. During
two different years, in less than three hours of one morning, he made
a survey of a 50-acre field which was supporting a bird population
of some 30 species and about 75 pairs, and obtained results so nearly
correct that continued observation on the field for the remainder of
the season made scarcely any change in the figures thus obtained.

PLANS FOR THE 1915 COUNTS.

As the returns from the 1914 counts had shown that the method
pursued gave satisfactory results, the same method was employed
in 1915. A circular of detailed instructions was sent to each person
who offered to help in the work. This was widely distributed; calls
for additional bird enumerators also were inserted in the principal

e '
ILL. 02} Ve
.° oH IN - AVA °

“B2140-92

Wie. 1.—Places from which bird-count reports were receiveyd in 1915.

ornithological journals; and in various other ways the matter was
brought to the attention of those interested in birds. As a result
about 315 reports, from every State in the Union, except Utah and
Nevada, were received in 1915. As shown by the accompanying
map (fig. 1), these are fairly well scattered over the country, but the
largest proportion comes from the northeastern part of the United
States, as was the case in 1914.

RESULTS IN THE NORTHEASTERN STATES.

The bulletin publishing the results of the bird enumeration of
19141 discussed at some length the work on farms of the North-
eastern States. The most interesting phase of the 1915 returns is a
consideration of the two counts from the same section to see whether
the agreement is close enough to indicate accuracy in the 1914 con-
clusions.

1PRynl] 187 ‘TY SX Nent Aor Heh 11 1015.

SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF BIRD COUNTS IN THE U. 5. 5

The number of new reports received from this section in 1915 was
almost exactly the same as the total number received in 1914. This
new material has been treated with reference to the same points con-
sidered in 1914, and the comparison of the results of the two years
is given in the subjoined table.

The average farm in the Northeastern States, according to the
1910 census, contains 108 acres, and a farm-of this size was used as
the basis of the calculations for each year.

TABLE I.—Resulis of counts in northeastern United States.

Average
1914 1915 for 2
years.

Acres. | Acres.| Acres.
6

Average area covered by each count.....2-2-.--- ~~... soe ceenecoceseccseee--s 58 64
iplowedtiandsas ssccewes aid Saas st Me ES 2S | ee ee ne 17 21 19
IEP gba apse ea aa ee ee aya Non a ao Seo 5 oe - -.5 Dene eres Senet 8 6 7
Orebardyme tt Bye sski ee oto ss OS A. RS ee ee 4 5 5
Woodland isis. 20-5225. -25 2 Jo2e w elejo ae lcieee aie » - 2 eee ese ie se ees | 3 9 6
Handlaroundabuildines ss. S:ioe.< 42s Sa sese li... SReeB ei ase decaes awe 3 3 3
IROHMANEHipIMNCADO Wins os cia coe ccsia~ sicko reise a s+ - <= SOR ee eae nein eee 8 6 uf
IPASGHEDM ALG eae. IIs Ser Rea ea cielo s Soa. 2 eee ee eg CER Ee 15 14 14

| Pairs. | Pairs Pairs.

Average bird population on each area covered....---...-------.-------------- 69 80 75

Average bird population for each 100 acres of the area covered.....------------ 119 125 122

Average bird population on each 100 acres of isolated woodland..-..-..--.--..-- 175 199 187

Average area not covered by the count in each farm-...-..-..-.---.--.------- |

lo wen sari dt esos = ee Sak es ois ee ie oot 2. ees
Hay land...
Wisodlan ds s5255 sess kee See

Probable average bird population in the woodland.-....--.......---..---.-----
Probable bird population on the remainder of the area
Probable bird population on each 108-acre farm (estimated from average of

Count area atid: AaToa NOL CONCLGG) «a2 << 25222 60-22 - + eee aera ase 114 124 119

The results of the counts of 1915 agree so very closely with those
of 1914 as to indicate the strong probability that each represents on
the average a close approximation to the truth. —

Some 25 persons who sent in reports of bird counts in 1914, taken
on farms:in the Northeastern States, made reports the next year of
counts taken on the same areas. The average of these for 1914 is
117 pairs of native birds to each 100 acres of farm land, while the
average for 1915 is 122 pairs.

Combining all the 1915 counts from farms in the Northeastern
States with those of 1914 which were not repeated in 1915—that is,
combining the counts of all the different farms received in the two
years—gives the following results, expressed in the same terms as
those used in the report of the 1914 enumeration:

The average enumeration area on farms in the Northeastern
States is 61 acres, 1. e., it consists on the average of the farm build-
ings and the grounds surrounding them together with approximately

6 BULLETIN 396, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

half the land of the farm, leaving an average of 47 acres of land
farthest from the buildings not covered by the count. Thus two
problems are presented: First, how the 61 acres covered by the
census compare with the average farm; and, second, how the re-
maining 47 acres compare in bird population with the 61 acres
chosen.

That portion of the average farm covered by the enumerations
contained 32 per cent of plowed ground and 10 per cent of hay land,
which, according to the 1910 census, is nearly the average percentage
for the farms in this section of the United States. There is, however,
a great difference in the relative sizes of orchards; these farms con-
tained 7.3 per cent of orchard, whereas the average for the North-
eastern States is only 1.2 per cent, or, in other words, the area se-
lected for the bird enumeration contained six times as many acres
of orchard as the average. Each area also contained the farm build-
ings with accompanying shade trees, ornamental shrubs, small fruits,
and vegetable gardens, forming the most favorable nesting sites
on the farm and affording the largest quantity of food per acre.
There is no doubt that the average 5 acres immediately surrounding
the farm buildings contain more birds’ nests than any other 5 cul-
tivated acres on the farm. As the farms selected contained orchards
larger than the average and as orchards are especially preferred for
nesting sites by many kinds of birds, the areas selected evidently
have a bird population denser than that of farm lands as a whole.

During each of the years 1914 and 1915, counts were made on
isolated areas of woodland, and the average of all reports in the
two years gives a bird population of 187 pairs to each 100 acres,
while the farm land supported 122 pairs per 100 acres. It is evi-
dent, then, that comparatively small areas of woodland contiguous
to cleared and cultivated land offer better attractions as nesting
sites than land which is wholly under cultivation, and contain a cor-
respondingly larger number of birds’ nests.

The 47 acres not covered by the two-year counts on each of these
farms consisted on the average of 14 acres of plowed ground, 6 acres
of hay land, 17 acres of woodland, and 10 acres of meadow and
pasture. If the 17 acres of woodland contain on the average, as
they probably do, 32 pairs of birds, the other 30 acres would have
to support a bird population of 26 pairs to give these 47 acres the
same bird population per acre as the part of the farm where the
buildings are situated. It is not probable that the 30 acres would
have 26 pairs, but they may easily have half that number, which,
added to the population of the woodland and of the enumeration
area, would make a total of 119 pairs on 108 acres, practically an
uverage of 1 pair to the acre for the land in farms in the North-
eastern States.

SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF BIRD COUNTS IN THE U.S. t

RESULTS IN OTHER SECTIONS.

In the report on the 1914 bird count it was stated concerning
the data received that year from the whole of the United States
outside the northeastern sectlon—

Less than a dozen reports came from the South Atlantic and Gulf States,
and the number is no larger from the States west of the Rocky Mountains;
while the reports from the Plains States—North Dakota to Oklahoma—are
too few to be used as representing average conditions in this region. These
three divisions, the South, the West, and the Plains, are so diversified in
climate and agricultural conditions and vary so widely in their bird life that
many more bird censuses must be available before generalizations can be
made for the whole country and reliable conclusions drawn.

The reports received in 1915 from the South, the West, and the
Plains, instead of yielding a satisfactory bird return from these
districts, serve rather to accentuate the difficulties of the problem.
Deductions from a few of these, following, will show the wide vari-
ations and indicate the complexity of bird life in these parts of the
United States.

COUNTS IN THE PLAINS REGION.

. Of a number of reports received from the Plains region from
Oklahoma to North Dakota, only those were selected which seemed
to have resulted from counts made under about average conditions.
These covered an average area of 56 acres, divided into 15 acres of
plowed land, 5 acres of hay land, 1 acre of orchard, 3 acres of wood-
land, the farm home with the other buildings and farm garden, and
the remainder, 29 acres, divided into about one-fourth meadow and
three-fourths pasture. The percentage is a little smaller than the
average for these States in plowed land and hay land, about the
average in meadow and pasture, and considerably above it in wood-
land and orchard. As these last two are the largest factors in the
size of the bird population, it follows that these enumeration areas
probably have a larger bird population per acre than the average
for the States as a whole.

The average of these reports shows 70 pairs of nesting birds of
22 species on the 56 acres, or at the rate of 125 pairs to the 100
acres, precisely the same as for farms in the Northeastern States,
which contained the farm home and exceptionally favorable con-
ditions for a large bird population.

But while these figures are probably entirely correct for the part
of the farm which contains the buildings, it is not possible to estimate
from any data yet received the bird population on the remainder
of the farm outside the enumeration area. The farms in the Plains
region are large, averaging 297 acres each, as compared with only
108 acres in the Northeastern States. The part of the average
Plains farm not covered by the bird count consists of 241 acres,

8 BULLETIN 396, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

divided into 92 acres of plowed land, 27 acres of hay land, 3 acres
of woodland, 34 acres of improved meadow and pasture land, and
the remainder, 85 acres, of wild, treeless, native prairie. The average
bird life per acre on such land is naturally much less than on the
part of the farm selected for the enumeration. How much less, the
data in hand are not sufficient to determine. Anyone who has ridden
over the native prairie knows how seldom birds are seen, and an at-
tempt was made at Sisseton, S. Dak., to obtain a numerical state-
ment of this scarcity. Ona tract of 40 acres of prairie pasture land
adjoining the Sisseton town site, but having better than average con-
ditions, in that a stream of water, bordered with brush, crossed the
tract, the following were found nesting: Killdeer, 2 pairs; prairie
horned lark, 3; Sennett nighthawk, 2; lark bunting, 2; and meadow-
lark, 3; a total of 12 pairs on 40 acres, or at the rate of 30 pairs to 100
acres, as compared with the 125 pairs to 100 acres of the farm land.
Some suggestive figures in this connection come from Onaga, Kans.,
where a tract of 80 acres of native pasture, crossed by a creek with
a narrow fringe of native timber and occupied at one end by a small
cornfield, supported a population of 31 pairs of native birds of 22
species, or in the proportion of about 40 pairs to 100 acres. The ad-
joining 40 acres, containing the farm home, a 5-acre orchard, and 6
acres of groves, was the summer home of the same number of kinds
of birds represented by 49 pairs, or at the rate of 122 pairs to 100

acres.
REPORTS FROM THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN STATES.

The foregoing records from the Plains region are from the part
east of the one hundredth meridian, where the average annual rain-
fall is more than 20 inches and where crops are raised successfully
without irrigation. To the west, as the rainfall diminishes, the
native bird population on the open prairie decreases until in some
of the more desolate sections it almost disappears.

A little west of the one hundredth meridian, near Hobbs, N. Mex.,
in the extreme southeastern corner of the State, one tract of 80
acres, all native pasture except a 20-acre field of milo maize, had a
bird population of 22 pairs representing 9 species; a neighboring
80 acres, with only 10 acres in milo maize, showed 17 pairs of 8
species; while in the same township still a third 80 acres, none of
which had ever been disturbed by the plow, was supporting only 13
pairs of 5 species, notwithstanding each of these equal areas con-
tained a set of farm buildings with windmill and tank. The average
of these three counts is 17 pairs to 80 acres, or 21 pairs to each 100
acres.

Still farther west, in the irrigated district of western Colorado, two
reports have been contributed showing the effect of irrigation on the
density of bird life. The first area consisted of 320 acres of irrigated

SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF BIRD COUNTS IN THE U.S. 9

orchard, near Grand Junction, the trees from 3 to 6 years old; the
area was interspersed with small fields of alfalfa, grain, and root
crops, and contained about ten sets of farm buildings, sheds, and
yards for live stock. The native birds were represented by 116 pairs
of 17 species (in addition to a colony of 65 pairs of violet-green
swallows, most of which had come within the last few years), 5
pairs of English sparrows, and 12 pairs of the introduced California
quail; a total of 198 pairs of birds on the 320 acres. Just above
this irrigated land lay a tract of 320 acres in its original wild state,
of low hills and small gullies; the hills sparsely covered with sage,
saltwort, and other desert plants, and the gullies lined with bushes.
ts bird life consisted of the following pairs: Burrowing owl, 3;
Arkansas kingbird, 1; Say phoebe, 1; desert horned lark, 5; western
lark sparrow, 2; white-rumped shrike, 2; and rock wren, 3; a total
of 17 pairs of 7 species. The irrigated land supported a bird popu-
iation at the rate of 66 pairs to 100 acres, while on the contiguous
nonirrigated land the bird life shrank to 5 pairs to 100 acres.

A 40-acre tract on the outskirts of Tombstone, Ariz., containing
in one corner a few houses with their yards, but for the most part
covered with a sparse growth of desert shrubs, “ not heavy anywhere,
but quite general,” and with no surface water, had a bird population
of 50 pairs of 26 species, of which only 4 species were seed-eaters
and the rest insectivorous. At a little distance from the town a
40-acre tract of “semidesert” covered with a rather heavy growth
of brush, mostly less than 6 feet high, showed 31 pairs of 16 species.
No enumeration has yet been made on the real desert. In the
mountains of Arizona, near Flagstaff, a tract of 70 acres at about
7,100 feet elevation, covered with western yellow pine and Gambel
oak, supported a bird population of 31 pairs of 18 species.

A public park in Missoula, Mont., with exceptionally favorable
conditions for bird life, showed 59 pairs of 20 species on 40 acres.
Along the shore of Flathead Lake, Mont., 45 acres of woodland had
67 pairs of 24 species. A tract of 48 acres near Missoula, Mont., with
64 acres in orchard and the rest in native prairie, furnished a home
in the orchard for 16 pairs of birds, while only 4 pairs could be dis-
covered on the 40 acres of shrubless prairie.

These examples make it plain that there is a much smaller bird
population per acre west of the one hundredth meridian than in the
Northeastern States. Just how much smaller can not be estimated
from the reports so far received.

Probably no State in the Union has greater variations in bird life
than California. A few examples will show some of these, though
it will require many more bird counts than those so far made to
furnish an adequate basis for estimates of averages. A plot of 20
acres of the campus of the University of California, with conditions

47849°—Bull. 396—16———2

10 BULLETIN 396, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

for birds much more favorable than average, showed 87 pairs of
93 species of native birds. A 60-acre tract of wooded hillsides
near Gilroy, Cal., was supporting 36 pairs of 10 species. This is
close to what od be expected in the Eastern States eet similar
conditions.

There is no place on the farm where the help of birds is more
needed than in the orchard, and the following counts show how the

birds congregate where food, shelter, and building sites are closely

associated. The numbers of nesting pairs in a tract near Gilroy,
Cal., containing an orchard of 30 acres of apricots, prunes, peaches,
«nd grapes, and about 8 acres of pasture and creek bottom, the farm
home and other buildings, and many large native trees, are as fol-
lows: Oregon towhee, 4; California towhee, 12; valley quail. 5; kill-
deer, 1; green heron, 3; Ce woodpecker, 3; red-shafted flicker,
7; western bluebird, 8; western meadowlark, 1; Bullock oriole, 2;
Arkansas kingbird, 2; Traill flycatcher, 4; black phoebe, 6; Law-
rence goldfinch, 15; lazuli bunting, 1; barn owl, 3; dotted canyon
wren, 2; western winter wren, 7; long-tailed chat, 1; California
shrike, 2; tree swallow, 5; cliff swallow, 12; California jay, 4; Allen
hummingbird, 6; western blue grosbeak, 1; black-headed grosbeak,
8; house finch, 18; western mourning dove, 6; western chipping spar-
row, 10; Pacific nighthawk, 2; russet-backed thrush, 2; western lark
sparrow, 7; green-backed goldfinch, 2; and English sparrow, 4; a
total of 176 pairs of 34 species on 88 acres.

A similarly dense, though less varied, bird population in a 52-acre
peach orchard is shown by a count made near Port Clinton, Ohio.
This showed 108 pairs of common farm birds, a colony of 36 pairs
of purple martins, and 6 pairs of English sparrows, or a total of
150 pairs of 29 species.

ESTIMATED BIRD POPULATION OF THE SOUTHERN STATES.

Bird counts made in Florida show an average of 77 pairs of native
birds of 20 species and 5 pairs of English sparrows on 88 acres.
The enumeration areas average 4 per cent of plowed land, 21 per
cent of woodland, and the remainder open meadow or pasture land.
The average of the farms of the State is 12 per cent of plowed land
and 60 per cent of woodland, so that the proportion in the enumer-
ation areas does not at all represent average conditions in that
State, and the counts can not be used in estimating the average bird
life of the State.

Reports from Louisiana show an average of 95 pairs of birds of
29 species on 53 acres, of which 39 per cent is plowed land, 18 per
cent woodland, and 41 per cent pasture, while the average farm of
the State contains 87 acres, of which 28 per cent is plowed land,
41 per cent woodland, and 28 per cent pasture.

SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF BIRD COUNTS IN THE U. S. 11

The enumerations from Texas average 91 pairs of birds of 21
species on 60 acres, composed of 43 per cent plowed land, 17 per
cent woodland, and 40 per cent pasture; while the average farm of
the State contains 270 acres, divided into 15 per cent plowed land,
25 per cent woodland, and 60 per cent pasture.

The average of all counts received from the Southern States,
North Carolina, Arkansas, and Oklahoma to Florida and Texas, is
76 pairs of birds of 23 species on a farm of 58 acres, which consists
of 33 per cent plowed land, 2 per cent hay land, 24 per cent wood-
land, and 41 per cent meadow and pasture land. The average farm
for this section contains 120 acres, divided into 24 per cent plowed
land, 2 per cent hay land, 35 per cent woodland, and 39 per cent
meadow and pasture. The enumeration areas thus differ too radi-
cally from the average farm conditions to allow safe generalizations,
and yet it is worthy of notice that the average for the census areas
in this southern section is 181 pairs of nesting birds to 100 acres,
while for the Northeastern States the corresponding figure is 125
pairs, and for the Plains region 125 pairs. There is probably more
than a mere coincidence in the close agreement of these figures, and
they seem to indicate that on the average the farmhouse area and
the approximately 60 acres surrounding it support about the same
bird population—76 pairs of nesting birds—in all the States east
of the one hundredth meridian.

There is still left unsolved the problem of the bird population on
the areas in the South and in the Plains region which are not in-
cluded in the reports. These areas in the Northeastern States con-
stituted only 41 per cent of the total land of the farms, while in the
South they form 52 per cent of the whole, and in the Plains region
81 per cent.

From the 59 per cent of the land covered by the count it is
possible in the Northeastern States to estimate with fair accuracy
the birds on the 41 per cent not covered, but it is not at all safe
to generalize in the South, with less than half the farm area repre-
sented by the count, and still less so in the Plains region, where
less than a fifth of the area is included.

THE NUMBER OF BIRDS CAN BE INCREASED.

The most important fact brought out by the 1914 count was
that the average bird population on the farms of the United States
can be largely increased by protection and furnishing food and
shelter. The 1915 count presents several more instances of a nu-
merous bird population following well-directed efforts for its in-
crease. A farm of 65 acres near Westerville, Ohio, comprising
plowed land 23 acres, hay land 22 acres, pasture 5 acres, orchard
5 acres, house and garden plot 2 acres, and swamp and wooded

12 BULLETIN 396, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

creek borders 8 acres, showed a population of 110 pairs of native
birds and 25 pairs of English sparrows, or about double the average
tor the State. A farm of 78 acres near Strasburg, Ohio, with about
the same proportion of the different fields, had 126 pairs of native
birds and 8 pairs of English sparrows, also about double the average.
A farm of 40 acres near Middletown, Conn., containing 10 acres
of plowed land, 3 acres of woodland, 5 acres of pasture, 12 acres
of orchard, and 20 acres of meadow, had a bird population of
165 pairs of native birds, 8 pairs of English sparrows, and 15 pairs
of starlings; a total of 188 pairs, or more than four times the aver-
age. A farm of 40 acres at New Hope, Pa., called “The Hedges,”
from its numerous osage orange hedges, and divided into plowed
land 15 acres, woodland 2 acres, orchard 5 acres, and grassland 18
acres, supported a bird population of 136 pairs of native birds, 17 of
English sparrows, and 1 of the starling; a total of about four times
the average.
These examples are all of farms that are used for ordinary farm-
ing purposes, and where no attempt has been made to attract an
extra number of birds by winter feeding or by putting up nesting
boxes. The large bird population is due solely to absolute protec-
tion and to leaving abundant chances for favorable nesting sites.

THE BERWYN, PA., BIRD COUNT.

As noted in the report of the 1914 enumeration, the first published
bird count in the United States was that made in 1901 at Berwyn,
Pa., by Mr. Frank L. Burns. After a lapse of 13 years Mr. Burns
in 1914 repeated the count on the same area, and the results have
lately been published.t1. His enumeration area consisted of 640 acres,
divided approximately into 27 per cent woodland, 16 per cent gar-
dens and shaded lawns, about 30 per cent plowed land, and the re-
mainder, about 27 per cent, covering pasture land, drives, highways,
and railroads. The tract is thus somewhat more favorable for birds
than the average of the lands covered in 1914 and 1915 by the Bio-
logical Survey reports. In his second count Mr. Burns found 617
pairs of native birds on the 640 acres as compared with 588 pairs in
1901. or an average of 97 pairs of native birds to 100 acres as com-
pared with the 100 pairs estimated for 1914 by the Biological Survey
for the farms of the Northeastern States. If English sparrows are
included, however, Mr. Burns’s total is 112 pairs to 100 acres, as com-
pared with the 105 pairs found by the Biological Survey in 1914.
Mr. Burns finds 95 pairs of English sparrows on the 640 acres, or at
the rate of 15 pairs to 100 acres, where the Biological Survey’s aver-
age is 5 pairs. Mr. Burns finds 15 pairs of English sparrows to each

1 Burns, Frank L., Second Sectional Bird Census, 1914, Taken at Berwyn, Chester County,
Pa. Bird-Lore, XVII, 109-111, March—April, 1915.

SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF BIRD COUNTS IN THE U.S. i

100 pairs of native birds, while the Biological Survey’s estimate is
5 pairs. Based on his count, Mr. Burns estimates 165,000,000 individ-
ual English sparrows in the United States east of the Mississippi
River, but this may be somewhat too high for the whole area, since
the English sparrow is especially partial to human society and the
square mile worked on by Mr. Burns contained more than one person
to the acre, or a human population thirty times as dense as the
average for farm land in the United States east of the Mississippi
River, and several times the average density for the whole land in-
cluding cities.
SOME NOTABLE REPORTS.

The most elaborate report to the Biological Survey in 1915 was
that of the campus of Cornell University, at Ithaca, N. Y. Its 256
acres was divided into six blocks, and the survey of each was made by
a different person, the whole being in charge of Prof. Arthur A. Allen,
of the university. Following is a description of each of the six
blocks:

Block A, 22 acres, hillside pasture with a few trees; block B, 34
acres, hillside planted with scattered groups of trees and shade trees
about residences, with very little shrubbery; block C, 87 acres. con-
taining lawns, shade trees, a little shrubbery, and most of the uni-
versity buildings; block D, 24 acres, about one-third woodland, con-
taining residences with shade trees and some shrubbery; block KE, 64
acres, a Clover field, a small nursery, a little woodland, and many new
buildings; block F, 25 acres, a hillside pasture covered with a
thicket of thorn apple and containing a stream.

It is interesting to note the wide variations in the bird popula-
tion of the various sections. Block C, which contains the university
buildings and therefore has the largest human population, hundreds
of students passing and repassing all day, has less than the average
of native birds but swarms with English sparrows, in numbers al-
“most equal to the total of the native birds. Block D, containing
residences, with their shade trees and shrubbery, has the greatest
density of native bird population—84 pairs on 24 acres; and blocks
A and F, hillside pastures, though supporting a population of native
birds considerably above the average for the State, are almost free
from English sparrows. (See Table IT.) |

Another count, representing great and painstaking work, was
made by M. S. Crosby on Grasmere Farms, near Rhinebeck, N. Y.
A 210-acre section containing 92 acres of woodland, 38 acres of
plowed land, 25 acres of meadow, 40 acres of orchard, and 15 acres
of lawns, drives, gardens, and buildings, was found to have a bird
population of 54 different kinds represented by 366 pairs, or an
average of 174 pairs of native birds to 100 acres, nearly the same
as on the Cornell University campus.

14 BULLETIN 396, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE II].—Number of nesting pairs on each of six blocks of the Cornell Univer-
sity campus.

Blocks.
Species. Total.
A B Cc D. E EF

Screech. owls cee ss. Pls. eee. te ates ee ee ener Dy | Fae e ales jae a Ba oa Saeec 2
Spotedesandipiper series oc < senses tee See emis wise eee eee | era ce tel ree eee |erteyeie ers ee mie 1 1
Kumefisher sets 5) 532 on Sig. Se seck piss oes se o-i k steee = 4-1 ase oe teckebas. -|eeereas|E: sees 1 1
Hain vyAWwoogpeckers-. ire). < acmeeme cee eee as ae eon sale ais al eens ae | Maer Uy era ees et ees 1
Downy iwoodpeckerssi2. seo ts seek. ee ieee. ea aecisae |. ta a [8 eae. ol eee ee 1 1 2
POT CR OM Sine eee le hc eats aie rate yates ict eat) Nera a tre eet a Dal eeee er 1 1 1 1 6
ChimmneGyiswiltise sone oe eee ne aoe menos an eine nes os eee sae aalll guise ce aes forsscls aes 4
Ruby-throated bumaimin shire ee eee ere ee eer neers |r HL Al ye anes a A tas es 2
IPNOE DG aos eee oases lee seek Sains ete eee Bee ee ee 1 AU | eres it 2 2 7
WiooG pewees: (eke ees ea ee’ soa ee Peet eee 1 2 3 6 4 3 19
Meeastitiycateher soe cece Sel enicnie Satins sees waa c seperate aa cae 1 1D eee ascsae 3 5
Americamcrow \.can see ese oes eee eae eee ec aleee ee |e bee eee enero 1
BY) OX) i ag es ese a SS pe el aad eA an i a ei ae (Sete | SS [ees Vlas ace 1
Cow bindiex en. fe ake se eee eee RS eek hig peal RL Teal [fh OR = 2 1 2 6
Mead owilarkescecnec a ielsskis osama secs erate eyaebtec ates os aieteers ei 1 1 Le is ees pleas 4
Baltimore Orioles) thse se eee eae a ce 3 2 7 4 1 4 21
Bronze dherackle™ tao. jac. nee eeisae ats Sai Ce eae ra sates iene wale mere rerete)| Seis lare Oe eraeis/etetay ete | oeerstere 2)
Acmericange Ol difim Chik ae re Sei ec a cee nate Bi leeee oe 2 2 11 5 23
WESDeTSDAannOWe come aos cee eins ocins teeters eter Bel oases 1 1 ae See 3 2 7
Saivamnalakemar now webs op ce eee oi ilk oie oe cS al Se Sele PT Aerie Su lasc oes 7
Chip pins SwarrOwerses sere seciee =inis\ae We nate sie a siale ws eccls Mamet 7 4 18 9 6 3 47
PicldisparrOWssoecsees seeciee eee ee Ee ee ern ar oe Ne eal ace et eee 2
SONPSPArLOW Eee cece cmon mise oe Se See ee een ones wearer eis 4 6 3 5 2 11 31
Scarlet tanager.c3 3 2o5 see ae Sue tel SR eae aie ats at ee all atic nS ee aos oe 1
Weg ar swe XW ie tale ae Pe aren or a ale cee eS Pree Qe e ee telnee eases 1 2 5
Red=eyed! vireo it a jgeesos beeen Pea ae ea Ae od 1 4 5 2 1 13
WrarblinlsivareOe ies m cheetah are 6 pe aa avai osm eee esse emer eraise a 3 il Nar gaa arn 4
Wellow-throated wviteoh i2.% sed soe as Ge ee aa cs hb [ie tes pe ae 4 2 1 7
NVellOw: Warbler sae ene ee esa a eae Metis Sieeatelaye = 2 DMM 2 2 11 2 1 12 30
Acouisianacwater-torush yes. oes ee eS aero ge eee ae. oll eee tin emer Pe rere RAS Se: 2
Manyland-yellow-throatuss scenester acre eee eesers ee see eee ee cae 20 eee ales ne renee [emcee 2
Redstart nai teck accra mc satoe cease o yee a ee eee Hee 2 1 ee see ae 8 5 1 15
Catbindse Sic Eke o wise gece cecmanaseccacee seme s cecoe aeee tee 1 2 3 2 1 7 16
HOUSE WHOM wee beh os Sams ersct cengetee sctsjquveancie ces meets Taetae ce 1 WU eeemo|eodece 3
Wihiite=breasted muthatenee ane secc sence eee ae. eo cere a 1p Ree ee hie os By ssieis,s |e sees 4
C@hickadeee sy. ae ies he oe eg a ee 2 Mee 1 1 1 te esaerel | Sceece 4
Wioodtthrushye tee serene see cece see eee eres cee selene ces ab sleeeoee Ti bebetieg eal ssl 2
Walsontthrush <i esectn os see raat Wack Seer e es sae ooo Miele oa 5 1 1 8
MODINE eee Se eeiec eee setae Noone cee Deo soe amen fe se een. 5 8 36 35 15 6 11 111
Ble birds as oie eases ose See eae Se cee 8 1 A aS gaa) oleae ae he 2
Total pairs of nesting native birds...............-..-. 42 66 | 106 84 58 75 431

HM SHIS PAGO. ee cnee case ene einee ec oe Occ cee sca. semeieee oe 3 15 87 15 17 4 141
Ring-necked phedsantae- ae se-ae-- 4-52 esas ln ae eee W |e sssas|ecasoe|[o2c20desosecleosanc 1
Total number of different species-.....-....-.-.-.---- 21 19 21 26 24 22 42

Total pairs of nesting birds: .-.................-.-.--- 46 81 | 193 99 75 79 573
Alcres per DlOCk e sascat cote ca ecm ace cnemseeene see. coe 22 34 87 24 64 25 256
Nesting pairs of native birds per 100 acres.............--.--- 186 | 200) 122); 350 77 | 300 166
Nesting pairs of English sparrows per 100 acres............-- 14 44 100 62 27 16 56
Total nesting pairs per 100 acres.............--..--.--------- 205 | 244] 222) 412) 104] 316 225

In comparison with the above may be placed a report from Ran-
toul, Ill., on a farm of 400 acres, of which 315 acres were in corn and
oats, and of course practically destitute of birds’ nests, leaving only
85 acres to support the 88 pairs of native birds found on the place.
Such farms are very common throughout the central corn belt, and
while the 88 pairs are about the average for the 85 acres, the farm
as a whole shows an average of only 22 pairs to the 100 acres.

The count for 1914 showed an average of 6 pairs of robins and
5 pairs of English sparrows for each farm (of 108 acres) covered.
The accuracy of these figures has been called in question by indi-
viduals who felt sure that the English sparrow was by far the most

SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF BIRD COUNTS IN THR U. S. 15

abundant bird in the Northeastern States. The reports for 1915 in
this part of the Union bear out the estimates for 1914 that the robin
is the more numerous, since the averages are 8 pairs of robins and
6 pairs of English sparrows for each farm. The average of all

reports for the two years shows 7 pairs of robins and 53 pairs of
English sparrows for each farm covered.

VARIATIONS IN BIRD LIFE FROM YEAR TO YEAR.

A most interesting and instructive report has been received from
Mrs. A. B. Morgan, of Woodstock, Vt., giving the results of enumera-
tions for each of the last eight years on a tract near Woodstock. The
tract contains 92 acres, 20 acres of which is woodland, the balance
being devoted to permanent pasture and the usual crops of a Ver-
mont farm. The conditions on the farm have scarcely changed dur-
ing the eight years and the bird life has not much altered—84 pairs
of birds in 1915 as compared with 87 pairs in 1908—but it is inter-
esting to note the wide variation in both kinds and numbers of each
registered in the annual counts.

The total number of species nesting on the place in the eight years
aggregates 49, while the highest number in any one year is 44 and the
lowest 35, a range of from 90 per cent to 72 per cent of the total.
The average number of nesting pairs per year is 82, with variations
from 77 to 87, or an average variation of 3 per cent and a maximum
variation of only 6 per cent. These variations have been attributed
chiefly to the depredations of hawks. (See Table III.)

A tract of 50 acres at Virescu, Va., came under the writer’s ob-
servation in 1907. It consists of woodland, 21 acres; plowed land,
5 acres; permanent pasture, 15 acres; and the remainder, 9 acres,
brushy land along a stream and on a hillside. At that date much of
the land not in woods had lately ceased to be cultivated and was grow-
ing up in brush, while the underbrush had just been thoroughly
cleared out of all the woods. In the last eight years the underbrush
has worked back into the woods, while a great increase has taken
place in the brush and young trees along the stream and on some 3
acres that were formerly cultivated. During all the years bird
life has been rigorously protected, but there has been no extra bird
feeding either winter or summer and no putting up of bird boxes,
with the exception of a single small martin house; this, however,
was scorned by the martins, which are on several neighboring farms,
but was used fitfully by bluebirds, house wrens, and crested fly-
catchers.

A bird count was made by the writer in each of the last five years,
and the results show a steady and pronounced gain in the number of
kinds of birds nesting about the place, and a still greater gain in the

i6 BULLETIN 396, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

total number of nesting pairs. Indeed, the gain in this latter respect,
69 per cent in the five years, is more than may be explained by
the growth of bird food and shelter on the place and is probably due
_to the entire freedom from disturbance which the birds have come
to recognize.

TabLe IIlI.—Kinds of birds, and number of pairs of each, nesting each year
from 1908 to 1915 on a tract of 92 acres near Woodstock, Vt.

Species. 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915

1 1
RODIN AGS eee LAE ery Fee eee ee eae tery 2 2

Walsonithiush See 5. se bese hse oes os eeisciceeciees 2
IELOR MIG tH RUSHE Ase eae ae enc eee eemeeaine aese eee 4
Wihite-preasted muthatches 2225-20-28 ee eee - sale 1
iBlack-capped chickadeeye sass. enac == 2s aoe a= 3 :
CORA ovis ee ao ORE RG ae a ee Cite AS Lai 1s ea eae hy Shred | el (ea el (ete oe a ie 2s

1

Chestnut-sided warbler...:.....---...-.------------- 2 2 2 2 2
Black-throated green warbler ..--...-.:::.-------=---|-:---:[..----|---:-< 1 1
Oven-bird........ Berea ese aan ote ty eee rr re pera tepe eee oe 2 2 2 2 2
Marylandbyellow-throatece ssseeescces e+ comers ee eee 1
TRS RS aN el arty rapes Pee SE Ie RN I epee Bey aE 1
Redseyed!vireos ste S2ord. (YR Woe Se sR ee Sees ee ee 3
Vellowethroated wired. 222. c2.-. scenes o5- se eens 1
Solitary aviheOn Hae es sees ER eae se EE ee ee 2
Barn swallow...-- Be Seren es Oe nes le EE cee Dy
Scarletitanarer oj Ss sess SEE StS chehe st eee 1
Purple din Cheys ea ge aeeae cs Sono acaeesceeeeeescee 1
iAmoricanicoldfinch 2928 2 se eucea- sees eae ee 1
2

4

1

2

7

1

1

1

i

WESPeniSPAlvO Wein seu sec cete sce aeapeesine ageiee se = cee 1
Sayannah (sparrows 6 shee ot eee n= eese ae aae = ose
puipping SPARhO we ace eee cteecn ocean once peceeeaes sae
Field sparrow......---- BE RN UR Eee a
SOMEISPARO Wiss ee yest cine ae seee eee Ee ater eco ee
Rose-breasted grosbeak.....-...---------------------
INTGHYS Touma. 6. Se ea sSbsecdenoscoesasscossocose ==
Baltimore oriole: 45. fa. bs ety as es.
prainieshormedilark= fac See a sees tots raja sa SES = m5 ti cvare yal ermal eet rel eee Pere yee eer
Kome pind’ 2 wayyy sobs Seyi e gs 22 SE Rr ee ae
Crested flycatcher sss 5 ce secre snenecen see cee see
Phoebe ria. sh eee ele se See eee ee

1

1

1

2
Least flycatcher. ........-- Re | ae RES 0 | A 1
Ruby-throated hummingbird...............--.-. Saye 1
Chimmeyrswittine: Peco ee Shee ee EE Ee st ee 3
INGTE STATE ie Oe Ge eA SORE e SEH ON GHG Shoe ecaneene ea. 3
Hainyiwood pecker. =) hsaasce sees aoeee essen tee 3
Downyawood peckers.: oo seeencee eee tense ects eases 2
Yellow-bellied sapsucker.............--.-------------|.-----
WICK ener ee cs a pean als ete eee emia eter creieat ee 2
Black=pilledicuckoos vee yes 222 Sse es eee 1
SCREECHIG Wie See eee Serine ee nk a seem e ceric eee 1
1

1

Rutledserouse st ees ee a ep eS ad
Us Bia WOW = 2 ss sosesoedas aseecosobsssssnoetosgeds:

Total number of different species..............- 44 43), 38) 38) 35 || 37 | 35 42
Total pairs of nesting birds. .....-...2.-.....-.- 87 85 79 82 78 81 | 77 84

It is interesting to note the change in the character of the bird
population from year to year. While 42 kinds of birds nested on
the place in the course of the five years, the greatest number in any
one year was only 34, while each year a dozen or more kinds of birds
nested within sight of the 50 acres, but not within the enumeration
area itself. (See Table IV.)

SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF BIRD COUNTS IN THE U.S. 17

TasrE 1V.—Kinds of birds, and the number of pairs of each, nesting on a 50-
acre tract at Viresco, Va., during each of the five years, 1911 to 1915.

Species. 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914} 1915 Species. 1911 | 1912) 1913} 1914 | 1915
SS SS eee | es Ee

Bivebmds = 4-- tech s| ce ses|a oe He oe 1 || Song sparrow....--..--- 6 6 6 5 3
Southern robin...-.-..- Tee eS hose Gene acaae Field sparrow..-------- 3 3 4 4 7
Woodithrish: 2005..02222)- 2.52 1 1 2 2 || Chipping sparrow-..--.|--.-- 1 1 1 1
Carolina chickadee-..-..|-...- 1 1 el eee 1 || Grasshopper sparrow...| 1 1 TM ebas esos
Tufted titmouse-..-....- 1 1 1 2 2) WOreHardioriole ss as-2 = 4-\o2s5-|sa62-| seer iOS ree
House wren..-.-.----.- Decree 2 1 1 || American crow .--.--.-|--.-- 1p sees 1 1
Carolina wren...-..---.- 1 ate) Mees Ie ae |) LOG) BS os acc eeeanre|len bee] =eona)caorafecess 1
Brown thrasher.....-..|--.--]--..- dh eae Sosoe Acadian flycatcher.-...|.-.-.- 1 1 1 2
@atbird22©2 . 2-2 -2s252- 3 2 4 5 7 || Wood pewee.....-.-.-. 2 1 2 3 2
Biack and white war- PHoebelss- 2 aoe ssc 3 2 1 1 1 3

LUG ea See eee 1 1 2 2 3 || Crested flycatcher...... illest 1 1 1
Parula warbler.....----|--.-- tn eee Ss Sete eee Keine bird es soso acc coclaeas 1 ee aesteretes
Oven-pirdey So 5225'522 2h 3 4 4 6 6 aesineaatedd hum-
Maryland yellow-throat| 4 4 5 3 5 THING. oe se Saco e| ee l=| see a= 1 eee .
Olatese seen = o--i = 13 2 2 1 3 2 || Whip-poor-will........- 1 eee 1 1
Hotasd warbler........ aeons 1 1 2 || Downy W008 pecker 1 1 5 i ee 1

edstart........-. BAA ie 28 2 2 2 4 || Hairy woodpecker ..-...|.....|...-.|--.-- 1 Berea
White-eyed vireo. .---. 1 1 3 3 2) || Moraine; doers seer |i =| nee ete ans = 1
Yellow-throated vireo..| 1 2 2 5 2'|| (Bobewihiters cso ee messes | =e siais eicters | pets | Scrat 1
Red-eyed vireo.-..----- 2 3 4 9 7 ——_— —_ | |- —
Rough-winged swallow. 1 i 1 1 1 Total number of
Scarlet tanager........- 1 2 2 2 1 different species..| 27] 30] 32] 29 34
Indigo bunting......... 3 3 1 3 3
@ardmal- Urs: 2205-22522 1 2 2 2 2 Total pairs of nest-
POwHEC: ssec:j2 2520-2 2 1 2 2 1 ing birds.. ---| 48] 53] 63] 74 $1

THE POSSIBILITIES FROM BIRD PROTECTION.

To increase the number and variety of birds about the home,
whether in the country or in the city, has become the laudable desire
of an increasingly large number of persons. Among the reports are
examples of such decided successes in these endeavors that a few in
detail will be of interest.

Two city blocks, 10 acres in all, in the town of Aiken, S. C., have
for many years been liberally supplied with bird food and water. In
the summer of 1915 the following nests were counted: Blue jay, 14;
red-headed woodpecker, 11; mockingbird, 9; brown thrasher, 8;
catbird, 7; cardinal, 6; wood thrush, 4; orchard oriole, 1; towhee,
1; English sparrow, 4; total, 10 species and 65 nesting pairs. This
shows a large number of nesting birds comprising a comparatively
small number of species, the blue jay and the red-headed woodpecker
being the most numerous. z

At Olney, Ul., Mr. Robert Ridgway has devoted 8 acres of land
to homes for birds. His aim is to have the greatest possible variety,
and of course as many individuals of each as is consistent with this,
but a great number of different kinds is considered more important
than mere numbers of individuals. Asa result of more than ordinarily
favorable natural conditions, supplemented by the planting of differ-
ent kinds of shrubbery for bird food and shelter, furnishing a super-
abundance of nesting boxes, and supplying an unlimited quantity
of food all the year and water through the summer, these 8 acres have
become the summer home of 70 pairs of native birds of 31 species, as
follows: Mourning dove, 13; screech owl, 2; yellow-billed cuckoo, 1

18 BULLETIN 396, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

red-headed woodpecker, 1; flicker, 2; chimney swift, 1; ruby-throated
hummingbird, 1; kingbird, 1; crested flycatcher, 2; wood pewee, 2;
alder flycatcher, 1; blue jay, 8; cowbird, 1; meadowlark, 1; orchard
oriole, 2; Baltimore oriole, 1; bronzed grackle, 3; goldfinch, 1; chip-
ping sparrow, 1; field sparrow, 1; towhee, 1; cardinal, 2; indigo
bunting, 1; Maryland yellow-throat, 1; catbird, 3; brown thrasher,
3; house wren, 8; tufted titmouse, 1; Carolina chickadee, 1; southern
robin, 7; bluebird, 1. Mr. Ridgway’s experience with some of these
birds in their relations to their fellows may be stated in his own
words.

