Ses 32 Hn Ann yt Het wy ra Hy) ey aT thr THAN ah, ante rey aretiy " 4 Ate Wy yi i i wee Ath dt Total i siqe ¥ K 4 n ' ! ite Hee q LRA SEW AL EU be at ie Seattegl biatin id gett devna a iat iii =<. atk ite i Mies bo Ht e Bana Fe eS SS Ve ti Balen) Fd, i! 4 en 8 <= <=> eS ae Wad ay Hy Ht ei +H Iniatali i aah 4 aids ct Jeena at fj wn jens ate We FOR THE PE OREE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE : CAN “Ciba THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY \% 1926 U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Department Bulletins Nos. 426-450, WITH CONTENTS AND INDEX. Prepared in the Division of Publications. ‘ J ; ¥ WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH 1920 ‘ 4 a aM ¢ * a sey ¥ * eae CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 426—SuGAR PINE. AUER YUN Ca Tats t 1 CE, fee SUN SE EDT POLIT ec ea a Geographical and commercial range_______-__. 5 tly joao, LEED DEE. SET be oA LOY O) RRS 61 ce A ca a 7 SE Se Pyrikemleanves: TMOWEES, aNd SCCC i ee ae De SEE TG NCTE SN A peg dan le ng | A ee TE susceptibility to Injury and diseases______-_______ 2 SOLAPECERLE TREO IIT SCE 0 (2 sc ag ee I 7 pee acer hate se LEED TTF OCG (1 FICO a i cc mene Sa oe 2 Te See i PA RN et MO LEIP ERSTE (EOS Sao aS US es Se ne Ae TUL a SA Bg LT Bree TUE: PUPP a LE a OE AOS el Nea, te Raa Paoray eerie creek race pee a gE PT Errno he es ated er ee Ee DOS Gs STE sSmbebaity Ccmmepne kann ey Wes ay ea EMT ee “i Values and grades of lumber__ EN ees ae Ag Oe SE ESS CoM pee NES VERISIGN ee Dee Es er WSC See rey tt tee op tay SP a ae PEEL SOULS TS, BS ety EERE SEITE VOC Ie COS ei eee Seen Pe yee We OE EEN IS COM eT Cll oy CLG emia tele epeya yee Sanyal se Masa re fy Se Ne EYRE Management________ rb Nits ety bak ais Bee 2 ccc) POO ates Mit Aske, Management of private timberlands_____ Ted tot SS eee ed ESN ss apse a DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 427.—THrE Potato TUBER MorTH. eS SIRT Cec) mene ame meena sh al Sr helo 28 a yt oe ee Romane es NS ee MESH TOL ee ee eee et See ee ig igs nee wee Fare 3 PTS TS ETE ae a ee ge a i reTeCe Of hn UKE = ee ee ae i Map ve NOT 1s sol RE PES RS ENP IUR ICC ULEN YS (OTs BseL 10 CC Cm = ce eee tee NS aS ee ee SES SHe ALON ANG’ SVYNONYVMV2l2e 222 eee oka, eee LE Sy TG BI as ata RS aly ae pe Le StL ET aE TE ACT MmRT S| oS TT Sse meee eae ene ie Se: on oh 2 SN eos i eR ee ee ELEN OAT ALLS eee ee ee ee ee ee moreratencmiesand checks 224 ae ee ee ee sa JH TERA yaad epee ey Pe SO ae at Sc Se ey Ae eee eat ae Seay EE BEER SE 5m eee me ne eee en tes 2 PS ey Se eT ame Se AS Et Ee Sy See a DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 428.—MeEpIcAGO FALCATA, A YELLOW-FLOWERED ALFALFA. Introduction of medicago faleata into the United States____________ Pein Me S CCID UCLONM == 2. I eee iMac wand «SOL requirements: = =— --- eS 8. Oe eee MR OEATIICAL: TSGO Ipc a Se a pe es 2 a ee et el Botanical description and relationship_____---_-_~ eal pn Fp A oe 2B i PEORIA MISTOLY <2 cas es eee te EL PET ILGn CHAT ACLOLISUICS = ser re re a ee ve SPRATT UL COR UL MLLOL S = eos eee eS Neel Cha Possibilities in selection and hybridization=___.__.-_---_-= 2 PRICE Aor OUOMIIC SLA UIN Se ee eee pete a NELLA ig a a ee SR AE Te alle ER, nee fie S105 Y Se ere eee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No, 429.—Lire History or THE CopLtina Morn 1N THE PECos VALLEY, N. Mex MOOOtOU OL -TOLIUS: USCU ann ck aS ee dhe ed we i BR TTEICOTY EL TUTE PAOT VL LICLLOSS © Os LG sw es et eg BESS MCPEL EL ELEM LOOT OCU LCLACHS), (Ls ch 0) Moa ce cas ms mR le ag ee a lottin) y a hs SS res ee a ee alee rene Sens as) i) Lic} i omar PR RwWwWrDH 10 =: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 426-450. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 430.—CEREAL EXPERIMENTS ON THE CHEYENNE Page. EXPERIMENT FARM, ARCHER, WYO. Description of the district____ —— Cheyenne experiment farm ' Experiments with wheat ee Experiments with emmer and spelt Experiments with oats________ Ee joe ee ee Hxperiments: with “barley. =.- 2 21200 ee Experiments with flax______ i SE Experiments with minorserain| Cropse ===. =e ee SUMMAry 32 8s Se el See ae DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 431.—SaAcBroop. Historical account IName-O€ -the:. disease. = is): 2 se ee ee eee Appearance of healthy brood at the age at which it dies of sacbrood__ Symptoms) Of: Ssacbro0d 22-2. 22 ee eS eee CauvSeNOf Sa CbrOOd amen Weakening effect of sacbrood upon a colony__________________- Amount of virus required to produce the disease, and the rapidity of AS INCLeASG= 2a es SS oe ee ee Methods used in making experimental inoculations________________ Means. for the destruction of the virus of sacbrood______________ Heating required to destroy sacbrood virus when suspended in water Heating required to destroy sacbrood virus when suspended in SLY CETIN: Aes = = Re eee Heating required to destroy sacbrood virus when suspended in honey_ Resistance of sacbrood virus to drying at room temperature Resistance of sacbrood virus to direct sunlight when dry___________ Resistance of sacbrood virus to direct sunlight when suspended in AVietlGT sueeseee ees Bee o oo cae Resistance of sacbrood virus to direct sunlight when suspended in Length of time that sacbrood virus remains virulent in honey______ Resistance of sacbrood virus to the presence of fermentative processes Resistance of sacbrood virus to fermentation in diluted honey at out- door temperature__—_—_-_— yeh eR ee he Resistance of sacbrood virus to the presence of putrefactive proc- esses Modestof transmission or sa CD)LOO0=2 =) == ee Diagnosis of sacbrood Rrognosis= == et, a Ler ee ee ee Relation of these studies to the treatment of sacbrood____________~ Summary and conclusions_________ DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 432.—THE SPIKE-HORNED LEAF-MINER, AN ENEMY OF GRAINS AND GRASSES. SyymOnyaniy ee ee History of ‘the Species.) 2 ee Hoodmplants = aa WR Th es eel Description = = ee ee ee DIStribution. 2 a= es Se oe ee Injury to plants by adults puncturing the leaves-__--________-=_—_ Injury to plants by minines habits ot lane ee ite: history 2S Seo: ee eee Rearing methods ________ ican v2 se ASR ET eA Sp Parasitic enemies a ee eee eee Preventive Measures 2. 2 ee ee eee oanntntown wv 15 16 CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 483.—CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DuRING CoLpD STORAGE ABOVE FREEZING. iygerenienyaAlierOl COLU=STOT AS Cams ies bee iene Commercial practices in the cold storage of fresh beef______________ Previous investigations on cold storage of meats Purpose and plan of present investigation SEPIA MESES ARO NP) ET LITA ET) fe Se sere ey vaste ll ates rio ee Cold-storage experiments with fresh beef__________________ Effects of cold storage upon the nutritive value of the beef______ Factors affecting the time that fresh beef can be stored at tempera- 4 ERC SEL DOME? i CO7 Nl is peemmmmn sn £0 Pe CP Ene NS ES ; CRORE STON IN Tye fe = eoameuee Ae elie! AS A Cai hie seek hel | DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 434.—JupGInG THE Datry Cow AS A SUBJECT , OF INSTRUCTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 7 Classroom discussion___ led, Se Banc yore Shel Aa I ati he ae sealer } Practice judging yo mean a SR zi phe Seen ee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 435.—THE APPLE LEAF-SEWER. LISA, eee rs til SS Sh ae eh) Se aE a be oS = LL TeSFTET OT ET aa le “ Ee sed Miata ER fin OD I, et Hecsmesnapis and Character Of AMyULY 22s ee ee MATES CHISE PCO TIME Plate S Ut OS eee wae en SRS eae Wh aes Spring pupation of wintering larve___ habe ers es Emergence of moths________ eae Sapte ois a3 cons ae it Oviposition of moths______ ge fa Aaa alps Sale acta Ue PAO Length of life of moths_________ aia haat 8" hl and pet acetyl Dat Habits 6f moths________ TERRE Rc tS i Nel ACCC ROM ER LIE LITEETE! LEV Oe COTE GC e df < eae el ae ee a eM OE ras MEM AEA ERE ee Ca Se A APLC COIN a Cl1O Gee. eg sss ie ee Se PR PSU SES TSTACD LTA) UN eo hs SCO EARS anlieeel tarreerm a) 32 8.) 5 | SO Dae paren PMU TTY) sie a Le ee ee Hemedial measures = — Fs Ree pc rt 2 UE ERAT Wii Aenean See tN ae gh Ne Se Rs oh Se DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 456.—THE DeEsERT CorN F'LEA-BEETLE. LISS Pi Shiv 30g) eS Sa ee teen 2 ee ee eG noe ee Le mre arR a ARN Ts (dee wal eh ee we PVD SENT Ae BEL Pie OUGMUCMCONSIO CEA LOIS saa > 55 mk pence a eT SO SEE FL EIES 1S oe ea aes erence ah ee Oi Se Ae ER SEPT ENSL ODEN SS eee ns eS ew a ee A PESTO Van ANC WMA DULG = eee tS i a ees Le: See RTEME ESTATES LOTS on Sk a eee Ea 2 I a eh oe ase LPEY ee] CSTE 1 VS ey | ee eo eet LO i ee Benedialvandepreventive: measuresl--.-- e-. .2 Se ee I LYE TEESE fis eR SS SS a 5 Hs Od ee 2 =) pene eats | 1D aS Sh eee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 437.—FLAT-HEADED BoreRS AFFECTING FoREST TREES IN THE UNITED STATES. muveriance-of fat-headed borers222-52223ee. Seer ee ee EG STE pe fae le are epee ap. joy ek Dy ea tI CT OME ee TLOn Ay OCs ee eck ee et ee Oe ns miter Mistery ofe2. ae AR oe ER el ee.) SSL ee eee CAUCE DAT fa tae Cae a ee cs: aes eo ae anes e Special habits 2.22) lese_t ee US AaB 2 MMe e. | 25 LSE SE LS 356 Special structural characters_____ Bp 1 lees Bt 2, eee epee dee! wpe See EE Nant Agreement of adult and larval classifications_._._..._.__---_--_~_ ut 535 Be Distinguishing characters_____- ears es ee ts eal PE Si . moe TO Oeler A OL (DUDVERLLG IAT Viel. Solo tye, ee List of genera, distribution, common habits, and host trees__-----—- HE LeLERCOMU LOIN DONEATIL LCL ALU Tactic a eee alae = oO ht et et : FPrEHOSODHMDOAAKENY WW = i) Aanqtoirnwnnd eH 1 DAMIARHWWNNNNH DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 426-450. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 438-—THEr PEAR LEAF-\ORM. Introduction______ 2 Bea) ae i och 2! lel a Elistonyarand a cistrib ui oman eine Niue vida 25 a Possible origin____________ peer aes sb payer Character and extent of injury__________________ Leas tip Jt De Weseription: ‘and: habits: eee. ee Biology ___ Syren a Se i a gh INabUE Alls COmtGr Ol See Soe See at ae eee eats oats ee ee Remedial measures____ ee ee eas ern Aiea ha Summary___ a axl Bate Wa a ay arid SUP a ae wedihi' 2 £5 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 439.—THE Soy BEAN, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE To ITs UTILIZATION FOR Orn, CAKE, AND OTHER PRODUCTS. Soy beans in Manchuria_________ ge ely See Soy beans in Japan_—-=--- hese ay Joss a eae Soy eas aia HT Op ee ee og sb asl ee ge Soy beans in the United States_______________ ern ee Methods of ,oil extractions. 2s oe ee ee Soyebeani;meal as shuman: 100d 22 ee ee eee Soy-bean meal as stock feed_______________ *® ____ ct See ee Soy-bean meal as a fertilizer_ pare ue per ey poe, MS Uses of soy-bean oi]_______ De See oth week aoe ea ieee 28 Analyses of important varieties of soy beans_______________________ Possibility of developing a manufacturing industry with American- grown soy beans____~____ nl cue eto syste lat a So es et DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 440.—LUMBERING IN THE SUGAR AND YELLOW PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. = Part: De Tm ERO CUCU rye ee Ee sl Se ah oe es Ae ee ss The region ES ls a ari ee se so cine tb Mica a "PE TOES thew See ee hh sak Oe ee Ss Types of operations____-____ pa aeesen ei ies ope mene Cy 1 fz) XO ose ee Pe Se eater cseepaene) uate tee Ye Tat (Cea Se iene lt eee 3 Lape. iia nil Teche 18 ie Factors affecting the cut___ if une ale oul ens ie kang Pant Meso sein cies eee) eee ae pinatdesh, So eee Preparing logs for transport____ * PN ao Na a lr From stump to yard_______ Oishi ee si gt Dag geal i HIP OME sy ATCO Lev Chita oe = s=. Se aR a IES ie eee colons Bice Meron lennchiner troy ial Papen iy yo ce W.OOdS SUPER VISTONEE = - ken eee oe hota 2 ig Parts DLS Mia mite Curie Se 2 et 2 eee Ma ponds Sie eee ee 28 oe eee Sawmills_____ Peel ae is ilk aoe enous, ats they th cae agile Saas Sawmill lumber yards_____ UeAD ARM SNS iu 2a J eres Transportation to common carriers_ 2 ee alg ee Part IV. General cost factors_ is nee eet ee Overhead charges_________ OT ERG at a JOS OANCHAN BION = ( SEAD AOIR Ga E Les Jive, pol Summary of the costs of typical operations__________ eels DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 441.—TurE AcTION OF MANGANESE UNDER ACID AND NEUTRAL SOIL CONDITIONS. Effect of manganese on Arlington soil under acid conditigns——_______ Oxidative power of plats with and without manganese under acid conditions____ een WMG ces BOS Mente cut at Be i Hy a oa Oxidative power of plats with and without manganese under neutral CO TVG TTO MS iy ace 2 ie ie ye NE Nl ag i ay IN EU gD a SA ae Summa ty eo a ler a Se ees opt ee eee ig 5 iQ J = Ke a NOoONOCRWNRHeE to pe = Pwr OAD S bl fat jt DO a= =| ar WwWwonornNn HH a 13 CONTENTS. | | ( Cayenne H a “DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 442.—PossIBILITY OF THE COMMERCIAL PRO- Page, DUCTION OF LEMON-GRASS OI IN THE UNITED STATES. Soil and climatic requirements of lemon-grass______-______________ 2 RESTOR Art ORY eeee eee ren ee NS a ee Se eer ee Re 3 PRE RUE ACES we LT) Clem CUT tela yet bs © Dee ean ec bE 3 SERN EVES WN) = ose oe ie eB Shon yo Dae Ree esc hee et Ne 4 “LEYS 60 ee re Ree a Se OR 0B ee la 6 “PEAT EYE) FUSS re a ee eee GLa Cee ae eee 7 Factors affecting the yield of lemon-grass oi]______________________ 8 Factors affecting the citral content of lemon-grass oi]l_-____________ 9 Solubility of lemon-grass oil in aleohol________ Als lesa ak usin aia 10 NESROPREREST CLA GP OSL MUUET CS e eee pk ee eee oe aa a as sn Se nl 11 ‘DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 443.—THrE NEw Mexico RANGE CATERPILLAR ; AND ITS CONTROL. ; ‘ General description of the range caterpillar_______________________ 2 { Wihere jhe srance caterpillar /oceurss22252 Ae eee 8 : Its economic importance and great abundance_____________________ 3 POLOPSEANGs SrASSeS= abbaCke dies et eect Oe ee as es 4 MME RerCEAO MRPDE) INSULY2 = ee eee ee Nea ay pict 4 MireehisLtory Of the, range Caterpillars. ne eee en Pe eee 6 Natural enemies of the range caterpillar_________________ 8 PeenliGesTEeRObeiSeaSe ls 5 2. fi) ee aris erin 9 PRB ES SEAR GN Ce t5149 No Ly ssed kN ASM Dh el 9 ‘ Ersouyeot thevrangce caterpillar: es) 2 ae 2 ee ee ie 10 ! DIES TTRG LE TREES UIT SIS el ag SS OR Pie ce ne pn a ae ee 11 ‘DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 444.—FAtszE BLOSSOM OF THE CULTIVATED ; CRANBERRY. MEnertiauvottalsesblosSom 0 hoe eel BARE YTS 1 : Oricim- and. -distribution. = ==. ae = Pipe ts EAE hE ah 3 GTA TAYE re AETV T) O F L TD. Ce oe i ee ES IRE Sel en 4 ES ee e+ SN lg Eb Ne 4 VUTEC, a ate a ee alt a pant ee a a a bp a og ae cae ea ay 5 SPIED ae a th I i 1 a Dp a er ge 5 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 445.—THE NAvEL ORANGE OF BAHIA WITH NOTES ON SOME LITTLE-KNOWN BRAZILIAN FRUITS. é Origin and history of the navel orange of Bahia________-____________ il Introduction of the Washington navel orange of Bahia into the UL UEAR GGL SHH A WS SFR pe PS TE a LS Sp). EO, 2 a ee 4 imine ot pie mayelvorange in Bahian=.3 se. ee 7 Citrus fruits of Bahia other than the navel orange__________/______ 15 Citrus fruits of the region around Rio de Janeiro__________________ 16 MIRCCLANCOUS fruits crowneat Bahia wee ee Be 17 Some interesting fruits of Rio de Janeiro and vicinity... -_-_____ 25 Fruits of the highlands and semiarid regions of Minas Geraes PROROAWEVSU LY (28 poses oak Sees SS ed as eae eS 381 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 446.—THrE Cost or PRoDUCING APPLES IN WENATCHEE VALLEY, WASH. Ce a ike Pay Pa UE eS SE SE ES SS TEAST ae ea 2 MPP RGU DOT COIN LC LLL ere ee re ee 2 RETO RINT ELLIO ts res te et oa a a en ae 6 MOP TAERSR CASAS) AST CLIC LT oe ose et ne Er ak hs 10 Handling the crop ____ St ee ae NES I SS 2 SER car ae 26 IROL CORRS. see ee 5 RRM, lo UN Sa ee irate aa, 33 RERUUICTIRUR acter ee oe ee ee SEP recent arcane) ee CA 88 8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 426—450, DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 447.—WaATER PENETRATION IN THE GUMBO SOILS OF THE BELLE FoURCHE RECLAMATION PROJECT. Description of the gumbo soil of the Belle Fourche reclamation TOTO) Ci I 2 se pCR Water capacity of the gumbo soil IPTG TKOLaI ALTA OLE claKs) fs UW ON] OG) KON a Changes in the volume of the soil due to wetting and drying Rate of movement of water in loose, saturated soi]_________________ Rate of movement of water in wet soil under field conditions Penetration of water into dry soil in the field Summary E: Ligaen a DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 448.—SEPARATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF FOOD-COLORING SUBSTANCES. General statements concerning reagents used in color analysis______ JPrelhbonmbahey weenie Oe woxorel {oreorohuCeMs Separation and purification of coloring substances_________________ Identification of coloring substances___-=-___________ DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 449.—A Stupy OF THE HLECTROLYTIC METHOD OF SILVER CLEANING. Preliminary. sbeStse 2 3 2 ee Principle: or the electrolyticimethod 2222s) eee Experimental study of the mie tho cae eee A household: methods. swb 0 Mowe se ae Summary sue DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 450.—IMPROVEMENT OF GHIRKA SPRING WHEAT IN YIELD AND QUALITY. History and description of Ghirka spring wheat___________-_-______ FOX Peri CM GSie eee CN A ee ee ee Comparative yield st. 2... neh. ee CE a ae Summary of, yields2o220. 0.002 se ee ee eee Milline and baking (quality {222 ee Improvement bys Selectlon 2222 iws eae 2 eee Conclusions Page. Ls} mo Ol Rm OD tO jt CO m bo 35 INDEX. AbIGAxa GeESErIVtOn, Quality. Noblesse oe ee Ta Abiu, description, characteristics and uses______________ Achras Zapota, occurrence in Bahia, nature and value___ Alfalfa— comparison with Medicago falcata______._ hydridization with Medicago falcata, discussion___—_ Medicago falcata, a yellow-flowered variety, bulletin by R. A. Oakley and Samuel Garver____________ mulch crop for apple orchard, management and cost FUNDA Ned SENT 910) Week ee es CERNE a acs Je recovery after cuttfg, rate, comparison with Medi- LGD jf CHUCLTEES SE EE E IRUSDTR UNUEAN SAD ReMANO MLCOtTCAGO 1 GLCObG oe Pu Pe yellow-flowered. See Medicago falcata. Alpha-naphthol solution, reagent in color analysis, note__ Aluminum, use in electrolytic cleaning of silver______ Ancylis nubeculana. See Leaf-sewer, apple. Annona sulzmanm, description and production in Brazil Ants, enemies of apple leaf-sewer______________ Apple— Boxemestandand. GiNenSiOnse 22s 2 Te i ae leaf-sewer, bulletin by B. R. Leach_________________ leaf-sewer. See also leaf-sewer, apple. orcharding, development in Washington, history____ orchards, Pecos Valley, N. Mex., danger from codling moth, experiments and investigations_____________ tree, age for bearing, different varieties___________ trees— defoliation by apple leaf-sewer, processes_______ propping, methods, labor and cost_____________ spraying for apple leaf-sewer, importance, and MANE CULO TIS bee a a FE SL RR NS Apples— cost of producing in Wenatchee Valley, Wash., bul- letin by G. H. Miller and S. M. Thomson_________ cull, utilization as drier stock, suggestions____....___ growing in Wenatchee Valley, Wash., practices and LUISE ype is A SE a a AEN Ire vie harvesting and handling, operations and cost_______ picking, hauling, and packing, methods and cost___ shipments from north and central Washington, 1905- TiS Db Sa ae i al ee ere SEN PAR - UMRIE hh BUNT, (OTACUCES (ANG) COSt ine ee ae varieties grown in Wenatchee Valley, Wash., number BECCA ANCE CALS (Ol, CAC ie a pene ee yield of orchards in Wenatchee Valley, Wash_______ Araticum, swamp, occurrence, description and character- EPCS 1 ini AE ete ee a ORE ES - RR Arlington farm— effect of Manganese sulphate on crop yield, acid OR DELIMICH CS hes ayer eee ee oS experiments on effect of manganese sulphate on crop yield, neutral conditions, 1913-1915__________ Arsenical spray, use against range caterpillar__.___._____ EMAILS CLOTANUUET OUI Oly LOL ML ate ax ceca esc nse te oa ae Averrhoa carambola. See Carambola. Avocado, occurrence in Bahia, deseription, ete _- MmepATI GesCcrintou, Oligitt,. eL¢.2 22.2... 2 149354—20——-2 Bulletin Page. No. 445 19 445 22, 445 18 . 7,14-20, 24-27, 228 { "35 87-65 428 57-59 428 1-70 446 24-26 428 40-41 428 24-27 44§ 3 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 449 { u , ish 445 19 485 11 446 26 485 1-16 446 5-6 429 3-90 446 8 485 2-4, 12 446 19-20 435 11-12 446 1-35 446 31 446 2-35 446 26-85 446 27-381 446 6 446 17-19 446 7-8 446 9 445 30-34 441 lat ales 441 6-9, 12 443 12 433 8 445 18 445 30-31 2 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 426—450. Bulletin Page. No. Bahia navel orange, with notes on some little-known Brazilian fruits, bulletin by P. H. Dorsett, A. D. Shamel and Wilson Popenoe___________-__-_-_ 445 1-35 Barley— production failure at Archer, Wyo., 19138 ___________ 430 30, 39 varietal experiments, Cheyenne experiment farm, BUCS Tes! Uso I eee a 2 eR NN RE STs 430 30-33, 39 Barrows, H. P., and H. P. Davis, bulletin on “ Judging the dairy cow as a subject of instruction in secondary SHOOTS (it ho I ae a oe aR i 2 UI 434 1-20 Bean, soy. See Soy bean. ' Beans, yield, relation to manganegse— (3: €] Oey G1 0.0L 2) dy Hs yne ui epee LOR Ron RR GS IL 441 9-11 on neutral soils, Arlington experiments, 1913-1915... 441 6-9 Beef— autolysis experiments, methods, chemical studies and changes, etc 433 8-29, 99 bacteriological and historical studies in . cold storage__ 433 30-32 changes during cold storage above freezing, bulletin by Ralph Hoagland, Charles N. McBryde, and Wilmer: CaxP ow @laie 2 Ws gba) Cea EE roel 433 1-100 eold storage— chemical and physical studies, analysis methods. 433 382-99 ty : 11-15, 17-29, chemical studies, and changes_________________ 433 89-95, 99 composition of various muscle bundles_________ 433 15-27, 97 effect on nutritive value_______________________ 43, 95-97, 99 experiments, methods, and studies_____________ 433 29-99 RD CS TEL: LE Sein IAL EN ae a ec EN 433 4, 99 physical Characteristics: 2m mi taan ile sie iit 433 87-88, 99 MOTE C CS eae ANS, A I NAO 433 » 2-5 relation to organoleptic properties_____________ 433 88-89, 99 storing time at temperature above freezing, factors DELS EAN a ETS SRV ARBs Se La 433 97-99 Bees— brood comb, appearance in sacbrood infection_______ 431 12-138 lar vee— dead of sacbrood, appearance__________________ 431 13-24 description, and changes caused by sacbrood____ 431 6-24 sacbrood, bulletin by G. F. White_________________ 4381 1-55 symptoms of sacbrood in colony____________________ 431 10-24 weakening of colony from sacbrood________-_-______ 431 30 Beetle— desert corn flea-beetle. See Flea-beetle, desert corn. five-spined engraver, injury to sugar pine___________ 426 6 mountain pine, injury to sugar pine________________ 426 6 red turpentine, injury to sugar pine________________ 426 6 sugar-pine cone, injury to sugar pine_______________ 426 6 Belle Fourche reclamation project, water penetration in gumbo soils, bulletin by O. R. Mathews_______-________ 447 1-12 BrErry, Swirt, bulletin on ‘“ Lumberi ng in the sugar and yellow pine region of California ”_________’__________ 440 1-99 Bibliography, potato-tuber moth, and other potato CENOVES CONICS poe aa aA OY ia NI) | Sea A SAN rap NM OU hey a oa 427 52-56 IBIRCIS, TODAY THO) Sibesae jouraVe 426 5 Blackabroodbeess: MOteS eae ee ANE tie day aaa ea 431 3-4 Bogs, cranberry, treatment for false blossom___________ 444 5 Borer, flat-headed— injury to forest trees, nature______________________ 4387 2 TING UTA EO SU Scares gp ec os EE IN Ie EOE Eg 426 6 Borers, flat-headed— affecting forest trees in the United States, bulletin Vo ntagel ce es Gin) BYU Gl kt = aut ei i in i LI tae yg 4387 1-8 descriptions of various species__________-_______-_-- 437 4-5 economic importance, food plants, life history, ete__. 437 1-3 structural characters, special__________________--__ 437 3-4 INDEX. Brazil, Bahia— climate, situhtion of orange orchards, and soil con- ISR OS T9 Sp a RS ean Bl fruit cultivation, bulletin by P. H. Dorsett, A. D. Shamel, and Wilson Popenoe____________-_--__ Brazilian fruits, little known, and the navel orange of Bahia, bulletin by P. H. Dorsett, A. D. Shamel and BASIE serra mw Eee CF TDC oe a ae eg a Breadfruit, growing in Brazil, note________- _--§_ Bromin water, reagent in color analysis, note___________= Brush, disposal in apple orchards, labor, and cost_______ Buckwheat, production experiments, 19138-1915, Cheyenne SXMeLIMeHperarmM, “yield setes S. se we ais 1 Se Ne ha Bull, dairy, score card and requirements______-_____ BURKE, H. E. bulletin on ‘‘ Flat-headed borers affecting forest trees in the United States ”___» ___ aN Buprestid larvae, key to generda--2- 22 at See also Borers, flat-headed. Cabelluda, occurrence, description and characteristics___ CaFrrey, D. J., and V. L. WILDERMUTH, bulletin on ‘‘ The New Mexico range caterpillar and its control ”’_______ Caja spp., occurrence in Bahia, description and uses____ Caju. characteristics, occurrence and uses____________ California— lumbering in the sugar and yellow pine region, bul- LeMMeD yest Nerney. se eel Leh een pear orchards, treatment for insect “pests, experi- sugar pine and yellow pine region, topography, SRT ES CT SMMSS (EAA CL. Shs 3 Uy Cees cr ere Le NE Cambucea, occurrence, description and characteristics__—__ Camps, logging, types and management, California pine CE a a A YL tT STN CO Carambola, occurrence in Bahia, description____________ Carbon, disulphid, use as potato fumigant, dosage, SMCS Hi wuSemINeC NOG Sas LE eee A Carica papaya. See Papaya. Carpocapsa pomonella. See Codling moth. Cashew, characteristics, occurrence and uses___________ Caterpillar, New Mexico range, and its control, bulletin Byeveel:; Wildermuth and D: J. Caftrey 2-2. == 2 See also Range caterpillar. Cedar, incense, stands in California pine region, volume BE AHAEASSOGIALCH SPCCleS 24a 2k Ue ee Cereal experiments— Cheyenne experiment farm, Archer, Wyo., bulletin Dart DTU EVV. 5): e) OLVCS 4 2s hobs Lalla tg ay iy a (CHEV EHNE TATINI Sg SCOME) = ase owen Do a Cereals, production in Great Plains, Agriculture De- PRMMCMIiA DUDUICATIONS+ 2-3 52.4540 es en ee merodonta dorsalis, Ssynonymy__—- 22 ee See also Leaf-miner, spike-horned. Chetocnema ectypa. See Flea-beetle, desert corn. “Cherry of Brazil,’ description, uses, occurrence, ete. Cherry, Surinam, description and uses___.--__-________ Cheyenne— experiment district, description, history, soils, climate; veretation Chess om ot tes hs hes hy Experiment Farm— Archer, Wyo., cereal experiments, bulletin by DenRA WW, donese Yt. A2av ert fy. be ts pee i location, description, scope, and methods of experiments See fers Sek Ss eee eee ete Chrysocharus parksi, parasitic enemy of spike-horned TV YS) cea a oN a RE ea yee eo Seen Pea Bulletin No. 445 445 445 445 448 445 430 434 437 437 430 430 430 432 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 426—450, Bullen Page. oO. Chute-hauling, logs, management, equipment and cost___ 440 35-41 Chutes, lumber, construction crew, make-up, wages, and Doard. Calitornmia pine GesT Oni eae lees ne 440 37 Cirrospilus flavoviridis, parasitic enemy of spike-horned an J See CES oO Wi OV ey eae RAS NRC da eC UN A ela 432 15 Citral, importance in lemon-grass oil___________________ 442 5-6 Citron, occurrence in Bahia, description_______________ 445 15 Citrus spp., occurrences and uses______-________________ 445. 15 CriarK, J. ALLEN, bulletin on ‘“‘ Improvement of Ghirka spring wheat in yield and quality ”__________________ 450 1-20 Climate— Bahia, Brazil, 1904-1912._____ Hie NA UNad BUN EUAN ADE 445 7 Fey Wersh sey on ne Vevey ors) avex spac cuU ae Ui IE Maen el ld UU a 426 2-3 Coal-tar ‘dyes, identification methods__________________ 448 35-53 Codling moth— control in apple orchards, practices________________ 446 21-28 life history in the Pecos Valley, N. Mex., bulletin by A. L. Quaintance and H. W. Geyer_______________ 429 1-90 seasonal history, studies in Pecos Valley, N. Mex»___ 429 3-90 spring brood, emergence, oviposition, and generations, PU SUC es eanennues w is Se Aa dB) aa 429 3-19 studies— at Artesia, N. Mex_________ SSCA ce UI SPREE GNI ZL O) 82-83 at Lincoln, N. Mex__ i AYA -- 429 83-86 ait ROSwe lle ING MIM excl AOE StS ORO GE a: DAUR Mana 29 4-§2 PE Biv aN MUL IHiGt ADCS AY [ea aN 429 86-87 Cold storage— beef, changes above freezing, bulletin by Ralph Hoagland, Charles N. McBryde, and Wilmer C. DEON vale ein ces SUA NR St I UO a Uh 483 1-100 experiments with fresh beef, methods, ete.__________ 433 29-99 Lyf erly yk 2S Nee SO Ee a 433 1 Coloring— extraction by immiscible solvents__________________ 448 22-34 food, separation, and identification, bulletin by W. B RDI BANG PI OVEN MASON OVS gate ae Ra Ae aya 448 1-56 natural substances, identification____ ALAN RY AAS 54-55 Colors— analysis— reagents used, practices________________ MESON ALS 2-4 solvents used________________ pes ee Le Lea Val) 3-4 food, permitted, separation and identification_______ 448 18-55 Conphthorus lambertiane. See Beetle, sugar-pine cone. Coolers, meat refrigeration, kinds, care, temperature ence Eng na TaN yea SE NOI) LAIR es 483 2-4 Corn— flea-beetle, desert, bulletin by V. L. Wildermuth_____ 436 1-28 See also Flea-beetle. oxidation of soil under acid conditions______________ 441 5-6 plant, injury from desert corn flea-beetle, nature BING ORGS a ee Oe NG, wa Sea gee Se RN 436 3-4 production tests and possibilities, Cheyenne Experi- SOOYSVON Bil aN 2yp le nee cD NUE RLS US 8 des UE NU Sl 430 37-38, 39 yield— relation of manganese, experiments____________ 441 9-11 relation of manganese, neutral conditions, Ar- lington experiments, 19138-1915 ______________ 441 6-9 relation of manganese sulphate, acid soils, ex- periments at Arlington farm, 1907—1912______ 441 * 24,12 Cottonseed— acreage, production, and value, in boll-weevil States, POOOA TOW 4g a UE NTC AEE Rs SERENA EA Na 439 18-20 price comparison with soy beans, 1911-1914 ________ 439 19-20 “ Countess’s fruit,” description and characteristics______ 445 381 + INDEX. Cow, dairy— conformation and requirements_____ pe a SE Ba judging as a subject of instruction in secondary schools, bulletin by H. P. Barrows and H. P. Davis Neneemear dg GhartS: ete uit) ay ee Cowpeas— oxidation of soil under acid conditions______________ yield— relation of manganese, experiments____________ relation of manganese, neutral conditions, Ar- lington experiments, 1918-1915______________ relation of manganese sulphate, acid soils, ex- periments at Arlington farm, 1907-1912______ Cows, judging, practice by students of secondary schools, ISEB SENS EER ES ee en lh A ac UE Cranberry— bogs, treatment for false blossom_ SHAN dak a false blossom of cultivated variety, bulletin by C. See also False blossom. Crews, lumbering, make-up and wages, California pine TEESE DTD pe kD LA IE aN CMe 0) A Cull, lumber, estimates for different species in California CEP TE, ©. TeCSSETO ye se ne eee ee Oey Zee cya ‘Cymbopogan citratus. See Lemon grass. Cyrtogaster occidentalis, parasitic enemy of spike-horned ESTE NE PO NEY See NY VAD Dacnusad, sp., parasitic enemy of spike-horned leaf- Dairy cow— judging as subject of instruction in secondary schools, bulletin by H. P. Barrows and H. P. Davis______ See also Cow, dairy. Davipson, W. M., R. L. Noucaret and HK. J. NEwcomer, aleriton) +The pear leat-worm 72002 Davis, H. P., and H. P. Barrows, bulletin on ‘“ Judging the dairy cow as a subject of instruction in secondary LEAL SESE a eS NN EE SOP AON Deena ee aN TONAL DCS aT OL C Ss. a 2s ee he Dendroctonus— monticole. See Beetle, mountain pine. volens. See Beetle, red turpentine. Desert corn— flea-beetle, bulletin by V. L. Wildermuth ___________ See also Flea-beetle, desert corn. Diaulinopsis callichroma, parasitic enemy of spike-horned EaPeTERAINA DS Ye tepoy Sete 2 yl es See Sa eae 8 NR Diaulinus websteri, parasitic enemy of spike-horned leaf- Diseases injurious to sugar pine_--------___-_____+__-___ Distichlis spicata, food of desert corn flea- pecile. as SN “ Donkeys,” types for logging, requirements, crews, and EAN G1 oe SS ee SS OE cee ae ae ee et es | Sanne a) Dorsett, P. H., A. D, SHAMEL, and WILson PorENor, bulletin on “ The navel orange of Bahia, with notes on some little-known Brazilian fruits ’_..._._..__L._______ Dry farming, cereal experiments, Cheyenne experiment rar puuetin by Jenkin: W..Jones 222. 2222. Dry-land crop, Ghirka spring wheat, improvement in PES Ame AERA CE ANE ELELER cg oy ee Fe A PRE TINTYER LIA) SIL SLO Lg sw ces ste se we oh cc ass Bulletin No. 434 454 4354 441 441 441 434 430, 450 445 6-8, 13-17, 18- 20, 29-33, 45, 59-60, 61, 67, 68-69, 72, 76, 80 10 15 16 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 426—450, Bulletin Page. Dyes— No. food-coloring substances, separation and identifica- GUO eC See. SY ELE eb Nae 448 1-56 numbers by which designated in published tables______ 448 56 Durability, Sugar-pine ysuperioniny== 220.2 ek ee 426 12 Electrolytic— cleaning silver, principle of operation______________ 449 4 cleaners, descriptions and tests________ 499 3-11 method of cleaning silver, study, bulletin by TEL i Ibgnaes Ein! Os Ja \veulinoin, reg 449 1-12 Electrolysis, use in cleaning silver_______-_-- = 449 1-12 Emmer, production tests, Cheyenne Experiment Farm, UO UB LO pee nae NL BERSAS LNT 6! 480 25-26 Europe, importations of soy beans and products, -1908- Tae, Chebmehay gyal \yeulbe 4389 6-7 False blossom— Om HrKO! thn CkaMloerAy jy 444 5 cranberry, bulletin by C. L. Shear________-_-_ 444 1-8 description, origin, and distribution____._._..________—s—« 444 1-3 occurrence in cranberry plants, cause, discussion___ 444 4-5 Felling, crew make-up, operation and wages, California pine region_ a aN Le 0 PL EEL eee 440 13-17 Fertilizers, use on lemon grass, experiments__________ 4492 3-4 JOINETESE -\abewis, Closer mor 431 27-30 Fir, white, stands in California pine region, volume and associated species___ RI i EUR Ee CR Lo 440 3-4 IDES, THOMA HO) Slee joe Le AZ 4 Flat-headed borers. See Borers, flat- -headed. Flax, varietal experiments, Cheyenne Experiment Farm, 1913-1915 i) MMS ENB CUES IOC deere MAREE 430 33-36, 39 Flea-beetle— description, life history and habits_________________ 436 5-16 desert corn, bulletin by V. L. Wildermuth__________ 436 1-23 distribution and economic importance______________ 486 2-4 enemies_________ SU UGE Za ECA AN = eS ee I WIE Ree IL 436 16-17 food plants_______ SH eM = CAMS NE EE ee - 486 45 remedial measures___— es as NE a ele 436 18-21 Flour, soy-bean, food value, comparison with other flours Mag! (Oren eile PR LOR a He, 439 11-13 Flours, wheats grown in northern Great Plains, baking tests sc: Mua Bat Reis aie SN RR eG BN In cee ac 450 11, 14 Flumes, lumber, requirements, construction, operation, ; DIE COS tees Pa NE aie CPN RAR Ale Me eee Ro 440 89-92 Fomes— laricis, fungi-enemy of sugar pine__________________ 426 5 DINLCOla. InNjlLry, toO-SusarL pine ae 426 5-6 Food plants, potato-tuber moth, list_______ Rye AD, 14-15 Food-coloring substances, separation and identification, bulletin by W. H. Mathewson___________________-_____ 448 1-56 Foods, colored, treatment for color analysis_____________ 448 4-8 Forest Service, protection to private lumber holdings, COST POT ea CH SM IRIE 8 ATE Rh ae 426 36 Forest trees, flat-headed “borers affecting, bulletin by Ish TOL TEekg ped de ty el Na fe Mp Tom hk EADS» 437 1-8 Forests— California National— MLAS [OIRO MACON, IMA OOK 426 34, 36 stumpage sales and prices_____________________ 426 24 National, timber cutting, management, methods, util- TZACT ONS CCC eae ea SE care ae ee 426 30-35 Foulbrood, comparison with sacbrood of bees_______--_~ 431 2-4 Frost, injury to sugar pine__ scene ay ay ene nish Agee howe apy io POX) 5 INDEX. Frosts, killing, Cheyenne, Wyo., 1900-1915______________ Fruit— : industry, development in Washington, history_______ ranches, investments in Wenatchee Valley, Wash.__ Fruits— Brazilian, little-known, and the navel orange of Bahia, bulletin by P. H. Dorsett, A. D. Shamel and Wilson Popenoe grown at Rio de Janeiro, description, ete.__________ miscellaneous, grown at Bahia, descriptions, ete_____ orange, grown at Bahia, description, ete_____.______ Fruta— de conda, production in Brazil, note________________ de condessa, description and characteristics________ Fumigant, carbon disulphid, dosage, strength, use method Fumigation, moth-infested potatoes, methods and fumi- EGON, ee ee es eB eve gee th us as Galls, forest trees, cause, discussion ____________-_-_____ GARVER, SAMUEL and R. A. OAKreEy, bulletin on ‘“ Medi- cago falcata, a yellow-flowered alfalfa” Genipap. See Genipapo. Genipapo— description, production, and uses in Brazil__________ liquor, characteristics, note __ GEYER, E. W., and A. L. QUAINTANCE, bulletin on “Life history of the codling moth in the Pecas Valley, TS DGS SSS ST ai sd pee A A A Rea CR sk Ghirka— spring wheat— growing in northern Great Plains, experiments and comparisons with other wheats__________ HISLOTY MANA: GESEKip ELT eee Ye see es improvement in yield and quality, bulletin by PH MPANIL Tig CG Lean Keto eee es lg 2 a Bt wheat— agronomic data for product grown at Dickinson, Ii ODE i) iss EEE ARE SS Date ee eee ts SPW eee Coma) a es le milling and baking tests of flour______________ Glyndon wheat, growing in northern Great Plains, experi- ments and comparison with other wheats____________ Gooseberry, occurrence in Bahia, description___________ “Gourd of the campo,” description, occurrence and char- SRE TASS Esl (2 RS eee am a SP a eS NS GRaF, J. E., bulletin on ‘The potato-tuber moth ”______ Grain— crops, injury by range caterpillar in New Mexico___ plants, injury by spike-horned leaf-miner, nature____ Grass, lemon. See Lemon grass. Grasses— Hosts of desert corn flea-beetle: ~~~ se injury by spike-horned leaf-miner, nature_-__________ New Mexico, destruction by range caterpillar_______ Warietices, natives of Wvyomingst 220) 2m. ke Gravata, description, characteristics, occurrence, ete_____ Grazing, sheep and goats, injury to sugar pine__________ Grumichama, description, occurrence, uses and habits____ Grumixama, description, uses, occurrence, ete_..---____ Guabiroba, occurrence, description and characteristics___ Guava, occurrence in Bahia, description and uses__ Guinea oil palm, occurrence, growth habits, fruit and uses Gumbo soil— mechanical analysis, water capacity, productivity and changes due to wetting and drying_- : ie productivity at Belle Iourche reclamation project__ Bulletin No. 430 446 446 445 445 445 445 445 445 427 427 437 428 447 447 1-35 16-17, 25-31 17-25 15, 17-25 19 31 50, 51 8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 426—450. Gumbo soils, water penetration on the Belle Fourche rec- lamation project, bulletin by O. R. Mathews__________ Gymnonychus californicus. See Leaf-worm, pear. Harvesting— apples, operations, handling and cost, Washington__ lemon. grass, practices and experiments Hauling— apples, methods and cost logs— from landing to mill, methods, cost and operation_ from stump to mill, processes, methods, opera- tion and cost tion Hay plant— drought-resistant, Medicago falcata________________ Medicago falcata, introduction, nature and fale man Haynes wheat— growing in northern Great Plains, experiments and comparisons with other wheats_ milling and baking tests of flour___________________ Hemileuca oliviae. See Range eaterpillar. HOAGLAND, RALPH, CHARLES N. McBrybDE, and WILMER C. Powick, bulletin on ‘‘ Changes in fresh beef during eold storage above freezing” Honey, treatment for sacbrood virus, experiments Ue CAE Sen Hoop, 8. C., Bulletin on “ Possibility of the commercial production of lemon-grass oil in the United States ”____ Horses, skidding teams, cost, equipment, and deteriora- Hybridization, alfalfa with J/edicag go ‘falcata, “value, and SHV SY ol MOY US uOeumaluaregs 8” 01. Nese aaa ON eM LCA tod IME Hydrazin sulphate solution, reagent in color analysis note Imbu, occurrence, description, growth habits and char- acteristics___ PESPAGpNE Ls UL A ee TWA De Py Le Incubation, meat, effect for various | OLENSIICOYO [SPREE Insects— control in sugar pines, methods and cost per acre____ varieties, injury to sugar pine_____________________ Insurance, lumber, rates in California pine region_______ Ionone, manufacture from lemon-grass oil, notes Ips confusus, injury to sugar pine_ Irrigation— apple orchards, operations, labor and cost__-_-_-___ gumbo soils, penetration of water in dry and wet Soils) ExperiMENtS, CCR hI ay Ores Jaboticaba, description, growth habits, occurrence, and ISOS ee eee INRA 2 UE fs Jack fruit, uses in Brazil__ “oN AY lest pase I CO dng Jak, Malayan, uses in Br azil__ Re SDC i cae TN ee es ac Japan, soy-bean production, oe and Ce 1911— 1914 ea ADORE AI JOS AVR ENE Johnson grass, host of desert corn flea-beetle____________ JONES, JENKIN W., bulletin on “ Cerezl experiments on the Cheyenne experiment farm, Arche1, Wyo.” ___--------- Kubanka wheat— growing in northern Great Plains, experiments and comparison with other wheats _______--_____-___~ milling and baking tests of flow: _________-_-_------__ Bulletin Page, No. 447 1-12 446 26-35 442 4-6 446 28, 30-31 440 41-64 440 18-64 440 3441 428 A5-AT 428 2-65 450 4-6 450 9-12 433 —100 431 40-43 . 442 U—alD 440 18-20 498 58-59 448 3 445 34-35 433 10-11, 27-29, 99 426 7 426 6 440 93-94 442 1,11 446 6 446 15-17 447 3-11 445 25-29 445 19 445 19 439 4-5 445 35 436 4, 20-21 430 +40 450 46 450 9-11 _ INDEX. Labor— fruit ranches, central Washington, operations lumbering operations in California pine region, man- ASemMent, SOUNCES, ANG Waces= oo ee Land, National Forest, management__________-__-§ Lane, H. L., and C. F. WAutTon, Jx., bulletin on “ A study of electrolytic method of silver cleaning ”___-____-_ Laranja— da terra, use in Brazil as budding stock____________ Pei ,Occurrence in Bahia, description 22 LARSEN, Louis T., and T. D. WoopsBury, bulletin on AS SUNSET DAYS EA Fe os ge Vr OPE Re Larvae, bee, description and changes caused by sacbrood_ LeEacu, B. R., bulletin on “‘ The apple leaf-sewer ”_______ Leaf-folder, apple. See Leaf-sewer, apple. Leaf-miner, spike-horned— an enemy of grains and grasses, bulletin by Philip Puchi Man ae. 1): Orbahnseue oe! .0is uN eM ACEDTA ATL MOTH) CD SUT snc Gp hn ale let ch description, distribution and life history____________ EEE ENT ERY SYS) EI nd RI Rte rR ee HSLOLy. and: food plantsa24e2 22 Ee ikea GTN OSTA CE NOMS. cs i ee eat Nl Be ly Leaf-sewer, apple— BMUeEME Dyess OR each yeas Uy es ee IS description, life history and habits________________ OTIC Spenser ain NED fe REN EE, oN Eh EE ot history, distribution and feeding habits____________ remedial, measures ooo ee Leaf-worm, pear— bulletin by R. L. Nougaret, W. M. Davidson, and EH. J. TRU ACA TTL Tyme me eer ET eB al he control by spraying with lead arsenate_____________ control measures, experiments___________________- description, habits and life history________________ history, distribution and food plants______________ PALASItC HeDeMIeS, /GiSCUSSIONY 22a) MNO ied Tae Ss Legumes, varieties, natives of Wyoming_______________ Lemon grass— charasteristics, citral content— and oil yields of different varieties____________ RELL OMS ar VELOC UN TR o e, STUDY ES) cE IS ae Ore SEPP) LEAS AED “LOIS DAC VE) 0 ea BES a Poe DSA Es Ae ae PEE a i | i Bd 2 Pe ZT ATCO TTT ETCH DS ot ia at a ee Ea growing for oil, experiments by Department, cost and VERE Tors (Ber eee oe eater ope aap eee ERC ie eS tapas Sen joa. oil— commercial production in United States, possi- Dility,pulletinuby S> ©; Hoodia N eee! & vows WiPas OL thes ANC GTied = 2 eee.) es propagation, cultivation and harvesting____________ “Lemon of the forest,” description and characteristics_—_ Lemons, sweet and sour, occurrence in Bahia, [cece D ton Light, requirements of trees in list_____.__.1._._________ merenine, injury to sugar pine». -- eee Lime— acre requirement, various crops, occurrence in Bahia, description_22__2- Le eee “Time-orange,” occurrence in Bahla, description________ Lime-sulphur spray, use in apple orchards, time and SEC os Se ie oa ene eee ede importance in perfume industry____ and Bulletin No. 446 440 426 Page. 9-10 5-8, 16, 19-20, 21, 29-30, 37, 45, 59-60, 61, 67, 68-69, 72, 76, 80, 94 30-35 1-12 10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 426—450. Bulletin _ Page. No. Limoa do matto, description and characteristics________ 445 o2 Locomotives, logging railroad, types, cost, and loads____ 440 56-58: Log ponds, construction, size and cost, California pine TRSEESII(O) OY age Hs UNS pe plaice eS LOR eas BR Acie a Sige 440 65-67 Logs— hauling from stump to mill, processes, methods, OPeCLAtiONS -ANndiCOSt222 ssn. eee ie 440 18-64- loading on trucks, methods, equipment and cost____ 440 41-44 yarding— big-wheel method, equipment, cost and operation. 440 20-23: overhead method, equipment, cost, and operation. 440 33-34 steam-donkey method, equipment, cost and opera- ET csp NR i oA ON A ea 2 440 23-33- Logging— ITO CRISS spoT UC CS BRe Soe AIRE pane NP WILE ae e 440 27 charges overhead, California pine region__________ 440 92-95. crews— make-up and wages in California pine region__ 440 7-8. wages in California pine region_____________ 440 7 operations, requirements, etc., California pine region_ 440 13-65 sugar pine and yellow pine, methods and cost______ 426 12-13: USES Oa CO NS TNN A eR 0 oe A CN IS DE 440 ilps Lophyrus. See Saw-fly. LUGINBILL, PHirip, and T. D. UrsBAuNs, bulletin on ‘The Spike-horned leaf-miner, an enemy of grains and SERTETS SES NS UU Edel Eee ONCE ee AE Sm ME a ne Ee 432 1-20: Lumber— cull, discounts for different species in California pine TEE OTM Si. es oN A ae la Da 440 10° handling in sawmill lumber yards, practices in Cali- COLMA! UME MMEC LT OM ee ee oN ea ee 440 80-86 inclines, requirements, construction and cost________ 440 88-89: pine, production in California pine region, operations, volume: labOT ete: mu mecta: a Maine ones Wile Uae eas 440 3-99: sugar-pine— amount used, various industries, 1910__________ 426 20-22 depreciation in seasoning____________________ 426 18-20 welchiw wen O00 teers ea 426 mat yields, values and grades__________________ 426 16-20: transportation from mill to common carrier, methods and cost, California pine region__________________ 440 86-92 yards, sawmill types, equipment, and cost of han- RD Tra ea TS STS i A Be ee LEA el ag 440 80-86: Lumbering— crews, housing, practices, equipment and cost in Cali- fornia pine region______ ite NN te A coal an a ioe RE CAC) 8-10" equipment, depreciation, estimates 440 95-96 sugar pine and yellow pine region of Galion bulletin by Swift Berry Mee a _. 440 1-99 wages in California pine region 2 440 7-8 Manchuria, production of soy beans and products, methods, yields, exports, 1909-1918___________________ 439 2-4, 5- Manga de rosa, description and value__________________ 445 23-24 Manganese— action under acid and neutral soil conditions, bulletin lo” dig dio. Sikalamerm eynGl 1s Te. Jeni 441 1-12 effect on crop yields, neutral conditions, experiments’ at Arlington farm, 1913-1915____ bard die 441 6-9, 12 Mango— occurrence, growth habits, uses, and varieties____ 445 23-24 rose, description and yalue________ ee aay Poe! £40) 23-24 MATHEWS, O. R., bulletin on ‘ Water penetration in the gumbo soils of the Belle Fourche Reclamation Project” 447 1-12 MATHEWSON, W. E., bulletin on “ Separation and identifi- cation of food-coloring substances ”____ eee SaaS 1-56 INDEX. McBrype, CHartes M., RarpH HOAGLAND, and WILMER C. Powicxk, bulletin on “ Changes in fresh beef during eoldastorarerabove: freezing Ui. 2 sen Sa Meal. soy-bean— fertilizer, value comparison with other fertilizers__ food value, comparison with various flours and PEGS TIMBER) Ceti etree ns ee, ee a use as stock feed, comparison — with other feeds____ Meat, ripening in cold storage, methods__+___-_____- Meats, cold-storage investigations, purpose and plan_____ Medicago falcata— agricultural history and characteristics____________ botanical history, description and relationship______~ COMparisom. wabh). alielitey 0 Bl my a res eed Pees x eultural investigations, hybridization, ete__________ distribution, climatic and soil requirements, etc____ MARGOT ROMAN: MAST OI yas ek ea ee EL CDRNT emer athe 0 etn ES OME es Se I ae yellow-flowered alfalfa, bulletin by R. A. Oakley and SPE EN TSTL CSUR ee ee a a TS ae ANU A NS Melanophila gentilis. See Borer, flat-headed. Metals, tarnishing, processes and nature________________ Milk, vegetable, manufacture from soy beans ____---_--~- Minrer, G. H.. and S. M. THomson, bulletin on ‘‘ The cost of producing apples in Wenatchee Valley, Wash.”_____ Millet. foxtail, production experiments, Cheyenne experi- Meira 1Ols—190:. yields, ete@zs 2 wet a Milling, sugar pine, mill types, cost, cut per year, and PEST GETS FETE UG Sy TT 0 I eee a Eg a aE te Moisture, requirements of trees in list__________________ Montana, wheat-growing experiments _________-__-_____ Morse, W. J., and C. V. Prerr, bulletin on “ The soy bean, with special reference to its utilization for oil, cake, EE EVO TOD OCICS 3 = ak Us ae ae a Moth— apple leaf-sewer, description, life cycle and habits___ codling. See Codling moth. potato-tuber— ZeISMELE Sd COU ET Ole ee ee ee ee ae MLM ehIMeD yarde Hy. MO raAt ews. soon sO BR Tene classification, synonymy, and description_______ dissemination, mortality, increase rate_________ CCONOMICTINPOTiAN Ces es ee ee ae PHOMMCS HAUG (CREGKSE Ll Siar ai i ee EROS TD EPIRA LTS Eis oy Be ha Le i ee history— ATG OAD Ub gees = al aa ee ta MISheiPUtLON. andwOrigina == = = ewe injuries, nature and methods __________________ Mulch crops, apple orchards in Washington, management IG) CUR ge SES en aS ee ee ee a a OR eee Navel orange— of Bahia, with notes on some little-known Brazilian fruits, bulletin by P. H. Dorsett, A. D. Shamel, RSE YE LISOTL Sr ODCHOC toe see ee See also Orange, navel. Neurepyris sp. enemy of desert corn flea-beetle__~ ~~ New Mexico— pastures, destruction by range caterpillar___________ Pecos Valley, life history of the codling moth, bul- letin by A. L. Quaintance and BE. W. Geyer_______ range caterpillar— and its control, bulletin by V. L. Wildermuth and D. J. Caffrey EU SEN See NE gS) UT sree of See also Range caterpillar. JL. Bulletin Page.. No. 433 1-100 439 14-15, 439 11-13. 439 13-14 | 433 5 433 5-8 428 33-51 428 8-33) ON a nae 37-65 428 51-65 428 5-8 428 1-5 428 34-8): 428 1-70 449 4 439 9 446 1-35 430 36-37, 39 426 13-16 426 G 450 4-18 439 1-20 435 5-10 427 48-51 427 1-56 427 9-14 427 31-32 427 6-8, 51 427 32-48 427 14-15 427 15-32 427 1—4, 51 427 4-6 446 24-26 445 1-35 436 17 443 4. 429 —90 443, 1-12 13, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 426-450. Bulletin Page, Newcomer, HE. J., R. L. NouGaret and W. M. DaAyipson, No. bulletin’ ons) Che pear leat-worm) (22222 e ea ea 438 1-24 North Dakota, wheat growing experiments_____________ 450 4-18 Nouearet, R. L., W. M. Davipson and E. J. Nerw- coMER, bulletin on “The pear leaf-worm ”____________ 438 : 14 OAKLEY, R. A., and SAMUEL GARVER, bulletin on “ HB cago falcata, a yellow-flowered alfalfa ’__________-___ 428 1-70 Oats— production, failure at Archer, Wyo., 1913___________ 430 26, 39 varietal experiments, Cheyenne experiment farm, ES ha IR ie A se co hd A lS AL Ni day 430 26-30, 39 Oil— lemon-grass— Citral content: dinpOrtanee —--e= = ema a eeLe aes 442 5-3 commercial production in United States, possi- lodbnmy, lovilkeinin joy Si Oy isons 442 1-12 loss) by, drying and) distillation 22222 es 442 6-7 SOlupMlitaygmera1 CO lO eee eee eee eee eee 449 10-11 uses and sources of production_________________ 442 1-2 palm, Guinea, occurrence, growth habits, fruit and USCS pees Soria eee eee. OR RE 1 les ane eee 445 24-25 soy-bean— extraction methods, United States and Europe__ 489 9-11 USES; (EXPELIME tS see ee IEA RA ee 439 15-16 Opius— aridus, parasitic enemy of spike-horned leaf-miner__ 432 16 dimidiatus, parasitic enemy of spike-horned leaf- TOdUT VEY mame et IS aS a LS ON mE 432 16 Orange— bitter or sour, occurrence in Bahia, description_____ 445 15 Natal, occurrence in Brazil, description, etc________ 445 16, 17 navel— and other fruits, bulletin by P. H. Dorsett, A. D. Shamel, and Wilson Popenoe__________ 445 1-35 Bahia and California grown, value comparison, TD ASOT yo re mimo aan ae A oe cir ae a 445 13-15 introduction! mio wUmited EStatesuaass == es 445 4-4 origin, history, culture, and extent of industry riba] Ball ats yess Ne LER Ne or uae LE Ae le 445 1-2, 3-4, T-15 propagation in Bahia, budding, planting, etc, TUNE GENO 00S feet ee ne 6 ee sien re PIE TE 445 9-11) Pera, occurrrence in Brazil, description, ete_____-__ 445 17 Selecta— cultivation in Bahia, and description__________ 445 2-3 occurrence in Brazil, description_______________ 445 16-17 trees, Bahia, insect enemies and diseases___________ 445 11-12 Washington navel, adoption of name______________ 445 5 Oranges— i Bahia, crop-ripening seasons yield, selling methods, TOMES, Sino Ackyomoibiny 445 12-13 growing in Rio de Janeiro, varieties, acreage, MeLhoOds, WVielads et Cree Aiea a ee ee aa 445 16-17 navel, distribution in California and Florida________ 445 5-6 Orchard apples Gewese tie rome epee ew aay a een 446 Pe Orcharding, apple— costs, and labor, per acre and per box, Wenatchee SVT eye) Wea Pas ase eee TSS ec ean 446 33-35 Washington, Wenatchee Valley, practices, cost, C251 AR ME TRS er) AR SAMIR CIC OWE aS eS SC Se 446 2-35, Orchards— apple, cultivation, irrigation and spraying, practices in wWenatcheemVvalleysniWwWashea aa eee 446 10-26 management, operations and cultivation, practices im Wenn Walley, WARN 446 10-26 orange, in Bahia, situation and soil conditions___-_ 445 4-8 Pecos Valley, N. M., danger from codling moth, ex- periments and investigations_______________-__-- 429 1-90 ae , INDEX. Oxidation— manganese, various crops, neutral conditions_______ manganese-treated and check plats, various crops, LUC EETNE OVNI EEN TNS cee he a le Ozycoccus macrocarpus. See False blossom. Packing, apples, for market, practices in Wenatchee VEE NGS 0 Fe I ee Sp LED GALLO eee Ee Palm, dendé, occurrence, growth habits, fruit, and uses__ Papaya, occurrence in Bahia, description, uses, and value_ Parasites, potato-tuber moth, list, description, habits Pear— leaf-worm— bulletin by R. L. Nougaret, Que M. Davidson, NGM Seis NEW COME ra mils mich Ea ae a See also Leaf-worm, pear. “of the campo,” occurrence, description and char- acteristics ______ pws NOE Soe EY a ee a ce 9 ea orchards— Pecos Valley, N. Mex., danger from codling moth, experiments and investigations______________ treatment for insect pests, experiments________ sawfly. See Leaf-worm, pear. trees, injury by leaf-worm, nature_________________ Pediculoides sp., enemy of desert corn flea-beetle________ Pera do campo, occurrence, description and _ char- GOT Shi CG ee 2s 2 Oy Ses Perfumery, manufacture from lemon- erass oil, notes____ Peridermium harknessii, injury to sugar pine___________ Persea americana, occurrence in Bahia, ete_____________ Phthorimaea operculella. See Moth. potato-tuber. Phyllanthus acida, occurrence in Bahia, ete_____________ Picking applies, management, operations, and cost in PWemEtcnees Valley, Washo es ew ee “ Pickled brood ”— BEES MELIOKeS === 2. a irore incl leery oltre iy he wore NS Tigi ped See also Sacbrood. Pine— lumbering in sugar and yellow pine region of Cali- fornia, DUNMetin by. Switt Berry 2 oeik cir sugar— ALE OVOWLD, ANGMYIC]C ih Sel thy ye). sees a altitude and climate of range.,________________ appearance and structure of wood, compari- ROUS MCLGs 22 Sa es te ee ae bulletin by Louis T. Larsen and T. D. Wood- RED Wry eae ae eee oh ea a a a tee Ry ap eal diameter and volume growth, based on age_____ SCOUOMMG MAIN DOL CANCEL us We finales eats, ns geographical and commercial range____________ TEAC ene eo ee ie abd ips A Py ay ie «Lae he ih habits, root system, bark, leaves, flowers, and Deep SLOW tu. DASE ON Age! lo 22s ee eee LOS LADS ATG! NA re a ee ig eee ps lumber grades, comparison with yellow pine lumber, California pine region_-_-________ neti MIALKCL OCINALICS ANG SCS 2 o2- 2 ena coe eee preservative treatment, note___________________ size, ene susceptibility to injury and species, ‘moisture, soil, and light requirements__. Bulletin No. 441 441 446 14 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 426-450, Bulletin Page. Pine—Continued. No. sugar—Continued. stands, California pine region, volume and asso- Clat OHS C CLES 0a ENR SLO i a 440 3-4 types, description, occurrence, ete_______________ 426 10 volume tables, California National Forests______ 426 37-39 yellow— lumber grades, comparison with sugar pine lumber, California pine region_______________ 440 12-13 stands in California pine region, volume and associated Species 20k 2 2 ee SU Oe eu 440 3-4 Pineapple, Bahia, description, quality, and marketing DAC LT COS cs RI 9 DN a YN Mea Op 445 19 Pineapples, occurrence in Bahia, description and value___ 445 19 Pines, sugar— and other, identification key_______________________ 426 39 TOLTESE) LYDCS == ee ae BEETS Aviat 426 9-10 ‘Pinha, occurrence, description, and characteristics_ pa eg car A 445 33 Pinus lambertiana. See Pine, sugar. Prper, C. V., and W. J. Morse, bulletin on ‘‘ The soy bean, with special reference to its utilization for oil, cake, DNC O GIST OE. O CU CES yi es a ee 439 1-20 Pissodes yosemitei, injury to sugar pine __________ 426 f 6 eek, CeSouhoworl Ayal Wes 445 2m ‘Pitomra, description, occurrence, and propagation______ 445 20-21 Polycystus foersteri, parasitic Se of spike-horned Jess ES 6 a 1 a 2s eee 2 ee Meg NES UI ee Nd yO Ys geo e PT 432 16 Polyporus volvatus, injury to dead sugar pine trees______ 426 6 Ponds, sawmill, construction, size and cost, California pine. Tezion= eae ee iL ap adele) aN alah a UREN das 440 65-67 ‘Potassium persulphate, reagent in color analysis, note___ 448 3 ‘Potato, tuber moth, bulletin by J. E. Graf______________ 427 1-56 Potatoes— fumigation for tuber-moth infested, before storage__ 427 50, 51 oxidation of soil under acid conditions____________ 441 5-6 planting, depth, time, ete., for tuber-moth control, CXPeriMentS22.. juli ees a ee ee ee 427 48-50, 51 yield— manganese neutral conditions, Arlington experi- TIVENGS OOS MiG illo peste NS 441 6-9 manganese sulphate ‘acid soils, experiments at Arlington farm, 1907-1912._____ 441 2-4,12 with and without manganese, experiments______ 441 9-11 ‘Powick, WILMER C., RALPH HOAGLAND, and CHARLES N. McBrypeg, bulletin on ‘‘ Changes in fresh beef during cold storage above freezing ”’_______ ASE MN Ce Eee Dera hee 433 1-100 Precipitation— Cheyenne, Wyo., 1900-1915________ 430 3-6, 38 northern Great Plains, 1908-1914. === 450 7-8 Propagation, lemon grass, method____________-________ 442 3 Proso, production experiments, Cheyenne experiment imei Ie ay ie Cee ee eee ee 430 36-37, 39 Pruning, apple trees, labor and cost____________ _.. 446 14 Pseudomphale ancylae, enemy of apple leaf-sewer_______ 435 Saat Psidium guagava, occurrence in Bahia, description and LO RST SNS aa a Tm eon SRA a EURO Dy Nene RRP ND IN UMeI MIR eer 445 18-19 QUAINTANCE, A. L., and HE. W. Geyer, bulletin on “ Life history of the codling moth in the Pecos Valley, TIES I Wea a gn eal 2 pe ELE SOs LEAR we eed es | 429 1-90 ‘Racupari, occurrence, description, and characteristics___ 445 30-31 Railroads— logging, types, construction, cost and maintenance__ 440 46-64 wages in California pine region____________________ 440 ie Ranch, fruit, investments in Wenatchee Valley, Wash___ 446 if INDEX. Range— burning for destruction of range caterpillar_________ caterpillar— damage to grasses and crops, nature and extent_ description, occurrence and economic ee enemiesmand): Giseasel sa. ie HISLOL Yan e COMULOL= aa = eae wae are WA ings Tat TREES: LCS a a ah ast ae eae SR clay New Mexico, and its control, bulletin by V. L. Wildermuth and D. J. Caffrey_______________ mReaceants, food-color ‘analysis. 2-22-22 eet es Reduviolus ferus, enemy of desert corn flea-beetle_______ Refrigeration, meats, systems, numbers, kinds, care, and TE SE el UEC Of COO LETS es ae I I a 8D Rep, F. R., and J. J. SKINNER, bulletin on “‘ The action of Manganese under acid and neutral soil conditions ”___ Reproduction— sugar-pine, conditions retarding____________________ tree, in California national forests, methods________ Rheedi abrasiliensis, description and food use__________ aose-apple, occurrence in Bahia 82 Russia, precipitation and temperature at several points, comparison with Northwestern States________________ Rye— oxidation of soil under acid conditions______________ yield— manganese sulphate, acid soils, experiments at Arihineton: farm: 190 t—1912u ors ees oe ee manganese sulphate, neutral conditions, Arling SxpeLiImMents 1913—1 Oil jee a ea with and without manganese, experiments______ Rysting wheat— growing in northern Great Plains, experiments and comparison, with other wheats... 2 eee ee milling and baking tests of flour___________________ Sacbrood— MIehitieny Gall. Winiten ee ese CABS GISCUSSEO Mies ee = bitin ee uty Lao el hi fe COMM ATIN eG we SUSSeStLONS 24 sate Bers Pe comparison with foulbrood of bees___________-______ PESCHOSIS, ANG, PLrOLNOSISe 5 24 ibis ie pa aes tle Perm Aitering: Experiments eos susie he os Be inoculation of bees, virus required, methods, ete____ MapiLem Dstorical notes, Jetejs. 02 A ee 8 SMARTLY EGO EEE peers ee es Sie Pe ete eR sa PU SIMISSION SIN OGCS 2 meee Pie Ne Pe ee virus— AFEUS ISLC CO pes Manne tia Seay Avice eget RL ot welch WiLMLCnce an Noney $27 U them ee kT a Salt grass, food plant of desert corn flea-beetle_________ Sapodilla, occurrence in Bahia, description and value____ SAUNDERS, WILLIAM, introducer of navel oranges into BICC TU REIL LCS = 2 Sa) ee es ae ea oe vec Sel ae Sawfly— MrLveLO SUCAT Pine. 2 Sth ec ren ay pear. See Leaf-worm, pear. Sawmills— camps, types, cost, and management__._____________ ‘crews— make-up wages, work, and equipment for differ- sti eye) NE RS Deg ea, eee ee eee een a eel Cet wages in California pine region________________ overrun, California pine region___________________- ‘types— construction, cost, and operation, California pine RE LOM ee eee ee oi ey Mi vOAauLOMia pine TePlOno 222 So ee Ue No. 16 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. SCHNEIDER, REv. F. I. C., shipment of orange trees, Bahia COP UE ATE CT EIS EES A yl EE Schools, secondary, judging dairy cow as subject of in- struction, bulletin by H. P. Barrows and H. P. Davis__ Seed— alfalfa— comparison with Medicago falcata_____________- production descripLlonwete== = eee Sugar pine, gathering, yield, germination, ete______ Seedlings, production for forest replanting in California, COSY eae (2) gaa INN PTS NA AN SN ta hat SE Shade, endurance by trees in list___-___________________ SHAMEL, A. D., P. H. Dorsett, and WILSON POPENOE, bulletin on “The navel orange of Bahia, with notes on some little-known Brazilian fruits ’______________ SHEAR, C. L., bulletin on “ False blossom of the cultivated CGTEEEIS OV 0X2 AYA RE ES AES SO RRM OCS ol A gy SN IR Shingles, hand-split, use and value of sugar pine________ Sholteek. See Medicago falcata. Shooks, apple-box, buying, hauling,, practices and cost__ Sickle-podded alfalfa. See Medicago falcata. Silver— cleaning— PLAC CESHANG SECO MUEETITE TI Seer eee study of the electrolytic method, bulletin by H. L. ILENE gine! Op IN WValiOMm, jroo eo FRM, GAS eyavel Tse le Silbysveall iReynubierans Guise jones ee Skidding— crew make-up, and wages, California pine region____ logs, practices in California’ pine region___________ SKINNER, J. J., and F. R. Retp, bulletin on ‘‘ The action of manganese under acid and neutral soil conditions ”____ Slash, sugar pine, burning for insect contro]____________ SOW THOU Toy Sibi OVS Sodium— hydrosulphite solution, reagent in color analysis, TOYO) Spee EA PN a eS A ee ee nitrate, reagent in color analysis, note_____________ Soil— gumbo— mechanical analysis, water capacity, productive- ness and changes due to wetting and drying__ productivity at Belle Fourche reclamation pro- ATMNTRETSIS OIE WeSSS sho Ine Soils— gumbo— Belle Fourche reclamation project, water pene- tration, bulletin by O. R. Mathews__________ water penetration in the Belle Fourche reclama- tion project, bulletin by O. R. Mathews______ water movements in wet and dry__________________ Solvents, food-coloring, use in color analysis___________ Sorghum halepense— food plant of desert corn flea-beetle_______________ Sorghums injury by desert corn flea-beetle, note_____________ production failure, Cheyenne experiment farm, 1913- TST ye i ARE er Re MN er ANI SOI Ne) g as South Dakota, wheat growing experiments_____________ Soy bean— (and products), importations to Europe, 1908-1914, QUIBTIELtY. ca Mey ele ze Se cL ae pre TOOCUMIS EST) Cilia @eameers eat es ae ay Se eee ee ee 426—400. Bulletin Go Ww INDEX. Soy bean—Continued. use and value as coffee substitute_________________ with special reference to its utilization for oil, cake, AM OMOLN CE SDPO GlSe as tee Saas ee Soy beans— American grown, possibility of industry develop- TEV EY Bae 2S a aa reg ee eee NSS Se analyses of important varieties, various States_____ (and products )— imports into United States, 1910-1915, quantity UU Clie Vie UU CS are Se 5 eer SIE La ee dee 8 production in Japan, exports and imports, 1911— ICG aa ee ee ES AES ee production in Manchuria, exports and imports, TISQ YOR GS oO re Ce PUFOpeAnE Prices; per TONG 2.22 =e bees es growing importance of industry in cotton belt______ production in United States, soil and climatic adaptation, seed yield, cost, and price___________ Soy-bean— cake, value as stock and poultry feed_______________ SPHERE SO Sipe) Cli Vie = =e eee NEY ee es Ee DA Spiders, enemies of potato-tuber moth _________________ Spike-horned leaf-miner— an enemy of grains and grasses, bulletin by Philip ihneinbill and PSD: Urbabns 222. ee ee See also Leaf miner, spike-horned. Spondias spp., occurrence in Bahia, ete_________________ Spray— arsenical— use against apple leaf-sewer__________________ use against desert corn flea-beetle, note________ use against range caterpillar___+______________ codling-moth, preparation and application__________ Bulletin No. “dormant” for orchard trees, preparation and ~ AIG BS U2 AEs Cid a ea wee A le aE He Deine Spraying— apple trees, practices, labor and cost_______________ cereal crops for control of range caterpillar_________ management for control of pear leaf-worm__________ Sprays— apple-orchard, application, labor, equipment and cost formulas for use against pear leaf-worm, experiments use against— codling moth, aid in control of pear leaf-worm_ pear thrips, aid in control of pear leaf-worm____ BErels tiuiy tO. SURAT pines === 2 oS Brorace time tor beef in coolers 222-—-==- oe Siraw, soy-bean, value as fertilizer.______ =e Stumpage, sugar pine, prices and value_________________ Stumps— blasting, requirements and cost, California pine region logging regulations in California pine region________ Sudan grass, injury by desert corn flea-beetle, note______ Sugar pine— bulletin by Louis T. Larsen and T. W. Woodbury___~ See also Pine, sugar. Sugar-apple, occurrence, description and characteristics__ Sulphate, manganese, effect on yields of various crops, acid soils, experiments at Arlington farm, 1907—1912__ “Swamp araticum,”’ occurrence, description and charac- EES rom eee ek ee Oe a ee, te 3 14935A—20 7-8 8-9, 13-14 8 48 1-20 2-4, 11, 12 83-34 18 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 426-450. Tamarind, Indian, occurrence at Bahia, description and COASTS II De a NS I) A hc RISE TTD IN SA Tamarindus indica. See Tamarind, Indian. Tangerine, occurrence in— NFS ADT ACLS S CSU UN eae PAD ee a eet IBKoy Oley de bavenioy, TK ey ee EO ee Tarnish, metal, nature and removal______ Ys ee be bs Taxes, timber standing, MOCO ee ea peat Teachers, agriculture, judging dairy cow as subject of WH NS} ETP OETA Mp spe a RP RE I "5 Ce NE ee Temperature, Cheyenne, Wyo., “April. to July, 1900—-1915__ Thistles, varieties, natives of Wyoming ________________ THOMSON, S. M., and G. H. Miter, bulletin on “The cost of producing apples in Wenatchee Vailey, Wash.”______ Timber— eutting on National Forests, malagement, methods, UGTA AGL OMe LCs ces il RS ce ea eT Ua quality, mill tally, California pine region___________ SEAN SH DRS TNO Te ete LSI ce eA a a sugar-pine, quality, weight, strenzth, etc., comparison with other pines====—— ae ae tracts, supervision for logging, practices and cost in California pine region Bi SS ARETE AA ST ee ALSTON soa utilization in California pine region, practices______ Timberlands, private, management_______ See ae 2 Timothy, yield— relation to manganese, experiments________________ relation to manganese, neutral conditions, Arlington EXPO SITIES MOMS MO Ey ee ee a Trametes pini, fungi enemy of sugar pine_______________ Trees, forest, flat-headed borers affecting, bulletin by H. Trestles, logging railroad, construction and cost_________ Trucks— hauling logs to mill, types, construction, and man- VSO TIVE This ween ok ei RIES SL a Ne DS ae logging railroad, types, cost and equipment_________ Tubers, experiments in moth control by care in planting, (SCH ea SA, Ue a PO RU Ne net Udder, dairy cow, conformation and types______-______ UrsBAHNS, T. D., and PuHinie LuGINBILL, bulletin on “The spike-horned leaf-miner, an enemy of grains EAT Css SAT EUS OG top Mas a OAR SE Ogee REO Ue Virus— TOUTES, OKI Oey OO Se ee ee sacbrood— destruction, means and methods_____________ TOS TESTS GE Ta CO aes wo URI Saat ea ean aes resistance to carbolie acid, experiments Ei Det eae resistance to heat and sunlight, experiments____ WADDELL, REV. W. A.— statement on the navel orange of Bahia____________ VVOIENS AION. LRN Loner a eyey see ee mops Wages— apple orcharding, Wenatchee Valley, Wash_________ lumbering operations in California pine region______ Watton, C. F., Jr., and H. L, Lane, bulletin on “A Study of the electrolytic method of silver cleaning ”________ Bulletin Page. No. 445 18 445 15 445 aly _ 449 2-3, 4 440 92-93. 434 1-20 430 tte 4380 3 446 1-35. 426 30-35: 440 12-13 440 92-93 426 10-12 440, 64-65 440 10-11 4926 35-36 441 9-11 44] 6-9 496 5 437 1-8 440 53 440 44-46. 440 58-64 427 48-50, 51 434 13-14 432 - —20 431 27-30 431 34-43 431 34-46 431 44-46 431 3444 445 2 445 6 446 10 7-8, 16, 19- 20, 21, 29-30, 440) 87, 45, 59-60, 61, 67, 68, 69, 72, 76, 80, 94 449 1-12 INDEX. Washington— apple growing— cost of producing in Wenatchee Valley, bulletin by G. H. Miller and S. M. Thomson__________ region, topography, climate, and agricultural OTIS TRINA Y OVS psa a eet ea A ea ual Bae pear orchards, treatment for insect pests, experi- EUS IS eI 0 TA aS Wenatchee Valley, climate, soil, and agricultural BECREVONT Fel C) 125 tae es eer ect BE Ih UE RR ee aT Ds Water, penetration in the gumbo soils of the Belle Fourche reclamation project, bulletin by O. R. TAM EEVT EL SVENIT Smt SI a Cl MN Wieewilasiniiiye tO SUPAT PiNe2t2e 254 ewe) ee Wheat— Ghirka spring, improvement in yield and quality, Fenn yee Allen. Clamke oes sees LS ney aes Ghirka. See also Ghirka wheat. oxidation of soil under acid conditions______________ spring, varietal experiments, Cheyenne Experiment WaicmMye zt winter, varietal experiments, Cheyenne Experiment TR PRT Se a PG a es) Raa ew A yield— relation to manganese, experiments___________ relation to manganese sulphate, acid soils experi- ments at Arlington farm, 1907-1912_________ relation to manganese sulphate, neutral con- ditions, Arlington experiments, 1918-1915____ yields of different varieties in northern Great Plains, SMPermnencal i wWOrkKe ee ase 2 a eG Wheats— dry-land, growing in northern Great Plains, experi- FEET ER | ee ee nee eS yield, comparisons, at Cheyenne Experiment Farm, TSS TUS TICS a en Uf ICANN) AU ee WEtrEreGsckypulletin on “Sacbood. 2-2.) hates ees WILDERMUTH, V. L.,— and D. J. Carrrey, bulletin on “The New Mexico LA ceRCAterpIlAr and Wis: COMtrOl so. bulletin on “ The desert corn flea-beetle ”’___________ Wind— Va LOR SUPA Wpines. ses Mite No ae he velocity, Cheyenne, Wyo., April to July, 1900-1915___ Wire rope, prices for use in logging___-______________ Wisconsin, cranberry crops, injury from false blossom__ Witches’ broom, injury to sugar pine________--________ Wood, sugar-pine, appearance and _ structure, com- Spi iv VON (SNS oD a a ee es Woopsury, T. D., and Louis T. Larsen, Bimresree TLIC es SU See St aay coe ee oid Wyoming— Archer, cereal experiments on Cheyenne Pxperiment Farm, bulletin by Jenkin W. Jones_______________ wheat growing, experiments_____________ bulletin on Yarding— crew, make-up, California, pine region______________ engines, prices logs, methods in California pine region___-__________ Zine, use in electrolytic cleaning of silver O Bulletin No. 446 446 438 446 447 426 450 441 430 430 441 441 441 450 450 430 431 443 436 426 420 440 444 426 426 426 430 450 440 440 440 449 { 1$ Pa ge. 5-6 17-24, 38-39 12-17, 38-39 9-11 2-4, 12 6-9 8-9 4-11 24, 38-39 1-55 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Ferest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER December 30, 1916 By Louis T. Larsen, Forest Examiner, and T. D. WoopBury, Assistant District once CONTENTS. Page. Page. Importance ofsugar pine......-..-.--.------ He PSE OQ Pom Me Sauer Seve MAN Ge mureoNa Conn Alaa 12 Geographical and commercial range.......... Dele MRI ope eee Jeep ee eR ed Fits paki teed eA pe asd 13 Habiiand root System... .<-52.0-< eround. ‘Theoretically, the sapwood should receive preservatives very readily, but the heartwood, like that of white pine, is so close- erained as to resist absorption and penetration under ordinary methods of treatment. Applications of paint, oil, varnish, or shellac, or boiling in oils or paraffin, would doubtless increase its life by preventing the absorption. of water. LOGGING. The process of logging sugar pine in a typical California operation consists of the following steps: Felling, bucking, yarding, chuting or “roading,” loading, hauling to mill. Bul. 426, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. aaiiTeibe \ @ es a a SOSULere ‘A stare : y g seers ee Ssaceeatse PT PR ORSEBLII 1 ete SOS crveai: ssute paeteneegseses @Weaea¢sseceeae ceeLeeeeeeseseaae 4 fi] a Sed 4 'B,8 i >-4 - hay ui\= 186 tae! t ’ i ’ \) i) é i J ) i 5 q F——3—D5 TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE WOOD OF SUGAR PINE MAGNIFIED 50 DIAMETERS. ¢.W., Yarly wood; 1. w., late wood; t., tracheids; p.7., pith rays; 7. ¢., resin canal. PLATE VI. Bul. 426, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. F—4-D5 RADIAL SECTION OF THE WOOD OF SUGAR PINE Maa@niFieED 50 DIAMETERS. t., Tracheids; p. r., pith rays; r. c., resin canal. PLATE VII. Bul. 426, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. om <8 On eS ene ae TANGENTIAL SECTION OF THE WOOD OF SUGAR PINE MAGNIFIED 50 DIAMETERS. t., Tracheids; p.7., pith rays; 7. ¢., resin canal in pith ray, SUGAR PINE. 13 The felling crew is generally made up of an undercutter, who decides which way the tree shall fall and notches it with an axe on that side, and two “‘fallers,’’ who cut the tree down with a cross-cut saw. Such a crew usually fell from 55,000 to 60,000 feet per day. They are followed by the marker, who divides the tree into the proper log lengths, and the buckers, who cut it into logs. Working singly with cross-cut saws, the buckers average 9,000 to 10,000 feet daily. The next step, yarding, consists in transporting the logs from the woods to the chutes or railroad landings. This is accomplished generally by means of steam donkey engines called ‘“yarders,”’ which operate strong wire cables reeled on drums. The largest machines can carry sufficient cable to bring in logs 2,000 feet away; 1,200 feet is an average pull, however. From 10 to 13 men are required in a yarding crew for handling from 25,000 to 40,000 feet of logs per day. Wherever possible, logging railroads are used and the yarding engines are located along these roads. ‘Sometimes, however, when the logs reach the yarder they are placed in V-shaped log chutes and pulled to the mill or railroad by another usually larger, donkey engine known as the chute donkey, roader, or bull donkey. At the mill the logs are generally placed in a pond for storage. From here they can be readily pulled into the mill for sawing. The average cost per 1,000 feet of logging sugar pine and yellow pine is about $5.30, itemized as follows: Welling andi bucking). .22..:...--.. SONGae | \Chitte constructions 5248) 5544.05" $0. 15 CE Ld ee ae ee em Te elO) (MURINE Be eed a LN 50 Chuting (54 per cent of cut).....-. 30 4D epreclatlome sere oak we 35 li LES 2 eee ee Sere 25 eaten oe Mii NOs 1.00 2.80 rocrnison ?. 2 2)..8. pb. eee 125 In the sugar-pine region various methods of logging are used. Small-mill operators can not make the heavy investments necessary for donkey engines, and they commonly yard logs to chutes by means of six-horse or eight-horse teams. The logs are hauled in the chutes in trains of 8 or 10 by similar teams. These horse chutes usually end at the mill. Other small outfits deliver the logs at the mill by means of eight-horse trucks, which are loaded by horses at landings in the woods. In the northern part of California many localities are so smooth that large operators find it an economy to yard logs by means of horses and overhead big wheels. MILLING. Two main types of mills are used, those in which circular saws do the cutting, and the larger, more modern mills, which employ band saws. Rotary mills usually saw lumber for the local market. While such mills require a smaller investment than band mills, their output is less, the cost of operation is higher, and the waste is greater. The 4 BULLETIN 426, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. usual daily output of circular mills varies from 20,000 to 40,000 feet, while single band saws cut about 60,000 feet in a 10-hour shift. The double-band type is usually installed now by large operators. Such a mill running night and day, a practice frequently followed during good market conditions, manufactures from 225,000 to 250,000 feet of lumber each day, or from 40,000,000 to 50,000,000 feet each season. The following cost items give a correct general idea of the expense of manufacturing sugar-pine lumber from the time logs reach the pond up to and including the loading of the finished lumber on cars for shipment. Cost per 1,000 board feet. (Upoonye Sh aver I Wales rbaky otonavel neh ee es A ie Se is A Bees ees $0. O7 VSR OS ico, se Sica ete ee (a eae copes Rae CR Oe Mele a Re eye cl TE co ee O eS 1. 50 Marmrenance Stee OAC. Ras Ee TE a ey. eee 50 ‘Distitbmtion and yard handles. 7.. shes goes aS EE eo ae 33 Ea 10 ogee en eer WeS Gore eet Oas l= gee LL SMGy UNIT ype wate oe 49 Surfacing a part of stock and loading on cars..............------- 90 3. 70 Sugar pine is cut in the following stock sizes: 1’’, 1477, 14’7, 2’", 24’’,3’’, and 4”’ in grades Nos. 1, 2, and 3 clear and Nos. 1 and 2 shop. Dimension stock, graded Nos. 1, 2, and 3 common, is cut 1”’ and 2”, while box, which uses up nearly the entire output of common, is cut 1’ and 14’’. All grades above common are cut to surface, on two sides, full £7’, 1457" 145°", 12", 235'", 24'’, and 3’’.. Slabs and other “waste” sometimes are used in the manufacture of 4-foot lath. Much of the sugar-pine lumber now being supplied to the markets east of the Sierras is in the form of shop lumber for general mill-work. Siding, ceiling, etc., are manufactured only incidentally to fill special orders, and can not be considered standard products oi sugar-pme mills. CUT. Sugar pine was not exploited extensively until 1895, and no attempt to market it as a separate species was made until 1901. Exact figures showing the amount cut up to 1907 are not available, but, as nearly as can be ascertained, this amount ranged from 30,000,000 feet in 1902 to 90,000,000 feet in 1907. The mills cutting sugar pine and other species produced approximately 500,000,000 feet board meas- ure, of ali species, annually from 1909 to 1913. Sugar pine formed 22 per cent of this amount, or 110,000,000 feet. The cut in 1908 was somewnat less on account of the industrial depression. In 1913 the cut was close to 120,000,000 feet. Probably a billion feet of sugar pine has been cut since 1901, or a little over 2 per cent of the total stand. The disturbances in the lumber market attendant upon the European war have probably de- creased this scale of production temporarily. Large holders of pme SUGAR PINE. vs _ timber are, however, beginning to feel the pressure of interest charges, taxes, and other items of expense connected with carrying stumpage. Operations have recently started on a large scale on two such holdings, and there are indications that several more will follow within the next 5 years should market conditions improve with the closing of the war in Hurope. The carrying charges on National Forest. stump- age are borne by the United States, and a constantly increasing num- ber of lumbermen are operating in Government timber. It is pre- dicted that the annual cut of California pine will reach 650,000,000 feet by 1920. Of this amount 150,000,000 should be sugar pine. Table 5 gives the number and type of the principal mills at present _ producing sugar-pine lumber, together with their average and total annual output of this species. TABLE 5. Type of mill. Pola eee Wi Cireulere-|) \ Total: RRR DORN oie atoye a aici ee aie Seer ene ei ects 10 15 33 Average annual output, feet, b. m....2........-.-..---. 8,008,000 | 2, 500, 000 704,000 | 11, 212,000 Poralannual output iteet; b. m1. (2 2225.32 shee ceaseecs rk 80, 080, 000 } 20,002,000 | 10,561,000 | 110, 642, 000 GRADE PRODUCT OF SUGAR-PINE LOGS. The average quality of sugar-pine timber is fairly well indicated by the results of a mill tally of 855 logs made during the summer of 1914 at about the middle of the range of this species from north to south. Farther south the quality is better, and farther north, poorer. The logs are divided into three grades: Grade I, or clear logs; Grade II, or shop logs; and Grade II!, or rough, common logs. Both sound and defective logs were tallied. Grade I logs made up 22.7 per cent of the net log scale; Grade II, 42.8 per cent, and Grade III, 34.5 per cent. Including both sound and defective logs, the quality of lumber within each log grade, by actual tally, is shown in Table 6. Tasie 6.—Lumber grade product of sugar pine within log grades. Land 2) 9 oom- 1 shop. | 2 shop. |3shop.| com- Box. mores (eto Aus- tralian. land 2). Grade of log. clear, | 2 Clear. |C select. Per ct.| Perct.| Perct.| Perct.| Perct.) Perct. | Perct.| Perct.| Perct.\ Per ct. GYRO Eee. cs 2425 -- 33.6 9.3 0.2 2.6 1.0 0.5 19.3 TO Ppt ese erence 8.5 oy TO Wei I ee 4.2 2.6 1 od 15.9 22.3 that 37.9 0.4 8.8 Grader ..-°.;..... 9 AS ode ePcpacia 2.7 6.8 6.6 Oban etereetaiets 19.4 All grades.......-..-. 9.4 3.3 rs! 2 11.9 14.2 6.2 41.9 +2 12.5 The proportion of each of the principal lumber grades produced from diameter classes of sound logs is given in Table 7. The diame- ter classes are based upon the small-end diameters of logs and are inclusive. 16. BULLETIN 426, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe 7.—Lumber grade product of sugar pine by log grades and log diameter classes. LOG GRADE I. 1and 2 il and 2 Diameter class logs. cies. |S clear. |1 shop. |2shop. |3shop.| com- | Box. : mon Per ct.| Perct.|Perct.| Pere | Pere | Percet.| Per ct. ZOOM CHES einem some eee ise eee ae tier 21 8 19 10 2 35 5 D9 TOS Fin CHES seen eee ea ae eee anaes 23 8 20 11 2 31 5 SOLOS ONMNCNES eae eee ae He eee eee Ean 25 9 21 11 3 25 6 Sabo OAM Chese esr eee eee Weta sears eres 27 10 22 11 3 21 6 4Litor4dimehes Ge 4s Shs eee Es ei eee 3 10 22 12 3 16 7 GRAD# II. Wilite) Dae esdesesas Seba edneomes aboebes 3 2 10 18 6 57 4 Q5ito 2ZBinchessss 22sec san oo ae eee ee cee. 3 2 il 23 6 50 5 290i OB21NCNeS sep see 3 2 13 25 6 44 6 33 to 36 inches. 4 2 7 26 6 38 7 37 to 40 inches. 6 4 20 24 6 33 i AIG OATIN CHES sees nee ee eee ee eae ec ee 7 5 22 21 7 30 8 GRADE Itt. Otro hao Seen en nes aaeabontanosceey sHeEAaallaseqcosslboasacsesoeeaccalecsoassolacuoconc 86 14 13 [Com GIMEMES erate cree alavate isso este crete eae acs vate else ere wees oee | | ere ea as 0.5 0.5 84 15 A COs 20 IM CHES este riers bse sete oe ee oe eee ORDA eee 1 2 3 80 14.9 VAL PhO s Heauduenasusoneeesaseoesacedas= 0.2 0.1 2 7 8 68 14.7 25, FOwSiNCH eS =e Seance Seer eee EEA. eee 0.3 0.1 3 12 13 58 13. 6- Qo tos2unches Uses sve see eee eee eae Seeeree 0.4 0.2 4 15 17 50 13.4 Soi LO OUNCES s asmig-e eeo ese ceeneeee eee E 0.4 0.2 6 19 21 41 12.4 The same study gave figures on the overrun of the lumber tally over the log scale (Table 8). The mill was an efficient single band with standard equipment. The sawing practice was normal! for the region, except that railroad ties were sawed from many of the top logs, which gave too high an overrun for Grade III logs. TaBLEe 8.—Overrun by log grades and log quality. Sound Sound |Defective| and logs. logs. defective logs. Per cent of the log scale. (Cue Oi ceerameoeceEeeDapomoaneeaacresd cetacean doeaedassbocesAnasosae. 3.0 2.1 2.6 Grad OPP rey aake Giaia ters abe eis Speteie Sic voi sot a ae Se ee ae oe Tee ee ee ee 6.3 4.6 5.9 Gera cd OPT aes Spe rere arte orsie ae eae forays rene ope nae a eed fo Rg Ue 11.6 8.9 11.1 4 Moti) Pecans Some oer Ress SEPP ECON UM aay Laie eens a aS) 7.8 4.6 7.0 VALUES AND GRADES OF LUMBER. The value and amount of the higher grades of lumber obtained from a species measure its intrinsic commercial worth. Sugar pine logs yield a higher percentage of wide, clear, high-grade lumber than yellow pine. This material commands a high price for special uses in the trades, which accounts for the lumberman’s Bul. 426, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. F—95302 CHUTE LOGGING WITH A DONKEY ENGINE, PLUMAS CouNTY, CAL. ; Bul. 426, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. F—30927 TRAINLOAD OF PINE Loas, SISKIYOU COUNTY, CAL. SUGAR PINE. 17 decided preference for sugar pine timber. The choice material is derived from large, overmature trees. The smaller trees are on a par with yellow pine in value of product, and at the time of a second eutting the value of these two species will undoubtedly be nearly identical. Table 9 shows the average percentage of the various grades pro- duced from sugar pine and yellow pine in the best representative Sierra Nevada stands. In the very best stands sugar pine cuts out as high as 50 per cent upper-grade lumber (No. 2 shop and better). TaBLE 9.—Average percentage of the various grades produced from sugar pine and yellow pine. Species. Species. Grade.1 | Grade.1 Sugar Yellow Sugar Yellow pine. pine. ip pine. pine. Mp ANONCICAT o-oo = Bey) ICOW INO. Sap snsagcosecuocusssecd 5.0 6.0 No.3 clear... a \ 6.6 H 3.6 || No.l and 2common..-....._.. 22.0 25.0 C select... ...-- ot ies | 356s || BOXeeane see se eee anaes ste. 23.0 27.0 Wortenapes =o. 2223 --)h2- = 11.0 S200 PNG saiCOUtIm Onin sary 6.0 5.0 MGs ASHOPesseecesssc os cess ss (352 10.8 a Total lowers... --=-£---+ 56.0 63. 6 Woetalappers.:-. 2... -.-: | 44.0 | 37.0 | | 1 Sugar and yellow pine are graded under rules established by the California Sugar and White Pine Co., of San Francisco, Cal. (See Appendix, p. 40.) Although market prices fluctuate considerably from year to year, they indicate comparative values. There was a strong rising market for California sugar pine from 1903 to 1907. The financial depression of 1907 produced a decided slump, which was followed by a partial recovery in 1909. From 1909 to 1912 prices were fairly constant, with a slight tendency to increase. In 1914 the general business depression and European war were severely felt in the pine market. Table 10 shows concretely: the general increase in the price of upper grades and a comparison between 1905 and 1912 prices. Taste 10.—WNet selling price cf sugar and yellow pine lumber by grades, f. o. b. mill Prices per 1,000 feet. Grades. 1905 1912 —— pate ee Sugar pine. Sugar pine. Yellow pine. Nos. 1 and 2clear............. Bere det aw aie ababtefelies sine $43. 00-$46.00 | $50. 00-957. 00 $37. 75-942. 50 PIE te Sen apie bic phiee ee vo doe diwtalaw flejapisaid 33. 00- 38.00 38. 00— 40. 00 32. 00- 34.00 ENTE SEES oon io tae we Sete hein ve0.6 02 beers PRS Rae eh ae parent 38. 00- 40. 00 31. 00— 33.00 Co CLC pepe ch A at peg ip 1 ae EA a a a a 22. 00- 28. 00 30. 70- 31.30 24. 00- 26.50 PPI CRNOU seat eoat acebce estes aces anes PSR OR mae ten 15. 00- 18.00 20. 45— 22. 00 15. 50- 20. 00 TRO MUOD Deh os Sie. Ibis ae biahn dein w'at Pah bn dah eb hele da sll da eet See eee 13. 25- 15.00 13. 00- 15.00 RRL ECR COMIN, ose ceca wre ce meee dinccecusuy ap le aiettre aehvc otk 14. 75- 18. 00 14. 00- 18.00 RCI Od Seats AUS S DL Se EL » aided hey collate « said 'm ¢ veined debe m whcts 12. 50- 13. 50 12. 00- 13. 50 PUA PEE ey ye iy IS ae NS ese lee ae ee | ON ee oe yet Se Peat 10. 00- 12.00 3.10— 11.40 55380°—BDull. 426—16——3 18 BULLETIN 426, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The “mill-run” value, which is the average of all prices obtained for the various grades manufactured, varies with the location of the mill and the quality of the timber. The greater the proportion of the lower grades produced, the lower is the average mill-run price. In appraisals of National Forest stumpage, the average mill-run prices of sugar pine shown in Table 11 were ascertained upon ae basis of selling prices current during 1912. TasBLe 11.—Mill-run values of sugar pine lumber. [Price per 1,000 feet.} 2 | Species. | Species. Locality. l Locality. Sugar | Yellow || Sugar Yellow pine. | pine. |} pine, pine. | | | Siskiyou County....-...-.-..- | 21.00 | $19.00) || Plumas Countyes--- --->2--ee $23. 00 $19. 00 Upper Sacramento.-.....-.----} 21.00 | 19.00 || Central San Joaquin.....----- 24. 00 20.00 Lower Sacramento....-.-...-- 24.10 | 19.80 |} Southern San Joaquin ..-..--- 23.45 19. 65 | DEPRECIATION OF SUGAR-PINE LUMBER DURING AIR SEASONING. In the summer of 1914, the Forest Service carried on a study to determine the depreciation in grade of pine lumber during air seasoning. Depreciation during seasoning by this method is caused by checks, blue stain, brown stain, warping, splitting, and breakage in handling. The heaviest depreciation occurs in high-grade lumber (No. 2 shop and better). The amount of loss is determined largely by climatic conditions, method of piling, location of pile, length of ime in pile, and characteristics of species. At lumber yards in the hot valley regions of California brown stain seems to cause one-third of the depreciation in grade. Table 12 shows the percentage of the total loss in grade in rough sugar-pine lumber, No. 2 shop and better, which resulted from blue and brown stain during air seasoning at such a yard. TaBLe 12.—Percentage of total loss in grade in rough sugar-pine lumber. Thickness in quarter inches. 5/4 | 6/4 | 8/4 10/4 | 12/4 He sy Defect. 16/4 | Total. | { Percentage of loss | STIG IS ULI ee ayes ee See nie ne eee | 19.67 | 3. 94 3.35 | SHOON| RS aes seeeseers | Sane wee | 5.09 BUG WIS AIT bs ye ee oe sone core cee eo OA 4.33 44. ail 39.33 Pah iN) eee eee \ec Soe 35. 87 iploeran dl bro wiles) os Sseece ees see |, 24.445) 5546) G3) 6106): eee eee — 5.38 } } Robalee se REO URS ets | cee | ee a | aa eon ree | Pek | hone | 46.84 In cooler mountain yards the loss from blue stain is much greater than that indicated in this table, and the loss from brown stain much less. Brown stain develops rapidly in kiln drying, and for this reason but comparatively little sugar-pine lumber is artificially SUGAR PINE. 19 seasoned. Heavy thick boards cut from the sapwood are especially subject to brown stain, while heartwood boards seldom stain except under the “‘stickers.”’ Table 13 gives the results secured from piles at a representative mill in the central Sierras, elevation 2,500 féet. These results should be considered simply as illustrations of what has occurred under certain specific conditions. The study has not yet progressed far enough to allow of general conclusions. At this mill all sugar pine is air seasoned. The No. 3 shop and better is cut principally 6/4 in thickness, although 4/4, 5/4, 8/4, and 10/4 material is manufactured. Depreciation increases with the thickness of the lumber. The piles of No. 3 shop and Wee were put up with three 2 by 4 by 16 inch rough-dry white-fir stickers and three 8-inch chimneys. The pile foundations had a slope of 1 inch to the foot. Piles were roofed and sun covers were used on highest grade material. TaBLe 13.—Depreciation in various grades of sugar-pine lumber during air seasoning at a mill in the central Sierras, California. - Total | Amount see hickness. and Length of time in pile. contents | lowered vele pile. in grade. o Feet b.in.| Feet b. m. 1, 2, and 3 clear—8/4....| Aug. 5, 1914, to Oct. 14, 1914.... 2.22. .2.2--..2222.- 10, 244 2, 086 $3. 71 1, 2, and 3 clear—6/4....| July 14, 1914, to Oct. 14, 1914......-........-...... 4,371 5 37 o. l shop—6/4........- May 31) 1914) To Oeil Oley. een RUA §, 334 51 10 No. i shop—6/4......-..| May 1, 1914, to Oct. 10, NOME Bese RN Au WERE Om DN 4, 582 4 ee et No: 1 shop—8/4.........| Aug. 20, 1914, to Oct. 10,1914............... 2.2. 27, 606 810 "30 No. 2shop—6/4........| July 24, 1913, to Jume 13, 1914....5..--0050-0-0..... 4, 842 260 "49 eee Assen a. | Oct. 0054915. to Octal 104d s oie os es 16, 585 207 -10 No. 2shop—6/4......... pins 1914 fo OC A tise peered ae” 6. 738 |S ery alesse The summer depreciation at this mill in connection with air seasoning of sugar pine appears to be about $1.90 per 1,000 feet for Nos. 1, 2, and 3 clear, 15 cents for No. 1 shop, and 12 cents for No. 2 shop. In addition to this, it is estimated that about 1 per cent of the material depreciates one grade during the winter. Upon the basis of this ne the fol llowing suggestions are offered for decreasing loss through depreciation in tae during air seasoning. (1) Cut thick stock (8/4 and thicker No. 2 shop and better) early in the season so as to allow time for drying. (2) Clear away vegetation around piles. (3) Keep rear pile foundations fe enough off ground to allow of good air circulation. (4) Provide a roof with 4-foot extensions front and rear for piles of high-grade pine left in yard over winter. (5) Provide sun covers during summer for piles of high-grade material. (6) Provide shed capacity for as much dry lumber as possible to be held over winter. 20 BULLETIN 426, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (7) Whenever possible, take down lumber as soon as it is dry. (8) Pile each length of lumber separately. (9) Surface stickers when blackened by stain. (10) Whenever possible, saw 8/4 and thicker pine stock either all sap or all heart. MARKETS. Sugar pine is being called upon more and more each year to take the place of eastern white pine (P. strobus), which for the past two centuries has represented the standard of excellence, not only in America, but in many foreign markets as well. The development of new snags in recent years has made possible the introduction of sugar pine in South America, the islands of the Pacific, and the Orient, and, wherever introduced, it is meeting with the same genera] success aiicls has characterized its entrance into the markets once wholly supplied by white pine. In large dimensions it has already largely supplanted the latter. Its uniformly high quality is gradually gaining for it well-merited recognition in many specialized industries. The leading manufacturing industries along the Pacific coast, from Seattle to Los Angeles, are dependent largely upon sugar pine for the - high-grade products for which white pine has been essential in other parts of the United States. The wood-using industries of the coast consume nearly 60,000,000 feet annually, the manufacturig plants of California alone working up 35,000,000 feet (exclusive of bridge con- struction, sluicing, dimension stock, and generai building material). Fifteen million feet are shipped annually into the territory lymg between the Rocky Mountains and the Atlantic seaboard, and 10,000,000 feet go to foreign ports. USES. In 1908 the amount of white pine manufactured was 33 times the amount of sugar pine; in 1911 the ratio was reduced to 27 to 1, primarily because of the decrease in the supply of white pine and ina lesser degree because of an increase in the cut of sugar pine. In 1911 sugar pie ranked twenty-fourth in the United States in the amount “of sound lumber produced. Taste 14.—Amount of sugar-pine lumber used in various California industries in 1910. 4 s Feet used, | Percent | Feet used, | Per cent HEGRE, p.m. | oftotal. Industry. b. m. | of total. Boxes and packing......... 20, 536, 000 58.763 || Sash, doors, blinds, general IBTUSHES s/s esis ese aie ; 3,440 - 010 MII O eysab o sueiesoees oA 11, 930, 303 34. 140 WMeValOrsssse ee ae eee 55. 15,000 .043 || Ship and boat building..... 75, 000 . 220 WER GULOS ssaee oat aeaee eee 150, 000 243077) an hee se ee eee ter ere 10,750 031 Frames and molding.....-. 2,730 .008 |} Trunks and valises.......-- 11,000 - 031 ihunaibune se aes oe eee eee 364, 410 1.043 || Vehicle parts. .............- 1,000 . 003 Musical instruments. --...--. 4,700 .014 || Wood carvings.-..-....---.-. 3,000 - 408 Instruments, professional Woodenware and novelties. 418, 563 1.200 ANOS Client iL Ces=- epee 500 -001 || Miscellaneous.............-- 40, 000 . 120 Machine parts. 255. 2222--24- 4,000 012 | PAtCEINS teens sae le are 59, 350 113 DPotalyet ae ee ae 34, 946, 956 99:9 Planing-mill products.....- 1,317,060 3.770 SUGAR PINE. DA) Table 14 shows the amount of sugar-pine lumber used in various California industries during the year 1910. Exact figures for all indus- tries are not available, but those in the table are sufficiently accurate to give a fairly reliable indication of the value of the species for various purposes. It will be noted that a large percentage of the box lumber is used locally. With the advent of the sawmill in California, the more accessible stands of sugar pine were eagerly sought by the lumbermen because of the superior quality of the lumber. Its durability, lightness, and softness as compared with other available woods led to its use for shakes, -flumes, sluice boxes, bridges, houses, barns, fences, and numerous other purposes. Shingle manufacture has to some extent replaced shake making. The early demand created by the fruit industry for trays and boxes was met largely by the sugar-pine mills. With increased use prices were stimulated, good grades increased in value, and the lower grades were utilized in box making. Because of its color, lightness, and freedom from taste and odor, sugar pine has remaied a favorite with raism packers. Some mills work a por- tion of their output into raisin trays, some specialize in raisin boxes, and nearly all utilize their poorer grades for box shooks or dispose of them to box makers. About 65,000,000 feet are used in California in bridge construction, sluicing, dimension stock, and general building material. Because of its straightness, softness, freedom from warping and shrinkage, splendid service when exposed to weather, and fine finish- ing qualities, sugar pine is a very important wood in the manufacture of special-order sash, doors, and blinds, decks of boats, and general mill- work. These same qualities make it valuable for frames and stair- work. For pattern and model making, which require woods easily worked, glued, and.nailed, it is a close second to white pine. Fixture manufacturers use it for altars, beading, show cases, counters, veneer cores, shelving, and drawers. Freedom from taste and odor make it especially valuable for druggists’ drawers, for compartments for spices, coffee, tea, rice, sugar, and other provisions, and for shelving. Furniture manufacturers turn it into backing, built-in dressers, side- boards, carved work, core stock, table frames, and tops. Tanks, hot- grease vats, troughs, and water boxes, requiring freedom from taste and permanence, are frequently of this wood. Its lightness recom- mends its use for special trunks and sample cases. Its straight grain and permanence give it a place in the manufacture of piano and pipe- organ keys and actions, and player pianos; and the same qualities, together with lightness, place it among the best woods for drawing boards and extension level rods. Large quantities are used by planing mills in the manufacture of cut siding, interior finish, and moldings. It takes readily tho finest enamel finish. 22 BULLETIN 426, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in addition to the above, sugar pine is used for drainboards, elevator floors, brushes (brush blocks), apiary supplies, machine parts, saddles (saddle trees), shade and map rollers, wood carvings of all kinds, oars, slack cooperage, woodenware, bakers’ work boards and troughs, dresser brackets, and small turnings and fencing. A large quantity is made into matches. SHAKE MAKING. The manufacture of shakes (hand-split shingles) consumes only a small amount of sugar pine, but the industry is unique and is an interesting survival of pioneer methods. In the days of the forty- niners shingles and other modern roof coverings were, of course, not available. The early settlers, however, soon discovered that the straight-grained sugar pine closely resembled the white pine with which many of them had been familiar in the Hast or Middle West and could readily be split by hand mto rough shingles. Piles of refuse made up of the rougher unusable portions of the tree left scattered throughout the forest still testify to their activity, although the industry has diminished with the coming of transportation and. the sawed shingle until now it is only practiced by a few old, skilled workmen, or in localities still remote where other roof coverings are prohibitive in price. Tray boards, used in the manufacture of frames or “‘trays’”’ for fruit drymg, were formerly made to a large extent by hand from sugar pine also. Now, however, small shingle and tray mills are finding their way into the mountaims and are taking the place of the hand workman. The shake or tray maker demands the best straight-grained trees. A number are generally tested by chipping before a suitable indi- vidual is found. After fellmg, the tree is sawed into blocks gen- erally 32 inches long for roof shakes and 24 inches long for tray shakes. The blocks are split into bolts, and these are again divided into sections which will allow of splitting out shakes of the width desired. These sections are then placed in a frame, which holds them firmly, while the workman rives the thin shakes with a heavy - wide-bladed knife called a ‘‘frow,” driven by a hand maul. This process requires much skill, and it is fasematig to watch a skilled workman engaged in it. Roof shakes are usually 32 inches long, 5 mches wide, and three-sixteenths of an inch thick on the inner edge; tray shakes are 24 inches long, 6 mches wide, and one-fourth inch thick. The making of shakes from green timber results in the waste of about 25 per cent of the tree, and is therefore an undesirable prac- tice. The use of dead sugar pines, both standmg and down, tor shakes is encouraged by foresters, however, since in this way partial utilization of merchantable material that would otherwise be wasted can be secured. SUGAR PINE. 2D STUMPAGE PRICES. Theoretically the stumpage value of a given body of timber is that portion of the difference between the cost of operating and the selling value of the manufactured product remaining after a reason- able profit has been deducted for the operator. National Forest stumpage is appraised on this basis. Thus stumpage values increase or decrease directly as the selling value of the product, and inversely as the cost of operation. Stumpage values, however, trend steadily upward with much less fluctuation than there is in lumber prices. Generally speaking, the value of the stumpage on different tracts in the same general locality varies with the kind and quality of timbez, ease of logging, and general accessibility of the tract to the market. The value of private stumpage is materially affected by carrying and holding charges, which consist of the cost of fire protection, taxes, and interest. With mterest at 6 per cent, the total annual carrying cost is‘probably about 8 per cent of the value. This annual cost must be compounded; therefore, stumpage must double in value about every decade in order to make the holding of it profitable. Tt is only in comparatively recent years that separate stumpage values have been placed on sugar pine as distinguished from yellow pine. The bulk of the pime timberlands in California in private ownership were acquired from the Government under the timber and stone act at $2.50 per acre. These claims were ultimately disposed of to speculators upon an acreage basis which meant anywhere from 10 cents to 20 cents per 1,000 feet board measure. Especially acces- sible or well-located tracts brought from 30 cents to 50 cents per 1,000 feet. This condition existed until the latter part of the nineties, when more extensive operations brought about a rise in stumpage values. Accessible sugar-pine stumpage in 1900 and 1901 was worth about $1. By 1904 and 1905 private sugar pme stumpage was sold at from 75 cents and $1 in Siskiyou County and the northern Sierras to $1.50 and $1.75 in the southern Sierras. During 1905 considerable sugar pine was sold from the National Forests in the southern Sierras at $2 per 1,000 feet. These same sales included yellow pime at $1.50, white fir at 75 cents, and incense cedar at 50 cents. The value of privately owned stumpage has increased still further. Sales are now made on the basis of board-measure estimates or actual scale. However, in most transactions sugar pine and yellow pine are included at the same rate, and in many cases a flat rate is still made covering all species. Yor well-located timber this flat rate is in the neighborhood of $1.75 to $2.25 per 1,000 feet; or sometimes $2.50 per 1,000 feet if the proportion of inferior species is light. Assigning to sugar pine its proper share of this average price would make it worth from $3 to $4 per 1,000 feet. Timber less advantageously located is sold at an average rate of $1.25 to $1.50 per 1,000 feet. 24 BULLETIN 426, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The range of stumpage rates secured for sugar pine in sales of National Forest timber in California made during recent years is as follows: Maximum.| Average. | Minimum. Noth Coast Rangeram ds Sierras. sere ose tae eee ea pe i $3. 50 $3. 40 $2. 75 WentraleSierras say gs so Swe ke ae BR eke ae Be ail eco eae a ee 3. 50 2.75 2.50 Southern) Sierras ee ase lle. sia ys eee ayers rare eprops 3. 50 3.00 Qala Within the California National Forests extensive bodies of timber containing sugar pine are now being offered for sale, and complete in- formation regarding these tracts can be secured from the district forester at San Francisco, Cal. Operators in National Forest timber are not required to make large advance payments; and the stumpage is not taxed, although the State derives a direct compensating revenue from all sales, through the United States Treasury. Operations in this class of stumpage are somewhat more expensive than on private lands because from 10 to 35 per cent of the younger timber is left on the area, and the piling and burning of refuse is required as well as the cutting of unmerchantable trees which are a fire or disease menace. These costs are taken into account in the appraisal, however, and are borne by the stumpage and not by the operator. GROWTH AND YIELD. HEIGHT GROWTH. One of the most remarkable characteristics of sugar pine is its ability to sustain a rapid rate of growth up to a very advanced age. Its rate of growth in height is comparatively slow; up to about 100 years of age it is less than that of yellow pine. At this point it forges ahead and maintains its lead. In the most favorable situations, dur- ing its first century of life, sugar pine makes an average annual height growth of about 1 foot; during its second century, about 0.6 foot; and during its third century, about 0.4 foot. Foresters are interested principally in the rate of growth in the second-growth stands rather than in virgin stands, since this indicates the possibilities of the species under management. In the case of sugar pme it is very difficult to find representative second-growth stands, because there are but few sufficiently old cuttings and because sugar pine second-growth never occurs in dense young stands as yellow pine does, but always in open, mixed stands where growth is not forced so strongly by competition for light. Table 15 was pre- pared from analyses of 29 rapid growing, young, second-growth sugar pines. The contrasting yellow pine measurements were taken in thrifty, dense, second-growth stands in Nevada County, Cal. Bul. 426, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. F—98911 FiG. 1.—LiVING PINE DAMAGED BY RECURRING FIRES, LASSEN COUNTY, CAL. F—d-D6 Fia. 2.—NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER SALE. Area after cutting. showing refuse niled for hurning and thrifty cvrouns of vellow and survar SUGAR PINE, 25 TABLE 15.— Height growth of saplings and poles in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. I Sugar Yellow Sugar Yellow ine ine ine ine Age. Eee loeratal Age. fotal fotal height. | height. height. height. Years. Feet. Feet. Years. Feet. Feet. 10 4 12 40 62 69 20 19 34 40 73 82 30 45 52 60 82 91 Height measurements of over 700 seedlings and saplings taken on virgin forest areas show the average height of young sugar pines grown under such conditions to be only about 5 feet at the end of 40 years. The above table indicates a height of 62 feet at thisage. This startling difference shows that the tree responds quickly to proper conditions of light, soil, and moisture, and is an encouraging indica- tion of what may be accomplished by proper management. In order to show the height growth of trees over 60 years of age, 287 trees were measured in four representative localities in the virgin forests of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Table 16 shows the rates of height growth in the best and poorest situations and also the average growth on all plots. TaBre 16.— Maximum, minimum, and average heights based on age in virgin California forests (Sierra Nevada Mountains). | Total height. Maxi- Total height. Maxi- mum mum Age. e eee guitent Age. ae =e Guitent faxi- clk Mini- annua axi- ini- annua mum. |“VeFrage-| mum, growth. mum. |4VeTage-| mum. growth. Years. Feet. Feet, Feet, Feet. Years. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 20 Spee Sco rs Sele eee 0. 40 220 17 148 127 0. 40 40 24 ae || eentiercrstsye oie 80 240 180 153 129 35 60 49 AB Witte ae Spi oe 25: 260 187 158 131 35 80 84 72 61 i715 280 194 162 132 35 100 hi 92 77 1.35 300 200 167 134 30 120 127 106 91 80 |) 320 206 171 135 30 140 139 118 103 60 340 212 174 136 30 160 148 127 112 45 360 218 177 137 30 180 157 135 119 45 Eafe. 4 ite] ae ees ee SO Reet er eterereieia| sacle hoisine 200 165 142 124 40 ADO Testo eets. SEY ol | pepe 36 A ee It is evident that the period of most rapid growth is from the eightieth to the hundredth year of life in the best localities, at which time the annual increase in height amounts to 1.75 feet. At the age of about 110 years the rate of height growth has fallen off to such an extent that current annual growth is less than the mean annual growth or average annual growth for the entire growing life of the tree. MERCHANTABLE AND CLEAR LENGTHS. From a commercial standpoint the merchantable length of a species (the length of that section of the tree which can be utilized and the clear length free from limbs and yielding high-grade lumber) is more 26 BULLETIN 426, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. important than the total height. Because of its straightness, a very large proportion of the bole of a sugar pile can be utilized. Further- more, the lower branches of the crown fall off at a comparatively early age, leaving an unusua! clear length averaging 50 feet in nature stands and not infrequently reaching 80 feet. A table, based on a large number of actual measurements, showing the merchantable length of trees of various diameters and heights will be found in the Appendix. DIAMETER GROWTH. Sugar pines of the largest diameters are found on the best sandy- loam soils in fairly open situations. Trees in dense forest, in compe- tition with others for light, are obliged to devote their energy to height growth largely. Table 17 shows maximum, average, and minimum diameters based on age in virgin stands. Tapie 17.—Minimum, average, and maximum growth in diameter, on basis of age, California. Diameter breast-high outside || Diameter breast-high outside bark, in inches. i bark, in inehes. Age. iss LS Ee Age. Miers =2 |) que eee Mini- || Maxi Mini- mum, | V°!28e- | mum. || mum. |VeFge-| mum. - Years 0.4 OLY \cascasdss0 GORE SAS eee 60.1 44,9 32.4 4 74,15) (Boonaasae6 280 Se terse 63.5 47.2 34.3 OS iieal toa | Hie(ewisl|| OO ame earn cacacse 66.9 49.3 36.1 16.7 130i 9, 2 BoD aes seaeme ere ssle 70 51.4 37.9 24.1 | 18.1 12.6 SA anes Sis Se ae 73.3 1593355) 39. 5 80.4 | 22.7 WOs2 10] Se SCO meee eerie 76.1 5550.0 | bee eee 3on0mm| 26.8 Wer 1 SOO Ie ces coe cre klaate Sy arsye HY Gre ie eect case 40.3 | 30.5 PATE Ya eer tS etary eal mere or BOs te Pals teen 44.9 | 33.9 24, 2* || a — 49.1 | 37.0 26.4 | Number of 52.8 40.0 28.6 || stump analy- 56.5 | 42.5 SONS) Ge tseS'es-- heen. 20 474 22 i 1} The measurements upon which Tabie 17 is based were taken for the purpose of showing the effect of locality upon diameter growth rather tnan the effect of various factors, such as soil, light, and mois- ture, within a given locality. The maximum measurements were secured among dominant trees within the western central Sierras, the best range of the species. The minimum measurements were taken among the same class of trees in Siskryou County, northern California, toward the limit of the range. The average was obtained by averaging the measurements taken in eight localities throughout the State. The effect on the growth of unfavorable factors withm a given locality approximates the effect of an unfavorable change in latitude or altitude, however; therefore, the average growth shown in the tables is indicative of the growth that trees somewhat crowded for light, or growing on poorer soils, might make in a more central pertion of the range of the species. In the same way, the minimum SUGAR PINE, . oe figures represent roughly the results under a still greater degree of light or soil suppression. lt appears from the diameter-growth table that the maximum cur- rent diameter growth occurs between 80 and 100 years, which is also the period of maximum height growth. The maximum average annual growth for this 26-year period is 0.87 inch. The rate of growth in diameter decreases less rapidly, however, than the rate of height growth, the current annual exceeding the mean annual growth up to about the hundred and forty-fifth year. Usually the height growth of a tree species culminates before the diameter growth. Whether the sustained rate of height growth apparent in this species is attributable to the fact that the trees measured grew in virgin forest, where their light requirements were noi satisfied during youth, or whether this is an inherent peculiarity, has not yet been fully determined, and can not be until older, more normal second-growth stands are available for study. _ VOLUME GROWTH. Table 18, showmg the growth in volume of sugar pine, is derived from tables of average growth in diameter and height at various ages and a volume table for trees of various diameters and heights (see p. 37-38, Appendix). The striking feature shown by this table is the great age to which the tree sustains volume production. The current annual volume growth remains above the mean annual growth for over 400 years, over 300 years aiter height and diameter growth have culminated. At 100 years of age the annual rate of volume growth is 2 cubic feet. It then mcreases steadily up to an annual rate of 54 cubic feet at 350 years. The rate of volume growth remains prac- tically constant from that age up to 460 years. No information to indicate its behavior at a greater age has been collected. Tasie 18.—Growth in volume, on the basis of age, diameter, and height of average domi- nant trees, California Sierras. { Average. | Volume. | Average. Volume. Diameter : Board Diameter oe Board Age. | outside Total Cake fect Age. | outside Total Gui feot bark at | yeiont. | ontside | Scribner bark at | yaient. | o fsid (Seribner breast tases Me Decimal breast | Jett. iw SIC® | Decimal height. vPaK« 1 C rale). height. BBs sO rine): | | | een fap SS ae e ce ie pe Years. | Inches. Feet. | | Years. | Inches. Feet. 20 0.2 8 d | 290 40. 0 148 530 | 2,830 40 2.8 23 | | 240 42.5 153 630 8, 460 60 | 7.5 45 260 44.9 158 733 | 4,190 BO | 13.0 72 280 47.2 162 838 4, 840 100 | 18, 1 92 300 49, 3 167 944 5,570 120 | 22.7 106 820 51.4 171 1,050 6, 020 140 26.8 115 340 53.5 174 1,158 7, 750 160 | 30.5 127 360 55.5 177 1, 270 7,740 180 | 33.9 35 2380 57.3 180 1, 880 8, 380 200 | 37.0 142 400 59.1 | 183 | 1, 488 9,010 28 BULLETIN 426, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table 19 indicates the comparative rate of volume, diameter, and height growth of sugar pine and two of its common associates, yellow. pine and incense cedar. Sugar pine evidently outgrows cedar in all three respects from its fiftieth year. It passes yellow pine in height about the one hundred and tenth year, in diameter about the one hundred and thirtieth year, and in volume about the one hundred and fiftieth year. TABLE ‘19.—Comparative rate of volume, diameter, and height growth of sugar pine and two of its common associates. | Species. Sugar pine. Yellow pine.! Incense cedar. Age. : E Diameter | Diameter Diameter Walk breast | Height. | Volume.| breas Height. | Volume.} breast | Height. Ene high. bigh. high. ‘ | Board Board Board Years. Inches. Feet feet Inches. Feet feat. Inches Feet feet 20 0.2 Sailers ae 2.3 Dall. ss seleeh [sissies ee eee 40 25 Dong Gsec merece 6.5 DONA econ she 350) Lean paetee 60 1.5 Reed eieetoerees 11.4 LPO a aetare aes 6.4 23) Nee aes 80 13.0 72 110 16.1 79 210 9.8 49) |FTRE eS 100 18.1 92 24 20.0 94 360 13.6 65 70 120 22.7 106 490 23.3 104 610 17.8 75 140 140 26.8 118 850 25.8 112 890 21.3 S223 0) 160 30.5 127 1, 290 ~ 28.0 118 1,170 23.6 86 310 1380 33.9 135 1,760 29.8 123 1, 430 25. 8 90 390 200 37.0 142 2, 250 31.3 127 1,640 27.8 93 490 220 40..0 148 29.8. 96 600 240 42.5 153 31.7 98 720 260 44.9 158 33.6 101 850 280 47.2 162 35.4 103 970 300 49.3 167 36.9 105 | 1,090 320 51.4 171 38. 2 115 | 1,200 340 53.5 174 39. 2 118 | 1,290 360 5525 177 40.1 119 | 1,380 380 57.3 180 40.9 120 | 1,44¢ 400 59.1 183 41.6 121 | 1,510 1 ¥rom Forest Service Bul. No. 69, “Sugar Pine and Western Yellow Pine in California,”’ by Albert W. Cooper. YIELD. The average merchantable stand per acre of sugar pine varies widely throughout its range. In general it ranges from 2,000 to 16,000 board feet, which represents from 12 to 60 per cent of the total stand. However, within the sugar pine-yellow pine type con- siderable areas show an average of 20,000 feet per acre, representing 40 per cent of the whole TaBLE 20.— Maximum stands of sugar pine within the sugar pine-yellow pine type in three localities. Locality. Se ha | Sugar pine. White fir. | Incensecedar.| Douglas fir. Total. | . ; | Ba fe. |-P: ct. | Ba. fi, ||P ch Ba: fis Pe ce \ Bd ft, |Ps ct. | Ba ft. || Pact.) Baayiiaaee Cts Tahoe National Forest......- 11,030 | 22.7 | 18,440 | 37.9] 7,174] 14.8] 1,8807 3.4 | 10,050 | 20.7 | 48,574 | 100 Stanislaus Na- tional Forest.| 13,750 | 27.4 | 20,700 | 41.2 | 11,370 | 22.6 | 4,430 8585 see sece ey ares 50, 250 100 Yosemite Na- tional Park. .| 14,688 | 23.9 | 20,538. | 33.4 | 19,269 | 31.4 62 S044] db. Bh ee ees | Bee 61, 399 100 SUGAR PINE. : 29 Table 20 shows maximum stands of sugar pine within the sugar pine-yellow pine type in three representative Sierra Nevada range localities, as well as the proportion of other species in mixture. The heaviest single acre estimate of which the Forest Service has a record is 192,000 feet b. m., which amounted to 75 per cent of the total estimate for the acre plet. Acres containing 75,000 to 150,000 feet b. m. are frequently found within the maximum range of the species. The largest single tree measured by the Forest Service scaled 40,710 feet b. m. TaBLe 21.— Yellow pine type (quality II). Yield per acre and increment per acre per annum of all species. seis Incre- ar TGS sane Incre- vie ment per * vie ment per vie ment per Age. per acre. | acre per Age. per acre. | acre per Age. per acre. | acre Nee annum. annum. annum. Years. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Years. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Yearss Bd. ft. Bad. ft. 10 55 5.5 150 15, 900 106 290 33, 200 114.5 20 220 11 160 17, 900 112 300 33, 300 111 30 550 18 170 19, 900 117 310 33, 200 107 40 1, 000 25 180 21, 900 122 320 33, 000 103 50 1,600 |° 32 190 23, 800 125 330 32, 600 99 60 2, 600 43 200 25, 600 128 340 32, 200 94.5 70 3, 500 59 210 27, 200 129.5 350 31, 700 90.5 80 4, 600 57 220 28, 700 130.5 360 31, 100 86.5 90 5, 900 €6 230 29, 800 130 370 30, 500 82.5 100 7,300 i 240 30, 900 129 380 29, 900 78.5 110 8, 800 80 250 31, 700 127 390 29, 200 75 120 10, 400 87 260 32, 300 124 400 28, 500 71.2 130 12, 100 93 270 32, 800 121 140 14, 000 100 280 33, 100 118 Tasre 22.—Fir-sugar pine type (quality IT). Yveld per acre and increment per acre per annum of all species. ee Incre- ae Incre- ora Incre- Vie ment per rie ment per vie ment per Age. per acre. | acre per Age. per acre. | acre per Age. per acre. | acre oe annum. annum. annum. Years. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. || Years. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Years. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. 10 80 8 230 40, 500 176 . 450 88, 400 196.5 20 300 15 240 43, 700 182 460 88, 700 193 30 700 23 | 250 47, 000 188 470 88, 700 189 40 1,300 32 260 50, 300 193.5 480 88, 500 184 50 2, 000 40 70 53, 600 198.5 490 88, 200 180 60 2, 900 48 280 57, 000 203.5 500 87, 700 175.5 70 3, 900 56 250 | 60,200 207.5 510 | 87,000 170.5 80 5, 100 64 300 63, 500 211.5 520 86, 200 165.5 90 6, 500 72 31 66, 500 214.5 530 85, 200 161 100 8, 000 80 320 69, 200 216 540 $4, 100 155.5 110 9, 600 87.5 330 71, 800 217.5 , 650 $2, 800 150.5 120 11, 400 95 340 74, 200 218 560 81, 500 145.5 130 | 13,400 103 | 350 | 76,300 218 570 | 80, 100 140.5 140 15, 500 111 360 78, 300 217.5 580, 78, 700 135.5 150 17, 800 118.5 370 80, 100 216.5 590, 77, 300 131 160 | 20,200 126 | 380 | 81,700 215 600 | 75,900 126.5 170 22, 600 133 | 390 83, 200 213.5 610 74, 500 122 180 25, 200 140 | 400 84, 500 211.5 620 73, 100 118 190 28, 000 147.5 410 85, 700 209 630 71, 600 113 200 31, 000 155 420 86, 600 206 640 70, 000 109, 5 210 34, 000 162 430 87,400 203 220 37, 200 169 440 | 88, 000 200 Since sugar pine never occurs in pure or even-aged stands, the problem of | predicting the acreage yield at various ages is a complex one which has not as yet been satisfs actorily solved. Tables 21 and 22 indicate the probable yield of all species in the yellow pine and S00) BULLETIN 426, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fir-sugar pine types of which this species forms a part. They were prepared from data collected on the Plumas Forest (Plumas County, Cal.) during 1912 and represent results on areas of average pro- ductiveness.? | These tables indicate that the maximum volume is produced at 300 years in the yellow-pine type and at 460 years in the fir-sugar pine type. The highest rate of volume production, however, occurs at 180 years in the former type and at 280 years in the latter. -MANAGEMENT. The manner in which any tract of forest land is handled depends, of course, entirely upon the wishes or necessities of its owner. If present financial considerations demand it, clear cutting of all mer- chantable trees must be practiced. Some lumbermen, by following this policy, jeopardize the future of the forest, encourage species of low value, and postpone a second cut for at least a century. If esthetic considerations govern, then expenditures may be made which will never yield a direct monetary return. HH, however, the owner desires to make his manufacturmg business permanent and is willing partially to subordinate present to future returns, he must determine what classes of trees can be most profitably left to furnish seed, shade, and a second cut; what protective measures are necessary and practicable to prevent the destruction of the trees left, both during logging and later; and what amount he can spend annually or periodically in artificial reforestation or thinnings if necessary. There is a marked tendency now toward close utilization of all pines cut, toward ieaving trees that are evidently immature, and toward protecting the remaining stand from fire and insects. High taxes tend to prevent the practice of management on private lands. Naturally luambermen can not afford to hold land for a second cut when taxes and other carrying charges will in the meantine amount to more than the possible prospective profit. With low taxes and carrying charges operators can afford to leave and to protect young trees and trees of inferior species until they become more valuable. Since lands in Federal ownership are not burdened with as heavy carrying charges as private holdings, and since it is the evident duty of the Government to experiment and lead in the field of forestry, the cuttings on the National Forests are naturally the best examples of present-day forest-management methods. NATIONAL FOREST METHODS. The following principles govern cutting in the sugar-pine type on National Forests: It is the general aim to improve the forest by cutting so as to put it in condition to produce a sustained yield in future years when that becomes necessary. 1 See Appendix to Piumas Working Plan, by Barrington Moore, forest assistant, February, 1913. SUGAR PINE. 31 The exact age at which sugar pine and the various species which enter into combination with it should be cut to yield the highest return is dependent upon so many variable factors that it is impos- sible to determine it with accuracy at present. Even if this were determinable, however, such a cutting age (rotation) could not be strictly adhered to, because, under present economic conditions, demand and accessibility must largely determine the time and place of cutting. We know, however, that stands of yellow pine and sugar pine reach their highest rate of volume production at about 180 years. On average sites the diameter of sugar pine is approximately 33 inches, ~ and of yellow pine 30 inches at this age. White fir and cedar, the two other principal species in mixture, while not so large at this age, are of merchantable size and usually in need of cutting on account of their susceptibility to disease. Therefore, without danger of serious error, stands in which sugar pine is an important tree may be cut down to a diameter of about 30 inches. This principle is used as a guide in the cutting done in such stands within the National Forests, although the removal of smaller trees and the leaving of larger is practiced whenever necessary for a weighty special reason, such as the elimination of disease or the creation of conditions favorable to reproduction. Diseased trees are always cut and the merchantable portions utilized, since sani- tation is as essential to health in a forest as in a human community. Dead trees are a source of danger in time of fire and are felled.. The cost of this work to operators—generally from 3 to 7 cents per 1,000 feet—is taken into account in fixing the stumpage rate. Timber apparently ripe is always harvested, except when it is clear that reproduction can not be secured on the area unless a few trees of this class are left for seed or shade. The condition of the crown of the tree determines which individuals are to be cut. Trees whose crowns are flattened are mature, or are not making profitable growth, and should be removed. It is recognized that sufficient timber must be secured from each tract to make the operation profitable. While this amount varies with the investment and with logging conditions, from 12,000 to 18,000 feet per acre is usually a profitable cut, The removal of this amount should leave a sufficient basis of younger trees for a second cut in from 50 to 60 years. It is expected that lumber prices will have increased by that time to a point which will allow of operating at a profit for a smaller per acre yield. Practical considerations demand that trees so situated as to be a hindrance to carrying out the most feasible and economical logging plan be cut whether mature or not. This practice is followed in preference to leaving such trees to inevitable injury, which will lessen their growth and perhaps cause disease. 32 BULLETIN 426, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Studies of the grades cut from pine logs of various dimensions indi- cate that knotty trees under 32 inches in diameter produce largely common and box lumber, which can be marketed at present only at a loss or at a very slight profit. Such trees may profitably be left for seed or protection and to form a part of the next cut, for which they will. be more valuable because of increased growth, higher selling prices, and a greater percentage of high-grade product as the result of natural pruning. The white fir and cedar in sugar-pine stands are now difficult to market at a profit above the bare cost of production. Both of these species have greater prospective than present values—the former for pulp as well as lumber, the latter for pencil stock and other refined. uses. It appears to be wise management, therefore, to remove only the dead, diseased, and mature trees which will not remain mer- chantable until the next cut. Young sugar pine reproduction requires shade in youth, and these species are left to furnish it in preference to others of more value. Their reproduction will endure shade, and is therefore a valuable agent in preventing brush from securing control of cut-over areas. In rane the above principles on National Forests the cutting is so regulated as to create conditions favorable to the securing of a stand of young trees through natural regeneration, because the per- petuation of the forest depends upon this. Sugar-pine seed is eaten in large quantities by rodents and birds, and since young trees require protection from too severe light for the first 10 years of their life the securing of young growth is rather a difficult problem. Eventually, when transportation and market conditions allow of cut- ting over areas frequently for a small volume of timber, the shelter- wood system of cutting will probably be applied where sugar pine makes up 20 per cent or more of the stand. This system provides for several successive operations separated by short intervals; the first opens up the stand slightly to afford just sufficient light to stimulate the seed-producing capacity of the remaining trees and to secure young erowth; the second follows after reproduction has been secured and partially frees it from shade; the third removes the remaining mature trees. At present, however, this system would not pay. In the sugar-pine type the forest is made up of groups of mature sugar pine and its common associates, interspersed with openings and approximately even-aged groups of younger trees of the same com- position, as well as of trees of various ages and species occurring singly. On areas where the occurrence is in groups the clumps of mature trees are cut clean and the immature are left. Sometimes it is necessary to leave a mature tree which may occur in an immature group from which it could not be removed, or to remove a few imma- ture trees from mature groups because of the likelihood of wind damage or to free reproduction from shade. In cuttings of this pad SUGAR PINE. ao nature the reproduction of the more light enduring species, such as yellow pine, white fir, and Douglas fir, take possession of the openings first, and young sugar pines are confined to the zone of partial shade around the groups left. Later, after partial shade has been estab- lished in the openings, some sugar pine enters the mixture and tends eventually to outdistance the other trees because of a more rapid and sustained rate of growth. This method of cutting is known as the eroup-selection system. Generally from 65 to 75 per cent of the board-measure content of the stand is removed. On areas covered with trees of various ages mingled tegether the so-called selection system of cutting must be applied. Each tree is subjected to the test of maturity, health, and value of contents. Mature and unhealthy trees are removed. Immature trees, or trees of the less valuable species, such as fir and cedar, are left to furnish shade and protection. Whenever it is necessary to remove a few - pines not fully mature in order to make the operation profitable, those that will yield the highest grade product are selected. Such a cutting results 3 In Maximum openings of an acre in the forest cover and in the removal of from 75 to 85 per cent of the mature stand. These openings will, it is believed, on fairly favorable situations restock with yellow pine, fir, and cedar, followed by sugar pine when proper shade conditions have been established, as in the group- selection system. UTILIZATION. While logging on private lands is still wasteful, utilization is far more complete than it was 10 or 15 years ago. At that time only the larger pine trees were cut. Stumps were sometimes cut as high as 4 feet and only the clear length of the trees removed. Wasteful lum- bering in the past has been due primarily to low stumpage values and poor market conditions. The cost of transportation has been another important factor, since only the better class of material could be hauled to market at a profit. With the rapid growth of the lumber industry in California more modern methods of logging have been adopted. Some concerns cut only the best fir and cedar, but pines are frequently utilized to a diameter of 10 inches in the tops. Stumps are usually cut from 18 to 24 inches high. Even tops and limbs are, in favorable localities, utilized for firewood. In sales of National Forest stumpage the closest utilization con- sistent with modern logging methods and market conditions is prac- ticed. Stumps are cut 18 inches or less in height; trees are utilized to a top diameter of at least 10 inches in the case of pines and 12 inches for other species, and all species are logged. Pine logs which contain 33 per cent, and logs of other less valuable species which con- tain 50 per cent sound Jumber, are considered merchantable. 34 BULLETIN 426, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PROTECTION. No scheme of management should be undertaken or can be success- fully carried out unless the area involved is adequately protected from destructive influences. Fire, insects, and disease are the most active agents of tree destruction. Of these, fire is the most important, because it not only kills all young growth and injures or kills mature trees, but also depletes the soil by consuming the humus, and destroys other forms of property as well as life. Within the National Forests of California during 1914, 1,304 fires occurred, causing an estimated loss of about $77,000. Virein stands in which no cutting is being done should be protected by eliminating the causes of fire as much as possible by the use of suitable warning signs and other regulation and by a systematic patrol for the detection of fires. The efficiency of any patrol is con- siderably increased by installing telephone lines and by a good sys- tem of roads and trails constructed, wherever possible, so as to act as firebreaks. Under such conditions one patrolman, at a salary of $300 for himself and horse for the danger season of four months, should take care of from 25,000 to 30,000 acres. An adequate patrol system should not cost over 2 cents per acre per annum. Fire risk naturally increases when lumbering operations start, be- cause of the presence of engines and men as weli as slash. Precau- tions are therefore particularly necessary. The most effective pre- caution is the disposal of slash by burning. On National Forest sale areas in California all slash is piled at once in tepee-shaped piles and burned at a favorable season. This operation costs from 20 to 30 cents per 1,000 teet board measure. All engines used in connection with logging should, when possible, burn oil. If this is not feasible, they should be equipped with ade- quate spark arresters and with hose and water under pressure for put- ting out fires which start in their vicinity. Supplies of shovels and axes should be readily available at convenient points about the operation. The importance of the control of insects and tree diseases is only secondary to the control of fire in managed forests. PLANTING. On treeless areas, or where natural reproduction can not be secured by leaving seed trees, planting must be undertaken. Thus far, in ~ California, National Forest tree planting has been confined principally to treeless areas which once undoubtedly bore forests. The brush fields common in northern California are representative of this type of land. On pine lands where practically all of the trees are mature it may be found after planting methods have been perfected and cheapened that it is more profitable to cut ail of the timber and plant, but at the present time this 1s not considered feasible. SUGAR PINE. 35 In a year when sugar-pine seed is plentiful it can be collected in large quantities from felled trees or from standing trees by climbing and cutting off the cones with an improvised cutting knife on a pole ‘for from 50 to 60 cents per pound. Collecting small quantities is more expensive. Attempts have been made to restock denuded areas with sugar pine by sowing the seed directly in the field either broadcast or in prepared seed spots. ~Both of these methods have failed absolutely. The seed has either been devoured by rodents before germination or the young trees have succumbed to the effect of drought during the first season. A small supply of sugar-pine stock for field planting is now being produced annually at the Pilgrim Creek Nursery, near McCloud, Cal., on the Shasta Forest, and experiments in planting have been con- ducted near there and also in Plumas County. So far it has been very difficult to produce satisfactory trees, both because the seed germinates very slowly and incompletely and on account of the un- satisfactory development of the seedlings and transplants. Results indicate that 3-year-old trees are the best adapted to field conditions. Plantations of 3-year-old trees have cost, on an average, about $22 per acre, including all items. This cost is excessive and is only justified by the value of the experiments. If this preliminary work is fairly successful, costs can be decreased as the scale of work is increased. MANAGEMENT OF PRIVATE TIMBERLANDS. Private timber holdings may be divided into two principal groups— individual holdings and corporate holdings. The individual holdings are generally smaller than the corporats ones, and it is usually the natural desire of individual holders to secure all possible profit from their lands during a lifetime. It is undoubtedly just as good business for such owners to protect their capital (standing merchantable timber) against loss as it is for the proprietor of any other business to carry insurance. Protection of cut-over areas, except in so far as is necessary to prevent the loss of merchantable timber adjoining. or equipment, however, is not at present profitable to this class of owners. Corporations may look further into the future, since their life is indefinite. Thus far they have found it more profitable to extend their operating life by adding to their holdings rather than to attempt to maintain their cut-over lands in such a condition of productiveness that a profitable second crop can be derived from them by the time the entire area has been cut over. It is self-evident, however, that as the supply of stumpage decreases its value will increase until it equals the cost of producing timber, It is fair to assume, therefore, 36 BULLETIN 426, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that a reasonable present outlay in immature timber left on cut- over areas and in the protection of these areas will show a return at that time, or at least that the stumpage thus produced will be as cheap as that obtainable by purchase. In order to secure a second crop within a reasonable time in the sugar pine-yellow pine type, owners should follow the Forest Service methods of cutting as closely as the necessities of their business will allow, particularly as regards close utilization, leaving immature timber and timber of species which have a greater prospective than present vaiue, such as white fir and cedar. On areas cut over conservatively protection from fire must be provided. Promiscuous burning of the slash has been frequently advocated. This method involves the destruction of a large amount - of young growth and serious injury to trees left standing, and there-_ fore can not be indorsed. Careful piling and burning of brush, the method practiced by the Forest Service, at a cost of 25 cents per 1,000 feet, is probably too expensive for private owners. A compro- mise between these two methods should prove fairly effective. The brush on portions of cut-over areas located where there is unusual fire risk should be roughly piled away from living trees and clumps of young growth and carefully burned after the fall rains, when fires ean be controlled. Piling and burning of this character can be ac- complished for from $1 to $1.50 per acre. On all other portions of the cut-over area the slash should be distributed over the ground as evenly as possible when the trees are trimmed and measures adopted to prevent fires or to put out quickly those that are started. The Forest Service offers to protect, under cooperative agreement, the lumber holdings of owners of areas within California National Forests at a cost of from 14 to 4 cents per acre, and will also gladly give advice to those who wish to install an independent scheme of protection. APPENDIX. VOLUME TABLE. Table 23 is based upon actual measurements of 910 felled sugar-pine trees, taken by the Forest Service in California. No allowance was made for defect. In field estimating trees are tallied by two inch, breast-high (4.5 feet), diameter classes, and by the number of logs they contain. Their contents in feet board measure may then > be obtained from this table. TABLE 23.—Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana), Lassen, Plumas, Sierra, Stanislaus, and Tahoe National Forests, Cal. Curved, Scribner Decimal C. Number of 16-foot logs. Diam- Diameter | eter breast 5 6 7 8 9 10 | 11 12 | inside | Basis. high. | 4 bark of top. Volume—Board feet in tens. Inches. | Trees. BS el see Ale os oe aes sl ees) es SSE rays Seal tardy | Beek taney ay OM nT 8 1 Reapers | Sebel repal| aero on | suaeetnelleeyenc es Srnec 8 2 Bee Based SecoaG Ee Gal foetal Seca 9 7 BE aes ec oGoH acces) Ge tecsl cess 9 28 9 23 9 35 9 35 10 44 10 53 PASE GOReOd [aaa 10 50 Fabeorliacnrea|betecs 10 38 Wels aferai| tenes 11 36 SP eCSe| saarisc 11 40 wiwieie selec a ayeic 11 41 Hone ll 43 See 12 39 Sota 12 31 ee 2 12 43 12 41 12 56 13 36 13 25 13 25 14 28 14 25 14 27 14 il 15 9 1, 239 15 17 1,305] 1,388] 1,50 1 (cme 5} 1,303) 1,370) 1,456) 1,57 16 2 4} 1,368] 1,435) 1,523) 1, 63 16 6 1,431) 1,500] 1,590} 1.70 16 4 1,497] 1,565} 1.6591 1,77! j 3 0 Average stump height 1.3 to 3.1 feet. Logs scaled in commercial lengths as ent. Figures outside heavy lines are from extension of original table. 37 38 BULLETIN 426, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. | TaBLE 23.—Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana), Lassen, Plumas, Sierra, Stanislaus, and Tahoe National Forests, Cal. Curved, Scribner Decimal C—Continued. e Total height of tree—Feet. S 3 z ao ee | abs B se 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80} 90 | 100 | 110 120 130 | 140 160 | 180 | 200 | 220 me 2 =| i Be) es | 2 = Volume—Board feet in tens. a E Ins. Inches. 12 6 Sees 14 ral 8 1 16 8 8 1 Tey eGes SH Fe 20) - 9 28 PPR oe 9} 22 Ais ene | eee 9} 35 PATYel cheat UE aoe 9/735 PA SMS Ab eel lsmEne 10) 44 BLOM eeis lerecteo| se 10) - 52 SOME ee aia 10} 50 4c oe 10) 37 BO Isocotsauc il) 36 88) 4 ocodllacec 11; 40 Ns ae 11} 40 ADH ee is |e 11) 42 EC ee eee 12) 38 AG ioe eH RL 12} 32 AS ewes ee 12) 43 KO) ooscilooce 12) 41 BAN MA pe 12) 56 leee alone 13, 34 Ory Peal aes 13) 25 XS |Suecllagos 13) 25 ‘QO losouilaoss 14) 27 62 14) 25 64 14| 27 66 14] 11 68 | 15} 9 70 |. 15} 16 72 1,140] 1,154 1,212 15] 6 74 |. 1,210} 1, 2204 1,273 16} 2 AS Kes Real at et ree Fe ae a oe IS ogee Wa oe 4 1,336 16, 5 CRS See PPS ree SL bom PL ees kee oe SRO a eee 16 4 Co en Stra |p fa FeO Pe OSs SaaS Paes Sale aac 16} 3 899 The following table is inserted to show the relation between diameter, total height, and merchantable length of sugar-pine trees: SUGAR PINE. i 39 Tasie 24.— Merchantable length and diameter of top logs inside bark, sugar pine. Aver- Aver- Diam- Mer- |agetop} Basis || Diam- Mer- jagetop| Basis eter Total | chant -| diam- | num- eter Total | chant-| diam- | num- breast | height.!} able. eter | ber of |} breast | height.) able eter | ber of high. length.| inside | trees. high. length.| inside | trees. bark. bark. Inches.| Feet. Feet. | Inches. No. Inches.| Feet. | Feet. | Inches.| No. Seal) $48, Payal ee eats ol Maa sia 40 148 120 11 41 10 57 2304 rac se Seda eee eee 42 152 125 ial 43 12 67 CUES Mi es et | 44 156 130 12 39 i+ Tle 45 8 1 46 160 134 12 3i 16 86 52 8 2 48 164 138 12 43 18 92 58 9 i 50 168 143 12 41 20 98 65 9 28 52 172 147 12 56 22 104 72 9 23 54 175 151 13 36 24 110 78 9 35 56 178 155 13 25 26 116 84 9 35 58 182 159 13 25 28 121 90 10 44 60 185 163 14 28 30 126 95 10 53 62 188 167 14 25 32 131 100 10 50 64 191 170 14 27 34 136 105 10 38 36 140 110 ii 36 ES O Gea at teal tee a as eee are 852 38 144 115 11 40 1 Basis 287 trees. 2 Extension of curve. KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF SUGAR PINE, WESTERN WHITE PINE, AND WHITE PINE WOODS. The following key for distinguishing the wood of sugar pine from that of the western and eastern white pine is based chiefly upon characteristics visible under the com- pound microscope, but all available gross characteristics are also included, and it is believed that these will enable the layman to distinguish the three species. The microscopic characteristics will, of course, be useful mainly to technically trained students. The minute characteristics are often so variable that the student may have considerable difficulty unless he takes into account every characteristic cited in the key and make numerous careful measurements. There is also a good deal of variation in the general gross appearance of the wood of these three pines, but those who are thoroughly familiar with their gross characteristics visible in the rough and finished states will be able to distinguish them quite readily. Pits on the radial walls of the pith-ray cells two, or sometimes one, per tracheid, round, occurring side by side. Pith rays (tangential section) one to twelve, or often sixteen cells in height. Resin canals about 0.13 to 0.16 mm. in diameter. Wood yellowish white, or often very light brown, with rather coarse grain. Resin canals conspicuous, appearing on a smooth longitudinal surfaceasdark lines. Sugary exudationsand resin pocketscommon. Weighs about 23 pounds per cubic foot...:...-...----- Suear Pine (Pinus lambertiana). Pits on the radial walls of the pith-ray cells one, two, or occasionally three per tracheid, nearly round, and usually placed irregularly. Pith rays (tangential section) one to seven, or sometimes ten, cells in height. Resin canals about 0.13 to 0.15 mm.indiameter. Wood light brown or reddish, with rather fine grain. Resin canals not numerous and slightly less conspicuous than in the oneabove. Nosugary exudation. Weighs about 24.5 pounds per cubic NEN emer Me ioe cae cate ids inj misia orn oem inn’ ois Western Waite Pine (Pinus monticola), Pits on the radial walls of the pith-ray cells one, rarely two, per tracheid, large and mostly oblong. Pith rays (tangential section) mostly one to twelve, or sometimes fourteen, cellsin height. Resin canals about 0.08 to 0.12 mm. in diameter. Wood cream yellow, or that {vom very old trees light brown, slightly tinged with red. Resin canals not very conspicuous and no sugary exudations. Weighsabout 24 pounds per cubic foot. .Wuire Pine (Pinus strobus). 40 BULLETIN 426, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GRADES. Sugar pine lumber is classified into the ‘lllenane grades: Thick finish: No. land 2 clear. 1, 14, hie 2 inch widths. No. 3 clear. Same dimensions; must contain 70 per cent No. 1 door cuttings of No. 1 shop common sizes. C select. Same dimensions, one face finished; admits small defects. ea select. Same as C select, except admits more serious defects. iding: 1 and 2 grade (B and better). Thickness 4 inch. No. 3siding. Thickness $inch; admits rower defects than 1 and 2. Factory plank or shop common, eraded for door cuttings: No. 1 shop common. From 50 to 70 per cent No. TI cuttings. No. 2shop common. Either 25 per cent No. 1 door cuttings or 40 per cent No. 1 | and 2 combined, or 50 per cent No. 2. No. 3shopcommon. 1}inch and thicker; not less than 124 per cent No. 1 and 2 sash and door cuttings. Inch shop common. Must contain 50 per cent above described cuttings; cuttings must be 10 inches wide or wider, 22 inches long or longer; or, 8 inches wide Oe wider and 3 feet long or longer. No. 1 fencing D and M. Sound No. 1 fencing worked to flocring; when eee should be of character of No. 1 common strips. No. 2 fencing D and M. No. 2 fencing worked to flooring of character No. 2 common strips. ‘ No. 3 fencing D and M. No. 3 fencing worked to flooring; some coarse knots, split and wane. Common lumber; | inch thickness: : No. 1 common boards and strips. Sound, tight-knotted stock, free from large, coarse knots. No. 2common. Admits coarser and larger knots and more stained sap. No. 3 common. Admits large, loose, unsound knots; shake, red rot, blue sap stain. Thick common lumber, 11 inches thick and thicker: Tank cee. Dimension sizes, tree from wane; sound knots and white sap ad- mitted. Step plank. 8 inches wide or wider; graded the same as No. 1 common boards. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY A UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 427 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER February 6, 1917 THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. By J. E.Grar,’ Entomological Assistant, Truck Crop and Stored Product Insect Investi- - gations. CONTENTS. Page. Page BPTI aa erases ai isich «(iets cies sce eseise i s\s Hood plantsess: Sssceeieefeemcc sce Ssseiseissiese 14 1: WEA ee eee 2 luifehistoryzandyhalbitSeeseeee se eseseeee ssa ae 15 o LSSIe (aT 2 Eee See 3 | Natural enemies and checks..... Cue he ee ee 32 . SURI eee eee eee ee 4oal Artificial controloassse-hssemenac cee nee 48 Wiconomic importance ..-.......-.-.-=------- Gia Summarys 50 otek sce sae eee ee eee 51 Classification and synonymy.--.-..-..-..---- Oe | Bibliography festa esos scent eos sence ee 52 CHEN ELD Dee teeta etx) cla ols o ain'~ a/c (s/=1eistel-is 2 = ects 9 The account of the potato tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella Zell.) given in the following pages is the result of an investigation of this insect carried on in southern California from 1912 to 1916.? During the latter part of 1911 the late H. M. Russell conducted a few life-history experiments at Compton, Cal., but the work was not taken up as a special project until the following year. The laboratory work was conducted almost entirely at Whittier and Pasadena, Cal. The material for rearing and collection of parasites, however, was collected from the following counties: Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, and Ventura. HISTORICAL. The tuber moth was first mentioned in literature by Capt. H. Berthon (1)* who described it, under the name of the ‘‘potato grub,” as being very damaging to potatoes in Tasmania in 1854, and con- 1 Resigned Jan. 16, 1916. 2 The writer wishes to express his indebtedness to Dr. I. H. Chittenden for suggestions throughout the work, and for the use of notes from his files; practically all the data on the occurrence of the tuber moth within the United States outside of California being taken directly from his notes. Acknowledgment is due Mz.8.8. Rogers, Assistant Plant Pathologist of the University of California Experiment Station, for allowing the writer to collect data relative to the tuber moth in the experiment field at Van Nuys; to Mr. B. L. Boyden of the Bureau of Entomology, who conducted all the rearing experi- ments from December, 1913, to April, 1914, and to Mr. F. R. Cole for illustrations of the moth in its differ ent stages and parasites, and for assistance in rearing. 4 Figures in parentheses refer to similar numbers in the “ Bibliography,’ p. 52. Norte.—This bulletin is of interest to entomologists and to potato growers especially in the warmer sections of the country. 5ARRO?°— Bull. 427—17——1 2 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cluded that it was probably the same insect which had in previous years caused so much trouble in New Zealand. The tuber moth has been known in California (San Francisco) since 1856,! and in southern California at least since 1874. Mr. William Wood, commissioner of Los Angeles County, reports that in 1874 when planting potatoes in the vicinity of Whittier, Cal., the seed potatoes were badly attacked by the larva of this insect, and in most of the eyes the sprouts had been killed. He states that the Chinese who planted a majority of the fields were in no way worried by the presence of the insect, so he did not consider it a new arrival. The description of the injury given, and the fact that Mr. Wood is quite familiar with this insect, would indicate that the tuber moth was well distributed in southern California before 1874. The first recognized technical description of the species was made by Zeller (5) in 1873 from specimens collected in Texas. In 1874 the insect was redescribed from specimens collected in Algeria. An article published by David Gunn (66) mentions the tuber moth as occurring in Canada in 1878. Staudinger and Rebel (39), in their catalogue of Lepidoptera published in 1901, also list this locality. As yet, however, these statements remain unverified, and the tuber moth is not at present known to exist in Canada. In California the potato tuber moth has been reported as established and working on potatoes in the following counties: Alameda, Contra Costa, El Dorado, Kern, Los Angeles, Modoc, Monterey, Napa, Orange, Riverside, Sacramento, San Benito, San - Bernardino, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, San Diego, San Joaquin, San Luis Obispo, Shasta, Sonoma,” Stanislaus, Ventura, and Yolo. DISTRIBUTION. In literature the tuber moth has been given the following distribu- tion, the date appended being either that of the publication, or the time its occurrence was reported. | New Zealand, ‘‘Some years before 1854.’ | Florida, 1897. (35) (1) North Carolina, 1897. (33) Tasmania, 1854 (Capt. H. Berthon). (1) | Virginia, 1897. (36) California (San Francisco), 1856. South Carolina, 1897. (36) Texas, 1872. (4) South Africa, 1898. (37) Algeria, 1874. (5) Hawaii, 1905. (50) California, 1874. India, 1906. (59) Australia, 1878 (“Some years back”). (7) | Southern Europe. (59) California, 1881. (13) Italy, 1906. (Some years before.) (73) (Los Gatos, Santa Clara County, 1888). | Cuba, 1907. (54) (21) France. (88) (Alameda County, 1891). (24) Spain. (88) (Bakersfield, Kern County, 1891). | Canary Islands. (88) (23) Azores. (88) 1 California Orchard and Farm, September 15, 1893. 2 Localities furnished by Mr. E. O. Essig, of the University of California. 3 Numbers in parentheses refer to similar numbers in the “Bibliography,” p. 52. THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. 3 POSSIBLE ORIGIN. A study of the literature shows that the tuber moth was known to be present almost simultaneously in Australasia, the United States, and Algeria. It is indeed strange that, considering this fact and, in addition, the fact that this country is the home of a wild potato and tobacco, of all the entomologists who have studied the tuber moth, only one, Gerald McCarthy (31), who found the tuber moth mining tobacco in North Carolina in 1897, should claim that this coun- try is its native home. McCarthy also found the moth in Solanum carolinense, a native weed common in the southeastern part of the United States. Speaking of the tuber moth, he says, “This insect probably inhabited its present range prior to the coming of the white man.”’ Dr. Picard (83, 84), a prominent authority on this insect, says that a Mediterranean origin for this species must be excluded. Consid- ering the fact that he has not found a specific natural enemy, in the shape of a parasite, on the insect, his opinion must be given consider- able weight. He mentions either Australia or the United States as a possible origin for the tuber moth. Analyzing the facts as presented by these two countries, it is seen that it was reported from both places at practically the same time. Edw. Meyrick, one of the earlier authorities on the Microlepidoptera, states that it is not an Australian form. In addition, there is no mention of any natural enemies of the species, which is quite signifi- cant, considering that many competent entomologists have worked on it in Australia. On the other hand, in the United States there are several parasites on the tuber moth, and, as previously stated, this country is the home of a wild potato and tobacco, its two favorite food plants. When it is considered that it was not until the sixteenth century that the potato was introduced into Europe, and that it was not until many years later that the use of the potato became at all general, it seems only reasonable to suppose that the rapid dissemination of the tuber moth came about by following the potato “around the world.” Furthermore, the tuber moth is an insect which could be introduced easily from one locality to another, as once it infests potatoes it is assured of food enough to carry it through several generations; and as the insect can stand lower temperatures than the tubers, it would never be in danger of being killed by freezing. The entire economic history of the tuber moth is another indication that it originated in America. Losses reported to potato crops in Al- geria, India, Tasmania, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand are far heavier than any ever reported from California or Texas. Climatic conditions being equal, it is generally true that a pest is more injurious in an adopted home, for a time at least, than in its natural 4 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. one, since the change always favors its being freed from some of its natural enemies and checks. This is especially true of the tuber moth, since most of its parasitic enemies aid in reducing it only when it appears as a leaf miner, and if it were introduced into a new locality in the tubers, these would be left behind. When all base facts are considered, there is some argument in favor of considering America as its native home.1 NATURE OF INJURY. Injury by the tuber moth is accomplished through two widely dif- ferentiated methods of attack: (1) To the growing plant, and (2) to the tuber (fig. 1). The injury to the plant is incident to the mines in the leaf and petiole and to the tunnels in the stem. As a rule the egg is deposited on the leaf, and the larva as soon as hatched starts to mine in the leaf. As the larva grows the leaf becomes too thin for mining, and if there is not another leaf near by to tie up, the larva either rolls the leaf or enters the petiole. If the larva confines its work to the leaves it injures one-third to one-half a leaf during its larval life, but where necessity drives it to mining the petiole it kills the entire leaf. Once started in the petiole the larva rapidly works its way to the main stem, which it begins to tunnel. (Fig. 2.) The larva generally works downward in the stem, although in a very few cases where the stem is thick and succulent it may turn and work upward. Wherever a larva works within the stem for several days before becoming mature the terminal section of the stem cate dies. It is easy to see that wherever this occurs generally over a field while the potato plants are young considerable injury might result through the reduction of leaf surface and a weakening of the plants. A factor which would make this possible would be the stacking of a large amount of infested potatoes from the first crop near fields where the second crop of potatoes was just beginning to come up. Only one instance of this type of injury has been noted, although in 1912 conditions were as bad as they would ever be allowed to become. ° In one small field (about 7 acres) at least half of the plants were materially injured and the yield was probably reduced one-fourth to one-third. The moths were very abundant in this field at the time the potato plants were coming up, and several could be found on each plant. The reason that more injury was not caused was prob- ably due to the fact that vigorous young potato plants are quick to grow away from any injury. 1 Notwithstanding the opinions above expressed there are, perhaps, equally good reasons for supposing that this species is of exotic origin, and since it was first reported in New Zealand it would be natural to look to that vicinity for its natural habitat. It has been somewhat generally credited with being native to North Africa, and with reason, since the flora of that continent is particularly rich in solanaceous plants. In fact, the tropical regions of Africa and South and Central America include among their native plants nearly nine hundred species of Solanaceae.—F. H. Chittenden. THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. Fic. 1.—Potato section showing injury by larve of tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculelia). (Original.) hia, 2.—Injury by tuber moth to potato plants, showing mines in leaves, petioles, and stem. (Original. ) 6 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In large fields near the one mentioned above larve could be found in most of the plants, but apparently the vigor of the plants was not noticeably affected and the amount of damage done, if any, was certainly small. Taking all things into consideration the damage done by the tuber moth to the growing plant in southern California is slight in comparison to that caused to tubers. The tuber-feeding larva injures the potatoes themselves by tunneling through them, so filling these tunnels with excrement and fungus that the potatoes, even if not severely injured, are very unsightly and of small market value. The character of the injury (figs. 3-5) does not seem to be influenced by the condition of the tuber or climatic condi- Fic. 3.—Potato sliced to show advanced injury by potato tuber-moth larve. (Original.) tion, some larve digging subepidermal channels while others tunnel directly through the substance of the tuber. The loss consists not only of the actual substance of the tuber which is channeled and ruined, but is also due to the fact that badly pjuied tubers are ssh and undesirable for food, ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. Since the first report of the tuber moth, large losses have been reported from various sections of the world. Analysis of these reports shows beyond a doubt that in mild, dry climates the tuber moth works very serious injury to stored potatoes. In similar climates, THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. 7 Fic. 4.—Potato in more advanced state of infestation by tuber moth. Larve of second gener- ation reared from this tuberpupating. (Original.) Fic. 5.—Potato showing rot (at left) following attack by potato tuber moth. (Original.) 