The red-headed woodpecker, although one of our most strikingly handsome -
birds, and in many ways a most interesting one, is, unfortunately, extremely
selfish and aggressive. Our single pair prevented any other woodpeckers (the
downy, hairy, and red-bellied) from nesting in any of the boxes, drove two pairs
of flickers and one pair of crested flycatchers from boxes which they had
chosen, and even attacked the purple martins whenever they alighted on the
box put up.for them. * * * ‘The house wren is equally tyrannical, and no
other small bird can nest in his vicinity. Several pairs of Carolina chicka-
dees and tufted titmice, and a pair of Bewick’s wrens that had been with us
all winter, would have nested in boxes near the house but for the rascally
house wrens, who, though possessing boxes of their own, drove the other birds
away.’

His most interesting experiences, however, were with the blue
jays and the grackles. The blue jays were very troublesome, de-
stroying fully 90 per cent of the eggs in the first-built nests and
even killing and partly devouring half-grown young of the mourn-
ing dove. It became necessary to “discourage” the blue jays and
the grackles to the extent of 15 pairs of the former and some 50
pairs of the latter before the smaller birds had a fair chance for
existence. Parenthetically it may be remarked that on the grounds
of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C., the grackles
have been known to feed upon newly hatched English sparrows,
while the young of the grackles, and to even a greater extent of the
English sparrows, also, similarly suffer from attentions of fish crows.

Quite different from Mr. Ridgway’s experience with house wrens
is that of Mr. Gilbert H. Grosvenor, at his summer home, Wild -
Acres, in Maryland, a few miles from Washington, D. C. Here, as
a result of several years’ endeavors, he has a colony of house wrens
which in 1915 numbered 19 pairs, all in boxes put up for them in the
immediate neighborhood of the house, and yet other birds also were
numerous, and in the 5 acres surrounding the house there nested, in
1915, the following additional pairs: Flicker, 3; southern robin, 8;
catbird, 3; bluebird, 3; orchard oriole, 2; yellow warbler, 1; brown
thrasher, 1; chipping sparrow, 3; phcebe, 2; barn swallow, 1; indigo

1Ridgway, Robert, Bird-Life in Southern Tllinois. Bird-Lore, NMVII, 1-7, 91-103,
yan.—April, 1915,

SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF BIRD COUNTS IN THE U.S. 19

bunting, 1; grasshopper sparrow, 1; song sparrow, 2; meadowlark, 1;
red-headed woodpecker, 1; kingbird, 2; field sparrow, 1; Carolina
wren, 1; Maryland yellow-throat, 1; screech owl, 1; towhee, 1;
English sparrow, 6; and last, but not least, a flourishing colony of
70 pairs of purple martins; in all a total of 24 species and 135 pairs
on the 5 acres—the 1915 record for density of bird population.*

The report of the 1914 bird counts credited Chevy Chase, Md., as
having the highest record for that year. This same area in 1915
showed a satisfactory increase in the number of nesting birds, the
kinds and the pairs of each being as follows: Southern robin, 19;
Carolina chickadee, 2; tufted titmouse, 2; white-breasted nuthatch,
3; cedar waxwing, 2; cardinal, 2; song sparrow, 12; field sparrow, 1;
goldfinch, 1; meadowlark, 1; blue jay, 3; red-headed woodpecker, 3;
downy woodpecker, 1; screech owl, 1; bob-white, 1; purple grackle,
13; flicker, 3; mourning dove, 1; chipping sparrow, 9; towhee, 1;
brown thrasher, 4; chimney swift, 3; house wren, 14; oven-bird, 1;
yellow warbler, 1; Maryland yellow-throat, 2; redstart, 2; catbird,
17; wood thrush, 14; yellow-throated vireo, 4; red-eyed vireo, 11;
kingbird, 1; crested flycatcher, 1; scarlet tanager, 2; indigo bunting,
1; orchard oriole, 1; Baltimore oriole, 1; wood pewee, 8; yellow-
billed cuckoo, 1; English sparrow, 19; a total of 40 species and
189 pairs on 23 acres. A half-acre lot in this area belonging to
Dr. S. W. Mellott was the home during 1915 of 20 pairs of birds
representing 14 different species, 4 wood thrush nests being the
greatest number of any one kind.

A few miles from Indianapolis, Ind., is a tract of 44 acres, known
as Woollen’s Garden, set aside in 1897 as a bird sanctuary, one of
the first—if not the first—of the kind in the United States. In 1909
this was deeded to the city of Indianapolis to be maintained perpetu-
ally as a public park where bird life should be carefully protected.
It consists of 12 acres of cleared and cultivated land and the remain-
der of heavily wooded hills and ravines. During 1915 the following
pairs of birds nested within its limits: Robin, 4; crested flycatcher,
8; wood pewee, 4; wood thrush, 10; tufted titmouse, 8; cerulean
warbler, 10; yellow warbler, 2; redstart, 3; Kentucky warbler, 2;
hooded warbler, 1; worm-eating warbler, 1; yellow-breasted chat, 1;
Maryland yellow-throat, 2; sycamore warbler, 1; oven-bird, 11; red-
headed woodpecker, 1; downy woodpecker, 4; bluebird, 1; phcebe,
3; blue jay, 2; catbird, 2; brown thrasher, 1; bronzed grackle, 2; field
sparrow, 4; chipping sparrow, 5; song sparrow, 2; vesper sparrow,
2; grasshopper sparrow, 2; red-eyed vireo, 10; warbling vireo, 3;
yellow-throated vireo, 3; cardinal, 3; flicker, 2; indigo bunting, 7;

1Mr. Grosvenor gives an :nteresting account of the birds enumerated on Wild Acres,
in Bird-Lore, XVIII, 77-84, March—April, 1916,

20 BULLETIN 396, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

belted kingfisher, 1; chimney swift, 8; crow, 8; kingbird, 1; sparrow
hawk, 1; red-tailed hawk, 1; goldfinch, 12; ruby-throated humming-
bird, 3; mourning dove, 2; towhee, 4; yellow-billed cuckoo, 2; green
heron, 1; cedar waxwing, 2; killdeer, 1; spotted sandpiper, 1; night-
hawk, 2; Acadian flycatcher, 1; alder flycatcher, 2; least flycatcher, 1
Carolina wren, 1; Bewick-wren, 2; house wren, 1; whip-poor-will,.
2; barred owl, 1; Carolina chickadee, 1; Baltimore oriole, 1; blue-
gray gnatcatcher, 1; scarlet tanager, 2; a total of 62 different kinds
of birds represented by 193 nesting pairs. This is by far the highest
record of all the reports received, in the variety of bird life, but in
the average of pairs per acre it is exceeded by several.

These examples, given in detail, show bird lovers what surprisingly
satisfactory results may follow Uae and intelligent efforts to
attract birds.

SUMMARY.

The second count of the birds of the United Stes corroborates
in general the results obtained by the preliminary work of 1914.

In northeastern United States the average farm contains 108_
acres. If the counts in 1915 covered 64 acres, showing a bird popu-
lation on this part of the farm of 80 nesting pairs, and a probable
44 pairs on the remaining 44 acres, the total of 124 pairs might be
credited to the farm of 108 acres.

An average of the returns of counts shows that on farms where
counts were made in that part of the Plains region east of the one
hundredth meridian and in the whole of the Southern States, for the
part of the farm surrounding the farm home there is almost exactly
the same density of bird populaticn—for the former, 125, and for the
latter, 131 pairs of nesting birds to each 100 acres—but the counts
so far received do not ene a sufficient basis for estimating the
birds on the remainder of the farm.

The data received tend to indicate that the western part of the
Plains, the Rocky Mountain region, and the Pacific slope contain
a smaller number of birds per acre than the Eastern States, but as
yet no numerical statement may be attempted.

The further counts made in 1915 emphasize the statement of a
year ago, that birds are too few on the farm and that their numbers
may be largely increased by protection and a little care in furnish-
ing natural food and shelter. A bird population of 70 pairs of
native birds of 81 species on 8 acres, at Olney, Ill.; 185 pairs of 24
species on 5 acres, at Wild Acres, Maryland; 193 pairs of 62 species
on 44 acres, at Indianapolis, Ind.; and 189 pairs of 40 species on 23
acres, at Chevy Chase, Md., a half acre of which showed 20 pairs of
14 different species, all indicate how largely birds will respond to
food, shelter, and protection.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1916

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

, BULLETIN No. 397 ,

‘N

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

Washington, D. C. vV September 20, 1916

THE GRAZING INDUSTRY OF THE BLUEGRASS
REGION.

By Lyman Carrier, Agronomist, Forage-Crop Investigations.

CONTENTS.

Page Page
iminaduchoneeris ssa) oocec nce secc assesses 1 | Value of a pasture when grazed with cattle... 9
The different grades o1 bluegrass pastures. -- - 2 | Value ofa pasture when grazed with sheep... 11
Effect of winter grazing on thesod.......-..--. 3 | Maintaining the fertility of thesoil......... 12
Kinds oflive stock raised..............------ 5 | The proper rate to graze....-......--- Lggeee 14
Winterme the steers....:-..-.----..--------- 5: |kCaxeotipasturese sce. 2 cece emee cee aeeesese Se 15
GebimorasoGeease ccc sce. cccccece< cesses 8) | #ihbesupply ofstockerseen--eeceseeeeseecce 17

INTRODUCTION.

Grazing bluegrass! with horses, mules, cattle, sheep, or hogs is the
leading agricultural industry of southwestern Virginia, the adjoining
sections of West Virginia and Tennessee, the. northwest-central por-
tion of West Virginia, and a large area of central and western Ken-
tucky. For the sake of convenience, as well as to emphasize the
importance of bluegrass in that area, this section of country is referred
to in this bulletin as the “bluegrass region,’’ a term which is often
thus applied. (Fig. 1.)

While pastures consisting in larger or smaller part of bluegrass cover
about one-fourth of the improved farm land of the northern part of
the Mississippi Valley and eastward to the Atlantic coast, the farm
practice in utilizing these pastures over the greater part of that area
differs considerably from that of the sections above mentioned. Fin-
ishing beef cattle on grass, without grain, is not popular through most
of the corn belt. Buyers usually discriminate against grass-fed
stock; so while cattle may graze the pastures during the summer, they
are either fed grain while on grass or are finished during the winter on
grain. In the bluegrass region the cattle are finished on grass alone.
Some farmers in this region feed sufficient grain during the winter to
keep the 2 and 3 year old cattle gaining in flesh and graze them until

1 Poa pratensis.
48131°—Bull. 397—16—_1

2 BULLETIN 397, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

July, when they are marketed. The most common practice is to
winter the cattle as cheaply as possible and market them in the
succeeding fall, when the grass begins to fail. That the quality of
these steers is good is attested by the fact that many thousands of
them have been exported. (Fig. 2.)

With the exception of central Kentucky, most of the bluegrass
lands are unsuited to general-crop farming. They are often too
rocky or too steep to be plowed; yet these grazing lands sell readily
for $75 to $150 an
Here. | Hig. 3.)

The mildness of the
winters in this sec-
tion, which allows
grazing through most
of the year and thus
reduces the cost of
wintering, is perhaps
the principal reason
why grazing is a more
important industry
here than in the re-
gions farther north
where blue grass is
equally well adapted.

There is very little
bluegrass land for
sale, and when an
estate is put on the
market it is usually
purchased by citizens
of the same commu-
nity. A well-bal-
anced farm in the
bluegrass region con-

Fig. 1.—Outline map of the eastern United States, showing by sists of enough tillable
shaded lines the region where bluegrass pastures predominate. land to give a living

to a family and produce sufficient forage to winter as many animals
as can be pastured on the remainder of the farm. The grazing farms
usually range from 300 acres upward. There appears to be no limit
to the area of grazing land which a good business man can manage.
There are many farms of several thousand acres.

THE DIFFERENT GRADES OF BLUEGRASS PASTURES.

- There appear to be marked differences in the fat-producing quali-
ties of bluegrass, depending apparently on the character of the soil on
which it isgrown. Practically all of the grass-fed export cattle are

GRAZING INDUSTRY OF THE, BLUEGRASS REGION. 3]

produced on the limestone clays. Other soils may produce luxuriant
grass, but the cattle fail to finish properly; they may do all right until
they are 2 years old, when they are usually sold to the farmers who
have limestone pastures.

Ellett* has shown that there is a wide variation in the protein
content of Kentucky bluegrass grown in different localities. The
protein in the water-free material ranges from 10.22 to 19.98 per cent.
It is interesting to note that the grasses analyzing the highest in pro-

Fic. 2.Steers grazing in the bluegrass region. Many thousands of such steers intended for
export are finished on grass.

a

tein were grown in localities well known for the excellence of the
grass-fattened cattle produced.

EFFECT OF WINTER GRAZING ON THE SOD.

There is no question that it is more economical to winter cattle
which have free range over a pasture in the bluegrass region than to
feed them in small yards. It requires an abundance of grass at all
times to produce 350 to 400 pounds of gain on a steer between May 1
and October 1, and there should be considerable grass left when the
cattle are sold. This is utilized by the newly purchased stockers.

1Ellett, W.B. The bluegrass of southwest Virginia. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 180, p. 89-96. 1909.

AYA TEU
4 BULLETIN 397, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Some graziers save fields of bluegrass especially for winter grazing.
The consensus of opinion is that this winter grazing does no harm,
although many prefer to keep the stock off the pastures for a few
weeks when the grass is beginning to grow in the spring.

Feeding hay or corn fodder on the poorest spots of a pasture is a
very effective means of improving the stand of grass. (Fig. 4.) An
objection often made to the use of a silo is that it necessitates the

_ Fic. 3.—Fields too steep and rocky to be plowed, but which make excellent pastures.

extra expense of saving and hauling manure to the pasture fields
when the quality of the sod is to be maintained.

It has been shown by the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station1
that fairly close grazing will keep a bluegrass sod in better condition
than light grazing. The latter practice allows the grass and weeds
an opportunity to seed. Cleaning up a field at the close of the grazing
period seems to have a similar effect. The trampling of the field by

1 Carrier, Lyman, and Oakley, R.A. The management of bluegrass pastures. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul.
204,18 p., 8 fig. 1914.

GRAZING INDUSTRY OF THE BLUEGRASS REGION. 5

stock, unless the land is so wet that it cuts up badly, is also beneficial.
The soil of an old turf tends to become too loose. In an investiga-
tion carried on in England! with a view to discover a method of eradi-
cating moss from old pasture fields, it was found that rolling was the
most effective means of overcoming the trouble.

KINDS OF LIVE STOCK RAISED.

Considerable numbers of horses, mules, hogs, and sheep are raised
throughout the bluegrass region, but cattle predominate and are here
mainly considered. In order to graze profitably, the cattle must be
wellbred. One of the most serious drawbacks to the grazing industry
is the difficulty of obtaining well-bred young cattle. The three lead-
ing beef breeds (Shorthorn, Angus, and Hereford) and their crosses

Fig. 4.—Steers which have been fed corn fodderina pasture. Feeding fodder or hay is an effective
means of improving poor spots in a stand of grass.

and grades are well represented, with the Shorthorn breed very much

in the majority. Scrub stock will not produce,the weight and finish
that is required in a steer for export. A good beef calf dropped in
the spring should weigh from 350 to 450 pounds the first fall. Twelve
months later, as a yearling, he should weigh 700 to 750 pounds;
as a 2-year-old he should weigh 1,050 to 1,150 pounds. A steer that
will not approximate these weights is marketed for home consump-
tion or kept until he is 4 years old.

WINTERING THE STEERS.

The common practice throughout the bluegrass region is to buy
young cattle, commonly spoken of as stockers, in the fall. These are
usually kept but one year, although some farmers buy yearlings and

1 Eradication of moss in pastures. Jn Jour. Bd. Agr. [London], v. 7,1, p. 39-40. 1900.

6 BULLETIN 397, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

keep them two seasons. The financial success of grazing steers de-
pends on (1) the purchase and selling prices, (2) the cost of wintering,
and (3) the gains in weight. The yearly gain per steer on good grass
is approximately 350 to 400 pounds. This at present prices repre-
sents but $28 to $32 for the year’s keep if the buying and selling
prices are the same. With the buying price 1 cent a pound below
the selling price, $7 to $11 may be added to the above amounts,
depending on whether the steers are yearlings or 2-year-olds. It is
difficult to figure any profits in the business unless there is at least
1 cent a pound margin in favor of the selling over the cost price
to offset the expense of wintering. Even with that margin, the
strictest economy must be observed in wintering or there will be noth-
ing left to the credit of the pastures. During recent years there has

Fic. 5.—Two-year-old‘steers which were wintered on straw, a little corn fodder, and hay.

been little difference between the price for stockers and that for fat
cattle. There have also been fewer live cattle exported, so there has
not been the advanced price for extra large cattle that formerly
prevailed.

The methods of feeding the steers during the winter vary consid-
erably in different localities of the bluegrassregion. Nearly allof the
graziers let the stock run on the pastures during the winter. Feeding
begins in December or January, depending on the season, and con-
tinues until the middle of April or the first of May. Forage grown on
the farm usually forms the entire ration. In some localities corn
fodder, consisting of the unshucked crop, is fed, along with some
straw and alittle hay. (Figs. 5 and6.) In other places the farmers
shuck the corn and feed the stover, with straw or hay. Usually a
little grain is added to the latter ration if the steers become too thin.

GRAZING INDUSTRY OF THE BLUEGRASS REGION. 7

The silo is being used more than formerly. (Fig. 7.) The advan-
tages of feeding silage over the old methods of dry feeding are that
(1) it avoids the necessity of hauling from the cornfields during wet
weather, (2) it enables more stock to be kept on the same acreage of
corn, (3) it keeps the animals in better condition, and (4) it clears
the entire field early for seeding to wheat. It has often been asserted
by experienced graziers that cattle fed silage during the winter do not
gain as rapidly on grass as those which were dry fed. Whether this
opinion is formed from observation of the gains made the first month

or two of the grazing period or from final weights in the fall has never
been settled. The evidence given by farmers on this point is very
contradictory. With the usual methods of feeding, silage-fed steers

Fic. 6.—Steers like those shown in figure 4 in the condition in which they should appear after a
season’s grazing.

will weigh more in the spring than they did the previous fall and of
course will not make equal gains with the thinner dry-fed cattle when
first turned on grass. That more stock can be kept on the same acre-
age of corn put in asilo than would be possible were the corn allowed
to stand in the shock in the field until used is admitted by practically
every grazier who has tried both methods. Some claim that twice
as many stock can be kept when a silo is used, but the estimate of
most farmers is 14 times the number kept by dry feeding. This is
a very important consideration, especially in the mountain sections,
where ‘there are sometimes insufficient tillable areas to produce
forage to winter the stock which the pastures will carry during the
summer. ‘The silo might obviate the necessity of keeping a blue-
grass field ungrazed during the summer for winter feed. (Fig. 8.)

8 | BULLETIN 397, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

GETTING A SOD.

Very little bluegrass has been sown in any of this region except in
central Kentucky, where pastures are often plowed and the field
cropped for a few years. The customary procedure is to clear addi-
tions to the pasture fields and allow the bluegrass to come in itself.
(Fig. 9.) It usually takes three or four years by this method to get
a fairly good stand of grass. If this is grazed properly, the quality of

Fic. 7.—Silos used for feeding steers during the winter. Silageis being used more generally for this
purpose, because more steers can be kept with the same yield of corn ensiled than if fed dry.

the sod will gradually improve for many years. Where the land is
level enough to plow and prepare aseed bed, it is possible to permit
much more grazing the first two or three years and to get a permanent
sod more quickly by seeding a mixture of grasses, such as orchard
grass, redtop, red or alsike clover, tall oat-grass, and timothy, along
with the bluegrass. Bluegrass and white clover will eventually crowd
out most of the other grasses, although orchard grass will persist for
many years, thereby adding to the early spring and late fall grazing.

oe GRAZING INDUSTRY OF THE BLUEGRASS REGION. 9

i, VALUE OF A PASTURE WHEN GRAZED WITH CATTLE.

The grazing on most farms is so intimately connected with other
. farm operations that it is extremely difficult to separate the returns
and say Just how much should be credited to.the pasture fields. It has

Fia. 8.—A field of grass which is being kept for winter grazing.

been the custom in most farm-economic studies to assign an arbitrary
value to the pastures, based on the prevailing prices paid for pasturing
stock by the month. There are many fields in the bluegrass region

Fic. 9.—A pasture on cleared woodland. All trees should be cut or deadened and the brush cut
and burned.

which are grazed by approximately the same number of cattle every
year. As these cattle are purchased one fall by weight and sold the

next fall in the same manner, it is possible to get definite figures as to
48131°—Bull. 397—16——-2

10 BULLETIN 397, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the yearly gains produced. From this total gain must be deducted the
cost of wintering, in order to find the net returns for the pasture. The
data secured from a number of farmers in Virginia, West Virginia, and
Kentucky are given in Table I. The cost.of wintering is based on
estimates of the forage fed, which are as accurate as it is possible to
obtain from farmers who, as a rule, feed unweighed and unmeasured °
forage and grain. These pasture fields were among the best in
the localities visited (fig. 10) and do not at all represent average
conditions for any large area. It does not seem possible to add any-
thing to our knowledge of the value of pastures by averaging with
these good grazing lands steep, wooded mountain sides or fields two-
thirds of the surface of which is covered with rock.

The values assigned in Table I are 7 cents a pound as the purchase
price of stockers, 8 cents as the selling price, $4 a ton for silage,
60 cents a bushel for corn, $12 a ton for hay, $6 a ton for corn stover,
and $4 a tonforstraw. It is thought that these represent fair average
farm values. Sy

TaBLeE I.—Results of grazing on 22 bluegrass pastures, consisting of 4,237 acres, with
1,328 head of cattle.

Pasture. Average data per steer. ‘| Feed during winter. ecosual g. g
Oo 5 xs)
5 Price per ite 2
D : | acre of pas-| & | 3
—, 2 | . | tureatthe | = acd ee
Bios 2 | 2 | given rate o Do
& | 50 e 3 per pound.| & ie sal
vi OM PORS Geis 2 a n a 2p
No. Pios|s|ai/a Ss a || &
2) Peis es delice coe les = s 3
S}o%) 7 | alo] ea | 3 : Sos [tas
3 +5) 0 {->) mA a Ss n tol 5 o
. (ele |B] ee) |] Ss] wh] & i ae s S |b
2 /s(? lelglelsc|22)8 lela /e)2)21s (3
a 3 >) oO Le} oO oD o
4 /Z4/— |S/pl/alaela SES pect Iam [ay ay 1S
Acres Lbs. |Lbs.| Lbs. Bu. | Tons.| Tons.| Tons.
dees 90| 50/1, 135/ 400} 222/1. 80)$44. 14/$68. 22/$24. 08 400) 44) 77) ees $18. 00/$10. 00|$14. 08
Qi eoe 200} 50)1, 100) 400} 100/4.00} 19.25} 30.00] 10.75) 400) 44 22 | eee 18.00} 4.50) 6.25
B Beare 175] 45/1, 060) 422} 108/3. 88}. 19.08} 30.49] 11.41) 360) 40 20) 2 Seeee 18.13} 4.66) 6.75
@ poses 220) 50/1, 000} 522} 119/4. 40) 15.99] 27.67] 11.68]. .--- PE eee eclleoxass 30.00} 6.82} 4.46
Dae eee 68] 20/1, 016} 390} 115|3. 40} 20.92) 33.08! 12.16]..-..|.....- 24 124} 9.70) 2.85) 9.31
(he Sia 65} 20] 700) 375) 115|3. 25] 15.23) 26. 46) 11.23]..-.- 4 15] 10} 8.90) 2.74) 8.49
eee ele 70) +35) 750) 350} 175}2.00) 26.25] 44.00) 17. 75). .--- Shi bpaencl lass sas 12.00) 6.00) 11.75
i Saeco aes 103} 30} 600) 350} 102/3. 43) 12.23) 22.13] 9.90).....|...... 32} 16] 8.53] 2.48) 7.42
Oe 600} 200) 650} 300} 100/3.00| 15.17] 25.34] 10.17).....!.....- 200} 100} 8.00) 2.66) 7.51
TO eee ire 90| 20) 900) 500) 111/4. 50] 14.00) 24.89] 10.89) 100 5 PAU se ects 12.00) 2.66) 8.23
aL eS, aise 80) 22) 777) 350} 96/3. 63] 14.92) 24.75) 9.83} 110)---.-.. 30} 25 | 15.-73) 4.33) 5.50
PAE serene eget 265} 60) 850} 300} 68/4.41) 13.47] 20.83) 7.36].....|.....- 60] 35] 8.33} 1.88) 5.48
LSet Sau 350} 150) 650] 350} 150)2. 33] 19.30) 34.29) 14.99]...-- 30 110 75 | 8.80) 3.77] 11.22
pa eae ee 50} 19) 750} 300} 114|2. 63] 19.75) 31.92) 12.17].....|....-.- 20 9} 8.21} 3.12) 9.05
15 ever i oS 315} 90) 850} 408) 117/3. 50} 17.32) 28.76] 11.44]... -- 165 80] 40] 10.00) 2.85) 8.59
162 e eae 70) 24/1, 100} 350} 120)2. 92) 26.40} 39.77) 13.37} 192)....-- DAl cee 10.80} 3.69} 9.68
17 Seas 775} 240| 950} 425) 132|3. 23) 20.59) 34.06} 13. 47].....|....-- 190} 110 6.58) 2.04/ 11.48
LS eso ees 225) 75/1, 150} 400} 133)3. 00) 26.83} 41.33) 14.50}1, 125 35 50 15 | 19.40] 6.47) 8.03
ML See siae 100} 18)1,050) 400) 72/5. 55] 13.23) 20.88} 7.65) 675)... -.-- 745) leas 30.83} 5.55) 2.10
PAD ced Saal rt 50} 20) 450) 300} 120/2. 50] 12.60} 24.00} 11. 40)..---).-.--- 15 15 7.50} 3.00) 8.40
Dee By eee ee 180; 60} 980) 520) 173/3. 00] 22.87} 40.00) 17. 13}1, 350 30 @ecsoas 25.50) 8.50} 8.63
2s she ae 96} 30)1,065] 450} 141|38. 20) 23.30} 37.87} 14.57). ---- V8Ol oe 9 | 11.87} 3.71) 10.86
Average. . 193/60. 4)... .- 386] 121/38. 19] 19.00} 31.41) 12.40)..-..)...---|-.----]------ 12.13} 3.80} 8.60

1 Silage (tons).

GRAZING INDUSTRY OF THE BLUEGRASS REGION. 11

It will be seen from the data in Table I that the returns varied
from $2.10 per acre for the lowest to $14.08 for the highest. The
average net returns, after allowing a good price for the roughage
on the farm, are $8.60 per acre of pasture. This $8.60 must pay
the taxes, insurance, fencing, and labor of caring for the pastures
and stock. The labor bill is small, and so are the other items; but
after these are paid there is not much left as interest on the invest-
ment. At the present prevailing prices of land the average blue-
erass farmer does not make over 3 or 4 per cent on his investment.
The average rental price per acre for pasture land in this region is
$3 an acre for fairly good land to $5 an acre for the best. It is a
safe, attractive business to men with considerable capital.

Fic. 10.—One of the best producing pastures in the bluegrass region.

VALUE OF A PASTURE WHEN GRAZED WITH SHEEP.

Sheep grazing is next in importance to cattle grazing over most
of the bluegrass region. While the total value of the horses and mules
is greatly in excess of that of sheep, most of the former are kept
for work purposes.

The income from the sheep is derived principally from the wool
and lambs. Ewes that are too old for breeding purposes are also
sold for mutton. The lambs are sold at about 5 months of age,
when they should weigh about 80 pounds each.

The chief drawbacks to the sheep industry of the bluegrass region
are dogs, internal parasites such as stomach worms, nodular dis-
ease, etc. Sheep raised in the higher mountain regions of West
Virginia and Kentucky are less infested with stomach worms than
those in the lower altitudes. On this account there is a considerable
demand for breeding ewes that were raised at these higher places.

12 BULLETIN 397, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

There is practically no loss from stomach worms before the lambs
are 5 months of age. The greatest losses occur in the fall and winter
before they are 1 year old. This loss is so great that in many places
it is not practicable to raise any breeding ewes, and it also prevents
keeping the pastures stocked to their full capacity. Frequent
changes of the grazing lands or a larger grazing area for the same
number of sheep are the best preventive measures for the trouble.
Table II gives the returns from pasturing sheep on a few fields.
It is difficult to obtain definite data in regard to sheep, as few farmers
keep them for an entire year without other stock on the same grazing
field. The cost of wintering sheep is very low. They graze the
pastures all winter and during the cold months are also aliowed to
eraze any small grain, such as wheat or rye, that may be on the farm.
Extra feeding must be done when the ground is covered with snow,
and also at lambing time, to keep the ewes in good condition. The
total outlay for wintering, besides what is obtained from the pas-

tures, seldom exceeds $1 a head, and usually averages about 75_

cents.

TaBLE II.—Pasturing sheep on six pastures in the bluegrass region.

Pasture. Returns.
Number} Wool Neues Weight | Total (wool
of ewes. |produced. aateadl oflambs. | at 25 cents | Per acre
No. Area. c ‘ and lambs to)
at 7 cents | pasture.
a pound).!

Acres. Pounds. Pounds.
fe eter eee coe 30 9 34 2,720 $213. 40 $7.11
OER aers Colas Meee eer crepe on 450 200 8 210 15, 700 1, 305. 25 2.90
SH Sate es yr) Chae ea ee el 220 200 800 300 24, 000 1, 880. 00 8.55
Ce See ae nee ee ae 19 20 88 31 2,325 184.75 | 9. 72
Dis oye ese eee Se RS ee 3 50 112 560 132 9, 900 833. 00 | 12. 66
6 Asean ate eee hace dese 210 180 810 250 20, 000 1, 602. 50 7.63

1 The prevailing price for lambs at the time these data were collected was considerably higher than
that used in the table.

MAINTAINING THE FERTILITY OF THE SOIL.

There is no system of agriculture that maintains the fertility of the
soul better than grazing, especially where the animals are kept con-
tinually on the pastures. Some of the best pastures in southwestern
Virginia have been grazed for at least 100 years. Many of them
have never been plowed. The difficulty in getting a good sod on
land that has been cropped with grain for a few years has proved the
wisdom of keeping the land permanently in grass. It must be borne
in mind that there are striking differences in methods of grazing.
Where beef cattle or sheep are grazed, all of the resulting manure is
left on the pastures, and the land is further enriched if the animals
are given additional feed during the winter. This is usually not the
case on dairy farms, where the cattle spend much of the time in yards

GRAZING INDUSTRY OF THE BLUEGRASS REGION, 13

or stables.. It is often remarked that ‘‘the pastures are robbed to
keep up the fertility of the plowed fields.”

Perhaps one of the greatest sources of loss of fertility from sms atte
soils results from ane poor location of the shade trees and brush.
These should always be set on the higher portions of the field, and not
along the banks of running streams, as so oftenis the case. (Fig. 11.)
With good grass, the animals do not graze more than one-third of the

Fic. 11.—Cattlein the shade on an elevated part of a pasture (upper part). Treesshould be located
in such places and notin the valleys or along running streams, as shown in the lowerillustration.

time; the rest of the time is spent lying down or standing in the shade
fighting flies. Hence, much of the manure that is made does not get
back directly on the land that produced the grass. If the manure
produced while the animals are not grazing is deposited on the tops
of the hills, its beneficial effects on the grass may be noted for several
rods down the hillsides. It is easy to believe that if one-half to two-
thirds of the manure is lost from pasture fields and none is added, the
crops must gradually deteriorate.

14 BULLETIN 397, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Grazing is not sufficiently remunerative to justify the liberal use of
commercial fertilizers, and very little is ever used in the bluegrass
region on the pasture lands. In England it is not uncommon to
apply basic slag at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre to permanent
erassland. Some farmers in the bluegrass region of Virginia are
beginning to use lime and some form of phosphate on their pastures.
This improves the stand of grass, but there are no data available to
show whether the increase will cover the expense. In the absence of
any experimental data, every farmer should experiment on his own
fields in asmall way. An application of 500 pounds of acid phosphate
or bone meal to a half acre in an old pasture will soon show whether it
is advisable to use fertilizers. If this quantity makes a marked im-
provement in the stand of grass, less would probably be beneficial.

Fic. 12.—A bluegrass pasture closely grazed.

THE PROPER RATE TO GRAZE.

Next in importance to maintaining the fertility of the soil in keep-
ing a stand of grass is to stock a pasture properly. A field that is
neither mown nor grazed will never form a desirable turf. On the
other hand, overgrazing may destroy the plants. There is, however,
very little overgrazing in the bluegrass region. If the fields are
stocked too heavily, the animals make such poor gains that they are
unsalable in the fall. There is greater danger of not keeping suffi-
cient stock. Many of the fields have an appearance similar to neg-
lected lawns. Closely clipped bluegrass on a fertile soil makes such
a dense turf that most weeds have difficulty in invading it, but when
it is allowed to go to seed the turf is weakened and more open places
occur in it. It is impossible to lay down an absolute rule as to the
number of animals to allow to the acre. What would be light grazing
on one pasture may be overgrazing on another. The fields should be

pea he aca en

GRAZING INDUSTRY OF THE BLUEGRASS REGION. 15

stocked with a sufficient number of animals so that the grass will not
have an opportunity to form seed. (Figs. 12 and 13.)

There is nothing lost by keeping the sod grazed reasonably close.
While there is a greater bulk of forage produced when the grass is
allowed to mature, the young grass has a much higher nutritive value,’
which offsets the deficiency in yield?

CARE OF PASTURES.

Very little labor is necessary to keep a good pasture in first-class
condition. All loose stones and rubbish that are removed give that
much more space for grass plants to grow. All brush or trees not

Fic. 13.—A bluegrass pasture lightly grazed.

needed for shade or other purposes should be cut or deadened by
girdling.

In addition to the above suggestions, all tall-growing weeds should
be mown at least once a year, preferably just before they form seed.
It is a common practice in central Kentucky and in some other sec-
tions of the bluegrass region to mow the weeds. This is done with a
mowing machine if the fields are sufficiently smooth; otherwise, by
aman with a scythe. The difference in the appearance of fields in
localities where weed mowing is practiced and where it is not is very
striking. (Figs.14 and 15.) Mowing will usually hold in check most
of the common weeds, such as ragweed, oxeye daisy, thistles, and
briars. A few sheep on cattle pastures have been found very effi-
cient in keeping down many troublesome weeds.

1Ellett, W.B. The bluegrass of southwest Virginia. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 180, p. 89-96. 1909.
2Ellett, W.B.,and Carrier, Lyman. The effect of frequent clipping on total yield and composition of
grasses. In Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron., v. 7, no. 2, p. 85-87. 1915.

were ind
Paved Wally

\ ae Af
4 nt mr apes |

16 BULLETIN 397, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

There has recently been introduced into southwestern Virginia a
weed that gives promise of being more damaging to pastures than any-
thing that has heretofore appeared. It is the field hawkweed (Me-
racvuum pratense), a low-growing plant, somewhat resembling narrow-
leaved plantain, but the stems and leaves are hairy. It spreads
by underground stems and forms a dense mat, which crowds out
most other plants. The flowers are bright yellow, borne on naked,
upright stalks 8 to 20 inches high. This weed, along with other
closely related species, has already damaged the pastures of New
York and New England greatly. It could now be eradicated from

Fic. 14—A pasture where weed mowing is practiced.

the bluegrass region if the farmers would attack it before it is dis-
tributed farther.

Hawkweed may be destroyed by chopping it out with a hoe or
mattock. If this method is used, care should be exercised to get all
the rootstocks in the upper inch or two of the soil and destroy them.
Another method, which seems to be about the best that can be sug-
gested at the present time, is to spray the plants on a clear day with a
solution of ordinary salt. Three pounds of salt to 1 gallon of water
is the proportion that has given the best results. Every patch treated
should be inspected occasionally, as it may require two or three spray-
ings to entirely kill the hawkweed. If the weed is in small patches,
which is the way it usually starts, a man equipped with a knapsack
sprayer can cover a large area in a day. The spraying may be done
at any time, but it is much easier to find the plant when it is in bloom.
The showy yellow flowers are very conspicuous and may be seen and
recognized for a considerable distance.

GRAZING INDUSTRY OF THE BLUEGRASS REGION. 17
THE SUPPLY OF STOCKERS.

One of the chief difficulties of the grazing farmer in the bluegrass
region is the lack of stockers. A few cows are kept on nearly every
farm, but they produce but asmall number of the calves that areneeded.
The reason that so few calves are raised on the bluegrass lands is be-
cause it is more profitable to graze a steer than to keep a cow an en-
tire year just for her calf. Dairying does not fit in well in the agricul-
tural scheme of the region. There is not sufficient level land in most
localities to produce the forage necessary to keep a dairy herd in win-
ter, and any admixture of dairy blood renders 1,500-pound 3-year-old
steers impossible. A few graziers have tried buying yearling heifers,
keeping them until they get one calf and then selling the mothers.

Fic. 15.—A pasture where weeds have not been mowed.

By this method they get not only the calf but an increase in the
weight of the heifer. Some stockers are purchased in Chicago or
Cincinnati, and a few come from Canada, but most of them are raised
in the mountains of North Carolina, Tennessee, West Virginia, and
eastern Kentucky by men who keep but a few cows, which range at
will. These calves are purchased by local cattle dealers, who sell to
the grazing farmers. The quality of the stock is maintained largely
because the best graziers have distributed pure-bred bulls for free
service wherever they are most needed. (Fig. 16.)

There should be a fairly profitable business on the cheaper lands of
the Blue Ridge and in the Piedmont section in raising beef-bred
calves for the bluegrass graziers. This will necessitate, however, the
keeping of a much better grade of beef cattle than is usual. A good
beef-bred calf will sell readily when 6 months old for $25 to $30. If

18 BULLETIN 397, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the dam is of a milking strain, considerable additional revenue may
be obtained from the sale of dairy products after the calf is sold.
This suggestion is made not that this type of farming is more profit-

Tic. 16.—Polled Durham breeding stock in Tazewell County, Va. The quality of the grazing
stock is maintained by the distribution of pure-bred bulls in the localities where the stockers are

produced.

able than dairying, for it is not, but because it requires far less efficient
labor than dairying and offers a means of utilizing a vast acreage of
eullied hills which at present is waste land.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

, BULLETIN No. 398 §

ba

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

Washington, D.C. Vv October 12, 1916

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT THE JUDITH BASIN
SUBSTATION, MOCCASIN, MONT.

By N. C. Donapson,
Scientific Assistant, O fice of Cereal Investigations.
(In cooperation with the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station;)

CONTENTS.

Page Page
MIGLOGUChIOM Eee eee es eee eases tase Sees = 1 | Experiments with barley...-..- eens ances 31
Description of the Judith Basin.------------ 2 | Experiments with flax....-.-...-.....-.-.-- 34
The Judith Basin substation. --.....-.------- 9 | Comparison of the leading varieties of cereals - 39
Experiments with wheat .....-.------------- 14 | Experiments with minor cereals.-.-...-..... 39
Experiments with oats. .----.--------------- 26) |) Sumimeanypie ces. as see sees ne ae teisiale 40

INTRODUCTION.

Experiments with cereals have been conducted cooperatively since
1908 at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., by the Office
of Cereal Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry and the
Montana Agricultural Experiment Station. The memorandum of
understanding between the two parties specifies that—

The objects of these cooperative investigations shall be (1) to improve the cereals
of the northern Plains region by introducing better varieties than those now grown,
especially with regard to drought resistance, yield, quality, earliness, etc., and (2) to
conduct such other experiments as may seem advisable for the accomplishment of
the greatest possible good to the dry-land interests of the State.

This bulletin presents briefly the results of these investigations,
together with such conclusions as they seem to warrant. All experi-
ments here reported have been conducted under dry-land conditions.

i The Judith Basin substation was established in 1908 by the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station
in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry. Prof. F. B. Linfield has been director of the State sta-
tion since the substation was started. Prof. Alfred Atkinson, head of the agronomy department at the
State station, has had direct charge of the substation for the State. Mr. J. M. Stephens has been superin-
tendent of the substation since its establishment. Mr. E.L. Adams wasin charge of the experiments with
cereals from 1909 to 1912. On his transfer to another station in May of the latter year, the writer of this
bulletin was appointed agent of the Office of Cereal Investigations to take charge of the cooperative cereal
work and on October 1, 1912, was appointed scientific assistant.

48601°—Bull. 398—16——_1

2 BULLETIN 398, U. S$. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DESCRIPTION OF THE JUDITH BASIN.

The following rather detailed description of the Judith Basin and
the conditions obtaming there allows comparison with other parts
of the State of Montana where it is believed that the substation

results are applicable.
TOPOGRAPHY.

The Judith Basin is an area of nearly 2,000,000 acres of tillable
bench land lying in the western half of Fergus County, Mont. The
basin, so called because it is nearly surrounded by mountains, is
about 75 miles from east to west and 50 miles from north to south.
The Little Belt Mountains form the southern and western boundaries.
The Highwood Mountains and the Bad Lands, or breaks, of the
Missouri River lie to the north. The North and South Moccasin, the
Judith, and the Snowy Mountains form the eastern boundary.
The basin is drained by the Judith River and its tributaries. Part
of the land along the river and creek bottoms can be irrigated, but by
far the larger part of the district is classed as dry land. :

Until a few years ago the Judith Basin was a'range country. The
only land farmed was along the river and creek bottoms, while the
bench lands were used to pasture great herds of cattle and sheep.
Within the last 10 years practically all the tillable land in the Judith
Basin has been brought under cultivation. Winter wheat is raised
almost exclusively, although a few of the farmers are gradually
working into a more livensited system of farming.

SOILS.

The soils of the Judith Basin are rather variable. The surface soil
is a dark, heavy clay loam of limestone origin, which varies in depth
from a few inches to 3 feet. The soil when wet becomes very sticky,
and because of its adhesive character can be plowed only with a disk
plow. Analysis of the soil shows that apparently it is quite rich in
available plant food. The subsoil to a depth of 30 feet is composed
of limestone gravel closely cemented together and is of such character
as will not allow the storage of water or the development of roots.

The composition of the soil at the substation, as determined by
mechanical analysis, is shown in Table I. The stickiness of the soil
is due largely to its high percentage of silt and clay, 40.7 and 24.3 per
cent, respectively, in the surface foot.

Tasie [.—Composition of the soil at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont.,
determined by mechanical analysis.

* First Second “ First Second
Constituents. foot. ayn Constituents. root root
Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent.
Hine’ eravel))0s Use Sie bis ai 0.9 How if] Mcrae aoots) hogs ae ee 13.4 11.6
Coarsesands aera ae ie ni 2 SSA M SST tesserae a ee acd ce UCL he IS 40.7 “33.3
Medinm\sands a aen eae 4.4 SS Dae Olay. 222 ean seat ae ta canna 24.3 38.1
Mine Sam dies ae eee Ne ene 13.3 10.4

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 3

NATIVE GRASSES.

Tn the original state the bench lands of the Judith Basin are covered
with grass. The most important native grass is grama grass (Boute-
loua oligostachya). Buffalo grass (Bulbulis dactyloides), western
wheat-grass (Agropyron smithvi, formerly <A. occidentale), slender
wheat-grass (Agropyron tenerum), and needle grass (Stipa comata
and S. wridula) are also found, but are not as abundant as the grama
erass. The grasses on the an land make very good spesttee,
but seldom grow tall enough to be cut for hay.

CLIMATE.

Before discussing crop yields or attempting to draw any conclusions
it is necessary to have in mind the climatic factors affecting crop
erowth. The most important of these factors are (1) seasonal and
annual rainfall, (2) the seasonal evaporation, and (3) temperature,
with special reference to the length of the growing season as limited
by the spring and fall frosts. With the exception of the rainfall
records from 1898 to 1908, all data on these factors here presented
have been obtained at the substation at Moccasin.

PRECIPITATION,

Table II gives the annual and average precipitation by months in
the vicinity of Moccasin for the 18 years from 1898 to 1915, inclusive.
Previous to 1909 the records were taken at Utica, 7 miles southwest
of the substation. Since that time they have been taken at the
substation by the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant
Industry. The average annual precipitation for 18 years (Table IT)
is 16.66 inches. During this time the maximum precipitation in any
one year was 23.76 inches (1909), and the mimimum, 10.42 inches
(1900).

The peculiar soil conditions existing at Moccasin and more or less
throughout the Judith Basin make it nearly impossible to store any
appreciable amount of moisture in the soil. The seasonal distribution
of the rainfall, therefore, is of great importance. The growing season
for spring grains at Moccasin extends from about April 1 to August 10.
Since the precipitation that falls after the 1st of August has little
effect on the yields of the crops, the growing season is considered as
extending from April 1 to July 31. The average precipitation in
this 4-month period durmg 18 years is 9.41 inches, or 56 per cent of
the average annual precipitation.

4 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste Il.— Monthly, seasonal, and annual precipitation (in inches) in the vicinity of
Moccasin, Mont., during the 18 years from 1898 to 1915, inclusive.

[Data from the records of the United States Weather Bureau and of the Biophysical Laboratory of the
Bureau of Plant Industry.]

Year. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. |June.|July.|Aug. | Sept.) Oct. | Nov. | Dee. Bee Total.

NSOSS es ase 0.70 | 0.27 | 1.91 | 1.12 | 5.87 | 5.80 | 3.16 | 0.67 | 0.47 | 1.25 | 1.14 | 0.59 |15.95 | 22.95
10) eee a ee 1.69 38 92 | 2.29 | 3.33 | 1.22) 2.57 | 1.31 -28 | 1.15 ailil 88 | 9.41 | 16.13
LOND cee ere 2 -45 53H) -21 |} 2.85 | 1.04 - 44 -70 | 2.20 82 - 86 . 29 21 | 5.03 | 10.42
OO TE es. 28 - 40 . 20 .57 | 1.65 | 3.82 | 3.97 | 1.97 .90 | 2.42 | 1.39 | 2T 3.22 |11.41 | 20.51
1902 esse .14 . 24 -45 | 1.12 | 1.41 | 3.28 | 1:84 - 67 32 -18 | 2.04 25 | 7.65 | 11.94
TUE ae ones . 50 24 | 1.11 | 2.29 | 1.82) 2.81 | 2.57 -81 | 2.42 -05 -44 65 | 9.49 | 15.71
TONGS ee a -18 a22, -79 | 1.14 | 1.94 | 1.73 | 3.25 - 42 a2 -54 - 50 24 | 8.06 | 11.07
TON eeaeaee .19 -16 - 62 75 | 1.97 | 2.82 | 3.19 nol - 83 39 - 50 Ab 8.73 | 11.69
TO0G eee 55 -63 43 16 | 2.61 | 2.66 93 | 2.00 .99 70 .42 68 | 6.56 | 12.76
I 0/53 eee ee 1.34 -08 - 61 243) 3:21! || (6275) |) 3: 51 | 147, 3783 20 T 13.90 | 18.33
ODS Se ee 255) - 49 -98 .61 | 7.31 | 2.45 20 | 1.18 | 1.41 | 6.27 uy 22 |10.57 | 21.67
MONO F225 S28 - 90 08 | 1.22 } 1.03 | 1.34 | 5.97 | 2.54 | 4.21 | 4.47 49 30 | 1.21 |10.88 | 23.76
ION a aeeaasee -09 .74 10 | 1.31 | 2.40 | 1.69 | 1.10 } 2.02 | 2.54 | 1.36 | 1:26 -48 | 6.50 | 15.09
MOD a: 55s es -58 . 50 54 | 1.66 | 2.98 | 2.55 50 | 6.34 | 1.37 | 1.94 | 1.76 68 | 7.69 | 21.45
LOUD ES Ao Oe . 88 . 60 81 | 1.43 | 3.94 .64 | 1.92 | 1.27 | 1.63 | 1.68 14 06 | 7.93 | 15.00
NO132. Fae - 89 -09 20 .79 | 2.64 | 4.77 | 1.12 sil |} TL Ol i) Ths 93 38 | 9.32 | 14.96
GIG ee efi .47 | 1.35 | 1.12] 1.19 | 2.91 | 4.64 64 65 | 1.11 74 . 64 21 | 9.38 | 15.67
191525 ease" == .76 .08 | 2.69 | 1.43 | 2.12 | 3.97 | 3.54 92 | 2.65 85 | 1.01 66 |11.06 | 20.68
Average...:-. - 62 -38 -85 | 1.29 |} 2.93 | 3.23 | 1.96 |} 1.55 | 1.42 | 1.20 . 64 -59 | 9.41 | 16.66
Maximum ..| 1.69 | 1.35 | 2.69 | 2.85 | 7.31 | 6.75 | 3.54 | 6.34 | 4.47 | 6.27 | 2.04 | 3.22 |15.95 | 23.76
Minimum...| .09 .08 .10 -16 | 1.04 - 44 20 Boi, 12 -05 T T 5.03 | 10.42

1 Precipitation records previous to 1909 were taken at Utica, Mont., 7 miles southwest of the substation;
in 1909 and since they were taken at the station.
2T=trace.

Table III gives the average monthly, annual, and seasonal pre-
cipitation at the Judith Basin substation in the nine years from 1907
to 1915, inclusive, the years durmg which experiments have been
conducted at Moccasin. This table has been compiled from the

=F 70 15 eo 25

LAL ll

i |____
LEE ——

L$
VMMMM/M//|/M|JiW4V rr
Fig. 1.—Diagram showing the annual and seasonal precipitation, in inches, at the Judith Basin substa-

tion, Moccasin, Mont., for nine years, 1907 to 1915, inclusive. Solid bars show the seasonal precipita-
tion, while the total length of the bars shows the annual precipitation.

monthly and annual records given in Table IJ. The data for 1907
and 1908 are from the Weather Bureau records taken at Utica, 7
miles southwest of the station. The data for the remamimg years
are from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau
of Plant Industry, taken at Moccasin. Figure 1 presents this data
for each year in graphic form.

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 5
TaBLE III.—Average monthly, seasonal, and annual precipitation (in inches) at Moccasin,
Mont., during the nine years from 1907 to 1915, inclusive.

[Data from the records of the United States Weather Bureau and of the Biophysical Laboratory of the
Bureau of Plant Industry.]

Nine years. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar.} Apr. | May. |June. | July.| Aug. |Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. er Total.

Average......-] 0.72 | 0.45 | 0.92 | 1.09

3.20 | 3.72 | 1.67 | 2.06 | 1.86 | 1.68 | 0.67 | 0.43 | 9.69 | 18.51

Maximum..... 1.34 | 1.35 | 2.69 | 1.43 | 7.31 | 6.75 | 3.54 | 6.34 | 4.47 | 6.27 | 1.76 | 1.21 |13.90 | 23.76

Minimum....-. -09 |} .08 10 43 |} 1.34] .64] .20 -73| .20) 1T T | 6.50] 14.96
1T—trace.

Since winter wheat usually is sown during August and September
the record of seasonal precipitation for wmter wheat should include
these months. Table IV shows the annual and average precipita-
tion in the calendar year and in the crop year for winter grains, the
precipitation durmg the growing season for winter wheat, and the
seasonal precipitation for spring small grains (Apr. 1 to July 31)
in the eight years from 1908 to 1915, melusive. In the crop year
for winter wheat the figures are for the 12 months ended July 31 of
the year indicated; that is, they show the precipitation affecting the
crop of winter wheat harvested that year. In the same way, the
precipitation durmg the growimg season for winter wheat includes
the three months (August to October) just preceding and following
the seeding season and the four months (April to July) of the follow-
ing spring and summer, thus covering the entire growth period of
the crop. The winter precipitation (November to March, inclusive)
may be easily determined by subtracting the figures for the growing
season from those immediately preceding them in Table IV.

Tasie IV.—Annual and average precipitation (in inches) during the calendar year and
in the crop year for winter grains and seasonal precipitation for spring grains at the
Judith Basin substation in the eight years from 1908 to 1915, inclusive.

Period. 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | Aver-

age.

PANT Al reas, oa cicin esis nines 21.67 | 23.76 | 15.09 |) 21.45 14.96 | 15.67] 20.68 18.53
Crop year for winter grains

(Aug. 1 to July 31)1 14.99] 22.16] 18.11] 17.02 15.28} 16.78 | 17.94] 18.07
Growing periods for winter

RAIS Beets ea <2 eee mias = 12.97 | 19.74} 15.67] 13.61 13.90 | 12.53] 13.56 14. 94
Seasonal, for spring grains

Epraiito July/sl)ss2-2--: 10.57 | 10.88 6. 50 7.69 9.32 9.38 | 11.06 9.16

1 The figures in each column are for the 12 months ended July 31 of the year indicated.
2 The figures in each column are for August to October of the preceding year (precipitation affecting fall
growth) and April to J uly of the year indicated (precipitation affecting spring and summer growth).

To permit comparison of the precipitation at Moccasin with that in
other portions of the State, the average annual precipitation at 25
different points in Montana, including Moccasin, is given in Table V.
These data were obtained from the records of the United States
Weather Bureau as published by the Montana Agricultural Experi-

6 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ment Station. In nearly all cases the average is for 16 years, 1898—
1913, inclusive.

Table V shows that the precipitation at Moccasin is a little higher
than in eastern Montana, but about the same as that of the central
and western parts of the State. The locations of the stations for
which data are given are shown in figure 2.

TaBLe V.—Average precipitation at 25 stations in Montana, including Moccasin, for the
years indicated.

{Data from the records of the United States Weather Bureau.]

Station. Period. Average.
Eastern Montana: Inches.
i 13. 32
15. 50
14.12
13. 95
14. 07
SRS e ES ONDA Ne Bad 10 years (1904 to 1913) 13. 32
Crow Agency: 2. ten a tiey ee eee 16 years (1898 to 1913) ei 15. 37
Billing se eee Shae harass OVvears: (l905it0 1013)\"s 2 Snaee os sse ee eee eee ene 14.15
Central Montana:
HIN OOK See ON eS ee File LGiyears (898% torl913) 222 sae eee ase eee ee eee eae 12.39.
META VO ee pO Le Wem SS IL en C0 La ape ee arr et eines aca Ole pire a 12.96
Fort Benton ess s22- 22sec ae ASsyears' (L898 "boO1912) pee he eee ae 13.71
Greatplall seem een p ese eee UGhyears ('SO8scON ONS) Seema nema ees eee eee _ 15.86
LE WIStOWME ons So ttae Pes Sse eM eee eh GOS re Bos ncctns SATS Le FOE PLS Ee 19.77
RediLodgounssee hoki es Le ete eiare ale cee oe ee eee ap aa i gt 19. 76
WM ivinESvONeeeewecsneeen sesso ces lS ears! (L896 RtOM 910) Sea eee ae ae eee rene oe 14.33
IOWANS 6 coat eoodesencogaSaseosee UGbyears: GSO8etOR O13) oe eee eee ae = ee eee 18. 28
Western Montana !
TEE lena eee eine sae eee reese sees UGsycArSi@LSOSnLORL OLS) ees etter ers e renee ere 14. 06
Le OE Samia SA ciel SA esan Reamer ee Ores eS ak tare. IU NET SEN AGES ae 21635
INUIGUGR Doses bsococosdc sasenescsead|boacu Ones seep nice secs eviae ate Resse eo M soc len meee Be 16. 50
MutaBanlee Ns Sea yaaa see see eee ae CE cou a SRE ESSIa EE amor aa here ras Sn 14,76
LGiligjoe ll occ Sogandsoncacosssesssosa|lsoa5d ae TS et es Ae ok Me etme eat rees tate Caterer 15. 32
WGK b 6 oScke susp ssdaosecoossanallecoed GOee Be ae Satie. Se AS ES EE Seer 15.31
IBIIE RBCs Gece nD A COORD aReran eas (a aeieE RO VEO SE DL ea DE vy a ie Spa 14, 65
MUO eRe seas Me eee NE Rel GOs ees Ee SE Re OA ee NEL aah ye, oka § 17. 86
SUMMARY
Average at 8 stations:
ImeastermuMontanase ce cisaccivercysiaulas anise: craters |e aia yarcra ie Slalorale lt tam ay wiatera is a teraietiararaye ives lerslers 14, 23
Tn centraliMontan aes soe ene uss ce SIRENS Ol i Sen CE emirates WIRES Sk Soe a 15. 88
Imiwestermy Mom Gama spy poe es MAN AL es aha eae ef seh 8 ee pA RS ac ef eS 16. 22
Averarelatialllistatlonsmeseae seer epee ciciaseeee ee sraaiars elem ele ee ers aisle setae erate eaters 15. 44
Moceasin’ JG=year periods (1808 kt oO mONs)) pease ae eee aie aie feleria sie ereisie cele reis ele terercie aiernteletelat tere ate 16. 46
EVAPORATION.

Of the climatic factors that influence crop growth, evaporation is
probably next in importance to seasonal precipitation. Hvaporation
records have been taken at Moccasin since 1909. The evaporation
is determined from a free water surface, the method being the one
usually employed where the eapiicrtoel Eapor ey) of the Bureau
of Plant Industry is cooperating. g

Records are taken during six months, April to September, inclusive.
In Table VI the evaporation and precipitation in these months are

1 Burke, Edmund, and Pinckney, R. M. Temperature records 1898-1913. An appendix to roBpEy
on Montana climate. Mont. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 99, p. 68-143. 1914.

2 Briggs, L. J., and Belz, J. O. Dry farming in relation to rainfall and evaporation. U.S. Dept. Age,
Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 188, p. 16-20. 1910.

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. i

given for the seven years from 1909 to 1915, inclusive. This table
also gives the total and average precipitation and evaporation in this
period, with the ratio of the total precipitation to total evaporation.
Taste VI.— Monthly precipitation and evaporation (in inches) from a free water surface

at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., from April to September of each year
from 1909 to 1915, inclusive.

[Data from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry.]

April. May. June. July. August. | September. Total.
Wear. | Pre- Evap- Eas Evap- Bee Evap- eae Evap- ENS Evap- Ene Evap- Ene Evap- SE Ie
CDE | ora- | GP™ | ora- | SPY | ora- | GE | ora- | GEX | ora- | SE" | ora- |’ FP* | ora-
a= a- a- |as a- | 4s a- |4; a- |4s a- |4.
a tion nian tion tion tion adasn tion nent tion tion tion. nin tion.
1909....| 1.03) 3.00} 1.34) 4.66) 5.99) 6.00) 2.54; 7.22) 4.21) 7.06) 4.47) 4.67) 19.58) 32.61] 1:1.6
1910...) 1.31} 5.18) 2.40) 5.61) 1.69). 7.21) 1-10) 8.28) 2.02) 7.38] 2.54) 6.48) 11.06) 40.14) 1:3.6
1911...-| 1.66) 4.10) 2.98) 5.94) 2.55) 5.13 -50) 7.31| 6.34] 6.35) 1.37) 3.41) 15.40) 32.22) 1:2.1
1912....| 1.43} 2.62) 3.94) 4.14 - 64) 6.39) 1.92) 5.97) 1.27) 6.23) 1.63) 3.42) 10.83) 28.77) 1:2.6
ee Sooe 79| 3.89) 2.64] 4.23) 4.77) 4.90) 1.12) 6.37 -51} 7.35} 1.01) 5.83) 10.84} 32.58] 1:3.0
1914..-.) 1.19} 3.21) 2.91) 4.85) 4.64) 4.43 . 64) 7.45 65) 7.24), 1.11] 5.10} 11.14] 32.27) 1:2.8
1915....| 1.43) 4.70] 2.12) 4.61) 3.97] 4.35) 3.54) 4.89 -92| 6.51] 2.65) 3.43] 14. 63) 28.49) 1:1.9
Average] 1.28) 3.81] 2.92] 4.86) 3.04) 5.49] 1.82} 6.78] 2.27] 6.87] 2.11) 4.62] 13.35] 32.44) 1:2.4
! |

The greatest evaporation in any one year, as shown in Table VI,
was 40.14 inches (1910). While the seasonal precipitation (Apr. 1
to Sept. 30) in 1910 was not quite as low as in some of the other

HALE
OMALSFELL
FLATHEAD

)
\? sussouta %
ye ©1453 a

CUr Bavir
wae

shew Pa

A Sie FER GW Ss
S S24 MOCCASIN ® CGE O AY
16.6

@
* %e02006E
13.8

Fic. 2.—Map of Montana, showing the average annual precipitation (in inches) at the Judith Basin sub-
station and at 24 other points in the State. These averages, for the most part, are for 16 years (1898 to
1915, inclusive).

years, the ratio between the precipitation and evaporation was

wider than in any other year. The average ratio for the seven years

is 1:2.4._ A comparison of this ratio with the ratios for the different
years gives a very fair basis for judging the seasonal conditions under
which the experiments for each year were conducted.

48601°—Bull. 898—16——2

8 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ©

WIND.

Measurements of the wind velocity have been taken since 1910 at
the Judith Basin substation by the Biophysical Laboratory of the
Bureau of Plant Industry. The records are taken during six months,
April to September, inclusive. The anemometer stands near the
evaporation tank, at a height of about 2 feet above the surface of
the ground. Table VII gives the average wind velocity from April
to September in the six years from 1910 to 1915, inclusive.

Taste VII.—Average wind velocity (in miles per hour) at the Judith Basin substation,

Moccasin, Mont., by months, from April to September of each year from 1910 to 1915,

inclusive.
[Data from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry.]

Year. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. | Average.

LO TO Meter cee cerca nc mine = 9.0 6.8 6.3 5.9 6.0 4.0 6.33
Wit, SAcadboacseqhosoaacecoouucs 7.8 8.0 5. 4 5.9 5.9 5.3 6.38
TG Lee eee eee [oiel ees 6.6 7.6 5.7 5.1 6.4 6.7 6.35
IIB. sabesoaacdcedooaogeseobovon 8.7 6.5 5.3 5.0 5.4 6.5 6. 23
O14 eae seen le azesoosssocsede 6.3 7.5 6.4 5.5 6.0 eee 6. 48
TTA Sess acadudGoreeaHoeoeasedd 7.6 7.5 6.6 5.1 4.9 5.9 6. 26

iN erates cote kee fie 8 6.0 5.4 5.8 5.9 | 6.35

Table VII shows that April has the highest average wind velocity,
7.7 miles per hour. The average wind velocity decreases through
May, June, and July, but increases again slightly in August and Sep-
tember. The 6-year average velocity in the six months is 6.35 miles
per hour.

TEMPERATURE.

Table VIII gives the mean, maximum, and minimum tempera-
tures at the Judith Basin substation by months from April to Sep-
tember of each year from 1909 to 1915, inclusive. The highest aver-
age mean temperatures occur in July and August, 63° F., and the
highest average maximum in August, 77° F. Temperatures as high
as 95° F. are rare in the Judith Basin. When hot weather occurs it
lasts for only a short time. Hot, drying winds are uncommon. In
only one year since the station was started have hot winds done any
damage to the growing crops.

Tasie VIII.— Mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures (°F.) at the Judith Basin

substation, Moccasin, Mont., by months, from April to September of each year from
1909 to 1915, wnclusiwe.

[Data from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry.]

April. May. June. July. August. | September.

A

=| Hig did Hig alg ain

Year. te EVES EP Ere TE ee
at Sl hes Sh hy Sate StH Sl Wp BE sis sl li) &

8 | 2 Ey Get ll ae) ERM aap.) FR Seta sei | El | seh yf ce | El er Pes lo

SIS IBIS SSIS ISISISISIZISIS IS (812/81 3
S\2lSlalalel/ale/Sl4l/alelalelalalals| 2
ile eben Malays a 35 | 44 | 25 | 49 | 60 | 38] 58 | 68 | 47 | 63; 74 | 50] 65] 78 | 50 | 59 | 68 | 49 55
AOTO Ree ciel 49 | 65 | 34| 51 | 62 | 41 | 60 | 74 | 47 | 68 | 82 | 53 | 62) 75 | 47] 53 | 63 | 41 57
OTT A mE 38 | 51 | 26 | 48 | 59 60 | 71 | 47 | 62 | 77 | 45 | 58 | 70 | 47 | 50 | 62 | 38 52
LOO io aa 43 | 55 | 31 | 50 | 60 | 37 | 61 | 74 | 45 | 61 | 75 | 47 | 62] 76 | 47] 48 | 60 | 35 54
TRS ea Selig bee 43 | 55 | 31| 49 | 63 | 38 | 60 | 73 | 48 | 62| 76 | 48] 65] 81 | 49 | 55 | 72 | 40 56
OT Horan 42 | 56 | 29| 51] 65 | 37 | 57 | 69] 45 | 68 | 83 | 51 | 62] 77] 45 | 56 | 71 | 40 56
LOTS Coenen sce 50 | 62 { 37] 49 | 59 | 38 | 52] 62] 42 | 58 | 69 | 46] 66] 81 | 51 | 49 | 59 | 38 54
Average....| 43 | 55 | 30 | 49 | 61 | 38 | 58 | 70 | 46 | 63 | 76 | 49] 63 | 77! 48 | 53 | 65 | 40 55

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 9

Table IX gives the dates of the last spring and first fall frosts and
the number of days in the frost-free period in each year from 1909 to
1915, inclusive.

The longest frost-free period was 150 days, in 1909, and the shortest
82 days, in 1910. The latest frost in the spring was on June 4, in
1911. The average date of the last frost in the spring is May 20.
The earliest frost in the fall in the seven years occurred on August 23,
in 1910. The average date of the first frost in the fall is September
13. The average length of the frost-free period in the seven years is
116 days.

Taste 1X.—Dates of killing frosts, the last in spring and first in fall, with length of
Jrost-free period in each year from 1909 to 1915, inclusive, at the Judith Basin sub-
station, Moccasin, Mont.

[Data from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry.]

Last in | First in |Frost-free Lastin | Firstin |Frost-free
Year. spring. fall. period. | Year. spring. all. perio
Days Days.
1 es oe CO eee May 15] Oct. 12 CO |e ees a tag May 12} Sept. 12 123
NON) eo ks San een June 2] Aug. 23 YAW AMS). - et cdoscusades May 16 | Sept. 11° 118
TOG cs SA eae June 4 | Sept. 15 103
IC et cen ee Eee May 12 | Sept. 15 126 Average...... May 20} Sept. 13 116
OVS Ee Bee eS cia e-e May 19} Sept. 9 112

THE JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION.
LOCATION.

The Judith Basin substation is located 2 miles west of the town of
Moccasin, in Fergus County, Mont., in the central part of the Judith
Basin and about the geographical center of the State. The latitude
is about 47° N., and the longitude 109° 45’ W. The substation farm
is section 16, township 15 north, range 14 east. A branch of the
Great Northern Railway from Great Falls to Billings passes through
one corner of the station section.

DESCRIPTION.

The station farm consists of 640 acres. One corner of the farm is
creek bottom and the remainder is level, tillable bench land. About
320 acres are under cultivation and the rest is used for pasture. The
elevation at the substation is 4,300 feet. Figure 3 gives a view of the
substation buildings in 1915.

It is believed that the results obtained at Moccasin are applicable
to the whole of the Judith Basin and in a general way to the 20,000,000
acres of dry land throughout the State, where the annual rainfall and
its distribution are the chief factors limiting crop growth.

SCOPE OF THE EXPERIMENTS.
The experiments with cereals may be divided into two groups,

plat tests and nursery tests. A general view of the plat and nursery
is shown in figure 4. The plat experiments consist of varietal,

10 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

date-of-seeding, and rate-of-seeding tests of winter and spring wheat,
and spring oats, barley, and flax. In different years the number of
varieties under trial has varied from 75 to 125. The number of plats
in the date-of-seeding and rate-of-seeding tests has ranged from 40
to 60, so that the total number of experiments has varied from 115
to 185. :

The nursery work at Moccasin covers two general lines: (1) The
introduction and testing of new varieties, and (2) experiments in the
improvement of cereals. New varieties are usually tested in nursery
rows before being grown in plats. This makes possible the testing
of a large number of varieties with much less time and labor than
would be necessary in larger plats.

The effort in the improvement work has been to select individual
heads representing desirable types. These selections usually are
made from the varieties that have given the best results in the plat

=

Fic. 3.—Buildings at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont.,in 1915. (From a photograph
lent by the Office of Exhibits, U.S. Department of Agriculture.)

tests. These selections are multiplied and tested for yield and other
desirable characters, such as length and stiffness of straw and freedom
from shattermg. The poor selections are discarded and the prom-
ising ones increased.

The number of rows has varied from 256 in 1909 to 840 in 1911.
Most of these are devoted to the improvement work. Since 1911 the
number of rows has been reduced as the poor selections are dis-
carded and the promising ones increased.

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS.

That portion of the substation farm used for plat work is divided
into blocks 132 feet wide and 617 feet long, which are separated by
roads 1 rod wide. These blocks may be divided into tenth-acre,
twentieth-acre, or fiftieth-acre plats, each 132 feet, or 8 rods, long.

Puat EXPERIMENTS.
SIZE OF PLATS.

All of the varieties in 1908 and 1909 and nearly all in 1910 were
grown on tenth-acre plats. In 1911 and 1912, because of the short-

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 11

age of land, all crops except winter wheat were grown on twentieth-
acre plats. The tenth-acre plats are 2 rods wide and 8 rods long,
with alleys 34 feet wide between the plats and roads 1 rod wide be-
tween the blocks or series of plats. The twentieth-acre plats were
1 rod wide and 8 rods long, with 20-inch alleys.

In 1913 some of the winter wheat varieties were grown on acre
plats. These plats were 8 rods wide and 20 rods long. The spring-
wheat varieties were grown in fiftieth-acre plats, and the rest of the
spring cereals in tenth-acre plats. In 1914 and 1915, part of the
winter-wheat varieties were grown in acre plats and the spring
cereals in fiftieth-acre plats. The fiftieth-acre plats are 6 feet wide
and 8 rods long, with 18-inch alleys. This plat is actually one fifty-
fifth of an acre in area, but as some moisture and plant food are
drawn from the alleys, it seems fair to consider them as fiftieth-acre
plats in computing acre yields.

Fig. 4— General view of the cereal experiment plats at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont.,
1910.

REPLICATION OF PLATS.

From 1908 until 1913 all varieties were grown in single tenth-acre
or twentieth-acre plats. In every year except 1908 check plats of a
standard variety were grown. In 1913 the spring-wheat varieties
were grown in replicated fiftieth-acre plats, and in 1914 and 1915 all
crops except the winter-wheat varieties in acre plats were grown in
this way. A 6-foot drill is used and one drill width across the series
(8 rods) covers one-fiftieth of an acre. As stated before, these plats
are really one fifty-fifth of an acre in area, but in computing acre yields
they are considered as one-fiftieth of an acre. In the system of plat
replication in use at the Judith Basin substation five plats of each
variety are grown. ‘These plats are distributed throughout the space
devoted to the test.» In computing the yields of the varieties grown
in replicated plats the average yield of the five fiftieth-acre plats of
any one variety is obtained and the acre yield then computed.

PREPARATION OF THE LAND.

With few exceptions all the varietal tests of cereals have been con-
ducted on fallow ground. In 1908 the crops were sown on sod

12 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

broken in 1907. In 1910 it was necessary to grow the barley varie-
ties on land that had been cropped to barley the previous year. In
1911 and 1912 the flax varieties were sown on ground that had pro-
duced a crop the year previous. In all other cases the varietal ex-
periments were conducted on fallow ground. <A good job of breaking
is shown in figure 5.

Where the land was continuously cropped, the plowing was done
in the spring and a good seed bed prepared before sowing. The
fallow ground was usually plowed in June or July, after weeds and

Fic. 5.—Sod land in the Judith Basin broken with a moldboard plow. Theplowshould have been
followed by a heavy roller to flatten the furrow slice and bring.it in contact with the moist subsoil.

volunteer grain were well started. Plowing was done with a disk
plow to a depth of 7 to 8 inches. It was found that if the land was
worked down smooth after plowing there was likely to be considerable
blowing of the soil during the winter; consequently, it has been the
custom to leave the land rough until spring, when it is worked down
with the disk and spike-tooth harrows to form a good seed bed.

In the preparation of the land an effort has been made to follow
actual farm practices as closely as possible. In some cases it has
been necessary to do some cultivating and hand weeding in order to
keep the land uniform, but on the whole the plats have not received
any more cultivation than would be given under good farming
conditions. :

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 113}

TREATMENT OF CROPS.

The seeding has been done with an 8-foot double-disk and a 6-foot
single-disk drill. On each drill the spouts were 6 inches apart. After
seeding no cuitivation has been given the plats. In some years it
was necessary to cultivate the alleys and roads in order to kill the
weeds. In the 18-inch alleys between the fiftieth-acre plats the
weeds are pulled by hand, and no cultivation is necessary.

Harvesting is done with a binder. The grain is shocked on the
plats and remains there until it is thrashed. The thrashing is done
with a small thrasher with a 26-inch cylinder. Since the varieties
have been grown in the replicated plats, one plat of each variety has
been carefully rogued and the crop from this plat thrashed in the small
nursery thrasher. By this method it is possible to avoid the mixture
that takes place in the larger thrasher and thus obtain pure seed of
each variety.

CROP RECORDS.

The first notes taken after sowing are on the date of emergence.
After this, notes are taken on the stand of the different varieties.
Since all the varieties of any one cereal are seeded at the same rate
and on the same date all stands are usually uniform, but any differ-
ences are noted. Any disease that may appear is noted, as is also
the percentage of lodging. Records are kept of the dates of heading,
ripening, and cutting of each variety.

Nursery EXPERIMENTS.

The new varieties tested in the nursery are usually grown in 3-rod
or 8-rod rows, depending on the quantity of seed available. In some
cases it is possible to discard some of the varieties the first year, but
usually they are grown two years. By that time it is possible to dis-
card the poor varieties, while the most promising ones are increased.

In the improvement experiments the starting point is usually the
head row. From the head row the good selections are grown in 3-rod
or 8-rod rows, depending on the quantity of seed available. After
bemg tested in 8-rod rows for two years it is usually possible to dis-
card the poor selections. The more promising ones either are
increased or continued in 8-rod rows. When they are increased they
are usually grown in a hundredth-acre or fiftieth-acre plat for one
or two years before being grown in the regular varietal test.

The selections in head rows are sown by hand. In all the other
nursery work the seeding is done with a grain drill. In seeding the
3-rod and 8-rod rows alternate holes in the drill are closed and the
rows sown 1 foot apart. The rows are harvested by hand and
thrashed in the nursery thrasher. Complete notes are taken on all
selections and varieties.

14 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEAT.

Wheat is the most important grain crop in Montana. For this
reason the experiments with this crop have been more extensive
than those with any of the other cereals. The experiments at the
Judith Basin substation have included plat and nursery tests with
both spring and winter wheats. Rate-of-seeding and date-of-seeding
experiments with these cereals have also been conducted.

WINTER WHEAT.

In 1915 the production of winter wheat in Montana exceeded the
production of spring wheat by nearly 3,000,000 bushels. In the
Judith Basin winter wheat is grown almost exclusively. In the
eastern part of the State winter wheat can be grown only in favorable
years. In some years good yields are produced, but there is likely
to be winterkilling, so that it is not a sure crop. It is not possible to
draw any definite lime marking the boundary of the winter-wheat
area in the State. At Forsyth, in the eastern part of Rosebud-
County, winter wheat can be grown successfully. East of Forsyth
it can hardly be recommended, although it has been grown as far
east as Glendive.

Where winter wheat can be grown successfully it yields more than
spring wheat. It is thought that the results obtained from the
winter-wheat tests at the Judith Basin substation are applicable
wherever the crop can be grown in the State.

VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS IN FrELD Puats.

ANNUAL RESULTS.

The varietal experiments with winter wheat at Moccasin have
included the varieties and strains that have given the best results in
the winter-wheat section of the Great Plains area. The varieties
have been grown on fallow ground each year. The plats have been
either one-tenth acre or 1 acre.

In the fall of 1908, 15 varieties and straims of winter wheat were
obtained from McPherson, Kans. These were sown September 18,
which is too late for the best results in the Judith Basin. Owing to
the late seeding there was considerable winterkilling. Six varieties
sown 10 days later winterkilled entirely. In 1909 nine more varieties
and strains were obtained from the Nephi (Utah) substation.

Table X gives the annual and average yields of 24 varieties of
winter wheat that have been grown at the Judith Basin substation
during periods of varying length m the seven years from 1909 to
1915, inclusive. In this table the varieties are grouped according to
their relationships. Within the groups they are arranged alpha-
betically.

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 15

TaBLeE X.—Annual and average yields of varieties of winter wheat at the Judith Basin
substation, Moccasin, Mont., 1909 to 1915, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Average. |

Group and variety. | 4 ae |
: |

1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 j@1914 ja1915| Three Five Seven

Crimean:

oo
aoe PME 5 Seac
NAT W WON IWS WHS ct

Weissenberg...... 1563 | 24.7 | 35.
Miscellaneous:

BROMD WO ONLPOLRRONWHKNRRONOWO

a Yields from acre plats. b Average for six years only, 1910 to 1915.

As stated previously, the yields in 1909 were lowered on account
of winterkillmg. The average survival on the winter-wheat plats
in the spring of 1909 was 41 per cent. Wheat that was sown early
did not suffer from winterkilling and yielded from 45 to 50 bushels
per acre.

In 1910 and 1911 the seasonal precipitation was below the average,
but as there was no hot weather and most of the seasonal rainfall
came in May and June, good yields were obtained.

In 1912 the rainfall in May was above normal, while the precipita-
tion for June was nearly 3 inches below normal. As a result the
winter-wheat varieties headed early. A local hailstorm on July 11,
when the wheat was fully headed, reduced the yields about 50 per
cent.

In 1913 conditions were about normal and an average crop was pro-
duced. In 1914 there was abnormally heavy rainfall in May and
June, followed by unusually hot, dry weather in July. This caused
the wheat to ripen early. The yields were the lowest recorded at the
station, with the exception of those produced in 1912, and the quality
of grain was poor.

In 1915 the temperature during the growing season was below
normal, while the rainfall was more than 2 inches above normal.

48601 °—Bull. 398—16——_3

16 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The yields produced were the highest ever recorded at the station.
Figure 6 shows the winter-wheat varieties grown in replicated fiftieth-
acre plats in 1915.

In the fall of 1912 and of each succeeding year the seven leading
varieties of winter wheat were seeded on acre plats. This change
was made in order to test these varieties on a large scale under
actual field conditions and to have seed of the best varieties available
for distribution. Table XI gives the annual and average yields of
these seven varieties on acre plats in the three years, 1913, 1914, and
1915. The land where these varieties were grown was not always
in the best of tilth. The plan was to give the land only such cultiva-

Fic. 6.—Replicated plats of winter-wheat varieties at the Judith Basin substation, 1915. (Froma
photograph lent by the Office of Exhibits, U.S. Department of Agriculture.)

tion as it would receive under average farm conditions. The yields
from the acre plats were not as high as the yields of the same varieties
grown in the smaller plats.

Tasie XI.—Annual and average yield of seven varieties of winter wheat grown in acre
plats at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., in the three years from 1913 to
1915, incluswe.

Yield per acre (bushels). Yield per acre (bushels).
Variety. ea x Variety. cr fe

5 ver- 9 ‘ ver-

1913 | 1914 | 1915 age. 1913 | 1914 | 1915 age.
Alberta Red... .-- 2979 | 34.0 | 25.5 | 49.1) 36.2 || Kharkof........-- 1442 | 33.1] 25.5 | 49.0] 35.9
Crimean..-..-..-- 1435 | 28.0 | 23.8 | 49.5] 33.8 IDYOSascoonsosst 1583 | 31.1 | 24.5 | 49.4] 35.0
DOL 22 Se Wee Se 1437 | 35. 3)} 22.7 | 51.0 | 36.3) )) Durkey-.-.-.----- 1558 | 32.1 | 25.8 | 49.2] 35.7

DO-ssieNetaeicee 1559 | 35.0 | 22.4 | 49.2] 35.5

OURO ae SI RCE ST Sa ALOE REE AL Se TES EE RE a ee

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION, ANG

Table XI shows that with the exception of the Crimean (C. I. No.
1435) there is little difference in the average yields of the different
varieties. In 1913 the Kharkof (C. I. No. 1583) was grown on the
outside plat in the series. There was considerable blowing of the
soil during the fall and winter, and in consequence the stand and
yield of this plat were reduced.

SUMMARY OF WINTER-WHEAT YIELDS.

Of the varieties that have been tested in plats, only six have been
grown during the full period. One additional variety, the Alberta
Red, has been grown for six years. The yields of these seven varieties
are from acre plats in 1913, 1914, and 1915, and are not quite as high
as they would have been had the varieties been grown in small plats
under more favorable conditions.

Table X shows that of these varieties the Kharkof (C. I. No. 1583)
has the highest average yield, 35.7 bushels per acre. This variety
was also the highest in average yield in the 3-year and 5-year periods.
A study of the yields of the Kharkof (C. I. No. 1583) shows that in
1909 and 1910 it was the highest yielding variety. In 1909 the
stands of the varieties were reduced by winterkilling and the Kharkof
came through with a higher percentage of survival than any of the
others. In 1910, when the seasonal precipitation was the lowest
-recorded at the substation, the yield of the Kharkof wheat was
considerably higher than that of any of the other varieties.

LEADING VARIETIES OF WINTER WHEAT.

Of the 24 varieties of winter wheat that are listed in Table X no
less than 18 belong to the Crimean group. These wheats have
bearded spikes with white glabrous glumes and hard red kernels.
They were imported into this country from southern Russia and
are now extensively grown in the central Great Plains and the Pacific
Northwest. They are the most important varieties of winter wheat
grown in Montana.

The Turkey is probably the best known variety, but the Kharkof
and Crimean scarcely can be distinguished from it. The Kharkof,
which has been the leading variety of winter wheat at the Judith
Basin substation, is thought to be a superior strain of the Crimean
group. It seems to be more hardy and to stand drought better
than the other varieties, although there are not very large differ-
ences in the average yield of the Kharkof, Turkey, and Crimean
varieties.

The Kharkof wheat has been increased for distribution among
the farmers. This work was started in 1912 and since that time
about 2,000 bushels have been sold from the station to farmers for

18 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

seed. This seed has been distributed not only among the farmers
in the Judith Basin, but in other parts of the State as well. Reports
obtained from farmers who are growing this variety in different
parts of Montana indicate that they consider it better than other
similar varieties. Some farmers claim that the Kharkof yields
from 5 to 10 bushels more than any common strain of Turkey which
they had been growing.

The average dates of seeding, heading, and maturity, the height,
yield per acre of grain and of straw, and weight per bushel of the
seven leading varieties of winter wheat are given in Table XII.
Taste XII.—Average dates of seeding, heading, and maturity, days from seeding to

maturity, height, yreld of grain and straw, and weight per bushel of seven leading winter-

wheat varieties at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., in seven years, 1909
to 1915, inclusive.

Average date— Yield per acre.

E, G.I Seeding Weight
Variety. No. . to ma- |Height.;—~——_—___|__ per
Sown. | Headed.| Ripe. ey Grain. | Straw. | Pushel-

Days. | Inches. |Bushels.|Pounds.| Pounds.
Alberta Redtinssscaccs 2979 | Sept. 1] June 27} Aug. 4 338 39 | @ 33.3 | 3,292 59.6

COringvesnie st 2. eee eae 14358 eed Osean soc coaalle aClOsccce 338 38 31.9 | 3,660 | 59.8
TD) Oe ee eee ee IBY) essOloy sae c|le cee ss allasoK@ues oe 338 39 32.6 | 3,680 60. £
DD) ONS Se eee soe bs 155 95 eae OSs | pee Oneaee sacOeoo se 338 38 30.9 3, 690 60. 1

Ken apkorerrceseaee cee 440 end ORS ae es G Ofna as | eral Onno 338 38 33-0 3, 690 59.6
IB) Orn eee eee 1583 |--.d0_.--- Bee Oscars [Reed Osea 338 37 35.6 3, 550 60.1

Turkey ste osniseseec 15 5h sae O Baa Osea eee Cl Ole eee 338 38 34.1 3, 660 60.5

a Average for six years, 1910-1915, inclusive.

VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS IN NurSERY Rows.

The nursery work with winter wheat at the Judith Basin sub-
station has included the testing of new varieties and strains and the
making and testing of selections. New varieties are usually grown
in nursery rows, in order to determine their hardiness and something
of their yielding powers before they are tested in plats.

In 1909 a large number of head selections were made from some
of the best varieties. These were sown in head rows and the most
promising were saved and sown in increase rows in 1910. Additional
selections were made in 1910 and 1911, partly within the pure lines
and .partly from the mass varieties. In every case the selections
appearing most promising the next year were saved and grown
again.

In 1912 various selections were grown in hundredth-acre plats,
8-rod rows, and in head rows. The hail that year almost completely
destroyed the winter-wheat nursery. No yields could be determined,
though some plants survived the hail. From the records of previous
years it was possible to determine which were the most promising
selections. Some seed of these was obtained from surviving plants
and sown that fall. Most of the selections had then been grown long
enough to determine which were the most promising. Since that

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 19

time most of the effort in the nursery work has been devoted to
studying and increasing the selections already made rather than to
the making of new ones.

At the present time nine selections are being grown in replicated
plats im comparison with the mass variety, the Kharkof (C. I. No.
1583). Millmg and baking tests are bemg conducted to determine
their value in comparison with commercial varieties.

DaATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENTS.

Date-of-seeding tests with winter wheat have been conducted for
six years. During the first three years, the Turkey (C. I. No. 1558)
was used, while during the last three years the Kharkof (C. I. No. 1583)
wassown. ‘The dates included have ranged from August 1 to October
15. The results of these experiments have been rather variable,
due, no doubt, to the variations in climatic conditions during August
and September of the different years. In 1909 the earliest seeding,
August 1, gave the best results. In that year there was considerable
winterkilling in the late-sown plats. On the average, the best
results have been obtained from plats sown between August 12 and
September 20. It may happen in some years that there is not
enough moisture in the soil in August and September to help germinate
the wheat and give it a good start. When this condition occurs,
late seeding is likely to be better than early seeding.

Table XIII gives the data that have been recorded in the date-of-
seeding experiment. From this table it will be seen that in the six
years the early September seeding (Sept. 1 to 7) has produced
the highest average yield. There is little difference between the yields
produced from seeding at this date and from seeding either about
August 15 or September 15. It is probable that seeding between
August 10 and September 20 will give good results. Wheat seeded
after the later date is likely to get a poor start in the fall and therefore
to winterkill.

TasLe XIII.—Annual and average yields obtained in a daie-of-seeding test with winter

wheat at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., during the six years from 1909
to 1914, inclusive.

{

Yield per acre (bushels).

|

Date of seeding. _ | SVGHE SG
1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914
1911 to | Allyears
1914. sown.

ING CATO ees Bae ena See aS See ere 60.5 36.0 30.3 (‘) 28.0 (QO) ell eee 38.7
PATE RPLDAL OW Se ose ee a eseci a 32.0 38. 6 31.0 16.7 32.5 28.7 27.2 29.8
Opus lal Olme ds ooo ease Sees Bie 24.5 36.5 35.6 20.0 46.0 28.7 32.3 31.9
Septenlotow 0 esee eee es yeas 25.2 () 35.3 16.3 35. 0 30. 0 29.1 28.3
(ap Se ae ee er See eee ea 0 24.0 30.0 17.5 26.8 23.3 24.4 20.3
O CEES err ara s Sees bee pane ee (@) () 29.3 9.1 17.3 28.8 ie 21.1

1 Not sown.

20 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Table XIII shows that the average yield of plats sown October 1
and October 15 is from 10 to 11 bushels per acre less than that of
plats sown September 1 to 7.

In all the varietal tests at the Judith Basin substation an effort
has been made to sow winter wheat early; that is, between August 10
and September 10. In 1908, the only: year when there was much
winterkilling, the seeding was late because the seed was not available
earlier.

RatE-or-SEEDING EXPERIMENTS. :

Rate-of-seeding experiments with winter wheat were started in
1909 and conducted for six years. During the first three years, the
Turkey (C. I. No. 1558) was used, while during the last three years
the Kharkof (C. I. No. 1583) was sown. The rates of seeding ranged
from 2 to 8 pecks per acre. Table XIV contains the data that have
been obtained from these tests. This table shows that there is but
little difference in the yields produced from the 3-peck and the 4-peck
rates of seeding, the rates from which the highest yields have been-
obtained.

Because of the free tillering of winter wheat it is not necessary to
seed heavily in order to get agood stand. Seeding more than 4 pecks
to the acre not only reduces the yield but also the quality of the grain.
Three pecks is the rate usually sown by farmers in the Judith Basin
and is the one at which all of the plats in the varietal tests are sown.
TaBLE XIV.—Annual and average yields obtained in a rate-of-seeding test with winter

wheat at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., during six years, 1909 to 1914,
inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Rate of seeding. AGREE?
1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914
: 1909 to 1910 to
1914 1913

QDOCKS eae aoa enim ner eet 16.4 36.5 33.3 16.7 Wis 0 25.0 28. 5
SWDOCKS ee yA ere pape Lag Sk cE 32.0 41.5 37.3 18.6 32.5 28.8 31.8 32.5
ASDOCKS -yats ceeiee ote wnee nee asinine 3. 38. 0 35. 0 21.7 30.3 27.8 31. 2
BMDECK Saosin eee eM eau Oa ee ae 35. 0 S01 1OSO |). PBT esckease|bsocecccoa 28. 7
GipeCksieecacmser eee sacle 23.6 31.6 35.3 20. 4 705 hil eeeseEts oeeuecoote 28.5
SiPeCKSes cee se eae eos 22.8 28. 2 36. 8 20. 7 PRUy abacus SoneaoeaGS 28. 2

SPRING WHEAT.

Spring wheat is not as important a crop in Montana as winter wheat.
In the Judith Basin the acreage of spring wheat is very small in com-
parison with that of winter wheat. In the eastern part of the State,
where winter wheat is not a sure crop, spring wheat is of more
importance.

The work with spring wheat at Moccasin has included field plat
and nursery tests. The varieties tested have included those that
have given the best results in other dry-land districts of the Great
Plains area.

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 21

The spring-wheat varieties are sown at the rate of 4 pecks to the
acre. The date of seeding has been governed by the climatic con-
ditions. The best results are obtained from seeding as early as soil
and weather conditions in the spring will permit. This date varies,
of course, in different years.

VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS IN FIELD Pats.

ANNUAL RESULTS.

The varietal testing of spring wheat was started in 1908, when 20
varieties were grown. They were sown on ground that had been
broken in 1907 and the seed bed was not in good tilth when the varie-
ties were sown on May 5. ‘The precipitation for June and July was
below normal. Asa result of the low precipitation and poor seed bed
low yields were obtained from ail varieties.

In 1909 the varieties were sown on well-prepared fallow ground.
The seeding was not done until May 12. The precipitation that year
was above normal and good yields were ‘obtained from all varieties.

In 1910 the varieties were sown on April 19. The precipitation
was below normal; in fact, the seasonal precipitation for 1910 was the
lowest recorded since the substation was established. The yields of
all varieties were low, the average for the 23 varieties tested being
11.4 bushels per acre. A surprising fact in this year was that the
spring common wheats outyielded the durum varieties. This result
was contrary to the general opinion that the durum varieties are more
resistant to drought than the spring common wheats. Low yields of
durum varieties were obtained at several of the field stations in the
Great Plains in 1910.

In 1911, because of a shortage of summer-fallowed land, the spring-
wheat varieties were sown in twentieth-acre plats. The seeding was
done April 20 in a well-prepared seed bed. The precipitation in May
and June was about normal, but there was only 0.5 inch of rain in
July. This was followed by excessive rainfall in August, which came
in time to benefit the spring wheats. The tetal for the month was
6.34 inches. All varieties produced good yields and the quality of
the grain was good.

In 1912 the precipitation for June was nearly 2 inches below normal.
This was accompanied by rather hot weather. The spring-wheat
varieties were just beginning to head on July 12, when they were
completely destroyed by a severe hailstorm. While most varieties
made some second growth no grain was produced.

A change was made in the method of testing the spring-wheat
varieties in 1913. Instead of seeding them in single tenth-acre or
twentieth-acre plats they were sown in fiftieth-acre plats and each
variety replicated five times. Seeding was done on April 21 on well-
prepared fallow ground. The crop that year was produced under
normal conditions.

22 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In 1914 the spring wheat was again grown in replicated fiftieth-acre
plats. The seeding was done on April 20. The precipitation in May
and June was above normal. Hot, dry weather in July and August
caused the wheat to ripen early and reduced the yields.

The year 1915 was marked by abnormally high rainfall and low
temperatures during most of the growing season. The spring wheat
was sown in replicated plats on April 9. The yields were the highest
recorded at the substation.

SUMMARY OF SPRING-WHEAT YIELDS.

Table XV gives the annual and average yields of 25 varieties of
spring wheat grown in plat tests at the Judith Basin substation dur-
ing periods of varying length from 1908 to 1915, inclusive.
This table shows that the Galgalos (C. I. No. 2398) has produced

the highest average yield both for the 4-year period (1908-1911)
and the 7-year period (1908-1911 and 1913-1915). This wheat is a
soft variety and is of less value for millmg purposes than the hard
wheats. The next highest yielding variety is a durum wheat, the
Pelissier (C. I. No. 1584). This variety has a 7-year average yield
of 27.2 bushels per acre, which is only 0.4 of a bushel less than the
yield of the Galgalos. The durum group, as a whole, has yielded
higher, on the average, than any other group.

TasBLeE XV.—Annual and average yields of 25 varieties of spring wheat grown in plat

tests at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., during periods of varying length
in seven years, 1908 to 1911 and 1913 to 1915, inclusive.*

Yield per acre (bushels).

C.1 | Average.
Group and variety. No. |
1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | jo9g 49 | 908° | For
| | 1911 | 1913 to | Period
| 1915 | STOwn-
Durum group:

ANAM Katee ee see ce oe TAGS 5 LOO) RSO2i/n | LOLOR P2550) | Soe eees ets Eee DO Vag eee ese 20.4

DORs soso oo eee 1494 | 10.0 | 33.0 TAG calls (Pipe eee lato see ZNO eee 20.6
iBelocurkawwee eee eee 1520 | 9.5 | 40.3 | 6.5 | 29.0 | 30.0 | 25.2 | 40.1 21.3 25.8 25.8
TB LNohDEpa As ee er es GAL (eis oA By aie G74 O ee eee a isceedaticusoac 18363] See 18.6
Ghamovikaes seeseeseee 1447 LY (0) |! Sis. ts 1) OBO) || BOSS) Neaeeectcosesellsaccoe 20934 |eaaceeioe 20.3
[Kenipanikca sas eee 1440 5.0 | 37.8] 8.8] 33.0 | 30.7 | 23.0 | 40.7 PAIL 25.9 25.5
IRChSsionsee eee eee see 1584 | 10.0 | 41.0 | 10.5 | 28.3 | 32.0 | 26.5 | 42.2 22.5 21.12 Dilterer
Rererodkasnee eens 1350 5.0 | 36.7 | 12.7 | 36.0 | 32.0 | 25.3 | 40.1 22.6 26.8 26.8
Purplettisis= esas: sess 30241) 21050) PS980n|/ S455 | eZ2O40ON Pee. se | eee eee | eeeee 20! 9% Retee ne 20.9
MACANTOLa a saeco sce: 1570 Bees || elon es | WohS} || HES Nese oSallboose- 205 0MEREee eee 20.0
Velvet Don...........:. TAU | Zot) Ieee) | (etl |) AO ese ec ecosselloascae USE O Wlegoacoad 18.0
Yellow Gharnovka...-. 1444 | 15.0 | 39.3 | 8.2 | 27.7 | 32.8 | 25.0 | 39.2 22.5 26.8 26.8

Fife group:

Cole Hybrid (No. 61)...] 4062 |...--.- SOs OS) |) Sule) PAS | 2P2 Syl! St) leone sceellesossocc 26.9
Ghirka Spring--....--_- 1517 3.3 | 34.2 | 13.2 | 25.2 | 29.0 | 23.0 | 38.0 19.0 23.7 PATS
Glyndon (Minn. No.

TGS PANS SAR RB oe PVG od Socal nae aeons o 2S Oli 20NOn E2257 9 4s On| tees | eee ets 27.9
Maronlishaee seem aeeee B10 e ht Reece an Seta meres jon skac SBE OZ o ly | Perro lees oloeclsec seca Jou
ROW ELY fo cshsceee ese ees BSS fa eel pene ae temple. eS 28s Das Laas ONES SRG Se cree 31.2
RUYSUME As nase 3022 |} 2.5 | 29.0 | 13.0 | 27.0 | 26.7 | 23.0 | 40.7 18.0 23.1 23.1

Preston group:
IHN TES 2 oes ee oe eee 1596 edel) 23-9) | 1658) |Pa2al |Poos 20-0 ||) 4255 20. 2 26.3 26.3
Preston (Minn. No. 188).| 2958 |.----- 31.0 | 13.5 | 25.0 | 29.2) 22.4 | 41.6 |_......-].-..---- 27.1
South Dakota Climax. .]......].....- PAU ya bal C8 6). 22 7 /p) |e aed eee inl Serie See ocak 22.5
Bluestem group:
Haynes (Minn. No. 169).| 2874 |...._- 2OUT. | QAI Sh7e) be 2: 23 se 4| eames) aoe al ee ses 19.2
Haynes (Minn. No. 51)..| 3021 |} 5.0 | 30.0 | 11.7 | 21-0 |-..-..].--..-|.--..- L7SOs eet ossee 17.0
Miscellaneous:
Galealos: Ss ames tae oe 2398 7.5 | 40.2 | 18.5 | 31.3 | 30.7 | 24.5 | 40.5 24.4 27.6 27.6
PAI Soda laSaas Tes Aa halle Zqeaal ae) et Ml Gee errs sector og l>seceees 21.9"

1 The crop of 1912 was entirely destroyed by hail.

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 23

LEADING VARIETIES OF SPRING WHEAT.

Of the 25 varieties of sprmg wheat that are listed in Table XV
only 9 have been grown during the entire period. Of these, 5 belong
to the durum group, 2 to the Fife group, 1 to the Preston group, and
1 is a miscellaneous variety. Table XVI gives the average dates of
seeding, heading, and maturity, the average height and weight per
bushel, and the average yields of grain and of straw from each variety
during the seven years. From this table it will be seen that, as a
group, the durum varieties yield higher than the other groups.

TaBLeE XVI.—Average dates of seeding, heading, and maturity, days from seeding to
maturity, height, yield of grain and straw, and weight per bushel of nine leading spring-

wheat varieties at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., during seven years,
1908 to 1911 and 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

Average date— ie Yield per acre. z
: CI J aa : P Weight
Group and variety. FG | NERS TG ETL). aR TU | CC eee ene e DeU
Seeded. | Headed.| Ripe. ity. Grain. | Straw.1 bushel.?
Durum group: Days. | Inches.| Bush. | Lbs. Lbs.
iBelotunkals 2 ==. ---=- 1520 | Apr. 24 | July 16 | Aug. 24 122 43.5 25.8 | 3,108 59.6
Kabanka oS. .-- =. 1440 |...do..... July 17} Aug. 26 124 42.5 29.5 | 3,073 59. 6
IRAWSSICIE os oso <==. 1584 ||52-d0--- 2 mee GOtsan= - 2 domes 124 43.0 27.2 | 2,980 60. 0
Pererodkas-.=-=2---- ISSO Seed Ose July 15 | Aug. 25 123 42.0 26.8] 3,200 59.8
Yellow Gharnovka..| 1444 |...do....- July 16 | Aug. 26 124 42.6 26.8 | 3,172 59.8
Fife group:
Ghirka Spring.-.-...-- 1575 | Se 2d Ofeeee July 17} Aug. 25 123 37.5 PBT |) YD 59.0
RU VSULN Cece nase = S022) had Oss== July 20} Aug. 27 125 39.0 23.1] 2,796 59.2
Preston group:
IRS EESE oeicye sos sie 1596 dor. July 18} Aug. 25 123 38.0 26.3 | 3,131 59. 4
Miscellaneous:
Calvalosss 25 oa .82: 2398) bed Ores. July 16 | Aug. 26 124 39-0 27.6 | 2,500 59.6

1 Average for six years, 1909 to 1911 and 1913 to 1915, inclusive.
_ 2 Average for five years, 1910, 1911, and 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

Durum wheat.—The leading durum wheat is the Pelissier (C. I.
No. 1584). This variety has white glabrous glumes and black awns.
The kernels are large, hard, and of a clear amber color. The other
durum varieties that have been grown at Moccasin belong to the
Kubanka group. They have glabrous yellow glumes and yellow
awns.

Common wheat—Among the common wheats that have been tried,
the Galgalos (C. I. No. 2398) has produced the highest 7-year aver-
age yield. This variety is beardless, with brown pubescent glumes
and rather large soft white kernels. While it yields well it is consid-
ered by millers to be poor in quality as compared with the hard
wheats.

Of the Fife group, only two varieties have been grown during the
full period. These are the Rysting and Ghirka. The Ghirka ripens
about the same time as the durum varieties, while the Rysting is
somewhat later. These two varieties have yielded from 3 to 4
bushels less than the durum wheats.

The Fretes (C. I. No. 1596) is the only variety belonging to the
Preston group that has been grown during the seven years. This

24 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

variety yields a little more than the Fife varieties, but not quite as
much as the durums.

Table XVII gives the annual and average yields of the leading
variety in each of the groups for 1913, 1914, and 1915. From this
table it will be seen that the Fretes leads, with the Pelissier second
and the Marquis third. The Marquis has been grown at Moccasin
for only three years. During that time it has been among the highest
yielders and is also of high milling quality. A view of plats of the
Marquis and Beloturka varieties, the latter a durum wheat, is shown
in figure 7.

Fig. 7.—End view of plats of the Marquis and Beloturka wheats, the lattera durum variety. (From
a photograph lent by the Office of Exhibits, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

TasLe XVII.—Annual and average yields of the leading variety in each group of spring
wheat grown at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., during three years,
1913 to 1915, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels). Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and variety. oe a Group and variety. Gee x
: ~ | Aver- : WES
1913 | 1914 | 1915 age. 1913 | 1914 | 1915 age.
Durum group: Preston group:
Pelissier....-. 1584 | 32.0 | 26.5 | 42.2] 33.6 Rretesel eo sass 1596 | 35.2 | 25.7 | 42.5 | 34.5
Fife group: Miscellaneous:
Marquis......- 3641 | 33.5 | 23.7 | 42.3 | 33.2 Galgalos....-- 2398 | 30.7 | 24.5 | 40.5 | 31.9

VARIETAL HXPERIMENTS IN NuRSERY Rows.

The nursery work with spring wheat has been conducted along the’
same general lines as that with winter wheat. The work was started

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 25

im 1909, when 206 varieties and selections were grown in 2-rod rows.
In 1910 and 1911 head selections were made from the most promising
varieties. In 1912 the spring-wheat nursery was completely de-
stroyed by hail. A reserve supply of seed of a few of the selections
was available and was sown in 1913. At the present time several
selections have been increased and are being tested in fiftieth-acre
plats.

COMPARISON OF SPRING AND WINTER WHEATS.

Table XVIII gives the annual and average yields of the leading
varieties of spring and winter wheats during six years, 1909 to 1911
and 1913 to 1915, mclusive. The average yields are shown graphically
in figure 8. Since the spring wheat was destroyed by hail in 1912, it
was necessary to omit that year. The table shows that on the

WINTER WHEAT
AHARKOS, C.1.2/583-- (EE ens 9 S.0 SU

HHAPKOF, C1. /V9/442--Yx es 5S. 9 SU
TURKEY, C1. V2/558- --- GEE 36.0 5.

SPRING WHEAT
PELISSIERC/1.V2/564.--9 ed 30.2 BU.

GHIPHA SPRING,C/.N°/5/7 (x 27./ SU.
FRETES, C1. 2/596 —--- een 2 9.7 BU,
GALGAL OS, C:/. 22393-9095.

Fic. 8.—Diagram showing the average yields of winter and spring wheat varieties at the Judith Basin
substation for six years, 1909 to 1911 and 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

average the winter wheats outyield the spring varieties by about 8
bushels per acre. Heads of representative varieties of the various
groups of wheat are shown in figure 9.

Tasre XVIII.—Annual and average yields of leading varieties of winter and spring
wheat grown at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., in the six years 1909
to 1911 and 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

¥

Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and variety. Ce
1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | Average.
WINTER WHEAT.
Crimean
REET ATCO Tepe yatta Moers chee ene ee 1583 | 32.8 | 48.0 | 41.3 | 31.1 | 24.5 | 49.4 38.0
ON pater eo ae he aoe eee ne aces emeninns cies 1442 | 20.7 | 46.2 | 43.3 | 33.1 | 25.5 | 49.0 36.3
ANGI PAE ae SRS Spee Ne Wee 5 Stir eee a ean ae 1558 | 21.7 | 43.7 | 43.7 | 32.1 | 25.8 | 49.2 36.0
SPRING WHEAT
Durum:
REMSSIOR essere ey ae eee e ee Beso uss ete 1584 |} 41.0 | 10.5 | 28.3 | 32.6 | 26.5 | 42.2 30. 2
Fife:
(GUIs 2 5 eee hee ES oe Bee ise er ae eee 1517 | 34.2 | 13.2 | 25.2 | 29.0 | 23.0 | 38.0 27.1
Preston
IBTOLES Saas nee) = Sena eRe sos Se cee ee taste 1596 | 23.9 | 16.8 | 32.7 | 35.2 | 25.7 | 42.5 29. 4
Miscellaneous:
Galealose seer. eerie rs ecasoaeeee cai fat wc | 2398 | 40.2 | 18.5 | 31.3 | 30.7 | 24.5 | 40.5 30.9

26 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In 1909, when there was considerable winterkilling of the winter
wheats, the spring wheats produced the larger yields. In 1910 and
1911, which were both years of drought, the winter varieties out-
yielded the spring wheats. In 1913 and 1914 the yields were about
equal. In 1915, when the rainfall was abnormally high, the winter
wheats yielded 6 to 7 bushels more than the spring varieties. For the
six years the average yield of the best winter wheat is 7.8 bushels
higher than that of the best sprmg wheat. It should be remembered
that the yields of winter wheat in 1913, 1914, and 1915 are from acre
plats, while those of spring wheat are from replicated fiftieth-acre
plats.

The growing of winter wheat is to be recommended in the Judith ©
Basin and generally in Montana wherever it is practicable, because the

Fic. 9.—Heads of representative varieties of some of the important groups of wheat: 1, Turkey; 2,
Fife; 3, Preston (bearded spring); 4, bluestem; and 5, durum.

average yield is higher than that of sprmg wheat. Ina very dry year
it may yield from three to four times as much as the spring varieties.

EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS.

Next to wheat, oats are the most important cereal crop in Montana.
In 1915 the area sown to oats in the State was estimated at 600,000
acres, with an average yield of 52 bushels per acre. Oats are not
grown as a cash crop like wheat, but for feeding. The yields obtained
at Moccasin are quite satisfactory and show that oats usually can be
successfully grown on the dry lands of the State.

In the varietal tests at Moccasin the small-kerneled early oats have
been sown at the rate of 4 pecks per acre. Seeding tests show but
little difference in the results obtained from the 4-peck and 5-peck
rates. In dry years, however, the lower rate of seeding gives the best
yields. The larger kerneled varieties are sown at the rate of 5 pecks
per acre. In a date-of-seeding test the best results were obtained

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. Oi

from seeding as early in the spring as soil and climatic conditions per-
mitted. In all the varietal work the effort has been to seed as early

as possible.
VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS IN FIELD PLATS.

- Table XIX gives the annual and average yields of 24 varieties of
oats grown in plats at the Judith Basin substation from 1908 to 1915.
Of the 24 varieties in this table, only 3 have been tested during the

Fic. 10.—Heads of representative varieties of oats (left to right): 1, White Russian; 2, Siberian;
3, Swedish Select; and 4, Sixty-Dayy

entire period and only 14 of them are now being grown. Heads
of representative varieties of oats are shown in figure 10.

In 1908 the oats were sown in a poor seed bed. Because of this
and the drought in June and July, the yields were low. The year
1909 was one of abnormally high ramfall and good yields were ob-
tamed. In 1910 quite severe drought conditions prevailed during the
growing season and the yields were low. It is noticeable that in
this year the early oats outyielded the late varieties. In 1911 the
oats which ripened before the heavy August rains were the only ones
to mature a crop. The rainfall durmg the month was 6.34 inches.
This caused the late oats to make a second growth and they were not
ripe when the first frost came. No crop was produced in 1912 be-

28 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cause of hail. In 1913 and 1914 crops were produced under nearly
normal conditions, although in 1914 the dry weather in July reduced
the yields somewhat. The only year in the period when the late
oats outyielded the early ones was 1915, when the rainfall for the
growing season was 2 inches above normal and the yields obtained
were the highest recorded at the station.

Taste XIX.—Annual and average yields of 24 varieties of oats grown in plats at the
Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., for parvaes of varying length during the
eight years from 1908 to 1915, inclusive.!

Yield per acre (bushels).

Average.
Group and variety. ce
1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 } 1913 | 1914 | 1915 1908 1913 1908 to
to to 1911, 1913
1911 1915 to 1915
Early
ZO Sill ata rates| Soe ase
50. 1 (255) 58.3
52.0 76.0 62.4
Be (ones WS aeCR aa
TOA (A ies ete
(ieee eee eae
Danes id \O)h Bese
25453) ay ictaeae eee ee
i bh : : 5 i 30.1 67.8 46.2
Dakota No. 4...-.---- TOS N Sorcerer eet ea | ore ete tyes cle GU EOT OO Cob) |leesesann| peeesssc|ssossdoade
Early Mountain. .---. FOAM MORON MOS: stos 8: lea lece coe [piesa le aan sere ee oror| eee See epee
Garton Wihitese sa... | tease eee ene GHES MLS ASH AE) A ee lt re mee pete ee wee Live Leakt yeaa | Ren aes eel
Golden Rain.......... 493 Pee: Suse 354s |e) an lee | awe eps a Tea em aC WS
PIN CO LE Re See reer Tate te| lepers coca Cemiecenraa | a eeentats Pe ieee all tears SIROs LOOM OW Neeee es Enis | Remeeeer =
Red Algerian..--..--- PAD || Gy by Oeste yk At (A) ee ceclleseecclloaesoe Pate sie eae Wha Fat On Deh ae
Red Siberian.........- EM We oe (59932 Pepe YM (2) ed a 2 | petra | a ye 2 ey Cn || Re
Silvermine........---- TAA aes oie em enya (Cie el oer es ea AGS ONOUION esse See cit See Seas
Sibehianiee seen ee (eo ee eS bes ea a lease leacssr 70-0. | 46:3] 98.7 |... -- PLN Tah eee one
Swedish Select........| 134 | 15.0 | 77.0 | 22.3 | (2) | 53.1 | 50.0 |108.0 28.6 70.4 46.5
WACTOnYS:eerss soso: (CP Bo aee eee 7As\-(0) | (@)- |isseacq AD OE OTA On| Esmee cae| scene ae lee eee
Late: ;

Sparrowbill Bi Se ee AVS | ISSO 1) GESO || AO (Cy eeeseciisccacalkessde 2650 HE ee a5 | eee eee
White Russian......-- dvi SOW SEO} eG) (yy) Wesesscieseseles-c65 23 FA a as | See aces
White Tartarian..___. OO |) US|) Bios |) USO (Ep gascseilooscoele-s4se OF NET erste Saal aera tection
Yellow Giant......... SEO SO GON SEO (Ay Seeseeliaaasseasese DD isn) | Sey ee

1 Crop destroyed by hail in 1912.
2 Made second growth during rainy weather in August; not ripe when the first frost came.

In 1908, 1909, 1910, and 1913 the varieties were grown in unrepli-
cated tenth-acre plats and in 1911 and 1912 in unreplicated twentieth-
acre plats. In 1914 and 1915 they were grown in fiftieth-acre
plats replicated five times.

LEADING VARIETIES.

The varieties of oats that have been grown at Moccasin may be
divided into three groups according to their date of maturity—
early, midseason, and late. The early oats have given the best
average results.

Data on average dates of heading and of maturity, height, weight
per bushel, and yield of grain and of straw for some of the leading”

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT. JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 29

varieties are given in Table XX. The average yields of these
varieties are shown graphically in figure 11.

SIXTV-DAY-------- ERLE ee ChE en] CLA SL:
PTE DON EERE a ea SIS SU
SWEO/SH SELEC7----xz a FS. S STU.
DAN/SH------—--- EEE cee 0 PO: 2 OU.

Fig. 11.—Diagram showing the average yields of the leading varieties of oats at the Judith Basin sub-
station for seven years, 1908 to 1911 and 1913 to 1915. inclusive.

Taste XX.—Average dates of seeding, heading, and ripening, days from seeding to
maturity, height, weight per bushel, and yield of grain and straw of five leading oat
varieties at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., during the seven years, 1908
to 1911 and 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

Average date— Average yield per acre.
} |
| Grai
Seed- rain. A
: Oh Ie ing to E eee Weight
Group and variety. No Height.a per
. matu- bushel
2 - 1908 to) usnel.
Sown. | Headed.| Ripe. | -Tity- Straw.d
| 117 {1913to
an tothe
1913 to
1915.

Early yellow: Days.| Inches. | Bush.| Bush.| Lbs. Lbs.
Sixty-Day...-| 165] Apr. 29} July 6] Aug. 7 100 36.5} 62.4] 76.0 | 2,250 €34.6
Kherson. ----. 459) eed Oees| ane dOreea 2 0052225 100 36.3 | 58.3 | 72.5] 2,274| ¢34.6

Midseason white:

Siberian d____. 741 | Apr. 21| July 21] Aug. 15] 114 ASA ()) |e lz || 92% 36.6
Swedish Select| 134] Apr. 29] July 17] Aug. 16| 110 42.0| 46.5 | 70.4] 2,714] 37.0
Danish). 4A eed Oseee| aad Ones s- Aug. 18 111 39.0 | 46.2 67.8 | 2,513 € 32.3

a Average for six years, 1909 to 1911 and 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

b Average for five years, 1909 and 1910 and 1913 to 1915, inclusive.
c Average for five years, 1910 and 1911 and 1913 to 1915, inclusive.
d Average for three years, 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

e Average for four years, 1910 and 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

EARLY VARIETIES.

The Sixty-Day and Kherson varieties are the only early oats that
have been tested at Moccasin during the entire seven years.t. The
Sixty-Day variety was introduced from southwestern Russia into the
United States by the United States Department of Agriculture in
1901. The Kherson was imported from the same general locality a
few years earlier by the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station.
Plats of the Kherson and Sixty-Day oats at the Judith Basin sub-
station are shown in figure 12. The two varieties are practically
identical. The straw is rather short and fine and the heads loose
and spreading. The grain is yellow in color, small, long, and rather
slender. The hull is thin, and under favorable conditions the weight
per bushel is high. In the Judith Basin these varieties usually reach
maturity in 95 to 105 days and are about 10 days earlier than the
midseason varieties. At Moccasin the average yield of the Sixty-
Day is slightly larger than that of the Kherson. Two pure-line

1 For a more extended discussion of these varieties, see Warburton, C. W., Sixty-Day and Kherson oats,
U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 395, 27 p., 5 fig., 1910.

30 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

selections from the Sixty-Day have slightly exceeded the parent
variety in average yield in the years they have been grown.

There is some objection to these oats by farmers because of the
yellow color and small size of the kernel. As oats are commonly
grown in Montana for feed rather than to sell, the yellow color is
not objectionable. Because of the thin hulls, these varieties have a
larger proportion of kernel to hull than the larger types of oats.

The Sixty-Day is being increased at the Judith Basin substation.
About 2,000 bushels have already been distributed throughout the
dry-land areas of the State, and the results obtained seem to indicate
that for these lands the Sixty-Day variety is the best.

Fig. 12.—End view of plats of Sixty-Day and Kherson oats at the Judith Station substation, 1915.
(From a photograph lent by the Office of Exhibits, U. 8. Department of Agriculture.)

MIDSEASON VARIETIES.

Of the varieties of oats that have been. tested at Moccasin, 13 can
be classed as midseason in maturity. The Swedish Select is the only
one in this group that has been grown in the entire seven years. This
variety has a 7-year average yield of 46.5 bushels, which is 15.9
bushels lower than the 7-year average yield of the Sixty-Day. Other
typical varieties of this group are the Danish, Lincoln, and Silver-
mine. All these are more suitable for growing under wrigation than
on the dry farms in Montana.

The varieties of the midseason group have tall, coarse straw and
large, rather broad gram. They are from a week to 10 days later
in maturing than varieties of the early group.

LATE VARIETIES.

All the late varieties which have been grown are side oats. The.
White Russian, White Tartarian, and other late varieties have not
produced good yields at Moccasin except in 1909. In that year they

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. Sul

did not yield more than the early and midseason varieties, while in
less favorable years, such as 1908 and 1910, they were considerably
lower in yield. The growing of these late side oats was discontinued
in 1911. None of them can be recommended for growing on the dry

lands in Montana.
. EXPERIMENTS WITH BARLEY.

Barley is not as important a crop in Montana as wheat or oats.
The estimated area sown to barley in the State in 1915 was 80,000

' 4
yi

Fig. 13.—Heads of representative varieties of barley: 1, White Smyrna, and 2, Hannchen, 2-rowed
hulled varieties; 3, Coast, and 4, Mariout, 6-rowed hulled varieties; and 5, Nepal, and 6, Himalaya,
6-rowed naked varieties. :

acres, about 13 per cent of the oat acreage and 6 per cent of the wheat
acreage of that year. The results of the experiments at Moccasin
show that good yields of barley can be obtained on dry land and that
the crop is a profitable one. Barley is grown chiefly for feeding pur-
poses.

The varietal tests at Moccasin have included both the hulled and
the naked, or hull-less, varieties. As with the other spring cereals,
early seeding has given the best results. The hulled varieties are
seeded at the rate of 5 pecks per acre and the naked varieties at. the

rate of 4 pecks.
VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS IN FIELD PLATS.

Seven varieties of barley were grown in 1908. Because of the poor
seed bed and drought, low yields were obtained. In 1909 fairly good

32 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

yields were obtained from all varieties. In 1910 six more varieties
were added to the test. Because of the shortage of summer-fallowed
land it was necessary to grow the varieties on the ground used for
testing barley in 1909. The land was plowed early in the spring and
the seeding was done on April 20. The resulting yields were low.
In 1911 the hot, dry weather in July reduced the yields, and m 1912
all varieties were destroyed by hail. In 1913 good yields were ob-
tained from all varieties. The hot, dry weather during July, 1914,
caused the varieties to ripen early and the quality of the grain was
poor. The yields obtaimed in 1915 were the highest recorded at the
station.

The barley varieties were grown in unreplicated tenth-acre plats
in 1908, 1909, 1910, and 1913 and in unreplicated twentieth-acre plats
in 1911 and 1912. In 1914 and 1915 they were grown in fiftieth-acre
plats, replicated five times.

Table X XI gives the annual and average yields of the barley varie-
ties that have been tested at Moccasin from 1908 to 1915. Of the 19
varieties listed in this table, 9 belong to the 2-rowed hulled group,
5 to the 6-rowed hulled group, 2,to the 2-rowed naked group, and 3
to the 6-rowed naked group. Only 3 of the 19 varieties have been
grown in all seven years and only 14 are now being grown. Heads
of representative varieties of the different groups of barley are shown
in figure 13.

TaBLeE XXI.—Annual and average yields of 19 varieties of barley grown in plat tests
at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, LI 1908 to 1911 and 1913 to 1915,

inclusive.
Yield per acre (bushels).2
Average.
Group and variety. ee a
1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | 1910 to
1911, | 1913 to |1908 to 1911,
1913 to} 1915 /|1913 to 1915
1915
Two-rowed hulled:
Bohemian...---.-+- PM Mee ae ARNO LLED 1S Sees EEE a eel ee Cee ees ae ere | Ree es
GanadianvRhorpec=s|ieed4 0 | sesso |e eser eee ease OO) HO |) Gs. ooo sssse HORSE peace ae
Franconian..:.--..- Gio(0) | ees Sees) SESS Sel ss Sc Mee ae LAD S| SONOS esas. eS) ES ee aes | ee ae ae
ilannehenee sees Doda See leds sere 14.4 | 45.8 | 54.3 | 46.0 | 78.8 47.9 DON all Saher
Manna soe see saae GASH Bere sae Se See es eS BANS 59a NAT Rs" |e ASB Us pe ee I re Le
ManSUT yee eee eee 617 | 20.0 | 45.7 | 13.0 | 38.3 | 48.7 | 38.0 | 70.8 41.8 52.5 37.8
Svanhals---s------ US 7a Eeeeee| ae so. |-Ro Salome “ksh | PGBS) |) (aout Cee oe = O30 De nas eee
PRN OLD CEE ae see eee ea 921 | 10.0 } 53.3 } 11.1 | 28.3 | 52.6 | 39.2 | 66:7 39.6 52.8 37.4
White Smyrna -..--- 1S eSeecioesorre 12.3 | 52.0 | 70.0 , 50.9 | 80.3 52.9 66: 84S see
Six-rowed hulled: |
Del discs hc see ee | 0 y) 6
Coast --.--..---- Z 5. 0 1 Bal
Gatami 2,
Manchuria 9:8
Mariout. - -- 5. 2
Two-rowed nake
Cly.deres yas atest 9
MeB vanseescen esse: | 621 SFL eo, (yt (ne UO cs te Hed 2) | ee eS i ae ee ee A CBS a cnod seoloanooLeS
Six-rowed naked:
Black Hull-less- - --- 596) LOVON ASA 84 PTS: Gul Zostera al creel eee eee tere eerie | ere aes ciate ee
Himalaya...------- | 620 5.5 | 33.2 | 12.3 | 25.0 | 43.0 | 30.3 | 48.8 31.9 40. 7 28. 2
INepale = eevee 595 | 20.0 | 42.4 | 16.4 | 30.0 | 37.0 | 25.7 | 41.8 30. 2 34.8 | 30.5

1 Crop destroyed by hail in 1912.
2 Hulled varieties in bushels of 48 pounds; naked varieties in bushels of 60 pounds.

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 33

LEADING VARIETIES.

Table X XII shows that the White Smyrna (C. I. No. 195), with a
5-year (1910 to 1911 and 1913 to 1915) average yield of 52.9 bushels,
is the leading variety. The White Smyrna is a 2-rowed hulled
variety that was obtained from Asia Minor. The head is of medium
length and the kernels are large. The straw is rather short, espe-
cially in a dry season, and the heads are often imperfectly exserted.

The White Smyrna is being increased at Moccasin for distribution
among the farmers. About 1,200 bushels have been sold. The re- °
sults obtained in other parts of the State agree with those at Moccasin,
indicating that the White Smyrna is well adapted to the dry lands of
Montana.

The Hannchen is a 2-rowed variety, with a narrow, nodding
head, that has given good results at Moccasin. It is a selection from
Hanna made by the Swedish Plant Breeding Association, of Svalof,
Sweden. This variety grows a little taller than the White Smyrna
and is later in maturing. The 5-year average yield of the Hannchen
is about 5 bushels less than that of the White Smyrna.

The leading varieties among the 6-rowed hulled group are the
Coast and the Mariout.

The Coast variety is known also as California Feed and Bay Brew-
ing barley. It grows taller than the Mariout. The head is not as
compact and the beard is not always entirely removed in thrashing.
In average yield it has equaled the Hannchen, but the White Smyrna
has exceeded it by about 5 bushels.

The Mariout variety has a compact spike and a rather coarse grain.
As in the Coast barley, the beard sometimes is not entirely removed
in thrashing. It matures about the same time as the White Smyrna.
The average yield of the Mariout is slightly lower than that of the
Coast variety.

The leading naked varieties of barley at Moccasin are the Nepal
and Himalaya. The 5-year average yield of the Himalaya, as
shown in Table X XI, is slightly greater than that of the Nepal. In
the 7-year averages, however (Table X XI), the Nepal exceeds the
Himalaya by 2.3 bushels. The Nepal is a 6-rowed, naked, hooded
variety, sometimes called the White Hull-less. The kernels are of
medium size and amber in color. The Himalaya is a 6-rowed,
naked, bearded barley, with bluish kernels. Because of the absence
of beards the Nepal is commonly grown in preference to the Himalaya.
The heads of the Nepal have a tendency to break off when ripe, and
the variety also lodges to some extent in wet years. The broad
leaves, coarse straw, and absence of beards make this variety a popu-
lar one for hay production.

The average yield of the Nepal variety at Moccasin in the five years
is 30.2 bushels, 20 bushels less than that of the White Smyrna during

34 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the same period. The weight per bushel of the naked varieties is 60
pounds, while that of the hulled varieties is 48 pounds, so that the
actual difference in yield is less than would appear from these figures.
The yield of the Nepal in pounds is about three-fourths that of the
White Smyrna variety.

The average dates of sowing, heading, and ripening, and the
average height, yield, and weight per bushel of these six varieties for
five years (1910, 1911, and 1913 to 1915) are given in Table XXII.
. These average yields are shown graphically in figure 14.

WHTE SIYYRVA Fae 5 Ree ae ; “fe 8 E520 LES.
HANVCYTEN - - Ee x SRP a eee ee CG PS, L2OOLES.

COE iT cim BIOFLBS.
MAPIOU7--- T2296 285.
HIMALAY4-- Ee

BW 4I/F LES.
MA AO/Z2 LBS.