8 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. but where potatoes are not habitually stored, the tuber moth is more in the nature of an annoying pest, causing minor losses practically every year, but becoming of primary importance only where condi- tions favor its increase. Careless planting, late and slow harvesting, and poor markets with the consequent holding back of the crop, would bring about such conditions. The tuber moth is reported to have done much injury to potatoes in Tasmania in 1855, and it was then stated that it ‘has of late years been making ravages amongst tubers in New Zealand”’ (1). In 1875 it was reported to have been injurious for the preceding years in Algeria. Specific instances give the losses at El-Bear as three-fourths of the entire crop (6). Meyrick (9) mentions large losses caused by it in Australia in 1878-79, and gives an authenticated case where four-fifths of the crop in one field was destroyed. The tuber moth was reported as destructive to potatoes in California in 1881 and 1882 (13), and in 1901 (87). In 1897 the tuber moth was noted mining in tobacco in North Carolina (81) and in 1899 was mentioned as being destructive to tobacco and eggplant in Florida (33). In 1898 it was reported from South Africa as being common in potatoes, but, due to the fact that the potatoes were marketed very quickly, seldom causing much damage. Literature further records damage by the tuber moth in India in 1906 (62). In Australia, India, Tasmania and New Zealand the damaging outbreaks have been of periodic occurrence from the time the tuber moth has been reported. Usually some explanation is given for this condition, and it is noticeable that the outbreaks generally occur during dry years. Authorities seem to agree that the tuber moth is a dangerous pest only to stored potatoes. This probably explains why the tuber moth attracts so little at- tention in the United States, where it has long been present. In the warm, dry sections potatoes are never habitually stored, and as these districts supply early potatoes for the neighboring States, under normal conditions the entire crop is harvested as early as pos- sible. Records of the Los Angeles County Horticultural Commission show that the importation of potatoes is twice as great in the fall as is the exportation in the early summer. This alone shows that normally potatoes once harvested are not held sufficiently long to permit in- festation by the moth, or once infested they are used up before their food value is materially impaired thereby. The tuber moth can become of importance only during times of poor market conditions, when the potatoes are held for a rise in price. THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. Oye CLASSIFICATION AND SYNONYMY. The tuber moth belongs to that very large and cosmopolitan family of Microlepidoptera, the Gelechiidae. The genus Phthorimaea was founded by Meyrick in 1902 (43), the tuber moth being made the type. There seems to be not a little difference in the svnonymy given this insect by various authors, so the following list has been selected from the literature cited in the bibliography: Pithorimaca operculella (Lell.) Meyr., 1902. 2..2-222 22228. 2s 52 de eeee eee (43) PE BOETE: AIGULCER VVC NR SYST a SR rec ee ns To cel us, NE On OR (2) SEPT SE ENE CORIALLG R/O RT MoT Ds ae car A RG 2 ia Ne (5) PMS AVENEL DON STAG 0 ee. ae oh leans Soip ee ieee get oe cee (6) ae MEME PEON Tg LO Oo arces 2. se Bs ese ye Ne ne A a ae Eee (©), (ua) PME MUMRUECE RAC ASLO | Boo. oe CS are cao a ISAS icp (10) MSRP eH SPB ECL LO ola a 5.8 W's, Sis oe mrt Rte eer rE re NN lan eas (15) Gelechia solanella Meyr., 1886......-.-.--- Py eit snare rns ee aie pea Soe a (16) The foregoing synonymy does not take into consideration the Gele- chia similiella (3) and the G. solaniella (4) of V. T. Chambers, which were described in 1872 and 1873, respectively. G. svmaliella was de- scribed first and the name subsequently changed to solaniella when the larva of this form was found mining in Solanum carolinense. Later, in 1878 (8), Chambers adds to his description of G. solantella. Specimens were collected in Kentucky and Texas. It appears from the life notes he adds that the insect in question might be Phthori- maea operculella, but there seem to be no types in existence to sub- stantiate this. DESCRIPTION. THE EGG. The egg when freshly laid is opaque, pearly white in color, and with a faint iridescence. As the egg becomes older it becomes yel- lowish and the iridescence becomes more pronounced, so that at the time of hatching it is nearly lemon-yellow with the iridescence strongly marked. As hatching time approaches the thin shell sometimes becomes more or less distorted, and the outlines of the embryo within can be distinguished. Due to the habit of the moth of ovipositing on rough surfaces, the eggs are often distorted and the shape varies greatly. Two masses of eggs on the surface of a potato are shown in figure 6. The egg is ellipto-cylindrical in shape, the bluntly rounded ends closely resembling each other. An average of several measurements gave a length of 0.48 mm. and a width of 0.36 mm. 1 Oldest name, but a homonym, 55889°—Bull, 427—17——2 10 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE FULL-GROWN LARVA. The full-grown larvee (fig. 7, left and right) are slightly fusiform in shape, and plainly constricted at the segments. The head is dark brown, with the exception of the frons, which is lighter in color. The serra plate 1 is black, with a pale narrow me- Fic. 6.—Egg masses of the tuber moth on the surface of a potato. Enlarged. (Original.) Ahan line, and the thoracic legs are tec The venter and sides of the abdominal segments are a waxy white and the dorsum is gener- ally a light pink, though in some larvee there is enough green present to give the dorsum a very light green- ishtinge. Thespiraclesare small, dark, and inconspicu- ous. There are about 10 to 14 small light hairs on each segment, at the base of each of which there is a small black spot. There are five pairs of prolegs, and near the base of each, on the outside, is a small black projection armed with three stout, short, black hairs. The anal plate varies from a yellow to dusky yellowincolor. The full- grown larva is from 9.5 to 11.5 mm. in length, and when fully extended is even slightly longer. At the widest point the aver- age is about 1.5 mm. in width. As pupation approaches the entire larva becomes greenish in color, and much shorter. THE PUPA. When first formed the pupa (fig. 7, center; fig. 8) is white, with green mark- Fic. 7.—The potato tuber aati Ventral view of larva at left; dorsal view at right; pupa in middle. Larva much enlarged; pupa still more enlarged. (Original.) ings, but soon changes to deep uniform brown. In general form it is spindle-shaped, being broadly rounded at the head, widest at the thorax, and tapering evenly to the last abdominal segment. The — THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. 11 cases for antennz and legs fold closely on the venter and are rather in- conspicuous. The wing cases are also closely folded and generally reach the distal end of the fourth abdominal segment. The tips of the wing cases and the eyes are darkerin color. All the segments of the abdomen are armed with a few weak hairs, and the anal segment, aside from its short, stout dorsal hook, bears many light hooked spines arranged in a circle. THE COCOON. The cocoon (fig. 9) is white, rather loosely woven, and very thin. The exposed portion is more tightly woven and much thicker, and is Fic. 8.—Mass of potato tuber-moth pups. (Original.) covered with excrement or débris to such an extent that the white silk of the cocoon is seldom visible. The cocoon is therefore more nearly tectiform than complete and is generally torn in two when the upper part is lifted. As the larva generally secks some depres- sion in which to pupate, this heavier part is seldom more than half of the entire cocoon and more often less. The covering of the cocoon is generally composed of particles of the material surrounding it, 12 BULLETIN 427, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE MOTH. The moth (figs. 10, 11, 12) is small, having a wing expanse of a little more than a half inch (12 to 16 millimeters). The general color isgray. The forewings bear on the outer half a fringe of hight gray as wide at the base as the width of the wing. The surface is more or less spotted and mottled with black and ocher. The hind-wings are much shorter and narrower and have a still stronger fringe of buff. Fia. 9.—Cocoons of tuber moth on exterior of potato, showing method of grouping many cocoons closely under black excrementitious webbing. (Original.) The antenne are long and slender and the palpi are comparatively long and conspicuous. The abdomen is also slender. The following description is a translation of Zeller (5): The male bears on the upper side of the anal segment a large oval disk, from each side of which protrudes a readily perceptible tuft of crumpled hair. The somewhat lighter female—if it is the female—has somewhat wider fore-wings, and the dot on the cross- vein and the one before it darker in color, the one toward the inner margin distinctly lighter. THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. 13 Of the size of the smallest [species] terel/a or of the largest [species] senectelia. Head whitish, mixed with a little ocherous, brighter on the dorsum. Ocelli I can not per- ceive. Antennz gray, lighter on the undersides, with well-defined joints. Palpi whitish, second joint flattened, with noticeably channeied bristles, and having a gray efflorescence on the outer sides near the end. Third joint more than half as long as the second, awl-shaped, finely pointed, with a brown spot between the base and middle. The four front legs light gray, the outsides dusted with brown, tarsi brown, the joints Fie. 10.—The potato tuber moth (Phthorimaea opercuilclila). Greatly enlarged. (Original.) with whitish ends. The hind legs pale yellow, the tibiz with small light-colored hairs, and the tarsi brownish at the joints. Abdomen yellowish dust-gray, grayish- white beneath, the last joint, in the male, as long as one-third of the abdomen, bright ocher yellow. Two elliptical, somewhat hollowed disks lying with their hollows upon one another. The lower projects somewhat from beneath the upper and is clothed on the upper side with a rich covering of somewhat loose-lying hairs, appressed above and projecting over the margin. On both sides of the base of the upper disk stands an outwardly crumpled brush of hair reaching nearly or quite to the end. In the female the anal joint is of the usual length, and is of the form of a truncated cone, the ovipositor slightly projecting. Fore-wings 2} to 24 ’” in length, smaller in the male than in the female, light gray, dusted yellowish gray, particu- larly toward the base, in the Fic. 11.—The potato tuber moth: Natural position at rest. middle pure ocherous. Along Much enlarged. (Original.) the middle fold lies a longi- tudinal blackish streak, in- closed at both ends with whitish dashes. Above this lie two small blackish dots, the lower nearer the base than the upper. On the cross-vein is a larger dot, nearly ringed about with light gray. At the rear margin is an indistinct row of blackish, somewhat larger dots. Fringes light gray, inwardly dusted with darker, and espe- cially near the tip. Hind wings hardly as broad as the fore-wings and with underturned hind fringe, bright gray. Fringe longer than the width of the wing, with a yellowish sheen toward the base. The entire underside uniform gray. 14 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In a doubtful female the whole dorsum is of the same color as the head, the abdomen as before stated. The broader fore-wings are lighter at the front margin, plentifully sprinkled with uniform gray without the usual ocherous color in the middle, and the general ocherous tone of the whole. At the fold lies a black dot with a whitish border. Obliquely behind and over this dot there is no double spot, but a separate stronger deep-black ringlike dot, bright and strikingly inclosed. The cross-vein dot is smaller, but also black and similarly ringed with light color. Since the hind fringes are almost entirely broken off, I can not say further about the markings. The hind wings are sensibly broader than the fore-wings, and less finely pointed. Fie. 12.—Potato tuber moth details: a, b, Views of the face; c, antenna; d, tip of abdomen of female; e, tip of male abdomen; /, hind leg; g, foreleg. All much enlarged. (Original.) FOOD PLANTS. Prof. F. Picard (83) gives the following food plants for the tuber moth: Potato (Solanum tuberosum), S. commer- | Red pepper (Capsicum annuum). soni. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), N. sylves- Darwin potato (Solanum maglia), Bitter- tris. sweet (S. dulcamara), S. miniatum. Henbane (Hyoscyamus albus), Matrimony Eggplant (S. melongena). vine (Lycium europaeum), Fabiana im- Tomato (S. lycopersicum). bricata. To this list may be added nightshade (Solanum nigrum), which has been noted as an occasional food plant for tuber-moth larve in Southern California. THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. 15 In the files of the Bureau of Entomology there are also records of this species boring into the stems of poka or Cape gooseberry (Phy- salis peruviana), made by Mr. Jacob Kotinsky in Hawai. The species has also been found mining the leaves of Physalis mollis and Solanum elaeagnifolium, at Brownsville, Tex., by Messrs. McMillan and Marsh, of this bureau. | The tuber moth is unable to increase rapidly on plants which confine its activities to mining the leaves, owing to the abundance of its parasitic and predacious enemies. In California, therefore, only the potato, tomato (figs. 13, 14), and eggplant (fig. 15) may be considered as affording suitable protection to the larve, and of these, the potato only is of primary importance. While adults have been reared from tomato and eggplant fruit, no important infestations have been noted under field conditions, even where moths were abundant and close at hand. LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS. THE EGG. The egg, under outdoor conditions, is deposited early in the spring on the underside of the foliage of young potato plants. Sometimes the eggs are placed on the stems or petioles of the leaves, but more often the body of the leaf is selected. In such cases the eggs are placed singly, though two or more may be quite close together. Three is the largest number that has been noted on a single leaf in the field. In bins, or in stacks of potatoes, oviposition takes place through- out the winter, but is most general during the warmer months. The eggs are usually deposited in the eye or a rough scar on the potato, and when placed in this way are generally grouped, as many as 30 having been found in one eye. In sprouting potatoes the eggs are often placed in circles around the base of the sprout. In this way they are protected on all but one side. Another favorite place for oviposition is at the point of scab in- jury, and the narrow deep cracks caused in this way are very often filled with the eggs of the tuber moth. MHere also they are pro- tected. Where the eggs occur in more or less of a mass, scales from the wings and body of the moth are thinly scattered over them. This probably is not due to an effort of the moth to hide the eggs, but is the result of her moving about during the deposition of the egg mass. In potato bins eggs are often found on the sacks, in depressions on the sprouts, and on débris occurring on or between the potatoes. However, very small numbers of eggs are found deposited in such places, and they generally occur singly. The eggs are usually deposited during the evening, night, or early morning, although in cool weather and in darkened bins oviposition 16 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. takes place at all hours of the day. Daylight oviposition out of doors occurs only on cold and dark days. A single moth under labor- atory conditions will deposit 150 to 250 eggs with the extremes of 38 Fig. 13.—The potato tuber moth as a leaf-miner on tomato. An uncommon form of injury. (Original.) for the minimum and 290 for the maximum; oviposition is completed in from 6 to 17 days, and by far the greater number of eggs is usually deposited in about 4 days. THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. 17 The largest number obtained in one day from a single female was 68, and this female on two consecutive days deposited 112 eggs. ¥y ~ AG ilies eae pale | importance. Campoplex phthorimacae Microgaster sp. Apanteles sp. (Chttn. No. 2230%). Nepeira benevola var. fuscifemora. Habrobracon johannsen. Zagrammosoma flavolineatum. The last four species in each list were relatively unimportant during both years in the districts from which material was collected for study. These were as easily reared in confinement as most of the others, and there seems to be no reason why they should not be important equally with other species which oviposit in the tuber larva where it occurs as a leaf-miner. 34 BULLETIN 427, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DIBRACHYS BOUCHEANUS RATZ.! This well-known and cosmopolitan secondary parasite (fig. 17) emerged from the tuber-moth material collected during 1912, 1913, and 1914, and, as shown by dissection, from both Habrobracon Fig. 17.—Dibrachys boucheanus: a, Larva; b, pupa; c, adult female; d, head of larva; e, antenna of male, highly magnified. Greatly enlarged. (After Howard.) johannseni and Chelonus shoshoneanorum, the former seeming to be its favorite host. This species was reared from the egg in the laboratory, where it attacked the mature larvee of its hosts after they had spun their cocoons. Where the cocoons were not too thick to prevent it from reaching its host the parasite would often feed at the wounds caused by its ovipositor. When reared under laboratory conditions the hyperparasites in- crease rapidly, but under field conditions their numbers are not as large in proportion to the host as might be expected. During 1912 and 1913 the . 18. ) oli a é yiih laterat reentage of ara- Fie. 18.—Zagrammosoma flavolineatum: Adult male, wih ie wo BP view of head. Much enlarged. (Original.) sitism ran as high as 50 per cent in the case of Habrobracon johannseni. With Chelonus shoshoneanorum the average was much lower, the highest running 29per cent. During 1914 the percentages in both cases were much reduced, and while greater numbers of its two hosts were reared than in the previous year, Dibrachys boucheanus was noted on only afew occasions. 1 Chittenden No. 22309, THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. 835 During 1915 the parasitism averaged slightly over 1 per cent, as two individuals of Dibrachys bowcheanus were reared, while 172 specimens of Habrobracon johannseni issued in the parasite cages. Three or four specimens were commonly noted in one host, and in the material reared under laboratory conditions a single hyper- parasite was rarely reared from one host. The following record shows the development of a fall generation: EOS. October 27.—D. boucheanus parasitizing mature larvee of H. johannseni. November 8.—D. boucheanus larvee mature. November 14.—D. boucheanus larve pupating. December 7.—2 D. boucheanus adults issued. December 8.—7 D. boucheanus adults issued. December 10.—4 D. boucheanus adults issued. December 11.—1 D. boucheanus adult issued. Life cycle 40 days at average mean temperature of 62° F. ZAGRAMMOSOMA FLAVOLINEATUM CWED.! During 1914 and 1915 Zagrammosoma flavolineatum (figs. 18, 19) wasnoticed issuing from cages containing some Phthorimaea operculella Fig. 19.—Zagrammosoma flavolincatum: Adult female, with lateral view of head. Much enlarged. (Original.) material. Efforts to rear it from the tuber moth were failures at first, so numerous tuber-moth larve were taken from leaf mines and placed on tubers so that there might be no danger of getting mixed material. No specimens of this parasite emerged in these cages, and it was supposed that it was issuing from some other host. 1 Chittenden No. 2230, 36 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Finally a parasite pupa was noted in a leaf mine with the remains of atuber-moth larva. When the adult issued it proved to be Zagrammo- soma flavolineatum. More experiments were carried on, using only material where the tuber-moth larve occurred as leaf-miners and were less than half grown. The parasite was seen to oviposit in these larve, and it was successfully reared through to the adult. This parasite thus far has not proved to be of much importance, and seems unpromising, as the adult is so slow and deliberate in its movements that a tuber-moth larva in a large mine can move about and often escape the ovipositor of the parasite. The following record gives the length of its life cycle: 1915. August 17.—Zagrammosoma flavolineatum ovipositing in tuber-moth larva. August 29.—1 Zagrammosoma flavolineatum adult issued. (Male.) August 30.—2 Zagrammosoma flavolineatum adults issued. (Males.) August 31.—1 Zagrammosoma flavolineatum adult issued. (Male.) September 1.—1 Zagrammosoma flavolineatum adult issued. (Female.) September 2.—2 Zagrammosoma flavolineatum adults issued. (Male and female.) Life cycle 13 days at average mean temperature of 75°F. SYMPIESIS STIGMATIPENNIS GIRAULT.! During 1914 and 1915 tuber-moth material collected at Pasadena during late fall gave great numbers of a small parasite, the male of which (fig. 20) had branched antenne. At about the same time an examination of mines on potato leaves often showed a parasitic larva (fig. 21) feeding extern- ally on a partially grown larva of the tuber moth. When these were reared they proved identi- cal with those issuing in the parasite cages. The parasite was reared with ease in the laboratory, and it oviposited readily in leaf-mining tuber-moth larve when half grown or slightly smaller. The host is soon killed and within a short time becomes semiliquid, and the development of the larva is very rapid. When mature (fig. 22) it crawls into a corner of the mine and, without spinning a cocoon, pupates. Fic. 20.—Sympiesis stigmatipennis: Male. Much enlarged. (Original.) 1 Chittenden No. 22300, THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. Oe The pupa (fig. 23) is very flat and black. Several individuals may issue from one host. of males and females issued, but in the labo- ratory males greatly predominated. Mating takes place as soon as the adults issue, and oviposition shortly after. The females (see fig. 24) probably obtain moisture from the wounds made in the epidermis of the leaf by their ovipositors, as they were often noted after oviposition to back up and apply their mouth parts for some time to the hole made in the leaf. As _ the tuber-moth larva had Under field conditions about equal numbers. Fig. 21.—Sympiesis stigmatipennis: Immature larva feeding on larva of tuber moth. Much = enlarged. (Original. ) Fig. 22.—Sympiesis Fic. 23.—Sympiesis stigmatipennis, stig matipennis: Mature larva. Pupa. Much en- Much enlarged. larged. (Original.), (Original.) generally moved away by this time, it could not have been possi- ble for it to have obtained food from the wound in the larva. Fic. 24.—Sympiesis stigmatipennis: Female. Much enlarged. (Original.) This parasite issued in great numbers in 1914 and 1915, and gives promise of doing much to control the leaf-mining tuber worm. ‘The following record gives an average life cycle: 1915. January 26.—Tuber-moth larva parasitized by Sympiesis stigmatipennis. February 21.—3 Sympiesis stigmatipennis adults issued. (Males.) 38 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1915. February 23.—l Sympiesis stigmatipennis adult issued. (Female.) February 25.—3 Sympiesis stigmatipennis adults issued. (Males.) Life cycle 26 days at average mean temperature of about 52° F. Longest life cycle noted, 45 days. CAMPOPLEX PHTHORIMAEAE CUSHM.! During 1913 a very few adults of this species (fig. 25) were reared from tuber-moth material collected near Puente, Cal. These speci- mens could not be reared in the laboratory. In 1914 and 1915 the parasite became very abundant, and was reared from tuber-moth. larvee, proving it to be a parasite of this species. Fig. 25.—Campoplez phthorimaeae; Adult female, with lateral view of abdomen. Much enlarged. (Original. ) Tests under laboratory conditions showed that it oviposits in the tuber-moth larve only where they act as leaf-miners, and prefers those about half grown. The adult has been noted ovipositing both in the field and in the laboratory. It is so active that the tuber-moth 1 Chittenden Nos. 2230 and 2230%3. NO te THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. — 39 larva seldom escapes. The parasitized tuber-moth larva is readily de- tected when it becomes mature and seeks aplace to pupate. A large dark or reddish spindle is apparent, filling most of its abdomen, and the . larva is very restless and seldom stays in one place long enough to spin a cocoon. Finally the host loses all power of locomotion and dies, and within a few hours the mature parasite larva (fig. 26) forces its way through the skin of its host and begins spinning its cocoon (fig. 27). As the parasite larva is almost the size of its host, only one develops on each tuber worm. The cocoon is completed within a day or two. ZX It is very heavy, ellipto-cylindrical in shape, 6) light gray, and with a lighter band around the middle. The pupa, Fig. 26.—Campoplex phithori- removed from its co- maeac; Lateral view of ma- : : : ture larva with view of face. coon, 18 shown in fig- Much enlarged. (Original.) ure 28. This parasite assisted greatly in reduc- ing the numbers of the tuber moth in the potato tops during 1914 and 1915. An average life cycle is given below: December 15, 1914.—Tuber-moth larva parasitized by Campoplex phthorimaeae. February 5,1915.—1 Campoplex phthorimaeae adult issued. (Male.) February 6, 1915.—1 Campoplex phthorimaeae adult issued. (Female. ) Fic. 27.—Cocoon of Campoplex phtho- . E rimaeae, parasite of potato tuber Life cycle 52 days at an nas, moth. Much enlarged. (Original.) mean temperature of about 54° F. HABROBRACON JOHANNSENI VIER.! This is probably the best known parasite of the tuber moth, both where it occurs as a leaf-miner and as a pest of stored potatoes. It is well distributed, having been reared from tuber-moth material collected over most of southern California. It oviposits in the mature larva of the tuber moth after it has spun its cocoon. As many as 13 parasite : larvee have been observed to develop on a single host. Fre. 28.—Campo- The adult female is very active, but seems to prefer eae to work only in the light, for the parasite has never pupa. Much en- been reared from material kept in darkened bins. rigdccsiaenomraane The larve may develop either externally or internally, the host seeming to depend on the position of the egg. After the tuber-moth 1 Chittenden No, 2230. 40 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. larva has been parasitized it does not pupate, but soon breaks down and becomes semiliquid. _ The mature larva spins a light but tough white cocoon within the cocoon of its host, thus being well protected. This apparently RN Fig. 29.—Chelonus shoshoneanorum: Adult female. Much enlarged. (Original. ) explains its comparative immunity from the secondary parasite Dibrachys boucheanus. The adult feeds quite often at the oviposition wounds of its host. The adults are very hardy and the female is long lived. One female lived from July 19 to September 21, 1914, a period of 64 days, and in this time 291 adults were reared from this one specimen. When the Fig. 30.—Chelonous shoshoneanorum: Female ovipositing in egg of tuber moth. Much enlarged. (Original.) mortality of the stages under laboratory conditions is considered, it will be seen that this species is quite prolific. This female was fed sweetened water four times during this period. The life cycle varies from 10 to 38 days in length. THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. 41 The record of a shorter life cycle follows: 1913. September 15.—Tuber-moth larva parasitized by Habrobracon johannsent. September 18.—Parasite larve nearly mature. September 19.—Parasite larvee spinning cocoons. September 20.— Parasite larve pupating. September 25.—4 parasite adults issued. September 26.—17 parasite adults issued. Life cycle 10 days at an average mean temperature of 78° F. CHELONUS SHOSHONEANORUM VIER.! This parasite (fig. 29) has been consistently abundant every year from 1912 to the present time. Efforts to rear it from the larve and pupz of the tuber moth failed, and, at the sug- gestion of Dr. Howard, the insect was placed with eggs of the tuber moth. Oviposition (fig. 30) took place at once, the parasites usually feeding on the moisture which collected at the wound caused by the ovipositor. The eggs of the tuber moth hatched normally, and the young larve at : Fig. 31.—Larve of tuber moth para- F1iq. 32.—Chelonus sho- once burrowed into the sitized by Chelonus shoshoncanorum. shoncanorum: Mature tuber. Later the mature Much enlarged. ( Original.) larva. Muchenlarged. Original. tuber-moth larve began (Original. to leave the tuber and start their cocoons. Some of the larve ap- peared restless and darkened spindles were noticeable in their bodies (fig. 31), quite similar to those in the case of Campoplex phthorimaeae. None of the larve pupated, and soon the mature parasite larva (fig. 32) emerged and spun its white cocoon within the cocoon of its host. This parasite promises to be of value in controlling the tuber moth in the field. It apparently does not work in darkened bins. The life cycle is divided as follows: 1914. July 26.—Tuber-moth eggs parasitized by Chelonus shoshoneanorum. July 31.—Tuber-moth eggs hatched. August 16.—Chelonus larve mature. August 18.—Chelonus larve pupating. August 26.—1 Chelonus adult issued. August 27.—3 Chelonus adults issued. August 28.—2 Chelonus adults issued. Life cycle 31 days at an average mean temperature of about 72° F. a a 7 aT Fee RIAES 1 Chittenden No. 2230%, 49 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BASSUS GIBBOSUS SAY.! Bassus gibbosus (figs. 33-35) attacks the half-grown tuber worm in leaf mines. Like Zagrammosoma flavolineatum, it is apparently of minor importance, and probably for the same reason. Adults placed on potato leaves containing larve of the tuber moth attempted oviposition, but frequently without success. The parasite is rather slow in oviposition, and the larva within the mine is given opportunity to escape the ovipositor. Soe ies Fic. 33.—Bassus gibbosus: Adult female. Much enlarged. (Original.) This parasite appears in the greatest numbers during the late fail and winter. For this reason its life cycle is of rather long duration, as the following record shows: 1915. February 8.—Tuber-moth larve parasitized by Bassus gibbosus. April 2.—1 parasite issued. (Male.) April 3.—1 parasite issued. (Female.) April 7.—1 parasite issued. (Male.) Life cycle 53 days at an average mean temperature of about 53° F. The parasite seems to be well distributed throughout southern California. 1Chittenden No. 22300, THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. 48 APANTELES SP.! This small active parasite (figs. 36-38) was not observed until 1914, and seems quite scarce except in the vicinity of Pasadena. The half-grown leaf-mining tuber- moth larve are attacked. When the parasite has discovered a leaf mine, it cautiously examines it until it has located the position of the tu- ber-moth larva. The parasite then quickly inserts its ovipositor in the mine. In case it strikes the larva, it oviposits; otherwise it quickly withdraws its ovipositor, inserting it again in a new place. This is repeated until the larva is parasi- tized, although the difficulty in lo- cating the larva may require a sec- ond examination of the mine.- Should the parasite discover a larva, however, it seldom leaves until it has been successful in oviposition. This Apanteles is a most promis- Fic. 34.—Bassus gibbosus: FiG.35.—Bassus gib- Mature larva. Much bosus: Pupa. enlarged. (Original.) Much enlarged. (Original.) ing parasite. The record of an average winter life cycle follows: 4, — a i Fia. 36.—A panteles sp. (Chttn. No, 223097), a parasite of the potato tuber moth: Adult female. Much enlarged. (Original.) (Female. ) (Males. ) 1915. January 25.—Tuber-moth larve parasitized by Apanteles sp. March 3.—1 adult Apanteles sp. issued. March 5.—2 adult Apanteles sp. issued. March 6.—1 adult Apanteles sp. issued. (Male. ) Length of life cycle 37 days at average mean temperature of 53° F. 1Chittenden No, 22309, 44 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MICROGASTER SP. This, the most active parasite attacking the tuber moth, pre- fers half-grown leaf-mining larve. This parasite seems the best fitted naturally to be a dangerous enemy of the tuber moth, but dur- ing three years’ observation has not reached expectations. The adults (fig. 39) are readily reared at any time fromlate summer to spring, but never in large numbers. The adult has the shortest length of life of any observed. Kven when fed, only one individual lived as long as 11 days. It seems to be fairly well distributed through the San Gabriel Valley. The record of a typical life cycle follows: 1915. August 18.—Tuber-moth larvae parasitized by Micro- gaster sp. September 3.—1 adult issued. (Male.) September 4.—2 adults issued. (Male and female.) September 6.—1 adult issued. (Male.) Life cycle 16 days at an average temperature of 73° F. DIBRACHYS CLISIOCAMPAE FITCH.? Fig. 37.—Lateral view of mature The last well-ascertained parasite of the No. 22800), with view of fan, tuber moth was Dibrachys clisiocampae left below. Much _ enlarged. Fitch. During 1913 one fe- oe male was reared from tuber- moth material, but could not be bred through, and as no more issued, it was given up. In the winter of 1914 specimens were captured on potato foliage, and it was later noticed breeding on stored potatoes in the insectary. The parasite ovi- posits in the mature larve in cocoons, and in pups and issues from both stages, but usually from the mature larve. This parasite works both in the field and in storage. It seems to prefer piles of potatoes, working all through them, and also has been noted to ihe oviposit in dark bins. The egg is shown in figure 40. ye. 38.—Apanteles The adult (fig. 41) is persistent, and if driven away aa ae from’ a cocoon will return again and again until it ovi- view of pupa. posits. Fourteen mature larve (fig. 42) have been Much enlarged. ‘ (Original. ) reared from one host. These pupate (see fig. 43) with- out spinning cocoons, and within the cocoon of their host. The parasite does not seem to be very well distributed, having been found only in Whittier and Pasadena, Cal. It seems at first glance to be the most effective parasite of the tuber moth, but probably this is not the case. It is not as effective as others under field conditions, 1 Chittenden No. 2230°. 2 Chittenden No. 22302. THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. ¢ Fig. 39.— Microgaster sp., a parasite of the potato tuber moth: Adult female. Much enlarged. (Original.) Fic. 40.—Dibrachys clisiocampae: Ege, lateral view. Greatly enlarged. (Or ginal.) Vig. 41.—Dibrachys clisiocampae; Adult female, Much enlarged, (Original.) 46 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and on stored potatoes conditions are such that any parasite is of doubtful value. In addition, it seems to have one unfortunate habit, that of becoming at times a hyperparasite on Campo- plex phthorimaeae. This habit is so unusual, however, as to be unimportant. The record below gives the length of a life cycle: 1915. August 8.—Tuber-moth larvee parasitized by Dibrachys clisio- campae. August 16.—Parasite larvee mature. August 18.—Parasite larvee pupating. August 25.—4 parasite adults issued. (Male and female.) August 26.—7 parasite adults issued. (Male and female.) August 27.—1 parasite adult issued. (Female.) Length of life cycle 13 days at an average mean temperature of TO 18 OTHER PARASITES. Other parasites ' were reared from time to time in Te aa tee small numbers from tuber-moth material collected in turelarva. Much the San Gabriel Valley. They never became at all ie (Crist common. Efforts to rear them in the laboratory have been unsuccessful thus far. Both have been seen on occasion to oviposit in small leaf-mining tuber-moth larve, but no parasites have issued, and so they have not as yet been proven to be parasites of the tuber moth. NEPEIRA BENEVOLA VAR. FUSCIFEMORA CUSHM.? For some time this parasite (fig. 44) was considered identical with Campoplez phthorimaeae Cushm. The differences noted seemed to be variations within the species. While Mr. Cole was making drawings of the parasites, henoted that there were threeseparate types. Nepeira benevola var. fuscifemora Cushm. closely resembles Campoplex phthorimaeae, both in appear- ance and life history, but has never become as abun- dant as the latter. It oviposits in half-grown leaf- mining tuber-moth larvee. Larve parasitized November 12 have given adult parasites December 12, a length of life cycle of 30 days, at an average mean temperature of about 63° F. Fig. 43.—Dibrachzs clisiocampae: Pupa, lateral view. Much enlarged. (Origi- nal.) PERCENTAGE OF PARASITISM. The percentage of parasitism has fluctuated so greatly in the time it has been under observation that it is difficult to give even approximate figures. The lowest parasitism noted was 40 per cent and the highest was 95 to 100 per cent. The 1 Chittenden Nos, 22309 and 223001, 2 Chittenden No, 22302, THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. | 4” parasites are undoubtedly of value in limiting the increase of the tuber moth while it works in the tops, thus decreasing infestation of the tubers. Fic. 44.—WNepeira bencvola: Adult female. Much enlarged. (Original.) A review of the parasites shows that they attack the tuber moth under the following conditions: On leaf-mining tuber moth. On storage tubers. 12230. Zagrammosoma flavolineatum. 2230. Sympiesis segmatipermgs: 2230 and 2230°%. Campoplex phthori- YY maede. 2230". Habrobracon johannsent. 1 29309, Habrobracon johannsent. 2230". Chelonus shoshoneanorum. 1 2230°. Chelonus shoshoneanorum. 1 2230". Bassus gibbosus. 2230. Apanteles sp. 1 2230. Microgaster sp. 2230. Dibrachys clisiocampae. 19930, Dibrachys clisiocampae. 12230. Nepeira benevola var. fuscifemora. 1Of doubtful importance. PREDATORS. Predacious enemies of the tuber moth appear economically unim- portant and will be considered very briefly. Triphleps insidiosus Say and the larva of Chrysopa californica Coq. have on a few occasions been noted to destroy the eggs and newly hatched larve. As both these insects prefer aphids to the tuber moth, and as aphids are generally present on the potato tops, it 48 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. seems that the destruction of the tuber-moth eggs and larve is more accidental than natural. Several species of spiders which are found in the fields spin webs in which dead tuber moths have been noticed, and in a few cases the spiders have been observed killing moths caught in the webs. ARTIFICIAL CONTROL. INDIRECT METHODS, GOOD FARMING. A study of the literature of the tuber moth shows that many writers, beginning with Capt. Berthon (1), have recommended good farming and careful harvesting and storing of tubers as the best remedies against the tuber moth. The powers of reproduction of this insect have given weight to these arguments, and a study of cultural methods in relation to tuber-moth infestation has proved the correctness of their recommendations. Through the kindness of Mr. 8. 8S. Rogers, of the University of Cali- fornia, the writer was enabled to compare the results of different cul- tural methods. The test field, situated near Van Nuys, Cal., had every conceivable variation in culture. Planting depth varied from 2to 16inches. Each plat contained both flat and ridged culture and was harvested in three parts, so that each variation in culture had early, medium, and late harvesting. The results may be briefly summarized as follows: Taking the entire field as an average, the percentage of infestation in the plats having ridged culture was 8 per cent less than in those having flat culture. In the same way the plats harvested early had 4 per cent less infes- tation than those harvested at the medium period and 9 per cent less than those harvested late. In the experiments with depth of planting results were even more striking. In the plats planted 2 inches deep (many tubers were ex- posed) the vines were dead, and the percentage of infestation of the tubers varied from 98 to 100. From this the percentage of infestation became steadily less, as the depth of planting was increased, until at a depth of 6 inches a minimum was reached, several plats giving entirely clean potatoes and the average of infestation being low. In the plats where deeper planting was used, the potatoes seemed to grow as near the surface as where 5 to 6 inches planting depth was used, and consequently there was no difference in freedom from the moth. Results from the experiments as to time of planting varied so greatly that it was evident several other factors have more to do with determining infestation than the time of planting. The same might be said of the variety test, except that the tubers of varieties where the vine stayed green the longest suffered least from the moth, THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. 49 On an average the results show the value of the recommendations given for fighting the tuber moth by culture. These may be stated as follows: (1) Plant as deep as pees (5 to 6 inches). (2) Use ridge culture, 7. e., ridge the rows (fig. 45). (3) Harvest as early as sr0setibile. (4) Harvest before the potato tops become so dry as to drive the partially grown larve to descend and work on the tuber. In harvesting the tubers, several rules must be followed to keep the tubers from infestation : (1) The sacks should never be covered with potato tops, as the larvee leave these when they wilt, and enter the potatoes. Fic. 45.—Potato field showing careful hilling. Walker, Cal. (Original.) (2) The sacks should be sewed as soon as possible and hauled from the field. (3) Potatoes should never be left in the field or exposed to the moth over night. (4) All cull potatoes should be gathered up within two weeks and either fed to stock at once or destroyed. If left in the field they are a menace to the neighbors, and to the grower himself, for the follow- ing crop. After the potatoes are harvested they should be marketed at once, unless the grower has storage facilities and is willing to take the trouble to treat the potatoes. While there are good reasons for destroying the potato vines yet there appear to be even better reasons for not doing so. Destroying the potato vines kills all stages of the tuber moth within, but it also 50 BULLETIN 427, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. kills the parasites. The tuber moth is more apt to pupate under clods and rubbish in the field than are any of the parasites, hence the destruction of potato tops would be a more serious check to the parasites than to the tuber moth. It seems that if growers destroy waste tubers and keep the rest protected so that the tuber moth must breed on potato tops, the parasites will keep the tuber moth from becoming dangerously abundant. DIRECT CONTROL METHODS. Experiments were made to determine a cheap practical method of treating tubers infested with the tuber moth. As the tuber takes up odors and flavors readily, and retains them for indefinite periods, only a few methods were tried. The only promising unobjectionable applications tested were for- malin dilutions and water used as dips, and carbon disulphid and hydrocyanic-acid gas as fumigants. Of these four, the only one which was at all successful was carbon disulphid. Carbon disulphid naturally has many advantages as a fumigant for potatoes. It does not injure the tubers, it can be applied for long periods and thus penetrate thoroughly, and finally, it is heavier than air and if liberated at the top will go entirely through a pile to the floor. Various dosages and periods were used for fumigation, but it was early apparent that for all-around results the material should be used at the rate of 2 pounds to 1,000 cubic feet, and fumi- gation should last 48 hours. At this strength the larve and adults, and practically all the pup and eggs, will be killed, and the long exposure to the vapor insures thorough penetration. If potatoes are to be stored they should be fumigated promptly. Cheap gas-tight bins may be made by lining temporary structures with tarred paper and painting the seams. If the tubers are notice- ably infested the fumigation should be repeated in a week in summer, or in two weeks in winter. Careful watch should be kept, and if the tuber moth is still working, another fumigation should be given. In fumigating with carbon disulphid the liquid should be placed on top of the sacks in shallow tin pans, and care should be taken not to expose the gas to fire, as it is explosive when mixed with air and ignited. OTHER REMEDIES. TRAPPING THE ADULTS. As the adult is attracted to light, some authors recommend trap- ping with lanterns. This remedy is of questionable value, as not all the adults could be trapped, and there is much doubt as to whether the numbers could be sufficiently reduced to make a difference at harvest time. In this connection it must be remembered that it is the multiplication of the insect in storage that causes practically all the loss. THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. 51 QUARANTINE. Quarantine as a method of keeping out the tuber moth has attracted considerable attention in the Western States in recent years. A quarantine of one district against another when the tuber moth is established in both places is of little value, as the numbers of this insect in any one year are not influenced as greatly by its numbers the preceding year, or by any that might be introduced, as by food and climatic conditions. The great interstate shipment of potatoes throughout the West proves that the potato question is a factor which affects many of the people living in those States, and a hasty or ill-advised quarantine might cause losses which would more than offset any advantages to be gained from it. In conclusion it should be said that while the tuber moth is always a menace in warmer climates, it is by no means a fatal potato pest, and its damage, if not totally elimimated, can at least be minimized by rational farming methods and a knowledge of the habits of the insect. For this reason whenever there has been an outbreak of the moth in anew district the conditions‘ in this district should be studied and means devised to prevent a recurrence of injury. SUMMARY. (1) The tuber moth injures the potato by destroying the leaf surface and tunneling in the substance of the tuber. _ (2) Its life history is variable, but in southern California all the stages exist at all times of the year. (3) The numbers of the insect should be reduced by practicing good farming and leaving no tubers exposed for the insect to work on. (4) Potatoes should be harvested and marketed as rapidly as possi- ble, unless the grower has facilities for storage and is prepared to treat the potatoes if necessary. (5) Once the tubers become infested the best way of ending the damage is to fumigate with carbon bisulphid, using 2 pounds to 1,000 cubic feet of air space (measured before storing the tubers) and allow- ing 48 hours for fumigation. (6) Clean or uninfested potatoes should be kept away from the moth. (7) Potatoes should never be left in the ground after they are ripe and where the soil is dry. (8) When tubers are infested and facilities are lacking for storing in bins, the progress of infestation can be checked by holding the potatoes in cold storage. The temperature should be about 37° to 40° F. This should be adopted only as a temporary method in- keeping potatoes from deteriorating in value while they are being held for a rise in price. 1 This refers especially to various methods of storing potatoes, 59 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BIBLIOGRAPHY. (1) BertHon, Capt. H. 1855. On the potato moth. Jn Papers and Proc. Roy. Soc. Van Diemen’s Land, Vio, Ptal, p. 76-80 (2) WaLKER, FRANCIS. 1864. List of the Specimens of Lepidopterous Insects of the British Museum, s. 6, pt. 30, p. 1024. London. (3) CHamBErRs, V. T. ; 1872. Micro-Lepidoptera. Jn Canad. Ent., v. 4, no. 10, p. 191-195 (p. 193). (4) : 1873. Micro-Lepidoptera. Jn Canad. Ent., v. 5, no. 9, p. 173-176 (p. 176). (5) ZELueR, P. C. 1873. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der nordamericanischen Nachtfalter, besonders der Microlepidopteren. Abt. 2, p. 63. Also In Verhandl. K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell. Wien, 1873, Bd. 23, p. 201-334 (p. 262-263). (6) Botspuvat, J. A. 1874. Note sur une nouvelle maladie des Pommes de terre. 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Etude sur Jes principaux insectes nuisibles au Tabac ala Réunion. Jn Rev. Agr. Réunion, no, 3, p. 103-112, 54 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (41) Dyar, H. G. 1902. A List of North American Lepidoptera. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bul. 52, p. 502. (42) Lea, A. M. 1902. Remedies for Insect and Fungoid Pests of the Orchard and Farm. Dept. Agr. Tasmania. 38 p. (p. 8.). (43) Meyrick, E. 1902. A new genus of Gelechiadae. Jn Ent. Mo. Mag., v. 38, p. 103-104. (44) Froaeartr, W. W. 1903. The potato moth (Lita solanella, Boisd.). Jn Agr. Gaz. N.S. Wales, v. 14, no. 4, p. 321-326, 1 col. pl. (45) Hoxuanp, W. J. 1903. The Moth Book. p. 425. New York. (46) Lea, A. M. 1903. Remedies for Insect and Fungus Pests of the Orchard and Farm. Dept. Agr. Tasmania. ed. 2, 53 p. (p. 9-10), illus. (47) [Correspondence. ] 1903. In Agr. Jour. Cape Good Hope, v. 22, no. 6, p. 717-719. (48) Dewar, W. R. 1904-1905. Orange River Colony Dept. Agr. Ist Ann. Rpt. Govt. Ent. 58 Pp. (p. 27-29), 10 fig. (49) Despetssis, A. 1905. Annual report of the horticultural and viticultural expert. Jn Jour. Agr. West. Aust., v. 12, pt. 6, p. 531-545. ; (50) Frocearr, W. W. 1905. The farmer’s garden and its enemies. Jn Agr. Gaz. N.S. Wales, v. 16, pt. 10, p. 1034-1040, illus. (51) FULLER, CLAUDE. 1905. The potato moth. Jn Natal Agr. Jour. and Min. Rec., v. 8, no. 9, p. 873-876, 1 pl. (52) Van Dine, D. L. 1905. Insect enemies of tobacco in Hawaii. Hawaii Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 10, 16 p., 6 fig. (p. 7-8, fig. 3). (53) JoHnsToNn, C. M. G. 1905-1906. Biological division. Jn 2nd Ann. Rpt. Dept. Agr. Orange River Colony, p. 243-261 (p. 252), illus. (54) FreNcg, C. 1906. The potato moth (Lita solanella Boisd.). Jn Jour. Dept. Agr. Victoria, v. 4, pt. 10, p. 577-582, 1 col. pl. (55) Herrera, A. L. 1906. Invasion de gusanos en los Estados del Centro de la Republica. Com. Par. Agr. Mexico Cire. 45, 14 p. (p. 6). (56) Kotinsky, J. 1906. The tobacco splitworm, an enemy of tomato, eggplant, and poha in Hawaii. Phthorimaea operculella, Zell. In Hawaii Forester and Agr., v. 3, no. 7, p. 200-201. (57) LounsBury, C. P. 1906. Tobacco wilt in Kat River Valley. In Agr. Jour. Cape Good Hope, v. 28, no. 6, p. 784-803, illus. (58) Craw, A. 1907. Report on horticultural quarantine inspection work. Jn Hawaii Forester and Agr., v. 4, no. 6, p. 176-178, fig. 10, 11. ) = ; 1907. Inspection of importations. Jn 4th Rpt. Bd. Comrs. Agr. and Forestry, Hawaii, p. 79-84. THE POTATO TUBER MOTH. 55 (60) Hooker, W. A. 1907. Observations on insect enemies of tobacco in Florida in 1905. In U.S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Bul. 67, p. 106-112 (p. 110). (61) Kirx, T. W. 1907. Diseases and insect pests of the potato. New Zeal. Dept. Agr. Div. Biol. “4 and Hort. Bul. 7, 40 p. (p. 33), illus. | (62) Lerroy, H. M. 1907. The potatomoth. Jn Agr. Jour. India, v. 2, no. 3, p. 294-295. (63) Howarp, C. W. 1908. Notes on Transvaal tobacco pests. Jn Transvaal Agr. Jour., v. 6, no. 24, p. 609-616, pl. 81-82, 4 fig. (64) Lea, A. M. 1908. Insect and Fungus Pests of the Orchard and Farm, ed. 2, 176 p. (p. 32- 33), illus. Tasmania. | (65) Burier, E. D. 1909. The potato. Dept. Agr. N. S. Wales Farmers’ Bulletin 27, ed. 2, 16 p., 5 fig. (66) Gunn, Davin. 1909. The potato tuber moth (Gelechia operculella Zeller). In Transvaal Agr. Jour., v. 8, no. 29, p. 80-82, pl. 21. (67) Main, T. F. | 1908. Report upon the entomological work conducted in the District during the year 1907-1908. Dept. Agr. Bombay. 29 p. (p. 3-12). (68) Houser, J. 8. 1909. The tobacco split worm Phthorimaea operculella Zell. In 2d Rpt. Estac. Cent. Agron. Cuba, Eng. ed., p. 133-139. (69) Lerroy, H. M., and How tett, F. M. 1909. Indian Insect Life. 786 p. (p. 535), 84 pl., 536 fig. Calcutta and Simla. (70) Mertca.r, Z. P. 1909. Insect enemies of tobacco. Special Bulletin. Supplement to N. C. Dept. Agr. Bul., v. 30, no. 10, 72 p., 56 AS (71) Lerroy, H. M., and ee G. 1910. De eran in the storage of seed potatoes. Jn Agr. Jour. India, v. 5, no. 1, p. 19-28, 1 col. pl. (72) Cockayne, A. H. 1911. The potato moth. Jn Jour. Dept. Agr. New Zeal., v. 2, no. 4, p. 179-186, illus. (73) Fiercuer, T. B. 1911. Two insect pests of the United Provinces. Jn Agr. Jour. India, v. 6, no. 2, p. 147-159 (p. 154). (74) Mippueton, T. H. 1911. Report to the Secretary. Bd. Agr. and Fisheries, Ann. Rpt. Intelligence Div., 1909-1910, pt. 2, p. 33. London. (75) } 1911. Report to the Secretary. Bd: ee and Fisheries, Ann. Rpt. Intelligence Div., 1910-1911, pt. 2, p. 37. London. (76) Moraan, A. C. 1911. Insect enemies of tobacco in the United States. Im U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1910, p. 281-296, pl. 20, fig. 3-15. (77) Woopnouse, E. J., and Cuowpuury, A. P. 1911. Potato moth at Patna. In Jour. Dept. Agr. Bengal, v. 4, no. 4, p. 188-192, 2 pl. (1 col.). (78) Borpas, L. 1912. Anatomie générale de l'appareil digestif de la larve de Phthorimaea oper- culella Zeller. In Bul. Soc. Ent. France, 1912, no. 8, p. 191-193. 56 BULLETIN 427, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (79) Borpas, L. 1912. Morphologie externe et appareil digestif de la Chenille de Phthorimaca operculella Zeller. In Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, v. 154, p. 450-452; 618-620. (80) CurrrENDEN, F. H. 1912. The potato-tuber moth. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Cire. 162, 5 p., 3 fig. (81) Essie, E. O. 1912. The potato-tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella Zeller). In Mo. Bul. Cal. Hort. Com., v. 1, no. 6, p. 203-218. (82) Jack, R. W. 1912. The tobacco miner (Phthorimaea Optra) In Rhodesia Agr. Jour., v. 10, no. 2, p. 186-190, 3 pl. (83) Picarp, F. 1912. La teigne des pommes de terre (Phthorimaea operculella). In Ann. Service des Epiphyties, t. 1, p. 106-176, fig. 10-30. (84) : 1912. Sur la presence en France et sur la biologie de la Teigne des Pommes de terre (Phthorimaea operculella Zell). In Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, v. 154, p. 84-86. (85) SANDERSON, E. D. 1912. Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard. 684 p. (p. 289-291), 513 fig. New York. (86) WoopHovuss, E. J. 1912. Potato moths in Bengalin 1911. Jn Dept. Agr. Jour. Bengal, v. 5, no. 3, p. 146-150. (87) CHITTENDEN, F. H. 1913. The potato-tuber moth. w &. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 557, 7 p., 4 fig. (88) Essie, E. O. 1913. The potato-tuber moth. Jn Mo. Bul. Cal. Hort. Com., v. 2, no. 9, p, 665-666, fig. 365. (89) Jack, R. W. 1913. Tobacco miner and stem borer. A correction. Jn Rhodesia Agr. Jour., v. 10, no. 8, p. 355-357. (90) Jarvis, E. 1913. The potato moth. Jn Queensland Agr. Jour., v. 30, pt. 3, p. 190-191. (91) VarLz, R.S. 1913. In Ann. Rpt. Ventura Co. Hort. Com., p. 15, fig. 9. (92) VosteR, E. J. 1913. Chelonus shoshoneanorum Vier. In Mo. Bul. Cal. Hort. Com., v. 2, no. TL, Jos WL: : (93) [Note.] Insects injurious to garden crops in France. Jn Rev. Applied Ent., 1913. -v. 1, pt. 4, p. 102-108. London. (94) Moraan, A. C., and Crume, S. E. 1914. The tobacco splitworm. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 59, 7 p. (95) Stowarp, F. 1914. The potato moth: An experimental investigation into the methods of controlling. its ravages in stored tubers. Jn Jour. Nat. His. and Sci. Soc. West. Aust., v. 5, p. 15-19. (96) Essie, E. O. 1915. Injurious and Beneficial Insects of California. Ed. 2 (Supp. Mo. Bul. State Com. Hort., v. 4, no. 4), p. 446-449. O POTATO TUBER MOTH Mier SHEN Dim EET reg Morsay #10 aianco eanraig Later meeeeets A ce vaso Ai wear FAs useng ere] Pe 010 punts Jeo «| eer Ce flat Muar | ras { coirar Mnmer Sean, nares BP fees racarig. leciven svaues sre frase] "ON srursmen \ aanaes} warrs |AOzeAU warsnaii acre CimreT or i arcesn errentan. mesoe waarow | STAM. Pemnneton Tae we cosren “Ale s0can raseime Wwasnaaal wescerre| ae raise rd ed cnenar sven [rick A) |ncon | rwom| asad coco weedarrn |wc Py live cnertn evsren 7a eae encoey wos | enan| cats wel ear] soe] 372 pa ee se eure] eas |pexa | sase | pom |e |e aad Pa) “ase | nares] rrourien| ed i = mT wasn pea eae a ns [eet ree wari [aime | ea | mere] 20h Tere alice LN arlene |02e* |=" bras) ora ore oe eT ical be Ca Ges cuaroa) ae 377 wate |, 4 3a) E ame’ Cad “7 carson 70" {70% howe — iarres |<1008| ual iocan | core |racealeuus — mErENNE ions i lrce: Nscor| cave] eas eenr rome ae! naner |rooee. rare ren Jesse becane] mannan | rex caran [mae | scarey |neerza roves) |e) outa [seen Tao] [rvemt Tan eae beacsaa| fewee, \comer| as rasner |woon ‘ener cad cosren Coa an oena| PIAA sear sai7a) ana | ance lcoumbs maleasr | swiss] anise tana nase a] roca | cel cas 3| srcee| mins | rex parted ance ream) iran leaszal azxr | srome| xasce| Jexwes foams | soes |ecur |risuca] ere bien ere won| Soci fine Pha ucad one free a XS 4 Pea ee par cor E ite frou’ pe — ereAT lena) hay eor eeue pate" aaa\cin FS cae) as ag A 117 AY peas Om WF, BN BI Gare] Cerin faes\ (eam, e EXPLANATION WS TASL/S/IED (ON POTATO) Ls mE SD (ON OTHER PLANTS) \e INTRODUCED BUT NWOT ESTAELISYZED D iw ST Caan Yor OG carr [ero rexes Yraex pous ole Gs YES foc P Karon) fs east aN SET 4.8 hard | cheep pls Wil W/m vinta lative isda au chained ehh hey UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 428 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 9, 1917 MEDICAGO FALCATA, A YELLOW-FLOWERED ALFALFA. _ By R. A. OAKLEY, Agronomist, and SAMUEL GARVER, Scientific Assistant, Office of Forage-Crop Investigations. CONTENTS. Page Page PRPEOMUC ION mats 3252 28eioei see sd 1 | Agronomic characteristics—Continued. Introduction of Medicago falcata into the Seed) productions-eeeeeeeeeseeecaseee eee 47 LEU LIS 25 Sees eee ae eae aan ease 2 Mieldsiofhayweceea-c one scree eeeeeee 49 Mapnraldistripiwtion-=---- =. 225565 -0-55< 5 heeding values oh 248s Sas oee esse asee 50 Climatic and soil requirements........-.---.- 7 | Culturaliinvestigations==~<.2--- 2-2. ---=--\- 51 RSL ME AUENS OLY «sac nce nn = 6= 226 eccrine 8 iBroadcast/scedings. 2s. -eee- sneer ee ee 52 Botanical description and relationship... -... 13 Cultivated towsz-m scceesee ren eee ees 53 Botanical description......-....-.----.-. 13 (eb. op poonaconsoosnescosasebeaseecoes 53 Botanical relationship ..........----...-- 24 Dransplantingsaessssse eee e sere oeasene 54 APRICTHAITal NISLOKY =. 2-9 - 32412. Krasshny Koot, Samara Government, Russia. From wild plants. 33465. Semipalatinsk, Siberia. 34116. Vicinity of Semipalatinsk, Siberia. From wild plants. 35311:- Novospassko, Russia. From wild plants. 35312. Omsk district, Siberia. From wild plants. The above list of introductions would indicate that the efforts of the Department of Agriculture were not confined to obtaining seed from a particular locality or region. Nevertheless, since the project was Inaugurated mainly to aid in the solution of the hardy and drought-resistant alfalfa problems, special attention was focused on parts of Russia and Siberia having climatic conditions compara- ble with the colder and drier portions of the North and Northwest. Although many plants, especially perennials, are found growing under a wide range of climatic conditions, it is nevertheless of in- terest in the case of the introduction of Medicago falcata to compare certain features of the climate of points in Russia and Siberia, where the species is found growing naturally in some abundance, with points in the northern and northwestern parts of the United States. Table I indicates the seasonal and normal annual precipitation and the maximum, minimum, and mean annual temperatures for points in Russia and Siberia and in certain Northwestern States. MEDICAGO FALCATA, A YELLOW-FLOWERED ALFALFA. 5 Taste I.—Seasonal and normal annual precipitation and maximum, minimum, and mean annual temperatures of points in Russia and Siberia and in some of the Northwestern States. Precipitation (inches). Temperature (°F.) Locality. | A eed el aNer Winter. | Spring.| °U™ UF | Ararapeit|| 2222S imi- | mal mer. | tumn. mum. | mum. | .nnual. Russia and Siberia: 1| 1to2)8tol2) 2to3 |12tol18 97.5 —53 32 1to2| 2to3) 6to8 4to6 |13t019} 103 —5l 32 3to4/| 4to6| 6to8| 4to6 |19t028 97.5 —40 42 1| 1to2)|8tol12! 1to2)11to17| 103 —58 32 1| 2to3| 6to8| 2to3 }11told 98. 5 —56 32 3to4| 3to4/ 4to6| 38to4/13to18| 105.5 —43 39 1/ 1to2! 3to4} 2to3| 7to9 106.5 —5l 39 Seer 3to4; 3to4| 4to6]}] 4to6 |14t020| 108 —40 42 3to4} 3to4}8tol2| 4to6 |18to026 95 —60 32 1| 1to2! 4to6| 2to3 }|8tol2 102 —84 14 Montana eee 1.79 3. 58 6. 00 2.30 13.67 | 108 —57 41.9 1. 64 5. 57 4.65 3.10 14.96 | (112 —49 47.2 s 1.65 4. 82 4.02 2. 04 12. 53 113 —56 40. 2 North Dakota: i peeiee 1. 24 4.12 7.44 3. 26 16. 06 109 —47 38.8 1.39 4.70 Toalel 2. 32 15. 58 110 —47 40. 4 1. 66 5. 42 7. 66 2.90 17. 64 107 —45 40.0 Bee es 1.88 5. 66 9. 29 3.19 20. 02 106 —40 39.9 Sz eee nae 1.52 5. 24 10. 07 3.33 20. 16 103 —44 36.4 South Dakota: LG 53 1. 40 5. 44 7.44 2.35 16. 63 110 —40 45.6 Huron oY See SESS eee Ue Gye 6. 56 9. 36 3. 61 21.10 108 —43 42.1 Rapid (Cie See eee re 1.36 6. 26 8. 25 2. 82 18. 69 106 —40 45.2 PRAT OL Oe - 90 5.03 8.01 2. 81 16. 75 108 —45 44.7 Nebraska: “LG O22 Sep ee a) Se a 1.74 6. 85 10. 03 3. 84 22. 46 106 —38 46.3 Worl Platte: *: 5.0.0.2) 5555.2. 5: 1.34 6. 08 8.39 3.05 18. 86 107 —35 48. 2 NATURAL DISTRIBUTION. In both Europe and Asia Medicago falcata has a very wide distri- bution, as the previous list and accompanying map would indicate. (Fig. 1.) The data from which this map was prepared were ob- tained from various published floras of Europe and Asia and from correspondents and explorers of the Department of Agriculture. The points where the species has been reported in literature as being found growing wild are designated, as well as those localities from which seed has been collected from plants grewing without cultiva- tion and sent to this country. To what extent the distribution of ‘Medicago falcata is strictly a natural one can be estimated only broadly. However, the chances are very much in favor of the species being truly indigenous over a large portion of its present range, with the possible exception of western Europe, since its dissemination through the agency of man has been very largely incidental. Outlining the distribution of Medicago falcata by means of the data that are available, it is found to occur in moist western England, in Norway to the sixtieth parallel of latitude, and generally through- out Sweden. It is common in central and southern Russia and in Austria, France, Spain, and other Mediterranean countries. In Siberia its range extends north at least to the sixty-third degree of Han- isk and Yakutsk. BULLETIN 428, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. egions of Vilyui 6 latitude in the mountain r ‘OIN}[NoLISsy JO JUeuyIVded seyvIg po}tUy oy} Aq poJodmT useq sey Soldads sIy} JO poos WoIyM WOT Sot}ITBo0] oY (Sessoao [yeu &£q) pue PITA SUIMOIS PUNO Uosq Sey 07920) OFDOIPATT 910M S9T}ITBIOT 947 (S1OP punor 4q) surMoygs ‘vIsy Jo suoT}10d pue sdoing jo deu YowAS—'T “YLT i 9 e Ueieaals Z RY) m7 Q < A esis oo \. CHUL SAYA, QO) » SL bY eho sen (26, p. 10, 14) is of the opinion that its northeastern limit is be- 1 The numbers in italic type refer to ‘‘ Literature cited,” pp. 67—70. MEDICAGO FALCATA, A YELLOW-FLOWERED ALFALFA, aT tween Verkhoyansk and Yakutsk and that Lake Baikal may be con- sidered its eastern limit with the exception of the locality around Verkhneudinsk, more than 100 miles east of Lake Baikal and Charonte. The range of the species in eastern Asia extends south- ward to Peking and westward following the northern edge of the great Mongolian Desert, including the region south of the Trans- baikal Mountains and across the Himalayas into northern and west- ern India. Continuing westward, it extends through Turkestan, Persia, Syria, Palestine, and European Turkey. So far as has been reported, the species is not indigenous along the Mediterranean region in northern Africa. There are no localities in which Medicago falcata is especially abundant throughout the wide region over which it occurs. Accord- ing to Meyer and others, the section of Siberia in which it is most abundant is that lying to the north of Semipalatinsk. Hansen re- ports it to be very common in the Provinces of Tomsk and Akmo- linsk in western Siberia; likewise in the country adjacent to the Irtish River and in the district immediately to the east of Lake Baikal. According to Dr. N. H. Nilsson,’ of the Experiment Station, Svalof, Sweden, it is found in considerable abundance on dry, sandy soils in many parts of Sweden. CLIMATIC AND SOIL REQUIREMENTS. Medicago falcata occurs naturally under a great variety of soil and climatic conditions. It is found in moist as well as in dry climates and on soils ranging in character from stiff, heavy clay to almost pure sand. That its requirements with regard to both factors are similar to those of Medicago sativa is clearly shown in the nature of its distribution. However, it seems to have a greater range of gen- eral adaptability than J/edicago sativa and is also less exacting in both its soil and climatic requirements. It is on the dry steppes of Russia and Siberia that the species at- tains its greatest importance, and over a large portion of that general region it is a fairly common constituent of the native vegetation. The area in which it is most plentiful under humid climatic condi- tions is in Norway and Sweden on sandy soils, the calcareous nature of which doubtless has much to do with its abundance. With regard to altitude, the species has an unusual range from below sea level in Palestine to 13,000 feet elevation in Afghanistan, © according to J. G. Baker (4). Meyer found forms of it growing at an altitude of over 4,000 feet between Dushet and Passanura, Cau- casus, Russia, and at 3,700 feet in the Valley of the Chong Djighilan, Tien Shan Range, Chinese Turkestan. Booth Tucker' reports it as occurring in India in the Lahul Valley at an elevation of between 1 In letter on file in the United States Department of Agriculture. 8 BULLETIN 428, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 10,000 and 11,000 feet, in a region surrounded by glaciers and cov- ered with snow during the winter months. With regard to temperature, there are few perennial species that are found growing naturally under the extremes of heat and cold that occur throughout the natural range of Medicago falcata. In parts of India and southwest Asia it is subjected to extremely high summer temperatures, but is exposed to only a moderate winter climate. In the vicinity of Yakutsk, Siberia, it meets with hot, dry summers and temperatures as low as —84° F. during the winter. Be- tween these extremes it is found growing naturally under equable climatic conditions in parts of western Europe, notably in Spain and France and in the Scandinavian Peninsula. Growing as it does under such a great variety of conditions—in many cases remote from the influence of agriculture or commerce—it is not surprising that the species has developed many forms and that it exhibits a tendency toward the production of types peculiar to the various natural geographic regions. That such is the case is strongly indicated by the many introductions made by the Department of Agriculture from numerous localities. However, it will require care- ful and extensive investigations to determine to what extent in this species plant type is correlated with natural conditions. The mate- rial which the department has succeeded in obtaining shows rather clearly that the forms from the high steppe regions of Russia and Siberia are in general quite different from those commonly found in northern India and from at least some of the forms found in south- ern Russia. From the vicinity of Irkutsk, Siberia, the department has obtained a distinct form, apparently peculiar to that region, which is character- ized by its broad crown and very fine decumbent stems. This region, it will be noted, has a normal annual precipitation of 13 to 19 inches, fairly well distributed throughout the year. The extremely broad- crowned decumbent forms have been procured only from southern Russia in the general region represented by the Provinces of the Don Cossacks and Kharkof. The forms commonly found in India ap- proach sweet clover (MJelilotus alba) in general appearance, espe- cially in color and texture of foliage, and are quite distinct from those of the high steppes of Russia and Siberia. So far as the ma- terial in the possession of the department indicates, the closest re- semblance to the forms from India is found in certain forms pro- cured from southern Austria and said to be native to that region.. BOTANICAL HISTORY. The accounts of Medicago falcata appearing in old literature are chiefly botanical, and in most cases very brief. However, they are sufficiently clear to indicate that the species was well known, at least MEDICAGO FALCATA, A YELLOW-FLOWERED ALFALFA. 9 to collectors, early in the history of modern botany. The reference cited by Kaspar Bauhin (S) and by subsequent botanists as the earlest mention of the species is made by Bock (10), who desig- nates his plant as Welilotus majoris species tertia and describes it in such a way as to leave a reasonable doubt as to whether it is really Medicago falcata or some other species, possibly Medicago arborea L. In 1561 Gesner (24) published a brief description of it under the name 77ifolii genus medica similis, mentioning the fact that it has yellow flowers and only slightly coiled pods. This reference may, with a reasonable degree of certainty, be regarded as the first positive mention of J/cdicago falcata in literature, since the identity- of Bock’s plant is somewhat in doubt. It is true that Kaspar Bauhin (8) cited Trifolit genus medica similis as a synonym of both Medi- cago falcata and Medicago lupulina L.; but Gesner’s description pre- cludes the possibility of his having the latter species in mind. By far the best of the early descriptions of Medicago falcata is furnished by Clusius (33), appearing in 1583. The name Medica luteo flore, which he applied, is, in a true sense, a descriptive one, and the description accompanying it treats in considerable detail of the diagnostic characters of the species. Furthermore, a good illus- tration of the plant, apparently the first one ever published, appears with the description (fig. 2). Tabernemontanus (58) describes and cea Medicago falcata as Lens major repens. The description is not convincing, but the figure leaves no doubt as to the identity of the plant. The generic name “ Lens” was applied by Tabernemontanus to various species of , Leguminose without regard to their relationship. The name finally chosen by Kaspar Bauhin for the species was Trifolium sylvestre luteum siliqua cornuta or Medica frutescens. This designation was published in 1623 (8). It was about the time of Johann and Kaspar Bauhin, when the species became the subject of more general study and discussion, that mention of forms that are now known to have been hybrids began to appear in such a manner as to confuse the nomenclature somewhat. It is evident from their writings on Medicago falcata that both of the Bauhins fell into errors through their failure to recognize the hybrid nature of the plants which they described. The name falcata was first used in connection with Medicago fal- cata by Rivinus in 1690 (50). He used it in a generic sense, divid- ing what was formerly known as Medica into two groups (Faleata and Cochleata), the distinguishing characters being the degree of twist or coil of the pod. Medicago falcata fell in the first division and was designated simply as Faleata. Together with the name, Rivinus published an excellent illustration, which is the first unmis- takable figure of a Medicago sativa * falcata hybrid. Rivinus’s 10 BULLETIN 428, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. name falcata in reality applied to the hybrid forms most closely resembling Medicago falcata. In 1694 Tournefort (59), following in a general way the classifica- tion of Rivinus for the Medica group, took up the old generic name Medica floreluteo. 1759 Medica for the plants with screw-shaped pods and coined a ta (| y) Ne = yf Ww iG A : \ SD SOS Jy SNZEI new one, Medicago, for those having pods shaped like a collar. Both Medicago sativa and Medicago falcata were included by him under Med- ica, the former as Medica major erec- tior floribus purpu- rascentibus and the latter as Medica syl- vestre. It is appar- ent that he intended Medicago radiata L. to illustrate the type of his genus Medi- cago. From his clas- sification it is quite evident that the dis- tinguishing character which ‘Tournefort had uppermost in his mind was the shape of the pod. He was not consistent, there- fore, in placing Wed- icago falcata in the genus Medica, since the true form of it does not have the NN AN SEN Fic. 2.—Probably the first figure of Medicago falcata ever z 1 published. Copied from Clusius, Historia, 1583 edition, SP1ra or screw- where it first appeared. shaped pod which characterizes his genus. Possibly his knowledge of Medicago falcata was confined to the hybrid forms having loosely coiled pods, in which case his arrangement is partially justified. In 1700 Tournefort (60) simplified the description of his genera, somewhat and added varieties of his Wedica major erectior (Medi- MEDICAGO FALCATA, A YELLOW-FLOWERED ALFALFA, 11 cago sativa) and also varieties of Medica sylvestris (Medicago fal- cata). His varietal classification is based on the color of the flowers, and was doubtless developed from Kaspar Bauhin’s description (8). It is essentially the same for both species. Tournefort must be given eredit for the first attempt at a classification of the varieties of - Medicago falcata, whatever its value may be, and also for the first botanical usage of the word which was finally to become its generic name. It was Vaillant (63) who placed Medicago falcata in the genus Medicago of Tournefort, but it remained for Linneus to enlarge and define the genus and to assign the name Jedicago falcata to the species. This he did in 1753 (40). A copy of Linneeus’s original de- scription of Medicago falcata follows; likewise an elaborated out- line of the references derived from those accompanying it. Original description of Medicago falcata. falcata. 6. Medicago pedunculis racemosis, leguminibus lunatis, caule prostrato. Fl. suec. 620. Dalib. paris. 229. Trifolium sylvestre luteum, siliqua cornuta. Bauh. pin. 330. Medica flavo flore. Clus. hist. 2, p. 248. Habitat in Europ pratis apricis, siccis. 4. ELABORATED OUTLINE OF CITATIONS. [The numbers in italic type refer to “ Literature cited,’ pp. 67—70.] Riv. tetr.@ (50). Riv. Irr. T.¢ (50). Dill. giss. 148 (19).-..------- ti B. 2. 383 b (6). Hort. Cliff. p. 377 5 (38)... C. B. 330 6 (8). D. Rivinus. @ (50). Dill. gen. 130 (20)...-.------ Tournefort 0 (oo. q Bauh. hist. 2. p. 383 ® (6). FL. suec. 620 5 (39).. Tournef. inst. 410 ® (60). Clus. hist. 2. p. 243 @ (34). Moris. hist. 2. p. 157 s.2. t. { J. B. Chabr. (15). 16f.1. &s. 2.t.15£.1. (44). | Clus. Hist.a (34). Bauh. pin. p. 330} (8). Trago pag. 591, libr. 2. Taber. (58). Baub, hist. 2. p.383 (6). {¢' Bauh. phyt. (7).-.------ {ciataene spe 759, libr.4,cap.334(2. Git J. B. 2. 383 » (6). Tournef. inst. 4105 (60)..4C. B. Pin. 330 4 (8). Clus. hist. CCXLIII ¢ (34). Clus. hist. 2. p. 2434 (34) . Bauh. pin. 330 > (8). fl. suec. 620 6 (39). hort. cliff. 377 » (38). Linn. h. Cliff. 377 » (38). Dalib.paris.229(17). ¢ fl. leyd. prodr. 381 (42).. a ee tas b (ay. Dill. gen. 130 6 (20). LINN Sp. PI. (40). , +9 J. B. 2. 383 » (6). Dot, Det (BP). o = n= -<07 Tournefort (indirectly). Baub. hist. 2. 383 5 (6). Tournefort—? Trag. a (10), Ges,4 (24). Clus. pan. & hist. (33). Tab. (58). Bauh. pin, 330% (8)... Clus. hist. 2, p, 243.4 (34). 4 No further citations. b Elaborated as indicated elsewhere in this outline. Wy BULLETIN 428, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Beginning with the four citations given by Linneus, the outline indicates the exact manner in which citations are made by various authors, using the abbreviations just as they are found. In many cases the same work is referred to in different ways, which is confus- " ing unless care is exercised in interpreting the abbreviations. A few words of explanation regarding the outline may make it more easily understood. Linneus’s first citation, it will be noted, is “ Fl. suec. 620.” In this work are found five citations, the first being “ Hort. Cliff. p. 377,” which in turn cites eight works, four of which were previously cited in “ I'l. suec.,” and the first one of which, “ Riv. tetr.,” makes no further citation, as indicated by the footnote. The others that are not previously cited are further elaborated until works are reached in which no further citations are made. Those that are previously cited are elaborated where they first appear, as, for in- stance, “ Bauh. hist. 2. p. 383,” where it appears as a citation of the “Fl. suec.” instead of as a citation of “ Dill. giss.” The outline indi- cates all the references to Medicago falcata that can be traced from Linneus (40) as a starting point. An examination of the botanical descriptions contained in the works listed in the outline shows very clearly that, while many of the citations refer to true forms of J/edicago falcata, others refer to hybrid plants and a few confuse Medicago falcata and Medicago sativa. Following is a classification of the citations, with regard to the plants to which they refer. Citations that refer to apparently true forms of Medicago falcata. Linnzeus (39),' Clusius (33, 34), Gesner (24), Tabernzemontanus (58), Kaspar Bauhin (7), Johann Bauhin (6), Dillenius (20). Citations that refer to what are apparently hybrids between Medicago sativa and M. falcata. Kaspar Bauhin (8), Tournefort (60), Rivinus (50), Morison (44), Chabré (15). Citations that contain only descriptions copied from other authors. Dalibard (17), Royen (52), Vaillant (63), Dillenius (19). Citation in which Medicago falcata and M. sativa are apparently confused. Linneus (38). 1The numbers in italic type refer to ‘“ Literature cited,” pp. 67—T70. MEDICAGO FALCATA, A YELLOW-FLOWERED ALFALFA. 1133 BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION AND RELATIONSHIP. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION. The description of Medicago falcata given by Linneus in 1753 (40), when the binomial was first published, merely indicates that the peduncles are racemosely arranged, that the pods are crescent shaped, and that the stems are prostrate in habit of growth. This, as a matter of fact, can scarcely be considered as a description, since it is in reality only a part of an analytical key to certain species of the genus Medicago. Various descriptions, however, have appeared since that of Linneus. A fairly good one was published by Lamarck in 1789 (32) and another by Martyn in 1792 (43). The difficulty of preparing a satisfactory description becomes at once apparent upon consideration of the numerous forms of the species. Many of the early ones are confusing because their authors failed to recognize the existence of hybrids among the forms which they attempted to describe, and all of them are imperfect, since in no place was a complete collection of the forms of the species avail- able. Even at this time, with the work of others from which to draw and with the abundant material at hand, it is far from easy to prepare a description that will present a comprehensive view of the species. The diversity of Medicago falcata inspires the investi- gator at once with the desire to attempt a classification that will fit all existing forms. However, it requires only a little investigation to convince one of the hopelessness of such a task. In the main there are two difficulties in the way of developing a satisfactory scheme of classification—the lack of consistency in the combinations of characters and the practical impossibility of deter- mining from one generation of plants whether a form is of pure or hybrid origin. There is, however, a certain correlation of characters which permits a general grouping, although intergrading forms are so common that it frequently is difficult to differentiate the mass even into broad groups. To serve as a basis for further discussion of botanical characters it seems advisable, first, to present some rather detailed data, includ- ing observations and careful measurements made in connection with the study of a large number of plants secured from many sources, these constituting a composite description of the species. Following these data an attempt is made to correlate certain characters and to define the principal groups and describe them in the abstract. It is hoped that this method of treatment, together with illustrations reproduced from photographs, will convey a reasonably clear idea of the appearance of the striking forms of M/edicago falcata. 14 BULLETIN 428, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COMPOSITE DETAILED DESCRIPTION. The flowers of the numerous forms of the species vary consider- ably in color, size, and shape of banner, length of calyx teeth, and slightly in length of calyx tubes. There is also a variation in the length of pedicels, the number and compactness of the racemes, the number of flowers in the raceme, and the date of blooming. In color the flowers range from a light yellow to a deep chrome yellow, the pale yellow color being the most prevalent in the individuals that more nearly approach Medicago sativa in general appearance. On the steppes of northern Russia and Siberia occur forms that have variegated flowers. These forms are found apparently remote from forms of Medicago sativa and so closely associated with forms of Medicago falcata having pure yellow flowers that Prof. Dilit- winoff,t of the Academy of Sciences, Petrograd, is of the opinion that they are true forms of the latter. Meyer, however, who has studied them in their native habitat, believes them to be hybrids of Medicago sativa and Medicago falcata, and a study of the progeny of these plants grown from the seed collected by the department’s explorers indicates quite definitely that Meyer’s opinion is well founded. The progeny exhibits a diversity of forms, some of which closely resemble A/edicago sativa, while others present the appear- ance of true Medicago falcata. But regardless of this, the wild variegated forms are regarded with interest in connection with the study of the origin of the cultivated alfalfas and the botanical relationship existing between the above species. Flowers.—The individual flowers of Medicago falcata are smaller than those of J/edicago sativa. The lines which mark the banners are shorter in the former than in the latter and are light to dark brown, varying directly with the color of the flower. A large num- ber of careful measurements show that the banners vary from 6.25 to 12 mm. in length and from 2.20 to 8 mm. in width. The ratio of length to width of the banner also varies, ranging from approxi- mately 1.2 tol to3tol. The calyx averages about 1.75 mm. in length and varies from approximately 1.3 to 2.6 mm. There is a greater variation, however, in the length of the calyx teeth, the range being from 1.25 to 3.75 mm. The pedicels are from 1.25 to 3.75 mm. in length. There appears to be little uniformity in the number of flowers in the raceme. In some cases as few as five are found, while in others as many as 36 may be present. Racemes with the largest number of flowers have been noted to be compact and of medium size. The very fine leaved plants and the plants with long procumbent stems have small racemes, with comparatively few flowers. Likewise, the 1In letter on file in the United States Department of Agriculture. MEDICAGO FALCATA, A YELLOW-FLOWERED ALFALFA. 15 very large ascending plants with long, erect stems, as well as the broad-crowned forms, have few flowers to the raceme. The upright bushy plants with stiff stems and narrow greenish gray leaves have, in general, the largest racemes. A great abundance of flowers does not appear to be characteristic of any special form of the species. The compactness of the raceme is dependent to a large extent on the length of the pedicel, the size of flower, and the arrangement on the axis. Compact racemes are usually small, and the flowers are ar- ranged at more regular intervals than they are in the loose racemes. The flowers of Medicago falcata usually come into bloom earlier than those of Medicago sativa. However, the broad-crowned pro- cumbent to decumbent plants of the former are especially late in blooming. The flowering period is much longer than in the case of Medicago sativa, frequently extending from May to October in South Dakota. Pods—The pods vary greatly in proportion of width to length and range in shape from almost straight to semicircular or more COCO occ ratna(dadas Fic. 3.—The common types of pods of Medicago falcata. nearly coiled, even in what appear to be pure strains of the species. The average pod is crescent or sickle shaped, reticulate veined, without glandular hairs, but in some cases slightly pubescent. When mature they are light brown to almost black in color. (Fig. 3.) On pod characters it is possible to distinguish two fairly distinct types or plants. Type 1.—Pods short, broad in comparison to length, of medium thickness, nearly straight, and pointed. Pods of this type are light brown to dark brown in color, dehisce readily upon approaching maturity, and on the average contain one less seed than the average for the species. They are confined almost exclusively to . the more nearly erect stiff-stemmed types of plants and are found abundantly in S. P. I. Nos. 20721 and 20722. They are well illustrated by pods Nos. 8, 9, and 10 in the top row of figure 3. It was to plants having pods of this general form that the varietal name stenocarpa (Reich.) (49) was apparently intended to apply. Type 2.—Pods long, narrow in proportion to length, sickle shaped to nearly coiled, brown to almost black in color. The general type is illustrated by 16 BULLETIN 428, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pods Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10 in the second row of figure 8. This is a dis- tinct type of pod and is found most abundantly in plants having medium broad crowns and long and decumbent to ascending stems, as shown in figure 18. They are found in S. P. I. Nos. 20726, 26927, and 30433. The number of seeds per pod averages approximately one more than the average for the species. The seeds are well re- tained, and the pods are quite plentifully produced. Plants bearing pods of this type set seed more liberally than other forms of the species. It must be understood that the two types of pods above described represent the extremes and that there are many inter- mediate forms. Fig. 4.—Seed of Medicago sativa. (Enlarged.) Seeds.—In general appearance the seeds closely resemble those of Medicago sativa (fig. 4), but a careful examination shows them to be appreciably smaller and decidedly more angular. The radicle is also more prominent and in some seeds the hilum is very marked, while in others it is scarcely apparent. (Fig. 5.) When examined under a lens the seeds show a slightly roughened surface. The pitted sur- face together with the angular shape produces a feeling of. grittiness when seeds are rubbed between the thumb afd fingers. This is especially true of seeds from certain forms of plants. The explosive mechanism of the flower is essentially the same as that of Medicago sativa, with the exception that more force is re- quired to accomplish tripping and usually less energy is expended by the column upon becoming released. This condition, together Sans Tce ae =z A whi Aptees s+ eR OM ae Gna APT nar “a [Rsvbaelee \N d PLATE II. Bul. 428, U. S. Dept. of Agricuiture. STEMS OF MEDICAGO FALCATA—I. PLATE III. Bul. 428, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. STEMS OF MEDICAGO FALCATA—II. Bul. 428, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE IV. STEMS OF MEDICAGO FALCATA—III. MEDICAGO FALCATA, A YELLOW-FLOWERED ALFALFA. ee with the scanty production of pollen in the case of many of the flowers, may be responsible to some extent for the paucity with which the seed of the species is produced. Leaves——The leaves vary in shape from ovate to linear-cuneate. (Pl. I.) The type and stage of growth of the plant and the posi- tion in which the leaves are borne on the stem all influence their size and shape. During the first few weeks of growth in the spring they are larger and more ovate than they are later in the season. They also appear to diminish in size and become more elongated as the end of the stem is approached. In general, they are more elon- gated or linear than those of Medicago sativa, although there are some Fic. 5.—Seed of Medicago falcata. Note the prominence of the radicle and the rough- ness and irregularity as compared to those of Medicago sativa (fig. 4). (Enlarged.) marked exceptions, as will be noted in the illustration. ) 27 May 7..-.- Dp lap ne (eters (tee es ove bs cect seeps se 2 27 27 27 54 ete Woke siceale TO eae (eee .24 24 24 24 ne ae ease Sar |e 1k pewellense 1 23.6 22 26 71 Meese i ee Be Reed 1 ee eee 1 | 23.25 21 27 93 AY o 5 Albee Seay fe 2 1 SE22209) 17 25 90 7a leer 18 1 1 3 1 2 Slee 1 1 | 20.6 15 27 370 Maen Di eee OL eee eal ig | sees | ee 22 21 23 44 Bass 9 Ile fey 2i)| Rae 2 22,2 19 25 111 AAD) oc 9 |. 2 1 Pa Mesa ere eee) Bae 19.3 16 22 174 S05 45-- it ie ss Pepe (Rats eS Ol | ese -| 23 23 23 23 June 1 iL |e 1 Bea Sern ise lace ese [scare 20 20 20 20 Qos If | eed | apna ene | ee we TU Vee eal ees 24 24 24 24 51 1 BB | AI 4)_9 4 5 ye oe! 2 4 S21 52 oc ate Sell eee 1,098 Larval life vn the cocoon.—The larval life in the cocoon is generally considered -to be the time required for making the cocoons, and is calculated from the time a transforming larva leaves the fruit until the time of pupation. The results of 41 observations show the average time consumed in constructing the cocoon as 5.24 days. The maximum time was 12 days; minimum, 2 days. These records may be found in Table VI. LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 9 Taste VI.—The making of cocoons by codling-moth larvx of the first brood, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Length of cocooning period in specified Num-| days, being the time from the leav- ‘he : 3 = ber ing of fruit to the time of pupation.| A ver- | Mini- | Maxi- Total Date of leaving fruit. OPH || ee Oey SS SERS age | mum | mum | 4.7. divid- l days. | days. | days. | 25: | 10 | 11 | 12 9 6 12 18 6.3 3 10 19 Th 5 10 15 il il 11 iu 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 9 4.13 4 5 25 6.4 4 il 32 6 6 6 6 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 8 3.75 3 5 15 3355 2 6 14 5 3 7 15 4.3 4 5 13 4.5 4 5 9 5.24 2 12 215 THE FIRST BROOD OF PUP. Time of pupation.—The earliest pupation of the first brood recorded occurred June 1 and the latest July 11. (See Table VII.) Length of pupal stage.—From a total of 160 individual insects under observation in this connection the results show that the pupal period varied from 9 to 19 days, with an average of 12.11 days. - These figures are given in Table VII. Tasie VII.—Pupal stage of the first brood of the codling moth, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Length of pupal period in specified Num- days, being the time from date of at é . ber pupation to the emergence of moth. | Aver-| Mini- | Maxi-| m4.) Date of pupation. ofin- | age | mum | mum | gays divid- days. | days. | days. | C®YS- uals. | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12} 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 June 1 13 13 13 12. 12 24 13 13 13 12 12 12 14 14 14 a4 13 16 71 6 14 16 44 .8 11 19 83 3 11 14 209 -4 12 13 62 6 11 14 228 nid 12 14 344 3.4 12 15 161 6 12 13 63 13 13 13 5 ll 12 23 2 10 12 123 6 10 12 85 3 10 il 31 2 10 11 51 6 10 11 53 i 10 12 52 y 2 10 11 41 July 1 10 11 52 MM 4 | 2 | 1| 12.11 9 19 | 1,939 10 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FIRST BROOD OF MOTHS. Time of emergence.—The records of emergence of first-brood moths given in Table VIII cover observations with 786 individuals. The material used in this instance was secured from banded trees in orchards. The first moth appeared June 9, while a maximum emergence occurred June 23, with irregularly decreasing numbers thereafter until July 22, when the last observation was made. ‘The total emergence of 786 moths covered a period of 43 days. ANNE ALLY [| WUMBER OF MOTHS OHSTLVVRIASGSI VASES Fic. 2.—Emergence curve of codling moths of the first brood, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. (Original.) A graphic description of the emergence of moths of the first brood appears in figure 2. TaBLe VIIIT.—Time of emergence of codling moths of the first brood from larve collected systematically from banded trees and kept in cages, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Date of emergence. a mer Date of emergence. ay mer JUNne ROP eee eee 1 Jualy sales ser eae 28 More ys oe AM ae Id) eevee see ae ood 34 dQ Sees 7 Sue eee 33 1 ae oodeBee 15 7 eS ere Gs 29 14S Ras eae 15 Sinsaeee eee 15 Ub Seoeanctie 7 (ame aeenae 14 GeAeer eee 26 CERES ASE = 11 U/Re spac sador 21 Sees See see 11 AS eee tee ene 2 Qe gaa tae 19 te eeseeaeree 20 LOS. aes 11 20 issaeissee 32 Ween ae 12 glee neosese 16 1 ee eases 17 PI SOE ee 35 ib Eeee seas 11 PB Yar cred er aes 86 i Eee ee 10 DA oes © ae 55 dee eon sess 8 20a esiese tice 9 1 ye Seecerser ase 1 2052 eee aoe 29 Wisse tees tee 9 Qhee le sues eee 30 Sees st encee 9 28 eee esse 28 it Eevee eee aes 1 Pe Nae ee 24 OA en Ne see 1 SOE aa ae 32 Total emergence, 786 moths. Time of oviposition.—By reference to Table IX it will be found that the earliest deposition by moths of the first brood was made June 14, while the last oviposition occurred July 23. Hence the period of oviposition was approximately 40 days. LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 11 TaBLe 1X.—£ gq deposition by epdling maths of first brood in stock jars at Roswell, N. Ctx LOL Date of— Days— a Nuntber eon age No. of moths 3 - time o percage.| Buena] Rist | Past | Betore | orovi. | more. Prin Pan Pan position. | ence to wid moth. | position. | position. | position. Taeio position. 12 | June 11} June 14 | June 17 3 3 6 15 13 17 27 4 10 14 14 14 16 24 2 8 10 9 15 18 23 3 5 8 23 16 19 22 3 3 6 20 17 21 26 4 5 9 16 19 23 24 4 1 5 23 20 23 27 3 4 7 19 21 23 28 2 5 a 27 22 25 29 3 4 7 39 23 25 29 2 4 6 40 24 27 29 3 2 5 37 25 27| July 2 2 5 7 21 26 28 2 2 4 6 52 27 28 3 1 5 6 35 28 30 6 2 6 8 30 29| July 1 5 2 4 6 22 30 2 6 2 4 6 25 | July 1 2 8 1 6 7 36 2 4 7 2 3 5 35 3 5 & 2 3 5 42 4 6 9 2 3 5 40 5 8 13 3 5 8 26 6 8 14 2 6 8 20 7 9 12 2 3 5 26 8 11 16 3 5 8 31 9 12 16 3 4 7 22 10 13 19 3 6 9 14 il 13 21 2 8 10 33 12 15 18 3 3 6 9 13 17 21 4 4 8 10 14 20 22 6 2 8 14 15 19 23 4 4 8 Ja64oapad| sone 0cbes | pddaeposad paeededescl Sooce canbe 207, 4.45 7.15 eae | aaa Seek | setae eee ne aaiarotnca ete sete asl 6 il 14 1 2 5 The results given in Table IX show that on an average the first eggs were laid 2.7 days after the time of emergence of moths and that oviposition extended on an average to 4.45 days. The average length of time from the date of moth emergence to the last date of oviposi- tion was 7.15 days; maximum, 14 days; minimum, 5 days. Length of life of moths.—A summary of observations on the length of life of 367 male moths and 411 female moths is recorded in Table X. A study of this table will show that the longevity of the males was shorter than that for the females. On an average the males lived 4.44 days and females 6.24 days. The maximum length of life for the males was 16 days, and for the females 15 days. 1 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste X.—Length of life of male and female codling moths of the first brood, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Summary of records of 778 individual Summary of records of 778 individual moths. moths. Male. Female. Male. Female. Length | Number | Length | Number || Length | Number | Length | Number of of of of of of of of life. moths. life. moths. life. moths. life. moths. Days. Days. Days. Days. 1 2 1 0 10 1 10 18 2 25 2 10 11 1 11 ii 3 72 3 25 12 0 12 2 4 99 4 44 13 0 13 1 5 98 5 82 14 0 14 1 6 48 6 87 15 0 15 2 7 10 7 57 16 1 16 0 8 8 8 48 ——— ——_——____— 9 2 9 27 367 411 Average length of life of male moths, 4.44 days. Average length of life of female moths, 6.24 days. Maximum length of life of male moths, 16 days. Maximum length of life of female moths, 15 days. Minimum length of life of male moths, 1 day. Minimum length of life of female moths, 2 days. LENGTH OF LIFE CYCLE OF THE FIRST GENERATION. Records of the observations on the life cycle of the first generation show that only 7 individuals completed the stages comprising the total life cycle of the insect. From this number an average of 51.14 days is found to represent the length of the period from date of deposition of eggs to emergence of moths of the same generation. The maximum period is 61 days; the minimum, 40 days. (See Table XI.) TaBLE XI.—Length of life cycle of first generation of codling moth, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Num-| Moths emerged in specified days from time ber of deposition of eggs of the same genera- Mini Maxi ion. Sl ee Date of egg deposition. oe : ee mum} mum Tees ik : ; * | days.| days. uals. | 40 45 46 52 56 58 61 ASOT 2620 Peer ese cee eS erste oll Sersetars Sr ea. ~ | eee neers | Sareea 58 58 58 58 WWE i ME 2 ce aes ase TO ee feet ape 2 Ul oe aes 3 P ee Reser 61 61] 61 61 1 0 LAPS mene oe eer 7s eerste ee) Cos ete iL a We rane ern 54 52 56 108 PaaS SMe eR ee 2 1 LESS oSseE REReDeioeeane aeans 42.5} 40] 45 85 7A a eae sins SRE are 1 leet eis IE pecescsoocea}ioesde estes 46- 46 46 46 7) (a) | a a cee | 358 A summary of results from observations on the separate stages of the first generation of the codling moth shows the total life cycle of the insect when computed by individual stages to compare very closely with the corresponding figures in Table XI. The length of lite cycle by addition of separate stages is found to be 50.62 days as shown in Table XII, a difference of only 0.54 day. LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN- PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 13 TaBLeE XIT.—Summary of results from experiments on the separate stages of the first generation of the codling moth, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Number of days. Complete life cycle of first generation. Average. |Maximum.} Minimum. HPI IOMUR CONS 2.2 oc ot Same: See fe Sa Se os eek ect hee seco a ese ae 9.05 13 5 LEE E LETTE TEGO LET sg (Gs eee eee RE a Se ee tel ee 21.52 27 15 LATUZIDE GGT EONS eee eae ere ee me eee 5. 24 12 2 LUPE GS. Se A a an ae 12.11 19 9 PerEMETALOeoS ON OSIUION: «== 426 5-6 saaae 55> set Cane ee See ee 2.7 6 1 INLET, css to es RAR SSS, eH Ss a 50. 62 77 32 THE SECOND GENERATION. THE SECOND BROOD OF EGGS. Length of incubation.—Observations to determine the length of the period of incubation of eggs of the second brood were begun June 14 and continued until late in July.. Eggs were deposited in large numbers during that period, and very accurate data regarding the length of the separate stages observed could be obtained. The average length of time from date of deposition to appearance of red ring was found to be 4.92 days; maximum, 4 days; minimum, 2 days. The average length of time from oviposition to appearance of the black spot was 4.26 days; maximum, 6 days; minimum, 3 days. For the period of time covering the duration of incubation an aver- age of 5.62 days is determined; maximum, 8 days; minimum, 4 days. These records are found in Table XIII. Taste XIII.—Length of incubation of second brood of eggs of the codling moth at Roswell, WN. Mex., 1912. Date of— | Days for— Num- Observation No. ber of Appear- | Appear- Tithe eggs. | Ovipo- | apceof | anceof | THatch- | Red | Black anna sition. red black ing. ring. | spot. Rie ring. spot. 3 icy Be ae ee 8 | June 14 | June 16 | June 20} June 21 2 6 7 RNS 0c SAE Gee See oe 68 16 20 22 23 4 6 7 REECE costs onset neces severe 17 16 20 22 24 4 6 8 (0. 2 he SE Se See Ae 56 17 20 22 23 3 5 6 Ooo cd abe 40) 17 20 23 24 3 6 7 Sele Re ee eee 15 18 20 23 24 2 5 6 on eA Se ee Bee 7 18 20 23 25 2 5 rE RE taal i sae 3) Km nicl Sim oser'o wisin> Sin 5 19 22 24 25 3 5 6 SNe ls Plats ie oo Sa dninige wo aimed 2 19 22 24 26 3 5 7 no MI ye as a ee a 3 20 23 24 25 3 4 5 op ot ES ee er eee 18 21 24 25 27 3 4 6 EE ene pate Sx as ands wevcreteses 70 22 25 27 28 3 5 6 0, ARE aS ee 52 23 26 27 28 3 4 5 Ra bur outs gp Poibore 2 = Sind. wise by ewe 27 23 26 28 29 3 5 6 oe FE a eee AA Se 42 24 27 28 29 2 3 5 LE SEE Es} ee ss Sea 3 24 27 28 30 3 4 6 ata cece tetas cro recas oems see's 24 25 28 29 30 3 4 5 Nar esse at pweaemed oy Cx art » 24 25 28 29} July 1 3 4 6 SPOR Aeneas vanect seo ts aeons s< 2 29 | 26 28 30 1 2 4 5 Ay) Oe Se Ses Sees See 12 26 28 30 2 2 4 6 ENF a rata acs vectldeacttne tar as 80 27 29| July 1 2 2 4 5 Ey ae ee ee ee eee mys 43 27 29 1 3 2 4 6 a Cie se ARES eae Se 1-100 28) July 1 2 3 3 4 5 14 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE XIII.—Length of incubation of second brood of eggs of the codling moth at Roswell, N. Mex., 1912—Continued. Date of— Days for— Num- : Observation No. ber of : Appear- | Appear- tac eggs. | Ovipo- | ance of | ance of | Hatch- | Red |Black| 1). sition. red black ing. ring. | spot. arn ring. spot. “3 POEs EIAs SSE IE yee 94 | June 28 | July 1] July 2] July 4 3 4 6 : 29 2 3 4 3 4 5 29 2 3 5 3 4 6 30 3 4 5 3 4 5 July 1 3 5 6 2 4 5 1 4 6 7 3. 5 6 2 5 6 7 3 4 5 2 5 6 8 3 4 6 3 6 7 8 3 4 5 3 6 7 9 3 4 6 4 7 8 9 3 4 5 4 7 8 10 3 4 6 5 8 9 10 3 4 5 5 8 9 11 3 4 6 6 8 10 11 2 4 5 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 7 10 11 12 3 4 5 7 10 11 13 3 4 6 8 11 12 13 3 4 5 8 11 12 14 3 4 6 9 12 13 14 3 4 5 9 12 13 15 3 4 6 10 13 14 15 3 4 5 10 13 14 16 3 4 6 11 13 14 15 2 3 4 11 14 15 16 3 4 5 12 14 16 17 2 4 5 12 15 17 18 3 5 6 13 15 16 17 2 3 4 13 16 17 18 3 4 5 14 16 18 19 2 4 5 14 17 18 20 3 4 6 15 18 19 20 3 4 5 15 18 19 21 3 4 6 16 18 20 21 2 4 5 16 19 20 22 3 4 6 17 20 21 22 3 4 5 17 20 22 23 3 5 6 18 21 22 23 3 4 5 18 21 23 24 3 5 6 19 22 23 24 3 4 § 20 23 24 25 3 4 5 20 23 25 26 3 5 6 21 24 25 26 3 4 5 21 24 25 27 3 4 6 22 26 27 28 4 5 6 BIG eee oS SSE RTOS Ee BARE Hal ee seen eneenaS n Olack 8 Ss I daecodllessooseous 4.92 | 4.26 | 5.62 ea Leth at kee ae ye ce ars sae | Cem meee Deeper i Oe A ll See oeoose abSeacanas 4 6 8 (MIAMI epee hae Se ee hese reer ee cet oe | PA ee rey sete lane ere 2 3 4 Time of hatching—The data in Table XIII, show that the first observation of hatching of eggs of the second brood occurred June 21, and continued quite regularly until July 28, thus covering a period of approximately five weeks. THE SECOND BROOD OF LARVZ. Length of feeding period—Records on the length of feeding period of 489 individual insects are brought together in Table XIV. This period covered a range of from 14 to 44 days, both transforming and wintering larve being included. The average length of feeding was found to be 21.23 days; maximum, 44 days; minimum, 14 days. 15 LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. CSEUO Tan pace saa ee ag 62 91 6SE GS cI 106 1G 9T L6T 86 FI 008 1g LT 8hP 82 OT 9LT LE LT LES Té 8I 09S 16 LT 689 62 ST 829 ce cI 10g 9¢ CT FOG Mf LT OLE 1g cI F6P FG LT 886 1x6 ia GOP a 91 pS¢ 9€ ia! LE6 8E ST £81 1x4 LT Taz (46 9T O8T (46 cI 606. (66 ial 828 cS CT 9€ 06 OT PST £% 91 128 0@ GT OLY G% ST 7 ‘shup |'skep Sep | ornet [emu TIL xen |-T0T &6 TG 0S 2 68 ‘8T OL 02 PL 8ST GP IG €8 16 LAE LE “G6 €o 1G GP GG TG PS 28 06 9S GG GG ‘06 GL 61 L506 GI SG 80°F (Aimtx6 £E 06 ‘sfep ase “INAV bP Ht i~ i rr Are aN J 0@ | ¢ | 62 | TF | 9F | eg | TO 6 | Soe see lke =a lBeaslane (ESsaf= Sra ce | ean area RG z Talis Teak | eigtag| oa | aes |e A re feetec| eerste Bese emacs: ; Ga ites |e lee ie weal Geena ae = Soe aliases |e 8 eae | es || | a Fae lecae le Goalies rine CaleTasine Gl tar lap Tey |coa Lika Sly i Gu lpeece To lepec p|¢ 19 elec |p scape led ea alae Tel ace eal (a @ baie eae iealiey Sot yee liga [Senstige ies cham 8 egl ee et a a Se a a Se Theda tr de bebo Beste Nees s| Set eels eel Foy Gale es jt ae ge | 28 | 98 | se | Fe | ee | ce | Te |.08 | 62 | 82 | 28 | 92 | Gz | FB | 2 | ee | 1% | OF | GT | ST | 2T | OT | ST | FT “BAIR, AG JIMA JO SUTAVOT OF 330 JO SuTyo,ey Wor ou} oyY Suteq ‘sup paytoods ut pomed Surpoaay yo yFue'yT “ Ame Wo ieee ws eeesees Ps ep. rss = wines Ses Se CZ Sosa sas toes nanan ne aT ‘span =plA -1pul “FuTYO.RY JO ageq Jo 1aq -WnN "Cl6L “xayy “N ‘yjamsoy ‘poog puooas ay2 fo xruv) ypow-buypoo fo porwad burpaef fo ybueT— AIX @IAVL + 9 eS . §5888°—Bull. 429—17——2 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 16 OSVIOAY 1 COShbeen laa seme seis HECOU) UC |i |S |G ie 1s |e yO |S he Pe Pe 1 |e Sein a tS Ai i ee We NS LW @ Weg [Pepecesoserese 12301 | 602 OL 63 (cid ah oe on ora ick : | prea aac panoler alba fasee ress] gp eees|eeee]ee- seecleseel gz i clay yo Beseeeeokatboccteae a L&C ST GG 2°61 aegis ray pis Gy ale eal poodles Palpees pro [ooca (scoala: 3. |pecaisnont ta. seco [boi ales eefereel gp fep 0 feceereeeeseeeee eee “02 L8T 9T GG 8° Sil ee tadalhe eee BBE SEB ee see lini pel pages wo eh aap sa eres [te ee T T T z ellie secre I T }@ 0 [ttcccttct rere cece 61 6h 12 8% Oi Gan (Seogeees ecole gore S|\peceajpese cecfocee| p fecee[osec[eece[esee|esec}osc] Po fecee|oeec|orec[eraeferee|enee| 0 [eceeseeceeeeceeneee a 191 sI Te (Oe ne Pee ee aelaaaioes a Seal ge Ipoesesesfstabecleasat rg |: Roceieccolscacl(t; “perdi ben poso loca | secnocnoendenconcce ar 118 61 8% (6 (deed mer peel al 2 ee Seslgee eee phe clees sefeeeel ge [og |eeeefeeeetee-t | |g feel g . ose] Gente Leccatpeacdarsladios a 00T LG 18 PE fpecspsooetse | ap _|pees|esoe|ie=saioaclloone sevefecee|ieee] Po [esec[ecee[eoe fare e[aree|eeee|e-ee] Fe e[eee Sapae. Saal be Gonedencoaeaptess ab PSE LT T§ 9°CS ae Ae egal ge notice kta Beale T 2 2 z in [82221 6) T e T T Ball ppp ||ee2 222 shoe ecos ob ecm a PLE 9 Ké 8°36 ee a eee es P Be tne ie species: ae Ws ealiosac|o25o} |r cell a wefesee| q feces] gp 0 [eeseteere reese seers eT 16€ ST 6 Leth Cras | Spa ete See |e oe aay sara ee a \z ° eel @ [eeeolnosal @ «| ap |i @ lq [ep |rccetcct cesses ZI 986 AT ve SSCs |e Eades pe dees egal ca aia [sc SiS ideal ee sells peer eleanor iat ees ff Pecdesester | ese see cs eonaa aan aee II CFG GT (69 606 cts tea [Teele ee Salts melts z : a | Ves | eet |S I I G I I (4 dC) Ur etoee | rea Sete eee ee OL 891 61 LE 0°82 PSE HIS POE call cea pe eres ees [anes Toe lane aioe 9 esoellooe : To| to lercctccctereefeeee] gece e eee ere eee eee 6 SLT ST 86 8 61 capella eee lessee 5 Heit a eaten rae iE [eee 1 7 Poloaoe li le deisel 116 9 [rrccrttcrt et tteccee 8 816 LT 1x6 8 61 ia | cae are ess | ees Bar il (6 cs T T T g Zz Sle heh (aie al Poor on iret ! 866 oT FG €°16 a's |beceed| eee Tee sirap 5 iss ipucerect | teers aes je Stee he T e c te Seal Alen aos : T my PerBosasosoroccapas 9 666 8T fP 6°SZ | Grit es| pecans jesus sata ere 5 25|(r a ORS T T Haeeool| Fg I T T 1T T : oye «(Pewee eee oesonpecce ¢ 866 G 9¢ 9°38 5 BS aisle Tend Zeon os ictsligaiees S8l| qe eece|leacaloocal} 7) |sooc|seoc|asac|oasc|lsccc|aaon 3c sf yp [estest ete es eee eeee p OFF GG 8& 6°16 SS TE HAE pealig Rates: jie hea cael aT Wiese hia all eal 2 8 <-|- os: : : Ol Gp |iseeoeeeeacesdecsene e L¥ &% x6 G°Ss PES PSbR | Bone ats ae CaaS I eJpeae|pseatseoalcsoolosaey ap | a - -|-- ceefeseeleeee] Zo [eeee tees esse eres eee z CF 06 6G 01% eae Sale anand | Mania ellis al Soak eal Res ae Pal Westar oa el Nes es ee | oe |e BARC et Ease cal 55 Sibel Giese el | eee as ea tees ae T Aqng 8T 8I 81 0'ST ms | getline 5 So |hiesgia ol bn p ° 2 : T - So)scol| Fi.0 4 |seenoccvoccenac ++ -9¢ 67 9T LT € 91 eee Sela al | ee a z pepe Sees ast = . vecjeeee|eeee|----)---- sacol eh i “|g 0 |eeeeeereeeeeese se 9z aune ? V4 7 = a | 5 e “s7en ‘skep | -skep | -skep | PF | 8€ | LE | 98 | Se | Fe | ee | ce | Te | OF | 62 | 82 | 2z | 92 | Gz | FZ | es | oe | 12 | Oc | ET | ST] zt] or] et] csI ehcp nova |) csnatin, | eRe | PENPU -gurqoiny Jo séeq TOL | cong | -txey | -s0ay YOce| Z ‘skep poyloeds ur porsed Surposy Jo y3ueT “UN 616L “xayy “N “lamsoy ‘yjow buypoos ay) fo xaun) poo.g-puoras burwaquin fo burpaaf fo yybuaT— AX ATAVI, ‘sAep G7 ‘wunurutu ‘skep pp st ported umuUltxew oyy, “oTpRaott8s SI} JO @BAIv] our - 10] ULM pue SUIMIIOJSUBIY TIOG TOF skep EZ 1Z JO osvIOAR UB YIM pojsvd}UOD Sv UOTZBALOSGO JopuN JoquINU o11}Ue oY} LO} poptoood st sAvp 11°ZG JO 9svIOAB UY “puNojog AVUE S[eNpPTAIPUL [17% YILM SUOT}VALOSGO Jo s}TNSed AX QV, 0} soUedojor AY PUB “UOTZVIOUIS OWLS OY} JO RAIL] SUTULIOJSUBI] OY} JO esoy WIOIZ poyvavdos o1aM Poor puodeS 9y} JO VAIL] SULIEJULM Jo potted SUTpoe} Jo Y}SUET oY} UO splooer eyYT—'xauy) buwaqun fo powad burpaaf fo ybuaT LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 17 Larval life vn the cocoon.—The length of the period of time which the larvz require to construct a cocoon preparatory to pupation or wintering, is found to vary considerably when large numbers of the larvye are kept under observation. In Table XVI will be found the results of observations on 282 individual insects. Of this number 70 larvz required 5 days, and an average period of 5.16 days is found to exist. The maximum time was 17 days; minimum, 1 day. Taste XVI.—The making of cocoons of the second generation of the codling moth, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Length of ning period in ifie Q a Num- ength of cocooning period in specified days Rersele uaa WAKES eof ber of aed aaueren || TeausnTn Total leaving fruit.|individ- | a g FEse. || Gens days. uals. |1|2/3)4|5|6/7/8| 9 /10/11/12/13/16\)17| C5: ayiSo || CNS ay (eae he Te yee eee fen Fea ee Fea Selb 3.0 3 3 3 fo ee SG 0 | aN aN 5 ar pg a Ce a Let Ue 4.5 3 7 18 (ie) Pal ees Hees | ApH ik Dispel | eee l(t eee | ee |e 4.3 4 5 26 POMS ES ICON ete AN [eet ca et | nen e Re Oe 4.2 2 6 50 | ee eee ila S54 | seg saa | cae || 4.0 3 5 20 ibs ed Ses atk Soa eaters pst [es | ee eae 5.2 3 16 62 aes APD {al | $3 Vea Bee 5.4 4 a 38 5] 1 [Be [ei tel a eae fae 5.6 1 12 28 5 BD )y We Wel ee | a 4.8 4 6 24 iin HD Ne esa 1 6.4 3 17 70 aleee AAS Salo lee ae 6.0 3 9 72 1oy|ee SSH osteo s soa mel 5.3 4 7 63 (i ae aS | 55 |baello8_|Gsale 4.8 4 5 29 1 ee |4/3)4) 1]... 5.8 4 13 75 | rae ae | |EA pees e heon F D 5.0 5 5 10 Sie pore el ies eat on [EBS B07 2 6 30 F/\ eal Poa. WT] (a) FE Bealsae 5.6 2 8 39 SAN | Ae abel TD ark [ee al bs ol fees al eal Me Teg || ae 4.8 2 10 19 PA |, BM BN BAW al STE Se Oe 4.3 1 8 91 ime | eal A hen Sealey eco [foe |e set |g re eae 5.4 3 10 113 Sale eee Ril Qahili 52k: F- Le | es ee 6.0 3 11 48 6 |. Seal TL 3 Ws ae oem ale 5.8 4 8 35 SHeea|f 23 SEES Ns Sal Gy ieee AU] 2 6.1 4 12 49 Fe Le al pe (ene a |e PO ag | 1 7.6 6 12 53 Aug, 1... st | ESSE ars Lies Si re HERE Bee a Se 4.8 2 a 52 2 ae 7f, We Ber Tl (ae) rte 1S | Ur ate ae ee || calle Sa a 4.7 2 7 33 cues TE | opel ESL Teh | Sa TR TU) FP HR haa 4.7 3 7 33 ABE 3. SAEED | ea Se Tike rz? | ea | eI Ee | nl fie |e LR 5.3 2 8 147 Be. AV gx: Seals SVAN Mag tal pees | a SIE LE eat lt se 4.8 4 6 19 622A Fol paca) bt Nie Za TG TR a 2 dl 4.4 2 8 31 je ta 0 WS eZ PT PO PE a ea oe en 3.0 2 4 15 mia T78 SVE ate ae aT te (ria Ti | co 8.3 6 9 25 gee | el ieee Gen TEM erro pale | Leg Verses | ee | eee eee [eee |e 5.7 4 7 17 UL ae 75, 5% ees Vo aS Ae | aE Ae. | 3 tea et 4.0 4 4 8 jh eee i ig | Sg Pe tes eS AR TOs te sl 8 [eee mae 7.0 7 7 7 1 eae WN ec 4 all cla AT 2 eh Bilis 1 2) ei | Se 5.0 5 5 5 Total 282 | 3 |14 |25 |68 |70 |53 27 185 Od) 0) Beal, lela Erb eg Al LA a 1,457 THE SECOND BROOD OF PUP. Time of pupation.—Investigations show the earliest recorded pupation of individuals of this brood to have occurred July 14, and the latest on August 31. Actual pupations are thus shown to cover a period of 48 days. (See Table XVII.) Length of pupal stage.—A record on the length of the pupal stage was established from observations with 211 individuals, and reveals the fact that the pupal period varied from 8 to 19 days. The average period was 11.23 days. These records are found in Table XVII. 18 BULLETIN 429, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe XVII.—Pupal stage of second brood codling moth, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Length of pupal period in days. : NUE 2 Pereee > Aver- | Mini- | Maxi-) 44) Date of pupation. indi- age | mum} mum days viduals. 8 | 9 | 10| 11] 12/13]14!15| 16/17/18] 19] G@ys- | days. | days. July 14.... 15) |. 12 | 2 10 12 156 Ue so 4}. iH eSrs le 9 11 42 AL GER acne sete 5 ie rl Ileal 10 10 50 Ls EN ee Hs 1) 2) 2). 9 11 51 ae ees eer ses erae TE Ne Besa Che 11 11 77 1 OP eS ee 15 Th 5H) fe 9 16 163 2 (sera iene 3 Dar 15 S1OsitonlS 10 11 155 G7) Vet ene Sores Se 14 -| 315 10 13 158 DAES Pa eee ese 16 Alea | eee [eed 9 12 169 Dae ae Noe ONE 13 of BF 10 12 144 DA ee aia iia seeps 2 peas so i) 13 25 DORN aces ee orare L 1 Slee (ott | 11 11 11 PROSENSE Beers ees carn @) ESAs alpha. 3} 10 12 103 PA eis eae WO \osclosalh 244) 1/1l- 10 13 110 Oa a he ae oe ee UW) Wecalscolh Gr et 10 12 118 Oa a ge fms a By ee Nea eeiseclts 10 19 67 3 Oe a eee ae BF ey Wb esallesele 8 13 30 3 Be Aa ee eran DW Me Slog ey Io 11 11 22 EAT Oey [ay Eee 14/1 Guia 8 13 153 DEE UA Soa 3 |. es il 12 34 Oe one 8 |. Apert foals 10 14 |- 89 PAR Seco ee Sule Te yee 10 11 32 Se aes reese ere ib ie DS ee eel eel bas 9 9 YR eeu Gas doar nes iat |e S10) tas a .| 11.09 11 12 122 UO es acs Be na ae rer Zee W232 Nel. Ae as alr dal 11 11 22 SAS pee cease ere PY Nh Ea Peg eal Nigh [a =|| ul 10 12 22 A a eee 2 |e 2 [pc 7a oct peep ea | Sees 11 11 11 22 aL Ge ee cieae 8} aera ees 2 a ee Fer 11. 66 11 13 35 1 hy fk ve a ena eee ih he na ese | 0 agar Ba es | Para al) 1 12 12 12 UD ec pe en le Ne BAe oil oas BGT atl beac ed 11.5 11 12 23 PAVE es cee nee ane ys Sele Loy ps Mee | eae eae eae ee 11 11 11 iL DO Hcp eee ot hh BOS 2h le aaa 1 1 14.5 13 16 29 PANG cena eee a iL ie aN Fe Pe 1 18 18 18 18 GANGS ea Nae cae ay tee 7} || 5 1 a TRS Wi (ea eee le 10 9 11 20 eo La eget ae I a aS a Ra) Hh a 2 hk 10 10 10 10 | | Mo tales sae PAL WON fh VG) KOS TE | 7p eb ee Te a aL aL P23) Nea a ae ae eee 2,314 THE SECOND BROOD OF MOTHS. Time of emergence.—The records on time of emergence of codling moths of the second generation may be found in Table XVIII. The earliest emergence of this brood occurred July 18, when nine moths emerged. Emergence continued more or less regularly until a maximum number of 242 was reached on August 7. The last -emergence of which record was made occurred September 11. LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 19 TasLe XVIII.—Time of emergence of codling moths of the second generation, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Date of emergence. a anne Date of emergence. Nuubels Salyers sss se = 9 Aug. 16 114 19 ee 11 70 200 r ae eee 23 55 PA Eee oe 10 66 Qo Gass gases 44 36 7A SOC oE 58 33 2 Nae ae ee 68 40 DOs meee nce 100 44 2OUe se eee 93 29 A heescccsanes 47 22 OT ESSER te 91 17 OA es esp 145 32 B0bsaess ae bee 121 16 Sie ese 72 16 PAUSE PUES ers oe ae 178 10 iste rereisie averse 125 6 Shaseciaeasne 99 Sept. 6 Ae wcities eae 199 9 Deas sees 181 ul. Gees ssseke: 216 4 (pba RACH ase 242 1 Sessa 179 2 Qe isgecassss 109 1 1A ae a med 194 1 1 ae ase epee 152 1 Nee ty 167 WBS. see eat 166 1 ee Seereeacs 55 ; a (ee ete 56 Total.....-.| 3,848 Moths from band record larve.—In all, 5,320 larvee of the second brood were collected systematically from banded trees in orchards and kept in cages in order that records might be obtained on emerg- ence of moths from such sources. From the total larve secured in this way there emerged 3,848 moths, thus showing that 72.34 per cent of the larvee under observation proved to be transforming larve. These records are shown in Table XIX. Taste XIX.—Number of codling moths emerging from second-brood larve collected. systematically from banded trees and kept in cages. Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. ; Number | Number . Number | Number 7 Date of collection. At arasell ota orhs) Date of collection. of larvss. |ofmoths. ON fase (eae apa 66 57 Arges Ome sence 235 159 10 ae 179 162 LS eoeseen 261 131 Cr a ar ee 303 249 DD Stee 232 73 et owwd aes 451 372 MD Arie cibad 142 28 AD Seis te tna 410 368 dee ae are 110 20 pS Pee re 609 530 Ae sh sceites 88 12 24 BA eee 678 596 kare pataiars etoie 86 2 22 Cee 623 483 Llineratians ae 88 1 i ee Aer 399 354 eet SO ea (Aen yas aaa ono 360 251 Totals «ccne 5,320 3,848 The rate and duration of the emergence of codling moths of this brood is described graphically in figure 3. Asshownin Table XVIII, a maximum number emerged August 7, various fluctuations having occurred preceding that date and continuing throughout the period, 20 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The time of oviposition in orchards may be determined with fair precision from the combined data on the habits of the moths in captivity and from the results of the rearing experiments. In conducting the experiments, the results of which are shown in Table XX, eggs of the codling moth were readily obtained by con- fining a number of moths together in cages. It is not possible by this method to determine the number of eggs thus produced, but the time and period of egg deposition can be ascertained. SLY AUGUST SLEPTIEMEL? | ROQHA TRE LETTS © VEOH QL TELLS] BIH WAFHONTHQIVRNG [| SCUARREGeeqaaeeeeaeel | eee i EH PELE Ee \ | IE || Zi : ‘ : WUMEBER OF 1IO774F oRd Re hrgss = y / (oc | Bo UMCUUELLE: FEEL UT: Fig. 3.—Emergence curve of codling moths of the second brood, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. (Original.) The results show the average length of time from emergence of moths until first oviposition to be 2.2 days; maximum, 4 days; minimum, 2 days. The average length of the period for the destion of oviposi- tion was 7.1 days; maximum, 12 days; minimum, 1 day. From time of emergence to last oviposition the average was 9.3 days; maximum, 14 days; minimum, 6 days. LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 21 _ TABLE XX_.— Eq deposition by codling moths of the second brood, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Date of— Days— Cage. | Number | ‘loiegiae | No. one * | Emer- | First Last | Before | or oyipo-| _&™me! percase-! gence | ovipo- | ovipo- | ovipo- See gence to of moths.| sition. sition. sition. a a last ovipo- sition. ee 26 | July 18 | July 21 | July 28 3 7 10 ee = 14 19 23 24 4 1 5 3.- 28 20 24 26 4 2 6 fas 26 al 24 29 3 5 3 5... 37 22 24 29 2 5 7 6.. 30 23 26 | Aug. 3 3 10 13 ‘ies 36 24 26 4 2 9 11 == 32 29 27 8 2 12 14 Qu... 40 26 28 2 2 5 a NOSE, 40 27 29 10 2 12 14 abil 43 28 30 6 2 i 9 1 eee 40 29 Bil 7 2 a 9 1B eee 47 30 | Aug. L 8 2 7 9 1 40 31 : 2 12 2 10 12 15. . 43 | Aug. 1 3 u) 2 6 8 16.) 45 2 4 10 2 6 8 Uae 47 3 5 14 2 9 il 18.. 52 4 6 14 2 8 10 LOE 33 5 7 11 2 4 6 20 43 6 9 19 3 10 13 7) ae 40 7 9 14 2 5 7 7d as 50 8 10 19 2 9 11 7 ee 40 9 il 23 2 12 14 PAs ee| + 33 10 13 22 3 9 12 20: 25 34 11 13 24 2 11 13 7 eee 38 12 14 23 2 9 il 74, ete 25 13 15 23 2 8 10 7s nae 30 14 17 22, 3 5 8 29 30 15 17 24 2 7 9 30 35 16 18 29 2 il 13 31 35 17 19 25 2 6 8 32 40 18 20 27 2 7 9 5s ees 37 19 21 27 2 6 8 34 30 20 22, 28 2 6 7h Oe ice 33 21 23 28 2 5 w 36 27 22 24 30 2 6 8 37 43 23 25 Sept. 5 2 1 13 Does os 27 24 26 4 2 9 il 39 20 25 27 3 2 7 9 40) 17 26 28 3 2 6 8 41 32 27 29 4 2 6 8 42 17 28 30 4 2 5 uf Ch pee 24 29 31 5 2 5 7 44 10 31 | Sept. 3 6 3 3 6 ABE 16 | Sept. 2 8 3 3 6 AN GTACC GAYS 5 Foss. les bis 'ac sevice ninjessogeeeren 2.2 (hea! 9.3 WIMSRIIOUD OAS ce ate tees snes cece ens ss nneerent 4 12 14 Minimise a d2o 2. dac. cece cers eee ae 2 1 6 2} BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Length of life of moths —Observations in this connection were made with a total of 1,416 moths confined in cages in order to secure mortality records. The results obtamed with this number of indi- vidual moths give the average length of life of male moths to be 5.49 days; female moths, 7.58 days; maximum length of life of male moths, 12 days; female moths, 24 days; the mmimum length of life of moths of both sexes is identical, 2 days. These records may be found in Table XXI. TaBLE XXI—Length of life of male and female codling moths of the second brood. Summary of records of 1,416 individual moths, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Male. Female. - Number Number Length of life. of Length of life. of moths. moths cooscooorRwWwMs9 Average length of life of male moths, 5.49 days; average length of life of female moths, 7.58 days; maxi- mum length of life of male moths, 12 days; maximum length of life of female moths, 24 days; minimum length of life of male moths, 2 days; minimum length of life of female moths, 2 days. LIFE CYCLE OF SECOND GENERATION. In order to secure accurate data on the length of the life cycle of the codling moth of the second generation, observations were conducted by means of which the length of time from the date of egg deposition to emergence of moth could be determined. A total of 283 individual moths were used in this test, and the results show a range of varia- tion in the life cycle from 32 to 68 days, with an average period of 41.26 days. These results are shown in Table XXII. 25 119 “TT 9¢ 008 LIT £0 GLZ 68 99T aad 9¢8 tS 11g OIL ‘T ZE8 Soe OGL 688 ‘T oer 988 Org 18S 18 Ch 06 £98 *shep 1210, LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. *skep mon ut “TXB 9€ vE 9€ G& 98 LE 8& 68 LE ve ¥E 9€ && 68 te LE LE tte vE GE ZE 96 96 Ge *shup coMut “TOL, 96 TP 0°98 GL 068 9°0F €6E IP GTr Laas 8 °F 9 TF VPP 9 GP 9° TF v OF 0'0F 6 1F £68 9°8& (alike 6 TP 0°LE 8 OF 00F 9°0F e238 “10A VW T |e |%@ |t |2 1% |2 | St] 8 | | OF | OF | Ss} AT) TE} 92) ST} er} 9 | 8 “skep 89 | #2 | €9 | Zo | TS | OF | 6F | SF |. Lh | OF | Sh | FF) Sh] Sh) Th | OF | GE | SE | 2} 98 | SE | FE *MOT}e10U09 OUTES OT} JO Sdd0 JO MOTZTSOdep Jo our} OI] SAup poyToods UT pesioUTe STOW ee | ae |senpra “Ipul yO 0q “WY Aine “oT eung *aorrsodep F3e jo eyed "BI6L “xan “N ‘“1)amsoy ‘yjow buypoo ayy fo woynsauab puooas ay? fo apolio afy fo ybueT—JIXX @IAVI, BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 24 *eL'¢ “uoryeqnout skep jo Joqumu esei0Ae ‘Tz9‘T ‘S830 [[e Joy Moryeqnour skep [eI0,, Male Se ge 92 “TP £86 Saas esi (S Poe CONG £86 Pagueea eo |e nmaee St ci | Oissa) €8G sees meee es oO OE €8Z Webra as ERG 9¢ 9€ O98 |T II II OTT I i ¥ 0'T I 91 91 0°91 I ¢ (CUmeeeiye hsp caesar OT &F #8 EA mG LOI | 8 8 i gs [8 ae pe pate Se Came arte ees cL Las 96 06S | & Or O1 OOr |e 6 g a) re IZ OL LLT e ral @ 0 [reeecce trees sere es 7 i Gé 907 |S 96 OL SFI | ¢ L g 9'F G LI +1 9 ‘CT G CZ Go |eeeee tte scec steers eT vy 96 ee | L &1 OL Lae Pe 8 j ey 12 VG LI Ot | 2 Ge fo rete eae eee ral oF LE Gp | 2 as OL 8'0T | 2 9 Z 6'F L 8% 91 9 ‘61 L OP Bo [peewee tere tees te eee OL ef 8e oh | F ZI 6 OIL |F y F Go | F ia LI O-eL | F 1% eM SSE EEE 2 6 €¢ 6€ FPP | OL €1 OL €'1l OT 8 € cg Or 86 SI £16 0) 09 Ol S01 Ge eine aera 8 Lp LE 8'tr | 06 rae & € OT | 02 L g 6S | 02 8S LT Giz | 0z FIL (ye) |P2e2vaseoaaPocoK L LY igs Q'Ih | &I 91 8 OTL | &I 9 j oF &T GZ CT €-1Z eT G9 CT) |eesaasasess ene =e 9 89 ve vr |k 1G Or Ue | Il z 71'S L 98 91 LIZ 2D Gr Tie \eeseepapauecooocaccc $ vg 9€ 9°CF | 96 ST 8 § ‘OT 9G ae 6 8°¢ 9% CE LT 0°16 9G LPL OCs [Etec es ahs ae eee g OF €€ 9h | 06 las 6 TIL 0G OT € €°S 0G &@ las C61 0Z LIL OC eee ees cae rane See “qT Ae tS 6& por | 4 &T gi AS €I g Dep NP, 8Z gt OT ‘IZ Ge po [pret ese e eb e esse o 0g 6 && OOF | 8T &I 8 8 ‘OL | 8T L fé vy? 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UO spsodas huvwmwng— ]I{TXX @IavL “AVP ZL'O JN Jo ooueLeyIp vB suteq o10T “TTX X [4@L UI U9ATS Sv ofoXd OFT JO YSU, oy YYLM ATosoTo AIOA puOdsed109 07 puNoj sI wns sIyy, ‘Shep gETP Jo 9foAd OF [e109 B SMOYS S$9.5V]S [VIOAOS OY} JO YOVS JOPUN UOALS SOINSY osvioAv oy} Jo posodwmos wns y “[ITXX ®][q¥, Ul pozizeurumms are ednd pure ‘vary ‘950 JO sosvys S}I UL JOU SuT[poo oy} Jo yuetIdoPAep Jo oUt} OYJ UO Sp1OdeL poyepNUMIDY LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 25 THE THIRD GENERATION. THE THIRD BROOD OF EGGS. Length of incubation—In Table XXIV will be found the results of 96 observations of eggs of the codling moth in an endeavor to determine the length of the several stages from time of deposition until hatching occurs. The average length of time from date of depo- sition to the appearance of the red ring was 3.22 days; maximum, 5 days; minimum, 2 days. The average time until the appearance of the black spot was 4.22 days; maximum, 6 days; minimum, 3 days. From date of deposition until time of hatching the average period was 5.75 days; maximum, 9 days; minimum, 4 days. TaBLeE XXIV.—Length of incubation of third brood of eggs of the codling moth at Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Date of— Days for— Se SSS SSS OS OS SSD SA SD OT SD © SD © SD OSD. G1 SD C1 SD. G1 SD. GA. HD OT SD. G1 GS OT OT . Number Observation No. Appear- of eggs Ovipo- Appear ance of | Hatch- | Red | Black | Incu- sition. Patan black ing. ring. | spot. | bation. ring. spot lina 5a2- Seat ooee eeee 53 | July 22) July 24] July 25] July 26 2 3 Ue oc ears SE eee 46 22 24 25 27 2 3 43 240 3S SS es 112 23 26 27 28 3 4 EL alae. Be Re ee See eee 30 23 26 27 29 3 4 ee Ee eh eens in, 120 24 27 28 29 3 4 th 05: SS eee 26 | 24 27 28 30 3 4 (3 ARO Le eee 506 | 25 28 29 30 3 4 ost, Se es a 42 25 28 29 on 3 4 eee anne we se nue ol 401 26 29 30 31 3 4 Ue les oo Be ee 103 26 29 30 | Aug. 1 3 4 Li, sae" = Be a ey 342 27 30 31 il 3 4 L580) Se SS ee 127 27 20 31 2 3 4 (Gis = - ee 192 28 31} Aug. 1 4 3 4 PR eee rs oes Siscicls S 46 28 31 1 3 3 4 Ot nn eset Se eee 203 29) Aug. 1 2 3 3 4 CL oie BE aes ee 151 29 1 2 4 3 4 YE OAL Be AS Ae ees 341 30 2 3 4 3 4 Li el ee ee as 85 30 2 3 5 3 4 U4 ad Se ee Se ene 432 31 3 4 5 3 4 2 Ube ase of ene eee 70 31 3 4 6 3 4 71 8 Be athe jal) Aug. 1 4 5 6 3 4 By ee 1 eb) 1 4 5 7 3 4 Mike oe EEE OEE EE EE | 195 2 5 6 7 3 4 fe eee ie A ee | 15 2 5 6 8 3 4 CS a ea eee 160 3 6 o 8 3 4 21 fa 2 See Se } 15 3 6 7 9 3 4 DI aco Som wining = } 227 4 # 8 9 3 4 Ce ae Ber i! fae 2 te | 5 4 a 8 10 3 4 OF Ln ey 5 pngene a iat i ee Ry a 158 5 8 9 10 3 4 TAR GE = So iniw 9 5 95 tops om bin oy 12 5 8 9 11 3 4 Coe ace ee pe eee pay eee 100 6 9 10 11 3 4 Td Se ee 8 6 9 10 12 3 4 lies on Ee eee a ees 100 7 10 lL 12 3 4 Pui eate ini Bam op ite ae sin < oe 2 7 10 11 13 3 4 PE race et acne ta cc 307 8 11 12 13 3 4 1 ee 102 8 11 12 14 3 4 flee OS Se Spee 195 9 12 13 14 3 4 5 US SS eerie 12 9 12 13 15 3 4 6 Ce a a eee | 300 10 13 14 15 3 4 5 IEE oe Ssh ne Seiciak aa a ates 16 10 13 14 16 3 4 6 MEE ee os RG ooo hak Wo amis 90 11 14 15 16 3 4 5 i ER OEP ae eer: ee 110 11 14 15 17 3 4 6 RETR Ais vv clas pce aie tan o's 104 12 15 16 17 3 4 5 kL Bap ER eRe SES ee ee 6 12 15 16 18 3 4 6 Se OPP ee 80 13 16 17 18 3 4 5 | Cie sh) } ute tea eo epee eee 180 13 16 17 19 3 4 6 [SR ee Poe eee 200 14 17 18 19 3 4 5 pL es cg i pees oe Ps ee Oe 109 14 17 18 20 3 4 6 LOSS a eee 207 15 | 18 19 20 3 4 5 115 Se ED Pee Re ee ee 77 15 18 19 21 3 4 6 Lee, PE Se ee, ea 60 16 19 | 20) | 21 3 4 5 1 0 SER DED so eee ee 80 16 19 20 22 3 4 5 I, iS See ee a ee are 116 7 20 21 22 3 4 6 0 ee ee ey eee 6 17 20 21 23 8 4 6 26 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XXIV.—Length of incubation of third brood of eggs of the codling moth at Roswell, N. Mex., 1912—Continued. Date of— Days for— F Number Observation No. _ | Appear- of eggs. | Ovipo- | APPC2T | ance of | Hatch- | Red | Black | Incu- sition. WoAl ain black ing. ting. | spot. | bation. 2 8. spots. ; Aug. 18 | Aug. 21 | Aug, 22 | Aug. 23 3 4 5 18 21 22 24 3 4 6 19 22 23 24 3 4 5 19 22, 23 25 3 4 6 20 23 24 25 3 4 5 20 23 24 26 3 4 6 21 24 25 26 3 4 5 21 24 25 27 3 4 6 22 25 26 27 3 4 5 22 25 26 28 3 4 6 23 26 27 28 3 4 5 23 26 27 29 3 4 6 24 27 28 29 3 4 5 24 27 28 30 3 4 6 25 28 29 30 3 4 5 25 28 29 31 3 4 6 26 29 30 31 3 4 5 26 29 30 | Sept. 1 3 4 6 27 30 31 1 3 4 5 27 30 31 2 3 4 6 28 | Sept. 1 | Sept. 2 3 4 5 6 28 |- 1 2 4 4 5 7 29 2 3 4 4 5 6 29 2 3 5 4 5 7 30 3 4 5 4 5 6 30 3 4 Galea 5 7 31 4 5 6 4 5 6 31 4 5 2 4 5 7 Sept. 1 5 6 7 4 5 6 1 5 6 8 4 5 7 2 6 7 8 4 5 6 2 6 7 9 4 5 7 3 7 8 9 4 5 6 3 7 8 10 4 5 7 4 8 9 10 4 5 6 4 8 9 11 4 5 7 5 9 10 11 4 5 6 5 9 10 12 4 5 iq 6 10 11 12 4 5 6 7 11 12 14 4 5 7 8 13 14 16 5 6 8 8 13 i4 17 5 6 9 MeeSodreid ae 3) weasel le semen ae Sse eee w ee 5 6 9 MEL eee ee aes ce esta| eterna SCE Soeeetel ata ec Hs Sie | Se ieee teal ese eae 2 3 4 INVOTAP CSc ets omen isiens sa sea ee eee eerls [sem erie sete les seen see | meleeciree leet 3.22 4.22 5.75 1 Exact number of eggs not recorded. Time of hatching—According to the records in Table XXIV hatching of eggs of this brood began July 26 and continued until after-the middle of September. A study of the table will show that hatching in greatest numbers was found to occur between August 1 and August 8. THE THIRD BROOD OF LARVA. Length of feeding period—A total of 829 individual insects were kept under observation in order to obtain the records found in Table XXV. During the progress of the experiments the transforming larve were not separated from the wintering larvee, which possibly influences the average length of the feeding period to some extent. The records given cover a variation in the length of the feeding period of from 15 to 56 days, or a range of variation of 41 days. The average length of the period was 26.55 days. 7 27 LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 9% re tae (Ne poe LI WTAE pe We ES ASS ae ot EEF ins | |e a sel te eae | 61 COS RS coptae | bes | ea ey ie eae |p 06 ATEN ee eae &% CHS A Ee ee ie 61 Ono Gime | ee |e 06 Gece et ee | as |e | ae pe ee 81 GF Conte a a | en | Ri | |p | 06 OS ast Coa lie | ee | erate || 02 eG WG ee 02 Cpa Cee he |e | | ee | es so 8T (aegis Ge |e ae | ee hee &@ iG ee 0G HES Ee oe oe IZ (Gin Goel | ea | | | fp | 81 OG Ne We ee ae 81 £16 : 81 TOs Gems | fe | peepee Wc PU 8T IZA Cream | | (fe | i 61 MG Ne yp = OT oe |e & VZV Cet Ws | ee | | 8t ORE alfa ae ees | UU 81 0 Comme ee | | ae eV | 81 £6 "FG 81 she [iS Coe | | cl tf |e (ca | | ST {10a Cpe | ee ie a ne | oT C0 iam he || | ret 9L VZA Teo | | ee || et es es LY REG (NP Wee kg Ie st fae tee ye 81 3 Ci |e fe | ee | | a | ei he LT ULC Crome | fie | ee | | iT || 61 SSIs coo | fe | | 1G (CC Cooma |e || et || 81 69 FS ' 5 81 C5) eps Fc feel Meg Rea ima pee |p aT ed aN aeaaa WaRt Sh 2 Ei SE cl [a eee ea Os Om OO =I GO re 5 = lh | ‘ . (On ' OO AN = To] +00 Sica cn oor GQ rion oir 1 ’ § red St OY) SH SH rt IN ON St rt 1D . 7 et om aS ‘sny re © i. os iD oe oF oO a + St HOI NID is D KANO oo = of 1a aie ten AMR re . (SPS ANONS 81 LL Cor | | eat | SB al Gee AL at | 2 iia oT ies Arayg | or eT -spenpEal } | | -rpuy | “Suqoyeq | JOuaq | joa ‘BAIV] Aq yMAJ JO SuyAva] OF 380 yo Suryoyey wrory ovayy oY} Suyoq ‘sAup payyoods uy poried Suypeey yo yySueyT | “WAN < ‘ | ‘sfup | ‘shup 99/69) 1¢ og GFISh LE OPISh PP! EF | SP] 1h | OF | 6E| SE) 28) 9E| SE! FE | SE) SE | TE] OF | 6% | $7 | 2%} 9%) SZ) €6/2o} 1% mnu | ot ‘ eed “TUT, | -loAV ‘6I6L “aay *N ‘Yomsoy ‘aiaun) yyow-buypoo pooug pug fo porwad burpaef fo yybuaeT— AXX AIAVI, BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 28 GrnOca ame alae eg'92 | jt 2 2 |t |p pit ie le lo je |r je |2 2 |o lex|s Jet Jot [pt loc loc |ze lez |ez |se |ze |so Jeo |19 oor {rz |ss jzo let js |t |ecs ee Tig ee iggy. 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SIRS Sea 10% ee Bel eal else sal eH seine aaa se set foal et peboou| eral secllasa oop aells2oios>) sea [oeu malic - [paceodiaclisce Sales aii Giri cymes Cte: Cun esl ales sll les lea lpalpel tan leaalee alec siecle I Peele, 234|/58a)}>2||2eel|ac/osa)| 30" fo2]290} 28 [oan 25] =paosela aap face bon Dalal pat aut, de | ele Pe Peles Poe Papa Sees eoleectio i (ie im eeaies eee S86][s69]) 585] Sel) sso) eu fne|[speloos (926 en] 1e0]}oondbe|ec|ppaniod fms leap “01 ge, ite Ne Nee Pele Popes Pa Pali teaPes eee tse se satiate jaca oar segporeeotn Nr [Pes pecteesisot foealie |jpeesaq[esajase| oceans 36H fa50[) £6 way oe Naas hte Paes ie iret lea al Palio |u| eel esis |isee ae [ase Seale Peat oota ti Ir leeat [eee eas Pea leaps Bea seq asa face Peale cai es 06S 9S 96 ej Lsie2scoreen ||| | ft ss | | | hs a Cy ie | | Cpe ee | nol i Sapoal Hea teal Parra arrancones [Src | ceed boc desea at bP Bee fea qydog ~chep (99 /2S|TS 0S GF SP\zFlOFl¢r\FF| ef | 2h | TF | OF | | 8e| ze] 9¢| ce| Fe| ee) ce | Te |0e |6z|8z|2z\9z|sz|¥e|ez|ez| 1% |0z|6E}ST|2T| 91 | st |'srenpra ep lee fee eee [pur | “Surqoyey TROL | xeyy | -rarpy | -10ay SOSTOG etoeor acl “wAIvy, Aq qINIJ Jo SuTABET 0 330 JO SUTYO LY Woy oT, oy} Bureq ‘sAep peyloods ur ported Surpeej Jo yASUe'T, “WnN TAQ Jitay J TAROT 0} J TYyozey, J OUT} OY} oulad P pout T pol p -panuryu0)j—ZI61 “xan (N ‘jjamsoy ‘eaun) yjow-burypos pooig pury) fo porsad Burpaaf fo yybuaT— AXX AIAVL, LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 29 Larval observations with reference to the length of the cocooning period of this generation were limited to 26 individuals. Of this total the greatest number, 6, completed the construction of the . cocoon in 4 days. ‘The average length of this period was 6.48 days as compared with 5.24 days for the first brood and 5.16 days for the corresponding stage of the second generation. The records for the cocooning period for the third generation are found in Table XXVI. TaBLE XXVI.—The making of cocoons of the third brood of the codling moth, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Nia Length of cocooning period in specified days. Date of leaving | ber of Aver- | Mini- | Maxi- Total t age | mum | mum fruit. indi- days. viduals| 2/3 141/51|61]71|8 {9 |a1| 12] 14 | days- | days. | days. | SO . ileal rial tel eat alt co ea | an a) sae 3 4 7 Fpl fra sed Poe pl a ied Be 3 3 3 delete qelacen| = locculieee lene: s oP 07h 4 4 4 71 | etic oe (aa pace Peel ap ea y= 8 (hea : a e400 4 4 4 Bla | FD Cece aa ae 2 Be : Tele eeu G 2 4 6 Seal rel. eee fi iiuee lo BB 5 8 1B 2 ea cra ri evens ; eats 6 7 3 2 Helivbalieae be rele Sala GAS 4 9 B 1 Fal awa | ae ak oro 9 9 9 2 egal Lee rela laa Fj 8 1B 3 ivi a ed | ae oe | Heol G0 male aD 27 3 iid eel lbonel oo iver | ely | eeelenenlaa aoL3 8 bl 28 1 tele cal fea eee ad cecil lel mall marth 4 4 4 1 Place eolen Falyed| soe PC oisaaenth Gee) 14 4 4 2 Fel col ea al Sil E Wenge 5 12 17 | Tele heats || Bel en ze (SS | a ee a ee 175 THE THIRD BROOD OF PUP. Time of pupation.—Observations on pupation in the rearing cages extended from August 19 until September 10, and experiments in this instance were conducted with only 17 individual insects. The small number available is due to the fact that large numbers of the larvee of this brood proved to be wintering larve. Of those observed the greatest number having a specific period completed the pupal stage in 13 days. The average time for the entire number under obser- vation was 14.94 days; maximum, 20 days; minimum, 11 days. The detailed results are shown in Table XX VII. 30 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE XXVII.—Pupal stage of the third brood of the codling moth, Roswell, - Mex., 1912. Length of pupal period in speci- Num- fied days, being the time from pupation to emergence of moth. | Aver- | Mini- | Maxi- Date of pupation. ber of | Pup 8 Total er age | mum | mum i- dene: days. | days. | days. | 4¥S 11 | 12] 13 | 14} 15 | 17} 19 | 20 Nelle Pal Petey satay asian 1 20 20 20 20 1 a Fees 1 (ik he | il 11 11 11 1 Po oS ee eee | eee 11 11 11 11 rg ieee alee es 12 2 12 12 PY Ile ee | ela |S 1 14 13 15 28 ie Sel 1 15 15 15 15 |= 2 14 14 14 28 2 |: 2 Ese A eae 113 13 13 26 8) lis A al PE a bereees 1 1 W738) 13 20 52 iL He 1 15 15 15 15 MSs A eee se | Dees 1 19 19 19 19 LAA ced Wiesel ee eMC SAP 5 i 17 17 17 17 LOtal sesh ee Saas 17 2 ] 4 2 3 1 2 2 V4 594.40 = eee ee 254 THE 'THIRD BROOD OF MOTHS. Time of emergence.—The limited number of moths with which the observations found in Table XXVIII were made is in proportion to the decreasing number of transforming larve as the season pro- eressed. Emergence began September 38, and continued until September 28, thus covering a period of 25 days. TaBLeE XXVIII.—Time of emergence of moths of the third brood, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Date of Number emergence. of moths. PNR RE ON Ree Re Re e oO LIFE CYCLE OF THIRD GENERATION. While the number of individual insects under observation to deter- _ mine the length of life cycle of the third generation is notably smaller than in previous corresponding cases a sufficient number were observed to determine the length of the period very satisfactorily. The range of variation was found to be from 36 to 62 days, the great- est number, 3, having 48 days An average of 48.57 days is indicated for the third brood, as compared with 41.26 days for the corre- sponding’ period of the second brood, and 51.14 days for the first brood. (See Table X XIX.) ' LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 31 TaBsLeE XXITX.—Length of life cycle of the third generation of the codling moth, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. Num- | Moths emerged in specified days from time of deposi- tion ofeggs of the same generation. Aver-| Mini- i- Date of ege| sor] Gat) Maat | a eposition. | vidu- days. | days. | days. | 1@Ys- als. 36 | 40| 41/44 [45 | 46] 47} 48] 49] 50) 51 | 52] 54] 55) 60] 62 July 24...... 2 |. Ria a rl ERM ic a Ada5 ee Ale |= 216 bien 87 7. Sa A Was S| 1 el Sp ae (eee |e Wee nal eee 1} 55.0 48 62 110 72) ae CALLE 3 eo ee) i ape eee i Le el eee 1 1 51.5 45 60 206 B05 28: ees eel hoses tes lea loa ects esses boner 1/1 ae 45.7 36 51 137 hap) Fo | 5 a fe oe ea | eileen a 1 |e 50.3] 48 55 | 151 5 ee UE See ae a en ieee 1 aie 47.0 47 47 47 eee Fic ie nelle G56 ise il 1 Nae 50.5 47 54 101 Jee Aes tT) eee yt se bs | tal SiGe 40.0 40 40 40 Qe eS. 21 eee Pee at Ms eee Bac eel eee 44.0 44 44 44 TA) TE TE Te GES Te SSS TOE ab eae eal dy Tb aah Wetes eye oes eee aa 923 In Table XXX is brought together a condensed summary of records dealing with the codling moth of the third generation, show- ing the average length of the separate periods composing the life cycle of the insect. The average of the averages secured from the sev- eral stages recorded gives a total of 47.62. This sum when contrasted with the results as given in Table X XIX, shows a difference of but 0.95 days. Taste XXX.—Summary records on the time of development of the codling moth of the third generation in its stages of egg, larva, and pupa, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. 3 |B |S | Lengthof |S | Length ofeo- |3 Lengthof |S | Totallength of a 2 5 | feedinglarve.|.4 |cooning period.|.4 pupal stage. |. life cycle. = 4) | 3 _|34 G pa Dateofegg |°S| SISS) o q fel Slo Gil iaee S| o deposition, |.S\ss|_3|@. 12/2 |-5|@. (8/8 los} & |8 18 |e] (8 18 | 25|, |2>| 58 |BElBeSr| CB BeBe er] OB ESB ESE AS legieg AB i2Z lg | es lseieals | oefaatnalg | oe faaltrald | og taalia 5S |e 18 | eo lgujscls | po lsclkols | po lsulsdls | bo |salka 74S od See became state ae rsa othe et |) aeons =he thai aalecli (Est Ee Sriby), 23200932: CA MLON Geen LORD RLS aoe!) 625) plete pip Ad | ceeseral|e cieyeteia | seer ee revsee eee |e ae eS | 3/15| 3] 19.0} 18] 21] 2] 3.5] 3] 4] 2| 15.5] 11/20] 2) 43.5) 41) 46 Mires 224: PAWL con MES erty h7/4|[20))|| s2i ie uid tru meta |e | semen alma oe eee eee iss aoe AY ARAN ce 2a D551 | ede | poe pe |g! asm PPE aM Ol | Utero eee eel kage [Ee aya eg ees 7 ee ee 3/18) 3] 24.0] 23) 26) 3) 11.0) 7) 14] 2] 15.5] 12)19| 2] 55.0148] 62 2 en 4|24| 4 21.3] 20) 23] 4] 10.0) 8] 12] 4]14.3] 11] 20] 4] 51.5) 45] 60 ee 8/18] 3] 22.0] 16] 26] 1} 8.0] 8] 8] 1] 13.0]13]138|] 3] 45.6] 36] 51 1 He 2 5| 25] 5| 21.2) 16) 25) 5) 6.2) 2] 9] 3) 26:0) 14) 19) 3) 51.5) 48] 55 Berton: 1) 5} 1] 20.0| 20] 20} 1] 80] 8} 8] 1) 14.0] 14] 14] 1] 47.0) 47] 47 Gare s: Bio} da eae O 202798 || Gaeinea |S" 2 eH ON LSet ro oOo Ai | ee ee 1/ 5] 1) 16.0) 16) 16] 1) 4.0) 4) 4) 1) 15.0) 15) 15) 1| 40.0] 40) 40 Le eee 1} 5{| 1/ 20.0] 20] 20] 1) 4.0] 4] 4] 1] 15.0) 15) 15] 1] 44.0] 44) 44 | 30 |164 | 30 | 21.23)....].... 27 |, \Ouizal weeps lta 172, | 0145 9) |r| beers 19 | 47.61 Average length ofincubation period in days, 5.46. SEASONAL HISTORY OF THE CODLING MOTH DURING 1912. In figure 4 a summary is given in graphical form to illustrate the progress of the development of the codling moth in the course of the entire season of 1912. The shaded portions are arranged to repre- sent the periods in which the insect was prevalent in greatest numbers as determined by the average length of the several stages. The V-shaped characters appearing before the shaded portions show the 55888°—Bull, 429—17——3 32 BULLETIN 429, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, time at which it was possible for the stage to begin, while the dotted lines following the shaded areas represent a possible continuation of any particular stage as shown by observations which may, in many instances, represent extreme conditions. MARCH ~— APRIL AY SUNE SULLY ALG. SLEPT. OCT TH 9H9HNHHH9 HH HHH HN HNHOHNDHHY) HONSHOHONHSHOHOHS wo ee SRE CERES SCRE RURRH NERA U SCREEN SORTS NN tS EMERGENCE, A) OF OTHE > - LEPOSI7T7ION § 1 [| Se ale ‘ LARIAE LEAVING FRUIT , \y : ‘ QONATIOV q < Ni NS vy a Q ST STATE IN AN STEELE ELT ; STEELE a Fig, 4.—Diagram of the s seasonal history of the codling moth for 1912, Roswell, N. Mex. (Original.) BAND-RECORD LARV OF 1912. Throughout the season careful record was kept of larvee collected from banded trees in orchards, and the results of these observations appear in Table XXXI. Collections from field material began as early in the season as May 26, and continued regularly every three days throughout the season. In this way a total of 9,400 larve were collected, of which number 6,922 transformed and emerged as moths. Of the 6,922 moths which comprise the total emergence for both seasons, 4,636 moths appeared during the season of 1912, and 2,286 moths emerged from LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 33 overwintering larve in the spring of 1913. Of all the larve collected throughout the season of 1912, moths from the transforming larvee composed 49.32 per cent, almost one-half of the entire number. Moths emerging from wintering larve comprised 24.32 per cent of the total number, while 26.36 per cent of the larve died without transforming. TaBLeE XX XI.—Band records for the codling moth for the season of 1912, Roswell, N. Mex. Emergence records completed, 1913. Armbar Number | Number| Total Retention No Date of aera | moths | of moths | number | Number | Per cent R collecting. mallected emerged,|emerged,| moths, | of dead. | of dead. ‘| 1912. 1913. 1912-13. May 26 5 11 68.7 44 15 25.4 June 1 63 26 29.2 care 77 11 12.5 7 168 3 1.75 10 S13: |saaoonosos 0 13 67 5 6.94 16 73 17 18. 88 19 57 5 8.06 22 28 5 15.1 25 34 3 8.1 28 41 4 9.75 July -1 25 “i 21.87 4 22 17 43.6 7 58 8 12.1 10 162 17 9.5 13 248 55 18.1 16 372 79 17.5 19 368 43 10. 46 22 531 78 12.8 25 603 75 11.06 28 491 132 21.18 31 363 36 9.02 Aug. 3 274 86 23.9 6 194 41 17.4 9 184 17 29.5 12 159 73 31. 46 15 102 40 28.17 18 79 31 28.18 21 61 27 30.68 24 57 29 33. 72 27 52 36 40.9 30 54 52 49.05 Sept. 2 79 54 40.6 5 84 43 33.8 8 90 89 49.7 11 122 85 41.06 14 175 131 42.8 17 133 106 45.19 20 144 139 49.1 23 135 66 32.8 26 11 101 47.64 29 106 136 56.2 Oct. 2 59 53 47.3 5 88 92 51.1 8 | 99 50 33.55 11 72 77 51.7 14 52 15 22.18 17 45 16 26.2 20 61 43 41.34 23 18 17 48. 56 26 | 23 16 41.02 29 19 5 20. 83 Nov. 1| 3 0 0 | 9, 400 4,636 2, 286 6,922 DES ie gape Per cent. SALOME LESIIMOFDLINE IAL yes COIMDOSOM. 54.25... .-. eee eeh ee lc g habe de nb oe nsbockwkotevceaedaes 49. 32 Moths from wintering larva composed.......... oy | VERE REARS A AESE RGs oe SNR eRO ae oe 24.32 Ee AE Ee COILS eialalaaeo isd Sah aa B er Ad le s\n 3's EMM oR Ja bv etee. sta eee uuewedipale ike Uwe. 26. 36 Totes... dacs Ses paar Rae CAR eh ce 5 o «RM AED hte at See L ee a S 100. 00 34 BULLETIN 429, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The occurrence of the larve of the codling moth in orchards as shown by results of the band records is graphically described by means of curves in figure 5. From this figure it may be deduced that the greatest number of larvee of the first brood leaving the fruit was found to occur about June 7. Larve of the second brood appeared under the bands in greatest numbers in the neighborhood of July 25, or practically 50 days after a maximum was found in the first brood. With reference to the third brood it will be noted that the greatest number of larvee were found September 14, which is just 51 days following the corresponding stage of the second genera- tion. These figures agree very well, however, with the conclusion SEPTEMBER OCTOBER - NOV. ~tho ~HKROWOMOD y 996% SERN QVESadaanoateVanamnhortS¥unnduhnortruyuuue a Ltt tt Et ttf “EDD EBERoeoeaea SOESEEaE Beas WEBRSS EEREERR8 BREE HN 1 GEaERa O80 Bae [isa ees Sosue6 JSSeR6S65 Teen SueSeae Gi [ps | [| [cosa co [| fa 4 | [TAT HH TT | nv. Un [| CHEN a Jes \Enenee Nj A ged tce ET CEASA EERE ECE es Fig. 5.—Curve showing occurrence of the codling-moth larve under bands on apple trees, Roswell, N. Mex., 1912. (Original.) drawn from records obtained in the rearing shelter with insects in confinement. (See summary tables on the different generations.) SEASONAL-HISTORY STUDIES OF 1913. The results of the 1913 life-history studies of the codling moth do not, in general, differ greatly from those obtained the previous year. They are, however, somewhat more complete and detailed in certain respects, and are therefore more satisfactory, for the observations during this season were conducted under more favorable conditions. SOURCE OF REARING MATERIAL. Rearing material consisted of wintering larvee of 1912, kept in an outside shelter and subjected to existing weather conditions, and other material which could be considered quite normal and from which reliable conclusions could be drawn. LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 35 The larve were from both band-record material and the results of propagation of the several broods in the rearing shelter. Many of the larve had been kept over winter in pieces of decayed wood and in strips of corrugated paper. These formed a suitable means of seclusion for the wintering larve and were kept in glass jars with easily removable tops, from which the emerging aes ths could be taken without difficulty. METHOD OF PROCEDURE. Immediately following emergence the moths were transferred to large glass receptacles covered with white cheesecloth or muslin, and there allowed to pro- ceed with mating and ege deposition. Fresh .pear foliage was placed within these receptacles daily, and while the majority of the eggs were depos- ited on the leaves and stems, frequently the sides of the jar would be quite thickly studded with eggs when the number of females per jar was excessive. The leaves and the twigs upon which the eggs had been depos- ited were removed from the containers daily and placed a glass jar in which a holder or basket made from woven Via. 6.—Sample cage used to determine feeding period of codling- moth larvee. (iHammar.) wire of fine mesh, and containing a number of medium-size apples, had been inserted. Only unsprayed fruit was used for this purpose, and care was exer- cised to make certain that no fruit was used that had been previously entered by larve. When the period of incubation was over the leaves and the twigs were removed, because the presence of the leaves frequently offered a place for cocooning and pupation, which was not desirable. In figure 6 a sample cage is illustrated, and the strips of wood which were prepared and dropped in to provide accept- able hiding places during cocooning and pupation are also shown. 36 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In order that observations might be made during the period of cocooning and at the time of pupation without disturbing the speci- mens in their normal manner of procedure, small strips of wood with slight partitions between them were used, held together by paper clips bent at a convenient angle. Over the partitions was - pasted a thin film of mica with a sprinkling of fine sawdust under- neath. This device, described in previous publications of the bureau, proved to suffice throughout the period of experimentation. Figure 7 is an illustration of the strips of wood used. Fic. 7.—Device used to obtain pupal records of the codling moth. (Hammar.) THE SPRING BROOD. SPRING BROOD OF PUP. Time of pupation.—The first record of pupation of overwintering larvee took place March 23, and from that date pupation continued more or less regularly for a period of 51 days, the last pupation recorded occurring on May 13. . Length of pupal stage.—The length of the pupal period of the spring brood has a range of from 12 to 36 days, the majority of the indi- viduals, however, completing the stage after 26 days had elapsed. The average for the entire time is found to be 22.97 days. (See Table XXXII.) 37 *SA’ = ®P | mnur| mnur| oe 1 Aor ‘cornednd so aq TOL | rary | pene | ~woay | ‘sAup pogroods ur poroed jednd jo y2ue7 “wWauN ’ | | pt ical = es OVO ple ae| oo oe 16° ce | 61 | 2 | FE | 12 | ST clz oF cI cI cI 0°ST T pital GOR Se peels 5 | fm «OL 61 61 061 I DEPOTS RISOSS IS ESSES SSS SS g AH pyc OT 9L OL 0°91 I Seal 61 61 06 T ee OT 8I SI 0'ST T 0 eeacG ral 1Z E°L1 g =S°S"6E 61 61 61 061 T Ta ae Oo i 1Z IZ 0°12 I Boe S S ral 1Z 0°81 g Bm «(9 91 02 0°81 Zz ae) cI cI 0'ST I 98 &1 & 0'ST Zz z ¥% rat ral 021 |Z Se 9 9% 9% 09% T gg SI &% €°81 ig fs SEI a G% 1°61 L a 4201. SI 4 PZ ¢ © & 61 ¥ g'lZ z Ss oLT 12 1g 0° l in le iid r ids) i ST I TOL LT lz aa 6 62 = br lo |e ove fT =F LT QA 397 02 0g P'& | 0z 2 12¢ 1Z 1 Ih G6 8% 692 1Z G aaa | at er. Ob (a6 18 8° g Som je |e a bi (OAT 9% Pe €'8Z 9 pS s«OT 9% lz G9 F “IE (o) | H | A ‘skep | ‘shop | ‘step | 98 | 8 | 88 | 28 | Te | 08 | 82 | Zz | 92 | Ge | Fe | €@ | Bz | Te | OF | GE] ST | AT} OL | OE | FLY st | at |STENPEA! [sa] fy _ =| "ST6L “aap ‘N ‘qjamsoyy ‘yjow buypoo ay) fo pooug bursds ay) fo potwad podng—TIXXX ITAVL 88 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SPRING BROOD OF MOTHS. Time of emergence.—The emergence of moths of the sprmg brood was found to begin as early as April 7 and to continue more or less regu- larly until the first part of June. However, a maximum emergence was found to occur in the 10-day period between April 17 and 27, in which a total of 1,334 moths emerged. The emergence during this period represents 58.33 per cent of the entire number which emerged during 1913, covering a period of 57 days. Further examination of Table XX XIII will show that of 7,343 larvee, the entire number col- lected, a sum total of 5,216 moths emerged, being equivalent to 71.04 per cent of the larve It may be noted in this connection that 56.19 per cent of the moths emerged durig 1912, while 43.81 per cent emerged in the spring of 1913. aoe G82 ‘% | |2 |F |e |Z ler 61 Pelioetes|ao|e= se &% SI 19 oF oo oS ON for) ve) =) G I1|2¥z |2¢|F6\¢02 FOS \FET |06/8E\8T @ |eFe‘2 |°--"1BIOL : | . , . ’ . . , . ’ . ’ . ‘ 9 [21/6 |8 |ST\PI/ST 61 |0z 22/91 ST\F¢\09|06|28 Z6\TZT calelb cal Sees es le iN iad ie N est N rH N ‘ iar) 4 . i an ‘ ANS ‘ , ' 7A (NMIN a — ‘ Fi ‘ 5 5 I — I a in 5 S400 . "YD Tn An Oman cae ae tANR AR OHR ONT ae Ree rT) ‘ a] 5 ' none e ‘ OHAAAR AMAA Oh a | . Dinigmo Nooo OCOOADMINOM OANA i ¢) Saal ei a SSO OOD 09 SO HO OD SH SH 119 19 © aa a oe Re ee ol VALLEY, N. MEX. 5 — "oD OD A Ne oo I o 1D cael re i=) al ~ OAH NOCOMDOD Mer tH ' fo) rei ‘A AN (NSO NNOANOININDN TROON TOANMAHONMD HOM MOMOHOE AN rea! =) al are net oD cl 60D SO OD NI I= CO OD SH OD iN D> o . re oO are hom! ost HOD SH SH SHON N19 00 Ot SH th st ‘NA IN PECOS S §OD AA OD © 19 OD St OD St St st CL OA INANRHNANT AO rst rt rid INMOnRN A oad ite) * VOD 09 19 OF) ON GO OD OD 4 OD SH . ‘= Uh | tHAMAAMDINOMOHMAON (NOON HH HOM OO DOD N19 19 MODAN AID © COOL HI HHA ‘Anon in) Ye) ‘NAN i] iA So onl NANO MIO SAAR . 8 TLD LD et est SH © P19 10 EOD ‘rN "AN Ts) rs] 6F sina AE F OL je |e LEY (ed fot PS Dies al ie (44 Sc) en Pa ea i 6g isle Bs || Pic ne | | | me | 1 I 1 T |6 Se enbell ie icyhen | eoe- 2 ORL< 41525 Gicme 4 tL SE eT ee Wes Me eles ie Haye Te ie ee | Se |) OT Cie MP etiam ratte GID ou ft erin 98 S00) ce | ea | mi fa er Pea | Mes | Rm Ti | | Com | ial a eee € ie | TL IT 2 ST ROTGR et stes |e [kao CL LOOy a: fea a eau i €g. Se HE ALE Wee TE As fe (ig Gale o|8 19 |Z Weal Se (>> Pe | eee! 3) Nel | eel fA Po (eins ; Se S| |v | eo a 0p G \€ Sil ean ee Gi lanieA |G CHM rateobel wecieedOak 4. [886; onIhat aaae I i) € I aoa aes el ieleea clei ala Saeae jee foe fsccst oe Ame Settee ell dml baoke lai etcetastas Perera alee ee es z relat E00. Sa c8 RY OF CODLING MOT £ 108/62 /80|20|9 (0a |F2|ES|22|TS|OS/6T/ST/ZTOTCTIPLEL|ST/IT/OT/ 6/8} 2)9|¢)#/& |e] Tloglea\s%) 2% | 9% sabe ee). 2% |1Z\0z| I “st | 2T aay sb bo bs al Isto ‘mon ~Oa[foo JO ae H be fet SH all | pa ae a * Ra | J ee | “ACW Tady “SI6T ‘Stour jo Jequnn ZI6L ‘syjour jo Js9quInN *BAIV] jo Jequinn LIFE ‘eane | ‘GI6L fo [wUavU psodas-pung Wosf xasvT “ST6l “xa *N “Tansoy ‘pooug Buruds 0y7 fo syjow Buyppoo fo aouebsowe fo ewiy—{[TIXXX @TavVL 40 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The time and rate of emergence of the-spring brood of moths are illustrated diagrammatically in figure 8. Egg deposition.—The records on egg deposition by individual moths of the spring brood are somewhat limited, because of the 34 females isolated in this connection only 9 gave results worthy of record, as shown in Table XXXIV. - From a total deposition of 257 eggs it will be noted that the maxi- mum deposition per female was 91 eggs, while the average number per moth was approximately 28 eggs. On an average 7.33 days § Vee oe ee aera AaAsaazeoseoeorneo a0 %00000000000 HE eee eee ONG BSC ROSSER SST SAGE Ge SHOCKING SHNENS SaaS MES Fo GLK NENG AOR SSH LSE ENT LLR AGN GHSTTGH KRG GD G~ETHHS a WOOL WHOS COVOOUV ESO GOO ELOH OVO OOOOOd SOUS se0/-] Sea Besson eee aec sco eoueEoo Soa BEbaae {ect [a i i [a es a i ie i feeeeeenscmeceteel Cod pemeesereeeseeeeereas 222 5 One EIS io Bogle Pe the | eee Bel H Ap; |2EaRERoseao (| aa Apa Joao q 2 f bapa LEE | EBDRERESEEEE BE ERSREEREEEEaReaBe Re Bee i | {| a BEE EEE EEE a | Apes Ne | P22 alent | Daiwa Co (ep (LEBER eeoby eeo PAT | | 5 ea i a HAH SR SSSRERReR/ Seu ie BSYos HAS Ph Seew it Py yt hy BEGRG | Ee Fig. 8.—Curve showing emergence of codling moths of the spring brood, Roswell, N. Mex., 1913. (Original.) elapsed from time of emergence to first oviposition. The maximum time, however, was 12 days; the mimimum, 3 days. The length of the period of oviposition for the 9 individuals under observation averaged 5.55 days; the maximum was 10 days; minimum, 1 day. On an average the moths in confinement lived 12.88 days, which is somewhat longer than the corresponding period for the female moths of the spring brood of 1912, which gave an average length of life of 8.47 days. In 1912 the maximum length of life of female moths of the spring brood was 22 days; in 1913 the corresponding period was 20 days. 41 4 | = A x Pal jen “301781 OINSUT 0} WOTYRIOST 04 Ord Sep zZ Sref osIe] UE SIequINU Ut peuyUod sq10 . ref ur d 4 GSEI[O] pouejStoul ysely ‘oserpoy reod Tara sesse[s ATef Ul peuyuN syyOW “poder jo AYAIOM Sy[NsaI aAVS G ATWO YOIA JO pe}RIOSI a.1aM STOUT Penne ne ee tes aoe — = = > i 06 88°C1 m € LT 0 G1 So i Or cc ¢ er e6 16 G86 ee g rat eel a “TUNWTOLyy, ae ea “OSBIOA W *AreuruaNng [Sie se tc dares PecocHeh | He osacec poaeien s Nery Neaocop bso reall tes Sle leaps Waar eed euclterodt Gall amelie otis dee oo UE Polly ele oes (3 ae ra) ; “*** [BIOL = Or Or 2 L 6 0& GR ie. Gees oe ea 6 oS 6 6 g iZ 16 62 | Pe Wie Ree sara =o 2" 8 i, 1 &T g 6 LT (46 Gx ACN oe ets L Or Or p 0 Lie 158 I eerie os: = 9 = ae g I g Die Nee Te aa aemeeeT eS g (=) OT ch! Pp (ai LE PT BG: «5: lp ar years ane oc ee F =) LT 91 g at Or ST G BE.) Woh es ee ees £ oO a a Ce 4 Ge ST Prt | etl ale cs ohio kiss oee seed Ne ts Ne ae | ee | te } Sot 60S NS rome. can ee z es ae Aaah cee atic @ | st Auw | p |e 16 or }T | 8% [dy he ee I ba Se |, = mee | Rg eas Se Pg | Baers Sey em (Gas ae ee ed oy] me | een | immo eee ges teal | epee a B wae “MOTUS Bens on O€ | 62 | 42 | 9% | $2 | Fe | 0 | SL) ST) FL | ST} Cr} OT] 6) 8)/2;)9) Fr] E12 i -odt codigo | 7Odl 10 Sele ! ein | a TOU J} a cet og | “CFIA | asiy | sage “(jour sSHROUREG RD HI | goued | J88L | oxojaq | Jo jo ke oto hy “ON yyauoy | 2°08 | o qsry eh s W |—feretafatelainicta [states talioivisisioieiicinje\sjsim.nlatermiesa| lie oiesiecc|[7=/mial=al Voy ee Se ste 0 alll samen eo keene : eS oe j F (se 2 SIGSARGE BEBO eB ORee eecrb CC OGI BAEC OC OO IC CIC ASE |) Uh Re | Ea CS oe ye SSSR tee e 5 mor ERB ech SgecicoloosSeaieCeoo} .onme bln sco atooca Boo unieE Doone oomy li lee 0 ra lap RCo SS SSC SS ¢ aes) 7 r4 Ot bo. [rsnne|ececie[etee sete cmag|snneen|teecteleoumaefecemealeoweecleccecaletescsletacanl | Wewresby ol 9 vascecdtscdae-seueweads Sv fy Hi 4 g WTF ree aa sea a meato sy are iets ecera orale pate egeiwiellfaveieves sie) mtereteieceiessisiets | eas (e.wslhe mice Chee ee eer | ine ee. Shae oS T sew p Wyre | PRERSRIERC SRR OCRRO A ocmerie NCR Secor SUES Re or OC ese MP Gy | aS So a A ez = g g g (ie) IIeseSe ol neaoce Pomabclaaccaneeooc. poms bli necne Ahmar sSe Sear) S06 ite SSS SSS SRO SE 2) SS SS 8 a 9€ ral 9 (O)1a) a ESR ICR Oc SSE 3 PRG OE AE OIG SC Nh RO SSO nC OR 8 ES SSS gr ady fo) | A je [ea] a fe 3 eam ae ef mo) se A Vy A oe We ee et 4 ‘sAvp ‘eAep “sep “sup | *STENPLA | ay (eK) LR ghey OdB10A —Tpurjo | “woptsodep SFe Jo ole Pee eceeen Pay Mf ‘uomednd ie | equinn 3 OUT} OY} OF FINIJ OY} FuLAvo] Woy ow} oY} Suroq ‘sAup poyroeds uy porszed Supuooo0g jo yFueT | a] een OO eee _ — “SI6L “xayy (NT ‘jjamsoy (jou Buajpoo ayy fo poo. y.uuf ayn fo suoov0d fo burynu ay—]IAXXX aITavy BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 682 ‘T G8 ra I FIT 91 6FT 1 LOT ral 1S 9 ys 91 29 II oI 8 II Ir oF II 9¢ Tr 16 61 92 61 lt cI 9% €1 9g ST 8 a! cg 1% 6 cI 8 cI 0g ST PIL ST SOT oe 0g OL hep) ern 1@1OL Xt Or Qa gads eer aes 6 Palm | oo wale 8 OOM eee asa se 6 PhO eee oe ore 6 Vulbeweelies aloe 8 Olena eS arale aaa 6 CTO allo cate ea L Onghy ree alec rnad legac IT ORs my Jacsesl ses OL CRO Te S|ee sen ieee Bags focdise| acre: OL Mean Eee i Or 2ST special same G eye an eae crlece ¢ el OGE em. gees sult eo eee ia Ona oe leer gee|petees a Opies lenses pees TI TL ena on see iL Oneal anmel eee el Ons Meee [ses ee (Pee oT ORGT tea eee pee a Sepa lees |r oca as IL - Opi liane, diaeoseulpseccs ca OSE alti race esas ie || Gi sep | sakep TUT} OseIOA VW LT 9T ST iat &T GL II Ot 6 8 L 9 ‘sXhep poytooeds ur osejs [ednd jo y4sue7 $ | -spenpra -[pur Jo JequinN ‘MOTJISOGEp 380 Jo oJeq “SI6L “xan (N ‘7Jamsoy ‘you buypoo ayn fo poorg ysuf ay) fo potsad podng— TIIAXXX ATAvL, THAXXYX 9B], Ul UMOYS ore sypNser osoyy, ‘skep gy TT sea ednd gp] osjuo oy IO} OUT? osvIOAR OL, ‘skup [][ Ul posiowle syJou 9g JoquINU sity} JO ‘shep g ‘wumurtum ‘shep [Zz ‘WnuUrxeul ‘skep QT seat powed tednd oy} jo esuvd of} opm ‘UONBAIOSqo Jopun ydoy o10M S}JOOSUL [BNPIAIPUL SFT ‘syJOUI jo qoUles1oto oY [QUN Uoednd jo 93¥p oy} WoIy poidnoso ow Jo YSuET 04} ouTMAIOJop OT —‘porsad jodnd fo ybuaT ‘WdNd JO GOOUd LSA AL 47 LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 612% T |T |G |S@ |PE |9G |8E |9% | TF |LE [ST |FE |6G JES \Z8 \OOT|AFT/66 |66 |8S |08 j66T\SZT\SETIGST/T9S\O8 |TE |8% |SE ET |TE FI €€ |12 |F |T |sse‘% SMe re wo eas [B10 88 WEE Lites es eS YE es Sas areal keen hee = pele len pes (aes lcwelpesipnales cieseliar mes ieea ois nel [nae Foe F6 Steps ieee ve oe LL fee (et || Ve | Corn | 3g Co sD oT ae |e | ea | | Heil Be hss || = ot] A eee baa a | Fe hae fe fe ea S| arses o6 paar ce ema Se meee, 6I OL Tate eet. eal fe ee) ee cteee Corae | Coan | Che co | | | | eerie: aitata al Pern Fe wa SE emi 9 HS lege De en el Peete eee eet feSeslee e 92 [ot hagas a = ager oe Oe oI &8 fps | ine | nese | ere [oes em ead zen | anes | ete |e S| Zep Ve oat Fl a ae Petes (em eA i eered| “peal iae aah)! aboll— neal leecde lta Oe | | fea I (E Say ey aeehen eas loess “Jatee SII Be | eer eve esi ae oe ie | ee | | Te Ces| 201) | | a Bai eae male feo” NP eal sug erp a iges | peed etm ee | eae te O&T | arora aa ar or 066 ein fea (fof etl es |= Be | tae a ee cas IT jh |Z |S@ j€8 |2OTI8 |} PE | Sa SIN ony | el | mam Ves ace | elie ee elt ||| fe ele all pee |OFG ERE RE ah wd aba eT 2 €16 pas |OB a alle P| Fetal aac ene Pee (Gin eae |e | Cos | Oe | Ga | S82 nC | a fc | | et ec || Seam fel fot \0¢E en She ra Ry F POP Se) ame | arlene (Nl 2 lhe af ee here a alte leat “JG jE |G (TS 106 |€9 |8AT\PG JAG OS IT IT JL fea (ae een es 89 PSSST Sgn sg sane aS IT eune 199 beat S|eccills Pale Ese Stl ell aaa faecal Reel |e TG jf |T (@ |h 9 (06 [PS 22 |SET/6SCI2Z7 |20 |ST Jo SES eae Re ay Sonate Soe 62 66T 5 | cea eR kal ea |e fc a ee Lp |fac | 2 | Pe Pose tae: | eee ae Goal IPL SG qSE (Les Ete | Ocal Bates UN) eee | RPO ibe tan Ce 9% 6€ Des nl ibs ibn se cyl eee hes || oe wel See aie all grant oe -|l geo Be eee eae ree fell Sateen aE eal pe Geet | Oa Te age ine See isin ee ae ee ss | € Ee a ie ella | tot ath [ca | hg cee | ded Aa ate || ena ete | its | cl el | ieee Ce Fes = 6] ey Key eel ae Vc an Pata Ke] im Ela al fees Sn a SS of ARH ace O1)6)8)/4)9/G9)F | &) @ | T 1 0€ \62) 82 | 26 | 9% | Go| Fe | €% | OB | 12 | OZ | 6L| 8ST} 21] 9T | SL) FL) €L| ST} TL | OT 6\s|ziolele “sto (0) “BABY JO} = sou Tet 10) sronsaaitoo yo area —Ajne —oune ‘S16 “xan “NN ‘yamsoy ‘saboo ur day pun sa17 papung Wolf paja)}00 Ba) Worf pooug sLuf ay} fo syjo Buypoo fo aouebsawe fo aur \L—XIXXX sav ‘skep 2¢ Jo potoed v SUTIOAOD dDUASIOWIO O1T}UA OY} JO JUNO Jod OF ATTRotOwid poyNyysuod YOIyA ‘syJOUL ZS pesieulo o10y} UoYyA ‘GT OUNF 07 G{ oUNF Wo; ported Avp-MO}F OY} UL patmMoo0 eoUdsIOWO TWNUIXBUL YW ‘“poslowlo s[enpLArput [9% uoeyA ‘GT oung uo porvodde Axp poytoods Auv uo SutSioure SUJOUL JO JO(UUNU 4sojvoL0 OY} OTT ‘OT A[NE [YUN ¢g OUNE WOT, SuTpU0}Xe potted v poIOAOD ooOUSIOUIO |VNJOW “Wosves OURS OY} JO BAIL] SUTUMIOFSURTY OG 07 poAord AVA STYZ UT poezdoTFOO eArr~ oy} Jo quo Jod ey-eg snyy, ‘“syOW GIZ'S posrowe o10y} ZZ oung pu OZ Av] UoOAMJOd Sood} popuNq Woz pozoTOO Karry gge‘g jo VIO} V WOIZ Jey} SULAoYs ‘YIXXX [qey Ul punoj ore pooiq ysiy oy} Jo sqOUT Jo ooUdVsIOWE OY} UO Sp1Od0I OYJ — IUeLIWA JO 2ULT ‘SHLOW JO GOOUd LSU AHL 55888°—Bull, 429—17——4 48 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The emergence of moths of the first generation is shown in the diagram appearing as figure 9. The larvee used in these experiments were collected regularly from May 20 until June 22 from banded trees, and the curve in this figure represents the sum total of daily emergence from these larve. 98 Fa (ane a Saeee see a ac a em ed eal EEC Er a a a a a LY ance a See eae aie ae inet et et | a Selec ECO e Oye ay 7 CI Ea Eo EERE eee Stale ers Sadish ila la SORg SSSR eel eee aan | | ia oo a Ve eS za | |e a eH A NST ea ei Ses nfo [PTV NY a oi ees rn a fea] ef a ei NNN a eg i a ly Lt a se sf [Ja Lae aE SS ese el a am ac ee os eee Se a sill] a es a ee a BeegeO [ea a gaa Le BReease safc ai ee ad aL Pa ESTs WS cL a fa a on an Sey ee ei soso ooo S ine on ne as ee esse oooCeo | ie ie Ya Zee esas Sse e sae Ae et ee ep a sf ao haa] NS ei 8 SOA a | CODER LALA EEE LLLLE IN M7 JCVANZS ECC BEDEV.o2 4\ Cee eee See SeRGRGrsEsocoolo ea ae ff fff fe fa fas af Sa [i PF a a Fic. 9.—Curve showing emergence of codling moths of first brood, Roswell, N. Mex., 1913. (Original.) LIFE CYCLE OF FIRST GENERATION. The entire length of time required for the first generation of the codling moth to pass through the several stages and reach the adult stage is totaled in Table XL. 49 Ton |e ete \GrE for) _ N=) ‘ ' ' . . . . ° . . . ' ‘ ‘ Saal for) Ss s aN a a Nex) aoa s Or) a bo) Lom! le [ co al ies) ee oO ol oe) tel oO | | | | | | | | | tH HM MMHAN 0S 0°LP Rie eee ee ee eee Siler (Sheil Ape Sipe i re CAMAOWINDOAMHNONDSOHOMH ri ree re es a eh eee sink a SSS aa SERS EN OSS “gp dy WSDHSAG HOO iro} i-2) N ioe) ~~ ce wh SOMOHMOOrOHNS SSMAAAAA RADIOS , Soa AN re . Sol AOI enn cn . . ¢9 | 09 | 9G | FS | 4 | GG | 1g | OF | oF } ) Whigs i sep 8 hep in G 6F | 8h | 2h | OF | Sh | FF eF | ch | IF | OF | 6E sre A Bont ere e —— —————— ey 1} ” I tars aod 1@10., XC, “TUTW OsBI0AV roquinyy LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. ; nN a < 50 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Of 149 individual insects under observation, 16 were found to have a total life cycle of 45 days. Two insects required 65 days and represent a maximum time for the brood; two specimens were found to have completed the previous stages in 39 days, which is considered the minimum time. An average time of 46.91 days prevails, and a range of variation of 26 days is noted. EGG DEPOSITION BY INDIVIDUAL MOTHS. Mating.—Records of egg deposition by individual females in cap- tivity have proven of especial interest in connection with these studies of the codling moth. Records on egg laying and mating of the codling moth have been very limited, and statements by earlier investigators have been largely speculative estimates. The lack of information is due to the difficulty of getting moths to deposit eggs in a state of captivity, especially when the individual insects are isolated. Although many thousand moths have been under obser- vation it has been only in rare instances that moths have been found in copula. In 1913 these observations were made for the first brood of moths, and in Table XLI these observations are listed under numbers 21, 23, and 48. The moths in connection with observation No. 21, both male and female, emerged June 22 and were found mating at 10 a. m.on June 24. Eggs were deposited the same day. The individuals in connection with observation No. 23, both male and female, emerged June 24 and mated on June 27 at 8a.m. Eggs were deposited during the following night. The moths referred to as observation No. 48, male and female, emerged July 6 and were found in copula on July 7 at 9 a. m. and remained so until 2 p. m. of the same day. The wings of this female were not fully expanded, and this may account for the long mating, the moth when dead still having the abdomen distended with eggs. Since the moths are very inactive during the heat of the day it is very probable that mating takes place at twilight, during warm nights, and in the morning. Mating also very likely takes place under natural conditions shortly after the moths take flight after emergence, and as the sexes en- counter each other. Egg deposition.—In the course of these investigations it was noted. that eggs were deposited in abundance when moths were confined together in numbers in large jars. This fact led to further experi- mentation and male and female moths were isolated, being removed from the larger jars after two days’ confinement, and placed in smaller jars for observation of egg deposition. The moths were first fed on diluted sugar water placed on a small piece of sponge, but this method invariably made the jars sticky and in consequence the moths died prematurely. Later dried pear leaves were placed in each jar, each leaf being daily moistened with pure water. The dried leaves, being black, showed the presence of the white eggs; the most of the eggs, however, were placed on the side of the glass jars. LIFE HISTORY OF CODELING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 51 In all, 141 female moths were taken from the larger jars and isolated, some of these being accompanied by males and others being without males. Of these, 48 furnished oviposition records, as stated in Table XLI, while 93 of them, or two-thirds of the number, failed. Of the latter a few eggs resulted, though as far as observed they were all nonfertilized, one or two being deposited a day, though the ereater number of the moths did not oviposit at all. The confining of the moths in this manner results in a very abnor- mal condition for the msect, and markedly different results may occur normally in orchards. For instance, it was found that most of the moths died before all the eggs had been deposited, the dead females often containing an abundance of fully developed eggs. Thus the averages here obtained are unquestionably far below what normally occurs in the field. It is also likely that in many cases egg laying was delayed. The results, however, show what is possible - in this connection and what might happen even under conditions considerably removed from the normal with reference to the extent of egg deposition and length of life of moths. On an average the first eggs were deposited three days after the emergence of the moths, while a maximum length of time of 6 days and a minimum time of 2 days prevailed. The greatest number of eggs produced by a single female was 200, and the results averaged 80.2 eggs for the 48 females under observation. The moth listed under observation No. 8, in Table XLI, escaped before the test was con- cluded and might have deposited more eggs, as the abdomen was still quite distended with eggs. A total of 192 eggs were found in the jar. As there exists a considerable degree of variation in the size of moths also, there probably is to be found variation in the number of eggs laid by each female. Moths of the spring brood are, as a whole, smaller than moths of the first and second broods, and probably are less productive than the latter. In general the moths began ovipositing 3 days after emergence, although the shortest period was 2 days. The number of eggs deposited per female per day varied from 1 to 96 and averaged 20 eggs per day for the 48 moths. Normally this number would be greater. In confinement moths often ceased ovipositing for a day during the period of deposition, and frequently only one egg was deposited during 24 hours, although previously and later numerous depositions were made. On an average, oviposition extended over 5.7 days, and the moths died on an average 2 days after final ovi- position, although sometimes death occurred the same day. In 1912, deposition records obtained with moths of the first brood show that the average extent of the deposition period was 4.45 days. The average length of time from the date of emergence to that of the last oviposition was almost identical for the corresponding broods of the two seasons, there being a difference of but 0.55 day. i=) et O19 0000 ol Ar ite) N ad OSes NOD ANAM NNON AAA NNM HT DON ie é THO HO OOO 19 © O19 © 09 0019 HINO OO O19 = 19 O HINO SHHBSAGHANGBOSHHANHABSOKHOON re BD 00 00.19 HOD 19 00 ON CD 00 ION OD OD SHAD E= NO OO SH SI NE COP 10 C0 OOO HOD COON TOTEM 10 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 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B=] an [Sot 2s 8 40UI 0 90003 ‘ BE se Zag] of Be, aa oN Ame out ae) ON TIO os z= 5 6 ae ay B = jo o1eq 7 il=5 2 4 : 2 gs Be pl 2.3 Fo *pozIsodep s33e Jo 19quUINU pUe UOT}ISOdIAO jo 93eq “SI6I “xan (N “Namsoy ‘poosg ysuif ayy fo syzow burpoo ponprarpur fq uoyrsodap bby— TTX ZIAVL 53 ‘LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. Gg LI CEO) Pee amen te Siok tea eae tae a ooo eg os in ee Simla efales fegrins clcleisia) os acis\sieie saris sie cic iricis a ore atin ae seein sister elect settee --+--sfep UT qjour yo esq Jo ysueT T Or NEVIS Gs ce tama | es eee tae a ae a nt rote ie Ss gt re) pepe a ewan ss te ar a Eee es Se ee MWOTPISOGIAO SBT eye POAT] TOUT SASP JO TEQuUINN 4 ST pene eee hone clic ae ae nea i ea ea ee eee us oie ie gla ok pare ay IME Cin om gees aa UWOTISOGIAO ISB] 02 |IOUT JO 9oUESIOUIE WOT SAP JO TEQUINN i 6 COGS a ee Pe eee ee ap eRe ak I ec RE ie isha a ag Teo See SI Ae EY Ete oe ee ab UREN rT ae UWOTISOdIAO Tenjow JO Sfep JO EQUINE ii &1 BS CISC | Bex Sc och RTT Re ae gene AAR TEESE Se aE NT es Oa oe Oe oa a RE Eo sep Ut poted WoNtsodrAo jo yIsUe'T qT 96 COSEG It ime | Ripe ea aa cos OF Se nel” ae epee) a SEE CS Be ee EES Eee el ajeurey rod Avp ied paysodep ssze Jo IequInN 9 002 CaO Rigeerae eer eases ears ar ae aegis are lag ry WME ne oe, Segre a mesh Pea Pr open amE RS | Se a rea eaten aa el ejeurey Yous Aq poztsodep ss3e jo IEquINN 4 9 (SUAS S| RRR > amy eas Coane be aR ec cots nc ae hr is ae aS BGT, caste Pg ee eo MWOTPISOCIAO JSIY 0} YJOUT JO GOMOSIOUTO WOT] SABP JO IOQWINN “TOUNUWITUT, | “UM UTxey,| “aseIOAV “AUVWWOS *pdJO[AuL0d SBA P10D0I BIOJOG padvase YIOPW + | lsneloaviersloncies Int orien lo [sewan=nncecenee spores | septa ings ree ne eal calnias ie aebigkic| (si al ame orale Gt [et |g jor loz let \ettlezt/22e|Te2|¢1z|s0F|ozeletz|s91| 19z|S6z Soz|66T|FIF|69 |TZ |O9 \estTiss |S |--"*- > ih Ne I aM co MI Ne A I Ties (Oa Te eee ae OTSA ES PALS Se tds oot Dae lice Mon IR oh pet “[ro*]-o-lro" lbp lop [ez Re atl ie ll ee Mk aa ea a ee (clea ocd |amiclawea| eeale rales DOG | mmalllaemeuale, eee Qi ee eal kelp it sibel alsa Ge ere leas pane CG Tal eae eee eo (ha sl eames eee is ait: elec aleas aan ecleaalbee Ot xz Cuocn Cees ODEO ame ee eis male TRL sO ‘Toso le [8p log [12 pial Ganr et ears Wien uaa Dueei ala oo BT | “Nd alfa et fst fl | el a bake COREG apme | ee nn Cowe Ie) alae le SEL. ote eae ale a eee RGR sal BRMPLIe che dang esapr ede cle fo ectestis local ctlig (UB cube dco eu Bc Pacer tee epi, onsigeaeies phat ee SING oh plaka RE Shy Se VMS a bl ic esha Sat ba eel el ate il ba ete |, 3 A ache eta nace CECA Oan en eID te ew O me (pe lott |. be lcealbealtadi meth el aalee 2 lor |t |ue oS ee ae ~"68 OLR IPTae IED ae Ben (Oe eRe Lae pt let le lotle lo le ol st 54 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUMMARY OF RECORDS. A condensed summary of the records on the stages of the first gen- eration is found in Table XLII. The average of the averages of the different stages is found to be 47.37 days,.as compared with 46.91 days in the total life cycle column, a difference of but .46 day. The length of the life cycle of the insect of the first generation of 1912, as obtained by addition of the separate stages, was shown to be 50.62 days. This number is 3.25 days greater than the corresponding sum of the length of the several stages of the first generation during 1913. 55 LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. "gc ‘potied WOleqnoul eseieae fg/T‘T ‘S830 []e Joy MoMeqnour sep [Roy Pegs acl | linge ae G9 eee 6 Pil ated eps sewie seat eect c 91 °TT SPI OS OF 9 PP 8 al OT 9°OL 8 LY OF 0 '&P OT 91 6 PIL Or SP OF GPP vas vas 8 9 OL vas LF &F bP 9T ral 6 FOL OT FF 6& PIP ¢ 9T 6 Pit ¢ SF OF 6 &P aii 9T 8 6 OL GL Og €P ecp | 9 II 6 € 01 9 OF 66 C6E |Z 6 L 0°8 G LP LP 0°LF T II II OIL I TS OF 08h F II Or ¢ Or 14 cP 0S O°LF 9 II 8 €°6 9 OF 9¢ 9°0¢ 8 61 OT LOL 8 LP ¥S Cm Se eG 61 OL @ ST c TS 09 Tre | 9 cI ¢ 872 9 cr Tg 0'8P G €1 €1 0&1 (4 Lt 6h LLP € €1 IT 01 & SP 8P 0°8P (4 Vas las O°FT G tag Tg 08h 9 1G II imal 9 (I eMedia, Seal 1S Usa acai a cae A ee La | cP €¢ F'6h ¢ CT 0 9 cr €¢ 9 °6F € cI 0 (4 OF TS CSP 8 cI € 8 FF c¢ 90S | 2L cI 0 al wnm | wn ese |, unt | wnu ese |, “ey | Tory | oxy | SUT) -rxepy | ror | -w0ay [SUE —| Jo 10q Jo 10q ‘ -TInN “TIN afoko ‘93849 [ednd jo y)3ue7 OFT JO YSU] [e40,7, Be So al hae rn TS | 2°8 £61 a |e AN 5 CAL 8 P cs tae 62 9T C8 €1 ¢ p 17 IL 1X6 61 0°&% €1 9 € PP cl 1X6 06 bE cI cT 4 Lg 61 96 IZ FPG | 06 ¢ G SE LZ ¥G 61 GCS | Lk c € Lv §1 83 IZ OFZ | GI tI € 6°9 8 16 IZ Po | OL 9 c e°¢ € 1k6 (46 OF | 2 p ¥ OF I 8% €@ GS |Z 9 4 0°¢ L 66 GG Sco | 2 8 G €¢ 8 (69 6 6246 |8 IL 4 02 8 I #G ¢9e | 8 IZ ¢ 6°6 val 66 61 Tce | OT cl 6 0-CL 9 1€ & 8°46 | 2 L c 0°9 F its IZ 1°92 | 9 ZL P 8°¢ ie 86 GG 8 °&% ¢ 9 4 os G ZG (a6 LCS € II € 69 LZ x6 61 81e {2 p € 9° € 96 61 L0G § L Z 0°2 I 9G 9% 0°96 T 9 € 8 °F 6 9% 02 ce | 6 b z Og 6 $6 02 0% |Z 9 € I? Or Ks 02 T°& | GL 9 Pp 9°F ai 86 1% 66°F | ZI g c os T x4 £% C'S 1s Pied ete later Fall aka ip aes) |e etc 8% 0°8% T (al 9 06 7 8& 6¢ GE | F ‘sXep | ‘sep S200 ‘sXep | ‘sep Been winu | uno ese |, tana | wnur ese |, ‘ree | juny | weay [SUOET| xepy | funy | deay |SUOET JO 10q Jo 10q - “in *porsed oN "BAIR N Sulmo0900 Jo qASsUe'T “SI6L “ray 'N Surpoy Jo yysue'T “mon -eqno “ur JO sAvuq et THANAN DS Onl ID Ol ODO Ae 6 8 z ¢ g aa I T Avy I 6c Re oat SeLeieet i we eeeeeeeseeesesees “OT dy *STENPLA -rpul Jo 10q -tInN “aorsodep 338 jo aed ‘nansoy ‘odnd pun ‘nasn) ‘66a fo sabojs yr ur uoynsauab yeuyf ayn fo yyow Burpoo ayn fo quaudojanap fo aun ey? uo spsooes fo havwwng— [TX savy, 56 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE SECOND GENERATION. THE SECOND BROOD OF EGGS. Length of incubation.—Kgg deposition of the second brood was found to cover a period of practically one month, extending from June 11 to July 12, and only a slight variation in the length of the several incubation observations is noted. It may be found by com- parison. that this period is practically 14 days shorter than the cor- responding period for the first generation. In Table XLIII are included the records for 505 observations. The length of incuba- tion varied here from 4 to 7 days. An average of 4.9 days is described for the entire period. 57 LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. *skep 6p ‘poried moryeqnout ese10Ae ‘1z¢°Z ‘s8Se [Te IOJ MOMeqnout SAep [eIOT, ; GLO5G) cases |e eta esaelt aaah ca ones 2 61 11 | 91 | 08 | eg | €¢ | 29 | 29] 69 | €9 | SF | Iz | T o& : 8I iat 09T S| ete eae ae | le |e peeee || casa | St Ue teaw | ea eee rau ¥G 91 606 By ESE Fe ee RY osteo | ele rabgeat Cie femme ire| Wes] aT igen G8 8Z cI (Gua 6 a Fea al a | F(a Pacer ea |e Bese Re] cee Nal yt Festa 98 1X6 61 GIG a a crest taee ce | tc Dn | eo | | SDR ga [ese | elec ea Pe 18 86 LY L‘TG ee ae A a He | Cay |e sare || Bese ae) |e [los |fresece lft el te ra $06 Ho. = CT 9 GS She | omen | eameete | Gites | saree || eee ies fice =e al ese eiPeen ae | a P66 &@ GT € 81 Se || SAS barat PS IE Pa L Pia 2 et RSCE Gect PO al Loe fn 867 86 (sftt 661 1 Gs foes es at Siealt Cee h Sohal yb iC eeend el hacel) te tn s 81S 66 9T L°06 I I T i We ete | ES PAB er Pes LLO 0¢ 9T Gri OGeaape | eed | a Det es | ae Ome ele ea | pe ee [ta (es he Sees Pies Pes] ne | ee a SOF 66 is £06 (eal eae cs CS Lad Red CEE i el ame ate 026 1G 91 € 81 sis ea alien 6 NG WA [Phe Ab Le 609 6 oT 961 G16 |G oP SAS ae FOL 96 ZI 1°06 CoaliGralic yg A es Wa 688 G CT 8°LT Peer |@ira| aes Sete ee 1 ei eOl ates 0&S 96 81 6 1G AS Mee WG APs ts IP 61P 08 LT 0°66 pope ch ies | aD) ee ROR |PGiat|eeen ne 8S 08 CT 9°LT ees [alias Me rie ese hapa a pa Cillian Gelezies less €9¢ 0G Lt P61 Soe | eg et [eee Vom Me a ba Seley (PZ Can) 808 GG. 9L 6°06 fe |p te ENE sGente eh: BIB: SG: 2 |e cen | OOF 96 cI 0°02 ae opal Aes cae Crap ethos cad Pits | cee | ca ee C8S iX6 OL os 102 Sairlawal Opal es [ie CGN PN (il Fe ie Le a Peet pa VSP 96 GT P61 i tat en | gl ie ES Semone rab hes ae 891 ¥G 9T 1°81 sed | ane cogeedl rene ee Ibe a | Doe [i seedless rae Sv | yeh] CS ets) Ie, ina Se Ge 81 LT G°LT El das eal ic sake Pree see Se heel (eee | Niemi har [ie a [es oS [ea | Ft (eer peace ae BES #6 LT 8°61 SN fect racy oft cee Umer) Ya] Cas Haber. | Fe cS ce US| Hae Coot ee 12'S (| teria eetacaa (aoe FE | OF | 62 | 8% | LZ | 9% | SS] FS] SZ) 22 | TZ | OZ | GL] ST} LT | 9T | ST} FL ‘skep *skep “sheep ‘sep ‘[e1OL | wnurxey | wn, | ose10Ay i ‘sKep poytoods ur vary] fo porsed Surpoos so YySue'T 6D AD AD AD AD TT AD LD UD AD AD eH A AD LD aD aD OO O19 1919 “mOrjeq “nour jo jo sAuq ¢o¢ *STeNpTA -rput Jo OquInN 68 =D I= oI Tea ts 11 aiid 1D ac “uorpsodep S30 so epee "SI6L “xa *N ‘1jamsoyy ‘poosg puodas ‘nasv) fo porwad burpaaf fo ybuay puv sbba fo woyngnour fo euat—TITTX ITaVL 58 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE SECOND BROOD OF LARVA. Length of feeding perriod.—The feeding period of second-brood larvee is somewhat shorter than has been recorded for the first-brood larvee, and is mainly the result of warmer and more settled weather conditions than were prevalent at the time the first-brood larve were feeding within the fruit. A more advanced stage of the fruit at this later period of the season was also probably conducive to a shorter feeding period. Of the 505 larve of the second brood under observation, one individual insect completed the feeding period in 14 days, the shortest time recorded, while the longest time was 34 days, thus making a range of variation of 20 days. An average of 19.7 days is computed on the whole number under observation, including both wintering larvee and those transforming the same season. These records will be found in Table XLIII. The average length of the feeding period of larve of the first brood was 24.45 days, thus making an average of 4.75 days greater than larve of the second brood. Records on the corresponding period obtained during the season of 1912 show an average of 21.23 days. Feeding period of wintering larve.—During the period of observa- tions conducted with individuals of the second brood a total of 505 larvee was used, and of this number 100 larve, or 19.98 per cent, proved to be wintering larve. In Table XLIV it is shown that a maximum of 34 days is found to exist for the feeding period and a minimum of 15 days, covering a range of variation of 19 days, with an average feeding period of 21.13 days. This period is 1.43 days greater than the average time for the transforming larve of the same brood, and is found to be practically identical with the corresponding ~ period of the second generation during the preceding season. 59 LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. OTT Cree | ges isl ace Si e1 IZ OL 9T 9T 0°91 0g 86 (46 0°SZ 61 61 61 061 02 86 02 €°&% 66 vE CT L‘¥G CAA 92 LT 01% 686 66 LT (a4 L116 0€ 9T L1G 6€T (46 LT 8°61 S&T 16 LT 6 61 aus G LT Aaa C98 G ST 0°02 If 16 06 ¢'0Z 1g 0€ 16 G°as TST (46 LT 8°81 OT GZ IZ 00°C ‘shep |. . FE “TRIO, Nitin sep shep | . xe UMUTUTyy| oseI0A VW ‘wary AG YINIy JO SULAVOT OY} 07 330 JO Suryoqerp wo’ our} EY} Suteq ‘sAep peytoeds url Surpesy Jo WsueyT 4t | Of | ST | -srenpra —_—___—_—_—_—| ~Ipurjo JEQuINN eo ¥ eee ee wz suny “Surgoiey S5e jo aed "SI6L “xan *N ‘Yjamsoy ‘y,ow Burppoo ay fo pooug puodas ay fo xaun) Buruagun fo porsod Hurpaaf fo yjbueT— ATTX IIAV I, 60 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Larval life in the cocoon.—A comparison of the length of the cocoon- ing period of the second generation with the corresponding period of the first generation shows practically no difference, and a fairly con- stant length of the period may be derived from the figures. Table XLV records the observations with 400 individuals, and while a maximum period is represented by 24 days and a minimum time by 2 days, giving a range of variation of 22 days, the results maintain an. average period of only 5.6 days for all larvee observed. This period is 0.44 day greater than the length of the cocooning period as observed with larve of the same generation during the season of 1912. TABLE XLV.—The making of cocoons of the second generation of the codling moth, Roswell, N. Mex., 1913. Length of cocooning period in specified days, being Numn- th2 time from leaving the fruit to the time of pupa- - cfu ber of tion. Aver- | Mini- | Maxi- Date of egg indie age | mum | mum Total deposition. aaah days. | da: days. - ys. | days. als 213] 4/15 |6/) 7) 8) 9 |10/11)12)13]14|17|24 | June 11..... W2 Wesalib | 8 4-0 |B ssclleesisealses i SGelere [Seni|sice 4.8 3 6 57 eee 2 leccleso| 2 |bos5)oasllscu|eceloec|eca|sec|voc! oosllaso|esalec 2.0 4 4 8 1S Oeecisal Bay B lecgk selec leas sect Bl 4 9 46 ites ae 25 |---| 3: | 20 IEP Os Gasliea sl etal loce ! ace 4.0 3 6 100 1S We elee oh OA Ses aye at ane 5.7 4 10. 81 16..... tS Saale Ge Wye pal eae cane Be! 3 13 97 Nesceas BB) ecalosol a ey} ce Sh) ep deal aon 5.8 4 12 192 i sso05 BY ecclonot 2) HO 1 |) @essie sc ak Bae 5.9 4 14 137 AQ neces SHE esol as | i501 |e Seleso|sesiiascllc = 4.6 3 13 142 202--- Wiesel) TEN - 2) PS) Balak veib ene ---| 5.95 3 9 94 Disease PBS cool Ik es ihs 4) Ol@ Ze leccllocc seals G.@ 3 8 128 Doce 38 | 2) 1 A aes a Arey ey 2 658 6.3 2 12 241 PRisscce PAD |Saclssell. Zoi te) Woy [24 seal Seale alssollcos 6.9 4 10 155 DES 3 Wecclesah SB pee es eas Beat tes ay sllosollscalloss 6.0 4 10 158 20en ese Pel eAip cal Resale Babe alice baliesuliccs| neclcod saaeanisea| Goan 6.0 5 8 30 16S TES gall lp pt Ze Beales eae ss sss [oases Wiesel 58 3 17 84 Tp date OB |e ol BS oz | A eso ess cllescllocallacclicas|iacell GSO 3 8 117 D8 PFlesale| BO hib pO be eoscleselce clece| eee fecalocd|ucd 3 Sei 4 7 62 292 115) Esclibsalleosel! 8 8 |ooepih | Welessleasl 24) oesslesa 2 8.9 5 24 134 BOPeee dbase Si ak Gia Wises Deca) Mes slesaiceslledalleselicce 5.1 3 10 71 July 1..... Glee ea Ol Oe IPMS heeaGaalesleealsbellesaleae ol Bil 4 7 31 Rae ile sul eel see nies eae alls Beal aaa eer soslacalesal ae 5 5 5 Gee ee 3 Beseailete4 sesel| 1 sasiseels poner 6.0 5 8 18 Waseed 2 ag ee | oe | ae Sasi tedligsal eeclaod aaetors SB 4 11 15 Cease De Ub Noseie Tey abe ake hk Te} atte sisal Beeler | 6.7 2 il 61 | | ! | 400 | 3 19 |111 |115 /62 |32 |19 |11 |9|6|6]4)1 | 1} 1 96 fe ccks Sel eases 2,264 SECOND BROOD OF PUP. Length of pupal stage.—The length of the pupal stage of the second generation ascompared with that of the first generation is found to differ very little. Of the 400 insects under observation 1 emerged 7 days after pupation had taken place, while the greater length of time was found to be 20 days. An average period of 11.6 days is shown for | the entire number observed. Further reference should be made to Table XLVI. _LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 61 TasLeE XLVI.—Length of pupal stage of the codling moth in days of all individuals devel- oping from eggs deposited on specified dates, second brood, Roswell, N. Mex., 1918. Num- Length of pupal stage in days. =e BS Date of egg depo- her. FF ee ale fs Past SA OIE ah 3s aes RN me Mine ve Total sition. indi- ays. viduals! 7| 8 | 9 | 10] 11 | 12] 13] 14] 15 19|20| days. | days.| days. | °?Y So bel Pa el eel ee 10.8 10 12 129 re ee (ea CA aed 9.5 9 10 19 Asal) et B74 Ee 11.5 iil 13 104 rales Selly Sela ellie 11.1 7 13 278 1 by a ie 11.6 9 15 163 1| 4/6] 2). 12.0 9 16 217 A ON IS. See 12.2 8 19 401 aya DU ee Wy) SRA ST PS eet Le Vs CN 0 aS St eae 12.3 10 16 283 GuleTAd) Fen iis eres ee pee oe 11.2 9 15 349 SU TON MO Aad sa ee 11.5 9 14 195 SA | Ped agi Gey] Nee | Bs | et a | SP = 11.4 10 14 263 BAU 7 See lls lsseP I oc sisealisss 11.6 9 17 451 AN UD (FAA a els Salome ccltseel soa) ses 11.3 10 14 294 Meas Teagasc abt oe fee Nl | 11.1 10 16 291 eo Di A\ eke | aoe Soe | teres ea (anes Pit tere 11.8 10 17 59 3 Malt ee Par 1) Ta ee | ae a RS, 10.4 9 15 136 Feria ar ee (ee be ke) haha 11.2 9 20 259 FED ans | Osh oe alee RoN sec eee 11.5 9 17 138 6| 4/2). 11.4 9 19 171 4 Sia eA | te esr nere eee 10.8 9 12 152 oll ola eeliceed Py] 10.8 9 14 65 IY ye Ft ee (ese) fe a | ie Ve 9.0 9 9 9 CaF eee Lee Peete lees beara De 2 fe hace eae 10.0 10 10 30 i Ue Pe fel fe ea feo 11.0 10 12 29 2 CONG | eed See is el ee 9.4 8 11 66 Tia SE Pia ie a fa | 11.0 10 12 22 23 178 |143 |93 |27 | 9 j11 | 4 PE Gulte aero Bek oe 4,566 LENGTH OF LIFE CYCLE. The length of time elapsing from the date of egg deposition to emergence of moth of the same generation for 407 individual insects is shown in Table XLVII. Of this number one insect completed the life cycle in 28 days, while the longest time recorded was 59 days. An average period of 41.4 days is described for the entire number observed, being 5.5 days shorter than the corresponding period of the first generation, and 0.14 day greater than the length of life cycle of the second generation of the insect as observed during the season of 1912. 62 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE XLVII.—Length of life cycle of second generation of codling moth from time of egg deposition to emergence of moth, Roswell, N. Mex., 1913. Nu Moths emerged in specified days from time of deposi- Num- tion of eggs of the same generation. ml ENAaaaTe i Date of egg ber of ee 3 eae ie pea Total deposition. indi- | > dace days. | days. days. viduals.|9)33134135/36137138139|40)41/42/43)44|45/46|47/48|49150151|54|59 : June 11 Bie el 2173\ 2) es hi 3) Tes 41.07 38 46) 534 12 Zales otal 7A EA elbol sel Pelloe .| 38.0 38 38 76 9}... eles USS ay al ae Sp .| 41.3 37 46| 372 26).-|.-|..| 1] 2| 1] 2] 3) 3} 5) 3} 2) 2) 1 1 .| 40.6 35 49) 1,056 14|_. aI} ise a) a3} ie Ty ee) loa) 24 1 .| 42.6 35) 49) 19]-.] 1) 1)--]--| 1J--} 1} 1} 3) 3) 2/--] 1) 1) 1) 1 1} 1 .| 42.4 33 51 805 34) _. 1). .| 2} 1} 1} 1) 6) 4) 4) 3)._) 3) 4) 2) 1) 1 .| 43.1 35 50) 1, 465 24). . Bee -| 1} 3} 3} 1) 3} 4) 5) 2 1 1|..| 43.8 39) 54| 1,050 32]. - 1) 4} 5! 3} 3] 2) 6) 5) 1)--] 1_-}- 1 38. 7 34 49) 1,237 Wee SAS -} 2) 21.) 3) 1) 4) 2} 1) 1) 2 43.6 39) 49 23). - SAloells 1} 2} 2) 6) 1) 6). 5 43.3 39) 47| 995 38]. - ..| 1] 3} 1} 2] 3] 4/12) 6} 3)__] 2) 1 40.6 35) 46) 1,542 26). saAleaisello sth ail Gp 3p Sit 44) TN UOT}ISOATAO JSBT O} YOU JO QoUASIEMe Wo SAep JO IEQuMN G as (8) OD fog aes SV are Oe ga Ra Hie a ~, oe anig Cote Ny INR Baur Soe gehen ig gaa Picea Can Omens SaaS Teeter: ke WOT TSOd Ao yenjoe Jo S Ses (Elle tst Pa hth eet Poa bce CTR peo | P| pe fof | Pe ee | en tea bees | cca TC) 7 Sam tet POLS Sa oe ee BEE Sed wr aineee soe 9 OLT SP 6€ (>| Pee fee | ee et Pe Pa i elie ae Bese se | Seca Feed lige lee ls eeclie [hee Pee AR te srt s be eee Ca Roe eae ae ¢ G Oped pe ke ie cect puctole sien a ininisieie IT ‘ydeg . . OG oD : : : ‘ . : i i 5 a . : i : ‘ COOOMON DNR ARDNNDMHOD PESO Ae SCS POCO BOOS Cote 02 *sny ‘skep | ‘skep | ‘skup | &| 12/08) 6F) 8h) ZF | 9F/ oh] FF) EF | Gh TP] OF| 68] 8] 28] 96| ce] Fe| 8 | ce] Te | Oe] 62/87) 97/7 | -noreq| -spen ‘7e107,, | tunw | wnu 938 —_| -nout | -prarp “UOr}ISOdep 330 Jo Oey “IX@ | -TuTyy | -1ovy sAvq | -ur‘oNn ‘sXvp payroods ur poriod Sutpeoy Jo yy suey “SI6L “sayy “N “[jamsoy “pooig yqinof oy) fo wasn) fo poisad burpoaf fo yzbuay pun uoyngnow fo owrg,— TT AT Glavy JUUN IL EVI NEN Gy eet punoJ e1v spIOdDOI OSOyT, “SAVP ¢ OTT] LUNUUTUTUL OY} pue ‘sX¥p OT SBA portod oYY Jo YISUeT WNUIXxvUL OY, “skp 62 JO poltod UoyVqnoul ooeTOAR UV OALY 0} PUNOF pu poATOSqoO SBA S[RNPLATPUL EZ] JO [eI0} B [BAIOVUT SI} UT SuLLMI00 suor}tsodop oy} wor “sXep 6T Jo potted v sutz9A00 snyy ‘g Joquieydeg [YUN AIV[NSor ssoy 10 o10UL OnuUI}UOD 07 puR ‘QZ Jshony UO M990 0} puNo] 4SIY SBM TOUT SuTTpoo oy} JO pooarg YANO; oy} IO; uor}isodep ssy—‘uoyngnour fo awry, BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. E 8 z nN oe) AN N ‘SDDa FO GOOUd HLYNOA 78 “NOILVUUNGS HLYNOd AHL LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 79 FOURTH BROOD OF LARV#. Length of feeding.—The first observation of larvee leaving the fruit was made September 23, after a feeding period of 28 days. Recordsin this connection were kept with 125 individual insects and the last larvee were found leaving the fruit on October 31, thus covering a period of 28 days. All of these individuals passed the winter as wintering larve. The maximum length of the feeding period for larve of this gen- eration was found to be 53 days, and the minimum period 25 days, covering a range of variation of 28 days. The average feeding period for the entire time was 38.36 days, as shown in Table LVII. This average feeding period is 17.26 days greater than the corresponding average for wintering larve of the third generation of this season, and 11.81 days greater than the corresponding average for all larve of the third generation during 1912. MISCELLANEOUS EMERGENCE OF MOTHS. Records of hourly observations.—In an endeavor to determine the time of day at which the greatest number of insects leave the pupal case and emerge as moths, experiments were conducted by using a number of glass jars in which larve collected from banded trees had been placed and on which daily emergence records were taken. The first observations of the season were made April 28, using moths of the spring brood. Observations were begun at 7 a. m. and con- tinued throughout the day at intervals of one hour until 7 p. m. Largely because of the cool weather prevailing at that early stage of the season no emergences were found to take place until 11 a. m., when 1 moth was discovered. At 12 noon, however, 35 moths were found and at this hour a thermograph within the breeding shelter indicated a temperature of 84° Fahrenheit. At 1p. m..a total of 14 moths was found and a temperature of 85° F. was recorded and later noted as being the highest temperature throughout the day. On June 24 and 25 similar experiments were again conducted although no observations were made until 9 a. m., when the greatest number of accumulated moths was found for any particular hour, being 55 in all. Records show an average temperature of 70° F., for that hour on the two days. However, the highest emergence during the more heated portion of the day occurred at 3 p.m. with a total of 33 moths and an average temperature of 90° F., for that hour on the two days. On August | similar records were made with emerging moths of the second generation, and the first observation of the day was made at 7 a.m., when a total of 19 moths was found. The inaximum emergence of the day, however, occurred at 3 p.m., when 103 individuals were dis- covered. The temperature records at this hour read 83° F., while the maximum temperature of the day occurred at 12 noon and was found tobe89°F. Emergences for other hours throughout the day on which records were taken were found to be in varying numbers, as is shown in Table LVIU. Of a total of 731 records of individual emergences, 55888°—Bull. 429—17——-6 80 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ° 137 occurred at 3 p.m. which, according to these records, can be con- sidered the hour of maximum emergence. Taste LVIII.—Records of hourly emergence of codling moths of the spring brood, and of the first and second broods, Roswell, N. Mex., 1913. Hour of day. Date of obser- Total vation. 7 8 9 LO ly ts ee 2 3 4 5 6 ds cca a.m.|a.m.| a.m.) a. m.| a. m. *|p.m.|p.m.|p.m.|p.m.|p.m.|p.m.| p.m. |8°2° Spring brood: | | | Apr. DS ears RN py eee tes = et eee ees 1 35 14 4 1 3) 1st a eee 59 First brood: as | ae YUE Mies sedlbenee PN eee ieewe clic aet 2 1 plete eee IS Nt 10 DASE CREO Ree cee Th eee eoose See oes | seeees aaeos eee Rees earn (aeor ellen a soc 1 Deal AB en TSS 21 2 4 4 51 eS eee | |S eee 43 771 ek aS 2 et, Ti aes el | rae 31 10 8 1a} |) Le 5 7 3 2 102 ee 21 Wis a PAN dae de RAD SS wt ee se 2) Bele. aalGRe wee 1 |2) eee 6 D5 eee ee 2 a ma See [Acree SE = ae aa cg ts pases 2...) she oe ee 2 7p ot SoBe 4 Seaces 2 1 2 1 1 a ee eee | ae a PN es a Ui Veg ae 9 Page S| ee (Sees 21 9 18 19 9 3 8 3 Pp RT ye | ee ©, 83 Dy es SR ST Eee 3 1 | TG mee 1 4 hi ere pre Fe 13 OAS ES tapes San | Helene ieee er sraeeee| a Cree Pen dee iL | sees 1 [| es eee 1 4 Re eee eral ee Shes 5d 44 32 26 25 29 33 12 10 | 4 cy 273 Second brood: | | ATION oe 13 3 6 3 3 5 4 14 40 29 24 5 2 151 (Reser 6 1 6 4 5 4 24 63 40 58 21 i. 248 19 4 12 7 8 9 13 38 103 69 $2 26 9 399 Fotall...| 19 ||2-4-ler | alam (oa zo Ses2 lho 710| 137)| teal oat SON eee aeeae BAND RECORDS OF 1913. Band records were regarded as forming an important part of the life-history studies conducted throughout the season. Besides the advantage offered in the opportunity to study the insect under natural conditions, the careful collection of accumulated larvee from the bands at regular intervals serves to furnish valuable data on the relative abundance of the several broods of larve through- out the season, and provides in addition desirable material for lab- oratory rearmg experiments. During the season of 1913, band records were conducted at dif- ferent points within the State in an endeavor to secure possible data on the life history and habits of the insect in more or less widely- separated localities which represented a variety of conditions. In addition to the band-record experiments at Roswell, similar experiments were installed at Carlsbad, Artesia, Lincoln, and Santa Fe. At Carlsbad some difficulty was experienced in mine suitable trees for banding because of the scarcity of desirable trees of bearing age. Carlsbad and vicinity may be considered to represent one of the points of lowest altitude in New Mexico, and largely for this. reason it was desired to install experiments there. Through the courtesy of Mr. Francis G. Tracy, however, five apple trees were set aside for this purpose. No larvee were reported found during May and only a total of 21 larvee throughout the month of June. Partly on account of the pre- vailing scarcity of fruit on the trees used, no collections were made after July 1, and later the work in this locality was abandoned. LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 81 RESULTS AT ROSWELL. Banded trees for the experiments at Roswell were selected about May 15, although no collections are recorded until May 20. Through the kindness of a number of orchard owners, trees for banding were obtained as follows: Five trees on the farm of Capt. W. C. Reid, 5 belonging to Mr. H. J. Hagerman; 4 in the orchard of Mr. R. C. Horner; and 3 in an orchard owned by Mr. Robert Beers. Careful collections were made from the bands on these trees at intervals of three days from May 20 until November 7, and an accurate record kept of the larve found. By consulting the figures in Table LIX it will be noted that the maximum number of first-brood larve occurring in the field is found to be on May 29, when 833 larvee were yuer aveusT SEPTEMBER OCTOBE Setar who Ube eho 909 SNS ERG VE Qa mar En VlPanmamMoatLVananauHartSanuaavoarts J Beeey on C : sasssecraets POC Nee Ea H ah a Boemew HHESEewEeooHOe Fic. 11.—Curve showing occurrence of codling-moth laryze under bands on apple trees, Roswell, N. Mex., 1913. (Original.) collected from the 17 banded trees. Of this number, 129 proved to be wintering larvee while 654 transformed and emerged as moths. A second maximum is found to occur July 16, when 1,674 larvee were collected from the bands. Of this number 339 proved to be wintering larve, and 1,318 transformed the same season. The greatest number of third-brood larvee collected on a specified date occurred September 8, when 1,073 are recorded. The number of larve wintering at this time in the season is much greater, a total of 1,062 being found, while only 3 larve transformed and emerged the same season. Because of the overlapping of the broods of larvee late in the season, this condition renders it impossible to determine from these data when fourth-brood larvee occurred in greatest num- bers in the field. (See fig. 11.) 82 BULLETIN 429, U. S&S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste LIX.—Codling-moth larve from bands and emergence of moths, OSI, N. Mex., 1913. Date of | Num- |E aan Date of | Num- | E ae ihe ate o um- | Emer- | bero : ate o um- | Emer- | ber of Observation | “Goiec- | ber of lgence of| winter- p bechvarbion collec- | ber of |gence of| winter- tion. larvee..|moths.| ing x tion. larvee. |moths.| ing larvee. larvee.. 1 eats sea re May 20 5 3 HOF] |e SO Seep See hee 15 375 118 255 2 ena eee eos 23 40 39 LE | Bees ae mre 18 367 110 253, BASS Ae eee a 26 140 139 TUN RASA ete iba een 21 295 82 213 Le Siete ce eae 29 833 654 IA Hepioiooecdoss a6 24 484 67 412 Dy BoP Gy ade aay June 1 517 463 EU axis 6 oe eee 27 378 19 357 Gerretse aoa 4 320 274 4G a aD see ene ae 30 730 11 719 Se EL ey a 7 249 150 OOO SGU eee arenes Sept. 2 900 4 896 tS He SAE aioe 10 130 113 Le aieeeee Gaeta 5 fslafe) |laccac= 56 858 eS ee ae 13 89 82 HA OSS een aoe ee 8 1,073 3 1, 062 UO Shae eas ee 16 76 70 GP het eae ears oes 11 S15 heaeeeees 805 1 Ue rae sees 19 95 77 LS RAO Mees a cer 14 39D eeseeeee 386 es Ss ee Sal 22 94 88 G3] ge et ee 17 533 1 527 Oy ee iS 25 69 68 LS | PADS eee aie at 20 465 |Peesees 465 mA te eee 28 140 128 Oe ec 3a See ee 23 BOL | Eanees se 381 US seater atlas July 1 127 112 0 hee eee ee a 26 SRW) |lecace c= 330 LG. See Eee 4 183 153 303] | RAS eee eee 29 174-9: 174 Ie aie ae eed 7 274 251 22546 See ees Octauae 3549 Seteeees 354 Sayer ae ee 10 654 548 OR aT Ee eye eee 5 2651) 2eeeee ee 265 FIG Gap MAReam 13| 1,335] 1,060 O75 lassie tee be S|... 205) lianas 205 QOS ayer ea see 16 1,674 1,318 3304) HAO keene tee ae 11 182"|beseseec 182 21 eee eee 19 1, 667 1,324 BY) II S0s os cdesssosec 14 192 Er eee 192 Deu ee 22] 13510| 1,258 BIAS | Silage aeoaeee mele 17)| "> 130) eee 180 a eer eae ae eee 25 1,166 969 DASA | RP ae ead 20 10 7u eee 107 PIN Ses Sheet as 28 652 548 CON ROS =eese- ee eeeeee 23 119) esse 119 Pie Seana ae ee 31 618 434 Gal Ot goe ae 26 100: 22ee 100 Pt ait eaee ae! Aug. 3 510 300 PAU.) sco seesesesor 29 bl en aesene 51 Qesiers eee 6 463 238 PPB i c3 soesboaead Nov. 2 [22.022 oclee ee eee Doeeeeee eee 9 458 174 2845 ||sOVeeeien a see nee 4) .w nods ocleceeeeee EESeeeeee C1 cee aaa 12 432 154 PAA Ses ie Soca oe eee 7 G5il|etheemece 65 RESULTS AT ARTESIA. The results from the band records at Artesia proved much more satisfactory than did those at Carlsbad, and some valuable data were obtained. The experiments were installed somewhat later in the season than were those at Roswell, and in consequence the first collection of larvee was not made until June 4, on which date 33 larve were found. This date may be considered too late in the season to serve in determining the occurrence at this place of the maximum number of first-brood larve to contrast with May 29, the date when the greatest number occurred at Roswell. On July 10, however, 719 larve were taken from the bands and represent the maximum number for second-brood larve. This oc- curred just six days earlier in the season than did the corresponding stage at Roswell. From the figures at hand relative to the greatest number of larvze to be found in the field at the time of the first collection in Septem- ber, no maximum number can be described, but from previous con- clusions drawn from contrasts with corresponding stages at Roswell, it would appear that the greatest number of third-brood larve would be found about September 2. Regular collections were made on specified dates throughout the season corresponding with the collections made at Roswell and con- tinuing until September 17, when the records were discontinued. The records of these collections are more fully shown in Table LX. LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 83 TaBLeE LX.—Band records at Artesia, N. Mex., 1913. {Larve collected by Mr. N. E. Brainard.] Date of | Num- | Emer-| Win- Date of | Num- |} Emer-| Win- Record No. collee- | ber of |gence of] tering Record No. collec- | ber of |gence of] tering tion. larve. | moth. } larve. tion. larve. | moth. | larve. June 4 33 20 135 || p2deeooeeaseeete 28 284 194 90 7 50 27 DSN N25 cee ee eae 31 179 128 51 10 24 21 3h] [Raat ees ee Aug. 3 123 72 51 13 10 8 Da || 2 dents See eae seers 6 113 35 78 16 48 31 Ly fal | apts kee a Oe 9 55 27 28 19 44 39 5 [P20 eee cath 12 56 19 37 22 43 30 Lee eis Serene sere cot 15 73 28 45 25 61 42 LON ||P SUE See ee ee ee 18 42 16 26 : 28 119 56 G35] |ha2s Steer ees 21 50 9 43 io. eee | July 1 99 66 BW Oona Gas cosesue 24 47 2 45 ii See Oe 4 345 181 164i) | Soe see aa 27 29 3 26 Ui iew =e 7 542 293 2491) (PSSM ei eee 30 DP Wi leeds Bae 21 iGk 22 Sas eee 10 719 | 530 T8939] | PSO Naseer eee Sept. 2 TO} Sees = 19 UY hee as ee 13 643 406 PAVE N\ Bi Soe sqceeassse 5 QAR Etec 24 2k oo ae 16 570 431 IBN Btsos 6 cpeccosecs 8 D QB siete S 4 10 74 eee 19 423 342 Sa SO eas, saan AS 11 DAS ates 14 274 5e ee ae eae 22 278 207 e285 ae cnecenee 14 yal leper 3 235 gee 25 420 261 159M) alae ho ees 17 lees Ss 98 rll Figure 12 represents graphically the results of band records at Artesia, and in addition shows the probable time of occurrence in JULY fi SEETELIAER UHorthS % N rog VOVaunanvortiag N a ae lea ane OP [| EoD PP Ane eee eee =ZIeaeee 2 SOS Ean Zea ees eee Fig. 12,—Curve showing codling-moth larve under bands on apple trees, Artesia, N. Mex., 1913. (Original.) the field of larvee of the first brood. While this feature is of a more or less speculative nature, it may be regarded as being in close accord- ance with facts. RESULTS AT LINCOLN. Lincoln is located 65 miles west of Roswell, between El Capitan Mountain and Sierra Blanca peak, a northerly spur of the Sacramento Mountains, and has an altitude of some 5,700 feet. Through the courtesy of Dr. J. W. Laws a number of bearing apple trees were set aside for use in banding, and these furnished larve throughout the season. While the bands were placed on the trees early in May, no larve were found until June 13. Despite the fact that larve oc- curred more or less intermittently from that date until the season closed, November 7, it would appear that only two full broods and a partial third are found in the higher fruit-growing regions. The records found in Table LXI show that the maximum number of larvee of the first brood of that season were found beneath the + bands July 13. August 30, 48 days later, and the very probable overlapping of this brood with larvee of the partial third brood, coupled with a decreas- ing amount of available fruit during the late summer and early fall, BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The greatest number of second-brood larve occurred mM © XH yy ol SS inmceretn Fig. 13.—Curve showing occurrence of codling-moth larve under bands on apple trees, Lincoln, N. Mex., 1918. (Original.) undoubtedly was influential in producing a uniform number of larvee from which no reliable maximum number could be determined. TaBLe LXI.—Codling-moth larvxe from bands and emergence of moths, Lincoln, N. Mer., 1913. [Larve collected by Mr. E. A. Engstrom.} N E eel N E el um- mer- er 0 um- mer- | ber o Record No ie mate, ber of |gence of} winter- Record No. i ae ok ber of |gence of} winter- omect10D) larvee. | moths.| ing lar- omecti0n..) larvee. | moths. | ing lar- ve. ve. | TERS NURS ND) | page IS ees eT Ne PSTD eee ed Aug. 15 84 35 40 DSRS a ke PH | eS Bas aoa ees Coe nee Feta nea Coy RAP CF AWE eda 18 100 26 74 BS Ain ea es Aes ee PAO ABO Rea ae ft eran eee eee Ber eN US on 21 134 24 110 La See ate ZO Biheeee sa) pare eee Re cee BO ae ROE eer 24 156 6 150 DS a ea TATTOO exe ne Saale tate ye tees |e ered Ae ean Weak 27 134 2 132 COA ers bare Asch Weed eee | Biro sss See |r 58 aes BOO eee 30 167 1 166 [Bees cs uete CNG ae eat a eee a eae ela OOriiseneeeeeee Sept. 2 UEP lsaaooses 93 Beer weer EL Qui ies Re | A ee a a CHAS ARE ae 5 $9 ice eee 89 OARS asec 13 7 6 UD hielo seine 8 88 1 87 OB ria Cases 16 25 18 Cull Bel ciectses aie 11 US Sees 71 TET Sy Sais 19 35 29 Gu paOe eae Oa ie 14 SOLES Sa ueee 56 LE ath 22 20 13 MI es SENS PL is te 17 to10) ett yeti 89 Ti Asi ars Riise a nara 25 20 18 ZAIN piGeed Slee eee Ra 20. kewl aes, 3 78 Pai igs SS 2) 28 17 14 aN) | lees spoon ee ea 23 5Ou| Sees 50 HG See eset opa pea July 1 14 Ia onoavote a te 26 ed a eae 34 GAINS ee DUG 4 36 31 Page ING USYe aes a 29 PAWN tele Sic 20 Wipcnta ioe ae 7 56 42 ALO AGERE ieee a se Oct. 2 28) een 28 ie epee es a Bes gs 10 46 40 Ga WAT ON So nwa rk oe by 5 OOM seein ee 30 Qe Sen any 13 67 50 De Ae Pac tee ean Niet ae 8 PAT Wes Ses ey 3) 26 CADE Sy Arena meaty 16 60 50 NO) AQ ER eee hate 11 BJ eee 32 Dt ah NGL 2s 19 41 24 1 72)) MO Beet eee 14 40 Acne 40 DDiafe eee A ae 22 37 3l Oy ioe abate & 17 29 eee 29 TERA eee gE 25 32 23 OSS 2a ie SEC eel 20 2b See 12 DAS ERE een 3 28 17 12 OulOome Eee ALUN Ss 23 Ties. wae a PASE iN LS 31 10 8 PA lay San Se tse NG 26 23) Gaeeee 23 AG ee ea men Aug. 3 17 9 SI Gas So eaebepee 29 Tyr sticicra & 1 PAPI ay As aS RAN 6 30 20 TOR PSOE ee esta Nov. 1 (hi a ae 6 Sees aa see 9 25 ii V4 PO Meeay sei seis 4 MA lie ye ede 14 29S eae 12 61 22 SOU Pomerat sees 7 a15 Gy | Sere Sie 15 LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 85 The band-record curve found in figure 13 1s in- E/F/~nwo NISILNIM SD DAY tended to show in a gen- eS eral way the fluctuating ia occurrence of larve in an the region of Lincoln, : and in addition to illus- fe CoH trate the periods when PEEEEEEE EEE e greatest numbers of lar- S| = ve may probably be sl z : 4 present. . 2) © While the figures in cooos,| 3 Table LXI give the num- i rite | 7 ber of moths emerging Sree |S from each specific collec- ala : e| 4 tion, no dates correspond- : ele ing to these emergences | 3 are included. Reference | Be to figure 14 will, how- 4 3 ever, furnish data show- 7 HA + ean ie 3 ing the number of moths ima A elas emerging on specified aerea : Fé) days from June 26 until cia Geos | 3 September 20, after which : {tf Oil Maes) date the adults failed to me | 3 appear. The somewhat ars el 2 exceptional fluctuating EEE 2h feature of the emergences Lory Saag one is here graphically illus- H 7 age: trated. [ ale | el RESULTS AT SANTA FE. i Plies Santa Fe is located : E somewhat north of the a : geographical center of ze New Mexico, at an alti- |i y tude of about 7,000 feet. oe While commercial fruit cies growing has never been 6 conducted here on as ex- “Au al tensive ascaleasinmany |" athe 8 other parts of the State, womss27703 «= & x the section has long been Pe embe ee ce Seema Tay settled and the growing arth A of fruit has been practiced 86 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for many years. Because of the rather exceptionally high altitude and its possible effect on insect behavior, it was considered desirable to make band records in this mountain locality. Through the courtesy of Dr. James Rolls, a number of trees were obtained for this purpose, and bands piaced on them in May. How- ever, no larve were found until June 7, when 5 were taken from the bands, 4 of which proved to be wintering larve. The maximum number of larvee of the first brood occurred July 16, the exact date of the occurrence of the greatest number of larve of the second brood at Roswell. From this date on the number collected is so - variable that no very definite conclusions can be drawn. However, it appears probable that the overlapping of first-brood larve with a partial second brood may have taken place about September 5. Reference to Table LXII will show the great number of wintering larvee after August 1 and the number of moths emerging from band- record larvee throughout the season. TaBLE LXII.—BSand records for the codling moth at Santa Fe, N. Mez., 1913. [Larvee collected by Mr. Alfred Rolls.] Date of | Num- | Emer- | Winter- Date of | Num- | Emer- | Winter- Record No. collec- | ber of |genceof| ing Record No. collec- | ber of |gence of] ing tion. | larvee. |moths.| larve. tion. | larvee. | moths.| larve. In figure 15 may be seen a diagram illustrating the variable manner in which the larve were found to occur in the field at Santa Fe during the season of 1913. While it is difficult to account for this evident variation, weather conditions prevailing at times during the period of observations very probably influenced the number of larvee materially. The emergence of moths from band-record larve at Santa Fe was more or less regular, according to the curve found in figure 16, as contrasted with the corresponding illustration dealing with the emer- LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 87 gence of moths from band-record larve collected at Lincoln the same season. From a total of 260 larve removed from the bands at Santa Fe, 169 larve, or 65 per cent, proved to be wintering larvee, and 88 of the entire number transformed the same season to emerge as moths. SEASONAL HISTORY OF THE CODLING MOTH DURING 1913. Figure 17 illustrates graphically the seasonal history of the codling moth during 1913 with dates of the respective broods and genera- Fic. 15,—Curve showing occurrence of codling-moth larve under bands on apple trees, Santa Fe, N. Mex., 1913. (Original.) tions. As in the case of figure 4, illustrating the seasonal history for 1912, the periods indicated by these diagrams are averaged or general- ized, and the tables giving actual dates of occurrence should be con- sulted when specific information is wanted. Both of the seasonal- history charts are made on the same plan and the description of figure 4 on pages 31-32 will apply alike to both of the illustrations. = aS | § Als ek pats glue Sly & less ae : 3| ae ey hak ecas RENE IO RSS RR =$8] SSS SUSIV NANO noe voOnwalrVOLVeeVgn $82 39 | 7 lyuwe s il ha | ou e vo) 0 | | o| o 3 13) 0 12 o| o 10 iA ae Ty o| « 7] 9 2 ‘al o| 2 12 22] «4 2| 2 19 25| o SBnl o| 2 “4 28) 2 ail o| 2 mi\yutr 1) 0 { : o| 2 6 a) 7 o| - 17 7 J H 2 0 1é s0\ 10 } e| 2 9 43} 2/-tt ve) 2 20 6\ 3e\1] i +H 28| 70 2/ v9\ 231] | iia va) 9 | 22 | 22 eat} | ia ia os oa iL ea 7 ez3| asi zoel ETT TT sceenees oa eal tet A 24 2a] vot TTT TT ejeis tet IDG Bei ‘ 25 | 3/). 25,444} tot eens AE SeeeEne sal o 26 |AvG. 3) /9\| a a | Tt Q 27 | 6) 35|4_ im Se ; TOTALS \260| ~ nies Pe 08 Fig. 16,—Curve showing occurrence of codling-moth larve under bands on apple trees, Santa Fe, N. Mex., 1913. (Original.) SUMMARY. In the Pecos Valley of New Mexico the codling moth produced during 1912 three complete generations. In 1913 a partial fourth brood of larvee developed, and it is considered probable that this is of normal occurrence. Pupation of overwintering larve in 1912 began March 15 and con- tinued for about one month. In 1913 the first pupa was noticed March 23 and pupation continued for 51 days. 88 BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Moths of the spring brood in 1912 were first in evidence April 12 and continued to emerge to May 28. In 1913 the spring brood of moths was out from April to early June. Female moths of the spring brood in 1912 lived on the average 8.47 days and in 1913, 12.88 days. Male moths in 1912 lived 6.7 days. IIARCHI APRIL MARK SUNE YULE ~ AUG. SEPT- OC7- z DOORS SOR RS LLG AS LORAH LG ASO LIA SOL H YS LLL oS © £9 OT i SS “al N86 [2eeore MUTT fas) s (flare lle! TT S “TT Si N ne 8 QI 8 : G ; Q BS a § R ‘ an Q ~ STE eee Q p=3q PUTT [ evernartce er rercet | dil || < LE Leeper gp L| ‘ PT reer al TTT < : LT eepee cence eer | || gmt | N t “AL WNTERING LARVAL OF (WP. babel | |OF (912 AIC Fie. 17.—Diagram showing the seasonal history of the codling moth at Roswell, N. Mex., in 1913. ( Original.) In 1912 oviposition of the spring brood of moths began April 16, continuing 45 days, while in 1913 first eggs of this brood were noted May 1. The time required for first-brood eggs to hatch in 1912 was 9.05 days, with a range of 5 to 13 days, whereas in 1913 eggs of this brood hatched on an average in 5.96 days, with a range of from 4 to 11 days. LIFE HISTORY OF CODLING MOTH IN PECOS VALLEY, N. MEX. 89 First-brood larvee in 1912 fed on an average 21.52 days, and in 1913, 24.45 days. The pupal stage of the first brood in 1912 averaged 12 days, and in 1913, 11 days. Moths of the first brood in 1912 were out June 9 and continued to emerge until July 22. In 1913 first moths were out June 3, the period of emergence lasting until July 10. First-brood moths in 1912 oviposited over an average period of 4.45 days, and in 1913, 5.7. The life cycle of the fost generation in 1912 A aie on the average 51.14 days, and in 1913, 46.91 days. Second-brood eggs in 1912 averaged 5.62 days for incubation, with a minimum of 4, and a maximum of 8 days. The incubation period of eggs of this brood in 1913 was on the average 4.9, with a minimum of 4 and a maximum of 7 days. The feeding period of second-brood larve in 1912 averaged 21.23 days, and in 1913, 19.7 days. The pupal oes for second-brood pupz in 1912 averaged UT 43) days, and in 1913, 11.06 days. The life cycle for the second generation of the codling moth in 1912 averaged 41.26 days, and in 1913, 41.04 days. | Eggs of the third brood in 1912 averaged 5.75 days for the incu- bation period, with a minimum of 4 and a maximum of 9 days. In 1913 the incubation period for eggs of this brood averaged 5.36 days. During 1912 third-brood larve fed on an average ‘ol 26.55 days with a range of from 15 to 56 days, whereas in 1913 the average feed- ing period for this brood was 20 days, the range being from 15 to 28 days. — The pupal stage of the third brood in 1912 required on an average 14.94 days, with : a minimum of 11 and a maximum of 20 days. The average length of this stage in 1913 was 11.4 days, with a minimum of 7 and a maximum of 17 days. The life cycle of the third generation of 1912 required on an aver- age 48.57 days, with a range of from 36 to 62 days, and in 1912, 43 days, with a range of 34 to 58 days. Fourth-brood eggs were in evidence in 1913 on August 20, and oviposition continued to September 8. The incubation period, on an average, was 7.9 days. The feeding period of fourth-brood larve in 1913 averaged 38.36 days, with a minimum of 25 days and a maximum of 53 days. All of these larvee passed the winter as such. Records of egg deposition by individual moths were obtained with females of the spring brood and also of the first and second broods. The maximum egg deposition by a female of the spring brood in 1912 was 91 eggs, while the average number per moth was DD") approximately 28 eggs. 90 ‘BULLETIN 429, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The highest oviposition record established was by a female of the second brood in 1913, with a total of 259 eggs. . Oviposition may occur two days after the emergence of moths, and, on an average, moths of the first brood in 1913 continued ovi- position over a period of 5.7 days. The average incubation period for all eggs of the four generations produced during 1913 was 6.4 days. The corresponding average for | the three generations during the season of 1912 was 6.8 days. Studies in the insectary of the hourly emergence of moths show that of 788 records of individuals the greatest nuniber, 17.44 per per cent, emerged at 3 p. m. In general the maximum period of emergence was found to occur at the time of, or almost immediately following, the period of highest temperature for the day. There was some variation from this, however, earlier in the season. Fourth-brood larvee were found leaving the fruit on September 23, after a feeding period of 28 days. Larve of this brood persisted as late as October 21 in the rearing shelter, and the last collection from bands in orchards showed larvee to be present as late as November 1. The wintering larve of 1913, as illustrated in figure 17, were com- posed of 7.16 per cent of the larvz of the first brood; of 19.98 per cent of the larvee of the second brood; of 75.06 per cent of larve of the third brood; and of 100 per cent of the fourth brood. The feeding period of wintering larve of the first brood in 1913 was 0.68 day longer than the corresponding period for the transform- ing larvee of the same brood. Wintering larve of the second brood fed 1.94 days longer than transforming larvee of this brood, while the length of feeding period of wintering larvee of the third brood exceeded that of the transforming larve by 1.1 days. | The probable effect of sudden changes of temperature on the activi- ties of the codling moth is illustrated in figure 8. Temperature records also accompany figure 1. Successful band records were made during 1913 at Roswell, Artesia, Lincoln, and Santa Fe. From available data the conclusion is drawn that at Lincoln there occur two full generations and a partial third, while. at Santa Fe, a more northerly location, there appears to be but one complete generation, followed by a partial second. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY A UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv - October 28, 1916 CEREAL EXPERIMENTS ON THE CHEYENNE EXPERIMENT FARM, ARCHER, WYO. By Jenxin W. Jones, Scientific Assistant, Office of Cereal Investigations. [In cooperation with the Wyoming State Board of Farm Commissioners.] CONTENTS. Page | Page LEER TOIT 107s | Se Oe 5 Pee ae eee eae See ee 1 | Experiments with oats..-..........--------- 26 Description of the district...-.-....-....-... 2 | Experiments with barley.......-.-..-------- 30 Cheyenne Experiment Farm..............-.- 8 | Experiments with flax............-. TUE es 33 Experiments with wheat.... ............... 12 | Experiments with minor grain crops-...-.-.- 36 Experiments with emmer and spelt......... PAN) Si olaeh eae yey 7s every Ass es yamine meee el ON uP Nas 38 INTRODUCTION. The cooperative experiments conducted on the Cheyenne Experi- ment Farm, Archer, Wyo., were started in 1912.1. Three years’ results of the work are now available. It is realized that three years in a dry-farming district is too short a period to warrant the draw- ing of conclusions. However, the demand for available facts is very strong and these data should be interesting and helpful to those engaged in dry farming in the higher parts of the northern Plains area. Therefore, it seems advisable at this time to present the results thus far obtained. Cooperation between the Bureau of Plant Industry and the Wyo- ming Board of Farm Commissioners was effected on July 1, 1912. According to the memorandum of understanding between the two parties The objects of these cooperative investigations shall be (a) to improve the cereals of the northern Plains area by introducing or breeding better varieties than those now grown, with special reference to earliness, drought resistance, winter hardiness, quality, yield, ete.; and (b) to determine the best methods of cereal production under dry-land conditions in the area named. ! The writer was superintendent of the Cheyenne Experiment Farm from September 1, 1912, until April 20, 1915, when he returned to the Nephi substation, in Utah. Mr. Victor H. Wlorell was appointed scien- tific assistant in cereal investigations and superintendent of the experiment farm on April 20, 1915, and was in charge during the cropping season of 1915. Credit is hereby given him for the results obtained in that year. 55650°—Bull, 440—16-—1 2 BULLETIN 430, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The results obtained at Archer are applicable to a greater or less extent to northeastern Colorado, western Nebraska, a narrow por- tion of western South Dakota, and to eastern Wyoming. However, the chmatic conditions in any particular locality should be compared carefully with those obtaining at Archer before the data are too widely applied. The elevation at Archer is as great and the climatic conditions probably are as severe as in the other districts mentioned, so that the results should be quite generally applicable. This bulletin contains (1) a description of the district to which the results apply, (2) a description of the Cheyenne Experiment Farm and the scope and method of the experiments conducted there, and (3) the results of these experiments with different field crops and cropping methods. DESCRIPTION OF THE DISTRICT. The district here described includes the plains of southeastern Wyoming, western Nebraska, and northeastern Colorado. The re- sults presented in this bulletin are believed to be generally applicable to this district. HISTORY. The district was first used for stock grazing. It was the home of ranchmen who owned or leased large areas of land. The ranches were located on streams or springs, in order to have water available for stock during the summer months. ~ When Wyoming was admitted as a State in 1890, 4,042,160 acres were granted by Congress for educational and other public purposes. By a provision in a law approved in 1891 no State lands could be sold at less than $10 per acre. As a result of this law, up to 1902 only a little over 5,000 acres of State land had been sold. Mean- time numerous provisions had been enacted for leasing the State lands in order to secure some revenue from them. Leasing prices ranged from 24 to 25 cents per acre annually, the price depending on whether the land was accessible to water for stock or for irriga- tion. The land leased readily and ranchmen became prosperous. The high sale price of State lands and the large area leased, including practically all the natural watering places, have operated to keep. out the small dry-land farmer. The opposition of the ranchmen to general farming is another factor that has retarded cereal production in Wyoming. As the population increased and land prices became higher in the Central States large numbers of people have continued to move westward. This western migration, which has been especially marked during the past decade, has resulted in the settlement or home- steading of large areas of the higher Plains region, formerly used for grazing. CEREAL EXPERIMENTS ON THH CHEYENNE EXPERIMENT FARM. 3) The new settlers on these lands for the most part come from the Central States. They come into an area that requires farming methods different from those to which they are accustomed. They are confronted by numerous and varied problems of crop adaptation and production which are entirely new to them. Reliable informa- tion on crops and farm practices is seriously needed. TOPOGRAPHY. The district outlined above lies to the east of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, at an elevation ranging from 5,000 to 6,000 feet. The land is gently rolling. It slopes eastward from the foothills to about 102° W. longitude, which may be called the eastern boundary of the higher western Plains area. In this district the summers are short and only short-season crops will mature. SOILS, The soils of the district are of varying types, ranging from light sandy loam to a very heavy impervious clay loam. They are under- lain with gravel at some points and with hardpan at others. The humus content of the soil generally is low over the entire district. The soil in many localities is very light and subject to drifting, while in other localities it is very heavy and difficult to work. In general, however, the soil is fairly easy to work and is rich in plant food elements. While it is low in humus content, crop yields are usually good when the moisture supply is not too limited. VEGETATION. The native grass vegetation of southeastern Wyoming consists largely of buffalo grass (Bulbilis dactyloides), blue grama (Bouteloua oligostachya), western wheat-grass (Agropyron smaithi, formerly A. occidentale), and little bluestem (Andropogon scoparius). These are common grasses of much of the Great Plains area. They are drought resistant, nutritious, and well suited for grazing purposes. The most abundant native legumes are Thermopsis dwaricarpa, milk vetch (Astragalus adsurgens and A. bisulcatus), narrow-leaved vetch (Vicia linearis), and lupine (Lupinus pusillus). Some vetches and lupines when green are considered poisonous to animals, but are not believed to be poisonous when cured. Russian thistle (Salsola tragus), Canada thistle (Cardwus arvensis), yellow mustard (Brassica and Sisymbrium spp.), and tumbleweeds (Amaranthus spp.) are among the most common weeds, particularly on land where the native sod has been broken. CLIMATE. There are at least three distinct climatic factors that influence directly or indirectly the yields of crops in semiarid regions. These are (1) precipitation, particularly the distribution of the rainfall; (2) 4 BULLETIN 430, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. wind, particularly that which passes directly over the ground during the crop season; and (3) temperature, with special reference to the length of the frost-free period in a given locality. PRECIPITATION. Rainfall is undoubtedly the most important factor in crop produc- tion in southeastern Wyoming. Table I shows the monthly, seasonal (April to July), and annual precipitation at Cheyenne, Wyo., in the 16-year period, 1900 to 1915, inclusive. The sea- sonal and annual precipitation are shown graphically in figure 1. Table I shows that the highest monthly precipita- . tion during the 16- year period was 7.66 inches, in April, 1900. The lowest monthly precipitation durimg that period was a trace, in November, 1901. The highest seasonal (April to July) precipitation recorded during the 16 years was 15.36 inches,in 1905. The lowest seasonal pre- cipitation was 4.77 inches, recorded in 1903. The average seasonal precipitation. was 8.59 inches. The highest annual precipitation recorded during the 16-year period was 22.68 inches, in 1905. The lowest annual precipitation during the same period was 10.85 inches, in 1911. The average annual precipitation for the 16 years was 15.78 inches. The monthly precipitation varies widely from year to year. Marked variations are observed also in the seasonal and annual precipitation of the different years. ZZA a G UY ay y ] y | S| | | [| N a aS [a De Fa oe a a | ee Fig. 1—Diagram showing the seasonal and the annual precipitation (in inches) at Cheyenne, Wyo., for 16 years, 1900 to 1915, inclusive. CEREAL EXPERIMENTS ON THE CHEYENNE EXPERIMENT FARM. 5 The growing season, or the period during which spring cereals make most of their growth, covers the four months from April to July, inclu- sive. It is the rainfall during these four months that is of most vital concern in crop growth. Most crop failures other than those caused by factors of limited duration, such as hot wind, frost, or hail, are due to the insufficiency or poor distribution of the moisture during these months. According to the data recorded in Table I for the 16 years, 1900 to 1915, about 54 per cent of the annual precipitation comes between April 1 and July 31, the period of most active crop growth. TaBLeE I.— Monthly, seasonal (April to July), and annual precipitation at Cheyenne, Wyo., for the 16-year period, 1900 to 1915, inclusive. [Data (in inches) from the records of the United States Weather Bureau except as noted.] Year. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. } Apr. | May.| June.| July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. Dee. eae Sar 0.72 | 7.66 | 0.76 | 1.01 | 1.20 | 0.70 | 2.19 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.33] 10.63 16. 09 1.54 | 2.97 | 2.47 | 1.93 | 1.34 83} .75| .31} @D | 1.62 8.71 14.99 2.11 | 1.49 | 2.51 | 1.55) 1.49] .53] 3.52] .52] .23] 1.79 7.04 16. 50 1.00 | 2.10] .46] 1.42 79 | 1.90} 1.40) .34] .79 09 4.77 12.25 -45 | 1.80 | 6.66 | 1.78 | 2.00 BY} oes || obi || oOw 06} 12.24 15. 72 1.27 | 6.45 | 4.04 | 1.90 | 2.97 | 1.93 | 1.06] 1.40] .11] .02 15.36 22.68 2.27 | 3.10 | 1.30 | 2.42 | 1.89 49 | 1.86 | 2.33 | 1.42] .15 8.73 17. 65 -49 | 1.32 | 2.78 34 | 3.50 80 92] .08] .59 55 7.94 12.34 16} .36] 6.19 | 2.52 | 4.33 | 2.45 -09 | 1.14] .59 70 13. 40 19. 09 3.22} .97]| 2.15 | 4.01} 1.08 | 1.40] 1.37] .28] .73 6 8. 21 17. 62 1.45 | 1.14 | 2.34) .76) 1.32 62 | 1.80 | 1.04] .29 69 5. 56 12.05 -16 | 1.93 Bon lesa ele 2m lelason | melee) 95} . 59 29 5.11 10. 85 1.33 | 1.62 | 1.37 | 1.17 | 1.82 | 1.44 | 3.91 | 2.59) .58 |: .63 5. 98 18. 50 -33 | 1.35 | 2.22 |51.51 162.06 |b2.09 |02.23 | 1.43 | .37 | 2.00 7.14 16. 28 «72 102. 54 |b1. 46 |51.12 |51. 43 |02.03 | .82 | 1.29] .26] .16 6. 55 11. 66 - 71 |54.90 |01. 78 |61.83 01.65 |62.53 |01.95 |b1.81 | .03 |> .56 | 10.16 18. 32 Average.| .32| .75 | 1.12] 2.61 | 2.43 | 1.68 | 1.88 | 1.387) 1.60] 1.01) .42) .64 8. 59 15. 78 Maxi- : ieee -| .84/ 1.76 | 3.22 | 7.66 | 6.66 | 4.01 | 4.33 | 2.53 | 3.91 | 2.59 | 1.42 | 2.00] 15.36 22. 68 ini- MMe OSlt sc0 lh elO Nis “oO! |e too (list doulas. 49 |eesOONtte (Oars AE - 02 4.77 10. 85 a T=trace. + Data obtained at the Cheyenne Experiment Farm by the Office of Biophysical Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry. EVAPORATION. Second to precipitation in importance is evaporation, especially that which occurs during the growing season. Table II shows the monthly evaporation and precipitation at Archer for the four months of this season in each of the three years 1913, 1914, and 1915. The evaporation here recorded is from a free water surface. June and July are the months of highest evaporation at Archer. The total evaporation for the four months varies considerably, ranging from 20 inches in 1915 to 25.58 inches in 1914. The ratio of precipitation to evaporation during the growing season in 1913 to 1915, inclusive, is interesting and instructive. The data show that the ratio varies widely in the different years. The higher the precipitation, the nearer the ratio approaches equality and the higher the crop yields. Low evaporation is associated with high yields, provided the rainfall is normal. The evaporation during 6 BULLETIN 430, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. April is naturally much lower than that during the warmer months. In the only year in which a good crop was obtained, the precipitation was high and the evaporation low, making a ratio of 1:2. Taste IIl.—Monthly and total precipitation and evaporation from a free water surface at the Cheyenne Experiment Farm, Archer, Wyo., in the months of April to July, inclusive, for 1913, 1914, and 1915. (Data (in inches) obtained by the Office of Biophysical Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry, except as noted.] f April May June | July. Total. . | Ratio, ia lee PDEeCLD= tation Year. Ee Evap- Pre Evap- Pre- Evap- Pre- Evap- Pre- Evap- | ~ to eae ora- we ora: pea ora- oa ora- ve Ey ora- evapo- = a a G A - a a- Z S Figal tion. fon tion. Fe tion. tion. tion. tion. tion. | ration. OUP Ree ers cuakee cae @1.35 | 63.217 |a2.22 | 65.304 | 1.51 | 7.104 | 2.06 | 7.756 | 7.14 | 23.381 1:3.27 QIAN RE eee 2.54] 3.574 | 1.46| 5.703] 1.12] 8.317 | 1.43] 7.987 | 6.55 | 25.581 | 1:3.91 ALG es ae ee eee 4.90] 3.160 | 1.78} 4.701] 1.83] 5.557 | 1.65 | 6.638 ye 16 | 20.056 | 1:1.97 a Data from United States Weather Bureau at Cheyenne, Wyo. b Interpolated. WIND. Wind velocities have been recorded at Cheyenne during a long series of years. The average wind velocity in miles per hour, by months, from April to July of each year, in the 16-year period from 1900 to 1915, inclusive, is given in Table III. Strong winds are quite com- mon in southeastern Wyoming, and crops are damaged at times by the drifting soil. The highest velocities are recorded during the late falland winter months. April has the highest average hourly velocity for the months under discussion, 11.2 miles, and July the lowest, 8.5 miles, perhour. The anemometer was located at a height of 64 feet above the ground. These readings, therefore, probably are higher than they would have been if the anemometer had been located just above the surface. Evaporation usually increases with wind velocity. In the winter months the snowfall is, as a rule, blown to the lower levels, leaving the winter crops exposed. For this reason winter- killing of fall-sown crops is common. Tape III.—Average wind velocity at Cheyenne, Wyo., by months, from April to July of each year, during the 16-year period, from 1900 to 1915, inclusive. [Data (in miles per hour) from the records of the United States Weather Bureau.] Year. April.| May. | June.| July. DOr Year. April.| May. | June.| July. 278 age. age. 1p aneaacesnee ce 9.3] 9.5) 9.5} 8.5 OLPd il) Wecasscsaausas5o 11.6] 12.5] 8.2] 82] 10.1 TOQUE ERY Dire ei scve rae 10.1) 9.9} 9.4] 8.2 DAG LOLS Sea) eee 11.8 | 10.1 | 10.1} 8.1) 10.0 Leese eeoarce 10.2} 10.1 | 10.6] 8.6 OE Oia OU aie us Se 11.6] 11.6] 89] 89] 10.3 1903 eee ie ee ae eee TMG UNL Eee CEO aE OSs II) Tee Se seocee] 11.6 /11.9) 9.1} 8.3] 10.2 OQ 4A eee eine 1250 10559) 8595) 855) LON O9le eso see 10.1] 8.6] 10.2} 8.5 9. 4 OOS eek ee a ee 9.9} 10.0 | 10.2] 7.9 | 12.0 || 1914........-.---.-- 13.5 | 11.1 | 12.1] 9.7] 11.6 GO G Ree ee te 10.8 | 10.3 | 11.9} 7.1} 10.0 || 1915..............- 11.8 | 12.1] 12.1] 10.8) 11.7 LGU 7poRi a Sie Ree te ae 11.6 | 10.0} 9.8] 7.9 9.8 IO Ee oauacodsse INGO) || ES SR Te sO) Average......--- 11.2] 10.7] 9.9) 8.5 9.8 i CEREAL EXPERIMENTS ON THE CHEYENNE EXPERIMENT FARM. TEMPERATURE. The maximum, minimum, and mean temperatures for the four months, April to July, of each year during the 16-year period from 1900 to 1915, inclusive, are shown in Table IV. The highest tem- perature recorded during the entire period was 95° F. and the lowest 4°F. ‘Fhe summers are not extremely hot and the nights are always cool. Taste 1V.— Maximum, minimum, and mean temperatures at Cheyenne, Wyo., by months, from April to July of each year, for the 16-year period, 1900 to 1915, wnclusive. [Data (in ° F.) from the records of the United States Weather Bureau.] April. May. June. July. pe lak Mi M Mi M Mi M Mi ax- | Min- ax- | Min- | ax- | Min- ax- | Min- imum. imum. | “22-| jmum. imum. M®2-| imum. |imum.|M¢®?-| imum. |imum, |Mea™ | UG TS eee 69 6| 40.2 81 25 | 54.8 92 40 | 65.4 90 39 64.9 19OT 2 = = - 7 8} 40.2 77 31 | 53.7 90. 35 | 60.0 95 44 71.4 ie 74 9} 41.6 82 28 | 52.8 92 37 | 61.0 93 40 63.8 A903 22 5--- > 71 4/ 40.0 77 24 48.0 88 30 | 56.9 89 40 66. 8 i ee eee 72 15 | 41.5 77 26} 49.2 80 36 | 57.2 87 37 63. 2 NODG = 5-5-2 7. 12} 37.3 77 25 | 47.2 88 42 | 61.6 88 42 63.8 ONG 22 5 74 16} 43.2 7 27 | 51.0 88 33 | 57.9 88 39 62.9 Af! i Aaa 72 15} 39.3 80 8 | 45.4 83 36 | 58.1 91 43 66.3 BONS SS ee.2 : 2: 75 7 | 44.2 81 23 | 47.8 85 40 | 57.9 89 36 65. 0 ee 70 10 | 36.0 75 18 46.8 89 41 | 61.3 93 44 68. 0 TR Es eee 82 21) 46.4 79 25 | 49.6 91 37 | 62.7 95 43 69. 2 15) 5 eee 71 14) 41.4 79 25 | 52.2 87 43 | 64.6 86 42 64.7 i LL 7 62 17 | 40.2 81 28 |} 50.4 86 33 | 58.5 86 46 65. 0 (bik eee 7. 19} 43.1 81 28 |} 52.0 88 40 | 60.8 92 43 65. 2 {LE eee 67 12 | 40.2 76 27) 51.1 85 41 | 61.4 86 43 66.6 1915.5. ==: = 70 26 | 46.0 79 21) 46.4 78 29 | 54.6 89 33 62.3 Average 72 13} 41.3 79 24 | 49.9 87 37 | 59.9 90 41 65. 6 Data showing the dates of the latest frost in spring and the first frost in autumn and the length of the frost-free period for each year from 1900 to 1916 are presented in Table V. These data were obtained from the records of the United States Weather Bureau at Cheyenne, Wyo. Taste -V.—Dates of killing frosts, the last in spring and the first in autumn, with the length of the frost-free period, at Cheyenne, Wyo., in each year, 1900 to 1915, inclusive. Data obtained from the records of the United States Weather Bureau. [ Dates of killing Dates of killing frosts. frosts. “3 __| Frost-free na Trost-free Year. period. || Year. period. Last in | First in ! Last in | First in spring. | autumn, spring. | autumn, = oe ea lie oven : = Days. || Days. I ae May 19 | Sept. 26 120) | SUBUO cote pian cizia noes May 25 | Sept. 22 119 1901.............-.-| May 22 | Sept. 16 117. |MOTOE e eae 7 eek. 2 May 22] Aug. 25 94 React pc tt 556152 May 21 | Sept. 12 U1S |} AUGU Ue ree. ow ae bcs or May 27 | Oct. 19 144 DD fabs 4 x2) Pood «3 June 1 | Sept. 14 105: ||\watlicae saeewis esse cer May 14 | Sept. 15 123 Maite ss des724et| MSY 1, 1.005 45- 110 | |Splpeeeees cheese cee May 3 | Sept. 20 139 OA Ene Bee May 16} Oct. 9 145 || Baer ata nae cele oie oir May 7 | Sept. 14 130 AN Ado a Va n'e Saisie. o,7> May 6] Oct. 4 TBO. REG Deiat tae 55, altace June 138] Oct. 5 114 Mi sencsctsnrrersxe| May 14 | Sept..20 128 peor et MN eae Sw meseu see's May 10 | Sept. 26 138 Average.......... May 18 | Sept. 21 125 8 BULLETIN 430, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The United States Weather Bureau, in reporting killing frosts, uses the staple crops of any given locality as a basis for determining the character of a given frost. Therefore, a temperature of 32° F. is not necessarily a killing frost, depending on the hardiness of the staple crops grown in the area under discussion. At Cheyenne the average frost-free period is 125 days. CHEYENNE EXPERIMENT FARM. LOCATION. The Cheyenne Experiment Farm is located in Laramie County, in southeastern Wyoming, about 8 miles east of Cheyenne and half a mile southeast of Archer. Archer is on the Union Pacific Railroad, while Cheyenne is on the Union Pacific, the Colorado & Southern, and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroads. The farm is about Fic. 2.—Buildings on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm, Archer, Wyo., in 1915. (Photograph lent by the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture Investigations.) 35 miles west of the Nebraska State line and 15 miles north of the Colorado State line. It lies in about 41° 8’ N. latitude and 104° 48’ W. longitude. A view of the farm buildings is shown in figure 2, of the barns and silo in figure 3, and of a farmers’ round-up at the station in figure 4. : DESCRIPTION. The farm consists of 250 acres. It was part of a large cattle ranch and for years had been used for grazing purposes. The soil is a sandy loam, varying in depth from 3 to 6 feet. Below these depths the soil is gravelly or sandy. The surface soil contains a low percentage of humus. The farm slopes gently a little south of east and excellent surface drainage is afforded. A map of the farm is shown in figure 5. The experimental work has been conducted on the west field. This field, of about 100 CEREAL EXPERIMENTS ON THE CHEYENNE EXPERIMENT FARM. 9 acres, is laid out in series lettered from A to L, inclusive. Each contains 67 tenth-acre plats except series J, K, and L, each of which contains only 46 tenth-acre plats. Eighteen acres of this field are devoted to rotation experiments under the direction of the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture Investigations. The soil on the entire experi- mental area is as uniform as can be expected in this district and is fairly representative of the soil of southeastern Wyoming. SCOPE OF THE EXPERIMENTS. Varietal experiments in plats have been conducted with winter and spring wheat, emmer, and oats, and with spring barley, flax, and proso. Rate-of-seeding and date-of-seeding tests have been made with winter wheat and with spring wheat, oats, barley, and flax. Fic. 3.—Silo and cow barn on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm, Archer, Wyo. (Photograph lent by the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture Investigations.) In 1913, 7 varieties of winter wheat, 1 of winter emmer, 32 varie- ties and 11 pure lines of spring wheat, 14 varieties of oats, 16 of barley, 12 of flax, 8 of proso, and 8 of grain sorghum were grown at Archer. Rate-of-seeding and date-of-seeding tests with 2 winter wheats, 1 spring wheat, 1 spring oats, and 1 spring barley and a date-of-seeding test with flax were also conducted. In 1914 the number of winter wheats was materially increased. A few flax varieties and a rate-of-seeding test with flax also were added. In 1915 the number of varieties and experiments was about the same as in 1914. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. Two general methods of experimentation have been used at Archer. Cereal varieties have been tested in field plats and in nursery rows. It is possible to test economically a much larger 55650°—Bull. 430—16——2 10 BULLETIN 4380,.U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. number of varieties in the nursery than in the plats. Only the data obtained from the plat tests are reported in this paper. All rate-of-seeding and date-of-seedmg experiments have been con- ducted on field plats. SIZE AND ARRANGEMENT OF PLATS. In 1913 and 1914 tenth-acre plats were used in varietal, rate-of- seeding, and date-of-seeding experiments. The plats were 2 by 8 rods, or 33 by 132 feet, arranged in series of 67 plats. The plats in each series were separated by 5-foot alleys and the series of plats were separated by 20-foot roadways. Thus each plat was bordered on each side by a 5-foot alley and on each end by a 20-foot road. In 1915 the plats used were a thirtieth and a twentieth of an acre, bemg 11 by 132 feet and 16.5 by 132 feet, respectively. The thir- Fig. 4.—Farmers’ round-up on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm, Archer, Wyo. Each year the farmers in the community visit the station and inspect the experimental work. (Photograph lent by the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture Investigations.) tieth-acre plats were separated by 18-inch alleys and the twentieth- acre plats by 30-inch alleys. Thus the thirtieth-acre plats were bordered on the sides by 18-inch alleys and on the ends by 20-foot roads. The twentieth-acre plats had 30-inch alleys on each side and 20-foot roads on each end. The long dimension of the series extended east and west, while that of the plats extended north and south. The series are designated by the letters A to M. The plats are numbered from 1 to 67, inclusive. REPLICATION OF PLATS. In 1913 the winter wheats were grown in duplicate tenth-acre plats. The spring wheats and other spring cereals were grown in single -tenth-acre plats. In 1914 all winter and spring cereals were grown in single tenth-acre plats except a few spring-wheat varieties, which CEREAL EXPERIMENTS ON THE CHEYENNE EXPERIMENT FARM. 11 were grown in triplicate tenth-acre plats. In 1915 the winter-wheat varieties were grown in triplicate thirtieth-acre plats and most of the spring cereals in duplicate twentieth-acre plats. PREPARATION OF THE LAND. In the preparation of the seed bed the aim at Archer has been to do the work in as practical a manner as possible. However, at times the land has probably been given better preparation than would be profitable on the average farm. All crops were grown on breaking in 1913 and on fallow land in 1914. In 1915 the winter wheats were grown on fallow and all spring crops on land which had produced corn the previous year. FACHER, WO. THE LINCOLN #H/GH WAY CHEVENNE EXPERIMENT /AP/A, ARCHER, WYOMING. SOREAY OF PLANT INDUSTRY PASTORE PASTURPE U.S. DEPARTPIENT OFACRICULTURE COOPERATING WITH THE G2 APES 250 ACHES WYOMING STATE GOARD OF FARYI COMMI/SSIONE/?S ——_ - 60 £05 — -———- >| ° £o° +#Fo 60 oo AOOF IS ACRES ee a Zee a I hese DS ‘ j _ Eee r EXPERIMIENTS Q |E_ Bacres | EXPERIMENTS | capac CROPS CEREAL 6 EXAERIMENTS DRY LAND, \( 07 (4 (QO0ER, Fi A T Wt OFFICE OF ACHICULTURE AND SILAGE | / CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS | —— (4 OAD TOS CoE es 72 COMP S75 0¢ a eae SE0FOS. -—>— -07005-- —4 Fic. 5.—Map of the Cheyenne Experiment Farm, Archer, Wyo., showing the location of the principal experiments and the manner in which the farm is divided into series and plats. RATES AND DATES OF SEEDING. In the varietal experiments at Archer, winter and spring wheats have been seeded at the rate of 3 pecks per acre. The small-kerneled early oats have been sown at the rate of 4 pecks, and the larger kerneled midseason varieties at the rate of 5 pecks per acre. Barley has been sown at the rate of 4 pecks and flax. at 15 pounds per acre. Winter wheat, except in the fall of 1912, has been seeded between September 1 and 15. Spring wheat, oats, and barley have been sown between April 15 and May 1. Flax and proso have been seeded between May 15 and 25, 1 BULLETIN 430, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INTERPRETATION OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS. The interpretation of the results obtained from plat experiments is difficult. This is due to the large number of factors which must _be considered in determining the relative value of different varieties or different cultural methods. Generally speaking, the variety that gives the highest average yield of good quality in a period of several years is the one that should be grown. It is really quite difficult to obtain a variety that is consistently a high yielder and also is high in quality. Variations in soil and seasonal and annual variations in climate have a great influence on crop production in dry-land areas. All these factors must be thoroughly studied, in order that reliable conclusions may be drawn. The experiments at the Cheyenne Experiment Farm have been under way for only three years. This is too brief a period to give the needed long-time average of yields or to permit sufficient study of soil and climatic variations. EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEAT. At Archer, experiments with winter and spring varieties of wheat have been conducted in field plats and nursery rows. Most of the work, however, has been done on field plats. Wheat is the leading crop in southeastern Wyoming. Spring and winter varieties are grown on about equal acreages.. More work has been done at Archer with wheat than with any other cereal. WINTER WHEAT. Experiments with winter wheat have included varietal, rate-of- seeding, and date-of-seeding experiments. The work at Archer is relatively new. Therefore little has been done in the improvement of crop varieties. The work has been confined for the most part to the testing of varieties known to be the most promising for the dry-land districts. VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS. The varietal experiments with winter wheat on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm have included for the most part the hard, red win- ter varieties of the Crimean group. Seven varieties have been grown for three years, 1913, 1914, and 1915, while eight additional varieties have been grown for two years, 1914 and 1915. The annual and average yields of winter-wheat varieties are presented in Table VI. In 1913, seven winter-wheat varieties and strains were grown in duplicate tenth-acre plats on sod that was broken in August, 1912, double disked twice, and harrowed. The plowing was poorly done and the seed bed was rather rough. The seed was sown on October 5, 1912. The plants emerged on October 25, but made little growth before winter. The stands obtained were rather thin, but tillered CEREAL EXPERIMENTS ON THE CHEYENNE EXPERIMENT FARM. 13 enough the next spring to make fair yields. The rainfall during the growing season was below normal. In 1914, 15 varieties and strains of winter wheat were grown in tenth-acre plats on fallow land. The land was plowed in the fall of 1912 and left rough until the spring of 1913, when it was double- disked and kept free from weeds during the summer. ‘The varieties were sown September 9, 1913. The fall of 1913 was wet, and good stands of all varieties were obtained. The winter wheats were 3 to 6 inches high when winter began. The winter was cold and open, and practically all varieties winterkilled considerably. A few plats apparently were favorably located, and on these the winter survival was much higher than on the others. The winterkilling was not uniformly distributed on the plats, but occurred in patches or streaks. The survival of a variety did not necessarily indicate winter hardi- ness, since the same variety sown on different plats had a markedly different winter survival. However, certain soft winter wheats less hardy than those of the Crimean group were entirely winterkilled. It is believed that the yields reported in Table VI are representative of what could reasonably have been expected from winter wheat on fallow land in 1914, as winterkilling was quite general on farms in the vicinity. The precipitation for the growing season was below normal, as shown in Table I. TaBLe VI.—Annual and average yields of varieties of winter wheat grown on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm in 1913, 1914, and 1915. Yield per acre (bushels). Average. Group and variety. C.I. No. A @1913 1914 | 61915 3 years,| 2 years, 1913 to |1914and 1915. 1915. Crimean: CA eee ane Bea ee ee 1442 9.8 4.7 37.1 W752, 20.9 MEU ate te coe Sones 2 aes se a etiae che res ee 1559 9.7 3.2 38.6 17.2 20.9 tp Be eo ae ee 1432 9.5 4.7 36.1 16.8 20.4 UDUPI oe. oto oor oe tba see fai biawpicle gees on 1571 10.0 c7.9 32.0 16.6 20.0 STE Sate Sos eS aE i ei 2908 10.3 0 37.6 16.0 18.8 re ee ese SN ko on bala oem beeen sie-e 1437 9.2 2.5 35.1 15.6 18.8 MIRAD Re os See Ue ode oka date osiccies Leute cos DOOR eitatasat= = 13.7 B250i || eisai are 23.1 COTES O04 IE eS ene tee anal eyes PAVE Ue | tea le cee led! Bile S)) | erence se 22.8 Bee ee sce oa det cee eee dec cpaksereeescs- 1543 |..------ 5.0 BiH ace sane 20.9 MAIR RASE OG aie ee Faas nen A PSOE See liekelas 5)2* Al Abeer 6.0 BOe Oh ys ae 20.8 MeriiaVinee es coe ahaa te a. PN wee... 1355-2-2 |....---- 4.0 ale tc Serra. 18.3 Miscellaneous: CE Sh ECG) A ee Aa ee EE er ere 1438 | 9.3 7.8 37.6 18.2 22.7 PPAOUE TRIVOEYAUICAN ooo os 5 ous nln a dalediic cannes Ope eee 4.5 BS ON eee 21.3 SOL Osi ls Gee ee Oe Be eal se a a a BODO Lees asa: 12.8 Aiwehh betaine ers 20.0 REEMEERCEMRIAS Toe ie hens ceo ed we tone bod ecicamiae 0 15 Aid a 5.6 BV Gila seen 19.2 a Average of 2 tenth-acre plats. c Average of 3 tenth-acre plats (checks). 6 Average of 3 thirtieth-acre plats. For the 1915 crop the winter wheat varieties were sown on Sep- tember 8, 1914, in triplicate on thirtieth-acre plats. They were sown on fall-plowed fallow land that had been kept free from weeds during 14 BULLETIN 430, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the summer of 1914. The stands obtained and growth made before winter were good. The winter survival was high. The seasonal rainfall was considerably above normal, while the temperature was below normal during the growing season. The varieties yielded very well in 1915, as is shown in Table VI. Table VII shows the agronomic data for seven varieties of winter wheat grown at Archer in the three years 1913, 1914, and 1915. These data include average dates of heading and maturity, height, weight per bushel, yield of grain and of straw, and ratio of grain to straw. The weight per bushel is for the two years 1914 and 1915. The weight per bushel was low in 1914, the grain being shrunken. The highest average yield, 18.2 bushels per acre, was produced by the BY PLP ACRE cwrnH,c vie xz _ _ ___ s/s = pecaperov, CLv2/¢a2 | Aer CHIMEAN, CL N°(S59 rs 77 = CHIMEAN,C/1WYds2 (ZT oF WEY, C1 V°/57/ (T= nn 6 5 WALA OB CVE ee SO CHMEAN, CANE” ne 5S Fie. 6.—Diagram showing the average yields of seven varieties of winter wheat on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm, 1913 to 1915, inclusive. Ghirka Winter wheat (C. I. No. 1438). The lowest average yield, 15.6 bushels, was obtained from the Crimean (C. I. No. 1487). The ratio of grain to straw was lowest for Ghirka Winter and highest for Crimean (C. I. No. 1432). The average ratio for the seven varieties is about 1:2. In figure 6 the yields of the seven varieties of winter wheat grown at Archer from 1913 to 1915, inclusive, are shown eraphically. Taste VII.—Average date of heading and maturity, height, weight per bushel, yields, and ratio of grain to straw of seven varieties of winter wheat grown on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm, 1913 to 1915, inclusive. | Tae | Dates of— Yiel b ee ° Weieht | \ 10 Danes) array Group and variety. Nor. Een Ca Height. per SSS es Ee tO) Heading. | Maturity. bushel.? Grain. | Straw. | Saw Ghirka: Inches. | Pounds. | Bush. |Pounds. Ghirka Winter....-......| 1438 | June 29 | July 28 27 61 18.2} 2,018 1:1. 85 Crimean: Kharkof | 1442 |_..do....| July 26 28 58 17.2} 2,170 1:2. 10 Crimean | 1559 | ..do..-.|..-do--.- 28 60 - 17.2} 1,847 1:1. 79 1432 , July 2] July 30 26 60. 5 16.8 | 2,463 1:2. 44 Burke ye se se a 1571 | June 29 | July 26 |- 28 60 16.6 | 2,040 1:2. 05 Malakofise asses is ae 2908 |1 July 2 |1July 31 130 62 16.0} 1,769 1:1. 84 Crimeaniee see e ae 1437 | June 29 | July 27 27 58.5 15.6 | 1,804 1:1. 93 1 Average for two years. CEREAL EXPERIMENTS ON THE CHEYENNE EXPERIMENT FARM. 15 The leading varieties of winter wheat, with the exception of the Ghirka Winter, belong to the Crimean group. The Ghirka Winter is a beardless variety with white, glabrous chaff and hard, red kernels. The Crimean group is characterized by bearded heads with white, glabrous chaff and hard, red kernels. Turkey is the leading variety on the farms in this section of Wyoming. A plat of Turkey winter wheat on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm is shown in figure 7. RATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENT, A rate-of-seeding experiment has been conducted at the Cheyenne Experiment Farm since 1913 with two varieties of winter wheat. The rates of seeding have ranged from 2 to 7 pecks per acre. The Fig. 7.—A plat of winter wheat on disked corn land on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm, i915. (Pho- tograph lent by the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture Investigations.) annual and average yields in the rate-of-seeding test of the Turkey and Ghirka Winter wheats are shown in Table VIII. Taste VILI.—Annual and average yields of the Turkey and Ghirka Winter wheats in a rate-of-seeding test on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm in 1913, 1914, and 1915. Yield per acre. V aoe of | 1913 1914 1915 3-year average. | Grain. Straw. Grain. Straw. Grain. Straw. Grain. Straw. Turkey: Bushels. | Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds. fe ee ita) Meo eee 0 0 32.5 BOM OM Em aie uate sare aere seeceete BVWOCEB Ss ods cees 9.1 | 715 0 0 35.5 4,990 14.9 1, 902 4 pecks........... 9.0 585 0 0 32.0 4, 540 13.7 1,708 TEODOR. Se au S52 - 10.1 830 | 0 0 34.8 5, 030 15.0 1,958 DORR oa os 8 as «2 oa 10.4 750 0 0 35. 1 5, 090 15. 4 1,947 WIPOCKSs.. 32-052: 9.9 680 0 CO ee ann Oe cp SBSnick omemitel sso Ware ecaoatc Ghirka Winter: CRT tras ia 3 leo a4 «nib 0/a'p eet insane } 0 0 35.8 AEC)! | Cntvcn soft wl iaaky Bape aietene PF piieees 5.2220. 9.3 600 | 0 0 35.5 5, O80 14.9 1, 893 MOCK ovens =.s4| 7.4 450 0 0 32.8 9, 130 13.8 1, 860 5 pecks...........| 8.6 595 0 0 31.3 5, 040 13.3 1, 878 NP OOGIEN rae so wou 9.3 650 0 0 30.5 4,920 13.3 1, 890 7 pecks.....-.....| 7.5 750 | 0 ON Baretiste dietenal lista wee wit voi | pes wip = ev ecg aatastatctola a 16 BULLETIN 430, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In 1913 the sowings were in tenth-acre plats on land that was plowed in August, double disked twice, and harrowed before seed- ing. The sowings were made on October 5, 1912. Little or no winterkilling occurred. The seasonal rainfall was below normal and the yields were relatively low. With the Turkey the highest yields were obtained from the 5-peck and 6-peck rates, while with the Ghirka Winter the 3-peck and 6-peck rates gave the highest yields. In 1914 the two varieties were again grown in tenth-acre plats on fallow land. The seed was sown on September 10, 1913. There was sufficient moisture present in the soil to start germination im- mediately and a good fall growth resulted. The winter was cold and open, and as a result all rate sowings were so badly winterkilled that the plats were reseeded to spring crops. In 1915 the rate-of-seeding test included rates of 2 to 6 pecks per acre. Sowings were made on September 9, 1914, in triplicate thirtieth-acre plats on fallow land. The stands obtained were good and an excellent fall growth resulted. All plats had a high winter survival and the yields were high. The 3-peck and 6-peck rates gave the highest yields with the Turkey wheat, while with the Cihinlen Winter there was a gradual decrease in ral) as the rate of seeding increased. The average yields for the three years, 1913 to 1915, inclusive, are shown in Table VIII. With the Turkey, the nie haet average yields were obtained from the 3-peck, 5-peck, and 6-peck rates of seeding. ‘The differences in yields from these rates were very small. With the Ghirka Winter the highest average yield was obtained from the 3-peck rate of seeding. Light seeding probably is to be preferred. It is the practice on fhe Paaate: to sow Shen 2 pecks per acre in this section. DATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENTS. Date-of-seeding experiments with the Turkey and Ghirka Winter wheats have been conducted since 1913. The annual and average yields obtained from the date-of-seeding tests are shown in Table IX. In 1913 the sowings were in tenth-acre plats on breaking. The highest yields were from the earlier sowings. In 1914 the sowings were in tenth-acre plats on fallow land. Better stands and better fall growth were obtained from the earlier sowings. Winterkilling was severe on all plats. The plats of both varieties sown Septem- ber 1 survived the winter best and were harvested. The plats sown on other dates were reseeded to spring crops. In 1915 the sowings were in triplicate thirtieth-acre plats on fal- low land. Good stands:and excellent fall growth were obtained from the three earlier seedings. From the two later seedings fair stands CEREAL EXPERIMENTS ON THE CHEYENNE EXPERIMENT FARM. 17 were obtained, but there was very little fall growth. The plats of the Turkey wheat sown on September 1 and 15 gave the highest yields. With Ghirka Winter, the plats sown on September 1 and 15 and October 1 all yielded practically the same. The September 15 sow- ing gave slightly the highest yield. The results to date seem to indi- cate that early seeding (September 1 to 20) is to be preferred, pro- vided conditions are favorable to germination and fall growth. The farmers in this section practice early seeding when possible. TasLeE 1X.—Annual and average yields of the Turkey and Ghirka Winter wheats in a date-of-seeding test on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm in 1913, 1914, and 1915. Yield per acre. Average. pees an en of 1913 1914 1915 : : 1913 to 1915 1914 and 1915 Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. Turkey Bush Lbs Bush Lbs. | Bush Lbs Bush Lbs Bush Lbs PSB ert sas a s|o ama ca c|canaaa ce 0 0 29 ON io 400 eneeisets|caeietetete 14. 1, 700 Sli) Lee ee eee eee 6.8 1,145 38.1 AP AGO 2 aes Sea eae 22.5 2, 802 Sofi [pees os Sees ee 0 Siero | leek He il) | NESS Geers ce 19. 2 2,215 etal oo 5 8.8 635 0 0 34.5] 3,140} -14.4] 1,258 17.2 1,570 Ue Ga 8.5 673 0 0 25.6 | 2,220 11.4 964 12.8 1,110 GV he. 6.7 455 0 He iS eee ences SESAC Ce a SeseIsaa tecrnee a IoseGoace Ghirka Winter eee a taal niacie mele cleiaaaiacac 0 0 PAGO Ne rt Be aneocd laeeaeadS 13.5 1, 485 SIDE LA ESE pee eee 7.8 910 2ON3it| era OBO ac ematcelteeisians = 18. 6 2,270 SU lin Daye Bees Sees 0 0 Sahara tal eye: ha ed ee ee See 15.7 2,070 "S10 ie eee 8.4 505 0 0 30.1 3, 070 12.8 1,192 15.0 1,535 Gin ope 8.4 545 0 0 17.1} 1,690 8.5 745 8.5 845 LD a ee a 6.1 390 0 Queene |S eee Ee eae oe ea Bere Ee aa SPRING WHEAT. Spring wheats are grown as extensively in eastern Wyoming as winter wheats, A greater number of varieties of sprmg wheat than of winter wheat have been tested at the Cheyenne Experiment Farm. Thirty-three varieties and strains have been included in the experi- ments during the three years, 1913, 1914, and 1915. The annual and average yields of these varieties are shown in Table X. These varieties may be divided into two classes, common and durum. These classes may be separated further, into groups. Eighteen of the varieties are common wheats and 15 are durum wheats. These two classes of wheat and the most important groups of each which are represented in the Great Plains area may be sepa- rated by the following descriptive key: ' ! Ball, C. R., and Clark, J. A. Varieties of hard spring wheat. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 680, p. 6, 9,18, 1915. 55650°—Bull. 430—16——3 18 BULLETIN 430, U. S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Descriptive key to varieties of spring wheat. Heads rather slender, beardless or beards less than 3 inches long; spikelets far apart, scarcely overlapping, wide when seen in face view. .....-.------- COMMON WHEAT. Heads beardless: Chait white sclabrouss-c--..<. Serine. ee ee ee 1. Fife. Chaff white, panel CORRE 2 SC ca. is sealer 2. Bluestem. Heads bearded: Chafiewhtte;olabrouseet ee Seeman ene ieee nn ee 3. Preston. Heads rather stout, all bearded, beards 4 to 8 inches long; spike- lets close together, much overlapping, narrow when seen in face view..............------- DURUM WHEAT. Chaff yellowish: Chaff glabrous— Beartistyellowacsas.< <2 seeercckh oe ieee . Kubanka. Beard sblack: a e.-4.. Seen ee ae ee ee Pelissier. Chaff pubescent— Beard piblack i. ie ac. -. pada: te eee nie nate ae 3. Velvet Don. Chaff black: Chaff slightly pubescent— Beard silblackes acwyae. ci Sivas Seabee een ee eters 4. Kahla. VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS. The varietal experiments with spring wheat are reported here in two separate series. The first contains the varieties grown in the regular varietal test. The second contains some lots obtained from the Minnesota experiment station in the spring of 1913, too late for inclusion in the regular series. All except one were discarded at the end of 1915. They were not grown in any of the three years on plats comparable in size with those of the regular series. The annual and average yields of the 33 varieties and strains of sprmg wheat grown in the regular varietal test in 1913, Oe and 1915 are shown in Table X. In 1913 the varieties of spring wheat included in Table X were sown on April 25 and 26 in tenth-acre plats on land that was broken in Octo- ber, 1912. It lay in the rough until the spring of 1913, when it was ‘double disked and harrowed before seeding. Good stands were ob- tained of practically all varieties. The spring was rather cold and late. Precipitation during the growing season was below normal, as is shown in Table II. A hailstorm on June 19 damaged the varieties slightly. The yields in 1913 ranged from 1.3 bushels from Crossbred (C. I. No. 3695) to 9.4 bushels from Erivan (C. I. No. 2397). The average yield of the 14 durum varieties was 7.7 bushels, while that of the 18 common spring varieties was 6.3 bushels per acre. - The best variety of durum wheat yielded 8.8 bushels, 1.4 bushels less than the best common wheat. CEREAL EXPERIMENTS ON THE CHEYENNE EXPERIMENT FARM. 19 In 1914 the spring-wheat varieties were sown on April 21 and 22 in tenth-acre plats on spring-plowed fallow land. Good stands were obtained on all plats. The spring was late, cool, and wet. The pre- - cipitation for the growing season was below normal. A hailstorm on June 14 damaged the spring wheat to some extent. During both 1913 and 1914 the crop prospects were excellent until about June 1, | when the crops began to suffer from drought. The yields in 1914, as shown in Table X, ranged from 3.1 bushels per acre for Crossbred (C. I. No. 3695) to 13 bushels per acre for Kubanka (C. I. No. 1516). The average yield of the 14 durum varieties was 12 bushels, while the average yield of the 18 spring common varieties was 8.9 bushels per acre. The best variety of durum yielded 13 bushels, or 2.6 bushels more than the best common wheat. TaBLE X.—Annual and average yields of 33 varieties and strains of spring wheat grown on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm in 1913, 1914, and 1915. + Yield per acre (bushels). Group and variety. Re I. 0. 3-year 1913 1914 a1915 average. COMMON WHEATS. Preston: : TOSIN ESL. 33) SAD AS ESO ESR CSE eS eRe © ic Se ae eee oy Re Se 2397 9. 4 9.5 22.0 13.6 UP?) LTRS ET SE eS ee eee en RR csc 4141 8.3 10. 2 19.0 12.5 DIMI ERMER OYE te ornare emi on oe ais sin ae nae == 2c eee ae 4154 8.7 8.5 19.5 1252) GUISE SEIN 52st ee) soa ee oa etek sn -: Sas 1541 2, 9.3 19.3 11.9 EERLOH ee eon ve Aone assay ceiesemecse Sones as . eee ees 3698 6.7 9.8 15.3 10.6 PE ete ae oia\a Samaras Rate cic a siwcieisie ajee.ciie a's » aie sme ne 3081 4.7 8.1 14.8 9.2 Unclassified: Galealos oe so55- 2s sass ot ses otal Sse nd ccs si Se ree 2398 67.9} ¢10.3 21.2 13.1 penne » SEA SESE SE OS RE IS a geese 3703 Ueil 9.3 9.5 8.8 “Cole LEUNG len see eseesase sca ce stebesbere od secseedess cceciels 4062 8.5 10. 4 19.7 12.9 aad ae ise re eee na sinc hog et be cetoas aoe ssl neee esas 3641 9.0 c8.4 20.9 12.8 aie SURES tees nam eet ep tenner iaieinic on clare aieis oe 1517 69.2] ©€10.0 13.2 10.8 RAMS Moers nin siti. Aokcis sata = Se ohio pods bees te 3022 CEB] CO asal 11.7 9.4 CICA N CMA. NO.103) 2221s oo-teceoees-s2s-e /Coeeee soe 2873 b5.8 9.6 12.5 9.3 AMO Eee sa eos oe es oan ian so eciee oS bc oo divin nian c's «seme stems 3697 4.7 1683 12.3 8.1 Bluestem: 2874 b4,4 c9.0 11.7 8.4 3082 3.4 6.5 11.2 7.0 3021 2.6 5.3 10.7 6.2 3695 1.3 ahal 9.0 4.5 1520 TEAC 11.9 28.9 16.2 1516 Teil 13.0 27.6 15.9 1350 8.3 12.8 26.0 15.7 1440 7.5 12.5 25.6 15.2 1444 7.8 11.5 25.9 15: 1 1447 7.5 12.3 24.1 14.6 RNR RIS he poate Noe eo cee PBae eee clcw + J eee 1493 d7.2} ¢€12.3 23.8 14.4 COS EB ie eS ae a oy ae eS 9 Se 1354 Wy Tl 12. 8 22, 1 14.2 OO a IE EE TS is as ee geen 1593 7.9} ¢11.5 21.5 13.6 NEEM tet POLE CE go's Seller od o vibes 9.6.5.0 wv, 0.0\ 2 o-oo Miielemisigns 4064 b6.4 10.7 23.6 13.6 Pelissier: MER aaa Ae a Doo Sow 4 eae aiid tie Keio < «0 » o RE 1584 68.7) ¢11.6 22.6 14.3 PITS ra tar gene ic oe evan nacccess oboe ess's = «- same 2228 6.7 10.3 18.8 11.9 Velvet Don: REP ALIIT gS ste NLS oe Aas oe ees UOS cic cov » oe hamenellaan 1445 8.6 10.8 24.4 14.6 Kahla: SUE PI sea aps cae oe esata asda asblnade st ss.» Ameer as 3024 67.5} ¢10.5 22.8 13.6 BRUNI ee ae Blea Se piv avai atabeep ou so os sam eta 1471 7.3 11 Grl) F1Siy 10.7 «a Average of 2 twentieth-acre ots ats. ¢ Average of 15 check plats. » Average of 2 tenth-acre plats. € Average of 12 check plats. © Average of 3 tenth-acre plats. / Severely rogued. 90) BULLETIN 430, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In 1915 the spring-wheat varieties were sown April 27 and 28 and May 4 in duplicate twentieth-acre plats. These were on corn stubble that had been double disked and harrowed once previous to seeding. Good stands were obtained on all plats. The spring was late, cool, and wet. The precipitation during the growing season was consid- erably above normal, due to the high precipitation of April. The entire growing season was cool and favorable to crop growth. Hail- storms on July 5 and August 17 probably did some damage to the spring wheats. However, the most serious damage was due to rust, which affected all the spring common varieties. The lowest yield in 1915 was 9 bushels, from Crossbred (C. I. No. 3695), and the highest 28.9 bushels per acre, from Beloturka (C. I. No. 1520). The average yield of the 15 durum varieties was 23.4 bushels, while the average yield of the 18 spring common varieties was 15.2 bushels per acre. Table XI shows the rank of the groups of spring wheats when arranged according to yields to be as follows: (1) Durum, (2) Preston, (3) unclassified (4) Fife, and (5) Bluestem. Table XI also shows certain agronomic data, including the average dates of head- ing and maturity, height, weight per bushel, yield, and the ratio of grain to straw, for the leading varieties of spring wheat grown on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm from 1913 to 1915, inclusive. TaBLE XI.—Average dates of heading and maturity, height, weight per bushel, yields, and ratio of grain to straw, for 16 varieties of spring wheat grown on the Cheyenne Experi- ment Farm, 1913 to 1915, inclusive. Date of— val r acre. a at Weight eld per acre Ratio, Group and variety. NGtME CRS | SEER Height.) per grain to i Heading. |Maturity. bushel.! Grain. | Straw. straw. Durum: : Inches.| Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. Beloturka. ...-. - Ae ENR 1520 | July 13] Aug. 18 28 62. 0 16.2) 1,215 TL a), 25) imbamikaye seeks pce cee ens 1516 |.-.do..... Aug. 17 27 61.5 15.9 | 1,222 1:1.28 Pererodkay 3) sessed eee 1350 |...do..... Aug. 18 29 62. 0 15.6 | 1,395 1:1.49 Keoban kar bogs aa Ssh: 1440 |...do.....}...d0..... 27 61.7 15.2} 1,197 1:1.31 Preston: I TIVanGess tate e masa 2397 | July 15 | Aug. 15 21 58.0 13.6 | 1,188 1: 1.46 Red Russian........--------- 4141 | July 16 | Aug. 16 24 58.0 12.5} 1,273 1:1.70 Spring Turkey....../....-..- 4154 | July 17 | Aug. 17 25 60. 0 12.2] 1,240 1: 1.69 Unclassified: Gal galose = isc ccctencctee see cae 2398 | July 15 | Aug. 16 22 59. 2 13.1 983 1:1.25 Defiances: a2 fea: eee 3703 | July 18 | Aug. 18 25 53. 2 8.8 | 1,063 1:2.01 Fife: Cole Hybrid .......-.-.-.-.---- 4062 | July 17 do..... 27 58.5 12.9} 1,268 1:1.64 ANGUS Sao je eee eee 3641 | July 15 | Aug. 16 24 58. 5 12.8 | 1,056 1:1.37 Ghirka Spring......--.-.-.-. 1517 | July 14 |..-do..... 25 56.5 10.8} 1,015 121.57 IkAys\AlNee Se sesbonoeaseeeedonde 3022 | July 20) Aug. 18 25 54. 2 9.4 | 1,297 1:2.30 Glyndon (Minn. No. 163)...-.| 2873 | July 18} Aug. 19 23 55.7 9.3 | 1,221 1:2.19 Bluestem: Haynes (Minn. No. 169)...-.-- 2874 |...do.....]...d0..... 24 51.0 8.4] 1,095 1:2.17 Marvel cern st Bacau. So aa ee 3082 | July 21} Aug. 21 25 53.5 7.0 | 1,147 1:2.73 1 Average for two years. The durum wheats have headed earlier than the spring common wheats, but have been a little later in maturing than the leading varieties of common wheat. The durum varieties also have grown taller, weighed more per measured bushel, yielded higher, and given a higher ratio of grain to straw than the spring common varieties. CEREAL EXPERIMENTS ON THE CHEYENNE EXPERIMENT FARM. 2%] The vields of the leading varieties of each group are shown graphically in figure 8. MISCELLANEOUS MINNESOTA VARIETIES. Eleven lots of Fife, Bluestem, and Preston wheats were obtained from the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station late in the spring of 1913. They were sown in fiftieth-acre plats on breaking. The stands were good, except that of McKendry (C. I. No. 4147). These wheats were shattered about 15 per cent by hail on August 16. All were late in maturing and the yields were low. In 1914 these wheats were sown on fallow land in plats of varying | size. Good stands were obtained. Yields were better in 1914 than in 1913. 3 , In 1915 the wheats were sown in single twentieth-acre plats on double-disked corn ground. ‘The stands obtained were good. While DQURU/ ; SUPER ACRE BELOTURHA,C/INYS2O Qn “o> KUbANVA, CINE. xz» ae SS PERERODIACINGS xe 7 nwedaMncl.v:/4qo —x_7___ > = LFLIESTON muvee IN 7 6 awed: IIe /2.9 AUPE nus. $s <5 omuauns; mee 0.5 OLOESTL/7 wanes farnncyvccr? I 6.7 4MUISCLLLANLOOS CUCU N23, TTS 5, / Fic. 8.—Diagram showing the average yields of the leading varieties in each group of spring wheat on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm, 1913 to 1915, inclusive. the varieties were damaged by rust, the yields obtained were fairly good, as is shown in Table XII, but the quality was poor. The average yields of these wheats in the three years, 1913 to 1915, inclusive, are much lower than those obtained from most of the varieties in the regular varietal test (Table X). LEADING VARIETIES. The leading durum wheats have yielded from 2 to 3 bushels per acre more than the leading common wheats. Yields from the lead- ing varieties of the Preston, Fife, and miscellaneous groups have been practically the same. The Bluestem varieties have been con- sistently the lowest in yield. 22 BULLETIN 430, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe XIT.—Annual and average yields of 11 spring common wheats from Minnesota grown on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm in 1913, 1914, and 1915. Yield per acre (bushels). Group and variety. ~ ee a Ge ; ; ‘ 3-year 1913 1914 1915 average. Preston vai Welvet; Chait oh. stise teCcs Sane amas 1a 4153 1011 1.3 6.9 15.0 Wend ‘ife: Glynd ones. S.2c 5 sree sce eee ee oe eee eee ee 4143 163 2.0 3.7 9.3 5.0 QR SSS BO OS SEO n Oa Aes ce ame Soe oa ee eS 4146 285 1.5 4.1 10.3 5.3 MeKend nya cause aac eee eee eee ees seca 4147 8 4.0] 47.3 9.7 7.0 TD OS SU ae ats Gee Were one eRe Ee 4152 903 2.5 4.2 10.7 5.8 HE, OWT 32 cid See eee ese eee es ET eae ee nL a 4150 6 -4] 283 9.3 6.0 1DXO). sooaguobaseonosobasanasooosossococssasnee 4151 899 1.3 4.6 11.0 5.6 RG SUIN ee ea ier ener a ae 4148 476 2.2 4.1 10.3 se) pWietlma nose Sc tacesa can ike sera See nS ae Ne 4144 165 3.0 7.0 12.7 7.6 Bluestem: IB OLL OMe eae Ss See Seek a ee eee 4142 146 6 4.6 10.0 Dau A VMES coe Senjenisaocis sesate eee eee ce 4145 169 6] @9.5 11.3 7.1 a Damaged by hail. The leading varieties of durum wheat at Archer belong to the Kubanka group. This group of durums has broad heads with long, pale awns, yellowish, glabrous glumes, and large, hard, amber ker- nels. The Beloturka, Kubanka, and Pererodka varieties have given the highest average ail. | The spring common wheats grown at Archer are divided into four groups. The Preston group bas bearded heads, white glabrous glumes, and hard red kernels. The Fife group has beardless heads, white glabrous glumes, and hard red kernels. The bluestem group has beardless heads, white pubescent glumes, and hard red kernels. The unclassified group includes some varieties which do not belong im any of the three groups just described. The Galgalos variety has a beardless head, brown pubescent glumes, and large soft white ker- nels. The Defiance has a beardless head, white glabrous glumes, and soft white kernels. The leading varieties in each of these groups are shown in Table XI. RATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENT. A rate-of-seeding experiment with Arnautka durum wheat has been conducted at the Cheyenne Experiment Farm for three years, 1913 to 1915, inclusive. The annual and average yields obtained are shown in Table XIII. In 1913 the rate-of-seeding test was sown in tenth-acre plats on breaking. Good stands were obtained from all rates. The highest yield was obtained from the 2-peck rate. z In 1914 the rate-of-seeding test was sown in tenth-acre plats on fallow land that had been spring plowed. Good stands were ob- tained. The highest yield was produced on the plat sown at the rate of 4 pecks per acre. In 1915 the rate-of-seeding test was sown in duplicate twentieth- acre plats on double-disked corn ground. The highest yield was ob- CEREAL EXPERIMENTS ON THE CHEYENNE EXPERIMENT FARM. 23 tained from the 2-peck rate. For the three years, the 2-peck rate of seeding gave the highest average yield. However, there is little difference in the average yields at the 2-peck, 3-peck, and 4-peck rates. Taste XIII.—Annual and average yields of Arnautka durum wheat in a rate-of-seeding test on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm in 1913, 1914, and 1915. Yield per acre. Rate of seeding. 1913 1914 1915 3-year average. Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. - DATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENT, A date-of-seeding experiment with Spring Turkey common wheat has been conducted at the Cheyenne Experiment Farm during the three years, 1913, 1914, and 1915. The annual and average yields obtained in this test are shown in Table XIV. Taste XIV.—Annual and average yields of Spring Turkey common wheat in a date- of-seeding test on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm in 1913, 1914, and 1915. Yield per acre. Date of seeding. 1913 1914 1915 3-year average. Grain. Straw. Grain. Straw. Grain. Straw. Grain. Straw. Bushels. | Pounds. | Bushels.| Pounds. | Bushels.| Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds. 850 8.3 890 15.8 UB} 7/ a 16.7 1,890 1, 210 9.3 625 8.6 935 16.5 1,680 11.5 1,080 9.1 750 6.4 765 12.8 1,830 9.4 1,115 a Computed yield. In 1913 the date-of-seeding test was sown in tenth-acre plats on fall-plowed breaking. The stands obtained were good. The earlier date of seeding gave the highest yield. The drill failed to sow a por- tion of the plat sown on April 15. The portion actually seeded, one-fifteenth of an acre, was harvested, and the yield computed on a tenth-acre basis. In 1914 the date-of-seeding test was sown in tenth-acre plats on spring-plowed fallow land. Stands were good. The highest yield was obtained from the May 1 seeding. In 1915 the test was sown in duplicate twentieth-acre plats on double-disked corn ground. The highest yield was obtained again 24 BULLETIN 430, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from the May 1 seeding. The results to date indicate that fairly early spring sowing is to be preferred. COMPARISON OF WINTER AND SPRING WHEATS. In comparing the results from winter wheats, durum wheats, and spring common wheats it is observed that (1) better yields were obtained in 1913 from winter wheats, yet the difference in yield of the leading varieties of winter and spring wheat was not very great. (2) Better yields were obtained in 1914 from the spring wheats, the winter wheats being severely winterkilled. (3) In 1915 winter-wheat _ yields were much higher than those of spring wheat. (4) The _average yields of the winter wheats in the years 1913, 1914, and 1915 are-higher than those of any of the spring-wheat groups. - (5) Durum wheats stand next to winter wheat when ranked according to yield. (6) Winter wheats undoubtedly will give higher yields than spring wheats if winterkilling is not too severe. The annual and average yields of some of the leading varieties of winter and spring wheats for the three years, 1913 to 1915, are shown in Table XV. TaBLtE XV.—Annua and average yields of the leading varieties of winter, durum, and spring common wheats grown on the Cheyenne Experiment Farm, 1913 to 1915, inclusive. ~ Yield per acre (bushels). Group and variety. ae 3-year 1913 1914 1915 average. WINTER WHEAT. Ghirka: eeGihirkanw inter sie. fas. = Sena ae eee eee ees 1438 9.3 7.8} 37.6 18.2 Crimean: Keharko fen ane sons aoe aoe Gee eons c Ueeraeeo eae 1442 9.8 4.7 37.1 17.2 SPRING WHEAT Durum: Belo tunkas nas ees oes ao eee Res eee ee ree 1520 Lod 11.9 28.9 16.2 Common: MB TSA VTA ep erp eae isso at ae ee ee es > Sones 2397 9.4 9.5 22.0 13.6 Galpalose ites Sek ese is aes eRe oye Ream No ‘ t Cy Ww FH Zo Al | aN : rin /F LZ; Vike PTE EEE Fic. 4.—Lateral view of healthy worker larva showing the normal position within the cell. For conven- ience of description the length is divided into thirds—anterior third (AT), middle third (MT) and posterior third (PT). Enlarged about 8 diameters. (Original.) tended lengthwise in the cell. At the close of this two-day period of rest, asa result of the metamorphosis going on, the larva changes very rapidly to a true pupa, assuming the outward form of an adult bee. Although many larve die of sacbrood during the first two days © cr active period, of the 4-day prepupal period, by far the greater number of deaths occur during the last two days, the period of rest. A healthy larva at this resting period of its development is chosen, therefore, for description. As dead worker larve are the ones usually encountered in sacbrood and the ones almost invariably chosen in discussing the symptoms of the disease, the worker larva is here described. The normal larva lies extended in the cell (fig. 4) on its dorsal side, motionless, and with its head pomting toward the mouth of the cell. Its posterior or caudal end les upon the bottom of the cell, 1 As beekeepers usually refer to the brood at this age as “larvee,”’ the term is used here to designate the developing bee at this stage of its growth. SACBROOD. 9 while its extreme anterior or cephalic end extends almost to the cap and roof. The length of the larva is approximately one-half inch, being nearly that of the cell. Its two lateral sides cover about one- half each of the two lateral walls. The width of the larva is approxi- mately one-fifth of an inch, bemg the distance between the two lateral walls of the cell. The dorsal portion of the larva lies ssi the floor of the cell, being more or less convex from side to side and also from end to end. Its ventral surface is convex from side to side, and is, generally speak- ing, concave from end to end. Considerable empty space is found between the larva and the roof of the cell. The spiracles are visible. The glistening appearance, characteristic of a larva before capping, very largely disappears after capping. Although larve at this age might be thought of as white, they are in fact more or less bluish white in color. Itis possible to remove a healthy larva at this age from the cell without rupturing the body wall, but care is required in doing so. For purposes of description it is con- venient to divide the length of the larva into three parts. These may be denom- inated the anterior (AT), middle (MT), and posterior thirds (PT). Anterior third.—On removing the cap from, a cell the paieies cone-shaped Fig. 5.—End view of healthy worker larva portion of the larva is seen (fig. 5; PI. in normal position in the cell. Cap II, g). The apex of this cone-shaped eee en A eae third is directed upward toward the SC ae angle in the roof of the cell, but is not in contact with the roof or the cap. Transverse segmental markings are to be seen. Along a por- tion of the median dorsal line there is frequently to be observed a narrow transparent area. A cross section of this third is circular in outline. The anterior third passes rather abruptly into the middle third. At their juncture on each lateral side, owing to a rapid increase in the width of the larva at this point, there is presented the appear- ance of a “shoulder.” Middle third.—This third (figs. 6 and 4; Pl. II, m) lies with its dorsal portion upon the floor of the cell, its axis being nearly horizontal. The ventral surface is convex from side to side, and is considerably below the roof of the cell. This upper surface is crossed from side to side by well-marked furrows and ridges representing segments of the larva. These furrows and ridges produce a deeply notched appearance at the lateral margins. In some of the segments a trans- verse trachea may be seen appearing as a very fine, scarcely per- 58574°—Bull, 431—17——2 10 BULLETIN 431, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ceptible, white line. Sometimes there may be seen a narrow area along the median line of the ventral surface that is more nearly trans- parent than the remaining portion of the surface. This area may extend slightly into the anterior and posterior thirds. It is similar in appearance to the one on the dorsal side, but less distinct. A cross section of this third is slightly elliptical in outline. The middle third passes more or less gradually into the posterior third. The juncture on the ventral surface is indicated by a wide angle formed by the ventral surfaces of these two thirds. Posterior third.—In form the pos- terior third (figs. 6 and 4) is an im- perfect cone, the axis of which is directed somewhat upward from the horizontal. This third occupies the bottom portion of the cavity of the cell. Its dorsal surface hes upon the bottom wall, with the extreme caudal end of the larva extending to the roof of the cell (fig. 4). The third is marked off into segments by ridges and furrows similar to, but less regular than, those of the middle third. TISSUES OF A HEALTHY LARVA AT THE AGE AT WHICH IT DIES OF SACBROOD. Upon removing a larva in the late larval stage and puncturing its body wall lightly, a clear fluid almost water-like in appearance flows out. This fluid consists chiefly of larval blood. By heating it, or by treat- ing it with any one of a number Fig. 6—Healthy larva and cell viewed from_—sof different reagents, a coagulum is above and at anangle. (Original.) i 5 5 formed in it. Upon rupturing the body wall sufficiently, the tissues of the larva flow out-as a semiliquid mass. The more nearly solid portion of the mass appears almost white. This portion is suspended in a thin liquid, chiefly blood of the larva. A microscopic examination shows that the cellular elements of the mass are chiefly fat cells. Many fat globules suspended in the liquid tend to give it a milky appearance. SYMPTOMS OF SACBROOD. The condition of a colony depends naturally upon the condition of the individual bees of which it is composed. In the matter of diseases in practical apiculture the beekeeper is interested primarily in the SACBROOD. dat colony as a whole, and not in individual bees. Therefore, in describ- ing the symptoms of a bee disease, the colony as a whole should be considered as the unit for description, and not the individual bee. A symptom of disease manifested by an individual bee, broadly con- sidered, is, in fact, alsoacolonysymptom. Thesymptoms of sacbrood as described in this paper are, therefore, those evidences of disease that are manifested by a colony affected by the disease. It has been found that sacbrood can be produced in a healthy colony by feeding it a suspension in sirup of crushed larvee dead of the disease. With sacbrood thus produced in ex- perimental colonies the symptoms of the disease have been studied, and the description of these symptoms given here is based chiefly upon observations made in these experimental studies. The facts thus obtained are in accord with those observed in numerous sam- ples of the disease sent by beekeepers from various localities in the United States for diagnosis. They are in ac- cord, furthermore, with the symptoms as they have been observed in colonics in which the disease has appeared, not through experimental inoculation but naturally. The symptoms of sacbrood which would ordinarily be observed through a more or less casual examination of the disease will first be considered. It | = TAM | | | must be remembered that the brood is \ it | | | at susceptible to the disease, but that the Wis | MU ye adult bees are not. Nw A iP SYMPTOMS AS OBSERVED FROM A CASUAL EXAMINATION. ° lia. 7.—Larva dead of sacbrood lying in the 3 cellas viewed from above and at an angle. The presence of dead broodis usually 1% may have been dead a month. Cap of the first symptom observed. Anirreg- *ll removed by bees. Enlarged about 8 ; , diameters. (Original.) wlarity in the appearance of the brood nest (Pl. I, figs. 1 and 2; Pl. [V) frequently attracts attention early in the examination. The strength of a colony in which the disease is present is often not noticeably diminished. Should a large amount of the brood become affected, however, the colony naturally becomes weakened thereby, the loss in strength soon becoming appreciable. Brood that dies of the disease does so almost invariably in capped cells, but before the pupal 12 BULLETIN 431, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, stage is reached. It is rare to find a pupa dead of sacbrood (PI. II, zz). The larve that die (fig. 7) are found lying extended lengthwise with the dorsal side on the floor Tia. 8.—End view of capped cell which con- tains a larva dead of sacbrood, being simi- lar to the one shown in figure 9. The cap hereis not different from a cap of the same age over a healthy larva. (Original.) of the cell. They may be found in capped (fig. 8) cells or in cells which have been uncapped (fig. 9), as bees often remove the caps from cells containing dead larve. Caps that are not removed are more often en- tire, yet not infrequently they are found to have been punctured by the bees. Usually only one puncture is found in a cap (Pl. II, d), but there may be two (fig. 10) or even more (PI. I1,f). The punctures vary in size, sometimes approximating that of a pinhead, although usually smaller, and are often irregular in outline. Sometimes a cap (fig. 11, Pl. II, 6) has a hole through it which suggests by its position and uniform circumference that it has never been completed. Through such an opening (fig. 11; Pl. II, e) or through one of the larger punctures the dead larva may be seen within the cell. A larva recently dead of sacbrood is slightly yellow. Thecolorina few days changes to brown. Theshade deepens as the process of decay con- tinues, until it appears in some in- stances almost black. Occasionally for a time during the process of decay the remains present a grayish appear- ance. In sacbrood, during the process of decay, the body wall of the dead larva (figs. 7 and 9) toughens, permit- ting the easy removal of the re- mains intact from the cell. The content of the saclike remains, dur- ing a certain period of its decay, is watery and granular in appearance. Much of the time the form of the remains is quite similar to that of a healthy larva. If the dead larva is Fic. 9.—Looking into a cell containing a larva dead of sacbrood. The stage of decay is about the same as in figure 8. (Original.) not removed, its surface through evaporation of its watery content, becomes wrinkled, dis- torting its form. Further drying results in the formation of the PLATE I. °c, P2e% as % ¥ sib Sh. eit > del ; ue ; ¢ ‘ ; : (ORIGINAL.) Bul. 431, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. t l , ‘Pine Ped ‘dimd «3p par es lta d Fic. 1.—MARKED SACBROOD INFECTION. SIZE SLIGHTLY LESS THAN NATURAL. Fia, 2. HEAVY SACBROOD INFECTION, SHOWING A NUMBER OF DIFFERENT STAGES OF DECAY OF LARVA. EGas, YOUNG LARVA: IN DIFFERENT STAGES OF DEVELOP- MENT, AND DISEASED LARVA: IN SAME AREA. NATURAL SIZE. (ORIGINAL.) SACBROOD PRODUCED BY EXPERIMENTAL INOCULATION. Bul. 431, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. COMPARISON OF A HEALTHY LARVA AND THE REMAINS OF LARV4 DEAD OF SACBROOD. a, Acap of a healthy larva; 6,¢,d,e,and f, caps over larve in first, second, third, fourth, and fifth stages of decay, respectively; g, a healthy larva, end view; h, i, j,k, and/,an end view of the five stages of decay; m, a healthy larva viewed from above; n, 0, p, g, and 7, cor- responding view of the five stages of decay; sand y, healthy larva removed from the cell; ¢, u, v, w, and z, larval remains in different stages of decay removed from the cell; ww, a larva recently dead of sacbrood with the anterior third removed by the bees; x, a scale removed from the cell; az, larval remains from which a small portion has been removed by bees; yy,almost a pupa; 2z, a pupa dead of sacbrood which had only recently transformed. (Original.) SACBROOD. 13 “scale” (figs. 22, 23; Pl. I, l,r, and z). This scale is not adherent to the cell wall. In sacbrood the brood combs may be said to have no odor. Larve undergoing later stages of decay in the disease, however, when crushed in a mass and held close to the nostrils are found to possess a disagreeable odor. From a superficial or casual ex- amination alone of a case of sac- brood it may be mistaken for some other abnormal condition of the brood. A careful study of the post- mortem appearances of larve dead of the disease, however, will make it possible to avoid any such confusion. A more careful study of the dead larve is therefore justified. APPEARANCE OF LARVA! DEAD OF SACBROOD, Fic. 10.—Cap of cell containing the remains r E wee of a larva dead of sacbrood. The cap is No signs in a larva dying of sac- slightly sunkenand bears two perforations brood have yet been discovered by ™20°PY the Pees. (Original. which the exact time of death may be determined. As the larve in this disease usually die during the time when they are motionless, lack of movement can not be used as an early sign of death. In this descrip- Jy XM tion it is assumed that the larva is (QI NA dead if it shows a change in color wS) Ny) from bluish-white to yellowish or : indications of a change from the normal turgidity to a condition of flaccidity. The appearance of a larva dead of sacbrood varies from day to day, changing gradually from that of a living healthy larva to that of the dried residue—the scale. A _ de- Pia. 11.—End view ofcellcontaining alarva seription that would be correct for dead of sacbrood, with acap which has the s Appearance of never having been com- © Gead larva oh one day, there- pleted. (Original.) fore, may and probably would be incorrect for the same larva on the following day. Moreover, all larvee dead of the disease do not undergo the same change in appear- ance, causing another considerable range of variation. For con- venience of description, this gradual and continual change in appear- ance is here considered in five more or less arbitrary stages. As the Jf y a i" ~~) 7 14 BULLETIN 431, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. same plan will be followed and similar terms will be used in describing these stages as were employed in the description of a healthy larva of the same age, the interpretation of the description will be aided if the appearance of a healthy larva as described above is borne in mind. First STAGE. Uncapping a larva showing the first symptoms of the disease, it will be observed that it has assumed a slightly yellowish appearance. \\ Fig. 12.—First stage: Larva showing first symptoms of sacbrood and presenting the dorsal view of the anterior third. Cap removed artificially. (Original.) Af 2) vibe 4, Z Z 3 <4} aS ~. 1 This shade deepens somewhat during the stage, but does not become a deep yellow. Anterior third.—The lateral margins and extreme cephalic end of the an- terior third (fig. 12; Pl. II, 6, h) may have assumed, and frequently do as- sume, a more or less transparent ap- Fie. 13.—First stage: Ventral view of larva pearance (represented in the figure by _ dead of sacbrood as seen from above and at shading). The position and the sur- ee aes aan OnE face markings of the anterior third are approximately those of the normal larva. When a change in the position is observed, however, the extreme anterior end of the larva— the apex of this cone-like third—having settled somewhat, does not approach so near the roof of the cell as does that of a healthy larva. It is sometimes found also that this cone-like third is deflected more or less to one side or the other. Middle and posterior thirds—The changes from the normal that have taken place in these two thirds are similar and can, therefore, be described together. The yellowish tint is here observed. The trans- verse ridges and furrows are still well marked (fig. 13). The trans- SACBROOD. 15 verse trachee under slight magnification may be distinctly seen. The narrow, somewhat transparent area present along the ventral median line of the healthy larva is still to be seen in this stage of the decay. The lateral and posterior margins are still deeply notched and are frequently found to appear quite transparent. This appear- ance is due to a watery looking fluid beneath the cuticular portion of the body wall. Sometimes only the remnant of a larva (fig. 14; Pl. II, ww) dead of sacbrood is found in the cell. Such remnants vary in size. The Ye i, 4 a (2 y 4 Z| 7 4 , Fie. 15.—Second stage: Dorsal view of an- terior third of a larva dead of sacbrood. (Original. ) surface left from the removal of tissues is somewhat roughened, indicating that the removed portion has been taken away piecemeal, and is more or less transverse to the larva. Consistency of the larva wn the first stage.-—The cuticular portion of the body wall, which chiefly constitutes the sac that characterizes the disease sac- Fia. 14.—First stage: Portion of a larva brood, is less easily broken at this time dead of sacbrood, showing a more or less ; transverse roughened surface from which than in the healthy larva. When the the bees have removed a portion of the body wall is broken the tissues of the larva piecemeal. (Original.) ; A larva, which constitute the contents of the sac, flow out. This fluid tissue mass is less milky in appearance than that from a normal larva. The granular character of the con- tents of the sac which is marked in later stages of decay is already in evidence. By microscopic examination the granular appearance is found to be due chiefly to fat cells. Condition of the virus in the first stage—When larvee of this stage are crushed, suspended in sirup, and fed to healthy bees, a large 16 BULLETIN 431, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, amount of sacbrood is readily produced, showing that the larval re- mains in this stage are particularly infectious. This is an important fact, as it is the stage of decay at which the larva is frequently re- moved piecemeal from the cell. SECOND STAGE. The color of the decaying larva has changed from the yellowish hue of the first stage to a brownish tint. The yellow, however, has not Fie. 17.—Third stage: Dorsal view of an- terior third of larva dead of sacbrood. (Original. ) yet in all cases entirely disappeared. Anterior third——The shade of brown is deeper in the anterior third (fig. 15; Pl. II, 7) asarule than in the other two thirds. On the ventral nae Za po surface of the anterior third there are ay, sometimes present minute, very dark, nearly black areas, appearing Fic. 16.—Second stage: Larva dead ofsacbrood, |ittle more than mere points. Upon ventral view. (Original.) - ‘ ; dissecting away the molt skin, these areas are found to be associated with the developing head and thoracic appendages of the bee. The position of the anterior third in this stage has changed only slightly from that observed in the preceding one. The apex is farther from the roof of the cell (Pl. II, 2). The deflection is more marked and is seen in a greater number of larve. The surface markings have not changed materially. Middle and posterior thirds.—The changes that have occurred in each of these two thirds are still similar and can, therefore, again be described together. SACBROOD. ily The ventral surface of these two thirds (fig. 16, Pl. II, 0) is less con- vex from side to side. The ridges and furrows, representing the seg- ments, are less pronounced. The lateral margins are still deeply notched. The prominent angle seen on the ventral side of a healthy larva, at the juncture of the middle and posterior thirds, has given place to a wider one in this stage of decay. The clear subcuticular fluid frequently observed at the lateral and posterior margins of lar- ve dead of this disease is here increased in quantity. Consistency of the contents of the sac.—The cuticular sac is now more readily observed and less easily broken. The decaying contents con- sist of a more or less granular-appear-_ ing mass suspended in a watery ap- pearing fluid, the mass possessing a slightly brownish hue. The micro- scopic examination shows that the granular appearance is due to the presence of decaying tissue cells, chiefly fat cells, which are changing slowly as the decay of the larva goes on. Condition of the virus.—The results of inoculations show that the remains of larve at this stage of decay are still in some instances infectious. The amount of infection produced when such larve are used in making in- oculations is very much less, how- ever, than when larve in the first stage are used. TuHrrD STAGE. The color of the dead larva of this stage is quite brown, that of the an- Fia.18.—Third stage: Larva dead of sacbrood, terior third being a deeper shade than ere that of the other two thirds. An indication that the remains are drying is observed in the wrinkling of the surface that is beginning to be in evidence. Anterior third.—The color of the anterior third is a deep brown. This third still preserves its conelike form (figs. 17 and 9; Pl. IT, 4), the distance of the apex from the roof of the cell being still further increased. This may equal one-fourth or more of the diameter of the mouth of the cell. The surface markings are still quite similar to those of a healthy larva with the exception that evidences of drying are present. 58574°—Bull. 431—17——3 18 BULLETIN 431, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Middle third.—While the color of the middle third is similar to and often approaches in its shade that of the anterior, very frequently it is considerably lighter. The ventral surface of this third (figs. 18 and 7) is less convex from side to side than in the preceding stage, and the segmental markings, while still plainly visible, are less pro- nounced. The notches along the lateral margins are also less pro- nounced. Posterior third.—The color of the posterior third (figs. 18 and 7; Pl. II, p) equals or exceeds in depth of shade that of the middle third and sometimes equals that of the anterior third. The surface markings are still pronounced and much resemble those of the normal larva. That the watery content of the sac is being lessened through evapo- ration is evidenced by the diminution of the quantity of the watery- Fig. 19.—Third stage: Larva dead of sacbrood, lateral view. (Original.) appearing substance seen at the lateral margins of the middle and posterior thirds and by the wrinkling of the cuticular sac. These wrinkles are small and numerous. The lateral view of the larva in the third stage (fig. 19) shows that it still maintains, in a general way, the form and markings of the normal larva (fig. 4). The turgidity is gone, although the position im the cell is very much as it is in the healthy larva. Consistency of the sac and its contents.—It is the appearance of the remains of the larva in the third stage of the decay that best character- izes the disease, sacbrood. The cuticular sac is now quite tough, permitting the removal of the larva from the cell with considerable ease and with little danger of its being torn. The content of the sac is a granular mass, brownish in color and suspended in a comparatively small quantity of a more or less clear watery-appearing fluid. Upon microscopic examination the mass is found to consist of decaying tissues, chiefly fat cells. Canaan of the virus in the third stage.-—When the larval remains in this stage of decay are crushed and fed in sirup to healthy colonies no sacbrood is produced, indicating that the dead larve at this stage SACBROOD. 19 are not infectious. The status of the virus in this stage is not defi- nitely known, but the facts thus far obtained indicate that it is probably dead. FourtTH STAGE. The brown color of the larval remains has further deepened, the anterior third being much darker as a rule than the other two-thirds. The marked evidence of drying now present might be said to charac- terize this stage. Anterior third—The color is a very deep brown, often appearing almost black. As a result of drying, the apex of this conelike third Fic. 20.—Fourth stage: Remains of larva dead of sacbrood. (Original.) is often nearer the roof of the cellin this stage than in the preceding one. As a result it has also been drawn inward from the mouth of the cell. The surface markings seen in the normal larva are in this stage (fig. 20; Pl. II, k) of decay almost obliter- ated through the wrinkling of the surface, due to drying. Middle third.—This third is de- Fig. 21.—Fourth stage: Remains of larva dead i j ; of sacbrood, ventral view. (Original.) cidedly brown, but lighter in shade than the anterior third. The ventral surface (fig. 21; Pl. II, qg) is slightly concave from side to side. The segmental markings are still to be seen, but are not at all prominent. The notched lateral mar- gins extend upon the side walls of the cell. The subcuticular fluid so noticeable in some of the earlier stages has disappeared through evaporation. The effect of drying is very noticeable, causing a marked wrinkling of the surface. Posterior third.—The posterior third (PI. II, g) may or may not be darker than the middle third, but it is not darker than the anterior \ ~ N N Ny > N Ny N x : Nara N \ N v N N | N ~\ eat fl | “(4 i | es aa UN ride I : : aN @ i) it > — Se 20 BULLETIN 431, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. third. The effect of the drying on this third is quite perceptible also. The surface markings and notched margin of the normal larva are still indicated in the decaying remains, but are much less pronounced. The subcuticular fluid is no longer in evidence. Consistency of the contents of the sac.—Upon tearing the sac, the contents are found to be less fluid than in preceding stages. The decaying tissue mass is still granular in appearance. As the drying “a Fig. 22.—Fifth stage: Scale, or larval re- mains, in sacbrood as seen on looking into the cell. (Original.) proceeds further the contents of the sac become pastelike in consistency. ‘Condition of the virus in the fourth stage.—As in the preceding stage, the larval remains in the fourth stage do not seem to be infectious. Firth STaGe. : Fig. 23.—Fifth stage: Scale, or larval remains, in sacbrood viewed at an angle from above. The dead larva in this last stage (original, has lost by evaporation all of its moisture, leaving the dry, mummylike remains known as the “‘scale.” Anterior third.—The anterior third (fig. 22; Pl. II, 2) through dry- ing is retracted from the mouth of the cell, with the apex drawn still deeper into the cell and raised toward its roof. This third is greatly wrinkled, and, being of a very dark-brown color, presents often an almost black appearance. Middle third——The middle third (fig. 23; Pl. II, 1r), is deeply concave from side to side and may show remnants of the segmental markings of the larva. The surface is often roughened through drying. Sometimes both longitudinal and transverse trachez are SACBROOD. 21 plamly visible. The margin frequently presents a wavy outline cor- responding to the original furrows and ridges of the lateral margin of the larva. Posterior third.—The posterior third (figs. 23 and 24) extends upon the bottom of the cell, but does not completely cover it. A lateral view of the scale (fig. 24) shows that it is turned upward anteriorly and drawn somewhat toward the bottom of the cell. The ventral surface is concave, often roughened, and directed somewhat forward. This margin, like that of the middle third, has a tendency toward being irregular. The scale.—The scale can easily be removed intact from the cell. (Pl. II, x.) Indeed, when very dry, many of them can be shaken from the brood comb. When out of the cell, they vary markedly in appearance. The anterior third is of a deeper brown than the the other two thirds as a rule. The dorsal side of the middle and ng ru Fig. 24.—Scale, or larval remains, in position in cell cut lengthwise, lateral view. (Original.) posterior thirds is shaped to conform to the floor of the cell, being in general convex, with a surface that is smooth and polished. The margin is thin and wavy. The anterior third and the lateral sides of the middle and posterior thirds being turned upward, the ventral sur- face being concave, and the posterior side being convex, the scale in general presents a boatlike appearance and could be styled “gondola- shaped.” This general form of the scale has been referred to by beekeepers as being that of a Chinaman’s shoe. When completely dry, the scale is brittle and may easily be ground to a powder. Condition of the virus in the scale.—The scales in sacbrood, when fed to healthy bees, have shown no evidence of being infectious. The length of time that dead larve are permitted by the bees to remain in the cells before they are removed varies. They may be removed soon after death, they may remain until or after they have become a dry scale, or they may be removed at any intervening stage in their decay. Not infrequently they are permitted to remain to or 22 BULLETIN 431, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. through the stage described above as the third stage (figs. 7,9, 17, and 18; Pl. I1 7, p). That the dead larve are allowed to remain in the cells often for weeks is in part the cause of the irregularity ob- served in the appearance of the brood combs (p. 11). (Pls. I, IV.) APPEARANCE OF THE TISSUES OF A LARVA DEAD OF SACBROOD. The gross appearance of a larva during its decay after death from sacbrood has just been described. The saclike appearance of the remains, with its subcuticular watery-like fluid and its granular content, can better be interpreted by knowing something of the microscopic structure of the dead larva. A section through a larva (fig. 25, A) dead of sacbrood shows that the fat tissue constitutes the greater portion of the bulk of the body. The fat cells (FC) are comparatively large. In the prepared section when considerably magnified (C) they are seen to be irregular in outline, with an irregular-shaped nucleus (Nu). Bodies stamed: black, more or less spherical in form and varying in size, are found in them. The presence of these cells is the chief cause for the granular appearance of the contents of larvee dead of sacbrood. This appearance has often been observed by beekeepers and is a well- recognized symptom of sacbrood. In the section (A) may be seen a molt skin (C,), which is at a con- siderable distance from the hypodermis (Hyp). Another cuticula (C,) is already quite well formed and lies near the hypodermis. Be- _ tween these two cuticule (C, and C,) during the earlier stages of decay there is a considerable space (‘‘intercuticular space”) (IS). This space is filled with a watery-looking fluid. That the fluid is not water, but that it is of such a nature that a coagulum is formed in it during the preparation of the tissues for study, is shown by the presence of a coagulum in the sections. The body (B, A) wall of the larva is composed of the cuticula (C,), the hypodermis (Hyp) and the basement membrane (BM). The hypodermal cells may be present in the mass content of the larval remains. ‘These cells are comparatively small. Similar ones are to be found in the tracheal walls (Tra). These cells, however, make up only a small portion of the contents of the sac. There are many other cellular elements to be found in the decaying mass of larval tissues, some of which contribute to this granular ap- pearance. Among these are the cenocytes (Oe), cells (D) larger than the fat cells, but comparatively few m number. These are found among the fat cells, especially in the ventral half of the body. The cenocytes in the prepared tissues are irregular in outline, having a nucleus regular in outline. The cytoplasm is uniformly granular and does not contain the black staining bodies found in the fat cells (C). SACBROOD. 93 Fig. 25.—The tissues of a worker larva after being dead of sacbrood about one week. A, cross section, semidiagrammatic, of the abdomen in the region of the ovaries, showing a recently cast cuticula, or molt skin (Cz), a newly formed cuticula (C,), the hypodermis (Hyp), the stomach (St), the ovaries (Ov), the heart (Ht), the ventral nerve cord (VNC), the dorsal diaphragm (DDph), traches (Tra), ceno- cytes (Oe), and fat cells (FC). Between the cuticula Cy, and the cuticula C; is a considerable intercu- ticular space (IS). B represents the body wall in this pathological condition, showing the cuticula C2 and the cuticula C,, both bearing spines (SCz and S(C,), and the intercuticular space (IS) in which is found evidence of a coagulum formed from the fluid filling the space by the action of the fixing fluids. The remainder of the body wall, the hypodermis (Iyp), and the basement membrane (BM) are also shown. C, fat cell with irregular outline, irregular nucleus (Nu), and deep staining bodies (DSB). D, wenocyte with uniformly staining cytoplasm, and with a nucleus (Nu) having a uniform outline. E, 4 portion of the stomach wall showing the epithelium (SEpth) during metamorphosis, it being at this time quite columnar in type, and the musculature (M). (Original.) 4 24 BULLETIN 431, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The molt skin (C,) is probably the one that is shed normally about three days after the larva is capped. The cuticula (C,), already quite well formed, is probably the one which normally would have entered into the formation of the molt skin that is cast at the time the larva or semipupa changes to a pupa. The molt skin (C,) constitutes for the most part the sac which is seen to inclose the decaying larval mass in sacbrood, the cuticula (C,) probably assisting somewhat at times. The presence of the subcuticular fluid is made more intelli- gible by these facts. Larve dying of sacbrood at an earlier or later period in their development will present an appearance varying somewhat from that just described. Contrasted with the stomach (midintestine or midgut) of a feeding larva, the stomach (A, St) of a larva at the age at which it dies of sac- brood is small. The cells lining the wall of the organ vary con- siderably in size and shape, depending upon the exact time at which death takes place. In contrast to the low cells of the stomach wall in younger larve, the cells (E, SEpth) at this later period are much elon- gated. These cells would also at times be found in the decaying granular mass present in the larval remains. The various organs of the body contribute to the cellular content of the decaying larval mass. At the period at which the larva dies of sacbrood, the cellular changes accompanying metamorphosis are particularly marked. This condition introduces various cellular ele- ments into the decaying larval mass. The granular mass from the larval remains in sacbrood is, therefore, a composite affair. Upon examining the mass microscopically, it will be found that the granular appearance is due for the most part to fat cells suspended in a liquid. The liquid portion seems to be chiefly blood of the larva, or, at least, derived from the blood, although augmented most probably by other liquids of the larva and possibly by a liquefaction of some of the tissues present. The granular mass suspended in a watery fluid, as a symptom of sacbrood, is by these facts rendered more easily understood. CAUSE OF SACBROOD. Doolittle (1881), Jones (1883), Simmins (1887), Root (1892 and 1896), Cook (1902), Dadant (1906), and others through their writ- ings have pointed out the fact that there are losses sustained from sacbrood. There has been no consensus of opinion, however, as to the infectiousness of the disease. On this point Dadant (1906) writes: Whatever may be the cause of this disease (so-called Pickled Brood), and although it is to a certain extent contagious, it often passes off without treatment. But, as colonies may be entirely ruined by it, it ought not to be neglected. SACBROOD. 25 In the quotation Dadant expresses the belief that the disease is an infectious one. This view has been proved by recent studies to be the correct one. Since the disease is one of a somewhat transient nature, often subsiding and disappearing quickly without treatment, and is quite different in many ways from the foulbroods, it is not strange that some writers should have held that it is not infectious. PREDISPOSING CAUSES. Beekeepers have known for many years certain facts concerning the predisposing causes of sacbrood. Recent studies have added others relative to sex, age, race, climatic conditions, season, and food as possible predisposing factors in the causation of the disease. Age.—the results of the studies suggest that adult bees are not directly susceptible to the disease. Pupe are rarely affected (PI. Il, zz). Ii one succumbs to the disease, it is quite soon after trans- formation from the larval stage. Primarily it is the larve that are susceptible. When a larva dies of the disease, it does so almost invariably after capping, and usually during the 2-day period immedi- ately preceding the time for the change to a pupa, Sex.—Worker and drone larve may become infected. Queen larvae apparently are also susceptible, although this point has not yet been completely demonstrated. Race.—No complete immunity against sacbrood has yet been found to exist in any race of bees commonly kept in America. That one race is less susceptible to the disease than another may be said to be probable, although the extent of such immunity has not been established. The question: ‘‘ What race of bees is there in the diseased colony ?”’ was asked beekeepers sending samples of diseased brood. Out of 140 replies received from those sending sacbrood samples, 53 reported hybrids, 49 reported Italians, 21 reported blacks, and 17 reported Italian hybrids. These replies show that the bees commonly kept by American beekeepers are susceptible, although their relative suscepti- bility is not shown. The bees which have been inoculated in the experimental work on sacbrood have been largely Italians or mixed with Italian blood. Blacks have also been used. No complete immunity was observed in any colony inoculated. That the blacks are more susceptible than strains having Italian blood in them is suggested by some of the results. Facts concerning the problem of immunity as relating to bees are yet altogether too meager to justify more definite state- ments. Climate.—Uistorial evidence strongly suggests that sachrood is found in Germany (Langstroth, 1857), England (Simmins, 1887), 58574°—Bull. 431—17——4 26 BULLETIN 431, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and Switzerland (Burri, 1906). Beuhne (1913) reports its presence in Australia, and Bahr (1915) has encountered a brood disorder among bees in Denmark which he finds is neither of the foul broods. He had examined 10 samples of it but had not studied it further. He says it may be sacbrood. About 400 cases of sacbrood have been diagnosed by Dr. A. H. McCray and the writer among the samples of brood received for examination at the Bureau of Entomology. A few of these were obtained from Canada. Whether the disease occurs in tropical climates or the coldest climates in which bees are kept has not yet been completely established. The mountains and coast plain of the eastern United States, the plains of the Mississippi Valley and the mountains, plateaus, and coast plain of the western portion of the country have contributed to the number of samples examined. Jt occurs in the South and the North. Its occurrence in such widely different localities is proof that sac- brood is of such a nature that it can appear under widely different climatic conditions. The relative frequency of the disease, further- more, is not materially different in the different sections of the country. it must be said, however, that the extent, if any, to which the dis- ease is affected by climate has not yet been determined. The practical import of these observations regarding climate, of particular interest here, is that the presence of sacbrood in any region can not be attributed entirely to the prevailing climatic conditions. Season.—It has long been known that sacbrood appears most often and in the greatest severity during the spring of the year. As is shown by the results obtained in the diagnosis of it in the laboratory, the disease may appear at any season of the year at which brood is being reared. In the imoculation experiments sacbrood has been produced with ease from early spring to October 21. While it is thus shown that the brood is susceptible to sacbrood at all seasons, various factors together cause the disease to occur with greater frequency during the spring. Food.—Before it was known that sacbrood is an infectious disease the quantity or quality of food was not infrequently mentioned by beekeepers as being the cause of the disease. Since a filterable virus has been shown to be the exciting cause of the disease, it is left to be considered whether food is a predisposing cause. The distribution of the disease mentioned above, under the heading “‘Climate,”’ here again serves a useful purpose. Since it occurs in such a wide range of localities, wherein the food and water used by the bees vary as greatly almost as is possible in the United States, the conclusion may be drawn that its occurrence is not dependent upon food of any restricted character. Furthermore, sacbrood is found in colonies having an abundant supply of food, as well as in colonies having a SACBROOD. 7 searcity. It has been produced experimentally in colonies under equally varying conditions in regard to the quantity of food. While it is possible that the quantity or quality of food may influ- ence somewhat the course of the disease in the colony, the réle played by food in the causation of sacbrood must be slight, if indeed it con- tributes at all appreciably to it. Practically, therefore, for the present it may be considered that neither the quality nor quantity of food predisposes to this disease. EXCITING CAUSE OF SACBROOD. That sacbrood is an infectious disease was demonstrated by the writer (1913) through experiments performed during the summer of 1912. This was done by feeding to healthy colonies the crushed tissues of larve dead of sacbrood, suspended in sugar sirup. The experiments were performed under various conditions, and it was found that the disease could be produced at will, demonstrating thereby that it was actually an infectious one. In the crushed larval mass no microorganisms were found either microscopically or culturally to which the infection could be attrib- uted, although the experiments had proved that the larva dead of the disease did contain the infecting agent. This led to the next step in the investigation, which was to determine whether the virus was so small that it had not been observed, and whether its nature would permit its passage through a filter. The first filter used for this purpose was the Berkefeld. The process by which the filtration is done is briefly this: Larve which have been dead of sacbrood only a few days are picked from the brood comb and crushed. The crushed mass is added to water in the proportion of 1 part larval mass to 10 parts water. A higher dilution may be used. This aqueous suspension is allowed to stand for some hours, preferably overnight. ‘To remove the fragments of the larval tissues still remaining, the suspension is filtered, using filter paper. The filtrate thus obtained is then filtered by the use of the Berkefeld filter’ (fig. 26) properly prepared. The filtering in the case of the coarser filters especially can be done through gravity alone. To determine whether any visible microorganisms are present in this last filtrate, it is examined microscopically and culturally. When found to be apparently free from such microorganisms, a quan- tity of it may be added to sirup and the mixture fed to healthy colo- 1 The Berkefeld filter consists of a compact material (infusorial earth) in the form of a cylinder. A glass mantel (A) in which is fixed the filter forms a cup for holding the fluid to be filtered. Having filtered the aqueous suspension of crushed sacbrood larvie through paper, the filtrate is then filtered by allowing it to pass through the walls of the Berkefeld cylinder (B). The filtrate from this filtration is collected into a sterile flask (Ff) through a glass tube (D) with itsrubber connection (C). Jn filtering in this instance gravity is the only force used. 28 BULLETIN 431, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. nies. When all this is properly done, sacbrood will appear in the inoculated colonies. This shows that the virus ! of this disease, to a a a aan S35} EH = Hy} My 4 bal) yi Hl Fie. 26.—Berkefeld filter (B) with the glass mantle (A), glass tubing (D), a connecting rubber tubing (C), and a flask (F) with a cotton plug (E). (Original.) certain extent, at least, passes through the Berkefeld filter. With this filter the virus is therefore filterable. 1 In referring to the infecting agent in sacbrood, the term ‘‘virus” is preferable to the terms “germ” or “parasite.” In relation to the disease, however, its meaning is the same as that conveyed by the latter terms. SACBROOD. 29 In the study of the virus of sacbrood use has been made also of the Pasteur-Chamberland filter ! (fig. 27). This is a clay filter, the pores of which are much finer than those of the Berkefeld used. In using this filter, an aqueous suspension of larve dead of the disease is prepared as before. This is filtered by the aid of pressure obtained aassf =< ess ir. Fic. 27.—A convenient apparatus which can be employed in using the Pasteur-Chamberland, 3erkefeld, and other filters. Pasteur-Chamberland filter (b) with a glass mantle (a), arubber stopper (c) through which passes the filter, a connecting rubber tubing (d), glass tubing (e), a perforated rubber stopper (f), a vacuum jar (g), designed by the writer, in which is placed a cotton-stoppered and steril- ized flask, a glass stopcock (h), a vacuum gauge (i), a reservoir (m) with pressure-rubber connections (j), and a vacuum pump (k). (Original.) by means of a partial vacuum in an apparatus devised for this pur- pose. Filtrates obtained from this filter when fed to healthy colonies produced the disease. Since the virus of sacbrood will pass through 1The Pasteur-Chamberland filter consists of clay molded in the form of a hollow cylinder and baked. This is used with a glass cylinder (a) fitted with a rubber stopper (c). In the use of this filter, force is employed, This was obtained for these experiments through the use of a jar (¢) devised by the writer in which a partial vacuum can be produced. In this jar, is placed a flask plugged with cotton and sterilized. Connections are made as shown in the illustration, the vacuum being produced through the use of the pump (k). In less than halfan hour usually a half-pint of filtrate can be obtained with this apparatus. 30 BULLETIN 431, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the pores of the Pasteur-Chamberland filter also, it is therefore fil- terable and is very properly referred to as a “‘filterable’’! virus. In considering the virus of sacbrood it is suggested that the bee- keeper think of it as a microorganism ? which is so small or of such a nature that it has not been seen, and which will pass through the pores of fine clay filters. This conception of it wili at least make it more easily understood. WEAKENING EFFECT OF SACBROOD UPON A COLONY. The first inoculations in proving that sacbrood is an infectious disease were made on June 25, 1912. Two colonies were used, each being fed with material from a different source. The inocu- lation feedmgs were made on successive days. Sacbrood having been produced in the colonies, the inoculations were continued at intervals throughout July and August. During this period, a large amount of sacbrood was present in both colonies. By the end of July these colonies had become noticeably weakened, and by the end of August they had become very much weakened, as a result of the sacbrood present in them, On September 5 one of the colonies swarmed out. The brood (PI. IV) of this colony, large in quantity, was practically all dying of sacbrood. The other colony, when examined on Sep- tember 16, was found to be very weak. At this time, however, most of the dead brood had been removed and healthy brood was bemg reared. This colony increased in strength and wintered successfully. The results obtained from the inoculation of these two colonies demonstrated not only that sacbrood is an infectious disease, but also that the disease in a colony tends to weaken it. The results indicate also that a colony may be destroyed by the disease, or it may recover from it, gain in strength, and winter successfully. EKach year since 1912 two or more colonies have been fed sacbrocd material at intervals during the brood-rearing season for the purpose of obtaining disease material for experimental purposes. The mocu- lated aollannee in all instances have shown a tendency to become weakened as a result of the inoculations. The death of the worker larve is the primary cause for the weak- ness resultmg from the disease in a colony. Another point to be thought of is that dead sacbrood larvee remaining in the cells for weeks, as they not infrequently do, reduce the capacity of the brood nest for brood rearing, which has a tendency also to weaken the colony. 