Fic. 14.—Diagram showing the average yields of the leading varieties of barley at the Judith Basin
substation for five years, 1910, 1911, and 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

TaBLE XXI1.—-Average dates of seeding, heading, and ripening, days from seeding ton RUA-
turity, height, yield of straw and of grain, and weight per bushel of six leading varieties of
barley at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., during five years, 1910, 1911,
and 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

Average date— Bona Sse sve per See.
Group and variety. C.1. ing to Height. per
No. tae bushel.
Sown. | Headed.| Ripe. EY: Grain. | Grain.|Straw.
Two-rowed hulled: Days. | Inches.| Bush.| Lbs. | Lbs. Lbs.
White Smyrna.| 195 | Apr. 18] July 6] Aug. 4 108 29 52.9 | 2,540 / 1,996 48.2
Hannchen.....) 531 |...do....| July 11] Aug. 6 110 32 47.9 | 2,299 | 2,456 48.4
Six-rowed hulled:
Coastherererr | 690 |...do....] July 6] Aug. 5 109 32 48.0 | 2,304 | 1,995 46.0
Mariout......-- AGL |. -ClO, esl) July |so-ClO- 5 24 109 31 46.8 | 2,246 | 1,524 46.2
Six-rowed naked:
Himalaya. ..... 620) \Sa-doree:|-Jatlye (6) =2doe 42. 109 31 31.9 | 1,914 | 1,904 61.0
Nepal.........- | 595 |...do....| July 8|..-do....| 109] 32.6] 30.2 | 1,812 | 1,850 61.0

EXPERIMENTS WITH FLAX.

Experiments with flax were not started until 1911. Flax is not
erown to any great extent in the Judith Basin. The crop is important
in the eastern part of the State, although there is not as much flax
raised now as there was several years ago. It is usually grown in
newly settled districts, as it is considered a good crop to grow on sod
land...

The experiments at Moccasin have included tests of both seed and
fiber flax. Quite a number of fiber varieties were tested in 1911, but
as they were of little value for seed production they were discarded.

VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS IN FIELD PLATS.

Nineteen varieties of flax have been grown in the varietal test.
Of these, 12 belong to the European seed, 2 to the Smyrna seed, 4 to
the European short fiber, and 2 to the European textile fiber group.

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 35

In’1911, 14 varieties were grown in twentieth-acre plats. The land
used had been cropped to barley in 1909 and 1910. It was spring
plowed in 1911 and the seed bed was in good tilth when the varieties
were seeded on May 15. The dry weather in July caused the flax to
begin to ripen early and the heavy rams in August started a second
growth. This made the flax late in maturing and reduced the
yields.

In 1912, 17 varieties were grown. These were seeded on May 14
in twentieth-acre plats on land that had been cropped to winter
wheat the year before. Flax was the only spring grain that pro-
duced any seed in 1912, the others bemg destroyed by hail. The

Fig. 15.—Varietal test plats of flax at the Judith Basin substation, 1915. (From a photograph lent by
the Office of Exhibits, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

hail came when the flax was in full bloom. While it undoubtedly
reduced the yields, the plants made a second srowth, and produced
a fairly good crop. In 1913 the flax was grown in tenth-acre. plats
on fallow ground. The yields that year were quite satisfactory.
In 1914 and 1915 the flax varieties were grown on fallow ground in
replicated fiftieth-acre plats. A view of the varietal test plats in
1915 is shown in figure 15.

The yields in 1914 were reduced by. a Aieesce known as canker.
This disease attacks the young plant just above the cotyledons and
apparently stops its growth until it puts out basal branches below
the injured part. The growth is then normal, but the time required
to produce these branches makes the plants late in maturmg. The
seed is produced on these branches, which take the place of the
central stem.

36 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The annual and average yields in bushels per acre of the varieties
of flax that have been grown in field plats at Moccasin in the five
years, 1911 to 1915, are given in Table XXIII.

Tapie XXITI.—Annual and average yrelds of 19 varieties of flax grown in plats at the

Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., in periods of varying length, 1911 to 1915,
incluswe.

Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and variety. eh Average.
| 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915
| 1911 to | 1914 to
| 1915 1915
|
European seed: |
Russian (N. Dak. No. 155)..-.........-.-..-. 19 | 19.3 | 13.3 | 16.6 | 13.0 | 22.8 17.0 17.9
Russian (N. Dak. No. 155)...........-------- | 17) 14.6] 11.7/15.6]125/189) 14.7 15.6
Select Russian (N. Dak. No. 608)......-..--. | 1! 17.1} 10.0 | 14.0 | 12.0 | 19.3 14.5 15.8
Select Russian (N. Dak. No. 609).........-.-| M5) |asosac)oaszcd||sa-20° 1G (TO Wyass 635 16.3
Select Russian (N. Dak. No. 1215)..........- | 3] 15.7} 13.0 | 18.0 | 12,8 |.19.5 15.8 16.2
MontanaiCommonee-eessese as eee eee ae 6 | 15.4] 10.0] 9.0] 13.2) 20.0 13.5 16.6
Select Riga (N. Dak. No. 1214)............... 2/183) 9.0] 19.6] 13.0] 19.1 15.8 16.1
Stepan (N. Dak. No. 1340 5 | 15.0 | 11.3 | 16.8] 12.1 | 19.9 15.0 16.0
North Dakota Resistant 23 8/ 16.0] 6.3] 14.0] 11.8] 19.5 13.7 15.7
North Dakota No. 1221_.......... 16 | 15.7 | 12.7 | 16.4 | 13.2 | 19.9 15.6 16.5
Fargo Common (N. Dak. No. 1138)..-......-. 18 | 14.6 | 10.1 | 19.2 | 13.2 | 19.5 15.4 16.4
Smyrna seed:
TIL VET ate eysjeree eels Cre ueranebreieromeiaiaee wieloe BOD Recs sa asensaleneeee HE |) IO Ee cocoas 17.0
TAS ie cia c fot a i Sareterspatee eters ats oe eleereie ete 7| 69} 4.8)12.0] 9.0} 15.1 9.5 12.0
European short fiber
Kazan (N. Dak. No. 1329) 2 Side soem cdete tee ae 4| 9.2) 10.0} 17.5 | 13.2 | 18.9 13.7 16.0
dah oiCommonts ace eee ease cece eere TUES loan Pa sti DSS On elOr4s | Bee ae oe 16. 2
North Dakota Resistant No. 114.............| UST Dire ey Se een 11283 |) UO |lesseocnc 14.6
Terabeasyy (Mba INOS PS) 555 bodoccosueceuoosse > | 12 | 11.0 | 10.3 | 17.5 | 12,8 | 19.1 14.1 16.0
European textile fiber:
IB TUERB TOSS OUI eae ORE ys NGS ee a ae 22; 9.6] 83 15.3.) 12.1 | 17.5 10.5 14.6
PSK OMe Moo ewgen nse noes Bee Nene cea wesc mae SDE eh eicyetaaarercrs eevee HOS) Ie hO esescces 9.0

LEADING VARIETIES.

Table XXIII shows that in both the 5-year and 2-year averages
the varieties of the European seed-flax group yield more than
those of the other groups. The five highest yielding strains for the
5-year period, C. I. Nos. 19, 3, 2, 16, and 18, all belong to the seed-
flax group. The Russian, C. I. No. 19 (N. Dak. No. 155), is the
highest yielder and the Select Russian, C. I. No. 3 (N. Dak. No.
1213), a selection from North Dakota No. 155, is second. C. I. Nos.
17 and 19 are both Russian (N. Dak. No. 155), but were received at
Moccasin through different sources. C. I. No. 19 has given better
results than C. I. No. 17. North Dakota No. 155 is a bulk lot of
seed of Russian flax obtaimed by the North Dakota Agricultural
Experiment Station in 1898. It has been grown and distributed since
that time. C. I. Nos. 1, 3, and 45 are selections from this variety
developed in the nursery at the North Dakota station.

C. I. Nos. 2 and 16 were both developed through selection from
common flax varieties at the North Dakota station, while C. I. No. 18
was a bulk lot of seed obtained by that station in 1901 from a seed
house at Fargo, N. Dak. All of these strains are of the Russian seed
type of flax, and with the exception of some variations In coarseness
of stem and earliness are much alike. |

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. om

North Dakota Resistant No. 52, a wilt-resistant flax of the seed
type, has not yielded as well as the Russian.

The Smyrna flax (C. I. No. 30), which ranks second in average
yield for the two years it has been grown, was imported from Smyrna,
Turkey, by the United States Department of Agriculture, in 1913.
This variety has shorter straw and more numerous basal branches
than the European seed flaxes. From results obtained elsewhere it
seems to be better able to withstand unfavorable hot, dry weather
than other varieties in the test.

North Dakota Resistant No. 114 and Primost (Minn. No. 25), both
of which belong to the short-fiber group, did not produce yields which
compare favorably with those of the European seed flaxes. These
varieties would probably give better results in regions where flax
canker is more serious than at Moccasin.

The textile fiber type of flax is of no value for seed production in
Montana.

SELECT f1GA
N. DAKOTA, V2/22/-- - qe “>. 6 8.
FARGO COMMON ---- aaa 5. 8

Fic. 16.—Diagram showing the average yields (in bushels per acre) of
the leading varieties of flax at the Judith Basin substation for the five
years, 1911 to 1915, inclusive.

Table XXIV gives the average dates of seeding, heading, and
ripening, the yields of straw and grain, and the weight per bushel of
the five leading varieties of flax in the five years 1911 to 1915, inclusive.
The average yields of these varieties are shown graphically in
figure 16.

TaBLE XXIV.—Average dates of seeding, heading, and ripening, days from seeding to
maturity, yield of grain and straw, and weight per bushel of five leading flax varieties
at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., in the five years, 1911 to 1915,
incluswe.

Average date— | Average yield
C.1 2 Seeding per acre. Weight
Group and variety. No, EO MAT EVei eh (|e eee DCT
5 turity. bushel.!
Seeded.| Headed. | Ripe. Grain. | Straw.
European seed flax:
Russian (N. Dak. : Days. | Inches. |Bushels.|Pounds.| Pounds.
ING) HED) poseeneee 19 | May 8| July 19 | Aug. 28 HP WE PALO IE AO NT eae! 56.0
Select Russian (N.
Dak. No. 1215)...-. 3) Peed Ose wudlys 20) |5 = dosese= 112 23.0 15.8 1,610 56.0
Select Hiss (N. Dak.
INI IGN) ee ee ses 28 |Be ed ose -ee do === |---d Ossaee 112 22.8 15.8 | 1,456 55. 7
North ayaveta No.
| PP ee eg nee NG | SOW sel eX5 Ka esse ttdose 112 22.6 15.6 | 1,440 55. 7
Fargo Common (N.
Dak. No. 1138)-.---- 185d of-4|=e-d0=-—5- 720082 112 22.0 15. 4 1,386 55. 7

1 Average for four years, 1912 to 1915, inclusive.

38 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS IN NURSERY ROWS.

Nursery work with flax was not started until 1914, when 50 va-
rieties and strains were tested. These varieties were grown in fiftieth-
acre and hundredth-acre plats and in 8-rod rows. Most of them
were recent importations from Europe which were grown in. this
country for the first time in 1914.

In 1915 the flax nursery was increased. In addition to the tests
in fiftieth-acre plats and 8-rod rows, 204 selections were grown in
head rows. Some of the head rows were selections from the most
promising varieties and some were selections from a natural hybrid.
A view of the flax nursery in 1915 is shown in figure 17.

Several promising varieties which are now hone sown in eae
nursery will soon be added to the varietal test.

Fic.17.—The flax nursery at the Judith Basin substation, 1915. (Froma photograph lent by the Office
of Exhibits, U. S. Department of Agriculture.) :

DATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENT.

There appears to be some question as to the proper date on which
to sow flax. The impression seems to exist in some sections that
flax should be sown later than the spring grains. The date-of-seed-
ing test at Moccasin has not been conducted long enough to justify
drawing definite conclusions from it. The results seem to indicate,
however, that early seeding is the best. In 1915 the highest yield
was obtained from the plat seeded on April 9. While there was
some freezing weather after this date it apparently did no harm to
the flax. The tests at Moccasin show that flax should be sown not
later than May 1, as seedings made after that date will not produce
as good yields. :

RATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENT.

A rate-of-seeding test with flax is being conducted at Moccasin,
but, like the date-of-seeding test, it has not been continued long
enough to justify any definite conclusions. During the last three
years the varietal plats have been seeded at the rate of 18 pounds

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 39

per acre. Very satisfactory stands and yields have been obtaimed
from this rate, although the rate-of-seeding experiment seems to in-
dicate that a little heavier seeding would give better results.

COMPARISON OF THE LEADING VARIETIES OF CEREALS.

Table XXV gives the annual and average yields (in pounds per
acre) of the leading varieties of each of the cereals at Moccasin for
five years, 1910, 1911, and 1913 to 1915, inclusive. This table is
presented so that a comparison may be made of the actual yield of
grain of each of the cereals. It will be seen from Table XXV that
on the average the White Smyrna barley produces more pounds of
erain per acre than any of the other cereals. The Kharkof winter
wheat is second and the Sixty-Day oats third in the number of
pounds of grain produced per acre.

The average farm value per acre of each of the crops is also given
in Table XXV. To obtain this value the annual yield of each crop
was multiplied by the farm price per bushel in Montana on December
1 of that year, and the annual values for the five years were then
averaged. Winter wheat leads in value per acre, with the White
Smyrna barley second and flax third.

TaBLE XXV.—Annwual and average yields and average farm value of the leading variety
of each of the cereals grown at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., for five
years 1910, 1911, and 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

Yield per acre (pounds).
: CI Acre
Crop and variety. No value of
"| 4910 | 1911 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | Aver- | crop’
| ‘ 2) a
| ge.
Kharkof winter wheat..................---- 1,583 | 2,880 | 2,478 | 1,866 | 1,470 | 2,964 | 2,331 | $31.08
Pelissier spring wheat..........-.-...------ 1,584 | 630 | 1,698 | 1,920 | 1,590 | 2,530 | 1,673] 21.58
Sikeiy-lDany Oa (h ee Le ee) ee ee aaa 165 | 1,056 | 2,278 | 2,409 | 1,888 | 2,998 2) 126 23. 70
White Smyrna barley.......---..22-2--2-.- 195 | °590 | 2,490 | 3,360 | 2,400 | 3,854] 2.540] 28. 42
INGpalbaniGyees ss. e nsec OSS ee 595 984 | 1,800 | 2,220 , 042 | 2,508 1,810 18. 24
ISSA ERewtra ss ose) a ek eee | LO eee 1,070 930 ”798 | if 282 it 002 | @ 27.09

a Average for four years, 1911 and 1913 to 1945.

EXPERIMENTS WITH MINOR CEREALS.

Twenty-seven varieties of proso have been tested at Moccasin at
While most of the varieties
tried will mature seed in a favorable year, the yield is small and in

some time during the past eight years.

some years no seed is produced. For this

recommended for the Judith Basin.

Some early varieties of brown kaoliang

tried for three years.
none of them matured seed.

reason the crop is not

and broom corn were
‘Owing to the short season and cool nights

Emmer and spelt have also been tried, but are not as promising
as some of the other grain crops.

40 BULLETIN 398, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SUMMARY.

Cooperative experiments with cereals at the Judith Basin sub-
station, Moccasin, Mont., have been conducted during eight years,
1908 to 1915, inclusive.

The Judith Basin substation is located in the west-central part
of Fergus County, in central Montana. The altitude is 4,300 feet.

The yields obtamed at Moccasin are not representative of all
the dry-land area, but the comparative results obtamed are believed
to be applicable in general to all the dry-farming area of Montana.

The annual average precipitation at Moccasin for 18 years, 1898 to
1915, inclusive, is 16.66 inches. The average seasonal rainfall
(April to July, inclusive) for the same years is 9.41 inches.

The soil at Moccasin on which the cereal varieties have been
tested is a dark clay loam of limestone origin.

On the average, satisfactory yields are obtained from winter and
spring wheat, spring oats, barley, and flax.

The best winter wheats are the Kharkof and Turkey. These be- -
long to the Crimean group of hard winter wheats. .

The best rate to sow winter wheat is 3 pecks per acre. The best
date to sow is from August 10 to September 10.

The highest yields of spring wheats have been obtained from varie-
ties of durum wheat. Of these, the Pelissier has been the best. Of
the common spring wheats the best variety to grow appears to be the
Marquis.

Spring wheats are seeded at the rate of 4 pecks per acre.

The best results are obtained from sowing all spring wheat, oats,
and barley as early in the spring as soil and climatic conditions will
permit.

The highest average yield of oats was obtained from the Sixty-Day
variety. This variety averaged about 16 bushels per acre more than
later maturing varieties.

The best rate of seeding for the small-kerneled early varieties of
oats, such as the Sixty-Day, is about 4 pecks per acre.

The White Smyrna barley, a 2-rowed bearded hulled variety,
has given the highest average yield.

The hulled varieties of barley are seeded at the rate of 5 pecks and
the naked varieties at the rate of 4 pecks per acre.

The highest yield of flax ina 5-year test was obtained from the
Russian variety.

It is probable that the best results will be obtained if flax is sown
early, between April 15 and May 1. The best rate seems to be from
20 to 25 pounds per acre.

In pounds per acre, the average yield of the White Smyrna barley
is greater than that of the best variety of any of the other cereal

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION. 41

crops. The Kharkof winter wheat is second in yield, followed by
the Sixty-Day oats, the Nepal naked barley, the Pelissier spring
wheat, and the Russian. flax.

In the value per acre based on the farm price on December 1 of
each year, the Kharkof winter wheat leads, followed by the White
Smyrna barley, the Russian flax, the Sixty-Day oats, the Pelissier
durum spring wheat, and the Nepal naked barley.

Emmer and spelt do not give as good yields as barley and oats.

Proso millet has been tried, but is not a promising crop.

Early varieties of brown kaoliang and broom corn have been tested,
but do not mature seed.

PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE TREATING OF
CEREAL PRODUCTION IN THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS.

AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Cereal Experiments at Dickinson, N. Dak. Department Bulletin 33.

Spring Wheat in the Great Plains Area: Relation of Cultural Methods to Production.
Department Bulletin 214.

Oats in the Great Plains Area: Relation of Cultural Methods to Production. Depart-
ment Bulletin 218.

Barley in the Great Plains Area: Relation of Cultural Methods to Production. De-
partment Bulletin 222.

Crop Production in the Great Plains Area: Relation of Cultural Methods to Yields.
Department Bulletin 268.

Cereal Experiments at the Williston Substation. Department Bulletin 270.

Cereal Investigations on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm. Department Bulle-
tin 297.

Alaska and Stoner, or ‘‘Miracle,’’ Wheats: Two Varieties Much Misrepresented. De-
partment Bulletin 357.

Oats: Distribution and Uses. Farmers’ Bulletin 420.

Oats: Growing the Crop. Farmers’ Bulletin 424.

Barley: Growing the Crop. Farmers’ Bulletin 443.

The Smuts of Wheat, Oats, Barley, and Corn. Farmers’ Bulletin 507.

Durum Wheat. Farmers’ Bulletin 534.

Growing Hard Spring Wheat. Farmers’ Bulletin 678.

Varieties of Hard Spring Wheat. Farmers’ Bulletin 680.

Marquis Wheat. Farmers’ Bulletin 732.

Grains for the Montana Dry Lands. Farmers’ Bulletin 749.

Winter Wheat in Western South Dakota. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 79.

Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. Separate 649, Yearbook, 1914.

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING

OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. -

Experiments with Wheat, Oats, and Barley in South Dakota. Department Bulletin
39. Price, 10 cents.

The Commercial Status of Durum Wheat. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 70.
Price, 10 cents.

Improving the Quality of Wheat. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 78. Price, 10
cents.

The Loose Smuts of Barley and Wheat. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 152.
Price, 15 cents.

Dry-Land Grains for Western North and South Dakota. Bureau of Plant Industry
Circular 59. Price, 5 cents.

42

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.

AT
10 CENTS PER COPY

V

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

Washington, D. C. Vv December 16, 1916

THE PRODUCTION OF SWEET-ORANGE OIL AND A
NEW MACHINE FOR PEELING CITRUS FRUITS.

POSSIBILITY OF THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF SWEET-
ORANGE OIL FROM WASTE ORANGES.

By 8. C. Hoon, Scientific Assistant, and G. A. Russewx, Expert, of Office Drug-Plant
and Poisonous-Plant Investigations.

CONTENTS.

Page Page.
Wat DREPRCINOM = ct cc <a 2 oe Siajnie oe Se See Set 1 | Comparison of the various oils........-.....- 9
Importance of the industry.........-..--.--- Commercial possibilities..........-.........- 10
Material available for the production of | Cost of produchion=-eeeehs 226 ht. cae sete 11

TES Cilla Se eee ee ee A: | Ndeld on Ole ssc oo ears ea... 2 eae 11
Methods of extraction. -.....-..-..---------- 5 | SUMUIMN ARs. Soh eee eee yes so Le eee 12
EEC SSROMOME eae oxic seinen = sciaccw= nlesjcrcis eis 6
INTRODUCTION.

The oil extracted from the fresh peel of the sweet orange has long

been an important article of commerce in the United States and
Europe. It is extensively used in the manufacture of flavoring
extracts, perfumes, and soaps, and to a small extent in the drug
trade, fhe oil being official in the ninth decennial revision of the
Wanted States Pharmacopeia. Until recently, this product was
secured wholly from Italy, Sicily, and other parts of southern Europe.
Since the year 1911, however, a considerable industry has grown up
im the West Indies, and a portion of the annual requirement in the
United States is now supplied from that region.

The methods of extracting sweet-orange oil are similar in all
countries wherever practiced. The fruit is peeled by hand, either by
cutting it in half crosswise and scooping out the pulp or = stripping
off the peel in three longitudinal pieces. The peel thus secured is
inverted and pressed over a small sponge. By this means the oil

NotEe.—This bulletin is of interest to growers of oranges generally.
50399°—Bull. 399—16——1

OE
2 BULLETIN 399, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cells of the outer part of the peel are ruptured and the mixture of oil
and other liquids is forced out in a fine spray. After the sponge has
become saturated, the contents are squeezed into a bowl, and the oil
is eventually drained off the accumulated liquid. From time to time
various machine methods have been tried, but apparently none of
them has proved satisfactory. Furthermore, when the peel is pressed
in quantity by machinery an emulsion is formed from which it is
very difficult to separate the oil. Accordingly, almost the entire
output of sweet-orange oil is extracted by the hand-pressing method.

IMPORTANCE OF THE INDUSTRY.

Complete figures on the total world production of sweet-orange oil
are not available, but the annual exports from Italy and Sicily, which
represent a large portion of the world’s production, have been com-
piled from various sources and are given in Table I.

TaBLe I.—LHexport of sweet-orange oil from Italy and Sicily for the years 1906 to 1913,

inclusive.
Year. Quantity. Value. Year. Quantity. Value.
Pounds. Pounds.
LGOGHE St ace seetianaceccee 301, 455 $666; 9845 || A OLO == cts. ccjejecivie winnie ane = 285, 357 $415, 065
TUS CCR oReBeSeOBme Estos e 357, 749 MSZ BOs Pa ON o/s crs -temcicieeiciecls sie 90,078 131, 021
OOS eres oo eee Beeline sees 381, 980 ean Gss) ||| UO So eeceeososoaseooesee 118, 366 193,691
LG Senter me aER ATE as) 498, 705 GUE |\| TONER Seer ae edadoeeeee 105, 826 202, 033

It will be seen from Table I that in 1911 there was a marked decrease
in the exports and that in the two following years the quantity ex-
ported was much lower than in the six preceding years. This decline
is due in part to a small crop of oranges in Italy in 1911, in part toa
heavy import tax levied in this country, and in part to the activity of
producers in the West Indies, which region is now producing a quan-
tity nearly sufficient to meet the American as well as the British demand.

The imports of sweet-orange oil entered for consumption in the
United States are shown in Table II.

TaBLE I1.—Jmports of sweet-orange oil into the United States from all sources for the
years 1900 to 1914, inclusive.

[Compiled from Commerce and Navigation of the United States.]

Year. a Value. Year. aa Value. Year. ee Value.
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.

19002 oe sees 57,069 | $95, 405 |] 1905..........-- 92,077 |$143, 555 POLO eR rotons 46, 814 | $65, 488

OLS ty OS eee 72,218 | 109, 832 |} 1906.........-.- 74, 535 122’ OSs Wo ote we soree 73, 786 | 100,115

A OOD ie th oe aa te 793,160: | 104, 1595), 1907. - -2.....--. 112, 834 | 199,027 || 1912 ........-..- 97, 065 168, 831

1903 Sekt Lek eae 77,138 | 107,808 || 1908...-......-. 14, 224 | 165,982 |) 1913. -.-..----.-- 77, 797 | 155, 299

RO Ae ak es 74, 816 | 109, 478 || 1909.-.-........ 87,591 | 151, 861 || 1914..-.---...-- 104, 597 222) 118

The price of sweet-orange oil is subject to considerable variation, the
extent of which is influenced both by the relative abundance of the

LNA
PRODUCTION OF SWEET-ORANGE OIL. 3

orange crop in the regions where this oil is produced and also by market
speculation. Table III gives the prices paid by jobbers, in January,
June, and December, for a period of 10 years for Italian hand-pressed
oil from Messina, Italy, delivered in New York City.!

Tas ie III.—Prices of Italian hand-pressed sweet-orange oil, f.0. b. New York, for the
years 1905 to 1914, inclusive.

Price per pound. i Price per pound.
|
Year. Ray Oo ea | Year.

January.| June. |December. | January.| June. | December.

$1. 521 $1. 744 $1.338 | $1.379 $1.379

1.974 1.947 1.541 1.541 1.906

1. 987 2. 068 1. 886, 1. 926 De2tL

2.149 1.501 2.616 3. 569 3.042

1. 886 1.399 2. 636 1. 947 1.318

Table IV gives the wholesale market prices for the Italian hand-
pressed oil for a period of 10 years, as quoted in the Oil, Paint, and Drug
Reporter. These figures represent the high and low prices quoted at
the middle of each month. From Tables III and IV, therefore, can be
noted the difference between the prices paid the producer by the jobber
and the prices asked for the oil in the wholesale market.

TasBLe 1V.— Monthly market quotations for Italian hand-pressed sweet-orange oil for the
years 1906 to 1915, inclusive.

Year.
Month and price. =
1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 | 1914 1915
|
January |
Ito) 4 ee $2. 00 $2.10 | $2.45 $2.50 | $2.20] $2.25 $2.40 | $2.70 | $3.00 $1.60
eV ieif) | ee age 2, 25 2.30 2.60 3. 00 2, 25 2. 30 2.50 3.00 3.25 1.75
February: :
LLGti: {a 2.10 2.10 2.40 2.10 2. 20 2.25 2.45 2.90 2,10 1.55
TET ep eee 2.25 2.30 2.60 2. 25 2.40 2.30 2.60 3. 25 3.00 1.73
March:
WOW Pee <= 5-252 2. 20 2.15 2. 25 2.00 2. 25 2.25 2.55 3.00 2.65 1.50
if Hien Meee mane So 2.35 2. 25 2.50 PY As 2.50 2. 30 2.63 3. 25 2. 80 1.60
Til: :
i HOW Pees Gece - = 2.10 2. 20 2. 20 1.90 2225 2. 20 2.45 2.90 2. 60 11.
“ LE bt ee 2. 25 2.20 2.40 2.10 2.50 2.25 2.60 3.10 2. 80 1.60
ay
owes... =. 2.10 2.10 2.10 1. 80 2) 5 2.20 | ¥ 2.45 3.00 2.30 1.65
- Ress ey aei= Ze x 2.25 2. 25 2. 25 2.00 2.50 2.30 2. 60 3.15 2.35 1. 85
une:
IL 73 2.10 2.10 1.80 Te 2. 20 2. 25 2. 45 3. 25 2. 20 ip
= 15 7s a eee 2. 25 2.25 2.00 1.90]. 2.50 2.35 2.50 3.50 2.40 2..00
iy:
lds See 2.10 2. 40 1. 70 1. 80 2. 20 2. 35 2.45 3.50 2.15 2. 00
15 0) eres 2.29 2.50 1.90 2. 00 2.50 2.40 2.60 3. 79 2.30 2.25
August:
WSO Wie) ee eam 2. 20 2. 25 1.65 2. 00 2. 20 2. 45 2.45 335 (8) 4.00 1. 85
PA ies org te 2.39 2.35 1.90 2.25 2.50 2.60 2.60 4.00 4.25 2.00
September
NGO Wren ese 2. 20 2:25 1.70 1.90 2.15 2500 2.60 3.90 3. 25 1. 80
SG hae SS 2.35 2.35 1.90 2.10 2. 25 2. 70 27 4, 25 3. 75 2.15
October: |
ILO ee eee 2. 20 2.30 1.60 1.90 2.15 2.50 2.60 4.00 1. 80 1. 75
16 lt ae eee 2.35 2.50 1.90 2.10 74 IAs 2. 60 v7(3) 4, 25 2. 00 2.00
November: Z
MG Weeet = ee 2. 20 2.45 1.65 2.00 2.15} 2.40 2. 60 3.40 1.60 1.65
IEE SAE eee 2.35 2.60 1.90 2.10 es) 2. 60 2. 70 3.50 1.75 1. 75
December:
eowpe 3s -o28 5: 2.15 2.40 1.65 2.05 2. 20 2.40 2.65 3. 20 1.50 1. 85
15 V6) 2/5) 5 eae he 2. 20 2.60 1.90 2. 20 a2 2.50 2.19 3. 40 1.75 1.90
}
1 Haven, J. F. Essential oilsin Italy. In Amer. Perfumer, v. 10, no. 7, p.175. 1915

f f sf ]
AK Gt

4. BULLETIN 399, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ALES UE VERO ER
MATERIAL AVAILABLE FOR THE PRODUCTION OF ORANGE OIL.
Yo O Lt List \

In the commercial production of oranges there is always a greater
or less quantity of waste fruit. Oranges which are defective in
shape or which show even slight blemishes on the skin are rejected
and thrown out on the cull heap (fig. 1). The quantity thus rejected
varies according to the season, to the variety of fruit, and to the
care which is given to the production of the crop, but even under
the most favorable conditions it is considerable. With the increas-
ing tendency to grade the fruit more closely and to better the market
conditions, the proportion of culls will doubtless increase rather than
decrease.

A considerable loss results also from the dropping of the fruit in
the groves throughout the winter months. Certain varieties show

Fig. 1.—Piles of cull oranges in a grove.

~

this tendency regularly, although all varieties have a tendency to
drop the fruit when held for market advances under unfavorable
climatic conditions.

In addition to these sources of available material it is possible to
obtain a quantity of low-grade fruit. At present this low-grade
fruit, packed in so-called ‘‘plain wraps,’”’ is sometimes shipped to
near-by markets for immediate consumption. The returns are ex-
ceedingly small, especially in years when the crop is abundant. Itis
believed, however, that with greater attention to marketing condi-
tions this inferior fruit can be more profitably utilized in the manu-
facture of by-products and thus open a wider field for the better
grades. At the present time there is without doubt enough low-
grade fruit available to make possible the extraction of a quantity of
orange oil sufficient to supply a considerable portion of the domestic
demand.

} [ef

PRODUCTION OF SWEET-ORANGE OIL. 5

METHODS OF EXTRACTION.

For use in these experiments a new type of peeling machine‘ was
devised which removes the peel and at the same time ruptures the
oil cells. As the peel comes from the machine it is in a finely di-
vided condition (fig. 2) and the oil cells are practically all opened.
The oil being thus released from the cells is more or less absorbed by
the spongy remainder of the peel. The outer portion of the peel,
in which the oil cells are contained, is of course the first to be re-
moved by the machine, and experiments have shown that the peel
removed by the first third of the length of the grating drum contains
approximately 76 per cent of the oil; that removed by the second
third contains about 23 per cent, while that from the last third
has less than 1 per cent of oil. For this reason it was found eco-
nomical to discard the peel removed by the last third of the grating
drum and to employ only that removed by the first two thirds.

Fic, 2.—Oranges before and after peeling and the finely divided peel.

In order to recover the oil, distillation by both steam and vacuum
was employed. It was found, however, that the oil obtained by
means of steam distillation was not of good quality. _It was either
water white or pale yellow in color and possessed to only a very
slight degree the valuable odor-bearing and flavoring constituents
desirable in orange oil. 4

For distillimg under vacuum a special type of apparatus is neces-
sary (fig. 3). This apparatus consists of a copper retort connected
with a condenser and so arranged that nearly all the air within the
apparatus can be removed by means of a vacuum pump. Distillation
is then accomplished either by means of heat from the steam jacket
or by direct admission of steam into the retort.

The peel is first mixed with water to form a fairly thin paste.
This mixture is then placed in the retort, the cover clamped down,
and all connections made air-tight. The vacuum pump is next
started and the air exhausted from the apparatus. As the air
pressure becomes less the pressure can be read by means of a gauge

1A detailed description of this machine, covered by United States Letters Patent No. 1186317, dedi-
cated to the public, is given in the second part of this bulletin, pages 13 to 19.

6 BULLETIN 399, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

attached to the distilling apparatus. When the gauge indicates
sufficient diminution in the pressure, steam is admitted into the
jacket of the retort. The thin mixture of water and peel begins
to boil almost immediately, and the water vapors passing into the
condenser carry the oil with them. Here the vapors are condensed
and the distillate is collected in the receiver. The oil being lighter
than water floats on the surface and can easily be separated. The
peel is exhausted in about 30 minutes. Steam can also be admitted
directly into the retort and the oil extracted under diminished pres-
sure by direct steam. The oil obtained by vacuum distillation was
light lemon yellow in color and possessed a pleasing orange odor and
the characteristic aro-

matic orange taste.
The oil obtained by
direct steam distilla-
tion is not of as good
quality as that ob-
tained when the heat
is applied by means
of the jacket. The
best results, however,
were obtained when
both jacket heat and
direct steam were
used simultaneously.
The oil obtained was
macerated with 20
per cent of its weight
of fresh unextracted
peel and then filtered.
Thus treated, the oil

had a lemon-yellow
Fig. 3.—Experimental vacuum still used in extracting orange oil: A, color with a slight
Still; B, condenser; C, receiver.

tinge of brown. It
had an excellent orange odor and the characteristic aromatic orange
taste. Apparently the odor-bearing and flavoring constituents are all
present and by the method described a fair grade of orange oil can be
prepared.
PRESSED OIL.

Pressed orange oil is generally understood to mean the oil which
is pressed from the peel by hand. Where labor is cheap such a
method of extraction is economically possible, but where labor is
relatively costly this method can not beused. Accordingly, methods
were. worked out for applying heavy pressure without any great
outlay of money for hydraulic presses.

PRODUCTION OF SWEET-ORANGE OIL. |

In some preliminary experiments it was noted that when a portion
of the vacuum-distilled oil was macerated with unpressed peel for
several hours the loss in the volume of the oil recovered was in some
instances as high as 10 per cent. Some oil had been absorbed by the
peel, although the peel employed contained all its original content of
oil. When pressure was applied to this macerated peel all the original
oil could be pressed out. A portion of the peel pressed before macera-
tion yielded about 95 per cent of its original oil content. When,
however, the press cake was
distilled with water and the
oil thus produced used to
macerate the next lot of peel
to be pressed, the yield of oil
obtained was approximately
the original content of the
peel. With these facts in
mind, the following method
was devised for extracting
sweet-orange oil by pressure:

An inexpensive press (fig. 4) was
employed in the experimental work.
This press consists of a heavy wooden
frame, a wooden drum fitted witha
perforated brass cylinder, and a
heavy screw for applying pressure.
About 20 pounds of the finely ground
peel from the first two-thirds of the
grating drum was placed in a.canvas
sack made of 10-ounce duck and the
sack placed in the wooden drum.
Pressure was then applied by means
of the heavy screw. Before press-
ing, the peel was thoroughly mixed
with approximately one-half its
weight of water and the whole Fic. 4.—Experimental press used in extracting orange oil.
heated to not over 90° C. The oil and water pressed out were collected in a large
container, where the oil came to the top and the water was easily removed.

The press cake was then thrown into a still (fig. 5, a) and distilled with water. A
small quantity of oil was thus secured which was-added to the next lot of peel and the
mixture allowed to macerate for a short time. After pressing several lots the
mixture of oil and water was placed in a separatory funnel (fig. 5, 7) and all the water
possible was removed.

The oil thus obtained formed a thick emulsion with a portion of
the water. This emulsification was brought about by means of a
gumlike substance which was pressed from the ground peel. The
mixture thus formed was found to resist all the regular methods for
breaking emulsions. Centrifuging did not throw out the oil, but,

8 BULLETIN 399, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

on the contrary, more completely emulsified it. Treatment with
kieselguhr (infusorial earth) and subsequent filtering under differ-
ence in pressure yielded a clear oil, but the process was entirely too
slow in operation. After several experiments the following method
was found to work very satisfactorily.

All the water possible was removed with a separatory funnel, and
the emulsion warmed on a water bath to not over 90° C. To this was
added one-tenth its volume of a hot solution containing 2 per cent of
gelatin and the whole thoroughly mixed. To the warm mixture was
added one-fourth its volume of a hot solution contaming approxi-
mately 10 percent of tannin. The emulsifying agent was thus brought
into a state of coagulation, and the oil was released. The mass was

Fic. 5.—Experjmental still used in extracting orange oil: a, Still; 6, condenser; c, receiver; d, separatory
funnel.

now thrown into a sack made of heavy Canton flannel and again
pressed. The oil and water thus pressed out were separated by means
of the separatory funnel, and the oil dried with quicklime and filtered.
The filtered oil constitutes the marketable product.

When the method was thus proved to be practicable, a cheap and
abundant supply of tannin was sought. This was found in the
rhizome of the common saw palmetto, which contains approx-
imately 7.58 per cent of tannin.t A portion of this rhizome was
‘boiled with water in a copper vessel for several hours and the liquor
then strained off. Ten pounds of the fresh rhizome was found to
yield a supply of tannin solution sufficient to treat the emulsion
from at least a ton of oranges.

1 Trimble, H. The tannins of the palmettos. Jn Gard. and Forest, v. 9, no. 428, p. 182-183. 1896.

PRODUCTION OF SWEET-ORANGE OIL. 9
COMPARISON OF THE VARIOUS OILS.

In order that the oils obtained by the processes outlined might be
compared with commercial imported Italian hand-pressed oil, a
sample of the latter was purchased in the open market, and the
results of the comparison are shown in Table V.

Taste V.—Comparison of the oils obtained by vacuum distillation and by pressing with
a commercial sample of hand-pressed imported oil.

Total
: Specific absorp-

«ae Specific F Evap- | 7;
Description Color. Odor. Taste. gravity, (aio. at oration pon by,
at 25°C.) 5-8’. | residue. bisul-
phite.

Per cent.| Per cent.
7 2.92

Italian hand | Lemon yellow-.| Characteristic | Characteristic, | 0.8415 | 115° 6’ 1.73
pressed. orange. aromatic; no
bitterness.
Florida:
Vacuum | Lemon yellow, |....- donee tees dowess.2au2 - 8423 | 115° 187 2.10 2.66
distilled. with slight
brown tinge.
Machine | Reddish yel- | Characteristic |....- COs eee - 8445 | 109° 36’ 2.90 4.00
pressed. low. orange; excel-
lent fruity
aroma.

Sweet-orange oil is graded on the market according to its color,
odor, taste, specific gravity, and angle of rotation. The ninth
decennial revision of the United States Pharmacopceia describes
orange oil as a yellow liquid, having the characteristic odor and taste
of orange peel. The specific gravity, at 25° C., lies between 0.842 and
0.846; the optical rotation is not less than +94° in a 100-mm. tube
ato.

Table V reveals some interesting comparisons. The color of the
pressed oil as given is reddish yellow, due entirely to coloring matter
which was forced out by the heavy pressure used in extracting the
oil. This color in no way interferes with the commercial uses of the
oil and is not detrimental to its sale. The odor, on comparison,
shows that the pressed oil is somewhat supefior to the vacuum-
distilled oil and also to that of the commercial sample. It possesses
the characteristic odor of orange peel, and in addition has a fine,
fruity, very agreeable aroma. In all the samples, the oils possessed
a fine, characteristic, aromatic taste. The specific gravity of the
sample bought in the open market is slightly below that stated in
the Pharmacopeia as the minimum limit. The vacuum-distilled
and pressed oils are safely within the limits. The angles of rotation
of the commercial sample and the vacuum-distilled oils agree very
closely; that of the pressed oil is somewhat lower, indicating that
this sample probably contains more of the valuable optically inactive
constituents and less of the optically active limonin. The residue

50399°—Bull. 399—16——2

10 BULLETIN 399, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

on evaporation, which may be taken as a partial measure of the
freshness of the sample and also as a partial measure of the valuable
constituents, varies to a considerable extent. This is to be expected,
since the oils are prepared under such widely varying conditions.
In a commercial examination of sweet-orange oil, Schimmel & Co.
have placed the residue on evaporation at 2 to 4 per cent.' Often
the residue on evaporation falls below 2 per cent, as in the sample
of oil purchased in the open market. Rarely does it exceed 4 per
cent, and when it does the conclusion may be drawn that the oil is
either quite old or it is adulterated. Both the oils extracted by the
methods outlined in this bulletin fall within the limits fixed by
Schimmel & Co., the oil obtained by pressure having the highest
evaporation residue. This high percentage is due to the larger
quantities of the waxes and nonvolatile constituents which were
pressed out and probably indicates a better grade of oil.

The quantity of oil absorbed by the sodium-bisulphite solution is
of special interest. Although the tabulated results do not represent.
the true percentage of aldehydes present in these oils, they do serve
as a comparative estimate of the commercial value. Of the three
samples of oil, that which was obtained by heavy pressure is by
far the best. The hand-pressed oil ranks second and the vacuum-
distilled oil third. The last two, however, agree closely in the per-
centage of oil absorbed.

The results of the comparison of the various oils indicate that the
oils prepared by the methods described in this bulletin are equal, if
not superior, to the hand-pressed oil obtained abroad, and of the three
samples the one obtained by heavy pressure is the best.

COMMERCIAL POSSIBILITIES.