1In searching the tissues of larvee dead of sacbrood and the filtrates obtained from them nothing has been discovered by the aid of the microscope, or culturally, which has yet been demonstrated as being the infect- ing agent. This being true, the virus could be spoken of tentatively as an “ultramicroscopic virus.” It is preferable, for the present, however, to refer to it simply as a filterable virus. 2 There is some question whether, in the case of diseases having a virus which is filterable, the infecting agent is in every instance a microorganism. The evidence is strong, however, that it is. SACBROOD. aol AMOUNT OF VIRUS REQUIRED TO PRODUCE THE DISEASE, AND THE RAPIDITY OF ITS INCREASE. Assuming the virus of sacbrood to be a very minute microorgan- ism, the number of germs present in a larva dying of the disease must be considered as exceedingly large. Whether a single germ taken up by a larva will produce the disease in every instance, or in any instance, isnot known. If the disease does result at any time from the ingestion of a single germ, all of the conditions, it may be assumed, must be especially favorable for the production of the disease. From what is known of diseases of other animals and of man, and from the results thus far obtained in the study of sacbrood, it is well, at present, to assume that the number of sacbrood germs taken up by a larva may be so small that no disease results. It is certain, however, that a comparatively small number of sacbrood germs ingested by a larva about two days oid are sufficient to produce the disease. That the few germs thus taken up can increase within the larva during an incubation period of five or six days to such a vast number as is assumed to be present in a larva dying of the disease indicates the extreme rapidity with which the germs are able to multiply. The minimum quantity of virus necessary to produce a moderate infection in a colony has not been definitely determined. It was found by experiments, however, that the virus contained in a single larva recently dead of the disease was sufficient to produce a large amount of sacbrood in a colony. As a very rough estimate, it may be said that the quantity of virus in a single larva dead of sacbrood is sufficient, when suspended in half a pint of sirup and fed to a healthy colony, to produce in- fection in and death of at least 3,000 larve. Starting then with the virus contained in a single larva, in less than one week it would easily be possible to have 3,000 larve dead of the disease, which means that the virus has been increased 3,000-fold within one week. This Jatter amount of virus would be sufficient to produce an equal amount of infection in 3,000 colonies, increasing the amount of virus again 3,000-fold. In less than two weeks, therefore, theoretically it would be possible to produce a sufficient amount of virus to infect 9,000,000 colonies, more colonies probably than are to be found at present in the United States. Carrying the idea somewhat further, within three weeks, theoretically enough virus could be produced to inoculate every colony in existence. These facts are sufficient to indicate somewhat the enormous rapidity with which the virus of sacbrood is capable of increasing. 32 BULLETIN 431, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. METHODS USED IN MAKING EXPERIMENTAL INOCULATIONS. The laboratory study of bee diseases being new, it has been neces- sary in many instances to devise new methods. In the experimental inoculations of bees the methods used have undergone revision from time to time. Those now employed have proved quite satis- factory. As the virus of sac- brood has not been cultivated in the iab- oratory artificially, it has been necessary m these investigations to inoculate a large number of colonies. A nucleus of bees that could be accom- modated on from 3 to 6 brood frames ones was found to serve “tor expertmionial inoculations Here are shown fou Hotuan VO?) Setictaenemiig frames, a division board, four open Petri dishes as feeders, and the ens the purpose of an ex- of the hive body secapied by the colony. he dimensions indieatea _PeTmental colony. are approximate. The angle at which the hive was photographed The queen should al- for this drawing caused its length toappearforeshortened. (Original. ) ways be clippe d. The frames are placed in one side of a 10-frame hive body (fig. 28). Over the entrance to the hive is placed wire cloth, leaving a small space of about 1 inch in length on the side occupied by the brood frames. Petri dishes! (fig. 29) serve well the purpose of a feeder. Both halves of the dish are used as receptacles. These are placed, preferably about four of the halves, within the hive on the bottom board on the side not occu- pied byframes. The hives seed res ae . of the experimental aplary Fic. 29.Petridish. The top half is slightly raised. Those (PI. Til) are arranged used here are 4 inches in diameter. (Original.) chiefly in pairs, with the entrances of consecutive rows pointing in opposite directions. The space occupied by the apiary should be 1A Petri dish, a much-used piece of apparatus in a laboratory, is simply a shallow, circular, glass dish with a flat bottom and perpendicular sides. It consists of two halves, a bottom and a top. These are very similar. The top half, being slightly larger, fits over the bottom one when the two halvesare placed together. PLaTE III Iture. cu . Dept. of Agri $s U Bul. 431 (IVNIDINO) *GALONGNOD SYAM GIG] JO YAWWNG ZHL ONIUNG AGVW SLNAWIYAdXy NOILVINOON| SHL HOIHM NI SHINO109 $G 4O AuVIdY IVLNSWINSdXy SHL 40 MZIA Bul. 431, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. (ORIGINAL, BROOD FRAME CONTAINING SACBROOD, TAKEN FROM AN EXPERIMENTAL COLONY IN WHICH THE DISEASE WAS PRODUCED BY FEEDING THE VIRUS OF THE : DISEASE, : SACBROOD. 33 broken up, preferably by trees or shrubbery. By these means, it will be observed, there is a tendency to minimize the likelihood of robbing, swarming, absconding, and accidental straying or drifting of bees to foreign colonies. In preparing the material with which the colony is inoculated, larve in early stages of the disease are picked from the brood frames, crushed, and added to sugar sirup. The crushed mass from 10 or more sacbrood larve, sus- pended in somewhat more than half a pint of sugar sirup, has been found to be a suitable quantity of the infective material to use in making an inoculation. The suspension may be fed to the bees as one feeding ormore. The inoculation feedings should be made as a rule toward evening to avoid the tendency to rob, which may be noticed during adearthof nectar. Inocu- lations should not be made when the tendency to rob is at all marked. Before a colony is inoculated it should be deter- mined that its activities are normal. A colony should not be inoculated for several days after it has been made by division, or immediately after its removal from aforeign location. An experimental colony when inoculated should have larve of all ages, and a queen doing well. Between five and six days after a colony has been inoculated with sacbrood virus, the first symptoms of the disease are to be expected. The finding of capped larve having a slightly yellowish hue (fig. 12; Pl. II, b, h) is the best early symptom by which the presence of the disease may be known. Another method of inoculation may be used and under certain circumstances is desirable. The method is more direct than the one just described. The crushed tissues of a diseased larva are suspended in a wipette. AP piece small amount of water or thin sugar sirup. With a drawn’ to yeste capillary pipette (fig. 30) made fromsmall glass tubing, End. “Keduced to a very small amount of the suspension is added di- the size used. rectly to the food which surrounds the healthy larva = (O"#"*!” in the cell. Thisis easily done. Having drawn some of the suspen- sion into the pipette, carefully touch the food in the cell surround- ing the larva with the point of the pipette. A small amount of the suspension will flow out and mix with the food. Larve approxi- mately two days of age should be selected for feeding. A dozen 34 BULLETIN 431, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. or more should be fed in making an inoculation. The area of brood inoculated may be designated by marking on the brood frame, or by removing the brood from around the area inoculated, thus marking it off. . MEANS FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF THE VIRUS OF SACBROOD. Although the virus of sacbrood may increase with great rapidity, fortunately it is quite as readily destroyed. Nature supplies many means by which this may be accomplished. While theoretically a sufficient amount of virus may be produced within one month to inoculate all the bees in existence, within another month, if left to natural means alone, practically all such virus would be destroyed. - This latter fact constitutes one of the chief reasons for the compara- tively rapid self-recovery of colonies from this disease. It was observed in the experiments that larve dead of sacbrood when left in the brood comb ceased to be infectious in less than one month after death. HEATING REQUIRED TO DESTROY SACBROOD VIRUS WHEN SUSPENDED IN WATER. Approximate results have been published (White, 1914) relative to the heating that is necessary to destroy the virus of sacbrood when it is suspended in water. In the following table are given some results which have been obtained: Tasie |.—Lffect of heating on the virus of sacbrood suspended in water. Date of inoculation. Temperature. Testes Results of inoculation. °F, GE Minutes. AU GH OUS the re le a eae aaa chee ya es ees Feat 122 50 30 | Sacbrood produced. Sept sles na aoe ee eane ootas aapenionse eects 131 55 10 Do. Sep tO Mola tee sae ee seeaene eh caer ere secre ee 131 55 20 Do Sept S lOve Soe oe ie ee eae ee: Maye ris ce ea 135 57 15 Do PUNE SOMOS. eae eee eee oe eee 136 58 10 Do. Seo WO. WON ses osocee UES oo HN 1 ahr Ake ce 136 58 10 | No disease produced. ASIP S28 OTe eee cee eee ae Cas a 138 59 10 Do. Dept LO MOrs eyes AG ee Gee seyret ays 140 60 15 Do. (AOS; S1OI5 Ma RaUT NCAN Ree Sa EOE ui Ie a 142 61 10 Do. FATE 26 NOS ec ee a eh eS es Sa 149 65 15 Do. DD ORES as Met ani yeep Tn Rehtiat crass steua a a 158 70 15 Do 1DYo see eS eur MMe REN LR eee a sae a 8 167 75 15 Do BBX es ee a OS a este eae Ot ae Se eae 176 80 15 Do 1 Fractions will be omitted in this paper, the nearest whole number being given. It will be observed from Table I that 138° F. (59° C.) maintained for 10 minutes was sufficient to destroy the virus of sacbrood in the inoculation experiments recorded. Technically, in view of the variable factors which must be considered in experiments of this kind, this result, as representing the thermal death point of the sacbrood’ virus, should be considered as being only approximate. For practical purposes, however, it is sufficient. SACBROOD. In performing these experiments a crushed mass, representing from 10 to 20 larve recently dead of the disease, is diluted to about 10 times its volume with tap water. About one-half ounce of this suspension is placed in a test tube (fig. 31), almost fillmng it. The tube is stoppered with a perforated cork, bearing a short glass tube of small caliber and drawn at one end to capillary size. This is all immersed in water at a temperature to which it is desired that the virus shall be heated. It requires nearly five minutes for the tem- perature of the suspension in the tube to reach that of the water outside. After reaching the degree desired the temperature is maintained for 10 minutes, after which the tube is removed and the contents added to about one-half pint of sirup. The suspension is then fed to a healthy colony. If by such a feeding no sac- brood is produced, the virus is considered as having been destroyed by the heating. On the other hand, if the disease is produced it follows naturally that the virus had not been destroyed. HEATING REQUIRED TO DESTROY SACBROOD VIRUS WHEN SUSPENDED IN GLYCERINE. In determining the amount of heating that is necessary to destroy the virus of a disease when it is suspended in a liquid, the results should always be given in terms of at least the three factors, (1) degree of temperature, (2) time of heating, and (3) the medium in which the virus is suspended. With the virus of sacbrood the results vary markedly, depending upon the nature of the liquid in which the suspension is made. ‘To illustrate this point the re- sults of afew inoculation experiments are given here in which the virus was heated while suspended in glycerine. Tasie Il.—Lffect produced by heating the virus of sacbrood suspended in glycerine. Time of Date of inoculation. Temperature. heating. Results of inoculation, Cary °C. | Minutes. os Oy a ee 140 60 10 | Sacbrood produced, 2 Sl) ee eee 149 65 10 Do. June 25, MUD enon peop ake ca 158 70 | 10 Do, om s, BUIDs dudes case 'na> 160 71 10 Do. Sedge lnw ba alee mnwie aS 0.6 163 73 10 | No disease produced, arte. ? Min wade tadaane tds 167 75 10 Do, It consists of a test tube one-half inch in diameter supplied with a perforated stopper Fic. 31.—Tube in which a suspension of sacbrood larve is placed for heating. ise) on (Original.) through which passes a short piece of glass tubing drawn at one end to capillary size. 36 BULLETIN 431, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In these inoculations it will be observed that a temperature some- what greater than 158° I. (70° C.) maintained for 10 mimutes was necessary to destroy the virus of sacbrood when it was suspended in glycerine, while a temperature somewhat less than 140° F. (60° C.) is sufficient to destroy it when suspended in water (p. 34). The same technique was employed when glycerine was used as the suspending medium as was employed when water was used as the medium. The same strain of virus was used in both instances. The point here illustrated is of special interest in connection with the heating of honey containing the virus of sacbrood. HEATING REQUIRED TO DESTROY SACBROOD VIRUS WHEN SUSPENDED IN HONEY. From the results obtained by heating the virus of sacbrood in glycerine as given above it might be expected that a higher tempera- ture would be necessary to destroy the virus when it is suspended in honey than when it is suspended in water. In determining the heating necessary to destroy the virus when suspended in honey the technique followed was similar to that employed when water and glycerine suspensions were used. The virus used in the inoculations bearing the date 1915 was of the same strain in all instances. : TaBLE III.—Results obtained when the virus of sacbrood was heated in honey. Date of inoculation. Temperature. Hee Results of inoculation. O10, °C. | Minutes. TUNE W191 osc se Se eee ae 140 60 10 | Sacbrood produced. FUNOMT MOD ek ee ae Sa Bees cele Se seeenicicseeis 145 63 10 Do. APRA Se AE LOREEN SA CL aU ah St seagennaiy ies, te a 149 65 10 Do DUMO A IO UB i o5 SR OS Ita ERO ae et ae 154 68 10 Do JUNO! 2415 ose ese seen ope ene ee Lad 156 69 10 Do. DY yiseeyeretregreeeat ANap aN ues yee ear ROC 158 70 10 Do. DUNO A TOTS oe oe AG GE at NS Se Gein coe 158 70 10 | No disease produced. VUNG MSL OTS See eS Oe ea es oes ee reece 158 70 10 Do. Uy 8 OG SS oe ea ae Se EE 160 71 10 Do UI OR LONG See a eee ye dE Sores gs ee 160 71 10 Do os UNG can KE yt aa oes A AE tan ne eg 5 ye 163 73 10 Do AUER QS SOS os Sees Sy Sate neha Nee aaa NET ee 163 73 10 Do JUNO MOUS No Raa aCe eek Ee eee Dee 167 75 10 Do ATT TQ UG iii 2 esr Walaa a SNe a Trey Lee Soe AN 167 75 10 Do Tune Te LOU Ge ose ce NC na cute cre mesa ae ek 176 80 10 Do As shown by the results recorded in Table III, the virus of sacbrood when suspended in honey was destroyed in 10 minutes at a tempera- ture very near 158° F. (70°C.). This temperature is more than 18° F. (10° C.) greater than the temperature required to destroy in the same time the virus when suspended in water and approximately equal to that necessary to destroy it when suspended in glycerine. SACBROOD. 37 RESISTANCE OF SACBROOD VIRUS TO DRYING AT ROOM TEMPERATURE. In the experiments made for the purpose of determining the amount of drying which the virus of sacbrood will withstand, larve recently — dead of the disease were used. These are crushed, strained through cheesecloth, and the crushed mass poured into Petri dishes (fig. 32) to the extent of a thin layer for each dish, the material in each being the crushed remains of about 30 larve. ‘These are placed in a drawer, shielding the larval material from the light. The drying then pro- ceeds at the temperature of the room. This temperature varied greatly from day to day, sometimes being as high as 93° F. (84° C.). At intervals, reckoned in days, after the preparation of the virus, colonies are inoculated. An aqueous suspension is made of the drying larva] content con- tained in a Petri dish. [. 32._Open Petri dish. One-half of Petri dish, either This is added to sirup, and eg ee a eae the sirup suspension is fed to a healthy colony. The experiments gave the following results: ‘Tasie IV.—Resistance of sacbrood virus to drying at room temperature. Date of inoculation. Time of drying. Results of inoculation. Jost ioe frp, LE SGAVS eee ace atees ecko Sacbrood produced. Aug. 14, LEYTE cS eS I ee ees ere a UOBYS Se mtertsieecrye ceca Do. Tun Ure TS ce anc ASIGAYS Bie cre Besse cae Do. July 1, ICE VEL Ro ee na a AGidaySisensenecse: secieee Do Jie Paty LOU ys Se ee ae ea TSG aySwiers ere sueciecte icine Do DUEL ip LES ee ie et a ee a LUIGAYS incre eeansseeeee Saye, Ay, EUG 2S ee Se rere ee eee D2IGAYS Ae mtecceseoccceree: No sacbrood produced STU 2-10 0d eee ae ee at rete ZG iGAY Sh rerateeriectmcinemnaae SIG te Ng) Vs SS eee eee ee DRITAVSE Santee cen cmicicnwe No. July 29, MOL seen cacicls = nt ae oss ok dee de eevee 23) Gays eee ecresisiccckaatoee Do. Sept. 3, AO oe Acints poe 2c cease Bes issncie elec eas > ODORS emenieneeeeiinsce cee Do. ck SEC e toa be COREE EEA E A Se eC ee nee eee AG) COINS Oe etree sie eciaerisicerete Do. May 2, RPL eo we sees sess osdSeess se oe eae 7 GN IDAGE MW saeanede Do. 1 Ap 352 oe GaP ae eae Ae ae ee eee ge 7 months 21 days......... Do. From the results recorded in Table IV it will be noted that the virus of sacbrood in the experiment referred to withstood drying at room temperature for approximately three weeks. The inoculations made during the third week indicated, by the re- duced amount of sacbrood produced, that much of the virus had already been destroyed. Obtaining negative results from the use of larval material which had been drying more than seven months tends toward eliminating the possibility that the virus possesses a resting stage. 38 BULLETIN 431, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Similar preliminary experiments made to determine the amount of drying which the virus of sacbrood will withstand at outdoor tempera- ture and at incubator temperature (about 99° F. [37° C.]) gave results approximately those obtained from drying at room temperature, the time being somewhat less in the case of drying at incubator tempera- ture. Preliminary experiments indicate also that when the virus is mixed with pollen and allowed to dry the period for which it remains virulent is increased only slightly. RESISTANCE OF SACBROOD VIRUS TO DIRECT SUNLIGHT WHEN DRY. In the experiments made to determine the amount of sunlight which the virus of sacbrood is capable of resisting, Petri-dish prepara- . tions similar to those made in the drying experiment were prepared. After drying a few hours in the room the uncovered dish is exposed to the direct rays of the sun. At different intervals, measured in hours, inoculations of healthy colonies are made similar to those in the drying experiments. The following results were obtained: TaBLE V.—Resistance of the virus of sacbrood, when dry, to direct sunlight. Time of Date of inoculation. agua Results of inoculation. rays. Hours SOptsrLi7prl O15 tah Be ee eee eh ae a AR a eet 2 | Sacbrood produced. July 29, CHONG eT SR ah ME 1, CMI er eee see 23 Do. betsy 01 Reed br KO) Use NSE Sra ey Ur a ara ear ey Sener re eee 3 Do. Sept G ss OU pee Te a ep aca he apes ee SRN ee ae ee egy yd 4 Do. DY OSS AHO Se ae ein Ce eea lone ea ee OMe ONS ee cere 5 Do. 1D Yo Sete IE tenn ean sree ety yal SaaS Ge Nee AMES oe 1 Pee 6 Do. PATI S25 OIG: Rep eis ne oe Nae aoe Pe SE ary ed ea RO 6 Do. Sept. 10, IG Ia SS Sees es eee eee See tee eae eet ena Whee Oe Read oaeu 4 | No disease produced 1D Yo) er ererteel st nnn LL END Caer guenere Eco a a ee NL ae 5 Do. Sele S; LOD esse SRR SR anc ys cre ate a day cg AOR 7 Do. See cee e a aan ey our ai Ny rea ae ee a a 9 Do. meee 19, BOWS ee cee SNS SE NMA NS ep A ND IES Seater Cae AE 12 Do. July 16, SIO 15 (ae a cap Soc Nm, a ateenh USP ALS URE Eestee ea te Ula 13 Do. ug. 20, I) Le es a een ae ec Resa Se ee esoae 18 Do Sept. 11, 1G ee Se eae Aan eae omer sobre aa atom eae acse 21 Do ‘The results recorded in Table V show that the virus of sacbrood in the experiments made was destroyed in from four to seven hours’ exposure to the direct rays of the sun. The results obtained also indicate that much of the virus was destroyed in a 2-hour exposure to the sun. | It will be readily appreciated that the time that the virus will resist the sun’s rays will depend a great deal upon the intensity of the rays at the time of its exposure and the thickness of the layer of the infective larval material in the Petri dish. The drying that SACBROOD. 39 would naturally take place during the exposure to the sun would tend also to destroy the virus, but as the resistance to drying is better given in weeks than days, this factor may be disregarded here. RESISTANCE OF SACBROOD VIRUS TO DIRECT SUNLIGHT WHEN SUS- PENDED IN WATER. In the experiments made for the purpose of determining the resist- ance of the virus of sacbrood to the direct rays of the sun when ‘suspended in water, Petri dishes were again used. About 14 ounces of the aqueous suspension containing the crushed tissues of 30 larve is poured into the dish and exposed to the direct rays of the sun. After intervals reckoned in hours the inoculations of healthy colonies are made.. The contents of a single Petri dish are added to about one- half pint of sirup and the suspension fed to a healthy colony. The following results were obtained from the experiments: TaBLe VI.—Resistance of sacbrood virus to the direct rays of the sun when suspended in water. Time of Date of inoculation. rane Results of inoculation. rays. Hours. EEE Fl (D7 A GS SS es eae er ee 1 | Sacbrood produced. Aug. 20, Sr ee asthe neti meen es coh occu mutes oe 2 Do. Sin DES TIT A Se pt a a Sere 2 Do. AUTIE, PAL TDG oS Be eae Sn Seaport gg 2 Do. JOTIE. DT TACT OS 8 ag ety ees er ea A eae 3 Do. CRT hg ELE i I ae ee ee ae 4 Do. 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Ut passaidxa yoawu fo Jon1jxa pr4opyo wnipos zuao wad 60 fo uornsodwo)j—'6 AIAV I, CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 23 Soluble nitrogen.—The data under this heading simply show more clearly changes that have been previously discussed in connection with Table 9. There are at first marked decreases in the soluble nitrogen in the samples incubated for 7, 14, and 21 days, after which there are gradual increases in this constituent as the incubation period progresses. The total increase in the sample incubated 100 days amounts to 22.12 per cent of the soluble nitrogen present in the fresh sample. This increase is practically the same as the decrease in soluble nitrogen in the sample incubated 7 days. The increase in soluble nitrogen in the incubated samples is clearly due to the action of a proteolytic endoenzym, capable of at- tacking native proteins and of working in an acid medium. The presence of such an enzym in muscular tissues, as well as in other body tissues, is generally recognized. Vernon (1910) names such an enzym “protease.” A discussion of the factors limiting the total extent of the action of this enzym upon the insoluble muscle proteins is hardly within the province of this paper. The decrease in soluble nitrogen in case of the samples incubated for 7, 14, and 21 days is harder to explain. The following appears to be the most reasonable explanation of this condition. It is a well- known fact that muscular tissue contains a much higher proportion of soluble protein before rigor mortis has set in than after that process is complete. Oppenheimer (1909) cites experiments where 87.3 per cent of the total protein of muscular tissue was found in soluble condition before rigor mortis had set in, while only 28.5 was present in the soluble form after rigor was complete. In our experi- ments the fresh material was analyzed 24 hours after slaughter of the animal, at which time rigor mortis was assumed to be complete. The fact that the samples incubated for 7, 14, and 21 days show de- creases in total soluble nitrogen as compared with the fresh material, indicates very clearly that rigor mortis was not compiete when the fresh muscular tissue was analyzed. It may be noted that while the samples incubated for 7, 14, and 21 days show decreases in total soluble nitrogen, as compared with the fresh material, the maximum decrease was reached in case of the sample incubated 7 days, and from that time on the change was in the other direction. This fact indicates that the coagulation of muscle proteins, which accompanies rigor mortis, was complete at the end of 7 days and probably at an earlier date. Coagulable nitrogen.—There is a marked decrease in this constitu- ent during the course of the experiment, the decrease being most rapid during the first 7 days. The sample incubated for 100 days contains only 19.76 per cent of the amount of coagulable protein in the fresh sample. However, these figures do not show the full extent of the transformation of coagulable protein into noncoagulable 24 BULLETIN 433, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, forms, since there is a gradual increase in the total soluble proteii during the experiment (except in the case of the samples incubated 7, 14, and 21 days), whereas the comparisons are based upon the amount of coagulable protein present in the fresh material. The data under the heading “ Noncoagulable nitrogen ” show more clearly the true extent of the transformation of coagulable protein into nen- coagulable forms. ° The change of coagulable protein into noncoagulable forms may be ascribed to the action of the enzym protease, which also acts upon the insoluble muscle proteins. Noncoagulable nitrogen.—There is a practically continuous in- crease in the noncoagulable nitrogen throughout the course of the experiment; the entire increase amounting to 173.82 per cent, as com- pared with a decrease of 80.24 per cent in the coagulable nitrogen during the same period. Proteose nitrogen.—The most rapid increase in this constituent occurs during the first seven days of the experiment, though there are some greater increases after that time. The sample incubated for 100 days contains only slightly more proteose nitrogen than the sample incubated for 7 days, and not as much as several of the samples incubated for intermediate periods. These data indicate, in conformity with the well-known fact that proteoses are simply inter- mediate products in the autolysis of muscle proteins, that there is no appreciable accumulation of proteose nitrogen during autolysis. Tt is very apparent that the amount of proteoses in muscular tissue is not a true measure of protein autolysis. In the light of present information, proteoses may be regarded as a product of the action of the enzym protease upon muscle proteins. Amino nitrogen.—The changes in amino nitrogen effected by the autolysis are very interesting in that each change is in the nature of a pronounced increase, and that ‘each successive increase is larger than its predecessor, until, in the sample that was incubated for 100 days, the amount of amino nitrogen is more than eight times as large as that in the nonincubated sample. In a general way, the rate of in- crease diminishes as the incubation period is lengthened, since more than one-half of the total increase occurs during the first 28 days of autolysis. The increases in amino nitrogen represent an accumulation of the end products of proteolysis, and furnish an excellent index of the extent of protein autolysis. They are produced by the combined action of various proteolytic enzyms—protease and erepsin in par- ticular—upon the muscle proteins and their cleavage products. Ammoniacal nitrogen—The data show an almost continuous in- crease in this constituent during the entire experiment. In general, the increases in ammoniacal nitrogen follow those in amino nitrogen, CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE.- 95 Taste 10.—Distridution of nitrogen and phosphorus on basis of 100 parts of respective constituents at beginning of incubation period. Ss 3 SHnSSssinmas though they seem to be more nearly 358 SSSRSARASN . *. ; i SoS = in conformity with a regular rule. 2.; | Ssxneegens On the whole, the rate of ammonia OPE ae | RY SEs ae ae a ee ees 2 58 SSSSUSSLSS production decreases as the am- eich Oe ee De oe eon hoe! z Rp Sasaaaaans monia accumulates; yet in view a = Ssanasdsss of the small amounts in which this 2 3 SS aa Sees : 3 g D constituent is present (see Table zs) my n : = SASBSRIIG LG 9), it would seem that the am- Be ip | Seacennca” ek ; s = monia is but an index of the re- a SReReseeae tarding agent and not the retard- 5 SSSSESES5E | ing agent itself. The production of ammonia is 6: SAODMIANWNOM me SHPORDONOMOr . = SHSMSHEAAWO , s Es Sea Sagrado clearly due to enzym action, but es SNAASHESSS zs the nature of the specific enzym g SSASaSSARS | and of the mother substance re- Se S8ee5525 : Si RAAAB GRR S mains to be determined. e: SRRBSHESER Table 11 shows the distribution a8 ESS5e62SS% | of nitrogen and phosphorus ex- a oO Bf ed 5. Sassen ae an pressed in terms of percentages e | gees Snes Ssesle of total nitrogen and total phos- = VALoM Satta Atior to) Z om MARA NANNNN phorus ' ONAMOhHOMmO ° : BS A oa Soluble nitrogen constitutes 29.8 3,2 Sraasnicnaa ae SHaBaOAA O Om per cent of the total nitrogen in g ec5 Ses ees the fresh material, 23.28 per cent z SHSSSSSAIA in the material incubated for 7 mn . . 5 _ | Ss8Sneeare days, and 36.45 per cent in the 2 | Saidosescds sample incubated for 100 days. a Soe ieee ih oe toe cj 6 P The decrease in the ratio of solu- ; sOmtH OAH moO . . ° 2 $ AASSSRSS | ble nitrogen to total nitrogen in iS = the samples incubated for 7, 14, BS | gAaaaAAaAaS | and 21 days confirms similar data 5 | s : B 2 ie _| presented in Table 10. Ca ei ar aaa Coagulable nitrogen makes up priate CA A ae ap ae oF Se 17.79 per cent of the total nitrogen g cP aa Ss petra ee in the fresh material and only 3.52 = Beyer ati a F aia per cent in the sample incubated is | re Narada wycheron iar ss rc Is etait tric: \lO0cdavs. More than.80 per cent 2 giiiii:iii: | of the coagulable nitrogen present FI BARR SE Bedi in the fresh material has been con- Z 2sdd555666 a LAAZAAAAAAA verted into noncoagulable forms. Z2eee2e22% . . FREER Proteose nitrogen constitutes a 6777777007 \ relatively small proportion of the ag. | Senaeecmaie total nitrogen both in the fresh and Zs aR AAAAAS ZA in the incubated material. BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 26 g6'9z— | 22°99+ | ¢0'e2+ | 6z°T6— | 00°0 Lers+| Q'ty] O'ee-t| Te rAt-+| To0g— | ee'ze+ | 00° | oor |0 | asueyy ye¢ | os'ee |ec'se | oz | oo-oor leo |ossr |sot |eeze | coe lore | oo-oor |oor |e 9 [ccccccccccccccettettteee Z ‘ON ofdureg | egt 9018— | 0¢'29+ | so6t+ | €9-2L— | 00°0 e'ses+| o'ceot| 9-ece+| or'TZT+| 66°e2— | sc-1z+ | 000 | £6 Q00 | [trcceetettetsetseesseee esses osueyo cep | 96°06 =| 2r'96 | eo | oooor foot | zsor_| esr | eoe |oce | +19 | o0-00r | &6 po [tccrccctcrecescreteeereee €-on odueg | $zT pe°oL— | 2819+ | 6F'0s+ | 91 '18— | 00°0 ¢-s0r+| 92c0+| sore+| er sst+] Te‘ez— | so-zt+ | 000 | 22 Q 0 [rrtrercetsessescereeeceeceee ogueyp 16¢ 65°08 06°96 08° 00°00T | 20 'T TE OT 6L'T 19 °0€ 98" €0°S8 OO'OIT | LL BC eee «Ses eh Se rade ZEON o[dureg | zz PL°GL— | PL'8S+ | 1L'8T+ | PL°1L— | 00°0 ecer+| T'si¢+| OztP+| PO'ser+| c8-zz— | G62 + | 00°0 | #9 Q.00 [rcctercrtetersetesecececeees asueyy 6L°9 TS 88 08 "F6 OL °¢ 00°00T | 6FT | Scum (SaKG TG “83 G6 91 ZS 00°00T | #9 NCR ee INGE ace rence Ree gis ST ‘ON o[dures | 121 78-02— | 61'99+ | Oz'sT+ | OT'z2— | 00°0 8°L6c-+| 1'P9F+| HP 19c+| Of-9IT-+| LL°99— | 86:9 + | 00°0 | a Do Pes 2228 akon scskede 53 ocer asuey 96°9 |erus |seve | zoe |oooor loot |co-er [est |zese | 16's |ss-te | oo-oor ow ie ai 0 [Po b per eienerenbecsabbe 2908 ee on o[dureg | ogi 0z's9— | S¢'19+ | e2"gt+ | ge°z9— | 00°0 L-woe+| 2:sr+| HLLe+| OG-zzT+| ee's9— | 2¢‘01+ | 00°0 ‘| 82 YN oro oe sooo osueyy oo, [1878 |1¥26 | eo. | oooor |10T | eat joo |1e2e | 9's |s6-ze | oo'oot | 8z Boon teh at ea 21 ON ojdureg | ert Tz9n— | Se°s¢+ | co‘oT+ | 9F'e9— | 00°0 66LI+|] 6-sgI+| Ge-99c+| soon +1 1¥'I¢— | e6'11— | 00-0 | Iz Q00 | [cccettceteccec eset eeesees osueyp 89° 56°98 £9 °26 Lek 00" Oot OL° 08 °¢ L1G °T 6S LT G9'8 9G 00‘O00T | 12 VG ra ae aera ie ei am IL‘ON o[dures | ZIT 96 e2— | 2e°s¢+ | o4-9T+ | et'99— | 00°0 o-9St+| oer +| 98-0ge-+| orem +1 ee-1g— | 29-er— | 00:0 | #1 Q. 0 [rccrcrttreectt ete tceseee eee sueyy 129 96 98 L1°&6 €8°9 00‘00T | #9° 0g °¢ G81 LO°LT 99°8 €L°SC 00°00T | FT UC im: | geeT Const ahs eats a ed LL‘ON o[dures | TIT o1 78— | 84°2+ | 99°TT+ | 8T-9F— | 00°0 9'L01-+| ¥°9L +| 8c°e6T-+| €8-0r +] 96°er— | 68'Ic— | 0070 |Z 0 ethiecracosGsRbbeuE coe onnorae osury $9°E TS °S8 CT ‘68 ¢8 “OT 00 *00T GG ° C6 °€ 92°T Te “EL 16°6 8Z "8S 00 °00T L 516 Sit. Ewe a, | ae ; “-""-27 ‘ON o[dures | OTT 88 | 26°92 | 864 | OF | OO" | se-0 | ¥S | EO | TO"et | GLUT 08's | oo JO, | Fe Joyaenb puyy yor ‘opdures ojfsoduroy | 60r 4 “Orue F a “orqe 4 a tt ROTA ere CeTOMt leer 7 SPUR Va ceca “1300 aiitoy | eramtes | “TeIO. poved mona Pane Sere as -nouz | °3%404S “i [e1eg “snioydsoug "HOsO01IIN ‘snsoydsoyd 70202 pup uahosqw 79102 {0 sabozUao10d [0 sw.ta} Wi passaudzoa ‘snwoydsoyd pup uabosjvu fo W01.N|GL.481Q— TL FTaVv TL, CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 27 Amino nitrogen.—In the course of 100 days of autolysis the amino nitrogen has increased from 2.24 per cent to 18.86 per cent of the total nitrogen, or from less than one-tenth to more than one-half of the total soluble nitrogen. Insoluble phosphorus——The ratio of insoluble phosphorus to total phosphorus is seen to be a decreasing function of the time of incuba- tion, and while the rate of decrease is not entirely regular it will be seen that, on the whole, the rate diminishes as the incubation period is extended. At the end of the one-hundredth day of incubation but 1.76 per cent of the total phosphorus remains in insoluble form, as against 20.16 per cent originally present. These changes may be considered as due to the action of the enzyms lipase and nuclease upon the phosphatids and nucleic acids, respectiy ely. Total soluble phosphorus—The enamel in the ratio of total solu- ble phosphorus to total phosphorus are naturally equal and opposite to corresponding changes in the ratio of insoluble phosphorus to total phosphorus, and have no further significance. Soluble organic phosphorus.—The figures for the ratio of soluble organic phosphorus to total phosphorus are peculiar, in that during the first seven days of autolysis this ratio decreased from its initial value of 23.87 per cent to its minimum value of 3.64 per cent. This large initial decrease, however, should not be regarded with sus- picion, since the continued increase in soluble inorganic phosphorus indicates the continued cleavage of organic phosphorus that one would expect. It would appear, therefore, that after the first ener- getic cleavage of the preformed soluble organic phosphorus com- pounds, the activity of the phosphatase decreases, and that new solu- ble organic compounds of phosphorus—cleavage products from the insoluble fraction—accumulate at a rate that is sometimes greater than the rate at which they are broken down by the phosphatase. The possibility, of course, is not excluded that the accumulating phos- phorus compounds are inherently less susceptible to the action of the phosphatase than are those originally present in the fresh meat. Soluble inorganic phosphorus—Except in the case of samples Nos. 112 and 113, the ratio of soluble inorganic phosphorus to total phos- phorus increases continuously throughout the experiment, until at the end of the one-hundredth day of autolysis it has attained a value of 92.50 per cent, as against its original value of 55.97 per cent—more than three-fourths of the increase having taken place during the first seven days of incubation. SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF AUTOLYSIS EXPERIMENTS. The results of the autolysis experiments reported in this paper may be summarized as follows: 1. Physical changes in the samples of muscular tissue were not marked, even at the conclusion of the experiment, and consisted 28 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. chiefly of a shght softening of the tissues, an exudation of meat juices, and a change in color of the meat. 2. Incubated samples developed a characteristic, rather pleasant odor, similar to that of rare roast beef, the odor becoming more pronounced as the period of incubation progressed. A sample which had been incubated 103 days did not prove to be a palatable food for human consumption. 3. Total soluble extract or total solids showed a decrease early in the experiment, and later an increase, the total] increase amounting to 8.77 per cent of the amount present in the fresh material. 4, Ash of extract showed appreciable, but not regular, increases, which correspond roughly with similar increases in total soluble phosphorus. 5. The acidity of the samples showed appreciable increases, partic- ularly toward the close of the experiment. 6. The changes which took place in the nitrogenous compounds consisted, in general, in an increase in total soluble nitrogen and in a conversion of the higher forms of soluble nitrogenous compounds into simpler combinations. (a) Coagulable nitrogen showed a marked decrease, more than 50 per cent of which took place during the first week of the experiment. The total decrease amounted to approximately 80 per cent of the amount present in the fresh material. (6) Noncoagulable nitrogen increased fairly regularly during the course of the experiment, the total increase amounting to 173.8 per cent. . (c) Proteose nitrogen increased rapidly early in the experiment, and the quantity then remained practically stationary during the remainder of the incubation period. (d) Amino nitrogen showed greater actual and relative changes than any other nitrogenous constituent. This result was to have been expected, since this constituent represents, in a large degree, an accumulation of the end-products of proteolysis. The total increase in amino nitrogen amounted to 740 per cent, and nearly one-fifth of the total nitrogen was in the amino form at the end of the experiment. (e) Ammoniacal nitrogen showed marked and fairly regular in- creases, the total increase amounting to over 500 per cent, although this constituent made up only 1.55 per cent of the total nitrogen at the close of the experiment. 7. Phosphorus compounds showed changes which consisted chiefly im appreciable increases in total soluble phosphorus and in soluble inorganic phosphorus, and in corresponding decreases in insoluble and in soluble organic phosphorus. CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 29 (a) Insoluble phosphorus decreased rapidly early in the experi- ment and more slowly and fairly regularly during the remainder of the period, the total decrease amounting to 91.29 per cent of the amount present in the fresh material as calculated from the ratios of insoluble to total phosphorus. (6) Total soluble phosphorus showed increases corresponding to the decreases in insoluble phosphorus, the total increase amounting to 23.05 per cent, as calculated from the ratios of total soluble phosphorus to total phosphorus. (ec) Soluble inorganic phosphorus increased rapidly early in the experiment, and more slowly toward the close, the total increase amounting to 65.27 per cent, as calculated from the distribution figures. (d) Soluble organic phosphorus showed decreases corresponding to the increases in soluble inorganic phosphorus, the total decrease amounting to 75.95 per cent, as calculated from the organic phos- phoric ratios. 8. There was no development of free hydrogen sulphid during the course of the experiment. COLD-STORAGE EXPERIMENTS WITH FRESH BEEF. PROCEDURE. The work undertaken in this investigation naturally groups itself under two headings, viz, (1) Bacteriological and histological studies, and (2) chemical and physical studies. The bacteriological and histological investigations were conducted by Doctor McBryde, and the chemical and physical investigations by Mr. Hoagland and Mr. Powick. Organoleptic observations were carried on jointly. The following general plans were observed in carrying on the work, and such additional details as seem pertinent will be mentioned in connection with the individual experiments. High-grade fat steers were purchased as needed at a local stock- yard and were slaughtered in the usual manner under the supervision of one of the writers in a local modern packing house, and were held there under refrigeration until chilled, usually for 48 hours. The two hind quarters were then cut from the carcass, carefully wrapped in cheesecloth and paper, and transported by motor truck to the cold-storage rooms of the Biochemie Division at the Bureau of Animal Industry. The trip usually required about one hour. The rooms referred to were as follows: Room No. 1: 6 by 9 feet by 7 feet 6 inches high, with overhead bunker, closed brine-coil system of refrigeration, and automatic temperature control. Over- head rails were provided for hanging the meat. This room was used for stor- ing the beef described in all of the following experiments except one, in which the beef was stored in the cooler of a local packing bouse. 30 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Room No. 2: 6 by 6 feet by 7 feet 4 inches high, with overhead bunker, closed brine-coil system of refrigeration, forced circulation of air, and automatic temperature control. This room was used as a place in which to cut up the meat and prepare it for analysis, and for certain laboratory work which required a low temperature. As soon as the beef was received from the packing house it was placed in cold-storage room No. 1, unwrapped, weighed, and hung up. During each storage experiment the temperature of the room was recorded continuously by means of a recording thermometer. It - was the aim to keep the temperature at 32° to 36° F., but the exact temperature range will be stated in connection with each experiment. The humidity of the room was determined once each week by means of a sling hygrometer, and observations as to the condition of the meat were made at the same time. Each quarter of beef was weighed at the end of the period of storage. BACTERIOLOGICAL AND HISTOLOGICAL STUDIES. In the bacteriological study of the carcasses the two main ques- tions investigated were: (1) Whether bacteria are present in the muscular tissues of beef animals which have been passed as normal after careful ante-mortem and post-mortem examination, and (2) whether the bacteria and molds which grow on the surfaces of cold-— stored meats penetrate the meats to any marked degree during vary- ing periods of storage. With regard to the second question, there are two methods by which the surface bacteria might penetrate the meats, namely, (1) by direct. growth or extension into the muscular tissues or (2) by growth along the tendinous sheaths or connective-tissue elements be- tween the muscle groups. In the present study the latter method was not investigated and the cultures were always made from the muscular tissue, avoiding the connective-tissue elements, the idea being to determine whether the bacteria actually penetrate the mus- cular tissue. | In examining the quarters bacteriologically the following pro- cedure was adopted: A slice or section from 3 to 4 inches thick was cut from the upper portion of the round. From this slice a rectan- gular block extending from the outer surface to the bone was cut, as indicated by the dotted line in the diagram (fig. 1). This block, which measured about 43 by 8 inches and weighed from 6 to 8 pounds, was first immersed in actively boiling water for three minutes, next in bichlorid solution (0.5 per cent) for five minutes, and was then wrapped in sterile gauze which had been wrung out in the bichlorid solution. This was done in order to sterilize the surface of the meat and to prevent the growth and possible penetra- tion of bacteria from the outside, pending the taking of cultures. CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 31 Tt was not always possible to make cultures immediately, but they were always made within two hours; and during this time the block of meat was kept wrapped in the bichlorid gauze and at cold-storage temperature (34°-86° F.). The short immersion in the boiling water served to coagulate the muscle protein to the depth of from 3 to 5 mm., but did not cause sufficient elevation of the inside temperature to have any injurious effect on the bacteria present. A test was made by introducing a thermometer into a block of meat of the size described above so that the bulb rested at the center of the meat mass, and there was no appreciable rise in temperature during the three minutes’ interval in the hot water. The outer zone of coagulated protein served to pre- vent the penetration of the bichlorid solution into the meat. Beginning about 1 inch from the outer surface a series of cultures were taken at intervals of an inch, pro- ceeding from the outside toward the bone, and these cultures were num- bered as indicated in the diagram. In — taking the cultures a series of sterile scalpels were used, one being used to cut through the outer or surface por- tion, and others to make deeper cuts in order not to carry in any of the bi- chlorid solution adhering to the sur- face of the meat. Plugs of meat about a centimeter square were used in mak- ing the cultures. Cultures were made Fic, 1.—Diagram of a cross section in neutral beef broth and in glucose _ of a beef round, showing points . ° at which cultures were taken. agar from which the air had been ex- pelled by boiling. When clouding occurred in the bouillon cultures, agar plates were poured and the organisms present were plated out. In 4 of the 7 carcasses studied, a small micrococcus was found. This organism was not generally distributed throughout the muscular tissue of any one quarter, but was encountered here and there. The fact that is was usually found at some distance below the outer sur- face, together with the fact that it was found in the fresh or chilled quarters as well as in the stored quarters, would indicate that it was present in the carcass at the time of slaughter. In three of the cold- stored carcasses, those held for 28, 54, and 63 days, it was encountered here and there and was not generally distributed through the mus- cular tissues, which would indicate that there had been no multiplica- tion of the organism during the storage of these quarters. In the quarter which was held in storage for the longest period of time (i. e., 177 days) the micrococcus was found to be more generally distributed 32 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. than in the other quarters. This was probably due to irregularities in the storage temperature during this experiment, the temperature rising sufficiently high at times to permit of multiplication of the organism. The micrococecus encountered in the carcasses was tested on labora- tory animals and was found to possess no pathogenic properties. The absence of pathogenicity is further borne out by the fact that steaks cut from all of the quarters were eaten by the investigators without any ill effects. In addition to the micrococcus described above, a small Gram- positive bacillus was noted in one of the fresh (i. e., chilled) quar- ters. This organism grew chiefly along the line of stab, but was not a strict anaerobe. It also was of no pathogenic significance. Histological studies were made by taking bits of muscular tissues at points about 2 inches below the outer surfaces of the rounds. The tissues were hardened in alcohol, embedded in celloidin, and sectioned. The sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and examined as to histological structure. CONCLUSIONS FROM BACTERIOLOGICAL AND HISTOLOGICAL STUDIES. The following conclusions would seem warranted: (1) Certain bacteria (chiefly micrococci) may be normally present in the car- casses of healthy animals slaughtered for beef; (2) these bacteria possess no pathological significance and do not appear to multiply in the cold-stored carcasses, provided the cold-storage room is main- tained at the proper temperature; (3) bacteria and molds grow on the surface of cold-storage carcasses, but do not penetrate to any great depth (less than 1 inch in 177 days); (4) bacteria apparently -are not concerned in the changes leading to increased tenderness in cold-stored meats; (5) microscopic sections failed to show any noticeable histological changes in the muscular tissue after 77 days of storage. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL STUDIES. PREPARATION OF MATERIAL. Shortly after the beef had been received from the packing house one of the quarters was transferred to cold-storage room No. 2 and was there cut up into several parts, viz, round, loin, rump, and flank, which were then prepared for analysis. Round.—Two cross sections, each about 2.5 inches thick, were cut from the round, one at the butt and the other at a place about half way between the butt and the hock joint. These sections were trimmed free of fat, bone, and connective tissue; the resulting lean meat was ground three times through a meat grinder; and samples were trans- ferred to glass jars which were then tightly stoppered and stored at 34° F. until analytical work was begun. CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 33 Rump.—tThe entire rump was trimmed free of bone and connective tissue and as free as possible of fat, and the lean meat was then pre- pared for analysis as above. Loin.—The loin was first cut into what are known as the short loin and the sirloin butt. From the first part porterhouse and club steaks are cut, while sirloin steaks are cut from the second part. Two sec- tions, each about 2.5 to 3 inches thick, were then cut for analysis. The first section was cut from the small end of the sirloin butt, the second from the small end of the short loin. In the case of the quarters of beef that had been held in storage, the small end of the short loin was trimmed free of meat that had become dried or darkened through exposure before the section was eut for analysis. For the purpose of testing the quality of the meat, a porterhouse steak about 2 inches thick was cut from the large end of the short loin. Flank.—This cut was analyzed in only one experiment, because of the fact that the flank becomes so dry on long storage that it is difficult to prepare for analysis, and because it was considered that the wie. 2.—pDiagram of a hind rt quarter of beef showing (by analytical results would not be of great Ree) tHe Gora RoeeaTe cuts and (by letters) the sec- tions taken for bacteriological and chemical examination. Outs.—(1) Shank; (2) round; (3) rump; (4,5) loin; (4) sirloin butt; (5) short loin; (6) flank. Sections.—(a, c) Sections for chemical examination ; (b) section for bacteriologi- eal examination; (3) rump taken for chemical examina- tion; (d, g) sections taken from loin for chemical exami- nation; (e) test steak; (f) section for bacteriological ex- amination. value. Fat samples.—The following samples of fatty tissue were taken for analysis: Ex- ternal fat, intermuscular fat, and kidney fat. All external fat was trimmed from each section of meat cut from the round, rump, and loin, and a sample of the com- bined material was taken for examination. The same practice was followed in case of the intermuscular fat. The entire kidney fat was stripped from the loin, cut up into small pieces, and re- duced to a convenient quantity by quartering. This reduced quan- tity was ground and a sample of the ground fat was taken for exami- nation. The sample of fatty tissue of each class was rendered in a large casserole on a steam bath and the fat was filtered and retained in bottles for analysis. METHODS OF ANALYSIS. Analytical work on the samples of meat was usually started ap- proximately 15 hours after the meat had been prepared for analysis. 56861°—Bull. 483—17— 2 Led 34 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The methods of analysis used in these experiments were the same as those followed in studying the changes that took place in meat on autolysis, except where changes or additions are noted. The iodin number of the fats were determined by means of the Hanus method. Refractive indices of the fats were determned at 40° C. by means of an Abbé refractometer. Acidity was determined by titrating a weighed quantity of the fat against standard alkali solution in the presence of hot neutral alco- hol and with phenolphthalein as indicator. Rancidity was determined by the method of Kreis, which is as follows: Shake 5c. c. of the fat with equal volumes of a 1 per cent solution of phloroglucin in ether and of concentrated hydrochloric acid. Rancidity is detected by the development of a pink or red color, the degree of rancidity being indicated by the depth of the color. Quality of meat—The quality of the meat was judged in part by appearance, odor, and condition as indicated by handling, but prin- cipally by sampling portions of well-broiled porterhouse steaks, which were cut from the fresh quarter of beef at the beginning of the storage periods and from the corresponding quarter at the end of the storage periods. The steak from each quarter of beef was sampled by each of the authors and their individual opinions as to the quality of the meat were recorded. The judges are recorded as Mr. A, Mr. B, and Mr. C. It is recognized that the interval of time between the sampling of the steaks from the first and second quarters of the same carcass may result in an inaccurate comparison of the quality of the two samples; but no better method of comparison seemed to be available. EXPERIMENT NO. 1. HISTORY OF CARCASS. A “grade” Shorthorn steer, 44 years old, of good quality and fairly well finished, was slaughtered in the usual manner; and the carcass was run into the fore cooler one hour after the animal had been killed. The warm carcass weighed 815 pounds. The carcass was held for 18 hours in the fore cooler, where a temperature rang- ing from 32° to 33° F. and a humidity of 93 per cent prevailed. It was then run into the main cooler, where it was held for 44 hours longer at a temperature of 82° F. The humidity of this cooler was also 93 per cent. After a total storage period in the packing-house coolers of 224 hours, the two hind quarters of the carcass were care- fully wrapped in cheesecloth and paper and transported by motor truck to the bureau’s cold-storage rooms, the trip requiring about one hour. CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 35 The packing-house coolers in which the above carcass and those used in subsequent experiments were handled may be regarded as representative of beef coolers in modern packing houses. The over- head bunker, closed brine-coil system of refrigeration was used. The coolers were supplied with abundant refrigeration and the circula- tion of air was very good. On arrival at the bureau laboratories the — quarters of beef were at once placed in cold-storage room No. 1, which has been previously described, and were unwrapped, weighed, and hung up. On the next morning, or 438 hours after the carcass first had been placed in cold storage, the right hind quarter was taken out and prepared for analysis by methods previously de- scribed, while the left hind quarter was held in cold storage for an additional period of two weeks. Storage.—The temperature of cold-storage room No. 1 during the two weeks’ storage period of the left hind quarter of carcass Ne. 1 ranged from 32° to 34° F. The humidity ranged from 72 to 84 per cent of saturation. This quarter showed a shrinkage in weight of 2.15 per cent. QUALITY OF MEAT. Fresh quarter in storage 43 hours—This quarter of beef would have been classed as “choice.” It was well covered with fat and had a heavy deposit of kidney fat. As it was being cut up the meat appeared well marbled with fat. The lean meat was dark red in color. The judges’ opinions regarding the quality of the broiled test steak cut from this quarter of beef are as follows: Mr. A.—The tenderloin portion is quite tender, has a good flavor, and is very palatable. The loin portion is rather tough, but has a good flavor. The flank end is very tough—almost too tough to eat. Mr. B.—The tenderloin portion is quite tender, but not as tender as that from a high-class steak. The flank portion is very tough. On the whole the meat is juicy and of good flavor, but is rather tough. Mr. C.—The tenderloin portion is very tender, has a good flavor, and is very palatable. The loin portion is rather tough and the flavor is not as high as might be expected in this class of meat. The flank portion is rather tough. Stored quarter in storage 15 days, 19 hours.—At the end of the storage period the quarter of beef was in very good condition. The surface of the quarter was dry and firm, and the thin outer covering of connective tissue was parchmentlike in texture. The exposed, cut, muscular surface of the round and loin were dark brown in color and firm in texture. A slight growth of mold was visible about the shank. As the quarter was being cut up for examination the meat ap- peared to be in good condition, and as far as could be judged by handling it appeared to be more tender than the meat from the corresponding quarter at the beginning of the storage period. The 86 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. broiled test steak possessed the following organoleptic properties in the opinion of the respective judges: Mr. A.—The meat from ail three portions of the steak is distinctly -more tender than that from the corresponding portion of the steak cut from the fresh quarter of beef. The greatest improvement is noted in the flank portion. The flavor of the meat is improved. Mr. B.—This steak is generally superior to the steak from the fresh quarter of beef; the tenderloin portion is very tender and palatable; the loin portion is nearly as tender as was the tenderloin from the steak cut from the fresh quarter, and the flavor is improved; the flank end of the steak is fairly tender. Mr. C.—The steak as a whole is greatly superior to the one cut from the fresh quarter of beef. The flavor and tenderness of all portions of the steak are greatly improved, this change being particularly noticeable in the flank end of the steak. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF CARCASS NO. 1. Tables 12 to 18, inclusive, show the changes in composition that occurred in carcass No. 1 during the 14 days of cold storage. Table 12 shows the composition of the carcass expressed in terms of percentages of the fresh material. These data are not of great significance in indicating changes in composition that took place in the meat during storage, since, of course, the variations in per- centages of moisture and fat affect the value of the other data. These data do show, however, the actual composition of the meat at the beginning and end of the storage period. A better comprehen- sion of the changes which took place in the composition of the meat during storage may be had from Table 13. Table 13 shows the composition of carcass No. 1 expressed in terms of percentages of moisture-free and fat-free material. There are slight apparent increases in moisture varying from 0.34 per cent in case of the loin to 0.74 per cent in case of the round. Slight apparent gains in ash and total nitrogen are not easy to explain. Changes in nitrogen and phosphorous compounds will be discussed in connection with Tables 17 and 18, where the changes are shown more clearly. TABLE 12.—Composition expressed in terms of percentages of fresh materials. Am- Phosphorus. : . Total | moni- paula Description of sample. By Mes Fat. | Ash. | nitro- | acal gen. | nitro- Solu- |Insolu- gen. Total. ble. | ble a ff ff | | | D. H. 1} Round: Right hind quarter.) 1 19 | 73.06 | 3.64 | 1.06 3.37 | 0.0076 | 0.199 | 0.151 | 0.048 7} Round: Left hind quarter...| 15 19 | 74.26 | 3.02 | 1.10 3.37 00 - 202 15 047 2| Rump: Right hind quarter.| 1 19 | 72.67 | 4.85 | 1.03 3. 26 0078 182 147 035 8 | Rump: Left hind quarter...| 15 19 | 73.28 | 4.79 | 1.04 3. 24 0079 192 142 050 3 | Loin: Right hind quarter...) 1 19 73. 01 4.66 | 1.02 3. 27 0076 | .187 146 - 041 9 | Loin: Left hind quarter..... 15 19 | 72.14 | 6.22 | 1.04 3. 26 0070 | .186 141 045 CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 3” TABLE 13.—Composition expressed in terms of percentages of moisture-free and fat-free material. | Am- Phosphorus. Mois- Total A Seri ere Storag 0 moni- a Description of sample. Senior ues Ash. | nitro- acal gen. nitro- Total Solu- |Insolu- basis. gen. “| ple. ble. 1} Round: Right hind quarter.| 1 19| 75.83] 4.55] 14.46] 0.0328] 0.853] 0.650] 0.203 7 | Round: Left hind quarter.-.| 15 19| 76.57] 4.82] 14.83] .0365| .888 681 | . 207 2} Rump: Right hind quarter..| 1 19] 76.38 4.59 | 14.51 - 0345 . 811 . 655 . 125 8 | Rump: Left hind quarter...| 15 19] 76.96 4.74 | 14.75 . 0360 . 873 - 646 . 276 Chane sas sas5s0ss et 5 14 + 0.58 {+ .15 |+ .24/+ .0015 |+ .062 |— .009 |+ .071 3 | Loin: Right hind quarter.-.| 1 19] 76.58 | 4.50] 14.62 - 0341 . 837 . 652 . 185 9 | Loin: Left hind quarter. ..-. 15) 19776592 4.80} 15.06 - 0323 . 858 - 653 . 205 Whanvescces- sso. 8 20 eee 5 14 + 0.34 |+ .30/+ .44 |— .0018 |+ .021 |+ .001 |+ .020 | Table 14 shows the composition of the 0.9 per cent sodium chlorid extract of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of the fresh material. On account of the effect upon the results of variations in the fat and moisture content of the meats from which these extracts were prepared, these data have been recalculated to the moisture-free and fat-free basis and are so expressed in Table 15. Table 15 shows the composition of the 0.9 per cent sodium chlorid extracts of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of moisture- free and fat-free material. Appreciable decreases took place in total soluble solids, ranging from 0.05 per cent in the case of the loin to 0.73 per cent in the case of the round. It will be recalled that in the autolysis experiment reported in this paper there was a distinct decrease in total solids in the early stages of the experiment. The ash shows appreciable increases that go hand in hand with a much smaller average increase in total soluble phosphorus. Slight changes in ash of extract are not of great significance on account of the unavoidable error in correcting for the presence of relatively large amounts of sodium chlorid in the presence of small amounts of ash. Organic extractives and acidity show appreciable decreases that are in harmony with similar changes noted in the early stages of the autolysis experiment previously reported. Changes in nitrogen and phosphorous compounds will be discussed in connection with Tables 17 and 18. Table 16 shows the composition of the fat at the beginning and end of the storage period. The iodin numbers and refractive indices show practically no changes. There are appreciable increases in the acidity of the fats, ranging from 0.52 per cent in case of external fat to 0.17 per cent in case of the intermuscular fat. The increase in acidity of the in- BULLETIN 433, U. S. 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The fats appeared to be normal in character and gave no reaction for rancidity. TaBLE 16.—Composition of fat. Per Refract- ‘ Tod. A cent a Serial eerie Storage ive Ar Ran- Physical No. Description of sample: period.| Per, | index genly, cidity. characters. * | 40°C. « acid. D. H. 4 | Kidney fat: Right hind quarter..} 1 19] 42.43} 1.4562 0.28 | Neg..-... Normal. 10 | Kidney fat: Left hind quarter....) 15 19] 42.38) 1.4562 -68 |..-d0...-. Do. 5 eerennueculer fat: Right hind | 1 19] 46.86 | 1.4570 6723 eactlOscooc Do. quarter. 11 | Intermuscular fat: Left hind | 15 19] 46.79 | 1.4570 .39 |...do..... Do. quarter. ¢ 6 | Externalfat: Right hind quarter.| 1 19] 56.18] 1.4580 588) |looeE@socss Do. 12 | Externalfat: Left hind quarter...} 15 19| 55.92 | 1.4580 .85 |...d0..... Do. Table 17 shows the distribution of nitrogen and phosphorus in the meat on the basis of 100 parts of the respective constituents in the material at the beginning of the storage period. Slight apparent increases in total nitrogen are without significance, as has been noted previously. Soluble nitrogen shows appreciable decreases which range from 5.23 per cent in the case of the rump to 1.38 per cent in the case of the loin. These decreases are in harmony with decreases in total solids and organic extractives, and with the decreases in soluble nitrogen previously noted in the early stages of the autolysis experiment, and they may be explained upon the same basis as the latter. Coagulable nitrogen shows fairly marked decreases which range from 11.45 per cent in the case of the round to 3.32 per cent in the case of the loin. In part, these decreases are due to decreases in total nitrogen; but by referring to Table 15 it may be noted that the actual decreases in coagulable nitrogen are slightly larger, on the whole, than the decreases in total soluble nitrogen. These facts indicate a slight change of coagulable nitrogen into noncoagulable forms. Noncoagulable nitrogen shows slight increases on the whole. Proteose nitrogen shows relatively marked increases. However, it may be noted by referring to Table 15 that the actual amount of this constituent present is comparatively small. Ammoniacal nitrogen appears to have increased in the round and in the rump, but to have decreased in the loin. As the total increase is somewhat greater than the decrease, the general tendency would seem to be toward an increase in this constituent. BULLETIN 433, U. S. 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It appears that a better comprehension of the changes in the vari- ous forms of phosphorus can be had from a consideration of Table 18. Table 18 shows the distribution of nitrogen and phosphorous com- pounds expressed in terms of percentages of total nitrogen and total phosphorus. It may be noted that the percentage changes expressed in this table are not identical with those shown in Table 17. These differences are due to slightly different bases of calculation, as is indicated in the headings of the respective tables. The nitrogen data, for the most part, are self-explanatory. Insoluble phosphorus shows a large increase in the case of the rump and an appreciable increase in the case of the loin. The irregular nature of the changes in this constituent are of undeter- mined significance. Total soluble phosphorus, of course, shows changes which are equa! and opposite to the changes in insoluble phosphorus. The signifi- cance of these changes has not been established. Soluble inorganic phosphorus shows appreciable increases which range from 15.68 per cent in the case of the rump to 18.68 per cent in the case of the round. These changes are in conformity with similar changes observed in the autolysis experiment, and may be regarded as due to the action of phosphatases upon organic phos- phorous compounds. Soluble organic phosphorus shows changes that are opposite in character to those observed in case of the inorganic phosphorus. There were marked relative decreases in organic phosphorus ranging from 28.01 per cent in the case of the round to 46.47 per cent in the case of the rump. Changes in organic phosphorus do not, as a rule, constitute as true an index of the extent of organic phosphorous cleavage as do the corresponding changes in inorganic phosphorus. EXPERIMENT NO. 2. HISTORY OF CARCASS. A “grade” Shorthorn steer of fair quality and finish was slaugh- tered in the usual manner. The carcass was allowed to hang for 2 hours on the killing floor, after which it was transferred to the fore cooler, where it was held for 17 hours, and then to the main cooler, where it was held for 29 hours. The temperature of the fore cooler ranged from 31° to 43° F. and that of the main cooler from 25° to 30° F. The humidity of the fore cooler was 95 per cent of saturation and that of the main cooler ranged from 75 to 95 per cent. After having been 46 hours in storage in the packing-house coolers, the two hind quarters of the carcass were carefully wrapped AQ BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in cheesecloth and paper and transported by motor truck to the bureau’s cold-storage rooms, the trip requiring about an hour. The weight of the carcass before chilling was 715 pounds. STORAGE. ' The quarters of beef were placed in cold-storage room No. 1, un- wrapped, and hung up until the next day, when the right hind quarter was prepared for analysis. The total preliminary storage period of this quarter amounted to 65 hours. The left hind quarter was held in cold storage for an additional period of 28 days, during which period the temperature of the cold-storage room was quite uniform, ranging from 32° to 36° F. The humidity varied between 69 and 73 per cent of saturation. After 21 days in cold storage the quarter of beef showed appre- ciable evidences of desiccation, the connective-tissue membrane over the surface of the quarter having become dry and parchmentlike and the exposed muscular tissue having undergone appreciable shrinkage. There was no mold on the outside of the quarter, and only a slight growth on the inside of the flank, where there was also a slight odor of incipient putrefaction. At the end of 28 days in cold storage the quarter of beef showed practically the same characteristics as noted above. The total shrink- age in weight amounted to 5.26 per cent. QUALITY OF MEAT. Fresh quarter, in storage 65 hours—This quarter of beef was not of as good quality as that from carcass No. 1, being not as well finished nor of as good conformation. As regards market classsifi- cation, this quarter would have been classed as “ good.” The follow- ing are the reports of the judges upon the organoleptic properties of the broiled test steak: Mr. A.—The loin and tenderloin portions of the steak have a good flavor, but are not very juicy and are decidedly tough. The flank portion is extremely tough. Mr. B.—The steak has a good flavor and is juicy, but all portions are rather tough; the tenderloin is not tender, but can be masticated; the loin portion is rather tough; and the flank portion is of rubbery consistency and can searcely be eaten. Mr. C.—AIl portions of the steak have a good flavor, but the tenderloin is slightly tough, the loin portion quite tough, and the flank end is very tough and of rubbery consistency. Quarter of beef stored 30 days 17 hours.—As the quarter was being divided into wholesale cuts it was noticed that the flank was dry and hard. The cut surface of the flank was bright red in color. There was a slight odor of putrefaction from the exposed inner surface of the flank, although the cut surface had the normal odor. CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 43 The cut surface at the butt of the round had the normal odor and color. Where the muscular tissue had not been covered with fat and had been exposed to the air there was a hard dark-brown layer about one-eighth of an inch deep, due to desiccation, but no odor of putrefaction. The loin was in first-class condition, although the tip end, where the muscles had been exposed and had become dried out, required a little trimming. The kidney fat showed a slight growth of mold and had a rather strong odor. On the whole, this quarter of beef was considered to be in good marketable condition. The greatest apparent effect of storage upon the meat was that of desiccation. When the meat was being prepared for analysis it was noted that the bundles of muscles separated with much greater ease than in the case of the fresh quarter of beef, and that apparently a marked soft- ening of the intervening connective tissue had occurred. The opinions of the respective judges concerning the quality of the broiled test steak are given below: Mr. A.—The tenderloin portion is of good quality, has a good flavor, and is more tender than the steak from the fresh quarter. The meat is rather dry. The loin portion is much more tender than that of the fresh quarter, and is now quite palatable. While not first class, the meat is fairly tender and has a good flavor. The fiank portion is decidedly more tender than in case of the fresh quarter and is now fairly palatable. The meat is rather dry, the flavor is fair, and the muscle fibers are coarse and tough. Mr. B.—The steak is greatly improved in quality as compared with the steak from the fresh quarter of beef. While the meat is not of the highest quality, yet it has so improved in tenderness that even the flank portion can be eaten with ease. Mr. C.—This steak is much better in quality in every respect than the steak from the fresh quarter of beef. The tenderloin is very tender, the loin portion is not quite as tender, and the flank end is fairly tender. The flavor of the steak is good. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF CARCASS NO. 2. Tables 19 to 25, inclusive, show the changes that occurred in the composition of carcass No. 2 during 28 days in cold storage. Table 19 shows the composition of the carcass expressed in terms of percentages of fresh material. For reasons previously given these data will not be discussed. Table 20 shows the composition of the carcass expressed in terms of percentages of the moisture-free and fat-free material. There are slight losses of moisture due to evaporation during storage, and insig- nificant changes in ash. Changes in nitrogen and phosphorous com- pounds will be discussed in connection with Tables 24 and 25. Table 21 shows the composition of the 0.9 per cent sodium chlorid extract expressed in terms of percentages of the fresh material. These data will be discussed as recalculated in Table 22. 44 BULLETIN 4383, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 19.—Composition expressed in terms of percentages of fresh material. Am- Phosphorus. : > é Total | moni- Serial Description of sample. ey Moet, Fat. | Ash. | nitro- | acal D. H. 13 | Round: Right hind quarter.| 2 17 | 75.68 | 1.85 25 | Round: Left hind quarter.-.-| 30 17 | 75.24 | 1.70 1 1 14 | Rump: Right hind quarter..| 2 17 | 74.92 | 3.07 | 1. 1 1 1 26 | Rump: Left hind quarter...) 30 17 | 74.36 | 3.34 15 | Loin: Right hind quarter...| 2 17 | 74.54 | 3.71 27 | Loin: Left hind quarter..... 30 17 | 73.98 | 3.64 TABLE 20.—Composition expressed in terms of percentages of moisture-free and. fat-free material. Moist- eae Phosphorus. A ture Total | moni- Seria Description ofsample. | Stage) fat-’ | Ash. | nitro- | acal No. period. | free gen. | nitro | moral. \Soluble.| so- basis. gen. e ‘| uble. D. H. 13 | Round: Right hind quarter .| 2 itl ee Tel 4.72} 15.14 | 0.0367] 0.897} 0.687] 0.210 25 | Round: Left hind quarter...| 30 17) 76.54 4.62} 14.97 . 0439 - 877 - 687 . 190 Changer ee ene occas 28 —0.57 | —0.10 | —0.17 | +.0072 | —.020 - 000 | —. 020: 14 | Rump: Right hind quarter..| 2 17] 77.29 4,68 | 14.86 - 0334 -910 - 668 « 242 26 | Rump: Left hind quarter....) 30 17 | 76.93 4.64 | 14.77 . 0417 - 859 - 642 -217 (OM) ohescanshsasdose 28 —0.36 | —0.04 | —0.09 | +.0083 | —.051 | —.026 | —.025 15 | Loin: Right hind quarter....| 2 17) 77.41 4.64] 15.01 - 0330 - 881 - 668 . 213 27 | Loin: Left hind quarter. .... 30 17] 76.77 4.54} 14.95 . 0379 - 837 - 651 . 186 @hangzeseenecensneceeee 28 —0.64 | —0.10 | —0.06 | +.0049 | —.044 | —.017 | —.027 Table 22 shows the composition of the sodium chlorid extract expressed in terms of percentages of the moisture-free and fat-free material. Appreciable decreases have taken place in total solids, and slight decreases in organic extractives, that are similar to the changes noted in Experiment No. 1 and in the autolysis experiment. Ash of extract shows appreciable decreases, but these changes are not of great significance for reasons previously noted. Changes in acidity are irregular and without apparent signifi- cance. : Changes in nitrogen and phosphorus compounds will be discussed in connection with Tables 24 and 25. : Table 23 shows the composition of the fat at the beginning and end of the storage period. All samples show appreciable increases in acidity ranging from 0.68 per cent in the case of the kidney fat to 1.24 per cent in the case of the external fat. The increase in the acidity of the intermuscular fat may be regarded as being due to the action of the enzym lipase 45 CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. OL “— Gso°+ | 210°— | 0L00°— | 6FL°+ | 020+ | ZT‘;0— |} 200+ | e0— | 2 0-— Lg°0— | 64°0-— £2 San Neen eee a et kee eee oo ge ~--esuByD LLO~ PLS” TS9° OSZP CES” 0% ican 68 PF €1'§ 08 °9Z 68 69 “OE LOG o> es ogre Dias Mame “Jeqenb pury YoT :aoT | 2 6LT° 68P ° 899° OEP * £80" G8 'T 19% 96 'F ges | G0 "26 oF 'P SP Ie SAGs be ae io aa eee ee Jeyrenb pury 3ysIy :uIOT | CT cso"— | 6G0°+ | 920°— | GEOT’+ | 92T°0+ } Ec'0+ | Se0— | OL‘0— | 0c0— | eso— | 680— | 260— SE ip Sees sere seen ee sea --9sUByD 180° T9¢° CP9° OT67 996 * CLS £0°% cl b 1G "€ TL “GS 40°F CL 66 JASCO | (gia eens mepe aeay Jeyrenb pury yey :dumy | 97 99T * GOS ° 899° GL8E O&T° 68 ‘T 98% cS FP TPs PG 9G ep P 19°08 12) GA cin Wore eS OSES royienb pury qysry :duiny | FT cr0'— | ch0°+ | 000° 6860'+ | Ler‘0+ | 20+ | @r0— | OL'0— | 210+ | or0— | sr0— | e¢0— Bgl hs geste Aneta Seca oo eeaea “*--@30Bq9 610° CcT9~ 189° CGLT CGG © FL 90% 06 F 1g °€ 60 “SZ 88° L¥ 66 [él tor( Der Fee tee ae ~-reqrenb puryg 3yeT :puNoy | CZ L110 029 0 1890 €18é"0 | SOL ‘0 68 T 8h Ss 08 F PEE 61 SZ £8 'P 60 0€ LT a agate oak tae. aa “reqienb pury iysry :punoy | ST ae ‘ormesio | “OURS ‘e[qnyjos *9s0 ‘EL | -orqer | -orqnqos 2 -I0UT ‘OUINY -n3e00 3 MANOS | gang | [OL ; 0}01g | -nsvop | 1810, | . 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. upon the neutral fats, while the greater increase in acidity of the external fat is probably due to combined bacterial and enzym action. The external and kidney fats had developed a rather strong flavor at the end of the storage period. TABLE 23.—Composition of fat. Per Todin |Refract- Serial Storage cent | Ran- Physical No. Description of sample. period.| "Vor. i acidity cidity. characters. 40°C acid D. H. 16 | Kidney fat: Right hind quarter..| 2 171] 387.40 | 1.4560 0.34 | Neg..... Normal. 28 | Kidney fat: Left hind quarter....} 30 17] 37.59 | 1.4560 1.02 |...do..... Somewhat stron: flavor an odor. 17 Tntermuscular fat: Right hind | 2 17] 44.79 | 1-4568 -28 |..-do..... Normal. quarter. 28 | Intermuscular fat: Left hind | 30 17] 45.09 | 1.4568 1.02 |...do....- Do. quarter. 18 | External fat: Right hind quarter.| 2 17] 52.20 | 1.4574 .28 |...d0....- Do. 30 | External fat: Left hind quarter...) 30 17 | 50.63 | 1.4574 1.52 |...do....- Somewhat strong ay @vor and or. Table 24 shows the distribution of nitrogen and phosphorus in the meat on the basis of 100 parts of the respective constituents in the material at the beginning of the storage period. Total nitrogen shows slight changes which are without apparent significance. There are appreciable decreases in the soluble nitrogen in case of the round and the rump and there is a slight increase in case of the loin. Changes in the soluble-nitrogen content of the round and the rump are similar to the changes in this constituent noted in the early stages of the autolysis experiment and in experiment No. 1, and they may be explained in the same manner. Coagulable nitrogen shows quite marked decreases, and opposite changes are noted in the noncoagulable nitrogen. Proteose nitrogen shows marked relative increases that range from 96.92 per cent in the case of the rump to 179.52 per cent in the case of the loin. However, by referring to Table 22,.it may be noted that the actual amounts of proteoses present are quite small. Amino nitrogen in the round and rump increased by approximately 25 per cent, while that in the loin decreased by an amount that was practically within the limit of experimental error. These results in- dicate a general increase in this constituent, which is in conformity with results obtained in the autolysis experiment. Ammoniacal nitrogen increased distinctly during the storage period in each of the three portions of the carcass analyzed. ‘The in- creases ranged from 15.51 per cent in the case of the loin to 24.85 per cent in the case of the rump, the minimum increase in this experi- CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 47 ment being greater than the maximum increase that occurred in ex- periment No. 1. These results are in conformity with those obtained. in the autolysis experiment. Slight apparent decreases, which for the present must be regarded as due to possible inequalities in sampling, have taken place in the total phosphorus. On account of the effect of the decreases in total phosphorus upon the value of the other phosphorous compounds, changes in those constituents will be discussed in connection with Table 25. Table 25 shows the distribution of nitrogen and phosphorus ex- pressed as percentages of total nitrogen and total phosphorus. The distribution of the nitrogen compounds does not differ greatly from that in case of experiment No. 1. There is an appreciable in- crease in the proportion of total nitrogen present as soluble, non- coagulable, proteose, and ammoniacal nitrogen, and a decrease in the proportion present as coagulable nitrogen. Insoluble phosphorus shows appreciable decreases that range from 5.22 per cent in case of the rump to 8.58 per cent in case of the loin. These results appear to be in conformity with the findings obtained in the autolysis experiment, but in view of the results obtained in other experiments of this series this seeming conformity must be regarded as accidental. Total soluble phosphorus shows increases corresponding to the decreases in insoluble phosphorus. Soluble inorganic phosphorus shows appreciable increases, which: range from 10.37 per cent in the case of the round to 23.47 per cent in the case of the loin. On the whole the increases in soluble inor- ganic phosphorus are but slightly greater than similar changes in this constituent in Experiment No.1. On account of the much longer storage period in Experiment No. 2 a larger increase in inorganic phosphorus might have been expected; but in this connection it is interesting to note that the material used for this experiment already contained a considerably higher percentage of preformed inorganic phosphorus than did the material used in the first experiment. It would appear as though the larger quantity of inorganic phosphorus present in the material used in the second experiment either of itself retarded the rate of change of organic phosphorus into inorganic forms or was indicative of some retarding agency. Interesting light is thrown on this question by the results of the autolysis experiment, as shown in Table 11, where under the head- ing “Inorganic phosphorus” it may be noted that the increase in this constituent takes place most rapidly during the first 7 days of the experiment. Thus during the first 7 days the relative in- crease amounts to 52.78 per cent, while during the total incubation. period of 100 days the relative increase amounts to only 65.27 per BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 48 OL'FS— | 2P'eet+ | o4°3r | 89°8— | 000 OT “ST+ | €ZI— | $9 °O8I+] SsTI+ | OF'9— | 601+ | 00°0 Gis bear maha SE ripe Src ar ee Se eee esuey) a 66 6 gg°39 $8 LL OT GS 00 °OOT | $2" $8 °% got TZ &T ¢9 CT 9€ “6 OOROO Det AT SOG a see a ae eens “roqrenb pury yey :uloTy | 22 V6 0G wo-ag =| OL°GL =| FEFS «| OO OOT ‘| Za" 88% cc" ata = |G EGS ONTO |) Bik te Poses ene en ansnoss Joqienb pully yysIy :UIO'T | ST 9% °8h— | OF 'SI+ | 06'I+ | ZZ'S— | 00°0 LG°SS+ | 8h°LE+ | 68°86+ | S8°ZI+ | 9F'ET— | 92 T— 000 Fale ae ce aes ica aie Cet ay em ge eT ican ¥ 1001010) 886 28°99 GL PL GS “SS 00‘00L | 86° GSS SLT 9 “FT pL ET OL 8z QOOOTS eT HORS a eee EE Geers Jojrenb puny yjory :dumyy | 9¢ GT ‘8ST 1% SS 98 SL F996 00 °O0T | 2a" 19% 18° | GL Or 88 “ST 09 “8% (00) 50,0) Gece | 2) betel ee OOS ORS ae ioyrenb pury yysty :dumy | pr 68°9E— | LEOI+ | cor T9*Z— | 00°0 0012+ } FO°9S+ | EL °ShI+] G6°ST+ | 00'9T— | OS T— 000 SCal careriey | Seay mre cari ae ae “esueyO £6 8 GT OL 8E SZ 69 TS 00°00T | 62° LI € 89 °T 0€ ‘FT 92 °ET 90 "83 OO WOE || 2 OS “--seqrenb pury yoy :punoy | oz 40 “ST 9¢°E9 09°92 OF “EZ 00‘O0T | #20 GSS 69°0 60 OL 8 “OL OF ‘8é OOOO TS SLATS Ge | aaa alan eso aearet Joyenb pury yysty :punoy | &T H ad ‘oruesio | “OFUES | -erqen | . -jeovrm |. -esoog | PLIPL | -orqer |, ; eiqnyog a ane 5 SIMS | sosuy | TOL | -ommry | CMV] -org ey -ngvog | ClIMOS | “TOL payed ON aseiojg e[dures jo worydts0seq. rerieg “snioydsoyg "MOS014IN ‘snuoydsoyd 10107 pun uabowru 7307 fo sabozuaoiad sp passaudxa ‘snuoydsoyd pun uabhowrwu fo woyngrusig— eZ ATA, OL “eh 62 "LTT | 99°26 F898 96 'F6 TS°SIT | 8°86 GS °6LZ | T8 ‘OIL | €% "6 69 O0T | 09°66 EslO CR eens Cape ae arene cna Joqrenb pury yey :uloTy | 2% 00 “00T 00°00T | 00°00L | 00°00E | 00°00E | 00 °00T | 00°OOT | COOOL | 00'OOL | COOOL | COOOL | COOOL | 24E @ fo doqirenb puly yysIy :uloT | ct 6L ‘8h LL'TIL | 81°96 bP 68 8 "F6 C8 *PSL | TL°92L | Z6°96L | ZT ZIT | 20°98 G9 "16 68 °66 UNCED 5 ested heres ose Ne Joqrenb pury yoy :dumy | 92 00 ‘00T 00°00T | 00°00T | 00°00T | 00°00T | OO'OOT | 00'00E | 00'OOL | 00'OOT | COOOL | 00'0OL | COOOL | 4E @ fo Jojrenb pury yysry :dumy | +1 29 19 98°20T | 86°66 LE 06 PL °L6 Z9°6IL | €9°FZE | O0'OFS | 8S°LTT | 90°E8 19°16 88 ‘86 LET Ge eerie che ieee Sateen < Seb nae Jojrenb pury 3JoT :punoy | oz 00 00T 00°00L | 00°00L | 00°00L | 00°00T | 00°00T | 00O0T | OO'OOT | ODODE | OO'OOT | OO'OOT | OOOOE | 4E @ Po Joqienb pury yysTy :punoy | €T Ha -ruesi0 | “FTC 4 ‘orqen | . ‘jeowru |. -esooy | CLA°L | -arqerz |. i eqqntog eranie 5 AMS | -osuy | TOL | omy | CMV] -org ee -nseog | CLIAI0S | “TOL saa DIS a8e1015 adures Jo uordrsosoq rerdog *snioydsoyg “u9Z01JIN “powad abvioys fo burvuurbag yw szuangysuoo aanjoadsau ay) fo sjund oor fo sisng uo snioydsoyd pun uahoiu fo woyngrysig— FZ ATAV I, CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 49 cent, so that 80.9 per cent of the total increase in inorganic phos- phorus has taken place in the first 7 days and 19.1 per cent in the remaining 93 days. These facts indicate very clearly that the rate of the enzymatic change of organic phosphorus to inorganic forms decreases as the reaction progresses. It is, therefore, not surprising that the cleavage of the organic phosphorus took place rather slowly in this experiment where the phosphorus distribution in the mate- rial used approximated to that obtaining in meat which has already undergone a certain amount of autolysis. The exact cause of the retarded rate of change, however, remains to be determined. Soluble organic phosphorus shows large relative decreases that vary from 36.89 per cent in the case of the round to 54.10 per cent in the case of the loin. However, the actual decreases are only slightly greater than those observed in the carcass stored for two weeks in Experiment No. 1. The apparent explanation for the slower rate of change of organic phosphorus into inorganic forms has already been discussed under inorganic phosphorus. EXPERIMENT NO. 3. HISTORY OF CARCASS. A “grade” shorthorn steer 44 years old and of fair conformation and finish, was slaughtered in the usual manner and the carcass was allowed to hang for 50 minutes on the killing floor, after which it was run into the cooler. The warm carcass weighed 755 pounds. The carcass was held for 22 hours in the fore cooler at a temperature between 30° and 36° F., and for 48 hours in the main cooler at a temperature varying from 30° to 382° F. The humidity of the fore cooler was 95 per cent and that of the main cooler 98 per cent of saturation. After storage for 70 hours in the packing-house coolers the two hind quarters of the carcass were carefully wrapped and transported to the bureau’s cold-storage rooms, the trip requiring less than one hour. STORAGE, The quarters of beef were unwrapped and weighed, and one was immediately prepared for analysis while the other was hung up in cold-storage room No. 1 for a period of 42 days. The temperature of the cold-storage room was fairly uniform throughout this experiment, ranging from 32° to 36° F. The hu- midity varied from 69 to 74 per cent of saturation. Observations as to the condition of the beef were made at intervals during the storage period, with the following results: After 24 days in storage the beef was in good condition. There was a slight growth of mold on the outside and inside of the flank. The exposed cut muscular surfaces on the inside of the round and on the tip of the loin had become dark-brown in color and firm in 56861°—Bull, 483—17 4 50 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENE OF AGRICULTURE. textures. Exposed bundles of muscles at the shank had turned dark- brown in color. After 31 days in storage the condition of the meat had not changed appreciably since the previous observation, except perhaps that evi- dences of desiccation had become more apparent. At the end of the storage period of 42 days in the bureau’s cooler, or after a total period of 45 days in cold storage, the beef was in good condition as regards state of preservation although it showed considerable drying out, particularly where the meat was not well covered with fat. There was also a slight growth of mold on the flank and “ hanging tender” and a slightly musty odor at these points. The beef showed a shrinkage of 6.8 per cent during storage. QUALITY OF MEAT. Fresh quarter, in storage 71 hours.—This quarter was of fairly good quality as regards conformation and finish, being fairly well covered with fat, and would have been classed as “ good.” The judge’s opin- ions regarding the quality of the broiled test steak cut from this quarter are as follows: Mr. A.—The tenderloin is tender and of good flavor. The loin portion is much tougher than the tenderloin, while the flank end is too tough too eat. Asa whole the steak has a good flavor. Mr. B.—The steak is more tender than that from the corresponding quarter of carcass No. 2, but is less tender than that from carcass No. 1. The flavor is not as good as that of the steaks from the quarters of beef just described. As regards tenderness and palatability, the tenderloin ranks first and the flank end last. Mr. C.—On the whole the steak is superior to the one from the correspond- ing quarter of carcass No. 2, but inferior to the one from carcass No. 1. The steak has a good flavor. The tenderloin is the most tender and the flank end the least so of the different parts of the steak. Quarter of beef stored 45 days.—When the quarter of beef was cut up preparatory to analysis, the cut surface at the butt of the round was found to be bright-red in color except for a narrow dark band at the surface where the muscular tissue had been exposed to the air. Where the surface of the meat had been covered with fat there was only a trace of such a band. The freshly cut surface of the meat had an odor that was rather different from that of fresh meat and which might have been termed slightly “old,” but which was in no sense an odor of putrefaction. When the loin was cut, it was found that the tenderloin was somewhat darkened around the outside and had a slightly “off” odor. The porterhouse steak cut for broiling had a rather “old” odor, particularly at the outer portion of the tenderloin and at the flank end where the odor was that of incipient putrefaction. On being cut and ground, the meat appeared to be comparatively tender. The kidney fat had a distinctly “old” and sour odor. CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. Bil On the whole, this quarter of beef, which has been held in cold storage for a total period of 45 days, appeared to be in sound condi- tion; but the market value of the beef was probably less than it would have been earlier in the storage period, principally because of the effects of desiccation upon the appearance of the meat. The organoleptic qualities of the broiled test steak cut from this quarter were reported upon by the respective judges as follows: Mr. A.—The tenderloin portion is fairly tender and has a good flavor, except the outer portion, which has a rather ‘ old” taste. The loin portion is fairly tender, but rather dry and lacking in flavor. Portions have an “old” taste. The flank end is tough and stringy and the flavor is not good. Mr. B.—The steak is generally superior to the one cut from the corresponding quarter at the beginning of the storage period as regards tenderness, but inferior as regards flavor. Portions of the steak, particularly outer portions of the tenderloin and loin, are tainted and not edible. This “old” flavor might be called ‘‘ gamey.” Mr. C.—This steak shows some signs of incipient putrefaction at the flank end and on the outside of the tenderloin. Changes are positive but not exten- sive. The tenderloin is quite tender and fairly juicy, but has an “old” flavor, and portions have a slightly “ off” flavor. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF CARCASS NO. 38. Tables 26 to 32, inclusive, show the changes which took place in the composition of carcass No. 3 during 42 days of cold storage. Table 26 shows the composition of the carcass expressed in terms of percentages of fresh material; but for reasons previously noted these data will not be discussed. Table 27 shows the composition of the material expressed as per- centages of moisture-free and fat-free material. _ There are appreciable losses of moisture, which are slightly greater than similar losses observed in the case of the carcass stored 28 days. There are slight changes in the ash, which have no significance. The data for total nitrogen show appreciable losses, the signifi- cance of which is not yet apparent. Changes in ammonia and in phosphorus compounds will be dis- cussed in connection with Tables 31 and 32. Tarte 26.—Composition expressed in terms of percentage of fresh material. Phosphorus. ig * Total a Serial ere A : Storage] Moist-| 4, : nitro- 3 No. Description of sample. period.| ure. Fat. | Ash. gen, acal nitro- | rp,,, Solu- | Tnsol- gen. Total. ble. | uble. 19 | Round: Right hind quarter. 23 | 74.59 | 2.06 | 1.00 3.46 | 0,0102 | 0.209 | 0.163 | 0.046 3 Round: Left hind quarter...| 44 23 | 74,15 | 1.96 | 1.11 3.48 - 0122 . 211 . 165 . 046 20 | Rump: Right hind quarter..| 2 23 | 73.79 | 3.19 | 1.06 8.39 | .0102| .203) .157 - 046 29 | Rump: ee |e 23 | 73.32 | 3,27 | 1.06 3.36) .0116 | .198 |] .148 - 050 21 | Loin: Right hind quarter... 40 | Loin: Left hind quarter..... _ 3.50 | 4.17 | 1.03 3.3 0094 | .104] .152 . 042 1,82 | 4,92 | 1.09 | 8.86) .O115| .197 |] .149 - 048 52 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 27.—Composition expressed in terms of percentage of moisture-free and fat-free material, Moist ree Phosphorus. 4 ure Total + moni- Seria Description ofsample. | 5t@ge) fat.’ | Ash. | nitro- | acal No. period. ; free gen. nitro- | potal. Soluble Insol- basis. gen. : | uble. D. H. 19 | Round: Right hind quarter..| 2 23 | 76.16 4.67 | 14.80] 0.0435 | 0.893 | 0.698] 0.195 88 | Round: Left hind quarter...| 44 23] 75.63 4.65 | 14.58 - 0510 - 881 - 691 - 190 Changer see ci- eis leiele ie 42 —0.53 | —0.02 | —0.22 | +.0075 | —.012 | —.007 | —.005 20 | Rump: Right hind quarter..| 2 23 | 76. 22 4.60 | 14.73 - 0445 - 882 - 680 . 202 39 | Rump: Left hind quarter....| 44-23 | 75.80 4.53 | 14.32 . 0494 - 845 . 631 214 Changes sscpmece seu eer 42 —0.42 | —0.07 | —0.41 | +.0049 | —.037 | —.049 | +.012 21 | Loin: Right hind quarter....) 2 23 | 76.70 4.59 | 14.75 . 0420 . 868 - 682 . 186 40 | Loin: Left hind quarter...... 44 23 | 75.54 4.67 | 14.43 . 0495 - 845 - 643 . 202 Changers: scsi cece 42 —1.16 | +0.08 | —0.32 | +.0075 | —.023 | —.039 | +.016 Table 28 shows the composition of the 0.9 per cent sodium chlorid extract of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of the fresh material. These data will be discussed as recalculated in Table 29. Table 29 shows the composition of the sodium chlorid extract expressed in terms of percentages of the moisture-free and fat-free material. Total solids show irregular changes which apparently have no significance. Changes in ash of extract are so great that they must be regarded with suspicion. There are appreciable and regular losses in soluble phosphorus, but not such as would account for the large apparent losses in total soluble ash. The apparent changes in organic extractives, 1. e., in the differences between total solids and total ash, must also be regarded with sus- picion. There is a slight increase in the acidity on the whole. Table 30 shows the changes in the composition of the fat during storage. The most marked changes which have taken place are those which occurred in the acidity of the samples. The intermuscular fat shows a small increase amounting to 0.45 per cent, which is ap- preciably less than that which took place in the meat stored four weeks, as may be seen by referring to Table 23. Owing to the pro- tected position of the fatty tissue, this increase in acidity may be re- garded as due, in large part at least, to enzym action. Kidney and external fat show large actual increases in acidity, amounting to 3.28 and 3.45 per cent, respectively. These increases, which are large as compared with the small increase in case of the intermuscular fat, may be explained by the fact that the kidney and the external fat are exposed to bacterial invasion, and that the hydrol- 53 CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. P91 -— S@L°+ | 680°— | O2IE-+ | OTE°-+ | 910+ | FL-O— | OOF | ZTO0— | 92°04 | OLI— | FE°0— oF 860° crs * €h9° 816F~ EES ° G0°G €6 °C 86 "PF 10° 18°96 16°€ FI OE €6 FF 296° O¢r* _| 689° 86LE ° eer | 68 T LE% 90 F SI |: 119% Leh SF 08 & Z 9cT “— LOT°+ | 6FO°— | 9EFI°+ | G2T°+ | EO+ | 242°0— | 900+ | CTO+ | CET+ | 9FI— | FL°0— GP 960° ceo” TE9 ° SETS * £9 ° 81% 40% C6 “F FI 8E 16 G8 SG 02 °0€ €@ FP GGG ° 80r* 089° COLE * Pel” $8 °T Te % OL’ G0" 90 “96 82 "FP FE “OE 8% @ Tél°— POE°+ | LOO'— | FOEL°+ | OET°-+ | SEO+ | 9T:O— | ZTO+ | 97°0+ | SO'T+ | SE I— | e¢-0+ GF 921° cg¢* 169° gc0c* 192° 61% £0 °% £@ °F igi 91°96 89°E FE OE €& FF LG °0 ThF 0 869 °0 Téze°0 | SZt°0 98° 06 °% 90°F 86 °S TL FS 10) ar 18 "62 & @ al OL ‘oruesi0 | FHS | -oranqos ‘eso | SPL | -orqez | -efqnqos ; -I0UT ‘OuluIY | _ “8800 | | aq sTantos etqnjog Te}, 9101d | -coN \aTksTo}9) |} [EARN *OTV OR] aes ‘ysy | “SPHOS *poried S® PPV |jnegi 0 18107, jese10j3g *snioydsoyg “Mes01JIN Be aT eat oe ori asueg9 peee ee Das ae eS Jajrenb pury Wey uly | OF OPE SESS ace gen ran Joqrenb pury ysIy WoT | 1Z Pepi ai sgl oes Sage | ee eek cee ara asueyQ See e owe Sige geese “roqenb pury yey :dumy | 6¢ pop CesT aes os *--doqrenb pury qusry :dumy | 07 poosssocoucossesesors ““Ieqrenb pury 1a] :punoy | ge osaseoss iojrenb pury yysIy :punoy | 6T ‘ON ‘e[dures yo uomdrioseq Teqeg “youiaqout aalf-jof pun aadf-ainjsiout fo sabpyuaoiad fo siutay ur passaidxa “nau fo jov.jxa pr1ojzyo wnypos quad wad 6°09 fo uorpsodwoj— GZ AIAVY, 619° 669° LLP” Teg * *O[GR -Nd80(:) 220° LET * GFT” PPIT® PS0° LLY 890° ¥60° ocT * 8480" 160° 4 £20° 4 ie SFI * €02T * 690° TIS ° 690° 860° LST * 6980" Tg0° LO * 0¢0°* Celie SOT” 802T * €90° £29 * 090 °O £01 0 £91 0 TL80°0 | 620°0 eer 0 ‘oruvsi0 | “OFFS | .granyos | . ‘eso | _OLAPL exits | ocangoy | TIAL | MY | nora | “oe *snzoydsoyg *MOdO1IN ‘poruaqout ysauf fo sabnjzuaoiad fo sutsa, Ur passaidxa qoaut fo pov.4xa prwojzyo wnrpos 799 wd G0 fo Uorpsod woj— gz 966 ° 01° G29 QL” 10°Z €@ FF 096° TL” €8°¢ 86° 18 °9 & & 886° FL Ir ’9 99° 20°L GFF 896° OL° 00°9 66° 669 £6 G 101 G8° 68 °9 98° Sa°k a 16 °0 LL°0 LL°S 611 96 °9 &% @ LeU MEL *erqnyos UO | comoor | Soak, | sysy | “sens |-porsod St ploy ores [BIO jesBi0js pitiei So Ose eases s aA ge Jaqrenb pury yoy :uToT | OF S aM Pattee \ cea aera ae op Jojenb pury yysry :uloy | 1% PE ee Ee Jojienb pury yey :dumy | 6 We reae ss wos ae ee Jaqienb pury yqsry dummy | 0g ROR CE NO EAS Te *rajrenb purty wyeT :punoy | ge oT ae ee Joenb pury yysNy :punoy | ET : ne “ON eydures Jo womdroseq [vues ATAV 54 BULLETIN 433, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ysis of these fats, therefore, is due largely to bacterial action. The kidney and external fats are of poor quality, having a strong dis- agreeable odor and flavor, while the intermuscular fat is of a fair quality. TABLE 30.—Composition of fat. | Per - |Refract- Todin A cent - Seria oes Storage ive eras Ran- Physical No. Description of sample. period.| 74° | index |®24it¥| cidity. | characters. 40°C aso. eic acid DeeHe ‘ 22 | Kidney fat: Right hind quarter..| 2 23] 42.53 | 1.4560 0.39 | Neg..... Normal. 41 | Kidney fat: Left hind quarter....| 44 23 41.87 | 1.4568 SEO lo tly - Rather stron odor an | flavor. 23 Intern USCaEE fat: Right hind | 2 23] 49.34 | 1.4572 5418) lescokoy- 5 Normal. quarter. 42 | Intermuscular fat: Left hind quar-| 44 23 | 49.18 | 1.4578 500) leach 55s Slightly meaty ter. flavor. Better than 41 and 43. 24 | External fat: Right hind quarter.. 2 23 | 55.96 | 1.4578 -39 |..-do....- Normal. 43 | External fat: Left hind quarter...) 44 23] 56.83 | 1.4583 neds | pee Oneeee Rather stron odor an flavor. Table 31 shows the distribution of the nitrogen and phosphorous compounds upon the basis of 100 parts of the respective constituents in the material at the beginning of the storage period. Changes in total nitrogen have been previously noted. Total soluble nitrogen shows appreciable but irregular increases, ranging from 0.47 per cent in the case of the loin to 4.19 per cent in the case of the round; whereas carcass No. 1 stored for two weeks and carcass No. 2 stored for four weeks each showed decreases in total soluble nitrogen at the end of their respective storage periods. Coagulable nitrogen shows fairly marked decreases, but on ac- count of the increases in total soluble nitrogen, these data do not in- dicate the full extent of the changes, which are shown more clearly under noncoagulable nitrogen. Noncoagulable nitrogen shows appreciable increases wnich are slightly greater, on the whole, than those observed in the case of car- cass No. 2, which was stored for four weeks. There are marked relative increases in proteose nitrogen, which are greater than those that took place in carcass No. 1, which was stored for two weeks, but less than those that occurred in carcass No. 2, which was stored for four weeks. Amino nitrogen increased decidedly during the storage period in each portion of the carcass analyzed, the minimum increase in this experiment being greater than the maximum increase that occurred during the shorter periods of storage. This is in continued con- formity with the results obtained in the autolysis experiment. Ammoniacal nitrogen increased appreciably during the storage period in each of the cuts analyzed; yet, on the whole, the increases 55 CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. AI aS tsa | C6 t= 16 IT-+ | 00°0 8E‘0S+] 9E°SE+ | €9°E6 +] 98°OT+ | c8'E— OL °o+ 00°0 CP haga, one eee ae “---"-queo Jed ‘esueyg LG-TT 9F P9 €0 92 16 °& 00"OOL | FE" IP € S19 T 16 FT cP ST 99 “66 QOROG Te S|PSGea 1 P| Sy a emis teseeeme irae ~-reqenb Pury Ye] :UI0T | OF 8 08 cesp | 8c's, | 2r't2 | 00°00T | s8z° Ss Cn |S ec T L SCCe | PODS me |S g en | OO OC eee er ---yajrenb pupy qsIy UOT | Iz TL ‘09— 010+ | €'s— | 28°0I+ | 00°0 61 FI+} 92 Ch+ | 68 TOT+] 06 To+ | 91 '6— cer+ | 00°0 GP Ra eoaene ac og en ~--""-queo red “esueyD 96 TT GE “89 19 FL 68 “SG 00*00T | SPE~ 69 °E LEST €@ “ST ¥G FT LE 6G QOMOO Ts WSCes iP tes tae ansentmetce ate aie “Jeqrenb pur YoT :dumy | 6¢ €9 8G LY SP OL “LL 06 GS 00°O0T | Z0E° 19% 016 ~ 99 OL 89 ST VG 86 00°OOT | €& @ ~-Jeqienb pury Iysry :dumy | oz 19 ‘0S— 08 63+ | 61° + | 69° — | 00°0 00 61+] €3°LE+ | S6°ITT+] 1¢°6I+ | 28 °¢— 9.°¢+ | 00°0 AZ| Waite ike cee Sa Em aS queo red ‘esuey9 ana! 10°79 | 2°82 | 99°1% | 00°00T | Ose" 1p (064° ZORGTo= | PGGue Taal sTONGGE aa | LOGMOUTEN It Scnapl lea aeeta == oe SSS3S qairenb pury yeT :punoy | g¢ £8 “86 9€ “67 61 ‘82 18 “16 00°O0L | #62 °0 6S GP8 0 LG OT 98 “FT EP LS 00 °00L | & a ia Se ee sda See Joyrenb pury IysIyY :punoy | 61 a ‘oruesio | “OFUCS | ‘atqen | . ‘yeoerm | . _| esoaq | LUPE | -orqey |. ’ arantos | 4 ce ae ANOS | osuz | TOL | omy | CHV! org gees -ngeog | AM0s | “110% sae ie TaD] eeerare -erdures jo vordrseqy 1: a “‘snioydsoyg “MeSO1}IN ‘snoydsoyd 70,0) pun uabowrvu 70,07 fo sabpzuaoiad sp passasdxa ‘snuoydsoyd pun uabownu fo wuoyngujsr.g— Ze AAV], 3 : LG LE 8L°66L | 61°16 LZ8"80L | FE "16 98 “LIL | 6h 62L | Eh 68T | LF SOT 60 F6 LPOOT | €8°16 CORR PAIR acted teh oieleg Neale 1a Jeqenb pury YOT :UOT | OF 00 ‘O0T 00‘00T | OOOOT |} 00*O0T | 0O'OOT | 00°00T | 00°00T | 00°O0T | OO'OOT | 00'0OT | 00°00T | 00 00T 6 OG ~~ szeqrenb pury 4qsry suloT | 1é 69 “LE 61 GZT | 69°C6 PZ °90T | 64°96 TO'TIT | 64°88 | 2Z6°96T | PS LIL | TE"ss Pr TOL | 22°16 (Gir dal ee Bend tee g oo ab pana a Jeqenb pury yeT :duny | 6¢ 00 ‘001 00‘O00T | 00°00T | 00O0T | OO*OOT | 00'00T | 00OOT | 00°O0T | 00°00T | OOOOT | 00'0OT | OO'OOT | @ Vo wsoeere sss gaqienb pury yysry sduny | 0s 18 "8h FL 830 | 16°86 00 "86 TL 86 Fo LIT | 8SP'SEL | O8 806 | PL LIT | €1°C6 61 FOL TS 86 && PF ~~-reqIENb pury oT :punoy | se 00 °O00T 00°00L | OO°OOT | 00'00T | OOOOT | 0O'OOT | 00°00T | 00O0T | OO'OOT | 0O*0OT | OO'OOT | OO'OOT | GB BG JeqeNb Pury IYySIY :punoy | 61 ‘H ‘orueaso | “OFUCS | ‘erqen | . ‘yeovru |, ‘asooy | 14°L | -orqez |. ; elantog se S1AN108 | rosaz | “WIG | curry | CUMV | org ot one 5 | e1dnIos | “WIOL | ee ee TANTOS N abaiong -eydures Jo wor drosaqy mr “Ss *‘snioydsoy 7 “U0S01}I N “powad abposojs fo Buruuabaq yn syuangysuod aarpoadsau ayy fo szuod gor fo swsng uo snuoydsoyd puv uabo.ru fo woNnguIstg— 1g LIAV]L, 56 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. were less than the corresponding increases noted in experiment No. 2. This, however, is not surprising in view of the larger amount of preformed ammonia in the material used for this experiment, espe- cially since the results of the autolysis experiment go to show that the rate of formation of this product tends to decrease as the product itself accumulates. Slight decreases in total phosphorus are without apparent signifi- cance. Table 32 shows the distribution of nitrogen and phosphorus expressed in terms of percentages of total nitrogen and _ total phosphorus. The data for nitrogen show that at the end of the storage period an appreciably larger proportion of the total nitrogen was present in the form of total soluble nitrogen, and as proteose, noncoagulable, amino, and ammoniacal nitrogen, than was present in the meat from carcass No. 2, which had been stored for four weeks. These facts indicate that the proteolytic changes had made appreciable progress during the longer storage period of carcass No. 3. There are fairly marked increases in insoluble phosphorus in the rump and in the loin, and a slight decrease in the round. An increase in this constituent was hardly to have been expected, and there seems to be no apparent explanation for the change. There are slight changes in soluble phosphorus which must be regarded as having no significance. Soluble inorganic phosphorus shows increases amounting to approximately 30 per cent of the amount present in the meat at the beginning of the storage period, which increases are consider- ably larger than those observed in the carcasses stored either for two weeks or for four weeks. These changes are in conformity with those that occurred during the autolysis experiment. In the soluble organic phosphorus there are pronounced decreases that are appreciably larger than those noted in case of the carcasses stored for shorter periods of time. These changes also are similar to those observed in the autolysis experiment. EXPERIMENT NO. 4. HISTORY OF CARCASS. A “grade” shorthorn steer 34 years old and of fair quality and finish was slaughtered by the usual methods and the carcass was allowed to hang 45 minutes on the killing floor, after which it was run into the cooler. The warm carcass weighed 845 pounds. The carcass was held 19 hours in the fore cooler having a temperature between 30° and 41° F., and 51 hours in the main cooler, the tem- perature of which remained at 29° F. The humidity of the fore cooler was 97 per cent and that of the main cooler 95 per cent of CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 57 saturation. After storage for 70 hours in the packing-house coolers, the hind quarters of the carcass were carefully wrapped and trans- ported to the bureau’s cooler, the trip requiring less than an hour. STORAGE, The quarters of beef were unwrapped and weighed; one quarter was hung up in cold-storage room No. 1 for a period of 63 days; the other was prepared immediately for analysis. The temperature of the cold-storage room was fairly uniform, ranging between 384° and 37° F. during the greater part of the experiment. On one occasion, for a period of about a day, the temperature ran up to 40° F. owing to difficulties with the refriger- ating equipment. The humidity of the cold-storage room ranged from 69.5 to 73.5 per cent of saturation, except that when the temperature rose to 40° F. the humidity was increased to 82 per cent by the melting of the ice from the coils. While observations as to the condition of the beef in storage were made at approximately weekly intervals during the storage period, only a few of the observations will be reported. After 24 days in storage the quarter of beef was in normal con- dition. The flank showed slight desiccation and a trace of mold. At the end of 38 days in storage the beef was in very good condition. There was a slight growth of mold on the exposed muscular tissue at the inside of the butt of the round and a trace only on the flank, which had become rather hard and dry. After 52 days in storage the beef had begun to look rather old and showed considerable desic- cation, particularly the flank, which had become quite hard and dry. There was a very slight growth of mold on the flank. The beef had a rather “old” odor, but not that of putrefaction. At the end of the storage period, or after storage for 63 days in the bureau’s cooler, the quarter of beef had practically the same appearance as noted at the end of 52 days in storage. An experi- enced meat inspector whose daily work brought him in contact with chilled beef as it is handled on the market examined this quarter of beef at the end of the storage period and stated that he considered it to be in first-class condition. QUALITY OF MEAT, Fresh quarter, stored 73 hours.—This quarter was of fairly good quality as regards form and finish and was well covered with fat, except a portion toward the shank. As regards market classification the quarter would have been classed “ good.” The broiled test steak cut from this quarter was described by the respective judges as follows: Mr. A.—The tenderloin is quite tender, the loin portion rather tough, and the flank end very tough. The steak is juicy and has a good flavor. 58 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Mr. B.—On the whole the steak is of excellent quality but shows lack of ripening. The tenderloin and loin portions of the steak are fairly tender. Mr. C.—The tenderloin is quite tender, the loin portion rather tough, and the flank portion fairly tender. The steak is juicy and has a good flavor. Quarter of beef stored 66 days—When this quarter of beef was being cut up preparatory to analysis the following observations were made: The cut surface at the butt of the round had a bright- red color and a sweet odor, but one which was distinctly different from that of fresh beef. Where the muscular tissue had not been covered with fat and had been exposed to the air there was a narrow dark-brown zone at the surface of the meat. The tip end of the loin, where the cut surface had been exposed to the air, was dark- brown in color and had a strong odor. After cutting off a slice about 1 inch thick from the tip of the loin, so as to remove the dried portion, the fresh-cut surface of the loin had a dark-red color and a rather strong but not a putrefactive odor. As successive cuts were made toward the butt of the loin the color of each successive surface was found to be brighter and its odor less pronounced. While the meat was being cut it was also found that the bundles of muscles could be separated much more easily than was the case with those of the fresh quarter of beef, a fact which indicated a marked softening of the connective tissues. The meat “handled” as though it were quite tender. The kidney fat was in poor condition, being hard and dry and badly discolored. Throughout the mass there was evidence of a widely distributed growth of mold. The freshly cut test steak had a rather strong odor which largely disappeared on broiling. The color of the meat was rather darker than that of the steak cut from the fresh quarter of beef. The organoleptic qualities of the broiled steak were described by the three judges as follows: Mr. A.—The tenderloin portion is fairly tender and has a good flavor, but is rather dry. ‘The loin portion is not as tender as the tenderloin and is rather dry, but has a good flavor. The flank end is very tough and has an “old” taste. Mr. B.—The tenderloin portion is very tender, but has a disagreeable so-called “oamey” flavor. The loin portion is not very tender and the flavor is not disagreeable. The flank portion is fairly tender and palatable. Mr. C.—The tenderloin and loin portions are very tender and juicy and have a good flavor. The flank end of the steak is fairly tender and juicy, but has a rather strong “ gamey ” flavor and is not very palatable. On the whole this steak is not as palatable as the steaks cut from the quarters of beef that had been stored for shorter periods of time. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF CARCASS NO. 4. Tables 33 to 39, inclusive, show the changes that took place in the composition of carcass No. 4 during 63 days in cold storage. CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 59 Table 33 shows the composition of the carcass expressed in terms of percentages of the fresh material. Table 34 shows the composition of the carcass expressed in terms of percentages of the moisture-free and fat-free material. There are appreciable losses of moisture which are somewhat greater, on the whole, than those observed in the case of carcass No. 3, stored 42 days. Slight changes in the ash are without significance. The data for total nitrogen seem to show appreciable decreases in this constituent. The fact that similar, though smaller, decreases were noted in the nitrogen content of carcasses Nos. 2 and 3, stored for 28 and 42 days, respectively, makes it appear that these apparent losses of nitrogen from the meat during storage may have some sig- nificance. TABLE 33.—Composition expressed in terms of percentages of fresh material. Am- Phosphorus. Serial ks Storage] Moist- LRGSES Rn | UNS Ras eal PRA Description of sample. F Fat. | Ash.| nitro- | acal No. period.) ure. gen. | nitro- |ino4q,.| Sol- | Insol- gen. "| uble. | uble. ID, tek, , 31 | Round: Right hind quarter.| 2 1 | 74.51 | 2.85 | 1.06 3.52 | 0.0103 | 0.202 | 0.156 | 0.046 50} Round: Left hind quarter...| 65 22 | 78.40 } 3.15 | 1.07 3.51} .01384 |) .199] .157 - 042 32 | Rump: Right hind quarter .| 3 1 | 73.01 | 4.77 | 1.04 3.30} .0100| .197] .150 . O47 51 | Rump: Left hind quarter...| 65 22 | 71.50 | 5.73 | 1.04 3.37 | .01382) .186] .145 041 33 | Loin: Right hind quarter...) 3 1 | 71.37 |6.98| .99 3.28 | .0092 | .189] .144 045 52 | Loin: Left hind quarter..... 65 22} 70.10 | 7.41 | 1.06 3.31 | .0115] .181 | .136 045 34 | Flank: Right hind quarter..| 3 1 | 71.56 | 5.81 | 1.02 3.51 | .0088 |] .184] .148 031 53 | Flank: Left hind quarter...| 65 22 | 55.49 |13.37 | 1.39 4.72) .0178 | .237)| .186 - 056 TasLeE 34.—Composition expressed in terms of percentages of moisture-free and fat-free material. Moist- Am- Phosphorus. ure Total | moni- Serial} Description of sample. Store | fate | Ash. | nitro- | acal No. P free gen. | nitro- | motay. |soluble,| 12S0l- basis. gen. fi ‘| uble. DH, 31 | Round: Right hind yuarter.| 3 1 76.69 4.68 15.53 | 0.0452 |} 0.891 | 0.687 | 0: 204 50 | Round: Left hind quarter...| 65 22 | 75.78 4.56} 14.96 - 057. . 849 - 667 . 182 CHanlogs ooo okese cst sacem 62 21 |— 0.91 |— 0.12 |— 0.57 |+ .0120 |— .042 |— .020 |— .022 32 | Rump: Right hind quarter..| 3. 1| 76.67| 4.66| 14.86] .0449| .887| .675| .212 51 | Rump: Left hind quarter...| 65 22] 75.84 4.57) 14.77 - 0580 .818 - 637 181 CBN CG cv enenacc.s sven 61 21 |— 0.83 |— 0.09 |— 0.03 |+ .0131 |— .069 |— .088 |— .031 33 | Loin: Right hind quarter....| 3. 1| 76.73| 4.57) 15.15| .0425| .871| .664| .207 52 | Loin: Left hind quarter..... 65 22 75.70 4.69 14.71 . 0513 . 806 . 605 . 201 CHANGES Joss crs oP ¥ cece 62 21 |— 1.03 |4+ 0.12 |— 0.44 |4+ .0088 |— .065 |— .059 |— .006 34 | Flank: Righthind quarter..| 3 1| 75.97| 4.51| 15.49] ..0390] .811| .654| .157 63 | Flank: Left hind quarter....| 65 22) 64.05 4.45} 15.16 . 0572 . 762 597 -165 } 11.92 |— 0.06 |— 0.33 |-+- .0182 |— .049 (Ui COGN pp ee Te 62 21 — .057 [+ .008 BULLETIN 433, U. S. 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the storage period, and when these changes are expressed in terms of percentages of the initial ratio of inorganic to total phosphorus the changes are smaller, on the whole, than those obtained in Ex- periment No. 1, where the storage period was but two weeks. In view of the unusually large proportion of inorganic phosphorus contained in the original material large increases were not to have been expected, and the changes that did take place should be viewed from the standpoint indicated in the discussion of the inorganic phosphorus results obtained in Experiment No. 2, where a some- what similar condition prevailed. As the material used in this ex- periment was not quantitatively comparable with that used in any of the earlier experiments as regards the amount of performed in- organic phosphorus that it contained, there is no criterion by which to judge the quantitative significance of the changes in inorganic phosphorus in the present experiment. The increments in the ratios of soluble organic to total phosphorus are small in comparison with the length of the storage period, though they constitute a decidedly high percentage of the initial ratios. Relations of the same nature have already been pointed out and dis- cussed in connection with Experiment No. 2. For the rest, the changes in the soluble organic phosphorus have no more significance than the corresponding changes in the soluble inorganic phosphorus. EXPERIMENT NO. 5. HISTORY OF CARCASS. A “grade” Shorthorn steer 3 years old, of prime quality and highly finished, was slaughtered by the usual methods and the car- cass was allowed to hang 1 hour and 15 minutes on the killing floor before being run into the fore cooler. The warm carcass weighed 860 pounds. The carcass was held 19 hours in the fore cooler and 21 hours in the main cooler. The hind quarters were then cut from the carcass, carefully wrapped, and transported to the city whole- sale market of the packing house, where they were held five hours in a cold-storage room having a temperature of about 38° F., and were then transported to the bureau’s cold-storage rooms. : STORAGE. The beef was unwrapped, weighed, and hung in cold-storage room No. 1 until the next day, when oné quarter was prepared for analysis. The second quarter was held in cold storage for an additional period of 74 days. The temperature of the cold-storage room ranged for the most part between 34° and 38° F. On each of two occasions, however, the temperatuie ran up to 41° F., and on one occasion it rose to 50° F. for a part of a day in consequence of difficulties with the refrigerat- CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 65 ing equipment. Temperature conditions were not so satisfactory #S In previous experiments, and as a consequence the time that it was posssible to carry this quarter of beef in cold storage was prob- ably shorter than it otherwise would have been. The humidity of the cold-storage room ranged from 70 to 82 per cent. Observations as to the condition of the beef during storage were made at approximately weekly intervals, but only a few of them will be reported. After 25 days in cold storage the beef was in good condition and showed no evidences of deterioration. At the end of 53 days in cold storage the beef was in generally good condition. There was a fairly heavy growth of mold on the inside of the flank. This part of the quarter had a rather strong odor, and in consequence of a poor circulation of air was rather damp. There was a slight growth of mold on the shank and on the exposed muscular tissue at the butt of the round. Except as noted above, the meat had no objectionable odor. At the end of the storage period, or after 74 days in the bureau’s cold-storage room, and after a total storage period of 77 days, the quarter of beef had a generally old and stale appearance. The exter- nal and kidney fat had turned dark in color and had a rather strong odor. The flank was dry and hard. There was practically no growth of mold on the meat. The beef had a rather “old” but not putre- factive odor. A veterinary inspector familiar with the commercial handling of chilled beef pronounced the quarter of beef to be in good mar- ketable condition, and stated that in his opinion the beef would have kept a couple of months longer in cold storage. The quarter of beef showed a shrinkage of 7.47 per cent at the end of the storage period. QUALITY OF MEAT, Fresh quarter, stored 70 hours.—This quarter of beef was of very high grade both as regards form and finish, and was superior to any of the quarters previously used in these experiments. It was exceedingly well covered with fat, even well down on the shank; but the covering of fat was not excessive. This quarter would have been classed as “prime” beef. The organoleptic properties of the broiled test steak were described by the judges as follows: Mr. B.—The steak has an excellent flavor and is as tender as any of the pre- viously examined steaks that were cut from fresh quarters of beef. The ten- derloin is fairly tender; the loin portion is rather tough; and the flank end is quite tough and stringy and hard to masticate. Mr. C.—AIl portions of the steak are juicy and have an excellent flavor. The tenderloin Is quite tender, the loin portion is a trifle tough, and the flank end is coarse, tough, and rubbery. 56861°—Bull. 483—17—_5 66 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Quarter of beef stored 76 days, 21 hours—When the quarter of beef was cut up preparatory to analysis the cut surface at the butt of the round was found to have a bright-red color, but the color was not as bright as that of the corresponding fresh quarter of beef. Where the surface of the meat had been protected by a fatty covering there © was no darkening of the muscular tissue at the surface, but where the cut surface had been exposed to the air, e. g., at the butt of the round, there was a dark brown zone extending inward about one-eighth of an inch from the surface. The odor from the cut surface of the meat was sweet, but perhaps a trifle “ gamey.” When the loin was cut into the short loin and the sirloin butt the freshly cut surfaces had a bright-red color and a sweet but “oamey ” odor. There was no darkening of the musculature at the surface, which was well covered with fat. A slice about three-fourths of an inch thick was cut from the tip end of the loin, which had been exposed during storage and had become dry and dark colored, and the freshly cut surface thus exposed was dark red in color and had a strong “ gamey” but not putrefactive odor. When the meat was cut up for analysis there were no evidences of putrefaction, and the meat appeared to be in perfectly sound condition. The kidney fat was in poor condition, being discolored, and there was a considerable growth of mold scattered throughout the mass. The external fat was quite dark in color and had a strong, sour, and rather penetrating odor. The raw test steak had a bright-red color and an attractive appear- ance and a sweet but a trifle ““gamey” odor. The opinions rendered by the judges as to the quality of the broiled steak are as follows: Mr. A.—The tenderloin is quite tender, rather dry, and lacking in flavor. The loin portion is quite tender but even drier than the tenderloin, and is lacking in flavor. The flank end is fairly tender but quite dry and has an “ old” flavor. The fat has an “old” taste. Mr. B.—On the whole the steak is quite tender but rather dry. It has a rather “old” but not disagreeable flavor. Mr. C.—The tenderloin and loin portions of the steak are very tender, juicy, and palatable. The flank end is quite tender and fairly palatable. On the whole this steak is superior to any of the other steaks which have been tested thus far. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION CARCASS NO. 5. Tables 40 to 46, inclusive, show the changes that took place in the composition of carcass No. 5 during 74 days in cold storage. Table 40 shows the composition of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of the original material. Table 41 shows the composition of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of the moisture-free and fat-free material. The data indicate appreciable decreases in the moisture content of the meat during storage, the decreases being greater than those that occurred in any of the carcasses previously examined. CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 67 There are slight apparent decreases in the ash which are accom- panied by decreases in total phosphorus. Changes in nitrogen and phosphorus compounds will be discussed in connection with Tables 45 and 46. Taste 40.—Composition expressed in terms of percentages of fresh material. Phosphorus. | Am- phorus Storage} Moist- inne. || Asin: Serial Baie Description of sample. = No: P y period.) ure. gen. | nitro- Total Solu- | Insol- gen. Olam ple. | table, 44 | Round: Left hind quarter...) 2 22 | 73.15 | 3.15 | 1.08 3.45 | 0.0101 | 0.206 | 0.149 | 0.057 69 | Round: Right hind quarter.| 76 21 | 71.27 | 3.30 | 1.11 3.58 | .0133 | .206] .163 - 043 45 | Rump: Left hind quarter...) 2 22 | 72.33 | 4.87 | 1.05 3.32 | .0094] .195] .153 - 042 70 | Rump: Right hind quarter.| 76 21 | 69.90 | 5.89 | 1.06 3.47} .0128] .198 |] .152 - 046 46 | Loin: Left hind quarter. -..-. 2 22 | 72.06 | 5.34 | 1.03 3.36 | .0083 | .190| .144 - 046 71 | Loin: Right hind quarter...) 76 21 | 69.63 | 5.80 | 1.08 3.44 | .0163) .196] .154 042 Tabre 41.—Composition expressed in terms of percentages of moisture-free and fat-free material. Moist- re Phosphorus. 5 ture, Total moni- Berial Description ofsample. |Storage) fat- | Ach. | nitro- | acal No. period.| free ayn witinoe Tasole mate- gen. Total. |Soluble. - gen. uble. rial. 0). Jake 44 | Round: Left hind quarter...) 2 22] 75.53 4.54] 14.54] 0.0428] 0.870} 0.627} 0.243 69 | Round: Right hind quarter..| 76 21] 73.70 4.37 | 14.08 . 0522 - 808 . 641 . 167 Chanper nn. <2 sac seen: 73 23 | —1.83 | —0.17 | —0.46 | +.0094 | —.062 | +.014 | —.076 45 | Rump: Left hind quarter...) 2 22] 76.03 4.61 14. 54 . 0413 - 853 . 670 . 183 70 | Rump: Right hind quarter..| 76 21] 74.27 4,38 | 14.33 - 0528 - 816 - 627 . 189 Changes. 5-.eeoos.525 73 23 | —1.76 | —0.23 | —0.21 | +.0115 | —.037 | +.043 | +.006 46 | Loin: Right hind quarter....| 2 22] 76.13 4.56 | 14.85 0366 . 839 639 200 71 | Loin: Left hind quarter. .... 76 21 | 73.92 4.33 ; 14.00 0665 - 797 626 171 Cid F(a eee 73 23 | —2.21 ) —0.18 | —0.85 | +.0299 | —.042 | —.013 | —.029 Table 42 shows the composition of the 0.9 per cent sodium chlorid extract of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of the original material. Table 43 shows the composition of the sodium chlorid extract of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of the moisture-free and fat-free material. Changes in the total solids are irregular, but on the whole appreci- able increases in this constituent have occurred. It is of interest to note that this is the first experiment in which there has been an in- crease in the total soluble solids of the meat during storage, previous experiments in which the meat had been stored for shorter periods of time having shown decreases in this constituent. BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 68 Ue | SE + | &10°— €90° SoGh 969" FIZ" SCP” 669° CLT — 6cr'+ | &F0°— 890° 6S" 169° OFZ" O&F- 019° 8Il°— St'+ | F10°+ 910° coon Th9° F610 eer 0 269'0 *O1Ue310 “ies “eTqnyos eTqnyos eiqnyjos [840 : *snioydsoug eyersts | ANOS raz WAG t— | Ore ke ae Ma There I) Ola) I A TE esueyo Sr16° C6I” 0S°% GL T GOP is GG 8G 18°§ £0 GE AGP OLR (Pe eb cen ete ee --goqrenb Pury yysty :aLo0y LI0F* i) 82 °T 10°C 80% £0°€ Ly°9% | *99'E €0°0§ Core Gee A aod ee a eee ee 19jienb puLly 4joy :uLo0y Oe | OAPs NWSE ABW Oar |) Ge Wa |) sae] ae |) AO ae 1 fee fa, pe cae “-esueyo TEI8” 681° 9F'% CLT I'P 19° 99°28 99 °% 2G 08 Te OU Ss Stade Seg eae ae “rojyrenh pury yysry :dunyy SSIh” 6IT” €8'T | 60'S 66'S 06°€ LSE 8's GI 6z ZOCOR ca ite eg ae eco “jeqizenb puly yoy :dunyy 998E°+ | 79T°+ €$ "0+ 6£°0— FL 0+ €Z 0+ 680+ (oH I= BOT emai {SRC Gea | ee crmee sir ae eam chee nes ar ie ae “-esueyO TIS82" 892° Ges 8ST £6 °€ W's go SS 8h 'S £0 8Z UG OLS Ete ee NE oe Joqrenb pury 4ysiy :punoy Ccr6e'0 | 760°0 C8 'T 26 °T 6L°E 13°§ €L FG €9°€ 9 82 LE GUSCAU NWS, OBE Bk ee ie Jez1enb pury yey :punoy ‘H -@ 0 “OIdeL |. . aso z etqe, | ‘erqnzos ourory “001d AUEKOD —nsvog | [eIOL *SOATY “WON OrqoRyT | ns 5 ‘sprjos | -porzed : sb ploy sates Usy {e101, lesea04g e[duies Jo worydr10seq. “UesOIIIN on Teriog “manu aaif-qwf pun aouf-ainjsou fo sebnyuaosad fo susoy ur passaudxa nou fo javujxa prwojys wmnipos qua9 lad 60 fo uorpsodmog— sp AIAV J, 910° 8éT° FST” 840° 960° iad L10° cet” CST ° g¢o° 860° §ST° 610° FFL” €9T° 9700 e010 6F1 0 “97310 ae “elqnyos ALANIS | gramiag | TOL *snaoydsoyg SECS * 80° T69 ° 6GP" G0 °T 8060 ° 920° COP” SIS" ST6° OL6T * 940° 869° CGP” c0'T ¢960~ 120° LIF" LLY” F683" L861 ° 990° 669° T0F* 00 'T ¢e60°0 | 2200 csr 0 2970 668 0 : “erqey | . : eso eIqe, | ‘erqnyjos ouUlmy | | “n3v00 | _ 001g -U0N nsv0p9 | [BIOL “Mes01}IN. 13° £6 °9 69° 86° 88° 02 °9 eZ" €8°¢ 83° 0S °9 92 °0 98° “One | yeayx0 SEIDION, oruesIO ¥6° 18° 69° a8" £9° 98 °0 “Usv Z8°L TS 92 64 °9 Go OG 6S °L TG 92 ¢9°9 GG €1°L Ie 92 GL 9 GS vel “(ae *Spr[os | ‘porsed 1®10.L |esB1099 BO OR ORE AOE “ioqyrenb puly I sriy sUIO'T ese oils eamlades Slane hybeic aes oaahac ieqzenb puly 2joT U0 b sirioiatehsinla/sinicteiseisie/eis “roqienb pury 4yysty :dumnyy BOR GAC CRC eC DOE ate “Jeqienb puly yjeT :duny sie ichaicis/¢/slelrisisin esate aie I9qienb pury ysry :punorwy So eleisie sc sryele iislslaiacin! ss Joyienb puly yey :punory *e[dures jo wordy 10seq TZ oF OL SP 69 WwW “ON [eHog “yoiaqwus ysaif fo sabnquaasad fo sutsag ur passaudxa qnau fo janujxa pr1ozyo winipos quan wad 6°90 fo uorpsodwog— Zp ATAV I, CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 69 There are marked apparent decreases in the ash content of the round and rump, and a slight gain in that of the loin during storage. These large decreases must be regarded with suspicion. On account of the suspicious character of the data for ash, positive value can not be assigned to those for organic extractives. Increases in acidity are fairly marked and are greater than those which took place in any of the previous cold-storage experiments. Table 44 shows the changes in the composition of the fat that took place during storage. The most important changes were very marked increases in the acidity of the external and the kidney fats, and an appreciable increase in that of the intermuscylar fat. The increase in the acidity of the kidney fat was nearly twice as great, and that of the external fat was three times as great, as the corresponding increases in acidity in the preceding experiment. The increase in the acidity of the intermuscular fat was only slightly greater than in the preceding experiment. The kidney and external fats were of very poor quality, while the intermuscular fat was of fair quality. TABLE 44.—Composition of fat. Per Refract- - Todin cent . Serial a 4s Storage ive eas Ran- Physical No. Desemption otsamiple- period. war index peidity cidity. characters. . 40°C S ol e1c * | acid ID, 121, 47 | Kidney fat: Left hind quarter-...| 2 22] 39.85 | 1.4562 0.34 | Neg....-. Normal. 72 | Kidney fat: Right hind quarter..| 76 21] 38,21 | 1.4555 8.04 |...do....| Dark yellow; strong, sour odor; very strong flavor. 43 | Intermuscular fat: Left hind] 2 22] 44.70 | 1.4566 .28 |..-do....| Normal. quarter. 73 | Intermuscular fat: Right hind |} 76 21] 44.63 | 1.4562 1.70 |...do....| Normal odor; quarter. comparatively sweet flavor. 49 | External fat: Left hind quarter...| 2 22] 650.76 | 1.4570 .34 |..-do....| Normal. 74 | External fat: Right hind quarter-| 76 21 | 50.21 | 1.4560] 10.86 ]...do....] Dark yellow; . strong, sour odor; strong disagreeable flavor. Table 45 shows the distribution of the nitrogen and the phosphorus upon the basis of 100 parts of the respective constituents in the meat at the beginning of the storage period. There are appreciable decreases in total nitrogen that range from 5.72 per cent in the case of the loin to 1.44 per cent in the case of the rump. These data confirm the losses in total nitrogen that were observed in carcasses Nos. 2, 3, and 4; carcass No. 1 alone having shown slight apparent gains. The regular occurrence of a decrease in the total nitrogen content of the lean meat from 4 carcasses stored for periods ranging from 28 to 74 days would appear to in- dicate an actual loss of nitrogen from the meat during storage. 70 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fairly marked increases in the amount of total soluble nitrogen present in the meat have occurred during this storage period. These are the first appreciable increases in total soluble nitrogen that have taken place in any of the carcasses examined thus far. These data are in keeping with the previously noted increases in total solids in this experiment. Coagulable nitrogen shows appreciable decreases, which are prac- tically the same as those noted in the previous experiments. As has been previously noted, the data for coaguable nitrogen show merely the variations in the actual reserve amount of this constituent, and do not indicate the true extent of the transformation of coagulable proteins into noncoagulable forms, inasmuch as the supply of coagu- lable protein is being replenished from the insoluble protein at the same time as the coagulable protein is being transformed into non- coagulable compounds. The true extent of the change of coagulable protein into noncoagulable forms is shown in the data for noncoagu- lable nitrogen. Increases in noncoagulable nitrogen, which range from 29.12 to 40.45 per cent, are much greater than the increases that took place in this constituent in the previous experiment. Changes in proteose nitrogen are in the nature of increases, which are greater than those that took place in any of the previous experi- ments except Experiment No. 2. The amino nitrogen almost doubled in the round and rump, and more than doubled in the loin during the storage period. The in- creases are larger than any corresponding increases that occurred in this constituent during the shorter periods of the previous experi- ments. The results are in continued conformity with the results of the autolysis experiment. Ammoniacal nitrogen increased in each of the cuts analyzed. The increases in the round and rump, however, were not as great as the corresponding increases in Experiment No. 4, a fact which stands in no connection with the amounts of preformed ammonia in the ma- terial, but which must be accounted as a distinct exception to the rule that seems to have applied in most of these experiments. The increase in the loin, on the other hand, was the largest that had yet been observed in this constituent. _ Changes in total phosphorus consisted in quite marked apparent decreases, the significance of which is not clear. Table 46 shows the distribution of nitrogen and phosphorus ex- pressed as percentages of total nitrogen and total phosphorus. Soluble nitrogen makes up a smaller proportion of the total nitro- gen of the fresh quarter of this carcass than it made in case of any fresh quarter previously examined. Coagulable nitrogen forms a smaller proportion of the total nitro- gen of the meat, both at the beginning and at the end of the storage val CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. Go"69— | ge6e+ | GO"e+ | 1°6 — | 00°0 16°C6+ | 99°TFI+| TeSL+ | L6°Sh+ | €2°SI—'| Te 11+ | 00°0 fs far 57 Al ae ge ore steer so esueyo 68" 19°02 | 9F'°8L |¥9°1@ | 00°00T | S2F° 3:9 seq les | @eva | oem anon Iie a2 pee eo ore --3917enb puny ywSMy say | 1 6r'se | S90 | FI'9L | 98"E% | 00°00T | OFZ" 11% 18h" Oise | RO CRGI ea ACC [OOOO Des | RCCan on] eee ee nem mea ae dajrenb puly eT :WoT | 9F OW |) MDsas | Ore |) 297) ae || 00) 29"6o+ | L0°26+ | ST*I9+ | OF 98+ | FO"ST— | 26°8 + | 00°0 COME ero eo 7 apis im Sha jr Oa OCU) | 1h'8 8F°89 | 68°94 | IT's | 00°00L | 89g" 89°S GIG aU | ler [ene CGD am Se nOCens |LOOLOOK iGO elem us nee --sevo++++++-oqrenb pong aqsry :dumy | 0 €0 "86 PP 0S LY SL £312 00°O0T | F8a° 88% 8T8~ 65 “CL LE PL 96 “96 CORO OT | CCRC it | einen ee Ge Joyrenb puryg yeT :dumny | cP ZO'8S— | LE‘Oh+ | 96°6+ | 0L°S% —| 00°0 96°S¢+ | LF POT +| Sh EST +] FE "EE+ | 8T*ZI— | 80°2 + | 00°0 SCIEN kites ect eines ee aor Gy oi sae OSU CUT) | SE °6 68 °69 FG 6L 92°06 OO*OOT | Tle" hg GE8 “T 69 °9T G6 TT 16°26 00°00T | 16 94) "77> Jaqrenb purg qusry :punoy 69 16. °C6 61°67 90 "CL v6 °L6 00°00L | #62°0 TL °G 1F9 0 6S “CL GS “ST 20°93 OO" 00L = |[KCOBCN Ne ieee ~*> deqaenb pury yey :punoy | FF Tel “OL } . 5 — ‘oraesi0 | “OfUCS | ‘oiqn | . ‘jeovru | . -9s00 Tel | -arqe orcmTog | gf OF TANS | jasuz | THOM | ourmry | OAV | “org | THE | ngeop | AMOS | THIOL |g tee asesoig ‘e]dures jo uordrroseqy | reEee “snioydsotg “HOSO1IN | ‘snioydsoyd 70107 pun uabouvu 7n}07 fo sabpzuaoiad sv passaudxa ‘snuoydsoyd pun uabouve fo woyngi.ysig— 9F AIAV I, GP “62 L'e8t | 96°46 | 18°98 | 90°S6 | 6O°TST | OL°22G | OT'S9T | SF'OFT | 60°22 | FO*FOT | 82'°FO | 12 92 *-szaqrenb pury wsry :UIOT | TL 00 ‘O0T 00°00T | 00°00T | 00°00T | 00"00T | 00°00T | OO*OOT | 00°00T | 00°O0T |} 00*00T | 00*00T | OOOOT | 2 & “7 "reqrenb pury yoy suroT oF 69 “82 G8 Gol || 12°86 | 24°2Or | G9°96 | S8:22n || coer | e8'scT | er pet | G2"e8 | OP"2OL | 99°86 | 1s 9% | ---- 9 ~~ zeqirenb pury wysry :dumy | 02 QO"00E | 00°00T | 00°00T | CO'OOT | O0"00T | O0°00T | 0O~00T | CO"OOT | OO'0OT | OO"00T | OO*DOT | OO"OOT | GG | = *=--soRTUEND purY yoeT sdumMy | oF £0 “68 Le"0et | St°2Or | £0°69 | 06°26 | 96°IZT | OO'R86T | LhFLS | ZI‘GZE | 0208 | 69"GOT | F8°96 | 12 92 | >> ae ees “roqrenb pury aysny :Punoy_ | 6 00°00T | 00°00L | 00°00L | 00°00T | 0O'O0L | OO"OOT | 00"0OT | 00°0OT | 00*OOT | OO*OOT | OO"0OT | OO'OOT |Z @ | a gos “*-"""zoqzenb puly YET :punoy | ‘Ha — KEK me — | m /——— -— so | ——-—-- — | SS ——————_] — id TC ee ae -ored, ‘orued : “Te08 ‘95 ‘erqey | . alintog or ane Ree “10st Ted oun rea “Old ane ele ; 10D “STANTOS | THOL yortod -UON *porszac “ON anos N Re “erdures jo worydrseq ~ ng “‘snaoydsoyg. *W0s0.14TN “powad abo.oys fo buruurbaq qo sjzuangysuos aayoadsas ayy fo sjiod gor fo sisng uo snuoydsoyd puv uaSonru fo woyRguysyT— oF SIAV 72 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. period, than in the case of the corresponding quarter of any of the other carcasses examined to date. Changes in insoluble phosphorus are irregular and of undeter- mined significance. a Total soluble phosphorus underwent irregular changes that have no determined significance. The increases that took place in the soluble inorganic phosphorus content of the meat during the storage period of 74 days are greater for each portion of the carcass analyzed than any corresponding in- crease obtained in the earlier experiments of this series. The ma- terial used for this experiment is directly comparable, in regard to the amount of inorganic phosphorus that it originally contained, to the material that was used in Experiments Nos. 1 and 3. The in- creases noted are therefore in continued accord with the results of the autolysis experiment. Changes in the ratios of organic to total phosphorus possess no. more significance than do the corresponding changes in the inorganic phosphorus ratios. EXPERIMENT NO. 6. HISTORY OF CARCASS. A “grade” Shorthorn steer 34 years old, of good conformation but only fairly well finished, was slaughtered in the usual manner, and the carcass after hanging for 1 hour on the killing floor was run into the fore cooler. The carcass was held 144 hours in the fore cooler, having a temperature ranging from 34° to 41° F., and 50 hours in the main cooler, having a temperature of 30° F. The hu- midity of the fore cooler was 100 per cent of saturation at the time the carcass was placed in storage. After storage for 644 hours in the packing-house coolers, the hind quarters were cut from the car- cass, and one quarter was carefully wrapped and transported to the bureau’s cold-storage room, where it was promptly prepared for analysis. ‘The total storage period for this quarter of beef was 66 hours. . STORAGE. The second quarter of beef was held in storage in the main cooler of the packing house in order to determine how long beef could be held in cold storage under commercial conditions such as existed in this cooler, as compared with the length of time that it could be held in storage in the bureau’s experimental cold-storage room where the other quarters of beef had been held in storage. This packing-house cooler, which can accommodate about 259 carcasses of beef, was kept nearly filled with beef during the course of the experiment. The temperature of the cooler ranged from 28° to 32° F. during the storage period, but for the most part remained at about 32° F., CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 13 while the humidity varied from 92 to 95 per cent of saturation. The humidity appears relatively high, yet the cooler was in apparently dry condition throughout the course of the experiment. There was no condensation of moisture on the walls or ceiling, and the surfaces of the carcasses were dry and firm. The circulation of air appeared to be excellent. The high humidity, apparently, was due to the continuous evaporation of moisture from the carcasses of beef held in cold storage. After 20 days of storage the quarter of beef was in excellent condi- tion and no growth of mold had appeared on the meat. At the end of 40 days of storage the beef was in fairly good condition. There was a light growth of mold over most of the quarter except on the’ top of the loin, where there was a heavy covering of fat. The growth of mold was heaviest on the cut end of the loin, on the exposed flank muscles, and on the under side of the loin. There was a slightly sour odor at the.cut end of the loin. The meat was still in good market- able condition and would have needed but little trimming. After storage for 55 days the beef was in such condition that it was deemed inadvisable to carry it longer in cold storage. There was a- heavy growth of mold over most of the quarter, except on the upper side of the loin, where there was a heavy covering of fat. There was a slightly “ off ” odor at the cut end of the loin, but practically no odor from the rest of the quarter. It showed a shrinkage of 3.27 per cent during storage. The quarter of beef was carefully wrapped and transported to the bureau’s cold-storage room, where it was held a day longer at a temperature ranging from 34° to 48° F., after which it was prepared for analysis. QUALITY OF MEAT, Quarter of beef stored 66 hours——This quarter of beef was of fair quality and finish. The loin was well covered with fat, while the round, particularly about the shank, was only fairly well covered. There was a good but not an excessive deposit of kidney fat. The broiled test steak cut from this quarter was described by the judges as follows: Mr. A.—The tenderloin is fairly tender, the loin portion is quite tough, and the flank end is very tough. The flavor of the steak is very good. Mr. B.—The flavor of the steak is excellent. For a fresh steak it is fairly tender. The tenderloin is the most tender and the flank end the least so. Mr. C.—The tenderloin is comparatively tender, the loin portion rather tough, and the flank end very tough and rubbery. The steak is juicy and has an excellent flavor. Quarter of beef stored 56 days, 18 hours.—When the quarter of beef was cut up for analysis the cut surface at the butt of the round was found to have a bright-red color. Where the surface of the 74 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. meat had been but thinly covered with fat, and where the muscular tissue had been exposed, there was a dark-brown zone extending to a depth of from one-sixteenth to one-quarter of an inch from the surface. The loin was in good condition and showed no evidences of putrefaction. The raw steak showed no evidences of putrefaction. The opinions rendered by the judges as to the organoleptic properties of the broiled steak are as follows: Mr. A.—The tenderloin is very tender and is one of the best pieces of meat which we have tested. The loin portion is comparatively tender and has an excellent flavor. The flank end is somewhat tough, but is palatable. The steak has an excellent flavor. Mr. B.—-On the whole the steak is very tender, perhaps the most tender steak of the series. The fiavor is not so good as that of the fresh steak, particularly at the outer portion, which has an “off” flavor. The flavor of the fat has deteriorated. ; Mr. C.—The steak is tender and juicy, but lacking in flavor. The tenderloin is very tender and the loin portion is fairly tender. The flank end is compara- tively tender, more so, in fact, than the same portion of any of the steaks pre- viously tested. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF CARCASS NO. 6. Tables 47 to 53, inclusive, show the changes which took place in the composition of carcass No. 6 during 54 days in cold storage. Table 47 shows the composition of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of the original material. Table 48 shows the composition of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of the moisture-free and fat-free material. There are slight decreases in the moisture content of the meat, and the changes in the percentage of ash present are insignificant. Changes in nitrogen and phosphorus compounds will be consid- ered in connection with Tables 52 and 53. TABLE 47.—Composition expressed in terms of percentages of fresh material. Am- Phosphorus. Total | moni- : Serial Ane Storage) Mois F Description of sample. Pat Fat. | Ash. | nitro- | acal No. [DSEels || WEE: gen. | nitro- | p54], | Solu- | Insol- gen. a ble. | ubles D. H. » 82 | Round: left hind quarter....| 2 18] 74.46 | 3.52} 1.05 3.31 | 0.0097 | 0.195 | 0.152} 0.043 94 | Round: Right hind quarter.| 56 18 | 73.80 | 3.61 | 1.08 3.35 | .0104| .197] .153 - 044 83 | Rump: Left hind quarter...| 2 18} 72.71 | 5.71 | 1.00 3.16] .0094] .191 | .144 047 95 | Rump: Right hind quarter .| 56 18 | 72.64 | 5.79 | 1.03 3.20} .0103} .183} .144 - 039 84 | Loin: Left hind quarter..... 2 18] 70.93 | 8.16 | 0.97 3.19] .0086} .183] .139 044 96 | Loin: Right hind quarter...) 56 18] 70.75 | 7.43 | 1.00 3.25] .0104} .177} .135 . 042 CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 15 TasBLeE 48.—Com~position expressed in terms of percentages of moisture-free and fat-free material. Mois- Am- Phosphorus. ; ea| ture Total | moni- Sexi Description of sample. Storage! ‘fat-’ | Ash. | nitro- acal No. period.| free F Bens terol otala Soluble aos basis. gen. 5 ‘| uble. SS ee ee eee eee ee ee ID. 18h 82 | Round: Lefthind quarter...} 2 18] 77.17 4.75 | 15.00] 0.0439] 0.883! 0.688] 0.195 94 | Round: Right hind quarter -| 56 18] 76.56 4.76 | 14.83 . 0462 - 871 - 677 194 Chante ssa - ss. ssccc-ces 54 — 0.61 |+ 0.01 |— 0.17 |+ .0023 |— .012 |— .011 |— .001 83 | Rump: Left hind quarter...| 2 18] 77.12 4.61] 14.64 . 0434 - 885 - 669 - 216 95 | Rump: Right hind quarter..| 56 18) 77.11 4.78] 14.84 0477 - 848 - 666 - 182 GHanre 22st ao ce secs s 54 — 0.01 |+ 0.17 |+ 0.20 |+ .0043 |— .037 |— .003 |— .034 84 | Loin: Left hind quarter..... 2) 185) a7e23 4.64] 15.24 . 0410 . 876 . 663 Pals} 96 | Loin: Right hind quarter....| 56 18] 76.42 4.56 | 14.89 . 0478 . 810 - 619 - 191 Whanvere--s-ese- oss 54 — 0.81 |— 0.08 |— 0.35 |+ .0068 |— .066 |— .044 |— .022 Table 49 shows the composition of the 0.9 per cent sodium chlorid’ extract of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of the original material. Table 50 shows the composition of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of moisture-free and fat-free material. The amount of total soluble solids present in the meat has in- creased considerably during the storage period. It is of interest to note in this connection that only one other carcass that has been ex- amined thus far, viz, carcass No. 5, stored for 74 days, has shown appreciable increases in total soluble solids during storage. The increases that took place in this constituent in carcass No. 6 are greater than those which took place in carcass No. 5. There are appreciable increases in ash of extract, the significance of which is not yet apparent. Increases are observed in organic extractives that are similar to, but smaller than, the increases in total soluble solids. Changes in the acidity of the meat during storage are irregular and without significance. Table 51 shows the changes that took place in the composition of the fat during storage. The appreciable changes that appear to have taken place in the iodin absorption numbers of the samples are probably due to irregularities in the sampling of the fatty tissues rather than to actual changes in the iodin absorptive values of the fats. The principal changes that took place in the fats during storage were fairly marked increases in the acidity of the kidney and exter- nal fats, and an appreciable increase in the acidity of the intermus- cular fat. On the whole the increases in the acidity of the fats of this carcass are approximately equal to those that took place in this constituent in carcass No. 4, which was stored for 63 days in the bureaw’s cold-storage room. est "— 60T°+ | FFO'— | 6020+ | GTZ°+ | cet | STO— | FI:O+ | @9°0O— | E2°0+ | FT'0+ 280° GEG” 619° LTPP” LLG ° 803 (COXG 08 7 ¥S'G £6 96 40 7 Ore” &CP * €99° 8898" | 690° 91 T OF @ 91 > 90'S 02°96; «068 Gol — 6IT°+ | S00°— | P88l°+ | 88S°+ | 9ZU+ | TO;— | GZO0+F | 8ZO0+ | 69 T+ | 620+ PIT” GGG ° 999° 180¢° 8s" 90 °% 81% vo 'F LEE GE LE C&P 9ES ° SEF” 699° £018 ° OOT * 08 T 61% 66° 66% €9 "G6 £0 °F POT — €Il°+ | 110°— | @860°+ |] c8t°-+ | €§O0+ | 960—- | LO0+F | FO0— | LhO+ | 290+ €Il” p9g° ZL 9OLP © P9G ° &1'% 68 “T G0 'F aes Te “SS 10°? “oTeS.10 gouea "BAN108 | sorry | 7280 eter | ceraer | serantos erqnjog I | yeqog, ! -0101g -nsvog | Teiog, | . “SAT? erqnjog -U0N oMoeL | -oenxe | ‘ysy SE DION. dIUvSIO *snioydsoyg “WeS01JIN 610° Omee || Sse F960 ° 090 * VSP” PSF” 886° Gye BULLETIN 433, U. 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 88° 88° 0S0° 680° 6E1° TLLO° €10° 896° GOS © 018° 49° LES c8° ¢Z0* 611” PPT” L60T * €20° €PP- OL” £16 ° TL° 06°S £6" 0¢0° $60" aes 660° 660 * 88E ~ GLY 098 * g9° €S°¢ 18° 920° LOT" €oT° €90T ° 650° T8P ° LEV” 806° TL > 01 °S 66" £500 660 ‘0 eS 0 02800 | §10°0 96 ‘0 FLP 0 048 0 01 °0 cP g 91 °0 “aTMe310 “ores *e[qnyos |. *@sO0 ‘O1A2I “oTQB] | -efqnyos aIANIOS | gameg | Tio | CTY | -orora | Tog | M30 | THIOL | coon, | “S041 AME -ovlyxe | “‘YSy ENE dIUvsIC, *snioydsoyg “HeZ0.1IN “SprTos 12}0,.L |es81099 “SprTos 1210.1 bicelles eee a Soar separa aa “--esuByO BOGE. eae ees Sate eects Joyrenb pury IySTy sUyOrT Sie otsie mae On sroteeesscersesss-Igqienp PUIY Ie :UlO'T pq [scccccte oouscos we etererererees soso Srey He Gg acoones2ce RESP “7 -Joqrenb pury yusry :duny if Beat dac-| ona ei Rupee IODC E RR Joyrend pury 4jerT :dumnyy [Lee [aac ee ee AOR Se SCO SOE esueyo STROCU Ie aes erage soyrenb pury FUsIy :punoy QTR Cade Ga Ros eae qaqienb pury yey :punory ‘H ad “porred -g[dures Jo wor droseq 96 58 %6 £8 $6 68 ‘ON [elisg RS iTesee OG ll cise s Since aie Sala ieee ci Joyrenb pury ysiy suo T Sail iS SRE ASS Soles atheists Joyzenb pury jjeT :u10'T Sh aot MOOS seeps aco ae Joyrenb pury yqsty :duny Po ire) eee bie eee a ACO da Jeyrenb pury yoy :duny SMe OGR Ragas seas cae qoqrenb pury Iysiy :punory Oh iat Gina] EAE OS OS See dozrenb pury yey :punoyy ‘H ad *poried 981049 ‘e[dures Jo wor drs0seq “ywuaqwur aaif-7of pun aaif-ainysiow fo sabnzuaoed fo suia? ur possaudxa yoou fo jop4jxa pr1ojzyo wnrpos qua ad 60 fo uouyrsodmoj— 0G ATAV I, 96 8, 96 £8 ¥6 68 on [eteg 16 "qniajou ysaif fo sabojuaosad fo sua, ur passaudxa qoaw fo ovijxa pr4ojyo wnpos quad iad 60 {0 worpsodwog— GF ATA, CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. eT TABLE 51.—Composition of fat. a) Refrac- oe = Todin A cent . Serial ane Storage ti San Ran- Physical No. Description of sample period hee index Bey, cidity. characters. 40°C, | 25 Oleic acid D. #. 85 | Kidney fat: Left hind quarter... 2 18} 41.65 | 1.4560 OVSaipNiegatee- Normal. 97 | Kidney fat: Right hind quarter. . 56 18] 39.38 | 1.4560 SO) | ocGW@s 5 sc Do. 86 seieeuiuscular fat: Left hind} 2 18] 48.91 | 1.4570 288 Eee Onens Do. quarter. 98 | Intermuscular fat: Right hind | 56 18} 49.42) 1.4570 1.24 |...do.... client mee at quarter. odor mu flavor. 87 | External fat: Left hind quarter... 2 18] 53.60 } 1.4575 .39 |...do....| Normal. 99 | External fat: Right hind quarter..| 56 18 {| 56.75 | 1.4575 4.29 }...do.. .- Do. Table 52 shows the distribution of nitrogen and phosphorus upon the basis of 100 parts of the respective constituents in the meat at the beginning of the storage period. Changes in total nitrogen are slight and irregular and are with- out significance. Total soluble nitrogen shows fairly marked increases. This is the third experiment of this series where there has been an appre- ciable increase in the total soluble nitrogen in the meat during stor- age; the others have been Experiment No. 3, where the storage period was 44 days, and Experiment No. 5, where the storage period amounted to 74 days. The changes in coagulable nitrogen consist in appreciable decreases, which are approximately equal to those that took place in carcass No. 1, stored for 14 days, but which are much smaller than those observed in carcasses Nos. 2 and 3, stored for 28 and 42 days, respectively. Changes in noncoagulable nitrogen represent the true extent of the change of coagulable proteins into noncoagulable forms. Fairly marked increases are noted in this constituent, these increases being approximately equal to those observed in case of carcass No. 8, which had been stored for 42 days in the bureau’s cold-storage room. Proteose nitrogen shows very large relative increases, which are larger than those that took place in this constituent in any of the previous experiments of this series. The increases in the amino nitrogen that occurred during this experiment are smaller throughout than the corresponding increases obtained in Eexperime mt No. 3, where the storage period was 42 days in length. This is the first instance in this series of experiments in which the amino nitrogen has failed to show a continued increase when the cold-storage period was lengthened. This fact is probably due to the changed conditions of storage. The average increase in ammoniacal nitrogen in this experiment is less than the average increase in Experiment No. 2, where the storage 29°09— | P8°SE+ | 66'0+ | 80°E — | 00°0 8161+ | 89°2o+ | 8Z-Z9E+) S6"0Z+ | €8°S — | O8's+ | 00°0 PL OL G9 °S9 68 ‘92 19 "8S 00°00L | cs" 16°C 98 °T 16 “€T. 16 FT 88 “86 00 ‘00T TE “23 £8 "SP v9 “SL 98 FS 00°COT | 20° (46 10 GS ‘1T GLST 0€ “16 00 °00T Gh'6F— | S6°3E+ | S6"E+ | LT‘ZT— | 00°0 Sh'S + | OS°SE+ | Fr Sst} 06°ZI+ | O8'T — | E8+ | 00°0 SP “ST 10°S9 05°82, 09 “Ta 00°OOT | Zs" oF °€ 86% 88 “&T 69 ‘FT LG “8S 00 ‘00T LG 9% $6 “SF GG “Gd, SP PS 00°00T | 0¢° e9°% 89 °0 66 “GT 96 FT GZ “LS 00.001 8 1S— | 8693+ | 0'0— | 210 + | 00°0 6F "9 + | G8"Le+ | F9°S2Z+)| 69 6T 60°II— | 6+ | 000 © 46 CT 08 ‘59 VELL 96 "GS 00°O0T | Té° LTS 8L°T LEFT PL OL TI “26 00 ‘00T 18°96 €0 TS 06°22 OT @s 00°O0T | 62°0 8h S cg0 00 CT 6 FL €E 96 00 *00T ‘orueaio | “OFaBS or qe *[eovlm -asooy | LUT | -arquy : -I0Ur |‘eTqnjog] | TeIOL |. = |-ourmy | - -n3v0o | | ‘eTqnyTos | “7240.1, e[qnjog erqntog NyOsuy Oulu y Old -U0N nseog “snioydsoy “mOdOIIN, “OlUe310 BULLETIN 483,.U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. “snuoydsoyd 10207 pun uabo.wu 70107 fo sabpzuaoied sp passaudxa ‘snuoydsoyd pun uahownu fo uoyngr.yusigG— SG AAV, LE“9E SS "SCT | FE °e6 00 *00T 00°00T | 00°00T 9€ “87 PE "LET | $S°66 00 *00T 00°00T |} 00°00T TS “Lr G6 "SCL | TF 86 00 °00T 00°00T | 00°00T oluus -10UL | e[qNToS STAMOS | otqntog Go 68 00 °O00T &T “F8 00 °O0T 86 “66 00 *00T “‘snioydsoug GP °C6 00 *00T 84 °S6 00 “00T T9 °86 00 *00T 63 °9TT 00 *00T 16 “601 00 “00T FG “SOT 00 “001 “[eovlu -oumuly ZL 611 00 *00T 88 "LET 00 “00T LE 9GT 00 *00T LL ‘OFF 8T STI 0S °26 21 “E01 TZ °16 00 ‘00T 00°00T | 00°00E |} 00°00T | 00°00T 00°SEE | PF FIT FS °66 16901 | 28 °L0T 00°00E | GO°OOL | 00°00T | 00°00T | 00°00T C6 ‘IGS | €§ ‘SIT 16°28 LL “TOT 18°86 00 ‘00T 00 ‘COT 00 ‘O00T 00 ‘O00T 00 ‘O0T * “OCB . Si ks) £0 2} e 5 ne ED -ngeoy | tates | “120, “te80ayt N PG inka wrt scene P slsicinie woe ise 2154s “o> *°98TRBqO SICOST tek weesepee a urtitrstroyrenb par yasry :arovT | 96 ST es | aaa ae Sree cies ee aoyzenb puly 9JeT :Ul0T | $8 PGE lniea ir nteae copie aot ag ee ea amet aa a esueyO ro} Gena) tal ede ee REA COC RS qoyrenb pury 4ysiy :duny | 6 ERICA PS Seis eee Joyszenb pury 4joT :dumny | ¢8 GM ieee sim escicis less iaieseteleiniciel si sisiies ets are eas coop esueyy) Te OGh satis seats ee ees qoyrzenb pury iqsry :punoy | F6 Cheese aia| Ie eee eras eek iayrzenb pury 4jeT :punoy | zg ‘H da eee -gdures jo wor drazoseq ene Seon eres Teste aaa “qoqyI2nb Pury ysty :UlOT | 96 STENGMa Ses eae Ban Rea JoyIenb puly yjoT :ulo'yT | $8 OOF) Ba Oho pls Paes seine ee ene Ma Se roqzenb pully VYSIY :duiny C6 boy BSG ball (ea os ia De Be ie, EN a royrenb puly, 4jeT :cuny 8 San T*y fees Seine er peace Joyrenb pury ysTa :PUNOY | +6 o beay Aad pe secre eos gona Jajienb pury joy :punoy | Zs ‘HH Gd ee -e[dures jo uordrzosoq. ened 78 “poulad abp.ojs fo buywurbag yo syuangyusuoo aayoodsas ayy fo sjund oor fo sispq uo snuoydsoyd pun uaboupu fo woungiysig— ZG ATV, CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 79 period was but half as long; while each increase is less than the corre- sponding increase in Experiment No. 3, where the storage period was but three-fourths as long, and where the preformed ammonia was present in the criginal material in about the same quantity as in the present experiment. Each portion of the stored quarter contained less total phosphorus than the corresponding portion of the fresh quarter. The signifi- cance of these apparent decreases is far from being clear. Table 53 shows the distribution of nitrogen and phosphorus ex- pressed as percentages of total nitrogen and total phosphorus. The data for nitrogen do not demand special discussion. Changes in insoluble phosphorus are of the usual irregular nature and their significance has not been established. The changes in soluble inorganic phosphorus are in the nature of distinct increases. As regards the amount of preformed inorganic phosphorus that it contained, the fresh material is comparable to that used for Experiments Nos. 1 and 8. By comparing the increases in the inorganic phosphorus ratio in the same three experiments it is found that the increases during the 54-day storage period of the present experiment are greater, on the whole, than the corresponding increases effected by the shorter periods of storage of Experiments Nos. 1 and 8, the only exception being that the change in the round in this experiment is somewhat less than the corresponding change in Experiment No. 3. On the whole, the results are in conformity with those obtained in the autolysis experiment. Changes in-soluble organic phosphorus are of less significance than the corresponding changes in inorganic phosphorus. EXPERIMENT NO. 7. HISTORY OF CARCASS. A “grade” Shorthorn steer 4 years old, rather rough in conforma- tion and only fairly well finished, was slaughtered in the usual manner. The carcass was allowed to hang 1 hour on the killing floor, after which it was run into the fore cooler, where it was held 16 hours, and then into the main cooler, where it was held 51 hours at 30° F. The humidity of the fore bole was 93 per cent and that of the main cooler 92 per cent of saturation. The weight of the warm carcass was 814 pounds. After storage in the packing-house coolers for a total period of 67 hours, the hind quarters were cut from the carcass, carefully wrapped, and transported to the bureau’s cold- storage rooms, where one hind quarter was immediately prepared for analysis while the other was placed in cold-storage room No. 1, where it was held in storage. 80 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. © STORAGE, The second quarter of beef was held in cold storage for an addi- tional period of 177 days. The temperature of cold-storage room No. 1 remained fairly uniform, ranging between 32° and 36° F. during the larger part of the time. On a few occasions the tem- perature ran up to from 39° to 48° F. for a few hours at a time, in consequence of difficulties that were experienced with the refrigerat- ing equipment, which finally necessitated the bringing of the experi- ment to a close. It is not considered that the rises in temperature that have been noted affected the value of the experiment appreci- ably; although the meat could have been held in cold storage for some time longer had these difficulties not been encountered. The humidity of the cold-storage room varied from 70 to 84 per cent of saturation. The following are a few of the observations that were made concerning the condition of the beef during storage: After it had been 48 days in cold storage the quarter of beef was in generally good condition. The exposed flank and shank muscles had become darker in color and rather hard and dry in texture. There was a slight growth of mold on the eut muscular surfaces at the butt of the round and the tip of the loin. At the end of 98 days of cold storage the beef was still in good condition. The color of the fat had changed from an original light yellow to a grayish white. There was a rather heavy growth of mold on the inside of the flank and lighter growths on the tip of the loin and on the exposed muscular tissue at the butt of the round. A slight odor was given off from the exposed, cut, muscular surfaces, but none was apparent from other parts of the quarter. At the close of the storage period, or after a total period of 180 days of cold storage, the quarter of beef had a badly desiccated appearance, the flank being as hard as a board, and the muscles at the shank being hard, shrunken, and dark-brown in color. There was a slight growth of mold on the flank, on the tip of the loin, and on the exposed muscles at the butt cf the round. The fat had become very dark in color. Although there were no apparent evidences of putrefaction, the quarter of beef was considered not to be in good marketable condition on account of the badly dried out condition of the meat. The beef showed a shrinkage of 10 per cent during storage. QUALITY OF MEAT. Quarter of beef stored 68 hours.—This quarter of beef was of only fair quality, being rather rough in form and very unevenly covered with fat. There was a heavy covering of fat on the top of the loin, while the round was poorly covered. The organoleptic properties CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 81 of the broiled test steak were described by the respective judges as follows: : Mr. A.—The tenderloin is fairly tender, the loin portion rather tough, and the flank end very tough. All portions of the steak have a good flavor. Mr. B.—As a whole the steak has a good flavor and is fairly tender. The different portions follow the usual order as regards tenderness. Mr. C.—The tenderloin and loin portions of the steak are comparatively tender, while the flank end is rather tough. ‘The steak is juicy and has a good flavor. Quarter of beef stored 179 days, 20 hours——When the quarter of beef was cut up for analysis, the cut surface at the butt of the round had a normal red color. Where the surface of the meat was covered with fat, the red color extended to the fat; but where the muscles were exposed to the air, there was a dark-brown zone extending jnward to a depth of about a quarter of an inch from the surface. The odor from the cut surface was a trifle “ old ” and somewhat acrid, but there was no odor of putrefaction. When the loin was cut up, the freshly cut surfaces had about the same appearance and odor as had the cut surface of the round. The kidney and external fat had a strong and rather rancid odor. The opinions of the judges as to the organoleptic properties of the broiled test steal were as foilows: Mr. A.—The loin portion is rather dry and has an “old” and rather unpleas- ant flavor. The flank portion is tougher than the loin and has an “ old” flavor. Mr. C.—On the whole the steak is comparatively dry and tough. The flavor is “old” and a trifle unpleasant. The quality of this steak is not nearly so good as that of steaks previously tested which had been cut from quarters of beef that had been held in cold storage for a few weeks. This steak may be classed as edible, but not palatable. No ill effects were suffered from eating the meat. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF CARCASS NO. 7. Tables 54 to 60, inclusive, show the changes which took place in the composition of carcass No. 7 during 177 days in cold storage. Table 54 shows the composition of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of the original material. TaBLe 54.—Composition expressed in terms of percentages of fresh material. Phosphorus. Serial : Storage] Mois- . a, Description of sample. period. | ture. Fat. | Ash. | nitro- | acal In- gen. | nitro- olu- ota solu- Ee ble Di Bs 88 | Round: Left hind quarter...| 2 20) 73.59 | 3.73 | 1.07 1.13 114 | Round: Right hind quarter. .| 3.4 179 20} 70.91 | 4.66 3.4 0196 203 16 040 89 | Rump: Left hind ae | 2 20} 71.61 | 6.32 | 1.01 38. 26 0091 194 | .145 049 115 | Rump: Right hind quarter..|179 20 | 70.36 | 5.77 | 1.08 3.49 0205 190 | .154 036 Loin: Left hind paar od epee 2 20 | 69.06] 9.01] .98 3. 2 3.3 90 116 | Loin: Right hinc quarter . ../179 20 | 69.80 | 6.19 | 1.09 56861°—Bull. 433—17——-6 82 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table 55 shows the composition of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of the moisture-free and fat-free material. .. The decreases in the moisture content of the meat during storage are greater than those that took place in any of the other carcasses of this series during shorter periods of storage, excepting in case of car- cass No. 5 stored for 76 days. Slight irregular changes in the ash content of the meat have no significance. 7 Tasir 55.—Composition expressed in terms of percentages of moisture-free and fat-free material. Mois- aa Am- Phosphorus. i , ota moni- can Description of sample. See fat-free Ash. | nitro- | acal gen. nitro- Total. Solu- |Insolu- basis. gen. ble. ble. D. H. 88 | Round: Left hind quarter...| 2 20] 76.45 4.72 | 15.07] 0.0410] 0.888} 0.693] 0.195 114 | Round: Right hind quarter../179 20) 74.37 4.62] 14.28 - 0805 - 832 - 665 - 167 Chang er treaee es eercteceiee 177 — 2.08 |— 0.10 |— 0.79 |+ .0395 |— .056 |— .027 |— .028 89 | Rump: Left hind quarter...| 2 20] 76.44 4.56 | 14.75 - 0411 - 878 - 656 . 222 115 | Rump: Right hind quarter../179 20] 74.66 4.52 | 14.62 - 0857 - 194 - 644 - 150 Chanvereneeeeeeeeeenee 177 — 1.78 |— 0.04 |— 0.13 |+ .0446 |— .084 |— .011 |— .072 90 | Loin: Left hind quarter..... 2 20} 75.89 4.47 | 14.70 - 0361 - 836 - 658 -178 416 | Loin: Right hind quarter..../179 20) 74.41 4.54} 13.96 - 0780 . 169 - 599 -176 Chanvereceerseeeseseee 177 — 1.48 |+ 0.07 |— 0.74 |+ .0419 |— .066 i -059 |— .608 Table 56 shows the composition of the 0.9 per cent sodium chlorid extract of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of the original material. Table 57 shows the composition of the sodium chlorid extract of the meat expressed in terms of percentages of the moisture-free and fat-free material. The amount of total soluble solids present in the meat increased considerably during storage, the increase being greater than that which took place in any of the previous experiments of this series. Similar changes are noted in the organic extractives. Changes in acidity are irregular and comparatively small and are without significance. Table 58 shows the changes which took place in the composition of the fat during storage. Appreciable decreases have taken place in the refractive indices of the samples, which are in harmony with the large increases in the amount of free acid present in the samples. Large increases have taken place in the acidity of the kidney and external fats, the increases amounting to 10.04 and 9.48 per cent, respectively. These increases in acidity are greater than those that took place in these fats in any of the previous experiments of this series, except Experiment No. 5, where the increase amounted to 83 CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 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[eovra |. 9soo} | _ erqey |. Me TANIOS | oF ance SIAMIOS | -posag | TOL | -oumy | CHV | org | NaG00 naeoy CURLIN Be eee, as N otuco 18 | “ay dumes Jo wor dposacy rer oe *‘snaoydsoy "TOSO.1TN ‘powwad abpu.ojs fo burwurbog yo syuanqysuos aayoadsou ayy fo syund oor fo sisng uo snuoydsoyd pun urbo«ru fo uoynguisyy— be BISV I, 86 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. carcass had been held in storage for a period of 177 days, are oniy shghtly larger than those that took place in Experiment No. 5, where the carcass had been held in storage for a period of only 74 days. The increases that have taken place in proteose nitrogen are com- paratively small, being only slightly greater than those which took place in the carcass stored two weeks, and not so large as those which took place in the carcass stored four weeks. Amino nitrogen more than doubled during the 177-day storage period in each part of the carcass examined. That the largest in- creases were effected during the longest period of storage is in final conformity with the results obtained in the autolysis experiment. Ammoniacal nitrogen increased to a greater degree during the storage period in this experiment than it had previously increased during the shorter storage periods, the increases each amounting to approximately 100 per cent. The total phosphorus content of each portion of the stored quar- ter was less than that of corresponding portions of the fresh quarter. The average apparent decrease was greater than the average ap- parent decrease in this constituent in any of the previous experi- ments, and was accompanied by the largest average loss of total nitrogen. The cause of these apparent losses is not evident. Table 60 shows the distribution of nitrogen and phosphorus ex- pressed as percentages of total nitrogen and total phosphorus. These data are of particular interest in view of the fact that one of the quarters of this carcass of beef had been held in cold storage at a temperature above freezing for a period of nearly six months. As regards the nitrogen compounds, the quarter of beef that had been held in cold storage for a period of 180 days contained a larger proportion of its total nitrogen in the forms of total soluble, non- coagulable, amino, and ammoniacal nitrogen, respectively, than did any of the carcasses that had been stored for shorter periods of time. On the other hand, the proportions of total nitrogen present in the forms of proteose and coagulable nitrogen had, in this quarter, val- ues that were intermediate between their highest and their lowest values in this series of experiments. Insoluble phosphorus, even with the long storage period of this experiment, showed irregular changes, increasing in the loin and de- creasing in the round and rump, so that no additional light is thrown upon the nature of the changes in this constituent during cold storage. Changes in total soluble phosphorus are irregular and have no determined significance. The actual increases which occurred in the ratios of soluble inor- ganic phosphorus to total phosphorus during the storage period of this experiment are greater than the corresponding increases which have taken place during the shorter periods of previous experiments, although the change per cent in this ratio, in case of the round, is — CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 87 less than that obtained in Experiment No. 5. The changes, on the whole, are rather small in comparison with the length of the storage period ; though it should be noted, in this connection, that the amount of preformed soluble inorganic phosphorus in the fresh meat was rather large. The changes that took place in the ratios of mine organic phos- phorus to total phosphorus have rather less significance than the corresponding changes in the inorganic phosphorus ratios. SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL STUDIES. The general purpose of the cold-storage experiments, the results of which have been reported in some detail, was to determine the cause, nature, and extent of the changes that take place in fresh beef during cold storage, with particular reference to the effect of such changes upon the wholesomeness and nutritive value of the product. As regards the conditions of storage, the experiments may be di- vided into two groups, the first of which would include those experi- - ments carried out in the bureau’s cold-storage room, and the second of which would consist of the single experiment conducted in the packing-house cooler. The first group includes Experiments Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7, while the second group consists of Experiment No. 6. The two series of experiments are of value in showing the effect of different conditions of storage upon the nature and ex- tent of the changes which take place in beef during storage and upon the length of the storage period. In the experiments of the first group the conditions of storage were fairly uniform, the temperatures varying between 32° and 36° F., and the humidity between 70 and 80 per cent of saturation. The principal variable element in these experiments was the length of the storage period, so that, in large part at least, the difference in the extent of the changes which took place in the beef in the several experiments may be considered as due to this factor. In the case of Experiment No. 6, which was carried out in the packing-house cooler, the conditions of storage were also fairly uni- form paaees ae the experiment. The temperature varied between 28° and 35 , but remained, for the most part, at 32° F., and the humidity range a from 92 to 95 per cent of saturation. Certain differences were observed in the initial composition of the beef used in the several experiments, and these had to be taken into consideration in order properly to interpret the changes that took place in the meat during storage. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THK BEEF, In the series of experiments carried on in the bureau’s cold-storage room, the principal effects of storage upon the physical characteristics of the beef were shrinkage in weight and a hardening and darkening 88 BULLETIN 483, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the exposed muscular and fatty tissues. The shrinkage in weight varied from 2.15 per cent in the case of the beef held in cold storage for 14 days to 10 per cent in that held in storage for 177 days. Slight growths of mold appeared on the exposed muscular tissues in the middle stages of this series of experiments, but did not become exten- sive even in the case of the beef stored for 177 days. In fact the progressive drying out of the meat during storage inhibited the growth of mold. The hardening and darkening of the tissues of the meat, together with its shrunken appearance after the longer periods of storage, undoubtedly lowered the market value of the product, en- tirely apart from any question as to its wholesomeness or nutritive value. On the other hand, the physical changes which took place in the beef stored for 2 and 4 weeks, periods which correspond to the length of time that beef is held in cold storage in commercial prac- tice, were not marked and did not lower the market value of the product. In the experiment which was carried on in the packing-house cooler, where the temperature was slightly lower and the humidity much higher than in the bureau’s cold-storage room, the shrinkage in the weight of the beef at the end of the 54-day storage period amounted to 3.27 per cent, as compared with 5.26 per cent in the case of the beef stored in the bureau’s cooler for only 28 days. The beef stored in the packing-house cooler was covered with a heavy growth of mold after 54 days in storage, so heavy, in fact, that it appeared that the meat could not be carried safely in storage for a longer time, and the experiment was concluded. The beef was con- sidered still to be in marketable condition. The lowered shrinkage and the increased growth of mold noted in this experiment were un- doubtedly the result of the greater humidity of the packing-house cooler, as compared with that of the bureau’s cold-storage room. ORGANOLEPTIC PROPERTIES OF THE BEEF. The principal effect of cold storage upon the organoleptic proper- ties of the beef was a marked increase in tenderness; but the extent of this change did not bear a direct relation to the length of the storage period. In fact, the increase in tenderness of beef stored for from 2 to 4 weeks was practically as great as that in beef stored for much longer periods of time. Although fiavor is one of the qualities of meat in the judgment of which individuals may differ greatly, yet it was the opinion of the authors that, on the whole, storage did not improve the flavor of the meat. Storage caused a gradual change of flavor to the extent that the beef stored for the longer periods of time was designated as “old,” and was considered in some cases to be less appetizing than the flavor of fresh meat. Similar changes were noted in the odor of the freshly cut surfaces of the cold-storage meats. CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 89 The quarter of beef that had been held in storage in the packing- - house cooler for a period of 54 days possessed organoleptic properties that were similar to the beef that had been stored in the bureau’s cold-storage room for approximately the same periods of time. The growth of mold upon this quarter of beef was a surface condition, and while it was indicative of conditions favorable to the rapid de- velopment of bacteria and the consequent deterioration of the meat, no such change had yet taken place. Although in a few instances exposed portions of the stored quarters of beef showed signs of deterioration, yet in all cases, as judged by the organoleptic tests ordinarily applied, the edible portions of these quarters would have been classed as wholesome. The authors ate liberally of the test steak cut from each quarter of beef, both fresh and stored, and in no case did they suffer any ill effects from so doing. In this connection, however, it should be noted that the authors were healthy and well-nourished individuals. CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE BEEF. Briefly summarized, the changes which took place in the chemical composition of the beef during storage consisted of a transformation of the more complex constituents of the meat into simpler compounds, with the consequent accumulation of certain of the end products of those changes. In general the extent of the changes increased with the period of storage. The changes were very similar in nature to, but less in extent than, those that took place in lean beef during aseptic autolysis, as reported in a previous section of this paper. Since the results of the bacteriological studies of the beef have shown that there was no appreciable penetration of bacteria into the meat during storage it may be concluded that the changes which took place in the beef were due, in large part at least, to the action of enzyms. Exception must be made to the kidney and external fatty tissues, which were exposed to the action of bacteria. The changes which took place in the individual constituents of the meat during storage and the significance of those changes as affecting the wholesomeness and nutritive value of the meat are discussed in the following paragraphs. Moisture, fat-free basis —Expecting in the case of the quarter of beef stored for 14 days the moisture content of the meat decreased during storage. In general the loss of moisture became greater as the period of storage was lengthened, but the loss occurred less rapidly in the meat stored in the packing-house cooler, with its high humidity, than in the beef stored in the bureau’s cold-storage room at a lower humidity. These facts are in keeping with the observations made concerning the shrinkage in weight of the cold-storage beef. Ash.—The slight irregular changes noted in this constituent are without significance. $0 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Total nitrogen.—With the exception of the quarter of beef that had been held in storage for 14 days, where there was an apparent increase in the nitrogen content of the meat, each quarter of beef showed a slight apparent decrease in nitrogen content during storage. The increase in nitrogen in the one instance must be regarded as due to some unknown analytical error; but the fact that the nitrogen content of all the other quarters of beef that had been stored for longer periods of time decreased makes it appear that there was a slight actual loss of nitrogen from the meat during storage. However, the decreases were not distinct enough to make the results convincing. Total soluble solids ——The changes that took place in this con- stituent during the storage of the beef did not bear a direct relation either to the length of the storage period or to the conditions of stor- age. ‘The quarters stored for 14, 28, and 63 days showed considerable decreases in total soluble solids; that stored for 42 days showed prac- - tically no change; while those stored for 54, 74, and 177 days showed ‘distinct increases. The decreases in the amount of total soluble solids that occurred during the storage periods are contrary to the commonly accepted idea that there is necessarily an increase in this constituent of meat during storage. It appears that there was first a decrease in total soluble solids in the early part of the storage period, and later an increase in this constituent as the storage period was lengthened. ‘The probable explanation of these peculiar changes will be discussed in connection with total soluble nitrogen. Ash of extract.—On account of an unavoidable analytical error en- countered in the determination of this constituent, due to the neces- sity of correcting for a relatively large quantity of sodium chlorid in the presence of a small amount of ash, the data for this constituent are not considered to have any special significance. Organic extractives—The changes in this constituent were of the same general character as those which took place in the total solids. Total soluble nitrogen—The changes that took place in this con- stituent did not proceed in regular order. Beef stored for 14, 28, and 63 days showed slight decreases in total soluble nitrogen, while that stored for 42, 54, 74, and 177 days exhibited slight to appreciable gains in that constituent. On the whole the changes in total soluble nitrogen during storage were not large. The interpretation of these changes, however, is of considerable significance. The probable explanation of the initial decrease in total soluble nitrogen and of the subsequent increase in that constituent is, in general, the same as that which has already been suggested to ac- count for the similar changes observed in the autolysis experiment reported in a previous part of this paper. That explanation need not be repeated here. The increases observed in the total soluble nitrogen content of meat stored for longer periods must be regarded as being due, in large part CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 91 at least, to enzym action. In the light of present information the enzym protease may be considered as the active agent. Coagulable nitrogen—The changes that took place in this con- stituent during storage consisted of fairly marked decreases, which in general became larger as the storage period was lengthened. How- ever, because of the irregular changes that took place in total soluble nitrogen, which in turn affected the amounts of coagulable nitrogen present in the meat at a given time, the full extent of the trans- formation of coagulable nitrogen into noncoagulable forms is not shown by the decreases in coagulable nitrogen, but is shown rather by the increases in noncoagulable nitrogen. Noncoagulable nitrogen—This constituent. increased continuously throughout the cold-storage periods employed in these experiments. The average increase in the noncoagulable nitrogen in the beef stored for 14 days was 1.36 per cent, while the increase in the beef stored for 177 days was 37.39 per cent of the noncoagulable nitrogen origi- nally present. In large part at least, the changes of coagulable pro- tein into noncoagulable forms may be regarded as being due to the action of the enzym protease. Proteose nitrogen—While the relative increase in this constituent during storage was large in each experiment, there was no direct relation between the length of the storage period and the increase in proteose nitrogen. The average increase in this constituent during 14 days of storage amounted to 34.04 per cent and the increase during 54 days of storage amounted to 268.91 per cent of the amount initi- ally present, while the increase observed in case of the quarter stored for 177 days amounted to but 57.72 per cent of the proteose nitrogen initially present. The proteoses are, of course, an intermediate product in the autolysis of muscle proteins, and no marked accumu- lation of this product during cold storage was to have been expected. While in some cases the increases in the proteose content of the cold- storage meat were relatively large, yet in no case did the proteose nitrogen constitute any considerable proportion of the total nitrogen of the meat, the maximum average percentage being 1.97 in the case of carcass No. 6, which had been stored for a period of 54 days. Amino nitrogen.—Without exception, each quarter of beef con- tained more amino nitrogen at the end of its storage period than did the corresponding fresh quarter, and likewise, without exception, the longer a quarter was held in storage at a given temperature the greater was the relative increase in this constituent. In the quarter that was stored in the packing-house cooler for 54 days, however, the amino nitrogen did not increase by as great an amount as did that in the quarter held in storage in the bureaw’s cold-storage room for 42 days. This was probably due to the lower storage temperature in the first instance. 92 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The conduct of this constituent in these experiments was entirely in harmony with the fact that the amino nitrogen, for the most part, represents the accumulation of amino acids, the end products of the autolysis of muscle proteins, and that, within certain limits, the extent of the autolysis increases as its duration and the tem- perature at which it occurs are increased. Although the enzym erepsin is probably most directly concerned in the splitting off of amino acids, yet undoubtedly all classes of proteolytic enzyms pres- ent in muscular tissue participate either directly or indirectly in bringing about the increase in amino nitrogen, so that the increase in this constitutent is theoretically the best index of the extent of proteolysis in muscular tissue. In each of the cold-stored quarters of beef the relative increase in amino nitrogen was large, varying from an average of 16.57 to 163.22 per cent of the amount present in the fresh material. Like- wise, the actual amounts present, though not really large, formed a considerable proportion of the total nitrogen, varying from less than 3 per cent to more than 7 per cent of the total nitrogen, according to the duration and temperature of storage. As the error involved in the determination of these amounts of amino nitrogen in meats is relatively small, the increase in this constituent undoubtedly affords not only the best theoretical, but also the best practical, measure of the extent of autolysis in cold-stored meats. Ammoniacal nitrogen.—In general the behavior of ammoniacal nitrogen in this series of experiments was much the same as that of amino nitrogen, although the increases that occurred in ammoniacal nitrogen did not correspond as closely to the time and temperature of storage as did those in amino nitrogen, but involved an additional factor. It may be recalled that in the autolysis experiment the for- mation of ammoniacal nitrogen during the incubation of the beef took place less rapidly as this product accumulated in the material, even though the retarding agency, in all probability, was not the ammonia itself. Similar relations are to be observed in some cases in the cold-storage experiments. The way in which ammoniacal nitrogen increases with the time of storage when the temperature of storage remains constant may be seen by comparing the results of Experiments Nos. 1 and 2 on the one hand, and Experiments Nos. 3, 4, and 7 on the other hand. The retarding effect of a lower temperature may be seen by comparing the results of Experiment No. 6, with its 54-day storage period, with those obtained during shorter periods of storage at higher tempera- tures. The slower rate of ammonia production that 1s observed when the amount of preformed ammonia is relatively large, can be seen by comparing the ammonia increases of Experiment No. 3 with those of Experiment No. 2, and the increases in the loins of Experiments Nos. 4 and 5. CHANGES IN'FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 93 On account of the:many factors that seem to influence the forma- tion of ammoniacal nitrogen and because of the small quantities of ammoniacal nitrogen found in the beef, even after long periods of storage, the changes in this constituent have not constituted a good index of the extent of autolysis in the cold-stored beef; nor can they be regarded as being of any practical significance. The production of ammonia is probably largely due to the combined action of several proteolytic enzyms. Acidity —tThe beef stored for 14, 28, and 177 days showed slight apparent decreases in acidity, while that stored for 42, 63, and 74 days exhibited from slight to appreciable gains in that constituent. The presence of acid-forming enzyms in muscular tissue is well known, and the increases that took place in the acidity of the meats were undoubtedly due, in large part at least, to enzym action. Total phosphorus.—With the exception of the quarter of beef stored for 14 days, each cold-stored quarter contained less total phosphorus than the corresponding fresh quarter. This seeming loss of phosphorus was accompanied in every case but one by a corresponding loss in total nitrogen. Similar variations in total phosphorus and total nitrogen were observed during the autolysis experiment. Of themselves these data would go to show that phos- phorus actually was lost from the meat during storage; yet, in view of the improbability of such an occurrence and the smallness of the apparent losses, the evidence would scarcely justify such a conclusion. Insoluble phosphorus was determined by difference, and what is stated in the following paragraph applies inversely to this constituent. Total soluble phosphorus—tThe changes that occurred in total soluble phosphorus during the cold storage of the beef were of a very irregular nature. The changes were sometimes large and sometimes small, sometimes positive and sometimes negative, but in no case did they seem to bear any relation to any known factor. Even in Experiment No. 7, where the storage period was 177 days, two de- creases and one increase in this constituent were observed. It can only be inferred that the solubility of some portion of the organic phosphorus was influenced by some obscure factor that was not prop- erly controlled in these experiments, and which escaped detection in the autolysis experiment in consequence of the extensive cleavage of insoluble phosphorus. Obviously, therefore, in the present case no particular significance can be attached to these irregular changes. Soluble organic phosphorus—The changes that have occurred in the soluble organic phosphorus of the beef during the storage periods of these experiments appear to have been influenced not only by the length of the storage period and by the temperature of storage, but also by the relative amounts of preformed soluble organic and inorganic phosphorus contained in the fresh material. In order that these relations may be studied, therefore, the experiments must be classified, not only with reference to the time and the temperature of storage, but also with regard to the initial distribution of soluble organic and inorganic phosphorus. In reference to the latter fac- tor, Experiments Nos. 2 and 4 should be placed in one group and the other experiments in a second group, since the material used in [x- periments Nos. 2 and 4 each contained a greater proportion of total phosphorus in the soluble inorganic form and a smaller proportion 94 BULLETIN 433, U. &. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the soluble organic form than did the material used in any of the other experiments.* If each of these groups be considered separately, and Experiment No. 6 be omitted from the second group because of its lower storage temperature, it will be seen that, in general, the cleavage of soluble organic phosphorus increases as the period of storage is lengthened. If Experiment No. 6, with its 54-day storage period, is compared with Hxperiment No. 3, with its 42-day storage period, it will be seen that the cleavage seems to be retarded by a reduction of the storage tem- perature. If Experiments Nos. 2 and 4 are compared with Experi- ments Nos. 1, 3, 5, and 7 it will be seen that, proportionately to the time of storage, the cleavage is less where the fresh material is com- paratively rich in inorganic phosphorus and poor in soluble organic phosphorus than where the reverse is the case. This latter observa- tion is in harmony with the results obtained in the autolysis experi- ment, where it was found that the rate of cleavage of soluble organic phosphorus grew less as the amount of soluble organic phosphorus diminished. (in the discussion of this constituent and the fol- lowing, the data referred to are those contained in the last table of each experiment, and the changes referred to are those obtained by subtracting the figures for the stored quarter from those for the fresh quarter or vice versa. The reason for making the comparison in this way has been previously indicated.) Lnorganic phosphorus—The changes in inorganic phosphorus that occurred during the storage of the beef appear to have been influ- enced by the same factors that influenced the changes in soluble organic phosphorus, viz, the length of the storage period, the temper- ature of storage, and the distribution of organic and inorganic phos- phorus in the fresh material. The factors that retarded the cleavage of soluble organic phosphorus, of course, also retarded the formation of inorganic phospherus; and the factors that accelerated the one accelerated the other. The principal difference between the changes that occurred in soluble inorganic and in soluble organic phosphorus is that the amount of the first increased, while that of the second decreased. Likewise, the changes in soluble inorganic phosphorus afford a somewhat better idea of the phosphorous cleavage that takes place during cold storage than do the corresponding changes in soluble organic phosphorus, since the inorganic phosphorus is an end product and is not affected by the irregular changes in the solubility of the erganic phosphorous compounds. Tt is not clear from these experiments whether the inorganic phos- phorus that was formed during storage was derived from phos- phatides, nucleoproteins, phosphocarnic acid, or other organic phes- phorous compounds. Undoubtedly, however, it resulted chiefiy through enzymatic activity, although the particular enzyms that were concerned in its production are not indicated with certainty. Presumably, however, the phosphonucleases were less concerned than were the phosphatases. Refractive indices—The fats from the beef stored for the shorter periods showed practically no changes in their refractive indices, while the fats from the beef which had been stored for 74 and 177 days showed appreciable decreases in those values that are to be 1 Experiment No. 7 in reality forms a third group, less than midway between the other two. This distinction, however, has not been made in order to avoid complicating the subsequent discussion. CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 95 explained by the comparatively large increases in the amount: of free fatty acids present in those samples. Free fatty acids —There was a marked and continuous increase in the free fatty acid content of the external and kidney fats during the course of the storage experiments and a corresponding deteriora- tion in the quality of those fats. The average actual increase in the acidity of the two fats ranged from 0.46 per cent in the case of the beef stored 14 days to 9.76 per cent in the case of that stored 177 days. The changes in the acidity of the intermuscular fat were compara- tively small, varying from an increase of 0.17 per cent in the case of the beef stored for 14 days to an increase of 1.42 per cent in the case of that stored for 74 days. The reason for the slight increase in the acidity of the intermuscular fat as compared with the large inereases in the acidity of the kidney and external fats is clearly ap- parent. The intermuscular fat was protected from bacteriological invasion by its covering of muscular and external fatty tissues, while the kidney and external fats were exposed to the invasion of molds and bacteria. The changes that took place in the intermuscular fat were due, in very large part at least, to the action of the enzym lipase, while the changes that took place in the kidney and external fats were due principally to bacterial action. EFFECTS OF COLD STORAGE UPON THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF THE BEEF. Several factors must be taken into consideration in order properly to interpret the results of these experiments in terms of their effect upon the nutritive value of the meat. The more important factors are as follows: (1) Changes in the moisture content of the meat; (2) changes in the proportions of nonedible and edible meat in the quarters of beef; (8) changes in the composition of the meat. The analytical data obtained in these experiments show that, with the exception of the quarter of beef that had been stored for 14 days, each of the quarters lost moisture during storage, and that in general the decrease in the moisture content of the meat was greater the longer the storage period. This loss of moisture is in effect a process of concentration, causing an actual increase in the amount of food constituents present in a given weight of stored meat, as compared with that present in a like weight of fresh meat. Thus, by referring to Tables 19, 26, 33, 40, 47, and 54 it may be noted that the average percentages of total nitrogen, fat, and ash increased during the storage period of each experiment, and that in general the increase was greater the longer the period of storage. These data show the composition of the lean meat and are a fair indication of the extent to which the nutritive value per given weight of meat was increased through loss of moisture. The increase in nutritive value, however, is only apparent, not real; for while the loss of moisture effects an increase in the nutritive value of the meat per unit weight, it also diminishes the weight of the carcass; so that at best the carcass contains no more nutritive material after storage than before. Indeed, the available food ma- terial in the carcass tends to become less; for, in consequence of the drying out and deterioration in quality of the exposed muscular and fatty tissues, there is greater wastage in the preparation of the retail 96 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cuts from cold-stored meats than from fresh meats; and the wastage becomes greater as the storage period is lengthened, other conditions being the same. The third factor to be considered is the effect of the changes in the nature of the constituents of the meat upon the nutritive value of the product. These changes have to do only with the edible portions of the beef. The changes in the nitrogenous constituents of the meat ‘have been in the nature of a process of autodigestion, the more complex nitrog- enous compounds having been broken down into simpler compounds. These changes are represented in Tables 12 to 60, inclusive, chiefly by decreases in coagulable nitrogen and by increases in amino nitro- gen. In general the extent of these changes has been greater the longer the period of storage. Table 60 shows that in the fresh quarter of beef from 2.47 to 2.53 per cent of the total nitrogen was present as amino nitrogen, while the corresponding quarter after having been stored for 177 days contained from 6.46 to 7.36 per cent of its total nitrogen in that form, the increases having amounted to 3.99 and 4.83 per cent, respectively. In the light of our present knowledge concerning the functions of amino acids in human nutrition, it seems improbable that the changes that have taken place in the nitrogenous constituents of the meat, even after very long periods of storage, have been such as to affect appreciably the nutritive value of the product. The changes that have taken place in the other constituents of the cold-storage beef have consisted principally in the breaking down of soluble organic phosphorous compounds with a corresponding formation of inorganic phosphates. Thus, the fresh quarter of car- cass No. 7 contained from 22.19 to 26.78 per cent of its total phos- - phorus in the form of soluble organic phosphorus, while the quarter stored for 177 days contained but from 3.77 to 6.67 per cent of its total phosphorus in that form. It is, therefore, apparent that a very marked change has taken place in the nature of the phosphorous compounds. The question as to the relative nutritive value of organic and inor- ganic phosphorous compounds is one concerning which there is con- siderable difference of opinion among those who have investigated the subject. While it has been determined that, under certain condi- tions, inorganic phosphates can be made to supply the phosphorus requirement of the body, yet it has by no means been established that phosphorus in inorganic combination has a nutritive value equal to that of the organic forms of phosphorus. In the light of our incom- plete knowledge concerning the relative nutritive values of organic and inorganic forms of phosphorus, no positive conclusion can be drawn regarding the effects of the changes in the nature of the phosphorous compounds upon the nutritive value of the meat. On the whole it would appear that the chemical changes that occurred during the storage of beef in these experiments did not appreciably affect the nutritive value of the meat when the period of storage was limited to that customarily employed in commercial practice. Indeed, even when the period of storage was greatly pro- longed, evidence is lacking to show that the nutritive value of the meat was diminished. Yet, in view of the more extensive chemical changes that took place during the longer periods of storage and CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 97 on account of the deficiency of our knowledge regarding the nutri- tive values of the various cleavage products, it is by no means impos- sible that the nutritive value of beef may be decreased by unduly long periods of storage. FACTORS AFFECTING THE TIME THAT FRESH BEEF CAN BE STORED AT TEMPERATURES ABOVE FREEZING. One of the objects in conducting the series of experiments reported in this paper was to determine the length of time that fresh beef could be held in cold storage at temperatures above freezing and re- main in wholesome condition. The results of these experiments and of observations upon the commercial handling of fresh beef in cold storage have shown that the possible length of the storage period is affected by a number of factors. On account of the importance that has been attached to the time element in the cold storage of fresh beef, and in the storage of other fresh meats as well, it has seemed desirable to present a brief discussion of this phase of the subject. The principal factors which affect the length of time that fresh beef can be held in cold storage at temperatures above freezing are as follows: (1) The character of the beef; (2) the temperature of storage; (3) the humidity of the cold-storage room. Character of beef—The condition of beef, as regards its degree of fatness or finish, is an important factor in determining the length of time that the beef will keep in cold storage. Thin, soft carcasses of old cows or grass-fed cattle are apt to undergo comparatively rapid deterioration in cold storage. The large exposed surface of muscular tissue and the soft character of the meat offer favorable conditions for the development of molds and bacteria. It is generally recog- nized by packing-house men that beef of this character must be handled with dispatch. On the other hand, highly finished carcasses from prime, grain-fed cattle will keep in cold storage for a much longer time. The flesh of such carcasses, which is firm in character, is usually covered in large part with a surface deposit of fatty tissue, which becomes firm on cooling and through loss of moisture, and thus aids in protecting the muscular tissue against bacterial invasicn. Temperature of storage-—In commercial practice chilled beef is ordinarily held in cold storage at a temperature between 34° and 36° F., although occasionally temperatures as low as 30° F. or as high as 40° F. may beemployed. A temperature of 40° F. is regarded as about the upper limit of safety in the handling of fresh beef in cold storage, while it will freeze at a temperature shghtly under 31° F. Other conditions being the same it 1s clearly apparent that chilled beef will keep longest at 31° F. Humidity of cold-storage rooms.—The importance of dry coolers for the proper handling of chilled beef is generally recognized. As a rule, however, no special means are used to regulate the humidity of beef or other fresh-meat coolers, the desired condition usually be- ing obtained by the proper construction and management of the coolers. Various factors may affect the humidity of coolers, but they will not be discussed. There seems to be practically no information available regarding the humidity of packing-house coolers in this country. In order to secure accurate information on this subject, humidity readings were 56861 °—Bull. 483—17——7 98 BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. taken in 14 beef coolers in 6 modern meat- -packing establishments. The results of these observations are presented in Table 61: TaBLeE 61.—Humidity of beef coolers in six meat-packing establishments. { Cooler . A oi Per No System of refrigeration.1 Condition of cooler. cent hu- Remarks. 3 midity. 1 | Sheet brine.............-- GQOOde sess eee ee eee 87 | Half filled with beef killed 3 A ‘ days previously. 2 | Closed brine coil......-.--|----- (5 Kee Rae een cone 95 | Half filled with chilled beef. 3 |} Sees loin 5 ooosecdsooosloasce ON sae ehaoe tre eereces 92 Do. Ais oases OO aS aeEneeOeeaonce asad] GOs aaa sscerasscoccbeos 95 | Cooler for ripening cuts of meats for hotels, ete. Filled with cuts of beef, many of which showed growths of molds. Bal eeeacC Oa aneonee Uamteeeee Air filled with water va- 100 | Filled with chilled beef. pors coming from adjoin- ing cooler being filled with warm beef. (yal Bese GOR Se ce oeasssaoces Good =..3 Fons asssaee 92 | Half filled with chilled beef. 7 | Direct expansion of am-} Fair. Walls and ceiling 93 | Filled with chilled beef. moms in overhead bun- damp. er. Jal pasee Chae eC pean EaSeTeeee Baines se sene cis aace eases 92 Do. 9 | Ciosed brine coils........--| Fair. Somecondensation 93 | One-third filled with chilled of moisture on ceiling. beef. 110) foased Oe eee a eece sae ah ia ol UE is ee 93 | One-half filled with beef, mut- ton, veal, and “‘edible offal.” Ee Brin els pra yeseneeceeeeeeeae Fair. Walls and ceiling 93 | One-third filled with chilled damp. beef. 1) esead GOS sae ecm ee eesesise Good S288 Saker Sac Sent soe 93 | Filled with chilled beef. 18) |lsssoe GOR sae cea eemecins Bd laceod One esse cece eset 92 | Nearly filled with chilled beef. 14 | Closed brine coil......----]---.. 6 Ka ere See ee hee 95 | Filled with chilled beef. 1 Overhead bunkers were used in each cooler. The data presented in Table 61 show that for the most part the humidity of the beef coolers ranged from 92 to 95 per cent of satu- ration. Data showing the humidity of fore coolers filled with warm beef are not presented, since observations that have been made in such coolers have shown the air to be saturated with water vapors. The effects of humidity upon the length of time that fresh beef can be held in cold storage are shown very clearly by the results of the cold-storage experiments carried on in the bureau’s cold-storage room as compared with the one conducted in the packing-house cooler. The character of the beef was practically the same in the two cases, and the temperature of the packing-house cooler was slightly lower than that of the bureau’s cold-storage room. The chief vari- able factor was humidity. The humidity of the bureau’s cooler ranged from 70 to 85 per cent of saturation; that of the packing- house cooler from 92 to 95 per cent. The much higher humidity of he packing-house cooler was undoubtedly the reason why it was impossible to hold beef in storage in that cooler for longer than 55 days, whereas beef was held in the bureaw’s cold- storage room, hav- ing a shghtly higher temperature but a much lower humidity, for as long as 177 days. These observations emphasize the importance of humidity as a factor affecting the length of time that fresh beef can be held in cold storage. In addition to the three important factors which have been dis- cussed as affecting the storage period of fresh beef, various other factors may under certain conditions exert their influence. es —In heght of the various factors that affect the length f time that fresh beef can be held safely in cold storage at tempera- CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE. 99 tures above freezing, it is clearly impracticable to attempt to insure the wholesomeness of the product merely by limiting the duration of storage. The wholesomeness of cold-stored beef must be judged by other considerations besides the length of time that the product has been held in cold storage. GENERAL SUMMARY. The chemical changes that took place in the muscular tissue of beef held in cold storage at temperatures above freezing for periods ranging from 14 to 177 days consisted chiefly in increases in acidity ; in proteose, noncoagulable, amino, and ammoniacal nitrogen; and in soluble inorganic phosphorus; while decreases occurred in coagulable nitrogen and in soluble organic phosphorus. On the whole these changes were of a progressive nature. The chemical changes that took place in the fatty tissues of the beef consisted chiefly in marked increases in the acidity of the kidney and external fats. On the whole the chemical changes that took place in the muscular tissue of the beef during storage were similar in nature to but less in extent than those that were caused by enzymatic action when lean beef was autolyzed under aseptic conditions for periods ranging from 7 to 100 days. The chemical changes that took place in the muscular tissue of the beef during storage were without appreciable effect either upon the nutritive value or the wholesomeness of the edible portions of the product; but the changes that took place in the kidney fat and exter- nal fatty tissue after the longer periods of storage rendered them unsuitable for human consumption. The bacteria and molds which grew on the surface of the cold- stored meats did not penetrate the muscular tissue to any great depth. The increased tenderness noticed in the cold-stored meats could not be attributed to bacterial action; and no noticeable change in the histological structure of the muscle fibers was noticed after 11 weeks of storage. The chemical changes which took place in the muscular tissues of the beef during storage may be regarded as largely due to enzym action. The principal effect of storage upon the organoleptic properties of the beef was a marked increase in tenderness of the meat. This change did not appear to progress appreciably after the beef had been held in storage for from two to four weeks. While the flavor also changed, individuals would probably not agree as to whether the change was in the nature of an improvement or a deterioration. Beef was held in cold storage at temperatures above freezing in — an experimental cooler for as long as 177 days, whereas it was pos- sible to hold beef in storage in a cooler in a modern packing house for only 55 days. The shorter storage period in the second instance was due to the much higher humidity of the packing-house cooler as compared with the experimental cooler. The length of time that fresh beef can be held in cold storage at temperatures above freezing and remain in wholesome condition is dependent upon a number of factors, among which the temperature and humidity of the storage room and the character of the beef are of the most importance. REFERENCES TO LITERATURE. ASCOLI, V., and SILvesrri, 8. Ricerche sulle carni congelate. Archivio di farmacologia sperimentale e scienze affini, v. 14, f. 6, p. 229-244. Sept. 15, 1912. BAUMANN, K., and Bommr, A. Ueber die Fillung der Albumosen durch Zinksulfat. Ztschr. Untersuch. Nahr. u. Genussmtl., Bd. 1, H. 2, p. 106-126. Feb., 1898. CHAPIN, RosertT M., and Powick, WILMER C. An improved method for the estimation of inorganic phosphoric acid in certain tissues and food products. Jour. Biol. Chem., v. 20, no. 2, p. 97-114. Feb., 1915. Emmett, A. D., and Grinpiey, H. S. Chemistry of flesh. 15200 pounds .- 22-5552 2.222. 3 2. QUSLIAY 2: soon dec ete she sesee See EE HeOoSee SUB HOS EeeBEBE 3 Hide—thin, mellow, pliable, and loose.....-. 2 LEST SiG) Gu Re eee eee Oe eee ee 1 Secretions—abundant, yellowish .-......... 1 Flesh—muscular, free from bunchiness-.-... 1 Veins—large and prominent .........-.-....- : 1 Bone—fine and clean....-......-.--..-...-.- 1 3. LEER. 2 = soc c poe CORSE ORS ESET Ee eae ee eee Forehead—broad between the eyes and dished APCOLGImM CONTEC: so sscec- cece se cceee ee 1.0 Face—medium in length, clean cut in outline, dished below eyes <<. i= s2sacescs-ceccence 5 NOSHRUS—— ALCON Se seme seis e myccpiatice sleieeeicles 1.0 Muzzle—broad, but not coarse..-.-..--.-.-.- 1.0 Jaws—wide at base, strong..--....-......-.- =) Ears—medium sized, thin, hair fine, blood vessels showing, secretion abundant ....-.. 3 Eyes—full, prominent, clear, and bright-....- 1.0 Horns—small at base, incurving, attached gleseorgetherat polls: = 222 52-sase-: eee. a) fe LUPO -. So 2 gS ae ee a Moderately thin, of good length, nearlv free from loose skin, neatly joined, throat clean. SPREE ELIEARED ES) toion inne sae a = anise rs ce Sie oe i ee oe eel = cia Shoulders—withers sharp; shoulder blades NBA Beers ee ene a tats cote aus ec mocn 2 Chest—broad and deep, well sprung foreribs;” large heart girth; moderately full crops; BStASC DN ona Mee a ee ciate eerie enc 8 Forelegs—straight, fine bone, strong....---...- 1 EEN PAD ACID YER teen oie otis Nevin eeetnes settee Back—straight, strong, vertebre prominent. 5 Ribs—long, flat, wellsprung, wideapart .... 3 Abdomen (barrel)—long, deep, broad, well held up; loin broad, strong and level; flanks LO? apo Ses ee ies Seine eae eae 10 - LEME IHG 5 9 See ete te er eee cer em EO . Hips—wide apart, prominent................ 3 Rump—long, wide, level.....-----........-. 3 Pin bones—widely spaced, on level with hips. 3 Thighs—incurving; escutcheon broad, ex- tending wellup on pin bones......-..--.-.. 1 Tail—tapering, fine boned, long and neatly SEMOM UB WILCM, MONO 2 er cteciscicaaeoeccet esc 1 Hind legs—squarely placed not sickle hocked, WUUG RUC = 0... 22 <2 L CenpanedoncabenocdeAdas 1 &, Mammary system ..----2--0-0--: eae EA EEE cis c Udder—large; quarters even and not cut up between; extending well up behind and well forward in front; not fleshy; soft and DETR pian ae = See Se Seen eee 20 Teats—squarely placed; even in size; of con- venient size for milking; free from Jumps, not leaky or hard to milk.................. 8 Mammary veins and wells—veins long, branching, tortuous, entering body well forward, wells large. 2.2) ot eo 7 AM AL Ae ame BS Pe OER te ey | Perfect | Percentage} Student’s |Instructor’s score. value. 11 18 12 score. score, 8 BULLETIN 434, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. General score card for the dairy bull. Pots Perfect | Percentage; Student’s |Instructor’s ey score. value. score. score. le Generalicerae cer thse ae siece eaiie orale Bee ieee CEE ee 16 Mas ctullim tiyaed sel sen enreeeece miscelecieeer: tee 11 Size for the breed—Jersey, 1,200 pounds; Guern- sey and Ayrshire, 1,500 pounds; Holstein, I G0OPOUNGSEr aces see techie eee aeeee oe eee 5 2 QUANG eae Se Scrat ee aloe nara eos Ser eee ieee SEO 10 Hide—thin, mellow, pliable, loose......------- 3 airline \SOlt ss se eee a eee cece ais ae 2 | Secretions—abundant, yellowish.......-..---.- 1 Flesh—well muscled, free from bunchiness....- 1 Veins—large, prominent..............-..------ 1 Bone—strong and clean............-.---------- 2 Serlead esa seiseoencion bes ace ee Bee eee EER Enc cue Semen 10 Forehead—very broad between the eyes, slightly Gishe dese ee ee eee ee (Ue 2) Face—medium in length.....-..-.-..---------- 1 Nostrils—large sa ae ee one eae 1 Miuzzle— broad ee eee eae ee 2 Eyes—prominent, large, clear, bright.-.-.-..-- 3 Horns—well proportioned ......-.---.--------- 1 Ae MIN C I G53 heir Sata satel noes Nea peyaehn ae se 5 Medium in length, very large prominent crest; : neatly joined; throat free from loose skin. soVROrequanrlerseeeaaean ye oe cee ae as Sone eee eee a ee eens 16 Shoulders—withers moderately sharp; well MMUSCle Giyey ye NE Ue aN ee aera were ie Oe 5 Chest—broad, deep, large heart girth, crops full, brisket moderate in size......--..--.--------- 10 Fore legs—straight, squarely placed, wide apart, Strome One rae ashes 2 haa conn aoe esc nee 1 GFE Od y— Ca Dac tiysieee sen eee ete eeD eee eo eee 19 Back—straight, strong, vertebree prominent... 7 Ribs—flat, well sprung, wide apart ...-.....--- 2 Abdomen (barrel)—long, deep, broad, well held up; loin broad, strong, level; flanks low.-..-- 10 doin dager terss. cis seek eas LoS ee RN UU eens 16 ; Hips—wide and prominent.......-.-.-.-.----- 3 Rump—long, wide, level.......--.-..--.------- 6 Pin bones—widely spaced, on level with hips.. 4 Mhighs—imncunvyin geben eee eee ceeee eee 1 Tail—tapering; fine bone; neatly set on; long, fiN OS witChess Meee es CS ee Ue alee 1 Hind legs—squarely placed, not sickle hocked, bone clean and strong......--.--.------------ 1 SSMEUILCIIMOTNGARIOS eso eA rae ae Saree 6 Teats—squarely and evenly placed; large. .---- 3 Mammary veins—large, tortuous......-.------- 2 : Milks Well sjlaree soo ten aes ac iia Se eis ee fe ae 1 QAVSCRG CUI Eset See) ole oa eee eteselercie esata aie 2 Well developed—strongly held up. Rota oiin (seeena wee ears wae gue utmid a i serene 100 | CLASSIFICATION OF POINTS IN REFERENCE TO UTILITY. Having a thorough knowledge of the names and locations of the parts of the cow, the next problem is their classification from a func- tional point of view. There are certain fundamental points covering the animal as a whole or a combination of a number of organs which will be first considered. General form.—The general impression as to form which the judge receives when an animal is brought before him is an important con- sideration. This varies greatly between beef and dairy animals and is often termed “ dairy type” or, in referring to animals of an indi- vidual breed, “ breed type.” ‘‘ Wedge shaped ” defines this general form. There are three distinct wedges to a typical dairy cow— namely, side, top, and front. JUDGING THE DAIRY COW IN SCHOOLS. 9 Side wedge: The side wedge is best observed by standing 30 feet - or more from the cow and to her side. The lines of this wedge are the top and bottom lines of the cow. The point of the wedge is at the nose and the wide part at the flank. This wedge is most com- monly defective on account of the top line not being straight. This may be caused by a sway back, a drooping rump, or a neck which is’ set at an angle to the back. A sway back or a sloping rump is much more serious than a neck which forms an angle with the backbone. Lack of depth in the flank is a serious defect in the side wedge of a dairy cow and is usually accompanied with lack of capacity in the barrel and faulty mammary development. The angle of all wedges should be as wide as possible. The bottom line of the cow, forming one side of this wedge, can not be expected to be straight in the same sense that the top line is straight. There will be depressions and irregularities, but the general outline of the wedge should be present. The lower line will begin at the nose, touch at the brisket, follow the lower line of the stomach, and touch the lowest point in the udder. Top wedge: The point of the top wedge is at the withers, with the lines drawn on either side between the point of the withers and the hip bones. The plane of the wedge is horizontal, while those of the side and front wedges are perpendicular. This wedge is defective when the withers are not sharp, the lines not straight, or the hip bones not wide enough apart. The lines are not straight when the ribs are not well sprung or when the loins are weak. Front wedge: The point of the front wedge is at the withers. The lines follow the shoulder blades, the wide part being at the junction of the shoulder blades and the forelegs. The wedge shape seems to have a direct relation to dairy production in the dairy cow, but inasmuch as this relation in most cases is in connection with indi- vidual organs it will come up under a detailed discussion of the parts. Size: Other things being equal, the larger an animal, the better. Generally size and quality are not closely correlated and the dairy- man is led to choose a happy medium. It is true, however, that an undersized animal is undesirable even though it possesses extreme quality. The aim should be to obtain all the size possible with good quality. Quality.— Quality is indicated by a thin, loose, pliable skin; medium-sized, clean, closely knit bones, and firm, clean, muscular tissue (fig. 6). The mucous membranes are the extension of the external skin; coarseness in the hide indicates the same condition in the mucous membrane. The membranes of the stomach and intestines are active agents in the digestion and assimilation of the feed. Experience and observation show that coarseness or stiffness in the skin is likely to be associated with poor digestive and assimi- 56862°—Bull. 434—16- 2 10 BULLETIN 434, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lative powers. A spongy, coarse bone is objectionable because it is not strong, and is likely to be associated with low vitality and general inefficiency. Excessive flesh on a dairy cow while in milk indicates that there is not the desired specialization of milking function, but rather that the feed is used to produce flesh. The flesh should be muscular and free from fat. Beginning at the head, the individual parts of the cow will now be taken up and an attempt made to describe the desirable form which indicates production. Fig. 6.—The nature and condition of the digestive organs is revealed in the skin and its covering of hair. ITead.—The heads of the male and female are much the same ex- cept that more size and heaviness are expected in that of the former. As a whole, the head should have a clean cut outline and be free from any coarseness of bone, flesh, or skin. In the bull score card more weight is given this part than in the cow score card. This is owing to the fact that the general character of the bull and his masculinity are evidenced in his head (fig. 7). The main function performed by the head is the taking in and mastication of feed. A strong, muscular muzzle and jaws indicate ability to handle large quantities of feed. The form and quality of face, forehead, eye, and horn indicate the nervous energy and refinement essential to pro- ductive ability. JUDGING THE DAIRY COW IN SCHOOLS. 11 Neck—The necks of the cow and the bull are radically different. That of the cow should be of medium length, slender, free from flesia and loose skin; it should be small at the junction with the head and should joi the shoulders smoothly. The neck of the bull should be of medium length, small at the head and swelling into a prominent crest. The crest in the bull indicates masculinity and should be both high and broad. F orequarters.—W thers: The withers should be sharp, the ends of the shoulder blades fitting close to the spinal processes and ending some distance below the top of them. This junction should be so Fic. 7.—A good type of dairy bull. smooth as to form a straight line from the top of the spinal processes down the shoulder blade to its junction with the foreleg. Body—Capacity —Back: It is very important that there be great strength in this region, as the back supports the weight of ‘the abdomen or barrel. Ribs: Flat ribs are found to be associated with the wedge-shaped, lean appearance of the dairy animal as compared with the round ribs of the beef animal. Barrel: The barrel, in both the male and the female, should be broad, deep, and full and well held up with well-sprung ribs. The barrel contains the stomach, liver, and intestines, the chief organs of digestion. A good-sized barrel indicates large capacity for digest- 12 ‘ BULLETIN 434, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ing feed (fig. 8), one of the essential functions of the dairy cow. Although the barrel should be large, it should not sag away from the backbone into what is popularly called a “ pot belly,” leaving loose skin in the flank, nor swing when the animal walks. This indicates an objectionable weakness in the muscles of the abdomen, as these muscles should hold the barrel close up to the backbone. Loins: The loins are that portion of the backbone just in front of a line drawn between the hip bones and extending forward to the beginning of the short ribs. The loins should be broad and strong. A sag or drop in this section of the back indicates weakness. A lack Fig. 8.—A large barrel indicates capacity for feed. of width in this region is caused by short processes on each side of the backbone. Tindquarters. and prominent. Rump: The rump should be long, wide, and level. The length is measured from the hips to the pin bones. The rump is level when a plane passed through the top of the hip and pin bones is horizontal. A high pelvic arch is not desirable. The pelvic arch is inclosed by the spinal column and the pelvic bones. The joints of this arch con- stitute the hip and pin bones and this region contains the greater part of the reproductive organs in which the calf develops. It is asserted by some breeders that a short rump is associated with a short udder and a sloping rump with a sloping udder. Hip bones: The hip bones should be wide apart JUDGING THE DAIRY COW IN SCHOOLS. 13 Pin bones: These bones are the parts of the pelvis which are located on each side of the tail. They should be prominent, widely spaced, and on a level with the hips. Low-placed pin bones are the cause of a sloping rump. Thighs: The inner surface of the thighs should be thin and. curved out so as to give ample room for the udder. Beefy, thick thighs are an objection, as they do not indicate specialization in the milk- producing function and do not give room for a broad udder. Tail: The tail should be level in its attachment to the spinal column, small at this junction, and the bone should extend to the hocks; it should be thin throughout, and the switch long and fine. lic. 9.—A well-developed udder. Escutcheon: The escutcheon or “ milk mirror” is the region above the udder between the thighs where the hair grows in a different di- rection. Hind legs: The legs should be evenly and squarely placed on the body. The bones of the legs should be clean and close in texture. The joints should be ample in size to form leverages for the actions of the muscles, but they should be free from growths of any nature, either fleshy or cartilaginous. When the hocks are set farther back than the rear of the body they are described as sickle hocks. The mammary system.—The mammary system is composed of the udder, teats, mammary or milk veins, and wells. The udder: The udder should be large, wide, and have a long at- tachment to the body of the cow (fig. 9). In shape it should be 14 BULLETIN 434, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. somewhat rounding, with the lower part, floor, or sole of the udder as level as possible. The development should be symmetrical, so that the quarters are even in size. The more common defects in the udder are short attachment in front and low attachment behind; lack of width; sagging or pendu- lousness; a lack of uniform development, and fleshiness (fig. 10). Probably poor fore ud- ders are as common as any other defect. Lack of de- velopment in this. region causes a short udder attach- ment to the cow’s body and very frequently accom- ‘panies a pendulent udder. Pendulent udders-~ indi- cate a short body attach- ment and a weakness of the “muscular tissue which holds the udder to the body. Such udders are liable to -bruise by swinging when the animal walks or runs, and also are in danger of being stepped on by the cow when she rises. : Three kinds of tissue go _to make a cow’s udder, namely, glandular, muscu- lar, and fleshy. The first kind is the secreting tissue that produces the milk, and aa the more there is of it the 4 ? 1 re. 10.—(a) Good type of udder ; (c), (d), (e), (f), better. (g), and (i), poor types of udders. f Heyy yiif) Z Dif i; Uy") ; 7) The function of muscu- lar tissue is to support the udder and insure its firm attachment to the body. (Fig. 11.) Fleshy tissue is undesirable in the udder and its presence indicates lack of quality and producing ability. Glandular tissue has a springy, elastic feeling and an udder in which this predominates collapses to a great extent when empty. On the other hand, when fleshy tissue composes a large portion of the udder, this latter is firm and does not collapse when empty. Considerable skill is neces- sary to determine the kind of tissue in the udder by the feeling; JUDGING THE DAIRY COW IN SCHOOLS. 15 the safer way is to have the cow milked dry and thus judge the char- acter of the udder. Teats: The teats should be of convenient size for milking, and should be evenly and squarely placed at the center of each quarter, so that the bottom will be in a horizontal plane and the distance equal between teats. They should be free from bunches either internal or external, and the sphincter muscles at the bottom of the teats should be rigid enough to prevent the leaking of milk but not stiff enough to cause difficult milking. Mammary or milk veins and wells: The mammary veins are lo- cated on each side of the belly, extending from the udder forward Pic. 11.—Udder attached well forward and well up behind and free from fleshiness. toward the shoulders. They should be large, long, branching, and tortuous and should enter the abdomen well toward the shoulders. After that portion of the blood required for milk production is taken away the remaining portion returns to the heart through these veins. A large vein indicates that a great amount of blood is being returned to the heart and that consequently a large quantity of blood passed into the udder and was available for producing milk. In the heaviest milkers these veins are very crooked and often branch- ing. In some cases they enter the abdomen through several openings on each side. The mill well, or the opening through which the vein enters the abdomen, should be large and well forward. (Tig. 12.) 16 BULLETIN 434, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PRACTICE JUDGING. Preparing for a judging trip.—Exercises in stock judging, like other field trips, are often failures because proper preparation is not made for them. The teacher should know beforehand just where he is going and what he is going to do. The majority of secondary schools do not own a dairy herd, so that it is necessary for the class to make use of the cows belonging to neighboring farms. Arrange- ments should be made with the farmer so that there will be no misunderstanding upon taking the class to his premises. The teacher should select herds which contain animals suitable to his purpose and, as far as possible, select farms where conditions are favorable for judging. It is important to see that there are suitable inclosures and facilities for handling the animals. Cows should be selected which may be easily handled, especially for the first trip. If weather Fig. 12.—Prominent mammary veins. is likely to be unfavorable, facilities for working under cover will be necessary. Wet, muddy barnyards are to be “avoided. The in- structor will find it to his advantage to examine thoroughly the animals he intends to use. When comparative judging is practiced it is especially important that the teacher be well acquainted with the animals and their relative points. The judging trip should be announced ahead of time so that all students may be prepared for outside work without delaying the class. The first trip.—lf the students have had no experience in judging cattle it will be well to use the first judging period in learning how to approach the animal, in checking up and applying what they have learned about naming the parts, and in going over the points of the card with the instructor. Boys may need caution that their approach to the animal may be quiet and friendly. Girls may need assurance that they may handle the animal without being harmed. JUDGING THE DAIRY COW IN SCHOOLS. if If possible, the animal chosen for the first lesson should approach the perfect dairy type, as it will aid in fixing that ideal in the minds of the students. If the class has been studying the beef type and the students have had experience in judging cattle, the first period may be spent in comparing a dairy cow with a beef animal. Scoring the dairy cow.—After the students have become familiar with the card and the method of approaching the animal they may make individual scores. The student should have well fixed in his mind at this time an ideal dairy form. The card will give the score for perfection in the various points; the student will enter. a score which represents the points which he judges the animal to be worth. The sum of these points gives the score of the animal. It should be remembered that the use of the card is chiefly for the purpose of training the student in observation, so that no details should be omitted. The value of the card in judging animals depends largely upon the care with which it is used. It will be noted that the weights of different points vary greatly. The scoring should be according to the following basis: 1.0, per- fect; 0.9, very slight defect; 0.8, slight defect; 0.7, defective; 0.6, marked defect; and 0.5, poor. The number of points given for any particular part of the animal should be multiplied by the classification of that point, in the mind of the student. For example, chest is assigned 8 points and the animal examined is found to be defective. Eight times 0.7 équals 5.6, which represents the final score for chest. In this manner the various parts of the body are scored in a proportional manner. The value of accurate first impressions should be emphasized. As the student approaches the animal he is impressed at once by her temperament as indicated by her general shape and the development of her milk organs. An impression also as to her capacity and health will be evident. Observations should be taken from all sides of the animal, as development is not always uniform. Students should make an estimate of the cow’s weight, and, if possible, their estimates should be compared with the weight as shown by the scales. o> aefedanion Chad ad oie sees oe Sana May 26 | 9 June 15 29 TP eee Soe. ele eee Atas Mohr cia Caen sth ate e naia senate May 29 12 GOssee 29 IMME ES etd soe os ae ON cn m aaa Se ocints eects are od Gein cin oer July 280 | 7 July 31 15 ARR et ete cae o aiaritn cuic einianan oeibnas ace able meatal oorae aceite July 25 9 (Oo) mao 15 ERMINE «Otis op tw arises Cals a cep wepe in aad sae onee aeaaeine Mav 7) |Sectecieite July 20 83 PAT Ree et OOO REOREEP Rr Hor Sere ecb e piace wet Sem a | OVSUIEe sees 33. 6 NUMBER OF EGGS DEPOSITED BY ONE FEMALE. The females usually lay their eggs in stages, there being from one to two, and sometimes three, diferent sredavine stages, often extend- ing over half a month. As showin’ in Table VI, a fornale may deposit 14 BULLETIN 436, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. all her eggs in a single day, or in two or more successive days, or she may deposit only a part of them and then rest from four to five days, after which another large number may be deposited; then, after another period of three or more days, a third deposition of eggs may occur. TaBLeE VI.—Egg-laying record of 13 females of the desert corn flea-beetle (Chaetocnema ectypa) at Tempe, Ariz., 1915, by L. J. Hogg. HemalowNonrst: ces. seat eeee 18 | 13 0 1 1 0} 10 0 0 | 16 ee 2 2 -a(See Pepa eae HemalepNosseeceeeroreeceeee 11 0 0} 13 0 0 0 0 0; 1) 0 0) 0 0 0 0 11 HemalesNos 1022-25] eee 1 1 6) 0 0 0 0 | 31 Os silo eee jada lees tee eae HemalesNOn Se seeesee eee ne 22 0; 0 0 5 ea i a PL Shale Vet Seo | Spe eee eee MemaleiNOsl2eneo-ee peso TG) ee alee |ecayell vera] = psp espera | ers eee cop hs | ee ap iemaloiNoml4eeceseos eee 3 ONS 2) L251 4 0 Q | 10 aiels (aif — al 1 0 4 0 28 MemalowNoyl oes ase eee By) OA 6 | 12 0 | 36 i) 0; 0 0|15} 0 5 0 | 22 =e inemaleyNOnGsesesee ease ae Ce 1 3 1 AW Psy | (|) Pal Wh esas esallssce SESE eleee ales Pemale No. 16-22 2- eck BSP SOE UD | Unc OE Cae Mele cella se Jesscleses|lococl!sooc ssacilsozc)lo-0= HemalewNonleesee ee ee ee 8 0 0 i 0 5 1 aa OY 0 0 0 0 | 14 4 MemaleyNo. 42 22 oes sees ae 1 0);12) O| 14 0 3 0; 6} 0; 0 0} 19 ea eee he |e Memalo Nos Oe eee -s eee ee 23 0; 0 5 Os On On On OM SOR sEO (0). j} ai) |) BB 0; O 15 MemalegNoyll-eese- eeeee eee 6 0 4 0 | 13 0 0 3 6 Jpseall Rees | See ees Siar | Ee a See aay Norre.—This table shows the record of a female from the day she started oviposi- tion until the day she finally completed the same and does not show her length of life, either before or after oviposition. The females are quite prolific, often laying from a dozen to over 100 eggs each. During June of 1915 the writer recorded four females which laid, respectively, 19, 57, 20, and 29 eggs, while three females, all confined in the same cage, laid a total of 145 eggs, averaging 48 eggs each in a period of 12 days. Mr. L. J. Hogg during August of the same year made oviposition records upon 16 females which he had under observation, the number of eggs for each female beimg as follows: 23, 40, 85, 101, 69, 20, 45, 11, 55, 17, 126, 36, 39, 25, 23, 14. LENGTH OF LIFE. In cages the adults usually died within a week or 10 days after oviposition was completed, but in some cases the length of life of the adult beetles was often prolonged. As shown in Table V, it varied from 15 to 83 days, the average for these eight specimens being 33.6 days. t is suspected that in the field, under natural conditions, where they are better able to protect themselves from the sun and from the moisture which was nearly always more or less present in small vial cages, the length of life might be even longer than that recorded in . this table. METHODS OF FEEDING. The adult beetles usually feed during the cooler parts of the day in the warm summer months and during the warmer parts of the day in the cooler spring and fall menths. During the summer they protect themselves by getting down within the infoliations of the plants, where they may secure tender succulent food and at the same oe ete THE DESERT CORN FLEA-BEETLE. 15 time be protected from the heat. In feeding a beetle will stand crosswise on a corn leaf and with its strong mandibles eat out a portion of the epidermis between two parallel veins, continuing in a straight line, often 1 or 2 inches in length. They rarely eat a hole entirely through a leaf. In cases where extremely heavy feeding occurs and where the infestation is great, the green portion is entirely eaten out, and the leaf has a burned or scarred appearance. SEASONAL HISTORY. NUMBER OF GENERATIONS ANNUALLY. The desert corn flea-beetle usually appears about the middle of February each spring. The time at which the beetles may first be found actively feeding in the field will, of course, depend upon the season. In the year 1912 Mr. R. N. Wilson first took these beetles on February 14, sweeping a few specimens from a barley field. In 1913 the same observer took a few feeding beetles on January 13. The month of January of that year, however, was quite warm and advanced over the ordinary year. In the year 1914 Mr. D. J. Caffrey took adults for the first time on February 20. These were feeding in a green wheat field. In the spring of 1915 Mr. F. H. Gates first swept adults in an alfalfa field on February 9. They did not, however, become abundant until February 23, when both the author and Mr. Gates secured an abundance of this species. It is only a few weeks after emergence that these hibernating adults begin depositing eggs. The earliest date that eggs have been secured in cages was March 12, 1915, at which time the writer secured eggs in considerable numbers. There are from three to four genera- tions each year in the Salt River Valley. The first generation, starting with eggs deposited in early March, appears about the first of June. Another generation quickly follows, adults coiamng forth about the middle of July, a third generation is completed by the first to the middle of September, and in occasional years there is a partial fourth generation. The fact, however, that the length of each individual life cycle is determined quite largely by the proximity of both larvae and pupz to the surface of the ground is responsible for the general inter- mingling of the various generations, so that eggs may be secured throughout the breeding season. Eggs have been secured in cages throughout the year, beginning with the first of March and continuing to themiddle of October. Mr. Wilson hassecured eggs in cages during the months of May, June, July, August, September, and October, while the writer has secured eggs during March, April, May, and June, and these records were followed up by those of Messrs. Hogg and Newton, who obtained eggs during July, August, and September of the same year. Of course, eggs deposited the first of October would, ordi- 16 BULLETIN 436, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. narily, not reach maturity, while those deposited in the middle of September in some seasons develop a partial fourth generation. From October 13, 1914, to March 9, 1915, the writer maintained in a labora- tory cage a large number of Chaetocnema adults which had been collected from the field, but did not secure a single egg during this time. HIBERNATION. From the foregoing remarks on the generations it is at once seen that these adults usually are found hibernating during the latter part of November, in December, andin January. They enter hiberna- tion gradually during November, and one is rarely able to find adults throughout December and January, although on an occasional warm day specimens might be secured during any winter month. On Noy. 7, 1912, at Tempe, Ariz., Mr. R. N. Wilson made the following note: Only a few Chaetocnema could be found on corn on the Godfrey field to-day. Then on November 23, 1912, he made the following observation: The corn on the Godfrey field has been cut since the field was last visited. No specimens were found. On December 14, 1914, also at Tempe, the writer observed adults in hibernation and made the following record: A few Chaetocnema adults were found to-day in protected places, as back of sheath leaves, in an old cornfield, and at the base of wild barley plants that thickly covered the ground. The species is apparently very quiet at this time and can be said to be hibernating. The past week has been rather cold and several mornings the tem- perature fell to considerably below freezing. One or two specimens were noted, how- ever, that appeared quite active. The hibernating adults may be found beneath anything that will give them protection, such as rubbish and grass clumps in waste places. A favorite place for adults to winter is along ditch banks thickly grown up with Bermuda and Johnson grass. These places seem to be ideal because, late in the winter or early in the spring, they become overgrown with wild barley, and this plant gives the beetles succulent food the first warm days in the spring. Waste salt places which are not too wet and are grown up with salt grass also afford ideal conditions for hibernation quarters, and the beetles have been observed on this grass quite early in the spring. Early in 1912 Mr. R. N. Wilson made the following note: At the northeast corner of this farm there is a large patch of salt grass (Distichlis spicata), which forms a thick mat on the ground. Sweepings made on this grass to-day revealed many Chaetocnema. This is likely one of their food plants, and probably furnishes an ideal place for hibernation. NATURAL ENEMIES. Judging from our present knowledge of this species, it seems to be fairly free from the attacks of enemies of any kind. While it is quite THE DESERT CORN FLEA-BEETLE. 1a possible that it is occasionally picked’ up by birds, yet no definite observations have ever been made upon this, and the Bureau of Biological Survey has no records bearing upon this species, though related species have been found to be taken as food by certain birds. PREDACIOUS ENEMIES. The larve of this beetle are without doubt fed upon by several subterranean larve of ground beetles which have been found to inhabit the soil in the vicinity of corn plants. The adults are preyed upon by the nymphs and adults of Reduviolus ferus L. Mr. Wilson first took specimens of these nymphs, which be found feeding upon Chaetocnema adults, at Tempe, Ariz., and reared them to maturity, and then found that both adults and nymphs were feeding upon the flea- beetles. It is quite likely that other reduviids also attack this species. At Holtville, Cal., the writer found a great many beetles with their bodies almost covered by a species of mite. Upon being sent to Washington these mites were determined by Mr. Nathan Banks as Pedicu- loidessp. They havesince been found quite frequently upon adult flea-beetles. PARASITIC ENEMIES. During his observations in 1915,' the writer discoyv- ered that a small parasitic wasp, Neurepyris sp.” (fig. 7), was preying upon the arve and prepupe of this flea-beetle. Six specimens taken in the soil, already within the pupal cases, were each found to have very small, insignificant external larvee feeding upon them, the larve being attached to the ventral side just back of the hind pair of legs. These were carefully placed in small vials, and subsequently several of the parasites died, while one specimen pupated and finally changed to an adult, the hymenopterous larve in the meantime having completely consumed the beetle larve. The adult of this parasite is very small, black, with yellow legs, and its pupal case, which is about the size of a Chaetocnema pupa, is constructed in the soil of a brown, densely woven material. The larval stage of this parasite was found to be about 8 days and the pupal stage 24 days. This was during the month of May, with the mean temperature about 76° I. Fie. 7.— Neurepyris sp., a parasite of the desert corn flea- beetle. Greatly enlarged. (Original.) 1 At Tempe, Ariz. 2 Determined by Mr. 8. A. Rohwer. 18 BULLETIN 436, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. REMEDIAL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES. The control of this insect over a wide area can be accomplished only by cultural methods, the eradication of its hibernation quar- ters, and the destruction of some of its favorite native and adopted grass and weed food plants. In smaller areas, consisting of only a few acres, a certain degree of success can be expected from the use of arsenate of lead as a spray. Several experiments were tried, using different kinds of repellents, but without any great amount of success. The greatest damage is done to the plant just as it is coming through the ground, because at this time it is more tender and attractive to the beetles and also is less resistant to insect attack. If, there- fore, the growth of the plant is stimulated by good cultivation, fer- tilizers, or any other stimulative measures, as has been recommended by Mr. Wilson in his notes upon this species, then the plant will have an excellent chance in spite of the flea-beetles. If the numbers of the beetles are also lessened by the cleaning up of hibernation quarters and the eradication of breeding places, the plants will have a still greater chance of reaching maturity, and finally, if the plants are sprayed by arsenate of lead, as will be shown later, the damage will be almost negligible. REPELLENTS. While located on a ranch south of Holtville, Cal., in April, 1910, the writer undertook to determine the value of several volatile oils and also of naphthalene balls, as repellents for this beetle. The oils used were those of eucalyptus, citronella, and pennyroyal. A small piece of cotton was placed in the ground, even with the surface of each hill of corn treated, and was moistened with the oil each morning for five days, while the naphthalene balls were utilized by placing a single ball beside a hill of corn. Two rows were treated with each of the four remedies used and every third row was left untreated as a check row, the idea being that if the corn could be protected for a few days it would reach a stage of growth m which it would be able to withstand an attack from the flea-beetles. The results of this experiment may be summarized as follows: The naphthalene balls and the oil of eucalyptus were found to act in no way as repellents of this beetle. The rows treated with the oil of citronella were damaged the least by the flea-beetles, while the rows treated with the oil of pennyroyal were damaged only slightly. However, since the cost of these oils and the time taken in applica- tion were found to be prohibitive from an economical standpoint, and since the results were not conclusive, the use of these repellents can not be recommended. THE DESERT CORN FLEA-BEETLE. 19 POISONS. Speaking in regard to the control of this flea-beetle on Sudan grass, Dr. A. W. Morrill! states: Experiments with applications of Bordeaux mixture and arsenate of lead to the infested grass failed to give satisfactory results. Later than this, after additional experiments, he remarks: ? Spraying the plants with arsenate of lead, using one ounce of arsenate of lead powder to one gallon of water, is the only remedial measure which can be recommended at the present time. Prof. Freeman,’ in his bulletin previously mentioned, speaking of the injury from this little flea-beetle, says: The plants were all sprayed twice with lead arsenate, but very little benefit could be ascribed to this treatment. In correspondence with Prof. Freeman, the writer was informed that he used arsenate of lead without soap im the solution, and he says that the spray collected in drops upon the corn foliage, and attributes the failure of the arsenate of lead to this fact. The writer first used 1 pound of powdered arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water, but without any success whatever, the beetles being fully as numerous on rows treated as on those not treated. It was easily seen that this was due to the fact that the solution of arsenate of lead did not stick to the corn leaves. Later an experi- ment was tried, usmg powdered arsenate of lead, 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water, mixed in a strong soap solution which caused the diluted poison to stick well to the surface of the leaf. This seemed to act both as a repellent and as a poison to the beetles, and the treated rows were in no way injured by the attack of these flea- beetles. While additional experiments must be carried on with regard to the use of this poison, from the writer’s past observations it can be used in this manner upon small areas of corn, applied by means of a small spray pump, with very satisfactory and practical results. CULTURAL METHODS. As has been pointed out in the discussion of the pupal stage of this flea-beetle, if the soil be kept fairly moist the pupx will form near the surface of the ground and within 2 or 3 inches of the corn plant. Now, if precautions are taken to follow each irrigation by a very shallow cultivation close to the plant and SaUilba enough to insure no tearing of the root surface, a great many pup will be 1 Morrill, A. W. Banret of the entoruniote of the Arizona Commission of Agriculture and ronan ture. Ariz, Com. Agr. Hort., 6th Ann, Rpt., p. 33, 1914. 2Morrill, A. W. The Corn Flea Beetle. In Ariz, Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 75, p. 468. May, 1915. * Preeman,G. i. Papago sweet corn, a new variety. Ariz. Exp. Sta. Bul. 75, p. 462. May, 1915. 20 BULLETIN 436, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. destroyed and damage to future crops will be greatly lessened. Such cultivation will not only assist in reducing the number of beetles maturing, but it will also aerate the ground and place it in a thrifty condition, producing strong healthy plants that will be able better to withstand insect attacks. This point should not be passed without mention of the fact that stable and barnyard or corral manure, which, in the Salt River Valley, is ordinarily dumped in waste places, on ditch banks, or absolutely destroyed, as it were, should be utilized in building up the soil and making it still more productive than it is at the present time. Manure is ordinarily not used in the warm southwestern country because it is claimed that it causes burning of the plants and contributes to the dispersion of weed seeds. If manure is thoroughly rotted and properly applied it will not burn the plants, and if rotation of crops is practiced, there will be a minimum of complaint in regard to the dissemination of weed seeds. Mr. E. W. Hudson, who has been in charge of the Bureau of Plant Industry Experimental Farm at Sacaton, Ariz., and who is well acquainted with farming conditions in the Southwest, believes that all manure should be utilized, and if it is to be plowed under it should be applied in the fall, turned under, and given a chance to decay during the cool part of the year. If used at other times of the year, he believes that it should be applied by the aid of a manure spreader as a light top-dressing. The writer is thoroughly in accord with this latter method, for in addition to putting the nourishment just where it is needed by spreading the manure over the ground where it soon dries, the breeding of flies is also avoided. If all manure and refuse were handled in this manner, there would be a consider- able reduction in the fly population of these regions. If land well treated with stable manure is afterwards planted to corn, the plants will be enabled to make a good start and continue in a thrifty condition in spite of flea-beetle attack. ERADICATION OF JOHNSON GRASS AND OTHER TROUBLESOME GRASSES. Since it has been shown that this flea-beetle lives quite largely upon Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense) and salt grass (Distichlis spicata), it is obvious that the fewer of these grasses found grow- ing in alfalfa fields or cultivated fields of any kind and also along roadsides and ditch banks, the fewer the number of beetles to attack the cultivated crops. While Johnson grass may be a difficult and troublesome grass to control, yet there is no excuse for allowing it to become an almost inaccessible thicket, 15 to 20 feet wide, along roadsides, fence rows, and ditch banks, as is sometimes found to be the case in Arizona. Each farmer should consider it a part of his duty to the community in which he lives to mow such places two { THE DESERT CORN FLEA-BEETLE. Dit or three times a year, or to pasture them with sheep, thus keeping down all weed and grass growth. ELIMINATION OF HIBERNATION QUARTERS. Cleaning up weeds and grasses will eliminate a great many of the hibernation quarters of this beetle, and if such methods can be car- ried further, to include all waste places and any place where trash may accumulate, then the hibernating beetles will not be able to protect themselves from the colder days and frosty nights of the winter months and their numbers will be reduced. SUMMARY. The desert corn flea-beetle is present in injurious numbers in the cultivated areas of the southwestern United States, where it takes | an annual toll upon such crops as corn, milo. maize, sugar cane, Sudan grass, wheat, barley, and alfalfa. Both the adults and the larve are concerned in injuring crops, the adults feeding upon the top of the plant and the larve upon the roots. The eggs are deposited at or near the surface of the ground and hatch in about six days. The young larve are found within the tender roots of the food plants, while the older larve are found in the soil near these roots. The average length of the larval stage is found to be 32 days. The prepupal and pupal stages are both passed within a cell in the soil near to the roots on which the larve fed. The flea-beetles hibernate in the adult stage under rubbish or at the base of various grasses growing in the regions of infestation. The total length of the life cycle of this flea-beetle is about seven weeks, there being from three to four generations each year. The numbers of adult flea-beetles can be reduced greatly by cleaning up hibernation quarters and eradicating some of their weed food plants, such as Johnson grass, salt grass, and Bermuda grass. They can be further reduced by carefully cultivating such crops as can be cultivated just as soon as the soil becomes dry, following each irrigation. This method destroys a great many pupe. Small pieces of corn can be sprayed successfully with arsenate of lead, using 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water, the water being made into a strong soap solution. This acts both as a repellent and as a poison to the beetles. Injury to corn and other crops can be overcome partially if the soil is placed in the best possible cultural condition by the addition of barnyard manure or other fertilizer. The nymphs and adults of a predacious hemipteron (Reduviolus ferus 1.) were observed to feed upon these beetles, and a small parasitic wasp, Neurepyris sp. (fig. 7.), was found to prey upon the larve and prepupe. PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CEREAL AND FORAGE CROPS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Common White Grubs. (Farmers’ Bulletin 543.) The Chalcis-fly in Alfalfa Seed. (Farmers’ Bulletin 636.) The Grasshopper Problem and Alfalfa Culture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 637.) The Hessian Fly. (Farmers’ Bulletin 640.) The Chinch Bug. (Farmers’ Bulletin 657.) Wireworms Destructive to Cereal and Forage Crops. (Farmers’ Bulletin 725.) True Army Worm and Its Control. (Farmers’ Bulletin 731.) Corn and Cotton Wireworm in Its Relation to Cereal and Forage Crops, with Control Measures. (Farmers’ Bulletin 733.) Clover Leathopper and Its Control in the Central States. (Farmers’ Bulletin 737.) Cutworms and their Control in Corn and other Cereal Crops. (Farmers’ Bulletin 739.) The Alfalfa Weevil and Methods of Controlling It. (Farmers’ Bulletin 741.) Grasshopper Control in Relation to Cereal and Forage Crops. (Farmers’ Bulletin 747.) The Fall Army Worm, or “Grass Worm,” and Its Control. (Farmers’ Bulletin 752.) The Hessian Fly Situation in 1915. (Office of Secretary Circular 51.) The Spring Grain Aphis or “Green Bug”’ in the Southwest and the Possibilities of an Outbreak in 1916. (Office of the Secretary Circular 55.) Southern Corn Rootworm, or Budworm. (Department Bulletin 5.) Western Corn Rootworm. (Department Bulletin 8.) The Oat Aphis. (Department Bulletin 112.) The Alfalfa Caterpillar. (Department Bulletin 124.) Wireworms Attacking Cereal and Forage Crops. (Department Bulletin 156.) The Sharp-headed Grain Leafhopper. (Department Bulletin 254.) The Argentine Ant: Distribution and Control in the United States. (Department Bulletin 377.) . New Mexico Range Caterpillar and Its Control. (Department Bulletin 443.) Two Destructive Texas Ants. (Entomology Circular 148.) Clover Mite. (Entomology Circular 158.) Slender Seed-corn Ground-beetle. (Entomology Bulletin 85, Pt. IT.) Clover-root Curculio. (Entomology Bulletin 85, Pt. III.) Contributions to Knowledge of Corn Root-aphis. (Entomology Bulletin 85, Pt. VI.) Maize Billbug. (Entomology Bulletin 95, Pt. II.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. Cotton Bollworm, Summary of Its Life History and Habits. (Farmers’ Bulletin 290.) Price, 5 cents. Larger Corn Stalk-borer. (Farmers’ Bulletin 634.) Price, 5 cents. Alfalfa Attacked by the Clover-root Curculio. (Farmers’ Bulletin 649.) Price, 5 cents. The Southern Corn Leaf-beetle. (Department Bulletin 221.) Price, 5 cents. The Pea Aphis with Relation to Forage Crops. (Department Bulletin 276.) Price, 15 cents. The Grasshopper Outbreak in New Mexico During the Summer of 1913. (Depart- ment Bulletin 293.) Price, 5 cents. Joint-worm. (Entomology Circular 66.) Price, 5 cents. 22 THE DESERT CORN FLEA-BEETLE. 23 Some Insects Affecting Production of Red Clover Seed. (Entomology Circular 69.) Price, 5 cents. Slender Seed-corn Ground-beetle. (Entomology Circular 78.) Price, 5 cents. Grasshopper Problem and Alfalfa Culture. (Entomology Circular 84.) Price, 5 cents. . Corn Leaf-aphis and Corn Root-aphis. (Entomology Circular 86.) Price, 5 cents. Spring Grain-aphis or So-called ‘“‘Green Bug.’’ (Entomology Circular 93.) Price, 5 cents. Wheat Strawworm. (Entomology Circular 106.) Price, 5 cents. Western Grass-stem Sawfly. (Entomology Circular 117.) Price, 5 cents. Clover Root-borer. (Entomology Circular 119.) Price, 5 cents. Alfalfa Gall Midge. (Entomology Circular 147.) Price, 5 cents. Fall Army Wormand Variegated Cutworm. (Entomology Bulletin 29.) Price, 5 cents. Some Insects Attacking Stems of Growing Wheat, Rye, Barley, and Oats, with Methods of Prevention and Suppression. (Entomology Bulletin 42.) Price, 5 cents. Mexican Conchuela in Western Texas in 1905. (Entomology Bulletin 64, Pt. I.) Price, 5 cents. New Breeding Records of Coffee-bean Weevil. (Entomology Bulletin 64, Pt. VII.) Price, 5 cents. Notes on Colorado Ant. (Entomology Bulletin 64; Pt. IX.) Price, 5 cents. Chinch Bug. (Entomology Bulletin 69.) Price, 15 cents. Papers on Cereal and Forage Insects. (Entomology Bulletin 85, 8 pts.) Price, 30 cents. Lesser Clover-leaf Weevil.. (Entomology Bulletin 85, Pt. I.) Price, 5 cents. Sorghum Midge. (Entomology Bulletin 85, Pt. IV.) Price, 10 cents. New Mexico Range Caterpillar. (Entomology Bulletin 85, Pt. V.) Price, 10 cents. Smoky Crane-fly. (Entomology Bulletin 85, Pt. VII.) Price, 5 cents. Cowpea Curculio. (Entomology Bulletin 85, Pt. VIII.) Price, 5 cents. Timothy Stem-borer, New Timothy Insect. (Entomology Bulletin 95, Pt. I.) Price, 5 cents. Chinch-bug Investigations West of Mississippi River. (Entomology Bulletin 95, Pt, III.) Price, 10 cents. So-called ‘‘Curlew Bug.’’ (Entomology Bulletin 95, Pt. IV.) Price, 10 cents. False Wireworms of Pacific Northwest. (Entomology Bulletin 95, Pt. V.) Price, 5 cents. Legume Pod Moth and Legume Pod Maggot. (Entomology Bulletin 95, Pt. VI.) Price, 5 cents. Alfalfa Looper. (Entomology Bulletin 95, Pt. VIJ.) Price, 5 cents. Rezults of Artificial Use of White-fungus Disease in Kansas, with Notes on Approved Methods of Fighting Chinch-bugs. (Entomology Bulletin 107.) Price, 10 cents. Leafhoppers Affecting Cereals, Grasses, and Forage Crops. (Entomology Bulletin 108.) Price, 20 cents. Spring Grain-aphis or Green Bug. (Entomology Bulletin 110.) Price 25 cents. Preliminary Report on Alfalfa Weevil. (Entomology Bulletin 112.) Price, 15 cents. Principal Cactus Insects of United States. (Entomology Bulletin 118.) Price, 15 cents. WASHINGTON ; GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICER ; 1916 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 16, 1917 FLAT-HEADED BORERS AFFECTING FOREST TREES IN THE UNITED STATES. By H. E. Burks, Specialist in Forest Entomology, Forest Insect Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Importance of flat-headed borers.......-..-- 1 | Agreement of adult and larval classifications . 4 IGT TS Ss Saga ee een ee eer 2 | Distinguishing characters.................--- 4 Character ofthe work: -.--.--22 Anthaxia. Dorsal marking an inverted V or Y of dark lines, ventral line bisecting plate, RUTCOMAL er CULL CEN RU Viti oe 2h) rapa letay state: onl e ajateraatetens afc ferred oleic 10. Both dorsal and ventral markings with narrow simple anterior ends (PI. LCL EG cy a a De eee ear iP eATe ae oA e, ed Scar O RED DAT PISO eo cit 11 Both dorsal and ventral markings with broad reticulated anterior ends (PI. LET ADA ee ape er apcinier joni otic l COR CEC eC SOC OOMOO CE 12 11. Dorsal marking a long trunked inverted Y with a brownish base, ventral marking a straight bisecting line with a brownish anterior end (PI. REREAD AG) eve ait see) cipal sip wis araj oie a. ata mtwtatatat oie sR ete) 2/1 wie (iat etetwhaiete _-...Cinyra, Dorsal marking an inverted V with a simple apex, ventral marking a simple pisacnmoverooviel (el, LET, fio 4) cc wieinta ss ae sinvie a 6, wig pinwiele Poecilonota, 1 So far as determined the characters used In the key hold for larve of any stage. 6 BULLETIN 437, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 12. Dorsal marking an inverted Y with a depressed shining reticulated diamond- shaped area surrounding the apex (PI. IV, fig. 2)............ Trachykele. Dorsal marking an inverted V with a broad reticulated apex (PI. IV, fig. 1) factions Geechee als Ss ine Sejoe eee poner Se oan o ee eee eee Dicerca. 13. Dorsal plate rather small, oval or egg-shaped, marked by a distinct brownish median groove which is goblet-shaped in front and forked behind; a pair of brown spots on the median subdorsal areas of the second and third seements (PLL .fie.33) ae sa. cee eee eee Thrincopyge. Dorsal plate large, covering most of the dorsal surface, marked by a distinct simple median groove sometimes broadening in front (Pl. IV, fig. 4). 14 14. Ventral plate with a median dark line, both plates slightly corrugated longi- tudinally, a dark brown sunken spot on either side of the head near the base of the mandible, a pair of brown spots on posterior subdorsal areas of third segment and a pair on anterior ventral area of fourth segment (PLD V,, fig. 4) i. ac pcrpers yee anemone Salo Polycesta. Ventral De with simple median line or groove, no sunken spots (Pl. V, Be Wyre sehess cla eiehes eS > oR ac ee ean eels ary serena er 15 15. Fourth segment narrower than fifth (Pl. V, figs. 1, 3)..-_-..------------- 16 Fourth segment broader than) fitth (PID WVG fiss)2) 4) esse See 17 16. Grooves of first segment light, plates not whitish opaque (Pl. V, fis. i) eae AYA ye. Sara Smee REE OE Ane Chrysophana Grooves of first segment dark brown, plates whitish opaque (Pl. V, fig. 3) Ra aihtetiw bows dat loae Seesesl Eee ere eek emo hee eee Ptosima 17. Third segment narrower than second (PI. V, fig. 2) -.......--------- Acmaeodera. Third segment wider than second, appearing nearly as large as first (Pl. V, A) Te oa ict le ae Se te ae cls Sralcvare tee remo shee Tyndaris. 18. Dorsal plate marked by two moderately separated dark brown lines which converzeanterionhy, (Pip Vale tows) ) pee aeer ree eae Eupristocerus. 19. First segment as broad or slightly broader than the following, body gradually Notre.—The author will be glad to determine specimens of “‘flat-headed borers,”’ and for anyone, if the locality and host plant are given. Such specimens should be sent to Forest Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D.C. So far as known no larve of the genera Gyascutus, Hippome.as, Agaeo- cera, Psiloptera, X enorhipis, Actenodes, Giyptosce:imorpha, Dystazia, Schizopus, Mastogenius, Rhaeboscelis, and Taphrocerus have been collected. Xenorhipis has been reared from hickory twigs and Mastogenius from oak twigs, both in the Southern States, but the larve have not been collected. List oF GENERA, DISTRIBUTION, ComMMoN Hapits, AND Host TREES. Chalcophora. Throughout United States, wood-borer in the stump and trunk of injured, Ciba dead trees: Pine (Pinus), Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga), and r (Abies). Chalcophorella (Texania). Atlantic States, wood-borer in the stump and trunk of injured, dying, and dead trees: Beech (Fagus), oak (Quercus), and sycamore (Platanus). : Buprestis. Throughout United States, wood-borer in the stump and trunk of injured, dying, and dead trees: Pine (Pinus), spruce (Picea), Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga), fir (Abies), hickory (Hicoria), aspen and cottonwood (Populus), beech (Fagus), chestnut (Castanea), oak (Quercus), and tulip (Liriodendron). Melanophila. Throughout United States, bark-borer in the stump, trunk, top, and branches of healthy, injured, dying, and dead trees: Pine (Pinus), larch (Larix), spruce (Picea), hemlock (Tsuga), Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga), and fir (Abies). Kills many trees and causes checks or ‘‘gum spots” in . the wood of others. Chrysobothris. Throughout United States, bark and sapwood borer in the roots, stump, trunk, top, and branches of injured, dying, and dead shrubs and trees: Pine (Pinus), spruce (Picea), Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga), fir (Abies), bald cypress (Taxodium), incense cedar (Libocedrus), cypress (Cupressus), juniper (Juniperus), butternut and walnut (Juglans), hickory (Hicoria), willow (Salix), aspen, poplar, and cottonwood (Populus), birch (Betula), alder (Alnus), beech (Fagus), chestnut (Castanea), oak (Quercus), elm ( Ulmus), hackberry (Celtis), sweet gum (Liquidambar), mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus), apple (Pyrus), Christmas berry (Heteromeles), plum, cherry, and peach (Prunus), catsclaw (Acacia), mesquite (Prosopis), redbud FLAT-HEADED BORERS AFFECTING FOREST TREES. ~ 7 (Cercis), palo verde (Cercidium), crecsote-bush (Covillea), maple (Acer), Zizyphus (Zizyphus), coffee-berry (Rhamnus), grape (Vitis), ocatillo (Fouquieria), basswood (Tilia), dogwood (Cornus), wild lilac (Ceanothus), sour gum (Vyssa), and persimmon (Diospyros). Kills injured shrubs and trees. Anthazxia. Throughout United States, bark-borer in trunk and branches of injured, dying, and dead shrubs and trees: Pine (Pinus), Douglas spruce (Pseudo- tsuga), fir (Abies), hickory (Hicoria), willow (Salix), oak (Quercus), elm (Ulmus), mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus), service berry (Amelanchier), pium (Prunus), redbud (Cercis), grape ( Vitis), and paulownia (Paulownia). Kills injured shrubs. Xenorhipis. Southern States, twig-miner in dead twigs: Hickory (Hicoria). Cinyra. Atlantic States, wood-miner in dead limbs: Oak (Quercus). Poecilonota. Throughout United States, bark and wood miner in trunk of injured trees: Willow (Salix) and aspen and cottonwood (Populus). Trachykele. Southern, Rocky Mountain, and Pacific States, wood-borer in stump, trunk, and branches of injured, dying, and dead trees: Hemlock (Tsuga), fir (Abies), bald cypress (Taxodium), big tree (Sequoia), incense cedar (Libo- cedrus), arborvitae (Thuja), cypress (Cupressus), and juniper (Juniperus). Dicerca. Throughout United States, wood-borer in the stump, trunk, and branches of injured, dying, and dead shrubs and trees: Pine (Pinus), spruce (Picea), Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga), fir (Abtes,) bald cypress ( Taxodium), butter- nut (Juglans), hickory (Hicoria), willow (Salix), aspen, poplar, and cottonwood (Populus), birch (Betula), alder (Alnus), beech Geta oak (Quercus), elm (Ulmus), hackberry (Celtis), mountain mahogany (Cerco- carpus), cherry, peach, plum (Prunus), sumach (Rhus), and poison oak ( Toxicodendron), maple (Acer), buckeye (Aesculus), coffee-berry (Rhamnus), wild lilae (Ceanothus), dogwood (Cornus), black gum (Nyssa), persimmon (Diospyros), ash (Fraxinus), and snowberry (Symphoricarpus). Thrincopyge. Southwestern States, wood or pith borer in the flower stem: Yucca, Spanish bayonet, palmio, sotal (Dasylirion); nolina (Nolina). Polycesta, Southwestern and Pacific States, wood-borer in the stump, trunk, and branches of injured, dying, and dead shrubs and trees: Cottonwood (Pop- ulus), alder (Alnus), oak (Quercus), sycamore (Platanus), mountain mahog- any (Cercocarpus), apple and pear (Pyrus), Christmas berry (Heteromeles), almond (Prunus), catsclaw (Acacia), mesquite (Prosopis), redbud (Cercis), palo verde (Cercidium), maple (Acer), and manzanita (Arctostaphylos). Chrysophana. Rocky Mountain and Pacific States, wood-borer instump, trunk, top, and branches of injured, dying, and dead trees: Pine (Pinus), hemlock (T’suga), Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga), fir (Abies), and arborvitae (Thuja). Cone- burrower in cones of knobcone pine (Pinus attenuata). Acntaeodera, Throughout United States, wood-borer in stump, trunk, top, and branches of shrubs and trees: Bald cypress (Taxodium), yucca sotal (Dasylirion), hickory (icoria), poplar (Populus), alder (Alnus), oak (Quercus), hack- berry (Celtis), California laurel ( Umbellularia), mountain mahogany (Cer- cocarpus), apple and pear (Pyrus), service berry (Amelanchier), Christmas berry (/Teteromeles), choke cherry (Padus), plum and almond (Prunus), redbud ( Cercis), palo verde ( Cercidium), ironwood (Olneya), lupine( Lupinus), china ash ( Melia), poison oak ( Toxicodendron), zizyphus (Zizyphus), coffee- berry (Rhamnus), wild lilac (Ceanothus), manzanita (Arctostaphylos), and yerba santa (Hriodiclyon),. Tyndaris. Southwestern States, wood-borer in roots, trunk, and branches of injured, dying, and dead shrubs and trees: Catsclaw (Acacia), mesquite (Prosopis), and ironwood (Olneya). Ptosima. Atlantic States, wood-borer in stump, trunk, top, and branches of injured, dying, and dead shrubs: Redbud (Cercis), Mastogenius. Southern States, twig-borer in fire-killed saplings: Spanish oak (Quercus), Eupristocerus. Atlantic States, bark-borer in branches of living shrubs and trees: Alder (Alnus), Causes the formation of enlarged growths (galls). Agrilus, Throughout United States, bark and wood borer in roots, stump, trunk, top, and branches of healthy, injured, dying, and dead shrubs and trees: But- ternut and walnut (Juglans), hickory (J/Ticoria), willow (Salix), aspen, oplar, cottonwood, and Balm of Gilead (Populus), birch (Betula), alder Alnus), ironwood and hornbeam (Ostrya), beech (Magus), chestnut (Cas- tanea), oak (Quercus), hackberry (Celtis), mulberry ( Morus), raspberry and blackberry (Rubus), apple (Pyrus), serviceberry (Amelanchier), catsclaw (Acacia), coffee-tree (Gymmnocladus), locust (Robinia), sumach (Rhus), BULLETIN 437, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. maple (Acer), dogwood (Cornus), madrone (Arbutus), manzanita (Arctosta- phylos), aster (Aster), and sagebrush (Artemisia). Kills many shrubs and trees, often causing the formation of galls and checks in the wood. Brachys. Eastern and Central States, leaf-miner in leaves: Populus?, alder (Alnus), Fagus?, chestnut (Castanea), oak (Quercus), Ulmus?, and Acer?. Pachyscelus. Kastern States, leaf-miner in leaves: Hicoria?, Quercus?, and Lespedeza. Note.—Host tree as given indicates, for bark and wood borers, that borer was actually taken from bark and wood and not that the adult was resting on the bark or wood. (1) 1869. (2) 1877. (3) 1889. (4) 1889. (5) 1893. (6) 1893. (7) 1900. (8) 1904. (9) 1910. REFERENCES TO IMPORTANT LITERATURE. Scutopte, J. C. Ud De Metamorphosi Eleutheratorum Observationes Bidrag til Insek- ternes viklingshistoire. Pars4. Jn Naturhist. Tidsskr., s. 3, v. 6, p. 353-378, 2 pl. Perris, E, Larves des Coléoptéres. 590 p., 14 pl. Paris. BLANCHARD, F. A list of the Buprestidae of New England. Jn Ent. Amer., v. 5, no. 2, p. 29-32. Notes on host trees of New England species. CHITTENDEN, F. H. Notes on the habits of Buprestidae. Jn Ent. Amer., v.5, no. 12, p. 217-220. Notes on host trees of New York species. Hopkins, A. D. Catalogue of West Virginia Forest and Shade Tree Insects. W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 32, p. 171-251. Notes on the habits and host plants of some tree-infesting species, p. 181-184. XAMBEU, LE CAPITAINE. Buprestides. In Moeurs et Metamorphoses D’Insectes, mem. 3, 1892— 1893, p. 202-252; (Suite) p. 54-124. CHITTENDEN, F. H. Food plants and injury of North American species of Agrilus. Jn U.S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bul. 22, n.s., p. 56-68. Notes on habits and host plants of the species of the genus Agrilus, p. 64-68. Horpxtns, A. D. Catalogue of Exhibits of Insect Enemies of Forests and Forest Products at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, Mo., 1904. U.S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bul. 48. 56 p., 22 pl. Notes on the habits and host plants of some tree-infesting species, p. 21, 22, 38, 39, and 46. Burke, H. E. Injuries to forest trees by flat-headed borers. Jn U.S. Dept. Agr. Year- book, 1909, p. 399-415, fig. 25-36. Notes on habits and host plants of some tree-infesting species. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY Vv WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICB: 1916 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER December 11, 1916 THE PEAR LEAF-WORM. By R. L. Novearet, Entomological Assistant, and W. M. Davipson and E. J. New- CoMER, Scientific Assistants, Deciduous Fruit Insect Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page PIMA BCIIONS Sele niecs sss es esses este se eeees US Biolog yas Marware cice cee eee Oe eee ee NA 9 = VEStenyand distribution = ./~5< i)... 3; - 2564/2 L>| Naturalicontrole sae 22s ee aos ta eee 17 LET SST) Cota hee ae ee ae Cee es 2 | Remedial measures.............. “Herne ea 18 Character and extent of injury.........-...-: Sh SUMMA y, oe See sis eee Re fp ee, ICS 22 Description and habits............---------- 44 “Bibliograp hy.2- a5 sscaaees sacewaseecctececoss 23 INTRODUCTION. The pear leaf-worm, more scientifically termed the pear sawfly (Gymnonychus californicus Marlatt), is an hymenopterous insect belonging to the family Nematide and to the subfamily Nematine. For several years it has been noted as a pest on pear trees on the Pacific coast. The observations and experiments recorded herein were made in California by Messrs. R. L. Nougaret and W. M. Dawvid- son, during the years 1911 to 1914, inclusive, and in the State of Washington by Mr. E. J. Newcomer, during the seasons 1914 and 1915. The injury is caused almost entirely by the feeding of the green wormlike larva and is confined to the foliage, resulting in partial defoliation. In the localities in which it occurs the insect is quite abundant. Occasionally it becomes a pest of serious consequence, and under favor- able conditions it might cause widespread damage. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. The pear leaf-worm was described from 1 female collected at Brockport, N. Y., and 10 females taken near Sacramento, Cal., by Nore.—This bulletin is of interest to pear growers generally, but especially to those of the Pacific coast, 57170°—Bull, 4283—16——1 2 BULLETIN 438, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Matthew Cooke (1)!in the year 1881. Atthat time it was reported also from Natoma and Santa Clara, Cal. In the spring of 1909 it was quite common in the vicinity of Stanford University, Cal., and in 1911 it was a pest in Tehama County, Cal., besides being generally dis- tributed throughout the central counties, both on the coast and in the great interior valleys of Sacramento and San Joaquin? (8) As to neighboring States, Prof. H. F. Wilson, of the University of Wisconsin, in a letter reports the insect attacking pear foliage in Oregon (1913); Dr. A. W. Morrill, State entomologist of Arizona, states in a letter that Arizona is free from the insect (1913); Prof. C. P. Gillette states that the insect does not appear to live in Colorado. In Washington it was found in pear orchards in the Wenatchee Valley in 1914 and 1915, being particularly abundant in an orchard about 6 miles from Wenatchee, but careful inquiry did not lead to the discovery of other orchards haying more than a scattering infestation. Mr. C. L. Marlatt, in describing this insect, states that Dr. J. A. Lintner, former State entomologist of New York, reported an unde- termined sawfly larva as being injurious to pear in a nursery at - Geneva, N. Y., in May, 1894. Mr. Marlatt says (2)! it is probable that this is the same species, but as it has not been reported since, so far as known, the identification of the Geneva specimens remains doubt- ful; however, the collection of a specimen at Brockport, N. Y., indi- cates that it may be found in the East. POSSIBLE ORIGIN. An attempt was made in Washington to ascertain the natural hosts of the pear leaf-worm. The fact that it is found in various localities throughout a range of a thousand miles would indicate that it is a native species. Two wild plants related to the pear are to be found in the vicinity of Wenatchee, Wash. These are the service berry (Amelanchier cusickit Fern.) and the thorn apple (Crataegus brevispina Dougl.). Plants of both species were searched carefully for larvee of the sawfly several times in May. Nothing was found on the service berry, but the thorn apple yielded a number of green larvee very similar to those on pear. They differed, however, in being a more shiny green, and in having scattered brown dots laterally and dorsally on the thorax. A number of these were reared, but the adults have not yet emerged. It is very probable that they belong to a distinct but closely related species. Nearly full-grown larve of the pear leaf-worm were placed upon twigs of both the service berry and the thorn apple. Those on the former fed a little, but soon dropped off and died, while the larvee on the latter at once began to feed, and several of them matured and spun cocoons. From this it may be inferred that the pear leaf- 1 Figures in parenthesis refer to “Bibliography,” p. 23. THE PEAR LEAF-WORM. 8 worm may naturally feed upon the thorn apple, and if a native of the Pacific coast there probably exists another host to which it is adapted, and its habit of feedmg upon pear may be an acquired one. This is not impossible, as various species of Crataegus and of Sorbus occur throughout the known range of the species. CHARACTER AND EXTENT OF INJURY. The injury caused by the pear leaf-worm (fig. 1) is confined among economic plants to the foliage of the pear and is due chiefly to the larva. While it consists primarily in the eating out of circular or semicircular holes in the leaf (fig. 1, a, 6), often whole leaves are eaten down to the petiole. During its period of life a single larva eats about one-fourth of an average-sized pear leaf, so that it requires several larvee to consume such a leaf en- tirely. When two or more larve are feeding simultan- eously on the same leaf. they frequently cut the midrib in |) two at about the middle of ()\/7\ij, the leaf, and the portion thus 4 \\j cut off falls to the ground. Severe infestations cause the defoliation of branches (PI. II, fig.2). The larve are not ad- dicted to roaming and com- monly do not leave their original leaf as long as any edible part of it remains. In | Washington many trees were fia. 1.—The pear leaf-worm (Gymnonychus californicus): observed in 1914 that were % Leaf showing character of injury and egg in situ; b, 4 enlarged section of leaf showing egg in tissue and manner from one-third to nearly one- of feeding of young larva; c, full grownlarva. a, Slightly half defoliated. Such infes- enlarged; b, c, much enlarged. (Original.) tations, however, are not common. ‘The lower parts of large trees are the more heavily infested. The eggs are usually laid in leaves that are not yet unrolled, and those which fail to hatch often deform or curtail the growth of the leaf, possibly by cutting off its food supply between the point where the egg was deposited and the edge of the leaf, making the latter one- sided (Pl. I, fig. 3). When the eggs hatch normally this malforma- tion does not occur. The puncture of the ovipositor frequently causes a discoloration of the adjacent tissues and sometimes wilts young, tender leaves. The larva apparently will eat the foliage of all cultivated varieties of pear. BULLETIN 438, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DESCRIPTION AND HABITS. THE EGG. The egg (fig. 1, a, b) appears on the surface of the leaf as a small oval blister of a greenish color. It is reniform, slightly smaller at one end, translucent greenish, and about 0.75 mm. in length and 0.50 mm. in maximum width. As the margins of the egg are more or less covered by the edges of the ruptured epidermis of the leaf to which it adheres, it is hard to remove the egg intact. This incised part of the leaf epidermis appears as a narrow brownish area surrounding the ege. On the lower surface of the leaf nothing is visible but a dark spot, indicating the passage of the ovipositor. The egg is slightly more oval than that of the pear slug (Caliroa cerasi L.), which it greatly resembles. As many as 20 eggs have been found in a single leaf, but ordinarily, even upon a heavily infested tree, there are not more than three or four and more often only one or two. Just before the egg hatches the whitish curved embryo with its pink ‘‘eyespots”’ is visible through the shell. The manner of oviposition is described later in this section under the heading of ‘‘The adult.” THE LARVA. The larva emerges through the epidermis of the underside of the leaf, apparently crawling out through the incision made by the adult in depositing the egg. The newly hatched larva measures 1.3 mm. to 1.7 mm. in length, and has an average width of 0.35 mm. As soon as its head is free of the shell the larva begins to feed, cutting a small round hole in the leaf. By the time the larva has fully emerged, the hole or opening is large enough to permit the true legs to grasp the edge, and as the hole is enlarged the whole body is drawn in so that it lies in a curved position around the edge. The true legs are gray, quite long, and are fitted for straddling the edge of the leaf and not for walking over the surface. After a few hours of feeding the color of the food begins to show through the body, and the head and true legs become olive brown. There are seven pairs of prolegs, which like the body are pale whitish or greenish-white. Molting takes place on the edge of the hole eaten out of the leaf wherever the larva happens to be in the course of its feedmg. The larva crawls out of the old skin and soon resumes its feeding. The skin usually adheres to the leaf for a time and is not eaten. After the first molt the larva has a length of from 2 to 3 mm. Just after molting the appearance is much as before, except that the head is larger in proportion to the body and both it and the true legs are of a lighter green than the body, which latter is considerably wrinkled and slightly flattened, especially at the caudal end. Later the head THE PEAR LEAF-WORM. 5 changes to light brown and the wrinkles disappear as the body fills out. After the second molt the average length is about6 mm. The head appears green and toward the end of the instar is lightly dotted with small brown spots. The folds or wrinkles in the cuticle and sutures appear as white stripes and spots. The length after the third molt is 9.2mm. While at first the larva is similar in appearance to the preceding instar, the color later is bluish green with whitish lateral and dorsal stripes, due to the folds of the skin. These whitish stripes disappear at maturity, when the folds have become filled out. By the time the larva has cast its first skin (on the average 54 days after hatching) it has eaten a hole with average diameter of 3.8 mm. After the second molt (on the average 8} days after hatching) it has eaten out an area of about 12 mm. diameter. Four larvee were found to have eaten during their larval existence 514, 241, 280, and 416 sq. mm. of leaf, respectively, the first of these having consumed somewhat more than one-fourth of an average-sized pear leaf (Bartlett). It was found that a considerable percentage of larve died at the time of their emergence because they were unable to cut their way through the eggshell or through the leaf. Also during the first instar there was considerable mortality due to unknown causes. During the operation of molting numbers fall to the ground, because the larva retains only a precarious foothold at this time and is easily shaken or knocked off. The width of a strip of leaf eaten by the larva during one of its circular trips around the hole is equal to three-fourths the height of its head. It eats as far as it can reach forward without advancing. The head of the larva is always closely in contact with the leaf, fillmg up the place of that portion eaten away, as does also its body, which lies at full length along the edge of the hole (fig. 1, 6). It is for this reason that the edge of the leaf, defining the hole, appears to be an uninterrupted line, and the larva, being almost the color of the leaf, is not readily detected without close examination, but its presence is made known by the characteristic circular holes that it cuts in the leaves. In feeding the larva holds the posterior end of the body either straight along the edge of the opening or curled about it, and eats around and around the hole, which becomes gradually larger. Where the larve are numerous and two or more feed on the same leaf they may soon consume it entirely, whereupon they migrate to other leaves and commence feeding on the edges (fig. 1, a), as they are unable to eat through the flat surfaces. The larve feeding along the edges of the leaves on the lower part of the tree are mostly those which drop down from above, being dislodged at the time of molting or from some other cause. While migrating along the leaf petioles or the edges of the leaves the posterior part of the body is carried in 6 BULLETIN 438, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a characteristic curled position, and when the larva is disturbed this posterior curled part is thrown up in a threatening manner. The full grown larva (fig. 1, c) measures 12 mm. (0.5 inch) in length and 1.6 mm.inwidth. The head is light green, dotted antero-dorsally with small brown dots. Upon closer examination these dots are seen to be divided into two or three parts which fit closely together. The eyes are black; the mouth parts dark brown, and the clypeus light brown with a narrow inverted V-shaped band of green between it and the dotted area, which latter extends from the eyes back to the inser- tion of the head into the thorax and is divided dorso-frontally by a nar- row green line. Ordinarily the larva when full grown drops to the ground, but some have been noticed crawling about the trunks of the trees as though crawling to the soil. This is unusual, however, and probably occurs with those Jarve that happen to have been feeding near the main trunk. Just before the larva is ready to drop to the ground for ‘‘cocooning,”’ the caudal segments turn yellowish. THE COCOON AND PUPA. The cocoon (fig. 2; Pl. I, fig. 4) is cylindrical, slightly constricted at the middle, rounded at the ends and somewhat larger at one end than at the other. It is closely woven of fine silk, smooth inside and roughened or with a pebbled appearance, due to the ad- herence of small bits of soil, outside. It is at first ight greenish and if kept dry re- mains a straw color, but if moistened, as it usually is when spun in the soil, it soon darkens, becoming a dark brown. Some larve spin a quantity of loose, red-brown silk about the outside before spinning the light-green cocoon, especially if the cocoon happens to be spun among old leaves in the soil, and an occasional cocoon is found which is entirely of this red-brown color. The larva lies with its head in the small end of the cocoon, and the posterior part of the body curled up in the larger end. In Washington the average length of 20 cocoons was 5.7 mm. and the average maximum width 3 mm. In California the measurements of both width and length were slightly in excess of this. The habit of cocooning in the soil seems to be for protection rather than for the effect of moisture. Cocoons spun in dry glass vials in May, 1914, gave adults in Aprii, 1915, though they had been kept perfectly dry during the intervening 11 months. The cocoon is closely spun and very tough and undoubtedly prevents the evapora- tion of any moisture from the inclosed larva. Most of the larve spin their cocoons within an inch of the surface, and during the long dry summers of California and Washington this top inch of soil is Fig. 2.—Pear leaf-worm: Cocoon. Much enlarged. (Original.) THE PEAR LEAF-WORM. 7 subjected to a large amount of heat and desiccation. Thus it is evident that the larva and its cocoon must be able to withstand considerable dryness. An experiment was performed at Wenatchee, Wash., to learn whether moisture was necessary to the larva. Cocoons were collected from the soil within a few days after they were spun, in May, 1914, and divided into two lots, both of which were kept on the surface of some soil in jelly glasses. The soil in one lot was kept moist by pouring water through a glass tube inserted in the soil. The other lot was allowed to remain dry. The first lot was kept moist until September. After this both lots were left untouched until spring, being kept over winter in an unheated room. During the emerging period the first lot was again kept moist, while the other remained dry as before. As a check on these lots the emergence from a third lot, collected April 3, 1915, was recorded. Table I gives the results of this experiment: Tasie 1.—Adult emergence of pear leaf-worm from moist and dry cocoons, Wenatchee, Wash., April, 1915. Cocoons ¢ol- Onhservation. Moist. } Dry. | lected Apr.| Total. 3, 1915. = PROP ae UY AEP {ST MIN BOR ON COC Seamer - se sees = no taal eee oan oaiaisieistet 59 194 55 308 Number emerged. ....---.--.----.. Be sea eSe acs le Ma sctb abeben peccos 51 118 31 200 Dei crin Giri fae le ee eae Beer Bee S628 Se Soe eagceciscaainc “It Seasaesbocs 86. 4 60.8 56. 4 64.9 From Table I we learn that 86.4 per cent emerged from cocoons kept moist during the previous summer, 60.8 per cent from dry co- coons, and 56.4 per cent from the cocoons collected April 3, 1915, and which were thus under natural conditions during practically the whole period; the total percentage emerging was 64.9. The cocoons of the dry lot that did not give adults were examined later, and a number of them contained fully-formed adults that had been unable to break through the tough, dry cocoon. This indicates that the smaller per- centage of adults emerging from these cocoons was due to the dryness at the time of emergence rather than the dryness during the preced- ing summer, and perhaps collective dryness weakened the insects somewhat. The larve had lived through the dry period of the sum- mer, had pupated the following spring, and the adults had cast the pupal skin, but had been unable to get through the dry cocoon. The smaller emergence from cocoons collected in April, 1915, is explained by the more uneven conditions to which they had been subjected, such as the freezing and thawing of winter. The newly-molted pupa is entirely pale green, with black eyes, and measures about 5 mm. by 1.7 mm. Shortly before the time for the adult to emerge the pupa turns dusky blackish, with the wings, fore- legs, and portions of middle and hind legs yellowish. Ventrally the abdominal rings and the saw case of the female are greenish. 8 BULLETIN 438, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE ADULT. Female.—Length 4.5 mm., very short and robust, shiny; head densely punctured, rather opaque; clypeus very slightly emarginate; frontal wanting or very slightly indi- cated; antennz very short, not as long as head and thorax, filiform, third joint longest; intercostal nearly at right angles with costa, interstitial with basal; venation otherwise normal; stigma short, broadly ovate at base; apex of costa strongly thickened; sheath broad, slightly emarginate beneath and acuminate at tip; claws simple. Color black; angles of pronotum, tegule, trochanters, apices of femora (particularly anterior pair), tibie, and tarsi yellowish ferruginous; the posterior tibiz and tarsi particularly some- what infuscated; veins, including stigma and costa, dark brown; wings hyaline. The females are more robust than the males. Upon issuing from the cocoon the adult cuts a small circular hole almost all the way around the end of the cocoon and issues by pushing up this “lid.” Adults (fig. 3) fly preferably in the full sunshine, but also in cloudy weather. Their flight is jerky, and when captured they feign death. A great amount of time is spent running about over the unfolding leaves and buds, the antenne vibrating incessantly. They take food from the Fia. 3.—Pear sawfly, the adult of the pear leaf-worm. Much enlarged. ( Original.) nectaries of the leaves, and from observations it appears probable that they also make slight incisions with the ovipositor and suck up © the moisture which collects at these wounds. (PI. I, fig. 1.) When ovipositing they run about in the same way, and at intervals the abdomen is bent down and the tip of the ovipositor inserted in the leaf, always on the under side, the leaves being mostly as yet unrolled. Sometimes the place selected appears to be unsuitable, for the ovi- positor is withdrawn after several seconds and inserted in another place (Pl. I, figs. 1, 2). The whole process of oviposition occupies a little less than two minutes. The ovipositor (fig. 4) normally lies in its sheath, point up, and the abdomen must be curved under, so that the point, which is extruded a little way, may be inserted into the leaf. The saws immediately begin to work back and forth, and after about 30 seconds the ovipositor has been driven far enough into the leaf epidermis so that it no longer needs the support of the sheath. At this juncture the abdomen is straightened out, leaving the ovi- Bul. 438, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. THE PEAR LEAF-Worm. Fic, 1.—Adult female feeding. Fro. 2.—Adult female ovipositing. F1ia, 3.—Leayes deformed by oviposition. Fie. 4.—Cocoons. (Original. ) PLATE II. Bul. 438, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. (‘[BUIsIIQ) “wVAreyt Aq TWONBI[OJop SULMOYS SIAM4 IVod—'Z “HIVE “poyerpoyep ATpeq ‘poAvadsun opys JY SII ‘poAvidsopIs}yo[ ‘901, 1B0g—'T “YI "AYOM-4Va] YVad AHL SO WHOM THE PEAR LEAF-WORM. —@9 positor at right angles to the sheath (fig.4,@). The rhythmical sawing goes on for about 50 seconds more, the two surfaces of the leaf being forced apart to form a more or less oval cavity. The sawing ceases, and the portion of the ovipositor still outside the leaf is seen to be- come more opaque and greenish. This is due to the passage of the ege and the mucilaginous matter around it. The abdomen moves up and down slightly as the egg is forced into the cavity, and the saws are removed gradually. The actual depositing of the egg occu- pies about 30 seconds, and as soon as the ovipositor is free the anten- nz, which have been practically quiet during the whole operation, immediately resume their rapid vibrations, and the fly moves to a WS AW Fic. 4.—Ovipositor of adult female of the pear sawfly: a, Last three abdominal segments with ovipositor protruding; b, ventral view of last segments of abdomen with ovipositor retracted within its sheath; c, ventral view of ovipositor and portion of sheath, showing lateral ridges on inferior blades; d, single superior saw blade; ¢, single inferior saw blade; 0, ovipositor; #, superior saw blade; i, inferior saw blade; sh, sheath; cerc, cerci. All highly magnified. (Original.) , new place. One female was observed to deposit 5 eggs in 20 minutes, but not all in the same leaf. BIOLOGY. There is one generation annually. In California, from observations made in 1912 and 1913, it was found that adults issued during March and the first half of April, but before the middle of March very few emerged. In Washington, in the spring of 1915, practically all the adults emerged between the 1st and 15th of April. In both localities the period of emergence probably varies more or less with the season. Immediately after issuing, the sexes presumably mate and the females oviposit on young pear leaves. 57170°—Bull. 428—16——2 10 BULLETIN 438, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE EGG. In California, in Santa Clara County, in 1912, eggs were first ob- served on trees as early as March 23, and in Contra Costa County, in 1913, as early as March 25. During the last few days of March in both these years oviposition was observed. In Washington, in 1915, numerous females were observed in the Zimmerman orchard on April 7, though none had been found 3 days before. None was seen to ovi- posit on this date, and they were evidently all very recently emerged. A week later the period of oviposition was at its height and by April 24 most of the adults had disappeared. The adults prefer to ovi- posit on those varieties of pears which leaf out early and generally select for oviposition a young leaf not yet unrolled. In California the earliest adults generally find the Bartlett not far enough advanced, and so the earliest eggs are deposited on other varieties. Ovipositing females kept in a jar were provided with cherry and plum leaves, but they refused these as hosts, although, in similar confinement, they oviposited regularly in pear leaves. Table II indicates the incubation period in California for 85 eggs: Tasie IIl.—Jncubation record of eggs of the pear leaf-worm, Walnut Creek, Cal., 1913. Number | Date of of eggs de-| deposi- ees a posited. tion. g. Number | Incuba- hatched. |tion stage. Days. 118 | Mar. 29| Apr. 7 23 Apr. 8 6 10 Apr. 9 21 11 Apr. 10 28 12 Apr. 11 5 13 C Apr. 12 2 14 For this experiment 20 adults were confined in a cage in which a growing pear limb was inclosed. The average incubation stage was 11.1 days. Out of 118 eggs deposited, 85, or 72 per cent, hatched. Table III indicates the incubation period, in Washington, of 23 eggs deposited by a single unfertilized female on a pear twig kept in water. Taste I11.—Jncubation record of eggs of the pear leaf-worm, Wenatchee, Wash., 1915. Number Matcen of eggs n Date of | Number depos- deposi: | hatching.| hatched. ed tion. = ns N e Lo} 5 i) — HORE RO Apr. 11-14 | Apr. 19 Apr. THE PEAR LEAF-WORM. 11 Another lot, deposited from April 8 to 11, began hatching April 18. The incubation period was thus 8 to perhaps 12 or 13 days. The twig above cited was badly wilted by the 24th, after only 50 per cent of the eggs had hatched, and none hatched after this date. It is probable that under normal conditions hatching would have been more regular, and also that the average incubation period would have been lengthened. It was observed that unfertilized eggs hatched as readily as fertilized ones. The life-history phase of parthenogenesis is considered farther on in this chapter in the discussion of the adult. . THE LARVA. In the field at Walnut Creek, in 1913, the first larva was observed on Aprili. It was about 3 days old. Two days later about 1 per cent of the eggs already laid had hatched. At Red Bluff, Tehama County, Cal., in 1911, most of the larve were half grown on April 9, and in 1912 full-grown larve were found at Red Bluff April 22, and on May 12 no more larve could be found! At Suisun and Courtland, Cal., m 1912, the first larvee went to the ground about April 10, but at San Jose not before May 1. In 1913, at Walnut Creek, the first larve went to the ground about April 20, and after May 10 very few larvye remained on the trees. It appears that in the interior valleys, where the pear trees move earlier, the sawflies emerge and the larvee mature earlier than in the coastal districts. This is doubtless due to climatological influences. The first molt is cast from 3 to 8 days after hatching, the second molt from 2 to 7 days after the first, the third molt from 2 to 7 days after the second, and from 4 to 10 days elapse between the date of the third molt and maturity of the larva, the variations being chiefly due to temperature influences. The pupal molt does not take place until the following spring or shortly before the issuance of the adult. Table LV indicates the larval life observed at San Jose, Cal., in 1912. Tasie 1V.—Larval stages of the pear leaf-worm, San Jose, Cal., 1912. Date lar-| Active | a Date lar-| Active Her he va spun larval || No. ey ies va spun | larval “1 cocoon, life. *| cocoon.| life, No. Days. Days 1 | Apr. 7| May 9 32 10 | Apr. 12| May 15 ‘ 2 j---d0..2--| May 10 33 | 11 | Apr. 13 | May 12 29 3 do....-| May 12 35 CO 12 “Q0raue% May 14 31 4 Apr. 8| May 11 33 WU Jil asco Ca eft do 31 5 ..d0. G0:,--; 33 14 Qype... May 16 33 6 Apr. 9| May 9 0 15 AOses a May 18 85 7 | Apr. 10] May 17 37 16 | Apr. 17} May 1 26 8 | Apr. 12| May 10 28 17 | May 2] May 31 29 9 an aie May 11 29 \ ! Letter from Mr. C. B. Weeks, Tehama County horticultural commissioner, 12 BULLETIN 438, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Thus the maximum larval life was 37 and the minimum 26 days. The average is found to be 31.6 days. In this experiment the larve were kept in glass vials, but in the experiment of which the results are given in Table V the larve were allowed to remain on the tree until a day or two before they went to the soil, a small numbered cloth tag attached to each leaf permitting accurate observation on each larva. The observations recorded in Table V are, therefore, more normal than those indicated in Table IV. TasLEe V.—Larval stages of the pear leaf-worm, Walnut Creek, Cal., 1913. Date of— Length of instars in days. No. ee Total. : pinning Hatching.| Molt1. | Molt2. | Molt3. cacaaut 1 2 3 4 1 | Apr. 13 | Apr. 19 | Apr. 24} Apr. 28] May 2 6 5 4 4 19 2 seed onsen PASO TS 20 n|PaeCOLe ana | Saacligus ss May 3 7 4 4 5 20 3 Gol eral dose dor etal eedo. = Sse doen 7 4 4 5 20 4 dove Apren2in | Raadoeses domes May 4 8 3 4 6 21 5 do.. Hd Osea es do.. dove? May 5 8 3 1 7 22 6 dos Atpr e195 |S douse (2) May 1 6 5 (2) a 18 7 douee Apr. 20 (2?) Apr. 26| May 3 7 (yy) XQ) 7 20 8 | Apr. 14] Apr. 19 | Apr. 23 ( dows 5 4 CG) 19 OQ eezdolee: Apr. 20 oles Apr. 26| May 4 6 3 3 8 20 10 Reed ox Ee 3 6 3 6 4 19 Dey seed osteee 4 7 3 3 a 20 12 |e edoz 3 7 3 4 5 19 13) see dole 4 7 3 4 6 20 14 | Apr. 15 BOSIE OG 4.) 21 @) 19 15 eed Oseeee 7 6 3 6 7 22 16 | Apr. 16 4 3 2). || ERAS a ee na 17 dose 3 4 4 2 7 17 IRS ha sGkopenan 4 6 2 4 6 18 i) 5 Ol eae 5 6 3 2 8 19 20 eee Ose 9 6 3 5 9 23 21 | Apr. 17 5 3 5b. SA eee 22 Edopeae 6 6 2 3 8 19 23) Sasdoss 6 6 2 5 6 19 BN WE ClO oe 8 6 3 6 6 21 25 | Apr. 18 5 5 2 5 5 17 26M aoed Osea 6 5 2 5 6 18 lg | eae Osea 8 5 2 5 8 20 AS | AA eoloy aac 9 5 3 3 10 21 29 BECOsse ee 8 6 2 3 9 20 30 | Apr. 19 Bu Mt wo) 2 PAO a are A a ci Se zee Osean 7 5 2 6 5 18 32) | edioinas Ph Es 4 4 | 10 23 33 Apr. 20 8 4 2 2 10 18 34a) |edomean : 4 4 Tl 23 ee 35 | Apr. 21 8 3 3 5 6 17 36 tidosss22 0 3 3 6 7 19 BY eee see- 9 3 4 3 8 18 Bie ome O Keto 3 4 6 5 18 aH) [So cGlovedss 4 4 5 5 18 40 Ed Ose 4 6 5 1h 22 41 | Apr. 22 3 4 3 6 16 AQUA -ClOseees 4 6 4 8 22 43 | Apr. 23 3 6 4 6 19 44 |...do.... 3 7 3 6 19 45) } | eedoreee 7 4 5 5 21 46 | Apr. 25 6 5 4 6 21 47 ay 7 if 3 5 5 20 } Out of the 47 individuals recorded in Table V, it will be noticed that 4 died after completing their third molt. These 4 were full grown and died from their inability to spin cocoons, and it appears that the larva, after it is ready to enter its quiescent stage, can not live exposed to the atmosphere. For the experiment in THE PEAR LEAF-WORM. 13 Table V, 122 eggs were marked on the trees. Thirty eggs died before hatching or were infertile. The remaining 92 hatched and 16 larye disappeared and 3 died before molting. Thus 73 larve cast their first skin under observation. Of these, 6 disappeared and 2 died before casting the second skin. Thus 65 larve molted a second skin under observation. Of these, 5 disappeared and 5 died (1 being destroyed by a coccinellid larva) before shedding the third skin. Of the 55 larve which cast the third skin, 8 subsequently disappeared before they were ready to drop to the ground. The larve under observation were taken into the laboratory insectary after their third molt, but were not inclosed in cages, so that those which desired to move away could do so. On the trees most of the larvee which disappeared were dislodged during the operation of molting. TaBLE VI.—Summary of Table V. Instar. Maximum.| Minimum.} Average. Days. Days. Days. iba OB SECO CA ABDOS (GHEE OSCE SC BEEBE EEG 8 3 5.3 PIES ae ee CE Se ae eae ee te ES 7 2 3.4 SI en SORE Cee eee re nee Sy meek 7 2 4.2 71 i pe ae ee ie ee Ree ee A 8 See 10 4 6.6 Total larval period on trees.-.....- 23 16 18.4 The data in Tables V and VI are in striking contrast to those recorded from San Jose (Table IV), m which the average period spent by the larve in vials was 31.6 days. It would appear that the San Jose individuals were retarded by reason of the abnormal character of their food as a result of the feeding of cut leaves. It might be added that the temperature during the period of larval growth in 1913 at Walnut Creek was higher than the mean average for that time of year, and toward the end of April great daily fluctuations occurred; fer instance, on April 24 and on May 3 there was a range of 48° F. Tables VII and VIII give the larval life history at Wenatchee, Wash., in 1915. 14 BULLETIN 438, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie VII.—Larval life history of the pear leaf-worm at Wenatchee, Wash., 1915. Date of— Length in days. noes 1st molt. | 2d molt. | 3d molt.| Cocoon.| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 I Are) TGa WA eat ah ei ae ee |e oe oe (Cpl ees a2 Sep ee 2) | PAE Sn PAsprarzon| iain | eee en ase | eee eer 7 Chel ase ees) 1 Sok 3 |..-do....]...do....| Apr. 29 | May 7] May 14 7 4 8 7 4} Apr. 19 |...do UN Tee | Pa eniyy ie Gyn rape eran 6 3 cool Ic 5 Goes.) Apr ep r Ar SO Maser a.i| ete 7 Be ees) Sl ea 6 COs cant. 226) MENA ih Wo ecoececedlessecsades 7 pay leaesatee [a 7 GO ee | doe: | Ad ole sea Shee ae Hee Ear 7 Dh || patel tall ee 8 OMS | Hrdos Mayr aa NARA Ae TE SESS SU Ul ero Reel ee Wace Me eae oes anise lerieicer soe 0) | Says 2a | es Seealeoe TL escapade | (Pees en esos =. 5 Gi Loess 5 Tig ei lh ee OURS Saale es ale eee 6 | a Stes in ere eee te 6 Gi; baste shee 5 (EN ees sos 5 Tp eh eee Bole R esas (oe oe eee Seal Bares alle. So 5h G6) jedesck]ece eh eRe Toh. pe | 2 etal Hy (eats Uiteeen SeHE 5) [Se Sass eee eee Bee elses) Sh ees CEE inn ies OF ae ORE A a A 6 | eee BARS aSaaee| ceed aed a 63) Ses pe eeie W le Mp Sop Dares BOOS AR ae OIE IM eS 8 Leia Fos ete sere eee tl | eee i ede 2 LES Napa ea es (All eaerses BAe ORR oe eEeaec 6 10 9 Tyce ay SI Tne es © 10. TaBLe VIII.—Summary of Table VII. | Instar. Maximum.| Minimum.| Average. Days. Days. Days. a URS ea er 7 5 6.1 Oxy ae yea AE i 8 3 6.0 Ba Mev ek ean 9 6 7.6 AS ek ee ty OE BB 3 10 6 8.4 Woy rez) WAC HE eee | Le PR 28.1 In ascertaining the larval life history at Wenatchee, it was neces- sary, owing to the distance of the infested orchard, to rear the larvee on leaves kept in water in the outdoor rearing shelter. These had to be renewed every 4 or 5 days, and the larve transferred to the fresh leaves. It will be noted that there was a high mortality among the larvee, and this may be attributed to the fact that the larve had to be handled more or less, and that they did not always have per- fectly fresh food upon which to feed. It is probable, also, that the periods between molts were lengthened by this abnormal method of rearing, although observations in the field indicate that the figures for the total larval life are approximately correct. In 1915 most of THE PEAR LEAF-WORM. 15 the larvee had hatched by April 24, and the largest number were enter- ing the soil about May 20, giving an average larval period of about 26 days. The table shows an average of 28.1 days, and the only larva that was reared to maturity (No. 3) occupied 26 days from egg to cocoon. This is a longer period than at Walnut Creek, Cal. (18.4 days) where the larve were reared normally on the trees, and a slightly shorter period than at San Jose (31.6 days), where the larve were reared under conditions similar to those in Washington State. THE COCOON AND PUPA. In order to determine how deeply the larve penetrate the earth for the purpose of spinning their cocoons, 60 full-grown larvee were placed in a screen cage sunk into the soil and filled with 7 inches of average orchard soil April 30, 1913. By May 83 all the larve had burrowed and on June 18 the soil was examined with the results enumerated in Table IX. Tasie 1X.—Depth in soil for cocooning of the pear leaf-worm, Walnut Creek, Cal., 1913. Number of | Inches be- cocoons low soil found. surface. 46 Otol 2 1 to2 4 2to3 1 3 to 4 Fifty-three out of 60 were thus accounted for, and therefore 88.3 per cent of the larve spun cocoons. It is evident from Table IX that the great majority spin their cocoons not more than 1 inch below the surface. In the above instance this majority was 86.8 per cent. Table X shows the depth in the soil at which the cocoons are spun in Washington. On May 21, 1915, 93 larve just ready to enter the earth were placed in an open jar on top of 6 inches of fairly closely packed, moist, sandy soil, which is typical of the orchards of the region. In a few days the larve had all disappeared and on June 11 the soil was sifted and 71 cocoons were recovered. Thus 76.3 per cent of the larvee spun cocoons, the others being found dead near the surface. The depths at which the cocoons were found are given in Table X. Taste X.—Depth in soil of cocoons of pear leaf-worm, Wenatchee, Wash., 1915. Number of| Inches cocoons below found. surface. Hats 16 BULLETIN 438, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Thus 88.7 per cent of all the cocoons were formed less than 1 inch below the surface of the soil. This approximates the percentages found at this depth in California. Tables XI, XII, and XIII indicate the period spent in the cocoon im California: TABLE XI.—Cocoon records of the pear leaf-worm, 1911-12. Date of spin- | Date of adult Place. ning cocoon. | emergence. San Jose, Cal.......... May 13,1911 | Mar. 25,1912 DO eee eee May 16,1911 | Mar. 18, 1912 IDO. ae oe a eelaen oe (3 Kore aise Do. ) Red Bluff, Cal........] Apr. 25,1911] Mar. 4,1912 DOM See ae see Apr. 26, 1911 | Mar. 10, 1912 AD OP SG ease Steet ab fan dove ee Do.” TABLE XII.—Cocoon records of the pear leaf-worm, 1912-18. Date of spin- | Date of adult Place. ning cocoon. | emergence. San Jose, Cal.........- May 9,1912| Mar. 23,1913 May 10,1912 | Mar. 30,1913 May 11) 1912 | Mar. 28, 1913 nM do. _| Mar. 8, 1913 May 12, "1912 | Mar. 31, 1913 May 15, 1912 | Mar. 7,1913 TaBLE XIII.—Cocoon records of the pear leaf-worm, Walnut Creek, Cal., 1918-14. Date of aie || Date of aan : Date ot ae "|| Date of vee : spinning | emer. ||SPimming| emer. ||SPimming| emer. || SPimming| omer. cocoon, | sence cocoon, | sence cocoon, | sence cocoon, | gence 2 2 1913. 1914.” 1913. 1914. 1913. 1914. 1913. 1914 2 May 3] Mar. 14 do.. RC Ou eee May 8] Mar. 19 OlO-coae to) IDOE soba Mar. 15 donee: Mar. 19 ||...do..... Mar. 20 || May 12 Do IDO Ss con6 Mar. 18 || May 5} Mar. 15 ||...do..... Mans 21) ||Reedossees Mar. 25 Does: Mar. 19 donee Maren 20))||eadosstee Mar. 29 || May 13} Mar, 18 DOS ss aallsee Gokenes May 6] Mar. 18 || May 9 | Mar. 16 Goseaes Mar. 19 IDOE se Mar. 20 dow Mar. 20 |||.2-do....- Mar. 18 || May 14 | Mar. 31 May 4] Mar. 15 || May 7] Mar. 18 dove Mar. 19 |} May 16} Mar. 22 Doses: Mar. 18 The average time spent underground in a cocoon, first as larva and secondly as pupa, is about 10 months and 10 days. Table XIV summarizes the adult emergence recorded in Table XIII. TaBLeE XIV.—Summary of Table XIII, adult emergence of the pear leaf-worm, 1914. Number Number of adults| Date. of adults Date. issuing. issuing. 1 | Mar. 14 1 | Mar. 21 3 Mar. 15 1 Mar. 22 1 | Mar. 16 1 | Mar. 25 8 | Mar. 18 1 Mar. 29 8 Mar. 19 1 Mar. 31 8 | Mar. 20 THE PEAR LEAF-WORM. © 17 Another lot of 53 cocoons gave almost similar results, the days on which the greatest numbers issued being March 16 and 17. In 1913 a number of cocoons were examined March 10, and none of the inmates were pupe. On March 13 one newly molted pupa was observed. It was entirely pale green, with black eyes, and measured 5mm. by 1.7mm. On March 30 this pupa began to turn dusky, and on April 2 the head and thorax were black and the abdomen dusky. This pupa failed to develop, but would have issued as an adult about April 5. On March 28, 1913, a fully formed adult was found inside a cocoon. The pupal stage is passed in from two to three weeks. THE ADULT. Table XV indicates the adult emergence in Washington of 200 indi- viduals, and their sex, in the spring of 1915. TABLE X V.—Adult emergence of the pear leaf-worm, Wenatchee, Wash., 1915. Total for Total for Date. Males. | Females. pachidatee Date. Males. | Females. pachidates Apr. 2 0 4 4 Apr. 9 0 8 8 Apr. 3 0 1 1 || Apr. 10 0 17 17 Apr. 4 1 12 13 || Apr. 11 0 7 7 Apr. 5 1 25 26 || Apr. 12 0 3 3 Apr. 6 0 53 53 || Apr. 13 0 1 1 Apr. 7 0 52 52 Apr. 8 0 15 15 Total. 2 198 200 The average length of life of 7 females confined in jars with pear twigs was 54 days. Comparing the adult emergence in California in 1914 with that in Washington in 1915, we find that in the former locality the maximum date was March 19, while in the northern local- ity this date was April 6. The activities of the insect certainly com- mence earlier in the year in California, and this is to be expected when we consider the seasonal differences in the two localities, for the activi- ties correspond with the period of leafing of the tree. Both in Washington and in California the females have been ob- served to outnumber the males greatly. Out of 200 adults reared at Wenatchee, Wash., in 1915, only two were males. Parthenogenesis occurs in this species, and unfertilized eggs hatch readily, as already has been stated. The larve live for some time, some of them until the third instar, but it is not definitely known whether any of them ever live to maturity. NATURAL CONTROL. Although the pear leaf-worm is apparently a native species, its natu- ral enemies seem to be few, and inefficient in controlling it. No para- sites whatever have been recorded in California. At Wenatchee, Wash., several old cocoons, each with a small round hole near one end, 18 BULLETIN 438, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. were found in May, 1914, indicating the probable existence of a parasite. In the spring of 1915 the possibility of securing parasites was kept in mind. On April 1 three small parasites were found in one of the rearing jars, evidently coming from a single cocoon that had a small hole in it. The followmg day the sawflies began emerg- ing, and continued to do so until April 13. At this time there were still over a hundred cocoons in the jars, and these were kept for possible parasites. On April 24 a small ichneumonid, determimed by Mr. S. A. Rohwer, of the Bureau of Entomology, as Mesoleius sp., emerged from one of the cocoons through quite a large hole that it had made. On May 4, 27 specimens of the small parasite previously referred to were found in one of the rearing jars, having come from four different cocoons, and in another jar 15 specimens of the same species had emerged from three cocoons, or an average of 6 parasites for each cocoon. These parasites, evidently chalcidids, have not been determined. On May 19 a single larger parasite was found, which, upon being -submitted to Mr. S. A. Rohwer, proved to be a ehrysidid, probably Cleptes provanchert Aaron. Thus it appears that of 308 cocoons, only 10, or a little over 3 per cent, were parasitized. The ravages of the sawfly would not be diminished to any appreciable extent by this degree of parasitism, though there may be years when these parasites are much more numerous. It is mteresting to note that practically all of these parasites came out considerably later than the adult sawflies, and at about the time when the largest number of sawfly larve were fullgrown. This indicates that the parasites oviposit on the larve, which is probably the case, as it is difficult to understand how they could reach the larve after the latter had spun their cocoons in the soil. Since there is but one brood of the host, there would be only a single brood of the parasites if peculiar to this host. In California larve of coccinellid beetles in rare instances have been observed to prey on the larve of the pear sawfly. Before the first of May coccinellid larve are comparatively scarce, and so it is unlikely that they will ever prove a check upon the pear sawfly. REMEDIAL MEASURES. The pear leaf-worm is easily controlled when in the larval stage. A poison spray, such as arsenate of lead, if properly applied, is highly effective (Pl. II, fig. 1), because of the habit possessed by this insect of passing the whole period of this stage of its life upon the same leaf, unless forced to move away by interference, accident, or scarcity of food, mainly due to the location of several larve on one leaf and the fact that they consume it before they attain the stage of pupation. THE PEAR LEAF-WORM. 19 The larva shows no preference for any one part of the leaf. The parenchyma and main or lateral veins—even blister-mite galls, when these happen to be present—are consumed in turn as met with during the continuous circular travel of the larva. A spot of arsenate of lead reached im its path of travel becomes part of its food. The larva does not change its course or eat around it because of a dislike for the taste of the poison. The larval period occurs at a time when spraying is done for more serious pests of the pear. Spraying specifically for its control would coincide with the first application of spray for the codling moth, when the blossoming period is about over and two-thirds of the petals have fallen. The formula of arsenate-of-lead spray used for the latter is quite as effective for the pear leaf-worm. CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENTS. In California, when pear orchards are infested with pear thrips (Taeniothrips pyri Daniel), the Government formula of distillate-oil emulsion and nicotine’ used for the control of the pear thrips larva is usually applied at a time when the pear leaf-worms are about all hatched, and is also effective, as a contact-spray control, for the latter. Therefore, in pear orchards well taken care of, when spraying for the codling moth has become as much of an indispensable pratice as that of plowing and cultivating, the pear leaf-worm has less chance of becoming a pest of economic importance, and its control can be considered as correlative with that of both the codling moth and the pear thrips. Taste XVI.—California spraying experiments indicating degree of efficiency of different Jormulas against the pear leaf-worm, Apr. 29 and 30, 1913. Number of pear leaf-worms. Tree sprayed and spray material used. Por en Dead. | Alive. | Sick. cent cent dead. | alive. Tree No.1: Lead arsenate 4 pounds, water 100 gallons...............-.- 31 1 2 91 z Tree No. 2: Lead arsenate 4 pounds, fish-oil soap 10 pounds, 40 per cent p nicotine sulphate 1/1600, water 100 gallons............... 50 0 0 100 0 Tree No. 3: Fish-oil soap 19 pounds, 40 per cent, nicotine sulphate 1/1600, EOLA RRUOTIS a 5 ascii aad he doe b soared gh giver oho an 17 15 2 50 44 Tree No, 4: Lead arsenate 4 pounds, fish-oil soap 10 pounds, 40 per cent nicotine sulphate 1/1600, water 100 gallons................ 46 5 1 884 94 Tree No. 5: Lead arsenate 4 pounds, fish-oil soap 10 pounds, water 100 EE RSE RARE Aap LEE De STS SEY MEE EE oer 88 17 2 664 30 Tree No. 6: Lead arsenate 6 pounds, water 100 gallons..............-.-. 39 1 0 974 2k Tree No. 7: Fish-oll soap 10 pounds, 40 per cent nicotine sulphate 1/1600, MIE UN GOLUIIG ade ita sade dxthdeen cov anaansdanedhane cs 16 14 0 53.3 46. 6: 121, 2p., 15 fig. 1911. 