From the results of numerous experiments and from its favorable
acceptance by the trade after an examination of the oil, it is recom-
mended that only the pressed oil be produced. The necessary outlay
in money for equipment is small, and the product is of an extremely
high grade. In addition to the peeling machine, the Beene
and material required are as follows:

Pressing device (fig. 4). Filter papers.
Still (fig. 5). Tin containers.
Separatory funnels. Unslaked lime.

Glass or tin funnels.

The pressing device as illustrated is of the simplest type. A press
equally efficient and of more rapid manipulation can readily be con-
structed by any mechanic. The drum should not exceed 12 inches
inside diameter and should be about 16 inches high. It should be

1 Schimmel and Co. Semi-Annual Report, Oct.—Nov., 1906, p. 35.

PRODUCTION OF SWEET-ORANGE OIL. eh

built of staves 2 inches thick and 2 inches wide, forming with each
other a tight joint. Each stave should have a groove one-fourth of
an inch by one-fourth of an inch lengthwise on the inside face, and
this groove should continue across the end of the stave at the bottom
end of the drum. A lining of sheet brass perforated with holes one-
sixteenth of an inch in diameter and about an inch apart should be
placed inside the drum. The press bag of 10-ounce canvas should
be made slightly greater in diameter than the drum and about 6
inches longer than the drum, in order to allow for the folding of the
canvas over the top of the cake.

It was found expedient to release the pressure several times in the
treatment of a cake, since this apparently facilitates the extraction
of the oil. In commercial operations where several presses would be
employed this could be done readily by passing the drum from one
screw to the next, inasmuch as these screws would probably all be
mounted in one frame having a common base.

The still can be purchased from dealers in pharmaceutical and
chemical supplies. Heat can be supplied by gas, gasoline, kerosene,
or wood stoves. Separatory funnels, glass or tin funnels, filter paper,
and any other minor apparatus can be obtained from the dealers
mentioned. Burnt lime can also be readily obtained from local
dealers. The entire outfit occupies but little floor space and is
comparatively inexpensive.

COST OF PRODUCTION.

After the plant is equipped, the cost of producing the oil will
depend entirely upon the price paid for the waste fruit and the cost
of labor. In the experimental work here recorded the cost was
about 15 cents for extracting the oil from a standard field box of
oranges of approximately 100 pounds, and it is believed that on a
commercial scale the cost will be no greater for fruit delivered at
the factory door. By using several presses, as previously men-
tioned, it is believed that even this cost can bé reduced materially.

YIELD OF OIL.

In some preliminary experiments the yield of oil was found to
vary greatly according to the variety, stage of growth, climatic
conditions, and quality of the fruit. From data secured by labo-
ratory tests on several varieties from a great number of localities
the yield was found to range from 2.5 to 9 ounces of oil per 100
pounds of fruit. Satisfactory yields of oil have also been obtained
by this process from frosted fruit and from fruit in the earlier stages
of stem-end rot or showing only a small decayed spot. The peeling
machine, however, will not handle frosted fruits which have become
soft or fruits which show large areas of decay.

12 BULLETIN 399, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In commercial experiments with cull fruit obtaimed at the packing
houses at Orlando, Fla., the average yield of oil per 100 pounds of
fruit was about 5 ounces. It may safely be assumed that from
4 to 5 ounces of oil can be extracted from every standard field box
containing approximately 100 pounds of ordinary cull oranges. At
the average price paid for orange oil for the past 10 years the gross
returns would be from 47 to 59 cents per field box. The gross
return, as determined from actual sales in the markets of New
York City, of the oil produced in the experimental work was 54 cents
per field box.

SUMMARY.

The extraction of sweet-orange oil is a commercial possibility
in the United States. As a source of raw material for extraction
the culls, drops, and inferior grades of fruit may be used. A good
marketable quality of oil may be produced by the process of vacuum
distillation herein described.

Pressed oil extracted by the method described is of excellent
quality and a larger yield of oil is secured than by the vacuum process.
The process is very simple and the cost of equipment extremely
small.

The utilization of inferior or low-grade fruit for the extraction of
oil will give a wider market for the better grades of fruit and also
tend to greater care im the selection of these grades.

The yield of pressed oil from 100 pounds of ordinary cull fruit is
estimated to be from 4 to 5 ounces, and the gross returns from this
quantity of oil, based on the average price for the past 10 years,
would be from 47 to 59 cents per standard field box.

The cost of extracting the oil from 100 pounds of cull fruit is
estimated to be about 15 cents, and the net returns would be from
32 to 44 cents per standard field box, assuming that the fruit is
delivered at the factory door.

A DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF A NEW MACHINE FOR PEEL-
ING CITRUS FRUITS.

By 8. C. Hoop,
Scientific Assistant, Office of Drug-Plant and Poisonous-Plant Investigations.

CONTENTS.
Page. Page
LEN DO G0) ee ae Gee ee ea 13 | Operating the machine...-..-..-.----------- 18
Description of the machine...-.....---.----- 14! Changes required for the various citrus fruits. 19
INTRODUCTION.

In the United States the production of citrus fruits, especially
oranges, grapefruit, and lemons, has reached a stage where there is a
demand for more careful grading of the fruit, and consequently the
lower grades are gradually being diverted from the fruit trade into
the manufacture of various by-products. The first step in the man-
ufacture of these products, whether oils or other materials from the
outer peel or food products from the pulp or juice, consists in remoy-
ing the peel from the fruit. Owing to the tender nature of the fruit
and the great variations in its shape and size, it has not been easy to
accomplish this with any of the machines now on the market. It
was necessary therefore to devise special machinery and apparatus
which would work up the fruit at low cost and with a minimum
demand on the labor supply of the citrus districts during the busy
harvest season. The machine which has thus been devised not only
peels the fruit with great rapidity, but also makes it unnecessary to
sort the fruit prior to putting it through the machine.

The machine has been thoroughly tested at Orlando, Fla., and it
has been found that by its use one man can in one hour remove the
peel from 2 tons of oranges or from 34 tons of grapefruit. The peel
comes from the machine in a finely divided condition suitable for
the extraction of the oil, and the peeled fruit is delivered in a condi-
tion suitable for use in the manufacture of various food products.

This peeling machine has been constructed by the United States
Department of Agriculture, has been patented under United States
Letters Patent No. 1186317 and is dedicated to the public.

13

14 BULLETIN 399, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINE.

The machine consists of four essential parts, as follows:

(1) A rapidly revolving drum which removes the peel by a grating action on the
fruit.

(2) A spiral feed screw which carries the fruit along the drum, at the same time
rotating it in a forward direction so that the peel is removed in the form of spirals.

(3) A feed table of special construction which serves as a support for the fruit while
passing through the machine.

(4) An adjustment mechanism to vary the relation of the drum, feed screw, and
table in accordance with the character of the fruit to be handled and the degree of its
- ripeness.

The details of the machine as they appear in both perspective and
cross section are shown in figures 6 to 10. Figure 6 is a perspective
view of the machine; figure 7, a side view of the machine with the
cover removed; figure 8, a top view of the feed table; figure 9, a
cross section through the machine; and figure 10, a cross section of
the conveyer. The lettering of the various parts of the machine is
the same in all of the figures. :

The drum (figs. 6, 7, and 9, A).—The drum is 11 feet in length and
is made in two parts, each 5 feet 6 inches long, since it is found that
if it is built in one piece there is a tendency to sag in the middle,
thus causing great vibration when run at the necessary speed. Hach
part is built of narrow staves 2 inches wide and 14 inches thick,
bolted to cast-iron pulleys 10 inches in diameter and 3 inches face.
It was found advisable to cast the pulleys with the spokes set at
one side of the rim and with the hub projecting about 2 inches
beyond the rim on that side, since this permits easy access to the
stave bolts. Each part of the drum requires three pulleys. The
end pulleys are set on the shaft, with the hubs inside, and the middle
pulley is equidistant from the ends. The shaft is about 13%; inches
in diameter, and each pulley is fastened to it with a half-inch set
screw.

The staves are secured to the pulleys by a quarter-inch bolt through
the middle of the stave at each pulley, and the bolt heads are counter-
sunk in the staves to at least a quarter of an inch below the surface.
All the staves except three are secured by bolts through holes drilled
in the rim of the pulleys, the nuts being secured on the under side of
the rim. In the last three staves placed in position, the holes in the
middle pulley are threaded the proper size and the cap screws turned
in from the outside. The two parts of the drum are set on the shaft
6 inches apart, to permit a middle bearing to be placed in position on
the frame. After the staves have been secured in place the drum is
turned true, either by placing it on a lathe or by setting it in its frame
and turning it by power.

PRODUCTION OF SWEET-ORANGE OIL. 15

The grating surface of the drum is made of No. 24 galvanized iron,
cut into strips 4 inches wide and punched to form the special teeth
required. These teeth are formed by a triangular punch with two
sides straight and the third beveled to form the point. The punch
should be adjusted so that when used on a lead block a triangular
tooth will be cut, having one point exposed. The teeth are from
three-sixteenths to one-fourth of an inch long, with the point raised.
from three thirty-seconds to one-eighth of an inch. They are about

Fic. 6.—Perspective view of the peeling machine.

three-fourths of an inch apart each way and so placed that when the
strips are in position on the drum the teeth will project in the direc-
tion in which the drum rotates. It is essential that the point and
edges of the punch be kept sharp, in order to make a clean-cut tooth —
having a sharp point. It is desirable to mark off the strips on the
sheet of galvanized iron and punch the teeth before cutting the
strip, leaving a margin of at least one-half an inch on each edge.
This prevents the strips from being warped out of shape in the punch-
ing process.

16 BULLETIN 399, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The strips are wound spirally on the drum until it is entirely
covered and are then nailed down smooth with No. 3 nails placed
about an inch apart. It is essential that no sharp corners or edges
of the metal be left projecting, since these will cut the fruit and cause
trouble.

The details of the frame construction are shown in figures 6 and 7.
The frame is made of pieces 4 by 4 inches mortised together and

Fic. 7.—Side view of the peeling machine, with the cover removed.

properly braced with iron. At the lower end of the machine the frame
is 20 inches high and at the upper end 32 inches high, so that one
end of the drum is 12 inches higher than the other. The frame is
fastened to the floor by lag screws, the ends being further secured
by iron braces in order to receive the end thrust which is caused by
the drum being higher at one end.

The feed screw (figs. 6, 7,and 9, H).—The feed screw is the same
length as the drum. It is built with 2-inch galvanized-iron pipe as

Fic. 8.—Top view of the feed table.

a shaft, on which is soldered a spiral made of 22-gauge galvanized
sheet iron. The flights of the spiral are 34 inches high and 4 inches
apart, each flight being made separately. These are then united
and soldered to form a continuous spiral and are set on the shaft
so that they project forward about 15°. The faces of the flights are
punched thickly with the 3-cornered punch, forming points about one-
eighth of an inch high on the forward face. This screw is supported
by pieces of a 32-inch shaft set in sleeve collars held inside the pipe
by serews. The shaft need not extend more than 2 feet into the
pipe at each end.

PRODUCTION OF SWEET-ORANGE OIL. 17

The feed table (figs. 6, 8, and 9, G).—The feed table consists of a
wood or iron frame 94 inches wide, running the entire length of the
machine under the feed screw. It should be the length of the ma-
chine from outside to outside of the end frames. The top of the
frame is covered with a 10-inch board, which is cut into sections as
shown in figure 8. These sections are held in place by some sort of
fastening on the outside edge, so that they can be drawn out at will.
The upper surfaces of these slides are covered with galvanized iron,

9 IY,
Gi) iW

=
5
BS

ZBS

Fic. 9.—Cross section through the machine.

toothed on the inside half in the same manner as the flights of the
feed screw but with the teeth a little smaller.

The adjustment mechanism (fig. 6).—The feed screw E is supported
at each end by an iron bar H, attached at the lower end to a bab-
bitted collar a on the drum shaft and held at the other end by a ver-
tical standard ZL, in which are several holes / for receiving the bolt k.
The hole in the iron bar H, through which the feed-screw shaft f
extends, should be at such a distance that when the feed screw is in
place there will be about one-half inch clearance between the edge
of the screw flights andthe drum. In case the machine is to be used
a great deal, the bearing for the shaft of the feed screw at f in the

18 BULLETIN 399, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

arm H should be reinforced by a babbitted bushing to prevent wear.
The short arm J is attached at the lower end to the same collar as
H, and the other end rests on the wheel nut N, running on the rod
which is secured at the upper end of the arm H. By means of this
wheel nut the outer end of the arm J/ can be raised and lowered.

The feed table is supported by an iron arm attached underneath
and forming a brace to hold the parts of the frame in position.
This arm is carried up to the level of the top of the table and bent
at right angles to extend in the same plane as the top of the table.
At K this arm is secured by a bolt to the arm WV and is then bent
upward at right angles, forming the lever O. At the top this lever
receives the iron rod and rests against the wheel nut P. By means
of this wheel nut the incline of the table is changed, moving on the bolt
Kas a pivot. It is essential that the center of the bolt A should be
in the same plane as the surface of the
drum and so arranged that the inside edge
of the slides forming the top of the table
should be about three-eighths of an inch
from the drum.

The shaft of the drum should be fur-
nished with a pulley of 8-inch face, of the
proper diameter to drive the drum at 600
revolutions per minute. The feed screw is
furnished with a large sprocket wheel and
driven by a small sprocket on the drum

Fia. 10.—Cross section of the shaft, of the proper size to turn the feed
ae screw at 150 revolutions per minute.

The peel receptacle—Underneath the drum is a trough made of
tin or galvanized iron to receive the finely divided peel. This trough
extends nearly to the floor and toward the front of the machine to a
vertical line from the outer edge of the feed table. The back of the
trough extends upward to the top of the frame and to it are attached
removable covers which entirely inclose the drum and feed screw.
These can easily be removed for cleaning and for removing the peel
which adheres to them.

OPERATING THE MACHINE.

The fruit to be peeled is placed in a large box (figs. 6, 7, and 9, T),
the bottom of which is a few inches higher than the top of the drum
at the lower end. From this box a narrow spout (fig. 9, U) extends
to the edge of the feed table. The fruit rolls into this spout and is
fed by hand, one at a time, between the two lower flights of the feed
screw (see fig. 9), one being delivered at each revolution of the feed
screw. The fruit is carried along by this screw in contact with the
drum, which removes the peel by grating. As soon as the fruit

PRODUCTION OF SWEET-ORANGE OIL. 19

comes in contact with the rapidly revolving drum it tends to spin
rapidly in the opposite direction, but this is sufficiently retarded by
the toothed surface of the table, which supports it, so that it is
acted upon by the teeth of the drum. The toothed flights of the
feed screw tend to roll the fruit forward on the table, so that the peel
is removed in a series of spirals. The peeled fruit is delivered from
the spout W (figs. 6 and 7).

In adjusting the machine for work the weight which the fruit
presents to the drum can be changed by raising or lowering the arm
H on the standard L (fig. 6). By means of the wheel nut P, the
table can be inclined so as to increase or decrease the angle made
with the drum. The smaller this angle is the more tendency there
is for the fruit to be pinched against the drum and the more severe
the grating action. The wheel nut JN raises or lowers the arm WV,
so that the table may be kept at the proper distance from the feed
screw.

CHANGES REQUIRED FOR THE VARIOUS CITRUS FRUITS.

The dimensions as given are those suitable for oranges or lemons.
If it is wished to use this machine for peeling grapefruit a feed screw
having flights of the proper size can be constructed and installed in
the same manner as has been described. In the case of limes, the
screw can be made smaller and shorter.

ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D.C.

AT

5 CENTS PER COPY
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WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1916

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

; BULLETIN No. 400 ¥ >

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief.

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. October 26, 1916

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT.

By Carteton R. Batt, Agronomist in Charge, and J. ALLEN OLaRK, Scientific
Assistant, Western Wheat Investigations, Office of Cereal Investigations.

CONTENTS.
Page. Page
Tinned hscinan Sees Pe eeee canon ee oes 1 | Warietallexperiments= 25 24--2225----5---05-5- 7
History of Marquis wheat........-.-.-.----- 2 SOURCEORUNeISCEd hee eee ese nE renee 7
Orin ae aa oe Serio e ese see NS- 2 Geographic area covered.....---.--.--.-- 7
Experiments in western Canada-.....--- 3 iesults Obtained = seee epee s esse eee 8
Introduction into the United States... ... 4 Summary of yield data.................. 38
Description of Marquis wheat..............- 4) Milling and baking quality.................. 40

INTRODUCTION.

Marquis wheat has attracted much attention in the United States
during the past three or four years. Large quantities of seed have
been imported from Canada and sold to farmers in this country. Ina
period of only three years the production has increased until it has be-
come of commercial importance.

The United States Department of Agriculture has had Marquis
wheat under experiment at a number of experiment farms for periods
of two or three years. These experiments have been conducted under
varying conditions of climate and soil. The results obtained in these
tests are shown in this bulletin. In addition, there are given some
results obtained independently by State agricultural experiment sta-
tions.

The experiments at Ames, Iowa; Brookings, Highmore, Eureka,
and Newell, S. Dak.; Dickinson and Williston, N. Dak.; Moccasin,
Mont.; Nephi, Utah; Aberdeen, Idaho; and Moro and Burns, Oreg.,
are conducted in cooperation with the agricultural experiment sta-
tions of those States, respectively. The experiments at Akron, Colo.,
are conducted in cooperation with the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture

Note.—This bulletin is intended for agronomists, both experimenters and extension workers, and for
technical workers in other lines who are concerned with wheat and its products,

50401°—Bull, 400—16——_1

2 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Investigations, and those at Newell, S. Dak., in cooperation with the
Office of Western Irrigation Agriculture, both of the Bureau of Plant
Industry. The results at Archer, Wyo., were obtained in cooperation
with the State board of farm commissioners.

The results at St. Paul and Crookston, Minn.; Langdon and Edge-
ley, N. Dak.; Lincoln and North Platte, Nebr.; and Davis, Cal.,
were obtained independently by the agricultural experiment stations
of those States. The writers desire to acknowledge their indebted-
ness to the directors and other officers of these stations and substa-
tions for their courtesy in permitting the use of these results. Full
credit for these data is given in the text in each case.

The data from Huntley, Mont., and the Truckee-Carson Reclama-
tion Project in Nevada were furnished by the Office of Western Irriga-
tion Agriculture of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

HISTORY OF MARQUIS WHEAT.

It is fortunate that in the case of Marquis wheat its origin is fairly
well known and the main facts of its subsequent history can be traced.
The Marquis variety is a hybrid wheat bred by the cerealists of
the Dominion Department of Agriculture, at Ottawa, Canada. The
present Dominion cerenlist has given an account of its origin in the

following words: !
ORIGIN.

A few details in regard to the origin and characteristics of Marquis wheat were
given in the report of the Experimental Farms for the yedr 1906. It seems neces-
sary, now, to treat this subject at somewhat greater length, in view of the excep-
tional interest which has lately been aroused in this wheat.

Among the crosses made by the director of experimental farms and his assistants
during the first few years after the farms were established, several were effected
between Red Fife and various early-maturing wheats from Europe and Asia. All
the details in regard to the origin of Marquis are not available, but it is one of the
descendants of a cross between an early-ripening Indian wheat, Hard Red Calcutta
(as female) and Red Fife (as male). The cross (as appears from unpublished notes)
was made by Dr. A. P. Saunders, probably at the experimental farm at Agassiz, in
the year 1892. The crossbred seeds, or their progeny, were transferred to Ottawa
and when the writer of this report was appointed in 1903 to take charge of the work of
cereal breeding, he made a series of selections from the progeny of all the crossbred
wheats which had been produced at Ottawa up to that time. Some of these had
been named and others were under numbers. Though they had all been subjected
to a certain amount of selection, each of them consisted of a mixture of related types.
In some cases all the types present were similar. n other instances striking differ-
ences were observed. The grain which had descended from the cross referred to
above was found by careful study of individual plants (especially by applying the
chewing test to ascertain the gluten strength and probable bread-making value) to
be a mixture of similar-looking varieties which differed radically in regard to gluten
quality. One of the varieties isolated from this mixture was subsequently named

1 Saunders, C. E. Marquis wheat. Jn Canada Exp. Farms Rpts. [1911-1912], p. 118-120. 1912.

ey eee ee ee ee ee ee a ee

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. 3

Marquis. © Its high bread-making strength and color of flour were demonstrated in
the tests made at Ottawa in the early months of 1907, and all the surplus seed was at
once sent to the Indian Head Experimental Farm for propagation.

It will be clearly seen from the above account that the question, ‘‘When was Mar-
quis wheat originated?” can never be answered. It came into existence probably
at Ottawa between the years 1895 and 1902. It remained, however, mixed with other
related sorts until discovered by the writer in 1903. It was first grown in a pure
state in 1904, when a few seeds were sown in a sheltered garden on the Central Ex-
perimental Farm. Even then, however, its fine qualities were only partly known,
and it was not until the cerealist’s baking tests of 1907 were completed that he de-
cided to send out this wheat for trial in Saskatchewan. Its success in the prairie
country was phenomenal.

EXPERIMENTS IN WESTERN CANADA.

Marquis wheat was first sent to the Prairie Provinces of Canada
in the spring of 1907. The report states that it immediately won a
phenomenal success. This success was not due to any lack of able
competitors.

For nearly two decades previous to 1907 the Red Fife had been
the most popular and highest yielding wheat grown in the Prairie
Provinces of Canada. It had been grown in a varietal test at the
Indian Head Experimental Farm in Saskatchewan continuously since
1888. Within this 18-year period, 98 other varieties were compared
with the Red Fife. Only two of these, the White Fife and Red
Fern, were grown throughout the entire 18 years. The average
acre yield of the Red Fife during this period was 37.6 bushels. It
outyielded both other varieties, though the average acre yield of the
White Fife was 36.4 bushels.

At the Brandon Experimental Farm in Manitoba, the Red Fife
was grown continuously for 17 years, 1890 to 1906, inclusive. Dur-
ing all or varying parts of this period, 85 other varieties and strains
were compared with it. Only five others were grown throughout
the 17 years. The Red Fife, with a 17-year average acre yield of
33.7 bushels, outyielded all the others except one. This one was the
White Fife, with an average acre yield of 34.2 bushels.

These data show the Red Fife and White Fife to be good varieties
and that any variety outyielding them must possess real merit.

Marquis wheat was introduced into experiments at Indian Head,
Saskatchewan, in 1907; at Brandon, Manitoba, and Lethbridge,
Alberta, in 1908; and at Rosthern, Saskatchewan, in 1911. Table I
shows the yield of the Marquis and Red Fife varieties at these stations
from the year of introduction to 1914 and the average yield of each
in the period during which they were grown. These data have been
taken from the published annual reports of the Canadian experi-
mental farms.

4 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TasLE I_—Annual and average yields of Marquis and Red Fife wheat, grown at four of
the Canadian experimental farms during varying periods within the years 1907 to 1914,
incluswe.

Yield per acre (bushels).
Station and variety. SS) SS
1907 1908 _| 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 |Average.

Indian Head, Saskatche-

Marquise cesses cee. 32.0 46. 3 37.5 48.0 50. 4 77.4 56. 7 54.0 50.3
Reds Hite. ei seces sees 12.0 35.0 24.8 43.0 26. 4 64.0 39.3 46.7 36.4
Brandon, Manitoba:
me quis: Daeenssoe secs aSalasaeees 49.2 43.3 42.7 46.6 36.6 50. 5 36.5 43.6
RE CREE SOA aaa lancet 41.5 40. 2 40.7 42.6 36.0 45.0 22.6 38.4
Lethbni, pAtinaata:
Beisia qeslbee weeialecise cine 29. 2 31.0 USO \sseoase 28.5 30; 03)'sseser ee 25.9
ee Ses ease acm eee (oem cttets 33.8 29.0 WESOlsoaescoc) Sila DAL A Rae 26.7
Roster, 7, Saskatehewan: 3
ele ale aera ees cle rape | mre Aare tore |e ae deere | ees Ste melee 70.0 43.3 54.0 45.3 53.1
Early Red LN) Reb ec aSe|4asdeesa| peeteros|lsoode = salleesanene 60. 0 27.3

36. 0 43.1 41.7

A study of Table I shows that the Marquis outyielded the Red Fife
at three of these stations by 5 to 14 bushels per acre. At Lethbridge
the Red Fife outyields Marquis by four-fifths of a bushel per acre.
The Kharkof, a hard red winter wheat, also outyields the Marquis at
Lethbridge.

The overyield of the Marquis at Indian Head is 38.2 per cent; at
Rosthern, 27.3 per cent; and at Brandon, 13.5 per cent.

INTRODUCTION INTO THE UNITED STATES.

Attention was first attracted to Marquis wheat in the United
States through its having won premiums at several expositions. In
consequence of this publicity a demand for the seed arose. A con-
siderable quantity of seed was brought into this country for sowing
in 1913. Much larger quantities were imported for sowing in 1914.
One firm in North Dakota claims to have handled 140,000 bushels in
the latter year.

The importations of these two years, with the seed home grown in
1913, were sufficient to sow about half a million acres in 1914. The
three States, Minnesota and the Dakotas, produced 6,360,000 bushels in
1914. The total crop of 1914 was probably about 7,000,000 bushels.
This gave a large supply of home-grown seed, and very little has been
imported since.

Most of the imported seed was sold in Minnesota, North Dakota,
and Montana. Smaller quantities were sold in Iowa, Nebraska,
South Dakota, and Washington. In this way the Marquis variety
became widely distributed in a very short time.

DESCRIPTION OF MARQUIS WHEAT.

In all important characters Marquis wheat closely resembles the
wheats of the Fife group, so commonly grown in the northern Great
Plains States. It is therefore included in the Fife group. It will be

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. 5

remembered that the Red Fife was the male parent of the Marquis and
that it doubtless was selected for Fife characters.

The Marquis is a beardless spring wheat, with white glabrous glumes
and broad and short hard red kernels. In general it differs from the

Fie. 1—Heads and kernels of three varieties of hard spring wheat, natural size: 1, Marquis; 2, Glyndon;
3, Haynes.

true Fife varieties in its shorter straw, shorter spike, shorter glumes,
and shorter, broader kernel. (Figs. 1 and 2.)

The plants are of only medium height, ranging from 28 to 48 inches,
according to season. They generally are 2 to 4 inches shorter than

6 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

those of the Glyndon and Power wheats. The straw is stiff and stands
up well under unfavorable weather conditions. The spikes are short,
varying from 2.5 to 4 inches in length. They average one-half to 1
inch shorter than those of other varieties of the Fife group (fig. 1).

Fig. 2.—Kernels of three varieties of hard spring common wheat, shown in four different positions, twice
natural size: 1, Marquis; 2, Glyndon; 3, Haynes.

Two or three short awns usually are found at the tip of the head, as
in other beardless wheats.

The glumes of the Marquis variety are short and broad. The
variety usually can be recognized, even before the seed is ripe, by this
character and by its lower stature. In spite of the short glumes the
seed is held firmly and does not shatter.

The kernels of other Fife wheats are short and broad, but those of
the Marquis are even more so. They vary from 4.5 to 6 millimeters

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. i

in length, averaging 5.2 millimeters, or nearly 1 millimeter shorter
than the kernels of Fife and Bluestem wheats (fig. 2). The crease also
is broader and deeper.

The Marquis is an early variety, ripening from 98 to 135 days after
sowing, varying with the season and locality. The average length of
its growing period in the northern Great Plains is about 115 days.
This makes it three or four days earlier than most of the other Fife
varieties. Because of its earliness it escapes to some extent the
drought of dry years, the rust and fall rains of wet seasons, and also
the early fall frosts. These are the characters which have made it
especially valuable in the Prairie Provinces of Canada.

The growing season lengthens as one passes southward into the
United States, and earliness is no longer so great an advantage.

VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS.

As soon as the Marquis wheat began to attract attention in 1912
the United States Department of Agriculture began an extensive
series of varietal experiments with it.

SOURCE OF THE SEED.

Asmall supply of seed (C. I. No. 3276) was obtained from Dr. C. E.
Saunders, of Ottawa, in January, 1912. This was grown in the
nurseries at several stations, but became the basis of the varietal
experiments in plats only at Aberdeen, Idaho, and Newell, S. Dak.
A larger supply (C. I. No. 3641) was obtained from the Lethbridge
Experimental Farm in Alberta, in the early spring of 1913. This
lot has been used in the varietal experiments of the Department of
Agriculture, except in Idaho and Oregon and at Newell, S. Dak. In
the spring of 1913 the Eastern Oregon Dry-Farming substation at
Moro obtained a supply of seed direct from the Indian Head Experi-
mental Farm in Saskatchewan. This lot of seed was given Cereal
Investigations No, 4158 and has been used in the varietal experiments
at Moro and Burns, Oreg. The sources of the seed used by the State
experiment stations conducting independent tests are not known.

GEOGRAPHIC AREA COVERED.

The experiments recorded herein have been conducted in 13 differ-
ent States. The area stretches from Iowa and Minnesota on the east
to California and Oregon on the west. All the intervening States are
included except Washington.

In this great expanse of territory the conditions of climate and soil
vary greatly. Naturally the adaptation and value of Marquis wheat
vary with local conditions. The eastern portion of this territory is
distinctly humid in climate, and the soil consists of glacial drift and
alluvium. Progressing westward into the northern section of the
Great Plains area marked changes occur, especially in the climatic

8 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

factors. In general the precipitation decreases, the elevation in-
creases, and the growing season becomes shorter. The soils become
heavy clay loams, varying to heavy clays or gumbo on the one hand
and to sandy loams and sands on the other.

West of the Rocky Mountains a new set of conditions present them-
selves. The precipitation usually is low, and sometimes very low.
The elevation in the great interior basins is high, except in the Colum-
bia Basin, where it seldom exceeds 2,000 feet. The soils are light in
texture. In the California valleys the elevation is low.

In the Rocky Mountain region and westward irrigation is practiced
where water and topography permit. Marquis wheat has been tested
under irrigation as well as by dry-farming methods in the semiarid and
arid portions of the territory covered.

For convenience in presenting the results obtained, the territory
under discussion may be separated into four divisions, according to
the prevailing conditions. These divisions may be called (1) the
northern Prairie States, or subhumid section; (2) the northern Great

Plains States, or semiarid section; (8) the Basin and Coast, or arid”

areas, including the Great Basin, the Snake River basin, the Harney
Valley, the Columbia basin, and the California valleys; and (4) the
irrigated districts of the northern Rocky Mountain region and Great

Basin areas.
RESULTS OBTAINED.

The results of varietal experiments reported in this paper have
been obtained at 22 different experiment stations. At 15 of these
stations, in nine different States, the experiments are conducted by
the Office of Cereal Investigations, usually in cooperation with the
State agricultural experiment station or some other agency. At
eight different stations in four States the results given have been
obtained independently by the State agricultural experiment station
or other agency. The source of the data is explained in connection
with each station.

The experimental conditions have varied somewhat at some of
the stations. The results obtained at one station, therefore, are not
necessarily directly comparable with those obtained at another station.
In most cases, however, they probably are directly comparable.

In all cases the results from different varieties at the same station
were nearly always obtained under similar conditions and may be
directly compared. Any known exceptions to this fact are stated
in the text.

At each station the aim has been to grow the experimental crops
under conditions approximating good farm practice for that locality.
All crops have been grown by means of only the natural rainfall
except those discussed in the fourth division, which were grown
under irrigation.

—

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. 9
RESULTS IN THE NORTHERN PRAIRIE STATES.

This section covers the northern Prairie States lying west of the
Mississippi River. It includes Iowa, Minnesota, and the subhumid
eastern parts of Nebraska and the two Dakotas. Only the narrow
limits of the Sioux Valley of South Dakota and the Red River Valley
of North Dakota can be classed as subhumid in these two States.

CAIMIEAN
(WINTER)

N
N
N

eae Be 4

PRESTON S. D nee

Lincols
Zhrs. \.

Fic. 3.—Diagram showing the average yields of the Marquis and the leading variety in each of several
different groups of wheat at five stations in the northern Prairie States? ‘during either two or three of the
years 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

Marquis wheat has been grown to a considerable extent in this
subhumid part of the upper Mississippi Valley. About one and one-
third millions of bushels were grown in Minnesota alone in 1914.
The variety has been tested at several experiment stations located
in this section. The positions of five such stations and the results
obtaimed during the last three years are shown in figure 3. The

-50401°—Bull, 400—16——2

10 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

stations are Ames, Iowa; Lincoln, Nebr.; Brookings, 8. Dak.; and
St. Paul and Crookston, Minn.

Figure 3 shows by means of graduated columns the average yield
of Marquis wheat and of the leading variety in each of several groups
of wheat durig the 3-year period, 1913 to 1915, except as other-
wise noted. The same data will be found in tabulated form in
Tables III to VII, inclusive.

The annual rainfall at each of these stations during 1913, 1914,
and 1915, so far as available, and the average for the 3-year period,
together with the elevation, are shown in Table II. The average
annual rainfall at Ames, Iowa, not shown in the table, is about 40
inches. From this there is a decrease at the other stations. Crook-
ston, Minn., has the lowest average, a little less than 20 inches.
Brookings, S. Dak., has the highest elevation.

TaseE Il.—Altitude, annual precipitation, and seasonal precipitation at five experiment
stations in the northern Prairie States, or subhumid section, during 1913, 1914, and
1915, except_as otherwise noted.

Precipitation (inches).

2 Alti- Annual. Seasonal.t
Station. nae. j
~ | Aver- i Aver-
1913 1914 1915 age. 1913 1914 1915 age.
Feet ati
ANOS, NOWicaascvesssocecacs 907 Ale eee (?) BROS leesesaseloasececs -(?) WEED Wee seobes
incolms Nebr eos). eee =e 1,189 | 26.23 | 40.02] 36.81] 34.35] 12.30] 20.70} 11.81 14.94
Brookings, S. Dak..-....-.-- 1,636 | 16.58] 24.15] 20.42] 20.38] 10.69] 14.09) 10.47 11.75
Sis Jeayell, Within. ~5socesccscc5 837 | 24.05 | 24.62] 30.79} 26.49 13. 73 12. 65 14.74 13. 71
Crookston, Minn.....-.....-- 863 | 16.20) 23.03} 20.11 | 19.78 8.62 | 14.38] 14.98 12. 66

1 The records of seasonal precipitation include the months of April to June, inclusive, at Ames and
Lincoln and the months of May to July, inclusive, at the other stations.
2 No records available.

The annual rainfall is usually sufficient for normal crop production.
Nearly half of the annual precipitation falls durmg the four months
of May, June, July, and August. The growing season is fairly long, »
varying from about 130 days to as many as 150 days.

RESULTS AT AMES, IOWA.

As shown in Table III, Marquis wheat has been grown only two
years at this station. The data show that the hard red winter
wheats of the Crimean group far outyield any spring wheats. The
Marquis is compared, however, with three other spring wheats.
These varieties represent the three different groups of hard spring
common wheat which are extensively grown in the hard spring-wheat
States. In these two years the Marquis outyielded them all by 3 to
4 bushels to the acre. Representative heads and kernels of the

a

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT.

11

Preston (spring common), Kubanka (spring durum), and Crimean
(winter) groups are shown in figures 4 and 5.

Fig. 4.—Heads and kernels of three varieties of hard wheat, one-half natural size: 1, Preston (spring
common); 2, Kubanka (spring durum); 3, Kharkof (winter).

TasieE IIl.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and six other varieties of wheat
grown at the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa, during 1914. and1915.

[Data obtained in cooperation with the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Group and variety.

Fife:
MAT GUISE eee. eee

Givin (Mii: AN Os :1G3))2 2 gece Gera ae siecle eles «= enero wise crese

Crimean (winter):
Turkey (lowa No. 404).
PIRATE CVE ei ae ssc

Yield per acre (bushels).

1914

12.0
12.0

41.7
34.1
33,3
11.9
12.7 |

1915

21.0
12.3

40.7
39. 2
38.8
15.3

13.0

Average.

12 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
RESULTS AT LINCOLN, NEBR.

The experiments reported in Table IV were conducted independ-
ently by the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, and the
results are made available here through the courtesy of its director
and other officers. The yields obtained from the Marquis, Turkey,

Fic. 5.—Kernels of three varieties of hard wheat, shown in four different positions, twice natural size: 1,
Preston (spring common); 2, Kubanka (spring durum); 3, Kharkof (winter).

and Preston varieties during three years are given. The 3-year aver-
age yield of the Marquis is about 8 bushels less than that of the
Turkey, although it outyielded the Turkey in 1914. Its average yield
exceeds that of the Preston, a bearded spring wheat, by only 1.4
bushels per acre,

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. ars
Concerning the Marquis wheat, Prof. T. A. Kiesselbach, agrono-
mist at the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, says:

It has been our observation that the quality of the Marquis grain is usually some-
what inferior to the grain of the other varieties. The seed is usually more shrunken.
Taste 1V.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and two other varieties of wheat

grown at the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, Lincoln, Nebr., 1913 to 1915,

anclusive. i

[Data presented by courtesy of the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and variety.
1913 1914 1915 Average.

Fife:

WERE 3 Sos Ge gseS Ga CSE SO See a a eS. Ae oa 32.6 33.7 16.0 27.4
Crimean (winter):

FittiT kexy ae see re es tet ieS eo IE .. . o 48.3 28.8 28.7 35.3
Preston:

JAWS IONE Un: CSD eS Sane e SERRE BRe eee eee eo mene 31.6 29.3 16.8 26.0

1 Average yields of two varieties grown as ‘‘Scotch Fife” and ‘‘Swedish,”’ both of which proved to be
the Preston variety.

RESULTS AT BROOKINGS, S. DAK.

Cooperative varietal experiments with Marquis wheat have been
conducted during three years at the South Dakota Agricultural
_ Experiment Station at Brookings. The annual and average yields
of the Marquis and eight other varieties, representing five different
groups of wheat, are given in Table V.

TasLe V.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and eight other varieties of wheat
grown at the Brookings (S. Dak.) station, 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

[Data obtained in cooperation with the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Yield per acre (bushels).

Group and variety. C.1. No.
1913 1914 1915 Average.
}
Fife:
MBO RBIS. n3 Sede Cae CREE Ea ER ee eee 3641 29.3 15.8 26.7 23.9
GIO OM. S453 a8es Beosc He nee aca cee ee eee 2873 19.2 9.2 via) 12.0
Crimean (winter): i ¥
THEE sso GU Beatie en ee a ce 3055 34.2 30.8 43.3 36.1
Kubanka (durum):
HSGpoe Tae <a SA 2 es a ee 1440 28.3 15.0 17.0 20.1
PANIIT DIT Dkcenree) mM ae an ee MES Ue ied | 4072 25.8 11.2 22.5 19.8
Preston
FERES LOT Mets io ee Seen ee ene oseenecen 3081 27.6 Us 7 18.3 19.5
TPRESTIOM 45 dese eM GS Ee pee emule ee oe ala | 3328 PP.3) 5.8 21.6 16.6
Bluestem:
IDBIROUG\ USER on 2 ee eee eee eR BES? Aa eee 3083 26.7 8.3 1p al 15.7
WHBIRTEN = Shoo ee Baers oe eae oe = re ee ae ae | 3082 22.7 Saat 11.6 183,83
1

It will be noted that the Turkey, a hard red winter wheat, outyields
all spring wheats by more than 12 bushels to the acre. Among the
spring wheats, however, the Marquis outyields all other varieties,
including five common wheats and two durum wheats. The durum
varieties outyield all spring common wheats except the Marquis. The

14 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

average yield of the Marquis exceeds that of the Kubanka by about
15 per cent, and that of the best Preston by more than 18 per cent.
It much ele the Bluestem varieties and nearly doubles the yield of
the Glyndon Fife.

RESULTS AT ST, PAUL, MINN.

The experiments recorded in Table VI were conducted independ-
ently by the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, and the
results are presented here through the courtesy of the director and
other officers.

Table VI shows that in the two years when data on winter wheat
are available, the Turkey variety outyielded all the leading varieties of
spring wheat. In the 3-year average yield, the Marquis slightly out-
yields all other varieties of spring wheat. The quantities by which it
exceeds the Preston and Glyndon, however, are too small to be
significant, amounting to 2.5 and 4 per cent, respectively. The
advantage of the Marquis over the Haynes and Kubanka is about 15
per cent in each case. The 2-year average yield of the Turkey is
about 35 per cent higher than that of the Marquis. 5

In correspondence, Profs. Andrew Boss and A. C. Arny state that
these varieties were grown on small duplicated plats, 3 by 132 feet,
with cultivated 2-foot alleys on either side. The yields, therefore, are
higher than those obtained on larger plats and in fields, but are com-
parable one with another.

TaBLE VI.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and five other varieties of wheat
grown at the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, University Farm, St. Paul,
Minn., 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

[Data presented by courtesy of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Yield per acre (bushels).

Group and variety. _ |Minn. No. Average.
1913 1914 1915
Two- Three
years. | years.

Fife:

Manaus SERGE CRISS a Se Oe eae eee ees } 1239 41.9 Paki! 50.0 | 38.9 39.9
TLYTIGCONS Fae aees ae eens oss 285 38.6 27.0 49.2 38.1 38.3
Crimean (winter):
UDK OY inte Saisie cre eiceeeee see omen seeice po) | a a 47.8 57.0 Py vel oe a eee
Preston:
Prestoniese epee ee eee ease 924 43.5 26.5 46.7 | 36.6 | 38.9
Kubanka (durum):
Keri banka Naoko see Sececpaee ee eee 990 Daf 20.3 46.7 | 38.5 34.2
Bluestem: |
FERAL VMIGS ice eee ee ret Gaara 169 33.8 | 26. 7 39.9 | 33.3 33.5

RESULTS AT CROOKSTON, MINN,

The experiments at Crookston, Minn., have been conducted by the
Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. The results are avyail-
able through the courtesy of the director of the station and his asso-

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. 15

—_—

ciates. The Marquis variety has been grown during three years, 1913
to 1915, inclusive, and the annual and average yields of this and
other varieties are shown in Table VII. The average yield of each
variety is given graphically in figure 3.

The data show. that the Marquis outyields any of the other three
varieties, representing three separate groups of wheat. It excels the
Kubanka by only 5 per cent, but exceeds the Preston and Bluestem by
25 and 30 per cent, respectively. Two plats of Marquis wheat were
grown each year, the original seed having been received from separate
sources. The yields given are an average of the yields of the two
plats. The Glyndon, a Fife variety, was grown in 1913 and yielded
17.4 bushels to the acre, while the two Marquis plats yielded 20.5
and 22.3 bushels, respectively. Winter wheat has not been grown
successfully in this part of Minnesota.