20 BULLETIN 438, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To ascertain how far the control of the pear pests just mentioned could be relied upon to keep the pear leaf-worm in check, control experiments were made in the spring of 1913 in California and in 1915 in the State of Washington, and are shown in Table XVI. Actual count was made 24 hours after spraying, and the larve found on the leaves only were taken into consideration. Leaves with holes eaten in them, but with no larve present, were not made part of the record. This spray was applied with pressure, the force of which, when hitting the leaves at close range, more than likely caused larve to loosen their hold and fall to the ground. It is also more than probable that some sick larve likewise fell before the count was made. At that time leaves were noticed with holes in them smaller than those which would have been produced by larve remaining on the leaf until their full development had been attained. The mortality therefore would be greater than is recorded in these tables, and this accounts in a measure for the difference in the results found for the same formula applied in California and in the State of ‘Washington, because in the latter instance the experiment was made under laboratory conditions which would afford opportunity for closer observations and would yield more precise results. Field conditions prevailed in the California experiments, because common every-day spraying, as ordinarily practiced in orchards for other pests, was the only object in view as a control at the same time for the pear leaf-worm. In the control table (Table XVI) the experiments with tree No. 3 -and tree No. 7, in which a contact spray was used containing fish-oil soap and extract of nicotine, indicate a comparatively small percentage of mortality compared to that in which the material con- tained in addition arsenate of lead, as in the experiment with tree No. 2. But it must be mentioned that in the case both of tree No. 3 and of tree No. 7, the absence of larve on leaves with holes when the count was taken was very conspicuous and the larve that sur- vived were all large. A contact spray, whether with or without the addition of dis- tillate oil, is a mechanical emulsion or mixture, which, to be effective, requires application with greater pressure than does a poison spray. Because of this, the liquid strikes the leaves with enough force to dislodge many of the worms, which drop to the ground, where death ensues, caused by the spray adhering to them. — The addition of fish-oil soap to a mixture of water and nicotine extract increases the efficiency of the spray by imparting to the liquid more penetration and better spreading and adhering properties. THE PEAR LEAF-WORM. WASHINGTON EXPERIMENTS. In Washington State, where the pear thrips is not to be considered, lead arsenate would appear to be the only logical insecticide to be used against the pear leaf-worm. It is less expensive than extract of tobacco sprays, and easier to mix than oil sprays; besides, the lead arsenate can serve a double purpose—that of controlling this worm and, at thesame time, thecodling moth. The first application of lead arsenate for the control of the latter is made when the petals of the pear blossom drop, and at this time the larve of the sawfly have reached the second instar. The injury done previous to this is negligible; it is only during the last two instars that the larve cause: serious injury to the foliage. Mr. Zimmerman, in whose orchard the worst infestation occurred, used lead arsenate at the rate of 4 pounds to 100 gallons of water against the pear leaf-worm with excellent results, both in 1914 and in 1915. The first year there was a very severe infestation of larve and the application was made May 16, at thesame time that the first. codling-moth spray was applied to apples; this was too late for the pears, as the larve already had devoured as much as a third of many of the leaves. However, it saved most of the trees from a severe defoliation, as is shown in Plate II, which pictures a tree of which the left half was sprayed while the right half was left unsprayed, the photograph having been taken on May 21, 5 days after the trees were sprayed. The difference was very marked. No definite count was made, but on the sprayed trees scarcely any living larve could be found, while many limp and blackened remains were hanging from the partially eaten leaves. In the unsprayed portion of the tree just mentioned, which served as a check, larve were numerous, and large numbers of them were dropping to the ground to spin their cocoons. In 1915 the infestation was not so severe, owing to the control measures of the year before. The orchard was sprayed on May 6, earlier than in 1914. Lead arsenate was used at the same strength as before, that is, 4 pounds to 100 gallons of water. This applica- tion effectually checked the ravages of the larve, and the trees suffered very little injury. In 1915 a small experiment was performed with nicotine sul- phate, 40 per cent concentration. Infested twigs were placed in water andsprayed withahand pump. April 27 a twig with 10 second- instar larve was sprayed with the nicotine sulphate at the rate of 1 to 1,200, with the addition of a little fish-oil soap. On April 28 the twig was examined and all the larve found dead. The larve on a check twig were still alive. On this date a similar twig was sprayed in the same way, except that the nicotine sulphate was. Za BULLETIN 433, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. diluted to 1 to 2,000. This time the check twig was sprayed with clear water. An examination on April 29 showed that all the larve sprayed with nicotine were dead, while those sprayed with water were alive. Control by cultivation is not successful. The Washington orchard in which the spraying was done was kept well cultivated all summer, the soil being in a finely pulverized condition and a dust mulch being maintained for the conservation of moisture. The orchard had been kept in this condition for several years. The cultivation evidently, as a measure of control, had but little effect on the cocoons in the soil. Many of the cocoons are located too near the trunk of the tree to be susceptible of mechanical injury by the teeth of the culti- vator, but aside from this they are tough and resist rough treatment, and moisture seems to be an indifferent agent, as indicated in Table I (p. 7), pertaining to moisture conditions. SUMMARY. The pear leaf-worm (Gymnonychus californicus Marlatt), so far as is known, is a native of the Pacific coast. Its original host is probably some one or more wild species of plants related to the pear, such as the service berry (Amelanchier), thorn apple (Crataegus), or mountain ash (Sorbus). As tocultivated plants, its selection of food is restricted to the different varieties of pears. There is only one generation each year. The adult or parent saw- flies issue in March and April, the female sex greatly predominating. Eggs are inserted into the pear leaves, the resultant larve or worms feeding upon the foliage for an average period of 3 weeks. The larvee may be found on the leaves during April and May, and in Washington the season is perhaps 10 days or 2 weeks later than in California. Upon acquiring full growth the larvee drop to the ground and bury themselves in the topmost inch of soil (a few go as deep as 3 or 4 inches) and weave around themselves a brown, oval, tough cocoon in which the insect remains for slightly over 10 months, at first as larva and later for a period of 2 or 3 weeks as a pupa. At the end of the pupal stage the adult issues from the cocoon and comes forth from the ground, and thus the cycle is completed. Injury is confined to the foliage of the hosts and is done alae ; entirely by the larva or worm, the presence of which is readily detected by the characteristic circular holes it eats in the leaves. Generally it is of slight economic importance, but in cases of severe attacks trees have been defoliated and have suffered badly. What few natural enemies the insect has are quite unable to control it. Artificial remedies are correlative with those used against the cod- Img moth and also against the pear-thrips larva, and these are respectively as follows: THE PEAR LEAF-WORM. Poison spray.—F our pounds lead arsenate to 100 gallons water. Contact spray.—F ish-oil soap 4 pounds; water 100 gallons; nico- tine sulphate (40 per cent concentrate) 1 to 1,200; also the Govern- ment formula of distillate-oil emulsion and sulphate of nicotine.! In cases of ordinary infestation the contact spray such as is used for thrips larve or aphids will prove successful in controlling the larva of the pear leaf-worm. When the infestation is severe and promises the defoliation of limbs or whole trees the poison spray should be used. The best time for application is when the largest larve are about half grown and when the holes in the leaves are not larger than one-half inch in diameter. At this time nearly all the eggs have hatched. BIBLIOGRAPHY. (1) 18838. Cooxr, MatrHew. Injurious Insects of the Orchard, Vineyard, etc., p. 120-122, fig. 98, 99. Brief account of insect and habits in California. (2) 1896. Maruatt, C. L. Revision of the Nematinz of North America. U. 8. Dept. Agr. Tech. Ser. no. 3, p. 122, 123, fig. 10. Original description, erection of genus Gymnonychus. (3) 1915. Esste,E. O. Injurious and Beneficial Insects of California. Cal. State Comm, Hort., Supplement to the Monthly Bulletin, v. 4, no. 4, p. 360, fig. 356, 357. Brief general account of occurrence and habits in California. 1 Foster, S. W.,and Jones, P.R. Howto Control the Pear Thrips. U.S. Dep. Agr. Bur. Ent. Cire. 131, p. 8. 1911. PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING. TO INSECTS INJURIOUS TO DECIDUOUS FRUITS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Spraying Peaches for the Control of Brown Rot, Scab, and Curculio. (Farmers’ Bulletin 440.) The More Important Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Fruit and Foliage of the Apple. (Farmers” Bulletin 492.) The Gipsy Moth and the Brewn-tail Moth with Suggestions for their Control. (Farmers’ Bulletin 564.) The San Jose Scale and Its Control. (Farmers’ Bulletin 650.) The Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar. (Farmers’ Bulletin 662.) The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer. (Farmers’ Bulletin 675.) , The Rose-chafer: A Destructive Garden and Vineyard Pest. (Farmers’ Bulletin 721.) The Leaf Blister Mite of Pear and Apple. (Farmers’ Bulletin 722.) Oyster-shell Scale and Scurfy Scale. (Farmers’ Bulletin 733.) The Cranberry Rootworm. (Department Bulletin.263.) Buffalo Tree-hopper. (Entomology Circular 23.) Apple Maggot or Railroad Worm. (Entomology Circular 101.) How to Control Pear Thrips. (Entomology Circular 131.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape East of the Rocky Mountains. (Farmers’ Bulletin 284.) Price. 5 cents. Grape Leafhopper in Lake Erie Valley. (Department Bulletin 19.) Price, 10 cents. The Lesser Bud-moth. (Department Bulletin 113.) . Price, 5 cents. American Plum Borer. (Department Bulletin 261.) Price, 5 cents. The Parandra Borer. (Department Bulletin 262.) Price, 5 cents. The Terrapin Scale: An Important Insect Enemy of Peach Orchards. (Department Bulletin 351.) Price, 15 cents. The Cherry Leaf-beetle: A Periodically Important Enemy of Cherries. (Department Bulletin 352.) Price, 5 cents. Peach-tree Borer. (Entomology Circular 54.) Price, 5 cents. Plum Curculio. (Entomology Circular 73.) Price, 5 cents. Aphides Affecting Apple. (Entomology Circular 81.) Price, 5 cents. Nut Weevils. (Entomology Circular 99.) Price, 5 cents. Pecan Cigar Case-bearer. (Entomology Bulletin 64, Pt. X.) Price, 5 cents. Spring Canker-worm. (Entomology Bulletin 68, Pt. II.) Price, 5 cents. Trumpet Leaf-miner of Apple. (Entomology Bulletin 68, Pt. III.) Price, 5 cents. Lesser Peach Borer. (Entomology Bulletin 68, Pt. 1V.) Price, 5 cents. Grape-leaf Skeletonizer. (Entomology Bulletin 68, Pt. VIII.) Price, 5 cents. Cigar Case-bearer. (Entomology Bulletin 80, Pt. II.) Price, 10 cents. Grape Root-worm, with Especial Reference to Investigations in Erie Grape Belt, 1907-1909. (Entomology Bulletin 89.) Price, 20 cents. California Peach Borer. (Entomology Bulletin 97, Pt. IV.) Price, 10 cents. Notes on Peach and Plum Slug. (Entomology Bulletin 97, Pt. V.) Price, 5 cents. Notes on Peach Bud Mite, Enemy of Peach Nursery Stock. (Entomology Bulletin 97, Pt. VI.) Price, 10 cents. Grape Scale. (Entomology Bulletin 97, Pt. VII.) Price, 5 cents. Plum Curculio. (Entomology Bulletin 103.) Price, 50 cents. Grape-berry Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 116, Pt. II.) Price, 15 cents. Cherry Fruit Sawfly. (Entomology Bulletin 116, Pt. III.) Price, 5 cents. Fruit-tree Leaf-roller. (Entomology Bulletin 116, Pt. V.) Price, 10 cents. 24 O Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv December 22, 1916 THE SOY BEAN, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ITS UTILI- ZATION FOR OIL, CAKE, AND OTHER PRODUCTS. By C. V. Pieer, Agrostologist in Charge, and W. J. Morse, Scientific Assistant, Forage-Crop Investigations. CONTENTS. Page Page TU TLTG Gi). 2 SS 1 | Soy-bean meal as stock feed................- 13 Soy beansin Manchuria............-.....--. 2 | Soy-bean meal as a fertilizer................- 14 P17 DEPICT hice Gh re ee 4 | Uses of soy-bean oil..................-------- 15 MAMERRS NTH UTOPO2 = 28.2 oo ses cnisdeseccs 6 | Analyses of important varieties of soy beans. 16 Soy beans in the United States.............. 7 | Possibility of developing a manufacturing in- Methods of oil extraction. .<-.-:-....2c:...-- 9 dustry with American-grown Soy beans... 17 Soy-bean meal as human food..............- 11 ¢ INTRODUCTION. The soy bean, although a plant of ancient cultivation in China, Chosen (Korea), and Japan, has become of special importance in the world’s commerce only within recent years. In extent of uses and value it is the most important legume grown in Asiatic countries. In these countries the soy bean is used to a very considerable extent for human food, the beans being prepared in various ways. As the bean contains a valuable oil, large quantities are utilized by first extracting the oil and then using the cake for stock feed and as a fertilizer. Previous to the Russian-Japanese war, China and Japan were not only the greatest producers but also the greatest consumers of the soy bean and its manufactured products. About 1908 the first large importations of beans were received in Europe and America from Manchurian ports. The beans were utilized by extracting the oil, which was found valuable for various industrial purposes, leaving the bean cake as a stock feed. As the value of the oil and cake came to be recognized, new uses and markets were found, and the trade in soy beans became one of great importance, until now it has assumed Nore.—This bulletin is intended for general distribution in the Southern States, where it will be of special interest to farmers and cotton-oil millmen. It will also be of interest to farmers of the Northern and Central States and to manufacturers of soy-bean food products. 57167°—Bull, 439—16——1 Od BULLETIN 439, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. such large proportions that the soy bean has become an important competitor of other oil seeds. As early as December, 1915, several American cotton-oil mills had turned to the soy bean as a source of oil and meal on account of the scarcity and high price of cottonseed.1_ Other manufacturers are pre- paring soy-bean productsforhumanfood. This utilization of American- grown beans for the manufacture of oil, cake, and other products will undoubtedly greatly stimulate the culture of the crop, which until now has been grown in the United States primarily for forage. Fic. 1.—A fleet of junks engaged in carrying soy beans to Newchwang, Manchuria, from different points in the interior, taking away bean oiland bean cake to other places. (Photographed by F. N. Meyer.) SOY BEANS IN MANCHURIA. The soy bean is grown in nearly all parts of Manchuria where agriculture is conducted except in the extreme north. The beans, together with their products—bean cake and oil—form the chief exports (fig. 1). .The soy bean is always relied upon by the Man- churian farmer as a cash crop and constitutes a staple product of Manchurian agriculture. The conditions under which the soy bean thrives are said to be far more varied in Manchuria than in the United States. It is grown 1 The average market price of cottonseed in the cotton-producing States during the past three years is shown by the following figures, furnished by the Bureau of Crop Estimates: September 15, 1914, $13.88 per ton; September 15, 1915, $20.98 per ton; September 15, 1916, $41.13 per ton. THE SOY BEAN FOR OIL AND OTHER PRODUCTS. 3 successfully in semiarid regions, in valleys subject to floods in the rainy season, and in northern latitudes similar to the Dakotas and Minnesota. In Manchuria the beans are almost entirely produced by hand methods. The seed is usually planted in April in rows 17 inches apart, the plants about 2 inches apart in the rows. In some districts, however, the beans are planted in 24-inch rows, allowing about 7 plants to the foot. The harvest takes place in September, the plants commonly being pulled before they are quite mature, to avoid shattering the pods. The thrashing of the seed is usually accom- plished with a stone roller or by trampling, and the winnowing by throwing the beans against the wind. The beans are bought by Chinese merchants and stored at rail- way stations. No grading is attempted, the stored beans being of all varieties and. mixed more or less with sand and trash. The exporters buy the beans from these merchants simply by weight, but before shipment the beans are sorted. As to the yields obtained by the Manchurian farmer, there is con- siderable variation in the figures given by different authorities. . Bean experts estimate the yield from 1,100 to 1,600 pounds to the acre, commercial authorities from 1,600 to 1,800 pounds, and Jap- anese agricultural experts from 400 to 2,000 pounds. In the best bean-producing districts the average yield is said to be more than 1,800 pounds. No reliable statistics as to the cost of production are available, but according to data secured from bean growers the approximate cost per acre is placed at $4.42. Previous to the Russian-Japanese war soy beans and their prod- ucts were exported almost entirely to Asiatic countries, Japan being the principal consumer. During the war the local demand greatly increased the production of the crop throughout Manchuria. After the withdrawal of the troops, however, it became necessary to find new markets for the surplus beans. ‘Trial shipments were made about 1908 by Japanese firms to several English oil mills. The suitability of the seed for oil and cake was quickly recognized, and orders for large consignments were made. The bean trade grew rapidly and extended to other European countries and to America. The exports of beans from Manchurian ports have increased and large quantities of oil and cake are exported annually, as shown in Table I. The ports of Antung, Dairen, and Newchwang are the principal centers of exports from southern Manchuria. Table I shows the exports of beans, bean cake, and bean oil passing through these ports for the years 1909 to 1913, inclusive. Beans from North Manchuria are exported chiefly through Vladivostok, the export figures for beans for the years 1912 and 1913 amounting to 338,451 tons and 4 BULLETIN 439, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 391,410 tons, respectively. Adding these quantities to the exports of South Manchuria gives 654,705 tons for 1912 and 599,278 tons for 1913, which may be taken as representing the total exports of beans from Manchuria for these two years. TaBLE I.—Exports of soy beans, bean cake, and bean oil from the principal ports of South Manchuria, 1909 to 1913, inclusive. Exports and ports. 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 Soy beans: Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. BAST GU PAE ONEROUS e aaesiieat 1, 643. 4 136.1 4,591.5 3, 639. 8 5, 225. 6 ADEE bys) Weel a SNe a ee ee OS teers eay 512, 469.0 | 359,665.3 | 268,732.4 | 182, 628.6 | 169, 300.8 N@WGINE WE .sossosacnccccooneoavosococus 237, 020.6 | 174,562.7 | 154,187.3 | 129,985.1 | 105, 341.8 MOtale seme eas nee eee saesaa 751, 133. 0 534, 364. 1 427, 511. 2 316, 253. 5 | 279, 868. 2 Bean cake: VP Rees Avra Un ge craie rare tage sega (Ses pats 16,349. 6 12, 054. 0 33, 166.5 40,111.1 | 42,322.2 DAirer | ee NRE TES ENN ee ied 318, 825.5 | 277,423.7 | 463,546.2 | 378, 722.7 | 566, 135.7 ING WCAWADB AS sem oscte nee saee eee acee nee 356, 499.4 | 327,098.5 | 386,599.1 | 282, 877.9 | 298, 364.0 TINO GALE ia scene eo eN nee area MAE ed 691, 674.5 | 616,576.2 | 883,311.8 | 701,711.7 | 906, 821.9 Bean oil: PAG ua Barn ee sees eat Sue re 92. 7 149. 6 365. 7 558. 4 192.1 Dire NAIR Se Nee eS 10,850.3 | 18,753.2 | 3,729.7 37,466.7| 43,392.3 IN@WUNWEIMS. so sbosesecsoosucueseoscauuce 37, 875.2 | 21,356.2 | 28,039.1 | 21,826.2] 20,752.9 ONO eee seu Hea OneeS Geaia Geo sea as 48, 818. 2 40, 259. 0 62, 134.5 59, 851.3 | 64,337.3 1 Compiled from U. 8. Dept. Com., Daily Cons. and Trade Rpts., No.115, p. 922, May 16, 1914. (Hanson, G.C. Manchuria’s soya-bean trade.) SOY BEANS IN JAPAN. The soy bean is cultivated quite extensively throughout the Empire of Japan and occupies about 3.8 per cent of the total area devoted to the cultivation of rice and other cereals. In many dis- tricts it is cultivated not in fields by itself, but in rows along the edges of rice and wheat fields. Although not grown to any considerable extent as a main crop by the Japanese farmer, the average annual production is about 18,000,000 bushels. In quality the beans raised in Japan are said to be superior to those of Manchuria and Chosen and are used exclusively in the manufacture of food products. The imported beans, of which very large quantities are obtained from Manchuria and other Asiatic countries, are used principally in the manufacture of bean cake and oil. The methods of culture of this crop, though varying slightly in different provinces, are quite similar to those employed in Manchuria. The average yield of soy beans to the acre for the last 10 years is 15.3 bushels. The highest average yield recorded is 21.6 bushels to the acre, while the lowest average yield is 8.48 bushels. Accurate data as to the cost of production are not available, but estimates made by Japanese agricultural experts place it at about $10 per acre exclusive of taxes. The average market price in Japan for home-grown beans is about $1 a bushel, while for imported beans it is about 70 cents a bushel. THE SOY BEAN FOR OIL AND OTHER PRODUCTS. 5 The soy bean forms one of the most important articles of food in Japan. It is one of the principal ingredients in the manufacture of shoyu (soy sauce), miso (bean cheese), tofu (bean curd), and natto (steamed beans). The beans are eaten also as a vegetable and in soups; sometimes they are picked green, boiled, and served cold with soy sauce, and sometimes as a salad. A “vegetable milk’ is also produced from the soy bean, forming the basis for the manufacture of the different kinds of vegetable cheese. This milk 1s used fresh, and a form of condensed milk is manufactured from it. All of these foodstuffs are used daily in Japanese homes and for the poorer classes are the principal source of protein. To a limited extent, soy beans are used as a horse or cattle feed, being sometimes boiled and mixed with straw, barley, and bran. Table II shows the exports of soy beans and bean oilfrom Japan dur- ing 1913 and 1914. Prior to 1914 soy beans were not listed separately. TaBLe II] —Quantity and value of exports of soy beans and soy-bean oil from Japan to foreign countries, 1913 and 1914. Soy beans. Soy-bean oil. Country of destination. 1914 1913 1914 Quantity.| Value. | Quantity. | Value. | Quantity. | Value. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. CTT. 2-5 Se eee eee ees 62, 820 | $1,372 220,155 | $11,328 184, 104 | $10, 198 Bintitod eanipdomes: 3-6 2252.. 6-1 Seis. 589 21 214,491 | 11,570 | 1,019,854] 48,687 LUM DMR ie SO RS ee anes a SS eens aeeee SaodGranos) SoSbouae 73, 890 SQW lonacbdacsssalsccsaccs OST. on GEAR ORES SO pe SRS DEAE pes Senne ae Aaa eee emcee 3 10, 979 588 UDI. 2 5552 ESRB Dee taos Soe ee ee Sone [Sete Bron ees) creme 69, 057 3, 405 333,735 | 16,573 PIRICRUSISLES O28 32 o's 5 = accion ose Seek 421,011 | 10,125 658, 393 34, 386 365,478 | 19,393 OUT e 232 eee eee eee eee CARRE SOM FG s272¢ 138 Matas, Sacre isl aceasta aetal |S eee SE eee | Semen A MUMARUBATNCTICH ae ce Seize feo cose cele ou Ste 246,175 | 4,540 56, 218 3, 234 69, 652 3,196 JESTER DE Se oe ee eee 18, 070 475 587, 413 30, 101 120, 240 748 PAPHENICOUUGEIOS 22 oe) Sateen tase eae =e 20, 967 OLA Keak a aaeees: | AR UN EY 274,080 | 18,542 Gi ce ee ae as Ie Ea We 973, 192 | 22,333 | 1,879,683 | 97,934 | 2,378,122 | 117,925 1 Compiled from Annual Return of the Foreign Trade of the Empire of Japan, 1914. As previously stated, Japan has been a large consumer of soy beans and soy-bean products from Manchuria, the greater part of the beans being used in the manufacture of oil and cake. The im- ports from Dairen, Manchuria, the principal port through which beans and bean products are exported to Japan, are shown for the years 1911 to 1914, inclusive, in Table IIT. Tasie IIl1.—Quantity of im pes of soy beans, soy-bean cake, and soy-bean oil from Dairen, Manchuria, into Japan, 1911 to 1914, inclusive! Product. 1911 1912 1913 1914 Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. PATRON sis Fee oo daira c dace glwe dan weaaehavawo ieee. 162,703 | 103,416] 90,651 | 139,222 BS PCS ieee Se 2 a BM 7, ERE ARC ELI SPR 357,362 | 357,752 | 492,985 | 447,080 RFE ese oe G EIS MLS c', « Bete nw ag sab Sauin's Noebbuidias be Os ud 9, 340 10, 889 3,964] 4,107 ! Compiled from Dairen Wharf Office Returns, 1911-1914, 6 BULLETIN 439, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SOY BEANS IN EUROPE. The soy bean was first introduced into Europe about 1790 and was grown for a great number of years without attracting any atten- tion as a plant of much economic importance. In 1875 Professor Haberlandt, of Vienna, began an extensive series of experiments with this crop and strongly urged its use as a food plant for man and animals. Although interest was increased in its cultivation during the experiments, the soy bean failed to become of any great im- portance in Europe. At the present time it is cultivated only to a limited extent in Germany, southern Russia, France, and Italy. Attempts have been made at various times to introduce the soy bean and its products into European markets in competition with manufactures from other oil seeds. Owing to the inferior quality of the beans and cake received, these efforts were generally unsuc- cessful. About 1908, the first large trial shipment of beans was made to England. As these were received in much better condition than those of previous shipments, the results obtained were so satisfactory that, in 1909, 412,757 tons, in 1910, 442,669 tons, and in 1911, 321,940 tons were imported by European oil mills. Nearly all of the first large importations of beans were taken by England, where many of the large oil mills devoted their plants en- tirely to the crushing of soy beans. At this time impetus was given to the manufacture of soy-bean products by a shortage of cottonseed and linseed in England, so the soy bean found a ready market. Several English firms manufacturing oil-seed cake conducted a series of tests, successfully demonstrating the utilization of the cake, meal, and oil of the soy bean. The cake or meal was soon recognized as a valuable stock feed in the dairy countries, such as Holland and Denmark, where large quantities of oil-seed products are used. The oil was found useful for many trade purposes. The oil and cake were offered at prices which made soy-bean products strong com- petitors of cottonseed manufactures. The utilization of the soy bean as an oil seed extended rapidly to the continental countries, and the importations of beans from Man- churia soon reached enormous proportions. That the soy bean and its products have become fully established on the European market is Shown in Table IV. THE SOY BEAN FOR OIL AND OTHER PRODUCTS. — i TaBLe 1V.—Quantity and value of imports of soy beans, bean cake, and bean oil by European countries, 1912 to 1914, inclusive. } ~ 1912 1913 1914 Product and country. — Quantity.| Value. /Quantity., Value. j/Quantity.) Value. Soy beans: Tons. Tons. Tons. United Kingdom... _| 188,760 | $7,630,477 | 76,452 | $3,093,863 | 71,161 | $2,886, 759 Germany .....--- 96,068 | 3,974,837} 107,504 | 3,974,838 12, 843 480, 401 Netherlands... - 42,373 | 1,592,690 27,119 | 1,019,317 19,308 |: 725, 721 Russia. ...-.- : 695 0) 20 |) Hag ORS |) GOR EW) oe sb oso seskosccsagoeee Belgium..... i 1, 625 61, 095 6, 438 199, 684 1, 002 37,564 Denmark. - . < 412 14, 035 4, 425 115, 975 8, 187 357, 434 RFANCG2e3 65 == Soo|SnccooesSelodaaseaneess 34,318 CHES Os) baeeosaonallasocueseqcsa MRObAl Reet ae ase ko oee ws el 329, 933 | 13,303,384 | 523,292 | 15,783,424 | 112,501 4, 487, 879 Soy-bean cake: f Netherlands. 23, 852 836, 269 7, 230 250, 459 1, 235 43, 964 Germany... 3 7, 080 252, 912 3, 260 111, 015 1,201 41, 258 RUSSIA. - 4 2,059 72, 136 21, 969 396, 944 195 6, 507 Denmark a 7, 620 252,834 | 15,490 520, 857 4,964 164, 332 Sweden 4,051 139, 391 2,695 91,714 989 33, 394 69, 367 400 14, 016 230 7, 903 1,622,909 | 51,044 | 1,385,005 8, 814 297, 358 250,422 | 2,828 154,691 | 10,015 547, 820 278, 569 363 45, 389 137 16, 957 356, 006 4,642 735, 490 5, 830 953, 403 154, 434 578 78, 491 313 41, 867 99, 797 1,314 206, 078 1,395 224, 565 1, 450, 134 3, 090 396, 032 2, 459 296, 966 249, 486 83 11, 397 208 26, 917 Baeetestine 5, 150 eH GG aeecenoad |sacboonaaee Ure s 95 11,570 455 48, 687 2,838,848 | 18,143 | 2,147,214] 20,812] 2,157,182 1 Compiled from Koninkryk der Nederlanden, Statistiek van den in-, uit- en doorvoer; Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions; Statistik des Deutschen Reichs, Auswartiger Handel. SOY BEANS IN THE UNITED STATES. Although the soy bean was mentioned as early as 1804 it is only within recent years that it has become a crop of importance in the United States. At the present time the soy bean is most largely grown for forage. In a few sections, such as eastern North Carolina, however, a very profitable industry has developed from the growing of seed. The large yield of seed, the ease of growing and harvesting the crop, the value of the beans for both human and animal food, and the value of the oil all tend to give this crop a high potential im- portance and assure its greater agricultural development in America. The soy bean can be grown successfully on nearly all types of soil and has about the same range of climatic adaptation as varieties of corn. The cotton belt and the southern part of the corn belt are most favorably situated for the production of seed of this crop (fig. 2). The yields of seed to the acre in various sections of the United States range from about 15 bushels in the Northern States to about 40 bushels in the northern half of the cotton belt. The average yield in eastern 1 Willich, A. F. M. American Encyclopedia, 1st Amer. ed., v.5,p.13. Philadelphia, 1804. 8 BULLETIN 439, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. North Carolina is about 25 bushels, although many fields produce 35 bushels or more to the acre. The growing and handling of soy beans are accomplished almost entirely by machinery in this country, the ordinary farm equipment meeting all the requirements of this crop. In large bean-growing districts, special harvesters for gathering the seed in the field are used quite successfully. The cost of production varies from $7.50 to $12 per acre, depending on the methods employed in growing and handling the crop. The market price per bushel of seed for sowing purposes varies in different sections, ranging from $1 im large seed- producing sections of the South to $2 or $3 a bushel in the Central ‘and Middle States. V.0.0.0. LK, seceataeses eee seoeestateee Cosh se CSS sotonocenee SOO oa ee eine FORT RN seaenean eareenn seseeeeen 4 + ‘ Fic. 2.—Outline map of the United States, showing by double hatching the area to which the soy bean is especially adapted for growing for oil production. Thearea where thesoy bean is less certain of profit- able production for oil purposes is shown by single lines. The first extensive work in the United States with the soy bean as an oil seed was entered upon about 1910 by an oil mill on the Pacific coast. The beans, containing from 15 to 19 per cent of oil, were imported from Manchuria, and the importations, most of which are used in the manufacture of oil and cake, have gradually increased, as shown in Table V. The oil was extracted with hydraulic presses, using the same methods employed with cottonseed and linseed. It found a ready market, as a good demand had been created for this product by soap and paint manufacturers, which up to this time had been supplied by importation from Asiatic countries and England. The soy cake, ground into meal, was placed on the market under a trade name and was soon recognized as a valuable feed by dairymen and poultrymen. The use of the THE SOY BEAN FOR OIL AND OTHER PRODUCTS. 9 cake has been confined almost wholly to the Western States, owing principally to the high cost of transportation. During the last few years efforts have been made at various times to interest the cotton-oil mills of the South in the utilization of American-grown soy beans as an oil seed, and experiments were made by a few mills. No extensive work was entered upon until the latter part of 1915. A shortage of cottonseed in the South and a surplus of soy-bean seed in eastern North Carolina led to an increased interest in the possibilities of this crop. Several cotton-oil mills in North Carolina, after preliminary tests, entered upon an extensive production of soy-bean oil and meal. This is the first large manu- facture of soy-bean products from American-grown seed. Several cotton-oil mills at the present time are taking an active part in the development of this new industry with American-grown beans. With seed at $1 a bushel and the present prices received for oil and. cake, the mills have found it profitable for them to express the oil. An industry which promises to be of importance in a further utilization of the soy bean is the manufacture of ‘‘vegetable milk.” At the present time a factory in New York State is bemg equipped for this purpose. The development of this new enterprise will depend primarily upon the demand created among different indus- tries not only for the milk, but for the flour or meal remaining after the milk is manufactured, which is valuable either as stock feed or for human consumption. Table V shows the imports of soy beans, bean cake, and bean oil into the United States during the last six years. Prior to 1914 soy beans were not classified separately in the customs returns. Tasie V.—Quantity and value of imports of soy beans, soy-bean cake, and soy-bean oil into the United States, 1910 to 1915, inclusive.@ Soy beans. Soy-bean cake. Soy-bean oil. Year. ra [2 Quantity. | Value. | Quantity. | Value. | Quantity. | Value. | Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Ie see ta eee a | EE winin b-| ae ne tsa de eae se aeiae| wok Soceee Not stated.| $1,019, 842 EES oan Seta o os le ches te on| «te eee eochcee sees ee b 2,115,422 | $59,626 | 41,105,920 2,555, 707 1912 eo EEE Se ae Se eee eee ee b 2,416, 052 64,350 | 28,019, 560 1, 576, 968 OD oar te ae eS ae tres 2 --.-| 7,004,803 | 93,002 | 12,340, 185 635, 882 W128. 22-222 cee nee ne cree ceeeenee | 1,929,435 | $49,507 | 3,163, 260 38,255 | 16,360, 452 820, 790: Cl Ss Ei ae eee | 3,837,865 | 87,306] 5,975,592 | 64,307 | 19,206, 521 899, 819 « Compiled from Dept. Com., Bur. For.and Dom. Com. For. Com. and Nay. U.S. 1910-1915. » Includes bean cake, or bean stick, miso, or similar products, with duty, 40 per cent. METHODS OF OIL EXTRACTION. The introduction of the soy bean into the Western World for oil purposes has not made any changes necessary in the equipment of the modern oil mills. The methods used in the extraction of oil from 57167°—Bull. 439—16——2 10 BULLETIN 439, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the soy bean are similar to those employed with other oil seeds, such as cottonseed and linseed. In Manchuria the manufacture of oil and oil cake is not confined to large centers, as every small center of bean production has its native mill. The method of extracting oil in these native mills is decidedly primitive. The beans are first crushed beneath a mill- stone and then steamed for about 15 minutes. The resultant mass is spread out and placed in circular iron frames, about 6 inches deep. Five of these frames are placed one above another in a vertical press, consisting of four uprights, with crossbeams at the top and bottom. — Pressure is applied by means of wedges driven in between the cross- Fic. 3.—Coolies at Newchwang, Manchuria, engaged in carrying loads of soy beans from the junks to big stacks, where they are kept until the factory needs them for oil manufacture. (Photographed by F.N. Meyer.) beams and beams placed on top of the frames, and the oil is thus expressed. During the last few years large bean mills equipped with modern machinery have been erected, and these are able to extract 3 or 4 per cent more oil (fig. 3). In these large bean mills only about one-half the oil is extracted by the usual process; that is, by crushing the beans, steaming them, and using hydraulic pressure. A solvent process of extraction, involving the use of benzine, has recently come into use in several English mills, and three such mills are in operation in Manchuria and Japan. The seeds are first finely crushed and then treated directly by the fat solvent. The oil is then taken out of the fat solvent by evaporating the latter, which is distilled and used over again. The residue is well dried and then ground into a fine meal, which is said to contain no detectable trace THE SOY BEAN FOR OIL AND OTHER PRODUCTS. Hatt of the selvent. By this process, nearly all of the oil is extracted, the meal containing only about 1.5 per cent of oil, and 43 to 45 per cent of protein. It is contended that by the solvent process more oil of a better quality is extracted from the beans and the resultant meal is better suited for flour or fertilizer, as it contains less oil. A solvent- process mill recently erected in Manchuria has a maximum capacity of 80 tons of beans every 24 hours. However, only 50 tons of beans were crushed daily, producing 7 tons of oil and 40 tons of meal, the 3 tons which were lost consisting of moisture, dust, and dirt. © In the United States two methods of oil extraction—the hydraulic and the expeller processes—are used bythe oil mills. Analysesof cake produced by these methods show about 9 per cent of oil by the hy- draulic method and from 4 to 6 per cent by the expeller method. While the cost of producing oil and cake with either process is less with the soy bean than with cottonseed, the cost is much less with the expeller process and a greater amount of oil is extracted. Exten- sive tests with domestic beans indicate that 1 ton of seed will yield by the expeller process an average of 30 gallons of oil and 1,600 pounds of meal, the difference (about 175 pounds) representing the loss due to cleaning and the evaporation of moisture driven off after the beans have been crushed and heated. The amount of moisture contained in the seeds appears to be a matter of importance in Manchuria, not only for the dealer shipping the beans but also for the mill owner. It has been estimated that 48 pounds of the 1913-14 Manchurian crop yielded 4.7 pounds of oil, while only 4.1 pounds could be expressed from the same quantity of the 1914-15 crop. SOY-BEAN MEAL AS HUMAN FOOD. The meal remaining after the oil is extracted from Mammoth soy beans is bright yellow in color when fresh and has a sweet, nutty flavor. The use of the meal as flour for human food has become an important factor in several Kuropean countries during the last few years and to some extent in America as a food of low starch content. Soy beans contain at the most but a slight trace of starch, and exten- sive experiments in America and Europe indicate the value of the bean and its products as the basis of foods for persons requiring a low starch diet. In England, manufacturers have placed on the market a so-called “soya flour,’ which is 25 per cent soy-bean meal and 75 per cent wheat flour. This soya flour is being used by bakers in making a soy bread which is very palatable and may be found on the market. A similar product has been manufactured in Amsterdam for 25 years. ‘‘Soya biscuits” are also manufactured from this flour and constitute an article of export from England. 12 BULLETIN 439, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. German millers have been experimenting to some extent with soy meal in making brown bread by mixing with rye flour. As to the extent to which this bread is now used, no data are available, but it is known that soy meal, on account of the large proportion of protein and phosphates it contains, as well as the palatable products made from it, is gaining in popularity. Soy-bean flour enters largely as a constituent in many of the so-called diabetic breads, biscuits, and crackers manufactured as food specialties. As a human food, soy-bean flour has been used principally in the United States as a special article of diet and is sold by a number of food companies manufacturing special foods. Extensive tests are being conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture with soy-bean flour in the making of bread.!. The flour or meal can be successfully used as a constituent for muffins, bread, and biscuits in much the same way as corn meal. In these various food products about one-fourth soy flour and three-fourths wheat flour have been found to be the proper proportions. When a special food of low starch content is desired, as for diabetic persons, a larger proportion of soy flour is used and some form of gluten is substituted for the wheat flour. The addition of the soy flour changes the proportion of protein and carbohydrates in the mixture, as will be noted from the composition of flours shown in Table VI. TaBLe VI.—Composition of soy-bean flour in comparison with wheat flour, corn meal, rye flour, Graham flour, and whole-wheat flour.” Constituents (per cent). Kind of flour or meal. | vom : A arbo- Water. Ash. | Fat. | Fiber. |Protein. hydrates. | Soy bean! ee oso | 20. 71 1.72 | 39.56 26. 63 Soy bean 2 6. 20 | 4. 50 2.05 | 47.30 33. 85 Wiheataoss see nee see | AD) | 00) -20 | 11.00 75. 35 Corn meal e @akG0: | Bezol| fans aasine 77.10 IPs be Se oun | 1.10] 1.50 .65 | 12.00 75. 85 Granamtee ese ea ee elSO)n 2720) 1.90 12.60 71.90 Whole wheat 1.05 2.00 | 1.00; 12.00 73. 05 1 Flour made from the whole soy bean. 2 Flour made from soy-bean cake.! Although soy-bean milk has been used in both the fresh and the condensed form and in the manufacture of cheese in Japan and China for centuries, it only recently has been considered of possible importance in the United States. Soy-bean milk, owing to its food value and for sanitary reasons, is said to be of the greatest importance for cooking purposes and can be used by bakers, confectioners, and chocolate manufacturers. In Asiatic countries the whole bean is 1 Attention has been given to the food value of soy beans in connection with studies carried on by the Office of Home Economics. See U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Buls. 58 and 121 and Office Expt. Stas. Bul. 159. 2 Reported by the Bureau of Chemistry. THE SOY BEAN FOR OIL AND OTHER PRODUCTS. 13 utilized in the manufacture of the milk, but quite recently it has been discovered that soy-bean meal, after the oil is extracted, is fully as useful for milk purposes as the whole bean. If the milk from the soy bean is used in the manufacture of products as a substitute for milk, the labels of such products should indicate that the substitution has been made; otherwise it would constitute adulteration under the food and drugs act. In addition to its uses for flour and milk, the soy bean can be prepared as human food in numerous ways. The green bean, when from three-fourths to full grown, has been found to compare favorably with the butter or Lima bean. The dried beans may be used in the same way as the field or navy bean in baking or in soups. _ When prepared in either of these ways the dried beans require a somewhat longer soaking and cooking. The soy bean has been utilized not only in the United States but in European countries as a substitute for the coffee bean. When roasted and prepared, it makes an excellent sub- stitute for coffee. In Asia the dried beans, especially the green-seeded varieties, are soaked in salt water and then roasted, this product being eaten after the manner of roasted peanuts. SOY-BEAN MEAL AS STOCK FEED. Soy-bean meal, in addition to its use as a fertilizer, is also used as stock feed. In Manchuria the cake or meal, mixed with bran and kaoliang stalks, is used as feed for horses and mules, but only when very hard work is done. It is also recognized in Japan as a valuable feed for work animals and as a fattening feed for stock not employed in farm work. In Europe soy-bean cake ground into meal is used almost entirely for feeding cattle, and the low price in comparison with other con- centrated feeds has made it very popular. Some hesitation was shown in the dairy countries of Europe when the meal was first introduced, as it was feared that the taste of the butter might be affected by feeding the meal to cows. However, experiments in these countries proved the fear groundless, and the demand for the meal increased steadily. The use of soy-bean meal in America is confined at the present time almost entirely to the Pacific States. It is con- sidered a valuable feed not only by dairymen but also by poultrymen. Practical experience, supplemented by carefully conducted experi- ments in the United States and European countries, indicates the high feeding value of soy-bean meal for all kinds of farm stock. The Massachusetts (Hatch) Agricultural Experiment Station con- ducted a series of tests comparing soy-bean meal with cottonseed meal for feeding dairy cows. It was found that although soy-bean meal imparts a noticeable softness to butter, the cottonseed butter was decidedly inferior in color, flavor, and texture. Doubtless a 14 BULLETIN 439, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mixture of these meals in proper proportions would tend to produce a butter of the proper consistency. The value of soy-bean meal for producing meat, milk, and butter is well established. It is one of the cheapest of the highly nitrogenous feeding stuffs and is therefore one of the most economical for balancing rations deficient in nitrogen. Table VII shows the prices per short ton of soy-bean cake in com- parison with other oil cakes which enter largely into the feeding rations of cattle in European countries. TaBLe VII.— Value per short ton of soy-bean cake and other oil cakes in the principal European countries. [From U.S. Department of Commerce, Special Agent Series No. 84.] “ United Nether- Kind of meal. Germany. Kingdom. jamal Denmark. | Sweden. Cottonseed, American............-.-.----- $35. 60 $35. 85 $39. 00 $36. 23 $37. 05 SOyeWea Te yok a ha a ere alee a eae SYA (OS Seecouon Hees saee abercaas 33. 80 34. 55 Linseed, pressed........---.-------------- - 32.20 35. 84 31. 75 33. 50 33. 40 Peanut, Rufisque......--....-..-.-----.-- S03 @0) lecoceeauocce 36. 10 35. 00 35. 25 Alleged injurious effects from feeding soy-bean products have been reported to some extent in the United States and Europe, and their cause has been the subject of careful investigation. As yet, however, no proof is to be had of soy beans or their products causing any injurious effects. Owing to its high content of protein, the meal should be used with the same precautions as are observed with other highly concentrated feeds, to avoid digestive troubles. Table VIII gives analyses of soy-bean meal compared with similar concentrated feeds. As regards digestibility, soy-bean meal com- pares very favorably with other oil meals. TaBLE VIII.—Analyses of soy-bean meal and other important oil meals. Constituents (per cent). Kind of meal. Nitrogen- Moisture.| Protein. Fat. free Ash. Fiber. extract. Soybean eee yc a ee ane Ue lene be asta 7.59 44.65 8.77 27.12 5. 89 5.96 WOTCOMSEC Ee Berea ea Ee Wn Bac aa 6. 62 40. 29 7.41 28. 63 6. 21 10. 84 Linseed (old process).......-.----..------- 8.98 33. 23 7. 20 36. 51 5. 40 8. 68 Linseed (new process)......-...----------- 9.63 37.51 2.49 36. 09 5. 54 8.74 Peanut (decorticated)..............---..-- 10. 73 46. 84 7.91 24. 34 4.89 5. 29 Sunflower seed....................-------- 7.68 23. 80 7.94 27.49 5. 03 28. 06 1 Average analyses as reported by the Cattle Food and Grain Investigations Laboratory, Bureau of Chemistry. SOY-BEAN MEAL AS A FERTILIZER. The utilization of soy-bean meal for fertilizing purposes has been confined almost entirely to Asiatic countries. For centuries bean cake has been sent to the sugar plantations of southern China, and its use gradually spread to the plantations in Java and other tropical THE SOY BEAN FOR OIL AND OTHER PRODUCTS. L155 islands. The high fertilizing value of the cake has long been recog- nized by the Japanese, who import large quantities annually for use in the rice fields and as an alternative manure for mulberry trees. In Manchuria large amounts of cake are used annually in soils of low fertility for both field and garden crops. Although large quantities of soy-bean cake have been imported into the United States during the last few years, there is no mention of its use in the manufacture of commercial fertilizers. With the recent production in the Southern States of bean cake and oil from southern-grown beans, fertilizer manufacturers have become inter- ested in the possibilities of the meal and have purchased consider- able quantities for this purpose. Like cottonseed meal, soy-bean meal contains considerable amounts of phosphoric acid and potash, a large proportion of which is ‘“avail- able,”’ but it is principally valued in fertilizers as a source of nitrogen. If the price is determined on the same basis as that used in calculat- ing the fertilizing value of cottonseed meal, the soy-bean meal is a more valuable product. Its composition with reference to fertilizing constituents and a comparison with cottonseed meal are shown in Table IX. Tasie 1X.—Fertilizing constituents of soy beans, soy-bean meal, and cottonseed meal. Constituents (per cent). Crop or product. Source of data. Nitro | Am. | Sav'ss | Potash | gen monia Pad : VV | Bureau of Chemistry...............- 6. 51 7.90 1.36 1. 82 Soy-bean cake........... New South Wales Department of 6.77 8. 23 1.33 2.00 Agriculture. Soy-bean meal!......... Elizabeth City Cotton Oil Mills, 7.24 8.79 1.44 1.85 | North Carolina. Soy-bean meal ?2.........|..... 0 Ser ace oes: ERS Ae 7.72 9.37 1.36 1.82 Cottonseed meal......... Average of 204 analyses............. 6.79 8. 24 2. 88 1.77 1 From seed grown in 1914. 2 From seed grown in 1915. While soy-bean meal, as shown in Table IX, has a high value as a fertilizing material, a more economical practice would be to teed the meal to stock and apply the resulting manure to the soil. Feeding experiments indicate that much of the fertilizing value of feeds is recovered in the manure. USES OF SOY-BEAN OIL. The oil extracted from the soy bean belongs to the semidrying class of oils; that is, those having properties intermediate between drying oils, such as linseed oil, and nondrying oils, such as olive oil. This oil has a good color, has but a faint odor, and is rather palatable. In many respects it resembles cottonseed oil, but is of a more pro- nounced drying character. With the rapid growth of the soy-bean 16 BULLETIN 439, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. industry many new trade uses for the oil have been found, and on account of its lower cost it has become an important competitor of other vegetable oils. One of the principal uses of the oil in Asiatic countries, chiefly China, is for food, it being consumed largely in the crude state by the poorer classes, but among the rich it is boiled and allowed to stand until clarified. The oil is also utilized in the Orient in the manu- facture of foodstuffs, paints, waterproof goods, soap, varnish, and printing ink, and for lubricating and lighting. Soy-bean oil was at first used in Europe and America in its crude state principally in the manufacture of soft soaps. It is now claimed that some soap manufacturers have a secret process by which the oil can be utilized in the manufacture of the best grades of hard soap’ To some extent it is being refined and placed on the European markets as an edible table oil. The refined oil is also used in the manufacture of butter substitutes, and in the Mediterranean coun- tries to blend for salad oil. In the search by manufacturers for new oils to replace linseed oil for paint purposes partly or wholly, soy- bean oil was found the most suitable. In Europe and the United States, paint grinders are using large quantities of soy-bean oil suc- cessfully in the manufacture of certain types of paint. Other trade uses of this oil are the manufacture of lmoleum and of a rubber sub- stitute, for which a factory has been established in Germany. As the process of refining soy-bean oil is improved and perfected there seems to be scarcely any use in which oil has a part in the manufacture of foodstuffs to which it will not be an important adjunct. Soy-bean oil has been studied with other oils in a series of experi- ments carried on by the Office of Home Economics and found to compare favorably with the more common culinary table oils with respect to the thoroughness with which it is assimilated. ANALYSES OF IMPORTANT VARIETIES OF SOY BEANS. Chemical analyses indicate that considerable variation in compo- sition exists among varieties of soy beans. In determining the range in the oil and protein contents of over 500 varieties grown in the variety tests at Arlington Farm, Va., the percentage of oil was found to range from 11.8 to 22.5 and of protein from 31 to 46.9. The composition of the principal varieties grown in the United States shows a very wide range in the percentage of oil (11.8 to 20.3) and also of protein (34.1 to 46.9) when grown in any one locality. At the present time the Mammoth Yellow variety is most generally grown throughout the South and is the one used in the production of oil. The yellow-seeded varieties, which are most suitable for the production of oil and meal, contain the highest percentage of oil. THE SOY BEAN FOR OIL AND OTHER PRODUCTS. 17 Environment has been found to be a potent factor in the percentage of oil in the same variety.t Considerable differences occur in oil content when soy beans are grown in different localities. The Haber- _landt variety grown in Mississippi, North Carolina, Missouri, Virginia, and Ohio gave the following percentages of oil, respectively: 25.4, 22.8, 19.8, 18.3, and 17.5; while the Mammoth Yellow variety grown in Alabama, South Carolina, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia gave, respectively, 21.2, 19.6, 19.5, 18.4, and 18.8. Variety tests conducted in various parts of the country indicate a higher per- centage of oil with the same variety for southern-grown seed. Similar results have been obtained in Manchuria, the North Manchurian beans showing an oil content of 15 to 17 per cent and the South Man- churian beans from 18 to 20 per cent. The soy bean lends itself readily to improvement by breeding, and experiments indicate the possibility of securing varieties of high oil content by selection. Individual plant selections from a Manchu- rian variety grown at Arlington Farm, Va., varied from 20.2 to 25.5 per cent in oil content. Analyses of a large number of plant selections from the Mammoth Yellow variety, grown under identical conditions in the same field, showed variations in oil content from 18.1 to 20.4 per cent. It is apparent that there is considerable variation in oil content of the same variety, and an opportunity is offered for developing strains of high oil content. (Table X.) TaBLeE X.—Analyses for protein and oil of important varieties of soy beans grown at Arlington Farm, Va., Newark, Del., and Agricultural College, Miss. Fat. Protein. Variety. i Te Virginia.? | Delaware.3 Mpeht Virginia.? | Delaware.3 anak Percent. | Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Duh ae UE) SP ea 18.6 O75 Obl eictcstelsicnnare ae 41.4 OL ie rr 16.8 16.8 18.5 40.0 40.0 39.0 2 aS ee LOS 2M: - ott «Sets maps caer craye OlaiBiile atoataee a cicles)| ower eee rece tol eRe Raa ae 18.3 18: 7el eae ee | 38.5 a es eS SC obr Medium Yellow .............. 19.3 VIA: (Se tk aekaerace 34.1 ADO ce ees See Se | oa, o ov wiv.n 16.6 16.9 17.4 40.3 40.5 39.6 Co 2a ee GAMA cite ese orien ail herd eet heey eioke UA A te tira SS el [En ee he OD a ae ae STARS Gan nciae. no 20.7 80; Oil ogaaee teres 38. 1 We seneey 19.1 J (58 gen 34.5 SOE. soma te ar | LORDS sus ooemde'e Se 20.2 | CLO BETS Sones tase c 40.3 Black Eyebrow............... 1 fi.) SAR aD ADS S| saree pene cram sa cee Cn A ee LEAN i cicecae aint ots 18.5 BPNO Hoe vents acres 41.4 2 16.4 39.0 36.4 40.1 17.5 | 37.8 7.0 39.3 BU Olerae coe am sate 46.3 15.7 | 45.9 41.0 17.9 40. 2 40. 6 ! Garner, W. W., Allard, H. A., and Foubert, C. L. Oil content of seeds as affected by the nutrition ofthe plant. Im Jour. Agr. Research, v. 3, no. 3, p. 227-249. 1914. 2 Analyses made by Mr. H. A. Piper, Bureau of Chemistry. *Grantham, A. E. Soy beans. Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 96. 39 p.,illus. 1912. 4Robert, J.C. Preliminary report on the economic value of the soy bean, p. 4, tab. 1. Miss. Agr. Coll., 1915. 18 BULLETIN 439, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. POSSIBILITY OF DEVELOPING A MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY WITH AMERICAN-GROWN SOY BEANS. The large annual importations of soy beans, oil, and cake into the United States during the last few years indicate a ready market for products obtained from American-grown beans. The demand for the oil, especially in the manufacture of soap, and its possibilities in the manufacture of paints are very large, and it should be a strong com- petitor of other vegetable oils, for which the demand is constantly increasing both in this country and in Europe. When the meal becomes properly recognized as a feed material for the production of beef and butter, there will be practically an unlimited market for it as feed. ‘ In the dairy countries of Europe, oil meals form a most important part in the stock rations. Denmark feeds more than a tenth of a ton of cottonseed cake (besides other kinds of oil cake) per head of cattle per year. If the cattle in the United States were to be fed at the same rate, the total oil cake or meals of all kinds pro- duced in this country would be insufficient to supply the demand. The numerous experiments being conducted in the preparation of soy-bean products for human food will doubtless result in a much larger use of the meal for this purpose. It is not expected that the soy-bean industry will develop in the near future to the extent attained in Manchuria. This industry should, however, develop gradually and the soy bean become an important crop in the regions most favorably situated for seed pro-, duction, especially the cotton belt. Since the boll weevil first entered Texas in 1892, it has been an increasingly important factor in the annual production of cottonseed. At the present time the weevil is found more or less extensively in Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Okla- homa, and Alabama and is annually extending its range from 40 to ,« 40 miles. From available statistics it has been estimated that the weevil causes a reduction of at least 50 per cent of the cotton crop in regions invaded by it. As the range of the weevil is gradually extend- ing eastward, where conditions are more favorable for greater damage to the cotton crop, it is readily seen that the quantity of cottonseed available for oil and meal production will be affected to a greater or lesser extent. In Table XI the effect of the boll weevil on the pro- duction of cottonseed is plainly shown. The soy bean offers an excellent opportunity to the planter to adjust his plantation man- agement so that he can offset the weevil damage and with profit to himself furnish the cotton-oil mill owners a source of oil and meal. THE SOY BEAN FOR OIL AND OTHER PRODUCTS. 19 TasLte XI.— Acreage, production, and value per ton of cottonseed in the boll-weevil States. [The numbers printed in black-faced type indicate the beginning of boll-weevil invasion. ] United States. | Louisiana. Year : 9 Cotton- Value Cotton- | » Value BxCTeS- seed. per ton EES seed. | per ton. i Tons. Tons. 24,275,101 | 4,668,000 | $10.28] 1,376,254 | 338,388 $10. 29 | 27,114,103 | 5,092,000 15.75 | 1,617,586 | 422,685 13.50 28,016,893 | 4,716, 000 17.82 | 1,642,463 | 395, 000 18.74 30, 053, 739 6, 427, 000 14.15 1, 745, 865 521, 000 13.93 26,117,153 | 5,060,000 14.89 | 1,561,774 | 246, 000 15.97 31,374,000 | 5,913, 000 13.76 | 1,739,000 | 440,000 12.39 31,311,000 | 4,952, 000 17.64 | 1,622,000 | 300,000 16.00 32, 444, 000 5, 904, 000 15. 65 1,550,000 | 209, 000 16. 41 32,044,000 | 4, 462, 000 27.96 957,000 | 112,000 29. 28 | 32,403,000 | 5,175,000 27. 60 975,000 | 109,000 26. 42 | 36,045,000 | 6,997, 000 18.21 | 1,075,000 | 171,000 18. 59 34, 283,000 | 6, 104, 000 21.03 929,000 | 167,000 22.15 37, 089, 000 6, 305, 000 24. 84 1, 244, 000 197, 000 20. 66 37, 406, 000 7, 186, 000 17.93 1,340,000 | 200,000 18.60 | Mississippi. T exas.2 a C Val Cot Val otton- alue Jotton- alue SAGES seed. per ton. |! tes: seed. | per ton Tons. Tons. 2.) 2, 897, 920 634,083 | $10.55 | 6,960,367 | 1, 262, 651 $9. 82 il lll oe ee 3, 183, 989 691,007 | 14.60] 7,640,531 | 1,198, 140 15. 00 “21Fo oe ea 3, 327, 960 686, 000 18.72 | 7,801,578 | 1,185,000 17.95 OJ eo 3, 632, 458 861, 000 15. 57 8, 355, 491 | 1,507, 000 | 14. 32 OUT 12+. see ee 3, 051, 265 574, 000 15. 49 6,945, 501 | 1,219, 000 12.75 0 ae eee 3, 408, 000 680, 000 12.41 | 8,894,000 } 1,858, 000 12.50 ipl 3, 220, 000 652, 000 15.50 | 9,156,000 | 1, 024, 000 17.35 (itll, Ce eee aie 3, 395, 000 736, 000 15.64 | 9,316,000 | 1,698, 000 13. 91 OTL ee eee 3, 400, 000 481, 000 29.50 | 9,930,000 | 1, 122,000 26. 16 ally 22 Dye Se ree 3,317, 000 561, 000 28.69 | 10,060,000 | 1,356, 000 24. 60 Cs 2 eS ee ee 3,340, 000 535, 000 20.01 | 10,943,000 | 1, 893, 000 17.7 [21Dine . ool oee Se re 2, 889, 000 465,000 |* 24.39 | 11,338,000 | 2,171,000 18. 28 Ui 2... RSE eee cee 3, 067, 000 583, 000 24.77 | 12,597,000 | 1,755, 000 23. 02 ‘Oh. LL eee 3,100,000 | 553,000 | ~—«:18. 69 | 12,052,000 | 2, 043, 000 15.30 | 1 Compiled from U.S. Dept. Com., Bur. Census Bul. 10 (Quantity of cotton ginned in the United States, 1399-1903), 1904; Bul. 111 (Cotton production and statistics of cottonseed products: 1910), 1911; Bul. 131 (Cotton 2 The boll weevil entered Texas in 1892. Although the seed is the factor of prime importance, the improve" ” roduction and distribution, 1914-15), 1915. ment to the soul from growing a legume and using the straw as feed should be considered in estimating the value of the crop. In view of the short working season and the fact that no additional equipment is essential in using the soy bean, it seems that the soy-bean oil and meal industry should become an important adjunct of the cotton-oil mills. The soy-bean industry has gained such importance in Europe that the various countries have been conducting extensive investigations in their African colonies for the production of seed in competition with the Manchurian beans. When soy beans were first imported from Manchuria, the price was about $24 per ton on the European market, but the competition of the European countries for the raw product brought the price quickly to $45 per ton, and during the last three years quotations on the different markets average about $40 per ton. ‘Wy 20 BULLETIN 439, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. At these prices it was found that the African colonies were in a favor- able position to compete with the bean growers in Manchuria. Moreover, it is evident that the farmer in America is able to compete on the European and home markets both with the Manchurian and the African bean at the prices prevailing during the last three or four years. Although the cotton-oil mills in the United States estimate that the soy bean can not be worked profitably at a much higher price than $1 per bushel, and then only when the price of cottonseed is higher, available statistics (Table XII) show that the oil mills in Europe have been paying in many instances higher prices for soy beans than for cottonseed. Although the selling price f. o. b. Manchurian ports ranges from $30 to $35 per ton, the transportation makes the price approximately $40 at American and European ports. If the American grower can raise the beans profitably at $1 per bushel of 60 pounds, the higher yields of seed obtained in this country and planting and harvesting by machinery should enable him to compete on the European market. TasLe XII.—Comparative prices per ton of cottonseed and soy beans cn the European market, 1911 to 1914, wclusive. 1911 1912 1913 1914 Country. Ai Soy |Cotton-| Soy jCotton-} Soy |Cotton-| Soy |Cotton- beans. | seed. | beans. | seed. | beans. | seed. | beans. | seed. lUmitedsktnyd ome sess pa = ae =e ee $35.18 | $35.86 | $40.42 | $37.07 | $40.47 | $36.76 | $40.57 | $33.63 Germamnynee eee eon sence eae 37. 48 38. 78 41.37 39.77 36. 97 40. 37 37240) ||eeeceeee Averapees a ie S..oneie see eee eis: 36. 33 37. 32 40.89 | 38.42 38. 72 38.56) || 32255 | Peeeeee Notre.—These figures represent the average price per ton as shown by the importations and valuations of these crops in the Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions and in the Statistik des Deutschen Reichs. The soy bean is already a crop of high value in American agriculture and seems destined to be of far greater importance, especially in the cotton belt, not only as a cash crop but as an aid in maintaining the fertility of the soul. With a mutual understanding of the possibilities of the soy bean and its products, the industry should become a most important one in conjunction with the cottonseed-oil industry. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 6 CENTS PER COPY A WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1916 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 440 Contribution from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 8, 1917 LUMBERING IN THE SUGAR AND YELLOW PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. By Swirr Berry, Forest Examiner. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Ett eHITOOTICHION. =o. 2-22 2222 -e ssi 1 | Part II. Logging—Continued. COPA eecelass = six -a)s me boise > Sos eee 1 Woods supervision........-.----.-.----- 64 SRRNERES oot hoes oo eo eens TO 2 | Part Ill. Manufacture....................... 65 eemesiotoperations=5 - 2&2: =222223< =< 4 Millpond A208. Megs eee Ae 65 DU. 2215S eee esas e sees 5 Sawinillss so. sere ee ee cee occ san eee 67 SPT oe a a 8 Sawmill lumber yards.................-- 80 Factors affecting the cut...........-....- 10 Transportation to common carriers...... 86 JOU De 1 13 | Part IV. General cost factors................ 92 Preparing logs for transport..-.........- 13 Overhead ‘charges..-...........-...----- 92 Krom stump.to yard .. = <=:2.-<---2.2-55 18 Depreciationins <4. 455. cena eee pees 95 Mromi- vara tO lSNGING. =~ 22.2. 222. ees Pe eee ae eee ee 75. 00 RN MRS dia a oa 0 5 3,25 SS AEA es a oH Ss has UE ars Sees Mbt eset te ate 70. 00— 85. 00 Sealer fe a) Ae TP re Ancor ti sheer ee een ae, See ee te 60. 00O- 70. 00 MMR Soe e RUSE 5 ooo ae core rd inc cen etal heed Clot ee op SUE ae ene ee ey 100. 00 eit (OW ee i, 3 a eee te ok OR Se uee eine eae ie 60. 00 ATO TG oe <0 na eh A RP Ny a Maciel ERIE 45. 00 8 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 1.— Wages paid in the sugar and yellow pine lumbering region of California—Con. Large mills. Small mills. Sawmill crews. Per day. Per month. Per day. Per month. oreman: jae) ooo can Saecaocs se seer cers | seen eee $150. 00-$175. 00 |..-...-.----- $125. 00-150. 00 RONG Man ise ss ser 2eseeis See as Soe ee eee eee oe 50.00— 60.00 | $3. 00-$3. 25 0. 00 Scaler vatacitensce sosccieee cn cease cose ecees $2. 50-$3. 00 50.005): etee h S| eee eee Winchmane ease core cris sce ener cee 45. 00 3.00 60. 00 Deck Mans esc ses pease cease eee eeaeeens 2.50— 2.75 49500-2250) 003|2s scree acaee 45.00 Setters ic st? Sk I aie eee ees 3. 25- 3.50 65.00— 75.00] 3.25- 3.75 70. 00- 75.00 Hirst dopeers esos ee se aeee an see ee eae 3. 25 65.00 | 2.75- 3.50 45. 00- 65. 00 Second oggecee sss a se-ecase ee See eee 3. 00 60: 00)) 2.25525. 5 | Paes Band sawy erin cco beens onc ose eee ser CHUUSi6U) lasesosascocahosse 5:00) | [2 5n esses see Circular sawyer soe fee ta ease ee ee BSD needacnoscaacuse 4°. 00-4. 50)| 522 see oseeee eee Offbearer en yee eae se he Oe cena. ek ene tacts - 50— 3. 00 45.00— 60.00 3.00 50. 00 IDOI Se co ebecsacccues : 2.75 40:00= 50/002 5.522 552. SoBe eee eee eee Edgerman.....--..--.- Sell 75.00 | 3.50- 3.75 70. 00-75. 00 Rear edgerman 2.50 92.00%) 2255523 2eSo| eee ee cee Slashman....-..-.-.-- 2.50 40500="' 45700") 222 So coceetos | See eee eee eee Trimmers se pacciseeeee ee ayy eae aan oc 3. 00 65. 00 Trimmer helper 2. 50 5. 00 2. 50 45. 00 Weahorencs eo Ee Ss ss Se eas ania tee See 2. 50 40.00— 45.00 2. 50 45. 00 Slabmam shoes Seo Ae Sk aan ya | eee or Saye | eee eee ver beat ttre 2.50 45. 00 Cito fia ss see eae can oay ath ie ee ves are etapa ES 2.50— 2.75 45.00— 50.00 Hn pinee rf Akt Ok eV Ee rca see tne ayaa ae eels eestor 90. 00- 110.00.| 3.75- 4.75 80. 00— 100. 00 IT OM AMS SMe ialeis nei Si: Se kee eweeh ie 3. 00- 3. 25 60. 00— 65.00 3.25 65. 00 Oilerssee shee eee eee a ee he ae ete 3. 25 65.00) |25...2 55.2 b | eee IT ae Fee anbecseaced sanamasacubsooaes 500k) sh eoktoeecionece lta se eeeeceies 75. 00 Second millwright= 2 4-5-0 -- sees eee eee 8.100: [isco satiocccisselemis| Sia one's obiae eee eee eee me Miler. hoe i chads ee ce eee ond ec aeaeeee SO0=1 84003 Soa eeecieeer cere 3.:10—"5.00))| Saar MWiatchmant - 2 hatcn S55 eee eee ae sh eae ese 2.75 55. 00 2.75 50. 00 Grader: sot seaae a. se erie aes ee ee eee Bb ico) Nesonosaasadcocens Beye Resasoriicndscass NOLRLET SN. sans ee tot oe ot ee eeeoe eee Seen DHOOUIE Sacecine Geiser 2. 50 45.00 Carpusher ).i98 s25 25 ieee es Joan ee 200 Se asewiceen semis 2.50 45. 00 TOT Stes LE Bee Se. Shae P06 eescseocaemeeaacs 2. 50 45.00 Note.—Board is furnished in addition where the wages are monthly; it is not where they are daily. CAMPS. TYPES OF CAMPS. Both the size and location of logging camps depend upon the type of the operation. In most horse logging operations the camps for the loggers are at the sawmill; but in railroad and traction opera- tions they are placed in the woods along the track and as near the logging as possible. To obviate the necessity of long walks to work, large logging camps must be moved at intervals of from one to three seasons. For this reason the portable camp is supplanting the old style permanent type which was torn down or abandoned at every move. The old type consisted of large bunk houses, with double tiers of bunks down the sides. The initial cost of such camps is low, but they can not be moved or kept free from vermin, and the men dislike them. The portable camp is practically uniform throughout the region. The sleeping quarters are frame cabins 10 by 18 feet or 9 by 22 feet, the former being the usual type on standard gauge operations and the latter on narrow gauge. The sides of these cabins are ordinarily 7 or 74 feet and the roof half pitch. Low-grade lumber is used in their construction. The walls are battened and the roofs double- boarded or covered with tar paper. Two skid timbers about 8 by 10 inches are placed lengthwise under each cabin to serve as a founda- tion and to facilitate moving. Cabins of this kind contain about PLATE I. Bul. 440, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. F—I-D6 EXCELLENT VIRGIN STAND OF SUGAR AND YELLOW PINE IN THE oie FIG SIERRA NEVADAS OF CALIFORNIA F—1605T=A ON A CALIFORNIA PINE DONKEY LOGGING OPERATION. LOGGING CAMP BLE Fic. 2.—TYPICAL PORTA Bul. 440, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il F-95332 FELLING A LARGE YELLOW PINE TREE IN A MIXED STAND OF SUGAR AND YELLOW PINE ON A NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER SALE AREA. LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 9 1,600 feet of lumber and cost from $60 to $70 each. If double- boarded throughout, the cost is probably from $90 to $100. Each accommodates four men in single bunks, or preferably in steel cots, and provides about 500 cubic feet of air space per man. There is also room for a stove and usually a small table. In some camps only three men are assigned to a cabin, which leaves room for a large table. The use of dining cars and bunk cars is limited to a few camps, but will probably increase. For railroad construction camps and camps at a distance from the railroad, and sometimes for stables and dining rooms at portable camps, tents are frequently used. They can be taken down and stored during the winter. If cared for, a good tent should last three or four seasons. When it is desired to move to a new site, the cabins are loaded on flat cars by means of donkey engines. The cookhouse, stable, and shop are either abandoned or torn down and the lumber utilized again. Ordinarily an average sized camp can be moved in one day. The cabins should last for at least 8 or 10 seasons, depending upon the number of moves. Some operators place several cabins end to end to form a portable cookhouse and dining room. Steam donkey logging camps vary in size from those with two yarders to those with five. Each large operation usually has at least two camps with two or three yarders each if the logging is good, or four or five yarders each if logging is difficult or if the mill is operating double shift. The first would have from 60 to 80 men and would require about 20 cabins, costing $70 each; a frame cook- house and dining room 20 by 60 feet, costing $350; one stable, costing $150; and a blacksmith shop, costing $50; making a total cost for buildings of about $1,950. The larger camp would contain from 125 to 150 men and have 45 cabins, a cookhouse costing $450, a stable costing $250, and a blacksmith shop costing $100; total, $3,950. Bedding is not furnished and mattresses but seldom, though each man is usually permitted to take enough hay for a bed. One com- pany furnishes mattresses, operates a laundry, and provides hot and shower baths in its camps, for all of which each man is charged $2 per month. Small commissaries are provided in most camps and are tended by the foreman and timekeeper. At small sawmills and mills located in the timber the men are housed in frame cabins larger than those used in the logging camps, though similar in construction. A common dining room is pro- vided, and there may be a few cottages for families. In sawmill towns large boarding houses are usually maintained for the single men and cottages are provided for renting to the married employees. 10 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A modern mill town recen tly constructed in connection with a double- band mill is reported to have cost as follows: Messibouses ict) eS erns Sie Ra Rar ee Pera Ee eee Re eee erage $3, 700 Bunkshouseser =: sae: DiS ai- SEAS Ps Re = ech SE ey rap nee at gai 2, 200 Sewensystemiaee cre Sis 2 55. ees Oe ee eer 3, 400 WATERS yetenas: oie ists Ss facies aye Aegean eps ey 3, 200 UD ye) DD aS) eae ee an ee Ay ae a ea 18, 000 TRG tals ee 2 See: eA ere ie To rien aN. 30, 500 BOARDING. The cost to the company of boarding men usually ranges from $18 to $22 per month, a figure of $20 being the average at mill camps and the one commonly used by most companies in figuring costs. At camps where the employees are required to pay board the rates range from $20 a month to 25 cents per meal, the equivalent of $22.50 per month. FACTORS AFFECTING THE CUT. CULL. Cull is the discount from the gross scale because of rot, breakage, or defects in form. The figures available are based principally upon the judgment of competent timber estimators and scalers, not on actual measurements. Sugar and yellow pine are the least defective and are discounted from 0 to 4 per cent, and sometimes 5 per cent. Douglas fir is quite defective in many parts of the region, par- ticularly in the Coast Range, where the cull ranges from 10 to 25 per cent. White fir has from 10 to 25 per cent cull throughout the region, and red fir stands have about the same amount. Because of its peckiness, incense cedar is the most defective and is culled from 15 to 40 per cent. Measurements covering an area of 360 acres on the Shasta Forest gave the following losses through defects and breakage: Sugar pine, 14.5 per cent; yellow pine, 10 per cent; Douglas fir, 23.5 per cent; white fir, 15 per cent; and incense cedar, 17 per cent. UTILIZATION. In the private operations, which make up the bulk of the logging in this region, all of the timber is cut and removed which is con- sidered merchantable by the operator. Stumps are cut from 16 to 36 inches in height, the average for most operations bemg from 24 to 28 inches. Tops are utilized to limits of from 8 or 10 inches in smooth pine to 14 or 16 inches in rough timber, the average being between 10 and 12 inches for pine and about 12 or 13 inches for fir and cedar. The smallest trees cut are about 14 or 15 inches inside the bark on the stump for pine and 15 or 16 inches for fir and cedar. Some concerns log all trees down to these limits, while others take only the pine and the best and most accessible of the fir and cedar. This difference in policy is usually based on different logging and LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. ibd market conditions. Some operators cut the best white fir trees into logs and the remainder, including tops, into engine wood or pulp wood. An operator whose utilization is of the best type cuts pine © down to a 15-inch and fir to a 16-inch diameter on the stump, stumps _ being cut from 24 to 28 inches high. He cuts smooth pine tops down to 8 inches, smooth fir to 10 inches, and rough tops to 12 and 14 inches. On ordinary logs he allows 4 inches for trimming; and on logs over 4 feet in diameter, 6 inches. He cuts the area clean. The minimum log length is usually 12 feet, though on several oper- ations valuable pine logs are taken down to 10 feet. Logs of poor quality are left in the woods if 50 per cent defective, and often if only 40 per cent defective; but, on the other hand, many firms log pine butts or clear logs which are not 25 per cent sound. The utilization on National Forest timber sale areas is commonly more intensive. Timber sale contracts provide that stumps be cut not exceeding 18 inches in height and that tops be utilized down to 8 or 10 inches when smooth. The minimum log length is generally 10 feet, though in some instances 8 feet is specified for sugar and yellow pine. Pine logs 334 per cent and fir logs 50 per cent sound are considered merchantable. The young growing timber, from 20 to 30 per cent of the volume of the stand above 12 inches in diameter, remains uncut after logging. In ordinary sawing practice the shortest board made is 10 feet and the narrowest width is 4 inches. However, the mills that have box or door factories resaw slabs to obtain suitable short pieces. Clear edgings are utilized for lath and car strips. Band saws com- monly cut two-sixteenth inch or three-sixteenth inch kerf; solid tooth circular saws, four-sixteenth inch; and inserted tooth circular saws, five-sixteenth inch. Most of the clear pine lumber is cut in 1, 14, and 2 inch stock, and an extra thickness of from one-sixteenth to one-eighth inch is allowed on each board for shrinkage. Shop lumber is 14 and 2 inches in thickness, the 14-inch stock being sawed 142 or 144 inches thick in coarse-grained timber. Most box lumber is sawed 14 inches thick, though both 1-inch and 2-inch box is cut. The allowance for shrinkage is the same as in shop. Common lum- ber is cut in inch stuff, one-eighth inch full. In addition an extra width of from one-eighth to one-half inch is allowed on each board to provide for shrinkage. Fir lumber is usually cut without extra al- lowance in thickness or width. 12 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OVERRUN. With average timber and a normal lumber product, the overrun ~ at a mill employing an inserted tooth circular saw is negligible if not lacking. A solid tooth circular saw does a trifle better, showing a possible average overrun of 2 or 3 per cent. The figures obtained at a number of efficient band mills range from 5 to 8 per cent, the most common being 6 per cent or a fraction over. A short mill tally at a band mill sawing pine timber from a National Forest sale in the southern Sierras showed an overrun of 5 per cent. A mill tally of 4,190 logs made during the summer of 1914 at a representative single band mill in the northern Sierras gave the fol- lowing average overrun of the decimal C scale: Sugar pine, 7 per cent; yellow pine, 6.9 per cent; Douglas fir, 10.3 per cent; white fir, 2.5 per cent; incense cedar, 15.6 per cent. ‘These percentages are perhaps slightly above the average on account of the manufac-- ture of sawed ties from many top logs. A second tally of 4,890 logs at another single band mill during 1914 gave the following overrun: Sugar pine, 2.6 per cent; yellow pine, 0.7 per cent; Douglas fir, 8.1 per cent; white fir, 1.1 per cent; incense cedar, 16.6 per cent. Most of the overrun occurs in the logs of poorer quality. TIMBER QUALITY. The proportion of the various grades produced depends not only upon the quality of the timber but also upon the efficiency of the operation, the size of the mill, and the facilities for marketing lum- ber. Inefficient operations do not cut as high a proportion of the better grades as efficient ones. Small mills without a marketing organization do not take as much care in separating grades, and fre- quently put all lower grades into box. In speaking of the quality of a tract of timber it is customary to say that it will produce a certain per cent of uppers, meaning No. 2 shop and better. The poorer yellow and Jeffrey pine stands in east- | ern California produce about 20 per cent uppers; better stands pro- duce from 25 to 30 per cent. Normal mixed stands of sugar pine, yellow pine, Douglas fir, white fir, and incense cedar produce from 25 to31 percent. Insugar and yellow pine stands the pine commonly cuts from 32 to 45 per cent uppers; yellow pine alone from 30 to 45 per cent, and sugar pine from 35 to 55 per cent. A comparison of the lumber grades produced from sugar and yellow pine may be made from Table 2, which shows the results of two mill tallies made by the Forest Service during the season of 1914. The first of these was for 2,230 logs at a single-band mill in the south- ern part of the Shasta National Forest, and the second for 2,490 logs 1 This information on mill overrun of log scale is derived from a comparison of the figures of scalers and tallymen at several representative mills. The log scale is commonly made by the Spalding rule, which is somewhat similar to the decimal Crule used on National Forest timber sales. Overrunis greater insmall or very large logs; less with saws of heavy kerf, and greater when thick planks or timbers are sawed. Bul. 440, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. F-95331 Fic. 1.—LIMBING AND BUCKING TIMBER ON A NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER SALE IN THE SIERRA NEVADAS. F-160456-A Fic. 2.—LOGGED-OVER STAND OF SUGAR AND YELLOW PINE ON PRIVATE LAND. LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 13 at a single-band mill in the western part of the Plumas National Forest. apie 2 —Comparison of the lumber grades produced from sugar and yellow pine, showing the results of two mill tallies. Mill tally No. 1. Milltally No. 2. Grades. Sugar Yellow Sugar Yellow pine. pine. pine. pine. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Nos. 1 and 2clear..... ECORI OS OCS SO CC RC oR SCORER Ee Cene : 9. 7.5 iy Te S\GUEIG 1. Ae Se BAR RRs SF ees Bom ee kook 2d ae Sa eee ae Pe oct 3.8 4.1 3.3 3.6 RIOR ee eee ae 2 (Ae issn sos aeons BBS we ste ae tio .8 .6 oak aD ANTS ESTED 2B oe Se SAD = Ee Pe Sears Sei a Re BE a gL 5 2.4 a4 1.1 IE CpPNO SH ODDEN wis olan ora cic feist w wisleiniaias Sonam we nce Sen ee eee ar ee ee | Seen 50 E Paeriche eae Mi lGrby Genes hoe aes tS is Se ae en Sa 60 MaGiNg peck we bee 87) BIA) ps US yA2e eee eae OEE, Se eee ne os Oe 230 50 Roading and peace spool.. See en Aa Dye S chee alee ema RN cess een ie 210 45 In addition to blocks, so-called ‘‘fair-leaders’’ are placed on the front of the sleds of narrow drum yarders, for the main line and some- times for the back lme. The cost ranges from $50 to $100 each, depending upon size. Operation.—Y arding begins with the moving of the machine to its setting, which may be either on a railroad spur, a chute, or a roading trail. After the machine is set, the back or trip line is hauled out by a horse around several runs, passed through the tailblock and returned to the donkey along the Ime of the first run. The outer end of the main line is then attached to the back line by means of a clevis. A short piece of cable terminating in the heavy butt hook is fastened to the end of the main line for the purpose of attaching chokers. Since the donkey is usually set parallel to the track or chute, a Tommy Moore is ordinarily placed at a distance of from 200 to 250 feet from the donkey, for a main lead block. Its purpose is to steer the logs into a bucking chute, or to bring them in parallel to the track for loading, and to give the cable the right lead for spooling on the drums. A second Tommy Moore may also be used farther out in the woods when it is necessary to avoid obstacles or change the direction of the lead. The trip line blocks are placed at intervals on the back line to hold it up from logs and rocks. When the cable has been strung and everything is in readiness for logging, the back line is reeled up on the return drum and the main line hauled out to the first log. A choker has previously been hooked around one end of the log. The free end of the choker is attached to the butt hook and the main line is reeled in, bringing the log with it. The log must be stopped at the lead block, slack pulled in the main line by the back line, and the choker unhooked and passed around the block. At the landing the choker is unhooked and the line returned to the woods for another log. Each round trip is designated as a turn. The common trail made by the logs taken in from one location of the tail block is called a run. When arun is completed the tail block and back line must be shifted to the next run. One, two, or three logs may be brought in 98 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. at a turn, depending upon the size of the logs and the power of the machine. One log is by far the most common. ‘The logs may be in single, double, or triple lengths. The territory yarded from a setting is usually in the form of a more or less complete irregular half circle or half square with the center at the main lead block. The runs extend from this common center in the form of radii. Two settings are often made at the same landing. The members of the yarding crew are stationed both in the woods and at the machine. The swampers do whatever clearing of limbs and brush is necessary, trim off knots and limbs left on the under- side of logs, and snipe large logs when necessary. Either one swamper or a special man, termed variously gopher and choker hole digger, digs holes under one end of each log to allow the passage of the choker. Each swamper is equipped with an ax and the choker hole digger with an ax and shovel. The riggers or rigging slingers put the chokers on the logs and hook on the butt hook. Each yarding donkey is in charge of a logger or hooktender. He usually stations himself along the run where both ends of the opera- tion can be observed. He issues all orders, and plans the arrange- ment of the lines and the location of the runs. The frogger or block- tender is stationed at the main lead block. He also unhooks and sends back the chokers at the landing. If dirt and débris collect at the frog or landing, they are cleared away by a frog shoveler. A whistle punk stationed in the woods transmits signals by jerking a wire attached to the whistle of the donkey. He also drives the line horse in stringing cable. An engineer and fireman are required at the engine. The men engaged in cutting and packing wood are termed woodbucks. When men are required to pack water on mules or horses they are called waterbucks. The Dolbeer donkey, when it is used for yarding, is placed on short hauls, about 600 or 800 feet. The logs are invariably yarded in short lengths, though several small logs may be brought in at one time. Several small yarding blocks are used, the principle bemg to go around obstacles rather than over them. The inhaul is very slow but powerful, and logs can be taken up very steep slopes. When located on a railroad spur, the Dolbeer does its own loading, which necessitates a delay in yarding of about one-half hour for each car. The usual output under these conditions is from 16,000 to 19,000 daily. When yarding is done into a chute, the output is about 15 per cent greater. The standard crew for a Dolbeer consists of 1 logger, 1 engineer, 1 spooltender, 1 lookout, 1 linehorse driver, 3 swampers, and 1 woodbuck. One horse is required for shifting the line. Water is supplied by pumping. ; LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 29 The most efficient donkey logging in the yellow pine and white fir of the East Slope region is done on an operation using 10 by 11 inch and 10 by 13 inch machines, both direct and compound geared. The logging chance is excellent. The stand is well distributed and the timber medium sized, about three logs per 1,000 and five logs per tree. The average stand is from 20,000 to 25,000 per acre. The surface is smooth and the slopes moderate, mostly from 10 to 20 per cent. The railroad is so built that the actual maximum distance is from 1,300 to 1,400 feet. Logs are hauled m long lengths and bucked by hand at the yarders. The amount yarded daily averages from 36,000 to 40,000 for the season. The crew at each machine is com- posed of 1 hooktender, 2 rigging slingers, 2 swampers, 1 whistlepunk, 1 frogger, 1 frog shoveler, 1 engineer, and 1 fireman. Water is sup- plied through pipes by pumping and gravity. Slab wood from the sawmill is used for fuel. Compound machines 103 by 104 inches and 10 by 13 inches are used in the northern portion of the East Slope. The timber here is large, averaging less than two logs per 1,000. The stand is patchy and averages about 20,000 per acre. The surface is smooth but very brushy and the slopes are moderate, averaging about 20 per cent. The logs are cut into both single and double lengths, though mostly into single lengths, because of their large size. The average seasonal output is from 25,000 to 26,000 per day. The approximate maxi- mum yarding distance is 1,400 feet. Hach donkey crew is made up of 1 hooktender, 1 head rigging slinger, 2 riggers, 1 choker-hole digger, 1 knotter, 1 whistlepunk, 1 engineer, and 1 fireman. Fuel is supplied by cutting white fir trees into wood, loading this wood on flat cars, and hauling it to each yarder. Water is scarce and is supplied in tank cars. A line mule is used for stringing line. A typical operation in the sugar and yellow pine of the southern Sierras combines small tandem drum donkeys for hauls up to 1,200 feet and large 11 by 13 inch moguls for distances up to 2,000 feet. The stand averages from 30,000 to 35,000 per acre, and the trees average from six to eight logs. The country is rather rough and the chance of more than average difficulty. The slopes are steep, ranging from 25 to 50 per cent. The plan of logging involves a railroad along the main stream with chutes up the slopes into the timber. The logs are yarded in double lengths and bucked with steam saws. The smaller machines put in from 23,000 to 25,000 feet daily, with the following crew: 1 logger, 2 swampers, 1 rigger, 1 lookout, 1 frogger, 1 frog shoveler, 1 engineer, 1 fireman, and 1 woodbuck. The larger machines average from 28,000 to 30,000 daily, and have the following crew: 1 logger, 1 head rigger, 2 riggers, 2 swampers, 1 whistlepunk, 1 frogger, 1 frog shoveler, 1 engineer, 1 fireman, and 2 woodbucks. 30 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Water is supplied both by pumping and by gravity. A horse is required at each machine for shifting cable when changing runs. One company in the southern Sierras uses 12 by 14 inch yarders with 14-inch cable for yarding distances up to 2,000 feet. The country is one of steep slopes on both sides of numerous streams in a common watershed. The logging railroad follows contourwise along these slopes. The machines are set along the railroad, and the logs are yarded to the track, both up and down hill. The slopes above the track range from 25 to 40 per cent, and those below the track from 40 to 70 per cent. The surface is smooth and there is little underbrush. The virgin stand is about 40,000 feet per acre. The logs are yarded in long lengths and bucked at each yarder with a steam saw. The daily output is about 38,000 or 40,000 feet, with the followmg crew: One hooktender, 1 frogger, 3 riggers, 1 choker- hole digger, 2 frog shovelers, 1 whistlepunk, 1 engineer, 1 fireman, 1 woodcutter, and 1 wood teamster. The average outputs given in the above examples include a time allowance for moving donkeys, but not the building of frogs or land- ings. Itis usually more economical to have landings built by separate crews than by the yarding crew. In easy country a donkey will make the usual one-fourth or one-third mile move under its own power in one-half day. In rough country double that time is required. The donkeys are frequentiy moved on flat cars on the logging railroads. From three-fourths to one day is required for such a move, regardless of distance. Moving time is measured from the bringing in of the last log on one setting until the line is out ready for logging on the next. Light donkeys are moved more quickly than heavy ones. The period between moves depends upon the output of the donkey, the stand per acre, and the area of the setting. It usually ranges from three weeks to two months. The usual time of changing a tailblock from one run to another is from 20 to 30 minutes, depending upon the character of the country. More difficult changes, or changes around several runs, require from 30 to 50 minutes. Eliminating very unfavorable settings, the aver- age time required for a turn is about 15 minutes. On short hauls, it may be as low as six or seven minutes, and on long difficult hauls, as high as 25 minutes. The size and speed of the machine and the character of the timber and topography all affect the time of a turn, but when delays due to loading, bucking, or frogging are considered, the average for most operations is about four turns per hour. The following information regarding the time of logging turns is intended only to give the approximate relation of the various parts of each turn. In a yellow-pine stand under very good conditions a 10 by 11 inch tandem drum yarder hauling 1,200 feet averaged a turn in 13 LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 31 minutes, divided as follows: Outhaul 3, hooking three-fourths, inhaul 34, hungup 43, block one-half, and landing three-fourths minutes. A compound geared machine under the same conditions, yarding from 900 to 1,000 feet, made an average turn in 8? minutes, as follows: Outhaul 21, hooking one-half, inhaul 34, hungup 14, block one-half, and landing 1 minute. Delays waiting for steam brought the average up to 11 or 12 minutes. A 10 by 12 inch tandem drum machine, yarding from 700 to 800 feet on fair ground in large timber, with two bull blocks, averaged a turn in 13} minutes, as follows: Outhaul 14, hooking 14, inhaul 24, hungup 43, first lead block 14, main lead block three-fourths, and landing 1 minute. A 11 by 13 inch yarder in a fairly rough country averaged 14 minutes to a turn on a down- hill haul of 1,500 feet. A similar machine hauling uphill 800 feet averaged 10 minutes per turn. An addition of 500 feet increased the average time by 10 minutes. Usually the average time required at a lead block is about one-half minute under favorable, three-fourths minute under normal, 1 minute under difficult, and 14 minutes under very difficult conditions. The time required to change a choker, on a log hungup behind a tree or stump, ordinarily varies from 1 to 13 minutes. The type of donkeys selected depends upon the character of the timber and ground. The Dolbeer is apparently going out of use, because labor is too great a factor in its operation and its maximum yarding distance is too short. Small compound machines are pre- ferred in small rather light timber where the maximum yarding dis- tance is short. Medium-sized machines are used in larger timber under similar conditions. Slghtly larger engines are adopted in localities where the chance is more difficult and the yarding distance longer. The largest yarders are used where it is desired to haul extra long distances both up and down hill and over all obstacles. Compound geared machines carry less cable than the tandem drum type. The tandem drum machines can also be used as roaders, if occasion demands. As a rule, the smaller yarders, with shorter lines, do more satisfactory work upon National Forest timber sale areas. . Operators are finding it an economy to construct more logging spurs and thus shorten the yarding distance. Hauling logs in double and triple lengths and bucking at the yarder or mill pond greatly increases yarding efficiency, if the work is well arranged. The longer sections decrease the time of hooking in the woods, follow the run better, hang up less, and yield more in scale feet, board measure, per turn. A machine should average 5,000 more daily hauling long logs than short logs. More powerful machines are required, however. Wood is the universal fuel for yarders. Oil burning is not at- tempted, because of the difficulty of delivering oil at the machines. BY) BULLETIN. 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The greater portion of the wood used consists of limbs, especially sugar pine, cut into lengths on the ground. This limb wood may be carried to the yarder by the woodbuck or packed on a mule for small machines. For larger machines, it may be dragged on a sled by either one or two horses, or hauled in a two-horse cart. In a few instances in the northern Sierras sound Douglas fir logs are cut by hand into fuel at the yarder. Some companies use slab wood cut at the mill and hauled to the woods on logging flats. Still others cut wood from white fir, allow it to season, and then deliver it to the yarders on flat cars. The cost of supplying fuel at one of the smaller compound engines is the time of one man and a horse, or about $3.50 per day. At the 10 by 11 inch and 10 by 13 inch machines, on the East Slope, burning slab wood, the cost is about $4.25 per day for the time of one man and the handling of from 14 to 2 cords at each machine. Where the split fir wood is used, the amount required daily for a 10 by 104 machine is 2 cords, costing $2 each. The large 11 by 13 inch yarders require about two men and a horse to furnish limb wood, at a cost of $5.50 per day. Similarly the 12 by 14 inch machines on long settings require two men and a light team at a cost of $6.50 per day. The first method of supplying water to donkey engine boilers was by packing in water bags on mules. One waterbuck and mule is required for small boilers, at a daily cost of $3.25. Large boilers require double the force. At present this method is relegated to donkeys used on railroad and chute construction, and donkey engines are supplied almost universally by water conveyed in pipes. Where water is abundant, about one-half of the machines can be supphed by gravity. Where water is less plentiful, from three-fourths to all of the machines must be supplied by pumping. The cost depends upon the distance water must be piped and the number of machines that can be supplied from one pump. Usually two or three machines can be reached from a pump, and the daily cost for hire of pump- man, repairs to pump, and the prorated cost of stringing pipe, is from $1.50 to $2 per machine. The depreciation on pipe and pump varies from 44 cents to 75 cents per day. In localities where water is scarce the best method of supplying water is by means of tank cars. The daily cost, including hauling and depreciation, is from $3 to $3.50 per machine, Maintenance.—A very considerable cost in yarding is the main- tenance of the cables. The life of a main line varies from one- half to 14 seasons, depending upon the usage, the amount logged, the amount of rocks, and the general difficulty of logging. Under the favorable conditions in the yellow pine in the eastern Sierras, a 14-inch main line will last from one to two months more than a season and a back line two or three seasons. The average LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. ao life under most conditions throughout the rest of the Sierras is one season for the main line and two seasons for the back line. Under favorable conditions in the central Sierras, where the soil 1s loose, the average life of the main line is eight months. On other opera- tions where large machines are used on rough chances the average life is from two-thirds to one season for the main line and two sea- sons for the back line, with considerable splicing. Usually it will not be far wrong to estimate an average life of one season for main lines and two seasons for back lines. Main lines on Dolbeers last only about two-thirds of a season and the same is true for very large yarders working under severe conditions. In addition to cables, supplies and repairs are included in mainte- nance. Supplies consist of oil, grease, tools, blocks, repair parts, ete. The amount required is of course larger for the larger machines. The cost per 1,000 is, however, much the same in different operations under similar logging conditions without much regard to the size of the operation. As arule, it is from 6 to 9 cents per 1,000. The cost of repairs varies to some extent with the size of the operation. Large operations ordinarily have more efficient shops than smaller ones. The repair crew at the usual donkey camp of from three to five ma- chines is one.donkey doctor, one blacksmith, and one blacksmith’s helper. At some of the smaller camps the helper is eliminated. On other operations one donkey doctor may look after the machines in two camps. The board and wages of the repairmen amount to from 8 to 10 cents per 1,000, of which it is judged about four-fifths is charge- able to yarding. In addition some of the heavier repair work is done at the mill shop. Also one or two machines are usually overhauled and repaired at the shop each year between logging seasons. Giving consideration to all these factors the information at hand indicates that the cost of maintenance in donkey yarding is normally from 18 to 22 cents per 1,000. OVERHEAD YARDING. The use of this system has only just begun in the sugar and yellow pine region. Many operators are considering it as a means of re- ducing operating costs, but they do not feel that the machinery now on the market meets their requirements. A few loggers have been trying out systems of their own devising during the last two seasons, and one or two standard rigs have been employed. Two main systems are in use in the large timber of the Pacific Northwest. Both are alike in principle, having a main or standing one supported at either end, upon which a carriage is operated. In one system this main line is slacked off in order to allow the logs to be attached to the carriage; then the main line is tightened, which 57172°—Bull. 440—17——3 34 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lifts the log, and the carriage is hauled in. The other system pro- vides that the main line be kept taut and sufficient slack to reach the logs pulled m the skidding line by some slack-pulling device. The first attempt at overhead yarding in California sugar and yellow pine was made in 1913 with the first-mentioned system. It was continued through 1914 and the company considers the work so successful that a second machine is to be fitted with an overhead rig in the near future. The engine used is a three drum, 12 by 14 inch yarder, equipped with a 14-mch main or standing line. The usual distance between the spar tree and tail tree is 1,800 or 1,900 feet, but spans of 2,200 feet have been made. ‘The carriage is oper- ated on this standing line by a 1-inch skidding line and a ?-inch haul- back. The best setting is on the point of a secondary ridge, as the span may then be made across a gulch or small canyon. The rig is used both for yarding and roading, the plan for roading being to station a yarder at the tail tree and yard in for an additional 1,400 feet. Logs are hauled in one, two, and three log lengths, the aver- age load being about 1,000 feet. A small donkey is stationed at the landing for hauling the logs in the bucking chute and loading. The average output for four summer months was 60,000 feet per day, Two other similar rigs are being operated experimentally, with some success, in the Sierras. One operator in the northern portion of the East Slope region is using a large steel skidder, known as the universal logger. It is equipped to operate one line as an overhead or two lines as a ground skidder. The system in which the main line is slackened and pulled sidewise to the logs could hardly be used on National Forest timber sale areas where clear cutting is not practiced. There is reason to believe, however, that under certain conditions the other system can be used, if provision is made in marking the trees for cuttmg. The cost of overhead machines with double sets of blocks, etc., is from $12,000 to $14,000 each, delivered on the ground. Cables are not included, and the cost of a set ranges from $2,500 to $3,000. FROM YARD TO LANDING. When the common yarding point is located at some distance from the landing, a step is necessary which is usually termed chuting or roading. It is usually done in chutes by horses, in chutes with donkey engines, or on the ground with donkey engines. Other pos- sible methods are hauling with slip-tongue big wheels from yarders used on rough ground in the midst of a big wheel logging operation, and the use of overhead systems. Overhead systems similar to those used for yarding may in the future be utilized for roading across canyons, up steep grades, and down rough slopes. Extra supports could be used if necessary. Aerial tramways with frequent supports . LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 35 and several tolleys will undoubtedly be used ultimately in bringing smaller timber down from considerable elevations; for example, red fir for pulpwood. CHUTE HAULING BY HORSES. With one exception, chute hauling by horses is used only by firms with small capital. The chutes frequently extend from the woods to the sawmill and may be as much as 8,000 or 10,000 feet in length. A horse chute is constructed in much the same manner as a donkey chute, but it is lighter and need not be as strong. The poles used are cut either 50 or 60 feet in length, about 8 or 9 inches on the small end, and as large as 16 inches on the butt end. They are laid in two parallel rows about 5 inches apart, the ends being notched and joined. The inner surfaces are then hewed off, in such a manner as to make the width at the top 16 inches and at the bottom 8 inches. A rough road must be provided alongside the chute for the team. All grades must be toward the landing, the minimum advisable being about 5 per cent. The more steeper grades there are, the less chute grease and the fewer horses per team will be needed. The maximum grade employed is about 35 per cent. Logs which have been greased above will run on grades over 30 per cent. A typical chute-building crew consists of five men and a foreman, with two axmen cutting poles and hewing. The daily cost, including stumpage for the fir poles, is approximately $28. Under rather diffi- cult conditions this crew builds 200 feet of chute per day, at a cost of 14 cents per foot. The cost will on the whole range from 10 to 15 cents per linear foot, or from $530 to $795 per mile. - The customary team consists of eight horses. The number of teams required depends upon the length of the chute and the amount of low grade. The logs are yarded into the chute and made into trains of from 6 to 12 logs each. The team is hitched to the last log but one in the train and the last two logs are dogged together. The amount hauled daily in a representative chute about 14 miles in length, with two long flats of 5 per cent grade, is about 40,000 feet. _ Two 8-horse teams, each with a teamster, are required. The rest of the crew consists of a man at the lower end of the chute and two chute greasers, one of whom shovels frogs. The daily cost is about $40. This is a cost of $1 per 1,000, exclusive of maintenance and grease. On another representative chute about 1 mile in length two 8-horse teams handle about 60,000 feet. A driver and greaser are required with each team. The daily cost is about $39, or 65 cents per 1,000. On another chute something over a mile in length with two branches and a steep pitch in the middle, three 8-horse teams are used. One team is used on each branch and the third works between the foot of the steep grade and the landing. The daily cost is approxi- mately $58. At 50,000 feet daily the cost is $1.16 per 1,000; at 60,000 daily it is 96 cents per 1,000, 36 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The cost of keeping up horse chutes and equipment is not high; probably from 5 to 8 cents per 1,000 will suffice. A very considerable cost In many operations is the grease required to make the logs slide in the chute. The heavier the logs and the lighter the grades the more chute grease is necessary. The grease costs about 4 cents per pound delivered, in barrels of about 400 pounds. The heaviest cost of chute grease noted is for the first horse chute described above, which is in fairly large timber. The daily requirement is two barrels, costing $32, or 80 cents per 1,000. Usually for chutes about a mile in length not more than from one-half to one barrel daily is necessary, which would make the cost from 16 to 30 cents per 1,000. On short chutes with favorable grades in light timber the cost of chute grease may not exceed 5 cents per 1,000. CHUTE HAULING BY DONKEY ENGINES. Chute-hauling by donkey engines has been a very popular method of moving logs from yard to landing, the tendency having been to re- duce the mileage of railroad spurs by a liberal construction of chutes. Firms using donkey chutes extensively laid out their logging opera- tions with railroads along the principal streams and chutes built up on either side to tap the various tributary watersheds. Some loggers still adhere to this system but the majority are eliminating or greatly shortening chutes by better location and greater mileage of logging railroads. So-called hoists or inclines in connection with logging railroads are just beginning to be used advantageously as a substitute for chutes. However, chutes are of value where timber is out of reach of yarding lines either in pockets below the railroad track or on benches or heads of streams above the track, where the cost of con- structing a logging spur or incline would be prohibitive. Improvements—Most donkey chutes are constructed of two par- allel series of poles laid end to end. ‘The ends are jointed together, and the tops of the poles are always placed in the direction the logs are to be hauled. The poles are laid about 6 or 8 inches apart and the inner sides are hewed off in such a-way as to form a trough 10 . inches wide at the bottom and 30 inches wide at the top. Cross skids ~ at 10-foot intervals are used to support the chute poles across depres- sions, and braces are used to prevent spreading. However, where the topography permits the two poles are embedded in the ground, which serves the same purpose. Chute poles are preferably 60 or 70 foot lengths from straight young white fir trees. The usual top diameter is 10 or 12 inches, and the average pole scales about 500 feet. Thus, where few cross skids are required, the scale per mile of chute is about 90,000 feet. With a normal amount of cross skids the scale is about 100,000 per mile. Stream beds and small gulches are crossed by means of cribwork trestles, which add varying amounts to the material required. LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 37 Some firms prefer wider chutes called ‘‘three pole chutes.’”’ Two poles are placed much the same as above, but a third pole is embedded in the ground between them. The average diameter of the outside pole is from 14 to 18 inches, and the average diameter of the bottom pole about 8inches. The width at the top of the hewing is 30 inches; the width at the bottom is 18 inches; and the depth is 8 inches. The scale is about 10,000 feet per mile greater than that for the two-pole type. Donkey chutes may be constructed on nearly any necessary grade, with the exception that long minus grades of 28 per cent or over are apt to lead to trouble, through the logs running and jumping the chute. The usual grade of downhill chutes varies from 3 or 4 per cent to 20 or 25 per cent. Adverse grades may occur in such chutes up to 10 or 15 per cent. Usually an extra donkey is required at the top of any long or very steep adverse grade. The severest uphill chute noted is one rising 800 feet in 3,900 feet of length (an average of 21 per cent), with 1,200 feet having an average grade of over 40 per cent. The steepest stretch is 500 feet with an average grade of 54 per cent, within which is a 200-foot pitch of 60 per cent. The best results are secured from chutes constructed on tangents, but curves may be used where it is necessary to change the general direction of the chute. Short curves or reverse curves are out of the question and usually not more than two or three curves are prac- ticable, even in the longest chutes. A change of 90° in the direction of a chute may be made by means of two long and gradual curves. Typical chute construction crews vary from a foreman and 17 men to a foreman and 22 men. Each commonly has a Dolbeer donkey engine and two horses. The total monthly cost of the former crew is $1,285, and of the latter, $1,600. The latter crew is typical of an extensive chute logging operation and is made up as follows: inh $90 and board. | 1 line horse driver... -.--- $40 and board. @eueiicer.-.--.---.---- 50 and board. | baxmen:....---.:-.--: 50 and board. MORI eo ero os 45 and board. | 3 shovelmen.........--- 40 and board. EWORADUCK......22.....- 40 and board. | 1 grading boss.......-..- 75 and board. Pwaterbuck.-.2.-.--.... 40 and board. | 6 muckers..2...........- 40 and board. gewampers............- 50 and board. | 1 line horse. POOR OWUS. wi noth dn's ote 50 and board. | 1 water horse. The cost per mile of construction depends upon the configuration of the ground and the accessibility of suitable chute timber. Except for short spurs, the cost varies from about 20 cents per linear foot under favorable conditions to 40 cents per foot for difficult. Con- struction in open stands, with no rocks and with a fair supply of chute timber, costs,cxclusive of stumpage, about $1,000 per mile, of which amount $350 is for clearing and grading. Heavier grading, with some rockwork but no trestles, costs about $1,400 per mile. 38 BULLETIN 440, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, A chute with heavy grading and a small amount of trestlework costs about $1,500 or $1,600 per mile. A chute with one large trestle or three or four moderate trestles costs about $1,800 per mile. A com- bination of large trestles and heavy grading may make a chute cost from $2,000 to $2,200 per mile. The average allowance for the cost of chutes for good-sized logging chances should be from $1,300 to $1,400 per mile for good conditions; from $1,500 to $1,600 for fair conditions; and $1,800 for very difficult conditions. Chute landings cost from $50 to $100 each. . Equipment.—The donkey engines used for chute hauling are com- monly larger than those used for yarding. They are of the wide- drummed type usually described as roaders. The size varies with the difficulty and length of the haul. For short downhill pulls a 10 by 12 inch engine may be satisfactory. On the other hand, for steep uphill pulls or very long hauls a 12 by 14 inch or even a 14 by 14 inch roader may be used. The f. 0. b. factory cost of representative roading engines 1s approxi- mately from $2,650 to $5,450. TABLE 6.—Factory cost of representative roading engines. Size. Weight. Cost. Inches. Pounds. 12 by 14 46, 000 $4, 650 14 by 14 58, 000 5, 450 li by 14 36, 300 3, 450 12 by 12 36, 500 38, 500 13 by 14 45, 200 4,350 10 by 12 27, 000 2, 650 11 by 13 38, 000 3, 650 12 by 12 40, 000 3, 809 i Main line, | Back line, Size. 1}-inch 8-inch cable. cable. Inches. Feet. Feet. Il by 13 4, 080 10, 600 12 by 12 4,070 9, 850 12 by 14 5, 100 13, 850 14 by 14 8,100 21, 400 The prices of smaller machines and the approximate cost of placing the engines on the ground are given under the discussion of donkey yarding equipment. The size of the cable used for chute hauling depends upon the severity of the haul. For light downhill pulls 1-inch or 1}-inch main line may be used. The standard size for long and uphill hauls is 14-inch main line, and the usual back line is 3-inch. The cost is given under donkey yarding equipment. The cable capacity of rep- resentative roaders is shown in Table 6. On the main line of a chute ground rollers are placed at intervals, : and corrugated rollers, mounted on’so-called dead-men, are required ' LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 89 at curves. Corrugated rollers 8 inches in diameter and 12 inches long are listed at $9 each, and ground rollers 4 inches in diameter and 12 inches in length at $4.50 each. ‘Trip-line blocks similar to those used in yarding are required for the back line, and a large tailblock is placed at the outer end of the line. Operation.—The bull donkey or roader is stationed at the landing on the logging railroad. A second roader or swing bull may be located farther out along a chute which is very long, crosses over a ridge, or has as many as five yarders. Hach bull donkey has a sepa- rate crew and main and back lines. The line from the donkey at the landing extends only as far as the swing donkey. The yarding donkeys are stationed at various points along the chute, usually moving farther out as each setting is completed. A so-called frog is built in the chute at each yarder setting, and the logs are pulled into the chute by the yarder. When several yarders are working on a chute, a branch must be built at each setting for making up trails. If the timber is logged in long lengths, the steam- saw bucking is done in the chute at the yarder. When enough logs are collected in the chute at a yarder to make a trail, the last two logs are dogged together and the outer end of the main line is attached to the next to the last log. Hither double chain-grab hooks or a choker are used for this purpose. The latter is preferred for difficult hauls. The trail of logs is then pulled into thelanding. Thesize of the trail depends upon the grade of the chute and the size of the donkey. For downhill hauls the trail usually contains from 10 to 16 logs, or from 5,000 to 7,000 board feet. On a very heavy uphill the average trail is from seven to nine logs, or from 4,000 to 5,000 feet. The heavier donkeys now being intro- duced should handle larger trails on downhill chutes. As a general rule, the more yarders on a chute, the cheaper the hauling. Some firms, usually those using chutes infrequently, place but one yarder on a chute and thereby incur an unnecessarily heavy cost for chute hauling. The only excuse for such a layout is a very short chute with only one or two settings on it. On a downhill chute under 4,000 feet in length with a yarder averaging about 30,000 feet b. m. daily, the crew is as follows: One lineman, 1 bellhop, 1 engineer, and 1 fireman. The bellhop does what greasing is neces- sary and the lineman does the dogging. Only six trips need to be made daily, which allows considerable time for resting. The daily labor cost is about $12.80. Wood is furnished by one man and a horse, and water is pumped to both machines. Exclusive of cables and chute grease, the average cost per 1,000 fect is about as follows: Operation, 43 cents; fuel, 11 cents; water, 6 cents; maintenance, 12 cents; total, 72 cents per 1,000. 40 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. There should be at least two yarders upon a chute from 2,000 to — 4,000 feet in length. The crew is larger than that given above by one greaser and one dogger, increasing the daily labor expense by $5. Assuming that the yarders average 30,000 daily, the cost per 1,000 is as follows: Operation, 30 cents; fuel, 8 cents; water, 4 cents; maintenance, 10 cents; total, 52 cents. * The most economical chute hauling occurs where three yarders are located upon one chute with one bull donkey. This is rarely done, and such yarders usually do not average over 25,000 daily. The crew contains one greaser and three doggers in addition to the num- ber for one yarder. The daily labor expense is $23.30. The cost per 1,000 is accordingly estimated as follows: Operation, 31 cents; fuel, 5 cents; water, 3 cents; maintenance, 8 cents; total, 47 cents per 1,000. On extensive operations, where the chutes are a mile or more in length and have several branches, it is customary to place two bull donkeys and either four or five small yarders upon each chute. The minimum daily output from such a chute is usually about 110,000 and the maximum 130,000. The crew required is 2 linemen, 2 bell- hops, 4 or 5 doggers, 2 greasers, 2 shovelers, 2 engineers, and 2 fire- men. ‘Three men and two horses are required to supply fuel, at a daily cost of $9.25. The daily labor cost for an output of 110,000 is about $47.25. The cost per 1,000 is approximately as follows: Operation, 43 cents; fuel, 8 cents; water, 5 cents; maintenance, 10 cents; total, 66 cents per 1,000. The cost for a daily output of 130,000 is as follows: Operation, 38 cents; fuel, 7 cents; water, 4 cents; maintenance, 8 cents; total, 57 cents per 1,000. The cost per 1,000 board feet of the cables used varies with the length of the haul. Under average working conditions 14-mch main line and 3-inch back line last two full seasons. If the work is light, they should last a season longer. Thus for chutes from 3,000 to 4,000 feet in length with two yarders averaging 30,000 each daily, the cable cost is about 13 cents per 1,000. For a chute over a, mile in length with two bull donkeys and an average daily output of 120,000, the cable cost is about 11 cents per 1,000. Tn order to overcome friction, portions of the chutes having low or adverse grades are greased ith so-called chute grease (crude petro- leum). The brand commonly used is sold at 2} cents per pound f. o. b. San Francisco. It usually costs about one-half cent per pound more in the woods. A barrel contains approximately 400 pounds and costs about $11 delivered. The amount used depends upon the amount of unfavorable grades. A chute about 5,000 feet in length, of which about one-quarter is upgrade at not to exceed 10 per cent, requires one barrel of grease every three days. The A, oo a Mill Town! D 4—-—A) X Yarding distance, 1600 feet Datum, Elevation above 3ea-level Scale %s Ya I Mile + 124N. LEGEND Logéing railroad — — = (Gin oa Donkey Selling on chute LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 4] average amount hauled daily is 110,000 and the cost for grease about 4 cents per 1,000. On the other hand, a chute 4,000 feet long, with an average adverse grade of 21 per cent and one pitch of 60 per cent, requires four-fifths of a barrel daily for an output of 50,000. The cost is about 14 cents per 1,000. An allowance of 5 cents per 1,000 for chute grease is ample for most chute logging in this region. DONKEY ENGINE ROADING. Roading with donkeys on dirt roads is rare, and when used is really a form of double yarding. It is sometimes employed to reach a body of timber too far away for single yarding but not large enough to warrant the construction of a spur or chute. A yarder is placed in the timber and a roading engine stationed at the nearest landing to haul the logs from the yarder to the track. The logs are hauled in the same manner as they are yarded, either singly or two abreast. One roader can serve but a single yarder and the cost is similar to yarding except that the crew is smaller. A representative roader hauling 30,000 daily, a distance of from 1,600 to 2,000 feet, requires a crew of an engineer, fireman, lineman, blocktender, and whistlepunk. ‘The daily labor cost is $15, or 50 cents per 1,000. Fuel and water cost about $5 per day, mainte- nance of donkey and tools about 16 cents per 1,000, and cable main- tenance about 12 cents per 1,000. The total cost under the conditions given is approximately 94 cents per 1,000. FROM LANDING TO MILL. LOADING. Logs are sent to the mill on log cars, or on trucks, either horse or traction hauled. In general, the operation of loading is the same for trucks as for cars. The simplest method is by hand. It requires small logs and a high landing. This method is infrequently used for ‘loading on railroad cars at the lower end of a chute. In timber averaging five logs per 1,000, six men with peavies may average 50,000 daily at an average cost of 33 cents per 1,000. The only equipment needed is the peavies, which cost about $18 per dozen. The system of loading termed the ‘‘crosshaul’’ is widely used in truck logging, and sometimes for loading cars. The logs are rolled up skids and onto the truck by means of a chain or cable pulled by a team on the opposite side of the truck. The free end of the cable is fastened to the truck or to the load by a hook and the log is rolled up in the bight. In truck logging the loading is usually done by the truck teamster with a pair of leaders or by the bunch teamster with the bunching team. ‘Thus it is rather difficult to separate the cost from that of bunching or of truck hauling. Ordinarily, for moderate sized logs this cost should be about 30 or 35 cents per 1,000. This system is used in one instance under favorable conditions with a 42 BULLETIN 440,-U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. daily output of from 30,000 to 35,000. A crew of one teamster, two loaders, and a team is required, at a daily cost of $10. Besides the horses, harness, and spreaders, the only equipment needed is two peavies for the loaders and 80 feet of loading cable costing about $7. The most widely used method is by cable and ‘‘gin pole.” It seems best adapted to donkey logging, and is also used for loading traction trucks. A gin pole, consisting of a log from 14 to 18 inches in diameter by 40 feet high, is erected on the opposite side of the track from the landing and guyed with five cables in such a manner that the upper end is over the center of the track. A block is fastened at the top of the gin pole and a three-fourths inch loading cable passes through it from the loading drum of the engine. This cable may germinate in a hook and be used in much the same manner as the cross-haul, or it may terminate in a crotch line with two end hooks. _ Upon one traction logging operation where the loading is done at the lower end of a horse chute, the gin-pole system is used, power being furnished by a Dolbeer donkey engine. The crew consists of 1 engineer, 1 spool tender, 2 loaders, and 1 waterbuck, with a com- bined labor cost of $14.40 per day. The average daily output is 60,000 and the average cost 24 cents per 1,000. This should probably be increased by 2 cents per 1,000 for maintenance of the donkey and other equipment. The gin-pole system is widely used where yarders are located at landings along logging spurs. The best results are obtamed with cables terminating in a crotch line. The logs are lifted bodily in the air and lowered in place upon the car. Motive power is commonly furnished by a loading spool or a third drum upon the yarder. The crew consists of a spool tender and two loaders, and the total daily cost is $9. Such a crew is ample to handle the output of any yarder; and usually no matter how small the daily output there can be no reduction in the number. of the crew. Thus the cost of loading . depends primarily upon the average daily output of the yarder. The cost is as follows, according to the daily output: 25,000, 36 cents; 30,000, 30 cents; 35,000, 26 cents; 40,000, 23 cents per 1,000 feet. The cost of loading by this system at chute landings is cheaper than when each yarder is at a separate landing on the railroad. The reason is that, from two to five yarders being stationed upon a given chute, logs are delivered in quantity up to the maximum capacity of the outfit. The loading crew is the same as at a yarder, except that for a daily output of 120,000 it must be enlarged by one top loader, one loader, and one shoveler. The daily labor cost is therefore about $18.50 per day, or 15 cents per 1,000. At 100,000 daily the cost is about 19 cents per 1,000. A separate loading engine is probably better as a motive power than a spool or dhe upon the logging donkey. It may be either a LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 43 vinch operated by steam from the donkey boiler or a separate engine and boiler. The advantage of the separate engine is that yarding or chute hauling need not be interfered with to favor loading. Further, when a separate boiler is used, loading does not lower the steam in the donkey boiler. The crew and labor costs are the same with a separate loading engine as with a loading spool. Probably from 2 to 4 cents per 1,000 should be added for maintenance; but this extra cost is undoubtedly more than offset by increased efficiency in yard- ing. A 71 by 10 mch three drum loading-donkey weighing 11,000 pounds costs $1,550 f. o. b. factory. A 64 by 8 inch twin drum loading engine weighing about 7,000 pounds costs about $1,000 fo: bs factory. One firm uses 64 by 8 inch loading engines at each yarder or chute donkey. The loading engines are placed on a platform on the oppo- site side of the track from the landing and the loading is done by means of a short cable exactly as in the horse crosshaul. The crew and cost is approximately the same as given above under the gin-pole system. Another style of loading, used by one large operator in this region, is a crotch line supported by an A frame placed on the front ends of the donkey skids. This A frame is primarily for supporting the yarding line and is obviously modeled upon the principle of the steam skidders. No landites are needed, but loading is difficult, dangerous to employees, and interferes to a certain extent with yarding. The loading crew is the same ‘as that employed at each yarder by the gin-pole system. Special log-loading machines have not yet proved satisfactory in this region in connection with donkey logging, the cost being higher than if a gin pole were employed. They are, however, very efficient in big-wheel logging operations, for use in loading from log decks, for transferring logs from one car to another, and for picking up logs along the railroad right of way. The type generally used is a self- propelling loader having an inclosed raised platform upon which is located a donkey engine and loading drums. When loading the trucks are raised up and the machine rests on four supports, thus giving room for the empty cars to pass underneath. The loading is done by a cable and crotch line passing through a block at the end of a boom. This boom is in the form of an A frame and may be either rigid or swinging. The cost ranges from $5,500 to $7,500 each. The daily capacity varies from 120,000 to 150,000, depending upon the chance and the size of the logs. It is usually found practicable in large big-wheel operations to deliver from 100,000 to 120,000 daily at each loader. At one representative operation the crew consists of 1 engineer, 1 fireman, 1 woodbuck, 1 top loader, 1 second loader, and 2 hookers, the total daily cost being $19.10. Water is supplied in a 44. BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tank car at a cost of $3.50 daily. The cost of loading, therefore, aver- ages about 21 cents per 1,000. To this amount should be added 2 cents per 1,000 for maintenance of the machine. HORSE TRUCK HAULING. Horse truck hauling is much used at the smaller mills. Where conditions are favorable the trucks may be taken to each tree and the logs loaded with the truck team. In rougher localities the logs are collected at landings by horse skidding or hauling in chutes. Horse trucking permits a rather small woods investment, which adapts it to small operators. Its use is limited to localities where _ truck roads with moderate grades can be constructed at a reasonable cost. In the level regions big wheels are considered more satisfactory for short hauls. | Except in some of the level pine lands in the eastern Sierras, a road must be constructed to each landing for truck hauling. Such roads should have no adverse grades against the loaded trucks, and not too heavy ones against the empty trucks. Probably 20 per cent is a good maximum. Pitches as high as from 30 to 35 per cent are used in some localities, but at a heavy risk of accidents to stock. Many of the roads are constructed by simply swamping out a right of way and driving over it. However, whenever it is necessary to cross a slope a road must be dug out. Except where solid rock is encoun- tered, the cost of such grading will be about 15 cents per cubic yard. Upon a 20 per cent slope the cost per mile is estimated at from $500 to $700. The trucks used are of heavy construction, and are usually partly homemade. Frequently the wheels are cross sections of a log. The tires are usually 5 or 6 inches wide. The four-wheeled type is the only kind used. They weigh from 1,800 to 2,000 pounds apiece and cost from $175 to $200, fitted with bunks. Binding chain and draft chain equipment and spreaders add about $40 for each truck. Heavy horses cost from $500 to $550 perspan. The daily cost is about $1.50 each. The usual truck team consists of six horses driven with a jerk line, the teamster riding the near wheeler. The braking may be done by the teamster, or a swamper may follow each truck to set the brake. Several logs are placed on a truck at one time. the average load being from 1,400 to 1,800 feet. Upon an easy mile haul a six-horse truck should make six trips daily with an average load of 1,500 feet, a daily output of 9,000. The cost of labor and team expense is about $13.50 daily, or $1.50 per 1,000. On a 4-mile haul the same truck equipment should have a daily output of about 12,000 at an average cost of $1.12 per 1,000. In one instance, upon a haul varying from 1 to 2 miles from the landings to the mill, six outfits of this character Bul. 440, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. F-96311 Fic. 1.—LOADING LOGS WITH A CROSSHAUL IN A HORSE-TRUCK LOGGING OPERATION. F-06301 Fic. 2.—LoaDING LOGS WITH A SPECIAL LOADER ON A NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER SALE IN CALIFORNIA. Bul. 440, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. F—15956—A Fla. 1.—TYPICAL LANDING AND GIN-POLE USED FOR LOADING IN THE SUGAR PINE REGION. F-—12791—A Fia. 2.—TRUCKS LOADED WITH LoGS READY FOR HAULING WITH A TRACTION ENGINE. LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 45 average 40,000 per day. Four trips are made with an average load of between 1,600 and 1,700 feet. The daily cost is about $80, or $2 per 1,000. The cost of upkeep ranges from 8 to 12 cents per 1,000. TRUCK HAULING WITH TRACTION ENGINES. Truck hauling with traction engines is used at some small circular mills and at one single-band mill in this region. It does not require any outlay for track, but this is often more than offset by the im- possibility of using the engines in wet weather. A rainy summer season will raise havoc with such a logging operation. On the whole, tractions are adapted to truck hauls too long sor horses. The roads required are like those used for horse hauling, except that the roadbed is wider. The cost is consequently greater. Upon a 20 per cent slope the cost of construction, excepting rockwork, is from $625 to $875 per mile. Damp or soft places must be corduroyed with poles. A common type of traction engine in use for logging is a 110 horse- power road engine, which costs about $5,000 f. 0. b. factory. The fuel may be either wood or oil. The boiler is vertical in order that the engine may be used on heavy grades. The weight of the engine is about 17 tons. The outside width of the driving wheels is 9 feet 7 inches, and the width of each wheel is 26 inches. Another engine used is a gasoline engine of the caterpillar type, designed for soft ground. The cost of this 75-horsepower tractor is about $4,500 f. 0. b. factory. Its weight is 22,700 pounds and its width is 8 feet. Two kinds of trucks are used with traction engines. One is four wheeled with either wooden or steel wheels. The common size has bunks 9 feet wide, spaced 10 feet apart center to center. The wheels are 4 feet 4 inches in diameter and the outside tread is 7 feet. One of these trucks with steel wheels costs about $800 f. 0. b. factory. The other type is of all steel construction and has only three wheels, one in the middle at the front. Itis rated at 10 tons capacity, as against 16 tons capacity for the four-wheeled trucks. A typical traction logging operation furnishes logs for a single-band mill in the eastern Sierras. The length of the haul varies from 2} to 3 miles. The maximum adverse grade loaded is 2 per cent; and empty, 14 per cent. Two wood-burning traction engines make two trips each daily with three four-wheeled trucks. The average truck load is 5,000 feet of logs, a daily output of 60,000. The crew of each engine consists of one engineer, one fireman, and one brakeman, at a daily cost of $14.25. Approximately 4 cords of slabwood are required daily per engine. A cord is worth about $2 per 1,000 at the mill, making a total fuel cost of $16 per day for both engines. Oil and grease amount to $1.10 daily per engine. Repairs to engines and AG BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. trucks for both outfits, including blacksmithing and supply expenses, amount to about $10 daily. The total daily cost is $56.70, or about 94 cents per 1,000. This does not include road repairs. LOGGING RAILROADS. _ Steam logging railroads are the principal means of transporting logs from the woods to the mill. These all have steel rails, there being no pole roads or sawn wooden rails used. The principal reason for the wide use of railroads in logging in California is length of haul. Much of the pine timber is at a considerable distance from trunk line railroads, and heavy investments are required in lumber railroads or flumes. Large mills and heavy output are necessary to warrant these investments. In turn, large mill outputs require extensive logging operations, which necessitate long log hauls. The general topography of the region is rough and mountainous and the logs are too heavy to be handled except by steam. Stream driving is practically out of the question, both because the streams are rocky and difficult of improvement and because sugar-pine and white-fir butt logs will not float. Thus logging railroads are a necessity in practically ail operations of any size. Engineering.—The location of the logging railroad and its spurs is the most important part of the layout of an operation. The type of railroad and the route selected depend upon the period the railroad is to be operated and the amount of timber. The expense of con- struction should be the least that will serve the purpose required and at the same time permit of a reasonable cost of operation and main- tenance. The longer a road is to be used and the heavier the traffic, the better it can be constructed. Logging railroads are constructed more cheaply than even branch trunk line railroads, because the period of operation is shorter. Heavier grades, sharper curves, and poorer roadbed may be used. Topography is the principal factor influencing the location of logging railroads; but the general plan of logging determines whether they, especially branch lines, shall follow valleys, ridge faces, or the tops of ridges; One reason why the railroad layout for steam yarding differs from that for yarding by horses is that on steep ground yarding engines work more satisfactorily uphill. Main lines are necessarily located and constructed with greater care than spurs. Spurs are constructed wherever they are necessary to bring timber within chuting or yarding distance of the main track. The mileage depends upon the topography, maximum yarding distance, amount of chute hauling, and density of the stand. In chute logging the main line railroads are constructed along the streams, and chutes are relied upon to bring the timber down to them. purs are constructed only to reach chute landings which can not be LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA, 47 placed on the main line. The better layout, and one now coming into general use, is to locate the logging railroads on the faces of the slopes and eliminate chutes as much as possible. A large part of the yarding can thus be done directly to the main line. Spurs are constructed to within yarding distance of the remaining timber. Chutes are used only to tap inaccessible coves where the amount of timber will not warrant a spur. Although it is ordinarily good economy to construct spurs as above, the mileage obviously must not be increased to a pomt where the saving in yarding is more than offset by the added cost of spurs. For big-wheel yarding, spurs should be placed within one-quarter mile of all timber. For donkey yarding, with favorable conditions for railroad building, the maximum distance from the stump to the track should be from 1,400 to 1,500 feet. Where railroad construc- tion is more difficult, the outside distance should be 2,000 feet, with a usual maximum of 1,600 feet. Usually in locating spurs, the proper settings for the yarding engines are selected and the spur laid out to reach these settings. Switchbacks are frequently used m order to climb elevations where otherwise the grade would be too steep. As many as four switch- backs are sometimes used in laying out a single spur. Where the rise is considerable, a log hoist or an incline is often cheaper than switchbacks or detours. There are two gauges used generally for logging roads in this region; narrow gauge, 36 inches in width, and standard gauge, 564 inches in width. One exception is a road with a width of 1 meter. Narrow-gauge roads can be constructed for less than standard gauge, and the equipment is lighter and less expensive. The standard gauge is preferred by most operators because a larger tonnage can be handled at a lower cost for operation and maintenance. One of its greatest advantages is that standard equipment, such as trunk-line cars, can be hauled on it. This is of great importance where the logging road connects with common-carrier railroads, because supplies and horse feed can be delivered at the camps in the original cars and any product, such as cordwood or posts, can be loaded for shipment on standard cars. The narrow gauge is preferred in very rough country, because sharper curves are permissible, less width of roadbed is required, and the construction cost is less. Further, in small or short-time opera- tions the investment for a narrow-gauge railroad and equipment is all that is justified. If a narrow gauge is selected as the proper type all logging railroads on the operation should be of the same gauge. The maximum grades and curvature allowable on a logging rail- road vary with the character of the line and the type of locomotive. AS BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Grades and curvature may be heavier on spurs than on the main line where heavier loads must be handled. A geared engine can negotiate heavier grades and sharper curves than a rod engine. Narrow-gauge equipment can follow sharper curves than standard. Except where topographic conditions forbid, long main-line log- ging railroads are usually constructed to permit the use of rod engines. The maximum grades allowed are 3 or sometimes 4 per cent empty and 1 per cent loaded. The sharpest curves are usually 16° for standard gauge and 20° for narrow gauge.! In rougher regions even main lines can not be constructed for rod engines at a reasonable cost and geared engines must be used. The maximum grades ordi- narily employed are 5 per cent empty and 2 per cent loaded. A heavier grade than 5 per cent can be surmounted, but it is difficult to hold a heavy train on the down grade. The maximum curves used are from 25° to 30° for standard gauge and from 30° to 40° for narrow gauge. i Logging spurs are usually constructed for the use of geared engines with a few cars at a time. The usual maximum grade for empties is 7 or 8 per cent, or even 10 per cent on short pitches, and the maxi- mum for loads about 44 per cent. The usual maximum curve for narrow-gauge spurs 1s 50°, though in some instances curves as sharp as 60° are used. The maximum for standard gauge is about 40°. One company using saddle-tank dinkey rod locomotives with a wheel base of 8 feet constructs its narrow-gauge logging spurs with maximum grades of 5 per cent empty and 2 per cent loaded and a maximum curvature of 50°. The maximum grades given above are of course compensated on curves at the rate of from 0.02 to 0.03 per cent per degree. All of the larger companies employ competent woods engineers to lay out their railroads. The engineers cooperate with the woods superintendent in determining roughly the routes of main-line exten- sions and spurs. The engineering force then makes preliminary and permanent location surveys and exercises general supervision over the construction. Upon the larger operations the engineer has — a crew of a transitman and two helpers. The engineer is usually employed the year round and devotes his time in winter to mapping and cruising. Durimg the summer considerable time of the engineering force is devoted to running land lines and other activities apart from railroad construction. The cost of engineering upon logging railroads varies from $200 to $400 per mile for main lines, depending upon the difficulty, and from $125 to $250 per mile for spurs. In the construc- tion of commercial railroads it is usually customary to figure engineer- ing as 5 per cent of the other costs. 1 Straight connected saddle-tank locomotives with a short wheel base can be operated over sharper curves than these. LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 49 Construction.—The first step im railroad construction, following the final survey, is the clearing of the right of way by felling all trees and cutting out all brush and reproduction. The usual clearing crew is two men, who, under ordinary conditions, clear from 1 to 14 miles of narrow-gauge right of way per month. Saws and axes are used for felling and swamping, and after the trees are felled the butt logs are bucked off and rolled outside the right of way with jackscrews. In ordinary sugar and yellow pine stands the cost of clearing the right of way ranges from $40 to $45 per acre. The average width of clearing for a narrow-gauge road is from 20 feet for flat country to 30 feet in broken country. The former is about 24 acres per mile and the latter about 32. Under like conditions the clearing for a standard- gauge road may be 5 or 10 feet wider. The cost for a narrow-gauge right of way is ordinarily from $100 to $160 per mile, and for a standard-gauge from $125 to $200 per mile. Before grading is commenced all stumps which will interfere with excavation for the roadbed must be removed. This is usually done by blasting with 5 per cent blastmg powder. An iron bar is driven under each stump and a small piece of giant powder exploded at the bottom of the hole. The cavity thus formed is loaded with blasting powder, and the explosion of this charge blows out the stump. Average loads are one-fourth box (124 pounds) for a 12 to 16 inch stump, 1 box for a 30 to 36 inch stump, and from 2 to 24 boxes for a 60-inch stump. Yellow pine is the most difficult to blast out and sugar pine and incense cedar the easiest in about the ratio of 14 boxes for a 30-inch yellow pine to three-fourths box for a 30-inch incense cedar. Blasting powder comes in 50-pound boxes, which cost from $3.25 to $3.75 each delivered on the works. Counting in a man’s labor for from one to two hours, caps, a stick and a half of giant powder, and the necessary fuse, the cost of removing a 36-inch pine stump is from $4 to $5. The cost of blasting stumps per mile varies with the species, number, and size of the stumps. In normal sugar and yellow pine stands it averages from $200 to $250 per mile, respectively, for narrow and standard gauge. Some miles run as high as $400 each. When the stumps have been removed the right of way is ready for the grading of the roadbed. The width of the roadbed varies from 11 to 12 feet for narrow gauge and from 13 to 14 feet for standard gauge. Sidehill cuts are commonly made in such a manner that two- thirds of the width of the roadbed is a solid cut and the remainder a fill. In most cuts the sides are sloped at one-half to one, which is the equivalent of a horizontal distance of 6 inches to a vertical dis- tance of 1 foot. In very soft soil it may be necessary to use a slope 57172°—Bull, 440—17——4 50 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of one to one. The usual slope for an earth fill is one and one-half to one for most soils encountered in railroad building in this region. Most of the grading is done with pick and shovel. This is partic- ularly true of sidehill work where the bank may be picked away and shoveled to the lower side. Light work on fairly level ground is done’ in the same way, the dirt being borrowed from ditches or borrow pits. Frequently moderate sized cuts and fills, under favorable soil condi- tions, are handled in the same manner, the material from the cuts bene mostly wasted and that needed in fills borrowed. Pick and shovel work is usually done by day labor, as are all other parts of railroad construction. As arule the men work in crews with- out any particular task for each. Very good results are secured, how- ever, by assigning each man to a 25-foot station. This promotes rivalry, as the men do not like to be left behind when their neighbors have finished and gone ahead. The cost of digging and spreading dirt is commonly from 15 to 25 cents per yard for common loam, and from 30 to 35 cents for heavy soils. In larger cuts the dirt is moved to adjacent fills with wheelbarrows. BHven better success is secured by using light two-wheeled hand dump carts holding from one-third to one-half yard. Three men handle. each cart, first filling it and then wheeling it out to the fill. Planks are laid in the bottom of the cut to facilitate wheeling. The cost of such work, where rocks are not encountered, ranges from 30 to 50 cents per yard. In very large cuts it is sometimes the practice to lay a temporary track and remove the dirt by shoveling it by hand onto a train of flat cars, which is hauled out on the line by an engine, the dirt being used for ballast. A typical pick and shovel crew consisting of a foreman, a black- smith, a man with a team and wagon, and 44 muckers, costs $2,500 per month. Working under rather favorable conditions, with soil that is easily worked and a moderate amount of soft rock, this crew grades about 85 stations per month, the average amount of material moved per station being about 60 yards. This is done at a cost of $1,560 per mile, or 49 cents per yard. Many firms supplement the pick and shovel crew by a second crew, using teams and scrapers for grading the larger cuts and fills. A typical crew of this sort contams a foreman, 3 teamsters, 3 men holding slips, 5 muckers, and 3 two-mule teams. The cost is about $3.20 per hour, and earthwork can be done for from 20 to 25 cents per yard for distances not over 100 feet. So-called slips are used to scrape up and transport the dirt after it has been loosened by the muckers with picks. Wheeled scrapers are rarely used. In some instances ordinary one-horse dump carts are employed with success for moying dirt some distance. Steam shovels are infrequently used in cuts on extensive main line roads, usually lumber roads rather than LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 51 logging roads. Steam shovels may also be put to good use in loading gravel for ballast. A 14-yard dipper steam shovel suitable for heavy work costs $8,060 at San Francisco. A smaller revolving shovel with a seven-eighth-yard dipper costs $5,640. Solid rock and loose rock that can not be loosened with a pick must be broken up by blasting before excavation. Hand drills are used in making the required shot holes. These holes are loaded with sticks of high-grade giant powder, costing 11 or 12 cents per pound, and the charges exploded by caps and fuse. Soft rock and decomposed granite are often blasted more effectively by loading burrows with large quantities of low-grade powder, such as is nse for removing stumps. Average costs may be calculated by classifying the material to be moved. Light earthwork on spurs and in smooth regions can usually be done at an average cost of from 15 to 25 cents per cubic yard in place. Heavier dirt work will average from 30 to 40 cents per yard. Ordinary earthwork with a moderate amount of soft rock averages from 40 to 50 cents per yard. The cost of grading with a normal amount of rock ordinarily averages from 50 to 60 cents per yard. Most of the logging roads on the west slope of the Sierras are graded at this average cost. Soft rock requires an expenditure of about 75 cents per yard and removing solid rock costs $1 or more per yard. The easiest grading occurs in the flat sugar and yellow pine stands of the northeastern part of the State, alt ae the average cost for standard-gauge spurs is often about $800 per mile. Some miles are graded for as low as $200 or $300. The next cheapest work is in the yellow pine of the eastern Sierras, where, in moderately rolling regions, the average cost is from $900 to $1,000 per mile. For the easier grading in moderately rough regions on the west side of the Sierras, where about from 50 to 70 yards are removed per station, the cost is from $1,500 to $2,000 per mile. The average cost in this part of the region for fairly rough localities is from $3,000 to $4,000 per mile. The steeper and rougher regions necessitate an average grading cost of from $5,000 to $5,500, and on some lines the cost may be as high as $7,000 per mile. An unusually large amount of rock- work runs the cost of some miles up to $12,000. For most of the sugar pine stands the average cost of grading main lines and spurs is betweeen $3,500 and $5,000 per mile. The cost of grading a narrow- gauge roadbed is from 10 to 20 per cent less than a standard gauge. For temporary lines it is frequently cheaper to construct cribbings or trestles than fills. Cribbings are used in shallow depressions, and consist of large logs laid at right angles to the track 12 feet apart from center to center, Two other logs are laid lengthwise on these for stringers. The cost for an average height of from 44 to 5 feet is 52 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from 50 to 60 cents per linear foot, exclusive of stumpage. From 400,000 to 450,000 feet board measure of logs are required per mile. Two types of frame trestles are in use on logging railroads, namely, rough timber and sawed timber trestles. tough timber is usually used on spurs or lines which will be in use for a short time only, be- cause it decays more quickly than sawed timber. Its durability is increased, however, by peeling the poles. Where suitable pole timbor is available, a rough timber trestle can be constructed more cheaply than one with a sawed frame.. Rough timber trestles are commonly built with bents 15 feet apart from center to.center. Each bent con- tains a log for a sill and four smaller logs for posts. Rough timbers are used for caps and. stringers, but the bracing is done with sawed 3 by 8 inch planks. The usual method of building such a trestle is to place a Dolbeer donkey at the site and skid the sills, posts, and caps in from the near-by timber. The bents are then built on the ground and raised to a vertical position by the donkey engine. In one in- _ stance a crew of 18 men working in this manner constructed a stand- ard-gauge rough timber trestle 255 feet long, with a maximum height of 38 feet in eight working days, at a labor and supply cost of $416. The log scale of the material involved was as follows: Caps, 2,700 feet; stringers, 6,900 feet; posts, 9,420 feet; sills, 10,400 feet; total, 29,420 feet. In addition, 4,800 feet of braces were required. Allow- ing $1 per 1,000 stumpage on the rough timber and $12 per 1,000 as the cost of braces, the total cost is $503. Thus, for this example, the cost per 1,000 is $14.80, and the cost per linear foot is $1.97. Sawed timber trestles are likewise constructed with bents 15 or 16 feet apart. Each bent rests upon a sill which may be either a sawed 10 by 12 inch timber or a cedar log. Four 10 by 10 inch posts are used in each bent, the two outside having a batter of 2 or 3 inches per foot. Each bent has a 10 by 12 inch cap 12 feet in length. Three 6 by 16 inch stringers are placed under each rail to suppce.t the ties. The bents are brace. with 2 by 8 inch or 3 by 8 inch sway and collar braces and froi. 3 by 8 inch to 4 by 8 inch stringer braces. These dimensions are for standard-gauge logging trestles The caps and sills are shorter in narrow-gauge trestles and some oi the braces may be lighter; therefo: -, from 5 to 10 per cent less timber is required. Otherwise the cost is very little less for a narrow-gauge trestle, because the work of erection is about the same. The cost of frame trestles is usually figured at so much per 1,000 feet board measure of the lumber used. This cost is made to include lumber, bolts, and other supplies, and the labor of building the foun- dations and framing the trestle, the lumber being usually charged in at $12 per 1,000. The costs of several representative standard-gaug: frame trestles recently constructed on logging roads :re given B Table 7, Bul. 440, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. F—15944-A Fie. 1.—MAIN LINE Loa@iNna RAILROAD AND DUG LANDING ON TYPICAL LOGGING OPERATION IN THE SUGAR AND YELLOW PINE REGION. F-168657—A Fia. 2.—FRAME TRESTLE ON LOGGING RAILROAD IN THE SUGAR PINE REGION. 9 j 0 | Bul. 440, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI. F-30927 hi Fic. 1.—LOADED LOGGING CARS READY FOR TRANSPORTATION TO THE MILL POND. F—15952-A {4 i} Fic. 2.—SPECIAL UNLOADING RIG AT THE MILL POND. Train of loaded flat cars set in ready for unloading. LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 53 TABLE 7.—Cost of standard-gauge frame trestles. M Meet |Get ols cast. (ka wer aximum 5 0 ‘OS per Length. | “height. | P0274 | cost. | per 1,000 linear Feet. Feet 620 52] 105,000 $2, 800 $26. 66 $4. 52 652 60, 000 1,565 26. 08 2.40 762 8 68, 000 1,704 25.06 £23 202 32 28, 000 743 26 3. 68 140 34 19, 000 487 if 3.34 238 31 31, 000 724 23.35 3.04 272 41 45, 000 1,030 22. 89 3.77 144 54 30, 060 23.76 4.95 It thus appears that the cost of constructing sawed-timber trestles in this region varies from $23 to $27 per 1,000 feet board measure, depending upon the difficulties of construction, particularly the amount of work necessary in excavating foundations. A good ay- erage figure for trestle construction is $25 per 1,000. The cost per linear foot may be roughly calculated as from $2.25 to $2.75 for trestles with a maximum height of from 10 to 25 feet, from $2.75 to $3.50 for a maximum height of from 25 to 35 feet, from $3.50 to $4.50 for a maximum height of from 25 to 50 feet, and from $4.50 to $5 for a maximum height of from 50 to 55 feet. Most of the ties used on logging railroads are sawed at the mill and hauled back to the woods. The material is usually white fir or defective cedar. Split cedar and hewed white fir are used in some instances. ‘The usual size on standard-gauge roads is 7 by 8 inches by 8 feet. Some roads use with equal success ties 6 by 8 inches by 8 feet. The first size contains 374 feet board measure, and the second 32 feet. The usual narrow-gauge tie is 6 by 8 inches by 6 feet. Sometimes, in order to cut three tics from a 16-foot timber, the length is made 5} feet. The contents of a sawed narrow-gauge tie is 24 feet board measure. The number of ties per mile varies with the size of the rail, the weight of the locomotive, and the efficiency of the roadbed. Upon permanent main-line logging roads the usual number is 16 per rail, or 2,816 per mile. Most main-line roads and spurs have 17 per rail, or 2,992 per mile. Some spurs have 18 per rail, or 3,168 per mile. The volume in feet board measure of 2,992 sawed ties per mile is 111,600 for the larger standard-gauge ties, 95,700 for the smaller standard- gauge size, and 71,800 for narrow-gauge ties. At $12 per 1,000 the cost per mile is, respectively, $1,339.20 for the first, $1,148.40 for the second, and $861.60 for the third. Where suitable young timber is available, hewed standard-gauge ties can sometimes be delivered at the track for from 20 to 25 cents each. At 20 cents each, the cost is approximately $600 per mile. 54 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The size of rails also varies with the size of the locomotives and the maximum loads. As arule, the use of heavy rails pays. They depre- ciate less in use and in lifting and relaying. They can be used with fewer ties and on a poorer roadbed than the lighter rails. The weight of the steel rails now used varies from 30 to 60 pounds per yard. The use of 30-pound rails is rare and is limited to narrow-gauge roads with light locomotives. A few companies use 35-pound rails on standard-gauge roads with 32-ton locomotives, but such light rails are no longer popular. For narrow-gauge roads, 45-pound steel is thought to give the best satisfaction. For standard-guage roads, 50 or 56 pound steel is the choice of the most up-to-date companies. A logging superintendent who lifts his spurs several times in a season thinks that 56-pound steel is the cheapest in the end. Rails weighing 60 pounds per yard are used on main-line logging roads for heavy locomotives. Rails are ordinarily sold by the gross ton of 2,240 pounds. The number of gross tons per mile for any size rail may be obtained by multiplying the weight per yard by 11 and dividing by 7. The weight in tons per mile of several representative sizes of rails is as follows: Weight per yard. Weight per mile. Pounds. Tons. | Pounds. 35 5 30 Sy | Pesesas ace 40 62 1,920 45 70 1, 600 50 78 1, 280 56 ish besackasae 60 94 640 65 102 320 70 IG)” | keeasocand The prices of steel rails fluctuate from month to month and season to season. The following 1914 prices on new rails f. o. b. San Fran- cisco, carload lots, are, however, sufficiently exact for estimates: 25 to 45 pounds per yard, $1.55 per hundredweight, or $34.75 per gross ton. 50 to 90 pounds per yard, $1.835 per hundredweight, or $41 per gross ton. The freight rates on rails and rail fastenings from San Francisco vary from 30 cents per hundredweight for the nearest points in the Sierras to 80 cents per hundredweight for points in northern Cali- fornia. First-class inspected relaying rails are quoted f. o. b. Pacific coast terminals at the following prices: 25 to 45 pounds, $30 to $32 per ton. 56 to 60 pounds, $33 to $35 per ton. The common rail length is 30 feet, which gives 352 joints per mile. The usual method of splicing joints is by means of angle bars rather than fishplates. The cost of standard angle bars f. o. b. San Fran- LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 55 cisco is approximately $2.05 per hundredweight. The weights of angle bars for three typical weights of rail are as follows: Weight Per of rail. joint. Per mile. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. 35 12.65 4,450 45 18. 75 6, 600 60 32. 40 11, 400 Four bolts and nuts are required at each rail joint. They come in kegs of 200 pounds each, at a price f. 0. b. San Francisco of about $2.65 per hundredweight. With hexagonal nuts the quantity required per mile is as follows: i Number en of Size of bolt. | of nuts ieee Der E ina keg. 2 Pounds. Inches. ; 35 23 by 3 410 3.4 40-45 3 by 2 395 3.6 50andup |3to3sby 2 | 245-270 | 5.2-5.7 The cost of standard-size railroad spikes, 54 by 3% inches, f. o. b. San Francisco, is approximately $2 per hundred weight,or $4 per keg of 200 pounds. The bulk of the spikes used are of this size, though smaller sizes are used for light rails on narrow-gauge lines. The average number of kegs required per mile is about as follows: Weight | Size of | Samper | Kegs per ofrails. | spikes. per keg. mile. Pounds. | Inches. 45-90 5} by ¥s 375 28-30 40-56 | 5 by xs 400 27 30-45 | 42by4 530 20 Both stub and split switches are used in this region. The better lines are now using the latter type. Two-way split switches with ground throw cost about $40 each, and the installation costs about $12. A stand costs $15 additional. A three-throw switch costs about $60. The track laying is usually done by hand. The custom is to deliver the ties and rails at the point of construction on flat cars. with a locomotive. The track-laying crew then carries the ties ahead, places them in position, and lays the rails by hand. As the work progresses, fresh supplies of ties and rails are moved ahead on a push car. The same crew which lays the track commonly does the sur- facing, and the costs are commonly reckoned together. 56 BULLETIN 440, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. For a standard-gauge railroad the cost is about $200 per mile for laying the track and from $350 to $500 per mile for surfacing, depend- ing upon the difficulty and thoroughness of the work. A good average figure for laying and surfacing is $600 per mile. Because the materials are lighter and the roadbed is narrower, the cost of laying and surfacing a narrow-gauge railroad is ordinarily less. The usual cost for a narrow-gauge ranges from $450 to $550 per mile. Under favorable conditions on one narrow-gauge road a crew of 15 men and a foreman, at a daily cost of $37, lay and surface an average of 400 feet of track per day. These costs are for main lines and im- portant spurs. For spurs used only a short time the cost of sur- facing may not be over from $150 to $200 per mile, though the cost of laying track remains the same. As the various spurs are logged out the track is lifted and trans- ported to new spurs. Rails may be lifted once every season for from 15 to 20 years. Ties may usually be lifted about three times. The cost of lifting by hand when both rails and ties are taken up is about the same as laying track, or a little more, say from $200 to $300 per mile. Logging railroads are commonly operated by telephone. The cost of a tree line is from $30 to $40 per mile. Ordinarily, logging roads need be at no expense for fencing. Equipment.—The equipment, or motive power and rolling stock, consists of steam locomotives and cars or trucks. Locomotives are of two general types; rod, or straight connected, and geared. The choice between the two ‘einis| 1S determined by the grades and curva- ture of the road. Rod locomotives are used for the longer hauls on soainine roads. They make better time and cost less for maintenance. The cost of operation per 1,000 feet board measure is thus less than for geared engines, especially for hauls over 15 miles in length. The weight of a rod locomotive for main-line work varies with the maximum grades and the maximum load. The usual sizes are from 40 to 75 tons. The larger engines are used for long lumber or log hauls. The approxi- mate cost prices on the Pacific coast and the tractive power of rod loco- motives follows: Load at slow speed. Weight Total on Cost. weight. P lper | 3per | 4 per drivers. | Tevel.|- cent | cent | cent grade. | grade. | grade. Tons Tons Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | To 4 31 | 1,240 415 140 90 | $9,500 55 40 1, 630 545 185 125 11, 200 67 49 | 1,970 665 225 150 13, 900 yen SHY eae reels a Bee ae Ne Saga 14, 500 LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 5Y Because of the general roughness of the topography, most of the logging in sugar and yellow pine is done by geared engines. The weight of geared locomotives likewise depends upon the maximum grades and the loads to be hauled. Operators are gradually adopting heavier engines. The smallest locomotive used is a 24-ton engine, which is capable of handling 20,000 feet board measure on slight ad- verse grades and the empty trucks up a 6 per cent grade on a narrow- gauge road. Locomotives weighing from 32 to 42 tons are commonly used on narrow-gauge lines for switching and main-line hauls of mod- erate length. Such locomotives handle trains of 40,000 feet board measure. Locomotives up to 56 and 60 tons are used for long and heavy hauls on narrow-gauge lines. With adverse grades of 2 per cent such locomotives haul trains of 55,000 feet board measure. Larger locomotives weighing 65 and 70 tons are used for main-line hauls on standard-gauge roads. These locomotives pull nine empty 41-foot flats up a continuous 5 per cent grade and haul a load of 60,000 up an adverse grade of 2 per cent. Geared locomotives weigh- ing 90 tons are used for switching by one concern, but they appear to be too heavy for the usual logging railroad track. Three standard makes of geared engines have been used thus far in California pine loggmg. The 1914 catalogue prices are as follows: Tasie 8.—Prices of standard makes of geared locomotives. Factory Freight « price with . Air Weight. Sige uo Salt VEER, Total, brake. is Tons 1 $3, 600 $510 | $400 | $4,510 20 4,1 590 400 5, 090 24 4, 560 660 450 5, 670 28 5, 320 720 450 6, 490 32 5, 760 780 500 7, 040 36 6, 480 930 500 7,910 42 6, 930 830 500 8, 260 50 , 000 950 500 9, 450 60 9, 000 1,110 500 | 10,610 70 | 10,150 1,190 550 | 11,890 80 | 13,000 1, 430 550 | 14,980 90 4, 1,540 550 16, 090 Load on dry rails. otal a Air Oil Cost Weight. 1 per 4 per 7 per brakes. | burners. eet Level. cent cent cent cisco. grade. grade. grade. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 82 1, 568 425 113 54 $350 $400 $7, 290 42 2, 058 558 149 - 72 400 500 8,790 60 2,940 798 213 102 400 500 | 11,115 Oil-burning equipment can be installed for from $400 to $500 per boiler. All locomotives under 42 tons in weight are loaded on flat cars; larger locomotives are shipped on their own trucks. For from 32 58 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to 80 ton locomotives the shipping weight is from 5 to 8 tons less than the working weight. Three types of log cars are used: Separate trucks, skeleton cars or connected trucks, and flats. Separate trucks are used on several narrow-gauge roads. ‘They are necessary wherever long logs must be transported on crooked roads. The cost of upkeep is so large and the danger of accident so great that for pine it is usually better to buck all logs into short lengths and use skeleton or flat cars. Because of their freedom from accidents, flat cars are believed to be the best. Most firms are now using them. They may be used on any grades and on curves up to 60° on narrow-gauge tracks. Air brakes are now used on all roads except a few of the shorter narrow- gauge lines. Pin couplers are still used on most narrow-gauge roads, even for flat cars. Automatic couplers are used on most of the standard-gauge roads. Practically universal use of air brakes and automatic couplers is only a question of time. The separate trucks used on narrow-gauge roads with hand brakes have about 30,000 pounds capacity and are 21 feet over all (two trucks); the average load is from 2,000 to 2,500 feet. The flats used on narrow-gauge roads are 24 feet in length by 74 or 8 feet wide, and have a rated capacity of 40,000 pounds. The average loads range from 3,000 to 4,500 feet. Two types of flats are used on standard- gauge roads. The smaller is a 26-foot car with 60,000 pounds capacity; the average load is from 4,500 to 5,000. wiser eh eee ek nS Pa eae 1, 540 BEAN UeeNi a bli gal ish usp yp Ne ere M ay ce eet en eae eles ene, mar IER HRS ts 2, 100 Troadame spurs 0): Si 455 Se es aes sath SOMES Be Nh ae 4, 500 RO CELL S28 ea SPIE op Oh ea. Gs RM oe rae ale SHEE 17, 180 The cost of a yard of the platform type at a double-band mill with an annual output of from 18 to 20 million feet of lumber is usually from $16,000 to $20,000. The cost of a yard at a mill producing from 35 to 40 million feet annually would be about twice as much. The second kind of yard is one having the tracks located on the eround. The piles are on both sides of parallel tracks in much the same manner as with platforms. The cost, computed on the same basis as above, is about $15,000. Another yard of this same type has dirt roads between the piles, upon which the lumber is dis- LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 83 tributed by horse trucks. The cost is decreased by the elimination of yard tracks. Water systems must be installed for the protection of all yards, at a cost in addition to the above. Yard equipment, such as cars or trucks, represents a considerable additional investment. Sheds are added to most yards for storing air and kiln dried lumber. From the sorting table lumber is distributed to the piles by means of two-wheeled lumber trucks (buggies) or low four-wheeled cars. Steel tracks are required for the cars, but the trucks can be used on plank platforms. If the yard slopes slightly away from the mill both ears and trucks may be handled by hand labor. Where the haul is long or difficult horses may be used. Apparently one of the most economical methods at large mills is to use a small gasoline or electric locomotive. The cost of distributing lumber ready for piling averages from 20 to 25 cents per 1,000. The cost at small mills is frequently lower than at large mills, because the distance is less. At one mill cutting 20,000 daily two men are required to push the loaded lumber cars to the yard and unload them. The daily cost is $5, which is at the rate of 25 cents per 1,000. However, one of these men devotes part of his time to wheeling out slabs, so the actual cost is less. At a representative single-band mill sawing 60,000 feet in a shift of 10 hours the lumber is distributed in the yard on cars by four men, at a cost of $11 per day, or 18 cents per 1,000. A smaller single-band mill with a daily output of 50,000 maintains a crew of four men to wheel the lumber out on trucks. The wages are $10 daily, or 20 cents per 1,000. A double-band mill located at the upper end of a flume, and having a daily output of 250,000, has a crew of 20 men distributing lumber on trucks. At a daily wage of $2.50 each the cost is $50 per day, or 20 cents per 1,000. After the lumber is distributed the next step is piling it. The boards are laid in layers, stickers 1 or 2 inches thick being placed between the layers in order to provide circulation for air in drying. Spaces are left between the various boards in each layer for the same purpose. The piles are made with the rear end lower, and when completed are roofed to shed rain. Each pile preferably contains a single grade and boards of one length only. Piling is ordinarily done by hand, two men working together. For high piling derrick hoists operated either by a horse or by an electric motor are used to raise the boards. A third man is required in such instances. An electric puller requiring only two men is used by one company. Piling lumber is tedious work and is a job at which best results seem to be secured by contract. In fact, so much of the piling is done by this system that contract rates may be taken as standard 84 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. costs. These rates for piling up to 15 feet above the track or plat- form range from 35 to 40 cents per 1,000 feet board measure. At some mills the rate is 35 cents per 1,000 for ordinary piling, and 50 cents per 1,000 for piling clears, with which extra care is taken. The contract rate for piling over 15 feet above the tram is 40 cents per 1,000, upon condition that the company furnish a man and horse for — the hoist. On contract work two men usually pile a little more than 20,000 feet daily, thus making very good wages. When working by the day two good men pile from 15,000 to 18,000 daily. At one single-band mill eight men pile the daily output of 60,000 at a labor cost of $20 daily, or 33 cents per 1,000. Upon the basis of the above costs the average cost of taking lumber from the mill and placing it in the piles is from 60 to 70 cents per 1,000. When lumber is loaded from the piles directly to cars for shipment the cost is from 30 to 35 cents per 1,000, including grading. However, it is not possible to load much lumber in this manner because several different grades, which come from different piles, must be placed in one car. At one mill where the lumber is dried in the mill yard but shipped to the main line on a narrow-gauge railroad the cost of load- ing is about 34 cents per 1,000, including grading, and the cost of transferring to standard-gauge cars at the lower terminal is 33 cents per 1,000. Usually the lumber is taken from the pile and loaded on small yard cars. These yard cars are pushed a short distance to the loading dock where the standard-gauge cars are spotted for loading. The cost is from 20 to 25 cents for the first handling and the same for loading, plus about 10 cents per 1,000 for grading and running cars., Since some lumber is loaded by both methods in most yards, it seems proper to figure the cost of shipment of rough lumber at 50 cents per 1,000. It is customary to figure that lumber can be handled once (from piles to finishing plants, for instance) for 25 cents per 1,000. In addition to shipment and delivery of lumber to finishing plants there is a certain amount of extra handling of lumber in the yards of all large mills. This consists in the resorting and transportation of material which has depreciated in grade, and similar work. The extent and cost of such work varies greatly. A certain amount of supervision is necessary in any yard. Ata single-band mill there is usually only a yard foreman. At a double- band mill the yard office ordinarily contains a yard foreman and a clerk, who are employed practically the year round. The cost of yard supervision is therefore about 8 or 10 cents per 1,000. There is a small additional yard cost for the maintenance of tracks and tram- ways. This probably does not exceed 5 cents per 1,000. On the east slope of the Sierras the climate is so well suited to drying lumber that dry kilns are not necessary. On the west slope, however, it is the practice to run part or all of the upper grades of LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 85 yellow pine through a dry kiln on account of the danger from blue stain in air drying. A kiln 20 by 100 feet has an average daily capacity of 12,000 feet. Thus at a single-band mill the usual kiln is about 20 by 75 feet or 20 by 100 feet. Under very unfavorable drying conditions such a mill may have a pair of kilns each 20 feet wide and 70 feet long. At a double-band mill, operating two shifts, the dry-kiln plant consists of two kilns each 20 by 100 feet, if drying conditions are favorable. Under less favorable conditions the plant is often double that size. Dry kilns may be made of masonry, concrete, wood frame, or wood crib. Masonry and concrete are said to give the best satisfaction. Wood crib is rated as being superior to wood frame construction. The cost of the equipment and fittings for a kiln 20 feet wide and 100 feet long, side measurement, is about $1,600 f. 0. b. factory. With a wood crib frame the cost of a kiln of this size in place is from $3,500 to $4,000. A kiln 20 by 70 feet with wood frame costs about $2,500 in place. A kiln of the same size costs about $10,000 if the material is concrete; and $7,000 if the material is tile. The average cost of kiln drying lumber in this region is usually from 75 to 80 cents per 1,000. The cost of handling is approximately 65 cents per 1,000. A portion of the upper grades is usually stored in sheds if it is not shipped immediately after air or kiln drying. The construction of sufficient shed room to accommodate all upper grades would undoubt- edly be an economy, because such sheds, though they involve an extra handling, do much to prevent deterioration in the quality of the lumber and insure a higher return. Care with wide and thick sugar pine lumber pays especially well. Al yards in this region suffer from lumber depreciation by waste or change in grades through staining, checking, etc. The amount of this depreciation varies with yard conditions and the care in handling. It is generally greater in thick lumber than in thin lumber. Yards with unfavorable climatic and meteorological conditions suffer more heavily than those with good drying conditions. Deterioration takes place in kiln drying and surfacing, as well as in air drying. Thus shipping tallies at yards differ in amount and quality from mill tallies of lumber. Little is now known of the amount of deterioration; but studies are being undertaken to determine the amount and extent of depreciation in each grade, under different seasoning conditions and methods. Sometimes surfaced lumber is shipped from the larger mills in order to save on freight charges. Thus, in stumpage appraisals it is necessary to add to the sawmill investment enough to cover the cost of a planing mill for this purpose, and in computing the cost of lumber an allowance must be made for this planing. In most instances the planing mill is closely connected with the box factory and it is difficult to separate the equipment. For a medium-sized 86 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mill a double surfacer and a small band resaw are required. Power is usually furnished by a separate plant from that of the sawmill, though it may be combined with the power plant of the box factory. Planing mills cost from $4,000 to $5,000 for a sawmill of 40,000 feet capacity, from $8,000 to $10,000 for a single-band mull, and $15,000 for a double-band mill. The cost of planing is approximately $1 per 1,000. It is estimated that 30 per cent is the normal proportion of the output that is surfaced in this manner. Upon this basis the pro- rated cost upon the entire cut would be from 30 to 35 cents per 1,000. Taking all the above items into consideration, the cost of yard handling at most band mills ranges from $1.65 to $2 per 1,000. A cost of $1.85 per 1,000 may be considered as normal. At smaller mills the yard work involves less detail and costs less. Most large lumber concerns also operate box and door factories and finishing plants. "These are commonly operated in connection with the shipping yards. The principal products are door cuttings, box shooks, moldings, etc., which may be considered as products obtained from the remanufacture of lumber. TRANSPORTATION TO COMMON CARRIERS. All sawmills located on common carrier trunk-line railroads load their lumber product for shipment directly into trunk-line cars in the shipping yard. A large proportion of the mills in the sugar and yellow pine region, not so advantageously located, must provide some means of delivering lumber to the trunk-line shipping points. WAGON HAULS. The simplest method of transporting lumber is to haul it on wagons with horses. It is the only means at practically all of the small circular mills. At the smallest of these the cut is sold at the mill and each rancher hauls home his purchase. Where the lumber is shipped on the nearest railroad or sold to retail yards in the nearest large town, the sawmill operator maintains a number of teams and wagons for hauling lumber. The usual lumber outfit consists of a jerk-line team of eight horses hauling two wagons and driven by one teamster. For a 10-mile haul with a moderate amount of adverse grade the average load of lumber is 800 feet per horse. The average load for a team is there- fore in the neighborhood of 6,000 feet. Upon an 8 to 10 mile haul such a team makes one round trip daily. Practieally all such hauling is done on contract by the owners of the teams and wagons used. The standard contract rate for a haul of 9 or 10 miles with a small amount of adverse grade is $3 per 1,000. The contract rate for a difficult haul of 40 miles in length is $10 per 1,000. The rate for a 40-mile LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 87 haul all downgrade is about $8 per 1,000. The rate for a haul of 34 miles is $1.50 per 1,000. These charges are for air-dried lumber. Loading and unloading is not included in these rates. The saw- mill operator consequently maintains a crew in his mill yard to load the wagons, and another crew at the railroad to unload them. Many small concerns load the cars directly from the wagons. Others maintain a small yard alongside the loading spur. TRACTION HAULS. Lumber from a few of the larger circular mills is delivered to the railroad by means of traction engines similar to those employed in hauling logs. The trucks are much lighter, however, being merely heavy wagons in some instances. Several trucks are hauled at one time. The direct cost is considerably less than for hauling with horses, but the investment involved is much greater and there is much more risk of delay through breakdowns and inclement weather. On the whole the method serves very well for mills with a moderate output where road conditions are satisfactory. With a large output and consequent heavy traffic it is practically impossible to keep the road in satisfactory condition. LUMBER RAILROADS. The most satisfactory method of delivering lumber from the mill to the trunk railroad is by means of a lumber-carrying railroad. All new mills employ this means of transportation wherever the amount of timber is sufficient to justify the investment. Whenever one of the trunk roads can not be induced to build a branch line it is neces- sary for the lumber operator to construct the road. Operators prefer to build and operate such lines as private roads in order to avoid certain State regulations as to common carriers. However, in order to secure rights of way it is frequently necessary to make them common carriers. In practically all cases standard gauge is preferred because foreign cars can then be loaded at the mill. In fact, the only circumstance under which a narrow gauge can be considered is when the lumber-drying yard can not be located at the sawmill. Even then the necessity of transferring all supplies and equipment to narrow-gauge cars before delivery at the mill makes the desirability of a narrow gauge doubtful. The layout and cost of construction of lumber roads are about the same as for logging railroads. Lumber railroads are generally of longer life than logging roads, and the construction can therefore be more permanent. The use of rod engines with heavy trains is usually provided for in laying out the road. In consequence, the maximum grades are 3 or 4 per cent for empty trains and 1 or 2 per cent for loaded trains. Curves are ordinarily not over from 16 to 20 degrees. 88 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The construction materials used are the same as for logging roads, except that the steel is usually 56 or 60 pounds. The locomotives engaged on lumber hauls vary from 35 to 90 tons in weight. The smaller engines are employed on short, easy hauls. An engine of from 70 to 75 tons in weight is commonly the most satisfactory for the longer lumber hauls. Where the cars are owned by the lumber operator light flat cars are employed. Foreign cars are always used whenever possible. One 75-ton locomotive and crew will handle the output of a double- band mill for distances up to 30 miles on roads with moderate grades. Two trips are made daily on a 15-mile run and one trip daily on a 30-mile run. A crew consists of a conductor, engineer, fireman, and one or two brakemen. Definite cost figures on the operation of private lumber railroads are not at hand, but it is estimated that dry lumber can be transported for from 50 to 75 cents per 1,000 for hauls of from 10 to 15 miles. Whenever it is necessary for the railroad to be a common earrier, a separate company owned by the lumber company stockholders is usually formed to operate it. The rates of common carrier railroads are subject to revision and approval by the State Railroad Commis- sion. They are theoretically equal to the proportionate cost of opera- tion plus a reasonable profit on the investment. The local rates upon a number of primarily lumber-carrying railroads follow: . Rate Name of road. Points. Mie per 2,000 8e- | “pounds. McCloud River Railroad........-...--.-- Mc ClonditolSissoneees-eeee ene eee eee eee 17 $2. 25 Sugar Pine Railroad ese ae een eee Lyons Dam to Sonora.......-..---------- 23 1.35 Boca & Loyalton Railroad.-....-.-....--- MoyaltonsboyBocarsaes- peat eee eee oe 26 1.50 Sierra Railwayn eee --cecccsceees cee oe nese TuolumneitolOakdaleseseseeen- ee eee eee 57 1.60 Butte County Railroad...............-.-. Sterling City to Barber..---...-....--.--- 30 1,65 San Joaquin & Eastern Railroad......--- White Pine to El Prado...............-.- 45 2.25 These local rates are used in combination with trunk-line rates for most California shipments. Points on some of these lines take coast group rates in transcontinental shipments. Air-dried pine lumber has a shipping weight of from 2,500 to 2,700 pounds per 1,000 feet board measure. LUMBER INCLINES. Where the sawmill is located within a short distance of a trunk- line railroad but at a considerably higher elevation, an incline is frequently the best and most economical method of delivering the lumber at the loading spur. There are several such inclines in operation, as well as one or two where the lumber is hauled up instead of lowered. An incline located in the central Sierras, and in general typical of them all, is described below. LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 89 The upper end of the incline is near the mill and the lower ter- minus is on a trunk-line railroad. Its length is 4,200 feet and the difference in elevation is 1,500 feet, making an average grade of 38.5 per cent. The maximum grade is 72 per cent on a stretch of 125 feet. The alignment of the track involves three tangents, vary- ing about 5 degrees in direction, jomed by two 10-degree curves. The grade at the curves is flattened out to about 10 per cent. The track is narrow gauge with 45-pound rails and 6 by 8 inch by 6 feet redwood ties, dirt ballasted in the usual manner, no other provision being necessary to prevent the track creeping downhill. The initial cost of the construction of the track was between $6,000 and $7,000. The expense of delivering the ties and rail on the ground was very high. The cars are lowered by a l-inch cable, supported by 33 ground rollers and three upright rollers. The cable is controlled by a large wooden drum 11 feet in diameter and 14 feet in width, located in a building at the top of the incline. This drum is equipped with a brake wheel 16 feet in diameter and the load is let down by a hand brake. A 14 by 20 inch twin cylinder hoisting engine from 150 to 200 horsepower operates the drum in hauling up the empty car. This equipment has sufficient power to haul up an ordinary sawmill boiler. A 60 inch by 16 foot boiler is required to supply the engine with steam. The cost of the power plant was about $5,000. The lumber is lowered on 21-foot narrow-gauge flat cars, one car at a trip. ‘The average load per car is about 3,000 feet, and a round trip is made in one-half hour, including switching. The usual average daily output is 40,000 and the normal capacity is 60,000 feet board measure. The crew consists of an engineer, fireman, and brakeman. The cost of operation is calculated at from 35 to 40 cents per 1,000. LUMBER FLUMES. Another way of transporting lumber from inaccessible sawmill sites to trunk railroads is by means of flumes. These can be built at a lower cost per mile than railroads and heavier grades may be descended, thus reducing the mileage. The initial cost is at least from 60 to 75 per cent less than for a railroad. Another advantage is that the water used in the flume can in most instances be disposed of for irrigation purposes at the lower end. The direct cost of fluming lumber is low, but the cost of main- taining the flume is very heavy. The principal disadvantage is that all equipment and supplies used in the logging and sawmill operation must be freighted in with teams for distances of from 40 to 50 miles. The expense of such freighting ranges from $15 to $20 per ton. Other disadvantages are the wear of the lumber in the flume and the difficulty of shipping wide boards. For these and 90 BULLETIN 440, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. other reasons it is improbable that any more lumber-carrying flumes will be constructed in California, except in instances where a railroad or incline is clearly impracticable. There are several flumes now in successful operation in California, though the number in use is gradually decreasing. The longest ones are located in the southern Sierras, where longer and more expensive railroads are required. to reach merchantable timber than in the northern part of the State. The lengths of the three flumes in the southern Sierras are respectively 42, 56, and 60 miles. On the other hand, one flume located in northern California is only 44 miles in length. These flumes consist of a V-shaped box with sides 32 inches wide in the mountains and 48 inches wide where the grade is low and the water sluggish. The angle formed by the sides of the flume is a right angle, and the width across the top is 46 inches where the sides are 32 inches wide. The flume box is supported at distances of either 8 or 16 feet by bents composed of 4 by 6 inch or 6 by 6 inch fir timbers. In the original construction bents were placed at 16-foot intervals, but it has been found advisable to place supports every 8 feet for low trestles. Higher trestles are still constructed with 16-foot bents, but heavier timber and sway and stringer braces are used. Two 4 by 6 inch stringers are supported by the bents. Upon the stringers at intervals of 4 feet are placed the braces which hold the flume box in an upright position. The cost of constructing flumes varies with the difficulty of pre- paring the ground for foundations and the average height of the bents; with lumber at $12 per 1,000 it ranges from $20 to $25 per 1,000 board feet, the higher cost being where the average height of the flume is least. The lowest recorded cost is for two flumes in northern California, approximately $4,000 per mile. In the southern Sierras the natural conditions affecting construction are more difficult, and the average cost of construction is about $5,000 per mile. The most expensive flume in that locality is reported to have cost $6,000 per mile. The average amount of material is from 225,000 to 275,000 feet per mile. Farther north the average is not over 175,000 feet. The maximum grade allowable is about 25 per cent for short pitches. Normally the grade is kept down to between 5 and 10 per cent, with 12 per cent as a maximum. In the San Joaquin Valley the grade is very low. One flume in which the lumber is shipped in bundles has approximately 13 miles on the lower end with a grade of only 0.13 per cent. Another in which the lumber is shipped loose has a similar length of slack water with a grade of 0.26 per cent. The maximum curve used is about 20 degrees. The volume of water required to operate a flume varies from 25 to 35 second-feet. LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 91 Lumber is shipped in flumes either loose or in bundles. Ship- ment in bundles is the most common, and is adapted to flumes having lower grades. The loss of lumber is less than for the other method and fewer herders are required. However, the cost of bundling is considerable and the clamps must be hauled back to the upper end of the flume at a cost of about 1 cent per pound. In either method the lumber is graded and sorted roughly and distributed to the dry- ing piles and shipping skids, which are located along a number of branches feeding into the main flume. In shipping loose in long flumes it is necessary to kiln dry boards from yellow pine and white fir butts and air dry thick or heavy sugar pine boards. This involves a considerable cost for handling in the mill yard and kiln, and loss occurs through stam im air drying. Up to the present the same practice has been customary in fluming in bundles. Recently, how- ever, one company has developed a method of mixing light and heavy lumber in each bundle. All lumber may thus be shipped immediately after sawing, and air and kiln drying at the mill is practically eliminated. . In shipping loose, the lumber is disiributed to various shipping skids. The boards are then thrown one at a time into the flume by the shippers. In bundle shipping the boards are made up in bundles from 10 to 13 inches thick, bound at each end by iron clamps and wooden wedges. The bundles are then thrown into the flume and trains of five or six are fastened together with short rope loops. A crew of 27 men, three men working at each of nine skids, may prepare the bundles for a shipment of about 210,000 feet daily. _The remainder of the shipping crew is made up of three men tying the bundles together, one man straightening clamps, one man distributing clamps, one man distributing wedges, and one foreman. As the bundles pass down the flume they ‘are cared for by herders who prevent jams and watch for flume breaks. On a typical opera- tion the flume is divided into six-mile sections and two herders are assigned to each. With two extra herders on the last half mile the herding crew consists of 20 men and a foreman. At the lower end the bundles are dumped by hand from slack water by a crew of five men. The clamps are then loosened and the boards distributed and handled in the yard in the same manner as if the yard’were located at the sawmill. The cost of flume maintenance is considerable. On the long flumes a repair crew is engaged all winter, and approximately a million feet of lumber is used annually in repairs. The average cost is calculated at 80 cents per 1,000 for two flumes 56 and 60 miles in length and 65 cents per 1,000 for one 42 miles in length. Exclusive of depreciation the average cost of fluming lumber in these long 92 BULLETIN 440, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. flumes ranges from $1.75 to $1.90 per 1,000. The cost of fluming in short flumes with steep grades all the way is much less. In one such flume 44 miles in length the lumber is shipped right from the trimmer without drying or sorting. One man is required to ship a daily out- put of from 60,000 to 70,000 feet. Only two herders are required, but five men are needed at the lower end to take the lumber out of the flume. The direct cost of fluming is thus about 35 cents per 1,000, and the average cost of maintenance is calculated at from 10 to 15 cents per 1,000 on a yearly output of 9,000,000 feet board measure. PART IV. GENERAL COST FACTORS. OVERHEAD CHARGES. Overhead charges include all current expenses which are not directly chargeable to any particular step in the operation; that is, expenses which apply to the entire operation. This is not strictly true of certain items such as taxes and insurance, for the lump sums in which they are paid can be divided into proportionate shares for each part of the operation. Such is not the common procedure, however, and need not be attempted im ordinary calculations of operating cost. Overhead charges are ordinarily computed upon the basis of each 1,000 feet of lumber shipped and may then be applied to each 1,000 feet log scale. Cruising and layout of logging operations are the first items of overhead cost met with. In private operations cruising is usually done at the time of purchase and may be considered as an additional cost of stumpage. Most of the layout of operations is covered by general superintendence, woods supervision, and engineering. The cost of protecting the timber from fire is a charge for carrying stumpage rather than for logging. A considerable proportion of the fire fighting done by private operators is, however, for the purpose of protecting chutes, cables, trestles, camps, and the like, and the cost of this part of the fire protection work should be added to the logging cost. National Forest sale contracts require each purchaser to use his employees in fighting fires within a certain defined region. The cost of this work may be properly considered as an extra cost of logging. ate Taxes on standing timber are frequently considered by lumbermen as an operating cost; but they are logically a cost of carrying stump- age, and consequently do not enter into the cost of operating. The annual tax rates in the various timber counties vary from $1.64 to $2.60 per $100 of valuation. The average rate is from $1.95 to $2.05. Lumber plants are generally assessed at about 30 or 40 per cent of LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 93 the value. The lumber on hand in the yard at the time of assessment is valued in about the same way. Assessments are made in April, however, when the lumber stock is generally at its lowest ebb. INSURANCE. Lumber operators should carry both fire and liability insurance. Practically all except the small mills carry fire insurance. Most of these carry their own risk because they can not comply with the requirements of fire insurance companies without making an impos- sible increase in their investment. Steam sawmills and lumber in yards at steam sawmills may be insured up to about 90 per cent of the actual value. To get a rate for a mill the procedure is to take the standard rate and make certain specified additions to it and deductions from it for designated de- fects in the plant or for designated protective measures. The standard rate for pine sawmills in California is $3 per $100 of insured value. An addition of $1 is made if box factory, planing mill, or boilers are located in the same or immediately adjacent buildings. On the other hand a deduction of from 50 cents to $1 is made for a good fire-protection system. As a rule the rate for normally well equipped and protected mills with power plant in a detached masonry or corrugated iron building is about $3 per hundred. For small mills in the woods which are safe enough to insure, the rate is about $5 per hundred. For especially well built mills with automatic fire sprinkler systems the rate may be as low as $2 per hundred. These are the rates established by the Board of Fire Underwriters of the Pacific Coast. The standard rates upon lumber piled in mill yards exposed to no unusual danger are as follows: porte . Rate per Distance from mill. neavaakieal 2s Ub.) RenpOeeaaeeenag $2.00 AVG CC) ae See 2. 25 LiDfestess aes tox ose 2. 50 LOO feCtseese = soe e re 3. 00 No clear space......-- 3, 50 All employees of lumbering companies come under the provisions of the California Workmen’s Compensation Act, which provides certain compulsory payments in the case of injury or death of an employee. Operators usually do not wish to assume this risk and prefer to carry liability insurance. This insurance may be placed with any insurance company, provided claims are paid as directed by the State Industrial Accident Commission; or the employer may insure under the State Compensation Insurance Fund. The rates 94 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for State and private insurance are the same and are fixed in certain — amounts per each $100 paid out in wages. The schedule of rates for State insurance in 1914 was as follows: (Boxsnda muda CUUMErS seis sais ee eles erase ee ee oe ee ae $2. 96 hath manutactunerss. coins hs 426 eee aoe eee Sere ae 4,81 Humlberayandss(conimaenciall)) pps ee cee ese pee eee ee ee 2. 40 ibioenl oer yenccls (ens Cehwaonlls) 385 oe esos seo delsecoscaseeaceesadasse 4,81 IPleyomuner roel iano) Kolnae THU Shoot oeawsos cose cd cooeseescoeesane- 3. 42 Barwa seo Se 5 cai a bei is ee dh ae ae Pe at Pe 4.81 Womeime ne Gurr) Se oie a eke) ees ee ee ae eben ae eee 4.16 ogeinesrarlroads) (operation) f==ce-e eee eenee re. ee eee 11. 20 Logging railroads (maintenance and construction). ..........---- 4.16 Clericalforce nc nctac ees oh Sie nein See ee ene ce Sea as eee aeeee seal The average rate varies in different operations on account of the difference in the number of men employed in the various activities, but for a normal lumbering operation in sugar and yellow pine tim- ber, sawmill included, it is about 44 per cent of the pay roll. Hlimi- nating labor hired on contract in the lumber yard, the normal wages involved in the production of a thousand feet of lumber amount to about $7. At arate of 44 per cent the cost for lability insurance amounts to’32 cents per 1,000. The State Compensation Insurance Fund returned 15 per cent of the premiums to policy holders in 1914. SELLING. The cost of selling includes all direct costs of disposing of lumber which have not been deducted from the net price of lumber f. o. b. the mill. The cost of lumber selling agencies and commissions are generally so deducted. However, most large firms have a salesman who travels for the purpose of selling lumber. For the smaller mills this selling may be done by some member of the office force who devotes but part of his time to it. At large double-band mills a sales manager is maintained the year round. OFFICE AND GENERAL EXPENSES. Office and general expenses include all clerical help, stationery, upkeep of office buildings, dues, and any other uniseel mous expen- ditures necessary in the comcknet of the business. SUPERINTENDENCE. A lumber company with an annual output of, say, 36 million may require a manager and an assistant manager. The manager is usually an official of the company. The combined salaries and expenses are approximately $12,000, but about 20 per cent of this superintendence may be assumed as chargeable to box factories and finishing plants. Thus, in such a case the cost of superintendence is $9,600 per annum, or 27 cents per 1,000 feet. The cost of super- intendence is in about the same ratio in the case of smaller operations. LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 95 One manager is required for a double-band mill producting about 20 million annually. The manager at a single-band mill operating one shift frequently directly superintends both woods and mill. A pro- portionate decrease is made in the office force in each instance. SUMMARY. To sum up: the cost of selling, general office work, and superin- tendance at band mill or large circular mill operations is normally from 55 to 70 cents per 1,000, and the total of overhead charges is from $1.25 to $1.40 per 1,000. At small circular sills, sipacieandance, office work, and selling are covered by the salary o the operator. Such mills are commonly one-man. concerns; and since the owner devotes all his time to the operation he should havea salary as well as a profit on the nvestment. A mill of 20,000 daily output markets about 3,000,000 feet per annum. At a salary of $1,200 for the operator the cost of superintendence is 40 cents per 1,000. DEPRECIATION. = All improvements and equipment used in lumbering depreciate in value, and sufficient money must be taken from the business during its course to form a sinking fund to cover this depreciation. The amount of depreciation is measured by the difference between the initial cost and the salvage or residual value at the end of the opera- tion. The common method of figuring depreciation against a body of timber is to determine the total depreciation involved in its exploitation and by prorating this total over the stand to obtain a figure per 1,000 feet. The depreciation per 1,000 may then be applied to the annual cut to determine how large an annual sinking fund is necessary. Railroads and sawmills which can be used for additional timber have a residual value at the end of the operation much greater than the salvage value. Railroads adapted to a continuous profitable common carrier business may have a residual value practically as large as the initial cost. Improvements and equipment which can not be used any further have only a salvage or wrecking value. Tools, cables, and similar equipment are worn out and must be replaced at frequent intervals, so that they rarely have even a wrecking value. Horse and donkey chutes have no salvage value, except when the material can be utilized as saw logs or made into railroad ties. The wrecking value of logging railroads which can not be used in place for other purposes is the sale value of the rails for relaying. The rails commonly have a life of from 15 to 20 years; the former where they are lifted and relaid every season, and the latter for more 96 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. permanent use. Of course, where rails are lifted and relaid often, there is a considerable current loss through breakage and kinking. Geared locomotives, with proper maintenance and repairs, are good for about 20 years service. During that period the boilers must be replaced once. A rod engine should, under similar circumstances, have a slightly longer life, say about 25 years. Cars, either skeleton or flat, have very little salvage value after being used five years. In operations of from 15 to 20 years in length it is generally necessary to figure that the log cars will be renewed at least once. The sale value of second-hand logging donkeys and similar equip- ment is very low. In first-class condition they will bring only about 30 per cent of the original factory price, and after five or six years’ use donkey engines can no longer be put in first-class condition. The wrecking value is even less. Logging donkeys are ordinarily good for about 9 or 10 years’ service. In some instances they may be used as long as 12 years, but if not worn out in 10 years they are at least obsolete in type. The wrecking value of sawmills is likewise comparatively small. It is confined to the salvage value of the sawmill, planing mill, and dry kiln equipment. The lumber used in the buildings may have a small value in excess of the cost of removing it if the period of use is not too long. Depreciation commonly ranges from $1 to $1.50 per 1,000 feet board measure, depending upon the amount of timber and the extent of the necessary construction. SUMMARY OF THE COSTS OF TYPICAL OPERATIONS. A more comprehensive idea of the cost of lumber production may be gained from cost summaries of typical operations of three kinds; namely, a small horse-logging operation, a medium sized circular mill operation, and a large band mill operation. The cost summaries given below are made on the basis of operations of average efficiency, in much the same manner as calculations of operating costs are pre- pared in appraisals of National Forest stumpage, and are checked by the actual costs of various going lumber companies. The costs of any particular operation may of course differ from these sum- maries. Costs are in each instance on the basis of lumber shipping tally. ; SMALL MILL SUPPLIED BY HORSE LOGGING. Operating costs: Logging— Per 1, 000 feet Hellings liming andibuwekine ser seee ce 4h ee eee ne eer $0. 75 Horseyskaddaneyamde swam esse ane eet ee te 1. 20 lorsexch ute Jnarulam eso. os eet ceo any capa ee 1. 40 Chute construction.............-.-.--- Fu Rua peer er cate car eh . 50 LUMBERING iN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 97 Operating costs—Continued. Sawmill and yard— Per 1,000 feet. Sevtings See Se een dae Seen $1.75 WMS MERTON AN CCH ass ose fe yece nies Ma Ss aoe eagle hk meee = 30 SUPE Ss OS ai ae a pen CLS ead re S25) Beetearne hin eve NOU UENO eee 1 SUS BOR oie) Od SE 60 eared rn ype seer ag a eg eS cy LN ey gee PO Wh hie ser 25 itemanoentation—Wacon haul. ts... ogo tee dle. ll ee on 2. 50 General expense— BMPS OUNAN CONIC Ors rie nia, cinerea Coe ata NESE . 70 ( EELDE QI0G L TENS VUeWaT Ce Selene RUA ps eal ieee ene 45 To this should be added an average allowance {cr depreciation of, BR talkCoshar eerie Ce ecto s Sok eae eh ee acetate RRR ee we TT 11. 50 Mills of this class are usually situated close to the timber and at some distance from either the local market or a common-carrier railroad. In addition, they are often semiportable in character and are moved from time to time in order to be near the timber. Con- sequently, the logging costs are low, but the cost of lumber transpor- tation is high. In the example above the length of the wagon haul is considered as about 7 miles. No allowance is made for surfacing, as the lumber is usually disposed of rough. Very little expense is necessary for selling because the lumber is generally sold to local users or to some larger producer or box-shook manufacturer. SINGLE CIRCULAR MILL OPERATION. Operating costs: Logging— s Per 1,000 feet. Retin wnmbine. andsbuckime 828 ses 52s es ae $0. 70 SEC VAL OMIA oes toa SI aa A Sse en wh olaeci si enaialaytie 6 1. 90 AMIN coat rica eas Syne beaten ne chet Fi As NE ae . 30 | 3 SSW VUreY edo) 01H fa Vo) id en aie, ale we ARE Ml ey Sal me RU ie 2. 20 EAMCCOUMTUCION 1)... uoreee ce ch oad war eran emcee eee . 20 Sawmill and yard— PATI Oe ra. Pe MLC R aie b cosas oot eanteuseee emis Sone ate nt 1 740 RPE RUULOU AUC Ow coat meek tick ot Cememeeen Re tesec en amiacd 9) PIAS etic Se ies nc eS Cait BE iS 2 So Os eee ate ae ee B25, Pine and handling... 26-26. ns UO HI PoE eens . 80 EPRERRICL TAO rete ote tame tee 2 ae 2 fa Dc oe) oa wee nee hn (2 wt . 30 CE ANNNY ontatete OVmrne otaS pehe iao)is\ a va: 2s are Nee ciara Saale ek . 50 General expense— Superintendence and office (including mill and woods super- sites ra) 1 Je meee Mops ae Co eS A NDC ect g alate, aay ea OD LILES CE ES ORE Ba, 2 A RR NR, EC ae ag aa Cae . 20 EROS ANCTLDA UT ACOs eR RE a ic nino: cn Hanae ante arenes ll gL (x0) ——— $10. 45 ETC NEEL UNGS KErert NU ONY nn SMR NS 5 a5 nS aie p attests gore dist nia Areas pielsty hi . 95 Vila PCLT) BSS sae aM are oo Lael RIN Se Ot ee 11. 40 57172°—Bull. 440—17——7 98 BULLETIN 440, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In this example the mill is situated on a common carrier. [If it were not, there would be an additional cost for hauling lumber to the railroad. Since the mill is at some distance from the timber, a _ rather high charge is involved in truck hauling with horses or a trac- tion engine. In an operation of this type more care and work in the yard is necessary than in smaller operations. A planer is usually — operated in connection with the mill and a portion of the cut surfaced before sale. Loading on cars is a more expensive operation than loading on wagons for hauling. LARGE BAND MILL OPERATION. Logging— Per 1,000 feet. |e) Wash eee ee ee ne one RL ANA AME De Gil). LE BU abn pessoa asses ae oe . 08 Lam pings 2 Ss aA S Sy ar ee seem se 35 VardinewWabor: ete slit sas 2 GN aed See ee ier 1.58 Yarding maintenance: 17.0 Gessner en ee ae Cables. si 5c setae ign s,s Senet sc 2 a ee og ot moe eer Veni ee . 20 SOfop Vo bbel-puteeenas (eo Mpa anAl mle nay NAAN an ia MOE i Be Railroad operation n5ss 20552). 226 ee ee ee . 50 Ratlroad-maintenances 3.5 322 seine ere ae ee aD (Umloading fs 5.52 Same teen anne a ee ere pa ga . 03 Ratlroadsconstructions se sae ne ee ee eee eee . 80 Woodssupervision so45 eac28 sos seen de soe See ae ee 2g $5. 20 Sawmill— POW eos He ee sew, oa ee eae eine eee ease Cee ieee ee 07 POPR A 1 dace renee aes iets ene gt SEG seat ey oll ror. ies Sena 1.15 Sawamill: supplies! ..seee: 4 cis ween eater nae nla ont ee a .18 Sawinill :maintenances cee. sassy Ae See eee se ee Sawaal Supervision nae ce). cece ee cle canis cl Nias eee aan . 05 Sebenng Ss NA ae ar Yael create ee ete Sadi eer ls eon a . 25 2. 02 Sawmill yard— Distributings yet ecto ne ee ee ee oe eee ees . 25 Paling fo ooe oa eset kc ee Rees Une ee eae ere eee 40 Surfacing ss 2G. one ae en ee ee me ene 35 HGR yah ho ode reer eae AA Ge epee ete Sdn a eit eae UM sn OM RUS ccc 30 A Do yi NG i 0nve die sesame tna NS ee er ort el a aA a ales MEWS Save G6 c . 50 Supervision and-upkeepsas..ceeee on oe fei eee eee - 15 ee General expense (overhead )— Taxesiand fire insurance iy teas ee Re Sr eve eee . 40 Liability -imsurance siivo90 oe eee nee emciotet ian eet tee 35 Sela eG ea ee ie a eee ironies ee 25 Superintendenceand office: --2 eae aes ee eee 40 —— 1.40 Depreciation—A verage... isc. c-casccmenin cnt auibe ee ee sees eciee em ees 1.10 Total eosticck jst eos Ok eres Se Dee er 11. 67 LUMBERING IN PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. 99 The above list of costs does not take into account any finishing or remanufacture of lumber other than surfacing for shipment. By taking greater care of its lumber and paying more attention to selling, a large mill generally sells its product more advantageously than a small one. Since the costs at large mills vary considerably through- out the California pine region, those given above may be considered as somewhat ideal for a mill located on a common carrier and with a logging road of moderate length. Inspection of operating-cost rec- ords shows that, exclusive of profit, interest, and stumpage, the bulk of the lumber produced at large mills in this region is placed on cars at common-carrier railroad points, rough or surfaced for shipping, at from $11.50 to $12.50 per 1,000 feet. Mills with flumes or branch- line lumber roads, severe logging conditions, or inefficient plants may have to pay more. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 25 CENTS PER COPY Vv UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ; BULLETIN No. 441 , Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry ‘x WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 27, 1916 THE ACTION OF MANGANESE UNDER ACID AND NEUTRAL SOIL CONDITIONS. By J. J. Sxmyner and F. R. Reip, Biochemists. Office of Soil-Fertility Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. STERLING asses ayer 2 SE Lee 1 | Effect of manganese on Arlington soil under Effect of manganese on Arlington soil under MOULEACORCIGLONS re une anus see eae 6 POE, UTR ET AIG) oS ee erate 2 | Oxidative power of plats with and without Oxidative power of plats with and without manganese under neutral conditions...._.. 9 manganese under acid conditions.......... 5 | Summary........- hsiotsist sigaees Smet cece ences 11 INTRODUCTION. Investigations of the action of manganese on plants and soils have been conducted by the Office of Soil-Fertility Investigations both im the laboratory and in the field for several years. Manganese is universally found in soils and plants. Robinson,! who examined 26 American soils, found the content of manganese (MnO) to be from 0.01 to 0.51 per cent, the average being 0.071 per cent, and Kelley* found in Hawaiian soils amounts varying from less than 0.1 to 9.74 per cent Mn,O,. A number of investigators have studied the effect of manganese on plants in both water and soil cultures, and from the evidence at hand it seems that in most cases manganese in small amounts exer- cises a stimulating action on growth. A general review of the liter- ature on the subject has been given in former papers of members of ! Sullivan, M. X., and Robinson, W. O. Manganese as a fertilizer. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils Cire. 75,3 p. 1913. * Kelley, W. P. The influence of manganese on the growth of pineapples. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta, Press Bul. 23, 14 p., n. d. ——— Manganese in some of its relations to the growth of pineapples. Jn Jour. Indus. and Engin Chem., v. 1, no. 8, p. 533-538. 1909. Note.—The results given in this bulletin throw further light on the effect of this catalytic fertilizer under various soil conditions. hat its effect is dependent on the reaction of the soil is demonstrated. The bulletin is of interest to scientific investigators, to manufacturers of catalytic fertilizers, and to those grow- ers whose technical training induces them to experiment with new substances to increase or control crop production. 57168°—BulJl. 441-—16 - NERA WRT TIE : 2 = BD Ue i BAN 441, W. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the staff of the Office of Soil-Fertility Investigations and others,’ so its repetition here is not deemed necessary. Working with soil extracts? from poor, unproductive soils, man- ganese salts were found to increase the oxidizing power of the plant roots grown therein and increased the growth of the plants. With extracts from good, fertile soils the oxidative power of the plants was increased, but it was not attended by an increase in growth. This was attributed to excessive oxidation in the soil solution. The plant tips and leaves themselves showed indications of this excessive oxi- dation. Similar results were obtained with soil in pots. -The poor, unproductive soils were improved by manganese, while good soils were not further benefited. The best results were secured with small amounts varying from 5 to 50 parts per million of the element manganese. , Schreiner and Sullivan' have further pointed out that the oxida- tive power of the soil is dependent in part on the nature of the organic matter. Thus, when salts of. manganese, iron, calcium, etc., were added to soil of slight oxidative power, oxidation was but slightly increased until certain kinds of organic matter, such as citric, malic, tartaric, and glycolic acids or their salts, were added, when marked improvement in oxidation took place. EFFECT OF MANGANESE ON ARLINGTON SOIL UNDER ACID CONDITIONS. Field tests with manganese sulphate were inaugurated on the ex- periment farm of the Department of Agriculture at Arlington, Va., in 1907. The results secured from 1907 to 1912 have already been published. The experiment has been continued with some modifica- tion, and the additional data throw considerable light on the action of manganese in soils of this character. The soil in which these ex- periments were made is a silty clay loam, low in organic matter. The physical condition of the soil is rather poor, and great care had to be practiced in cultivation to keep it in a good physical condition. The ground is level and has surface dramage, and the soil throughout these manganese plats and their controls is uniform, so the results obtamed should not be considered as unduly influenced by irregu- larities due to nonuniformity of the soil in different plats. The soil is of an acid nature. The ground on which these experiments were made consists of two parallel strips of land, each 1 rod wide and separated by a 3-foot path. Each strip is divided into seven plats of 1 square rod, with 1 Schreiner, Oswald, and Sullivan, M.X. Studies in soil oxidation. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils Bul. 73, 57p. 1910. : Kelley, W. P. The function and distribution of manganese in plants and soils. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 26,56 p. 1912. ° Skinner, J. J., Sullivan, M. X., et al. The action of manganese in soils. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 42, 32p. 1914. NG ea MANGANESE UNDER ACID AND NEUTRAL SOIL CONDITIONS. 3 paths 24 feet wide separating the plats. One strip, or a series of seven plats, was treated with manganese sulphate; the other strip of seven plats was not treated and served as a control, or check. Seven crops, rye, wheat, timothy, clover, corn, cowpeas, and pota- toes, were grown on both the treated and untreated plats, which lie side by side in the two strips. The crops on the plats were not rotated, but each crop grew year after year on the same plat. The manganese sulphate was applied annually, before the crops were planted, at the rate of 50 pounds per acre. The corn, cowpeas, and potatoes were planted in the spring of each year and harvested in the fall, and the wheat and rye were planted in the fall and harvested the next July. The timothy and clover plats were planted in 1907, and the ground was again plowed and reseeded in 1909. The results for the six years from 1907 to 1912, inclusive, are given briefly i Table I and will permit a short discussion here, the reader being referred to the earlier publications previously men- tioned for the results in-detail. The yields are calculated to pounds _and bushels per acre and are so given in the table. The wheat and rye were not thrashed, the yield bemg given in weight of straw plus erain. The timothy and the clover were a failure on this soil; these plats produced practically no yield and no results were obtained. TasLe I.—Efect of manganese sulphate on the yields per acre of wheat, rye, cowpeas, corn, and potatoes on an acid soil treated for six successive years (1907 to 1912, inclusive). Wheat. Rye. Cowpeas. —_ l = ad vise Treated | Increase | Treated | Increase Treated | Increase ; re with or de- F Time with or de- ; aime with or de- : mangan- | crease 0 mangan- | crease 0 mangan- | crease of treated. ese Sul- | mangan- treated. ese sul- | mangan- treated. ese Sul- | mangan- phate. | ese plat. phate. | ese plat. phate. | ese plat. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. MN ere in 8 cso steele eae a= -.2| asters | wea. Ne 8, 320 6,720 | —1,600 ee 4, 960 4,320] — 640 5, 280 4,160 | —1,120 8, 800 6,560 | —2,240 Ar 2s 4,160 3,680 | — 480 4, 160 4,640 | + 480 5, 920 4,480 | —1,440 C1 pain 1’ 000 3,520| — 480 1,920 1,600 | — 320 4,320 3,360] — 960 ite: So: 4, 000 3,360 | — 640 3, 680 4,000 | + 320 6, 720 5,600 | —1,120 19D... 3, 840 2,400 | —1,440 2, 240 2,720} + 480 3, 360 36520) | =n al60 Corn. Potatoes. ree a peer ‘ Increase or de- Year. | Untreated. Treated with man- | “ Grease of man- Treated | Increase ganese sulphate. ganese plat. Un- with or de- treated. | Mangan- | crease of Sa, Sas Sa = i * | ese sul- | mangan- | Stover. Grain. Stover. Grain. Stover. | Grain. phate. | ese plat. | Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds. | Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. See .| 9,120 60 10, 400 40 | +1, 280 —20 221 152 —69 -| 4,160 71 3, 360 51 — 800 —20 120 80 —40 | 4,320 20 3,040 17 1, 280 - 3 18] 221 +40 6, 240 40 4,320 23 1, 920 ‘ —17 147 96 —5l 4, 800 10 4,000 20 800 ~20 24% 152 —91 | 6,440 4 2,720 9 2, 720 -37 85 61 —24 a NAC TE ih 4. BULLETIN 441, 1s Ss DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table I shows that wheat was ‘reduced 4 in yield Deh year by the manganese, the decrease varying from 480 to 1 ,440 pounds per acre. With rye, the yield was increased in 1909, 1911, and 1912, and was decreased in 1908 and 1910. With corn, ches was a decence each year except 1907, when the yield of stover was larger. The growth _ of cowpeas was also decreased, this decrease varying from 160 pounds per acre in 1912 to 2,240 sommes in 1908. Potatoes were likewise affected, there being a smaller yield in the manganese plat each year except in 1909, when there was an increase over the check plat of 40 bushels per acre. Acidity tests of the various plats were made in 1912. The results of these determinations show that the manganese tests were made under acid conditions. The lime-requirement determinations were made by means of the Veitch method. Table II shows the amount of lime required according to this method for each plat to produce a neutral condition in the soil. The soil in each plat required approximately a ton of lime per acre. Where wheat was grown, the manganese and the untreated plats had the same lime requirement. Where rye, corn, and cowpeas were grown, the manganese plats had a higher lime re- | quirement than the untreated plats. With rye, the manganese plat required 2,492 pounds and the untreated plat 2,136 pounds of lime per acre. With corn, the manganese plat required 2,492 pounds and the untreated plat 1,780 pounds per acre. With cowpeas, the man- ganese plat required 2,492 pounds and the untreated plat 2,136 pounds per acre. Where potatoes were grown, the untreated plat had a greater lime requirement than the manganese plat, the man- ganese plat requiring 2,451 pounds of lime per acre and the untreated plat 2,743 pounds. Tas LE IT.—Lime(CaCO,) requirement_per acre of the various plats, to a depth of 6 inches. ee l Plats. | Wheat. Rye. Corn. | Cowpeas.| Potatoes. : 4 Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Wreatedawl human caTeSe sess. espe eae 1, 780 2,492 2,492 2,492 2,451 Wntreated sess eee ee eee ee ene eats Sau 1, 780 2, 136 1, 780 2,136 2, 743 1 Veitch, F. P. The estimation of soil acidity and the lime requirements of soils. In Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., v. 24, no. 11, p. 1120-1128. 1902. : Comparison of methods for the estimation of soil acidity. In Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., v. 26, no. 6, p. 637-662. 1904. PPR TAT OY MANGANESE UNDER ‘ACID: AND) NEUTRAL SOIL CONDITIONS. 5 OXIDATIVE POWER OF PLATS WITH AND WITHOUT MANGANESE UNDER ACID CONDITIONS. Bertrand * showed that manganese played an essential part in the oxidation by the so-called oxidizing enzym laccase. Further, since manganese increased the oxidizing power of a number of soils tested by the Office of Soil-Fertility Investigations and it has been found that a number of soils of strong oxidizing power contain considerable manganese, some of which was in the highly oxidizing form of MnO,, it became of interest to determine whether the manganese had any accelerating effect on the oxidation in the soil of the field plats planted with wheat, rye, corn, cowpeas, and potatoes. In 1912 composite samples from five borings to the depth of 6 mches were taken of the manganese plats and check plats (1) early im April, (2) late in May, and (3) in August. The oxidation readings were made on the air-dried samples within two weeks after collection. When 10 or 20 grams of soil are shaken two or three times with 50 to 70 c. c. of a 0.125 per cent water solution of aloin, the aloin solu- tion is changed in a few minutes from a bright yellow to a cherry red. After the soil has stood for about an hour and has settled, the some- what turbid solution is decanted and centrifuged, the supernatant liquid drawn off, and the depth of color of the different solutions com- pared by means of a Schreiner colorimeter, either with each other or with colored glass of a shade of red matching the oxidized solutions. In the present experiment the oxidation reading was made against a glass standard which matched in tint the red color produced in the alo solution by the sample of wheat soil collected in the spring. Ten grams of soil were employed for each test. The relative oxida- tion in the manganese plats and the check plats is given in Table ITI. Tasie IIl.—Relative oxidation in plats treated with manganese sulphate and in the corresponding check plats growing the same crops (wheat soil in April being taken as 100). | April. June. August. Crop | u | Plats | Plats Plats : Un- treated | ° Un- treated | Un- treated treated with treated with treated with | plats. man- plats. man- plats. man- ganese. ganese. ganese. UMMERU cee eae ate se o's oe pase se cae ie 100 | 95 110 130 7) 64 LU. ee See ERR APL Be a 131 | 105 131 105 78 60 Com Da ydee ae tee 110 | 100 130 131 87 75 Cou 3a , ‘ bakaen 66 64 105 110 53 53 SMI aa Sata on ka sece « Sng comes 87 60 91 78 53 15) 1 Bertrand, Gabriel. Sur les rapports qui existent entre la constitution chimiques des composés organi- ques et leur oxydabilité sous l’influence de la laccase. In Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. [Paris], t. 122, no. 20, p- 1122-1134, 1896. Sur Vintervention du manganése dans les oxydations provoquées par Ja Jaccase. Jn Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. [Paris], t. 124, no, 19, p. 1032-1035, 1897. ) i Ae f Lat 6 BULLETIN 441, U. S| DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. With the exception of the wheat plat, where there is shown a slight increase as an average of the three determinations, the addition of manganese sulphate has not increased the oxidative power of the soil, and in a number of instances it has lessened oxidation. The soil mm general has a tendency to be acid in character and at best has not a strong oxidizing power. If the first determination, made in April, is considered (that is, the oxidative power of the plats at a time when there is little or no growth) the oxidation in the manganese plat is less in every instance than that of the check plat. This period is the best one for testing the oxidation effect of manganese unmodified by plant growth. The lessened oxidation produced by manganese sul- phate is in harmony with the lessened yields on the same plats under treatment with manganese. In 1912, for instance, the year in which the oxidation was tested, the yield, as previously shown, of wheat, corn, and potatoes was jess on the manganese plat than on the untreated plat, while rye only showed a slight increase and the yield of cowpeas was practically the same. In the second determination, made in June, the oxidative power of the manganese plat is on the average more like that of the check plat. In the third determination, made in August, shortly after the wheat and rye had been taken off, the manganese plat was on the average again less than the check plat. As previously pointed out, the manganese plats, with the exception of the potato and the wheat plats, showed a higher lime requirement than the check plats. Under acid conditions the formation of organic compounds capable of acting as oxygen carriers or as activators of inorganic oxidizing compounds, such as manganese salts, is much lessened or entirely inhibited. This is also indicated from the results with the acid soil under investigation, for the addition of manganese did not increase the oxidizing power of the soil nor, indeed, of plants growing therein. This oxidizing power of the plants was tested in the case of wheat. By carefully removing the soil from the young wheat plants growing on the plats, the oxidizing power of the intact roots when placed in an aloin solution was found to be no greater in the case of the plants from the manganese plat than from the check plat. The relative oxidation was 97 and 100, respectively. EFFECT OF MANGANESE ON ARLINGTON SOIL UNDER NEUTRAL CONDITIONS. As the manganese had no beneficial effect on the soil under acid con- ditions, the experiment was continued and the soil neutralized as nearly as possible by applying lime from year to year. Three-years’ results have now been secured. Each year before planting, the lime requirement of the plats was determined by the Veitch method and an excess of lime added to both the check and manganese plats. The MANGANESE UNDER ACID AND NEUTRAL SOIL CONDITIONS. 7 experiment was conducted as in previous years. Manganese sulphate was applied each year in amounts of 50 pounds per acre and the same crops were grown on the same plats as before except on the clover plats, which were planted in string beans. The timothy plats were again plowed and reseeded. : In September, 1912, the plats were limed, using 500 pounds per acre CaCO, in excess of the amounts required by the soil as determined by the Veitch method, given in Table IJ. The manganese sulphate was applied to the wheat, rye, and timothy plats on September 15, and the plats and their checks were seeded. The corn, cowpea, bean, and potato plats received their applications in the spring of 1913, shortly before seeding time. The results for 1913 are given in Table IV. TaBLe [V.—Hffect of manganese sulphate on the yields of wheat, rye, timothy, beans, corn, cowpeas, and potatoes in 1913. Beans. Corn. : . Tim- | Cow- ee Area and treatment. Wheat.| Rye. othy. peas Potatoes. Pods. | Vines./Stover. Fars. Per square rod: Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Bush.) Lbs. | Lbs. | Bush. Mmtreated:=.- .-==.5- 13 15 36 15 18 24 LS falc ates 32 DAE See oe Treated with MnSOx.. 11 14 38 17 18 21 TG eevee 29 Dnlaesst sate Per acre (calculated): Untreated. -.-..-...-.- 2,080 | 2,400 | 5,760 | 2,400 | 2,800 | 3,840 |-..-.- 30) |} By U2) |l5.2-5- 64 Treated with MnSOx..} 1,760 | 2,240 | 6,080 | 2,720 | 2,800 | 3,360 |...... 25 | 4,640 |... 56 The results show that the manganese sulphate has again depressed the yield, but only slightly as compared with previous years. The only cases where the manganese plats produced larger yields were with timothy and beans, but the differences are very small. The soil was again examined for acidity early in August and the wheat, rye, corn, cowpea, and potato plats were again found to be acid; the timothy and string-bean plats, however, were neutral. This was true of both the check plat and the manganese-treated plat. The lime requirement of the different plats, expressed in pounds of CaCO, per acre, is given in Table V. Taste V.—Lime (CaCO,) requirement per acre of the different plats to a depth of 6 inches. Plats. Wheat. Rye. [rimothy. Beans. Corn. | Cowpeas.| Potatoes. 6 = 2 | . = a ee oe | Pounds. | Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. PURER asi Sa a'r Wann a0'0.0 woe 9 w= 1, 400 1,000 | Neutral.| Neutral. 1, 200 | 900 1, 200 Treated with MnSQ4........... | 1, 200 he 200%) «2h OD riniaie| bee GOsee. 700 | 900, 900 The amounts of lime added in the fall of 1912 were not sufficient to keep this soil neutral during the next growing season except in the two cases mentioned, and it is noted that these are the two plats on which the manganese produced the increase over its check. 8 BULLETIN 441, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. For the 1914 crops, lime (CaCO,) was added to all the plats at the rate of 2,000 pounds per acre, except the timothy and bean plats, which received an application of 500 pounds per acre. To the timothy plats lime was added on the surface to the sod; on the other plats the lime was applied to the surface and well harrowed, so as to thoroughly mix the lime with the soil to a considerable depth. The reaction of the soil was tested four weeks after the lime was applied and period- ically during the growing season. The soil in all the plats showed no acidity during the entire season. The manganese sulphate was applied and the crops were grown in 1914 as before. The yields for the year are given in Table VI. TasLe VI.—Effect of manganese sulphate on the yields of wheat, rye, timothy, beans, corn, cowpeas, and potatoes in 1914. Beans. Corn. Area and treatment. }Wheat.| Rye. nee ee Potatoes. Pods. | Vines. |Stover. Ears. Per square rod: Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Bush.| Lbs. | Lbs. | Bush. Untreated <=. =-2.- 23 OM 38 17 20 28 Arn een ee 23 2B lesasace Treated with MnS@4...--..-. 28 57 43 20 | 24 31 LG nye Sees 27 21a weeeee ee Per acre (calculated): Untreated......-- 3,680 | 5,920 | 6,080 | 2,720 | 3,200 | 4,480 |_._...- 32 | 3,.680 |_.-..-- 61 Treated with Mins Ozer eee 4,480 | 9,120 | 6,880 | 3,200 | 3,840 | 4,960 |....... 36) 9453205 es eeeee 56 Table VI shows that the manganese-treated plat with each crop except potatoes produced a larger yield than its check. The largest increase was with the rye crop. The grain was thrashed in this case, the check plat yieldmg 4 pounds of grain and the manganese plat 4 pounds. The straw was increased 3,200 pounds per acre: The “rye growing on the check and manganese plats is shown in figures 1 and 2 and the harvested straw and grain in figure 3. In the case of the other crops wheat was increased 800 pounds, timothy 800 pounds, bean vines 640 pounds, bean pods 480 pounds, corn stover 480 pounds, corn grain 4 bushels, and cowpea hay 640 pounds per acre. With potatoes, there was no increase; in fact, a decrease of 5 bushels per acre is shown. For the 1915 crop all the plats were again limed at the rate of 2,000 pounds per acre, the lime being applied in the fall of 1914. The manganese was applied as usual. Acidity tests of the soil were made periodically, and again the soil was found not to become acid during the growing season of 1915. The yields for 1915 are given in Table VII. MANGANESE UNDER ACID AND NEUTRAL SOIL CONDITIONS. 9 TABLE pe —Effect of manganese sulphate on the yields of wheat, rye, timothy, beans, corn, cowpeas, and potatoes in z 915. Beans. Corn. Area and treatment. |Wheat.| Rye. eee SS ane oon Potatoes. Pods. |Vines. |Stover. Ears. Per square rod: Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Bush.| Lbs. | Lbs. | Bush. Untreated ........ . 11 18 41 25 31 48 SA) be eae age 31 LON eee Treated with cen Og 2s. 14 26 45 27 34 | 54 Eeliscetaee 40 19; | bee Per acre (calculated): Untreated .-.....- 1, 760 | 2,880 | 6,560 | 4,000 | 4,960 | 7,680 |.....-- GSiz4 960) eases 40 - Treated with MAS Odeo ==. - 2,240 | 4,160 | 7,200 | 4,320 | 5,440 | 8,640 |....... 73). 1) 400) We ee egos 40 The effect of manganese on all the crops in 1915 was somewhat similar to its effect in 1914. Considerable increases were produced Fic. 1.—Rye on an untreated plat. with each crop except potatoes. In this case the yield was the same in the check plat and manganese plat. Again the largest in- crease was secured with rye. OXIDATIVE POWER OF PLATS WITH AND WITHOUT MANGANESE UNDER NEUTRAL CONDITIONS. In July, 1915, samples of soil were taken from each plat, as previ- ously described for the work done in 1912, in order to determine the oxidizing power. The relative oxidation in the check plats and manganese plats is given in Table VIII. The check plat in each ase is taken as 100 and compared with the manganese plat growing the same crop. 10 BULLETIN 441, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE VIII.—Relative oxidation in plats treated with manganese sulphate and in the corresponding check plats growing the same crops. Plats. Wheat. Rye. |Timothy.{ Beans. Corn. | Cowpeas.| Potatoes. Wmineated eases eee eae 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Treated with manganese... -..-- 283 132 75 109 76 107 105 With the exception of the timothy and corn plats, the addition of manganese sulphate has increased the oxidizing power of the soil. In general, however, this increased oxidation agrees with the increased yields in the limed soil. This is m contrast to the action of manga- nese in this soil while under acid conditions, which caused less oxida- tion in the soil and a decreased growth. Under acid conditions the Fig. 2.—Rye on a plat treated with manganese. . effect of oxidizing compounds, such as manganese salts, is much lessened or entirely inhibited, while under neutral or slightly alkaline conditions this oxidizmg power is stimulated. The soil under study is of an acid character, naturally poor in its oxidizing power, and is physically bad. Methods of cultivation which loosen and aerate the soil and chemicals which increase its oxidizing power should increase its crop-producing power. With the acid soil, where manga- nese gave decreased yields, conditions were such that stimulating action on plants and microorganisms of the soil did not come into play; or, possibly on account of the acidity of the soil, the effect of the manganese led to a stimulation of other biological processes, MANGANESE UNDER ACID AND NEUTRAL SOIL CONDITIONS. iat acting on the organic soil constituents in such a manner as to pro- duce changes injurious to the growing crops. The stimulation of the oxidative processes by manganese was favorable in the soil kept under neutral or alkaline conditions by applying lime year by year, and these oxidative processes acting in turn on the organic or inorganic constituents of the soil produced changes beneficial to the growing crops. SUMMARY. In a 6-years’ field test of manganese sulphate used at the rate of 50 pounds per acre on an acid silty clay loam, its effect each year Fic. 3.—Effect of manganese on rye. Straw and grain from check plat, on the left; from plat treated with manganese, on the right. was not beneficial to the crops grown—wheat, rye, corn, cowpeas, and potatoes. The soil in the various plats required from 1,780 to about 2,750 pounds of CaCO, to neutralize the first 6 inches. The soil is of an acid character, is low in organic matter, rather bad physically, and naturally has a poor oxidizing power. The oxidative processes in the soil were lessened by manganese in most of the plats under the acid condition. 12 BULLETIN 441, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . The action of manganese was studied on the same plats, kept neutralized with lime for the three succeeding years following the experiment with the soil in an acid condition. The productivity of the soil was imcreased by manganese under this neutral or slightly alkaline condition. With wheat, rye, timothy, beans, corn, and cowpeas the yields were increased, while with potatoes the yield was practically the same in the treated and the check plats. The oxidative power of the neutralized soil was also increased by manganese, which is in accord with the results of former investiga- tions, which have shown that the oxidation by manganese salts is greater under slightly alkaline conditions. , The action of manganese in decreasing the oxidation in the soil while acid is in harmony with the decreased yield, and its action in increasing the oxidation of the neutralized soil is in harmony with the increased yield. The action of manganese in the acid soil was probably to stimulate the life processes in the soil, acting on the organic matter in such a way as to produce changes which resulted in a lessened. crop-producing power, while its action in the neutralized soil was such as to stimulate oxidation and other biological processes, acting on the organic soil constituents and producing changes favorable to the growing plants. These results on the behavior of manganese as a so-called catalytic fertilizer when acting under acid or neutral soil conditions show that no profitable return is to be expected in soils of a persistent acid tendency until such soils are limed. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY WASHINGTON ; GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1916 BULLETIN No. 442 , ‘N Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 25, 1917 POSSIBILITY OF THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF LEMON-GRASS OIL IN THE UNITED STATES. By 8. C. Hoop, Scientific Assistant, Drug-Plant and Poisonous-Plant Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. TELEP TL G SUT a a o DS | ViGrIB les aia) se 3 een atten tiene ciate a sian 7 Soil and climatic requirements of lemon Factors affecting the yield of lemon-grass oil. 8 TESS. oot oes pe oe eee see sce oe seeae 2 | Factors affecting the citral content of lemon- ROM APUNGU SS == nas = ass ns ia~ sina ------2.2--- Su SUM Mayer sae eee ee eie ei ecee cee eMart ee 5 Economic importance. .......-.....--------- 4) | iteraturercitediis. sem -eeeeceecmenicccce cee u INTRODUCTION. For a number of years past an abnormal development of vines of the cranberry (Oxycoccus macrocar pus) has caused considerable loss in cranberry marshes, especially in the district about Grand Rapids, Wis. The trouble is commonly called false blossom by the growers. Since this term is so generally used in Wisconsin and is somewhat applicable to the disease, it is probably best to adopt it as the com- mon name. It should be explained, however, that a disease of an entirely different nature, caused by Hxobasidium oxycocci Rost., has received the same name among Massachusetts growers. The name rose-bloom is proposed for this latter disease. DESCRIPTION OF FALSE BLOSSOM. The disease under consideration produces as one of its most con- spicuous features a malformation or metamorphy of the floral organs. It was briefly described by the writer (10)! in 1911. In the simplest form of the trouble the flower pedicels become more or less erect instead of dreoping and the calyx lobes become enlarged, greenish, and somewhat foliaceous. The petals become shortened, broadened, ! The figures in parentheses refer to “ Literature cited” at the end of the paper. Notg.—This bulletin is of interest to plant pathologists and to cranberry growers, especially in the States of Massachusetts, New Jersey, Wisconsin, and the coastal regions of Oregon and Washington. 58086°—Bull. 444 16 ! 9 BULLETIN 444, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and slightly reddish or greenish in color, as shown in Plate I, figure 2, b and c. The stamens and pistil are more or less aborted and mal- formed and no fruit is produced. Plate I, figure 1, shows normal flowers for comparison. All intermediate gradations of phyllody can usually be found among diseased vines, from the simple form, in which there is only a shortening and thickening of the parts of the perianth, to cases in which the entire flower is replaced by a short branch with small leaves, as shown in Plate II, figure i, ¢, d, and e. KA \ 3 fe iw EO NV es oe 0 g, é Fig. 1.—A cranberry plant in which the terminal bud has developed into arunner instead of a fruiting bud. Plate III shows a condition in which the different floral organs are represented by whorls of green, leaflike structures on the prolonged axes. Besides the transformation of the floral organs, other abnor- malities of growth are usually found. Plate IV shows details of a malformed flower and various conditions of development of leaflike bodies in whorls on the prolonged floral axis. Affected plants have a great tendency to develop lateral branches from the usually latent axillary buds situated on the vine below the fruit bud, as shown in figure 1. The branches are slender and weak and fail to produce normal flowers or fruit. They give the plant a kind of witches’-broom appearance. In some instances the end of the flowering shoot, in- stead of forming a fruit bud for the next season, as is the case in FALSE BLOSSOM OF THE CULTIVATED CRANBERRY. 3 normal plants, continues to grow and produces a long, slender run- ner, as shown in figure 2. Cranberry plants in bogs where this malfor- mation occurs generally show an excessive vegetative growth, usually forming a deep, dense mass of vines. In their dormant condition the ter- Ni NZ . a \) minal buds are frequently enlarged and \ ) abnormal and die during the winter. ; Under some conditions the plants N produce few runners. NG \\ 4 Z % GP — Zee WZ SSS SEB ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION. VBA ZF bhtk ES Ss SS5 Le We All the data at hand seem to indicate that this disease first appeared in Wis- consin. Cases of phyllody have been found in Massachusetts, New Jersey, Oregon, and Washington, but most cases appear to be traceable to vines obtained from Wisconsin. No printed reference to this disease has been found by the writer previous to his brief men- tion of it (9) in 1908. The disease has, however, undoubtedly been present in Wisconsin for many years. The first cases of the disease dis- covered in Massachusetts were exam- ined by Dr. H. J. Franklin and the writer in 1914 and have been reported by Franklin (3). Affected vines were observed in five different bogs. In syg.o 4 cranberry plant in which the nor- four cases the vines were of the variety mally dormant axillary buds have devel- known as Metallic Bell, which had — °?°¢ 10 shoots. been obtained from Wisconsin. In the fifth case the variety was unknown, but this also had come from Wisconsin. These vines had been planted about 10 years previously. The next year, 1915, the writer’s attention was called to the occurrence of this disease in New Jersey. In this case the plants were of the Jumbo variety obtained from Wisconsin and planted several years previously.!. In both Mas- sachusetts and New Jersey a few scattered vines showing the disease have been found in plantings of eastern varieties in the same bog, but whether these diseased vines are really eastern plants or have arisen from Wisconsin cuttings is very difficult to determine, since plants affected with false blossom rarely develop normal fruit. This has raised the question of the possible infectious nature of the disease. SE GK ! Since this was written the disease has been found in other bogs in New Jersey under such conditions as to suggest that the disease may have developed there independently. ATE 4 BULLETIN 444, U.|\/S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. This disease is an important factor in reducing the crop of cran- berries in Wisconsin. In some bogs one-half of the crop may be lost on this account, as affected vines rarely produce any good fruit. Fortunately, in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and on the Pacific coast the disease up to the present time is confined to very small areas. It is very important, therefore, to avoid the introduction of diseased vines in new plantings. . CAUSE. At present the cause of this pathological condition is uncertain. Careful examination and study of many specimens in the field and laboratory have failed to give any evidence that msects or fungi cause the trouble, and the writer has come to believe, from all the evidence at present available, that it is primarily due to some serious disturbance of the nutritive functions of the plant. Goebel (4) says: “‘Tn like manner there can be no doubt that the phyllody of flowers, a favorite domain of teratology, is a symptom of disease; it is a mis- birth, the cause of which we do not know in most cases.’”’ Similar effects, such as chloranthy, as Peyritsch (8) has shown, may be induced by aphides. In other cases it may be assumed that the power of producing reproductive organs has been enfeebled, while the vegetative growth has been abnormally stimulated through the nutritive conditions. Beijerinck (1 and 2) assumed the existence of certain growth enzyms which caused the formation of normal organs. In case of the transformation of organs, according to his theory, one growth enzym must replace another or be formed instead of it. In the case of the cranberry it seems possible that this striking metamorphy is due to some serious disturbance of the nutrition of the plant. A similar opinion was also expressed by Jones and Shear (5) as the result of a joint field study of the disease. Mr. Malde (6), who has observed this trouble for many years in Wisconsin, says: The dryness of the season seems to have reduced the amount of “‘false blossom ”’ this year, and from the data gathered in the Mather region, it has become more evident than ever that this so-called ‘‘false blossom” is due to conditions of culture rather than any disease affecting the plant. In all the localities in Wisconsin in which the writer has observed this malformation, there has been a deep, coarse, peat soil, supplied with an excessive amount of water during the greater part of the growing season. Of course these peat bottoms contain vast quanti- ties of nitrogenous matter, but not in such form as to be available to ordinary farm crops. The cranberry, however, is regarded by physi- ologists as obtaining its nutriment chiefly by means of the endophytic mycorrhiza of its roots and may be able to secure an abundance of Bul. 444, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE lI. A NORMAL FRUITING BRANCH OF A CRANBERRY VINE AND A SHOOT WITH MALFORMED FLOWERS. Fig. 1.—A fruiting branch of a cranberry vine with normal flowers in different stages of development: a, An unopened bud; b, an open flower; c, the young fruit just after the blossom has fallen; d, young fruit. Fic. 2.—A cranberry shoot, showing the simplest forms of malformation of flowers: a, A flower with the calyx lobes somewhat broader than SA and the petals much shortened and broadened; 6, a flower with the sepals broadened and divided to the base; the petals are also short, broad and virescent, ap- proaching a foliaceous condition; the stamens are somewhat shortened and abnormal, and the ovary abnormal, elongated into a conical form, and infertile; c, a condition very similar to that shown in 6, These illustrations were made from plants collected near Grand Rapids, Wis., on June 29, 1907. Bul. 444, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il. A PORTION OF AN UPRIGHT BRANCH OF A CRANBERRY VINE IN WHICH THE TERMINAL BuD, WHICH NORMALLY PRODUCES A FLOWERING AND FRUITING SHOOT, FAILED TO DEVELOP. IN ITS STEAD THREE SHOOTS AROSE FROM NORMALLY DORMANT AXILLARY BUDS. a, An abnormal flower in which the sepalsare short, broad, virescent, and divided at the base; petals short, broad, and mostly virescent; stamens present, but shortened and somewhat abnormal in form. The ovary is prolonged into a columnar form, is virescent, and shows four depressed lines representing points of origin of the division walls of the ovary, which easily ruptures along these lines; 6, an enlarged figure of the same flower; c, d, and e¢, flower pedicels in which the floral organs have all been transformed into small foliaceous structures, e representing the most advanced condition of this transformation, in which, instead of a flower, an almost normal foliaceous shoot is produced, Bul. 444, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Ill. FLOWERING SHOOTS OF CRANBERRY WINES, SHOWING VARIOUS STAGES OF PHYLLODY. Fic. 1.—A flowering shoot with three different stages of phyllody: a, The most pronounced condition, in which sepals and petals are abnormal in form and virescent. Instead of an ovary, the axis is elongated, bearing a whorl of four small, green, leaflike bodies, and ‘his is followed by another similar whorl, within which are two other partially developed organs of the same kind; 6, anenlarged figure of the same, and, c, a section of the basal whorl, representing sepals and petals, showing the condition of the anthers which were present in a somewhat abnormal form in almost all cases except in the condition represente in Plate IV, c, and also in Plate II, c, d, and e. Tia. 2.—A flowering shoot in which two of the flowers are still more greatly transformed: a, Tn this case the axis of the flower, after clee et and bearing a whorl of small, green, leaflike bodies, is con- tinued, producing a series of small leaves, the lower more or less whorled, but those above tending toward an alternate arrangement similar to that of a normal shoot; b, a form in which the elongated axis has all the small Jeaflike bodies more or less alternately arranged. In all these cases, abnormal stamens were present in their normal position. Bul. 444, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. TRANSFORMATIONS OF FLOWERS OF THE CRANBERRY IN VARIOUS STAGES OF PHYLLODY. Fic. 1.—Modifications of the transformation of flowers: a, The flower with cree abnormally shaped sepals and petals; the axis prolonged, bearing two whorls of small, green, leaflike bodies, the upper whorl with eight abnormal stamens, the lower also with stamens; 6, an enlarged view of a; c, the upper whorl of 6, dissected, showing the abnormal floral organs. Within the outer whorl of four short, broad bodies, were four much malformed organs, showing the condition intermediate between an aborted petal andastamen. Within this whorl were eight abnormal stamens and at the center a partially opened ud, with two small, partially developed leaflike organs. Fic. 2.—A shoot in which the flowers are still further transformed: a, All the parts of the flower except the stamens are green and more or less leaflike; 6, an enlarged view of a, showing the condition of the stamens; c, a stage in which the parts, instead of being arranged in whorls, are more or less alternate or spiral; d, an enlarged view of c. There is no sign of stamens present in any of these groups of small, ereen; Jeatilse bodies in c, the stamens being apparently the last organ to disappear in the metamorphosis C0) e@ lower, FALSE BLOSSOM OF THE CULTIVATED CRANBERRY. 5 nitrogen from these soils, as it usually shows great luxuriance of vegetative growth where the water supply is abundant. Mr. Malde (7) corroborates this view and states that the development of the disease appears also to be favored by extreme drought or lack of water. CONTROL. It appears from experiments conducted by Mr. Malde at the Wis- consin Cranberry Station and reported to the writer that malformed plants when transplanted and kept under more favorable conditions tend to return to the normal form. The writer has been told by a grower on the Pacific coast that plants from Wisconsin showing phyllody have entirely recovered from the disease when grown on that coast. The cases in Massachusetts previously mentioned indi- cate, however, that under rather favorable conditions of cultivation in the Eastern States the disease persists for a long time in affected vines. Owing to the obscure nature of this disease and the difficulties involved in carrying out satisfactory experiments to determine definitely its cause and nature, but little has yet been accomplished in this direction. On the basis of the present theories of the cause of the trouble, recommendations have been directed chiefly toward correcting and making as nearly optimum as possible the soil and nutritive conditions under which the plants are grown, as indicated in the writer’s papers. presented at the Wisconsin State Cranberry Growers’ Association (9 and 11). This involves sanitary measures, such as clean cultivation, thorough drainage, pruning, and fertiliza- tion where needed. In cases where half or more of the plants in an area are affected, it is best to mow off the vines, properly drain the bog, and apply ground rock phosphate, which Mr. Malde believes beneficial. In bad cases it will probably be best to scalp the bog and replant with healthy vines (11). Experiments have been undertaken in Massachusetts to determine definitely whether the transmission of the disease to normal plants when grown in contact with diseased plants is possible. Plants from diseased bogs should be carefully avoided in making new plantings. Even though under optimum conditions of growth the plants may outgrow the trouble in time, they will not produce a profitable crop as soon as healthy vines. SUMMARY. The disease known locally as false blossom in Wisconsin is a true case of phyllody. The floral organs show all degrees of transformation from normal flowers to those in which the parts are all changed to green leaflike bodies and the axis prolonged into a shoot. 6 BULLETIN 444, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The disease appears to have originated in Wisconsin, but has become established in Massachusetts, New Jersey, Oregon, and Washington by transplanting diseased vines. The cause is not known. No evidence has yet been obtained to indicate that it is produced by insects or fungi. It is suggested that the disease may be due to unbalanced nutri- tive conditions. The disease is perpetuated from year to year in plants reproduced vegetatively from diseased plants, not only in bogs where the trouble originated, but also under somewhat more favorable conditions of cul- tivation in localities in which the disease was unknown previously. Observations made by Mr. Malde in Wisconsin and by a grower in Oregon seem to indicate that the offshoots from plants affected with false blossom tend to recover and become normal when transplanted and grown under optimum soil and moisture conditions. To overcome the disease, optimum conditions for growth should be provided, including good dhectanes. clean culture, and pruning. Where diseased plants are numerous, the bog should be scalped and replanted with healthy vines. . To prevent the further spread of the disease only vines known to be absolutely free from it should be planted. — LITERATURE CITED. (1) Beverincg, M. W. 1887. Over het cecidium van Nematus Capree aan Salix amygdalina. In Verslag. en Meded. K. Akad. Wetensch. Afd. Natuurk., reeks 3, deel 3, p. 11-21. (2) 1888. Ueber das Cecidium von Nematus Caprez auf Salix amygdalina. In Bot. Ztg., Jahrg. 46, No. 2, p. 17-27, 1 fig. (3) Franxun, H. J. 1915. Report of cranberry substation for 1914. [‘‘ Wisconsin false-blossom.’’] Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 160, p. 99-100. (4) GorBEL, K. E. 1900. Organography of Plants ... Eng. ed. by I. B. Balfour. Pt. 1. Oxford. (5) Jones, L. R., and Saear, C. L. 1914. A report upon ‘‘false blossom” and other cranberry maladies. Jn Wis. State Cranberry Growers’ Assoc. 27th Ann. Rpt. 1913/14, p. 13-14. (6) Matpg, O. G. 1910. Report of the cranberry experiment station for the season 1909. In Wis. State Cranberry Growers’ Assoc. 23d Ann. Rpt. 1909/10, p. 12-17. (7) 1911. Cranberry station report. In Wis. State Cranberry Growers’ Assoc. 24th Ann. Rpt. 1910/11, p. 4-9. (8) Peyrirscu, JOHANN. 1882. Zur Aetiologie der Chloranthien einiger Arabis-Arten. Jn Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. [Pringsheim], Bd. 13, p. 1-22. (9) SHear, C. L. 1908. Cranberry diseases in Wisconsin. Jn Wis. State Cranberry Growers’ Assoc. 20th Ann. Rpt. 1907/08, p. 17-21. (10) 1911. Teratological forms of Oxycoccus macrocarpus. (Abstract.) Jn Science, n. 8., v. 33, no. 840, p. 194. (11) 1915. Conditions affecting the health and productiveness of the cranberry. Wis. State Cranberry Growers’ Assoc. 28th Ann. Rpt. 1914/15, p. 25-28. . {( PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELAT- ING TO THE CRANBERRY. FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Cranberry Culture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 176.) Price, 5 cents. Insects Injurious in Cranberry Culture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 178.) Price, 5 cents. Fungous Diseases of Cranberry. (Farmers’ Bulletin 221.) Price, 5 cents. Fungicides and Their Use in Preventing Diseases of Fruits. (Farmers’ Bulletin 243.) Price, 5 cents. The Cranberry Rootworm. (Department Bulletin 263.) Price, 5 cents. Cranberry Spraying Experiments in 1905. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 100, part 1.) Price, 5 cents. Cranberry Diseases. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 110.) Price, 20 cents. Studies of Fungous Parasites Belonging to the Genus Glomerella. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 252.) Price, 20 cents. Cranberry Spanworm: Striped Garden Caterpillar. (Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 66, part 3.) Price, 5 cents. Frost and Temperature Conditions in Cranberry Marshes of Wisconsin, 1910. (Weather Bureau Bulletin T.) Price, 20 cents. Weather Bureau and Cranberry Industry. (Yearbook separate 562.) Price, 5 cents. 8 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. February 10, 1917 THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA; WITH NOTES ON SOME LITTLE-KNOWN BRAZILIAN FRUITS. By P. H. Dorsett, A. D. SHAMEL, and WILson PoPENogn, Agricultural Hxplorers, Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction. CONTENTS. Page. Page. LOSES Oe Se ee ee a 1 | Citrus fruits of the region around Rio de Origin and history of the navel orange of JaMoInO mss eerie sa see eee tos canes 16 ISGP. oot 2 a ee 1 | Miscellaneous fruits grown at Bahia.......... 17 Introduction of the Washington Navel orange Some interesting fruits of Rio de Janeiro and of Bahia into the United States......-..-..- 4 AeA NS HaBaSucaodosuosnaacnerocdosooddsns 25 Culture of the navel orange in Bahia.........- 7 | Fruits of the highlands and semiarid regions Citrus fruits of Bahia other than the navel of Minas Geraes and Bahia............-..- 31 CEG ne nk Ee Ss Ras ecosnececascccsdeder 15 INTRODUCTION. Since the introduction of the Washington Navel orange from Brazil 45 years ago, its culture in California has been continually extended, until to-day the industry produces an annual income of something like 30 millions of dollars. Yet, in spite of the impor- tance of this fruit, little has been known in the United States of its history in its native home, Brazil, or of the methods and practices of Brazilian orange growers. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. Unfortunately, the origin of this remarkable fruit is somewhat, obscure, and the only available accounts are those which have been handed down from father to son and are still preserved among a few of the Brazilian orchardists. It is the general belief among the latter that the navel orange came into existence at Bahia in the early part of the nineteenth century. Tt is believed to have been first propagated by a Portuguese who lived at Cabulla, a suburb of Bahia City. This section is at the present day the most important 58081°—Bull. 445—17——-1 1 2 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. orange-growing district of Bahia (PI. 1), though most of its com- mercial plantations do not date back more than 40 or 45 years. The name of the originator does not appear to be known at the present day, or the exact location of the property on which the variety origi- nated. Only the most fragmentary accounts are given by the orange growers, who should and probably do know more about the subject than most others. The most complete and probably the most ac- curate statement is that furnished by the Rev. W. A. Waddell, a Presbyterian missionary, who has lived for years in the vicinity of Bahia and has been much interested in this subject, as follows: Twenty years ago an old man, a very intelligent cabinetmaker, told me that in his youth, before the independence of Brazil, the laranja de umbigo (navel orange) was found only in some groves in Cabulla. He, as a boy soldier, in company with his comrades, “chupou muitas” (ate many) during the siege of Bahia, being stationed in a grove that contained some trees. Most of his comrades had never seen them before, but he had seen them sold by the slaves of a Portuguese. He had heard that a “ mandinga” woman charmed a seed and made the first tree yield “ umbigoed ” fruit. This was information gathered when he was young, say, 1816 or 1818. I came to the conclusion that the seedling tree originated in Cabulla in 1810-1820, or perhaps even earlier, and was first propagated by a Portuguese grower, and that in 1822, the year of Brazilian independence, there was quite a lot of trees. Of course, the produc- tion of any odd-shaped fruit would be explained by fetichism among the lower classes. It will be noted that Dr. Waddell speaks of the “seedling tree” which originated in Cabulla. All the evidence, however, indicates that the variety originated as a sport, or mutation, upon a Selecta orange tree, laranja selecta, as it is known in Brazil. The Selecta is almost identical with the navel orange in many characters and fre- quently shows a marked tendency to produce navel fruits, even though it is normally without any vestige of a navel. The Bahians themselves recognize the similarity between these two varieties and call the navel orange “ Selecta de umbigo,” or navel Selecta. This name may, in fact, have been given to the first navel tree to indicate its. origin. The Selecta orange, while rarely seen at Bahia, is still cultivated commercially in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, especially at Sao Goncalo, a suburb of Nictheroy. In one of the groves of this section, that of Joao Elias Esteres, the presence of occasional fruits with well-defined navels was observed on trees which normally produced typical Selecta fruits. The navels in these fruits were in some cases as large and well developed as in the typical navel orange, although they did not protrude through an opening in the apical end of the fruit as commonly as in the latter variety. The typical Selecta orange (PI. IT) is slightly oblate in form and contains 15 to 20 seeds. In bud-sport fruits with navels (Pl. III), THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. 3 the form tends to become more nearly that of the navel orange, 1. e., spherical, and the number of seeds was reduced to an average of nine in the specimens examined. When all the evidence is considered, there is scarcely any room left for doubt concerning the origin of the navel orange of Bahia as a sport from the Selecta variety. Other accounts obtained at Bahia substantiate the belief of Dr. Waddell that the variety orig- inated in the Cabulla district during the first or second decades of the nineteenth century. The origin of the Selecta orange is even more obscure than that of the Bahia navel. It has been known in Brazil since a remote date, and in all probability was brought there by the Portuguese from the Iberian Peninsula, though it might have come through one of the Portuguese settlements in the Orient. An article which appeared in “The Garden” and is quoted in the report of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1877 mentions it as occurring in the Azores, with the note that it is “large, of first-rate flavor, little acidity, and of deep yellow color. It has scarcely any pips and does not ripen until April, which gives it a higher value.” In Rio de Janeiro it is preferred by many to the navel orange; in fact, it is classed by some as the best orange in Brazil. Its fine quality at Rio de Janeiro may be due in some measure, however, to the effect of climate or soil. The extension of the navel-orange industry in Bahia, which has resulted in the present large groves of Cabulla, Matatu, and other districts near the city of Bahia, has taken place since 1860 or 1870, according to the statements of the oldest orchardists. This is about the time of the introduction of the variety into the United States. Previous to that time there were only a few small groves in the Cabulla district. A census taken in 1913 by Dr. V. A. Argollo Ferrao showed that there were in the territory immediately adjacent to the city of Bahia about 67,000 trees, and about 6,000 more in small planta- tions in the interior of the State, notably at Matto de Sao Joao, Santo Antonio de Jesus, Amargosa, and Bom Fim, making a total of 73,000 trees. The principal orange districts within the municipality, as shown upon the map (p. 8), are as follows: Cabulla, containing about 30,000 trees; Saboeiro, with 12,000 trees; Cruz do Cosme, 7,000 trees; Matatu, 8,500 trees; Brotas, 6,000 trees; Sao Gongalo, 2,000 trees; and Victoria (including Barra, Graca, and Rio Ver- melho), 1,500 trees. As there are usually about 100 trees to the acre, the total acreage in oranges within the State is approximately 730. About one-third of the total number of trees have been planted less than three years; one-third are from 3 to 6 years of age, and the remaining third, 6 to 40 years of age. 4. BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. At the present time nearly the entire crop is consumed locally. While small shipments are made to Rio de Janeiro and the steamers which call at Bahia usually take on oranges for use on board, an established trade has not been developed. Yet new orchards are be- ing planted every year and the growers seem to be awakening to the possibility of developing a vastly larger and more profitable indus- try, with the hope of building up an export trade which will include not only Europe but eventually the United States as well. Because of superior transportation facilities, the European markets are likely to be entered first. In the past the high cost of transportation, crude methods of packing and handling, and other factors have pro- hibited exportation to distant countries. With fast steamers and the introduction of modern methods of packing and shipping there seems no reason why Bahia should not enter the export field. The cultivation of this variety in Brazil is not limited to the State of Bahia. It has been planted in other parts of the Republic, but in nearly all cases less extensively than at Bahia itself. Commer- cial orchards are said to exist in the States of Sac Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul. In orchards around Rio de Janeiro the variety is very rarely grown. INTRODUCTION OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA ‘' INTO THE UNITED STATES. The United States owes the successful introduction of the navel orange to the late William Saunders, Horticulturist, Landscape Gar- dener, and Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds of the United States Department of Agriculture. It is not certain, however, that the trees which were introduced by Mr. Saunders were the first which had been brought to the United States, though they were the first to come into successful bearing. The late Thomas Hogg, of New York, in an account published in 1888, stated that about 1838 a wealthy Scotch planter in Brazil determined to manumit his slaves and re- move with them to the United States. He settled on an island in middle or southern Florida and then returned to Brazil and secured a collection of plants for introduction, which he consigned to Mr. Hogg, who at that time conducted a nursery at the corner of Broad- way and Twenty-third Street, New York. Among these plants were several navel-orange trees. After the plants had been held in a greenhouse for a year, in order to allow them to recover from the effects of the long sea voyage which they had undergone, they were forwarded to the owner in Florida. During the Seminole War the owner was charged with giving aid and comfort to the enemy, and the entire collection of plants was destroyed by the United States troops. The owner then moved to Haiti. THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHTA. 5 While it can not be positively stated that these trees were of the same variety as that subsequently introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture, it seems probable that this was the case. None of the trees survived long enough to come into fruit, however, and no trace of them now exists. In a private notebook of Mr. Saunders, now in the possession of his daughter, Miss Belle C. Saunders, is to be found the following entry: DECEMBER 20, 1898. I propose to note from time to time some reminiscences of persons and things. Also make mention of such items as I desire to establish as worthy of record in my practice, items that have been more or less of value in horticultural and kindred pursuits. WILLIAM SAUNDERS. This note indicates that Mr. Saunders wrote the following unpub- lished account (appearing in that notebook) of the successful intro- duction of the navel orange some time between December 20, 1898, and the date of his death, September 11, 1900: Some time in 1869 the then commissioner of agriculture, Horace Capron, brought to my office and read to me a letter which he had just received from a correspondent at Bahia, Brazil. Among other matters, special mention was made of a fine seedless orange of large size and fine flavor. Thinking that it might be of value in this country, I noted the address of the writer and sent a letter asking to be the recipient of a few plants of this orange. This request brought, in course of time, a small box of orange twigs, utterly dry and useless. I immediately sent a letter requesting that some one be employed to graft a few trees on young stocks and that all expenses would be paid by the depart- ment. Ultimately a box arrived containing 12 newly budded trees, and, being packed as I had suggested, were found to be in fairly good condition. I believe that two of them failed to grow. No expenses were charged, so I presume that the correspondent sent them as a gift. All that I ever knew about the donor was that she was a lady, and that the correspondence, so far as she was con- cerned, was not official. I had a supply of young orange stocks on hand, and as fast as I could secure buds they were inserted on these stocks. The first two young plants that were sent out were sent to a Mrs. Tibbetts, Riverside, Cal. That lady called here and was anxious to get some of these plants for her place, and I sent two of them by mail. They prospered with her, and:when they fruited attention was directed to their size and fine appearance, and when ripe their excellence was acknowl- edged, and the fruit was called Riverside Navel, thus ignoring the label at- tached to the plants, which was Bahia, a very distinctive name, which should have been retained. Afterwards other Californians, not wishing Riverside to be boomed with the name, changed it to Washington Navel, all of which was uncalled for, but this department could not alter it, and it was considered best to adopt the name and so avoid further confusion. We budded many hundred from time to time and sent them to Florida, where it has never become very popular, owing to its not bearing plentifully. I have seen trees 15 feet in height, fine trees, at Rockledge with not over a couple of dozen fruits on them, Why it fruits better in California than it does in florida is not known. In the orange house of the department it has never 6 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fruited heavily, but is most profuse in flowers. It was thought that the original trees were not all of one kind and that those sent to Florida were different varieties. This was a mistake, as all were fruited here and all were alike. * * * Many thousands of acres have been planted and upward of 2,000 earloads of fruit have been transported to the Hast in one year. It has also been received with favor in the English market, some sent to London having brought good prices. It has proved to be, perhaps, the most valuable introduc- tion ever made by the Department of Agriculture in the way of fruits. Some years ago Rev.-W. A. Waddell, already referred to in con- nection with the origin of the navel orange, was in Riverside, Cal., and saw the two original trees which were sent by Mr. Saunders to Mrs. Tibbetts. Becoming interested in their history, he made in- quiries of some of his associates when he returned to Bahia, and was told by the Rev. F. I. C. Schneider, the first Presbyterian mis- — sionary to Bahia, that he was the one who had secured and packed the trees which were sent to the United States in 1870. Mr. Schneider, who died about three years ago, told of an earlier shipment that had been sent to the United States, but word was sent back that the trees had all perished during the voyage. Some one requested Mr. Schneider to prepare a shipment as carefully as possible, and he did so. Several old friends of Mr. Schneider were interviewed in Bahia, to see if any account of this shipment could be obtained. One of them, Carlotta da Boa Morte, whose mother was a servant in the Schneider household, clearly recalled the incident. She stated that while she was yet a girl and was living with her mother at the Schneider home Mr. Schneider one day took the family for a picnic to Engenho Velho, a large farm in the suburbs of Bahia, owned by Sr. Teixeira. They spent the day there, and before they returned to town Sr. Teixeira brought in a number of navel-orange trees, and also a few of the lima doce, or sweet lime, which he packed in boxes and sent to Mr. Schneider’s house in the city. Here, after long dis- cussion of the best method of packing them to withstand the trying voyage which was before them, they were placed in a wooden crate and dispatched to the United States. The fazenda (farm) of Engenho Velho, where the trees were ob- tained, has been divided in recent years, but a portion of it still remains in the possession of Sr. Teixeira’s son. A number of old orange trees, uncared for and in bad condition, are still growing on the property. Some of these may have been the parents of the young plants which were sent to North America. The younger Teixeira states that the orchard was planted originally with budded trees from the grove of Sr. Barro Reis, in Cabulla, but he knows nothing about the young trees supplied to Mr. Schneider. THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. ire CULTURE OF THE NAVEL ORANGE IN BAHIA. CLIMATE. The climate of Bahia is warm and humid, with more or less well- defined wet and dry seasons, the wet season beginning in February or March and lasting until June or July, when the dry season normally commences and continues until the following January. The rainfall is not, however, limited to the wet season, although it is much heavier at that time than during the remainder of the year. The size of the orange crop and the quality of the fruit are said by the orchardists to be affected materially by the amount of rainfall, the largest crops and the best fruit being produced when the rains are unusually heavy. The annual precipitation for the last nine years has varied from 40 to 73.35 inches, both these extremes being unusual; ordinarily there is a rainfall of 55 to 65 inches. The temperature of this region is more or less uniform throughout the year and compara- tively constant during the entire 24 hours. Frost is unheard of, the lowest recorded temperature during the last nine years being 63° F. The highest temperature for the same period is 101° and the mean temperature 76.4° F. From January to June the mean temperature usually ranges from 75° to 80° F.; from June to September there is a sight drop, the average being 72° to 75° F. October, November, and December are slightly warmer, varying from 77° to 80° F. These figures are based upon data obtained at the State meteorologi- cal station, near the city of Bahia (Table I). Taste I1.—Temperature and precipitation at Bahia, Brazil, 1904 to 1912, imclusive. | Temperature (° F.). Temperature (° F.). Total Total Year. | : precipi- Year. precipi- Maxi- | Mini- Mead tation. Maxi- | Mini- Mean tation. | mum. | mum. 5 mum. | mum, z | —— Inches Inches J 101 64 76 59.1 LOOD Ee Aaistestere bets 93 66 76 59. 4 Lee See 91 64 76 67.5 NOLO eo Setoe vee 92 66 76 63.5 (0 es ae 95 63 76 625 2by LO Leeman onmeeere 92 67 77 73.35 De Ope oe 92 63 76 40.0 1D ES a a tae 95 67 77 71.9 Uo ears pes en oe [ 92 64 78 56.5 SITUATION OF THE ORANGE ORCHARDS AND THE SOIL CONDITIONS. The land in the immediate vicinity of Bahia is, for the most part, a series of low, rambling hills, not over 100 or 200 feet in height, with intervening level valleys where the soil is frequently wet and best suited to the cultivation of such plants as Angola grass (Panicum barbinode Trin.), an important forage crop both for horses and for 8 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cattle. Practically all of the orange groves are located on the hill- tops (fig. 1 and Pl. IV), frequently extending down the hillsides to the borders of the valleys. As terracing is not practiced, the hillside soil is sometimes bady eroded. The surface soil on the hilltops is usually a rather coarse, sandy loam a foot or more in depth, underlain by the heavy, yellowish red clay which is characteristic of the region. On the hillsides, which are: subject to erosion by the rains, the surface loam is lacking. The clay TONNEL JPITANGR O © PIRAJA PLATAFORMA © CAMPINAS MONTSERRAT TODOS 0S SANTOS CA AH TA O GRASH: 0 Frio VeRMELHO DE 7° ANTONIO Fig. -1.—Sketch map of the vicinity of Bahia, Brazil, the dotted areas showing the prin- cipal districts where navel oranges are grown. soil, though occasionally shallow, frequently extends to a depth of 30 feet or more, as shown by numerous railway and road cuts in the region. It commonly rests on granite. Before clearing, the land is covered with shrubby vegetation, nicuri palms (Cocos coronata Mart.), mangabeiras (Hancornia speciosa Gomez), and sometimes virgin forest. The presence of the mangabeira is taken as an indication that the land is suitable for orange culture. The municipality of Bahia includes about 50,000 acres of arable land, of which it is claimed about 35,000 acres are typical citrus soil. PLATE I. Dept. of Agriculture. ,U.S Bul. 445 "SI6L ‘CI Joquieseg peydeisoj0yq ~*SurjUed Iazye Io e10jeq ATdeap Po}CATITNS Jou Inq SpseM Jo Pouva[o ST IT “WOlsoI STG} UL SPIeYoIO Joy PozOoT9s SAMS ATIVE SI PUL] OPIS[ [TH ‘SeUlIeSUe} 81 SOI [B1}Ued 8Y} UI OSelpoy pe1ojoo -YVp YIM esoyL, *S921} 000'6 Jnoqe surUTe}MOd ‘o7VIg VIE” Ul SeAoI 4Ses.1e] Ot{} JO oUO “erIgeg Jo A410 oY} AveU “E[[NGR Ye ‘OBv'T “10D Jo GAOIS eSULIO 84} Jo Uorjiod y “Izvug ‘VIHVgG NI GHVHOYO JONVHO-1SAVN VW Ssaggegid Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. PI5029FS PI5041FS A TYPICAL FRUIT OF THE SELECTA ORANGE AND A LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE SAME. While normally of the shape shown and devoid of any vestige of a navel, the variety occasionally produces fruits with internal or even externally prominent navels, resembling in every way those of the Bahia or true navel orange. This and other evidence indicates that the Bahia navel originated as a sport or mutation from the Selecta orange, a variety which has been cultivated in Brazil since a remote date and is grown commercially near Rio de Janeiro. Photographed at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, March 20 and 23, 1914. (Natural size.) PLaTE III. Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. (921s TeINJeN) “FI6L ‘0S WOIeW ‘Tze1g ‘omeuer ep ory 48 peydeisojoyg “esueIO [PAR vIgeg OSvIaAv 9y) UI Se ATTeUIEIxe IUeu -TuIoId Se o1OM STOALU OY} S901} VYOoTeg Uodn puNo; syiny 410ds-pnq Joyo Moy BUT *eAode UMOYS 7eY} OF] ‘TeAvU [VUIEIUT UB Jo eaUESe1d OY) SUT LOIPUT ‘xede oy1 1z USTTOAS O1OM PUL [VULIOU OY} MOY poyredep YSIGM ‘I9AOMOY “PUNO OIOM MOT W ‘[I O}V[T Ul UMOYS osoy} Sul[qMesel ‘edA} Ul [eMIOU 19M OAOIZ STG} UL S801} OY} UO SIMI ey} JO 4S0yy “Izvug ‘AOYSHLOIN ‘sauglsq svitq OyOf "YS JO 3AO"H SHL NI 35U] SONVYO VLOATSS Vv WOous ANVG SH1L 4O NOILOSS IVNIGNLIDNOT V GNV LINHY4 LuOdS-ang y SALe09I1d SA9E09Id “OTST ‘ET Joquieseq poydersojoyg doi oser10; e013 & Se TAMOIs ATOATSTIO}. xO ST TOI “(apourging wna2udq) sseis vlosUy JO POY B SI PUNoIseI0y OY} UL “JorI}SIP VI[NGeD ey} Jo seuo jedrourid oy} Jo euo ‘paeyor0 044011eg 04} Jo UcT}Aod BSMOYS DOTeI}SNITI SIU, -Avpo YsIppet Aavoy wv SUT [IOS ey} ‘seprs|[iy wo pojuryd oie viyed Jo A}IUIOIA OU} UL SpAvydI0 oSUe.10 OY} JO SOP! zvug ‘VIHVG YVAN SGISTIIH V NO GYVHOYO ADNVYO-1SAVN V SAs6btId PLATE IV. Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. 9 PROPAGATION AND STOCKS USED FOR THE NAVEL ORANGE. Shield budding, essentially the same as practiced in the United States but differing in a few minor details, is the method used for propagating the navel orange in Bahia. Seedlings of laranja da terra (Citrus aurantium L.), the bitter or sour orange, are practically always employed as stock plants. The chief reason for the almost exclusive use of this stock seems to lie in the fact that it is more easily budded than others. Laranja da china (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osb.), which is sometimes used, is objected to in Brazil because of its thorniness, and also because it does not heal well around the bud and is apt to die back when it is cut off after the bud has started into growth. Very little is known of the comparative effect of these two stocks on the scion, but some of the orchardists in Rio de Janeiro, where both these stocks are used, hold that laranja da china produces a longer lived tree than laranja da terra. Seeds of laranja da terra are sown in beds or rows, preferably on high, well-drained, sandy land. When the seedlings have attained a height of about 6 inches they are either transplanted to nursery rows about 3 feet apart, setting the plants about 12 inches apart in the row, or they are transferred to the place the budded trees are to occupy permanently in the new orchard and later budded in situ. The orchardists give as a reason for this latter practice that it pro- duces hardier trees and that the trees come into bearing sooner than those transplanted from the nursery after budding. When the seedlings are 1 to 2 years old they are budded, no care being used in the selection of bud sticks, as a rule, other than to cut thrifty water sprouts from large and vigorous trees. Budding is usually done in the dry season; buds cut in the shape of « shield three-fourths of an inch to an inch and a half in length are inserted in the stocks 15 to 20 inches above the ground. The bud sticks are sometimes an inch or more in diameter, the small bud wood gener- ally used in the United States not being considered desirable by Bahia propagators. Budding is always done when there is an abundance of sap in both stock and scion and the bark slips readily. If either is found to be dry and the bark does not slip readily, the operation is post- poned until a more favorable time. The incision in the stock is made in the form of an inverted T. The bud, after insertion, is tied firmly in place with a portion of a leaflet of the nicuri palm (Cocos coronata Mart.), made soft and pliable by scalding. This palm is common in all the orange-growing districts of Bahia. Fifteen days after insertion the wrap is removed, and at the end of another 15 days, if the bud has started into growth, the stock is cut off about 2 inches above it, 58081°—Bull, 445—17——-2 10 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. At the end of six months to a year, if grown in the nursery, the young trees are ready for transplanting. The tender growth is re- moved and the plant dug with a ball of soil around the roots. If they are to be kept any length of time before planting in permanent locations or are to be offered for sale in the markets, as is often the case, the trees are placed in small baskets, about 6 to 8 inches in diameter and 8 to 12 inches in depth, made from splints from the woody leafstalks of the dendé palm (/Jaeis guineensis Jacq.). These baskets take the place of the clay flower pot and are widely used. PLANTING AND CULTURAL PRACTICES. The cost of uncleared lands suitable for orange culture near the city varies from $10 to $100 per acre, and farther away, from $3 to $15 per acre. The expense of clearing is frequently more than met by converting the natural growth of timber into charcoal, which can always be sold at a remunerative figure. Immediately after clearing, the orange trees may be set and mandioca (J/anihot esculenta Crantz) planted between the rows, or the ground may be cultivated to man- dioca for a year before the oranges are set out. Mandioca matures in one year. The cost of planting, cultivating, and harvesting the crop is about $20 per acre and its value from $30 to $40 per acre, leaving a sufficient profit as a rule to cover the cost of planting and caring for the orange trees during the first few years of growth, after which the cultivation of mandioca in the orchard is discontinued. It is customary to plant from 80 to 100 trees to the acre, though on rich soils this may be increased to 120. The market price of budded trees varies from 65 cents to $1 each, according to size. In planting, the crown of the roots is barely covered with soil. In dry seasons it 1s sometimes necessary to water the young trees by hand for a few weeks, but beyond this little or no irrigation is practiced. In most groves the only cultivation consists in clearing the land of weeds two or three times a year with a heavy hoe. Labor for this purpose costs 30 to 60 cents a day. Sometimes the work is let out on contract at the rate of $3.30 per acre for each cleaning. Hoeing is usually done during the dry season, when conditions are most favor- able for killing the weeds. The most healthy, vigorous, and productive orchard observed in Bahia was planted to Angola grass (Panicum barbinode Trin.; Pl. IV), which prevents soil erosion and is at the same time an important source of income as a green forage. Manure is frequently applied to stimulate the growth of the grass, the oranges, no doubt, sharing in the benefits of this practice. In most of the small groves little or no manure is applied directly to the trees; in some of the larger ones, however, the practice of applying manure or other fertilizers has become common in recent years. Several groves in which the trees - THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. ~ ital were formerly starved, unhealthy, and unproductive are said to have been brought back to a state of health and fruitfulness by the use of manure. Dairying in connection with orange culture is an interesting fea- ture of the Bahia orange industry. The milk is sold in the city at a very profitable price, usually 25 cents a quart at retail and 15 cents at wholesale. The manure is used on the orchards and in every case is said to have had a marked effect in increasing the production and health of the trees. As a rule, little pruning is practiced. When the trees become old and seriously weakened by the ravages of gum disease they are often renewed by allowing the suckers which start up from the trunk above the union of the stock and scion to form a new top; in fact, it might be called a new tree. The old trunks are either allowed to rot off or are cut away. Having a large and established root sys- tem, the suckers make rapid growth and often begin to bear fruit within two or three years. The orchards usually come into bearing within two or three years after planting. The oldest known trees in Bahia were planted over 40 years ago and are still producing good crops of fruit. ENEMIES OF THE ORANGE TREE IN BRAZIL. In the older orchards many of the trees are affected by gum dis- ease, which seriously impairs their health and eventually kills them or results in their having to be renewed by the production of suckers from below the affected region on the trunk. Chlorosis, or mottle-leaf, exists in many of the orchards, but the growers take no cognizance of its existence as a disease. They con- sider it a constitutional weakness of the tree due to a lack of proper nourishment. A parasitic vinelike shrub known as herva de passarinho, a species of Phoradendron, is frequently found on the trees and has to be re- moved. If allowed to remain, it will in time smother the tree. Sev- eral epiphytic plants of the order Bromeliacex are also occasionally found on orange trees, but do not, it is believed, cause any appre- ciable injury and are easily removed. The trunks of the trees, espe- cially in the older orchards, are covered with lichens, alge, and other low forms of plant life, none of which apparently does any very seri- ous harm. Scale insects of several species are prevalent, but seem to be held in check by some natural agency and do not as a general thing appear to produce serious results. Practically the only insect which is an actual menace to the industry and against which combative measures are taken is the sativa or satiba ant (Adta sp.). 12 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. These ants are black and about half an inch in length. The head in proportion to the body is large. The species is probably closely related to the leaf-cutting ant of Texas and Cuba (Aétasp.). While they cut the leaves of practically any plant, they appear to be par- ticularly fond of orange leaves, and it is not infrequent in Brazil to see a good-sized orange tree nearly defoliated in a single night. The leaf-cutting ants are practically agricultural ants. The fragments of the leaves cut from the trees are carried into a chamber in their nests. Here they decay and form the basis for their so-called “mushroom garden.” The fungi that are cultivated upon these smal! bits of de- caying leaves supply the food of the entire colony. It is reported, and doubtless is true, that these gardening ants exercise every pre- caution to prevent their mushroom beds from becoming contaminated by other species of fungi. The Brazilian farmer combats this pest by forcing hot fumes of sulphur into the runways. In view of the fact that no serious effort is made to combat insect or fungous enemies other than the sativa ant, the comparatively small amount of injury which such enemies appear to do is remark- able. _ THE ORANGE CROP OF BAHIA. While ripe oranges are obtainable in Bahia every month in the year, there are two principal seasons, one in June and July and the other in December and January. The June crop is considerably the larger, and the fruits are considered by Bahians much sweeter and juicier than those which ripen in December. It is difficult to estimate the average yield per tree. The number counted on numerous trees examined at the beginning of the Decem- ber season varied from a few dozen to nearly 500, with an average of about 250. In groves which had been manured and were gener- ally well cared for, the trees usually carried from 300 to 400 fruits, and this, it must be remembered, does not include the fruit produced in the June crop. Where the trees received good care the yield will probably compare very favorably with that in California. (PIL V.) While pruning shears are occasionally used in picking, the fruit is usually pulled from the tree and either allowed to fall to the ground or dropped into a sack. Sometimes the peddlers who come from the city to buy the fruit lead their horses or mules into the grove and toss the fruits from the tree into the large baskets, called “ cassuas,” strapped on each side of the animals’ backs. Frequently the fruits are graded into two sizes before being carried into the city for sale. Careless picking and handling naturally result in many injuries, such as gravel bruises, abrasions, and punctures of the skin. These must, of necessity, encourage the growth of blue mold and other fungi, but the effect is not so serious as it would be if there were a THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHTA. 13 large export trade and the fruit were held in storage for some time. At present it is picked from day to day to supply the market de- mands, and very few days elapse before it is consumed. Oranges are either sold on the tree to peddlers who pick them, earry them to town, and hawk them about the streets, or picked by the orchardist and delivered to the buyer at the grove. Practically all of the crop is carried from the groves to the city, usually a distance of 2 to 4 miles, in baskets, either by horses and mules or on the heads of the natives. The grower usually receives $1.50 to $2 per hundred oranges, and the buyer retails them at about $3.30 a hundred. The local demand is said to be increasing rapidly, and orange culture is proving to be one of the most remunerative agricultural industries. At the present time the best groves are said to be returning net annual profits of $75 to $150 per acre. An experimental shipment, consisting of a box of 96 fruits, care- fully picked and handled so as to avoid bruising, was made from Bahia to Washington, D. C., on January 4, 1914. When examined in Washington on January 27, with the exception of one partly de- cayed fruit the shipment was in perfect condition. With careful handling and proper facilities for shipping there is little doubt that the Bahia orange can be successfully carried to the leading orange markets of the world. The light greenish yellow color will perhaps make it a slow seller at first, until buyers have learned that it is characteristic of this variety as grown in Bahia. THE FRUIT OF THE NAVEL ORANGE AT BAHIA. The navel orange of Bahia has long been known to travelers on the eastern coast of South America, many recent travelers having as- serted that it is a fruit vastly superior to the California navel orange. Some declared that its superiority is due to the climate; others affirmed that better types are grown in Bahia than in Cali- fornia, or that since its introduction into North America the navel orange has degenerated. True it is that there are marked differences in the size, the color, and the quality of the navel oranges produced in these two widely distant regions, though of the same horticultural variety. As to the superiority of one over the other this is a question which can only be decided by individual taste. The navel orange of Bahia (PI. VI) is large, varying from 384 to over 4 inches in diameter; yellow green in color, unless very ripe; extremely juicy and sweet, lacking that sprightly subacid flavor which characterizes the California product. The skin is comparatively thin, and, although the flesh is filled with juice, it is not quite so tender as in the California fruit. Those who prefer a sweet fruit would probably choose the Bahia orange 14 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. as the better; others who relish a slight degree of acidity would give the California product first place. Analyses made by H. C. Gore, Chemist in Charge of the Fruit and Vegetable Utilization Laboratory, Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, show the principal differences in chemical composition of 42 navel oranges from Bahia, Brazil, and 18 from Riverside, Cal. Those from Brazil were picked on January 2, 1914, at which time they should have been fully ripe, since they were fruits of the December crop. Those from Riverside, Cal., were picked about the end of March, 1910, and were also fully ripe. The comparison should therefore be a fair one. (Table II). Taste I11.—Comparative analyses of navel oranges grown at Riverside, Cal., and at Bahia, Brazil. Hercentaee Analysis of juice. Aver- a8 Source of fruit. Bee : ates! As invert. welg. Rag . Acid linity of ————_ Peel.| i epee ¢) “(as |Solids.) Ash. | soluble Re- ou g: ulp.|82¥2"Y-| citric). ash die-|Stear O78 (K2C0s).| ine. Bahia, Brazil: Grams. Average of 42 fruits.]| 366 20.4] 1.5 | 1.0876 | 0.466] 9.4 | 0.353 0.24 | 3.438 | 7.48) 3.85 California: Hermosa ranch— ~ Average of 5fruits from sandy soil.| 199 29.1 | 1.69 | 1.0633 | 1.09 15.47 olan -23 | 6.44 | 12.40| 5.66 Average of 4 fruits from adobe soil.| 193 31.2 | 2.04 | 1.0638 | 1.09 | 15.57] .49 -22 | 6.08 | 12.72} 6.31 por eae 235 34.0 | 1.89 | 1.0572 | 1.08 | 14.06 55 18 | 5.60 | 10.93} 5.07 Average of 4fruits-l) 510.5 | 31.2 | 1.97 | 1.0585 | 1.01 | 14.36] .49 "18 | 5.41 | 11.29| 5.58 It will be seen from Table IT that the percentage of peel or rind is considerably lower in Bahian fruits than in those grown in Cali- fornia. The percentage of “rag,” by which term is designated the fibrous matter which remained after all soluble substances were washed out of the pulp, is slightly lower in Bahia than in California. The most noteworthy features of the chemical analysis of the juice are the low percentage of citric acid and the low percentage of sugar in the Bahian product as compared with that of California. Table II brings out the difference between humid-climate fruits grown in an equable temperature and those of an arid climate with decided drops in temperature. The dry climate and continuous sun- shine of California give the sugar, while the decided drop in winter temperature tends to develop the organic acids and also color. Decided variation, thought to be bud variation, was observed in every orchard, not only in the fruits but in the vegetative characters of the tree as well. All of the various types originating through bud variation which have been observed and defined in the California THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. 15 orchards, and in addition several new ones, were found to be present in Bahia. The type known in California as the “Australian Navel ” orange, characterized by a somewhat corrugated appearance and flattened shape, was observed in several groves. In some cases the production of these fruits was limited to certain limbs on a tree or even to certain fruit spurs; in other cases there were entire trees of this type. “Australian Navel” oranges are inferior in quality, and the great vegetative vigor of the tree is correlated with a poor yield of fruit. Another type was found in which the fruits have a small and almost rudimentary navel. Opposed to this were forms with the navels extremely large and in several instances protruding. These and other types were studied with the object of determining, if possible, whether there existed in Bahia any navel oranges superior to those already known in California and therefore worthy of intro- duction into the United States. Bud wood of a number of the most promising of these forms was secured and they are being tested in California and Florida. Because of the important effect of climate on the size and character of the fruit, it is impossible to determine in advance whether types which appear valuable in Bahia will retain their characteristics in the United States. This can only be decided by a trial. CITRUS FRUITS OF BAHIA OTHER THAN THE NAVEL ORANGE. In addition to the navel orange there are several other citrus fruits which are cultivated to a limited extent in Bahia. One of the most important of these is the tangerine, grown commercially in a small way, the trees usually being scattered among the orange trees in the orchards. (PIl.I.) The bitter or sour orange (Citrus awrantiwm L.), which already has been mentioned in connection with propaga- tion, is usually represented by one or two trees in each grove, which provide seed for nursery purposes. Sweet and sour lemons and the common lime are occasionally seen, the lime usually being present in the markets in small quantities. Good grapefruits are unknown in Bahia. A few fruits seen in a garden near the city, which appeared to be inferior forms of the shaddock (Citrus grandis (1u.) Osbeck), were seedy and thick skinned, and no use was made of them. The so-called “lime orange,” laranja lima (Citrus sp.), which appears to be more common in Rio de Janeiro, was seen in an orchard at Agua Comprida, about 20 miles from Bahia. It is the size of an ordinary orange, very juicy, and combines the taste of the orange and the lime. The citron (C. medica L.) and one or two other citrus fruits are occasionally grown, more as curiosities than anything else. 16 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CITRUS FRUITS OF THE REGION AROUND RIO DE JANEIRO. There are a number of districts in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro where citrus fruits, especially oranges, are grown commercially to supply the markets of the city. The most important are Maxam- bomba, Nictheroy, and the Banca Velha and Porta d’Agua districts near Cascadura. | Maxambomba, 20 miles from the city on the Central Railway, is the largest and by far the most prosperous of these districts. It is difficult to estimate the approximate acreage in oranges, but there are half a dozen groves varying from 5 to 10 acres.in extent in the immediate vicinity of the village and others scattered upon the near-by hills (Pl. VII). Most of the groves are better cared for than those seen in the other districts noted above and present a much healthier and more vigorous appearance. At Nictheroy most of the orange groves are located in the suburb known as Sao Gongalo, about 4 miles from the center of the city, but easily accessible by means of the electric cars. Here there are numerous small plantations of 1 or 2 acres in extent and a few larger ones. As in the other districts, practically all the groves are located on the hillsides or on sloping ground. Banca Velha and Porta d’Agua, in a beautiful valley about 12 miles west of Rio de Janeiro, contain numerous small groves and a few several acres in extent. As at Nictheroy, not as much attention is given to the culture of the orchards as at Maxambomba, and the groves do not, as a rule, have a thrifty appearance. In all these districts the soil appears to be fertile and well suited to orange culture. In the valleys the sandy loam on the surface is sometimes underlain with a subsoil of reddish clay, while on the hill- sides the loam is frequently badly washed by the rains. At Maxam- bomba the reddish clay is visible, the hillsides being of light clay loam. The methods used in propagating and cultivating the trees and in picking and handling the fruit differ in no important respects from those practiced at Bahia. Laranja da terra (Citrus aurantium), the bitter or sour orange, is generally used as a stock on which to bud and by most growers is considered the best. The orchards are rarely cultivated, but the surface is cleaned of weeds from time to time with a hoe. The trees, which are often stunted in appearance, are planted closer together than at Bahia, 12 by 12 feet being a common distance. Of the numerous varieties of the orange known at Rio de Janeiro, only three are cultivated extensively, Selecta, Pera, and Natal, the - latter being very similar to Pera if not actually synonymous with it. Many horticulturists at Rio de Janeiro consider Selecta the best Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. PI6369FS NAVEL ORANGES ON THE TREE. When well cared for, the trees in Bahia orchards are about as productive as in California, and in place of one crop a year there are two, one ripening from December to Tebruary and the other during June and July. The second crop, however, is usually not heavy. The variation in size and character of the nayels, even among fruits on the same tree, is clearly shown in this illustration. Photo- graphed in the grove of Col, I’. da Costa, Matatu, Bahia, Brazil, December 6, 1913. PLATE VI. Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘po.10' Aom [ 09 APIYSIAq se sourodaq ATOIVI PUB IOUUIY) SI UDYS ou, (-ozIs yemye N) “SI6T ‘8% PUv 1Z IOQMOAON poyders0joY “eIUAOJITVD JO OFM] JoLIpP OY} UL Soop 4T SB *ApyyStads Os 40U ST IOALT ey} pure OIOUL PUB 10}00MS O.1B SOSUBIO [OAL BIYLY OUT, “WoUMTods osvi0Av UB Sv LOYe} oq AVUT IY} Inq “[IZzBIg “CIYeE 7 SprVvyoso UT MOUTUTOD ore SIT} UY} Jesiey ATQeIepIsuoOo syMAT 9.1N}X0} UL 108180 ST YSop oy} INq “VIUAOFT [VD Ul WMOIS SPOABN WOYSUTYSe AA OY} ULY "ALSINVA SWVS SHL JO LINN GSNOILOSS V GNV VIHVG LV NMOUD SV JONVYO TSAVN AVOIdAL VY SAldbbld SsA6EESId PLATE VII. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bul. 445 ‘FIGL “61 Woieyy poydeis -O10YT ‘Spooa oT} WMOP deoxy 0} pooy ATTeUOISBI00 ST Inq “peqeVAT}[NO 4OU ST [Los ey, “Worser ST} UL UMO.IS OU edroutid ay] ST orgs ‘AOLIVA BIO OY} 07 pojuL[d st UOT eaAYSNI[T 94} UL WMOYS Prvyo.10 plo-reeA-F OY, “eIngyNd snqj1o 07 peydepe Tem AyjUeTedde ‘ureoy Avo VST O10Y [LOS OUT, “*PULTUT SepTUT OZ JNoge ‘eqIMoquIeXeY JO APUTOTA OY} UL UMOIZ 0.18 OLTOUBL OP OLY UT P[Os Sesuv.10 9] Jo yred ose] V “izvug ‘OUMISNVP 3d O1Y YVAN ‘VaWOdWYXVI| LY GHVHOUO SONVHO NY SALI09Id PLATE VIII. Bul. 445, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. é (9218 TeINJON) “FIGT ‘VT WoIey IB Spoes vq Sno1WMINU oy, ‘oyeur0Ie APYSI[S pus ‘qooms ‘oj AY[IUI ST YSopou, “ose sao TWO ‘SIOMOY PUG OSBITO] Jo SuoTULOedS YsnoyIe SsA9zg9ld ‘souelDS 07 TMOUYUN ATSnorAeid sem Ima OL, izelg ‘eyed 3@ peydvisojoug ‘Weed WOULUIOD B JO OZIS OY} Jnoge edoingy 0} Uoye1 PU poydo][09 o10M ‘PotAVU sv Sofoods Of) TOT. "eIyV” JO S(ANQns oY} UI PUNOF SI (2WUMWZ]DS DUOUU PY) VUNOT}eIVe STIL, "VAOWINSHO SHL JO SALLVITaY V ‘LINN MAN V eee THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. 17 orange in Brazil. Though not seedless, like the navel orange, its flavor is considered better and the flesh more delicate in texture. The slightly oblate form of this fruit has given rise to the name laranja deprimida, or “ flattened orange,” which is sometimes ap- plied to it. In size it is large, though somewhat smaller than the average navel orange of Bahia, measuring 34 to 4 inches in diameter. The skin is thick, yellowish green in color early in the season, later becoming bright golden yellow. The flesh is tender and very juicy, with tender rag but a rather large, open core. The seeds are rather large, commonly 10 to 20 in number. In flavor Selecta is strikingly suggestive of the California navel orange; there is more acidity than is normally found in the navel orange produced at Bahia and consequently a more sprightly flavor. The tree is not as prolific as the other commercial varieties grown at Rio de Janeiro. The fruit commences to ripen early in March and continues until October, the main season being June and July. The relationship between Selecta and the navel orange has already been discussed. Pera is considered second only to Selecta. It is a smaller and sweeter fruit, coming at the opposite season of the year and thus not competing with Selecta in the market. A good specimen is 3 inches in diameter, slightly elongated in form, but not pyriform as the name laranja da pera, “pear orange,” seems to indicate. The skin is smooth and fine in texture, deep golden orange in color, not more than an eighth of an inch in thickness. It adheres closely to the light yellow fiesh. The rag, though not thick, is objectionably tough. The juice is abundant and of very sweet flavor, perhaps a trifle lacking in acidity. In the groves of Maxambomba (Pl. VII) this variety is grown practically to the exclusion of all others. At Nictheroy Selecta is the most prominent, though Natal, “the Christmas orange,” which in reality appears to be Pera under another name, is cultivated to a certain extent. Most of the other citrus fruits found at Bahia are grown also at Rio de Janeiro, the tangerine being especially popular in the Nictheroy district. MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS GROWN AT BAHIA. With its rich soil, mild climate, and abundant rainfall Bahia is preeminently suited to fruit culture. That the Brazilians have not been neglectful of this fact is evidenced by the large number of species cultivated, some of them indigenous to the region and others introduced from the Orient by the Portuguese in the early days of 58081°—Bull, 445—17——3 18 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. colonization. Fruit forms an important item in the diet of the people, and the abundance and variety offered in the markets are a constant surprise to visitors. With the exception of the orange and the pineapple, of which there are extensive commercial plantations, nearly all fruit trees are grown near the houses and in the gardens of the natives, either as single specimens or in small numbers, frequently crowded together without regard to order. Under such conditions the trees receive very little attention; yet their growth is usually vigorous and their appearance indicative of health. The Indian tamarind (Zamarindus indica Li.) 1s common, the fruit being used principally for making a cooling drink. The carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.), another Indian fruit, is also cultivated, but it 1s not very common. Phyllanthus acida (1.) Skeels, known as groselha (‘“ gooseberry ”), 1s seen In many gardens. The avocado, locally called abacate (Persea americana Maill.), is one of the most popular of fruits during its season and is cultivated on a commercial scale, one grove alone containing nearly 800 trees. Budding or grafting is not practiced. Among the seedlings none was seen which appeared to be superior to those grown in Florida and the West Indies. ‘The caja and the caja manga (Spondias lutea L. and S. cytherea Sonnerat) are seen occasionally at Bahia; both are used for making sherbets as well as eaten in the fresh state. The sapodilla, locally known as sapoti (Achras zapota L.), grows to large size and its fruit is highly esteemed. Two varieties are distinguished by the natives, one oval or elliptical and the other round. One or more species of Passiflora, known as maracujis, are occasionally seen, as is the jambo, or rose-apple (Caryophyllus jambos (L.) Stokes). The papaya (Carica papaya L.), known in Portuguese as mamao, is esteemed as a breakfast fruit. Two forms are distinguished, a small, usually round or oblate type, known simply as mamao, and a large, elongated form known as mamao da India. The latter is con- sidered much the better in quality and always brings a good price in the market. When the fruits are picked it is customary to make four or five shallow incisions through the skin from base to apex and then allow 24 hours or more for the milky juice to exude before the fruit is eaten. This tropical custom is said to improve the flavor of the flesh. Propagation is usually by seed, though in rare in- stances the mamao da India is said to be grown from cuttings in order to insure its coming true to type. The common guava of the Tropics (Pstdium guajava L.), used principally for jelly making, is present in many of the gardens. The manufacture of jelly is carried on commercially, but not on so large a scale as in the State of Pernambuco, farther north. Several in- THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHTA, 1 digenous species of Psidium, known as Araca do Rio, Araca cagao, etc., are also grown to a limited extent. The pineapples of Bahia (called abacaxi in Portuguese) are justly renowned; one author describes them as “mellow and overrunning with juice of incomparable flavor.” By the Brazilians they are con- sidered inferior only to those of Pernambuco. During the height of the season they are brought in boatloads across the bay from the mainland and heaped up in large piles at the waterside or in the markets. The jak of the Malayans (Artocarpus integra (Thunb.) L. f.), here known as jaca (jack fruit), which, like the mango, was introduced by the Portuguese in the early days, is not only eaten and appreciated by the lower classes but when abundant is utilized as stock food. Cat- tle appear to be especially fond of it. The dried pulp, candied, wrapped in tinfoil, and packed in boxes holding about a pound, has recently been put on the market. The fruta de pao, or breadfruit (Artocarpus communis L.), 1s not as common as the jaca, or jack fruit, but is grown in many gardens. Of annonaceous fruits there are several, of which the most im- portant is the fruta de conde (Annona squamosa L.), so named, it is said, because of its having been introduced about the end of the seventeenth century by the Conde (Count) de Miranda. The fruits grown here are of large size and excellent quality. A rare species, Annona salzmanni A. DC., usually known under the name of arati- cum, was seen in several gardens near Cabulla and Retiro. The fruits are about the size of those of the custard-apple (A. reticulata L.), with white, rather insipid flesh (Pl. VIII). They are occa- sionally sold in the market. A number of other important fruits are grown or occur wild in the region about Bahia. These are described somewhat in detail, since they deserve to be called more particularly to the attention of American horticulturists. THE GRUMIXAMA. Among the cultivated myrtaceous fruits the grumixama or grumi- chama (Mugenia dombeyi (Spreng.) Skeels; Hugenia brasiliensis Lam.) is one of the most. interesting. It 1s sometimes called the “cherry of Brazil,” a term which not inaptly describes its appearance and taste. The tree, 20 to 25 feet in height, is shapely and attractive in appearance, with ovate-elliptical, glossy, deep-green leaves 2 to 3 inches in length. The small white flowers-are followed by pendent fruits, round or slightly flattened, about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, glossy, deep crimson in color, crowned at the apex by the persistent green sepals. ‘The thin, delicate skin incloses a soft, melt- ing pulp of mild and agreeable flavor, strikingly suggestive of a 20 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bigarreau cherry. The seeds are rounded or hemispherical when only one or two are present; sometimes there are three or more, in which case the size is reduced and they become angular. The rapidity with which the fruits develop is surprising; within a month from the time of flowering they have reached maturity and are falling to the ground. Tavares’ states that the trees, even of the same variety, do not all ripen their fruit at the same time, some blooming much later than others and thus extending the season from November to February. Three varieties are distinguished, the difference being in the color of the pulp; in one it is dark red, in another vermilion, and in the third white. All three are said to be of equally good quality. The grumixama is much more common in southern Brazil, par- ticularly in the States of Parana and Santa Catharina, than it is at Bahia. Little attention is paid to its culture, but it is said to prefer a deep and fertile soil. Its propagation is entirely by seed, the trees coming into bearing at 4 or 5 years of age. The fruit is usually eaten while fresh, but is well adapted to the preparation of various sorts of jams and preserves, in the manufac- ture of which the Brazilians are unusually adept. THE PITOMBA. Another myrtaceous fruit occasionally seen in the gardens of Bahia is the pitomba (Hugenia luschnathiana Berg), stated to be indig- enous to this region. It is not common in cultivatien. Like the nearly related grumixama, the tree is particularly hand- some and worthy of planting for ornamental purposes alone. It at- tains a height of 20 to 30 feet, with compact, dense foliage, the indi- vidual leaves being lanceolate, about 3 inches in length, glossy and deep green above, lighter green on the under surface. The fruits (Pl. PX), which are borne upon a slender stem about 1 inch in length, are broadly obovate in form, an inch in length, with the apex crowned by four or five green sepals half an inch long. The color is bright orange-yellow. Inclosed by the thin, tender skin is the soft, melting, bright orange-colored flesh, very juicy, aromatic, and of an acid flavor. The seeds, normally one in number, but some- times two, three, or even four, are rounded or angular and attached to one side of the seed cavity. The season in Bahia is November and December. The tree as a rule is not so productive as the grumixama or some other myrtaceous fruits, but nevertheless bears a fair crop of fruit. Propagation is readily effected by means of seed, which appears to be the only method used. Volunteer seedlings spring up abundantly i Tavares, J. S. As fruteiras do Brazil. Jn Broteria, Ser. Vulgar. Sci., v. 10, fase. 6, p. 420. 1912. THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. 21 under the trees when fruits remain on the ground. Like nearly all the other myrtaceous fruits observed in Brazil the pitomba seems capable of rapid improvement in the hands of the plant breeder. - THE GENIPAPO. The genipap of the British West Indies (Genipa americana L.), known in Brazil under the name of genipapo, is a close relative of the Gardenia. It is common in Bahia, huge baskets of the fruit being offered in the markets during the months of February and March. While its flavor is rather peculiar and not certain to please a Euro- pean at first trial, the fruit appears to be quite highly esteemed by the Brazilians and is used by them in various ways. The tree attains a height of fully 60 feet. It is symmetrical and stately in appearance, but devoid of foliage for a part of the year, as the species is semideciduous. In November it is covered with small yellow flowers. The leaves are a foot or more in length, oblong-ovate, dark green in color, sometimes entire, sometimes more or less dentate. The fruit is the size of an orange, broadly oval to nearly round in form, russet brown in color. After being picked from the tree it is not ready to be eaten until it has softened and is bordering on decay. Immediately under the thin, delicate skin lies a layer of granular flesh a quarter of an inch or more in thickness; within this are the numerous seeds surrounded by yellowish brown pulp. ‘The seeds are compressed, about a quarter of an inch in diameter, and so abun- dant that it is difficult to eat the pulp without swallowing them. The flavor is characteristic and quite pronounced; it may be likened, per- haps, to that of dried apples, but is stronger, and the aroma is con- siderably more penetrating. A liquor which is made from the genipapo retains the distinctive flavor and aroma of the fruit to a marked degree. Its manufacture is carried on commercially in a small way. A refreshing drink is prepared from the ripe fruit, with the adsl: tion of sugar and water. The green fruit yields a sls, which, accord- ing to Barbosa Rodrigues, is Fonipleved by the Munduructi Indians for tattooing, and also for coloring clothes, straw, and hammocks. THE GRAVATA. An oblong straw-colored fruit, known to the natives as gravata, is occasionally seen in the markets of Bahia. It is a species of Bro- melia. It is not cultivated, but occurs wild in this region and is gathered and brought to market by the natives. Its close relation- ship to the pineapple makes it of peculiar interest. Unlike the pine- apple, in which the individual fruits are fused together and form a single whole, the fruits of the gravaté remain separate. They vary in length from 3 to 4 inches, in thickness from an inch to 14 inches. 