Taste VII. —Annual and average yields of the Marquis and three other varieties of wheat
grown at the Northwest Experiment Station, Crookston, Minn., 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

[Data presented by courtesy of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Yield per acre (bushels). Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and variety. Group and variety.
1913 | 1914 | 1915 | Aver 1913-| 1914 | 1915 | Aver
age. | age.
Fife: Preston:
Marquis!........... 21.4 | 23.9 | 40.0 28.4 || IPreSuOUtS 5 sen es esae 18525) Weale2sat 21.3
Kubanka (durum): Bluestem: 2
iRaibankal 220s. oes. 27.8 | 14.6 | 38.0 26.8 Haynes (Minn. No.
169) 22s eee ones 17.4 | 19.2 | 23.3 20.0

1 Average of the yields of two lots.

CONCLUSIONS.

Two facts are shown clearly by figure 3 and Tables III to VII,
inclusive, on which figure 3 is based. These facts are (1) that where
hard red winter wheats of the Crimean group can be grown in this
section they outyield any spring wheat, and (2) that Marquis wheat
outyields other varieties of spring wheat at all these stations. These
results are based on 3-year tests at all stations except Iowa, where
they cover only two years.

The gain in yield of the Marquis over other spring wheat varieties
belonging to the Fife, Bluestem, and Preston groups is small. At
St. Paul, Minn., and Lincoln, Nebr., the difference is only about 14
bushels. In central Iowa and eastern South Dakota it is 3 to 4
bushels. At Crookston, Minn., however, the difference is about 7
bushels. The gain in yield of the Marquis over durum wheats at the
three northern stations in this section varies from 1.5 to more than
5 bushels.

16 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
RESULTS IN THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS AREA,

The northern half of the Great Plains area includes most of Nebraska
and the Dakotas, northeastern Colorado, eastern Wyoming, and the
eastern half of Montana.

It was to the northern States of this division that Marquis wheat
was first introduced. It is in the Dakotas and Montana that it has

SSE SS SSS

Cs

LEGELWVD

TD
ma)

> COCOTECETTT
LOLOL
STI

WOE

ENYA ERNE

MAR OWS

it

ORITLAL VIOCCAS//7
SYS.

(WINTER)

ULL

LL

e 2
Z
Z
NUZ

MMYUTIOCE

oe
NT}? FIBATE
SOGS.

id
__ = — = =" =

SALE
MV
SUSHELSF

Fig. 6—Diagram showing the average yields of the Marquis and the leading variety in each of several
different groups of wheat at 11 stations in the northern Great Plains area during either two or three of the
years 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

become most extensively grown. In 1914 North Dakota alone pro-
duced over four millions of bushels and South Dakota nearly a million
bushels. No data for Montana were gathered. If statistics for the
production in 1915 were available, the increase in these three States
would be found to be enormous.

Varietal experiments with the Marquis and other wheat varieties
have been conducted under dry-land conditions at nine experiment
stations in this section during the three years, 1913 to 1915, inclusive,

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. 107

and at two others during the last two years of this period. The sta-
tions are as follows: North Platte, Nebr.; Akron, Colo.; Archer, Wyo. ;
Newell, Highmore, and Eureka, 8. Dak.; Edgeley, Langdon, Willis-
ton, and Dickinson, N. Dak.; and Moccasin, Mont. The location of
these 11 stations and the results of the varietal experiments are shown
graphically in figure 6. By means of graduated columns the average
yield of Marquis wheat is shown with that of the leading variety in
each of several groups of wheat grown commercially in these States.
The same data will be found in Tables IX to XIX, inclusive.

The climate of this section is generally ciassed as semiarid. Table
VIII shows the altitude of each station and the records of annual
and seasonal rainfall during the three years, 1913 to 1915, inclusive,
when the varietal experiments were in progress. In the three years
under discussion the average annual rainfall has varied between 15
and 20 inches at all these stations except North Platte, Nebr. The
higher average at that station is due entirely to the enormous pre-
cipitation of the year 1915. In general, the annual rainfall decreases
in passing westward across this section. The altitude steadily
increases from east to west, varying from 1,000 or 1,500 feet on the
eastern border to 6,000 feet in eastern Wyoming and Colorado.

TaBLe VIII.—Altitude and annual and seasonal precipitation at 11 experiment stations
in the semiarid northern section of the Great Plains area.

Precipitation (inches).

2 Alti- Annual. Seasonal.!
Station. Baden
| - | Aver- ~ | Aver-
1913 | 1914 1915 age. 1913 1914 1915 age.
i
Feet. |
Worthvblatte: Nebr... 2-222. Psss22252 3,000 | 18.52 | 16.10 | 34.85 | 23.16 9.02 8.12 | 19.56 1P)95)
PRETOM MO OOM aes scr oes = aa -ceseee 4,560 | 16.05 | 15.58 | 25.00 | 18.88 6.81 | 10.67 | 14.17 10. 55
FAM CHET WEY Olina ial= fielateratoic Se Sisto os ee 6,027 | 16.80 | 11.60 | 18.32 | 15.57 9.26 | 8.52} 12.69 10.16
WNewellSS Dak... 2-2. 2s222228262-5- 2,950 | 12.53 | 11.70 | 21.02 | 15.08 5.68 7.03 | 15.83 9.51
ichmore; 2 Dak. 2.522252 25-222 -<5- 1, 890 | 12.46 | 17.52 | 23.29 | 17.76 8.59 | 11.98 | 16.40 12.32
aTekas Ose ak. 5225222) se see M884) |Poes 8 14.50 | 24.89 | 19.70 |.-..--. 9.80 | 12.45 2,
BdeeleyaeNa Dale. 55222525. 22 deo gs 222 1,468 | 19.82 | 17.80 | 21.96 | 19.86 9.06 | 13.06 | 13.88 12.00
anedonwNirDakoc2ei ess 2. 222222. 8e A Olon ere eee ASH elo on a AQi ee ites 7.42 9.15 8.27
SVAUISGOne NED ak Sona. cn ose. 1,875 | 15.27 | 18.47 | 14.62 6.12 5.95 | 12.00 7.23 8.39
DickinsonsNiN Dak) jose... 33228522. 2,453 | 11.93 | 22.74 | 20.53 8.40 5.43 | 18.84 | 14.41 12. 89
Moccasine Montero. he. se jee sae 4,228 | 14.96 | 15.67 | 20.68 | 17.10 9. 32 9.38 | 11.06 9. 92
J I }

1The record for seasonal precipitation includes the four months of April, May, June, and July at all
stations except North Platte, Nebr.,and Archer, Wyo. At North Platte the record is for the four months
of March, April, May, and June. At Archer the record is for the five months of April, May, June, July, and
August.

Crop production is governed largely by the quantity and distribu-
tion of the annual precipitation. Reference to Table VIII shows that
one-half to two-thirds of the total comes during the growing season
of four months. Wind movement is fairly constant and summer
temperatures rather high. These factors cause loss of water by
evaporation. Hot winds and hail sometimes occur. Wet, warm
weather in midsummer sometimes promotes epidemics of rust.

50401°—Bull. 400—16——3

18 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The length of the growing season varies with the altitude and
latitude. The frost-free period decreases from about 130 days in the
lower portions to about 90 days at the higher elevations. In general,
early and drought-resistant varieties have an advantage in escaping
hot winds, drought, and frost. A brief popular classification and de-

scription of the important groups of hard spring wheat and the
leading varieties in each group is already availablet

RESULTS AT NORTH PLATTE, NEBR,

The experiments reported in Table [IX were conducted independ-
ently by the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, and the
results are made available here through the courtesy of the director
and other officers. They have been continued through the 3-year
period, 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

Table LX shows that the Turkey wheat, a hard red winter variety,
largely outyields all the spring wheats. The advantage of the Turkey
over Kubanka No. 1, a durum wheat and the highest yielding spring
variety, is 54 per cent. The durum varieties slightly outyield the
Marquis, while the durums and the Marquis all outyield the Preston.
It is unfortunate that no other variety of the Fife group has been
grown at North Platte. The results im hand do not show whether
or not the Marquis would outyield other Fife wheats.

TasLe [X.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and five other varieties of wheat
grown at the North Platte substation, 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

[Data presented through the courtesy of the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and variety.
1913 1914 1915 Average.

Fife:

VAT OUIIS Mee mem etseps ers 5b kaa SON 2 Aree oe Bs Sener Wee Be 6.8 4.3 20. 2 10.4
Crimean (winter):

RUT Oven seen c ci Sa eel. Slee i oe ess oe.) SERS bi Actes E83 8.0 31.1 18.8
Kubanka and Kahla (durum):

Ke pamikayNoseecesa ios eye fae 5 ke ee a |e Se il 3.9 25.1 12.2

Ini opine Us5 on 8 See eels Meee er an A eee eee. a ee 7.9 P33 21.6 10.6

Fes ae eee ee eee ae he fee AAR Sale 2. | SO sate 9.8 2.9 19.2 10.6
Preston:

NEAT GS GO MMs ae eee en ee raf, aya poets a a 22 ee teh 3.0 3.0 6.6 4.2

1 Average yields from nine plats in the rotations of the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture Investigations.
2 Average yield of two plats.
3 This variety was grown under the name ‘‘Scotch Fife.”

RESULTS AT AKRON, COLO.

At Akron, Marquis wheat has been compared with other winter and
spring varieties during the 3-year period, 1913 to 1915, inclusive.
The annual and average yields are shown in Table X, and the average
results appear graphically in figure 6.

1 Ball, C. R., and Clark, J. A. Varieties of hard spring wheat. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 680, 20
By figs, L915.

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. 19

The data show that here also the hard red winter wheats of the
Crimean group outyield any spring wheat. The margin of advan-
tage, however, is not wide. Considering only the spring wheats it is
seen that the three durum varieties outyield any of the spring com-
mon varieties by 3 to 5 bushels per acre. Among the five spring
common wheats, the Marquis ranks third, being slightly exceeded by
the Ghirka Spring, of the Fife group, and a bearded variety called
Red Russian, of the Preston group. Among the entire 11 varieties
the Marquis ranks ninth.

TaBLE X.—Anmnual and average yields of the Marquis and seven other varieties of spring
wheat and three varieties of winter wheat grown at the Akron Field Station, Akron, Colo..,
1913 to 1915, inclusive.

[Experiments conducted in cooperation with the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture Investigations.]

Yield per acre (bushels).

Group and variety. Re |
¥ = A ver-
1913 1914 1915 age.

Fife: f

SEEING OVS 3 Gessner O13. es 3641 7a) || Gea || Gas 17.9

inka pringe eet seats. ... eee 1 || EO | eS) BB 18.6

Gy BOOMS y-\oa sae es. as ott eeeoesae ee eee wads 2-- 2 See Oe 2873 8.0 16.6 16. 2 13.6
Crimean (Winter):

aR ARKOUO bated etnies jane a 2 oe sae ea eee ~ 2a... 22 epee 4207 18.5 26.1 28.3 24.3

[RUIGTIRG) sage ba cOe ACO e Es Seer een ae — oe ers 1583 16.6 25.9 29. 2 23.9

OM PRINS 5 secre wi dieie xaie Sele aces eA aesice soa. = sae 1442 16.1 26.6 27.5 23.4

Pelissier and Kubanka (durum):

LEVEY IVSSH (GIF =f eS eS Si A ER nM SS 2ST 1584 10.5 26. 6 31.6 22.9

LTTE GL: Seek Oe Se eet ee ea |S it 1493 10.5 27.6 27.9 22.0

TRS OPTED S oo eS Gee Se eee ee = ys 1516 6.0 26.5 Biles} 21.3
Preston:

edektussian = 822% 222. : Serene ee eo Ss ac 2 4141 8.3 23.0 23.9 18.4

IDE 2 Sete ae a a es eR eR 1 | 2397 12.0 19.3] 19.5 16.9

RESULTS AT ARCHER, WYO.

At Archer the varietal experiments have included Marquis wheat
during the three years, 1913, 1914, and 1915. The annual and aver-
age yields are shown in Table XI. The average yield of the highest
yielding variety in each group is shown graphically in figure 6.

The results shown in Table XI are much like those obtained at
Akron, Colo. The hard red winter wheats outyield any spring
wheats, though they exceed the durums by only 1 bushel. The
Ghirka Winter, a beardless winter variety, not shown in the table,
gave an average acre yield of 18.2 bushels, or nearly 1 bushel more
than the Turkey, the best variety of the Crimean group. The durums
again outyield all spring common wheats. Among the latter, how-
ever, the Marquis leads. It outyields the next best variety of the
Fife group, the Ghirka Spring, by 2 bushels, and the best Bluestem
variety by 4.5 bushels. However, it exceeds the best of the Preston
group by only 0.3 of a bushel.

20 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE XI.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and 11 other varieties of wheat
grown on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm, Archer, Wyo., 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

[Experiments conducted in cooperation with the Wyoming State Board of Farm Commissioners.]

Yield per acre (bushels).

Group and variety. hee
1913 1914 1915

Fife:

INGO RICE Am ac Sea oe Sum ct cee Ge aete cio Ho SRaER a: SOst ee Seee 3641 9.0 8.4 21.0

Chinkals pring 25 feos ace heen neces ee ene Seema ate 1517 9.2 10.0 1382

Giving one ore eee ete SNES O UN eee Re. See ecieick 2873 5.8 9.6 11 5S
Crimean (winter):

urkey. -..- 1571 10.0 9.8 32.0

Kharkof 1442 9.8 4.7 37.1

Crimean........ 1559 9.7 37) 38. 6
Kubanka (durum):

IB CLOUT Kar Sas cee cis sien ee ore oat Seeeicte = ace ae aes 1520 Went 11.9 28.9

ACA Bi onal tc: FS a ey ae a ae ae a Ge eee Se Se aie 1440 7.5 12.5 25.6
Preston:

Red Russian. -..- SIE Ee eS AS et Ss | 4141 8.3 10.2 19.0

FE resbOme ee ese setcte eel ace eee ke Sao t eee eeesaen 3698 6.7 9.8 15.3
Bluestem:

IseAnes) (Aba, NOs IGS)\ 48 o padsaoosasscoldcsadsooudedosese 2874 4.4 9.0 11.7

Haynes\ (Minne NOxoD) so ae ate cease sae eee see enna 1505 | 2.6 58 10.7

RESULTS AT NEWELL, S. DAK.

A-ver-
age.

Ket Be

be
epee) NS) aie Ee Gov)

Nw OM NN NNW WMH

The experiments at Newell have included the Marquis variety dur-

ing the 3-year period, 1913 to 1915, melusive.

The annual and aver-

age results are shown in Table XII. The yield of the best variety

in each group is shown graphically in figure 6.

TasLeE XII.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and eight other varieties of wheat
grown on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, Newell, S. Dak., 1913 to 1915,

inclusive.

[Data obtained in cooperation with the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Group and variety. No.

Fife

IMPaTCUISE Ree ee es ais ORE Re AUN aS i a aa 3276

OW. CIS eerste ene Seneca nes RI IEE AS Ry) SiON eee BD 3025

(Galiyal OTD terete eee or iS oe Ae eee Sc = SE epee eters 2873
Crimean (winter):

Reh ark Ofer aise ie ob cle aap te ras oe 2c. | Sane este Wick 1442
Kubanka (durum):

Cher OG a eye eta creek ee ae Meme UR TaD 1S 2 MARE cups 1350

err ar cane n een ike (oie Min WY enn ti) | RRR Sane 1516

BATE Gear ayaye estes ae ase tae ee Cee ee oS ee eee 1493
Preston:

JETS) OAS tes AECL SESS a SSS in RN TTR ICRI 9 eer BNR 3081
Bluestem:

BBELCLV TOS: eae ey se meta fa ae ore ce eraccesin oie Se eo 3020

Yield per acre (bushels).

Aver-
1913 1914 1915 age.
16.8 8.0 50.9 25.2
16.6 5.1 43.4 PALS 7)
15.8 Hp I 39.8 20.2
38.6 28.7 63.8 43.7
16.7 9.7 58. 2 28.2
19.1 9.6 54.5 27.7
ili 9.5 54.9 27.2
19.5 7.2 46.9 24.5
14.1 5d 42.0 20. 4

Here, as at the stations previously discussed, the hard winter
wheats excel all spring wheats. The Kharkof outyields the Pere-
rodka durum, the highest yielding spring variety, by 55 per cent.
Again, the durum wheats outyield all groups of sprmg common
whests by good margins. The Marquis excels all other varieties of

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. Dali

spring common wheat. It outyields the Preston by only 3 per cent,
but the Power and Glyndon by 14 and 20 per cent, respectively, and
the Haynes by 19 per cent.

RESULTS AT HIGHMORE, S. DAK,

The Marquis variety has been included in the varietal experiments
at Highmore during three years, 1913 to 1915, inclusive. The annual
and average yields obtaimed from the Marquis and eight other
varieties are shown in Table XIII. The average yield of the best
variety in each group is shown graphically in figure 6.

The Marquis has outyielded all other varieties, both winter and
spring, at Highmore during the period specified. The Kubanka and
Preston are nearly tied for second place and do not fall far below the
Marquis. The Kharkof, the hard winter variety, and the Haynes
and three varieties of the Fife group fall from 4 to 11 bushels, or from
22 to more than 100 per cent, below the Marquis in yield. The
comparatively high yield of the Marquis variety in 1913 was due to
the favorable location of the plat in a low moist spot.

TasLe XITI.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and eight other varieties of wheat
grown at the Highmore (S. Dak.) substation, 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

[Experiments conducted in cooperation with the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.}

Yield per acre (bushels).
5 Cli:
Group and variety. No X
q rE Aver-
1913 1914 | 1915 age.
| |
Fife: | |
MUSING (BLISS So ae CBee es ORES Oe eee ea Ee ait a eae | 3641 IPL ¢/ 13.3 Sane 19.8
LE OT Gl oats BSED ECU IGE ASRS Se em) eee 2989 6.3 8.7 26.7 13.9
(CUTE 1 he Ben ae ee SROGe Sones a SU ee eee. os eee Tee 6.5 11.3 16.7 11.5
COU r eee eee ee oeciae seks 2 ae ee | 2873 8.7 dood 10.0 8.7
Kubanka (deren)
BID eae ee en a erate cones 3 ls el | 1354 3.3 22.2 30.0 18.5
IDO s cen ses caese aoe ae ee ee eS Ss hae te 1440 2.0 19.7 33.3 18.3
Preston:
JPTESTITIE LA ro Sao en ee ae ie ee ee ane ae cy | 3081 6.5 12.0 35.8 18-1
Crimean (winter):
An Ole pease = aoe oes cise aoe eisecets v=: woe eee eee 1442 Dail 12.5 31.7 15. 4
Bluestem | ¥
ray nes (Minn) NO.j51) soe 6 sales oe se ois os = eee 1505 7.7 4.8 22.5 11.7
|

RESULTS AT EUREKA, S. DAK.

At Eureka the Marquis has been grown in the varietal test during
only two years, 1914 and 1915. The annual and average yields are
shown in Table XIV. The best yielding variety in each group and
the average yield produced by it in the 2-year period are shown
graphically in figure 6.

The results show that the Kubanka durum is the highest yielding
among the five varieties tested. It outyields the Marquis by 3.5
bushels, or 15.5 per cent. The Marquis ranks second, exceeding the

22

BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Preston by 25 per cent and the Dakota Bluestem by 46 per cent.
The Turkey, the only variety of hard winter wheat tested, was a
complete failure in both years, except when mulched with straw.

TasLe XIV.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and four other varieties of wheat
grown at the Eureka (S. Dak.) substation during 1914 and 1915.

[Data obtained in cooperation with the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Yield per acre Yield per acre
(bushels). (bushels).
Group and variety. o A ; Group and variety. < ie :
~ | Aver- | Aver-
1914 | 1915 age. | 1914 | 1915 age.
Fife: Bluestem:
IMMBNECHOIS Sa sococass 3641 9.7 | 35.5] 22.6 IDalcotaeeescer ene 3083 6.6 | 18.5 12.6
Kubanka (durum): Crimean (winter):
INDI ROIYS oo oocobeod 1440 | 9.3 | 42.9} 26.1 RULKCYE eee esses 3055 0 0 0
Preston:
Preston jas tn -eeSe 3081 | 10.7 | 22.9 16.8

RESULTS AT EDGELEY, N. DAK.

The experiments at Edgeley are conducted independently by the
North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, and the results
shown in Table XV have been made available through the courtesy
The experiments
have included the Marquis during three years, 1913 to 1915, inclusive.
The results are given in Table XV, and the yield of the leading
variety in each group appears in figure 6.

Winter wheats are not grown at Edgeley. Durum varieties con-
siderably outyield either the Fife or Bluestem groups of spring com-

of the director and other officers of that station.

mon wheat.

Fife and Bluestem groups.

The Marquis wheat excels all other varieties in the
It outyields the Power, the next best

Fife variety, by over 5 per cent and the Haynes by nearly 10 per cent.

TasLeE XV.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and seven other varieties of wheat
grown at the Edgeley (N. Dak.) substation, 1913 to 1915, inclusive,

[Data used by courtesy of the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Group and variety.

Fife:

Power (Sel.)......-..-
Ghirka Spring.........

Power (Sel. N. Dak. No. 66)..... 2s Cee oo

Kubanka (durum):
ASEM a a ere Sere epee
INI Cana otiaesssseeeeeere
Bluestem:
Haynes (Minn. No, 51)
SATINIGT:] CAM See neces

Yield per acre (bushels).
Cole INaDalke
No. No.
Aver-
1913 1914 1915 age,
eye Seteasie 2700 26. 6 10.5 32.0 23.0
3025 312 30. 6 7.0 27.9 21.8
1517 2013 30.6 9.0 24.6 21.4
Reece 920 26.9 55) 31.0 ileal
1494 778 25.2 15.5 43.4 28.0
2006 543 25.2 11555) 38. 2 26.3
3021 779 26.9 5.0 29.9 20.6
Eee sia 872 25.1 3.5 28.9 19.2

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. 23

RESULTS AT LANGDON, N. DAK.

At Langdon, as at Edgeley, the experiments are conducted inde-
pendently by the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station,
and the results are used here by courtesy of the director and his
associates. The experiments have included the Marquis during only
two years, 1914 and 1915. The annual and average results are shown
in Table XVI and the yield of the leading variety of each group in
figure 6.

The results may be seen at a glance. The two durum varieties far
excel the Marquis and Glyndon. In the Fife group the Marquis out-
yields the Glyndon by 6 bushels, or more than 27 per cent. The
yields of Bluestem varieties under the same conditions are not
reported. :

TaBLeE XVI.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and three other varieties of wheat
grown at the Langdon (N. Dak.) substation during 1914 and 1915.

[Data used by courtesy of the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Yield per acre Yield per acre
(bushels). (bushels).
Group and ¢. I. |N- Dak? byl Re Group and C. I. |N. Dak.
variety. No. No | i variety. No. No. | in
Aver ver-
1914 | 1915 age. 1914 | 1915 age.
Fife: | Kubanka (du- |
Miamqtiss: << =|2< 25: 2703 | 18.3 | 38.1 | 28.2 rum): |
Glyndon Kubanka...| 1440 929 | 31.7 | 46.1] 38.9
(Minn. No Gharnovka..| 1443 915 | 29.7 | 47.2] 38.4
Gs) Seseene 2873 314 | 12.7 | 31.7] 22.2 |

RESULTS AT WILLISTON, N. DAK.

The varietal experiments at Williston have included Marquis
wheat during three years, 1913 to 1915, inclusive. The annual and
average yields are shown in Table XVII, and the average yield of the
leading variety in each group is shown graphically in figure 6.

At Williston, as elsewhere, the durum varieties excel any spring
common wheats in yield. The best durum, exceeds that of the
Power, the best sprig common, by 4.6 bushels, or nearly 14 per cent.
Considering only the common wheats, the rank of the groups is Fife,
_ Bluestem, Preston, and Crimean (winter), in the order named.
Among the Fife varieties, the Power outyields the Marquis by 1
bushel, or 2.5 per cent. The Glyndon, in the Fife group, and the
Dakota, a Bluestem variety, almost exactly equal the Marquis in
yield. The yields of the winter-wheat varieties are very low.

The comparatively low yield of the Marquis in 1915 was due to
damage by a late spring frost. The plants were about 8 inches tall
at the time. Not only at Williston but also at other points in the
State the Marquis seemed to be more seriously injured than other
varieties.

24 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste XVII.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and 12 other varieties of wheat
grown at the Williston (N. Dak.) substation, 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

{ Data obtained in cooperation with the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.]

. Yield per acre (bushels). Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and va- -| C.I. Group and va- Cals
riety. No. riety. No.
’ ~ | Aver- Aver-
1913 | 1914 | 1915 age. 1913 1914 | 1915 , | age.
Fife: Bluestem: |
Marquis... .-- 3641 | 29.0 | 52.5 | 40.6 | 40.7 Dakota. ---...| 3083 | 30.7 | 47.5 | 44.6 | 40.9
Power. -.....| 3697 | 28.7 | 51.3 | 45.1 41.7 Haynes....-- 2874 | 30.0 | 42.5 | 42.9 | 38.5
Glyndon..-.. 2873 | 28.2 | 49.2 | 44.1 40.5 || Preston: |
Red Fife-.-... 3694 | 28.7 | 47.9 | 43.9 | 40.2 IPrestomseeere 3698 | 25.0 | 46.3 | 43.4 38.2
Kubanka (du-]}. Winter:
Tum) Buffum No
Taganrog sSe-| 1570 | 35.0 | 54.6 | 49.4 46.3 MS ee keene 3330 | 15.6 | 17.1 6.4 13.0
lection....-- North Dakota |
Kubanka. - - -- 1440 | 33.0 | 53.8 | 47.3 44.7 No. 1997 ...| 3084 | 13.1] 15.8] 6.1! 11.7
Arnautka..--. 3693 | 34.7°| 47.2 | 45.5 |} 42.5 Beloglina.-...]| 1543 7.8] 10.0] 12.8} 10.2

RESULTS AT DICKINSON, N. DAK.

Marquis wheat hes been grown at the Dickinson substation during

three years, 1913 to 1915, inclusive. The annual and average

yields obtained from this and other varieties are shown in Table
XVIII. The average yield of the leading variety in each group is
shown graphically in figure 6.

The results obtained are nearly the same as those at Williston.
The durum wheats lead by a wide margin. The Marquis is the
highest yielding variety of common wheat, and the Kubanka No. 8
excels it by nearly 35 per cent. The groups of common wheat rank
in the same order as at Williston, namely, F ife, Bluestem, Preston,
and Crimean (winter). The Marquis outyields the Rusthac. the
next best Fife variety, by 1.7 bushels, or 6 per cent, and the Preston
by 2.7 bushels, or 11 per cent, while it exceeds the Crossbred Blue-
stem by 3.4 bushels, or 14 per cent. The winter wheats are not
successfully grown in North Dakota.

TasLe XVIIT.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and 12 other varieties of wheat
grown at the Dickinson (N. Dak.) substation, 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

{ Data obtained in cooperation with the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Yield per acre (bushels). | Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and va- | C.I. Group and va- OPA ES cece par
riety. No. riety. No.
: ; - | Aver- . - | Aver-
1913 | 1914 } 1915 age. 1913 | 1914 | 1915 age.
| | eee
Fife Preston:
Marquis....... 3641 | 24.2 | 14.0 | 32.8 | 23.7 Preston. ----- | 3081 | 25.2 | 12.9 | 24.8] 21.0
Rysting.-..-..- 3022 | 28.1 | 12.4 | 25.6 22.0 Preston. .-..- 3328 | 26.2 Pd || P55) 19.8
Red Vife.....- | 3329 | 28.3 | 10.2 | 25.3 | 21.3 || Bluestem:
Ghirka Spring.) 1517 | 26.6 | 11.3 | 24.3 | 20.7 Crossbred..-.| 3314 | 27.1 | 10.1 | 23.7 | 20.3
Kubanka (du- _ Haynes: ~-_-* 2874 | 24.8| 8.3 | 22.9] 18.7
rum): Crimean (win-
Kubanka No.8) 4063 | 31.2 | 13.0 | 51.5} 31.9 ter): i
Kubanka...--| 1440 | 26.7 | 14.2 | 48.5 | 29.8 Beloglina....| 1543 | 9.1 | 9.2] 0 6.1
Arnautka 6P1-.| 4064 | 30.9 | 11.6 | 44.8) 29.1 Kharkof.--...| 1583 | 3.6 | 11.0} 0 4.9

a

—

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. OAS,
RESULTS AT MOCCASIN, MONT.

The varietal experiments at Moccasin have included Marquis
wheat during the 3-year period, 1913 to 1915, inclusive. The
annual and average yields obtained are given in Table XIX. The
average yield of the leading variety in each group is shown in figure 6.

The hard red winter wheats of the Crimean group outyield all
spring wheats at Moccasin by a margin of over 6 bushels per acre.
Among the spring wheats the durums do not outrank the spring
common wheats, as they have done at most of the other stations;
in fact, the best varieties of durum, Fife, and Preston wheats are
practically equal in yield. The Marquis leads the Fife varieties by
a margin of over 5 per cent. The leading variety of durum wheat
and the leading variety of the Preston group of common wheat
outyleld the Marquis, however, by the narrow margins of 1 and 8
per cent, respectively.

TasLE XIX.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and 11 other varieties of wheat
grown at the Judith Basin substation, Moccasin, Mont., 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

[Data obtained in cooperation with the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Yield per acre (bushels). Yield per acre (bushels).
Group mud va- Ge ie Group and va- & 0 SESS SS
Tiety. 0. Aaa riety. Oo. Aaa
1913 | 1914 | 1915 age. 1913 | 1914 | 1915 age.
Fife: | Preston:
Marquis....... 3641 | 33.5 | 23.7 | 42.3 33. 2 | ECLES eee ee 1596 | 35.2 | 25.1 | 42.5 34.3
IROMGCL. 22 25 3697 | 28.7 | 24.1] 41.0] 31.3 Preston. ....- 2959 | 29.2 | 22.4 | 41.6] 31.1
R ee Be ae 3022 | 26.7 | 23.0 | 40.6 | 30.1 || Pelissierand Ku-
ace 2873 | 20.0 | 22.7 | 41.0] 27.9 banka(durum):
Crimean nie: Pelissier...-..] 1584 | 32.0 | 26.5 | 42.2 | 33.6
‘kof-. 1583 | 31.1 | 30.3 | 61.3} 40.9 Pererodka....| 1350 | 32.0 | 25.3 | 40.1 |] 32.5
(as aheasae 442 | 33.1 | 32.1 | 56.6 40.6 Kubanka....| 1440 | 30.7 | 23.0 | 40.7 31.5
Crimean.....- 1559 | 35.3 | 30.8 | 54.1] 40.1
CONCLUSIONS.

The graphic portrayal in figure 6 and the facts given in Tables IX
to XIX, inclusive, show that winter wheat is decidedly better than
any spring wheat in much of this section. In ‘central South Dakota
and North Dakota, however, winter wheat can not be grown suc-
cessfully.

Among spring wheats, the durums outyielded all the groups of
common wheat at all of these stations, except Moccasin, Mont., and
Highmore, S. Dak. At all the stations except Highmore, in central
South Dakota, the durum wheats outyielded the Marquis variety.
At Highmore the high yield of the Marquis wheat was due to the
specially favorable location of the Marquis plat in a low spot in 1913.
At Moccasin, Mont., however, the yields of the Marquis and the best
durum variety were about equal.

26 BULLETIN 400, U.. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. |

The Marquis outyields the other Fife wheats or equals them in
yield at all these stations except Williston, N. Dak., and Akron,
Colo. At Williston the Power and at Akron the Ghirka Spring out-
yield the Marquis variety, but by only 2.5 and 4 per cent, respectively.

The Marquis outyields the Bluestem wheats at all stations except
Williston, N. Dak., where the Dakota Bluestem very slightly exceeds
it. The Marquis was damaged more than the other varieties by a
late spring frost at Williston in 1915. This caused the lower average
yield at this point.

The Marquis outyielded all varieties of the Preston group every-
where except at Moccasin, Mont., and Akron, Colo. At Moccasin
the Fretes and at Akron the Red Russian outyielded the Marquis,
but by only about 3 per cent in each case.

From these facts it is seen—

(1) That winter varieties are best where they can be grown in the northern section
of the Great Plains area.

(2) That durums are better than any spring common wheats in this section.
(3) That the Marquis variety is better than any of the spring common wheats at

some stations and about as good as any at most stations. The Marquis is asafe ~

variety to grow anywhere in this section when spring wheat is to be grown.

The Marquis variety is especially well adapted to central South
Dakota. Here drought and rust often reduce the yields of later
maturing varieties. The Preston (‘“‘ Velvet Chaff’’), a bearded wheat,
is now the leading variety in that district. The Marquis is beardless
and a better yielder, as well as a better milling wheat.

Rust and drought are not so frequent in North Dakota and Montana.
The earliness of the Marquis variety gives it an advantage when they
do occur. The later maturing Fife and Bluestem varieties may give
as high average yields in a longer series of years.

RESULTS IN THE WESTERN BASIN AND Coast AREAS.

The dry lands of the States west of the Rocky Mountains are
included under this heading. The different sections represented are
known as the Great Basin, the Snake River basin, the Harney Valley,
the Columbia Basin, and the Sacramento Valley. They include,
therefore, the States of Utah, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, Nevada,
and northern California.

Marquis wheat has been introduced commercially at a few places.
Several carloads of seed are known to have been sold in the Columbia
Basin counties of Washington. Similar introductions may have
occurred in the Snake River basin also, but no record of such action
is known. It is doubtful whether the variety has been introduced
elsewhere in these areas. No statistics of production are available,
but the total quantity must be very small.

ee ee

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. oF

Varietal experiments with Marquis wheat have been conducted on
nonirrigated land at five experiment stations west of the Rocky
Mountains. These stations include Nephi, Utah, Aberdeen, Idaho,
and Burns, Oreg., where the experiments have included the Marquis
variety during two years; Moro, Oreg., where the experiments have
continued during three years; and Davis, Cal., where the variety
has been grown but a single year. The locations of these stations

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Fie. 7—Diagram showing the average yields of the Marquis and the leading variety in each of several
different groups of wheat at five dry-land stations west of the Rocky Mountains during one, two, or three
of the years 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

and the average yield of the Marquis and also of the leading variety
in each of several groups of wheat are shown in figure 7. The same
data and those on still other varieties will be found in Tables XXI
to XXV, inclusive. In figures 8 and 9 are shown heads and kernels
of varieties representing the White Australian, Baart, and Little Club
groups of soft white wheat, all of which are commercially important
wheats in this section. :

28 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The climate of these basins and valleys is usually regarded as
semiarid to arid. Table XX shows the elevation of each station and
the recorded annual and seasonal precipitation during the years

Fic. 8.—Heads and kernels of three varieties of soft white wheat, natural size: 1, Palouse Bluestem; 2, Early
Baart; 3, Little Club.

when the experiments herein reported were in progress, so far as the
data are available.

These areas are characterized by low precipitation. Most of it
falls durmg the autumn, winter, and spring months instead of during

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. 29

the summer, as in the Great Plains area. This makes the seasonal
rainfall small in proportion to the total, as will be noted in Table
XX. For this reason, among others, winter wheats are more profit-
able and more extensively grown in these sections than spring varie-

Fig. 9.—Kernels of three varieties of soft white wheat, shown in four different positions, twice natural size:
1, Palouse Bluestem; 2, Early Baart; 3, Little Club.

ties. Crop production is governed almost wholly by the quantity
and distribution of the annual rainfall.

The elevation of these sections varies greatly. It is 6,000 feet or
more in places, as in the Juab Valley, near Nephi, Utah, and in the

30 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

upper part of the Snake River Basin. Most of the surface lies at
elevations of 4,000 to 5,000 feet. The Columbia Basin is much
lower, scarcely exceeding 2,000 feet, while the Sacramento Valley of
California reaches sea level at its lower end. Wind velocities are
rather low in most of these areas. The summers are warm and evap-
oration fairly high. The growing season is short at the higher ele-
vations. In the Harney Valley frosts occur durmg the summer
-months. Here, as elsewhere, early varieties of spring wheat have
an advantage over midseason or late varieties.

TasLe XX.—Altitude and annual and seasonal precipitation at five experiment stations
in the arid western basin and coast areas, :

Precipitation (inches).
and Alti- Annual. Seasonal. 1
Station. cade
5; Aver- Aver-
F 1913 1914 1915 age. 1913 1914 1915 age.
Feet.
NephitUitaheease. seen oe 6,000 |.......- 14.40 | 13.63 | 14.01 |....---. 5. 85 5. 54 5. 70
Aberdeen, Idaho..........-. 4,400 |nessaes 9. 86 8. 29 QuOS He ec 3s 4. 20 3.91 4. 06
Burns, Oreg- Seales WOU soseseea 8. 50 6. 82 GO Nee an see 4, 28 3. 06 3. 67
Moros Orege= se oe see nese 1,800} 12.17] 11.32] 14.86} 12.78 4. 30 3. 56 3. 64 4.50
Denials, Obes cokjecassoconaee LE ee oe ere sills os eee Palle OP hisesete cantare rrtoateguaes lle ea 14. Ase aes.

1 The record for seasonal precipitation includes the months of April, May, June, and July at Aberdeen
and Moro. At Nephi the record is for the three months, April, May, and June, and at Burns for the five
monte, April, May, June, July, and August. At Davis the record is for six months, January to June,
inclusive.

RESULTS AT NEPHI, UTAH.

At the Nephi substation the cooperative experiments have included
the Marquis variety for only two years, 1914 and 1915. The annual
and average yields are shown in Table XXI. The average yield of
the leading variety in each of the three groups is shown graphically
in figure 7.

TaBLE X XI.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and three other varieties of wheat
grown at the Nephi ( Utah) substation during 1914 and 1915.

[Data obtained in cooperation with the Utah Agricuitural Experiment Station.]

Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and variety. C. 1.
S| copa) pois | Oe
age.

Fife:

IMDS T GUIS Wine ees OC Ore Abie ital gah con Sn RI ee aee Ese AE 3641 | 212.4 16.3 14.4

Gena So eS ey re a ho ve ae Il Cad aaa 1517 11.2 19.0 15.1
Crimean (winter):

HAUG DY been RU ah OS tse a 75 ae Rac Uo USS cant ae 2998 43.0 32.6 37.8

(@ rita Caras ape See ie pore eee a SE a ok ERA RS ep SR ee 1437 40.3 29.9 35.1
Durum:

INGWHONE BB eon a a a a fe RES ae ah A ae OE pe 1594 19.0 15.3 17.2

CCT Ga a che ae AN a oan I Ne Re Ya ANC oe at 1440 15.7 18.2 17.0

@ Yield in 1914 from a single row 121 feet long.

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. 31

The data show the marked superiority of the hard red winter
wheats over any spring wheats at the Nephisubstation. The Turkey
variety surpasses the Marquis by 165 per cent and the leading spring
wheat by over 100 per cent. The durum varieties exceed the
Marquis in yield by nearly 20 per cent. In the Fife group the
Marquis is exceeded by the Ghirka Spring by nearly 5 per cent. The
Marquis is thus the lowest yielder among the six varieties considered.
The yield of the Marquis in 1914 is from a 121-foot row; in (1915 it is
the average of four tenth-acre plats.

RESULTS AT ABERDEEN, IDAHO,

The cooperative varietal experiments conducted at Aberdeen,
Idaho, have included Marquis wheat only during the last two years,
1914 and 1915. The annual and average yields of the Marquis and
numerous other varieties are shown in Table XXII. Theaverage yield
of the best variety in each of the seven groups is shown graphically
in figure 7.

The outstanding fact shown by Table XXIT is that here again the
varieties of the hard red winter or Crimean group of wheats strongly
outyield all spring wheats. The best variety exceeds the Marquis by
110 percent. The Fretes, Early Baart, and Palouse Bluestem, repre-
senting three different groups of spring wheat, outyield the Marquis
by 44, 39, and 31 per cent, respectively. Even the Little Club excels
the Marquis in yield by nearly 8 per cent. Considering finally the
Fife group, the Ghirka Spring exceeds the Marquis by 8 per cent, while
the Power almost equals it in yield.

TaBLe XXIT.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and 13 other varieties of wheat
grown at the Aberdeen (Idaho) Branch Experiment Station during 1914 and 1915.

[Data obtained in cooperation with the Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Yield per acre Yield per acre
(bushels). (bushels).
Group and variety. oe I. Group and variety. re I. | :
o Av- ¢ es Av-
1914 | 1915 er- 1914 | 1915 | er-
age. age.
Fife: Baart:
Marquis Bese ise nes 3276 | 21.5 | 6.3} 13.9 | Early Baart.......- 1697 | 31.1 7.5 19.3
Ghirka Spring....... 1517 | 26.1 | 4.9] 15.0 || White Australian:
IBOWenEe eee eae 3697 | 22.4) 4.5] 13.4 Palouse Bluestem. -| 4067 | 27.5 | 9.0} 18.2
Ruy Stim goa. 8 sae 3022 | 20.1 | 3.6 11.8 || Wehancesssce tee se 3703 | 19.7 | 6.3] 13.0
Crimean ugranter): Dickow. 3822 3663 | 18.3 | 6.3] 12.0
UGK OV we cee ea 1571 | 38.5 | 20.2} 29.3 || Little Club:
iKehankofacsse tence cce 1442 | 29.3 | 21.1 25.2) 11 Little Club......... 4066 | 22.9 7.2 15.0
UNbtA eh eeeceaeeseese 2998 | 25.6 | 22.5 | 24.1 || Bluestem:
Preston Haynes.........-.-- 2874 | 13.2) 5.4 9.3
ID TELeSH eins oeeee hoe 1596 | 30.2 | 10.8] 20.0

32 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
RESULTS AT BURNS, OREG.

The Marquis variety has been included in the cooperative varietal
experiment at Burns during two years, 1914 and 1915.’ The annual
and average yields of the Marquis and other varieties, representing
seven different groups of wheats, are shown in Table XXIII. The
average yield of the highest yielding variety in each group is shown
eraphically in figure 7.