22 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. They are usually more or less compressed from being crowded to- gether on the stem; a tuft of dry, brown sepals protrudes about an inch beyond the apex. The flesh is crisp, juicy, white, and contains two or three rows of small flattened seeds. The flavor is spicy and delightfully subacid. Care must be taken to remove the skin before eating, however, as it contains a principle which burns the lips and mouth severely. Like the uncultivated types of pineapple, and to a less extent the cultivated ones, it probably contains raphides and also the enzym known as bromelin. The name gravata is not limited to this fruit alone, but in Brazil is commonly applied to a large number of bromeliaceous plants. THE ABIU. The abieiro (Pouteria caimito (R. and P.) Radlk.), a small tree of the family Sapotacez, produces the fruit known as abiu (the suf- fix “eiro” being added to names of fruits in Portuguese to designate the tree). It is not common in Bahia, but the fruit is seen in the markets in small quantities during February and March. The tree is pyramidal in form, reaching a height of 15 to 20 feet. The fruit (Pl. X) is egg shaped, 3 inches in length, and externally orange yellow in color. The skin is thick and tough. Surround- ing the two or three large oblong seeds is the translucent, white flesh, of delicate flavor, resembling that of the sapodilla (Achras zapota L.). Unless fully ripe it contains a milky fluid which coagulates on exposure to the air and sticks to the lips in an annoying manner. The abiu appears to be used only as a fresh fruit. It is, perhaps, more popular at Rio de Janeiro than at Bahia, though its cultivation is not extensive at either place. At Para it is said to be one of the commonest fruits. THE PITANGA. The pitanga (Hugenia uniflora L.), known in southern Florida as Surinam cherry, is widely grown in Bahia as a hedge plant. Itseems admirably adapted to this use, forming a compact, bright-green hedge, thickly foliaged from the ground up. It produces small, ob- late, ribbed fruits, deep crimson in color and about an inch in diame- ter; when grown as a hedge, however, the plants do not bear as heav- ily as when given more room and allowed to develop unhindered. The small, ovate, glossy green leaves are frequently scattered over the floors of the houses, yielding, when bruised by trampling, an agree- able spicy odor, which is much liked and thought to be efficacious in driving away flies. THE CASHEW, OR CAJU. One of the most abundant and popular fruits is the cashew, or cajii (Anacardium occidentale L.), of which there are innumerable THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. ah wild trees in the immediate vicinity of the city. The tree is practi- cally never planted, and so far as could be learned no effort is being made to select and propagate the better types. Quantities of the fruits are gathered from wild seedling trees and brought into the market, where their aromatic fragrance soon dominates all other odors. The island of Itaparica, in the bay of Todos os Santos, about 7 miles from the city, is said to produce the finest cashews. One tree on the island, the “ Manteiga” or “butter” cashew, is especially famed. Aside from being eaten fresh, in which state great quantities are consumed by the natives, the cashew makes excellent jams and jellies and a light wine, all of which are manufactured commercially. THE MANGO. The mango (Mangifere indica L.), introduced from India in the early days, vies in popularity with the cashew, though it is not pro- duced in such lavish profusion. Large seedling trees are seen every- where, not only in gardens, but along the roadsides wherever seeds have chanced to fall. The immense size which the tree attains in the deep soil of this region is astonishing; a magnificent specimen at Cabulla (Pl. XI), said to be over 100 years old, was found to have a spread of 120 feet, while the trunk was over 25 feet in cir- cumference. Itaparica is famed throughout Brazil for its mangos. Most of the trees on the island are seedlings, of which more than 180 are known by name. Quantities of fruit are exported to Rio de Janeiro, the growers receiving $5 to $10 per hundred. At this rate, some of the largest trees are reported to yield an annual income of $200. It must be admitted that most of the mangos grown in Bahia and elsewhere in Brazil, grafted varieties as well as seedlings, are somewhat inferior to the best of those cultivated in India, the Phil- ippines, or the United States. There is one variety, however, whose unusual beauty and exceptional commercial qualities make it of par- ticular interest. This is the Manga da rosa (rose mango), grown commercially in the vicinity of Pernambuco and to a less extent at Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and other points in Brazil. During the holi- day season quantities of the fruit are shipped to Rio de Janeiro, principally from Pernambuco, and sold by dealers in fancy fruits at the equivalent of 65 to 80 cents each. The attractiveness of this mango, with its cordate, regular form, slightly beaked at the apex, and its contrasting shades of apricot and scarlet, can scarcely be resisted. It will average about 1 pound in weight. The fiber is coarse and rather long; the quality is fair; the flavor and aroma are very good, indeed. However, the variety as a whole can not be considered the equal of the Mulgoba, Paheri, or several other Indian 94 ~° BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mangos grown in the United States. Its unusual attractiveness and the fact that it withstands shipment and handling much better than other varieties observed make it of interest and well worthy of introduction for experimental tests in North America. Manga da rosa is believed to have been introduced into Brazil from Mauritius. Two subvarieties are known in Bahia, “ da terra” and “ do Rio,” differing slightly in the shape of the fruits. Inarched trees are produced in small quantities and sell at $3 each. The variety is polyembryonic, like the “No. 11” mango of Florida and the West Indies, and appears to be a regular and prolific bearer. There are four other named varieties of the mango which are propagated by grafting and are more or less well known at Bahia as well as in other sections of Brazil. The best of these is probably the Itamaraca, which takes its name from the island of Itamaraca, off the Brazilian coast near Pernambuco, a place especially noted for its mangos. The fruit is small and of very unusual form, distinctly oblate, with a small protuberance, or “nak,” at the stigmatic point near the apex. Usually it does not average more than 3 inches in diameter. Its color is orange yellow, and the flesh is free from fiber, is aromatic, and of piquant, spicy flavor. It is generally considered the best flavored of the grafted varieties. Espada (sword), an- other named variety, is apparently a seedling type, of which indi- viduals are sometimes propagated by inarching. Its form is distinc- tive, long and curved at each end. It is usually yellowish green when ripe, not at all attractive in appearance. While its flavor is fair, the flesh is very fibrous and it must be ranked as inferior. Carlota and Augusta and two other named varieties, neither of them being widely grown. Both are rather small, of good flavor, but with no particular merit. THE DENDE PALM. The Guinea oil palm (Zlaeis guineensis Jacq.), known in Bahia as dendé, was doubtless introduced from Africa in the early days of the slave trade. It is frequently seen growing upon the hillsides on the edge of the city and is common around the huts of the negroes. Its tall, straight stem, ascending to a height of 40 or 45 feet, is crowned by a rather compact head of stiff, pinnate leaves about 20 feet in length. While not graceful in appearance, it is handsome and of considerable ornamental value, the scattered groups, which are abundant in the suburbs, being among the most pleasing features of the landscape. The fruits are produced in crowded bunches, clustered around the trunk at the bases of the leaves. Individually they are oblong ellip- tical, about 2 inches in length and 1 inch in thickness, dull orange- scarlet in color when fully ripe. The large seed is surrounded by a layer of firm golden yellow pulp, very rich in oil. PLATE IX. Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. (-9zIs [en4eu SyYIMOJ-901G,L,) “EI6T ‘TZ Jequreseq ‘fzeig ‘ere ye poydeisojoyg “Ayjal pue searosoid ojur epeut ATJUeNbes e1our Inq “Ysecy We}ve SEUITJOULOS ST 4 ‘g0uvIseY oryeulore ‘Aords pue IOAR quesee[d & UIA SA00¢9Id G proe Ajdieys ‘é é JO[O UF MOTIEA UOPpOS SE IMIOUL, “[zerg ‘ergeg Jo AJUpOLA oy} Uy punoy st (oUMYyDUY ISN) DUAN ) CqUIOI "VAVN') FHL JO SAILVIAY ONILSSYSLNI NV ‘VEWOLId SHL oud Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. PI4973FS THE Asiu, A FRUIT RESEMBLING THE SAPODILLA. This tree is comparatively rare in tropical America, but it is cultivated at Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and other places in Brazil. The fruit is bright yellow in color, with white flesh of a sweet, rich flavor strongly suggesting that of the sapodilla (Achras zapota), to which it is related. The tree is small and of very attractive appearance. Botanically itis known as Pouteria caimito. Photographed at Bahia, Brazil, November 3, 1913. (Natural size.) Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI. PI6374FS AN UNUSUALLY LARGE MANGO TREE AT CABULLA, BAHIA. On the deep, fertile soil of this region the mango attains immense proportions. The specimen shown in this photograph is believed to be over a hundred years old. It is 25 feet in circumference and. at noonday casts a shadow 120 feet in diameter. This large seedling mango occasionally bears a good crop of fruit of fair quality. Photographed at Col. Lago’s, Cabulla, Bahia, Brazil, December 12, 1913. PLATE XII. Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “ST6T ‘8% 1040900 ‘TIze1g ‘omoURL Op OT “enSy,.P vyJog ‘S,se}U0,T *H “VY “Ig ye poydeisojoyg “yin. oareu JOY}O AU JSOUI[S UL} 1T10}X9 104veIs BO} POYVATI[NO OSTR SI PUB [IZVI_ UsoJSvoyJNOS UL PITA SMOIS Bqeor}oqel oy, “eATIOvIIIe AIOA IT SoxeUT SOALOT U00IS-Y SIG [[VULS Jo Peay [VOLOUIUIAS JOVdTAOD S}T “WOTYV.AASHI[E STG} UL WAMOYS ST 0017 SUrYSe10}UL A[QvyIeULIL SIN} Jo MetMtoeds poo’ y "(WYUOTSIINVD VINVIOYAI]) SAUL VEVOILOdVe SHL SHd1I9Id THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. D5 Dendé oil is an important food product, entering into the prepara- tion of a number of dishes, some of which, such as vatapa, are con- sidered peculiar to the region. While utilized by all classes of people, its greatest popularity is among the negroes, long familiarity hay- ing made dendé oil almost as indispensable to them as olive oil is to the Spaniard. The price at which it is sold, 25 to 30 cents for a quart bottle, is not high by Brazilian standards. Its flavor is characteristic, but not objectionably strong. The oil is prepared by a simple process, requiring no special utensils and involving but little labor. The pulp is macerated and placed in cold water, and as the oil rises to the surface it is skimmed off, placed in a pan, and boiled down to remove all water and other foreign substances. When ready for use it is deep orange colored, about as heavy as olive oil, and usually somewhat cloudy in appearance. Upon exposure to cold it solidifies. It is said to be employed as an illuminating oil, as well as being used for culinary purposes. The utility of the dendé palm is not limited to the production of oil. Among the Bahians the leaflets are used for making brooms, while the woody leafstalks are split and woven into baskets. SOME INTERESTING FRUITS OF RIO DE JANEIRO AND VICINITY. Aside from the natural beauty of its surroundings, the capital of Brazil has an added interest to the horticulturist in its magnificent avenues of Royal palms (Ovreodowxa oleracea Mart.), of which there are a number scattered throughout the city. In such an avenue as that in the Botanic Garden, over half a mile in length, this palm is seen at its best, its straight, flawless trunk rising to a height of over a hundred feet, crowned by a tuft of graceful leaves. There are certainly few plants more striking in landscape effect than this, and it should be more widely grown throughout the Tropics and in the United States wherever it will survive the winters. Rio de Janeiro does not appear to have the profusion of indigenous and exotic fruits which are found in Bahia, yet the markets are nearly always supplied with many choice sorts. European fruits, such as the apple, the pear, and the grape, hold a much more impor- tant position than in Bahia, large quantities being imported from Europe and North America in addition to a limited production of certain ones in various parts of southern Brazil. Many of the tropical fruits found at Bahia are common, notably the cashew, the mango, the sugar-apple, the pineapple, and the banana. THE JABOTICABA, Among the fruit trees cultivated in the gardens about Rio de Janeiro the jaboticaba is one of the commonest, and certainly the one which ereates the strongest impression upon the newcomer. The 26 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. peculiar habit of producing its delicious fruit directly upon the bark of the tree, not only upon the small limbs but upon the trunk and it is said even upon exposed roots, together with the unusual beauty of its symmetrical, dense, umbrageous head of light-green foliage, places it far above the average indigenous fruit tree of tropical and subtropical South America. The jaboticaba is extremely popular and highly esteemed by all classes of Brazilians. It has been cultivated for generations, yet in spite of this fact, it is, botanically speaking, but imperfectly known. Horticulturists specs list it as Myrciaria jaboticaba Berg, but Berg himself distinguished and defined three distinct species, J/. caulifiora, M. trunciflora, and M. jaboticaba, whose fruits are all known under the name of jaboticaba. Tavares,’ in describing these three species, states that they can only be distinguished when grow- ing wild in the forests, since culture produces marked variation from the typical characters and in addition some of the cultivated forms are the results of crosses between the different species. It can easily be seen, therefore, that in studying the trees found in cultivation and attempting to name them accurately, many obstacles are en- countered. The geographic distribution of the jaboticaba is stated by the best authorities to be from Rio Grande do Sul on the south to Minas Geraes on the north and from the coast to Goyaz and Matto Grosso on the west. Outside of this region the tree is occasionally seen in culti- vation, as at Bahia, where it does not appear to thrive and is rarely grown. Around Rio de Janeiro it is one of the features of gardens and orchards. Not only are there single trees in many gardens, but occasional small plantations an acre or two in extent. The zone of the jaboticaba extends from sea level to altitudes of 3,000 feet, or even more. At Petropolis it grows and fruits well, according to Tavares,? and at Barbacena, in Minas Geraes, where the altitude is 1,168 meters, it seems to thrive, although the winters are sometimes very cool. In this section of Brazil, however, ice rarely forms, even at such altitudes. At Lavras, Minas Geraes, nearly every garden contains one or more trees, making the jaboticaba easily the most important fruit of the region. At Pirapora, head of navigation on the Rio Sao Francisco, there are a few gnarled and stunted trees whose abnormal condition apparently indicates that they are near the edge of the zone in which the tree can be grown. One of the greatest Brazilian botanists, Barbosa Rodrigues, con- sidered the jaboticaba (Pl. XII) the handsomest of all the Myr- tacee. Under favorable conditions it reaches a height of 35 or 40 1Op. cit., v. 10, p. 422, 2Op. cit., v. 10, p. 429, THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. 24 feet, the trunk branching freely close to the ground. The leaves are persistent, opposite, ovate-elliptical to lanceolate, acute at the apex, generally glabrous, with the margins entire. In length they vary from three-fourths of an inch to over 3 inches, their size being one of the principal characteristics by which the natives distinguish the different horticultural forms which are cultivated in the gardens. The flowers (Pl. XIII) are small, white, produced singly and in clusters on the bark from the base of the trunk to the ends of the small branches, sometimes so thick as almost to hide the trunk, limbs, and small branches from view; in form they resemble those of the myrtle, having four small white petals and a prominent clus- ter of white stamens. The season of flowering varies greatly with the different species and in different localities. The fruit (Pl. XIV) develops very rapidly and is ripe two or three months after the appearance of the flowers. In form it is round or slightly oblate, half an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, deep, glossy maroon-purple in color, crowned with a small disk at the apex. While sessile in Myrciaria caulifiora, in M. jaboticaba the fruits are produced upon slender stems about an inch in length. Those of I/. caulifiora are considered the largest, frequently averag- ing an inch or more in diameter as seen offered for sale in the mar- kets. The skin is thick and rather tough; besides coloring matters it contains a large amount of tannin. The translucent, juicy pulp, white or tinged with rose, is of a most agreeable, vinous flavor, suggestive of the Scuppernong or Muscadine grape (Vitis rotundi- folia) of the Southern States; the whole appearance and character of the fruit so suggest a grape, in fact, as to earn for the jaboticaba the name of “the grape of Brazil.” One not infrequently finds a jaboticaba with the disagreeable resinous twang common to a num- ber of myrtaceous fruits. This may be due in many instances to the condition of the fruit at the time of eating or to the inferiority of the particular variety. A good jaboticaba is so thoroughly enjoy- able as to tempt one to keep on picking and eating the fruits indefi- nitely. Brazilians are wont to yield to this temptation, especially the children, who spend hours searching out and devouring the ripe fruits, their only complaint being that it is impossible to satisfy one’s appetite with jaboticabas. The seeds, which vary from one to four in number, are not easily separated from the pulp. In form they are oval to almost round, compressed, and about a quarter of an inch in length. A number of named varieties are known to the Brazilians, some of which are probably true species, others horticultural forms origi- nating through seedling variation. The name jaboticaba, without any qualifying word, is considered to be properly applied only to 28 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Myreiaria cauliflora. The species jaboticaba is properly known as jaboticaba de Sao Paulo, jaboticaba de cabinho, and jaboticaba do matto. Tavarest mentions another species, If. tenella Berg, whose fruit is known as jaboticaba macia. The horticultural variety Corda, one of the commonest named forms in Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes, can probably be referred to M/. cauliflora. Another variety, Murta, is equally well known, and has smaller leaves than Cor6a; it, too, is possibly a form of I/. caulifiora. Branca (white) and Roxa (red) are two other names that are occasionally applied to varieties cultivated in the gardens. When heavily laden with fruit the tree is a curious and interesting sight (Pl. XV). Not only is the trunk covered with clusters and masses of glistening jaboticabas, but the fruiting extends to the ends of the smallest branches as well. When one stops to consider the comparatively small size of the fruits and the profusion with which they are produced all over the tree, it is apparent that the number must be enormous. The season not only varies with the species and location, but quite frequently several crops a year are produced. The trees even flower and fruit during the winter months in locations where the tempera- ture does not go below 64° F. Tavares? considers moisture to be the essential factor governing fruit production and states that the fazendeiros (ranchers) of Sao Paulo, who irrigate their trees at times when there is a scarcity of rain, succeed in having ripe jaboticabas throughout the year. For shipping, the fruit is usually packed in wooden boxes which originally held two 5-gallon cans of kerosene. No packing material is used, and on account of the quantity of fruit in a single package much of it, of course, is crushed and bruised. Since good jaboticabas are sold in Rio de Janeiro for the equivalent of 25 cents a pound there is sufficient profit in handling the fruit to permit its being shipped from considerable distances. Boxes from Sao Paulo and the interior of Minas Geraes are sometimes seen in the markets of Rio de Janeiro. While the jaboticaba is adapted to a number of different. uses, at the present day practically all of the fruit seems to be consumed in the fresh state. By the aboriginal inhabitants a wine was made, which was held in high esteem. Recently the manufacture of jaboti- caba jelly has been taken up with very successful results. It has been found that the skins should be removed from about half the fruits used in order to prevent the jelly from having too strong a taste of tannin. The tree succeeds best in a deep and rich soil, although it seems to erow on heavy clay or poor soils when forced to do so. Its growth 1Qp. cit., v. 10, p. 429. 2Op. cit., v. 10, p. 427. PLATE XIII. Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. (ezIS [eINJeN) “FI6T 60% Arenuee ‘Tizeig ‘seviey svuIpY ‘seIAeT Ie peydeisojoyg “SqUI] pues soyoursq OS1e] PUL {UNI} OY} MOTA WHOL] OPLY JSOW]S S}INIJ OY} 107] Pus SIOMOT OSE} IV “StS JIoYsS savy Aoy} JoyJOUe UT ‘apisses ele S}INIJ OY} Sofoods OU UL “SBIM4 PUB SoTOULI Jo[[VWIS oY} UO SB [OM SB So|OULIG UIVUL PU YUNI} oy} UO ATJDeIIP poonpoid ore vqvorjoqel oyy Jo SIOMOT om, "Y3MO14 NI 35YL VEVOILOUVP AHL SO HONVYG NIVI| V SO NOILOSS SAsersid PLATE XIV. Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Soumpotmos sr eqvorjoqel omy YOrUM Aq « “JOA Ul OOUL[CUIOSEL ZUOTS OY, “SPoos [BAO POZIS-WUNTpouL MOF 0} oUO YFTAL SAzsebld é (cozIsTeINJeN) “ET6T “FZ 10q0}00 “TIzerg ‘omoULL op Ory 4e@ poydersojoyq *poy[eo yzerg Jo odviZ,, omvu oY} pojsossns aa sodeiz Jo SsedA} wie{100 07 oouvivodde [e1oues pur ‘1ojovreyo tnd sort “uoonjsuedy ‘oA JO SSVUL B ST UIYS Ysno} v Aq posopouy, *SvaVOILOdVP AO LAXSVgG V : Bul. 445, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV. PI5123FS THE FRUITING LIMBS OF A JABOTICABA TREE. The clusters and masses of glistening purple fruits seattered over the smooth bark of the trunk and main branches of the jaboticaba tree are a novel and interesting sight. Sometimes two or even three crops are produced ina year. Photographed at Sr. Catramby’s, Porta d’Agua, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, October 28, 1913 PLATE XVI Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. (‘ozIs [VAN{vU SYWANOJ-oo1,T,) “FPIGT‘T Arenuve “[2e1g ‘omouer op ory ye poydeis0j0oyg “Suopies ur wees SOUITJOULOS ST PULOITOUL OP OLY NOG’ SjsoJoJ OY} UT SMOIS 901} OY, “LOA. provqus “ApYatads & Jo pure Jopoo UT esUIO YYsIIq ST iW ‘oor} oY} JO SopOULI UILIA pus JUNI} oy} Uodn ATJooNp poonpoad si (synpa nuh ) yay WeTpIzeIg styy “eqvorjoqel oy} OXLT ‘VEVOILOGVP AHL JO SAILVISY YVAN V ‘YONAWVO SHL SA60b9Id ‘ ; THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. 99 is slow, from six to eight years being required for it to come into bearing. While doubtless hardier than many of the strictly tropical fruits, it withstands but little frost. Its advantage seems to be, how- ever, that it thrives in regions where the winters are normally too cool for the successful culture of such fruits as the jak (Artocarpus integra) and the cashew, which come from strictly tropical regions. Its propagation seems to be exclusively by seed, though inarching is said to be practicable. Some vegetative means of propagation must be employed if improved varieties are to be established and perpet- uated. THE CABELLUDA. This myrtaceous fruit (botanically Hugenia (Phyllocalyx) tomen- tosa Cambess.) is not common in gardens around Rio de Janeiro, although indigenous to the region. While an occasional tree is seen, it does not compare in popularity with either the jaboticaba or the pitanga. When well grown the tree is handsome and would be of value as an ornamental alone. It reaches a height of 15 to 25 feet, with a broad dome-shaped head of foliage. The leaves are 2 to 4 inches in length and about 1 inch in breadth, oblong lanceolate, bright green and slightly tomentose above, dull green and tomentose below. The name cabelluda is the feminine of the Portuguese adjective meaning hairy and has reference to the downy tomentum present on both the leaves and the fruits. The tree flowers in June and the fruits ripen in October and November. They are sessile and pro- duced on the small branches in great numbers, somewhat resembling large gooseberries in appearance, but when fully ripe are bright golden yellow in color. The largest specimens are slightly under an inch in diameter, round or nearly so, and the skin is firm and tough. The pulp is rather scanty, but juicy and of pleasant subacid flavor, suggesting the May-apple (Podophyllum peltatum 1.) of the United States. The one or two large seeds are surrounded with coarse but very short fibers. THE GUABIROBA. Another interesting myrtaceous fruit is the guabiroba (Campo- manesia fenzliana (Berg) Glaziou), whose foliage is remarkably similar to that of some of the Kuropean oaks. It is indigenous in the forests of Rio de Janeiro State and is cultivated to a limited extent in gardens. The name guabiroba is also applied, with various orthograyhical changes, such as gabiroba and guabiraba, to several other fruits of the genus Campomanesia, some of which are common on the campos or open plains of Minas Geraes. 30 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The tree occasionally reaches a height of 30 or 40 feet. Its leaves are elliptical-ovate in form, entire, about 2 inches in length, the veins depressed above and prominent below. The fruits greatly resemble small guavas; they are three-fourths of an inch or more in diameter, — oblate in form, the apex crowned by a large disk and five persistent sepals. When fully ripe they are orange yellow in color, the surface slightly wrinkled longitudinally and covered with a thick tomentum or down. The skin is thin and surrounds a layer of granular, light- yellow flesh, which incloses the seeds and the soft pulp in which they are embedded. The flavor is similar to that of a guava, but fre- quently stronger. According to Tavares’ there are four varieties of this species, but they are not well known. The principal use to which the fruits are put is the manufacture of jellies. THE CAMBUCA. Botanically the cambuca is referred to Myrciaria plicato-costata Berg, correctly known as J/. edulis (Vell.) Skeels, but Barbosa Rodrigues believed there was some confusion within the species. Like the guabiroba, this fruit is indigenous to the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro and is also cultivated in gardens. In general appearance both the tree and the fruit are suggestive of the jaboticaba. The leaves are somewhat larger, however, and the bark a darker shade of brown. While cauliflorous and sessile, the fruits (Pl. XVI), which are commonly eaten fresh, are not produced in such profusion as jaboti- cabas, nor are they found as a rule on the lower part of the trunk. In form they are oblate, an inch and a half in length and 2 inches in breadth, with a small brown disk not over an eighth of an inch in diameter at the apex. The skin is smooth, orange yellow in color, and rather tough. The soft, translucent inner flesh only is edible; between it and the skin is a thick, tough layer, bright orange in color, which has to be discarded with the skin. The flavor is subacid, greatly resembling some of the Passifloras, very pleasant and agree- able, though perhaps not so delicious as that of the jaboticaba. The seed is oval, seven-eighths of an inch in length, and is easily separated from the flesh. THE BACUPARI. This is a beautiful pyramidal tree (Rheedia brasiliensis Planch. and Triana) of the family Clusiacee, indigenous to the State of Rio de Janeiro. As indicated by the name it greatly resembles the bacuri (Avristoclesia esculenta (Arruda) Stuntz; Platonia insignis Mart.). It is smaller in size, and while not considered quite so 1Op. cit., p. 36, 1913. THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. 31 delicious is highly esteemed by the natives, especially in the form of a doce or jam, when, as one writer says, “it is a nectar.” In form the bacupari is ovate, rather sharp at the apex, varying in length from an inch and a quarter to an inch and a half. The stem is 1 to 2 inches in length, rather stout. The tough, pliable, orange- yellow skin, about an eighth of an inch in thickness, surrounds the soft, translucent, snowy white pulp in which two oblong, elliptical seeds are embedded. In flavor the pulp is subacid, sprightly, sug- gestive of the mangosteen, to which it is distantly related. When fully ripe it is delicious. The tree is said to flower in December and ripens its fruit in Janu- ary and February. It is little known in cultivation. THE FRUTA DE CONDESSA. During March and April the fruta de condessa (Pollinia deliciosa Safford) is not rare in the markets of Rio de Janeiro. Large baskets of the fruit are shipped in from the near-by regions and offered alongside its relative, the sugar-apple (Annona squamosa L.), called locally fruta de conde, frequently at a higher price than the latter. In general form this fruit (Pl. XVII) is conical to cordate, some- times even oblate, and 3 to 4 inches in diameter. The surface is covered with conical protuberances arising from the carpellary areas and is creamy yellow in color. The skin is rather tough and not easily broken; it surrounds the milky white, somewhat mucilaginous flesh in which the seeds are embedded. The flavor is sweet, and it is relished by the Brazilians, as evidenced by the quantity of fruit sold. The seeds are not as numerous as in many other annonaceous fruits and are about the size of an average bean. FRUITS OF THE HIGHLANDS AND SEMIARID REGIONS OF MINAS GERAES AND BAHIA. A large number of wild fruits are found on the rolling plains of the State of Minas Geraes, some of them having been brought under cultivation by the inhabitants of this region. In addition to the common fruits of the Tropics, the higher portions of Minas Geraes produce some of the European fruits and the North American grapes quite successfully. As there is an extensive demand for peaches, plums, apples, pears, and other temperate fruits in Rio de Janeiro and other large cities, the Brazilian Government has recently estab- lished an experiment station in connection with the agricultural school at Barbacena (Pl. XVIII), where numerous varieties of all the more important temperate fruits are being tested in order to find which are best adapted to the region. 32 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PERA DO CAMPO. The pera do campo or cabacinha do campa (pear of the campo or gourd of the campo; botanically Lugenia klotzschiana Berg) is found near Lavras, Minas Geraes, and also at Sitio, about 100 miles east of Lavras; but it is extremely rare in both places and the natives themselves in many cases seem not to be familiar with it. The plants usually grow in groups or patches and are so low that it is often difficult to distinguish them among the grass. The aromatic, penetrating odor of the fruits, however, which is noticeable several yards away, frequently furnishes a clue to their location. The plant is not bushy or shrubby in growth, but usually sends up several slender, unbranched stems 1 to 2 feet in height. When grow- ing along the banks of ravines this habit is sometimes changed, the stems attaining a height of 4 or even 5 feet and giving rise to a few slender, drooping lateral branches. The leaves are lanceolate, 3 to 5 inches long, rather hard and brittle, silvery pubescent on the under surface. The slender pyriform fruits, 2 to 4 inches in length, ripen from November to January. In appearance they somewhat resemble pears except in their more elongated form and downy surface (Plate XIX). The thin, delicate skin is light yellow to golden brown in color. The flesh resembles that of a pear in color and texture; it is extremely juicy and possesses a strong aromatic fragrance indicative of its flavor, which is acid, spicy, and refreshing. Little is known of its uses, but it is probably better suited to culinary use than for eat- ing fresh, because of its acidity and a possible shght purgative effect. The seeds, one to four in number, are irregularly oval in shape and occupy a comparatively small amount of space in the center of the fruit, a rather unusual thing in a wild species of Eugenia. LIMAO DO MATTO. The limaéo do matto (lemon of the forest; Rheedia eduiis Planch. and Triana) is a rare fruit, cultivated to a small extent at Lavras, Minas Geraes. The tree is small, upright, sometimes pyram- idal in form, of handsome appearance, with its oblong, glossy, deep-green leaves 4 to 6 inches in length. The fruit (Pl. XX) is about 2 inches long, usually elliptical, tapering at both ends, and bright orange in color. The thick, tough skin incloses a mass of light-colored, juicy, aromatic pulp of rather acid flavor. The seeds vary from one to three in number and are oblong or oval in form, about an inch in length. If cut or bruised, a viscous, bright-yellow fluid exudes from them. In quality, the fruit of this species seems slightly inferior to Rheedia brasiliensis, which grows at Rio de Janeiro. ‘ Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVII. P14999FS THE ‘“‘COUNTESS’S FRUIT” (FRUTA DE CONDESSA). This popular fruit (Rollinia deliciosa) grows wild near Rio de Janeiro. It is picked while still hard and pgreenand broughtintothe markets, whereit gradually assumes a Brighteyellowy colorand becomes soft. It contains numerous dark-brown seedsabout thesize of an average bean, each surrounded by milk white flesh, which is sugary sweet and of good flavor. Photographed at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, March 16,1914. (Natural size.) PLATE XVIII, Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. STs} euoZ, 9}e10duI0 J, UO O[CIST SAGLb9Id A SE YOM JO SUTpTING ureur oy ‘ “PIEL ‘6c Arenuee poydesZojoyg *ssordo1d UT 1B YIOM MOMLZYLUTT[O9V PUG S}SO} [VJOMVA OATSUOIX GT ‘o[qrssod JOOS [BAN}[NoLITV WOUTUIEAOS &B “L[OOTISV OPeZIPUSICY oY} YILA UOT}OOUUOD UT POUTeJUTVUL ST WIL; [e]WoUTIodxe Sty I, JO JoqUINU & Jo TOTVATI[NIOU}4 ‘Opngnie 309} 009‘E SIL OF Op ‘oyesod U9} JEMOTIOS ST WOTZOL SIT} JO 9}VUNT[D OY SY “doy [IY JWeIstp oy} zvug ‘vNaovduvg LV NOILVLG LNAWIYsdxX4> TYNLINONYSY LNAWNYSAOY) ("azIs TeInqeN ) ‘FIGL “6c Arenuve ‘Tizerg ‘sevioy svury ‘orIg 4e@ peydvisojoyg “emmesngy P[IM B UL sdUeIIMN00 oIvI JOYYVA & “INIT VY JO 9zZIS oy} 01 WoMsOdoid ur [yeUIS elv Spoos oy, “Woes St yuRd ay} e10Jaq OduIvd 9Y} UO peyUeDS oq ATJUINbHoTT UKO JIMIJ OY} IY soUBIFBIT OFBUIOIe JURSRe[d B YONS sessessod jy *Suryseijei pue ‘fords ‘prov ‘orf AJoA ‘SUYITOUL ‘OJITA ST YSop Siy “(odurvo oy} Jo panos) odwna op nywionqv9 Jo (odurvd ey} Jo Iead) oduina op viad pat[eo St IMI} WAOWY-9[ IIT] STITT, “IZVYG NYFLSVAHLNOS JO SNIVId DNITIOY YO SOdNVD AHL WOYS LIN ADIdS Vv ‘(VNVIHOSZLOIM VINS0NZ) OdWVYO OG YYSdq SHL SsApgp9id PLATE XIX. Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XX. P15428FS THE LimAo Do MatTo (“LEMON OF THE FOREST”). A handsome small tree (Rheedia edulis), with striking dark-green foliage. The attractive, medium- sized, round or oblong yellow fruit somewhat resembles a lime or small lemon. When fully ripe, the light-colored juicy pulp loses most of its acidity, has a pleasant flavor, and is slightly aromatic. The tree is related to the mangosteen. Photographed at Lavras, Minas Geraes, Brazil, January 12, 1914. (Natural size.) PLATE XXI. Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “FIGL ‘FT Areniqay “umeig ‘sevioy seuryy ‘oferg ye poydeizojoyq _ *Jo asodsIp Jo otunstod wed ADT} JINIJ OY} [1% ITM SUMO} IOTIOLUI [[VUIS VY} JO S}URIIGeyUT 9y} Ajddns 07 yuepunqe ApJuefoygNs sured Ayyueredde soe1} PII ot} “peyVAT}[Nd WoejzJo Jou SEAT * AIvj}orp ITeY} UW oforjie Jueyoduy ue SUIIOJ YOITAA JO qmnay oY} {901} NAW OY} UBT} SsA0esbld dood oy} 07 souvjzIoduit 1038013 Jo o1e Moj ‘VIE JO 0}%1g 94} Jo spurt Alp 10 sesur}veo oy} UO sjuRd sAT]eU oy] SUOMI *(VSOUSENL SVIGNOdS) 3SUL NAW] SHL Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXII. PI4511FS FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE IMBU (SPONDIAS TUBEROSA). The thick yellow skin of the fruit incloses a juicy pulp of a subacid flavor, somewhat suggestive of a sweet orange. The natives, in addition to eating quantities of the fresh fruit, make imbu jelly and a famous Brazilian dish called imbuzada, prepared by mixing the juice of the imbu with boiled sweet milk, sweetened to taste. This is a delightfully pleasant and refreshing drink, not altogether unlike whipped clabber with sugar, except that it has a decidedly fruity flavor. Photographed at Bahia, Brazil, December 15, 1913. (Natural size.) Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIII. ‘hy ip. i ety “bhi geet <2 | P14833FS THE JOAZEIRO (ZIZIPHUS JOAZEIRO), AN INTERESTING DRY-LAND TREE. This is a handsome evergreen tree, with dense green foliage and is said to be the only plant on tho caatingas which retains its foliage through the long season of drought. The fruit (called jua) and foliage are eaten by stock. Photographed at Grejo, Minas Geraes, Brazil, !ebruary 14, 1914. Bul. 445, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIV. PI4777FS FRUITS AND FOLIAGE OF THE JOAZEIRO. The numerous small green fruits, about the size of a cherry, which become yellow when ripe, have a translucent, viscous pulp surrounding the seeds, which is eaten by the lower classes of natives; but its peculiar, insipid flavor is not particularly agreeable to the average person. As the fruits are produced in the greatest abundance and are eaten by stock, they have more or less economic im- portance in regions subject to excessively dry periods. Photographed at Januaria, Minas Geraes, Brazil, February 13,1914. (Natural size.) THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. 3 33 THE SUGAR-APPLE. In the small towns throughout the interior of Minas Geraes and Bahia States the sugar-apple (Annona squamosa L.) is one of the most important cultivated fruits. It is known here as pinha (pine eone; probably so called because of the similarity in appearance). Originally brought to the interior from Bahia, it is believed, the tree found such congenial surroundings and produced fruit of such ex- cellent quality that it has gradually taken first place in many gar- dens. The fruit is peddled about the streets by small boys, large specimens selling for 2 vintens (less than 2 cents), smaller ones for a vintem. In flavor the sugar-apples of this region are superior to those of the coast. They are not so large as those of Bahia, but there is a peculiar delicacy of flavor and tenderness of flesh which is lacking in the latter place. This may be due in part to the fact that the fruits are allowed to remain on the tree until fully ripe, while at Bahia they appear to be picked a trifle too soon and are then ripened in the house. . A good sugar-apple is 3 inches in diameter and usually heart shaped. Within its rough exterior is a mass of snow-white delicately flavored pulp containing numerous black seeds the size of a bean. The pulp separates into slender, conical segments, each one contain- ing a seed. After being picked from the tree the fruit is placed in a cool place for 24 hours, when it becomes soft and ready to eat. It is always eaten while fresh, no methods of cooking or preserving it being known. THE SWAMP ARATICUM. Near the village of Urubu, on the Rio Sao Francisco some dis- tance below Januaria, the low, swampy lands which extend back from the river bank a distance of three or four hundred yards are covered with Annona spinescens Mart., a compact, spiny shrub known to the natives as araticum do brejo, or “swamp araticum.” This plant is often found on ground which is submerged under a foot or two of water during part of the year. It grows to a height of 8 or 10 feet and produces an abundance of oblong-conical fruits 2 to 3 inches in length, reddish orange in color and externally cov- ered with small conical protuberances. When fully ripe, these fruits are so soft and delicate in texture that it is difficult to handle them without brealsing the skin. The flesh is of the same color as the exte- rior and of a sweet, insipid flavor, apparently not relished by the natives, as they allow the hogs to consume the crop. The seeds are very numerous and do not separate easily from the pulp. The spe- 34 BULLETIN 445, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cles may prove valuable, however, as a wet-land stock for the cheri- moya or for breeding purposes. THE IMBU. Among the drought-resistant plants of the caatinga or semiarid section of interior Bahia, the imbti (Spondias tuberosa Arruda) is of particular interest. It is abundant and highly appreciated, not only in the interior of Bahia State, but also in Pernambuco and other sections of northeastern Brazil. To the natives it is a most important article of diet, taking the place of the cultivated fruits which are so common around the city of Bahia, but in the interior found only in the gardens of the better classes. During the ripening season imbis may be had for the gathering. Natives go out from every village into the surrounding caatinga, often to a distance of several miles, and bring in bushels of the fruit on their burros or diminutive ponies, consuming much of it immediately, but not forgetting to store away an abundance in the form of jam or jelly for the time to come when the imbii can not be obtained. In all the towns and villages along the Rio Sao Francisco, in Bahia State, imbts are plentiful in the markets, and the ground around the market places is often literally covered with the skins and seeds. A basket con- taining a quarter peck or more of the fruit can usually be purchased for 2 or 3 cents. The imbt tree (PI. X XI) is distinguishable from other growths on the caatinga by its low, spreading head, sometimes 30 feet in diam- eter. Its fruit is produced on slender stems, mainly toward the ends of the branches. Some trees are so productive that the fruit, when allowed to fall, forms a carpet of yellow upon the ground. In general appearance the imbi (Pl. X XII) may be likened to a greengage plum. Itisoval, about an inch and a half in length, slightly less in breadth, and light greenish yellow when ripe. The skin is somewhat thicker than that of a plum, with the result that it is not eaten along with the pulp. The flavor of the soft, melting, almost liquid pulp is suggestive of a sweet orange. It is frequently eaten before fully ripe and soft, when it is rather acid, though not dis- agreeably so. The seed, oblong and about three-fourths of an inch in length, is difficult to separate from the inner pulp which ad- heres to it. The natives of the interior will often tell one that there are several varieties of the imbi, one being round, another oblong,andsoon. The fact is that seedling variation results in the fruit of every tree being different from its neighbors in some minor characteristic of size, form, or flavor. No doubt the fruit could be greatly improved by selection, even in a few generations. THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA. 35 The imbi furnishes the basis for a dish famous throughout north- eastern Brazil, known as imbuzada. This is made by adding the juice of the fruit to boiled sweet milk. The mixture is greenish white in color and when sweetened to taste is relished by nearly everyone on first trial. Imbt jelly is another well-known product, obtainable in the stores of Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and other coastal and interior cities. THE JOAZEIRO. Another interesting tree of the caatingas is the joazeiro, or juazeiro (Ziziphus joazeiro Mart.), from which the town of Joazeiro takes its name. This tree grows along the banks of the Rio Sao Francisco in Bahia State, but is not abundant in most parts. It rarely occurs in large groves, but is usually scattered among the other plants along the river and on the caatinga. When it attains mature size it forms a beautiful, dark-green, umbrageous head 30 feet in diameter (PI. XXIII). The leaves are hard and brittle in texture, oval to ovate, about 2 inches in length. The small wood is armed with short, stiff thorns, which are not, however, particularly dangerous. The fruits (Pl. XXIV) vary greatly in size according to the tree by which they are produced. The largest ones are nearly an inch in diameter, round, and creamy yellow in color. Inside the thin skin is a layer of mealy flesh, within which lies the seed, surrounded by a mass of translucent, mucilaginous pulp. Im size and shape the seed resembles a small olive stone. The pulp adheres to it very closely and can scarcely be separated, even in the mouth. The flavor is peculiar and somewhat insipid. Natives of the poorer classes gather up the fruit and use it for food, but it is as a source of stock feed in dry regions that the tree seems to have its greatest value. The trees bear prodigiously, the ground under them being covered with fruits at the end of the season. These are considered fattening and reported to be readily eaten by cattle and swine. In addition, the ornamental value of the tree and its drought-resisting qualities make it worthy of note. It is said to be the only plant on the caatinga which retains its leaves during excessively dry periods. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.G. AT 20 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W. J. Spillman, Chief Washington, D. C. ‘ Vv January 10, 1917 THE COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN WENATCHEE VALLEY, WASH. [A detailed study, made in 1914, of the current cost factors involved in the mainte- nance of orchards and the handling of the crop on 87 orchards. | By G. H. Muer, Assistant Agriculturist, and 8. M. THomson, Scientific Assistant. CONTENTS. Page Page LODGE CT. oa a fol Orchardimanagementesenoecce= css eee sec 10 RIMM APOE TESTIS. (25 coaccc sce ciccsda-ssiss 2oieHandlincanhe cro pe-ras- a seceacne ee easee 26 Deseripmoworrepion .: 222252 5.2-.cie-.sss5-2% Zale MaterialiCOStsrere =e eererise: ee reeeesecss 33 MMM OUSHUVOY <= =~. coe s/n-cccncecesscces Gt | RRIEKOdICOSIS=satswemncacee cea aemocs Seemeeee sae 33 INTRODUCTION. This bulletin is the first of a series designed te meet the long- standing need for a careful study of apple orcharding in various parts of the United States which would give comparative and detailed information on the different methods of orchard management im yogue and the several factors which enter into the cost of apple production. This particular study was made during the summer and fall of 1914 in Wenatchee Valley, Chelan County, Washington, in territory tributary to the towns of Wenatchee, Monitor, ofl Seah mere. Complete and detailed datat were secured on the bearing apple orchards of 87 ranches,’ and the figures presented represent conditions as they actually existed on the farms when surveyed in 1914. 1U Hewtanate ly, few farmers keep accounts which mila give the necessary information for a fui of the cost of conducting various farmenterprises. However, ample experience in the Office of arm Manage- ment has shown that although farmers may not have accurate records of their work, expenditures, and income, the average farmer does have in mind fairly accurate information on these points, and this infor- mation can be obtained from him by skillful questioning when the questions are stated in the terms in which the farmer thinks. The Office of Farm Management has therefore developed the method of studying cost of production by means of the farm survey, in which information is obtained from a large number of farmers by direct interviews. In many instances it has been possible to compare averages thus obtained with accurate records, and the results justify the conclusion that when the survey method is properly and skillfully used the information obtained by it is ordinarily as accurate as the results secured in carefully conducted field experiments. The survey method was used in obtaining the information contained in this bulletin. 2 The word ‘‘ranch”’ is a locai term for any farm, and the word ‘‘rancher’’ is used in the sense of farmer, Note.— Acknowledgment is due to the Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations of the Bureau of lant Industry for material assistance in the preparation of this bulletin, 58599°—Bull, 446—17——-1 2 BULLETIN 446, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. The salient facts concerning these 87 orchards brought out by this investigation, made in the summer and fall of 1914, are, in brief, as follows: The average investment per farm surveyed is $20,974; the average investment per acre of bearing apples alone is $1,925. The equipment © investment is high, being $444 per ranch, or $47 per acre, exclusive of stock. There is an average of two horses per farm, or 5.3 tillable acres per horse. | The total annual cost of production is $469.73 per acre, or $0.792 per box, f.0.b. Of this, labor-cost constituted $179.09 per acre, or $0.302 per box, and cash-cost, including interest on investment, ‘$290.64 per acre, or $0.49 per box. This is the annual cost for the average orchard under clean cultural management. Where under alfalfa or clover management, this cost is reduced about $0.02 per boxe: Orchards average 64 acres and 81 trees per acre. Trees average 11 years of age. In the Wenatchee Valley proper, counting every bearing orchard, the leading 10 varieties in order of importance are: Winesap, Jonathan, Esopus, Rome Beauty, Stayman, Gano, Ben Davis, Yellow Newtown, Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig), and Arkansas Black. On the basis of the number of young trees, 1 to 5 years of age, in- clusive, the order is Winesap, DeliGious, Jonathan, Rome Beauty, Stayman, Esopus, Winter Pearmain, Banana, Gano, and Yellow Newtown. The yield per acre on the bearing orchards from which data were secured is 593 boxes, or 7.3 boxes per tree. This represents all yields on trees from 7 to 11 years, inclusive. DESCRIPTION OF REGION. The State of Washington (see fig. 1) 1s divided by the Cascade Mountains into two unequal and distinct parts, which results in a wide variation in climate and rainfall. West of the Cascades there is an annual rainfall sufficient for the growing of crops, while east of the mountains there are sections which have an annual precipitation of less than 8 inches, necessitating irrigation. The irrigated area is rela- tively small compared with the upland prairies, where the rainfall is sufficient for farming without irrigation. Fruit growing in eastern 1 No account has here been taken of the depreciation of the orchards. If it is assumed that an orchard remains in full bearing for 30 years and then is removed, the rate of depreciation is 34 percent. This per cent of $1,925, the average value per acre of the orchards surveyed, is $64.17. That is, the depreciation - is $64.17 per acre, or $0.1082 per box with the average yield of 593 boxes per acre. This is probably a maximum figure. It is probable that if the facts concerning the orchard depreciation were known they would add to the cost here something between $0.04 and $0.08 per box. This assumes, of course, that the orchard is in full bearing 30 years. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN WENATCHEE VALLEY, WASH. 3 Washington is mainly confined to the irrigated sections. Naturally, with such a wide variation in climatic conditions, different areas have developed distinct types of farming. The principal apple-producing areas of the State le in the counties of Yakima, Chelan, Spokane, Kittitas, Walla Walla, and Asotin. There are extensive plantings of young trees in the county of Okanogan, while considerable acreage of apples is found in the counties of Douglas, Grant, Benton, and Klickitat. The most important in the production of apples, according to output, are the counties of Yakima, Chelan, and Spokane. 421° 125° led" (23° l22° 120° 713° Wa* “72 = oe x = \e PEND OREMLE NORTH @ KAYIMA BEN: Vv ye a A TON WALLA YVALLA, WASA/NGTOWVV SCALE. - STATUTE MULES = 0 20 GO FO 50 ° Fic. 1.—Outline map of State of Washington, showing location of Wenatchee Valley. Chelan County, in which Wenatchee Valley is located, is in the north central portion of the State, having one of the main ranges of the Cascade Mountains on its western and northern boundaries, while the Columbia River flows on its eastern boundary, receiving the waters from several mountain streams which have their source in the Cas- cades. The principal apple-producing area lies in Wenatchee Valley in the vicinity of the towns of Wenatchee, Monitor, and Cashmere, and extends as far up the valley as Leavenworth. (See Pls. I, I, and Ill.) Soke eee osescdsccocosas 1,939 LOS ArkansaSsp lacks see eee ee eee * 5,600 || 10. Yellow Newtowm:..:..-.....--%--22- 1,226 ! North central Washington tree census for 1915. Trees planted in the vicinity of Wenatchee, Olds, Monitor, and Cashmere. AGE AT WHICH APPLE TREES BEGIN TO BEAR. Apple trees in Wenatchee Valley begin to bear fruit at an early age. A number of estimates were obtained relative to the age that different varieties would bear a box of marketable apples per tree. There was some variation, owing to the many factors which were considered. It was, however, not difficult to obtain this informa- tion, for many orchardists had grown their trees or had come into possession of them prior to the time they began to bear. There is a considerable difference of opinion as to the exact order in which the different varieties should be placed, but most orchardists agree that the majority of the important commercial varieties under average conditions in Wenatchee Valley will bear a box of marketable apples per tree prior to 7 years of age. Table V gives the order, determined as nearly as possible, in which they come into bearing. TaBLeE V.—Ages within which commercial varieties may be IGE) to bear a box or more of marketable apples. 5 to 7 years: 5 to 7 years—Continued. 7 to 8 years: 1. King David. 8. Winter Pearmain. 14. Esopus. 2. Missouri. 9. Rome Beauty. 15. Yellow Newtown. 3. Jonathan. 10. Black Ben. - 16. Arkansas Black. 4. Grimes. 11. Ben Davis. 5. Banana. 12. Delicious. 6. Stayman. 13. Arkansas. 7. Winesap. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN WENATCHEE VALLEY, WASH. 9 Sy YIELDS. Estimates of yields were obtained for a period approximating five years. In presenting data of this sort it is highly important that the yield should be considered over as long a period as possible in order to obtain a fair average for a district. Where very few orchards are over 11 years of age, as was the case in the valley at the time of this study, it is impossible to obtain a sufficient number of comparable yields for any period other than that represented by trees from 7 to 11 years of age, inclusive. The average estimate of all yields from orchards between these ages was obtained and considered as a fair average yield for the valley. In computing this average, each age is given the same weight, regardless of the year in which a given orchard might be a certain age. For example, yields on orchards at the time they were 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 years were averaged and this average was used as the average yield for the valley. In this way 271 estimates were considered. Forty-seven were from orchards 7 years of age; 60 from orchards 8 years of age; 67, 9 years of age; 59, 10 years of age; and 38, 11 years of age. These estimates extended over a period of 6 years; 8 of them in 1909, 34 in 1910, 61 in 1911, 71 in 1912, 75 in 1913, and 22 in 1914. Considering the factors stated above, the average yield per acre of apple orchards in We- natchee Valley with 81 trees per acre was 593 packed boxes. There is a tendency in some apple-producing regions toward alter- nate bearing, and many times frosts, winds, insect pests, and diseases have an effect on the annual yield of the district, but by taking yields over a period of years on trees which are representative of a district it is possible to obtain an average yield which is accurate enough to furnish a basis for such a study as is here presented. There is no appreciable difference in yield between clean cultivated and alfalfa orchards, nor could this be expected, since so few orchard- ists had followed the cover-crop management for any considerable period. : There is considerable difference in yield between different varieties, and no doubt there is a difference in the number of boxes of extra fancy, fancy, and choice grades which are packed from an acre of the different varieties. But no account was taken of this, for it was the purpose of the investigation merely to arrive at the average annual cost of producing apples, grown in well-managed commercial apple orchards of the valley. LABOR. The average size fruit ranch in the Wenatchee district is such that most of the labor, except at harvest time, may be done by the ranch- ers or by members of their families. But little outside labor is hired. Labor when employed by the month is paid from $35 to $50, varying 58599° —Bull, 446—17 74 10 BULLETIN 446, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. with the privileges which are given. The following rates were paid labor for various operations: ‘Pruminio: Wasik oo seeks ohes a ae eer Seen $3.00 to $3.50 per day. Backersexsee jp Sethian’ £5 eee See .06 per box. Rackine ands sontine ses ee oe eae eas .07 per box. AW oWhib oN boys epeness sie ceyrse mi es aA eee rn 2.50 per day. Man, team, and sprayers. 2-3. 5see oes. 1.50 per hour. PERC G BF 2 SS ah ee hea eas ee Bip eess 2.50 per day. Man and-teamit: Sa suits SNe ee 5. 50 per day. _ Expert pruners receive from $3 to $3.50 per day, but as the ma- jority of ranchers did. this work themselves and were not considered as expert labor in the same sense as a man who makes a business of contract pruning, the pruning labor was figured at the regular rate of $0.25 per hour. The rate of $1.50 per hour for sprayer, man, and team is high, but that was the rate paid by many of the growers who hired their spray- ing. This did not include the material used. ITEMS CONSIDERED IN COST OF PRODUCTION. In considering in detail the cost of produeing apples on the farms studied the following classification of costs will be observed in this discussion :* Maintenance costs: Handling costs—Contd. Material costs—Contd. Manuring. Hauling empties to and Lime-sulphur. Cultivation. from orchard. Lead-arsenate. Pruning. Hauling full boxes. Manure. Brush handling. Foreman charge. ’ Gasoline and oil. Irrigation. Picking. Fixed costs: Thinning. Sorting, packing. Taxes. Propping. Nailing and stamping. Water tax. Spraying. Labeling. Insurance. Cover crop. Material costs: Interest on invest- Miscellaneous labor. Box shock. ment. Handling costs: Nails. Equipment charge. Hauling box shooks. Paper. Packing-house charge. Making boxes. Label. ; 5 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT. In the early days of orchard planting it was the object of the or- chardist to obtain a vigorous annual tree growth. The soil at that time contained enough plant food to give the desired results, with the aid of sufficient irrigation water. The most intensive methods of cultivation were followed; scarcely a weed was allowed to remain in the orchards. This practice continued until the trees had borne a few crops, when it became apparent that more humus-forming mate-‘ rial was necessary if the growth and productiveness of the orchards were to be maintained. 1 No account is here taken of association or other handling charges such as storage and insurance. The total costs represent all charges up to and including delivery at an association or shipping point. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN WENATCHEE VALLEY, WASH. lI This condition led to the introduction of alfalfa, clover, and vetch as a shade or mulch crop, until to-day there are nearly 4,000 acres in alfalfa, 500 acres in clover, and 500 acres in vetch in the orchards of north central Washington. Obviously, with the introduction of these crops the method of cultural management gradually changed. At the time of this investigation this change was being made, but the new method had not been in vogue long enough, when records were secured, for the most reliable results. Nevertheless the subject of the management of such orchards is discussed briefly so as to show a_ comparison of the different methods and the possibility of decreasing the cost of production of the apple where the yields remain the same. There are factors which may tend to show the impracticability of Fic.2,—A 5-year-old Jonathan orchard near Wenatchee in which clean cultivation has always been practiced. introducing a mulch crop, but at present it seems that yields can be kept normal by a resort to this expedient, and that at the same time the amount of labor involved in the care of the orchard can be decreased. However, this bulletin deals primarily with the cost of producing apples in the bearing orchards studied where clean cultivation is prac- ticed. CLEAN CULTIVATION. It is the common practice in all irrigated regions to begin the sea- sonal preparation of the soil by plowing or disking in the fall or spring. It is the purpose of these operations to put the soil in a condition to facilitate the use of the spring-tooth and the spike-tooth harrow, the cultivator, and the float. It is usually possible to begin the cul- tural work on the soil before the middle of April. (See fig. 2.) 1) BULLETIN 446, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Of the 57 ranchers who practiced clean cultivation, 28 began the seasonal preparation of the soil by the use of the plow, 25 by the disk harrow, 3 by the cultivator, and 1 by the spike-tooth harrow. Of the 28 who plowed, 15 did so in the fall and 13 in the spring. Not all of these orchardists, however, plow every year. Nineteen plow every year, 8 every two years, and 1 every three years. Following the plowing or disking, cultivations are given previous to the first irrigation. All orchardists who follow any method of clean cultivation do some cultivating previous to the first irrigation. | Following these first cultivations, which are usually between April 1 and May 15, the orchard is furrowed preparatory to the first irri- gation. Furrowing is locally known as ‘creasing.’ Cultivations are usually given after irrigations until the middle of the summer, or until the weight of the fruit bears the limbs down so that further cultivation is impracticable. If at any time there is a rain heavy enough to pack the soil, a cultivation is usually given. Not all orchardists, however, cultivate after each irrigation. (See Table VI.) TasLe VI.—Analysis of operations in clean cultivation. Orchardists who perform each Man. Horse. operation. Operation. 5 Per cent r Percent | Hours Hours STUER STE of total. | per acre. oftonat per acre. PTO Wat ese esas ee eee pe era en pares cia SI ea 28 49.12 2591 Sees 5. 35 Cultivation: MO TASS See seein scat ae Se oak Sees aie Sete Se Sees lee eee 21. 36 100. 00 38. 98 11. 96 55. 99 22. 26 4. 69 21. 96 8. 57 3.25 15. 22 5. 58 1. 28 5. 99 2.30 13 61 18 05 23 09 ASQ4 ose aeeeee 6. 48 Beforevfirstarrigation:. cio = 22 y cos see eee ee Oe Soe rats See eee aay A eet eee 2.34 ipeforesccondunncatlonesress— Hee eer ee een e ene Eee ene res pee eeereee E39" Saas 2.14 iBeforethindarrication == ee ee eee eee eee eee | 2072 2e seal abeoe eee ens 7935) 5s see 1.34 BelorefouTrthirri gation eee ee see eee eee ee ese eee eee eee AGL somemersen ss 3 . 50 Beforetitt hurr ca tlomesce ce sees cess eet eee eel ee aegis 04 eee . 06 Beloresixt huirrigationic.s.: see eee ee ees oe ee eae | sere eee oY) eeccccene a -05 There appears to be no particular sequence in the use of the cultu- ral implements. The exact method by which desirable conditions of tilth are secured is in part dependent upon the local soil and cli- mate and in part upon the individual conception of the orchardist. There enters here, however, the proper study of the soil with which each grower has to deal, the behavior of the trees, and the condition of the fruit. Early plowing and maintenance of a good soil mulch are of great advantage in retaining the moisture in the soil during the growing season. (See Table VII.) COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN WENATCHEE VALLEY, WASH. ie Taste VII.—Number of times various implements are used in the 57 clean-cultivated orchards. cae Spring- | Spike- 2 Disk Culti- When used. Plow. tooth tooth Float. harrow. | harrow. | harrow. | V2tor Previous to firstirrigation............--.-- 28 39 66 42 25 22 Following first irrigation. ........-..--.--- BASE Seenec 2 36 14 24 8 Following second irrigation. ........------ eee eeabec|sacccsaos 24 12 14 5 Following third irrigation............----- Saeaveecne asos sores 11 5 6 2 Pollowing fourth irrigation. -.-......-..---|----------|=---2----- RA eet ROE RA Rese eee See mone RatinyAe Hiern ta piOn esas 88 Sel os cleat Sk ete? 1D SBE Be nese See Cees aero ses There are many factors which may affect the time required for the various operations. Among these are number in crew, time of year, topography, type and condition of soil, kind of cover crop, if any, depth to which implements are worked, and kind and size of imple- ment used. (See Table VIII.) Taste VIII.—Average time required and cost per acre for various cultural operations on farms studied in Wenatchee Valley. Number of— pak Implement. aden, ot gape: per 10 Cost per : hours BONS Men. Horses. FEET 2 ch cei ES es a 12inches.......... 1 2 1.49 $3. 679 Lirik WON pee ee ee ee are ee mat hifeetis. oa emeccmec 1 2 4. 46 He 2EPY Spring-tooth harrow. ........-.------------ Gieetonaee- sees 1 2 5.90 - 932 Spike-tooth harrow............-..-.--..--- Whee tes. eae eee. ee 1 2 9. 60 572 MER eee eer eer e oe sateen cates seals aeblecdecmemelones 1 2 6.30 . 873 LT pe bods ee ee ae ee 10 to 14 feet....... 1 2 7.50 BS Considering all records, regardless of number in crew, or kind or size of implement used, a total of 21.36 man-hours and 38.98 horse- hours per acre was chargeable for all cultivation, exclusive of plowing and creasing, or a per acre cost of $11.19. Considering all cultural operations, including plowing and creasing, there was a total charge of $14.75 per acre. MANURING. In the early days of orchard planting throughout the valley, the trees made a luxuriant growth, and at the time that they came into bearing gave a good crop, which did not seem to affect the physics al condition of the tree the year following. It was the impression that this virgin soil contained an abundance of plant food, so that the need of returning fertility to the soil was not felt. Later, however, this valley gained some valuable lessons from the experience of other northwestern sections, and many orchardists began to apply manure, Inasmuch as the average ranch throughout the valley is small, the grower usually having only one or two horses and in some instances a cow, not enough manure is produced to make a thorough application each year to the entire orchard. 14 BULLETIN 446, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Of the 87 ranchers from whom records were taken, 49, or 56 per cent of the total number, applied each year the little manure produced on the place. This amounted to about 4 tons per acre, which was usually applied directly from the wagon by one man with two horses, covering 1.44 acres in 10 hours. This is not efficient work as compared with results on farms where large quantities of manure are handled annually. This inefficiency may be due in part to difficulty of spreading manure in orchards planted very closely together, but 1t can be more generally attributed to the fact that the manure is not applied durimg a rush season, hence the grower takes his time. Where all records are con- sidered: regardless of crew or method of handling, there is an aver aee labor cost ie applying manure of $2.27 per acre. PRUNING. Pruning is an annual practice of all orchardists in the valley. It is usually done during the dormant condition of the tree, in the late fall or early spring. However, some men practice summer pruning; if so, it is generally done as a supplement to winter pruning. There are many factors that influence the number of trees that may be pruned in 10 hours. The more important of these are the age of the tree, the variety and habit of growth, the height and shape of the tree, the distance apart, the efficiency and skill of the pruner, the previous method of pruning, and the amount of work to be done. Considering the average number of trees per acre as 81 and 19.3 trees as the average number of trees pruned per 10-hour day, there ~ will be an annual charge of 40.31 man-hours per acre, or a cost of $10.08. HAULING BRUSH. In connection with the annual pruning of the orchard, the dispo- sition of the brush takes more or less time. This operation is usually done either by two men and two horses or by one man and two horses. (See Table LX.) The brush is often gathered in the center of the tree rows at the time of pruning or after pruning. This makes it much easier to handle the brush quickly. As a general rule, however, a crew of two men and two horses with a wagon will pass between the tree rows, the men gathering the brush on either side of the wagon, and hauling it to some convenient place and burning it, either at once or later in the season when the brush has dried. The trees are so young and the pruning generally has been so well done that there is a very small amount of. large wood, so that practically very little trimming up of the pruned wood is necessary. Considering the number of man-hours and horse-hours required for this operation, and assuming that the amount of brush was the same in each instance, it appears from Table IX that the most econom- COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN WENATCHEE VALLEY, WASH. 15 ical way to remove brush is by the 2-men and 1-horse crew. How- ever, as there are only five records of this method, this result can not be taken as conclusive. Taste IX.—Average number of acres of brush removed by different crews in 10 hours. Number of— Number Acres of [|-——-_—_| per o_| Cost per records. Mien. Hones ours. 43 2 2 1.56 $5. 12 25 1 2 - 93 5.90 9 1 1 - 90 4.43 5 2 1 1.50 4.34 Considering all records, there is an annual charge of 11.86 man- hours and 14.46 horse-hours per acre for handling the brush, at a cost of $5.14 per acre. FURROWING. Furrowing, or ‘‘creasing,’’ is a practice of making small ditches for distributing water for irrigation. The cultivator and the shovel plow are the implements most commonly used for this operation. In clean cultivation furrows are made just prior to the time of irriga- tion. All orchardists furrowed once; 91 per cent, twice; 63 per cent, three times; 314 per cent, four times; and 34 per cent, five times. Most alfalfa orchardists furrowed but once, just after the spring cultivation. A few of the alfalfa orchardists made a practice of cleaning out the furrows following the harvesting of alfalfa. Usually a 6-foot cultivator with three shovels attached, one at either end and one in the middle, is used for making furrows. Four to six furrows, varying in depth from 4 to 6 inches, and abroxinintely) 3 feet apart, are usually made between tree rows. A crew of one man and two horses with the 6-foot cultivator, making the usual number of furrows—six between rows—covered 8.3 acres per day, at a labor cost of 66.3 cents per acre. A crew of one man and one horse with the shovel plow, making the usual number of furrows—five between rows—covered 5.15 acres per day, at a labor cost of 77.6 cents per acre. (See Table X.) TasLe X.—Average time and cost of making furrows in clean-cultivated orchards with the 6-foot cultivator or the shovel plow. | | Number of— | M 7 J } an- OMdO=- ian Implement. seen | hours hours | ‘ pau Per | iron, | Higrana, | *- | per acre. | per acre. me Stee " = a “ |— : : UE SALLE CMAs dnd uGnes oe bccn nnncw neve 1 | 2 8.3 1.204 2.408 $0. 663 BOT OUOLOWS welts h vutline sian tee b ««'s'xd'y oo 1 | 1 | 5.15 1.94 1.94 . 776 | | 16 BULLETIN 446, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In making furrows in alfalfa orchards the shovel plow is most fre- quently used. For the 30 records under consideration, 19 used the shovel plow, 11 with 1 horse and 7 with 2 horses; 8 used the culti- vator, and 3 used miscellaneous tools. A crew of 1 man and 1 horse, using the shovel plow, making the usual number of furrows—five between rows—covered 5.02 acres per day, at a cost of 79.7 cents per acre; while a crew of 1 man and 2 horses with the shovel plow aver- aged 4.9 acres in 10 hours, at a cost of $1.12 per acre. Where the 6-foot cultivator was used, 7.57 acres, on an average, were covered per day at a cost of 72.7 cents per acre. (See Table XI.) TasLe XI.—Average time and cost of making furrows in cover-crop orchards with the 6-foot cultivator or the shovel plow. SE Ear Man ‘Horse- Implement. Tee hours | hours Cost BBE Mh Gee -| per acre. | per acre. HB, G-foot cultivatoreecsas- yee tee ee i 2 Weuyl 1.32 2.64 $0. 727 Shoveliplow/se = sacs a eaeeee = esas ose 1 1 5.02 1.99 1.99 797 Oe rte oe aec es Sea reeset ety ae 1 2 4.90 2.06 4.12 1.120 . IRRIGATION. In the Wenatchee Valley the supply of water for irrigation pur- poses is obtained principally from the Wenatchee River and its tribu- taries. It is distributed at altitudes a little above the location of the orchards through several irrigation ditches, thence to the orchards through laterals. These laterals may be open ditches, wooden flames, or pipes. The water is delivered from the laterals to the farm. At the poimt of delivery on the farm, the water received is distributed either into earth head ditches, small wooden flumes, or pipes, and from these it is distributed by means of furrows through- out the orchard. Along the earth head ditches small wooden spouts are placed at intervals to regulate the flow of water into the furrows. The wooden flumes receiving the water from the laterals are usually about 6 to 8 inches in width at the bottom, having sides 6 to 8 inches in height, with auger holes at regular intervals through which the water passes into furrows. Small metal slides or pieces of lath are placed over the auger holes for the purpose of regulating the amount of water passing into the furrows. Where the water is piped into the orchard, there are usually placed at points opposite each tree row small standpipes with garden valves, which deliver the water di- rectly into the furrows. In regions where the supply of water is limited, the furrow system | seems to be the most satisfactory means of distributing the water. This is practically the universal method for irrigating orchards throughout the Northwest. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN WENATCHEE VALLEY, WASH. ily The operation of turning the water on the land is termed a “‘set.”’ It may be necessary if the head of water is smail to make several changes or ‘‘sets”’ before the entire area is irrigated. This is usually the case, especially where the orchard tracts are large. For this reason the orchardist turns the whole of the head into a few furrows and allows it to run from 12 to 72 hours, varying with the type and condition of the soil. The water is allowed to run until, by a slow lateral movement, it has thoroughly saturated the soil between the furrows. As a rule the rancher judges merely by the surface condi- tions of the soil as to when sufficient saturation has taken place. When he finds that the area has become well saturated, he turns the water into another portion of the orchard, and so on until the entire area is irrigated. Many factors affect the time and labor of irrigation. The principal ones are: Water head; contour of land; method of delivery, whether, open ditch, flume, pipe, or faucet; number, length, and depth of fur- rows; kind of soil; physical condition of soil; cultural method; atmos- pheric conditions; gophers. On the average, four irrigations are made in Wenatchee Valley annually. The first irrigation is usually made between the 1st and 15th of May, the second between the Ist and 15th of June, the third between the Ist and 15th of July, and the fourth between the 1st and 15th of August. In some instances irrigations are made as early as April and as late as the middle or latter part of September. There are a few orchardists who make as many as nine Irrigations. There is practically no difference in the time required for irrigating the alfalfa and the clean cultivated orchards. On those farms studied in the valley, the average number of man-hours per season necessary to irrigate an acre of clean-cultivated orchard was 34.37, making a labor cost of $8.59, while the average time necessary to irri- gate 1 acre of an orchard in alfalfa was 35.66 man-hours, making a labor cost of $8.92. THINNING. Practically every orchardist in the valley thins his fruit. Thinning is very important, and the quality of the fruit which matures depends to a great extent upon the amount of thinning done. There are some varieties which require more thinning than others. The Missouri, Wagener, Grimes, Yellow Newtown, and King David are vexieties which perhaps demand imore thinning than any others in order to produce a fruit of marketable size. This thinning is generally done after what is known as the “June drop,” when the apples begin to approach the size of a walnut, Many times it is impossible to get all the thinning done at this time, other operations interfering. 58599° —Bull. 446—17——3 18 BULLETIN 446, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Many men thin two or three times during the season. The size and age of the tree have considerable bearing on the length of time required for this operation. There are two methods of thinning used in the valley, with shears and by hand. The length of time required for each of these methods is affected not only by the efficiency and experience of the operator SSS A. Center-ring-and-wire prop. B. Cross-wire prop. C. Center-pole-and-wire prop. Fic. 3.—Four methods of propping apple trees in Wenatchee Valley. The single-pole prop is most com- monly used. but by the density of the foliage and the equipment which it may be necessary to use on account of the size of the tree. In some seasons it is of course necessary to thin more heavily than in other seasons. When a large crop is expected heavy pruning is done the winter before, and in that way some of the work of thinning is obviated. Under normal conditions the trees of the valley usually bear a heavy crop every other year. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN WENATCHEE VALLEY, WASH. 19 The factors which appreciably affect the time required for thinning may be summed up as number of trees per acre, variety, size of tree, age, method of pruning adopted, water supply, soil condition, method of thinning (by shears or by hand), density of foliage, equipment, hail, tendency to alternate bearing, and the quantity of fruit removed. Considering all records, the average time per acre required for this operation was 53.29 man-hours at a cost of $13.32. PROPPING. The regularity of the apple crop in the valley necessitates the practice of propping annually. This is done any time throughout the growing season when the weight of the fruit bears the limbs down so ‘Fic. 4.—The center-polé-and-wire method of propping. This tree is a 3-year Winoesap graft on a 5-yoar-old Wagener stock. that there is danger of their breaking. Four methods of propping are used by the orchardists: The center-ring-and-wire, the cross-wire, the center-pole-and-wire, and the single-pole prop. In the center-ring-and-wire method (A, fig. 3) screw eyes are placed in the main limbs at some distance above the crotch of the tree. Wires are attached to the screw eyes and brought to a ring placed approximately in the center of the tree. This holds the tree in shape and prevents the breaking of the limbs at the time when the crop is on. In the cross-wire method (B, fig. 3) screw eyes are placed in the main limbs at some distance above the crotch. From each screw eye a wire extends and is attached to a limb opposite or nearly so. This answers the same purpose as the former method. In the center-pole-and-wire method (C, fig. 3) screw eyes are placed in the main limbs, to which are attached long strands of wire. At 20 BULLETIN 446, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the end of each strand is a loop which is placed over a nail driven in the end of a pole. This pole is raised to a position nearly parallel to the trunk of the tree and set. This draws the wires tight, holds the tree in shape, and prevents the limbs from breaking. (See also fig. 4.) The single-pole prop method (D, fig. 3) is most common. This single pole usually consists of 2 1 by 2 inch or 1 by 4 inch pine strip varying in length as conditions demand. ‘The 8 to 12 foot lengths are most commonly used. These props are usually sharpened at one’ end so as to make it easy to place them in the ground. The end which is to hold the limb is V-notched or small lath strips are tacked on each side of the prop, practically forming a notch. There are three methods of single-pole propping in common use. First, one crew may haul and scatter the props through the orchard while another crew sets them up (A, Table XII); second, a crew may haul the props out and set them as they go (B, Table XII); third, the props may be hauled out and set up as needed (C, Table XIT). Sometimes an orchardist may carry out and set them as needed. The time required for this operation is no doubt more variable than that for any other operation. TasLe XII.—Average time per acre required on farms studied for propping with the single-pole prop used in three ways. Number of— Per acre. SLE stall HERAT CTS Operations. pet 10 a = ours. an- orse- Men. Horses. HES. Rete Cost. Method A: Eaulinestoonchanrdess=se hse eeeeeeoreee 1 2 4. 56 2.19 4.38 $1. 205 Setiin ORup sae ee eee eae ee eee Nl eeete erage . 596 16810 eee eae 4, 203 Hauling from orchard ..............--. 1 2 4.60 2.17, 4.34 1.194 ANE MUn oe ee feng, Mar ae seal pepe Sol er aa ae ore feesbe| ee ee lise tz | enesae 6: 602 Method B: | | Hauling tororchardees= sees ee eeees see 1 1 5. 58 1.79 1.79 . 716 Sethine wp sae eeee Sa eee fe fe eee ee - 694 14540) | eee 3.60 Hauling from orchard ................- 1 1 5. 58 1.79 1.79 - 716 ETS Geyer appe see a oe e sce are Cece aioe I SPS are a ree ae | Ee eta eee 17.98 | 3.58 5. 032 Method C: Hauling out and propping............. 1 2 . 878 | 11. 39 22. 78 6. 265 Eawlineitiromorchanrdieeee see. 1 2 4. 42 2. 45 4.90 1. 348 oT eh a SUR Shs oth ahi oa loner He] AL Pint rll ately Pashia ll tbpee nce | 13.84] 27.68 7.613 All records considered, there is an acre charge of $6.36 for propping. SPRAYING. All orchardists in the valley spray annually, realizing the vital importance of a thorough and systematic application of spray mate- rials to insure the production of marketable apples.' 1 Since the investigation, other diseases and insects have caused some change in the spray calendar in the Wenatchee Valley. oe COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN WENATCHEE VALLEY, WASH. aa The spray outfit usually consists of a 24 to 34 horsepower gasoline engine and a 150 to 250 gallon tank mounted on a truck. Two 50- foot lengths of spraying hose, with 8 to 10 foot bamboo extensions and nozzle attachments, complete the outfit. A single nozzle is most commonly used with each hose. Only a few of the outfits carry a spray tower. Not every orchardist owns .an outfit. Some own a share in an outfit, while others hire their spraying done. When the spraying is hired, a man with team and sprayer receives $1.50 per hour, the orchardist furnishing the material. The first application of spray is made when the trees are dormant, the second when 75 to 90 per cent of the petals have fallen, the third two to three weeks following the second, and the fourth during the latter part of August or the first of September. The first, or ‘‘dormant,’”’ spray is made with a lime-sulphur solu- tion, during a period of calm weather soon after the snow disappears from the ground. Commercial lime-sulphur is usually used for the “dormant” spray with a 1 to 10 solution; i. e., 1 part of lime-sulphur to 9 parts of water. It is usually made from March 10 to April 10; the greater part of the work, however, is done from March 20 to April 10, at which time the leaf buds are beginning to burst. A coarse spray is applied with Bordeaux nozzles, a pressure of 150 to 175 pounds being maintained. Some orchardists do not make the winter lime-sulphur spray each year. Of the records considered, 81 made this an annual practice, while 6 used this spray every other year. A crew of 3 men and 2 horses is most commonly used, although there were a few 1-man and 2-horse, 2-men and 1-horse, and 2-men and 2-horse crews. A crew of 3 men and 2 horses will spray 3.51 acres in 10 hours, applying 6.1 gallons per tree, or 491.1 gallons per acre. (See Tables XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, and XVII.) Tasie XIII.—Acres sprayed in 10 hours and amount of material applied per tree by a $-man and 2-horse crew. Material. Item. nee First Second Third sulphur leac lead- lead- ‘ * | arsenate. | arsenate. | arsenate. oper ee ee — = 12 ft EMSC RN LOUITG sto iaia ote tol als bao bebe eh da ye a> «oil epee aetee 3.51 3.35 3.59 3.64 POBNCLIDO nor o ses cinerea acca hamror Vidaa kee cinerisiacar elec 6.1 6.7 6.2 5.9 The first codling-moth, or lead-arsenate, spray is applied when 75 to 90 per cent of the petals have fallen. AIL orchardists make this spray. A fine spray is used and a pressure of from 180 to 250 pounds is maintained. It is the purpose to force this spray well into the calyx for future protection of the apple against the work of the 22 BULLETIN 446, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. codling-moth larva. A crew of 3 men and 2 horses will spray 3.35 acres in 10 hours, applying 6.7 gallons per tree, or 539 gallons per acre. The second codling-moth spray is usually applied from May 20 to Junel. The Bordeaux or Vermorel nozzles are used with a fine spray, and a pressure of from 150 to 175 pounds is maintained. It is the purpose of this spray to cover the small apples with material for protection against the first brood of codling-moth larva, which begins to appear at this time. A crew of 3 men and 2 horses will spray on the average 3.59 acres in 10 hours, applying 6.2 gallons per treé, or 505 gallons per acre. The third codling-moth spray is usually applied from July 20 to July 31. The Bordeaux or the Vermorel nozzle is used with a fine spray, and a pressure of from 150 to 175 pounds is maintained. It is the purpose of this spray to cover the apples with material for protection against the codling-moth larva. The second brood of larva is usually hatching at this time. A crew of 3 men and 2 horses will spray 3.64 acres in 10 hours, applying 5.9 gallons per tree, or 478 gallons per acre. Taste XIV.—Labor and material costs per acre for spraying where a crew of 3 men and 2 horses 1s used. Per acre. Gallons. Number Uae Kind of spray. of l l Tial cost growers. | Man- | Horse-| Labor| Per | Per | Per | Pe& hours. | hours.| cost. | day. | acre. | tree. | 27°- Taie-cul phar ees 6. ek Jeena 69 | 8.79| 5.86| $3.08| 1,734| 494] 6.1 39 First lead-arsenate?............---- 76 8.95 5. 97 3.13 | 1,804 539 6.7 9.15 Second lead-arsenate...........---- 55 8.34 5. 56 2.92 | 1,812 505 6.2 Deis Third lead-arsenate....-......-.---- 44 8. 24 5.49 2.88} 1,740| 478 5.9 1.91 Fourth lead-arsenate:.........-.---- 3 9. 66 6. 44 3.38 | 1,743 | 561 6.9 2.24 1 Lime-sulphur, strength 1 to 10. 2 Lead-arsenate, strength 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water. There are a few orchardists who make a fourth lead-arsenate spray the latter part of August or the first of September. Lead-arsenate is used with a strength of 14 to 2 pounds of material to 50 gallons of water in all codling-moth sprays. Of the 85 records considered in spraying, 84 made the ‘‘dormant”’ lime-sulphur spray; 22 made only the first codling-moth spray; 22 made only the first and second codling-moth sprays; 37 made the first, second, and third codling-moth sprays; 4 made the first, sec- ond, third, and fourth codling-moth sprays. Im all sprays con- sidered, there was an average of 81 trees per acre, with an average age of 11.5 years. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN WENATCHEE VALLEY, WASH. 923 TasBLe XV.—Labor costs per acre for spraying, all records, regardless of crew used. Cost. > | Number | Number Kind of spray. of making growers. | spray. Per Per Per Lime-sulphur ..........-..-.---. PERG Beas tye saistaaseaaeee 85 84 resinent arsenate: rts os 42 re wie eae Li ree eae 85 85 puhniremienenrsenate. 260500. eke ss). . oes cce2 i hehe 85 50 ER IITMIN TST REGGE ALO cee a sone eee nee oe ee ny 85 4 $0. 0166 Marmummenrallispray sare sede soso ste: oo Sees ee een Numerous factors influence the cost of spraying. The variety and size of trees and their distance apart, the character and the contour of the land on which the spraying is done, the convenience of facili- ties, the purpose of the spray, condition and kind of material used, the thoroughness of the work, and whether the trees are dormant, partly or wholly in foliage, all have their bearmg on the time re- quired for the spraying operation. The average cost for spraying where all records are considered is $13.15 per acre for material and $9.86 for labor, or a total of $23.01 per acre. (See Tables XVI and XVII.) Taste XVI.— Material costs per acre for spraying, all records. Cost Number | Number | Gallons Kind of spray. of making | material ranchers.| spray. | peracre.| Per Per Per acre. tree. box. Lime-sulphur ........ a 3s ER ie aio SG 85 84 AGTH. ABSk Ail | Salsa eer een = RETIIPAOLAYHONALO: 2.620 = Si Fo er Be eee 85 85 523 209 ese) te qas|h otnte eters pecoud lead-arsenate......2...---222----e-cenceee 85 63 362 146 RERS Sealants ce IGA -AIRBNATC. 22-6 22 - oie = Sons ace ce 85 50 275 ae edan laa sonese Fourth lead-arsenate........... Pee ea eiae 85 4 25 WO Was soos aay. Cesr Wie MLSPYAyS ALO USCA. ..5- osc oe eral e daniel cetl: Gece sas cc|aceeccae’ne 13.15 |$0. 1623 $0. 0222 Tasie XVIL.—Total cost per acre of labor and materials for spraying all orchards. Number Cost per acre. of ____| Total | Total Kind of spray. growers sve l cost cost spray- aalabor Mate- |per tree.|per box. ing, "| rial. PONTE IIITIE coc, chido a iedes Joa .rgoled a sean LPT Ee xe SASL ZG 4 2, OY le BSc Ale| ttaurelte ceaan 2 First joad -arseniste Reet sinner ae Shiota ie ere Steg oats ete 85 5.16 3. 07 BTU lacie metenie| tweteietatea CUTE ISAC -OLOCTIBLO, oo 0208s cc cas lbedes hdeonies 63 3. 57 2,12 Lad Bh cir datezis |telsterto cin SRR TERMDEE MOTI goto 5 i oe Smal Fg oly coe ae aan pee aee 50 2.78 1.68 Tih O ection ceareca teeta tute ares EDULE IDOOMMNOUALG 005 2 acter ay vonsee sbme eects «as 4 25 15 PLOT he ea al ra ate ie Average cost for spraying. .........0.cccceccsnen|encesccecs 23, OL 9,86 | 13.15 | $0,284 | $0. 0388 24 BULLETIN 446, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MISCELLANEOUS LABOR. There are many items of labor which in themselves do not appear to amount to a great deal, but in the aggregate take considerable time and make a cost which is recognized by many ranchers. Allow- ing these smaller needs or demands of the ranch to go unheeded for too long a period may later mean much expense of labor and money. The principal items considered under this head are painting wounds where large limbs are removed from the trees, removing water sprouts, cleaning irrigation lateral ditches, and hoeing around the trees. These, together with a few others, make a miscellaneous labor charge per acre of 9.06 man-hours, or a cost of $2.27. (Table XVIIT.) TasiE X VITI.—Labor and cost chargeable per acre prior to harvest on orchards under clean cultural management (57 ranches). Hours per acre. Cost per acre. Operation. cose cy Man. Horse. Man. Horse. Total. ’ Cultivation Eien RRS Un ee ee ie eS 28. 52 50. 82 $7.13 $7. 62 $14. 75 |... 222. oe JO GONE Saree ae heme Sines oA sneha Ae SESSA ease tes Ch!) |sscossonce 8.59 Ee Manuring........ APR oath qnin ais te SN A 4,32 7.92 1.08 1.19 25270) aes ae Brumin ge Ses eins Nie Se ae Ree hese AQNS TATA Seay WOLO8 |lestosevee- NOS OS, |nces- 25558 Hauling TOUS pe See eae ius eee 11. 86 14. 46 2.97 2.17 UAT | ese entre EAROP PUM es sla e eee Sieh aon as 19. 01 10. 73 4.75 1.61 CBB Ilesscsonnss ining SAS SERS ee soles oebae acess ue HIN OOU |e tee tee 1332 |e heen ete TBS 3D lt peers Spraying (lime-sulphur) ...............-.- 8.13 5. 42 2.03 . 81 Pe a ess ons Spraying (lead-arsenate).................- 19. 99 13. 45 5.00 2. 02 AS O2 1 ie ener ee Mascellaneouss soe oa ee Ss 9206) Every PORT ATE iS Ses oe 2520. |eeeene sees STG Gel ees eee an eet Ate cece Sage eo eee 228. 86 102. 30 57. 22 15. 42 72. 64 $0. 1225 MULCH CROPS. At the time these studies were made there was an increasing tendency to put down the orchards to alfalfa or some other legume. An indication of the cost of operation on 30 ranches under this management is given here. Most alfalfa orchardists begin the cultural work on their orchards by a thorough use of the disk harrow as early in the spring as soil conditions permit. It is the purpose of this disking to split and spread the crowns of the plants, thus causing them to stool and send out new plants. The spike-tooth or the spring-tooth harrow and the float are used following the disk harrow, to fine and level the soil, making it more fit for plant growth and bringing it into shape for irrigation. Following this cultivation, furrows, or creases, are made for irrigation with a shovel plow or 6-foot cultivator. A few of the men plowed the alfalfa under once in three or four years and then reseeded it, but this is the exception. (See Table XTX.) COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN WENATCHEE VALLEY, WASH. 25 Tapie XIX.— Van and horse hours chargeable per acre for cultivation in alfalfa orchards. Plowing. Diskinog. Cultivating. Furrowing. Total. Number of records. Man. | Horse.| Man. | Horse.| Man. | Horse.| Man. | Horse.| Man. | Horse. Hours. | Hours.) Hours.| Hours.| Hours.| Hours. | Hours. | Hours. | Hours.| Hours. Cees see 1.03 | 2. 06 5.65 | 10. 86 2.97 5.16 2. 09 3.39 | 11.74 21.47 Many times, in order to facilitate irrigation, it is necessary to do other labor in the orchard, such as hand hoeing and locating the work of gophers. Such items were taken into account under miscellaneous jabor. Five irrigations, on an average, were made in alfalfa orchards. Alfalfa orchards required more water than the clean-cultivated orchards; nevertheless, the average time per acre for labor connected with irrigation was not much more than in the clean-cultivated orchards. Twenty of the orchards under alfalfa management were mown, on an average, twice. (See Table XX.) Tasie XX.— Man and horse hours chargeable per acre for harvesting alfalfa. Mowing. Rake and pile.| Hauling in. Total. Yield ie Number of records. per Man. Horse. | Man. | Horse.| Man. | Horse. | Man. | Horse. | 2°'° Hours. | Hours. | Hours.| Hours. | Hours. | Hours. | Hours. | Hours. | Hours. * Pe oe 6.62 3.13 4.64 0.96 5.38 5.58 | 16.64 9.67 1.01 The figures secured indicate a cost of $11.77 per acre for cultivation and harvesting of the alfalfa crop. The total cost per acre for culti- vation in orchards under clean-cultivation management was $14.75, giving a difference of $2.98 in favor of the orchards under alfalfa management. There is, however, in alfalfa orchards a cost of $8.92 per acre for irrigation, or $0.33 more than the average cost per acre for the same under clean-culture management, which would, there- fore, make the difference of only $2.65 in favor of the latter. But considering the yield of 1 ton per acre of alfalfa valued at $9 per ton, there would appear to be a total difference of $11.65 per acre, or practically $0.0196 per box, in favor of the orchards under alfalfa management. (See Table X XI.) Owing to the fact that so few have been in alfalfa for any length of time and that the management of these orchards was more or less in a transitory state, it was impossible to obtain adequate complete data on this subject. A more extended investigation would be necessary to determine the relative merits of the two methods of management. 26 BULLETIN 446, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LADLE XXI.—Labor and cost chargeable per acre prior to harvest on orchards under . mulch-crop management (30 ranches). ! Hours per acre. Cost per acre. Operation. _——— Coster Man. Horse. Man. Horse. Total. Cultivation....... Pea oes cgay ie 11.74 |" 21047-||— “g2:94%| ~ 43.99 |" = sauigl lames MAAN OM. os- ess sosce soc cesses aeeoeseeoae 30008 | Sarees SoU) |Ese-css-se 8:92 De eae abornon aul chcroperes- eee ee eee eee 16. 64 9. 67 4.16 1.45 5261 peneeese oe Mam ring :oss82 ssh sess see ym ae eee 4.32 7.92 1.08 1.19 PAA Reoee eo IPTUNIN GA Se eso eee ae See = Seer AQF STs |Pabie eae 10308) | Beare 10308" | asa2 = ea uhin gp rUShe sees ee eee eee 11.86 14. 46 2.97 2.17 Bs 4 | oe Soot PROPPING. ssa2 8 oases See aes epi e 19. 01 10. 73 4.75 1.61 (Hel eaaess ase AM obievaubayseeei se cy h ee Ate Ane See Ge eae BERN epoeeosee IB SCM bSeecce ese 13 320s eee Spraying (ime-sulphur) -5-2-22222-2=25.-- 8:13 5. 42 2. 03 81 2284s|Teeeiee Spraying (lead-arsenate).--..--.----------- 19.99 13.45 5.00 2.02 (027|-aeee ee Miscellaneous schoteebe. {nace ease ies OS OG ES: PEA (ea ease DDT. a2 Wee Motals8 ces Asse ners- pase ea eee 230. 01 83.12 57.52 | 12.47} 69.99 $0. 1029 1 All items of labor, except cultivation, irrigation, and labor on mulch crop, are the same as under clean- cultural management. A credit of $9 is given for 1 ton of alfalfa per acre. HANDLING THE CROP. Handling the crop includes all harvesting labor necessary to deliver the packed box to a local association or a railway station. This labor consists of hauling apple-box shooks to the ranch, making the apple box, picking, hauling empty and full boxes to and from the orchard during harvesting, all packing-house labor, and the delivery of the packed box to the local association or the railway station. The total handling charges are about 23 per cent of the total cost of pro- duction. The various steps in the handling of the crop will be dis- cussed in the usual order of their occurrence. All apples for shipment are packed in the standard Northwest box, the inside measurements of which are 103 by 114 by 18 inches. HAULING SHOOKS. In preparing for harvest the orchardist usually hauls a part or all of his box shooks to the ranch the latter part of the summer previous to the beginning of harvest. Many orchardists haul a por- tion of their shooks on return trips from hauling packed boxes to the shipping point during harvest time. Some buy box shooks on contract, — delivered at the ranch. Others buy them and pay a stipulated price for delivery. This price of course varies with the distance the shooks are hauled. A crew of 1 man and 2 horses will haul approximately 477 box shooks a distance of 1.83 miles in two hours. The average cost per mile per shook for hauling is $0.002 and the average distance hauled is 1.79 miles. A crew of 1 man and 1 horse is sometimes used for hauling shooks, but there were not enough records of this method to give a reliable average. — ee COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN WENATCHEE VALLEY, WASH. 27 BOX MAKING. The boxes are usually made by the orchardist and members of his family if the number necessary for the crop is not too large. Where boxes are made by contract there is a charge of $0.0075 to $0.01 per box. PICKING. Picking is usually begun on the Jonathans about the 1st of Septem- ber and ends with the Winesaps along in November. Picking is done by hand into buckets of various kinds. The galvanized one- half bushel bucket is most common, although some use a galvanized- iron bucket with a canvas bottom which may be opened to allow the hae A Siti, Hae $e FG. 5.—Picking Grimes Golden apples. Showing one type of ladder used for picking in the valley. fruit to pass into a picking box without injury. The pickers ordi- narily work from orchard ladders and stepladders varying in length from 8 to 10 fect. (See fig. 5.) On account of the size of the trees, itis seldom necessary to use a ladder over 14 feet in length. Some varieties are picked two or three times. Where ripening is irregular among the red varieties, orchardists pick the apple when it approaches a correct stage of ripeness and has obtained the proper color, It is not customary to pick apples by.contract per box. All picking is done by day labor at from $2.25 to $2.50 per 10-hour day. The apples when picked are placed in packing boxes which previously have heen scattered at convenient places throughout the orchard. The average picker will pick from 50 to 80 loose boxes per day. The average for all records was 74.6 loose boxes, or 49.73 packed boxes, per 10-hour day, at a cost of $0.0503 per packed box. 28 BULLETIN 446, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. HAULING APPLES TO PACKING SHED. Prior to and during the picking season empty boxes are hauled and scattered at convenient places for the pickers throughout the orchard. _The boxes in which the apples are placed to be hauled to the packing shed are the same or similar to the ones in which the apples are packed. A wagon or sled with one or two horses is used in hauling the boxes to and from the orchards. Very imperfectly. REACTIONS WITH NITROUS ACID. By treatment with nitrous acid in dilute solution most of the com- mon coal-tar dyes used in food coioring are not readily affected. A considerable number, however, show marked changes, because of di- azotization of free amino groups, of formation of nitroso compounds, or of direct oxidation. FOOD-COLORING SUBSTANCES. 51 Where diazo compounds are formed, they may be further coupled by the usual method of adding the mixture to an alkaline solution of one of the naphthols, or of a naphthol sulphonic acid. B. C. Hesse has pointed out that the two acid yellows (No. 8 and No. 9) can be distinguished by the use of alpha-naphthol—No. 9 giving in alkaline solution a red compound; No. 8 one which is intensely blue. In the test described below the mixture is treated first with nitrous acid, then with hydrazin sulphate. The hydrazin sulphate serves to destroy the excess of nitrous acid, so that the naphthol solution (or an amin if preferred) may be added directly, and the coupling then brought about by addition of alkali. The new dye formed may also be separated readily, if desired, by acidifying and shaking out with a suitable solvent. In the case of only one dye in the table, Safranin (No. 584), does the diazo compound appear to be reduced or changed by addition of hydrazin sulphate. The nitroso compounds formed from Nos. 95 and 88, are decom- posed by the hydrazin salt, the original color of the acid solution being restored. The test is carried out as follows: The solution of the color at ordinary temperature is made slightly acid by the addition of two or three drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid and one or two drops of 7 per cent sodium nitrite solution are added. With blue or green dyes, where oxidation changes may take place, the mixture may be allowed to stand a few minutes at this stage; but with other colors about 1 ce, or an excess, of 3 per cent hydrazin sulphate solution is added at once. The mixture is allowed to stand one-half or one minute to permit complete destruction of the excess of nitrous acid; then it is divided and a few drops of alpha-naphthol solution are added to one portion. Both portions are then made strongly alka- line with sodium carbonate, the one not containing alpha-naphthol serving as a check to show if any coupling has taken place. TaBLe 5.—Behavior of colors when treated with sodium nitrite. (° Indicates that no color changes take place other than those produced by the acid or alkali.) 462.—With sodium nitrite, blue; then colorless; after making alkaline in the pres- ence of alpha-naphthol, orange. 434°, 435°, 436°.—Attacked very slowly by nitrous acid. 439.—Becomes yellow with sodium nitrite. : 491.—Becomes violet with sodium nitrite (rather slowly), 44°, 602°, 108°. 8.—With sodium nitrite, much paler; after adding alpha-naphthol and excess of sodium carbonate, intensely blue. 9.—With sodium nitrite, much paler; after adding alpha-naphthol and excess of sodium carbonate, red. 89.—Red solution becomes yellow with sodium nitrite; on addition of hydrazin sulphate, red again. 692.—With sodium nitrite, slowly oxidized to the yellow isatin derivative. 399°, 106°, 107°, 94°, 398.—With sodium nitrite, brown. 605°, 604°, 188°, 14°, 52 BULLETIN 448, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 21.—With sodium nitrite, slightly darker; with alpha-naphthol and sodium carbon- ate, dull greenish black. 318.—With sodium nitrite, paler and redder. 20°, 93° (480°.—Slowly attacked by nitrous acid); 53°, 55°, 105°, 4°, 706°, 56°, 62°, 64°, 65°, 1032, 1395) 1642. Gore, 169° 163°5 1707 84.—With sodium nitrite, redder. Ts el isin 546°, ie 507.—With sodium nitrite, bluer. 328°, 606°, 154°. 85.—With sodium nitrite, paler. ae, G20. Ia, GH, eee. Bee, lay. 95.—Crimson solution becomes yellow with sodium nitrite; on addition of hydrazin sulphate, red again. 88.—Crimson solution becomes yellow with sodium nitrite; on addition of hydrazin sulphate, red again. 92° 101.—Paler with sodium nitrite. 102°, 483°,-510°, 26°. 220, 229. —Slightly paler with sodium nitrite. 512°, 515°, 516°, 517°, 518°, 520°, 521°, 523°, 2°, 3°, 6°, 534°, 707°, 10°, 468°, 464°, 438°, 433°, 449°, 476°, 240°, 977° (562°, scarcely attacked; in 50 per cent acetic acid, behaves with nitrous acid as with bromin in the bromin test); 658°, 496°, 650°, 639°. 584.—With sodium nitrite, blue; rather rapidly becomes red again on addition of hydrazin sulphate. 448.—Wine-red on diazotization, addition of hydrazin sulphate, alpha-naphthol and sodium carbonate; with sodium nitrite in acetic acid solution, first blue, then colorless. 425°, 426°, 451°, 452°. 427.—Reddish with sodium nitrite. iy PAUL Wf — With sodium nitrite, paler; after addition of sodium carbonate, naphthol, etc., somewhat redder. 18.—With sodium nitrite, paler; after addition of sodium carbonate, naphthol, etc., somewhat redder. 505°, 499°, 504°, 502°——May appear bluer when the alcoholic alpha-naphthol solution is added. 16°.—Slowly destroyed by nitrous acid. 7.—Paler with sodium nitrite; after addition of other reagents, red. Aminoazotoluene.—As stated above for 7. Benzeneazo-6-naphthylamin, | Ortho-tolueneazo-s-naphthylamin.—These com- pounds are almost insoluble in aqueous liquids. As ortho-aminoazo derivatives, they are not readily diazotized or coupled. REACTIONS WITH POTASSIUM CYANID. With the common monazo dyes, the bromin oxidation will pro- vide for an identification of the ‘‘first component”’ of the color, i. e., the radical not containing the hydroxyl or amino groups. The other radical, usually containing hydroxyl or amino groups ortho to the azo junction, is identified with much more difficulty in most cases. Since the two ortho-azo dyes permitted in foods are both derived from 2-naphthol-3-6-disulphonic acid as second component, the reac- tion discovered by Lange‘ that derivatives of this acid are attacked on boiling with potassium cyanid and the 3-sulphonic acid group replaced by cyanogen, is useful for distinguishing and separating isomeric dyes. The test may be made as follows: About 10 cc of the neutral color solution is treated with 1 ce of 20 per cent potassium cyanid solution 1 Deutsches Reichs Patent No. 189,035. FOOD-COLORING SUBSTANCES, 53 and 1 ce of 20 per cent ammonium chlorid solution, and is heated in a test tube in a boiling water bath for from five to eight minutes. It is then quickiy cooled. The reactions obtained with certain dyes are shown in the table. The test requires some care, and blanks with known dyes should be carried through at the same time in all cases. The results with a number of common azo dyes are shown in Table 6, the derivatives of 2-naphthol-3-6-disulphonic acid forming new dyes of markedly different solubilities, corresponding to the fact that they contain one less sulphonic acid group. By warming with the cyanid solution for a considerable period of time further reac- tions easily take place, derivatives of 2-naphthol-3-6-disulphonic acid and 2-naphthol-6-8-disulphonic acid being especially unstable. The common nitro dyes are changed by warming with cyanid solution, becoming brownish or reddish (compare formation of iso- purpuric acid from trinitrophenol). Tasie 6.—Behavior of colors with cyanid solution. ‘ Dye. | “Second component” of dye. Behavior with eyanid solution. 108 Naphthol trisulphonic acid | Warmed 8 minutes, dye almost completely destroyed with (2-3-6-8). production of orange and yellow substances. Warmed | until dark red (1-2 minutes), strongly acidified, and washed | with 2 N HCl, practically no color is removed (3-4 wash- ings); then washed with N/4 HCl, a bluishred dye is readily removed. A s ae ubin Apparently unchanged by cyanid. 106 | Naphthol disulphonic acid | Dye is not changed in solubility, although on long warming (2-6-8). much color is destroyed. The cyanid mixture may be acidified with 5 ce concentrated hydrochloric acid, and shaken out with 10 ee of amylaleohol. On separating the alcohol, and washing 4 or 5 times with fourth-normal hydro- chloric acid, nearly all of the dye will be taken out by the dilute acid. 107 | Naphthol disulphonie acid | Dye is changed into a cyan-derivative similar in solubility to (2-3-6). other disulphonated monazo dyes. The cyanid mixture is pale brown and when treated as stated under New Coccin (106), almost all coloring matter remains in the amyl alcohol. On long heating of the cyanid mixture the cyan-derivative may be completely destroyed, further re- ‘ : é actions taking place. 14 | Naphthol disulphonie acid | Dye unchanged. Cyanid mixture, when acidified with 1 ec (2-6-8). glacial acetic acid and shaken with 5 to 10 ce amyl alcohol, e ; : _ gives up little coloring matter to the latter. 15 | Naphthol disulphonie acid | Dye changed into a cyan-derivative similar in solubility to (2-3-6). the other monosulphonated monazo dyes. The eyanid mixture is pale brownish, and when treated as described under Orange G (14) gives up most of its coloring matter to the alcohol, 20; Dioxynaphthalene| As stated for 14. disulphonic acid (1-8-3-6). 21 | Aminonaphthol disulphonic | As stated for 14. acid (1-8-3-6). 52 2 para disulphonie acid | As stated for 14. ~4-8), 53 a oe ar disulphonie acid | As stated for 14. 1-3-6). 55 Saat disulphonie acid | As stated for 15. 2-3-6). 56 | Naphthol disulphonie acid | As stated for 15. (2-3-6). 62 | Naphthol disulphonie acid | As stated for 14. (1-3-6). 64 | Naphthol disulphonie acid | As stated for 14. (2-6-8). 65 | Naphthol disulphonie acid | Ag stated for 15. (2-3-6). —————S— SSS 54 BULLETIN 448, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. NATURAL COLORING SUBSTANCES. Relatively few good tests are known for the common natural colors. For properties useful in analysis, see especially the tables given in United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chem- istry Circular No. 63. Some of the common properties considered most useful for the characterization of different colors are summarized below. By addition of concentrated hydrochloric acid, the yellow ether or alcohol solutions of carotin and xanthophyll show hitle change, becoming perhaps slightly paler; green chlorophyll solutions become yellower or browner; annatto in ether or alcohol solution remains orange, not changing perceptibly with acid. Turmeric solutions in ether or alcohol show a pure yellow color with more or less green fluorescence, and on addition of several volumes of concentrated hy- drochloric acid the color passes to orange red or carmine red. The orange or orange yellow solutions of logwood, also of the redwoods, barwood, sandalwood, camwood, and brazilwood, become deep red with excess of hydrochloric acid. The shghtly colored neutral or faintly acid aqueous solutions of the fiavone colors of fustic, Persian berries, quercitron, etc., become intensely yellow with from 2 to 4 volumes of concentrated acid. Neutral or slightly acid solutions of cochineal, archil, saffron, and caramel show little change. The slightly acid solutions of the various coloring matters show the behavior described below, when treated with a little sodium hydro- oxid solution: Carotin and xanthophyll, little change; chlorophyll, “brown phase”’ reaction; alkanet, deep blue; turmeric, orange brown; the redwoods, violet red; logwood, violet to violet blue. The flavone colors become bright yellow; saffron remains yellow, showing little change. The red solutions of archil and the orange of cochineal become blue and violet, respectively. Caramel shows little change, becoming slightly deeper brown. The red fruit colors (in presence of air) become dull blue, green, or brown. By sodium hydrosulphite in acid solution, the yellow colormg matters are little affected. Logwood is almost decolorized, the color returning imperfectly. Archil is decolorized, the color returning when shaken with air. The reaction is more easily seen in alkaline solution. Cochineal shows no marked change. The anthocyanidins derived by hydrolysis from the red fruit colors are almost decolorized by hydro- sulphite. Caramel is rendered slightly paler. In the bromin test all coloring matters, except alkanet, are merely destroyed more or less completely by the halogen, hence they belong in general to Class E. The flavone colors tend to become darker with the first addition of bromin. Alkanet (best in alcoholic solution) corresponds to Class B. FOOD-COLORING SUBSTANCES. 55 Ferric chlorid gives no marked change with annatto, turmeric, or saffron, these perhaps, appearing somewhat browner. With the flavone colors, colorations varying from dark olive green to black are produced. With the redwoods and logwood, very dark shades of violet, brown, or black are obtained. Cochineal becomes somewhat darker. Caramel is not affected. The solutions must be practically neutral. By addition of alum solution the yellow color of logwood is changed to rose red (rather slowly). The redwoods are affected similarly. The pale yellow solutions of the flavones become more strongly yellow, that of fustic developing a green fluorescence. Saffron and turmeric show little change. Uranium acetate in neutral or nearly neutral solutions gives orange colorations with the flavones. Turmeric becomes somewhat browner; saffron is not affected; cochineal becomes green; alkanet, yellowish green to bluish green; logwood, violet, quickly fading. The coloration with concentrated sulphuric acid dropped on the dry coloring matter is for carotin and xanthophyll, blue, usually obtained with difficulty. Annatto and saffron also give blue colors; turmeric, a red; the flavone colors, yellow or orange colorations; alkanet and archil give violet blue; logwood, red, changing to yellow. The “brown phase”’ reaction’ may be useful for the characteriza- tion of chlorophyll, when this has not been previously treated with alkalies. The green ether or petroleum ether solution of the coloring matter, when treated with a little methyl alcohol solution of potas- sium hydroxid, becomes brown, returning to green in a few moments. The characteristic reaction of curcumin (turmeric) with boric acid may be conveniently carried out as follows: The aqueous or dilute alcoholic solution of the color is treated with hydrochloric acid until the shade just begins to appear slightly orange. The mixture is then divided into two parts and some boric acid powder or crystals added to one part. A marked reddening quickly will be apparent, best seen by comparison with the portion to which the boric acid has not been added.’ 1 Molisch, Ber. bot. Ges. 14 (1896), 16. Willstaetter and Stoll, Untersuchungen ueber Chlorophyll. Berlin, 1913, p. 144. 2 The properties of pure preparations of the various natural coloring matters, as described by the nu- merous investigators who have isolated and studied them, are described for the most part in II. Rupe’s Chemie der Natirlichen Farbstoffe, Braunschweig, 1900 and 1909. Properties of tho chlorophylls and cartinoids are given by Willstaetter and Stoll, Untersuchungen ueber Chlorophyll, Berlin, 1913; those of the coloring matters of the cornflower, rose, pelargona flower, larkspur, cranberry, whortleberry, and purple grape, are described by Willstaetter and coworkers, Sitzb, kgl. Pruess. Akad, 12 (1914), 402, Liebigs Ann. d. Chem, 408 (1915) 1, 56 BULLETIN 448,.U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 7.—Numbers by which dyes are designated in different published tables. [Under “‘G.’’numbersrefer to A Systematic Survey ofthe Organic Coloring Matters, by A. G. Green, founded on the German of Drs. G. Schultz and P. Julius, London and New York, 1904; under “‘S.”? to Farb- stofftabellen, by Dr. Gustav Schultz, Berlin, 1911-1914, under “M.’’ to Mulliken’s A Method for the Identification of Pure Organic Compounds, vol.3, New York, 1910. given. ] Acid Magenta. Light Green S F Bluish. Light Green S F Yellow- ish. Erioglaucin A. Cyanol Extra. Wool Green S. Patent Blue. Nigrosin Soluble. Ponceau 6 R. Acid Yellow G. Fast Yellow R. Brilliant Yellow 8. Indigo Carmine. Sun Yellow. New Coccin. Amaranth. Tartrazin. Naphthol Green B. Azocarmine B. Azocarmine G. Naphtho! Black B. Orange G. Fast Acid Fuchsin B. Chicago Blue 6 B. Chromotrope 2 R. Azofuchsin G. Soluble Blue. Palatine Scarlet. Ponceau 2 R. Fast Red E. Naphthol Yellow S. Cochineal. Ponceau 3 R. Palatine Red. Crystal Ponceau. Bordeaux B. Azorubin. Fast Brown. Crocein Scarlet O extra. Quinolin Yellow water- soluble. Crocein Searlet 8 B. Biebrich Scarlet. Bordeaux G. Resorcin Yellow. Brilliant Crocein M. Azo Blue. Erika B. Azolitmin. Alizarin Red S. Picrie Acid. . Violamin R. Brilliant Yellow. Rosindulin 2 G. Cloth Red B. Orange I. Crocein Orange. Orange 2. Orange R. Scarlet G R. Chrysophenin. Resorcin Brown. Bordeaux B X Metanil Yellow. Color. G. 8. Orange IV. 88] 139 Azofiavin. 92} 140 Fast Brown N, 101 | 160 Fast Red A. 102 161 Rosolic Acid. 483 | 555 Uranin. 510 | 585 Metachrome Orange R. 26 58 Chrysamin G. 220 | 342 Chrysamin R, 269 | 394 Eosin. 512 | 587 Saffrosin. 515 | 590 Erythrosin G. 516 | 591 Erythrosin B. 517 | 592 Phioxin. 518 } 593 Rose Bengale. 520 | 595 Eosin 10 B. 521 | 596 Rose Bengale 3 B. 523 | 597 Victoria Yellow. 2 Martius Yellow, 3 6 Aurantia. € Alizarin., 534 | 778 Curcumin. 707 | 927 Sudan G. 10 35 Formy! Violet S 4 B. 468 | 530 Acid Violet N. 464 | 527 Night Green 2 B. 438 | 503 Guinea Green B. 433 | 502 Patent Blue A. 442) 545 Methyl Alkali Blue. 476 | 535 Congo Red. 240 | 307 Benzopurpurin 4 B, 277 | 363 Alizarin Blue. 562 | 803 Thioflayin T. 658 | 618 Rhodamin S. 496 | 570 Methylene Blue. 650 | 659 New Blue. 639.) 649 Safranin. 584 | 679 Fuchsin. 448 | 512 Auramin O. 425 | 493 Auramin G. 426 | 494 Methyl Violet. 451 | 515 Crystal Violet. 452 | 516 Malachite Green. 427 | 495 Malachite Green G. 428 | 499 Bismarck Brown. 197 | 283 Bismarck Brown R. 201 | 284 Chrysoidin. 17 33 Chrysoidin R. 18 34 Rhodamin 3 B, 505 | 574 Trisamin G. 499 | 576 Rhodamin B. 504 | 573 Rhodamin G. 502 } 572 Butter Yellow. 16 32 Anilin Yellow. ti 31 Yellow Fat Color. 68 Quinolin Yellow spirit | 666} 612 soluble. Sudan Brown. 59 | 105 Sudan f. 11 36 Sudan II. 49 76 Carminaph Garnet. 60} 106 Sudan IIT. 143 | 223 Sudan IV. 232 31 56 Para Red. One of the common names is also Contribution from as States Relations Service A. C. TRUE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 31, 1916 A STUDY — OF THE ELECTROLYTIC METHOD OF SILVER CLEANING.’ By H. L. Lane and C. F. Watton, Jr., Scientific Assistants, Office of Home Heonomics. CONTENTS. Page. Page OE GT a eee 1 | Experimental study of the method.......... 5 Uy TLR 2551 A a a a 3)}) A, household methodi2e. 22 ss--4-5-40025 2) => 11 Principle of the electrolytic method.........- ANTE? SUMIVAT yk we ee ae a es AEE SE ae 11 INTRODUCTION. An understanding of the factors which influence the tarnishing of metals and a knowledge of efficient methods for removing tarnish are necessary for the proper care of household equipment. An ex- tended study of these problems, therefore, is being made by the Office of Home Eeonomics, and the work reported in this paper is a part of this investigation. The tarnishing of metals in general is due to the formation of oxids or basic oxids of the metals by the chemical action of the oxygen and water vapor of the air to which they are exposed. In the light of recent investigations a distinction is made between rusting, or oxidation, and the corrosion of metals. Thus, the rust- ing of iron may be regarded as taking place in two steps: The dis- placement of the hydrogen ions of water with the formation of a small amount of soluble iron salts in the lower state of oxidation is technically termed corrosion, while true rusting is the oxidation 1 Prepared under the Airection of C. Yr. Langwortby, Chief, Office of Home Weonomics. Nore.—This bulletin contains information regarding the advantages and limitations of the electrolytic method of cleaning silver and the conditions under which it is most efficient, which it is believed will prove useful to teachers and housekeepers generally. 59849°—Bull. 449—16 2 BULLETIN 449, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of these salts. Iron rust, then, consists principally of ferric oxid in admixture with varying amounts of basic ferric oxid. In the case of metals hke copper and zinc, and alloys like brass and bronze, basic salts are also formed. For example, copper reacts with water vapor and carbon dioxid in the air to form a basic carbonate, while in the presence of weak organic acids it forms salts like basic copper acetate (verdigris). Unlike most other metals, silver and gold are not tarnished by the oxygen, water vapor, or carbon dioxid present in the air, or by the action of weak organic acids. Silver, however, readily forms black silver sulphid on coming in contact with sulphur compounds, small quantities of which are found in the air as the result of burning coal and illuminating gas, while larger amounts occur in vulcanized rubber, wool, and foods like eggs. The problem of cleaning silver involves the removal of the tarnish of silver sulphid by some method which will also restore the polish to the surface of the metal. The two general methods for cleaning silver are polishing with a finely divided abrasive material to cut away the tarnish mechanically and the use of suitable chemical compounds to dissolve the coating of silver sulphid. ‘The first method is the more common one, and com- mercial silver polishes usually contain a suitable abrasive, such as tripoli, rouge, double-floated silica, kieselguhr, whiting, or pumice, “which are prepared in the form of a powder, a cake, or a suspension in some liquid. As:silver is a comparatively soft metal, and since the process of cleaning depends essentially on the cutting away of the tarnish by the sharp particles of the polishing powder, care must be taken to choose an abrasive so finely powdered that it will not scratch the silver. Solvent polishes are often used by jewelers and in hotels and restaurants where large quantities of silver must be cleaned. As a rule these consist principally of potassium cyanid and some- times contain ammonia, both of which dissolve the sulphid coating and give the silver a beautiful satin finish. As cyanids are extremely poisonous and very dangerous when carelessly handled, they should . not be commonly used for cleaning purposes. A few years ago the so-called electrolytic method for cleaning ‘gee was introduced to the public and several forms of cleaners, based on the electrolytic principle, are now to be found on the market. In this method the silver is cleaned by bringing it into actual con- tact with aluminum in a solution of an electrolyte. As this form of cleaning is becoming quite extensively used and questions are frequently asked about its efficiency and its effect on the silver, in- formation is desirable regarding the prineiple and details of the process. The main object of this investigation, therefore, was to de- termine the value of the method and the factors necessary for its THE ELECTROLYTIC METHOD) OF CLEANING SILVER. 3 efficient operation under household conditions. Preliminary tests were made to determine the efliciency of some representative com- mercial cleaners of this type and to study the nature of the metals and electrolytes commonly used. PRELIMINARY TESTS. The first type of electrolytic cleaner to be tested consisted of a zinc pan, on the bottom of which was fastened an aluminum grating. The directions furnished by the manufacturers for the use of this device were followed. The tarnished silver was placed on the grat- ing and the pan filled with a dilute solution of ordinary washiny soda and salt (1 teaspoonful of each to 1 quart of water) to such a height that the silver was completely covered. The liquid was kept at the boiling point until the tarnish disappeared from the silver, which was then rinsed with hot water and wiped dry. From the results of laboratory tests, in which a number of pieces of tarnished silver were cleaned by this method, it was concluded that the appa- ratus, although efficient, possessed no particular advantages over other less expensive methods. If a large quantity of silver is to be cleaned, however, the comparatively large capacity of the zinc pan makes the apparatus convenient. A less expensive form of this cleaner consists only of a zine disk to the top of which are welded some aluminum wire grids. This may be used in any kettle, or in a wash boiler if large pieces of silver are to be cleaned. The silver must be placed in direct contact with the wire grids. Still other cleaners are on the market which make use of pieces of sheet metal of various shapes. In some cases the metal alone is sold as the essential part of the “ magical” method, and the instruc- tions given with it state that the silver should be placed in contact with the metal in boiling water containing a small amount of either washing or baking soda or a mixture of one of these with common salt. . Other electrolytic cleaners consist of packages which contain a strip of metal and a powder to be dissolved in water to form the cleaning solution. Two of these were analyzed in the laboratory. The metal proved to be very pure aluminum of the spun variety, and the powder was found to consist essentially of a mixture of soda and salt. ; The cleaning tests conducted in the laboratory indicated that in general tarnished silver could be cleaned equally well by all of these commercial devices. The advantages of size and convenience pos- sessed by some seemed to correspond in every case to an increased market price, although the wide range in price makes possible the selection of a cleaner to suit a variety of conditions. These pre- 4 BULLETIN 449,.U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. liminary experiments were of value in supplying information as to the general nature of the factors involved in the electrolytic method. PRINCIPLE OF THE ELECTROLYTIC METHOD. Success in using the electrolytic silver cleaners depends upon bringing the tarnished silver into actual contact with a more active metal when both are immersed in a solution of some suitable elec- trolyte. - When so immersed aluminum and zine are electrolytically more active than silver, or, chemically speaking, they are said to be electropositive referred to silver. In the presence of either sodium carbonate or sodium chlorid, or a mixture of both, aluminum forms aluminum ions in the solution and itself becomes negatively charged. The silver accordingly becomes positively charged as the current flows from the aluminum to the silver through the solution. In other words, such an arrangement of metals in an electrolyte may be considered to be an electrolytic cell. Since silver sulphid is slightly soluble, a small number of silver and sulphid ions are always present in the solution, and the silver ions will give up their positive charges of electricity and plate out on the silver or negative pole as silver atoms. Any agency making the silver sulphid more soluble will increase the number of silver and sulphid ions and, provided the silver ions are plated out as rapidly as they are formed, this will increase the rate of the reaction. More- over, in accordance with the law of mass action, the greater the number of aluminum ions formed in the solution, the greater will be the tendency for silver sulphid to be reduced to metallic silver. The conditions are apparently most favorable to the completion of the reaction when a dilute solution of sodium carbonate is used as the electrolyte. The hydrolysis of this salt furnishes a fairly strong alkaline solution. (1) Na,CO,+2H,0 — H,O+CO,+2Na0H. Aluminum then displaces hydrogen from a boiling solution of the alkalh.. 3 (2) Al+3Na0H — Na,Al1O,+3H. The atomic hydrogen supplied by this reaction reduces the silver sulphid. _ (3) Ag,Sj2H — H,S-+2Ag. When an excess of hydrogen ions is continually being formed, the sulphid ions are gradually removed to form molecules of H,S. In this way the equilibrium between Ag,S (undissociated) and its ions is disturbed, and accordingly more Ag.S dissolves. The reaction finally is completed and, since the excess of aluminum ions plates out the silver on the silver pole, practically no silver is lost. THE ELECTROLYTIC ‘METHOD OF CLEANING SILVER. 5 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE METHOD. It was the chief purpose of these experiments to obtain information as to the best metal and electrolyte to use, the most economical con- centration of the solution, and the most satisfactory temperature for cleaning silver as it would ordinarily be accomplished in the home, and to study the relative efficiency of the electrolytic and other methods. - Throughout the investigation the methods and apparatus were simple and in most cases applicable to household use, more accurate procedure being deemed impracticable. In some cases silver which had been naturally tarnished by use was cleaned satisfactorily by this method, but in order to secure uniform conditions the silver used in most tests was tarnished by immersing it in a strong potassium-sulphid solution, and in order that the tarnish should be uniform for a comparative series of tests, all of the spoons to be used in each series were placed in the sulphid solution for the same length of time. Porcelain or agate ware dishes were used for hold- ing the solution of electrolyte, which was made up by adding dif- ferent amounts of soda and salt, etc., to one or two quarts of water. The active metal used, aluminum, or zinc, or an alloy of both, and the tarnished silver were then placed in direct contact in the solution which had previously been heated to the desired temperature, and the time necessary for cleaning was noted by a stop watch. Since the preliminary tests indicated that either washing or baking soda may be used as the electrolyte of the cleaning solution, it seemed desirable to ascertain first of all whether either of these salts was the more efficient and economical for ordinary household use. Experiments were accordingly made to determine the relative effici- ency of solutions of washing soda and baking soda without the addi- tion of sodium chlorid. The concentration of the solutions was 1 teaspoonful of the commercial soda to 1 quart of water. The tem- perature at which the cleaning was done was approximately 100° C. in each case. In each series six spoons were used which had been tarnished as described above. The following procedure was adopted: The first spoon was cleaned in the washing-soda solution. The active metal was then rinsed in clean water, transferred to the baking-soda solution, and another spoon cleaned. By alternating from one solution to the other in this way, any error in the time of cleaning, resulting from the metal becoming corroded, was distrib- uted equally between the two solutions. After removal from the cleaning solution the spoons were rinsed in cold water and wiped thoroughly dry with a soft cloth, rubbing very slightly. BULLETIN 449, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table I shows the results of the tests: TABLE 1.—-Comparative efficiency of solutions of washing and baking soda aé the boiling temperature. Time required for [ % | cleaning. | Solution. | eG ead } Remarks. \ fs) Observed., Average. | Series 1. : Seconds. | Seconds. Washing soda...--- 30 ‘| i : ; Doses wssasss 10 i 16 | Zine was the active metal used in series 1, 2, and 3. DOS ese a seat 4 Baking soda..--..--- 10 |} WOs.s202643295= 10 | _ 10 WOssess5esse53¢ Ae Series 2. Washing soda-..-.-- 240 |---------- | ae SiS NOOR Fis i; 18 | The exceptionally long time required in the first test of series 2 Bale i Grain lahe a aan and 3 was due to the zinc becoming corroded; it was necessary a 8 Soda.-.--.-- ue | 12 to substitute a strip of clean zinc before the tarnish was SAC atk BN removed. In such cases the time has been disregarded in SEE eal aa ; computing the average. Series 3. Washing soda....-. TRAN Mme ay 2 ae Oj ys ene es 10 i; 8 WOsisacssacerac || Baking soda--.--.--- Des ND) Oye rae wees ab | 13 | SD XO re Si 8 Serics 4. | Washing soda. ..... BN y 3 : : AD OR ah Sees aie Be eae | 10 | Aluminum was the active metal used in series 4 to 9, inclusive. DO Fe eae ee 18 Baking soda.-.-..-.. 6 | é IDO aa aes eee 10 | 15 IDOE Mes eas 28 i | Series 5. Washing soda...... 10 i DD Yojad wes ye ee: 12+) 3) 11 WOME ee ee 10 | Baking soda-....--. 13.5 | Yoo eR toll oe u WO2pccssssscouc iia Series 6. | | } Washing soda... -. 20. | 20 Baking soda....-.-.- 300 30 | Series 7. | 7 7 | 5 i sone Seder re | oll , \{in series 7 and 8 a small sheet of very pure aluminum of the cere ane | al ‘|. spun variety was used. Ounce pita | 2 Baking soda. -....-. 7 | TOYO ype A En! 7.5 | 6 DOR eae Sees 4.5 | Series 8. Washing soda... .-- 8 | TONE ELON eee: 12 10 I DORM aan AS se 10 [ Baking soda..----.-- f@> ‘ 1D Ya jess aes ea it 7 DOS eee eS ’ THE ELECTROLYTIC METHOD OF CLEANING SILVER. 7 Tarre I.—Comparalive efficiency of solutions of washing and baking soda at the boiliny temperature—Continued. Time required for cleaning. ; Solution. | | Remarks. | |Observed.) Average. Series 9. F Seconds. | Seconds. prashing Soda... .-- 3 4 {The aluminum used in series 9 had been cleaned by polishing Me as Soap tis with emery cloth. LD se See ae PA) Baking soda. .-.--.-..- 4 DO: ) eae 4 4 poeta. - == <=): a5 Series 10 Washing soda....-.-. : |(In series 10, 11, and 12 the active metal used’was zine. Inseries LET 2ES eee 3 Dog: 10 it was cleaned after each test in dilute HC1 and rinsed in Doi eee 2 water. Baking soda. .-....-- 2 | it Shy 3 Pie oes = | 3 J Series 11. ; Washing soda......- 5 | =i ee Seika 2 ce || 5 | The zine was not cleaned with acid in series 11. Re etna 2's = See || Baking soda......-. Bel ib ES eee 325 { ee he occ 229 4.5 Series 12 ule soda......- : ~ |{The zine had been standing in the hot cleaning solution for 10 nese 6 f minutes before use in series 12 and was not cleaned with acid. Baking soda........ 5 2 iL 7 8 lida, 2s iff | From the results of these experiments it is evident that washing soda is slightly more efficient than baking soda, the average time re- quired, considering all of the tests, being 94 seconds for the washing- soda solution and 104 seconds for the baking-soda solution. For all practical purposes, since the difference between the efficiency of wash- ing soda and that of baking soda is so small as to be within the limits of experimental error, it may be considered feasible to use them in- terchangeably. As far as the appearance of the cleaned spoons was concerned, no difference was noted in the two solutions; all the spoons that were cleaned showed a bright satin finish after each cleaning and were practically as bright at the end of each experiment as at the start. Washing soda is somewhat more economical, since it is more efficient and cheaper as well. The next factor to be considered was the effect of increasing the conductivity of the cleaning solution, and common salt was used for this purpose. In the following experiments the silver to be cleaned was uniformly tarnished by immersing the spoons in the same tarn- ishing solution for the same length of time. In some of the tests alu- 8 BULLETIN 449, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. minum was the active metal, in others zinc was used, and in a few cases an alloy, which was prepared in the laboratory by melting to- gether zinc and aluminum. ‘Two cleaning solutions were used: One contained 1 teaspoonful of washing soda per quart of water, and the other was made up of 1 teaspoonful each of washing soda and salt to every quart of water. The results obtained are given in Table II. Taste I1.—The effect of varying the concentration of the electrolyte by the addition of sodium chlorid. Time required for cleaning. Solution. Remarks. Observed.| Average. Series 13. Seconds. | Seconds. i Washing soda-..-..-. 3 De Be Ie SU 5 4 | Aluminium was the active metal used in series 13. A et 3 Washing soda-+salt - 2 | DOES EE Can Sees | 1 1 DOR Sen eis ae i | Series 14. . | Wipshing soda 0 7 fIn series 14, 15, and 16 zine was the active metal, which was BYR Seance 6 \ cleaned frequently with dilute HCl. Washing soda-+salt - 3 1D) Osa ERS 3 3 DOLYeiog ees 3 Series 15 Washing soda....... 3 ID Yo Se al ei eae 2.5 3 1 DX Le I ee Ae ei 2, by Washing soda-+salt . 11563 TD Yo) ea et 1 1 DOsssies see se: 1 Series 16. Washing soda.. ay nh LD ORS Se As ales 250, 3 Dose Meee 3 { Washing soda-+salt - 22 i DOU aes 1 2 IDO 556 2 Pe The all f zi d alumi di ies 17. Th i e alloy of zine and aluminum was used in series 17. C) Ww: sone soda...-.-. ae | 15 J exceptionally long time observed in two instances was neces- ne ATL heaEe ah 15 |) sary to clean two parts of the same silver buckle, badly tar- Creer re ncalyet || nished by use. Ayeshing soda-+salt . | 140 | Pe Sp Coe 12 |p iil OCP GT Re ote = ee The data recorded in Table II indicate that the average time re- quired for cleaning the silver was less when sodium chlorid was added to the solution. For all practical purposes, however, the difference is so slight as to be of little or no consequence. It is reasonable to assume that by increasing the concentration of the electrolyte, as-is the case when sodium chlorid is added, the cleaning reaction will take place somewhat more rapidly. This conclusion is strengthened by further experiments carried out to study the effect of the concen- \ THE ELECTROLYTIC; METHOD OF CLEANING SILVER. 9 tration of the solution on the rate of cleaning. It was found, for example, that with a solution of one-tenth teaspoonful of washing soda to 1 quart of water the time of cleaning was approximately six times as long as when 1 teaspoonful was used. Conversely, the in- crease in the rate of the reaction when concentrations of the electro- lyte as high as 1 tablespoonful to,1 quart of water were used was not sufficient to warrant the use in practice of larger amounts than 1 teaspoonful. As a result of these tests it is believed that a teaspoonful of sodium carbonate to 1 quart of water, with or without the addition of about 1 teaspoonful of sodium chlorid, is the most satisfactory concentra- tion of the cleaning solution for general use. RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF ZINC AND ALUMINUM. _A study of the tables with reference to the time required for clean- ing the silver with aluminum and with zinc indicates that in general there is little difference in the efficiency of these metals. In some instances aluminum and in others zinc cleaned the silver more rapidly. This apparent inconsistency is probably due to the fact that in some cases the metals became corroded or that the tarnish in some series of tests was slightly heavier than in others. Although the zinc cleaned very efficiently when first put into the solution, it soon became corroded and its efficiency thereby greatly reduced. For example, in three tests it was found that spoons having a uniform tarnish were not cleaned at the end of four, five, and four minutes, respectively, by a piece of zinc which had become corroded. After a new piece of zine was substituted the spoons were cleaned in as many seconds. After the corroded zinc had been cleaned by immersing for about one minute in a solution of hydrochloric acid (one part HCl sp. gr. 1.2 to 10 parts of water) it cleaned practically as well as the new metal. Attempts were made to restore the efficiency to the corroded zine by cleaning it with vinegar and also by rubbing it with various abrasives such as sand soap and emery paper, but without success. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE OF CLEANING SOLUTION. A few experiments were made to determine whether this method of cleaning is efficient below boiling temperatures, since under house- hold conditions it might be desirable to clean very large pieces of silver, which could be boiled only with difficulty, by immersing them in the hot cleaning solution contained in a tub or bucket. It was found, on an average, that at temperatures as low as 40° C. the silver was cleaned only after being immersed several minutes; at tempera- tures from 50 to 60° ©. in about ten seconds; and at temperatures from 60 to 100° C. in about five seconds, At temperatures much be- 10 BULLETIN: 449, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. low the boiling point, although the tarnish was removed, the cleaned | silver had a somewhat dull appearance. From the results of these - tests it is evident that the cleaning solution should be kept at the boiling point, since the tarnish is more quickly removed and the silver has a much brighter appearance than when cleaned in cooler solutions. In cases where it is not possible to boil the articles to be cleaned very hot cleaning solutions can be used with fairly satisfac- tory results. RELATIVE MERITS OF THE ELECTROLYTIC AND POLISHING METHODS OF CLEANING SILVER. From the theory of the cleaning process as formulated earlier in the paper it would appear that there is practically no loss in weight of the silver cleaned by the electrolytic method, since the tarnish of silver sulphid is merely reduced to metallic silver. In order to verify this, however, three sterling silver and three silver-plated spoons were weighed, tarnished and cleaned 50 times, and weighed after the final cleaning, zinc being used in a solution of 1 teaspoonful of sodium carbonate in 1 quart of water at the boiling temperature. During the 50 cleanings the three sterling silver spoons lost 0.0043, 0.0034, and 0.0034 grams and the three plated spoons lost 0.0026, 0.0019, and 0.0024 grams, or an average of 0.00006 grams in each cleaning. This loss is insignificant when compared with the loss in polishing with an abrasive silver polish which actually cuts away the tarnish, as was shown by the following test. One sterling silver and one silver-plated spoon were weighed, tarnished and cleaned six times by rubbing with a paste of finely powdered whiting and water, and weighed after the last cleaning. The spoons lost 0.0094 and 0.0087 grams, respectively, or an average of 0.0015 grams in each cleaning, about 25 times as much as by the electrolytic method. For 2 further comparison three sterling silver spoons were weighed, tar- nished, and cleaned six times with a 5 per cent solution of potassium eyanid. By this method the spoons lost in weight 0.0135, 0.0129, and 0.0123 grams, respectively, an average of 0.0022 grams in each cleaning, a greater loss than by either of the other methods. While the electrolytic method removes the tarnish effectively and with practically no loss of metal, it gives the articles cleaned a satin finish rather than the bright burnished appearance obtained when abrasive polishes are used. After the spoons used in these experi- ments had been cleaned a number of times by the electrolytic method it was found necessary to rub them with the paste of whiting and water to restoré their original bright polish. In practice, therefore, it may be found desirable to use the electrolytic method as frequently as is necessary to remove the tarnish and to rub the silver with some THE ELECTROLYTIC METHOD OF CLEANING SILVER. Rial § good abrasive polish only as often as may be desirable to restore the burnished appearance. A combination of the two metkods is sometimes ied by adding one or two teaspoonfuls of finely powdered whiting to each quart of the cleaning solution, and after removal the silver is allowed to dry without being rinsed. The film of whiting which adheres to it is then rubbed off with a soft cloth. This has the advantage of con- venience, but the polish obtained is not so bright as when the two methods are used separately. After one has tried both methods of cleaning silver it is obvious that much less labor is involved in the use of the electrolytic than the polishing method. As sodium carbonate in the form of washing soda and table salt are to be found in most homes, and since a small piece of aluminum or zinc can be purchased for a few cents, the cost of the two methods need not differ very much. A HOUSEHOLD METHOD. , The details of a satisfactory method for household use are essen- tially as follows: An enamel or agate ware dish should be partly filled with a cleaning solution of 1 teaspoonful of either washing or baking soda and 1 teaspoonful of common table salt to each quart of water and placed directly on the stove to boil. A sheet of alumi- num or clean zinc should then be dropped into the dish and the tarnished silver placed in contact with this metal. It is best that the silver be entirely covered with the cleaning solution and that the solution remain at the boiling temperature. As soon as the tar- nish has been removed the silver should be removed, rinsed in clean water, and wiped with a soft cloth. Aluminum corrodes quickly in the cleaning solution, so that aluminum dishes of any value for culinary purposes should never be used. Aluminum ware, which would otherwise be thrown away, or any inexpensive piece of the metal, will serve very satisfactorily for cleaning silver. Zinc may be used in place of aluminum, but it becomes corroded and inactive in a much shorter time. Unless it is possible to obtain a strong acid, such as muriatic acid, in which the activity of the zinc may be frequently renewed, it is inadvisable to try to employ this metal in the electrolytic method for cleaning silver. SUMMARY. Experiments have shown that the commercial devices for cleaning silver by the action of aluminum in solutions of soda are generally satisfactory. Zinc is less satisfactory than aluminum because it 12 BULLETIN 449, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. becomes corroded and loses its efficiency. Sodium carbonate or bicar- bonate, with or without the addition of sodium chlorid, are equally effective as the electrolyte of the solution, although to secure the best results the solution during cleaning should be kept at the boiling temperature. The electrolytic method cleans plated or sterling sil- verware without loss of metal, giving. however, a satin finish rather than a burnished appearance, and has the additional advantages of being clean and labor-saving. oe ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. ING 5 CENTS PER COPY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER December 4, 1916 oe IMPROVEMENT OF GHIRKA SPRING WHEAT IN YIELD AND QUALITY. By J. ALLEN CiLaRrKk, © Scientific Assistant in Western Wheat Investigations, Office of Cereal Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page PINSICRIONY eee Soe ein cis oes sci sees 1 | Experiments—Continued. History and description of Ghirka Spring Sum many of yield sees essence sees & wheat.......- EE eee I ar = clare oe alata 2 Milling and baking quality .-......-...-- 9 LL IT DUNT SE a ee ee 3 Improvement by selection.........-...-- 12 Comparative yields.........-.-.---.----- 3):| Conclusions 66 4%00 1913 and 1914 are given in Table IV, together with data from the check plats of the original Ghirka, OU 14.593 ——— WELD OF STRAIGHT FLOUR % O 1020304050607080 90 seueeron Cee ee C. 1. No. 1517... Im tieureiG jane 5 Bae shown the results obtained in 1913 2? 66 70.2 and 1914 and the average for the two years. The pure lines are ar- ranged in the actual order of the sowings, and the actual and com- >> 9272 694 _—___—_—_—_———— ee L035 NV (IULLING % Oorv23¢6678 GHIPHA (CHECH) BIE SE. } b a a ee (ise puted yields are shown separately. pee is The actual yield of the check plats and the average for all checks Momence, are shown by different lines. Soop ig SRL Se ees: eh Improvement in the quality of SELECTION WO4 2568 Ghirka wheat is more important eT Pie tees | pater than increase in yield. It was eS race hoped that a pure line would be ie found which had the combined © 10 203040506070 80 90 100 characters necessary for good SNES Si ga quality and high yield. Astudy ak nie of the milling and baking data ‘ es 15 obtained during the two years TEXTURE OF LOAF % © 10203040 50 6070 80 90 100 BM ANGTEDY EEaoeeoso SELECTION NO.F a 1913 and 1914 on the highest yielding selections indicates that the desired result was obtained. These data areshown in Table Y. Figure 6 shows that in 1913 the Ghirka selections Nos. 4, 5,17,31, 66, and 72 were outstanding in re- gard to yield and that many others were better than the parent mass variety. The data for 1914 show that Nos. 4, 5, 50, 66, and 72 produced outstanding yields. An aver- age of the yields of the pure lines grown both years shows Nos. 4, 5, 66, and 72 to be the best four selections when both actual and com- puted yields are considered, each showing an increase of more than Fic. 7.—Diagram showing the average results of milling and baking tests of Ghirka Spring wheat (C. I. No. 1517) and four pure lines selected therefrom, grown at the Dickinson substation in 1913 and 1914. IMPROVEMENT OF GHIRKA SPRING WHEAT. 15 3 bushels over the parent variety. No definite conclusions can be drawn from the results of only two years, but the data indicate that improvement in yield is possible and that progress is being made. During the years covered by these data rust was not prevalent and no data were obtained on the rust-resisting ability of the different selections. The average data for the four highest yielding pure lines and the parent mass variety are shown graphically in figure 7. The data given for the pure lines each year are an average of one milling and two bakings and for the parent variety are an average of these data from two plats, or an average of two millings and four bakings. In 1913, Ghirka selections Nos. 4 and 66 exceeded the original Ghirka in crude-protein content and in yield of straight flour, gave a smaller loss in milling, and produced loaves of greater volume, which also scored higher in color and texture. This was an improvement in all of the characters here studied. Nos. 5 and 72 exceeded the original in some characters but failed to equal it in others. In 1914, No. 4 gave the highest volume of loaf, but was low in crude protein and yield of straight flour, had a high loss in milling, and scored low in color. No. 66 scored low in volume of loaf and in texture, but otherwise exceeded the check. For the second year it showed an unusually low loss in milling. Selection No. 5 led in crude protein and yield of straight flour, was superior to the original in volume and texture of loaf, and lost less in milling, Selection No. 72 was low in yield of flour and in volume, color, and texture of loaf. None of the four highest yielding pure lines exceeded the original variety in all characters in 1914. The average for the two years shows that selection No. 4 was superior to the unselected Ghirka in all characters except crude- protein content and No. 66 in all characters except volume of loaf. No. 5 shows a decrease in crude protein and in color of loaf, while No. 72 shows a decrease in the volume, color, and texture of loaf. While none of the four best yielding selections has exceeded the mass variety in all of the characters studied, a gain in some of the characters offsets the loss in others, and the data thus far obtained indicate that at least the first three selections mentioned are superior in quality to the parent mass variety. 16 / BULLETIN 450, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE IV.—Agronomic data for unselected Ghirka wheat, used as a check, and 30 pure lines selected therefrom, grown at the Dickinson (N. Dak. y substation in 1913 and 1914. Ghirkaand |C.1I. selections. Season 0f1913:1 Ghirka...- Ghirka.- ShiectionS Nos. 4and No. Date Plant- ing to Head-| Ripe, |, ma- July—|AUS-— turity Days 14 12 113 14 12 113 12 9 110 12 12 113 10 10 111 12 12 113 16 15 116 14 12 113 12 12 113 10 9 110 12 12 113 12 12 113 14 12 113 14 12 113 14 12 113 12 12 113 10 9 110 12 12 113 12 12 113 12 12 113 12 12 113 12 12 113 12 13 114 12 9 110 14 9 110 12 12 113 10 10 111 il 12 113 12 12 113 12 12 113 10 8 112 10 8 112 10 8 112 10 8 112 10 8 112 10 8 112 10 8 112 12 8 112 10 8 112 10 8 112 8 8 112 10 8 112 10 8 112 10 8 112 11 8 112 10 8 112 9 8 112 9 8 112 10 8 112 9 8 112 11 8 112 10 8 112 10 8 112 10 8 112 10 8 112 9 8 112 9 8 112 10 8 112 10 8 112 14 8 112 11 8 112 Stand. Flguis Est Gran mated. Thou- sands. |Per ct. 640 86 696 94 776 105 688 93 844 114 700 95 560 76 724 98 860 116 692 94 700 95 608 82 868 117 728 98 840 113 680 92 860 116 768 104 820 111 836 113 648 88 768 104 752 102 688 93 896 121 828 112 792 107 720 97 684 92 524 71 616 114 532 99 454 84 436 81 490 91 460 85 596 110 460 85 464 86 440 82 456 85 472 87 644 119 552 102 472 87 644 119 636 118 580 108 604 112 628 116 532 99 592 110 516 96 544 101 512 95 528 98 584 108 524 97 496 92 664 123 596 110 Height. 1 . . . ° i . . De 1 00 Or mw OR Nw CORN roo Ors bo 00 bo Yield per acre. Actual. Bu. | Cw 27.3 | 20. 35.6 | 25 40.5 23 35.3 22. 31.3 19. Pes || i) 28.8 19 30.2 || 21 Pls 7 20, BYE} 23 29.5] 23. 33.0 24 34.7 | 25 36.0] 25. 36.2 | 26 SY || 30: Soe, 25. 38.0] 29. 34.1 28. 33.3 26 33.3 26 32.0 23 28. 8 27 ale 7/ 26 33.0 25 30: 2 25 Bib S| Be 32.0 25 25. 2 27 19.3 | 17. 6.4 17. 11.2 20, 13.2 25. 7.6 9. 8.8 9. 6. 4 24. 12.0] 19. 10. 4 20. 10.0 23 9.2} 20. 10.0 19. 9.2 17. 12.0 18. ile 22. 10.4 | 28 9.6 15 12. 8 25 10. 4 23 9.6 20 We 19 10. 0 27 10. 0 17. 9.2 22. 11.2 20. 10. 4 15. 10.0 21 12. 4 27. 9.6 18 14.4 29. 8.4 24 Ee, 22. aANwWwWonnw Noo Oe WHIOrR OD SIOrF GOI b9 w Oo TIoowow08 bw aoonwnn ROW Dw O1ro1h) 100 LNellor ty maT100 Nr Computed. Bu. 30.0 31.3 15. ran > — pay a ¢ SOO" SNOO'G0'00) G50 100 PER CRS EPH eA eg =k tare =k ence WHORWRO WAIT DO WHANROH WOSCUTRIO W OD OCMMUWORAT CWWOW OCRRDO ONoOr a SrIWON © WOM OO = Grain.| Straw.| Grain.| Straw. Cwt. 24.6 31.0 28.8 iw) FONtr be Cele Cue PNP: NESE BD OWeOom ANONr to N Re) 24. 6 % BPNNRENeE HPNNe OURS ON Ron OoOrFuUcCoOoN OFFO Oo Weight per bushel. 1 Sown Apr. 21, emerged May 10, harvested Aug. 15, 1913. 2 Sown Apr. 18, emerged May 2, harvested Aug. 10, 1914. IMPROVEMENT OF GHIRKA SPRING WHEAT, 17 TaBLeE V.— Milling and baking data for Ghirka wheat, used as a check, and 25 pure lines selected therefrom, grown at the Dickinson (N. Dak.) substation in 1913 and 1914. crude | Loaf. protein) yield | Lossin Plat Vari (05 WI > ; ariety. of mill- No. No. waeat flour. | ing. | Vol | qojop | Tex- 5.7) ume. ture Season of 1913: Sine a. AGE) LEA HLS Gee pceoll ae OE 2 On fase saree soe nisans Soar ee : : : 3 RTL E cot Saal Semen aOR 4414] 13.45] 69.6] .5.65| 2,300] 94 93 4 IEEE Mie cece 4415 | 14.42] 68.7| 4.75 2,320 92 94 5 pee saeseet ye ee PIN 14.99] 67.1| 5.78] 2.13 84 7 EES a Oe Rae 4416 | 15.28] 69.9| 7.39] 1,860| 92 88 8 Omen ase tGh Lita 4417 | 13.97] 68.5| 5.14] 23200| 99 92 9 UDO a ee eee ae 15.28| 69.1] 4.50] 27965| 96 93 10 TVs, Drea Se UR ee en (a 16.07| 68.9| 5.10| 1,885] 90 90 oe ee tps ee 0) ES BE Bae Gen SECS a See eee : ; : E 14 BIGROAEA Peta 8 oe ye eck 4419 | 14.54] 67.2| 5.98] 2.350] 89 94 15 SL ee eas See 4420 | 15.16| 70.3} 4.01 | 2,065| 89 90 17 ion oe ee ee 4491 | 15.62] 67.5| 7.10] 1,790| 94 86 18 CET SE SEL. See anh ag ae 15.28| 70.1| 4.17| 1,985] 90 92 ee Pu oe Gee a |e tt Al Soc Heeb sae Ss SSS Soh eee olla eee c b 178.) Price, 10 cents. Winter Wheat in Western South Dakota. (Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 79.) Price, 5 cents. 20 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1916 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 426 Contribution from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER | December 30, 1916 SUGAR PINE nf - By LOUIS T. LARSEN, Forest Examiner, and T. D. WOODBURY, Assistant District Forester CONTENTS Importance of Sugar Pine Geographical and Commercial Range . jing Habit and Root System Values and Grades of Lumber Bark, Leaves, Flowers, and Seed ... Markets Size and Longevity Susceptibility te Injury and Disease . . Stumpage Prices Silvical Requirements Growth and Yield Management Management of Private Timberlands. . WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1916 FOREST SERVICE. HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester. ALBERT F. POTTER, Associate Forester. HERBERT A. SMITH, Editor. BRANCH OF RESEARCH. Earte H. Cuarp, Assistant Forester in charge. Forest INVESTIGATIONS. | RapHaEL Zon, Chief. 8. T. Dana, Assistant Chief. DISTRICT 5. Corrt DuBois, District Forester. T. D. Woopsury, Chief of Silviculture. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 427 _ Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER _ February 6, 1917 THE POTATO TUBER MOTH By J. E. GRAF, Entomological Assistant, Truck Crop and Stored Product Insect Investigations a CONTENTS Food Plants Life History and Habits Possible Origin Natural Enemies and Checks Nature of Injery Artificial Control Economic Importance Summary Classification and Synonymy Bibliography Description : WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 428 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 9, 1917 MEDICAGO FALCATA A YELLOW-FLOWERED ALFALFA By ~ R. A. OAKLEY, Agronomist, and SAMUEL GARVER Scientific Assistant, Office of Forage-Crop Investigations CONTENTS Agronomic Characteristics Introduction of Niedicago falcata into the Cultural Investigations United States : Possibilities in Selection and Hybridiza- Climatic and Soil Requirements. . .. Present Agronomic Status Botanical History Summary Botanical Description and Relationship 13 | Literature Cited Agricultural History WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ' BULLETIN No. 429 Contribuiion from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER February 28, 1917 LIFE HISTORY OF THE CODLING MOTH IN THE PECOS VALLEY NEW MEXICO By | A. L. QUAINTANCE, Entomologist in Charge of Deciduous Fruit Insect Investigations, and E. W. GEYER, Scientific Assistant CONTENTS Page EMEC IGN ors siya) vay ice a Seasonal-History Studies of 1918—Con.. 3 - Definition of Terms Used Seasonal-History Studies of 1912 The Spring Brood .... The First Generation . . . The Second Generation The Third Generation. . . ... Seasonal History of the Codling Moth During 1912 Band-Record Larve of 1912 Seasonal-History Studies of 1913 . . . Source of Rearing Material. . .. The Spring Brood The First Generation . Egg Deposition by Individual Moths The Second Generation . . 2. 6 « The Third Generation. . . . 2 The Fourth Generation . . . - Miscellaneous Emergence of Moths . Band Records of 1913 - Seasonal History of the Codling Moth During 1913 SUMUMALY a) 8s oh) o!''0.-9:) oh way eh) ures Method of Procedure . ..... Ria tk WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 430 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. October 28, 1916 CEREAL EXPERIMENTS ON THE CHEYENNE EXPERIMENT FARM ARCHER, WYO. By JENKIN W. JONES, Scientific Assistant Office of Cereal Investigations {In cooperation with the Wyoming State Board of Farm Commissioners] CONTENTS Experiments with Oats Description of the District Experiments with Barley Cheyenne Experiment Farm Experiments with Flax Experiments with Wheat Experiments with Minor Grain Crops Experiments with Emmer and Spelt . . WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1916 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 431 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER SACBROOD By G. F. WHITE Expert, Engaged in the Investigation of Bee Diseases CONTENTS Introduction late ee eFete Historical Account oe @ 8 @ Name ofthe Disease . . ° aire of Healthy Brood at at Which it Dies of Sacbrood Symptoms of Sachbrood . . . Cause of Sacbr 4 Lig ei Effect of ‘Sacbrood Upon a lo - : Ff aeeg of Virus Required to Produce the Disease, and the Rapidity of its Increase Methods t Used in Makin; Experimental Inoculations Means 6 for the Destruction of the Virus of Hentien Required to Destroy Sacbrood When Suspendedin Water . . Heating Required to Destroy Sacbrood Virus When Suspended in Glycerine . Resistance of Sacbrood Virus to Direct Sunlight When Dry. . Resistance of Sacbrood Virus to Direct Sunlight When Suspended in Water . Resistance of Sacbrood Virus to Direct Sunlight When Suspended in Honey . Length of Time that Sacbrood Virus Re- mains Virulentin Honey. . . .« . Resistance of Sacbrood Virus to the Pres- ence of Fermentative Processes . . » Resistance of Sacbrood Virus to Fer- mentation in Diluted Honey at Out- door Temperature . ° Resistance of Sacbrood Virus to the Pres- ence of Putrefactive Processes . . Resistance of Sacbrood Virus to Carbolic cid 4 Al ie Modes of' ‘Transmission of Sacbrood - Diagnosis of Sacbrood Prognosis . February 9, 1917 Heating Required to Destroy Sacbrood Relation of These Studies to th Viras When Suspended in Honey . . ment of Sacbrood ee of Sacbrood Virus to Drying Summary and Conclusions - : Temperature. . . . . 2 . Literature Cited WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 433 Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry A. D. MELVIN, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER February 15, 1917 CHANGES IN FRESH BEEF DURING COLD STORAGE ABOVE FREEZING By RALPH HOAGLAND, CHARLES N. McBRYDE, and WILMER C. POWICK, of the Biochemic Division CONTENTS Page 1 P. Cold-Storage Experiments with Fresh Commercial Practices in the Cold Storage Beef vs Effects of Cold Storage upon the Nutri- Hygienic Value of Cold Storage. . . . tive Value of the Beef Factors Affecting the Time that Fresh Beef can be Stored at Temperatures Above Freezing General Summary References to Literature WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 440 Contribution from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER _ March 8, 1917 LUMBERING IN THE SUGAR AND YELLOW PINE REGION OF CALIFORNIA By SWIFT BERRY, Forest Examiner CONTENTS Part I. Introduction The Region The Forest Sawmill Lumber Yards. .. . Transportation to Common Car- Factors Affectingthe Cut ... General Cost Factors .. ° Part I. Logging Overhead Charges Preparing Legs for Transport. . Depreciation From Stump to Yard Summary of the Costs of Typical From Yard to Landing .... Operations From Landing to Mill Woods Supervision WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 445 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. February 10, 1917 THE NAVEL ORANGE OF BAHIA WITH NOTES ON SOME LITTLE-KNOWN BRAZILIAN FRUITS By P. H. DORSETT, A. D. SHAMEL, and WILSON POPENOE Agricultural Explorers, Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction CONTENTS EEEII EE Ao os 5 ols 6 los. ose a Citrus Fruits of the Region around Rio de Origin and History of the Navel Orange WBNEIKO) Hep fe \velhre ain) kop toliabtot tact 16 yea: at Sox oe! elie) ie 1 | Miscellaneous Fruits Grown et Bahia. . 17 Introduction of the Washington Navel Some Interesting Fruits of Rio de Janeiro Orange of Bahia into the United States 4 and Vicinity... « «ee « « « © s 25 Culture of the Navel Orangein Bahia. . 7 | Fruits of the Highlands and Semiarid Citrus Fruits of Bahia Other than the Regions of Minas Geraes and Bahia. 31 PPPEMEIURUEO iwc o ©. 0 + 6 6 1 : WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 448 Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief Washington, D.C. ~« PROFESSIONAL PAPER _ February 15, 1917 ~ SEPARATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF FOOD- COLORING SUBSTANCES By W. E. MATHEWSON, Assistant Chemist CONTENTS Page Introduction Separation and Purification of Coloring General Statements Concerning Re- Substances agents Usedin Color Analysis. . .. 2 | Identification of Coloring Substances. . Preliminary Treatment of Food Products 4 o WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE | 1917 COPIA a at ee i ‘3 Bkivin tree 100159644