The results show that all the varieties in all the groups except the
two durum varieties outyielded the Marquis by percentages varying
from nearly 5 to over 64. The hard red winter wheats are again the
highest yielders, though not so markedly superior as in Utah or even
in Idaho. The Palouse Bluestem and Early Baart excel the Marquis
here by more than 29 and 27 per cent, respectively. Two varieties
of the Preston group, the Fretes and Erivan, outyield Marquis by
nearly 10 per cent, while the Little Club excels it by about 5 per cent.
In the Fife group, the Ghirka Spring again outyields the Marquis, this
time by 19 per cent.

TaBLE X XITI.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and 10 other varieties of wheat
grown at the Harney Branch Station, Burns, Oreg., during 1914 and 1915.

[Experiments conducted cooperatively with the Oregor Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Yield per acre Yield per acre
(bushels). (bushels).
Group and variety. Rm de Group and variety. ce ifs
Aver- ~ |Aver-
1914 | 1915 age. 1914 | 1915 age.
Fife: Preston:
MarculiSeereeeeeeeeee 4158 | 9.3 | 21.3 15.2 IR TOCOSnace os crrrcesiimiee 1596 | 13.3 | 20.0 16.7
Ghirka Spring....... 1517 | 15.7 | 20.5 | 18.1 DEMONS ba5qsoseneos 2397 | 12.7 | 20.3 | 16.5
Crimean (winter): Little Club:
Maneyenen na eevanios 1558 | 19.3 | 30.7} 25.0 Little Club.........- 4066 | 13.7 | 18.0] 15.9
eh anko fener 1442 | 12.0 | 27.1 | 19.6 || Kubanka (durum):
White Australian: Keulbanikaseaseees eee 2246 | 8.0] 15.3] 11.7
Palouse Bluestem-...| 4067 | 16.7 | 22.7 | 19.7 Marouani..........-.- 1593 | 7.2] 16.0] 11.6
Baart:
Early Baart......... 1697 | 18.2 | 20.5 19. 4
i}

RESULTS AT MORO, OREG.

At the Eastern Oregon Dry-Farming ‘substation at Moro the
cooperative varietal experiments have included the Marquis wheat
during the 3-year period, 1913 to 1915, inclusive. The annual and
average yields of the Marquis and numerous other varieties are
shown in Table XXIV. The average yield of the best variety repre-
senting each group is shown graphically in figure 7.

The tabulated data show that the average yields of all groups
except the durum le between 21 and 28 bushels per acre. The hard
red winter wheat here occupies about the middle of the scale, with a
yield of 24 bushels per acre. At Moro the Marquis outyielded the
Palouse Bluestem and Little Club about 5 per cent, but is excelled
by the Early Baart by nearly 14 per cent. The highest yielding

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. oo

variety of all is the Koola, of the Preston group, a spring wheat not
yet grown commercially. The Koola outyielded the Marquis by 23
per cent in the 3-year test.

TaBLE XXIV.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and eight other varieties of

wheat grown at the Eastern Oregon Dry-Farming substation, Moro, Oreg., 1915 to 1915,
incluswe.

[Data obtained in cooperation with the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Yield per acre (bushels).

Group and variety. Bere i
ver-
1913 1914 1915 age.

Fife:

INPUT OELIS premise earn ee sae ae seecisie aon Sinis cs so eee 4158 22.1 22.5 23.1 22.6
Preston:

EG eee ae eee ae eie ceisieis Seine oes ace =.s = eee 2203-2 25.8 24.5 33.2 27.8
Baart:

DBI hy BR BIN eee oScceeeoucanosoeslosees seer eesBeeeEBes cosdcc 1697 25.0 25.5 26.6 2000
Crimean (winter):

‘Nui es. Sgagobaaoe eb sone bob eaae Cae reee Seen e eae ee oo aos 1558 24.0 27.5 20.6 24.0
Little Club:

lori Cbs dose ces seseseee ener reo sec Bae is 2 3s. See 4068 19.6 19.2 26.0 21.6
White Australian:

PAIOWAS IBILIES Ot eed aeeseccoseeacasouseeneeeEasesoos ose 4067 19.4 20.9 24.0 21.4
Kubanka (durum): ’

Rg ORK) =. oe Shon beceeeraesoaddcbs Ge leUSsreeeeaeEEnno caosr 1440 13.6 15.0 18.0 15.5

RESULTS AT DAVIS, CAL.

The experiments at Davis are conducted independently by the
Agricultural Experiment Station of California, and the data are
made available here through the courtesy of the director of the sta-
tion and his associates. Marquis wheat has been grown there only
in the year 1915. The yields of this and numerous other varieties,
as well as the bushel weight of the seed, are shown in Table XXV.
The yield of the highest yielding variety in each group is shown
graphically in figure 7.

It will be appreciated readily that the yields of a single year afford
no basis for conclusions. Three durum varieties and two spring
common wheats, the Early Baart and Fretes, outyielded the Marquis.
The season was ihmerans. as may be seen be the low bushel weights,
and rust was very sao rallent.

In transmitting the data, Prof. John W. Gilmore writes as follows:

The yields obtained in the variety trials with wheat in plats this season were very
low, due largely to unfavorable weather conditions. The Jate spring rains caused the
erain to lodge badly and also greatly increased the rust, so that the percentages
of lodging and of rust infection this season were abnormally high. Then, too, the hot
north winds which occurred during the ripening period caused the grain to shrivel
badly instead of ripening asitshould. The degree to which the grain was infected may
be observed from the low weight per bushel of all varieties this season. * * *

In comparing the results this season with past performances, it is further worthy of
note that the yield of the White Australian checks was abnormally low in comparison
with the other varieties. * * * The winter wheats this season gave much better
results than usual, in comparison with the other varieties.

34 BULLETIN 400, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE XXV.— i “eld per acre and weight per bushel of the Marquis and 13 other varieties
of wheat grown at Dapis, Cal., in 1915.

[Data used by courtesy of the California Agricultural Experiment Station.]

G.I Yield | Weight
Group and variety. Ai per < per
. acre. | bushel.

Fife: Bushels.| Pounds.

MAT QUIS Pes Uisnteind seca bse = SSSR SSE one 2 PEE ISS cee Ped mete eels SESE eee Sees 26.8 55.0
Unclassified durum:

Huy Ao) WOE Oh mate at ee RG ee ee Lok ee te es Sie er 1593 31.5 57.0

AD AB baaly> <eCO2 NO Oye ee Go ei pene Rm Bia ee a io er eee ae ee semis te 4247 30.8 49.0

Welveb Don. sores Sse ae Sue ce Oe Tee TN eae Liars Soe 2247-1 29.5 55.0
Baart:

iimportedsBarlysBaart.- 255.52 2a sees 5 Sve oe Sacco ers ees eel eee cree 30.7 50.0

TOR y ah yg Beth Hien as Ser ee es eS MN IS a er ita Sie ree ihe ais ee 1697 21.3 Bile

IPTOMO\..2 see neet a easee eases Se sace se SHb opie Epe se Oaeabud Se neudUesEnssceEeots 1970 13.8 52.0
Preston

POLES tet een eae aa De RRS es oe IR nce ye ee a 1596 28.2 54.0

es ee en Ot penne ae rhs eee. ee Reet Ne eaten pe eu oe 2227 15.7 47.0
Crimean:

MUTE O Vio et 5 Sele pei oe xtsiael cin eS Se eee a 8 c/el te ae yells severe dl Sees sta e. ctsharstan oii [page cra 23.3 59.5
White Australian: 3

imported White Australian. 223 cee seeo- & accelerate cia oscars seees-eoee Saal tee eis 16.3 46.0

sala bepACIs Grevlicuraels a so aie as ae eres «uy ie een: os Oe eas epee 3019 15.3 41.7

WalafornmiayGemit aes 28 foes scteeis aeinice Hee Sis ee Scone Siete aise eicinie ee cease 4248 8.0 37.0
Little Club:

Ete Clubs geen ot sect acres Bae Dae eee 0 2 eee ns wise oem aeios Se RO eae 3018 9.7 42.0

4

1 Average of 16 check plats.
CONCLUSIONS.

The data in Tables XXI to XXV, inclusive, and in figure 7 show
that the Marquis variety has not proved a high yielder at any station
west of the Rocky Mountams. At three stations in Utah, Idaho, and
Oregon, winter wheats outyield allspring wheats. At all fivestations,
other spring wheats outyield the Marquis. It is not as good, on the
average, as the Palouse Bluestem, Early Baart, Fretes, or Ghirka
Spring. It also is not as good as several of the new wheats which have
been tested at these western stations but are not yet grown commer-
cially. Marquis wheat is not recommended for any district west of
the Rocky Mountains.

RESULTS IN IRRIGATED DISTRICTS.

Irrigated farming is confined to the valleys more or less adjacent
to the mountains of the Western States. So far as known, eee
wheat has not been grown commercially under irrigation.

Experiments to determine the value of*Marquis hee under irri-
gation conditions have been conducted at four different points.
Two of these are east and two west of the Rocky Mountains. The
stations are Newell, S. Dak.; Huntley, Mont.; Aberdeen, Idaho, and
Fallon, Nev. The location of these four stations and the average
yields of Marquis wheat and of the best variety in each of several
groups of wheat are shown graphically in figure 10. The annual
and average yields of the Marquis and several other varieties will be

found in Tables XX VI to X XIX inclusive.

eS ee

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. - 35

The normal rainfall at these points is of little importance, since
irrigation water is supplied. One effect of the abundant water
supply, however, is to lengthen the period required by the plant to
reach maturity. Hence, early varieties are desirable where the
elevation is sufficient to shorten the frost-free period. The altitude
at Newell, S. Dak., as shown in Table VIII, is 2,950 feet above sea
level. The altitude at Huntley, Mont., is 3,000 feet. The altitude
of Aberdeen, Idaho, shown in Table XX, is 4,400 feet, while Fallon,

LEGEND

- MARQUIS

WHITE
AUSTFALIAN

-—- —_.

Faller
Vas.

Fic. 10.—Diagram showing the average yields of the Marquis and the leading variety in each of several
different groups of wheat under irrigation at four western stations in either two or three of the years 1913

to 1915, inclusive. e

Ney., has an altitude of 3,965 feet. The growing season is of only
medium length under these conditions. Sometimes it is much short-
ened by the occurrence of early autumn frosts. Early-maturing
varieties, therefore, are best adapted to the conditions obtaming at

these stations.
: RESULTS AT NEWELL, S. DAK.

The experiments with wheat under irrigation at Newell, S. Dak.,
are conducted in cooperation with the Office of Western Irrigation
Agriculture. Marquis wheat has been included in the varietal experi-
ments during the 3-year period, 1913 to 1915, inclusive. The annual

36 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and average yields obtained from the Marquis and four other varie-
ties of wheat are given in Table XXVI. The average yield of each

variety 1s shown graphically in figure 10.

The Marquis wheat has been compared with durum wheats and with
varieties of common wheats of the Fife, Bluestem, and White Austra-
lian groups. The last named group consists of soft white wheats, ex-
tensively grown west of the Rocky Mountains and represented at Newell
by the Defiance variety. The Kubanka durum outyields the Marquis
by over 20 percent. The Marquis, however, outyields the Power by 11
per cent, and the Haynes and Defiance by 25 and 30 per cent, respec-
tively. The Marquis has been compared with winter wheat only in
1915, when the Kharkof, a Crimean or hard red winter wheat, yielded

nearly four times as much as the Marquis.

Taste XXVI.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and four other varieties of

wheat grown under trrigation on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, Newell, S. Dak.,

1913 to 1915, inclusive.

[Data obtained in cooperation with the Office of Western Irrigation Agriculture.]

Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and variety. C. I. No. =
1913 | 1914 | 1915 || “VCE
age.
Fif
Mar CUES face oP ea rast ate eine cece wot ai epee sia 3276 18.3 18.3 18.0 18. 2
LEO) Res ese He ESE SEA Ue SOE eee he abet aamee 3025 17.0 17.0 14.7 16.2
Kubanka (durum):
(Keb amicae Mee ese Spee ee cree eens ee ate Se Ane ears eee 1440 18.6 22.8 | 22.0 PAL. 7
Bluestem:
TAY TOS se eee as eeo oe saci ese sean see e seine 2874 14.2 RE |) THB IBS Y/
White Australian:
Gib io\6 heer Ses pepe Ge ECO OR TORRE CaS Rao BeEee HoCaGe Serre 3703 ible 7 18.0 8.0 12.6
Crimean (winter):
NKeH ar ko feise eel eae eee he eats enter SS te SIS EES aye 15838 Poe Sees Eerie 66539 Seen eee

RESULTS AT HUNTLEY, MONT.

The experiments at Huntley are conducted cooperatively by the
Office of Western Irrigation Agriculture and the Montana Agri-
cultural Experiment Station. The data here presented have been fur-
nished by the Agriculturist in Charge of the Office of Western Irriga-
tion Agriculture. The Marquis variety has been grown in varietal

experiments during only two years, 1913 and 1914.
average yields are given in Table X XVII.
best variety in each group is shown graphically in figure 10.

The annual and

The average yield of the

At the Huntley station the Marquis variety has been compared
only with spring common wheats. It has outyielded Pringle Cham-
plain by 4 per cent; Stanley, a beardless variety with brown glumes,
by 25 per cent; and Dicklow, by 32 per cent.

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT. 37

Taste XXVII.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and four other varieties of
wheat grown under irrigation on the Huntley ( Mont.) Experiment Farm during 1914
and 1915.

[Data furnished by the Office of Western Irrigation Agriculture.]

Yield per acre (bushels). Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and variety. | Group and variety.
1913 1914 Average. 1913 1914 Average.
Fife: | Unclassified:
Marquis... -.--- 30. 8 63.3 47.0 Stanley........ 27.1 47.9 37.5
Preston: || White Australian:
Pringle Cham- Dicklow- -----.- 29. 4 41.9 35.6
lates 0. = 2 35. 4 54.9 45.1 ! Defiance 42-2 ac|-4 ss seeee- 5630) Seeseeee se

RESULTS AT ABERDEEN, IDAHO.

The Marquis variety has been grown under irrigation at Aberdeen
during a 3-year period, 1913 to 1915, inclusive. The annual and
average yields are shown in Table XXVIII. The average yield of
the best variety in each group is shown graphically in figure 10.

Among the six varieties tested, the Marquis ranks fifth, outyielding
only the Haynes. The yield of the Little Club is practically the
same as that of the Marquis. The three varieties in the White
Australian group, however, outyield the Marquis by 9, 14, and 31
per cent, respectively. The Defiance is commonly grown under iri-
gation in the Western States, while the Palouse Bluestem is the stand-
ard variety of spring wheat on the dry-land farms.

TasLeE XXVIII.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and five other varieties of
wheat grown under irrigation on the Aberdeen Experiment Farm, Aberdeen, Idaho,
1913 to 1915, inclusive.

[Data obtained in cooperation with the Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station.]

Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and variety. ee ‘a
; Aver-
1913 1914 1915 age.

Fife:

WreanuuiSmissee anne se ockisen act ec. ose ce eats. 5 oo aee ee 3276 33.3 38.9 56. 7 43.0
White Australian: 4

IDICEIC igo GB RSS Sr NSS oS eee eae nee ie Bee SS 6 5. Soe 3663 61.5 38.0 56.7 5251

DOUGH CF 5s ae et aes Agape ee eat he ea a aaa Rennes SS TE 3703 55.6 43.5 47.7 48.9

PANO TSCHEMUCSLOMI scene 528522 ccs. sre nen ee oe See 4067 42.0 38.0 62.1 47.0
Little Club:

LAH CMD hse SSeS eaece see Ce aaa EE ane eerie es 2. ha 4223 41.3 41.2 47.7 43.4
Bluestem: ;

SEV aiy Hl OS eee oem eteie = ose eee sew ce ese e 2 Jee eS 2874 36.0 27.4 35.1 32.8

RESULTS NEAR FALLON, NEV.

The varietal experiments with wheat on the Carson-Truckee
Reclamation Project are conducted in cooperation with the Office
of Western Irrigation Agriculture. In 1914 the experiments were
conducted on the farm of L. W. Langford, and in 1915 on the farm

38 BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of A. R. Merritt. The results obtained are shown in Table XXIX.
The average yield of the best variety in each group is shown graphi-
cally in figure 10. The two farms used for these experiments are
about 20 miles apart. The results obtained in the two different
years are not directly comparable. Since they agree fairly well,
however, they have been averaged in Table X XIX and in figure 10.

Only spring common wheats have been compared with the Marquis
in Nevada. Table X XIX shows that the Palouse Bluestem, Dicklow,
and Little Club all outyield the Marquis by large margins. The
overyields amount to 22, 28, and 33 per cent, respectively.

TasLe XXIX.—Annual and average yields of the Marquis and three other wheats grown
under irrigation on the Truckee-Carson Reclamation Project near Fallon, Nev., during
1914 (farm of L. W. Langford) and 1915 (farm of A. R. Merritt).

[Data obtained in cooperation with the Office of Western Irrigation A griculture.]

Yield peracre | Yield per acre

(bushels). | (bushels).
Group and variety. Se oe Group and variety. ha
~ | Aver- ~ | Aver-
1914 | 1915 age. 1914 | 1915 age. ~

Fife: White Australian:

IMangduisesee=-eeee see 3641 | 18.3 | 39.4] 28.9 Dickloweaneses see see 3663 | 30.7 | 43.2 | 37.0
Little Club: Palouse Bluestem. ._| 4067 | 30.1 | 40.5] 35.3

Little Club. .--..-- + 4066 | 31.8 | 45.2 | 38.5

CONCLUSIONS.

In Idaho and Nevada the soft white spring wheats, Dicklow,
Defiance, Palouse Bluestem, and Little Club, all have outyielded
the Marquis under irrigation. The Marquis wheat is not a profitable
variety to grow under irrigation west of the Rocky Mountains.

In western South Dakota and in Montana the Marquis has given
good results in comparison with other varieties of spring common
wheat. The few data available indicate that it does not yield as
well as the Kubanka durum and the Kharkof winter wheat.

SUMMARY OF YIELD DATA.

For convenience of comparison a summary of the average yields
is presented in Table XXX. This summary contains the average
yield of the most productive variety in each group at each station
where it was grown. In all, 23 stations are represented. There are
25 different sets of experiments, however, as the varieties were grown
under both nonirrigated and irrigated conditions at two stations.
The Marquis and representatives of eight other groups are included.

The average yields of the same varieties at the same stations are
also expressed in Table XXX in percentages of the yields of the
Marquis variety. Arranging the data in this form makes compari-
son still more easy.

EXPERIMENTS WITH MARQUIS WHEAT.

39

TaBLE XX X.—Average yields of the Marquis and of the highest yielding variety in eight
different groups of wheat grown at 23 experiment stations in the western United States
under humid, semiarid, arid, and irrigated conditions during part or all of the three-year
period from 1913 to 1915, inclusive.

YIELDS PER ACRE OF THE BEST VARIETY IN EACH GROUP (BUSHELS).

Division and station.

Northern Prairie States:

North Platte, Nebr--...--
Akron, Colo... .25-------<
Archer WO: << 2% 3252-5 -
Newell, S. Dak......-.-.
Highmore, S. Dak......-
Eureka, S. Dak.......---.
Edgeley, N. Dak.....-.--
Langdon, N. Dak....----
Williston, N. Dak.......
Dickinson, N. Dak...--..-
Moccasin, Mont ......-.--
Western basin and coast
“areas:
Nepht iUitah? | .2.2052 242
Aberdeen, Idaho..-.....-.
Buns Oreve=t 2. .-225--% |
More OTreg = oo= = -~5-525- |
Wavisn@aleiy ss. 22-2 =
Trrigated districts: }
Newell, S. Dak........--
Huntley, Mont........-- }
Aberdeen, Idaho.-.....-.-
HAH OW INCVs 22 -255-25---

YIELDS PER ACRE

Northern Prairie States:
ENTMESUOWaee eos) 2- 22: |
incon} Webrs—. 2s...
Brookings, S. Dak..--.-- |
Sieeauly Mann 22522222.
Crookston, Minn..-...-.-.

Northern Great Plains area:

areas:

eeNephi, Witahes.- 92. --+2|
Aberdeen, Idaho...-....-
Buns Onegees tooo cs sn.
iMoron@rem: = 5) 2.2.5!
Davisn@ale ia 2525.0...

Trrigated districts:

Newell(S: Dake: = 3 2222—.
Huntley, Mont..........
Aberdeen, Idaho.......-..
WallonssNeven- 2 =.= 222.

Ku-

Num- Cri- | banka White :

ber of | Mar-| mean | or Pe-| pir, | Blue-|} Pres-| 40. | Baart.| Little

years | quis. | (win- | lissier “| stem. | ton. | tralian "| Club.

grown. ter). | (du- 5

Tum)
alroso) 415 2)|2 5. eee 12.2 12.9 P3563) s S25 e223) see seeealasccse se
3 | 27.4 Beta Peace 2 al Seoone| eeeee ae aR S5 a ese Bese aouel|ldserceec
3 | 23.9 36.1 20.1 | 12.0 by 7/ TOs 5s [phe GN eet ene ew
3 | 39.9 |@52.4 34.2 | 38.3 | 33.5 DON Oe tea is ee he Sep as | oes ae
Sle aS ean oe aes a Piste || ee 72K Vad late Wis ie anew bane eect Re ae
3 | 10.4 18.8 1S? Sees era BD | Ser aS oe Bee eee eee
Sau 9) | 2453) |) QQNSR SiG: |se-e ee 1 Re pital eee al beans ae eee ee es
3| 12.8] 17.3] 16.2] 10.8 pei | etl aes a eee nae ey ger | Mee
33 || ZAR 43.7 | 285 28| 217 DORAN SADA re cee een ete 2 peemeee |e ore mee
3 | 19.8 15.4 18.5 | 13.9 Une d/ PSS eee ea lle alae Se
2 | 22.6 0 26519 | Eee 12.6 TG See coe |yeyace alesse
5 | peey ll Setssas DAS TY GA tee ee al Senin bee ees aes ee Bal Noe ee
Dm eosin | seers PTS Ch) [1S att | ate oer | ee ee eee Hel eee gel [ao
3 | 40.7 Tae ||, ASS eel | tA OS Ou aed: eee cea eae an Sects
3 | 23.7 Gale) -SISOR E225 One 2053. anole Ones sae e eae alae eee
Salpooaenle40N9) | oonom rol acm eee Sano Reet als Soe se ll eae
2) 14.4} 37.8 ais 74 | i hase Ll been coed beeen Pa ae eel Param ee a
ae Es) 7 ese ae TRS) )) on OE 20.0 18. 2 19.3 15.0
2) |) 1552") 25:0 OES 7/11 os Ui ees eee 16.7 19.7 19.4 15.9
3 | 22.6 24.0 Nea) oneal eeseees 27.8 21.4 725). 7 21.6
D5 |26285)" 22353 SLEOR | Sere |e 28. 2 16.3 30.7 9.7
|

By PRs Plies Se DTA GOs 2a Vaeiie ee aot P22 Oke |e eyes mane
2A 7s OU eee Ste oe Se leaker 45.1 Bos Ou sjerelsre| Aecisrecere
Selea ss Oh eerie... | See eesen = IRGPSi) sate 1S) lial erate See 43.4
Di | 2829) sees. - | 5-5 aoa ruc 2 lass serie oe eet 120" [san eate = 38.5
EXPRESSED IN PERCENTAGES OF YIELD OF MARQUIS
2 100 | 249.5 |_....-. 73.9 78. 2 S2NEe ee es | Peete (as oes
3 TOOFTZ8RS: ||| 5 Ses Ee | eee OAs OF es oo ale sees aoa ae eas
Sale LOON 1515 0s O4 a eD Os |e Goei7) | auto Leica | Seam | ene ene | eee
3 100 | 134.7] 85.7 | 96.0 84.0 WEES issaeeuec cept Saleh es tay
oa lel OOF eee = O45 4 Ree Os47 | eonOn| eee ee eee eel esse
3 100: 18057 | alive dele eee AQ Ain reir Coe os ot Ss ee See
3 100 | 185.7 | 128.0 |103.9 |_----.. OZ ERs cence | Ses eee
3 100 |} 135.2 | 126.5 | 84.5 CaS | SIR (Pay Al eee foe eal [> ete Se
3 100 | 173.5 | 111.8 | 86.1 81.0 QT 24 Eek adsl sd eee SS eee see
Sl PLOO ie 8. 8s on AO son OOs LOIN a |e ee aol See a oe eee
2 100 0 T1585; Seeeee SOR Os PRCA Na a ee eeee [see naps NER!
3 L005 eee 121.7 | 94.8 SOS GU Sse ciccs eee ee ess es ee es
2 LOOM EF Sea CBE O i 7GR TS hs aes lier al ee See eee | ae ee
3 100} 28.8] 113.7 |102.5 | 100.4 O3SS Pease cae ice ona oe eae
3 100 | 25.7] 134.6] 92.9] 85.6 S85 6u|Sa528 Sache eS ee eee
3 LOOM A238: 21 OL2heG4es! |e NOSSON ees ee <a) es ra sean
2A Wee OOM E2625 1] alt Obst OGNSh ees rele So eel eee lee ales ee Se
2 OO 21028 [22-28 107.9 | 66.9 | 143.8 131.0 138.8 107.8
2 100 | 164.5 MEO NAG ee eee 109.8 129.5 127.6 104.6
3 TOON) 10652 11) 6S! Galea ees | ae cee 123.0 94.8 113.7 95.6
1 LOON PES 0n| (7c eee | 105. 2 60. 9 114.5 36.4
3 LOOM eee = 119.2 | 89.0 (Bei |saeone: 69:3) joie asc letS eee
73a) Wee (00) perce aerate || 5 set meee 96.0 TDRSS eee eapaed (eae ieee
3 LOD Meee Alcs os ae eee AOvon eee 120 Doles tee 8 100. 9
2 LOO ie2 sree |S cee fees bess sar ieecnee IPEEN So s2 soa 133. 2

a Average for only two years.

40) BULLETIN 400, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The data are summarized briefly as follows:

Wherever hard red winter wheat can be grown in the sections discussed, it out-
yields any spring wheat.

In the northern Prairie States the Marquis is the best variety of spring wheat. In
the northern section of the Great Plains area durum wheats outyield spring ommon
wheats. Among the latter the Marquis is the highest yielding variety.

West of the Rocky Mountains the Marquis is outyielded by the standard varieties
of soft white spring wheat and by several newly introduced varieties. Under irriga-
tion the Marquis has done fairly well in limited experiments east of the Rocky Moun-
tains, but has not proved a good yielder at two stations west of this range.

MILLING AND BAKING QUALITY.

Experiments in milling and baking the Marquis and other standard
hard spring wheats conducted by the North Dakota Agricultural
Experiment Station t in 1913 and 1914 and by the Minnesota Agri-
cultural Experiment Station ? in 1913, have been published. An ex-
tensive series of experiments on the comparative milling and baking
value of the Marquis and other spring-wheat varieties is now being
conducted cooperatively by the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment
Station and the Offices of Cereal Investigations and of Grain Standard-
ization of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

The published data show that the Marquis wheat samples tested
were equal or slightly superior in most respects to the samples of Fife,
Bluestem, and Preston (‘‘ Velvet Chaff’’) wheats raised under similar
conditions. <A higher total yield of flour was obtained from the Mar-
quis. The percentage of bran was less, while that of shorts was
greater from the Marquis than from the three standard groups of
spring common wheat. Compared with durum wheat, the Marquis is
slightly lower in yield of flour and shorts but higher in yield of bran.

The baking quality of Marquis flour is high. It contains more
crude protein than the flours of the three principal groups of spring
common wheat. The amount of water absorbed by the Marquis flour
in dough making also is high. These are important features in de-
termining the expansive quality of the flour or its gluten. The loaf
volume of the Marquis exceeds that of the other hard spring common
wheats. There is comparatively little difference in the color, texture,
and crumb of the Marquis and of the other sprig common wheats.

In short, the data show the Marquis to be a first-class milling wheat.

1 Ladd, E. F. Chemical and physical constants for wheat and mill products. N. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta.
Bul. 114, p. 273-297, 9 fig. 1916.

2 Bailey, C. H. Marquis wheat. II, The milling quality of Marquis wheat. Jn Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta.
Bul. 137, p. 9-14, illus. 1914,

O

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 376

Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director

Washington, D. C.

PROFESSIONAL PAPER

November 25, 1916

THE FLOW OF WATER IN WOOD-STAVE PIPE

By
FRED. C. SCOBEY, Irrigation Engineer

with discussion by

GARDNER S. WILLIAMS, THERON A. NOBLE, D. C. HENNY
E. A. MORITZ, E. W. SCHODER, L. M. HOSKINS

CONTENTS

Introduction ... .
Nomenclature .. . 2
Formulas for Flow of Water in Wood-
DSEAVEPEINOI is, (ae) 6 ese es
Trend of Engineering Thought Receding
the Carrying Capacity of Wood-Stave
LTRS: Sa Se I eo ee
Necessary Field Data for Determination
of Retarding Elements of Various
Formulas ... . satiehns
Equipment and Methods Employed for
Collecting and Interpreting Field Data .
Elements of Field Tests to Determine
Friction Losses and Comparison of Ob-
served Velocities with Velocities Com-
puted from Various Formulas . . . .

Page

1
3

4

Description of Pipes .
A New Set of Formulas for the Flow of
Water in Wood-Stave Pipe . ... .
Comparison of the Various Formulas . .
Kutter’s Formula as Applied to Wood-
SEAVEREIDC foest ia tilah oko olilereelinan ie
Effect of Age upon the Carrying Capacity
of Wood-Stave Pipe .. . . «. =
Capacity of Wood-Stave Pipes ... .
Estimate Diagrams and Table .
Capacity of Wood-Stave Pipe Compared
with that of Cast Iron and Riveted Steel
Conclusions .
Acknowledgments . .. . aeaetine
Appendix .
Discussion

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o e ee e© ec e e eo e@ @

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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1916

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
_ BULLETIN No. 379

Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry, CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief, and the
’ Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director

Washington, D.C. v August 4, 1916 —

DUST EXPLOSIONS AND FIRES IN
GRAIN SEPARATORS IN THE
_ PACIFIC NORTHWEST

By
DAVID J. PRICE, Engineer in Charge of Grain Dust Explosion Investi-
gations, Bureau of Chemistry, and E. B. McCORMICK, Chief,

' Division of Rural Engineering, Office of Public
Roads and Rural Engineering

CONTENTS

Page
Introduction 3 Experimental Field and Laboratory Work 11
Plan of Investigation Nature of Dust Explosions
Classification of Explosions Methods Developed for Preventing Ex-
Results of Field Investigation . .. . plosions or Extinguishing Fires
Static Electricity as a Cause of Explosions Special Acknowledgments

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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1916

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
2 BULLETIN No. .380

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry —
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief.

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 15, 1917

ENDOTHIA PARASITICA AND
RELATED SPECIES

By

C. L. SHEAR, Pathologist, and NEIL E. STEVENS, Pathol-
- ogist, Fruit-Disease Investigations, and RUBY J. TILLER,
Scientific Assistant, Office of Investigations
in Forest Pathology

CONTENTS

Page
Taxonomy Physiology—Continued
Discovery of Endothia parasitica in

The Genus Endothia China ..

The Species of Endothia Discovery of Endothia parasitica in
Morphology and Development ... . Japan

Mycelium : Present Distribution of Endothia

Stromata wre rete Fa parasitica in America

Spore Measurements Host Relations of the Species of En-
Physiology Shoe

' Cultura! Studies

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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1917

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BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, WiLLIAM A. TAYLOR.

OFFICE OF INVESTIGATIONS IN FOREST PATHOLOGY.
SCIBNTIFIC STAFF,

Haven Metcalf, Pathologist in Charge. ~

George G. Hedgecock, Emile P. Meinecke, and Perley Spaulding, Pathologists.

J. Franklin Collins, Carl Hartley, William H. Long, and James R. Weir, Forest Pathoio-
gists.

Samuel B. Detwiler, Forest Inspector.

-G. Flippo Gravatt, C. J. Humphrey, and N. Rex Hunt, Assistant Pathologists.

Roy G. Pierce, Forest Assistant.

John S. Boyce, Ruth M. Fleming, Ernest E. Hubert, Gilbert B. Posey, Paul V. Siggers,
and Ruby J. Tiller, ie Assistants.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF. AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 381

Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural Organization
CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief

’ Washington, D. C. Vv " September 29, 1916

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND ACCOUNTS
FOR COOPERATIVE STORES

By

J. A. BEXELL, Dean, School of Commerce, Oregon Agricultura!
College, Collaborator, Office of Markets and Rural Organiza-
tion, and W. H. KERR, Investigator in Market Business
Practice, Office of Markets and Rural Organization

CONTENTS

Introduction . . . . . - B Statements and Reports—Continued.
Corporate Records Auditor’s Report .
Minutes ...... President’s Report
Subscription Agreement Operating Records
Certificate Book ... Strictly Cash Business a eee
Stock Certificate Register Both Cash and Credit Business
Dividend Register Auditing
Membership Ledger .. . Audit of Resources and Liabilities
Interest and Dividend Account Office Equipment
Statements and Reports 5 Summary
Manager’s Report .. Bibliography
Inventory. . . . «+ «© « Index of Records and Accounting Forms .

v

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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1916

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 386

Contribution from Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director

Washington, D. C. September 11, 1916

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES
IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC
STATES, 1914

A COMPILATION SHOWING MILEAGE OF IMPROVED AND
UNIMPROVED ROADS; SOURCES AND AMOUNTS OF ROAD
REVENUES; BONDS ISSUED AND OUTSTANDING; AND A
DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEMS OF ROAD ADMINIS-
TRATION AND FISCAL MANAGEMENT, AND OF OTHER
FACTORS AFFECTING ROAD IMPROVEMENT IN EACH STATE

PREPARED JOINTLY BY THE DIVISION OF ROAD
ECONOMICS AND THE STATE COLLABORATORS
OF THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS AND
RURAL ENGINEERING

%

CONTENTS

Page ;
Introduction . . . ». » 2» «© » eo © e 1 Road Mileage, 1914 ee eee ee e@ @
Working Plan and Sources of Informa- Development of New Types of Highway .
2 | Detailed Information by States .
Road Administration in the Middle Atlan- New Jersey . . » «= @

tic States New York . « « o © © o o °
Pennsylvania ee 28 ee @ @ ®

WASHINGTON
‘GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE |
1916

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
’ BULLETIN No. 387

Contribution from Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director

Washingion, D. C. Vv February 20, 1917

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN
THE SOUTHERN STATES, 1914

A COMPILATION SHOWING MILEAGE OF IMPROVED AND
UNIMPROVED ROADS, SOURCES AND AMOUNTS OF ROAD
REVENUES, BONDS ISSUED AND OUTSTANDING, AND A
DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEMS OF ROAD ADMINISTRA-
TION, FISCAL MANAGEMENT AND OTHER FACTORS AF-
FECTING ROAD IMPROVEMENT IN EACH STATE

Prepared Jointly by the
Division of Road Economics of the Office of Public Roads
and Rural Engineering, and State Collaborators

CONTENTS

Page
Introductory: ‘ Georgia . .
Working Plan and Sources of Infor- Kentucky .
.Ination . .. Louisiana ..
Road iNdaniniatration i in the Southern Maryland 2
States ... Pie iar ait cai tap ts Mississippi - See one
Public Read Rereniea North Carolina
County and District Road ana Bridge Oklahoma ... .
Bondissues ......... South Carolina .
Road Mileage . .. Spanier) eehre Tennessee .
Types of Surfaced Wenas eee 4 Texas. ..
PRNAIN A elo wien) ie (be. aie Sone “i Virginia. . .
PMRRAMISAS telat ot or te lee eri Sicel abe West Virginia.
RPE ATES a Cass ai ol a ately einen 2 Appendix.
MOCHA fc 6s eee Woe ,

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* GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1917

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT CF AGRICULTURE
i BULLETIN No. 388

Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director f

Washington, D.C. January 8, 1917

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN
THE NEW ENGLAND STATES, 1914

A COMPILATION SHOWING MILEAGE OF IMPROVED AND
UNIMPROVED ROADS, SOURCES AND AMOUNTS OF ROAD
REVENUES, BONDS ISSUED AND OUTSTANDING, AND A
DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEMS OF ROAD ADMINISTRA-
TION, FISCAL MANAGEMENT, AND OTHER FACTORS AF-
FECTING ROAD IMPROVEMENT IN EACH STATE

Prepared jointly by the
Division of Road Economics of the Office cf Public Roads
and Rural Engineering, and State Collaborators

CONTENTS

Introductory : Massachusetts
Maine Rhodelsland. ..
New Hampshire ; Connecticut
Vermont .. ONE eS ena een 6 Appendix

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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1917

|

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 389

Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director

_Washington,D.C. May 10, 1947

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES IN
THE CENTRAL, MOUNTAIN, AND
PACIFIC STATES, 1914

A COMPILATION SHOWING MILEAGE OF IMPROVED AND
UNIMPROVED ROADS; SOURCES AND AMOUNTS OF ROAD
REVENUES; BONDS ISSUED AND OUTSTANDING; AND
A DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEMS GF ROAD ADMINIS-
TRATION, FISCAL MANAGEMENT, AND OTHER FACTORS
AFFECTING ROAD IMPROVEMENT IN EACH STATE

Prepared jointly by the
Division of Road Economics of the Office of Public Roads
and Rural! Engineering, and State Collaborators

CONTENTS

Nevada
New Mexico
North Daketa

g

South Dakota

Utah

Washington

Wisconsin

Wyoming
Minnesota . Appendix A
Missouri . Appendix B

Appendix C

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 390

Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director

Washington, D. C. df - January 12, 1917

PUBLIC ROAD MILEAGE AND REVENUES
IN THE UNITED STATES, 1914

A SUMMARY

(Based upon Bulletins 386, 387, 388, and 389)

SHOWING FOR EACH STATE TOTAL AND SURFACED MILEAGE OF
. PUBLIC ROADS AT THE CLOSE OF 1914, REVENUES FOR ROADS
AND BRIDGES IN 1914, STATE AND LOCAL ROAD AND
BRIDGE BONDS OUTSTANDING JANUARY 1, 1915,
AND OTHER RELATED DATA

PREPARED JOINTLY BY THE DIVISION OF ROAD
ECONOMICS OF THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC
ROADS AND RURAL ENGINEERING
AND STATE COLLABORATORS

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1917

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 391

Contribution from the Burean of Chemistry
CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER December 10, 1918

ACCURACY IN COMMERCIAL GRADING
OF OPENED EGGS |

By

M. K. JENKINS, Assistant Bacteriologist, and
NORMAN HENDRICKSON, Assistant Chemist,
Food Research Laboratory —

CONTENTS

Deseriptions and Bacteria) Counts of
Eggs Graded out of the Shell .-. .
Effect of Contaminated Eggs upon Com-
History and Bacterial Content of Samples posite Products
Effect of Condition of Shell on Bacterial Eggs Rejected during Grading . .
Content of Egg
Relation between Number of Bacteria
and Physical Condition of the Egg
Contents. e

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
- 1918

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 393

Contribution from Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director

Washington, D. C. Vv October 23, 1916

ECONOMIC SURVEYS OF COUNTY
HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT

A COMPILATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA IN EIGHT
SELECTED COUNTIES, SHOWING COMPARATIVE
FINANCIAL BURDENS AND ECONOMIC BENEFITS
RESULTING FROM HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT
DURING A PERIOD OF YEARS

By

J. E. PENNYBACKER, Chief of Road Economics, and
M. O. ELDRIDGE, Assistant in Road Economics

CONTENTS

Introduction . . . . 2 « Wise County, Va. . . ». © »« s ©
Comparative Analysis of Economic Effects Franklin County, N.Y. . . + »« «© «
of Road Improvement . .. sehe hati Dallas County, Ala. . .. +s «
Spotsylvania County, Va. Lauderdale County, Miss... . »
Dinwiddie County, Va Manatee County, Fla. . . . o »

Lee County, Va.. . . 2. «

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1916 :

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‘UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 394

Contribution from Office of Markets and Rural Organization
CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief

gq _ Washington, D. C. : Vv i. November 3, 1916

A SURVEY OF
TYPICAL COOPERATIVE STORES
IN THE UNITED STATES

By

J. A. BEXELL, Dean, School of Commerce, Oregon Agricultural College;
HECTOR MACPHERSON, Director, Bureau of Markets, Ore-
gon Agricultural College; and W. H. KERR, Investigator
in Market Business Practice, Office of Markets
and Rural Organization, United States
Department of Agriculture

CONTENTS

Page

Purpose, Scope, and Method of the

Survey Accounting, Reports, and Auditing . . .
Origin of the Stores ; Equipment
General Organization oo, The Balance Sheet
Operating : Operating Expenses - Fi
Finance . 5 : Observations and Coniasions' Site inte
Credit —. Appendix :
Purchasi

WASHINGTON |
GOVERNMENT ‘PRINTING OFFICE
1916

JN TED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 395 |

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
2 WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

By

G. W. KEITT, formerly Scientific Assistant
Fruit-Disease Investigations

CONTENTS

si a Page : Page
RMMCHION Gia) shia ete ce foe eins The Causal Organism ....ee-s Il
e Disease . .... é Life History of the Causal Organism in

Geographic Distribution Relation to Pathogenesis. . . e - 32
‘Economic Imporiance . Control Measures . . « « «> © » » 46
Description . . Summary eh ete seks: Cea - 61
Pathological Histolegy . ..... Literature Cited . - © o 3

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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1917

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ITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 398

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

October 12, 1916

CEREAL EXPERIMENTS AT THE
‘JUDITH BASIN SUBSTATION
‘MOCCASIN, MONT.

By

re C. DONALDSON, Scientific Assistant
Office of Cereal Investigations

(In cooperation with the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station)

CONTENTS

Experiments with Flax

Comparison of the Leading Varieties of
Cerealq

Experiments with Minor Cereals

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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1916

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
| BULLETIN No. 400

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

gton, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 26, 1916

Scientific Assistant, Western Wheat Investigations,
Office of Cereal Investigations

Varietal Experiments. .. .
History of Marquis Wheat. . . ... Source of the Seed . . .

DID Se SS Sen eee ar Geographic Area Covered
Experiments in Western Canada . Results Obtained ...

Introduction into the United States Summary of Yield Data
Milling and Baking Quality

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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
: 1916

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